,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,l& ,,mammals ,,9 ,,! ,,we/]n ,,hemisph]e ,illu/ration ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,bo/on ,,*icago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melb\rne ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,( ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,illu/ration3 ,,frontispiece4--,a ,plei/oc5e t>-pool 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia3 ,giant ,wolves 7,canis dirus7 & ,sabre-too? ,tig] 7,smilodon cali=nicus7 on ! c>cass ( an elephant 7,elephas columbi74 ,! elephant is hairless1 z may h be5 true ( ! s\!rn race4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,l& ,,mammals ,,9 ,,! ,,we/]n ,,hemisph]e ,,by ,,william ,b4 ,,scott ,,ph4,d4 7,heidelb]g71 ,,hon4,d4,,sc4 7,h>v>d ,ox=d71 ,,ll4,d4 7,univ4 ( ,p5nsylvania7 ,,blair ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,geology ,,& ,,pal,,ontology ,,9 ,,pr9ceton ,,univ]sity ,,illu/rat$ ,,) #cb ,,plates ,,& ,,m ,,?an #ajj ,,draw+s ,,by ,,bruce ,,horsfall ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aiac ,all rights res]v$ ,,copyright1 #aiac1 ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,novemb]1 #aiac4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cu%+ ,co4--,b]wick ,smi? ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,d$icat$ ,,to ,,my ,,classmates ,,h5ry ,,fairfield ,,osborn ,,& ,,francis ,,speir ,,9 ,,memory ,,( ,a ,,notable ,,summ] ,,aft]noon ,,9 #ahgf ,,& ,,9 ,,tok5 ,,( ,,=ty ,,ye>s' ,,uncl\d$ ,,fri5d%ip ,speak to ! e>? & x %all tea* !e4 --,,job1 xii1 #h4 ,c ^! bones live8 --,,ezekiel1 xxxvii1 #c4 ,,preface ,"o aft]noon 9 ,june1 #ahgf1 ?ree ,pr9ceton und]graduates 7 ly+ "u ! trees on ! canal bank1 mak+ a languid pret5ce ( prep>+ = an exam9ation4 ,sudd5ly1 "o ( ! trio rem>k$3 8,i h be5 read+ an old magaz9e article :i* describes a fossil-collect+ exp$ition 9 ! ,we/2 :y c't we get up some?+ ( ! k9d80 ,! o!rs repli$1 z ) "o voice1 8,we c2 let's d x40 ,?is seem+ly idle talk 01 = ,osborn & myself1 a mom5t\s "o1 = x completely *ang$ ! c>e]s :i*1 z we !n believ$1 _h be5 mapp$ out = u4 ,! r&om sugge/ion l$ directly to ! fir/ ( ! ,pr9ceton palontological exp$itions1 t ( #ahgg1 :i* took u to ! 8,bad ,l&s0 ( ! ,bridg] region 9 s\?we/]n ,wyom+4 ,! fasc9ation ( discov]+ & exhum+ ) our own h&s ! rema9s ( ! curi\s creatures :i* once inhabit$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 b became ext9ct ages ago1 has prov$ an endur+ delight4 ,x 0 ! wi% to ext5d some?+ ( ?is fasc9at+ int]e/ to a wid] circle1 t occasion$ ! prep>ation ( ?is book4 ,! we/]n portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica has pres]v$ a m>vell\s s]ies ( records ( ! successive assemblages ( animals :i* once dwelt 9 ?is cont95t1 & 9 s\!rnmo/ ,s\? ,am]ica an almo/ equally complete record 0 made ( ! /range animals ( t region4 ,= ! la/ half-c5tury1 or m1 _m work]s h cop]at$ to br+ ?is long-vani%$ _w to light & to deciph] & int]pret ! wond]ful /ory ( mammalian developm5t 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,! task ( mak+ ?is hi/ory intelligible1 n to say int]e/+1 to ! layman1 has be5 "o ( =midable difficulty1 = x is record$ 9 ! successive modifications ( ! bones & tee?1 & )\t "s k ( o/eology1 ^! records are 9 an unkn[n tongue4 ,to meet ?is ne$1 ,*apt] ,,iii gives a sket* ( ! mammalian skeleton & d5tition1 :i* ! read] may use z ! s*oolboy uses a vocabul>y to translate 8 ,lat9 ex]cise1 ref]r+ to x f "t to "t1 z may be necess>y to make cle> ! descriptions ( ! v>i\s mammalian gr\ps4 ,te*nical t]ms h be5 avoid$ z f> z possible1 b1 un=tunately1 x is n practicable to disp5se ) !m altoge!r4 ,! app5d$ gloss>y w1 x is hop$1 m9imize ! inconv5i5ce4 ,no "o :o has n exam9$ x1 c =m any conception ( ! enorm\s mass & v>iety ( mat]ial1 illu/rat+ ! hi/ory ( ,am]ican mammals1 :i* has already be5 ga!r$ into ! v>i\s museums4 ,a full acc\nt ( ?is mat]ial w\ld require _m volumes1 & "o ( ! *ief problems 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is book has be5 t ( mak+ a prop] selection ( ! mo/ in/ructive & illum9at+ portions ( ! long & complicat$ /ory4 ,inde$1 s rapid is ! un9t]rupt$ c\rse ( discov]y1 t p>ts ( ! text became antiquat$ :ile 9 ! press & _h to be rewritt54 ,z fir/ prep>$1 ! "w prov$ to be f> too long & x 0 necess>y to excise sev]al *apt]s1 = x seem$ bett] to cov] less gr\nd ?an to make ! entire hi/ory hurri$ & sup]ficial4 ,! plan ( treatm5t adopt$ involves a consid]able am\nt ( repetition1 b ?is is p]haps n a disadvantage1 s9ce ! same facts are consid]$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,! facts :i* are "h br\ght toge!r h be5 asc]ta9$ by _m work]s1 & ,i h borr[$ ) ! greate/ fre$om f my fell[ lab\r]s 9 ! field ( palontology4 ,z e compil] ( a manual f9ds1 x is n feasible to attribute ! prop] cr$it to ea* discov]]4 ,huxley has s well expla9$ ! situation 9 ! preface to 8 8,anatomy ( ,v]tebrat$ ,animals10 t ,i may be p]mitt$ to borr[ 8 words3 8,i h int5tionally refra9$ f burd5+ ! text ) ref]5ces2 &1 !re=e1 ! read]1 :ile he is ju/ly entitl$ to hold me responsible = any errors he may detect1 w d well to give me no cr$it = :at may seem orig9al1 unless 8 k is suffici5t to r5d] him a compet5t judge on t head40 ,a book ( ?is "* is obvi\sly n ! prop] place = polemical discussions ( disput$ que/ions4 ,:5ev]1 !re=e1 ! views express$ diff] widely f ^? ma9ta9$ by o!r palontologi/s1 ,i h attempt$ no m ?an to /ate1 z fairly z ,i c\ld1 ! alt]native int]pretations & my own *oice betwe5 !m4 ,any o!r c\rse 0 =bidd5 by ! limitations ( space4 ,x is a pleasure to give expression to my s9c]e s5se ( gratitude to ! _m fri5ds :o h help$ me 9 an unusually labori\s und]tak+4 ,pr(essor ,osborn & ,dr4 ,mat!w h plac$ at my disposal ! wond]ful treasures ( ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,new ,york & 9 ! mo/ lib]al mann] h suppli$ me ) photographs & specim5s = draw+s1 z well z ) in=mation reg>d+ important discov]ies :i* h n yet be5 publi%$4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,holl&1 ,director ( ! ,c>negie ,museum 9 ,pittsburgh1 has likewise g5]\sly provid$ _m photographs f ! noble collection "u 8 *>ge1 k9dly p]mitt+ ! use ( mat]ial /ill undescrib$4 ,to ,pr(essor ,*>les ,s*u*]t1 ( ,yale ,univ]sity1 ,i am also indebt$ = sev]al photographs4 ,! figures ( exi/+ animals are almo/ all f photographs tak5 9 ! ,new ,york & ,london zological g>d5s1 & ,i desire to ?ank ,director ,hornaday1 ( ! ,bronx ,p>k1 & ,mr4 ,peacock1 ( ! ,london g>d51 = ! v k9d mann] 9 :i* !y h procur$ ^! illu/rations = my use4 ,! photographs h be5 modifi$ by pa9t+ out ! backgr\nds ( cages1 h\ses1 & ! l1 s z to give a less artificial appe>ance to ! surr\nd+s4 ,to my colleagues at ,pr9ceton ,i am "u great obligations = mu* valuable c\nsel & assi/ance4 ,pr(essor ,gilb]t van ,+5 has prep>$ ! maps & diagrams & ,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,s9clair has devot$ mu* lab\r & c>e to ! illu/rations & has also read ! pro(s4 ,bo? ( ^! fri5ds1 z also ,pr(essors ,c4 ,h4 ,smy? & ,e4 ,g4 ,conkl9 & ,drs4 ,f>r & ,mc,comas1 h read v>i\s p>ts ( ! manuscript & made _m helpful sugge/ions 9 deal+ ) ! problems ( treatm5t & pres5tation4 ,= ?irte5 ye>s pa/ ,i h be5 engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ! great collections ( fossil mammals1 ga!r$ 9 ,patagonia by ! lam5t$ ,mr4 ,hat*] & 8 colleague1 ,mr4 ,pet]son1 n[ ( ! ,c>negie ,museum4 ,?is "w made x necess>y = me to visit ! museums ( ! ,arg5t9e ,republic1 :i* ,i did 9 #aija1 & 0 !re receiv$ ) ! greate/ c\rtesy & k9dness by ,dr4 ,f4 ,mor5o1 ,director1 & ,dr4 ,santiago ,ro?1 ( ! ,la ,plata ,museum1 & ,dr4 ,f4 ,amegh9o1 subsequ5tly ,director ( ! ,national ,museum at ,bu5os ,aires4 ,to all ( ^! g5tlem5 ! *apt]s on ! anci5t life ( ,s\? ,am]ica are mu* indebt$1 especially to ,dr4 ,amegh9o1 ^: untimely dea? 0 a great loss to sci5ce4 ,x is e>ne/ly to be hop$ t ! h]oic /ory ( 8 sci5tific c>e] may soon be giv5 to ! _w4 ,f9ally1 ,i desire to ?ank ,mr4 ,horsfall = ! inf9ite pa9s & c>e :i* he has exp5d$ ^u ! illu/rations = ! "w1 to :i* s v l>ge a "p ( its value is due4 ,:ile ! book is prim>ily int5d$ = ! lay read]1 ,i _c b hope t x may also be ( s]vice to _m zologi/s1 :o h be5 unable to keep abrea/ ( ! flood ( palontological discov]y & yet wi% to le>n some?+ ( its m significant results4 ,h[ f> ,i h succe$$ 9 a mo/ difficult task mu/ be left to ! judgm5t ( su* read]s4 ,,pr9ceton1 ,n4,j41 ,june #a1 #aiac4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,*apt] ,i ,,me?ods ,,( ,,inve/igation--,,geological #a ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,me?ods ,,( ,,inve/igation--,,pal,,ontological #bi ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,mammalia #ej ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,skeleton ,,& ,,tee? ,,( ,,mammals #fa ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,geographical ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,am]icas ,,9 ,,c5ozoic ,,times #ii ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,mammals #ace ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,successive ,,mammalian ,,faunas ,,( ,,nor? ,,& ,,s\? ,,am]ica #aib ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,p]issodactyla #bhh ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,artiodactyla #ceh ,,*apt] ,x ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,proboscidea #dbb ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,amblypoda ,,& ,,condyl>?ra #ddc ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,toxodontia 7,,or ,,not\ngulata7 #dfa ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,litopt]na ,,& ,,a/rapo!ria #dhi ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,c>nivora #eaf ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,primates #egg ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,ed5tata #ehi ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,m>supialia #fbd ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,modes ,,( ,,mammalian ,,evolution #fde ,,gloss>y #ffe ,,index #fge ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,l& ,,mammals ,,9 ,,! ,,we/]n ,,hemisph]e ,,*apt] ,i ,,me?ods ,,( ,,inve/igation--,,geological ,! t]m ,mammal has no exact equival5t 9 ! true v]nacul> ( any mod]n language1 ! ^w itself1 l its equival5ts1 ! ,fr5* ,mammifre & ! ,g]man ,suge?i]1 be+ entirely artificial4 ,z a "n = ! class ,l9nu adopt$ ! t]m ,mammalia1 :i* he =m$ f ! ,lat9 mamma 7i4e4 teat7 to designate ^? animals :i* suckle _! "y2 h5ce ! abbreviat$ =m ,mammal1 :i* has be5 naturaliz$ z an ,engli% ^w4 8,bea/10 z employ$ 9 ! ,bible1 & 8,quadrup$0 are n q ! same z mammal1 = !y d n include ! m>9e =ms1 su* z :ales1 dolph9s1 seals1 walruses1 or ! fly+ bats1 & !y are habitually us$ 9 contradi/9ction to ,man1 ?\gh ,man & all ! =ms m5tion$ are unque/ionably mammals4 ,9 attempt+ to frame a def9ition ( ! t]m ,mammal1 x is impossible to avoid te*nicalities altoge!r1 = x is ! complete unity ( plan & /ructure :i* ju/ifies ! inclusion ( all ! _m =ms t diff] s widely 9 habits & appe>ance4 ,mammals are air-brea?+ v]tebrates1 :i* are w>m-blood$ & h a #d-;*amb]$ he>t2 ! body cavity is divid$ into pleural & abdom9al *amb]s by a diaphragm2 except 9 ! l[e/ division ( ! class1 ! "y are br\ght =? alive & are always suckl$1 ! milk gl&s be+ univ]sal ?r\gh\t ! class4 ,9 ! great majority ( mammals ! body is clo!d ) hair2 a "* f\nd 9 no o!r animals4 ,9 a few mammals ! sk9 is nak$1 & 9 /ill few] !re is a p>tial cov]+ ( scales4 ,! li/ ( *>act]s common to all mammals1 :i* di/+ui% !m f o!r animals1 might be indef9itely ext5d$1 = x includes all ! organs & tissues ( ! body1 ! skeletal1 muscul>1 dige/ive1 n]v\s1 circulatory1 & reproductive sy/ems1 b ! two or ?ree m obvi\s or significant features above select$ w suffice = ! purposes ( def9ition4 ,:ile ! /ructural plan is ! same ?r\gh\t ! entire class1 !re is among mammals a wond]ful v>iety ( =m1 size1 appe>ance1 & adaptation to special habits4 ,x is z ?\gh a musician _h tak5 a s+le !me & develop$ x into endless v>iations1 pres]v+ an unmi/akable unity ?r\gh all ! *anges4 ,mo/ mammals are t]re/rial1 liv+1 t is to say1 n only on ! l&1 b on ! gr\nd1 & are h]bivor\s 9 habit1 subsi/+ *iefly or exclusively ^u vegetable sub/ances1 b !re are _m dep>tures f ?is mode ( life4 ,x %\ld be expla9$1 h[ev]1 t ! t]m t]re/rial is frequ5tly us$ 9 a m compreh5sive s5se = all l& mammals1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? t are aquatic or m>9e4 ,monkeys1 ,squirrels1 ,slo?s & ,opossums are examples ( ! num]\s arboreal mammals1 ^: /ructure is modifi$ to fit !m = liv+ & sleep+ 9 ! trees1 & 9 "s1 su* z ! ,slo?s1 ! modification is c>ri$ s f> t ! creature is almo/ helpless on ! gr\nd4 ,ano!r mode ( exi/5ce is ! burr[+ or fossorial1 ! animal liv+ p>tly or mo/ly1 or ev5 entirely und]gr\nd1 a typical in/ance ( :i* is ! ,mole4 ,! ,beav]1 ,muskrat & ,ott]1 to m5tion only a few =ms1 are aquatic & sp5d mo/ ( _! life 9 fre% wat]s1 ?\gh p]fectly able to move ab\t on ! l&4 ,m>9e mammals1 su* z ! ,seals & ,:ales1 h a greatly modifi$ /ructure :i* adapts !m to life 9 ! sea4 ,)9 ! limits ( ea* ( ^! categories we may note t !re are _m degrees ( specialization or adaptation to p>ticul> modes ( life4 ,?us1 = example1 among ! m>9e mammals1 ! ,:ales & _! allies1 ,porpoises1 etc41 are s completely adapt$ to a life 9 ! seas t !y _c come ^u ! l&1 & ev5 /r&+ is fatal to !m1 :ile ! ,seals frequ5tly l& & move ab\t ^u ! %ore4 ,x %\ld fur!r be obs]v$ t mammals ( ! mo/ div]se gr\ps are adapt$ to simil> modes ( exi/5ce4 ,?us 9 "o natural gr\p or ord] ( relat$ =ms1 occur t]re/rial1 burr[+1 arboreal & aquatic memb]s1 & ! conv]se /atem5t is ( c\rse equally true1 t animals ( simil> life-habits are n necess>ily relat$ to "o ano!r1 & v frequ5tly1 9 fact1 are n s relat$4 ,among ! typically m>9e mammals1 = example1 !re are at lea/ ?ree & probably f\r di/9ct s]ies1 :i* h indep5d5tly become adapt$ to life 9 ! sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,be=e attempt+ to set =? an outl9e ( :at has be5 le>n$ reg>d+ ! hi/ory ( mammalian life 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 x is ess5tial to give ! read] "s conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* t k has be5 obta9$4 ,)\t su* an und]/&+ ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! inve/igation ! read] c only bl9dly accept or z bl9dly reject :at purports to be ! logical inf]5ce f well-e/abli%$ evid5ce4 ,h[ is t evid5ce to be discov]$8 & h[ may tru/wor?y conclusions be d]iv$ f x8 ,! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s /ep is to ga!r all possible in=mation conc]n+ ! mammals ( ! pres5t day1 _! /ructure 7comp>ative anatomy71 functions 7physiology71 & _! geographical arrangem5t4 ,?is latt] doma91 ( ! geographical di/ribution ( mammals1 is "o ( peculi> significance4 ,n only d ! animals ( ,nor? ,am]ica diff] radically f ^? ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 b )9 ! limits ( ea* cont95t are m or less well-def9$ areas1 ! animals ( :i* diff] 9 a subord9ate degree f ^? ( o!r areas4 ,! /udy ( ! mod]n _w1 h[ev]1 w\ld n ( itself c>ry u v f> t[>d ! goal ( our inquiries1 :i* is an explanation1 n m]ely a /atem5t1 ( ! facts4 ,! pres5t ord] ( ?+s is ! outcome ( an illimitably long sequ5ce ( ev5ts & c be und]/ood only 9 proportion to our k ( ! pa/4 ,9 o!r words1 x is necess>y to treat ! problems involv$ 9 our inquiry hi/orically2 to trace ! evolution ( ! diff]5t mammalian gr\ps f _! simpl] beg9n+s to ! m complex & highly specializ$ mod]n =ms2 to det]m9e1 s f> z t may be done1 ! place ( orig9 ( ea* gr\p & to foll[ out _! migrations f cont95t to cont95t4 ,:ile we %all deal *iefly1 almo/ exclusively1 ) ! mammals ( ! ,new ,_w1 some?+ mu/ be said reg>d+ ^? ( o!r cont95ts1 =1 z w be %[n 9 ! sequel1 bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica h1 at "o "t or ano!r1 be5 connect$ ) v>i\s l&-masses ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e4 ,by means ( ^? l&-connections1 !re has be5 an int]*ange ( mammals betwe5 ! diff]5t cont95ts1 & ea* great l&-area ( ! rec5t _w conta9s a m or less het]og5e\s assemblage ( =ms ( v div]se places ( orig94 ,inde$1 migration f "o region to ano!r has play$ a mo/ important "p 9 br++ ab\t ! pres5t di/ribution ( liv+ ?+s4 ,f :at has already be5 le>n$ z to ! pa/ life ( ! v>i\s cont95ts & _! %ift+ connections ) "o ano!r1 x is n[ feasible to analyze ! mammalian faunas ( mo/ ( !m & to sep>ate ! indig5\s f ! immigrant elem5ts4 ,among ! latt] may be di/+ui%$ ^? =ms :i* are ! mu* modifi$ desc5dants ( anci5t migrants f ^? :i* arriv$ at a mu* lat] date & h und]gone b little *ange4 ,to take a few examples f ,nor? ,am]ica1 x may be said t ! ,be>s1 ,moose1 ,c>ib\ & ,bison are late migrants f ! ,old ,_w2 t ! ,virg9ia & ,black-tail$ ,de] & ! ,prong-horn$ ,antelope are ( ,old ,_w orig91 b _! ance/ors came 9 at a f> e>li] p]iod & ! mod]n species are greatly *ang$ f ! ance/ral migrants4 ,! ,armadillo ( ,texas & ! ,canada ,porcup9e are almo/ ! only survivors1 nor? ( ,mexico1 ( ! great migration ( ,s\? ,am]ican mammals :i* once invad$ ! nor!rn cont95t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! raccoons & sev]al families ( rod5ts are in/ances ( indig5\s types :i* may be trac$ ?r\gh a long ,am]ican ance/ry4 ,fully to compreh5d ! m>* ( mammalian developm5t1 x ?us becomes necess>y to recon/ruct1 at lea/ 9 outl9e1 ! geography ( ! successive epo*s ?r\gh :i* ! developm5tal *anges h tak5 place1 ! connections & sep>ations ( l&-masses1 ! rise ( m\nta9 ranges1 riv] & lake sy/ems & ! l4 ,equally significant factors 9 ! problem are climatic *anges1 :i* h _h a pr(\nd & f>-rea*+ effect ^u ! evolution & geographical spread ( animals & plants1 & ! *anges 9 ! vegetable _w mu/ n be ignor$1 =1 directly or indirectly1 animals are dep5d5t ^u plants4 ,to "o :o has paid no att5tion to que/ions ( ?is k9d1 x might well seem an utt]ly hopeless task to recon/ruct ! long vani%$ pa/1 & he w\ld naturally conclude t1 at be/1 only fanciful speculations1 ) no f\ndation ( real k1 c\ld be )9 our rea*4 ,happily1 su* is by no means ! case4 ,geology (f]s ! means ( a successful attack ^u ^! problems &1 al?\gh v mu* rema9s to be done1 mu* has already be5 accompli%$ 9 elucidat+ ! hi/ory1 especially 9 its lat] p]iods1 ) :i* ! /ory ( ! mammals is m p>ticul>ly conc]n$4 ,x is manife/ly impossible to pres5t "h a treatise ^u ! sci5ce ( ,geology1 ev5 9 outl9e sket*4 ,consid]ations ( space are suffici5t to =bid any su* attempt4 ,c]ta9 ?+s mu/ be tak5 = grant$1 ! evid5ce = :i* may be f\nd 9 any mod]n text-book ( ,geology4 ,= example1 x is entirely feasible to e/abli% ! mode ( =mation ( almo/ any rock 7aside f c]ta9 problematical rocks1 :i* d n ent] into our discussion7 & to det]m9e :e!r x 0 laid d[n 9 ! sea1 or on ! l&1 or 9 "s body ( wat] n directly connect$ ) ! sea1 su* z a lake or riv]4 ,) ! aid ( ! microscope1 x is easy to discrim9ate volcanic mat]ial f ! ord9>y wat]-borne & w9d-borne s$im5ts &1 9 ! case ( ! rocks :i* h solidifi$ f ! molt5 /ate1 to di/+ui% ^? masses :i* h cool$ ^u ! surface f ^? :i* h solidifi$ deep )9 ! e>?4 ,:ile ! nature & mode ( =mation ( ! rocks may ?us be po/ulat$1 x w be ne$ful to expla9 at "s l5g? ! "* ( ! evid5ce f :i* ! hi/ory ( ! e>? may be deciph]$4 ,fir/ ( all1 mu/ be made cle> ! me?od by :i* ! ev5ts ( ! e>?'s hi/ory may be arrang$ 9 *ronological ord]1 = a hi/ory )\t *ronology is un9telligible4 ,! ev5ts :i* are mo/ significant = our purpose are record$ 9 ! rocks :i* are call$ /ratifi$1 b$d$ or s$im5t>y1 synonym\s t]ms4 ,su* rocks 7 made mo/ly f ! dbris ( old] rocks1 9 ! =m ( gravel1 s& or mud1 & 7 laid d[n "u wat]1 or1 less ext5sively1 spread by ! action ( ! w9d ^u a l&-surface4 ,important memb]s ( ?is gr\p ( rocks are ^? =m$1 m or less completely1 f ! f9] fragm5ts giv5 out 9 volcanic eruptions1 c>ri$ & sort$ by ! w9d & f9ally deposit$1 x may be at great di/ances f _! po9t ( orig91 ^u a l&-surface1 or on ! bottom ( "s body ( wat]4 ,/ratifi$ or b$d$ rocks1 z _! "n implies1 are divid$ into m or less p>allel lay]s or b$s1 :i* may be _m feet or only a m9ute fraction ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,su* a division means a pause 9 ! process ( deposition or a *ange 9 ! "* ( ! mat]ial deposit$ ov] a giv5 area4 ,ow+ to ! op]ation ( gravity1 ! lay]s ( s$im5t are spread out 9 a horizontal attitude1 :i* disreg>d ! m9or irregul>ities ( ! bottom1 j z a deep sn[ buries ! objects :i* lie ^u ! surface4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ t1 9 any s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks :i* h n be5 greatly di/urb$ f _! orig9al horizontal position1 ! ord] ( succession or sup]position ( ! b$s mu/ necess>ily be ! *ronological ord] ( _! =mation4 7,fig4 #a47 ,obvi\sly1 ! l[e/ b$s mu/ h be5 deposit$ fir/ & !re=e are ! olde/ ( ! s]ies1 :ile ^? at ! top mu/ be ! newe/ or y\nge/ & ! b$s int]m$iate 9 position are int]m$iate 9 age4 ,?is inf]5ce dep5ds ^u ! simple pr9ciple t ea* b$ mu/ h be5 laid d[n be=e ! next succe$+ "o c h be5 deposit$ ^u x4 ,:ile ?is is s cle> z to be almo/ self-evid5t1 x is pla9 t su* a mode ( det]m9+ ! *ronological ord] ( ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ c be ( only local applicability & s f> z ! b$s may be trac$ 9 unbrok5 cont9uity4 ,x is ( no direct assi/ance 9 correlat+ ! ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( "o cont95t ) ^? ( ano!r & x fails ev5 9 comp>+ ! di/9ctly sep>at$ p>ts ( ! same cont95t4 ,"s me?od ( univ]sal applicability mu/ be devis$ be=e ! hi/ories ( scatt]$ regions c be comb9$ to =m a hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,su* a univ]sal me?od is to be f\nd 9 ! succession ( ! =ms ( life1 s f> z t is record$ 9 ! %ape ( fossils1 or ! recognizable rema9s ( animal & vegetable organisms pres]v$ 9 ! rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,diagram section ( a s]ies ( b$s1 illu/rat+ sup]position4 ,a is ! olde/1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 etc41 succe$+ 9 asc5d+ ord]4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 fir/ enunciat$ by ,william ,smi?1 an ,engli% eng9e]1 ne> ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :o ?us laid ! f\ndations ( ,hi/orical ,geology4 ,9 ! diagram1 ,fig4 #b1 is reproduc$ ,smi?'s section across ,engl& f ,wales to ne> ,london1 :i* %[s ! successive /rata or b$s1 v mu* tilt$ f _! orig9al horizontal position by ! upheaval ( ! sea-b$ ^u :i* !y 7 laid d[n4 ,! section pictures ! side ( an imag9>y gigantic tr5* cut across ! isl& & 0 con/ruct$ by a simple geometrical me?od f ! surface exposures ( ! b$s1 su* z m9+ eng9e]s cont9ually employ to map ! und]gr\nd ext5sion ( economically important rocks1 & %[s h[ an enorm\s ?ickness ( /rata may be /udi$ f ! surface4 ,! old] b$s are expos$ at ! we/]n end ( ! section 9 ,wales &1 pass+ ea/w>d1 successively lat] & lat] b$s are enc\nt]$1 ! newe/ appe>+ at ! ea/]n end4 ,v _m ( ! /rata are ri*ly fossilif]\s1 & ?us a long succession ( fossils 0 obta9$ 9 ! ord] ( _! appe>ance1 & ?is ord] has be5 f\nd to hold good1 n only 9 ,engl&1 b ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! ord] ( succession ( ! fossils 0 ?us 9 ! fir/ in/ance actually asc]ta9$ f ! succession ( ! /rata 9 :i* !y are f\nd & has be5 v]ifi$ 9 innum]able sections 9 _m l&s & is ?us a matt] ( obs]v$ & v]ifiable fact1 n m]ely a po/ulate or work+ hypo!sis4 ,once asc]ta9$1 h[ev]1 ! ord] ( succession ( liv+ ?+s ^u ! e>? may be !n employ$ z an indep5d5t & indisp5sable means ( geologically dat+ ! rocks 9 :i* !y occur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,william ,smi?'s section across ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,! v]tical scale is exagg]at$1 :i* makes ! incl9ation ( ! b$s appe> too /eep4 ,n4 ,b4 ,! orig9al draw+ is 9 colors1 :i* are n indicat$ by ! dott$ /rata4 ,?is is ! palontological me?od1 :i* f9ds analogies 9 _m o!r bran*es ( le>n$ inquiry4 ,! /ud5t ( manuscripts discov]s t !re is a developm5t1 or regul> s]ies ( successive *anges1 9 h&writ+1 & f ! h&writ+ alone c make a v close approximation to ! date ( a manuscript4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ^? *anges came ab\t 0 asc]ta9$ f ! comp>ative /udy ( manuscripts1 ! date ( :i* c\ld be asc]ta9$ f o!r evid5ce1 b1 :5 once e/abli%$1 ! *anges 9 h&writ+ are us$ to fix ! p]iod ( undat$ manuscripts4 ,j s1 ! succession ( fossils1 :5 le>n$ f a s]ies ( sup]pos$ b$s1 may !n be employ$ to fix ! geological date ( /rata 9 ano!r region4 ,simil>ly1 ! ar*ologi/ has obs]v$ t !re is an evolution or developm5t 9 e sort ( ! "w ( m5's h&s & !re=e makes use ( co9s1 inscriptions1 objects ( art1 build+ mat]ials & me?ods1 etc41 to date anci5t /ructures4 ,9 ! ,g]man t[n ( ,tri] 7or ,trves7 on ! ,moselle1 ! ca!dral has z a nucleus a ,roman /ructure1 ! date & purpose ( :i* _h long be5 matt]s ( dispute1 ?\gh ! g5]al belief 0 t ! build+ _h be5 erect$ "u ,con/ant9e ! ,great4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "s repairs made n v long ago1 x became necess>y to cut deep into ! ,roman brickwork1 & !re1 emb$d$ 9 ! undi/urb$ mort>1 0 a co9 ( ! emp]or ,val5t9ian ,,ii1 evid5tly dropp$ f ! pocket ( "s ,roman bricklay]4 ,t co9 fix$ a date old] ?an :i* ! build+ _c be1 ?\gh x may be slightly lat]1 & x well illu/rates ! s]vice r5d]$ by fossils 9 det]m9+ geological *ronology4 ,o!r me?ods ( mak+ out ! *ronology ( ! e>?'s hi/ory h be5 propos$ f "t to "t & all ( !m h _! value1 ?\gh none ( !m r5d]s u indep5d5t ( ! use ( fossils1 :i* h ! pre-em95t advantage ( n recurr+ or repeat+ !mselves at widely sep>at$ int]vals ( "t1 z all physical processes & *anges d4 ,an organism1 animal or plant1 t has become ext9ct nev] returns & is n reproduc$ 9 ! evolution>y process4 ,great & well f\nd$ z is our confid5ce 9 fossils z fix+ ! geological date ( ! rocks 9 :i* !y occur1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! succession ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( fossils 9 "t 0 fir/ det]m9$ f ! sup]position ( ! conta9+ /rata4 ,h5ce1 x is always a welcome confirmation ( ! *ronological inf]5ces drawn f ! /udy ( fossils1 :5 ^? inf]5ces c be unequivocally e/abli%$ by ! succession ( ! b$s !mselves4 ,= example1 9 ! ,t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,we/ are two =mations or gr\ps ( /rata1 call$ respectively ! ,u9ta & ! ,:ite ,riv]1 :i* _h nev] be5 kn[n to occur 9 ! same region & ^: relative age !re=e c\ld n be det]m9$ by ! me?od ( sup]position4 ,ea* ( ! =mations1 h[ev]1 has yield$ a l>ge numb] ( well-pres]v$ fossil mammals1 & ! comp>ative /udy ( ^! mammals made x cle> t ! ,u9ta mu/ be old] ?an ! ,:ite ,riv] & t no v great lapse ( "t1 geologically speak+1 occurr$ betwe5 ! end ( ! =m] & ! beg9n+ ( ! latt]4 ,only two or ?ree ye>s ago an exp$ition f ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory discov]$ a place 9 ,wyom+ :]e ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s lie directly ^u ^? ( ! ,u9ta1 ?us fully confirm+ ! inf]5ce z to ! relative age ( ^! two =mations :i* _h long ago be5 drawn f ! comp>ative /udy ( _! fossil mammals4 ,! palontological me?od ( det]m9+ ! geological date ( ! /ratifi$ rocks is ?us an indisp5sable means ( correlat+ ! scatt]$ exposures ( ! /rata 9 widely sep>at$ regions & 9 diff]5t cont95ts1 x may be ) ?\s&s ( miles ( int]v5+ ocean4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple employ$ is t close simil>ity ( fossils 9 ! rocks ( ! regions comp>$ po9ts to an approximately contemporane\s date ( =mation ( ^? rocks4 ,?is pr9ciple mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be appli$ 9 an (f-h& or uncritical mann]1 or x w lead to s]i\s error4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! evolution>y process is a v sl[ "o & geological "t is inconceivably long1 s t deposits :i* diff] by "s ?\s&s ( ye>s may yet h ! same or ne>ly ! same fossils4 ,! me?od is n "o ( suffici5t ref9em5t to detect su* relatively small diff]5ces4 ,to recur to ! illu/ration ( ! developm5t 9 h&writ+1 ! palograph] c h>dly d m ?an det]m9e ! decade 9 :i* a manuscript 0 writt52 no "o w\ld expect him to fix ^u ! exact ye>1 /ill less ! mon?1 f ! /udy ( h&writ+ alone4 ,z is ! mon? 9 record$ human hi/ory1 s is ! mill5nium 9 ! long c\rse ( ! e>?'s developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,bluff on ,beav] ,creek1 ,fremont ,co41 ,wyom+4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] b$s 7 deposit$ on ! worn & wea!r$ surface ( ! ,u9ta1 ! heavy1 brok5 l9e m>k+ ! sep>ation betwe5 !m4 ,! valley 0 c>v$ out long aft] ! deposition ( ! ,:ite ,riv] /rata4 ,9 ! second place1 !re are great diff]5ces 9 ! contempor>y life ( sep>ate regions & su* geographical diff]5ces !re h always be51 s f> z we c trace back ! hi/ory ( animals & plants4 ,a new organism does n orig9ate simultane\sly all ov] ! _w b1 normally at lea/1 9 a s+le area & spreads f t c5tre until x enc\nt]s insup]able ob/acles4 ,su* spread+ is a sl[ process & h5ce x is t new =ms (t5 appe> 9 "o region mu* e>li] ?an 9 o!rs & 9 ! v process ( ext5d+ _! range1 ! advanc+ species may !mselves be consid]ably modifi$ & rea* _! new & di/ant homes z diff]5t species f ^? :i* orig9at$ ! movem5t4 ,ext9ction1 likewise1 seldom occurs simultane\sly ov] ! range ( a gr\p1 b n[ "h & n[ !re 9 a way t to our ignorance appe>s to be arbitr>y & caprici\s4 ,! process may g on until ext9ction is total1 or may m]ely result 9 a great re/riction ( ! range ( a giv5 gr\p1 or may break up t range into two or m di/9ct areas4 ,( su* incomplete ext9ctions _m in/ances might be giv51 b "o mu/ suffice4 ,! camel-tribe1 /range z x may appe>1 orig9at$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & 0 long conf9$ to t cont95t1 :ile at ! pres5t day x is repres5t$ only by ! llamas ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ! true camels ( ,asia1 hav+ completely vani%$ f its e>ly home4 ,^! facts & a ho/ ( simil> ones make pla9 h[ necess>y x is to take geographical consid]ations into acc\nt 9 all problems t deal ) ! syn*roniz+ ( ! rocks ( sep>ate areas & cont95ts4 ,prop]ly to e/imate ! significance ( a diff]5ce 9 ! fossils ( two regions & to det]m9e h[ f> x is geographical1 due to a sep>ation 9 space1 or geological & caus$ by sep>ation 9 "t1 is (t5 a v difficult matt] & requires a va/ am\nt ( m9ute & detail$ /udy4 ,once m1 ! pr9ciple involv$ is illu/rat$ by ! /udy ( manuscripts4 ,d[n to ! "t :5 ! pr9t+ press sup]s$$ ! copyi/1 ea* ( ! nations ( ,europe _h its own traditions & its m or less indep5d5t c\rse ( h&writ+ developm5t4 ,a great mona/]y1 9 :i* ! "w ( copy+ manuscripts w5t on c5tury aft] c5tury1 became an indep5d5t geographical c5tre ) its p>ticul> /yles4 ,?us ! palograph]1 l ! geologi/1 is confront$ by geographical problems z well z by ^? ( *ange & developm5t 9 g5]al4 ,9 addition to ! me?od ( geologically dat+ ! rocks by means ( ! fossils :i* !y conta91 !re are o!r ways :i* may give a great] precision to ! result4 ,climatic *anges1 :5 demon/rable1 are ( ?is "*1 = !y may spe$ily & simultane\sly affect va/ areas ( ! e>?'s surface or ev5 ! entire _w4 ,f "t to "t 9 ! pa/1 glacial conditions h prevail$ ov] imm5se regions1 sev]al cont95ts at once1 x may be1 z 9 "o in/ance 9 :i* ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 ,s\? ,am]ica 7 involv$4 ,! *>act]i/ic accumulations made by ! glaci]s 9 ^! widely sep>at$ regions mu/ be contemporane\s 9 a s5se t c r>ely be pr$icat$ ( ! ord9>y /ratifi$ rocks4 ,su* climatic *anges z ! =mation & disappe>ance ( ! ice-fields give a %>p] & m def9ite /&>d ( "t comp>isons ?an d ! fossils alone1 & yet ! fossils are 9 turn ne$$ to %[ :i* ( sev]al possible glacial p]iods are actually be+ comp>$4 ,aga91 great movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :i* involve va/ & widely sep>at$ regions & br+ ! sea 9 ov] great areas ( l&1 or raise great areas into l&1 :i* _h be5 subm]g$1 may also yield m precise "t-measurem5ts1 because occurr+ )9 %ort] p]iods ?an d notable *anges 9 ! sy/em ( liv+ ?+s4 ,su* *anges 9 animals & plants may be comp>$ to ! almo/ imp]ceptible movem5t ( ! h\r-h& ( a clock1 :ile ! record$ climatic revolutions & cru/al movem5ts (t5 supply ! place ( ! m9ute-h&4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t if ! h\r-h& be want+1 ! m9ute-h& alone c be ( v limit$ use4 ,!re h be5 a great _m va/ subm]g5ces & em]g5ces ( l& 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 & only ! fossils c give u ! assurance t we are comp>+ ! same movem5t 9 di/ant cont95ts1 & n two simil> movem5ts sep>at$ by an enorm\s int]val ( "t4 ,x may ?us fairly be admitt$ t x is possible to arrange ! rocks :i* compose ! accessible p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ 9 *ronological ord] & to correlate 9 "o sy/em ! rocks ( ! v>i\s cont95ts4 ,! t]ms us$ = ! m important divisions ( geological "t are1 9 desc5d+ ord] ( magnitude1 era1 p]iod1 epo*1 age or /age1 & ! g5]al s*eme ( ! eras & p]iods1 :i* is 9 almo/ uni=m use ?r\gh\t ! _w1 is giv5 9 ! table1 :i* is arrang$ s z to give ! succession graphically1 ) ! mo/ anci5t rocks at ! bottom & ! late/ at ! top4 ,c5ozoic era ,quat]n>y p]iod ,t]ti>y p]iod ,cretace\s p]iod ,mesozoic era ,jurassic p]iod ,triassic p]iod ,p]mian p]iod ,c>bonif]\s p]iod ,palozoic era ,devonian p]iod ,silurian p]iod ,ordovician p]iod ,cambrian p]iod ,pre-,cambrian eras ,algonkian p]iod ,ar*an p]iod ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t all ! divisions ( simil> rank1 su* z ! eras1 = example1 7 ( equal l5g?1 z measur$ by ! ?ickness ( ! rocks assign$ to ^? divisions4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y mu/ h be5 ( v unequal l5g? & are ( v diff]5t divisibility4 ,! ,pre-,cambrian eras1 ) only two p]iods1 7 probably f> long] ?an all subsequ5t "t1 & all t ! major divisions imply is t !y repres5t *anges 9 ! sy/em ( life ( approximately equival5t importance4 ,x is impossible to give any tru/wor?y e/imate ( ! actual l5g?s ( ^! divisions 9 ye>s1 ?\gh _m attempts to d s h be5 made4 ,all t c be confid5tly affirm$ is t geological "t1 l a/ronomical di/ances1 is ( inconceivable va/ness & its ye>s c be c\nt$ only 9 hundr$s ( millions4 ,to discuss 9 any intelligible mann] ! hi/ory ( mammals1 x w be necess>y to g mu* f>!r ?an ! above table 9 ! subdivision ( t "p ( geological "t 9 :i* mammalian evolution ran its c\rse4 ,z mammals repres5t ! highe/ /age ( developm5t yet atta9$ 9 ! animal _w1 x is only ! latt] "p ( ! e>?'s hi/ory :i* is conc]n$ ) !m2 ! e>li] & incomp>ably long] portion ( t hi/ory may be pass$ ov]4 ,mammals are fir/ record$ 9 ! lat] ,triassic1 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree p]iods :i* make up ! ,mesozoic era4 ,!y h also be5 f\nd1 ?\gh v scantily1 9 ! o!r ,mesozoic p]iods1 ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s1 b x 0 ! ,c5ozoic era t witness$ mo/ ( ! amaz+ c\rse ( mammalian developm5t & div]sification1 & h5ce ! relatively m9ute subdivisions necess>y = ! und]/&+ ( ?is hi/ory deal only ) ! ,c5ozoic1 ! late/ ( ! great eras4 ,9 ! subjo9$ table ! p]iods & epo*s are ^? :i* are 9 g5]al use ?r\gh\t ! _w1 ! ages & /ages are ^? :i* apply to ! we/]n int]ior ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ea* region1 ev5 ( ! same cont95t1 requir+ a diff]5t classification4 ,! ,s\? ,am]ican =mations are giv5 9 a sep>ate table1 z x is desirable to avoid ! appe>ance ( an exactitude 9 correlation :i* _c yet be atta9$4 ,,c5ozoic ,,era ,quat]n>y p]iod ,rec5t epo* ,plei/oc5e epo* ,glacial & ,int]glacial /ages4 ,plioc5e epo* ,mioc5e epo* ,t]ti>y p]iod ,oligoc5e epo* ,eoc5e epo* ,paleoc5e epo* ,cont9u+ ! subdivision ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod /ill f>!r1 we h ! foll[+ arrangem5t3 ,,t]ti>y ,,p]iod 7,nor? ,am]ica7 ,upp] ,want+ ,middle ,blanco age ,plioc5e ,?\s& ,creek age ,l[] ,snake ,creek age ,republican ,riv] age ,upp] ,l\p ,=k age ,mioc5e ,middle ,deep ,riv] age ,l[] ,arik>ee age ,oligoc5e ,upp] ,john ,day age ,l[] ,:ite ,riv] age ,upp] ,u9ta age ,eoc5e ,middle ,bridg] age ,l[] ,w9d ,riv] age ,wasat* age ,paleoc5e ,upp] ,torrejon age ,=t ,union ,l[] ,pu]co age ,?is is a repres5tative s]ies ( ! widespread & manifold non-m>9e ,t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,great ,pla9s1 b a mu* m ext5sive & subdivid$ s*eme w\ld be ne$$ to %[ ) any degree ( fullness ! wond]fully complete record ( t portion ( ! cont95t dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,a mu* m elaborate table w be f\nd 9 ,pr(essor ,osborn's 8,age ( ,mammals10 p4 #da4 ,!re are "s diff]5ces ( practice among geologi/s z to ?is s*eme ( classification1 ?\gh ! diff]5ces are n ^? ( pr9ciple4 ,no "q arises conc]n+ ! reality ( ! divisions1 or _! ord] ( succession 9 "t1 b m]ely z to ! rank or relative importance :i* %\ld be attribut$ to "s ( !m1 & t is a v m9or consid]ation4 ,mu* great] difficulty &1 consequ5tly1 mu* m radical diff]5ces ( int]pretation arise :5 ! attempt is made to correlate or syn*ronize ! small] subdivisions1 z f\nd 9 ! v>i\s cont95ts1 ) "o ano!r1 because ( ! geographical diff]5ces 9 contempor>y life4 ,betwe5 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica !re has always be5 a c]ta9 proportion ( mammalian =ms 9 common1 a proportion t 0 at "o "t great]1 at ano!r less1 & ?is community r5d]s ! correlation ( ! l>g] divisions ( ! ,t]ti>y 9 ! two cont95ts comp>atively easy1 & ev5 9 ! m9or subdivisions v satisfactory progress has be5 made1 s t x is possible to trace 9 "s detail ! migrations ( mammals f ! ea/]n to ! we/]n hemisph]e & vice v]sa4 ,su* int]migrations 7 made possible by ! l&-bridges connect+ ,am]ica ) ,europe across ! ,atlantic1 p]haps on ! l9e ( ,gre5l& & ,icel&1 & ) ,asia :]e n[ is ,b]+ ,/rait4 ,^! connections 7 repeat$ly made & repeat$ly brok5 dur+ ! ,mesozoic & ,c5ozoic eras d[n to ! late/ epo*1 ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,by comp>+ ! fossil mammals ( ,europe ) ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica = any p>ticul> division ( geological "t1 x is practicable to det]m9e :e!r ! way ( int]migration 0 op5 or clos$1 because sep>ation always l$ to great] diff]5ces betwe5 ! faunas ( ! two cont95ts ?r\gh div]g5t evolution4 ,correlation ) ,s\? ,am]ica is exce$+ly difficult & x is 9 deal+ ) ?is problem t ! wide/ diff]5ces ( op9ion h aris5 among geologi/s4 ,?r\gh ne>ly all ! e>li] half ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod ! two ,am]icas 7 sep>at$ &1 because ( ?is sep>ation1 _! l& mammals 7 utt]ly diff]5t4 ,h5ce1 ! lack ( elem5ts common to bo? cont95ts puts great ob/acles 9 ! way ( e/abli%+ def9ite "t-relations betwe5 _! geological divisions4 ,only ! m>9e mammals1 :ales & dolph9s1 7 s f> alike z to (f] "s satisfactory basis ( comp>ison4 ,:51 9 ! lat] ,t]ti>y1 a l&-connection 0 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! two cont95ts1 migrations ( mammals f ea* to ! o!r began1 & !nce=w>d !re 7 always c]ta9 elem5ts common to bo?1 z !re are to-day4 ,9 spite ( ! cont9u\s l& betwe5 !m1 ! pres5t faunas ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica are v /rik+ly diff]5t1 ,s\? ,am]ica be+1 ) ! exception ( ,au/ralia1 zologically ! mo/ peculi> region ( ! e>?4 ,9 ! foll[+ table ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,c5ozoic1 ! assignm5t ( ! ages to _! epo*s is l>gely t5tative1 especially z reg>ds ! m anci5t divisions1 & repres5ts ! views g5]ally held by ! geologi/s ( ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ^? ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 on ! contr>y1 give an e>li] date to ! ages & /ages & ref] ! old] ones to ! ,cretace\s in/ead ( ! ,t]ti>y4 ,,c5ozoic ,,era 7,s\? ,am]ica7 ,quat]n>y p]iod ,rec5t epo* ,plei/oc5e epo*--,pampean ,b$s1 ,brazilian cav]ns ,monte ,h]moso age ,plioc5e epo* ,catam>ca age ,p>an age ,t]ti>y p]iod ,mioc5e epo* ,santa ,cruz age ,patagonian age ,oligoc5e epo* ,deseado age 7,pyro!rium ,b$s7 ,a/raponotus ,b$s ,eoc5e epo* ,casa ,mayor age 7,noto/ylops ,b$s7 ,! ,plei/oc5e & ,plioc5e deposits are mo/ widely di/ribut$ ov] ! ,pampas ( ,arg5t9a1 b ! =m] occur also 9 ,ecuador1 ,brazil1 ,*ili1 & ,bolivia4 ,! o!r =mations cov] ext5sive areas 9 ,patagonia1 & "s ext5d into ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,we h next to consid] ! me?ods by :i* pa/ geographical conditions may be asc]ta9$1 a task :i*1 ?\gh beset ) difficulties1 is v f> f be+ a hopeless und]tak+4 ,z has already be5 po9t$ out1 x is p]fectly possible = ! geologi/ to det]m9e ! circum/ances ( =mation ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( rocks1 to di/+ui% t]re/rial f aquatic accumulations &1 among ! latt]1 to id5tify ^? :i* 7 laid d[n 9 ! sea & ^? :i* 7 =m$ 9 "s o!r body ( wat]4 ,by platt+ on a map all ! m>9e rocks ( a giv5 geological date1 an approximate e/imate may be =m$ z to ! ext5sion ( ! sea ov] ! pres5t l& = t p>ticul> epo*4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t = ^? areas :i* !n 7 l& & n[ are cov]$ by ! sea1 no su* direct evid5ce c be obta9$1 & only indirect means ( asc]ta9+ ! =m] l&-connections c be employ$4 ,x is 9 ! treatm5t ( ?is indirect evid5ce t ! greate/ diff]5ces ( op9ion arise &1 if two maps ( ! same cont95t = ! same epo*1 by sep>ate au?ors1 be comp>$1 x w be se5 t ! greate/ discrepancies betwe5 !m are conc]n+ =m] l&-connections & ext5sions4 ,! only k9d ( indirect evid5ce be>+ ^u anci5t l&-connections1 n[ brok5 by ! sea1 t ne$ be consid]$ "h is t d]iv$ f ! /udy ( animals & plants1 bo? rec5t & fossil4 ,all-important 9 ?is connection is ! pr9ciple t ! same or closely simil> species d n arise indep5d5tly 9 areas betwe5 :i* !re is no connection4 ,x is n impossible t su* an indep5d5t orig9 ( organisms :i* ! naturali/ w\ld class z belong+ to ! same species may h occasionally tak5 place1 b1 if s1 x mu/ be ! r>e exception to ! normal process4 ,?is pr9ciple leads necess>ily to ! conclusion t ! m rec5tly & broadly two l&-areas1 n[ sep>at$ by ! sea1 h be5 connect$1 ! m ne>ly alike w be _! animals & plants4 ,su* isl&s z ,great ,brita91 ,sumatra & ,java mu/ h be5 connect$ ) ! adjac5t ma9l& )9 a geologically rec5t p]iod1 :ile ! extreme zological peculi>ity ( ,au/ralia c be expla9$ only on ! assumption t its pres5t isolation is ( v long /&+4 ,! pr9ciple applies to ! case ( fossils z well z to t ( mod]n animals1 & has already be5 made use (1 9 a prec$+ section1 9 deal+ ) ! anci5t l&-connections ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x 0 !re %[n t ! connection ( ?is cont95t ) ! ,old ,_w & ! int]ruptions ( t connection are reflect$ & record$ 9 ! great] or less degree ( lik5ess 9 ! fossil mammals at any p>ticul> epo*4 ,conv]sely1 ! v radical diff]5ces betwe5 ! fossil mammals ( ! two ,am]icas imply a long-cont9u$ sep>ation ( ^? two cont95ts1 & _! junction 9 ! latt] half ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod is prov$ by ! appe>ance ( s\!rn gr\ps ( mammals 9 ! nor!rn cont95t1 & ( nor!rn gr\ps 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,inasmu* z ! connection betwe5 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica /ill p]si/s1 ! geology ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama %\ld af=d te/imony 9 confirmation ( ! inf]5ces drawn f a /udy ( ! mammals4 ,( c\rse1 ! sep>at+ sea did n necess>ily cross ! site ( ! pres5t i/hmus2 x might h cut ?r\gh "s "p ( ,c5tral ,am]ica1 b a glance at ! map imm$iately sugge/s ! i/hmus z ! place ( sep>ation & subsequ5t connection4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 i/hmian geology is 9 complete accord ) ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! mammals4 ,ev5 ne> ! summit ( ! hills :i* =m ! wat]%$ betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific & ?r\gh :i* ! great ,culebra ,cut passes1 are b$s ( m>9e ,t]ti>y %ells1 %[+ t at t "t ! l& 0 completely subm]g$4 ,?is does n at all preclude ! possibility ( o!r transv]se seas at ! same p]iod2 inde$1 mu* ( ,c5tral ,am]ica 0 probably "u ! sea also1 b ! geology ( t region is /ill too imp]fectly kn[n to p]mit positive /atem5ts4 ,:5 sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( te/imony1 ea* indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 c be secur$ & all are f\nd to be 9 h>mony1 ! /r5g? ( ! conclusion is !reby greatly increas$4 ,_m di/9ct l9es ( evid5ce support ! inf]5ce t ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica 7 completely sev]$ = a great "p ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,?is is indicat$ 9 ! cle>e/ mann]1 n only by ! geological /ructure ( ! ,i/hmus & by ! mammals1 liv+ & ext9ct1 z already describ$1 b also by ! fre%-wat] fi%es1 ! l&-%ells1 ! reptiles & _m o!r gr\ps ( animals & plants4 ,! di/ribution ( m>9e fossils may r5d] ! same sort ( s]vice 9 elucidat+ ! hi/ory ( ! sea z l&-mammals d = ! cont95ts1 demon/rat+ ! op5+ & clos+ ( connections betwe5 l&-areas & betwe5 oceans4 ,! sea1 x is true1 is "o & undivid$1 ! cont95tal masses be+ great isl&s 9 x1 b1 nev]!less1 ! sea is divisible into zological prov9ces1 j z is ! l&4 ,temp]ature1 dep? ( wat]1 "* ( ! bottom1 etc41 are factors t limit ! range ( m>9e organisms1 z climate & physical b>ri]s circumscribe ! spread ( t]re/rial animals4 ,pr(essor ,p]r9 ,smi? has %[n t 9 ! ,mesozoic era ,b]+ ,/rait 0 repeat$ly op5$ & clos$1 & t ea* op5+ & clos+ 0 indicat$ by ! geographical relation%ips ( ! successive assemblages ( m>9e animals t are f\nd 9 ! ,mesozoic rocks ( ,cali=nia & ,nevada4 ,:5 ! ,/rait 0 op51 ! coa/-l9e betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,asia 0 int]rupt$ & ! ,nor? ,pacific 0 cool$ by ! influx ( wat] f ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,at su* times1 sea-animals f ! ,russian & ,sib]ian coa/s ext5d$ _! range along ! ,am]ican side z f> s\? z ,mexico1 & no =ms f ! ea/]n & s\!rn %ores ( ,asia accompani$ !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! ,/rait 0 clos$1 ! ,arctic =ms 7 %ut out & ! cont9u\s coa/-l9e & w>m] wat] enabl$ ! ,japanese1 ,indian1 & ev5 ,m$it]ranean animals to ext5d _! range to ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,a comp>ison ( ! m>9e fi%es ( ! two sides ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama %[s an am\nt & degree ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! two s]ies z might be expect$ f ! l5g? ( "t t !y h be5 sep>at$ by ! upheaval ( ! l&4 ,9 work+ out ! geographical conditions = any p>ticul> epo* ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 x is possible to g mu* f>!r ?an m]ely ga9+ an approximate e/imate ( ! di/ribution ( l& & sea2 _m o!r important facts may be ga!r$ f a m9ute exam9ation ( ! rocks 9 comb9ation ) a g5etic /udy ( topographical =ms4 ,by ?is physiographical me?od1 z x is call$1 ! hi/ory ( sev]al ( ! great m\nta9-ranges has be5 elaborat$ 9 great detail4 ,x is q practicable to give a geological date = ! initial upheaval & to det]m9e :e!r "o or _m su* s]ies ( movem5ts h be5 involv$ 9 br++ ab\t ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,simil>ly1 ! hi/ory ( pla9s & plateaus1 hills & valleys1 lake & riv] sy/ems1 may be asc]ta9$1 & = ! e>?'s lat] ages1 at lea/1 a great deal may be le>n$ reg>d+ ! successive =ms ( ! l&-surfaces 9 ! v>i\s cont95ts4 ,x w\ld be v desirable to expla9 ! me?ods by :i* ^! results are rea*$1 b ?is c\ld h>dly be done )\t writ+ a treatise on physiography1 = :i* !re is no room 9 ?is *apt]4 ,we mu/ be p]mitt$ to make use ( ! results ( t sci5ce )\t be+ call$ ^u to prove _! accuracy4 ,no factor has a m pr(\nd effect 9 det]m9+ ! "* & di/ribution ( liv+ ?+s ?an climate1 ( :i* ! mo/ important elem5ts1 = our purpose1 are temp]ature & moi/ure4 ,"o ( ! mo/ surpris+ results ( geological /udy is ! cle> pro( t almo/ all p>ts ( ! e>? h be5 subject$ to great vicissitudes ( climate1 & a brief acc\nt ( ! evid5ce :i* has l$ to ?is unlook$ = result w n be out ( place "h4 ,! evid5ce ( climatic *anges is ( two pr9cipal k9ds1 7#a7 t d]iv$ f a /udy ( ! rocks !mselves1 & 7#b7 t giv5 by ! fossils ( ! v>i\s epo*s4 ,s f> z ! rocks laid d[n 9 ! sea are conc]n$1 little has yet be5 asc]ta9$ reg>d+ ! climatic conditions ( _! =mation1 b ! /rata :i* 7 deposit$ on ! l&1 or 9 "s body ( wat] o!r ?an ! sea1 (t5 give ! mo/ positive & significant in=mation conc]n+ ! circum/ances ( climate :i* prevail$ at ! "t ( _! =mation4 ,c]ta9 deposits1 su* z gypsum & rock-salt1 are accumulat$ only 9 salt lakes1 :i*1 9 turn1 are demon/rative pro( ( an arid climate4 ,a salt lake c\ld n exi/ 9 a region ( normal ra9fall &1 f ! geographical di/ribution ( su* salt-lake deposits1 x may be %[n t arid conditions h prevail$ 9 ea* ( ! cont95ts &1 n only once1 b _m times4 ,z a rule1 su* aridity ( climate 0 relatively local 9 ext5t1 b sometimes x cov]$ va/ areas4 ,= example1 9 ! ,p]mian1 ! la/ ( ! ,palozoic1 & ! ,triassic1 ! fir/ ( ! ,mesozoic p]iods 7see ,table1 p4 #ae7 ne>ly all ! l&-areas ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e 7 affect$1 ei!r simultane\sly or 9 rapid succession4 ,until a comp>atively %ort "t ago1 x 0 v g5]ally believ$ t ! ,glacial or ,plei/oc5e epo*1 :i* 0 s rem>kable & conspicu\s a feature ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod1 0 an isolat$ ph5om5on1 unique 9 ! entire hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 x has be5 conclusively %[n t su* epo*s ( cold h be5 recurr5t & t no less ?an five ( ^! h left unmi/akable records 9 z _m widely sep>at$ p]iods ( "t4 ,:5 ! hypo!sis ( a great 8,ice ,age0 9 ! ,plei/oc5e 0 fir/ prop\nd$ by ! eld] ,agassiz1 x 0 naturally receiv$ ) g5]al incr$ulity1 b ! gradual accumulation ( pro(s has result$ 9 su* an ov]:elm+ weight ( te/imony1 t ! glacial hypo!sis is n[ accept$ z "o ( ! commonplaces ( ,geology4 ,! pro(s consi/ *iefly 9 ! *>act]i/ic glacial accumulations1 mora9es & drift-%eets1 :i* cov] su* enorm\s areas 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica &1 on a mu* small] scale1 9 ,patagonia1 & 9 ! equally *>act]i/ic m>ks ( glacial we> left ^u ! rocks ov] :i* ! ice-%eets mov$4 ,_m ye>s lat] x 0 prov$ t ! ,p]mian p]iod _h be5 a "t ( gigantic glaciation1 *iefly 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :5 va/ ice-caps mov$ sl[ly ov] p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia & ev5 ( ,india4 ,! evid5ce is ( precisely ! same nature z 9 ! case ( ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation4 ,9 n less ?an ?ree m anci5t p]iods1 ! ,devonian1 ,cambrian1 & ,algonkian1 pro(s ( glacial action h be5 obta9$4 ,:ile ! rocks !mselves ?us af=d valuable te/imony z to ! climatic conditions :i* prevail$ at ! "t & place ( _! =mation1 ?is te/imony is fragm5t>y1 miss+ = v long p]iods1 & mu/ be supplem5t$ f ! in=mation pres5t$ by ! fossils4 ,z 9 all matt]s :]e fossils are involv$1 ! evid5ce mu/ be cauti\sly us$1 = ha/y inf]5ces h (t5 l$ to contradictory & absurd conclusions4 ,:5 prop]ly employ$1 ! fossils give a m cont9u\s & complete hi/ory ( climatic *anges ?an c1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 be drawn f a /udy ( ! rocks alone4 ,= ?is purpose plants are p>ticul>ly useful1 because ! great gr\ps ( ! vegetable k+dom are m def9itely re/rict$ 9 _! range by ! conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure ?an are mo/ ( ! correspond+ly l>ge gr\ps ( animals4 ,n t fossil animals are ( no s]vice 9 ?is connection2 q ! contr>y is true1 b ! evid5ce f !m mu/ be treat$ m c>efully & critically4 ,to illu/rate ! use ( fossils z record+ climatic *anges 9 ! pa/1 "o or two examples may be giv54 ,9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod a mild & g5ial climate prevail$ ov] all t portion ( ! e>? ^: hi/ory we "k1 & 01 no d\bt1 equally ! case 9 ! areas ^: geology rema9s to be det]m9$4 ,! same conditions ext5d$ f> into ! ,arctic regions1 & abundant rema9s ( a w>m-temp]ate vegetation h be5 f\nd 9 ,gre5l&1 ,alaska & o!r ,arctic l&s4 ,:]e n[ only scanty & m9ute dw>f will[s & bir*es c exi/1 0 !n a luxuriant =e/ gr[? compris+ almo/ all ( ! famili> trees ( our own latitudes1 a mo/ decisive pro( t 9 ! ,cretace\s ! climate ( ! ,arctic regions mu/ h be5 mu* w>m] ?an at pres5t & t !re c h be5 no great accumulation ( ice 9 ! ,pol> seas4 ,conditions ( simil> mildness obta9$ ?r\gh ! e>li] "p ( ! ,t]ti>y4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e epo* l>ge palm-trees 7 gr[+ 9 ,wyom+ & ,idaho1 :ile great crocodiles & o!r w>m-c\ntry reptiles ab\nd$ 9 ! wat]s ( ! same region4 ,x is ( p>ticul> int]e/ to inquire h[ f> ! fossils ( ,glacial times confirm ! inf]5ces z to a great climatic *ange :i* are d]iv$ f a /udy ( ! rocks1 = ?is may be tak5 z a te/-case4 ,any m>k$ discrepancy betwe5 ! two w\ld necess>ily ca/ grave d\bt ^u ! value ( ! te/imony ( fossils z to climatic conditions4 ,! problem is "o ( great complexity1 = ! ,plei/oc5e 0 n "o long epo* ( unbrok5 cold1 b 0 made up ( ,glacial & ,int]glacial ages1 alt]nations ( cold] & mild] conditions1 & "s1 at lea/1 ( ! ,int]glacial ages _h a climate w>m] ?an t ( mod]n times4 ,su* great *anges ( temp]ature l$ to repeat$ migrations ( ! mammals1 :i* 7 driv5 s\?w>d be=e ! advanc+ ice-%eets & return$ aga9 :5 ! glaci]s )drew "u ! influ5ce ( ameliorat+ climates4 ,any adequate discussion ( ^! complex conditions is q out ( ! "q 9 ?is place & ! facts mu/ be /at$ 9 simplifi$ =m1 z deal+ only ) ! times ( l[]$ temp]ature & encroa*+ glaci]s4 ,! plants l>gely fail u "h1 = little is kn[n ( ,glacial vegetation1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 a great abundance ( ! fossil rema9s ( animal life ( t date has be5 collect$1 & its te/imony is q 9 h>mony ) t af=d$ by ! ice-m>k+s & ! ice-made deposits4 ,arctic %ells 9 ! m>9e deposits ( ,engl&1 ! valley ( ! ,ottawa ,riv] & ( ,lake ,*ampla91 ,walruses on ! coa/ ( ,new ,j]sey1 ,re9de] 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 & ,c>ib\ 9 s\!rn ,new ,engl&1 ,musk-ox5 9 ,k5tucky & ,arkansas1 are only a few examples ( ! copi\s evid5ce t ! climate ( ! regions nam$ 9 ,glacial times 0 f> cold] ?an x is to-day4 ,i h ?us endeavor$ to sket*1 necess>ily 9 v meagre outl9es1 ! nature ( ! me?ods employ$ to recon/ruct ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! v>i\s cont95ts & ! "* ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* we mu/ dep5d4 ,%\ld ! read] be unconv9c$ & rema9 sceptical z to ! possibility ( any su* recon/ruction1 he mu/ be ref]r$ to ! num]\s manuals ( ,geology1 9 :i* ^! me?ods are set =? ) a fulness :i* _c be imitat$ )9 ! limits ( a s+le *apt]4 ,! me?ods are s\nd1 consi/+ z !y d m]ely 9 ! application ( 8sy/ematiz$ common s5se0 79 ,huxley's phrase7 to obs]v$ facts1 b by no means all applications ( !m are to be tru/$4 ,n to m5tion ill-consid]$ & uncritical "w1 or inv]t$ pyramids ( hypo!sis balanc$ ^u a t9y po9t ( fact1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t su* a complicat$ & difficult problem z ! recon/ruction ( pa/ conditions c be solv$ only by successive approximations to ! tru?1 ea* "o p>tial & incomplete1 b less s ?an ! "o :i* prec$$ x4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,me?ods ,,( ,,inve/igation--,,pal,,ontological ,palontology is ! sci5ce ( anci5t life1 animal & vegetable1 ! ,zology & ,botany ( ! pa/1 & deals ) fossils4 ,fossils are ! recognizable rema9s or traces ( animals or plants1 :i* 7 buri$ 9 ! rocks at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ^? rocks4 ,9 a geological s5se1 ! t]m rock includes loose & uncompact$ mat]ials1 su* z s& & gravel1 z well z solid /one4 ,grant+ ! possibility ( s det]m9+ ! relative dates ( =mation ( ! rocks1 t ! ord] ( succession ( ! fossils 9 "t may be asc]ta9$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! "q rema9s3 ,:at use1 o!r ?an geological1 c be made ( ! fossils8 ,9 deal+ ) ?is "q1 att5tion w be direct$ almo/ exclusively to ! mammals1 ! gr\p ) :i* ?is book is conc]n$4 ,z a prelim9>y to ! discussion1 some?+ %\ld be said ( ! ways 9 :i* mammals became entomb$ 9 ! rocks 9 :i* we f9d !m4 ,9 ?is connection x %\ld be rememb]$ t1 h[ev] firm & solid ^? rocks may be n[1 !y 7 orig9ally lay]s ( loose & uncompact$ mat]ial1 deposit$ by w9d or wat]1 & t ea* lay] =m$ 9 its turn ! surface ( ! e>?1 until buri$ by fre% accumulations ^u x1 x may be to enorm\s dep?s4 ,"o me?od ( ! entomb+ ( l&-mammals1 :i* has frequ5tly be5 ( great importance1 is burial 9 volcanic du/ & s-call$ a%1 :i* has be5 compact$ into firm rock4 ,dur+ a great volcanic eruption enorm\s quantities ( su* f9ely divid$ mat]ial are eject$ f ! crat] & are spread out ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 x may be = di/ances ( hundr$s ( miles4 ,?us w be buri$ ! scatt]$ bones1 skeletons1 c>casses1 t happ5 to be ly+ on ! surface2 & if ! f9e fragm5ts are fall+ rapidly1 _m animals w be buri$ alive & _! skeletons pres]v$ intact4 ,a mod]n in/ance ( ?is is giv5 by ! num]\s skeletons ( m5 & dome/ic animals buri$ 9 ! volcanic a% :i* ov]:elm$ ,pompeii 9 #gi ,a4,d4 ,pl9y ! ,y\ng]1 :o witness$ t fir/ record$ eruption ( ,vesuvius1 tells u 9 a lett] writt5 to ,tacitus1 t f> away at ,mis5um1 we/ ( ,naples1 x 0 (t5 necess>y to rise & %ake (f ! fall+ a%es1 = fe> ( be+ buri$ 9 !m4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz =mation ( ,patagonia 7see p4 #abd71 :i* has yield$ su* a wond]ful numb] & v>iety ( well-pres]v$ fossils1 ! bones are all f\nd 9 volcanic du/ & a% compact$ into a rock1 :i* is usually q s(t1 b may become locally v h>d4 ,! ,bridg] =mation ( ,wyom+ 7p4 #aaj7 & ! ,john ,day ( ea/]n ,oregon 7p4 #aaf7 are pr9cipally made up ( volcanic deposits2 & no d\bt !re are sev]al o!rs among ! ,t]ti>y /ages :i* 7 =m$ 9 ! same way1 b h n yet receiv$ ! microscopic /udy necess>y to det]m9e ?is4 ,mu* in=mation conc]n+ ! mammalian life ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 m especially 9 ,europe & 9 ,brazil 7p4 #baa71 has be5 d]iv$ f ! exploration ( cav]ns4 ,"s ( ^! caves 7 ! d5s ( c>nivor\s bea/s & conta9 multitudes ( ! bones ( _! victims1 z well z ^? ( ! de/roy]s !mselves4 ,o!rs1 su* z ! ,port ,k5n$y ,cave1 on ! ,s*uylkill ,riv] above ,philadelphia1 ! ,frank/[n ,cave 9 c5tral ,p5nsylvania1 ! ,con>d ,fissure 9 ,arkansas1 are h>dly cav]ns 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w1 b r n>r[ fissures1 into :i* bones & c>casses 7 wa%$ by floods1 or liv+ animals fell f above & di$ )\t be+ able to escape4 ,! bones are mo/ly buri$ 9 ! e>? :i* p>tially or completely fills _m cav]ns & may be cov]$ by a lay] ( /alagmite1 d]iv$ f ! solution & re-deposition ( ! lime/one ( ! cav]n-walls1 by ! ag5cy ( p]colat+ wat]s4 ,a mode ( pres]vation :i* is un=tunately r>e is exemplifi$ by ! asphaltic deposits ne> ,los ,angeles1 at ,ran*o ,la ,brea1 :i* h be5 v fully describ$ by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,c4 ,m]riam ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,! asphalt has be5 =m$ by ! oxidation & solidification ( petroleum1 :i* has ris5 up ?r\gh ! ,plei/oc5e rocks f ! oil-be>+ %ales bel[4 ,at "o /age 9 ! conv]sion ( petroleum into asphalt1 t>-pools ( extremely viscid & adhesive "* 71 & /ill are1 =m$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd2 & ^! pools 7 v]itable traps = mammals & birds & = ! bea/s & birds ( prey :i* came to dev\r ! /ruggl+ victims4 8,! mann] 9 :i* t> or asphalt pools may cat* unsuspect+ animals ( all k9ds is abundantly illu/rat$ at ! pres5t "t 9 _m places 9 ,cali=nia1 b n[h]e m /rik+ly ?an at ,ran*o ,la ,brea itself1 :]e animals ( _m k9ds h frequ5tly be5 s firmly entrapp$ t !y di$ be=e be+ discov]$1 or if f\nd alive 7 extricat$ only ) ! greate/ difficulty4 ,z se5 at ?is locality1 ! t> issu+ f spr+s or seepages is an exce$+ly /icky1 t5aci\s sub/ance :i* is remov$ only ) ! greate/ difficulty f ! body ( any animal ) :i* x may come 9 contact4 ,small mammals1 birds1 or insects runn+ into ! s(t t> are v quickly r5d]$ helpless by ! gummy mass1 :i* b9ds _! feet1 & 9 _! /ruggles soon rea*es e "p ( ! body4 ,ar\nd ! bord]s ( ! pools ! t> sl[ly h>d5s by ! evaporation ( ! light] con/itu5ts until x becomes z solid z an asphalt pavem5t4 ,betwe5 ! h>d & s(t portions ( ! mass !re is a v indef9ite b\nd>y1 ! location ( :i* c (t5 be det]m9$ only by exp]im5t1 & l>ge mammals 9 _m cases run into v t5aci\s mat]ial 9 ?is int]m$iate zone1 f :i* !y are unable to extricate !mselves40 ,! =ego+ acc\nt ref]s to :at may actually be obs]v$ at ! pres5t "t2 9 reg>d to ! ,plei/oc5e1 ,pr(essor ,m]riam says3 8,9 ! natural accumulation ( rema9s at ! t> pools ?r\gh accid5tal entangl+ ( animals ( all k9ds1 x is to be presum$ t a relatively l>ge p]c5tage ( ! individuals entomb$ w\ld consi/ ( "y animals ) insuffici5t exp]i5ce to keep !m away f ! mo/ dang]\s places1 or ) insuffici5t /r5g? to extricate !mselves4 ,!re w\ld also be a relatively l>ge p]c5tage ( old1 diseas$1 or maim$ individuals t lack$ /r5g? to escape :5 once entangl$4 ,9 ! c5sus ( rema9s t h be5 obta9$ up to ! pres5t "t ! p]c5tages ( q "y1 diseas$1 maim$1 & v old individuals are c]ta9ly exceptionally l>ge4444 ,9 addition to ! natural accumulation ( animal rema9s ?r\gh ! entangl+ ( creatures ( all k9ds by accid5tal enc\nt]+ ( ! t>1 x is app>5t f a /udy ( ! collections obta9$ t "s extraord9>y influ5ce mu/ h br\ght c>nivor\s animals ( all k9ds into contact ) ! asphalt ) relatively great] frequ5cy ?an o!r k9ds ( animals4 ,9 all ! collections t h be5 exam9$ ! numb] ( c>nivor\s mammals & birds repres5t$ is mu* great] ?an t ( ! o!r gr\ps4444 ,:5ev] an animal ( any k9d is caught 9 ! t>1 its /ruggles & cries naturally attract ! att5tion ( c>nivor\s mammals & birds 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity1 & ! trapp$ creature acts z a mo/ effici5t lure to br+ ^! pr$ace\s animals into ! s(t t> ) x4 ,x is n improbable t a s+le small bird or mammal /ruggl+ 9 ! t> might be ! means ( entrapp+ sev]al c>nivores1 :i* 9 turn w\ld naturally s]ve to attract /ill o!rs4444 ,9 ! fir/ excavations c>ri$ on by ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia a b$ ( bones 0 enc\nt]$ 9 :i* ! numb] ( sab]-too? & wolf skulls toge!r av]ag$ tw5ty p] cubic y>d40#a ,z ! animals 7 ?us entomb$ alive1 x w\ld be expect$ t a l>ge numb] ( complete skeletons w\ld be pres]v$1 b ?is is n ! case3 8connect$ skeletons are n common40 ,?is scatt]+ & m+l+ ( ! bones 7 due p>tly to ! trampl+ ( ! heavi] animals 9 _! /ruggles to escape1 b1 9 m important degree1 to ! movem5ts )9 ! t> & asphalt4 ,9 arid & semi-arid regions great quantities ( s& & du/ are transport$ by ! w9d & deposit$ :]e ! w9ds fail1 or :]e vegetation entangles & holds ! du/4 ,any bones1 skeletons or c>casses :i* are ly+ on ! surface w ?us be buri$1 & ev5 liv+ animals may be suffocat$ & buri$ by ! cl\ds ( du/4 ,an example ( su* w9d-made accumulations is ! ,%]idan =mation 7,equus ,b$s1 see p4 #aca71 :i* cov]s va/ areas ( ! ,great ,pla9s f ,nebraska to ,mexico & conta9s innum]able bones1 especially ( horses4 ,9 ?is =mation 9 nor?we/]n ,kansas1 ,pr(essor ,willi/on f\nd n9e skeletons ( ! l>ge pecc>y 7,platygonus leptorh9us71 ly+ huddl$ toge!r1 ) _! heads all po9t+ 9 ! same direction1 & 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e 7p4 #aba7 ( ,s\? ,dakota ,mr4 ,gidley discov]$ six skeletons ( ?ree-to$ horses 7,neohipp>ion :itneyi7 cr[d$ toge!r1 kill$ & buri$ probably by a s&/orm4 ,simil> illu/rations might be ga!r$ f _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,swamps & bogs may1 especially "u c]ta9 conditions1 become ! burial places ( great numb]s ( animals1 :i* v5ture into !m1 become buri$ & are unable to extricate !mselves4 ,especially is ?is true 9 times ( great dr\ght1 :5 animals are n only craz$ ) ?ir/1 b v mu* weak5$ z well1 & s unable to climb out ( ! cl++ mud4 ,9 an (t-quot$ passage1 ,d>w9 gives a vivid description ( ! effects ( a long dr\ght 9 ,arg5t9a betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbg & #ahcj4 8,dur+ ?is "t s little ra9 fell1 t ! vegetation1 ev5 to ! ?i/les1 fail$2 ! brooks 7 dri$ up1 & ! :ole c\ntry assum$ ! appe>ance ( a du/y high road40 8,i 0 in=m$ by an eyewitness t ! cattle 9 h]ds ( ?\s&s ru%$ into ! ,p>an1 & be+ exhau/$ by hung] !y 7 unable to crawl up ! muddy banks1 & ?us 7 dr[n$4 ,! arm ( ! riv] :i* runs by ,san ,p$ro 0 s full ( putrid c>casses1 t ! ma/] ( a vessel told me t ! smell r5d]$ x q impassable4 ,)\t d\bt sev]al hundr$ ?\s& animals ?us p]i%$ 9 ! riv]2 _! bodies :5 putrid 7 se5 float+ d[n ! /ream2 & _m 9 all probability 7 deposit$ 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata4 ,all ! small riv]s became highly sal9e1 & ?is caus$ ! dea? ( va/ numb]s 9 p>ticul> spots2 = :5 an animal dr9ks ( su* wat] x does n recov]4 ,az>a describes ! fury ( ! wild horses on a simil> occasion1 ru%+ into ! m>%es1 ^? :i* arriv$ fir/ be+ ov]:elm$ & cru%$ by ^? :i* foll[$4 ,he adds t m ?an once he has se5 ! c>casses ( upw>ds ( a ?\s& wild horses ?us de/roy$4444 ,subsequ5tly to ! dr\ght ( #ahbg to #ahcb1 a v ra9y season foll[$1 :i* caus$ great floods4 ,h5ce x is almo/ c]ta9 t "s ?\s&s ( ! skeletons 7 buri$ by ! deposits ( ! v next ye>40#b ,9 ! arid & desolate regions ( ! int]ior ( ,s\? ,au/ralia is a s]ies ( imm5se dry lakes1 :i* only occasionally conta9 wat] & ord9>ily 8are %all[1 mud-bottom$ or salt-encru/$ claypans only40 ,"o ( ^!1 ,lake ,callabonna1 is ( great int]e/ z hav+ pres]v$ 9 its s(t mud _m rema9s ( anci5t life1 ( creatures :i* 7 mir$ 9 ! clay & de/roy$1 z has be5 describ$ by ,dr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,/irl+4 8,!re is1 h[ev]1 comp5sation = ! unpromis+ physical features ( ,lake ,callabonna 9 ! fact t its b$ proves to be a v]itable necropolis ( gigantic ext9ct m>supials & birds :i* h app>5tly di$ :]e !y lie1 lit]ally1 9 hundr$s4 ,! facts t ! bones ( individuals are (t5 unbrok51 close toge!r1 &1 frequ5tly1 9 _! prop] relative positions1 ! attitude ( _m ( ! bodies & ! "* ( ! matrix 9 :i* !y are emb$d$1 negative any !ory t !y h be5 c>ri$ ?i!r by floods4 ,! probability is1 r1 t !y met _! dea?s by be+ entomb$ 9 ! ef=t to rea* food or wat]1 j z ev5 n[ happ5s 9 dry seasons1 to hundr$s ( cattle :i*1 exhau/$ by ?ir/ & />vation1 are unable to extricate !mselves f ! boggy places t !y h ent]$ 9 pursuit ei!r ( wat] or ( ! little gre5 h]bage due to its pres5ce4 ,! accumulation ( s _m bodies 9 "o locality po9ts to ! fact ( _! assemblage ar\nd "o ( ! la/ rema9+ oases 9 ! region ( desiccation :i* succe$$ an antec$5t condition ( pl5te\s ra9s & abundant wat]s40 ,x is a v g5]al exp]i5ce 9 collect+ fossil mammals to f9d t !y are n ev5ly or uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! b$s1 b r occur 9 8pockets10 :]e great numb]s ( individuals are cr[d$ toge!r1 :ile betwe5 ! 8pockets0 are long /ret*es ( b>r5 gr\nd4 ,x is equally common to f9d ! bones ?ickly di/ribut$ 9 c]ta9 lay]s1 or b$s1 & ! lay]s above & bel[ entirely want+ 9 fossils4 ,! reasons = ?is mode ( occurr5ce h be5 p>tially expla9$ 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs1 b ! reason diff]s = ea* p>ticul> mode ( entombm5t4 ,! important "p play$ by dr\ght 9 caus+ su* accumulation ( closely cr[d$ bodies 9 swamps & mud-holes is indicat$ 9 ! quotations f ,d>w9 & ,/irl+2 b simil> accumulations may take place on h>d gr\nd1 z 0 obs]v$ 9 c5tral ,africa by ,gregory4 8,"h & !re ar\nd a wat] hole we f\nd acres ( gr\nd :ite ) ! bones ( rh9oc]oses & zebra1 gazelle & antelope1 jackal & hy5a4444 ,^! animals _h cr[d$ ar\nd ! dw9dl+ pools & f\ght = ! la/ drops ( wat]40#c ,ev5 9 normal seasons spr+s & wat] holes & ! dr9k+ places 9 /reams are ! lurk+ places ( bea/s ( prey & crocodiles1 s t great accumulations ( bones are made ar\nd ^! spots4 ,a succession ( unusually sev]e w9t]s frequ5tly leads to great mortality among mammals1 z happ5$ 9 ,patagonia 9 ! w9t] ( #ahii1 :5 enorm\s numb]s ( ,guanaco p]i%$ ( />vation on ! %ore ( ,lake ,arg5t9e1 :]e !y came to dr9k4 ,bones :i* are expos$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd decay & crumble to pieces 9 ! c\rse ( a v few ye>s2 & if !y are to be pres]v$ z fossils1 x is necess>y t !y %\ld be buri$ "u s$im5t>y or volcanic deposits4 ,sev]al su* modes ( burial h be5 describ$ 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs1 b !re are o!r & equally important me?ods1 :i* rema9 to be consid]$4 ,! deposits made by riv]s are (t5 extremely ri* 9 fossils1 & mo/ ( ! ,t]ti>y =mations ( ! ,great ,pla9s are n[ ascrib$ to ! ag5cy ( riv]s4 ,! flood-pla9 ( a /ream1 or t "p ( its bas9 :i* is p]iodically ov]fl[$1 is gradually built up by ! lay]s ( clay & silt ?r[n d[n by ! relatively /ill wat]s ( ! flood$ area1 & scatt]$ bones1 skeletons or c>casses t may h be5 ly+ on ! gr\nd be=e ! fre%et are buri$ 9 ! deposits4 ,bones cov]$ up 9 ?is mann] frequ5tly %[ ! m>ks ( tee? ( rod5ts or c>nivores :i* h gnaw$ !m :5 ly+ expos$4 ,deposits made 9 ! /ream-*annels1 :]e ! curr5t 0 swifte/1 are ( co>s] mat]ials su* z gravel & s&1 & ^! (t5 conta9 ! skeletons ( animals :i* 7 dr[n$ & swept d[nw>d by ! flood$ /ream4 ,:5 ! ,bison 7! mi/ak5ly s-call$ ,buffalo7 /ill roam$ 9 c\ntless h]ds ov] ! we/]n pla9s1 imm5se numb]s ( !m 7 dr[n$ 9 ! upp] ,miss\ri ,riv] by break+ ?r\gh ! ice1 :5 !y attempt$ to cross at times :5 ! ice _h n atta9$ its w9t] ?ickness1 or 0 weak5$ by melt+ 9 ! spr+4 ,no d\bt1 ! b$ ( t riv] conta9s innum]able bones ( ! ,bison4 ,frequ5tly1 too1 animals are caught 9 quicks&s &1 unable to escape1 are buri$ 9 ! s(t mass2 fossil skeletons :i* are pres]v$ 9 s&/ones 9 an erect or /&+ position are usually to be int]pret$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! s$im5t>y accumulations =m$ 9 lakes & ponds sometimes yield fossil bones or skeletons 9 consid]able numb]s1 :i* h1 = ! mo/ "p1 be5 d]iv$ f ! c>casses ( animals c>ri$ into ! lake by /reams4 ,a newly dr[n$ mammal s9ks to ! bottom &1 if suffici5t s$im5t be quickly deposit$ ^u x1 x may be an*or$ !re & fossiliz$ z a complete skeleton4 ,o!rwise1 :5 di/5d$ by ! gases ( putrefaction1 ! body w rise & float on ! surface1 :]e x w be attack$ & pull$ ab\t by crocodiles1 fi%es & o!r pr$ace\s creatures4 ,z ! bones are loos5$ 9 ! c\rse ( decomposition1 !y w drop to ! bottom & be scatt]$1 n[ "h1 n[ !re1 ov] a wide area4 ,l& mammals are r>ely f\nd 9 m>9e rocks1 or su* deposits z 7 made on ! sea-bottom2 b ! rema9s ( m>9e mammals1 :ales1 porpoises1 dolph9s1 seals1 etc4 are (t5 f\nd 9 l>ge numb]s4 ,9 pr9ciple1 ! me?od ( entombm5t is ! same z 9 ! case ( lakes1 b curr5ts may drift to "s bay or cove multitudes ( c>casses ( ^! m>9e mammals4 ,at ,antw]p1 9 ,belgium1 incr$ible quantities ( su* rema9s h be5 expos$ 9 excavations & 9 all probability 7 drift$ by curr5ts into a quiet & %all[ bay1 :i* 0 subsequ5tly conv]t$ into l&4 ,:ile ! =ego+ acc\nt by no means exhau/s ! v>i\s me?ods ( accumulation & burial ( ! skeletons & scatt]$ bones ( mammals1 x cov]s ! m important ( ^! me?ods suffici5tly = a g5]al und]/&+ ( ! diff]5t processes4 ,9 :atev] mann] ! pres]vation may h be5 effect$1 !re is great diff]5ce 9 ! relative abundance & complet5ess among ! fossils ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( mammals :i* 7 liv+ at ! same "t & 9 ! same area4 ,x ne$ h>dly be said1 t ! m abundant any species 01 ! bett] 0 ! *ance ( its be+ repres5t$ among ! fossils2 h5ce1 greg>i\s species1 liv+ 9 l>ge h]ds1 7 m likely to be pres]v$ ?an ^? :i* l$ a solit>y exi/5ce1 or 7 individually r>e4 ,mo/ ( ! ho($ mammals are & app>5tly always h be5 greg>i\s1 & are !re=e mu* bett] repres5t$ among ! fossils1 & are1 9 consequ5ce1 bett] kn[n ?an ! bea/s ( prey1 :i*1 ( necessity1 7 individually less num]\s & g5]ally solit>y 9 habits4 ,n only ?is1 b l>ge & m$ium-siz$ mammals1 ) /rong & heavy bones1 7 bett] fitt$ to )/& ! accid5ts ( entombm5t & subsequ5t pres]vation ?an small creatures ) delicate & fragile skeletons4 ,! m]e dead weight ( ov]-ly+ s$im5ts (t5 cru%es & di/orts ! bones1 & ! movem5ts ( uplift1 compression1 fold+ & fracture1 to :i* s _m /rata h be5 subject$1 did /ill fur!r damage to ! fossils4 ,! p]colat+ wat]s1 :i* = ages h trav]s$ ! por\s rocks1 (t5 attack & dissolve ! bones1 completely de/roy+ ! m9ute ones & greatly injur+ ^? :i* are massive & /rong4 ,9 consequ5ce ( all ^? accid5ts x frequ5tly happ5s t only ! tee?1 ! h>de/ & mo/ resi/ant ( animal /ructures1 & x may be ! d5se & solid jaw-bones1 are all t rema9 to te/ify ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( "s creature t long ago vani%$ f ! e>?4 ,v _m fossil mammals are kn[n exclusively f ! tee?1 & x is ?is fact :i* makes ! exact /udy ( tee? s peculi>ly important to ! palontologi/4 ,9 view ( all ^! facts1 x is n surpris+ t conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( _m mammalian gr\ps we h b scanty in=mation1 or none at all1 :ile 9 ! case ( o!rs ! /ory is wond]fully full & detail$4 ,! latt] are1 v g5]ally1 ! gr\ps :i* 7 n only num]ically abundant at all /ages ( _! hi/ory1 b also _h skeletons t 7 /rong en\gh to resi/ de/ruction2 :ile ! gr\ps z to :i* !re is little or no in=mation are *iefly ( small & fragile animals1 or su* z 7 always r>e4 ,= example1 a great deal has be5 le>n$ reg>d+ ! developm5t ( horses & rh9oc]oses 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ! hi/ory ( ! tapirs is v unsatisfactorily kn[n1 because1 :ile horses & rh9oc]oses 7 common1 tapirs 7 solit>y & r>e4 ,9 ,europe bats h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,eoc5e1 ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e1 & !re is no reason to suppose t !y 7 n equally anci5t & equally abundant 9 ,am]ica2 b none h be5 f\nd 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e 9 any =mation old] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,all ?+s consid]$1 ! extraord9>y fact is1 n t s _m =ms h irretrievably p]i%$1 b t s mu* has be5 pres]v$1 escap+ all ! *ances ( de/ruction4 ,z to ! degree ( pres]vation 9 fossil mammals1 we h to d almo/ entirely ) bones & tee?4 ,) v r>e exceptions1 & ^? all ( late geological date1 ! visc]a1 muscles1 sk91 hair1 horns1 ho(s & claws h be5 completely de/roy$ & h vani%$ )\t leav+ a trace4 ,9 nor!rn ,sib]ia ! gravel soil is p]man5tly froz5 to a dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet & conta9s ! intact c>casses ( elephants & rh9oc]oses ( ,plei/oc5e date & notably diff]5t f any species ( ^! animals n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,sometimes su* a c>cass is dis9t]r$ f a bluff by ! cutt+ action ( a /ream & is 9 a /ate ( ne>ly complete pres]vation1 ) hide1 hair & fle% almo/ z 9 an animal fre%ly kill$4 ,f ^! rema9s x has be5 le>n$ t ! ,mammo? 0 an elephant d5sely cov]$ ) hair & wool1 j z he 0 depict$ 9 ! c>v+s & cave-pa9t+s ( ,plei/oc5e ,man 9 ,europe1 :]e ,mammo? bones h be5 abundantly f\nd1 & also t !re 7 ,sib]ian rh9oc]oses simil>ly protect$ aga9/ ! cold4 ,mammo? rema9s ) hide & fle%1 b mu* less complete1 h likewise be5 f\nd 9 ,alaska4 ,9 a cav]n 9 s\!rn ,patagonia an exp$ition f ! ,la ,plata ,museum discov]$1 ) ! rema9s ( a gigantic1 ext9ct gr\nd-slo?1 l>ge pieces ( ! sk9 /ill cov]$ ) hair & af=d+ mo/ welcome in=mation z to ! col\ration ( ^! mo/ curi\s animals4 ,! sk9 _h be5 pres]v$ f decay by deep burial 9 dry du/4 ,mummies ( ,plei/oc5e rod5ts h be5 f\nd 9 ! dry caves ( ,portugal1 :]eas 9 ! ord9>y caves :i* are damp or wet1 only bones are pres]v$4 ,un=tunately1 z has be5 said1 su* in/ances ( complete pres]vation are v r>e1 & none are kn[n ( mammals m anci5t ?an ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e epo*4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t ! high] ! geological antiquity ( a skeleton is1 ! great] is ! *emical alt]ation :i* x has und]gone4 ,bones ( ,plei/oc5e or lat] date h1 z a rule1 suff]$ little *ange beyond ! loss ( m or less ( _! animal matt]1 ! am\nt ( su* loss dep5d+ *iefly ^u exposure to ! air4 ,bones :i*1 = ?\s&s or t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 h be5 buri$ 9 d5se cave-e>?1 9 an antiseptic peat-bog1 or 9 asphalt1 are (t5 p]fectly s\nd & fre% :5 tak5 up4 ,skeletons ( ! antec$5t 7,t]ti>y7 p]iod are1 on ! o!r h&1 v frequ5tly petrifi$2 t is to say1 ! orig9al sub/ance ( ! bones has be5 completely remov$ & replac$ by "s /ony mat]ial1 mo/ commonly lime or fl9t4 ,?is sub/itution took place v gradually1 molecule by molecule1 s t n only is ! =m ( ! bone or too? mo/ accurately reproduc$1 b ! int]nal1 microscopic /ructure is p]fectly reta9$ & may be /udi$ to z great advantage z 9 ! case ( mod]n animals4 ,:ile1 save 9 ! r>e/ in/ances1 only ! h>d p>ts ( fossil mammals rema9 to te/ify ( _! /ructure1 v important in=mation z to ! size1 =m & ext]nal "* ( ! bra9 may be secur$ f 8bra9-ca/s10 :i* may be natural or artificial4 ,! pressure ( ! mud1 s& or o!r mat]ial1 9 :i* ! fossil 0 emb$d$1 fill$ up all op5+s 9 ! skeleton &1 z ! bra9 decay$ & disappe>$1 its place 0 tak5 by ?is mat]ial1 :i* subsequ5tly h>d5$ & solidifi$ & q accurately reproduces ! ext]nal =m & "* ( ! bra94 ,:5 a fossil skull is expos$ & %att]$ by wea!r+1 ! natural bra9-ca/ (t5 rema9s intact1 & a great _m su* specim5s are 9 ! collections4 ,an artificial ca/ is made by saw+ op5 ! cranial cavity1 clean+ out ! /ony matrix :i* fills x & !n p\r+ liquid gelat9e or pla/] ( ,p>is into ! cavity4 ,^! artificial ca/s are (t5 q z satisfactory z ! natural ones4 ,z has be5 %[n above1 ! hi/ory ( ! mammals is record$1 save 9 a v few in/ances1 9 t]ms ( bones & tee? &1 to ! un9itiat$1 x might well seem t little c\ld be accompli%$ ) su* mat]ials4 ,h[ev]1 x is ! task1 & ! p]fectly feasible task1 ( palontology to make ^! dry bones live4 ,x is a curr5t & exce$+ly mis*iev\s notion t ! palontologi/ c recon/ruct a vani%$ animal f a s+le bone or too? &1 9 spite ( repeat$ slay+s1 ?is delusion /ill fl\ri%es & meets "o 9 mod]n lit]ature at e turn4 ,no d\bt1 mu* ( ! scepticism ) :i* attempts to re/ore ext9ct animals are met by _m intellig5t p is traceable to ! widespread belief t su* (f-h& & easy-go+ me?ods are us$ 9 ! "w4 ,s f> f be+ able to make a tru/wor?y recon/ruction f a few scatt]$ bones1 compet5t palontologi/s h be5 sometimes l$ completely a/ray 9 associat+ ! sep>at$ p>ts ( ! same skeleton4 ,m ?an once x has happ5$ t ! dissociat$ skull & feet ( "o & ! same animal h be5 assign$ to entirely diff]5t gr\ps1 j because no "o c\ld h v5tur$1 9 advance ( exp]i5ce1 to suppose t su* a skull & tee? c\ld belong to a creature ) su* feet4 ,9 all ^! cases 7& !y are few7 ! error has be5 f9ally correct$ by ! discov]y ( ! skeleton ) all its ess5tial p>ts 9 _! natural connection4 ,:ile ! numb] ( complete skeletons ( ,t]ti>y mammals z yet collect$ is comp>atively small1 x is (t5 possible to con/ruct a ne>ly complete specim5 f sev]al imp]fect ones1 all ( :i* c be positively %[n to belong to ! same species4 ,su* composite skeletons are almo/ z useful z ^? 9 :i* all ! p>ts p]ta9 to a s+le individual1 ?\gh 9 mak+ ! draw+s x is n easy to avoid slight errors ( proportion4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t no successful re/oration ( miss+ bones is practicable2 on ! contr>y1 ?is c (t5 be done v easily1 b only :5 all ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! skeleton are kn[n4 ,ev5 if an unlimit$ numb] ( p]fect skeletons 7 available1 ( :at use w\ld !y be8 ,a skeleton is a v diff]5t look+ object f a liv+ animal1 & h[ is x possible to inf] ! latt] f ! =m]8 ,d ! _m re/orations ( ext9ct mammals :i* ?is book owes to ! skill ( ,mr4 ,horsfall & ,mr4 ,knight des]ve any o!r consid]ation ?an t due to pleas+1 graceful or grotesque fancies1 ) no f\ndation ( solid fact8 ,to answ] ^! que/ions1 x is necess>y fir/ to consid] ! relations ( ! bony /ructure to ! entire organism & !n to discuss ! pr9ciples 9 accordance ) :i* ! re/orations h be5 made4 ,! skeleton is f> f be+ m]ely ! me*anical frame-"w ( ! animal4 ,su* a frame-"w x is1 ( c\rse1 b x is mu* m ?an t2 x is ! liv+ & gr[+ expression ( ! entire organism & is modifi$1 n only by age1 b by ! conditions ( ! environm5t & accid5tal circum/ances z well4 ,! bones ( ! same individual diff] v mat]ially 9 e>ly y\?1 maturity & old age2 s long z ! animal lives1 its bones are p]petually *ang+1 sl[ly x is true1 b ) ready response to ne$s4 ,n only t1 b dislocat$ bones may & frequ5tly d develop entirely new jo9ts1 & _! int]nal /ructure is remodell$ to meet ! requirem5ts ( /resses diff]+ 9 "* or direction f ^? ( normal1 un9jur$ bones4 ,! g5]al =m & proportions ( any mammal are det]m9$ *iefly by its muscul> sy/em & ?is may be directly & confid5tly inf]r$ f its skeleton1 = ! muscles :i* are ( importance 9 ?is connection are atta*$ to ! bones & leave _! indelible & unmi/akable m>k ^u !m4 ,9 any good text-book ( anatomy ?is extremely intimate relation ( bone & muscle is made cle>2 & x is %[n h[ ea* atta*m5t ( muscle1 t5don & ligam5t is pla9ly indicat$ by r\gh l9es1 ridges1 projections or depressions1 :i* speak a language intelligible en\gh to ^? :o h le>n$ to int]pret x4 ,giv5 ! skeleton1 x is no v difficult task to recon/ruct ! muscul> sy/em 9 suffici5t detail4 ,fur!r1 ! tee? af=d valuable in=mation z to ! food1 habits & appe>ance ( ! animal1 = ! bulk ( ! visc]a1 a significant elem5t 9 ! g5]al =m1 is pr9cipally condition$ by ! "* ( ! diet4 ,bea/s ( prey1 :i* live by cat*+ & dev\r+ o!r animals1 h a c]ta9 lik5ess to "o ano!r1 ev5 ?\gh !y are 9 no wise relat$1 except z all mammals are4 ,! ,?ylac9e1 or s-call$ 8,tasmanian ,wolf0 7,?ylacynus cynocephalus71 a m>supial & relat$ to ! opossums1 is deceptively l ! true wolves 9 appe>ance1 al?\gh belong+ to an ord] 7,m>supialia7 almo/ z widely sep>at$ f t to :i* ! wolves belong 7,c>nivora7 z two mammalian gr\ps well c be4 ,?is resemblance is z cle>ly indicat$ by ! skeletons z by ! liv+ animals !mselves1 ?\gh ! fundam5tal diff]5ces ( /ructure :i* di/+ui% ! m>supial f ! c>nivore are no less cle>ly display$4 ,l>ge h]bivor\s mammals too1 ?\gh ref]able to v diff]5t ord]s1 be> a /rong resemblance to "o ano!r1 ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ces1 s f> z ! liv+ animal is conc]n$1 appe>+ *iefly 9 ! head4 ,x 0 ?is g5]al lik5ess t induc$ ,cuvi] to =m 8 ord]1 8,pa*yd]mata10 :i* compris$ elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 hippopotamuses1 tapirs1 etc41 animals t are n[ di/ribut$ into no less ?an ?ree sep>ate ord]s2 aside f ! head1 all ( ^! =ms are q di/9ctly simil> 9 appe>ance4 ,( c\rse1 ! ext]nal features1 su* z e>s1 tail1 sk9 & hair1 are mo/ important factors 9 ! g5]al make-up ( any mammal2 &1 z to ^! matt]s1 ! fossils leave u l>gely 9 ! lur*1 save 9 ! all too r>e cases1 l ! ,sib]ian ,mammo?1 9 :i* ^! ext]nal features are actually pres]v$4 ,two arti/s may s re/ore ! same animal z to result 9 two v diff]5t pictures1 & no "o c positively decide betwe5 !m2 j z two mod]n mammals1 :i* are closely relat$ & h v simil> skeletons1 may yet diff] m>k$ly 9 outw>d appe>ance1 because ( ! diff]5t "* ( ! sk91 z d1 = example1 ! ,bornean & ,indian rh9oc]oses4 ,yet ev5 9 deal+ ) purely ext]nal features1 we are n left altoge!r to conjecture4 ,e>s ( unusual size or =m frequ5tly leave "s indication ( ?is on ! skull1 & ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a proboscis c ne>ly always be inf]r$ ) confid5ce f ! "* ( ! bones ( ! nose & muzzle4 ,! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! tail may be g5]ally directly d$uc$ f ! caudal v]tebr1 b :e!r x 0 close-hair$ & cyl9drical1 or bu%y1 or tuft$ at ! end1 or flat & tr[el-%ap$1 z 9 ! ,beav]1 is n det]m9able f ! bones alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,wild s[ & pigs1 %[+ ! uni=m col\r ( ! adult & /ripes ( ! "y4 ,mo/ unc]ta9 ( all ! *>act]s :i* det]m9e outw>d appe>ance are ! hair & ! patt]n ( col\ration2 ! ,horse & ,zebra diff] mu* m decid$ly 9 ! liv+ =m ?an _! skeletons w\ld lead "o to expect1 z d also ! ,lion1 ! ,tig] & ! ,leop>d4 ,! curi\s & exceptional col\r-patt]n ( ! ,okapi1 t rem>kable giraffe-l animal b lately discov]$ 9 ! equatorial =e/s ( we/]n ,africa1 c\ld nev] h be5 inf]r$ f a /udy ( ! skeleton alone4 ,h[ev]1 ev5 9 ! problem ( col\r-patt]ns !re is m to g ^u ?an %e] guess-"w1 = c]ta9 def9ite pr9ciples ( animal col\ration h be5 asc]ta9$2 ! great difficulty lies 9 ! application ( ^! pr9ciples to a p>ticul> case4 ,x is q c]ta9 t ! nak$1 hairless sk9 is nev] primitive1 b always a comp>atively late acquisition &1 9 _m mammalian ord]s1 is n f\nd at all4 ,aside f a few dome/icat$ animals1 ?is type ( sk9 occurs only 9 v l>ge h]bivor\s mammals liv+ 9 w>m climates1 su* z elephants1 rh9oc]oses & hippopotamuses1 9 a few burr[]s1 & 9 m>9e mammals1 l ! walruses1 :ales1 porpoises1 etc4 ,useful h9ts z to ! col\r+ ( anci5t & ext9ct =ms may be ga!r$ f a /udy ( s]ies ( liv+ animals1 su* z liz>ds & butt]flies1 9 :i* ! developm5t ( a def9ite s*eme ( col\ration may be foll[$ /ep by /ep4 ,"y animals v frequ5tly reta9 m or less di/9ct traces ( ! ance/ral col\ration1 :i* disappe> 9 ! adult1 = ! developm5t ( ! individual is1 9 "s respects at lea/1 an abbreviat$ & cond5s$ recapitulation ( ! hi/ory ( ! species4 ,9 _m mammals :i*1 9 ! adult condition1 h a solid body-col\r1 ! "y are /rip$ or spott$1 a /rong indication t ^! mammals 7 d]iv$ f /rip$ or spott$ ance/ors4 ,?us1 ! ,wild ,bo> has a uni=m body-col\r 9 ! full-gr[n /age1 b ! pigs are longitud9ally /rip$2 _m de] are spott$ ?r\gh\t life1 z 9 ! ,fall[ ,de]1 ! ,axis ,de] ( ,india & o!rs1 b ! great majority ( ! species1 includ+ all ! ,am]ican =ms1 h uni=m col\ration1 :ile ! fawns are always spott$4 ,lion cubs are also spott$ & ! adults h a uni=m tawny col\r1 & _m su* examples might be giv54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,fawns ( ! ,mule ,de] 7,odocoileus hemionus74 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #hc1 p4 #afg4 7,by p]mission ( ! ,n4 ,y4 ,zolog4 ,society47 ,! /udy ( col\ration among exi/+ animals has l$ to ! conclusion t 9 mammals ! primitive col\r-patt]n 0 t ( /ripes1 ei!r longitud9al or transv]se & m probably ! =m]4 ,9 ! second /age ^! b&s break up into spots1 :i* /ill %[ ! longitud9al arrangem5t & may be ei!r light on a d>k gr\nd1 or d>k on a light gr\nd4 ,9 a ?ird /age ! spots may aga9 coalesce into /ripes1 ! c\rse ( :i* is at "r angles to t ( ! orig9al /ripes1 or ! spots may disappe>1 leav+ a uni=m body-col\r1 light] or :ite on ! belly4 ,^! *anges ( col\r-patt]n h n proce$$ at a uni=m rate 9 ! v>i\s mammalian gr\ps1 or ev5 )9 ! same gr\p1 = an all-important factor is ! mode ( life ( ! p>ticul> animal4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t ! s*eme ( col\r is su* z to r5d] its possessor inconspicu\s1 or ev5 invisible1 & _m a creature t seems to be v conspicu\s & /rik+ 9 a museum case c h>dly be se5 at all :5 9 its natural surr\nd+s4 ,?us1 ,arctic mammals & birds1 9 _! w9t] dress1 are :ite2 des]t animals are tawny or s&y-br[n2 =e/ animals are frequ5tly /rip$ or spott$2 :ile ^? t live on op5 pla9s are m commonly ( uni=m col\ration4 ,!re are exceptions to ^! rules1 b !y hold good = ! mo/ "p4 ,f c>eful comp>ative /udy ( ! tee? & skeletons a clew may be ga9$ z to ! habits ( animals & f ! habits some?+ may be inf]r$ z to ! col\ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,tapirus t]re/ris1 #c days old4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #acg1 p4 #cbj4 7,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london47 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be mislead+ to claim a great] au?ority = ^! attempts at re/or+ a long-vani%$ life ?an c fairly be ascrib$ to !m4 ,! g5]al =m & proportions ( ! head1 neck1 body1 tail1 limbs & feet may be d$uc$ ) a high degree ( accuracy f ! skeleton1 :ile ! ext]nal *>act]s ( sk91 hair & col\ration are l>gely conjectural1 b n altoge!r imag9>y4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t among ! ext9ct mammals 7 _m :i*1 ow+ to "s uncommon gr[? ( subcutane\s fat1 or "s unusual local developm5t ( hair1 7 mu* m curi\s & biz>re 9 appe>ance ?an we c v5ture to repres5t !m4 ,if1 = example1 ! ,camel1 ! ,horse1 ! ,lion & ! ,"r ,:ale 7 ext9ct & kn[n only f _! skeletons1 su* re/orations z we c\ld make ( !m w\ld assur$ly g a/ray 9 "s p>ticul>s4 ,! ,camel w\ld be pictur$ )\t 8 hump1 = !re is no?+ 9 ! skeleton to sugge/ x2 ! =elock1 mane & *>act]i/ic tail ( ! ,horse & ! ,lion's mane w\ld c]ta9ly n be recogniz$2 :ile ! imm5se developm5t ( blubb] 9 ! head ( ! ,:ale gives to x a v diff]5t appe>ance f t :i* ! skull w\ld seem to indicate4 ,su* cases are1 h[ev]1 exceptional & re/orations made by compet5t h&s f complete skeletons probably give a fair notion ( ! appe>ance ( ^? animals :5 alive4 ,x w ?us be suffici5tly pla9 t ! "w ( re/oration is beset ) difficulties1 b t !re is no good gr\nd = ! uncritical scepticism :i* summ>ily rejects ! results z be+ purely fanciful1 or = ! equally uncritical cr$ulity :i* unhesitat+ly accepts !m z fully & inconte/ably accurate4 ,x is altoge!r likely t "o ( ! ma9 s\rces ( error consi/s 9 mak+ ! ext9ct animal too closely resemble "s exi/+ species :i* is select$ z a model4 ,too mu* space has p]haps be5 devot$ to ! problem ( re/or+ ! ext]nal =m ( ^! ext9ct mammals1 a problem :i*1 aft] all1 is ( di/9ctly subord9ate importance4 ,! mo/ valuable results :i* may be ga9$ f a /udy ( ^! fossil mammals are ! answ]s :i* !y af=d to ! great que/ions ( relation%ip1 classification & g5etic desc5t1 & ! light :i* !y ?r[ ^u ! processes ( evolution & ! c\rse ( geographical arrangem5t4 ,! bones & tee? af=d admirable means ( trac+ ! gradual /eps ( modification by :i* ! mod]n mammals h aris5 f v diff]5t ance/ors & ( foll[+ _! w&]+s f region to region & cont95t to cont95t4 ,x is to ^! que/ions t mo/ ( ! subsequ5t *apt]s are devot$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,mammalia ,! t]m9ology & nom5clature ( sci5ce =m a great b>ri]1 :i* only too (t5 %uts out ! educat$ layman f foll[+ ! c\rse ( inve/igation & keep+ abrea/ ( ! discov]ies 9 :i* he may be p>ticul>ly int]e/$4 ,no m frequ5t & he>tfelt compla9t is utt]$ ?an t :i* decries ! 8sci5tific j>gon10 & "o might be tempt$ to ?9k t ?is j>gon 0 a sup]flu\s nuisance1 delib]ately adopt$ to exclude ! un9itiat$ & gu>d ! secrets ( ! temple f ! curi\s intrud]4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ?is t]m9ology1 ?\gh an unque/ionable evil f "o po9t ( view1 is an indisp5sable implem5t ( inve/igation & description4 ,ord9>y language has f> too few words = ! purpose & mo/ ( ! words t might be us$ lack ! all-important quality ( precision4 ,! v]nacul> names ( animals & plants are notori\sly inexact &1 ev5 :5 n inaccurately employ$1 are n suffici5tly ref9$ & di/9ctive = sci5tific use4 ,?is is pre-em95tly true ( ! ,new ,_w1 :]e ! ,european settl]s gave ! names ( ! creatures ) :i* !y _h be5 famili> at home to ! new animals :i* !y f\nd 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,"s ( ^! names1 su* z de]1 wolf1 fox1 be>1 are accurate en\gh = ord9>y purposes1 :ile o!rs are ludicr\sly wrong4 ,! bird t we call ! ,rob9 is altoge!r diff]5t f 8 ,european namesake1 & ! great /ag1 or ,wapiti1 is commonly call$ 8,elk10 a "n :i* prop]ly belongs to ! ,moose4 ,9 %ort1 x is impossible to ga9 ! necess>y accuracy & abundance ( vocabul>y )\t devis+ an artificial t]m9ology1 drawn *iefly f ,greek & ,lat94 ,9 deal+ ) fossils1 ! difficulty ( nom5clature becomes =midable inde$4 ,! l>g] & m conspicu\s mammals ( ! mod]n _w are m or less famili> to all educat$ p1 & su* names z rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 elephant1 kang>oo1 w call up a def9ite & fairly accurate image ( ! animal 9 "q4 ,= ! /range creatures t vani%$ f ! e>? ages be=e ! appe>ance ( ,man !re are no v]nacul> names & x s]ves no good purpose to co9 su* t]ms4 ,to ! layman names l ,u9ta!rium or ,smilodon convey no idea :atev]1 & all t c be done is to attempt to give !m a mean+ by illu/ration & description1 us+ ! "n m]ely z a peg ^u :i* to hang ! description4 ,! sy/em ( zological classification :i* is /ill 9 use 0 l>gely ! inv5tion ( ! ,sw$i% naturali/ ,l9nu1 :o publi%$ x %ortly aft] ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,z devis$ by ,l9nu1 ! s*eme 0 int5d$ to express ideal relation%ips1 :]eas n[ x is employ$ to express real g5etic aff9ities1 s f> z ^! c be asc]ta9$4 ,! ,l9nan sy/em is an organiz$ hi]>*y ( gr\ps1 arrang$ 9 asc5d+ ord] ( compreh5siv5ess4 ,9 ?is s*eme1 :at may be reg>d$ z ! unit is ! species1 a concept ar\nd :i* _m battles h be5 wag$ & conc]n+ :i* !re is /ill mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion & usage4 ,orig9ally a t]m 9 logic1 x fir/ receiv$ a def9ite mean+ 9 ,zology & ,botany f ,john ,ray 7#afbh-agje7 :o appli$ x to indicate a gr\p ( animals1 or plants1 ) m>k$ common *>act]s & freely int]bre$+4 ,l9nu1 ?\gh n always consi/5t 9 8 expressions on ! subject1 reg>d$ species z objective realities1 concrete & actual ?+s1 :i* x 0 ! naturali/'s bus9ess to discov] & "n1 & held t !y 7 fix$ entities :i* _h be5 sep>ately creat$4 ,?is belief 9 ! fixity & objective reality ( species 0 almo/ univ]sally held1 until ! publication ( ,d>w9's 8,orig9 ( ,species0 7#ahei7 conv]t$ ! biological _w to ! evolution>y fai?1 :i* decl>es t ! only objective reality among liv+ ?+s is ! individual animal or plant4 ,accord+ to ?is mod]n conception1 a species may be def9$ z signify+ a 8grade or rank assign$ by sy/emati/s to an assemblage ( organic =ms :i* !y judge to be m closely int]relat$ by common desc5t ?an !y are relat$ to =ms judg$ to be outside ! species0 7,p4 ,*alm]s ,mit*ell74 ,! te*nical "n ( a species1 :i* is ei!r 9 ,lat91 or 9 lat9iz$ =m1 is 9 two words1 "o ( :i* designates ! g5us 7see bel[7 & ! o!r ! p>ticul> species ( t g5us1 z1 = example1 ,equus caballus1 ! species ,horse1 ,e4 przewalskii1 ! ,asiatic ,wild ,horse1 ,e4 as9us1 ! species ,ass1 etc4 ,9 ord] to id5tify a species1 ! g5us to :i* x belongs mu/ be /at$1 h5ce ! t]m1 b9omial sy/em ( nom5clature1 :i* ,l9nu introduc$1 becom+ tr9omial :5 ! "n ( a subspecies is add$1 a mod]n ref9em5t on ! old] me?od4 ,a v l>ge species 7i4e4 "o :i* is repres5t$ by great numb]s ( individuals71 ext5d+ ov] a v l>ge area1 is (t5 divisible into gr\ps ( m9or rank1 z v>ieties1 geographical races or subspecies4 ,tak+ ! species z ! unit 9 ! s*eme ( classification1 ! v>ieties & subspecies may be consid]$ z fractions4 ,!re is great diff]5ce ( usage among writ]s on sy/ematic zology 9 ! mann] ( apply+ ! g5]ally accept$ concept ( species1 "s mak+ _! gr\ps v mu* m compreh5sive ?an o!rs1 accord+ z !y are 8lump]s0 or 8splitt]s10 to employ ! slang phrase4 ,! difficulty lies 9 ! fact t !re are no fix$ & def9ite crit]ia1 by :i* a giv5 s]ies ( individuals c be surely di/+ui%$ z a v>iety1 a species or a g5us2 x is a matt] = ! judgm5t & exp]i5ce ( ! sy/emati/ himself4 ,! individuals ( a species may diff] q widely among !mselves1 provid$ t !y are all connect$ by int]gradations1 & ! m or less con/ant v>ieties or subspecies are to be di/+ui%$ f ! individual v>iants1 :i* are incon/ant & fluctuat+4 ,no two specim5s agree exactly 9 e p>ticul>1 b if a v l>ge suite ( !m be comp>$1 x w be f\nd t ! great majority dep>t b little f ! av]age or norm ( ! species1 & ! wid] ! dep>ture f ! norm1 ! few] ! individuals :i* are s ab]rant4 ,tak+ s easily measur$ a "* z size1 = example1 & measur+ sev]al hundr$ or a ?\s& repres5tatives ( "s species1 we see t a l>ge majority are ( av]age size1 a little m or a little less1 :ile v l>ge or v small individuals are r>e 9 proportion to ! am\nt by :i* !y exce$ or fall %ort ( ! norm4 ,subspecies or v>ieties are m>k$ by diff]5ces :i* are relatively con/ant1 b n ( suffici5t importance to entitle !m to rank z species4 ,a gr\p ( ! second rank is call$ a g5us1 :i* may conta9 few or _m species1 or only a s+le "o4 ,9 ! latt] case ! species is s isolat$ 9 "* t x _c prop]ly be includ$ 9 ! same g5us ) any o!r species4 ,a l>ge g5us1 "o conta9+ num]\s species1 is frequ5tly divisible into sev]al subg5]a1 ea* compris+ a gr\p ( species :i* are m simil> to "o ano!r ?an !y are to ! o!r species ( ! g5us4 ,! ?ird ( ! ma9 gr\ps 9 asc5d+ ord] is ! family1 :i* ord9>ily consi/s ( a numb] ( g5]a unit$ by ! possession ( c]ta9 common *>act]s1 :i*1 at ! same "t1 di/+ui% !m f o!r g5]a1 ?\gh a s+le isolat$ g5us may require a sep>ate family = its reception4 ,j z x is (t5 conv5i5t to divide a g5us into subg5]a1 s families conta9+ _m g5]a are usually divisible into subfamilies1 z indicative ( clos] relation%ips )9 ! family4 ,! "n ( ! family is =m$ f t ( ! g5us fir/ describ$ or be/ kn[n1 ) ! t]m9ation -id1 :ile t = ! subfamily is -94 ,to take an example1 all ! g5]a ( cats1 liv+ & ext9ct1 are assembl$ 9 ! family ,felid 7f ! g5us ,felis7 :i* falls naturally into two subfamilies4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! ,fel91 includes ! true cats1 a v homog5e\s gr\p1 bo? ! exi/+ & ! ext9ct g5]a2 ! o!r subfamily1 t ( ! highly int]e/+ s]ies ( ! 8,sabre-too? ,tig]s10 call$ ! ,ma*airodont91 comprises only ext9ct =ms4 ,! f\r? pr9cipal rank or grade is ! ord]1 di/+ui%$ by "s fundam5tal peculi>ity ( /ructure & usually includ+ a l>ge numb] ( families4 ,"s ( ! ord]s1 h[ev]1 conta9 b a s+le family1 a s+le g5us1 or ev51 x may be1 a s+le species1 because t species is 9 important /ructural *>act]s s unlike any o!r t x _c prop]ly be put into ! same ord] ) any?+ else4 ,su* isolation inv>iably implies t ! species or g5us 9 "q is ! sole survivor ( :at 0 once an ext5sive s]ies4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! family & ! g5us1 x is (t5 necess>y to recognize ! degrees ( clos] & m remote aff9ity by ! use ( subord]s4 ,exi/+ ,artiodactyla1 or ev5-to$ ho($ animals1 an enorm\s assemblage1 may conv5i5tly be divid$ into f\r subord]s3 7#a7 ,su9a1 sw9e & ! ,hippopotamus2 7#b7 ,tylopoda1 ! ,camel & ,llama2 7#c7 ,tragul9a1 8m\se-de]10 or *evrota9s2 7#d7 ,pecora1 or true rum9ants1 de]1 giraffes1 antelopes1 %eep1 goats1 ox51 etc4 ,9 ne>ly all ( ! ord]s su* subord9al divisions are desirable & x is frequ5tly useful to employ /ill fur!r subdivisions1 l sup]families1 :i* are gr\ps ( alli$ families )9 ! subord]1 sections & ! l4 ,9 ! ,l9nan s*eme1 ! next gr\p 9 asc5d+ rank is ! class1 :i* includes all mammals :atsoev]1 b ! advance ( k has made x necess>y to int]polate sev]al int]m$iate grades betwe5 ! class & ! ord]1 :i*1 9 ! desc5d+ scale1 are subclass1 infraclass1 cohort1 sup]ord] & o!rs1 :ile above ! class comes ! subk+dom ( ,v]tebrata1 or animals ) int]nal skeletons1 :i* includes mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 amphibians & fi%es4 ,a ^w %\ld be said z to ! conv5tions ( pr9t+ te*nical names4 ,! names ( all species are1 9 ,am]ican practice1 pr9t$ 9 small lett]s1 b _m ,europeans write specific t]ms :i* are prop] n\ns or adjectives ) a capital4 ,g5]ic1 family & all gr\ps ( high] rank are always writt5 ) a capital1 unless us$ 9 v]nacul> =m1 e4g4 ,artiodactyla & artiodactyls4 ,x is also a v g5]al cu/om to give capitals to v]nacul> names ( species1 z ! ,mammo?1 ! ,coyote1 ! ,black ,be>4 ,g5us & species are almo/ inv>iably 9 italics1 gr\ps ( high] rank 9 roman4 ,su* a s*eme ( classification z is outl9$ above has a decid$ly artificial air ab\t x & yet x s]ves a highly useful purpose 9 enabl+ u to express 9 brief & cond5s$ =m :at is kn[n or surmis$ z to ! mutual relation%ips ( ! great & div]sifi$ assemblage ( mammals4 ,! s*eme has be5 comp>$ to ! organization ( an army into company1 battalion1 regim5t1 brigade1 division1 army corps1 etc41 & !re is a c]ta9 obvi\s lik5ess2 b ! diff]5ces g deep]1 = an army is an assemblage ( simil> units1 me*anically gr\p$ into bodies ( equal size4 ,a mu* clos] analogy is ! g5ealogical or family tree1 :i* graphically expresses ! relation%ips & ramifications ( an anci5t & widespread family1 ?\gh ev5 ?is analogy may easily be pu%$ too f>4 ,blood-relation%ip is1 9 %ort1 ! und]ly+ pr9ciple ( all s*emes ( classification :i* po/ulate ! !ory ( evolution4 ,! sy/em ( ,l9nu1 z exp&$ & improv$ by mod]n zologi/s1 has prov$ itself to be admirably adapt$ to ! /udy ( ! liv+ _w2 b x is mu* m difficult to apply x to ! fossils1 = !y introduce a ?ird dim5sion1 s to speak1 = :i* ! sy/em 0 n design$4 ,?is ?ird dim5sion is ! successive modification 9 "t ( a g5etically connect$ s]ies4 ,! cumulative effect ( su* modifications is s great t only v ela/ic def9itions w include ! e>li] & lat] memb]s ( an unbrok5 s]ies4 ,9 attempt+ to apply ! ,l9nan sy/em to ! successive faunas 7i4e4 assemblages ( animals7 :i* h inhabit$ ! e>?1 palontologi/s h employ$ v>i\s devices4 ,"o su* me?od is to classify ea* fauna )\t ref]5ce to ^? :i* prec$e & foll[ x1 b ?is has ! great drawback ( obscur+ & ignor+ ! relation%ips1 to express :i* is ! v object ( classification4 ,ano!r & m logical me?od is to treat species & g5]a z ?\gh !y belong$ to ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 = ^! gr\ps1 p>ticul>ly species1 7 relatively %ort-liv$1 :5 reg>d$ f ! /&po9t ( geological "t1 & ei!r became s modifi$ z to require recognition z new species & g5]a1 or di$ out )\t leav+ desc5dants4 ,gr\ps ( high] rank1 families1 ord]s1 etc41 are treat$ z g5etic s]ies & include ! pr9cipal l9e or /ock & su* side-bran*es z did n ramify too widely or dep>t too f> f ! ma9 /em4 ,"u ! fir/ arrangem5t1 ! horses1 a long hi/ory ( :i* has be5 deciph]$1 w\ld be divid$ into sev]al families2 "u ! second1 !y are all includ$ 9 a s+le family4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ results ( palontological /udy is ! discov]y t 9 _m families1 su* z ! horses1 rh9oc]oses & camels1 !re are di/9ct s]ies :i* indep5d5tly pass$ ?r\gh p>allel c\rses ( developm5t1 ! s]ies ( ea* family keep+ a rem>kably ev5 pace 9 ! degree ( progressive modification4 ,su* a m9or g5etic s]ies )9 a family is call$ a phylum1 n a v happy selection1 = ! same t]m _h be5 previ\sly employ$ 9 a mu* wid] s5se1 z equival5t to ! subk+dom4 ,9 bo? uses ( ! t]m ! und]ly+ pr9ciple1 t ( g5etic s]ies1 is ! same2 ! diff]5ce is 9 ! compreh5siv5ess ( mean+4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t no me?od1 yet devis$1 ( apply+ ! ,l9nan s*eme to ! fossils is altoge!r satisfactory1 & inde$ x is only ! breaks & gaps 9 ! palontological record :i* makes possible any use ( ! s*eme4 ,c\ld we obta9 approximately complete s]ies ( all ! animals t h ev] liv$ ^u ! e>?1 x w\ld be necess>y to inv5t "s entirely new s*eme ( classification 9 ord] to express _! mutual relation%ips4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 classification c be made only 9 a prelim9>y & t5tative sort ( way & no d\bt diff]s widely f t :i* w ev5tually be rea*$4 ,s f> z ! mammals are conc]n$1 "p ( ! problem w\ld seem to be q easy & "p altoge!r unc]ta94 ,"s mammalian gr\ps appe> to be well def9$ & entirely natural assemblages ( relat$ =ms1 :ile o!rs are pla9ly het]og5e\s & artificial1 yet !re is no bett] way ( deal+ ) !m until _! hi/ory has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,! mutual relations ( ! gr& gr\ps1 or ord]s1 are /ill v l>gely obscure4 ,! class ,mammalia is fir/ ( all divid$ into two subclasses ( v unequal size4 ,( ^!1 ! fir/1 ,,proto!ria1 is repres5t$ 9 ! mod]n _w by few =ms1 ! s-call$ ,duck-bill$ ,mole 7,orni?orhyn*us p>adoxus7 & ,sp9y ,anteat]s 7,e*idna7 ( ,au/ralia4 ,!y are ! l[e/ & mo/ primitive ( ! mammals & reta9 sev]al /ructural *>act]s ( ! l[] v]tebrates4 ,_! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic is t ! "y are n br\ght =? alive1 b are hat*$ f eggs1 z 9 ! reptiles1 birds & l[] v]tebrates g5]ally4 ,! second subclass1 ,,eu!ria1 :i* includes all o!r mammals1 is aga9 divid$ into two v unequal gr\ps or infraclasses4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,,didelphia1 conta9s b a s+le ord]1 ! ,m>supialia1 or p\*$ mammals1 n[ 9 exi/5ce1 & is also v primitive 9 _m respects1 ?\gh f> m advanc$ ?an ! ,proto!ria4 ,! "y1 ?\gh born alive1 are br\ght =? 9 a v immature /ate &1 ) ! exception ( "o g5us 7,p]ameles7 ! ftus is n atta*$ by a special /ructure1 ! plac5ta1 to ! womb ( ! "m4 ,l ! ,proto!ria1 ! ,m>supials1 :i* 7 once spread all ov] ! _w1 are at pres5t almo/ entirely conf9$ to ,au/ralia & ! adjo9+ isl&s1 ! ,opossums ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 & "o small g5us 7,cnole/es7 9 ! latt] cont95t be+ ! exceptions to ?is rule ( di/ribution4 ,! second & va/ly l>g] infraclass1 ! ,,monodelphia1 is *>act]iz$ by ! plac5ta1 a special gr[?1 p>tly ( ftal & p>tly ( mat]nal orig91 by means ( :i* ! unborn "y are atta*$ to ! "m & n\ri%$ dur+ ! ftal p]iod2 !y are born 9 a relatively mature /ate & are g5]ally able to walk imm$iately aft] bir? & resemble _! p>5ts 9 ne>ly all respects4 ,! va/ assemblage ( plac5tal mammals1 :i* range ov] all ! cont95ts1 are divid$ into num]\s ord]s1 mo/ ( :i* appe> to be natural gr\ps ( truly relat$ =ms1 :ile "s are b d\btfully s & o!rs aga9 are cle>ly unnatural & arbitr>y4 ,z has already be5 po9t$ out1 ! mutual relation%ips ( ^! ord]s1 z express$ 9 gr\ps ( high] ?an ord9al rank1 (f] a mu* m difficult problem1 *iefly because our k ( ! hi/ory ( mammals is mo/ defici5t j :]e t hi/ory is mo/ important & significant1 namely1 9 its e>li] portion4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ! evolution ( g5]a & families may be foll[$ out )9 ! limits ( ! ord] 9 a v conv9c+ way1 b v r>ely c ! orig9 ( an ord] be demon/rat$4 ,:5 ! hi/ory began to be full & detail$1 ! ord]s _h ne>ly all be5 e/abli%$1 &1 until ! /eps ( _! div]g5ce & diff]5tiation c be foll[$ out1 _! mutual relation%ips c be discuss$ only f ! /&po9t ( _! lik5esses & diff]5ces4 ,9 ! valuation ( ^!1 !re is mu* room = diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & su* diff]5ce is n lack+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 conc]n+ ! numb] & limits ( ! ord]s !mselves !re is v g5]al agreem5t4 ,9 ! foll[+ table only ! major gr\ps are includ$ & ^? :i* are ext9ct are m>k$ ) a dagg] 774 ,! s*eme is almo/ id5tical ) t giv5 9 ,pr(essor ,osborn's 8,age ( ,mammals10 ! few po9ts 9 :i* ,i %\ld pref] a some:at diff]5t arrangem5t be+ waiv$ 9 ! int]e/s ( uni=mity & avoidance ( confusion4 ,a few *anges are1 h[ev]1 made 9 matt]s :i* ,i reg>d z too important to ignore4 ,i4 ,,subclass ,,proto!ria4 ,egg-lay+ ,mammals4 #a4 ,,ord] ,,protodonta4 #b4 ,,ord] ,,monotremata1 e4g4 ! ,duck-bill$ ,mole & ,sp9y ,anteat]s4 ,,ii4 ,,subclass ,,eu!ria4 ,vivip>\s ,mammals4 ,a4 ,,infraclass ,,didelphia4 ,p\*$ ,mammals4 #a4 ,,ord] ,,triconodonta4 #b4 ,,ord] ,,m>supialia4 a4 ,,subord] ,polyprotodonta4 ,opossums1 c>nivor\s & insectivor\s ,m>supials4 b4 ,,subord] ,diprotodonta4 ,h]bivor\s ,m>supials2 ,kang>oos1 etc4 c4 ,,subord] ,allo!ria4 ,b4 ,,infraclass ,,monodelphia4 ,plac5tal ,mammals4 ,,aa4 ,,cohort ,,unguiculata4 ,claw$ ,mammals4 #a4 ,,ord] ,,tritub]culata4 #b4 ,,ord] ,,insectivora4 ,insect-eat+ ,mammals4 a4 ,,subord] ,lipotyphla1 e4g4 ,moles1 ,h$gehogs1 ,%rews1 etc4 b4 ,,subord] ,hyopsodonta4 c4 ,,subord] ,proglires4 d4 ,subord] ,m5otyphla1 e4g4 ,tree & ,jump+ ,%rews4 #c4 ,,ord] ,,tillodontia4 #d4 ,,ord] ,,d]mopt]a4 ,! ,fly+ ,lemur4 #e4 ,,ord] ,,*iropt]a4 ,bats4 #f4 ,,ord] ,,c>nivora4 ,bea/s ( ,prey4 a4 ,,subord] ,creodonta4 ,primitive ,fle%-eat]s4 b4 ,,subord] ,fissip$ia4 ,wolves1 ,be>s1 ,weasels1 ,cats1 etc4 c4 ,,subord] ,p9nip$ia4 ,m>9e ,c>nivores--,seals & ,walruses4 #g4 ,,ord] ,,rod5tia4 ,gnaw+ ,mammals4 a4 ,,subord] ,duplicid5tata1 e4g4 ,h>es1 ,rabbits1 ,pikas4 b4 ,,subord] ,simplicid5tata1 e4g4 ,squirrels1 ,m>mots1 ,beav]s1 ,rats1 ,mice1 ,porcup9es1 etc4 #h4 ,,ord] ,t,,niodontia4 #i4 ,,ord] ,,ed5tata4 a4 ,,subord] ,pilosa4 ,hairy ,ed5tates1 e4g4 ,slo?s1 ,anteat]s1 etc4 b4 ,,subord] ,loricata4 ,arm\r$ ,ed5tates1 e4g4 ,armadillos1 ,glyptodonts4 #aj4 ,,ord] ,,pholidota4 ,scaly ,anteat]s or ,pangol9s4 #aa4 ,,ord] ,,tubulid5tata4 ,! ,a>d ,v>k4 ,,bb4 ,,cohort ,,primates4 ,mammals ) nails4 #ab4 ,,ord] ,,primates4 a4 ,,subord] ,lemuroidea4 ,lemurs4 b4 ,,subord] ,an?ropoidea4 ,monkeys1 ,apes1 ,man4 ,,cc4 ,,cohort ,,ungulata4 ,ho($ ,mammals4 #ac4 ,,ord] ,,condyl>?ra4 #ad4 ,,ord] ,,amblypoda4 #ae4 ,,ord] ,,artiodactyla4 ,ev5-to$ ,ho($ ,mammals4 a4 ,,subord] ,artiodactyla ,primitiva4 b4 ,,subord] ,su9a4 ,sw9e1 ,pecc>y1 ,hippopotamus4 c4 ,,subord] ,tylopoda4 ,camels1 ,llama1 ,guanaco4 d4 ,,subord] ,tragul9a4 ,m\se-de] or ,*evrota9s4 e4 ,,subord] ,pecora1 e4g4 ,de]1 ,antelopes1 ,%eep1 ,ox51 etc4 #af4 ,,ord] ,,p]issodactyla4 ,odd-to$ ,ho($ ,mammals4 a4 ,,subord] ,*elodactyla1 e4g4 ,horses1 ,tapirs1 ,rh9oc]oses1 etc4 b4 ,,subord] ,ancylopoda4 ,*alico!res4 #ag4 ,,ord] ,,proboscidea4 ,elephants & ,ma/odons4 #ah4 ,,ord] ,,b>y!ria4 #ai4 ,,ord] ,,embri?opoda4 #bj4 ,,ord] ,,sir5ia4 ,sea-c[s & ,dugongs4 #ba4 ,,ord] ,,hyracoidea4 ,conies4 #bb4 ,,ord] ,,toxodontia4 a4 ,,subord] ,toxodonta4 b4 ,,subord] ,typo!ria4 c4 ,,subord] ,entelony*ia4 d4 ,,subord] ,pyro!ria4 #bc4 ,,ord] ,,a/rapo!ria4 #bd4 ,,ord] ,,litopt]na4 ,,dd4 ,,cohort ,,cetacea4 ,:ales1 ,dolph9s1 ,porpoises4 #be4 ,,ord] ,,zeuglodontia4 #bf4 ,,ord] ,,odontoceti4 ,too!d ,:ales1 ,dolph9s1 ,porpoises4 #bg4 ,,ord] ,,my/acoceti4 ,:alebone ,:ales4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,skeleton ,,& ,,tee? ,,( ,,mammals ,) v r>e exceptions1 & ^? only ( ! late/ geological p]iod 7,quat]n>y71 ! fossil rema9s ( mammals consi/ only ( bones & tee?4 ,! evolution>y *anges1 s f> z ^! are pres]v$1 are record$ !re=e 9 t]ms ( d5tal & skeletal modifications4 ,to r5d] ^! *anges intelligible1 x is necess>y to give "s acc\nt ( ! mammalian skeleton & tee?1 ) no m use ( te*nical language ?an is unavoidable2 ord9>y spee* does n furni% a suffici5t numb] ( t]ms1 nor are mo/ ( ^! suffici5tly precise4 ,) ! aid ( ! figures1 ! read] may easily ga9 a k ( ! skeleton :i* is q adequate = ! discussion ( fossil s]ies1 :i* w foll[ 9 ! subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,i4 ,,! ,,skeleton ,i4 ,! mo/ obvi\s di/9ction ( ! skeletal p>ts is into axial & app5dicul> portions1 ! =m] compris+ ! skull1 backbone or v]tebral column1 ribs & brea/-bone or /]num1 & ! latt] includ+ ! limb-girdles1 limbs & feet4 ,9 ! axial skeleton only ! ribs & c]ta9 bones ( ! skull are pair$1 b 9 ! app5dicul> all ! bones are 9 pairs1 = ! "r & left sides respectively4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,skull ( ,wolf 7,canis occid5talis74 ,p4,mx41 premaxill>y4 ,mx41 maxill>y4 ,na41 nasal4 ,l41 la*rymal4 ,ma41 mal> or jugal4 ,fr41 frontal4 ,pa41 p>ietal4 ,sq41 squamosal4 ,zyg41 zygomatic process ( squamosal4 ,o4,s41 orbitosph5oid4 ,pl41 palat9e4 ,m41 m&ible4 cor41 coronoid process ( m&ible4 m4c41 condyle ( m&ible4 ang41 angul> process ( m&ible4 p4g41 po/gl5oid process ( squamosal4 ,ty41 tympanic 7auditory bulla74 mas41 ma/oid4 p4oc41 p>occipital process4 con41 occipital condyle4 ,ex4,o41 exoccipital4 ,s4,o41 supraoccipital4 ,! skull is a highly complex /ructure1 made up ( _m p>ts1 mo/ ( :i* are immovably fix$ toge!r1 & p]=m+ _m functions ( supreme importance4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x af=ds secure lodgem5t & protection = ! bra9 & high] organs ( s5se1 ^? ( smell1 sight & he>+1 & second1 x c>ries ! tee? &1 by its movable jaws1 enables ^! to bite1 to take 9 & ma/icate food4 ,! portion ( ! skull :i* c>ries ! bra91 eyes & e>s1 is call$ ! cranium1 & ! portion 9 front ( ?is is ! face1 ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! two be+ an oblique l9e drawn imm$iately 9 front ( ! eye-socket 7,fig4 #g74 ,a great deal ( ! endless v>iety 9 ! =m ( ! skull ( diff]5t mammals dep5ds ^u ! diff]+ proportions ( cranium & face4 ,9 ! human skull1 = example1 ! cranium is enorm\sly develop$ & =ms a great dome1 :ile ! face is %ort5$ almo/ to ! limit ( possibility2 ! skull ( ! ,horse1 on ! o!r h&1 goes to ne>ly ! opposite extreme ( elongation ( ! facial & %ort5+ ( ! cranial region4 ,! po/]ior surface ( ! skull1 or occiput1 is made up ( f\r bones1 :i* 9 mo/ adult mammals are fus$ into a s+le occipital bone4 ,at ! base ( ! occiput is a l>ge op5+1 ! =am5 magnum1 ?r\gh :i* ! sp9al cord passes to its junction ) ! bra92 & on ea* side ( ! op5+ is a l>ge1 smoo?1 oval prom95ce1 ! occipital condyles1 by means ( :i* ! skull is articulat$ ) ! neck4 ,! p>occipital processes are bony /yles ( v>y+ l5g?1 :i* are giv5 (f1 "o on ea* side ext]nal to ! condyles4 ,! b\nd>y ( ! occiput is m>k$ by a ridge1 ! occipital cre/1 :i* v>ies greatly 9 prom95ce1 b is v well m>k$ 9 ! m primitive =ms & t5ds to disappe> 9 ! m highly specializ$ ones4 ,! ro( & mu* ( ! sides ( ! cranium are =m$ by two pairs ( l>ge bones1 ! p>ietals beh9d & ! frontals 9 advance2 along ! m$ian l9e ( ! cranial ro(1 :]e ! two p>ietals meet1 is usually ano!r ridge1 ! sagittal cre/1 :i* jo9s ! occipital cre/ beh9d4 ,! sagittal cre/ also v>ies greatly 9 prom95ce1 be+ 9 "s mammals v high & 9 o!rs entirely abs5t1 &1 l ! occipital cre/1 is a primitive "*2 z a rule1 x is longe/ & highe/ 9 ^? mammals :i* h ! smalle/ bra9-capacity4 ,z po9t$ out by ,pr(essor ,le*e1 ! developm5t ( ! sagittal cre/ is condition$ by ! relative proportions ( ! bra9-case & ! jaws4 ,p[]ful jaws & a small bra9-case necessitate ! pres5ce ( ! cre/1 9 ord] to provide suffici5t surface ( atta*m5t = ! temporal muscles1 :i* are important 9 ma/ication1 :ile ) l>ge bra9-case & weak jaws ! cre/ is sup]flu\s4 ,?\gh ! bra9-case prop] may be q small1 yet x may h its surface enorm\sly increas$ by great ?ick5+ ( ! cranial bones1 z is true ( elephants & rh9oc]oses1 & 9 !m suffici5t surface = atta*m5t is af=d$ to ! muscles )\t ! developm5t ( a cre/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,skull ( ,wolf1 top view4 ,p4,mx41 premaxill>y4 ,na41 nasal4 ,ma41 mal> or jugal4 ,l41 la*rymal4 ,fr41 frontal4 ,sq41 squamosal4 ,pa41 p>ietal4 ,s4,o41 supraoccipital4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,skull ( ,wolf1 view ( base4 ,p4,mx41 premaxill>y4 ,mx41 palat9e process ( maxill>y4 ,pl41 palat9e4 ,fr41 frontal4 ,pt41 p>ietal4 ,ma41 mal> or jugal4 ,sq41 gl5oid cavity ( squamosal4 ,b4,s41 basisph5oid4 ,b4,o41 basioccipital4 ,ty41 tympanic 7auditory bulla74 p4oc41 p>occipital process4 con41 occipital condyle4 ,s4,o41 supraoccipital4 ,! /ructure ( ^! cranial bones1 m p>ticul>ly ( ! p>ietals1 is subject to important *anges2 9 mo/ mammals !y are ( mod]ate ?ickness & h d5se lay]s1 or 8tables10 =m+ ! out] & inn] surfaces &1 betwe5 ^!1 a lay] ( spongy bone4 ,9 _m l>ge mammals1 h[ev]1 especially ^? :i* h heavy horns or tusks1 ! cranial bones become enorm\sly ?ick & ! spongy lay] is conv]t$ into a s]ies ( communicat+ *amb]s1 or s9uses1 ! p>titions betwe5 :i* s]ve z braces1 ?us mak+ ! bone v /rong 9 proportion to its weight4 ,s9uses are v g5]ally pres5t 9 ! frontals & communicate by small op5+s ) ! nasal passage1 ev5 9 g5]a ( mod]ate size & )\t horns or tusks4 ,! frontals =m ! ro( ( ! eye-sockets1 or orbits1 & usually !re is a projection f ea* frontal1 :i* m>ks ! h9d] bord] ( ! orbit & is !re=e call$ ! po/orbital process4 ,! ro( ( ! facial region is made by ! nasals1 :i* are commonly long & n>r[ bones1 b v>y greatly 9 =m & proportions 9 diff]5t mammals2 9 ^? :i* h a proboscis1 l tapirs & elephants1 or a mu* inflat$ sn\t1 su* z ! ,moose 7,alce7 or ! ,saiga ,antelope 7,saiga tat>ica7 ! nasals are always v mu* %ort5$ & o!rwise modifi$ 9 =m4 ,! ant]ior end ( ! skull is =m$ by a pair ( r small bones1 ! premaxill>ies1 :i* c>ry ! incisor tee?2 !y b\nd ! sides ( ! nasal op5+1 or ant]ior n>es1 rea*+ to ! nasals1 :5 ! latt] are ( ord9>y l5g?2 !y also =m ! front end ( ! h>d or bony palate1 :i* divides ! nasal passage f ! m\?4 ,! maxill>ies1 or upp] jaw-bones1 make up ne>ly all ( ! facial region on ea* side & s5d inw>d to ! m$ian l9e f ea* side a bony plate :i* toge!r con/itute ! great] "p ( ! h>d palate2 ! rema9d] ( ! upp] tee? are implant$ 9 ! maxill>ies4 ,a v>y+ proportion ( ! h9d] "p ( ! h>d palate is =m$ by ! palat9es1 :i* also enclose ! po/]ior n>es1 ! op5+ by :i* ! nasal passage ent]s ! back "p ( ! m\?4 ,! maxill>y ( ea* side ext5ds back to ! orbit1 :i* x b\nds ant]iorly & 9 ! ant]o-sup]ior bord] ( :i* is ! usually small la*rymal4 ,! inf]ior1 & m or less ( ! ant]ior1 bord] ( ! orbit is made by ! *eek-bone 7mal> or jugal7 :i* may or may n h a po/orbital process ext5d+ up t[>d t ( ! frontal2 :5 ! two processes meet1 ! orbit is completely encircl$ by bone1 b only 9 monkeys1 apes & ,man is !re a bony plate giv5 (f f ! inn] side ( ! po/orbital processes1 :i* ext5ds to ! cranial wall & conv]ts ! orbit into a funnel-%ap$ cavity4 ,= mo/ ( its l5g?1 ! jugal projects freely outw>d f ! side ( ! skull & ext5ds po/]iorly b5ea? a simil> b> ( bone1 ! zygomatic process ( ! squamosal4 ,?is process & ! jugal toge!r con/itute ! zygomatic ar*1 :i* on ea* side ( ! skull /&s out m or less boldly1 & ! size & ?ickness ( :i* are subject to great v>iation 9 diff]5t mammals1 ! massiv5ess ( ! ar* be+ proportional to ! p[] ( ! jaws4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal muscles ( ma/ication 7! masset]7 is atta*$ to ! zygomatic ar*4 ,! squamosal itself is a l>ge plate1 :i* makes up a great "p ( ! side-wall ( ! cranium & articulates above ) ! frontal & p>ietal2 x also supports ! l[] jaw1 ! articul> surface = :i* is call$ ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! l[] jaw is held 9 place by ! po/gl5oid process1 :i* is a projection1 usually a transv]se ridge1 beh9d ! cavity4 ,back ( ! po/gl5oid process is ! entrance to ! middle e>1 ! auditory meatus1 :i* may be m]ely an irregul> hole1 or a m or less elongat$ tube4 ,! meatus is an op5+ into ! tympanic1 a bone :i* at bir? is a m]e r+ & 9 "s mammals rema9s p]man5tly 9 t condition1 b z a rule develops into a swoll51 olive-%ap$ auditory bulla1 :i* sometimes rea*es enorm\s proportions1 especially 9 nocturnal mammals4 ,! labyr9? ( ! int]nal e> is conta9$ 9 ! p]iotic1 a v d5se bone :i* is conceal$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! cranium1 b 9 _m mammals a portion ( x1 ! ma/oid1 is expos$ on ! surface betwe5 ! squamosal & occipital4 ,! l[] jaw-bone 7inf]ior maxill>y1 or m&ible7 is ! only freely movable elem5t ( ! skull2 x consi/s ( two halves :i* meet ant]iorly at ! *9 9 a contact ( great] or less l5g?1 call$ ! symphysis4 ,9 ne>ly all "y mammals & 9 _m adult =ms ! two halves ( ! l[] jaw are sep>ate & are held toge!r at ! symphysis only by ligam5ts1 :ile 9 o!rs1 z 9 ,man1 !y are indi/+ui%ably fus$ to =m a s+le bone4 ,ea* half consi/s ( two portions1 a horizontal "p or ramus & an asc5d+ ramus or v]tical "p2 ! =m] supports all ( ! l[] tee?1 & its l5g?1 dep? & ?ickness are v l>gely condition$ by ! numb] & size ( ^? tee?4 ,! asc5d+ ramus is a broad1 r ?9 plate1 divid$ at ! upp] end into two portions1 ! h9d] "o ( :i* t]m9ates 9 ! condyle1 a r\nd$1 usually semicyl9drical projection1 :i* fits into ! gl5oid cavity ( ! squamosal4 ,! ant]ior portion ( ! asc5d+ ramus ends above 9 ! coronoid process1 :i* s]ves = ! ins]tion ( ! temporal muscle1 ! upp] portion ( :i* is atta*$ to ! walls ( ! cranium & ?us1 :5 ! muscle is contract$1 ! jaws are firmly clos$2 ! coronoid process passes inside ( ! zygomatic ar*4 ,! l[] jaw is !re=e a lev] ( ! ?ird ord]1 9 :i* ! p[] is appli$ betwe5 ! weight 7i4e4 ! food1 ! resi/ance ( :i* is to be ov]come7 & ! fulcrum1 :i* is ! condyle4 ,at ! po/]o-inf]ior end ( ! asc5d+ ramus is ! angle1 ! =m ( :i* is *>act]i/ically modifi$ 9 ! v>i\s mammalian ord]s & is ?us employ$ = purposes ( classification4 ,! hyoid ar* is a ,u-%ap$ s]ies ( small & sl5d] bones1 ) an unpair$ elem5t clos+ ! ar* bel[2 ea* v]tical arm ( ! ,u is atta*$ to ! tympanic ( its own side & ! :ole =ms a flexible support = ! tongue1 b ) no freely movable jo9t l t betwe5 ! l[] jaw & ! squamosal4 ,! mammalian skull 9 its primitive =m may be ?\ght ( z a tube divid$ into two p>ts1 ( :i* ! h9d] "o is ! bra9-*amb]1 or cranial cavity1 & ! =w>d "o ! nasal *amb] or passage4 ,) ! gr[? ( ! bra9 & consequ5t enl>gem5t ( ! cranium1 ?is tubul> "* is lo/2 & v>i\s modifications ( ! tee?1 jaws & facial region1 ! developm5t ( horns & tusks1 br+ ab\t ! _m *anges :i* ! skull has und]gone4 ,?is brief sket* ( ! skull-/ructure is v incomplete1 sev]al ( its elem5ts hav+ be5 altoge!r omitt$ & only ^? p>ts describ$ :i* are ne$ful 9 work+ out ! hi/ory & desc5t ( ! v>i\s mammalian gr\ps4 ,! second portion ( ! axial skeleton is ! backbone1 or v]tebral column1 :i* is made up ( a numb] ( sep>ate bones call$ v]tebr4 ,^! are s articulat$ toge!r z to p]mit ! necess>y am\nt ( flexibility & yet reta9 ! indisp5sable degree ( /r5g?4 ,! function ( ! backbone is a tw(old "o3 7#a7 to af=d a firm support to ! body & give po9ts ( atta*m5t to ! limbs1 & 7#b7 to c>ry ! sp9al cord1 or great c5tral axis ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 9 su* a mann] t x %all be protect$ aga9/ injury1 a matt] ( absolutely vital necessity4 ,:ile ! v]tebr diff] greatly 9 =m & appe>ance 9 ! v>i\s regions ( ! neck1 body & tail1 9 adaptation to ! v>i\s degrees ( mobility & /r5g? :i* are requir$ ( !m1 yet !y are all con/itut$ ^u ! same easily recognizable plan4 ,! pr9cipal mass ( bone 9 ea* v]tebra is ! body1 or c5trum1 :i* is typically a cyl9d]1 or modification ( t =m1 & ! two ends ( ! cyl9d] are ! faces1 by :i* ! successive v]tebr are 9 contact ) "o ano!r4 ,9 ! liv+ animal1 h[ev]1 ! successive c5tra are n 9 actual contact1 b are sep>at$ by disks ( c>tilage 7gri/le7 :i* greatly add to ! ela/icity ( ! column4 ,f ! upp] surface ( ! c5trum arises an ar* ( bone1 ! neural ar*1 enclos+ ) ! c5trum ! neural canal1 ?r\gh :i* runs ! sp9al cord4 ,z already m5tion$1 ! protection ( ! sp9al cord is ess5tial to ! life ( ! animal1 yet ?is protection mu/ be comb9$ ) a c]ta9 flexibility1 bo? lat]al & v]tical4 ,m]e contact ( ! c5tra1 ev5 ?\gh ^! be held 9 place by ligam5ts1 w\ld n give ! column /r5g? to endure1 )\t dislocation1 ! great muscul> /resses :i* are put ^u x4 ,additional means ( articulation betwe5 ! successive v]tebr are !re=e provid$1 & ^! v>y 9 size1 =m & position 9 diff]5t regions ( ! backbone1 9 nice adju/m5t to ! am\nt ( motion & degree ( /r5g? ne$$ at any p>ticul> "p ( ! column4 ,( ^! additional means ( articulation1 :i* are call$ ! zygapophyses1 ea* v]tebra has two pairs1 an ant]ior & a po/]ior pair1 plac$ ^u ! neural ar*4 ,f ! summit ( ! ar* arises ! neural sp9e1 a m or less ne>ly /raight rod or plate ( bone1 :i* may be enorm\sly long or extremely %ort1 massive or sl5d]1 9 accordance ) ! muscul> atta*m5ts :i* mu/ be provid$ =4 ,f9ally1 %\ld be m5tion$ ! transv]se processes1 rod-l or plate-l projections ( bone1 :i* arise1 "o on ea* side ( ! v]tebra1 usually f ! c5trum1 less commonly f ! neural ar*2 ^! also diff] greatly 9 =m & size 9 ! v>i\s regions ( ! column4 ,anatomi/s di/+ui% sev]al o!r processes ( ! v]tebra1 b = our purpose x is n necess>y to take ^! into consid]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,fir/ dorsal v]tebra ( ,wolf f ! front4 cn41 c5trum4 r41 facet = ! head ( ! rib4 r41 facet = ! tub]cle ( ! rib4 tr41 transv]se process4 pr4z41 ant]ior zygapophyses4 n4sp41 neural sp9e4 ,five diff]5t regions ( ! backbone may be di/+ui%$1 9 ea* ( :i* ! v]tebr are modifi$ 9 a *>act]i/ic way4 ,!re is 7#a7 ! c]vical region1 or neck1 ! v]tebr ( :i*1 among mammals 7) only "o or two exceptions7 are always sev5 9 numb]1 h[ev] long or %ort ! neck may be2 ! immod]ately long neck ( ! ,giraffe has no m & ! almo/ invisible neck ( ! ,:ale has no less1 & ?us ! elongation ( ! neck is accompli%$ by l5g!n+ ! individual v]tebr & n by increas+ _! numb]4 7#b7 ,^? v]tebr to :i* ribs are atta*$ are nam$ dorsal or ?oracic & c always be recogniz$ by ! pits or articul> facets :i* receive ! heads ( ! ribs4 7#c7 ,beh9d ! dorsal is ! lumb> region1 or t ( ! lo9s1 made up ( a numb] ( v]tebr :i* c>ry no ribs4 ,! dorso-lumb>s are kn[n collectively z ! trunk-v]tebr & are g5]ally q con/ant 9 numb] = a giv5 gr\p ( mammals1 ?\gh (t5 diff]5tly divid$ betwe5 ! two regions 9 diff]5t memb]s ( ! same gr\p4 ,9 ! ,artiodactyla1 = example1 !re are v con/antly #ai trunk-v]tebr1 b ! ,hippopotamus has #ae dorsals & #d lumb>s1 ! ,re9de] 7,rangif]7 #ad ,d41 #e ,l41 ! ,ox 7,bos taurus7 #ac ,d41 #f ,l41 ! ,camel 7,camelus drom$>ius7 #ab ,d4 & #g ,l4 7#d7 ,next foll[s ! sacrum1 :i* consi/s ( a v>y+ numb] ( coalesc$ v]tebr4 ,! numb] ( sacral v]tebr v>ies f #b to #ac1 b is usually f #c to #e4 7#e7 ,f9ally1 !re are ! caudal v]tebr1 or ^? ( ! tail1 :i* are extremely v>iable 9 numb] & size1 dep5d+ ^u ! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! tail4 ,we mu/ next consid] briefly "s ( ! /ructural features :i* *>act]ize ! v]tebr ( ! diff]5t regions4 7#a7 ,! l5g? ( ! neck v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t mammals &1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 flexibility increases ) l5g?1 b1 z ! numb] ( #g c]vicals is almo/ univ]sally con/ant among mammals & ! l5g!n+ ( ! neck is accompli%$ by an elongation ( ! individual v]tebr1 a po9t is ev5tually rea*$1 :]e great] l5g? is accompani$ by a dim9ution ( mobility4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! ,giraffe ! movem5ts ( ! neck are r /iff & awkw>d1 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! graceful flexibility ( ! ,swan's neck1 :i* has #bc v]tebr1 m ?an ?ree times z _m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,atlas ( ,wolf1 ant]ior end & left side4 cot41 ant]ior cotyles4 n4c41 neural canal4 n4a41 neural ar*4 tr41 transv]se process4 v4a41 po/]ior op5+ ( ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y4 ,! fir/ two c]vical v]tebr are especially & peculi>ly modifi$1 9 ord] to support ! skull & give to x ! necess>y degree ( mobility ^u ! neck4 ,! fir/ v]tebra1 or atlas1 is h>dly m ?an a r+ ( bone ) a pair ( oval1 cuplike depressions 7ant]ior cotyles7 ^u ! ant]ior face 7sup]ior 9 ,man7 into :i* are fitt$ ! occipital condyles ( ! skull4 ,by ! roll+ ( ! condyles ^u ! atlas is effect$ ! nodd+ movem5t ( ! head1 upw>d & d[nw>d1 b n f side to side2 ?is latt] movem5t is accompli%$ by ! p>tial rotation ( skull & atlas toge!r ^u ! second v]tebra 9 a mann] pres5tly to be expla9$4 ,on ! h9d] aspect are two articul> surfaces 7po/]ior cotyles7 9 %ape l ! ant]ior pair1 b v mu* less concave1 :i* are 9 contact ) correspond+ surfaces on ! second v]tebra4 ,! neural ar* ( ! atlas is broad & l[ & ! neural canal is app>5tly mu* too l>ge = ! sp9al cord1 b1 9 fact1 only a "p ( ! circul> op5+ belongs to ! neural canal4 ,9 life1 ! op5+ is divid$ by a transv]se ligam5t into an upp] portion1 ! true neural canal1 & a l[] portion1 :i* lodges a projection f ! second v]tebra4 ,! atlas usually has no neural sp9e & nev] a prom95t "o2 ! transv]se processes are broad1 w+-l plates & ea* is p]=at$ by a small canal1 :i* transmits ! v]tebral art]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,axis ( ,wolf1 left side4 od4p4 odontoid process4 cot41 ant]ior cotyles4 n4a41 neural ar*4 n4sp41 neural sp9e4 pt4z41 po/]ior zygapophyses4 tr41 transv]se process4 v4a41 ant]ior op5+ ( canal = ! v]tebral art]y4 v4a41 po/]ior op5+ ( ! same4 ,! second v]tebra1 or axis1 is a little m l ! ord9>y v]tebra1 hav+ a def9ite & usually elongate c5trum1 on ! ant]ior end ( :i* are ! two articul> surfaces = ! atlas4 ,betwe5 ^! is a prom95t projection1 ! odontoid process1 :i* fits into ! r+ ( ! atlas & has a special articulation ) ! l[] b> ( t r+4 ,9 mo/ mammals ! odontoid process is a bluntly conical peg1 v>y+ m]ely 9 l5g? & ?ickness1 b 9 _m long-neck$ =ms ! peg is conv]t$ into a semicyl9drical sp\t1 convex on ! l[] side & concave above4 ,! neural sp9e ( ! axis is almo/ always a relatively l>ge1 hat*et-%ap$ plate1 :i* is mo/ develop$ 9 ! c>nivor\s =ms1 & ! transv]se processes are commonly sl5d] rods4 ,! five succe$+ c]vical v]tebr are mu* alike1 ?\gh ea* "o has a c]ta9 individuality1 by :i* its place 9 ! s]ies may readily be det]m9$4 ,! c5trum has a convex ant]ior & concave po/]ior face1 :i* 9 long-neck$ animals =m regul> 8ball & socket0 jo9ts2 neural sp9es are frequ5tly want+ &1 :5 pres5t1 are almo/ always %ort & sl5d]2 ! zygapophyses are v prom95t & are c>ri$ on projections :i* ext5d be=e & beh9d ! neural ar*2 ! transv]se processes are long1 ?9 plates &1 except 9 ! sev5? c]vical1 are usually pi]c$ by ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y1 b 9 a few =ms 7e4g4 ! camels7 ?is canal pi]ces ! neural ar*4 7#b7 ,! dorsal or ?oracic v]tebr h m or less cyl9drical c5tra1 ) ne>ly flat faces1 & on ! c5tra1 = ! mo/ "p at _! ends1 are ! concave facets = ! rib-heads4 ,! transv]se processes are %ort & rod-l & mo/ ( !m articulate ) ! tub]cles ( ! ribs4 ,! zygapophyses are small] ?an 9 ! c]vical region1 less prom95t & less oblique2 ! ant]ior pair1 on ! front ( ! neural ar*1 face upw>d & ! po/]ior pair d[nw>d4 ,! neural sp9es are v mu* long] ?an ^? ( ! neck & ^? ( ! ant]ior dorsals are (t5 ( relatively enorm\s l5g?1 dim9i%+ t[>d ! h9d] "p ( ! region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,fif? c]vical v]tebra ( ,wolf1 left side4 tr41 transv]se process4 v4a41 po/]ior op5+ ( canal = ! v]tebral art]y4 pr4z4 & pt4z41 ant]ior & po/]ior zygapophyses4 n4sp41 neural sp9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,fir/ dorsal v]tebra ( ,wolf1 left side4 c41 c5trum4 r41 ant]ior rib-facet4 r41 po/]ior rib-facet4 tr41 transv]se process4 pr4z4 pt4z41 ant]ior & po/]ior zygapophyses4 n4sp41 neural sp9e4 7#c7 ,! lumb> v]tebr are almo/ always heavi] & l>g] ?an ^? ( ! dorsal region2 !y c>ry no ribs & _! neural sp9es & transv]se processes are broad & plate-l & ! latt] are f> l>g] & m prom95t ?an ^? ( ! dorsals4 ,z an especial degree ( /r5g? is frequ5tly call$ = 9 ! lo9s1 toge!r ) a great] flexibility ?an is ne$$ 9 ! dorsal region1 ! modes ( articulation betwe5 ! successive v]tebr are m complex1 sometimes1 z 9 ! ,ed5tata1 mo/ elaborately s4 ,tak+ ! dorso-lumb>s1 or trunk-v]tebr1 z a s+le s]ies1 we may note t 9 a few mammals 7e4g4 ! elephants7 all ! neural sp9es h a backw>d slope1 b 9 ! great majority ( =ms ?is backw>d incl9ation ceases ne> ! h9d] end ( ! dorsal region1 :]e !re is "o v]tebra ) erect sp9e1 :ile beh9d ?is po9t ! sp9es slope =w>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,?ird lumb> v]tebra ( ,wolf1 front end & left side4 tr41 transv]se process4 cn41 c5trum4 pr4z4 & pt4z41 ant]ior & po/]ior zygapophyses4 n4sp41 neural sp9e4 7#d7 ,! sacral v]tebr1 v>y+ f #b to #ac 9 numb]1 are fus$ toge!r solidly into "o piece1 ! comb9$ c5tra =m+ a heavy mass & ! neural canals a cont9u\s tube1 :ile ! neural sp9es are unit$ into a ridge4 ,z a rule1 only ! fir/ two v]tebr ( ! sacrum are 9 contact ) ! hip-bones1 to support :i* !y h develop$ special processes1 ! rema9d] ( ! mass project+ freely backw>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,sacrum ( ,wolf1 upp] side4 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 fir/1 second & ?ird sacral v]tebr4 pl41 surface = atta*m5t to hip-bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,caudal v]tebr ( ,wolf1 f ant]ior & middle p>ts ( ! tail4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #ae4 7#e7 ,! caudal v]tebr v>y greatly1 9 accordance ) ! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! tail4 ,9 an animal ) well-develop$ tail sev]al ( ! ant]ior caudals h ! p>ts & processes ( a typical v]tebra1 c5trum1 neural ar* & sp9e1 zygapophyses & transv]se processes4 ,po/]iorly1 ^! gradually dim9i%1 until only ! c5trum is left1 ) l[ knobs or ridges1 :i* are ! remnants ( ! v>i\s processes4 ,a v>y+ numb] ( long1 cyl9drical c5tra1 dim9i%+ backw>d 9 l5g? & diamet]1 complete ! caudal region & ! v]tebral column4 ,9 "s mammals1 *evron bones are atta*$ to ! "u side ( ! ant]ior & middle caudals2 ^! are =k$1 ,y-%ap$ bones1 :i* =m a canal = ! transmission ( ! great blood-vessels ( ! tail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,ribs ( ,wolf f ant]ior & middle p>ts ( ! ?orax4 cp41 head1 t41 tub]cle4 ,! ribs1 :i* are movably atta*$ to ! backbone1 toge!r ) ! dorsal v]tebr & brea/-bone1 compose ! ?orax1 or *e/4 ,! articulation ) ! v]tebr is by means ( a r\nd$ head2 9 mo/ cases ! head has two di/9ct facets1 ! pit be+ =m$ half on ! h9d] bord] ( "o dorsal v]tebra & half on ! front bord] ( ! next succe$+ "o1 b po/]iorly ! pit is (t5 %ift$1 s z to be on a s+le v]tebra4 ,a second articulation is by means ( ! tub]cle1 a smoo? project+ facet on ! convexity ( ! rib's curvature & ne> ! head2 ! tub]cle articulates ) ! transv]se process ( its v]tebra4 ,! ribs1 9 g5]al1 are curv$ b>s ( bone1 :i* 9 small mammals g5]ally & 9 ! claw$ ord]s are sl5d] & rod-l1 :ile 9 ! ho($ mammals !y are broad]1 ?9n] & m plate-l1 especially ! ant]ior ones4 ,! numb] ( pairs ( ribs is mo/ commonly #ac1 b ranges among exi/+ mammals f #i 9 c]ta9 :ales to #bd 9 ! ,two-to$ ,slo? 7,*olpus didactylus74 ,! complex curvature ( ! ribs1 outw>d & backw>d1 is su* t1 :5 !y are drawn =w>d 79 ,man upw>d7 by muscul> action1 ! cavity ( ! ?orax is enl>g$ & air is drawn into ! lungs1 & :5 !y are all[$ to fall back1 ! cavity is dim9i%$ & ! air expell$4 ,bel[1 a v>y+ numb] ( ! ribs are connect$ by ! c>tilages 9 :i* !y t]m9ate ) ! brea/-bone 7/]num72 sometimes ^! c>tilages are ossifi$ & !n =m ! /]nal ribs1 b !re is always a flexible jo9t betwe5 ! latt] & ! true ribs4 ,9 c]ta9 ed5tates1 notably ! anteat]s & ! ext9ct gr\nd-slo?s1 ^! /]nal ribs1 at _! l[] ends1 are provid$ ) head & tub]cle1 = articulation ) ! /]num4 ,! /]num1 or brea/-bone1 is made up ( a numb] ( di/9ct segm5ts1 usually broad & flat1 b (t5 cyl9drical1 :i* may unite1 b f> m commonly rema9 sep>ate ?r\gh\t life4 ,! numb]1 size & =m ( ^! segm5ts (t5 give useful *>act]s 9 classification4 ,! fir/ segm5t1 or manubrium1 has q a diff]5t %ape f ! succe$+ ones & is consid]ably long]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,/]num & rib-c>tilages ( ,wolf1 l[] side4 ,p4,s41 manubrium4 ,x4,s41 xiphi/]num4 ,,ii4 ,! app5dicul> skeleton consi/s ( ! limb-girdles & ! bones ( ! limbs & feet4 ,! limb-girdles are ! means ( atta*+ ! movable limbs to ! body1 s z to comb9e ! necess>y mobility ) /r5g?4 ,! ant]ior1 or %\ld]-girdle1 has no direct articulation ) ! v]tebral column1 b is held 9 place by muscles2 x is made up ( ! %\ld]-blade & coll>-bone1 ?\gh v _m mammals h lo/ ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,left scapula ( ,wolf4 gl41 gl5oid cavity4 c41 coracoid4 ac41 acromion4 sp4 sp9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,left scapula ( ,horse4 ,?is figure is mu* m r$uc$ ?an ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,left scapula ( ,man 9 position ( walk+ on all f\rs4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bj4 ,! %\ld]-blade1 or scapula1 is a broad1 ?91 plate-l bone1 :i* contracts bel[ to a mu* n>r[] neck1 end+ 9 a concave articul> surface1 ! gl5oid cavity1 = ! head ( ! upp] arm-bone1 ! two toge!r mak+ ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,on ! out] side ! blade is divid$ into two p>ts by a prom95t ridge1 ! sp9e1 :i* typically ends bel[ 9 a m or less conspicu\s projection1 ! acromion1 :i* may1 h[ev]1 be abs5t1 its prom95ce be+1 g5]ally speak+1 correlat$ ) ! pres5ce ( ! coll> bone4 ,a hook-l process1 ! coracoid1 rises f ! ant]o-int]nal side ( ! gl5oid cavity & v>ies greatly 9 size 9 ! diff]5t gr\ps ( mammals2 ?\gh x usually appe>s to be m]ely a process ( ! scapula1 ) :i* x is indi/+ui%ably fus$1 yet its developm5t %[s x to be a sep>ate elem5t & 9 ! l[e/ mammals 7,proto!ria71 z 9 ! reptiles & l[] v]tebrates g5]ally1 x is a l>ge & important "p ( ! %\ld]-girdle & articulates ) ! /]num4 ,! coll>-bone1 or clavicle1 is a complexly curv$ b>1 :i*1 :5 pres5t & fully develop$1 ext5ds f ! =w>d end ( ! /]num to ! acromion1 ! project+ l[] end ( ! scapul> sp9e1 support+ & /r5g!n+ ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,9 _m mammalian ord]s1 notably all exi/+ ho($ animals1 ! clavicle has become sup]flu\s & is lo/ m or less completely2 x may be said1 9 g5]al1 t ! clavicle is develop$ 9 proportion to ! fre$om ( motion ( ! %\ld]-jo9t & to ! p[] ( rotation ( ! h& ^u ! arm4 ,9 arboreal animals1 su* z monkeys1 9 :i* ! h& rotates freely & ! arm moves 9 any direction on ! %\ld]1 ! clavicle is l>ge & fully develop$1 z x also is 9 ,man4 ,_m burr[+ mammals 7e4g4 ! moles7 h v /\t clavicles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,left clavicle ( ,man1 front side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,left hip-bone ( ,wolf4 ,il41 ilium4 ,is41 is*ium4 ,p41 pubis4 ac41 acetabulum4 ,! po/]ior1 or pelvic1 girdle is compos$ on ea* side ( a v l>ge1 irregul>ly %ap$ bone1 :i* is firmly atta*$ to "o or m ( ! coalesc$ v]tebr :i* =m ! sacrum & ?us af=ds a solid support to ! h9d leg4 ,ea* half ( ! pelvis1 or hip-bone1 is made up ( ?ree elem5ts1 call$ respectively ! ilium1 is*ium & pubis1 :i* are sep>ate 9 ! v "y animal1 indi/+ui%ably fus$ 9 ! adult4 ,! ?ree elem5ts unite 9 a deep1 hemisph]ical pit1 ! acetabulum1 :i* receives ! head ( ! ?igh-bone1 a p]fect example ( ! 