,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,sentence ,,by ,,lillian ,g4 ,,kimball ,,instructor ,,in ,,english1 ,,state ,,normal ,,school1 ,,oshkosh1 ,,wisconsin ,,new ,,york 3 ,,cincinnati 3 ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,copyright1 #aijj ,,by ,,lillian ,g4 ,,kimball ,eng4 ,sentence ,e-,v #bj ,,preface ,it has long seemed to me both unfortunate and wrong that many pupils leave school with no keen delight in the study of ,english grammar1 and with the mistaken idea that it is mainly a study of rules and definitions based upon the forms of mere words4 ,far from this1 it should be from the beginning a study of thought4 ,words should be examined solely from the point of view of their function in the sentence1 the part they play in the communication of thought4 ,always the sentence should be the unit of study1 and it should be looked at1 not primarily as expressing a thought that was once in the mind of its author1 but rather as forever communicating thought to the minds of its readers4 ,for men would neither speak nor write without an audience4 ,their aim is not to get their thought into words for satisfaction to themselves1 but to convey thought by means of words to their fellow-men4 ,therefore it is that in all language study1 in all language teaching1 the governing idea should be1 not expression1 but communication1 of thought4 ,it is now universally conceded that the purposes of grammar study are three2 namely1 and in the order of their importance and their realization1--#a4 to discipline the mind2 #b4 to aid in the interpretation of speech and literature2 #c4 to facilitate the correct expression of thought4 ,it cannot1 then1 be denied that a rational investigation of the structure of ,english sentences is far more important than any other phase of grammar study1 and for three reasons3--#a4 it is a study of thought1 and as such must discipline the mind2 #b4 it trains the student through practice1 which is the most effective way1 to interpret the thought of others2 #c4 by presenting to him the best models for imitation1 it aids him in communicating clearly his own thoughts4 ,believing this1 and knowing from much experience that not until students have examined the structure of sentences in relation to the thought embodied1 do they have any vital or useful knowledge of etymology and syntax1 ,i have long thought that a book was needed which should deal only with the analysis of sentences1 the culminating phase of grammar study1 for which all previous work is a preparation4 ,the book that ,i have prepared is not intended to supplant any text-book in grammar1 but rather to provide for a profitable continuation of grammar study in high schools and normal schools4 ,it is based upon the ,english sentence as it has been written during the present century4 ,no attempt has been made to criticize any form or variation of sentence structure4 ,instead1 sentences are examined as they have been constructed by reputable authors1 with a view to determining the adequacy of their structure to the communication of thought4 ,my highest aim and my sincerest hope have been to present worthy matter in such a way as to require and stimulate good thinking on the part of students1 and to make them marvel and rejoice at the perfect adaptability of the ,english sentence to the noble burden that it bears1 that of communicating thought4 ,l4 ,g4 ,k4 ,,oshkosh1 ,,wis41 ,may1 #aijj4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,the ,proposition #g ,,ii4 ,the ,classification of ,propositions #aa ,,iii4 ,the ,classification of ,sentences according to ,structure #ah ,,iv4 ,the ,classification of ,sentences according to ,form #bc ,v4 ,the ,adjective ,clause #bh ,,vi4 ,the ,analysis of ,simple1 ,partially ,compound1 and ,complex ,sentences #ch ,,vii4 ,the ,substantive ,clause #db ,,viii4 ,analysis of ,sentences containing ,noun ,clauses #ea ,,ix4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,time #ec ,x4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,place #ei ,,xi4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,manner #fb ,,xii4 ,the ,analysis of ,sentences #ff ,,xiii4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,cause #fh ,,xiv4 ,clauses of ,purpose and ,result #gc ,,xv4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,condition #gh ,,xvi4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,concession #hb ,,xvii4 ,the ,adverbial ,clause of ,degree or ,comparison #hg ,,xviii4 ,the ,compound ,sentence #ig ,,xix4 ,the ,conjunction in some of its ,uses #aje ,,xx4 ,the ,infinitive ,phrase #aac ,,xxi4 ,the ,participial ,phrase #abi ,,xxii4 ,the ,gerund #aci ,,xxiii4 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase #adf ,,xxiv4 ,the ,appositive ,phrase #afa ,,xxv4 ,the ,direct ,object #afi ,,xxvi4 ,the ,subjective ,complement #age ,,xxvii4 ,the ,objective ,complement #agi ,,xxviii4 ,the ,indirect ,object #ahh ,,xxix4 ,the ,adverbial ,noun #ahi ,,xxx4 ,peculiar ,modifications #aic ,,xxxi4 ,independent ,elements #bja ,,xxxii4 ,sentence ,modifiers #bji ,,xxxiii4 ,elliptical ,sentences #bad ,,miscellaneous ,,sentences ,,for ,,analysis #bbh ,,index #bda ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,sentence ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,proposition ,in the mind of every human being there are innumerable ideas1 or mental pictures1 gathered from previous experience4 ,whenever we perceive a relation between any two of these ideas1 we form a judgment1 or1 in other words1 have a thought4 ,if we wish to communicate our thought we ordinarily express it in words1 and this verbal expression of a thought we call a sentence4 ,for example1 ,i have an idea of children and an idea of the activity called play2 ,i see a relation between them1 that of agent and thing done2 ,i affirm this relation1 and have the sentence1 ,children play4 ,or ,i detect a relation between flower and whiteness1 and say1 ,the flower is white4 ,or ,i fail to establish such a relation and so deny the former statement by saying1 ,the flower is not white4 ,in each case my sentence serves the great purpose of communicating thought2 and it does this by calling up in the mind of the reader the same combination of ideas that exists in my mind4 ,another name for sentences like those just formed1 is proposition1 a proposition being the expression of one thought4 ,but since a proposition is the statement of a judgment1 it must contain two ideas4 ,one of these1 denoting that of which something is asserted1 we call the subject2 the other1 denoting what is said of the subject1 we call the predicate4 ,the relation between these two ideas cannot always be expressed by means of two words4 ,if we wish to assert a relation between water and freshness1 we must use at least three words1 ,water is fresh2 the word is contains little1 if any1 meaning1 but is necessary for the grammatical expression of the thought4 ,although a proposition must contain at least two ideas1 it may contain any number of them4 ,for example1 ,i may expand the proposition1 ,children play1 by additional ideas1 telling 7#a7 whose children1 7#b7 a characteristic of the children1 7#c7 what they play1 7#d7 where they play1 7#e7 when they play1--,my neighbor's little children play hide and seek in their yard every evening4 ,still ,i have only one proposition1 for the number of propositions in a sentence depends on the number of judgments1 or thoughts1 expressed1--in other words1 on the number of assertions made2 and here there is but one1 that made essentially by the verb play4 ,all sentences1 however1 are not single propositions1 for in building sentences we often go a step further than seeing the relation between ideas1 that is1 we see the relation between thoughts2 and so1 instead of combining mere words1 we combine whole propositions into one sentence4 ,take1 for example1 the two propositions1 ,children play1 and ,children enjoy play4 ,i may see that the second fact is a cause of the first1 and1 by combining the two so as to bring out this relation of cause and effect1 get the sentence1 ,children play because they enjoy it1 wherein ,i substitute the pronouns they and it for the already known words children and play4 ,or take the two propositions1 ,the lion roared1 and ,the hyena laughed4 ,i may wish to tell some one that these two actions were related in time1 occurring simultaneously2 ,i do this by saying1 ,the lion roared and the hyena laughed1 where ,i have one sentence1 but made of two propositions1 because conveying two thoughts4 ,i might put in other thoughts1 telling 7#a7 which lion1 7#b7 why he roared1 7#c7 how long the hyena laughed1--,the lion that was kept in the cage near the door roared because the keeper did not bring his food1 and the hyena laughed till he had set all the animals around him in an uproar4 ,here ,i have one sentence containing five thoughts1 therefore made up of five propositions4 ,however1 it is not with composition1 the building up of sentences1 that we are to concern ourselves1 so much as with an examination into the structure of the finished product4 ,now1 when we study the structure of the human body1 we look upon it first as a symmetrical whole1 then we separate it into its largest1 most distinct members1--the head1 the trunk1 the arms1 the legs4 ,after we have noted the relations of these parts1 we take up each part as a whole and proceed again in the same way4 ,in analyzing sentences we shall pursue the same method4 ,every sentence is a unit just as the body is2 like the body1 too1 it is made up of smaller units4 ,in studying its structure we should first of all find the units which compose the sentence-unit4 ,if the sentence is a single proposition1 the constituent units are1 of course1 the subject and the predicate4 ,but if the sentence is a combination of propositions1 as is oftener the case1 then its chief units are these propositions4 ,therefore1 as a foundation for the analysis of sentences1 we must be able to determine readily how many propositions a given sentence contains4 ,our first exercise will be devoted to this end4 ,exercise #a ,resolve the following sentences into single propositions4 ,remember that the number of propositions depends on the number of assertions made4 #a4 ,there are thousands of years between the stone hatchet and the machine shop4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #b4 ,all along the ,atlantic1 the country is bordered by a broad tract1 called the tierra caliente1 or hot region1 which has the usual high temperature of equinoctial lands4--,prescott4 #c4 ,times grew worse and worse with ,rip ,van ,winkle as years of matrimony rolled on2 a tart temper never mellows with age1 and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use4--,irving4 #d4 ,every thing around me wore that happy look which makes the heart glad4--,longfellow4 #e4 ,i came from ,india as a child1 and our ship touched at an island on the way home1 where my black servant took me a long walk over rocks and hills1 until we reached a garden where we saw a man walking4--,thackeray4 #f4 ,as a painter may draw a cloud so that we recognize its general truth1 though the boundaries of real clouds never remain the same for two minutes together1 so1 amid the changes of feature and complexion1 brought about by commingling of race1 there still remains a certain cast of physiognomy1 which points back to some one ancestor of marked and peculiar character4--,lowell4 #g4 ,our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the face1 until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened4--,emerson4 #h4 ,the burning sun of ,syria had not yet attained its highest point in the horizon1 when a knight of the ,red ,cross1 who had left his distant northern home and joined the host of the ,crusaders in ,palestine1 was pacing slowly along the sandy deserts which lie in the vicinity of the ,dead ,sea1 where the waves of the ,jordan pour themselves into an inland sea from which there is no discharge of waters4--,scott4 #i4 ,through the black ,tartar tents he passed which stood1 ,clustering like bee hives on the low1 flat strand ,of ,oxus1 where the summer floods o'erflow ,when the sun melts the snow in high ,pamere4 --,m4 ,arnold4 #aj4 ,on a fine1 breezy forenoon ,i am audaciously skeptical1 but1 as twilight sets in1 my credulity grows steadily1 till it becomes equal to anything that could be desired4--,de ,quincey4 #aa4 ,although it was now well on towards dark and the sun was down an hour or so1 ,i could see the robbers' road before me in a trough of the winding hills1 where the brook plowed down from the higher barrows1 and the coving banks were roofed with furze4--,blackmore4 #ab4 ,in one place the poet describes a congregation gathered to listen to a preacher in a great unillumined cathedral at night4--,wm4 ,james4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,propositions ,how ,propositions differ in ,nature4--,in studying the human body we cannot help seeing that all the prominent members are not equally important4 ,some could exist independently of others1 while some are joined directly to a more important part1 and1 if separated from it1 would have no use or life4 ,so1 in studying a sentence1 we notice that all the propositions are not equal in rank4 ,some are complete sentences in themselves2 others would not make sense if they were obliged to stand alone4 ,hence there arise two classes of propositions1--principal and subordinate1 or independent and dependent4 ,in every sentence there is at least one primary thought which it is the author's main purpose to communicate1 and this will always be found in the principal proposition4 ,there may be modifying circumstances of time1 place1 manner1 condition1 etc41 which he wishes to embody in his sentence1 but he brings these in by means of words and phrases1 which are elements of the principal proposition1 or else1 if the language affords no adequate words and phrases1 by means of subordinate propositions4 ,in the following sentence from ,carlyle1--8,how true is that old fable of the ,sphinx1 who sat by the wayside propounding her riddle to the passengers10 there are plainly two propositions4 ,it is also plain that the thought which the author wished most to convey is this1--,the old fable of the ,sphinx is true4 ,in fact1 it was the prime importance of this thought that led him to put it in the principal proposition4 ,he chose to add the thought expressed in the second proposition1 but he showed its minor importance by constructing the proposition so that it serves as a mere modifier of the word ,sphinx4 ,from a grammatical point of view the first proposition is complete1--it could stand alone and make sense2 hence it is called independent4 ,on the other hand1 the second proposition1 if separated from the first1 would lose its meaning2 it is therefore said to be dependent4 ,consider these sentences3 #a4 ,the ,mohawk hardly feels the scalping-knife while he shouts his death song4--,macaulay4 #b4 ,no success is worthy of the name unless it is won by honest industry and a brave breasting of the waves of fortune4--,huxley4 #c4 ,that country is the fairest which is inhabited by the noblest minds4--,emerson4 ,if we separate each of these sentences into its two propositions and apply the test1--which proposition is by itself grammatically complete8 we shall see that the first proposition in each sentence is independent and the second dependent4 ,but it may be said that in each case the dependent proposition is necessary for the truth of the sentence1 that its thought must have been in the author's mind not as an addition to the main thought but as something indispensable4 ,this is perfectly true2 logically the truth of the independent proposition does depend on the thought in the dependent proposition1 but grammatically the dependence is the other way4 ,notice that in each of these sentences the second proposition denotes a modifying circumstance of the main thought1 and therefore takes rank in the sentence merely as an idea1--telling in the first sentence when the ,mohawk hardly feels the scalping knife1 in the second under what condition success is unworthy1 in the third which country is the fairest4 ,now1 had the author so chosen1 these modifications might all have been expressed by phrases1 though possibly not so clearly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,tests for ,independent and ,dependent ,propositions4--,from the foregoing we may deduce the following tests for propositions4 #a4 ,for the independent proposition4--7a7 ,it contains the main thought that the author wished to convey4 7b7 ,it is so expressed that it is grammatically complete when standing alone4 #b4 ,for the dependent proposition4--7a7 ,it expresses a modifying thought of some word or words in the independent proposition4 7b7 ,it may be changed to a simpler element1 a word or phrase1 provided there is a word or phrase in the language to express the same meaning4 7c7 ,it is not so expressed that it would make sense standing alone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,function of the ,dependent ,proposition4--,from what has already been said it may be inferred that the dependent proposition is employed 7#a7 for variety1 in the place of a word or phrase1 7#b7 for the adequate expression of what we have no word or phrase capable of saying4 ,but this is not all4 ,every dependent proposition can be changed into an independent proposition1 and so might have been brought into the sentence in that form4 ,for example1-- ,the ,mohawk shouts his death song1 and he hardly feels the scalping knife4 ,that country is inhabited by the noblest minds and it is the fairest4 ,success should be won by honest industry and a brave breasting of the waves of fortune1 and no other success is worthy of the name4 ,by comparing these recasted sentences with the originals we perceive why the authors employed the dependent proposition2 by means of it they have shown what the recasted sentences do not show--7#a7 what is the main thought and what is subordinate2 7#b7 the special relation existing between the principal and the subordinate thought4 ,this second point is very important4 ,if we had to tell a story in sentences of one proposition each1 how difficult it would be to give the reader an idea of the various relations between these propositions4 ,besides1 how tedious is a succession of single propositions4 ,compare1 for instance1 the following six sentences with the one smooth1 compact1 clear sentence into which they may be combined4 ,the jay hoards up nuts for winter use4 ,this is a general belief among country people4 ,this belief has probably some foundation in fact4 ,where can the jay safely place his stores8 ,one is at a loss to know this4 ,his stores are apt to be pilfered by the mice and squirrels4 ,the general belief among country people that the jay hoards up nuts for winter use has probably some foundation in fact1 though one is at a loss to know where he could place his stores so that they would not be pilfered by the mice and squirrels4--,burroughs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,combination of ,independent ,propositions4--,this comes about when we wish to put related thoughts into one sentence in such a way as to show that they are equally important1 and that1 although they are related1 neither is to be considered as denoting some modifying circumstance of any idea in the other4 ,for example1-- #a4 ,there must be work done by the arms or none of us could live4--,ruskin4 #b4 ,misfortune could not subdue him and prosperity could not spoil him4--,dickens4 #c4 ,you may talk of the tyranny of ,nero and ,tiberius2 but the real tyranny is the tyranny of your next door neighbor4--,bagehot4 ,notice that the connectives in these sentences1 while indicating a relation between the propositions as wholes1 belong to one proposition no more than to the other1 hence are not a grammatical part of either2 also that neither proposition is a modifier of any idea in the other4 ,it has been well said that often when we combine two independent propositions into one sentence1 we are really conveying three thoughts1--the thought in each proposition and the thought suggested by the relation between the two propositions4 ,in sentence #c just quoted1 we have not only the two propositions expressed1 but two more implied2 viz41 the tyranny of ,nero and ,tiberius is not the real tyranny2 and1 the real tyranny is not talked about4 ,we are now ready to take the second step in studying the structure of a given sentence1 that is1 to determine whether its component propositions are independent or dependent4 ,exercise #b ,select each proposition in the following sentences4 ,state whether it is independent or dependent1 and give the grounds for your decision4 #a4 ,children play the part in the household which the king's jester1 who very often had a mighty long head under his cap and bells1 used to play for a monarch4--,holmes4 #b4 ,already ,i breathed gales of the everlasting mountains1 that to my feelings blew from the garden of ,paradise4--,de ,quincey4 #c4 ,the waterfall is comparatively narrow at the top of the precipice2 but it widens as it descends1 and curves a little as it widens1 so that it shapes itself1 before it reaches the first bowl of granite1 into the charming figure of the comet that glowed on our sky some years ago4--,king4 #d4 ,he1 who1 in an enlightened and literary society1 aspires to be a great poet1 must first become a little child4--,macaulay4 #e4 ,one has only to sit down in the woods or fields1 or by the shore of the river or lake1 and nearly everything of interest will come round to him1--the birds1 the animals1 the insects1--and presently1 after his eye has got accustomed to the place and to the light and shade1 he will probably see some plant or flower that he had sought in vain for1 and that is a pleasant surprise to him4--,burroughs4 #f4 ,if their lantern had been in its place1 they would scarce have failed to descry me1 unless indeed ,i had seen the gleam before ,i turned the corner4--,blackmore4 #g4 ,the whole town knew and kindly regarded ,miss ,betsey ,barker's ,alderney2 therefore great was the sympathy and regret when1 in an unguarded moment1 the poor cow tumbled into a lime-pit4--,mrs4 ,gaskell4 #h4 ,that was the grandest funeral ,that ever passed on earth1 ,but no one heard the tramping1 ,or saw the train go forth4 #i4 ,there were rows of houses which he had never seen before1 and those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared4--,irving4 #aj4 ,in the morning ,i arose with the lark1 and at night ,i slept where sunset overtook me4--,longfellow4 #aa4 ,kala ,nag1 which means ,black ,snake1 had served the ,indian ,government in every way that an elephant could serve it for forty-seven years4--,kipling4 #ab4 ,your dull unhurried worker gets over a great deal of ground because he never goes backward or breaks down4--,wm4 ,james4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,sentences ,,according ,,to ,,structure ,we have seen that a sentence may consist of one proposition or of several1 and that all its propositions may be independent or one or more of them may be dependent4 ,this freedom of combination gives rise to three distinct types of sentences1 classified according to the number and the kind of propositions they contain4 ,these are simple1 complex1 and compound4 #a4 ,a simple sentence is one that consists of one independent proposition4--8,lightness of touch is the crowning test of power40--,higginson4 #b4 ,a complex sentence is one that contains at least one dependent proposition4 ,it usually contains a complete independent proposition also1 and it may contain any number of dependent propositions4 7a7 ,with the independent proposition complete1--8,what inspiration gilds his features as he descends the mount with the ,tables in his hand40--,lord4 7b7 ,with the independent proposition incomplete because the dependent proposition is its subject4--8,that ,chaucer1 being at ,milan1 should not have found occasion to ride across so far as ,padua for the sake of seeing the most famous literary man of the day1 is incredible40--,lowell4 #c4 ,a compound sentence is one that contains at least two independent propositions4 ,it may also contain one or more dependent propositions4 ,in that case it is often called complex-compound4 7a7 ,compound sentence1--8,it is a strange tale1 but it hath the recommendation of brevity40--,jerrold4 7b7 ,complex-compound4--8,times of heroism are generally times of terror1 but the day never shines in which this element may not work40--,emerson4 ,difficulty in ,classifying ,sentences4--,it is sometimes difficult for a beginner to determine whether a sentence is complex or compound1 that is1 whether a certain one of its propositions is independent or dependent4 ,take1 for instance1 two such sentences as the following3 8,the ground is wet this morning because it rained last night02 and1 8,the ground is wet this morning1 hence it rained last night40 ,out of each of these expressions we get a statement of cause and effect1 but the two sentences are not therefore alike1 for a sentence is to be considered not only logically but grammatically1 before we can decide what kind it is4 ,it is clear that in each sentence the first proposition is independent1 so we shall examine only the second4 ,now1 in the first sentence the second proposition is intended to tell why the ground is wet1 just as the words this morning tell when it is wet4 ,why a certain state exists may be told by a phrase as well as by a proposition1 because it is only a modifying circumstance4 ,it might be told here by the prepositional phrase from last night's rain4 ,if this second proposition1 then1 is put into the sentence merely to tell something about some part of the independent proposition1 it is clearly subordinate1 and therefore dependent4 ,in the second sentence the second proposition does not express any modification of any idea in the first proposition4 ,it states a conclusion drawn from the fact stated in the first proposition1 and in the author's mind the conclusion is of equal importance with the fact that supports it4 ,we may even supply the conjunction and before hence1 which shows that the two propositions are cordinate1 so if one is independent the other must be4 ,it may be said that if the conjunction hence is taken as a part of the following proposition1 the proposition cannot stand alone any more than can the proposition introduced by because4 ,but because must be taken as a part of its proposition because it indicates the special modifying circumstance--not time1 or place1 but cause--which the author intended that proposition to denote1 whereas hence is not a part of the following proposition because that proposition is not intended1 as we have shown1 to be a modifier of any part of the preceding proposition1 but a conclusion drawn from the whole of it4 ,because1 indicating subordination is a subordinating conjunction and always a part of the proposition it introduces4 ,hence1 indicating equality1 or grammatical cordination1 is a cordinating conjunction and never a part of the proposition following it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,partially ,compound ,sentence4--,since there are three well defined types of sentences1 it is natural that there should be forms lying in between any two of these types and partaking of the nature of both4 ,one of these forms1 the complex-compound sentence1 we have already spoken of4 ,another form is found in the following sentence1--8,the diseases1 the elements1 fortune1 gravity1 lightning1 respect no persons40--,emerson4 ,here there are several subjects but only one assertion made1 hence only one proposition4 ,the sentence resembles both the compound sentence and the simple sentence1 but is1 strictly speaking1 neither one4 ,it is called partially compound1 and may be considered a fifth kind of sentence4 ,sometimes it contains only one subject but two or more predicates1--8,he shook his head1 shouldered the rusty firelock1 and1 with a heart full of trouble and anxiety1 turned his steps homeward40--,irving4 ,exercise #c ,classify the following sentences according to structure1 giving in each case the grounds for your decision4 #a4 ,i could never fathom how a man dares to lift up his voice to preach in a cathedral4--,stevenson4 #b4 ,great feelings hath she of her own1 ,which lesser souls may never know2 ,god giveth them to her alone1 ,and sweet they are as any tone ,wherewith the wind may choose to blow4--,lowell4 #c4 ,when you emerge from the portals of ,st4 ,mark's1 you enter upon spaces of such sunny length and breadth1 set round with such exquisite architecture that it makes you glad to be living in this world4--,howells4 #d4 ,education1 to accomplish the ends of good government1 should be universally diffused4--,webster4 #e4 ,if a country finds itself wretched1 sure enough that country has been misguided4--,carlyle4 #f4 ,these winds in the winter season frequently freshen into tempests1 and1 sweeping down the ,atlantic coast and the winding ,gulf of ,mexico1 burst with the fury of a hurricane on its unprotected shores1 and on the neighboring ,west ,india islands4--,prescott4 #g4 ,the ,puritan prostrated himself in the dust before his ,maker2 but he set his foot on the neck of his king4--,macaulay4 #h4 ,you get entangled in another man's mind1 even as you lose yourself in another man's grounds4--,lamb4 #i4 ,not what we think1 but what we do1 ,makes saints of us4 --,alice ,cary4 #aj4 ,he reeled1 and staggering back sank to the ground2 ,and then the gloom dispersed1 and the wind fell1 ,and the bright sun broke forth1 and melted all ,the cloud4 --,m4 ,arnold4 #aa4 ,only the learned1 who were very few1 could read ,latin2 hence there came to be great ignorance of the ,bible1 and all sorts of superstitions and false beliefs took possession of the people1 and the ,bible came to be almost a forgotten and unused book4--,munger4 #ab4 ,wherever the ,anglo-,saxon race goes1 there law1 industry1 and safety for life and property are certain to arise4--,dickens4 #ac4 ,the islands of the lagoons seemed to rise and sink with the light palpitations of the waves like pictures on the undulating fields of banners4--,howells4 #ad4 ,the heights by great men reached and kept ,were not attained by sudden flight1 ,but they1 while their companions slept1 ,were toiling upward in the night4 --,longfellow4 #ae4 ,sweet funeral bells from some incalculable distance1 wailing over the dead that die before the dawn1 awakened me as ,i slept in a boat moored to some familiar shore4--,de ,quincey4 #af4 ,terror1 not love1 was the spring of education with the ,aztecs4--,prescott4 #ag4 ,as night set in1 the wind whistled in a spiteful1 falsetto key1 and the rain lashed the old tavern as if it were a balky horse that refused to move on4--,aldrich4 #ah4 ,feudalism was an institution of the ,middle ,ages1 which grew out of the miseries and robberies that succeeded the fall of the ,roman ,empire4--,lord4 #ai4 ,tennyson delights to sing of heroic deeds and to celebrate noble souls4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,sentences ,,according ,,to ,,form ,we have classified sentences according to their structure as simple1 complex1 compound1 partially compound1 and complex-compound4 ,there is another classification made on the basis of form1 which gives us three kinds of sentences1--declarative1 interrogative1 imperative4 ,these three forms arise from the fact that there are three modes of communicating thought2 viz41 by assertion1 by question1 by command4 ,the ,declarative ,sentence4--,a declarative sentence is one that states or declares something1--8,aunt ,celia has an intense desire to improve my mind40--,mrs4 ,wiggin4 ,this is the commonest kind of sentence1 especially in books1 for it is the business of an author to inform his readers of his own thoughts1 not to inquire after theirs4 ,it is the style of sentence best fitted for relating events1 describing objects1 or making clear any difficult subject4 ,its order is usually the natural one1 first the subject and then the predicate4 ,variations from this order will be taken up as they present themselves in connection with different sentence-elements4 ,the ,interrogative ,sentence4--,an interrogative sentence is one that asks a question1--8,who now reads the ancient authors80--,f4 ,harrison4 ,this kind of sentence is used often in conversation1 both oral and written4 ,it is also common in addresses1 such as sermons and lectures1 where the speaker asks questions of his audience1 not for the purpose of getting an answer1 but that he may make a more direct appeal to them4 ,in books we often meet such an interrogative sentence as this1--8,what courage can withstand the ever-during and all-besetting terrors of a woman's tongue80--,irving4 ,the purpose of this sentence is not to inquire1 to ask a question of anybody1 but to give emphatic expression to a thought4 ,it is a rhetorical device for making an assertion forcible4 ,the author of the sentence quoted was so positive of the truth of his thought that1 instead of declaring it1 he put it in the form of a question1 meaning1 however1--8,there is no courage that can withstand1 etc40 ,interrogative sentences are of two kinds3 #a4 ,those that can be answered by yes or no1--8,can a man weigh off and value the glories of dawn against the darkness of hurricane80--,de ,quincey4 ,these sentences put in question the whole thought1 and are usually in the inverted order1 the auxiliary of the predicate verb coming before the subject4 #b4 ,those that cannot be answered by yes or no1--8,why should the trees be so lovely in ,japan80--,hearn4 ,these sentences put in question only one point1 either the subject1 the object1 an attribute of the subject or object1 or some circumstance of time1 manner1 place1 cause1 etc4 ,they usually begin with an interrogative word1 such as the pronouns who1 which1 what1 or the adverbs how1 when1 why1 where4 ,interrogative sentences have sometimes the same order and arrangement of words as declarative sentences4 ,it is only by hearing them spoken or noting their punctuation that we know they are interrogative2 for example1 8,scrooge knew he was dead80--,dickens4 ,this is equivalent to--8,did ,scrooge know that he was dead80 ,before analyzing an interrogative sentence1 its order1 if inverted1 should be changed to that of the declarative sentence4 ,motley's question1--8,when did one man ever civilize a people80 becomes for analysis1--8,one man did ever civilize a people when80 ,notice that the time of an action is the point in question here1 and the desired answer will be this very same sentence with only two changes1 the omission of ever and the substitution of a word or phrase signifying a definite time1 for the word when4 ,the ,imperative ,sentence4--,an imperative sentence is one that conveys a command1--8,tell me why you have brought me to this place40--,caine4 ,the command is frequently so mild that it becomes more a request or piece of advice1--8,speak as you think1 be what you are1 pay your debts of all kinds40--,emerson4 ,sometimes it is even an entreaty1--8,give us this day our daily bread40 ,a very common form of the imperative sentence is that introduced by the imperative word let1--8,let the dessert be served and the fruit brought40 ,this generally expresses more of a wish than a command4 ,the same idea is brought out in such a sentence as the following1--8,come1 sit we down and talk40 ,here the present subjunctive sit is employed4 ,both of these sentence-forms may be considered as substitutes for the first and third person imperative1 which is lacking in ,english4 ,in imperative sentences we use the imperative mood of the verb and so usually dispense with the subject1 the verb becoming thus the first word in the sentence4 ,for analysis the subject is to be supplied4 ,it is always a personal pronoun of the second person1 you1 thou1 or ye4 ,the verb may be a simple imperative1 as go2 an emphatic imperative1 do go2 or a progressive imperative1 be going1 or do be going4 ,the ,exclamative ,sentence4--,any one of the three forms of sentences may become exclamative by mode of utterance1 but the exclamative sentence does not communicate thought in a way different from the other three sentences1 nor is it different in form1 hence it should not be considered a fourth kind of sentence4 ,a declarative sentence made exclamative4--8,alas6 the silence which was then settling on that aged ear was an everlasting silence60--,de ,quincey4 ,an interrogative sentence made exclamative4--8,who could have imagined the whirlwind of passion that was going on within me as ,i reclined there60--,jefferies4 ,an imperative sentence made exclamative4--8,sit down1 all of you1 and listen to me60--,lewis ,carroll4 ,exercise #d4 ,classify the following sentences both as to structure and as to form4 ,a sentence compound in structure may have members different in form1 that is1 one member may be declarative and another interrogative4 #a4 ,a wide-spreading1 hopeful disposition is your only true umbrella in this vale of tears4--,aldrich4 #b4 ,what is it to be a gentleman8 ,is it to have lofty aims1 to lead a pure life1 to keep your honor virgin2 to have the esteem of your fellow citizens1 and the love of your fireside2 to bear good fortune meekly2 to suffer evil with constancy2 and through evil or good to maintain truth always8--,thackeray4 #c4 ,stay1 stay with us--rest1 thou art weary and worn4--,campbell4 #d4 ,it is so tedious to live only in one circle and have only a genteel acquaintance4--,higginson4 #e4 ,take ,winter as you find him1 and he turns out to be a thoroughly honest fellow with no nonsense in him4--,lowell4 #f4 ,in a word1 if the world were actually all civilized1 wouldn't it be too weak even to ripen8--,warner4 #g4 ,who blows to-day such a ringing trumpet-call to the study of language as ,luther blew8--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #h4 ,with what interest do we look upon any relic of early human history6--,agassiz4 #i4 ,do not delude yourself with the idea that you can practice punctuality by and by1 when the necessity of it will be more cogent4 #aj4 ,boy as ,i am1 ,i have seen battles too-- ,have waded foremost in their bloody waves1 ,and heard their hollow roar of dying men2 ,but never was my heart thus touched before4 ,are they from ,heaven1 these softenings of the heart8 ,o thou old warrior1 let us yield to ,heaven4 ,come1 plant we here in earth our angry spears1 ,and make a truce1 and sit upon this sand1 ,and pledge each other in red wine1 like friends1 ,and thou shalt talk to me of ,rustum's deeds4 --,m4 ,arnold4 #aa4 ,whither can ,i take wing from the oppression of human faces8--,lamb4 #ab4 ,but the third sister1 who is also the youngest--,hush6 whisper whilst we talk of her6--,de ,quincey4 #ac4 ,but after all what religion knits people so closely as a common sport8--,stevenson4 #ad4 ,shut now the volume of history and tell me1 on any principle of human probability1 what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers8--,everett4 #ae4 ,the self-made man is the funniest windbag after all6--,stevenson4 #af4 ,there6 if the trout has a right to his grasshopper1 have ,i not a right to the trout6--,beecher4 #ag4 ,let us trace a river to its source4--,tyndall4 #ah4 ,go face the fire at sea1 or the cholera in your friend's house1 or the burglar in your own1 or what danger lies in the way of duty1 knowing you are guarded by the cherubim of ,destiny4--,emerson4 #ai4 ,oh1 child of ,france6 shepherdess1 peasant girl6 trodden under foot by all around thee1 how ,i honor thy flashing intellect1 quick as ,god's lightning and true as ,god's lightning to its mark1 that ran before ,france and laggard ,europe by many a century1 confounding the malice of the ensnarer1 and making dumb the oracles of falsehood6--,de ,quincey4 #bj4 ,who could guess ,if ever more should meet those mutual eyes1 ,since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise8 --,byron4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,adjective ,,clause ,function4--,a common form of the dependent proposition is the adjective clause1 so called not because it is equivalent to an adjective1 but because it performs the office of an adjective1 that is1 modifies a substantive4 ,it is true that some adjective clauses may be changed to adjectives1 participles1 or prepositional phrases1 but there are many more whose meaning cannot be conveyed by any adjective1 participle1 or phrase at our command4 ,for example1 in this sentence from ,macaulay1--8,in climates where wine is a rarity1 intemperance abounds10 there is no equivalent simpler adjective element into which the clause could be changed4 ,moreover1 a clause gives more dignity and importance to the thought conveyed by it than a shorter adjective element gives4 ,often1 too1 a sentence loses in definiteness by the abridgment of an adjective clause4 ,for example1 the sentence1--8,the statue that was made of marble pleased me most10 may be changed to1--8,the marble statue pleased me most40 ,but1 whereas the first sentence means that the marble statue pleased me more than the other statues1 the second may mean either the same or that the statue pleased me more than some other objects1 not statues4 ,in other words1 it is clear that the clause is restrictive1 while in the abridged sentence it is impossible to decide whether marble is used to restrict or to describe4 ,another advantage of the clause is1 that it does not require to be so near the word that it modifies as does an adjective or a participle4 ,take the following sentence1--8,no act of oppression has ever been imputed to him which has not a parallel in the annals of the ,tudors40--,macaulay4 ,here the clause is separated from act by the entire predicate of the principal proposition4 ,classification4--,there are two kinds of adjective clauses1 according to the purpose for which they are used in the sentence4 #a4 ,the restrictive adjective clause4--,this is one which restricts1 or narrows1 the application of the noun it modifies to some particular individual or class4--8,he who never changed any of his opinions never corrected any of his mistakes40--,hall4 ,here the clause points out the particular individual designated by the pronoun he4 ,a restrictive clause is doubly expressive2--it says one thing directly and another by implication4 ,in the sentence quoted the clause implies that there are people who do change their opinions4 ,usually the restrictive clause is near the word it modifies1 is not set off by a comma1 and is introduced by the relative pronoun that1 or a conjunctive adverb1 or such a phrase as in which1 by which1 etc4 ,no adjective clause1 however1 should be tested by any or even all of these accidents1 but rather solely by the purpose for which the author used it4 #b4 ,the unrestrictive adjective clause4--,this is one that merely adds a thought to some idea already expressed4 ,the additional thought is often valuable1 but it is never necessary4--8,the window of the little parlor looked down upon the water1 which had made friends with its painted ceiling1 and bestowed tremulous golden smiles upon it when the sun shone40--,howells4 ,the clause here is evidently not used to point out which water is meant1 but to tell something further about the water1 something unnecessary to the truth of the sentence1 but valuable in giving the reader a beautiful picture4 ,such a clause is sometimes merely a definition or expansion of a term already used2 for example1 8,style1 which is the peculiar manner in which a writer expresses his thoughts1 depends to some extent upon the age in which he lives40 ,introductory ,word4--,the adjective clause1 being a dependent proposition and modifying a substantive1 needs some word to indicate its subordination and join it to its substantive4 ,this word may be several parts of speech4 #a4 ,a relative pronoun1--who1 which1 that4 ,this pronoun1 besides serving as a connective1 is a necessary element of the clause4 ,it may be-- 7a7 ,subject of the verb1--8,the nature of his subject compelled him to use many words that would have made ,quintilian stare and gasp40--,macaulay4 7b7 ,direct object of a verb1--8,so ,i had arrived in ,venice1 and ,i had felt the influence of that complex spell which she lays upon the stranger40--,howells4 7c7 ,indirect object of a verb1--8,we must be as courteous to a man as we are to a picture1 which we are willing to give the advantage of a good light40--,emerson4 7d7 ,object of a preposition1--8,other men are lenses through which we read our own minds40--,emerson4 7e7 ,subjective complement1--8,he will never be the hero that his brother was40 7f7 ,possessive modifier1--8,its members are inflexible men1 whose ability has been as frequently manifested as their patriotism40--,howells4 ,,note4--,to ascertain the use of a relative pronoun in a clause1 substitute the antecedent for the pronoun1 and observe how the antecedent is used4 ,sometimes this substitution requires a slight change in the arrangement of the words of the clause4 ,for example1 in 7e7 above1 the clause that his brother was becomes his brother was hero4 ,that1 when used as object of a preposition1 must precede the preposition2 as1 8,have you ever heard the ,lady--the one that ,i sit next to at the table--say anything about me80--,holmes4 ,that is frequently omitted when object of a verb or preposition2 as1 8,one of the shop windows he paused before was that of a second-hand book-shop40--,george ,eliot4 ,as and but are sometimes used as relative pronouns2 the former after such1 same1 as many1 and a few other expressions1 the latter after an interrogative or negative antecedent1 and as an equivalent of the relative that plus not2 as1 8,there is nothing born but has to die40 ,the relative pronoun as may be-- 7a7 ,subject of a verb1--8,i went up from the cabin followed by as many as could mount the gangway40 7b7 ,object of a verb1--8,chaucer has left us such a picture of contemporary life as no man ever painted40--,lowell4 7c7 ,object of a preposition1--8,he was such a schoolboy as a discerning master delights in40--,mrs4 ,ward4 7d7 ,subjective complement1--8,i shall probably never see just such another day as yesterday was40--,burroughs4 ,,notes4--#a4 ,when as introduces an adjective clause1 the verb of the clause is frequently omitted2 as1 8,their military code bore the same stern features as their other laws 7bore740--,prescott4 #b4 ,the use of the relative pronoun as after as many has been extended so that we find it after as few1 as much1 as little2 as1 8,she was done for and bought for ten pounds by the landlord of the ,drummond ,arms1 ,crieff1 who had been taking as much money out of her1 and putting as little corn into her1 as was compatible with life40--,dr4 ,john ,brown4 #c4 ,the word such1 which usually precedes a noun modified by an as-clause1 may follow the noun instead2 as1 8,the walls did not flow or subside to the valley in charming curve-lines1 such as ,i have seen in the wildest passes of the ,new ,england mountains40--,king4 ,instead of transposing such1 which would alter the meaning slightly1 we may say that it is a pronominal in apposition with curve-lines and modified by the restrictive adjective clause as ,i have seen1 etc4 #b4 ,a conjunctive adverb4--,this is equivalent to a phrase consisting of a preposition and a relative pronoun1 and is used interchangeably with such a phrase4 ,its function in the clause is the same as that of the phrase1 that is1 it modifies the verb4 ,the commonest of these adverbs are when 7 in which or on which71 where 7 in which or on which71 whither 7 toward which71 whence 7 from which74 ,others less used are wherein1 whereon1 whereof1 wherethrough1 wherefrom1 wherewith1 whereupon1 wherefore1 whereby1 whereat4 ,for example1-- ,our works are the mirrors wherein the spirit first sees its natural lineaments4--,carlyle4 ,some day you may reach that time when a man lives in greater part for memory and by memory4--,lushington4 ,yet all experience is an arch wherethrough ,gleams that untraveled world whose margin fades ,forever and forever when ,i move4--,tennyson4 #c4 ,the subordinating conjunction that4--,this is often used to introduce restrictive clauses modifying a word denoting time4 ,it is equivalent to a phrase like in which2 for example1 8,at last the season comes that the sixtieth minute is due40 ,this connective is sometimes used instead of why after the word reason4 ,it is frequently omitted2 as1 8,the instant he understood my meaning1 he obeyed40 ,what the ,adjective ,clause modifies4--,the adjective clause may modify a noun used in any relation1 a personal pronoun1 a pronominal adjective1 or any other substantive4 ,sometimes1 instead of modifying any single word1 it modifies the thought expressed by the whole of the preceding sentence1 or by a portion of it4 ,in such a case the clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which4 ,for example1 8,they had comported themselves with such singular wisdom and propriety that they were never either heard or talked of1--which1 next to being universally applauded1 should be the object of ambition of all ages1 magistrates1 and rulers40--,irving4 ,here the clause modifies that they were never either heard or talked of4 ,in the sentence1--8,his body was of an oblong form1 particularly capacious at bottom2 which was wisely ordered by ,providence1 seeing that he was a man of sedentary habits1 and very averse to the idle labor of walking10 the clause modifies all of the sentence preceding it4 ,sometimes in sentences of this kind the thought to be modified by the adjective clause is summed up in one noun which is used as a part of the clause1 while the relative pronoun which becomes a relative adjective modifying the noun2 as1 8,in #ahce1 ,longfellow became ,professor of ,modern ,languages and ,belles ,lettres in ,harvard ,university1 which position he held for fourteen years40 ,an adjective clause modifying a whole statement is sometimes placed before that statement instead of after it4 ,the clause is then usually introduced by the pronoun what2 as1 8,what was worse1 he every week lost more and more by bad money40--,jerrold4 ,,note4--,the adjective clause may modify a noun or pronoun in the possessive case2 as1 8,the world is his who has money to go over it40--,emerson4 ,position of the ,adjective ,clause4--,usually it follows closely the word it modifies1 but there is a type of sentence in which the clause modifies the subject and yet comes next to the subjective complement4 ,the following sentence is an example1--8,it was coffee and not wine that ,i drank40--,howells4 ,it is here a personal pronoun standing for beverage and modified by the restrictive adjective clause that ,i drank4 ,the sentence means1--,the beverage that ,i drank was coffee and not wine4 ,peculiar sentences sometimes arise from this construction2 for example1 8,it is only birds of prey that fear danger from below more than from above40 ,here the clause modifies the subject it1 and the sentence transposed reads1 8,it that fear danger from below more than from above is only birds of prey40 ,this sounds ungrammatical1 but it is the interpretation of the original sentence4 ,in regard to the position of the connective1 it is commonly the first word in the clause2 but when who or which is object of a preposition1 the preposition leads1 and sometimes the subject of the clause precedes the preposition and the relative2 thus1 8,the largest class of vessels is the full-rigged ship1 the distinctive mark of which is that it has three masts1 all square-rigged40 ,this arrangement of words arises from the objection that some authors have to using whose as the possessive of which4 ,if whose were substituted for of which in the sentence above1 the clause would read1 whose distinctive mark is1 etc4 ,sometimes the antecedent of a relative pronoun is omitted1 especially if it is a personal pronoun2 thus1 8,who drove ,planted both feet upon the leaping share ,to make the furrow deep40--,e4 ,arnold4 ,exercise #e ,select all adjective clauses in the following sentences4 ,tell classification of each clause1 what it modifies1 its introductory word1 and use of that word 7if any7 in the clause4 #a4 ,boy6 bring to us the dish the like of which is not found among the viands of kings4 #b4 ,how babies will poke those wonderful little fingers of theirs into every hole and crack and crevice they can get at4--,holmes4 #c4 ,who that sees the meanness of our politics1 but inly congratulates ,washington that he is long already wrapped in his shroud1 and forever safe4--,emerson4 #d4 ,immediately the small son of ,shem ran off into the next room1 whence his voice was heard in rapid chat4--,george ,eliot4 #e4 ,the parts and sails of the foremast and mainmast of a ship bear the same names as those of the brig4 #f4 ,i said the other day that he had good solid prejudices1 which is true1 and ,i like him none the worse for it4--,holmes4 #g4 ,they habitually ascribed every event to the will of the ,great ,being1 for whose power nothing was too vast1 for whose inspection nothing was too minute4--,macaulay4 #h4 ,such of these holidays as related to the victories and pride of the ,republic naturally ended with her fall4--,howells4 #i4 ,i live to learn their story ,who suffered for my sake4--,banks4 #aj4 ,tennyson began to write tales and verse from the time that he could use a pen4 #aa4 ,there was a certain very dry land1 the people whereof were in sore need of water4--,bellamy4 #ab4 ,they have rights who dare maintain them4--,lowell4 #ac4 ,the ,greek drama1 on the model of which the ,samson was written1 sprang from the ,ode4--,macaulay4 #ad4 ,it is hard to realize that our remote ancestors were mere barbarians1 who by the force of numbers overran the world4--,lord4 #ae4 ,he pretended to pour out some wine1 and drank the first glass1 after which he poured out another for his guest4 #af4 ,there lies before you for your pleasure the spectacle of such singular beauty as no picture can ever show you or book tell you4--,howells4 #ag4 ,who goes that way must take no other horse ,to ride1 but ,sleipnir1 ,odin's horse1 alone4--,m4 ,arnold4 #ah4 ,is there nothing you are acquainted with which they 7clouds7 resemble8--,tyndall4 #ai4 ,is it dark meat or white meat you will be helped to8--,holmes4 #bj4 ,lady ,carbery happened to be down at the seaside1 whither my letter had been sent after her4--,de ,quincey4 #ba4 ,several slaves instantly appeared1 whom he ordered to set out the table and serve the dinner4 #bb4 ,the wild thing1 ,living or dead1 is his who fetched it down4--,e4 ,arnold4 #bc4 ,daguerre invented the process of taking daguerreotypes upon metallic plates1 which invention soon developed into the process of taking photographs on paper4 #bd4 ,not one of us1 however busy or hard1 but once or twice in our lives has passed an evening with ,goldsmith1 and undergone the charm of his delightful music4--,thackeray4 #be4 ,it's faith in something and enthusiasm for something that makes life worth looking at4--,holmes4 #bf4 ,who asks does err1 ,who answers1 errs2 say naught4--,e4 ,arnold4 #bg4 ,it is those who remain indoors1 therefore1 who are exposed to the utmost rigor of the winter4--,howells4 #bh4 ,soon ,stephen went down from the ,hoe1 and returned in the direction whence he had come4--,t4 ,hardy4 #bi4 ,many times ,i have come1 bearing flowers such as my garden grew4--,holmes4 #cj4 ,what is more remarkable considering his century1 he is not by any means consummate or even eminent as a painter in words4--,saintsbury4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,simple1 ,,partially ,,compound1 ,,and ,,complex ,,sentences #a4 ,study the sentence as to number and kind of propositions1 to determine whether it is simple1 partially compound1 or complex4 ,determine also whether it is declarative1 interrogative1 or imperative4 ,name it according to both structure and form4 ,if it has been rendered exclamative1 state that fact4 #b4 ,if the sentence is simple1 separate it into its two parts1 subject and predicate4 #c4 ,analyze the subject2 that is1 separate it into the substantive used as base-word and the adjuncts of that substantive4 #d4 ,analyze the predicate2 that is1 separate it into predicate verb1 complement1 and modifiers 7provided the verb has these adjuncts74 #e4 ,if the complement is complex1 analyze it by separating it into base-word and modifiers4 ,,note4--,do not talk about 8complete subject0 and 8simple subject10 neither 8logical predicate0 and 8grammatical predicate40 ,the subject is the subject2 the predicate is the predicate4 ,that ends it4 #f4 ,if the sentence is complex1 containing an adjective clause1 proceed the same as in the analysis of simple sentences1 analyzing the clause last4 #g4 ,when the clause is given as an adjunct of some noun1 state whether it is restrictive or unrestrictive1 and give its introductory word4 #h4 ,if any subject or predicate is partially compound1 state that fact before analyzing it4 ,always proceed logically4 ,in analyzing the sentence1 8,the city editor laid a clipping from the morning paper on the desk10 do not say that from the morning paper is a phrase modifying clipping4 ,say instead that clipping is modified by the prepositional phrase from the morning paper4 ,in other words1 get new elements by reaching out from elements that you already have4 ,always proceed from the whole to the part4 ,do not say that laid is completed by the object clipping1 for that is only part of the object4 ,the object is a clipping from the morning paper4 ,after giving this as a unit1 or whole1 separate it into base-word and modifiers4 ,do not analyze a simple prepositional phrase like on the desk4 ,it is a waste of time4 ,if the phrase is complex1 that is1 contains a phrase1 like from the morning paper of ,july first1 it should be analyzed4 ,model for ,analysis ,the ,merced ,yosemite was created by the action of five immense glaciers1 traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley4--,muir4 ,this is a complex declarative sentence4 ,the subject is ,the ,merced ,yosemite4 ,the predicate is was created by the action of five immense glaciers1 traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley4 ,the base-word of the subject is the noun ,yosemite2 it is modified by the adjective ,merced and the article the4 ,the predicate verb is was created2 it is modified by the prepositional phrase by the action of five immense glaciers1 traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley4 ,the base-word of the object of the preposition by is action2 it is modified by the prepositional phrase of five immense glaciers1 traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley and by the article the4 ,the base-word of the object of the preposition of is glaciers2 it is modified by the adjectives immense and five1 and by the unrestrictive adjective clause traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley2 this clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which4 ,the subject of the clause is traces of which4 ,the predicate is still exist upon every rock in the valley4 ,the base-word of the subject is the noun traces4 ,it is modified by the prepositional phrase of which4 ,the predicate verb is exist2 it is modified by the adverb still and the prepositional phrase upon every rock in the valley4 ,the base-word of the object of the preposition upon is rock2 it is modified by the adjective every and the prepositional phrase in the valley4 ,exercise #f ,analyze the following sentences4 ,if the analysis is written1 take pains to arrange it well on paper4 ,divide it into paragraphs4 ,either underline or enclose in quotation marks all words quoted from the sentence4 ,use abbreviations4 ,do not write out elements in full if they consist of more than two words4 ,instead write the first and last words with a dash between them4 #a4 ,fear is a wonderful goad to remorse4--,h4 ,h4 #b4 ,a part of the citizens seceded from the main body1 and formed a separate community on the neighboring marshes4--,prescott4 #c4 ,he is great who confers the most benefits4--,emerson4 #d4 ,after two hours' march the cortege stopped at the end of the quay1 where the ,prince de ,joinville had stationed himself at the head of the officers of the three ,french ships of war4--,thackeray4 #e4 ,how many men and women perform their daily tasks from the highest motives alone--for the glory of ,god and the relief of man's estate8--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #f4 ,no one is useless in this world who lightens the burden of it for another4--,dickens4 #g4 ,he lifted his enormous ears1 gave a short trumpet1 and for an instant wavered in his determination whether to attack or fly4--,sir ,samuel ,baker4 #h4 ,simplicity must be the first element of literary art4--,higginson4 #i4 ,i touched him on the shoulder1 at which he collared me and nearly knocked me down4--,miss ,mulock4 #aj4 ,those were the days when a man could hold three small livings1 starve a curate apiece on two of them1 and live badly himself on the third4--,george ,eliot4 #aa4 ,a woman kept the summer school1 sharp1 precise1 unsympathetic1 keen and untiring4--,beecher4 #ab4 ,i hold our actual knowledge very cheap4--,emerson4 #ac4 ,then saunter down that terrace whence the sea ,all fair with wing-like sails you may discern4 --,jean ,ingelow4 #ad4 ,man hath no fate except past days4--,e4 ,arnold4 #ae4 ,how few men in all the pride of culture can emulate the easy grace of a bright woman's letter6--,higginson4 #af4 ,and1 what is notable1 in no time whatever can they entirely eradicate out of living men's hearts a certain altogether peculiar reverence for ,great ,men4--,carlyle4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,substantive ,,clause ,function4--,the substantive clause is one that performs some office of a noun4 ,it is not a mere substitute for a noun1 however1 used for the sake of variety4 ,on the contrary1 it is seldom possible to change a noun clause to a noun1 and just because there is no equivalent noun in the language4 ,in the sentence1--8,i fear that he will come10 it would appear at first thought that the noun clause1 that he will come1 might be changed to his coming1 but this would change the meaning2 for the clause implies that his coming is not expected with any certainty1 while the expression his coming implies that it is so expected4 ,every time1 in fact1 that a noun clause is used1 it serves a distinct purpose1 and it is safe to assume that in a well-constructed sentence no other element would answer so well4 ,let us discover some of these purposes4 ,in the following sentence from ,burroughs1--8,to what extent the birds or animals can foretell the weather is uncertain10 we have predicated something not of a person1 place1 or thing1 that could be named by a noun1 but of a thought1 the statement of that thought telling us of an agent and an activity performed by that agent4 ,hence1 by means of the noun clause we can make predications of thoughts instead of things4 ,in the sentences1-- 8,now one codicil in my general law of freedom had been that my seventeenth birthday should not find me at school02 and1 8,the consequence is1 that the seven1 or nine1 or fourteen lines have a marvellous aptitude at knotting themselves up beyond the reach of skill and patience10--we are enabled by means of noun clauses to tell what the codicil and the consequences are4 ,we might give a general definition of such nouns by means of other nouns1 but to tell what this special codicil and what this special consequence are there is no other way than by the use of the noun clause4 ,hence1 by means of the noun clause1 we can make certain predications that could be made in no other way4 ,in the sentence1-- 8,whatever ornaments she wears are of massive gold10--we have made a predication of certain ornaments2 but instead of enumerating them in a long list we have designated them by means of a noun clause1 brief but more comprehensive than any list could be4 ,hence1 a noun clause may be used to designate things when we have no names for them1 or wish to withhold the names1 or find it awkward to use them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,uses of the ,substantive ,clause4--,as a sentence-element it has most of the important uses of the noun4 #a4 ,subject of a verb1--8,what is true of individual men is true also of races40--,lowell4 ,frequently1 for the sake of a more pleasing arrangement1 the anticipative subject it is used1 and the real subject1 a noun clause1 is placed after the predicate1--8,it matters little what virtues a man has1 if he is habitually inexact40 ,a common type of sentence1 similar to this1 is one in which the anticipative subject is followed by the verb is1 next by an adverb1 or a phrase1 or a clause1 and then by the real subject2 for example1 8,it is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds40 ,if we say1 8,it is chiefly through books10 the question at once arises1 8,what is chiefly through books80 ,the answer is1 8the fact that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds40 ,transposing the sentence1 we have1--8,that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds is chiefly through books10 the verb is being employed in the sense of happens or is true4 ,,note4--,in the following sentences from ,robert ,louis ,stevenson it is interesting to observe how such a sentence as the one just described comes about3 8,in the midst of this ,babylon ,i found myself a rallying point2 every one was anxious to be kind and helpful to the stranger4 ,this was not merely from the natural hospitality of mountain people1 nor even from the surprise with which ,i was regarded as a man living of his own free will in ,le ,monastier1 when he might just as well have lived anywhere else in this big world40 ,it is evident that the pronominal adjective this1 which is subject in the second sentence1 stands for the second proposition in the preceding sentence4 ,how easily might the following sentence have been made1--8,it was not merely from the natural hospitality of mountain people that every one was anxious to be kind and helpful to the stranger40 ,this type of sentence must be carefully distinguished from one given in the lesson on adjective clauses2 for example1 8,it is the universal nature which gives worth to particular men and things40--,emerson4 #b4 ,object of a verb1--8,it is hard to believe that we shall get any good from exercise proportionate to the sacrifice of time40--,hamerton4 ,this is the commonest use of the noun clause4 ,many of the verbs that take clauses for objects denote action of the senses1 the mind1 or the emotions1--as feel1 see1 hear2 believe1 think1 know2 desire1 hope1 fear4 ,the clause is very useful after such verbs1 for instance1 after see2 for besides seeing objects we see those objects performing actions or existing in certain states1 and often the only way to tell this is by means of the noun clause4 ,often1 too1 it would be impossible to particularize what we believe1 or think1 or hope1 or imagine1 or dream1 without the aid of a noun clause4 ,when verbs that take a direct and an indirect object are changed to the passive form in such a way that the indirect object becomes subject1 we find the direct object remaining after the passive verb4 ,active4--8,he told me that the tide was rising40 ,passive4--8,i was told that the tide was rising40 ,in the second sentence the clause is object of the verb was told4 #c4 ,objective complement4--8,understanding1 that is1 equilibrium of mind1 intellectual good digestion1--this with unclogged biliary ducts1 makes the ,saxon mentally and physically what we call a very fixed fact40--,lowell4 ,here the clause helps to complete the verb makes and at the same time tells us something about the direct object ,saxon4 #d4 ,object of a preposition4--8,how utterly powerless are our senses to take any measure or impression of the actual grandeur of what we see40--,king4 ,a noun clause so used is not always at first sight easily distinguished from an adjective clause whose first word is a preposition1 but there are several points of difference4 ,in the adjective clause the preposition is a necessary part of the clause1 governing some word in the objective case1 and its position may be shifted to the end of the clause4 ,the noun clause used as object of a preposition is generally introduced by the word what1 which does not introduce adjective clauses4 ,the preposition governing a noun clause is frequently omitted4 7a7 ,after the adjectives aware1 certain1 glad1 sure1 positive1 etc41 especially when used as predicate adjectives1--8,when you saw a lad with that book on the desk before him1 you might be sure1 without asking1 that he had deserved the master's approval in some way40--,annie ,preston4 ,if a noun were used instead of a clause after sure1 it would be introduced by a preposition2 but it is ,english usage to dispense with the preposition when we use a clause1 though the clause certainly answers the same question as the noun1 viz41 sure of what8 ,in disposing of a clause so used1 say that it is brought in by the adjective without the help of a preposition1 or supply the preposition1 or supply the phrase of the fact1 disposing of the clause as an appositive of the noun fact4 7b7 ,after such predicates as is determined1 is convinced1 is resolved1 etc4--8,i am convinced that every spring a large number of birds which have survived the southern campaign return to their old haunts to breed40--,burroughs4 7c7 ,after the verbs assure and warn1--8,you very soon assure yourself that such springs are also fed by rain40--,tyndall4 8,he immediately discharged two muskets into the darkness1 to warn the enemy that he knew of their presence and intention40 7d7 ,after some nouns like doubt1 assurance1 evidence1 etc4--8,csar saw no evidence that the gods practically interfered in human affairs40--,froude4 #e4 ,in apposition4--8,we look not to the question whether a man have or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he pays40--,webster4 ,here the clause makes definite the word question1 a noun of wide application4 ,we occasionally come across sentences constructed like the following1--8,what a man does1 that he has40--,emerson4 ,the meaning is1--8,a man has what he does10 the noun clause what he does being object of the verb has4 ,but in the original sentence the pronominal that is object of has1 and this indefinite object is explained by the noun clause what a man does1 which is therefore to be called an appositive4 ,such an arrangement arises from a desire to make the clause prominent and also to hold the main thought in suspense until the end of the sentence4 #f4 ,subjective complement4--8,in fact1 the only difference between one of these ice streams and an ordinary river is1 that the former moves very slowly40 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,the substantive clause may be introduced by-- #a4 ,the relative pronouns1 what1 whatever1 whatsoever1 who1 whoever1 whoso1 whosoever1 which1 whichever4 ,when introducing noun clauses none of these words have an antecedent1 hence it might be more precise to call them merely pronouns4 ,their office is more than an introductory one1 for they have a function within the noun clause1 just as relative pronouns have within adjective clauses4--8,i wondered who the priest was that wore it40--,howells4 ,here the pronoun who is the subjective complement of the verb was in the clause4 #b4 ,the adjectives what1 whatever1 whatsoever1 which1 whichever1 whichsoever4 ,these are indefinite limiting adjectives4--,tell me what time it is4 #c4 ,the words if1 that1 whether4 ,these are ordinarily subordinating conjunctions1 but when introducing noun clauses they should not be considered connectives at all2 for a subject does not need to be connected to its predicate1 nor a complement to the verb it completes1 nor an appositive to the noun it explains4 ,these introductory words serve rather to put the clause into shape1 to make it appear as a subordinate part of the sentence4--8#8,i wonder if his heart is any softer1' thought the ,fox40--,froude4 8,the truth now flashed upon me that my companion was a schoolmaster40--,lamb4 ,the introductory that is sometimes understood4--8,it is true all things have two faces1 a light one and a dark40--,carlyle4 ,whether usually takes or as a correlative1--8,chaucer did not waste time in considering whether his age were good or bad40--,lowell4 #d4 ,conjunctive adverbs1 like where1 when1 how1 why4 ,these words always modify some word in the clause4--8,we need not say how much we admire his public conduct40--,macaulay4 ,how modifies the adverb much4 #e4 ,but or but that1 being equivalent to that not4--8#8,who knows but in the end ,i may turn into a dog8' said the ,fox40--,froude4 99 99 99 99 99 8,there0 used as an ,anticipative ,subject4--,we have already spoken of the anticipative subject it1 whose office is to throw the real subject after the predicate verb4 ,another word used in the same way is there2 for example1 8,there is no good reason for a bad action40--,spurgeon4 ,this word is not the adverb there1 for it conveys no idea whatever4 ,it does nothing at all for the meaning of the sentence1 as is shown by our slighting it in reading4 ,after the anticipative subject there the real subject is almost always a noun with modifiers1 but it may be a noun clause2 for example1--8,no1 indeed1 there is no wonder that ,god loved the world40--,phillips ,brooks4 ,the verb in these sentences is usually some form of the verb be4 ,it is not the copula so often as it is the complete intransitive verb be1 meaning exist4 ,in the sentence1--8,there are many kinds of sea fowl that feed on fish and build their nests on the sea coast10 the entire predicate is the verb are4 ,when the verb is a copula it is often completed by a prepositional phrase denoting an attribute of the subject4 ,for example1 8,there is not a crevice in it where anything green can lodge and grow40--,king4 ,here the