8ball & socket jo9t40 ,9 ! inf]ior m$ian l9e ! two pubes meet & may become coalesc$1 9 a symphysis1 ! l5g? ( :i* diff]s 9 v>i\s mammals4 ,! pelvis & sacrum toge!r =m a %ort1 wide tube1 ! diamet] ( :i* is normally great] 9 ! female skeleton ?an 9 ! male4 ,! limbs are ea* divid$ into ?ree segm5ts1 :i* 9 ! ant]ior extremity are ! arm1 =e-arm & h& 7or =e foot7 & 9 ! po/]ior extremity are ! ?igh1 leg & foot 7or h9d foot71 & !re is a g5]al correspond5ce betwe5 ! /ructure ( ^! segm5ts 9 ! =e & h9d legs1 h[ev] great ! sup]ficial diff]5ce4 ,! bones ( ! limbs1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! feet1 are ! long bones &1 except 9 a few v l>ge & heavy mammals1 are ess5tially holl[ cyl9d]s1 ?us af=d+ ! maximum /r5g? = a giv5 weight ( bone2 ! cavity ( a long bone conta9s ! m>r[ & h5ce is call$ ! m$ull>y cavity4 ,9 ! "y mammal ea* ( ! long bones consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 ! %aft1 :i* makes up mu* ! great] "p ( ! l5g?1 & at ea* end a bony cap1 ! epiphysis4 ,gr[? takes place by ! int]calation ( new mat]ial betwe5 ! %aft & ! epiphyses2 :5 ! ?ree p>ts unite1 gr[? ceases & ! animal is adult4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,left hum]us ( ,wolf1 f ! front & out] sides1 ! latt] some:at oblique4 h41 head4 int4t41 int]nal tub]osity4 ext4t41 ext]nal tub]osity4 bc41 bicipital groove4 dt41 deltoid ridge4 %41 %aft4 s41 sup9ator ridge4 int4 epi41 int]nal epicondyle4 s4f41 anconeal =am54 tr41 tro*lea4 tr41 tro*lea1 po/]ior side4 ext4 epi41 ext]nal epicondyle4 a4f41 anconeal fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,left hum]us ( ,horse1 front side4 i4t41 int]nal tub]osity4 ex4t41 ext]nal tub]osity4 bc41 out] "p ( bicipital groove4 dt41 deltoid ridge4 s41 sup9ator ridge4 tr41 tro*lea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,left hum]us ( ,man1 front side4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,! sup]ior segm5t ( ! =e limb has a s+le bone1 ! hum]us1 ! upp] end ( :i* is ! r\nd$1 convex head1 :i* fits into ! gl5oid cavity ( ! %\ld]-blade1 =m+ ! jo9t ( ! %\ld]2 9 front ( ! head are two prom95t & sometimes v l>ge projections = muscul> atta*m5t1 ! ext]nal & int]nal tub]osities1 sep>at$ by a groove1 9 :i* play ! two t5dons ( ! biceps muscle & is !re=e call$ ! bicipital groove4 ,9 a few mammals1 su* z ! ,horse1 ,camel & ,giraffe1 ! groove is divid$ into two by a m$ian tub]cle or ridge4 ,f ! ext]nal tub]osity !re g5]ally passes d[n ! front face ( ! %aft a r\gh & sometimes v prom95t ridge1 ! deltoid cre/1 to :i* is atta*$ ! p[]ful deltoid muscle4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! hum]us is ! tro*lea1 an irregul> half-cyl9d]1 = articulation ) ! two bones ( ! =e-arm & v>y+ 9 =m accord+ to ! relative sizes ( ^? bones4 ,on ea* side ( ! tro*lea is frequ5tly a r\gh prom95ce1 ! epicondyle1 & above ! inn] "o is1 9 _m mammals1 a p]=ation1 ! epicondyl> =am51 = ! passage ( a n]ve4 ,ext5d+ up ! %aft f ! out] epicondyle is a r\gh cre/1 ! sup9ator ridge1 to :i* is atta*$ "o ( ! muscles t rotate ! h& & is conspicu\sly develop$ 9 ^? mammals :i* h ! p[] ( m or less free rotation & especially 9 burr[]s4 ,on ! po/]ior face ( ! hum]us1 j above ! tro*lea1 is a l>ge1 deep pit1 ! anconeal fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,left =e-arm bones ( ,wolf1 front side4 ,r41 radius4 ,u41 ulna4 ol41 olecranon4 h41 head ( radius4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,left =e-arm bones ( ,man1 front side4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bh4 ,! small object at ! "r ( ea* figure is ! head ( ! radius1 se5 f above4 ,! two bones ( ! =e-arm1 ! radius & ulna1 are1 9 mo/ mammals1 entirely sep>ate f ea* o!r1 b 9 c]ta9 ( ! m highly specializ$ ho($ animals are immovably cossifi$4 ,primitively1 ! two bones 7 ( ne>ly equal size1 b 9 mo/ ( ! mammalian ord]s !re is a m or less well-def9$ t5d5cy = ! radius to enl>ge at ! exp5se ( ! ulna4 ,^! bones are normally cross$1 ! radius be+ ext]nal at ! upp] end & pass+ 9 front ( ! ulna to ! inn] side ( ! arm4 ,! radius v>ies consid]ably 9 =m 9 accordance ) ! uses to :i* ! h& is put2 if ! capacity ( rotation is reta9$1 ! upp] end1 or head1 ( ! radius is small1 circul> or disk-l1 cov]+ little ( ! hum]al tro*lea1 b :5 ! head ( ! radius is broad5$ to cov] ! :ole wid? ( ! hum]us1 !n all p[] ( rotation is lo/4 7,cf4 ,figs4 #bh & #bi47 ,z a rule1 ! radius broad5s d[nw>d & cov]s two-?irds or m ( ! bread? ( ! wri/-bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,cossifi$ bones ( left =e-arm ( ,horse1 front side4 ,= mo/ ( its l5g?1 ! ulna is conceal$ by ! radius4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,left =e-arm bones ( ! ,tapir 7,tapirus t]re/ris74 ,r41 radius4 ,u41 ulna4 h41 head ( radius4 h41 sigmoid not* ( ulna4 ol41 olecranon4 ,n4,b4 ,?is figure is on a mu* l>g] scale ?an ,fig4 #cj4 ,! ulna is long] ?an ! radius1 its upp] end be+ ext5d$ into a heavy process1 ! olecranon1 or anconeal process1 into :i* is ins]t$ ! t5don ( ! great triceps muscle1 ! contraction ( :i* /raight5s ! arm2 ?is process is ! bony projection at ! back ( ! elb[-jo9t4 ,bel[ ! olecranon is a semicircul> articul> concavity1 :i* embraces ! hum]al tro*lea & its upp] angle fits into ! anconeal fossa ( ! hum]us4 ,! ulna contracts & gr[s m sl5d] d[nw>ds & its l[] end cov]s b "o ( ! wri/-bones4 ,:ile 9 ! m primitive mammals1 & 9 ^? :i* reta9 ! p[] ( rotat+ ! h&1 ! ulna has ne>ly or q ! same ?ickness z ! radius1 x is (t5 mu* m sl5d] & 9 ! m highly specializ$ ( ! ho($ animals1 su* z ! horses1 camels & true rum9ants1 ! radius c>ries ! entire weight & ! ulna has become v sl5d]1 m or less ( its middle portion is lo/ & ! two ends are cossifi$ ) ! radius1 s t ! =e-arm appe>s to h b a s+le bone4 ,! rev]se process ( enl>g+ ! ulna & r$uc+ ! radius is v r>e & practically conf9$ to ! elephant tribe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,left manus ( ,wolf1 front side4 ,,sl41 scapho-lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,pis41 pisi=m4 ,tm41 trapezium4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,u41 unci=m4 ,mc4 ,i-,v1 fir/ to fif? metac>pals4 ,ph4 #a1 fir/ phalanx4 ,ph4 #b1 second phalanx4 ,ung41 ungual phalanx4 ,i1 fir/ digit1 or pollex4 ,,ii-,v1 second to fif? digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,left manus ( ,man4 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal 7pisi=m n %[n74 ,tm41 trapezium4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,un41 unci=m4 ,! =e foot1 or h&1 = :i* ! t]m manus may be conv5i5tly employ$1 is divisible into ?ree p>ts1 correspond+ 9 ourselves to ! wri/1 back & palm ( ! h&1 & ! f+]s4 ,! bones ( ! wri/ con/itute ! c>pus1 ^? ( ! back & palm ! metac>pus1 & ^? ( ! f+]s ! phalanges4 ,! c>pus consi/s primitively ( n9e di/9ct bones1 ?\gh "o ( ^!1 z w be %[n lat]1 is n a true c>pal4 ,^! bones are ( a r\nd$1 subangul> %ape1 closely appress$ toge!r1 ) v little movem5t betwe5 !m1 & are arrang$ 9 two transv]se r[s4 ,! upp] r[ conta9s f\r bones1 :i* enum]at+ f ! inn] side are ! scaphoid1 lun>1 pyramidal 7or cunei=m7 & pisi=m4 ,! scaphoid & lun> support ! radius1 :ile ! ulna re/s ^u ! pyramidal4 ,! pisi=m1 ?\gh v con/antly pres5t1 is n a true c>pal1 b an ossification 9 ! t5don ( "o ( ! flexor muscles1 :i* close ! f+]s2 x projects m or less prom95tly backw>d & articulates ) ! ulna & pyramidal4 ,! second r[ is also made up ( f\r bones1 :i*1 f )9 outw>d1 are ! trapezium1 trapezoid1 magnum & unci=m4 ,! relations ( ! two r[s v>y mu* 9 diff]5t mammals & ! arrangem5t may be s]ial or alt]nat+2 ?us1 ! scaphoid re/s ^u ! trapezium & trapezoid & usually cov]s "p ( ! magnum2 ! lun> may re/ ^u ! magnum only1 b v mu* m frequ5tly is equally support$ by ! magnum & unci=m & ! pyramidal by ! latt] only4 ,! n9? c>pal is ! c5tral1 :i*1 :5 pres5t & di/9ct1 is a small bone1 w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! two r[s4 ,few exi/+ mammals h a sep>ate c5tral1 :i*1 ?\gh pres5t 9 ! embryo1 has coalesc$ ) ! scaphoid 9 ! great majority ( =ms4 ,9 ! m advanc$ & diff]5tiat$ mammals ! numb] ( c>pals may be consid]ably r$uc$ by ! cossification ( c]ta9 elem5ts or ! complete suppression & loss ( o!rs4 ,9 all exi/+ ,c>nivora & a few o!r mammals ! scaphoid & lun> are unit$ 9 a comp\nd elem5t1 ! scapho-lun> 7or1 m accurately1 ! scapho-lun>-c5tral72 ho($ animals ) a dim9i%$ numb] ( toes g5]ally lose ! trapezium1 & o!r comb9ations occur4 ,! second r[ ( c>pals c>ries ! metac>pals1 & primitively ! trapezium1 trapezoid & magnum are atta*$ ea* to "o metac>pal & ! unci=m has two4 ,! metac>pus consi/s typically ( five memb]s1 a numb] :i* is nev] exce$$ 9 any normal t]re/rial mammal2 ! memb]s are numb]$ f ! inn] side1 beg9n+ ) ! ?umb or pollex1 f ,i to ,v4 ,_m mammals h few] ?an five metac>pals1 :i* may numb] f\r1 ?ree1 two or only "o2 ! ?ird is nev] lo/1 b any or all ( ! o!rs may be suppress$1 & functionless rudim5ts ( !m may long p]si/ z spl9ts or nodules4 ,! metac>pals are elongate1 relatively sl5d] & ( m or less cyl9drical %ape2 b ! =m v>ies consid]ably 9 diff]5t gr\ps1 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* ! h& is us$4 ,:5 employ$ = grasp+1 z 9 _m arboreal animals & pre-em95tly 9 ,man1 ! pollex is frequ5tly opposable to ! o!r f+]s & enjoys mu* fre$om ( motion4 ,9 ! camels & true rum9ants ! ?ird & f\r? metac>pals are cossifi$ to =m a cannon-bone 7see ,fig4 #dc1 p4 #ia71 b ! m>r[ cavities & ! jo9ts = ! phalanges rema9 sep>ate4 ,! phalanges 9 l& mammals nev] exce$ ?ree 9 ea* digit1 except ! pollex1 :i*1 :5 pres5t & fully develop$1 has b two4 ,! phalanges are usually sl5d] 9 proportion to _! l5g?1 b 9 v heavy ho($ animals !y are %ort & massive4 ,! t]m9al jo9t is ! ungual phalanx1 :i* c>ries ! nail1 claw1 or ho(1 its %ape v>y+ accord+ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,left femur ( ,wolf1 front side4 h41 head4 gt4tr41 great tro*ant]4 tr4 #b1 second tro*ant]4 int4 con41 int]nal condyle4 r4g41 rotul> groove1 ext4 con41 ext]nal condyle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,left femur ( ,horse4 tr4 #c1 ?ird tro*ant]4 ,o!r lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #cd1 ?an :i* ?is draw+ is v mu* m r$uc$4 ,! h9d leg is con/itut$ 9 v mu* ! same mann] z ! =e1 b ) c]ta9 well-m>k$ & con/ant diff]5ces4 ,! ?igh-bone1 or femur1 is usually ! longe/ & /\te/ ( ! limb-bones & 9 v l>ge animals may be extremely massive4 ,at ! upp] end is ! hemisph]ical head1 :i* is set ^u a di/9ct neck & projects inw>d & upw>d1 fitt+ into ! acetabulum ( ! hip-bone4 ,ne>ly all l& mammals h a small pit on ! head ( ! femur1 9 :i* is ins]t$ "o end ( ! r\nd ligam5t1 :ile ! o!r end is atta*$ 9 a correspond+ depression 9 ! floor ( ! acetabulum4 ,?is ligam5t helps to hold ! ?igh-bone firmly 9 place & yet all[s ! necess>y fre$om ( movem5t4 ,on ! out] side ( ! upp] end ( ! femur is a l>ge1 r\gh5$ protub]ance1 :i* (t5 rises high] ?an ! head & is call$ ! great tro*ant]2 ano!r1 ! second or less] tro*ant]1 is a small1 m or less conical prom95ce on ! inn] side ( ! %aft1 bel[ ! head4 ,^! two processes are well-nigh univ]sal among l& mammals2 & 9 a few ( ! ord]s occurs ! ?ird tro*ant]1 :i* arises f ! out] side ( ! %aft1 usually at or above ! middle ( its l5g?4 ,?\gh comp>atively r>e 9 ! mod]n _w1 ! ?ird tro*ant] is an important feature1 & ! e>ly memb]s ( mo/1 if n all1 ( ! mammalian ord]s possess$ x4 ,! %aft ( ! femur is elongate &1 except 9 c]ta9 v bulky mammals1 ( ne>ly cyl9drical %ape4 ,! l[] end ( ! bone is ?ick & heavy & be>s on ! po/]ior side two l>ge1 r\nd$ prom95ces1 ! condyles1 :i* articulate ) ! %9-bone to =m ! knee-jo9t4 ,on ! ant]ior side is a broad1 %all[ groove1 ! rotul> groove1 9 :i* glides ! patella1 or knee-cap4 ,! patella is a l>ge ossification1 ( v>y+ %ape1 9 ! t5don common to ! f\r great ext5sor muscles ( ! ?igh1 ! action ( :i* is to /raight5 ! leg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,left femur ( ,wolf1 inside ( l[] end4 ext4 con41 ext]nal condyle4 int4 con41 int]nal condyle4 r4g41 rotul> groove4 ,above1 are two views ( ! left patella1 ant]ior & int]nal sides4 ,! l[] leg1 l ! =e-arm1 has two bones1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are always p>allel1 nev] cross$1 & h no p[] ( rotation4 ,( ^!1 ! inn] "o is ! %9-bone1 or tibia1 :i* is always ! l>g] & alone ent]s into ! knee-jo9t4 ,! ext]nal bone is ! fibula1 :i* is almo/ entirely suppress$ 9 c]ta9 highly specializ$ =ms1 su* z ! horses & rum9ants1 ! tibia c>ry+ ! :ole weight4 ,! upp] end ( ! tibia is enl>g$ & ext5ds ov] t ( ! fibula2 x has two slightly concave surfaces = articulation ) ! condyles ( ! femur1 ! approximate edges ( :i* are rais$ into a bifid sp9e4 ,! upp] "p ( ! %aft is triangul>1 ) "o edge direct$ =w>d1 & ! sup]ior end ( ?is edge is r\gh5$ & ?ick5$ to =m ! cnemial cre/1 to :i* is atta*$ ! patell> ligam5t4 ,! middle portion ( ! %aft is r\nd$ & ! l[] end broad & usually divid$ by a ridge into two grooves or concavities = ! ankle-bone2 f ! inn] side ( ?is end projects d[nw>d a tongue-l process1 ! int]nal malleolus1 :i* prev5ts inw>d dislocation ( ! ankle4 ,! fibula is relatively /\te/ 9 ! less advanc$ mammals & is usually /raight & sl5d]1 ) enl>g$ ends1 ! l[] "o =m+ ! ext]nal malleolus1 :i* s]ves to prev5t outw>d dislocation ( ! ankle4 ,9 _m =ms ! fibula is cossifi$ ) ! tibia at bo? ends1 & 9 ! mo/ highly specializ$ ho($ animals1 su* z ! horses1 camels & true rum9ants1 ! bone has app>5tly disappe>$4 ,! "y animal1 h[ev]1 %[s t ! ends ( ! fibula h be5 reta9$ & ! %aft completely lo/2 ! upp] end is 9 ! adult firmly fus$ ) ! tibia &1 9 ! horses1 ! l[] end is also1 b ?is rema9s sep>ate 9 ! rum9ants & camels1 =m+ ! malleol> bone1 :i* is w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! tibia & ! heel-bone4 ,because ( its importance 9 hold+ ! ankle-bone 9 place1 ?is l[] end ( ! fibula is nev] lo/ 9 any l& mammal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,bones ( left l[] leg ( ,wolf1 front side4 ,t41 tibia4 ,f41 fibula4 sp4 sp9e ( tibia4 cn4 cnemial cre/4 i4m41 int]nal malleolus4 e4m41 ext]nal malleolus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,bones ( left l[] leg ( ,horse 7mu* m r$uc$74 cn4 cnemial cre/4 ,f41 l[] end ( fibula1 cossifi$ ) tibia4 ,o!r lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,bones ( l[] leg1 left side1 ( ,tapir4 ,t41 tibia4 ,f41 fibula4 sp41 sp9e ( tibia4 cn41 cnemial cre/4 i4m41 int]nal malleolus4 e4m41 ext]nal malleolus4 ,n4,b4 ,?is figure is on a mu* l>g] scale ?an ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,left pes ( ,wolf1 front side4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,*41 cuboid4 ,cn4 #a1 ,cn4 #b1 ,cn4 #c1 int]nal1 middle & ext]nal cunei=ms4 ,mt4 ,i1 rudim5t>y fir/ metat>sal4 ,mt4 ,,ii-,v1 second to fif? metat>sals4 ,ph4 #a1 fir/ phalanx4 ,ph4 #b1 second phalanx4 ,ung41 ungual phalanx4 ,i1 rudim5t>y hallux4 ,,ii-,v1 second to fif? digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,left pes ( ,man4 ,note ! l>ge size ( ,mt4 ,i1 ! metat>sal ( ! fir/ digit1 or hallux4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #dj1 except ,cb41 cuboid4 ,! h9d foot1 or pes1 l ! manus1 is cle>ly divisible into ?ree p>ts1 ! bones ( :i* are call$ respectively ! t>sus1 metat>sus & phalanges1 & ! correspond5ce 9 /ructure betwe5 manus & pes is close & obvi\s4 ,! t>sus consi/s typically ( sev5 bones1 :i* are tightly pack$ & r>ely p]mit any movem5t betwe5 !m4 ,! upp] r[ ( ! t>sus consi/s ( two bones1 :i* are peculi>ly modifi$ to =m ! ankle-jo9t & heel2 on ! inn] side is ! ankle-bone1 or a/ragalus1 ! %ape ( :i* is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! v>i\s mammalian ord]s4 ,! upp] or po/]ior portion ( ! a/ragalus1 accord+ to ! position ( ! foot1 is a pulley :i* glides ^u ! l[] end ( ! tibia & is held firmly 9 place by ! int]nal & ! ext]nal malleolus4 ,bel[ ! pulley-l surface ! a/ragalus usually contracts to a n>r[ neck1 :i* ends 9 a flat or convex head4 ,! a/ragalus is support$ beh9d 7or b5ea?7 by ! heel-bone1 or calcaneum1 :i* is elongate & ext5ds well above 7or beh9d7 ! rema9d] ( ! t>sus2 x frequ5tly has a di/9ct articulation ) ! fibula1 b m commonly is n 9 contact ) t bone4 ,! a/ragalus re/s ^u ! navicul>1 :i* is m\ld$ to fit its head & corresponds 9 position to ! c5tral ( ! c>pus1 b1 unlike t c>pal1 x is a v important elem5t & is nev] suppress$ or lo/ 9 any l& mammal4 ,! navicul>1 9 turn1 re/s ^u ?ree bones ( ! second r[1 :i* are call$ respectively ! int]nal1 middle & ext]nal cunei=m1 :i* correspond to ! trapezium1 trapezoid & magnum ( ! c>pus & to :i* are atta*$ ! ?ree inn] metat>sals1 "o to ea*4 ,f9ally1 ! cuboid1 ! ext]nal elem5t ( ! second r[1 is a l>ge bone1 :i* supports ! calcaneum & (t5 "p ( ! a/ragalus & to :i* ! f\r? & fif? metat>sals are atta*$2 x is ! equival5t ( ! unci=m 9 ! manus4 ,! numb] ( t>sals is m con/ant ?an t ( ! c>pals1 b "s suppressions & cossifications d occur4 ,! long bones ( ! pes con/itute ! metat>sus1 :i* is ! c\nt]p>t ( ! metac>pus4 ,!re are nev] m ?an five metat>sals 9 any normal mammal1 b !re may be any numb] less ?an five1 d[n to a s+le "o4 ,9 =m & size ! metat>sals ( any giv5 mammal are usually s l ! metac>pals1 t x requires "s exp]i5ce to di/+ui% !m1 b :5 ei!r manus or pes is especially adapt$ to "s p>ticul> k9d ( "w1 !re may be v decid$ diff]5ces betwe5 metat>sals & metac>pals4 ,= example1 ! burr[+ =efoot ( ! moles is v diff]5t f ! h9d foot1 :i* has und]gone b little modification1 & ev5 m /rik+ is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! w+ ( a bat & its foot4 ,_m o!r in/ances ( a less extreme div]g5ce might be enum]at$1 b :5 manus & pes are us$ only = locomotion1 z 9 ne>ly all ho($ animals & _m o!r mammals1 ! metac>pals & metat>sals are v simil>4 ,:5 !re is a diff]5ce 9 numb]1 x is ! g5]al rule t !re are few] metat>sals2 an in/ance ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! tapirs1 :i* h f\r toes 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d4 ,=ms :i* h a cannon-bone 9 ! manus h x also 9 ! pes1 & "s1 l ! pecc>ies & ! jump+ rod5ts call$ j]boas1 h x only 9 ! pes4 ,! fir/ 7or inn]7 metat>sal1 t ( ! great toe1 or hallux1 is sometimes opposable to ! o!rs1 z 9 ! monkeys1 apes & lemurs4 ,! ^w metapodial is a useful g5]al t]m :i* includes bo? metac>pals & metat>sals4 ,a metapodial ) its phalanges is a digit1 a t]m (t5 employ$ because ( ! ambiguity :i* arises 9 ! use ( ! words 8f+]s0 & 8toes10 & is applicable to bo? =e & h9d feet4 ,normally1 ! phalanges ( ! pes are s l ^? ( ! manus z to require no p>ticul> description2 & only :5 ! two pairs ( extremities are specializ$ = entirely diff]5t functions1 is !re any notable div]g5ce betwe5 ! phalanges ( manus & pes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,left pes ( ,black ,be> 7,ursus am]icanus71 %[+ ! plantigrade gait4 ,t41 tibia4 ,f41 fibula4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #c1 ext]nal cunei=m4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,mt4 ,v41 fif? metat>sal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,left pes ( ,patagonian ,de] 7,hippocamelus bisulcus71 %[+ ! unguligrade gait4 ,t41 tibia4 ,f41 l[] end ( fibula 7malleol> bone74 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n4,cb41 cossifi$ cuboid & navicul>4 ,mt4 ,,iii1 ,mt4 ,,iv1 cannon-bone1 =m$ by ! cossification ( ! ?ird & f\r? metat>sals4 ,v41 ,rudim5t>y fif? digit4 ,be=e leav+ ! subject ( ! skeleton1 x w be well to expla9 ! t]ms us$ 9 describ+ ! gait & mann] ( us+ ! feet4 ,:5 ! entire sole ( ! foot is 9 contact ) ! gr\nd & weight is ?r[n ^u ! heel-bone1 or calcaneum1 ! gait is said to be plantigrade & is exemplifi$ 9 ,man1 be>s1 raccoons & _m o!r mammals4 ,! ,dog is digitigrade1 t is to say1 ! feet 9 ! /&+ position are ne>ly erect & ! wri/ & heel are rais$ high above ! gr\nd2 ! weight is borne ^u ball-l pads1 "o "u ! phalanges ( ea* functional digit & "o "u ! metapodials4 ,! digitigrade gait is f\nd n only 9 all ! dogs & cats1 b 9 _m o!r ,c>nivora & 9 ! camels & llamas1 z well4 ,transitions betwe5 ! plantigrade & digitigrade gait are s num]\s & gradual1 t su* t]ms z semi-plantigrade & semi-digitigrade are sometimes necess>y4 ,an animal is said to be unguligrade :5 ! weight is c>ri$ entirely ^u ! ho(s & is us$ only ( ho($ animals2 examples are ! horses1 pigs1 de]1 antelopes1 ox51 etc4 ,! s-call$ 8knee0 ( a horse is really 8 wri/ & ! 8hock0 is ! heel1 s t ! feet make ne>ly half ! app>5t l5g? ( ! legs4 ,c]ta9 v l>ge & massive animals1 su* z ! rh9oc]oses & elephants1 are unguligrade 9 a modifi$ s5se2 ! foot is a heavy column1 seem+ly a "p ( ! leg1 & ! weight is borne ^u a great pad ( ela/ic tissue1 ) ! ho(s dispos$ ar\nd its p]iph]y4 ,a v peculi> mode ( locomotion is exemplifi$ by c]ta9 ( ! ,ed5tata1 9 ! =efoot ( ! exi/+ ,ant ,be> 7,myrmecophaga jubata7 & 9 bo? extremities ( "s ( ! lat] repres5tatives ( ! ext9ct gr\nd-slo?s1 or ,gravigrada4 ,"h ! weight is c>ri$ ^u ! out] edge ( ! foot1 ! palm & sole be+ turn$ inw>d4 ,no t]m has be5 sugge/$ = ?is v exceptional gait1 :i* is a modifi$ =m ( plantigradism4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,tee? ,x 0 po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,ii 7p4 #ch7 t v (t5 ! tee? are all t rema9s to u ( ext9ct g5]a & species ( mammals1 & x may be fur!r not$ t ! tee? are v *>act]i/ic & (t5 suffice to fix ! sy/ematic position ( a g5us4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! tee? play su* an uncommonly important "p z fossils & are s pre-em95tly useful to ! palontologi/1 x is necess>y to give "s g5]al acc\nt ( !m4 ,among ! mammals ! tee? display a v great v>iety ( size & =m 9 accordance ) ! mann] 9 :i* !y are us$4 ,prim>ily1 ! function ( ! tee? is to seize & ma/icate food1 & ! k9d ( food habitually eat5 by any animal is well indicat$ by ! =m ( its tee?4 ,! bea/s ( prey h tee? adapt$ = %e>+ fle% & cru%+ bones2 plant-fe$]s h tee? fitt$ = cropp+ plants & triturat+ vegetable tissues2 insect-eat]s h tee? ) num]\s %>p-po9t$ cusps1 or x may be1 no tee? at all1 swall[+ )\t ma/ication ! insects :i* !y capture1 etc4 ,among animals t h simil> diet !re is v great diff]5ce 9 ! =m & elaborat5ess ( ! gr9d+ app>atus & x is (t5 possible to foll[ out ! /eps ( evolution>y *ange1 by :i*1 f simple beg9n+s1 a high degree ( complexity has be5 atta9$4 ,9 addition to ! uses ( ! tee? z organs ( ma/ication1 !y frequ5tly s]ve z weapons ( (f5ce or def5ce4 ,9 ! fle%-eat]s :i* capture liv+ prey !y are =midable (f5sive weapons1 & ! fangs ( ! ,lion or ! ,wolf are in/ances famili> to e "o2 b ! tusks ( ! elephants or ! hippopotamuses h no?+ to d ) ! tak+ ( prey4 ,sev]al ,old ,_w de]1 :i* h no antl]s or v small ones1 possess scimit>-l upp] tusks1 ) :i* !y are able to def5d !mselves v effectually4 ,9 ! l[] v]tebrates1 su* z reptiles & fi%es1 ! numb] ( tee? is usually indef9ite & !y cont9ue to be %$ & replac$1 z ne$$1 ?r\gh\t life2 b 9 ea* species ( mammal1 aside f abnormalities1 ! numb] is fix$ & con/ant4 ,mammalian tee? are v g5]ally divisible into f\r categories3 7#a7 ! incisors1 or front tee?1 :i* 9 ! upp] jaw are ins]t$ 9 ! premaxill>y bones1 7#b7 ! can9es1 or eye-tee?1 :i* are nev] m ?an "o on ea* side ( ea* jaw1 or f\r 9 all1 7#c7 ! premol>s1 call$ 9 ,man ! bicuspids1 ! ant]ior gr9d+ tee? :i* h pr$ecessors 9 ! milk-s]ies & 7#d7 ! mol>s1 ! po/]ior gr9d+ tee? :i* h no su* pr$ecessors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,d5tition ( ,wolf1 left side4 i4 #c1 ?ird incisor4 ,c41 can9e4 p4 #a1 fir/ premol>4 p4 #d1 f\r? premol>4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4 ,x is cu/om>y & conv5i5t to express ! numb]s & k9ds ( tee? ( a giv5 mammalian species by means ( a 8d5tal =mula02 = example1 9 ,man ! =mula is3 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b1 m #c_/c1 #b #cb2 ! reason = ! multiplication by two is t ! figures deal only ) "o side ( ! m\? & mu/ be d\bl$ to give ! sum total4 ,j because1 h[ev]1 ! two sides are alike1 x is usual to take ! d\bl+ = grant$4 ,writt5 out 9 full1 ! =mula means t ,man has two incisors1 "o can9e1 two premol>s & ?ree mol>s on ea* side ( ea* jaw1 ! horizontal l9e indicat+ ! division betwe5 upp] & l[] tee?4 ,! numb] ( tee? is frequ5tly n ! same 9 ! upp] & l[] jaws2 = in/ance1 ! =mula = ! ,%eep is3 i #j_/c1 c #j_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cb2 ! total is ! same z 9 ,man1 b ! arrangem5t is entirely diff]5t4 ,! mean+ is t 9 ! ,%eep !re are no upp] incisors or can9es1 b ?ree incisors & a can9e are pres5t 9 ea* half ( ! l[] jaw1 ) ?ree premol>s & ?ree mol>s on ea* side above & bel[4 ,! ,dog gives /ill ano!r =mula3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #b_/c1 #b #db4 ,:at is call$ ! typical =mula = ! high] t]re/rial mammals above ! grade ( ! m>supials & :i* is b r>ely exce$$1 is i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dd1 ?\gh mo/ exi/+ mammals h few] tee? ?an ?is4 ,comp>$ ) ! typical =mula1 ! ,dog has lo/ b two tee?1 ! ?ird upp] mol> on ea* side1 :ile ,man & ! ,%eep h ea* lo/ twelve4 ,z e "o kn[s f 8 own exp]i5ce1 mammals normally h two sets ( tee?1 ! fir/1 tempor>y1 or milk-d5tition1 9 ! "y animal1 & ! second1 or p]man5t d5tition1 9 ! adult4 ,! milk-d5tition1 :5 fully develop$1 consi/s ( incisors1 can9es & premol>s1 :i* usually agree 9 numb]1 ?\gh (t5 n 9 =m1 ) ! p]man5t tee? :i* replace !m 9 ! adult4 ,! milk-tee? are frequ5tly m cons]vative ?an ! p]man5t ones & reta9 ance/ral *>act]s :i* h disappe>$ 9 ! adult s]ies1 ?us af=d+ welcome in=mation z to l9es ( desc5t & /eps ( evolution>y *ange4 ,:ile !re c be little d\bt t ! developm5t ( m ?an "o d5tition1 or set ( tee?1 is ! primitive condition among mammals & 0 d]iv$ by inh]itance f _! l[] v]tebrate ance/ors1 9 :i* !re 0 an indef9ite succession ( tee?2 yet !re are _m mammals 9 :i* ! milk-d5tition is greatly r$uc$ or altoge!r lo/4 ,9 "s1 ! milk-tee? are %$ & replac$ be=e bir?1 9 o!rs only ! g]ms ( ! milk-tee? are =m$ & nev] cut ! gum1 :ile 9 o!rs aga9 all traces ( ! tempor>y s]ies h vani%$4 ,?is complete loss ( ! milk-tee?1 l ! pres5ce ( a great numb] ( simple & simil> tee? 9 ! dolph9s & porpoises1 or ! total abs5ce ( tee?1 z 9 ! anteat]s & :alebone :ales1 is a second>y & d]ivative condition1 nev] a primitive "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd;,a4--,fir/ upp] mol>1 "r side ( ,de] 7,odocoileus74 ,on ! left1 ! ma/icat+ surface2 heavy black l9e1 enamel4 ,on ! "r1 ext]nal side1 %[+ cr[n & roots4 ,bra*yodont4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,fir/ upp] mol>1 left side1 ( a fossil horse 7,equus sp474 ,on ! "r1 ext]nal side4 ,on ! left1 ! gr9d+ surface1 %[+ two /ages ( we>4 ,heavy black l9e1 enamel2 :ite1 d5t9e2 %ad$1 cem5t4 ,hypsodont1 roots n yet =m$4 ,! /ructure ( mammalian tee? v>ies greatly1 f ! simple/ sl5d] cones to enorm\s & highly complicat$ app>atus1 &1 9 ord] to compreh5d ! significance ( ^! diff]5ces1 we mu/ look a little m closely into ! mat]ials ( :i* ! tee? are con/ruct$ & ! mann] 9 :i* ^? mat]ials are comb9$4 ,9 all primitive mammals & 9 _m ( ! high] & m advanc$ ones 7includ+ ,man7 a too? is compos$ ( ! cr[n1 or portion :i* is expos$ above ! gum1 & ! roots1 "o or m 9 numb]1 by means ( :i* ! too? is firmly ins]t$ 9 ! jaw-bone2 ! roots are at lea/ p>tly =m$ be=e ! too? comes into use4 ,su* a too? is said to be %ort or l[-cr[n$1 or bra*yodont4 ,9 _m plant-fe$]s1 su* z horses1 cattle1 elephants1 beav]s1 etc41 ! tee? cont9ue to gr[ 9 height = a long "t & d n =m roots until late 9 life1 or p]haps n at all4 ,su* tee? are said to be long- or high-cr[n$1 or hypsodont1 & 9 v _m in/ances ! developm5t ( bra*yodont into hypsodont tee? may be foll[$ ?r\gh e /ep ( ! *ange4 ,! advantage ( ! *ange is obvi\s 9 l5g!n+ ! animal's life1 especially 9 ^? :i* fe$ ^u abrasive sub/ances1 l grass1 = ! gr[? ( ! tee? long cont9ues to make up = ! loss ?r\gh we>4 ,s]i\s tr\ble has (t5 be5 caus$ = captive elephants by giv+ !m too s(t food1 s t ! gr[? ( ! tee? is n prop]ly balanc$ by abrasion4 ,/ill ano!r category ( tee? is ! rootless1 :i* are ( simple =m1 l ^? ( an armadillo1 & gr[ ?r\gh\t life1 nev] =m+ roots4 ,! *isel-l1 or scalpri=m incisors ( ! rod5ts d n cease to gr[ :ile ! animal lives2 !y are kept ( con/ant l5g? by cont9ual use1 & ! arrangem5t ( h>d] & s(t] tissue is su* t ! %>p edge is ma9ta9$2 ?r\gh accid5t or mal=mation x sometimes happ5s t ! upp] & l[] tee? fail to meet1 !n ! cont9u$ gr[? causes !m to =m curv$ hoops 9 ! m\?1 lock+ ! jaws & br++ dea? by />vation to ! un=tunate animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,d5tition ( ,beav] 7,ca/or canad5sis74 m4 #c1 la/ mol>4 p4 #d1 la/ premol>4 i41 scalpri=m incisors2 enamel face black1 d5t9e 9 v]tical l9es4 ,! typical mammalian too? is compos$ ( ?ree k9ds ( tissue1 all diff]+ 9 /ructure & h>dness & call$ respectively 7#a7 d5t9e1 7#b7 enamel1 7#c7 cem5t4 7#a7 ,! d5t9e1 or ivory1 is ! indisp5sable tissue ( ! too?2 ! o!r k9ds may be abs5t1 b nev] ! d5t9e4 ,*emically1 x is l bone1 b ! microscope %[s t its /ructure is q diff]5t f t ( true bone1 be+ compos$ ( an imm5se numb] ( f9e tubules1 :i* radiate f ! 8pulp-cavity10 or *amb] :i* conta9s ! blood-vessels & n]ves1 ^! ent]+ ! too? ?r\gh ! canals ( ! roots4 ,! tubules ( ! d5t9e lodge excessively f9e fibrill ( ! n]ve & t is :y ! cutt+ into a live too? is s pa9ful an op]ation4 7#b7 ,! enamel1 :i* is ! h>de/ ( all animal tissues1 has a poli%$ & %9+ appe>ance & is arrang$ 9 a mosaic ( microscopic prisms1 closely pack$ toge!r1 :i* 9 mo/ mammals are solid1 b 9 ! m>supials1 ) "s exceptions1 are tubul>4 ,! enamel normally cov]s ! entire cr[n ( ! too?1 b does n ext5d ^u ! roots1 :]e its sup]ior h>dness w\ld be ( no advantage4 ,9 sev]al in/ances1 always z a second>y specialization1 ! enamel does n cov] ! :ole cr[n1 b is arrang$ 9 v]tical b&s1 x may be on "o side only1 or at int]vals ar\nd ! too?4 ,! scalpri=m incisors ( ! rod5ts1 already allud$ to1 h ! enamel b& on ! front face ( ! too?2 ! s(t] d5t9e beh9d we>s away m rapidly1 keep+ ! cutt+ surface bevell$1 l ! edge ( a *isel1 :ile ! h>d enamel =ms ! %>p edge4 ,9 "s in/ances ! enamel is abs5t altoge!r & ! tee? are compos$ entirely ( d5t9e1 z 9 ! elephant tusk4 ,9 all ! ,ed5tata1 su* z slo?s & armadillos1 bo? liv+ & ext9ct1 t h any tee? at all1 ! tee? h no enamel1 b 9 "s ( ! fossil =ms ! place ( ! miss+ enamel is tak5 by a h>d] d5t9e & ?us ! effect ( diff]5tial h>dness is secur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,section ?r\gh a l[] mol> ( ! ,indian ,elephant 7,elephas maximus74 ,enamel1 heavy black2 d5t9e1 :ite2 cem5t1 horizontal l9es4 7#c7 ,! cem5t is simply bone1 bo? *emically & 9 microscopic /ructure2 x is n q s h>d z d5t9e1 b x is less affect$ by ! fluids ( ! m\? & ! juices ( ! food4 ,9 ! bra*yodont or l[-cr[n$ too?1 su* z a human mol>1 ! cem5t m]ely =ms a %ea? ov] ! roots & does n appe> ^u ! cr[n1 b 9 _m hypsodont tee?1 ^? ( horses & elephants1 = example1 ! cem5t completely encases ! entire too? 9 a ?ick lay]1 fill+ up all ! depressions & irregul>ities ( ! enamel surface & mak+ a fre%ly erupt$ & unworn too? look l a %apeless lump4 ,:5 ! cem5t & ! enamel cov]+ are p>tially worn ?r\gh1 ! ma/icat+ surface is made up ( ?ree di/9ct sub/ances1 ea* hav+ a diff]5t degree ( h>dness & ?us1 ?r\gh unequal we>1 ! gr9d+ surface is always kept r\gh & !re=e effici5t4 ,n all hypsodont tee? h ! cem5t cov]+1 b 9 su* tee? ! diff]+ degrees ( h>dness ( enamel & d5t9e suffice to keep a r\gh surface1 ?\gh n s effectively4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,geographical ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,am]icas ,,9 ,,c5ozoic ,,times ,i4 ,,t]ti>y ,,p]iod ,9 ! int]ior regions ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica ! transition f ! ,mesozoic to ! ,c5ozoic 0 s gradual t !re is great difficulty 9 draw+ ! l9e betwe5 !m & !re=e1 z might be expect$1 !re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion z to j :]e t l9e %\ld be drawn4 ,f "o po9t ( view1 ! matt] is ( no great consequ5ce2 b f ano!r1 x is ( ! utmo/ importance1 =1 unless ! ev5ts 9 diff]5t cont95ts c be approximately syn*roniz$1 x w (t5 prove a hopeless und]tak+ to trace ! c\rse ( migration ( ! v>i\s mammalian gr\ps & det]m9e _! place ( orig9 & prim>y home4 ,until a def9itive answ] c be giv5 to ! "q z to :5 ! ,c5ozoic era began1 _m significant po9ts mu/ be left 9 d\bt1 & mu* rema9s to be done 9 ! geology ( ! ,f> ,we/ be=e t def9itive solution c be rea*$4 #a4 ,paleoc5e ,epo* ,s f> z ,nor? ,am]ica is conc]n$1 ! be/ available evid5ce po9ts to ! conclusion t we %\ld reg>d ! ,=t ,union1 ,pu]co & ,torrejon z ! mo/ anci5t ( ! ,c5ozoic =mations 7see ,table1 p4 #ag71 ?\gh reta9+ s _m features ( ,mesozoic life t a sep>ate division ( ! ,t]ti>y1 ! ,paleoc5e epo*1 is made = !m4 ,su* a sep>ation is n ! common practice 9 ?is c\ntry1 :]e x is m usual to employ ! t]ms 8,l[e/0 or 8,basal0 ,eoc5e4 ,9 my judgm5t1 h[ev]1 ! balance ( advantage is 9 fav\r ( giv+ to ?is s-call$ ,basal ,eoc5e a rank equival5t to t ( ! f\r o!r univ]sally recogniz$ & admitt$ epo*s ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,no m>9e rocks ( ,paleoc5e date h yet be5 f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* indicates t ! cont95t 0 at lea/ z ext5sive z x is n[4 ,! v scanty developm5t ( deposits repres5t+ ?is epo* 9 ,europe r5d]s ! comp>ison ) ! fossils ( ! ,old ,_w unsatisfactory & h5ce leads to unc]ta9ty1 :5 x is attempt$ to det]m9e ! l&-connections ( ! "t4 ,dur+ ! ,mesozoic era ! %all[ ,b]+ ,sea _h repeat$ly be5 elevat$ into a l& jo9+ ,nor? ,am]ica ) ,asia & _h z (t5 be5 depress$1 s z to sep>ate ! cont95ts & all[ ! wat]s ( ! ,arctic ,ocean to m+le ) ^? ( ! ,pacific4 ,a l alt]nation ( junction & sep>ation w5t on dur+ ! ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y p]iods &1 by a comp>ison ( ! fossil mammals ( ,europe & ,am]ica = any p>ticul> division ( geological "t1 x is almo/ always feasible to say :e!r ! two cont95ts 7 connect$1 or altoge!r sep>at$4 ,?is /atem5t does n imply t ! proportion ( common elem5ts 9 ! two faunas dur+ epo*s ( cont95tal connection 0 a con/ant "o at all times1 = t 0 by no means true4 ,m]e l&-connections or sep>ations are n ! only factors :i* limit ! spread ( t]re/rial animals2 if !y 71 ! community ( =ms betwe5 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica w\ld be mu* great] ?an x actually is4 ,climatic b>ri]s are ( almo/ equal importance 9 det]m9+ animal di/ribution1 & *anges ( climate may greatly alt] ! conditions ( migration betwe5 connect$ cont95ts4 ,z ! connections betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,old ,_w 7 probably 9 high latitudes1 :]e ! seas are n>r[1 *anges ( climate produc$ a great] effect ^u migration ?an !y c\ld h done _h ! l&-bridges be5 9 ! tropical or w>m temp]ate zones4 ,t ^! vicissitudes ( climate really did occur & are n m]e guesses to bol/] up a tott]+ hypo!sis1 !re is abundant evid5ce to prove4 ,9 ! ,paleoc5e1 or mo/ anci5t epo* ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ! geographical condition ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 approximately z foll[s3 ,! cont95t _h atta9$ ne>ly its mod]n outl9es & on ! ,atlantic & ,pacific coa/s probably ext5d$ f>!r seaw>d ?an x does to-day4 ,florida1 h[ev]1 & p]haps a n>r[ /rip ( ! nor!rn ,gulf coa/ 7 /ill subm]g$1 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico op5+ broadly into ! ,atlantic4 ,x is v probable t ! cont95t 0 connect$ ) ! ,old ,_w by a l& occupy+ ! site ( ,b]+ ,sea & p]haps also by way ( ,gre5l& & ! ,nor? ,atlantic2 & !re is "s evid5ce1 ?\gh n altoge!r conv9c+1 t x 0 also jo9$ to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! great m\nta9 ranges 7 l>gely :at !y n[ are1 ?\gh subsequ5t upheavals greatly modifi$ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ,si]ra ,nevada & ! ranges ( ! ,pacific coa/1 :ile ! l(ty ,/4 ,elias ,alps ( ,alaska 7 n 9 exi/5ce4 ,! region ( high plateaus1 betwe5 ! ,rockies & ! ,si]ras1 0 mu* less elevat$ ?an x is n[4 ,! ,appala*ians1 :i* 7 ( f> m anci5t date ?an ! we/]n ranges1 _h be5 worn d[n by ages ( wea!r+ & /ream-erosion into a l[-ly+1 almo/ featureless pla91 ) "s scatt]$ peaks ris+ f x "h & !re1 ( :i* ! m\nta9s ( we/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a 7 ! highe/4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t :ile ! av]age height ( ! cont95t above ! sea-level may h be5 z great or great] ?an at pres5t1 yet ! inequalities ( surface appe> to h be5 less m>k$1 & bo? along ! ,atlantic coa/ & 9 ! int]ior 7 va/ /ret*es ( pla9s4 ,! ,paleoc5e =mations ( ! we/]n int]ior are ( non-m>9e or cont95tal orig94 ,9 nor?we/]n ,new ,mexico is ! typical area ( ! ,pu]co & ,torrejon1 a s]ies ( b$s #hjj to #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness & = ! mo/ "p q b>r5 ( fossils1 b !re are two horizons1 "o ne> ! top & ! o!r ne> ! bottom ( ! s]ies1 :i* h yield$ a v consid]able numb] ( fossil mammals1 & ( ^! ! l[] is ! ,pu]co1 ! upp] ! ,torrejon4 ,! ,=t ,union is q diff]5t 9 "* & is compos$ ( great areas ( s&/one & clay rocks1 ) a maximum ?ickness ( #bjjj feet1 9 ea/]n ,wyom+1 ,s\? ,dakota1 ,montana & ! adjo9+ p>ts ( ,canada4 ,! modes ( =mation ( ^! b$s h n yet be5 fully det]m9$2 t !y may h be5 p>tly laid d[n 9 %all[ lakes is indicat$ by ! masses ( fre%-wat] %ells 9 c]ta9 localities4 ,9 o!rs are pres]v$ multitudes ( leaves1 :i* h giv5 a v full conception ( ! plants ( ! "t1 & great swamps & bogs h left ! traces ( _! pres5ce 9 b$s ( lignite1 or imp]fectly =m$ coal4 ,deposits made on ! flood-pla9s ( riv]s & w9d accumulations are probably also repres5t$4 8,va/ /ret*es ( subtropical & m h>dy trees 7 int]sp]s$ ) swamps :]e ! vegetation 0 rank & accumulat$ rapidly en\gh to =m great b$s ( lignite4 ,"h 7 bogs 9 :i* bog iron 0 =m$4 ,amid ! glades ( ^! =e/s !re w&]$ swamp turtles1 alligators1 & l>ge liz>ds ( ! *>act]i/ic g5us ,*ampsosaurus0 7,osborn1 p4 #ajj74 ,=t ,union mammals are relatively r>e & mo/ ( ^? t h be5 f\nd are v fragm5t>y2 !y are amply suffici5t1 h[ev]1 to demon/rate ! ,paleoc5e date ( ! b$s & to make x probable t !y include bo? ! ,pu]co & ! ,torrejon faunas4 ,! climate1 z %[n by ! plants1 0 mu* mild] & m uni=m ?an t ( ! ,rec5t epo*1 ?\gh "s indication ( climatic zones may already be not$4 ,! vegetation 0 ess5tially mod]n 9 "*2 ne>ly all our mod]n types ( =e/-trees1 su* z will[s1 popl>s1 sycamores1 oaks1 elms1 maples1 walnuts & _m o!rs1 7 abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! va/ =e/s :i* w\ld seem to h cov]$ ne>ly ! entire cont95t f ocean to ocean & ext5d$ nor? into ,alaska & ,gre5l&1 :]e no su* vegetation is possible "u pres5t conditions4 ,num]\s conif]s 7 m+l$ ) ! decidu\s trees1 b we d n f9d exclusively conif]\s =e/s4 ,palms1 ?\gh n ext5d+ into ,gre5l&1 fl\ri%$ magnific5tly f> to ! nor? ( _! pres5t range4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,paleoc5e flora ( ,engl& po9ts to a m]ely temp]ate climate1 :ile t ( ! succe$+ ,eoc5e 0 subtropical4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,no?+ is def9itely kn[n conc]n+ ! condition ( ,c5tral ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies & v little z to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,z no m>9e rocks ( ,paleoc5e date h be5 f\nd 9 any ( ^! regions1 x may be inf]r$ t all ! exi/+ l& areas 7 !n above ! sea1 & !re is "s evid5ce t ,s\? ,am]ica 0 mu* m ext5d$ 9 c]ta9 directions ?an n[4 ,f ! "* & di/ribution ( mod]n plants1 fre%-wat] fi%es1 l& & fre%-wat] %ells1 !re is /rong reason to believe t 9 late ,mesozoic times a l&-bridge connect$ ,brazil ) equatorial ,africa & ?is connection may h cont9u$ into ! ,paleoc5e1 ?\gh x is only fair to obs]ve t "s highly compet5t au?orities d5y ! reality ( ?is bridge4 ,!re is also evid5ce1 ?\gh incomplete1 ( a connection betwe5 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,au/ralia by way ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t1 & x is cle> t t pol> region c\ld n h _h ! rigor\s climate ( ! pres5t "t4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! ,cretace\s1 ! la/ ( ! ,mesozoic p]iods1 !re 0 a possibility ( migration1 h[ev] indirect1 betwe5 e cont95t & e o!r1 = ! huge l& reptiles call$ ,d9osaurs h be5 f\nd 9 ! non-m>9e ,cretace\s rocks ( e cont95t1 :i* c\ld n h be5 ! case1 _h any ( ! great l& areas be5 isolat$4 ,!re is no kn[n reason to assume t ! l&-bridges 7 ess5tially diff]5t 9 ! ,paleoc5e4 #b4 ,eoc5e ,epo* ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,eoc5e witness$ q ext5sive geographical *anges1 ?\gh b little is kn[n ( x 9 ,c5tral or ,s\? ,am]ica1 or ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,along ! ,atlantic & ,gulf coa/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re 0 an ext5sive subm]g5ce ( ! coa/al pla91 ! sea cov]+ ! s\!rn half ( ,new ,j]sey & ext5d+ !nce to ! s\?we/w>d 9 an ev] broad5+ b&1 ?r\gh ! ,s\? ,atlantic & ,gulf /ates4 ,nor!rn ,florida 0 "u wat] & ! ,gulf ext5d$ z a n>r[ s\nd1 kn[n z ! 8,mississippi ,embaym5t10 up ! valley ( t riv] to s\!rn ,ill9ois & we/w>d into ,texas4 ,! ,embaym5t 0 pres5t 9 ! ,cretace\s & aga9 9 ! ,eoc5e1 b x is n kn[n :e!r x p]si/$ ?r\gh ! ,paleoc5e2 probably x did n1 z ! :ole ,atlantic coa/ region appe>s to h /ood at a high] level !n ?an n[4 ,:ile ! condition ( ,mexico & ,c5tral ,am]ica dur+ ! ,eoc5e is n kn[n 9 any save ! vague/ mann]1 x is evid5t t !re 0 !n a broad communication betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific1 completely sev]+ ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?\gh ! place ( ?is transv]se sea has n be5 fix$4 ,on ! ,pacific side1 a long1 n>r[ arm ( ! sea occupi$ :at is n[ ! great valley ( ,cali=nia1 ext5d+ nor? into ,oregon & ,wa%+ton4 ,x w be not$ t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! ,eoc5e sea 0 almo/ conf9$ to ! neighb\rhood ( ! pres5t coa/-l9es1 n[h]e p5etrat+ v f> inl&1 except 9 ! ,mississippi ,embaym5t1 & ?us diff]+ widely f ! condition ( ,europe at t epo*1 :]e mu* ( :at is n[ l& 0 subm]g$4 ,! greatly exp&$ ,m$it]ranean cov]$ mo/ ( s\!rn ,europe1 :]e ! great m\nta9 ranges1 ! ,pyr5ees1 ,alps1 etc41 _h n yet be5 =m$4 ,v important1 f ! po9t ( view ( ,am]ican geography1 is ! fact t ,europe 0 completely sep>at$ f ,asia by a n>r[ /rait or sea1 :i* ran d[n ! ea/]n side ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s f ! ,arctic ,ocean & jo9$ ! enl>g$ ,m$it]ranean4 ,dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ?is ,ural ,sea any l& connection ( ,nor? ,am]ica ) ,europe mu/ necess>ily h be5 by means ( a ,nor? ,atlantic bridge1 or by "o across ! ,arctic ,sea1 s9ce communication ) ,asia by way ( ,alaska w\ld n h rea*$ ea/]n ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,map ( ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,eoc5e epo*4 ,! pres5t limits ( ! cont95t are %[n 9 outl9e2 :ite areas l&2 horizontal l9es sea2 dott$ areas non-m>9e deposits2 black circles ) :ite dots active volcanoes4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t47 ,any su* g5]al /atem5t ( geographical conditions dur+ ! ,eoc5e z ! =ego+ sket*1 _c b be to "s ext5t mislead+1 because x br+s toge!r1 z contempor>y1 arrangem5ts :i* 71 9 "s cases at lea/1 sep>at$ by consid]able int]vals ( "t & :i* 7 subject to cont9ual *ange4 ,along ne>ly all coa/s ! position ( ! sea 0 q diff]5t 9 ! latt] "p ( ! epo* f :at x _h be5 9 ! e>li] portion4 ,on ! nor? side ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 = example1 ! sea retreat$ f "t to "t1 & ! successive divisions ( ! ,eoc5e rocks are s arrang$ t ! lat] ones are f>!r to ! s\?4 ,limitations ( space1 h[ev]1 =bid ! attempt to foll[ out ^! m9or *anges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,bad ,l&s ( ! l[] ,eoc5e4 ,wasat* /age4 ,big ,horn ,bas91 ,wyo4 7,photograph by ,s9clair47 ,9 ! we/]n int]ior are f\nd ext5sive non-m>9e or cont95tal deposits ( ,eoc5e date1 :i* mu/ be consid]$ m 9 detail1 because ( ! highly important be>+ :i* !y h ^u mammalian hi/ory4 ,) ! exception ( a few small areas 9 ,colorado1 ^! deposits are all situat$ 9 ! plateau region we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 & 7 made ( ! dbris ( old] rocks wa%$ d[n by ra9 & riv]s & deposit$ 9 broad bas9s4 ,"s ( !m are ! s$im5ts ( %all[ or tempor>y lakes1 & "o s]ies1 at lea/1 is made up ( volcanic a% & du/ %[]$ ^u ! l&1 or into wat] ( no great dep?4 ,! olde/ ( ^! ,eoc5e /ages1 kn[n z ! ,wasat* 7see ,table1 p4 #ag7 cov]s a v l>ge region1 ?\gh 9 a discont9u\s mann]2 ! pr9cipal area beg9s 9 ,new ,mexico1 :]e x lies ov] ! ,torrejon1 ( ! ,paleoc5e1 & ext5ds f> to ! nor? ?r\gh we/]n ,colorado & ea/]n ,utah to ! ,u9ta ,m\nta9s1 ar\nd ! ea/]n end ( :i* x passes 9 a n>r[ b& & !n exp&s aga9 ov] s\?we/]n ,wyom+4 ,a second area is 9 ! ,big ,horn ,bas9 ( nor?we/]n ,wyom+ & s\!rn ,montana1 & probably two small areas 9 s\!rn ,colorado are ( ! same date4 ,! ,wasat* b$s are ri*ly fossilif]\s & h yield$ a mo/ int]e/+ & important s]ies ( mammals1 :i* 7 f> m advanc$ ?an ^? ( ! ,paleoc5e2 &1 at fir/ sight1 ! /ud5t is tempt$ to believe t !y mu/ be ( v mu* lat] date4 ,a m critical exam9ation %[s t ?is appe>ance ( a great lapse ( "t betwe5 ! ,paleoc5e & ! ,wasat* is deceptive2 ! m advanc$ & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,wasat* mammals 7 obvi\sly n ! desc5dants ( ance/ors 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,paleoc5e1 b 7 altoge!r newcom]s to ?is cont95t1 immigrants f "s region :i* _c yet be id5tifi$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a consid]able numb] ( ! old1 indig5\s types /ill p]si/$1 & ^!1 :5 comp>$ ) _! ,paleoc5e ance/ors1 are f\nd n to h *ang$ s mu* z to require a v great l5g? ( "t1 geologically speak+1 = ! degree ( developm5t involv$4 ,?is is ! e>lie/ record$ "o ( ! great waves ( mammalian migration :i* invad$ ,nor? ,am]ica d[n almo/ to our own "t4 ,! same wave ( migration ext5d$ to ,europe1 & t !re 0 a broad & easy way ( communication betwe5 t cont95t & ,nor? ,am]ica is pla91 = ! simil>ity betwe5 ! ,wasat* mammals & ^? ( ! correspond+ =mation 9 ,france1 ! ,sp>nacian1 is rem>kably close4 ,at no subsequ5t "t 7 ! mammalian faunas ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe s ne>ly id5tical z dur+ ! ,wasat*-,sp>nacian age1 :i* is especially rem>kable :5 ! discrepancy is not$ betwe5 ! va/ /ret*es ( ! ,wasat* 7#aej1jjj squ>e miles7 & ! v limit$ areas 9 ,france4 ,if1 z is probable1 ! ,ural ,sea 0 9 exi/5ce at t "t1 ! l&-connection ) ,europe mu/ h be5 across ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 mo/ likely f ,gre5l& ea/w>d4 ,at ! pres5t "t a l&-bridge 9 su* high latitudes w\ld be ( little s]vice 9 br++ ab\t a simil>ity ( mammals 9 ! two cont95ts1 = ! sev]ity ( ! ,arctic climate w\ld be z effective a b>ri] aga9/ ! int]migration ( all save ! ,arctic mammals z ! ocean itself2 b 9 ! mild & g5ial ,eoc5e climate ! latitude ( ! bridge 0 ( small consequ5ce4 ,! second ( ! ,eoc5e /ages1 ! ,w9d ,riv]--,gre5 ,riv]1 is f\nd 9 two v diff]5t phases4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] phase occupies ! bas9 ( t /ream1 nor? ( ! ,w9d ,riv] ,m\nta9s 9 c5tral ,wyom+1 & 9 ! ,big ,horn ,bas9 ( ! same /ate x v ext5sively ov]lies ! ,wasat*1 & 9 ?is phase ! s$im5ts are v l ^? ( ! latt]1 flood-pla9 & w9d accumulations4 ,a widely di/ant area ( ?is /age occurs 9 ! ,hu]fano ,caon 9 ,colorado4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] b$s conta9 num]\s mammals :i* 7 cle>ly sequ5tial to ^? ( ! ,wasat*1 ( :i* !y 7 ! m or less modifi$ desc5dants4 ,) two possible exceptions1 !re 7 no new immigrants & ! connection ) ! ,old ,_w may h be5 already sev]$1 z x assur$ly 0 9 ! succe$+ age1 ! ,bridg]1 ?\gh div]g5t developm5t _h n yet _h "t to produce ! v /rik+ diff]5ces 9 ! mammals ( ,nor? ,am]ica f ^? ( ,europe1 :i* *>act]iz$ ! ,bridg]4 ,! ,gre5 ,riv] phase is a ?ick body ( f9ely lam9at$ 8pap] %ales10 :i* seem to h be5 deposit$ 9 a v %all[ lake & occupy "s #ejjj squ>e miles ( ! ,gre5 ,riv] valley 9 s\!rn ,wyom+ & nor!rn ,utah1 :]e !y ov]lie ! ,wasat*1 j z d ! ,w9d ,riv] b$s 9 ! ,big ,horn ,bas94 ,^! f9e-gra9$ & ?9ly lam9at$ %ales h pres]v$1 (t5 9 beautiful p]fection1 c\ntless rema9s ( plants1 insects & fi%es1 b no traces ( mammals1 o!r ?an footpr9ts1 h be5 f\nd4 ,! ?ird ( ! ,eoc5e /ages ( ! int]ior is ! ,bridg] ( s\!rn ,wyom+ & nor!a/]n ,utah1 :]e x lies ^u ! ,gre5 ,riv] %ales1 b ov]laps ^! %ales bo? ea/w>d & we/w>d1 ext5d+ out ^u ! ,wasat*4 ,! ,bridg] b$s are l>gely made up ( volcanic a% & du/ deposit$ p>tly ^u ! l& & p>tly 9 %all[ or tempor>y lakes4 ,! frequ5cy ) :i* ! rema9s ( fi%es1 crocodiles & fre%-wat] %ells are f\nd indicates deposition 9 wat]1 & ! l>ge cry/als ( gypsum :i* are abundant 9 c]ta9 localities %[ t ! wat] became salt1 at lea/ occasionally4 ,f ! imm5se mass ( volcanic dbris1 x is evid5t t volcanic activity broke out at ?is "t on a mu* great] scale ?an _h be5 kn[n 9 t region s9ce ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,two diff]5t horizons1 or sub/ages1 are di/+ui%able 9 ! ,bridg]1 l[] & upp]1 ea* ( :i* has its di/9ct mammalian fauna1 ?\gh ! two are v closely alli$4 ,_! diff]5ce f ! contempor>y mammals ( ,europe is v great1 h>dly any g5]a be+ common to ! two cont95ts4 ,s /rik+ a diff]5ce indubitably po9ts to a sev]ance ( ! l&-connection1 a sev]ance :i*1 z 0 %[n above1 probably took place dur+ ! ,w9d ,riv] /age1 = its effects w\ld n be imm$iately app>5t2 "t w\ld be requir$ = ! op]ation ( div]g5t evolution1 ! fauna ( ea* cont95t develop+ along its own l9es1 to make itself s /rongly felt4 ,_h ! connection nev] be5 r5ew$1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 on ! "o h&1 & ,eurasia on ! o!r1 w\ld to-day be utt]ly diff]5t f ! zological po9t ( view1 in/ead ( conta9+1 z !y d1 a great _m id5tical or closely simil> animals ( all classes1 a lik5ess due to subsequ5t migrations4 ,! f\r? & la/ ( ! /ages ref]r$ to ! ,eoc5e is ! ,u9ta1 ! geological position ( :i* is ! subject ( mu* debate2 almo/ z good reasons c be br\ght =w>d = plac+ x 9 ! ,oligoc5e z 9 ! ,eoc5e1 s ne>ly is x on ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ^? two epo*s4 ,! ,u9ta is f\nd 9 ! ,gre5 ,riv] valley ( nor!a/]n ,utah & nor?we/]n ,colorado1 :]e x lies ^u ! upp] ,bridg] & is ! late/ ( ! important ,t]ti>y =mations to be f\nd 9 ! plateau region we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,x is probable t ! sep>ation ( ,nor? ,am]ica f ! ,old ,_w /ill cont9u$1 =1 z a :ole1 ! ,u9ta fauna is totally diff]5t f t ( ! upp] ,eoc5e ( ,europe4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 a few d\btful =ms1 :i* may prove to be ! outpo/s ( a r5ew$ invasion4 ,! ,eoc5e climate 0 decid$ly w>m] ?an ! pres5t "o1 & subtropical conditions ext5d$ ov] ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates & p]haps f> into ,canada4 ,on ! o!r h&1 signs ( increas+ aridity 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! cont95t are n want+1 & t mu/ h result$ 9 a great %r9kage ( ! =e/s & increase ( ! op5 pla9s4 ,! vegetation 0 ess5tially ! same z 9 ! ,paleoc5e1 :5 x _h already atta9$ a mod]n "*1 ! diff]5ces f ! pres5t be+ *iefly 9 reg>d to geographical di/ribution4 ,l>ge palms 7 !n fl\ri%+ 9 ,wyom+ & ,idaho1 & ano!r indication ( a w>m climate is furni%$ by ! l>ge crocodiles :i* ab\nd$ 9 all ( ! ,eoc5e /ages4 ,s f> z ,nor? ,am]ica 0 conc]n$1 ! ,eoc5e epo* 0 br\ght to a close by ext5sive movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :i* m or less affect$ ! entire cont95t & 7 regi/]$ bo? on ! sea-coa/s & 9 ! m\nta9 ranges ( ! int]ior4 ,upheaval add$ a n>r[ belt ( l& along ! ,atlantic & ,gulf coa/s & ! ,mississippi ,embaym5t 0 ne>ly clos$4 ,on ! ,pacific side ! sea )drew f ! great valley ( ,cali=nia & ,oregon1 & 9 ! int]ior ! plateau region 0 elevat$ by a great di/urbance1 :i* also increas$ ! height ( ! we/]n m\nta9s4 ,our k ( ,eoc5e l&-mammals 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is almo/ :olly d]iv$ f ! =mations ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 b x may be inf]r$ f ! uni=m climatic conditions t !re 7 no v great geographical diff]5ces among ! animals4 ,?is inf]5ce is confirm$ by ! discov]y ( a ,bridg] g5us1 v fragm5t>y b id5tifiable1 9 ! m>9e ,eoc5e ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,no ,eoc5e rocks1 m>9e or cont95tal1 are kn[n 9 ! ,we/ ,indies or ,c5tral ,am]ica1 b ! latt] region has be5 s imp]fectly explor$ t no great importance c be atta*$ to ?is fact4 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica 7 sep>at$ completely1 z is prov$ by ! entire dissimil>ity ( _! mammalian faunas1 b ! position ( ! transv]se sea or /rait _c be det]m9$4 ,!re is mu* reason to believe t ! ,great] ,antilles 7 connect$ into a s+le l>ge l&1 :i* has be5 call$ 8,antillia0 & may h be5 jo9$ to ! ma9l& ( ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,c]ta9 m>9e rocks 9 ,patagonia & ,*ili h be5 ref]r$ to ! ,eoc5e by ,s\? ,am]ican geologi/s1 b ! ref]5ce is almo/ c]ta9ly errone\s1 ! rocks 9 "q be+ mu* m probably ,mioc5e4 ,! ,&es1 probably ?r\gh\t _! l5g? & c]ta9ly 9 _! s\!rn half1 /ood at a mu* l[] level ?an !y d n[1 &1 no d\bt1 7 ris+1 ei!r sl[ly & /eadily1 or p]iodically & m rapidly1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,at all ev5ts1 _! pres5t height 9 ! s\? is due to movem5ts 9 ! ,plioc5e or lat]4 ,cont95tal deposits ( ,eoc5e date h be5 discov]$ only 9 nor!rn ,patagonia 7,casa ,mayor7 :]e !y occupy depressions 9 ! worn & erod$ surfaces ( ! ,cretace\s rocks2 ! mode ( _! =mation has n be5 c>efully /udi$4 ,!re is great unc]ta9ty z to ! /atus ( ! l&-bridge :i*1 x is believ$1 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod connect$ ,s\? ,am]ica ) ,africa4 ,"s ( ! evid5ce goes to %[ t ! connection p]si/$ ?r\gh\t ! ,eoc5e epo*1 b ! te/imony is t ( fragm5t>y & !re=e imp]fectly und]/ood fossils & is f> f be+ unequivocal4 ,! connection ) ,ant>ctica probably cont9u$4 #c4 ,oligoc5e ,epo* ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,oligoc5e1 or ?ird ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*s1 0 a "t ( great significance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican mammals & ( great geographical *anges 9 ! ,we/ ,indian & ,c5tral ,am]ican regions1 b 9 ,nor? ,am]ica prop] ! *anges 7 n s widespread4 ,on ! ,atlantic coa/ ! m>9e ,oligoc5e is b scantily display$ except 9 ! ,florida p59sula1 :]e x is f\nd 9 a ?ickness ( "s #bjjj feet1 b x is well develop$ along ! nor? %ore ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 :]e ! coa/-l9e foll[$ t ( ! ,eoc5e1 only a little f>!r to ! s\?1 m>k+ ! retreat ( ! sea at ! end ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream ent]$ ! ,atlantic ov] ! site ( nor!rn ,florida & fl[$ nor?w>d ne>] ! coa/ ?an x does to-day1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* w>m-wat] conditions ext5d$ f> to ! nor? & ,we/ ,indian %ells fl\ri%$ on ! ,new ,j]sey coa/4 ,9 ! middle ,oligoc5e "p ( nor!rn ,florida 0 elevat$ into an isl& & ! wat] ov] mu* ( ! rema9d] ( ! p59sula became %all[]1 b ?is did n greatly alt] ! c\rse ( ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,! ,pacific encroa*$ ^u ! we/]n %ore ( ,oregon & ,briti% ,columbia & v ext5sively ^u t ( ,alaska1 :]e /rata no less ?an #aj1jjj feet ?ick are assign$ to ?is epo*4 ,9 ! we/]n int]ior ,oligoc5e =mations are among ! mo/ important & widely spread ( ! cont95tal ,t]ti>ies & are divisible into two pr9cipal /ages & ea* ( ^! aga9 into ?ree sub/ages4 ,( ^!1 ! old] or ,:ite ,riv] /age cov]s a va/ region 9 nor!a/]n ,colorado1 we/]n ,nebraska1 ea/]n ,wyom+ & s\!rn ,s\? ,dakota1 ) sep>ate areas 9 ! ,black ,hills1 ,nor? ,dakota & ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory ( ,canada4 ,! deposits are believ$ to be *iefly ( fluviatile orig91 & _m ( ! anci5t /ream-*annels1 "s ( great size1 may /ill be trac$1 fill$ ) ! consolidat$ s&s & gravels ( ! old riv]s4 ,! c\ntry 0 v flat & ! divides betwe5 ! /reams v l[1 s t 9 seasons ( flood great regions 7 conv]t$ into %all[1 tempor>y lakes1 9 :i* 7 deposit$ ! f9] silt & mud1 b 7 dry = mo/ ( ! ye>4 ,! volcanic activity :i* _h gone on s impressively 9 ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e 0 r5ew$ 9 ,:ite ,riv] times1 z is prov$ by ?ick b$s ( pure volcanic a%1 :i* mu/ h be5 c>ri$ long di/ances by ! w9d1 = !y occur f> f any volcanic v5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,map ( ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e4 ,explanation z 9 ,fig4 #dh4 7,aft] ,s*u*]t47 ,! ,:ite ,riv] fauna is m completely kn[n ?an t ( any o!r ,t]ti>y =mation ( ?is cont95t4 ,! fir/ discov]y ( ^! fossils 0 made m ?an #gj ye>s ago & s9ce !n (t-repeat$ exp$itions h br\ght to light an a/oni%+ numb] & v>iety ( mammals4 ,n only are ^! b$s rem>kable = ! imm5se quantity ( mat]ial :i* !y h yield$1 b also = its complet5ess & beauty ( pres]vation1 a mo/ unusual numb] ( skeletons hav+ be5 obta9$4 ,! mammals demon/rate t ! l&-connection ) ! ,old ,_w _h be5 re-e/abli%$1 = _m ,european g5]a1 :i* c\ld n h be5 d]iv$ f an ,am]ican ance/ry1 are f\nd 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,at ! same "t1 !re 0 no su* proportion ( =ms common to bo? cont95ts z !re _h be5 9 ! ,wasat*-,sp>nacian /age ( ! l[] ,eoc5e1 ea* hav+ _m g5]a & ev5 families :i* did n ext5d _! range into ! o!r4 ,! reason = ?is rem>kable &1 at fir/ sight1 inexplicable diff]5ce betwe5 ! l[] ,eoc5e & ! l[] ,oligoc5e is probably to be f\nd 9 climatic *anges1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* relatively few] g5]a 7 able to take advantage ( ! reop5$ connection1 :i* lay f> to ! nor?4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] mammals1 l ^? ( ! ,rec5t epo*1 are ?us divisible into two gr\ps or elem5ts1 "o set indig5\s & desc5d$ f ance/ors :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,am]ican ,eoc5e1 & ! o!r compos$ ( late immigrants f ! ,old ,_w4 ,migrants f ,nor? ,am]ica likewise made _! way to ,europe4 ,! upp] cont95tal ,oligoc5e ( ! int]ior has receiv$ ! peculi> appellation ( ! ,john ,day1 f ! riv] ( t "n 9 ea/]n ,oregon1 a l>ge "p ( :i* 0 buri$ to a dep? ( #cjjj or #djjj feet 9 /ratifi$ volcanic a% & tuff4 ,?is great mass ( f9ely divid$ volcanic mat]ial 0 d]iv$ f ! crat]s ( ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s to ! we/w>d2 a long-cont9u$ s]ies ( eruptions w\ld be ne$$ to =m su* ?ick accumulations at su* a di/ance f ! s\rces ( supply4 ,! ,john ,day evid5tly succe$$ ! ,:ite ,riv] v closely 9 "t1 b is m>k$ by ! disappe>ance ( almo/ all ! ,european migrants4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) ! abs5ce ( any new immigrant g5]a1 is evid5ce t ! connection _h aga9 be5 brok5 & x 0 n r5ew$ until aft] a consid]able lapse ( "t4 ,!re are _m reasons = believ+ t ! ,oligoc5e climate m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ! v long & gradual process ( refrig]ation :i* culm9at$ 9 ! glacial conditions ( ! ,plei/oc5e epo*1 b ! *ange 0 slight & probably *iefly affect$ ! f> nor?4 ,! climate1 h[ev]1 rema9$ notably w>m] ?an ! pres5t "o ( ! same extra-tropical latitudes1 z is abundantly prov$ by ! fossils4 ,! ,atlantic coa/1 z not$ above1 0 ba!d 9 w>m wat]s1 ! plants ( ! ,alaskan ,oligoc5e po9t to temp]ate conditions & ! vegetation ( ,europe 0 subtropical1 palms gr[+ 9 ! nor? ( ,g]many4 ,! *ange :i* 0 di/9ctly to be not$ 9 ! ,great ,pla9s region ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 probably due r to ! elevation & increas$ altitude ( ! we/]n int]ior ?an to g5]al climatic alt]ation4 ,crocodiles are v r>e inde$ 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s & ^? t h be5 f\nd all belong to dw>f species1 :ile none are kn[n f ! ,john ,day4 ,un=tunately1 h>dly any?+ has be5 asc]ta9$ conc]n+ ! ,oligoc5e vegetation ( ! region1 b ! reptiles indicate dim9i%$ w>m?4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,m>9e ,oligoc5e /rata h great ext5t ar\nd ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 & ! di/ribution ( ^! %[s t ,antillia 0 brok5 up by great subm]g5ces1 ! isl&s ( ! ,great] ,antilles be+ mu* small] ?an !y are to-day4 ,! great] "p ( ,c5tral ,am]ica & ! ,i/hmus 7 "u wat]1 a broad sea1 brok5 only by scatt]$ isl&s1 sep>at+ ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! ,oligoc5e 9 ! latt] cont95t save a non-m>9e =mation 9 nor!rn ,patagonia1 ! ,deseado /age 7or ,pyro!rium ,b$s71 :i*1 l ! ,eoc5e ( ! same region1 occupies depressions 9 ! worn & irregul> surface ( ! ,cretace\s rocks4 ,! attribution ( ! ,deseado to ! ,oligoc5e is op5 to "s d\bt1 because ( ! entire abs5ce 9 its mammalian fauna ( any elem5ts :i* are also f\nd 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,h5ce1 !re are no means ( direct comp>ison4 #d4 ,mioc5e ,epo* ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,atlantic & ,gulf coa/s1 :i* _h be5 rais$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e1 7 aga9 depress$1 almo/ re/or+ ! ,eoc5e coa/-l9e1 ! *ief diff]5ces be+ ! pres5ce ( ! ,florida isl&s & ! ne>ly complete clos+ ( ! ,mississippi ,embaym5t4 ,!re 0 a rem>kable *ange 9 ! m>9e fauna f t ( ,oligoc5e times2 a cool curr5t fl[$ s\?w>d along ! coa/ & ent]$ ! ,gulf ( ,mexico ?r\gh ! /rait betwe5 ! ,florida isl& & ! ma9l&1 br++ ! nor!rn animals ) x & driv+ out ! tropical =ms4 ,?is complete faunal *ange1 :i* might fairly be call$ a revolution1 0 ! mo/ sudd5 & /rik+ 9 ! ,t]ti>y hi/ory ( ! cont95t4 ,on ! ,pacific coa/ also !re 0 a depression1 :i* caus$ a r5ew$ transgression ( ! sea4 ,! ,coa/ ,range =m$ a *a9 ( reefs & isl&s 9 ! ,mioc5e sea1 :i* aga9 fill$ ! great valley ( ,cali=nia1 except 9 ! nor!rn "p ( :at is n[ ! ,sacram5to ,valley1 :]e !re 0 an accumulation ( cont95tal deposits4 ,! imm5se ?ickness 7#ejjj to #gjjj feet7 ( ! ,cali=nia ,mioc5e is l>gely made up ( volcanic mat]ial1 :i* te/ifies to ! great activity ( ! v5ts4 ,9 ! ,si]ras1 ! height ( :i* 0 increas$ 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e1 !re 0 also a great display ( vulcanism1 record$ 9 ! lava-fl[s & tuffs ( ! "t4 ,9 ! region ( ,l[] ,cali=nia & nor?we/]n ,mexico consid]able *anges ( ! coa/-l9e took place dur+ ! ,mioc5e2 9 ! e>li] half ( ! epo* ! ,gulf ( ,cali=nia 0 mu* %ort] & n>r[] ?an x is to-day & ! p59sula 0 broadly unit$ ) ! ma9l& to ! ea/ z well z to ! nor?4 ,a wide subm]g5ce m>k$ ! upp] ,mioc5e1 r$uc+ ! p59sula to a long1 n>r[ isl& & enl>g+ ! gulf consid]ably beyond its pres5t limits1 flood+ an ext5sive area 9 nor?we/]n ,mexico & s5d+ a small bay into s\!a/]n ,cali=nia4 ,!re 7 great di/urbances 9 ! c\rse ( ! epo*1 = 9 ! ,santa ,cruz ,m\nta9s ne> ,san ,francisco ! l[] ,mioc5e /rata 7 crumpl$ into folds1 be=e ^? ( ! upp] ,mioc5e 7 deposit$ ^u !m4 ,briti% ,columbia1 ,wa%+ton & ,oregon 7 invad$ by ! sea1 :i* ext5d$ up ! valley ( ! ,columbia ,riv] & its s\!rn tribut>y1 ! ,willamette1 ?\gh "h ! b$s are f> ?9n] ?an ^? ( ,cali=nia4 ,mu* ( ,alaska1 bo? on ! nor? & we/ coa/s & 9 ! valley ( ! ,yukon1 0 subm]g$1 & ! l&-connection ) ,asia appe>s to h be5 brok54 ,?is is made probable n only by ! subm]g5ce ( ! ,alaskan coa/1 b also by ! fact t ! m>9e animals ( ! ,cali=nia coa/s & %oal wat]s1 :i* c\ld n migrate across ! ocean1 7 q unlike ! contempor>y =ms ( ! ea/]n ,asiatic %ore1 :i* w\ld h>dly h be5 ! case1 _h a cont9u\s coa/-l9e unit$ ! two cont95ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re 0 a r5ew$ connection ) ,europe1 z is %[n by ! appe>ance ( ,old ,_w l&-mammals1 beg9n+ scantily 9 ! l[] & becom+ num]\s 9 ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,?is connection1 x w be rememb]$1 _h be5 int]rupt$ dur+ ! upp] ,oligoc5e4 ,_m /ud5ts ( ! problem h ma9ta9$ t ! l&-bridge 0 by way ( ! ,we/ ,indies & ! ,m$it]ranean l&s1 b su* a bridge w\ld n acc\nt = ! facts ( mammalian di/ribution1 :i* w\ld seem to require its location 9 ! f> nor?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,map ( ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,explanation z 9 ,fig4 #dh4 7,modifi$ f ,s*u*]t47 ,sev]al di/9ct l9es ( evid5ce g to prove t ! junction ( ! ,am]icas dates f ! ,mioc5e1 possibly f ! beg9n+ ( x4 ,! abs5ce ( ,atlantic species f ! ,pacific ,mioc5e is an indication t ! passage f ocean to ocean _h be5 clos$1 & ?is is confirm$ by ! geology ( ! ,c5tral ,am]ican & ,i/hmian region4 ,9 ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,oregon & ,nebraska h be5 f\nd rema9s1 :i* are un=tunately too incomplete = altoge!r conv9c+ id5tification1 b :i* c be int]pret$ only z belong+ to ! ext9ct & mo/ *>act]i/ically ,s\? ,am]ican gr\p ( ed5tates1 ! gr\nd-slo?s or ,gravigrada2 if ?is ref]5ce is correct1 ! fact ( ! junction _c be que/ion$4 ,cont95tal deposits ( ,mioc5e date1 *iefly accumulations made by riv]s & ! w9d1 cov] va/ areas ( ! we/]n int]ior1 ?\gh b r>ely to any consid]able dep?4 ,^! h be5 divid$ into sev]al /ages & h receiv$ v>i\s names2 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 kn[n z ! ,arik>ee1 ,h>rison or ,rosebud1 ov]lies ! ,:ite ,riv] 9 ,s\? ,dakota1 we/]n ,nebraska & ea/]n ,wyom+1 ) small] areas 9 ,montana & ,colorado4 ,9 ! deposits ( ?is /age !re are no mammals ( indisputably ,old ,_w type1 ?\gh a few :i* ,i consid] to be su* are a probable indication ( r5ew$ connection ) ,europe4 ,! middle ,mioc5e is f\nd typically 9 c5tral ,montana1 :]e x is call$ ! ,deep ,riv] 7or ,smi? ,riv]7 /age1 b occurs also 9 num]\s small1 scatt]$ & widely sep>at$ areas 9 ,oregon1 ,wyom+1 ,colorado & ,texas1 ) local names 9 ^! diff]5t /ates4 ,x is mo/ likely t ^! middle ,mioc5e =mations are n /rictly contemporane\s 9 ! geological s5se1 b r =m a closely connect$ & successive s]ies4 ,! mammals ( ! ,deep ,riv] /age leave no d\bt t ! way ( migration f ! ,old ,_w 0 aga9 op54 ,! ,l\p ,=k1 or upp] ,mioc5e1 itself susceptible ( fur!r subdivision1 is by f> ! mo/ ext5sive ( ! ,mioc5e =mations & cov]s mu* ( ! ,great ,pla9s region1 9 sep>ate areas1 f ,s\? ,dakota f> into ,mexico4 ,p]haps also ref]able to ! upp] ,mioc5e is a small1 b v int]e/+ =mation1 ! ,florissant1 :i* is 9 ! ,s\? ,p>k ( ,colorado2 x 0 made by v f9e volcanic mat]ial %[]$ into a small & %all[ lake4 ,! f9ely lam9at$ pap]y %ales ( ! ,florissant h pres]v$ c\ntless plants & insects & _m fi%es1 & ^! ?r[ v welcome light ^u ! vegetation & climatic conditions ( ! epo* & af=d an int]e/+ contra/ to ! fauna & flora ( ! ,gre5 ,riv] %ales ( ! l[] or middle ,eoc5e4 ,t ! ,florissant %ales are ,mioc5e1 no "o que/ions1 b _! isolat$ position & ! fact t !y h yield$ no mammals make x some:at d\btful :e!r !y belong 9 ! middle or lat] "p ( ! epo*4 ,9 ! we/]n portion ( ! cont95t vulcanism 0 display$ on a gr& scale dur+ ! ,mioc5e4 ,m5tion has already be5 made ( ! quantity ( volcanic mat]ial 9 ! m>9e ,mioc5e ( ,cali=nia & also 9 ! lavas & tuffs ( ! ,si]ras4 ,! magnific5t cones1 su* z ,mts4 ,hood & ,tacoma1 :i* are ! glory ( ! ,cascades1 are believ$ to date f ?is "t4 ,9 ,idaho & ea/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton are ! imm5se lava-fields ( ! ,columbia ,riv]1 :i* are1 p>tly at lea/1 ( ,mioc5e date & 7 *iefly extrud$ ?r\gh great fissures1 ! lava flood+ ! valleys & pla9s 9 a fi]y sea ( molt5 rock4 ,9 ,oregon ^! lavas re/ ^u ! upp] ,oligoc5e 7,john ,day /age7 & middle ,mioc5e b$s are deposit$ ^u !m1 :i* fixes _! date suffici5tly4 ,9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k 0 pil$ up a huge mass ( volcanic products1 lava-fl[s & b$s ( a% & tuff1 to a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,! a%-b$s h pres]v$ ! petrifi$ =e/s1 ) _! tree-trunks /ill /&+ "o above ano!r2 "o locality 9 ! ,p>k %[s sev5 su* =e/s1 ea* "o kill$ & buri$ by a great dis*>ge ( a% & !n a new =e/ e/abli%$ & gr[+ ^u ! surface ( ! accumulation4 ,9 ! tuffs are leaf-impressions :i* p]mit id5tification ( ! plants4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,mioc5e & at its close !re 7 important cru/al movem5ts1 :i* affect$ all ! ,pacific coa/ m\nta9 ranges1 ?\gh ?is epo* 0 no su* "t ( m\nta9 mak+ 9 ,am]ica z x 0 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! pr9cipal elevation ( ! ,coa/ ,range 9 ,cali=nia & ,oregon 0 due to ^! movem5ts1 & ! ,si]ras & ! plateaus ( ,utah & ,arizona 7 increas$ 9 height4 ,on ! ,atlantic side ! ,florida isl& 0 jo9$ to ! ma9l& & ?us ! pres5t %ape ( ! cont95t 0 almo/ exactly ga9$4 ,! ,mioc5e climate ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z indicat$ by ! plants ( ,florissant1 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k & ,oregon1 0 di/9ctly mild] ?an at pres5t1 a s\!rn vegetation ( w>m-temp]ate "* ext5d+ to ,montana & p]haps mu* f>!r nor?1 b x 0 n s w>m z x _h be5 9 ! ,eoc5e1 & palms are n f\nd 9 any ( ! localities m5tion$1 nor d crocodiles occur 9 any ( ! nor!rn ,mioc5e =mations4 ,9 ,europe ! climate ( ! e>ly ,mioc5e 0 consid]ably w>m] ?an 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! vegetation ( c5tral & we/]n ,europe be+ v mu* l t ( mod]n ,india4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! two sides ( ! ,atlantic 0 probably due1 9 l>ge "p1 to ! mann] 9 :i* ,europe 0 brok5 & int]sect$ by arms & gulfs ( ! w>m s\!rn sea4 ,9 ! latt] half ( ! epo*1 h[ev]1 ! climate became cold]1 ! subtropical flora giv+ way to a di/9ctly temp]ate "o4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 :]e m>9e ,oligoc5e b$s are ( great ext5t1 no ,mioc5e is kn[n1 & on ! ,i/hmus ,oligoc5e is ! late/ m>9e =mation1 except a n>r[ fr+e ( ,plei/oc5e on ! ,c>ibbean coa/4 ,^! facts & o!rs already cit$ lead to ! conclusion t 9 ! ,mioc5e ! connection ( ! ,am]icas 0 complete & t ! ,i/hmus 0 consid]ably broad] ?an at pres5t1 ext5d+ ne>ly to ,jamaica4 ,! condition ( ! ,great] ,antilles is b vaguely und]/ood1 b !y 7 involv$ 9 ! g5]al elevation ( ! ,c>ibbean region & 7 at lea/ z l>ge z !y are n[ & may h be5 consid]ably l>g]1 & ,cuba 0 p]haps jo9$ to ,c5tral ,am]ica1 z ,hayti probably 04 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica prop] ne>ly ! :ole ( ,patagonia 0 subm]g$ by ! transgression ( a %all[1 epicont95tal sea1 9 :i* 7 accumulat$ ! b$s ( ! ,patagonian /age1 conta9+ an exce$+ly ri* & v>i$ assemblage ( m>9e fossils1 an assemblage :i* has v little 9 common ) ! contempor>y =mations ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,x is ?is lack ( elem5ts common to ! nor!rn faunas :i* has l$ to ! long debate conc]n+ ! geological date ( ! ,patagonian =mation1 ! ,s\? ,am]ican geologi/s v g5]ally ref]r+ x to ! ,eoc5e4 ,h[ev]1 ! occurr5ce ( g5]a ( ,cetaceans 7:ales & dolph9s71 :i* are also f\nd 9 ! ,mioc5e ( ,m>yl& & ,virg9ia1 is v /rong evid5ce t ! prop] date ( ! ,patagonian is ,mioc5e4 ,a cont9u\s coa/-l9e1 or at lea/ an unbrok5 cont9uity ( %oal-wat] conditions1 seems necess>y to acc\nt = ! simil>ity ( ! ,patagonian fossils ) ^? ( ,new ,zeal& & ,au/ralia1 & t ?is connection 0 by way ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t is indicat$ by ! occurr5ce ( simil> fossils 9 ! ,s\? ,%etl& ,isl&s1 an ,ant>ctic gr\p4 ,on ! ,*ilian coa/ ! ,navidad =mation1 :i* is believ$ to be approximately contemporane\s ) ! ,patagonian1 has s diff]5t a fauna z to po9t to "s k9d ( a b>ri] betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific1 & ?is b>ri]1 ,dr4 von ,ih]+ holds1 0 ! l&-ext5sion f ,s\? ,am]ica to ,ant>ctica4 ,aft] "s oscillations ( retreat & advance1 ! sea )drew f ,patagonia & ! t]re/rial accumulations ( ! ,santa ,cruz /age 7 =m$4 ,^! b$s are p>tly compos$ ( riv]-deposits1 b *iefly ( m or less consolidat$ volcanic a% or tuff1 & h yield$ a surpris+ numb] ( beautifully pres]v$ mammals4 ,no o!r assemblage ( ,s\? ,am]ican ,t]ti>y ,mammalia is s well kn[n & und]/ood z ! ,santa ,cruz fauna1 & ! v l>ge numb] ( all b complete skeletons :i* h be5 f\nd /rongly sugge/s t _m ( ! animals 7 buri$ alive 9 ! %[]s ( volcanic a%4 ,! ,santa ,cruz fauna is completely & radically diff]5t f any ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican assemblages1 & at t "t no immigrant f ! nor? _h p5etrat$ s f> z ,patagonia4 ,9 ! upp] ,mioc5e ! ,&es /ood at a mu* l[] level ?an !y d n[2 fossil plants1 "s ( !m collect$ at a great height 9 ! m\nta9s1 are ! rema9s ( a luxuriant & purely tropical flora ne>ly id5tical ) ! vegetation ( ! mod]n =e/s ( ,bolivia & ,brazil4 ,su* a vegetation c\ld n exi/ at ! altitudes :]e ! fossils occur & ^! demon/rate a great elevation ( ! m\nta9s s9ce ^? leaves 7 emb$d$4 ,! same mild climatic conditions :i* prevail$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! ,mioc5e mu/ also h *>act]iz$ ,patagonia1 subtropical %ells ext5d+ f> to ! s\? ( _! pres5t range4 ,:atev] may h be5 true ( ! l&-bridge connect+ ,s\? ,am]ica ) ,africa dur+ ! e>ly ,t]ti>y epo*s1 x mu/ h be5 subm]g$ 9 ! ,mioc5e1 o!rwise !re w\ld n h be5 ! op5 pa?way = ! ,cetacea ( ,patagonia to rea* ! ,atlantic coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica & vice v]sa4 #e4 ,plioc5e ,epo* ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,plioc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica is n ne>ly s well display$ or s satisfactorily kn[n z ! prec$+ ,t]ti>y epo*s1 & only ( comp>atively late ye>s has x be5 recogniz$ at all ^u ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,! ,atlantic & ,gulf %ores _h v ne>ly _! pres5t outl9es1 b ) "s notable diff]5ces4 ,x w\ld seem t ! nor!a/]n portion ( ! cont95t /ood at a high] level ?an x does n[1 nor? ,gre5l& be+ jo9$ ) ! isl&s ( ! ,arctic ar*ipelago & ,newf\ndl& ) ,labrador1 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce !n be+ l&4 ,f ,nova ,scotia to s\!rn ,new ,j]sey ! coa/-l9e 0 _m miles to ! ea/ & s\? ( its pres5t position1 b ! sea encroa*$ "h & !re ^u ! %ores ( ,virg9ia1 ! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia1 & s\!rn ,florida 0 mo/ly "u wat]1 z 0 also a n>r[ /rip ( ! ,gulf coa/ f ,florida to ,texas & along ! ea/ ( ,mexico4 ,on ! ,pacific side ( ! cont95t ! m>9e ,plioc5e is f> ?ick] & m important ?an on ! ea/ coa/ & 9 ,cali=nia is l>gely made up ( volcanic mat]ials4 ,q ext5sive di/urbances 9 ?is region _h m>k$ ! close ( ! ,mioc5e1 ! /rata ( :i* 9 ! ,coa/ ,range _h be5 viol5tly compress$ & fold$4 ,an elevation ( ! l& _h caus$ ! sea to )draw f ! c5tral valley ( ,cali=nia & _h re/or$ ,l[] ,cali=nia to its p59sul> conditions1 r$uc+ ! gulf to ! n>r[ limits :i* x _h _h 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e & ext5d+ s\!rn ,mexico to ! we/ & s\?4 ,briti% ,columbia & s\!a/]n ,alaska /ood at high] ?an _! pres5t levels & ! c\ntless isl&s ( t region 7 "p ( ! ma9l&4 ,b]+ ,/rait 0 clos$1 = at lea/ a great "p ( ! epo*1 &1 z a cont9u\s %ore-l9e 0 ?us =m$ & a way ( migration op5$1 ! m>9e fauna ( ,cali=nia & ,japan became closely simil>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,map ( ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,plioc5e epo*1 ,b]+ ,/rait op54 ,explanation z 9 ,fig4 #dh4 7,modifi$ f ,s*u*]t47 ,9 ! int]ior1 ! ,plioc5e cont95tal =mations & faunas foll[$ s gradually ^u ^? ( ! ,mioc5e1 t !re is great d\bt z to :]e ! l9e betwe5 !m %\ld be drawn4 ,^! int]ior =mations are mo/ly ( small ext5t & are v widely scatt]$1 & mu* rema9s to be le>n$ reg>d+ ! mammals ( ! epo*4 ,9 nor!rn ,kansas are ! ,republican ,riv] b$s1 :i* are s d\btfully ,plioc5e1 t !y may almo/ equally well be call$ upp]mo/ ,mioc5e4 ,o!r l[] ,plioc5e /ages1 repres5t+ v>i\s divisions ( "t1 are ! ,ala*ua ( nor!rn ,florida1 ! ,snake ,creek ( we/]n ,nebraska1 ! ,?\s& ,creek & ,virg9 ,valley ( nor?we/]n ,nevada & ! ,rattlesnake ( ,oregon4 ,probably middle ,plioc5e is ! ,blanco ( nor?we/]n ,texas1 a valley cut 9 ! middle & l[] ,mioc5e rocks & fill$ 9 ) ,plioc5e deposits4 ,possibly upp] ,plioc5e1 or1 x may be1 l[e/ ,plei/oc5e1 are ! ,peace ,creek ( s\?we/]n ,florida & ! s-call$ 8,l\p ,riv]0 7n ,l\p ,=k7 ( we/]n ,nebraska4 ,! volcanic activity ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 & ,pacific coa/ regions1 :i* 0 s rem>kable 9 ! ,mioc5e1 cont9u$ into & p]haps ?r\gh ! ,plioc5e4 ,! great outfl[ ( light-col\r$ lava :i* built up ! c5tral plateau ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k is ref]r$ to ! ,plioc5e1 & "s ( ! enorm\s fissure-eruptions :i* =m$ ! va/ ,columbia ,riv] fields ( black basaltic lava 7 probably ,plioc5e1 z "s 7 demon/rably ,mioc5e4 ,bo? ( ^! epo*s 7 rem>kable = volcanic activity 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! cont95t4 ,! ,plioc5e climate1 z may be inf]r$ f ! plants & m>9e %ells1 0 cold] ?an t ( ! ,mioc5e1 & refrig]ation 0 progressive1 z is %[n by ! proportion ( ,arctic %ells 9 ! ,plioc5e b$s ( ! ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&1 ris+ f #e p] c5t 9 ! olde/ to m ?an #fj p] c5t 9 ! late/ b$s4 ,9 ! ,arctic regions ! cold mu/ h be5 sev]e1 at lea/ dur+ ! latt] half ( ! epo*1 = 9 ! succe$+ ,plei/oc5e we f9d an ,arctic fauna already fully adapt$ to ! extreme sev]ity ( pres5t day pol> conditions & "t 0 necess>y = su* an adaptation4 ,9 ! we/]n int]ior ! climate 0 n only cold]1 b also dri] ?an x _h be5 9 ! ,mioc5e1 ! desiccation :i* _h begun 9 ! latt] epo* becom+ progressively m & m m>k$4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,! ,great] ,antilles 7 l>g] ?an at pres5t & ,cuba 0 mu* ext5d$1 especially to ! s\!a/w>d1 & 0 probably connect$ ) ! ma9l&1 n z "o w\ld naturally expect1 ) ,yucatan1 b ) ,c5tral ,am]ica2 ?is isl&1 x is mo/ likely1 0 cut (f f ,hayti4 ,! ,i/hmian region 0 consid]ably broad] ?an x is n[ & af=d$ a m conv5i5t highway ( int]migration4 ,co/a ,rica 0 invad$ by a ,plioc5e gulf1 b x is n yet cle> :e!r ?is p]si/$ = ! :ole or only a "p ( ! epo*4 ,9 ! ,arg5t9e prov9ce ( ,entr]ios is a =mation1 ! ,p>an1 :i* is mo/ probably ,plioc5e1 ?\gh x may be upp] ,mioc5e4 ,?is =mation is l>gely m>9e & %[s t ! pres5t ,rio de la ,plata 0 !n a gulf f ! ,atlantic4 ,a few nor!rn hemisph]e mammals 9 ! ,p>an b$s %[ t ! migration _h advanc$ f> into ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,a l>ge "p ( ,patagonia 0 aga9 subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea1 :i* ext5d$ to ! ,&es 9 places1 b j h[ g5]al ! subm]g5ce 01 x is impossible to say1 = ! ,cape ,fairwea!r =mation has be5 l>gely c>ri$ away by erosion & only fragm5ts ( x rema94 ,along ! foo?ills ( ! ,&es ^! b$s are upturn$ & rais$ sev]al ?\s& feet above ! sea-level1 a pro( t ! f9al upheaval ( ! s\!rn m\nta9s took place at "s "t lat] ?an ! e>ly ,plioc5e4 ,cont95tal =mations ( ,plioc5e date are l>gely develop$ 9 ,arg5t9a2 ! ,araucanian /age is 9 two sub/ages1 "o 9 ! prov9ce ( ,catam>ca1 :]e ! b$s are mu* indurat$ & 7 involv$ 9 ! ,&ean uplift1 ! o!r1 ( unconsolidat$ mat]ials1 is at ,monte ,h]moso ne> ,bahia ,blanca on ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,! v small proportion ( nor!rn animals 9 ! ,araucanian b$s is surpris+1 b n m s ?an ! almo/ complete abs5ce ( ,s\? ,am]ican types 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,int]migration betwe5 ! two ,am]icas w\ld seem to h be5 a mu* sl[] & m difficult process ?an betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,old ,_w1 & ! reason = ! diff]5ce is probably ! great] climatic b>ri]s involv$ 9 a migration along ! l9es ( longitude4 ,upp] ,plioc5e is f\nd 9 ! ,t>ija ,valley ( ,bolivia & probably also 9 ,ecuador1 9 bo? ( :i* areas ! proportion ( nor!rn animals 0 v greatly increas$4 ,,ii4 ,,quat]n>y ,,p]iod ,! ,quat]n>y p]iod 0 a "t ( rem>kable geographical & climatic *anges1 :i* _h ! pr(\nde/ & mo/ f>-rea*+ effects1 p>tly by migration & p>tly by ext9ction1 ^u ! di/ribution ( animals & plants1 effects :i* are naturally m obvi\s ?an ^? ( e>li] geological ev5ts1 j because !y 7 ! late/4 ,x is cu/om>y to divide ! p]iod into two epo*s1 7#a7 ! ,plei/oc5e or ,glacial1 & 7#b7 ! ,rec5t1 :i* cont9ues to ! pres5t day4 #a4 ,plei/oc5e ,epo* ,:5 ,l\is ,agassiz fir/ sugge/$ 7#ahdj7 ! idea ( a "t1 comp>atively rec5t 9 ! geological s5se1 :5 nor!rn & c5tral ,europe 0 buri$ "u imm5se %eets ( sl[ly mov+ ice1 l ! 8ice-cap0 ( mod]n ,gre5l&1 ! conception 0 receiv$ ) incr$ulity4 ,ne>ly ?irty ye>s pass$ be=e ?is />tl+ !ory ga9$ ! g5]al acceptance ( geologi/s1 b n[ x is "o ( ! commonplaces ( ! sci5ce1 = no o!r hypo!sis s well expla9s ! complicat$ ph5om5a ( ,plei/oc5e geology4 ,"o great ob/acle to ! acceptance ( ! glacial !ory 0 ! suppos$ fact t ! ,plei/oc5e glaciation 0 some?+ q unique 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 a viol5t ab]ration 9 ! developm5t ( climates4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 we h e reason to believe t at lea/ ?ree o!r & v anci5t p]iods _h witness$ simil> climatic *anges & t 8ice-ages0 7 recurr5t ph5om5a4 ,?is is n ! place to discuss or ev5 to summ>ize ! evid5ce :i* has conv9c$ ne>ly all geologi/s ( ! reality ( ,plei/oc5e glacial conditions on a va/ scale 9 ,asia1 ,europe &1 above all1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! read] :o may wi% to exam9e ?is evid5ce w f9d an admirable pres5tation ( x 9 ,vol4 ,,iii ( ! 8,geology0 ( ,pr(essors ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury4 ,nor? ,am]ica4--,!re has long be5 a diff]5ce ( op9ion among /ud5ts ( ! ,plei/oc5e z to :e!r ! glaciation 0 s+le1 or sev]al times r5ew$4 ,t !re 7 _m advances & retreats ( ! ice1 is n d5i$2 ! "q is1 :e!r !re 7 truly int]glacial /ages1 :5 ! ice altoge!r disappe>$ f ! cont95t & ! climate 0 greatly ameliorat$4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy among ,am]ican & ,european geologi/s is decid$ly 9 fav\r ( accept+ sev]al di/9ct glacial /ages 7,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury admit six ( ^!7 sep>at$ by int]glacial /ages1 & = ?is !re are v /rong reasons4 ,:ile x is out ( ! "q to pres5t ! evid5ce = ?is conclusion "h1 "o or two significant facts may be not$4 ,on ! nor? %ore ( ,lake ,ont>io1 ne> ,toronto1 are c]ta9 wat]-made deposits1 :i* re/ ^u "o %eet ( glacial drift & are ov]laid by ano!r4 ,! fossils ( ! aque\s s$im5ts are 9 two s]ies1 upp] & l[]1 ( :i* ! old] & l[] conta9s plants & insects indicative ( a climate consid]ably w>m] ?an t ( ! same region to-day & correspond+ to ! temp]ature ( mod]n ,virg9ia4 ,9 ! upp] & new] b$s ! fossils %[ ! return ( cold conditions1 mu* l ^? ( s\!rn ,labrador1 & ?is 0 foll[$ by ! re/abli%m5t ( ! ice1 z record$ 9 ! upp] %eet ( drift4 ,ev5 f> to ! nor?1 on ! ,hudson's ,bay slope1 an int]glacial =e/ is emb$d$ betwe5 two glacial drift-%eets4 ,9 ,i[a & ,s\? ,dakota num]\s mammals ( temp]ate "* occur 9 int]glacial b$s4 ,at ! "t ( _! greate/ ext5sion1 ! glaci]s cov]$ ,nor? ,am]ica d[n to latitude #dj ,n41 ?\gh ! great t]m9al mora9e1 :i* m>ks ! ice-front & has be5 trac$ across ! cont95t f ,nantucket to ,briti% ,columbia1 describes a v s9u\s l9e4 ,! ice 0 n a homog5e\s %eet1 mov+ s\?w>d z a :ole1 b fl[$ 9 all directions away f sev]al1 probably f\r1 c5tres ( accumulation & disp]sal4 ,at ! same "t1 ! we/]n m\nta9 ranges _h a f> great] sn[-supply ?an at pres5t1 & great glaci]s fl[$ d[n all ! valleys ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s z f> s\? z ,new ,mexico & 9 ! ,si]ras to s\!rn ,cali=nia1 :ile ! ,wasat*1 ,u9ta & ,cascade ranges & ^? ( ,briti% ,columbia & ,alaska 7 heavily glaciat$1 b1 /range to say1 ! l[l&s ( ,alaska 7 free f ice4 ,dur+ ! p]iods ( greate/ cold ! ra9-belt 0 displac$ f> to ! s\? ( its normal position1 br++ a heavy precipitation to regions :i* are n[ extremely arid4 ,9 ! ,great ,bas9 7 =m$ two v l>ge lakes2 on ! ea/ side1 ris+ high ^u ! flanks ( ! ,wasat* ,m\nta9s1 0 ,lake ,bonneville1 ! %runk5 & pygmy remnant ( :i* is ! ,salt ,lake ( ,utah1 & on ! we/ side1 9 ,nevada1 0 ,lake ,lahontan4 ,lake ,bonneville1 :i* 0 ne>ly two-?irds ! size ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 dis*>g$ nor?w>d into ! ,snake ,riv]1 a tribut>y ( ! ,columbia1 b ,lahontan _h no outlet4 ,ea* ( ^! lakes _h two p]iods ( expansion1 ) a "t ( complete desiccation betwe5 !m4 ,ov] ! ,great ,pla9s ! pr9cipal ,plei/oc5e =mation is t kn[n z ! ,%]idan1 or1 f ! abundance ( horse-rema9s :i* are entomb$ 9 x1 ! ,equus ,b$s4 ,^! b$s ext5d z a mantle ( w9d-drift$ & compact$ du/ f ,s\? ,dakota to ,texas & 9 places conta9 multitudes ( fossil bones2 !y correspond to "o ( ! e>ly int]glacial /ages & 9 ,s\? ,dakota pass und]nea? a glacial mora9e4 ,! upheaval :i* came at or ne> ! end ( ! ,plioc5e _h rais$ ! cont95t1 or at lea/ its nor!a/]n portion1 to a height consid]ably great] ?an x has at pres5t1 & ?is mu/ h facilitat$ ! ga!r+ ( great masses ( sn[2 b be=e ! end ( ! ,plei/oc5e a subsid5ce ( ! same region br\ght ab\t important geographical *anges4 ,! depression1 :i* l[]$ ! coa/ at ! m\? ( ! ,hudson ab\t #gj feet bel[ its pres5t level1 increas$ nor?w>d to #fjj feet or m 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,valley & all[$ ! sea to invade t valley & ent] ,lake ,ont>io4 ,f ?is gulf ran two long1 n>r[ bays1 "o f> up ! valley ( ! ,ottawa & ! o!r into ! bas9 ( ,lake ,*ampla94 ,! rais$ bea*es1 conta9+ m>9e %ells & ! bones ( :ales1 seals & walruses1 give eloqu5t te/imony ( ^? vani%$ seas4 ,! recov]y f ?is depression & ! rise ( ! cont95t to its pres5t level inaugurat$ ! ,rec5t epo*4 ,:5 ! ice _h f9ally disappe>$1 x left beh9d x great %eets ( drift1 :i* completely *ang$ ! surface ( ! c\ntry & revolutioniz$ ! sy/ems ( dra9age by fill+ up ! old valleys1 only ! l>ge/ /reams be+ able to rega9 _! =m] c\rses4 ,hundr$s ( buri$ valleys h be5 disclos$ by ! bor+s = oil & gas 9 ! ,middle ,we/1 & ^!1 :5 mapp$1 %[ a sy/em ( dra9age v diff]5t f t ( mod]n times4 ,innum]able lakes1 l>ge & small1 7 =m$ 9 depressions & rock-bas9s & beh9d mora9ic dams1 ! contra/ betwe5 ! glaciat$ & non-glaciat$ regions 9 reg>d to ! numb] ( lakes 9 ea* be+ v /rik+4 ,on ! we/ coa/ ev5ts 7 q diff]5t2 m>9e ,plei/oc5e b$s 9 two /ages are f\nd 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,! upheavals late 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 or at its close1 7 f> great] ?an on ! ,atlantic side1 #djjj feet 9 s\!a/]n ,alaska1 #bjj feet on ! coa/ ( ,oregon & ris+ aga9 to #cjjj feet 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia2 all ! we/]n m\nta9 ranges & plateaus 7 increas$ 9 height by ^! movem5ts4 ,! volcanoes cont9u$ to be v active1 z may be se5 f ! lava-%eets & /reams 9 ,alaska1 all ! ,pacific /ates1 ,arizona & ,new ,mexico4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,no su* va/ ice-%eets 7 =m$ 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e z 9 ! nor!rn4 ,patagonia 0 ! only "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica to be ext5sively cov]$ ) ice & !re traces ( ?ree glaciations h be5 obs]v$1 ( :i* ! fir/ 0 ! greate/ & rea*$ to ! ,atlantic coa/1 & !re 7 great ice-masses on ! coa/ ( s\!rn ,*ili4 ,m\nta9 glaci]s exi/$ ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( ! ,&es across ! ,equator to #aa ,n4 lat41 ! elevation increas+ nor?w>d to ! tropics4 ,! surface ( ! great ,arg5t9e pla9 ( ! ,pampas betwe5 #cj & #dj ,s4 lat4 is cov]$ ) a va/ mantle1 l>gely ( w9d-accumulat$ du/1 ! ,pampean1 :i* is ! sepul*re ( an a/oni%+ numb] ( great & /range bea/s4 ,! ,pampean =mation corresponds 9 a g5]al way to ! ,%]idan or ,equus ,b$s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 b involves a mu* great] lapse ( "t1 beg9n+ e>li]1 possibly 9 ! late ,plioc5e1 & app>5tly la/+ ?r\gh ! entire ,plei/oc5e4 ,:ile l>gely ( olian orig91 ! ,pampean seems to be 9 "p made ( delta deposits laid d[n by riv]s4 ,"o /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,pampean1 on ! "o h&1 & ! ,%]idan & ! loess ( ! ,mississippi ,valley & ( ,europe1 on ! o!r1 is t ! =m] is 9 _m places mu* m consolidat$ & /ony1 :i* gives x a false appe>ance ( antiquity4 ,ano!r & v ri* s\rce ( ,plei/oc5e mammals is f\nd 9 ! lime/one caves ( ea/]n ,brazil1 :i* h yield$ an incr$ible quantity ( su* mat]ial1 b n 9 su* a rem>kably p]fect /ate ( pres]vation z ! skeletons ( ! ,pampean4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! ,plei/oc5e 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 ?\gh probably to ?is date %\ld be assign$ ! notable oscillations ( level :i* are record$ 9 ! rais$ sea-t]races ( ,cuba & o!r isl&s4 ,! ,w9dw>d gr\ps 7 jo9$1 at lea/ 9 "p1 to ! cont95t & l>ge ext9ct rod5ts rea*$ ,antigua1 :i* w\ld n be possible "u pres5t conditions4 ,! ,i/hmus ( ,panama 0 #bjj feet or m high] ?an x is n[ & correspond+ly wid]1 b 0 depress$ to a l[] ?an ! pres5t level1 & f9ally rais$ to ! height x n[ has4 ,m>9e b$s1 ( presumably ,plei/oc5e date & c]ta9ly n old]1 ext5d f ! ,c>ibbean %ore to ,gatun1 "s sev5 miles1 & are n[h]e m ?an a few feet above sea-level4 ,! "q ( ,plei/oc5e climates is a v vex$ "o & is f> f hav+ receiv$ a def9itive answ]4 ,limitations ( space =bid a discussion ( ! problem "h & ,i %all !re=e m]ely /ate ! conclusions :i* seem be/ support$ by ! evid5ce s f> available4 ,su* imm5se accumulations ( ice might be due ei!r to greatly increas$ sn[-fall1 or to a g5]al l[]+ ( ! temp]ature4 ,! balance ( te/imony is 9 fav\r ( ! latt] factor & no great refrig]ation is requir$4 ,pr(essor ,p5ck has calculat$ t a r$uction ( #f or #g 9 ! av]age ye>ly temp]ature w\ld re/ore glacial conditions 9 ,europe4 ,ev5 ! tropics 7 affect$ by ! *ange1 z is %[n n only by ! glaciation ( ! ,&es1 b also by ,mt4 ,k5ya1 :i* is almo/ on ! ,equator 9 ea/]n ,africa & /ill has glaci]s4 ,! presumably ,plei/oc5e ice cov]$ ! :ole m\nta9 l a cap1 desc5d+ #edjj feet bel[ ! pres5t glaci] limit4 ,x 0 po9t$ out above t ! int]glacial /ages _h greatly ameliorat$ climatic conditions & t1 9 "s ( !m at lea/1 ! climate 0 w>m] ?an x is to-day 9 ! same localities4 ,! cause ( ^! a/oni%+ fluctuations & ( ! climatic *anges 9 g5]al1 to :i* ,geology be>s witness1 /ill rema9s an altoge!r insoluble my/]y4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,mammals ,to e "o :o has paid ! slighte/ att5tion to ! subject1 x is a famili> fact t diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? h diff]5t animals2 s*ool-*ildr5 le>n f _! geographies t kang>oos are f\nd 9 ,au/ralia1 ! ,hippopotamus 9 ,africa1 ! ,tig] 9 s\!rn ,asia1 armadillos & llamas 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,^! examples are all tak5 f di/ant l&s1 yet ! zological diff]5ce betwe5 two giv5 l&-areas is by no means proportional to ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,an ,engli%man l&+ 9 ,japan f9ds himself surr\nd$ by animals & plants v l & (t5 id5tical ) ^? :i* he left at home1 :ile ! n>r[ ,/rait ( ,lombok1 ea/ ( ,java1 sep>ates two pr(\ndly diff]5t regions4 ,9 cross+ ,mexico f ea/ to we/1 ! travell] meets v diff]5t animals 9 closely adjac5t areas2 &1 at fir/ sight1 ! arrangem5t ( animals appe>s to be s caprici\s z to admit ( no =mulation 9 g5]al laws4 ,9 pre-,d>w9ian times1 :5 x 0 ! almo/ univ]sal belief t ea* species _h be5 sep>ately creat$ & 0 exactly fitt$ to ! region :i* x inhabits1 no explanation ( ! geographical arrangem5t ( animals 0 possible1 b ! acceptance ( ! !ory ( evolution dem&$ t su* an explanation %\ld be f\nd4 ,a failure to devise any rational & satisfactory acc\nt ( ! geography ( animal life w\ld be a fatal weakness 9 ! evolution>y !ory1 h5ce ! facts ( di/ribution 7 subject$ to a r5ew$ & se>*+ analysis z "o ( ! be/ means ( critically te/+ ! new doctr9e4 ,n t ! subject _h receiv$ no att5tion be=e ! publication ( ,d>w9's book2 on ! contr>y1 x _h attract$ mu* int]e/ z a /udy ( facts1 & ?is /udy 0 "o ( ! pr9cipal av5ues by :i* ,d>w9 approa*$ 8 great g5]alization4 ,9 8 autobiographical fragm5t he tells u3 8,i _h be5 deeply impress$ by discov]+ 9 ! ,pampean =mation great fossil animals cov]$ ) arm\r l t on ! exi/+ armadillos2 secondly1 by ! mann] 9 :i* closely alli$ animals replace "o ano!r 9 proce$+ s\?w>d ov] ! ,cont95t2 & ?ird1 by ! ,s\? ,am]ican "* ( mo/ ( ! productions ( ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago & m especially by ! mann] 9 :i* !y diff] slightly 9 ea* isl& ( ! gr\p40 ,obvi\sly1 be=e attempt+ to expla9 ! facts ( ! geographical di/ribution ( mammals1 we mu/ fir/ asc]ta9 :at ^? facts are4 ,! foll[+ brief sket* ( ! t]ms us$ 9 describ+ geographical arrangem5t is summ>iz$ f ,mr4 ,wallace's 8,isl& ,life40 ,?\gh ) fluctuat+ b\nd>ies & subject to sl[ secul> *anges1 a mammalian species is limit$ to a fairly def9ite area1 :i* may be ( imm5se or v re/rict$ ext5t1 & ?r\gh\t :i* x may be f\nd 9 great] or less abundance4 ,_m species1 h[ev]1 are n di/ribut$ cont9u\sly ov] ! areas :i* !y inhabit1 b occur only 9 suitable /ations adapt$ to _! habits & mode ( life4 ,?us1 "s w be f\nd only :]e !re are trees1 o!rs 9 ! neighb\rhood ( wat]1 o!rs only on op5 pla9s1 etc4 ,a specific area is !n ! :ole ext5t ( c\ntry )9 :i* ! species may be f\nd1 :ile ! /ations are ! limit$ di/ricts conta9$ 9 ! area :i* are exactly suit$ to ! habits ( ! species 9 "q2 ^! /ations may be hundr$s ( miles ap>t1 z 9 ! case ( m\nta9-tops1 or !y may be close toge!r4 ,a m>%-liv+ species1 = example1 w occur 9 all ! m>%es ?r\gh\t its area1 :e!r ^! be _m or few1 ne> toge!r or widely scatt]$2 = su* a species m>%es are its /ations4 ,g5]ic areas diff] 9 "* accord+ z ! g5us is l>ge1 t is1 compris+ _m species1 or small & hav+ b few species1 or1 x may be1 a s+le "o4 ,! species1 z a rule1 occupy ea* its own area1 & ! areas may be entirely di/9ct1 or !y may be contigu\s & m or less ext5sively ov]lapp+1 ?\gh x seldom happ5s t two or m species ( ! same g5us inhabit exactly ! same area4 ,(t5 "s physical feature1 su* z a range ( high m\nta9s1 a great riv]1 ! edge ( a =e/1 pla9 or des]t1 exactly def9es ! limits ( species ( ! same g5us4 ,! ,amazon1 = example1 acts z su* a b\nd>y to _m species4 ,x 0 to ?is *ange ( relat$ species f "o area to ano!r t ,d>w9 ref]r$ 9 ! passage quot$ above1 say+ t he _h be5 deeply impress$ 8by ! mann] 9 :i* closely alli$ animals replace "o ano!r 9 proce$+ s\?w>d ov] ! ,cont95t i4e4 ,s\? ,am]ica40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ov]lapp+ ( areas may be v ext5sive1 & "o species ( great range may cov] ! :ole area ( ano!r & mu* m besides4 ,a rem>kable example ( ! widely sep>at$ areas ( species belong+ to ! same g5us is t ( ! tapirs4 ,( ?is g5us !re are two or ?ree species 9 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica & "o inhabit+ ! ,malay ,p59sula & ,borneo1 almo/ z wide a sep>ation z ! size ( ! e>? p]mits4 ,discont9u\s di/ribution ( ?is "* c be expla9$ 9 t]ms ( ! evolution>y !ory only 9 "o ( two ways4 ,ei!r 7#a7 ! ,am]ican & ,asiatic species develop$ indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r f diff]5t ance/ors1 or 7#b7 ! regions int]v5+ betwe5 ^! widely sep>at$ areas once =m$ a cont9u\s l&1 occupi$ by species ( ! g5us :i* h become ext9ct4 ,f all t we "k conc]n+ ! op]ation ( ! evolution>y process1 ! fir/ alt]native may be set aside z altoge!r improbable1 &1 ev5 _h we no in=mation conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( ! tapirs & _! =m] di/ribution1 ! second explanation w\ld be *os5 z incomp>ably ! m likely4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 we h def9ite k t tapirs once rang$ all ov] ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica & d\btless ov] nor!rn ,asia1 z well1 &1 fur!r1 t ,nor? ,am]ica 0 jo9$ to ,asia by a l& occupy+ ! place ( ! %all[ ,b]+ ,sea1 at a "t :5 ! tapirs 7 able to take advantage ( ?is means ( pass+ f "o cont95t to ! o!r4 ,su* appe>s to be ! inv>iable explanation ( discont9u\s di/ribution1 ?\gh we may n always be able to give s cle> a pro( ( x4 ,! g5]a ( a family are di/ribut$ 9 mu* ! same fa%ion z ! species ( a g5us1 b1 z a rule1 mu* m widely4 ,:ile no g5us ( t]re/rial mammals is cosmopolitan 7i4e4 univ]sally di/ribut$71 at lea/ z g5]a are def9$ & limit$ by mo/ mod]n sy/emati/s1 c]ta9 families are repres5t$ 9 e cont95t4 ,if ! extremely peculi> & isolat$ ,au/ralian cont95t be except$1 ! numb] ( su* cosmopolitan families is consid]able & wide sep>ation betwe5 ! g5]a is frequ5t4 ,( ! camel family1 = in/ance1 "o g5us1 t ( ! true ,camel 7,camelus71 is conf9$ to ! nor!rn hemisph]e & ! ,old ,_w1 ! o!r 7,lama71 compris+ ! ,llama1 ,guanaco1 etc41 is f\nd only 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e & ! ,new ,_w4 ,less extreme in/ances ( ! discont9u\s di/ribution ( a family are common en\gh4 ,! pr9ciples ( di/ribution are ! same :5 appli$ to families & ord]s4 ,mo/ ( ! mammalian ord]s are v widely di/ribut$ & _m are cosmopolitan1 except = ,au/ralia1 ?\gh "s are conf9$ to "o or two cont95ts4 ,! monotremes are limit$ to ,au/ralia & ,tasmania1 ! m>supials to ,au/ralia & ! ,am]icas1 ! ed5tates to ! latt]1 ! elephants & hyracoids to ,africa & ,asia4 ,c>nivores & rod5ts1 on ! contr>y1 are f\nd 9 e cont95t1 ev5 ,au/ralia4 ,we h next to inquire :at is ! nature ( ! ob/acles or b>ri]s t prev5t ! indef9ite spread ( t]re/rial mammals1 s t ! mammalian fauna ( ! :ole e>?1 & ev5 ( a s+le cont95t1 is n uni=m1 b highly v>iegat$4 ,! rate ( multiplication ( animals is s rapid t1 "u normal conditions1 ! animal population is always press+ h>d ^u ! means ( subsi/5ce & e species t is increas+ 9 numb]s mu/ con/antly ext5d its range 9 se>* ( food4 ,e species w\ld increase indef9itely1 if !re 7 no c\nt]vail+ *ecks4 ,7 all ! "y to survive & bre$ 9 _! turn1 8ev5 l>ge & sl[-bre$+ mammals1 :i* only h "o at a bir?1 b cont9ue to bre$ f eight to t5 successive ye>s1 may increase f a s+le pair to #aj1jjj1jjj 9 =ty ye>s0 7,wallace74 ,evid5tly1 a species mu/ spread f its place ( orig9 until /opp$ by insup]able ob/acles1 ! mo/ obvi\s ( :i* are wide seas4 ,a few l& mammals are n only excell5t swimm]s1 b w cross /raits )\t hesitation1 z ! ,guanaco has be5 se5 to swim ! ,/raits ( ,magellan2 = ! great majority1 h[ev]1 a v few miles ( sea =m an impassable b>ri]4 ,z 0 %[n above1 a broad or deep riv] is suffici5t to limit _m species1 z ! ,santa ,cruz ,riv] 9 ,patagonia m>ks ! s\!rn b\nd>y ( ! armadillos4 ,important geographical *anges1 su* z ! jo9+ ( l&s t be=e 7 sep>ate1 or ! divid+ ( cont9u\s l&s by transgressions & incursions ( ! sea1 mu/ necess>ily h a pr(\nd effect ^u ! di/ribution ( l& mammals4 ,sep>at$ l&-areas1 h[ev] simil> may h be5 _! faunas at ! "t ( sep>ation1 w1 ?r\gh ! op]ation ( ! div]g5t evolution>y process1 gr[ m unlike 9 proportion to ! l5g? ( "t t ! sep>ation cont9ues4 ,regions :i* h be5 sev]$ )9 a %ort "t 79 ! geological s5se ( a %ort "t7 are zologically v simil> or ev5 id5tical1 :ile ^? t h long be5 isolat$ are correspond+ly peculi>4 ,att5tion has already be5 call$1 9 ano!r connection1 to ! contra/$ cases ( su* great cont95tal isl&s z ,great ,brita91 ,java1 ,sumatra1 etc41 on ! "o h&1 & ,au/ralia1 on ! o!r4 ,! cont95tal isl&s1 :i* h b lately be5 deta*$ f ! neighb\r+ ma9 l&s1 are h>dly m peculi> zologically ?an equal areas ( ! adjo9+ cont95ts1 :ile ! long-cont9u$ isolation ( ,au/ralia has made x ! mo/ peculi> region ( ! e>?4 ,climatic *anges1 :i*1 z we saw 9 ,*apt] ,i1 h indubitably tak5 place _m times1 h also _h a great effect 9 %ift+ ! di/ribution ( mammals1 :i* 9 its pres5t =m is ! outcome ( a v long s]ies ( geographical & climatic *anges1 on ! "o h&1 & ( adaptive *anges 9 ! animals !mselves1 on ! o!r4 ,( almo/ equal importance z a b>ri] is climate & especially temp]ature4 ,n t simil> climates c produce simil> =ms 9 sep>ate areas4 ,regions ( almo/ exactly simil> climate 9 ,au/ralia1 ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica h totally diff]5t faunas1 b1 )9 cont9u\s l&-areas1 ! mo/ effective ( b>ri]s is temp]ature4 ,?is acts diff]5tly 9 ! case ( limit+ ! nor?w>d spread ( s\!rn =ms & ! s\?w>d spread ( nor!rn species4 ,dr4 ,m]riam's long /udy ( ?is problem has l$ him to ! conclusion t s\!rn species are b\nd$ on ! nor? by ! temp]ature ( ! bre$+ season1 9 :i* ! total quantity ( heat mu/ rea* a c]ta9 m9imum1 :ile 8animals & plants are re/rict$ 9 s\?w>d di/ribution by ! mean temp]ature ( a brief p]iod cov]+ ! hotte/ "p ( ! ye>40 ,on ! ,pacific coa/ !re is a rem>kable m+l+ 9 ! same areas ( species :i*1 ea/ ( ! high m\nta9s1 are di/ribut$ 9 %>ply sep>at$ zones4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! mild & equable climate ( ! coa/al belt1 :]e ! hotte/ season ( ! ye> does n rea* ! limit+ maximum = ! nor!rn species1 :ile ! total quantity ( heat 9 ! bre$+ season is suffici5t to enable s\!rn species to ?rive & ma9ta9 !mselves4 ,dr4 ,m]riam ?us sums up ! effects ( climatic factors ^u di/ribution3 8,humidity & o!r second>y causes det]m9e ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( p>ticul> species 9 p>ticul> localities )9 _! appropriate zones1 b temp]ature pre-det]m9es ! possibilities ( di/ribution2 x fixes ! limits beyond :i* species _c pass40 8,concurr5tly ) ^! *anges 9 vegetation f ! s\? nor?w>d occur equally m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ! mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 & insects4 ,among mammals ! tapirs1 monkeys1 armadillos1 nasuas1 pecc>ies1 & opossums ( ,c5tral ,am]ica & ,mexico are replac$ to ! nor?w>d by wood-rats1 m>mots1 *ipmunks1 foxes1 rabbits1 %ort-tail$ field-mice ( sev]al g5]a1 %rews1 wild-cats1 lynxes1 %ort-tail$ porcup9es1 elk1 moose1 re9de]1 sables1 fi%]s1 wolv]9es1 lemm+s1 musk-ox51 & pol> be>s40 ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,all5 has rea*$ closely simil> conclusions4 8,( /rictly climatic influ5ces1 temp]ature is by f> ! mo/ important1 al?\gh moi/ure plays an influ5tial "p4 ,:]e a l[ temp]ature prevails life1 bo? animal & vegetable1 is repres5t$ by comp>atively few =ms2 "u a high temp]ature x is *>act]iz$ by great div]sity & luxuriance4 ,)9 ! ,arctic ,circle ! species ( bo? animals & plants are n only few1 b !y are widely di/ribut$1 be+ = ! mo/ "p ev]y:]e ! same4 ,"u ! tropics !y are a hundr$ fold m num]\s & ( comp>atively re/rict$ di/ribution40 8,! influ5ce ( temp]ature is p]haps mo/ /rik+ly display$ 9 ! di/ribution ( life ^u ! slopes ( a high m\nta91 especially if situat$ ne> ! tropics4 ,:ile its base may be clo!d ) palms & luxuriant tropical vegetation1 its summit may be sn[-capp$ & b>r54444 ,! animal life becomes likewise correspond+ly *ang$1 tropical =ms ( mammals1 birds1 & insects ( ! l[] slopes gradually giv+ place to su* z are *>act]i/ic ( arctic latitudes40 8,! effect ( humidity ^u plant life is ?us obvi\s1 b x is equally pot5t1 ?\gh less evid5t1 ^u animal life4 ,_m animals 444 are s fitt$ = a =e/ life1 z reg>ds bo? food & %elt]1 t _! v exi/5ce dep5ds ^u su* surr\nd+s4444 ,?us moi/ure alone may det]m9e ! "* ( life ov] ext5sive regions40 ,:ile climate is ?us ! mo/ important ( ! b>ri]s :i* det]m9e di/ribution 9 cont9u\s l&-areas1 ! abs5ce ( any p>ticul> species f a giv5 region is no pro( t ! climate is unsuitable to t species4 ,?is is suffici5tly %[n by ! mann] 9 :i* animals introduc$ into a new c\ntry (t5 run wild & multiply to an incr$ible ext5t1 z ! rabbits h done 9 ,au/ralia1 ! ,mongoose 9 ,jamaica1 horses on our we/]n pla9s1 horses & cattle on ! ,pampas ( ,arg5t9a1 etc4 ,topographical features1 su* z great m\nta9-ranges & plateaus1 also limit _m species1 n only by ! difficulty ( cross+ !m1 b also by ! effect :i* !y h ^u temp]ature & moi/ure4 ,= ?is reason long ranges ( m\nta9s & table-l&s may c>ry a nor!rn fauna v f> to ! s\? ( its ord9>y range1 z d ! m\nta9-sy/ems ( ,nor? ,am]ica 9 a v conspicu\s mann]4 ,! great ,mexican plateau is zologically a "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :ile ! l[ coa/al l&s z f> z s\!a/]n ,texas h ,c5tral ,am]ican aff9ities4 ,a diff]5t k9d ( ob/acle to ! spread ( a species into a new area may be ! pre-occupation ( t area by ano!r species4 ,! pre-occupi] may be "o t plays s simil> a "p 9 ! economy ( nature z to leave no opportunity = ! newcom] to e/abli% itself4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ob/ruct+ =m may be an active enemy & ( a totally diff]5t "* f ! intrud]1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,tse-tse ,fly 9 p>ts ( ,africa4 ,! bite ( ! fly is fatal to horses & ox51 s t ^! mammals are unable to ent] ! fly-infe/$ regions4 ,_m times 9 ! c\rse ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod v>i\s mammals rea*$ ,nor? ,am]ica f ! s\? or f ! ,old ,_w1 :i* 7 unable to ga9 a p]man5t foo?old & spe$ily di$ out4 ,at ?is di/ance ( "t x is seldom1 if ev]1 possible to expla9 :y a species :i* succe$$ 9 rea*+ ?is cont95t c\ld n ma9ta9 itself1 ?\gh ! mo/ probable assumption is t ! =ms already 9 possession ( ! l& 7 an insup]able ob/acle to ! intrud]s4 ,! rate ( disp]sal ( a species into new areas may be fa/ or sl[1 accord+ z ! conditions are m or less fav\rable4 ,newly introduc$ insect-pe/s1 l ! ,gypsy & ! ,br[n-tail$ ,mo?s 9 ,new ,engl&1 (t5 spread ) port5t\s rapidity2 & introduc$ mammals h frequ5tly tak5 possession ( va/ areas 9 a surpris+ly %ort "t4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! cases is cit$ by ,d>w94 8,9 ! "t ( ,s>mi5to 7#aehj7 ^! ,indians _h b[s & arr[s1 n[ long s9ce disus$2 !y !n also possess$ "s horses4 ,?is is a v curi\s fact1 %[+ ! extraord9>ily rapid multiplication ( horses 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! horse 0 fir/ l&$ at ,bu5os ,ayres 9 #aecg & ! colony be+ !n = a "t des]t$1 ! horse ran wild2 9 #aehj1 only =ty-?ree ye>s aft]w>ds1 we he> ( !m at ! ,/rait ( ,magellan60 78,voyage ( a ,naturali/10 pp4 #bcb-bcc47 ,9 ?is example1 some?+ mu/ be all[$ = human ag5cy1 b ev5 s1 x is v surpris+4 ,9 ! case ( l&s newly rais$ above ! sea & connect+ =m]ly sep>at$ areas1 x is necess>y t !y %\ld fir/ be tak5 possession ( by vegetation1 be=e !y c become passable by animals1 = ! migration ( mammals f cont95t to cont95t is an entirely di/9ct ph5om5on f ! annual migration ( birds4 ,! latt]1 ?\gh a fact famili> to e "o1 is an unexpla9$ my/]y1 & x is some:at un=tunate t ! same t]m %\ld be us$ = ! completely diff]5t process ( ! spread ( mammals into newly op5$ l&4 ,?is spread is purely unconsci\s & is due to ! pressure ( increas+ numb]s ^u ! means ( subsi/5ce1 ea* new g5]ation rang+ f>!r & f>!r f ! orig9al home ( ! species & cont9u+ s to ext5d until "s insup]able ob/acle is enc\nt]$4 ,:5 a sea-b>ri] is remov$ by upheaval & ! newly =m$ l& r5d]$ habitable = mammals ?r\gh ! invasion ( plants1 ! int]rupt$ process is resum$ & an int]*ange ( species betwe5 ! areas ?us connect$ is br\ght ab\t4 ,! int]*ange is1 h[ev]1 always an incomplete "o1 c]ta9 =ms n be+ able s to ext5d _! range1 because ( climatic diff]5ces1 pre-occupation or "s su* b>ri]4 ,x is cu/om>y to give a graphic expression to ! facts ( animal di/ribution by divid+ ! l& surface ( ! e>? into di/ricts :i* are *>act]iz$ by _! faunas4 ,x is n possible to con/ruct a geographical s*eme :i* w be equally satisfactory = all classes ( animals1 because ! geological date ( mo/ rapid developm5t & diffusion 0 s diff]5t 9 ! v>i\s classes4 ,! geographical & climatic conditions :i* fav\r$ a p>ticul> geographical arrangem5t ( "o class _h be5 s completely alt]$ t ! class com+ 9 lat] c\ld n atta9 a simil> di/ribution4 ,= ?is reason1 l& mammals are *os5 z af=d+ ! be/ crit]ia2 _! adaptability is su* t !y are f\nd all ov] ! e>?1 _! disp]sal is prim>ily dep5d5t ^u ! arrangem5t & connections ( ! cont95tal l&-masses1 modifi$ by ! topographical & climatic conditions1 & !y1 ) ! birds1 are ! late/ ( ! v]tebrate classes to assume a dom9at+ importance4 ,_! hi/ory is ! mo/ fully kn[n & falls )9 ! be/ und]/ood portion ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 mak+ x possible to foll[ _! migrations ) a precision :i* is seldom feasible = ! o!r classes ( animals1 & ?us to correlate ! successive physical & organic *anges4 ,a p>ticul>ly great advantage :i* mammals possess = ?is purpose is t ! mutual relation%ips ( ! v>i\s k9ds are bett] und]/ood ?an 9 ! case ( mo/ o!r gr\ps ( animals4 ,x is true t we %all f9d a great _m unsolv$ problems1 ^u :i* ! mo/ div]g5t op9ions are held1 b ! ma9 outl9es ( ! s*eme are q g5]ally agre$ ^u4 ,_m plans = ! zological division ( ! cont95tal areas h be5 propos$ by v>i\s writ]s on ! subject1 "s diff]+ v radically f o!rs4 ,x w\ld be useless & t$i\s to review ev5 ! m important ( ! _m proposals & sugge/ions :i* h be5 made 9 ! la/ half-c5tury2 & we may1 ) advantage1 adopt an eclectic s*eme :i* has be5 sl[ly rea*$ by successive approximations to a satisfactory arrangem5t4 ,j z 9 political geography x is f\nd necess>y to recognize divisions ( diff]5t rank & scope1 l nation1 /ate1 c\nty1 t[n%ip1 ! facts ( zological geography require divisions ( diff]5t ord]s ( importance4 ,?us1 9 desc5d+ ord]1 ! t]ms realm1 region1 subregion1 prov9ce1 etc4 are commonly employ$1 b un=tunately !y are (t5 us$ loosely & ev5 int]*angeably2 yet x is desirable to atta* a m or less precise significance to ea* & m t]ms are ne$$ = an accurate expression ( ! _m complex facts4 ,! extreme zological peculi>ity ( ,au/ralia is recogniz$ by mak+ t cont95t & its adjo9+ isl&s "o ( ! great prim>y divisions1 ( :i* ! o!r includes all ! re/ ( ! _w2 ! =m] is *>act]iz$ by its almo/ exclusively m>supial fauna1 :ile ! o!r cont95ts are inhabit$ by ! ,monodelphia or plac5tal mammals4 ,aside f ,au/ralia1 by f> ! mo/ isolat$ & peculi> region ( ! e>? is ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ?is fact is express$ by con/itut+ x into a realm1 or division ( ! second ord]1 & to ?is realm is giv5 ! "n ,neoga4 ,! rema9+ cont95ts1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,europe1 ,asia & ,africa1 make up ! o!r realm1 ,arctoga1 9 :i* !re is an unmi/akable g5]al lik5ess among ! mammals4 ,! ?ree cont95ts ( ! ,old ,_w =m a va/1 connect$ l&-mass1 & ! f9al sep>ation ( ,nor? ,am]ica f ?is great complex is an ev5t ( geologically rec5t date4 ,= reasons t w be made cle> 9 ! c\rse ( ! hi/ory1 ! junction ( ! two ,am]icas has _h comp>atively little effect ^u ! zology ( ! nor!rn cont95t1 except 9 its tropical portion4 ,x is obvi\s f a glance at ! map1 t ! great zological divisions are ( v unequal size1 b ! arrangem5t is made on ! basis ( degrees ( diff]5ce 9 ! mammalian faunas4 ,^! degrees ( diff]5ce are1 9 turn1 an expression ( l5g? ( sep>ation or ( ! difficulty ( communication betwe5 connect$ l&s4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! major divisions ( ! e>? ap>t f ,au/ralia3 ,i4 ,,neog,,ic ,,realm4 ,neotropical ,region4--,s\? & ,c5tral ,am]ica1 l[l&s ( ,mexico1 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,,ii4 ,,arctog,,ic ,,realm4 #a4 ,malagasy ,region4--,madagasc>4 #b4 ,e?iopian ,region4--,africa s\? ( ! ,sah>a ,des]t4 #c4 ,ori5tal ,region4--,s\!rn p59sulas ( ,asia1 ,malay ,ar*ipelago4 #d4 ,hol>ctic ,region4--,n4 ,africa1 ,europe1 ,asia1 7except s\!rn "p71 boreal ,n4 ,am]ica4 #e4 ,sonoran ,region4--,rema9d] ( ,n4 ,am]ica 7except l[l&s ( ,mexico74 ,nor? ,am]ica1 z is express$ by ?is s*eme1 is zologically composite2 ! nor!rn half1 includ+ ne>ly all ( ,canada1 belongs to ! va/ ,hol>ctic ,region1 :i* also comprises ,europe1 ,africa nor? ( ! ,sah>a & ,asia nor? ( ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s4 ,! rema9d] ( ! cont95t1 exclusive ( ! ,mexican coa/al l[l&s1 is set (f z ! ,sonoran ,region4 ,inasmu* z we h "h to d ) broadly cont9u\s l&-areas1 n dem>cat$ by great physical features1 & z ! g5]a & species ( mammals diff] greatly 9 reg>d to _! ability to )/& a wide range ( climatic v>iations1 x is n to be expect$ t ! b\nd>ies betwe5 ! regions :i* make up ,nor? ,am]ica %\ld be v %>ply drawn4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 to f9d a transition zone1 ext5d+ all across ! cont95t1 9 :i* ! ,hol>ctic & ,sonoran faunas m+le1 or t ,c5tral ,am]ica %\ld1 9 consid]able measure1 be transitional to ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?\gh zologically a "p ( ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,zological ,divisions ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,m]riam47 ,dr4 ,m]riam's arrangem5t1 :i* deals only ) ,nor? ,am]ica )\t ref]5ce to ! ,old ,_w1 divides ! l& into a s]ies ( transcont95tal zones1 :i* he calls ! ,arctic1 ,boreal1 ,upp] & ,l[] ,sonoran & ,tropical4 ,^! zones h v irregul> & s9u\s b\nd>ies1 :i* foll[ l9es ( equal temp]ature 7iso!rmal l9es7 dur+ ! bre$+ season1 ,may1 ,june & ,july1 ! tortu\s b\nd>ies be+ condition$ by topographical features1 :i* deflect ! iso!rmal l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,pol> ,be> 7,?al>ctus m>itimus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! ,arctic zone is "p ( a circumpol> area1 :i* is v mu* ! same 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,asia & ,europe2 & 9 any ( ^! cont95ts ! fauna diff]s mu* m f t ( ! contigu\s zone to ! s\? ?an f ! ,arctic fauna ( ano!r cont95t4 ,!re are "s local diff]5ces1 b ! *>act]i/ic mammals ( ?is ,arctic zone are ! ,pol> ,be>1 ,arctic ,fox1 ,musk ,ox1 ,b>r5-gr\nd ,c>ib\1 ,lemm+1 ,arctic ,h>e1 & a m>mot4 ,mo/1 if n all1 ( ^! =ms are ( ,old ,_w orig94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,musk ,ox 7,ovibos w>di7 female2 ! males h mu* l>g] horns4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,arctic ,fox 7,vulpes lagopus7 9 w9t] dress4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,arctic ,fox 9 summ] dress4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! ,am]ican portion ( ! great ,hol>ctic region is call$ by ,mr4 ,lydekk]1 :o uses ,wallace's t]m1 ! 8,canadian subregion10 & by ,dr4 ,m]riam ! 8,boreal region40 ,n t !re is any diff]5ce ( pr9ciple involv$ 9 ?is v>y+ nom5clature1 = ,dr4 ,m]riam says3 8,x s happ5s t ! ,boreal elem5t 9 ,am]ica resembles t ( ,eurasia s closely t 9 ! judgm5t ( _m em95t au?orities ! two con/itute a s+le prim>y region--a view 9 :i* ,i he>tily concur40 ,! ,canadian or ,boreal subregion ( ! ,hol>ctic is ! great belt ( conif]\s =e/1 :i* ext5ds obliquely across ,nor? ,am]ica f ,alaska to ,new ,engl&2 its fronti] ) ! ,arctic zone is ! nor!rn limit ( trees & x is divid$ f ! ,transition zone approximately by ! l9e ( latitude #de ,n41 ?\gh ) a s9u\s c\rse1 & x is c>ri$ f> to ! s\? by ! wood$ heights ( ! ,appala*ian1 ,rocky & ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9s1 & along ! ,pacific coa/1 ! mix$ "* ( :i* has already be5 expla9$2 x ext5ds almo/ to ,san ,francisco4 ,! subregion is fur!r divisible into nor!rn & s\!rn belts1 call$ ! ,hudsonian & ,canadian faunas1 ! limit betwe5 !m approximately foll[+ ! iso!rmal l9e ( #eg ,f4 ,! mammals ( ?is subregion are l>gely ( ,old ,_w orig91 _m ( !m com+ 9 ) ! great immigrations ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e epo*s2 b !re are also native ,am]ican elem5ts & ev5 "o g5us ( ,s\? ,am]ican orig91 ! ,%ort-tail$ or ,canada ,porcup9e 7,ere?izon74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,canada ,porcup9e 7,ere?izon dorsatus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,wood*uck or ,m>mot 7,m>mota monax74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,m9k 7,lutreola vison74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,9 consid]+ ! mammals ( ?is subregion1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t !y are n uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ev5 "o subdivision1 b 9 a scatt]+ way & 9 accordance ) _! habits & /ations1 & also 9 accordance ) a gradual *ange to ! s\?1 foll[+ ! *ang+ temp]ature4 ,! ,muskrat w n be f\nd f> f wat] or ! ,porcup9e f woods4 ,especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,canadian subregion are ! ,old ,_w types ( de]1 none ( :i* range f>!r s\? ?an ! ,transition zone4 ,! ,wapiti1 errone\sly call$ ! ,elk 7,c]vus canad5sis71 is v closely alli$ to ! ,european ,/ag 7,c4 elaphus7 & /ill m closely to ! ,/ag ( ! ,?ian ,%an 9 ,c5tral ,asia 7,c4 eu/ephanus74 ,s great is ! resemblance1 t "s naturali/s w\ld ref] all ?ree =ms to a s+le species4 ,! ,moose 7,alce am]icanus71 :i* %\ld be call$ ! ,elk1 is s ne> to ! ,sc&9avian ,elk 7,a4 ma*lis7 t x is h>dly di/+ui%able z a sep>ate species1 & ! ,woodl& ,c>ib\ 7,rangif] c>ib\7 is ! ,am]ican repres5tative ( ! ,lapl& ,re9de] 7,r4 t>&us74 ,! s-call$ ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,goat 7,oreamnos montanus71 a peculi> & ab]rant =m ( ! ,*amois subfamily ( ! ,antelopes1 is conf9$ to ! subregion4 ,! ,m\nta9 ,%eep 7,ovis montana1 ,o4 dalli7 are repres5t$ by ?ree or f\r species1 "o ( :i* ext5ds into ! ,sonoran region1 z does also ! ,bison1 wrongly call$ ,buffalo 7,bison bison71 :i* is ne>ly alli$ to ! ,european ,b4 bonasus4 ,9 ,cs>'s "t ! ,european ,bison 7,g]man1 ,wis5t7 rang$ ?r\gh ,g]many & is describ$ 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,h]cynian ,=e/2 b ! advance ( civilization has almo/ ext]m9at$ x1 only a few small h]ds be+ ma9ta9$ by ! mo/ rigid protection 9 ,russia & 9 ! ,c>pa?ian ,m\nta9s4 ,( ! ,c>nivora1 ! weasels1 m>t5s1 ,fi%]1 ,m9k & ,erm9e are ,boreal1 z are ! ,wolv]5e 7,gulo7 & ! ,grey ,wolf 7,canis71 ! ?ree la/-nam$ ext5d+ also into ! ,arctic zone4 ,ess5tially ,boreal1 ?\gh rea*+ & ent]+ ! ,sonoran1 are ! be>s 7,ursus71 ! r$ foxes 7,vulpes71 ! ott]s 7,lutra7 & ! ,old ,_w %rews 7,sorex71 :ile ! ,/>-nose ,mole 7,condylura7 & ! mole-%rews 7,urotri*us7 d n ext5d s\? ( ! ,transition zone4 ,probable intrud]s f ! s\? into ! ,boreal subregion are ! pumas1 or 8m\nta9 lions10 :i* j ent] ! subregion1 ! ,canada ,lynx 7,lynx rufus7 & "o species ( skunks 7,mephitis71 ! ,raccoon 7,procyon lotor71 ,badg] 7,taxidea am]icana7 & ! ,am]ican de] 7,odocoileus74 ,a l>ge numb] ( rod5ts are *>act]i/ically ,boreal3 m>mots1 or wood*ucks 7,m>mota71 ! ,sewellel 7,aplodontia rufa71 lemm+s 7,myodes71 ,jump+ ,m\se 7,zapus71 ! ,canada ,porcup9e 7,ere?izon dorsatus7 & ! pikas1 8tailless or :i/l+ h>es0 7,o*otona74 ,boreal rod5ts t ent] ! ,sonoran are ! *ipmunks 7,tamias71 beav]s 7,ca/or71 mead[-mice 7,microtus71 ! ,muskrat 7,fib] zibe?icus74 ,! :ite-foot$ mice 7,sitomys7 & ! wood-rats 7,neotoma7 are s\!rn rod5ts t rea* or ent] ! ,boreal4 ,betwe5 ! ,boreal subregion & ! ,sonoran region is ! ,transition zone1 :i* foll[s all ! complex w9d+s ( ! b\nd>y l9es4 ,x cov]s mo/ ( ,new ,engl&1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania & s\!rn ,ont>io2 pass+ ?r\gh s\!rn ,mi*igan & ,wiscons91 x b5ds nor?w>d ov] ,m9nesota & cov]s mo/ ( ,nor? ,dakota1 ,manitoba & ! pla9s ( ! ,saskat*ewan1 !n turns abruptly s\?w>d & includes ea/]n ,montana & p>ts ( ,s\? ,dakota & ,nebraska4 ,cross+ ,wyom+1 x foll[s ar\nd ! nor!rn edge ( ! ,great ,bas9 to ! pla9s ( ! ,columbia4 ,! ?ree great m\nta9-sy/ems c>ry ! zone f> to ! s\? & arms ( x ext5d along ! ,appala*ians to nor!rn ,georgia1 along ! ,rockies to ,new ,mexico1 & x foll[s ! ,si]ras to s\!rn ,cali=nia4 8,! ,transition zone1 z its "n indicates1 is a zone ( ov]lapp+ ,boreal & ,sonoran types4 ,_m ,boreal g5]a & species "h rea* ! extreme s\!rn limits ( _! di/ribution & _m ,sonoran g5]a & species _! nor!rn limits4 ,b a s+le mammalian g5us 7,synaptomys7 "o ( ! field mice is re/rict$ to ! ,transition zone4444 ,a numb] ( species1 h[ev]1 seem to be ne>ly or q conf9$ to ?is zone0 7,m]riam74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,upp] figure1 ,european ,bison 7,bison bonasus74 ,l[] figure1 ,am]ican ,bison 7,b4 bison74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,wolv]5e 7,gulo luscus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,wapiti or 8,elk0 7,c]vus canad5sis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,alaska ,br[n ,be> 7,ursus midd5dorfi74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,moose 7,alce am]icanus74 ,"y male ) undevelop$ antl]s4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,beav] 7,ca/or canad5sis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,woodl& ,c>ib\ 7,rangif] c>ib\74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,r$ ,fox 7,vulpus fulvus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,rocky ,m\nta9 8,goat0 7,oreamnos montanus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,erm9e 7,mu/ela erm9ea74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,timb] or ,grey ,wolf 7,canis nubilis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,boreal ,mammals4 ,a4 ,black-foot$ ,f]ret 7,mu/ela nigripes74 ,b4 ,ott] 7,lutra canad5sis74 ,c4 ,jump+ ,m\se 7,zapus hudsonius74--,a & ,b by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,c1 by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,opossum 7,didelphis m>supialis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 zologically speak+1 is ! ,sonoran region ( ,dr4 ,m]riam1 ! ,w>m ,temp]ate ( ,dr4 ,all54 ,x crosses ! cont95t f ocean to ocean1 its nor!rn b\nd>y foll[+ = mo/ ( ! way ! #dc;d p>allel ( latitude1 b ov] ! ,great ,pla9s & ,great ,bas91 on ea* side ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! high plateaus1 x ext5ds to lat4 #dh4 ,on ! s\?1 x takes 9 ! great] "p ( ,mexico1 cov]+ all ( ! table-l& ( t c\ntry1 ! l[l&s ( :i* belong to ! ,s\? ,am]ican or ,neotropical region4 ,! ,sonoran is invad$ f ! nor? by ! long bran*es f ! ,boreal & ,transition zones1 :i* foll[ ! ?ree great m\nta9-sy/ems 9 ! mann] already expla9$1 & ! ,mexican plateau p]mits ! simil> invasion ( ,neotropical t]ritory by ! ,sonoran fauna4 ,*>act]i/ic ,sonoran g5]a1 none ( :i* ext5d into ! ,boreal1 are ! opossums 7,didelphis71 9 ! s\!rn "p a pecc>y 7,tagassu7 or 8,wild ,texas ,pig10 repres5tative ( a family ( sw9e q diff]5t f ! true pigs ( ! ,old ,_w1 & an armadillo 7,tatu74 ,a v isolat$ =m is ! ,prong-horn$ ,antelope 7,antilocapra am]icana72 !re are sev]al species ( ! typically ,am]ican de] 7,odocoileus7 :i* diff] 9 important respects f ^? ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 & ! ,bison 0 v abundant until ext]m9at$ by ,man4 ,bison1 antelope & de] also rea* or ext5d into ! ,boreal zone1 b ! =m]1 or ,wood ,bison1 is probably a diff]5t species f ! pla9s animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,prong-horn$ ,antelope 7,antilocapra am]icana74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,kang>oo-,rat 7,dipodomys philippii74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,?irte5-l9$ ,sp]mophile 7,sp]mophilus tr$eciml9eatus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! grey foxes 7,urocyon71 ,coyote 7,canis latrans71 l>ge ,timb] ,wolf 7,canis occid5talis71 ! ,caxomi/le 7,bass>iscus71 ! ,coati 7,nasua71 ,raccoon 7,procyon71 ,badg] 7,taxidea71 ?ree g5]a ( skunks1 pumas1 sev]al species ( lynx & "s be>s 7,ursus7 repres5t ! ,c>nivora1 ?\gh "o species ea* ( raccoon1 skunk1 badg]1 puma & lynx range into ! ,boreal4 ,! ,am]ican types ( %rews 7,bl>9a7 & moles 7,scalops & ,scapanus7 are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,sonoran1 ?\gh p>tially %>$ ) ! ,boreal4 ,a great _m peculi> rod5ts inhabit ! ,sonoran2 cotton-rats 7,sigmodon71 pocket-goph]s 7,geomys1 etc471 sev]al g5]a ( ! beautiful little kang>oo-rats 7,dipodomys1 etc472 :ile ! prairie-dogs 7,cynomys71 ! :ite-foot$ mice 7,sitomys71 wood-rats 7,neotoma7 & "o g5us ( pocket-goph]s 7,?omomys7 are *iefly ,sonoran1 b h ,boreal repres5tatives4 ,! fly+ squirrels 7,sciuropt]us71 true squirrels 7,sciurus71 gr\nd-squirrels 7,sp]mophilus71 rabbits 7,lepus71 wolves 7,canis7 & ott]s 7,lutra7 h a v wide range ?r\gh bo? ! ,boreal & ,sonoran1 b h _m m species 9 ! latt] region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,grey ,squirrel 7,sciurus c>ol95sis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! ,sonoran region may be divid$ into ! upp] & l[] ,sonoran zones1 :i* are dem>cat$ by temp]ature & are ( transcont95tal ext5t4 ,ea* ( ^! zones may1 9 turn1 be subdivid$ into arid & humid prov9ces1 b our purpose does n necessitate ent]+ into su* ref9em5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,grey ,fox 7,urocyon virg9ianus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,prairie ,wolf or ,coyote 7,canis latrans74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,raccoon 7,procyon lotor74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,virg9ia ,de] 7,odocoileus virg9ianus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,skunk 7,mephitis mephitis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,mule ,de] 7,odocoileus hemionus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,badg] 7,taxidea am]icana74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,puma or ,m\nta9 ,lion 7,felis concolor74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,lynx 7,lynx rufus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,prairie-,dog 7,cynomys ludovicianus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! ,neotropical1 :i* is ! only region ( ! ,neogic realm1 comprises ! ,we/ ,indian isl&s1 all ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica & ! l[l&s ( ,mexico1 ext5d+ a %ort di/ance into s\!a/]n ,texas4 ,( its f\r subregions1 ! mo/ typical is 7#a7 ! ,brazilian1 :i* includes n only ,brazil1 b all ( ,s\? ,am]ica ea/ ( ! ,&es & z f> s\? z ,p>aguay1 & is a va/ area ( tropical =e/s4 7#b7 ,! ,*ilian subregion takes 9 ! we/ coa/1 ! high ,&es & ! s\!rn end ( ! cont95t1 s\? ( ! ,brazilian subregion2 x is a c\ntry *iefly ( op5 pla9s & high m\nta9s1 & a few des]ts1 ( :i* ,s\? ,am]ica has less ?an any o!r cont95t1 except ,europe1 :i* has none4 7#c7 ,! ,c5tral ,am]ican subregion rea*es f ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama to ,mexico1 ! l[l&s ( :i* are includ$ & ev5 a small portion ( s\!a/]n ,texas4 7#d7 ,! ,we/ ,indian subregion includes all ! isl&s ( t ar*ipelago1 except ,tr9idad1 :i* is a fragm5t ( ! cont95t1 deta*$ at a comp>atively rec5t date2 ! s\!rn extremity ( ,florida also belongs to ?is subregion4 ,! two subregions into :i* cont95tal ,s\? ,am]ica is divid$ are n altoge!r satisfactory & w d\btless require *ange :5 ! di/ribution ( ,s\? ,am]ican mammals has be5 m accurately det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,map ( ! ,neotropical region4 7,aft] ,wallace47 ,mexico inaccurate2 cf4 ,fig4 #ec1 p4 #adg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,fox-l ,wolf 7,c]docyon gracilis74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 8,ri*ness comb9$ ) isolation is ! pr$om9ant feature ( ,neotropical ,zology1 & no o!r region c approa* x 9 ! numb] ( its peculi> family & g5]ic types0 7,wallace74 ,j z ,nor? ,am]ica has receiv$ _m immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 s x has s5t _m migrants into ,s\? ,am]ica1 mat]ially *ang+ ! "* ( ! ,neotropical mammalian fauna1 b ^! intrud]s may be readily id5tifi$ & almo/ seem to be out ( place 9 _! new surr\nd+s4 ,n all ( ^! nor!rn migrants 7 able to ma9ta9 _! foot+ 9 ! s\!rn cont95t & sev]al became ext9ct dur+ & at ! close ( ! ,plei/oc5e epo*1 z 0 ev5 m m>k$ly ! case ) ! s\!rn =ms :i* invad$ ! nor!rn cont95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,spectacl$ ,be> 7,trem>ctos ornatus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,!re are two families ( monkeys 9 ! =e/$ areas ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 bo? v diff]5t f ^? ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,"o ( ^! families1 ! m>mosets 7,hapalid71 diff]s f all o!r monkeys 9 sev]al p>ticul>s1 mo/ obvi\s ( :i* are ! long claws on ! feet & ! non-opposable ?umb4 ,! second family 7,cebid7 comprises =ms :i* are sup]ficially mu* m l ^? ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 b _m ( !m h preh5sile tails1 :i* are us$ z effici5t grasp+ organs4 ,insectivora are entirely abs5t f ! ,s\? ,am]ican cont95t1 b "s %rews 7,bl>9a7 h ent]$ ,c5tral ,am]ica f ! nor? & a v curi\s g5us is repres5t$ by "o species 9 ,cuba 7,sol5odon cubanus7 & ano!r 9 ,hayti 7,s4 p>adoxus74 ,^! rem>kable animals are1 /range to relate1 mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! t5recs 7,c5tetes7 ( ,madagasc> & by "s au?orities are plac$ 9 ! same family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,sol5odon cubanus4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,arg5t9e ,skunk 7,conepatus gibsoni74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,little ,skunk 7,spilogale putorius74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,! ,c>nivora are q num]\s & v>i$ & r peculi>1 b !y all belong to nor!rn families & are ! m or less modifi$ desc5dants ( nor!rn immigrants4 ,! dogs 7,canid7 belong to g5]a n repres5t$ else:]e & =m a consid]able assemblage ( int]e/+ types4 ,!re are no true wolves or foxes1 b sev]al species ( fox-l wolves 7,c]docyon71 ) bu%y tails1 are common1 especially 9 ! pla9s regions4 ,! ,bu%-,dog 7,icticyon v5aticus71 a small1 %ort-legg$ animal1 is v peculi>4 ,! mu/el9e or weasel family 7,mu/elid7 is r scantily repres5t$4 ,!re are no badg]s & b few skunks 7,spilogale & ,conepatus72 weasels are abs5t1 b _! place is tak5 by ! ,grison 7,gal]a vittata7 & ,tayra 7,tayra tayra7 & 9 ! f> s\? ,lyncodon patagonicus4 ,^! animals are peculi> 9 hav+ a light] col\ration on ! back ?an on ! belly4 ,!re are two or ?ree species ( ott] 7,lutra74 ,! raccoons 7,procyon7 h a v wide range 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 z 9 ! nor!rn cont95t1 & ! curi\s1 long-sn\t$ coatis 7,nasua71 :i* j ent] ! ,sonoran region1 are typically ,neotropical4 ,! ,spectacl$ ,be> 7,trem>ctos ornatus7 is ! only memb] ( ! family t occurs 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & is conf9$ to ! highl&s ( ,p]u & ,*ili4 ,! cat family is q num]\sly repres5t$2 ! ,jagu> 7,felis onca71 :i* ranges f ,texas to ,patagonia1 is a l>ge spott$ cat1 rivall+ ! ,leop>d 9 size & f]ocity2 ! ,ocelot 7,f4 p>dalis1 ,arkansas to ,p>aguay7 is small] & /reak$ & blot*$ r ?an spott$4 ,! pumas diff] little f ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & !re are _m small cats1 spott$1 cl\d$ & ( solid col\r1 b no lynxes1 :i* are ess5tially nor!rn types4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,tayra 7,tayra tayra74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,k9kaj\ 7,potos caudivolvulus71 ,c5tral ,am]ica4--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,ocelot 7,felis p>dalis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,jagu> 7,felis onca74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,coll>$ ,pecc>y 7,tagassu tajacu74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,ho($ animals are n num]\sly repres5t$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! only exi/+ ,p]issodactyla ( ! we/]n hemisph]e are ! tapirs 7,tapirus7 ( ,c5tral & tropical ,s\? ,am]ica1 a v rem>kable contra/ to ! anci5t faunas1 especially ( ! nor!rn cont95t1 z w be %[n 9 ! sequel4 ,! ,artiodactyla are m v>i$1 ?\gh v scanty 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( ! ,old ,_w2 ev5 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* has b a poor repres5tation ( ^! animals1 is mu* ri*] ?an ! s\!rn cont95t1 :]e1 inde$1 all ! ho($ animals are ! desc5dants ( comp>atively rec5t immigrants f ! nor? & none are truly auto*?on\s4 ,memb]s ( ?ree diff]5t artiodactyl subord]s occur 9 ! ,neotropical region2 ! pecc>ies 7,tagassu7 ext5d ?r\gh ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica to ,p>aguay1 ?\gh also ent]+ ! ,sonoran region 9 ,texas4 ,mo/ int]e/+ are ! memb]s ( ! camel family1 :i* are v di/9ct f ! true ,camel ( ,asia4 ,ti]ra del ,fuego & ! ,patagonian pla9s support great h]ds ( ! ,guanaco 7,lama huanacus71 :i* ext5ds along ! ,&es to ,ecuador & ,p]u1 :]e x is associat$ ) ! ,vicua 7,l4 vicunia71 a small] & m sl5d]ly built species4 ,! ,vicua does n range s\? ( ,bolivia4 ,j z ! m\nta9 sy/ems ( ,nor? ,am]ica c>ry ! ,boreal & ,transition faunas ?r\gh ne>ly ! :ole bread? ( ! ,sonoran region1 s ! high ,&es af=d a pa?way by :i* ! mammals ( ! s\? temp]ate zone ext5d _! range to ! equator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,vicua 7,lama vicunia74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,florida ,de] 7,odocoileus virg9ianus osceola74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,m>% ,de] 7,bla/oc]os paludosus71 female4--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! subord] ,pecora ( ! ,artiodactyla is repres5t$ 9 ! ,neotropical region only by ! de] family 7,c]vid71 ( :i* !re are sev]al g5]a 7or subg5]a71 all ( !m ,nor? ,am]ican z di/+ui%$ f ! ,old ,_w type1 b "s are s peculi> t !y mu/ h _h a relatively long ,s\? ,am]ican ance/ry4 ,! ,virg9ia ,de] 7,odocoileus virg9ianus7 ( ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates is a comp>atively l>ge animal1 becom+ mu* small] 9 ,florida & ! ,s\?we/4 ,! type ext5ds ?r\gh ,mexico & ,c5tral ,am]ica to ,guiana & ,p]u1 ! ,neotropical =ms be+ s small & hav+ su* weak antl]s t !y are ref]r$ to sep>ate species4 ,ano!r type is ! ,m>% ,de] 7,bla/oc]os paludosus7 ( ea/]n ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* has %ort1 /\t antl]s1 ea* beam ) two d\ble bifurcations2 !re are o!r species ( ! same g5us1 su* z ! ,pampas ,de] ( ,arg5t9a 7,b4 bezo>ticus74 ,9 ! ,&es ( ,p]u & ,*ili & ! =e/s ( we/]n ,patagonia are two species ( a g5us :i* be>s ! prepo/]\s "n ( ,hippocamelus & 9 :i* ! antl]s are simply =k$4 ,! v]nacul> "n ( ^! animals is 8,huemul40 ,peculi>ly ,neotropical are ! little brockets1 :i* h>dly exce$ a height ( two feet at ! %\ld]1 ) simple spike-l antl]s n m ?an ?ree in*es long2 ! g5us1 ,mazama1 has sev]al species1 "o ( :i* occurs z f> nor? z ! /ate ( ,puebla 9 ,mexico4 8,! smalle/ ( all de] is ! ,*ilian pudu 7,pudua pudu71 a creature n mu* l>g] ?an a h>e1 ) almo/ rudim5t>y antl]s0 7,lydekk]74 ,old ,_w types ( de]1 su* z ! ,wapiti1 ,moose & ,c>ib\1 ( ! ,boreal & ,transition zones ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 are entirely abs5t f ! ,neotropical region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,wood ,brocket 7,mazama nemorivagus74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,brazilian ,tree ,porcup9e 7,co5d\ preh5silis74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,s\? ,am]ica has an a/oni%+ly ri* & v>i$ assemblage ( rod5ts1 bo? indig5\s & immigrant1 b ! =m] are mu* ! m important1 v>i$ & abundant4 ,( ! f\r divisions ( ! ord]1 all ( :i* are repres5t$1 ?ree are immigrants f ! nor? & ! f\r? is auto*?on\s1 b ?is f> outnumb]s ! o!r ?ree comb9$4 ,! h>es & rabbits h b v few species1 "o ( :i* occurs 9 ,brazil & is sep>at$ by a v wide int]val f ! "o 9 ,co/a ,rica1 :ile ! pikas are abs5t4 ,( ! squirrel division1 only ! true squirrels are f\nd1 & ( ^! !re are _m species1 ! gr\nd-squirrels1 m>mots1 prairie-dogs & beav]s all be+ lack+4 ,9 ! same way ! rat & m\se division is repres5t$ by a s+le family4 ,! vesp] or :ite-foot$ mice 7,sitomys7 h invad$ ! s\!rn cont95t & a numb] ( peculi> g5]a h aris5 !re1 b all ( nor!rn ance/ry1 su* z ! groove-too!d mice 7,rhei?rodon7 & ! fi%-eat+ rats 7,i*?yomys74 ,! voles1 or mead[-mice1 ! muskrats1 jump+ mice1 kang>oo-rats & pocket-goph]s ( ! nor!rn cont95t are all abs5t4 ,:ile ! immigrant subord]s h ?us b "o family ea* 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! case is v diff]5t ) ! f\r? or porcup9e gr\p1 ( :i* t cont95t is to-day1 z x has be5 = ages pa/1 ! headqu>t]s4 ,no less ?an six families & tw5ty-n9e g5]a are kn[n1 all ( ! g5]a & f\r ( ! families be+ re/rict$ to ! ,neotropical region4 ,contra/ ?is assemblage ) ! extreme scant9ess ( ?is gr\p 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e b a s+le g5us1 ! ,%ort-tail$ or ,canada ,porcup9e 7,ere?izon7 repres5ts x1 & t is a late immigrant f ! s\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,neotropical rod5ts4 ,a4 ,vizca*a 7,viscaccia74 ,b4 ,paca 7,ag\ti paca74 ,c4 ,rock ,cavy 7,cavia rupe/ris74 ,d4 ,wat]-,hog1 or ,c>p9*o 7,hydro*rus74 ,d1 by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,*9*illa 7,*9*illa lanig]74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,x w\ld lead u too f> to attempt a description ( ?is horde ( curi\s & int]e/+ rod5ts1 s only a few ( ! m /rik+ & *>act]i/ic =ms c be m5tion$4 ,!re are two g5]a ( porcup9es 7,co5d\ & ,*tomys71 bo? arboreal1 :i* belong 9 ! same family z ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,ere?izon1 b are di/+ui%$ by _! long1 preh5sile tails1 :i* !y use1 z monkeys & opossums d1 = grasp+ & climb+4 ,! v l>ge family ( ! ,octodontid has #ag ,neotropical g5]a & f\r o!rs are f\nd 9 ,africa4 ,! ,degu 7,octodon7 ( ,*ili1 ,bolivia & ,p]u has ! appe>ance ( a l>ge rat ) tuft$ tail2 ! tuco-tucos 7,ct5omys7 are extremely abundant burr[]s 9 ,patagonia1 :]e !y honeycomb ! gr\nd ov] wide areas4 ,! sp9y rats 7,e*imys & ,lon*]es7 are s call$ f _! appe>ance1 n because !y are relat$ to ! true rats2 !y h num]\s horny spikes ?r\gh ! fur ( ! back4 ,! ,coypu 7,myoca/or7 is a l>ge1 aquatic animal1 remotely l ! nor!rn ,muskrat1 & ! ,hutias 7,capromys & ,plagiodontia7 are arboreal & f\nd only 9 ,cuba1 ,hayti & ,jamaica4 ,! *9*illas 7,*9*illa & ,lagidium7 ( ! ,&es & ! ,vizca*a 7,viscaccia7 ( ! ,arg5t9e pla9s h some:at ! appe>ance ( h>es1 b ) long & bu%y tails4 ,! cavies1 to :i* ! famili>1 misnam$ ,gu9ea-,pig 7,cavia porcellus7 belongs1 are a v *>act]i/ic family2 besides ! true cavies1 x includes ! ,patagonian ,m>a 7,doli*otis71 a l>ge1 long-legg$1 long-e>$1 %ort-tail$ creature1 & ! ,wat]-,hog1 or ,c>p9*o 7,hydro*rus71 an aquatic animal1 z its "n implies1 & mu* ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ rod5ts2 x occurs 9 ! w>m] regions1 s\? to ,arg5t9a4 ,! heavy ,paca 7,ag\ti7 & ! sl5d]-limb$ ,ag\ti 7,dasyprocta7 make up ano!r family4 ,altoge!r1 ?is assemblage ( ! porcup9e-l subord] ( rod5ts is a v rem>kable "o & 9 no o!r region ( ! e>? is any?+ l x to be f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,hairy-rump$ ,ag\ti 7,dasyprocta prymnolopha74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,?ree-to$ ,slo? 7,bradypus tridactylus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,) ! exception ( "o g5us ( armadillos1 :i* has invad$ ,texas1 ! entire ord] ( ! ,ed5tata is at pres5t conf9$ to ! ,neotropical region1 ! s-call$ ed5tates ( ! ,old ,_w n[ be+ remov$ to o!r ord]s4 ,! ,ed5tata1 :i* 7 once f> m v>i$ & abundant ?an !y n[ are1 comprise ?ree gr\ps ( animals s biz>re & /range t !y seem m l fabul\s creatures ?an actual1 liv+ mammals4 ,"o gr\p1 or subord]1 is t ( ! slo?s 7,t>digrada71 arboreal1 %aggy animals1 ) %ort1 almo/ monkey-l head & no tail2 _! v long legs & hook-l feet make !m ne>ly helpless on ! gr\nd1 b are v useful = hang+ f ! bran*es ( ! trees1 9 :i* ! creatures live4 ,inde$1 ! slo?s are ! only mammals :i* habitually hang 9 a susp5d$ position4 ,two g5]a ( slo?s inhabit ! tropical =e/s1 betwe5 :i* ! mo/ obvi\s diff]5ce is t 9 "o 7,bradypus7 ! =efoot has ?ree toes1 & 9 ! o!r 7,*olpus7 two4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,two-to$ ,slo? 7,*olpus didactylus74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,! subord] ( ! anteat]s 7,v]mil+ua7 is m v>i$1 & is ! only "o ( ! ord] to :i* ! t]m 8ed5tate0 applies /rictly1 = !y alone 9 ! ord] are altoge!r too?less4 ,! great ,ant-,be> 7,myrmecophaga jubata71 :i* may rea* a total l5g? ( sev5 feet1 has an extravagantly long1 sl5d] & ne>ly cyl9drical head1 long1 %aggy1 black & :ite hair & an imm5se1 bu%y tail2 ! =efeet are arm$ ) huge1 %>p-po9t$ claws1 :i* are us$ = te>+ op5 ant-hills1 & :5 occasion arises1 z =midable weapons ( def5ce1 = ! ,ant-,be> c successfully repulse ev5 ! ,jagu>4 ,9 walk+1 ! claws are curv$ inw>d & ! prepo/]\s bea/ re/s 8 weight ^u ! outside edges ( ! =efeet1 :ile ! h9d feet apply ! sole to ! gr\nd1 z does a be> or raccoon4 ,! ,coll>$ ,anteat] 7,tam&ua7 is mu* small] & ma9ly arboreal 9 habits4 ,x has a %ort-hair$1 black body1 ) a :ite /ripe d[n ! back1 :ite neck & limbs1 a col\r-patt]n :i* gives to ! animal ! appe>ance ( we>+ a close-fitt+ black jacket2 ! long tail1 :i* has "s cross b>s1 is %ort-hair$1 v diff]5t f ! extremely bu%y tail ( ! ,ant-,be>4 ,! little ,two-to$ ,anteat] 7,cyclopes didactylus71 h>dly l>g] ?an a rat1 is exclusively arboreal & has a preh5sile tail1 l s _m o!r ,s\? ,am]ican mammals4 ,slo?s & anteat]s are =e/ animals & are n f\nd we/ ( ! ,&es or s\? ( ,p>aguay4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,ant-,be> 7,myrmecophaga jubata74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,coll>$ ,anteat] 7,tam&ua tetradactyla74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,six-b&$ ,armadillo 7,dasypus sexc9ctus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! ?ird exi/+ subord] ( ed5tates is t ( ! armadillos 7,dasypoda71 :i* h a v complete arm\r ( bony scutes1 ossifications 9 ! sk91 cov]$ ) scales ( horn4 ,!y are all m or less burr[]s 9 habit & omnivor\s 9 diet1 eat+ roots1 insects1 worms1 etc42 ! extraord9>y rapidity ) :i* !y burr[ into ! gr\nd is almo/ _! only way ( escape f pursuit1 b 9 "o g5us1 ,tolypeutes1 ! animal c roll itself into a ball1 completely protect$ by mail all ar\nd4 ,! armadillos are mu* m v>i$ ?an ! anteat]s or slo?s & h a wid] geographical range1 ext5d+ f ,texas to ,patagonia4 ,! head1 :i* is long-sn\t$1 is protect$ by a %ield made up ( num]\s horn-cov]$ plates ( bone1 & ! tail is encas$ 9 a tubul> %ea? ( m or less regul> r+s1 ea* r+ ( bony plates & horny scales4 ,! body-%ield1 or c>apace1 :i* cov]s ! back & sides1 consi/s ( an ant]ior & po/]ior buckl]1 9 :i* ! plates are immovably atta*$ to "o ano!r by _! edges1 & betwe5 ! two is a s]ies ( movable1 ov]lapp+ b&s1 ! numb] ( :i* v>ies 9 ! diff]5t g5]a4 ,9 ! little ,pi*iciago 7,*lamydophorus truncatus7 ! head & back are cov]$ ) f\r-sid$ plates ( horn1 ! bony scutes be+ small & ?9 & mu* r$uc$4 ,! c>apace has no buckl]s1 b ab\t #bj transv]se r[s ( plates1 & is atta*$ along only ! middle l9e ( ! back & b5ea? x ! body is cov]$ ) silky1 :ite fur2 ! rump is cov]$ ) a solid %ield ( bone1 plac$ ne>ly v]tically & cov]$ ) ?9 scales1 & is not*$ bel[ = ! tail1 altoge!r a mo/ exceptional arrangem5t4 ,sev5 or m di/9ct g5]a ( armadillos are f\nd 9 ! ,neotropical region & !y display a great range 9 size2 ! ,giant ,armadillo ( ,brazil 7,priodontes7 is a y>d or m 9 l5g?1 :ile ! little ,zadyus ( ,patagonia is small] ?an a rabbit &1 lea/ ( all1 ! ,pi*iciago is b five in*es long4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,n9e-b&$ ,armadillo 7,tatu novemc9ctus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,two families ( m>supials occur 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! opossums are mu* m num]\s & v>i$ ?an 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 ?ree g5]a & a l>ge numb] ( species1 "s n l>g] ?an mice1 range ?r\gh ! =e/$ p>ts ( ! cont95t4 ,( p>ticul> int]e/ is ! little ,cnole/es1 :i* has two species1 ) two enl>g$ l[] front tee?1 ! sole survivors ( a gr\p :i* is abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,t]ti>y deposits ( ,patagonia4 ,! fauna ( ! ,c5tral ,am]ican subregion is less ri* & *>act]i/ic ?an t ( ! ,brazilian & is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 transitional to t ( ! ,sonoran region ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 sev]al g5]a prop] to ! latt] region ext5d+ into x1 :i* are n kn[n to pass ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 su* z %rews1 a fox & "o ( ! pocket-mice4 ,! ,we/ ,indian isl&s are exce$+ly poor 9 mammals1 a great contra/ to ! ,ea/ ,indian1 or ,malay1 ,ar*ipelago2 only a few rod5ts1 insectivores & bats occur 9 !m4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,successive ,,mammalian ,,faunas ,,( ,,nor? ,,& ,,s\? ,,am]ica ,! natural me?od ( tell+ a /ory is to beg9 at ! beg9n+ & g on to ! end1 b to deal 9 t mann] ) ! _m diff]5t assemblages ( mammals :i* h 9 turn inhabit$ ! we/]n hemisph]e has ! great drawback ( beg9n+ ) a "t :5 ev]y?+ 0 utt]ly /range to ! mod]n eye4 ,c\ld ! read] be c>ri$ back to ! f> di/ant days ( ! ,paleoc5e epo*1 he w\ld f9d himself 9 a completely unfamili> _w2 & !re is !re=e a real practical advantage 9 rev]s+ ! /ory & />t+ ) ! end & ?us proce$+ gradually f ! m to ! less famili>4 ,! =ego+ *apt] gave a sket* ( ! m /rik+ & *>act]i/ic mammals :i* inhabit ! ,am]icas to-day1 & we may n[ take a /ep backw>d to ! epo* imm$iately prec$+ our own1 ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,z 0 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,v1 ! ,plei/oc5e 0 a "t ( _m & great climatic vicissitudes1 p]iods ( cold1 :5 ! nor!rn "p ( ! cont95t 0 buri$ "u great ice-%eets1 alt]nat+ ) f> mild] p]iods1 :5 ! climate 0 mu* z at pres5t1 or ev5 w>m]4 ,^! climatic *anges necessitat$ _m *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( animals & plants1 increas+ cold driv+ !m s\?w>d1 :ile ! return ( m g5ial conditions p]mitt$ ! nor?w>d migration ( s\!rn =ms4 ,! effects ( ^! *anges ( climate are /ill pla9ly visible 9 ! geographical arrangem5t ( liv+ be+s 9 ! nor!rn cont95ts & _m anomalies ( di/ribution1 o!rwise inexplicable1 are ?us made cle>4 ,att5tion 0 long ago direct$ to ! fact t ! tops ( high m\nta9s support a flora & fauna :i*1 on ! l[l&s1 w be f\nd only hundr$s1 or ev5 ?\s&s1 ( miles to ! nor?w>d4 ,! plants :i* gr[ on ! summits ( ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,hamp%ire recur 9 ,labrador1 b n 9 ! int]v5+ area2 ! vegetation & animals ( ! high ,alps are ^? ( ! ,arctic regions1 & _m simil> in/ances might be cit$4 ,hook] & ,d>w9 7 ! fir/ to f9d a highly probable explanation ( ?is curi\s ph5om5on by ref]r+ x to ! climatic *anges ( ! ,plei/oc5e epo*4 ,dur+ ! la/ p]iod ( cold & glaciation1 ! nor!rn plants & animals 7 driv5 f> to ! s\? & occupi$ ! l[l&s along ! ice-front & well beyond x2 :5 mild] conditions gradually return$1 ! nor!rn =ms n only retreat$ nor?w>d1 b also asc5d$ ! m\nta9s1 z ! latt] 7 fre$ f ice1 & ?us became cut (f z isolat$ colonies4 ,! g5]al explanation ( 8discont9u\s di/ribution0 7see p4 #ach7 is ?us always ! same1 viz41 t ! int]v5+ regions 7 once occupi$ by ! =ms n[ s widely sep>at$1 :i*1 = "o reason or ano!r1 h vani%$ f ! connect+ areas4 ,i4 ,,quat]n>y ,,faunas ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,quat]n>y faunas ( ,nor? ,am]ica are extremely difficult to correlate & place 9 *ronological ord]1 because1 = ! mo/ "p1 !y are f\nd 9 locally re/rict$ areas1 su* z t>-pools1 bogs1 cav]ns & simil> places4 ,pr(essor ,osborn has1 h[ev]1 succe$$ 9 mak+ an admirable arrangem5t1 :i*1 ?\gh x w d\btless be correct$ & exp&$ by future rese>*1 repres5ts a mo/ important advance4 ,( ! g5]al problem he says3 8,! /udy ( ! mammals ( ! ,quat]n>y has by no means progress$ s f> 9 ,am]ica z 9 ,europe2 x w be _m ye>s be=e ! fauni/ic succession c be work$ out ) su* *ronologic accuracy & precision z has at la/ be5 atta9$ by ,european geologi/s & palontologi/s40 ,accord+ to ,osborn's arrangem5t1 !re are ?ree pr9cipal successive ,plei/oc5e faunas1 two ( :i* appe> to h co9cid$ ) int]glacial /ages1 & ! ?ird ) ! la/ re/abli%m5t ( glacial conditions on a gr& scale4 ,reg>d+ ! details ( ^! faunas1 !re /ill rema9s mu* unc]ta9ty1 & consequ5tly !re w be no attempt made "h to d m ?an discrim9ate betwe5 ! g5]al ,plei/oc5e assemblage1 on ! "o h&1 & t ( ! la/ cold p]iod1 on ! o!r4 ,x mu/ be emphasiz$ t we are z yet unable to ass]t t all ( ! animals li/$ toge!r 7 actually liv+ at ! same "t4 ,x is probable t ! ,plei/oc5e fossils already obta9$ give u a fairly adequate conception ( ! l>g] & m conspicu\s mammals ( ! "t1 b no d\bt repres5t v incompletely ! small & fragile =ms4 ,) all its gaps1 h[ev]1 ! record is v impressive2 8! e>ly & mid-,plei/oc5e life ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ! gr&e/ & mo/ v>i$ assemblage ( ! entire ,c5ozoic ,p]iod i4e4 era ( our cont95t0 7,osborn74 ,!re is ! fur!r advantage t ! fossils h be5 ga!r$ ov] a v great area1 ext5d+ f ocean to ocean & f ,alaska to ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,?us1 _! wide geographical range repres5ts ne>ly all p>ts ( ! cont95t & gives u in=mation conc]n+ ! mammals ( ! great =e/s1 z well z ( ! great pla9s4 ,^? divisions ( ! e>ly & middle ,plei/oc5e :i* enjoy$ mild] climatic conditions _h an assemblage ( mammals :i*1 f "o po9t ( view1 seems v mod]n1 = mo/ ( ! g5]a1 & ev5 _m ( ! species1 :i* n[ inhabit ,nor? ,am]ica1 date back to t "t4 ,f ! geographical /&po9t1 h[ev]1 ?is is a v /range fauna1 = x conta9s s _m animals n[ utt]ly =eign to ,nor? ,am]ica1 to f9d ne> relatives ( :i* we %\ld h to g to ,asia or ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,"s ( ^! animals :i* n[ seem s exotic1 su* z ! llamas1 camels & horses1 7 yet truly indig5\s & 7 d]iv$ f a long l9e ( ance/ors :i* dwelt 9 ?is cont95t1 b are n[ scatt]$ abroad & ext9ct 9 _! orig9al home1 :ile o!rs 7 migrants t = "s unkn[n reason fail$ to ma9ta9 !mselves4 ,o!rs aga9 are ev]y:]e ext9ct4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,"s ( ! m *>act]i/ic ,plei/oc5e mammals1 r$uc$ to a uni=m scale1 ) a po9t] dog 79 ! frame7 to %[ relative sizes4--#a4 ,columbian ,elephant 7,elephas columbi74 #b4 ,giant ,gr\nd-,slo? 7,megalonyx jeff]soni74 #c4 ,/ag-,moose 7,c]valces scotti74 #d4 ,am]ican ,ma/odon 7,ma/odon am]icanus74 #e4 ,giant ,beav] 7,ca/oroides ohio5sis74 #f4 ,texas ,horse 7,equus scotti74 #g4 ,sabre-too? ,tig] 7,smilodon cali=nicus74 ,mo/ surpris+1 p]haps1 9 a ,nor? ,am]ican l&scape1 is ! pres5ce ( ! ,proboscidea1 ( :i* two v di/9ct k9ds1 ! ma/odons & ! true elephants1 are f\nd toge!r4 ,ov] ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & s\!rn ,canada1 & ev5 ) sporadic occurr5ce 9 ,alaska1 rang$ ! ,am]ican ,ma/odon 7,ma/odon am]icanus7 :i* 0 r>e 9 ! pla9s1 b v abundant 9 ! =e/$ regions1 :]e x p]si/$ till a v late p]iod & 0 probably kn[n to ! e>ly ,indians4 ,?is animal1 :ile ne>ly relat$ to ! true elephants1 0 yet q diff]5t f !m 9 appe>ance1 z w be imm$iately se5 on comp>+ #a & #d1 ,fig4 #aac1 p4 #aie4 ,! mo/ obvi\s ext]nal diff]5ce 0 ! comp>ative %ortness ( ! legs 9 ! ,ma/odon1 :i* did n exce$ & seldom atta9$ a height ( #i ft4 #f 94 at ! %\ld]2 ! head also 0 l[] & m flatt5$4 ,! tee? 7 v diff]5t f ^? ( ! elephants2 ! gr9d+ tee? 7 mu* small] & simpl]1 be+ l[-cr[n$ & root$ & hav+ ?ree or f\r high1 transv]se1 enamel-cov]$ cre/s1 )\t cem5t4 ,! tusks 7 elephant-l except t 9 ! male !re 0 a s+le small tusk 9 ! l[] jaw1 :i* _c h be5 visible ext]nally2 ?is is a remnant ( an e>li] /age ( developm5t1 :5 !re 7 two l>ge tusks 9 ! l[] z well z ! upp] jaw4 ,! creature 0 cov]$ ) long1 co>se1 dun-col\r$ hair2 su* hair has be5 f\nd ) "s ( ! skeletons4 ,( true elephants1 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e _h ?ree species4 ,mo/ int]e/+ ( ^! is ! nor!rn or ,sib]ian ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 a late immigrant f nor!rn ,asia1 :i* came 9 by way ( ,alaska1 :]e ,b]+ ,l& 7z we may call ! rais$ b$ ( ,b]+ ,sea7 connect$ x ) ,asia4 ,! ,mammo? 0 abundant 9 ,alaska1 ,briti% ,columbia & all across ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates to ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,h>dly any fossil mammal is s well kn[n z ?is1 = ! c>casses entomb$ 9 ! froz5 gravels ( nor!rn ,sib]ia h pres]v$ e detail ( /ructure4 ,x is ?us def9itely kn[n t ! ,mammo? 0 well adapt$ to a cold climate & 0 cov]$ ) a d5se coat ( wool b5ea? an out] coat+ ( long1 co>se hair1 :ile ! cont5ts ( ! /oma* & ! p>tially ma/icat$ food f\nd 9 ! m\? %[ t ! animal f$ ^u ! same vegetation z gr[s 9 nor!rn ,sib]ia to-day4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 v high1 cem5t-cov]$1 & compos$ ( _m ?9 plates ( enamel1 d5t9e & cem5t1 & 7 closely simil> to ^? ( ! exi/+ ,indian ,elephant 7,e4 maximus74 ,9 size ?is is ! smalle/ ( ! ?ree ,plei/oc5e species1 #i feet at ! %\ld]4 ,! ,mammo? 0 n peculi> to ,sib]ia & ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ext5d$ also into ,europe1 :]e x 0 famili> to ,paloli?ic ,man1 z is atte/$ by ! spirit$ & lifelike c>v+s & cave-pa9t+s ( t date4 ,?us1 dur+ "s "p ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 ?is species rang$ ar\nd ! entire nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,closely relat$ to ! ,mammo? & 9 "s cases h>dly di/+ui%able f x1 is ! ,columbian ,elephant 7,e4 columbi7 :i*1 h[ev]1 atta9$ a consid]ably l>g] size1 z mu* z #aa feet1 rivall+ ! l>ge/ ,african elephants ( ! pres5t "t4 ,! head 0 v high & _h a curi\sly peak$ appe>ance1 & ! tusks 9 old males curv$ inw>d1 ov]lapp+ at ! tips4 ,f ! lik5ess 9 tee? & skeleton to ! ,mammo?1 x may be inf]r$1 ?\gh some:at d\btfully1 t ! ,columbian ,elephant 0 clo!d ) hair1 b n s heavily z ! ,mammo?1 :i* 0 a nor!rn species1 ! ,columbian =m replac+ x s\?w>d1 & rang+ ov] ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates1 includ+ ,florida & ev5 ?r\gh\t ! table-l& ( ,mexico4 ,! areas ( ! two species ov]lapp$ along ! nor!rnmo/ ,unit$ ,/ates1 b are else:]e di/9ct4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,re/oration ( ! ,columbian ,elephant 7,elephas columbi7 f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,a ?ird species 0 ! huge ,imp]ial ,elephant 7,e4 imp]ator71 ! l>ge/ ( ,am]ican =ms1 to :i* ,osborn's calculations give ! almo/ incr$ible height ( #ac ft4 #f 94 ,?is great creature 0 *>act]iz$ n only by its enorm\s /ature1 b also by ! proportionately v l>ge size ( its gr9d+ tee?1 & 0 a survivor f ! prec$+ ,plioc5e epo*2 x is n kn[n to h pass$ beyond ! middle ,plei/oc5e & 0 ?us ! fir/ ( ! species to become ext9ct4 ,9 geographical range1 ! ,imp]ial ,elephant 0 a we/]n =m1 ext5d+ f ! ,pacific coa/ almo/ to ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 ea/ ( :i* x has nev] be5 f\nd1 & f ,nebraska s\?w>d to ! ,city ( ,mexico4 ,! mean+ ( ?is di/ribution is probably t ?is elephant %unn$ ! =e/s & 0 especially adapt$ to a life on ! op5 pla9s4 ,ov] mo/ ( its area ! w9t]s 7 sev]e1 & ?is fact makes x likely t ! animal 0 clo!d ) hair1 b no?+ is def9itely kn[n on ?is po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,a ,horse 7,equus scotti7 f ! old] ,plei/oc5e ( ,texas4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,_m o!r ho($ animals1 f> m ?an n[ inhabit ,nor? ,am]ica1 are f\nd 9 ?is ,plei/oc5e fauna4 ,! ,p]issodactyla 7 repres5t$ by horses & tapirs1 b n by rh9oc]oses2 x might seem sup]flu\s to say t !re 7 no rh9oc]oses1 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 t family _h a long & v>i$ ,am]ican hi/ory & became ext9ct only dur+ or at ! end ( ! ,plioc5e epo*4 ,! horses 7 extremely num]\s1 bo? individually & specifically1 & rang$1 app>5tly 9 great h]ds1 all ov] ,mexico & ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ev5 into ,alaska4 ,all ! kn[n species 7at lea/ t5 9 numb]7 belong to ! g5us ,equus1 b ! ,true ,horse 7,e4 caballus71 to :i* all ! dome/ic bre$s are ref]r$1 is n repres5t$4 ,! smalle/ kn[n memb] ( ! g5us is ! pygmy ,e4 tau ( ,mexico4 ,e4 frat]nus1 likewise a v small species1 is f\nd especially 9 ! s\!a/1 b ext5d$ z f> nor? z ,p5nsylvania & we/ to ,nebraska4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,e4 giganteus ( ,texas exce$$ ! heavie/ mod]n draught-horses 9 size & 0 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,am]ican species2 ( o!r ,texan =ms1 "o 7,e4 scotti7 resembl$ ,bur*ell's ,zebra 7,e4 bur*elli7 9 ! proportions ( head & neck1 body & limbs1 :ile ano!r 7,e4 semiplicatus7 0 m ass-l4 ,! =e/ horse ( ! ea/]n /ates has be5 nam$ ,e4 pect9atus1 an animal ( mod]ate size4 ,! ,great ,pla9s mu/ h be5 fairly cov]$ ) enorm\s h]ds ( horses1 ! c\ntless bones & tee? ( :i*1 entomb$ 9 ! ,%]idan =mation1 h giv5 to x ! "n ( 8,equus b$s40 ,! mo/ abundant ( ! pla9s species is ,e4 complicatus1 a horse ( ab\t #ad h&s 9 height 7i4e4 #d feet #aj in*es at ! %\ld]7 :i* also rang$ d[n ! ,mississippi ,valley ne>ly or q to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,9 ,cali=nia 0 ,e4 occid5talis1 equall+ ,e4 complicatus 9 size1 b ) mu* m simple tee?1 & associat$ ) x ! mu* l>g] ,e4 pacificus1 :i* 0 inf]ior only to ,e4 giganteus & !re=e ! second l>ge/ ( ! ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e horses4 ,to "o :o kn[s no?+ ( ! geological hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica x w\ld be natural to suppose t ! ,plei/oc5e horses mu/ h be5 immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 :i* fail$ to e/abli% !mselves p]man5tly "h1 s9ce !y completely disappe>$ be=e ! discov]y ( ! cont95t by ,europeans4 ,?is w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a mi/ak5 inf]5ce1 = ,nor? ,am]ica 0 = long ages ! *ief area ( developm5t ( ! equ9e family1 :i* may "h be trac$ 9 almo/ unbrok5 cont9uity f ! l[] ,eoc5e to ! ,plioc5e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is q possible t "s ( ! species 7 immigrants4 ,tapirs1 :i* are n[ conf9$ to s\!rn ,asia1 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 7 n uncommon 9 ! =e/$ p>ts ( ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica z f> nor? z ,p5nsylvania1 b !y h n be5 f\nd we/ ( ! ,mississippi 9 ! pla9s region4 ,two species are kn[n1 a l>g] & heavi] "o1 ,tapirus haysii1 & a small] "o :i* seems to be id5tical ) ! liv+ ,t4 t]re/ris ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,l ! horses1 ! tapirs _h a long hi/ory ( developm5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & may well h orig9at$ "h1 b !y )drew f ! cont95t 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 probably yield+ to ! la/ ( ! glacial advances4 ,!re 0 likewise a mu* great] v>iety ( ,artiodactyla ?an ,nor? ,am]ica c boa/ at ! pres5t day2 "s 7 auto*?on\s1 b1 = ! mo/ "p1 !y 7 migrants f ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 :]e ! great gr\p ( ! true rum9ants 7,pecora7 pass$ ?r\gh ! great] "p ( its developm5t & :]e its headqu>t]s /ill are4 ,indig5\s 7 ! pecc>ies1 or ,am]ican sw9e1 :i* /ill occur f ,texas s\? to ,brazil4 ,9 ,plei/oc5e "t !y rang$ ov] ne>ly all ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z f> nor?w>d z ,p5nsylvania1 & across ! pla9s to ! ,pacific coa/2 !y 7 repres5t$ by two g5]a1 n[ ext9ct1 "o ( :i* 7,platygonus7 _h cre/$ gr9d+ tee? & mu* long] legs ?an ! mod]n pecc>ies4 ,ano!r indig5\s gr\p1 /range z t may seem1 is ! subord] 7,tylopoda7 ( ! camels & llamas1 bo? ( :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e1 ! desc5dants ( a v long ,am]ican ance/ry4 ,"s ( ^! tylopodans 7 f> l>g] ?an exi/+ =ms1 & at lea/ "o species ext5d$ its range to ,alaska4 ,( ultimately ,old ,_w orig91 b ?r\gh a consid]able l9e ( desc5t 9 ,am]ica1 7 ! typically ,am]ican de] 7,odocoileus7 ( :i* ! ,virg9ian & ,black-tail$ species are famili> mod]n in/ances4 ,:e!r or n ! ,old ,_w types1 ! ,c>ib\ 7,rangif]7 & ,wapiti 7,c]vus canad5sis7 _h rea*$ ! we/]n hemisph]e1 is a matt] ( "s d\bt2 if pres5t at all1 !y mu/ h be5 comp>atively r>e4 ,! ,moose 7,alce am]icanus71 on ! o!r h&1 _h already appe>$1 b seems to h be5 conf9$ to ! we/]n half ( ! cont95t1 its pres5ce 9 ! ea/ be+ que/ionable4 ,! mi/ak5ly nam$ 8,rocky ,m\nta9 ,goat0 7,oreamnos montanus71 :i* is an antelope ( ! *amois gr\p1 0 an app>5tly late arrival 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 :ile ! peculi> ,prong-,buck 7,antilocapra am]icana71 :i* is v diff]5t f any ( ! ,old ,_w antelopes1 0 pres5t 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! epo*4 ,! desc5t ( ?is rem>kable animal is /ill a problem1 b n improbably x 0 d]iv$ f ! 8de]-antelopes0 ( ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e1 ! la/ ( :i* occurr$ 9 ! e>ly ,plei/oc5e4 ,mr4 ,gidley has ann\nc$ ! surpris+ discov]y 9 ,m>yl& ( a l>ge antelope h>dly di/+ui%able f ! ,african ,el& 7,taurotragus74 ,o!r late arrivals f ! ,old ,_w 7 sev]al =ms alli$ to ! exi/+ ,musk ,ox 7,ovibos71 at lea/ two g5]a ( :i* 7,preptoc]as & ,euc]a!rium7 h be5 f\nd 9 ,cali=nia4 ,a surpris+ numb] ( species ( ,bison occurr$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 no less ?an sev5 ( :i* are recogniz$ z di/9ct1 rang+ f ,florida to ,alaska4 ,x is n likely t all ^! species coexi/$ at ! same "t1 b we _c yet det]m9e _! ord] ( succession1 ?\gh ! mod]n species1 ,b4 bison1 0 probably ! late/ to arise4 ,mo/ ( ^! species 7 mu* l>g] ?an ,b4 bison1 & "s 7 gigantic1 su* z ,b4 latifrons1 :i* _h a spread ( horns ( #f feet & is f\nd ?r\gh ! ,mississippi ,valley1 & ,b4 crassicornis ( ,alaska4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,re/oration ( ,preptoc]as1 a musk-ox l animal f ! ,cali=nian ,plei/oc5e4 7,f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia47 ,prey+ ^u ?is great assemblage ( ho($ animals 0 a correspond+ array ( ,c>nivora1 mo/ ( :i* 7 indig5\s & d]iv$ f ,am]ican /ocks1 b !re 0 a consid]able migrant elem5t also1 su* z ! be>s & badg]s4 ,ne>ly all ! mod]n k9ds ( fle%-eat]s f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ica ( to-day 7 already "h 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 m9ks1 weasels1 m>t5s1 skunks1 ott]s1 badg]s1 wolv]5es1 raccoons1 foxes1 wolves1 coyotes1 pumas1 etc41 etc41 b !re 7 sev]al o!rs :i* are ei!r n[ ext9ct or no long] to be f\nd 9 ?is cont95t4 ,( ! ext9ct types mu* ! mo/ /rik+ 7 ! sev]al species ( sabre-too? tig]s 7,smilodon1 see ,frontispiece7 :i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! great] "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & no d\bt rang$ ov] ! :ole4 ,^! 7 massive1 %ort-tail$ & r %ort-legg$1 b v muscul> & p[]ful1 cat-l animals1 9 :i* ! upp] can9e tee? 7 conv]t$ into great1 recurv$1 scimit>-l tusks4 ,^! l>ge bea/s ( prey1 :i* ab\t equall$ ! ,leop>d 9 height1 b 7 f> heavi]1 belong$ to a gr\p :i*1 at "o "t or ano!r1 spread ov] ne>ly ! :ole _w & p]si/$ mu* lat] & atta9$ a l>g] size & high] developm5t 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e ?an 9 ! ea/]n4 ,!y _h a v long ,am]ican ance/ry1 f ! l[] ,oligoc5e to ! end ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 b ! place ( _! orig9 is /ill unkn[n4 ,9 addition to ! pumas & lynxes1 !re 7 "s v l>ge true fel9es 7,felis atrox & ,f4 imp]ialis71 :i* closely resembl$ ! ,lion 7,f4 leo7 9 size1 appe>ance & /ructure1 & h be5 f\nd 9 ,cali=nia & ! ,mississippi ,valley2 probably ^! great cats 7 immigrants1 b !y may repres5t a native developm5t ( ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e /ock2 ! hi/ory ( ! family is too imp]fect = a decision ( ?is "q4 ,besides coyotes & wolves :i* are indi/+ui%able f exi/+ species1 !re 7 "s v l>ge wolves1 n[ ext9ct1 ( :i* ! commone/ & mo/ widely di/ribut$ 0 ,canis dirus 7also call$ ,c4 indian5sis7 s abundant 9 ! asphalts ( s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,be>s 7 n s common 9 ! middle ,plei/oc5e & h n be5 f\nd 9 ! old] "p ( t epo*1 ?\gh !y probably _h already rea*$ ,nor? ,am]ica f ! ,old ,_w1 :]e !y orig9at$4 ,_! abs5ce f ! old] ,plei/oc5e 7,equus ,b$s7 may be acc\nt$ = by ! fact t ^? b$s conta9 a fauna ( ! op5 pla9s1 :ile be>s are *iefly =e/-liv+ animals4 ,an ext9ct type ( ! family is ! gr\p ( species :i* con/itute ! %ort-fac$ be>s 7,arcto!rium71 v l>ge & p[]ful creatures1 ) rem>kably %ort5$ jaws1 :i* h be5 f\nd f ocean to ocean4 ,! small] bea/s ( prey1 badg]s1 weasels1 etc41 71 z intimat$ above1 sub/antially ! same z n[4 ,! rod5ts ( ! ,plei/oc5e 7 v ne>ly 9 _! mod]n /age ( developm5t1 mo/ ( ! g5]a & _m ( ! species surviv+ to pres5t times4 ,j :at memb]s ( ! ord] 7 introduc$ f ! ,old ,_w1 ! imp]fect & fragm5t>y hi/ory w n p]mit u to say1 b "s int]e/+ ,s\? ,am]ican immigrants %\ld be not$4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! ,capyb>a or s-call$ ,wat]-,hog 7,hydro*rus capyb>a71 ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ rod5ts1 fail$ to ga9 a p]man5t foo?old1 b ano!r ,s\? ,am]ican =m1 ! ,%ort-tail$ or ,canada ,porcup9e 7,ere?izon dorsatus71 common all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 has ma9ta9$ itself to ! pres5t day4 ,"o especially peculi> =m1 n d]iv$ f ,s\? ,am]ica or ! ,old ,_w1 is ! ,giant ,beav] 7,ca/oroides71 "o species ( :i*1 ,c4 ohio5sis1 0 z l>ge z a ,black ,be> & occurr$ 9 ! lat] ,plei/oc5e1 :ile a small] species 7,c4 species indet47 is f\nd 9 ! m anci5t deposits ( ! epo*4 ,9 almo/ all respects ,ca/oroides 0 simply a gigantic beav]1 b ! gr9d+ tee? 7 rem>kably l ^? ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,capyb>a 7,hydro*rus71 s mu* s t x has be5 mi/ak5ly ref]r$ to ! same family by "s au?orities4 ,by f> ! /range/ elem5ts ( ! ,plei/oc5e faunas 7 ! two subord]s ( gigantic ed5tates1 ! ,gravigrada1 or gr\nd-slo?s1 & ! ,glyptodontia1 :i* might well be call$ giant armadillos1 if t "n 7 n already 9 use = a liv+ ,brazilian animal4 ,bo? subord]s are completely ext9ct1 b !y long play$ a v conspicu\s rle 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e !y orig9at$ & :5ce ! ,nor? ,am]ican repres5tatives migrat$4 ,! gr\nd-slo?s 7 great1 unwieldy1 h]bivor\s animals cov]$ ) long hair1 & 9 "o family 7,mylodontid7 !re 0 a close-set arm\r ( pebble-l ossicles 9 ! sk91 n visible ext]nally2 !y walk$ ^u ! out] edges ( ! feet1 some:at z ! ,ant-,be> 7,myrmecophaga7 uses 8 =e paws1 & mu/ h be5 v sl[-mov+ creatures4 ,_! enorm\s claws may h s]v$ p>tly z weapons ( def5ce & 7 d\btless us$ also to drag d[n bran*es ( trees & to dig roots & tub]s4 ,app>5tly1 ! late/ ( ^! curi\s animals to survive 0 ! v l>ge ,megalonyx1 :i*1 x is int]e/+ to note1 0 fir/ discov]$ & nam$ by ,?omas ,jeff]son4 ,! animals ( ?is g5us 7 v abundant 9 ! =e/s ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv] & on ! ,pacific coa/1 mu* less common 9 ! pla9s region1 :]e !y w\ld seem to h be5 conf9$ to ! wood$ riv] valleys4 ,! /ill m gigantic ,mega!rium1 :i* _h a body z l>ge z t ( an elephant & mu* %ort]1 ?\gh m massive legs1 0 a s\!rn animal & has n be5 f\nd above ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,mylodon1 small] & light] ?an ! prec$+ g5]a1 w\ld seem to h ent]$ ! cont95t e>li] & to h become ext9ct soon]2 x rang$ across ! cont95t1 b 0 mu* common] 9 ! pla9s region & less s 9 ! =e/$ areas ?an ,megalonyx1 be+ no d\bt bett] adapt$ to subsi/+ ^u ! vegetation ( ! pla9s & less dep5d5t ^u trees = food4 ,! ,glyptodonts 7 und\bt$ly pres5t 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e1 b ! rema9s :i* h be5 collect$ s f> are v fragm5t>y & q insuffici5t to give u a def9ite conception ( ! numb] & v>iety ( !m4 ,x w be bett] !re=e to def] ! description ( ^! mo/ curi\s creatures until ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e is dealt )1 z !y 7 incomp>ably m v>i$ & *>act]i/ic 9 t cont95t4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica !y h be5 f\nd only 9 ,mexico & ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! _m & great climatic *anges :i* took place 9 ! ,plei/oc5e l$ to v ext5sive migrations ( mammals f "o "p ( ! cont95t to ano!r1 z ! conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure *ang$4 ,9 ,int]glacial /ages1 :5 ! climate 0 mu* ameliorat$1 s\!rn species spread f> to ! nor?1 z :5 ! ,ma/odon rang$ into ,alaska1 & ! ,manatee1 or ,sea-,c[1 ( ,florida wat]s1 came up ! coa/ to ,new ,j]sey1 :ile ! increas+ cold ( oncom+ glaciation caus$ a rev]se movem5t & drove nor!rn & ev5 ,arctic =ms f> to ! s\?4 ,?us1 ! ,musk-,ox1 ! ,c>ib\ & ! nor!rn ,mammo? came s\? beyond ! ,ohio & ! ,potomac1 & ! ,walrus 0 f\nd on ! ,s\? ,atlantic coa/4 ,x is ^! migrations :i* give su* a mix$ "* to ! ,plei/oc5e faunas f ! climatic po9t ( view1 z x is (t5 v difficult to correlate or syn*ronize ! fossilif]\s deposits ) ! ,glacial & ,int]glacial /ages1 ?\gh ?is has be5 def9itely accompli%$ 9 sev]al v important in/ances4 ,! late/ ( ! ,plei/oc5e faunas is less completely kn[n ?an ^? ( ! e>li] & middle portions ( ! epo*1 = b few localities h yet be5 discov]$ ) any ext5sive s]ies ( fossils4 ,z work$ out by ,osborn1 ?is fauna co9cid$ ) ! la/ ,glacial /age & 0 a greatly r$uc$ & impov]i%$ assemblage z comp>$ ) ^? ( ! middle & l[] ,plei/oc5e1 ?\gh x is n safe to argue t all ! animals n f\nd 9 ?is fauna 7 already ext9ct1 = ! kn[n li/ is /ill f> too %ort to be entirely repres5tative4 ,! ,am]ican ,ma/odon 7,ma/odon am]icanus1 see p4 #aif7 0 /ill abundant 9 ! =e/$ regions & 0 app>5tly able to )/& sev]e w9t] temp]atures1 z c]ta9ly 0 ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius1 see p4 #aif71 :i* 0 s abundant 9 ! colde/ "p ( ,sib]ia & :i* ext5d$ s\? to ! ,potomac1 presumably at ?is "t4 ,horses 7 /ill pres5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?\gh app>5tly 9 greatly dim9i%$ numb]s & v>iety4 ,tapirs h n be5 f\nd1 ?\gh !y may h l+]$ on 9 ! s\!rn regions4 ,! typically ,nor? ,am]ican g5us ( de] 7,odocoileus7 01 ( c\rse1 well repres5t$1 & ,old ,_w types _h a mu* m s\!rly di/ribution ?an at pres5t4 ,! ,c>ib\ 7,rangif] c>ib\7 came d[n into ,p5nsylvania & ,ohio1 ! ,moose 7,alce am]icanus7 into ,k5tucky & ,kansas1 & ! ,wapiti 7,c]vus canad5sis7 is report$ z f> s\? z ,florida4 ,a v rem>kable animal is ! ,/ag-,moose 7,c]valces scotti71 ! be/ pres]v$ skeleton ( :i* is t 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,?is 0 f\nd 9 a %ell-m>l b5ea? a peat-bog at ,mt4 ,h]mon1 ,n4 ,j41 nor? ( ! great t]m9al mora9e1 & !re=e mo/ probably ?is p>ticul> individual dates f a "t n e>li] ?an ! beg9n+ ( ! f9al retreat ( ! ice4 ,c]valces1 z its "n implies1 0 9 "s respects int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,/ag 7,c]vus7 & ! ,moose 7,alce72 9 g5]al proportions x mo/ ne>ly resembl$ ! latt]1 hav+ a %ort neck1 long body & v long legs2 b ! skull diff]$ 9 _m respects f t ( ! ,moose1 especially 9 p>ts :i* %[ t ! great1 inflat$ sn\t & preh5sile upp] lip _h no su* developm5t 9 ! ext9ct z 9 ! liv+ =m4 ,! antl]s 7 unique among ! kn[n memb]s ( ! de] family1 resembl+ ^? ( ! ,moose1 ?\gh mu* less palmat$ & ) ! addition ( great trumpet-%ap$ plates4 ,! feet 7 l>ge1 almo/ z l>ge z 9 ! ,c>ib\1 & ! :ole /ructure indicates an animal well fitt$ to travel ?r\gh deep sn[s & fl\ri% 9 sev]e w9t]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,c]valces scotti3 re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,ev5 m typically nor!rn ?an ! ,c>ib\ 7 ! ,musk-,ox51 ( :i* two g5]a occurr$ 9 ! late ,plei/oc5e4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,symbos1 is ext9ct & 0 *>act]iz$ by its %ort horns2 ! o!r1 ,ovibos1 is ! g5us to :i* ! exi/+ species1 ,o4 mos*atus & ,o4 w>di1 belong & is n[ conf9$ to ! extreme nor? ( ! cont95t1 ! ,arctic isl&s & ,gre5l&4 ,! rema9s ( ,musk-,ox5 h be5 f\nd mo/ly along ! great t]m9al mora9e :i* m>ks ! front ( ! la/ ice-invasion1 b !y occurr$ also z f> s\? z ,oklahoma1 & 9 ,utah !y rang$ f> to ! s\? ( ! ice-front4 ,no?+ c\ld be m conclusive evid5ce ( a climate mu* cold] ?an ! mod]n "o ?an ! pres5ce ( ,c>ib\ & ,musk-,ox5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! ,walrus on ! coa/ ( ,georgia4 ,! small] animals 7 mu* z !y are n[1 diff]+ only 9 range4 ,! sabre-too? tig]s1 ! la/ ( a mo/ int]e/+ l9e1 p]si/$ 9 ! s\?1 & an ext9ct g5us ( skunks has be5 discov]$ 9 ,arkansas1 b o!rwise ! ,c>nivora 7 entirely mod]n 9 "*4 ,un=tunately1 ^! small] animals are v incompletely kn[n1 mu* ! ri*e/ aggregation :i* has yet be5 f\nd be+ t collect$ by ,mr4 ,br[n 9 ! ,con>d ,fissure1 ,arkansas4 ,f ?is collection ,mr4 ,br[n has describ$ ?irty-sev5 g5]a & fifty-"o species ( mammals1 ( :i* f\r g5]a & tw5ty-f\r species are ext9ct4 ,t is to say1 less ?an "o-n9? ( ! g5]a & "o-half ( ! species repres5t ext9ct =ms4 ,contra/ ?is ) ! middle ,plei/oc5e assemblage f\nd 9 ! ,port ,k5n$y cav]n 9 ea/]n ,p5nsylvania1 ( sixty-f\r species ) at lea/ =ty ext9ct ones4 ,! =ego+ sket*1 brief & imp]fect z x necess>ily is1 makes x suffici5tly pla9 t ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e 0 f> ri*] 9 mammalian life ?an x 0 :5 ! cont95t 0 fir/ settl$ by ,europeans4 ,:5 we make ! prop] all[ance = ! _m =ms :i* und\bt$ly rema9 to be discov]$ & = ^? :i* may h vani%$ )\t leav+ a trace beh9d !m1 ! contra/ becomes all ! m /rik+4 ,n only did ,plei/oc5e ,nor? ,am]ica h sub/antially all ! mammals t x n[ possesses1 b x _h _m m4 ,! lions & sabre-too? tig]s1 ! gigantic %ort-fac$ be>s1 ! tapirs & _m v>ieties ( horses1 l>ge & small1 ! camels & llamas1 _m species ( bisons1 "s ( enorm\s proportions1 sev]al =ms alli$ to ! ,musk-,ox1 ! elephants & ma/odons1 ! giant beav]s & ,s\? ,am]ican wat]-hogs1 ! huge gr\nd-slo?s & glyptodonts1 h all disappe>$1 leav+ a cont95t1 t1 by contra/1 is 8zologically impov]i%$40 ,! ,plei/oc5e fauna 0 /rangely mix$ 9 "*1 ! free roads ( migration br++ toge!r ,old ,_w & ,s\? ,am]ican types1 & m+l+ !m ) indig5\s =ms 9 a cosmopolitan assemblage4 ,turn+ to ,s\? ,am]ica1 we f9d 9 ! pampas ( ,arg5t9a a wond]ful museum ( ,plei/oc5e mammals1 su* z occurs n[h]e else 9 ! kn[n _w1 & ?is is supplem5t$ by ! v ri* collections ga!r$ f ! cav]ns ( ,brazil & f deposits ( ,ecuador & ,bolivia1 & ?us all ! important regions ( ! cont95t1 save ! f> s\?1 are well repres5t$4 ,^! faunas are f> /rang] ?an ! correspond+ ones ( ,nor? ,am]ica & diff] m radically f ^? ( mod]n times1 s9ce !y include a mu* l>g] proportion ( ext9ct types1 & ! ext9ctions h swept away n only species & g5]a1 b families & ord]s z well4 ,! ,s\? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e assemblage ( mammals is v cle>ly divisible into two elem5ts3 7#a7 ! immigrants f ! nor?1 :i* rea*$ ! s\!rn cont95t 9 successive waves ( migration1 t h left records ( !mselves z e>ly z ! old] ,plioc5e1 p]haps ev5 ! upp] ,mioc5e1 & 7#b7 ! indig5\s elem5t1 :i* _h a v long hi/ory ( developm5t 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,to ! immigrant class belong$ all ( ! ,c>nivora1 :i* !re=e resembl$ _! ,nor? ,am]ican relatives1 b 7 less v>i$ 9 "*4 ,( ! be>s1 only ! huge1 %ort-fac$ k9d 7,arcto!rium1 ,fig4 #bge1 p4 #edi7 are kn[n1 & x is n likely t true be>s exi/$ except 9 ! ,&es1 z is also ! case to-day4 ,( ! cat family1 ! sabre-too? tig]s 7,smilodon7 7 z common 9 ,s\? ,am]ica z 9 ,nor?1 &1 :ile !re 7 no lions1 !re 7 l>ge cats ne>ly alli$ to ! ,jagu> & ,puma1 & small] ones1 l ! ,ocelot4 ,! dogs 7 q num]\sly repres5t$ by species resembl+ closely ! exi/+ ,s\? ,am]ican fox-l wolves & ! ,bu%-,dog 7,icticyon7 &1 /range to say1 by "o :i* seems ref]able to ! same g5us 7,cyon7 z ! ,dhole ( ,india4 ,! weasel family 7,mu/elid7 7 less num]\s & v>i$ ?an 9 ! nor!rn cont95t1 z !y /ill are2 coatis 7,nasua7 & raccoons 7,procyon7 7 abundant & "o species ( ! latt] 0 mu* l>g] ?an any exi/+ "o2 ext9ct species ( skunk 7,conepatus71 tayra 7,tayra7 & ott] 7,lutra7 7 also pres5t1 b ! badg]s1 m9ks1 m>t5s & wolv]5es 7 n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,"s ( ! common] ,pampean mammals1 r$uc$ to a uni=m scale1 ) a po9t] dog 79 ! frame7 to %[ ! relative sizes4 #a4 ,ddicurus clavicaudatus4 #b4 ,glyptodon clavipes1 glyptodonts4 #c4 ,macrau*5ia pata*onica1 "o ( ! ,litopt]na4 #d4 ,pampas ,horse 7,hippidion neogum74 #e4 ,toxodon burmei/]i1 a toxodont4 #f4 ,mega!rium am]icanum4 #g4 ,mylodon robu/us1 gr\nd-slo?s4 ,! ho($ animals 7 repres5t$ by a great v>iety ( =ms1 bo? immigrant & indig5\s1 ( :i* ! latt] belong$ to ord]s n[ entirely ext9ct4 ,horses 7 common 9 all p>ts ( ! cont95t1 :]e fossils ( ?is epo* h be5 obta9$1 & are ref]able to two v di/9ct gr\ps3 7#a7 to ! typical g5us ,equus1 ( :i* ?ree species h be5 describ$1 all some:at m primitive ?an ! ,true ,horse 7,e4 caballus7 &1 l mo/ ( ! ,plei/oc5e species ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ) a c]ta9 resemblance to ! zebras & asses2 7#b7 to an ext9ct gr\p ( f\r g5]a1 ! be/ kn[n ( :i* is ,hippidion4 ,! species ( ?is g5us 7:i* has also be5 report$ f ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?\gh ^u h>dly suffici5t evid5ce7 _h mo/ exceptional *>act]s 9 ! skull1 & ! head 0 relatively l>ge & clumsy1 ) n>r[ & v high facial region4 ,! neck 0 comp>atively %ort1 ! limbs heavy & ! feet %ort4 ,^! animals c h>dly h be5 v swift runn]s4 ,a v int]e/+ memb] ( ?is gr\p is ,hyp]hippidium1 a small horse f\nd 9 ! ,&es1 ) rem>kably %ort feet1 well adapt$ = a m\nta9 life4 ,! only o!r p]issodactyls 7 tapirs1 :i* rang$ d[n to ! ,arg5t9e pampas1 mu* f>!r s\? ?an n[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,a ,pampas ,horse 7,hippidion neogum74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,national ,museum1 ,bu5os ,aires4 ,! ,artiodactyla 7 mu* m v>i$2 !re 7 pecc>ies1 _m species ( llamas1 :i* !n ext5d$ into ,brazil1 & 7 n conf9$1 z at pres5t1 to ! cold] portions ( ! cont95t4 ,!re 7 also num]\s de]1 all ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican type1 & two diff]5t antelopes h be5 report$1 ?\gh t family has no repres5tatives 9 ! s\!rn cont95t n[4 ,sev]al species ( ma/odons h be5 f\nd 9 ,brazil1 ,arg5t9a1 ,bolivia & else:]e1 b none ( ! true elephants4 ,:y ! ma/odons 7 able to make _! way into ,s\? ,am]ica1 :ile ! elephants 7 n1 is "o ( ! puzzl+ que/ions ( mammalian di/ribution to :i* no answ] c be giv54 ,all ! prec$+ types ( ho($ animals1 ! horses1 tapirs1 pecc>ies1 llamas1 de]1 antelopes & ma/odons 7 migrants f ! nor?1 & f\r ( ^!1 tapirs1 pecc>ies1 llamas & de]1 7 able to ga9 a p]man5t foot+ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & are m or less abundant !re to-day1 :ile ! horses1 antelopes & ma/odons fail$ to d s & di$ out4 ,9 addition to ^!1 !re 7 ! indig5\s types1 :i* are n[ ext9ct & h nev] be5 f\nd outside ( ! ,neotropical region4 ,an extremely peculi> creature1 ,macrau*5ia1 0 ! la/ surviv+ memb] ( an ord]1 ! ,litopt]na1 :i* = ages play$ a v important rle 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,macrau*5ia 0 a l>ge animal1 some:at l>g] & ( mu* heavi] build ?an a camel1 to :i* x _h a consid]able1 ?\gh entirely sup]ficial1 resemblance4 ,! head 0 relatively small & mu/ h _h q a long proboscis2 ! neck 0 v long1 sugge/+ t ! animal br[s$ ^u trees1 :i* is also indicat$ by ! "* ( ! tee?2 ! legs 7 long & /\t1 ! feet %ort & ea* provid$ ) ?ree toes4 ,ano!r curi\s creature 0 ,typo!rium1 f :i* is nam$ ! gr\p ( ! ,typo!ria1 :i* "s au?orities reg>d z a subord]1 :ile o!rs assign to x a full ord9al rank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,a ,pampean ,litopt]n 7,macrau*5ia pata*onica74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,museum ( ,la ,plata4 ,! ,typo!res ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y p]iod 7 among ! mo/ abundant & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ho($ animals1 & ! g5us ,typo!rium 0 ! la/ ( a v long s]ies & 0 an animal ( mod]ate size1 ) *isel-%ap$ incisor tee? s l ^? ( ! rod5ts t ! g5us 0 long ref]r$ to t ord]4 ,f9ally1 we h ,toxodon1 type ( ! ord] ,toxodontia1 a pond]\s bea/1 z l>ge z a rh9oc]os1 :i*1 !re is "s reason to ?9k1 0 l>gely aquatic 9 its habits4 ,! fir/ species ( ?is extraord9>y creature 0 f\nd by ,*>les ,d>w91 :o says ( x3 8,p]haps "o ( ! /range/ animals ev] discov]$2 9 size x equall$ an elephant or mega!rium1 b ! /ructure ( its tee?1 z ,mr4 ,ow5 /ates1 proves indisputably t x 0 intimately relat$ to ! ,gnaw]s i4e4 ,rod5tia 444 9 _m details x is alli$ to ! ,pa*yd]mata3 judg+ f ! position ( its eyes1 e>s1 & no/rils1 x 0 probably aquatic1 l ! ,dugong & ,manatee1 to :i* x is also alli$40#d ,mod]n views conc]n+ ! relation%ips ( ,toxodon are v diff]5t f ^? advanc$ by ,d>w91 b he gives a vivid picture ( its div]se lik5esses4 ,nei!r ,macrau*5ia1 ,typo!rium nor ,toxodon has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,brazilian cav]ns1 b ?is is no d\bt due to ! accid5ts ( pres]vation1 = ! latt] animal rang$ nor? to ,nic>agua4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,a ,pampean ,toxodont 7,toxodon burmei/]i74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,la ,plata ,museum4 ,! rod5ts likewise 7 p>tially ( immigrant & p>tially ( native /ock4 ,to ! =m] belong$ ! few mice & rats & a mead[-m\se 7,microtus71 a gr\p n repres5t$ 9 pres5t-day ,s\? ,am]ica1 & a rabbit4 ,v mu* m abundant & v>i$ 7 ! indig5\s =ms1 all ( :i* belong$ to exi/+ families & mo/ ( !m to exi/+ g5]a2 ! tree-porcup9es1 cavies1 ag\tis1 sp9y-rats1 vizca*as1 capyb>as1 coypus1 etc41 7 abundantly repres5t$1 = ! mo/ "p by ext9ct species4 ,! monkeys 7 ( purely ,neotropical type & sev]al mod]n g5]a1 su* z ,cebus & ,calli?rix1 & "o v l>ge ext9ct g5us1 ,protopi!cus1 ( ! same family1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! cav]ns ( ,brazil1 b n 9 ! pampas ( ,arg5t9a1 :i* w\ld seem to h be5 a c\ntry ( op5 pla9s4 ,9 ! ,s\? ,am]ica ( to-day "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & peculi> elem5ts ( ! fauna is t =m$ by ! ,ed5tata1 ! slo?s1 anteat]s & armadillos1 & ?is 0 ev5 m true ( ! same region 9 ,plei/oc5e times4 ,anteat]s & slo?s are v scantily repres5t$1 b ?is is m]ely an accid5t ( pres]vation2 armadillos1 on ! o!r h&1 7 v num]\s bo? 9 ,brazil & 9 ,arg5t9a1 &1 9 addition to _m mod]n g5]a1 !re 7 sev]al :i* are no long] 9 exi/5ce1 su* z ,*lamydo!rium1 :i* 0 a huge creature almo/ z l>ge z a rh9oc]os4 ,!n !re 7 ! two ext9ct subord]s ( ! glyptodonts 7,glyptodontia7 & ! gr\nd-slo?s 7,gravigrada7 :i* 7 a/oni%+ly abundant 9 ,arg5t9a & :i*1 z 0 %[n 9 a previ\s page 7p4 #bje71 7 also well repres5t$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,few m fanta/ic-look+ mammals ?an ! glyptodonts h ev] be5 f\nd2 ! %ort1 deep head1 ) its %ield ( ?ick1 bony plates1 ! huge c>apace made up ( innum]able plates ( bone firmly unit$ at _! edges & )\t ! movable b&s ( ! armadillo c>apace1 ! enorm\s tail-%ea?1 ! %ort legs & massive feet ) broad ho(s1 mu/ h giv5 ^! animals r ! appe>ance ( gigantic tortoises ?an ( mammals4 ,! glyptodonts 7 especially num]\s & v>i$ 9 ! ,arg5t9e pampas1 & a /ately array ( !m is m\nt$ 9 ! museums ( ,la ,plata & ,bu5os ,aires2 9 l5g?1 !y rang$ f six to twelve feet1 includ+ ! tail4 ,! skeleton & c>apace did n diff] v greatly 9 appe>ance among ! v>i\s g5]a1 b !re 7 great diff]5ces 9 ! =m & size ( ! bony %ea? enclos+ ! tail4 ,9 ! g5us ,glyptodon ! %ea? 0 compos$ ?r\gh\t ( movable ov]lapp+ r+s1 ) prom95t sp9es on !m2 9 ,scl]ocalyptus ! h9d] half ( ! %ea? coalesc$ into a s+le piece1 m>k$ only by ! elaborate ornam5tation ( ! horny scales1 :ile 9 ,ddicurus ! end _h a trem5d\s1 club-l expansion1 :i* mu/ h be5 set ) great horn-l sp9es4 ,! glyptodonts 7 pond]\s1 sl[-mov+ & in(f5sive plant-fe$]s1 almo/ invuln]able to attack1 & probably us$ _! massive tails1 :i* c\ld be freely swung f side to side1 z r$\btable weapons ( def5ce1 mu* z ! alligator uses 8 tail4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! bewild]+ v>iety 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! few t made _! way into ,nor? ,am]ica 7 q insignificant4 ,mu* ! same /atem5t applies to ! gr\nd-slo?s1 & ?\gh ^! rang$ f> m widely ?r\gh ! nor!rn cont95t ?an did ! glyptodonts1 !y 7 b few 9 comp>ison ) ! multitude :i* inhabit$ alike ! =e/s ( ,brazil & ! pla9s ( ! s\?4 ,two ( ! ?ree g5]a ( gr\nd-slo?s :i* occur 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e1 ,mega!rium & ,mylodon1 are also f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & ?\gh ,megalonyx has n yet be5 obta9$ !re1 ! family ( :i* x is a memb] 0 repres5t$4 ,9 size1 ^! creatures v>i$ f a tapir to an elephant1 ?\gh all 7 mu* %ort]-legg$ ?an any elephant2 ! extremely massive tail1 :i* ! l>g] =ms _h1 s]v$ to support ! huge body1 :5 erect$ to te> d[n ! bran*es & leaves ^u :i* ^! /range creatures f$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,a gigantic ,pampean ,gr\nd-,slo? 7,mega!rium am]icanum74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,museum ( ,la ,plata4 ,opossums 7 extremely num]\s1 especially 9 ! ,brazilian caves1 :]e 9 half a cubic foot ( e>? #djj jaws 7 collect$4 ,! ,plei/oc5e mammalian fauna ( ,s\? ,am]ica 0 a mixture ( mod]n =ms ) anci5t1 vani%$ types simil> to t :i* we f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! gr\nd-slo?s & glyptodonts1 ! litopt]ns1 toxodonts & typo!res1 ! antelopes1 horses & ma/odons h all disappe>$ f ! cont95t1 or vani%$ altoge!r f ! face ( ! e>?4 ,,ii4 ,,t]ti>y ,,faunas #a4 ,plioc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4--,no "p ( ! ,c5ozoic hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica is s imp]fectly record$ & s unsatisfactorily kn[n z t ( ! ,plioc5e1 & ! lat] portion ( t epo* is especially obscure4 ,if ! ,peace ,creek =mation ( ,florida is prop]ly ref]r$ to ! upp] ,plioc5e1 x w\ld %[ t ! mammals ( t "t 7 sub/antially ! same z ^? ( ! e>ly ,plei/oc5e4 ,! only fauna1 z yet discov]$1 :i* c be ref]r$ to ! middle ,plioc5e1 is t ( ! ,blanco b$s ( nor?we/]n ,texas1 :i* h yield$ b a scanty li/ ( mo/ly ill-pres]v$ fossils4 ,obvi\sly1 ^! give u a v incomplete picture ( ! life ( t "t4 ,! great gr\nd-slo?s _h already rea*$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! g5us ,megalonyx1 s common 9 ! =e/$ areas ( ,plei/oc5e ,nor? ,am]ica1 0 p]haps already 9 exi/5ce4 ,! glyptodonts 7 likewise repres5t$ by "o g5us 7,glypto!rium7 :i* 0 di/+ui%$ by ! simple r+s ( ! tail-%ea?4 ,no rod5ts h yet be5 f\nd & only a few ( ! ,c>nivora1 ?\gh a l>ge cat1 a mu/el9e & a l>ge 8be>-dog0 are kn[n4 ,!re 7 no true elephants1 b sev]al species ( ma/odons1 all ( :i* 7 diff]5t f ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e2 & 9 "s1 gr9d+ tee?1 ?\gh /ill l[-cr[n$1 _h become mu* l>g] & m complex1 m>k+ a /age ( advance t[>d ! elephant9e d5tition4 ,horses ( primitive type1 ! feet hav+ ?ree functional toes in/ead ( "o1 7 relatively abundant4 ,v l>ge llama-l animals 7 pres5t1 b no?+ has be5 asc]ta9$ ) reg>d to ! de] & antelopes ( ! "t1 & ! only o!r repres5tative ( ! ,artiodactyla yet recov]$ is a pecc>y1 int]e/+ z be+ a species ( ! g5us 7,platygonus7 :i* became s abundant & widespread 9 ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,scanty & incomplete z ?is fauna is1 x suffices to %[ t ! middle ,plioc5e mammals 7 mu* m primitive ?an ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--;,horn$ ,goph] 7,epigaulus hat*]i71 l[] ,plioc5e1 ,nebraska4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 ,! fauna ( ! ,snake ,creek =mation 9 we/]n ,nebraska & t ( ! presumably some:at lat] b$s ( nor?we/]n ,nevada1 :i* are ref]able to ! l[] ,plioc5e1 may be consid]$ toge!r4 ,! rod5ts1 :i* are n v fully repres5t$1 7 q mod]n 9 "* & belong$ mo/ly to ext9ct species ( mod]n g5]a1 su* z h>es1 pocket-goph]s1 beav]s1 =]unn]s ( ! ,giant ,beav]1 m>mots1 sewellels1 etc4 ,a remnant ( a m anci5t _w1 especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mioc5e1 is f\nd 9 ! rem>kable burr[]s1 ! horn$ mylagaulids :i* h be5 ext9ct s9ce ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,c>nivora 7 abundant1 & memb]s ( all ! families :i* inhabit ,nor? ,am]ica to-day h be5 obta9$2 wolves1 8be>-dogs10 8hy5a-dogs0 & =ms l ! ,dhole ( ,india 7 common4 ,! t]ms 8be>-dogs0 & 8hy5a-dogs0 are n to be und]/ood z imply+ any relation%ips ( ^! animals to be>s or hy5as1 b m]ely a c]ta9 sup]ficial resemblance2 ^! 7 v l>ge memb]s ( ! dog family 7,canid71 n[ ext9ct4 ,mu/el9es1 l>ge & small1 are f\nd1 & possibly "s be>s _h already made _! way f ! ,old ,_w1 b ?is is /ill unc]ta94 ,sabre-too? tig]s & true cats1 "s z l>ge z lions & "o species fairly gigantic1 7 likewise *>act]i/ic ( ! "t4 ,!re 0 a great weal? ( horses1 ?\gh ! mod]n g5us ,equus 0 n among !m2 all ! g5]a are n[ ext9ct & all 7 ?ree-to$4 ,sev]al di/9ct phyla 7 repres5t$1 "s progressive & advanc+ t[>d ! mod]n =ms1 o!rs cons]vative & /ation>y4 ,br[s+ horses ) l[-cr[n$ tee?1 graz+ horses ) prismatic1 cem5t-cov]$ tee?1 heavi] & light]1 l>g] & small]1 mu/ h cov]$ ! pla9s & ?rong$ ! woods4 ,ance/ral tapirs 7 pres5t1 ?\gh f> less common4 ,a family :i* seems to be utt]ly exotic to ,nor? ,am]ica1 t ( ! rh9oc]oses1 0 pres5t1 & ( ^! !re 7 ?ree or f\r s]ies1 mo/ly )\t horns1 or ) a v small horn on ! tip ( ! sn\t4 ,! extremely ab]rant p]issodactyls 7,ancylopoda71 9 :i* ! ho(s 7 conv]t$ into great claws1 p]haps p]si/$1 b ! evid5ce is n conclusive4 ,! ,artiodactyla 71 = ! mo/ "p1 totally diff]5t f ^? ( mod]n times1 ?\gh sev]al =ms 7 ance/ral to "s n[ liv+4 ,pecc>ies m primitive ?an ! liv+ g5us 7 ! only repres5tatives ( ! sw9e-l subord]2 ance/ral camels & llamas 7 among ! commone/ ( ! ho($ animals & an ext9ct phylum1 t ( ! 8giraffe-camels0 7,alticamelus7 cont9u$ ov] f ! ,mioc5e4 ,! giraffe-camels are s call$1 n because ( any actual relation%ips ) ! giraffes1 b on acc\nt ( c]ta9 lik5esses 9 ! proportions ( ! animals comp>$4 ,alticamelus 0 a v l>ge1 camel-l creature1 ) rem>kably elongate neck & limbs & comp>atively small head1 :i* no d\bt resembl$ ! giraffes 9 br[s+ ^u trees :i* 7 above ! rea* ( ! ord9>y camels & llamas ( ! "t4 ,x 0 ! t]m9al memb] ( a s]ies1 or phylum1 :i* bran*$ (f f ! ma9 /ock 9 ,oligoc5e times & pursu$ a c\rse ( developm5t :i* 0 indep5d5t ( ! pr9cipal s]ies1 b curi\sly p>allel ) x4 ,! de] ( ! l[] ,plioc5e 7 little1 graceful creatures 7,bla/om]yx7 :i* _h no antl]s1 b ! males 7 arm$ ) sabre-l upp] can9e tusks1 s t !y mu/ h resembl$ ! ,musk-,de] ( ,tibet1 b 7 small] & m sl5d]4 ,! rem>kable gr\p ( 8de]-antelopes10 n[ ext9ct1 0 repres5t$ by ,m]ycodus1 a da9ty little creature1 less ?an two feet high at ! %\ld]1 :i* _h ! antl]s & g5]al appe>ance ( a small de]1 b ! high-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee? :i* mo/ antelopes h4 ,true antelopes ( two diff]5t l9es 7 also pres5t1 ?\gh !y are z yet kn[n f little m ?an ! bony horn-cores2 ( ^!1 "o is ! flat-horn$ & ! o!r ! twi/$-horn$ or /repsic]9e type1 su* z is illu/rat$ by ! ,el& & ,kudu ( mod]n ,africa4 ,! latt] may1 h[ev]1 be relat$ to ! peculi>ly ,nor? ,am]ican ,prong-,buck 7,antilocapra7 & n to ! /repsic]9e antelopes ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,! la/ survivors ( an exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican family1 ! oreodonts1 :i* 7 wond]fully num]\s & v>i$ f ! upp] ,eoc5e onw>d1 are f\nd "h4 ,! ma/odons 7,gompho!rium7 ( ?is =mation _h well-develop$ tusks 9 ! l[] z well z 9 ! upp] jaw1 & 9 "o species ! *9-region or symphysis ( ! l[] jaw 0 greatly prolong$1 an anci5t feature4 ,t ! ,s\? ,am]ican ed5tates _h already rea*$ ! nor!rn cont95t is suffici5tly prov$ by rema9s ( gr\nd-slo?s1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 too incomplete to p]mit id5tification ( ! g5us4 ,glyptodonts h n yet be5 f\nd1 b ?is fact does n demon/rate t !y _h n accompani$ ! gr\nd-slo?s 9 _! migration1 = at no "t did !y range s f> nor? z ,nebraska or nor?we/]n ,nevada1 & ! only mammal-be>+ =mation ( l[] ,plioc5e date kn[n 9 ! s\?1 ! ,ala*ua ,clay ( ,florida1 has yield$ too scanty a li/ ( fossils to make its negative evid5ce at all conclusive on ?is po9t4 ,! mammals ( ! middle & especially ( ! l[] ,plioc5e 7 mu* /rang] & m primitive ?an might be inf]r$ f ! =ego+ brief acc\nt4 ,except sev]al ( ! ,rod5tia & p]haps "o or two ( ! ,c>nivora1 ! g5]a are all ext9ct & su* famili> t]ms z horses1 rh9oc]oses1 camels1 etc41 c be employ$ only 9 a v compreh5sive s5se1 z equival5t to families4 ,! ,plioc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica is involv$ 9 "s obscurity2 n t !re is any "q z to ! =mations1 or _! ord] ( succession1 b !re is mu* d\bt z to ! limits ( ! epo* bo? above & bel[4 ,! late/ ,plioc5e fauna1 t ( ! ,t>ija ,valley 9 ,bolivia1 0 ess5tially ! same z t ( ! ,plei/oc5e & conta9$ a simil>ly l>ge proportion ( migrant elem5ts f ! nor?1 b x 0 evid5tly old] & _m ( ! species 7 diff]5t4 ,! two divisions ( ! ,araucanian fauna1 conta9$ 9 ! b$s ( ,catam>ca & ,monte ,h]moso respectively1 are v mu* alike & ne$ n be giv5 sep>ate consid]ation4 ,9 "o respect ^! presumably upp] ,plioc5e faunas =m$ a v /rong contra/ to ! mammalian assemblage ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 & t is 9 ! q insignificant "p tak5 by ! migrants f ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,( ! ,c>nivora !re 7 b two repres5tatives1 "o ref]able to ! raccoon family & "o to ! dogs1 :ile a h>e & a small memb] ( ! ,artiodactyla1 ( indet]m9ate family1 complete ! li/ ( nor!rn =ms1 ?\gh ?is li/ w d\btless be ext5d$ by future discov]y4 ,! pecc>ies1 de]1 antelopes1 tapirs1 horses1 ma/odons1 cats1 weasels1 ott]s1 squirrels1 mice1 etc4 _h n rea*$ ! s\!rn cont95t1 or 7 /ill s r>e t rema9s ( !m h n be5 f\nd4 ,?is r>ity & relative insignificance ( ! nor!rn =ms gave a v diff]5t aspect to ! fauna4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican gr\ps 7 v fully repres5t$4 ,_m k9ds ( opossums & a few l>ge c>nivor\s types1 mu* l ! s-call$ ,tasmanian ,wolf 7,?ylacynus71 7 ! remnants ( a mu* l>g] assemblage ( m>supials :i* inhabit$ ,s\? ,am]ica 9 ! ,mioc5e4 ,( ! ,ed5tata1 !re 7 great abundance & v>iety1 _m l>ge glyptodonts & "s gigantic armadillos1 z well z num]\s examples ( normal size2 ! gr\nd-slo?s1 ?\gh some:at small] ?an ^? ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 7 mo/ly ( gigantic size1 & true or arboreal slo?s 7,t>digrada7 h be5 report$4 ,! v num]\s rod5ts1 ) ! exception ( ! intrusive h>e1 all belong$ to typically ,s\? ,am]ican families4 ,"s ( ! rod5ts 7 gigantic & "o 7,megamys71 a memb] ( ! ,*9*illa family1 0 equal to a rh9oc]os 9 size & ! l>ge/ kn[n repres5tative ( ! ord]4 ,especially *>act]i/ic 0 ! abundance ( ! cavy family 7,caviid74 ,! ho($ animals1 ) ! s+le kn[n exception ( ! immigrant artiodactyl1 all belong$ to ! auto*?on\s ord]s1 all ( :i* are ext9ct at ! pres5t "t4 ,=]unn]s ( ! extraord9>y g5us ,macrau*5ia1 :i* 0 "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s elem5ts ( ,plei/oc5e life1 7 q common 9 ! ,plioc5e & diff]$ f ! ,pampean g5us *iefly 9 _! small] size & less advanc$ specialization4 ,we f9d "h also ! la/ survivors ( ano!r family ( ! ,litopt]na1 ! prot]o!res 7,prot]o!riid71 :i* imitat$ ! horses 9 su* a surpris+ mann] t "s au?orities believe !m to h be5 actually relat$ to ^? p]issodactyls4 ,! ,monte ,h]moso g5us 7,epi!rium7 _h feet :i* 7 wond]fully1 ?\gh b sup]ficially1 l ^? ( ! ?ree-to$ horses4 ,! ,toxodonta 7 num]\s & mo/ ( !m 7 l>ge1 pond]\s animals2 "o g5us 7,trigodon7 _h ! int]e/+ peculi>ity ( a s+le m$ian horn on ! =ehead1 mu* l t ( a rh9oc]os4 ,horn$ species 7 always r>e among ! indig5\s gr\ps ( ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 & all t h be5 discov]$ s f> belong$ to ! toxodonts4 ,! rema9+ gr\p1 t ( ! ,typo!ria1 0 also well repres5t$1 bo? by l>g] & by v small =ms1 "s no l>g] ?an a rabbit 7,pa*yrukhos74 ,! presumably l[] ,plioc5e 7p]haps upp] ,mioc5e7 fauna ( ! ,p>an =mation is z yet kn[n only f v fragm5t>y mat]ial4 ,repres5tatives ( ! dogs1 raccoons & be>s h be5 report$1 b ! id5tifications are d\btful2 at all ev5ts1 ^! w\ld seem to h be5 ! mo/ anci5t ( ! nor!rn immigrants4 ,a consid]able numb] ( m>supials1 bo? opossums & l>ge pr$ace\s types1 h be5 f\nd4 ,! rod5ts 7 v num]\s1 all belong+ to ,s\? ,am]ican families & "s ( !m v l>ge4 ,! ed5tates 7 gigantic gr\nd-slo?s & glyptodonts1 ) num]\s armadillos ( ord9>y size4 ,! ho($ animals all belong$ to ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ord]s1 ! pr$om9ant place be+ tak5 by ! toxodonts1 "s ( :i* 7 l>ge4 ,!re 7 _m typo!res1 bo? ( ! l>g] & small] k9ds4 ,! ,litopt]na 7 repres5t$ bo? by ! horse-l prot]o!res & ! long-neck$ macrau*5ids1 ! latt] small] & less specializ$ ?an ^? ( ! ,pampean4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,head ( ,horn$ ,toxodont 7,trigodon gaudryi74 ,plioc5e ( ,monte ,h]moso4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,amegh9o collection4 #b4 ,mioc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4--,upp] ,mioc5e b$s cov] ext5sive areas ( ! ,great ,pla9s region & are scatt]$ f ,montana f> into ,mexico4 ,! ri* fauna is an outgr[? & developm5t ( t ( ! middle ,mioc5e1 ) b few immigrant additions &1 on ! o!r h&1 passes s gradually into t ( ! l[] ,plioc5e1 t any l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 !m is v difficult to draw4 ,! rod5ts1 num]\s z !y are among ! fossils1 are almo/ c]ta9ly v incompletely repres5t$ 9 ! collections2 ! families are almo/ all /ill 9 exi/5ce1 b ne>ly e g5us is ext9ct1 & ?us ! v]nacul> names us$ to designate !m mu/ be und]/ood 9 a broad s5se4 ,h>es1 mice1 pocket-goph]s1 squirrels1 m>mots1 beav]s & ! extraord9>y mylagaulids 7 all abundant4 ,9 ev5 m /rongly m>k$ s5se mu/ ! broad mean+ = ! v]nacul> names ( ! o!r mammals be emphasiz$1 = we h to deal almo/ exclusively ) ext9ct g5]a1 :i* diff]$ mu* f _! mod]n desc5dants4 ,_m ( ! ,c>nivora h be5 obta9$2 !re 7 num]\s dogs1 "s rivall+ ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ be>s 9 size1 true fel9es & sabre-too? tig]s1 :i* 7 small] & light] animals ?an ! great bea/s ( ! ,plei/oc5e2 weasels1 m>t5s1 ott]s & raccoons1 b no be>s4 ,! be>s1 a family ( ,old ,_w orig91 are n c]ta9ly kn[n 9 ,am]ica be=e ! ,plei/oc5e1 b _h probably rea*$ ?is cont95t 9 ! ,plioc5e4 ,z is s v g5]ally true1 ! commone/ & be/-pres]v$ ( ! fossils are ^? ( ! ho($ animals4 ,! ma/odons 7 ( ! f\r-tusk$ k9d 7,gompho!rium or ,trilophodon71 ! skull & tee? ( :i* diff]$ s m>k$ly f ^? ( ! true elephants4 ,! relatively small1 l[-cr[n$ & simple gr9d+ tee? 7 common to all ! ma/odons1 b ! tusks 7 diff]5t f ^? ( ! l>g] memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,! upp] tusks 7 comp>atively %ort & ne>ly /raight & reta9$ a b& ( enamel1 :ile ! l[] tusks 7 /ill %ort]1 *isel-%ap$ & s worn z to prove t !y 7 regul>ly us$1 no d\bt 9 cropp+ leaves2 ! %ortness ( ^! l[] tusks 0 comp5sat$ = by ! great elongation ( ! l[] jaw4 ,! head 0 proportionately broad & l[ &1 = ,proboscidea1 ^! 7 small animals1 n m ?an five or six feet high at ! %\ld]4 ,! body1 limbs & feet _h already atta9$ sub/antially _! mod]n grade ( /ructure1 advance among ! ,proboscidea be+ *iefly re/rict$ to ! tee? & skull4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,teleoc]as fossig]1 a %ort-legg$ rh9oc]os1 ) small nasal horn2 l[] ,plioc5e & upp] ,mioc5e ( ,nebraska4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,f\r families ( ,p]issodactyla 7 repres5t$ 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,! rh9oc]oses1 :i* 7 v abundant1 7 pres5t 9 consid]able v>iety2 "s 7 hornless1 o!rs _h a s+le small horn on ! end ( ! nose4 ,among ^! rh9oc]oses !re 0 mu* diff]5ce 9 bodily proportions1 "s be+ extremely heavy1 ) v %ort legs & feet1 & ^! 7 ! commone/1 :ile o!rs _h long] legs & less massive bodies4 ,tapirs1 on ! contr>y1 w\ld seem to h be5 scantily repres5t$2 at lea/1 !y are r>e among ! fossils4 ,! extraord9>y1 ab]rant *alico!res1 p]issodactyls ) claws in/ead ( ho(s1 /ill p]si/$1 b are f> bett] kn[n f ! l[] ,mioc5e1 9 connection ) :i* !y w be describ$4 ,! dom9ant p]issodactyl family 0 t ( ! horses1 ( :i* no less ?an five g5]a are already kn[n4 ,!re 7 "s ) v l[-cr[n$ tee?1 :i* mu/ h f$ pr9cipally by br[s+ ^u leaves & su* s(t diet2 b ! graz+ k9ds1 :i* _h high-cr[n$1 cem5t-cov]$ & v complex gr9d+ tee?1 _h come to ! =e4 ,/ill reta9+ ?ree toes 9 ea* foot1 ) ! middle toe s enl>g$ z to be> ne>ly ! entire weight1 save 9 sn[ or s(t gr\nd1 ^! em95tly cursorial animals1 :i* _h ! sl5d] limbs ( a de]1 mu/ h roam$ ! pla9s 9 great h]ds4 ,/ill common] 7 ! ,artiodactyla4 ,_m species ( graz+ camels1 :i* 7 ! pr$om9ant artiodactyl family 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ upp] ,mioc5e times1 7 ! ance/ors bo? ( ! true camels ( ! ,old ,_w & ! ,s\? ,am]ican llamas4 ,giraffe-camels h n yet be5 f\nd & no d\bt !y 7 mu* less abundant ?an 9 ! middle ,mioc5e1 b t !y _h n completely disappe>$ is %[n by _! recurr5ce 9 ! ,plioc5e4 ,z comp>$ ) e>li] ages1 ! oreodonts _h begun a rapid decl9e & _h lo/ notably bo? 9 numb]s & v>iety1 b "o mo/ curi\s bea/ 7,pronomo!rium1 ,fig4 #aig1 p4 #cge7 m>k$ ! f9al /ep 9 ! developm5t ( ! %ort-fac$1 proboscis-be>+ s]ies1 :i* may be trac$ back to its beg9n+s 9 ! ,oligoc5e4 ,9 ?is wond]ful creature ! skull 0 s %ort & deep z to sugge/ t ( a gorilla or "s o!r great ape4 ,no o!r artiodactyls ev5 approximate ^! lat] proboscis-be>+ oreodonts 9 ! altoge!r exceptional =m ( ! skull4 ,graz+ oreodonts 7,m]y*yus71 ( mod]ate & small size ) high-cr[n$ tee?1 7 evid5tly q common on ! upp] ,mioc5e pla9s4 ,! hornless de] & 8de]-antelopes0 diff]$ b little f ^? ( ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,pecc>ies 7 fairly abundant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,procamelus elrodi1 a l>ge camel f ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum4 ,! upp] ,mioc5e fauna 0 especially *>act]iz$ by ! l>ge numb] ( mammals1 belong+ to sev]al diff]5t ord]s1 :i* _h acquir$ ! high-cr[n$1 p]si/5tly gr[+ patt]n ( gr9d+ tee?4 ,_m ( ! horses1 camels1 rum9ants & rod5ts display$ ?is /ructure1 &1 z 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,k[alevsky1 ! explanation is probably to be f\nd 9 ! spread ( grassy pla9s at ! exp5se ( ! =e/s4 ,on acc\nt ( ! silica :i* !y conta91 ! grasses are v abrasive & rapidly we> ! tee? d[n4 ,9 adaptation to ?is new s\rce ( abundant & nutriti\s food1 _m k9ds ( mammals develop$ a =m ( too? :i* 0 fitt$ to comp5sate by gr[? = ! loss ?r\gh abrasion4 ,! middle ,mioc5e1 small areas ( :i* occur 9 ,montana1 ea/]n ,oregon & nor!a/]n ,colorado1 has receiv$ v>i\s local names1 ! typical "o be+ ! ,deep ,riv] ( ,montana4 ,v probably1 ^! scatt]$ areas are n /rictly contemporane\s1 b =m a closely connect$ s]ies4 ,t a l&-connection ) ! ea/]n hemisph]e exi/$1 is made cle> by ! appe>ance ( sev]al unmi/akably ,old ,_w types ( animals & ! beg9n+s ( migration f ,s\? ,am]ica are p]haps also to be not$1 ?\gh ?is _c be positively /at$4 ,! evid5ce = ! ,s\? ,am]ican connection is ! f9d+ 9 ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,oregon ( :at are believ$ to be ! e>lie/ rema9s ( gr\nd-slo?s yet discov]$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ! mat]ial is too scanty = altoge!r c]ta9 det]m9ation4 ,! small] animals are n v well repres5t$ 9 ! middle ,mioc5e faunas1 z conditions appe> to h be5 unfav\rable to _! pres]vation2 some?+ is kn[n ( !m1 nev]!less4 ,! v curi\s ext9ct family ( rod5ts kn[n z ! ,mylagaulid1 ! pres5ce ( :i* 0 not$ 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e1 fir/ appe>$ "h4 ,^! mylagaulids1 :i* 7 di/antly relat$ to ! mod]n ,sewellel 7,aplodontia rufa71 7 *>act]iz$ by ! great enl>gem5t & complication ( "o ( ! gr9d+ tee? 9 ea* jaw & ! consequ5t r$uction ( ! o!rs4 ,"o g5us ( ?is family1 z 9 ! ,plioc5e1 _h ! peculi>ity1 unique among rod5ts1 ( develop+ a l>ge horn ^u ! nose1 l a m9iature rh9oc]os4 ,among ! ,c>nivora1 we f9d a great v>iety ( dogs1 l>ge & small1 all belong+ to ext9ct g5]a1 z inde$ is true ( ! o!r c>nivores also4 ,true fel9es h be5 f\nd1 b z yet1 none ( ! sabre-too? s]ies2 ! abundance ( ! latt]1 h[ev]1 9 bo? prec$+ & succe$+ =mations1 is suffici5t pro( t ! discov]y ( !m 9 ! middle ,mioc5e is m]ely a "q ( "t4 ,mu/el9es 7 pres5t1 & especially notewor?y is ! appe>ance ( ! fir/ ,am]ican ott]s1 immigrants f ! ,old ,_w4 ,( ! ho($ animals1 ! mo/ int]e/+ are ! ,proboscidea1 ! mo/ anci5t ( :i* t are def9itely det]m9able 9 ,am]ica occur 9 ?is horizon4 ,! place ( orig9 & ance/ry ( ^! animals 7 long exasp]at+ puzzles4 ,appe>+ sudd5ly 9 ! ,mioc5e ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 :i* regions no?+ 0 kn[n t c\ld1 ) any plausibility1 be reg>d$ z ance/ral to !m1 !y might z well h dropp$ f ! moon1 = all t c\ld be told conc]n+ _! hi/ory4 ,! exploration ( ! ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e b$s ( ,egypt has dispell$ ! my/]y & %[n t ,africa 0 ! orig9al home ( ! gr\p1 :5ce !y gradually spread to e cont95t except ,au/ralia4 ,little is kn[n ( ^! e>lie/ ,am]ican proboscideans1 b !y 7 d\btless small ma/odons ( ! f\r-tusk$ type4 ,among ! ,p]issodactyla1 ! rh9oc]oses 7 p]haps ! mo/ conspicu\s2 ! native ,am]ican /ocks ( ?is family appe> to h mo/ly di$ out & to h be5 replac$ by two or m phyla ( immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 "s ( :i* 7 hornless1 o!rs _h a small horn on ! tip ( ! nose & o!rs aga9 _h a second & small] horn on ! =ehead4 ,tapirs1 ?\gh unque/ionably pres5t1 are r>e z fossils & n well kn[n4 ,sev]al di/9ct phyla ( horses may be di/+ui%$1 :i* 7 l small ponies 9 size1 b ( m sl5d] =m2 !y 7 all ?ree-to$1 b !re 7 m>k$ diff]5ces among !m ) reg>d to ! degree to :i* ! middle toe 7! ?ird ( ! orig9al five7 _h be5 enl>g$ to c>ry ! :ole weight & ! lat]al toes 7second & f\r?7 r$uc$ to m]e 8dew-claws40 ,:ile br[s+ horses1 ) l[-cr[n$ tee?1 /ill p]si/$ 9 l>ge numb]s1 we f9d also ! extremely int]e/+ beg9n+s ( ! highly complex1 cem5t-cov]$ & high-cr[n$ tee? ( ! graz+ k9ds4 ,! claw$ *alico!res 7 pres5t1 ?\gh v little is kn[n ab\t !m because ( ! fragm5t>y "* ( ! rema9s4 ,! ,artiodactyla 7 mu* m v>i$ & abundant1 ?\gh !y did n rival ! great assemblage ( ^! animals f\nd 9 ! ,european ,mioc5e4 ,( ! pecc>ies little m c be said ?an t !y 7 pres5t 9 ^! faunas4 ,! oreodonts 7 v num]\s1 bo? individually & g5]ically2 two /ages ( ! proboscis-be>+ k9d are f\nd "h toge!r1 ! old]1 long-fac$ g5us 7,prom]yco*rus7 surviv+ f ! ,oligoc5e1 :ile ! new] ,mioc5e type 0 %ort-fac$ & _h a mod]ate proboscis 7see ,fig4 #aif1 p4 #cgc74 ,o!rs _h m ! proportions ( pecc>ies & /ill o!rs 7 v small & presumably aquatic 9 habits4 ,camels ab\nd$1 bo? ! graz+ k9ds :i* 7 ance/ral to ! mod]n =ms ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ,asia1 & ! great1 br[s+ giraffe-camels4 ,! hornless de] & ! antl]$ de]-antelopes 7 mu* l ^? ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e1 sl5d] & graceful little creatures1 & !re 7 also consid]ably l>g] rum9ants 7,dromom]yx7 ) /raight1 simple & non-decidu\s horns1 :i* may be call$ antelopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,gigantic giraffe-camel 7,alticamelus altus7 f ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,colorado4 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! l9e ( division betwe5 ! l[] ,mioc5e & ! upp]mo/ ,oligoc5e is a v obscure & difficult "o to draw4 ,p]sonally1 ,i pref] to beg9 ! ,mioc5e ) ! widespread =mation ( ! ,great ,pla9s1 :i* has be5 v>i\sly nam$ ,arik>ee1 ,h>rison1 ,rosebud1 etc41 b ?is is a moot po9t4 ,conc]n+ ! l[] "p ( ^! b$s ,osborn says3 8,!y may be ei!r3 7#a7 ,upp] ,oligoc5e or 7#b7 transitional f ,oligoc5e to ,mioc5e1 or 7#c7 ( pure ,l[] ,mioc5e age40 ,! upp] division is ref]r$ to ! ,mioc5e )\t "q by any "o1 b = ! purposes ( ?is rapid sket* x w be be/ to treat ! two faunas toge!r4 ,?is _m-nam$ =mation1 = :i* ! t]m ,arik>ee is "h employ$1 z hav+ priority1 is f\nd ov] ext5sive areas ( ,s\? ,dakota1 nor!rn ,nebraska & c5tral ,wyom+4 ,! fauna 0 almo/ entirely a developm5t f t ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,oligoc5e1 ) v little admixture ( =eign elem5ts1 s t ! l& communication ) ! ea/]n hemisph]e mu/ h be5 difficult4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 mo/ ( ! ,mioc5e =mations1 ! small] mammals are n fairly repres5t$1 & x is evid5t t mu* rema9s to be le>n$ ) reg>d to !m2 ?is is especially true ( ! upp] division ( ?is /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,mo/ anci5t ,am]ican ,antelope 7,dromom]yx antilop9a71 middle ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum & ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! rod5ts1 :i* 7 fairly num]\s1 7 directly cont9u\s ) ^? ( ! upp] ,oligoc5e & includ$ =ms :i* 7 m or less di/antly connect$ ) ! mod]n h>es1 squirrels1 beav]s1 sewellels1 pocket-goph]s & kang>oo-rats4 ,a few ,insectivora ( d\btful ref]5ce h be5 f\nd4 ,among ! ,c>nivora !re 0 also consid]able v>iety3 dogs1 l>ge & small1 7 abundant1 b all ( !m 7 decid$ly primitive f ! mod]n /&po9t2 ! cats 7 repres5t$ bo? by ! true fel9es1 :i* 7 probably immigrants1 & by ! sabre-too? s]ies4 ,!re 7 sev]al l>ge & p[]ful mu/el9es1 or memb]s ( ! weasel family1 :i* 7 likewise immigrants1 "o ( :i* resembles 9 _m ways ! mod]n ,wolv]5e 7,gulo74 ,v int]e/+ is ! beg9n+ ( ! raccoon family 7,procyonid7 or1 at lea/1 :at is believ$ to be su*1 :i* arose f a bran* ( ! dogs2 ?is mo/ anci5t ( ! raccoons 0 ,phlaocyon1 a small & sl5d] animal4 ,! e>lie/ traces ( ! ,proboscidea 9 ,am]ica h be5 report$ f ?is =mation1 b ! fragm5t>y specim5s are inconclusive4 ,! ,p]issodactyla are among ! commone/ fossils4 ,! rh9oc]oses belong$ to native /ocks1 includ+ bo? ! horn$ & hornless =ms4 ,! horn$ g5us 7,dic]a!rium7 diff]$ f all o!r rh9oc]oses 9 hav+ a transv]se pair ( horns on ! nose1 & ! species ( ! l[] ,mioc5e 7 q small & light2 ! hornless g5us 7,cnopus7 0 a l>g] & heavi] animal4 ,tapirs are r>e z fossils & consequ5tly n well kn[n4 ,:ile !re 7 sev]al k9ds ( horses1 !y all agre$ 9 hav+ %ort-cr[n$ & relatively simple gr9d+ tee? & ?ree-to$ feet2 !y 7 small] & ( light]1 m sl5d] build ?an ^? ( ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,! wond]ful ab]rant p]issodactyls ) claw$ feet1 ! *alico!res 7subord] ,ancylopoda71 appe> to h be5 m abundant 9 ! ,arik>ee ?an at any o!r "t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?\gh _! hi/ory 9 ?is cont95t ext5ds f ! middle ,eoc5e to ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,moropus1 ! l[] ,mioc5e g5us1 0 z grotesque a creature z c\ld well be imag9$ &1 9 advance ( exp]i5ce1 no "o ev] did imag9e su* a bea/4 ,) r small & some:at horse-l head1 long neck1 long =e limbs & %ort] h9d limbs1 ^! extraord9>y animals unit$ %ort1 ?ree-to$ feet1 :i* 7 arm$ ) enorm\s claws4 ,! long p]si/5ce 7to ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,asia7 & wide geographical range ( ! *alico!res are suffici5t evid5ce t _! v unusual /ructure mu/ h be5 advantage\s to !m1 b ! problem ( _! habits & mode ( life is /ill unsolv$4 ,f ! "* ( ! tee?1 ! long neck & =e limbs1 x may1 h[ev]1 be inf]r$ t !y f$ *iefly ^u ! leaves ( trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,! small1 pair$-horn$ rh9oc]os 7,dic]a!rium cooki7 ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,a *alico!re 7,moropus elatus7 ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,ev5 m num]\s & v>i$ 7 ! ,artiodactyla4 ,pecc>ies ( a primitive sort 7 common1 & we f9d ! la/ ( ! s]ies ( 8giant pigs10 :i* _h be5 a v conspicu\s gr\p ?r\gh\t ! ,oligoc5e4 ,! l[] ,mioc5e g5us1 ,d9ohyus1 0 a mon/r\s bea/1 six feet or m 9 height1 ) =midable can9e tusks & a v long head made grotesque by bony excresc5ces ^u ! skull & jaws4 ,= a pig1 ! legs 7 v long & ! feet sl5d]1 hav+ b two toes4 ,! oreodonts 7 pres5t 9 great numb]s1 bo? small & l>ge =ms2 except = bodily /ature & modifications ( ! head1 !y all look$ v mu* alike2 ,m]yco*rus1 ) its incipi5t proboscis1 "h made its fir/ appe>ance4 ,! la/ repres5tatives ( a family 7,hyp]tragulid7 ( small & graceful artiodactyls are f\nd 9 ?is =mation4 ,"o ( ^! 7,syndyoc]as1 see ,fig4 #bae1 p4 #djc71 an animal consid]ably l>g] ?an ! exi/+ ,musk-,de]1 0 9 its way ev5 m biz>re-look+ ?an ! *alico!res2 ) an antelope-l head1 x _h f\r horns1 "o pair ov] ! eyes1 curv+ inw>d1 & a %ort] pair1 ) outw>d curvature1 on ! muzzle4 ,ano!r g5us 7,hyp]tragulus7 0 v mu* small] & v sl5d]4 ,! camels 7 beg9n+ to div]sify & give rise to sev]al phyla4 ,"o ( ! g5]a 7,protom]yx71 :i* did n mu* exce$ a %eep 9 size1 probably repres5t$ ! ma9 /ock1 :i* l$ to ! camels & llamas ( to-day4 ,a second 7,/5omylus7 0 a /ill small] animal1 ) rem>kably long & sl5d] legs1 & might be call$ a 8gazelle-camel10 :ile a ?ird 7,oxydactylus1 see ,fig4 #bji1 p4 #cib71 :i* 0 l>g] & app>5tly ! beg9n+ ( ! giraffe-camels1 0 notewor?y = its long neck4 ,all ( ^! l[] ,mioc5e camels _h de]-l ho(s1 ! *>act]i/ic pad or cu%ion :i* gives su* an exceptional appe>ance to ! feet ( mod]n llamas & camels n be+ fully develop$ till a lat] p]iod4 ,a v important new elem5t 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican fauna 0 ! appe>ance ( ! fir/ de] 7,bla/om]yx71 :i* came 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,arik>ee /age & 7 ! =]unn]s ( a r5ew$ immigration f ! ,old ,_w1 :i* _h be5 brok5 (f dur+ ! upp] ,oligoc5e4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a disput$ po9t2 ,pr(essor ,osborn & ,dr4 ,mat!w believe t ^! animals 7 truly indig5\s & d]iv$ f a long l9e ( ,am]ican ance/ry4 ,! same g5us cont9u$ ?r\gh ! middle ,mioc5e1 z we h already se51 & !re=e no fur!r description ( x is call$ =4 ,! limits ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,mioc5e are v d\btful4 ,! ,p>an =mation1 "h reg>d$ z l[] ,plioc5e1 may prove to be m prop]ly ref]able to ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,no o!r upp] ,mioc5e is kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,! gazelle-camel 7,/5omylus hit*cocki7 ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f skeletons 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,to ! e>li]1 probably middle1 ,mioc5e may be ref]r$ ! wond]ful ,santa ,cruz fauna ( ,patagonia4 ,x is extremely difficult to convey to ! read] any adequate conception ( ?is great assemblage ( mammals1 because mo/ ( !m belong$ to ord]s :i* h altoge!r vani%$ f ! e>? & are only remotely l ! =ms ) :i* we are famili> 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,to "o :o kn[s only ^! nor!rn animals1 x seems l ent]+ ano!r _w :5 he beg9s ! /udy ( ! ,santa ,cruz fossils4 ,if any ,nor? ,am]ican mammals _h !n ent]$ ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* is n probable1 !y _h n ext5d$ _! range z f> z ,patagonia4 ,m>vell\sly ri* & v>i$ z ! ,santa ,cruz fauna 01 x did n conta9 ev]y?+ t we %\ld expect to f9d 9 x2 sev]al rec5t families ( und\bt$ly indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican orig9 h left no ance/ors 9 ! e>ly ,mioc5e =mations4 ,= ?is1 !re are sev]al obvi\s reasons4 ,9 "p1 ^! gaps 9 ! hi/ory are m]ely due to ! accid5ts ( collect+ & "s ( !m w almo/ c]ta9ly be fill$ by future exploration4 ,o!r abs5tees w probably nev] be f\nd1 because ! ,santa ,cruz b$s are kn[n only 9 ! v f> s\?1 & ! ,mioc5e climate ( ! region1 ?\gh mu* mild] & m g5ial ?an ! pres5t "o1 mu/ h be5 unsuitable = _m tropical animals4 ,aga91 ! ,patagonia ( t "t appe>s to h be5 a c\ntry ( op5 pla9s1 ) few trees1 & h5ce arboreal =ms 7 r>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--;,diagram to illu/rate ! comp>ative sizes ( ! ,santa ,cruz mammals1 a mod]n po9t] dog1 )9 ! rectangle1 to give ! scale4 #a4 ,cladosictis lu/ratus1 pr$ace\s m>supial4 #b4 ,protypo!rium au/rale1 typo!re4 #c4 ,eoc>dia excavata1 rod5t4 #d4 ,/ego!rium tesselatum1 armadillo4 #e4 ,propalohoplophorus au/ralis1 glyptodont4 #f4 ,hapalops longiceps1 gr\nd-slo?4 #g4 ,?oa!rium m9usculum1 litopt]n4 #h4 ,a/rapo!rium magnum1 a/rapo!re4 #i4 ,pro?ylacynus patagonicus1 pr$ace\s m>supial4 #aj4 ,!osodon g>rettorum1 litopt]n4 #aa4 ,nesodon imbricatus1 toxodont4 ,:ile great numb]s ( l>ge1 flightless birds1 "s ( !m ( enorm\s size1 7 entomb$ 9 ! volcanic a% & du/ :i* 7 spread ov] su* wide areas & to su* great dep?s1 ! extreme sc>city ( reptiles is surpris+2 a few rema9s ( liz>ds h be5 f\nd1 b no snakes1 crocodiles1 or tortoises1 & we h no in=mation z to ! plant-life ( ! region at t "t4 ,! mammals 7 almo/ all ( small or mod]ate size2 only "o or two species 7 really l>ge4 ,"o v /rik+ & *>act]i/ic feature ( ! ,santa ,cruz fauna is ! great abundance ( m>supials :i* x conta9$ & :i* resembl$ m or less ^? ( mod]n ,au/ralia4 ,!re 7 no true ,c>nivora & _! places 7 tak5 by a v>iety ( c>nivor\s m>supials1 "s ( :i* 7e4g4 ,pro?ylacynus7 7 z l>ge z wolves & 7 closely simil> to ! s-call$ ,tasmanian ,wolf 7,?ylacynus74 ,ano!r g5us 7,borhyna7 _h a %ort1 bullet head1 n unlike a small ,puma 9 appe>ance &1 besides1 !re 7 _m small] bea/s ( prey1 9 size l badg]s & m9ks4 ,opossums 7 common & !re 7 _m v small h]bivor\s m>supials1 :i* resembl$1 ?\gh p]haps b sup]ficially1 ! ,au/ralian phalang]s4 ,at ! pres5t day ,s\? ,am]ica conta9s no ,insectivora1 b 9 ! ,santa ,cruz !re 0 "o family 7,necrole/id7 ( ?is ord] :i* bore consid]able resemblance to ! 8gold5 moles0 ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,an extraord9>y v>iety ( rod5ts inhabit$ ,patagonia 9 ,santa ,cruz times1 all ( !m belong+ to ! ,hy/ricomorpha1 or porcup9e subord]1 & all ref]able to exi/+ ,s\? ,am]ican families4 ,!re 7 none ( ! nor!rn =ms ( rod5ts1 nei!r rats1 mice1 squirrels1 m>mots1 h>es1 nor rabbits1 b a v num]\s assembly ( tree-porcup9es1 cavies1 *9*illas1 coypus & ! l4 ,! g5]a1 ?\gh closely alli$ to exi/+ ones1 are all ext9ct1 & ! animals 7 v g5]ally small] ?an _! mod]n desc5dants4 ,a few small monkeys ( unmi/akably ,neotropical type h be5 f\nd1 b l o!r arboreal & =e/-liv+ animals1 !y are v r>e among ! fossils4 ,! ,ed5tata 7 m abundant & div]sifi$ ?an at any o!r "t 9 ,s\? ,am]ican hi/ory ( :i* ! record is pres]v$4 ,two ( ! mod]n subdivisions ( ?is ord] h n be5 c]ta9ly id5tifi$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz collections1 ! arboreal slo?s & ! anteat]s1 & ?\gh !y may be f\nd !re at any "t1 x w only be z /raggl]s f ! w>m] =e/$ regions to ! nor?1 :]e ^! =ms _h d\btless long be5 pres5t4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 no?+ is directly kn[n conc]n+ ! life ( ^? regions 9 ,mioc5e times4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?ree gr\ps ( ed5tates1 two ( !m n[ ext9ct1 7 v copi\sly repres5t$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz =mation1 ! armadillos1 glyptodonts & gr\nd-slo?s4 ,( ! _m armadillos1 "s q l>ge1 o!rs v small1 only a few c be reg>d$ z directly ance/ral to ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce2 ! truly ance/ral =ms 7 probably !n liv+ 9 ! =e/s ( ,brazil & nor!rn ,arg5t9a1 9 ! same areas z ! ance/ral tree-slo?s & anteat]s4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! giants ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e1 ! ,santa ,cruz glyptodonts 7 all small1 ! c>apace r>ely exce$+ two feet 9 l5g?1 &1 :at x is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ to note1 !y dep>t$ mu* less widely f ! armadillo type ?an did _! gigantic successors4 ,! gr\nd-slo?s 7 pres5t 9 actually bewild]+ v>iety & !y also 7 v small z comp>$ ) ! huge animals ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 none ( !m exce$+ ! ,black ,be> 9 height or l5g?1 ?\gh proportionally mu* m massive1 & _m 7 no bigg] ?an foxes4 ,!y _h small heads1 long bodies1 heavy tails & %ort1 ?ick legs2 _! tee? %[ t !y 7 plant-fe$]s1 b _! feet 7 arm$ ) long1 %>p & =midable claws4 ,among ?is great ho/ ( ,santa ,cruz gr\nd-slo?s may readily be not$ ! probable ance/ors ( ! gigantic creatures :i* 7 su* *>act]i/ic elem5ts ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e faunas4 ,!re 0 an extraord9>ily ri* & v>i$ assemblage ( ho($ animals1 all utt]ly diff]5t f ^? ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e & belong+ to gr\ps :i* h nev] be5 f\nd outside ( ,s\? & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,( ^! gr\ps !re 7 five1 :i* by diff]5t writ]s are v>i\sly reg>d$ z ord]s or subord]s1 a matt] ( v second>y importance4 ,individually1 ! commone/ ( ! ho($ mammals 7 ! ,toxodonta1 :i* rang$ 9 size f a %eep to a tapir1 heavily built & clumsy creatures1 ) absurdly small1 ?ree-to$ feet2 9 "s ( ! species !re 0 a small m$ian horn on ! =ehead4 ,z ) ! glyptodonts & gr\nd-slo?s1 ! contra/ 9 size betwe5 ! ,santa ,cruz ance/ors & ! ,plei/oc5e desc5dants 0 v /rik+4 ,a v num]\s & v>i$ gr\p 0 t ( ! ,typo!ria1 all small animals1 "s no l>g] ?an rabbits1 o!rs ! size ( small foxes4 ,x requires a decid$ ef=t to ?9k ( ^! typo!res z be+ really ho($ animals at all1 z _! :ole appe>ance mu/ h be5 mu* m l t ( rod5ts1 yet _! /ructure cle>ly demon/rates _! ne> relation%ip to ! toxodonts4 ,/ill a ?ird gr\p ( ! same s]ies1 ! ,entelony*ia1 is ( great int]e/1 =1 z 9 ! *alico!res ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! ho(s _h be5 trans=m$ into claws & _! five-to$ feet _h a truly grotesque appe>ance1 n dim9i%$ by ! long & p[]ful limbs & relatively small head4 ,?is is ! ?ird example ( t p>adoxical creature1 a 8ho($ animal0 ) claws in/ead ( ho(s1 & 9 ea* ( ! ?ree in/ances1 !re is e reason to believe1 ! trans=mation proce$$ indep5d5tly4 ,among ! p]issodactyls ! *alico!res 7p4 #bch7 und]w5t ?is *ange2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! ,agrio*rid1 a family ( artiodactyls1 _h a v simil> hi/ory1 :ile 9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! ,entelony*ia arose f ! same /ock z ! toxodonts1 ) :i* !y 7 ne>ly alli$4 ,!y 7 among ! l>ge/ animals ( ,santa ,cruz times & rang$ 9 size f an ox to a rh9oc]os4 ,!re 0 a f\r? gr\p1 ! ,a/rapo!ria1 conc]n+ :i* our k is tantaliz+ly incomplete1 "s species ( :i* 7 ! l>ge/ ( kn[n ,santa ,cruz mammals1 :ile o!rs 7 mu* small]4 ,!y _h %ort1 dom$ heads1 ) a consid]able proboscis1 & 7 arm$ ) =midable tusks1 :i* 7 ! enl>g$ can9e tee?1 ! only kn[n in/ance ( l>ge can9e tusks among ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ho($ animals4 ,! limbs 7 long & n v massive1 ! feet %ort1 five-to$ & some:at elephant9e 9 appe>ance4 ,^! biz>re animals w\ld seem to h held a r isolat$ position among ! ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 & ?\gh !y may be trac$ back to ! mo/ anci5t mammal-be>+ b$s ( t cont95t1 _! relation%ips are /ill obscure2 mu* m complete mat]ial mu/ be obta9$ be=e ?is problem c be def9itely solv$4 ,bo? ! ,a/rapo!ria & ! ,entelony*ia di$ out %ortly aft] ! end ( ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,f _m po9ts ( view ! mo/ int]e/+ memb]s ( ! ,santa ,cruz fauna 7 ! ,litopt]na1 an ord] :i* also w5t back to ! e>lie/ ,s\? ,am]ican ,t]ti>y4 ,9 ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e ! ord] 0 repres5t$ by two v di/9ct families1 ! ,macrau*5id & ,prot]o!riid1 :i* 7 sup]ficially v unlike4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz b$s is f\nd a g5us 7,!osodon7 :i* 0 app>5tly ! direct ance/or ( ! ,pampean ,macrau*5ia4 ,! ,mioc5e g5us 0 a mu* small] animal & _h h>dly m ?an an incipi5t proboscis1 b o!rwise 0 v l its ,pampean successor2 x 0 some:at l>g] & heavi] ?an a ,llama & probably bore "s resemblance to t animal 9 appe>ance4 ,! long1 n>r[ head1 ) its preh5sile upp] lip1 mu/ h _h an almo/ reptilian lik5ess f ! num]\s uni=m & %>p-po9t$ tee? ) :i* ! front ( ! jaws 0 suppli$2 ! neck 0 elongate1 ! body %ort & r sl5d] & ! legs long1 end+ 9 ?ree ne>ly equal toes4 ,! prot]o!res1 on ! o!r h&1 7 almo/ ! only ,santa ,cruz ungulates :i* _h no?+ outr or grotesque ab\t !m to ! eye ( "o habituat$ to ! faunas ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,!y 7 small1 graceful animals1 v l ! ,mioc5e horses ( ! nor? 9 _! proportions1 ?\gh hav+ mu* %ort] necks & %ort]1 heavi] heads4 ,9 "s g5]a ( ?is family 7e4g4 ,diadiaphorus1 ,prot]o!rium7 ! feet 7 ?ree-to$ & mo/ surpris+ly horse-l 9 %ape1 b "o g5us 7,?oa!rium7 0 absolutely s+le-to$1 m completely monodactyl ?an any horse4 ,! horse-lik5esses ran all ?r\gh ! skeleton & are s num]\s & s /rik+ t sev]al writ]s h n hesitat$ to incorporate ! ,litopt]na ) ! ,p]issodactyla1 b ?is ,i believe to be an error4 ,if ! prot]o!res 7 n p]issodactyls1 z ,i am conv9c$ !y 7 n1 !y af=d "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( conv]g5t evolution among mammals yet made kn[n4 #c4 ,oligoc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4--,! ,john ,day =mation ( ea/]n ,oregon repres5ts ! upp] ,oligoc5e & has yield$ a v ext5sive s]ies ( mammals1 ?\gh ) "s obvi\s gaps t rema9 to be fill$ by future "w4 ,! l&-connection ) ! ,old ,_w :i* _h exi/$ 9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e & 0 re/or$ 9 ! l[]1 or at late/ 9 ! middle1 ,mioc5e1 0 int]rupt$ 9 ,john ,day times1 & s ! mammals assum$ a purely indig5\s "*4 ,no opossums or o!r m>supials h be5 f\nd1 & no?+ is kn[n ( ! ,insectivora4 ,( ! ,c>nivora1 !re 7 b ?ree families1 & "o ( ^!1 ! mu/el9es1 0 repres5t$ b scantily by a few small species4 ,cats ( ! sabre-too? subfamily 7 common & "o species 0 q l>ge1 almo/ equall+ ! ,jagu> 9 l5g?2 b mo/ ( ! species 7 small1 mu* small] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,true cats are n def9itely kn[n to h be5 pres5t1 b !re 7 two g5]a 7,nimravus & ,ar*lurus7 :i* h be5 call$ ! 8false sabre-too?s10 :i* may prove to be ref]able to t s]ies4 ,! dogs1 on ! o!r h&1 7 rem>kably num]\s & div]sifi$1 m s ?an ev] be=e or s9ce2 none ( !m 0 v l>ge1 ! l>ge/ b little exce$+ ! ,timb] ,wolf 9 size1 & "s 7 extremely small2 b ! numb] ( di/9ct g5]a & species & ! diff]5ces among !m are q rem>kable4 ,bo? long & %ort-fac$ =ms & e>ly /ages ( ! 8be>-dogs10 & 8hy5a-dogs10 & ance/ral =ms ( ! wolves & dholes may be di/+ui%$1 a truly wond]ful assemblage4 ,! rod5ts also 7 num]\s & v>i$1 includ+ anci5t & ext9ct g5]a ( ! beav]s1 squirrels1 mice1 pocket-goph]s & h>es & ! e>lie/ di/+ui%able ance/ors ( ! sewellels 7,aplodontiid74 ,! rema9d] ( ! kn[n ,john ,day fauna 0 compos$ ( artiodactyls & p]issodactyls4 ,! latt] _h suff]$ s]i\s losses z comp>$ ) ! prec$+ or ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,up to & ?r\gh ,:ite ,riv] times ! p]issodactyls _h held _! own 9 actual div]sity1 ?\gh ! rise ( ! artiodactyls _h put an end to ! dom9ant position :i* !y _h ma9ta9$ 9 ! ,eoc5e4 ,) ! ,john ,day ! actual decl9e may be said to h begun4 ,! rh9oc]oses 7 repres5t$ *iefly by ! dic]a!res1 ) a transv]se pair ( horns1 "s species ( :i* 7 mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,hornless rh9oc]oses h n yet be5 c]ta9ly f\nd1 ?\gh !re is e reason to believe t !y !n exi/$1 z !y unque/ionably did bo? be=e & aft]4 ,tapirs occurr$ b r>ely & ! horses 7 individually abundant1 ?\gh 9 no great div]sity2 !y 7 small] & light] ?an ! horses ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,en\gh has be5 f\nd to demon/rate ! pres5ce ( ! claw$ *alico!res1 b n to %[ h[ !y diff]$ f _! imm$iate successors4 ,9 ! numb] ( individuals1 species1 g5]a & families1 ! artiodactyls ( ! ,john ,day mu* exce$$ ! p]issodactyls4 ,! pecc>ies 7 num]\s1 b small] & m primitive ?an ^? ( ! succe$+ age1 z 7 also ! giant pigs1 or entelodonts1 b ! latt] 7 v l>ge4 ,! peculi>ly ,nor? ,am]ican family ( ! oreodonts 0 v num]\sly repres5t$1 & "o g5us 7,prom]yco*rus71 compris+ animals n unlike ! ,wild ,bo> 9 size & %ape1 0 ! probable beg9n+ ( ! s]ies ( proboscis-be>+ oreodonts1 :i* l$ to su* grotesque =ms 9 ! middle & upp] ,mioc5e4 ,a family closely alli$ to ! oreodonts1 & by _m writ]s includ$ 9 ! latt]1 is ! v rem>kable gr\p ( ! ,agrio*rid1 :i* 0 di/+ui%$ by ! long1 /\t & cat-l tail & by ! possession ( claws in/ead ( ho(s4 ,! family is n kn[n to h exi/$ lat] ?an ! ,john ,day & no trace ( x has be5 f\nd 9 ! succe$+ =mations4 ,! camels seem to be all compris$ 9 a s+le g5us 7,protom]yx7 :i* 0 ! same z t f\nd 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,a v small & da9ty little creature 7,hyp]tragulus7 belong$ to ano!r family1 ! relation%ips ( :i* are n cle>4 ,to ! middle & l[] ,oligoc5e is ref]r$ ! great ,:ite ,riv] =mation ( ,s\? ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 ,wyom+1 etc41 :i* is divisible into ?ree cle>ly m>k$ sub/ages4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] conta9s ! be/-kn[n fauna ( all ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,t]ti>ies1 = collect+ 9 ^! b$s has be5 c>ri$ on = m ?an sixty ye>s1 & a great] numb] ( complete & ne>ly complete skeletons has be5 secur$ ?an f any ( ! o!r =mations4 ,x is pla9ly evid5t t a l&-connection exi/$ ) ! ,old ,_w1 :i* 0 int]rupt$ 9 ! ,john ,day1 z is %[n by ! int]migration ( *>act]i/ic =ms2 b "s b>ri]1 presumably climatic1 prev5t$ any complete int]*ange ( mammals1 & v _m g5]a & ev5 families rema9$ conf9$ to "o cont95t or ! o!r4 ,! aspect ( ! ,:ite ,riv] fauna *anges 9 accordance ) ! direction f :i* x is approa*$4 ,if "o comes to ! /udy ( x f ! ,eoc5e1 x displays a v mod]n aspect1 giv5 by ! almo/ complete disappe>ance ( ! ar*aic gr\ps ( mammals & by ! great multiplication ( g5]a & species belong+ to ! progressive ord]s4 ,^! g5]a1 x is true1 are all ext9ct1 b _m ( !m /ood 9 an ance/ral relation%ip to mod]n =ms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if approa*$ f ! ,mioc5e side1 ! ,:ite ,riv] mammals seem to be v anci5t & primitive & v diff]5t f any?+ t n[ lives4 ,we speak ( horses & rh9oc]oses1 dogs & cats1 9 ?is fauna1 b ^? t]ms c be employ$ only 9 a v wide & ela/ic s5se to designate animals m or less di/antly alli$ to ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--a4 ,ar*o!rium4 #b4 ,ance/ral camel 7,pobro!rium74 #c4 ,m]ycoidodon4 #d4 ,agrio*rus4 #e4 ,ance/ral horse 7,mesohippus74 #f4 ,hoplophoneus4 #g4 ,bo?riodon4 #h4 ,hynodon4 #i4 ,cursorial rh9oc]os 7,hyracodon74 #aj4 ,protoc]as4 #aa4 ,hornless rh9oc]os 7,cnopus74 ,sev]al species ( opossums1 "s ( !m v small1 7 ! only m>supials 9 ,nor? ,am]ica !n1 z !y are n[4 ,!re 0 q a v>iety ( ,insectivora2 "s 7 survivals ( a family t 0 abundant 9 ! ,eoc5e1 o!rs1 l ! h$gehogs1 moles & %rews1 7 probably immigrants4 ,"h we f9d ! la/ ( a gr\p 7ord] or subord]7 ( anci5t & primitive fle%-eat]s1 ! ,creodonta1 t _h play$ a great rle 9 ! ,eoc5e & ,paleoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,9 ,:ite ,riv] times b a s+le family 7,hynodontid71 ) two g5]a1 rema9$ ( ! ,eoc5e ho/4 ,"o ( ^! g5]a 7,hemipsalodon71 a v l>ge bea/ ( prey1 :i* 0 almo/ id5tical ) ! ,old ,_w g5us ,pt]odon1 0 conf9$ to ! l[] sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s 9 ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory ( ,canada2 ! o!r1 ,hynodon1 :i* 0 also an ,old ,_w =m1 0 repres5t$ abundantly 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates by _m species4 ,9 size1 ^! species rang$ f a small fox to a l>ge wolf1 b !y all _h disproportionately l>ge heads1 & small1 weak feet1 ) blunt claws1 s t !y mu/ h be5 v curi\s-look+ creatures & 7 probably c>rion-fe$]s r ?an active cat*]s ( prey4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] memb]s ( ! family 7 migrants f ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 =1 ?\gh small & primitive repres5tatives ( x occurr$ 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,eoc5e1 z well z 9 ! correspond+ =mations ( ,europe1 ! family appe>s to h di$ out 9 ,am]ica & to h be5 r5ew$ by ! ,oligoc5e migration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,:ite ,riv] titano!re 7,titano!rium robu/um7 r$uc$ to ! same scale z ,fig4 #acc4 ,co9cid5t ) ?is decl9e ( ! creodonts &1 no d\bt1 causally connect$ ) x1 0 ! rise ( ! true ,c>nivora1 :i* = ! fir/ "t 7 num]\s & 7 divisible into ?ree di/9ct families4 ,small & primitive repres5tatives ( ! wolves 7,daphnus7 & possibly also ( ! foxes 7,cynodictis7 7 q common1 & !re 7 a few species ( ! mu/el9e family1 evid5tly immigrants & ! mo/ anci5t yet f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,!re 7 sev]al species ( ! sabre-too? cats 7,d9ictis & ,hoplophoneus7 all ( :i*1 except 9 ! upp]mo/ sub/age1 7 q small1 few ( !m exce$+ ! ,canada ,lynx 9 size4 ,a mu* l>g] animal 7,eusmilus1 also ,european7 appe>$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! /age4 ,none ( ! true cats1 or fel9e subfamily1 has be5 obta9$4 ,no?+ is yet kn[n ( ! "t & place ( orig9 ( ! sabre-too? s]ies1 = !y appe>$ at approximately ! same date 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 & 9 nei!r cont95t h any possible ance/ors be5 f\nd 9 prec$+ =mations4 ,! problem is l t ( ! ,proboscidea 7see p4 #bcd71 b ,egypt has giv5 no help 9 ! case ( ! sabre-too?s1 &1 by a process ( elim9ation1 we rea* ! conclusion t ^! /range creatures probably arose some:]e 9 ,asia & s5t out migrants ea/w>d & we/w>d4 ,! ,rod5tia 7 fairly abundant & pres5t a /range mixture ( anci5t & comp>atively mod]n types4 ,"o v common g5us 7,is*yromys71 :i* 0 ! la/ remnant ( a family almo/ limit$ to ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,eoc5e1 0 associat$ ) ! e>lie/ ,am]ican mice1 arboreal & gr\nd squirrels1 beav]s & rabbits2 "s1 if n all1 ( ^! 7 immigrants4 ,! ho($ mammals 7 pres5t 9 fairly bewild]+ v>iety1 b 7 re/rict$ to ! two ord]s ( ! ,p]issodactyla & ,artiodactyla4 ,! ,p]issodactyla1 :ile !y no long] _h ! relatively dom9ant position :i* !y held 9 ! middle ,eoc5e 7see p4 #bgj71 _h suff]$ no actual loss2 & no less ?an sev5 families ( !m1 or six by ano!r s*eme ( classification1 _h memb]s 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ica ( ,:ite ,riv] times1 a v notable diff]5ce f ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 :5 !re are b ?ree families 9 ! entire _w1 none ( :i* ent]s ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,eoc5e family ( ! titano!res became ext9ct at ! end ( ! l[] sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 b 9 t sub/age !re 0 a m>vell\s abundance ( ^! huge bea/s1 "s ( :i* 7 ( almo/ elephant9e /ature & bulk4 ,! pair ( great bony1 horn-l protub]ances on ! nose v>i$ mu* 9 size & =m 9 ! diff]5t species1 %ort to v long1 triangul>1 cyl9drical1 flatt5$ & %ovel-%ap$1 & gave ^! unga9ly creatures some:at ! appe>ance ( /range & v l>ge rh9oc]oses4 ,! titano!res 7 a typically ,nor? ,am]ican family1 b s5t migrants to ! ,old ,_w1 at lea/ two species rea*+ s\!a/]n ,europe4 ,rh9oc]oses too 7 extremely num]\s & div]sifi$ ?r\gh\t ! /age & are v pla9ly divisible into ?ree /rongly contra/$ s]ies1 :i* are sometimes reg>d$ z ?ree subdivisions ( ! same family & sometimes put into two sep>ate families4 ,"o ( ^! s]ies1 ! hyracodonts 7,hyracodon71 0 compos$ ( small1 long-neck$ & long-legg$1 sl5d] & lightly built1 cursorial animals1 b ) %ort1 heavy heads1 :i* gave !m a some:at clumsy look2 hav+ nei!r horns nor tusks1 !y 7 entirely def5celess & dep5d$ = _! safety ^u spe$ alone4 ,! second s]ies1 or amynodonts 7,metamynodon71 =m$ ! v anti!sis ( ! fir/1--l>ge1 heavy1 %ort-neck$1 & %ort-legg$ & probably amphibi\s 9 mann] ( life1 !y 7 arm$ ) =midable tusks2 & _! skulls 7 s curi\sly modifi$ z to be> a di/9ct resemblance to ! skull ( a huge c>nivore4 ,! amynodonts migrat$ to ! ,old ,_w & occur 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,france1 b ! hyracodonts w\ld seem nev] to h left ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ?ird s]ies1 t ( ! true rh9oc]oses1 compris$ sev]al g5]a at diff]5t levels 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s 7,trigonias1 ,cnopus1 etc472 !y 7 ( unc]ta9 orig9 & x has n yet be5 det]m9$ :e!r !y 7 immigrants or ( native /ock4 ,_m species h be5 f\nd1 v>y+ mu* 9 size1 up to t ( a mod]n tapir1 & n unlike "o 9 proportions1 = !y 7 ( light] build & _h relatively long] legs ?an any exi/+ rh9oc]os4 ,! species ( ! l[] & middle sub/ages 7 all hornless1 b 9 ! upp]mo/ sub/age we f9d skulls ) a pair ( nasal horns 9 an incipi5t /age ( developm5t4 ,?is 0 ! beg9n+ ( ! pair$-horn$ rh9oc]oses 7,dic]a!rium7 :i* s fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,john ,day & ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,hornless rh9oc]os 7,cnopus tridactylus7 ( ! ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,( ! horses !re 0 no great v>iety & all ! species s f> discov]$ are includ$ 9 a s+le g5us 7,mesohippus71 ?\gh !re 0 a decid$ increm5t 9 ! size ( ! successive species f ! e>li] to ! lat] portion ( ! /age4 ,look$ at sup]ficially1 x seems absurd to call ^! little creatures 8horses0 at all & ! t]m c be ju/ifi$ only z imply+ t !y 7 ance/ral memb]s ( ! family4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! ,:ite ,riv] species h>dly exce$$ a %eep 9 size & all ( !m _h comp>atively %ort necks1 long & sl5d] legs & ?ree-to$ feet4 ,! l[-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee? %[ t !y 7 br[s]s1 n graz]s4 ,! abundant ,eoc5e family ( ! ,lophiodontid made its la/ appe>ance 9 ! ,:ite ,riv]1 :]e x 0 scantily repres5t$ by sl5d]1 long-legg$ animals 7,colodon71 ) feet s+ul>ly l ^? ( ! contempor>y horses1 except t !re 7 f\r toes 9 ! front foot4 ,tapirs 7,protapirus7 7 v mu* less common ?an rh9oc]oses or horses & 7 h>dly half z l>ge z ! exi/+ species ( ! family & ( relatively f> m sl5d] =m2 ! developm5t ( ! proboscis _h already begun4 ,la/ly1 ! pres5ce ( ! claw$ *alico!res has be5 report$ f ! l[] ,oligoc5e ( ,canada1 b ! mat]ial is too fragm5t>y = g5]ic ref]5ce4 ,?\gh ! numb] ( artiodactyl families yet id5tifi$ among ! ,:ite ,riv] fossils is no l>g] ?an t ( ! p]issodactyl families1 ! artiodactyls greatly prepond]at$ 9 individual abundance4 ,! pecc>ies1 :i* 7 fairly common1 resembl$ ^? ( ! ,john ,day1 b 7 consid]ably small]4 ,( ! camels1 !re 7 two s]ies1 "o ( :i* 7,eotylopus71 lately describ$ by ,dr4 ,mat!w1 is ( yet unkn[n significance1 :ile ! o!r 7,pobro!rium7 0 app>5tly ! ance/or common to all ! subsequ5t phyla ( camels & llamas4 ,?is extremely int]e/+ g5us _h species :i* rang$ 9 size f a gazelle to a %eep1 _h two toes 9 ea* foot1 a mod]ately elongate neck & tee? :i* 7 beg9n+ to assume ! high-cr[n$ "*4 ,f ?is x may be inf]r$ t ^? animals 71 p>tly at lea/1 ( graz+ habit1 :i* 0 r>e among ,:ite ,riv] ungulates1 mo/ ( :i* f$ ^u leaves & s(t & succul5t plants4 ,an ext9ct family1 ! ,hyp]tragulid1 7 a greatly div]sifi$ gr\p ( da9ty little creatures1 "o ( :i* 7,hypisodus7 0 no l>g] ?an a rabbit & _h high-cr[n$ tee?4 ,! o!r g5]a 7,leptom]yx1 ,hyp]tragulus7 mu/ h resembl$ 9 =m & proportions ! t9y little *evrota9s or 8m\se-de]0 ( ! ,ea/ ,indian isl&s4 ,late 9 ! age arose a l>g] =m ( ?is family1 ne>ly equall+ ! ,musk-,de] 9 size1 ! extraord9>y g5us ,protoc]as1 :i* 01 especially ! males1 a grotesque object4 ,! males _h a pair ( upp] can9e tusks & two pairs ( prom95t long protub]ances on ! skull4 ,?is1 or "s simil> =m1 mu/ h be5 ! ance/or ( ! /ill m biz>re ,syndyoc]as ( ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,! oreodonts 7 by f> ! commone/ ( ,:ite ,riv] mammals1 & evid5tly !y roam$ ! woods & pla9s 9 great h]ds4 ,!re 7 sev]al species1 l>g] & small]1 ( ! abundant g5us 7,m]ycoidodon7 b ! l>ge/ did n surpass a mod]n pecc>y 9 size & 0 some:at l t animal 9 appe>ance1 b _h a %ort] head & mu* long] tail4 ,9 ! upp] sub/age appe>$ a v peculi> g5us ( ?is family 7,leptau*5ia71 animals ) %ort1 deep1 almo/ monkey-l heads1 & presumably aquatic 9 habits4 ,! agrio*rids 7 v mu* less common2 !y may be describ$ r\ghly z oreodonts ) v long1 cat-l tails & claw$ feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,m]ycoidodon culb]tsoni1 ! mo/ abundant ( ,:ite ,riv] oreodonts4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,all ( ! =ego+ artiodactyl families 7 exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican 9 ,oligoc5e di/ribution2 ev5 ! camels did n rea* ,asia till ! ,plioc5e1 & ! o!r families nev] invad$ ! ,old ,_w at all4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 two additional families1 :i* also occurr$ 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 :5ce "o ( !m1 & possibly ! o!r1 0 d]iv$4 ,! unque/ionably ,old ,_w family1 t ( ! an?raco!res1 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] by two g5]a 7,bo?riodon & ,an?raco!rium71 :i* 7 %ort-legg$1 long-sn\t$1 sw9e-l animals1 :i* h no ne> relations 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,! o!r family1 ! giant pigs1 :i* we h already met ) 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e & upp] ,oligoc5e1 is ( d\btful orig91 & no?+ has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! prec$+ =mations ( ei!r ,nor? ,am]ica or ,europe :i* c be reg>d$ z ance/ral to !m4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] g5us 7,ar*o!rium7 0 v l ! ,john ,day & ,arik>ee g5]a1 b mo/ ( ! species 7 mu* small] & "s 7 n s l>ge z a dome/ic pig4 ,9 ! upp]mo/ b$s1 h[ev]1 are f\nd huge species1 :i* rivall$ ^? ( ! subsequ5t =mations4 ,t ^! /range animals 7 root]s & digg]s & !re=e pig-l 9 habits is indicat$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! tee? are worn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,giant pig 7,ar*o!rium +5s7 f ! l[] ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,! old] cont95tal ,t]ti>y =mations ( ,s\? ,am]ica _c be correlat$ ) ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica or ,europe1 because !y h no?+ 9 common4 ,difficult z x is to give a correct & adequate conception ( ! ,t]ti>y mammalian life ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e to "o :o has n made a /udy ( x1 x is f> m difficult 9 ! case ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! /ock ( adjectives1 su* z 8peculi>10 8biz>re10 8grotesque0 & ! l1 already ov]work$ 9 deal+ ) nor!rn =ms1 is q hopelessly inadequate :]e ev]y?+ is /range4 ,9 addition to ?is1 we are s]i\sly h&icapp$ 9 treat+ ( ! ,oligoc5e & ,eoc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica by v incomplete k4 ,_m fossils h be5 collect$ & nam$1 b ! great majority ( ^! are kn[n only f tee?2 a few skulls & limb-bones h be5 describ$1 b no skeletons1 & !re=e mu* is v unc]ta9 reg>d+ ^! faunas4 ,! ,deseado =mation 7,pyro!rium ,b$s7 has be5 v>i\sly ref]r$ by diff]5t writ]s f ! upp] ,cretace\s to ! l[] ,mioc5e1 b its mo/ probable correlation is ) ! ,oligoc5e4 ,?\gh mo/ ( ! mammalian gr\ps are ! same z ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! proportions ( ! v>i\s ord]s 9 ! two faunas are v diff]5t1 b1 to "s ext5t1 ! diff]5ce is probably illusory & due to ! conditions ( fossilization1 =1 z a rule1 ! small mammals are mu* less frequ5t & well pres]v$ 9 ! old] b$s4 ,z 9 ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! m>supials 7 ! only pr$ace\s mammals1 & "s ( !m atta9$ gigantic size2 b no su* v>iety ( ^! bea/s ( prey has be5 f\nd 9 ^! b$s z occurr$ 9 ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,9 addition1 !re 7 num]\s small h]bivor\s m>supials4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ces f ! ,santa ,cruz fauna 0 9 ! v mu* small] numb] ( ,ed5tata1 :i*1 in/ead ( be+ extremely common1 are q r>e among ! fossils4 ,no d\bt !re 0 a real & sub/antial diff]5ce 9 ?is respect1 b x 0 probably n s great z x seems1 & ! same ?ree subord]s are f\nd 9 bo? =mations4 ,"o ( ! few gr\nd-slo?s t h be5 obta9$ 0 v l>ge 7,octodon!rium crassid5s71 a mu* l>g] animal ?an any species ( ! subord] t is kn[n f ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,! glyptodonts 7 also r>e1 & only two g5]a & species h be5 describ$ f v scanty rema9s4 ,armadillos1 on ! o!r h&1 7 mu* m common1 & no less ?an elev5 g5]a h be5 nam$1 ?ree ( :i* occurr$ also 9 ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,among ^! 0 ! rem>kable g5us ,peltephilus1 9 :i* ! ant]ior two pairs ( plates ( ! head %ield 7 modifi$ into horn-l sp9es4 ,equally /rik+ 0 ! rem>kable dim9ution ( ! ,rod5tia1 z comp>$ ) ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ?is is an inaccurate mode ( /at+ ! tru?1 occasion$ by ! fact t we are foll[+ ! hi/ory 9 rev]se ord]4 ,x w\ld be pref]able to say t ! rod5ts und]w5t a rem>kable expansion 9 ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,^! rod5ts ( ! ,deseado /age are ! mo/ anci5t yet discov]$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & repres5t only two families1 bo? belong+ to ! ,hy/ricomorpha1 or porcup9e gr\p4 ,if1 z ,dr4 ,s*loss] & o!r ,european palontologi/s ma9ta91 ! ,hy/ricomorpha 7 all d]iv$ f a family ( ! ,european ,eoc5e1 ?is w\ld necessitate a l&-connection betwe5 ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,old ,_w indep5d5t ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 = ! latt] cont95t _h no hy/ricomorph rod5ts until ! connection betwe5 ! two ,am]icas 0 e/abli%$4 ,! great bulk ( ! ,deseado fauna is made up1 s f> z individual abundance is conc]n$1 ( ho($ animals belong+ to ! typically ,s\? ,am]ican gr\ps4 ,! ,toxodonta 7 repres5t$ p>tly by g5]a :i* 7 ! direct ance/ors ( ! common ,santa ,cruz g5]a 7,pronesodon1 ,proad9o!rium71 &1 m num]\sly1 by a v peculi> family1 ! ,notohippid1 :i* _h highly complex1 cem5t-cov]$ gr9d+ tee?4 ,/ill a ?ird family ( ?is subord]1 ! ,leont9iid1 0 highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,deseado fauna & is n kn[n f ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,^! 7 l>ge animals1 ) a small horn on ! tip ( ! nose & l[-cr[n$1 comp>atively simple gr9d+ tee?4 ,ev5 m abundant 7 ! ,typo!ria1 small =ms :i* 7 ance/ral to ! ,santa ,cruz g5]a1 l>g] ones :i* di$ out )\t leav+ successors & "o q l>ge animal 7,eutra*y!rus7 :i* seems to h be5 ! ance/or ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e ,typo!rium4 ,?is s]ies is n kn[n to h be5 repres5t$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz & may h )drawn f ,patagonia at ! end ( ! ,deseado /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,horn$ toxodont 7,leont9ia gaudryi71 ,deseado /age4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,amegh9o collection4 ,! ,entelony*ia1 ^? /range toxodont-l animals ) claws in/ead ( ho(s1 7 mu* m num]\s & v>i$ ?an !y 7 aft]w>d 9 ! ,santa ,cruz1 :5 !y 7 on ! v]ge ( ext9ction1 & includ$ bo? v small & v l>ge species4 ,! ,pyro!ria1 a subord] :i* is n met ) 9 ! ,santa ,cruz or lat] =mations1 likewise includ$ "s v l>ge =ms4 ,! typical g5us1 ,pyro!rium1 includ$ l>ge1 relatively %ort-legg$ & v massive animals2 ! upp] incisors =m$ two pairs ( %ort1 d[nw>dly direct$ tusks1 & 9 ! l[] jaw 0 a s+le pair ( horizontally direct$ tusks2 ! gr9d+ tee? 7 l[-cr[n$ & _h ea* two simple1 transv]se cre/s4 ,^! gr9d+ tee? & ! l[] tusks s resemble ^? ( ! ance/ral ,proboscidea 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,egypt1 t ! pyro!res h actually be5 reg>d$ z ! beg9n+s ( ! ma/odons & elephants1 b ?is is und\bt$ly an error4 ,! ,a/rapo!ria1 ano!r gr\p :i* became ext9ct at or soon aft] ! end ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 7 relatively abundant 9 ! ,deseado & c\nt$ "s v l>ge species4 ,f9ally1 ! ,litopt]na 7 repres5t$ by ! same two families z cont9u$ ?r\gh ! ,plioc5e & "o ( !m f> into ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! horse-l prot]o!res 7 pres5t1 b n en\gh ( !m has be5 obta9$ to %[ :e!r or n !y 7 9 a notably less advanc$ /age ( developm5t ?an ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,! macrau*5ids 7 q simil> to ^? ( ! latt] =mation1 ?\gh consid]ably small]4 ,9 addition1 !re 7 a few g5]a1 survivals f e>li] times1 :i* 7 n ref]able to ei!r ( ^! families4 ,! l>ge numb] ( g5]a1 especially among ! toxodonts & typo!res1 :i* _h high-cr[n$1 cem5t-cov]$ tee?1 may be tak5 z an indication t graz+ habits _h already begun to be preval5t4 ,( ?is wond]ful assemblage ( ho($ animals1 divisible into six sep>ate gr\ps1 :e!r ( ord9al or subord9al rank1 n a trace rema9s to-day4 ,n only are all ! species1 g5]a & families ext9ct1 b ! subord]s & ord]s also4 ,fur!r1 ?is 0 a v /rictly auto*?on\s fauna1 s f> z ! ho($ animals 7 conc]n$1 & no memb] ( any ( ! six gr\ps has ev] be5 f\nd outside ( ! ,neotropical region4 #d4 ,eoc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4--,9 ! we/]n int]ior ( ,nor? ,am]ica ! ,oligoc5e foll[$ s gradually ^u ! ,eoc5e1 t !re is great difficulty 9 dem>cat+ !m & mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion & practice obta9s z to :]e ! b\nd>y l9e %\ld be drawn4 ,n to dep>t too widely f ! s*eme us$ by ,pr(essor ,osborn1 ! ,u9ta /age is "h treat$ z upp]mo/ ,eoc5e1 ?\gh ?is is a debatable proc$ure4 ,= sev]al reasons1 ! extraord9>ily int]e/+ & significant ,u9ta fauna is f> less completely kn[n ?an t ( ! prec$+ ,bridg] & succe$+ ,:ite ,riv] /ages4 ,= "o ?+1 x has be5 mu* less ?or\ghly explor$1 & x may be confid5tly expect$ t future exploration w greatly enl>ge our k4 ,! small] mammals ( ! ,u9ta are p>ticul>ly ill-kn[n4 ,no ,insectivora h yet be5 f\nd1 ?\gh ?is gap w assur$ly be fill$2 rod5ts are scanty 9 ! collections & include only two families1 "o ! is*yromyids1 :i* 7 /ill common 9 ! ,:ite ,riv]1 ! o!r ( d\btful position1 b n improbably to be consid]$ z ! beg9n+ ( ! pocket-goph]s 7,geomyid74 ,! ar*aic fle%-eat]s1 or ,creodonta1 7 repres5t$ by two families1 "o compris+ small] animals ) some:at cat-l1 %e>+ tee? 7,oxynid71 ! o!r1 v l>ge bea/s ) cru%+ tee? 7,mesony*id71 nei!r ( :i* cont9u$ into ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,z comp>$ ) ! middle & l[] ,eoc5e1 ! creodonts _h greatly dim9i%$ &1 to replace !m1 ! true ,c>nivora 7 beg9n+ to come 94 ,z yet1 h[ev]1 only small & v primitive dog-l =ms are kn[n & no trace ( sabre-too?s or mu/el9es has be5 f\nd4 ,inde$1 x is v d\btful :e!r memb]s ( ^! families ev] w be f\nd 9 ! ,u9ta1 = _! pres5ce 9 ! succe$+ ,:ite ,riv] 0 probably due to immigration4 ,! ,p]issodactyla 7 ! prepond]ant type ( ho($ animals1 & ance/ral =ms ( mo/ ( ! ,:ite ,riv] g5]a h already be5 id5tifi$4 ,! titano!res 7,diplacodon1 ,protitano!rium7 7 mu* small] & light] ?an ^? ( ! l[] ,:ite ,riv] & _h mu* %ort] horns4 ,! hyracodonts1 ! lightly built1 cursorial rh9oc]oses1 7 repres5t$ by a g5us 7,triplopus7 :i* 0 small] & m sl5d] ?an ! ,:ite ,riv] =m 7,hyracodon7 & its tee? 7 ( di/9ctly m primitive "*4 ,! heavy1 massive & presumably aquatic amynodonts 7,amynodon7 7 likewise small] & less specializ$ ?an _! desc5dants ( ! ,oligoc5e4 ,no memb] ( ! true rh9oc]os s]ies has yet be5 id5tifi$ 9 ! ,u9ta1 b !re is "s reason to ?9k t !y 7 nev]!less pres5t4 ,tapirs are di/9ctly indicat$ by c]ta9 fossils1 b !y are /ill too incompletely kn[n to make possible any /atem5t z to _! degree ( developm5t4 ,! horses 7,epihippus71 l ! o!r families m5tion$1 7 mu* small] & di/9ctly m primitive ?an _! successors 9 ! ,oligoc5e4 ,! ,artiodactyla 71 = ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z num]\s & z v>i$ z ! p]issodactyls &1 ) ! exception ( ! pecc>ies & an?raco!res1 repres5tatives ( all ! ,:ite ,riv] families are kn[n4 ,! f9d+ ( ! pecc>ies is m]ely a "q ( fur!r exploration1 b ! an?raco!res 7 migrants f ! ,old ,_w1 & !re is no likelihood t !y w be discov]$ 9 ! ,u9ta at any future "t4 ,fairly l>ge1 pig-l animals1 probably ref]able to ! giant-pigs or entelodonts1 occurr$1 b no?+ has yet be5 f\nd :i* c be consid]$ z ! direct ance/or ( ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us4 ,z 0 true ( ! p]issodactyls1 ! ,u9ta artiodactyls 7 ne>ly all mu* small] & m primitive ?an _! ,oligoc5e desc5dants & ! diff]5ces are mo/ int]e/+ f ! evolution>y po9t ( view4 ,! ance/ral camel 7,protylopus7 0 a little creature no bigg] ?an a fox-t]ri]1 ?\gh ! hyp]tragulids 7,leptotragulus7 7 z l>ge z ,leptom]yx & ,hyp]tragulus ( ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,! mo/ anci5t kn[n memb]s ( ! oreodonts 7,protoreodon7 & ! agrio*rids 7,protagrio*rus7 are f\nd 9 ! ,u9ta4 ,! middle ,eoc5e fauna1 ,bridg] /age1 ?\gh x pass$ upw>d v gradually into t ( ! ,u9ta1 0 yet1 on ! :ole1 v diff]5t f ! latt]4 ,x 0 exclusively indig5\s & s radically di/9ct f ! mammals ( correspond+ date 9 ,europe z to preclude ! possibility ( a l&-bridge ) t cont95t4 ,9 ! l[] ,eoc5e1 z w be %[n 9 a subsequ5t page1 ! communication betwe5 ! two cont95ts 0 broadly op5 & ! faunas ( ! two cont95ts 7 mu* m closely simil> ?an !y h ev] be5 s9ce4 ,x is really rem>kable to see ) :at comp>ative rapidity ! two regions1 :5 sev]$1 develop$ diff]5t mammals "u ! op]ation ( div]g5t evolution4 ,_h ! sep>ation cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y p]iods1 ,nor? ,am]ica w\ld n[ h be5 z peculi> zologically z ,s\? ,am]ica is1 a result :i* has be5 prev5t$ by ! repeat$ r5ewal ( ! connection4 ,! *>act]i/ic features ( ! ,bridg] mammalian fauna 7 *iefly due to ! great expansion & div]sification ( c]ta9 families1 :i* began _! c>e] at an e>li] /age1 & to ! disappe>ance ( _m ar*aic gr\ps :i* _h m>k$ ! m anci5t faunas4 ,o!r ar*aic gr\ps1 h[ev]1 surviv$ & ev5 fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,bridg]1 & ( ^! x is p>ticul>ly difficult to convey a correct notion to ! read]1 because !y 7 s utt]ly unlike any?+ t n[ lives4 ,"o ( ^! ord]s1 ! ,tniodontia1 :i* _h s _m po9ts ( resemblance to ! gr\nd-slo?s t sev]al writ]s h n hesitat$ to include !m 9 ! ,ed5tata1 surviv$ only into ! old] ,bridg]1 b ! equally problematical ,tillodontia !n rea*$ _! culm9ation1 ?\gh !y 7 n v num]\s4 ,?\gh n at all relat$ to t gr\p1 ! tillodonts look$ l huge rod5ts1 ) _! *isel-l incisor tee?4 ,!re 0 a rem>kable assemblage ( ,insectivora1 m num]\s & v>i$ ?an 9 any subsequ5t =mation1 no less ?an six families be+ kn[n4 ,"o ( ^! some:at d\btfully repres5t$ ! moles & two o!rs mod]n ,asiatic gr\ps4 ,! v unexpect$ discov]y ( an armadillo 9 ! ,bridg] has be5 report$1 b ! propriety ( ref]r+ ?is animal to ! armadillos1 or ev5 to ! ed5tates1 has n yet be5 prov$1 & x w\ld !re=e be premature to discuss its significance4 ,! only m>supials 7 opossums4 ,s f> z our in=mation ext5ds1 !re 7 no true ,c>nivora 9 ! ,bridg]1 all ! bea/s ( prey ( ! "t belong+ to ! ar*aic ,creodonta1 :i* !n rea*$ _! maximum developm5t 9 numb]s & div]sity4 ,"o family 7,oxynid7 includ$ l>ge & p[]ful fle%-eat]s1 ) cat-l d5tition & %ort1 r\nd$1 lion-l heads1 long bodies & tails & %ort1 heavy limbs1 giv+ !m ! proportions ( ott]s4 ,ano!r 7! ,hynodontid7 compris$ small1 long-head$1 fox-l & weasel-l animals1 :i* d\btless prey$ ^u small mammals & birds4 ,a ?ird family 7,mesony*id7 0 made up ( mod]ate-siz$1 long-jaw$ creatures1 :i* mu/ h resembl$1 r remotely1 %ort-legg$ & long-tail$ wolves & hy5as4 ,_! habits & mode ( life are some:at problematical1 = _! gr9d+ tee? 7 blunt1 n adapt$ to ! %e>+ ( fle%1 & _! claws 7 broad1 almo/ ho(-l4 ,su* creatures c\ld h>dly h subsi/$ by ! pursuit ( liv+ prey & 7 probably c>rion-fe$]s & m or less omnivor\s4 ,! ,miacid1 a family :i* connect$ ! creodonts & true c>nivores & might almo/ equally well be plac$ 9 ei!r gr\p1 7 ext]nally mu* l ! small hynodonts1 b 7 m effici5tly equipp$ = ! capture & dev\r+ ( prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,a mesony*id creodont 7,dromocyon velox7 ( ! ,bridg] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,museum ( ,yale ,univ]sity4 ,( ! ar*aic & ext9ct ord]s ( ho($ animals1 ! only "o :i* p]si/$ f e>li] times into ! ,bridg] & greatly fl\ri%$ !re 0 ! ,amblypoda1 "o family ( :i* 7,u9ta!riid7 0 prem95tly *>act]i/ic ( middle ,eoc5e life1 becom+ v r>e & !n dy+ out 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e4 ,! u9ta!res ( ! ,bridg] und]w5t consid]able modification 9 size & appe>ance )9 ! limits ( ! /age1 ! l>g] & /rang] species appe>+ t[>d ! end ( ! "t4 ,mo/ ( ^! great creatures may fairly be call$ gigantic1 = !y equall$ ! l>ge/ mod]n rh9oc]oses & small] elephants 9 size4 ,! body1 limbs & feet 7 s elephant9e 9 "* t !y 7 once believ$ to be ance/ral ,proboscidea1 b ! tee? & ! fanta/ic skull 7 s radically diff]5t t ?is belief 0 long ago ab&on$4 ,! upp] can9e tee? 7 conv]t$1 9 ! males1 into =midable spe>-l or scimit>-l tusks1 protect$ by great flange-%ap$ expansions ( ! l[] jaw2 bony knobs on ! end ( ! nose probably support$ a pair ( d]mal horns l ^? ( a rh9oc]os &1 9 addition1 a pair ( high1 cyl9drical1 horn-l1 bony protub]ances arose above ! eyes & ano!r1 m massive pair1 ne> ! back ( ! head4 ,x w\ld be difficult to imag9e m extraord9>y creatures ?an ! u9ta!res1 :i* 7 ! l>ge/ l&-mammals ( _! "t4 ,! family 0 entirely conf9$ to ,nor? ,am]ica1 no trace ( !m hav+ be5 f\nd 9 any o!r cont95t4 ,:ile ! backw>d & ar*aic ord]s1 mo/ ( :i* h left no desc5dants 9 ! mod]n _w1 _h ?us a /ately repres5tation 9 ,bridg] times1 !y 7 outnumb]$ 9 g5]a1 species & individuals by ! progressive ord]s1 :i* are /ill 9 m or less fl\ri%+ exi/5ce4 ,! ,primates1 :e!r lemurs or monkeys1 7 num]\s1 & ?is1 s f> z is def9itely kn[n1 0 _! la/ appe>ance 9 extra-tropical ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,!y may at any "t be f\nd 9 ! ,u9ta1 b !re is small probability t !y w ev] turn up 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] or lat] =mations4 ,! _m rod5ts all belong$ to ! is*yromyids1 an ext9ct family :i*1 !re is mu* reason to believe1 0 ance/ral to _m families ( ! squirrel-l subord] ( ,sciuromorpha4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 species ( a s+le g5us 7,p>amys7 & v>i$ 9 size f a m\se to a beav]1 or ev5 l>g]4 ,! ,p]issodactyla may be said1 9 "o s5se1 to h rea*$ _! culm9ation 9 ! ,bridg]2 n t _m ( !m1 su* z ! horses & rh9oc]oses1 did n advance f> beyond _! /ate ( developm5t 9 ! ,eoc5e1 b at no subsequ5t "t did ! ord] z a :ole possess su* dom9at+ importance4 ,!re 7 five or six families ( p]issodactyls 9 ! ,bridg]1 & _! rema9s are mu* ! mo/ abundant fossils f\nd !re4 ,individually1 ! commone/ p]issodactyls ( ! "t 7 ! titano!res1 ( :i* !re 7 sev]al g5]a & _m species1 diff]+ *iefly 9 size & proportions1 ?\gh ! l>ge/ h>dly exce$$ a mod]n tapir 9 /ature & 0 n dissimil> 9 appe>ance4 ,^! ,bridg] titano!res 7 consid]ably small] ?an ^? ( ! ,u9ta & !re=e v mu* m s ?an ! ,:ite ,riv] =ms2 x 0 n till ! latt] /age t ! family liv$ up to its "n ( 8titanic bea/s40 ,by f> ! commone/ ( ! g5]a 9 ! middle & l[] ,bridg] 0 ,palosyops1 :i* 0 hornless1 :ile 9 ! upp] "p ( ! b$s are f\nd g5]a 7e4g4 ,manteoc]as & ,doli*orh9us7 9 :i* ! horns 7 j beg9n+ to appe>4 ,ano!r ext9ct family1 ! ,lophiodontid1 :i* 0 v abundant 9 ! ,european ,eoc5e1 =m$ a v subord9ate elem5t 9 ?is fauna & includ$ a numb] ( small tapiroid g5]a 7e4g4 ,helaletes74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,"s *>act]i/ic mammals ( ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e r$uc$ to a uni=m scale1 ) a po9t] dog1 9 frame1 = comp>ison4 #a4 ,primitive rh9oc]os 7,hyra*yus eximius74 #b4 ,tritemnodon agilis4 #c4 ,patri(elis f]ox1 & #d1 ,dromocyon velox1 creodonts4 #e4 ,primitive rod5t 7,p>amys delicatior74 #f4 ,u9ta!rium alticeps4 #g4 ,titano!re 7,mesatirh9us sup]ior74 ,! horses 7,orohippus7 7 v small & primitive creatures1 no bigg] ?an a fox1 ) f\r toes 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d4 ,s completely diff]5t 9 appe>ance & proportions 7 ^! little animals f any ( ! mod]n horses1 t x requires an ef=t ( ! imag9ation to ?9k ( !m z belong+ to ! same family1 & x is only by employ+ ! family to designate a g5etic s]ies t su* a classification c be ju/ifi$4 ,! hyracodonts1 or cursorial rh9oc]oses1 7 v abundantly repres5t$ by a numb] ( small & m$ium-siz$ animals 7,hyra*yus7 :i* _h less specializ$ tee?1 %ort] neck & limbs ?an _! upp] ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e successors1 & f\r toes 9 ! front foot2 "o g5us 7,colonoc]as7 _h a pair ( nasal horns1 b w\ld seem to h di$ out )\t leav+ desc5dants4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! b$s is f\nd ! ,u9ta g5us ,triplopus1 ) ?ree-to$ =e foot2 & 9 ! same division occurs ano!r ,u9ta g5us1 ,amynodon1 ! mo/ anci5t kn[n species ( ! suppos$ly aquatic rh9oc]oses4 ,true rh9oc]oses1 t is animals :i* 7 directly ance/ral to ! mod]n memb]s ( ! family1 h n be5 id5tifi$ & may n h be5 pres5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 t is /ill an op5 "q4 ,tapirs1 all ( !m q small1 7 relatively common1 b are /ill v incompletely kn[n4 ,! e>lie/ kn[n memb]s ( ! claw$ *alico!res 7 ( ,bridg] date4 ,x is wor? rem>k+ t1 except a s+le g5us 9 ! upp] & lat] portion ( ! /age 7,triplopus71 all ( ! ,bridg] p]issodactyls _h f\r toes 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d1 :ile 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s above ! l[e/ sub/age ! numb] ?ree 9 bo? =e & h9d feet 0 almo/ equally univ]sal4 ,"o ( ! mo/ radical & /rik+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,u9ta & ,bridg] faunas 0 ! r>ity ( ,artiodactyla 9 ! latt]1 :i* is 9 almo/ equally /rong contra/ ) _! abundance 9 ! middle ,eoc5e ( ,europe4 ,mo/ significant ( ^! r>e ,bridg] artiodactyls 7 ! little creatures 7,homacodon71 h>dly s l>ge z a dome/ic cat1 :i* may fairly be reg>d$ z a v e>ly /age1 if n ! actual beg9n+1 ( ! great camel family1 :i* 0 de/9$ to play s conspicu\s a "p 9 ! life ( ,am]ica1 ,nor? & ,s\?4 ,small pig-l animals 7,helohyus7 :i* 7 no d\bt ance/ral to ! pecc>ies1 7 fairly common & !re 71 9 addition1 relatively l>ge animals 7,a*nodon7 alli$1 b n ance/ral1 to ! giant-pigs ( ! ,oligoc5e2 "s ( ^! 7 consid]ably l>g] ?an a full-gr[n ,wild ,bo> 7,sus scr(a74 ,among all ! _m ho($ mammals ( ! ,u9ta & ,bridg] !re 0 n a s+le "o t _h ! high-cr[n$1 p]si/5tly gr[+ tee? ( ! graz]s2 all ( !m mu/ h _h br[s+ habits & h f$ ^u su* s(t vegetable tissue z did n rapidly abrade ! tee?4 ,! same /atem5t applies1 =tiori1 to ! /ages antec$5t to ! ,bridg] & !re=e to ! entire ,eoc5e & ,paleoc5e4 ,f ^! facts x may be inf]r$ t ! grasses _h n yet tak5 possession ( wide areas4 ,conc]n+ ! ,bridg] fauna1 ,pr(essor ,osborn1 :o has done s mu* to elucidate x1 says3 8,on ! :ole1 x is a v impos+1 div]sifi$ & well-balanc$ fauna1 ) an equal di/ribution ( arboreal1 cursorial1 aquatic1 fossorial1 c>nivor\s & h]bivor\s types40 ,! l[] ,eoc5e is divisible into two /ages1 9 desc5d+ ord]1 ! ,w9d ,riv] & ,wasat*1 bo? ext5sively expos$ 9 c5tral ,wyom+4 ,z w\ld be expect$ f its /ratigraphical position1 ! ,w9d ,riv] fauna 0 l>gely transitional betwe5 t ( ! ,bridg] above & t ( ! ,wasat* bel[4 ,un=tunately1 ! fossils are f> less num]\s ?an ^? ( ! ,bridg] & n s well pres]v$1 & !re=e give u a less adequate conception ( ! life ( t "t4 ,! ar*aic1 non-progressive ord]s 7 /rongly repres5t$1 b already ! progressive gr\ps 7 9 a num]ical majority ( species2 mo/ ( ^! ar*aic ord]s may be mo/ advantage\sly describ$ 9 connection ) ! ,wasat*4 ,opossums 7 almo/ c]ta9ly pres5t1 ?\gh ! available specim5s are too fragm5t>y = assur$ det]m9ation4 ,! tillodonts1 tniodonts & insectivores diff]$ little f ! ,wasat* repres5tatives ( ^! ord]s1 except t ! ,bridg] tniodont1 ,/yl9odon1 :i* _h rootless1 p]si/5tly gr[+ tee?1 0 associat$ ) ! ,wasat* g5us ,calamodon4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! primitive fle%-eat]s1 or creodonts1 :i* 7 ref]able to ,wasat* families1 7 less num]\s & v>i$ & =m$ a mixture ( ,bridg] & ,wasat* g5]a4 ,! ,oxynid1 ! family ) cat-l tee? & head1 _h bo? ! small] ,wasat* g5us ,oxyna & ! v l>ge ,bridge ,patri(elis4 ,( ! blunt-too!d ,mesony*id1 "o v l>ge animal 7,pa*yna7 surviv$ f ! ,wasat*4 ,! small =ms ( ! family ,hynodontid 7 common1 & !re 7 num]\s species ( ! progressive family ,miacid4 ,among ! ho($ animals !re 7 two ( ! antique ord]s :i* became ext9ct be=e ! end ( ! ,eoc5e1 inde$1 "o ( ^! gr\ps1 ! ,condyl>?ra1 made its la/ appe>ance 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]4 ,?is extremely primitive gr\p1 :i*1 9 a s5se1 connect$ ! ho($ ) ! claw$ mammals1 w be describ$ "u ! m anci5t faunas4 ,! o!r ord]1 ! ,amblypoda1 0 repres5t$ by two v diff]5t families1 "o ( :i*1 ! u9ta!res1 0 s fl\ri%+ 9 ! ,bridg]1 :]e x =m$ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & by f> ! mo/ /rik+ elem5t ( ! fauna4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] g5us 7,ba?yopsis7 0 a v mu* small] animal ?an any ( ! ,bridg] =ms & its horn-l protub]ances 7 9 an incipi5t /ate1 :ile 9 v>i\s o!r respects x 0 decid$ly m primitive ?an its successors4 ,! second family 0 repres5t$ by ! g5us ,coryphodon1 :i* did n survive into ! ,bridg]1 b 0 especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,wasat* fauna1 ) :i* x w be describ$4 ,turn+ n[ to ! progressive ord]s1 we note t ! rod5ts1 lemurs & monkeys 7 v simil> to ^? ( ! ,bridg] & belong$ to ! same families1 b 7 decid$ly less num]\s4 ,?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 may be r app>5t ?an real & due to ! mu* m fav\rable conditions = ! pres]vation ( small mammals 9 ! middle ,eoc5e4 ,among ! ,p]issodactyla1 ! horses 7 int]m$iate 9 size & /ructure betwe5 ^? ( ! ,bridg] & ^? ( ! ,wasat*1 b 7 decid$ly ne>] to ! latt]4 ,! lophiodonts1 s f> z kn[n1 7 repres5t$ by a s+le g5us 7,heptodon7 :i* also occurr$ 9 ! ,wasat*4 ,! mode/ beg9n+s ( ! titano!res1 ! family :i* became s v conspicu\s 9 ! middle & upp] ,eoc5e & l[e/ ,oligoc5e1 may be not$ 9 ! ,w9d ,riv] fauna1 9 :i* !re 7 two g5]a4 ,"o ( ^! 7,eotitanops71 ! v probable ance/or ( all ! subsequ5t g5]a1 0 q small1 ab\t two-?irds ! size ( a mod]n tapir1 :ile ! o!r 7,lambdo!rium7 0 a mu* small]1 light] & m sl5d] animal & app>5tly belong$ to an abortive1 %ort-liv$ phylum4 ,!n1 too1 ! fir/ ( ! hyracodonts1 or cursorial rh9oc]oses1 made _! appe>ance "h 9 ! g5us ,hyra*yus1 :i* 0 aft]w>d s common 9 ! ,bridg]4 ,no ,artiodactyla h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]1 ?\gh !re c be little d\bt t !y !n inhabit$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 z !y did bo? be=e & aft]w>d4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] fauna 0 ( s mu* less peculi> & isolat$ "* ?an t ( ! ,bridg] z to sugge/ a connection ) ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 a sugge/ion :i* is /r5g!n$ by ! unh]ald$ appe>ance ( ! titano!res & hyracodonts1 ( :i* no =]unn]s h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,wasat*4 ,! l[e/ & mo/ anci5t ( ! ,eoc5e faunas is t ( ! ,wasat* =mation1 :i* is ext5sively develop$ 9 c5tral & s\!rn ,wyom+1 ,utah & ,new ,mexico4 ,! fauna ( ?is /age is pla9ly divisible into two gr\ps3 7#a7 ^? types :i* 7 ! desc5dants ( ,am]ican ,paleoc5e mammals & 7 !re=e indig5\s1 & 7#b7 ! immigrants f o!r cont95ts4 ,! indig5\s mammals1 :i* almo/ all belong$ to ord]s n[ ext9ct1 few ( :i* surviv$ lat] ?an ! ,eoc5e1 mu/ h giv5 a v biz>re appe>ance to ! assemblage1 especially z !y 7 m num]\s1 v>i$ &1 = ! mo/ "p1 l>g] & m conspicu\s ?an ! newcom]s4 ,m>supials h n yet be5 f\nd1 b ! occurr5ce ( opossums 9 ! ,bridg] & probably 9 ! ,w9d ,riv] gives "s reason to believe t !y 7 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ,wasat* times also4 ,! ,tniodontia1 :i* bore a c]ta9 resemblance to ,s\? ,am]ican ed5tates1 _h "o pair ( incisor tee? above & bel[ enl>g$ & *isel-%ap$1 some:at l ^? ( rod5ts4 ,! ,tillodontia 7 mu* small] ?an ^? ( ! ,bridg]1 & _! incisors 7 only beg9n+ to take on ! *isel-l =m4 ,insectivora 7 q abundant1 & ?ree1 or p]haps f\r1 families 7 repres5t$ 9 ! ,wasat*2 "s ( ^! resembl$ ! mod]n aquatic insectivores ( ! we/ ,african riv]s & o!rs 7 m l ,european h$gehogs4 ,! fle%-eat]s all belong$ to ! ,creodonta1 &1 ?\gh r less div]sifi$ ?an ^? ( ! ,bridg]1 7 yet relatively abundant4 ,9 size1 !y rang$ f little creatures n l>g] ?an a weasel up to truly enorm\s bea/s1 & diff]$1 no d\bt1 l>gely 9 habits & mann] ( life4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ! families 7 ! same z ^? ( ! ,bridg] creodonts1 b ! g5]a all 7 diff]5t4 ,! oxynids 7,oxyna7 7 mu* small] & light] ?an ! l>ge & massive repres5tatives f\nd 9 ! middle ,eoc5e1 & _! tee? 7 n s cat-l4 ,ano!r gr\p ( pr$ace\s animals 7,palonictis7 :i* also inhabit$ ,europe1 b did n survive ! l[] ,eoc5e 9 ei!r cont95t1 _h %ort1 broad & v cat-l heads4 ,! mesony*ids 7 f> l>g] ?an ^? ( ! ,bridg]1 a dep>ture f ! ord9>y rule1 & ! sev]al species ( ! common ,wasat* g5us 7,pa*yna7 _h grotesquely l>ge heads4 ,a family 7,arctocyonid71 ( v ext5sive geographical range & great antiquity1 _h its la/ repres5tatives "h 9 a v curi\s animal 7,anacodon7 :i* _h ! flat-cr[n$1 tub]culat$ gr9d+ tee? ( ! be>s & ! enl>g$1 scimit>-l upp] can9es ( ! sabre-too? cats4 ,su* a comb9ation seems utt]ly incongru\s & no "o w\ld h v5tur$ to pr$ict x4 ,! progressive family ( creodonts 7,miacid7 0 already q num]\sly repres5t$1 b only by small =ms1 :i* mu/ h prey$ ^u small mammals1 birds & liz>ds4 ,two ar*aic ord]s ( ho($ mammals 7 fairly num]\s4 ,"o1 ! ,condyl>?ra1 compris$ q small1 five-to$ animals1 ) long tails & %ort feet & extremely primitive 9 /ructure4 ,a g5us 7,ph5acodus7 ( ?is ord] 0 long reg>d$ z be+ ance/ral to mo/ ( ! high] ord]s ( ungulates1 b ?is belief has prov$ to be unt5able4 ,m num]\s 7 ! ,amblypoda1 "o g5us ( :i* 7,coryphodon71 ?\gh p]si/+ into ! ,w9d ,riv]1 0 especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,wasat*4 ,! coryphodonts 7 ! l>ge/ ( l[] ,eoc5e mammals1 & "s ( ! species equall$ a tapir or small rh9oc]os 9 l5g? & height1 b _h heavi] limbs2 z ! skeleton conclusively %[s1 ^! mu/ h be5 heavy1 clumsy & exceptionally ugly brutes1 ) =midable tusks1 l>ge head1 b relatively m sl5d] body1 %ort & massive limbs & elephant9e feet4 ,9 appe>ance1 ^! /range bea/s 7 n altoge!r unlike ! ,hippopotamus & 7 p]haps m or less amphibi\s 9 habits4 ,! o!r family ( ,amblypoda1 ! u9ta!res1 h n yet be5 regi/]$ f ! ,wasat*1 b !y w und\bt$ly be f\nd !re1 z !y 7 unque/ionably pres5t at t "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,ph5acodus primvus1 ! be/ kn[n ,wasat* repres5tative ( ! ,condyl>?ra4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,! commone/ ( ,wasat* ungulates1 ! amblypod1 ,coryphodon te/is4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,all ( ! prec$+ gr\ps 7 ( ! ar*aic1 non-progressive type & h long be5 ext9ct4 ,) ! sole exception ( "o creodont family 7,miacid7 & p]haps "s ( ! insectivores1 !y h no desc5dants or repres5tatives 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,all ( !m appe> to h be5 indig5\s & d]iv$ f ,nor? ,am]ican ance/ors1 ?\gh x is possible t a few 7 immigrants4 ,we n[ turn to ! ord]s :i* 7 m significant ( ! future1 because !y _h )9 !m ! pot5cy ( a f> high] developm5t4 ,^! progressive gr\ps 7 all immigrants1 com+ to ,nor? ,am]ica f "s region :i* _c yet be positively id5tifi$1 b mo/ probably 0 ,asia4 ,f ! same region & at a correspond+ p]iod ( "t ,europe receiv$ _m ( ! same =ms1 & s _m g5]a 7 at t "t common to ! latt] cont95t & ,nor? ,am]ica t a broad & easy way ( int]migration mu/ h be5 op54 ,"o ( ^! immigrant ord]s1 ! ,rod5tia1 ! mo/ anci5t kn[n memb]s ( :i* 7 ^! species f ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,wasat*1 0 repres5t$ by ! same family 7,is*yromyid7 & "s ( ! same g5]a 7,p>amys1 ,sciuravus7 z ?rove also 9 ! ,bridg] /age4 ,!re 7 two ord]s ( ho($ mammals1 :i* 7 newcom]s to ! we/]n _w1 ,p]issodactyla & ,artiodactyla4 ,( ! =m] 0 a g5us 7,eohippus7 ( ! mo/ anci5t ,am]ican horses4 ,^! mo/ int]e/+ little animals1 no l>g] ?an small foxes & dome/ic cats1 w\ld h>dly be call$ horses1 7 x n = ! long s]ies ( gradual & successive modifications :i* l$ f ,eohippus up to ! mod]n horses4 ,! graceful little creatures _h a %ort neck1 curv$ back1 & relatively %ort1 sl5d] limbs1 ) f\r functional toes 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d2 &1 ?\gh !y diff]$ f exi/+ horses 9 almo/ e detail ( tee? & skeleton1 !re 0 some?+ unmi/akably equ9e ab\t !m4 ,f ! abundance ( _! rema9s x may be inf]r$ t h]ds ( !m sw>m$ 9 ! =e/s & glades ( ,wasat* times4 ,! second p]issodactyl family1 ! ,lophiodontid1 :i* compris$ consid]ably l>g] animals1 nev] atta9$ to importance 9 ,am]ica1 b fl\ri%$ & became greatly div]sifi$ 9 ,europe4 ,:at are believ$ to be ! mo/ anci5t tapirs yet discov]$ 7,sy/emodon7 7 individually v common 9 ! ,wasat*4 ,?is tapir 0 no l>g] ?an a ,coyote1 _h no proboscis & 0 s little l a tapir 9 outw>d appe>ance t an obs]v] might well be p>don$ = ov]look+ ! relation%ip2 ev5 ! skeleton is ( s indiff]5t a "* t ! ref]5ce ( ?is g5us to ! tapirs _c be positively made4 ,( equal significance = ! future 0 ! arrival ( ! ,artiodactyla1 ( :i* !re 7 memb]s ( ?ree families 9 ! ,wasat*1 ?\gh individually !y 7 mu* less common ?an ! horses4 ,^! 7 geologically ! olde/ kn[n artiodactyls1 ,europe hav+ yield$ none ( ?is date1 & are /ill too imp]fectly kn[n to ju/ify any v positive /atem5ts ab\t !m4 ,"o g5us1 h[ev] 7,trigonole/es71 t9y little creatures1 l rabbits 9 size1 w\ld seem to repres5t ! beg9n+s ( ! great rum9ant tribe1 n[ s v important a factor 9 ! life ( ! _w4 ,a second g5us 7,eohyus71 consid]ably l>g]1 is v d\btfully ref]able to ! pigs2 :ile a ?ird 7,p>ahyus71 /ill l>g]1 0 ! fir/ 9 ! %ort-fac$ s]ies ( ! entelodonts1 :i* p]si/$ 9 ev] increas+ size ?r\gh ! :ole ,eoc5e1 b c\ld h>dly h be5 ance/ral to ! true entelodonts1 or giant-pigs1 ( ! ,oligoc5e1 ! place & "t ( ^: orig9 are unkn[n4 ,ano!r immigrant ord] ( great int]e/1 s9ce we ourselves belong to x1 ! ,primates1 made its fir/ appe>ance 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! ,wasat*1 b 0 n de/9$ to long life or great importance 9 ?is cont95t1 :]e x did n survive ! ,eoc5e4 ,sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( small1 lemur-l & monkey-l creatures dwelt 9 ! tree-tops ( ! ,wasat* =e/s4 ,"o g5us 7,anaptomorphus7 _h a rem>kable lik5ess to ! mod]n ,t>si] 7,t>sius spectrum7 ( ! ,malay p59sula & isl&s4 ,s\? ,am]ica4--,! ,eoc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ref]r$ by "s writ]s to ! upp] ,cretace\s1 is v incompletely & unsatisfactorily kn[n4 ,! ,casa ,mayor =mation 7or ,noto/ylops ,b$s71 :i* has yield$ a great v>iety ( mammals1 = ! mo/ "p v fragm5t>y1 probably conta9s n "o b sev]al successive faunas :i* h n yet be5 fully discrim9at$1 & t ( ! next succe$+ ,a/raponotus ,b$s is /ill b a scanty li/4 ,?is li/1 h[ev]1 includes ! mo/ anci5t glyptodonts yet discov]$ & ! mo/ anci5t a/rapo!res 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! t]m4 ,! ,a/raponotus ,b$s may be ei!r ,eoc5e or ,oligoc5e 9 date4 ,tak+ ! ,casa ,mayor faunas z a :ole1 !y 7 a v num]\s & div]sifi$ assemblage ( small mammals1 )\t a s+le l>ge "o among !m4 ,!re 7 no monkeys or rod5ts2 o!rwise1 ! ord]s 7 9 almo/ all cases ! same z ^? :i* made up ! ,santa ,cruz fauna4 ,! m>supials 7 repres5t$ by ! opossums & by sev]al ( ! c>nivor\s k9ds1 ! only bea/s ( prey t ,s\? ,am]ica _h until ! migrations f ! nor? br\ght 9 ! true ,c>nivora1 late 9 ! ,mioc5e or v e>ly 9 ! ,plioc5e4 ,!re 7 also num]\s small m>supials ( peculi> type1 ( :i* ! la/ liv+ survivor is ,cnole/es1 ( ,ecuador4 ,?r\gh\t ! /age1 armadillos 7 pres5t 9 consid]able v>iety1 b are kn[n only f ! bony plates ( ! c>apace1 & !re=e little c be det]m9$ z to _! relation%ips to ! mod]n families4 ,only a s+le & v problematical g5us ( ! gr\nd-slo?s1 :i* aft]w>ds ?rove s mightily 9 ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e1 has be5 obta9$ & t 9 ! lat] portion ( ! /age4 ,! ord]s ( ho($ mammals 7 repres5t$ by _m small animals1 mo/ ( :i* are kn[n only f ! tee?1 :i* %[ ^! ,casa ,mayor g5]a to h be5 f> m primitive & less specializ$ ?an _! desc5dants 9 ! ,deseado & ,santa ,cruz /ages4 ,all ( !m _h ! l[-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee? ( ! br[s]s1 & no graz]s 7 !n 9 exi/5ce1 s f> z is kn[n4 ,no toxodonts1 9 ! m re/rict$ s5se ( t t]m1 h be5 f\nd1 b ! two alli$ subord]s ( ! ,typo!ria & ,entelony*ia 7 num]\sly repres5t$4 ,( ! =m] !re 7 two families & ( ! latt] ?ree1 :i* is m ?an 9 ! ,deseado or ,santa ,cruz =mations4 ,"o ( ! families ( ! ,entelony*ia 7,noto/ylopid7 consi/$ ( v small1 rod5t-l animals1 ) a pair ( *isel-%ap$ incisors 9 upp] & l[] jaw1 & a second family 7,homalodonto!riid7 conta9$ g5]a :i* w\ld seem to h be5 directly ance/ral to ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 b 7 v mu* small] ?an _! successors4 ,! v l>ge & massive ,pyro!ria ( ! ,deseado /age 7 repres5t$ by small animals1 9 :i* ! gr9d+ tee? _h two pairs ( conical tub]cles1 n yet unit$ into transv]se cre/s4 ,two families ( ! a/rapo!res1 9 ! broad s5se1 7 f> small] ?an _! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e desc5dants4 ,to ! ,litopt]na are ref]r$ a numb] ( g5]a1 9 :i* ! gr9d+ tee? 7 tub]culat$ & _h v imp]fectly develop$ cre/s1 s z /rongly to sugge/ ! tee? ( ! ,condyl>?ra4 ,h[ev]1 until some?+ is asc]ta9$ reg>d+ ! skeleton1 especially ! feet1 ( ^! animals1 _! relation%ips w rema9 m or less d\btful4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ^! ,casa ,mayor faunas n only 7 made up exclusively ( small animals1 b also t !y already 7 typically & *>act]i/ically ,s\? ,am]ican & bore ! /amp :i* rema9$ ess5tially ! same until ! successive waves ( migration f ! nor? s greatly modifi$ ! composition ( ! ,neotropical fauna4 ,! abs5ce ( rod5ts & monkeys & ! comp>ative unimportance ( ! ,ed5tata gave a some:at diff]5t "* to ^! anci5t faunas f ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz & lat] =mations4 #e4 ,paleoc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4--,a v important discov]y is "o lately made by ,am]ican ,museum p>ties ( a =mation int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,wasat* & ,torrejon4 ,! int]e/+ fauna ( ^! b$s has n yet be5 describ$1 b x may be rem>k$ t x conta9$ none ( ! immigrant ord]s4 ,! vegetation ( ! ,paleoc5e 0 already v mod]n 9 "*1 & ne>ly all ( ! common =e/-trees 7 repres5t$ by species :i* diff]$ b slightly f ^? ( ! pres5t4 ,! grasses 7 already 9 exi/5ce1 b1 !re is good reason to believe1 !y _h n atta9$ to mu* importance & did n cov] ! pla9s & op5 spaces z !y did 9 ! ,mioc5e & /ill cont9ue to d4 ,z ! grasses af=d ! pr9cipal food-supply ( s _m graz+ animals1 ! matt] ( _! abundance & ext5sion is a v significant "o 9 ! hi/ory ( mammalian developm5t1 &1 z we h already le>n$1 ev5tually l$ to widespread & pr(\nd modifications ( /ructure1 especially ( ! tee?4 ,:ile !re is ?us no?+ v /range ab\t ! plant-_w ( ,paleoc5e times1 ! high] animal life 0 almo/ totally diff]5t f t ( mod]n times & made up a mo/ curi\s & biz>re assemblage1 f :i* ne>ly all ! famili> ,rec5t types 7 abs5t4 ,! reptiles _h be5 greatly impov]i%$ by ! _w-wide &1 z yet1 unexpla9$ de/ruction :i* ov]took !m at ! end ( ! ,mesozoic era1 b x is possible t 9 bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica a few ( ! huge ,d9osaurs surviv$ ! decimation ( ! class4 ,v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,paleoc5e 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe 7 l>ge1 liz>d-l reptiles1 alli$ to ! ,new ,zeal& ,tuat>a1 :ile crocodiles & tortoises ab\nd$2 snakes 7 pres5t1 b d n appe> to h be5 v common4 ,x is ! mammals :i* 7 ! /range/ elem5t ( ,paleoc5e life1 & our imag9>y obs]v] w\ld f9d no creature t he _h ev] se5 be=e4 ,! diff]5ce f mod]n mammalian life 0 n m]ely "o ( species1 g5]a or ev5 families1 b ( ord]s1 = only "o1 or at mo/ two1 ( ! ord]s n[ liv+ 7 !n to be f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & bo? ( ^! 7m>supials & insectivores7 7 primitive & ar*aic gr\ps1 :i* seem l belat$ survivals 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,!re 7 no rod5ts1 or true c>nivores1 no lemurs1 monkeys1 artiodactyls1 p]issodactyls or proboscideans4 ,9 ! ,torrejon1 or upp] ,paleoc5e1 !re 7 _m h]bivor\s m>supials1 ) v complex gr9d+ tee? & *isel-l incisors1 b no c>nivor\s or insectivor\s memb]s ( ! ord] h be5 f\nd4 ,insectivora 7 pres5t4 ,( ! creodonts1 or primitive fle%-eat]s1 !re 7 no less ?an five families2 ! be>-l ,arctocyonid1 :i* di$ out 9 ! ,wasat*1 7 q num]\s1 & ! problematical ,mesony*id 7 mu* small] & m primitive mammals ?an ^? ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,pass+ ov] two families :i* did n survive ! ,torrejon1 we may note ! fir/ ( ! ,miacid1 ! progressive family :i* l$ ev5tually to ! true ,c>nivora4 ,! ho($ animals all belong$ to ! ar*aic ,condyl>?ra & ,amblypoda2 ( ! =m] !re 7 _m g5]a & species ref]able to ?ree families1 "o ( :i* conta9$ ! =]unn]s ( ! ,wasat* ,ph5acodus4 ,! g5us ,pantolambda ( ! ,amblypoda may well h be5 ance/ral to bo? ! coryphodonts & ! u9ta!res ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,! ,torrejon =]unn] 7,pantolambda ba?modon7 ( ,coryphodon4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! ,pu]co fauna 0 mu* l t ( ! ,torrejon1 b ev5 less advanc$ & div]sifi$4 ,! h]bivor\s m>supials 7 m abundant1 & "s ( !m 7,polyma/odon7 l>g] ?an ^? ( ! ,torrejon2 ,insectivora may h be5 pres5t1 b ?is is d\btful4 ,! creodonts1 s f> z !y h be5 discov]$1 7 less num]\s1 v>i$ & specializ$ ?an ^? ( ! ,torrejon & includ$ b "o ( ! families :i* pass$ ov] into ! ,eoc5e4 ,! ,condyl>?ra 7 mu* less common & ! ,amblypoda b d\btfully repres5t$1 b ! ed5tate-l ,tniodontia 7 conspicu\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,head ( an allo!rian m>supial 7,polyma/odon taensis7 f ! ,pu]co /age4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,n only 7 ! ,paleoc5e faunas radically diff]5t f ! mammals ( our "t1 b !y c\ld n h be5 ance/ral to ! latt]1 be+ h>dly m ?an an advanc$ & div]sifi$ ,mesozoic assemblage4 ,x is true t "s ( its elem5ts1 su* z ! ,condyl>?ra1 ,amblypoda & ,creodonta1 develop$ greatly & play$ an important "p 9 ! life ( ! ,eoc5e1 b ( ^! only a few creodonts cont9u$ into ! ,oligoc5e & all became ext9ct )\t leav+ any desc5dants beh9d !m4 ,ano!r curi\s fact conc]n+ ! ,paleoc5e mammalian faunas is t !y 7 made up entirely ( small & v small animals2 n a s+le mammal z l>ge z a %eep has yet be5 f\nd 9 ^! b$s1 & ! same is true ( ,europe4 ,t a l&-connection ) ! ,old ,_w exi/$ dur+ ! ,paleoc5e epo*1 is indicat$ by ! simil>ity ( ! faunas ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,p]issodactyla ,9 attempt+ to trace ! evolution>y hi/ory ( ! v>i\s mammalian gr\ps1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d ! inevitable limitations ( "w ( ?is k9d4 ,speak+ ( plants1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,h4 ,scott says3 8,our ideas ( ! c\rse ( desc5t mu/ ( necessity be diagrammatic2 ! process1 z x actually w5t on1 dur+ ages ( inconceivable duration1 0 d\btless inf9itely too complex = ! m9d to grasp1 ev5 7 ! :ole evid5ce ly+ op5 be=e u4 ,we see an illu/ration1 on a small scale1 ( ! complexity ( ! problem1 9 ! case ( dome/icat$ =ms1 evolv$ "u ! influ5ce ( man4 ,?