predicate is is in it4 ,other intransitive verbs are occasionally found after there1 as in the sentence1 8,there came to the beach a poor exile of ,erin40--,campbell4 ,exercise #g ,select noun clauses in the following sentences1 telling the use of each1 its introductory word1 and use of that word in the clause1 if it has any4 #a4 ,people are always cheating themselves with the idea that they would do this or that desirable thing1 if they only had time4 #b4 ,my notion is that you should let me go1 and give me a lamb or goose or two every month1 and then ,i could live without stealing4--,froude4 #c4 ,he was desirous that the people should think for themselves as well as tax themselves4--,macaulay4 #d4 ,whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well4 #e4 ,i'm very certain there was nothing about him that could spoil4--,jerrold4 #f4 ,the ,reverend ,amos ,barton did not come to ,shepperton until long after ,mr4 ,gilfil had departed this life4--,george ,eliot4 #g4 ,i think it does not matter just when ,i came to ,venice4--,howells4 #h4 ,we charge him with having broken his coronation oath2 and we are told that he kept his marriage vow4--,macaulay4 #i4 ,the worst of a modern stylish mansion is1 that it has no place for ghosts4--,holmes4 #aj4 ,it is with lent money that all evil is mainly done1 and all unjust war protracted4--,ruskin4 #aa4 ,the poor man humbly assured him that he meant no harm1 but merely came there in search of some of his neighbors1 who used to keep about the tavern4--,irving4 #ab4 ,i need not say that in real sound stupidity the ,english are unrivaled4--,bagehot4 #ac4 ,what his violins were to ,stradivarius1 and his fresco to ,leonardo1 and his campaigns to ,napoleon1 that was his history to ,macaulay4--,trevelyan4 #ad4 ,it is by his poetry that ,milton is best known2 and it is of his poetry that we first wish to speak4--,macaulay4 #ae4 ,shall ,i care about how they criticise the outside of my life8--,phillips ,brooks4 #af4 ,the next half hour1 at most1 would decide the question of whether he would or would not get up from his bed and leave the room4--,collins4 #ag4 ,so1 what was contentment in the slave became philanthropy in the emperor4--,lord4 #ah4 ,they showed no reverence except that they did not talk or laugh loudly4--,besant4 #ai4 ,we are convinced that the measure was most injurious to the cause of freedom4--,macaulay4 #bj4 ,we must not wonder that the outside of books is so different1 when the inner nature of those for whom they are written is so changed4--,bagehot4 #ba4 ,now1 what puzzles me is1 that anybody1 old or young1 should forget this1--that the path of life leads to something4--,munger4 #bb4 ,i can say to you what ,i cannot first say to myself4--,emerson4 #bc4 ,they were compelled to choose whether they would trust a tyrant or conquer him4--,macaulay4 #bd4 ,the reason why so few good books are written is1 that so few people that can write know anything4--,bagehot4 #be4 ,men are what their mothers made them4--,emerson4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences ,,containing ,,noun ,,clauses ,it is most convenient to analyze the noun clause last1 even if it is the subject of the sentence4 ,as soon as the clause is mentioned1 however1 as a sentence-element1 its introductory word should be given4 ,clauses within the noun clause should be disposed of after the rest of the noun clause has been analyzed4 ,a direct quotation is frequently introduced into a sentence to fulfill the office of a noun clause4 ,in structure and form it is like an independent proposition1 but in function it is subordinate2 for example1 8,the first and last and closest trial question to any living creature is1 8,what do you like80--,ruskin4 ,notice that this sentence is declarative though the quotation is interrogative4 ,exercise #h ,analyze the following sentences3-- #a4 ,whoever has common sense and a sound heart has the power by which ,whittier may be appreciated4--,masson4 #b4 ,it is remarkable how closely the history of the apple-tree is connected with that of man4--,thoreau4 #c4 ,we were welcomed to a ,highlander's home and told where we could fish to advantage from three o'clock till dark4--,bolles4 #d4 ,the announcement that for centuries the tropical forests of ,central ,america have hidden within their tangled growth the ruined homes and temples of a past race1 stirs the civilized world with a strange1 deep wonder4--,agassiz4 #e4 ,i was quite determined that the old set of singers should be dismissed4--,george ,eliot4 #f4 ,it was within the dingy walls of this little potentate's imperial palace that ,i chose my country residence4--,longfellow4 #g4 ,universal ,history1 the history of what man has accomplished in this world1 is at bottom the ,history of the ,great ,men who have worked here4--,carlyle4 #h4 ,the question of common-sense is always1 what is it good for8--a question which would abolish the rose and be answered triumphantly by the cabbage4--,lowell4 #i4 ,whoever has made a voyage up the ,hudson must remember the ,kaatskill mountains4--,irving4 #aj4 ,i am told that one of the most reliable weather signs they have down in ,texas is afforded by the ants4--,burroughs4 #aa4 8,it is only the love of all humanity that can keep from bitterness10 said ,brian4 #ab4 ,i left my own garden yesterday1 and went over to where ,polly was getting the weeds out of one of her flower-beds4--,warner4 #ac4 8,now tread we a measure60 said young ,lochinvar4--,scott4 #ad4 ,whoever allies himself with ,god is armed with all the forces of the invisible world4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #ae4 ,boom is not a nice place1 and is only remarkable for one thing3 that the majority of the inhabitants have a private opinion that they can speak ,english1 which is not justified by fact4--,stevenson4 #af4 ,i do not doubt but that many of you came unwillingly to-night4--,ruskin4 #ag4 ,with nature and ,god one law is inexorable--he who disuses or misuses a faculty must lose it4--,hillis4 #ah4 ,it is by little things that we know ourselves4--,holmes4 #ai4 ,i felt in every fibre that this woodman invariably cheated me in measurement4--,howells4 #bj4 8,how happy10 exclaimed this child of air1 8,are the holy spirits who wander there1 ,mid flowers that never shall fade or fall60--,moore4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,time ,function4--,all actions or events can be referred to some time--past1 present1 or future4 ,frequently the whole significance of an event depends upon either the time of its occurrence or its duration2 hence it is often desirable and sometimes necessary to tell the time when an action takes place or state the period of its continuance4 ,we may do this by means of single words1 like then1 now1 tomorrow1 forever1 or by phrases1 like a long time ago1 at the present day1 before supper1 till the end of the world4 ,frequently1 however1 we wish to fix the time of one activity with relation to the time of some other activity4 ,to do this we usually employ a proposition in the form of a temporal clause2 for example1 8,the ,british soldier trembles ,when ,marion's name is told40--,bryant4 ,here the action of trembling is said to take place at the time of another action1 the telling of ,marion's name4 ,notice that from this sentence we get double information1 7#a7 that two actions occur simultaneously1 7#b7 that one is the cause of the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,all time clauses are introduced by some word which in itself denotes time1 and which is chosen because of the special meaning attached to it4 ,this word subordinates the clause to the principal proposition1 and connects it to that part of the principal proposition which the clause modifies4 ,most grammarians say that this connective is a conjunctive adverb1 and that it not only connects the two propositions but also modifies the verb in the clause4 ,to us its grammatical office seems to be that of a mere connective1 hence we call it a subordinating conjunction of time4 ,the several conjunctions of this class can best be studied in sentences containing them4 #a4 8,when a prisoner first leaves his cell1 he cannot bear the light of day40--,macaulay4 ,here when is chosen in order that the sentence may signify that the two actions occur at the same time4 ,then in the principal proposition is sometimes used as a correlative of when in the clause4 ,then is not a necessary word1 but if the clause is long1 then is useful in informing the reader that the principal proposition is about to begin4 #b4 8,man should forget his anger before he lies down to sleep40--,de ,quincey4 ,before 7sometimes ere7 makes a sentence signify that the main action occurs in time previous to the time of the action expressed in the clause4 #c4 8,after ,i had learned to row in the gondolier fashion1 ,i voyaged much in the lagoon with my boat40--,howells4 ,after makes the sentence signify that the main action occurred later than the action in the clause4 ,sentences in which temporal clauses are introduced by when1 before1 ere1 or after1 only establish for us the proper relation between two points of time2 viz41 that one point coincides with another1 is antecedent to it1 or subsequent to it4 ,if we wish to denote the duration of a state or an activity1 we introduce the temporal clause by while1 since1 till1 or until4 #d4 8,while they sat at dinner1 a great fire of sunset spread over the west40--,black4 ,while signifies during the time that4 #e4 8,since you were at ,oulton1 my wife has been growing worse and worse in health1 and more and more eccentric and crotchety40--,shorthouse4 ,since signifies from the time that4 #f4 8,till men have been some time free1 they know not how to use their freedom40--,macaulay4 ,till signifies up to the time that4 #g4 ,if we wish to be exact about the time that something begins1 we introduce the temporal clause by the phrase as soon as1 or soon as1 which phrase may be considered one connective1--8,as soon as it is convenient to you1 ,i shall be glad for you to leave this sombre place40--,shorthouse4 #h4 ,as is frequently used either for when or for while4 8,the boat had touched the silver strand1 ,just as the hunter left his stand40--,scott4 #i4 ,if we wish to state exactly when something ends1 we introduce the temporal clause by as long as1 or so long as1--8,so long as men had slender means1 whether of keeping out cold or checkmating it with artificial heat1 ,winter was an unwelcome guest1 especially in the country40--,lowell4 #aj4 ,whenever means at any time that1-- 8,yet whenever ,i cross the river1 ,on its bridge with wooden piers1 ,like the odor of brine from the ocean ,comes the thought of other years40--,longfellow4 #aa4 ,clauses introduced by now that denote both time and cause1 and it is often difficult to determine which of the two ideas is more prominent4 ,in the sentence1--8,what do you think of your home now that you see it80--,black1 there is certainly more of time than of cause1 for if the verb in the principal proposition were changed from the present tense to either past or future1 when would be substituted for now that4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what the ,time ,clause modifies4--,since we use a time clause to tell 7#a7 when a state exists or when an activity is performed1 7#b7 the duration of an activity or a state1 it is clear that the clause modifies a word denoting state or action1 namely1 a verb4 ,usually it modifies a predicate verb1 but it may modify the verbals1 either infinitives or participles4 ,it must be noted here that modifiers vary in their closeness to the word modified2 and therefore in analyzing sentences modifiers should be given1 not in the order of their position1 but in the order of their closeness4 ,in the sentence1--8,one night1 shortly after the coldest weather set in1 he lost his oar as he was returning to the island10 the verb lost is modified by three elements denoting time1 7#a7 as he was returning to the island1 7#b7 one night1 7#c7 shortly after the coldest weather set in4 ,,note4--,in the sentence just quoted1 the connective after is preceded by the adverb shortly1 which is put into the sentence to tell how long after the coldest weather set in1 hence it is a modifier of the whole clause4 ,other adverbial clauses than those of time may be modified in this way2 for example1 ,the ,puritans espoused the cause of civil liberty mainly because it was the cause of religion4 ,it is interesting and instructive to note that other ideas may be associated with that of time in a temporal clause4 ,a clause introduced by until sometimes denotes result as well as time4--8,skirts grew more and more bulbous until it did not need more than three or four women to make a good-sized assembly40--,warner4 ,a clause introduced by since may denote time and cause4--8,since ,i have begun to examine these expressive little brutes1 ,i have made many profound observations40--,h4 ,james4 ,a clause introduced by when may denote time and condition4--8,when the eyes say one thing and the tongue another1 a practiced man relies on the language of the first40--,emerson4 ,exercise #i ,select temporal clauses in the following sentences1 telling what each clause modifies and what it denotes1 also its connective4 #a4 ,hero worship endures forever while man endures4--,carlyle4 #b4 ,almost as soon as ,i entered the house1 ,i singled you out as the companion of my future life4--,jane ,austen4 #c4 ,when the need of such an institution as ,feudalism no longer existed1 then it was broken up4--,lord4 #d4 ,book in hand1 he followed the service with one eye1 while he admonished perpetually the boys to keep still and to listen4--,besant4 #e4 ,it absolutely startles me now he is in my mind1 to find how plainly ,i see him4--,collins4 #f4 ,their young men cut neither hair nor beard till they had slain an enemy4--,motley4 #g4 ,we two had been since morn ,began her tender tunes to beat ,upon the ,may leaves young and sweet1 ,together1 planting corn4--,alice ,cary4 #h4 ,life is not always hard1 even after backs grow bent4--,barrie4 #i4 ,respect for woman was born in the ,german forests before the ,roman empire fell4--,lord4 #aj4 ,as the day advanced1 the wind veered round to the north-east and settled itself down to work4--,aldrich4 #aa4 ,when you've got a man thoroughly civilized you cannot do anything more with him4--,warner4 #ab4 ,now that her father was taken from her1 she nestled to ,graham1 and seemed to feel by his feelings1 to exist in his existence4--,bront4 #ac4 ,even when they fail they are entitled to praise4--,macaulay4 #ad4 ,the house keeper waited until the sobs changed to the regular breathing of sleep before she stole out4--,kipling4 #ae4 ,until a man can truly enjoy a draught of clear water bubbling from a mountain-side1 his taste is in an unwholesome state4--,f4 ,harrison4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,place ,function4--,just as all events occur at some time1 so do they also occur in some place4 ,we have not many adverbs of place in ,english1 and few of these are very definite2 for example1 here1 there1 yonder1 somewhere1 anywhere1 hither1 thither1 up1 down1 in4 ,hence we usually tell place by means of prepositional phrases1 and we have many prepositions of place1 such as above1 across1 along1 amid1 among1 around1 at1 before1 behind1 below1 beneath1 beside1 between1 beyond1 in1 on1 over1 up4 ,the value of the prepositional phrase denoting place is seen in the following sentence from ,longfellow1 which contains three such phrases3 8,it stood upon the brink of a little glassy pool whose tranquil bosom was the image of a quiet and secluded life1 and stretched its parental arms over a rustic bench that had been constructed beneath it for the accommodation of the foot traveler1 or1 perchance1 some idle dreamer like myself40 ,but the prepositional phrase will not always serve our turn1 for sometimes we wish to denote a certain place by telling what happens there1 and to do this it is usually best to employ a proposition4 ,this gives rise to the adverbial local clause4 ,in the following sentence from ,lowell1-- 8,where today the martyr stands1 ,on the morrow crouches ,judas with the silver in his hands10 in order to tell the place where ,judas crouches1 the poet tells what happens in that place1 namely1 that it is the place where today the martyr stands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,the local clause is introduced by the subordinating conjunctions of place1 where1 wherever1 whence1 whither1 whencesoever1 whithersoever4 ,whither conveys the idea of action going toward a place1 and whence of action proceeding from a place4 ,these two conjunctions and their compounds as well are not often used by modern writers4 ,wherever means in any place2 as1 8,wherever the ,anglo-,saxon race goes1 there law1 industry1 and safety for life and property are certain to arise40--,dickens4 ,just as when in a temporal clause often takes the correlative then1 so where or wherever in a local clause is often accompanied by there in the principal proposition1 as in the sentence just quoted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,peculiarities of the ,local ,clause4--,often a local clause denotes condition as well as place2 for example1 8,wherever money is the principal object of life with either man or nation1 it is both got ill and spent ill40--,ruskin4 ,sometimes the idea of time exists along with that of place2 for example1 8,where one person is really interested by music1 twenty are pleased by good reading40--,hart4 ,the adverbial clause of place is not common1 and yet we frequently meet clauses introduced by where1 whence1 etc4 ,most of these are adjective clauses1 and as such they have two uses1 as may be seen in the following typical sentences3 7#a7 8,being newly from a land where everything1 morally and materially1 was in good repair1 ,i rioted sentimentally on the picturesque ruin1 the pleasant discomfort and hopelessness of everything about me here40--,howells4 ,the clause here is restrictive1 used to point out a certain land1 and where is equivalent to in which4 7#b7 8,dr4 ,livingstone1 a ,scotchman1 spent many years in exploring ,central ,africa1 where he finally perished40--,here the clause is equivalent in meaning to an independent proposition1 where meaning and there1 but nevertheless it has the structure of a dependent proposition4 ,exercise #aj ,select local clauses in the following sentences1 telling what each clause modifies1 what it denotes1 and its connective3 #a4 ,we knew that we were standing at a time of high and palmy prosperity1 where he had stood in the hour of utmost peril2 that we saw nothing but liberty and security where he had met the frown of power2 that we were enjoying everything where he had hazarded everything4--,webster4 #b4 ,where'er a human heart doth wear ,joy's myrtle wreath or sorrow's gyves1 ,where'er a human spirit strives ,after a life more true and fair1 ,there is the true man's birthplace grand4--,lowell4 #c4 ,descending1 ,i went wandering whither chance might lead1 in a still ecstasy of freedom and enjoyment4--,bront4 #d4 ,wheresoever a thinker appeared1 there in the thing he thought of was a contribution1 accession1 a change or revolution made4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,where boat conveyance along rivers could not be had1 pack-horses and mules were resorted to for the transportation of merchandise4--,draper4 #f4 ,coal is the means of transporting itself whithersoever it is wanted4--,emerson4 #g4 ,hendry had a way of resuming the conversation where he had left off the night before4--,barrie4 #h4 ,he was a soldier of fortune1 and had fought wherever the ,roman eagles flew4--,motley4 #i4 ,he discerned her not there where she stood4--,carlyle4 #aj4 ,beginning where it empties itself into the sea1 and following it backwards1 we find it from time to time joined by tributaries which swell its waters4--,tyndall4 #aa4 ,where there is no honest poverty1 where education is diffused and political intelligence is common1 it is easy for the mass of the people to elect a fair legislature4--,bagehot4 #ab4 ,why did we stay here1 where there is no shelter and no anchorage8--,black4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,manner ,function4--,a common question in regard to activities is how8 ,this is oftenest answered by means of an adverb or a prepositional phrase2 as1 sew neatly1 study diligently1 go with dispatch4 ,but it is to be noticed that these elements tell how in an absolute way with no reference to a fixed standard1 and are capable of many degrees of interpretation1 for people's notions of neatness1 diligence1 and dispatch differ4 ,adverbs and prepositional phrases are unsatisfactory in another respect also2--the manner of an action can seldom be characterized by one term1 so unless we wish to call attention to only one characteristic1 we must employ several terms1 or leave the action incompletely described4 ,but if we use a clause we may tell exactly how an action is performed by comparing it with some other action familiar and understood1 which it more or less precisely resembles2 for example1 8,sing out1 children1 as the little thrushes do40--,mrs4 ,browning4 ,here the clause conveys one clear and definite impression to all who have heard the thrushes sing1 an impression that it would take a whole list of adverbs to convey1 like sweetly1 joyfully1 thrillingly1 spontaneously2 but how like a catalogue these sound1 and how little they appeal to the imagination4 ,frequently a mental action1 an action of the emotions or of the will1 or something else not immediately intelligible1 is made clear by comparing it with something material1 something evident to the senses4 ,in such sentences we find the familiar figure of speech called simile2 thus1 8,poetry produces an illusion on the eye of the mind1 as a magic lantern produces an illusion on the eye of the body40--,macaulay4 ,here the clause of manner modifies the entire predicate of the principal proposition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,the ordinary connective of the modal clause is the subordinating conjunction as1 though its place is sometimes taken by as if or as though1 both of which expressions it is best to consider one conjunction4 ,in the sentence1 8,the maiden paused as if again ,she thought to catch that distant strain10 the clause conveys an idea of purpose in the maiden's pausing as well as an idea of manner4 ,this clause may be expanded to read as she would pause if again she thought to catch that distant strain1 where the clause of manner contains a clause of condition4 ,a clause introduced by as though cannot be so expanded4 8,i will invest your money as though it were my own10 cannot be made to read--8,i will invest your money as ,i would invest it though it were my own40 ,this is proof that the clause has been thought of only as a clause of manner1 and as though as only one connective4 ,notice that when a modal clause is introduced by as if or as though1 the action or state in the clause is represented not as real but only as assumed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,modal ,clause4--,the usual position of a clause of manner is after the predicate it modifies1 but sometimes it precedes the principal proposition and is made emphatic by the adverb just1 even1 or precisely1 used as a clause modifier2 thus1 8,just as we estimate the importance of a river--not by its length nor by its breadth1 but by the amount of water it contributes to the ocean--so we estimate the size of a city by the number of people it contains40 ,when the clause is long and comes first1 the principal proposition is often introduced by so1 a correlative of as in the clause2 as in the example above4 ,exercise #aa ,select the adverbial clauses of manner1 telling what each clause modifies1 and its connective4 #a4 ,these poems differ from others as attar of roses differs from ordinary rose-water4--,macaulay4 #b4 ,the beggars and the wretcheder poor keep themselves warm1 ,i think1 by sultry recollections of summer1 as ,don ,quixote proposed to subsist upon savory remembrances1 during one of his periods of fast4--,howells4 #c4 ,the stars all seemed brighter than usual1 as if the wind blew them up like burning coals4--,burroughs4 #d4 ,and ever with the years ,waxed this compassionateness of our ,lord ,even as a great tree grows from two soft leaves1 ,to spread its shade afar4--,e4 ,arnold4 #e4 ,and as the piety of ,noah could not save the antediluvian empires1 as the faith of ,abraham could not convert idolatrous nations1 as the wisdom of ,moses could not prevent the sensualism of emancipated slaves1 so the lofty philosophy of ,aurelius could not save the empire which he ruled4--,lord4 #f4 ,the foreign merchants1 manufacturers1 and artisans fled from her gates as if the plague were raging within them4--,motley4 #g4 ,the ,creole neighbors rushed bareheaded into the middle of the street1 as though there were an earthquake or a chimney on fire4--,cable4 #h4 ,for1 as there is a curiosity about intellectual matters which is futile and merely a disease1 so there is certainly a curiosity which is1 in an intelligent being1 natural and laudable4--,m4 ,arnold4 #i4 ,dislike at first sight is more common than love1 as discord is more common than harmony4--,a4 ,s4 ,hardy4 #aj4 ,the will has great though indirect power over the taste1 just as it has over the belief4--,bagehot4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences ,we are now ready to analyze sentences containing adjective clauses1 noun clauses1 and adverbial clauses of time1 place1 and manner4 ,it frequently happens that there is a clause within a clause4 ,the first clause is then to be treated as if it were a complex sentence1 and the second clause analyzed when the rest of the first clause has been disposed of4 ,in the sentence1--8,he felt as if he would like to stay till every ship that had sailed out of ,monterey in the last three years had returned10 the predicate contains a clause of manner introduced by as if and extending to the end of the sentence4 ,in this modal clause the infinitive to stay is modified by a temporal clause introduced by till and extending to the end of the sentence4 ,in this temporal clause the base-word of the subject1 ship1 is modified by the restrictive adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun that and extending through the word years4 ,so we have an adjective clause within a temporal clause which is within a modal clause4 ,exercise #ab ,analyze the following sentences4 #a4 ,again ,thor struck1 so soon as ,skrymir again slept4--,carlyle4 #b4 ,we'll go where on the rocky isles ,her eggs the screaming sea fowl piles ,beside the pebbly shore4--,bryant4 #c4 ,where'er the impatient ,switzers gazed1 ,the unbroken line of lances blazed4--,montgomery4 #d4 ,the poetry of ,milton differs from that of ,dante1 as the hieroglyphics of ,egypt differed from the picture-writing of ,mexico4--,macaulay4 #e4 ,natural talent and genius tell in elocution1 as they do in the other arts4 #f4 ,seventy years elapsed before the papacy was restored to the ,eternal ,city4--,draper4 #g4 ,no instrument of man's devising can reach the heart as does that most wonderful instrument1 the human voice4--,hart4 #h4 ,but soon a funeral hymn was heard ,where the soft breath of evening stirred ,the tall1 gray forest4--,longfellow4 #i4 ,ever since ,mr4 ,hobart's 8eleven and a bit0 was left on the kitchen bed1 ,jess had hungered for a cloak with beads4--,barrie4 #aj4 ,i was coming in1 one summer night1 from a long walk in the country1 when ,i met this apparition at the city gate4--,h4 ,james4 #aa4 ,people take their literature in morsels1 as they take sandwiches on a journey4--,bagehot4 #ab4 ,scarcely was the artillery got into position when a rapid fire was opened on it from the tower4 #ac4 ,as ,venice in winter is the dreariest and gloomiest place in the world1 so in spring it is the fullest of joy and light4--,howells4 #ad4 ,where population is sparse1 discussion is difficult4 #ae4 ,these newspaper fellows are half asleep when they make up their reports at two or three o'clock in the morning1 and fill out the speeches to suit themselves4--,holmes4 #af4 ,the ,german built his solitary hut where inclination prompted4--,motley4 #ag4 ,but when the old cathedral bell ,proclaimed the morning prayer1 ,the white pavilions rose and fell ,on the alarmd air4--,longfellow4 #ah4 ,how fine a thing it would be if all the faculties of the mind could be trained for the battles of life as a modern nation makes every man a soldier4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #ai4 ,we wish that whosoever1 in all coming time1 shall turn his eye hither1 may behold that the place is not undistinguished1 where the first great battle of the ,revolution was fought4--,webster4 #bj4 ,as an oak profits by the foregone lives of immemorial vegetable races that have worked over the juices of earth and air into organic life out of whose dissolution a soil might gather fit to maintain that nobler birth of nature1 so we may be sure that the genius of every remembered poet drew the forces that built it up out of the decay of a long succession of forgotten ones4--,lowell4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,cause ,function4--,in our daily experience we are continually meeting new conditions1 discovering new truths4 ,it is human nature to be curious as to the causes of these truths and conditions1 hence there is no question perhaps which is asked oftener than the query of the scientist1 the persistent question of the child1 why8 ,so common is this question that in our speech we anticipate its coming and answer it before it is asked4 ,when we make statements of facts or of our opinions1 we seem to foresee that we shall be asked why8 or how do you know8--so along with our principal statement we give a cause or reason for it4 ,sometimes we are able to tell cause or reason by means of a phrase1 as1 ,he trembled from fright1 ,the wind must be blowing by the sound4 ,but the usual way is by means of the subordinate proposition2 thus1 8,peter the ,great caused his heir to be tried and sentenced to death1 because he was a sot1 a liar1 and a fool40--,lord4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what the ,causal ,clause denotes4--#a4 ,it may denote the natural or physical cause of some physical effect either in nature or in man2 as1 8,journeys by individuals could not be undertaken without much risk1 for there was scarcely a moor or a forest that had not its highwaymen40--,draper4 ,this clause answers the question why8 ,one variety of it1 often called a clause of motive1 denotes something that determines man's choice1 something that leads him to pursue a line of action2 as1 8,he discouraged commerce1 not because it was in itself demoralizing1 but because it brought the ,jews too much in contact with corrupt nations40--,lord4 ,a clause of motive answers the question why8 or what made him do it8 ,it can be used only to modify a statement about a human being or perhaps one of the higher animals--something that can act from a motive4 #b4 ,the causal clause may denote the cause of our knowledge of a fact1 the evidence from which we draw a conclusion1 but not the cause of the fact itself2 as1 8,the other bird probably grew to maturity1 as it disappeared from the vicinity with its parents after some days40--,burroughs4 ,this clause1 sometimes called a clause of reason1 answers the question how do you know8 or what makes you say so8 ,notice that all these causal clauses denote something that was true or in operation before what is in the principal proposition was true or in operation4 ,in other words1 the causal clause denotes the source from which something proceeds2 the outcome or result is found stated in the principal proposition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,connectives4--,the commonest connective of the causal clause is the subordinating conjunction because1 but we often find for1 as1 or since used in its place4 ,sometimes that is used2 as1 8,and we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief40--,bryant4 ,when for or because introduces a clause1 we know that the clause is causal1 but as1 since1 and that may introduce clauses used in other relations1 so the nature of the clause in question must be determined by its meaning4 ,there are several phrases that may be used as conjunctions to introduce causal clauses4 ,these are seeing that1 now that1 considering that1 in that1 inasmuch as1 forasmuch as4 ,these phrases should be considered as one word1 having the function of the word because4 ,the connective is often dispensed with entirely when the relation of cause is very plain2 thus1 8,one man goes four thousand miles to ,italy1 and does not see it1 he is so short-sighted40--,curtis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what the ,causal ,clause modifies4--,when the verb in the principal proposition denotes action1 the clause modifies the verb1 or it may modify some participle or infinitive denoting action2 as1 8,work is a thing done because it ought to be done1 and with a determined end40--,ruskin4 ,when the verb is a copula1 the clause modifies the verb and its complement1 as the verb has not in itself sufficient meaning to be modified4 ,in the sentence1--8,to ,john ,inglesant1 who had always been devotedly attached to his brother1 this display of affection was delightful1 cut off as he had been so long from all sympathy and friendliness10 the clause modifies was delightful4 ,in this clause the position of the subordinating conjunction as is usurped by cut off in order to give prominence to those words4 ,the clause may be transposed1 however1 so that as1 meaning because1 comes first4 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,causal ,clause4--,usually the causal clause follows the principal proposition4 ,when it comes first1 being in an unusual position it becomes more prominent and therefore more impressive1 and the principal proposition is also rendered more forcible by being placed at the end of the sentence2 for example1 8,and as they still continued to multiply1 there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child of the ,hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born40--,lord4 ,exercise #ac ,select causal clauses in the following sentences4 ,tell what they denote1 what they modify1 and specify the connective4 #a4 ,the modern schoolmaster is expected to know a little of everything1 because his pupil is required not to be entirely ignorant of anything4--,lamb4 #b4 ,if we dilate in beholding the ,greek energy1 the ,roman pride1 it is that we are already domesticating the same sentiment4--,emerson4 #c4 ,vulgarity is an eighth deadly sin1 worse than all the others put together1 since it perils your salvation in this world4--,lowell4 #d4 ,the top of ,blomidon is not the abode of storm winds alone1 for two houses stand upon it1 and the laughter of children rings cheerily among the evergreen groves4--,bolles4 #e4 ,but when ,i arose1 and felt it1 and knew it to be a culverin1 ,i was somewhat reassured thereby1 inasmuch as it was not likely that they would plant this engine except in the real and true entrance4--,blackmore4 #f4 ,he is certainly in correspondence with people on the continent1 for his letters have all sorts of odd stamps on them4--,collins4 #g4 ,because you are king of a nation1 it does not follow that you are to gather for yourself all the wealth of that nation4--,ruskin4 #i4 ,the waters of ,shirwa are brackish to the taste1 and undrinkable2 but the saltness must have a peculiar charm for game1 for nowhere else in ,africa did ,i see such splendid herds of the larger animals as here4--,drummond4 #aj4 ,the fury of the water which surrounds us was marvelous1 considering that there were no great waves1 and no storm to make waves4--,bolles4 #aa4 ,and these1 now that they had no longer anything to fear from their great ,italian adversary1 commenced partisan warfare on each other4--,draper4 #ab4 ,his black coat shines as if it had been polished2 and it has been polished on the wearer's back1 no doubt1 for the arms and other points of maximum attrition are particularly smooth and bright4--,holmes4 #ac4 ,as ,csar found no reason for supposing that there was a life beyond the grave1 he did not pretend to expect it4--,froude4 #ad4 ,its discovery by myself and dog probably opened the door for ill-luck1 as one day1 when ,i peeped in upon it1 it was empty4--,burroughs4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,clauses ,,of ,,purpose ,,and ,,result ,the preceding chapter treated of clauses bearing the relation of cause to the principal proposition and denoting something true or operative before the thought in the principal proposition was true or operative4 ,we have now to consider clauses which are the reverse of causal clauses1 namely1 final clauses4 ,these denote something that is true or will be true after what is stated in the principal proposition is true4 ,in