\gh we "k t our cultivat$ plants1 = in/ance1 h be5 develop$ f wild species )9 ! human p]iod1 & (t5 )9 q rec5t ye>s1 yet no?+ is m difficult ?an to trace1 9 any giv5 in/ance1 ! true hi/ory ( a field-crop or g>d5 plant1 or ev51 9 _m cases1 to fix its orig9 ) c]ta9ty40#e ,) "s mammalian gr\ps ! task1 ?\gh difficult en\gh1 is n s hopeless1 because ( m complete records1 yet 9 deal+ ) mammals a v tr\blesome complication is introduc$ by ! exi/5ce )9 ! families1 & ev5 )9 ! g5]a1 ( two or m p>allel phyla1 or g5etic s]ies4 ,)\t complete & p]fect mat]ial x is impossible to make sure t we are n confus+ ! diff]5t phyla ) "o ano!r & plac+ 9 "o s]ies species & g5]a t prop]ly belong 9 a diff]5t "o4 ,?us1 ,osborn di/+ui%es no less ?an sev5 su* phyla among ! true rh9oc]oses ( ! ,old & ,new ,worlds1 :i* long foll[$ p>allel1 b q indep5d5t1 c\rses ( developm5t1 & five phyla among ! ,am]ican horses4 ,:ile ^! phyla add s mu* to ! difficulty ( work+ out ! g5ealogical s]ies1 x is possible to simplify ! problem & treat x 9 a broad & compreh5sive mann] t w suffici5tly e/abli% ! ess5tial /eps ( *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,left manus ( ,tapir 7,tapirus t]re/ris74 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,pis41 pisi=m4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,un41 unci=m4 ,! metac>pals are errone\sly numb]$4 ,mc4 ,i41 second metac>pal4 ,mc4 ,,ii41 ?ird d4 ,mc4 ,,iii41 f\r? d4 ,mc4 ,,iv41 fif? d4 ,ph4 #a1 fir/ phalanx4 ,ph4 #b1 second d4 ,ung41 ungual phalanx4 ,9 ext]nal appe>ance & g5]al proportions ! diff]5t families ( exi/+ p]issodactyls h v little 9 common2 t tapirs & rh9oc]oses %\ld be relat$ is n surpris+1 b ! horses w\ld seem to be z f> remov$ f bo? ( ! =m] z possible4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld !y be includ$ 9 ! same ord]8 ,a /udy ( ! skeleton1 h[ev]1 reveals ! community ( /ructure :i* obta9s betwe5 ! ?ree families1 a community :i* removes !m widely f all o!r ho($ mammals4 ,9 all exi/+ p]issodactyls1 ?\gh n 9 mo/ ( ! ,eoc5e g5]a1 all ! premol>s1 except ! fir/1 h ! size & patt]n ( ! mol>s4 ,! =am9a ( ! skull1 or p]=ations by :i* blood-vessels & n]ves ent] & leave ! cranium1 are arrang$ 9 a way *>act]i/ic ( ! ord] & diff]5t f t se5 9 o!r ho($ mammals4 ,! femur always has ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! numb] ( digits 9 ea* foot is usually odd1 #a1 #c or #e1 b f\r-to$ =ms occur1 z ! tapirs1 :i* h f\r toes 9 ! front foot1 ?ree 9 ! h9d2 ! important "* is t ! m$ian plane ( ! foot bisects ! ?ird digit1 :i* is symmetrical4 ,! ?ird & f\r?1 ea* asymmetrical1 toge!r =m a symmetrical pair4 ,especially *>act]i/ic is ! =m ( ! a/ragalus & calcaneum 7ankle & heel bones72 ! a/ragalus has b a s+le1 deeply groov$ & pulley-l surface1 t = ! tibia1 ! l[] end is ne>ly flat & re/s almo/ entirely ^u ! navicul>1 cov]+ b little ( ! cuboid 7see ,figs4 #adf1 #adh74 ,! calcaneum does n articulate ) ! fibula & its l[] end is broad & cov]s mo/ ( ! cuboid4 ,:ile ! =ego+ li/ includes ! mo/ important ( ! /ructural features :i* are common to all p]issodactyls & diff]5tiate !m f o!r ho($ animals1 !re are _m o!rs :i* x is ne$less to enum]ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,left pes ( ,tapir4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #a1 ,cn4 #b1 ,cn4 #c1 fir/1 second & ?ird cunei=ms4 ,mr4 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 second1 ?ird & f\r? metat>sals4 ,! subjo9$ table gives ! families & pr9cipal g5]a ( ! ,am]ican ,p]issodactyla2 ext9ct gr\ps are m>k$ 4 ,subord] ,,*elodactyla4 ,normal ,p]issodactyls ,i4 ,,equid4 ,horses4 ,eohippus1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,orohippus1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,epihippus1 up4 ,eoc4 ,mesohippus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,miohippus1 up4 ,oligo4 ,an*i!rium1 up4 ,oligo4 ,p>ahippus1 l[4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,desmatippus1 mid4 ,mioc4 ,hypohippus1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,m]y*ippus1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,protohippus1 up4 ,mioc4 ,pliohippus1 up4 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,neohipp>ion1 up4 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,hipp>ion1 ,plioc4 ,hippidion1 ,plei/41 ,s4 ,am]4 ,hyp]hippidium1 ,plei/41 ,s4 ,am4 ,equus1 ,plei/41 ,n4 & ,s4 ,am]4 ,,ii4 ,,titano!riid4 ,titano!res4 ,lambdo!rium1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,eotitanops1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,palosyops1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,telma!rium1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,doli*orh9us1 up4 ,eoc4 ,diplacodon1 up4 ,eoc4 ,titano!rium1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,,iii4 ,,tapirid4 ,tapirs4 ,sy/emodon1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,isectolophus1 mid4 & up4 ,eoc4 ,protapirus1 ,oligo4 ,tapiravus1 mid4 ,mioc4 ,tapirus1 ,plei/41 ,n4 ,am]41 ,plei/4 & ,rec5t1 ,s4 ,am]4 ,,iv4 ,,lophiodontid4 ,lophiodonts4 ,heptodon1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,helaletes1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,colodon1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,v4 ,,rh9oc]otid4 ,true ,rh9oc]oses4 ,trigonias1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,cnopus1 ,oligo4 & l[4 ,mioc4 ,dic]a!rium1 up4 ,oligo4 & l[4 ,mioc4 ,aphelops1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,teleoc]as1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,,vi4 ,,hyracodontid4 ,hyracodonts & ,amynodonts1 cursorial & aquatic ,rh9oc]oses4 ,hyra*yus1 l[4 & mid4 ,eoc4 ,triplopus1 mid4 & up4 ,eoc4 ,colonoc]as1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,hyracodon1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,amynodon1 up4 ,eoc4 ,metamynodon1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,subord] ,,ancylopoda4 ,claw$ ,p]issodactyls ,,vii4 ,,*alico!riid4 ,*alico!res4 ,moropus1 up4 ,oligo4 & l[4 ,mioc4 8,s*izo!rium1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,eomoropus1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,! e>lie/ p]issodactyls ( :i* we h any k are f\nd 9 ! old] "p ( ! l[] ,eoc5e 7,wasat* /age7 ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 into :i* !y mu/ h migrat$ f "s o!r region yet unkn[n1 = no probable ance/ors ( ! gr\p are f\nd 9 ! ,paleoc5e ( ei!r cont95t4 ,i4 ,,subord] ,,*elodactyla4 ,,normal ,,p]issodactyla4 #a4 ,equid4 ,horses ,9 ord] to make intelligible ! evolution>y *anges :i* h l$ up to ! mod]n horses1 x w be necess>y to say some?+ conc]n+ ! d5tal & skeletal features :i* *>act]ize ^! animals4 ,us+ ! t]m horses 9 a broad s5se to include all ! exi/+ memb]s ( ! family ,equid1 true horses1 asses1 zebras & quaggas1 we f9d a great] uni=mity 9 ! skeleton & tee? ?an w\ld be expect$ f ! ext]nal appe>ance4 ,! diff]5ces 9 appe>ance are1 h[ev]1 l>gely due to col\r+1 gr[? ( mane & tail & ! size ( ! e>s1 :i* leave no record 9 ! skeleton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,asiatic ,wild ,horse 7,equus przewalskii74--,by p]mission ( ! ,n4,y4 ,zolog4 ,soc4 ,! tee? 7,figs4 #de1 p4 #ie2 #aed1 p4 #cjf7 are extremely high-cr[n$1 or hypsodont1 & d n =m roots till an advanc$ age2 ! incisors h a deep1 enamel-l9$ pit1 ! 8m>k0 9 ! c5tre ( ! gr9d+ surface2 ! fir/ premol> 9 ea* jaw is v small & ( no functional importance2 ! o!r premol>s h ! same patt]n z ! mol>s1 :i* is excessively complex 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! enamel ridges & ! areas ( d5t9e & cem5t4 ,! skull 7,fig4 #aed1 p4 #cjf7 is long1 especially ! facial portion1 ! eye-socket 7orbit7 be+ %ift$ beh9d ! tee?1 :i* o!rwise1 on acc\nt ( _! great height1 w\ld press ^u ! eye itself2 ! orbit is completely encircl$ 9 bone4 ,! l[] jaw is deep v]tically & ! asc5d+ ramus 7see p4 #ff7 v high1 on acc\nt ( ! hypsodont "* ( ! tee?1 :i* ?us necessitates a remodell+ ( ! skull 9 sev]al respects4 ,! neck is long1 ea* ( its sev5 v]tebr be+ elongate2 except 9 ! atlas & axis1 ! ant]ior face ( ea* c5trum is /rongly convex & ! po/]ior ( all except ! atlas is deeply concave2 ! odontoid process ( ! axis 7see p4 #ga7 is sp\t-%ap$1 concave on ! upp] & convex on ! l[] side1 lodg+ & protect+ ! sp9al cord4 ,! sp9es ( ! ant]ior dorsal v]tebr are v high1 mak+ a l[ hump at ! )]s betwe5 ! %\ld]-blades2 ! trunk-v]tebr are s arrang$ z to make ! back almo/ /raight & horizontal4 ,! limbs & especially ! feet are v long4 ,! two bones ( ! =e-arm1 ! ulna & radius1 are cossifi$ into a s+le piece 7,fig4 #cj1 p4 #ha71 b ! limits ( ea* are /ill pla9ly to be se51 especially 9 a "y animal2 & x is evid5t t ! ulna is greatly r$uc$ 9 size & has lo/ its middle portion1 :ile all ! weight is borne by ! radius4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! h9d leg ! enl>g$ tibia1 or %9-bone1 alone supports ! weight2 & only ! two ends ( ! fibula are pres]v$ 7,fig4 #ch1 p4 #hg71 & ^! are indi/+ui%ably fus$ ) ! tibia 9 ! adult animal1 b may be made out 9 ! colt4 ,! ?igh-bone has a v *>act]i/ic %ape1 :i* is difficult to describe )\t an undue use ( te*nical t]ms1 b ! unusual prom95ce ( ! great tro*ant] 7,fig4 #ce1 p4 #he7 & ( ! rotul> groove is an important factor 9 produc+ ?is appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,left pes ( ,horse4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #c1 ?ird cunei=m4 ,mt4 ,,iii1 functional 7?ird7 metat>sal4 ,mt4 ,,ii & ,mt4 ,,iv1 spl9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,left manus ( ,horse1 front side2 to ! "r1 re> view ( ! metac>pus4 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,pis41 pisi=m4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,u41 unci=m4 ,mc4 ,,ii1 ,mc4 ,,iv1 rudim5t>y second & f\r? metac>pals1 or spl9ts4 ,! v long & sl5d] feet are s rais$ f ! gr\nd t ! animal walks ^u ! v tips ( ! toes1 ! wri/ be+ :at horsem5 call ! 8knee0 & ! heel is ! 8hock10 & ! gait is ?or\ghly unguligrade4 ,ea* foot has b a s+le functional toe1 ! ?ird or middle "o ( ! primitive five-to$ foot2 &1 z ?is toe has to c>ry ! :ole weight support$ by its leg1 x is necess>ily mu* l>g] ?an 9 animals :i* di/ribute ! weight among sev]al digits4 ,! horses are !re=e said to be monodactyl1 or s+le-to$1 b ! t]m is n /rictly accurate1 = on ea* side ( ! functional digit is a rudim5t>y or ve/igial "o1 ! #b;d & #d? ( ! orig9al five4 ,^! rudim5t>y digits1 :i* are n visible ext]nally1 h no phalanges & are m]ely 8spl9t-bones10 metapodials 7see p4 #ij7 :i* h v sl5d] %afts & end bel[ 9 blunt po9ts4 ,! s+le functional metapodial has encircl+ its l[] articul> end a prom95t ridge or keel1 :i* fits into a correspond+ groove on ! upp] end ( ! fir/ phalanx & s]ves to prev5t lat]al dislocation4 ,9 mo/ mammals ?is keel is m]ely a projection f ! l[] articul> surface & is conf9$ to ! po/]ior side1 s z n to be visible f ! front4 ,! t]m9al or ungual phalanx is mu* enl>g$ to c>ry ! great weight :i* x supports & is enclos$ 9 ! *>act]i/ic ho(1 unlike t ( any o!r mammal4 ,9 brief1 ! :ole /ructure ( ! horses is pre-em95tly adapt$ to swift runn+2 !y are admirable 8cursorial ma*9es10 z !y h be5 call$1 & e "p ( ! skeleton has be5 modifi$ & specializ$ to t end2 ! n>r[1 rigid ho(s fit !m = walk+ on firm gr\nd & !y spe$ily are made helpless 9 quicks& or bog4 ,did we "k no?+ ( _! mode ( life1 we might confid5tly inf] f _! tee? t ! horses 7 graz]s1 fe$+ pr9cipally ^u grass4 ,a long-legg$1 graz+ animal mu/ ne$s h a neck ( suffici5t l5g? to enable ! m\? to rea* ! gr\nd easily1 unless a long proboscis is develop$2 & s we %all f9d 9 ! hi/ory ( ! horses t ! elongation ( ! head & neck kept pace ) ! l5g!n+ ( ! legs & feet4 ,?\gh x c h>dly be d\bt$ t ! horses pass$ ?r\gh mo/ ( _! developm5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 yet ! imm$iate ance/ry ( all ! exi/+ species mu/ be s\ght 9 ! ,old ,_w1 none ( ! _m ,plei/oc5e species ( ! we/]n hemisph]e hav+ left any desc5dants4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica all ( ! kn[n ,plei/oc5e =ms belong$ to ! g5us ,equus1 b ! ,true ,horse1 ,e4 caballus1 0 n among !m4 ,! m abundant & important ( ^! species h be5 suffici5tly describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii 7p4 #aii72 x ne$ only be recall$ t !re 7 t5 or m di/9ct =ms1 rang+ 9 size f ! great ,e4 giganteus ( ,texas to ! m9ute ,e4 tau ( ,mexico1 :ile ! pla9s & =e/s 7 ! fe$+ gr\nds ( mod]ate-siz$ species1 ab\t #ad h&s high4 ,9 ! late/ ,plioc5e1 & no d\bt e>li]1 species ( ! mod]n g5us ,equus _h already come into exi/5ce2 & 9 association ) ^!1 at lea/ 9 ,florida1 7 ! la/ survivors ( ! ?ree-to$ horses :i* 7 s *>act]i/ic ( ! e>ly ,plioc5e & ! ,mioc5e4 ,h[ev]1 little is kn[n ab\t ^? e>lie/ record$ ,am]ican species ( ,equus1 = ! mat]ial s f> obta9$ is v fragm5t>y4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any ri*ly fossilif]\s b$s ( ! upp] ,plioc5e g5]ally1 !re is a pa9fully felt hiatus 9 ! g5ealogy ( ! horses2 & x is impossible to say1 f pres5t k1 :e!r all ( ! _m species ( horses :i* inhabit$ ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! ,plei/oc5e 7 auto*?on\s1 d]iv$ f a purely ,am]ican ance/ry1 or h[ l>ge a proportion ( !m 7 migrants f ! ,old ,_w1 com+ 9 :5 s _m ( ! ,plei/oc5e immigrants ( o!r gr\ps arriv$4 ,x is ev5 possible1 ?\gh n 9 ! lea/ likely1 t all ( ! native ,am]ican /ocks became ext9ct 9 ! upp] ,plioc5e & t ! ,plei/oc5e species 7 all immigrants f ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 or ! slightly modifi$ desc5dants ( su* immigrants2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is altoge!r probable t "s ( ^! num]\s species 7 intrud]s4 ,un=tunately we are 9 no position yet to di/+ui% ! native f ! =eign /ocks4 ,9 ! middle ,plioc5e1 :i* also has pres]v$ b a meagre & scanty record ( its mammalian life1 we aga9 meet ) horses 9 relative abundance1 b ( a f> m primitive type4 ,!y are /ill incompletely kn[n1 b x is cle> t !y belong$ to ?ree p>allel s]ies1 or phyla1 ( ?ree-to$ graz+ horses1 ) tee? :i*1 ?\gh high-cr[n$1 _h n atta9$ to ! extreme degree ( hypsodontism se5 9 ! species ( ,equus & _h a some:at less complex patt]n ( ! gr9d+ surface1 ?\gh di/9ctly =e%ad[+ ! mod]n degree ( complication4 ,"o ( ! g5]a 7,pliohippus7 0 n improbably ! ance/or ( a v peculi> horse 7,hippidion7 ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e4 ,^! middle ,plioc5e g5]a 7 mu* small] animals ?an ! ,plei/oc5e horses1 aside f ! pygmy species ( ! latt]1 ( light & m de]-l proportions1 & ) ?ree functional toes or digits4 ,! m$ian digit 7#c;d ( ! orig9al five7 0 mu* ! l>ge/ & c>ri$ mo/ ( ! weight1 on h>d gr\nd practically all ( x2 ! lat]al digits 7#b;d & #d?7 :i* 9 exi/+ horses are repres5t$ by ! rudim5t>y metapodials1 or 8spl9ts10 ?\gh mu* m sl5d] ?an ! m$ian digit1 yet _h ! complete numb] ( p>ts & ea* c>ri$ a small ho(4 ,m]e 8dew-claws0 z ^! lat]al toes 71 !y may h be5 ( s]vice 9 help+ to support ! weight 9 mud or sn[4 ,9 all p>ts ( ! skeleton !re are little details :i* %[ t ^! species ( ! middle ,plioc5e 7 n s advanc$ & diff]5tiat$ z are _! mod]n successors1 b x w\ld be unpr(itable to enum]ate ^! details1 :i* are ( int]e/ only to ! anatomi/4 ,9 ! l[] ,plioc5e ! horses 7 v mu* m num]\s & v>i$ ?an 9 ! middle portion ( ! epo*4 ,! same ?ree g5]a ( graz+ animals1 repres5t$ by less advanc$ & mod]niz$ species1 are f\nd2 &1 9 addition1 !re 0 an int]e/+ survival 7,m]y*ippus7 f ! middle ,mioc5e ( an int]m$iate type1 toge!r ) sev]al species ( br[s+ horses 7,p>ahippus & ,hypohippus74 ,9 ^! br[s+ =ms ! tee? 7 all l[-cr[n$ & e>ly =m$ _! roots1 & ! cr[ns 7 ei!r )\t cem5t or ) m]ely a ?9 film ( x 9 ! depressions ( ! gr9d+ surface4 ,! patt]n ( ! gr9d+ surface is s v mu* simpl] ?an 9 ! high-cr[n$1 prismatic tee? ( ! graz]s t x requires close analysis to detect ! fundam5tal id5tity ( plan4 ,su* tee? imply t _! possessors mu/ h f$ habitually ^u a s(t] & less abrasive diet ?an grass1 probably ! leaves & s(t %oots ( trees & bu%es & o!r succul5t vegetable sub/ances1 v mu* 9 ! fa%ion ( exi/+ de]1 & mu/ !re=e h be5 *iefly inhabitants ( ! woods & groves & ?ickets along /reams1 z ! graz+ species 7 ( ! pla9s & op5 spaces4 8,?is assemblage ( ! progressive & cons]vative types ( horses 0 c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ di/9ctive features ( ,l[] ,plioc5e "t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica0 7,osborn74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--,?ree-to$1 graz+ horse 7,neohipp>ion :itneyi7 ( ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f skeletons 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! upp] ,mioc5e v mu* ! same conditions prevail$ &1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! same g5]a ( horses1 ) diff]5t & some:at less advanc$ species1 7 f\nd z 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e1 s t no p>ticul> acc\nt ( !m is ne$$4 ,9 ! middle ,mioc5e1 h[ev]1 !re 0 a *ange1 ! typically graz+ horses be+ v r>e or abs5t & ^? ) int]m$iate =ms ( tee? tak+ _! place4 ,evid5tly1 x 0 ab\t ?is "t t ! horses ) m pla/ic organization & capable ( readju/m5t to radically diff]5t conditions began to take to ! graz+ habit1 :ile o!r phyla1 less capable ( advance1 reta9$ ! anci5t1 l[-cr[n$ type ( gr9d+ tee? &1 aft] p]si/+1 z we h se51 into ! l[] ,plioc5e1 became ext9ct be=e ! middle ( t epo*4 ,x is ( great int]e/ to obs]ve t 9 ! g5us 7,m]y*ippus7 int]m$iate betwe5 ! br[s+ & graz+ types1 ! milk-tee? reta9$ ! old] & m primitive "* ( l[ cr[ns )\t cov]+ ( cem5t1 :ile ! p]man5t gr9d]s _h mu* high]1 cem5t-cov]$ & complex cr[ns4 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 ! v>iety ( horses 0 mu* dim9i%$ & all _h ! l[-cr[n$1 cem5t-free1 br[s+ type ( tee?4 ,rev]s+ ! /atem5t1 we see t 9 ! middle & /ill m 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e ! primitive & m or less di/9ctly homog5e\s phylum bran*$ out into sev]al s]ies1 l a tree1 "s ( ! bran*es cont9u+ & fur!r subdivid+ ?r\gh ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e1 :ile o!rs1 less progressive & less adaptable1 und]w5t b little *ange & _h di$ out be=e ! middle ,plioc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--,skeleton ( ,neohipp>ion :itneyi1 ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! ,oligoc5e horses des]ve m p>ticul> att5tion1 = !y 7 almo/ ! half-way /age ( developm5t 9 ! long backw>d asc5t to ! e>lie/ kn[n memb]s ( ! family 9 ! l[] ,eoc5e4 ,we may pass ov] ! ,john ,day horses 7,miohippus71 :i* 7 some:at l>g] ?an ^? ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 b o!rwise v l !m1 m]ely not+ ! pres5ce ( a slightly diff]5t g5us 7,an*i!rium7 :i* 0 ! probable ance/or ( ,hypohippus & ! o!r non-progressive types ( ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e4 ,! g5us 7,mesohippus7 :i* *>act]izes ! ,:ite ,riv]1 or l[] ,oligoc5e1 0 a gr\p ( species ( diff]5t sizes1 becom+ small] z we g back 9 "t1 ! commone/ "o be+ consid]ably small] ?an a %eep & diff]+ m or less 9 all its p>ts f ! horses ( ! upp] ,mioc5e & all subsequ5t =mations4 ,! tee? 7 v l[-cr[n$ & fitt$ only = ! ma/ication ( s(t vegetable tissue2 b x is ( p>ticul> int]e/ to obs]ve ! beg9n+s ( ! 8m>k0 9 ! upp] incisors 9 ! =m ( a l[ enamel-ridge aris+ beh9d ! cutt+ edge ( ! too?2 ! l[] incisors /ill _h ! simple *isel-l cr[ns ( ! m anci5t g5]a2 all ! premol>s1 except ! fir/1 _h already acquir$ ! mol>-patt]n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,! small1 br[s+1 ?ree-to$1 %ort-neck$ horse 7,mesohippus bairdi7 ( ! middle ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! skull resembl$ t ( a v small mod]n horse1 b ) _m diff]5ces ( detail1 ! mo/ obvi\s ( :i* is ! %all[ness ( ! jaws1 = dep? 0 n ne$$ to c>ry ! v l[-cr[n$ tee?1 &1 = ! same reason1 ! asc5d+ ramus ( ! l[] jaw 0 %ort4 ,! face 0 relatively %ort & ! eye-socket1 :i* 0 incompletely surr\nd$ by bone1 0 directly above ! h9dmo/ tee?2 ! cranium 0 proportionately l>ge & capaci\s & ! bra91 z is %[n by ! ca/1 0 ri*ly convolut$4 ,! neck 0 relatively f> %ort] ?an 9 ! ,mioc5e g5]a1 ! ball-&-socket jo9ts betwe5 its successive v]tebr 7 less elaborat$ & ! odontoid process ( ! axis 0 9 ! fir/ /age ( assum+ ! sp\t-l =m1 be+ semicyl9drical1 ) convex l[] & flat upp] surface4 ,! trunk 0 proportionately long & ! back slop$ =w>d1 ow+ to ! great] l5g? ( ! h9d legs4 ,! limbs & feet 7 elongate & v sl5d]1 b ! =e-arm bones are only p>tially cossifi$1 & ! ulna1 ?\gh greatly att5uat$1 0 /ill complete4 ,! same is true ( ! bones ( ! l[] leg2 ! %aft ( ! fibula 0 h>dly m ?an a ?read ( bone1 b its full l5g? 0 pres]v$4 ,9 ! =e foot !re 7 ?ree functional digits1 ! m$ian "o enl>g$ & support+ mo/ ( ! weight1 b its ho( 0 mu* ?9n] & flatt] ?an 9 ! correspond+ digit 9 ! ,mioc5e & subsequ5t g5]a2 ! lat]al digits t\*$ ! gr\nd & 7 n entirely functionless &1 9 addition1 !re 0 a small spl9t1 ! rudim5t ( ! fif? digit4 ,! h9d foot 0 ?ree-to$1 )\t spl9t4 ,! little ,u9ta horse 7,epihippus7 is /ill v incompletely kn[n1 b gives u "o po9t at lea/ ( great] primitiv5ess ?an ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us 9 t only ! la/ two premol>s _h tak5 on ! mol>-patt]n1 ! =w>d two be+ small] & simpl]4 ,! kn[n species ( ! ,u9ta g5us 0 v mu* small] ?an any ( ! ,:ite ,riv] =ms & ev5 small] ?an "s ( ^? ( ! prec$+ ,bridg] =mation2 b x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! ,u9ta has be5 b p>tially explor$ & mu* rema9s to be le>n$ reg>d+ its fauna4 ,! ,bridg] horses are =tunately mu* bett] kn[n4 ,!re are sev]al species ( ! g5us ,orohippus1 :i* =m a connect$ & progressive s]ies2 &1 ?\gh mu* small] ?an ! smalle/ & olde/ ( ! ,:ite ,riv] =ms1 !y 7 some:at l>g] ?an ! kn[n repres5tative ( ! ,u9ta1 ,epihippus1 b di/9ctly m primitive 9 all o!r respects4 ,! incisors 7 simple cutt+ tee?1 ) no trace ( ev5 an incipi5t 8m>k10 & only "o premol> 9 ea* jaw1 ! h9dmo/ "o1 _h tak5 on ! mol>-patt]n4 ,! orbit 0 f>!r =w>d 9 ! skull & less enclos$ beh9d ?an 9 ,mesohippus1 ! cranium n>r[] & less capaci\s2 ! neck 0 ev5 %ort] & ! odontoid process ( ! axis /ill reta9$ ! primitive peg-l =m4 ,! limbs & feet 7 conspicu\sly %ort] 9 proportion ?an ^? ( ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us2 ! ulna & fibula 7 /\t] & less r$uc$ & entirely sep>ate f ! radius & tibia respectively4 ,! front foot _h f\r functional toes2 ! fif? digit1 :i* 9 ,mesohippus _h be5 r$uc$ to a spl9t1 0 completely develop$ 9 ! ,bridg] horses1 b ! h9d foot 0 ?ree-to$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,! 8,dawn ,horse0 7,eohippus7 ( ! l[] ,eoc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,pass+ ov]1 = lack ( space1 ! transitional =ms ( ! ,w9d ,riv]1 we come f9ally to ! mo/ anci5t kn[n horses1 ! ,wasat* species compris$ 9 ! g5us ,eohippus1 ! 8,dawn ,horse10 z its "n signifies2 ^! 7 little creatures rang+ 9 size f a cat to a small fox4 ,despite an unmi/akably equ9e look 9 ! skeletons ( ^! dim9utive animals1 x is only ! long int]m$iate s]ies ( species & g5]a1 toge!r =m+ a closely l9k$ *a91 :i* we h trac$ back f ! ,plei/oc5e to ! l[] ,eoc5e1 t leads u to reg>d ,eohippus z ! ance/ral type ( ! horses4 ,7 only ! two ends ( ! *a9 kn[n1 he w\ld be a d>+ speculator :o %\ld v5ture to connect !m4 ,9 ^! little ,wasat* horses we h ! evid5ce ( a /ill m anci5t =m ) five fully develop$ toes 9 ea* foot1 s9ce ! front foot _h f\r functional digits & indication ( a spl9t1 & spl9ts1 z ! :ole hi/ory ( ! long s]ies tea*es1 always are f\nd to be functional digits 9 ! ance/or2 ! h9d foot _h ?ree toes & p]haps two spl9ts4 ,?is prec$+ =m is h>dly to be look$ = 9 ,am]ica or ,europe2 x w be f\nd1 if ev]1 9 ! region :5ce ! great migration came4 ,9 all o!r respects1 z well1 ,eohippus 0 :at we %\ld expect ! =]unn] ( ! ,w9d ,riv] & ,bridg] horses to be4 ,! premol>s 7 all small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s & ! latt] 9 ! upp] jaw are p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 = !y _h no cre/s & ridges ( enamel1 b f\r pr9cipal conical cusps1 arrang$ 9 two transv]se pairs1 & betwe5 ! cusps ( ea* pair 0 a t9y cuspule no bigg] ?an ! head ( a p94 ,^! cuspules 7 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! =mation ( ! transv]se cre/s1 :i* 7 de/9$ to assume su* importance 9 ! subsequ5t memb]s ( ! s]ies4 ,! neck 0 v %ort1 ! body long1 ) curv$ or ar*$ back1 ! limbs & feet %ort1 & ! h9d limb mu* long] ?an ! =e1 mak+ ! relative proportions ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! skeleton v diff]5t f :at !y aft]w>ds became4 ,review+ ?is m>vell\s hi/ory ( /eady & long-cont9u$ *ange1 beg9n+ ) ! mo/ anci5t g5us1 ,eohippus1 ! foll[+ modifications may be not$3 7#a7 ,!re 0 a ne>ly con/ant1 if some:at fluctuat+1 increase 9 size1 lead+ by sl[ gradations f ! dim9utive horses ( ! l[] ,eoc5e to ! great animals ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 7#b7 ,! mol> tee?1 orig9ally made up ( conical cusps1 *ang$ to a highly complex patt]n ( cre/s & ridges1 & ! premol>s1 "o by "o1 assum$ ! size & patt]n ( ! mol>s2 ! l[-cr[n$1 root$ & cem5t-free tee?1 fitt$ only = br[s+1 became v high-cr[n$1 prismatic & cem5t-cov]$1 admirably adapt$ to graz+4 ,beg9n+ 9 ! upp] incisors ( ! ,:ite ,riv] ,mesohippus1 ! 8m>k0 became e/abli%$ z an enamel-l9$ pit1 gr[+ 9 dep? z ! tee? increas$ _! l5g?4 7#c7 ,! face grew relatively long]1 ! eye-socket be+ %ift$ beh9d ! tee? & becom+ completely encircl$ 9 bone1 & ! jaws 7 greatly increas$ 9 dep? to accommodate ! v long tee?4 7#d7 ,! %ort neck 0 greatly elongat$ & ! individual v]tebr modifi$ s z to give flexibility ) no loss ( /r5g?4 ,! primitive peg-l odontoid process ( ! axis became fir/ semicyl9drical & !n sp\t-%ap$4 7#e7 ,! ar*$ back 0 /raight5$ & ! neural sp9es1 especially ( ! ant]ior dorsals1 elongat$4 7#f7 ,! limbs grew relatively mu* long]2 ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg 7 fus$ toge!r1 ! "o on ! inn] side 7radius & tibia7 enl>g+ to c>ry ! entire weight & ! ext]nal "o 7ulna & fibula7 becom+ m or less atrophi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,s]ies ( horse skulls 9 asc5d+ geological ord]4 ,a41 ,eohippus1 l[] ,eoc5e 7aft] ,cope74 ,b41 ,mesohippus1 l[] & middle ,oligoc5e4 ,c41 ,protohippus1 upp] ,mioc5e 7aft] ,cope74 ,d41 ,equus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,"r manus & left pes ( ,equus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,"r manus & left pes ( ,protohippus4 7#g7 ,! feet 7 mu* elongat$ & ! m$ian 7#c;d7 digit ( ea* gradually enl>g$ until x c>ri$ ! :ole weight1 at ! same "t modify+ ! %ape ( ! ho( s z to fit x to be ! sole support ( ! body4 ,! o!r toes gradually dw9dl$ & became functionless1 ?\gh (t5 reta9$ z spl9ts4 ,! fir/ digit 7pollex & hallux7 0 fir/ lo/1 !n ! fif?1 !n ! second & f\r? 7 r$uc$ to dew-claws & f9ally to spl9ts4 ,?us ! p5tadactyl horses ( ! l[] ,eoc5e 7 trans=m$ into ! monodactyl species ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! /ory ( ! horses 0 a brief "o1 = !y 7 among ! immigrants f ! nor? & did n rea* ! s\!rn cont95t till ! ,plioc5e1 probably late 9 t epo*1 = none ( ! ?ree-to$ g5]a h be5 f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,s f> z kn[n1 ^! s\!rn equ9es 7 small & m$ium siz$ animals1 ) l>ge heads1 relatively %ort feet & some:at ass-l proportions4 ,!re 7 two well-def9$ gr\ps ( ^! animals3 7#a7 species ( ! g5us ,equus1 :i* ?us1 at "o "t or ano!r1 inhabit$ e "o ( ! cont95ts1 ,au/ralia except$2 7#b7 ?ree g5]a peculi> to ,s\? ,am]ica & develop$ !re f nor!rn ance/ors1 probably ,pliohippus4 ,two ( ^! g5]a 7,hippidion & ,onohippidium7 display$ curi\s modifications ( ! nasal bones1 :i* 7 extremely sl5d] & atta*$ to ! skull only at _! h9d] ends1 in/ead ( be+1 z is normally ! case1 support$ = ne>ly _! :ole l5g? by lat]al articulation ) o!r bones4 ,:at c h be5 ! significance & function ( ^! excessively sl5d]1 spl9t-l nasals1 x is difficult to conjecture4 ,! ?ird g5us 7,hyp]hippidium7 0 a small m\nta9-horse1 ) extremely %ort feet1 :i* 7 well adapt$ to climb+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,"r manus & left pes ( ,mesohippus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,"r manus & pes ( ,eohippus4 ,?is is ! m]e/ outl9e sket* ( a mo/ wond]ful s]ies ( gradual & progressive modifications1 a sket* t might readily be exp&$ into a volume1 7 all ! details fill$ 94 ,:ile ea* set ( organs1 tee?1 skull1 neck1 body1 limbs & feet1 might appe> to advance indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs1 9 reality !re 0 no su* indep5d5ce1 = at e /age ( ! progression all ! p>ts mu/ h be5 s cord9at$ into a h>moni\s :ole1 t ! animal c\ld ?rive & hold its own 9 ! /ress ( competition4 ,c\ld we b discov] all ! facts ( environm5t1 on ! "o h&1 & organization1 on ! o!r1 we %\ld d\btless le>n t ! little ,eohippus 0 z exquisitely fitt$ to its place 9 ! ,wasat* _w1 z are ! horses1 asses & zebras ( ! pres5t day to !irs4 ,x 0 ! response to *ang+ ne$s1 :e!r ( food1 climate1 disease or competition1 t 0 ! ma9 factor ( developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,skeleton ( a ,pampean horse 7,hippidion neogum74 ,national ,museum1 ,bu5os ,aires4 ,= re/oration1 see ,fig4 #aai1 p4 #bad4 ,note ! spl9t-l nasal bones atta*$ only at ! h9d] end4 #b4 ,titano!riid4 ,titano!res ,?is family1 all ( ^: memb]s vani%$ f ! e>? ages ago1 0 a comp>atively %ort-liv$ gr\p & ne>ly ! :ole ( its record$ hi/ory 0 enact$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 only a few belat$ /raggl]s rea*$ ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 ?\gh ! family may1 nev]!less1 h orig9at$ !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,:ite ,riv] titano!re 7,titano!rium robu/um7 males fight+4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! l[e/ ( ! ?ree sub/ages ( ! ,:ite ,riv] ,oligoc5e ! mo/ conspicu\s & abundant fossils are ! titano!res1 ! late/ memb]s ( :i* 7 huge animals ( almo/ elephant9e proportions4 ,!y belong$ to f\r p>allel1 or r slightly div]g5t1 phyla1 diff]+ 9 ! developm5t ( ! horns1 9 ! %ape ( ! head & 9 ! relative l5g? & massiv5ess ( ! limbs4 ,! tee? 7 all l[-cr[n$1 or bra*yodont1 ! can9es mu* too small to h be5 ( any s]vice z weapons & ! incisors _h curi\s little1 button-%ap$ cr[ns1 :i* c h _h little or no functional importance1 s9ce !y %[ h>dly any we>1 ev5 9 old animals4 ,) su* front tee?1 a preh5sile lip & long tongue w\ld seem to h be5 necess>y = ga!r+ & tak+ 9 food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,second upp] mol>1 left side1 ( ,titano!rium4 ,a41 ma/icat+ surface2 ,b41 out] side ( cr[n4 ,! titano!res 7 "o ( two p]issodactyl families 9 :i* ! premol>s nev] became s l>ge & complex z ! mol>s4 ,! upp] mol>s _h a longitud9al out] wall1 compos$ ( two deeply concave cusps1 & two int]nal conical cusps1 b no transv]se ridges2 ! l[] mol>s 7 compos$ ( two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 a patt]n :i* 0 v widely di/ribut$ among ! e>ly & primitive artiodactyls & p]issodactyls4 ,! s-call$ 8horns0 7 n /rictly su*1 b a pair ( bony protub]ances f ! front ( ! skull &1 f _! %ape1 c\ld h>dly h be5 %ea!d 9 horn4 ,! long1 imm5sely broad & massive head resembl$ t ( "s fanta/ic rh9oc]os1 z did also ! body & limbs4 ,! bra9 0 q absurdly small1 ! cavity = x1 lo/ 9 ! huge skull1 w\ld h>dly conta9 ! fi/ ( an ord9>y man2 ^! great bea/s mu/ h be5 incr$ibly dull & /upid1 surpass+ ev5 ! mod]n rh9oc]oses 9 ?is respect4 ,z is g5]ally true 9 mammals :i* h horns1 antl]s1 or simil> weapons borne ^u ! skull1 or v l>ge tusks1 ! bones ( ! bra9-case 7 made enorm\sly ?ick & yet light5$ by an intricate sy/em ( communicat+ cavities or 8s9uses10 sep>at$ by _m bony braces & supports connect+ ! inn] & out] d5s] lay]s1 :i* =m ! surfaces ( ! bones4 ,9 ?is way ! skull is made /rong en\gh )\t any proportionate increase ( weight to endure ! sev]e %ock ( impact1 :5 ! horns or tusks are made use (4 ,! pr9ciple is ! same z ! eng9e] employs 9 design+ a /eel truss-bridge4 ,! upp] pr(ile ( ! head 0 deeply concave1 j z x is 9 ^? rh9oc]oses :i* are arm$ ) nasal horns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,skull ( ,titano!rium elatum4 ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g? & ! body1 z indicat$ by ! long1 ar*$ ribs & ! greatly exp&$ hip-bones1 0 extremely bulky & massive4 ,! sp9es ( ! ant]ior dorsal v]tebr 7 excessively long1 =m+ a great hump at ! )]s4 ,! limbs & feet 7 column>1 l ^? ( an elephant2 ! feet 7 support$ on a great pad1 :ile ! ho(s 7 m]e excresc5ces on ! p]iph]y ( ! foot4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm 7 entirely sep>ate & ! ulna 0 v /\t2 9 ! l[] leg also ! bones 7 n cossifi$1 b ! fibula 0 b mod]ately heavy4 ,?is is a %>p contra/ to ! arrangem5t f\nd 9 ! horses & 9 ^? ho($ animals g5]ally :i* are swift runn]s & h sl5d]1 elongate limbs & feet1 su* z de]1 antelopes1 camels1 etc4 ,heavy1 sl[-mov+ animals1 l elephants1 tapirs1 rh9oc]oses1 etc41 almo/ always h sep>ate =e-arm & leg-bones & g5]ally a heavy ulna4 ,! numb] ( digits 0 f\r 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d4 ,! g5]a diff]$ 9 ! proportions ( limbs & feet1 "o hav+ !m long] & less pond]\s ?an ano!r1 &1 no d\bt1 ! =m] 0 ( swift] gait4 ,at a c]ta9 level 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s ! titano!res abruptly cease1 disappe>+ ) :at seems l />tl+ sudd5ness4 ,9 all probability1 h[ev]1 ! ext9ction 0 m gradual & its app>5t abruptness 0 due1 p>tly at lea/1 to ! break 9 ! deposition ( ! b$s1 :i* is v obvi\s4 ,su* a break1 or 8uncon=mity10 z geologi/s call x1 almo/ always implies an unrecord$ lapse ( "t1 :i* may h be5 v long4 ,h[ev] x came ab\t1 gradually or sudd5ly1 ! ext9ction ( ^! great animals is difficult to expla92 no ,c>nivora ( ! "t c\ld h be5 =midable enemies & !y _h no rivals 9 _! own walk ( life4 ,_! /upidity may h be5 a factor1 b x seems m likely t ! onset ( "s new infecti\s disease1 p]haps import$ by incom+ migrants f ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 gave ! c\p de grace4 ,9 ! l[] sub/age1 b5ea? ! uncon=mity1 :]e ! rema9s ( titano!res are s abundant1 successive *anges may be obs]v$4 ,! species ) great 8horns10 r\nd$1 flatt5$ or triangul>1 are conf9$ to ! upp] levels2 9 ! middle section o!r species1 some:at small] & ) %ort] 8horns10 are f\nd1 :ile 9 ! bottom levels ! animals are mu* small] & h /ill small] 8horns40 ,! ,u9ta titano!res 7 mu* m num]\s & v>i$ ?an ^? ( ! ,:ite ,riv]2 9 ! upp] "p ( ^! b$s are f\nd two g5]a 7,diplacodon & ,protitano!rium7 :i* already _h q prom95t bony protub]ances on ! nose2 _! can9es 7 l>ge en\gh to be ( value z weapons & ! incisors 7 well develop$ & functional4 ,evid5tly1 !re 0 a *ange "h 9 ! mann] ( fe$+1 ! front tee? 7 us$ = cropp+ & br[s+1 a function :i* 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] memb]s ( ! family mu/ h be5 l>gely tak5 ov] by ! lips & tongue1 :ile ! gr[? ( ! horn-l protub]ances on ! skull r5d]$ ! can9es sup]flu\s z weapons4 ,?is latt] *ange is "o :i* recurs frequ5tly 9 diff]5t phyla ( ! ho($ animals1 9 :i* ! e>li] & m primitive memb]s _h can9e tusks1 & ! lat]1 m advanc$ repres5tatives develop$ horns1 ! tusks dim9i%+ z ! horns increas$4 ,:ile ?is rule is a g5]al "o1 x is n entirely )\t exceptions4 ,9 ! l[] ,u9ta & 9 ! ,bridg] ! titano!res 7 extremely abundant & num]ically !y are ! commone/ ( all fossils 9 ^? b$s2 no less ?an five s]ies or phyla may be di/+ui%$1 ?ree ( !m be+ add$ 9 ! upp] ,bridg]4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! phyla1 h[ev]1 pr9cipally conc]n ! =ms ( ! tee? & ! %ape ( ! skull2 9 "s ! head 0 %ort & broad1 9 o!rs long & n>r[1 & 9 o!rs aga9 ( m$ium proportions2 "s _h broad & extremely l[-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee?1 :i* 9 o!rs 7 high] & m erect4 ,b ^! are matt]s ( m9or detail1 useful z !y are 9 po9t+ ! way to a prop] arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s species2 9 ess5tials1 ! =ms all agre$ & con/itut$ sev]al s]ies ( closely alli$ g5]a4 ,comp>+ ^! ,bridg] animals ) ! great titano!res ( ! l[] ,:ite ,riv]1 ! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s diff]5ce t /rikes ! obs]v] is ! v mu* small] size ( ! m anci5t types4 ,) "s v>iation 9 ?is respect1 h>dly any ( ! ,bridg] species exce$$ a mod]n tapir 9 /ature & v mu* resembl$ "o 9 proportions4 ,! can9e tee? 7 tusks z l>ge z ^? ( a be> & mu/ h be5 v effective weapons2 ! mol>-patt]n 0 id5tical ) t f\nd 9 ! great ,oligoc5e bea/s1 b ! premol>s 7 simpl] & relatively small]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,titano!re 7,mesatirh9us sup]ior7 ) long1 n>r[ head2 ,bridg] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,second upp] mol>1 "r side ( a ,bridg] titano!re 7,palosyops74 ,! skull _h a /raight upp] pr(ile1 ?\gh 9 sev]al ( ! phyla small bony protub]ances 7 develop$ ov] ! eyes1 & mu/ cle>ly be reg>d$ z incipi5t /ages ( ! 8horns0 :i* 7 subsequ5tly to become s long & prom95t4 ,in/ead ( be+ broad on top z x 0 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] g5]a1 ! cranium c>ri$ a high ridge ( bone1 ! sagittal cre/1 :i* s]v$ = ! atta*m5t on ea* side ( ! great temporal muscle1 "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! muscles ( ma/ication4 ,! trunk 0 less massive & ! limbs 7 light] ?an 9 ! ,oligoc5e g5]a1 b ! numb] ( digits 0 ! same1 f\r 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d1 & ! ho(s 7 mu* bett] develop$1 s]v+ actually to c>ry ! weight & n be+ m]e excresc5ces ^u ! p]iph]y ( a pad4 ,aside f ! proboscis1 :i* l5ds su* a *>act]i/ic appe>ance to ! exi/+ tapirs1 ! titano!res ( ! ,bridg] mu/ h look$ mu* l tapirs1 & 9 e>ly days1 :5 ! mutual relation%ips _h n be5 satisfactorily det]m9$1 !y 7 frequ5tly describ$ z 8tapiroid40 ,! t]m is unobjectionable 9 s f> z x is und]/ood t a m]ely sup]ficial lik5ess is impli$1 n any real relation%ip o!r ?an t :i* unites all ! p]issodactyl families4 ,z not$ above1 ! phyla ( ! titano!res 7 mu* m num]\s 9 ! lat] ?an 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,bridg] /age1 :5 !y 7 r$uc$ to two4 ,9 ! /ill old] ,w9d ,riv] /age ^! two unit$ into "o4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] animals 7,eotitanops7 7 simil>1 b mu* small]1 & occurr$ 9 incomp>ably less v>iety & abundance4 ,inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,w9d ,riv] & ! ,bridg] faunas consi/s 9 ! great increase & div]sification ( ! titano!res 9 ! latt]4 ,!re 01 x is true1 a second phylum ( ! family 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]1 repres5t$ by ! g5us ,lambdo!rium1 b ?is 0 a %ort-liv$ s]ies1 :i* left no desc5dants 9 ! ,bridg] or subsequ5t =mations4 ,^! 7 ! smalle/ kn[n memb]s ( ! family & 7 light1 sl5d]-limb$ animals1 a v notable diff]5ce f ! o!rs4 ,) ! ,w9d ,riv] ! hi/ory ( ! titano!res breaks (f %ort1 & f pres5t in=mation1 c be c>ri$ no f>!r back4 ,possibly1 !re 0 a ,wasat* ance/or1 :i* only awaits discov]y1 b x seems m likely t ^! e>lie/ kn[n g5]a 7 belat$ immigrants f ! same z yet unkn[n region1 :5ce came ! mod]niz$ & progressive elem5ts ( ! ,wasat* fauna4 ,except = its obscure beg9n+1 ! family 0 pre-em95tly *>act]i/ic ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & only two repres5tatives ( x h be5 f\nd outside ( t cont95t1 "o 9 ,hung>y & "o 9 ,bulg>ia4 ,no d\bt o!rs w yet be f\nd 9 ,asia4 ,bo? 9 its resemblances & its diff]5ces1 z comp>$ ) ! f> long] & m complex /ory ( ! horses1 ! hi/ory ( ! titano!res has in/ructive be>+s ^u evolution>y !ory4 7#a7 ,/>t+ ) two phyla1 "o ( :i* spe$ily di$ out1 ! o!r ramifi$ into f\r or five1 :i* cont9u$ until ! disa/r\s end1 pursu+ a ne>ly p>allel c\rse ( developm5t4 7#b7 ,!re 0 a great increase 9 size & especially 9 bulk & massiv5ess f species no bigg] ?an a %eep 9 ! ,w9d ,riv] /age to ^? :i* rivall$ small elephants 9 ! l[] ,:ite ,riv]4 7#c7 ,! tee? und]w5t comp>atively little *ange2 ! incisors dw9dl$ & lo/ functional importance & ! can9es 7 r$uc$1 horn-l gr[?s tak+ _! place z weapons2 ! premol>s grew l>g] & m complicat$1 b nev] atta9$ ! full size & complexity ( ! mol>s1 z !y did 9 o!r p]issodactyl families4 7#d7 ,horn-l1 bony protub]ances appe>$ fir/ z small humps & knobs ov] ! eyes & /eadily enl>g$1 at ! same "t %ift+ _! position =w>d1 until !y f9ally atta9$ great size & 7 on ! nose4 7#e7 ,! skull 0 modifi$ s z to support ^! weapons & endure ! %ock ( impact :5 !y 7 put to use1 7a7 by mak+ ! upp] pr(ile /rongly concave f be=e backw>d2 7b7 by greatly wid5+ ! top ( ! cranium1 :]e 9 ! old] & m primitive g5]a ! high & ?9 sagittal cre/ 0 plac$2 7c7 by imm5sely increas+ ! ?ickness ( ! cranial bones & at ! same "t holl[+ !m by means ( an intricate sy/em ( cavities2 9 ?is way suffici5t /r5g? 0 secur$ )\t undue increase 9 weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,s]ies ( heads ( titano!res 9 asc5d+ geological ord]4 ,a41 ,palosyops1 l[] ,bridg]4 ,b41 ,manteoc]as1 upp] ,bridg]4 ,c41 ,diplacodon1 ,u9ta4 ,d41 ,titano!rium1 extreme developm5t ( horns1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,f models 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum & ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 7#f7 ,! gr[? ( ! bra9 did n keep pace ) ! increase 9 ! size & weight ( ! body & head1 & ?is defici5cy may h be5 a factor 9 det]m9+ ! e>ly ext9ction ( ! family4 7#g7 ,to support ! huge head1 /\t ligam5ts & p[]ful muscles 7 ne$$ 9 ! neck & trunk & ^! 9 turn requir$ l>ge bony1 surfaces = _! atta*m5t4 ,to meet ?is ne$1 ! sp9es ( ! ant]ior trunk-v]tebr 7 v mu* l5g!n$1 s z to =m a hump at ! %\ld]s1 & ?is elongation ( ! sp9es w5t on 9 proportion to ! gr[+ weight ( ! head4 7#h7 ,! limb-bones increas$ 9 ?ickness until !y became extremely massive1 to c>ry ! imm5se weight ( ! body1 & !y ev5tually lo/ ! m>r[-cavities1 :i* 7 fill$ up ) spongy bone1 a great ga9 9 /r5g?4 ,z is g5]ally1 ?\gh n univ]sally1 true ( ! l>ge & heavy mammals1 !re 0 no cossification betwe5 ! limb-bones & no great increase 9 _! proportionate l5g?4 ,! ?igh-bone1 or femur1 lo/ ! cyl9drical %ape ( ! %aft1 becom+ flatt5$ & v broad1 & acquir+ some?+ ( ! appe>ance ( ! same bone 9 ! elephants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,"r manus ( titano!res4 ,a41 ,titano!rium1 ,:ite ,riv] 7aft] ,m>%74 ,b41 ,palosyops1 ,bridg]1 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 7#i7 ,!re 0 no loss or cossification ( elem5ts 9 wri/ 7c>pus7 or ankle 7t>sus7 & no r$uction ( digits )9 ! limits ( ! family4 ,9 ! late/1 l>ge/ & mo/ specializ$ g5]a1 z well z 9 ! e>lie/1 smalle/ & mo/ primitive1 !re 7 f\r toes 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d4 ,we h ! mo/ cog5t reasons = assum+ t all mammals 7 d]iv$ f ance/ors :i* _h five toes 9 ea* foot1 nei!r m nor less4 ,if ?is be true1 !n ! mo/ anci5t kn[n titano!res1 :i* 7 small & light1 _h already suff]$ ! loss ( ! fir/ digit 9 ! =e foot & ( ! fir/ & fif? digits 9 ! h9d foot1 b !re r$uction ceas$4 ,) ! gr[+ body-weight1 long1 n>r[ & sl5d] feet w\ld h be5 a detrim5t1 :]eas 9 swift-runn+ animals1 l horses & de]1 long & v sl5d] feet are a great advantage4 ,! contra/ is bo? /rik+ & in/ructive1 %[+ ! importance ( a %ort1 broad1 polydactyl & pill>-l foot to v l>ge & heavy mammals1 all ( :i* h feet ( ?is "*4 7#aj7 ,! ho(s1 z %[n by ! t]m9al bones 7ungual phalanges7 :i* =m$ _! bony cores1 7 r$uc$ 9 size until !y became m]e nail-l excresc5ces ar\nd ! bord] ( ! massive foot4 #c1 #d4 ,tapirid & ,lophiodontid4 ,tapirs & ,lophiodonts ,! hi/ory ( ! tapir family is n at all satisfactorily kn[n1 p>tly because tapirs are comp>atively r>e z fossils 9 all ( ! ,t]ti>y =mations1 & /ill m = ! reason t ! specim5s s f> collect$ are s fragm5t>y1 n a s+le half-complete skeleton among !m4 ,_h ^! animals actually be5 z r>e 9 ,nor? ,am]ica z ! fossils w\ld seem to indicate1 !y c\ld n possibly h ma9ta9$ !mselves = s long a "t1 ?r\gh\t ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y p]iods4 ,= "s reason1 probably because !y h always be5 =e/-haunt+ animals1 _! habits mu/ h kept !m 9 places remote f ! areas :]e ! accumulation ( s$im5ts 0 9 progress1 & ?us only occasional /raggl]s 7 buri$ & pres]v$4 ,! r>ity & incomplet5ess ( ! mat]ial r5d] x impossible to give any su* full acc\nt ( ! tapirs z is practicable = ! horses & titano!res1 b ! circum/ance is less un=tunate 9 ! case ( ! tapirs ?an 9 t ( _m o!r families4 ,?is is because ^! creatures h be5 s cons]vative & unprogressive1 t !y h und]gone comp>atively little *ange s9ce _! e>lie/ record$ appe>ance4 ,!y h be5 aptly t]m$ 8liv+ fossils0 & seem l belat$ survivors f "s old] _w1 out ( place 9 ! mod]n ord] ( ?+s4 ,att5tion has already be5 direct$ 7p4 #acg7 to ! rem>kable geographical di/ribution ( ! tapirs at ! pres5t "t2 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 s\!a/]n ,asia & ! adjo9+ isl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,am]ican ,tapir 7,tapirus t]re/ris74 ,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,! tapirs are all ( mod]ate size1 go+ back to v small =ms at ! beg9n+ ( _! hi/ory & nev] at any p]iod develop+ into l>ge animals4 ,! only /rik+ & unusual feature ab\t any ( ! exi/+ memb]s ( ! family is ! long proboscis1 a flexible1 dep5d5t sn\t1 &1 7 !y all ext9ct & no?+ kn[n ( !m b ! skull1 ?is proboscis c\ld h be5 confid5tly pr$icat$ ( !m f ! great %ort5+ ( ! nasal bones4 ,small tusks1 n %[+ :5 ! m\? is clos$1 are =m$ 9 an exceptional way by ! enl>g$ ext]nal upp] incisor & ! l[] can9e1 ! upp] can9e be+ mu* r$uc$ & )\t function4 ,! gr9d+ tee? h v l[ cr[ns1 premol>s 7except ! fir/7 & mol>s are all alike & ( a v simple patt]n1 :i* has be5 indep5d5tly repeat$ 9 sev]al diff]5t ord]s ( h]bivor\s mammals2 9 bo? upp] & l[] tee?1 !re are two elevat$1 /raight1 transv]se cre/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--,skull ( ,am]ican ,tapir1 "r side4 ,except = ! modification ( ! skull :i* is condition$ by ! developm5t ( ! proboscis1 ! skeleton might belong to any "o ( sev]al ,eoc5e or ,oligoc5e families1 & x is ?is g5]aliz$1 indiff]5t "* :i* has l$ to ! dubb+ ( _m e>ly p]issodactyls z 8tapiroids40 ,! limbs are %ort & mod]ately heavy1 ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg all sep>ate & ! numb] ( toes is f\r 9 ! front foot & ?ree 9 ! h9d4 ,! toes end 9 well-=m$ sep>ate ho(s1 b beh9d !m is a pad1 :i* c>ries mo/ ( ! weight4 ,! body is cov]$ ) smoo?1 %ort hair1 :i* 9 ! ,am]ican species is ( a uni=m d>k br[n1 b 9 ! ,asiatic species ! head1 neck & limbs are black & ! body is :ite4 ,9 bo?1 h[ev]1 ! "y h longitud9al1 light-col\r$ /ripes & spots on a d>k gr\nd 7see ,fig4 #f1 p4 #dg7 indicat+ :at ! col\r-patt]n ( ! ance/ral =ms mu/ h be54 ,z might be inf]r$ ) c]ta9ty f ! l[-cr[n$ tee?1 ! tapirs are br[s+1 n graz+1 animals1 fe$+ ^u leaves & %oots & o!r s(t vegetable tissues4 ,!y are %y & solit>y 9 habit & live usually 9 ?ick =e/s & ne> wat]1 :i* !y frequ5tly ent]1 bo? = ba?+ & z a place ( refuge :5 pursu$4 ,"u mod]n conditions1 ! only p]issodactyls ( ! we/]n hemisph]e are ! tapirs ( ! ,neotropical region1 ,nor? ,am]ica prop]1 :i* = ages 0 ! pr9cipal home ( ! ord]1 n hav+ a s+le repres5tative n[4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 tapirs 7 app>5tly m abundant ?an 9 any ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*s1 b ?is 0 probably due to ! fact t ! ,plei/oc5e ( ! =e/$ regions is f> m fully record$ ?an is any ,t]ti>y /age4 ,"o species1 :i* 0 h>dly di/+ui%able f ! ,rec5t ,c5tral ,am]ican =m1 0 common 9 ! =e/$ region ea/ ( ! ,mississippi & 9 ,cali=nia1 & a second species 7,tapirus haysii7 0 l>g] & heavi] ?an ! o!r4 ,except 9 ,texas1 none h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,great ,pla9s area1 nor are !y likely to be1 = t region1 !n z n[1 appe>s to h be5 devoid ( =e/s4 ,no d\bt1 ^! ,plei/oc5e species _h sub/antially ! same habits z ! exi/+ ones1 b !y 7 adapt$ to a cold] climate & a diff]5t vegetation1 =1 except ! ,p9*aque ,tapir 7,t4 r\l9i7 ( ! high ,&es1 all ! mod]n species are tropical 9 di/ribution4 ,conc]n+ ! ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e tapirs1 b meagre in=mation has be5 obta9$4 ,en\gh mat]ial has be5 ga!r$ by ! collectors to demon/rate ! cont9u\s pres5ce ( ! family 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ?r\gh\t ^? epo*s1 b ! brok5 & fragm5t>y specim5s are insuffici5t to %[ :at ! /ructural *anges 74 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t x is only 9 ! region ( ! ,great ,pla9s & ! ,great ,bas9 ( ,nevada t any consid]able quantity ( ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e mammals h be5 f\nd1 & 9 ^? regions tapirs probably nev] 7 common4 ,if ! ,peace ,creek =mation ( ,florida is prop]ly classifi$ z late/ ,plioc5e1 !n at t "t ! ,am]ican tapirs 7 ess5tially :at !y are to-day1 = ! ,florida species is h>dly sep>able f ! mod]n ,t4 t]re/ris4 ,n till we rea* ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 or ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 d we get mat]ial :i* p]mits ! mak+ ( def9ite /atem5ts reg>d+ ! c\rse ( developm5tal *anges4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] g5us1 ,protapirus1 :i* is also f\nd 9 ! middle ,oligoc5e ( ,europe1 0 a mu* small] animal ?an any ( ! kn[n ,plei/oc5e or ,rec5t species1 b>ely m ?an half ! size1 9 fact4 ,! tee? %[ t ! small tusks 7 can9es1 bo? above & bel[1 & t ! curi\s sub/itution ( ! ext]nal upp] incisor = ! can9e _h n yet tak5 place4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 id5tical 9 patt]n ) ^? ( ! exi/+ g5us1 b n all ! premol>s _h yet acquir$ ! =m & size ( ! mol>s4 ,9 ! skull ! nasal bones _h begun to %ort51 b ! *ange _h n yet made mu* progress1 & ! proboscis mu/ h be5 9 m]ely an incipi5t /age ( developm5t4 ,:at little is kn[n ( ! skeleton o!r ?an ! skull 0 l t ( ! mod]n g5us1 b ! bones 7 mu* small] & proportionately light]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,skull ( ,:ite ,riv] tapir 7,protapirus validus71 left side4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,n4,b4 ,?is figure is mu* less r$uc$ ?an ,fig4 #afh4 ,! ,eoc5e tapirs are /ill v imp]fectly kn[n2 all t c be said ( !m is t !y become successively small] z !y are trac$ backw>d 9 "t1 & t 9 !m ! premol> tee? 7 all small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! ,wasat* g5us 7,sy/emodon7 is ! mo/ anci5t memb] ( ! s]ies yet discov]$4 ,dat+ f ! ,eoc5e immigration1 ! tapirs are to be reg>d$ z a ,nor? ,am]ican family1 = !re is "h a complete cont9uity f ! l[] ,eoc5e to ! ,plei/oc5e1 :ile 9 ,europe !y fir/ appe>$1 probably by migration f ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ! middle ,oligoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--;,head ( ! ,:ite ,riv] tapir 7,protapirus validus74 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! hi/ory ( ! tapirs is ev5 %ort] & less ev5tful ?an t ( ! horses2 ! latt]1 z we h se51 rea*$ ! s\!rn cont95t 9 ! ,plioc5e & !re gave rise to a numb] ( peculi> & *>act]i/ic g5]a1 b ! tapirs h be5 f\nd only 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,arg5t9a & ,brazil & only ! mod]n g5us is repres5t$4 ,w(ully brok5 & incomplete z ! developm5tal hi/ory ( ! tapirs /ill is1 ! fragm5ts are nev]!less suffici5t to %[ a mode ( evolution diff]+ 9 c]ta9 important respects f t foll[$ by ! horses or titano!res4 ,c]ta9 features are common to all ?ree gr\ps1 su* z ! increase 9 size & 9 proportionate /\tness f /age to /age & ! gradual enl>gem5t & complication ( ! premol> tee?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! tapirs h be5 v cons]vative1 & !y und]w5t f> less radical *anges ?an did ei!r ( ! o!r families4 ,aside f ! proboscis & ! modifications ( ! skull :i* ! developm5t ( t organ necessitat$1 ^! animals rema9 to-day v ne>ly :at !y 7 9 ,oligoc5e times4 ,?is1 !n1 is an example ( developm5t practically re/rict$ to a few organs1 :ile all ! o!r p>ts ( ! /ructure *ang$ b little4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,upp] tee?1 left side1 ( tapirs1 %[+ comp>ative sizes4 ,a1 ,protapirus validus1 ,:ite ,riv] ,oligoc5e4 ,b1 ,tapirus t]re/ris1 mod]n4 i#c1 ext]nal incisor4 c1 can9e4 m#a1 fir/ mol>4 ,! ext9ct lophiodonts1 l ! tapirs1 ( :i* !y w\ld seem to h be5 ne> relatives1 are kn[n only f incomplete mat]ial1 & comp>atively little has be5 le>n$ reg>d+ _! hi/ory4 ,:ile !y 7 abundant & v>i$ 9 ,europe1 dur+ ! ,eoc5e epo*1 !y nev] 7 a /rik+ or prom95t elem5t among ! mammals ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e !y p]si/$ "o /age lat]1 & !y did n rea* ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica !y are f\nd f ! ,wasat* to ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] g5us 7,colodon71 :i* is fairly well kn[n1 might almo/ be describ$ z comb9+ ! *>act]s ( horses & tapirs2 b su* an expression is n to be int]pret$ z mean+ t ?is g5us is 9 any s5se a connect+ l9k or transition betwe5 ! two families1 b m]ely t 9 c]ta9 important respects its c\rse ( developm5t ran p>allel ) t foll[$ by ! horses4 ,! tee? 7 v tapir-l1 especially ^? ( ! l[] jaw1 :i*1 inde$1 are h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( a tapir1 & ! premol>s _h ! mol>-patt]n4 ,! limbs 7 v light & sl5d] & ! feet long & n>r[2 ! =e foot reta9$ a small fif? digit2 ! feet1 especially ! h9d] "o1 _h a resemblance to ^? ( ! contempor>y horses 7,mesohippus71 ?\gh ! m$ian digit 0 n s mu* enl>g$1 nor ! lat]al ones s f> r$uc$4 ,x is highly probable t1 _h ?is family p]si/$ till ! ,plei/oc5e1 in/ead ( dy+ out 9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 x w\ld h ev5tually t]m9at$ 9 monodactyl =ms4 ,! lophiodonts ( ! ,eoc5e are repres5t$ by v fragm5t>y mat]ial2 s f> z t mat]ial goes1 x does n %[ mu* *ange f ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us1 except t ! premol> tee? 7 small] & simpl]1 ! limbs & feet reta9+ ! same *>act]i/ics ( l5g? & sl5d]ness4 ,! ,wasat* g5us 7,heptodon7 _h a simil> lightness ( limb & n>r[ness ( feet1 ^! *>act]s ?us appe>+ at ! v beg9n+ ( ! family hi/ory1 s f> z _! ,nor? ,am]ican c>e] is conc]n$4 #e4 ,rh9oc]otid4 ,true ,rh9oc]oses ,! hi/ory ( ! great gr\p ( rh9oc]oses & rh9oc]os-l animals is a v long & complicat$ "o1 inf]ior 9 its complet5ess only to t ( ! horses4 ,! complexity ( ! /ory arises f ! l>ge numb] ( phyla into :i* ! families are divisible1 &1 despite ! great weal? ( mat]ial & ! admirable pres]vation ( mu* ( x1 x is extremely difficult to f9d a clew ?r\gh ! mazes ( ?is labyr9?9e g5ealogy4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! exi/+ geographical di/ribution ( animals1 few mammals c\ld seem m =eign & exotic to ,nor? ,am]ican life ?an d ! rh9oc]oses1 & yet = a v long "t t cont95t 0 "o ( ! *ief areas ( _! developm5t1 s f>1 at lea/1 z t developm5t c be foll[$4 ,x is ev5 probable1 ?\gh n cle>ly demon/rable1 t ! family orig9at$ "h & subsequ5tly spread to ! ,old ,_w1 b n to ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e no memb] ( x has ev] be5 f\nd4 ,! lat] hi/ory ( ! rh9oc]oses ran its c\rse 9 ! ,old ,_w entirely1 & ! highe/ specializations )9 ! family are to be f\nd !re2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ^! animals are n kn[n to h p]si/$ beyond ! l[] ,plioc5e1 & if !y did survive1 x 0 only z a few /raggl]s 9 out ( ! way places4 ,! mod]n rh9oc]oses are re/rict$ to ,africa1 s\!rn ,asia & "s ( ! l>g] ,malay isl&s1 ,borneo1 ,sumatra & ,java1 & )9 ^! wide geographical limits are to be f\nd ! t]m9al repres5tatives ( at lea/ ?ree sep>ate & q di/9ct phyla1 ! ,african1 ,indian & ,sumatran g5]a respectively 7,opsic]os1 ,rh9oc]os1 ,dic]orh9us74 ,x w be advisable to beg9 ! /udy ( ?is peculi>ly int]e/+ family ) a brief exam9ation ( its mod]n memb]s1 ev5 ?\gh none ( ^! are f\nd 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,skull ( ! ,javan ,rh9oc]os 7,r4 sondaicus74 ,note ! s+le upp] incisor1 & ! r\gh surface on ! nasal bones = ! atta*m5t ( ! s+le horn4 ,all ! exi/+ rh9oc]oses are l>ge & massive animals1 rang+ f f\r feet to six feet six in*es 9 height at ! %\ld]1 & all h solid d]mal horns1 except 9 mo/ females ( ! ,javan species#f 7,r4 sondaicus74 ,! ,indian & ,javan species h a s+le horn on ! nose1 :ile ^? ( ,africa & ,sumatra h1 9 addition to ! nasal horn1 a second "o on ! =ehead4 ,! horns1 ?us1 d n =m a transv]se pair1 b are plac$ 9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! head1 "o beh9d ! o!r2 x %\ld also be not$ t ^! horns are solid1 d]mal /ructures1 made up ( agglut9at$ fibres or hairs & n hav+ a bony core =m$ by outgr[?s ( ! skull1 z d ! horns ( mo/ rum9ants1 su* z ox51 %eep & antelopes1 :i* are !re=e call$ 8holl[-horn$0 7,cavicornia74 ,! skull1 h[ev]1 betrays ! pres5ce ( horns by ! extremely r\gh areas :i* s]ve = _! atta*m5t & ?us ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ^! weapons may be readily det]m9$ 9 ! case ( an ext9ct species ( :i* only ! skeleton rema9s4 ,! sk9 is v ?ick & co>se1 typically 8pa*yd]mat\s10 & is q nak$ 9 mo/ ( ! species2 b 9 ! ,sumatran =m !re is a sp>se coat ( hair1 :i* is q ?ick 9 ! "y animal4 ,9 ! ,indian ,rh9oc]os unicornis ! enorm\sly ?ick sk9 has conspicu\s & regul>ly arrang$ folds1 :i* make ! creature look z ?\gh encas$ 9 arm\r2 ! e>s & tail are tuft$ ) hair4 ,9 ! ,african & ,sumatran g5]a ! folds are obscurely m>k$ & n def9itely arrang$1 giv+ ! body a smoo!r appe>ance4 ,all ! exi/+ species1 except "o1 are br[s]s & fe$ ^u leaves & twigs1 & !y frequ5t =e/s & m>%es :]e _! food is abundant4 ,n t ^! & o!r br[s+ animals d n occasionally eat grass1 b x is n _! pr9cipal diet4 ,! exception not$ is ! l>ge/ ( all ! liv+ species1 ! ,broad-,lipp$ ,rh9oc]os 7errone\sly call$ 8,:ite07 ( ,africa1 ,opsic]os simus1 :i* is /rictly a graz+ animal & !re=e frequ5ts m op5 c\ntry ?an ! o!r ,african species1 ,o4 bicornis4 ,!re are consid]able diff]5ces 9 proportions & g5]al appe>ance among ! v>i\s species1 b !y all h %ort necks1 v long & massive bodies1 %ort & heavy limbs & %ort1 column> feet1 :i* look mu* l ^? ( elephants1 b h only ?ree toes ea*4 ,9 all b two ( ! liv+ species ! upp] lip is preh5sile & *>act]i/ically po9t$ & c be us$ to pick up v small objects1 l ! 8f+]0 on an elephant's trunk2 9 ! ,sumatran species 7,dic]orh9us sumatr5sis7 ! lip1 ?\gh po9t$1 is horny & inflexible1 :ile 9 ! ,african ,o4 simus x is broad & /raight-edg$4 ,! tee? ( ! mod]n rh9oc]oses are extremely *>act]i/ic & may always be recogniz$ at a glance4 ,9 ! ,african g5us 7,opsic]os7 !re are no front tee?1 all ! incisors & can9es be+ lo/2 ! o!r g5]a h on ea* side a s+le l>ge & tr5*ant upp] incisor1 9 %ape l a broad1 obliquely edg$ *isel1 :i* %e>s aga9/ a /ill l>g] elongate & tusk-l l[] incisor1 t is procumb5t & po9ts directly =w>d4 ,! ,indian ,rh9oc]os 7,r4 unicornis7 is said to use its tusks z weapons 9 v mu* ! same fa%ion z ! ,wild ,bo>4 ,betwe5 ! l>ge l[] tusks !re is a pair ( v small incisors1 :i* c h little or no functional value2 ! ?ird l[] incisor has be5 suppress$1 z h also ! can9es ( bo? jaws4 ,! d5tal =mula !n is3 i #a_/b or #j_/j1 c #j_/j1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #bh or #cd 7see p4 #ic74 ,! premol>s1 except ! fir/1 ?\gh some:at small] ?an ! mol>s1 h ess5tially ! same patt]n4 ,! upp] mol>s h mod]ately high cr[ns1 yet !y are purely bra*yodont1 except 9 ! graz+1 broad-lipp$ ,african species 7,o4 simus71 9 :i* !y may fairly be call$ hypsodont4 ,! ext]nal wall ( ! too? is broad & ne>ly smoo?1 n divid$ into cusps1 z x is 9 ! horses & tapirs1 & ! two transv]se cre/s1 :i* 9 ! tapirs are directly transv]se1 are v oblique4 ,9 all ! exi/+ species additional complications are giv5 by ! %ort spurs1 :i* project inw>d f ! out] wall or f ! transv]se cre/s4 ,! l[] mol>s are =m$ ea* ( two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 b _! arms or horns are angulate1 n curv$ z !y are 9 o!r p]issodactyls :i* h cresc5tic l[] tee?4 ,! upp] surface ( ! skull is v concave 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction & v broad ov] ! cranium1 :]e !re is no sagittal cre/4 ,! nasal bones are imm5sely ?ick & /rongly ar*$1 ) ! convexity upw>d2 bo? ?is ar*+ ( ! nasals & ! =e-&-aft concavity ( ! skull are devices = giv+ a /rong & solid atta*m5t to ! great nasal horn1 = ! atta*m5t ( :i* ^! bones h an extremely r\gh surface1 & 9 ! two-horn$ species1 a second r\gh5$ area on ! =ehead m>ks ! place ( atta*m5t ( ! frontal horn4 ,! bones ( ! cranium are v ?ick1 b light5$ by ! _m *amb]s :i* trav]se !m4 ,! articulation ( ! l[] jaw ) ! skull is 9 "s respects unique among mammals2 ! po/gl5oid process is a long spike1 :i* fits inside ( a bony lump 7! po/cotyloid process7 beh9d ! condyle ( ! l[] jaw1 & ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! latt] is greatly ?ick5$4 ,! neck is %ort & /\t1 ! trunk v long1 broad & deep1 ! long & /rongly ar*$ ribs & ! widely exp&$ hip-bones provid+ space = ! great mass ( visc]a4 ,! bones ( ! limbs are %ort & v massive2 ! hum]us has a v prom95t deltoid ridge & ! femur an unusually l>ge ?ird tro*ant]2 ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg are sep>ate1 z 9 ! massive ungulates g5]ally4 ,! foot-bones are likewise extremely %ort & heavy1 & ! numb] ( digits is ?ree 9 ea* foot4 ,ea* ( ! five or m exi/+ species has its skeletal peculi>ities1 e portion ( ! bony /ructure %[+ *>act]i/ic features2 b ^! are only m9or modifications ( ! g5]al plan & may be neglect$ 9 any compreh5sive acc\nt ( ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,left manus ( ,indian ,rh9oc]os 7,r4 unicornis74 ,9 ord] to f9d any ,am]ican memb]s ( ?is family1 x is necess>y to g back to ! l[] ,plioc5e1 :]e a great abundance ( !m is enc\nt]$1 repres5t+1 accord+ to ,osborn's view1 f\r or five phyla2 & j z 9 ! case ( ! horses ( ! same =mation1 !y 7 an assemblage curi\sly made up ( progressive & old-fa%ion$1 cons]vative g5]a1--"s 7 p]si/5t native /ocks1 o!rs ! desc5dants ( immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 :i* rea*$ ,am]ica 9 ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,!re 0 great v>iety ( =m1 size & proportions among ^! animals1 ,nor? ,am]ica at t "t hav+ a l>g] numb] ( g5]a & species ?an ,africa & ,asia comb9$ h n[4 ,"s 7 q small1 "s l>ge1 ?\gh none equall$ ! l>g] mod]n species4 ,"s ( ! g5]a _h relatively long legs1 b 9 "o g5us1 ,teleoc]as 7,fig4 #abe1 p4 #bcj71 an ,old ,_w type1 !y 7 mo/ grotesquely %ort1 ! belly almo/ t\*+ ! gr\nd1 z 9 a hippopotamus4 ,mo/ ( ^! rh9oc]oses 7 hornless1 b ,teleoc]as _h a small horn on ! v tip ( ! nose4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! lack ( horns1 ! nasal bones 7 ?9 & weak1 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! massive1 convex nasals ( ! mod]n species1 &1 = ! same reason1 ! upp] pr(ile ( ! skull 0 ne>ly /raight4 ,except = m9or details1 ! d5tition 0 9 v ne>ly ! mod]n /age ( developm5t2 !re 0 a s+le tr5*ant upp] incisor on ea* side1 a procumb5t l[] tusk & betwe5 ! tusks a pair ( small incisors2 ! o!r incisors & ! can9es 7 already lo/4 ,"o g5us 7,p]ac]as7 _h lo/ all ! upp] front tee?4 ,! gr9d+ tee? _h ! same "* z 9 ! exi/+ species1 b 7 some:at simpl]1 ow+ to less developm5t ( ! accessory spurs4 ,9 ! m progressive types ! tee? 7 r high-cr[n$1 ?\gh 9 none 7 !y actually hypsodont2 :ile ! p]si/5t anci5t g5]a _h tee? ) mu* l[] cr[ns4 ,aside f ! diff]5ces 9 ! skull1 :i* are obvi\sly to be correlat$ ) ! abs5ce or v small size ( ! horn1 ! skeleton 9 ^! ,plioc5e g5]a diff]$ b little f ! type common to ! exi/+ rh9oc]oses1 & 9 all ! species ! feet 7 ?ree-to$4 ,9 %ort1 ! d5tition & skeleton1 except ! skull1 _h already atta9$ to sub/antially ! mod]n conditions4 ,:ile ! ,old ,_w at t "t _h bo? horn$ & hornless rh9oc]oses 9 abundance1 none ( ! g5]a ) l>ge & fully develop$ horns ev] migrat$ to ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable 9 t ! great ,woolly ,rh9oc]os 7,opsic]os antiquitatis7 ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 :i* _h two v l>ge horns1 inhabit$ ,sib]ia ) ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius74 ,! latt] ext5d$ its range ?r\gh ,alaska & ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ! rh9oc]os1 = "s unkn[n reason1 did n accompany x 9 its ea/w>d w&]+s4 ,! rh9oc]oses ( ! upp] ,mioc5e did n diff] suffici5tly f ^? ( ! l[] ,plioc5e to call = p>ticul> att5tion4 ,ne$less to say1 !re 7 diff]5ces betwe5 ! species ( ! two epo*s1 b 9 su* a sket* z ?is only ! broad] & m obvi\s *anges c be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,ev5 9 ! middle ,mioc5e ! only feature :i* calls = notice 0 ! fir/ appe>ance 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ( ! ,old ,_w g5us ,teleoc]as1 :i* became s abundant 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e4 ,! middle ,mioc5e species 7,t4 m$icornutus7 w\ld seem to h be5 desc5d$ f ,t4 aurelian5sis ( ! l[] ,mioc5e ( ,france2 ! two species agre$ n only 9 hav+ a small horn on ! tip ( ! nose1 b also 9 ! pres5ce ( a /ill small] "o on ! =ehead4 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e b two phyla ( rh9oc]oses h be5 f\nd1 bo? ( :i* 7 ! comp>atively little *ang$ desc5dants ( ,oligoc5e ance/ors2 & !re 0 ?us a notable diff]5ce f ! rh9oc]oses ( ! middle ,mioc5e & subsequ5t /ages1 :i* 7 decid$ly m mod]n 9 "*4 ,"o ( ^! phyla 0 con/itut$ by ^? rh9oc]oses 7,dic]a!rium1 ,fig4 #abi1 p4 #bci7 :i* _h a transv]sely plac$ pair ( horns on ! nose1 n "o beh9d ! o!r1 z 9 all ( ! subsequ5t two-horn$ species1 ( :i* ,nor? ,am]ica _h b ! "o middle ,mioc5e =m 7,t4 m$icornutus7 m5tion$ above4 ,! l[] ,mioc5e species ( ,dic]a!rium 0 a v small animal1 & small] ?an any memb] ( ! family f lat] =mations4 ,! dic]a!res orig9at$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! /ages ( _! developm5t may be cle>ly made out2 !y also migrat$ to ! ea/]n hemisph]e & h be5 f\nd 9 ,france1 ?\gh x is possible t ! g5us 0 n truly monophyletic & arose indep5d5tly 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,! second phylum is t ( ! hornless =ms 7,cnopus7 :i* 7 s abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e & p]si/$ ) little *ange into ! ,plioc5e4 ,9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e1 or ,john ,day1 ! dic]a!res are ! only rh9oc]oses c]ta9ly yet obta9$1 & ( ^! !re 7 sev]al species1 l>ge & small4 ,! hornless =ms may h be5 pres5t 9 ,oregon1 b ?is has n be5 cle>ly demon/rat$4 ,t !y cont9u$ to exi/ some:]e dur+ t /age is h>dly op5 to "q1 = !y reappe>$ 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,f ! ,:ite ,riv]1 or l[] ,oligoc5e1 _m well-pres]v$ rh9oc]oses1 includ+ complete skeletons1 h be5 ga!r$ 9 ! v>i\s collections & display v int]e/+ diff]5ces 9 ! ?ree sub/ages ( ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,9 ! upp]mo/ sub/age is f\nd ! app>5t beg9n+ ( ! dic]a!re phylum1 ?\gh x may be trac$ back to ! middle sub/age2 ! nasal bones _h become mu* ?ick5$ s z to s]ve z a support = ! horns1 & ^! are indicat$ by a small1 b v r\gh1 area on ! out] side ( ea* nasal4 ,comp>+ ?is ,:ite ,riv] species ) ^? ( ! upp] ,oligoc5e & l[] ,mioc5e1 two diff]5ces may be obs]v$3 9 ! lat] species ! horn-supports 7 well def9$ bony knobs or prom95ces1 & ^! knobs 7 close to ! ant]ior ends ( ! nasals2 :ile 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] animal ! places = ! atta*m5t ( ! horns 7 m]e r\gh5$ areas1 & ^! 7 well beh9d ! tips ( ! nasals4 ,?is is n an infrequ5t sort ( *ange1 t horns %\ld %ift _! position =w>d or t ! portion ( ! nasals 9 front ( ! horns %\ld be %ort5$4 ,p>allel *anges occurr$ among ! titano!res4 ,9 ! middle ,:ite ,riv] all ! rh9oc]oses 7 hornless1 b ! same two phyla may be di/+ui%$2 ! actual />t+ po9t ( ! dic]a!res _h no indication ( ! nasal horns1 b may be id5tifi$ z su* by _! close resemblance 9 o!r respects to ! species ( ! upp] sub/age 9 :i* ! incipi5t horns appe>$4 ,mu* common] 7 ! memb]s ( ! typical hornless l9e 7see ,fig4 #ace1 p4 #bef71 :i*1 ?\gh true & unmi/akable rh9oc]oses1 7 yet f> remov$ 9 _m details ( /ructure f ! progressive g5]a ( ! middle & upp] ,mioc5e4 ,!re are sev]al species 9 ?is phylum1 :i* con/itute a s]ies ( dim9i%+ size almo/ 9 proportion to _! increas+ antiquity4 ,! d5tition 0 already ?or\ghly & *>act]i/ically rh9oc]os-l1 b a m primitive feature 0 ! pres5ce ( a second upp] incisor1 a small too? plac$ beh9d ! tr5*ant "o1 mak+ ! incisor =mula #b_/b2 ! ?ird incisor & ! can9es ( bo? jaws 7 already lo/4 ,! assumption ( ! mol>-patt]n by ! premol>s v>i$ mu* 9 degree ( complet5ess 9 ! diff]5t species2 ! upp] mol>s1 :ile hav+ all ! ess5tials ( ! rh9oc]otic plan ( /ructure1 _h a mu* less complex appe>ance ?an 9 ! ,rec5t g5]a1 because ( ! abs5ce ( ! accessory spurs2 & all ! gr9d+ tee? 7 v l[-cr[n$1 9 /rong contra/ to ! high-cr[n$ 7yet n prop]ly hypsodont7 tee? ( ! middle ,mioc5e & subsequ5t g5]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,skull ( hornless rh9oc]os 7,cnopus tridactylus72 middle ,:ite ,riv] /age4 7,aft] ,osborn47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,second upp] mol>1 left side1 ( ,cnopus1 %[+ ! ma/icat+ surface4 ,z already m5tion$1 !re 0 mu* v>iation 9 size among ! species1 b none 0 z l>ge z ^? ( ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e g5]a1 n to m5tion ! enorm\s animals ( ! ,plei/oc5e & ,rec5t epo*s 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! common] species ( ! middle ,:ite ,riv] sub/age 7,cnopus occid5talis7 0 an animal ne>ly equall+ 9 size ! ,am]ican ,tapir 7,t4 t]re/ris7 & q l t species 9 its proportions1 ! limbs be+ relatively long] & less heavy & ! feet n>r[] ?an 9 ! rh9oc]oses ( ! subsequ5t geological epo*s4 ,! skull1 be+ hornless1 _h ?91 po9t$ & ne>ly flat nasal bones1 an almo/ /raight & horizontal upp] pr(ile1 & a %ort & l[1 b di/9ct1 sagittal cre/2 ! cranial bones 7 q ?91 !re be+ no ext5sive developm5t ( s9uses )9 !m4 ,! articulation ( ! l[] jaw ) ! skull 0 only beg9n+ to take on ! *>act]i/ic peculi>ities se5 9 ! lat] g5]a1 & ! h9d] m>g9 ( ! l[] jaw 0 n mu* ?ick5$4 ,?us1 _m ( ! features :i* di/+ui% ! skull 9 all ,rec5t & ,plei/oc5e & mo/ ,plioc5e1 & upp] & middle ,mioc5e rh9oc]oses 7 entirely lack+ 9 ,cnopus1 yet no anatomi/ c\ld d\bt t ! ,:ite ,riv] animal 0 a g5u9e rh9oc]os4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 b n v heavy1 ! trunk elongate1 b n massive1 ! ribs n be+ inord9ately long nor /rongly ar*$1 & ! hip-bones s little exp&$ t !y 7 tapiroid r ?an rh9oc]otic 9 appe>ance4 ,! limb-bones 7 relatively mu* m sl5d] ?an 9 any exi/+ species1 &1 al?\gh e "o ( !m 0 *>act]i/ically t ( a rh9oc]os1 yet ! comp>ative lightness ( body & sl5d]ness ( limb gave to ^! bones a c]ta9 resemblance to ^? ( tapirs4 ,! feet1 :i* 7 mod]ately elongate & r n>r[1 7 ?ree-to$1 z 9 all subsequ5t ,nor? ,am]ican species & 9 all exi/+ memb]s ( ! family4 ,! mo/ anci5t & primitive repres5tative ( ! true rh9oc]oses s f> discov]$ occurs 9 ! l[e/ division ( ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s & is ( p>ticul> int]e/ z ?r[+ light ^u ! orig9 ( ! family4 ,! g5us 7,trigonias7 diff]$ f t 7,cnopus7 :i* 0 s abundant 9 ! middle ,:ite ,riv] sub/age 9 sev]al highly significant p>ticul>s1 ?\gh on a m]ely casual inspection "o might easily be misl$ into ?9k+ t ! two animals 7 ne>ly id5tical1 = ,trigonias 0 an und\bt$ rh9oc]os4 ,su* an id5tification1 h[ev]1 w\ld be a great mi/ake1 = ! diff]5ces1 ?\gh n /rik+1 are v important4 ,9 ! upp] jaw ! fir/ or ant]ior incisor _h already assum$ ! *>act]i/ic tr5*ant1 *isel-l %ape1 b two o!r incisors 7 pres5t also1 ?us br++ ! numb] up to ! orig9al ?ree1 common to all e>ly p]issodactyls2 ev5 m int]e/+ is ! pres5ce ( a small upp] can9e4 ,! l[] jaw likewise _h ?ree incisors on ea* side1 ! fir/ & ?ird small1 ! second enl>g$ & tusk-l1 b ! can9e _h already be5 suppress$1 & ?us ! d5tal =mula 03 i #c_/c1 c #a_/j1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #db1 or #ad m ?an ! =mula ( ! exi/+ ,african species4 ,! premol>s 7 small] & less complex ?an ! mol>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--,skull ( ,trigonias osborni1 l[] ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,hat*]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--;,ant]ior end ( "r upp] jaw ( ,trigonias osborni 7aft] ,lucas74 c41 can9e4 i #c1 ext]nal incisor4 i #b1 middle incisor4 i #a1 fir/ incisor4 ,f ?is anci5t g5us may readily be inf]r$ ! /eps by :i* ! peculi> *>act]s ( ! ant]ior tee? 9 ! true rh9oc]oses 7 atta9$4 ,! fir/ /age 0 und\bt$ly an animal 9 :i*1 z 9 all o!r ,eoc5e p]issodactyls1 !re 7 ?ree well-develop$ incisors on ea* side ( bo? jaws1 #ab 9 all1 & mod]ately prom95t can9e tusks2 all ^! tee? 7 erect4 ,! second /age 0 ! enl>gem5t ( ! fir/ upp] & second l[] incisors1 ! latt] becom+ less erect & beg9n+ to assume ! recumb5t position2 at ! same "t ! o!r incisors & ! can9es 7 r$uc$ 9 size & 7 s little us$ t !y lo/ _! functional importance4 ,! ?ird /age1 9 :i* ! fir/ & second l[] incisors 7 horizontal & po9t$ directly =w>d1 & ! fir/ upp] & second l[] tee? 7 /ill fur!r enl>g$1 ! non-functional tee? r$uc$ 9 size & ! l[] can9e suppress$1 0 realiz$ 9 ! g5us ,trigonias4 ,!re 7 ?us b two hypo!tical /ages betwe5 ?is l[] ,:ite ,region g5us & ! tapir-l =ms ( ! middle ,eoc5e1 s f>1 at lea/1 z ! ant]ior tee? are conc]n$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--;,ant]ior end ( left upp] jaw ( ,cnopus1 ,a1 adult2 ,b1 immature animal 7aft] ,osborn74 ,i #a1 fir/ incisor2 ,i #b1 second incisor2 ,c1 can9e4 ,! skeleton ( ,trigonias 01 on ! :ole1 v mu* l t ( ! succe$+ g5us1 ,cnopus1 ( ! middle sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 b ) ! important exception t ! front foot _h f\r digits in/ead ( ?ree4 ,! pollex1 or fir/ ( ! orig9al five1 almo/ always ! fir/ to disappe>1 _h be5 suppress$1 ! ?ird or m$ian digit 0 already ! l>ge/ ( ! s]ies1 bo? 9 l5g? & bread?2 ! second & f\r?1 some:at %ort] toge!r made a symmetrical pair1 :ile ! fif?1 ?\gh mu* ! mo/ sl5d] ( all1 0 /ill functional & _h reta9$ all ( its p>ts4 ,9 ! h9d foot ! digits _h be5 r$uc$ to ?ree4 ,?is arrangem5t1 f\r toes 9 ! manus & ?ree 9 ! pes1 is ! same z is f\nd 9 ! exi/+ tapirs & 9 ! ,eoc5e p]issodactyls g5]ally1 ) only two or ?ree kn[n exceptions4 ,9 ! ,oligoc5e1 on ! o!r h&1 all ! g5]a except ! titano!res1 tapirs1 lophiodonts & amynodonts 7 tridactyl bo? be=e & beh9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,left manus ( ,trigonias osborni4 7,aft] ,hat*]47 ,) ,trigonias ! def9itely kn[n hi/ory ( ! true rh9oc]oses breaks (f abruptly1 & x is possible t t g5us 0 an immigrant1 ?\gh x is p]haps m likely t its ance/ors exi/$ 9 ! upp] & middle ,eoc5e 7,u9ta & ,bridg] /ages7 ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,"s fragm5t>y specim5s f ! ,u9ta b$s1 too imp]fect = any def9itive id5tification1 are an enc\ragem5t to hope t ! =]unn] & direct ance/or ( ,trigonias may yet be discov]$ 9 t =mation4 ,x is also q possible t "o ( ! l>g] species ( ! g5us ,hyra*yus1 s abundant 9 ! ,bridg] & go+ back to ! ,w9d ,riv]1 may take its place 9 ! same s]ies4 #f4 ,hyracodontid4 ,cursorial & ,aquatic ,rh9oc]oses ,! luxuriant div]sification ( ! rh9oc]os-/em 0 n exhau/$ by ! _m phyla ( :at we h call$ ! true rh9oc]oses4 ,two o!r s]ies1 v di/9ctly m>k$ & r di/antly connect$ ) ! fir/1 are yet to be consid]$4 ,^! two s]ies1 ! hyracodonts 79 ! n>r[ s5se7 & ! amynodonts1 ran c\rses :i*1 9 c]ta9 respects1 7 s+ul>ly alike2 bo? 7 ( ,nor? ,am]ican orig9 & "o1 ! hyracodonts1 0 entirely conf9$ to t cont95t1 :ile ! o!r s5t out late migrants1 :i* ent]$ ,europe1 no d\bt ?r\gh ,asia1 & bo? end$ _! c>e]s be=e ! close ( ! ,:ite ,riv] "t4 ,_! hi/ory 0 ?us a brief "o :5 comp>$ ) t ( ! true rh9oc]oses1 ?ree phyla ( :i* p]si/ to ! pres5t day1 ?\gh _! geographical range is greatly re/rict$ 9 comp>ison ) :at x 0 9 ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e1 :5 !y rang$ ov] e cont95t except ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,j h[ to classify ^! ?ree s]ies ( rh9oc]oses & rh9oc]os-l animals1 s z mo/ accurately to express _! mutual relation%ips1 is a "q t has receiv$ sev]al answ]s4 ,"o me?od sugge/$ is to include !m all 9 a s+le family & to make a subfamily = ea* ( ! ?ree well-di/+ui%$ s]ies2 ?is is ! arrangem5t :i* p]sonally ,i %\ld pref]4 ,a second plan is to accord family rank to ea* ( ! ?ree gr\ps2 :ile ! mo/ elaborate s*eme1 t ( ,pr(essor ,osborn1 is z foll[s3 = ! rh9oc]oses1 9 ! broad] s5se1 he makes two families1 ! ,rh9oc]otid & ! ,hyracodontid1 & divides ! =m] into f\r subfamilies1 :i* include all ( ! true rh9oc]oses1 liv+ & ext9ct1 ( ! ,old & ,new ,worlds1 & ! latt] into two subfamilies1 ! ,hyracodont9 & ,amynodont94 ,x is n a matt] ( v great mom5t z to :i* ( ^! ?ree s*emes is foll[$1 & ,i %all !re=e adopt ! "o propos$ by ,pr(essor ,osborn1 9 ord] to avoid1 s f> z possible1 ! confus+ effect ( diff]5t me?ods ( classification4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--;,cursorial rh9oc]os 7,hyracodon nebrasc5sis71 ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,z be=e m5tion$1 ! subfamily ( ! hyracodonts 7,hyracodont97 became ext9ct 9 ,:ite ,riv] times1 dur+ mo/ ( :i* x 0 repres5t$ by ! s+le g5us ,hyracodon1 :5ce are d]iv$ ! names = ! family & subfamily4 ,! s]ies 0 purely ,nor? ,am]ican1 & no memb] ( x has ev] be5 f\nd 9 any o!r cont95t4 ,! species ( ,hyracodon 7 altoge!r diff]5t 9 appe>ance & proportions f ! true rh9oc]oses1 be+ lightly built1 sl5d]1 cursorial creatures1 sugge/ive r ( horses ?an ( rh9oc]oses1 to :i* !y bore mu* ! same relation z ! sl5d]-limb$1 n>r[-foot$ lophiodonts did to ! tapirs 7see p4 #cbf72 9 size1 !y 7 some:at tall] & consid]ably heavi] ?an a %eep4 ,! l[-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee? _h ! unmi/akable rh9oc]os-patt]n1 & betwe5 !m & ! tee? ( ! contempor>y ,cnopus ! diff]5ce 0 m]ely "o ( size1 except = "o small1 b n insignificant feature4 ,! la/ upp] mol> _h n p]fectly acquir$ ! triangul> =m *>act]i/ic ( all ! true rh9oc]oses1 caus$ by ! complete fusion ( ! out] wall ) ! po/]ior cre/1 b ! wall project$ a little beh9d ! cre/1 z 9 p]issodactyls g5]ally4 ,premol>s 7except ! fir/7 & mol>s 7 alike 9 /ructure & ( ne>ly ! same size4 ,:ile ! gr9d+ tee? 7 ?us h>dly to be di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! true rh9oc]oses1 ! ant]ior tee?1 incisors & can9es1 7 totally diff]5t2 !y 7 v small & _h simple1 po9t$ & slightly recurv$ cr[ns1 & 7 all v mu* alike 9 size & =m4 ,?us1 !re 7 9 ! front ( ! m\? eight small1 hook-l tee?1 above & bel[1 :i* 7 obvi\sly q useless z weapons2 & z ! skull _h no horn1 ! animal 0 def5celess1 & mu/ h dep5d$ entirely ^u spe$ = its safety f ! attacks ( ! l>g] & m p[]ful bea/s ( prey4 ,! skull 0 %ort1 deep & ?ick1 & ! head mu/ h be5 heavy & clumsy1 q out ( keep+ ) ! body & limbs4 ,! neck 0 surpris+ly long1 long] inde$ proportionately ?an 9 ! contempor>y g5us ( horses 7,mesohippus71 b ! neck-v]tebr 7 relatively /\t & /rong1 z 0 requir$ = ! muscles to move & control ! heavy head4 ,! body 0 r elongate1 b n deep or massive1 & ! limbs 7 proportionately mu* long] ?an 9 any ( ! kn[n rh9oc]oses4 ,! limb-bones1 "o & all1 despite _! l5g? & sl5d]ness1 bore an unque/ionable lik5ess to ^? ( ! true rh9oc]oses4 ,9 ?is elongation ( ! limbs ! =e-arm & ?igh 7 ! p>ts mo/ affect$1 & ! sl5d]ness1 ?\gh 9 notable contra/ to ! proportions bo? ( ! true rh9oc]oses & ! amynodonts1 0 yet mu* less m>k$ ?an 9 ! middle ,eoc5e repres5tatives ( ! hyracodonts !mselves4 ,! feet 7 long & n>r[1 approximat+1 ?\gh n actually atta9+ ! proportions ( ! feet 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] horses 7,mesohippus74 ,!re 7 ?ree digits 9 ea* foot1 & ! m$ian toe 7?ird ( ! orig9al five7 0 s mu* enl>g$ & ! lat]al toes 7second & f\r?7 s r$uc$1 ?\gh /ill functional1 z /rongly to sugge/ a monodactyl foot z ! outcome ( ?is c\rse ( developm5t1 _h n ! e>ly ext9ction ( ! subfamily put an end to x4 ,x is int]e/+ to reflect t1 _h ! lophiodonts & hyracodonts cont9u$ _! exi/5ce to ! pres5t "t & _h p]si/$ 9 advanc+ along _! p>ticul> l9es ( specialization1 we %\ld1 9 all probability1 h _h monodactyl tapirs & rh9oc]oses1 z well z horses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--,left manus ( cursorial rh9oc]oses4 ,a1 ,triplopus cubitalis 7aft] ,cope71 upp] ,bridg]4 ,b1 ,hyracodon nebrasc5sis1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,z 9 ! case ( s _m o!r mammalian s]ies1 ! hyracodonts ( ! b p>tially explor$ ,u9ta =mation are /ill v imp]fectly kn[n4 ,almo/ all t c be positively /at$ ab\t !m is t !y 7 small] ?an _! ,:ite ,riv] successors & t ! assumption ( ! mol>-patt]n by ! premol>s 0 incomplete4 ,9 ! upp] ,bridg] b$s also n v mu* is kn[n reg>d+ ! !n repres5tatives ( ! s]ies1 7,triplopus74 ,s mu* is cle>1 h[ev]1 t !y 7 /ill small] & light] animals1 t ! limbs 7 v light1 & t ! numb] ( digits 9 ! =e foot _h already be5 r$uc$ to ?ree1 ! only kn[n ,bridg] p]issodactyl ( :i* ?is is true1 all ! o!rs hav+ f\r digits 9 ! manus & ?ree 9 ! pes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,primitive cursorial rh9oc]os 7,hyra*yus eximius71 l[] ,bridg]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! middle & l[] ,bridg]1 & ev5 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]1 occurs a g5us 7,hyra*yus7 :i* conta9$ a l>ge numb] ( species1 rang+ 9 size f a full-gr[n mod]n tapir to creatures no l>g] ?an foxes4 ,x is among ^! small] species t ! mo/ anci5t memb] ( ! hyracodont l9e is to be s\ght1 ?\gh x is n yet practicable to select any p>ticul> "o4 ,hyra*yus1 inde$1 may v possibly h conta9$ among its _m species ! ance/ors ( all ?ree l9es ( ! rh9oc]oses & rh9oc]os-l animals1 & ?us =m$ ! />t+ po9t f :i* !y develop$ 9 div]g+ s]ies4 ,x is always a v significant fact :5 two or m gr\ps approa* "o ano!r ! m closely1 ! f>!r back 9 "t !y are trac$1 because t c only be int]pret$ to mean t ultimately !y conv]g$ into a common t]m1 ev5 ?\gh t common ance/or %\ld elude discov]y4 ,hyra*yus may be describ$ z a g5]aliz$1 relatively undiff]5tiat$ p]issodactyl1 f :i* almo/ any o!r family ( ! ord]1 except ! horses & ! titano!res1 might h be5 d]iv$4 ,! incisors1 pres5t 9 undim9i%$ numb]1 7 well develop$ & functional1 b n l>ge1 & ! can9es 7 mod]ately enl>g$1 =m+ small tusks4 ,! premol>s 7 all small] & less complex ?an ! mol>s1 :i* _h a /rong resemblance to ^? ( ! tapirs2 9 ! l[] jaw !y 7 id5tical ) ! latt]1 b 9 ! upp] jaw !re 0 m ?an a sugge/ion ( lik5ess to ! rh9oc]oses4 ,! skull 0 long1 n>r[ & l[1 hornless1 & ) ?91 sl5d] nasals & /raight1 horizontal upp] cont\r4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! body v long & ! limbs ( m$ium l5g? & weight2 ?\gh relatively /\t] ?an 9 ,triplopus ( ! upp] ,bridg] & ,u9ta b$s1 !y _c be call$ heavy4 ,! feet 7 n especially elongate & r sl5d]2 ! manus _h f\r toes & ! pes ?ree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--,skull ( ,hyra*yus4 7,aft] ,osborn47 ,a brief & %ort-liv$ bran* ( ?is /ock exi/$ 9 ! ,bridg] /age1 b 0 n1 s f> z is kn[n1 repres5t$ 9 any ( ! subsequ5t /ages1 & 0 made up ( a s+le g5us 7,colonoc]as7 :i* _h a small pair ( d]mal horns ^u ! nasal bones4 ,9 o!r respects1 x 0 l ,hyra*yus4 ,x is surpris+ to f9d t ! horn$ s]ies %\ld h s spe$ily di$ out1 :ile ! def5celess =ms n only p]si/$1 b actually became m def5celess ?r\gh ! r$uction ( ! can9e tusks4 priori1 "o w\ld h expect$ ! opposite result1 b ! key to ! enigma is probably to be f\nd 9 ! m p]fect adaptation ( ! surviv+ k9ds to swift runn+4 ,! second subdivision 7,amynodont97 ( ?is family conta9s a s]ies ( animals :i* develop$ 9 a v div]g5t fa%ion & w5t to q ! opposite extreme f ! cursorial hyracodonts1 resembl+ ! latt] 7aside f ! fundam5tal *>act]i/ics common to all rh9oc]oses1 9 ! broade/ s5se ( t t]m7 only 9 ! patt]n ( ! mol> tee? & 9 ! abs5ce ( horns4 ,! t]m9al memb] ( ! amynodont s]ies 0 a ,:ite ,riv] g5us 7,metamynodon7 ( :i* ! rema9s h be5 f\nd almo/ exclusively 9 ! consolidat$ & cem5t$ s&s fill+ ! old riv]-*annels ( ! middle sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) c]ta9 /ructural features ( ! skull & skeleton1 leads at once to ! sugge/ion t ^! animals 7 *iefly aquatic 9 _! habits & some:at l hippopotamuses 9 mode ( life4 ,metamynodon 0 q a l>ge animal1 ! heavie/ & mo/ massive creature ( its "t1 aft] ! disappe>ance ( ! giant titano!res1 b 0 l[ & %ort-legg$4 ,! true rh9oc]oses1 save ^? :i*1 l ! exi/+ ,african species1 h lo/ all ! front tee?1 all agree 9 ! peculi> diff]5tiation ( ! incisors1 :i* 0 fully describ$ 9 ! prec$+ section ( ?is *apt]4 ,! hyracodonts _h a second s*eme1 ! incisors & can9es be+ all simil> 9 %ape1 small1 po9t$ & recurv$1 :ile /ill a ?ird mode ( developm5t 0 exemplifi$ by ! amynodonts1 9 :i* ! can9es became l>ge & =midable tusks1 a v notable diff]5ce f all o!r rh9oc]oses :atev]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,suppos$ly aquatic rh9oc]os 7,metamynodon planifrons7 ( ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,9 ,metamynodon ! incisors 7 n enl>g$1 b 7 unr$uc$ & functional2 ! upp] can9e 0 a %ort1 heavy tusk1 obliquely truncat$ by ! abrasion ( ! l[] tusk1 :i* 0 v l>ge4 ,ano!r /rik+ diff]5ce f all ! o!r gr\ps ( rh9oc]oses 0 ! r$uction ( ! premol> tee?1 :i*1 in/ead ( equall+ ! mol>s 9 size1 7 mu* small] & 7 dim9i%$ to ?ree 9 ! upp]1 two 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,! mol>s 7 ( ! *>act]i/ic rh9oc]os-patt]n1 b 7 v n>r[1 especially ! inf]ior ones1 9 :i* ! enamel did n surr\nd ! :ole cr[n1 z x normally does1 b 0 lack+ along v]tical b&s1 :]e ! d5t9e =m$ ! surface4 ,! skull 0 extremely peculi> &1 ) its v long & high sagittal cre/ & imm5sely exp&$ & heavy zygomatic ar*es1 _h a surpris+ lik5ess to ! skull ( "s great bea/ ( prey4 ,! face 0 v mu* %ort5$ & ! skull depress$1 s t ! head 0 rem>kably l[1 broad & flat1 proportions :i* did n recur 9 any o!r gr\p ( rh9oc]oses4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! body v long & v massive1 z is %[n by ! long & /rongly ar*$ ribs4 ,! limbs 7 %ort & /\t & ! feet q primitive 9 "*1 ! front foot reta9+ f\r fully develop$ & functional digits4 ,no o!r p]issodactyls ( ! middle ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 except ! lophiodonts & tapirs1 _h m ?an ?ree digits 9 ! manus1 & ?us ,metamyodon 0 a belat$ exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,! ,u9ta memb] ( ?is s]ies 0 ,amynodon1 a simil> b small] & light] animal4 ,! can9e tusks 7 ( m mod]ate size & none ( ! premol>s _h be5 lo/1 b 7 consid]ably small] ?an ! mol>s1 & ! la/ two _h assum$ ! mol>-patt]n4 ,! face 0 n conspicu\sly %ort5$ & ! zygomatic ar*es ( ! skull 7 n s heavy or s widely exp&$ z 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us1 & ! skeleton 0 less massive4 ,! g5us ,amynodon is also repres5t$ 9 ! upp] ,bridg] b$s1 b by a species diff]5t f t ( ! ,u9ta /age4 ,?is m anci5t species 0 a small] animal ?an its upp] ,eoc5e successor & _h less enl>g$ can9e tusks1 b x already possess$ ! typical rh9oc]os mol> tee?1 ! only ,bridg] mammal ( :i* ?is is true4 ,beyond ?is species ! l9e1 z at pres5t und]/ood1 _c be trac$1 ?\gh probably "s species ( ,hyra*yus1 or an alli$ g5us1 w prove to be ! ance/or s\ght2 b ! connect+ l9k has n yet be5 br\ght to light4 ,! hi/ory ( ! rh9oc]oses & rh9oc]os-l animals1 ( :i* a v mu* simplifi$ sket* has j be5 giv51 is a highly complex "o1 mu* m s ?an t ( ! horses1 titano!res1 or tapirs1 & is less fully record$1 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ! /ory be+ /ill miss+4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! progress ( discov]y ^! *apt]s w almo/ c]ta9ly be recov]$1 & x is already possible to draw close inf]5ces z to :at !y w reveal4 ,! complexity ( ! hi/ory is *iefly due to ! fact t1 z comp>$ ) ! o!r p]issodactyl gr\ps1 ! rh9oc]os /em ramifi$ m widely & gave rise to m div]g5t & div]sifi$ =ms4 ,at "o extreme1 we f9d huge1 massive1 sl[-mov+ types2 &1 at ! o!r1 light1 sl5d]1 cursorial creatures1 almo/ horse-l 9 appe>ance1 ) int]m$iate =ms ( mod]ate size4 ,"s 7 long & o!rs %ort legg$1 mo/ly adapt$ to t]re/rial life1 b "s ) aquatic habits4 ,! ?ree v diff]5t sorts ( modification :i* ! ant]ior tee? 7incisors & can9es7 und]w5t 9 ! ?ree pr9cipal s]ies may be tak5 z an illu/ration ( ?is div]g5t developm5t1 & to ^! may be add$ a f\r?1 ! complete suppression ( all ! incisors & can9es above & bel[1 z is exemplifi$ by ! mod]n ,african species4 ,( ! ?ree rh9oc]os gr\ps1 :atev] rank be assign$ !m1 family or subfamily1 mu* ! mo/ prolific 9 div]g5t =ms 0 t ( ! true rh9oc]oses 7,rh9oc]otid7 ( :i* sev5 or m phyla h be5 di/+ui%$1 ?ree ( !m surviv+ to ! pres5t "t4 ,only 9 ?is s]ies 7 horns frequ5tly pres5t1 ! brief exp]im5t1 z x might be call$1 ( ! ,bridg] g5us ,colonoc]as1 be+ ! only kn[n in/ances ( horns among ! hyracodonts1 & ! amynodonts 7 all hornless4 ,9 mak+ ! comp>ison z to degree ( ramification among ! ?ree s]ies1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! true rh9oc]oses 7 ! only long-liv$ gr\p1 ! o!r two dy+ out be=e or at ! end ( ! ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,)9 ! s]ies or family ( ! true rh9oc]oses1 !re 0 no great div]g5ce ( type1 & all ! memb]s 7 mu* alike1 heavy & sl[ animals1 b ) v great v>iety 9 ! details ( /ructure4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! matt] ( horns2 we f9d bo? hornless & horn$ g5]a1 ! =m] prec$+ ! latt] 9 "t1 b1 s f> z ,nor? ,am]ica is conc]n$1 cont9u+ 9 association ) !m till ! end4 ,among ! horn$ g5]a1 ! horn may be s+le1 d\ble 9 a transv]se pair 7,dic]a!rium7 or arrang$ "o beh9d ! o!r 9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! head 7,dic]orh9us1 ,opsic]os1 etc474 ,! s+le horn may be on ! nose or ! =ehead2 if on ! nose1 x may be on ! upp] side ( ! nasal bones 7,rh9oc]os7 or on ! extreme tip & po9t+ obliquely =w>d 7,teleoc]as74 ,! s+le frontal horn 0 mu* less common1 b 9 ! extraord9>y ,elasmo!rium1 ( ! ,european & ,sib]ian ,plei/oc5e1 ! horn 0 ( gigantic size & ! surface = its atta*m5t an enorm\s1 dome-l boss on ! =ehead4 ,all ?ree ( ! s]ies _h _! mo/ anci5t kn[n repres5tatives 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & x seems probable1 ?\gh by no means c]ta91 t !y all orig9at$ "h by div]g5ce f a common /ock1 :i* 0 repres5t$ m or less closely by ! g5us ,hyra*yus ( ! ,bridg] & ,w9d ,riv] /ages ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,h[ev] t may be1 true rh9oc]oses fl\ri%$ exce$+ly 9 ! ,old ,_w f ! upp] ,oligoc5e to ! ,plei/oc5e1 ! ev5ts ( ! latt] epo* re/rict+ !m to _! pres5t range4 ,! significance ( ! ,am]ican g5]a = ! ance/ry ( ! mod]n types c be f\nd only 9 ! mo/ anci5t =ms1 ,trigonias & ,cnopus2 ! subsequ5t developm5t :i* l$ up to ! exi/+ species ( ,asia & ,africa w5t on entirely 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e4 ,! hyracodont subfamily _h no kn[n repres5tatives outside ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ! amynodonts s5t out emigrants1 :i* appe>$ = a brief "t 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,europe4 ,9 ! v>i$ hi/ory ( ! rh9oc]oses1 ! pr9ciples ( evolution>y *ange :i* may be d$uc$ f ! record$ developm5t ( ! horses1 tapirs & titano!res are f\nd to be applicable4 7#a7 ,!re 0 ! same gradual increase 9 size f ! e>li] to ! lat] geological /ages4 ,n t all ! phyla kept equal pace 9 ?is respect1 & ev5 )9 ! same phylum x 0 ! rule r ?an ! exception to f9d l>g] & small] contempor>y species4 7#b7 ,9 all ( ! e>ly =ms1 up to ! middle ,mioc5e1 ! tee? 7 l[-cr[n$2 aft] t "t !re 0 a decid$ increase 9 ! height ( ! tee?1 ?\gh only 9 ,elasmo!rium 0 ! fully hypsodont1 cem5t-cov]$ cr[n atta9$4 ,9 ! exi/+ ,african ,broad-,lipp$ ,rh9oc]os 7,opsic]os simus71 :i* is a graz+ animal1 ! high1 cem5t-cov]$ tee? may also fairly be call$ hypsodont4 7#c7 ,9 all ( ! l9es1 z 9 ! o!r p]issodactyl families1 ! premol>s gradually took on ! patt]n ( ! mol>s2 only 9 ! amynodonts 7 ! premol>s notably r$uc$ 9 numb] & size4 7#d7 ,! ?ree diff]5t modes ( developm5t ( ! ant]ior tee?1 exemplifi$ by ! true rh9oc]oses1 ! hyracodonts & amynodonts respectively1 ne$ n be recapitulat$ "h4 ,x is suffici5t to call att5tion to ! fact t ! ?ree k9ds ( modification div]g$ f a common />t+-po9t su* z may be se5 9 ! middle ,eoc5e p]issodactyls g5]ally1 & t 9 ea* s]ies ! trans=mation 0 gradual4 7#e7 ,! modification ( ! skull foll[$ sev]al diff]5t c\rses1 z designat$ by ! major & m9or subdivisions ( families1 subfamilies & phyla4 ,! developm5t ( horns1 :e!r s+le or d\ble1 9 transv]se or longitud9al pairs1 0 ! mo/ important s+le influ5ce 9 trans=m+ ! skull1 z det]m9$ by ! me*anical adju/m5t necess>y to make ^! weapons effective1 b ev5 9 ! hornless =ms *anges w5t on1 & 9 all ! phyla ! skull dep>t$ m & m widely f ! primitive ,eoc5e type 9 ea* succe$+ geological /age4 ,! mo/ ab]rant =m ( skull 0 t ( ! hornless & presumably aquatic ,metamynodon1 9 :i* ! greatly %ort5$ face1 high sagittal cre/ & extremely wide zygomatic ar*es 7 altoge!r exceptional4 7#f7 ,:5 ! hi/ory ( any horn$ phylum is at all complete1 ! developm5t ( ! horns may be foll[$ /ep by /ep f ! m>ks :i* !y left ^u ! skull4 ,z a rule1 ! /ory 0 "o ( gradual enl>gem5t1 b1 9 "o case at lea/1 an incipi5t horn app>5tly fail$ to enl>ge & 0 ev5tually lo/4 7#g7 ,9 ! light1 sl5d] & cursorial hyracodonts ! mode ( developm5t resembl$ t ( ! horses1 z appe>s 9 ! elongation ( ! neck1 limbs & feet1 9 ! enl>gem5t ( ! m$ian toe & concomitant r$uction ( ! lat]al digits4 ,also1 z 9 ! horses1 ! elongation ( ! limbs began to be notewor?y :ile ! body-weight 0 small & 0 consequ5tly accompani$ by great sl5d]ness2 z ! body-weight increas$1 ! limbs became /\t]1 to yield ! necess>y support4 7#h7 ,9 ! phyla compos$ ( massive animals ! pr9ciple ( *ange agre$ ) t exemplifi$ by ! titano!res1 increas+ body-weight be+ ! det]m9+ factor 9 bo? cases4 ,:5 ?is increase began to be decid$1 ! r$uction ( digits ceas$ at ! po9t :i* _h already be5 rea*$ 9 any p>ticul> s]ies1 ?ree 9 bo? manus & pes 9 ! true rh9oc]oses1 f\r 9 ! manus & ?ree 9 ! pes 9 ! amynodonts4 ,v heavy animals require broad1 column> feet to support !m1 & h5ce ! simil>ity ( appe>ance 9 su* widely sep>at$ gr\ps z elephants1 rh9oc]oses & hippopotamuses1 n to m5tion sev]al ext9ct ord]s & families4 ,among ! l>g] & heavi] rh9oc]oses1 z 9 ^? ( ! pres5t "t1 !re 0 great v>iety 9 ! proportionate l5g?s ( ! limbs1 body & feet4 ,9 brief1 ! great complexity ( ! hi/ory ( ! rh9oc]oses is due to ! _m div]g5t & p>allel phyla into :i* ^! animals may be gr\p$4 ,broadly speak+1 !y may be subdivid$ into ! sl5d]1 cursorial types & ! heavy1 sl[-mov+ types1 ! =m] develop+ 9 a mann] simil> to t %[n by ! horses1 :ile ! latt] 7 modifi$ aft] ! fa%ion ( ! titano!res4 ,obvi\sly ! load to be support$ by ! legs & feet 0 a v important factor 9 det]m9+ ! "* ( evolution>y *ange4 ,,ii4 ,,ancylopoda4 ,,claw$ ,,p]issodactyls ,! v extraord9>y & ab]rant animals :i* are ref]able to ?is subord] h be5 und]/ood only s9ce ! ye> #ahhh1 =1 z 0 %[n 9 an e>li] *apt] 7p4 #da7 _! scatt]$ p>ts _h be5 assign$ to two diff]5t mammalian ord]s1 ! skull to ! p]issodactyls & ! feet to ! pangol9s1 or scaly anteat]s 7,pholidota7 ( ! ,old ,_w1 s9ce x occurr$ to no "o t ! same animal c\ld h su* a skull & tee? 9 comb9ation ) su* feet4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,ancylopoda is /ill v incomplete1 only f\r g5]a1 ( ! l[] ,plioc5e1 middle & l[] ,mioc5e1 & ! middle ,eoc5e respectively1 be+ at all adequately kn[n1 b ev5 9 ?is imp]fect =m ! /ory is wor? tell+4 ,! subord] 0 probably ( ,am]ican orig9 & its mo/ anci5t kn[n memb] exi/$ 9 ! middle ,eoc5e4 ,bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica ! gr\p p]si/$ into ! l[] ,plioc5e & x is believ$1 ?\gh n cle>ly demon/rat$1 t 9 ea/]n ,asia x cont9u$ ev5 into ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,all ! g5]a ( ! subord] may be includ$ 9 a s+le family4 #g4 ,*alico!riid4 ,*alico!res ,! specim5s :i* s f> h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,am]ican middle & upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e are v fragm5t>y1 consi/+ ( little m ?an tee?1 & give no in=mation o!r ?an to demon/rate ! pres5ce ( ! family 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ t p]iod ( "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,european g5]a ( ! middle ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e are well kn[n & may or may n h be5 closely simil> to _! ,am]ican contempor>ies1 ?\gh !y 7 und\bt$ly l>g]4 ,9 ^! mo/ peculi> & grotesque animals 7,macro!rium & ,*alico!rium7 ! head 0 relatively small1 ! tee? 7 v l[-cr[n$ & adapt$ only to a diet ( s(t vegetable sub/ances & ! mode ( fe$+ mu/ h be5 t ( br[s+ ^u leaves & %oots ( trees & bu%es2 ! premol>s _h n acquir$ ! mol>-patt]n1 :i* 0 v exceptional = p]issodactyls ( s late a "t1 su* a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two classes ( tee? be+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,eoc5e memb]s ( ! ord]2 ! incisors & can9es 7 r$uc$1 b ! =mula is n def9itely kn[n4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g?1 ! body v long1 & ! limbs 7 also elongate1 especially ! ant]ior pair1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! back slop$ d[nw>d f ! %\ld]s to ! rump2 ! two =e-arm bones 7 fus$ toge!r1 & ^!1 ) ! ?igh-bones1 7 ! longe/ segm5ts ( ! limbs4 ,! special peculi>ity ( ^! animals 0 9 ! "* ( ! feet1 :i* _h ?ree toes1 ea* arm$ ) a huge claw1 in/ead ( t]m9at+ 9 a ho(1 z x does 9 all normal p]issodactyls4 ,! ext]nal digit1 :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! fif?1 0 ! f\r?1 0 ! l>ge/ ( ! s]ies & app>5tly bore ! mo/ ( ! weight1 a notable dep>ture f ! normal p]issodactyl symmetry1 9 :i* ! ?ird or m$ian toe is ! l>ge/4 ,! h9d feet 7 consid]ably small] ?an ! =e1 b _h simil> claws4 ,_m sugge/ions h be5 (f]$ z to ! mann] 9 :i* ^! great claws 7 employ$4 ,! tee? demon/rate t ^! animals c\ld n h _h pr$ace\s habits1 b mu/ h be5 in(f5sive plant-fe$]s4 ,z no su* h]bivor\s creatures are liv+ n[1 x is impossible to rea* a def9itive solution ( ! problem1 :i* is fur!r complicat$ by ! fact t 9 two o!r ord]s ( ho($ mammals1 ,artiodactyla & ,toxodontia1 a m or less simil> trans=mation ( ho(s into claws took place1 & among ! ed5tates ! l>ge1 h]bivor\s gr\nd-slo?s 7,gravigrada7 _h enorm\s claws4 ,x is inadmissible to suppose t ^! great *alico!res c\ld h be5 burr[]s1 or tree-climb]s1 or t !y pursu$ & slaught]$ prey ( any k9d1 =1 aside f ! "* ( ! tee?1 su* heavy & sl[-mov+ bea/s w\ld h be5 utt]ly ineffici5t at "w ( t sort4 ,no d\bt1 ! claws 7 us$1 to "s ext5t1 z weapons ( def5ce1 z ! exi/+ ,s\? ,am]ican ,ant-,be> 7,myrmecophaga jubata7 uses 8 =midable claws2 probably also "s1 if n all1 ( ^! claw$ ungulates w\ld employ ! =e feet 9 digg+ = roots & tub]s1 z is done by ! be>s g5]ally4 ,_m ye>s ago1 ! late ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow5 sugge/$ ) ref]5ce to ! gr\nd-slo?s t ! pr9cipal use ( ! =e feet1 o!r ?an t ( locomotion1 0 to draw d[n )9 rea* ( ! long tongue & preh5sile upp] lip ! bran*es ^u :i* !y br[s$4 ,?is explanation may p]haps be applicable to all ( ^! ab]rant & exceptional gr\ps ( ho($ animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,left manus ( l[] ,mioc5e *alico!re 7,moropus74 7,aft] ,pet]son47 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e 7,arik>ee /age7 ( ,nor? ,am]ica well-nigh complete skeletons ( a l>ge *alico!re 7,moropus1 ,fig4 #acj1 p4 #bdj7 h be5 obta9$1 an animal :i* consid]ably exce$$ a l>ge horse 9 bulk & /ature4 ,9 /ructure ?is g5us _h dep>t$ less widely f ! normal p]issodactyl type ?an ! g5]a ( ! ,european ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e above describ$ & 0 9 _m respects m primitive4 ,x c\ld n1 h[ev]1 h be5 directly ance/ral to ! ,european =ms1 ?\gh indicat+ 9 a g5]al sort ( way :at ! ance/ral type mu/ h be54 ,moropus _h a relatively small1 sl5d] & po9t$ head1 a long neck1 mu* long] ?an 9 ! ,european g5]a1 & long =e legs2 ! %ort] h9d legs gave ! back a /eep incl9ation f ! %\ld]s to ! rump4 ,! proportions ( ! head1 neck & limbs sugge/ ^? ( a giraffe1 9 less exagg]at$ =m1 b ! lik5ess is m m>k$ 9 ! skeleton ?an 9 ! re/oration & is at be/ a di/ant "o4 ,! feet 7 arm$ ) ! great claws *>act]i/ic ( ! subord]1 b ! =e foot1 9 addition to ! ?ree functional toes1 _h a long spl9t1 repres5t+ ! rudim5t>y fif? digit2 ( ! fir/1 or pollex1 no trace rema9$4 ,! p]issodactyl plan ( symmetry _h n yet be5 lo/1 ! ?ird or m$ian digit be+ ! longe/ ( ! s]ies4 ,9 ! h9d foot1 :i* _h only ?ree toes1 ! dep>ture f ! p]issodactyl arrangem5t _h already begun1 & ! ?ird & f\r? digits 7i4e4 ( ! orig9al five7 7 ( ne>ly equal size1 bo? 9 l5g? & ?ickness1 :ile ! second 0 small]4 ,! family is repres5t$ 9 ! ,john ,day1 or upp] ,oligoc5e1 by specim5s :i* are suffici5tly *>act]i/ic to prove t !y are prop]ly ref]able to ?is gr\p4 ,!y h be5 assign$ to ! same g5us z t ( ! l[] ,mioc5e1 b :e!r ! id5tification is ju/ifi$ rema9s to be det]m9$4 ,9 ! l[] ,:ite ,riv] b$s ( ,canada is f\nd a mu* small] animal ( ?is family1 b ! mat]ial is too fragm5t>y = g5]ic id5tification4 ,some?+ m is kn[n ( a g5us 7,s*izo!rium7 f ! ,european ,oligoc5e1 likewise mu* small] ?an ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e =ms1 :i* _h f\r1 or possibly ev5 five1 functional digits1 9 ! manus1 b x has n be5 asc]ta9$ :e!r ! trans=mation ( ho(s into claws _h already tak5 place4 ,x is n yet practicable to det]m9e ! relation%ips ( ! ,european & ,am]ican *alico!res to "o ano!r1 because ( ! imp]fect nature ( mo/ ( ! mat]ial4 ,! mol> tee? ( ! *alico!res 7 sugge/ively l ^? ( ! titano!res1 &1 7 ! tee? alone to be tak5 into acc\nt1 no "o c\ld hesitate to reg>d ! two families z closely relat$4 ,! mo/ anci5t kn[n memb] ( ! family is ! g5us ,eomoropus1 f ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e1 :i* w be describ$ by ,pr(essor ,osborn 9 a pap] soon to appe>4 ,eomoropus 0 mu* ne>] to ! normal p]issodactyls ?an 7 ! g5]a f ! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e above describ$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,artiodactyla ,! artiodactyls are & = a v long "t h be5 a v mu* l>g] & m v>iegat$ gr\p ?an ! p]issodactyls1 & ! ,old ,_w has be5 & /ill is _! headqu>t]s & area ( special developm5t1 :]e !y are repres5t$ 9 f> great] numb] & v>iety ?an 9 ! ,new2 ! p]issodactyls1 on ! o!r h&1 fl\ri%$ especially 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 z 0 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! artiodactyls are ! dom9ant ungulate ord]1 f> outnumb]+ all ! o!rs comb9$1 & include an assemblage ( v>i$ types1 :i*1 :5 sup]ficially exam9$1 appe> to be an arbitr>y & unnatural gr\p4 ,:at c\ld seem m unlike ?an a da9ty little m\se-de]1 no l>g] ?an a h>e1 a /ag1 a camel1 a giraffe1 a bison & a hippopotamus8 ,yet1 9 spite ( ?is wond]ful div]sity ( size1 proportions1 appe>ance & habits1 !re is a g5u9e unity ( /ructure ?r\gh\t ! ord]1 :i* makes _! association 9 a s+le gr\p altoge!r natural & prop]1 especially z ^! /ructural *>act]s are n f\nd unit$ 9 any o!r gr\p4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to enum]ate all ( ! diagno/ic *>act]s :i*1 on ! "o h&1 unite all ! liv+ & ext9ct artiodactyls &1 on ! o!r1 di/+ui% !m f all o!r ho($ animals1 & x w suffice to m5tion a few ( ! m significant ( ^! features4 ,z ! "n implies1 ! artiodactyls typically h an ev5 numb] ( toes 9 ea* foot1 f\r or two2 ?\gh ?is rule may be dep>t$ f & we f9d memb]s ( ! ord] ) five digits or ?ree1 j z ! tapirs & ne>ly all ! ,eoc5e g5]a ( p]issodactyls _h f\r toes 9 ! manus4 ,mu* m important is ! fact t ! plane ( symmetry1 :i* 9 ! p]issodactyls bisects ! ?ird digit & is !re=e said to be mesaxonic1 passes betwe5 ! ?ird & f\r? digit & is p>axonic4 ,! ?ird & f\r? digits always =m an equal & symmetrical pair & are ! 8irr$ucible m9imum10 beyond :i* ! numb] ( toes _c be dim9i%$4 ,a s+le-to$ artiodactyl w\ld seem to be an anatomical impossibility2 at all ev5ts1 su* a mon/rosity 0 nev] kn[n4 ,h5ce ! t]m 8clov50 or 8divid$0 ho(1 :i* seems to take ! solid ho( ( ! horse z ! norm2 b 8clov5 or divid$10 :ile express+ ! appe>ance ( ! foot ) suffici5t accuracy1 is errone\s1 if tak5 to mean ! splitt+ ( :at 0 once cont9u\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,left =e-arm bones ( ! ,dome/ic ,pig 7,sus scr(a74 ,r41 radius4 ,u41 ulna4 ol41 olecranon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--,left manus ( ,pig4 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,pis41 pisi=m4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,u41 unci=m4 ,mc4 ,i1 second1 ,mc4 ,,ii1 ?ird1 ,mc4 ,,iii1 f\r?1 ,mc4 ,,iv1 fif?1 metac>pals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,left pes ( ,pig4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,cn4 #b1 ,cn4 #c1 second & ?ird cunei=ms4 ,mt4 ,,ii-,v1 second to fif? metat>sals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,bunodont upp] mol> ( pecc>y 7,tagassu74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--,sel5odont upp] mol> ( de] 7,odocoileus74 ,especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ord] is ! /ructure ( ! ankle1 or 8hock-jo9t0 ( ! h9d limb4 ,! ankle-bone1 or a/ragalus1 has a d\ble pulley1 ! upp] & l[] ends be+ ( q simil> %ape2 its l[] end is almo/ equally divid$ betwe5 ! cuboid & navicul>1 :i* are made concave to receive x4 ,?is type ( a/ragalus is altoge!r peculi> to ! artiodactyls1 all ( :i* possess x2 x is unlike t ( any o!r mammal :atev] & may be recogniz$ at a glance4 ,! calcaneum1 or heel-bone1 has a l>ge convex facet1 by means ( :i* x articulates ) ! fibula1 or ext]nal leg-bone2 !re is no su* articulation 9 ! p]issodactyls4 ,! l[] end ( ! calcaneum is n>r[ & fits into a /ep cut 9 ! cuboid1 :i* is ?us e :it z peculi> & *>act]i/ic z ! calcaneum & a/ragalus4 ,! femur nev] has ! ?ird tro*ant]1 :i* is always pres5t 9 ! p]issodactyls4 ,ano!r respect 9 :i* ! artiodactyls diff] f all p]issodactyls except ! horses is 9 ! mu* m complex mode ( articulation betwe5 ! v]tebr ( ! lumb> & po/]ior dorsal regions1 :i* ! =m] display1 & ev5 ! horses h no su* elaborate arrangem5t4 ,f9ally1 ano!r v m>k$ diff]5ce f ! p]issodactyls is 9 ! tee?1 = ! premol>s & mol>s are nev] alike1 & only 9 v r>e in/ances does ! la/ premol> assume ! mol>-patt]n4 ,( ?is patt]n1 !re are two pr9cipal k9ds1 "o exemplifi$ by ! pecc>ies1 9 :i* ! cr[n supports a s]ies1 fundam5tally two pairs1 ( conical cusps1 & call$ bunodont1 & ! o!r1 to be se5 9 all ! rum9at+ animals1 9 :i* ! cr[n is compos$ ( two pairs ( cresc5ts & is !re=e said to be sel5odont4 ,! bunodont 0 ! primitive type1 :5ce ! o!r 0 d]iv$1 & _m transitional =ms are kn[n4 ,! classification ( ! imm5se horde ( liv+ & ext9ct g5]a & species :i* are ref]able to ! artiodactyls is an extremely difficult problem1 :i* has f\nd no ?or\ghly satisfactory solution & w n until mu* m is le>n$ conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( ! ord] & conflict+ op9ions c be reconcil$4 ,! mo/ important ,am]ican families & g5]a are giv5 bel[1 ?\gh ! arrangem5t is b t5tative4 ,subord] ,a4 ,,artiodactyla ,,primitiva4 7,ext9ct g5]a ( d\btful aff9ities7 ,i4 ,,trigonole/id4 ,trigonole/es1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,,ii4 ,,lepto*,,rid4 ,lepto*rus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,/ib>us1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,,iii4 ,,di*obunid4 ,homacodon1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,bunom]yx1 up4 ,eoc4 ,,iv4 ,,an?raco!riid4 ,an?raco!rium1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,bo?riodon1 d4 ,arreto!rium1 d4 ,v4 8,,oreodontid4 ,protoreodon1 up4 ,eoc4 ,m]ycoidodon1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,eporeodon1 up4 ,oligo4 ,prom]yco*rus1 up4 ,oligo4 to up4 ,mioc4,m]yco*rus1 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,pronomo!rium1 up4 ,mioc4 ,mesoreodon1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,m]y*yus1 l[4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,leptau*5ia1 l[4 ,oligo4 to l[4 ,mioc4 ,cyclopidius1 mid4 ,mioc4 ,,vi4 ,,agrio*,,rid4 ,protagrio*rus1 up4 ,eoc4 ,agrio*rus1 ,oligo4 ,subord] ,b4 ,,su9a4 ,sw9e-l ,animals ,,vii4 ,,tagassuid1 ,pecc>ies4 ,helohyus1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,p]*rus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,?9ohyus1 up4 ,oligo4 ,desma?yus1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,pro/h5nops1 up4 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,platygonus1 mid4 ,plioc4 to ,plei/4 ,tagassu1 ,rec5t1 ,plei/4 9 ,s4 ,a4 ,,viii4 ,,entelodontid4 ,giant ,pigs4 ,p>ahyus1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,a*nodon1 mid4 & up4 ,eoc4 ,arco!rium1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,bo*rus1 up4 ,oligo4 ,d9ohyus1 l[ ,mioc4 ,subord] ,c4 ,,tylopoda4 ,camels & ,llamas ,,ix4 ,,camelid4 ,protylopus1 up4 ,eoc4 ,eotylopus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,pobro!rium1 ,oligo4 ,pseudolabis1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,protom]yx1 up4 ,oligo4 & l[4 ,mioc4 ,oxydactylus1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,miolabis1 mid4 ,mioc4 ,protolabis1 mid4 & up4 ,mioc4 ,alticamelus1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,/5omylus1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,procamelus1 up4 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,pliau*5ia1 up4 ,mioc4 to mid4 ,plioc4 ,camelus1 ,plei/4 ,lama1 ,plioc4 to ,rec5t1 ,s4 ,a4 ,x4 ,,hyp]tragulid4 ,leptotragulus1 up4 ,eoc4 ,leptoreodon1 up4 ,eoc4 ,leptom]yx1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,hyp]tragulus1 ,oligo4 ,hypisodus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,protoc]as1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,syndyoc]as1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,subord] ,d4 ,,pecora4 ,true ,rum9ants ,,xi4 ,,c]vid4 ,de]4 ,bla/om]yx1 l[4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,c]vus1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,rangif]1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,alce1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,c]valces1 ,plei/4 ,odocoileus1 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a4 ,mazama1 ,plei/4 to ,rec41 ,s4 ,a4 ,,xii4 ,,m]ycodontid4 ,de]-,antelopes4 ,m]ycodus1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,caprom]yx1 ,plei/4 ,,xiii4 ,,antilocaprid4 ,prong-,bucks4 ,antilocapra1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 8,dromom]yx1 mid4 & up4 ,mioc4 ,,xiv4 ,,bovid4 ,antelopes1 ,%eep1 ,goats1 ,ox51 etc4 ,neotragoc]us1 ,il+oc]os1 ,sph5ophalus1 l[4 ,plioc4 ,preptoc]as1 ,euc]a!rium1 ,symbos1 ,plei/4 ,ovibos1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,bison1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,?is li/ ( families & g5]a1 port5t\s z x is1 w\ld be greatly increas$ by ! addition ( ! ,old ,_w =ms1 :i* outnumb] ^? ( ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,,subord] ,,su9a4 ,,sw9e-,,l ,,animals ,! hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican types ( pig-l =ms is1 9 "o s5se1 v full & complete 9 t ! successive g5]a may be trac$ back to ! ,eoc5e1 b1 9 ano!r s5se1 ! /ory is exasp]at+ly imp]fect1 because s mu* ( ! mat]ial is fragm5t>y4 ,( mo/ ( ! g5]a1 no?+ is kn[n b tee? & jaws1 & ^!1 ?\gh suffici5t = id5tification1 tell b little ( ! /ructural *anges :i* x is desirable to "k4 ,x is m]ely a "q ( "t1 :5 m adequate mat]ial w be obta9$4 #a4 ,tagassuid4 ,pecc>ies ,! pecc>ies1 or ,am]ican sw9e1 are n[ *iefly ( ,neotropical di/ribution1 ext5d+ into ! ,sonoran region only z f> z ,arkansas2 b ?is has be5 true only s9ce ! ,plei/oc5e1 = ne>ly ! entire hi/ory ( ! family has be5 enact$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 _m po9ts ( /ructure ! pecc>ies ( ! pres5t day are m advanc$ & specializ$ ?an ! f> m v>i$ & div]sifi$ true sw9e ( ! ,old ,_w1 = x is a s+ul> fact t su* a long-liv$ & p]si/5t /ock z ! pecc>ies %\ld h giv5 rise to s few v>iants & side-bran*es4 ,exi/+ pecc>ies all belong to a s+le g5us 7,tagassu7 & are relatively small animals1 ( unmi/akably pig-l "* & appe>ance1 b f> small] ?an ! ,wild ,bo> 7,sus scr(a7 ( ,europe1 or ! ,w>t ,hog 7,phaco*rus ?iopicus7 ( ,africa1 to m5tion only two ( ! ,old ,_w sw9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--;,d5tition ( ! ,coll>$ ,pecc>y 7,tagassu tajacu7 left side4 i #c1 ext]nal incisor4 ,c1 can9e1 p #b1 second premol> 7! fir/ is lo/71 m #a1 fir/ mol>4 ,"o *>act]i/ic & ?or\ghgo+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! pecc>ies & ! sw9e is ! %ape ( ! can9e tusks4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! tusks1 ?\gh v effective weapons1 are n v l>ge & are /raight & h a v]tical direction1 :ile 9 all ! true sw9e ! upp] tusk is curv$ upw>d & outw>d1 project+ /rongly f ! side ( ! jaw1 & ! great1 curv$ l[] tusk we>s aga9/ its ant]ior side4 ,! pecc>ies fur!r h small] & simpl] mol>s1 ea* ) f\r pr9cipal1 conical cusps 7quadritub]culate patt]n7 arrang$ 9 two transv]se pairs1 ) num]\s v small cuspules ar\nd & betwe5 !m1 obscur+ ! plan4 ,9 ! true sw9e ! tee? are mu* l>g] & cov]$ ) innum]able w>t-l cusps1 l>ge & small1 seldom arrang$ accord+ to any def9ite plan4 ,9 ! foll[+ p>ticul>s ! mod]n pecc>ies %[ advance ov] ! ,old ,_w sw9e3 7#a7 ! la/ l[] premol> has tak5 on ! mol>-patt]n1 a v exceptional feature among ! artiodactyls2 7#b7 ! ulna & radius are cossifi$2 7#c7 !re are b two functional digits 9 ea* foot2 ! =e foot has1 9 addition1 two complete1 b v r$uc$ & sl5d]1 lat]al digits & ! h9d foot only "o1 :]eas 9 all ! pigs ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e !re are f\r functional toes 9 ea* foot2 7#d7 9 ! h9d foot ! two functional metat>sals1 ! ?ird & f\r?1 h coalesc$ to =m a 8cannon-bone10 a /ructure :i* is n f\nd 9 any o!r family ( ! subord]2 7#e7 ! /oma* is complex1 approximat+ t ( a rum9ant4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e ! pr$om9at+ k9d ( pecc>y 0 a g5us 7,platygonus7 :i* 0 m advanc$ ?an ! exi/+ =m 7,tagassu71 &1 to all seem+1 bett] fitt$ to survive1 ?\gh = "s inexplicable reason x fail$ to d s4 ,x 0 a consid]ably l>g] animal1 ) proportionately long] & heavi] legs4 ,its mol> tee? are ( special int]e/ because !y reproduc$ a type :i* has be5 s (t5 repeat$ & indep5d5tly acquir$ 9 s _m diff]5t gr\ps ( mammals4 ,9 ?is mol> ! two conical cusps ( ea* pair 7 fus$ into a high1 transv]se ridge or cre/4 ,precisely ! same modification took place among ! true sw9e 9 ! g5us ,li/riodon ( ! ,fr5* middle ,mioc5e4 ,platygonus fir/ appe>$ 9 ! middle ,plioc5e1 & its pr$ecessor 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e & upp] ,mioc5e %[$ ! cre/s ( ! mol>s 9 process ( =mation4 ,9 ! latt] /age x 0 accompani$ by a true pecc>y ) tub]culat$ tee?1 :i* diff]$ f ! mod]n species 9 ! simplicity ( ! h9dmo/ premol>1 :i* _h n tak5 on ! mol>-patt]n4 ,if ! feet & limbs ( ?is upp] ,mioc5e pecc>y 7 kn[n1 !y w\ld d\btless prove to be mu* m primitive ?an ^? ( ,tagassu1 b !y /ill await discov]y4 ,little c be said ( ! pecc>ies ( ! middle & l[] ,mioc5e o!r ?an to record ! fact ( _! pres5ce 9 ^? =mations1 b ^? ( ! upp] ,oligoc5e 7,john ,day7 are1 h[ev]1 repres5t$ by well-pres]v$ skulls1 :i* %[ t m ?an "o phylum ( ! family _h aris51 ?\gh !re 0 no great diff]5ce betwe5 !m2 !y 7 consid]ably small] animals ?an ^? ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e4 ,/ill small] 0 ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us 7,p]*rus7 ( :i* "s fragm5t>y skeletons h be5 obta9$4 ,al?\gh an und\bt$ pecc>y1 ?is animal 0 n f> f :at ! common prog5itor ( ! pecc>ies & ! true sw9e might be expect$ to resemble4 ,! mol>s 7 quadritub]culate )\t ! num]\s accessory cuspules ( ! mod]n g5us2 ! bones ( ! =e-arm 7 sep>ate & ! feet _h f\r functional digits ea*1 :ile !re 0 no cannon-bone 9 ! pes1 ! metat>sals rema9+ free4 ,no pecc>ies h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,u9ta1 b probably ?is is a m]e accid5t ( collect+4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible t ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us 0 n ( ,am]ican d]ivation1 b an immigrant f ! ,old ,_w4 ,9 ! middle ,eoc5e1 or ,bridg] /age1 ?is s]ies is kn[n only f tee? & jaws & a v few scatt]$ foot-bones1 & ^!1 ?\gh probably ref]able to ! family1 _c be def9itively assign$ to x )\t m complete mat]ial4 ,sev]al species1 l>g] & small]1 ( ! g5us ,helohyus occurr$ 9 ! ,bridg]1 :]e !y 7 n uncommon1 consid]+ ! g5]al r>ity ( artiodactyls 9 t /age4 ,?us1 ! pecc>ies1 ?\gh none ( !m 7 l>ge1 foll[$ ! usual law ( mammalian developm5t1 &1 beg9n+ ) v small =ms1 increas$ 9 size ) ea* succe$+ geological /age d[n to ! ,plei/oc5e4 #b4 ,entelodontid4 ,giant ,pigs ,! giant pigs1 a mo/ rem>kable gr\p ( sw9e-l =ms & ( z yet unkn[n orig91 appe>$ = ! la/ "t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 :]e ! g5us ( t date 7,d9ohyus7 0 ! l>ge/ ( kn[n suill9e animals1 ! hippopotamuses except$4 ,9 ne>ly e "p ( ! skeleton ^! great bea/s display$ an unusual & ab]rant k9d ( developm5t4 ,! incisors 7 long & po9t$1 & ! can9es =m$ /\t & heavy1 ?\gh n v long1 tusks1 :i* 9 %ape 7 m l ^? ( a be> ?an ^? ( ei!r pecc>ies or sw9e4 ,! premol>s 7 v simple1 ( compress$ conical & tr5*ant %ape1 & occupi$ a v long space 9 ! jaws1 :ile ! mol>s 7 relatively small & quadritub]culate1 ! cr[ns cov]$ ) v ?ick1 co>sely wr9kl$ enamel4 ,! skull 0 imm5sely elongate1 especially ! facial region 9 front ( ! eyes1 :ile ! bra9-case 0 s absurdly small z to give ! skull a reptilian aspect1 :5 view$ f above4 ,evid5tly1 ^! great pigs 7 pr(\ndly /upid1 9 ?is respect rivall+ ! titano!res ( ! ,:ite ,riv] 7p4 #caa74 ,b5ea? ea* eye-socket 0 a long1 desc5d+1 bony flap1 or process1 & on ! "u side ( ! l[] jaw 7 two pairs ( prom95t knobs1 ! function ( :i*1 z ( ! flaps b5ea? ! eyes1 is q problematical4 ,! eye-sockets !mselves 7 completely encircl$ 9 bone1 a r>e "* 9 ! subord]4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 z 9 ! pigs g5]ally1 ! body n v elongate & ! tail ( mod]ate l5g?2 at ! %\ld]s1 ! sp9es ( ! dorsal v]tebr 7 v long1 mak+ a decid$ hump1 & 9 ! lumb> & po/]ior dorsal region ! processes = articulation betwe5 ! v]tebr 7 extremely elaborate4 ,= "o ( ! pigs1 ! limbs 7 v long & gave q a /ilt$ look to ! animal4 ,z 9 ! mod]n pecc>ies1 ! =e-arm bones 7 indi/+ui%ably fus$ toge!r & ! feet _h only two toes ea*1 ! only memb]s ( ! subord] 9 :i* digital r$uction _h proce$$ s f>1 ?\gh ! exi/+ pecc>ies approximate ?is condition4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 nodul> ve/iges ( two o!r digits1 :i* prove ! d]ivation ( ?is =m f at lea/ a f\r-to$ type2 no cannon-bone 0 =m$4 ,9 view ( ! size ( ! animal1 ! ho(s 7 surpris+ly small1 :i* sugge/s t ! weight 0 *iefly borne ^u a pad4 ,d9ohyus 0 a v l>ge animal1 six feet or m 9 height at ! %\ld]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--,"r manus ( entelodont 7,ar*o!rium +5s7 f l[] ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--,skull ( ,:ite ,riv] entelodont 7,ar*o!rium mortoni74 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,= re/oration1 see ,fig4 #acg1 p4 #bfj4 ,9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e 7 v l>ge species ( ano!r1 b closely simil>1 g5us 7,bo*rus7 ?\gh some:at small] ?an ^? ( ,d9ohyus1 & ! species ( ! upp] ,:ite ,riv] b$s 7,ar*o!rium7 7 little1 if at all1 small] ?an ^? ( ! ,john ,day4 ,a numb] ( specim5s 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ?r[ a welcome light ^u ! habits ( ^! /range creatures4 ,9 "o1 ! ext]nal1 or ?ird1 upp] incisor too? has a deep1 triangul> not* worn 9 its po/]o-ext]nal face1 & ! l[] can9e has a well-def9$ groove worn on ! po/]ior side at ! base ( ! cr[n2 o!r individuals %[ less di/9ct m>ks ( simil> k9d4 7,see ,fig4 #aid47 ,x is out ( ! "q to suppose t ^! grooves & not*es c\ld h be5 produc$ by abrasion ) o!r tee?1 = no o!r tee? c\ld rea* ! worn areas1 & x is altoge!r probable t !y 7 made 9 digg+ up roots4 ,! root1 held firmly 9 ! gr\nd at bo? ends & loop$ ov] ! tee? :i* pull$ until x broke1 & be+ cov]$ ) abrasive grit1 w\ld we> j su* m>ks z ! tee? actually display4#g ,:ile ! entelodonts 7 ?us root]s1 !y 7 d\btless omnivor\s1 l o!r pigs1 & did n disda9 a meal ( c>rion :5 !y c\ld get x4 ,x is likely t ! heavy can9e tusks 7 also us$ z weapons1 bo? 9 def5ce aga9/ ! attacks ( c>nivores & 9 fight+ betwe5 ! males ( ! same species4 ,x mu/ h be5 9 "s su* enc\nt] t ! animal repres5t$ by a complete skeleton 9 ! ,pr9ceton ,museum receiv$ its brok5 rib2 t ! fracture 0 made dur+ life is demon/rat$ by ! l>ge callus gr[?s on ! brok5 ends1 b ! pieces did n knit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,specim5 %[+ *>act]i/ic grooves ( we> 9 ! ant]ior tee? ( entelodont 7,ar*o!rium7 f upp] ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,9 ! middle & l[] sub/ages ( ! ,:ite ,riv] ! g5us 7,ar*o!rium7 0 ! same z 9 ! upp] sub/age ( ^! b$s1 b ! species 7 all small] & "s ( !m v mu* s1 n exce$+ an ord9>y pig 9 size4 ,?r\gh\t ! s]ies1 z we n[ h x1 f ! l[] ,oligoc5e into ! l[] ,mioc5e1 !re is v little *ange except 9 size1 all ! ess5tial features ( /ructure rema9+ ! same2 ! g5]a are !re=e di/+ui%$ by modifications ( v second>y importance1 & x is a "q :e!r all ! species %\ld n be includ$ 9 a s+le g5us4 ,! ,european g5us ,entelodon1 :i* gives its "n to ! family1 is s l ! ,am]ican =ms t by mo/ writ]s ! ,:ite ,riv] species are ref]r$ to x4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note t ! giant pigs h also be5 f\nd 9 ! m>9e ,mioc5e ( ,new ,j]sey1 "o ( ! few records ( ! ,t]ti>y l& mammals ( ! ,atlantic seabo>d4 ,at pres5t1 ! entelodonts prop] _c be trac$ back ( ! l[] ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 nor are !y f\nd 9 any m anci5t =mations 9 ,europe4 ,x is1 !re=e1 probable t !y 7 immigrants 9 bo? ( ^! cont95ts1 presumably f ,asia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,skull ( %ort-fac$ pig 7,a*nodon robu/us7 f ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,! :ole ,eoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica _h a s]ies ( pig-l animals1 call$ ! a*nodonts or %ort-fac$ pigs1 :i* seem to h be5 relat$ to ! entelodonts4 ,!y end$ _! c>e] 9 ! ,u9ta j be=e ! appe>ance ( ! entelodonts1 & x w\ld be natural to suppose t ! latt] 7 desc5d$ f !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple t an organ or /ructure once lo/ c nev] be rega9$1 is valid1 !n !re c be no relation ( ance/or & desc5dant betwe5 ! two gr\ps1 = ( ! a*nodonts1 ev5 _! mo/ anci5t repres5tatives _h lo/ ! fir/ premol>1 giv+ ! =mula p #c_/c1 :ile 9 ! entelodonts x is con/antly p #d_/d4 ,! a*nodonts1 :i* are mu* less fully kn[n ?an ! entelodonts1 _h tee? v simil> 9 =m to ^? ( ! latt]2 & _! mo/ conspicu\s feature 0 ! %ortness ( ! face & jaws1 z contra/$ ) ! extreme elongation ( ^! p>ts 9 ! entelodonts1 nor did !y h ! bony flaps "u ! eyes or ! knobs on ! l[] jaw :i* gave su* a fanta/ic appe>ance to ! entelodont skull4 ,little is kn[n ( ! skeleton except t !re 7 f\r functional digits 9 ! manus4 ,! ,u9ta & ,bridg] g5us 7,a*nodon7 0 l>g] ?an ! ,wasat* =m 7,p>ahyus71 :i* 0 an immigrant1 probably f ! same region z aft]w>ds s5t out ! entelodonts to ,am]ica & ,europe2 ?is w\ld acc\nt = ! simil>ity & probable relation%ip ( ! two subfamilies4 ,,subord] ,,artiodactyla ,,primitiva4 ,,primitive ,,artiodactyls ,no d\bt1 ?is subord] is an artificial assemblage ( unrelat$ families1 a sort ( wa/e-basket1 into :i* are ?r[n ! gr\ps ( :i* no o!r disposition c be made 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k4 ,z in=mation becomes m complete1 ! v>i\s families w be r$i/ribut$ among ! gr\ps ) :i* !y _h a g5u9e relation%ip4 #c4 ,an?raco!riid4 ,an?raco!res ,?is family 0 abundantly repres5t$ 9 ,europe f ! middle ,eoc5e ?r\gh ! ,oligoc5e1 9 ,asia p]si/+ ev5 into ! ,plioc5e1 & 7 abundant 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,egypt4 ,migrants f ! ,old ,_w rea*$ ,am]ica 9 ,:ite ,riv] times1 b spe$ily di$ out1 z !y did n survive into ! upp] ,oligoc5e4 ,! mo/ fully kn[n ( ^! animals is an ,am]ican species ( a ,european g5us ,bo?riodon4 ,almo/ complete skeletons ( ?is g5us h be5 obta9$ 9 ! *annel s&/ones ( ! upp] ,:ite ,riv] sub/age4 ,9 size & proportions1 ,bo?riodon 0 n unlike a dome/ic pig1 b _h a v long head ) sl5d]1 po9t$ sn\t2 x _h also a %ort neck1 long body1 %ort limbs & feet4 ,! primitive "* ( ?is g5us is made cle> by _m features ( its /ructure2 ! mol> tee? 7 extremely l[-cr[n$ & _! cusps 7 s imp]fectly cresc5tic 9 =m z to be call$ buno-sel5odont1 z indicat+ _! transitional nature1 & ! upp] mol>s _h five cusps in/ead ( f\r1 a v primitive feature4 ,ano!r v significant "* 0 ! five-to$ manus2 ! fir/ digit1 or pollex1 0 mu* small] ?an ! o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--;,bo?riodon bra*yrhyn*us1 upp] ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! second g5us ( ! family :i* _h ,am]ican repres5tatives 0 ,an?raco!rium1 :i* 0 mu* l ,bo?riodon1 b ev5 m ar*aic 9 "*2 ! mol>s c\ld h>dly be call$ sel5odont at all4 #d4 ,oreodontid4 ,oreodonts ,?is 0 "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ,nor? ,am]ican artiodactyl families1 & its memb]s 7 exce$+ly abundant ?r\gh\t ! upp] ,eoc5e1 ! :ole ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e1 end+ _! long c>e] 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,9 di/ribution ! family 0 exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican1 & no trace ( x has be5 f\nd 9 any o!r cont95t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( _! long hi/ory ! oreodonts und]w5t _m trans=mations & bran*$ out into sev]al di/9ct phyla1 yet ?r\gh all ^! *anges !y rema9$ s+ul>ly cons]vative1 = ! trans=mations1 "s ( !m suffici5tly biz>re1 affect$ *iefly ! tee? & skull1 ! rema9d] ( ! skeleton *ang+ b little4 ,! oreodonts 7 all small or ( mod]ate size1 none ( !m surpass+ ! ,wild ,bo> 9 /ature1 nor 0 !re any decid$ increase 9 size f /age to /age4 ,"o & all1 !y 7 /range bea/s4 ,dr4 ,leidy1 :o fir/ describ$ & nam$ mo/ ( ! g5]a1 spoke ( !m z comb9+ ! *>act]s ( camel1 de] & pig1 & call$ !m 8rum9at+ hogs10 a conception express$ 9 ! names :i* he gave to "s ( !m1 su* z ,m]y*yus & ,m]yco*rus1 bo? ( :i* mean rum9ant sw9e4 ,! g5]al proportions ( mo/ ( ! species 7 q z 9 ! pecc>ies1 ?\gh1 = ! mo/ "p1 ) mu* long] tails2 !y _h a %ort neck1 elongate body1 %ort limbs & feet4 ,9 "o g5us 7,mesoreodon7 ( ! l[] ,mioc5e a rudim5t>y coll>-bone has be5 f\nd1 & probably all ( ! m anci5t g5]a possess$ x1 b only by an unusually lucky *ance w\ld s small & loosely atta*$ a bone be pres]v$ 9 place4 ,z ! coll>-bone is sup]flu\s 9 ho($ animals1 9 :i* ! limbs are us$ only = locomotion & move 9 planes p>allel ) t ( ! backbone1 x is almo/ univ]sally abs5t 9 !m1 & 9 only "o o!r gr\p ( ungulates1 ! ext9ct ,typo!ria ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 has its pres5ce be5 demon/rat$4 ,9 all ( ! oreodonts ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg rema9$ sep>ate4 ,! tee? 7 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 & !re 0 a peculi> feature 9 ! d5tition common to ne>ly e "o ( ! g5]a4 ,on casual exam9ation1 "o w\ld say t ! animals _h f\r l[] incisors on ea* side & t ! l[] can9e clos$ beh9d ! upp] "o1 a mo/ exceptional arrangem5t4 ,m c>eful /udy %[s t ! app>5t f\r? incisor 0 ! can9e1 a trans=mation :i* has also tak5 place 9 all ( ! rum9ants except ! camels1 & ! too? :i* _h assum$ ! =m & function ( ! l[] can9e 0 really ! fir/ l[] premol>2 ?is latt] *ange is n f\nd among ! rum9ants1 b 0 repeat$ 9 a few o!r ext9ct families4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--;,head ( ,m]yco*rus proprius1 l[] ,mioc5e to l[] ,plioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,only two g5]a ( oreodonts 7,m]y*yus & ,m]yco*rus7 surviv$ into ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,bo? _h ! proportions common ?r\gh\t ! family1 b ,m]y*yus 0 mu* m sl5d] & lightly built1 its lat]al digits 7 r$uc$ 9 size & v ?9 & x _h hypsodont gr9d+ tee?2 :ile ,m]yco*rus 0 ( l>g] size 7ab\t t ( a l>ge dome/ic pig7 & /\t] build & _h l[-cr[n$ tee?2 its head1 h[ev]1 _h a v diff]5t appe>ance1 giv5 by ! possession ( a %ort proboscis1 ! pres5ce ( :i* is indicat$ by ! greatly r$uc$ nasal bones2 ! jaws & face 7 also mu* %ort5$4 ,! eye-sockets pres5t$ obliquely =w>d & upw>d1 in/ead ( lat]ally1 z is usual among mammals1 & 7 plac$ high 9 ! head4 ,?is position ( ! eyes & ( ! entrance to ! e> r5d]s x probable t ,m]yco*rus 0 l>gely aquatic 9 its habits4 ,bo? g5]a _h %ort1 f\r-to$ feet1 z 0 g5]al ?r\gh\t ! family & 9 no g5us did ! r$uction ( digits proce$ beyond ! loss ( ! fir/ ( ! orig9al five1 ! pollex & hallux4 ,! two g5]a above describ$1 repres5tatives ( two di/9ct phyla )9 ! family1 held ov]1 z x 71 f ! upp] ,mioc5e )\t ess5tial *ange4 ,! phylum ( ! hypsodont & sl5d] ,m]y*yus w5t back1 ) only m9or modifications1 into ! upp] sub/age ( ! l[] ,mioc5e1 b _c z yet be trac$ to an ,oligoc5e ance/ry2 x is !re=e /ill impossible to say j :]e & :5 x bran*$ (f f ! ma9 /em ( ! family4 ,future discov]ies 9 ! ,oligoc5e w no d\bt cle> up ?is problem4 ,! real t]m9al & mo/ highly specializ$ memb] ( ! ,m]yco*rus phylum & ! mo/ extraord9>y memb] ( ! entire family 0 conf9$ to ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,! extreme peculi>ity ( ?is g5us 7,pronomo!rium7 0 display$ only 9 ! head1 :i* 0 an exagg]ation ( ! ,m]yco*rus type1 ! face be+ excessively %ort5$ & ! nasals s r$uc$ z to %[ t ! proboscis 0 mu* bett] develop$ ?an 9 ! p>5t g5us4 ,! %ort5+ ( ! face & ! great v]tical height ( ! skull & l[] jaw gave a decid$ lik5ess to ! skull ( a great ape1 ?\gh ! proboscis w\ld mask any su* resemblance 9 ! liv+ head4 ,m]yco*rus itself w5t back to ! upp] division ( ! l[] ,mioc5e1 b 9 ! l[] division x 0 replac$ by an ance/ral g5us1 ,prom]yco*rus1 :i* _h an elongate face & jaws & no proboscis2 b 9 o!r *>act]i/ic features1 su* z ! extreme ?ickness & r\ghness ( ! zygomatic ar*es1 x 0 l its desc5dant4 ,prom]yco*rus conta9$ ! l>ge/ kn[n species ( oreodonts1 "s ( !m equall+ a ,wild ,bo> 9 /ature1 & its rema9s are f\nd s abundantly 9 ! middle & l[] ,mioc5e & upp] ,oligoc5e1 t !re mu/ h be5 great h]ds ( ^! animals ov] ! pla9s4 ,probably x 0 itself d]iv$ f "s ( ! l>g] species ( ,eporeodon ( ! upp] ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 b !re is a gap 9 ! hi/ory1 due to ! fact t ! l[] "p ( ! ,john ,day is almo/ b>r5 ( fossils & ! connect+ l9k has n be5 recov]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,head ( ,pronomo!rium laticeps1 upp] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,x is an int]e/+ & significant fact t ance/ral & d]ivative g5]a may cont9ue to live side by side 9 ! same region4 ,prom]yco*rus1 x is believ$1 gave rise to ,m]yco*rus1 b surviv$ ) x into ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,m]yco*rus1 9 its turn1 produc$ ,pronomo!rium1 &1 s f> f be+ replac$ by ! latt]1 actually outliv$ x & p]si/$ into ! l[] ,plioc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,prom]yco*rus c>rik]i1 l[] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,a ?ird phylum ( ! oreodonts1 :i* appe>$ = ! la/ "t 9 ! middle ,mioc5e 7g5us ,cyclopidius71 0 a s]ies ( small & v small species1 ( :i* ! skull 0 almo/ z peculi> z t ( ,pronomo!rium1 b 9 a diff]5t fa%ion4 ,! face 0 v mu* %ort5$ & on ea* side a great vacuity r$uc$ ! nasal bones to m]e spl9ts2 ! elevat$ position ( ! eye-sockets1 :i* project$ above ! =ehead1 & ( ! tubul> entrance to ! e> is an evid5ce ( an aquatic or amphibi\s mode ( life1 su* z is illu/rat$ by ! hippopotamuses1 :i* c float almo/ completely subm]g$1 ) only ! e>s1 eyes & no/rils above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! tympanic bull 7see p4 #ff7 or bony *amb]s into :i* ! e>-tubes op5$1 7 ( relatively enorm\s size & add$ mu* to ! unusual appe>ance ( ! skull4 ,! incisors 7 v small & ! gr9d+ tee? n>r[ & completely hypsodont1 ?is & ! ,m]y*yus s]ies be+ ! only two phyla ( ! family 9 :i* ! hypsodont mol> 0 fully acquir$4 ,! rema9d] ( ! skeleton diff]$ b little f ! type common to ! :ole family1 except = a some:at %ort] tail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--,skull ( ,leptau*5ia nitida1 upp] ,:ite ,riv]4 ,! animals ( ?is s]ies 7 common 9 ! middle & l[] ,mioc5e & 9 ! upp] sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 b h n be5 f\nd 9 ! int]m$iate ,john ,day4 ,?is may h be5 a matt] ( geographical di/ribution1 ^! creatures n ext5d+ we/ ( ! ma9 ranges ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,9 ! upp] ,:ite ,riv] ! g5us ,leptau*5ia is extremely common1 b bel[ t level !y sudd5ly & completely vani% &1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,m]y*yus phylum1 x is n yet practicable to det]m9e ! po9t 9 "t or space ( _! bran*+ (f f ! ma9 /em ( ! family4 ,7 ! oreodonts n entirely conf9$ to ,nor? ,am]ica1 we %\ld1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 expla9 ! seem+ly sudd5 appe>ance ( ,leptau*5ia z due to immigration1 & x is entirely possible t ! s]ies did actually orig9ate 9 "s "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica :i* has left no record ( its ,eoc5e or ,oligoc5e t]re/rial life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 no "o c imag9e t ev]y?+ t c be kn[n ( ! mammals ( ! middle & l[] ,:ite ,riv] has already be5 le>n$1 & at any "t ! s\ght-= ance/or ( ,leptau*5ia may be f\nd 9 ^? b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--,leptau*5ia nitida1 upp] ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! f\r? phylum may be reg>d$ z ! ma9 or c5tral /em ( ! family & 0 ! "o :i* und]w5t ! lea/ *ange1 ?\gh x probably gave rise to all ! o!r phyla1 :i* bran*$ (f f x at v>i\s /ages 9 its hi/ory4 ,?is s]ies t]m9at$ 9 ! middle ,mioc5e & compris$ sev]al g5]a1 all v mu* alike1 9 ! l[] /ages ( t epo*4 ,"o ( ^! g5]a 7,mesoreodon7 display$ a v rem>kable peculi>ity ( /ructure 9 ! ossification ( ! great c>tilage ( ! l>ynx1 :i* seems to po9t to ! possession ( uncommon vocal p[]s4 ,x is impossible to say :e!r ?is feature 0 conf9$ to ! s+le g5us1 or 0 g5]al 9 ! family1 = only 9 r>e in/ances w\ld s extremely delicate a /ructure be pres]v$4 ,9 ! ,john ,day ! g5us ,eporeodon1 :i* 0 v abundant1 0 ! repres5tative ( ?is phylum1 & ! same1 or a closely simil>1 g5us liv$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,:ite ,riv] /age4 ,9 ! middle & l[] ,:ite ,riv] sub/ages oreodonts are ! commone/ ( fossils1 s t ! collector soon we>ies ( !m 7see ,fig4 #acf1 p4 #bei72 !y mu/ h liv$ 9 great h]ds 9 ! =e/s & along ! /reams4 ,!re 7 sev]al species1 v>y+ pr9cipally 9 size1 ! l>ge/ ab\t z long z a wolf1 b ) %ort] legs1 & ! smalle/ n s mu* z half ( t size4 ,all belong$ to a s+le g5us1 = :i* ! rigid law ( priority compels u to use a mo/ cumbr\s "n 7,m]ycoidodon71 ! widely us$ t]m ,oreodon be+ a synonym4 ,?is g5us 0 ! c5tral /ock ( ! family1 f :i* mo/1 if n all1 ! o!rs 7 directly or indirectly d]iv$1 ?\gh1 z previ\sly po9t$ out1 we _c 9 all cases trace ! connection4 ,9 ^! ,:ite ,riv] animals ! gr9d+ tee? 7 v l[-cr[n$ & _h consid]able resemblance to ^? ( a de]2 ! mol>s 7 typically sel5odont & made up ( two pairs ( cresc5tic cusps4 ,! skull diff]$ little f t ( ! succe$+ g5]a ( ?is phylum2 ! neck 0 %ort1 body & tail long4 ,an especially int]e/+ fact is t ! =e foot _h five digits1 ! fir/1 or pollex1 v small & ( no functional value1 b complete 9 all its p>ts2 ! h9d foot 0 f\r-to$4 ,9 all ( ! subsequ5t g5]a ( ! family ! numb] ( digits 0 uni=mly f\r 9 bo? manus & pes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,skull ( ,m]ycoidodon culb]tsoni1 middle ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,leidy47 ,9 ! ,u9ta /age ( ! upp] ,eoc5e liv$ ! mo/ anci5t & primitive memb] ( ! family yet discov]$1 ! g5us ,protoreodon1 :i* is 9 e respect :at ! ance/or ( ! ,:ite ,riv] g5us %\ld be4 ,! functional trans=mation ( ! l[] can9e into a f\r? incisor & ! replacem5t ( ! can9e by ! fir/ l[] premol> _h already tak5 place1 b ! mol>s 7 mu* m primitive ?an ^? ( ! ,:ite ,riv] & succe$+ g5]a2 ! cresc5ts 7 ?ick] & less complete1 pla9ly indicat+ _! d]ivation f conical cusps1 & a small fif? cusp 0 pres5t betwe5 ! ant]ior pair ( ! upp] mol>s1 z 9 ! an?raco!res & o!r ,european families ( ! ,artiodactyla ,primitiva4 ,be=e ! discov]y ( ,protoreodon1 ! "* ( its mol>s 0 pr$ict$ by ,dr4 ,s*loss]1 ( ,muni*4 ,! skull resembl$ t ( ! ,:ite ,riv] g5]a1 except t ! eye-socket 0 op5 beh9d1 & !re 0 no gl&ul> pit 9 front ( ! eye4 ,! skeleton is b p>tially kn[n1 b x has be5 asc]ta9$ t !re 7 five toes 9 ! manus & probably also 9 ! pes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--,skull ( ,protoreodon p>vus1 ,u9ta ,eoc5e4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,n4,b4 ,?is skull is actually mu* small] ?an t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,no?+ has yet be5 discov]$ 9 =mations old] ?an ! upp] ,eoc5e :i* c be reg>d$ z ance/ral to ! oreodonts1 & ?is is n surpris+ 9 view ( ! extremely meagre & unsatisfactory nature ( our in=mation reg>d+ ! artiodactyls ( ! ,bridg]4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 x seems r m probable t ! ,u9ta g5us 0 an immigrant 7:5ce1 we _c say7 ?an t ! ,bridg] w ev] yield ! desir$ ance/ral =ms4 ,s long z ! e>ly ,t]ti>y mammals ( nor!rn & c5tral ,asia rema9 unkn[n1 ?is & _m simil> problems c f9d no def9itive solution4 ,! "q ( relation%ip ) o!r families is b\nd up ) t ( ! orig9 ( ! oreodonts2 _m *>act]s po9t to a connection ) ! an?raco!res &1 f ! /&po9t ( pres5t k1 t appe>s to be ! mo/ probable aff9ity2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are /ructural features :i* sugge/ relation%ip ) ! primitive camels4 ,betwe5 ^! & o!r alt]natives1 only ! recov]y ( ! middle & l[] ,eoc5e =ms c f9ally decide4 ,review+ ! long hi/ory ( ! oreodont family f ! evolution>y po9t ( view1 we f9d a c\rse ( developm5t :i* diff]s 9 sev]al respects f t exemplifi$ by mo/ ( ! families previ\sly consid]$3 7#a7 ,!re 0 a g5]al increase 9 size1 ?\gh x 0 f> f /eady1 & almo/ e g5us _h l>g] & small] species1 & 9 "s ( ! phyla ! species 7 f> l>g] ?an 9 o!rs4 ,! memb]s ( ! ,leptau*5ia phylum 7 v small & no memb] ( ! family ev] atta9$ to m ?an mod]ate size4 7#b7 ,! upp] mol>s e>ly lo/ ! fif? cusp1 & aft] t !re 0 little *ange 9 ! d5tition1 except t 9 ! ,m]y*yus & ,leptau*5ia phyla ! gr9d+ tee? became hypsodont4 7#c7 ,!re 0 great v>iety 9 ! modifications ( ! skull1 ea* phylum hav+ its own peculi>ities4 ,! orbit1 :i* 0 op5 beh9d 9 ! ,u9ta ,protoreodon1 0 clos$ 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] & all succe$+ g5]a4 ,9 ! ,m]yco*rus s]ies1 ! skull fir/ enl>g$1 ) little *ange 9 proportions1 !n elongat$ ! facial region1 !n %ort5$ ! face & s r$uc$ ! nasals z to indicate ! pres5ce ( a proboscis1 culm9at+ 9 ! grotesque1 ape-l skull ( ,pronomo!rium4 ,9 ! ,leptau*5ia phylum ! skull became depress$ & flatt5$ & ! face 0 invad$ by great op5+s1 or vacuities2 ! tympanic bull 7 enorm\sly inflat$ & ! orbits & e>-op5+s rais$1 presumably 9 adaptation to an amphibi\s mode ( life4 ,^! 7 ! extremes ( *ange )9 ! family2 ! o!r phyla ne$ n be consid]$4 7#d7 ,at an e>ly /age ! digits 7 r$uc$ f five to f\r1 fir/ 9 ! pes & !n 9 ! manus1 & !re r$uction ceas$2 ?\gh 9 ,m]y*yus1 especially 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e species1 ! lat]al digits 7 v sl5d] &1 _h ?is s]ies surviv$1 x w\ld probably h l$ to didactyl =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--,left manus ( oreodonts4 ,a1 ,m]ycoidodon culb]tsoni1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,b1 ,m]yco*rus proprius1 upp] ,mioc5e4 ,9 o!r respects !re 0 v little diff]5ce 9 ! skeletons ( ! v>i\s phyla & h]e9 lies ! peculi>ity 9 ! hi/ory ( ! family1 great v>iety 9 ! =m ( ! skull1 &1 relatively speak+1 h>dly any *ange 9 ! body1 limbs or feet4 ,9 ! horses1 rh9oc]oses & titano!res ! modifications ( ! successive g5]a affect$ all p>ts ( ! /ructure1 b 9 ! oreodonts1 except = ! loss ( "o digit 9 manus & pes & v>iations 9 ! l5g? ( ! tail1 ! skeletons ( ! late/ g5]a did n diff] 9 any important respect f ^? ( ! e>lie/4 ,su* a comb9ation ( mutability & pla/icity 9 ! skull ) extreme cons]vatism 9 ! rema9d] ( ! bony /ructure is an exception to ! usual mode ( developm5t1 ?\gh some?+ ( ! same sort has already be5 po9t$ out 9 ! case ( ! tapirs 7p4 #cbe7 & w recur 9 t ( ! elephants 7,*ap4 ,x74 #e4 ,agrio*rid4 ,agrio*rids ,?is family1 "o ( ! /range/ & mo/ ab]rant ( ungulate gr\ps1 0 v closely alli$ to ! oreodonts & by _m au?orities is includ$ 9 ! same family4 ,! hi/ory ( ! successive /eps ( discov]y1 by :i* ! /ructure ( ^! extraord9>y animals 0 gradually made pla91 is mu* ! same z 9 ! case ( ! ev5 m peculi> p]issodactyl family ( ! *alico!res 7p4 #cef74 ,! v>i\s p>ts1 f\nd scatt]$ & at long int]vals ( "t1 _h be5 ref]r$ to no less ?an ?ree diff]5t mammalian ord]s6 =1 until ! discov]y ( *alico!re skeletons gave ! clue1 no "o imag9$ t su* discordant p>ts c\ld belong to ! same animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--,skull ( ,agrio*rus latifrons1 ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,wortman47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--;,agrio*rus antiquus1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! agrio*rids _h a v mu* %ort] c>e] ?an ! alli$ family ( ! oreodonts1 ext5d+ only ?r\gh ! upp] ,eoc5e & ! ,oligoc5e 7,u9ta to ,john ,day1 inclusive72 & only two g5]a ( ! family are yet kn[n1 ,agrio*rus ( ! ,john ,day & ,:ite ,riv]1 & ,protagrio*rus ( ! ,u9ta4 ,9 ! =m] ! tee? 7 n 9 a cont9u\s1 closely cr[d$ s]ies1 b !re 7 op5 spaces beh9d ! upp] can9e & fir/ l[] premol>2 ! same exceptional "* ( ! l[] tee? :i* 0 f\nd 9 ! oreodonts 0 repeat$ 9 ! pres5t family1 ! can9e assum+ ! =m & functions ( an incisor & ! fir/ premol> ^? ( ! can9e2 ! upp] incisors 7 extremely small & 7 %$ 9 ! adult1 j z 9 ! true rum9ants4 ,! mol>s _h ! sel5odont patt]n1 b ! upp] mol>s 7 v diff]5t 9 %ape f ^? ( ! oreodonts1 resembl+ r ^? ( ! an?raco!re ,bo?riodon 7see p4 #cgj74 ,ano!r diff]5ce f ! oreodont d5tition 0 t ! la/ l[] premol> _h acquir$ ! mol> =m & ! la/ upp] "o ne>ly s1 a v unusual feature among ! artiodactyls4 ,! skull 0 almo/ exactly l t ( ! ,:ite ,riv] oreodonts1 save 9 a few details2 ! face 0 some:at long]1 ! orbit 0 op5 beh9d & !re 0 no gl&ul> pit on ! face 9 front ( ! eye4 ,! neck 0 %ort & ! body long1 & ! backbone 9 ! region ( ! lo9s v /\t1 ! v]tebr ( ?is region hav+ mu* resemblance to ^? ( ! great cats1 z ?\gh ,agrio*rus 7 an agile & p[]ful leap]4 ,ano!r lik5ess to ! cats 0 9 ! v long & heavy tail1 :i* 0 mu* long] ?an 9 ! oreodonts1 & its v]tebr 7 h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( a ,leop>d4 ,! limbs 7 relatively long] ?an ^? ( ! oreodonts & ! sep>ate bones _h a sugge/ive lik5ess to ^? ( c>nivores1 &1 m specifically1 ( cats4 ,! feet1 save 9 "o p>ticul>1 7 n only artiodactyl1 b also *>act]i/ically oreodont 9 /ructure &1 z 9 ! e>li] memb]s ( t family1 !re 7 five toes 9 ! manus & f\r 9 ! pes4 ,! exception 0 t1 in/ead ( n>r[ & sl5d] ho(s1 ! feet 7 arm$ ) %>p1 ?\gh n v l>ge claws1 :i* 7 n comp>able 9 relative size to ! great claws ( ! *alico!res4 ,altoge!r1 a /range jumble ( incongru\s *>act]s 0 unit$ 9 ?is skeleton4 ,7 only ! skeleton kn[n )\t ! skull1 "o w\ld be tempt$ to call x t ( a c>nivor\s artiodactyl1 b ! tee? make su* a sugge/ion absurd1 s9ce !y c\ld h be5 us$ only = ma/icat+ a diet ( s(t vegetable sub/ances4 ,no fle%-eat] has1 or ev] _h1 tee? 9 ! remote/ degree l ^!1 :i* 7 ( *>act]i/ically h]bivor\s type4 ,h[ su* a creature liv$ & :at 7 its habits1 are que/ions to :i* no satisfactory answ] has be5 f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,"r manus ( ,agrio*rus latifrons1 ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,wortman47 ,protagrio*rus ( ! upp] ,eoc5e is1 un=tunately1 kn[n only f v imp]fect & fragm5t>y specim5s1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are suffici5t to det]m9e "s significant po9ts4 ,^! rema9s %[ t1 :ile ! two families ( ! agrio*rids & ! oreodonts 7 already di/9ct 9 ! ,u9ta1 !y 7 decid$ly ne>] toge!r ?an !y became 9 ! ,oligoc5e4 ,9 o!r words1 x is cle> t ! two gr\ps 7 conv]g+ back to a common ance/ry4 ,?is may be discov]$ 9 ! ,bridg]1 b x seems m probable t ^! =ms 7 immigrants4 ,ano!r fact conc]n+ ! ,u9ta g5us1 :i* is important1 is t ! upp] mol>s possess$ ! fif? or unpair$ cusp :i* also occurr$ 9 ! contempor>y oreodonts1 z well z 9 ! an?raco!res & o!r ,old ,_w families4 ,,subord] ,,tylopoda4 ,,camels ,,& ,,camel-,,l ,,animals ,exi/+ ,tylopoda are all includ$ 9 a s+le family1 ! ,camelid1 & by sev]al au?orities no o!r family1 ev5 ( ext9ct =ms1 is admitt$ to ! subord]4 ,my own pref]5ce1 h[ev]1 is to ref] ! problematical little hyp]tragulids to ?is gr\p1 z w be %[n subsequ5tly4 #f4 ,camelid4 ,camels & ,llamas ,"u mod]n conditions1 no mammals c\ld seem m completely =eign to ,nor? ,am]ica ?an ^? ( ! camel family1 :i*1 n[ re/rict$ to two well-def9$ g5]a1 inhabit c5tral ,asia & ! cold] p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,yet1 z a matt] ( fact1 ?is family pass$ ?r\gh ne>ly ! :ole ( its developm5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & did n emigrate to ! o!r cont95ts be=e ! late ,mioc5e or e>ly ,plioc5e1 & x is ?is ,nor? ,am]ican orig9 ( ! family :i* expla9s its o!rwise inexplicable di/ribution at ! pres5t "t4 ,to all appe>ances1 ! :ole family _h completely disappe>$ f ?is cont95t 9 ! lat] ,plei/oc5e1 b 9 ! middle & e>li] portions ( t epo* bo? true camels & l>ge llama-l animals 7 v abundant on ! ,great ,pla9s & 9 ,cali=nia1 :ile !y seem to h avoid$ ! =e/$ regions4 ,9 ord] to appreciate ! *anges ?r\gh :i* ! camels & llamas h pass$1 x w be necess>y to consid] briefly ! skeletal & d5tal /ructure :i* *>act]izes ! mod]n g5]a4 ,9 ! true camels 7,camelus7 ! fir/ & second upp] incisors h be5 lo/1 b ! ?ird rema9s z a l>ge1 %>p-po9t$ too?1 z are also ! upp] can9e & fir/ premol>2 ?us !re are ?ree po9t$1 spike-l tee? 9 a r[1 ) spaces betwe5 !m1 con/itut+ ) ! l[] can9e a v effective lac]at+ app>atus4 ,beh9d ! fir/ premol> is a long gap1 ! second be+ suppress$2 ! ?ird & f\r? are gr9d+ tee?1 b unusually small4 ,! mol>s are sel5odont & high-cr[n$1 ?\gh n extremely hypsodont4 ,! l[] incisors are l>ge & %ovel-%ap$1 ! can9e l>ge & erect & !re are b two l[] premol>s4 ,! d5tal =mula ?us is3 i #a_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/b1 m #c_/c4 ,! skull is long1 ) ! facial region mu* & abruptly n>r[$1 :i* gives a triangul> appe>ance to ! head :5 se5 f above2 ! orbit is completely encircl$ ) bone & ! sagittal & occipital cre/s are v prom95t4 ,! tympanic bull are l>ge & fill$ ) spongy bone4 ,! condyle ( ! l[] jaw is hemisph]ical & n1 z x is 9 mo/ ungulates1 semicyl9drical1 & a curi\s1 hook-l angulation is on ! po/]ior bord] ( ! bone4 ,! neck is v long1 & ! v]tebr h ! exceptional peculi>ity t ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y runs ?r\gh ! side ( ! neural ar*1 in/ead ( p]=at+ ! transv]se process1 & ?us is invisible ext]nally2 ! odontoid process ( ! axis is sp\t-l4 ,! legs & feet are v long2 ! hum]us has a d\ble bicipital groove & ! =e-arm bones are cossifi$1 & ! ulna is s r$uc$ t ! radius c>ries ! :ole weight2 9 ! l[] h9d leg ! tibia supports ! weight1 & ( ! fibula only ! l[] end rema9s z ! malleol> bone4 ,!re are b two digits 9 ea* foot1 ! ?ird & f\r?1 ! metapodials ( :i* h coalesc$ to =m a cannon-bone1 :i* diff]s f t ( ! true rum9ants1 or ,pecora1 9 ! curi\s way 9 :i* ! l[] ends1 sep>at$ by a -%ap$ not*1 div]ge f ea* o!r1 & by ! fact t ! keels ( ! l[] articul> surfaces are conf9$ to ! po/]ior side1 n visible f ! front4 ,! ungual phalanges are small & nodul>1 & ! ho(s1 :i* c>ry no "p ( ! weight1 are h>dly m ?an nails4 ,"u ! o!r phalanges is a broad pad ( ela/ic tissue1 ^u :i* ! weight re/s1 & ! sep>ation ( ! toes is v p>tial4 ,! peculi> ext]nal appe>ance ( ! camels is l>gely due to /ructures :i* leave no trace 9 ! skeleton1 & especially to ! great humps1 "o or two accord+ to ! species1 :i* are accumulations ( fat2 ! e>s are %ort & r\nd$ & ! hair is n woolly1 b almo/ /raight4 ,! tee? & skeleton ( ! llamas 7,lama7 are closely simil> to ^? ( ! camels1 b ! abs5ce ( humps1 ! long1 po9t$ e>s1 ! woolly hair & ! mu* small] size & light] build give to ! liv+ animals a m m>k$ diff]5ce ( appe>ance f ! camels ?an "o w\ld expect f a comp>ison ( ! skeletons alone4 ,! d5tal =mula is3 i #a_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b1 m #c_/c4 ,! rema9+ upp] incisor1 ! ?ird1 is recurv$1 z is also ! can9e1 b ! spike-%ap$ fir/ premol> ( ! camels is abs5t & ! o!r premol>s are mu* small] ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,9 ! skull ! bra9-case is l>g]1 & ! sagittal & occipital cre/s are mu* less prom95t4 ,! skeleton diff]s h>dly at all f t ( ! camels1 except = its small] size & m sl5d] proportions4 ,! toes are m di/9ctly sep>at$1 ea* hav+ its own pad4 ,?us1 among ! exi/+ repres5tatives ( ! family are two v well-def9$ phyla1 ea* *>act]i/ic ( a diff]5t cont95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--;,guanaco 7,lama huanacus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,new ,york ,zological ,society4 ,! ,blanco /age ( ! middle ,plioc5e1 :i* has pres]v$ b a meagre repres5tation ( ! life ( its "t1 has yield$ a numb] ( v l>ge1 llama-l species1 n1 h[ev]1 ance/ral to ! mod]n species1 = !y _h b "o premol> 9 ea* jaw4 ,f ! l[] ,plioc5e we h full] in=mation4 ,9 ! ,snake ,creek /age ! sep>ation ( ! two mod]n phyla 0 complete1 & !re 0 a ?ird "o1 n[ ext9ct1 t ( ! br[s+ or 8giraffe-camels0 7,alticamelus7 7see ,fig4 #abg1 p4 #bcf71 a t]m :i* mu/ n be tak5 z imply+ any relation%ip ) ! giraffes1 b m]ely a resemblance to !m 9 proportions4 ,^! br[s+ camels 7 v l>ge animals1 b ) relatively small heads & l[-cr[n$ tee? n suit$ = graz+2 ! neck 0 extremely long1 made s by ! great elongation ( five ( ! v]tebr 7second to six?1 inclusive71 & ! legs 7 also v long1 fitt+ _! possessors to br[se ^u trees4 ,mu* ( ! description ( ! appe>ance & habits ( ! ,giraffe giv5 by ,fl[] & ,lydekk] w\ld no d\bt be applicable to ^! ext9ct camels4 8,to produce ! extremely elongat$ neck ! sev5 c]vical v]tebr are proportionately long1 :i* gives a some:at /iff & awkw>d motion to ! neck4444 ,! ,giraffe fe$s almo/ exclusively on ! foliage ( trees 444 = br[s+ on :i* its preh5sile tongue & l>ge free lips are specially adapt$40#h ,9 tee? & skeleton ! phyla ( ! true camels & ( ! llamas 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e did n diff] v /rongly f ! liv+ =ms2 ! upp] incisors 7 already r$uc$ to "o1 b ! premol>s 7 n s small2 ! ulna & radius _h coalesc$ & ( ! fibula only ! l[] end rema9$2 ! cannon-bones 7 completely =m$1 & t ! pads ( ! feet _h already be5 develop$ is %[n by ! phalanges1 especially ! irregul>1 nodul> unguals4 ,! mo/ anci5t kn[n camels ( ! ,old ,_w are f\nd 9 ! ,plioc5e ( ,india1 & ! fir/ llamas record$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica are also ,plioc5e4 ,s9ce bo? camels & llamas exi/$ toge!r 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 x may reasonably be ask$ :y only "o phylum migrat$ to ,asia & only ! o!r to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,:y did n ea* cont95t receive migrants ( bo? k9ds8 ,)\t kn[+ m ?an we are ev] likely to le>n ab\t ! details ( ^! migrations1 x w n be possible to answ] ^! que/ions1 ?\gh plausible solutions ( ! problem sugge/ !mselves4 ,x is to be not$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t a migration f ! c5tral portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica to ,asia 0 by way ( ! f> nor? & ?us involv$ v diff]5t climatic conditions f ^? :i* mu/ h be5 enc\nt]$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! tropics to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x is p]fectly possible t animals :i* liv$ toge!r 9 temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica %\ld h _h v diff]5t p[]s ( adaptation to heat & cold respectively1 & ! nor!rn r\te may h be5 impassable to "o & ! s\!rn r\te to ! o!r4 ,to ?is x might p]haps be object$ t ! llamas are cold-c\ntry animals1 b ?is is true only ( ! exi/+ species1 = fossil =ms are f\nd abundantly 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,ecuador1 ,brazil & ,arg5t9a4 ,ano!r possibility is t bo? phyla did actually migrate to bo? cont95ts & t only ! camels succe$$ 9 p]man5tly e/abli%+ !mselves 9 ,asia & only ! llamas 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?\gh = ?is solution ! fossils af=d no evid5ce4 ,! camels ( ! upp] ,mioc5e did n diff] suffici5tly f ^? ( ! l[] ,plioc5e to call = special notice o!r ?an to rem>k t ! two phyla ( ! true camels & ! llamas 7 h>dly di/+ui%able & "o g5us 7,procamelus7 may h be5 ance/ral to bo?4 ,9 ! middle ,mioc5e ! br[s+ camels 7,alticamelus7 rea*$ ! acme ( _! importance & made no great progress subsequ5tly4 ,! g5]aliz$ /ock1 f :i* ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e ,procamelus desc5d$1 0 repres5t$ by ,protolabis & ,miolabis1 small] animals1 :i* _h a full set ( upp] incisors & premol>s & ! gr9d+ tee? 7 n s high-cr[n$4 ,9 mo/ ( ! species ! metapodials _h n fus$ to =m cannon-bones & probably !re 7 no pads on ! feet1 ?\gh ,alticamelus1 ! ,giraffe-,camel1 _h already develop$ bo? cannon-bones & pads4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,l[] ,mioc5e giraffe-camel 7,oxydactylus longipes74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e ! giraffe-camels 7 repres5t$ by ! g5us ,oxydactylus1 :i* 0 a consid]ably small] animal ?an its successor ,alticamelus1 ( ! middle ,mioc5e & lat] =mations1 & _h %ort] neck & legs4 ,! tee?1 ?\gh bra*yodont1 7 n v l[-cr[n$4 ,!re 0 no cannon-bone1 ! two metapodials ( ea* foot rema9+ sep>ate4 ,an especially notewor?y feature 9 ?is g5us is to be obs]v$ 9 ! "* ( ! ho(s1 :i*1 z ! ungual phalanges demon/rate1 7 n>r[ & po9t$1 l ^? ( antelope & de]1 & c>ri$ mo/ ( ! weight4 ,! memb] ( ! graz+ s]ies 7,protom]yx7 0 small] 9 e way ?an its contempor>y 7,oxydactylus7 ( ! br[s+ l9e & _h %ort] neck & legs1 ?\gh ^! 7 already long4 ,! tee? 7 pres5t 9 undim9i%$ numb]1 & ! gr9d]s1 :ile n prop]ly to be call$ hypsodont1 %[$ a decid$ t5d5cy to assume t "*4 ,! feet 7 9 ! same /age ( developm5t z 9 ,oxydactylus1 t is to say1 ) two free digits & po9t$1 de]-l ho(s4 ,we h ?us ! rem>kable & mo/ significant fact t1 :ile ! graz+ & br[s+ camels ( ! l[] ,mioc5e 7 already di/9ctly sep>at$1 nei!r _h yet atta9$ to ! type ( foot-/ructure :i* bo? ( !m aft]w>ds indep5d5tly acquir$4 ,?is is a v in/ructive example ( p>allel evolution 9 closely relat$ s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--,skeleton ( ,oxydactylus longipes4 ,l[] ,mioc5e4 7,aft] ,pet]son47 ,= re/oration1 see ,fig4 #bji4 ,( /ill ano!r phylum ( ! camel family1 ! l[] ,mioc5e conta9s ! only repres5tatives yet discov]$1 ! little 8gazelle-camels10 z !y may be call$4 ,! s+le kn[n g5us 7,/5omylus1 ,fig4 #aca1 p4 #bdb7 ( ?is s]ies 0 q a small animal1 mu* small] ?an its contempor>ies ( ! graz+ or br[s+ s]ies4 ,/5omylus 0 an extremely sl5d]1 cursorial creature & _h a v exceptional feature 9 its d5tition 9 ! app>5t pres5ce ( t5 l[] incisors1 five on ea* side1 ! can9e & fir/ premol> hav+ assum$ ! =m & functions ( ! incisors2 ! mol>s 7 l[-cr[n$4 ,! head 0 r small & r\nd$1 ! neck long & light1 ! limbs & feet elongate & excessively sl5d]4 ,! feet _h two digits ea*1 :i* 7 sep>ate1 n =m+ a cannon-bone1 & ! ho(s 7 n>r[1 po9t$ & de]-l4 ,^! delicate & graceful little animals _h b a brief c>e]1 :i* seems to h rea*$ its close 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e4 ,p]haps _! complete def5celessness made x impossible = !m to ma9ta9 !mselves aga9/ _! enemies1 despite _! evid5t capacity = swift runn+4 ,! camels ( ! upp] ,oligoc5e 7,john ,day7 are /ill incompletely kn[n1 b appe> all to h belong$ to ! s]ies ( graz]s :i* l$ up to ! mod]n g5]a4 ,future discov]y may br+ to light 9 ! ,john ,day e>li] memb]s ( ! giraffe-camel s]ies1 ( :i* a possible memb] is f\nd 9 ! upp]mo/ sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 or p]haps bo? phyla unit$ 9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e1 a "q :i* rema9s to be det]m9$4 ,at all ev5ts1 9 ! middle sub/age ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 or l[] ,oligoc5e1 !re is no evid5ce ( m ?an a s+le phylum1 f :i* ! o!rs 7 almo/ c]ta9ly d]iv$1 bran*+ (f f ! ma9 /em at diff]5t levels4 ,fir/ 0 giv5 (f ! bran* ( ! giraffe-camels1 !n 7or p]haps ev5 e>li]7 t ( ! little gazelle-camels1 &1 f9ally1 ! ma9 /em bifurcat$ into ! two phyla ( ! llamas & ! true camels4 ,! po9t ( orig9 ( ! gazelle-camels is /ill unc]ta94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--,! ,:ite ,riv] camel 7,pobro!rium labiatum74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! typical ,:ite ,riv] g5us 7,pobro!rium7 includ$ a s]ies ( species :i* increas$ 9 size f ! e>li] to ! lat] portions ( ! /age1 b %[$ no su* /ructural *anges z to call = special notice4 ,! l>g] ( ^! species 0 some:at tall] ?an a %eep1 b ( mu* light] proportions1 ) small1 po9t$ head1 long neck & body & long1 v sl5d] limbs & feet4 ,! tee? 7 pres5t 9 undim9i%$ numb]1 #dd 9 all2 ! l[] incisors 7 small1 simple1 ne>ly erect & *isel-%ap$1 v diff]5t f ! l>ge1 procumb5t & %ovel-l tee? ( ! mod]n g5]a1 & ! tr5*ant can9es 7 mu* small] ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,! fir/ premol> _h an isolat$ position1 ! second & ?ird 7 tr5*ant & mu* ext5d$ ant]o-po/]iorly1 q z 9 _m o!r gr\ps ( primitive artiodactyls4 ,! mol>s1 :i* 7 typically sel5odont1 7 l[-cr[n$ 9 ! upp] jaw1 b 9 ! l[] %[$ an incipi5t t5d5cy to hypsodontism4 ,! skull1 by its %ape & ! *>act]i/ic n>r[+ ( ! face1 imm$iately sugge/s ! mod]n type1 b diff]$ 9 _m details ( /ructure1 ! mo/ obvi\s ( :i* 7 ! incompletely clos$ orbits1 ! %all[ & sl5d] jaws1 & ! v l>ge1 hook-l process f ! angle ( ! l[] jaw1 :i*1 9 greatly r$uc$ =m1 is pres5t 9 bo? ( ! ,rec5t g5]a4 ,! neck 0 relatively long1 ?\gh by no means s long proportionately z x subsequ5tly became1 & ! v]tebr _h already acquir$ ! peculi>ity f\nd 9 all ! succe$+ camels1 ( ! exceptional position ( ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y1 save 9 ! six? v]tebra1 :]e x pi]c$ ! transv]se process1 z 9 mammals g5]ally2 ! odontoid process ( ! axis 0 nei!r sp\t-l nor peg-l1 b ( int]m$iate =m1 convex bel[ & flat above4 ,! body 0 long & light1 & ! ribs 7 mu* m sl5d] ?an 9 ! ,rec5t g5]a4 ,! =e & h9d limbs1 :i* 7 ( ne>ly equal l5g?1 7 v sl5d]2 ! hum]us _h a s+le bicipital groove2 ! =e-arm bones 7 fully cossifi$ & 9 ! l[] leg only ! two ends ( ! fibula rema9$4 ,! feet 7 already 9 ! /age ( developm5t :i* p]si/$ ?r\gh ! l[] ,mioc5e 9 all ( ! phyla1 ) two sep>ate digits & nodul> remnants ( two o!rs1 & de]-l ho(s4 ,x w\ld be ( int]e/ to comp>e ?is little ,:ite ,riv] camel ) its contempor>y g5us ( horses1 ,mesohippus1 & to obs]ve 9 h[ _m respects !y h foll[$ a p>allel c\rse1 & h[ ne>ly ,pobro!rium occupi$ ! same position ) ref]5ce to ! mod]n camels & llamas z ,mesohippus did to ! ,rec5t horses2 b su* a comp>ison w\ld involve too _m te*nicalities to be pr(itably und]tak5 "h4 ,suffice x to say t 9 _m details !re 0 a g5u9e p>allelism 9 ! progress ( ^! two widely sep>at$ families f a polydactyl ance/ry t[>ds an extreme ( digital r$uction1 end+ 9 ! horses 9 ! s+le-to$ & 9 ! camels 9 ! two-to$ foot4 ,! memb]s ( ! two s]ies kept ne>ly equal pace 9 _! sl[ progress1 ) ! camels a little 9 advance1 s9ce !y 7 ! fir/ to atta9 ! mod]n /ate ( developm5t 9 ! height ( ! tee? & ! /ructure ( ! feet1 ?\gh ev5tually ! horses surpass$ !m 9 bo? respects4 ,9 ! upp] ,eoc5e 7,u9ta /age7 !re 7 at lea/ two k9ds ( camels1 ! "t-relations ( :i* to ea* o!r are n kn[n1 t is1 :e!r !y 7 contempor>y or successive4 ,! be/-kn[n g5us1 ,protylopus1 may p]haps n be 9 ! direct l9e ( camel desc5t1 b x s ne>ly repres5ts ! prop] ance/ral /age t1 = all practical purposes1 x w s]ve ne>ly z well4 ,x 0 a mu* small] animal ?an ! smalle/ ( ! ,:ite ,riv] species1 & 0 h>dly l>g] ?an a 8jack-rabbit40 ,! tee? ( ea* jaw 7 9 cont9u\s s]ies & ! can9es 7 b slightly long] ?an ! incisors2 ! premol>s _h less ant]o-po/]ior ext5sion ?an 9 ,pobro!rium1 & all ! mol>s above & bel[ 7 v l[-cr[n$4 ,! skull 0 almo/ a m9iature copy ( t ( ,pobro!rium1 b m primitive 9 a numb] ( details1 ! mo/ important ( :i* 0 t ! tympanic bull 7 mu* small] & holl[1 n fill$ ) spongy bone4 ,! neck1 conc]n+ :i* x w\ld be v desirable to h in=mation1 is almo/ ! only "p ( ! skeleton t is n kn[n4 ,! =e limb 0 consid]ably %ort] ?an ! h9d1 mak+ ! back slope d[nw>d f ! rump to ! %\ld]s2 9 ! =e-arm ! two bones 7 entirely sep>ate & 9 ! l[] leg ! fibula1 ?\gh v sl5d]1 0 /ill complete4 ,9 ! manus !re 7 f\r functional digits1 ! lat]als n v mu* small] ?an ! m$ian pair2 b 9 ! pes ! lat]al metat>sals 7 r$uc$ to m]e bony ?reads1 to :i* small phalanges1 9 full complem5t1 7 atta*$1 mak+ t9y dew-claws4 ,) ,protylopus ends ! g5ealogy ( ! camels s f> z x c be def9itively trac$1 b 9 ! middle ( ! ,bridg] /age is f\nd a g5us1 ,homacodon 7family ,di*obunid71 :i* is a probable memb] ( ! s]ies4 ,h[ev]1 until ! connect+ l9k c be f\nd 9 ! upp] ,bridg]1 ?is conclusion _c be demon/rat$ & ,homacodon itself is incompletely kn[n4 ,x 0 a v small animal1 ev5 less 9 size ?an ,protylopus1 & _h n yet acquir$ ! sel5odont mol>s4 ,^! tee? 7 quadritub]cul>1 i4e4 ) f\r pr9cipal cusps arrang$1 9 ! upp] mol>s1 9 a squ>e1 & ) a m9ute cuspule betwe5 ea* transv]se pair1 :ile ! l[] mol>s 7 n>r[] & _h only ! f\r pr9cipal cusps4 ,! cusps 7 n conical1 z !y are 9 ! pigs1 b angul> & pyramidal1 ! fir/ /ep t[>d ! assumption ( ! sel5odont =m4 ,! skull 0 n specifically camel9e 9 appe>ance1 b r indiff]5t1 z ?\gh almo/ any k9d ( an artiodactyl might h be5 d]iv$ f x4 ,! feet 7 decid$ly m primitive ?an ^? ( ! ,u9ta g5us1 hav+ f\r functional digits ea*1 p]haps five 9 ! manus4 ,:ile x _c be positively /at$ t ,homacodon 0 ! actual ance/or ( ,protylopus1 x ne>ly repres5ts :at we %\ld expect t ance/or to be4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--;,diagram to illu/rate ! developm5t ( ! skull & mol> tee? 9 ! camel tribe1 9 asc5d+ geological ord]4 ,a1 ,protylopus pet]soni1 ,u9ta ,eoc5e4 ,b1 ,pobro!rium wilsoni1 ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,wortman47 ,c1 ,procamelus gracilis1 upp] ,mioc5e4 7,aft] ,cope47 ,d1 ,lama huanacus1 ! mod]n ,guanaco4 ,9 ! l[] ,eoc5e 7,wasat* /age7 liv$ a t9y creature1 ,trigonole/es 7family ,trigonole/id71 small] ev5 ?an ,homacodon ( ! ,bridg]1 & "o ( ! mo/ anci5t & primitive ( kn[n artiodactyls1 b1 un=tunately1 /ill repres5t$ only by v imp]fect specim5s1 s t mu* :i* x w\ld be highly desirable to le>n mu/ await ! f9d+ ( bett] mat]ial4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 triangul> & tritub]cul>1 i4e4 ) ?ree pr9cipal cusps arrang$ 9 a triangle1 & are h>dly to be di/+ui%$ f ^? ( o!r e>ly mammalian ord]s4 ,f ! tee? alone ! artiodactyl nature ( ! animal w\ld n h be5 suspect$1 &1 9 fact1 !y 71 :5 fir/ discov]$1 ref]r$ to primitive monkeys4 ,! feet probably _h five toes ea*1 b ?is is n c]ta91 & ! femur _h ! ?ird tro*ant]1 ! only kn[n artiodactyl ( :i* ?is is true4 ,z ?is little ,wasat* g5us is s imp]fectly kn[n1 x w\ld be premature to claim x z ! />t+ po9t ( ! camel family1 & yet x may v well h be5 s4 ,bett] mat]ial ( ?is g5us & ! l9ks ( ! *a9 :i* belong 9 ! upp] ,bridg] & ! ,w9d ,riv] respectively mu/ be recov]$ be=e ?is e>lie/ portion ( ! family hi/ory c be writt5 9 m ?an t5tative fa%ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,"r manus ( camels4 ,a1 ,protylopus1 ,u9ta4 ,b1 ,pobro!rium1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,c1 ,procamelus1 upp] ,mioc5e4 7,aft] ,cope47 ,d1 ,rec5t ,guanaco4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,"r pes ( camels4 ,a1 ,protylopus4 ,b1 ,pobro!rium4 ,c1 ,procamelus4 7,aft] ,cope47 ,d1 ,guanaco4 ,! mode ( evolution display$ by ! camels does n diff] 9 any significant respect f t se5 9 ! horses4 ,!re 0 ! same increase 9 bodily /ature & 9 ! relative l5g?s ( ! limbs & feet1 ! same k9d ( dim9ution 9 ! numb] ( digits f ! orig9al five1 ! same r$uction ( ! ulna & its coalesc5ce ) ! radius & ! loss ( ! fibula save = its two ends4 ,!re 0 also a simil> developm5t ( ! high-cr[n$1 or hypsodont1 gr9d+ tee?1 f ! l[-cr[n$1 or bra*yodont1 type4 ,9 /ill ano!r respect !re 0 a simil>ity 9 ! mode ( developm5t ( ! two families1 namely1 9 ! way 9 :i* ! sev]al phyla ( ea* orig9at$4 ,= ! e>li] portion ( _! hi/ory !re 0 9 ea* b a s+le di/+ui%able s]ies1 ?\gh x is v possible t full] k & m complete mat]ial w\ld enable u to di/+ui% m ?an "o4 ,?is monophyletic condition cont9u$ ?r\gh ! ,eoc5e & mo/ ( ! ,oligoc5e1 b 9 ! upp] portion ( ! latt] &1 m m>k$ly 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 ! two families bran*$ out1 ea* 9 its own fa%ion4 ,( c\rse1 !re 7 diff]5ces 9 ! developm5t ( ! camels & horses1 "s condition$ by ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 artiodactyl & p]issodactyl1 su* z ! didactyl foot z ! possible m9imum & ! =mation ( cannon-bones 9 ! camels4 ,o!r diff]5ces are *>act]i/ic ( ! latt] family1 su* z ! great elongation ( ! neck & ! peculi> /ructure ( its v]tebr1 ! =mation ( pads on ! feet & concomitant r$uction ( ! ho(s4 ,9 a g5]al way1 ! two families kept q an ev5 pace 9 _! advance f ! m primitive to ! m specializ$ condition &1 ?\gh ! camels 7 ! fir/ to acquire c]ta9 modifications1 ! horses ultimately surpass$ !m4 ,ev5 m close 0 ! p>allelism 9 evolution betwe5 ! camels & ! true rum9ants 7subord] ,pecora71 & ?is case is ( p>ticul> importance z cle>ly demon/rat+ ! developm5t1 9 two indep5d5t b relat$ l9es1 ( simil> /ructures n d]iv$ f a common ance/ry4 ,?is comp>ison mu/ naturally await ! description ( ! ,pecora4 #g4 ,hyp]tragulid4 ,hyp]tragulids ,?is 0 a v peculi> family1 ( exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican di/ribution & ( d\btful sy/ematic position1 ! kn[n hi/ory ( :i* ext5d$ f ! upp] ,eoc5e into ! l[e/ ,mioc5e & !n abruptly t]m9at$4 ,none ( its memb]s atta9$ to consid]able size1 ! l>ge/ h>dly surpass+ a %eep1 & "s 7 extremely small4 ,9 view ( its comp>atively brief c>e]1 ?is family 0 surpris+ly ramifi$1 & no less ?an f\r phyla may be di/+ui%$ )9 its limits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,syndyoc]as cooki1 l[] ,mioc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,nebraska4 ,"o ( ! phyla :i* p]si/$ into ! l[] ,mioc5e 0 !re repres5t$ by a mo/ fanta/ic creature 7,syndyoc]as7 ) f\r horn-l outgr[?s f ! skull1 "o pair aris+ f ! ant]ior "p ( ! face & curv+ outw>d away f ea* o!r1 & ! h9d] pair1 :i* 7 plac$ ov] ! eyes1 curv$ t[>d ea* o!r at ! tips & 7 %ap$ mu* l a c['s horns 9 m9iature4 ,! %ape ( ^! bony protub]ances makes x unlikely t !y 7 %ea!d 9 horn & probably !y 7 m]ely cov]$ ) sk9 l ! horns ( ! giraffes4 ,?is description applies only to ! skull ( ! male2 t ( ! female is n yet kn[n1 b !re is good reason to believe t 9 t sex ! horns 7 mu* small] or want+1 z 9 ne>ly all exi/+ de]4 ,! skull 0 long1 n>r[ & l[2 ! orbits 7 small1 completely enclos$ 9 bone & unusually prom95t2 ! nasal bones 7 exce$+ly %ort1 z ?\gh indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( a proboscis1 b ?is c h>dly h be5 ! case1 = ! nasal op5+ 0 divid$ into ant]ior & po/]ior portions by ! bony bridge :i* unit$ ! bases ( ! =w>d pair ( horns4 ,9 no o!r kn[n mammal does su* a division ( ! nasal op5+ occur4 ,! upp] incisors _h all disappe>$1 b !re 0 a small upp] can9e tusk & ano!r =m$ by ! fir/ l[] premol>1 :ile ! real l[] can9e _h gone ov] to ! incisor s]ies4 ,?is exceptional arrangem5t is a po9t ( resemblance to ! oreodonts 7see p4 #cgb74 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 bra*yodont4 ,! =e limb is n kn[n1 b ! h9d limb has be5 completely recov]$2 x 0 /\t & n v long 9 proportion to ! l5g? ( ! head4 ,! fibula 0 completely r$uc$1 only ! ends rema9+1 & ! pes 0 didactyl1 ! two metat>sals unit+ 9 a cannon-bone2 ! ho(s 7 l ^? ( de] & antelopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--,protoc]as cel]1 upp] ,:ite ,riv]2 males on ! "r & left1 female 9 ! middle4 ,re/or$ f skeletons 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum & ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,no repres5tative ( ?is s]ies has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e2 & x is n yet possible to say :e!r _! abs5ce f ! ,john ,day b$s1 z 9 sev]al o!r cases already ref]r$ to1 0 due to an actual geographical diff]5ce 9 contempor>y faunas1 or :e!r x is m]ely "o ( ! accid5ts ( pres]vation & collect+4 ,9 ! upp] ,:ite ,riv]1 h[ev]1 0 ano!r mo/ curi\s animal 7,protoc]as71 a =]unn]1 if n a direct ance/or1 ( ,syndyoc]as4 ,! exact relation%ip betwe5 ! two =ms c h>dly be det]m9$1 until ! g5]a1 "o or m1 :i* once connect$ !m %all h be5 recov]$1 ?\gh x is obvi\s t !y belong$ to ! same s]ies4 ,protoc]as 0 a small] animal &1 if any?+1 an ev5 m biz>re-look+ object1 = ! ant]ior protub]ances 7 broad1 prom95t & ev]t$ plates ( bone1 n ev5 sugge/+ horns 9 _! =m1 & ! po/]ior pair 7 %ort & club-%ap$2 9 ! female nei!r pair 0 m ?an indicat$4 ,! d5tition 0 v simil> to t ( ,syndyoc]as1 except t ! upp] tusk 0 consid]ably l>g] & scimit>-%ap$2 ! female _h no tusks4 ,9 ! =e-arm ! two bones 7 j beg9n+ to coalesce1 b 9 ! l[] leg ! fibula 0 completely r$uc$4 ,! manus _h f\r complete & functional digits1 ! lat]als n v mu* %ort] & ?9n] ?an ! m$ian pair2 b ! pes 0 already didactyl1 ?\gh ! metat>sals 7 sep>ate1 n fus$ into a cannon-bone2 two long & po9t$ spl9ts 7 ! ve/igial remnants ( ! second & fif? digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--,protoc]as cel]1 skull ( male4 7,aft] ,osborn & ,wortman47 ,x is n yet possible to trace ?is phylum bel[ ! level ( ! upp]mo/ ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 yet t w v probably be accompli%$ by future exploration4 ,! second phylum ( ! family 0 repres5t$ 9 ! l[e/ ,mioc5e by ,hyp]tragulus1 a g5us ( mu* small] animals ?an ^? ( ! prec$+ s]ies1 :i* w5t back to ,:ite ,riv] times )\t ess5tial *ange1 & 0 abundant 9 ! ,john ,day /age4 ,despite ?is fact1 ! /ructure ( ! g5us is /ill incompletely kn[n & mu* rema9s to be le>n$1 b en\gh has already be5 asc]ta9$ to ju/ify ! association ( ?is phylum ) ! ,protoc]as-,syndyoc]as s]ies 9 "o family z reasonable4 ,! numb] ( upp] incisors 9 ,hyp]tragulus has n be5 asc]ta9$1 b ! can9es 7 enl>g$ & tusk-l1 ! l[] "o n hav+ gone ov] to ! incisors1 z x _h 9 ! prec$+ gr\p4 ,! skull _h mu* resemblance to t ( ! contempor>y camels1 ! sudd5 n>r[+ ( ! facial region giv+ x a v llama-l appe>ance2 ! orbit 0 op5 & on ! face 9 front ( x 0 a conspicu\s vacuity4 ,! ulna & radius 7 cossifi$ & !re 7 f\r digits 9 ! manus1 two 9 ! pes1 b no cannon-bone 0 =m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,skull ( ,leptom]yx evansi1 ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 ,! ?ird phylum1 t ( ,leptom]yx1 _h ab\t ! same range 9 "t z ! prec$+ "o1 ?\gh x has n yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,john ,day1 & ! g5us is assur$ly kn[n only f ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s1 9 :i* x is n uncommon4 ,leptom]yx compris$ a numb] ( species1 all v small animals1 & none l>g] ?an a jack-rabbit4 7,see ,fig4 #bgg1 p4 #efc47 ,9 size1 proportions & appe>ance1 ^! da9ty little creatures mu/ h be5 v l ! exi/+ *evrota9s or 8m\se-de]0 ( ,asia & ! ,malay isl&s1 & by _m writ]s !y h be5 class$ 9 ! same subord]1 ! ,tragul9a4 ,! upp] incisors _h be5 suppress$ & ! upp] can9e r$uc$ to v small size1 :ile ! l[] can9e _h become functionally "o ( ! incisors4 ,! skull _h a v long & sl5d] facial region1 b _h a less llama-l appe>ance ?an 9 ,hyp]tragulus4 ,! neck 0 %ort & ! =e limbs mu* %ort] ?an ! h9d1 s t ! back slop$ d[nw>d f ! rump to ! %\ld]s1 z 9 ! *evrota9s4 ,!re 0 a rem>kable1 inde$ q unp>allel$1 diff]5ce betwe5 ! =e & h9d limbs & feet1 ! h9d] extremity be+ n only mu* long]1 b also mu* m specializ$1 :ile ! ant]ior "o reta9$ 9 v l>ge degree its primitive *>act]i/ics4 ,?us1 9 ! =e-arm ! ulna 0 complete & sep>ate f ! radius1 b 9 ! l[] leg ! fibula 0 r$uc$ to its m9imum4 ,9 ! manus !re 7 f\r entire & functional digits1 9 ! pes only two1 :i* 7 jo9$ 9 a cannon-bone4 ,f9ally1 !re 0 a f\r? phylum1 t ( ,hypisodus1 :i* 0 conf9$ to ! ,:ite ,riv] /age & is /ill incompletely kn[n4 ,?is 0 a t9y creature1 mu* small] ?an any ( ! prec$+ ones1 & is ! only kn[n ,:ite ,riv] ungulate ) fully hypsodont gr9d+ tee?4 ,ano!r v exceptional peculi>ity ( its d5tition 0 t 9 ! l[] jaw x _h t5 incisor-l tee?2 n only ! can9e1 b ! fir/ premol> z well1 _h assum$ ! "* ( ! incisors4 ,?is same peculi>ity is f\nd 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e gazelle-camel1 ,/5omylus 7see p4 #cid71 b 9 no o!r mammal4 ,a consid]able assemblage ( g5]a belong+ to ?is family occurs 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e1 b ! mat]ial yet obta9$ is too fragm5t>y to p]mit ! assignm5t ( ^! =ms to ! diff]5t phyla1 ?\gh x is v probable t among !m are to be f\nd ance/ors ( all ! ,:ite ,riv] & subsequ5t g5]a4 ,:ile !re is little diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! propriety ( includ+ 9 ! family ,hyp]tragulid ! f\r phyla describ$ 9 ! =ego+ pages1 ! sy/ematic position & ! relation%ips ( t family z a :ole are matt]s ( debate & likely long to rema9 s4 ,dr4 ,mat!w ref]s ! entire gr\p to ! subord] ,tragul9a & reg>ds ,leptom]yx z be+ closely relat$ to ! direct ance/ry ( ! ,am]ican de]1 a view :i* is accept$ by ,pr(essor ,osborn1 b 9 :i* ,i am unable to concur4 ,my own belief is t ! family 0 an e>ly (f%oot f ! camel9e /ock & !re=e ref]able to ! ,tylopoda1 9 :i* subord] !y are "h includ$4 ,x w\ld be out ( place to ent] ^u a discussion ( ?is p]plex+ problem1 :i* c h>dly receive a def9itive solution until ! artiodactyls ( ! ,u9ta /age are ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,z 9 s _m o!r s]ies1 ! key ( ! my/]y lies hidd5 9 ! ,u9ta fauna1 :i* is /ill s inadequately kn[n4 ,,subord] ,,pecora4 ,,true ,,rum9ants ,?is is ! mo/ advanc$1 specializ$ & div]sifi$ gr\p ( ! artiodactyls1 ?\gh ! rum9at+ habit is %>$ by bo? ,tylopoda & ,tragul9a4 ,9 ?is multitude ( =ms1 giraffes1 de]1 antelopes1 %eep1 goats1 ox51 buffaloes1 bisons1 etc41 x is difficult to f9d a clue to a natural arrangem5t or classification4 ,z a :ole1 ! subord] is a well-def9$ gr\p1 & _m /ructural *>act]s1 n all ( :i* is x ne$ful to enum]ate "h1 are common to all ( its memb]s4 ,! upp] incisors are inv>iably abs5t1 &1 save 9 a few ( ! de]1 ! upp] can9e also1 :ile ! l[] can9e has become incisi=m2 ! premol>s are always ?ree 9 numb] 9 ea* jaw & ! mol>-patt]n is sel5odont ?r\gh\t4 ,! odontoid process ( ! axis is sp\t-%ap$4 ,except 9 a few de]1 ! ,pecora all h bony outgr[?s ( ! skull 9 ! =m ( antl]s or horns1 at lea/ 9 ! males1 _m females be+ hornless4 ,! ulna is cossifi$ ) ! radius & ! fibula is lo/1 except ! l[] end1 :i* is a sep>ate malleol> bone4 ,!re is always1 9 bo? =e & h9d feet1 a cannon-bone1 ! l[] ends ( :i* are p>allel1 n div]g5t1 z !y are 9 ! ,tylopoda1 & ea* articul> surface is encircl$ all ar\nd by a prom95t m$ian keel1 z 9 ! horses1 :i* 9 ! o!r subord]s1 z 9 mammals g5]ally1 is conf9$ to ! po/]ior side & n visible f ! front4 7,cf4 ,figs4 #bbj & #bad1 p4 #dja47 ,9 no exi/+ memb] ( ! ,pecora are !re complete lat]al digits1 & 9 sev]al mod]n g5]a !y h be5 completely suppress$2 b 9 mo/ !re is1 beh9d ! functional pair ( digits1 a pair ( 8dew-claws10 ! bones ( :i* are m or less completely r$uc$1 (t5 to m]e nodules4 ,! /oma*1 :i* 9 ! ,tylopoda & ,tragul9a is ?ree-*amb]$1 is 9 ! ,pecora divid$ into f\r di/9ct p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--,left manus ( ,patagonian ,de] 7,hippocamelus bisulcus74 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,td41 ,m41 cossifi$ trapezoid & magnum4 ,un41 unci=m4 ,mc4 ,,ii & ,v1 rudim5t>y second & fif? metac>pals4 ,mc4 ,,iii & ,,iv1 cannon-bone4 ,ph4 #a1 #b1 fir/ & second phalanges4 ,ung41 ungual phalanx4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--,left pes ( ,patagonian ,de]4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 ,cb41 cossifi$ navicul> & cuboid4 ,mt4 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 cannon-bone4 ,o!r lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bai4 ,z already intimat$1 ! subdivision ( ! ,pecora into small] gr\ps is f> f easy4 8,! great difficulty :i* all zologi/s h felt 9 subdivid+ !m into natural m9or gr\ps arises f ! fact t ! *anges 9 diff]5t organs 7feet1 skull1 frontal app5dages1 tee?1 cutane\s gl&s1 etc47 h proce$$ ) su* app>5t irregul>ity & abs5ce ( correlation t ! diff]5t modifications ( ^! p>ts are mo/ v>i\sly comb9$ 9 diff]5t memb]s ( ! gr\p40#i ,two ma9 sections ( ! subord] are1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly well def9$1 7#a7 ! ,c]vicornia & 7#b7 ! ,cavicornia4 ,,section ,,c]vicornia4 ,,de] ,,& ,,giraffes ,?is section includes two families1 ! giraffes & ! de]4 ,inasmu* z ! =m] h n n[ & nev] did h any repres5tatives 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 = ! purposes ( ?is book ! section becomes id5tical ) ! de] family4 #h4 ,c]vid4 ,de] ,9 mo/ ( ! de] n[ exi/+ ! male has antl]s4 ,! antl] is a bony outgr[? f ! frontal bone ( ! skull & is annually %$ & replac$1 increas+1 z a rule1 9 size & 9 ! numb] ( bran*es ) ea* r5ewal4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( gr[? ! antl] is ri*ly suppli$ ) blood-vessels & cov]$ ) sk9 & is !n said to be 89 ! velvet10 :i* dries & peels (f :5 gr[? is complete2 aft] ! rutt+ season a lay] ( bone at ! base ( ! antl] is resorb$1 loos5+ ! antl]1 :i* is !n %$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a p]man5t1 cyl9drical process1 ( great] or less l5g?1 f ea* frontal1 ! 8p$icle10 f :i* ! antl] is annually reproduc$1 & ar\nd ! base ( ! antl] & %$ ) x is a r\gh5$ r+1 ! 8burr40 ,among ! diff]5t g5]a ( de] !re is great v>iety 9 ! =m & size ( ! antl]1 f a s+le spike to ! imm5se & complicat$ app5dages ( ! ,wapiti 7,c]vus canad5sis74 ,z a rule1 ! 8beam0 or ma9 /em ( ! antl] & its bran*es or 8t9es0 are cyl9drical & tap]+2 b 9 "s cases1 z 9 ! ,moose 7,alce7 & ! ,fall[ ,de] 7,dama71 ! antl] is v broad & flat & is !n said to be 8palmat$40 ,except 9 ! ,re9de] & ,c>ib\ 7,rangif]7 ! female is )\t antl]s4 ,9 ! skeleton !re is little diff]5ce betwe5 ! de] & ! ,cavicornia1 b !re are "s diff]5ces 9 ! tee?4 ,9 ! males ( ^? de] :i* h no antl]s1 su* z ! ,musk-,de] 7,mos*us mos*if]us7 & ! ,*9ese ,wat]-,de] 7,hydropotes in]mis71 z well z 9 c]ta9 =ms ) v small antl]s1 l ! muntjacs ( ,asia 7,c]vulus & ,elaphodus71 ! upp] can9e is a long1 ?91 recurv$ & sabre-l tusk1 a v effective weapon4 ,speak+ ( ! ,indian ,muntjac or 8,b>k+ ,de]0 7,c]vulus muntjac71 ,fl[] & ,lydekk] say1 8,:5 attack$ by dogs ! males use _! %>p can9e tee? ) great vig\r1 inflict+ ^u _! oppon5ts deep & ev5 dang]\s w\nds40 ,9 o!r =ms ( de] ! upp] can9es are small or abs5t4 ,! gr9d+ tee? are bra*yodont1 b 9 ! exi/+ g5]a !y h high] cr[ns ?an 9 ! ,t]ti>y prog5itors ( ! family1 & 9 ! ,axis & ,hog ,de] ( ,india 7,axis axis & ,a4 porc9us7 ! mol>s are q hypsodont4 ,z 0 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,v1 ! exi/+ de] ( ,nor? ,am]ica are ( two k9ds3 7#a7 ! nor!rn1 :i* are pla9ly ( ,old ,_w orig9 & s closely simil> to ,old ,_w species t _m naturali/s d5y ! necessity ( mak+ di/9ct species = ! ,am]ican =ms4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! are ! ,wapiti 7,c]vus canad5sis71 ! ,c>ib\ 7,rangif] c>ib\7 & ! ,moose 7,alce am]icanus74 7#b7 ,! s\!rn de]1 ( :i* ! common ,virg9ia ,de] 7,odocoileus virg9ianus7 is a famili> example1 ?\gh ov]lapp+ 9 _! range t ( ! nor!rn g5]a1 are peculi> to ! ,am]icas1 &1 ?\gh n exactly auto*?on\s1 !y mu/ h _h a long ,am]ican ance/ry4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e we f9d ! same g5]a & mo/ly ! same species1 _! di/ribution ov] ! cont95t %ift+ 9 accordance ) ! _m climatic *anges ( t epo*4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 at lea/ "o ,plei/oc5e g5us 7,c]valces7 diff]5t f any n[ liv+ & diff]5t f any kn[n 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e4 ,! mo/ complete specim5 ( ?is animal is a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity1 f\nd b5ea? a bog 9 nor!rn ,new ,j]sey1 ?\gh o!r bones1 collect$ 9 ,k5tucky & else:]e1 are v probably ref]able to x4 ,c]valces 0 v ne>ly relat$ to ! ,moose1 ! neck1 body1 limbs & feet be+ almo/ id5tical 9 ! two g5]a1 b ! skull & antl]s 7 notably diff]5t2 ! nasal bones 7 n ne>ly s mu* %ort5$ z 9 ! ,moose1 indicat+ t ! proboscis-l sn\t 0 n s l>ge or inflat$ z 9 ! latt]4 ,! antl]s 7 q unique2 ?\gh 9 g5]al l ^? ( ! ,moose1 !y 7 mu* less palmat$ & !y _h1 9 addition1 a great trumpet-l plate ( bone on ! l[] side ( ea* antl] 7see ,fig4 #aag1 p4 #bji71 su* z occurs 9 no o!r kn[n memb] ( ! family4 ,al?\gh ,c]valces has n be5 f\nd 9 ! ,old ,_w1 x 0 almo/ c]ta9ly an immigrant f ea/]n ,asia4 ,! ,moose1 ,c>ib\ & ,wapiti 7 unque/ionably immigrants & came 9 n e>li] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,no?+ is kn[n 9 ! ,plioc5e or m anci5t ,t]ti>y epo*s ( ,nor? ,am]ica :i* c\ld be twi/$ into =ms ance/ral to ^! typically ,old ,_w g5]a4 ,) ! s\!rn de] 7,odocoileus1 etc47 ! matt] /&s diff]5tly1 = ^! h a probable ,am]ican ance/ry ext5d+ back to ! l[] ,mioc5e & possibly mu* f>!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n altoge!r c]ta9 t ^! may n h be5 ,plioc5e immigrants1 = _! g5ealogy is /ill 9 an extremely fragm5t>y & unsatisfactory condition4 ,! ,nor? ,am]ican g5us1 ,odocoileus1 ext5d$ back to ! ,plioc5e ) v little *ange4 ,! annoy+1 unrecord$ gap ( ! upp] ,plioc5e & ! meagre repres5tation ( ! middle ,plioc5e mammals giv5 by ! ,blanco leave u )\t in=mation reg>d+ ! de] ( t "t4 ,9 ! l[] ,plioc5e & ?r\gh ! :ole ,mioc5e we meet ) frequ5t rema9s ( a g5us 7,bla/om]yx7 :i* 0 q probably ! ance/or ( ! ,am]ican types ( de]4 ,x 0 consid]ably small] ?an any ( ! exi/+ ,nor? ,am]ican species & _h no antl]s1 b possess$ ! sabre-l1 upp] can9e tusks1 :i* *>act]ize ! muntjacs & hornless de] ( ,asia4 ,! limb-bones _h already atta9$ ne>ly _! pres5t /ate ( developm5t1 z reg>ds ! r$uction ( ulna & radius1 =mation ( cannon-bones1 etc4 ,bla/om]yx probably ent]$ ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 b1 z 0 m5tion$ previ\sly 7p4 #dji71 ,dr4 ,mat!w & ,pr(essor ,osborn reg>d ! g5us z auto*?on\s & desc5d$ f ! ,hyp]tragulid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--,l[] ,mioc5e hornless de] 7,bla/om]yx adv5a74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! middle ,mioc5e ,bla/om]yx gave rise to an ab]rant g5us 7,m]ycodus7 :i* has be5 made ! type ( a di/9ct family 7,m]ycodontid1 see table1 p4 #cfb71 b ?is is p]haps unnecess>y4 ,m]ycodus _h de]-l antl]s1 b completely hypsodont tee? su* z no kn[n memb] ( ! ,c]vid possesses4 ,! middle ,mioc5e species 7,m4 osborni7 0 a little creature1 n m ?an eighte5 or tw5ty in*es high at ! %\ld]1 & _h a bran*$ antl] ( ?ree t9es1 :i* 0 consid]ably long] ?an ! skull1 :ile 9 ! species ( ! upp] ,mioc5e 7,m4 furcatus7 ! antl] 0 %ort] & simply =k$4 ,f ! numb] ( specim5s ( ^! animals f\nd 9 :i* ! burr is incomplete or abs5t1 x may be inf]r$ t ! antl] 0 n always decidu\s4 ,! legs 7 long & v sl5d]1 & app>5tly !re 0 no trace ( ! lat]al digits1 ev5 9 ! =e foot4 ,^! peculi> hypsodont de] p]si/$ ev5 9 ! old] ,plei/oc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--,mioc5e de]-antelopes 7,m]ycodus osborni1 middle ,mioc5e1 & ,m4 furcatus1 upp] ,mioc5e74 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,de] are ! only memb]s ( ! ,pecora :i* inhabit ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e !re are sev]al g5]a ( !m1 all mu* m ne>ly alli$ to ,nor? ,am]ican ?an to ,old ,_w =ms4 ,no record ( ! pres5ce ( ! family 9 ! s\!rn cont95t has be5 f\nd 9 b$s old] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e1 b 9 view ( ! degree ( specialization :i* !y h !re und]gone1 x is probable t ! immigration took place 9 ! ,plioc5e4 ,,section ,,cavicornia4 ,,holl[-,,horn$ ,,rum9ants ,9 ! animals ( ?is second & f> l>g] section ( ! ,pecora !re are bony outgr[?s ( ! skull1 f ! frontal bones1 outgr[?s :i* are p]man5t & non-decidu\s2 ^! are ! horn-cores1 :i* are tap]+ & unbran*$4 ,! horn-core is1 9 turn1 cov]$ ) a %ea? ( horn1 likewise unbran*$ & p]man5t1 b gr[+ f ye> to ye> until ! maximum size is atta9$1 a process :i* is famili>ly illu/rat$ 9 ! gr[? ( a calf4 ,among ,rec5t ,cavicornia !re is b "o exception to ! rule t ! horny %ea? is non-decidu\s & unbran*$ & t "o is ! ,prong ,buck 7,antilocapra am]icana74 ,9 ! ,cavicornia x is ! v g5]al rule t bo? sexes are horn$1 ?\gh ! females commonly h small] horns & 9 sev]al g5]a ( antelopes ! does are hornless4 ,!re is almo/ z great v>iety 9 ! %ape & size ( ! horn z ( ! antl]2 we f9d small1 m$ium-siz$ & enorm\sly l>ge horns1 :i* may be /raight1 simply curv$1 complexly curv$1 spiral1 lyrate or twi/$4 ,! antelopes h _m types ( horns1 z h ! %eep & goats1 ! ox51 buffaloes & bisons2 b only a few ( !m are exemplifi$ 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 :i* n[1 z 9 ! prec$+ geological p]iods1 is s+ul>ly poor 9 repres5tatives ( ! ,pecora4 #i1 #aj4 ,antilopid & ,antilocaprid4 ,antelopes ,two v diff]5t k9ds ( antelopes are f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica at ! pres5t "t2 "o ( !m1 ! errone\sly nam$ ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,goat 7,oreamnos montanus71 is evid5tly a late immigrant f ! ,old ,_w1 & fossil rema9s ( x h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,plei/oc5e cave-deposits ( ,cali=nia4 ,?is animal is a memb] ( ! true antelope family 7,antilopid7 & belongs to ! *amois gr\p ( m\nta9-antelopes2 x has no ne> relatives among o!r ,am]ican mammals1 liv+ or ext9ct4 ,! ,prong ,buck1 or ,prong-horn$ ,antelope 7,antilocapra am]icana71 occupies a v isolat$ position1 s mu* s t a di/9ct family1 ! ,antilocaprid1 has be5 creat$ = its reception4 ,x diff]s f all o!r ,cavicornia 9 hav+ a bran*$ horn1 ?\gh ! bony core is simple1 & 9 annually %$d+ & r5ew+ ! horny %ea?2 ! horn is directly ov] ! eye2 !re are no dew-claws & all traces ( ! bones ( ! lat]al digits h completely disappe>$4 ,! gr9d+ tee? are ?or\ghly hypsodont4 ,! g5us occurr$ 9 ! old] ,plei/oc5e1 :]e x 0 associat$ ) ! la/ ( ! de]-antelope1 or ,m]ycodus s]ies 7,caprom]yx71 & :i*1 s f> z x is kn[n1 w\ld seem to connect ! two families1 ?\gh ?is is d\btful4 ,a middle ,mioc5e g5us 7,dromom]yx ,fig4 #abh1 p4 #bcg7 w\ld be a m probable ance/or ( ! ,prong ,buck1 if x 7 n = ! long1 unfill$ gap ( ! upp] ,mioc5e & ! :ole ,plioc5e4 ,dromom]yx _h erect horn-cores plac$ directly above ! eyes z 9 ! mod]n g5us1 b l[-cr[n$ gr9d+ tee?2 x 0 ! mo/ anci5t ,am]ican cavicorn yet kn[n4 ,x rema9s to be det]m9$ by future exploration1 :e!r ?is middle ,mioc5e g5us 0 actually ! ance/or ( ,antilocapra1 or m]ely an anticipation ( x4 ,9 ! l[] ,plioc5e h be5 f\nd ! rema9s1 v incomplete1 ( sev]al antelopes1 :i* appe> to h be5 immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 b are too imp]fectly kn[n = any def9itive ref]5ce4 ,"o resembles ! flat-horn$1 or goat-horn$1 antelopes ( ! ,european ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e4 ,o!rs _h spirally twi/$ horns l ^? ( ! ,rec5t /repsic]9e1 or twi/$-horn antelopes ( ,africa & ,asia1 b may1 nev]!less1 be ref]able to ! ,antilocaprid4 ,antelopes ev5 p5etrat$ to ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ?ree g5]a ( !m h be5 report$ f ! ,plei/oc5e ( ! ,brazilian cav]ns & ! ,arg5t9e pampas1 b !y 7 less successful 9 e/abli%+ a foo?old ?an 7 ! de]1 & =m no "p ( ! mod]n ,neotropical fauna4 #aa4 ,bovid4 ,%eep1 ,bisons1 ,ox51 etc4 ,a s]ies ( g5]a1 ( disput$ sy/ematic position1 is repres5t$ to-day by ! s-call$ ,musk-,ox 7,ovibos mos*atus71 :i* is n[ exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican1 b 9 ! ,plei/oc5e rang$ ov] nor!rn ,asia & ,europe z f> we/ z ,great ,brita94 ,! ,musk-,ox1 :i* is at pres5t f\nd only 9 ! extreme nor?1 is a heavy1 %ort-legg$ animal1 ?ree & a half to f\r feet high1 & six feet or m 9 l5g?2 ! body is cov]$ ) a d5se coat ( woolly hair ov]laid by a ?at* ( long1 /raight hair1 :i* gives ! animal a v %aggy appe>ance4 ,! horns are broad at ! base1 especially s 9 old males1 9 :i* !y meet 9 ! middle l9e & cov] mu* ( ! head z ) a horny casque2 !y curve d[nw>d & !n upw>d & =w>d1 ) ! tips direct$ t[>d ! front2 9 ! females & "y males ! horns are v mu* small]4 ,?is s]ies _c be trac$ back ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 9 :i* epo* x 0 n only f> m widely di/ribut$1 b also v mu* m div]sifi$1 no less ?an ?ree ext9ct g5]a1 9 addition to ! exi/+ "o1 hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e4 ,"o ( ^! 7,symbos71 :i* ext5d$ f ,alaska to ,arkansas1 _h horns :i* 7 small] & %ort] ?an 9 ! mod]n g5us1 &1 ev5 :5 fully develop$1 did n meet 9 ! middle l9e ( ! head4 ,! o!r two g5]a1 f ,cali=nia 7,euc]a!rium & ,preptoc]as ,fig4 #aaf1 p4 #bjc71 are ( great int]e/ z %[+ aff9ities to ! ,musk-,ox & also to %eep & to c]ta9 antelopes1 su* z ! ,tak9 7,budorcas7 ( nor!rn ,india & ,tibet4 ,!y s]ve to connect ! musk-ox5 ) o!r ,cavicornia1 b ! orig9 ( all ^! animals is to be s\ght 9 ,asia4 ,9 ,rec5t ,nor? ,am]ica !re are f\r or five species ( %eep 7,ovis7 :i* are conf9$ to ! m\nta9\s & brok5 areas ( ! we/]n "p ( ! cont95t & ext5d f ,alaska to ,mexico4 ,! 8,bighorn0 or ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,%eep 7,ovis canad5sis7 is *>act]iz$ by great1 spirally coil$ horns 9 ! rams1 9 ! ewes ! horns are v mu* small] & ne>ly /raight2 ! o!r species diff] b slightly f ?is type4 ,! species ,o4 canad5sis has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 b no?+ fur!r is kn[n ( its hi/ory4 ,evid5tly1 ! %eep 7 late immigrants4 8,! geographical di/ribution ( wild %eep is int]e/+4 ,! imm5se m\nta9 ranges ( ,c5tral ,asia1 ! ,pamir & ,?ian ,%an ( ,turke/an1 may be look$ on z ! c5tre ( _! habitat40 8,%eep are ess5tially inhabitants ( ! high m\nta9\s p>ts ( ! _w1 = dwell+ among :i* _! wond]ful p[]s ( climb+ & leap+ give !m special advantages4 ,no species frequ5t by *oice ei!r level des]ts1 op5 pla9s1 d5se =e/s or swamps4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( species are inhabitants ( ! cont95t ( ,asia1 "o ext5d+ into ,nor? ,am]ica %\ld read1 f\r or five "o into ,s\!rn ,europe & "o into ,nor? ,africa4444 ,no rema9s t c be ) c]ta9ty ref]r$ to ! g5us ,ovis h be5 met ) 9 ! hi!rto explor$ true ,t]ti>y b$s1 :i* h yield$ su* abundant modifications ( ,antelopes & ,de]40#aj ,! only o!r division ( ! family :i* is repres5t$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is t ( ! bisons1 ( :i* ! fa/ vani%+ remnant ( a s+le species#aa 7,bison bison7 is all t is left ( :at 0 once an ext5sive & v>i$ assemblage4 ,! bisons diff] f ! true ox5 9 ! =m & /ructure ( ! skull1 9 ! %\ld]-hump1 :i* is produc$ by ! v long sp9es ( ! dorsal v]tebr & 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! back slopes d[nw>d f ! %\ld]s to ! cr\p4 ,!y diff] fur!r 9 ! "* ( ! hair1 :i* is %ort & woolly on ! body & h9d qu>t]s1 v long & %aggy on ! head & neck4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica !re 7 at lea/ sev5 recognizable species ( bisons1 :i* rang$ ov] ! cont95t f ,alaska to ,florida1 ?\gh x is n probable t !y 7 all contempor>y4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ & by f> ! l>ge/ ( ^! 0 ! gigantic ,b4 latifrons1 a specim5 ( :i* 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory measures six feet across ! horns 9 a /raight l9e2 ?is 0 a ,mississippi ,valley species & ext5d$ f ,ohio to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & we/w>d to ,kansas & ,texas4 ,ano!r gigantic species 7,b4 crassicornis7 liv$ 9 ,alaska 9 association ) a second & small] species 7,b4 occid5talis7 :i* rang$ z f> s\? z ,kansas4 ,b4 occid5talis1 ?\gh small] ?an ! prec$+ species1 0 l>g] ?an ! exi/+ "o & 0 rem>kable = ! great size ( ! hump4 ,! bisons 7 migrants f ! ,old ,_w & are ! only memb]s ( ! great ox-tribe t ev] rea*$ ,am]ica4 ,at pres5t ! ,old ,_w has b a s+le species ( ,bison 7,b4 bonasus71 :i* has be5 sav$ f ext]m9ation only by ! mo/ rigid protection4 ,nei!r %eep nor bison ext5d$ _! range to ,s\? ,am]ica2 bo? are & h be5 ess5tially nor!rn gr\ps & seem to h be5 unable to cross ! tropics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,f ! =ego+ acc\nt1 confus$ z x unavoidably is1 "o ?+ at lea/ /&s out cle>ly1 t ,nor? ,am]ica play$ a v insignificant rle 9 ! evolution ( ! ,pecora1 & has only two peculi> gr\ps1 ! ,prong ,buck & ! ,am]ican types ( de]1 & ( ^!1 ! probable ,am]ican ance/ry does n ext5d back ( ! l[] ,mioc5e & p]haps n s f>4 ,ev5 9 ! ,old ,_w ! /ory1 s f> z x has be5 deciph]$1 is by no means cle> & consi/5t1 :i* is no d\bt due to ! fact t ! regions f :i* ,t]ti>y mammals h be5 obta9$ are s small 9 comp>ison ) ^? t h yield$ no?+4 ,c]ta9 broad outl9es ( ! hi/ory may1 nev]!less1 be disc]n$4 ,! subord] ,pecora at an e>ly date became divid$ into ! two great bran*es ( ! ,c]vicornia & ,cavicornia1 ! =m] giv+ (f ! giraffe s]ies1 :i* 9 ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e ramifi$ & ext5d$ ?r\gh ,asia & s\!rn ,europe1 ?\gh n[ conf9$ to ,africa4 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e ( ,europe ! muntjac-l de] & ! antelopes1 ! fir/ ( ! ,cavicornia1 7 already well di/+ui%$4 ,f ! primitive antelopes arose n only ! wond]ful assemblage ( mod]n antelopes1 b also ! goats & %eep & ! great & v>i$ ox-tribe4 ,f ! middle ,oligoc5e =ms x may obvi\sly be inf]r$ t bo? ,c]vicornia & ,cavicornia unit$ 9 a s+le trunk1 or1 trac$ 9 ! o!r direction1 div]g$ f a common /ock1 to :i* also ! subord] ( ! ,tragul9a goes back4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is equally obvi\s t ! camels & llamas h be5 sep>at$ f ! ,pecora at lea/ s9ce ! middle ,eoc5e1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! _m po9ts ( agreem5t betwe5 ! two subord]s1 o!r ?an ^? %>$ ) all artiodactyls1 are n due to inh]itance f a common ance/ry1 b h be5 indep5d5tly acquir$ 9 ! two s]ies4 ,x w be in/ructive to note "s ( ! m important ( ^! indep5d5t simil>ities3 7#a7 ! sel5odont & m or less hypsodont "* ( ! gr9d+ tee?2 7#b7 ! sp\t-%ap$ odontoid process ( ! axis2 7#c7 ! great r$uction ( ! ulna & its cossification ) ! radius2 7#d7 ! loss ( ! fibula1 except = its l[] end1 :i* p]si/s z a sep>ate malleol> bone2 7#e7 ! =mation ( cannon-bones by ! fusion ( ! ?ird & f\r? metapodials2 7#f7 ! developm5t ( a complex1 _m-*amb]$ /oma*4 ,o!r po9ts ( lik5ess might be cit$1 b ^? already giv5 w suffice to %[ h[ v important ?is p>allel mode ( evolution (t5 proves itself to be4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,proboscidea ,utt]ly =eign z ! elephant-tribe appe>s to be to pres5t-day ,nor? ,am]ica1 x 0 a v conspicu\s elem5t 9 ! fauna ( t cont95t f ! middle ,mioc5e to ! end ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 & 9 ! latt] epo* x spread ov] ,s\? ,am]ica also4 ,l s _m o!rs ( ! mammals :i* h1 f "t to "t1 fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,am]icas1 ! elephants & _! allies1 ! ma/odons1 7 immigrants f ! ,old ,_w1 &1 until comp>atively lately1 ! region ( _! orig9 0 a complete my/]y4 ,!y appe>$ sudd5ly & unh]ald$ & at approximately ! same "t 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica & no?+ is kn[n f prec$+ geological =mations ( ei!r cont95t :i* c\ld ) any plausibility be reg>d$ z ance/ral to !m4 ,! my/]y 0 dispell$ by ! discov]ies ( ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,&rews 9 ,egypt1 :i* demon/rat$ t ^! /range & huge bea/s _h orig9at$ 9 ,africa & _h migrat$ !nce ?r\gh ,asia to ,europe1 on ! "o side1 & to ,nor? ,am]ica on ! o!r4 ,! proboscideans occupy a v isolat$ position among ! ho($ mammals1 & 9 /ructure !y display a curi\s m+l+ ( high specialization ) an extreme cons]vatism ( primitive *>act]s1 ! specialization be+ exemplifi$ 9 ! tee? & head & ! cons]vatism 9 ! body & limbs1 v mu* z 9 ! oreodont family ( artiodactyls 7p4 #chb74 ,! mo/ conspicu\s ( ! ext]nal features 9 ! ord] is ! long trunk1 or proboscis1 :i* gives its "n to ! gr\p1 & is a great prolongation ( ! nose1 ) ! no/rils at ! end & a f+]-l tip1 :i* c be us$ to pick up m9ute objects4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--,mol> ( ! ,african ,elephant 7,loxodonta africanus7 %[+ ! oblique mode ( we>4 ,heavy black l9es indicate enamel1 enclos+ areas ( d5t9e1 cem5t cov]+ ! :ole too?4 ,9 ! true elephants ! d5tal =mula is3 i #a_/j1 c #j_/j1 p #j_/j1 m #c_/c1 #b #ad1 ?\gh ?is =mula is mislead+1 to ! ext5t t ! milk premol>s1 ?ree 9 numb] 9 ea* jaw1 take ! place & p]=m ! functions ( ! premol>s1 ?us add+ #ab to ! effective numb] ( tee?4 ,! s+le upp] incisor on ea* side gr[s into an imm5se tusk1 :i* has enamel only on ! tip1 :]e x is spe$ily worn away2 ! l[] jaw is )\t incisors & !re are no can9es above or bel[4 ,! gr9d+ tee? are v l>ge & h a highly complex /ructure & a mo/ exceptional me?od ( eruption on com+ into use4 ,!y are ?or\ghly hypsodont & ea* is compos$ ( a l>ge numb] ( high1 broad & ?9 plates ( d5t9e cov]$ ) enamel & ! spaces betwe5 ! enamel ridges are fill$ ) cem5t 7see ,fig4 #dg1 p4 #ig72 inde$1 ! :ole too? is s ?ickly cov]$ ) cem5t t1 :5 unworn1 x looks l a m]e lump1 ) no ridges %[+ on ! surface4 ,! tee? increase 9 size & 9 ! numb] ( compon5t ridges f be=e backw>d1 & 9 ! ,indian species 7,elephas maximus7 ! numb] ( ridges 9 ! six gr9d+ tee?1 includ+ ! milk premol>s1 is3 #d1 #h1 #ab1 #ab1 #af1 #bd4 ,9 ! ,african ,elephant 7,loxodonta africanus7 ! tee? are n s high & h few] & ?ick] plates1 ! =mula be+3 #c1 #f1 #g1 #g1 #h1 #aj4 ,! tee? d n succe$ "o ano!r v]tically 9 ! normal mammalian fa%ion1 b come 9 successively f beh9d & ! s]ies moves =w>d1 s t ! =emo/ too? is pu%$ out1 :5 x is s worn d[n z to be ( no fur!r s]vice4 ,z ^! tee? are v l>ge & ! jaws are relatively %ort1 only "o too? on ea* side1 above & bel[1 is 9 use at ! same "t1 ?\gh "p ( a second may also be involv$4 ,! movem5t ( ! successive tee? is n directly =w>d1 b oblique1 an upp] too? com+ =w>d & d[nw>d & a l[] too? =w>d & upw>d4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is arrangem5t ! tee? are abrad$ obliquely1 ! ant]ior "p fir/ com+ into use1 &1 by ! "t a too? is fully 9 place1 ! front portion is worn d[n to less ?an half ! height ( ! h9d] "p4 ,all ( ^! peculi>ities 9 ! d5tal sy/em imply a v high degree ( specialization & a notable diff]5ce f o!r mammals4 ,! skull is equally specializ$1 z is inde$ requir$ by ! "* ( ! tee? & ! developm5t ( ! long & heavy proboscis4 ,! premaxill are conv]t$ into %ea?s = ! great tusks2 ! nasals are extremely abbreviat$ & ! ant]ior nasal op5+ is %ift$ to ! top1 directly above ! po/]ior op5+1 s t ! nasal canal passes v]tically d[nw>d ?r\gh ! skull4 ,all ( ! bones =m+ ! cranium are enorm\sly ?ick5$ & at ! same "t light5$ by ! =mation ( an ext5sive sy/em ( communicat+ s9uses1 & ?us ! bra9-*amb] is1 z x 71 hidd5 away 9 ! middle ( ! huge mass ( ! skull4 ,?is expla9s ! difficulty ( kill+ an elephant by %oot+ x 9 ! head2 ! %ot mu/ be s direct$ z to rea* ! bra91 :i* requires k & skill4 ,! neck is %ort1 ! body long & extremely massive1 ! tail ( mod]ate l5g?4 ,! %\ld]-blade is v l>ge & has a prom95t metacromion giv5 (f f ! sp9e2 ! hip-bones are imm5sely exp&$ 9 correlation ) ! bread? ( ! ?orax & abdom54 ,! limbs are long1 massive & column>1 _! upp] segm5ts1 especially ! ?igh1 are v long1 s t ! knee-jo9t is br\ght bel[ ! body & free f x to ! position ( ! hock-jo9t 9 ! ,horse2 h5ce1 ! h9d leg appe>s to b5d 9 ! opposite direction f ! b5d 9 ! legs ( ord9>y quadrup$s1 9 :i* ! true knee-jo9t is conceal$4 ,! =e-arm bones are sep>ate &1 = mo/ ( its l5g?1 ! ulna is f> heavi] ?an ! radius1 a wide dep>ture f ! proportions usual 9 ho($ animals4 ,! femur has no pit 9 its head = ! r\nd ligam5t & no ?ird tro*ant]2 ! %aft is broad & mu* flatt5$1 hav+ q lo/ ! normal cyl9drical %ape4 ,! bones ( ! l[] leg are also sep>ate1 b ! fibula1 ?\gh /\t1 is v mu* m sl5d] ?an ! ulna4 ,! long bones h no m>r[-cavities1 b are fill$ ) spongy bone4 ,! feet are extremely %ort & broad & ( column> %ape1 ! weight re/+ ^u a pad ( ela/ic tissue & ! small1 nail-l ho(s are m]e excresc5ces ^u ! p]iph]y4 ,!re are five digits 9 manus & pes1 b n all ( !m h ho(s2 9 ! ,indian & ,we/ ,african species ! numb] ( ho(s is five 9 ! =e foot & f\r 9 ! h9d1 9 ! ,ea/ ,african f\r & ?ree respectively4 ,9 ! adult ! sk9 is q hairless1 ?\gh ! "y calf has a consid]able quantity ( hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--,"r manus ( ! ,indian ,elephant 7,e4 maximus74 ,at pres5t1 ! ,proboscidea are re/rict$ to ! w>m] p>ts ( ,asia & ,africa1 :]e five species1 f\r ( !m ,african1 are recogniz$4 ,?is is a v great r$uction 9 ! numb] ( species & 9 ! area inhabit$ dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e epo*1 :5 !y rang$ ?r\gh e cont95t1 except ,au/ralia1 & 7 adapt$ to e climate f ! tropics to ! %ores ( ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,f\r di/9ct species ( proboscideans exi/$ 9 ,plei/oc5e ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?ree elephants & a ma/odon1 ?\gh n all 9 ! same areas1 nor probably all at ! same "t1 _! ranges bo? 9 "t & space ov]lapp+ to a great] or less degree1 b n exactly co9cid+ 9 ei!r respect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--,v]tical section ?r\gh ! manus ( ! ,indian ,elephant4 ,u1 l[] end ( ulna4 ,l1 lun>4 ,m1 magnum4 ,,iii1 ?ird metac>pal4 #a1 #b1 #c1 phalanges4 ,e1 pad ( ela/ic tissue4 7,aft] ,m4 ,web]47 ,! fir/ species 0 an immigrant1 ! nor!rn ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 :i* ext5d$ ov] ! great] "p ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 bo? 9 ! ,old ,_w & 9 ! ,new4 ,?is is ! species ( :i* complete c>casses ) hide & hair h be5 f\nd 9 ! froz5 gravels ( nor!rn ,sib]ia1 its /ructure & appe>ance be+ ?us almo/ z well kn[n z ^? ( any mod]n elephant4 ,t ! ,mammo? 0 p]fectly adapt$ to life 9 a climate ( sev]e cold is %[n n only by ! cont5ts ( ! /oma*1 :i* are comm9ut$ fragm5ts ( pres5t-day ,sib]ian vegetation1 b also by ! d5se coat ( woolly hair1 cov]$ by long1 co>se out] hair1 :i* af=d$ full protection aga9/ ! cold4 ,! tusks1 ) consid]able v>iation ( =m1 _h a t5d5cy to spiral curvature1 curv+ fir/ d[nw>d & outw>d1 !n upw>d & inw>d2 ! gr9d+ tee? 7 *>act]iz$ by _! relative bread? & ! num]\s ?9 enamel-ridges :i* trav]s$ !m4 ,! numb] ( ^! ridges 0 v v>iable 9 diff]5t individuals1 b may be express$ = ! six successive tee? z foll[s3 #c-d1 #f-i1 #i-ab1 #i-ae1 #ad-af1 #ah-bg4 ,! skeleton 0 m l t ( ! ,indian ,elephant ?an ( ! o!r species1 ?\gh ) a numb] ( small diff]5ces 9 ! skull4 ,9 size1 ! ,mammo? 0 comp>atively small1 /&+ ab\t n9e feet six in*es at ! %\ld]s4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica its range 0 f ,alaska s\!a/w>d across ! cont95t to ,new ,engl&4 ,! second species1 ! ,columbian ,elephant 7,e4 columbi ,fig4 #aad1 p4 #aih71 0 eighte5 in*es or m tall] ?an ! ,mammo? & rivall$ ! l>ge/ exi/+ elephants 9 /ature2 its huge tusks curv$ fir/ d[nw>d & !n upw>d & inw>d1 _! tips cross+ :5 full-gr[n4 ,! gr9d+ tee? _h few] & ?ick] enamel plates ?an ^? ( ! ,mammo?4 ,! range ( ! ,columbian ,elephant ov]lapp$ ! s\!rn bord] ( t ( ! ,mammo?1 b 01 on ! :ole1 mu* m s\!rn2 x cross$ ! cont95t f ocean to ocean & cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ext5d+ d[n to ! s\!rn end ( ! ,mexican plateau4 ,! two species 7 v closely relat$ & 9 "s cases are s int]grad$ t x is difficult to di/+ui% !m2 ! ,mammo? 0 an und\bt$ immigrant & ! ,columbian ,elephant 0 probably a local ,nor? ,am]ican v>iant ( x1 adapt$ to a some:at w>m] climate4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( ! sk9 or hair 9 ! latt] animal1 b1 f ! fact t x 0 n a tropical species & 0 expos$ to v cold w9t]s1 x may be inf]r$ t x _h a hairy cov]+ ( "s sort4 ,! ?ird species ( elephant 7,e4 imp]ator7 0 old] geologically ?an ! o!rs1 z x 0 m *>act]i/ic ( ! l[] ,plei/oc5e & upp]mo/ ,plioc5e2 its range co9cid$ ) ! we/]n half ( ! region cov]$ by ,e4 columbi1 ext5d+ f> into ,mexico1 b n occurr+ ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,x 0 an enorm\s creature1 ! l>ge/ ( kn[n elephants1 ) an e/imat$ height ( ?irte5 & a half feet at ! %\ld] 7,osborn74 ,! gr9d+ tee? _h ?ick] & m crumpl$ enamel plates ?an 9 ei!r ( ! o!r species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--,! ,am]ican ,ma/odon 7,ma/odon am]icanus71 ,plei/oc5e4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! f\r? ( ! ,plei/oc5e proboscideans ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 a memb] ( a diff]5t & mu* m anci5t g5us1 ,ma/odon1 :i* 9 ! ,old ,_w became ext9ct be=e ! end ( ! ,plioc5e4 ,! ,am]ican ,ma/odon 7,m4 am]icanus7 0 ?us a belat$ survival ( an anci5t type1 seem+ly out ( place ev5 9 ! /range ,plei/oc5e _w1 :i* _h s _m biz>re creatures4 ,! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! g5us 0 9 ! simple1 l[-cr[n$ & comp>atively small gr9d+ tee?1 :i* _h ?ree or f\r prom95t transv]se ridges1 cov]$ ) heavy enamel1 &1 usually1 ) no cem5t on ! cr[ns4 ,z ^! tee? 7 s mu* small] ?an ^? ( ! elephants1 z _m z ?ree on ea* side ( ea* jaw might be 9 simultane\s use4 ,9 ?is species !re 0 no v]tical succession ( tee?1 b 9 "s ( ! ,t]ti>y ma/odons su* succession has be5 obs]v$4 ,! long tusks 7 direct$ ne>ly /raight =w>d & 7 almo/ p>allel1 ) b slight curvature1 ! convexity d[nw>d4 ,9 ! males !re 0 a %ort s+le tusk or1 less commonly1 a pair ( su* tusks1 9 ! l[] jaw1 :i* 7 probably n visible ext]nally2 ^! 7 ! vani%+ remnants ( an e>li] /age ( developm5t1 :5 ! ma/odons _h a fully develop$ pair ( l[] tusks1 ne>ly z l>ge z ! sup]ior pair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,la/ l[] mol> ( ! ,am]ican ,ma/odon4 ,! skull1 :ile ess5tially proboscidean1 0 yet mu* l[] & flatt] & less dome-l ?an 9 ! elephants2 ! ?ick5+ ( ! cranial bones 0 less extreme4 ,! rema9d] ( ! skeleton diff]$ s little f t ( ! elephants z to require no description4 ,9 size1 ?is species ab\t equall$ ! ,mammo?1 ! l>g] individuals measur+ n9e feet six in*es at ! %\ld]4 ,rema9s h be5 f\nd :i* prove t ! ,am]ican ,ma/odon _h a cov]+ ( long1 co>se hair1 & t x f$ ^u ! leaves1 %oots & small bran*es ( trees1 especially ( conif]s4 ,!re is mu* reason to believe t ! species outliv$ ! elephants 9 ?is cont95t & p]si/$ until aft] ! e/abli%m5t "h ( ! ,am]ican ,indian1 & x may well h be5 human ag5cy :i* f9ally ext+ui%$ ! dw9dl+ race4 ,! range ( ! species ne>ly co9cid$ ) t ( ! ,columbian ,elephant1 b did n ext5d s f> into ,mexico1 & 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! cont95t rea*$ mu* f>!r nor?1 ev5 into ,alaska4 ,9 ! ,plioc5e ( ,texas1 ,nebraska & ,idaho liv$ ! ,am]ican repres5tatives ( a g5us 7,/egodon7 :i* 0 a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! elephants & ! ma/odons1 & :i* 0 especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,plioc5e ( ,india4 ,! tusks1 :i* 7 conf9$ to ! upp] jaw1 _h lo/ _! enamel & ! la/ mol>1 above & bel[1 _h five or six enamel ridges1 b ! cr[ns1 :i* 9 ! ,asiatic species 7 buri$ 9 cem5t1 _h b a small am\nt ( ?is mat]ial4 ,sev]al species ( ,ma/odon occur 9 ! same b$s1 b only isolat$ tee? h be5 f\nd4 ,! ma/odons1 9 a broad s5se ( ! t]m1 h be5 divid$ into sev]al g5]a & subg5]a 9 accordance ) diff]5t s*emes2 ! simple/ p]haps is to gr\p into a second g5us ^? species :i* _h fully develop$ l[] tusks4 ,?is f\r-tusk$ g5us has receiv$ sev]al names1 ( :i* ,tetrabelodon is mo/ commonly us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 b ! t]m ,gompho!rium is mu* old] &1 accord+ to ! law ( priority1 mu/ !re=e be employ$4 ,! l[] ,plioc5e species ( ,gompho!rium _h a pair ( l>ge l[] tusks1 ( cyl9drical %ape1 & bo? upp] & l[] tusks _h longitud9al b&s ( enamel1 & 9 ord] to support ! weight ( ^! great tusks ! symphyseal1 or *91 region ( ! l[] jaw 0 greatly elongat$2 ! mol>s _h f\r cross-cre/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--;,head ( upp] ,mioc5e ma/odon 7,gompho!rium productum7 %[+ ! *isel-l l[] tusks4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 ! upp] ,mioc5e is f\nd ano!r & m primitive /age ( proboscidean developm5t4 ,9 ^! species ! gr9d+ tee? 7 ?ree-ridg$2 ! upp] tusks 7 q %ort & curv$ d[nw>d1 div]g+ some:at f ea* o!r1 & !y _h enamel b&s4 ,! l[] tusks 7 /ill %ort] & ( depress$1 flatt5$ & some:at *isel-l =m & s worn z to %[ t !y 7 regul>ly employ$ 9 cropp+ & br[s+4 ,! skull 0 l[ & broad & ! symphysis ( ! l[] jaw 0 greatly prolong$ to c>ry ! tusks4 ,a v important fact conc]n+ ^! e>ly ma/odons is t !y _h ! normal me?od ( too?-succession1 p]man5t premol>s =m+ b5ea? 79 ! l[] jaw1 above 9 ! upp]7 ! milk-tee? & pu%+ !m out at maturity4 ,( ! middle ,mioc5e proboscideans n mu* is kn[n beyond ! m]e fact ( _! pres5ce 9 ,nor? ,am]ica at t "t & inde$ little ( ! skeleton1 o!r ?an ! skull1 has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,am]ican ,mioc5e2 b well-nigh complete skeletons h be5 obta9$ f ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,europe1 & ^! br+ out ! surpris+ fact t ! body & limbs ( ^! species did n diff] 9 any notewor?y mann] f ^? ( ! exi/+ elephants2 ! mod]n skeletal /ructure ( ^! animals _h be5 atta9$ at a "t :5 ! d5tition & skull 7 /ill 9 a f> less advanc$ /age ( developm5t4 ,9 size1 h[ev]1 !re 0 a decid$ diff]5ce1 ! species ( ! ,am]ican ,mioc5e r>ely atta9+ a height ( six feet4 ,proboscidea h be5 report$ f ! l[] ,mioc5e ( ! ,great ,pla9s1 b ! mat]ial is insuffici5t = a def9itive judgm5t4 ,!re is no d\bt z to _! pres5ce 9 ,europe at t "t1 b 9 nei!r cont95t c ! hi/ory be trac$ any f>!r & we mu/ turn to ,africa = a backw>d cont9uation ( ! /ory4 ,9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e ( ! ,faym1 s\?we/ ( ,cairo 9 ,egypt1 occurs ! highly int]e/+ g5us ,paloma/odon1 :i* 0 mu* m primitive ?an any ( ! g5]a describ$ above1 ?\gh x 0 an unmi/akable memb] ( ! ord] & ev5 ( ! family ,elephantid4 ,! d5tition 0 already mu* r$uc$1 giv+ ! =mula3 i #a_/a1 c #j_/j1 p #c_/b1 m #c_/c4 ,! upp] tusks 7 %ort1 compress$1 direct$ d[nw>d1 & slightly div]g5t1 & _h a broad b& ( enamel on ! out] side2 ! l[] tusks 7 /ill %ort] & procumb5t1 po9t+ /raight =w>d1 & 7 cov]$ ) enamel1 :i* 0 v ?ick on ! l[] side & ?9 or want+ on ! upp]4 ,all ( ! gr9d+ tee? 7 9 place & function at ! same "t1 :i* 0 n true ( any ( ! g5]a previ\sly consid]$1 & ea* ( ! premol>s _h its pr$ecessor 9 ! milk-s]ies1 :i* x succe$$ & displac$ 9 ! normal v]tical mann]4 ,! premol>s 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 :i* 7 made up ( ?ree pairs ( conical tub]cles arrang$ to =m a ?ree-cre/$ cr[n4 ,! skull1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! elephants1 0 long & n>r[1 ! premaxill>ies ext5d+ into a long sn\t2 ! nasals 7 %ort5$1 ?\gh n s mu* z 9 ! succe$+ g5]a1 & !re 0 probably r a long & flexible sn\t ?an a true proboscis4 ,! skull _h a long & well-def9$ sagittal cre/1 :i* none ( ! lat] g5]a _h1 & ! developm5t ( s9uses 9 ! cranial bones1 ?\gh consid]able1 0 mu* less ?an 9 ! elephants4 ,! occiput 0 relatively high & ! ?ick5$ p>ietals did n t[] above x to any su* degree z !y d 9 ! elephants4 ,! symphysis ( ! l[] jaw 0 greatly prolong$1 ext5d+ out beyond ! ends ( ! upp] tusks1 & ?is implies t ! l[] lip _h a correspond+ prolongation4 ,! skeleton is /ill incompletely kn[n1 ?\gh x may be said t ! neck 0 probably long] ?an 9 ! subsequ5t g5]a ( ! family4 ,! limb-bones 7 already proboscidean 9 "*1 diff]+ only 9 details f ^? ( ! m typical memb]s ( ! ord]1 b ! animal 0 m lightly built & _h less massive limbs4 ,! pres5ce ( ! ?ird tro*ant] on ! femur1 :i* is lack+ 9 all ( ! succe$+ =ms1 is an int]e/+ approximation to o!r & /ill m primitive gr\ps ( ungulates4 ,! sev]al species ( ,paloma/odon repres5t a consid]able range 9 size1 f animals :i* 7 n mu* l>g] ?an a tapir to ^? :i* equall$ a half-gr[n ,indian ,elephant4 ,x is possible to take ano!r & v long /ep back f ,paloma/odon1 s long1 inde$1 z to make x app>5t t "o or m l9ks 9 ! *a9 are /ill miss+4 ,! g5us ,mri!rium is f\nd toge!r ) ,paloma/odon 9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 b also occurs sep>ately 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e4 ,x seems likely t x is a p]si/5t middle ,eoc5e type & t ! kn[n species ( x 7 some:at aside f ! ma9 l9e ( desc5t1 b t x v closely repres5ts1 nev]!less1 a v e>ly /age 9 ! elephant g5ealogy4 ,^! kn[n species 7 q small animals1 ab\t ! size ( a tapir1 & !re=e n mu* less ?an ! small] memb]s ( ,paloma/odon4 ,! d5tal =mula ( ,mri!rium 03 i #c_/b1 c #a_/j1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cf4 ,! fir/ or m$ian upp] incisor 0 a relatively small & simple too?1 b ! second 0 q a l>ge1 d[nw>dly direct$ tusk1 :i* 0 mu* small] & less curv$ ?an 9 ,paloma/odon1 & 0 n capable ( indef9ite gr[?4 ,! ?ird incisor & ! can9e 7 small1 spike-l tee? ( no functional importance1 b _! pres5ce is significant z approximat+ ! primitive1 unr$uc$ d5tition ( ! ungulates4 ,! l[] incisors 7 ne>ly procumb5t1 ) a slight upw>d incl9ation2 ! fir/ "o 0 long & ! second a ?ick1 enamel-cov]$ tusk1 ) a *isel-l edge1 :i* 0 produc$ by we>4 ,! premol>s 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 :i* 7 quadritub]cul>1 ! f\r conical cusps arrang$ s z to =m two transv]se cre/s1 giv+ a patt]n l t ( ! e>ly pigs & pecc>ies & ( precisely ! k9d t might h be5 pr$ict$ f ! tee? ( ,paloma/odon4 ,! skull _h an utt]ly diff]5t appe>ance f t ( ,paloma/odon1 ! diff]5ce be+ mu* great] ?an betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,mioc5e ,gompho!rium4 ,x 0 long & n>r[1 &1 except = ! v prom95t zygomatic ar*es1 ( ne>ly uni=m1 tubul> %ape1 ! bra9-case be+ ( small capacity1 ?\gh1 z comp>$ ) o!r ,eoc5e mammals1 ! bra9 0 proportionately l>ge4 8,x is possible t ! e>ly t5d5cy t[>d a consid]able c]ebral developm5t %[n 9 ^! primitive ,proboscidea is "o ( ! causes :y ! gr\p has surviv$ & fl\ri%$ ?r\gh s long a p]iod0 7,&rews74 ,! cranium 0 v long & ! facial region extremely %ort1 ! premaxill>ies n be+ prolong$ into a sn\t1 z !y 7 9 ,paloma/odon2 ! occipital bones =m$ ne>ly ! entire po/]ior surface ( ! cranium & ev5 encroa*$ slightly ^u ! ro(4 ,!re 0 a long1 b n v prom95t1 sagittal cre/1 & "s ( ! cranial bones 7 mu* ?ick5$2 9 "o species ! h9d] "p ( ! cranial walls 0 di/9ctly inflat$1 a beg9n+ ( ! enorm\s ?ick5+ :i* has culm9at$ 9 ! true elephants4 ,! nasal bones 7 already mu* %ort5$1 ?\gh !y 7 twice z long z ^? ( ,paloma/odon1 & ! animal w\ld appe> to h _h an incipi5t proboscis4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g? & ! body v long1 ) at lea/ tw5ty pairs ( ribs1 & !re 0 probably a long tail4 ,! hip-bone diff]$ rem>kably 9 its extreme n>r[ness f t ( ! lat] ,proboscidea & ! limb-bones 7 mu* m sl5d]1 ?\gh n dissimil> 9 %ape4 ,at a v e>ly p]iod ! ord] became divid$ into two ma9 bran*es1 "o ( :i* includes all ! =ms s f> consid]$1 & ! o!r ! v /range ,d9o!rium4 ,! d9o!res ent]$ ,europe toge!r ) ! ma/odons 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e & cont9u$ into ! ,plioc5e )\t mu* *ange & !n di$ out1 leav+ no desc5dants4 ,!y nev] invad$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 probably because !y 7 ( m or less aquatic habit1 l ! hippopotamuses1 & !re=e less likely to f9d suitable conditions 9 ! n>r[ & un/able l&-bridges :i* connect$ ! ,old ,_w ) ! ,new1 ?an 7 animals ( purely t]re/rial habitat4 ,! d9o!res 7 ( huge size1 equall+ ! l>g] elephants 9 ?is respect & closely resembl+ !m 9 ! skeleton ( ! body & limbs4 ,z usual 9 ?is ord]1 ! g5]ic peculi>ities 7 to be f\nd 9 ! tee? & skull4 ,!re 7 no sup]ior tusks1 all ! upp] incisors & can9es be+ lo/1 b !re 0 a pair ( l>ge l[] tusks1 :i* 7 direct$ d[nw>d1 ) a /rong backw>d curvature4 ,! d5tal =mula !n 03 i #j_/a1 c #j_/j1 p #b_/b1 m #c_/c1 #b #bb4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 relatively q small & _h1 except ! fir/ mol>1 two transv]se cre/s1 giv+ a patt]n s+ul>ly l t se5 9 ! tapirs4 ,! skull 0 rem>kably long1 l[ & flat1 & no d\bt ^! animals _h a proboscis ( "s sort4 ,t ! d9o!res 7 d]iv$ f ! same ance/ral /ock z ! ma/odons & elephants is p]fectly obvi\s & is n que/ion$ by any "o1 b x is n yet possible to trace ! connection4 ,! proboscideans 7 late immigrants into ,s\? ,am]ica1 be+ kn[n !re only 9 ! ,plei/oc5e & late ,plioc5e times1 & only ! ma/odons ent]$ ! s\!rn cont95t1 :]e !y gave rise to sev]al peculi> local species 9 ,arg5t9a1 ,bolivia1 ,*ili & ,brazil2 "o ( ^! 7,ma/odon &ium7 _h a deposit ( cem5t on ! cr[ns ( ! gr9d+ tee?4 ,:y ! elephants1 :i* ext5d$ to ! nor!rn bord] ( ! ,neotropical region1 %\ld h fail$ to rea* ,s\? ,am]ica & ma9ta9 !mselves !re1 is b "o ( _m simil> que/ions to :i* no assur$ answ] c be giv54 ,! evolution ( ! ,proboscidea 01 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 v simil> to t ( ! oreodont family 7p4 #cha7 among ! ,artiodactyla1 9 t ! developm5tal *anges affect$ *iefly ! d5tition & ! skull1 ! skeleton ( ! body & limbs hav+ v e>ly acquir$ a "* :i* 0 aft]w>d b little modifi$4 ,7 ! skull & tee? ( ! l[] ,mioc5e ,gompho!rium n kn[n1 we %\ld h>dly hesitate to ref] ! skeleton to ! g5us ,elephas1 & ev5 9 ! ,oligoc5e ,paloma/odon all ! bones ( ! skeleton1 o!r ?an ! skull1 7 *>act]i/ically & unmi/akably proboscidean4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! trans=mations ( ! tee? & skull 7 v pr(\nd & f>-rea*+1 v mu* m s ?an ^? :i* took place 9 ! oreodonts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--;,evolution ( ! ,proboscidea3 on ! "r1 a s]ies ( skulls2 on ! left1 la/ l[] mol>4 7,aft] ,lull1 modifi$ by ,s9clair47 ,n4,b4 ,tetrabelodon %\ld read ,gompho!rium4 ,9 ! d5tition we may consid] sep>ately ! developm5t ( ! tusks & ( ! gr9d+ tee?4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! kn[n s]ies1 z exemplifi$ by ,mri!rium1 0 ! enl>gem5t ( ! second incisor 9 ea* jaw to =m a tusk :i*1 ?\gh actually q long1 0 v small :5 judg$ by ! proboscidean /&>d4 ,! upp] tusk 0 direct$ v]tically d[nw>d & ! l[] "o 0 procumb5t1 po9t+ almo/ directly =w>d2 ! ?ird incisor & ! can9e 7 small & 9 ! l[] jaw already lo/4 ,9 ! next kn[n /age1 ,paloma/odon1 all ( ! ant]ior tee?1 except ! tusks1 _h be5 suppress$2 ! upp] tusks 7 long] & m curv$ & ( an oval cross-section2 !y ext5d$ less directly d[nw>d & m =w>d1 :ile ! enamel 0 re/rict$ to ! out] side ( ! tusk2 ! l[] tusks 7 m fully procumb5t ?an 9 ! prec$+ g5us4 ,! ?ird /age1 t ( ! l[] ,mioc5e ,gompho!rium1 %[$ ! upp] tusks greatly elongat$ & direct$ m =w>d ?an d[nw>d1 :ile ! l[] tusks 7 b little l>g] ?an be=e4 ,f ! middle ,mioc5e two phyla may be di/+ui%$ by ! tusks alone2 9 "o1 :i* 0 n de/9$ to long life1 ! l[] pair increas$ greatly bo? 9 l5g? & 9 diamet]1 :ile 9 ! o!r s]ies !y rapidly dim9i%$ & ev5tually disappe>$4 ,ev5 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 h[ev]1 ! ,am]ican ,ma/odon _h remnants ( ^! tusks 9 ! males4 ,9 ! lat] ma/odons1 ! /egodonts1 & true elephants1 ! upp] tusks1 :i* alone rema9$1 lo/ ! enamel b&s & atta9$ enorm\s proportions1 diff]+ 9 ! v>i\s g5]a & species 9 ! ext5t & direction ( curvature4 ,an ab]rant mode ( tusk developm5t 0 to be se5 9 ! d9o!res1 9 :i* ! upp] pair 0 suppress$ & ! l[] pair enl>g$ & s curv$ t ! po9ts 7 direct$ backw>d4 ,! gr9d+ tee? und]w5t mu* m radical & /rik+ *anges4 ,at fir/ 7,mri!rium7 !y 7 small1 v l[-cr[n$ & ( simple pig-l or quadritub]cul> patt]n1 mak+ two int]rupt$ cross-cre/s2 all 7 9 use simultane\sly & ! succession ( milk-tee? & premol>s 0 by v]tical replacem5t1 z 9 normal mammals g5]ally4 ,9 ,paloma/odon !re 7 ?ree pairs ( tub]cles on ! mol>s & 9 ,gompho!rium ^! coalesc$ into ridges1 b 9 all ! ma/odons !re 0 m or less di/9ctness ( ! conical tub]cles4 ,9 "o or m phyla ! ?ree-ridg$ plan p]si/$ = a long "t1 "o su* phylum t]m9at+ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ,ma/odon am]icanus4 ,9 ! o!r s]ies ! numb] ( ridges increas$1 fir/ to f\r1 !n to five1 six & m 7,/egodon72 ! cr[ns ( ! tee? became mu* l>g] & high]1 & ! ridges1 z _! numb] increas$1 became mu* ?9n]1 & ! valleys betwe5 !m 7 fill$ ) cem5t1 & f9ally1 9 ! true elephants1 ) _! fully hypsodont1 _m-cre/$ tee?1 7 ?ickly cov]$ all ov] ) cem5t4 ,! v]tical succession ( milk-tee? & premol>s 0 reta9$ 9 ,gompho!rium1 at lea/ 9 "s species1 b ! l>ge mol>s1 :i* c\ld n f9d room to be expos$ :ile ! premol>s 7 9 place1 came 9 successively f beh9d4 ,?is horizontal mode ( succession is ! only "o to be se5 9 ! true elephants1 9 :i* b "o too?1 or p>ts ( two1 on ea* side ( ea* jaw are 9 simultane\s use & ! premol>s h entirely disappe>$1 b ! milk-tee? are reta9$4 ,! *anges 9 ! skull1 :i* am\nt$ to a recon/ruction1 7 v l>gely condition$ by ! great increase 9 ! l5g? & consequ5t weight ( ! tusks1 9 ! size ( ! gr9d+ tee? & ! developm5t ( ! proboscis4 ,9 ! e>lie/ kn[n type 7,mri!rium7 ! skull _h little ab\t x t w\ld1 at fir/ sight1 sugge/ proboscidean aff9ities2 x 0 long & n>r[1 ) sagittal cre/ & occiput ( normal type1 v long cranial & v %ort facial region4 ,! nasal op5+ 0 direct$ =w>d & ! nasal canal 0 relatively long & horizontal 9 direction1 b ! nasal bones 7 already mu* %ort5$1 indicat+ t ! proboscis 0 probably 9 an incipi5t /age4 ,! symphysis ( ! l[] jaw 0 procumb5t & some:at elongat$1 b to only a comp>atively slight degree4 ,:ile ! skull ( ,mri!rium 0 n obvi\sly proboscidean1 t ( its successor1 ,paloma/odon1 0 unmi/akably s1 yet reta9$ sev]al primitive features1 :i* 7 lo/ 9 all ( ! subsequ5t g5]a1 su* z ! sagittal cre/1 ! relatively l[ cranium & mod]ate ?ick5+ ( ! cranial bones1 ! =w>d direction ( ! nasal op5+1 etc42 ! symphysis ( ! l[] jaw 0 v greatly prolong$4 ,z ! tusks enl>g$ & ! proboscis grew long]1 ! weight ( ! head & its app5dages necessitat$ a l>gely increas$ area ( atta*m5t = ! neck-muscles1 & ?is 0 atta9$ by a v great ?ick5+ ( ! cranial ro(1 ! occiput n increas+ proportionately2 at ! same "t1 ! ?ick5$ bones 7 honeycomb$ ) s9uses1 s z to r$uce _! weight )\t sacrifice ( /r5g?4 ,9 ^? species ( ! ,mioc5e ,gompho!rium :i* _h l>ge & heavy tusks1 ?is ?ick5+ 0 n v mu* less ?an 9 ! true elephants4 ,! enl>gem5t ( ! tusks _h o!r consequ5ces1 z1 = example1 9 l5g!n+ & broad5+ ! premaxill>ies &1 9 ! elephants1 9 _! d[nw>d b5d+1 s z to %ort5 /ill fur!r ! facial region ( ! skull4 ,) ! developm5t ( ! proboscis1 ! nasal bones 7 r$uc$ to a m9imum & ! ant]ior nasal op5+ 0 no long] direct$ =w>d1 b obliquely upw>d1 :ile ! nasal passage lo/ its horizontal direction & became almo/ v]tical4 ,! l[] jaw cont9u$ to elongate ! symphysis1 rea*+ a maximum 9 c]ta9 species ( ,gompho!rium2 b ! rev]se process ( %ort5+ ?is ant]ior region ( ! jaw began ) ! r$uction ( ! l[] tusks1 &1 :5 ^! _h disappe>$1 no?+ rema9$ ( ! imm5sely elongat$ symphysis1 except ! %ort sp\t ( ! elephant's jaw4 ,z ! gr9d+ tee? increas$ 9 height1 !re 0 a concomitant increase 9 ! v]tical dep? ( ! jaws = _! lodgm5t4 ,x 0 an obvi\s advantage 9 ! me*anical problem ( support+ ! enorm\s weight ( head1 tusks & trunk to %ort5 ! neck & ?us br+ ! weight ne>] to ! po9t ( support at ! )]s1 ! l5g!n+ proboscis r5d]+ x unnecess>y = ! m\? to rea* ! gr\nd 9 fe$+ or dr9k+4 ,! o!r p>ts ( ! skeleton und]w5t comp>atively little *ange1 ! degree ( modification be+ greate/ betwe5 ,mri!rium & ,paloma/odon4 ,?r\gh\t ! s]ies ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg rema9$ sep>ate1 & ! feet v %ort & five-to$4 ,9 size also ! great /ature & massiv5ess 7 atta9$ e>ly4 ,aft] ! great migration ( ! ,proboscidea to ! nor!rn cont95ts1 we f9d consid]able diff]5ces ( size betwe5 ! v>i\s phyla1 ?\gh all 7 v l>ge1 & ev5 z e>ly z ! l[] ,mioc5e ( ,france1 !re 7 species :i* rivall$ ! mod]n elephants 9 bulk4 ,x 0 ?is rapid atta9m5t ( great size & weight :i* appe>s to h be5 ! det]m9+ factor 9 ! cons]vatism ( ! skeleton4 ,aft] ! skeleton _h become fully adju/$ to ! me*anical necessities impos$ by imm5se weight1 & t adju/m5t1 z we h se51 0 effect$ at a comp>atively e>ly p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ord]1 !n no fur!r modification ( importance w\ld seem to h be5 call$ =4 ,no d\bt ! habits & mode ( life ( ^! massive1 s$ate & sl[-mov+ animals und]w5t b little *ange f ! l[] ,oligoc5e onw>d4 ,!re is reason to ?9k t ,mri!rium 0 semi-aquatic & a haunt] ( m>%es & /reams1 b1 if s1 ! *ange to a life on dry gr\nd 0 complete 9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 = ! /ructure ( ,paloma/odon gives no reason = suppos+ t x 0 any?+ b a dwell] on solid l& & a d5iz5 ( =e/s4 ,al?\gh ?is book does n und]take to deal ) ! obscure problems connect$ ) ! m>9e mammals1 x may be not$ 9 pass+ t "o ( ^! problems has be5 br\ght ne> to solution1 if n actually solv$1 by ! discov]ies 9 ,egypt & t is ! "q conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! ,sir5ia4 ,! ord] includes ! exi/+ ,manatee or ,sea-,c[ 7,manatus7 ( ! coa/ ( ,florida1 nor!a/]n ,s\? ,am]ica & we/]n ,africa1 & ! ,dugong 7,halicore7 ( ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,^! are mammals :i* are adapt$ to a /rictly m>9e habitat & are incapable ( exi/5ce on l&1 hav+ lo/ ! h9d limbs & conv]t$ ! =e limbs into swimm+ paddles4 ,unlike ! :ales1 porpoises & o!r ,cetacea1 ! ,sir5ia are h]bivor\s & fe$ ^u seawe$ & eel-grass & ! aquatic plants ( l>ge riv]s4 ,! ,egyptian discov]ies t5d v /rongly to ! conclusion t ! ,sir5ia & ,proboscidea 7 bo? d]iv$ f a common /ock & t ! g5us ,mri!rium 0 n v f> remov$ f ! probable ance/or f :i* bo? ( ! ord]s desc5d$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,amblypoda ,,& ,,condyl>?ra ,^! are two ord]s ( ho($ animals :i* long ago vani%$ f ! e>? & no memb] ( ei!r is kn[n to h surviv$ lat] ?an ! ,eoc5e epo*2 bo? 7 ( great antiquity1 dat+ back to ! ,paleoc5e1 p]haps ev5 to ! ,cretace\s4 ,! la/ ( ! ,amblypoda are f\nd 9 ! l[e/ ,u9ta or highe/ ,bridg]1 b !y 7 relatively abundant 9 all ! m anci5t b$s4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! m important ,am]ican =ms3 ,ord] ,,amblypoda4 ,%ort-,foot$ ,ungulates ,subord] ,,taligrada ,i4 ,,p]ipty*id4 ,p]ipty*us1 ,paleoc4 ,,ii4 ,,pantolambdid4 ,pantolambda1 ,paleoc4 ,subord] ,,pantodonta ,,iii4 ,,coryphodontid4 ,coryphodon1 ,wasat* & ,w9d ,riv]4 ,subord] ,,d9oc]ata ,,iv4 ,,u9ta!riid4 ,ba?yopsis1 ,w9d ,riv]4 ,ela*oc]as1 ,bridg]4 ,u9ta!rium1 d4 ,eobasileus1 d4 ,z is %[n 9 ! table1 ! subord] ,taligrada is entirely ,paleoc5e 9 di/ribution1 ! ,pantodonta are l[] ,eoc5e & ! ,d9oc]ata *iefly middle ,eoc5e1 ?\gh p]si/+ into ! upp]4 ,! ,d9oc]ata 7 ! mo/ /rik+ & *>act]i/ic ( ,bridg] mammals1 & two or ?ree phyla ( !m may be di/+ui%$1 ?\gh = our purposes ?is is h>dly necess>y1 = ^! /range & biz>re creatures 7 all v mu* alike4 ,f ! commone/ & be/-kn[n g5us 7,u9ta!rium7 !y are call$ u9ta!res4 ,!y 7 l>ge & pond]\s animals1 ! v]itable giants ( _! "t1 f> exce$+ any ( _! contempor>ies4 ,9 appe>ance !y 7 among ! mo/ fanta/ic ( ! _m curi\s bea/s :i* ! fossils h reveal$4 ,! skull c>ri$ ?ree pairs ( bony protub]ances1 or horn-l outgr[?s2 "o pair on ! nasal bones sugge/ by _! %ape & "* t !y =m$ ! support ( d]mal horns l ^? ( ! pair$-horn rh9oc]oses 7,dic]a!rium7 ( ! ,oligoc5e & l[] ,mioc5e4 7,see p4 #bci47 ,! second pair1 :i* 7 mod]ately high & ?ick prom95ces1 almo/ cyl9drical 9 %ape & tap]+ b slightly to _! bluntly r\nd$ ends1 7 *iefly outgr[?s ( ! maxill>ies1 or upp] jaw-bones4 ,f _! %ape1 x is likely t ^! 7 n %ea!d 9 horn1 b 7 m]ely cov]$ ) sk91 z 7 also ! ?ird pair1 :i* arose f ! p>ietals4 ,^! 7 massive1 club-%ap$ prom95ces1 eight or t5 in*es high & broad5+ to ! free ends1 a %ape :i* makes x impossible to suppose t ^! 7 true horn-cores cov]$ ) horny %ea?s4 ,a high cre/ ( bone1 repres5t+ ! occipital cre/1 enclos$ ! top & back ( ! cranium1 connect+ ! po/]ior pair ( 8horns0 & dy+ away 9 front ( !m4 ,! top ( ! cranium _h ?us a deep1 bas9-l "*1 su* z is to be f\nd 9 no mammal outside ( ?is subord] & 0 "o ( ! mo/ peculi> features ( ?is extraord9>y skull4 ,! bra9-cavity 0 absurdly small1 ! gr[? ( ! bra9 n hav+ kept pace ) t ( ! body2 ! cavity is hidd5 away 9 ! po/]o-inf]ior portion ( ! skull1 ! imm5se ?ickness ( ! cranial walls be+ some:at light5$ by ! =mation ( s9uses1 b ^! 7 mu* less ext5sive & p]vasive ?an 9 o!r v l>ge1 horn$ or tusk-be>+ mammals1 su* z elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 etc4 ,probably1 z 9 ! case ( ! titano!res & entelodonts1 ?is defici5cy ( bra9-developm5t 0 at lea/ "o ( ! factors :i* l$ to ! e>ly ext9ction ( ! gr\p4 ,! premaxill>ies 7 sl5d] & rod-l bones1 :i* did n meet 9 ! middle l9e & c>ri$ no tee?4 ,! long & massive nasal bones & ! position ( ! nasal op5+ %[ t ^! animals _c h _h a proboscis ( any k9d4 ,! l[] jaw 0 rem>kable = ! great bony flange :i*1 9 ! males1 desc5d$ on ea* side f ! l[] bord]1 ne> ! ant]ior end1 & s]v$ to protect ! great can9e tusks f fracture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--,skull ( u9ta!re 7,u9ta!rium alticeps71 l[] jaw suppli$ f ano!r species4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,= re/oration1 see ,fig4 #bca1 p4 #ddg4 ,! female skull diff]$ 9 two respects f t ( ! male3 7#a7 ! horn-l protub]ances 7 mu* m sl5d] & less prom95t2 7#b7 z ! upp] can9e did n =m a tusk1 ! l[] jaw _h no flanges4 ,! skull ( ! artiodactyl ,protoc]as 7p4 #djf7 0 rem>kably simil> to t ( ! u9ta!res4 ,! d5tal =mula 03 i #j_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cd4 ,! upp] incisors 7 completely lo/ & ! l[] ones _h ! v unusual peculi>ity ( be+ bilobate1 or hav+ ! cr[n sep>at$ into two well-def9$ cusps4 ,! upp] can9es 9 ! males 7 v l>ge1 relatively ?91 recurv$ & sabre-l tusks1 ) acute po9ts & %>p edges1 :i* mu/ h be5 t]rible weapons1 ?\gh x is difficult to see h[ !y 7 us$2 probably ! m\? 0 widely op5$1 s z to cle> ! po9ts ( ! tusks1 & ! animal !n /ruck ) !m1 z a snake does ) its fangs4 ,! l[] can9e 0 v small & 0 includ$ 9 ! incisor s]ies1 ! %ape & function ( :i* x _h assum$4 ,?us1 ! u9ta!res1 ) _! too?less premaxill>ies &1 to all appe>ances1 eight l[] incisors1 =m$ a curi\s p>allel to ! true rum9ants 7,pecora71 &1 z 9 ! latt]1 !y mu/ h _h a firm ela/ic pad on ! premaxill>ies1 aga9/ :i* ! l[] incisors c\ld effectively bite1 :5 cropp+ ! s(t plants :i* =m$ ! diet ( ^! great bea/s4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 l[-cr[n$ & surpris+ly small 9 comp>ison ) ! size ( ! skull4 ,! premol>s & mol>s 7 ne>ly alike & _h two or m transv]se cre/s4 ,aside f ! altoge!r exceptional "* ( ! skull1 ! skeleton 0 q /rik+ly elephant9e 9 appe>ance1 s mu* s1 9 fact1 t ^! animals h repeat$ly be5 ref]r$ to ! ,proboscidea & "s writ]s are /ill ( ! op9ion t ! two ord]s 7 relat$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no suffici5t gr\nd = ?is view2 ! und5iable lik5esses are mu* m probably to be ascrib$ to ! op]ation ( conv]g5t developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--,"o ( ! elephant9e amblypods 7,u9ta!rium alticeps7 ( ! ,bridg] /age4 ,male 9 =egr\nd1 female beh9d4 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! museums ( ,yale & ,pr9ceton univ]sities4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g?1 suffici5tly long to enable ! animal to rea* ! gr\nd ) ! lips1 a necessity 9 ! abs5ce ( a proboscis4 ,! body 0 v long &1 z is %[n by ! l5g? & curvature ( ! ribs & ! great bread? ( ! hip-bones1 extremely bulky4 ,! limbs 7 v massive1 & ! long bones _h lo/ ! m>r[-cavities1 be+ fill$ ) spongy bone1 z 9 ! elephants1 titano!res & mo/ o!r v heavy mammals4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg 7 sep>ate4 ,! hip- & ?igh-bones & %9-bones 7 rem>kably elephant9e 9 "* &1 if f\nd isolat$1 might readily be ref]r$ to "s unkn[n proboscidean1 b ! bones ( ! =e limb 7 q diff]5t f ^? ( ! elephants4 ,! feet likewise _h a v proboscidean appe>ance1 not)/&+ important & significant deviations 9 /ructure2 !y _h ! same %ortness & massiv5ess & a simil> r$uction 9 ! size ( ! ho(s1 & ! pres5ce ( all five digits add$ to ! resemblance4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! feet _h ! same column> %ape & arrangem5t ( ela/ic pads4 ,! liv+ animal mu/ h _h an appe>ance q simil> to t ( a r small elephant1 n exce$+ six or sev5 feet 9 height at ! %\ld]s & !re=e n surpass+ ! l>ge/ mod]n rh9oc]oses1 ! broad-lipp$ species ( ,africa 7,opsic]os simus74 ,( c\rse1 ! head mu/ be except$ f ! comp>ison1 z t 0 totally unlike ! head ( any exi/+ creature2 ) its long & n>r[ %ape1 its fanta/ic protub]ances & its lack ( a proboscis1 x _h no sugge/ion ( lik5ess to any proboscidean4 ,:e!r ! great body 0 nak$1 or clo!d ) hair1 x is ( c\rse impossible to det]m9e ) confid5ce1 b1 all ?+s consid]$1 x seems unlikely t ! hair %\ld h be5 completely lo/ 9 any t]re/rial mammal at s e>ly a p]iod4 ,z we h se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 hairy elephants & rh9oc]oses cont9u$ into & ?r\gh ! ,plei/oc5e1 n only 9 ! cold regions ( ! nor?1 z is %[n by ! hair ( ! ,am]ican ,ma/odon4 ,9 ! tropics conditions 7 diff]5t1 & 9 t uni=mly w>m climate ! loss ( hair by ! v l>ge mammals probably took place long be=e ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,at all ev5ts1 x is a significant fact t no hairless l& mammals are n[ kn[n 9 any region :i* has sev]e w9t]s4 ,x is true t ! middle ,eoc5e climate ov] mo/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 w>m-temp]ate or subtropical1 & ! u9ta!res may1 9 consequ5ce1 h be5 hairless1 b !re is no evid5ce ( ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,skull ( ,ela*oc]as p>vum 7l[] jaw re/or$74 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,)9 ! limits ( ! u9ta!re family1 consid]able modification & *ange may be trac$1 :i*1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,proboscidea1 pr9cipally affect$ ! skull & ! g5]al /ature4 ,x is h>dly wor? :ile to deal sep>ately ) ! two or m phyla :i* may be di/+ui%$1 = ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m are relatively unimportant4 ,9 ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,bridg] /age almo/ ! late/ repres5tatives ( ! family are f\nd & ! g5us 7,eobasileus7 0 ( ! l>ge/ size4 ,^! animals _h rem>kably long & n>r[ heads & v l>ge1 %ovel-%ap$ nasal protub]ances2 9 ! males ! upp] can9e tusks 7 v long & curv$ back ne>ly 9 a semicircle4 ,9 ! middle portion ( ! /age ! species ( ,u9ta!rium 7 some:at small] & _h %ort]1 wid] & high] heads1 ! tusks1 ?\gh well develop$1 7 n q s long1 nor s /rongly recurv$2 9 "s species !y 7 ne>ly /raight1 ) 8ha/ate0 or spe>-head po9t4 ,9 ! same horizon is f\nd a ?ird g5us 7,ela*oc]as7 :i* 0 probably a survival p]si/+ f ! l[] ,bridg]1 9 :i* none ( ^! animals & little ( any?+ else has yet be5 f\nd4 ,ela*oc]as 0 h>dly half z l>ge z ! common species ( ,u9ta!rium & its skull might be describ$ z a prelim9>y sket* = t ( ! latt]2 ! nasal horns 7 extremely small1 or1 m probably1 entirely abs5t2 ! m$ian pair 7 m]e l[ knobs1 h>dly an in* 9 height1 & ! po/]ior pair 7 simply ?ick5+s ( ! cre/ :i* enclos$ ! top ( ! cranium on ?ree sides1 sc>cely ris+ above x4 ,?is cre/ itself 0 mu* less prom95t ?an 9 ,u9ta!rium & ! bas9-l top ( ! skull1 9 consequ5ce1 v mu* %all[]4 ,! upp] incisors & ! fir/ premol> _h already be5 lo/ & ! upp] can9e enl>g$ into a sabre-l tusk1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 relatively small] ?an 9 ! succe$+ g5]a4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 q ! same z 9 ! latt]4 ,un=tunately1 ! skull ( ,ela*oc]as is ! only "p ( ! animal :i* is kn[n1 b1 s f> z t is conc]n$1 x is precisely :at we %\ld expect ! =]unn] ( ,u9ta!rium to be2 an ance/or made to ord] c\ld h>dly be m diagrammatic4 ,x might1 ( c\rse1 be object$ t no su* relation z t ( ance/or & desc5dant c\ld obta9 betwe5 ^! two g5]a1 because !y 7 contempor>ies1 b ! case is l t ( ! ance/ral elephants describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,mri!rium & ,paloma/odon are f\nd toge!r 9 ! ,egyptian ,oligoc5e1 ! =m] surviv+ = a consid]able "t aft] x _h giv5 rise to ! latt]1 & 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e only ,mri!rium occurs4 ,_m simil> in/ances might be giv51 j z gr&fa!rs (t5 live long ) _! gr&*ildr54 ,9 ! ,w9d ,riv] /age1 or upp] division ( ! l[] ,eoc5e1 liv$ ! /ill incompletely kn[n ,ba?yopsis1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 suffici5t mat]ial has be5 obta9$ to %[ t x 0 mu* less specializ$ ?an any ( ! ,bridg] g5]a4 ,?is g5us compris$ animals mu* small] ?an its successor1 ,ela*oc]as ( ! middle ,eoc5e1 be+ small] ?an a tapir2 x /ood 9 mu* ! same relation to ,ela*oc]as z ! latt] did to ,u9ta!rium4 ,9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory is a highly int]e/+ skull ( ,ba?yopsis1 :i* w %ortly be describ$ by ,pr(essor ,osborn4 ,! premaxill>ies h n be5 pres]v$1 & x is !re=e impossible to say :e!r ! upp] incisors _h already be5 suppress$ or n1 & ?\gh ! upp] can9e has n be5 f\nd1 !re c be no reasonable d\bt t x 0 a tusk4 ,! l[] can9e _h n yet gone ov] to ! incisor s]ies1 b 0 a ?9 ?\gh l>ge tusk4 ,!re 0 "o m l[] premol>1 f\r 9 all1 ?an ,u9ta!rium possess$1 & all ! premol>s 7 some:at small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! small skull _h a broad & some:at concave cranial ro(1 ) slightly rais$ enclos+ cre/1 & ! horn-l protub]ances ( ! po/]ior & m$ian pairs 7 pres5t 9 an incipi5t /age4 ,:e!r ^? ( ! nasal pair 7 also indicat$ is n kn[n1 b probably !y 7 n4 ,! l[] jaw 0 ( v peculi> %ape2 ! flange ( ! inf]ior bord] 0 n s well def9$ z 9 ,u9ta!rium1 b _h no h9d] m>g9 & rose v gradually backw>d4 ,! s]ies ( g5]a 9 desc5d+ ord]1 ,eobasileus1 ,u9ta!rium1 ,ela*oc]as & ,ba?yopsis1 imm$iately impresses ! obs]v] z be+ a natural phylog5etic s]ies ( successive ance/ors & desc5dants4 ,un=tunately1 only ! skull is kn[n 9 ! two la/ nam$1 b !re is no gr\nd = suppos+ t ! discov]y ( ! skeletons w\ld require any alt]ation 9 ! s]ies z we n[ h x4 ,no memb] ( ?is s]ies has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,wasat*1 b !re c be no d\bt t x 0 repres5t$ 9 t /age1 = a rec5t exp$ition f ! ,am]ican ,museum has collect$ tee? ( a ,ba?yopsis-l =m 9 /ill old] b$s4 ,,subord] ,,pantodonta ,dur+ ! old] "p ( ! l[] ,eoc5e ! u9ta!res mu/ h be5 a r>e & unimportant elem5t ( ! fauna1 at lea/ 9 ^? p>ts ( ! cont95t ^: hi/ory we "k4 ,_! place 0 tak5 by ano!r subord]1 ! ,pantodonta1 :i* 0 n ance/ral to !m1 b collat]ally relat$ & desc5d$ f a common ance/ry4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ dom9at+ ( ,wasat* mammals 0 ! g5us ,coryphodon1 :i* also occurr$ 9 ! l[] ,eoc5e ( ,europe1 & ! species ( :i* rang$ 9 /ature f a tapir to an ox1 ?\gh ( mu* heavi] =m ?an ! latt]4 ,! late/ surviv+ species liv$ 9 ! ,w9d ,riv] /age z a contempor>y ( ,ba?yopsis1 b !n ! subord] gave way to ! u9ta!res4 ,9 ,coryphodon 7see ,fig4 #adb1 p4 #bgi7 ! numb] ( tee? 0 unr$uc$1 a fact :i* is record$ 9 ! "n ( ! subord]1 ! d5tal =mula typical ( all ! primitive ungulates be+ applicable to ! g5us4 ,?is =mula 03 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dd4 ,! upp] incisors 7 r small1 b functional1 & ! can9es ( bo? jaws 7 =midable tusks1 ?\gh n rivall+ 9 size ! great sabres ( ! u9ta!res2 ! premol>s _h a simpl] /ructure ?an ! mol>s1 :i* resembl$ ^? ( ! u9ta!res 9 a g5]al way1 b n closely4 ,! skull diff]$ greatly f t ( ! u9ta!res 9 hav+ no horn-l protub]ances1 & 0 relatively l>ge & heavy1 ! cranium hav+ a broad1 flat ro( & no sagittal cre/1 & ! l[] jaw _h no desc5d+ flange f ! inf]ior bord]2 9 e way ?is skull 0 m normal & less biz>re-look+4 ,! neck 0 proportionately long] ?an 9 ! u9ta!res1 ! body long & ! tail ( m$ium l5g?2 ! trunk-v]tebr _h surpris+ly small & weak sp9es1 p]haps an indication ( aquatic habits4 ,! limbs 7 q %ort & v heavy1 & ! bones1 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( ! u9ta!res1 7 less proboscidean & m p]issodactyl 9 "*4 ,= example1 ! femur reta9$ ! ?ird tro*ant] & ! long bones _h m>r[-cavities4 ,! feet1 on ! contr>y1 7 v l ^? ( ! u9ta!res1 be+ extremely %ort & five-to$ & ) r$uc$1 nodul> ho(-bones2 ev5 9 ! details ( ! wri/ & ankle jo9ts !re 0 no important diff]5ce betwe5 ! two gr\ps4 ,,subord] ,,taligrada ,none ( ! ungulate s]ies consid]$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s c be trac$ back to a "t e>li] ?an ! ,wasat*1 & _m ( !m n s f>1 b 9 ! case ( ! ,amblypoda ! l9e may be c>ri$ d[n ?r\gh ! ,paleoc5e4 ,9 ! upp] /age ( t epo* 7,torrejon7 ! ord] 0 repres5t$ by ,pantolambda 7,fig4 #adc1 p4 #bhe71 a memb] ( ! ?ird subord]1 ,taligrada4 ,! be/-kn[n species ( ! g5us 0 an animal ) head & body some:at small] ?an ^? ( a %eep & mu* %ort] legs4 ,! tee? 7 pres5t 9 unr$uc$ numb]1 #dd 9 all2 ! can9es 7 tusk-l1 b v mu* small] proportionately ?an ^? ( ,coryphodon2 ! premol>s 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 :i* closely repres5t ! common />t+ po9t1 :5ce ! curi\s too?-patt]ns f\nd 9 ! subsequ5t g5]a ( ! v>i\s families 7 d]iv$4 ,! skull 0 long & n>r[ & _h a prom95t sagittal cre/2 ! neck 0 ( ord9>y l5g?1 ab\t equal to t ( ! head2 ! body 0 long & ! tail v long1 mu* z 9 ! great cats4 ,! hip-bones 7 n>r[ & sl5d] & n b5t outw>d1 hav+ no su* bread? z 9 ,coryphodon4 ,! limbs 7 %ort & relatively heavy1 & ! v>i\s bones 7 ( su* primitive "* t1 if f\nd isolat$ & n 9 association ) tee? or foot-bones1 "o w\ld h>dly v5ture to consid] !m z belong+ to any ho($ animal2 ! hum]us _h a v prom95t deltoid cre/ & an epicondyl> =am51 & ! femur _h ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! five-to$ feet 7 v %ort1 & ! digits 7 arrang$ 9 a spread+ mann] & 7 relatively mu* m sl5d] ?an 9 ,coryphodon4 ,ea* digit t]m9at$ 9 a flat1 po9t$1 well-develop$ ho(2 evid5tly !re 0 no ela/ic pad to be> ! weight1 su* z recurs 9 ne>ly all v heavy ungulates4 ,! gait ( ! animal 0 probably semi-plantigrade1 ! ho(s be+ ! pr9cipal po9ts ( support4 ,:ile ,pantolambda 0 an und\bt$ ungulate & a memb] ( ! ,amblypoda1 !re 7 _m /ructural features 9 its skeleton :i* po9t to a relation%ip ) ! primitive fle%-eat]s4 ,9 ! l[] /age ( ! ,paleoc5e1 ! ,pu]co1 ! g5us ,p]ipty*us w\ld seem to be ! mo/ anci5t kn[n memb] ( ! ord]1 b x is /ill v imp]fectly und]/ood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! mode ( evolution ( ! ,amblypoda1 s f> z t is record$ by ! fossils1 !re is mu* to recall ! developm5t ( ! ,proboscidea1 ?\gh ! /ory began & end$ at f> e>li] dates & may be trac$ back to a mu* m primitive /age4 7#a7 ,!re 0 a rapid increase ( /ature1 especially ( bulk1 9 ! coryphodonts1 b decid$ly m gradual 9 ! u9ta!res1 :i* ev5tually atta9$ a f> l>g] size4 7#b7 ,! upp] incisors 7 suppress$ & ! can9es grew into =midable tusks1 at fir/ /raight1 !n ! sup]ior "o1 enl>g+ /ill f>!r1 acquir$ a curv$1 scimit>-l %ape1 :ile ! inf]ior "o dw9dl$ & became functionally "o ( ! incisors4 7#c7 ,! gr9d+ tee? rema9$ l[-cr[n$ ?r\gh\t1 b acquir$ a m complex patt]n1 & ! premol>s became almo/ l ! mol>s4 7#d7 ,! skull und]w5t a mo/ rem>kable trans=mation4 ,beg9n+ ) a =m t might h belong$ to almo/ any ( ! anci5t mammals1 ho($ or claw$1 hav+ v prom95t sagittal & occipital cre/s1 long cranium & %ort face1 x became 9 ,coryphodon flat-ro($1 ) mod]ately elongat$ face1 :ile 9 ! u9ta!res ! top ( ! cranium gradually took on a deeply concave bas9-%ape &1 ) equal gradualness1 ?ree pairs ( horn-l protub]ances2 ! l[] jaw develop$ a great bony flange = ! protection ( ! upp] tusks4 ,^! peculi>ities grew m & m exagg]at$ & 7 mo/ /rik+ 9 ! t]m9al g5us ( ! s]ies1 ,eobasileus4 7#d7 ,un=tunately1 no?+ is yet kn[n ( ! skeleton ( ,ba?yopsis & ,ela*oc]as1 s t x is n practicable to foll[ out all ! /ages ( skeletal modification1 ?\gh ! g5]al c\rse ( developm5t is suffici5tly pla94 ,! neck did n *ange greatly1 except to become v /rong & heavy & to gr[ %ort] proportionately z ! skull 0 l5g!n$4 ,! body rema9$ long ?r\gh\t ! s]ies1 b ga9$ greatly 9 bulk1 z ! /ature ( ! animal increas$4 7#e7 ,! limb-bones lo/ _! primitive "*1 su* z ! epicondyl> =am5 ( ! hum]us & ! ?ird tro*ant] ( ! femur1 & !n1 ) ! great increase ( ! weight to be support$1 ! m>r[-cavities 7 fill$ ) spongy bone & ! hip-bones increas$ enorm\sly 9 wid?2 ! femur lo/ its cyl9drical %ape & 0 flatt5$ ant]o-po/]iorly1 :i* gave x a v elephant9e appe>ance4 ,none ( ! limb-bones 0 suppress$ or greatly r$uc$ 9 size1 nor 0 !re any cossification betwe5 !m4 7#f7 ,! feet e>ly ga9$ _! def9itive "*2 at no "t 0 !re any loss ( digits1 b ! orig9ally divid$ toes 71 9 ! g5]a ( ! ,wasat* & subsequ5t /ages1 unit$ into ! column> foot1 & ! ho(s 7 r$uc$ f _! primitively po9t$ %ape to nodul> =m4 ,z 9 ! ,proboscidea1 !re=e1 !re 0 comp>atively little *ange 9 ! skeleton aft] ! massive & bulky proportions _h be5 acquir$1 b great & cont9ual modification ( ! skull4 ,at ! "t :5 ! ,amblypoda f9ally disappe>$1 no ungulate _h acquir$ ! hypsodont d5tition4 ,_h ! gr\p surviv$ till ! middle ,mioc5e1 a "t :5 ! spread ( grassy pla9s s pr(\ndly affect$ ! fe$+ habits ( _m h]bivor\s mammals1 ! high-cr[n$ tee? might h be5 develop$ 9 !m also1 & ?is1 9 turn1 w\ld h produc$ o!r *anges 9 ! skull1 mak+ clos] ! p>allel ) ! ,proboscidea4 ,9 conclusion1 a few words may be said conc]n+ ! geographical di/ribution ( ! ,amblypoda4 ,9 ! ,paleoc5e ! only kn[n repres5tatives ( ! ord] 7 ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ! coryphodonts ( ! l[] ,eoc5e migrat$ to ! ,old ,_w2 inde$1 ! g5us ,coryphodon 0 fir/ describ$ & nam$ f ,engli% specim5s1 b !re 7 no su* abundance & v>iety ( ^! animals 9 ,europe z !re 7 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! u9ta!res 7 /rictly ,nor? ,am]ican 9 di/ribution & no memb] ( ! subord] has ev] be5 f\nd outside ( ?is cont95t4 ,animals ref]r$ to ! ,amblypoda by "s au?orities h be5 obta9$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 b ! assignm5t has be5 made ^u insuffici5t evid5ce4 7,see p4 #ejh47 ,,ord] ,,condyl>?ra ,! ,condyl>?ra 7 a gr\p ( exce$+ly primitive ungulates1 :i* s]v$ to connect ! ho($ & claw$ mammals 9 q an intimate mann]4 ,s few inde$ 7 ! di/9ctively ungulate *>act]s :i* !y _h acquir$1 t x is /ill premature to make any positive /atem5ts reg>d+ _! geographical di/ribution1 because unusually well-pres]v$ specim5s are requir$ to make sure ( _! pres5ce 9 any p>ticul> region4 ,conc]n+ ,nor? ,am]ica !re is no room = "q1 & !re is h>dly any d\bt t !y exi/$ 9 ! ,paleoc5e ( ,europe4 ,! ,s\? ,am]ican rema9s :i* h be5 ref]r$ to ?is ord] may v well prove ev5tually to belong to x prop]ly1 b until bo? feet & skulls h be5 obta9$ 9 unequivocal association1 ! ref]5ce c be only t5tative4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica !y rang$ ?r\gh ! ,paleoc5e & l[] ,eoc5e1 b are n kn[n f any subsequ5t =mation1 & ev5 9 ! ,w9d ,riv] only a few /raggl]s surviv$4 ,! pr9cipal ,am]ican families & g5]a are z foll[s3 ,i4 ,,m5isco!riid4 ,m5isco!rium1 ,wasat* & ,w9d ,riv]4 ,,ii4 ,,ph5acodontid4 ,protogonodon1 ,pu]co4 ,euprotogonia1 ,torrejon4 ,ph5acodus1 ,wasat* & ,w9d ,riv]4 #a4 ,ph5acodontid ,! typical ,wasat* g5us ,ph5acodus1 :i* is v fully kn[n f ne>ly complete skeletons1 includ$ species :i* v>i$ 9 size f a fox to a small %eep2 ! same g5us occurr$ 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]1 b n lat]4 ,ph5acodus _h ! unr$uc$ d5tal =mula3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--,skeleton ( ! ,wasat* condyl>?1 ,ph5acodus primvus4 ,am]ican ,museum4 ,= re/oration1 see ,fig4 #ada1 p4 #bgh4 ,! incisors 7 small & simple1 ! can9es tusk-l1 b ( no v great size1 ! premol>s small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! latt] 7 ( ! quadritub]culate patt]n1 ( f\r simple1 conical cusps arrang$ 9 two pairs1 a patt]n :i* is common to ! e>li] & less specializ$ memb]s ( _m ungulate gr\ps4 ,! skull 0 long1 n>r[ & l[1 ) long & well-def9$ sagittal cre/4 ,z 9 primitive skulls g5]ally1 ! cranial region 0 long & ! face %ort1 ! eyes be+ v f> =w>d2 ?is does n imply l>ge bra9-capacity1 inde$1 ! bra9 0 v small1 b m]ely t ! portion ( ! skull beh9d ! eyes 0 relatively long4 ,! jaws 7 %ort & %all[1 9 accordance ) ! small & l[-cr[n$ tee? :i* !y c>ri$4 ,! neck 0 ( m$ium l5g?1 b ! body 0 elongate & ! tail 0 v long & /\t4 ,! hip-bones 7 n>r[ & sl5d]1 z 9 primitive ungulates g5]ally4 ,! limbs 7 %ort & /\t & reta9$ _m v primitive *>act]i/ics4 ,! hum]us _h a prom95t deltoid cre/ & an epicondyl> =am52 ! =e-arm bones 7 sep>ate & ! ulna q unr$uc$1 be+ almo/ z /\t z ! radius4 ,! femur _h ! ?ird tro*ant] & ! leg-bones 7 di/9ct1 ?\gh ! fibula 0 sl5d]4 ,! feet1 :i* 7 %ort1 _h five digits ea*1 b ! ?ird toe 0 enl>g$1 :ile ! fir/ & fif? 7 %ort5$1 z ?\gh prep>+ to disappe> & ?us give rise to a ?ree-to$ p]issodactyl foot4 ,! ankle-bone 7a/ragalus7 _h a r\nd$1 convex l[] end1 fitt+ into ! navicul>1 s t x might readily be tak5 = t ( a claw$ mammal4 #b4 ,m5isco!riid ,a second family ( ,condyl>?ra 0 repres5t$ 9 ! l[] ,eoc5e by ! g5us ,m5isco!rium & 0 9 "s respects consid]ably m advanc$ ?an ! ph5acodonts4 ,^! 7 small animals1 9 :i* ! mol>s _h acquir$ a cresc5tic patt]n1 recall+ t se5 9 ! e>ly horses & 9 ! titano!res & *alico!res1 & o!r p]issodactyl families4 ,9 ! upp] mol>s ! two ext]nal cusps _h be5 s ext5d$ z to =m a cont9u\s out] wall1 ea* ( ! cusps hav+ a concave ext]nal face & ! two unit+ 9 a prom95t m$ian ridge4 ,! l[] mol>s _h two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 z 9 sev]al families ( bo? p]issodactyls & artiodactyls4 ,! body & tail 7 long1 ! limbs relatively long] & light] ?an ^? ( ,ph5acodus & ! five-to$ feet 7 s l ^? ( ! mod]n conies1 or klipdasses1 ( ,africa & ,asia ,m9or1 t by "s inve/igators ! family has be5 ref]r$ to ! same ord]1 ! ,hyracoidea1 b ! sugge/ion is n a probable "o4 ,x is mu* m likely t ^! problematical little m5isco!res 7 m]ely a %ort-liv$ bran* ( ! ,condyl>?ra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--,l[] ,eoc5e condyl>?1 ,m5isco!rium t]r-rubr4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! condyl>?s 7 q abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,paleoc5e1 :]e ! g5us ,euprotogonia 0 ! =]unn] ( ! ,wasat* ,ph5acodus1 b _h an ev5 m primitive type ( d5tition4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 n quadritub]cul>1 b tritub]cul>1 ! ?ree cusps arrang$ 9 a triangle1 ! two out] ones =m+ ! base & ! s+le inn] "o ! apex4 ,?is type ( upp] mol> 01 or is /ill1 common to ! primitive & unspecializ$ memb]s ( a great _m mammalian ord]s1 m>supials1 insectivores1 rod5ts1 c>nivores1 lemurs1 artiodactyls1 etc41 & !re is /rong reason to believe t ! tritub]cul> mol> 0 ! common />t+ po9t = almo/ all types ( mammalian d5tition4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ,euprotogonia is ( great int]e/ z mat]ially help+ to close ! gap betwe5 ! claw$ & ! ho($ mammals1 belong+1 z x did1 to ! latt] & yet reta9+ 9 d5tition1 limbs & feet s _m *>act]i/ics ( ! =m]4 ,condyl>?ra 7 probably pres5t 9 ! l[e/ ,paleoc5e 7,pu]co /age71 b ! mat]ial s f> obta9$ is s fragm5t>y t !re c be no c]ta9ty on ?is po9t4 ,x is n at all probable t any ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,condyl>?ra %\ld be reg>d$ z ance/ral to any ( ! m advanc$ ungulate gr\ps2 on ! contr>y1 !y w\ld appe> to h come to an end 9 ! ,w9d ,riv]1 leav+ no desc5dants beh9d !m4 ,x is fur!r true1 z 0 m5tion$ above1 t ! pres5ce ( ,condyl>?ra 9 o!r cont95ts1 :ile v probable1 _c be positively ass]t$1 because ! evid5ce is incomplete4 ,yet x w\ld be a great mi/ake to assume1 = ?is reason1 t ^! mo/ primitive ( ungulates 7 devoid ( evolution>y importance & int]e/4 ,z is s (t5 ! case1 :]e1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! direct ance/ry1 ! collat]al relations af=d v valuable in=mation z to ! c\rse ( desc5t & modification1 ! ,condyl>?ra ?r[ useful light ^u ! orig9 ( ! ungulate gr\ps4 ,x is extremely probable t ! condyl>?s1 or "s v simil> s]ies ( primitive ho($ mammals1 _h a v wide & p]haps cosmopolitan range at ! end ( ! ,cretace\s & beg9n+ ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & t1 9 ! /ill unid5tifi$ region1 :]e ! artiodactyls & p]issodactyls arose1 x 0 f a condyl>?r\s ance/ry4 ,possibly1 all ! o!r ungulate ord]s may yet be trac$ back to ! same /ock1 b x is r m likely t ! ungulates include sev]al s]ies ( q indep5d5t orig94 ,at all ev5ts1 x is q c]ta9 t ! claw$ mammals long ant$at$ ! ho($ types & t ! latt] arose1 ei!r once or at sev]al sep>ate times1 f ! =m]4 ,! ,condyl>?ra %[ h[ "o1 at lea/1 ( ^! transitions 0 effect$1 & ?us1 9 pr9ciple1 h[ all 7 accompli%$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,toxodontia 7,,or ,,not\ngulata7 ,x is a regrettable circum/ance t1 :ile ! successive ,t]ti>y faunas are v fully repres5t$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 approximately complete skeletons h1 z yet1 be5 obta9$ f only a few ( ! v>i\s /ages2 f ! o!rs ! kn[n mat]ial is v fragm5t>y & l>gely made up ( tee? & jaws4 ,no d\bt1 ! hi/ory ( fossil-collect+ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica w1 9 due c\rse ( "t1 be repeat$ 9 ! s\!rn cont95t & m & m complete & satisfactory specim5s be obta9$4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 x is n possible to trace ! modifications ( /ructure 9 any giv5 s]ies ) su* detail z 9 ^? :i* 7 develop$ )9 ! limits ( ,arctoga4 ,no su* /ory z t ( ! horses1 ! rh9oc]oses or ! camels1 c yet be told ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican gr\ps1 :atev] future exploration may tea* u4 ,nev]!less1 mu* has already be5 le>n$ conc]n+ ! /range creatures t once inhabit$ ! ,neotropical region & long ago vani%$ completely1 leav+ no trace 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,z 0 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi1 on ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( mammals1 ,s\? ,am]ica is to-day ! ri*e/ &1 aft] ,au/ralia1 ! mo/ peculi> zologically ( all ! regions4 ,all ( ! mod]n ho($ animals f\nd 9 t cont95t at pres5t1 ! tapirs1 pecc>ies1 llamas & de]1 are immigrants d]iv$ at a comp>atively late date f ! nor?1 b ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y & ! ,plei/oc5e !re 7 sev]al indig5\s types ( ungulates1 & ( ^! ! l>ge/ & mo/ v>i$ assemblage 0 t includ$ 9 ! ord] ,toxodontia4 ,! mo/ important & be/ kn[n ( ! families & g5]a are li/$ 9 ! table3 ,subord] ,,toxodonta4 ,toxodonts ,prop] ,i4 ,,toxodontid4 ,toxodon1 up4 ,plio4 & ,pamp4 ,xotodon1 d4 ,trigodon1 ,monte ,h]moso4 ,nesodon1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,ad9o!rium1 d4 ,pronesodon1 ,deseado4 ,proad9o!rium1 d4 ,,ii4 ,,notohippid4 ,notohippus1 ,patagonian4 ,rhyn*ippus1 ,deseado4 ,morphippus1 d4 ,,iii4 ,,leont9iid4 ,leont9ia1 ,deseado4 ,colpodon1 ,patagonian4 ,subord] ,,typo!ria4 ,typo!res ,i4 ,,typo!riid4 ,typo!rium1 ,plioc4 & ,plei/4 ,eutra*y!rus1 ,deseado4 ,,ii4 ,,int]a!riid4 ,int]a!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,protypo!rium1 d4 ,,iii4 ,,hegeto!riid4 ,hegeto!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pa*yrukhos1 ,santa ,cruz to ,pampean4 ,,iv4 ,,notopi!cid4 ,notopi!cus1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,adpi!cus1 d4 ,v4 ,,ar*,,opi!cid4 ,h5ricosbornia1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,,vi4 ,,ar*,,ohyracid4 ,ar*ohyrax1 ,deseado4 ,subord] ,,entelony*ia4 ,homalodo!res ,i4 ,,noto/ylopid4 ,noto/ylops1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,,ii4 ,,isotemnid4 ,isotemnus1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,pleuroclodon1 ,deseado4 ,,iii4 ,,homalodonto!riid4 ,homalodonto!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,asmodeus1 ,deseado4 ,proasmodeus1 ,a/raponotus ,b$s4 ,?oma%uxleya1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,subord] ,,pyro!ria4 ,pyro!res ,,pyro!riid4 ,pyro!rium1 ,deseado4 ,propyro!rium1 ,a/raponotus ,b$s4 ,c>olozittellia1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,paulog]vaisia1 d4 ,,subord] ,,toxodonta4 ,,toxodonts ,,prop] ,among ! rem>kable animals :i* ,*>les ,d>w9 f\nd 9 ! ,pampean deposits ( ,arg5t9a & took ) him to ,engl&1 0 a skull ( "o :i* ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow5 nam$ ,toxodon1 or 8,b[-,too?10 f ! /rongly curv$ gr9d+ tee?1 ^? ( ! opposite sides almo/ meet+ 9 ! m$ian l9e above ! h>d palate4 ,= _m ye>s ,toxodon1 ( :i* h>dly any?+ 0 kn[n1 save ! skull & tee?1 0 a zological puzzle & no "o 0 able to rea* any satisfactory conclusion z to its sy/ematic position & relation%ips1 z all ! attempts made to =ce x into "o ( ! kn[n ungulate gr\ps 7 obvi\s failures4 ,! discov]y ( complete skeletons1 two ( :i* are m\nt$ 9 ! ,la ,plata ,museum1 %[$ ! necessity ( mak+ a new gr\p = its reception1 z ,ow5 _h orig9ally propos$4 ,?r\gh ! exploration ( ,arg5t9a & its ,patagonian prov9ces1 ! hi/ory ( ! subord] 0 foll[$ f> back into ! ,t]ti>y p]iod & its indig5\s "* demon/rat$4 ,?is & all ! o!r subdivisions ( ! ,toxodontia 7 exclusively ,neotropical 9 di/ribution1 & none h be5 f\nd f>!r nor? ?an ,nic>agua & !re only 9 ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! subord] 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,pampean b$s by sev]al g5]a1 :i* diff]$ 9 size & 9 ! complexity ( ! gr9d+ tee?1 b only ( ,toxodon is ! skeleton at all fully kn[n4 ,! ,pampean species ( ?is g5us 7 massive1 elephant9e creatures1 rivall+ ! l>ge/ rh9oc]oses 9 bulk1 b n equall+ !m 9 height4 ,! tee? 7 all ?or\ghly hypsodont & app>5tly cont9u$ to gr[ ?r\gh\t life )\t =m+ roots2 ! d5tal =mula 03 i #b_/c1 c #j_/j1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cd4 ,! fir/ upp] incisor 0 broad & *isel-%ap$1 ! second m tusk-l1 b 9 "s species ^! proportions 7 rev]s$2 ! l[] incisors 7 procumb5t1 po9t+ /raight =w>d1 & ( ^! ! ?ird 0 ! l>ge/4 ,! can9es 7 lo/ & !re 0 a long1 too?less gap beh9d ! incisors4 ,! premol>s 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 & ! ant]ior ones 7 v small & 7 frequ5tly %$ at an e>ly /age1 mak+ ! numb] ( ^! tee? v>iable 9 diff]5t specim5s4 ,! upp] mol>s also 7 ( q simple patt]n2 ! broad & smoo? ext]nal wall %[$ no di/9ct signs ( a division into cusps1 & f x arose two oblique transv]se ridges2 ! deep cleft or valley :i* sep>at$ ^! ridges 0 divid$ & made ,y-%ap$ on ! gr9d+ surface by a prom95t spur f ! out] wall betwe5 ! two pr9cipal cre/s4 ,! l[] mol>s 7 compos$ ( two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 ( :i* ! po/]ior "o 0 v mu* long]1 & bo? 7 v n>r[ transv]sely4 ,! skull _h %ort5$ nasal bones1 an indication t "s sort ( a proboscis or preh5sile upp] lip 0 pres5t4 ,!re 0 no trace ( a horn1 & ! g5]al aspect ( ! skull 0 n unlike t ( "o ( ! hornless rh9oc]oses1 except = its great v]tical dep?2 ! sagittal cre/ 0 v %ort & _h almo/ disappe>$4 ,! auditory app>atus 0 v extraord9>y1 ?\gh x c h>dly be describ$ )\t an undue employm5t ( anatomical t]ms2 suffice x to say t 9 addition to ! usual out] e>-*amb]1 =m$ by ! inflat$ tympanic bone1 !re 0 a second *amb] 9 ! re> wall ( ! skull1 communicat+ ) ! fir/ by a canal4 ,?is arrangem5t w\ld seem to imply an unusual ke5ness 9 ! s5se ( he>+4 ,! ext]nal entrance to ! e> 0 plac$ v high up on ! side ( ! head1 z 9 ! pigs & 9 _m aquatic mammals1 sugge/+ t ,toxodon 0 m or less amphibi\s4 ,! ant]ior1 or symphyseal1 region ( ! l[] jaw 0 v broad1 flatt5$ & %ovel-l1 h>dly project+ at all bel[ ! plane ( ! l[] incisors4 ,! neck 0 %ort & /\t1 ! body long & extremely bulky1 hav+ an imm5se1 almo/ hippopotamus-l gir?2 ! sp9es ( ! ant]ior dorsal v]tebr 7 v long1 mak+ a high hump at ! %\ld]s4 ,! limbs 7 %ort & v heavy1 ! bones v massive & ) l>ge projections = muscul> atta*m5ts4 ,! =e leg 0 mu* %ort] ?an ! h9d1 depress+ ! neck & head 9 v curi\s fa%ion4 ,! %\ld]-blade 0 r n>r[1 ! sp9e )\t acromion or di/9ct metacromion2 ! hip-bones 7 greatly exp&$ & turn$ outw>d1 q 9 elephant-l fa%ion1 a "* :i* almo/ inv>iably accompanies great increase 9 bodily mass4 ,! ?igh-bone 0 also v elephant9e 9 appe>ance1 a lik5ess due to its %ape & proportions1 to ! loss ( ! ?ird tro*ant] & ! flatt5+ ( ! %aft1 s t ! wid? mu* exce$$ ! ant]o-po/]ior ?ickness4 ,all ( ^! *>act]s are1 z a rule1 associat$ ) greatly augm5t$ weight & h be5 indep5d5tly acquir$ 9 sev]al s]ies ( l>ge & massive animals1 elephants1 u9ta!res1 titano!res1 & to ?is li/ %\ld be add$ ! toxodonts4 ,9 ! =e-arm ! bones 7 sep>ate & ! ulna 0 q unr$uc$ & v /\t1 b 9 ! l[] leg1 :i* 0 v %ort 9 comp>ison ) ! ?igh1 ! tibia & fibula 7 cossifi$ at ! upp] end1 b n at ! l[]1 a mo/ exceptional arrangem5t4 ,! feet 7 surpris+ly small & _h b ?ree digits1 ! r$uction f ! orig9al five hav+ proce$$ to t ext5t be=e ! process 0 arre/$ by augm5t+ weight4 ,! heel-bone 7calcaneum7 0 s articulat$ ) ! o!r bones ( ! t>sus z to project almo/ /raight backw>d1 ne>ly at a "r angle to ! position normal 9 a digitigrade foot1 a feature :i* is n kn[n to occur 9 any o!r mammal4 ,! ho(-bones 7 s small & nodul> t ! foot mu/ h be5 ( ! column> type1 ! weight re/+ ^u ! usual ela/ic pad4 ,! re/oration 7,fig4 #aba1 p4 #bag7 %[s ,toxodon z a v heavy1 sl[-mov+1 wat]-lov+ animal2 ! aquatic habits are1 ( c\rse1 conjectural1 b ! g5]al proportions are accurately giv5 by ! skeleton4 ,f ! ,plei/oc5e1 ,toxodon may be foll[$ back )\t notable *ange to ! ,plioc5e1 b !re x 0 9 association ) ! la/ ( a curi\s phylum1 ! g5us ,trigodon 7,fig4 #ach1 p4 #bfc71 z yet kn[n only f ! skull4 ,9 ^! animals a v prom95t bony knob or boss on ! =ehead cle>ly demon/rates ! =m] pres5ce ( a l>ge1 rh9oc]os-l1 frontal horn4 ,b v few ( ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates possess$ horns1 or horn-l protub]ances ( ! skull1 & all ( ^! s f> discov]$ belong$ to ! subord] ,toxodonta4 ,trigodon 01 f pres5t k1 ! only horn$ creature ( its "t & region1 = ! de] & antelopes :i* _h probably arriv$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica _h n advanc$ s f> s\? z ,arg5t9a4 ,ano!r v peculi> feature ( ?is g5us 0 t ! l[] incisors 7 pres5t 9 unev5 numb]1 two on ea* side & "o 9 ! middle4 ,no?+ has be5 f\nd ( ! skeleton1 b x 0 d\btless t ( a small] & some:at light] ,toxodon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--,skull ( ,toxodon1 ,pampean =mation1 ! upp] mol>s mu* brok54 ,la ,plata ,museum4 ,! mat]ial f ! l[] ,plioc5e adds no?+ to our k ( ?is subord]1 b 9 ! ,santa ,cruz "t ( ,patagonia1 :i* 0 ,mioc5e1 x 0 v abundantly repres5t$ & prepond]at+ly by ! g5us ,nesodon1 :i* 0 ! fir/ discov]$ memb] ( ! m>vell\s ,santa ,cruz fauna1 nam$ ne>ly #gj ye>s ago by ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow54 ,x also *anc$ t ,ow5's specim5 0 ! imp]fect l[] jaw ( a "y animal ) ! milk-tee?1 :i* 7 mi/ak5 = ! p]man5t d5tition1 & :5 ! latt] 0 f\nd long aft]w>ds1 x 0 naturally suppos$ to belong to a diff]5t animal & receiv$ a diff]5t g5]ic "n4 ,nor 0 ?is all2 ! *anges :i* took place 9 ! appe>ance & relative size ( ! p]man5t tee? )9 ! life-"t ( ! individual 7 s rem>kable1 t ! successive /ages ( developm5t 7 by sev]al inve/igators suppos$ to be di/9ct g5]a & species & nam$ accord+ly4 ,9 ?is way ne>ly #cj diff]5t names h1 at "o "t or ano!r1 be5 assign$ to ! common species1 ,n4 imbricatus2 & x 0 n until ! late ,dr4 ,amegh9o _h br\ght toge!r a complete s]ies ( skulls & jaws illu/rat+ ^! *anges1 & %[+ ! gradual transition f "o to ! o!r1 t ! confusion c\ld be cle>$ up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--,skull ( ,santa ,cruz toxodont1 ,nesodon2 same scale ( r$uction z ,fig4 #bce4 ,!re 0 a long hiatus 9 "t betwe5 ,toxodon & ,nesodon & s great 0 ! /ructural diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 t !re is mu* d\bt :e!r ! latt] 0 directly ance/ral to ! =m]2 9 any ev5t1 ,nesodon s ne>ly repres5ts :at ! desir$ ance/or mu/ h be51 z to s]ve = all practical purposes ( ! /udy4 ,all ! species ( ?is ,santa ,cruz g5us 7 mu* small] animals ?an ! species ( ,toxodon1 ,n4 imbricatus be+ no long] ?an a tapir1 ) consid]ably %ort] legs1 & ( mu* slight] & m sl5d] build ?an ,toxodon1 ?\gh e too? & e bone proclaims its relation%ip to ! latt]4 ,9 ,nesodon ! d5tal =mula 0 unr$uc$2 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dd1 ?\gh sev]al ( ! tee? 7 mu* r$uc$ 9 size1 s z to h lo/ _! functional importance1 & frequ5tly individuals are f\nd 9 :i* "o or m ( ^! insignificant tee? are lack+4 ,! fir/ upp] incisor 0 a broad1 *isel-%ap$ too?1 :i* cont9u$ to gr[ = a p]iod1 !n =m$ its root1 & gr[? ceas$2 ! second incisor 0 a po9t$1 triangul> tusk1 :i* grew ?r\gh\t life1 becom+ long] ) advanc+ age2 :ile ! ?ird1 :i* 0 lo/ 9 ,toxodon1 0 small & unimportant4 ,9 ! l[] jaw ! fir/ & second incisors 7 *isel-l & _h a limit$ gr[?2 be+ r n>r[1 !y bo? bit aga9/ ! broad fir/ upp] incisor2 ! ?ird incisor 0 a p]si/5tly gr[+ tusk1 n s l>ge z ! upp] "o1 aga9/ ! po/]ior face ( :i* x imp+$ & 0 obliquely truncat$ by we>1 s t its l5g? 0 limit$1 :ile ! upp] tusk cont9u$ to elongate & 0 made n>r[] & %>p] by we>4 ,all ! l[] incisors 7 f> less procumb5t ?an 9 ,toxodon1 & 7 direct$ obliquely upw>d & =w>d4 ,! rem>kable *anges ( appe>ance :i*1 z m5tion$ above1 took place )9 ! life-"t ( ! individual1 7 l>gely due to ! diff]5tial gr[? ( ! incisors4 ,! milk-incisors 7 all ne>ly alike & =m$ no tusks2 :5 ! p]man5t incisors 7 fir/ protrud$1 ! fir/ upp] & ! fir/ & second l[] 7 l>ge & ! tusks 7 n visible1 &1 :5 ! latt] did appe>1 !y 7 = "s "t small] ?an ! o!r incisors4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 =m$ roots & ceas$ to gr[1 actually becom+ small] ) advanc+ age1 = ! cr[ns n>r[$ to ! roots &1 ! m !y 7 worn d[n1 ! small] !y became4 ,! tusks1 on ! o!r h&1 grew ?r\gh\t life & became l>g] z ! o!r incisors 7 r$uc$ by we>1 & ?us ! :ole appe>ance ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! jaw 0 totally *ang$4 ,?is mode ( =m+ ! tusks by ! enl>gem5t ( ! second upp] & ?ird l[] incisor is an unusual "o1 ?\gh x 0 repeat$ 9 ano!r ,s\? ,am]ican ungulate ord]1 ! ,litopt]na1 & ne>ly s 9 ! ,proboscidea1 9 :i* bo? upp] & l[] tusks 7 ! second ( ! ?ree orig9al incisors4 ,9 bo? jaws1 ! can9es ( ,nesodon 7 insignificant & sometimes abs5t4 ,! premol>s1 :i* 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 _h q high cr[ns1 b e>ly ceas$ to gr[ & =m$ long roots4 ,! mol>s 7 truly hypsodont & =m$ no roots till late 9 life2 !y 7 con/ruct$ on ! same plan z ^? ( ,toxodon1 b 7 decid$ly m complex1 ! upp] ones hav+ sev]al spurs & cre/s giv5 (f inw>d f ! ext]nal wall1 9 addition to ! two pr9cipal transv]se cre/s1 & !y _h a c]ta9 sup]ficial lik5ess to ! tee? ( a rh9oc]os4 ,z 9 ,toxodon1 ^! upp] mol>s 7 curv$ inw>d1 s z almo/ to meet ^? ( ! opposite side above ! palate4 ,! l[] mol>s _h ! same bicresc5tic plan z 9 ,toxodon1 b 7 m complicat$1 & 9 ! concavity ( ! h9d] cresc5t 0 a v]tical pill>1 :i* 0 well-nigh univ]sal among ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates4 ,if ,nesodon 0 really ! ance/or ( ,toxodon1 !n ! developm5t ( ! gr9d+ tee? mu/ h be5 a process ( complet+ ! hypsodontism1 until ! tee? grew p]si/5tly1 nev] =m+ roots1 &1 at ! same "t1 ( simplify+ ! patt]n4 ,?is is contr>y to ! usual c\rse ( evolution1 9 :i* ! patt]n grew m complex 9 ! successive /ages2 b su* /eadily increas+ complexity 0 n inv>iable1 & sev]al in/ances ( und\bt$ simplification are kn[n among mammals1 ?\gh n yet 9 o!r ungulates4 ,only ! recov]y ( ! int]m$iate g5]a w enable u to det]m9e :e!r ,nesodon 0 ! actual ance/or ( ,toxodon1 or :e!r x 0 m]ely "o ( a %ort-liv$ bran* f ! ma9 /em1 9 :i* ! tee? _h acquir$ an unusual degree ( complexity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,nesodon imbricatus1 ,santa ,cruz /age4 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,a few ye>s ago ,dr4 ,amegh9o ann\nc$ ! v surpris+ discov]y t1 in/ead ( hav+ m]ely ! normal arrangem5t ( two d5titions1 ! milk & ! p]man5t1 ,nesodon develop$ ?ree successive d5titions1 "o prec$+ ! milk-s]ies1 & !re=e call$ pre-lacteal4 ,9 c]ta9 o!r mammals traces ( a pre-lacteal s]ies _h already be5 f\nd1 9 ! %ape ( too?-g]ms1 :i* nev] atta9 full developm5t or ev5 cut ! gum2 & q rec5tly ,dr4 ,amegh9o has %[n t 9 ! tapir at lea/ "o functional pre-lacteal premol> is =m$4 ,! significance ( ?is fully develop$ pre-lacteal d5tition 9 ,nesodon is n yet cle>1 ?\gh x seems reasonable to suppose t x 0 ! almo/ uniquely late ret5tion ( a primitive "*4 ,! skull 0 closely simil> to t ( ,toxodon1 on a small] scale1 b !re 7 sev]al m9or diff]5ces1 :i* 71 9 "p1 condition$ by ! l>g] & mu* m completely hypsodont tee? ( ! ,pampean g5us1 z well z by its g5]ally increas$ size & bulk4 ,9 ,nesodon ! sagittal & occipital cre/s 7 mu* m prom95t & ! =m] 0 mu* long]1 :ile ! ?ick5+ ( ! cranial bones 0 9 only an incipi5t /age4 ,! nasal bones 7 consid]ably long]4 ,! jaws 7 l[] & %all[]1 9 correlation ) ! less p]fectly hypsodont tee?1 & 9 ! l[] jaw ! *9 0 mu* m erect & r\nd$4 ,! entire head ( ?is curi\s ,santa ,cruz animal _h some?+ rem>kably rod5t-l 9 its appe>ance1 ?\gh x is q inadmissible to suppose t ! lik5ess 0 due to relation%ip4 ,! skeleton 0 f> small] & light] & o!rwise diff]5tly proportion$ f t ( ,toxodon1 b !re 01 nev]!less1 a close agreem5t betwe5 ! two g5]a4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g? & ?ickness1 ! body long & heavy1 b ) no su* relative bulk z 9 ! ,pampean g5us4 ,! hump at ! %\ld]s1 z indicat$ by ! sp9es ( ! ant]ior dorsal v]tebr1 ?\gh already well def9$1 0 less prom95t4 ,! %\ld]-blade 7scapula7 0 relatively broad] ?an 9 ,toxodon1 its sp9e _h a di/9ct acromion & two v long & conspicu\s processes giv5 (f backw>d f ! sp9e1 only "o ( :i*1 & t a m]e ve/ige1 is indicat$ 9 ,toxodon4 ,! hip-bones 7 almo/ p>allel ) ! backbone & 7 n ne>ly s broad or s ev]t$ z 9 ! latt]1 a diff]5ce :i* is amply acc\nt$ = by ! great discrepancy 9 gir?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--,left pes ( ,toxodon4 ,la ,plata ,museum4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #a & #b1 cossifi$ int]nal & middle cunei=ms4 ,cn4 #c1 ext]nal cunei=m4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,! limbs 7 ( ne>ly equal l5g? & !re 0 no su* %ort5+ ( ! =e-arm or elongation ( ! ?igh z 9 ,toxodon1 & s ! desc5t ( ! backbone =w>d1 :i* gave su* grotesqu5ess to ! skeleton ( ! latt]1 0 f> less pron\nc$4 ,! limb-bones 7 r sl5d]1 9 size & proportions n unlike ^? ( a tapir1 b 9 /ructure v l ! v mu* l>g] & m massive ones ( ,toxodon4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm 7 sep>ate1 b ^? ( ! l[] leg 7 cossifi$ 9 ! same exceptional mann] z 9 ! ,pampean g5us1 t is1 ! upp] ends1 b n ! l[]1 7 fus$ toge!r4 ,! ?igh-bone 0 n flatt5$1 b _h ! normal cyl9drical %aft & a conspicu\s ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! feet1 9 :i* ! digits 7 already r$uc$ to ?ree1 7 extremely small 9 comp>ison ) ! size ( ! animal2 9 /ructure1 !y 7 almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,toxodon1 b 7 f> n>r[] & m sl5d]4 ,! heel-bone 7calcaneum7 articulat$ ) ! o!r bones ( ! t>sus 9 a normal mann]4 ,! digits 7 well sep>at$ & ! ho(-bones q /rongly develop$1 indicat+ t ! ho(s 7 functional1 support+ mo/ ( ! weight4 ,9 %ort1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! feet betwe5 ! two g5]a 0 mu* ! same z betwe5 ! tapirs & rh9oc]oses4 ,! species ( ,nesodon1 ( :i* _m h be5 nam$ on v que/ionable gr\nds1 diff]$ b little 9 size & 7 ( su* v>iable & fluctuat+ "* t a prop] discrim9ation ( !m is exce$+ly difficult4 ,"o ( ^! species 7,n4 cornutus7 gives indications ( hav+ possess$ a small d]mal horn on ! =ehead & 0 ?us a possible ance/or ( ,trigodon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--,left pes ( ,nesodon1 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bch & scale ( r$uction ! same4 ,a second phylum ( ! subord] 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz /age by ! g5us ,ad9o!rium1 ! species ( :i*1 n equall+ a %eep 9 size1 7 v mu* small] animals ?an ^? ( ,nesodon1 b closely l !m 9 o!r respects4 ,! d5tition1 includ+ ! pre-lacteal s]ies1 & ! skull 7 almo/ id5tical 9 ! two g5]a1 ) ! exception t a l>ge proportion ( ! individuals ( ,ad9o!rium _h ! small frontal horn1 :ile o!rs _h no trace ( x4 ,:ile x is q possible t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! horn1 :i* 0 always inconspicu\s1 may h be5 a matt] ( specific di/9ction1 a m probable explanation is t x 0 a sexual "*1 ! males horn$ & ! females hornless4 ,mu* ! same ?+ is to be obs]v$ 9 ! mod]n ,javan ,rh9oc]os 7,r4 sondaicus7 9 :i* ! females h a v small horn1 or none at all1 & ! males a l>ge "o4 ,9 ! skeleton also !re 7 few diff]5ces1 o!r ?an ^? ( size1 betwe5 ,ad9o!rium & ,nesodon2 ! =m] 0 n only small]1 b also light] & m sl5d] proportionately1 & !re 0 no hump at ! %\ld]s1 ! sp9es ( ! dorsal & lumb> v]tebr all rea*+ ! same level1 s t ! back mu/ h be5 ne>ly /raight 9 ! liv+ animal4 ,f ! m g5]al & con/ant pres5ce ( ! frontal horn1 ,ad9o!rium 0 m probably ! ance/or ( ! horn$ ,trigodon ?an 0 ,nesodon1 b until ! int]m$iate =ms %all h be5 recov]$1 no def9ite decision c be made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--;,ad9o!rium ov9um1 small1 horn$ toxodont ( ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4--,note ! m9ute horn on ! =ehead4 ,! same or v ne>ly ! same g5]a ( ! family ,toxodontid liv$ 9 ! ,patagonian & ,deseado /ages1 b !re ! record breaks (f & c1 = ! pres5t at lea/1 be foll[$ no f>!r4 ,x rema9s to be det]m9$ :e!r ! s]ies orig9at$ 9 regions f>!r to ! nor?1 or :e!r ! ance/ral types w be f\nd 9 ,patagonia4 ,! o!r two families are /ill v incompletely kn[n1 b suffici5tly to ju/ify _! inclusion 9 ! pres5t subord]4 ,9 ! ,leont9iid1 :i* are kn[n only f ! ,deseado /age 7,leont9ia71 we h a curi\s v>iant ( ! toxodont type4 ,! tusks 7 decid$ly small] ?an 9 ! ,santa ,cruz memb]s ( ! prec$+ family1 ! gr9d+ tee? ) l[] cr[ns & simpl] /ructure4 ,! skull 0 mu* l t ( ,nesodon1 b ! ant]ior nasal op5+ 0 ( q a diff]5t %ape1 be+ c>ri$ mu* f>!r back on ! sides1 s t ! nasal bones _h a f> long] portion :i* 0 freely project+ & unsupport$2 ^! bones 7 %ort] & mu* ?ick] ?an 9 ! ,santa ,cruz g5]a &1 to all appe>ances1 support$ a small1 m$ian horn on _! ant]ior ends4 ,! feet1 s f> z !y h be5 recov]$1 did n diff] 9 any significant mann] f ^? ( ! prec$+ family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,skull ( ,ad9o!rium1 top-view1 %[+ ! rugosity on ! =ehead = ! small frontal horn4--,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,ano!r imp]fectly kn[n family1 t ( ! ,notohippid1 occurr$ 9 ! ,patagonian /age1 b 0 mo/ abundant 9 ! ,deseado1 :]e sev]al g5]a ( x h be5 f\nd4 ,^! animals _h mo/ly hypsodont tee?1 =m+ roots 9 old age1 & ! tee? 7 9 clos$ s]ies1 b !re 0 no tusk-l enl>gem5t ( ! incisors4 ,9 ! lat] g5]a1 ^? ( ! ,patagonian /age 7,notohippus1 ,argyrohippus71 ! cr[ns ( ! gr9d+ tee? _h a ?ick cov]+ ( cem5t1 & ^? ( ! l[] jaw _h "s resemblance1 ?\gh n at all a close "o1 to ! tee? ( horses4 ,! skull also _h a c]ta9 sugge/ion ( lik5ess to ! horses & ,dr4 ,amegh9o 0 p]suad$ t ^! animals 7 ance/ors ( ! horses4 ,! family w5t back to ! ,a/raponotus /age1 b c be trac$ no f>!r4 ,,subord] ,,typo!ria4 ,,typo!res ,?is subord] 0 compos$ ( mu* small] animals ?an ! ,toxodonta & conta9$ no l>ge =ms2 "s1 inde$1 7 exce$+ly small1 no l>g] ?an rabbits4 ,x 0 mu* ! mo/ div]sifi$ ( ! subord]s1 z is made evid5t by ! table ( families & g5]a4 ,two ( ^! families1 ! ,typo!riid & ! ,hegeto!riid1 cont9u$ into ! old] ,plei/oc5e4 ,( ! =m] !re 0 ! g5us fir/ nam$ & describ$1 ,typo!rium1 :i* has giv5 its "n to ! family & subord]1 & ! species ( :i* 7 mu* ! l>ge/ ( ! entire gr\p1 almo/ equall+ a l>ge pig 9 size4 ,at ! fir/ glance ?is g5us might easily be mi/ak5 = a l>ge rod5t1 & inde$ x has actually be5 ref]r$ to t ord]1 b ! resemblance 0 a purely sup]ficial "o & involv$ no relation%ip4 ,9 ,typo!rium ! tee? 7 consid]ably r$uc$ 9 numb]1 ! =mula be+3 i #a_/b1 c #j_/j1 p #b_/a1 m #c_/c1 #b #bd4 ,! fir/ incisor 9 ea* jaw 0 a broad1 scalpri=m1 p]si/5tly gr[+ too?1 :i* mu* resembl$ ! correspond+ too? 9 ! rod5ts1 b 0 n1 z x is 9 ! latt]1 worn to a %>p *isel-edge by attrition1 b 0 abruptly truncat$4 ,!re 0 a second simil>1 b mu* small]1 too? 9 ! l[] jaw2 ! o!r incisors & all ! can9es _h be5 lo/ & ! premol>s r$uc$ to two 9 ! upp] & "o 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,! mol>s 7 l>ge1 p]si/5tly gr[+ & ?or\ghly hypsodont2 9 patt]n !y 7 v simil> to ^? ( ,toxodon4 ,! skull )\t ! l[] jaw 0 l[ & ! cranial portion broad & flatt5$1 b reta9+ a long sagittal cre/4 ,! eye-sockets 7 ne>ly1 b n q1 clos$ beh9d by ! v long & sl5d] po/orbital processes ( ! frontal bones4 ,9 front ( ! eyes ! face 0 sudd5ly con/rict$ into a long1 n>r[ ro/rum1 & x is ?is %ape ( ! skull :i*1 toge!r ) ! p]si/5tly gr[+1 scalpri=m incisors1 gave su* a rod5t-l appe>ance to ! head4 ,! auditory region _h ! same rem>kable /ructure z 9 ! ,toxodonta4 ,! l[] jaw _h a %ort horizontal portion & v high v]tical portion1 :i* gave ! head great v]tical dep?4 ,! skeleton1 s f> z x is kn[n1 0 decid$ly m primitive ?an t ( ! contempor>y ,toxodon1 z is %[n by ! pres5ce ( coll>-bones 7clavicles7 & by ! l>g] numb] ( digits1 five 9 ! front foot & f\r 9 ! h9d4 ,! ho(-bones1 or ungual phalanges1 7 n>r[1 po9t$ & nail-l1 ?