other words1 they denote an end or a consequence realized or to be realized as a result or outcome of the statement in the principal proposition4 ,according to their relation to the principal proposition1 they may be classified as clauses of purpose and clauses of result4 99 99 99 99 99 #a4 ,the ,clause of ,purpose4--,the purpose clause denotes an intended consequence1 which is to follow from the action or condition expressed in the principal proposition2 as1 8,if natural death seemed to be coming on1 they would cut wounds in their flesh1 that ,odin might receive them as warriors slain40--,carlyle4 ,this sentence shows that the clause of purpose answers the question what for8 and is put into a sentence to explain or justify the act in the principal proposition4 ,it is evident that1 since a clause of purpose denotes an intended consequence of an act or condition1 that act or condition must be performed or brought about by some being capable of forming an intention1 hence the principal proposition states something1 either directly or indirectly1 about a voluntary act1 usually the act of a human being4 ,this is oftenest stated directly1 as in the example above2 but occasionally we find such sentences as the following1--8,the door of ,scrooge's counting-house was open that he might keep his eye upon his clerk40--,dickens4 ,here the clause by no means denotes the door's purpose in being open1 but ,scrooge's purpose in keeping it open4 ,the clause of purpose may be introduced by the conjunctions that1 so that1 in order that4 ,the negative purpose clause is introduced by lest 7 that not72 as1 8,we must both speak low lest she should waken40--,bront4 ,the clause of purpose is seldom met1 not because the purpose of an act is seldom told1 but because it can usually be told more briefly by means of the infinitive2 thus1 8,garrisons were established in the larger cities to keep down revolt and to enforce the payment of tribute40 99 99 99 99 99 #b4 ,the ,clause of ,result4--,this denotes not an intention but the consequence of the act or condition expressed in the principal proposition2 as1 8,the kingly power among the ,jews was checked and hedged by other powers1 so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult and unusual40--,lord4 ,the clause of result is often employed to tell the degree of some quality or attribute1 as in the sentence1--8,washington was so rigidly punctual that when ,hamilton1 his secretary1 pleaded a slow watch as an excuse for being five minutes late1 he replied1 #8,then1 sir1 either you must get a new watch or ,i must get a new secretary4'0 ,here the clause tells how punctual ,washington was1 but it does this by telling a result of his punctuality4 ,notice that in the first example the clause may be said to modify the verbs in the principal proposition1 was checked and was hedged1 but in the second sentence it modifies the verb and its complement1 was so rigidly punctual4 ,the clause of result is introduced by that1 so that1 or1 if both principal proposition and clause are negative1 by but or but that4 ,these connectives except so that are usually associated with the correlative so or such in the principal proposition4 ,this correlative modifies an adjective or an adverb1 and serves as a hint that a clause of result is to follow4 ,as an example of a negative clause of result1 we have the following sentence1--8,the long1 warm days of summer never return but they bring with them a gloom40--,lamb4 ,exercise #ad ,dispose of all final clauses in the following sentences4 #a4 ,the oak chooses the horizontal direction for its limbs so that their whole weight may tell1--and then stretches them out fifty or sixty feet so that the strain may be mighty enough to be worth resisting4--,holmes4 #b4 ,high forest-clad hills rose on every side1 enclosing the river1 so that its only method of escape was through deep rifts cut into their slopes4--,bolles4 #c4 ,every pot made by any human potter or brazier had a hole in its cover1 to let off the enemy1 lest he should lift pot and roof1 and carry the house away4--,emerson4 #d4 ,leonardo da ,vinci would walk the whole length of ,milan that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the ,last ,supper4--,trevelyan4 #e4 ,is the old ,grecian spirit frozen in your veins1 that you do crouch and cower like a belabored hound beneath his master's lash8--,kellogg4 #f4 ,i find myself so much like other people that ,i often wonder at the coincidence4--,holmes4 #g4 ,he wished the other examinations over1 that his own might come on4--,shorthouse4 #h4 ,the two young ,cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be helped4--,dickens4 #i4 ,even to this day they never hear a thunderstorm of a summer afternoon about the ,kaatskill1 but they say ,hendrick ,hudson and his crew are at their game of ninepins4--,irving4 #aj4 ,she had pushed her bonnet entirely off1 so that it hung by the strings at the back of her neck4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #aa4 ,and even ,scrooge was not so dreadfully cut up by the sad event but that he was an excellent man of business on the very day of the funeral1 and solemnized it with an undoubted bargain4--,dickens4 #ab4 ,the new ,ranee hated the seven poor ,princesses1 and wanted to get them1 if possible1 out of the way1 in order that her daughter might have all their riches4--,old ,deccan ,days4 ,exercise #ae ,analyze the following sentences3 ,these lofty trees ,wave not less proudly that their ancestors ,moulder beneath them4--,bryant4 #b4 ,dante shows us the punishment of sins against ,god and one's neighbor in order that we may shun them and so escape the doom that awaits them in the other world4--,lowell4 #c4 ,a man cannot bury his meanings so deep in his books but time and like-minded men will find them4--,emerson4 #d4 ,among people who submit to great physical suffering that they may have themselves handsomely tattooed1 extremes of temperature are borne with but little attempt at mitigation4--,spencer4 #e4 ,he is not tempted to levity or impatience1 for he does not see the joke and is thick-skinned to present evils4--,bagehot4 #f4 ,we should naturally think that excitement and pleasure and knowledge would make people happy1 since they stimulate the intellectual powers4--,lord4 #g4 ,then she dropped her head quickly1 so that her own face remained hidden1 and silently plied her work4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #h4 ,their visit was not wholly unexpected1 for his house1 which fronted the street1 was strongly barricaded1 the wicket gate of the prison was closed up1 and at no loop hole or grating was any person to be seen4--,dickens4 #i4 ,the larger trees he had girdled and killed in order that their foliage should not cast a shade4--,wm4 ,james4 #aj4 ,the ,watsons were doubtless rich people1 for they had the confidence of conscious wealth in their bearing4--,bront4 #aa4 ,there are actually districts in ,africa where three natives cannot be sent on a message in case two should combine and sell the third before they return4--,drummond4 #ab4 ,here was one who never resisted any temptation1 never had a desire but he coddled and pampered it4--,thackeray4 #ac4 ,a man cannot speak but he judges himself4--,emerson4 #ad4 ,for every bucket of water that ye bring to us1 that we may pour it into the tank1 which is the ,market1 behold6 we will give you a penny4--,bellamy4 #ae4 ,a ruined man staggers down to ruin because there was not wisdom enough in him4--,carlyle4 #af4 ,be clean1 for the strength of the hunter is known by the gloss of his hide4--,kipling4 #ag4 ,he only meant to walk up and down her street1 so that she might see him from the window1 and know that this splendid thing was he4--,barrie4 #ah4 ,if we wore prints1 instead of summer silks1 it was because we preferred a washing material4--,mrs4 ,gaskell4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,condition ,function4--,we are seldom able to make unqualified statements1 because few facts are universally true4 ,on the contrary1 we must carefully hedge in our statements by certain restrictions1 and a useful means for doing this is the adverbial clause of condition4 ,for instance1 8,the knight ever came to the rescue of a woman in danger or distress10 is a sweeping statement1 and would instantly be disputed unless we add the conditional clause1 8provided she was a lady40 ,such a clause is often so important that writers place it at the beginning of the sentence as if they wished to guard against contradiction or misunderstanding1 by putting their readers at once into the proper attitude for comprehending their principal statement4 ,if we examine a few typical sentences1 we shall see how useful is the condition clause in a variety of ways4 #a4 8,if nettles and thistles grow in my cabbage garden1 ,i don't try to persuade them to grow into cabbages40--,froude4 ,here the clause states a condition which is to be regarded as really taking place4 ,the idea of time is also associated with that of condition4 #b4 8,if1 in the least particular1 one could derange the order of nature1--who would accept the gift of life80--,emerson4 ,the clause here states an imaginary condition1 but at the same time implies what is the real state of the case2 namely1 that no one can1 in the least particular1 derange the order of nature4 #c4 8,i might have been a minister myself1 for aught ,i know1 if this clergyman had not looked and talked so like an undertaker40--,holmes4 ,here the sentence is so framed that the contrary of both clause and principal proposition is implied2 namely1 this clergyman did look and talk exactly like an undertaker1 hence ,i am not a minister4 ,is it not wonderful that by means of one set of words we may say two opposite things1 and not fail of being understood8 #d4 8,if ,i was ever weak enough to give anything to a petitioner of whatever nationality1 it always rained decayed compatriots of his for a month after40--,lowell4 ,here the subordinate thought is put into the form of a clause of condition1 but at the same time we understand that we are to find in it the cause of the principal proposition4 #e4 8,middlingness is always pardonable1 so that one does not ask others to take it for superiority40--,george ,eliot4 ,the clause is here a saving clause4 ,it states the exception necessary to be made in order that the principal proposition may be accepted as true4 #f4 8,if my friend was not a genius1 he was certainly a monomaniac40--,h4 ,james4 ,this sentence does not mean that my friend was a monomaniac provided he was not a genius1 but is a brief way of saying1--,if you assert that my friend was not a genius1 you will then have to admit that he was certainly a monomaniac4 #g4 8,she has met the equinoctials before1 if it is the equinoctials that are beginning40--,black4 ,here the clause does not state a condition for the principal proposition1 but for some thought not expressed1--this1 perhaps3 and can meet this storm4 ,in these sentences we have by no means shown all that may be accomplished by the conditional clause4 ,we have only indicated the types of sentences most frequently met with in which this clause occurs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what the ,conditional ,clause modifies4--,the conditional clause is usually brought into the sentence by the predicate of the principal proposition1 and so must be looked upon as an adjunct of that predicate4 ,sometimes1 however1 it modifies a gerund1 participle1 or infinitive4 ,in the sentence2--8,she must have a story1 well1 ill1 or indifferently told1 so there be life stirring in it1 and plenty of good or evil accidents10 the clause modifies the participle told after it has been modified by the adverbs well1 ill1 and indifferently4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--#a4 ,the subordinating conjunctions if1 so1 unless 7 if not74 #b4 ,the phrases on condition that1 conditionally that1 in case that1 provided that1 but that1 so that4 ,these should be considered as one word4 #c4 ,the imperatives say1 let1 suppose2 as1 8,suppose you were going to carpet a room1 would you use a carpet having representations of flowers upon it80--,dickens4 ,here the condition seems to be actual and present1 not imaginary4 #d4 ,the participles providing1 provided1 supposing4 ,the first two are especially useful in introducing a restriction4 ,sometimes there is no connective1 but the subordination and the nature of the clause are indicated by the order of the words1 the verb or its auxiliary being placed before the subject2 thus1 8,had ,i twenty girls1 they should be brought up exactly in this fashion40--,lamb4 ,exercise #af ,dispose of all clauses of condition in the following sentences3 #a4 ,if ,i had my will1 every idiot who goes about with #8,merry ,christmas' on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding and buried with a stake of holly through his heart4--,dickens4 #b4 ,despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians1 provided the end be their improvement1 and the means justified by actually effecting that end4--,mill4 #c4 ,education will not make people happy1 unless it is directed into useful channels4--,lord4 #d4 ,the hall was open to all who came on condition that the guest should leave his weapons at the door4--,besant4 #e4 ,should a man discover the art of transmuting metals1 and present us with a lump of gold as large as an ostrich egg1 would it be in human nature to inquire too nicely whether he had stolen the lead8--,lowell4 #f4 ,he made very few rules1 and in case one was broken in spirit or in letter1 the delinquent was set up on a high stool behind a small1 long-legged desk1 facing the school1 and made to read from the bad boy's scrap book4--,annie ,preston4 #g4 ,if you would not be known to do a thing1 never do it4--,emerson4 #h4 ,while you utterly shun slang1 whether native or foreign born1--at present1 by the way1 our popular writers use far less slang than the ,english1--yet do not shrink from ,americanisms1 so they be good ones4--,higginson4 #i4 ,the ,saxon is the man of all others slow to admit the thought of revolution2 but let him once admit it1 he will carry it through and make it stick--a secret hitherto undiscoverable by other races4--,lowell4 #aj4 ,had it been wholly serious1 it would not have been wholly ,french4--,higginson4 #aa4 ,if he was ambitious1 his ambition had no petty aim4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ab4 ,talents are absolutely nothing to a man except he have the faculty of work along with them4--,lowell4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,concession ,function4--,in the compound sentence1--8,the whale is not a fish1 but we speak of the #8whale fishery1'0 we have joined two thoughts which are opposed to each other1 but we have made them of equal importance4 ,now1 if we wish to make one of them more prominent1 and at the same time indicate that it is true in spite of the other1 we construct our sentence as follows1--8,the whale is not a fish though we speak of the #8whale fishery4'0 ,here the main thought is the whale is not a fish1 and by the form in which we have expressed the other thought1 we have shown not only that there is an opposition between the two thoughts1--which was likewise shown in the compound sentence1--but also that it is strange that the two thoughts are true at the same time when they seem mutually contradictory4 ,this second sentence is complex1 and the dependent proposition is an adverbial clause of concession4 ,it does not necessarily indicate that two thoughts are opposed to each other2 sometimes they only stand in contrast2 as1 8,while 7 though7 his fame rests on his ,meditations1 as that of ,david rests upon his ,psalms1 he yet rendered great military service to ,the ,empire40--,lord4 ,we may define a concessive clause as one that concedes or grants something in contrast or opposition to what is expressed in the principal proposition4 ,it modifies a verb or a verb with modifiers4 ,it varies but little in function1 the slight variations being indicated by the choice of the introductory word4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--#a4 ,though or although4 ,this is the conjunction oftenest used2 indeed1 all the other words or phrases used are more or less equivalent to it in meaning4 ,albeit was formerly much used1 and we occasionally find it in poetry now1 but it is very seldom used in spoken ,english or in ordinary prose composition4 #b4 ,whether4--,this word with its correlative or is used when we wish to say that a thing is true in spite of two other facts or conditions which are contrary to each other2 as1 8,the balconies are always charming1 whether they hang high over the streets or look out upon the canals40--,howells4 #c4 ,the indefinite pronouns whoever1 whatever1 whichever2 the adjectives whatever and whichever2 and the adverb however4 ,these words signify that the clause is to be taken in its widest possible application2 as1 8,upon whatever career you may enter1 intellectual quickness1 industry1 and the power of bearing fatigue are three great advantages40--,huxley4 ,here the clause means1--though you may enter upon any career whatsoever4 #d4 ,no matter4--,this phrase together with the adverb how is a frequent substitute for the connective however4 ,it emphasizes the scope of the clause and thus makes the opposition between the principal proposition and the clause seem greater2 thus1 8,the guns can be fired in any direction1 no matter how the ship is lying40 #e4 ,while4--,in some sentences this is nearly equivalent to though2 in others it carries with it an idea of time as well as concession2 thus1 8,both ,charles himself and his creature ,laud1 while they abjured the innocent badges of popery1 retained all its worst vices40--,macaulay4 #f4 ,if4--,when the adversative relation between the two propositions is perfectly clear without being indicated by the connective1 if or even if may be employed in the place of though4 ,a concessive clause so introduced must not be confounded with the clause of condition4 ,in the latter if can be changed to provided2 in the former if is equivalent to though2 for example1 8,if the scenery failed to charm1 the names of places did not fail to astonish us40--,bolles4 #g4 ,notwithstanding or notwithstanding that4--,the former of these is more frequently met with as a preposition introducing a concessive phrase and meaning about the same as in spite of2 thus1 8,notwithstanding the increasing illness of his sister1 he was able to enjoy some cheerful