\gh 9 ! h9d foot !y 7 broad] & m ho(-l4 ,little c be done z yet 9 trac+ back ! hi/ory ( ?is family1 ! ,santa ,cruz b$s hav+ yield$ no memb] ( x4 ,9 ! ,deseado /age1 ! g5us ,eutra*y!rus diff]$ surpris+ly little f ,typo!rium1 9 view ( ! long hiatus 9 "t betwe5 !m4 ,! ,deseado g5us already _h ?or\ghly hypsodont & rootless tee?1 & ! mol> patt]n 0 q ! same z 9 ,typo!rium1 b ! tee? 7 mu* m num]\s1 ! =mula be+3 i #c_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #db4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( ! skeleton4 ,! family arose probably f "o ( ! ,eoc5e families 7,ar*opi!cid or ,aclodid7 ) l[-cr[n$ tee?1 b ! connection _c be made out4 ,presumably1 ! developm5t ( ?is family ran its *ief c\rse 9 "s "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica f> to ! nor? ( ! fossil-b$s ( ,patagonia4 ,! second family :i* 0 repres5t$ 9 ,pampean times 0 t ( ! ,hegeto!riid1 & ! sole g5us ( x :i* surviv$ s late 0 ,pa*yrukhos1 a little creature no l>g] ?an a rabbit4 ,! g5us w5t back )\t any notewor?y *ange to ! ,santa ,cruz /age ( ! ,mioc5e1 f :i* complete skeletons h be5 obta9$4 ,! d5tal =mula 0 ne>ly z 9 ,typo!rium3 i #a_/b1 c #j_/j1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cj1 & ! enl>g$1 rootless & scalpri=m incisors 7 simil>4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 ?or\ghly hypsodont & _h a ?9 coat+ ( cem5t2 ! mol>-patt]n 0 fundam5tally l t ( ,nesodon1 9 simpl] =m1 b c be se5 only 9 fre%ly erupt$ & unworn tee?4 ,! skull 0 v rod5t-l 9 appe>ance1 its flat top & n>r[1 tap]+ facial region1 & ! gnaw+ incisors add+ mu* to ! resemblance4 ,! v l>ge eye-sockets & ! enorm\sly develop$ auditory region sugge/ nocturnal habits1 &1 no d\bt1 ! timid1 def5celess little creatures hid !mselves by day1 p]haps 9 burr[s4 ,! enl>gem5t ( ! accessory auditory *amb]s1 :i* all ( ! ,toxodontia possess$1 rea*$ its maximum 9 ,pa*yrukhos1 & ! *amb]s =m$ great1 inflat$ protub]ances at ! po/]o-ext]nal angles ( ! skull4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! body long & ! tail v %ort1 mu* l t ( a rabbit4 ,coll>-bones 7 pres5t1 z !y probably 7 9 all ( ! o!r memb]s ( ! subord] ,typo!ria1 ?\gh ?is has n be5 def9itely asc]ta9$ 9 all cases4 ,! limbs 7 relatively long1 especially ! h9d legs1 & v sl5d]2 ! bones ( ! =e-arm 7 sep>ate1 b ^? ( ! l[] leg 7 cossifi$ at bo? ends4 ,! feet1 :i* _h f\r digits ea*1 7 ( unequal size1 ! po/]ior pair be+ mu* long] ?an ! ant]ior1 & ! ho(s 7 long1 sl5d] & po9t$1 almo/ claw-l4 ,! entire skeleton sugge/s a leap+ gait & its proportions & g5]al appe>ance 7 rem>kably l ^? ( a rabbit-skeleton4 ,9 ! re/oration 7,fig4 #cjj1 p4 #fci7 ,mr4 ,knight has foll[$ ^! indications & drawn an animal :i* might readily be mi/ak5 = a curi\s1 %ort-e>$ rabbit2 & !re is e ju/ification = do+ ?is1 ?\gh ! "* ( ! fur & ! =m ( ! e>s are1 ( c\rse1 m]ely conjectural4 ,p]haps ! e>s are too small4 ,associat$ ) ,pa*yrukhos 9 ! ,santa ,cruz /age 0 ano!r g5us ( ! family1 ,hegeto!rium1 :i*1 ?\gh x _c possibly h be5 ance/ral to ! =m]1 yet s]ves to indicate1 9 g5]al t]ms1 :at ! ance/or mu/ h be54 ,?is is ano!r example ( ! long-cont9u$ survival ( ! m primitive toge!r ) ! m advanc$ & specializ$ =m4 ,hegeto!rium p]si/$ into ! ,plioc5e1 b is n kn[n f ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,9 ?is g5us "o upp] & two l[] incisors 7 already enl>g$1 rootless & scalpri=m1 b none ( ! tee? _h be5 lo/2 x is int]e/+ to note1 h[ev]1 t ! tee? :i* 7 lack+ 9 ,pa*yrukhos 7 all v small & ready to disappe>4 ,! ,santa ,cruz species ( ,hegeto!rium 7 consid]ably l>g] & m robu/ animals ?an ^? ( ,pa*yrukhos4 ,bo? ( ^! g5]a 7 prec$$ by v simil>1 almo/ id5tical =ms 9 ! ,patagonian1 ,deseado & ,a/raponotus /ages1 b ! family _c be def9itely trac$ f>!r back ?an ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 b x v probably arose f "s "o ( ! gr\ps1 ) l[-cr[n$ tee?1 ( ! ,casa ,mayor /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4--,santa ,cruz typo!re 7,protypo!rium au/rale7 & armadillo 7,/ego!rium tesselatum74 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f skeletons 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! family ,int]a!riid 01 9 mo/ respects1 m cons]vative & und]w5t less *ange ?an ei!r ( ! prec$+ gr\ps4 ,a p]si/5tly primitive type 0 ! g5us ,protypo!rium1 :i* appe>$ = ! la/ "t 9 ! ,plioc5e ( ,monte ,h]moso1 b 0 mu* m abundant & bett] pres]v$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,! animal 0 small & _h ! full complem5t ( tee?1 :i* 7 arrang$ 9 ea* jaw 9 a cont9u\s s]ies1 & 7 fully hypsodont & rootless1 except incisors & can9e1 :i* 7 root$4 ,none ( ! incisors 0 specially enl>g$1 b !re 0 a gradual transition ( increas+ size & complexity f ! incisors to ! mol>s4 ,a rem>kable feature ( ?is g5us 0 ! deeply cleft =m ( ! l[] incisors1 giv+ !m a =k-l %ape1 some:at z 9 ! mod]n ,hyracoidea4 ,! ulna & radius 9 ! =e-arm & ! tibia & fibula 9 ! l[] leg 7 sep>ate1 b ! digits 7 already r$uc$ to f\r 9 ea* foot4 ,?is 0 "o ( ! few ,santa ,cruz ungulates :i* possess$ a long & heavy tail4 ,! limbs 7 relatively long & ! feet 7 arm$ ) su* sl5d] ho(s t !y look$ almo/ l claws4 ,! re/oration %[s ! animal to h _h1 l ne>ly all ( ! ,typo!ria1 a v rod5t-l appe>ance1 a lik5ess :i* may1 p]haps1 be unduly increas$ by ! =m giv5 to ! e>s4 ,9 ! alli$ g5us1 ,int]a!rium1 f :i* ! family is nam$1 ! head 0 %ort1 broad & deep1 almo/ bullet-l2 ! fir/ incisor 0 enl>g$ & *isel-%ap$1 & ! o!r incisors & ! can9es 7 mu* r$uc$ 9 size4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 obs]v$ z yet only 9 ?is g5us1 b probably true also ( all ! small] memb]s ( ! subord] :i* _h hypsodont tee?1 t ! milk-premol>s 7 root$ & comp>atively l[-cr[n$1 :ile _! p]man5t successors 7 completely hypsodont & rootless4 ,! limbs 7 consid]ably %ort] ?an ^? ( ,protypo!rium & ! tail long & ?ick1 except = :i*1 ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! skeleton sugge/s t ( ! mod]n 8conies0 or 8klipdases0 7,hyracoidea7 ( ,africa & ,syria1 a sugge/ion :i* ,mr4 ,knight has foll[$ 9 ! draw+ 7,fig4 #big1 p4 #fcf74 ,?is family 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,deseado /age by a g5us 7,plagi>?rus7 9 :i* ! tee? develop$ roots 9 old age1 b is n kn[n f m anci5t =mations4 ,_! probable ance/ors ( ! ,eoc5e 7 v small animals1 ) bra*yodont tee?1 ! premol>s small] & ( simpl] patt]n ?an ! mol>s4 ,! upp] mol>s _h a cont9u\s ext]nal wall1 ) indication ( sep>ate cusps1 & two transv]se cre/s1 z 9 ! ,toxodonta1 & ! l[] mol>s 7 compos$ ( two incomplete cresc5ts4 ,! tee? 7 pres5t 9 undim9i%$ numb] & ! ant]ior incisors 7 b little enl>g$4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( ! skeleton4 ,,subord] ,,entelony*ia4 ,,homalodo!res ,?is ?ird subord] ( ! ,toxodontia 0 9 "s respects ! mo/ peculi> ( all2 no repres5tatives ( x h be5 f\nd 9 =mations lat] ?an ! ,santa ,cruz1 & ! gr\p atta9$ its culm9ation 9 ! /ill old] ,deseado /age1 9 :i* !re 7 v l>ge memb]s ( x4 ,^! mo/ extraord9>y bea/s are /ill incompletely kn[n1 & little c be done z yet 9 ! way ( foll[+ out ! /eps ( *ange :i* l$ up to _! exceptional *>act]s1 ?\gh ! subord] itself may be trac$ back to ! ,eoc5e by means ( jaws & tee? alone4 ,! ,santa ,cruz g5us lab\rs "u ! port5t\s "n ( ,homalodonto!rium1 :i* may be %ort5$ to ! v]nacul> =m ( homalodo!re4 ,9 ?is g5us ! d5tition 0 unr$uc$ 9 numb]1 & ! tee?1 ?\gh hav+ r high cr[ns1 7 all root$ & plac$ 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 ) a gradual transition 9 %ape f ! incisors to ! mol>s4 ,! can9es 7 tusks ( v mod]ate size1 :i* project$ b little above & bel[ ! plane ( ! o!r tee?2 ! premol>s1 except ! la/1 :i* 0 ne>ly mol>i=m1 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s1 :i* _h a patt]n fundam5tally ! same z 9 ! ,toxodonta4 ,^? ( ! upp] jaw 71 h[ev]1 less complicat$ by spurs & accessory cre/s1 & !y _h a some:at /rong] resemblance to ! rh9oc]os patt]n1 ?\gh ! resemblance is demon/rably sup]ficial & n indicative ( relation%ip4 ,! skull 0 v l t ( ! ,santa ,cruz toxodonts1 ,nesodon1 etc41 & _h ! same unusual /ructure ( ! auditory region z 0 f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ord]1 b diff]$ 9 _m details1 :i* x is n wor? :ile to enum]ate1 ?\gh x may be said t ! nasal bones 7 s mu* %ort5$ t "s k9d ( a proboscis or preh5sile upp] lip 0 probably pres5t4 ,! head 0 q small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! animal z a :ole4 ,su* ( ! v]tebr z are kn[n 7 q simil> to ^? ( ,nesodon1 b ! limbs 7 f> long] & q /\t1 ?\gh n massive4 ,! hum]us 0 rem>kable = ! great developm5t ( ! ridges = ! atta*m5t ( ! deltoid & sup9ator muscles & = ! prom95ce ( ! epicondyles1 all ( :i* gave to ! bone ! appe>ance ( ! hum]us ( a huge burr[]1 yet x is impossible to believe t s l>ge an animal c\ld h _h burr[+ habits4 ,! =e-arm bones 7 sep>ate & v long1 ! ulna almo/ z heavy z ! radius2 ! latt] is n kn[n f a complete specim51 b !re w\ld appe> to h be5 "s p[] ( rotation1 a p[] :i* is condition$ by ! %ape ( ! upp] end ( ! radius1 & its mode ( articulation ) ! hum]us 9 ! elb[-jo9t4 ,! ?igh-bone 0 long & heavy & its %aft 0 mu* flatt5$1 hav+ lo/ ! normal cyl9drical %ape1 b reta9$ a small ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! bones ( ! l[] leg 7 sep>ate & relatively %ort1 & ! fibula 0 uncommonly heavy4 ,s f>1 !re 0 no?+ v unusual1 save 9 ! %ape ( ! hum]us1 ab\t ! skeletal /ructure ( ! ,entelony*ia1 ! rem>kable *>act]s hav+ be5 conf9$ to ! feet4 ,7 x n = ^!1 ! gr\p might be includ$ 9 ! subord] ,toxodonta )\t difficulty4 ,! feet1 :i* 7 five-to$1 diff]$ notably 9 size1 ! manus be+ m ?an twice z long z ! pes4 ,9 ! =m] ! metac>pals 7 v long &1 ?\gh actually /\t1 7 sl5d] 9 proportion to _! l5g?2 !re 0 also a v unusual feature 9 an ungulate foot1 t ! heavie/ ( ! digits 0 ! fif?1 or ext]nal "o4 ,! mode ( articulation ( ! metac>pals ) ! fir/ r[ ( phalanges 0 v exceptional1 indicat+ an extraord9>y mobility ( ! toes1 & ! ho(s _h be5 trans=m$ into l>ge1 bluntly po9t$ claws1 some:at l ^? ( ! *alico!res1 ^? ab]rant p]issodactyls 7see p4 #ced71 b n s l>ge or s %>p4 ,9 ! pes1 ! ankle-bone _h h>dly any groove = ! tibia1 & its l[] end 0 hemisph]ical1 z 9 ! ,condyl>?ra & ! claw$ mammals g5]ally4 ,! toes 7 q grotesquely %ort 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( ! =e foot1 &1 z 9 ! latt]1 ! fif? 0 ! heavie/ ( ! s]ies4 ,! h9d foot 0 app>5tly plantigrade1 ! heel-bone & ! entire sole be+ appli$ to ! gr\nd 9 walk+1 :ile ! =e foot 0 probably digitigrade1 ! wri/ be+ rais$ & ! metac>pals v]tical4 ,! weight 0 c>ri$ ^u ! metac>pals & "o or m pads "u ! phalanges1 z 9 ! digitigrade c>nivores1 su* z dogs & cats4 ,9 describ+ ! *alico!res1 x 0 po9t$ out t x 0 unc]ta9 :e!r ea* foot _h a s+le l>ge pad1 or :e!r !re 0 a sep>ate "o "u ! phalanges ( ea* digit1 & a l>g] "o1 ! 8ball ( ! foot10 "u ! metac>pals collectively4 ,! same d\bt applies to ! manus ( ! homalodo!res4 ,?is is ! ?ird in/ance to be cit$ ( ! acquisition ( claws by a ho($ mammal &1 z 9 ! o!r two cases1 ! *alico!res & agrio*rids 7p4 #chc71 we are confront$ by ! seem+ly incompatible association ( tee? :i* c\ld h ma/icat$ only s(t vegetable tissues ) feet l ^? ( a bea/ ( prey4 ,z 9 ! o!r two gr\ps1 ! problem z to ! habits & mode ( life ( ! homalodo!res is an unsolv$ "o1 *iefly because no mammal n[ liv+ is at all l ^! extraord9>y creatures & "o c !re=e =m b vague conjectures z to ! use ( su* feet to h]bivor\s animals4 ,possibly !y subsi/$ l>gely ^u roots & tub]s & us$ ! great claws = digg+ up food1 ! pr9cipal employm5t t be>s n[ make ( _! claws4 ,?is rem>kable trans=mation ( ho(s into claws took place 9 ?ree unrelat$ gr\ps ( ho($ animals & mu/ h occurr$ indep5d5tly among ! ,artiodactyla1 ! ,p]issodactyla & ! ,toxodontia4 ,by no possibility1 s f> z we are able to compreh5d ! c\rse ( evolution>y *ange1 c\ld ?is common *>act]i/ic h be5 due to inh]itance f a common ance/ry4 ,! homalodo!res 7 among ! l>ge/ ( ,santa ,cruz mammals1 b !y 7 !n already approa*+ ext9ction1 :ile 9 ! ,deseado /age !y 7 m num]\s & v>i$ & "s ( !m v mu* l>g]4 ,?is is an exception to ! m common rule1 accord+ to :i* ! successive memb]s ( a phylum increas$ 9 /ature until ! maximum 0 rea*$ & ?is1 9 _m cases1 0 foll[$ by ext9ction4 ,! rule is1 h[ev]1 by no means )\t exceptions & sev]al h already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! l>ge/ ( ,am]ican proboscideans 0 ! ,imp]ial ,elephant 7,elephas imp]ator7 ( ! upp] ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e & 9 _m o!r phyla ! ,plei/oc5e species 7 mu* l>g] ?an ! ,rec5t4 ,s ) ! homalodo!res2 !y rea*$ _! culm9ation 9 size & importance 9 ! ,deseado /age1 few] & small] =ms surviv+ into ! ,santa ,cruz1 aft] :i* ! entire subord] vani%$4 ,! family may be trac$ back to ! ,eoc5e1 :]e x is repres5t$ *iefly by a g5us 7,?oma%uxleya7 :i* _h l>g] can9e tusks & mu* m bra*yodont tee?1 b !re is no way ( det]m9+ :5 ! trans=mation ( ! ho(s took place4 ,! o!r two families 7,noto/ylopid1 ,isotemnid7 fl\ri%$ *iefly or exclusively 9 ! ,eoc5e & 7 small animals /ill v imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,,subord] ,,pyro!ria4 ,,pyro!res ,?is subord] 0 a rem>kable gr\p1 /ill incompletely kn[n1 ( elephant-l animals1 :i* rea*$ _! culm9ation & di$ out 9 ! ,oligoc5e1 _! la/ appe>ance be+ 9 ! ,deseado /age4 ,! g5us ,pyro!rium f ! ,deseado 7also call$ ! ,pyro!rium ,b$s7 0 ! late/1 l>ge/ & be/ kn[n ( ! subord]4 ,! d5tition 0 mu* r$uc$ z is %[n by ! =mula3 i #b_/a1 c #j_/j1 p #c_/b1 m #c_/c1 #b #bh4 ,! upp] incisors 7 two d[nw>dly direct$ tusks1 ! fir/ q small1 ! second consid]ably l>g]2 ! s+le l[] incisor ( ea* side 0 a /\t1 b n v long1 horizontally direct$ tusk1 ) ! enamel conf9$ to a longitud9al b&2 ! o!r incisors & ! can9es _h disappe>$4 ,! premol>s1 except ! =emo/ "o1 _h ! mol>-patt]n1 :i* v r>ely occurr$ among ! indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates4 ,! gr9d+ tee? 7 simil> above & bel[ & ea* _h two elevat$1 transv]se cre/s1 :i*1 :5 q unworn1 c>ri$ a r[ ( bead-l tub]cles4 ,^! tee? are decid$ly rem9isc5t ( ! d5tition ( ! ab]rant proboscidean ,d9o!rium1 f ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e ( ,europe 7p4 #dce71 & ?is resemblance1 toge!r ) ! =m ( ! tusks1 has l$ to ! ref]5ce ( ?is gr\p to ! ,proboscidea1 b ! assignm5t is und\bt$ly errone\s1 z is %[n by ! "* ( ! skull & skeleton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4--;,head ( ,pyro!rium1 %[+ ! two pairs ( upp] tusks4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! museum ( ,amh]/ ,college4 ,! skull1 hi!rto unkn[n1 0 obta9$ by ! ,amh]/ ,college ,exp$ition to ,patagonia & its description by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,b4 ,loomis is anxi\sly await$4 ,9 advance ( t1 he has publi%$ a brief acc\nt1 ) a figure4 ,?is skull 0 long & n>r[1 ) v %ort facial region & nasal bones s %ort5$ t ! nasal canal pass$ almo/ v]tically d[n ?r\gh ! head1 z 9 ! elephants1 & !re mu/ h be5 a consid]able proboscis4 ,despite ?is great modification1 ! skull 0 pla9ly ( ! toxodont & n ( ! proboscidean type4 ,! legs 7 extremely massive & ! =e legs 7 consid]ably %ort] ?an ! h9d1 ) su* a diff]5ce 9 l5g? t ! head mu/ h be5 c>ri$ l[1 z 9 ! ,pampean ,toxodon4 ,! upp] arm & ?igh 7 mu* long] ?an ! =e-arm & l[] leg respectively4 ,! hum]us 0 imm5sely broad5$1 especially ! l[] end1 & ! processes = muscul> atta*m5t 7 extremely prom95t4 ,! femur 0 long1 ) broad & flatt5$ %aft1 & _h no trace ( ! ?ird tro*ant]1 q /rongly resembl+ ! ?igh-bone ( an elephant1 :i*1 z we h repeat$ly se51 is ! type m or less closely approximat$ by all ( ! v heavy ungulates4 ,9 ! /&+ position1 ! femur 0 9 ne>ly ! same v]tical l9e z ! tibia & ! :ole leg mu/ h be5 almo/ p]fectly /raight1 ) ! knee-jo9t free f ! body4 ,! %ort & massive =e-arm bones 7 cossifi$1 at lea/ 9 "s individuals1 z 7 ! equally heavy bones ( ! l[] leg1 ! fibula be+ exceptionally /\t4 ,little is kn[n ( ! feet1 b t little r5d]s probable ! inf]5ce t !y 7 %ort1 column> & five-to$4 ,! ,eoc5e repres5tatives ( ! ,pyro!ria are kn[n only f v fragm5t>y mat]ial4 ,propyro!rium1 ( ! ,a/raponotus ,b$s1 0 small] ?an ! ,deseado g5us & /ill small] 0 ,c>olozittellia ( ! ,casa ,mayor1 :i* 0 n s l>ge z a tapir4 ,9 ! latt] ! mol>s 7 ( ! same type z 9 ! succe$+ =ms & small tusks _h already begun to develop4 ,! old] ,eoc5e g5us ,paulog]vaisia 0 probably a memb] ( ?is subord]2 if s1 x %[s t ! mol>s ) transv]se cre/s 7 d]iv$ f quadritub]cul> tee?1 j z happ5$ 9 ! ,proboscidea & sev]al o!r ungulate gr\ps4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,litopt]na ,,& ,,a/rapo!ria ,besides ! f\r well-def9$ gr\ps :i* make up ! ,toxodontia 7or ,not\ngulata7 !re are two o!r ext9ct ord]s ( indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 :i* rema9 to be consid]$4 ,^! did n h ! exceptional developm5t ( ! auditory region ( ! skull :i* *>act]iz$ ! ,toxodontia4 ,! be/ kn[n & mo/ important g5]a ( ! ,litopt]na are li/$ 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,,litopt]na4 ,litopt]ns ,i4 ,,macrau*5id4 ,macrau*5ia1 ,plioc4 & ,plei/4 ,scalibr9i!rium1 ,p>an4 ,!osodon1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,cramau*5ia1 ,patagonian4 ,pro!osodon1 ,deseado4 ,,ii4 ,,prot]o!riid4 ,epi!rium1 ,monte ,h]moso4 ,diadiaphorus1 ,santa ,cruz & ,p>an4 ,prot]o!rium1 d4 ,?oa!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,deut]o!rium1 ,deseado4 ,pro?oa!rium1 d4 ,,iii4 ,,didolodid4 ,didolodus1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,lambdaconus1 d4 ,notoprogonia1 d4 ,proectocion1 d41 etc41 etc4 ,only "o ( ! families ( ?is subord] surviv$ into ! ,pampean /age1 :]e x 0 repres5t$ by a s+le g5us1 ,macrau*5ia4 ,l all ! o!r l>ge ,pampean mammals ( di/9ctly ,s\? ,am]ican type1 ?is 0 a grotesque creature1 f ! mod]n po9t ( view4 ,! g5us 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,d>w91 :o says ( x3 8,at ,port ,/4 ,julian1 9 "s r$ mud capp+ ! gravel on ! #ij-;foot pla91 ,i f\nd half ! skeleton ( ! ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica1 a rem>kable quadrup$1 full z l>ge z a camel4 ,x belongs to ! same division ( ! ,pa*yd]mata ) ! rh9oc]os1 tapir1 & palo!rium2 b 9 ! /ructure ( ! bones ( its long neck x %[s a cle> relation to ! camel1 or r to ! guanaco & llama40#ab ,! views ^u classification & relation%ip "h express$ h be5 sup]s$$1 b ! passage is an important "o 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific op9ion4 ,macrau*5ia 7,fig4 #abj1 p4 #baf71 z ,d>w9 says1 0 z l>ge z a camel2 x _h an unr$uc$ d5tition ( #dd tee? & 9 ea* jaw ! tee? 7 arrang$ 9 cont9u\s s]ies & 7 q decid$ly hypsodont4 ,bo? 9 ! upp] & ! l[] jaws ! incisors =m$ a ne>ly /raight transv]se r[ & h a 8m>k10 or enamel pit1 l t se5 9 ! horses2 ! can9es 7 b little l>g] ?an ! incisors & did n =m tusks4 ,! premol>s 7 small] & simpl] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! upp] mol>s _h two concave & cresc5tic ext]nal cusps1 connect$ by a m$ian ridge1 z 9 sev]al families ( p]issodactyls2 two transv]se cre/s & sev]al accessory spurs & enamel-pockets gave to ! gr9d+ surface1 :5 some:at worn1 ! appe>ance ( consid]able complexity4 ,! l[] mol>s _h ! two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 :i* recurr$ 9 almo/ all ! ,s\? ,am]ican types ( ungulates2 ! v]tical pill> :i* s g5]ally 9 ^! types arose 9 ! inn] concavity ( ! po/]ior cresc5t 0 want+ 9 ! p]man5t tee? ( ,macrau*5ia1 b pres5t 9 ! milk-premol>s4 ,no "p ( ?is rem>kable animal 0 m curi\s ?an ! skull1 :i* 0 q small 9 proportion to ! re/ ( ! skeleton4 ,x 0 long1 n>r[ & l[1 slop+ & tap]+ =w>d to a blunt po9t at ! end ( ! muzzle1 ?\gh !re 0 a slight broad5+ "h to accommodate ! transv]se r[ ( incisors4 ,! sagittal cre/ 0 replac$ by a %ort1 n>r[ & flat area2 ! cranium 0 %ort5$ & ! face elongat$1 ! orbits1 :i* 7 completely encircl$ 9 bone1 hav+ be5 %ift$ beh9d ! l9e ( ! tee?1 z 9 ! mod]n horses4 ,! nasal bones 7 r$uc$ to a m9imum1 a m]e ve/ige ( _! orig9al l5g?1 ! ant]ior nasal op5+ be+ directly ov] ! po/]ior1 mak+ ! nasal passage v]tical4 ,su* an arrangem5t is an almo/ positive pro( t 9 life ! animal _h a flexible proboscis1 a conclusion :i* is confirm$ by ! pres5ce1 on ! top ( ! head & beh9d ! nasal op5+1 ( deep pits = ! atta*m5t ( ! proboscis-muscles4 ,a v curi\s feature ( ?is skull 0 t ! bones ( ! upp] jaw1 ! maxill>ies & premaxill>ies ( ! opposite sides1 unit$ 9 ! m$ian l9e1 mak+ a long1 solid1 bony ro/rum 9 front ( ! nasal op5+1 a "* n f\nd 9 o!r l& mammals4 ,! neck 0 almo/ z long z 9 a camel & its v]tebr agre$ ) ^? ( ! latt] 9 ! v exceptional "* ( hav+ ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y pass+ longitud9ally ?r\gh ! neural ar*1 in/ead ( p]=at+ ! transv]se process4 ,z ,d>w9 says 9 ! passage quot$ above1 8x %[s a cle> relation to ! 444 guanaco & llama10 b ?is is f\nd$ on ! po/ulate t su* a lik5ess mu/1 ( necessity1 imply relation%ip4 ,z 0 %[n 9 ! *apt]s on ! ,artiodactyla & ,p]issodactyla1 x is ! g5]al rule among long-neck$ ungulates t ! odontoid process ( ! axis assumes a sp\t-l %ape1 b ,macrau*5ia 0 an exception & _h an odontoid :i* reta9$ its primitive & peg-l %ape2 x 01 h[ev]1 relatively v %ort & 9 cross-section 0 no long] circul>1 b oval4 ,?is may be reg>d$ z a /ep t[>d ! assumption ( ! sp\t-l =m1 b ! ext9ction ( ! family put an end to fur!r *anges 9 t direction4 ,! body 0 r %ort & ! limbs v long1 giv+ ! animal a /ilt$ appe>ance1 :ile ! feet 7 relatively %ort4 ,! proportionate l5g?s ( ! diff]5t limb-segm5ts 0 unusual2 ! upp] arm 0 %ort1 ! =e-arm v long1 ! ?igh long & ! l[] leg q %ort4 ,! hum]us 0 v heavy2 ! ulna & radius1 :i* 7 firmly cossifi$1 =m$ a v long comp\nd bone1 :i* 0 broad transv]sely & ?9 ant]o-po/]iorly4 ,! long femur _h only a small & inconspicu\s ?ird tro*ant] & ! %aft 0 broad & ?91 be+ flatt5$1 or 8compress$0 ant]o-po/]iorly4 ,! tibia & fibula 7 unit$ at bo? ends2 ! =m] 0 v heavy at ! upp] end1 b dim9i%$ d[nw>d 9 wid? & ?ickness1 & ! fibula articulat$ ) ! calcaneum1 z 9 ! artiodactyls4 ,! feet 7 tridactyl & _h mesaxonic symmetry2 t is to say1 ! m$ian digit1 or ?ird ( ! orig9al five1 0 symmetrical 9 itself & 0 bisect$ by ! middle l9e ( ! foot1 :ile ! lat]al toes 7second & f\r?71 ea* ( :i* 0 asymmetrical1 =m$ a symmetrical pair4 ,x is ?is p]issodactyl "* ( ! foot to :i* ,d>w9 ref]s :5 he says t ,macrau*5ia 8belongs to ! same division ( ! ,pa*yd]mata ) ! rh9oc]os1 tapir & palo!rium40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! v significant /ructure ( ! ankle-jo9t 0 radically diff]5t f t ( ! ,p]issodactyla2 n only did ! calcaneum h a special facet = articulation ) ! fibula1 b ! l[] end ( ! a/ragalus 0 a convex 8head10 re/+ only on ! navicul>1 z 9 ! ,toxodontia1 ,condyl>?ra1 ,hyracoidea & o!r v primitive gr\ps ( ho($ animals & 9 claw$ mammals g5]ally4 ,su* a comb9ation ( *>act]s is n kn[n 9 any ( ! p]issodactyls & precludes ! ref]5ce ( ! ,litopt]na to t ord]1 ?\gh su* a ref]5ce is /rongly ma9ta9$ by sev]al au?orities4 ,! ungual phalanges 7 small & appe> to sugge/ ! pres5ce ( pads on ! feet4 ,! appe>ance ( ,macrau*5ia 9 life mu/ h be5 suffici5tly /range4 ,! small head ) its proboscis & ! long neck & legs %\ld probably be reg>d$ z indicative ( br[s+ habits1 ?\gh ! hypsodont tee? %[ t graz+ 0 at lea/ an occasional mode ( fe$+4 ,! long limbs & %ort feet gave to ! extremities an appe>ance unlike t ( any exi/+ ho($ animal4 ,! =m & size ( ! e>s & ! "* ( ! hairy coat are1 ( c\rse1 conjectural4 ,9 ! lat] ,plioc5e ! family 0 repres5t$ by =ms :i* diff]$ s little f ! ,pampean ,macrau*5ia z to call = no p>ticul> notice1 b 9 ! presumably l[] ,plioc5e ( ! ,p>an /age1 occurr$ sev]al g5]a1 all un=tunately b imp]fectly kn[n1 :i* are ( int]e/ z be+ less specializ$ ?an ,macrau*5ia & z %[+ ! way 9 :i* "s ( ! peculi>ities ( ! latt] 7 acquir$4 ,9 ,scalibr9i!rium1 :i* may be tak5 z an example ( ^! g5]a1 ! tee? 7 bra*yodont2 ! upp] mol>s 7 r less complex ?an ^? ( ,macrau*5ia1 :ile ! l[] mol>s _h ! pill> 9 ! concavity ( ! po/]ior cresc5t1 :i* ! ,pampean g5us reta9$ only 9 ! milk-tee?4 ,z we h repeat$ly f\nd1 ! milk-d5tition is (t5 cons]vative & reta9s primitive or ar*aic features :i* h be5 lo/ 9 ! p]man5t tee?1 & ,macrau*5ia is ano!r illu/ration ( ! same pr9ciple4 ,9 ! skull ( ,scalibr9i!rium ! nasal bones1 ?\gh v %ort1 _h n suff]$ su* extreme abbreviation z 9 ! succe$+ g5us1 ! nasal op5+ 0 f>!r =w>d & ! maxill>ies unit$ 9 ! sup]ior m$ian l9e = only a %ort di/ance1 :ile ! premaxill>ies 7 fus$ toge!r = _! :ole l5g?4 ,! orbit _h n be5 %ift$ entirely beh9d ! tee?1 b 0 above ! ?ird upp] mol>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4--,santa ,cruz macrau*5id 7,!osodon g>rettorum7 & pr$ace\s m>supial 7,borhyna tub]ata74 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f skeletons 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,next 9 ! asc5d+ s]ies1 to use ! g5ealogi/'s t]m1 came ! g5us ,!osodon ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ( :i* almo/ all ! skeletal p>ts are kn[n & ?us make possible a full comp>ison ) ,macrau*5ia1 :i* assur$ly 0 its direct desc5dant4 ,9 view ( ! great lapse ( "t involv$1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! two g5]a 7 less ?an might h be5 expect$1 ?\gh ! m anci5t animal 0 9 all respects ! m primitive4 ,!osodon 01 9 ! fir/ place1 consid]ably small]1 n mu* exce$+ a llama 9 size2 ! tee? _h l[] cr[ns ?an ev5 ^? ( ,scalibr9i!rium & ! incisors 7 arrang$ 9 l9e ) ! gr9d+ tee?1 n 9 a transv]se r[1 b curv+ inw>d slightly1 s t ^? ( ! opposite sides ne>ly met 9 front4 ,! incisors1 can9e & fir/ premol> 7 simple1 %>ply po9t$1 conical tee?1 :i* gave an almo/ reptilian expression to ! ant]ior "p ( ! skull4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 on ! same fundam5tal plan z ^? ( ,macrau*5ia1 b 9 a less advanc$ /age ( developm5t1 ! transv]se cre/s be+ incomplete & ! int]nal cusps _h a c]ta9 degree ( sep>at5ess f ! cre/s & f ea* o!r4 ,x is evid5t t ! upp] mol>s 7 d]iv$ f ! quadritub]cul> type4 ,! l[] mol>s _h ! v]tical pill> 9 ! concavity ( ! po/]ior cresc5t v prom95tly develop$4 ,! resemblance ( ! skull to t ( ,macrau*5ia is obvi\s at ! fir/ glance1 b x 0 less specializ$ & dep>t$ less f ! ord9>y ungulate type4 ,! cranium 0 long] & ! face %ort]1 ! orbit1 :i* 0 incompletely clos$ beh9d1 ext5d+ ov] ! second mol>4 ,!re 0 a sagittal cre/1 ! l5g? ( :i* diff]$ mu* 9 ! v>i\s species2 ! nasal bones 7 already v %ort1 ?\gh decid$ly long] ?an 9 ! subsequ5t g5us ,scalibr9i!rium1 & ! ant]ior nasal op5+ 0 ext5d$ =w>d z a long1 n>r[ slit1 because ! maxill>ies did n come into contact ) ea* o!r 9 ! sup]ior m$ian l9e1 & ! premaxill>ies t\*$ ea* o!r1 b 7 n cossifi$4 ,! nasal canal1 ?\gh v %ort1 0 horizontal1 n v]tical4 ,! skulls ( ! ?ree g5]a ?us display$ ?ree successive /ages 9 ! backw>d %ift+ ( ! orbit & ( ! ant]ior nasal op5+1 9 ! %ort5+ ( ! nasal bones & 9 ! =mation ( a solid ro/rum by ! fusion ( ! upp] jaw-bones4 ,no d\bt also ! liv+ animals exhibit$ a correspond+ gradation 9 ! developm5t ( ! proboscis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bde4--;,developm5t ( ! skull 9 ! ,macrau*5id1 side views4 ,a1 ,!osodon1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,b1 ,scalibr9i!rium1 ,p>an4 7,aft] ,amegh9o47 ,c1 ,macrau*5ia1 ,pampean4 7,aft] ,burmei/]47 n41 nasal bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--;,developm5t ( ! skull 9 ! ,macrau*5id4 ,a1 ,!osodon4 ,b1 ,scalibr9i!rium4 7,aft] ,amegh9o47 ,c1 ,macrau*5ia4 7,aft] ,burmei/]47 ,! neck ( ,!osodon 0 ev5 long] proportionately ?an 9 ,macrau*5ia & ! transf]5ce ( ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y f ! transv]se processes to ! neural ar* _h already tak5 place1 except 9 ! fir/1 six? & sev5? v]tebr1 & 0 ?us less complete ?an 9 ! ,pampean g5us1 9 :i* all ! v]tebr ( ! neck1 save ! sev5?1 _h ! canal 9 its exceptional position4 ,! odontoid process ( ! axis 0 less modifi$ ?an 9 ! latt]1 be+ relatively long] & m conical4 ,! body 0 r %ort1 & ! sp9es ( ! trunk-v]tebr 7 proportionally high] & m prom95t4 ,no caudal v]tebr h be5 f\nd1 b1 f ! %ape ( ! sacrum1 x is evid5t t ! tail 0 %ort4 ,! limbs 7 long1 b m sl5d] & less elongate ?an 9 ,macrau*5ia1 9 :i* ! gr[? ( ! neck did n keep pace ) t ( ! limbs1 ! l5g!n+ ( ! proboscis probably comp5sat+ = ?is4 ,! %\ld]-blade _h two conspicu\s metacromia1 v mu* z 9 ! contempor>y toxodont1 ,nesodon1 b %ort] & m widely sep>at$4 ,! hum]us 0 %ort & q sl5d] & ! =e-arm bones1 :i* 7 mu* long]1 did n cossify4 ,! femur _h a m sl5d] & r\nd$ %aft ?an 9 ,macrau*5ia & a mu* l>g] ?ird tro*ant]2 ! leg-bones 7 also sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,! tridactyl feet 7 s l ^? ( ! ,pampean g5us1 t no p>ticul> acc\nt ( !m is necess>y1 & ! proportions ( ! limb segm5ts 7 simil> 9 bo? g5]a1 %ort upp] arm & l[] leg1 v long =e-arm & ?igh1 & %ort feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,left manus ( ,!osodon4 ,s41 scaphoid4 ,l41 lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,tm41 trapezium4 ,td41 trapezoid4 ,m41 magnum4 ,u41 unci=m4 ,v41 rudim5t>y fif? metac>pal4 ,! appe>ance ( ! liv+ animal1 z %[n 9 ! re/oration1 0 no d\bt some:at l t ( ,macrau*5ia1 b less biz>re4 ,t !re mu/ h be5 "s sort ( a proboscis or preh5sile upp] lip1 is indicat$ by ! greatly %ort5$ nasal bones1 b ?is may n h be5 long] ?an 9 ! exi/+ ,moose or ,saiga ,antelope4 ,! long neck1 %ort body & tail & long limbs sugge/ an animal n unlike a ,guanaco1 b l>g] & heavi]4 ,! hair may or may n h _h ! woolly "* giv5 to x 9 ! draw+2 ^u su* a po9t !re c be no c]ta9ty4 ,9 ! old] =mations prec$+ ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! macrau*5ids are kn[n only f fragm5t>y mat]ial1 ?\gh some?+ ( _! hi/ory may be made out ev5 f ^! fragm5ts4 ,pro!osodon1 ( ! ,deseado /age1 0 consid]ably small] ?an ! ,santa ,cruz g5us & _h m primitive upp] mol>s1 9 t ! int]nal cusps & int]m$iate cuspules 7 isolat$ & conical1 n =m+ transv]se cre/s4 ,/ill small] 7 ! sev]al g5]a 7,lambdaconus1 etc47 relat$ to ! macrau*5ids f\nd 9 ! ,casa ,mayor ,eoc5e1 :i* h be5 ref]r$1 p]haps correctly1 to ! ,condyl>?ra4 ,9 ^! ! =mation ( ! ext]nal wall ( ! almo/ bunodont upp] mol>s 0 9 progress1 by ! =e-&-aft ext5sion & transv]se ?9n+ ( ! ext]nal cusps2 ! int]nal pair ( cusps & ! cuspules 7 sep>ate & conical4 ,) mu* confid5ce1 x may be inf]r$ t 9 ^! little animals ! skull 0 normal1 ! nasal bones 7 long & t ! feet 7 five-to$1 b demon/ration is lack+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! second family ( ! ,litopt]na1 ! ,prot]o!riid1 7 rem>kable = _! _m deceptive resemblances to ! horses4 ,ev5 ?\gh ^? :o cont5d t ! ,litopt]na %\ld be includ$ 9 ! ,p]issodactyla %\ld prove to be 9 ! "r1 !re c be no d\bt t ! prot]o!res 7 n closely relat$ to ! horses1 b =m$ a mo/ /rik+ illu/ration ( ! indep5d5t acquisition ( simil> *>act]s ?r\gh p>allel or conv]g5t developm5t4 ,! family 0 n repres5t$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 hav+ di$ out be=e t epo*1 & ! late/ kn[n memb]s ( x liv$ 9 ! upp] ,plioc5e ( ,monte ,h]moso4 ,9 ! /ill old] ,p>an =mation m num]\s & v>i$ =ms occurr$1 b only f ! ,santa ,cruz h mat]ials be5 obta9$ ( suffici5t complet5ess to furni% a full acc\nt ( ! /ructure ( ^! extraord9>y animals4 ,n t ?is rem>kable "* 0 due to grotesque proportions2 on ! contr>y1 !y look$ f> m l ! ord9>y ungulates ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e ?an did any ( _! ,s\? ,am]ican contempor>ies2 x is precisely ?is resemblance t is s notable4 ,9 ,santa ,cruz times ! family 0 repres5t$ by a l>ge numb] ( species1 :i* h be5 gr\p$ 9 f\r or five g5]a1 :i* diff]$ suffici5tly to require g5]ic sep>ation1 yet 7 closely simil>4 ,9 all ( !m ! d5tal =mula 03 i #a_/b1 c #j_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #cf4 ,except 9 "o g5us 7,?oa!rium7 a pair ( small tusks 0 =m$ by ! enl>gem5t ( ! second upp] & ?ird l[] incisors1 z 9 ! toxodonts1 b ! fir/ upp] & l[] & ! ?ird upp] incisors1 :i* 7 reta9$ 9 ! toxodonts1 7 lo/ 9 ?is family1 z 0 also ! upp] can9e1 & ! l[] can9e 0 v small1 ( no functional use4 ,! tee? 7 bra*yodont &1 except ! small tusks1 display$ no t5d5cy at any "t t[>d ! acquisition ( high cr[ns4 ,! premol>s 7 less complex ?an ! mol>s1 ?\gh ! la/ "o approximat$ ! mol>-patt]n4 ,! upp] mol>s _h two cresc5tic out] cusps1 meet+ 9 a v]tical ridge & toge!r =m+ ! out] wall2 ! transv]se cre/s 7 imp]fect1 especially ! h9d] "o :i* 0 (t5 m]ely ! int]m$iate cuspule1 & did n fuse ) ! ext]nal wall4 ,! l[] mol>s _h ! two cresc5ts1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 :i* recur 9 ! macrau*5ids1 all ! subord]s ( ! ,toxodontia1 except ! ,pyro!ria1 & o!r ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 b ! pill> 9 ! po/]ior cresc5t1 :i* 0 s *>act]i/ic ( ! gr\ps nam$1 0 r$uc$ to v small proportions & sometimes suppress$ altoge!r4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ?is 0 ! loss ( an elem5t :i* 0 =m]ly pres5t4 ,! skull _h a long cranium & r %ort face1 ) long1 high sagittal cre/4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! odontoid process ( ! axis peg-%ap$1 & ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y 0 9 its normal position4 ,! body 0 r %ort1 l t ( a de] or antelope2 ! numb] ( trunk-v]tebr is n def9itely kn[n 9 any ( ! g5]a1 b 0 v probably #ai or #bj1 & ! tail mu/ h be5 %ort4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--,skull ( ,diadiaphorus1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! limbs 7 sl5d] & ( mod]ate l5g?2 !re 0 no cossification betwe5 ! bones ( ! =e-arm or ! l[] leg4 ,! feet 7 ?ree-to$1 except 9 "o g5us 7,?oa!rium7 9 :i* !y 7 s+le-to$1 & ne>ly or q ! :ole weight 0 c>ri$ ^u ! m$ian digit1 ! lat]als be+ m]e dew-claws4 ,! %ape ( ! ho(s & ! :ole appe>ance ( ! foot 7 surpris+ly l ^? ( ! ?ree-to$ horses1 b !re 7 c]ta9 /ructural diff]5ces ( su* great importance z1 9 my judgm5t1 to =bid ! ref]5ce ( ^! animals1 n m]ely to ! horses1 b ev5 to ! p]issodactyls4 ,9 /udy+ ! ,litopt]na1 "o is cont9ually surpris$ to note ! p]si/5ce ( ar*aic & primitive *>act]s 9 association ) a high degree ( specialization4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--,?ree-to$ prot]o!re 7,diadiaphorus majusculus71 ,santa ,cruz4 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight1 f skeletons 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum & ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! l>ge/ ,santa ,cruz repres5tatives ( ! family 7 ! species ( ,diadiaphorus1 animals consid]ably tall] ?an a %eep & ( heavi] build4 ,_! appe>ance 0 n unlike t ( a %ort-neck$1 hornless antelope1 b ) ! feet ( ! ?ree-to$ horses6 ,^! feet 71 h[ev]1 m]ely sup]ficially l ^? ( ! horses1 diff]+ 9 po9ts ( fundam5tal significance4 ,9 ! horses1 ! r$uction ( ! digits 0 accompani$ by a readju/m5t ( ! c>pal & t>sal articulations1 s t1 9 proportion z ! m$ian toe 0 enl>g$ & ! lat]als r$uc$1 ! weight 0 %ift$ m entirely ^u ! =m]4 ,?is is ! me?od ( digital r$uction :i* ,k[alevsky call$ 8adaptive0 & is exemplifi$ 9 all exi/+ artiodactyls & p]issodactyls & by none m p]fectly ?an by ! monodactyl horses4 ,9 8inadaptive r$uction10 ! me?od foll[$ by ,diadiaphorus & ! o!r g5]a ( ?is family1 !re 0 no readju/m5t1 or a v imp]fect "o1 ( ! articulations1 ! lat]al digits1 h[ev] small & rudim5t>y1 reta9+ ! connections :i* !y _h :5 !y 7 ( full size & function4 ,?is di/9ction may seem to be unimportant1 b its significance is %[n by ! fact t n a s+le ungulate ) inadaptively r$uc$ feet has surviv$ to ! pres5t "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--,left pes ( ,diadiaphorus1 f specim5s 9 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity & ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #c1 ext]nal cunei=m4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,9 /ill ano!r respect ! feet ( ,diadiaphorus deviat$ m>k$ly f ^? ( ! horses1 viz4 9 ! great proportionate l5g? ( ! phalanges1 especially ( ! fir/ "o1 & ! %ortness ( ! metapodials1 ! ?ree phalanges ( ! m$ian digit toge!r exce$+ 9 l5g? ! metac>pal or metat>sal1 :ile 9 ! horses ?is proportion is rev]s$4 ,! skull ( ?is g5us 0 %ort1 deep & ) an ant]ior tap]2 x _h a long sagittal cre/1 b a bra9-*amb] ( good capacity1 consid]+ its geological date4 ,! nasals 7 q %ort1 ?\gh ! degree ( %ort5+ 0 n su* z to sugge/ ! exi/5ce ( a proboscis4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance ! skull recalls t ( "o ( ! l>g] oreodonts 7p4 #cgb7 ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,oligoc5e4 ,to ! g5us ,prot]o!rium1 ! type ( ! family1 belong$ a great numb] ( ,santa ,cruz species1 = at t "t ! g5us 0 9 a /ate ( mo/ vigor\s developm5t & ! species 7 s v>iable t satisfactory discrim9ation ( !m is exce$+ly difficult4 ,!y 7 all mu* small] & slight] animals ?an ! species ( ,diadiaphorus1 b did n diff] f !m 9 any important /ructural "*4 ,! skull 9 ?is g5us closely resembl$ t ( ! "o la/ nam$1 save = its small] size & light] & m sl5d] proportions2 ! nasal bones 7 consid]ably long] & ! occiput 0 some:at wid]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bea4--,skull ( ,?oa!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,a m isolat$ position 0 held by ! g5us ,?oa!rium1 :i* 0 v cle>ly dem>cat$ f all ( ! o!r g5]a ( ! family4 ,its species 7 ! smalle/ ( ! common] ,santa ,cruz memb]s ( ! ord] & 7 ( v light & graceful =m4 ,! d5tal =mula 0 ! same z 9 ! o!r g5]a1 b !re 7 no tusks2 ! s+le upp] & two l[] incisors 7 ( ne>ly ! same size & simple1 *isel-l =m4 ,! upp] mol>s _h ! same elem5ts z 9 ! prec$+ g5]a1 b some:at diff]5tly connect$1 ! two int]nal cusps & ! ant]ior int]m$iate cuspule be+ unit$ into a ne>ly longitud9al ridge4 ,! skull 0 light1 sl5d] & po9t$2 ! nasals 7 %ort5$1 ?\gh less ?an 9 ,diadiaphorus2 ! sagittal cre/ 0 %ort] ?an 9 ! latt] & ! occiput 0 f> n>r[]4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! body ( mod]ate l5g? & ! tail %ort4 ,! limbs & especially ! feet 7 proportionately m elongate & sl5d] ?an 9 any o!r kn[n g5us ( ! family1 giv+ q a /ilt$ appe>ance to ! skeleton4 ,! =e-arm bones 7 n cossifi$1 b ! ulna 0 mu* m r$uc$ ?an 9 any ( ! o!r g5]a ( ! family1 & ! same is true ( ! fibula1 :i*1 ?\gh v sl5d]1 %[$ no t5d5cy to unite ) ! tibia4 ,! limb-bones1 especially ! femur1 _h a decid$ resemblance to ^? ( ,mesohippus1 ! l[] ,oligoc5e tridactyl horse ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ) ! small] species ( :i*1 ,m4 bairdi1 ,?oa!rium agre$ well 9 size4 ,mo/ rem>kable ( all 7 ! feet1 :i* 7 m /rictly monodactyl ?an ^? ( any o!r kn[n mammal4 ,! s+le functional digit1 ! ?ird1 _h on ea* side ( its upp] end a v small1 scale-l nodule ( bone1 ! la/ ve/iges ( ! lat]al digits1 correspond+ to ! imm5sely l>g] spl9ts ( ! horse4 ,despite ! unrivall$ complet5ess ( digital r$uction :i* ,?oa!rium display$1 ! mode ( r$uction 0 inadaptive & ! rudim5t>y metapodials reta9$ ! same c>pal & t>sal connections t !y orig9ally _h 9 ! p5tadactyl manus1 a v great diff]5ce f ! horses4 ,! ankle-jo9t also 0 ( ! same primitive "* z 9 ! o!r ,litopt]na4 ,! feet 7 relatively long] & m sl5d] ?an 9 ! o!r prot]o!res & ! metapodial ( ! s+le functional digit long] 9 proportion to ! phalanges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--,s+le-to$ prot]o!re 7,?oa!rium m9usculum71 ,santa ,cruz4 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f a skeleton 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! appe>ance ( ! liv+ animal1 aside f ! "* ( ! hair1 col\r-patt]n1 etc41 may be closely inf]r$ f ! skeleton4 ,x 0 a mu* small] & m graceful animal ?an its contempor>y & relative ,diadiaphorus1 z light & agile z a gazelle4 ,! head _h "s resemblance to t ( a small horse1 b ! neck 0 mu* %ort] ?an 9 ! horses2 ! body also 0 %ort] ?an 9 ! latt]1 & ! proportions ( ! trunk & limbs 7 q z 9 ! small] antelopes4 ,b ^! lik5esses to horses & antelopes 71 x mu/ aga9 be emphasiz$1 sup]ficial2 ! fundam5tal *>act]i/ics ( /ructure 7 m primitive ?an 9 ! mo/ anci5t kn[n artiodactyls & p]issodactyls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--,left pes ( ,?oa!rium4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bej4 ,) ! aid ( ! fragm5t>y mat]ial :i* alone repres5ts ! prot]o!res 9 ! =mations prec$+ & foll[+ ! ,santa ,cruz 9 "t1 x is n practicable to trace ! developm5t ( ! v>i\s phyla 9 a satisfactory mann]4 ,two ( ! ,santa ,cruz g5]a1 ,diadiaphorus & ,prot]o!rium1 cont9u$ into ! l[] ,plioc5e 7,p>an71 & two additional ones h be5 nam$1 b little is kn[n ab\t !m4 ,! late/ kn[n memb] ( ! family s f> discov]$ is a g5us 7,epi!rium7 f ! upp] ,plioc5e ( ,monte ,h]moso1 a tridactyl =m l ,diadiaphorus4 ,x is a notewor?y fact t ! mo/ advanc$ & specializ$ g5us ( ! entire family end$ ) ! ,santa ,cruz1 :ile ! less diff]5tiat$ types surviv$ till a consid]ably lat] p]iod4 ,possibly1 x 0 ! incom+ ( ! highly effici5t ,c>nivora f ,nor? ,am]ica t l$ to ! ext]m9ation ( ! la/ prot]o!res4 ,turn+ backw>d f ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! family may be trac$ )\t any "q to ! ,deseado /age ( ! ,oligoc5e1 ?\gh no?+ b tee? has yet be5 obta9$1 :ile 9 ! ,eoc5e x w\ld appe> to h become m]g$ 9 ! same gr\p ( small1 ,condyl>?ra-l animals ) quadritub]cul> mol>s1 z ^? :i* are reg>d$ z ! probable ance/ors ( ! macrau*5ids4 ,h[ev] likely ?is conclusion may seem to be1 its confirmation mu/ await ! discov]y ( mu* m complete specim5s ?an are n[ available4 ,,ord] ,,a/rapo!ria4 ,,a/rapo!res ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz ano!r gr\p ( peculi> ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 ! ,a/rapo!ria1 made its la/ record$ appe>ance4 ,?\gh n at all uncommon 9 t =mation1 no complete or ev5 p>tial skeleton has yet be5 f\nd1 b m]ely ! skull & a few bones ( ! limbs & feet4 ,= ?is reason !re is mu* d\bt z to ! sy/ematic position & relation%ips ( ^! animals1 :i* 7 among ! mo/ curi\s ( ! _m /range mammals :i* made up ! ,santa ,cruz fauna4 ,!y 7 m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! ,amblypoda 7p4 #def7 z possible repres5tatives ( t ord] 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 b1 z w be se5 lat]1 ?is is an improbable conclusion1 & ! gr\p appe>s to h be5 indig5\s 9 ! s\!rn cont95t1 9 :i*1 at all ev5ts1 x _h a v long hi/ory4 ,x has n be5 f\nd 9 any =mation lat] ?an ! ,santa ,cruz1 unless ! ,friasian fauna1 :i* conta9s x1 %\ld be remov$ f t /age1 ( :i* x app>5tly =ms ! late/ division4 ,i4 ,,a/rapo!riid4 ,a/rapo!rium1 ,santa ,cruz & ,patagonian4 ,a/rapo!riculus1 ,patagonian4 ,p>a/rapo!rium1 ,deseado4 ,a/raponotus1 ,a/raponotus ,b$s4 ,alb]togaudrya1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,,ii4 ,,trigono/ylopid4 ,trigono/ylops1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,edv>docopeia1 ,a/raponotus ,b$s4 ,! g5us ,a/rapo!rium1 :i* 0 ! only well-def9$ repres5tative ( its family & ord] 9 ! ,santa ,cruz /age1 conta9$ sev]al species1 "s ( !m ! l>ge/ animals ( _! "t1 z well z ! mo/ grotesque 9 appe>ance4 ,! d5tition diff]$ 9 "s important respects f t ( all ! o!r ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 ! =mula be+3 i #j_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/a1 m #c_/c1 #b #bh4 ,! upp] incisors _h completely disappe>$1 b ! l[] ones 7 l>ge &1 :at 0 an exceptional "*1 !y 7 p>tially divid$ into two lobes1 some:at z 9 ! ,eoc5e u9ta!res ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7p4 #ddf74 ,! can9es 7 v l>ge & =midable tusks1 :i* grew ?r\gh\t life & app>5tly =m$ no root2 ! upp] tusk 0 ne>ly /raight & 0 obliquely truncat$ by ! /rongly curv$ & %>p-po9t$ l[] tusk4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 v unusual among ,s\? ,am]ican ho($ mammals1 _m ( :i* _h no tusks at all2 & 9 ^? :i* possess$ !m1 su* z ! toxodonts 7p4 #dfh71 !y 7 mo/ly incisors4 ,only 9 ! a/rapo!res & homalodo!res 7 !re can9e tusks1 & 9 ! latt] gr\p !y 7 small & ( limit$ gr[?4 ,all ! tee?1 except ! can9es1 7 bra*yodont &1 ?\gh r high-cr[n$1 =m$ roots be=e com+ into use4 ,! premol>s 7 small & greatly r$uc$ 9 numb] 7#b_/a71 & 9 patt]n 7 simpl] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 con/ruct$ on ess5tially ! same plan z 9 ! ,toxodonta2 inde$1 ! fir/ specim5 ( ?is g5us collect$ 0 ref]r$ to a l>ge species ( ,nesodon by ,ow54 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! resemblance to ! rh9oc]os tee? is v decid$1 & has l$ sev]al writ]s to po/ulate a relation%ip betwe5 ! a/rapo!res & ! rh9oc]oses4 ,! l[] mol>s 7 ( ! bicresc5tic patt]n s frequ5tly met ) already2 ^! tee? 7 v n>r[ 9 proportion to _! l5g? & /rongly sugge/ ^? ( ,metamynodon1 ! suppos$ly aquatic rh9oc]os ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,oligoc5e 7p4 #cdf74 ,x may be confid5tly inf]r$ t s small a numb] ( premol>s 0 due to r$uction f a full s]ies1 & ?is is confirm$ by ! milk-d5tition1 9 :i* ! premol>s 7 #d_/c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--;,head ( ,a/rapo!rium magnum4 ,santa ,cruz4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! skull 0 extremely peculi>1 m s ?an 9 any o!r ( ! contempor>y g5]a ( ho($ animals4 ,! too?less premaxill>ies 7 q small1 b ?ick1 & mu/ h support$ an ela/ic pad1 aga9/ :i* ! l[] incisors c\ld effectively bite 9 cropp+ h]bage4 ,! nasal bones 7 extremely %ort & !re mu/ h be5 a proboscis or greatly inflat$ sn\t1 probably ! =m]2 ! imm5se developm5t ( s9uses 9 ! frontal bones elevat$ ! :ole =ehead into a great1 dome-l convexity1 a feature :i* is n equall$ 9 any o!r kn[n mammal4 ,! orbits 7 op5 beh9d & ! bra9 *amb] 0 small1 s t ! sagittal & occipital cre/s 7 v high & /rong1 to af=d suffici5t surface = ! atta*m5t ( ! great temporal muscles4 ,! horizontal portion ( ! l[] jaw 0 %all[ v]tically1 b v ?ick & massive1 & ! symphyseal region 0 broad & depress$4 ,un=tunately1 ! skeleton is /ill v incompletely kn[n4 ,( ! v]tebr1 only ! atlas & axis h be5 recov]$1 & ^! resembl$ ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz toxodont ,nesodon1 on a l>g] scale4 ,! scapula _h a v ?ick sp9e1 )\t ! projections :i* 7 f\nd 9 mo/ ( ! ,santa ,cruz ungulates4 ,! limb-bones 7 long & comp>atively sl5d]1 & ! processes = muscul> atta*m5t 7 s+ul>ly small & weak2 ! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg did n cossify & 7 proportionately elongate1 ! tibia be+ b little %ort] ?an ! femur4 ,! latt] _h ! flatt5$ %aft :i* recurs 9 ne>ly all ( ! v heavy ungulates1 b reta9$ a remnant ( ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,if ! feet f\nd isolat$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz & ,deseado /ages h be5 correctly ref]r$ to ?is ord]1 !n ! g5us 0 five-to$ & ! feet 7 broad1 %ort & heavy1 q elephant9e 9 appe>ance1 especially ! =e foot4 ,! ankle-jo9t 0 v peculi> & ! calcaneum _h no articulation ) ! fibula1 :i* x _h 9 all ! o!r indig5\s ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates4 ,incomplete z ! mat]ial is1 x is yet possible to =m "s g5]al conception ( ?is extraord9>y animal :5 9 life4 ,! head 0 %ort1 broad & deep1 r\nd$ & v probably furni%$ ) a proboscis2 ! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g?1 s t ! m\? c\ld n rea* ! gr\nd )\t a /raddl+ ( ! =e legs4 ,! body 0 no d\bt long1 ! limbs long & r sl5d]1 giv+ ! animal a /ilt$ appe>ance1 ! feet v %ort1 broad & column>4 ,sev]al species ( ! g5us are kn[n1 :i* diff]$ mu* 9 size1 ! l>ge/ 7,a4 giganteum7 probably exce$+ any mod]n rh9oc]os 9 height & l5g?1 & ! smalle/ 7,a4 nanum7 n mu* l>g] ?an a ,wild ,bo>4 ,a/rapo!riculus1 ( ! ,patagonian /age1 0 small] ?an ! av]age species ( ! ,santa ,cruz g5us1 & _h tee? ( ! same numb]1 b ! can9es 7 n capable ( indef9ite gr[?1 & ! l[] mol>s _h ! pill> 9 ! po/]ior cresc5t s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ho($ animals4 ,9 ! ,deseado /age1 on ! contr>y1 ! a/rapo!res 7 ( l>g] size1 & 9 ! commone/ g5us1 ,p>a/rapo!rium1 ! gr9d+ tee? _h l[] cr[ns & ! premol>s 7 m num]\s1 at lea/ #c_/b4 ,9 ! /ill m anci5t ,a/raponotus1 :i* gives its "n to ! upp] ,eoc5e 7or l[] ,oligoc5e7 ( ,patagonia1 ! premol>s 7 pres5t 9 full s]ies4 ,9 ! ,casa ,mayor ! ord] 0 abundantly repres5t$ by /ill m primitive g5]a1 :i* assur$ly _h an undim9i%$ numb] ( tee?1 ?\gh ?is has n be5 prov$4 ,"o ( ^! g5]a1 ,alb]togaudrya1 0 ! l>ge/ animal ( its "t & ! highly probable ance/or ( ! s]ies lead+ to ! ,santa ,cruz ,a/rapo!rium4 ,! second family ( ! ord]1 ! ,trigono/ylopid1 did n survive beyond ! ,eoc5e & is s imp]fectly kn[n t any acc\nt ( x w\ld be to small pr(it4 ,z /at$ above1 ! ,a/rapo!ria 7 an isolat$ gr\p & _! relation%ips are problematical & are likely to rema9 s p5d+ ! discov]y ( mu* m complete specim5s ( ! v>i\s g5]a :i* made up ! s]ies4 ,i am incl9$ to ! op9ion1 h[ev]1 t all ( ! indig5\s gr\ps ( ,s\? ,am]ican ungulates1 :i* inhabit$ t cont95t be=e ! great immigration f ! nor?1 7 d]ivatives ( ! same /ock & m ne>ly relat$ to "o ano!r ?an to any ( ! ord]s :i* liv$ 9 o!r regions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 look+ ov] ! labyr9? ( ungulate hi/ory1 z record$ by ! fossils1 c]ta9 facts /& out cle>ly1 :ile o!rs are /ill v obscure4 ,x is l try+ to trace ! plan ( va/ & complicat$ ru9s1 :i* "h are deeply buri$ 9 _! own dbris1 !re are fully expos$ & 9 ano!r place are swept away s completely t h>dly a trace rema9s4 ,b ! problem is f> m complex ?an any :i* c be pres5t$ by build+s1 = ! factor ( repeat$ migrations f cont95t to cont95t comes 9 to obscure ! evid5ce4 ,_h ea* ( ! great l& areas receiv$ its orig9al /ock ( e>ly mammals & !n be5 %ut (f f communication ) any o!r1 _m ( ! difficulties w\ld be remov$1 b ! /ory w\ld lose half its int]e/4 ,)9 ! limits ( ! family1 giv+ to t gr\p ! broad & ela/ic def9ition :i* has hi!rto be5 employ$1 we h repeat$ly f\nd x feasible to con/ruct a phylog5etic s]ies :i* v ne>ly repres5ts ! /eps ( /ructural modification z !y occurr$ 9 "t4 ,mu* less frequ5tly is x possible to trace alli$ families to _! common />t+ po9t1 &1 s f> z ! ho($ animals are conc]n$1 9 no case h we yet succe$$ 9 do+ ?is = ! sep>ate ord]s4 ,! ob/acle lies 9 ! fact t ! ord9al gr\ps 7 already di/9ct1 :5 !y made _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ! kn[n & accessible records1 & ! hypo!tical ance/ors common to !m all1 or to any two ( !m1 are to be s\ght 9 regions ( :i* we "k little or no?+4 ,nev]!less1 c]ta9 legitimate inf]5ces may be drawn f ! available evid5ce4 ,x rema9s to be prov$ :e!r ! assemblage ( ho($ mammals1 z a :ole1 0 ( s+le or multiple orig94 ,h all ungulates be5 d]iv$ f a common /ock1 or did !y arise indep5d5tly f sev]al gr\ps ( claw$ mammals8 ,:ile ! records _c be foll[$ back to ! po9t1 or po9ts1 ( orig9 ( ! v>i\s ord]s1 yet x is a notewor?y fact t1 betwe5 sev]al ( !m1 ! diff]5ces gr[ less m>k$ z ! m anci5t memb]s are rea*$1 z ?\gh !y 7 conv]g+ to a common t]m2 o!rs aga9 %[ little su* approximation1 & ! mo/ probable conclusion f ! evid5ce n[ at h& is t ! ungulate assemblage is compos$ ( sev]al indep5d5t s]ies4 ,"o su* s]ies is t ( ! ,hyracoidea & ,proboscidea1 to :i* ,dr4 ,s*loss] has giv5 ! "n 8,subungulata10 & has po9t$ out its relation%ip to ! ,condyl>?ra1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n a close "o & may be illusory4 ,ano!r app>5tly natural gr\p is t ( ! peculi>ly ,s\? ,am]ican =ms1 ! ,toxodontia1 ) its f\r subord]s1 ! ,litopt]na & ! ,a/rapo!ria1 :i* all appe> to be traceable to closely alli$ families 9 ! ,eoc5e1 ^: tee? /rongly sugge/ d]ivation f ! ,condyl>?ra2 b ! mat]ial does n p]mit any positive /atem5ts4 ,! ,artiodactyla & ,p]issodactyla h s _m simil>ities t !y h always be5 reg>d$ z closely relat$ gr\ps1 b ! di/9ction betwe5 !m 0 almo/ z %>ply drawn 9 _! mo/ anci5t kn[n memb]s z x is to-day1 & !re 0 no di/9ct t5d5cy to conv]ge back into a common /em4 ,_! mutual relation%ips are ?us obscure1 b ! ,p]issodactyla1 at lea/1 seem to be d]ivable f a condyl>?r\s ance/ry4 ,! ,condyl>?ra1 z a :ole1 7 by f> ! mo/ primitive ( ! ungulates1 :i* !y connect$ ) ! claw$ mammals4 ,none ( ! g5]a yet discov]$ c be reg>d$ z ance/ral to any ( ! high] ord]s1 b x is entirely possible t 9 ! upp] ,cretace\s p]iod ! ,condyl>?ra 7 spread ov] all ! cont95ts1 except ,au/ralia1 & t f !m ! o!r ungulate ord]s arose 9 diff]5t regions4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! ,condyl>?ra %[ h[ ! transition f claw$ to ho($ types may h occurr$ & p]haps actually did s1 b x w\ld be premature to affirm ?is4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,c>nivora ,! /ory ( ! ho($ mammals1 z sket*$ 9 brief outl9e 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s 7,,viii-,,xiii71 is a curi\s mixture ( relatively full & satisfactory p>agraphs1 ) scanty1 brok5 & un9telligible ones1 n to m5tion ^? :i* h n yet be5 br\ght to light at all4 ,) all its gaps & defects1 :i* inh]e 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 ! hi/ory ( ! v>i\s ungulate s]ies is ! be/ t ! palontology ( mammals has to (f] & con/itutes a v /rong & solid argum5t = ! !ory ( evolution4 ,= ! ,c>nivora ! /ory is less complete & = obvi\s reasons4 ,individual abundance 0 a v l>ge factor 9 det]m9+ ! *ances ( pres]vation 9 ! fossil /ate = any giv5 species1 &1 z a rule1 :ole skeletons are f\nd only :5 ! species 0 fossiliz$ 9 l>ge numb]s4 ,9 any region ! ,c>nivora are less num]\s ?an ! h]bivora ^u :i* !y prey1 & :ile mo/ ungulates live 9 l>g] or small] h]ds1 ! c>nivores are mo/ly solit>y4 ,! ,c>nivora are divisible into ?ree well-m>k$ subord]s1 call$ respectively ! ,p9nip$ia1 ,fissip$ia & ,creodonta4 ,! ,p9nip$ia1 seals1 walruses1 etc41 :i* are almo/ purely m>9e 9 habitat1 are n dealt ) 9 ?is book1 s9ce s little c be le>n$ ( !m f ! fossils1 & ! ,creodonta1 an extremely anci5t & primitive gr\p1 w be treat$ sep>ately4 ,! ,fissip$ia are *iefly t]re/rial1 ?\gh !y include ! ott]s1 & _! subdivisions1 s f> z ! ,am]ican =ms are conc]n$1 are %[n 9 ! foll[+ table1 :i*1 x %\ld be obs]v$1 omits sev]al g5]a4 ,unless o!rwise not$1 ! g5]a are ,nor? ,am]ican4 ,subord] ,,fissip$ia4 ,l& ,c>nivora ,i4 ,,canid1 ,dogs1 ,wolves1 ,foxes1 etc4 ,canis1 ,wolves1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,vulpes1 ,r$ ,fox1 d4 ,urocyon1 ,grey ,fox1 d4 ,c]docyon1 fox-l wolves1 ,s4 ,a41 d4 ,icticyon1 ,bu%-,dog1 ,s4 ,a41 d4 8,cyon1 ,dhole1 mid4 & up4 ,mioc4 ,d9ocynops1 ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 lurodon1 up4 ,mioc4 & l[4 ,plioc4 ,tephrocyon1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,borophagus1 up4 ,mioc4 to mid4 ,plioc4 ,is*yrocyon1 up4 ,mioc4 ,amphicyon1 mid4 ,mioc4 to l[4 ,plioc4 ,daphnodon1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,enhydrocyon1 up4 ,oligo4 ,temnocyon1 up4 ,oligo4 ,mesocyon1 up4 ,oligo4 ,cynodesmus1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,daphnus1 ,oligo4 ,cynodictis1 ,oligo4 ,procynodictis1 up4 ,eoc4 ,,ii4 ,,procyonid1 ,raccoons1 etc4 ,procyon1 ,raccoons1 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,nasua1 ,coatis1 ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 n[ ext5d+ to ,calif4 ,cyonasua1 ,s4 ,a41 up4 ,plioc4 ,bass>iscus1 ,cacomi/le1 l[4 ,plioc4 to ,rec4 ,phlaocyon1 l[4 ,mioc4 ,lept>ctus1 up4 ,mioc4 ,potos1 ,k9kaj\1 ,neotropical1 ,rec5t4 ,,iii4 ,,ursid1 ,be>s4 ,ursus1 true ,be>s1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,trem>ctos1 ,spectacl$ ,be>1 ,s4 ,a4 ,arcto!rium1 ,%ort-fac$ ,be>s1 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 ,,iv4 ,,mu/elid1 ,m>t5s1 ,weasels1 etc4 ,mu/ela1 ,weasels1 mid4 ,mioc4 to ,rec4 ,grison1 ,grisn1 ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 to ,rec4 ,tayra1 ,tayra1 d4 ,m>tes1 ,m>t5s1 up4 ,mioc4 to ,rec4 ,gulo1 ,wolv]5e1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,canim>tes1 mid4 ,plioc4 ,bra*ypsalis1 up4 ,mioc4 ,megalictis1 l[4 ,mioc4 lurocyon1 d4 ,oligobunis1 up4 ,oligo4 & l[4 ,mioc4 ,bunlurus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,mephitis1 ,skunk1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,spilogale1 ,spott$ ,skunk1 d4 ,conepatus1 ,s4 ,a4 ,skunk1 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 ,n4 ,a41 ,rec4 ,taxidea1 ,badg]1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,lutra1 ,ott]s1 up4 ,mioc4 to ,rec41 ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,latax1 ,sea-,ott]4 ,v4 ,,felid4 ,cats4 ,felis1 true ,cats1 ,n4 ,a41 l[4 ,plioc4 to ,rec41 ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,lynx1 ,lynx1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,pseudlurus1 mid4 & up4 ,mioc4 ,smilodon1 ,sabre-too? ,tig]1 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a41 ,plei/4 8,ma*airodus1 mid4 ,mioc4 to ,plioc4 ,nimravus1 up4 ,oligo4 ,ar*lurus1 d4 ,hoplophoneus1 ,oligo4 ,d9ictis1 d4 ,eusmilus1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,two families1 ! hy5as 7,hynid7 & civet-cats 7,viv]rid71 are omitt$ f ! table because !y app>5tly nev] rea*$ ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,! be>s1 ( ,old ,_w orig91 invad$ ,am]ica at a v late p]iod & are n c]ta9ly kn[n "h be=e ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! o!r f\r families 7 well repres5t$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ican hi/ory1 ?\gh ! great weasel tribe 7,mu/elid7 w5t ?r\gh ! great] "p ( its hi/ory 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,none ( ! families is indig5\s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & all ( ! five families :i* x n[ %>es ) ,nor? ,am]ica came 9 9 ! s]ies ( immigrations1 ( :i* ! fir/ record$ effects are f\nd 9 ! ,plioc5e & cont9u$ into ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,! ,fissip$ia are adapt$ to a great v>iety ( habits & modes ( life & consequ5tly !re is consid]able div]sity ( /ructure among !m1 ?\gh !y all =m a homog5e\s1 natural gr\p4 ,! dogs 7,canid7 are t]re/rial1 nei!r swimm]s nor climb]s2 "s1 l ! foxes1 are solit>y1 o!rs1 l ! wolves1 hunt 9 packs & ne>ly all are /rong1 swift runn]s4 ,! cats 7,felid7 :i* h a rem>kable range ( size1 are t]re/rial or arboreal2 !y take _! prey by /alk+ & leap+ ^u x1 n by runn+ x d[n4 ,! be>s 7,ursid7 are mo/ly omnivor\s1 n v (t5 kill+ prey1 & l>gely veget>ian 9 diet4 ,! raccoons 7,procyonid7 are *iefly arboreal & omnivor\s4 ,! v l>ge & v>i$ weasel family 7,mu/elid7 h diff]5t habits1 ?\gh ne>ly all are fi]ce & blood?ir/y4 ,ott]s & sea-ott]s are aquatic & prey *iefly on fi%2 m9ks & fi%]s are semi-aquatic2 m>t5s are arboreal1 skunks t]re/rial & badg]s fossorial4 ,:ile !re is ?us mu* div]sity ( habit ) correspond+ diff]5ces ( /ructure among ! ,fissip$ia1 !re is a c]ta9 unity ( plan recognizable among !m all4 ,) b few exceptions1 ! incisors are pres5t 9 full numb] & ! can9es are =midable lac]at+ weapons4 ,especially *>act]i/ic ( ! d5tition are ! 8sectorial0 or 8c>nassial0 tee?1 always ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>1 :i* =m a pair ( %e>+ blades1 ! premol> bit+ outside4 ,9 ! be>s & mo/ ( ! raccoons ! tee? are tub]culat$1 9 adaptation to ! omnivor\s habit1 & ! c>nassials h lo/ ! %e>+ =m1 ?\gh cle>ly d]iv$ f t type4 ,! skull has p[]ful jaws1 & ! cre/s & ridges = ! atta*m5t ( ! jaw muscles are prom95t except 9 v small animals1 & ! /\t1 boldly outcurv+ zygomatic ar*es are v *>act]i/ic4 ,! face may be elongate1 z 9 ! dogs1 or extremely %ort1 z 9 ! cats1 or ( int]m$iate l5g?2 ! bra9-case is relatively capaci\s1 & ! orbits1 except 9 ! cats1 are widely op5 beh9d4 ,! neck is nev] v long1 b ! body (t5 is1 & ! tail v>ies greatly 9 l5g?1 z d also ! limbs4 ,!re is great diff]5ce1 too1 betwe5 ! v>i\s families 9 ! prom95ce ( ! processes on ! limb-bones = ! atta*m5t ( muscles1 z expressive ( ! muscul> developm5t ( ! limbs1 & also 9 ! ext5t to :i* ! =e foot c be rotat$ & us$ = grasp+4 ,9 all exi/+ ,fissip$ia ! femur has no ?ird tro*ant]1 b _m ext9ct g5]a possess$ x4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg are always sep>ate & un9t]rupt$4 ,9 ! wri/ 7c>pus7 !re is always a l>ge bone1 ! scapho-lun>1 :i* is made up by ! coalesc5ce ( ?ree elem5ts1 ! scaphoid1 lun> & c5tral1 a feature :i*1 ?\gh recurr+ 9 a few o!r mammals1 is ess5tially *>act]i/ic ( ! mod]n ,c>nivora4 ,! feet are arm$ ) claws m or less %>p1 :i* 9 "s families1 notably ! cats1 are retractile & may be fold$ back into ! foot4 ,! gait may be plantigrade1 z 9 ! raccoons & be>s1 or digitigrade1 z 9 ! dogs & cats1 or int]m$iate 9 "*4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,paleoc5e & mo/ ( ! ,eoc5e1 !re 7 no ,fissip$ia1 ! fle%-eat]s all belong+ to ! ext9ct ,creodonta1 & ! fir/ cle>ly recognizable fissip$es occurr$ 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e or ,u9ta4 #a4 ,canid4 ,dogs1 ,wolves1 ,foxes1 etc4 ,?is family1 :i* may ) conv5i5ce be call$ simply dogs1 is at pres5t ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( ! families ( ,fissip$ia1 occurr+ 9 e cont95t1 ev5 ,au/ralia1 & rang+ ?r\gh all climates almo/ f pole to pole4 ,!y are a s+ul>ly homog5e\s family & %[ few diff]5ces ( /ructure2 su* diff]5ces z !re are affect *iefly ! numb] & size ( ! tee? & ext]nal *>act]s1 su* z ! size ( ! e>s1 l5g? & col\r+ ( ! hair1 etc4 ,! _m dome/ic bre$s are n "h consid]$4 ,almo/ alone among ! ,fissip$ia ! dogs capture _! prey by runn+ x d[n1 & !y are end[$ ) rem>kable spe$ & endurance4 ,! entire organism1 especially ! limbs & feet1 are adapt$ to cursorial habits4 ,= ! purpose ( comp>ison ) ! ext9ct g5]a ( ! family1 "s acc\nt ( a wolf w suffice4 ,! wolves1 l mo/ o!r memb]s ( ! family1 h a l>g] numb] ( tee? ?an is usual 9 ! subord]1 z appe>s f ! =mula3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #db1 t is to say1 only ! ?ird upp] mol> has be5 lo/ f ! typical numb]1 ?\gh ! ?ird l[] is v small & seem+ly on ! po9t ( disappe>ance 7,fig4 #dd1 p4 #ic74 ,! upp] sectorial too?1 ! f\r? premol>1 has its %e>+ blade made up ( two %>p-edg$ cusps1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 & !re is a small int]nal cusp c>ri$ on a sep>ate root2 ! upp] mol>s are triangul> & tritub]cul> & are us$ = cru%+4 ,! l[] sectorial1 ! fir/ mol>1 has an ant]ior blade ( two %e>+ cusps1 ) ! remnant ( a ?ird1 & a l[1 bas9-l po/]ior 8heel40 ,! skull is *>act]iz$ by ! long face & jaws & by ! /ructure ( ! auditory region2 ! tympanic bones are inflat$ into l>ge oval bull1 :i* are holl[ & undivid$1 & ! ext]nal op5+ ( ea* is an irregul> hole1 )\t tubul> prolongation4 ,!re is an alisph5oid canal = ! passage ( ! int]nal c>otid art]y4 ,! neck1 body & tail are ( mod]ate l5g? & ! v]tebr ( ! lo9s are n conspicu\sly l>ge & heavy4 ,!re is no coll>-bone4 ,! limb-bones h a di/9ct1 ?\gh sup]ficial1 resemblance to ^? ( ho($ animals2 ! hum]us has no v prom95t ridges = ! atta*m5t ( muscles & no epicondyl> =am51 & ! femur no ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! =e-arm bones are sep>ate1 b are s articulat$ toge!r & ) ! hum]us z to give ! =e foot no p[] ( rotation4 ,! manus 9 all exi/+ wild species has five digits1 ?\gh ! pollex or fir/ digit is v small1 a m]e dew-claw2 ! f\r functional digits are arrang$ 9 two symmetrical pairs1 v mu* z 9 ! artiodactyls1 a long] m$ian pair1 ( :i* ! metac>pals h a ne>ly squ>e cross-section1 & a %ort] lat]al pair 7#b;d & #e?7 ( m trih$ral =m4 ,all ! metac>pals are closely appress$ & almo/ p>allel4 ,! pes has f\r digits arrang$ 9 simil> fa%ion4 ,! claws are blunt & non-retractile1 & are ( little use 9 seiz+ or lac]at+ prey1 b are useful 9 digg+4 ,! ungual phalanges h no bony hoods reflect$ ov] ! base ( ! claw4 ,all mod]n =ms are digitigrade4 ,mat]ials are lack+ = ! con/ruction ( any su* detail$ phylog5y ( ! dogs z has be5 accompli%$ = _m ungulates4 ,_m ( ! ext9ct g5]a are kn[n only f skulls1 or ev5 jaws1 & ! well-pres]v$ skulls are too few to =m di/9ctly def9$ & cont9u\s s]ies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is e reason to believe t ! can9e g5]a ( ! successive geological /ages did approximately repres5t ! successive /eps ( developm5t )9 ! family1 ?\gh x is difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 ! phyla4 ,! ,plei/oc5e dogs1 = ! mo/ "p1 diff]$ little f ! ,rec5t ones2 !re 7 "s v l>ge species l ! ,canis dirus 7,frontispiece7 ( ! ,mississippi ,valley & ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,two v peculi> g5]a h be5 report$4 ,"o 7,pa*ycyon71 f a cave 9 ,virg9ia1 _h rem>kably %ort1 /\t & /rongly curv$ limb-bones1 :i* sugge/ ott]-l habits2 ! o!r 7,hynogna?us71 f ,cali=nia1 _h a v %ort face & extremely massive l[] jaw & v heavy tee?2 x 0 probably l a hy5a 9 appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--,skull ( ,cynodesmus ?oides1 a l[] ,mioc5e wolf4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #g1 p4 #fb4 ,z f> back z ! ,blanco /age ( ! middle ,plioc5e1 rema9s occur :i* are assign$ to ! mod]n g5us ,canis1 ?\gh bett] pres]v$ specim5s w\ld probably require _! removal f t g5us4 ,9 ! l[] ,plioc5e ! phylum ( ! true wolves 0 repres5t$ by ,tephrocyon1 :i*1 s f> z x is kn[n1 diff]$ only 9 m9or details f ,canis1 & ,tephrocyon w5t back to ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,:at w\ld appe> to be its direct ance/or is ,cynodesmus1 ( ! l[] ,mioc5e1 :i*1 9 view ( ! long lapse ( "t involv$1 diff]$ less f ! mod]n wolves ?an "o w\ld h suppos$1 b ! diff]5ces are significant1 z po9t+ back to a f> m primitive type ( /ructure4 ,cynodesmus 0 a small animal1 int]m$iate 9 size betwe5 a ,r$ ,fox & a ,coyote4 ,! d5tal =mula 0 ! same z 9 ,canis1 b ! tee? 7 relatively small] & m closely cr[d$1 z ! face & jaws 7 %ort] & ! cranium1 ?\gh long]1 _h a less capaci\s bra9-*amb]4 ,! ca/ ( ?is *amb]1 :i* v p]fectly reproduces ! =m ( ! bra91 %[s t ! latt] 0 n only small] b less convolut$ ?an 9 ! mod]n animals1 & ?is1 9 turn1 d5otes a l[] grade ( intellig5ce4 ,! limb-bones 7 l ^? ( wolves1 b ! feet 7 q diff]5t4 ,9 ! manus ! fir/ digit1 or pollex1 0 mu* less r$uc$1 ?\gh consid]ably %ort] ?an ! o!r digits1 :i* 7 n 9 two symmetrical pairs1 b 7 all ( diff]5t l5g?s1 n closely appress$1 b arrang$ 9 radiat+ fa%ion2 ! metac>pals _h n yet acquir$ ! quadrate or trih$ral =m1 b 7 m oval 9 cross-section4 ,! pes 0 m mod]niz$1 b _h five digits1 :i* is n true ( any exi/+ memb] ( ! family4 ,! claws 7 ?9 & %>p & 7 slightly retractile1 a p[] :i* has be5 completely lo/ 9 all ! mod]n canids4 ,su* an animal c\ld h>dly h be5 prem95tly cursorial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--,skull ( primitive 8be>-dog0 7,daphnus fel9us74 ,:ite ,riv] /age4 7,aft] ,hat*]47 ,out ( ! cr[d ( dog-l creatures 9 ! ,john ,day ,oligoc5e1 x is n yet practicable to select "o :i* is to be tak5 z ! ance/or ( ! ,rec5t wolves ?r\gh ,cynodesmus1 nor c ?is be done ) bett] assurance ( success 9 ! ,:ite ,riv]1 ?\gh ! beg9n+ 7,daphnus7 ( ! be>-dogs 9 t =mation probably closely repres5ts ! ance/ral /age s\ght =4 ,x is likely t sev]al ( ! phyla into :i* ! family 0 divid$ became bl5d$ 9 a common /ock at t /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--,upp] tee? ( ,daphnus fel9us4 p4 #d f\r? premol>4 7,aft] ,hat*]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--,"r manus ( ,daphnus fel9us4 ,sl41 scapho-lun>4 ,py41 pyramidal4 ,ps41 pisi=m4 ,u41 unci=m4 7,aft] ,hat*]47 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #cb1 p4 #hb4 ,a second phylum1 n[ entirely ext9ct1 is t ( ! be>-dogs1 :i* is n c]ta9ly record$ lat] ?an ! middle ,plioc5e1 ?\gh "s h be5 d\btfully report$ f ! old] ,plei/oc5e ( ! ,great ,pla9s & ! rem>kable ,cali=nian g5us1 ,hynogna?us1 may h be5 an (f%oot ( ! same /ock4 ,! phylum 0 *>act]iz$ by ! unusually l>ge size ( ! mol>s & by c]ta9 o!r features1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are n kn[n to h p]si/$ ?r\gh ! entire s]ies f fir/ to la/4 ,9 ! middle ,plioc5e liv$ "s v l>ge be>-dogs1 ( ! g5us ,borophagus1 ! tee? ( :i* _h a /rong lik5ess to ^? ( ! hy5as & probably ! animals _h hy5a-l habits1 fe$+ l>gely ^u c>rion & cru%+ ! /\te/ bones ) _! massive tee?4 ,! same1 or a v simil>1 g5us liv$ 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e1 b none ( ! species ( t date is at all well kn[n4 ,9 ! upp] ,mioc5e occurr$ sev]al species :i* h be5 ref]r$ to ! ,european g5]a1 ,amphicyon & ,d9ocyon4 ,! latt] 0 an enorm\s canid1 equall+ 9 size ! l>ge/ ( liv+ be>s1 ! great ,kadiak ,be> ( ,alaska1 &1 ?\gh probably hav+ a long & heavy tail1 0 mu* l a be> 9 appe>ance4 ,! tee? indicate a m exclusively c>nivor\s habit ?an t ( ! be>s & ^! may well h be5 savage & t]rible bea/s ( prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--,l[] ,mioc5e 8be>-dog0 7,daphnodon sup]bus74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,c>negie ,museum1 ,pittsburgh4 ,amphicyon1 :i* _h ?ree upp] mol>s1 cont9u$ d[n ?r\gh ! middle ,mioc5e1 b 0 replac$ 9 ! l[] by ,daphnodon1 :i* may or may n h be5 its direct ance/or4 ,! unc]ta9ty z to ! exact relation%ip betwe5 ! two g5]a w rema9 until m complete mat]ial %all h be5 obta9$ f ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,daphnodon 0 ! l>ge/ dog ( its "t1 ! contempor>y wolves 7,cynodesmus7 hav+ be5 h>dly half s l>ge1 b 0 mu* inf]ior 9 size to ! huge be>-dogs ( ! middle & upp] ,mioc5e4 ,! skull resembl$ t ( a l>ge wolf1 b ! tympanic bull 7 small] & m loosely atta*$ & ! mol> tee? 7 relatively mu* l>g]1 a p]si/5t *>act]i/ic ( ?is phylum4 ,! v long & heavy tail 0 a cat-l feature4 ,! limbs 7 comp>atively %ort & /\t2 ! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am5 & ! femur reta9$ a trace ( ! ?ird tro*ant]1 bo? ( :i* are lo/ 9 ! mod]n memb]s ( ! family4 ,! feet 7 n at all can9e 9 type1 b r resembl$ ^? ( ! anci5t & unspecializ$ fle%-eat]s4 ,!re 7 five digits 9 manus & pes & 7 n arrang$ 9 p>allel pairs1 b div]g+2 ! metapodials 7 ( oval cross-section1 n squ>$1 & _! l[] ends1 :i* articulat$ ) ! fir/ r[ ( phalanges1 _h hemisph]ical surfaces1 n semicyl9drical4 ,! claws 7 %>p & a remnant ( =m] retractility 0 to be obs]v$4 ,su* an animal c\ld h>dly h be5 a /rong & endur+ runn] & its /ructure sugge/s t x captur$ its prey by /alk+ & leap+ ^u x4 ,! wolf-l head1 ) cat-l body1 tail & limbs1 made a /range comb9ation1 n closely p>allel$ by any exi/+ c>nivore4 ,?r\gh ! ,oligoc5e ! phylum 0 c>ri$ back by ! sev]al species ( ,daphnus1 assur$ly ! ance/or ( ,daphnodon & decid$ly m primitive 9 _m respects4 ,! ,oligoc5e g5us 0 a mu* small] animal ?an its l[] ,mioc5e successor1 ! l>g] species h>dly equall+ a ,coyote2 ! tee? 7 small] & m closely set1 b ! mol>s 7 proportionately l>ge1 :ile ! c>nassials 7 less f9i%$ & effective %e>+ blades4 ,! skull 0 less di/9ctively dog-l & _h a small] bra9-case1 ) v prom95t sagittal & occipital cre/s1 a long] cranium & %ort] face2 ! tympanic bones 7 v small & s loosely atta*$ to ! skull t !y are r>ely f\nd1 a v /rik+ diff]5ce f all exi/+ dogs4 ,! backbone 0 rem>kable = ! unusually l>ge size ( ! lumb> v]tebr1 a po9t ( resemblance to ! cats & sugge/+ t ,daphnus _h great p[]s ( leap+2 !re 0 a long1 heavy1 leop>d-l tail1 & ! caudal v]tebr 7 v l ^? ( ! long-tail$ cats4 ,! limbs & feet 7 simil> 9 "* & proportions to ^? ( ,daphnodon1 b ! a/ragalus 0 less groov$ = ! tibia1 ! claws 7 r m retractile & ! gait 0 probably m plantigrade4 ,!re 7 s _m cat-l features 9 ! skeleton ( ,daphnus1 t ! obs]v] _c b suspect t ^! resemblances indicate a community ( orig91 b1 until ! ,eoc5e ance/ors ( ! cats are f\nd1 ! "q ( relation%ip mu/ rema9 an op5 "o4 ,! mo/ anci5t memb] ( ! be>-dog phylum yet discov]$ appe>s to be "o ( ! creodont family ( ! ,miacid1 f\nd 9 ! ,u9ta ,eoc5e4 ,a %ort-liv$ bran* ( ! can9e /ock 0 t ( ! s-call$ 8hy5a-dogs10 a peculi> ,am]ican type1 :i* ab\nd$ 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e & !n became ext9ct4 ,trac$ backw>d1 ?is brief s]ies ( species w\ld appe> to h sprung f ! true wolves 7,tephrocyon7 ( ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e g5us lurodon _h sev]al species1 :i* diff]$ consid]ably 9 size2 ! common] ( ^! 7 l>ge wolves ) v mod]n type ( body1 tail1 limbs & feet1 b hav+ %ort & massive heads4 ,! premol>s 7 extremely ?ick & heavy1 ) su* a resemblance to ^? ( ! hy5as1 t ^! animals h sometimes be5 mi/ak5ly reg>d$ z ance/ral to t family4 ,! especial *>act]i/ic1 h[ev]1 ( ! s]ies 0 9 ! =m ( ! upp] sectorial too?1 :i* 0 mu* m fel9e ?an can9e 9 con/ruction & has giv5 occasion = ! g5]ic "n :i* means 8cat-too?40 ,a f\r? phylum ( ! ,canid1 :i* w\ld seem to be repres5t$ 9 ! mod]n _w by ! ,indian ,dhole1 or ,wild ,dog 7,cyon71 & p]haps by ! ,brazilian ,bu%-,dog 7,icticyon71 0 *>act]iz$ by ! l[] sectorial mol>1 ! heel ( :i* 0 n bas9-l1 z 9 ! typical dogs1 b tr5*ant & consi/$ ( a s+le %>p-edg$ cusp1 ! ext]nal "o ( ! primitive bas94 ,al?\gh !re is no inh]5t improbability 9 ! view t ! ,dhole & ! ,bu%-,dog are d]ivatives ( ?is phylum1 no positive /atem5t c yet be made1 = ! gap 9 ! hi/ory is too great to be bridg$ ) any assurance4 ,! fossil memb]s ( ! s]ies did n come d[n lat] ?an ! middle or upp] ,mioc5e & x is q possible t ! tr5*ant heel ( ! c>nassial 0 develop$ m ?an once4 ,! middle & l[] ,mioc5e memb]s ( ! s]ies are /ill v imp]fectly kn[n & x is only f ! upp] ,oligoc5e 7,john ,day7 t well-pres]v$ skeletons h be5 obta9$4 ,^! p]ta9 to an ab]rant memb] ( ! phylum1 ! g5us ,temnocyon1 9 :i* n only does ! sectorial h a tr5*ant heel1 b ! second l[] mol> also 0 tr5*ant1 hav+ lo/ ! two inn] cusps1 :ile ! upp] mol>s 7 z l>ge z 9 ! be>-dogs4 ,temnocyon 0 a comp>atively l>ge animal & its skeleton _h a mixture ( primitive & advanc$ *>act]s1 ! latt] pr$om9at+1 s t ?is g5us 0 n only ! l>ge/ b also ! mo/ specializ$ canid ( its "t4 ,!re 0 ! long1 heavy tail1 :i* all ( ! kn[n ,oligoc5e c>nivores possess$1 b ! limbs 7 long & ! gait 01 x w\ld seem1 ?or\ghly digitigrade4 ,:ile ! epicondyl> =am5 0 reta9$ by ! hum]us & ! ?ird tro*ant] by ! femur1 ^? bones 7 o!rwise v mod]n 9 =m4 ,! feet 7 five-to$1 b ! functional metapodials 7 p>allel1 appress$ & ) some?+ ( ! quadrate %ape4 ,9 v notable degree1 !re=e1 ! feet ( ,temnocyon anticipat$ ! *>act]s :i* ! true wolves acquir$ consid]ably lat]4 ,! less specializ$ ,mesocyon1 :i* 0 small]1 0 ! ance/or ( ! ,mioc5e =ms & 01 9 turn1 v probably d]iv$ f ! ,:ite ,riv] ,daphnus4 ,/ill a fif? phylum1 t ( ! %ort-fac$ dogs 7,enhydrocyon71 is v imp]fectly kn[n & has1 s f>1 be5 f\nd only 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e & upp] ,oligoc5e4 ,^! also may h be5 desc5d$ f ,daphnus1 b ! connection is n cle>1 nor has ! relation%ip ( ! ,am]ican g5us to ! extremely %ort-fac$ dogs ( ! ,european ,plioc5e be5 det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--,small1 fox-l dog 7,cynodictis greg>ius7 ( ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,f9ally1 s f> z ,nor? ,am]ica is conc]n$1 !re 0 a phylum ( v small fox-l canids1 :i* rang$ f ! l[] ,mioc5e to ! upp] ,eoc5e & 7 v abundant1 relatively speak+1 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] & ,john ,day4 ,! d5tal =mula 0 ! same z 9 ,canis & ! skull 0 n>r[ & sl5d]1 ?\gh ! bra9-*amb] 0 proportionately capaci\s1 & ! face 0 q %ort4 ,! tympanic bull 7 l>ge & inflat$4 ,! body & tail 7 long & ! limbs q %ort & weak4 ,! hum]us _h no epicondyl> =am5 & ! femur no ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! five-to$ feet _h ! spread+ arrangem5t ( ! metapodials se5 9 ! m primitive fissip$es g5]ally & ! claws 7 %>p4 ,9 proportions & appe>ance ^! animals mu/ h be5 m l civets or weasels ?an l dogs & x is evid5t t !y 7 n swift runn]s4 ,! s]ies _h its e>lie/ repres5tatives 7,procynodictis7 9 ! ,u9ta & 0 d\btless d]iv$ f ! creodont family ,miacid4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] species are ref]r$ to ! ,european g5us ,cynodictis1 ^? ( ! ,john ,day & l[] ,mioc5e to ,no?ocyon1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t ?is s]ies gave rise to ! foxes1 a sugge/ion :i* may prove to be true1 b ! v long gap 9 "t betwe5 ^! animals & ! mo/ anci5t kn[n foxes prev5ts any conclusion4 ,to det]m9e ! mutual relation%ips ( ! six phyla ( ,canid :i*1 f ! ,eoc5e onw>d1 inhabit$ ,nor? ,am]ica 9 su* numb]s1 is a task ( great difficulty & only a t5tative solution ( ! problem c be (f]$4 ,! c5tral /ock w\ld seem to be ne>ly repres5t$ by ! ,:ite ,riv] ,daphnus1 lead+ ?r\gh ,cynodesmus & ,tephrocyon1 ( ! ,mioc5e1 to ! wolves4 ,a %ort-liv$ s]ies1 app>5tly giv5 (f f ,tephrocyon1 0 t ( ! hy5a-dogs1 :i* fl\ri%$ greatly 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e & l[] ,plioc5e & !n became ext9ct4 ,ano!r bran*1 t ( ! be>-dogs1 0 d]iv$ f ,daphnus1 ?r\gh ,daphnodon to ,amphicyon1 ,d9ocyon & ,borophagus1 ! gigantic ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e =ms1 end+ p]haps 9 ,hynogna?us ( ! ,cali=nia ,plei/oc5e4 ,a ?ird bran*1 repres5t$ by ,mesocyon & ,temnocyon1 is believ$ to be cont9u$ to-day by ! ,asiatic ,dhole & ! ,brazilian ,bu%-,dog4 ,! %ort-fac$ dogs 7,enhydrocyon7 are /ill v obscure4 ,! la/ phylum1 t ( ,no?ocyon1 ,cynodictis1 ,procynodictis1 _h become di/9ct 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e & possibly gave rise to ! foxes1 b ?is is highly conjectural4 #b4 ,felid4 ,cats ,! only o!r fissip$e gr\p ^: developm5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica may be foll[$ = a long p]iod is t ( ! ,sabre-,too? ,tig]s1 ! subfamily ,ma*airodont91 :i* h be5 ext9ct s9ce ! ,plei/oc5e2 ! hi/ory ( ! ,true ,cats 7,fel97 is mu* m obscure4 ,9 mo/ respects ! two subfamilies agre$ closely &1 z !y became sep>ate at lea/ 9 ! e>ly ,oligoc5e1 !y furni% in/ructive p>allel s]ies4 ,! sabre-too? cats 7 t]rible bea/s ( prey1 :i* 9 mo/ ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod rang$ ov] ! :ole nor!rn hemisph]e & 9 ! ,plei/oc5e or late ,plioc5e ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--,skull ( ! ,plei/oc5e sabre-too? tig] 7,smilodon cali=nicus1 aft] ,mat!w74 ,p4 #d1 f\r? upp] premol>1 sectorial4 ,! ,plei/oc5e g5us ,smilodon 7,frontispiece7 belong$ to ne>ly ! :ole we/]n hemisph]e & its v>i\s species 7 di/ribut$ f ,cali=nia & ,p5nsylvania on ! nor?1 to ! ,arg5t9e ,pampas on ! s\?4 ,! mo/ obvi\s & /rik+ peculi>ities ( ,smilodon 7 9 ! tee?1 :i* 7 mu* r$uc$ 9 numb]1 ! =mula be+3 i #c_/c-b1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b-a1 m #a_/a4 ,! upp] can9e 0 a great1 curv$1 scimit>-l blade1 eight in*es or m 9 l5g?1 ) broad inn] & out] faces1 b q ?9 transv]sely1 & ) f9ely s]rate po/]ior edge4 ,x is difficult to und]/& h[ ^! great tusks1 :i* w\ld seem to h block$ ! entrance to ! m\?1 c\ld h be5 effectively us$1 unless ! creature c\ld op5 its m\? mu* m widely ?an any exi/+ mammal1 s z to cle> ! po9ts ( ! tusks1 & w\ld !n /rike ) !m z a snake does ) its fangs4 ,!re are great anatomical difficulties 9 ! way ( accept+ ?is explanation & ! problem1 :i* is ! same z t pres5t$ by ! u9ta!res 7p4 #ddf71 is /ill unsolv$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 q c]ta9 t no arrangem5t :i* 0 disadvantage\s1 or ev5 ineffici5t1 c\ld h p]si/$ = su* va/ p]iods ( "t4 ,! l[] can9e 0 mu* dim9i%$ & h>dly l>g] ?an an incisor4 ,! two upp] premol>s 7 ! ?ird & f\r? ( ! orig9al s]ies2 ! ?ird 0 small1 b ! f\r?1 ! sectorial1 0 a v l>ge & effici5t %e>+ blade4 ,9 addition to ! two ext]nal tr5*ant cusps ( ! blade1 :i* are pres5t 9 ! ,c>nivora g5]ally1 ! cats h a ?ird small1 ant]ior cusp :i* 9 ,smilodon 0 l>ge2 ! int]nal cusp _h almo/ disappe>$4 ,! s+le upp] mol> 0 v small & s ov]lapp$ by ! great c>nassial z to be invisible f ! side4 ,! ?ird l[] premol> 0 small & unimportant & mo/ specim5s _h lo/ x1 leav+ only ! f\r?1 :i* 0 l>g] & evid5tly ( functional value4 ,! s+le mol> 0 ! sectorial1 a l>ge1 ?91 flatt5$ blade1 consi/+ ( only two cusps1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 ! tr5*ant edges ( :i* met at ne>ly a "r angle1 & !re 0 no trace ( a heel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--,upp] tee? ( ,smilodon1 left side4 ,p4 #d1 f\r? premol>4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 ,! skull 0 9 appe>ance closely simil> to t ( "o ( ! great mod]n cats1 su* z ! ,lion or ,tig]2 ) extremely %ort5$ face1 heavy & widely exp&$ zygomatic ar*es & v prom95t sagittal cre/4 ,! tympanic bull 7 l>ge & inflat$1 ea* divid$ by a septum into two *amb]s1 b 7 n visible f ! side1 be+ cov]$ ext]nally by v l>ge processes1 :i* s]v$ = ! atta*m5t ( "s ( ! great muscles ( ! neck4 ,! %ort1 r\nd$1 bullet-head ( ! true cats 0 ?us repeat$1 b !re 7 9 ! skull sev]al int]e/+ diff]5ces ( detail1 :i* x is n wor? :ile to enum]ate "h4 ,suffice x to say1 t "s ( ^! diff]5ces 7 due to ! ret5tion ( primitive *>act]s 9 ! skull ( ,smilodon1 :i* h be5 lo/ 9 ! mod]n fel9es1 & o!rs to special developm5ts1 9 :i* ! true cats did n %>e4 ,! l[] jaw _h on ea* side a small1 desc5d+ flange = ! protection ( ! tusks1 :i*1 h[ev]1 project$ well bel[ ^! flanges :5 ! jaws 7 %ut4 ,! neck 0 heavy & ! /ructure ( its v]tebr 0 su* z to sugge/ ! pres5ce ( unusually p[]ful muscles2 ! back & lo9s 7 also uncommonly /\t1 9 ! l>g] species heavi] ?an 9 ! ,lion or ,tig]1 b1 9 m>k$ di/9ction f ^? mod]n =ms1 ! tail 0 %ort4 ,! limbs 7 %ort] & mu* heavi] 9 relation to ! size ( ! body ?an 9 ! great exi/+ cats & mu/ h be5 extremely p[]ful4 ,! hum]us usually _h no epicondyl> =am51 :i* all ! true fel9es possess1 ?\gh x 0 sometimes pres5t4 ,! feet also 7 v /\t & arm$ ) l>ge retractile claws2 ! base ( ea* claw 0 cov]$ by a ?9 bony hood1 an outgr[? ( ! ungual phalanx1 :i* is v *>act]i/ic ( ! entire family4 ,! h9d foot _h five digits1 :]eas no exi/+ cat has m or less ?an f\r4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! animals mu/ h be5 v mu* l t ( ! ,lion or ,tig]1 aside f ! unkn[n factors ( mane & col\r-m>k+s1 b diff]$ 9 ! great tusks1 ! %ort tail & ! %ort] & m massive legs & feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--,skull ( a sabre-too? tig] 7,ma*airodus palmid5s7 f ! ,mioc5e ( ,france4 7,aft] ,filhol47 ,p4 #d1 f\r? upp] premol>1 sectorial too?4 ,on acc\nt ( ! v incomplete pres]vation ( ! mat]ial s f> collect$1 little is kn[n ( ! sabre-too? s]ies 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e epo*s4 ,rema9s ( v l>ge cats h be5 f\nd 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e & upp] ,mioc5e1 b x is unc]ta9 :e!r !y belong to ! fel9e or ! ma*airodont subfamily4 ,"s ( ! species h be5 ref]r$ to ! g5us ,ma*airodus1 :i* rang$ f ! l[] ,plei/oc5e to ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,europe1 & ! ref]5ce may be correct1 b is unc]ta94 ,h[ev]1 ! ,european repres5tatives ( t g5us1 :i* are mu* bett] kn[n1 w s]ve to %[ ! developm5tal /age f :i* ,smilodon 0 und\bt$ly d]iv$4 ,! d5tal =mula 0 ! same z 9 ! ,am]ican g5us1 ?\gh !re 7 g5]ally two premol>s 9 ! l[] jaw & 9 ,smilodon g5]ally b "o2 ! individual tee? 7 =m$ on ! same plan z 9 ! latt]1 b 7 relatively small]1 & ! v small1 rudim5t>y upp] mol> 0 visible ext]nally & 0 n ov]lapp$ & conceal$ by ! great c>nassial2 ! sabre-l tusk _h n atta9$ su* great proportions4 ,! skull ( ,ma*airodus1 ! only "p ( ! skeleton :i* is def9itely kn[n1 0 l t ( ,smilodon on a mu* small] scale1 b m primitive 9 sev]al respects4 ,x 0 long] & _h a less capaci\s bra9-case & less prom95t sagittal & occipital cre/s4 ,! l>ge tympanic bull 7 conspicu\s 9 ! side-view ( ! skull1 z ! processes = ! atta*m5t ( ! neck-muscles _h no su* developm5t z 9 ,smilodon4 ,! desc5d+ flanges ( ! l[] jaw 7 l>g] ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,! upp] ,oligoc5e 7,john ,day7 conta9$ a l>ge v>iety ( cat-l =ms1 ( :i* no less ?an five g5]a h be5 describ$2 "o ( !m 7,pogonodon71 ne>ly z l>ge z a ,lion1 w\ld seem to h di$ out "h )\t desc5dants1 & two o!rs1 to :i* we %all return lat]1 s comb9$ ! *>act]s ( true fel9es & ma*airodonts z to be ( unc]ta9 ref]5ce4 ,two o!r g5]a1 :i* are mu* common] & bett] kn[n1 f ! ,:ite ,riv]1 w be describ$ f specim5s ( t /age4 ,! ,:ite ,riv]1 or l[] ,oligoc5e1 _h ?ree highly int]e/+ g5]a ( ma*airodonts1 two ( !m kn[n f ne>ly or q complete skeletons4 ,"o ( ^! 7,hoplophoneus71 :i* 01 x c h>dly be d\bt$1 ! direct ance/or ( ! lat] typical ma*airodonts1 _h sev]al species1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! v>i\s levels ( ! ,:ite ,riv] b$s4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! species 0 consid]ably small] ?an ,ma*airodus1 & ! smalle/ & mo/ anci5t 0 inf]ior to ! mod]n ,wild ,cat4 ,! numb] ( tee? 0 v>iable1 b normally great] ?an 9 ! g5]a above describ$1 be+ i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #c-b_/c-b1 m #a_/a1 #b #bh-cb4 ,! =emo/ premol> 9 ea* jaw 0 v small & (t5 abs5t4 ,! upp] can9e 0 a long & curv$1 b v ?91 scimit>1 f9ely s]rate on bo? edges1 :ile ! l[] can9e 0 b little l>g] ?an ! incisors4 ,! c>nassial tee? _h a significant lik5ess to ^? ( o!r fissip$e families2 ! upp] "o1 ! f\r? premol>1 0 relatively small] ?an 9 ,ma*airodus & its blade less effectively tr5*ant2 ! accessory ant]o-ext]nal cusp 0 pres5t1 ?\gh extremely small1 & ! int]nal cusp1 :i* 9 ,smilodon _h almo/ disappe>$1 0 q l>ge4 ,! l[] sectorial1 ! fir/ mol>1 ?\gh already cat-l & consi/+ ( two ?91 broad & tr5*ant cusps 9 l9e1 yet _h ve/iges ( ! heel & sometimes ( ! inn] cusp4 ,^! ve/iges 7 a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! highly specializ$ sectorial ( ! cats & ! type usual among ! ,fissip$ia1 :i* is exemplifi$ by ! dogs4 ,! small upp] mol> 0 less r$uc$ ?an 9 ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e g5]a & pla9ly consi/$ ( a l>g] ext]nal & small] int]nal cusp4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--,:ite ,riv] sabre-too? tig] 7,hoplophoneus primvus74 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,oreodonts 7,m]ycoidodon7 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,comp>$ ) t ( o!r ,fissip$ia1 ! skull 0 %ort & broad1 b 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! mod]n cats & ( ,smilodon1 x 0 decid$ly long] & n>r[] & ! face 0 less abbreviat$2 ! resemblance to ,smilodon 0 v m>k$ 9 ! =m ( ! cranium1 b1 ( c\rse1 ! skull ( ,hoplophoneus 0 di/9ctly m primitive 9 _m respects4 ,?us1 ! orbit 0 mu* m widely op5 beh9d1 ! tympanic bull 7 b imp]fectly ossifi$1 & ! p]=ations1 or =am9a1 9 ! base ( ! skull1 by :i* ! n]ves & blood-vessels communicat$ ) ! bra9-*amb]1 7 q diff]5t & _h m resemblance to ^? ( ! anci5t dogs 7e4g4 ,daphnus74 ,9 ! classification ( ! ,fissip$ia mu* /ress is laid ^u ! numb] & arrangem5t ( ^! cranial =am9a1 & x is v significant to f9d ! primitive dogs & cats agree+ s mu* m closely ?an d ! mod]n memb]s ( ^! families4 ,! l[] jaw 0 relatively mu* /\t] ?an 9 ,smilodon & ! ant]ior flanges mu* m prom95t1 project+ d[nw>d s f> t1 :5 ! jaws 7 clos$1 ! po9ts ( ! tusks did n ext5d bel[ ! flanges4 ,! animal c\ld h made no use at all ( ! sabre-tusks unless ! m\? c\ld h be5 op5$ s widely z to cle> _! po9ts4 ,) close g5]al resemblance1 all[+ = ! v inf]ior size1 ! skeleton ( ,hoplophoneus _h _m significant diff]5ces f t ( ,smilodon4 ,! neck 0 %ort] & ! body1 especially ! lo9s1 long]1 light] & m sl5d] & ! tail v mu* long]1 equall+ t ( ! ,leop>d 9 relative l5g? & surpass+ x 9 ?ickness4 ,! limbs 7 mu* less massive & some:at diff]5tly proportion$1 ! upp] arm be+ %ort] & ! =e-arm long]4 ,! hum]us1 ?\gh f> m sl5d] ?an t ( ,smilodon1 0 rem>kable = ! great developm5t ( ! deltoid & sup9ator ridges1 ! latt]1 toge!r ) ! %ape ( ! radius1 indicat+ v free rotation ( ! =e paw4 ,! v prom95t int]nal epicondyle 0 pi]c$ by a =am51 & ! femur _h a di/9ct remnant ( ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! five-to$ feet 7 comp>atively small1 b ! claws 7 z completely retractile & z fully hood$ z 9 any ( ! subsequ5t g5]a4 ,t ,hoplophoneus 0 a fi]ce de/roy]1 is made evid5t by e "p ( its skeleton1 &1 l o!r cats1 x no d\bt subsi/$ ^u w>m-blood$ animals1 :i* x kill$ = itself1 ! size ( ! prey be+ det]m9$ by ! size & p[] ( ! p>ticul> species ( ! sabre-too!d g5us4 ,9 view ( ! probable ext5t ( ! ,oligoc5e =e/s1 ! re/oration 7,fig4 #bfd7 gives ! animal a spott$ coat & ! g5]al aspect is t ( "o ( ! mod]n spott$ cats1 b ! protrud+ ends ( ! tusks & ! relatively long head di/+ui% x f any exi/+ cat4 8,! pres5ce ( long1 knife-l can9es is correlat$ ) p[]ful grasp+ feet possess+ highly develop$ retractile claws4 ,) its p[]ful feet ! animal clung to its prey1 :ile x /ruck repeat$ly ) its ?91 %>p sabres0 7,j4 ,c4 ,m]riam74 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,:ite ,riv] /age liv$ "o ( ! mo/ highly specializ$ ( ! ma*airodonts1 s f>1 at lea/1 z ! d5tition is conc]n$1 = only ! skull is kn[n4 ,?is g5us1 ,eusmilus1 :i* also occurr$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,europe1 0 app>5tly an example ( premature specialization :i* l$ to no?+1 = none ( ! subsequ5t g5]a c\ld h be5 d]iv$ f x4 ,! tee? 7 r$uc$ to a m9imum 9 numb]3 i #c_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/a1 m #a_/a1 #b #bd1 "o l[] incisor & at lea/ "o premol> less 9 ea* jaw ?an _h ,hoplophoneus4 ,! can9e tusk 0 v l>ge & ! flange ( ! l[] jaw = its protection correspond+ly elongat$1 be+ m prom95t ?an 9 any o!r ma*airodont4 ,! ,am]ican species1 ,e4 dakot5sis1 0 ! l>ge/ c>nivore ( its "t & n greatly inf]ior 9 size to ! ,lion4 ,/ill ano!r ,:ite ,riv] ma*airodont1 ,d9ictis1 diff]$ 9 _m int]e/+ ways f its contempor>y ,hoplophoneus1 be+ m primitive & dep>t+ less f ! ord9>y fissip$e type ( /ructure4 ,?is is %[n by ! great] numb] ( tee?1 :i* 0 normally1 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #a_/b1 #b #cd4 ,! upp] c>nassial _h a consid]ably l>g] int]nal cusp & ! tr5*ant blade did n h ! accessory ant]ior cusp1 :i* is pres5t 9 almo/ all o!r cats & 0 ?us m dog-l ?an cat-l4 ,! l[] c>nassial 0 m fel9e1 b reta9$ a remnant ( ! heel & ( ! inn] cusp1 b ! latt] 0 v>iable1 be+ sometimes pres5t 9 "o side ( ! jaw & n 9 ! o!r1 a sign t x 0 on ! po9t ( disappe>ance4 ,! upp] mol> 0 pla9ly a r$uc$ =m ( ! tritub]cul> too?1 9 plan l t ( ! dogs1 :ile ! second l[] mol> 0 a v small1 s+le-root$ too?4 ,no o!r ,am]ican cat has su* a primitive d5tition z ?is1 &1 aside f ! sabre-tusk1 :i* 0 n ne>ly s long z 9 ,hoplophoneus1 & ! l[] c>nassial1 x might almo/ z well h belong$ to a dog or mu/el9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,primitive sabre-too? 7,d9ictis fel9a7 f ! ,:ite ,riv]4 ,re/or$ f specim5s 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum & ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,! skull 0 v l t ( ,hoplophoneus1 b 0 /ill long] & some:at diff]5t 9 %ape1 ow+ to ! high] =ehead & l[] occiput4 ,! primitive features ( ! cranial base1 su* z ! =am9a1 ! imp]fectly ossifi$ tympanic bull1 etc41 7 repeat$ 9 ,d9ictis1 b ! l[] jaw _h mu* less prom95t flanges = ! protection ( ! tusks4 ,! limbs diff]$ consid]ably f ^? ( ,hoplophoneus 9 be+ relatively long] & m sl5d] & reta9+ m primitive features1 su* z ! l>g] ?ird tro*ant] ( ! femur4 ,! five-to$ feet 7 decid$ly small & weak1 & ! claws1 ?\gh retractile1 7 less s ?an 9 ! o!r g5us & 7 n hood$4 ,! gait 0 probably plantigrade or semi-plantigrade4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--,skull ( ,d9ictis squalid5s1 ,:ite ,riv]4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 p4 #d f\r? upp] premol>1 sectorial4 ,! relation%ips ( ,d9ictis & ,hoplophoneus are r puzzl+2 none ( ! kn[n species ( ! =m] c\ld h be5 ance/ral to ! latt]1 = ! two g5]a 7 contemporane\s4 ,d9ictis 0 app>5tly ! some:at modifi$ survivor ( ! ance/ral /age & repres5t$ v ne>ly ! common />t+ po9t ( bo? ! fel9e & ma*airodont subfamilies4 ,dr4 ,mat!w has prop\nd$ ! bold !ory t ?is g5us 0 ! actual ance/or ( ! fel9es1 cont9u+ ! s]ies ?r\gh ,ar*lurus & ,nimravus ( ! ,john ,day to ! unmi/akable fel9es ( ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,?is view runs contr>y to ! suppos$ 8law ( ! irrev]sibility ( evolution10 a rule :i* _m au?orities look ^u z well e/abli%$4 ,! !ory po/ulates a diff]5t mode ( developm5t f any?+ t we h s f> enc\nt]$ 9 ! s]ies previ\sly describ$ & supposes t ! upp] can9e fir/ lo/ its orig9al =m1 becom+ a ?91 elongate & scimit>-l tusk1 :ile ! l[] can9e 0 r$uc$ almo/ to ! proportions ( an incisor & ! l[] jaw acquir$ a /raight1 flat *9 & inf]ior flanges = ! protection ( ! tusks4 ,!n1 aft] specialization _h advanc$ s f>1 x 0 rev]s$ & ! orig9al condition rega9$4 ,?is int]e/+ hypo!sis may possibly turn out to be true1 ?\gh p]sonally ,i _c accept x1 &1 %\ld x d s1 x w\ld necessitate a ?or\ghgo+ revision ( curr5t op9ions z to ! processes ( mammalian developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--,left pes ( ,d9ictis fel9a4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,! only ,john ,day cat :i* 0 assur$ly d]iv$ f ,d9ictis 0 ! l>ge ,pogonodon1 previ\sly m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--,skull ( false sabre-too? 7,nimravus gomphodus7 f ! ,john ,day4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 p4 #d f\r? upp] premol>1 sectorial4 ,also 9 ! ,john ,day /age liv$ ,ar*lurus & ,nimravus1 :i*1 z 0 not$ above 7p4 #bdi71 h be5 call$ ! 8false sabre-too?s10 = 9 !m ! upp] can9e 0 n mu* l>g] ?an ! l[] & ! latt]1 ?\gh small] ?an 9 ! fel9es1 0 yet v mu* less r$uc$ ?an 9 ! true ma*airodonts4 ,! skull closely resembl$ t ( ,d9ictis1 b ! l[] jaw 0 )\t flanges4 ,! limbs 7 long & sl5d] & ! feet long & digitigrade4 ,! pes _h only f\r digits1 ( :i* ! m$ian pair 0 elongat$ & ! lat]al pair %ort5$1 s z to produce consid]able resemblance to ! pes ( ! dogs1 & ! claws 7 p>tially retractile4 ,! proportions ( ! body1 limbs & feet 7 sugge/ively l ^? ( ! ,*eeta1 or ,hunt+ ,leop>d 7,cynlurus jubatus7 ( ,india1 ! g5]ic "n ( :i* means 8dog-cat10 & x is q possible t ! ,*eeta may h be5 d]iv$ f "s memb] ( ?is 8false sabre-too?0 s]ies1 ?\gh ! connect+ l9ks are unkn[n4 ,^! cursorial cats q displac$ ! leap+ ma*airodonts ( ! ,hoplophoneus type1 at lea/ 9 ! ,oregon region at a "t :51 x w be rememb]$1 t region _h a rem>kable v>iety ( dogs4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! cont95t1 ( :i* we h no record1 ! true ma*airodonts mu/ h be5 ?riv+1 z may be inf]r$ f _! comp>ative abundance 9 ! lat] =mations4 ,conc]n+ ! habits ( ^! cursorial cats1 ,pr(essor ,m]riam says3 8,:5 ! can9es are n develop$ to ! dagg]-l =m = /abb+1 ! premol> tee? s]ve a m def9ite purpose 9 ! de/ruction ( prey & w\ld be less subject to r$uction4 ,! view sugge/$ above f9ds support 9 t su* evid5ce z we h indicates t dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,middle ,john ,day b$s ?is region 0 9 ! ma9 a c\ntry ( op5 pla9s1 (f]+ advantages to runn+ types ( c>nivores1 & t dur+ ?is epo* ! ,ar*lurus-,nimravus type ( fel9e 0 by f> ! mo/ common =m i4e4 ( cats40 ,! d]ivation ( ^! cats is /ill obscure1 b _! lik5ess to c]ta9 =ms ( ! ,european ,oligoc5e sugge/s t !y 7 immigrants4 ,! true cats ( ! subfamily ,fel9 include ! great v>iety ( liv+ =ms1 l>ge & small1 f ! ,lion & ,tig] at "o extreme to ! ,dome/ic ,cat at ! o!r4 ,!re is great diff]5ce among naturali/s ) reg>d to ! nom5clature ( ! ,rec5t cats2 "s make a consid]able numb] ( sep>ate g5]a1 :ile o!rs include all ! species1 except ! lynxes & ! ,*eeta1 9 ! g5us ,felis4 ,= ! purposes ( ?is book ! latt] practice is ! m conv5i5t & w be foll[$4 ,9 ,felis ! d5tal =mula is3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #b-c_/b1 m #a_/a1 #b #bh-cj2 ! can9es are l>ge & /rong1 ( oval section1 & ! upp] "o is b little l>g] ?an ! l[]2 !re are two l>ge & functional premol>s 9 ea* jaw1 & an additional v small "o may or may n be pres5t 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,! upp] sectorial has a l>ge %e>+ blade1 ) well-develop$ ant]ior accessory cusp1 & ! inn] cusp1 :i* 9 ,smilodon _h almo/ disappe>$1 is q l>ge & c>ri$ on a sep>ate root4 ,! l[] sectorial is compos$ ( two cusps only1 all traces ( ! heel & ( ! inn] cusp hav+ disappe>$4 ,! s+le upp] mol> is v small & usually conceal$ by ! sectorial4 ,! skull is v %ort & broad1 & ! %ort5+ ( ! jaws gives great p[] to ! bit+ muscles1 because ( ! m fav\rable lev]age4 ,! zygomatic ar*es are v /\t & curve out boldly1 contribut+ mu* to ! r\nd$ %ape ( ! head2 ! orbits are almo/ encircl$ 9 bone4 ,! l>ge tympanic bull are two-*amb]$ & !re is no alisph5oid canal1 b 9 sev]al o!r respects ! base ( ! cranium diff]s m>k$ly f t ( ,smilodon4 ,! l[] jaw is )\t flanges & !re is no angle betwe5 front & sides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--;,d5tition ( ,lynx 7,l4 rufus71 left side4 i4 #c1 ext]nal upp] incisor4 i4 #a1 fir/ l[] incisor4 c4 can9e4 p4 #c1 p4 #d1 ?ird & f\r? premol>s4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--,upp] tee? ( ,puma 7,felis concolor71 left side4 p4 #d1 f\r? premol>4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4 ,! neck is %ort1 ! body long & ! tail is long 9 mo/ ( ! species1 b %ort 9 ! lynxes4 ,! limbs are relatively long] & less massive ?an 9 ,smilodon1 & !re are five toes 9 ! manus1 f\r 9 ! pes2 ! claws are hood$ & retractile4 ,! we/]n hemisph]e at ! pres5t day conta9s none ( ! v l>ge species1 ! ,puma & ,jagu> be+ ! l>ge/2 b ?is 0 n true ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 :]e a huge cat 7,felis atrox71 surpass+ ! ,lion 9 size1 rang$ ov] ! s\!rn half ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,enorm\s cats also liv$ 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e & upp] ,mioc5e ( ! ,great ,pla9s region1 b are n suffici5tly well kn[n = ref]5ce to ei!r subfamily4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,skull ( ,puma 7,felis concolor74 p4 #d1 upp] c>nassial4 ,! upp] mol> is conceal$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! true fel9es has be5 b p>tially deciph]$1 & c1 z yet1 be trac$ back only to ! middle ,mioc5e1 ! g5us ,pseudlurus repres5t+ ! s]ies bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ?is g5us ! d5tal =mula 0 ne>ly ! same z 9 ,felis1 b !re 0 frequ5tly an additional small premol> 9 ! l[] jaw & ! sectorials 7 m primitive1 ! upp] "o hav+ ! accessory ant]ior cusp 9 a m]ely incipi5t /age & 9 ! l[] "o !re 0 a ve/ige ( ! heel4 ,! upp] can9e 0 consid]ably long] ?an ! l[]1 ?9n] & m blade-l ?an 9 ,felis1 :i*1 s f> z x goes1 is 9 fav\r ( ,dr4 ,mat!w's !ory 7p4 #eda74 ,:at little is kn[n ( ! skull & skeleton ( ,pseudlurus agrees ) ! mod]n cats4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--,left manus ( ,dome/ic ,cat 7,felis dome/ica1 aft] ,jayne74 ,! horny claws are left 9 place1 cov]+ ! ungual phalanges4 ,:ile x is n feasible to trace ! s]ies ( true fel9es to an e>li] /age ?an ! middle ,mioc5e1 !re c be no d\bt t ! subfamily 0 d]iv$ f ! same /ock z ! ma*airodonts & x is probable t ! ,:ite ,riv] ,d9ictis ne>ly repres5ts ! common />t+ po9t = bo? s]ies2 ! resemblances betwe5 ,d9ictis & su* primitive dogs z ,daphnus are sugge/ive ( a common orig94 #c4 ,procyonid4 ,raccoons1 etc4 ,an almo/ exclusively ,am]ican family ( ,fissip$ia is t ( ! raccoons1 :i* includes n only ! latt] 7,procyon71 b also ! coatis 7,nasua71 curi\s animals1 ) long1 flexible1 pig-l sn\ts1 ! cacomi/les 7,bass>iscus7 & k9kaj\s 7,potos74 ,9 addition to ^! ,am]ican =ms1 !re is an outly+ ,asiatic g5us1 ! ,p&a 7lurus7 ( ! s\!a/]n ,himalayas1 ! la/ ( a s]ies :i* goes back to ! ,european ,plioc5e4 ,! ,procyonid are animals ( small & mod]ate size1 l>gely arboreal 9 habits & subsi/+ ^u a mix$ diet ( fruit1 eggs1 insects & ! l2 ! tee? are adapt$ to ?is diet & ! sectorials h mo/ly lo/ _! %e>+ =m & ! mol>s are tub]culat$ = cru%+ & gr9d+4 ,! species g5]ally h long tails1 except 9 ! raccoons prop]1 9 :i* ! tail is ( m$ium l5g?1 & five-to$1 plantigrade feet1 ) nak$ soles4 ,fossil memb]s ( ?is family are v r>e 9 ,t]ti>y =mations & its hi/ory is !re=e b scantily kn[n2 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e h be5 f\nd fragm5t>y rema9s ) less specializ$ tee?1 :i* appe> to belong to ! direct ance/or ( ,bass>iscus4 ,! upp] ,mioc5e g5us ,lept>ctus 0 an und\bt$ memb] ( ! family1 &1 :ile x w\ld seem n to h be5 9 ! direct l9e ( any ( ! mod]n =ms1 x 0 ne> to ! common ance/ry ( ! ,am]ican g5]a1 s f> z ! imp]fect specim5s enable u to judge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--;,d5tition ( ,raccoon 7,procyon lotor71 left side4 i4 #c1 ext]nal incisor4 c41 can9e4 p4 #d1 f\r? premol>4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4 ,by f> ! mo/ primitive repres5tative ( ! family yet discov]$ is ! l[] ,mioc5e g5us ,phlaocyon1 :i* connect$ ! ,procyonid ) ! ,oligoc5e g5us ( dogs1 ,cynodictis 7p4 #ebi74 ,! d5tition resembl$ t ( ! latt]1 ) sev]al diff]5ces1 :i* 7 all *anges t[>d ! ,procyonid4 ,all ! cusps 7 l[] & blunt] ?an 9 ,cynodictis2 ! premol>s 7 small1 ?ick & closely cr[d$ toge!r & ! upp] sectorial1 :ile /ill tr5*ant1 _h a po/]o-int]nal cusp1 :i* is f\nd 9 none ( ! ,canid & 0 a fir/ /ep t[>d ! tub]culat$ patt]n ( ! raccoons1 & ! l[] sectorial _h a v l[ cutt+ blade & l>ge heel2 ! o!r mol>s ( bo? jaws 7 l[1 wide & ( subquadrate %ape4 ,! skull 0 %ort & broad1 ) ! face z mu* %ort5$ & ! orbits z f> =w>d z 9 ,procyon1 b ! bra9-case 0 n>r[]1 less capaci\s1 & ! l[] jaw _h ! curv$ =m & mu* ! same "* z 9 ! mod]n g5us4 ,! limbs 7 relatively m sl5d] ?an 9 ! latt] & ! five-to$ feet 7 m can9e ?an procyon9e 9 ! proportions ( ! digits4 ,! discov]y ( ,phlaocyon by ,dr4 ,mat!w 0 an ev5t ( capital importance1 z %[+ ! highly probable d]ivation ( ! raccoons f ,cynodictis & ?us br++ ano!r fissip$e family into relation%ip ) ! dogs4 #d4 ,ursid4 ,be>s ,! pres5t di/ribution ( ! be> family is all b exclusively nor!rn1 z !re is b "o ,african species1 conf9$ to ! nor?we/]n corn] ( t cont95t1 & "o 9 ! ,&es ( ,p]u & ,ecuador1 all ! o!rs belong+ to ,eurasia & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--;,d5tition ( ,black ,be> 7,ursus am]icanus74 i4 #c1 ext]nal incisor4 c41 can9e4 p4 #a1 fir/ premol>4 p4 #d1 f\r? premol>4 m4 #a1 fir/ mol>4--,bel[ is a view1 on a l>g] scale1 ( ! gr9d+ surface ( ! f\r? premol> & fir/ mol>1 upp] jaw4 ,/ructurally1 ! family is v di/9ct & ! d5tition is q peculi>4 ,! incisors & can9es resemble ^? ( o!r ,fissip$ia2 ! ?ree ant]ior premol>s are v small1 s+le-root$ & (t5 %$ e>ly2 ! c>nassials h lo/ _! tr5*ant "*2 & ! mol>s1 :i* are usually long] ?an wide1 are tub]culat$1 some:at resembl+ ^? ( pigs4 ,almo/ all ! be>s live pr9cipally ^u vegetable food1 & ev5 ! ,pol> ,be>1 :i* fe$s ^u fi% & seals1 w eat grass & b]ries 9 ! brief ,arctic summ]2 ?us1 ! %e>+ tee? ( ! /rictly c>nivor\s types are unnecess>y to ^! animals4 ,! skull is n unlike t ( ! dogs 9 %ape1 b ! tympanic bull are mu* flatt5$ & ! entrances to !m are long1 bony tubes1 :ile ! cranial =am9a are ne>ly z 9 ! dogs4 ,! body is v heavy & ! tail always %ort4 ,! limbs are %ort & ?ick2 ! hum]us has lo/ ! epicondyl> =am5 9 all exi/+ species except ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,spectacl$ ,be> 7,trem>ctos ornatus74 ,! plantigrade feet h nak$ soles 7except 9 ! ,pol> ,be>7 & ea* foot has five well-develop$ & functional digits1 arm$ ) v long1 %>p & non-retractile claws4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--,re/or$ head ( ! ,%ort-fac$ ,be> 7,arcto!rium boner5se74 ,f a skull 9 ! ,national ,museum1 ,bu5os ,aires4 ,! ,plei/oc5e repres5tatives ( ! family 9 ,am]ica includ$ species ( ! true be>s 7,ursus7 & ( ! v l>ge %ort-fac$ be>s 7,arcto!rium7 :i* rang$ ov] bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,arcto!rium ! d5tition 0 less modifi$2 ! l>g] premol>s 7 v closely cr[d$ toge!r & ! mol>s 7 ne>ly squ>e2 ! l[] jaw 0 almo/ z mu* curv$ z 9 ! raccoons4 ,! hum]us reta9$ ! epicondyl> =am54 ,! family1 :i* 0 ( ,old ,_w orig91 may h rea*$ ,am]ica 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e1 b 0 r>e until ! late ,plei/oc5e4 ,arcto!rium has n be5 f\nd 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 b t1 ( c\rse1 is no pro( t ! g5us 0 n an immigrant f ,asia4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may h be5 a peculi> ,am]ican developm5t f ,plioc5e immigrants4 ,9 ! ,old ,_w1 be>s 7 fir/ di/+ui%able 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e1 & may be !re trac$ back to =ms :i* 7 unmi/akably d]ivatives ( ! e>ly dogs4 #e4 ,mu/elid4 ,mu/el9es ,! la/ fissip$e family1 :i* has1 or has _h1 repres5tatives 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e is t :i* includes a great v>iety ( small c>nivores1 su* z m9ks1 m>t5s1 skunks1 badg]s1 ott]s1 etc41 & 0 likewise ( ,old ,_w orig91 ?\gh n[ ( univ]sal di/ribution1 except 9 ,au/ralia & ,madagasc>4 ,^! are fi]ce & blood?ir/y bea/s ( prey1 mo/ ( !m /rictly c>nivor\s & (t5 kill+ 9 m]e wantonness m ?an !y c dev\r4 ,?\gh n[ q num]\s & v>i$ 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 !y are decid$ly less s ?an 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e & comp>atively few peculi> types h orig9at$ "h4 ,ow+ to ! small size & fragility ( ! skeletons1 !y h n be5 well pres]v$ z fossils1 & little c be done z yet 9 trac+ out ! g5ealogy ( ! v>i\s phyla4 ,! mu/el9es h %ort5$ jaws & a r$uc$ numb] ( tee?1 ! mol>s be+ #a_/b or ev5 #a_/a & ! premol>s v>y+ f f\r to two1 ?\gh ?ree 9 ea* jaw is ! usual numb]4 ,! cranium is g5]ally v long & ! facial "p ( ! skull %ort1 b ! s(t sn\t may add consid]ably to ! l5g? ( ! face4 ,! tympanic bull are s+le-*amb]$ & little inflat$1 & ! l[] lip ( ! entrance is ext5d$2 ! h>d palate is usually cont9u$ well back ( ! tee?4 ,! body is v long & ! tail v>iable &1 9 mo/ ( ! g5]a1 is %ort r ?an long4 ,! limbs are %ort1 ! feet1 except 9 "o g5us1 five-to$ & plantigrade or semi-plantigrade1 & ! claws are non-retractile4 ,t]re/rial1 arboreal1 burr[+1 aquatic & m>9e =ms are all repres5t$ 9 ! family4 ,s f> z ,nor? ,am]ica is conc]n$1 x is sc>cely practicable to d m ?an catalogue ! g5]a ( ! successive geological epo*s4 ,plei/oc5e mu/el9es 7 v mod]n 9 "*1 diff]+ little f ^? n[ inhabit+ ! cont95t1 ?\gh 9 "s cases ) diff]5t ranges1 accord+ to climatic fluctuations4 ,badg]s1 m>t5s1 skunks & o!rs occurr$ !n v mu* z !y d n[ & ! ,boreal ,wolv]5e ext5d$ d[n to ,p5nsylvania4 ,little is kn[n ( ,plioc5e mu/el9es1 ! ,blanco hav+ yield$ fragm5ts ( only "o g5us ( unc]ta9 aff9ities & ?\gh sev]al g5]a occurr$ 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e1 b "o1 a m>t5 7,m>tes71 c be id5tifi$4 ,unque/ionably1 ,nor? ,am]ica _h _m m ,plioc5e memb]s ( ! family1 b ! conditions ( pres]vation 7 unfav\rable4 ,mu* ! same is true ( ! ,mioc5e /ages4 ,9 ! upp] ,mioc5e !re 7 a m>t5 7,m>tes71 a weasel 7,mu/ela7 & two ott]s 7,potamo!rium & ! mod]n ,lutra71 ( :i* ! m>t5 & ! m primitive ott] w5t back to ! middle ,mioc5e4 ,9 ! l[] ,mioc5e 7 sev]al mu/el9es q diff]5t f any n[ exi/+4 ,"o ( ^?1 ,megalictis1 0 truly gigantic1 ) a skull ne>ly z l>ge z t ( a ,black ,be> & hav+ heavy1 po9t$ claws4 ,?is & a simil> g5us1 lurocyon1 7 relat$ to ! ,ratel 7,mellivora7 ( ,india & ,africa &1 m closely1 to ! ,wolv]5e4 ,oligobunis1 a mu* small] animal1 0 app>5tly ( ! same gr\p4 ,?is g5us 0 also 9 ! upp] ,oligoc5e1 b !re repres5t$ by a l>g] species1 :i* 0 z l>ge z a badg]4 ,! ,:ite ,riv] b$s h yield$ b a s+le g5us1 ,bunlurus1 :i* 0 ! mo/ primitive ( ,am]ican mu/el9es & _h f\r premol>s & two mol>s 9 ea* jaw1 ?\gh ! second upp] mol> 0 extremely small4 ,! face 0 mu* less %ort5$ ?an 9 ! mod]n weasels & ! tympanic bull 7 %ort & /rongly inflat$ & _h no tubul> entrance1 & 7 ?us can9e r ?an mu/el9e 9 =m4 ,! bony palate 0 n ext5d$ back ( ! tee? z x is 9 ! mod]n g5]a4 ,! same primitive gr\p 0 mu* m abundant 9 ! ,european ,oligoc5e1 migrat+ probably f ,asia into ,europe z well z into ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,,s\? ,,am]ican ,,fissip$ia ,! hi/ory ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican c>nivores is a comp>atively brief "o2 ! s\!rn cont95t has repres5tatives ( ! same five families z ! nor!rn1 b mo/ ( ! g5]a are diff]5t1 ! "t s9ce ! great s\?w>d migration hav+ be5 suffici5t = ! developm5t ( peculi> =ms 9 ! new environm5t4 ,among ! dogs1 !re are to be not$ ! curi\s1 close-hair$1 long-bodi$ & %ort-legg$ ,bu%-,dog 7,icticyon7 & ! fox-l wolves 7,c]docyon71 b !re are no true foxes4 ,( ! cats1 ! ,puma diff]s little f t ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! ,jagu> 7,felis onca7 & ,ocelot 7,f4 p>dalis7 also range into ! nor!rn cont95t1 b sev]al small cats are conf9$ to ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* has no lynxes4 ,!re is b "o be> 7,trem>ctos ornatus7 ( ,&ean range4 ,( ! ,procyonid1 ! nor!rn ,procyon lotor is replac$ by ! ,crab-eat+ ,raccoon1 ,p4 cancrivorus1 :ile ! coatis 7,nasua7 & k9kaj\ 7,potos7 are *iefly ,neotropical4 ,except = ! ott]s1 ! g5]a ( ,mu/elid are ne>ly all diff]5t2 !re are no badg]s & a diff]5t g5us ( skunks 7,conepatus7 replaces ! nor!rn ,mephitis2 ! ,grison 7,grison71 ,tayra 7,tayra7 & ! ,patagonian ,lyncodon are peculi>4 ,ev5 less c be done to trace ! evolution ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican g5]a ?an = ! =ms ( ! nor!rn cont95t1 :5ce migrat$ ! m or less diff]5t ance/ors ( ! =m]4 ,! ,plei/oc5e has yield$ mo/ ( ! mod]n g5]a1 bo? exi/+ & ext9ct species4 ,an example ( ! latt] 0 ,procyon urs9us f ! ,brazilian cav]ns1 a truly gigantic ,raccoon1 z l>ge z a be>4 ,! sabre-too? tig]s 7,smilodon7 & %ort-fac$ be>s 7,arcto!rium7 7 %>$ ) ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ,plioc5e a be>1 a raccoon & a dog 7 ! only kn[n fissip$es1 & 9 ! ,mioc5e none h be5 f\nd1 _! place be+ tak5 by fle%-eat+ m>supials4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:ile ! hi/ory ( ! ,fissip$ia1 z outl9$ 9 ! prec$+ pages1 is sadly incomplete z comp>$ ) t ( _m ungulates1 x is nev]!less highly sugge/ive4 ,9 ea* family ! advance ( specialization & adaptation to a n>r[ range ( habits may be foll[$2 g5]ally speak+1 ! tee? 7 dim9i%$ 9 numb] & increas$ 9 size & 7 ei!r simplifi$ by ! loss ( p>ts1 z 9 ! cats1 or complicat$ by ! addition ( new elem5ts1 z 9 ! be>s & raccoons4 ,! bra9 grew l>g] & m convolut$ & ! cranium m capaci\s2 9 mo/ ( ! families1 ! face 0 %ort5$1 notably 9 ! cats & mu/el9es1 :ile 9 o!rs1 especially ! dogs1 x 0 elongat$4 ,9 all ( ! e>ly types !re 0 a long & heavy tail1 b 9 mo/ s]ies x und]w5t m or less r$uction4 ,!re 0 little r$uction ( digits1 & no fissip$e has less ?an f\r4 ,9 mod]n dogs & cats !re are five digits 9 ! manus & f\r 9 ! pes & ! hy5as h f\r 9 ea*1 z has "o g5us ( mu/el9es2 o!r mod]n g5]a ?r\gh\t ! subord] are p5tadactyl4 ,x is significant t ! m anci5t memb]s ( ! v>i\s families diff]$ less ?an d ! mod]n ones2 ! v>i\s gr\ps1 z !y are trac$ back 9 "t1 w\ld seem to be conv]g+ to a common ance/ry1 ( :i* ! l[] ,oligoc5e dogs 7 ! lea/ *ang$ repres5tatives1 & x is probable t all ! families ( ! ,fissip$ia 7 d]iv$1 directly or indirectly1 f a s+le ,eoc5e gr\p ( primitive fle%-eat]s4 ,! families1 none ( :i* is ext9ct1 are n all ( equal antiquity4 ,s f> z n[ appe>s1 ! dogs & viv]r9es are ! mo/ anci5t1 hav+ become di/9ct 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e2 9 ! ,oligoc5e 7 add$ ! mu/el9es & cats2 ! raccoons bran*$ (f f ! dogs 9 ! l[] ,mioc5e1 z did ! be>s 9 ! upp] ,mioc5e4 ,f9ally1 ! hy5as appe>$ 9 ! l[] ,plioc5e1 seem+ly d]iv$ f ! viv]r9es4 ,! dogs pass$ ?r\gh ! great] "p ( _! developm5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e1 dur+ ! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e1 !y 7 v abundant & v>i$1 :ile at ! same "t !y 7 comp>atively r>e 9 ,europe & belong$ *iefly to ! phylum ( ! be>-dogs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rema9+ f\r families are ( ,old ,_w orig91 ! be>s & mu/el9es migrat+ to ,am]ica1 :ile ! viv]r9es & hy5as did n4 ,,subord] ,,creodonta4 ,,primitive ,,fle%-,,eat]s ,?is gr\p long prec$$ ! ,fissip$ia 9 "t1 = !y began _! record$ hi/ory 9 ! ,paleoc5e & became ext9ct 9 ! ,oligoc5e4 ,?r\gh "o family1 ! ,miacid1 ! creodonts 7 broadly connect$ ) ! fissip$es1 & x seems probable t t family 0 ! ance/ral /ock f :i* all ! fissip$e families 7 d]iv$4 ,! o!r creodont families di$ out )\t leav+ desc5dants4 ,!re is "s diff]5ce ( practice z to ! numb] ( families to be admitt$2 ! table conta9s ^? li/$ 9 ,pr(essor ,osborn's book & also adopt$ by ,dr4 ,s*loss]4 ,i %\ld pref] a some:at l>g] numb] ( family gr\ps1 b ! matt] is "o ( second>y importance4 ,_m g5]a are omitt$4 ,i4 ,,oxycl,,nid4 ,oxyclnus1 ,paleoc4 ,delta!rium1 d4 ,,ii4 ,,arctocyonid4 ,clnodon1 ,paleoc4 ,anacodon1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,,iii4 ,,mesony*id4 ,triisodon1 ,paleoc4 ,dissacus1 d4 ,pa*yna1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,mesonyx1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,dromocyon1 d4 ,h>pagole/es1 mid4 & up4 ,eoc4 ,,iv4 ,,oxy,,nid4 ,palonictis1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,oxyna1 d4 ,patri(elis1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,limnocyon1 d4 ,ma*airoides1 d4 ,oxynodon1 up4 ,eoc4 ,v4 ,,hy,,nodontid4 ,s9opa1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,/ypolophus1 l[4 & mid4 ,eoc4 ,tritemnodon1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,pt]odon1 l[4 ,oligo4 ,hynodon1 d4 ,,vi4 ,,miacid4 ,didymictis1 ,paleoc4 & l[4 ,eoc4 ,viv]ravus1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,miacis1 l[4 ,eoc4 ,u9tacyon1 l[4 to up4 ,eoc4 ,odectes1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,vulpavus1 d4 ,palarctonyx1 d4 ,! ,creodonta 7 an extremely v>i$ assemblage1 ( c>nivor\s1 omnivor\s & presumably insectivor\s habits1 s t few /atem5ts1 n subject to exceptions1 c be made ( !m all4 ,only sev5 g5]a are kn[n f skeletons1 & sev]al m f skulls1 b mo/ are repres5t$ only by jaws & tee?2 limb- & foot-bones1 h[ev]1 give u a conception ( ! g5]al /ructure ( a consid]able numb]4 ,z a rule1 ! d5tition 0 complete1 accord+ to ! =mula1 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dd1 b ! fir/ premol> or ! la/ mol> may be lo/4 ,! can9es 7 always l>ge1 z 0 befitt+ = bea/s ( prey4 ,9 only "o family1 ! ,miacid1 7 ! c>nassial tee? conf9$ to a s+le pair & ^? ! same z 9 ! ,fissip$ia1 ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>2 9 all ! o!r families !re 7 ei!r no sectorial tee?1 or else !re 0 m ?an "o pair4 ,9 ! ,fissip$ia ! fir/ is ! l>ge/ ( ! l[] mol>s1 :ile 9 ! ,creodonta 7except ! ,miacid7 x 0 usually ! smalle/4 ,! premol>s 7 g5]ally simple1 compress$-conical tee? & ! mol>s1 ) all _! great v>iety1 may be r$uc$ to a common plan2 ^? ( ! upp] jaw 7 primitively tritub]cul>1 ) a triangle ( two ext]nal & "o int]nal cusps1 & ^? ( ! l[] jaw 7 9 two di/9ct p>ts1 an ant]ior1 elevat$ triangle ( ?ree cusps & a l[ heel ( two4 ,! skull 0 almo/ always v l>ge 9 proportion to ! size ( ! animal2 ! cranium1 ?\gh long1 0 ( small capacity & ! face v>i$ mu* 9 l5g? 9 ! diff]5t families4 ,primitively1 ! face & jaws 7 %ort 9 correlation ) ! small size ( ! tee?1 & ?is primitive condition 0 modifi$ 9 two opposite directions2 9 "o ! face & jaws 7 elongat$1 z ! tee? enl>g$1 & 9 ! o!r !y 7 %ort5$ /ill fur!r4 ,! zygomatic ar*es 7 /\t & curv$ out /rongly f ! sides ( ! skull1 mak+ v wide op5+s1 &1 9 almo/ all cases1 ! sagittal & occipital cre/s 7 v high1 z w\ld be necess>y f ! comb9ation ( p[]ful jaws & small bra9-case 7see p4 #fc74 ,! tympanic bull 7 n ossifi$4 ,! bra9 0 extremely small1 especially 9 ! m anci5t g5]a1 & ! convolutions 7 almo/ always few & simple1 :i* indicates a l[ grade ( intellig5ce & v m>k$ inf]iority to ! ,fissip$ia4 ,9 all ! g5]a ( :i* suffici5t mat]ial has be5 obta9$ ! body 0 long & _h #ai or #bj trunk-v]tebr3 9 ! lumb> & po/]ior "p ( ! dorsal regions ! processes by :i* ! successive v]tebr 7 articulat$ toge!r 7zygapophyses7 7 cyl9drical & int]lock+1 z 9 ! artiodactyl ungulates 7p4 #cfj74 ,to ?is g5]al /atem5t1 ! ,miacid =m$ a p>tial exception4 ,! tail 0 v long & heavy 9 all ! =ms ( :i* ! caudal v]tebr are kn[n1 & ?is 0 probably true ( all4 ,! limbs 7 %ort & g5]ally heavy2 ! femur _h ! ?ird tro*ant] & ! hum]us1 save 9 a few ( ! lat] g5]a1 ! epicondyl> =am51 & ! manus c\ld1 9 ne>ly all1 be freely rotat$4 ,except 9 ! mo/ advanc$ =ms ( "o family1 ! ,mesony*id1 ! feet 7 five-to$ & plantigrade1 or semi-plantigrade1 & ( decid$ly primitive /ructure4 ,! scapho-lun> bone ( ! ,fissip$ia 7see p4 #eai7 0 n =m$1 its ?ree elem5ts1 ) v few exceptions1 rema9+ sep>ate4 ,! a/ragalus ne>ly always _h a %all[ groove1 or none at all4 ,! claws 7 ?ick & blunt & ! ungual phalanges cleft at ! end1 except 9 ! ,arctocyonid & ,miacid1 :i* _h %>p claws & uncleft phalanges4 ,f ?is brief description1 x is obvi\s t ! ,miacid occupi$ a v isolat$ position among ! creodonts &1 9 my judgm5t1 x w\ld be bett] to transf] t family to ! ,fissip$ia & include ! o!rs 9 a sep>ate ord]4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,paleoc5e & ,eoc5e epo*s ! ,creodonta 7 num]\s & v>i$1 ! fir/ ( ! ,fissip$ia appe>+ 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e4 ,till !n ! creodonts 7 ! only pr$ace\s mammals 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe1 & !y 7 especially abundant 9 ! =m]4 ,mo/ memb]s ( ! subord] & all ! ,paleoc5e =ms 7 ( small or mod]ate size1 b "s ( ! ,eoc5e species 7 v l>ge4 ,9 ! ,u9ta ! creodonts 7 greatly decreas$ 9 numb]s & 9 ! ,:ite ,riv] !re 7 only two g5]a ( "o family1 ! ,hynodontid1 & s9ce ! ,oligoc5e ! subord] has be5 ext9ct4 #a4 ,miacid4 ,fissip$e-l ,creodonts ,x is un=tunate t no memb] ( ?is family is kn[n f a complete skeleton1 b ! mat]ial collect$ is suffici5t to give a fairly adequate conception ( ^! mo/ int]e/+ animals4 ,^! 7 ! only creodonts ) a s+le pair ( c>nassials1 ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>1 b 9 "s ( ! g5]a ! c>nassials did n diff] greatly f ! o!r tee?4 ,9 ! v>i\s g5]a ! skull diff]$ consid]ably 9 l5g? & 9 ! proportions ( cranium & face2 ! bra9-case 0 l>g] ?an 9 mo/ o!r creodonts & ! bra9 m advanc$1 ?\gh small] ?an 9 ! fissip$es1 & ! sagittal & occipital cre/s 7 v prom95t2 ! tympanic bull 7 n ossifi$4 ,! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am5 & ! femur ! ?ird tro*ant]2 9 ! wri/ ! scaphoid1 lun> & c5tral 7 sep>ate1 almo/ ! only important diff]5ce f ! ,fissip$ia & m]ely ! primitive /age ( ! latt]4 ,! feet 7 p5tadactyl & ! digits 7 arrang$ 9 spread+ fa%ion2 ! claws 7 small1 %>p & p>tially retractile & ! ungual phalanges n cleft at ! tip4 ,)9 ! family sev]al diff]5t phyla may be di/+ui%$1 "o ( :i* 7,miacis--,u9tacyon7 l$ to ! dogs1 ano!r to ! be>-dogs1 or amphicyons4 ,a ?ird phylum 7,didymictis--,viv]ravus7 is by sev]al au?orities reg>d$ z ance/ral to ! civet family1 or viv]r9es1 ( ! ,old ,_w1 & a f\r? 7,odectes1 ,vulpavus7 z ! =]unn] ( ! k9kaj\s 7,potos74 ,except = ! connection ) ! dogs1 ! hiatus 9 "t betwe5 ! suppos$ ance/ors & desc5dants is too great to p]mit any confid5t /atem5ts4 ,x seems v probable1 h[ev]1 t ! ,miacid repres5t$ ! common /ock1 f :i* ! fissip$e families 7 all d]iv$1 directly or indirectly1 ?\gh = mo/ ( !m ! details ( ! connection rema9 to be le>n$4 ,we f9d ?us a gr\p sep>at+ itself f ! o!r creodonts 9 ! old] ,paleoc5e & gradually assum+ fissip$e *>act]i/ics1 at ! same "t divid+ into sev]al phyla4 ,9 ! upp] ,eoc5e ?is gr\p pass$ almo/ imp]ceptibly into ! ,fissip$ia1 m obvi\sly into ! dog family1 :i*1 z we h se51 repres5ts ! c5tral l9e ( fissip$e developm5t4 #b4 ,mesony*id ,?is family display$1 9 c]ta9 respects1 ! highe/ degree ( specialization atta9$ by any creodonts1 = !y 7 ! only ones :i* acquir$ cursorial limbs & feet4 ,! mesony*ids 7 prevail+ly1 b n exclusively1 a ,nor? ,am]ican family & _! range 9 "t 0 ?r\gh ! ,paleoc5e & ,eoc5e4 ,! tee?1 9 ! m advanc$ g5]a1 _h a curi\s m+l+ ( primitive & specializ$ *>act]s & none 7 sectorial 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! incisors 7 small1 ! can9es l>ge & be>-l & ! premol>s simple4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 v primitive1 reta9+ ! orig9al tritub]cul> patt]n1 except t ! two out] cusps 7 jo9$ toge!r1 b ! l[] mol>s _h lo/ all ! int]nal cusps1 :i* gave !m a c>nassial appe>ance2 !y 7 n sectorial1 h[ev]1 = _! cusps wore directly aga9/ ! upp] tee?1 n %e>+ pa/ !m1 & 7 greatly blunt$ & worn d[n by use4 ,! la/ ( ! family 0 ,h>pagole/es1 ( ! ,u9ta & ,bridg]1 "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! creodonts4 ,! skull1 :i* 0 ( disproportionate size1 exce$$ t ( ! ,grizzly ,be>2 ! upp] pr(ile ( ! skull _h consid]able resemblance to t ( a be> 9 ! /eep =w>d desc5t at ! =e head4 ,! tee? 7 m r$uc$ ?an 9 ! o!r memb]s ( ! family ?r\gh ! loss ( ! second premol> & ?ird mol> ( ! upp] jaw4 ,! skeleton is little kn[n1 b ! hum]us _h a long & prom95t deltoid cre/ & an epicondyl> =am54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--,upp] tee?1 "r side1 ( ,mesonyx obtusid5s1 %[+ ! gr9d+ surface4 ,9 ! middle ,bridg] /age 7 closely alli$ & v simil> g5]a1 ,mesonyx & ,dromocyon 7,fig4 #aci1 p4 #bfi71 :i* 7 l small1 big-head$ wolves1 = ! skull 0 z long z t ( a ,black ,be>4 ,?\gh ! cranium 0 v long1 ! bra9-*amb] 0 v small & ! sagittal cre/ enorm\sly high1 to af=d surface = ! atta*m5t ( ! p[]ful jaw-muscles4 ,! tympanic bull 7 ossifi$ & _h q long1 tubul> entrances1 a feature :i* has be5 f\nd 9 no o!r creodont skull4 ,! face & jaws 7 also elongate1 giv+ ! head q a wolf-l appe>ance4 ,! neck & body 7 ( mod]ate l5g?1 b ! tail 0 extremely long1 sl5d] & :ip-l4 ,! limbs & feet 7 m specializ$ ?an 9 any o!r creodont & ! *anges 7 all 9 ! direction ( adaptation to swift runn+4 ,! hum]us 0 v smoo?1 ) l[ ridges1 &1 alone among creodonts1 _h 9 ^! g5]a no epicondyl> =am51 ?\gh ! femur reta9$ ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! radius 0 broad & s int]lock$ ) ! hum]us z to prev5t any rotation ( ! manus4 ,! feet 7 f\r-to$ & mu* resembl$ ^? ( ! mod]n dogs & hy5as4 ,9 ea* foot ! metapodials 7 closely appress$ & p>allel1 n spread+1 b arrang$ 9 two symmetrical pairs1 a long] m$ian & %ort] lat]al pair1 mu* on ! artiodactyl plan2 ! ankle-bone 7a/ragalus7 also _h an artiodactyl look1 ) its deeply groov$ surface = ! tibia & pulley-l l[] end4 ,! ungual phalanges 7 s %ort & broad z almo/ to sugge/ ho(s r ?an claws4 ,x is cle> t ! gait 0 z fully digitigrade z 9 a mod]n wolf & ^! 7 ! only creodonts ( :i* ?is is kn[n to be true4 ,^! 7 some:at puzzl+ animals2 ! :ole /ructure ( ! limbs & feet 0 t ( cursorial types1 b ! broad1 blunt claws d n sugge/ ! runn+ d[n & capture ( prey1 nor 7 ! tee? ^? ( savage kill]s4 ,! spe$ may h be5 def5sive1 to escape f enemies1 & ! food may h be5 l>gely vegetable4 ,ance/ors ( ^! ,bridg] g5]a h n be5 f\nd yet 9 ! ,wasat*1 a "t :5 ! family 0 repres5t$ by ,pa*yna1 "s ( ! species ( :i* 7 v l>ge1 rivall+ ,h>pagole/es1 :i* 0 desc5d$ f "o or m ( !m4 ,pa*yna _h extremely massive tee? & 0 n improbably a c>rion-fe$] ( hy5a-l habits1 & x reta9$ ! epicondyl> =am5 ( ! hum]us & p5tadactyl feet4 ,mu* m primitive 0 ,dissacus1 ( ! upp] ,paleoc5e1 :i* 0 v probably ! direct ance/or ( bo? ! ,wasat* & ! ,bridg] g5]a4 ,! upp] mol>s 7 sub/antially z 9 ! latt]1 b ! l[] mol>s _h ! int]nal cusp ( ! primitive triangle1 ?\gh ! heel 0 tr5*ant1 & _h lo/ its inn] cusps4 ,! feet _h five well-develop$ digits1 :i* 7 arrang$ 9 spread+ fa%ion1 & ! gait 0 plantigrade4 ,! claws 7 long]1 m po9t$ & mu* less ho(-l ?an 9 ! ,bridg] g5]a4 ,! ,pu]co g5us ,triisodon may or may n h be5 directly ance/ral to ,dissacus2 at all ev5ts1 x 0 v ne>ly :at ! desir$ ance/or mu/ h be54 ,! tee? 7 mu* less specializ$ ?an 9 ,dissacus2 ! tritub]cul> upp] mol>s 7 broad] & _! ext]nal cusps 7 m sep>at$1 :ile 9 ! l[] mol>s ! ant]ior triangle 0 made up ( ?ree ne>ly equal cusps & ! heel 0 l[ & bas9-%ap$4 ,! skull _h an extremely n>r[ bra9-case & a long1 heavy sagittal cre/4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ feature 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,mesony*id is ! demon/rable d]ivation ( ! cursorial1 digitigrade1 f\r-to$ & almo/ ho($ ,bridg] g5]a f ! plantigrade1 five-to$ ,torrejon g5us1 :i* _h %>p claws4 ,to all appe>ances1 ?is family 0 ! creodont analogue ( ! hy5as4 #c1 #d4 ,arctocyonid & ,oxyclnid ,?is second creodont family :i* _h no c>nassial tee? has receiv$ ! n v happily *os5 "n ( ,arctocyonid1 or 8be>-dogs10 ?\gh !y 7 n relat$ to ei!r be>s or dogs4 ,! family 0 a v anci5t "o & has be5 f\nd only 9 ! ,paleoc5e & l[] ,eoc5e 7,torrejon & ,wasat*7 ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,! mol> tee? 7 v l[-cr[n$ & quadritub]cul>1 ) num]\s small tub]cles 9 addition to ! f\r pr9cipal cusps1 a patt]n :i* 0 r pig-l ?an be>-l4 ,! ,wasat* g5us ,anacodon1 kn[n only f jaws & tee?1 _h r$uc$ premol>s1 bo? 9 size & numb]1 :ile 9 ! ,torrejon g5us1 ,clnodon1 ! premol>s1 ?\gh small1 7 pres5t 9 full numb]4 ,! skull 0 l t ( ,mesonyx 9 ! relative l5g?s ( cranium & face1 ! v small size ( ! bra9-case & ! great prom95ce ( ! occipital & sagittal cre/s4 ,! feet 7 p5tadactyl & plantigrade & ! claws 7 long1 ?9 & po9t$1 & ! ungual phalanges 7 n cleft at ! tip1 ! only creodont family1 except ! ,miacid1 ( :i* ?is 0 true4 ,( ! ,oxyclnid1 v little is kn[n & !y may n h be5 creodonts at all4 ,!y 7 q small animals1 ) %>p-cusp$ tritub]cul> upp] mol>s & l[] mol>s ) high ant]ior triangle & l[ heel4 ,?is is ! type ( d5tition f :i* all ! div]g5t creodont types 7 d\btless d]iv$4 ,! family 0 ,paleoc5e4 #e4 ,hynodontid ,?is 0 ! la/ ( ! creodont families to survive1 be+ q common 9 ! l[] ,oligoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe & 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e ( ! latt] also4 ,! family became ext9ct 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,:ite ,riv] g5]a 7 n ( native orig91 b migrants f ! ,old ,_w4 ,"o ( ! m abundant pr$ace\s g5]a ( ,:ite ,riv] times 0 ! ,european ,hynodon2 x 0 repres5t$ by sev]al species :i* rang$ 9 size f a fox to a ,black ,be>4 ,9 ?is g5us ! d5tition 0 some:at r$uc$1 ! incisors (t5 numb]+ #b_/b & ! mol>s con/antly #b_/c2 !re 7 ?ree pairs ( c>nassial tee? on ea* side1 ( :i* ! pair =m$ by ! second upp] & ?ird l[] mol> 0 ! l>ge/ & mo/ effici5t1 ! o!r pairs be+ ! fir/ upp] & second l[] mol>1 ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>1 ! latt] ! smalle/ ( ! ?ree4 ,! upp] mol>s _h lo/ ! int]nal cusp & ! rema9+1 ext]nal portion consi/$ ( a flatt5$-conical ant]ior cusp & a po/]ior tr5*ant ridge2 ! milk-tee? ( ,hynodon1 z well z ! p]man5t d5tition ( ! ance/ral g5]a1 %[ t ! ant]ior cusp 0 compos$ ( ! two ext]nal cusps ( ! primitive tritub]cul> too? fus$ into "o & t ! tr5*ant ridge 0 a sup]add$ elem5t4 ,! f\r? upp] premol> 0 a sectorial l t ( ! ,fissip$ia1 b ( an unf9i%$1 ineffective sort4 ,! ?ird l[] mol> 0 v simil> 9 %ape to ! c>nassial ( ! cats & 0 compos$ ( only two l>ge1 ?9 & tr5*ant cusps1 :i* made a %e>+ blade1 hav+ lo/ ! inn] cusp ( ! primitive triangle & ! heel4 ,! fir/ & second mol>s 7 l ! ?ird except 9 size & 9 reta9+ a ve/ige ( ! heel4 ,! premol>s 7 l>ge & massive1 almo/ hy5a-l1 :i* sugge/$ ! g5]ic "n4 ,! can9es 7 prom95t & /rong4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--;,hynodon horridus1 a ,:ite ,riv] creodont3 9 ! backgr\nd1 ,leptom]yx evansi4 ,re/or$ f skeletons 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! skull1 z 9 almo/ all creodonts1 0 relatively v l>ge1 b 9 ! v>i\s species !re 0 consid]able diff]5ce ( %ape2 m commonly x 0 long & n>r[1 ) elongate jaws1 & 0 q wolf-l 9 appe>ance1 b 9 "s ( ! species x 0 %ort] & wid]4 ,! bra9-case 0 m capaci\s & ! bra9 m ri*ly convolut$ ?an 9 any o!r kn[n creodont1 b ! sagittal & occipital cre/s 7 v prom95t4 ,! neck 0 r %ort1 n equall+ ! head 9 l5g?1 ! body elongate & ! lo9s v muscul>2 ! tail 0 fairly long & ?ick1 b mu* less s ?an 9 mo/ creodonts4 ,! limbs 7 %ort &1 9 mo/ ( ! species1 q sl5d]1 ?\gh 9 "s !y 7 mu* /\t]2 ! primitive features1 su* z ! ?ird tro*ant] ( ! femur1 ! epicondyl> =am5 ( ! hum]us1 ! sep>ate scaphoid1 lun> & c5tral 9 ! c>pus1 7 reta9$4 ,! feet _h five digits arrang$ 9 spread+ fa%ion & 7 probably semi-digitigrade2 ! claws 7 s ?ick & blunt t !y c\ld h>dly h s]v$ 9 seiz+ prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--,skeleton ( ,hynodon4 ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! re/oration gives ! animal q a ne> resemblance to ! mod]n hy5as & p]haps errs 9 mak+ ! lik5ess s close4 ,f ! :ole /ructure ( ! skeleton & ! =m ( ! claws1 x may be inf]r$ t ,hynodon 0 n a swift runn] or v effici5t 9 ! capture ( prey4 ,:ile probably savage fight]s1 !y d\btless subsi/$ *iefly z c>rion-fe$]s & scav5g]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--,l[] tee?1 "r side1 ( hynodontids4 ,a1 ,s9opa4 ,b1 ,tritemnodon4 ,c1 ,pt]odon4 ,d1 ,hynodon4 ,x1 ,oxyna4 ,! dott$ l9e connects ! fir/ mol> ( ea*1 lo/ 9 ,pt]odon4 ,see explanation ( ,fig4 #bhj4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 ,ano!r d\btfully di/9ct g5us1 ,hemipsalodon1 0 s closely l1 if n id5tical )1 ! mu* bett] kn[n ,european ,pt]odon1 t ! latt] may be tak5 9 place ( x4 ,pt]odon 0 simil> 9 mo/ respects to ,hynodon1 b di/9ctly less advanc$1 & ?\gh n ! ance/or ( ! latt]1 s]ves to connect x ) ! old] memb]s ( ! s]ies4 ,pt]odon did n1 s f> z we "k1 p5etrate ,nor? ,am]ica s\? ( ! ,canadian bord]1 occurr+ 9 ! l[] ,:ite ,riv] ( ,alb]ta4 ,9 ?is g5us ! upp] mol>s reta9$ a l>ge int]nal cusp1 & ! ?ird mol>1 ?\gh small & n sectorial1 _h n be5 lo/2 ! two ext]nal cusps 7 connate1 b n completely fus$ toge!r & ! po/]ior ridge 0 n s well develop$ z 9 ,hynodon1 nor 0 ! f\r? upp] premol> s ne>ly a c>nassial4 ,! l[] mol>s 7 %e>+ blades1 b di/9ct ve/iges ( ! heel rema9$4 ,s f> z !y are kn[n1 ! skull & skeleton resembl$ ^? ( ,hynodon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--,upp] tee? ( hynodontids1 "r side1 %[+ ! gr9d+ surface4 ,a1 ,s9opa1 ,wasat* & ,bridg]4 ,b1 ,tritemnodon1 ,bridg]4 ,c1 ,pt]odon1 upp] ,eoc5e & l[] ,oligoc5e ( ,europe4 ,d1 ,hynodon1 ,:ite ,riv]4 ,! dott$ l9e connects ! fir/ mol> ( ea*4 ,= comp>ison is add$ ,x1 ,oxyna1 "o ( ! ,oxynid4 ,c & ,d are mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 b all1 except ,x1 are r$uc$ to ! same l5g?4 7,aft] ,mat!w47 ,hynodon & ,pt]odon 7 evid5tly d]iv$ f a gr\p ( small creodonts :i*1 9 ! l[] & middle ,eoc5e1 7 spread all ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 b x is n yet possible to select f ! cr[d ( alli$ g5]a ^? :i* =m$ ! actual /eps ( desc5t4 ,^! small animals 7 num]\s & v>i$ & are f> bett] kn[n 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ?an 9 ,europe & x is n at all improbable t "s ( ! l[] ,eoc5e g5]a migrat$ to ! ,old ,_w & !re gave rise1 among o!r =ms1 to ,hynodon & ,pt]odon1 :i* ev5tually return$ to ! l& ( _! e>li] ance/ry4 ,if confirm$1 ?is w be an exceptionally int]e/+ case ( back & =? migration4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ! ,am]ican ,eoc5e g5]a1 ,s9opa & ,tritemnodon1 illu/rate v well ! ance/ry ( ! ,oligoc5e g5]a1 z !y mu/ h be5 simil> to ! actual prog5itors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--,tritemnodon agilis1 a primitive hynodont1 ,bridg] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s diff]5ce f ! ,oligoc5e g5]a 0 ! v mu* small] size ( ! animals1 few ( ! ,eoc5e =ms equall+ a fox 9 height4 ,! tee? 7 unr$uc$ 9 numb]1 & !re 7 ?ree pairs ( c>nassials4 ,! fir/ & second upp] mol>s 7 n f> remov$ f ! primitive tritub]cul> =m1 b ! two ext]nal cusps 7 close toge!r & a small po/]ior cutt+ ridge 0 pres5t2 ! ?ird mol> 0 progressively r$uc$ 9 size4 ,! ?ree l[] mol>s 7 c>nassials ( a r imp]fect k9d & ! fir/ 0 ! smalle/ ( ! s]ies2 ! two out] cusps ( ! ant]ior primitive triangle =m$ ! %e>+ blade & !re 0 a bas9-%ap$ heel4 ,! skull 0 long1 n>r[ & l[ & ! cranial portion1 despite ! v small bra9-case1 0 especially elongate1 ?\gh face & jaws 7 also long2 ! sagittal cre/ 0 v prom95t4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g?1 ! body long & sl5d] & ! tail extremely long4 ,! %ort & delicate limbs 7 ( v primitive "*1 b ! radius _h already lo/ ! p[] ( rotation2 ! feet _h five spread+ digits1 arm$ ) %>p claws4 ,! hynodont relation%ips ( ^! small animals are obvi\s 9 e "p ( _! /ructure & yet1 z w\ld be expect$1 !y 7 f> less specializ$4 ,probably1 too1 !y 7 m active & successful hunt]s ( prey1 ! small] mammals & birds1 less giv5 to c>rion-fe$+4 ,! l9e probably orig9at$ 9 ! ,oxyclnid ( ! ,paleoc5e4 #f4 ,oxynid ,! g5]a ( ?is family _h su* fel9e *>act]s t m ?an "o writ] has be5 misl$ into ! belief t !y 7 ! ance/ors ( ! cats4 ,9 ?is family !re 7 two pairs ( sectorial tee?1 ( :i* ! l>g] pair 0 compos$ ( ! fir/ upp] & second l[] mol>1 ! small] pair ( ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>1 z 9 ! fissip$es4 ,( ! ?ree phyla )9 ! family1 ! mo/ specializ$ "o ran a brief c>e]1 ?r\gh ! ,wasat*1 ,w9d ,riv] & ,bridg]1 & !n di$ out4 ,! t]m9al memb] ( ?is s]ies1 ! ,bridg] g5us ,patri(elis1 _h a skull z l>ge z t ( a lion1 b ! re/ ( ! skeleton 0 n s l>ge 9 proportion4 ,! tee? 7 consid]ably r$uc$ 9 numb]1 ! =mula be+3 i 8_/#b1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #a_/b1 a loss ( at lea/ twelve f ! primitive total ( #dd4 ,! s+le upp] mol> 0 a l>ge sectorial1 :i* 0 =m$ mu* z 9 ! hynodonts1 ! two ext]nal cusps connate1 b n indi/+ui%ably fus$ toge!r1 & a long1 tr5*ant ridge beh9d1 :ile ! inn] cusp _h almo/ vani%$4 ,! second l[] mol> 0 v cat-l2 its cutt+ blade 0 =m$ ( two %e>+ cusps2 ( ! inn] cusp no trace 0 left1 & ( ! heel m]ely a ve/ige4 ,! fir/ l[] mol> 0 small] & less specializ$1 s9ce x reta9$ a small int]nal cusp & q a l>ge heel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--,patri(elis f]ox1 ,bridg] /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! skull 0 v l>ge & massive1 ) elongate cranium & %ort5$ face1 ! muzzle broad & abruptly truncate1 n tap]+2 ! bra9-case 0 exce$+ly small1 ) v long & prom95t sagittal cre/2 ! zygomatic ar*es 7 extremely heavy & curv$ outw>d boldly1 s t ! head 0 v wide1 not)/&+ ! absurdly small bra9-case4 ,! l[] jaw 0 v deep & heavy & ! *9 abruptly r\nd$1 ) almo/ v]tical front4 ,! v unusual massiv5ess ( ! zygomatic ar*es & ! great developm5t ( ! cre/s & ridges = ! atta*m5t ( ! jaw-muscles1 & ! %ort1 heavy l[] jaw1 all indicate a degree ( p[] 9 ! bit+ & %e>+ app>atus su* z occurr$ 9 no o!r kn[n creodont4 ,! neck 0 ( m$ium l5g?1 :ile ! body1 ?\gh actually elongate1 0 r %ort z comp>$ ) mo/ o!r creodonts2 ! lo9s 7 v heavy & mu/ h be5 extremely p[]ful 9 ! liv+ animal2 9 ?is region ! articulations betwe5 ! successive v]tebr 7 m complex ?an 9 any o!r memb] ( ! subord]2 resembl+ ! /ructure f\nd 9 c]ta9 artiodactyls4 ,! ribs 7 long & ?ick1 ! *e/ deep & capaci\s4 ,ev5 = a creodont1 ! tail 0 long & uncommonly ?ick4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--,"r pes ( ,patri(elis f]ox4 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #a1 #b1 #c1 int]nal1 middle & ext]nal cunei=ms4 7,aft] ,wortman47 ,! limbs1 especially ! ant]ior pair1 7 %ort & v /\t2 ! hum]us _h an imm5sely develop$ deltoid ridge1 :i* ext5d$ d[n = two-?irds ! l5g? ( ! %aft1 & a v prom95t sup9ator ridge2 ! =e-arm bones1 p>ticul>ly ! ulna1 7 heavy & ! radius _h b a limit$ p[] ( rotation4 ,! feet 7 %ort & broad1 ) five complete1 spread+ toes1 end+ 9 ?ick & blunt-po9t$ claws4 ,patri(elis 0 by f> ! mo/ =midable ( ! ,bridg] ,c>nivora &1 ) ! exception ( ,h>pagole/es1 ! l>ge/4 ,its appe>ance mu/ h be5 v curi\s1 judg$ f ! mod]n /&po9t1 ) its disproportionately l>ge1 broad & r\nd$1 leon9e head1 ?ick body & long1 extremely heavy tail4 ,! %ort1 p[]ful limbs & broad feet mu/ h giv5 x some?+ ( ! appe>ance ( an ott]4 ,z 9 ! case ( s _m o!r creodonts1 ! comb9ation ( *>act]s 9 ! skeleton makes ! "q ( habits a v puzzl+ "o4 ,! tee? _h a =m suit$ only to seiz+ & dev\r+ prey1 b ! %ort legs & feet 7 n at all adapt$ to ! swift movem5ts1 :e!r by long-cont9u$ runn+1 or by /eal?y approa* & sudd5 leap1 :i* are requir$ 9 captur+ agile prey1 :ile ! blunt claws c\ld h r5d]$ no s]vice 9 hold+ a /ruggl+ creature4 ,! =m ( ! hum]us & =e foot sugge/s burr[+ habits1 b x seems mo/ unlikely t s l>ge an animal c\ld h liv$ 9 any su* fa%ion4 ,t]re/rial1 arboreal & aquatic modes ( life h all be5 sugge/$1 &1 all ?+s consid]$1 p]haps ! lea/ improbable conclusion is t ,patri(elis 0 m or less aquatic & prey$ *iefly ^u ! fi%es & turtles ) :i* ! ,bridg] wat]s ab\nd$4 ,?is hypo!sis ( ,dr4 ,wortman's is support$ by ! ott]-l =m ( ! animal4 ,:atev] ! pr9cipal k9d ( food 01 x mu/ h be5 some?+ t greatly abrad$ ! tee?1 :i* 9 old animals 7 m]e /umps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--,oxyna lup9a1 ,wasat* /age4 ,re/or$ f a skeleton 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! ,w9d ,riv] repres5tatives ( ! s]ies are kn[n only f fragm5ts1 :i*1 s f> z !y g1 are n sep>able f ,patri(elis4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,wasat* g5us1 ,oxyna1 is fairly well und]/ood4 ,?is g5us 0 v l its ,bridg] successor1 b diff]$ f x 9 j su* ways z w\ld be expect$ 9 an imm$iately ance/ral =m1 t is to say1 9 small] size & less advanc$ specialization4 ,! numb] ( tee? 0 n s f> dim9i%$3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #b_/b1 #b #dj2 ! c>nassial tee? 7 ! same1 b !y 7 less effective2 ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ upp] mol> _h l>ge inn] cusps1 & 9 ! latt] ! po/]o-ext]nal tr5*ant ridge 0 %ort]4 ,! second upp] mol>1 lack+ 9 ,patri(elis1 0 a transv]sely plac$ ridge1 :i* engag$ ! heel ( ! second l[] mol>4 ,! latt] too?1 ?\gh l>g] ?an ! fir/ mol>1 0 mu* less completely tr5*ant ?an 9 ,patri(elis & reta9$ a small int]nal cusp & q l>ge heel4 ,! skull resembl$ t ( ! ,bridg] g5us1 b ! face 0 n s mu* %ort5$1 ! zygomatic ar*es 7 n s widely exp&$ or s massive1 ! l[] jaw 0 n s heavy1 nor ! *9 s /eep4 ,! body 0 relatively long] & m sl5d]1 ! ribs be+ ?9n] & ! *e/ %all[]2 ! tail 0 ev5 long]1 b n ne>ly s ?ick4 ,! articulations ( ! lumb> v]tebr 7 less complex4 ,except = _! great] l5g? & sl5d]ness ! limbs & feet 7 ne>ly id5tical ) ^? ( ,patri(elis4 ,9 appe>ance1 ,oxyna mu/ h be5 m]ely a small]1 light] & less p[]ful v>iant ( ! ,bridg] g5us1 &1 no d\bt1 its habits ( life 7 sub/antially ! same2 b 9 ! details ( /ructure 7 _m m9or diff]5ces1 all ( !m 9 ! direction ( great] primitiv5ess 9 ! m anci5t animal4 ,! second phylum ( ! family 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,u9ta & ,bridg] /ages by a gr\p ( small species1 :i* 7 survivors ( /ill m anci5t & primitive prog5itors ( ! family4 ,9 ! typical g5us1 ,limnocyon1 ! d5tal =mula 0 ! same z 9 ,oxyna3 i #c_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #b_/b1 b ! fir/ upp] mol> _h its two ext]nal cusps well sep>at$ & a mu* l[] po/]ior cutt+ ridge1 :ile ! inn] cusp 0 mu* l>g]4 ,! second upp] mol>1 ?\gh transv]sely plac$1 _h all ! elem5ts ( ! primitive tritub]cul> too?1 ! patt]n f :i* all ! v>i$ types ( creodont upp] mol>s 7 d]iv$ by ! addition or suppression ( p>ts4 ,! two l[] mol>s 7 v primitive1 hav+ a high ant]ior triangle ( ?ree cusps1 =m+ an imp]fect %e>+ blade1 & a l[ heel4 ,?is d5tition 0 on ne>ly ! same plan z t ( ! small1 contempor>y hynodonts1 b ! emphasis ( developm5t1 s to speak1 0 diff]5tly plac$4 ,9 ! hynodonts !re 7 ?ree pairs ( sectorials & ! be/-develop$ pair 0 made up ( ! second upp] & ?ird l[] mol>2 :ile 9 ,limnocyon ! ?ird mol> 0 lo/1 & !re 7 b two pairs ( sectorials1 ( :i* ! l>ge/ pair 0 ! fir/ upp] & second l[] mol>1 z 0 also true ( ,oxyna & ,patri(elis4 ,! skull ( ,limnocyon _h a mu* long] facial region1 & m elongate & sl5d] jaws ?an 9 ! la/-nam$ g5]a1 & ! feet mu/ h be5 q diff]5t1 ) less spread+ digits4 ,limnocyon ?us t5ds to indicate a common orig9 = ! oxynids & hynodonts1 ?\gh ^! common ance/ors are /ill unkn[n4 ,a v int]e/+ g5us ( ?is s]ies1 ,ma*airoides1 ( ! ,bridg]1 %[s ano!r imitation ( ! cats1 ! flanges ( ! l[] jaw indicat+ sabre-l upp] can9es4 ,ano!r g5us1 ,palonictis1 ( ! ,wasat*1 f\nd also 9 ,france1 is sometimes ref]r$ to ! ,oxynid & sometimes made ! type ( a di/9ct family1 b is too incompletely kn[n = f9al ref]5ce4 ,x _h ! same numb] ( tee? z ,oxyna1 b ! pr9cipal pair ( c>nassials 0 ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>1 z 9 ! ,fissip$ia1 ! fir/ upp] & second l[] mol> =m+ ! subsidi>y pair4 ,! fir/ upp] mol> 0 h>dly sectorial at all2 its two out] cusps 7 long1 %>p-po9t$ cones1 & ! po/]ior cutt+ ridge 0 a m]e tub]cle4 ,! skull _h a %ort1 cat-l face4 ,! g5us left no successors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?is concludes ! long /ory ( ! ,c>nivora1 s f> z x has be5 recov]$ f ! rocks4 ,incomplete z x is1 & full ( unsolv$ problems1 x yet enables u to foll[1 some:at vaguely1 b ) a g5]al k9d ( accuracy1 ! developm5t ( ! v>i\s modifications :i* *>act]iz$ ! diff]5t families & g5]a ( ! gr\p4 ,! m anci5t & primitive subord]1 ! ,creodonta1 made its fir/ record$ appe>ance 9 ! l[] ,paleoc5e & 01 no d\bt1 d]iv$ f ,mesozoic ance/ors1 :i* _c yet be di/+ui%$ among ! v imp]fectly und]/ood mammals ( t era4 ,9 ! upp] ,paleoc5e1 if n be=e1 ! creodonts _h spread ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e & _h begun to div]ge into a numb] ( families1 :i* cont9u$ to div]ge m & m widely ?r\gh\t ! ,eoc5e epo*1 z !y became m specializ$ & adapt$ to diff]5t habits ( life4 ,f ! mo/ primitive gr\p1 repres5t$ m or less accurately by ! ,oxyclnid1 may be trac$ ! sev]al l9es ( div]g+ adaptations incorporat$ 9 ! v>i\s families1 "s ( :i* _h become di/9ctly recognizable 9 ! l[] ,paleoc5e1 o!rs 9 ! upp]1 :ile all 7 9 exi/5ce 9 ! l[] ,eoc5e4 ,9 "o s]ies1 ! ,mesony*id1 ! upp] tee? und]w5t comp>atively little *ange1 :ile ! l[] ones lo/ ! inn] cusps1 b no c>nassials 7 =m$4 ,! face & jaws 7 elongat$ & ! limbs & feet became adapt$ to cursorial habits1 & ! m advanc$ g5]a _h f\r-to$1 completely digitigrade feet1 ) blunt1 almo/ ho(-l claws4 ,a second s]ies1 ! ,arctocyonid1 likewise fail$ to develop sectorial tee?1 ! mol>s becom+ quadritub]cul>1 ) _m accessory tub]cles1 & assum+ a be>-l or pig-l patt]n1 :ile ! premol>s 7 r$uc$ 9 size4 ,! p5tadactyl feet _h %>p claws4 ,9 ! ,oxynid two pairs ( c>nassial tee? 7 =m$1 ( :i* ! l>g] & m effective pair 7 ! fir/ upp] & second l[] mol>1 ! small] pair ! f\r? upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol>4 ,! tee? 7 dim9i%$ 9 numb]1 fir/ by ! loss ( ! la/ mol>1 !n ! suppression ( ! fir/ premol> & f9ally by t ( ! ?ird incisor & second upp] mol>2 ! rema9+ tee? 7 enl>g$4 ,! upp] c>nassial mol> 7! fir/7 0 =m$ by ! approximation & p>tial fusion ( ! two ext]nal cusps & ! addition ( a tr5*ant ridge beh9d ^!1 & by ! r$uction & ev5tual loss ( ! int]nal cusp1 ?us becom+ m exclusively %e>+ 9 function4 ,! second l[] mol> also lo/ ! inn] cusp & ! heel1 becom+ rem>kably cat-l 9 =m2 ! fir/ 0 simil>1 b less simplifi$4 ,! face & jaws 7 greatly %ort5$1 :i*1 ) ! widely exp&$ zygomatic ar*es1 gave ! head a v cat-l appe>ance4 ,! body & tail 7 long1 ! limbs %ort & ?ick1 & ! feet _h spread+ toes & blunt claws4 ,save = a notable increase 9 size & muscul> p[]1 ! oxynids %[$ b little *ange )9 ! family4 ,! ,hynodontid diff]$ f ! oxynids 9 ! ret5tion ( all or ne>ly all ! tee? & 9 hav+ ?ree pairs ( sectorials1 ( :i* ! l>ge/ pair 0 ! second upp] & ?ird l[] mol>1 b resembl$ !m 9 ! mode ( =m+ ^! sectorials & 9 ! cat-l =m ( ! inf]ior ones4 ,al?\gh ! actual l9e ( desc5t 0 n ?r\gh ^! g5]a1 ! s]ies1 ,s9opa--,tritemnodon--,pt]odon--,hynodon 1 ext5d+ f ! l[] ,eoc5e into ! ,oligoc5e1 displays p]fectly ! successive /eps 9 ! trans=mation ( ! tee?4 ,! skull und]w5t a correspond+ s]ies ( *anges1 end+ 9 long-fac$1 long-jaw$1 wolf-l =ms1 ) l>g] bra9-case ?an 9 any o!r creodonts4 ,! elongat$ =m ( body 0 reta9$1 b ! tail 0 r$uc$ to mod]ate proportions4 ,! limbs & feet did n *ange greatly1 except 9 size & 9 ! great] bluntness ( ! claws4 ,! ,miacid1 if n actually ref]able to ! ,fissip$ia1 at lea/ anticipat$ !m 9 ! mode ( c>nassial developm5t4 ,! upp] mol>s *ang$ v little f ! primitive tritub]cul> plan1 b ! f\r? upp] premol> 0 enl>g$ & acquir$ a tr5*ant ridge beh9d ! orig9al s+le out] cusp4 ,! l[] mol>s 7 at fir/ all alike1 except 9 size1 ! fir/ be+ ! l>ge/2 !y _h ! primitive patt]n common to ! e>li] memb]s ( ne>ly all ! creodont families1 ( an elevat$ ant]ior triangle ( ?ree subequal cusps & l[1 bas9-l heel4 ,! fir/ mol> grew l>g] 9 ! successive g5]a &1 by ! enl>gem5t ( ! two ext]nal cusps ( ! primitive triangle & r$uction ( ! inn] "o1 gradually became an effici5t sectorial1 ! f\r? upp] premol> keep+ pace ) x4 ,9 proportion z ! fir/ l[] mol> 0 elaborat$1 ! second & ?ird 7 r$uc$ 9 size & ! ant]ior triangle 0 l[]$ to ! level ( ! heel1 ^! tee? ?us becom+ tub]cul>4 ,all ! ,miacid 7 small animals1 none atta9+ ! /ature ( a fox1 ?\gh "s _h heads z l>ge4 ,f ?is family1 z 0 po9t$ out above1 probably arose all ( ! ,fissip$ia1 ! hi/ory ( :i* x is ne$less to repeat4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,primates ,?is ord] embraces ! lemurs1 monkeys1 man-l apes & ,man1 ?\gh 9 ! g5]al acc\nt ,man w be omitt$ f consid]ation4 ,! ,primates are clo!d 9 d5se fur or %aggy hair4 ,! tee? are always l[-cr[n$ & root$ & r$uc$ 9 numb]1 ! incisors g5]ally to #b_/b & ! premol>s to #c_/c-b_/b2 ! mol>s are tritub]culate or quadritub]culate4 ,! cranium is unusually capaci\s & ! orbit is entirely encircl$ 9 bone4 ,! tail v>ies mu* 9 l5g? & may be entirely want+4 ,! bones ( ! =e-arm & l[] leg are sep>ate & ! radius has mu* fre$om ( rotation1 9 correspond5ce ) ! grasp+ p[] ( ! h&4 ,! pes is also a grasp+ organ &1 ) few exceptions1 ! ?umb & great toe are opposable to ! o!r digits2 ! bones ( ! wri/ d n cossify & frequ5tly ! c5tral is pres5t4 ,! feet are plantigrade & almo/ always p5tadactyl &1 ) a few exceptions1 h nei!r claws nor ho(s1 b flat nails2 ! ungual phalanges are correspond+ly modifi$ & d n tap] t[>d ! free end1 b exp& at ! tip4 ,! ,primates are *>act]i/ically arboreal 9 habit1 b a few1 su* z ! baboons1 h become second>ily adapt$ to a t]re/rial mode ( life4 ,!y inhabit at pres5t all ! tropical regions ( bo? hemisph]es1 ,au/ralia except$4 ,extra-tropical ,nor? ,am]ica has no exi/+ memb] ( ! ord] &1 s f> z we "k1 has _h none s9ce ! ,eoc5e epo*4 ,! mo/ important ( ! g5]a ( ! we/]n hemisph]e are li/$ bel[4 ,subord] ,,lemuroidea4 ,lemurs ,i4 ,,no?>ctid4 ,pelycodus1 l[4 & mid4 ,eoc4 ,no?>ctus1 ,eoc4 ,,ii4 ,,anaptomorphid4 ,anaptomorphus1 l[4 & mid4 ,eoc4 ,omomys1 mid4 ,eoc4 ,hemiacodon1 d4 ,subord] ,,an?ropoidea4 ,monkeys1 ,apes1 ,man ,section ,,platyrrh9a ,,iii4 ,,hapalid4 ,m>mosets4 ,hapale4 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,midas1 ,rec4 ,,iv4 ,,cebid4 ,s\? ,am]ican ,monkeys4 ,cebus1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,al\atta1 ,h[l+ ,monkeys1 ,plei/4 & ,rec4 ,ateles1 ,spid] ,monkeys4 ,pi!cia1 ,sakis4 ,cacajao1 ,uak>is4 ,nyctipi!cus1 ,d\r\c\lis4 ,eriodes1 ,plei/4 ,homunculus1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pi!culus1 d4 ,! exi/+ ,primates are divid$ into two subord]s1 ,lemuroidea & ,an?ropoidea1 :i* are q cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 b ! fossil =ms l>gely efface ! di/9ction4 ,,subord] ,,lemuroidea4 ,,lemurs ,! "n ,lemur1 :i* ,l9nu gave to a g5us ( ?is subord]1 signifies 9 ,lat9 a spectre or gho/ & 0 probably sugge/$ by ! v /range appe>ance & nocturnal habits ( ^! curi\s creatures4 ,! t]m has be5 adopt$ z ! ,engli% "n = ! gr\p1 z !re 0 no v]nacul> ^w = x4 ,! lemurs are v obvi\sly ! m primitive division ( ! ,primates4 ,omitt+ = ! pres5t ! ext9ct =ms1 ! d5tal =mula is usually3 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #c_/c1 #b #cf2 ! upp] can9e is a long1 %>p1 dagg]-l too?1 b ! l[] "o1 9 ne>ly all ( ! g5]a1 is l an incisor & its place is tak5 by ! ant]ior premol>2 ! premol>s are simple1 compress$ & tr5*ant & ! upp] mol>s tritub]cul>4 ,! skull usually has a long & tap]+ facial portion1 s t ! liv+ head has "s resemblance to t ( a raccoon4 ,! orbits almo/ always h a m or less lat]al pres5tation1 in/ead ( be+ direct$ =w>d1 z !y are 9 ! ,an?ropoidea2 !y are encircl$ 9 bone1 b are n wall$ 9 by a bony funnel2 ! la*rymal bone is ext5d$ on ! face & ! =am5 is outside ( ! orbit4 ,! h9d legs are long] ?an ! =e2 ! hum]us reta9s ! epicondyl> =am5 & ! femur has a ?ird tro*ant]2 ! feet are plantigrade1 almo/ always five-to$1 ) opposable ?umb & great toe1 & hav+ a v>y+ proportion ( flat nails & %>p claws4 ,! bra9 is ( a primitive type & n mu* convolut$4 ,all ! exi/+ & mo/ ( ! fossil lemurs are small animals1 "s q m9ute1 & only 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,madagasc> h l>ge ones be5 f\nd4 ,!y are *iefly nocturnal & arboreal 9 habits1 & fe$ ^u fruit & leaves1 b v>y _! diet ) insects1 small reptiles1 birds & eggs4 ,_! pres5t geographical di/ribution is v rem>kable2 m ?an two-?irds ( ! exi/+ species are conf9$ to ,madagasc>2 ! o!rs are 9 tropical ,africa1 s\!rn ,asia & ! ,asiatic isl&s1 z f> ea/ z ,celebes & ! ,philipp9es4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e epo* !y ext5d$ all ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 b h n be5 f\nd 9 any subsequ5t =mation outside ( _! pres5t range4 ,lemurs occurr$ 9 ! ,u9ta /age1 b 7 mu* m abundant 9 ! ,bridg]1 ( :i* ! be/-kn[n g5us is ,no?>ctus4 ,^! ,eoc5e =ms did n h ! ab]rant peculi>ities ( ! mod]n lemurs1 b dep>t$ less f ! primitive /ock common to bo? ( ! subord]s4 ,9 ,no?>ctus ! d5tal =mula 03 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #d_/d1 m #c_/c1 #b #dj1 ! d5tition be+ r$uc$ only to ! ext5t ( los+ "o incisor on ea* side above & bel[2 ! l[] can9e 0 n incisi=m nor _h ! ant]ior premol> tak5 its place2 ! upp] mol>s 7 quadritub]cul>1 & 9 ! l[] ones ! ant]ior triangle 0 h>dly high] ?an ! heel4 ,! two halves ( ! l[] jaw 7 cossifi$ at ! symphysis1 & ! femur _h lo/ ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,x is n likely t ,no?>ctus 0 ance/ral to any ( ! exi/+ lemurs1 b may h be5 to ! num]\s =ms ( ! ,european upp] ,eoc5e4 ,! ,wasat* g5]a are kn[n f v fragm5t>y mat]ial1 b x suffices to %[ t "s ( ! g5]a1 at lea/ 7e4g4 ,pelycodus71 7 decid$ly m primitive ?an ^? ( ! ,bridg]4 ,! incisors _h already be5 r$uc$ to #b_/b1 ! well-nigh univ]sal =mula among ! ,primates2 ! upp] mol>s 7 tritub]cul>1 b ) a m9ute f\r? cusp beg9n+ to appe>1 & 9 ! l[] mol>s ! ant]ior triangle 0 elevat$ above ! heel4 ,! two halves ( ! l[] jaw 7 sep>ate4 ,! ,paleoc5e has yield$ no?+ t c be positively ref]r$ to ! ,primates1 b !re 0 a gr\p ( g5]a 7e4g4 ,indrodon71 kn[n only f jaws & tee?1 :i* h be5 v>i\sly assign$ to ! lemurs & ! ,insectivora & may h belong$ to ei!r ord]1 or h repres5t$ ! transition betwe5 !m4 ,?is v unc]ta9ty is 9 itself a significant fact1 = x is ano!r ( ! _m examples ( ! way 9 :i*1 at t e>ly p]iod1 ! mammalian ord]s 7 s approximat$ t x is (t5 v difficult to di/+ui% !m4 ,x 0 /at$ above t ! di/9ction betwe5 exi/+ lemurs & an?ropoids 0 a v cle> "o1 b to ?is /atem5t !re is "o p>tial exception4 ,! curi\s little ,t>si] 7,t>sius spectrum71 an animal ab\t ! size ( ! ,grey ,squirrel1 an inhabitant ( ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 is ?us describ$ by ,mr4 ,b$d>d3 8,! e>s are l>ge & ! eyes are extraord9>ily develop$4 ,! f+]s & toes t]m9ate 9 l>ge1 exp&$ disks & are furni%$ ) flatt5$ nails1 except on ! second & ?ird toes1 :i* h claws4 ,! tail is long] ?an ! body & tuft$ at ! end4444 ,! ,t>si]s are nocturnal & p>ticul>ly arboreal2 !y live 9 pairs1 9 holes 9 tree /ems & are ma9ly insectivor\s 9 _! food4444 ,l s _m ,lemurs1 ?is animal is held 9 sup]/iti\s dread1 :i* is ! result ( its mo/ weird appe>ance40#ac ,! skull is m an?ropoid 9 "* ?an is t ( any o!r lemur1 ! face be+ greatly %ort5$1 ! cranium enl>g$ & ! orbit n m]ely encircl$ 9 a bony rim1 b ) a ?9 po/]ior wall ( bone4 ,!re are also /ructural features 9 ! s(t p>ts1 :i* are m an?ropoid ?an lemuroid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--;,head ( monkey-l lemur 7,anaptomorphus homunculus7 f ! ,wasat*4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum4 ,! p>ticul> int]e/ :i* ,t>sius possesses = ! /ud5t ( ,am]ican mammals is its resemblance to ! ,wasat* g5us ,anaptomorphus1 ! type ( a family :i* 0 abundant & v>i$ 9 ! l[] & middle ,eoc5e4 ,?is g5us 0 rem>kably advanc$ 9 view ( its great antiquity4 ,! d5tal =mula 03 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c-b1 m #c_/c1 #b #cd-cf2 9 ! upp] jaw ! premol>s 7 bicuspid & ! mol>s tritub]cul>1 :ile ! l[] premol>s 7 simple4 ,! face 0 v mu* %ort5$2 ! orbits 7 v l>ge & encircl$ 9 bone1 b )\t ! po/]ior wall4 ,?is produces a decid$ lik5ess to ! ,t>si] & is no d\bt indicative ( nocturnal habits4 ,! cranium 0 rem>kably l>ge1 & no o!r ,wasat* animal _h a bra9-case s capaci\s 9 proportion to its size4 ,a lemur9e "* 0 ! position ( ! la*rymal =am5 outside ( ! orbit4 ,! two halves ( ! l[] jaw 7 sep>ate4 ,x is h>dly likely t ^! ,am]ican lemurs 7 ! actual ance/ors ( ! an?ropoids1 b !y closely repres5t :at ^? ance/ors mu/ h be54 ,,subord] ,,an?ropoidea4 ,,monkeys1 ,,apes1 ,,man ,! specifically human *>act]s w be omitt$ 9 def9+ ! subord]4 ,! ,an?ropoidea are plantigrade1 usually arboreal & p5tadactyl1 ) opposable ?umb & great toe & ?us ! pes is l a h&1 h5ce ! t]m 8,quadrumana0 =m]ly giv5 to ! apes & monkeys4 ,except 9 ! ,s\? ,am]ican m>mosets 7,hapalid7 all ( ! digits h nails4 ,! can9es are g5]ally m or less tusk-l1 project+ above 7or bel[7 ! level ( ! o!r tee?2 ! premol>s mo/ly h two tub]cles1 l ! human bicuspids1 ! upp] mol>s h ?ree1 or m commonly f\r1 cusps & ! l[]1 f\r or five4 ,save 9 ! baboons1 ! skull has a v %ort muzzle & a v l>ge cranium1 ! capacity ( :i* is relatively greate/ 9 ! l>ge apes2 ! bra9 is l>ge & complexly convolut$4 ,! orbits pres5t directly =w>d & are deep1 funnel-%ap$ cavities = ! lodgm5t ( ! eyeballs1 a ?9 bony wall completely enclos+ !m ext]nally & po/]iorly4 ,! la*rymal bone & its =am5 are )9 ! edge ( ! orbit2 ! nasal bones are %ort & h a ne>ly v]tical position4 ,! two frontal bones are e>ly fus$ into "o & usually !re is no sagittal cre/2 ! two halves ( ! l[] jaw are cossifi$ at ! symphysis4 ,! tail is extremely v>iable 9 l5g? & may be ?ree times z long z ! body1 or entirely abs5t4 ,! =e & h9d legs are sometimes ( ne>ly equal l5g?1 b f> m frequ5tly ! ant]ior pair are mu* ! long]4 ,! l5g? ( ! legs 9 proportion to t ( ! body is v diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t families4 ,! hum]us is mu* l t ( ,man & has no epicondyl> =am52 ! radius has a v complete movem5t ( rotation2 ! femur nev] has ! ?ird tro*ant] & ! l[] leg bones are always sep>ate4 ,! ?umb is m or less opposable to ! o!r digits1 except 9 ! m>mosets1 b nev] s p]fectly z 9 ,man2 ! great toe is also opposable1 b %ort] ?an ! o!r digits4 ,! ,an?ropoidea are divisible into two sections1 ! ,cat>rh9a1 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,old ,_w1 & ! ,platyrrh9a1 conf9$ to ! ,new4 ,9 ! ,cat>rh9a1 or ,old ,_w apes & monkeys1 ! d5tal =mula is ! same z 9 ,man3 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b1 m #c_/c1 #b #cb2 ! no/rils are close toge!r & ! tympanic bull h tubul> entrances4 ,_m1 b n all1 h *eek-p\*es op5+ into ! m\?4 ,! tail is nev] preh5sile &1 except 9 mo/ ( ! l>ge1 man-l apes 7,simiid71 !re are nak$ callosities on ! buttocks4 ,) ^! ,old ,_w =ms we h no fur!r conc]n1 ?\gh x may be not$ 9 pass+ t ,dr4 ,s*loss] has discov]$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,egypt c]ta9 monkeys 7,p>api!cus7 :i* he ?us describes3 8,! numb] & /ructure ( ! tee?1 "* ( ! jaws & bodily size make complete ! transition f ! ,anaptomorphids & ,t>siids to ! ,simiids40 ,section ,platyrrh9a4 ,s\? ,am]ican ,monkeys ,9 ^! animals ! no/rils are sep>at$ by a broad septum1 & !re are always ?ree premol>s above & bel[ 7p #c_/c74 ,! tail is frequ5tly preh5sile & s]ves z a fif? limb1 be+ capable ( support+ ! :ole weight ( ! body4 ,!re are no *eek-p\*es & no callosities1 & ! tympanic bull h no bony tubes lead+ into !m4 ,! ?umb is b p>tially1 or n at all1 opposable & 9 "s g5]a is abs5t4 ,! ,new ,_w monkeys are1 9 g5]al1 small] & light] ?an ^? ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e2 !re are no v l>ge ones & !y are all arboreal & are conf9$ to ! =e/$ p>ts ( ! ,neotropical region1 except ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* h none4 ,! m>mosets 7,hapalid71 ! fir/ ( ! two families into :i* ! ,platyrrh9a are divid$1 are little creatures1 no long] ?an squirrels1 ) long1 non-preh5sile tails4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by ! d5tal =mula3 i #b_/b1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #b_/b1 #b #cb1 & are ! only ,primates :i* h no ?ird mol> above or bel[4 ,! ?umb is n opposable1 ?\gh q long1 & ! hallux1 or great toe1 is v small2 !y are ?us defici5t 9 grasp+ p[]4 ,in/ead ( ! flat nails common to all ! o!r ,an?ropoidea1 !y h long1 %>p claws4 ,all o!r ,s\? ,am]ican monkeys are includ$ 9 ! family ,cebid :i*1 9 turn1 is divid$ into f\r subfamilies4 ,x is n necess>y to consid] ^! or d m ?an cite a few illu/rative examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--;,common ,m>moset 7,hapale74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,l4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--,sapaj\ 7,cebus74--,by p]mission ( ! ,new ,york ,zological ,society4 ,"s tw5ty species ( ! g5us ,cebus are di/ribut$ f ,c5tral ,am]ica to ,p>aguay2 !y h long1 preh5sile tails completely cov]$ ) hair1 & well-develop$ ?umbs4 ,! monkeys ( ?is g5us are famili> to e "o1 z !y are l>gely us$ by organ-gr9d]s4 ,! spid]-monkeys 7,ateles7 are s call$ because ( ! great l5g? & sl5d]ness ( _! limbs2 ! tail is v long & p]fectly preh5sile1 nak$ on ! l[] side ne> ! end1 :i* improves its grasp+ p[]4 ,! h& has lo/ ! ?umb1 b is us$ v effectively z a hook4 ,! species1 t5 or m 9 numb]1 h a wid] range ?an ^? ( ,cebus & ext5d f ,uruguay to ,mexico4 ,! h[l+ monkeys 7,al\atta1 m commonly1 b improp]ly1 call$ ,mycetes7 are gift$ ) mo/ unusual vocal p[]s4 ,mr4 ,bates says ( !m3 8,morn+ & ev5+ ! h[l+ monkeys make a mo/ fe>ful & h>r[+ ro>40 8,! brief ev5+ *orus ( animals !n began1 ! *ief p]=m]s be+ ! h[l+ monkeys1 ^: frightful une>?ly ro> deep5$ ! feel+ ( solitude :i* crept on z d>kness clos$ ar\nd u40#ad ,! trem5d\s volume ( s\nd :i* ^! small creatures are able to produce is due to a resonat+ app>atus1 =m$ by ! great inflation ( "o ( ! hyoid bones 7see p4 #fg71 normally ! bony support ( ! tongue4 ,! tail is long & preh5sile1 ) ! end nak$ b5ea?2 ! ?umb is well develop$4 ,! sakis 7,pi!cia7 h long & non-preh5sile tail & complete ?umb4 ,! species ( ?is g5us h a rem>kable k9d ( di/ribution1 :i* is r>e among mammals1 ?\gh n infrequ5t = insects & birds4 ,ea* species is limit$ to a def9ite area ( =e/ along ! ,amazon & its tribut>ies1 :i* x occupies to ! exclusion ( ! o!rs4 ,! uak>is 7,cacajao7 are di/+ui%$ by ! tail1 :i* is mu* %ort] ?an 9 any o!r ( ! ,cebid4 ,f9ally1 may be m5tion$ ! nocturnal d\r\c\lis 7,nyctipi!cus71 :i* h long1 non-preh5sile tail & well-develop$ ?umb4 ,mr4 ,bates describes !m ?us3 8,a ?ird int]e/+ g5us ( monkeys1 f\nd ne> ,ega1 are ! ,nyctipi!ci1 or night apes1 call$ ,ei- by ! ,indians4444 ,!y sleep all day long 9 holl[ trees & come =? to prey on insects & eat fruits only at night4 ,!y are ( small size1 ! body be+ ab\t a foot long & ! tail f\rte5 in*es1 & are ?ickly clo!d ) s(t gray & br[n fur1 444 & ! eyes are l>ge & yell[i% 9 col\r1 imp>t+ ! />+ expression ( nocturnal animals ( prey40#ae ,! ,brazilian cav]ns h pres]v$ ! rema9s ( _m ,plei/oc5e monkeys belong+ to exi/+ ,s\? ,am]ican g5]a1 & ev5 sev]al mod]n species are repres5t$1 :ile o!rs are ext9ct4 ,!re is also "o ext9ct g5us 7,eriodes71 a l>g] animal ?an any ( ! exi/+ ,neotropical monkeys4 ,! ,pampean deposits ( ,arg5t9a1 on ! o!r h&1 h yield$ no rema9s ( ,primates1 nor is ?is surpris+1 = ! ,pampas w\ld seem to h be5 op5 pla9s 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 z !y are to-day4 ,betwe5 ! ,plei/oc5e & ! ,santa ,cruz ,mioc5e !re is a long gap 9 ! hi/ory4 ,x is true t "s bones h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,plioc5e ( ,monte ,h]moso :i* h be5 ref]r$ to ! ,primates1 b !y are too few & imp]fect to be ( any real assi/ance 9 ! inquiry4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz b$s fossil monkeys are v r>e1 b t !y 7 pres5t 9 ,patagonia at all1 is /rong evid5ce t ! climate 0 !n f> mild] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,^! 7 ess5tially memb]s ( ! mod]n family ,cebid4 ,! be/-kn[n g5us1 ,homunculus1 reta9$ a few primitive *>act]s1 :i* ! exi/+ g5]a h lo/4 ,= example1 ! premol>s 7 relatively small] & ( simpl] =m & ! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am51 ?\gh ! femur no long] _h ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! radius 0 v mod]n 9 =m & evid5tly c\ld rotate freely ^u ! hum]us4 ,no monkeys h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,deseado =mation1 ?\gh too mu* /ress %\ld n be laid ^u ?is fact1 because ( ! g5]al sc>city ( small animals 9 ^? b$s4 ,b ! same is true ( ! /ill m anci5t /ages2 despite an abundant & v>i$ fauna ( small mammals1 !y h yield$ no ,primates1 nor any?+ :i* c\ld be s]i\sly reg>d$ z ance/ral to !m4 ,! facts are ess5tially ! same z we h f\nd !m to be ) ref]5ce to ! ,s\? ,am]ican rod5ts & insectivores4 ,all ?ree ( ^! ord]s appe>$ sudd5ly & unh]ald$ 9 ! ,deseado 7,rod5tia7 or ,santa ,cruz 7,insectivora1 ,primates71 & all ( !m 7 alli$ to ,african or ,european r ?an to ,nor? ,am]ican types4 ,if we may assume ! exi/5ce ( a l&-connection ) ,africa to acc\nt = ! rem>kable di/ribution ( ! hy/ricomorph rod5ts1 ! same connection w equally well expla9 ! introduction ( ! ,primates into ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,conc]n+ ! relations ( ! ,old & ,new ,_w monkeys1 ,mr4 ,b$d>d rem>ks3 8,n only are ^! two gr\ps ( ! ,primates absolutely di/9ct at ! pres5t day1 b !y h be51 s f> z we "k1 = a v long "t1 s9ce no fossil rema9s ( ,monkeys at all int]m$iate h be5 s f> discov]$4 ,?is has l$ to ! sugge/ion t ! ,monkeys are :at is t]m$ diphyletic1 i4e41 t !y h orig9at$ f two diff]5t /ocks ( ance/ors4 ,x is h>d1 h[ev]1 to und]/& on ?is view ! v great simil>ities :i* und]lie ! div]g5ces t h j be5 m5tion$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is equally h>d to und]/& h[ x is t1 hav+ be5 sep>at$ f ea* o!r = s long a p]iod1 !y h n div]g$ fur!r 9 /ructure ?an !y h40#af ,! fossil monkeys ( ! ,santa ,cruz b$s %[ t1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,primates h und]gone little *ange 9 ! ess5tials ( /ructure s9ce t remote p]iod1 & ?us is remov$ ?is objection to ! conclusion t ! ,platyrrh9a & ,cat>rh9a 7 d]iv$ f a common ance/ry4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se also1 ! discov]y ( ,p>api!cus 9 ,egypt has dim9i%$ ! gap betwe5 ^! two sections ( ! ,an?ropoidea4 ,! evid5ce1 ?\gh by no means conclusive1 is di/9ctly 9 fav\r ( ! d]ivation ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican monkeys f ,old ,_w ance/ors4 ,! ,cat>rh9a h develop$ & advanc$ f ! po9t ( div]g5ce f> m ?an h ! ,s\? ,am]ican =ms1 :i* h *ang$ relatively little s9ce _! invasion ( ! ,neotropical region4 ,s f> z has be5 asc]ta9$1 ,s\? ,am]ica nev] _h any ( ! lemurs4 ,,man ,,9 ,,! ,,we/]n ,,hemisph]e ,?\gh to mo/ p ?is is und\bt$ly ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt] ( all ! mammalian hi/ory1 little space c be giv5 to x "h1 = ! reason t ! subject belongs r 9 ! doma9 ( ,an?ropology & ,e?nology ?an 9 t ( ,palontology4 ,!re c be no "q t ,man orig9at$ 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e & at a v remote p]iod2 abundant rema9s ( 8 h&iwork & ( himself h be5 f\nd 9 ,europe z f> back z ! e>ly ,plei/oc5e1 & rec5t discov]ies 9 ,engl& h increas$ ! already kn[n l5g? ( ! human habitation ( ,europe4 ,s primitive & ape-l 7 "s ( ^! anci5t m5 t !y h be5 nam$ z species 7,homo ne&]?al5sis & ,h4 heidelb]g5sis7 di/9ct f ! exi/+ ,h4 sapi5s4 ,rec5tly discov]$ & v anci5t rema9s 9 ,engl& h ev5 be5 ref]r$ to a sep>ate g5us1 ,eoan?ropus4 ,z has be5 repeat$ly po9t$ out 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 ,am]ica receiv$ num]\s successive waves ( mammalian immigrants dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e epo*1 at a "t :5 !re 0 a broad l&-connection betwe5 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,asia1 :]e n[ is ,b]+ ,/rait2 & to ?is late connection is due ! fact t ! ,boreal zone ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7see p4 #aej7 is zologically a "p ( ! ,old ,_w & =ms a division ( ! ,hol>ctic region4 ,n[1 !re is no kn[n reason :y ,man1 ^: p[]s ( disp]sal are s sup]ior to ^? ( any o!r mammal1 %\ld n h accompani$ ^! migrations1 & x is entirely possible t he actually did s1 b ! fact has n be5 demon/rat$4 ,x is true t discov]ies ( ,plei/oc5e ,man h be5 frequ5tly report$ f bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 b ^! h n /ood ! te/ ( critical exam9ation1 ?\gh su* exam9ation has by no means disprov$ ! pres5ce ( ,plei/oc5e ,man 9 ,am]ica4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,hrdlika has rec5tly conclud$ a s]ies ( exhau/ive /udies ( ! bones ( e>ly ,man 9 bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica & ( ! localities :]e ^! bones 7 f\nd4 ,= bo? cont95ts he has rea*$ a negative result4 ,z to ,nor? ,am]ica he says3 8,?us f> on ?is cont95t no human bones ( undisput$ geologic antiquity are kn[n40#ag ,= ,s\? ,am]ica ! result is ! same4 8,a consci5ti\s1 unbias$ /udy ( all ! available facts has %[n t ! :ole /ructure erect$ 9 support ( ! !ory ( geologically anci5t man on t cont95t re/s on v imp]fect & incorrectly int]pret$ data & 9 _m in/ances on false premises1 & z a consequ5ce ( ^! weaknesses mu/ completely collapse :5 subject$ to se>*+ criticism40 8,! conclusions ( ! writ]s ) reg>d to ! evid5ce ?us f> furni%$ are t x fails to e/abli% ! claim t 9 ,s\? ,am]ica !re h be5 br\ght =? ?us f> tangible traces ( ei!r geologically anci5t man himself or any precursor ( ! human race4 8,?is %\ld n be tak5 z a categorical d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( e>ly man 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 h[ev] improbable su* a pres5ce may n[ appe>40#ah ,on ! o!r h&1 ! coexi/5ce 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ( ,man ) sev]al ext9ct species ( mammals has be5 made extremely probable1 if n c]ta94 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & be/ au!nticat$ cases ( ?is 0 ! discov]y by ,pr(essor ,willi/on 9 we/]n ,kansas ( a fl9t arr[head b5ea? & 9 contact ) ! skeleton ( ! ext9ct ,bison occid5talis4 ,pr(essor ,russell f\nd 9 lake deposits ( ,nevada an obsidian spe>-head 9 association ) ! bones ( an elephant or ma/odon1 & o!r su* in/ances h be5 report$4 ,9 ^! cases ! d\bt is z to ! geological antiquity ( ! 8f9ds10 = ! implem5ts are ( ! type made by ! pre-,columbian ,indians4 ,9 brief1 !re is no conv9c+ evid5ce t ei!r ,nor? or ,s\? ,am]ica 0 ev] inhabit$ 9 prehi/oric times by races ( m5 diff]5t f ^? fir/ enc\nt]$ by ! ,european discov]]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,ed5tata ,z "h employ$1 exclud+ ! s-call$ ed5tates ( ! ,old ,_w1 ! ,ed5tata =m a highly v>iegat$1 b natural1 assemblage ( relat$ =ms4 ,! ord] is at pres5t exclusively ,am]ican & almo/ conf9$ to ! ,neotropical region1 an armadillo :i* ext5ds into ,texas be+ ! sole exception4 ,^! animals are s peculi> & s isolat$ f o!r mammals1 t x has be5 propos$ to treat !m z a sep>ate subclass2 & !re is mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is proc$ure1 ?\gh x w\ld p]haps be premature1 until m is le>n$ conc]n+ ^! mo/ curi\s & exceptional animals4 ,9 ! subjo9$ table only ! m important & bett] kn[n g5]a are includ$4 ,s]ies ,,pilosa4 ,hairy ,ed5tates ,subord] ,,t>digrada4 ,tree-,slo?s ,i4 ,,bradypodid4 ,bradypus1 ,?ree-to$ ,slo?1 ,rec4 ,*olpus1 ,two-to$ ,slo?1 ,rec4 ,subord] ,,v]mil+ua4 ,anteat]s ,,ii4 ,,myrmecophagid4 ,myrmecophaga1 ,ant-,be>1 ,rec4 ,tam&ua1 ,less] ,anteat]1 d4 ,cyclopes1 ,tree ,anteat]1 d4 ,subord] ,,gravigrada4 ,gr\nd-,slo?s ,,iii4 ,,mega!riid4 ,mega!rium1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a42 ,plei/41 ,n4 ,a4 8,prepo!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 8,planops1 d4 ,,iv4 ,,mylodontid4 ,mylodon1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a42 ,plei/41 ,n4 ,a4 ,p>amylodon1 ,plei/41 ,n4 ,a4 ,grypo!rium1 ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,pseudole/odon1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,scelido!rium1 d4 ,nema!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,analci!rium1 d4 ,v4 ,,megalony*id4 ,megalonyx1 ,plei/41 ,n4,a4 ,no?ro!rium1 ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,megalocnus1 ,plei/41 ,cuba4 ,hapalops1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,s*ismo!rium1 d4 ,pelecyodon1 d4 ,megalony*o!rium1 d4 ,protobradys1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,s]ies ,,loricata4 ,arm\r$ ,ed5tates ,subord] ,,dasypoda4 ,armadillos ,,vi4 ,,dasypodid4 ,dasypus1 #f-1 #g- & #h-;,b&$ ,armadillos1 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 ,s4 ,a4 ,cabass\s1 #aa-;,b&$ ,armadillo1 d4 ,priodontes1 ,giant ,armadillo1 d4 ,tolypeutes1 ,ap>1 ,rec41 ,s4 ,a4 ,zadyus1 ,pygmy ,armadillo1 d4 ,scl]opleura1 d4 ,*lamydophorus1 ,pi*iciago1 d4 ,tatu1 #i-;,b&$ ,armadillo1 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 ,s4 ,a42 ,rec41 ,texas4 ,eutatus1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,*lamydo!rium1 d4 ,proeutatus1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,prozadius1 ,deseado & ,santa ,cruz1 ,prodasypus1 d4 ,/ego!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,meteutatus1 ,deseado4 ,sadypus1 d4 ,amblytatus1 d4 ,pruphractus1 d4 ,,vii4 ,,peltephilid4 ,peltephilus1 ,deseado & ,santa ,cruz4 ,,viii4 ,,inc]t ,,s$is4 ,meta*eiromys1 mid4 ,eoc41 ,n4 ,a4 ,subord] ,,glyptodontia4 ,glyptodonts ,,ix4 ,,glyptodontid4 ,glyptodon1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a4 ,ddicurus1 ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,pano*?us1 d4 ,scl]ocalyptus1 ,plio4 & ,plei/41 ,s4 ,a4 ,glypto!rium1 mid4 ,plio41 ,n4 ,a4 ,propalohoplophorus1 ,deseado & ,santa ,cruz4 ,co*lops1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,euc9epeltus1 d4 ,a/]o/emma1 d4 ,9 ! section ,pilosa1 :i* includes ! slo?s 7,t>digrada71 anteat]s 7,v]mil+ua7 & ! ext9ct gr\nd-slo?s 7,gravigrada71 ! sk9 is ?ickly clo!d ) long hair1 & 9 ! ,loricata1 armadillos & glyptodonts1 ! head1 body1 tail & legs are m or less completely encas$ 9 an arm\r ( bony scutes cov]$ ) plates ( horn1 b ) "s hairs also4 ,! "n ,ed5tata 7too?less7 is n v happily *os51 = only ! anteat]s are q too?less4 ,almo/ all ! g5]a h no tee? 9 ! front ( ! m\? & ! tee? are ne>ly always alike1 s t ! di/9ction ( regions among !m is entirely a matt] ( position 9 ! jaws4 ,9 ! tree-slo?s & _m gr\nd-slo?s ! =emo/ too? 9 ea* jaw is a m or less enl>g$1 can9e-l tusk4 ,! tee? are always rootless1 gr[+ f p]man5t pulps1 & are )\t enamel1 made up ( d5t9e1 :i* is sometimes homog5e\s & sometimes 9 lay]s ( diff]5t h>dness1 & ) a cov]+ ( cem5t1 usually ?9 & film-l4 ,! numb] ( tee? v>ies f #d_/d to #aj_/aj or m1 & _! =m usually approximates a simple cyl9d]1 worn (f flat at ! end1 ?\gh ! ends may be bevell$ or groov$1 diff]5ces :i* are 9 no way due to patt]n b simply to ! mode ( we>4 ,9 ! glyptodonts ! tee? 7 divid$ by deep v]tical grooves into two or ?ree pill>s1 connect$ by n>r[ necks4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ed5tates !re is no *ange ( tee?1 ! milk-d5tition hav+ be5 completely suppress$1 b 9 ! #i-;,b&$ ,armadillo 7,tatu7 ea* ( ! p]man5t tee? is prec$$ by a two-root$ milk-too?1 & "s o!r armadillos h milk-tee?4 ,! skull v>ies mu* 9 =m & proportions1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! food & me?od ( fe$+4 ,! tree-slo?s & gr\nd-slo?s h %ort1 r\nd$ heads2 9 ! glyptodonts1 ! skull 0 %ort & rem>kably deep v]tically2 :ile ! armadillos h long1 %all[ heads1 ) tap]+ muzzle1 ! l5g? & sl5d]ness ( :i* diff] 9 ! v>i\s g5]a4 ,9 ! anteat]s ! skull is extraord9>ily elongate & sl5d]4 ,! sagittal cre/ is seldom pres5t at all & nev] prom95t4 ,! zygomatic ar* may be complete or int]rupt$2 9 ! tree-slo?s1 gr\nd-slo?s1 glyptodonts & "s ext9ct armadillos1 !re is a desc5d+1 plate-l process giv5 (f b5ea? ! eye4 ,! backbone displays "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable peculi>ities ( ! ord]4 ,! neck 9 ! tree-slo?s has eight or n9e v]tebr1 ! only in/ances kn[n among mammals 9 :i* ! normal numb] ( sev5 is dep>t$ f4 ,9 ! armadillos & glyptodonts sev]al ( ! neck-v]tebr are cossifi$ into a s+le piece1 b ! atlas is always free1 s z to p]mit ! movem5ts ( ! head4 ,9 ! po/]ior "p ( ! dorsal & 9 ! lumb> region ! articulations betwe5 ! successive v]tebr are by f> ! mo/ complex & intricate kn[n among mammals2 9 ! tree-slo?s ^! h deg5]at$1 ?\gh /ill pla9ly indicat$4 ,9 ! glyptodonts1 :i* 7 cov]$ ) a huge1 tortoise-l c>apace1 mobility ( ! backbone 0 ne$less1 & s all ( ! dorsal v]tebr 7 unit$ into "o long piece & ! lumb>s 7 cossifi$ ) "o ano!r & ) ! sacrum4 ,! sacrum consi/s1 ?r\gh\t ! ord]1 ( a v l>ge numb] ( v]tebr & is atta*$ to ! hip-bones at two diff]5t po9ts1 in/ead ( only "o1 z 9 o!r mammals4 ,! tail v>ies mu* 9 l5g? & ?ickness2 9 ! tree-slo?s x is extremely %ort & 9 ! anteat]s v long & bu%y1 preh5sile 9 ! arboreal memb]s ( ! gr\p2 9 ! gr\nd-slo?s1 especially ! gigantic =ms1 x 0 ( imm5se ?ickness2 :ile 9 mo/ ( ! glyptodonts a v>y+ numb] ( ! t]m9al v]tebr 7 fus$ toge!r4 ,! /]nal ribs are bett] develop$ ?an 9 any o!r mammals1 & 9 ! anteat]s & gr\nd-slo?s !y articulate ) ! brea/-bone by regul> synovial jo9ts1 & ea* rib has head & tub]cle l a v]tebral rib4 ,9 ! limbs & feet !re is great v>iety1 accord+ to ! mann] ( _! employm5t4 ,! %\ld]-blade has a v long acromion & v l>ge coracoid1 :i* long rema9s sep>ate f ! scapula2 coll>-bones are v g5]ally pres5t1 ?\gh (t5 9 mu* r$uc$ condition4 ,! hip-bones h 9 ! tree-slo?s1 gr\nd-slo?s & glyptodonts a mu* exp&$ ant]ior elem5t1 :i* 9 ! o!r gr\ps is n>r[4 ,! hum]us usually has v prom95t deltoid & sup9ator ridges & epicondyl> =am52 ! =e-arm bones are always sep>ate1 & !re is g5]ally mu* fre$om ( rotation ( ! manus4 ,9 ! wri/ !re is no di/9ct c5tral & usually !re are ! ord9>y eight sep>ate bones4 ,! tibia & fibula are frequ5tly cossifi$4 ,! tree-slo?s1 :i* lead mo/ /rictly arboreal lives & are almo/ helpless on ! gr\nd1 are unique among mammals 9 t ! body is habitually susp5d$ f ! limbs1 n c>ri$ ^u !m2 ! feet are curv$ hooks1 :i* fit ov] ! tree-bran*es & support ! weight )\t muscul> ex]tion4 ,! limb-bones are v long & sl5d]1 ! claws long1 curv$ & %>p1 & ! metapodials ( ea* foot1 two or ?ree 9 numb]1 are fus$ into a s+le mass4 ,9 ! gr\nd-slo?s !re 0 mu* *ange 9 foot-/ructure dur+ ! c\rse ( _! record$ developm5t2 !y 7 usually five-to$ & ! feet 7 arm$ ) "o or m great claws2 ! lat] & l>g] repres5tatives ( ! subord] walk$ ^u ! out] edge ( ! feet4 ,! armadillos1 :i* are l>gely burr[]s1 h five-to$ feet & long1 heavy1 po9t$ claws1 b 9 "s ( !m ! pes has a v>y+ numb] ( flat1 ho(-l nails4 ,! imm5se glyptodonts _h v %ort1 broad feet1 %od ) ho(s1 :i*1 9 "s ( ! g5]a1 7 long] & m claw-l 9 ! manus4 ,! record$ hi/ory ( ! ed5tates 0 develop$ almo/ entirely 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ,casa ,mayor =mation !re 7 num]\s armadillos1 b z only scutes ( ! c>apace h be5 f\nd1 little is kn[n ( !m4 ,! gr\nd-slo?s 7,protobradys7 h be5 report$1 b f su* imp]fect mat]ial t ! ref]5ce is unc]ta94 ,! fir/ assur$ly det]m9able memb]s ( ?is subord] 7 9 ! ,a/raponotus b$s &1 associat$ ) !m1 ! mo/ anci5t kn[n glyptodonts4 ,9 ! ,deseado /age 7 _m armadillos1 "s ( !m extremely peculi>1 sev]al glyptodonts & gr\nd-slo?s1 "s species ( ! latt] v l>ge4 ,ed5tates 7 f> m num]\s & v>i$ 9 ! ,santa ,cruz ?an 9 any ( ! prec$+ /ages4 ,tree-slo?s & anteat]s h bo? be5 report$1 b ! evid5ce is insuffici5t1 ?\gh !re c be little d\bt t ^! subord]s _h begun _! sep>ate exi/5ce 9 "s "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica o!r ?an ,patagonia4 ,! ?ree families ( gr\nd-slo?s 7 already di/+ui%able1 ?\gh mu* less cle>ly sep>at$ ?an !y aft]w>ds became2 none ( !m 7 l>ge animals1 small] ev5 ?an "s ( ! ,deseado species & v]itable pygmies 9 comp>ison ) ! giants ( ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e4 ,! glyptodonts 7 likewise f> small] ?an _! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e successors & 9 sev]al respects m primitive1 approximat+ ! armadillos m closely2 nor 0 !re any su* v>iety ( =ms z 9 ! lat] /ages4 ,! armadillos 7 extremely num]\s & v>i$2 !y all belong$ to ext9ct g5]a & mo/ ( !m app>5tly h no desc5dants at ! pres5t day4 ,! tropical =e/s ( ,brazil & ! ,guianas mu/ !n1 z n[1 h sw>m$ ) mammals :i* did n ext5d _! range to ,patagonia & ( :i* we consequ5tly h no record4 ,no d\bt1 x 0 9 ^! =e/s t ! ance/ors ( mo/ mod]n armadillos1 z well z ( ! tree-slo?s & anteat]s1 liv$ 9 ,mioc5e times4 ,plioc5e ed5tates 7 ( ! same subord]s z ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 b f> l>g] 9 size4 ,mo/ ( !m are kn[n only f v incomplete specim5s1 b ! ,plei/oc5e has yield$ an enorm\s mass ( beautifully pres]v$ mat]ial4 ,( ! tree-slo?s & anteat]s1 only que/ionable rema9s h be5 f\nd4 ,t ^! tropical & =e/-lov+ animals %\ld n h occurr$ 9 ! op5 ,pampas ( ,arg5t9a is n surpris+1 b x is difficult to acc\nt = _! abs5ce f ! extremely ri* cave-faunas ( ,brazil4 ,ne>ly all ! exi/+ g5]a ( armadillos h be5 obta9$1 & ) ^! 7 associat$ sev]al ext9ct g5]a1 "s ( !m 7,*lamydo!rium1 ,eutatus7 relatively huge1 z l>ge z tapirs4 ,!re 0 a wond]ful v>iety ( glyptodonts1 mo/ ( !m enorm\s creatures1 ( :i* no less ?an five g5]a h be5 collect$ 9 ,arg5t9a & ,brazil1 & ! gr\nd-slo?s 7 ev5 m num]\s & v>i$4 ,n9e g5]a1 ) _m species1 ( ^! great bea/s1 :i* rang$ 9 size f an elephant to a tapir1 are already kn[n & no d\bt ! li/ is /ill incomplete4 ,^! glyptodonts & gr\nd-slo?s mu/ h be5 among ! mo/ conspicu\s elem5ts ( ! ,plei/oc5e fauna4 ,aside f c]ta9 problematical ,eoc5e =ms1 ! fir/ ,nor? ,am]ican ed5tates1 :i* 7 immigrants f ! s\!rn cont95t1 appe>$ probably 9 ! middle ,mioc5e ( ,oregon 9 ! =m ( gr\nd-slo?s1 b ! specim51 z well z a simil> "o f ! l[] ,plioc5e ( ,nebraska1 is n suffici5tly complete = positive ref]5ce4 ,9 ! middle ,plioc5e ! gr\nd-slo?s & glyptodonts 7 unque/ionably pres5t1 & 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ^! two subord]s 7 num]\sly & conspicu\sly repres5t$4 ,?ree or f\r g5]a ( ! huge1 elephant9e gr\nd-slo?s coexi/$ 9 ,plei/oc5e ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,megalonyx 0 abundant 9 ! =e/$ regions ea/ ( ! ,mississippi1 f ,p5nsylvania s\?w>d1 & on ! ,pacific coa/2 ,mylodon 0 transcont95tal 9 di/ribution2 :ile ,mega!rium 0 app>5tly conf9$ to ! s\!rn /ates4 ,:ile all ?ree g5]a und\bt$ly orig9at$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,megalonyx has n yet be5 f\nd 9 t cont95t4 ,?is g5us 0 orig9ally nam$ by ,presid5t ,jeff]son 9 #ahje f an ungual phalanx f\nd 9 a cave 9 ,virg9ia1 & he imag9$ t x belong$ to a colossal lion :i* mu/ /ill be liv+ 9 ! m\nta9s ( we/]n ,virg9ia4 ,?is 0 d$uc$ f ! assumption t no species c\ld become ext9ct1 & ! passage is ( int]e/ z %[+ ! preval5t belief ( ! "t1 al?\gh ,cuvi] _h already demon/rat$ t _m species _h actually be5 ext+ui%$4 ,! passage is z foll[s3 8,! movem5ts ( nature are 9 a nev] end+ circle4 ,! animal species :i* has once be5 put into a tra9 ( motion is /ill probably mov+ 9 t tra94 ,=1 if "o l9k 9 nature's *a9 might be lo/1 ano!r & ano!r might be lo/1 till ?is :ole sy/em ( ?+s %\ld evani% by piecemeal40 ,! glyptodonts 7 also s\!rn 9 di/ribution1 & only v imp]fect rema9s ( !m h yet be5 recov]$ f ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e1 q suffici5t1 h[ev]1 to make ! id5tification c]ta94 ,!re 7 sev]al g5]a ( r small gr\nd-slo?s 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,cuba4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^!1 ,megalocnus1 _h sev]al peculi>ities ( /ructure1 b 0 pla9ly a memb] ( ! ,megalony*id4 ,! ance/ors ( ?is g5us probably invad$ ,cuba 9 ! ,plioc5e1 :5 ! isl& 0 jo9$ to ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,,subord] ,,gravigrada4 ,,gr\nd-,,slo?s ,z ! gr\nd-slo?s w\ld appe> to h _h a m c5tral position )9 ! ord] ?an any ( ! o!r gr\ps1 our /udy ( developm5t may well beg9 ) !m4 ,9 ! ,plei/oc5e !re 7 ?ree families ( ^! gigantic brutes1 :i* rang$ ?r\gh ! we/]n hemisph]e f ,p5nsylvania & ,cali=nia to ,patagonia4 ,un=tunately our k ( ! developm5tal /ages )9 ! diff]5t families is v unequal1 & x is !re=e impracticable to d m ?an sket* ! *anges ( ! subord] z a :ole & 9 a g5]al way4 ,9 ! successive geological /ages ! proportionate repres5tation ( ! diff]5t phyla v>i$ greatly2 9 ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e ! ,mylodontid & ,mega!riid 7 ! abundant =ms1 :ile ! ,megalony*id 7 b scantily repres5t$4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz ,mioc5e1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ov]:elm+ prepond]ance 0 ) ! ,megalony*id1 ! o!r two families be+ comp>atively r>e & incompletely kn[n4 ,f ! /ill m anci5t =mations1 ! mat]ial s f> collect$ is s fragm5t>y t family di/9ctions h little mean+4 ,aft] all1 !re 0 no v wide range ( v>iation among ! contempor>y memb]s ( ! ?ree families1 & ! diff]5ces 7 pr9cipally 9 size1 9 ! =m & numb] ( ! tee?1 ! %ape ( ! skull & ! numb] ( digits2 9 ess5tials !y 7 all mu* alike4 ,! g5us ,mega!rium 7,fig4 #abb1 p4 #bbj7 includ$ ! l>ge/ & mo/ massive memb]s ( ! subord]1 ,m4 am]icanum be+ z l>ge z an elephant1 b v diff]5tly proportion$1 z x 0 mu* long] & l[] 9 /ature1 ow+ to ! %ortness ( ! extraord9>ily heavy limbs2 "s ( ! skeletons measure #bj feet or m 9 l5g?4 ,! tee?1 :i* 7 #e_/d 9 numb]1 =m$ an un9t]rupt$ s]ies on ea* side2 all _h ! same quadrate =m & by abrasion 7 worn into two transv]se ridges1 =m$ by ! meet+ ( ! h>d] d5t9e ) ! ?ick coat+ ( cem5t4 ,! result 0 a =m ( too? :i* mu* resembl$ ! l[] mol>s ( a tapir1 b x 0 n a too?-patt]n 9 any prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 be+ due entirely to ! mode ( we>4 ,! skull 0 v small 9 proportion to ! huge body & 0 l[ & n>r[ 9 %ape2 ! cranium _h a broad1 flat ro(1 )\t sagittal cre/2 ! orbit 0 completely encircl$ 9 bone1 & ! desc5d+ process ( ! zygomatic ar* b5ea? ! eye 0 v long & conspicu\s4 ,! nasals 7 %ort1 & ! sl5d]1 too?less premaxill>ies project$ f> 9 front ( !m1 :i* makes ! pres5ce ( "s sort ( a proboscis likely4 ,! l[] jaw _h a long1 n>r[1 sp\t-l symphysis1 :i* 0 abruptly r\nd$ at ! free end1 n po9t$2 bel[ ! tee?1 ! l[] m>g9 ( ! jaw 0 v /rongly convex1 desc5d+ 9 a great flange4 ,! neck 0 %ort1 ! body v long & enorm\sly heavy1 z 0 also ! tail4 ,! imm5se %\ld]-blade _h a v long acromion1 :i* curv$ =w>d & inw>d1 fus+ ) ! coracoid & =m+ a bony loop or bridge4 ,! hip-bones _h ! ant]ior elem5t 7ilium7 enorm\sly exp&$ transv]sely1 s z to support ! huge mass ( visc]a 9 ! semi-erect position :i* ! animal1 x is believ$1 frequ5tly assum$ 9 fe$+4 ,coll>-bones 7 pres5t4 ,! =e limb 0 v mu* m sl5d] ?an ! h9d1 b ( ne>ly ! same l5g?4 ,! hum]us _h a comp>atively sl5d] upp] portion & extremely broad l[] end1 due to ! great developm5t ( ! int]nal epicondyle & sup9ator ridge2 !re 0 no epicondyl> =am54 ,! radius evid5tly _h ! p[] ( v free rotation ^u ! hum]us4 ,! femur 0 %ort1 flatt5$ ant]o-po/]iorly1 b excessively broad & heavy1 & _h no ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! tibia & fibula 7 likewise %ort & v massive & 7 ext5sively cossifi$ at ea* end1 leav+ b a %ort int]space op5 betwe5 ! bones4 ,! v peculi> feet 7 s connect$ ) ! limb-bones1 t ! animal mu/ h walk$ ^u ! out] edge ( ! foot1 some:at z ! exi/+ ,ant-,be> 7,myrmecophaga jubata7 uses ! =e foot4 ,! manus _h f\r functional digits1 ! fir/ be+ a m]e ve/ige2 ! fif?1 ^u :i* ! weight re/$ 9 walk+1 _h two v small phalanges & no claw1 :ile ! second1 ?ird & f\r? _h long1 %>p claws4 ,! pes _h b ?ree functional digits1 = ! fir/ & second 7 r$uc$ to rudim5ts2 digit ,,iii _h an enorm\s claw & ( ?is digit ! metat>sal 0 %ort & v heavy & ! fir/ two phalanges 7 fus$ toge!r2 ! two ext]nal digits1 ,nos4 ,,iv & ,v1 _h no claws4 ,! a/ragalus _h a v peculi> %ape1 made necess>y by ! application ( ! ext]nal bord] ( ! foot to ! gr\nd & ?us 9 bo? =e & h9d feet ! great claws 7 turn$ inw>d &1 9 ! case ( ! pes1 x mu/ h be5 impossible to re/ ! sole ^u ! gr\nd4 ,! heel-bone 0 enorm\s & club-%ap$ & =m$ ! h9d] portion ( ! weight-c>ry+ out] edge ( ! foot4 ,almo/ all :o h /udi$ ! /ructure ( ?is extraord9>y bea/ are agre$ z to its habits4 ,t x f$ pr9cipally1 if n exclusively1 ^u leaves1 is indicat$ by ! tee?4 ,! g5]al op9ion z to its mann] ( life is well summ$ up by von ,zittel3 8,! hip-bones1 h9d legs & tail are *>act]iz$ by enorm\s /r5g?4 ,! entire /ructure ( ! extremities proves t ! gigantic slo? c\ld move ov] ! gr\nd b sl[ly & clumsily2 on ! o!r h&1 ! =e limbs s]v$ z grasp+ organs & 7 presumably employ$ to b5d d[n & break (f twigs & bran*es & ev5 to uproot :ole trees1 :ile ! weight ( ! body 0 support$ ^u ! h9d legs & tail40#ai ,x w\ld be q absurd to suppose t su* pond]\s animals c\ld h be5 climb]s or burr[]s1 h5ce ! function ( ! enorm\s claws1 especially ! s+le "o ( ! pes1 is n obvi\s1 ?\gh !y may h be5 m]ely ! weapons ( ! o!rwise def5celess mon/]s4 ,! great claw 9 ! =e foot ( ! ,ant-,be> is a t]rible weapon1 ) :i* ! creature vigor\sly & successfully def5ds itself aga9/ dogs1 & x may ev5 be dang]\s to m51 if incauti\sly mole/$4 ,mega!rium _h no bony scutes1 or o!r ossifications 9 ! sk91 s f> z is kn[n1 & 0 probably cov]$ ) long & co>se hair1 z is kn[n to h be5 ! case 9 ano!r gr\nd-slo?4 ,less specializ$ 9 _m respects ?an ! mega!res 0 ,mylodon1 type ( a family :i* 0 num]\sly & v>i\sly repres5t$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 mu* less s 9 t ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,mylodon 0 small] & light]1 be+ f to small] 9 l9e> dim5sions ?an ,mega!rium1 & ! contempor>y ,scelido!rium 0 no bigg] ?an a tapir4 ,! tee? numb]$ #e_/d & ! ant]ior "o above & bel[ _h a some:at tusk-l =m2 ! o!rs 7 worn (f ev5ly1 ) ne>ly horizontal gr9d+ surface1 b a v]tical groove on ! inn] side gave !m a subtriangul>1 lobate =m4 ,! skull 0 %ort & broad1 ) flat top1 & orbit only p>tially enclos$ beh9d2 ! premaxill>ies 7 v %ort & ! muzzle v broad & abruptly truncat$1 ! nasal op5+ v l>ge4 ,! l[] jaw _h a /raight inf]ior bord]1 a %ort1 v wide & %ovel-%ap$ symphysis & squ>e *94 ,no?+ indicates a proboscis1 & ! head mu/ h be5 v diff]5t f t ( ,mega!rium4 ,)9 ! family ( ! mylodonts !re 0 "s v>iety 9 ! d5tition & m 9 ! %ape ( ! skull4 ,9 ,le/odon1 = example1 ! fir/ too? 9 ea* jaw 0 a l>ge1 %>p-po9t$ tusk1 ! muzzle 0 greatly broad5$1 & ! :ole animal 0 l>g]4 ,scelido!rium1 ! smalle/ ,plei/oc5e memb] ( ! family1 _h a mu* n>r[] & m elongate skull ?an ! o!rs4 ,9 ,glosso!rium1 :i* also _h an elongate skull1 !re 0 an ar*$ bony bridge connect+ ! ant]ior end ( ! nasal bones ) ! premaxill>ies & divid+ ! nasal op5+ into two p>ts4 ,! neck1 body & tail ( ,mylodon did n diff] mat]ially f ^? ( ,mega!rium1 except 9 be+ small] & less massive4 ,! =e limb 0 relatively some:at %ort] & mu* /\t]1 b o!rwise simil>2 ! hum]us _h no epicondyl> =am5 & ! femur no ?ird tro*ant]2 ! tibia & fibula 7 sep>ate4 ,! manus _h five digits1 ,nos4 ,i1 ,,ii & ,,iii c>ry+ claws1 t ( ,,iii be+ especially l>ge2 ,,iv & ,v _h no claws & ! out] edge ( ! manus re/$ on ! gr\nd 9 walk+1 ! sole turn$ inw>d4 ,! pes _h lo/ ! fir/ digit1 ! second & ?ird _h claws1 b n ! f\r? & fif?2 ! weight re/$ on ! out] edge4 ,! sk9 is def9itely kn[n f l>ge pieces belong+ to ! alli$ g5us ,grypo!rium1 f\nd 9 a cav]n ne> ,la/ ,hope ,inlet1 ,patagonia1 :]e x _h be5 pres]v$ by burial 9 dry du/4 ,ext]nally1 ! sk9 0 ?ickly cov]$ ) co>se hair & 9 ! deep] lay]s 0 a cont9u\s arm\r ( small ossicles1 :i* 7 close set & 9 ! ,la/ ,hope specim5s %[ l a cobble-/one pavem5t on ! inn] side ( ! sk91 ! inn]mo/ lay]s ( :i* h be5 de/roy$2 9 life1 ^! small bones 7 n visible4 ,simil> ossicles h be5 f\nd 9 association ) sev]al skeletons ( ,mylodon4 ,! habits1 diet & mode ( fe$+ ( ! latt] 7 no d\bt ess5tially simil> to ^? ( ,mega!rium1 b ,scelido!rium1 :i* _h a mu* %ort] & light] tail1 0 probably m quadrup$al & br[s$ ^u l[ %rubb]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4--;,gigantic gr\nd-slo? 7,mylodon robu/us71 ,pampean4 ,re/or$ f ,ow5's figure ( ! skeleton4 ,! ?ird family1 ! ,megalony*id1 0 scantily repres5t$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 b relatively common 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,megalonyx 01 on ! :ole1 less specializ$ ?an ,mylodon or ,mega!rium1 b _h a /rong resemblance to bo? ( !m4 ,! tee?1 #e_/d 9 numb]1 _h ! =emo/ "o 9 ea* jaw sep>at$ by a consid]able space f ! o!rs & m or less tusk-l 9 =m2 ! gr9d+ tee? 7 worn smoo?1 )\t ridges1 & ( some:at trih$ral %ape4 ,! skull 0 %ort1 broad & deep1 resembl+ 9 %ape t ( ! tree-slo?s2 !re 0 a long1 b feebly develop$ sagittal cre/1 & ! orbits 7 widely op5 beh9d1 ) h>dly a trace ( any po/]ior b\nd>y4 ,! muzzle 0 v %ort & broad & abruptly truncat$ & ! premaxill>y bones 7 extremely small4 ,! l[] jaw 0 %ort1 ?ick & massive1 ) v broad symphysis & almo/ v]tical *94 ,neck1 body1 tail1 %\ld] & hip-bones did n diff] suffici5tly f ^? ( ,mega!rium to require p>ticul> notice4 ,! =e limb 0 %ort] & m sl5d] ?an ! h9d2 ! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am5 & ! v massive femur reta9$ ! ?ird tro*ant]2 ! tibia & fibula 7 sep>ate4 ,! feet _h five digits1 ?ree ( :i* c>ri$ claws2 ! calcaneum 0 v peculi>1 n at all l ! massive1 club-%ap$ bone ( ,mega!rium & ,mylodon1 b long1 comp>atively ?9 & sickle-%ap$4 ,no?+ 9 ! skeleton sugge/s t ! creature's habits diff]$ 9 any important way f ^? ( ! g5]a la/ nam$4 ,megalocnus1 ( ! ,cuban ,plei/oc5e1 a memb] ( ?is family1 0 app>5tly peculi> to ! isl& & 0 probably d]iv$ f ance/ors :i* 9 ! ,plioc5e migrat$ f ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,aside f c]ta9 rem>kable peculi>ities ( ! tee?1 ?is animal 0 m primitive1 z well z small]1 ?an any o!r ( ! ,plei/oc5e g5]a4 ,al?\gh rema9s ( ,gravigrada are comp>atively common 9 all ( ! fossilif]\s =mations betwe5 ! ,pampean & ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! mat]ial is too imp]fect to ?r[ any useful light ^u ! developm5t ( ! v>i\s families4 ,f ! ,santa ,cruz b$s1 on ! o!r h&1 a great weal? ( specim5s has be5 obta9$1 & x is possible to give "s fairly adequate acc\nt ( ! gr\nd-slo?s ( t "t4 ,^! animals 7 !n extremely abundant individually & ( extraord9>y v>iety2 evid5tly1 !y 7 9 a /ate ( rapid expansion & div]g5t evolution along _m l9es1 = h>dly any two specim5s are alike & !re=e ! satisfactory discrim9ation ( species is well-nigh impossible4 ,yet1 ) all ?is rem>kable v>iability1 ! range ( /ructural diff]5ces 0 n great2 ! gr\p 0 a v homog5e\s & natural "o1 & sep>ation into families 0 n obvi\s4 ,two ( ! ?ree families 71 h[ev]1 unequivocally pres5t 9 ?is fauna & ! ?ird some:at d\btfully s4 ,! ,megalony*id1 :i* 9 ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e _h dw9dl$ to su* insignificant proportions1 =m$ ! ov]:elm+ majority ( ! ,santa ,cruz ,gravigrada2 ! ,mylodontid 7 q r>e 9 comp>ison & are /ill v incompletely kn[n2 :ile ! ,mega!riid1 ?\gh probably pres5t1 h n be5 id5tifi$ beyond all d\bt4 ,all ( ! ,santa ,cruz gr\nd-slo?s 7 small animals1 ! l>ge/ n approximat+ ! smalle/ ,plei/oc5e species1 ^? ( ,cuba except$1 & _m ( !m 7 no l>g] ?an ! mod]n tree-slo?s4 ,?is 0 a wond]ful diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,santa ,cruz & ! ,pampean1 b a diff]5ce :i* involv$ ne>ly all o!r gr\ps ( mammals4 ,s f> z ! skeleton is conc]n$1 ?is is kn[n ) complet5ess only = ! ,megalony*id1 especially ! g5us ,hapalops2 b en\gh has be5 le>n$ ( ! o!rs to %[ t !re 0 f> less diff]5ce betwe5 ! families ?an _h aris5 9 ! lat] epo*s4 ,?is backw>d conv]g5ce ( ! ?ree gr\ps t[>ds a common t]m pla9ly indicates _! common orig91 be+ exactly :at might h be5 pr$ict$ 9 advance ( exp]i5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4--,santa ,cruz gr\nd-slo? 7,hapalops longiceps7 & glyptodont 7,propalohoplophorus au/ralis74 ,re/or$ by ,knight f skeletons 9 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity & ! museum ( ,la ,plata4 ,9 all ! g5]a ! tee? numb] #e_/d2 ! tee? on ea* side 7 sometimes 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 sometimes ! fir/ "o 0 isolat$ & almo/ always m or less tusk-l1 mo/ s 9 ,eu*olops4 ,! o!r tee? 7 usually ( transv]sely elliptical %ape & worn into two ridges1 ) a holl[ betwe52 ! mylodonts 7,nema!rium1 etc47 already _h ! triangul>1 or loz5ge-%ap$1 lobate =m ( tee?1 *>act]i/ic ( ! family4 ,! skull v>i$ consid]ably 9 its proportions2 g5]ally1 x 0 long & n>r[1 ) %ort5$ face & elongate cranium2 ! sagittal cre/ 0 seldom pres5t1 nev] prom95t1 & ! orbit 0 always widely op5 beh9d1 )\t po/orbital processes4 ,! premaxill>ies 7 always %ort & too?less & 9 mo/ ( ! g5]a !y 7 sl5d] rods1 9 o!rs 7e4g4 ,hyp]leptus7 broad & plate-l4 ,! l[] jaw _h an elongate sp\t-l symphysis1 9 :i* ! two halves 7 cossifi$1 tap]+ =w>d to a blunt po9t &1 ?\gh ! l5g? ( ?is sp\t diff]$ greatly 9 ! v>i\s g5]a1 9 none 0 !re a broad1 abrupt *9 su* z ,mylodon & ,megalonyx _h4 ,9 ,prepo!rium1 :i* is believ$ to be ref]able to ! ,mega!riid1 ! l[] jaw _h ! extremely convex inf]ior bord]1 9 less exagg]at$ degree1 ( its huge ,pampean successor2 x w\ld be premature to say desc5dant4 ,:ile ! long1 sl5d] skull 0 ! prevail+ type among ! ,santa ,cruz ,gravigrada1 !re 0 a gr\p ( small animals 9 :i* ! skull 0 %ort] & m r\nd$ & _h a v sugge/ive lik5ess to t ( ! mod]n tree-slo?s1 z 0 likewise true ( ! tee?4 ,despite innum]able v>iations ( detail1 ! skeleton ( ! ,santa ,cruz gr\nd-slo?s may be describ$ )\t di/9ction ( g5]a1 ?\gh x %\ld be add$ t ! skeleton is b p>tially kn[n 9 _m ( ! g5]a1 & full] k might require modification ( "s ( ! /atem5ts4 ,! neck 0 ( mod]ate l5g?1 ! body long1 ! tail long & heavy &1 9 "s in/ances1 v massive4 ,! /]nal ribs 7 completely ossifi$ & already _h ! same elaborate mode ( articulation ) ! brea/-bone z 9 ! great ,pampean =ms1 & ! v]tebr ! same intricate connections4 ,! %\ld]-blade also _h ! same *>act]i/ics z 9 ! latt]1 b ! hip-bones _h b a mod]ate transv]se expansion1 hav+ no huge mass ( visc]a to support4 ,! limbs 7 /\t & %ort1 =e & h9d legs ( ne>ly equal l5g?2 ! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am5 & ! broad1 flatt5$ femur reta9$ ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! radius _h a discoidal upp] end1 :i* rotat$ freely ^u ! hum]us2 ! tibia & fibula 7 always sep>ate4 ,! feet 7 five-to$1 all ! digits complete & functional & all provid$ ) claws2 !re 0 no cossification betwe5 ! phalanges4 ,! a/ragalus 0 little diff]5t f ! normal =m1 b 9 "s g5]a 7e4g4 ,prepo!rium7 ! highly peculi> =m ( ?is bone *>act]i/ic ( ,mylodon & ,mega!rium 0 di/antly =e%ad[$4 ,! gait mu/ h be5 simply plantigrade1 ?\gh "s ( ! =ms _h probably begun to ?r[ ! weight ^u ! out] edge ( ! foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--,left pes ( ,mylodon1 ,pampean 7aft] ,ow574 ,cal41 calcaneum4 ,z41 a/ragalus4 ,n41 navicul>4 ,cn4 #b1 ,cn4 #c1 middle & ext]nal cunei=ms4 ,cb41 cuboid4 ,no d]mal arm\r has yet be5 f\nd 9 association ) any ( ! g5]a1 &1 s f> z ! pr$om9ant ,megalony*id are conc]n$1 ( :i* s _m skeletons h be5 collect$1 ?is negative evid5ce mu/ be all[$ great weight4 ,b ! mat]ial ( ! o!r two families is s r>e & incomplete1 t ! failure to f9d d]mal ossicles is ( no value 9 det]m9+ ! "q2 probably1 ! mylodonts possess$ !m4 ,^! small ,santa ,cruz gr\nd-slo?s 7 n s clumsy & sl[-mov+ z _! gigantic successors ( ! ,pampean1 & mu/ h be5 in(f5sive plant-eat]s1 "s ( !m p]haps m or less arboreal 9 habits1 b !y c\ld def5d !mselves ) _! long1 %>p claws4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--,left pes ( ,hapalops1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #bij & scale ( r$uction ! same4 ,x w\ld require f> too mu* space & lead u into a labyr9? ( anatomical te*nicalities to po9t out all ! _m resemblances to o!r ed5tate subord]s :i* are to be not$ 9 ! skeleton ( ! ,santa ,cruz ,gravigrada1 :i* ?us ju/ifi$ _! position z ! mo/ ne>ly c5tral gr\p ( ! entire ord]4 ,n only 0 ! skeleton ( ^! ,mioc5e gr\nd-slo?s v mu* less specializ$ ?an 9 _! ,plei/oc5e successors1 b !y 7 mu* clos] to ! anteat]s ?an 7 ! latt]4 ,aside f ! skull1 all p>ts ( ! skeleton display$ ?is resemblance 9 s m>k$ a mann] t ! common d]ivation ( ! two subord]s seems h>dly op5 to "q4 ,diff]5t z 0 ! skull 9 ! two gr\ps1 ! diff]5ces 7 n su* z to preclude ! orig9 ( bo? f ! same type4 ,ev5 m closely connect$ 7 ! gr\nd-slo?s & ! tree-slo?s2 ! resemblance 0 mo/ cle> 9 ! tee? & skull1 b !re 7 also _m po9ts ( lik5ess ?r\gh\t ! skeleton4 ,9 ! tree-slo?s ! entire bony /ructure has be5 pr(\ndly modifi$ 9 adaptation to _! altoge!r exceptional mode ( life1 9 hang+ susp5d$ f ! bran*es ( trees2 b1 despite ?is modification1 !re are s _m notable resemblances betwe5 ! ,santa ,cruz ,gravigrada & ! exi/+ ,t>digrada z irresi/ibly to sugge/ _! community ( orig91 & ?us ! =m] s]v$ to connect ! anteat]s1 on ! "o h&1 ) ! tree-slo?s1 on ! o!r4 ,?is mu/ n be con/ru$ z mean+ t ! ,mioc5e gr\nd-slo?s 7 ! ance/ors ( ! o!r subord]s1 :i* 7 probably already 9 exi/5ce z di/9ct gr\ps1 b m]ely t all ?ree subord]s _h a common orig91 f :i* ! ,santa ,cruz ,gravigrada _h dep>t$ less ?an h ! slo?s & anteat]s4 ,!re is evid5ce t at lea/ two ( ! gr\nd-slo? families1 ! ,megalony*id & ! ,mylodontid1 7 di/+ui%able 9 ! ,deseado /age1 b mat]ials are /ill lack+ to give u any real k ( ! subord] 9 t or ! m anci5t /ages4 ,,section ,,loricata4 ,,arm\r$ ,,ed5tates ,,subord] ,,dasypoda4 ,,armadillos ,armadillos are /ill an important & *>act]i/ic elem5t ( ! ,neotropical fauna1 rang+ f ,texas to ,patagonia & %[+ a consid]able v>iety ( /ructure & appe>ance4 ,exi/+ species are all ( small or mod]ate size1 & ! "o :i* is by f> ! l>ge/ 7,priodontes gigas7 may some:at exce$ ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 exclusive ( ! tail1 & ! smalle/ 7,*lamydophorus truncatus7 is h>dly m ?an five in*es long4 ,9 mo/ armadillos ! hair is greatly dim9i%$ 9 quantity & ! animal is %ea!d 9 a conspicu\s arm\r ( bony scutes1 cov]$ ) horny plates4 ,!re is a head-%ield :i* cov]s ! top ( ! skull1 & ! tail is enclos$ 9 a %ea?2 ! back & sides are protect$ by ! great c>apace & ! limbs by irregul> scutes & scales1 leav+ only ! "u side ( ! body & ! inside ( ! legs uncov]$4 ,9 mo/ exi/+ g5]a1 ! c>apace is 9 ?ree p>ts1 an ant]ior & po/]ior buckl]1 9 :i* ! plates are immovably fix$ toge!r by _! edges1 & betwe5 a v>y+ numb] ( transv]se1 ov]lapp+ b&s1 f #c to #ac1 :i* p]mit suffici5t flexibility ( ! body4 ,! tail-%ea? is made up ( a s]ies ( r+s4 ,"o g5us 7,tolypeutes7 has ! p[] ( roll+ itself into a ball1 ! head-%ield exactly clos+ ! ant]ior not* ( ! c>apace & ! tail-%ea? fill+ ! po/]ior not*4 ,! animal is ?us p]fectly protect$ aga9/ attack & does n seek refuge by digg+1 z o!r armadillos d & ) a/oni%+ rapidity4 ,9 ! little ,pi*iciago 7,*lamydophorus7 ! d]mal ossifications are v ?9 & ! c>apace is compos$ ( tw5ty transv]se b&s ( horny plates1 )\t buckl]s2 ! rump is cov]$ ) a broad & heavy %ield ( bone1 ov]laid ) ?9 plates ( horn1 :i* is atta*$ to ! hip-bones & not*$ bel[ = ! %ort tail4 ,9 c]ta9 r>e & little kn[n g5]a !re is a great] developm5t ( hair2 9 "o 7,praopus7 ! :ole c>apace is cov]$ ) a d5se coat ( hair1 & 9 ano!r 7,scl]opleura7 ! middle ( ! back has only a hairy sk9 & ! c>apace is re/rict$ to ! sides4 ,! tee? v>y 9 numb] & size 9 ! diff]5t g5]a2 9 "s 7e4g4 ,dasypus7 !re is "o upp] incisor on ea* side2 ! tee? are all simple & ( ne>ly cyl9drical =m4 ,! skull is l[ & flatt5$1 ) long tap]+ sn\t & orbits widely op5 beh9d2 ! zygomatic ar*es are un9t]rupt$4 ,mo/ ( ! v]tebr ( ! neck are fus$ into a s+le piece2 9 ! lumb> & po/]ior dorsal regions !re are n only ! usual highly intricate articulations betwe5 ! v]tebr1 b also high processes on ea* side = ! support ( ! c>apace4 ,! fully ossifi$ /]nal ribs h movable jo9ts ) ! brea/-bone1 b n ! d\ble articulations f\nd 9 ! anteat]s & gr\nd-slo?s4 ,! %\ld]-blade has a v long acromion1 :i* does n =m a bony loop ) ! coracoid1 & ! clavicles are complete4 ,! ant]ior elem5t 7ilium7 ( ! hip-bone is n>r[1 v diff]5t f ! broad plate ( ! ,gravigrada4 ,! hum]us has prom95t deltoid & sup9ator ridges & an epicondyl> =am51 & ! femur has ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,?\gh ! =e-arm bones are sep>ate1 ! radius has no fre$om ( rotation2 tibia & fibula are cossifi$ at bo? ends4 ,9 ! h9d foot !re is no great v>iety ( "*2 x is five-to$ & usually has claws1 b may h broad1 flat nails 7e4g4 ,priodontes71 b ! manus1 :i* is a burr[+ organ1 displays diff]5t degrees ( specialization1 :i* is c>ri$ f>!/ 9 ! ,giant ,armadillo 7,priodontes74 ,tatu has ! =e foot ( q diff]5t type4 ,! armadillos fe$ *iefly ^u insects & worms1 b !y are omnivor\s & eat roots & c>rion & sometimes ev5 capture & dev\r small rod5ts & liz>ds4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! gr\nd-slo?s1 ! fossil armadillos s f> available are insuffici5t = trac+ ! hi/ory ( ! v>i\s phyla1 or = do+ m ?an mak+ a v brief sket* ( ! developm5t ( ! subord] z a :ole4 ,ne>ly all ( ! mod]n g5]a h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,plei/oc5e toge!r ) sev]al t are ext9ct1 "s ( ! latt] ( v l>ge size4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,eutatus1 _h a c>apace )\t buckl]s & made up ( #cc movable1 transv]se b&s4 ,ano!r1 ,*lamydo!rium1 z l>ge z a rh9oc]os & ! l>ge/ kn[n armadillo1 _h ant]ior & po/]ior buckl]s1 ) sev]al movable b&s betwe52 x 0 especially *>act]iz$ by ! tee?1 :i* 7 divid$ by a v]tical groove into pill>s or lobes1 ?us approximat+ ! tee? ( ! glyptodonts4 ,! g5us w5t f> back into ! ,plioc5e1 & ! m anci5t species 7 successively small]4 ,?\gh rema9s ( armadillos ab\nd 9 ! =mations betwe5 ! ,pampean & ! ,santa ,cruz1 !y are = ! mo/ "p s fragm5t>y z to be ( no s]vice 9 deciph]+ ! hi/ory ( ! gr\p4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz b$s also !y are v abundant & v>i$1 & sev]al ( ! g5]a are v completely kn[n4 ,z a :ole1 ?is assemblage ( armadillos 0 v diff]5t f t ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 & only a few direct ance/ors ( ! latt] h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,mioc5e ( ,patagonia2 no d\bt1 l ! ance/ral tree-slo?s & anteat]s1 !y 7 !n liv+ 9 ! w>m] regions ( ! nor?4 ,mo/ ( ! ,santa ,cruz armadillos belong$ to ab]rant types1 ( :i* no desc5dants h surviv$2 b1 nev]!less1 !y ?r[ welcome light ^u ! developm5tal /ages ( ! subord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--,skull ( ,peltephilus1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,amegh9o collection4 ,^! armadillos _h ! complete arm\r ( head-%ield1 c>apace & tail-%ea?1 b ! c>apace _h no ant]ior buckl] 9 any ( ! ,santa ,cruz g5]a1 & 9 "s !re 0 no po/]ior buckl]1 ! c>apace consi/+ entirely ( transv]se1 movable b&s1 z 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ,eutatus4 ,9 "o especially peculi> g5us1 ,peltephilus1 ! head-%ield 0 rem>kable2 x 0 made up ( l>ge1 polygonal plates1 ! two ant]ior pairs ( :i* 7 elevat$ into high1 %>p po9ts1 :i* mu/ h support$ horns1 t 7 q l>ge 9 proportion to ! size ( ! animal4 ,a #d-;horn$ armadillo1 l a t9y rh9oc]os 9 arm\r1 mu/ h be5 a suffici5tly biz>re object4 ,z a rule1 ! tee? ( ! ,santa ,cruz armadillos 7 ( ! same simple1 cyl9drical =m z 9 ! mod]n g5]a & arrang$ 9 ! same way1 b !re 7 "s exceptions4 ,9 ! horn$ ,peltephilus1 ! tee? ( ea* jaw 7 s ins]t$ z to =m a cont9u\s s]ies ar\nd ! sides & front ( ! m\?2 &1 at fir/ sight1 x w\ld seem t ?is g5us diff]$ f all o!r kn[n ed5tates 9 hav+ a full set ( incisors1 b actually x _h b "o on ea* side above & bel[1 z has ! mod]n ,dasypus1 ) ! diff]5ce t1 9 ! latt]1 ! incisors ( ! opposite sides are widely sep>at$ & 9 ,peltephilus 7 br\ght close toge!r4 ,! ant]ior upp] tee? 7 long & %>p & pass$ outside ( ! l[] ones1 :5 ! jaws 7 clos$1 & all ! tee? _h an ext]nal lay] ( h>d & %9+ d5t9e1 :i* _h almo/ ! appe>ance ( enamel4 ,ano!r v>iant 9 d5tition 0 ,proeutatus1 :i* 0 ! l>ge/ ( ,santa ,cruz armadillos & l>g] ?an any exi/+ =ms except ,priodontes & ,cabass\s4 ,x _h tee? l ^? ( ! huge ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e ,*lamydo!rium1 ( :i* x 0 a probable ance/or2 ! five po/]ior ones 9 ea* jaw 7 ( trih$ral %ape1 & ! two k9ds ( d5t9e1 ( :i* !y 7 compos$1 7 s arrang$ z to =m a r\gh gr9d+ surface4 ,probably ?is animal subsi/$ l>gely ^u vegetable food2 at all ev5ts1 ! food 0 ( su* a nature z to keep ! tee? worn d[n m ?an 9 any ( ! associat$ g5]a4 ,a f\r? type ( d5tition 0 display$ by ,/ego!rium 7,fig4 #bdc1 p4 #dhj72 ! tee? 7 s few & small t !y c h _h no functional value & 7 m]ely m9ute po9ts almo/ level ) ! gums4 ,9 all probability1 ,/ego!rium 0 m exclusively insectivor\s ?an ! o!r g5]a4 ,among ! ,santa ,cruz armadillos may be di/+ui%$ f\r well-m>k$ types ( skull4 7#a7 ,t :i* agrees closely ) ! mod]n =m1 especially z exemplifi$ by ! g5us ,dasypus4 7#b7 ,proeutatus _h a high] & less flatt5$ cranium & a v long1 cyl9drical muzzle4 7#c7 ,9 ! horn$ ,peltephilus ! face 0 v %ort & broad1 & ! l[] jaw 0 horse%oe-%ap$1 ! two halves cossifi$ at ! symphysis1 :i* is n true ( any o!r armadillo4 7#d7 ,q ! opposite extreme 0 display$ by ,/ego!rium1 9 :i* ! face 0 drawn out into a v long1 sl5d] & tap]+ muzzle2 ! l[] jaw 0 extremely weak & ?91 ! po/]ior1 asc5d+ portion l[ & ill-def9$1 ! condyle & coronoid process mu* r$uc$4 ,no o!r kn[n armadillo has su* fragile jaws1 & !re 0 a di/9ct lik5ess 9 ! skull to t ( ! ,ant-,be>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--,skull ( ,proeutatus1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--,skull ( ,/ego!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,aside f c>apace & skull1 ! skeleton ( ! ,santa ,cruz armadillos 0 surpris+ly mod]n4 ,! v]tebr ( ! neck 7 cossifi$1 ^? ( ! lumb> & po/]ior dorsal regions _h ! extremely complex articulations & ! high processes = ! support ( ! c>apace1 j z 9 ! ,rec5t g5]a4 ,! limb-bones did n diff] 9 any significant way f ^? ( ! latt]1 & ! feet closely resembl$ ^? ( ! mod]n ,dasypus2 none ( ! g5]a display$ ! specialization ( ! manus se5 9 ,cabass\s1 ,priodontes or ,tolypeutes4 ,:e!r ^! specializations h all be5 acquir$ s9ce ,santa ,cruz times1 or :e!r !y _h already appe>$ 9 "s o!r region ( ! cont95t1 is a "q t rema9s to be det]m9$4 ,little c yet be done 9 ! way ( trac+ ! hi/ory ( ! armadillos ?r\gh ! /ages prec$+ ! ,santa ,cruz times1 because ( ! fragm5t>y "* ( ! mat]ial4 ,! subord] 0 abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,deseado /age1 9 :i* "s ( ! ,santa ,cruz g5]a exi/$4 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ anci5t ( ! ,patagonian ,t]ti>y =mations are f\nd scutes ( ! c>apace ess5tially l ^? ( ! mod]n armadillos4 ,! gr\p is ?us ( v high antiquity1 old] ?an any o!r ( ! subord]s is kn[n to be4 ,9 addition to ! typical armadillos ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 !re 71 9 o!r cont95ts1 c]ta9 m or less d\btful =ms1 conc]n+ :i* a ^w %\ld be said4 ,9 ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 a g5us 7,meta*eiromys7 ( armadillo-l animals1 ! true relation%ips ( :i* are f> f cle>4 ,! tee? 7 mo/ly lo/1 leav+ b "o on ea* side ( ea* jaw1 & ?is 0 cov]$ ) enamel1 :i* is n true ( any unque/ion$ ed5tate4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is n an insup]able objection to ! inclusion ( ^! animals 9 ! ed5tates1 = !re c be no d\bt t ^! 7 d]iv$ f ance/ors ) enamel-cov]$ tee?4 ,ev5 9 mod]n armadillos ! enamel-organ is =m$ 9 ! embryo1 ?\gh x does n p]=m its functions4 ,! skull ( ,meta*eiromys _h some?+ ( ! armadillo-%ape1 b 0 n especially *>act]i/ic4 ,! v]tebr ( ! neck 7 all sep>ate1 & ^? ( ! dorsal & lumb> regions did n h ! complex articulations common to all kn[n ed5tates1 fossil & ,rec5t2 ! sacrum _h on ea* side b "o po9t ( contact ) ! hip-bones1 & ! /]nal ribs 7 n ossifi$4 ,! %\ld]-blade1 hip-bones & hum]us 7 all armadillo-l4 ,! plantigrade feet 7 five-to$ & ! metapodials 7 v ed5tate 9 =m4 ,no indication ( bony arm\r has be5 f\nd4 ,:ile ^! curi\s animals may v possibly h be5 ref]able to ! ,ed5tata &1 at all ev5ts1 _h sev]al features sugge/ive ( relation%ip to t ord]1 x c h>dly be ma9ta9$ t !y 7 unequivocal memb]s ( x4 ,9 ! ,oligoc5e ( ,france h be5 obta9$ "s v fragm5t>y fossils :i* 7 classifi$ & describ$ z armadillos1 b _! "* is q problematical4 ,x is ?us possible1 ?\gh f> f c]ta91 t 9 ! e>ly ,t]ti>y1 armadillo-l ed5tates 7 spread all ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,,subord] ,,glyptodontia4 ,,glyptodonts ,9 ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e ^! huge arm\r$ creatures rang$ f ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates to ,patagonia4 ,t !y 7 ne>ly relat$ to ! armadillos is cle>1 b !y 7 s greatly modifi$ & specializ$ z to dem& recognition z a di/9ct subord]4 ,aside f _! enorm\s size1 ! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ! ,glyptodontia is ! extraord9>y developm5t ( _! def5sive arm\r1 :i* 0 f> m complete & massive ?an 9 ! armadillos4 ,! top ( ! head 0 protect$ by a ?ick head-%ield1 or casque1 compos$ ( sev]al cossifi$ plates2 ! body & mu* ( ! limbs 7 enclos$ 9 ! imm5se c>apace ( elongate-oval1 dom$ %ape1 :i* cov]$ ! neck & trunk & on ! sides almo/ rea*$ to ! gr\nd4 ,?is tortoise-l c>apace 0 compos$ ( v ?ick1 polygonal plates ( bone 7no d\bt cov]$ ext]nally ) horny plates7 immovably fix$ toge!r by _! r\gh edges1 & ornam5t$ ) an elaborate patt]n ( sculpture1 :i* v>i$ accord+ to ! g5us4 ,) "o or two exceptions1 ! plates ( ! c>apace 7 n arrang$ 9 transv]se r[s1 b =m$ a mosaic )\t disc]nible b&+4 ,9 ! exceptions not$1 ! sides ( ! c>apace 7 made up ( b&s1 & ne> ! m>g9s 7 two or ?ree ov]lapp+ transv]se b&s :i* p]mitt$ a m9imal degree ( flexibility4 ,! tail-%ea? 0 rem>kable & diff]$ mu* 9 appe>ance & make-up 9 ! v>i\s g5]a4 ,9 ,glyptodon ! tail 0 comp>atively %ort & ! tail-%ea? 0 made up ( a s]ies ( ov]lapp+ r+s1 ea* r+ consi/+ ( two r[s ( plates2 ^? ( ! second r[ 7 ornam5t$1 on ! top & sides ( ! tail1 ) v prom95t1 conical projections1 capp$1 9 ! liv+ animal1 ) /ill long] & %>p] sp9es ( horn1 s t ! tail mu/ h bri/l$ ) spikes4 ,a m usual type ( tail-%ea? 0 exemplifi$ by ,scl]ocalyptus1 9 :i* !re 7 sev]al ov]lapp+ r+s at ! root ( ! tail1 b = mu* ! great] "p ( its l5g? ! plates ( ! %ea? 7 fus$ toge!r into a long1 transv]sely oval tube1 tap]+ v g5tly to ! free end1 :]e x 0 bluntly r\nd$4 ,a modification ( ?is type 0 ! v long tail-%ea? ( ,pano*?us1 9 :i* !re 7 sev5 ov]lapp+ r+s at ! root1 foll[$ by a long1 massive tube1 ! sides ( :i* 7 set ) ?ree or m l>ge & heavy1 horn-l sp9es4 ,9 ,ddicurus 0 rea*$ ! maximum specialization ( ?is type2 ! v long tube _h its free end greatly exp&$ & ?ick5$ into a huge1 club-%ap$ mass1 on ! top & sides ( :i* 7 fix$ long & %>p horns4 ,! tee?1 :i* 9 all ! kn[n g5]a numb]$ #h_/h1 7 all v mu* alike2 ea* 0 divid$ by two broad & deep v]tical grooves on ea* side into ?ree pill>s1 connect$ by n>r[ necks4 ,h>d] d5t9e 9 ! c5tre & on ! p]iph]y ( ! too?1 ) a s(t] int]m$iate lay]1 kept ! gr9d+ surface r\gh ?r\gh diff]5tial we>4 ,tee? ( ?is "* are indicative ( a vegetable diet & ^! great creatures 71 no d\bt1 z h>mless & in(f5sive z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,pampean glyptodonts1 ,ddicurus clavicaudatus & ,glyptodon clavipes4 ,re/or$ f skeletons 9 ! museums ( ,la ,plata & ,bu5os ,aires4 ,! skull 0 rem>kably %ort1 broad & high1 ! facial region be+ especially abbreviat$2 ! cranium1 ?\gh =m+ ! great] "p ( ! skull1 0 yet small 9 comp>ison ) ! size ( ! animal2 x _h a di/9ct1 ?\gh n prom95t1 sagittal cre/4 ,! occipital surface 0 incl9$ =w>d & _h a v elevat$ position1 ! condyles be+ ne> ! top ( ! head & rais$ v f> above ! level ( ! tee?4 ,! orbits 7 relatively small1 m or less completely encircl$ ) bone & z ne> to ! top ( ! head z !y c\ld be br\ght2 ?is 0 to make room = ! extremely high tee?1 :i* requir$ a great dep? ( jaw2 ! elevation ( ! :ole cranium left unlimit$ space = ! jaws b5ea? x4 ,! zygomatic ar*es 7 /rong & curv$ out widely f ! sides ( ! skull2 b5ea? ea* eye 0 giv5 (f a v long desc5d+ process :i* project$ d[nw>d1 outside ( ! l[] jaw4 ,9 mo/ ( ! species ! upp] pr(ile ( ! skull 0 ne>ly /raight1 b 9 ,pano*?us x desc5d$ v /eeply f ! =ehead to ! nose4 ,! =ehead 0 dome-l & ! nasals extremely %ort4 ,s9uses 7 ext5sively develop$1 especially 9 ! frontals1 & 9 ,scl]ocalyptus ! bones ar\nd ! no/rils 7 grotesquely inflat$4 ,! two halves ( ! l[] jaw 7 fus$ toge!r1 & ! symphysis 0 prolong$ into a %ort1 wide sp\t1 :i* project$ consid]ably 9 advance ( ! upp] jaw1 %[+ t ! s(t p>ts ( ! muzzle mu/ h _h a correspond+ ext5sion4 ,! horizontal portion ( ! l[] jaw1 c>ry+ ! tee?1 0 %ort & v deep2 ! po/]ior1 asc5d+ portion _h a =w>d incl9ation & 0 v high4 ,! skeleton ( ! ,plei/oc5e glyptodonts 0 unique among mammals1 ?\gh evid5tly a modification ( ! armadillo type4 ,! extreme modification 0 condition$ by ! enorm\s weight ( ! c>apace1 :i* ! skeleton _h to support4 ,! neck 0 v %ort1 made up ( %ort v]tebr1 :i* 7 ext5sively cossifi$2 ! atlas 0 always free1 b ! axis 0 fus$ ) a v>y+ numb] ( ! succe$+ v]tebr2 usually1 ! axis & ! ?ird to ! six? =m$ "o mass1 :ile ! sev5? 0 fus$ ) ! dorsals4 ,! jo9t betwe5 ! six? & sev5? v]tebr 0 su* z to p]mit at lea/ a p>tial d[nw>d b5d+ ( ! head b5ea? ! c>apace1 clos+ its ant]ior op5+ ) ! head-%ield4 ,! sev5? neck v]tebra & all ! dorsals1 except ! la/ "o1 7 cossifi$ into a heavy curv$ rod1 ! 8dorsal tube02 ! conjo9$ neural ar*es =m$ a tunnel = ! sp9al cord & ! sp9es made a cont9u\s ridge4 ,z ! h9d legs 7 v mu* long] ?an ! =e1 ! back 0 /rongly ar*$ upw>d f ! neck to ! hips4 ,! la/ dorsal1 ! lumb>s & ! sacrum 7 all fus$ toge!r to =m ! 8lumbo-sacral tube10 ( :i* ! cossifi$ neural sp9es made a v prom95t ridge1 ! pr9cipal support ( ! c>apace 9 ! m$ian l9e2 ! ant]ior half ( ! trunk skeleton1 compris+ ! %ort1 deep ?orax1 0 free f ! c>apace1 :i* 9 t region mu/ h re/$ ^u ! muscles ( ! back & %\ld]s4 ,! numb] ( neck & trunk v]tebr comb9$ v>i$ 9 ! diff]5t g5]a f #bf to #bh1 b fusion _h r$uc$ ! numb] ( sep>ate p>ts to #d1 or at mo/ #e4 ,su* greatly dim9i%$ flexibility ( ! back 0 r an advantage4 ,! tail diff]$ mu* 9 l5g? 9 ! v>i\s g5]a1 b 0 always massive2 ! ant]ior v]tebr1 usually #g 9 numb]1 7 free1 ! o!rs 7 fus$ into a heavy1 tap]+ rod2 b = ne>ly its :ole l5g? ! processes ( ! v]tebr 7 v prom95t1 ea* v]tebra t\*+ ! tail-%ea? at five po9ts & ?us giv+ x v effective support4 ,9 ,glyptodon ! tail-v]tebr 7 all free4 ,9 mo/ ( ! g5]a ! scapula 0 v broad & _h ! v long acromion common to all ! ed5tates2 !re 7 no clavicles4 ,! hip-bones 7 v peculi>2 ! ant]ior elem5t 7ilium7 /ood almo/ v]tically1 at "r angles to ! backbone1 & =m$ a broad plate1 fac+ =w>d1 ! top ( :i* 0 r\gh5$ & ?ick5$ to support ! c>apace4 ,! po/]ior elem5t 7is*ium7 0 also mu* exp&$1 b fac$ outw>d1 & its h9d] end1 curv$ upw>d & ?ick5$1 0 ano!r po9t ( /rong support = ! c>apace4 ,! two elem5ts toge!r =m$ an inv]t$ ar*1 ! cr[n ( :i* re/$ on ! head ( ! femur4 ,?\gh less massive ?an ^? ( ! h9d leg1 ! bones ( ! =e limb 7 yet v heavy4 ,! hum]us 0 %ort & _h r$uc$ deltoid & sup9ator ridges & no epicondyl> =am52 ! %ort =e-arm bones 7 sep>ate & heavy1 ! ulna especially s4 ,! femur 0 mu* ! longe/ ( ! limb-bones & 0 extremely /rong1 especially 9 its great bread?1 ! ant]o-po/]ior flatt5+1 common to ne>ly all v heavy mammals1 be+ well m>k$4 ,a v unusual feature 0 ! position ( ! ?ird tro*ant] ne> ! l[] end ( ! %aft4 ,! tibia & fibula 7 mu* %ort] ?an ! femur1 extremely heavy & cossifi$ at bo? ends4 ,! v %ort & broad feet reta9$ five digits2 9 ! manus ! claws 7 sometimes comp>atively long & %>p1 sometimes blunt & ho(-l2 ^? ( ! h9d foot 7 always broad ho(s4 ,among all ! _m /range & grotesque mammals :i* ! /udy ( fossils has br\ght to light1 none c h be5 m rem>kable ?an ! ,plei/oc5e glyptodonts2 sl[-mov+ hillocks !y mu/ h seem$1 ! l>g] species #ab to #ad feet long & #e feet or m 9 height4 ,^? t _h claws on ! =e feet probably us$ !m to dig = roots & tub]s1 b all 7 plant-fe$]s4 ,:5 attack$ by ! sabre-too? tig]s 7,smilodon7 or ! great be>s 7,arcto!rium7 !y ne$$ only to squat d[n1 br++ ! edges ( ! c>apace to ! gr\nd1 & draw 9 ! head1 to be p]fectly protect$1 :ile a sweep ( ! sp9y or club-l & horn$ tail w\ld h be5 fatal to any?+ 9 its pa?4 ,z 9 ! case ( s _m o!r gr\ps1 little has yet be5 le>n$ reg>d+ ! hi/ory ( ! glyptodonts dur+ ! int]val betwe5 ! lat] ,plioc5e & ! ,santa ,cruz2 ! int]m$iate =mations h yield$ _m glyptodonts1 b n 9 su* pres]vation z to be ( any s]vice 9 ?is connection4 ,we f9d1 z might be expect$1 _m & v great diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,pampean & ! ,santa ,cruz repres5tatives ( ! subord]1 ! latt] be+ 9 all respects less modifi$ & less widely remov$ f ! armadillos4 7#a7 ,! mo/ obvi\s & /rik+ di/9ction 0 9 size1 ! ,santa ,cruz =ms be+ all small & "s ( !m v small4 7#b7 ,9 all cases ! c>apace 0 made up ( transv]se b&s1 :i* p]mitt$ a slight degree ( flexibility1 & ne> ! ant]ior end1 at ! m>g9s ( ! %ell1 7 two or ?ree ov]lapp+ b&s4 ,! plates 7 ?9 & 7 b r>ely cossifi$2 ! ornam5tation 0 made by %all[ grooves4 7#c7 ,! tail-%ea?1 :i* 0 ( v uni=m "*1 consi/$ ( two q di/9ct portions2 ! ant]ior region consi/$ ( #e or m freely movable1 ov]lapp+ r+s1 ea* ( two r[s ( plates1 & 9 ! po/]ior region ! r+s 7 closely fitt$ toge!r1 less di/9ctly m>k$ & n movable4 ,?is po/]ior portion 0 sometimes ?ick & end$ abruptly1 sometimes sl5d] & tap]+ & 9 "o g5us 7,a/]o/emma7 x 0 v armadillo-l4 ,9 none ( ! g5]a 7 !re any sp9es or horns1 nor 7 ! sep>ate plates ev] fus$ toge!r to =m a tube4 7#d7 ,!re 0 consid]able v>iety 9 ! head-%ield1 :i* 0 usually made up ( _m sep>ate plates1 b 9 "o g5us 7,euc9epeltus7 !y 7 cossifi$ into a s+le heavy casque4 7#e7 ,! tee? _h a less extreme height & ! f\r ant]ior ones ( ea* jaw 7 mu* simpl] ?an 9 ! ,pampean =ms4 ,an int]e/+ survival 0 ! ret5tion ( two m9ute incisors 9 ea* premaxill>y bone1 9 "o g5us 7,propalohoplophorus71 b ^! 7 ( no functional value & 7 e>ly lo/4 7#f7 ,! skull 0 mu* long]1 n>r[] & l[] & _h a relatively long] facial portion2 ! occiput 0 high] & m erect1 & ! condyles _h no su* elevation above ! level ( ! tee?2 ! orbit 0 widely op5 beh9d & ! desc5d+ process giv5 (f f ! zygomatic ar* b5ea? ! eye _h no su* exagg]at$ l5g?2 ! bones 7 n conspicu\sly inflat$ by s9uses4 ,! l[] jaw 0 %all[]1 ! symphysis & ant]ior sp\t %ort] & ! asc5d+ portion f> l[]4 7#g7 ,! backbone _h a great] numb] ( sep>ate p>ts2 ! atlas1 z always1 0 free1 ! axis 0 fus$ ) two or ?ree ( ! foll[+ v]tebr2 ! six? 0 free & ! sev5? fus$ ) ! fir/ & second dorsals to =m "o piece1 :i* 0 succe$$ by two or ?ree sep>ate v]tebr3 ! o!r dorsals1 except ! la/ "o1 7 unit$ 9 ! dorsal tube1 & ! lumbo-sacral tube 0 already complete4 ,?us1 in/ead ( f\r or five1 !re 7 eight or n9e di/9ct p>ts4 ,none ( ! tail-v]tebr 7 fus$ toge!r4 7#h7 ,!re 0 ! same disp>ity 9 ! l5g? ( ! =e & h9d limbs1 b ! bones 7 f> m sl5d] & armadillo-l2 ?is 0 especially true ( ! radius & hum]us1 ! latt] hav+ well-develop$ deltoid & sup9ator ridges & epicondyl> =am52 ! ulna 0 m massive & glyptodont-l4 ,! femur 0 v mu* m sl5d] & r\nd$ & ! ?ird tro*ant] 0 plac$ high] up ! %aft2 tibia & fibula 7 cossifi$ at bo? ends & resembl$ ^? ( ! ,pampean g5]a1 except = _! mu* great] sl5d]ness4 7#i7 ,! feet 7 mu* z 9 ! latt]1 b relatively n>r[]1 & ! manus _h long] claws4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,santa ,cruz glyptodonts dep>t$ mu* less widely f ! armadillos ?an did ! ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e g5]a1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 bridg$ ov] ! gap betwe5 ! two subord]s4 ,su* backw>d conv]g5ce 9 "t is v /rong evid5ce = ! community ( orig9 ( ! two gr\ps4 ,! glyptodonts ( ! m anci5t =mations1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 tea* u little conc]n+ ! /ages ( modification 9 ^! extraord9>y animals1 because ( _! fragm5t>y condition4 ,! olde/ /age 9 :i* repres5tatives ( ! subord] h be5 detect$ is ! ,a/raponotus b$s1 :i* may be ,oligoc5e or upp] ,eoc5e4 ,on ! face ( ! records1 !re=e1 ! glyptodonts _h no su* antiquity z ! armadillos4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x has long be5 recogniz$ t ! ,ed5tata occupy a v isolat$ position among ! plac5tal mammals2 _! relation%ips to o!r ord]s & _! po9t ( dep>ture f ! ma9 /em are unsolv$ problems4 ,! ,s\? ,am]ican fossils h s f> ?r[n little light into ^! d>k places1 b !y be> v cog5t witness to ! unity ( orig9 ( ! five subord]s1 :i* 7 mo/ probably all d]iv$ f a s+le e>ly ,eoc5e or ,paleoc5e gr\p4 ,9 ! ,paleoc5e & ?r\gh mo/ ( ! ,eoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica !re liv$ an ord] ( mammals call$ ! ,tniodontia 7or ,ganodonta7 :i* _m ( ! =emo/ palontologi/s reg>d z an ance/ral type ( ! ,ed5tata1 & ,dr4 ,s*loss] actually includes !m 9 t ord]4 ,t ! tniodonts _h c]ta9 /rik+ resemblances to ! ed5tates1 especially to ! gr\nd-slo?s1 is n to be d5i$1 b ! int]pretation ( ^! resemblances is a v complex & difficult "q4 ,un=tunately1 no memb] ( ! ord] is kn[n f an ev5 approximately complete skeleton1 & !re=e a discussion ( ! matt] "h w\ld be unpr(itable4 ,my own conclusion1 h[ev]1 may be /at$1 to ! effect t ! suppos$ relation%ip ( ! tniodonts to ! ed5tates is illusory & n real4 ,def9ite decision mu/ await ! f9d+ ( m complete mat]ial bo? ( ! tniodonts & ! mo/ anci5t ,s\? ,am]ican ed5tates4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,m>supialia ,! m>supials are a gr\p ( m primitive /ructure & great] antiquity ?an any :i* we h yet consid]$1 s primitive1 inde$1 t !y are ref]r$ to a sep>ate infraclass1 ! ,didelphia or ,meta!ria4 ,! ord] is "o ( v great v>iety 9 size1 =m1 appe>ance1 diet & habits1 & mimics sev]al ( ! high] ord]s 9 q rem>kable fa%ion4 ,h]bivor\s1 insectivor\s & c>nivor\s =ms are all num]\s1 z well z arboreal1 t]re/rial1 cursorial1 leap+ & burr[+ g5]a4 ,"s are l ho($ mammals 9 appe>ance & ! ,rod5tia1 ,c>nivora & ,insectivora are also closely imitat$ 9 ext]nals4 ,) all ?is div]sity1 mo/ unusual )9 ! limits ( a s+le ord]1 !re is su* a unity ( /ructure1 t a division ( ! gr\p into two or m ord]s is impracticable4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 m>supials are v l>gely conf9$ to ,au/ralia & adjo9+ isl&s1 :]e !y con/itute ne>ly ! :ole mammalian fauna1 & x is 9 ! ,au/ralian region t ! rem>kable div]sity already m5tion$ is to be obs]v$4 ,!re are f\nd ! phalang]s1 kang>oos1 b&icoots1 ,tasmanian 8devil0 & 8wolf10 & b&$ anteat]s1 n to m5tion _m o!r curi\s creatures4 ,9 ! we/]n hemisph]e only ! opossums 7,didelphis1 ,*ironectes7 & "o v int]e/+ relic ( a long vani%$ assemblage1 ,cnole/es ( ,ecuador & ,colombia1 are 9 exi/5ce to-day4 ,! opossums1 ( :i* "s tw5ty-?ree species are recogniz$1 h _! headqu>t]s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 to :i* ne>ly all ( ! species are conf9$1 ,nor? ,am]ica hav+ b two or ?ree4 ,! m important ,am]ican m>supials are giv5 9 ! table bel[3 ,subord] ,,polyprotodonta ,i4 ,,didelphiid4 ,opossums4 ,didelphis1 ,opossum1 ,plei/4 & ,rec41 ,n4 & ,s4 ,a4 ,*ironectes1 ,wat] ,opossum1 ,rec41 ,s4 ,a4 ,p]a!rium1 l[4 ,eoc4 to l[4 ,oligo41 ,n4 ,a4 ,microbio!rium1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,eodidelphys1 d4 ,ideodidelphys1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,proteodidelphys1 ,cretace\s1 ,s4 ,a4 ,,ii4 ,,?ylacynid4 ,pr$ace\s ,m>supials4 ,cladosictis1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,amphiproviv]ra1 d4 ,pro?ylacynus1 d4 ,borhyna1 d4 ,proborhyna1 ,deseado4 ,ph>sophorus1 d4 ,procladosictis1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,pseudocladosictis1 d4 ,subord] ,,diprotodonta ,,iii4 ,c,,nole/id4 ,cnole/es1 ,rec41 ,s4 ,a4 ,zygole/es1 ,p>an4 ,palo!ntes1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,abd]ites1 d4 ,palpanor?us1 ,deseado4 ,,iv4 ,,g>zoniid4 ,g>zonia1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,halm>hiphus1 d4 ,cladocl9us1 d4 ,subord] ,,allo!ria ,v4 ,,plagiaulacid4 ,polyma/odon1 up4 ,cretac4 & ,paleoc41 ,n4 ,a4 ,ptilodus1 d4 ,neoplagiaulax1 ,paleoc41 ,n4 ,a4 ,,vi4 ,,polydolopid4 ,propolyma/odon1 ,casa ,mayor4 ,polydolops1 d4 ,amphidolops1 d4 ,despite all _! div]sity ( appe>ance & habits1 ! unity ( /ructure among ! m>supials is su* t ! =mation ( gr\ps ( high] ?an family rank is v difficult1 & x is by no means c]ta9 t ! subord]s curr5tly accept$ correspond to ! facts ( actual relation%ip4 ,except 9 c]ta9 ext9ct ,s\? ,am]ican g5]a1 !re is v little *ange ( tee?1 only ! la/ premol> 9 ea* jaw be+ replac$4 ,sometimes ! tempor>y too? is long reta9$ 9 function &1 m r>ely1 x is %$ v e>ly2 :ile 9 sev]al g5]a no replacem5t ( tee? has be5 obs]v$4 ,!re is a diff]5ce ( op9ion among naturali/s z to ! prop] int]pretation ( ! m>supial d5tition4 ,accord+ to "o view1 all except ! replac$ premol> belong to ! milk-s]ies & ! p]man5t s]ies has be5 lo/2 ! alt]native & m probable belief is t ! milk-d5tition has be5 almo/ or completely suppress$4 ,:i*ev] "o ( ^! int]pretations be ! "r "o1 !re is /rong reason to ma9ta9 t ! v limit$ am\nt ( *ange is n a primitive condition1 b a second>y "o1 = a s]ies ( rudim5t>y tee? is =m$ be=e ^? :i* are to become functional4 ,! only reasonable explanation ( su* a condition is t x has be5 d]iv$ f "o 9 :i* ! normal succession & replacem5t ( ! tee? took place4 ,some?+ ( ! same sort has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! simplicid5tate rod5ts4 ,! m>supial d5tition diff]s f ! plac5tal "o 9 ! usual numb] ( f\r mol>s1 in/ead ( ?ree1 & frequ5tly also 9 exce$+ ! normal total numb] ( #dd4 ,! incisors are almo/ always ( a diff]5t numb] 9 ! upp] & ! l[] jaw & are frequ5tly m num]\s ?an 9 ! plac5tals4 ,! skeleton has sev]al diagno/ic *>act]s1 :i* are pres5t ?r\gh\t ! ord]1 ?\gh "o or o!r ( ^! features may be abs5t 9 p>ticul> in/ances4 ,! skull has a v small bra9-capacity & elongate face & jaws4 ,9 ! plac5tal mammals1 ! sutures betwe5 adjo9+ bones ( ! skull t5d to close by cossification1 & ! sep>ate bones are cle>ly di/+ui%able only 9 "y animals2 b 9 ! m>supials ! sutures rema9 op5 = a mu* long] p]iod4 ,! la*rymal is exp&$ on ! face & ! =am5 is outside ( ! orbit4 ,! tympanic is a m]e r+ & p]man5tly sep>ate f ! o!r bones ( ! cranium1 :ile a false bulla is =m$ by ! inflation ( "p ( ! alisph5oid4 ,9 almo/ all m>supials !re are l>ge op5+s or vacuities 9 ! bony palate4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & con/ant features ( ! m>supial skull is 9 ! con=mation ( ! angle ( ! l[] jaw1 :i* is turn$ inw>d1 or inflect$1 at ne>ly a "r angle ) ! body ( ! jaw4 ,x is true t "o exi/+ ,au/ralian g5us has lo/ ?is "*2 & 9 "s ( ! plac5tal ord]s1 especially ! ,rod5tia1 a some:at simil> /ructure may occasionally be f\nd1 b x is nev] q ! same z 9 ! m>supials1 9 :i* x goes back to a remote antiquity4 ,!re are v con/antly #ai trunk-v]tebr1 ( :i* usually #ac are dorsals4 ,! tail diff]s greatly 9 l5g? 9 ! v>i\s g5]a1 b mo/ ( !m h well-develop$ tails4 ,an additional pair ( elem5ts1 besides ! ?ree :i* are f\nd 9 ! plac5tals1 ent] into ! composition ( ! hip-bones2 ^! are ! m>supial bones1 sl5d]1 flatt5$ rods1 direct$ =w>d 9 ! abdom9al wall & div]g+ 9 ,v-%ape4 ,save 9 a few g5]a1 clavicles are pres5t & ( full size4 ,! hum]us may or may n h ! epicondyl> =am51 b ! femur nev] has ! ?ird tro*ant]4 ,! feet v>y greatly 9 =m & /ructure1 9 accordance ) ! habits1 b !re is a v widespread adaptation to an arboreal life1 & ev5 9 t]re/rial & burr[+ =ms m or less di/9ct traces ( ?is arboreal adaptation may be not$4 ,?is fact has l$ to a g5]ally accept$ inf]5ce t all exi/+ m>supials _h an arboreal ance/ry4 ,! s(t p>ts & m especially ! organs ( reproduction are likewise v *>act]i/ic1 & "o or two ( ^! peculi>ities may be m5tion$4 7#a7 ,9 ! female1 ! vag9a is d\ble & on ! abdom5 is ! p\*1 or m>supium 7:i* gives its "n to ! ord]71 a hair-l9$ bag1 op5+ ei!r =w>d or backw>d1 :i* s]ves to c>ry ! "y & into :i* ! teats op54 ,a consid]able numb] ( species h lo/ ! m>supium1 :ile o!r species ( ! same g5]a reta9 x1 & !re c be little "q t its abs5ce is a second>y condition4 7#b7 ,except 9 "o mod]n ,au/ralian g5us1 ! m>supials h no true plac5ta1 & ! "y are born 9 a v immature /ate1 incapable ( ev5 swall[+4 ,! new-born "y are transf]r$ to ! nipples ( ! "m & are atta*$ to ^! & f$ by ! pump+ ( milk into _! m\?s by muscul> action ( ! "m4 ,a special1 ?\gh tempor>y1 arrangem5t ( ! gullet & w9dpipe is provid$1 s t ! helpless "y animal %all n be suffocat$ by ! entrance ( milk into ! lungs4 ,,subord] ,,polyprotodonta ,?is subord]1 z is indicat$ by its "n1 is *>act]iz$ by its num]\s incisors1 :i* are #e_/d1 or #d_/c1 & none ( !m is especially enl>g$2 by ! l>ge can9es 9 bo? jaws1 simple premol>s & tritub]cul> upp] mol>s4 ,! memb]s ( ?is gr\p are c>nivor\s or insectivor\s 9 habit1 & all ! exi/+ ones are ( small or mod]ate size1 ?\gh "s v l>ge ext9ct =ms are kn[n4 ,except 9 "o ,au/ralian family1 ! feet are n 8syndactyl10 a t]m :i* means ! enclosure ( two or m digits 9 "o fold ( sk94 ,! only exi/+ ,am]ican repres5tatives ( ! subord] are ! opossums1 ! great majority ( :i* are ,neotropical 9 di/ribution4 #a4 ,didelphiid4 ,opossums ,9 ?is family ! d5tal =mula is3 i #e_/d1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #d_/d1 #b #ej4 ,! incisors are small & closely cr[d$ toge!r1 ! can9es l>ge & tusk-l1 ! premol>s simple & ( compress$-conical =m2 9 exi/+ species1 ! upp] mol>s are triangul>1 ea* ( ! ?ree ma9 cusps is ,v-%ap$ & !re are additional m9ute cusps along ! out] bord]2 ! l[] mol>s h a high ant]ior triangle ( ?ree po9t$ cusps & a l[ heel ) sev]al di/9ct cusps4 ,! hum]us has an epicondyl> =am5 & ! feet are five-to$2 9 ! manus all ! digits are arm$ ) claws & ! ?umb is b p>tially opposable1 :ile 9 ! pes ! hallux is )\t a claw & completely opposable1 mak+ ! foot mu* l t ( a monkey4 ,! division ( ! exi/+ opossums into g5]a has caus$ mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion & practice among naturali/s2 !re are five gr\ps1 :i* by "s are reg>d$ z g5]a1 & by o!rs z subg5]a1 all mod]n memb]s ( ! family be+ v mu* alike4 ,! species ,didelphis m>supialis1 :i* is common 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ext5ds ?r\gh temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,c5tral ,am]ica & tropical ,s\? ,am]ica1 has a complete p\* & is *iefly arboreal & insectivor\s 9 habit4 ,9 ! woolly opossums 7,caluromys7 !re is no p\*1 & ! "y1 :5 suffici5tly advanc$1 are c>ri$ on ! "m's back1 w9d+ _! tails ar\nd h]s4 ,9 bo? ( ^! g5]a ! tail is long1 nak$ & preh5sile1 b 9 ! t9y species ( ,p]amys ! tail is %ort & hairy4 ,ano!r ,neotropical g5us1 ,*ironectes1 ! ,yapock or ,wat] ,opossum1 is ! only exi/+ in/ance ( an aquatic m>supial4 ,x has light grey fur1 /rip$ ) br[n1 & webb$ h9d feet2 liv+ *iefly 9 ! wat]1 x fe$s ^u crayfi%1 wat]-insects & small fi%4 ,! d]ivation ( ! mod]n ,nor? ,am]ican opossums is a matt] ( great unc]ta9ty4 ,! pres5t di/ribution ( ! family1 ) by f> ! great] numb] ( its species conf9$ to ! ,neotropical region1 is c]ta9ly sugge/ive ( a ,s\? ,am]ican orig91 b su* consid]ations are v untru/wor?y guides 9 trac+ ! hi/ory ( animal gr\ps4 ,no opossum has be5 f\nd 9 any ,nor? ,am]ican =mation betwe5 ! ,plei/oc5e & ! l[] ,oligoc5e1 ?\gh 9 ! case ( su* small animals1 negative evid5ce mu/ be accept$ ) caution4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,riv] ,oligoc5e _m m9ute opossums h be5 f\nd & ref]r$ to ! ,european g5us ,p]a!rium1 ?\gh x s closely resembles ! mod]n ,didelphis t _m sy/emati/s d n make ! di/9ction4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e1 ,paleoc5e & upp] ,cretace\s1 opossums 7 repres5t$ d\btfully2 ! mat]ial is too incomplete = assur$ det]m9ation2 9 ,europe !y exi/$ 9 ! ,oligoc5e & upp] ,eoc5e4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! family w5t back un9t]rupt$ly to ! olde/ mammal-be>+ b$s ( ,patagonia1 :i* may be upp] ,cretace\s4 ,! opossums are ?us ! remnants ( an exce$+ly anci5t gr\p1 ^: beg9n+s are to be s\ght 9 ! ,mesozoic era & :i* 0 probably spread ov] all ! cont95ts4 ,to all appe>ances1 ! :ole gr\p vani%$ completely f ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 b rent]$ ,nor? ,am]ica f ! s\? at "s "t dur+ ! ,plioc5e or e>ly ,plei/oc5e & p]man5tly e/abli%$ itself "h4 ,! opossums are ! mo/ primitive ( exi/+ m>supials1 especially ! little ,s\? ,am]ican g5us1 ,m>mosa1 & are reg>d$1 by "s ( ! mo/ compet5t /ud5ts ( ! ord]1 z closely repres5t+ ! ance/ral type ( all ! ,rec5t families & g5]a1 bo? ( ! ,polyprotodonta & ,diprotodonta4 #b4 ,?ylacynid4 ,pr$ace\s ,m>supials ,by _m naturali/s ?is gr\p ( fle%-eat+ =ms is includ$ 9 ! ,dasyurid4 ,! family nev] ent]$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 b play$ a v important "p 9 ! ,t]ti>y ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,?ree exi/+ g5]a ( ! ,au/ralian region ?r[ consid]able light ^u ! ,s\? ,am]ican types1 & !re=e "s acc\nt ( !m w n be out ( place "h4 ,! l>ge/ ( mod]n pr$ace\s m>supials is ! animal 7,?ylacynus cynocephalus7 errone\sly1 b v naturally1 call$ ! 8,tasmanian ,wolf10 n[ conf9$ to ,tasmania1 b occurr+ also 9 ! ,plei/oc5e ( ,au/ralia4 ,z 8wolf0 appli$ to a m>supial is mislead+1 x w be less confus+ to employ ! angliciz$ =m ( ! g5]ic "n 8,?ylac9e40 ,?is animal is ( ! size ( ! small ,prairie ,wolf or ,coyote 7,canis latrans7 & has v wolf-l appe>ance & habits4 ,! muzzle is long & po9t$1 ! e>s erect & r small1 ! tail long1 v ?ick at ! base & tap]+ to ! end1 n bu%y1 b cov]$ ) %ort1 close-set hairs2 ! col\r is greyi% br[n1 ) d>k1 transv]se /ripes on ! po/]ior half ( ! back & base ( ! tail4 ,app>5tly ! creature is 9 process ( los+ its /ripes & acquir+ ! solid body-col\r4 ,! d5tal =mula is3 i #d_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b1 m #d_/d1 #b #df2 ! incisors are small1 ! can9es l>ge fangs1 & ! premol>s simple2 ! upp] mol>s are tritub]cul>1 ) l>ge inn] cusp & po/]o-ext]nal cutt+ ridge1 & ! l[] mol>s are tr5*ant1 ) l[ heel4 ,! :ole d5tition is rem>kably l t ( _m ,eoc5e creodonts1 su* z ,s9opa & ,tritemnodon 7see p4 #eff74 ,! milk-premol> is small & functionless & is %$ v e>ly4 ,! skull is v wolf-l 9 appe>ance1 b ?or\ghly m>supial 9 /ructure1 & has ! l>ge palatal vacuities common 9 ! ord]4 ,! m>supial bones d n ossify & are evid5tly on ! po9t ( disappe>ance4 ,!re are five digits 9 ! manus1 f\r 9 ! pes1 ! hallux be+ completely suppress$4 ,9 habits1 ! ,?ylac9e is c>nivor\s & s de/ructive to %eep t ! f>m]s h ne>ly ext]m9at$ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bif4--,?ylac9e1 or 8,tasmanian ,wolf0 7,?ylacynus cynocephalus74--,by p]mission ( ,w4 ,s4 ,b]ridge1 ,london4 ,! o!r =ms to be m5tion$ belong to ! closely alli$ family ( ! ,dasyurid4 ,! 8,tasmanian ,devil0 7,s>cophilus urs9us7 is n[1 l ! ,?ylac9e1 conf9$ to ,tasmania1 b rema9s ( x h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,au/ralian ,plei/oc5e2 x has "o less premol> 9 ea* jaw1 giv+ ! =mula3 i #d_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #b_/b1 m #d_/d1 #b #db2 !re is no milk-too?4 ,! premol>s are closely cr[d$ & ! mol>s resemble ^? ( ! ,?ylac9e 9 con/ruction1 b are broad] & heavi]4 ,! skull is disproportionately l>ge1 ) %ort] & wid] muzzle & jaws ?an 9 ! ,?ylac9e2 ! tail is ( only mod]ate l5g? & some:at %aggy2 ! hallux is want+4 ,9 size & build1 ! ,tasmanian ,devil resembles a badg] & has long & heavy fossorial claws on ! =e feet2 ! hair is r\gh & %aggy1 black 9 col\r ) :ite pat*es4 ,! animal has receiv$ its "n f its fi]ce & savage disposition & is almo/ z de/ructive to %eep z ! ,?ylac9e4 ,! five species ( ,dasyurus are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ,tasmania1 ,au/ralia & ,new ,gu9ea & are call$ 8,native ,cats02 !y are mu* small] animals ?an ! two prec$+ g5]a1 n exce$+ a dome/ic cat 9 size4 ,z ! ,?ylac9e imitates a wolf & ! ,tasmanian ,devil a badg]1 ! dasyures resemble ! civets4 ,9 !m ! d5tal =mula is ! same z 9 ,s>cophilus1 b ! tee? h high] & %>p] cusps4 ,! head has a n>r[1 tap]+ muzzle & n>r[ e>s2 ! body is long & ! tail ( mod]ate l5g?4 ,! limbs are %ort & sl5d] & a small hallux is pres5t 9 "s ( ! species4 ,! fur is grey or br[n1 ) num]\s :ite spots1 & ! tail is cov]$ ) long hair1 b n bu%y4 ,! dasyures are l>gely arboreal & prey ^u small mammals1 birds & eggs4 ,until ! arrival ( ! true ,c>nivora f ! nor?1 _! rle 0 tak5 9 ,s\? ,am]ica by pr$ace\s m>supials1 :i* p]si/$ z late z ! presumably ,plioc5e b$s ( ,monte ,h]moso4 ,little is kn[n ( !m 9 t /age1 h[ev]1 or 9 ! old] ,p>an1 b abundant mat]ial repres5t+ ^? ( ! ,santa ,cruz has be5 collect$4 ,among ^! !re 0 a consid]able range ( size & "s v>iety ( /ructure1 & !y all diff]$ 9 c]ta9 respects f ! mod]n ,au/ralian g5]a1 diff]5ces :i* h l$ "s au?orities to d5y ! m>supial "* ( all ^! ,s\? ,am]ican =ms4 ,! diff]5ces are ( ?ree k9ds3 7#a7 !re are no vacuities 9 ! bony palate2 7#b7 ! milk-d5tition is less r$uc$1 ! can9es & "o or two premol>s be+ *ang$2 7#c7 ! enamel ( ! tee?1 9 ! only g5us 7,borhyna7 :i* has be5 exam9$ microscopically1 resembles 9 its m9ute features t ( ! plac5tals & lacks ! m>supial *>act]s4 ,?\gh by no means unimportant1 ^! diff]5ces are altoge!r outweigh$ by ! ?or\ghly m>supial nature ( all o!r p>ts ( ! skeleton1 & ,i _c b agree ) ,dr4 ,s9clair#bj 9 includ+ !m 9 ! same family ) ! ,tasmanian ,?ylac9e4 ,! g5us ,pro?ylacynus 0 especially l ! latt] & mu/ h _h a v simil> appe>ance1 ?\gh 9 ! re/oration 7,fig4 #big7 ! col\r-patt]n is *ang$ to "o ( longitud9al /ripes1 z m probably p]ta9+ to s anci5t & primitive a =m4 ,! hum]us _h ! epicondyl> =am51 & a l>ge ve/ige ( ! hallux 0 reta9$1 ?\gh x c\ld n h be5 visible 9 ! liv+ animal4 ,a m specializ$ ,santa ,cruz g5us 0 ,borhyna 7,fig4 #bdd1 p4 #did71 an animal ( ab\t ! same l5g? & height z ,pro?ylacynus & ! ,?ylac9e1 b mu* m massive & p[]ful4 ,! skull 0 rem>kable = ! small size ( ! bra9-case & ! great spread ( ! zygomatic ar*es1 :i* gave a r\nd$ & almo/ cat-l appe>ance to ! head1 z is %[n 9 ! re/oration 7,fig4 #bdd74 ,9 ?is g5us ! upp] incisors 7 r$uc$ to ?ree1 a v unusual ?+ among ! ,polyprotodonta1 & ! hum]us _h lo/ ! epicondyl> =am54 ,pro?ylacynus & ,borhyna 7 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,santa ,cruz fle%-eat]s & no d\bt pursu$ ! small] & m def5celess ungulates1 b 7 h>dly suffici5tly p[]ful to attack successfully ! l>g] ho($ animals1 :i* 7 probably well able to def5d !mselves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #big4--,santa ,cruz pr$ace\s m>supial 7,pro?ylacynus patagonicus7 & typo!re 7,int]a!rium robu/um74 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f skeletons 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--,skull ( ,borhyna1 ,santa ,cruz4 7,aft] ,s9clair1 ,reports ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,exp$itions to ,patagonia1 ,vol4 ,,iv47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--,skull ( small pr$ace\s m>supial 7,amphiproviv]ra manzaniana71 %[+ ! punctur$ w\nd f a bite4 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,museum4 ,associat$ ) ^! l>g] pr$ace\s m>supials 7 sev]al mu* small] k9ds1 rang+ 9 size f a fox to a weasel1 :i* mu/ h prey$ ^u ! abundant rod5ts & o!r small mammals & birds4 ,"o ( ^! 7,amphiproviv]ra7 _h an opposable hallux1 some:at z 9 ! opossums1 & 0 !re=e probably arboreal4 ,an int]e/+ specim5 9 ! museum ( ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity illu/rates ! pugnacity ( ^! small creatures2 x is a skull 9 :i* ! left upp] can9e 0 completely torn out1 ! circul> puncture ( ! enemy's bite be+ unmi/akable & ! heal$ edges ( ! w\nd prov+ t ! loss ( ! too? 0 suff]$ dur+ life4 ,9 /ructure1 ^! small] animals diff]$ s little f ! l>g] ones1 t no p>ticul> description ( !m is ne$$4 ,9 ! re/oration ( ,cladosictis 7,fig4 #cjj7 ! spott$ patt]n ( ! ,au/ralian dasyures1 or native cats1 has be5 tak5 z a model4 ,9 ! ,deseado =mation ! pr$ace\s m>supials h be5 less abundantly f\nd ?an 9 ! ,santa ,cruz & !re c be little d\bt t ! gr\p is v inadequately repres5t$ by ! mat]ial s f> collect$4 ,only two g5]a1 kn[n f l[] jaws1 h be5 describ$1 b "o ( ^! 7,proborhyna7 is ( int]e/ because ( its enorm\s size1 f> surpass+ any ( ! ,santa ,cruz =ms & equall+ ! l>ge/ mod]n be>s4 ,?is is ano!r illu/ration ( ! unusual relation%ip betwe5 ! ,deseado & ,santa ,cruz faunas1 ! old] /age s frequ5tly hav+ ! l>g] animals4 ,pr$ace\s m>supials ( small size may be trac$ back to ! ,casa ,mayor =mation1 b v little is yet kn[n ( !m4 ,!re is no obvi\s difficulty 9 ! way ( _! d]ivation f opossum-l =ms1 su* z are f\nd 9 ! ,cretace\s ( ,nor? ,am]ica & probably ( ,s\? ,am]ica also4 ,! relation ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican to ! ,au/ralian m>supials (f]s problems ( unusual int]e/1 a discussion ( :i* w\ld be impracticable "h4 ,sev]al alt]native solutions ( ! problem h be5 (f]$ & great diff]5ces ( op9ion exi/ ) reg>d to x4 ,to my m9d ! mo/ probable sugge/ion is t a l&-connection1 by way ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t1 exi/$ 9 e>ly ,t]ti>y times1 by means ( :i* ! ance/ors ( ! ,au/ralian m>supials migrat$1 f ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?\gh ?is explanation is reject$ by sev]al em95t au?orities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4--,small pr$ace\s m>supial 7,cladosictis lu/ratus7 & rabbit-l typo!re 7,pa*yrukhos moyani71 ,santa ,cruz /age4 ,re/or$ by ,c4 ,knight f skeletons 9 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity & ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,,subord] ,,diprotodonta ,nor? ,am]ica nev] _h any repres5tatives ( ?is subord]1 b ,s\? ,am]ica possess$ _m ( !m 9 ! ,santa ,cruz ,mioc5e & "o g5us 7,cnole/es7 has surviv$ to ! pres5t "t4 ,au/ralia1 on ! o!r h&1 has ?ree well-def9$ families ( ! subord]1 ! kang>oos1 phalang]s & wombats1 b no memb] ( any ( ^! has ev] be5 f\nd outside ( ! ,au/ralian region4 ,s f> z we "k1 !re=e1 ! subord] is & always has be5 conf9$ to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--,skull ( ,cnole/es obscurus1 enl>g$4 7,aft] ,s9clair47 ,! mod]n ,s\? ,am]ican g5us ,cnole/es is a small1 rat-l animal & v r>e2 x has be5 f\nd only 9 ,ecuador & ,colombia4 ,its d5tition is n at all typically diprotodont1 b r int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,polyprotodonta4 ,! d5tal =mula is3 i #d_/c1 c #a_/a1 p #c_/c1 m #d_/d1 #b #df4 ,! upp] incisors are small & ( subequal size1 ?\gh ! second is some:at ! l>ge/ ( ! s]ies1 & ! can9e is consid]ably l>g] & m prom95t ?an any ( !m4 ,! =emo/ l[] incisor is long & po9t$ & direct$ almo/ /raight =w>d2 ! o!r l[] incisors & ! can9e are m9ute & c h little or no functional value4 ,! premol>s are small & simple & ! upp] mol>s quadritub]cul>1 ! ?ird "o triangul>1 & ! f\r? v small & app>5tly ab\t to disappe>4 ,su* tee? w\ld seem to indicate a vegetable diet1 b x is report$ t ! animal subsi/s *iefly ^u small birds & _! eggs4 ,! skull1 :i* is typically m>supial 9 all its *>act]s1 is mo/ l t ( ! small] ,au/ralian native cats 7,dasyurid7 & ! feet %[ no signs ( ! syndactyly :i* all ! o!r diprotodonts display s cle>ly4 ,dr4 ,gregory is 8incl9$ to reg>d ,cnole/es & its allies z an indep5d5t subord]1 an (f%oot ( primitive ,polyprotodonts :i* has p>allel$ ! ,diprotodonts 9 c]ta9 *>act]s ( ! d5tition40#ba ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--,l[] jaws ( ,santa ,cruz cnole/ids1 enl>g$4 ,a1 ,g>zonia patagonica4 ,b1 ,abd]ites crassigna?us4 ,c1 ,callom5us ligatus4 7,aft] ,s9clair1 9 ,reports ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,exp$itions to ,patagonia1 ,vol4 ,,iv47 ,evid5tly1 ! animals ( ?is s]ies 7 extremely r>e or abs5t 9 ! areas :]e ! kn[n ,s\? ,am]ican deposits ( ! ,plei/oc5e & ,plioc5e 7 laid d[n1 = !re is a v long hiatus 9 _! hi/ory f ! ,rec5t to ! ,santa ,cruz1 dur+ :i* none has yet be5 f\nd1 except "o g5us 7,zygole/es7 9 ! ,p>an4 ,9 ! ,santa ,cruz1 h[ev]1 !re 0 a great abundance ( ^! little m>supials1 to :i* v>i\s g5]ic names h be5 giv5 & :i* display$ consid]able v>iety 9 ! =ms ( ! tee?4 ,"s 7e4g4 ,g>zonia7 agre$ ) ,cnole/es 9 hav+ no tr5*ant %e>+ tee?2 beh9d ! l>ge1 procumb5t l[] incisor1 foll[$ f\r or five v m9ute tee?1 :i* mu/ h be5 ne>ly or q functionless1 succe$$ by ! well-develop$ mol>s4 ,o!r g5]a 7e4g4 ,abd]ites7 _h a simil> d5tition1 ) ! important exception t ! la/ upp] premol> & fir/ l[] mol> 7 enl>g$ & tr5*ant1 toge!r =m+ a %e>+ pair2 ^! tee? 7 v]tically flut$ or ribb$ 9 v *>act]i/ic fa%ion4 ,! ,au/ralian phalang]s h v simil> tr5*ant & flut$ tee?1 b 9 t family ! l[] "o ( ! pair is ! la/ premol>1 n ! fir/ mol>4 ,m>supials ( ?is type h n be5 f\nd 9 =mations old] ?an ! ,deseado4 ,! relation%ip ( ^! ,s\? ,am]ican g5]a to ! ,au/ralian phalang]s is a v int]e/+ "q f ! /&po9t ( mammalian di/ribution1 b is n likely to receive a positive answ] until some?+ is le>n$ reg>d+ ! hi/ory ( ! ,au/ralian family4 ,,subord] ,,allo!ria ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4--,skull ( ,paleoc5e allo!re 7,ptilodus gracilis71 enl>g$1 ,=t ,union /age4 7,aft] ,gidley47 ,?is ext9ct subord] is /ill v imp]fectly und]/ood1 = x is kn[n almo/ exclusively f jaws & tee?2 s f>1 ! skull ( "o g5us & mo/ ( t ( ano!r h be5 obta9$1 b h>dly any?+ ( ! skeleton4 ,! ,allo!ria 7 small or m9ute m>supials1 h]bivor\s or omnivor\s1 :i* _h lo/ all trace ( ! can9es & _h "o pair ( incisors above & bel[1 :i* grew f p]si/5t pulps & _h a scalpri=m1 rod5t-l "*4 ,! mol>s 7 compos$ ( num]\s tub]cles 7:5ce ! "n 8,multitub]culata10 (t5 appli$ to ! gr\p7 arrang$ 9 two or ?ree longitud9al r[s1 & ! premol>s 7 ei!r l ! mol>s1 b ( simpl] patt]n1 or compress$1 %>p-edg$ & tr5*ant4 ,! ,allo!ria 7 among ! mo/ anci5t ( mammals & h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,triassic ( ,europe1 ! ,jurassic ( ,europe & ,s\? ,africa1 ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,paleoc5e ( bo? nor!rn cont95ts1 :ile ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,eoc5e 7,casa ,mayor7 _h c]ta9 problematical g5]a 7,polydolopid71 :i* may be ref]able to ! ,allo!ria or to ! ,cnole/es s]ies4 ,! subord] 0 ?us prem95tly a ,mesozoic "o &1 ) ! d\btful exception ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 x is n kn[n to h pass$ beyond ! limits ( ! ,paleoc5e4 ,!re is n ! lea/ likelihood t any exi/+ mammals 7 d]iv$ f ! ,allo!ria4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4--;,head ( ,ptilodus gracilis1 ab\t natural size4 ,re/or$ f a skull 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum4 ,:ile ! ,allo!ria h an antiquity at lea/ equal to t ( any o!r mammals kn[n1 !re 7 o!r gr\ps 9 ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s1 :i*1 s f> z may be judg$ f tee? alone1 w\ld seem to h be5 ance/ral to ! o!r m>supials & to ! plac5tals4 ,x w\ld s]ve no useful purpose to describe ^! m9ute creatures1 :i* are s v incompletely kn[n1 ?\gh to ! speciali/ !y are ( ! highe/ int]e/4 ,! g5]a f\nd 9 ! ,triassic ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a may or may n repres5t ! primitive mammalian /ock4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! "q ( ! orig9 ( ! ,mammalia is /ill involv$ 9 great obscurity1 & ! mo/ div]g5t op9ions are held conc]n+ x4 ,x rema9s an unsolv$ problem :e!r ! mammals 7 all desc5d$ f a common /ock1 or h be5 d]iv$ f two indep5d5t l9es ( ance/ry1 or1 9 te*nical phrase1 :e!r ! class is monophyletic or diphyletic4 ,assum+1 z seems mo/ probable f pres5t k1 t ! mammals are monophyletic1 ! "q next arises3 ,f :at l[] v]tebrates are !y desc5d$8 ,a great controv]sial lit]ature has gr[n up ar\nd ?is problem1 "o p>ty reg>d+ ! ,amphibia & ! o!r ! ,reptilia z ! p>5t gr\p4 ,! palontological evid5ce1 :ile n conclusive1 is decid$ly 9 fav\r ( ! latt] view4 ,9 ! ,triassic ( ,s\? ,africa is f\nd a gr\p ( reptiles :i* approximat$ ! mammals v mu* m closely ?an d any o!r kn[n repres5tatives ( ! l[] v]tebrates4 ,:ile x is n believ$ t any ( ^! ,triassic reptiles 7 directly ance/ral to ! mammals1 !y did1 to a v great ext5t1 bridge ! gap betwe5 ! two classes & %[ u :at ! reptilian ance/ors ( ! mammals 7 probably l4 ,) p]haps ! exception ( c]ta9 ,insectivora1 ! ,paleoc5e faunas conta9$ few1 if any1 ance/ors ( mod]n mammals4 ,^! orig9at$ 9 "s region :i* has n be5 id5tifi$1 b may be plausibly conjectur$ to be c5tral ,asia1 :5ce !y migrat$ we/w>d to ,europe & ea/w>d to ,nor? ,am]ica1 rea*+ bo? ( ^? cont95ts 9 ! l[] ,eoc5e4 ,f t "t onw>d !y increas$ & multipli$1 becom+ m & m diff]5tiat$ ?r\gh div]g5t evolution1 until ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s 0 atta9$4 ,f ! l[] ,eoc5e we are on firm gr\nd1 &1 ?\gh v mu* rema9s to be le>n$1 mu* has already be5 accompli%$ 9 ! way ( trac+ ! hi/ory & developm5t ( _m mammalian ord]s4 ,x has be5 my endeav\r 9 ! body ( ?is book to sket* ! bett] e/abli%$ & m significant p>ts ( ?is m>vell\s /ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,modes ,,( ,,mammalian ,,evolution ,?r\gh\t ?is book ! !ory ( evolution has be5 tak5 = grant$1 z x seem$ sup]flu\s to pres5t an outl9e ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* t !ory re/s4 8,desc5t ) modification0 is n[ accept$ among naturali/s ) almo/ complete unanimity1 b1 un=tunately or o!rwise1 ?is g5]al agreem5t does n ext5d beyond ! po9t ( believ+ t ! pres5t organic _w has aris5 by desc5t f simpl] & simpl] =ms4 ,! application ( ! !ory to concrete cases is beset ) grave difficulties & gives rise to ! mo/ div]g5t views4 ,! un9itiat$ read] :o takes up a treatise ^u "s animal gr\p may well be surpris$ to see ! app>5tly m9ute accuracy ) :i* ! g5ealogy ( ! s]ies is set =? & ! complex relation%ips ( its memb]s m>%all$ 9 ord]ly array4 ,ano!r treatise on ! same subject1 h[ev]1 :ile agree+ p]fectly ) ! fir/ z to ! facts1 w contradict its conclusions 9 almo/ e p>ticul>4 ,inde$1 s notori\s did ?is become1 t 8phylog5etic trees0 7 r a laugh+-/ock1 & mo/ naturali/s lo/ int]e/ 9 ! problems ( phylog5y & turn$ to fields t seem$ m promis+4 ,to "s ext5t1 ?is almo/ hopeless div]g5ce is inh]5t 9 ! v nature ( ! problem1 :i* deals ) ! value ( evid5ce & ! balanc+ ( probabilities1 z to :i* m5 mu/ be expect$ to diff]2 b !re is ano!r & m pot5t cause ( ! discrepancy4 ,:5 ! contradictory s*emes are analyz$1 x is se5 t ea* is f\nd$ ^u c]ta9 assumptions reg>d+ ! evolution>y process1 assumptions :i* are g5]ally implicit & (t5 app>5tly unconsci\s4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 ^! po/ulates are1 = ! mo/ "p1 matt]s ( judgm5t1 incapable ( def9ite pro(1 & !y appeal ) v diff]5t =ce to diff]5t m9ds2 :at to "o seems almo/ self-evid5t1 ano!r reg>ds z all b impossible4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be ( s]vice to exam9e su* ( ^! po/ulates z are involv$ 9 mammalian hi/ory4 ,x is q impracticable to con/ruct a g5etic s]ies )\t mak+ c]ta9 assumptions z to ! mann] 9 :i* ! developm5tal process op]at$ & ! k9ds ( modification t actually did occur4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 :i* deal ) ! evolution>y hi/ory ( v>i\s mammalian gr\ps1 x 0 repeat$ly /at$ t1 ( two contempor>y g5]a1 "o 0 to be tak5 z ! ance/or ( "s lat] =m & ! o!r reg>d$ z a collat]al bran*1 b x 0 also po9t$ out t 9 c]ta9 cases1 palontologi/s diff]$ m or less decid$ly z to ! prop] int]pretation ( ! facts2 x is j ?is lack ( agreem5t z to ! modes & processes ( *ange t =ms ! root ( ! difficulty4 ,!re are in/ructive analogies betwe5 ! hi/ory1 aims & me?ods ( comp>ative philology1 on ! "o h&1 & zology1 on ! o!r4 ,9 bo? sci5ces ! attempt is made to trace ! developm5t ( ! mod]n f ! anci5t1 to demon/rate ! common orig9 ( ?+s :i* are n[ widely sep>at$ & diff] 9 all obvi\s *>act]i/ics1 & to det]m9e ! mann] 9 :i* ^! cumulative modifications h be5 effect$4 ,at ! pres5t "t zology is /ill f> beh9d ! sci5ce ( language ) reg>d to ! solution ( _m ( ^! k9dr$ problems & has h>dly advanc$ beyond ! /age :i* call$ =? ,voltaire's fam\s sne]3 8,l'tymologie e/ une sci5ce ou les voyelles ne font ri5 et les consonnes =t peu de *ose40 ,_m ( ! animal g5ealogies :i* h be5 propos$ h no bett] f\ndation ?an ! 8guess+ etymologies0 ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & = exactly ! same reason4 ,j z ! old etymologi/s made _! d]ivations ^u ! basis ( a lik5ess ( s\nd & mean+ 9 ! words comp>$1 s ! mod]n zologi/1 9 attempt+ to trace ! relation%ips ( animals1 mu/ proce$ by balanc+ _! simil>ities & diff]5ces ( /ructure4 ,! etymologi/ _h no sure te/ = di/+ui%+ a true d]ivation f a plausible b false "o1 & ! zologi/ f9ds himself 9 ! same pr$icam5t4 ,h[ mu* weight %\ld be all[$ to a giv5 lik5ess & h[ f> x is (fset by an accompany+ diff]5ce1 !re are no c]ta9 means ( det]m9+1 & we are /ill 9 se>* ( ^? laws ( organic *ange :i* %all r5d] su* s]vice to zology z ,grimm's law did to ! /udy ( ! ,indo-,european languages4 ,d\btless1 ! analogy may be pu%$ /ill f>!r1 & x may be confid5tly assum$ t1 j z s\nd pr9ciples ( etymology 7 e/abli%$ by trac+ ! *anges ( words /ep by /ep f _! mod]n =ms to _! anci5t orig9s1 s ! exi/+ animal =ms mu/ be trac$ back ?r\gh ! int]m$iate gradations to _! di/ant ance/ors1 be=e ! modes ( organic developm5t c be d$uc$ f well-asc]ta9$ facts4 ,! evolution>y problem has be5 attack$ by ! aid ( sev]al di/9ct me?ods1 ea* ( :i* has its p>ticul> advantages & its peculi> limitations & drawbacks4 ,mo/ ( ! me?ods suff] f ! fact t !y deal only ) ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 & ?us resemble ! attempt to "w out ! d]ivations ( languages t h no lit]ature to regi/] _! *anges4 7#a7 ,( necessity1 ! olde/ ( ^! me?ods is ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 :i* _h made great advances 9 pre-,d>w9ian days4 ,x is ! indisp5sable f\ndation ( ! :ole inquiry1 = an accurate k ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy is absolutely necess>y to ! use ( ! o!r me?ods2 9 ! h&s ( ! great ma/]s x has regi/]$ _m notable triumphs 9 det]m9+ ! mutual relation%ips ( animal gr\ps2 b f9ality _c be rea*$ by ?is me?od1 because x deals only ) exi/+ =ms & possesses no sure crit]ion = det]m9+ ! value ( simil>ities4 ,x is ?us unable to di/+ui% ) c]ta9ty betwe5 ^? resemblances :i* are due to inh]itance f a common ance/ry & ^? :i* h be5 indep5d5tly acquir$4 ,x is a v frequ5t fallacy to assume t1 because two alli$ gr\ps1 ,b & ,c1 possess a c]ta9 /ructure1 _! common ance/or1 ,a1 mu/ also h possess$ x4 ,?is may or may n h be5 ! case1 & ,comp>ative ,anatomy (f]s no assur$ means ( decid+ betwe5 ^? alt]natives or ( confid5tly di/+ui%+ primitive *>act]s f deg5]ative or retrograde *anges4 7#b7 ,embryology1 :i* is ! /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! individual animal f ! unf]tiliz$ egg to ! adult condition1 0 long reg>d$ z ! infallible te/ ( !oretical views 9 zology4 ,?is 0 on ! assumption t individual developm5t 7ontog5y7 is a recapitulation 9 abbreviat$ =m ( ! ance/ral hi/ory 7phylog5y7 ( ! species1 & 0 call$ by ,haeckel 8! fundam5tal biog5etic law40 ,x 0 soon le>n$1 h[ev]1 t ! 8recapitulation !ory0 0 n to be implicitly tru/$1 = /ructural features :i* c\ld n possibly be a "p ( ance/ral hi/ory 7 impos$ ^u or sub/itut$ = ^? due to phylog5etic inh]itance4 ,n[ ! :ole !ory is /rongly que/ion$1 & ! abs5ce ( any univ]sally accept$ rules ( int]pretation1 by :i* ! contradictory embryological data may be h>moniz$ into a consi/5t :ole1 has depriv$ ! me?od ( t au?oritative "* once s g5]ally ascrib$ to x4 ,x is l deal+ ) a lit]ature :i* has be5 vitiat$ ) _m =g]ies1 only ! grosse/ ( :i* c be readily detect$4 ,embryology has r5d]$ _m great s]vices 9 ! solution ( zological problems & w no d\bt r5d] _m m1 b x _c1 ( itself1 rea* f9al conclusions4 7#c7 ,exp]im5tal ,zology1 especially t "p kn[n z 8,g5etics10 "o ( ! newe/ & mo/ promis+ prov9ces ( ! sci5ce1 has already taught u mu* conc]n+ ! laws ( inh]itance & ! mann] 9 :i* new *>act]s arise1 & no "o c v5ture to fix ! limits ( its possible results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x does n seem likely t ! l>g] problems ( relation%ip & classification c be solv$ by ?is me?od1 because ( ! brief "t :i* ! %ortness ( human life all[s = ! exp]im5ts4 7#d7 ,palontology suff]s f ! drawback t mu* ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( life is irretrievably lo/1 & ev5 :5 ! record is rem>kably complete1 z x is = c]ta9 *apt]s ( ! hi/ory1 ! mat]ial is b p>tially pres]v$4 ,) su* r>e exceptions z are ( little practical importance1 only ! h>d p>ts1 bones1 tee?1 etc41 are reta9$ & ! s(t p>ts completely de/roy$4 ,nev]!less1 ,palontology has ! prem95t advantage ( (f]+ to ! /ud5t ! actual /ages ( developm5t1 & ?us1 to recur to ! simile ( language1 has pres]v$ orig9al docum5ts & 9 ! true ord] ( succession4 ,x is true t x is well-nigh impossible to recon/ruct a phylog5etic s]ies ( ance/or & desc5dant1 unaffect$ by !oretical preconceptions1 & ! diff]5ces :i* arise 9 ! int]pretation ( undisput$ facts are caus$ by div]g5t beliefs conc]n+ ! actual c\rse ( ! evolution>y process4 ,if f9al & def9itive results are ev] to be rea*$1 x mu/ be ?r\gh ! cop]ation ( all ! me?ods ( rese>*1 & su* results mu/ be able to /& ! te/s appli$ by e s\nd me?od4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /udy ( ^? phylog5etic s]ies :i* are g5]ally accept$ z well e/abli%$1 %\ld furni% u ) "s fairly def9ite in=mation z to ! modes 9 :i* developm5t has op]at$ 9 ! pa/1 s9ce ! ord] ( succession 9 "t fixes a limit to ! re>rangem5t ( relat$ s]ies4 ,"s ( ! conclusions ?us sugge/$ may be /at$ "h4 ,i4 ,"o ( ! mo/ fundam5tal problems conc]n+ ! c\rse ( developm5t is t :i* deals ) p>allel & conv]g5t evolution4 ,! t]m p>allelism implies t =ms hav+ a common orig9 may indep5d5tly run ?r\gh a simil> c\rse ( developm5t & arrive at simil> results4 ,illu/rations ( ?is pr9ciple are giv5 by ! _m phyla ( horses1 rh9oc]oses & camels1 :i* p]si/$ side by side ?r\gh sev]al geological /ages1 foll[+ indep5d5t1 b p>allel1 c\rses ( *ange4 ,an ev5 m /rik+ case is t ( ! two subfamilies ( ! cats1 ! true fel9es & ! sabre-too?s4 ,:atev] view may be tak5 ( ! relation%ips ( ^! two gr\ps1 x is cle> t1 at lea/ f ! upp] ,oligoc5e to ! ,plei/oc5e1 !y 7 sep>ate1 b kept rem>kably ev5 pace ) ea* o!r 9 _! advance & specialization4 ,by conv]g5ce is meant a simil> result :i* is rea*$ by two or m indep5d5t l9es hav+ diff]5t />t+ po9ts1 s t ! desc5dants are m alike ?an 7 ! ance/ors1 & is ?us ! opposite ( div]g5ce1 ! result ( :i* is to make ! desc5dants ( common ance/ors less & less alike ) ea* succe$+ /age4 ,ei!r p>allelism or conv]g5ce may be involv$ 9 ! indep5d5t acquisition ( simil> *>act]s1 ( :i* ^! are s _m examples4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is problem is fundam5tal & t little real progress is possible until a solution is rea*$4 ,z to ! correct solution1 !re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion among naturali/s4 ,"s d5y altoge!r ! reality & importance ( ^! modes ( developm5t1 b su* are almo/ exclusively conc]n$ ) ! mod]n _w2 o!rs g to ! opposite extreme1 & look+ ^u e l>ge gr\p z polyphyletic1 consid] p>allel & conv]g5t developm5t to be ! rule ( evolution4 ,few palontologi/s are dispos$ to d\bt t ^! modes ( evolution are v frequ5t2 _! difficulty is to det]m9e :at limits c be drawn1 & ?is difficulty c be remov$ only by mu* wid] & m exact k ?an we n[ possess4 ,s f> z s+le /ructures are conc]n$1 ! fossils demon/rate unequivocally t !y h be5 indep5d5tly acquir$ 9 a great _m cases4 ,! resultant simil>ity may be atta9$ ?r\gh ! loss1 ! acquisition or ! modification ( p>ts4 ,! r$uction ( toes f ! primitive numb] ( five to f\r1 ?ree1 two1 or ev5 "o1 has happ5$ ov] & ov] aga9 9 ! mo/ div]se gr\ps4 ,!re is good reason to believe t all ! e>ly & primitive plac5tal mammals _h ! ?ird tro*ant] on ! femur & ! epicondyl> =am5 on ! hum]us1 b 9 mo/ ( ! mod]n gr\ps ^! /ructures are lo/2 & ! li/ ( su* simil> r$uctions ( p>ts might be almo/ indef9itely ext5d$4 ,( mu* great] significance is ! indep5d5t simil> modification ( p>ts & acquisition ( new /ructures4 ,innum]able examples ( ?is k9d ( p>allel & conv]g5t developm5t might be giv51 b a few w be suffici5t to illu/rate ! pr9ciple4 7#a7 ,! odontoid process ( ! axis 7second v]tebra ( ! neck7 0 primitively a bluntly conical peg1 a =m :i* is /ill reta9$ 9 ! great majority ( mammals1 b 9 ! true rum9ants1 ! camels1 ! horses & ! tapirs1 ! process is sp\t-%ap$1 concave on ! upp] side1 convex on ! l[]4 ,by trac+ ! developm5t ( ^? gr\ps1 x has be5 conclusively demon/rat$ t ! *ange ( =m took place indep5d5tly 9 ea* ( ! f\r4 7#b7 ,! rum9ants h mol> tee? compos$ ( f\r cresc5tic cusps arrang$ 9 two transv]se pairs1 ! patt]n call$ sel5odont4 ,! evid5ce is v /rong t ?is highly *>act]i/ic mol> patt]n has be5 sev]al times indep5d5tly repeat$1 z 9 ! true rum9ants1 ! camels1 ! oreodonts & probably o!r gr\ps also4 7#c7 ,! family ,macrau*5id ( ! ext9ct ,litopt]na %>es ) ! camel tribe ! rem>kable peculi>ity ( hav+ ! canal = ! v]tebral art]y runn+ ?r\gh ! neural ar*es ( ! neck-v]tebr4 7#d7 ,a v /rik+ in/ance is af=d$ by ! ?ree widely sep>at$ gr\ps ( ho($ animals1 memb]s ( :i* _h _! ho(s trans=m$ into claws2 ! *alico!res arose f ! normal p]issodactyls 7p4 #cef71 ! agrio*rids f ! oreodonts & ! ,entelony*ia f ! toxodonts4 ,f "t to "t attempts h be5 made to unite two or m ( ^! gr\ps1 b 9 ea* case bett] mat]ial & full] k h demon/rat$ ! unnatural "* ( su* association & ! sep>ate orig9 ( ! peculi> /ructure4 ,admitt+ ! reality & frequ5cy ( ^! modes ( developm5t1 a f> m difficult problem is to det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* su* indep5d5t acquisition ( simil> /ructures has actually be5 c>ri$1 & x is at ?is po9t t ! wide/ div]g5ces ( op9ion are to be f\nd4 ,z yet1 our k is f> too imp]fect to p]mit ! mak+ ( positive /atem5ts1 b !re is no evid5ce :i* w\ld ju/ify ! conclusion t ! same g5us1 family or ord] ( mammals ev] arose indep5d5tly f radically diff]5t ance/ors4 ,we h no reason to believe t id5tical gr\ps ( mammals 7 ev] sep>ately develop$ 9 l& areas :i* ?r\gh long p]iods ( "t _h no means ( int]communication4 ,if su* a ?+ ev] happ5$1 x mu/ h be5 ! r>e/ ( exceptions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 p>allelism1 by :i* relat$ =ms pass ?r\gh simil> /ages ( developm5t1 w\ld seem to h be5 s exce$+ly common1 z fairly to des]ve be+ call$ a normal me?od ( evolution4 ,z m & bett] mat]ial has be5 ga!r$1 x has gr[n increas+ly cle> t almo/ e l>ge gr\p ( g5]ic1 family or high] rank1 ^: hi/ory is kn[n 9 any adequate measure1 consi/s ( sev]al di/9ct1 ?\gh relat$ phyla1 :i* pursu$ m or less closely p>allel c\rses ( modification1 ?\gh div]g+ f "o ano!r suffici5tly to make ! di/9ction ( !m comp>atively easy4 ,! p>allelism 0 ?us n exact1 h[ev] p]fect x may h be5 9 p>ticul> /ructures1 & ! long] ! phyla p]si/$1 ! m di/9ctly did !y div]ge4 ,a typical problem1 :i* involves ^! pr9ciples1 is af=d$ by ! v curi\s & int]e/+ gr\p ( ,s\? ,am]ican ho($ animals kn[n z ! ,litopt]na 7,*ap4 ,,xiii74 ,! _m rem>kable resemblances betwe5 ^! ungulates & ! p]issodactyls &1 m specifically1 betwe5 ! family ,prot]o!riid & ! horses1 h be5 v diff]5tly int]pret$ by palontologi/s4 ,"s h insi/$ t ! ,litopt]na %\ld be m]g$ 9 ! ,p]issodactyla1 on ! gr\nd t su* a degree ( lik5ess c\ld n h be5 indep5d5tly acquir$4 ,o!rs hold t ?is is a rem>kable case ( p>allelism or conv]g5ce1 & ! latt] is1 9 my op9ion1 mu* ! m probable view4 ,until ! ance/ry ( bo? gr\ps1 ,p]issodactyla & ,litopt]na1 %all h be5 def9itely asc]ta9$1 x w n be practicable to make a f9al decision betwe5 ^! alt]natives1 nor1 if ! simil>ities 7 really indep5d5tly acquir$1 to det]m9e :e!r p>allel or conv]g5t evolution is involv$4 ,x is q possible t bo? gr\ps 7 root$ 9 ! common gr\nd ( ! ,condyl>?ra1 &1 if s1 _! relation is "o ( p>allelism2 b no su* common ance/ry has be5 prov$1 & x is equally possible t _! ance/ry 0 totally di/9ct4 ,9 ! latt] case ! resemblances 7 due to conv]g5ce4 ,assum+ t ! rem>kable resemblances betwe5 ! ,prot]o!riid & ! horses 7 sep>ately acquir$1 x %\ld be emphasiz$ t ^! simil>ities n[h]e am\nt to id5tity4 ,! lik5esses are n conf9$ to a few /ructures1 b are g5]al ?r\gh\t ! skeleton & may be not$ 9 ! tee?1 skull1 trunk1 limbs & feet1 b 9 e s+le "o ( ^! p>ts ! simil>ities are (fset by diff]5ces ( great significance4 ,no compet5t anatomi/ w\ld mi/ake any ( ! bones ( ! prot]o!res = ! correspond+ p>ts ( ! horses1 :atev] view he might hold z to ! relation%ip betwe5 ! two gr\ps4 ,! case is ?us "o ( a v in/ructive k9d1 z t5d+ to %[ t id5tity ( /ructure 9 s highly complex creatures z mammals is n indep5d5tly atta9$ by widely sep>at$ or entirely unrelat$ =ms4 ,probable z ?is conclusion is made by all ! available evid5ce1 x _c be reg>d$ z demon/rat$2 x is prov]bially impossible to prove a negative4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is equally probable t ne>ly relat$ =ms d v frequ5tly1 p]haps normally1 pass ?r\gh sep>ate1 b closely simil>1 c\rses ( developm5t4 ,x is likely t a new species is usually =m$ ?r\gh simil> & simultane\s modification ( _m individuals1 r ?an f a s+le individual or pair4 ,x may be ! g5]al rule1 z almo/ c]ta9ly has (t5 happ5$1 t a new g5us arises by ! sep>ate assumption ( ! new "* by sev]al species ( ! ance/ral g5us1 r ?an ?r\gh ! rapid div]sification ( a s+le species1 ?\gh1 no d\bt1 p>allel & div]g5t modification are bo? v frequ5t & important processes4 ,dr4 ,eig5mann concludes f 8 /udy ( ,s\? ,am]ican fre%-wat] fi%es t a c]ta9 new g5us is ev5 n[ 9 process ( orig9 ?r\gh ! trans=mation ( sev]al species ( an old] g5us1 :i* 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! cont95t are simultane\sly1 b indep5d5tly1 tak+ on ! new "*4 ,sometimes x is possible to assign a def9ite reason = ! indep5d5t orig9 ( simil> /ructures 9 diff]5t gr\ps ( mammals4 ,except = ! head1 !re is mu* simil>ity ( appe>ance among ! v massive ho($ animals1 su* z ! elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 tapirs & hippopotamuses ( ! pres5t "t1 a fact :i* induc$ ,cuvi] to unite !m 9 "o ord]1 ! 8,pa*yd]mata10 a t]m :i* has pass$ into v]nacul>1 if metaphorical1 usage4 ,no d\bt also1 sev]al ext9ct gr\ps1 su* z ! ,amblypoda & ! p]issodactyl family ( ! ,titano!riid1 w\ld h be5 includ$1 _h !y be5 kn[n 9 ,cuvi]'s day4 ,9 ! l>ge/ & heavie/ ( ^! animals1 ! elephants1 amblypods & titano!res1 !re are _m close correspond5ces 9 all p>ts ( ! skeleton1 :i* are cle>ly due to ! me*anical necessities impos$ by ! support ( imm5se weight1 & ! developm5tal hi/ory ( ea* gr\p %[s t ! small] & light] ance/ors 7 less simil> ?an ! l>g] & m massive desc5dants4 ,su* subsequ5tly acquir$ lik5esses are ?us obvi\s examples ( conv]g5ce & 7 caus$ by adaptation to simil> ne$s4 ,frbr+] has %[n t among birds size & weight ( body det]m9e _m resemblances betwe5 unrelat$ families1 ! l>ge/ =ms display+ a m advanc$ grade ( specialization4 ,x is ?us extremely probable t evolution is a highly complex process1 9 :i* div]g5t1 p>allel & conv]g5t modes ( developm5t are normally conc]n$4 ,?is complexity greatly increases ! difficulty ( det]m9+ phylog5ies1 :i* w\ld be v mu* easi] c\ld e notable resemblance be at once accept$ z pro( ( relation%ip4 ,x (t5 r5d]s impossible ! classification ( "s isolat$ gr\p1 :i* seems to h sev]al incompatible aff9ities4 ,x emphasizes ! necessity ( f\nd+ s*emes ( classification ^u ! totality ( /ructure & ! importance ( det]m9+ ! value ( *>act]s1 :e!r !y are primitive or advanc$1 div]g5t1 p>allel or conv]g5t1 be=e attempt+ to use !m 9 classification4 ,9 look+ ov] ! field ( mammalian evolution1 s f> z t is record$ by ! fossils1 ! g5]al impression receiv$ is t ! mo/ important process is div]g5t developm5t1 "o l9e bran*+ out into sev]al4 ,?is process became especially vigor\s & rapid at times ( important *ange 9 ! "* ( ! environm5t1 :at ,osborn has call$ 8adaptive radiation40 ,z we h repeat$ly obs]v$ 9 ! hi/ory ( p>ticul> gr\ps1 e4g4 ! rh9oc]oses1 horses & camels1 num]\s p>allel phyla ( ! same family exi/$ toge!r 9 c]ta9 geological /ages1 b z ^! phyla 7 trac$ back 9 "t1 !y 7 f\nd to draw toge!r & display !mselves z bran*es ( a s+le /em4 ,?is fav\rs ! inf]5ce t ! mammalian ord]s1 s f> z !y are truly natural gr\ps & n arbitr>y assemblages1 are ea* ( s+le1 or monophyletic1 orig91 & t ! p>allel & conv]g5t modes ( developm5t1 :ile v frequ5t & important1 are subord9ate to div]g5ce4 ,,ii4 ,a second problem is :e!r developm5t among mammals is always by means ( r$uction 9 ! numb] ( p>ts1 or :e!r t numb] may n be increas$4 ,) ?is is involv$ ! s-call$ law ( ! 8irrev]sibility ( evolution10 accord+ to :i* organs once lo/1 or r$uc$ to a ve/igial condition1 are nev] rega9$1 or re/abli%$ 9 function4 ,!re c be no "q t ! usual mode ( mammalian developm5t is by r$uction 9 ! numb] ( p>ts & ! enl>gem5t & elaboration ( ^? :i* are reta9$1 z1 = example1 9 ! r$uction ( five toes to "o 9 ! s]ies ( ! horses2 b !re are cases :i* require a diff]5t explanation4 ,! v num]\s tee? ( ! porpoises & dolph9s & ( ! ,giant ,armadillo are n a primitive feature1 b mu/ h aris5 by a process ( multiplication4 ,9 ! v curi\s ,l>ge-e>$ ,wolf 7,otocyon7 ( ,s\? ,africa ! numb] ( mol> tee? #c_/d exce$s t f\nd 9 any o!r plac5tal mammal4 ,?is feature has be5 int]pret$ z a pro( ( m>supial relation%ip1 b1 z ! creature is a typical dog 9 all o!r respects1 su* a relation%ip w\ld involve a degree ( conv]g5ce 9 developm5t t is q inadmissible )\t ! mo/ cog5t evid5ce4 ,until some?+ is le>n$ reg>d+ ! desc5t ( ,otocyon1 no positive /atem5t c be made z to ! significance ( its exceptional d5tition1 b mu* ! mo/ likely supposition is t additional tee? h be5 develop$ 9 an o!rwise normal canid4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ! te/imony ( ! fossils is unequivocally to ! effect t ! usual mode ( developm5t among mammals is by a r$uction 9 ! numb] ( p>ts1 accompani$ by enl>gem5t & specialization 9 ^? :i* are reta9$4 ,x is equally cle> t ! 8law ( irrev]sibility0 holds good 9 a v l>ge numb] ( cases1 b :e!r x is always valid is v d\btful4 ,9 ! ,gu9ea ,pig1 z 9 all its family 7,caviid71 !re are f\r toes 9 ! front foot1 ?ree 9 ! h9d2 b ,pr(essor ,ca/le has lately succe$$ 9 produc+ a race ) f\r toes 9 ! h9d foot4 ,to call ?is a 8mon/rosity0 or 8abnormality0 expla9s no?+2 ! fact rema9s t ! f\r-to$ race has be5 e/abli%$ & no reason c be assign$ :y ! same ?+ might n happ5 9 nature4 ,if ,dr4 ,mat!w's view conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! ,am]ican de] f ,leptom]yx 7p4 #dji71 %\ld prove to be well f\nd$1 ano!r example ( ! same k9d w\ld be furni%$4 ,9 ,leptom]yx ( ! ,oligoc5e ! upp] can9e 0 r$uc$ to m9ute1 almo/ ve/igial proportions1 :ile 9 ! ance/ral de]1 ,bla/om]yx ( ! l[] ,mioc5e1 x 0 a l>ge1 scimit>-l tusk4 ,:ile ,i am unable to accept ?is d]ivation ( ! de]1 x may be true nev]!less &1 if s1 w be a mo/ int]e/+ example ( ! rehabilitation ( a ve/igial organ4 ,decision mu/ await ! discov]y ( ! int]m$iate =ms4 ,_m su* cases & in/ances ( ! addition ( p>ts may be s f> undetect$1 b ! phylog5etic s]ies1 z we h !m be=e u1 po9t decid$ly to ! conclusion t su* rehabilitation or new addition is exceptional4 ,,iii4 ,s f> z we are able to foll[ x by ! aid ( ! fossils1 developm5t among ! mammals w\ld appe> to be a rem>kably direct & unsw]v+ process4 ,:5 any long-liv$ phylum1 made up ( num]\s well-pres]v$ memb]s1 is /udi$1 ! obs]v] _c fail to be impress$ by ! /raight=w>d c\rse ( ! evolution>y process1 z ?\gh ! animals 7 consci\sly mak+ = a pr$et]m9$ goal1 :i*1 ne$less to say1 !y 7 n4 ,a m9ute cusp makes its appe>ance on a too?1 enl>ges /eadily 9 ea* succe$+ g5us1 & ultimately becomes a v important elem5t 9 ! patt]n2 & 9 ?is s]ies ( *anges !re is no oscillation backw>d & =w>d4 ,9 ! p]issodactyls & a few o!r gr\ps1 ! premol>s 9 ea* family gradually & /eadily assum$ ! size & complexity ( mol>s2 beg9n+ at ! h9d] end ( ! s]ies1 ^! tee? "o by "o become mol>i=m1 n 9 irregul> & haphaz>d fa%ion1 b by p]fectly grad$ /ages4 ,! same gradual & direct process 0 ma9ta9$ 9 ! (t-recurr+ r$uction ( digits among ! ho($ animals1 diff]+ = ea* gr\p accord+ to ! symmetry ( ! foot4 ,9 ! horses1 = example1 ! fir/ digit became ve/igial & disappe>$1 & !n ! fif? foll[$1 leav+ a ?ree-to$ foot1 9 :i* ! m$ian digit 0 notably ! l>ge/ & bore mo/ ( ! weight4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e epo*s ! horses 7 all tridactyl1 b !re 0 a gradual enl>gem5t ( ! m$ian digit & dw9dl+ ( ! lat]als1 until ^! became m]e dew-claws1 n t\*+ ! gr\nd1 & ! weight 0 c>ri$ entirely ^u ! m$ian "o4 ,f9ally1 ! lat]als lo/ _! phalanges & 7 f>!r r$uc$ to spl9ts1 :i* is ! mod]n condition4 ,9 ! same gradual & unsw]v+ mann] ! high] artiodactyls w5t ?r\gh a process ( digital r$uction f five to two1 & numb]less o!r in/ances ( simil> sort might be adduc$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! direction ( *ange long foll[$ may be dep>t$ f1 ! deviation be+ due to ! introduction ( a new factor4 ,9 ! e>lie/ de] ! males 7 hornless1 b !y develop$ effective weapons ( def5ce by ! enl>gem5t ( ! upp] can9e tee? into long & %>p1 sabre-l tusks4 ,:5 antl]s appe>$1 ! "w ( def5ce 0 transf]r$ to !m1 & ! tusks began to dw9dle1 be+ ev5tually suppress$ 9 ^? de] :i* _h l>ge & complex antl]s1 ?\gh p]si/+ to ! pres5t "t 9 ! hornless ,musk ,de] & 9 ! small-antl]$ ,muntjaks1 :i* c def5d !mselves ) _! %>p tusks4 ,x w\ld be inaccurate to say t fluctuations 9 ! size & effectiv5ess ( p>ts nev] occurr$2 on ! contr>y1 !re is evid5ce t su* fluctuations 9 details 7 n infrequ5t1 & may h be5 ev5 m common ?an we suppose4 ,to give "o in/ance1 ! v e>ly camels ( ! upp] ,eoc5e & l[] ,oligoc5e _h small can9es1 :i* ?\gh n at all functionless or ve/igial1 7 yet little l>g] ?an incisors4 ,?\gh ! ance/ral camels ( ! middle & l[] ,eoc5e are n yet def9itely kn[n1 !re is /rong reason to believe t 9 !m1 z 9 all ( _! contempor>ies among ! ungulates1 ! can9es 7 enl>g$ & fang-l4 ,if s1 ! can9e tee? 9 ! camels und]w5t decid$ fluctuations 9 size1 be+ fir/ l>g]1 !n small] & aga9 enl>g+4 ,if ,dr4 ,mat!w's int]e/+ !ory z to ! orig9 ( ! true fel9es f primitive sabre-too? cats 7see p4 #edj7 %\ld be confirm$1 x w\ld furni% a v /rik+ example ( fluctuat+ developm5t4 ,! acceptance ( ! !ory involves ! admission ( ! foll[+ *anges3 7#a7 ,! upp] can9e 0 enl>g$ & *ang$ into a ?91 recurv$1 scimit>-l tusk2 7#b7 ! l[] can9e 0 mu* r$uc$1 becom+ little l>g] ?an ! incisors2 7#c7 ! l[] jaw develop$ a flange on ea* side f its inf]ior bord]1 aga9/ :i* ! inn] side ( ! upp] can9e re/$1 :5 ! m\? 0 clos$1 & ! *9 0 ne>ly flat1 meet+ ! out] surface ( ! jaw at a "r angle4 ,aft] ^! peculi>ities _h be5 fully e/abli%$1 ! /ock divid$ into two s]ies2 9 "o1 ! ma*airodonts1 ! specialization cont9u$ along ! same l9es1 assum+ m & m exagg]at$ =ms1 :ile 9 ! true cats x 0 rev]s$4 ,! upp] can9e grew %ort] & ?ick]1 ! l[] can9e 0 v greatly enl>g$1 ! l[] jaw lo/ its flange1 & its ext]nal & ant]ior surfaces no long] met at a "r angle1 b curv$ gradually into ea* o!r4 ,z previ\sly /at$1 su* a rev]sal /rikes me z improbable & n to be accept$ )\t v mu* m complete evid5ce ?an we n[ h1 b x is p]fectly possible t su* evid5ce may be =?com+4 ,mak+ ! fulle/ all[ance = all su* cases ( fluctuation1 x rema9s true t 9 ! great majority ( ! phyla ^: hi/ory may be foll[$ 9 "s detail1 developm5t has be5 rem>kably direct & unsw]v+4 ,pla/icity ( organization & capacity = diff]5tiation ( /ructure 9 widely diff]5t directions w\ld seem to be limit$ 9 ! mammals1 especially among ! m advanc$ gr\ps4 ,,iv4 ,a "q t has be5 mu* debat$ & is /ill a c5tre ( controv]sy deals ) cont9uity & discont9uity 9 developm5t4 ,9 o!r words1 does evolution proce$ by ! cumulative effects ( m9utely grad$ modifications1 or is x a succession ( leaps & sudd5 *anges8 ,! diff]5ce is illu/rat$ by _m bre$s & races ( animals & plants "u dome/ication1 ! hi/ory ( :i* is kn[n4 ,"s h aris5 f 8sports10 sudd5 & m>k$ deviations f ! p>5t /ock1 :i* 8bre$ true0 f ! beg9n+4 ,( ?is "* 0 ! ,ancon bre$ ( %eep1 :i* 0 d]iv$ f a s+le %ort-legg$ ram t 0 born ( normal p>5ts 9 #agia & transmitt$ 8 peculi>ities to 8 (fspr+4 ,pr(essor ,ca/le's race ( f\r-to$ ,gu9ea ,pig orig9at$ f "o f\r-to$ individual1 :i* sudd5ly appe>$ 9 a litt] ( normal ones4 ,o!r bre$s h be5 =m$ by ! c>eful & long-cont9u$ selection ( m9ute individual v>iations4 ,:i* ( ^! me?ods is ! "o t has be5 foll[$ "u natural conditions8 or has n[ "o me?od be5 us$ & n[ ano!r1 accord+ to circum/ances8 ,! problem is "o t has a pr(\nd & f>-rea*+ importance = ! :ole ( evolution>y philosophy1 :i* l>gely h+es ^u x4 ,un=tunately1 palontology is n well fitt$ to give a decisive answ] to ^! que/ions1 =1 h[ev] complete ! record ( any giv5 s]ies may be1 we nev] c be sure t x actually is s1 & int]ruptions 9 ! cont9uity ( developm5t might be due ei!r to progress by abrupt *anges1 or to a failure to pres]ve all ! gradations4 ,= t reason diff]5t obs]v]s h put div]g5t int]pretations ^u ! facts z we h !m4 ,! g5]al impression t is made by ! /udy ( a well-pres]v$ mammalian phylum is t ( cont9uity1 b a clos] analysis reveals num]\s small breaks1 & sugge/s1 s f> z ! record may be tru/$1 t ! advance 0 made by sep>ate /eps1 ?\gh v %ort ones4 ,inde$1 x has be5 object$ t s completely record$ a phylum z t ( ! horses mu/ be illusory1 because !re is n p]fect cont9uity betwe5 ! successive g5]a1 x be+ tak5 = grant$ t su* cont9uity is ! normal mode ( developm5t4 ,dr4 ,s*loss]1 on ! o!r h&1 is a disbeliev] 9 p]fect cont9uity4 8,i am ( ! op9ion t we mu/ reckon ) developm5t p] saltum m frequ5tly ?an is usually done4 ,we h be5 decid$ly spoil$ by ! phylog5etic s]ies ( quiet successive developm5t1 su* z we meet ) 9 ! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! titano!res1 oreodonts1 camels1 etc41 & 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e ( ,europe 9 ,palo!rium1 ,paloplo!rium1 etc41 z well z f ! ,oligoc5e into ! ,plei/oc5e1 e4g41 9 ! rh9oc]oses1 c]vids1 suill9es1 amphicyonids4 ,ev5 "h we (t5 make = ourselves artificial difficulties by balanc+1 ) an exagg]at$ scrupul\sness1 ! individual =ms "o aga9/ ano!r1 to see :e!r !y really are exactly fitt$ to fill up any gaps4 ,x is n ! lack ( suitable int]m$iate =ms :i* s (t5 r5d]s difficult ! e/abli%m5t ( g5etic s]ies1 b1 q on ! contr>y1 ! abundance ( ! =ms at our disposal1 among :i* we mu/ make a *oice4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! developm5t ( phyla did n take place 9 ! same region & "u con/ant climatic & topographical conditions1 we mu/ necess>ily f9d app>5t gaps1 = adaptation to a new environm5t occasions rapid *anges ( organization1 s t ! imm$iate desc5dant w (t5 deviate consid]ably f its ance/or4 ,b t mu/ n mislead u into d5y+ ! connection betwe5 su* =ms40#bb ,bett] adapt$ to a solution ( ?is problem ?an mammals are ! fossil %ells ( ,mollusca1 ! developm5t ( :i* may (t5 be trac$ ?r\gh a ?ick s]ies ( /rata1 ea* /ep ( modification be+ repres5t$ by innum]able individuals4 ,9 v _m in/ances x appe>s t ea* species 9 a s]ies ( successive modifications _h _m contempor>y fluctuat+ v>iations1 b ! *ange f "o species to ! next succe$+ "o 0 by a small ?\gh abrupt mutation4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 two successive species may be no great] ?an t betwe5 two contempor>y v>iants ( ! same species1 b x 0 a con/ant & n a fluctuat+ diff]5ce4 ,!re is mu* reason to believe t su* is at lea/ a frequ5t mode ( developm5t1 namely1 t f species to species & g5us to g5us ! transition has be5 by slight & sudd5 *anges4 ,! possibility t su* abrupt *anges1 h[ev] slight1 are illusory & due to small gaps 9 ! record1 mu/ be admitt$1 & ?\gh ?is does n seem to be a v likely explanation1 x is giv5 plausibility by ! almo/ p]fect cont9uity betwe5 successive species :i* may sometimes be obs]v$4 ,! extremely important & significant di/9ction betwe5 contempor>y1 fluctuat+ v>iations & successive1 con/ant mutations 0 fir/ drawn by ,waag51 :o says ( !m3 8,"o mu/ !re=e di/+ui% /rictly betwe5 v>ieties 9 space & ^? 9 "t4 ,to describe ! =m]1 ! long-us$ "n #8v>iety' w suffice1 = ! latt]1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i w\ld propose1 = ! sake ( brevity1 a new t]m1 #8mutation4' ,a species z su*1 ) ref]5ce to its connection ) e>li] or lat] =ms1 may be conceiv$ & reg>d$ z a mutation4 ,b also 9 reg>d to ! value ( ^! two concepts1 j e/abli%$ 7v>iety & mutation71 an entirely diff]5t value is display$ on clos] consid]ation4 ,:ile ! =m] appe>s extremely vacillat+1 ( small sy/ematic value1 ! latt]1 ev5 ?\gh 9 m9ute *>act]i/ics1 is extremely con/ant & always to be recogniz$ ) c]ta9ty40#bc ,! same conception 0 adopt$ & elaborat$ by ,neumayr3 8,/ill o!r *>act]i/ics appe>1 :i* m>k mutations z some?+ diff]5t f v>ieties1 especially t1 z a rule1 !re is a def9ite direction ( mutation 9 ea* s]ies1 ! same *>act]s *ang+ 9 ! same s5se ?r\gh a consid]able succession ( /rata40#bd ,:e!r developm5t 0 cont9u\s or discont9u\s1 !re is no reason to suppose t ! am\nt & rate ( modification 7 always con/ant4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re is /rong evid5ce t at times ( great climatic or geographical *anges1 or :5 a region 0 invad$ by a horde ( immigrants1 widespread readju/m5ts 7 accompli%$ ) comp>ative rapidity4 ,inde$1 su* p]iods ( relatively quick *anges h long seem$ to be impli$ by ! facts ( ! palontological records4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is only too cle> t ! pr9ciples z to ! modes ( mammalian developm5t :i* c be d$uc$ f ! hi/ory ( ! v>i\s gr\ps mu/1 = ! mo/ "p1 be /at$ 9 a cauti\s & t5tative mann]1 s z n to give an undue appe>ance ( c]ta9ty to prelim9>y conclusions1 :i* %\ld be held z subject to revision ) ! advance ( k4 ,mu* has1 h[ev]1 be5 already le>n$1 & !re is e reason to hope t ,exp]im5tal ,zology & ,palontology1 by comb9+ _! res\rces1 w ev5tually %$ full light ^u a subject ( su* exceptional difficulty4 ,,footnotes #a ,memoirs ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bji-baa4 #b ,voyage ( a ,naturali/1 ,am]4 ed41 pp4 #acc-acd4 #c ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory1 ,! ,great ,rift ,valley1 p4 #bfh4 #d ,voyage ( a ,naturali/1 ,am4 ed41 #ahia1 p4 #hb4 #e ,d4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,/udies 9 ,fossil ,botany1 ,london1 #aijj1 pp4 #ebd-ebe4 #f ,! names1 ,javan & ,sumatran rh9oc]oses1 are some:at mislead+1 s9ce bo? ( ^! species are also f\nd on ! ma9l& ( ,india4 #g ,?is plausible & no d\bt correct explanation 0 sugge/$ to me by my colleague1 ,pr(essor ,c4 ,f4 ,brackett4 #h ,fl[] & ,lydekk]1 ,mammals ,liv+ & ,ext9ct1 p4 #ccb4 #i ,fl[] & ,lydekk]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cjg-cjh4 #aj ,fl[] & ,lydekk]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cee & #ceg4 #aa ,! ,woodl& ,bison ( ,canada is n[ reg>d$ z a di/9ct species4 #ab ,d>w91 ,voyage ( a ,naturali/1 p4 #agb4 #ac ,f4 ,e4 ,b$d>d1 ,mammals1 ,london1 #aijb1 pp4 #eej1 #eea4 #ad ,bates1 ,naturali/ on ! ,amazons1 ,london1 #ahge1 pp4 #cb1 #adj4 #ae ,bates1 ,naturali/ on ! ,amazons1 ,london1 #ahge1 pp4 #ccb1 #ccc4 #af ,b$d>d1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eee1 #eef4 #ag ,a4 ,hrdlika1 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 ,bureau ( ,e?nology1 ,bullet9 #cc1 #aijg1 p4 #ih4 #ah ,ibid41 ,bullet9 #eb1 #aiab1 pp4 #che1 #chf4 #ai ,k4 von ,zittel1 ,h&bu* d] ,palaeontologie1 ,bd4 ,,iv1 p4 #acb4 #bj ,reports ( ! ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,exp$itions to ,patagonia1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,pt4 #c4 #ba ,w4 ,k4 ,gregory1 ,! ,ord]s ( ,mammals2 ,bull4 ,am]4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hi/ory1 ,vol4 ,,xxvii1 p4 #baa4 #bb ,m4 ,s*loss]1 ,beitrge zur ,k5ntniss d] ,oligozn5 ,l&suge?i]e aus dem ,fayum1 ,vi5na1 #aiaa1 p4 #afe4 #bc ,w4 ,waag51 ,die ,=m5reihe des ,ammonites subradiatus1 ,b5ecke's ,geogno/4-,palont4 ,beitr41 ,bd4 ,i1 pp4 #ahe-ahf4 #bd ,m4 ,neumayr1 ,die ,/mme des ,?i]rei*es1 ,bd4 ,i1 p4 #fj4 ,,gloss>y ,acetabulum1 ! deep socket 9 ! hip-bone = ! head ( ! femur4 ,acromion1 ! project+ l[] end ( ! sp9e ( ! %\ld]-blade4 ,alisph5oid canal1 canal 9 ! base ( ! skull = ! ext]nal c>otid art]y4 ,allo!ria1 an ext9ct subord] ( ,mesozoic & ,paleoc5e ,m>supials4 ,amblypoda1 an ext9ct ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,anconeal fossa1 a deep pit on ! po/]ior side ( ! hum]us1 ne> ! l[] end4 ,anconeal process1 see ,olecranon4 ,ancylopoda1 an ext9ct subord] ( ,p]issodactyla4 ,angle1 ( ! l[] jaw1 ! po/]o-inf]ior corn]4 ,angul> process1 a hook-l projection f ! angle ( ! l[] jaw4 ,ant]ior n>es1 ! =w>d op5+ ( ! nasal passage4 ,an?ropoidea1 ,monkeys1 ,apes1 ,man2 subord] ( ,primates4 ,app5dicul> skeleton1 bones ( ! limbs & limb-girdles4 ,araucanian1 ,plioc5e ( ,arg5t9a1 includ+ ! ,catam>ca & ,monte ,h]moso4 ,artiodactyl1 see ,artiodactyla4 ,artiodactyla1 ,cattle1 ,de]1 ,camels1 ,pigs1 etc41 etc41 ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,asc5d+ ramus1 po/]ior1 v]tical portion ( ! l[] jaw4 ,a/ragalus1 ! ankle-bone4 ,a/raponotus ,b$s1 upp] ,eoc5e or m probably1 l[] ,oligoc5e ( ,patagonia4 ,a/rapo!ria1 an ext9ct ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,atlas1 ! fir/ v]tebra ( ! neck4 ,auditory bulla1 "o ( a pair ( inflat$ bony capsules at ! base ( ! skull2 ! tympanic bone4 ,auditory meatus1 ! entrance to ! bulla4 ,axial skeleton1 ! skull1 backbone1 ribs & brea/-bone4 ,axis1 ! second v]tebra ( ! neck4 ,b>y!ria1 an ext9ct ord] ( elephant-l mammals4 ,biceps muscle1 ! l>ge flexor muscle ( ! front ( ! upp] arm2 its contraction b5ds ! elb[4 ,bicipital groove1 a groove betwe5 ! tub]osities ( ! hum]us = ! upp] t5dons ( ! biceps4 ,bra*yodont1 l[-cr[n$ tee?1 ) e>ly-=m$ roots4 ,bridg] /age1 middle ,eoc5e ( ,n4 ,w4 ,am]ica4 ,bunodont1 tee? compos$ ( conical tub]cles4 ,calcaneum1 ! heel-bone4 ,cannon-bone1 a comp\nd bone =m$ by ! cossification ( two or m long bones ( ! foot4 ,cape ,fairwea!r1 m>9e ,plioc5e ( ,patagonia4 ,c>nassial1 a %e>+1 sectorial too? 9 a fle%-eat]4 ,c>nivora1 ,wolves1 ,be>s1 ,cats1 etc41 etc42 an ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,c>nivor\s1 fle%-eat+1 pr$ace\s4 ,c>pal1 "o ( ! elem5ts ( ! c>pus4 ,c>pus1 ! wri/-bones4 ,casa ,mayor /age1 t]re/rial =mation ( ,patagonia1 probably ,eoc5e4 ,catam>ca1 a ,plioc5e =mation ( ,arg5t9a4 ,caudal v]tebr1 ^? ( ! tail4 ,c5tral1 a small c>pal1 w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! two r[s4 ,c5trum1 ! body ( a v]tebra4 ,c]vical v]tebr1 ^? ( ! neck4 ,cetacea1 ,:ales1 etc42 a cohort ( m>9e mammals4 ,*elodactyla1 subord] ( ,p]issodactyla4 ,*evron-bones1 ,y-%ap$ bones atta*$ to ! "u side ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,*evrota9s1 8,m\se ,de]10 ( ! subord] ,tragul9a4 ,*iropt]a1 ,bats1 an ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,class1 a gr\p ( ! fif? ord] 9 classification4 ,clavicle1 ! coll>-bone4 ,cnemial cre/1 a massive prom95ce on ! front face ( ! tibia1 ne> ! upp] end4 ,cohort1 division ( infraclass1 conta9+ a s]ies ( relat$ ord]s4 ,condyl>?ra1 an ext9ct ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,condyle1 a knob-l1 articul> protub]ance4 ,conv]g5ce1 or ,conv]g5t ,evolution1 simil> =ms result+ f two or m indep5d5t l9es ( desc5t4 ,coracoid1 a hook-l bone1 fus$ ) ! %\ld]-blade 9 ! high] mammals4 ,coronoid process1 a projection 9 front ( ! condyle ( ! l[] jaw1 to :i* ! temporal muscle is atta*$4 ,cotyles1 concavities on ! atlas to receive ! occipital condyles ( ! skull4 ,cranium1 ! "p ( ! skull above & beh9d ! eyes1 :i* lodges ! bra9 & high] s5se-organs4 ,creodonta1 an ext9ct subord] ( ! ,c>nivora4 ,cretace\s1 ?ird & la/ ( ! ,mesozoic p]iods4 ,cr[n1 ! expos$ "p ( a too?4 ,deltoid cre/1 a ridge on ! ant]ior face ( ! hum]us = ! atta*m5t ( ! deltoid muscle4 ,d5tal =mula1 an ari?metical expression ( ! numb] & k9ds ( tee?4 ,d]mopt]a1 ,fly+ ,lemur1 ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,deseado /age1 t]re/rial =mation ( ,patagonia1 probably ,oligoc5e4 ,didelphia1 l[] infraclass ( ! ,eu!ria4 ,digit1 a f+] or toe4 ,diprotodonta1 ,kang>oos1 etc41 a subord] ( ,m>supials4 ,dorsal v]tebr1 ^? :i* c>ry ribs4 ,duplicid5tata1 ,h>es & ,rabbits1 subord] ( ,rod5tia4 ,ed5tata1 ,slo?s1 ,anteat]s1 etc41 an ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,ed5tates1 see ,ed5tata4 ,embri?opoda1 an ext9ct ord] ( elephant-l mammals4 ,embryo1 "y animal 9 e>ly /ages ( developm5t )9 ! ut]us4 ,entelony*ia1 ext9ct subord] ( ! ,toxodontia4 ,eoc5e1 second ( ! five ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,epicondyl> =am51 p]=ation ( ! int]nal epicondyle = transmission ( ! uln> n]ve4 ,epicondyle1 a r\gh prom95ce on ea* end ( ! hum]al tro*lea4 ,epiphysis1 ! ends ( ! long bones1 :i* ossify sep>ately & d n coalesce ) ! %aft until gr[? ceases4 ,equus ,b$s1 see ,%]idan /age4 ,eu!ria1 ! high] subclass ( mammals2 vivip>\s4 ,family1 gr\p ( ! ?ird ord] 9 classification1 typically conta9+ sev]al g5]a4 ,fauna1 ! totality ( animals ( a giv5 "t or place4 ,femur1 ! ?igh-bone4 ,fibula1 ! ext]nal bone ( ! l[] leg4 ,fissip$ia1 l&-c>nivores2 subord] ( ! ,c>nivora4 ,flora1 ! totality ( plants ( a giv5 "t or place4 ,ftus1 "y animal 9 ! lat] /ages ( developm5t )9 ! ut]us4 ,=am51 a p]=ation 9 a bone = ! passage ( a n]ve or blood-vessel4 ,=am5 magnum1 ! op5+ 9 ! occiput = ! passage ( ! sp9al cord to ! bra94 ,=mation1 a g5]al t]m = a gr\p ( /rata1 laid d[n cont9u\sly & "u uni=m conditions4 ,frontal1 "o ( a pair ( bones :i* =m ! ant]ior "p ( ! cranial ro(2 ! =ehead4 ,g5us1 gr\p ( ! second ord] 9 classification1 typically conta9+ sev]al species4 ,gl5oid cavity1 7( ! squamosal7 ! articul> surface = ! condyle ( ! l[] jaw2 7( ! scapula7 ! socket = ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,hallux1 ! fir/ digit ( ! pes1 or great toe4 ,h]bivor\s1 plant-eat+4 ,homalodo!res1 see ,entelony*ia4 ,horizontal ramus1 ! too?-c>ry+ "p ( ! l[] jaw4 ,hum]us1 ! bone ( ! upp] arm4 ,hyoid ar*1 a s]ies ( bony rods1 atta*$ to ! base ( ! cranium1 = support ( ! tongue4 ,hyopsodonta1 an ext9ct subord] ( ! ,insectivora4 ,hypsodont1 high-cr[n$ tee?1 ) late-=m$ roots4 ,hyracoidea1 ,klipdases1 an ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,ilium1 ! ant]ior elem5t ( ! hip-bone4 ,inf]ior maxill>y1 ! l[] jaw4 ,infraclass1 division ( subclass4 ,insectivora1 ,moles1 ,%rews1 etc41 an ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,is*ium1 ! po/]o-sup]ior elem5t ( ! hip-bone4 ,john ,day /age1 upp] ,oligoc5e ( ,n4 ,w4 ,am]ica4 ,jugal1 ! *eek-bone4 ,see ,mal>4 ,jurassic1 ! second ( ! ,mesozoic p]iods4 ,la*rymal1 a small bone on ! front edge ( ! orbit4 ,la*rymal =am51 a canal = ! te>-duct pi]c+ ! la*rymal bone4 ,lemuroidea1 ,lemurs1 subord] ( ! ,primates4 ,lemurs1 see ,lemuroidea4 ,limb-girdles1 ! bones :i* atta* ! limbs to ! body4 ,lipotyphla1 subord] ( ! ,insectivora4 ,litopt]na1 ext9ct ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,loricata1 ,armadillos & ,glyptodonts2 ! arm\r$ ,ed5tates4 ,lumb> v]tebr1 ^? ( ! lo9s4 ,lun>1 ! middle bone 9 ! upp] r[ ( ! c>pus4 ,magnum1 ! middle bone 9 ! l[] r[ ( ! c>pus2 supports ! ?ird digit or middle f+]4 ,mal>1 *eek-bone4 ,see ,jugal4 ,malleol> bone1 ! l[] end ( ! fibula1 p]si/+ z a sep>ate bone aft] loss ( ! %aft4 ,malleolus1 ext]nal1 ! l[] end ( ! fibula4 ,malleolus1 int]nal1 process f ! l[] end ( ! tibia4 ,mammal1 a w>m-blood$ v]tebrate1 :i* suckles its "y4 ,m&ible1 ! l[] jaw4 ,manubrium1 ! ant]ior segm5t ( ! brea/-bone4 ,manus1 ! h& or =e foot4 ,m>supial1 see ,m>supialia4 ,m>supialia1 ,opossums1 ,kang>oos1 etc41 etc42 only ord] ( ! infraclass ,didelphia4 ,m>supium1 ! hairy p\* 9 :i* ! "y ,m>supials are c>ri$4 ,masset] muscle1 a muscle ( ma/ication1 atta*$ to ! l[] jaw & inf]ior bord] ( ! zygomatic ar*4 ,ma/oid1 t "p ( ! p]iotic bone :i* is expos$ on ! surface ( ! skull4 ,ma/oid process1 a sp9e-l outgr[? ( ! ma/oid4 ,maxill>y1 ! upp] jaw-bone4 ,m$ull>y cavity1 ! m>r[ cavity ( a long bone4 ,mesozoic1 ! middle era ( geological "t4 ,metac>pal1 a memb] ( ! metac>pus4 ,metac>pus1 ! long bones ( ! manus1 or =e foot4 ,metapodial1 a metac>pal or metat>sal4 ,metat>sal1 a memb] ( ! metat>sus4 ,metat>sus1 ! long bones ( ! pes1 or h9d foot4 ,mioc5e1 ! f\r? ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,monodelphia1 plac5tal mammals2 ! high] infraclass ( ! ,eu!ria4 ,monophyletic1 d]iv$ f a s+le l9e ( ance/ry4 ,monotremata1 ,duck-bill$ ,mole & ,sp9y ,anteat]s2 ! only exi/+ ord] ( ! ,proto!ria4 ,monte ,h]moso /age1 upp] ,plioc5e ( ,arg5t9a4 ,m\se ,de]1 *evrota9s2 subord] ,tragul9a4 ,my/acoceti1 ,:alebone ,:ales2 ord] ( ! ,cetacea4 ,nasal1 "o ( a pair ( bones1 =m+ ! ro( ( ! nasal passage4 ,navicul>1 c5tral bone ( ! t>sus4 ,neural ar*1 ! bony ar* ( a v]tebra4 ,neural canal1 ! cavity 9 ! ar*1 lodg+ ! sp9al cord4 ,neural sp9e1 or sp9\s process1 ! projection aris+ f ! summit ( ! neural ar*4 ,noto/ylops ,b$s1 see ,casa ,mayor /age4 ,occipital condyles1 a pair ( knob-l protub]ances f ! occiput = articulation ) ! fir/ v]tebra4 ,occipital cre/1 an elevat$ bony ridge ar\nd ! m>g9 ( ! occiput4 ,occiput1 ! po/]ior surface ( ! skull4 ,odontoceti1 ,too!d ,:ales2 ord] ( ,cetacea4 ,odontoid process1 a peg-l projection f ! body ( ! second v]tebra1 :i* fits into ! r+ ( ! fir/4 ,olecranon1 ! heavy projection f ! upp] end ( ! ulna1 =m+ ! po9t ( ! elb[4 ,oligoc5e1 ! ?ird ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,opposable1 us$ ( ! ?umb & great toe1 :5 !y c be oppos$ to ! o!r digits4 ,orbit1 ! bony eye-socket4 ,ord]1 a gr\p ( ! f\r? rank 9 classification1 typically includ+ _m families4 ,ovip>\s1 egg-lay+4 ,palate1 h>d1 ! bony ro( ( ! m\?4 ,palat9e1 "o ( a pair ( bones :i* =m ! h9d] "p ( ! h>d palate4 ,palat9e process1 a %elf-l projection ( ! maxill>y1 :i* =ms mo/ ( ! h>d palate on ea* side4 ,paleoc5e1 ! olde/ ( ! five ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,palmate1 =m ( antl] 9 :i* ! t9es are fus$ into l>ge plates4 ,pampean1 ,plei/oc5e1 p]haps includ+ ! upp]mo/ ,plioc5e1 ( ,arg5t9a4 ,p>allelism1 or ,p>allel ,evolution1 simil> developm5t ( relat$1 b sep>ate s]ies4 ,p>an /age1 l[] ,plioc5e 7or p]haps upp] ,mioc5e7 ( ,arg5t9a4 ,p>ietal1 "o ( a pair ( l>ge1 vault$ bones1 :i* =m mo/ ( ! sides & ro( ( ! cranium4 ,p>occipital process1 a bony projection f ! inf]o-ext]nal angle ( ! occiput4 ,patagonian /age1 m>9e l[] ,mioc5e ( ,patagonia4 ,patella1 ! knee-cap4 ,pecora1 true ,rum9ants1 subord] ( ,artiodactyla4 ,pelvic girdle1 see ,pelvis4 ,pelvis1 ! hip-bones4 ,p]iotic1 a small1 d5se bone1 :i* lodges ! int]nal labyr9? ( ! e>4 ,pes1 ! h9d foot4 ,petrosal1 see ,p]iotic4 ,phalanx1 "o ( ! jo9ts ( ! f+]s or toes4 ,pholidota1 ,pangol9s or ,scaly ,anteat]s2 ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,phylum1 a g5etic s]ies ( ance/ors & desc5dants )9 a family4 ,pilosa1 ,slo?s1 ,anteat]s1 etc42 subord] ( ,ed5tata4 ,p9nip$ia1 ,m>9e ,c>nivores2 subord] ( ,c>nivora4 ,pisi=m1 an accessory bone atta*$ to ! po/]o-ext]nal angle ( ! c>pus4 ,plac5ta1 a tempor>y /ructure connect+ "m & ftus1 by means ( :i* ! ftus is n\ri%$ 9 ! womb4 ,plac5tal1 hav+ a plac5ta2 ! ,monodelphia4 ,plei/oc5e1 ! old] ( ! two ,quat]n>y epo*s4 ,plioc5e1 ! fif? & la/ ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,pollex1 ! fir/ digit ( ! manus1 or ?umb4 ,polyphyletic1 d]iv$ f two or m di/9ct l9es ( ance/ry4 ,polyprotodonta1 ,opossums1 etc42 subord] ( ,m>supials4 ,po/]ior n>es1 ! h9d] op5+ ( ! nasal passage4 ,po/gl5oid process1 a bony ridge beh9d ! gl5oid cavity ( ! squamosal to prev5t backw>d dislocation ( ! jaw4 ,po/orbital process1 a bony projection f ! frontal or jugal1 b\nd+ ! eye-socket beh9d4 ,premaxill>y1 ! ant]ior bone ( ! upp] jaw1 c>ry+ ! incisor tee?4 ,primates1 ,lemurs1 ,monkeys1 ,apes & ,man2 cohort & ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,proboscidea1 ,elephants1 etc42 ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,process1 a di/9ct prom95ce or projection ( bone = ! atta*m5t ( muscle or ligam5t4 ,proglires1 an ext9ct subord] ( ! ,insectivora4 ,proto!ria1 mo/ primitive subclass ( mammals2 ovip>\s4 ,pubis1 ! po/]o-inf]ior elem5t ( ! hip-bone4 ,pyramidal1 ! ext]nal bone 9 ! upp] r[ ( ! c>pus4 ,pyro!ria1 an ext9ct subord] ( ,toxodontia4 ,pyro!rium ,b$s1 see ,deseado /age4 ,radius1 ! int]nal bone ( ! =e-arm4 ,rod5t1 see ,rod5tia4 ,rod5tia1 ,gnaw]s2 ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,rotul> groove1 a broad1 %all[ groove on ! ant]ior face ( ! femur1 ne> ! l[] end1 9 :i* ! knee-cap glides4 ,r\nd ligam5t1 ! ligam5t betwe5 ! head ( ! femur & a pit 9 ! acetabulum ( ! hip-bone4 ,sacral v]tebr1 ^? ( ! sacrum4 ,sacrum1 a bony mass ( fus$ v]tebr1 = ! support ( ! hip-bones4 ,sagittal cre/1 a ridge ( bone 9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! cranial ro(1 runn+ =w>d f ! occipital cre/4 ,scaphoid1 ! inn] bone 9 ! upp] r[ ( ! c>pus4 ,scapho-lun>1 a comp\nd bone made up ( ! coalesc$ scaphoid1 lun> & c5tral4 ,scapula1 ! %\ld]-blade4 ,section1 prim>y division ( a subord]4 ,sectorial1 a c>nassial or %e>+ too? ( a fle%-eat]4 ,sel5odont1 tee? compos$ ( cresc5t-%ap$ cusps4 ,%aft1 ! body ( a long bone1 compris+ mo/ ( its l5g?4 ,%]idan /age1 old] ,plei/oc5e ( ! ,great ,pla9s4 ,%\ld]-girdle1 ! bones to :i* ! =e limb is atta*$4 ,simplicid5tata1 ,squirrels1 ,rats1 ,porcup9es1 etc41 etc42 subord] ( ,rod5tia4 ,s9us1 an air-cavity 9 "o ( ! skull-bones4 ,sir5ia1 ,sea ,c[s & ,dugong2 ord] ( m>9e mammals4 ,species1 ! unit gr\p 9 classification1 made up ( individuals :i* are mo/ closely simil>4 ,sp9e1 7( ! scapula7 a bony ridge on ! outside ( ! %\ld]-blade2 7( ! tibia7 a s+le or d\ble prom95ce f ! upp] end ( ! %9-bone2 7( a v]tebra7 ! neural sp9e4 ,squamosal1 a bone =m+ ! po/]ior side-wall ( ! cranium4 ,/]nal ribs1 ! inf]ior segm5ts ( ! ribs1 :i* articulate ) ! brea/-bone4 ,/]num1 ! brea/-bone4 ,/ratum1 a lay] ( b$d$ rock4 ,subclass1 prim>y division ( class4 ,subfamily1 a gr\p ( relat$ g5]a )9 ! family4 ,subg5us1 a gr\p ( relat$ species )9 ! g5us4 ,subord]1 prim>y division ( ord]4 ,subspecies1 a def9ite subdivision ( a species4 ,su9a1 sw9e-l animals2 subord] ( ,artiodactyla4 ,sup]family1 a gr\p ( relat$ families4 ,sup]ord]1 a gr\p ( relat$ ord]s4 ,sup9ator ridge1 a cre/ on ! out] side1 ne> ! l[] end ( ! hum]us1 = atta*m5t ( ! sup9ator muscle4 ,symphysis1 ! l9e ( junction ( ! two halves ( ! l[] jaw4 ,synonym1 a "n improp]ly giv5 to a g5us or species already nam$4 ,tniodontia1 an ext9ct ord] ( claw$ mammals4 ,t>sal1 an elem5t ( ! t>sus4 ,t>sus1 ! bones ( ! ankle-jo9t4 ,temporal muscle1 a muscle ( ma/ication atta*$ to ! side ( ! cranium & ! coronoid process ( ! l[] jaw4 ,t]ti>y1 ! m anci5t ( ! two ,c5ozoic p]iods4 ,?oracic v]tebr1 see ,dorsal4 ,?orax1 ! bony frame-"w ( ! *e/4 ,tibia1 ! %9-bone1 int]nal bone ( ! l[] leg4 ,tillodontia1 an ext9ct ord] ( claw$ mammals4 ,toxodonta1 an ext9ct subord] ( ! ,toxodontia4 ,toxodontia1 an ext9ct ord] ( ho($ mammals4 ,toxodonts1 see ,toxodonta4 ,tragul9a1 8,m\se ,de]02 subord] ( ,artiodactyla4 ,transv]se processes1 projections f ! sides ( a v]tebra4 ,trapezium1 int]nal bone 9 ! l[] r[ ( ! c>pus2 supports ! fir/ digit1 or ?umb4 ,trapezoid1 second bone 9 ! l[] r[ ( ! c>pus2 supports ! second digit1 or index f+]4 ,triassic1 fir/ ( ! ?ree ,mesozoic p]iods4 ,triconodonta1 an ext9ct subord] ( ,mesozoic ,m>supials4 ,tritub]culata1 an ext9ct ord] ( ,mesozoic mammals4 ,tro*ant]1 a projection f ! femur4 ,tro*ant]1 ?ird1 a hook-l process on ! out] side ( ! %aft ( ! femur1 ne> ! middle ( its l5g?4 ,tro*lea1 ! pulley-%ap$ l[] end ( ! hum]us = articulation ) ! =e-arm bones4 ,trunk v]tebr1 ^? ( ! body1 ! dorsals & lumb>s4 ,tub]cle1 an articul> projection on a rib1 connect+ ) ! transv]se process ( a dorsal v]tebra4 ,tub]osities 7( ! hum]us71 heavy projections f ! upp] end ( ! bone1 9 front ( ! head4 ,tubulid5tata1 ! ,a>d ,v>k2 an ord] ( plac5tal mammals4 ,tylopoda1 ,camels & ,llamas2 subord] ( ,artiodactyla4 ,tympanic1 a bone =m+ ! support ( ! e>-drum & usually inflat$ into a holl[ capsule4 ,typo!res1 see ,typo!ria4 ,typo!ria1 an ext9ct subord] ( ! ,toxodontia4 ,ulna1 ! ext]nal bone ( ! =e-arm4 ,unci=m1 ! ext]nal bone 9 ! l[] r[ ( ! c>pus2 supports ! f\r? & fif? digits1 or r+ & little f+]s4 ,uncon=mity1 ! relation betwe5 two gr\ps ( /rata1 "o ( :i* 0 deposit$ ^u ! worn surface or upturn$ edges ( ! o!r4 ,ungual phalanx1 ! t]m9al jo9t ( a digit1 :i* supports ! claw1 nail or ho(4 ,unguiculata1 claw$ mammals2 cohort ( ,monodelphia4 ,ungulata1 ho($ mammals2 cohort ( ,monodelphia4 ,ungulates1 see ,ungulata4 ,ut]us1 ! womb4 ,vag9a1 ! g5ital canal ( ! female4 ,v>iety1 a m or less con/ant gr\p )9 a species4 ,v]tebra1 a jo9t ( ! backbone4 ,v]tebral column1 ! backbone4 ,vivip>\s1 produc+ liv+ "y4 ,zeuglodontia1 an ext9ct ord] ( ,cetacea4 ,zygapophyses1 ! project+ processes1 by means ( :i* successive v]tebr are articulat$ toge!r4 ,zygomatic ar*1 a bony bridge f ! eye-socket to ! h9d] "p ( ! cranium4 ,,index ,n4 ,b4--,! mo/ important ref]5ces are 9 heavy-fac$ type2 te*nical names ( g5]a & species are italiciz$1 ?\gh mo/ ( ! specific names are omitt$ z unnecess>y4 ,ext9ct gr\ps are indicat$ by a dagg] 774 ,a>d ,v>k1 #fj ,abd]ites1 #fbg1 #fda 7jaw fig47 ,a*nodon1 #bgc1 #cfa1 #cfi 7skull fig471 #cgj ,a*nodonts1 ,bridg]1 #cfi2 ,u9ta1 #cfi2 ,wasat*1 #cgj ,aclodid1 #dgg ,adaptive radiation1 #fee ,ad9o!rium1 #dfb1 #dgc1 #dgd 7re/oration7 ,adpi!cus1 #dfb lurocyon1 #eag1 #eea lurodon1 #eag1 #ebg lurus1 #edf ,africa1 #ahd1 #bde1 #cbh1 #ccb1 #dag1 #dai1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dbf1 #ddb1 #deh1 #dha1 #eea1 #egi1 #fdb1 #fef2 elephants (1 #ach2 mammals (1 #ade2 zology (1 #adf ,,agassiz1 ,l41 #abi ,age1 geological1 #ae ,ag\ti1 #ahe 7fig47 ,ag\ti1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe ,ag\tis1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah ,agrio*rid1 #bdg1 #bej1 #cfa1 #chc1 #dhd1 #feb2 ,eoc5e1 #chc2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #chc2 ,oligoc5e1 #chc2 ,u9ta1 #bfg1 #che2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bfh1 #chc ,agrio*rids1 see ,agrio*rid ,agrio*rus1 #beb 7re/oration71 #cfa1 #chc 7skull fig471 #chd 7re/oration71 #che 7manus fig47 ,ala*ua /age1 #abg1 #bbe ,alaska1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #ccb1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dbg1 #dcc2 ,mammo? 91 #dj2 ,mioc5e (1 #aah2 ,oligoc5e (1 #aac2 ,plei/oc5e glaciation 91 #aca2 volcanoes1 #acc2 ,plioc5e (1 #abe ,alb]togaudrya1 #eji1 #eab ,alce1 #fe1 #aea1 #aef 7fig471 #bjb1 #bjh1 #cfb1 #daa1 #dab ,,all51 ,j4 ,a41 #ada1 #afa ,alligators1 #ajb ,allo!re1 ,paleoc5e41 #fdb 7skull fig47 ,allo!ria1 #ei1 #fbg1 #fdb ,al\atta1 #egh1 #ehe ,alps1 ,arctic animals & plants (1 #aic2 ,eoc5e1 #ajd ,alticamelus1 #bbd1 #cfb1 #chh1 #cia2 re/oration1 #bcf ,amazon1 #ehe2 z b>ri] to species1 #acg ,amblypoda1 #fj1 #ddc1 #ejh2 ,bridg]1 #bfi1 #dde2 ,eoc5e1 #ddc2 ,pu]co1 #bhf1 #ded2 ,torrejon1 #bhe1 #dec2 ,wasat*1 #bgg1 #deb2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd1 #dej1 #deb ,amblytatus1 #eib ,,amegh9o1 ,f41 #bbh1 #bfc1 #dfg1 #dga1 #dgf1 #dif1 #dig1 #fac ,am]ica1 connections ( ,nor? & ,s\?1 #abc ,am]ican ,ma/odon1 #aif2 re/oration1 #aie ,am]icas1 m>supials (1 #ach ,amh]/ exp$ition1 #dhg ,amphibia1 #ee2 z ance/ral to mammals1 #fdc ,amphicyon1 #eag1 #ebd1 #ebe1 #ecj ,amphicyons1 #eeh ,amphidolops1 #fbg ,amphiproviv]ra1 #fbg1 #fcg2 skull fig41 #fcg ,amynodon1 #bgb1 #bia1 #cdj1 #cdh1 #cdi ,amynodont91 #bia1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdf1 #cej1 #cea1 #cec2 ,bridg]1 #bgb1 #cej2 ,oligoc5e1 #cci2 ,u9ta1 #bff1 #cdh2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #cdf4 ,amynodonts1 see ,amynodont9 ,anacodon1 #bgg1 #eed1 #efa ,analci!rium1 #eib ,anaptomorphid1 #egh1 #ehc ,anaptomorphus1 #bha1 #egh1 #eha2 head re/or$1 #eha ,an*i!rium1 #bij1 #bii ,ancon %eep1 #ffj ,ancylopoda1 #fj1 #bia1 #cec2 ,bridg]1 #ceg2 ,mioc5e1 #bch1 #cee2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #cee ,&es1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #baa1 #bac1 #cbb1 #edh2 ,eoc5e1 #aab2 ,mioc5e1 #abd2 ,plei/4 glaciation1 #acc1 #acd2 ,plioc4 #abh1 #abi ,,&rews1 ,c4 ,w41 #dbb1 #dce ,ant>ctic cont95t1 #ajc1 #abc1 #fch ,ant-,be>1 #ia1 #ahg1 #ahh 7fig471 #bjf1 #eia1 #cee1 #fjj1 #fja1 #fae ,anteat]1 ,coll>$1 #ahg1 #ahh 7fig472 ,less]1 #eia2 tree1 #eia2 ,two-to$1 #ahh ,anteat]s1 #fj1 #ge1 #id1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #eia1 #eic1 #eif2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah1 #eif2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #eif2 scaly1 #fj1 #cec2 sp9y1 #eg1 #ei ,antelope1 #bjb2 bones (1 #ce2 ,mioc4 re/or$1 #bcg2 ,prong-horn$1 #e1 #afb 7fig47 ,antelopes1 #ed1 #fj1 #bbb1 #cab1 #cfb1 #dji1 #daf1 #dah2 flat-horn$1 #dag2 goat-horn$1 #dag2 ,mioc5e1 #bce1 #dag2 ,old ,_w1 #bjb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjb2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd2 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae1 #bba1 #dah1 #dff2 /repsic]9e1 #bbe1 #dag2 ,t]ti>y1 #dai2 twi/$-horn$1 #dag ,an?raco!res1 see ,an?raco!riid ,an?raco!riid1 #bei1 #bff1 #cfa1 #cgj1 #cha1 #chd1 #chf ,an?raco!rium1 #bei1 #cfa1 #cga ,an?ropoidea1 #fj1 #egh1 #egi1 #ehj1 #ehb ,an?ropoids1 see ,an?ropoidea ,antigua1 #acd ,antilles1 ,eoc5e1 #aab2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag2 ,plioc5e1 #abh ,antillia1 #aab2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag ,antilocapra1 #afb 7fig471 #bjb1 #bbe1 #cfb1 #daf1 #dag ,antilocaprid1 #cfb1 #daf ,antilopid1 #daf ,antl]1 #daa ,antw]p1 #cg ,ap>1 #eib ,apes1 #fj1 #egg1 #egh1 #ehb1 #ehc2 night1 #ehe ,aphelops1 #bia ,aplodontia1 #aec1 #bcc 7see ,sewellel7 ,aplodontiid1 #bdi ,appala*ian ,mts41 #aja1 #aej1 #aec ,aquatic habits1 #b ,araucanian /age1 #abh ,arboreal animals1 #b1 #gg1 #hd ,ar*an p]iod1 #ae ,ar*lurus1 #bdi1 #eag1 #eda1 #edc ,ar*ohyracid1 #dfb ,ar*ohyrax1 #dfb ,ar*opi!cid1 #dfb1 #dgg ,ar*o!rium1 #bei1 #cfa1 #cfg2 manus fig41 #cfg2 re/oration1 #beb1 #bfj2 skull fig41 #cfg2 tee? fig41 #cfh ,arctic1 ar*ipelago1 #abe2 isl&s1 #baj2 fauna 9 ,plei/o41 #abh2 mammals1 #aji2 regions1 #abh2 ,cretac4 climate (1 #bf2 ,sea1 #ajf2 %ells1 ,plei/o41 #bg2 species1 di/ribution (1 #ada2 zone1 #adg 7map71 #adh ,arctocyonid1 #eed1 #eeg1 #efa1 #ege2 ,torrejon1 #bhe2 ,wasat*1 #efa ,arcto!rium1 #baa1 #eag1 #edi1 #eec2 head re/or41 #edi ,arg5t9a1 #ahj1 #ahe1 #baa1 #bac1 #bae1 #bah1 #bai1 #bde1 #cbd1 #cia1 #dah1 #dcf1 #dfc1 #dff1 #eca1 #ehf1 #eif1 #eig2 dr\ght 91 #cc2 pla9s (1 #acc2 ,plioc5e (1 #bj1 #abh2 spread ( horses & cattle 91 #adb ,argyrohippus1 #dgf ,arid prov9ce1 #afd ,aridity1 evid5ces (1 #bd ,arik>ee age1 or /age1 #ag1 #abj1 #bce1 #bei1 #cef ,armadillo1 #e1 #afb1 #eia2 #f-;,b&$1 #ahi 7fig471 #eib2 #g-;,b&$1 #eib2 #i-;,b&$1 #aij 7fig471 #eib1 #eic2 #aa-;,b&$1 #eib2 ,bridg]1 #bfh1 #faf2 ,giant1 #aij1 #eib1 #fab1 #fef2 ,pygmy1 #eib2 re/oration ( ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc1 #dhj ,armadillos1 #fj1 #ig1 #ada1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #eib1 #eic1 #eid1 #eie1 #faj1 #fbc1 #fbd1 #fbe2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb1 #eie2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #eie1 #faf2 ,p>an1 #bbh2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah1 #eif1 #fab1 #fac2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #eif1 #fab4 7,see also ,dasypoda & ,dasypodid7 ,artiodactyl1 primitive1 re/oration1 #beb ,artiodactyla1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1 #fi1 #bdg1 #bhd1 #caj1 #cee1 #ceh1 #djb1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dia1 #ejg1 #ead2 ,araucanian1 #bbf1 #bbg2 ,blanco1 #bbb2 ,bridg]1 #bgc2 classification1 #cfa2 ,john ,day1 #bej2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bce1 #bci2 ,neotropical1 #agf2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #agf2 ,old ,_w1 #agf1 #cfb2 ,plei/o4 ,n4 ,am]41 #bja2 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd2 ,primitiva1 #fj1 #cfa1 #cgj2 ,u9ta1 #bff2 ,wasat*1 #bha2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #beg2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge ,a%1 volcanic1 #bi ,asia1 #ajf1 #bci1 #bed1 #beh1 #bhj1 #cag1 #cba1 #cbh1 #ccb1 #ceb1 #cee1 #cfi1 #chf1 #cij1 #djh1 #dac1 #dad1 #dag1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbb1 #dbf1 #edf1 #eej1 #eeb1 #egi1 #fdd2 circumpol> area1 #adh2 elephants (1 #ach2 hyracoids (1 #ach2 ,m9or1 #deh2 ,plei/o4 glaciation (1 #acj2 zology (1 #adf ,asmodeus1 #dfb ,asphalt1 #ca ,ass1 #eb ,asses1 #bac1 #bib1 #cjh ,a/]o/emma1 #eib1 #fbc ,a/ragalus1 #hh ,a/raponotus1 #eji1 #eab2 ,b$s1 #bj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #dgf1 #dgi1 #dhg ,a/rapo!re1 ,santa ,cruz1 re/oration ( head1 #bdc ,a/rapo!res1 see ,a/rapo!ria ,a/rapo!ria1 #fj1 #dhi1 #ejh1 #ead2 ( ,a/raponotus ,b$s1 #bhb2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhc1 #eab2 ,deseado1 #bfd1 #eab2 ,patagonian1 #eab2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdg1 #ejh ,a/rapo!riculus1 #eji1 #eab ,a/rapo!riid1 #eji ,a/rapo!rium1 #bdc 7re/or4 ( head71 #eji1 #eaj 7re/or4 ( head7 ,ateles1 #egh1 #ehd ,atlantic coa/1 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aag2 ,mioc5e1 #aag1 #abj2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac1 #aaf2 ,paleoc5e1 #aja2 ,plioc5e1 #abe2 ,t]ti>y mammals (1 #cfi ,atlantic ,ocean1 #ajf1 #aji2 connection ) ,pacific1 #ajd ,atlas1 #gj 7fig47 ,auditory bulla1 #ff ,au/ralia1 #ad1 #ba1 #eg1 #eh1 #ach1 #adj1 #cjg1 #cdj1 #dbf1 #dfa1 #ebj1 #eej1 #fcd2 m>supials (1 #fbf2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,p]mian glaciation1 #be2 ,plei/oc5e1 #fcb1 #fcd2 rabbits introduc$1 #adb2 zological peculi>ity (1 #ade ,au/ralian region1 #fdj ,axis1 #ga 7fig47 ,axis1 #df1 #dab ,,az>a1 #cd ,baboons1 #egg1 #ehb ,bad ,l&s1 #ajg 7fig47 ,badg]1 #aec1 #afb1 #afc1 #afh 7fig471 #eag ,badg]s1 #agd1 #bac1 #eah1 #eej1 #eea1 #eeb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje ,bahia ,blanca1 #abi ,b&icoots1 #fbf ,b>ri]s to spread ( mammals1 #aci ,b>y!ria1 #fj ,basal ,eoc5e1 #ii ,bass>iscus1 #eag1 #edf1 #edg ,bat1 #hi ,,bates1 ,h4 ,w41 #ehe ,ba?yopsis1 #bge1 #ddc1 #dej1 #dea1 #dee ,bats1 #ei2 abs5ce f ,am]4 ,t]ti>y1 #ci2 9 ,european ,t]ti>y1 #ci2 ,we/ ,indian1 #aia ,be>1 ,alaska ,br[n1 #aef 7fig472 ,african1 #edh2 ,black1 #ij 7pes fig471 #edh 7tee? fig472 ,pampean1 #fbb2 ,pol>1 #adh 7fig471 #edh2 ,%ort-fac$1 #edi 7re/or4 ( head72 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb2 ,spectacl$1 #agb 7fig471 #agf1 #eag1 #edh ,be>-dog1 #bbb2 ,mioc5e1 #ebe 7re/oration72 primitive1 #ebc 7skull fig47 ,be>-dogs1 #ebc1 #ebd1 #ecj1 #eed1 #eeh2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 ,oligoc5e1 #ebf2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #ebd ,be>s1 #d1 #ei1 #ij1 #aeb1 #afc1 #eag1 #eah1 #eai1 #edh1 #eec1 #eed2 ,old ,_w1 #bjd2 ,old ,_w orig9 (1 #eah1 #edi2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #edi2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc2 pol>1 #ada2 ,%ort-fac$1 #baj1 #baa1 #eag1 #edi2 true1 #baa1 #ebg1 #edi4 7,see also ,ursid7 ,bea/1 #a ,bea/s ( prey1 #ei1 #ib ,beav]1 #b1 #dd1 #aeg 7fig472 d5tition1 #if 7fig472 ,giant1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bje1 #caa1 #bbb ,beav] ,creek1 ,wyo41 #ab 7fig47 ,beav]s1 #fj1 #ie1 #aec1 #ahb2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bch2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed ,,b$d>d1 ,f4 ,e41 #ehj1 #ehg ,b$d$ rocks1 #f ,b]+1 ,sea1 #ajj1 #aja2 ,/rait1 #aig1 #ehh2 op5+ & clos+ (1 #bc2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,,b]ridge1 ,w4 ,l41 #afj1 #aga1 #agd1 #age1 #aha1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #cbj1 #ehd1 #fcc ,bicuspids1 #ic ,big ,horn ,bas91 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji ,bighorn1 #dai ,b9omial sy/em ( nom5clature1 #db ,biog5etic law1 #fdh ,birds1 #fee2 di/ribution (1 #ada2 migrations (1 #adc2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdd ,bison1 #d1 #aeb1 #afb1 #ceh2 ,am]ican1 #aed 7fig472 entombm5t (1 #cf2 ,european1 #aeb1 #aed 7fig472 ,wood1 #afb1 #dai ,bison1 #bjb1 #cfb1 #dbj2 ,b4 bison1 #aeb1 #aed 7fig471 #dai2 ,b4 bonasus1 #aeb1 #aed 7fig471 #dbj2 ,b4 crassicornis1 #bjc1 #dbj2 ,b4 latifrons1 #bjc1 #dbj2 ,b4 occid5talis1 #ehi ,bisons1 #dji1 #daf1 #dah1 #dai ,blanco age & /age1 #ag1 #abg1 #bba1 #chh1 #dac1 #eea ,bl>9a1 #afc1 #agc ,bla/oc]os1 #ahj 7fig47 ,bla/om]yx1 #bbd1 #bda1 #cfb1 #dad 7re/oration71 #feg ,bo>1 ,wild1 #de 7fig4 ( s[ & "y71 #df1 #cfc ,bogs1 burial ( mammals 91 #cc ,bolivia1 #agh1 #ahd1 #bae1 #bbe1 #dcf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bj1 #baa2 ,plioc5e1 #abi ,bones1 gnaw$1 #cf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #dj2 pres]vation (1 #cf2 ,t]ti>y1 #dj ,bo*rus1 #cfa1 #cfg ,boreal1 fauna1 #agh2 region1 #aej2 subregion1 #aej2 zone1 #adg1 #adh 7map71 #afb1 #afd1 #eea1 #ehh ,borhyna1 #bdd1 #did 7re/oration71 #fbg1 #fce1 #fcg 7skull fig47 ,borneo1 #acg1 #cbg ,borophagus1 #eag1 #ebd1 #ecj ,bos1 #gj ,bo?riodon1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bei1 #cfa1 #cgj1 #cga 7re/oration7 ,bovid1 #cfb1 #dah ,b[-,too?1 #dfc ,bra*yodont tee?1 #ie ,bra*ypsalis1 #eag ,,brackett1 ,c4 ,f41 #cfh ,bradypus1 #ahf 7fig471 #ahg1 #eia ,bra9-ca/s1 fossil1 #da ,brazil1 #aah1 #aha1 #aij1 #bja1 #bac1 #bae1 #bah1 #bai1 #bba1 #bde1 #cbd1 #cia1 #dcf1 #ebg1 #ecj1 #eeb2 cav]ns (1 #ai1 #cj1 #acc1 #baa1 #bah1 #bba1 #ehf1 #eif2 ,mioc5e1 #eif2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bj ,brazilian subregion1 #afd1 #agj 7map71 #aia ,bridg] age & /age1 #ag1 #cj1 #aji1 #aaj1 #cdj1 #chj1 #chf1 #efh2 re/orations ( mammals1 #bga ,briti% ,columbia1 ,mioc5e1 #aah2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac2 ,plei/oc5e glaciation1 #aca2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,brocket1 ,wood1 #aha 7fig47 ,brockets1 #aha ,,br[n1 ,b41 #baj ,br[n-tail$ ,mo?1 #adc ,budorcas1 #dah ,buffalo1 #cf1 #aeb ,buffaloes1 #dji1 #daf ,bulg>ia1 #caf ,bunlurus1 #eag1 #eea ,bunodont tee?1 #cfj ,bunom]yx1 #cfa ,buno-sel5odont tee?1 #cga ,buri$ valleys1 #acb ,,burmei/]1 ,h41 #dif1 #dig ,burr[]s1 #de1 #gi ,burr[+ mammals1 #gg ,bu%-,dog1 #agd1 #bab1 #ebg1 #ecj1 #eeb ,cabass\s1 #eib1 #fad1 #faf ,cacajao1 #egh1 #ehe ,cacomi/le1 #afb1 #eag1 #edf ,cnole/es1 #eh1 #aij1 #bhd1 #fbf1 #fdj 7skull fig471 #fda1 #fdb ,cnole/id1 #fbg ,cnopus1 #bch1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bef 7d471 #bia1 #ccc1 #ccf 7mol> & skull fig471 #cci 7front tee? fig471 #cdb1 #cea ,calamodon1 #bgd ,calcaneum1 #hh ,cali=nia1 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #aaa2 m>9e ,plei/o41 #acb2 ,mesozoic1 #bc2 ,mioc5e1 #aah1 #aba1 #abg2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,calli?rix1 #bah ,caluromys1 #fca ,cambrian p]iod1 #ae2 glaciation 91 #be ,camel1 #dh1 #ed1 #fj1 #gj1 #gi1 #ceh1 #dij2 di/ribution1 #ach2 family1 #agh2 ,mioc5e1 #bcb 7re/oration72 tribe1 #ac2 ,true1 #agh2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beb 7re/or47 ,camelid1 #cfb1 #chf2 di/ribution1 #ach ,camel-l animals1 #chf ,camels1 #ef1 #ha1 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #beg1 #beh1 #cab1 #cfb1 #cgc1 #chf1 #dba1 #dfa1 #fea1 #fee2 ,bridg]1 #bgc1 #cih2 br[s+1 #chh1 #cic2 ,eoc5e1 #cig1 #cih1 #djb1 #fei2 graz+1 #cic2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #cid2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bda1 #cia2 ,old ,_w1 #bca2 ,oligoc5e1 #cid1 #djb1 #fei2 phyla (1 #fej2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aif1 #bjb2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #chh2 true1 #ac1 #chf1 #chg1 #cij1 #cia2 ,u9ta1 #bfg1 #cig2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beg1 #cid ,camelus1 #gj1 #ach1 #cfb1 #chg ,canada1 #beg1 #ceg1 #efe2 ,eoc5e climate1 #aaa2 ,paleoc5e1 #ajb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #aac2 zology1 #adf ,canadian fauna1 #aea2 subregion1 #adg1 #aej ,canid1 #agc1 #bbc1 #eag1 #eah1 #ebj2 fox-l1 #ebi 7,see also ,dogs7 ,canim>tes1 #eag ,can9e tee?1 #ic ,canis1 #aeb1 #eag1 #ebb1 #ebi2 ,c4 dirus1 re/or41 frontispiece1 #bjd1 #eba2 ,c4 indian5sis1 #bjd2 ,c4 latrans1 #afb1 #afe 7fig471 #fcb2 ,c4 nubilis1 #aei 7fig472 ,c4 occid5talis1 #fb 7skull fig471 #fd 7skull fig471 #afb4 7,see ,wolves7 ,cannon-bone1 #hd1 #ia 7fig471 #daj 7fig47 ,cape ,fairwea!r /age1 #abh ,caprom]yx1 #cfb1 #dag ,capromys1 #ahd ,capyb>a1 #bje4 7,see also ,c>p9*o & ,wat] ,hog7 ,capyb>as1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 #ae ,c>ibbean1 region1 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,sea1 ,oligoc5e1 #aac ,c>ib\1 #d1 #aha1 #bjb1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #baj1 #dab1 #dac2 ,b>r5-gr\nd1 #adh2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bg1 #dac2 ,woodl&1 #aeb1 #aeg 7fig47 ,c>nivora1 #dc1 #ei1 #hc1 #ij1 #bdd1 #bfh1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #dei1 #eaf1 #fcd2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,blanco1 #bbb2 ,boreal1 #aeb2 di/ribution1 #ach2 ,eoc5e1 #eed2 ,john ,day1 #bdi1 #ebh2 m>9e1 #ei2 migration to ,s4 ,am]41 #ejh1 #eah2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcc1 #bch2 ,neotropical1 #agc2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bjc1 #baj2 ,s4 ,am]41 #baa2 ,plioc41 #bbb2 ,sonoran1 #afc2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed1 #cab ,c>nivores1 see ,c>nivora ,c>olozittellia1 #dfb1 #dhh ,c>p9*o1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe4 7,see also ,capyb>a & ,wat] ,hog7 ,c>pus1 #hb ,casa ,mayor age & /age1 #bj1 #aab1 #bha1 #dhh1 #dii1 #eab ,cascade ,mts41 #aba2 ,oligoc5e crat]s (1 #aaf ,,ca/le1 ,w4 ,e41 #feg1 #ffj ,ca/or1 #if1 #aec1 #aeg 7fig47 ,ca/oroides1 #aie1 #bje ,cat1 #bbb2 ,dome/ic1 #edf 7manus fig47 ,catam>ca age & /age1 #bj1 #abi1 #bbf ,cat>rh9a1 #ehc1 #ehg1 #ehh ,cats1 #ed1 #ei1 #ij1 #agf1 #eag1 #eah1 #eai1 #ecj1 #ecb1 #eec1 #efh2 cursorial1 #edc2 ,mioc5e1 #ede2 ,native1 #fcd1 #fch1 #fdj2 ,oligoc5e1 #ecj2 ,plei/oc5e1 #ede2 ,plei/o4 ,s4 ,am]41 #baa1 #bab2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc1 #ede2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #eeb2 true1 #bdi1 #eag1 #ecj1 #edc4 7,see ,felid7 ,cattle1 #ie2 spread (1 #adb ,caves z s\rces ( fossil mammals1 #cj ,cavia1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe ,cavicornia1 #cbh1 #daa1 #dab1 #daf1 #dba ,cavies1 see ,caviid ,caviid1 #ahe1 #feg2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde ,cavy1 ,rock1 #ahc 7fig47 ,caxomi/le1 see ,cacomi/le ,cebid1 #agb1 #egh1 #ehd1 #ehe ,cebus1 #bah1 #egh1 #ehd 7fig471 #ehe ,celebes1 #egi ,cem5t1 #if ,c5ozoic era1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ii2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #ai ,c5tetes1 #agc ,c5tral1 #hc ,c5tral ,am]ica1 #abc1 #afd1 #agh1 #agi1 #cbj1 #ehe2 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #aab2 geology1 #abj2 mammals1 #ada2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac1 #aag2 ,paleoc5e1 #ajc2 tapirs1 #acg2 ,t]ti>y1 #bb2 zology1 #adf ,c5tral ,am]ican subregion1 #afd1 #agj 7map71 #aia ,c]docyon1 #aga 7fig471 #agd1 #eag1 #eeb ,c]valces1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bjh1 #bji 7re/oration71 #cfb1 #dac ,c]vicornia1 #daa1 #dba ,c]vid1 #cfb1 #daa1 #ffa2 ,neotropical1 #agi4 7,see also ,de]7 ,c]vulus1 #dab ,c]vus1 #bjh1 #cfb2 ,c4 canad5sis1 #aea1 #aee 7fig471 #bjb1 #bjh1 #daa1 #dab2 ,c4 elaphus1 #aea2 ,c4 eu/ephanus1 #aea4 7,see ,de]7 ,cetacea1 #fj1 #ddb2 ,mioc5e1 #abc1 #abe ,*tomys1 #ahd ,*alico!re1 #bdj 7re/oration71 #cef 7manus fig47 ,*alico!res1 see ,*alico!riid ,*alico!riid1 #fj1 #bdg1 #bia1 #ced1 #chc1 #che1 #deh1 #dhd1 #fea2 ,bridg]1 #ceg2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #ceg2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bce1 #bch1 #cef2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beg1 #ceg ,*alico!rium1 #ced ,,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 #acj ,*amois gr\p1 #bjb1 #dag2 subfamily1 #aeb ,*ampsosaurus1 #ajb ,*eeta1 #edb1 #edc ,*elodactyla1 #fj1 #bij ,*evron-bones1 #gc ,*evrota9s1 #ed1 #fj1 #djh 7see also ,m\se-,de] & ,tragul9a7 ,*ili1 #abd1 #ahd1 #dcf2 m>9e rocks1 #aab2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bj2 ,plei/o4 glaciation1 #acc ,*ilian subregion1 #afd1 #agj 7map7 ,*9*illa1 #ahd 7fig471 #ahe ,*9*illa-family1 ,araucanian1 #bbf ,*9*illas1 #ahe2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde ,*ipmunks1 #ada1 #aec ,*ironectes1 #fbf1 #fbg ,*iropt]a1 #ei ,*lamydophorus1 #aij1 #eib ,*lamydo!rium1 #bah1 #eib1 #eif1 #fab1 #fad ,*olpus1 #gd1 #ahg 7fig471 #eia ,*ronology1 geological1 #aj2 ( rocks1 #f ,civet cats1 #eah1 #eeh 7see ,viv]rid7 ,cladocl9us1 #fbg ,cladosictis1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #fbg1 #fch1 #fci 7re/oration7 ,clnodon1 #eed1 #efa ,classification ( mammals1 #ej ,clavicle1 #gg 7fig47 ,claw$ mammals1 #ei1 #gd1 #def1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dib1 #ead ,climate1 z b>ri] to species1 #adj2 det]m9+ di/ribution1 #bd2 ,cretace\s1 #bf2 ,eoc5e1 #aji1 #ddh2 ,mioc5e1 #abb2 ,mioc4 ( ,patagonia1 #abd1 #bdd1 #ehf2 ,oligoc5e1 #aaf2 ,paleoc5e1 #ajb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aaf1 #acd1 #aib2 ,plioc5e1 #abg2 vicissitudes (1 #ajj ,climatic *anges1 #ad2 affect+ di/ribution1 #adj2 evid5ces (1 #bd2 ,plei/o41 effects on migrations1 #bjg ,coa/ ,range1 elevation1 #abb2 ,mioc5e1 #aac1 #abe ,coati1 #afb ,coatis1 #gf1 #bac1 #eag1 #edf1 #eeb ,co*lops1 #eib ,co5d\1 #ahb 7fig471 #ahd ,colodon1 #beg1 #bia1 #cbg ,colombia1 #fbf1 #fdj ,colonoc]as1 #bgb1 #bia1 #cdg1 #cej ,col\ration1 animal1 #de ,colpodon1 #dfb ,columbia ,riv] valley1 ,mioc5e1 #aah ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 #fdg ,con>d ,fissure1 #cj1 #baj ,condyl>?1 #bgh 7re/oration71 #deg 7skeleton fig471 #dei 7re/oration7 ,condyl>?ra1 #fj1 #ddc1 #def1 #dhd1 #dib1 #dii1 #ejh1 #ead1 #eae1 #fec2 ,pu]co1 #bhf1 #dfj2 ,torrejon1 #bhe1 #dei2 ,wasat*1 #bgg1 #deg2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd1 #def ,condylura1 #aeb ,conepatus1 #agd 7fig471 #bac1 #eag1 #eeb ,conies1 #fj1 #deh1 #dha ,conif]s1 #ajc ,cont95tal deposits1 ,eoc5e1 #ajf1 #aab2 ,mioc5e1 #abj2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac1 #aag2 ,paleoc5e1 #aja2 ,plioc5e1 #abg1 #abh ,cont95tal isl&s1 #adj ,cont9uity ( developm5t1 #ffj ,conv]g5ce1 #fej1 #fec1 #fee1 #fef ,,cope1 ,e4 ,d41 #cjf1 #cdc1 #cii1 #djj1 #dja ,coracoid1 #gf ,coryphodon1 #bge1 #bgg1 #bgi 7re/oration71 #bhe1 #ddc1 #deb1 #ded1 #def ,coryphodontid1 #bhe1 #ddc1 #ded2 l[] ,eoc5e1 #def ,coryphodonts1 see ,coryphodontid ,co/a ,rica1 #aha2 ,plioc5e1 #abh ,cotton-rats1 #afc ,coyote1 #afb1 #afe 7fig47 ,coyotes1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah ,cramau*5ia1 #dhi ,creodont1 #beb 7re/oration71 #efc 7re/oration7 ,creodonta1 #ei1 #eaf1 #eai1 #ebg1 #ebi1 #eed1 #egd2 ,bridg]1 #bfh1 #bga 7re/oration72 ,eoc5e1 #fcc2 ,paleoc5e1 #fcc2 ,pu]co1 #bhf2 ,torrejon1 #bhe2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,wasat*1 #bgf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bec2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd4 7,see ,fle%-eat]s7 ,cretace\s p]iod1 #ae1 #af1 #ajc1 #aab1 #aag1 #bfa1 #bha1 #ddc1 #dfj1 #ead1 #fdb1 #fdc2 climate1 #bf ,crocodiles1 #abb1 #bdd2 abs5t f ,john ,day1 #aaf2 ,eoc5e1 #aaa2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #aaf ,cr[n ( too?1 #ie ,cru/al movem5ts1 ,mioc5e1 #abb ,ct5omys1 #ahd ,cuba1 #agc1 #ahe2 junction ) ,c5tral ,am]ica1 #abh1 #eih2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acd1 #fjd2 ,plioc5e1 #abh1 #fje ,cuboid1 #hi ,culebra ,cut1 ,t]ti>y rocks1 #bb ,cunei=m1 #hc1 #hi ,,cuvi]1 ,g41 #dd1 #fed ,cyclopes1 #eia ,cyclopidius1 #cfa1 #cgf ,cynodesmus1 #eag1 #ebb 7skull fig471 #ebc1 #ecj ,cynodictis1 #bed1 #eag1 #ebi 7re/oration71 #ecj1 #edg ,cyon1 #bac1 #eag1 #ebg ,cyonasua1 #eag ,dama1 #dab ,daphnodon1 #eag1 #ebe 7re/oration71 #ebf1 #ecj ,daphnus1 #bed1 #eag1 #ebc 7skull fig471 #ebd 7manus & tee? fig471 #ebf1 #ebh1 #ecj1 #ecg1 #edf ,,d>w91 ,c41 #cc1 #ce1 #eb1 #acf1 #acg1 #adc1 #aic1 #bag1 #dfc1 #dhi1 #dij1 #dia1 #dib ,dasypoda1 #ahi1 #eib1 #faj4 7,see also ,armadillos7 ,dasypodid1 #eib ,dasyprocta1 #ahe 7fig47 ,dasypus1 #ahi 7fig471 #eib1 #faa1 #fad1 #faf ,dasyures1 ,au/ralian1 #fch ,dasyurid1 #fcb1 #fcd1 #fdj ,deep ,riv] age & /age1 #ag1 #aba1 #bcc ,de]1 #df1 #ed1 #fj1 #ie 7mol> fig471 #bbb1 #cab1 #cai1 #cfj 7mol> fig471 #cfb1 #dji1 #daa1 #dfa2 ,am]ican1 #aec1 #afb1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #dji1 #dab1 #dad1 #dbj1 #feg2 ,axis1 #dab2 ,b>k+1 #dab2 ,black-tail$1 #e1 #bjb2 ,*9ese ,wat]-1 #dab2 e>lie/1 #feh2 ,fall[1 #dab2 ,florida1 #agi 7fig472 ,hog1 #dab2 hornless1 #dad2 ,m>%1 #agi1 #ahj 7fig472 ,mioc5e1 #bcb1 #bce1 #dad 7re/oration72 ,mule1 #df 7fawns fig471 #afg 7fig472 ,musk-1 #bbd1 #dab1 #feh2 ,neotropical1 #agi2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #agi2 ,old ,_w1 #aea1 #agi1 #aha1 #bjb1 #dab1 #dae2 ,pampas1 #ahj2 ,patagonian1 #ia 7pes fig471 #daj 7manus & pes fig472 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #dab2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #bbf2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #dae1 #dah1 #dff2 s\!rn1 #dab1 #dac2 ,t]ti>y1 #dab1 #dai2 ,virg9ia1 #d1 #aff 7fig471 #agi1 #bjb1 #dab ,de]-,antelopes1 #bjb1 #bbd1 #cfb1 #dag2 ,mioc5e1 #bcb1 #bce1 #dad1 #dae 7re/oration72 ,plei/oc5e1 #dag ,degu1 #ahd ,delta!rium1 #eed ,d5tal =mula1 #ic ,d5t9e1 #if ,deposits1 cont95tal 7see ,cont95tal deposits72 lake1 #cg2 riv]1 #cf ,d]mopt]a1 #ei ,deseado age & /age1 #bj1 #aag1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #dgd1 #dge1 #dgg1 #dgi1 #dha1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dhg1 #ejh1 #eaa1 #eab1 #ehf1 #ehg ,desiccation1 ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e1 #abh ,desma?yus1 #cfa ,desmatippus1 #bij ,deut]o!rium1 #dhi ,developm5t1 conv]g5t1 #ddf1 #dii2 p>allel1 #dii2 p] saltum1 #ffa4 7,see also ,evolution7 ,devonian p]iod1 #ae2 glaciation 91 #be ,dhole1 #bac1 #bdi1 #eag1 #ebg1 #ecj ,diadiaphorus1 #bdh1 #dhi1 #eja 7skull fig471 #ejb 7re/oration71 #ejc 7pes fig471 #eje1 #ejg1 #ejh ,dic]a!res1 see ,dic]a!rium ,dic]a!rium1 #bch1 #bci 7re/oration71 #bej1 #bef1 #bia1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cej1 #ddd ,dic]orh9us1 #cbg1 #cbi ,di*obunid1 #cfa1 #cih ,didelphia1 #eg1 #ei1 #fbf ,didelphiid1 #fbg1 #fcj ,didelphis1 #afa1 #fbf1 #fbg1 #fca2 ,d4 m>supialis1 #afa 7fig471 #fca ,didolodid1 #dhi ,didolodus1 #dhi ,didymictis1 #eee1 #eeh ,digit1 #ij ,digital r$uction1 #feh ,digitigrade1 #ij ,d9ictis1 #bed1 #eag1 #ech1 #eci 7re/oration71 #eda 7pes fig471 #edb1 #edf ,d9oc]ata1 #ddc ,d9ocynops1 #eag ,d9ocyon1 #ebd ,d9ohyus1 #bci1 #cfa1 #cff ,d9osaurs1 #ajc1 #bhd ,d9o!res1 see ,d9o!rium ,d9o!rium1 #dce1 #dch1 #dhf ,diplacodon1 #bff1 #bia1 #cac1 #cag 7head re/or$7 ,dipodomys1 #afc 7fig47 ,diprotodonta1 #ei1 #fbg1 #fdj2 ,deseado1 #fdb2 ,p>an1 #fda2 ,plei/oc5e1 #fda2 ,plioc5e1 #fda2 ,santa ,cruz1 #fdj1 #fda2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #fdj ,discont9uity ( developm5t1 #ffj ,disp]sal ( species1 #adc ,dissacus1 #eed1 #efj ,di/ribution1 discont9u\s1 #abg1 #ach1 #aic2 geographical1 ( mammals1 #ace ,div]g5ce1 see ,evolution ,ddicurus1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bai1 #fah1 #fai 7re/oration7 ,dog1 #ij1 #eec2 family1 #eeh2 fox-l1 #ebi 7re/oration7 ,dogs1 #ij1 #agc1 #eag1 #eai1 #ebj1 #edh1 #eec1 #eed1 #eeh2 ,blanco1 #ebb2 e>ly1 #eej2 ,john ,day1 #bdi1 #ebc1 #ebh1 #ebi2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bch1 #ebb1 #ebg1 #ebh1 #ebi2 ,oligoc5e1 #ebc1 #edg1 #eec2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #eba2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bab2 ,plioc5e1 #ebb2 ,plioc4 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbf2 primitive1 #ecg2 %ort-fac$1 #ecj2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed1 #ebi4 7,see also ,canid7 ,doli*orh9us1 #bgb1 #bia ,doli*otis1 #ahe ,dolph9s1 #cg1 #fj1 #id1 #fef2 ,mioc5e1 #abc ,dome/icat$ plants1 hi/ory (1 #bhh ,d\r\c\lis1 #egh1 #ehe ,dra9age1 ! ,plei/oc5e *anges (1 #acb ,drift-%eets1 #be1 #acb ,dromocyon1 #bfi 7re/oration71 #bga 7re/oration71 #eed1 #eei ,dromom]yx1 #bce1 #bcg 7re/oration71 #cfb1 #dag ,dr\ght1 effects ( on mammals1 #cc ,duck-bill$ ,mole1 #eg1 #ei ,dugong1 #fj1 #ddb ,duplicid5tata1 #ei ,du/1 volcanic1 #bi2 w9d-bl[n1 #cc ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 #aia ,e*idna1 #eg ,e*imys1 #ahd ,ecuador1 #agh1 #bhd1 #cia1 #edh1 #fbf1 #fdj2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bj1 #baa2 ,plioc5e1 #abi ,ed5tata1 #fj1 #gb1 #ge1 #ia1 #ig1 #abj1 #ahe1 #bfg1 #cee1 #eia2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 arm\r$1 #fj1 #eib1 #faj2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhc1 #eib1 #eie2 ,deseado1 #bfa1 #eie2 di/ribution1 #ach2 ,eoc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #eig1 #faf2 hairy1 #fj1 #eia2 ,old ,_w1 #ahe1 #eia2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/o41 ,n4 ,am]41 #bje2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah1 #eif2 ,plioc41 ,n4 ,am]41 #bbe1 #eig2 ,plioc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbf1 #eif2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #eif2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #bgf1 #fbe ,ed5tates1 see ,ed5tata ,edv>docopeia1 #eji ,egg-lay+ mammals1 #ei ,egypt1 #bed1 #cgj1 #dbb1 #dcb1 #ddb1 #dej1 #ehg2 ,eoc5e1 #bcd2 ,oligoc5e1 #bcd1 #bfd1 #ehc ,ei-1 #ehe ,,eig5mann1 ,c4 ,h41 #fed ,ela*oc]as1 #ddc1 #ddi1 7skull fig471 #dej1 #dea1 #dee ,elasmo!rium1 #cej1 #cea ,elephant1 #eij2 ,african1 #dbc 7mol> fig472 ,columbian1 #aie 7re/oration71 #aig1 #aih 7re/oration71 #dbg1 #dcj2 ,ea/ ,african1 #dbe2 ,imp]ial1 #aii1 #dbg1 #dhe2 ,indian1 #ig 7section ( too? fig471 #aig1 #dbc1 #dbe 7manus fig471 #dbf 7section ( =e foot fig472 tribe1 #hb2 ,we/ ,african1 #dbe ,elephantid1 #dcb ,elephants1 #de1 #fj1 #gc1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ig1 #bae1 #bfd1 #cab1 #dcf1 #ddf1 #ddh1 #dfe1 #dhg1 #fed2 ,am]ican1 #dcj2 cranial bones (1 #fc2 di/ribution1 #ach2 hairy1 #ddh1 proboscis (1 #fe2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aif1 #baa1 #dbf2 ,sib]ian ,plei/o41 #ci2 true1 #dbc1 #dch1 #dci2 tusks (1 #ig ,elephas1 #dcf1 #dcg 7head & too? fig472 ,e4 columbi1 #aie 7re/oration71 #aig1 #aih 7re/oration71 #dbg2 ,e4 imp]ator1 #aii1 #dbg1 #dhe2 ,e4 maximus1 #ig 7section ( mol> fig471 #aig1 #dbc1 #dbe 7manus fig472 ,e4 primig5ius1 #aif1 #bjg1 #ccb1 #dbf ,elk1 #ej1 #ada1 #aea1 #aee 7fig472 ,sc&9avian1 #aea ,elms1 #ajb ,embri?opoda1 #fj ,embryology1 #fdh ,emigrants f ,n4 ,am]4 to ,old ,_w1 #bee1 #bef1 #def ,enamel1 #if ,engl&1 e>ly ,man 91 #ehh2 ,paleoc5e flora1 #ajc2 ,plioc5e1 #abg ,enhydrocyon1 #eag1 #ebh1 #ecj ,entelodon1 #cfi ,entelodontid1 #bej1 #cfa1 #cff1 #dde2 ,wasat*1 #bha ,entelodonts1 see ,entelodontid1 also ,giant ,pigs ,entelony*ia1 #fj1 #bdg1 #dfb1 #dhb1 #feb2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb2 ,deseado1 #bfc4 7,see also ,homalodo!res7 ,entr]ios1 #abh ,eoan?ropus1 #ehh ,eobasileus1 #ddc1 #ddi1 #dea1 #dee ,eoc>dia1 #bdc ,eoc5e epo*1 #ag1 #ajd2 climate (1 #bf2 close (1 #aaa2 ,europe1 #bfb1 #cgj1 #deb1 #efb1 #ffa2 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ajd1 #aje 7map71 #bja1 #bej1 #bea1 #bec1 #bgc1 #bhg1 #bia1 #cbe1 #cfi1 #dba1 #eai1 #ebi1 #eed1 #eeg1 #egd1 #fdd2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #bj1 #aab1 #bfa1 #bha1 #dgg1 #dha1 #dhb1 #dhe1 #dhg1 #dhh1 #ejh1 #eji1 #eab1 #ead1 #fbe1 #fdb ,eodidelphys1 #fbg ,eohippus1 #bhj1 #bij1 #cjb1 #cjc 7re/oration71 #cjd1 #cje 7skull fig471 #cjg 7manus & pes fig471 #cjh ,eohyus1 #bha ,eomoropus1 #bia1 #ceg ,eotitanops1 #bge1 #bia1 #cae ,eotylopus1 #beg1 #cfb ,epigaulus1 #bbc 7re/oration7 ,epihippus1 #bij1 #cja1 #cjb ,epi!lium1 #bbg1 #dhi1 #ejh ,epo*1 geological1 #ae ,eporeodon1 #cfa1 #cge1 #cgi ,equid1 #bij1 #bia4 7,see also ,horses7 ,equus1 #ie1 #aii1 #bac1 #bbc1 #bia1 #bie1 #cje 7skull fig471 #cjf 7manus & pes fig472 ,am]ican species1 #bif2 ,e4 as9us1 #eb2 ,e4 bur*elli1 #bjj2 ,e4 caballus1 #eb1 #aii1 #bac1 #bie2 ,e4 frat]nus1 #aii2 ,e4 giganteus1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bie2 ,e4 occid5talis1 #bjj2 ,e4 pacificus1 #bja2 ,e4 pect9atus1 #bjj2 ,e4 przewalskii1 #eb1 #bib 7fig472 ,e4 scotti1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bjj 7d472 ,e4 semiplicatus1 #bjj2 ,s\? ,am]ican species1 #cjg2 ,e4 tau1 #aii1 #bie ,equus ,b$s1 #cc1 #aca1 #acc1 #bjj1 #bje4 7,see ,%]idan7 ,era1 geological1 #ae ,ere?izon1 #aea 7fig471 #aec1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #bje ,eriodes1 #egh ,erm9e1 #aeb1 #aei 7fig47 ,e?iopian region1 #adf ,euc]a!rium1 #bjb1 #cfb1 #dah ,eu*olops1 #fjg ,euc9epeltus1 #eib1 #fbc ,euprotogonia1 #deg1 #dei ,eurasia1 #aaj1 #edh ,europe1 #bec1 #bed1 #bee1 #bfg1 #bgb1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhd1 #bhg1 #bia1 #cjc1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cdj1 #cej1 #cea1 #ced1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #chj1 #dag1 #dah1 #dai1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dcb1 #dce1 #deb1 #def1 #dhf1 #ecd1 #ech1 #edc1 #ede1 #edf1 #eeb1 #eed1 #eeg1 #efa1 #fdb1 #fdd2 cav]ns (1 #cj2 circumpol> area1 #adh2 ,eoc5e1 #ajd2 ,eoc4 sep>ation f ,asia1 #ajd2 human habitation (1 #ehh2 loess (1 #acc2 mammals (1 #ade2 ,mammo? 91 #aig2 pre-,eoc5e immigration into1 #ajh2 ,mioc5e1 #bce2 ,mioc4 climate1 #abb2 ,plei/o4 glaciation1 #acc2 tapirs 91 #ach2 ,triassic1 #fdb2 zology (1 #adf ,eusmilus1 #bed1 #eag1 #ech ,eutatus1 #eib1 #eif1 #fab1 #fac ,eu!ria1 #eg1 #ei ,eutra*y!rus1 #bfc1 #dfb1 #dgg ,ext9ction ( species1 #ac1 #baa ,evolution1 ( ,amblypoda1 #ded2 ( camels1 #djj2 conv]g5t1 #fdi1 #fej1 #fee2 ( ,creodonta1 #egd2 div]g5t1 #ah1 #aci1 #fej1 #fee2 ( ,fissip$ia1 #eec2 ( horses1 #cje1 #cbe1 #djj2 irrev]sibility (1 #eda1 #fef2 modes ( ,mammalian1 #fde2 ( oreodonts1 #cha2 p>allel1 #cic1 #fdi1 #fee2 ( ,proboscidea1 #dcf1 #dcg 7diagram72 ( rh9oc]oses1 #cea2 ( tapirs1 #cbd2 ( titano!res1 #caf1 #cbe ,fall[ ,de]1 #df ,families1 di/ribution (1 #ach ,fauna1 #ef2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,bridg]1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bgc1 #cae2 ,deseado1 #bfa1 #fch2 mid4 ,eoc5e1 #bfg2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 l[ ,mioc5e1 #bcg2 ,neotropical1 #bhc1 #faj2 ,oligoc5e1 #bcg2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]ica1 #aic1 #bjg2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #baa1 #bbf1 #eig2 ,pu]co1 #bhe2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bf1 #abd1 #bdb1 #fch2 ,torrejon1 #bhd2 ,u9ta1 #bfe1 #bgc2 ,wasat*1 #bgf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bea1 #bfe1 #bff2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd1 #bge1 #cae ,faunas1 ,casa ,mayor1 #bha1 #bhc2 ,eoc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bfe2 ,eoc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bha2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi2 ,oligoc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bdi2 ,oligo41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bfa2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhc1 #bhf1 #fdd2 ,plioc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bba2 ,plioc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbe2 ,quat]n>y1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aic2 ,quat41 ,s4 ,am]41 #baa2 successive mammalian1 #aib2 ,t]ti>y1 #bba2 ,t]ti>y1 ,s4 ,am]41 #dfa ,fawns1 #df 7fig47 ,faym1 #dcb ,felid1 #ed1 #eag1 #eah1 #ecj ,fel91 #ed1 #bed1 #ece1 #edb1 #edc1 #fej2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bch1 #eda1 #ede2 orig9 (1 #fei2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd1 #ede2 ,plioc5e1 #ede ,felis1 #ed1 #eag1 #edc1 #ede1 #edf2 ,f4 atrox1 #bjd1 #ede2 ,f4 concolor1 #afh 7fig471 #edd 7skull fig471 #ede 7d5tition fig472 ,f4 dome/ica1 #edf 7manus fig472 ,f4 imp]ialis1 #bjd2 ,f4 leo1 #bjd2 ,f4 onca1 #agf1 #agg 7fig471 #eeb2 ,f4 p>dalis1 #agf 7fig471 #eeb ,femur1 #hd1 #he 7fig47 ,f]ret1 ,black-foot$1 #afj 7fig47 ,fib]1 #aec ,fibula1 #hf1 #hg 7fig47 ,field-mice1 #ada ,,filhol1 ,h41 #ecd ,fi%]1 #aeb ,fi%]s1 #ada1 #eah ,fi%es1 ,florissant1 #aba2 ,gre5 ,riv]1 #aji2 ,panama m>9e1 #bc2 ,s\? ,am]ican fre%-wat]1 #feb2 tee? (1 #ib ,fissip$ia1 #ei1 #eaf1 #eag1 #eec1 #eed1 #eee1 #eef1 #eeg1 #eeh1 #efc1 #egf ,fle%-eat]s1 primitive1 #ei1 #eed2 ,santa ,cruz1 #fcg ,florida1 isl&1 #abb2 ,mioc5e1 #aag2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac2 ,paleoc5e1 #aja2 ,plioc5e1 #abe1 #abg ,florissant =mation1 #aba ,,fl[]1 ,w4 ,h41 #chi1 #cij1 #daa1 #dab1 #dai ,fly+ ,lemur1 #ei ,=e/s1 ,oligoc5e1 #ech2 ,paleoc5e1 #ajb2 petrifi$1 #abb ,=t ,union /age1 #ag1 #ii1 #ajb1 #fdb ,fossils1 #g1 #bi2 classification1 #ee2 entombm5t1 #bi2 evid5ce ( climate1 #be2 mammals1 #fa ,fossorial habits1 #b ,fox1 #aia2 ,arctic1 #adh1 #adi 7fig471 #aej 7fig472 ,grey1 #afe 7fig471 #eag2 ,r$1 #aeh 7fig471 #eag ,foxes1 #ada1 #agc1 #eah1 #ebj1 #ecj1 #eeb2 grey1 #afb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 r$1 #aeb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed1 #ebi ,france1 #bef1 #ccc1 #cfd1 #dda1 #egd2 ,eoc5e1 (1 #ajh2 ,oligoc5e1 #fag ,frank/[n ,cave1 #cj ,friasian fauna1 #eji ,f,,rbr+]1 ,m41 #fee ,gait1 v>ieties (1 #ij ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 #acf ,ganodonta1 #fbe ,g>zonia1 #fbg1 #fda 7jaw fig47 ,g>zoniid1 #fbg ,gazelle1 bones (1 #ce ,gazelle-,camel1 #bda1 #bdb 7re/oration71 #cic1 #cid1 #djh ,g5]a1 orig9 (1 #fed ,g5]ic area1 #acg ,g5etic s]ies1 #ef ,g5etics1 #fdh ,g5us1 #ec ,geographical *anges affect+ di/ribution1 #aci ,geology1 #e ,geomys1 #afc ,geomyid1 #bfe ,giant ,pig1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bfj 7d47 ,giant ,pigs1 #bej1 #bei1 #bff1 #cfa1 #cff2 ,bridg]1 #bgc1 #cgj2 ,john ,day1 #bei1 #cfg2 ,mioc5e1 #bci1 #cff1 #cfi2 ,oligoc5e1 #bha1 #cfh2 ,u9ta1 #cfi2 ,wasat*1 #bha1 #cgj2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bei1 #cfg ,,gidley1 ,j4 ,w41 #cc1 #bjb1 #fdb ,giraffe1 #gj1 #gi1 #ceh1 #chi ,giraffe-,camel1 #bcf 7re/oration71 #cia1 #cib 7re/or47 ,giraffe-camels1 #bce1 #chh1 #cid2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bda1 #cid2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #chh ,giraffes1 #ed1 #chi1 #dji1 #daa ,glacial1 accumulations1 #be2 climate1 #be1 #bf2 p]iods1 #ad1 #be2 /ages1 #ag1 #acj2 !ory1 #abi ,glaciation1 ,plei/oc5e1 #be1 #acj2 causes (1 #acd ,glaci]s1 ,plei/oc5e1 #aca ,glosso!rium1 #fjb ,glyptodon1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bai1 #eib1 #fah1 #fai 7re/or471 #fba ,glyptodont1 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #fjf 7d47 ,glyptodontia1 #fj1 #bde1 #bdf1 #eib1 #eic1 #eid1 #eie1 #fag2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,a/raponotus1 #bha1 #eie1 #fbe2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #eie2 ,pampean1 #bab 7re/orations71 #fai 7re/orations71 #fbc2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa1 #eig1 #eih2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah1 #bba1 #eif1 #eig1 #fbj1 #fbd2 ,plioc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bba1 #bbe1 #eif2 ,plioc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #eif1 #fbb1 #fbd2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #eif1 #fbb1 #fbc ,glyptodontid1 #eib ,glyptodonts1 see ,glyptodontia ,glypto!rium1 #bba1 #eib ,gnaw+ mammals1 #ei ,goat1 ,rocky ,mt41 #aeb1 #aeh 7fig471 #bjb1 #daf ,goats1 #cfb1 #dji1 #daf ,gompho!rium1 #bbi1 #dcj1 #dca 7head re/or$71 #dcd1 #dcf1 #dcg 7head & mol> fig471 #dch1 #dci ,goph]1 ,horn$1 #bbc 7re/oration7 ,grasses1 #bgc2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd ,grassy pla9s1 spread (1 #bcc ,gravigrada1 #ia1 #abj1 #cee1 #eia1 #eib1 #eih1 #fab2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bje1 #eig2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah1 #eih2 ,santa ,cruz1 #fje1 #fjg1 #fji1 #faj4 7,see also ,gr\nd-,slo?s7 ,great ,bas91 #cbb2 ,plei/oc5e (1 #aca ,great ,brita91 #ba1 #adj1 #dah ,great ,pla9s1 #cc1 #bjj1 #bbi1 #bce1 #cbb1 #chf1 #dcb2 ,mioc5e1 #aba2 ,oligoc5e climate1 #aaf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aca ,gre5l&1 #aja1 #ajc1 #baj2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,gre5 ,riv] /age1 #aji ,,gregory1 ,j4 ,w41 #ce ,,gregory1 ,w4 ,k41 #fda ,grison1 #age 7fig471 #eag1 #eeb ,gr\nd-,slo?1 giant1 #aie 7re/oration71 #fjc 7re/oration72 ,plei/oc5e ( ,cuba1 #eih2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7re/or471 #fjf 7re/or472 sk9 (1 #dj1 #fjb ,gr\nd-,slo?s1 #ge1 #ia1 #abj1 #bfg1 #cee1 #eia1 #eib1 #eic1 #eid1 #eie1 #eih2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,a/raponotus1 #eie2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhd1 #eie2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #eie2 ,mioc5e1 #fji2 ,mioc41 ,n4 ,am]41 #eig2 ,pampean1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bbj 7d471 #fje1 #fjh1 #fji2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bai1 #eig2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah1 #bai1 #bba1 #eif1 #eih1 #fjd1 #fje2 ,plioc5e4 ,n4 ,am]41 #bba1 #bbe1 #eig2 ,plioc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #eif1 #eih2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #bdf1 #eif1 #eih1 #fje1 #fjh1 #fji4 7,see also ,gravigrada7 ,gr\nd-squirrels1 #afd1 #aha ,grypo!rium1 #eib1 #fjb ,guanaco1 #fj1 #aci1 #agh1 #chi 7fig471 #cii 7skull & too? fig471 #djj 7manus fig471 #dja 7pes fig471 #dij1 #dia2 de/ruction by cold1 #cf2 di/ribution1 #ach ,guiana1 #agi ,guianas1 ,mioc5e1 #eif ,gu9ea-,pig1 #ahe2 f\r-to$ race1 #feg1 #ffj ,gulf-coa/1 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aag2 ,mioc5e1 #aag2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ,eoc5e1 #ajf1 #aac2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac1 #aag2 ,paleoc5e1 #aja ,gulf ,/ream1 ,oligoc5e1 #aac ,gulo1 #aeb1 #aee 7fig471 #bcg1 #eag ,gypsy ,mo?1 #adc ,,haeckel1 ,e41 #fdh ,hairless sk91 #de ,halicore1 #ddb ,halm>hiphus1 #fbg ,h&writ+1 developm5t (1 #i1 #ac1 #ad ,hapale1 #egh ,hapalid1 #agb1 #egh1 #ehb1 #ehc ,hapalops1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #eib1 #fje1 #fjf 7re/or471 #fji 7pes fig47 ,h>e1 ,arctic1 #aej ,h>es1 #ei1 #aha1 #bde1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bch2 ,plioc41 ,n4 ,am]41 #bbb2 ,plioc41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbf2 tailless1 or :i/l+1 #aec ,h>pagole/es1 #eed1 #eei1 #efj1 #ega ,h>rison /age1 #abj1 #bce ,,hat*]1 ,j4 ,b41 #ccg1 #ebc1 #ebd ,hayti1 #agc1 #ahe2 junction ) ,c5tr4 ,am]41 #abh2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,plioc5e1 #abh ,h$gehogs1 #ei1 #bgf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bec ,hegeto!riid1 #dfb1 #dgb ,hegeto!rium1 #dfb1 #dgi ,helaletes1 #bgb1 #bia ,helohyus1 #bgc1 #cfa1 #cfe ,hemiacodon1 #egh ,hemipsalodon1 #bec1 #efe ,h5ricosbornia1 #dfb ,heptodon1 #bge1 #bia1 #cbg ,h]bivora1 #eaf ,h]bivor\s mammals1 #de2 l>ge1 #dd ,hipp>ion1 #bia ,hippidion1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bac1 #bad 7re/or471 #bia1 #bif1 #cjg1 #cjh 7skeleton fig47 ,hippocamelus1 #ia 7pes fig471 #ahj1 #daj 7manus & pes fig47 ,hippopotamus1 #de1 #ed1 #fj1 #gj1 #ib1 #ceh1 #fed ,hogs1 rum9at+1 #cgb ,hol>ctic region1 #adf1 #adg1 #aej1 #ehh ,homacodon1 #bgc1 #cfa1 #cih ,homalodonto!riid1 #dfb2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhc ,homalodonto!rium1 #dfb1 #dhb ,homalodo!re1 #dhb ,homalodo!res1 #dfb1 #dhb1 #eji ,homo heidelb]g5sis1 #ehh2 ,h4 ne&]?al5sis1 #ehh2 ,h4 sapi5s1 #ehh ,homunculus1 #egh1 #ehf ,ho($ animals1 #gd1 #gg1 #ha1 #hc1 #hi1 #cab1 #cac1 #dfa2 ,araucanian1 #bbg2 ,bridg]1 #bfi1 #bgc2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb2 claw$1 #fea2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #bfd2 massive1 #fed2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd2 ,p>an1 #bbh2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aii2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac2 primitive1 #dib2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdf2 ,torrejon1 #bhe2 ,u9ta1 #bgc2 ,wasat*1 #bgg2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd 7see ,ungulata7 ,ho($ mammal1 claw$1 #dhd ,ho($ mammals1 #fj1 #def1 #dei1 #dfj2 ev5-to$1 #ed1 #fj2 odd-to$1 #fj2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee 7see ,ungulata7 ,,hook]1 ,j41 #aic ,hoplophoneus1 #beb 7re/oration71 #eag1 #ece1 #ecf 7re/oration71 #eci1 #edj1 #edc ,horn-cores1 #daf ,horse1 #dd1 #dh1 #eb1 #fb1 #gf 7scapula fig471 #gi 7hum]us fig471 #ha 7=e-arm bones fig471 #he 7femur fig471 #hg 7leg-bones fig471 #ie 7mol> fig471 #bid1 7manus & pes fig471 #cei2 ,asiatic ,wild1 #eb1 #bib 7fig472 ,dawn1 #cjb1 #cjc 7re/oration72 =e/1 #bjj2 ,pampas1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bad 7re/oration71 #cjh 7skeleton fig472 ,texas1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bjj 7re/oration72 ?ree-to$ graz+1 #bih 7re/oration72 ,true1 #aii1 #bac1 #bie2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beb 7re/oration71 #cjj 7re/oration74 7,see also ,equus7 ,horses1 #ef1 #fj1 #ha1 #ie1 #ig1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bia1 #cab1 #cai1 #ccj1 #cec1 #cfj1 #chb1 #cig1 #deh1 #dfa1 #dii1 #ejd1 #fea1 #fec1 #fee1 #fef1 #feh1 #ffa2 ,blanco1 #bbb2 bones (1 #cc2 ,bridg]1 #bgb1 #cjb2 br[s+1 #bbc1 #bca1 #bce1 #big1 #bih2 ,eoc5e1 #cjd1 #cjg2 graz+1 #bbc1 #bca1 #bce1 #big1 #bih2 ,john ,day1 #bii2 ,mioc5e1 #bie1 #big1 #bih1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcd1 #bch1 #cja2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #ci2 ,oligoc5e1 #bii2 phyla (1 #bhi1 #fej2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aii1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bac1 #bba1 #bie1 #cjd1 #cjg2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae1 #cjg2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc1 #bie1 #cjg1 #cca2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #cjg2 spread (1 #adb1 #adc2 ?ree-to$1 #cc1 #eja2 tridactyl1 #feh2 true1 #bib1 #cjh2 ,u9ta1 #cja2 ,wasat*1 #bhj1 #cjb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beg1 #bii1 #cjj2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cif4 7,see also ,equid7 ,,horsfall1 ,r4 ,b41 #db ,,hrdli,,ka1 ,a41 #ehi ,hudsonian fauna1 #aea ,hudson's ,bay slope1 int]glacial =e/s1 #aca ,huemul1 #ahj ,hum]us1 #gh 7fig47 ,humid prov9ce1 #afd ,humidity1 effect on di/ribution1 #ada ,hung>y1 #caf ,hutias1 #ahd ,,huxley1 ,t4 ,h41 #bh ,hynid1 #eah ,hynodon1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bec1 #eee1 #efb1 #efc 7re/oration71 #efd 7skeleton fig471 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7tee? fig471 #efg1 #egf ,hynodont1 primitive1 #efg 7re/oration7 ,hynodontid1 #bec1 #eee1 #eeg1 #efb1 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7tee? fig471 #efi1 #egc1 #ege2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 ,eoc5e1 #bed1 #eff1 #egf2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,hynodonts1 see ,hynodontid ,hynogna?us1 #ebb1 #ebd1 #ecj ,hydro*rus1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe1 #bje ,hydropotes1 #dab ,hy5a1 bones (1 #ce ,hy5a-dogs1 #bbb1 #bdi1 #ebg1 #ecj ,hy5as1 #eah1 #ebg1 #eec1 #eed ,hyoid ar*1 #fg ,hyopsodonta1 #ei ,hyp]hippidium1 #bac1 #bia1 #cjg ,hyp]leptus1 #fjg ,hyp]tragulid1 #bfg1 #cfb1 #chf1 #djb1 #dad2 ,eoc5e1 #djh2 ,john ,day1 #bea1 #djd1 #djg2 ,mioc5e1 #bda1 #beh1 #djd2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beh1 #djf1 #djh ,hyp]tragulids1 see ,hyp]tragulid ,hyp]tragulus1 #bda1 #beh1 #bfg1 #cfb1 #djg1 #djh ,hypisodus1 #beh1 #cfb1 #djh ,hypohippus1 #bia1 #big1 #cjj ,hypsodont tee?1 #ie 7fig472 preval5ce (1 #bcb ,hyra*yus1 #bga 7re/oration71 #bgb1 #bia1 #cci1 #cdd 7re/or471 #cde 7skull fig471 #cdf1 #cdi1 #cej ,hyracodon1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bee1 #bff1 #bia1 #cda 7re/or471 #cdc 7manus fig47 ,hyracodontid1 #bia1 #djc ,hyracodont91 #bia1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdf1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb2 ,bridg]1 #bgb1 #cdc2 ,eoc5e1 #cdb2 ,u9ta1 #bff1 #cdc2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #bef1 #cda2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge1 #bgf1 #cdd ,hyracodonts1 see ,hyracodont9 ,hyracoidea1 #fj1 #deh1 #dha1 #dib1 #ead2 di/ribution1 #ach ,hy/ricomorpha1 #bde1 #bfb ,ice ,age1 #be ,i*?yomys1 #ahb ,icticyon1 #agd1 #bab1 #eag1 #ebg1 #eeb ,ideodidelphys1 #fbg ,,ih]+1 ,h4 ,,von1 #abd ,il+oc]os1 #cfb ,ilium1 #gg ,immigrants f ,old ,_w to ,n4 ,am]ica1 #bbi1 #bgf1 #bgi1 #caf1 #cfe1 #cgj1 #chf1 #daf1 #dag2 artiodactyls1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bei2 bison1 #dbj2 ,c>nivora1 #bjc2 fel9es1 #beh2 hynodonts1 #bed2 insectivores1 #bec2 mu/el9es1 #bch1 #bed2 ott]s1 #bcd2 ,proboscidea1 #dbb2 rh9oc]oses1 #bcd2 %eep1 #dai2 f ,nor? to ,s\? ,am]ica1 #aga1 #baa1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bdb1 #dfa2 f ,s\? to ,nor? ,am]ica1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bcc ,immigration1 #bff2 ,eoc5e1 #cbd2 ,mioc5e1 #bcc2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aea2 ,plioc5e1 #aea ,incisors1 #ic ,india1 #ad1 #bac1 #cbg1 #cij1 #dab1 #dah1 #dcj1 #ebg1 #edb1 #eea2 ,p]mian glaciation (1 #be ,indian ,ocean1 #ddb ,indians1 pre-,columbian1 #eij ,indrodon1 #ehj ,insect-eat]s1 #ib ,insectivora1 #ei1 #aia1 #bdi1 #dei1 #ehj2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 ,mioc5e1 #bch2 ,neotropical1 #agb2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd2 ,pu]co1 #bhf2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #ehg2 ,torrejon1 #bhe2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,wasat*1 #bgf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bec2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,insectivores1 see ,insectivora ,ins]ts1 #ada2 ,florissant1 #aba2 ,gre5 ,riv]1 #aji ,int]glacial /ages1 #ag1 #acj1 #bjg2 climate (1 #acd2 mammals (1 #aca ,int]a!riid1 #dfb1 #dgf1 #dgi ,int]a!rium1 #dfb1 #dha1 #fcf 7re/oration7 ,irrev]sibility ( evolution1 #eda1 #fef ,is*yrocyon1 #eag ,is*yromyids1 ,bridg]1 #bgj2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,wasat*1 #bhj ,is*yromys1 #bed ,isectolophus1 #bia ,isotemnid1 #dfb1 #dhe ,isotemnus1 #dfb ,i/hmian region1 geology1 #abj2 ,plioc5e1 #abh ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 #agj2 geology1 #ba1 #bb2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag1 #abc2 ,plei/oc5e1 #abb1 #acd ,jackal1 bones (1 #ce ,jagu>1 #agf1 #agg 7fig471 #bab1 #ede1 #eeb ,jamaica1 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 mongoose introduc$1 #adb ,japan1 #ace ,java1 #ba1 #adj1 #cbg ,,jeff]son1 ,t41 #bjf1 #eig ,j]boas1 #ij ,john ,day age & /age1 #ag1 #cj1 #aaf1 #cge1 #edc ,jump+ ,m\se1 #aec1 #afj 7fig472 mice1 #ahb2 %rews1 #ei ,jurassic p]iod1 #ae1 #af1 #fdb1 #fdc ,kang>oo-rats1 #afc 7fig471 #ahb2 ,mioc5e1 #bch ,kang>oos1 #ei1 #fbf1 #fdj ,k9kaj\1 #age 7fig471 #eag1 #edf1 #eeb ,klipdasses1 #deh1 #dha ,,knight1 ,c4 ,r41 #db1 #dgj1 #dgh1 #dhj1 #dha1 #did1 #ejb1 #ejf1 #fjf1 #fcf1 #fci ,,k[alevsky1 ,w41 #bcc1 #ejc ,kudu1 #bbe ,labrador1 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,lagidium1 #ahe ,lake1 ,arg5t9e1 #cf2 ,bonneville1 #aca2 ,callabonna1 #cd2 ,lahontan1 #aca2 ,ont>io1 invasion by sea1 #acb ,lakes1 relation to glaciation1 #acb2 s$im5ts (1 #cg ,lama1 #ach1 #cfb1 #chh2 ,l4 huanacus1 #agh1 #chi 7fig472 ,l4 vicunia1 #agh 7fig47 ,lambdaconus1 #dhi ,lambdo!rium1 #bge1 #bia1 #cae ,l&-bridges1 #ah ,l&-connections1 h[ asc]ta9$1 #bj2 ,cuba & ,c5tr4 ,am]41 #abh2 ,hayti & ,c5tr4 ,am]41 #abh2 ,n4 ,am]4 & ,asia1 #ah1 #abe1 #ehh2 ,n4 ,am]4 & ,europe1 #ah1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aah1 #abj2 ,n4 ,am]4 & ,old ,_w1 #ba1 #bc1 #aji1 #aae1 #bdi1 #bea1 #bfg1 #bgf1 #bhg2 ,n4 & ,s4 ,am]41 #ajj1 #abj1 #abc1 #bcc2 ,s4 ,am]4 & ,africa1 #ajc1 #aab1 #abd1 #ehg2 ,s4 ,am]4 & ,ant>ctica1 #aab1 #abd2 ,s4 ,am]4 & ,au/ralia1 #ajc1 #abc1 #fch2 ,s4 ,am]4 & ,old ,_w1 #bfb2 ,we/ ,indies & ,m$it]ranean l&s1 #abj ,la ,plata1 e/u>y1 #cd ,la/ ,hope ,inlet1 #fj ,latax1 #eag ,lava-fields1 ! ,columbia ,riv]1 #aba1 #abg ,lavas1 ,mioc5e1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acc2 ,plioc5e1 #abg ,,le*e1 ,w41 #fc ,,leidy1 ,j41 #cgb ,lemm+1 #adh ,lemm+s1 #ada1 #aec ,lemur1 monkey-l1 #eha 7head re/or$7 ,lemur1 #egh ,lemuroidea1 #fj1 #bhd1 #dei1 #egg1 #egh1 #ehh2 ,bridg]1 #bgj1 #egh2 ,eoc5e1 #egi2 ,wasat*1 #bha1 #ehj2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge ,leont9iid1 #dfb1 #dge ,leont9ia1 #bfc 7head re/or$71 #dfb1 #dge ,leop>d1 #de2 ,hunt+1 #edc ,lept>ctus1 #eag1 #edg ,leptau*5ia1 #beh1 #cfa1 #cgg 7skull fig471 #cgh 7re/oration71 #cha ,lepto*rid1 #cfa ,lepto*rus1 #cfa ,leptom]yx1 #beh1 #bfg1 #cfb1 #djg 7skull fig471 #dji1 #efc 7re/oration71 #feg ,leptoreodon1 #cfb ,leptotragulus1 #bfg1 #cfb ,lepus1 #afd ,le/odon1 #fjb ,limnocyon1 #eee1 #egc ,l9nan sy/em1 #ea1 #ef1 #eg ,,l9n,,u1 ,c41 #a1 #ea1 #eb1 #ee1 #egh ,lion1 #de1 #dh1 #ib1 #bjd2 cubs1 #df ,lions1 #baj1 #bab ,lipotyphla1 #ei ,li/riodon1 #cfd ,litopt]na1 #fj1 #dfi1 #dhi1 #ead1 #fea1 #fec2 ,araucanian1 #bbg2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhc2 ,deseado1 #bfd2 ,pampean1 #bab 7re/oration71 #baf 7d472 ,p>an1 #bbh2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bae1 #bba2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7re/orations71 #bdg ,liz>ds1 #ajb2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdd ,llama1 #ed1 #fj1 #dij1 #dia2 di/ribution1 #ach ,llama-l animals1 #chf ,llamas1 #ac1 #ij1 #bda1 #beg1 #cfb1 #chf1 #chh1 #cij1 #cia1 #dba1 #dfa2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aif1 #bjb2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #bca ,loess1 #acc ,lon*]es1 #ahd ,,loomis1 ,f4 ,b41 #dhg ,lophiodontid1 #beg1 #bgb1 #bia1 #cai1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdh2 ,eoc5e1 #cbf2 ,oligoc5e1 #cci2 ,wasat* #bhj1 #cbf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beg1 #cbf2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge1 #cae ,lophiodonts1 see ,lophiodontid ,loricata1 #eib1 #faj ,l\p ,=k age & /age1 #ag1 #aba ,l\p ,riv] /age1 #abg ,l[] ,sonoran zone1 #adh1 #afd ,l[e/ ,eoc5e1 #ii ,loxodonta1 #dbc 7mol> fig47 ,,lucas1 ,f4 ,a41 #ccg ,,lull1 ,r41 #dcg ,lun>1 #hc ,lutra1 #aeb1 #afj 7fig471 #afd1 #age1 #bac1 #eag1 #eea ,lutreola1 #aeb 7fig47 ,,lydekk]1 ,r41 #aej1 #aha1 #chi1 #cij1 #daa1 #dab1 #dai ,lyncodon1 #age1 #eeb ,lynx1 #aec1 #afc1 #afi 7fig471 #eag1 #edd 7d5tition fig47 ,lynxes1 #ada1 #agf1 #edc1 #edd1 #eeb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd ,ma*airodont91 #ed1 #ecj1 #ece1 #edb2 cursorial1 #edc2 ,oligoc5e1 #ece ,ma*airodonts1 see ,ma*airodont91 also see ,sabre-too? tig]s ,ma*airodus1 #eag1 #ecd 7skull fig471 #ecf ,ma*airoides1 #eee1 #egc ,macrau*5ia1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bae1 #baf 7d471 #bag1 #bbg1 #bdh1 #dhi1 #dic1 #die1 #dif 7skull fig471 #dig 7d471 #dih ,macrau*5id1 ,santa ,cruz1 #did 7re/oration7 ,macrau*5id1 #bdh1 #dhi1 #dif 7skull fig471 #dig 7d471 #fea2 ,deseado1 #bfd1 #dii2 ,eoc5e1 #dii2 ,p>an1 #bbh1 #dif2 ,plei/oc5e1 #dhi2 ,plioc5e1 #dic2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdh1 #dic ,macro!rium1 #ced ,madagasc>1 #agc1 #ecj2 ,plei/oc5e1 #egi2 zology (1 #adf ,magnum1 #hc ,malagasy region1 #adf ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 #adf1 #aia1 #ehj2 isl&s1 #bha1 #cbg1 #djh2 ,p59sula1 #acg1 #bha ,malleol> bone1 #hg ,mammal1 def9$1 #a ,mammalia1 classification1 #ej2 evolution (1 #fde2 geographical di/ribution1 #ace2 skeleton & tee? (1 #fa ,mammo?1 #ci1 #aif1 #bjg1 #ccb1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbi2 ,sib]ian1 #dd ,man1 #fj1 #fb1 #ff1 #gf 7scapula fig471 #gg 7clavicle fig471 #gi 7hum]us fig471 #hj 7=e-arm bones fig471 #hb 7manus fig471 #hd1 #hh 7pes fig471 #ij1 #ic1 #egg1 #egh1 #ehb2 ,am]ican ,plei/oc5e1 #ehi2 ,european ,paloli?ic1 #aig2 ,european ,plei/oc5e1 #ci1 #ehh2 orig9 (1 #ehh2 9 ,we/]n ,hemisph]e1 #ehh ,manatee1 #bjg1 #ddb ,manatus1 #ddb ,manteoc]as1 #bgb1 #cag 7head re/or$7 ,manus1 #hb 7fig47 ,maples1 #ajb ,m>a1 #ahe ,m>9e1 fauna1 ,mioc5e1 #aag2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag2 ,plioc5e1 #abg2 habit1 #b2 mammals1 #cg1 #de2 rocks1 #cg2 %ells1 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb2 ,plioc5e ( ,engl&1 #abg ,m>mosa1 #fcb ,m>moset1 #ehd 7fig47 ,m>mosets1 #agb1 #egh1 #ehb1 #ehc ,m>mot1 #aej1 #aeb 7fig47 ,m>mota1 #aeb 7fig471 #aec ,m>mots1 #fj1 #ada1 #aec1 #aha1 #bde2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb ,,m>%1 ,o4 ,c41 #cah ,m>supial1 allo!rian1 #bhf 7head re/or$71 pr$ace\s1 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #did 7d471 #fcf 7d471 #fci 7d47 ,m>supialia1 #dc1 #eg1 #ei1 #dei1 #fbf2 ,araucanian1 #bbf1 #fcd2 ,au/ralian1 #ade1 #fcb1 #fch2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 c>nivor\s1 #ei2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb1 #fch1 #fdb2 ,deseado1 #bfa1 #fch1 #fdb2 di/ribution1 #ach2 fle%-eat+1 #eec2 h]bivor\s1 #ei2 insectivor\s1 #ei2 ,mioc5e1 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbf2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd2 ,p>an1 #bbg1 #fcd1 #fda2 pr$ace\s1 #fbg1 #fcb2 ,pu]co1 #bhf1 #fdb2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdd1 #fce1 #fdj2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #aij1 #fch2 ,torrejon1 #bhe1 #fdb2 ,wasat*1 #bgf2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bea ,m>t51 #eea ,m>t5s1 #aeb1 #bca1 #eag1 #eej1 #eea2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd ,m>tes1 #eag ,ma/odon1 #bjg1 #dbf1 #eij2 ,am]ican1 #aie 7re/oration71 #aif1 #bjg1 #bbi 7mol> fig471 #dbh1 7re/oration71 #dbi1 #dcg 7head fig471 #dch1 #dci1 #ddh2 ,mioc5e1 #dca 7head re/or$7 ,ma/odon1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #dcg 7head & mol> fig472 ,m4 am]icanus1 see ,ma/odon1 ,am]ican2 ,m4 &ium1 #dcf ,ma/odons1 #fj1 #bfd1 #dcj1 #dch2 ,blanco1 #bbb2 e>ly1 #dcb2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aif1 #baa2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bae1 #bba1 #dcf2 ,plioc5e1 #bbe2 ,t]ti>y1 #dbi ,,mat!w1 ,w4 ,d41 #bda1 #beg1 #djg1 #dji1 #dad1 #eca1 #ecb1 #edj1 #edb1 #edf1 #edg1 #efe1 #eff1 #feg1 #fei ,mazama1 #ahj1 #aha 7fig471 #cfb ,mead[-mice1 #aec1 #ahb1 #bah ,m$it]ranean1 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #ajf ,megalictis1 #eag1 #eea ,megalocnus1 #eib1 #fjd ,megalony*id1 #eib1 #eih1 #faj ,megalony*o!rium1 #eib ,megalonyx1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bjf1 #bai1 #bba1 #eib1 #eig1 #fjd1 #fjg ,megamys1 #bbf ,mega!riid1 #eia1 #eih1 #fjg ,mega!rium1 #bjf1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bbj 7d471 #eia1 #eig1 #eii1 #fjb1 #fjd1 #fjh ,mellivora1 #eea ,m5isco!riid1 #deg1 #deh ,m5isco!rium1 #deg1 #deh1 #dei 7re/oration7 ,m5otyphla1 #ei ,mephitis1 #aec1 #afg 7fig471 #eag1 #eeb ,,m]riam1 ,c4 ,h41 #adj1 #ada1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej1 #afa ,,m]riam1 ,j4 ,c41 #ca1 #cb1 #ech1 #edc ,m]y*ippus1 #bia1 #big1 #bih ,m]y*yus1 #bcb1 #cfa1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cgg1 #cha1 #chb ,m]yco*rus1 #bda1 #cfa1 #cgb1 #cgc 7head re/or$71 #cgd1 #cgf1 #cha1 #chb 7manus fig47 ,m]ycodontid1 #cfb1 #dad ,m]ycodus1 #bbd1 #cfb1 #dad1 #dae 7re/oration71 #dag ,m]ycoidodon1 #beb 7re/oration71 #beh1 #bei 7d471 #cfa1 #cgi 7skull fig471 #chb 7manus fig471 #ecf 7re/oration7 ,mesatirh9us1 #bga 7re/oration71 #cad 7d47 ,mesaxonic symmetry1 #cei ,mesocyon1 #eag1 #ebh1 #ecj ,mesohippus1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bij1 #cjj 7re/or471 #cjb1 #cje 7skull fig471 #cjh 7manus & pes fig471 #cbf1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cif1 #cig1 #eje ,mesony*id1 #bfi 7re/oration71 #bga 7d47 ,mesony*id1 #eed1 #eef1 #eeh1 #egd2 ,bridg]1 #bfh1 #eei2 ,torrejon1 #bhe1 #efj2 ,u9ta1 #bfe1 #eei2 ,wasat*1 #bgg1 #efj2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,mesonyx1 #eed1 #eei 7tee? fig471 #efa ,mesoreodon1 #cfa1 #cgb1 #cgh ,mesozoic era1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #bc1 #ajc1 #bhd1 #egd1 #fcb1 #fdc ,metac>pal1 #hd ,metac>pus1 #hc ,meta*eiromys1 #eib1 #faf ,metamynodon1 #bee1 #bia1 #cdf1 #cdg 7re/oration71 #ceb1 #eaj ,metapodial1 #ij ,metat>sal1 #hi ,metat>sus1 #hi ,meta!ria1 #fbf ,meteutatus1 #eib ,mexico1 #cc1 #agi1 #aha1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bbi1 #dai1 #dbg1 #ehe2 ,eoc5e1 #ajd2 l[l&s1 #adb1 #adf1 #afd2 mammals1 #ace1 #ada1 #adb2 ,mioc5e1 #aah1 #aba2 plateau1 #adb2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,miacid1 #ebg1 #ecj1 #eed1 #eee1 #eef1 #eeg1 #efb1 #egf2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 ,torrejon1 #bhe2 ,u9ta1 #eai1 #eeh2 ,wasat*1 #bgg1 #bgi2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,miacis1 #eee1 #eeh ,mice1 #fj1 #bdd2 groove-too!d1 #ahb2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 jump+1 #ahb2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah2 vesp]1 #ahb2 :ite-foot$1 #aec1 #afd1 #ahb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed ,microbio!rium1 #fbg ,microtus1 #aec1 #bah ,midas1 #egh ,migration1 ( birds1 #adc2 ( mammals1 #ah1 #ai1 #adc2 ( hynodonts1 #efg2 betwe5 ,n4 & ,s4 ,am]41 #abi2 ,oligoc5e1 #bed2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjg1 #baa2 pre-,wasat*1 #ajh2 ( ,proboscidea1 #dda2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #aaf ,milk-d5tition1 #id ,m9k1 #aeb 7fig47 ,m9ks1 #bac1 #eah1 #eej2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd ,mioc5e epo*1 #ag1 #cc1 #aab2 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #aag1 #aai 7map71 #bcc1 #bdi1 #bea1 #bhd1 #chf1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dch1 #eed1 #feh1 #ffa2 ,european1 #bce1 #cfd1 #dce1 #dda1 #eej2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #bj1 #abc1 #bdb1 #bfa1 #eec1 #fdj ,miohippus1 #bij1 #bii ,miolabis1 #cfb1 #cia ,mississippi1 ,embaym5t1 #ajd1 #aag2 ,valley1 loess (1 #acc ,miss\ri ,riv]1 dr[n+ ( bison 91 #cf ,,mit*ell1 ,p4 ,,*alm]s1 #eb ,mri!rium1 #dcd1 #dcg 7head & mol> fig471 #dch1 #dci1 #ddj1 #dda1 #ddb1 #dej ,mol>s1 #ic ,mole1 #b2 ,/>-nos$1 #aeb ,moles1 #ei1 #gg1 #hi2 ,am]ican1 #afc2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 gold51 #bde2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bec ,mole-%rews1 #aec ,mongoose1 #adb ,monkeys1 #b1 #fj1 #ada1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #egg1 #egh1 #ehb2 ,bridg]1 #bgj2 ea/]n hemisph]e1 #agb2 h[l+1 #egh1 #ehe2 ,neotropical1 #agb1 #ehf2 ,new ,_w1 #ehc1 #ehg2 ,old ,_w1 #ehc1 #ehg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah1 #ehf2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde1 #ehf1 #ehg2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #egh1 #ehc1 #ehg2 spid]1 #egh1 #ehd2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge ,monodelphia1 #eh1 #ei1 #ade ,monotremata1 #ei2 di/ribution1 #ach ,monte ,h]moso age & /age1 #bj1 #abi1 #bbf1 #dgi1 #dii1 #ejh1 #fcd ,moose1 #d1 #fe1 #ada1 #aea1 #aef 7fig471 #aha1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #daa1 #dab1 #dac ,mora9e1 ,great ,t]m9al1 #aca ,mora9es1 #be ,moropus1 #bch1 #bdj 7re/oration71 #bia1 #cef 7manus fig47 ,morphippus1 #dfb ,mos*us1 #dab ,mt4 ,hood1 #aba2 ,k5ya1 #acd2 ,tacoma1 #aba ,m\nta9 ,lion1 #aec1 #afh 7fig47 ,m\nta9 ranges1 z b>ri]s to mammals1 #adb2 hi/ory (1 #bc ,m\se1 ,jump+1 #aec1 #afj 7fig47 ,m\se-,de]1 #ed1 #fj1 #ceh1 #djh4 7,see also ,*evrota9s & ,tragul9a7 ,multitub]culata1 #fdb ,mummies ( ,plei/oc5e rod5ts1 #dj ,muntjac1 ,indian1 #dab ,muntjacs1 #dab1 #dad1 #feh ,musk-,ox1 #adh1 #adi 7fig471 #bjb1 #bjg1 #baa1 #dah ,musk-,ox51 #bg1 #ada1 #bjh1 #baj ,muskrat1 #b1 #aea1 #aec1 #ahb ,mu/ela1 #aei 7fig471 #afj 7fig471 #eag ,mu/elid1 #agd1 #bbb1 #bfe1 #eag1 #eah1 #eej1 #eec1 #eed2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bch1 #eea2 ,old ,_w orig91 #eej2 ,plei/oc5e1 #eea2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc1 #eea2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed1 #eea ,mu/el9es1 see ,mu/elid ,mutation1 #ffb ,mycetes1 #ehe ,mylagaulid1 #bbb1 #bbi1 #bcc ,mylagaulids1 see ,mylagaulid ,mylodon1 #bjf1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bai1 #eib1 #eig1 #fja1 #fjb1 #fjc 7re/oration71 #fjd1 #fjg1 #fjh 7pes fig47 ,mylodontid1 #bjf1 #eib1 #eih1 #fjb2 ,deseado1 #faj2 ,santa ,cruz1 #fje1 #fjg1 #fji ,mylodonts1 see ,mylodontid ,myoca/or1 #ahd ,myodes1 #aec ,myrmecophaga1 #ia1 #ahg1 #ahh 7fig471 #bjf1 #cee1 #eia1 #fjj ,myrmecophagid1 #eia ,my/acoceti1 #fj ,nasua1 #afb1 #agf1 #bac1 #eag1 #edf1 #eeb ,nasuas1 #ada ,navicul>1 #hh ,navidad =mation1 #abd ,necrole/id1 #bde ,nema!rium1 #eib1 #fjg ,neoga1 #ade ,neogic realm1 #adf1 #afd ,neohipp>ion1 #cc1 #bia1 #bih 7re/oration71 #bii 7skeleton fig47 ,neoplagiaulax1 #fbg ,neotoma1 #aec1 #afd ,neotragoc]us1 #cfb ,neotropical region1 #adf1 #adg1 #afd1 #agj 7map71 #cbb1 #cfc1 #dah1 #dcf1 #dfa1 #eeb1 #ehc1 #eia1 #fcj ,nesodon1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #dfb1 #dfg 7skull fig471 #dgj 7re/oration71 #dgc 7pes fig471 #dgd1 #dge1 #dgh1 #dhb1 #dhc1 #dih1 #eaj1 #eaa ,,neumayr1 ,m41 #ffc ,new ,gu9ea1 #fcd ,new ,york ,zological ,society1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aed-afi1 #agf-ahj1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bib1 #chi1 #ehd ,newf\ndl&1 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,new ,zeal&1 #bhd2 ,mioc5e1 #abc ,nic>agua1 #bah ,nimravus1 #bdi1 #eda1 #edb 7skull fig471 #edc ,nom5clature1 #ej ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! circumpol> area1 #adh2 mammals (1 #ade2 zological divisions1 #adf1 #adg 7map7 ,no?>ctid1 #egh ,no?>ctus1 #egh1 #egi ,no?ocyon1 #ecj ,no?ro!rium1 #eib ,notohippid1 #bfb1 #dfb1 #dge ,notohippus1 #dfb1 #dgf ,notopi!cid1 #dfb ,notopi!cus1 #dfb ,noto/ylopid1 #bhb1 #dfb1 #dhe ,noto/ylops1 #dfb ,noto/ylops ,b$s1 #bj1 #bha ,not\ngulata1 #dfa1 #dhi ,nova ,scotia1 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,nyctipi!cus1 #egh1 #ehe ,oaks1 #ajb ,ocelot1 #agf 7fig471 #bab1 #eeb ,o*otona1 #aec ,octodon1 #ahd ,octodontid1 #ahd ,octodon!rium1 #bfb ,odocoileus1 #ie 7mol> fig471 #aec1 #afb1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #cfj 7mol> fig471 #cfb1 #dac2 ,o4 hemionus1 #df 7fawns fig471 #afg 7fig472 ,o4 virg9ianus1 #aff 7fig471 #agi1 #dab2 ,o4 virg4 osceola1 #agi 7fig47 ,odontoceti1 #fj ,okapi1 #de ,old ,_w1 #aja1 #beh1 #bff1 #bie1 #cbg1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cce1 #cda1 #cea1 #cec1 #ceh1 #chf1 #cij1 #dac1 #dbj1 #dbf1 #eah1 #eej1 #eed1 #eeh1 #efb1 #ehc2 camels1 #ach2 horses1 #bja2 mammals1 #abj1 #aba1 #adb2 sep>ation f ,n4 ,a41 #adf ,oligobunis1 #eag1 #eea ,oligoc5e epo*1 #ag2 ,europe1 #cbd1 #ceb1 #cgj1 #edc1 #eeb1 #ffa2 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #aac1 #aad 7map71 #bjd1 #bbd1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #cgh1 #egf1 #feh2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #bj1 #aag1 #bhb1 #def1 #dhe1 #ejh1 #eab1 #fbe ,omomys1 #egh ,onohippidium1 #cjg ,ontog5y1 #fdh ,odectes1 #eee1 #eeh ,opossum1 #afa 7fig471 #fbg2 ,wat]-1 #fbg1 #fca ,opossum-l =ms1 ,cretace\s1 #fch ,opossums1 #b1 #eh1 #ei1 #ada1 #afa1 #bdi1 #fbf1 #fbg1 #fcj2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,bridg]1 #bfh2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb2 ,cretace\s1 #fca2 ,eoc5e1 #fca2 ,european1 #fca2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #fca2 ,oligoc5e1 #fca2 ,paleoc5e1 #fca2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bba2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdd2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #aij1 #bba1 #fca2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bea2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd2 woolly1 #fca ,opsic]os1 #cbg1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #ccb1 #cej1 #cea ,ord]s1 di/ribution (1 #ach ,ordovician p]iod1 #ae ,oreamnos1 #aeb1 #aeh 7fig471 #bjb1 #daf ,oreodon1 #cgi ,oreodont1 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beb 7re/oration71 #bei 7d471 #ecf 7d47 ,oreodontid1 #bej1 #cfa1 #cgb1 #chc1 #chd1 #che1 #djd1 #dcf1 #feb1 #ffa2 ,eoc5e1 #cgb1 #cha2 graz+1 #bcb2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #cge1 #cgg1 #cgi2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bce1 #bda1 #cgb1 #cgd2 ,plioc5e1 #bbe1 #cgc2 ,u9ta1 #bfg1 #chj2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beh1 #cgg ,ori5tal region1 #adf ,orni?orhyn*us1 #eg ,orohippus1 #bgb1 #bij1 #cjb ,,osborn1 ,h4 ,f41 #ah1 #ei1 #ajb1 #aic1 #aid1 #aii1 #bjg1 #bce1 #bda1 #bfe1 #bgc1 #bhh1 #big1 #cca1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cde1 #ceg1 #djf1 #dji1 #dad1 #dbg1 #dej1 #eed1 #fee ,otocyon1 #fef ,ottawa valley1 m>9e invasion (1 #acb ,ott]1 #b1 #afj 7fig471 #age1 #bac ,ott]s1 #aeb1 #afd1 #eaf1 #eag1 #eah1 #eej1 #eea2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb ,ovibos1 #adi 7fig471 #bjb1 #bjh1 #cfb1 #dah ,ovis1 #aeb1 #dai ,ox1 #gj ,ox51 #ed1 #fj1 #cfb1 #dji1 #daf1 #dah ,oxyna1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #eee1 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7d471 #ega1 #egb 7re/oration71 #egc ,oxynid1 #eee1 #efh1 #ege2 ,bridg]1 #bfh1 #efh1 #egc2 ,u9ta1 #bfe1 #egc2 ,wasat*1 #bgg1 #ega2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd1 #ega ,oxynodon1 #eee ,oxyclnid1 #eed1 #efa1 #efb1 #efh1 #egd ,oxyclnus1 #eed ,oxydactylus1 #bda1 #cfb1 #cia1 #cib 7re/oration71 #cic 7skeleton fig47 ,,ow51 ,r41 #bag1 #dfc1 #dfg1 #eaj1 #fjc1 #fjh ,paca1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe ,pa*yna1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #eed1 #efj ,pa*ycyon1 #ebb ,pa*yd]mata1 #dd1 #dij1 #dib1 #fed ,pa*yrukhos1 #bbg1 #dfb1 #dgh1 #dgi1 #fci 7re/oration7 ,pacific ,coa/1 ,eoc5e1 #ajd1 #aaa2 m+l+ ( mammals1 #adj2 ,mioc5e1 #aag1 #abj2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac2 ,paleoc5e1 #aja2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb2 ,plei/o4 volcanoes1 #acc ,palarctonyx1 #eee ,paloma/odon1 #dcb1 #dcd1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dcg 7head & mol> fig471 #dch1 #dci1 #ddj1 #dda1 #dej ,palonictis1 #bgg1 #eee1 #egd ,palontological me?od1 #i1 #aa1 #bi ,palontology1 #bi1 #fdi1 #ffj1 #ffc ,palosyops1 #bgb1 #bia1 #cad 7mol> fig471 #cag 7head re/or$71 #cah 7manus fig47 ,palo!ntes1 #fbg ,palo!rium1 #dij1 #dib1 #ffa ,palozoic era1 #ae ,palpanor?us1 #fbg ,paleoc5e epo*1 #ag1 #ii1 #ajh1 #bec1 #bgc1 #bgf1 #bia1 #ddc1 #dec1 #ded1 #def1 #dei1 #dfj1 #eai1 #eed1 #eeg1 #eeh1 #efj1 #efa1 #efb1 #efh1 #egh1 #ehj1 #fbe1 #fdb ,palms1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #abb ,paloplo!rium1 #ffa ,pamir1 #dai ,pampas1 #acc1 #adb1 #baa1 #bac1 #bah1 #bai1 #eif ,pampean ,b$s1 #ai1 #acc1 #acf1 #bbh1 #bdh1 #dfc1 #dga1 #dgh1 #dhi1 #dic1 #dif1 #dih1 #ehf2 mammals1 #bab 7re/orations71 #dhi ,p&a1 #edf ,pangol9s1 #fj1 #cec ,pano*?us1 #eib1 #fah1 #fbj ,pantodonta1 #ddc1 #dea ,pantolambda1 #bhe 7re/oration71 #dec1 #ded ,p>aguay1 #afd1 #agh1 #ahi ,p>ahippus1 #bij1 #big ,p>ahyus1 #bha1 #cfa1 #cgj ,p>allelism1 #cig1 #fdi1 #feb1 #fec ,p>amylodon1 #eib ,p>amys1 #bgj1 #bga 7re/oration71 #bhj ,p>an age & /age1 #bj1 #abh1 #bdb1 #dic1 #dii1 #ejg1 #fce ,p>an ,riv]1 #cd ,p>api!cus1 #ehc1 #ehg ,p>a/rapo!rium1 #eji1 #eab ,p>axonic symmetry1 #cei ,patagonia1 #cj1 #dj1 #aci1 #agh1 #ahj1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #bdb1 #bfc1 #dfc1 #dfg1 #dgg1 #ehf1 #eif2 ,cretace\s1 #aag1 #fcb2 ,eoc5e1 #aab1 #aag2 m>9e rocks1 #aab2 ,mioc5e1 #abc1 #fac2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag2 ,plei/oc5e glaciation1 #acc2 ,plioc5e1 #abh2 ,t]ti>y1 #bj ,patagonian age & /age1 #bj1 #abc1 #dgd1 #dge1 #dgi ,patella1 #hf 7fig47 ,patri(elis1 #bga 7re/oration71 #bgd1 #eee1 #efh1 #efi 7re/oration71 #egj 7pes fig47 ,paulog]vaisia1 #dfb1 #dhh ,peace ,creek /age1 #abg1 #bba1 #cbb ,pecc>ies1 #ada1 #agh1 #cfa1 #cfc1 #dfa2 ,bridg]1 #bgc1 #cfe2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #cfe2 ,mioc5e1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bci1 #cfe2 ,oligoc5e1 #cfe2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bja2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #cfd2 ,u9ta1 #bff1 #cfe ,pecc>y1 #cc1 #fj1 #afa1 #agg 7fig471 #bbb1 #cfj 7mol> fig47 ,pecora1 #ed1 #fj1 #cfb1 #chg1 #djb1 #dji1 #dbj1 #dba2 ,neotropical1 #agi2 ,oligoc5e1 #dba2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bja ,pelecyodon1 #eib ,peltephilid1 #eib ,peltephilus1 #eib1 #fac 7skull fig471 #fae ,pelvis1 #gg ,pelycodus1 #egh1 #ehj ,,p5ck1 ,a41 #acd ,p]ac]as1 #ccb ,p]ameles1 #eh ,p]amys1 #fca ,p]a!rium1 #fbg1 #fca ,p]*rus1 #cfa1 #cfe ,p]ipty*id1 #ddc ,p]ipty*us1 #ddc1 #ded ,p]issodactyla1 #fj1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bhd1 #bhh1 #caj1 #cec1 #ced1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cfj1 #chc1 #djb1 #dej1 #deh1 #dhd1 #dhe1 #dia1 #dii1 #ejg1 #ead1 #fea1 #fec2 ,bridg]1 #bgj1 #cdd2 ,claw$1 #fj1 #cec2 ,eoc5e1 #bhi1 #cch1 #cci1 #ceb1 #ced1 #cei2 ,john ,day1 #bej2 ,mioc5e1 #bcj1 #bcd1 #bch2 ,neotropical1 #agf2 normal1 #bia1 #cee2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aii2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac2 ,u9ta1 #bff2 ,wasat*1 #bhj2 ( we/]n hemisph]e1 #cbb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge ,p]issodactyls1 see ,p]issodactyla ,p]mian p]iod1 #ae2 climate (1 #bd1 #be2 glaciation1 #be ,p]u1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahd1 #cef1 #cic1 #edh ,petrifaction1 #dj ,petrifi$ =e/s1 #abb ,phaco*rus1 #cfc ,phalang]s1 ,au/ralian1 #bdd1 #fbf1 #fdj1 #fda1 #fdb ,phalanges1 #hd ,ph>sophorus1 #fbg ,ph5acodontid1 #deg ,ph5acodus1 #bgg1 #bgh 7re/oration71 #bhe1 #deg 7skeleton fig471 #deh1 #dei ,philipp9es1 #egi ,philology1 #fdf ,phlaocyon1 #bch1 #eag1 #edg ,pholidota1 #fj1 #cec ,phylog5y1 #fdh ,phylum1 #ef ,pi*iciago1 #aij1 #eib1 #faa ,pig1 #cei 7=e-arm bones & manus fig471 #cfj 7pes fig472 ,wild ,texas1 #afa ,pigs1 #bha ,pikas1 #ei1 #aec1 #aha ,pilosa1 #fj1 #eia1 #eib ,p9nip$ia1 #ei1 #eaf ,pisi=m1 #hc ,pi!cia1 #egh1 #ehe ,pi!culus1 #egh ,plac5ta1 #eh ,plac5tal mammals1 #eh1 #ei1 #ade ,plagi>?rus1 #dha ,plagiaulacid1 #fbg ,plagiodontia1 #ahe ,planops1 #eia ,plant-fe$]s1 #ib1 #ie ,plantigrade1 #ij ,plants1 di/ribution1 #ada2 ,florissant1 #aba1 #abb2 ,gre5 ,riv]1 #aji2 ,mioc5e1 #abb2 ,mioc5e ( ,&es1 #abd2 ,mioc4 ( ,europe1 #abb2 ,oligoc5e ( ,alaska1 #aaf2 ,oligo4 ( ,europe1 #aaf2 ,plioc5e1 #abg ,plateau region1 #aja1 #aaa1 #abb2 ,plei/oc5e upheaval (1 #acc ,plateaus z affect+ spread ( mammals1 #adb ,platygonus1 #cc1 #bjb1 #bbb1 #cfa1 #cfd ,platyrrh9a1 #egh1 #ehc1 #ehg ,plei/oc5e epo*1 #ag1 #abi1 #acj1 #agb1 #bbi1 #bci1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bii1 #cbd1 #ccb1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cej1 #cea1 #ced1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #chf1 #cia1 #dab1 #dac1 #dae1 #daf-dai1 #dbf-dbi1 #dcf1 #dch1 #dci1 #ddh1 #dhe1 #dii1 #eah1 #ebd1 #ecj1 #eca1 #ede1 #edi1 #eea1 #eeb1 #ehf1 #ehh1 #fad1 #fca1 #fcb2 climate1 #be2 effects ( climate on animal di/ribution1 #aib2 glaciation1 #be2 ,european1 #ffa2 l[e/1 #abg2 mammals1 #aie 7re/orations72 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #ai1 #bj1 #acc1 #bif1 #dfe1 #dgf1 #dgi ,pleuroclodon1 #dfb ,pliau*5ia1 #cfb ,,pl9y1 lett] on eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #cj ,plioc5e epo*1 #ag1 #aab1 #abe2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #abf 7map71 #aii1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bbi1 #bcc1 #bch1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #beh1 #bfc1 #bhb1 #bie1 #bih1 #bii1 #cbd1 #cbg1 #ccc-ccf1 #cdj1 #cec1 #ced1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #chf1 #chh1 #cij1 #cia1 #dac1 #dad1 #daf1 #dag1 #dba1 #dbg1 #dbi1 #dcj1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dic1 #dii1 #ejg1 #ejh1 #ebd1 #ebg1 #ecj1 #eca1 #ecd1 #ecf1 #ede1 #edf1 #edg1 #edi-eeb1 #eed1 #eih1 #fab1 #fad1 #fcb2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #bj1 #abh1 #dff1 #dfg1 #dgi ,pliohippus1 #bia1 #bif1 #cjg ,pocket-goph]s1 #afc1 #afd1 #ahb2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bch2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb2 ,u9ta1 #bfe ,pocket-mice1 #aia ,pobro!rium1 #beb 7re/oration71 #beg1 #cfb1 #cid 7re/or471 #cig1 #cii 7skull & too? fig471 #djj 7manus fig471 #dja 7pes fig47 ,pogonodon1 #ece1 #eda ,polydolopid1 #fbg1 #fdb ,polydolops1 #fbg ,polyma/odon1 #bhf 7head re/or$71 #fbg ,polyprotodonta1 #ei1 #fbg1 #fcj1 #fdj1 #fda ,pompeii1 #cj ,popl>s1 #ajb ,porcup9e1 ,brazilian ,tree1 #ahb 7fig472 ,canada1 #e1 #aea 7fig471 #aec1 #ahb1 #bje2 ,%ort-tail$1 #aej1 #ahb1 #bje ,porcup9e gr\p1 #ahb1 #bfb2 subord]1 #bde ,porcup9es1 #ei1 #ahd2 %ort-tail$1 #ada2 tree1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah2 tree1 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde ,porpoises1 #c1 #cg1 #de1 #fj1 #id1 #ddb1 #fef ,port ,k5n$y ,cave1 #cj1 #baj ,port ,/4 ,julian1 #dhi ,portugal1 cav]ns1 #dj ,potos1 #age 7fig471 #eag1 #edf1 #eeb1 #eeh ,p\*$ mammals1 #eg1 #ei4 7,see also ,m>supialia7 ,pruphractus1 #eib ,prairie-,dog1 #afi 7fig47 ,prairie-dogs1 #afd1 #aha ,praopus1 #faa ,pre-,cambrian eras1 #ae ,premol>s1 #ic ,pre-occupation1 #adb ,prepo!rium1 #eia1 #fjg1 #fjh ,preptoc]as1 #bjb1 #bjc 7re/oration71 #cfb1 #dah ,primates1 #fj1 #egg2 ,bridg]1 #bgj2 ,eoc5e1 #egg2 ,santa ,cruz1 #ehg2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #ehg2 ,wasat*1 #bha1 #ehj ,priodontes1 #aij1 #eib1 #faj1 #fab1 #fad1 #faf ,proad9o!rium1 #bfb1 #dfb ,proasmodeus1 #dfb ,proborhyna1 #fbg1 #fch ,proboscidea1 #fj1 #bcj1 #bed1 #bfd1 #bfi1 #dbb1 #ddb1 #ddf1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #ded1 #dee1 #dfi1 #dhg1 #dhh1 #ead2 ,african orig9 (1 #bcd2 ,am]ican1 #dhe2 ,eoc5e1 #dcd2 ,mioc5e1 #bcd1 #bch1 #dcj2 ,oligoc5e1 #dcb1 #dda2 ,plei/oc5e1 ,n4 ,am]41 #aif2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #dcf4 7,see also ,elephants & ,ma/odons7 ,proboscis1 #fe ,procamelus1 #bcb 7re/oration71 #cfb1 #cia1 #cii 7skull & too? fig471 #djj 7manus fig471 #dja 7pes fig47 ,procladosictis1 #fbg ,procynodictis1 #eag1 #ebi1 #ecj ,procyon1 #afc1 #age1 #bac1 #eag1 #edf1 #edg2 ,p4 cancrivorus1 #eeb2 ,p4 lotor1 #aec1 #aff 7fig471 #edg 7d5tition fig471 #eeb2 ,p4 urs9us1 #eeb ,procyonid1 #eag1 #eah1 #edf2 ,mioc5e1 #bch1 #edg2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb ,prodasypus1 #eib ,proectocion1 #dhi ,proeutatus1 #eib1 #fad1 #fae 7skull fig47 ,proglires1 #ei ,prom]yco*rus1 #bce1 #bea1 #cfa1 #cge1 #cgf 7re/oration7 ,pronesodon1 #bfb1 #dfb ,prong ,buck1 #bjb1 #bbe1 #daf1 #dag1 #dbj4 7,see ,antelope1 ,prong-horn$7 ,pronomo!rium1 #bca1 #cfa1 #cgd1 #cge 7head re/or$71 #cgf1 #cha ,propalohoplophorus1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #eib1 #fjf 7re/or471 #fbc ,propolyma/odon1 #fbg ,propyro!rium1 #dfb1 #dhg ,pro/h5nops1 #cfa ,protagrio*rus1 #bfg1 #cfa1 #chc1 #che ,protapirus1 #beg1 #bia1 #cbc 7skull fig471 #cbd 7head re/or$71 #cbe 7tee? fig47 ,proteodidelphys1 #fbg ,prot]o!re1 s+le-to$1 #ejf 7re/oration72 ?ree-to$1 #ejb 7re/or47 ,prot]o!res1 see ,prot]o!riid ,prot]o!riid1 #bbg1 #bdh1 #dhi1 #dii1 #ejg1 #fec2 ,araucanian1 #bbg1 #ejh2 ,deseado1 #bfd1 #dhi2 ,p>an1 #bbh1 #dii2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdh1 #eja ,prot]o!rium1 #bdh1 #dhi1 #ejd ,pro!osodon1 #dhi1 #dii ,pro?oa!rium1 #dhi ,pro?ylacynus1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #bdd1 #fbg1 #fce1 #fcf 7re/or471 #fcg ,protitano!rium1 #bff1 #cac ,protobradys1 #eib1 #eie ,protoc]as1 #beb 7re/oration71 #beh1 #cfb1 #dje 7re/or471 #djf 7skull fig471 #djg1 #dde ,protodonta1 #ei ,protogonodon1 #deg ,protohippus1 #bia1 #cje 7skull fig471 #cjf 7manus & pes fig47 ,protolabis1 #cfb1 #cia ,protom]yx1 #bda1 #bea1 #cfb1 #cia ,protopi!cus1 #bah ,protoreodon1 #bfg1 #cfa1 #chj 7skull fig471 #cha ,proto!ria1 #eg1 #ei1 #gf ,protylopus1 #bfg1 #cfb1 #cig1 #cii 7skull & too? fig471 #djj 7manus fig471 #dja 7pes fig47 ,protypo!rium1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #dfb1 #dgi1 #dhj 7re/or47 ,prov9ce1 zological1 #ade ,prozadius1 #eib ,pseudlurus1 #eag1 #ede ,pseudocladosictis1 #fbg ,pseudolabis1 #cfb ,pseudole/odon1 #eib ,pt]odon1 #bec1 #eee1 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7d471 #efg1 #egf ,ptilodus1 #fbg1 #fdb 7skull fig471 #fdc 7head re/or$7 ,pudu1 #ahj ,pudua1 #ahj ,pu]co age & /age1 #ag1 #ii1 #aja1 #ded1 #dfj1 #efa ,puma1 #afh 7fig471 #bab1 #edd 7d5tition fig471 #ede 7skull fig472 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb ,pumas1 #aec1 #afc1 #agf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd ,pyramidal1 #hc ,pyr5ees1 #ajd ,pyro!res1 see ,pyro!ria ,pyro!ria1 #fj1 #dfb1 #dhe1 #ejj2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhc1 #dhh2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #dhe ,pyro!rium1 #bfd1 #dfb1 #dhe1 #dhf 7head re/or$7 ,pyro!rium ,b$s1 #bj1 #aag1 #bfa1 #dhf ,quadrumana1 #ehb ,quadrup$1 #a ,quaggas1 #bib ,quat]n>y p]iod1 #ae1 #ag1 #fa1 #ajj1 #abi1 #bfg1 #cai2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #ai ,quicks&s1 burial ( mammals 91 #cg ,rabbit1 #bah ,rabbits1 #ei1 #ada1 #adb1 #afd1 #bde2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed ,raccoon1 #aec1 #afb1 #afc1 #aff 7fig471 #age1 #edg 7d5tition fig471 #eec2 ,crab-eat+1 #eeb ,raccoon-family1 ,mioc5e1 #bch2 ,plioc5e1 ,s4 ,am]41 #bbf ,raccoons1 #e1 #ij1 #bac1 #eag1 #eah1 #eai1 #edf1 #eec2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #edg2 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 ,t]ti>y1 #edg ,race1 geographical1 #eb ,radius1 #hj ,rais$ bea*es1 #aac1 #acd ,ran*o ,la ,brea1 #ca ,rangif]1 #gj1 #aeb1 #aeg 7fig471 #bjb1 #bjh1 #cfb1 #dab ,ratel1 #eea ,rats1 #fj1 #bde2 fi%-eat+1 #ahb2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah2 sp9y1 #ahd ,rattlesnake /age1 #abg ,,ray4 ,j41 #ea ,realm1 zological1 #ade ,rec5t epo*1 #ag1 #acb1 #cce1 #ccf2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #ai ,r$uction ( p>ts1 #fef ,region1 zological1 #ade ,re9de]1 #gj1 #ada1 #dab2 ,lapl&1 #aeb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bg ,reptiles1 see ,reptilia ,reptilia1 #ee2 z ance/ral to mammals1 #fdc2 di/ribution1 #ada2 ,mesozoic1 #bhd2 ,oligoc5e1 #aag2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdd2 tee? (1 #ib2 ,triassic ( ,s4 ,africa1 #fdd ,republican ,riv] age1 #ag1 #abg ,re/orations1 h[ made1 #db ,rhei?rodon1 #ahb ,rh9oc]os1 #cej1 #dij1 #dib2 ,african1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccg2 aquatic1 #cdg 7re/oration72 ,bornean1 #dd2 ,broad-lipp$1 #cbi1 #cea1 #ddh2 cursorial1 #beb 7re/or471 #cda 7d471 #cdc 7manus fig471 #cdd 7re/or472 hornless1 #beb 7re/or471 #bef 7d471 #cce 7skull fig472 ,indian1 #dd1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi2 ,javan1 #cbg1 #cbh 7skull fig471 #dgc2 pair$-horn$1 #bci 7re/or472 primitive1 #bga 7re/or472 small-horn$1 #bcj 7re/or472 ,sumatran1 #cbg1 #cbi2 ,:ite1 #cbi2 ,woolly1 #ccb ,rh9oc]os1 #cbg2 ,r4 sondaicus1 #cbg1 #cbh 7skull fig471 #dgc2 ,r4 unicornis1 #cbi ,rh9oc]oses1 #de1 #ef1 #fj1 #fc1 #ia1 #bhi1 #cab1 #chb1 #dfa1 #eaj1 #fed1 #fee1 #ffa2 ,african1 #cdf2 aquatic1 #bia1 #cdj2 aquatic1 ,bridg]1 #bgb2 aquatic1 ,u9ta1 #cdh2 aquatic1 ,:ite ,riv]1 #cdf2 bones (1 #ce2 cursorial1 #bia1 #cdj2 cursorial1 ,bridg]1 #bgb1 #cdc2 cursorial1 ,u9ta1 #bff2 cursorial1 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #cdj2 cursorial1 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge2 ,eoc5e1 #cch1 #cci2 hairy1 #ddh2 ,john ,day1 #bej1 #bef1 #ccc2 ,mioc5e1 #bcj1 #bcd1 #bch1 #bef1 #ccb1 #ccc2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #ci1 #aii2 ,oligoc5e1 #ccc2 ,plioc5e1 #bbd1 #cca2 pair$-horn$1 #bef1 #ddd2 phyla (1 #bhi1 #fej2 ,sib]ian1 #ci2 true1 #bia1 #cbf1 #cdj1 #cdf1 #cej1 #cea2 true1 ,u9ta1 #bff2 true1 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #ccc2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #ccc ,rh9oc]otid1 #bia1 #cbf1 #cdj1 #cej ,rhyn*ippus1 #dfb ,ribs1 #gd 7fig472 /]nal1 #gd ,rio de ,la ,plata1 #abh ,riv] deposits1 #cf ,rob91 #ej ,rocky ,mts41 #aja1 #aej1 #aec2 ,plei/oc5e glaci]s1 #aca ,rod5t1 primitive1 #bga 7re/oration72 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7d47 ,rod5tia1 #e1 #ei1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #dei1 #fbi2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,boreal1 #aec2 ,bridg]1 #bgj2 ,deseado1 #ehg2 di/ribution1 #ach2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 jump+1 #ij2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcc1 #bcg2 ,neotropical1 #ahc 7figs472 ,p>an1 #bbg2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acd1 #bje2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bah2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde2 simplicid5tate1 #fbh2 ,sonoran1 #afc2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #aha2 ,u9ta1 #bfe2 ,wasat*1 #bhj2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge2 ,we/ ,indian1 #aia ,rod5ts1 see ,rod5tia ,roots ( tee?1 #ie ,rootless tee?1 #if ,rosebud /age1 #abj1 #bce ,rum9ants1 #ha1 #hd1 #hg1 #bha1 #cgc1 #fea2 holl[-horn$1 #cbh2 ,mioc5e1 #bcb2 true1 #ed1 #bja1 #cfb1 #chg1 #djb1 #dji1 #ddf ,,russell1 ,i4 ,c41 #ehi ,sables1 #ada ,sabre-too?1 #cb2 cat1 #beb 7re/oration72 cats1 #fei2 false1 #edb 7skull fig472 primitive1 #eci 7re/or472 ,tig]1 frontispiece 7re/or471 #aie 7re/or471 #eag1 #eca 7skull fig471 #ecd 7d471 #ecf 7re/or472 tig]s1 #ed1 #baj1 #ecj1 #eeb2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #ecd2 ,oligoc5e1 #ece2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #baa2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc ,sabre-too?s1 #bfe1 #fej2 false1 #bdi1 #eda2 ,john ,day1 #bdi1 #ece1 #eda1 #edb2 ,mioc5e1 #bch2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed4 7,see also ,ma*airodont97 ,sacram5to ,valley1 ,mioc5e1 #aah ,sacrum1 #gc 7fig47 ,sadypus1 #eib ,sagittal cre/1 #fc ,saiga1 #fe ,saiga ,antelope1 #fe ,/4 ,elias ,alps1 #aja ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,valley1 invasion (1 by sea1 #acc ,sakis1 #egh1 #ehe ,sal9e wat]1 #cd ,,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d41 #acj ,salt ,lake1 ,utah1 #aca ,salt lakes1 #bd ,s&1 w9d-bl[n1 #cc ,santa ,cruz age & /age1 #bj1 #cj1 #abd1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #dfg1 #dgj1 #dgc1 #dgd1 #dge1 #dgg1 #dgi1 #dha1 #dhb1 #dhe1 #dic1 #dii1 #ejj1 #eja1 #ejd1 #ejh-eab1 #ehf1 #ehg2 mammals1 #bdc 7re/orations7 ,santa ,cruz ,mts41 ,calif41 #aah ,santa ,cruz ,riv]1 z b>ri] to armadillos1 #aci ,sapaj\1 #ehd 7fig47 ,s>cophilus1 #fcd ,,s>mi5to1 #adc ,scalibr9i!rium1 #dhi1 #dic1 #die1 #dif 7skull fig471 #dig 7d47 ,scalops1 #afc ,scalpri=m tee?1 #if 7fig47 ,scapanus1 #afc ,scaphoid1 #hc ,scapho-lun>1 #hc ,scapula1 #gf 7fig47 ,scelido!rium1 #eib1 #fja1 #fjb1 #fjd ,s*ismo!rium1 #eib ,s*izo!rium1 #bia1 #ceg ,,s*loss]1 ,m41 #bfb1 #chj1 #ead1 #eee1 #ehc1 #fbe1 #ffa ,,s*u*]t1 ,c41 #aje1 #aad1 #aai1 #abf ,sciuravus1 #bhj ,sciuromorpha1 #bgj ,sciuropt]us1 #afd ,sciurus1 #afd 7fig47 ,scl]ocalyptus1 #bai1 #eib1 #fah1 #fbj ,scl]opleura1 #eib1 #faa ,,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 #bhh ,sea-,c[1 #fj1 #bjg1 #ddb ,sea-,ott]1 #eag1 #eah ,seals1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #cg1 #ef1 #ei2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb ,seas1 b>ri]s to l& mammals1 #aci ,section1 geological1 #g1 #i 7diagram7 ,s$im5t>y rocks1 #f ,s$im5ts1 #f ,sel5odont too?1 #cfj 7fig472 orig9 (1 #fea ,sewellel1 #aec1 #bcc ,sewellels1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bch ,%ales1 ,florissant1 #abi2 ,gre5 ,riv]1 #aji ,%eep1 #ed1 #fj1 #ic1 #cfb1 #dji1 #daf1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbj2 ,rocky ,mt41 #aeb1 #dai ,%ells1 fossil1 #ffb ,%]idan /age1 #cc1 #aca1 #acc1 #bjj ,%rews1 #ei1 #ada1 #agc1 #aia2 ,am]ican1 #afc2 jump+1 #ei2 ,old ,_w1 #aeb2 tree1 #ei ,sib]ia1 #aig1 #bjg1 #ccb1 #cej1 #dbf2 froz5 c>casses 91 #ci ,si]ra ,nevada1 #aja1 #abb1 #aej1 #aec2 ,mioc5e1 #aah2 ,plei/oc5e glaci]s1 #aca ,sigmodon1 #afc ,silurian p]iod1 #ae ,simiid1 #ehc ,simplicid5tata1 #fj ,,s9clair1 ,w4 ,j41 #ajg1 #dcg ,s9opa1 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7d471 #fcc ,sir5ia1 #fj1 #ddb ,sitomys1 #aec1 #afd1 #ahb ,skeleton1 #fa2 significance (1 #db ,skull1 #fa ,skunk1 #afc1 #afg 7fig471 #bac1 #eag2 ,arg5t9e1 #agd 7fig472 ,little1 #agd 7fig472 ,spott$1 #eag ,skunks1 #aec1 #afc1 #agd1 #baj1 #eah1 #eej1 #eea2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #eeb ,slo?1 ,?ree-to$1 #ahf 7fig471 #eia2 ,two-to$1 #gd1 #ahg 7fig471 #eia ,slo?s1 #b1 #fj1 #ig1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #eib2 ,araucanian1 #bbf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bde ,smilodon1 frontispiece 7re/oration71 #aie 7d471 #bjd1 #baa1 #eag1 #eca 7skull fig471 #ecb 7tee? fig471 #ece1 #ecf1 #ecg1 #edd1 #eec1 #fbb ,,smi?1 ,,p]r91 #bc ,,smi?1 ,,william1 #g1 #i ,smi? ,riv] /age1 #aba ,snake ,creek age & /age1 #ag1 #abg1 #bbb1 #chh ,snakes1 #bdd2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhd ,sol5odon1 #agc 7fig47 ,solit>y species1 #ch ,sonoran region1 #adf1 #adg 7map71 #aeb1 #aec1 #afa1 #agf1 #agh1 #aia1 #cfc ,sorex1 #aeb ,s\? ,africa1 #ad2 ,p]mian glaciation1 #be2 ,triassic reptiles1 #fdd ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,eoc5e sep>ation f ,n4 ,am]41 #ajd2 ,mioc5e junction ) ,n4 ,am]41 #abj2 ,p]mian glaciation1 #be2 ,plei/oc5e ,man1 #ehi2 zological divisions1 #agc 7map72 zology1 #adf ,s\? ,au/ralia1 dry lakes (1 #cd ,s\? ,%etl& ,isl&s1 #abd ,sp>nacian /age1 #ajh ,species1 def9ition1 #ea2 di/ribution1 #acf2 orig91 #bj ,specific area1 #acf ,sp]mophilus1 #afc 7fig471 #afd ,sph5ophalus1 #cfb ,spilogale1 #agd 7fig471 #eag1 #eeb ,sp9y rats1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah ,sports1 #ffj ,squirrel1 ,grey1 #afd 7fig472 subord]1 #bgj ,squirrels1 #b1 #fj1 #bde2 fly+1 #afd2 ,john ,day1 #bdi2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bch2 true1 #afd1 #aha2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed ,/ag1 #ceh2 ,european1 #aea2 ,?ian ,%an1 #aea ,/ag-,moose1 #aie 7re/oration71 #bjh1 #bji 7re/or471 #dac ,/age1 geological1 #ae ,/alagmite1 #cj ,/ations1 #acf ,/egodon1 #dcj1 #dci ,/egodonts1 #dch ,/ego!rium1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #dhj 7d471 #eib1 #fad1 #fae 7skull fig47 ,/5omylus1 #bda1 #bdb 7re/oration71 #cfb1 #cic1 #djh ,/]num1 #ge 7fig47 ,/ib>us1 #cfa ,,/irl+1 ,e4 ,c41 #cd1 #ce ,/raits1 ( ,lombok1 #ace2 ( ,magellan1 #adc ,/ratifi$ rocks1 #f ,/ream-*annels1 ,:ite ,riv]1 #aac ,/yl9odon1 #bgd ,/ypolophus1 #eee ,subregion1 zological1 #ade ,subsid5ces1 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb ,subungulata1 #ead ,suill9es1 #ffa ,su9a1 #ed1 #fj1 #cfa1 #cfb ,sumatra1 #ba1 #adj1 #cbg ,sup]position ( b$s1 #g1 #h 7diagram7 ,sus1 #cei 7=e-arm bones fig471 #cfc ,swamps1 burial ( mammals 91 #cc ,swan1 #gj ,sw9e1 #ed1 #fj2 ,am]ican1 #cfc2 ,old ,_w1 #cfc1 #cfd2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bja2 true1 #cfd1 #cfe4 7,see also ,pecc>ies7 ,sw9e-l animals1 #cfa1 #cfb ,sycamores1 #ajb ,symbos1 #bjh1 #cfb1 #dah ,synaptomys1 #aec ,syndyoc]as1 #bda1 #beh1 #cfb1 #djc 7re/oration71 #djd1 #djf1 #djg ,syria1 #dha ,sy/emodon1 #bhj1 #bia1 #cbd ,tniodontia1 #fj1 #bgf1 #fbe2 ,bridg]1 #bfg2 ,pu]co1 #bhf2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,tagassu1 #afa1 #agg 7fig471 #agh1 #cfj 7too? fig471 #cfa1 #cfc 7d5tition fig471 #cfd ,tagassuid1 #cfa1 #cfc ,tak91 #dah ,taligrada1 #ddc ,tam&ua1 #ahg1 #ahh 7fig471 #eia ,tamias1 #aec ,tapir1 #dg 7fig4 ( "y71 #ha 7=e-arm bones fig471 #hg 7leg-bones fig471 #bhi 7manus fig471 #bij 7pes fig471 #cbj 7adult fig471 #cba 7skull fig471 #dga1 #dij1 #dib2 ,asiatic1 #cba2 ,p9*aque1 #cbb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #cbc 7skull fig471 #cbd 7head re/or$7 ,tapiravus1 #bia ,tapirid1 #fj1 #fe1 #hi1 #ada1 #agf1 #bhi1 #bia1 #cab1 #cae1 #cai1 #ccj1 #cda1 #cdh1 #cei1 #dfa1 #fea1 #fec2 ,am]ican1 #cbb2 ,bridg]1 #bgb2 di/ribution1 #acg2 ,eoc5e1 #cbc2 ,john ,day1 #bej2 ,mioc5e1 #bca1 #bcd1 #cbb2 ,nor? ,am]ican1 #ci2 ,oligoc5e1 #cbc1 #cci2 ,plei/oc5e1 #aii1 #bja1 #bjh1 #baj1 #cbb2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac1 #bae2 ,plioc5e1 #bbc1 #cbb2 ,s\? ,am]ican1 #cbd2 ,u9ta1 #bff2 ,wasat*1 #bhj1 #cbd2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beg1 #cbb ,tapiroid1 #bgb1 #cae ,tapiroids1 #cba ,tapirs1 see ,tapirid ,tapirus1 #agf1 #bia2 ,t4 haysii1 #bja1 #cbb2 ,t4 r\l9i1 #cbb2 ,t4 t]re/ris1 #dg 7"y fig471 #hg1 #bja1 #bhi 7manus fig471 #bij 7pes fig471 #cbj 7adult fig471 #cba 7skull fig471 #cbb1 #cbe 7upp] tee? fig47 ,t>digrada1 #ahf1 #eia1 #eib1 #faj2 ,araucanian1 #bbf4 7,see also ,slo?s7 ,t>ija ,valley1 ,plioc5e1 #abi1 #bbe ,t>-pools1 #ca2 ,plei/oc5e1 #cb ,t>si]1 #bha1 #ehj ,t>siids1 #ehc ,t>sius1 #bha1 #ehj ,t>sus1 #hh ,tasmania1 #ach1 #fcb1 #fcd ,tasmanian ,devil1 #fbg1 #fcd2 ,wolf1 #dc1 #bbf1 #bdd1 #fbf1 #fcb1 #fcc 7fig47 ,tatu1 #afj1 #aij 7fig471 #eib1 #eic1 #fab ,taurotragus1 #bjb ,taxidea1 #aec1 #afb1 #afh 7fig471 #eag ,tayra1 #age 7fig471 #bac1 #eag1 #eeb ,tee?1 #ib2 importance ( fossil1 #ch ,teleoc]as1 #bia1 #cca1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cej ,telma!rium1 #bia ,temnocyon1 #eag1 #ebh1 #ecj ,temp]ature z a b>ri] to species1 #adj1 #ada ,t5recs1 #agc ,tephrocyon1 #eag1 #ebb1 #ebg1 #ecj ,t]ti>y p]iod1 #ae1 #ag1 #ai1 #ii1 #bfg1 #cai1 #cfi1 #dac1 #dfj1 #eca2 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 #bb2 ,culebra1 #bb2 ,great ,pla9s1 #cf2 ,patagonia1 #bj2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #bj1 #bdh1 #dfa1 #dfc2 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 #bj ,t]re/rial habit1 #b ,tetrabelodon1 #dcj1 #dcg ,?al>ctus1 #adh 7fig47 ,!osodon1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #bdh1 #dhi1 #dic1 #did 7re/or471 #dif 7skull fig471 #dig 7d471 #dih 7manus fig47 ,?ian ,%an1 #dai ,?9ohyus1 #cfa ,?oa!rium1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #bdh1 #dhi1 #ejj1 #eja1 #ejd1 #eje 7skull fig471 #ejf 7re/or471 #ejg 7pes fig47 ,?oma%uxleya1 #dfb1 #dhe ,?omomys1 #afd ,?orax1 #gd ,?\s& ,creek age & /age1 #ag1 #abg ,?ylac9e1 #dc1 #fcb1 #fcc 7fig471 #fcd1 #fce4 7,see also ,tasmanian ,wolf7 ,?ylacynid1 #fbg1 #fcb ,?ylacynus1 #dc1 #bbf1 #bdd1 #fcb1 #fcc 7fig47 ,tibet1 #bbd1 #dah ,tibia1 #hf1 #hg 7fig47 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 #bj1 #agh ,tig]1 #de ,tillodontia1 #ei1 #bgf2 ,bridg]1 #bfg2 ,wasat*1 #bgf2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd ,"t1 geological1 #af ,titano!re1 #bec 7re/oration71 #bga 7d471 #cji 7d471 #cad 7re/or4 & fig4 ( mol>7 ,titano!riid1 #bia1 #cjh1 #cag 7heads re/or$71 #ccd1 #ceb1 #cec1 #ceg1 #cff1 #dde1 #ddf1 #deh1 #dfe1 #fed1 #ffa2 ,bridg]1 #bgj1 #cac2 ,oligoc5e1 #caj1 #cad1 #cae1 #cci2 ,u9ta1 #bff1 #cac2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bee1 #caj1 #cac1 #cae2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bge1 #bgf1 #cae ,titano!rium1 #bec 7re/oration71 #bia1 #cji 7re/or471 #caj 7mol> fig471 #caa 7skull fig471 #cag 7head re/or$71 #cah 7fig4 ( manus7 ,tolypeutes1 #ahi1 #eib1 #faa1 #faf ,toronto1 int]glacial b$s ne>1 #acj ,torrejon age & /age1 #ag1 #ii1 #aja1 #bhf1 #dec1 #efa ,tortoises1 #bdd2 ,paleoc5e1 #bdd ,toxodon1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bae1 #bag 7re/or471 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dff 7skull fig471 #dfg1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dga1 #dgb 7pes fig471 #dgc1 #dgg1 #dhg ,toxodont1 #dih2 horn$1 #bbh 7head re/or$71 #bfc 7d472 ,pampean1 #bab 7re/oration71 #bag 7d472 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdc 7re/or471 #dfg 7skull fig472 ,santa ,cruz horn$1 #dgd 7re/or47 ,toxodonta1 #fj1 #bhb1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dgg1 #dhb1 #dhc1 #dhg1 #ejj1 #eji1 #eaa1 #feb2 ,araucanian1 #bbg2 ,deseado1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #dgd2 ,p>an1 #bbh2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdf1 #dfg ,toxodontia1 #fj1 #cee1 #dfa1 #dgh1 #dhe1 #dhi1 #dib1 #ejj1 #ead2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bae1 #bba ,toxodontid1 #dfb1 #dgd ,toxodonts1 see ,toxodonta ,tragul9a1 #ed1 #fj1 #djh1 #dji1 #daj4 7,see ,m\se-,de]7 ,transition zone1 #adg 7map71 #aec ,trapezium1 #hc ,trapezoid1 #hc ,tree-slo?s1 #eia1 #eic1 #eid1 #eie1 #eif1 #fji2 ,plei/oc5e1 #eif2 ,santa ,cruz1 #eif4 7,see also ,slo?s7 ,trem>ctos1 #agb1 #agf 7fig471 #eag1 #edh1 #eeb ,trves1 #aj ,triassic p]iod1 #ae1 #af1 #fdb1 #fdc2 climate1 #bd ,triconodonta1 #ei ,tri]1 ca!dral (1 #aj ,trigodon1 #bbg1 #bbh 7head re/or$71 #dfb1 #dff1 #dgc1 #dgd ,trigonias1 #bef1 #bia1 #ccf1 #ccg 7skull & front tee? fig471 #cch1 #cci 7manus fig471 #cea ,trigonole/es1 #bha1 #cfa1 #cih ,trigonole/id1 #cfa ,trigono/ylopid1 #eji1 #eab ,trigono/ylops1 #eji ,triisodon1 #eed1 #efa ,trilophodon1 #bbi ,tr9idad1 #agj ,tr9omial sy/em ( nom5clature1 #eb ,triplopus1 #bff1 #bgb1 #cdc 7manus fig471 #cde ,tritemnodon1 #bga 7re/oration71 #eee1 #efe 7tee? fig471 #eff 7d471 #efg 7re/or471 #egf1 #fcc ,tritub]culata1 #ei ,tropical species1 di/ribution1 #ada ,tse-tse ,fly1 #adb ,tuat>a1 #bhd ,tubulid5tata1 #fj ,tuco-tuco1 #ahd ,tuff1 ,mioc5e1 #aab1 #abb2 ,santa ,cruz1 #abd ,turke/an1 #dai ,turtles1 #ajb ,tusks1 #ib ,tylopoda1 #ed1 #fj1 #cfb1 #chf1 #dji1 #daj2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjb ,typo!re1 #bdc 7re/oration71 #dhj 7d471 #fcf 7d471 #fci 7d47 ,typo!res1 see ,typo!ria ,typo!ria1 #fj1 #bae1 #cgb1 #dfb1 #dgf2 ,araucanian1 #bbg2 ,casa ,mayor1 #bhb1 #dgi2 ,deseado1 #bfc1 #bfd2 ,p>an1 #bbh2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bae1 #bba1 #dgf2 ,santa ,cruz1 #bdf1 #dgi2 ,t]ti>y1 #bae ,typo!riid1 #dfb1 #dgf ,typo!rium1 #bae1 #bag1 #bfc1 #dfb1 #dgf1 #dgg ,uak>is1 #egh1 #ehe ,u9ta age & /age1 #aa1 #ag1 #aaj1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #cja1 #cci1 #cde1 #cdi1 #cfe1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #chj1 #chc1 #che1 #chf1 #cig-djj1 #dji1 #ddc1 #eai1 #ebg1 #ebi1 #eeg1 #eei1 #egc1 #egi ,u9ta ,mts41 #ajf1 #ajh2 ,plei/oc5e glaci]s1 #aca ,u9tacyon1 #eee1 #eeh ,u9ta!res1 see ,u9ta!riid ,u9ta!riid1 #bhe1 #ddc1 #ddd1 #dde 7skull fig471 #dea1 #deb1 #ded1 #dfe1 #eji1 #ecb2 ,bridg]1 #bfi1 #ddc2 ,wasat*1 #bgi1 #dea2 ,w9d ,riv]1 #bgd1 #dej ,u9ta!rium1 #ea1 #bga 7re/oration71 #ddc1 #ddd1 #dde 7skull fig471 #ddg 7re/oration7 ,ulna1 #hj ,unci=m1 #hc ,uncon=mity1 #cab ,ungual phalanx1 #hd ,ungulata1 #fj1 #eac1 #eaf2 primitive1 #dfj2 ,santa ,cruz1 #dha1 #eaa2 %ort-foot$1 #ddc2 ,s\? ,am]ican indig5\s1 #dfa1 #dff1 #dfi1 #dhf1 #dhi1 #dij1 #ejj1 #eji1 #eaa1 #eac1 #ead2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #beh ,ungulates1 see ,ungulata ,unguligrade1 #ia ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 #ca1 #cb ,upheavals1 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb1 #acc2 ,plioc5e1 #acb ,upp] ,sonoran zone1 #adh1 #afd ,ural1 ,mts41 #ajf2 ,sea1 #ajf1 #ajh ,urocyon1 #afb1 #afe 7fig471 #eag ,urotri*us1 #aec ,ursid1 #eag1 #eah1 #edh ,ursus1 #ij 7pes fig471 #aef 7fig471 #afc1 #eag1 #edi ,uruguay1 #ehe ,v>iant1 #ec ,v>ieties1 #eb1 #ffb ,vegetation1 ,eoc5e1 #aaa2 ,paleoc5e1 #bhc4 7,see also ,flora & ,plants7 ,v]mil+ua1 #ahg1 #eia ,v]tebra1 #fh2 caudal1 #gc 7fig472 c]vical1 #gj 7fig472 dorsal1 #fi 7fig471 #gb 7fig472 lumb>1 #gb1 #gc 7fig472 sacral1 #gc 7fig472 ?oracic1 #fi ,v]tebral column1 #fg ,v]tebrata1 #ee ,vesuvius1 #cj ,vicua1 #agh 7fig47 ,virg9 ,valley /age1 #abg ,viscaccia1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe ,viv]ravus1 #eee1 #eeh ,viv]rid1 #eah1 #eec1 #eed1 #eeh ,viv]r9es1 see ,viv]rid ,vivip>\s mammals1 #ei ,vizca*a1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe ,vizca*as1 ,plei/oc5e1 #bah ,volcanic a%1 #bi2 ,bridg]1 #aaj1 #aae2 ,john ,day1 #aaf2 ,santa ,cruz1 #abd2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #aae ,volcanic du/1 #bi ,volcanic mat]ial1 #f2 ,florissant1 #aba2 ,mioc5e1 #aah2 ,plioc5e1 #abe ,volcanoes1 #acc ,voles1 #ahb ,,voltaire1 #fdf ,vulcanism1 ,mioc5e1 #aah1 #aba2 ,plioc5e1 #abg ,vulpavus1 #eee1 #eeh ,vulpes1 #adi 7fig471 #aej 7fig471 #aeh 7fig471 #eag ,,waag51 ,w41 #ffb ,,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #acf1 #aci1 #aej1 #agj1 #aga ,walnuts1 #ajb ,walruses1 #a1 #de1 #bjg1 #baj1 #eaf2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bg1 #acb ,wapiti1 #ej1 #aea1 #aee 7fig471 #aha1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #daa1 #dab1 #dac ,w>m ,temp]ate region1 #afa ,w>t ,hog1 #cfc ,wasat* age & /age1 #ag1 #ajf1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bhe1 #caf1 #cbe1 #cgj1 #cih1 #djj1 #dea1 #deb1 #dec1 #dee1 #deg1 #dei1 #efj1 #efa1 #eff1 #efh1 #ega1 #egb1 #ehj1 #eha ,wasat* ,mts41 ,plei/oc5e glaci]s1 #aca ,wasat*-,sp>nacian /age1 #aae ,wat] ,hog1 #ahc 7fig471 #ahe1 #bje1 #baa4 7,see also ,capyb>a & ,c>p9*o7 ,weasel1 #eea2 family1 #agd2 ,mioc5e1 #bch2 ,plei/o41 ,s4 ,am]41 #bac2 tribe1 #eah ,weasels1 #ei1 #aeb1 #eag2 ,mioc5e1 #bbi1 #bch2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd1 #bje ,,web]1 ,m41 #dbf ,we/]n ,hemisph]e1 m>supials1 #fbf ,we/ ,indian1 isl&s1 #afd1 #aia2 %ells on ,n4 ,j4 coa/1 #aac2 subregion1 #agj 7map7 ,we/ ,indies1 #ehc2 ,eoc5e1 #aab2 ,oligoc5e1 #aac2 ,paleoc5e1 #ajc2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acd2 zology1 #adf ,:ale1 ,"r1 #dh ,:ales1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #cg1 #de1 #fj1 #gd1 #ddb2 ,mioc5e1 #abc2 ,plei/oc5e1 #acb2 too!d1 #fj2 :alebone1 #fj1 #id ,:ite ,mts41 ,labrador plants (1 #aic ,:ite ,riv] age & /age1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag1 #aac1 #bej1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #cab1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdf1 #cej1 #ceg1 #cfe-cga1 #cge1 #cgg-chj1 #chb-che1 #cid-cif1 #cii1 #dje1 #djg1 #djh1 #ebc1 #ebh-ecj1 #ece1 #ech-eda1 #edf1 #eeg1 #efb1 #efc1 #efe1 #eff1 #fca2 mammals1 #beb 7re/orations7 ,wild-cats1 #ada ,willamette ,valley1 ,mioc5e1 #aae ,,willi/on1 ,s4 ,w41 #cc1 #ehi ,will[s1 #ajb ,w9d ,riv] age & /age1 #ag1 #aji1 #bgc1 #cae1 #caf1 #cbf1 #cci1 #cej1 #djj1 #dej1 #deb1 #def1 #deg1 #dfj1 #efh1 #ega ,w9dw>d ,isl&s1 ,plei/oc5e1 #acd ,w9t]1 de/ruction ( mammals by1 #cf ,wis5t1 #aeb ,wolf1 #cb1 #fb 7skull fig471 #fd 7d471 #fi 7dorsal v]tebra fig471 #gj 7atlas fig471 #ga 7axis fig471 #gb 7c]vical & dorsal v]tebr fig471 #gc 7lumb> & caudal fig471 #gd 7ribs fig471 #ge 7ribs & /]num fig471 #gf 7scapula fig471 #gg 7hip-bone fig471 #gh 7hum]us fig471 #hj 7=e-arm bones fig471 #hb 7manus fig471 #he 7femur fig471 #hf 7femur & patella fig471 #hg 7leg-bones fig471 #hh 7pes fig471 #ib1 #ic 7d5tition fig472 ,fox-l1 #aga 7fig472 ,grey1 #aeb1 #aei 7fig472 ,l>ge-e>$1 #fef2 ,mioc5e1 #ebb 7skull fig472 ,timb]1 #aei 7fig471 #afb ,wolv]5e1 #ada1 #aeb1 #aee 7fig471 #bac1 #bch1 #eag1 #eea2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd ,wolves1 #ei1 #afd1 #agc1 #bdi1 #eag1 #eah1 #ebj1 #ebc1 #ebe1 #ecj2 fox-l1 #agc1 #bab1 #eeb2 ,plei/oc5e1 #bjd2 ,plioc5e1 #bbb2 ,:ite ,riv]1 #bed ,wombats1 #fdj ,wood*uck1 #aeb 7fig471 #aec ,wood-rats1 #ada1 #aec1 #afd ,,wortman1 ,j4 ,l41 #chc1 #che1 #cii1 #egj1 #ega ,xotodon1 #dfb ,yapock1 #fca ,yell[/one ,p>k1 petrifi$ =e/s1 #abb2 ,mioc5e lava1 #abb2 ,plioc5e lava1 #abg ,"y animals1 col\r patt]n (1 #df ,yucatan1 #abh ,yukon ,valley1 ,mioc5e1 #aah ,zadyus1 #aij1 #eib ,zapus1 #aec1 #afj 7fig47 ,zebra1 #dd2 bones (1 #ce2 ,bur*ell's1 #bjj ,zebras1 #bac1 #bib1 #cjh ,zeuglodontia1 #fj ,,zittel1 ,k4 ,,von1 #fja ,zology1 ,exp]im5tal1 #fdh1 #ffc ,zygole/es1 #fbg1 #fda ,zygomatic ar*1 #fe ,! foll[+ pages conta9 adv]tisem5ts ( books by ! same au?or or on k9dr$ subjects4 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,publi%]s #fd-ff ,fif? ,av5ue ,new ,york ,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?or ,an ,introduction to ,geology ,,by ,,william ,b4 ,,scott1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,blair ,pr(essor ( ,geology & ,palontology 9 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,new ,york1 #aijg ,new ,edition1 completely revis$1 #aijg ,late/ ,repr9t1 #aiji ,illu/rat$ #abmo #b4fj ,int5d$ to s]ve z an introduction to ! sci5ce ( ,geology1 bo? = /ud5ts :o desire to pursue ! subject exhau/ively & also = ^? :o wi% m]ely to obta9 an outl9e ( ! me?ods & pr9cipal results ( ! sci5ce4 ,to ! future speciali/ su* a prelim9>y survey ( ! :ole field w af=d ! necess>y ori5tation4 ,to ! non-speciali/ ! graphic pres5tation ( ! outl9es ( ! subject _c fail to prove bo? int]e/+ & in=m+4 ,! book aims to cultivate a prop] sci5tific attitude by tra9+ ! /ud5t to c>efully di/+ui% betwe5 fact & inf]5ce & betwe5 obs]vation & hypo!sis4 ,he is taught to weigh 8 evid5ces c>efully1 & :ile balanc+ probabilities susp5d judgm5t :]e ! data = decision are insuffici5t4 ,! new edition incorporates ! results ( all ! important advances made 9 geological k 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! numb] ( illu/rations has be5 greatly increas$1 ?us add+ to ! admirable cle>ness ( ! text4 ,guide to ! ,/udy ( ,animal ,ecology ,,by ,,*>les ,c4 ,,adams ,associate 9 ,animal ,ecology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois ,clo?1 #abmo #ahc pp4 #a4be net ,?is "w is ! outgr[? ( ! au?or's ef=ts dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s to f9d "s consi/5t & satisfactory work+ plan = h&l+ ! almo/ bewild]+ numb] ( facts ( ecological significance :i* h be5 accumulat+ 9 ! lit]ature ( zology1 biology1 & ! alli$ sci5ces4 ,an ecological po9t ( view is describ$ m fully ?an o!r subjects1 s t ! /ud5t may see ! ne$ ( famili>ity ) ^? te/s or crit]ia by means ( :i* he may be able to det]m9e = himself ecological relations & ! validity ( ecological /udies4 ,! o!r phases are treat$ less fully 9 ! discussions & ) m detail bibliographically1 s t ?is may be a useful s\rce-book4 ,9 fact1 ! v ext5sive & up-to-date bibliography is "o ( ! important features ( ! entire book4 ,! ,age ( ,mammals 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,nor? ,am]ica ,,by ,,h5ry ,,fairfield ,,osborn ,a4,b41 ,,sc4,d4 ,,pr9ceton1 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,tr9ity1 ,,pr9ceton1 ,,columbia1 ,,hon4 ,d4,,sc4 ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity1 ,,hon4 ,,ph4,d4 ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,*ri/iania1 ,,presid5t ,,am]ican ,,museum ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 ,,presid5t ,,new ,,york ,,zo,,logical ,,society ,,illu/rat$ ,,by #bcb ,,half-,,tone ,,& ,,o!r ,,figures1 ,,includ+ ,,num]\s ,,maps1 ,,geological ,,sections1 ,,field ,,views1 ,,& ,,reproductions ,,f ,,photographs ,,( ,,m\nt$ ,,fossil ,,skeletons ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,fam\s ,,re/orations ,,by ,,*>les ,r4 ,,knight4 ,royal #hvo #d4ej net ,c>riage extra 8,! ,age ( ,mammals0 is n writt5 = ! palontologi/ only4 ,no zologi/ int]e/$ 9 mammals1 birds1 fi%es1 or reptiles c fail to f9d x ( value4 ,! geologi/ f9ds "h ! cle>e/ exposition t has be5 giv5 ( ! succession ( geological ev5ts 9 ! mammal-be>+ cont95tal =mations ( ! ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates4 ,! an?ropologi/ f9ds 9 ! clos+ *apt] on ! ,plei/oc5e a key to mo/ ( ! problems :i* confront him z to ! "t ( man's fir/ appe>ance4 ,! botani/ may ref] to x = ! succession & evolution ( flora4 ,to ! g5]al read] x (f]s ! fir/ connect$ acc\nt ( ! hi/ory ( life on ! e>? dur+ ! lat] geological epo*s1 a record embody+ ! v late/ results ( ! active rese>* go+ on 9 ?is direction at ! pres5t "t4 ,9 s f> z sci5ce has succe$$ 9 piec+ toge!r ! fragm5t>y evid5ce ( ! rocks1 ?is volume conta9s glimpses into ! remote pa/ ( ! cont95tal outl9es1 ! climate1 vegetation1 & animal life ( ! epo*s prec$+ ! 8,age ( ,man40 ,! text is supplem5t$ by a v orig9al & sugge/ive s]ies ( illu/rations1 notable among :i* are num]\s half-tone reproductions f ! fam\s re/orations ( ext9ct mammals by ,*>les ,r4 ,knight1 _m ( :i* are publi%$ "h = ! fir/ "t4 ,moreov]1 !re is app5d$ to ! volume an invaluable ,classification ( ! ,mammalia1 :i* gives n only ! sy/ematic position b also ! geologic & geographic di/ribution & ! popul> names ( all ! important g5]a ( mammals1 bo? liv+ & fossil4 ,comm5ts on ,! ,age ( ,mammals 8,/ud5ts ( palontology h await$ impati5tly ! pa/ few ye>s a promis$ "w on ext9ct mammals by ,pr(essor ,osborn4 ,9 8 #8,age ( ,mammals1' expectations h be5 m ?an realiz$40--,s4 ,w4 ,,willi/on1 9 ,sci5ce1 ,feb4 #ag1 #aiaa4 8,dr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn is a great palontologi/2 9 ?is book he has ga!r$ toge!r ! "w ( a life-"t1 & t "w1 besides be+ orig9al & con/ructive1 is also critical & selective4 ,! result is a great book40 8,:ile x is an incomp>able text-book1 a "w ( ref]5ce to ! /ud5t1 &1 no d\bt a fruitful field = ! controv]siali/ ( ! future1 x is a "w :i* c be read ) int]e/ & satisfaction by ! #8g5ial omnivore1' z ,huxley call$ him1 ! g5]al read]40--,! ,field1 ,jan4 #g1 #aiaa4 8,x is 9 ! be/ s5se a s\rce book1 = x gives at fir/ h&1 f ! orig9al mat]ial1 ! ideas ( an ackn[l$g$ ma/] 9 mammalian palontology40 8,x has ! cl>ity & directness ( /yle s welcome1 & r>e1 9 su* a book40--,e4 ,c4 ,,case1 9 ,bullet9 ,am]ican ,geographical ,society1 ,july1 #aiaa4 8,a book ( ! utmo/ value to ! /ud5t & tea*] ( mammalian life & likewise to ! s]i\s read]40--,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 ,feb41 #aiaa4 8,m4 ,osborn 444 devait s'atta*] a n\s prs5t] le tableau aussi complet et aussi fidle que possible des faunes de ,mammifres fossiles qui se sont succd dans l'hmisphre ,nord p5dant l're t]tiaire4 ,et j'ai plaisir dire t\t de suite qu'il y a p>faitem5t russi40--,m4 ,,b\le1 9 ,m\vem5t ,sci5tifique1 #aiaa1 p4 #efi4 8,pr(essor ,osborn has produc$ a book :i* w appeal to ! le>n$ speciali/ & to ! ?\ghtful g5]al read] z well40 8,! "w is well adapt$ to s*ool & college use1 & is abundantly illu/rat$40--,education1 ,bo/on1 ,jan41 #aiaa4 8,"o ( ! mo/ notable books on evolution s9ce ! appe>ance ( ,d>w9's #8,orig9 ( ,species4'0--,=e/ & ,/ream1 ,dec4 #aj1 #aiaj4 8,nejlep s\asn palontolog am]ick1 ,h5ry ,fairfield ,osborn1 vydal n$vno s titulem tuto citovanm znam5it psan\ a pkn vyprav5\ knihu o #8vku ssavc4'0--,f4 ,bay] 9 ,v/nku ,cesk ,akademie csae ,frantika ,josefa pro vdy1 slov5o/ a um54--,ronk ,,xx1 #aiaa4 8,writt5 ) cle>ness & vivacity1 mo/ admirably illu/rat$1 especially by ! #8re/orations' ( ,mr4 ,knight1 & illum9at$ by maps1 ,pr(essor ,osborn builds1 page aft] page1 8 /ory-mosaic4444 ,! read] w soon discov] t he is a brilliant g5]aliz]1 possess$ ( mat]ial ga!r$ f all ar\nd ! globe1 fructify+ 8 k by ! ex]cise ( a con/ructive imag9ation1 & express+ 8 facts & ideas 9 a lit]>y /yle1 cle>1 vigor\s1 & ent]ta9+40--,! ,lit]>y ,dige/1 ,feb4 #d1 #aiaa4 ,! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory ,,edit$ ,,by ,s4 ,f4 ,,h>m]1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,fell[ ( ,k+'s ,college1 ,cambridge2 =m]ly ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,univ]sity ,museum ( ,zology2 ,keep] ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,zology 9 ! ,briti% ,museum 7,natural ,hi/ory7 ,,& ,a4 ,e4 ,,%ipley1 ,m4,a41 ,,hon4 ,sc4,d41 ,pr9ceton1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,ma/] & ,fell[ ( ,*ri/'s ,college1 ,cambridge2 =m]ly ,read] 9 ,zology 9 ! ,univ]sity2 ,*airman ( ,c\ncil ( ,m>9e ,biological ,association ,9 ,t5 ,volumes ,fully ,illu/rat$ ,m$ium #hvo ,gilt ,tops ,ea* ,volume1 #d4ge net ,,cont5ts ,,vol4 ,i4 ,protozoa1 by ,m4 ,h>tog2 ,porif]a1 by ,ig]na ,sollas2 ,coel5t]ata & ,ct5ophora1 by ,s4 ,j4 ,hickson2 ,e*9od]mata1 by ,e4 ,w4 ,mac,bride4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,flatworms & ,mesozoa1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,gamble2 ,nem]t9es1 by ,l4 ,%eldon2 ,?readworms & ,sagitta1 by ,a4 ,e4 ,%ipley2 ,rotif]s1 by ,m4 ,h>tog2 ,poly*aet ,worms1 by ,w4 ,b4 ,b5ham2 ,e>?worms & ,lee*es1 by ,f4 ,e4 ,b$d>d2 ,gephyrea1 etc41 by ,a4 ,e4 ,%ipley2 ,polyzoa1 by ,s4 ,f4 ,h>m]4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,molluscs1 by ,h4 ,a4 ,cooke2 ,rec5t ,bra*iopods1 by ,a4 ,e4 ,%ipley2 ,fossil ,bra*iopods1 by ,f4 ,r4 ,c4 ,re$4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,spid]s1 ,mites1 ,scorpions1 etc41 by ,c4 ,w>burton2 ,trilobites1 etc41 by ,m4 ,laurie2 ,pycnogonids1 by ,d',arcy ,w4 ,?ompson2 ,l+ulatulid & ,t>digrada1 by ,a4 ,e4 ,%ipley2 ,cru/acea1 by ,ge(frey ,smi?4 ,,vol4 ,v4 ,p]ipatus1 by ,a4 ,s$gwick2 ,myriopods1 by ,f4 ,g4 ,s9clair2 ,insects1 ,"p ,i1 by ,d4 ,%>p4 ,,vol4 ,,vi4 ,insects1 ,"p ,,ii1 by ,d4 ,%>p4 ,,vol4 ,,vii4 ,hemi*ordata1 by ,s4 ,f4 ,h>m]2 ,ascidians & ,amphioxus1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,h]dman2 ,fi%es 7exclusive ( sy/ematic acc\nt ( ,teleo/ei71 by ,t4 ,w4 ,bridge2 ,fi%es 7sy/ematic acc\nt ( ,peleo/ei71 by ,g4 ,a4 ,b\lang]4 ,,vol4 ,,viii4 ,amphibia & ,reptiles1 by ,hans ,gad[4 ,,vol4 ,,ix4 ,birds1 by ,a4 ,h4 ,evans4 ,,vol4 ,x4 ,mammalia1 by ,f4 ,e4 ,b$d>d4 ,,:at ,,! ,,critics ,,say ,,( ,,! ,,cambridge ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,new ,york ,ev5+ ,po/4 ,its editors may well be congratulat$ ^u ! completion ( su* an und]tak+1 ^: va/ness & difficulty c be adequately appreciat$ only by ! skill$ zologi/4 ,! /ud5t ( biology :o turns to ?is volume 7,vol4 iv7 w n be disappo9t$ 9 its value z a s]viceable h&book4 ,x is pleasant to obs]ve h[ num]\s1 cle>1 & satisfactory are ! draw+s t illu/rate ! text4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 ,! mo/ conv5i5t & g5]ally useful "w ( ref]5ce on ! subject t has appe>$ 9 ! ,engli% language 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,book ,review ,dige/4 ,! zeal\s /ud5t1 anxi\s to br+ 8 k up to date1 w f9d "h a comp5dium on :i* he c rely4 ,field4 ,! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory s]ies ( volumes is "o ( v great value to all /ud5ts ( biological sci5ce4 ,times4 ,!re are v _m1 n only among educat$ p :o take an int]e/ 9 sci5ce1 b ev5 among speciali/s1 :o w welcome a "w ( reasonable compass & h&y =m conta9+ a tru/wor?y treatm5t ( ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( ,natural ,hi/ory by m5 :o are famili> )1 & compet5t to deal )1 ! late/ results ( sci5tific rese>*4 ,altoge!r1 to judge f ?is fir/ volume1 ! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory promises to fulfil all ! expectations t its prospectus holds out4 ,academy4 ,! editors h aim$ v high1 & !y h succe$$4444 ,well conceiv$1 c>efully cord9at$1 & execut$ ) ! greate/ detail & complet5ess1 ! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory is c]ta9 to rank high among/ ^? gigantic sci5tific works to :i*1 )9 ! la/ half-c5tury or s1 ! lab\rs ( s _m exp]ts1 ea* )\t hope ( m glory ?an falls to a m]e assi/ant1 h contribut$4 ,a!num4 ,! s]ies c]ta9ly ought n to be re/rict$ 9 its circulation to lectur]s & /ud5ts only2 &1 if ! =?com+ volumes rea* ! /&>d ( ! "o "h "u notice1 ! success ( ! ent]prise %\ld be assur$4 ,sci5ce ,gossip4 ,e libr>y1 s*ool1 & college 9 ! c\ntry %\ld possess ?is "w1 :i* is ( ! highe/ educational value4 ,daily ,news 9 a ,review ( ,vol4 ,x4 ,a volume :i*1 = ! int]e/ ( its cont5ts & = its /yle & me?od ( treatm5t1 is n only wor?y ( its pr$ecessors1 b may be reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ successful ( a brilliant s]ies4 ,a ,,great ,,explor]',s ,,/ory ,my ,life ,) ! ,eskimo ,,by ,,vilhj,,lmur ,,/ef,,nsson ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,half-,,tone ,,reproductions ,,( ,,photographs ,,tak5 ,,by ,,! ,,au?or ,,& ,,o!rs ,decorat$ clo?1 #hvo ,a fasc9at+ book ( description & adv5ture has be5 writt5 by ! fam\s travel] & explor]1 :o has pass$ ye>s ( 8 life )9 ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,mr4 ,/efnsson has _h a va/ am\nt ( mat]ial f :i* to draw & he has made 8 selection wisely4 ,he has liv$ ) ! ,eskimo = long p]iods2 he kn[s _! language2 he has subsi/$ on _! food2 he has he>d _! leg5ds2 he has se5 !m 9 _! daily lives z h few explor]s4 ,consequ5tly 8 rem>ks ab\t ?is primitive & matt]-(-fact p are %rewd1 true1 & frequ5tly amus+4 ,! exp]i5ces & tales :i* he rec\nts1 mirror+ ! h>d%ips & ! inspirations ( life 9 a fe>ful b wond]ful c\ntry1 compose a "w q ! mo/ absorb+ on x t has ev] be5 publi%$4