society40--,ainger4 ,but sentences like the following are not uncommon1--8,notwithstanding the wind was favorable to each alike1 both vessels had deviated from the direct line and were steering toward a common center40--,cooper4 #h4 ,a common form of the concessive clause is one in which an adjective1 a verb1 an adverb1 or a noun comes first1 followed sometimes by though1 oftener by as4 ,this order of words arises from our desire to make prominent or emphatic some particular attribute2 as1 8,strange as it may appear1 even the baron's jokes seemed only to render him the more melancholy40--,irving4 ,here the attribute strange is emphasized4 ,that such a clause is only an ordinary clause of concession transposed for a special purpose1 with as substituted for though1 becomes evident by comparing it with the clause in the following1-- 8,thy brow1 ,glorious in beauty though it be1 is scarred ,with tokens of old wars40--,bryant4 ,transposing this clause to the natural order1 we have1 8though it be glorious in beauty40 ,in sentences containing a concessive clause the principal proposition is sometimes introduced by yet1 a correlative of the connective in the clause4 ,yet is often used when the clause comes first and is long4 ,it is useful in calling attention to the fact that the concession has all been stated1 gathering it up1 as it were1 into one word before the principal statement is made4 ,exercise #ag ,dispose of all concessive clauses in the following sentences4 #a4 ,the ,icelanders say that 8,iceland is the best land the sun shines on10 though the sun scarcely shines enough to melt the ice in summer4--,munger4 #b4 ,no man1 whatever his sensibility may be1 is ever affected by ,hamlet or ,lear1 as a little girl is affected by the story of poor ,red-,ridinghood4--,macaulay4 #c4 ,if they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets1 they were deeply read in the oracles of ,god4 ,if their names were not found in the registers of heralds1 they were recorded in the ,book of ,life4 ,if their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials1 legions of ministering angels had charge over them4--,macaulay4 #d4 ,and1 again1 while the ,greeks rightly despised mechanical arts as much as the ,egyptians1 they did not make the fatal mistake of despising agricultural and pastoral life4--,ruskin4 #e4 ,well-advanced as ,hepzibah was1 she could not remember when ,uncle ,venner had not gone up and down the street1 stooping a little and drawing his feet heavily over the gravel or pavement4--,hawthorne4 #f4 ,on whichever side of the border chance had thrown ,joanna1 the same love to ,france would have been nurtured4--,de ,quincey4 #g4 ,energetic men1 whether they work or whether they play1 put their strength into the work and their strength into the play4--,ruskin4 #h4 ,darwin misses no step that the slow but tireless gods of physical change have taken1 no matter how they cross or retrace their course4--,burroughs4 #i4 ,though the cause of ,evil prosper1 yet 'tis ,truth alone is strong2 ,and1 albeit she wander outcast now1 ,i see around her throng ,troops of beautiful1 tall angels1 to enshield her from all wrong4 --,lowell4 #aj4 ,thought is thought1 howe'er it speak or spell itself4--,carlyle4 #aa4 ,she would not marry a coward or a braggart even if he were the owner of ten thousand acres4--,lord4 #ab4 ,father ,salvierderra always said that it was a duty to look happy1 no matter how much we might be suffering4--,h4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,adverbial ,,clause ,,of ,,degree ,,or ,,comparison ,function4--,in ,chapter ,,xi4 we showed that the manner in which an action is performed is often denoted by an adverbial clause4 ,now1 it may sometimes be denoted by an adverb1 as in the sentence1--,he accumulated his learning quietly4 ,but1 in order to give force and point to this adverb1 it is frequently accompanied by a clause of degree bringing in a comparison2 thus1 8,he accumulated his learning as quietly as a stout lady accumulates her fat1 by the daily satisfaction of his appetite40--,hamerton4 ,by comparing the quietness with which he accumulated learning to the quietness with which a stout lady accumulates fat1 we provide a standard or illustration for the first thought1 and so make it clear and impressive4 ,we often wish to tell in what degree a certain attribute is possessed4 ,this may be done by a clause of result1 as was seen in ,chapter ,,xiv41 but we may also do it by comparison2 for example1 8,thou shalt be happy as heart can wish40 ,here the degree of happiness thou shalt have is fixed by saying that it is equal to what thy heart wishes4 ,number and amount often cannot be told absolutely but may be told relatively by means of a comparison2 thus1 8,mrs4 ,patten had more respect for her neighbor ,mr4 ,hackit than for most people40--,george ,eliot4 ,it would hardly be possible or worth while to tell exactly the amount of respect that ,mrs4 ,patten had for ,mr4 ,hackit1 but it is worth telling how this respect compared with the respect she had for other people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,classification of ,clauses of ,degree4--#a4 ,a sentence may assert that two attributes are equal in degree2 as1 8,they were as timid and cowardly as they were rebellious40--,lord4 ,here the degree of their timidity and cowardice is shown by comparing these qualities with their rebelliousness1 and the two sets of attributes are found to be equal4 ,the clause in such a sentence is usually introduced by the subordinating conjunction as1 and a correlative of this word usually precedes the word in the principal proposition denoting the idea to be compared4 ,the first as is an adverb1 being an adjunct of either an adjective or an adverb4 ,it may be omitted1 as was shown in the sentence1--,thou shalt be happy as heart can wish4 ,a clause denoting equality of degree is sometimes introduced by as if1 which may be considered a compound conjunction unless we choose to supply the ellipsis4 ,in the following sentence from ,henry ,james1 8,i found as great a fascination in watching the odd lights and shades of his character as if he had been a creature from another planet10--we may supply between as and if the words ,i would have found1 thus obtaining a clause of degree having within it a clause of condition4 ,if the whole comparison is placed first in the sentence1 the principal proposition is introduced by so followed by the word denoting the respect in which two ideas are compared2 as1 8,but1 as eminently as ,homer is plain1 so eminently is the ,elizabethan literature in general1 and ,chapman in particular1 fanciful40--,arnold4 ,the words so eminently are not necessary for the complete structure of the sentence1 but they add to its clearness4 ,a statement containing a comparison of equality may be denied by means of the negative adverb not1 so that the sentence amounts finally to an assertion of inequality in degree2 thus1 8,he is not by any means so wise as he looks40 #b4 ,a sentence may assert that two attributes are unequal in degree2 for example1 8,the manner of saying things often makes a deeper impression than the thing that is said 7makes740--,brook4 ,here the impression made by the manner of speaking and the impression made by the thing spoken are compared and said to be unequal in depth4 ,the clause in such a sentence is introduced by the subordinating conjunction than1 and is always an adjunct of some word in the comparative degree1 or the words else1 other1 otherwise1 or rather1 the last being in reality a comparative of the ,old ,english word rathe4 ,when a statement signifying inequality is denied by some negative word1 the sentence amounts to a statement of equality2 thus1 8,it is not more certain that ,sarah ,gamp liked her beer drawn mild than it is that your ,englishman likes his poetry cut short40--,birrell4 ,in clauses of both varieties given above there is often an ellipsis1 the words omitted being those already expressed in the principal proposition and hence easily supplied4 ,in the sentence1 8,mrs4 ,patten had more respect for her neighbor ,mr4 ,hackit than for most people10 when we analyze the clause we must fill it out so as to make it read1 than she had respect for most people4 #c4 ,the clause of degree may tell not that things stand to each other in a relation of equality or inequality1 but that they vary in the same proportion2 thus1 8,the deeper the snow1 the nearer the rabbit is brought to the tops of the tender bushes and shrubs40--,burroughs4 ,here the rabbit's nearness to the tops of the shrubs is said to vary with the depth of the snow4 ,in sentences of this sort1 both principal proposition and subordinate proposition are constructed in the same form1 but the principal proposition may always be ascertained by questioning the sentence2 for example1 does the foregoing sentence assert that the depth of snow varies with the rabbit's nearness1 or that the rabbit's nearness varies with the depth of snow8 ,clearly1 the latter4 ,indeed1 it will almost invariably be found that in a sentence of this kind1 especially if it be addressed to the eye1 the second proposition contains the principal thought4 ,sentences of this kind are often much abridged2 thus1 8,the more1 the merrier10 8,the sooner1 the better40 ,another form of the idiomatic sentence just given is one which makes use of the connective in proportion as2 for example1 8,people dread to be thought unsafe in proportion as they get their living by being thought to be safe40--,bagehot4 ,this can easily be changed to the older form1--8,the more people get their living by being thought to be safe1 the more do they dread to be thought unsafe40 ,,note4--,according as may be used in place of in proportion as1 as in the following sentence1--8,the ,sonnets are more or less striking according as the occasions which gave birth to them are more or less interesting40--,macaulay4 ,another form of this comparison is one in which the two propositions are introduced by the prepositional phrases by as much and by so much2 for example1 8,look at the most vigorous species2 by as much as it swarms in numbers1 by so much will it tend to increase still further40 #d4 ,a fourth variety of the clause of degree is found in the following sentence1--8,night in the tropics1 so far as animal life is concerned1 is as the day40--,drummond4 ,here the group of words1 so far as animal life is concerned1 tells the extent or degree to which night is like day4 ,it might be separated into the base-word far modified by the adverb so and the clause as animal life is concerned2 but it does not seem to be the author's purpose to institute any comparison whatever1 hence it is better to consider the whole group of words as one element denoting degree1 and treat so far as as one subordinating connective4 ,sometimes a clause of this kind performs a double duty4 ,it gives the reason or ground for the main assertion and at the same time makes that assertion somewhat doubtful2 for example1 8,as far as ,i could observe when the meeting broke up1 they separated without remark on the sermon40--,emerson4 ,here the principal statement is based upon the writer's observation when the meeting broke up2 but he implies that his main assertion may not be true1 for his observation may not have extended far enough to warrant any certainty in his conclusion4 ,exercise #ah ,dispose of all clauses of degree in the following sentences4 #a4 ,never did people believe anything more firmly than nine ,englishmen out of ten at the present day believe that our greatness and welfare are proved by our being so very rich4--,m4 ,arnold4 #b4 ,a shocking bad hat is perhaps as indifferent to ,gladstone as a dirty old cloak was to ,socrates4--,lord4 #c4 ,so far as a man thinks1 he is free4--,emerson4 #d4 ,no nobler feeling than this of admiration for one higher than himself dwells in the breast of man4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,the drier the air1 and the hotter the air1 the greater is the amount of cloud which can be dissolved in it4--,tyndall4 #f4 ,the heretic was excluded1 so far as ecclesiastical dogma could exclude him1 from the pale of humanity1 from consecrated earth1 and from eternal salvation4--,motley4 #g4 ,the face of the water in time became a wonderful book--a book that was a dead language to the uneducated passenger1 but which told its mind to me without reserve1 delivering its most cherished secrets as clearly as if it uttered them with a voice4--,s4 ,l4 ,clemens4 #h4 ,leave a youth idle2 and1 the more brave and active and capable he is by nature1 the more he will thirst for some appointed field for action4--,ruskin4 #i4 ,a long1 dark hall stretched before me1 extending1 as well as ,i could judge in the gloom1 entirely across the house4--,page4 #aj4 ,the trumpet does not more stun you by its loudness1 than a whisper teases you by its provoking inaudibility4--,lamb4 #aa4 ,the less a man thinks or knows about his virtues1 the better we like him4--,emerson4 #ab4 ,as far as ,i can make out1 the ,league was founded by an ,american millionaire4--,conan ,doyle4 #ac4 ,in proportion as men know more and think more1 they look less at individuals and more at classes4--,macaulay4 #ad4 ,to me the silence of a summer morning is more touching than all other silences4--,de ,quincey4 #ae4 ,but by as much as ,kipling surpasses other poets and novelists in originality1 by so much does he surpass them in methodical industry4--,hillis4 ,exercise #ai ,analyze the following sentences3-- #a4 ,he who refuses to embrace a unique opportunity loses the prize as surely as if he tried and failed4--,wm4 ,james4 #b4 ,if they embroidered dresses or worked tapestries1 they also wove the cloth for their husbands' coats and made his shirts and knit his stockings4--,lord4 #c4 ,if ,i had my way1 ,i would give the same education to the child of the collier and to the child of the peer4--,kingsley4 #d4 ,fat as he is1 and old as he is1 his movements are astonishingly light and easy4--,collins4 #e4 ,the more we reflect upon this question1 the harder it is to answer4--,stockton4 #f4 ,and no matter how superior you think yourselves1 you will not pass here till you have something of your own to produce4--,froude4 #g4 ,inglesant remained in prison1 and would have thought that he had been forgotten1 but that every few weeks he was sent for by the ,committee and examined4--,shorthouse4 #h4 ,i hardly know anything more strange than that you recognize honesty in play1 and you do not in work4--,ruskin4 #i4 ,though we believe that the intentions of ,cromwell were at first honest1 though we believe that he was driven from the noble course which he had marked out for himself by the almost irresistible course of circumstances1 though we admire in common with all men of all parties the ability and energy of his splendid administration1 we are not pleading for arbitrary and lawless power even in his hands4--,macaulay4 #aj4 ,much would be lost1 had ,iceland not been burst up from the sea1 not been discovered by the ,northmen4--,carlyle4 #aa4 ,clam and worm might be forever undisturbed so far as he was concerned4--,j4 ,t4 ,fields4 #ab4 ,if pride of rank was generated in this fraternity of gentlemen1 so also was scorn of lies and baseness4--,lord4 #ac4 ,but ,i soon found that my lines had fallen in a place where a vegetable growth had to run the gauntlet of as many foes and trials as a ,christian pilgrim4--,holmes4 #ad4 ,the oriole shortens up its nest in proportion as the danger lessens4--,burroughs4 #ae4 ,suppose ,i gave you something to eat1 would you listen to me afterward8--,miss ,mulock4 #af4 ,lord ,mohun alone among historians1 so far as my knowledge goes1 has done fit and full justice to the ,french ,parliaments4--,higginson4 #ag4 ,no one is so blind to his own faults as a man who has the habit of detecting the faults of others4--,faber4 #ah4 ,so high as the tree aspires to grow1 so high will it find an atmosphere suited to it4--,thoreau4 #ai4 ,and if you emigrate1 you will soon find out1 if you have eyes and common-sense1 that the vegetable wealth of the world is no more exhausted than its mineral wealth4--,kingsley4 #bj4 ,but music and painting1 though they may be exquisite adornments of life1 contain no living force that can develop a weak nation into a strong one4--,draper4 ,exercise #bj ,sentences containing all kinds of dependent propositions4 #a4 ,when you feel a true admiration for a teacher1 a glow of enthusiasm for work1 a thrill of pleasure at some excellent saying1 give it expression4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #b4 ,though his opinions were democratic1 his tastes and his associations were such as harmonize best with monarchy and aristocracy4--,macaulay4 #c4 ,you tremble when you think of how your sin has outgrown itself1 and is running far1 far away where you can never follow it4--,phillips ,brooks4 #d4 ,broad steps ascended to a terrace broad1 ,whereon lay still light from the open door4--,james ,thomson4 #e4 ,mankind in the aggregate is always wiser than any single man1 because its experience is derived from a larger range of observation and experience1 and because the springs that feed it drain a wider region both of time and space4--,lowell4 #f4 ,whatever is fated1 that will take place4--,emerson4 #g4 ,whenever it is proved that a man broke one of the ,ten ,commandments1 it is roundly replied that in his day there were only nine4--,stephen4 #h4 ,the market-place and the factory owe much to thinkers1 just as the branches bowing down with ripe fruit owe much to the roots working in silence and darkness4--,hillis4 #i4 ,i myself must mix with action lest ,i wither by despair4--,tennyson4 #aj4 ,the ,lone ,wolf must have sprung and missed his hold1 for ,mowgli heard the snap of his teeth and then a yelp as the ,sambhur knocked him over with his forefoot4--,kipling4 #aa4 ,the poorest and the richest students are equally welcome here1 provided that with their poverty or their wealth they bring capacity1 ambition1 and purity4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #ab4 ,in the elder days of art1 ,builders wrought with greatest care ,each minute and unseen part2 ,for the gods see everywhere4--,longfellow4 #ac4 ,i have no expectation that any man will read history aright who thinks that what was done in a remote age by men whose names have resounded far1 has any deeper sense than what he is doing today4--,emerson4 #ad4 ,wherever men are gathered1 all the air ,is charged with human feeling1 human thought4 --,james ,thomson4 #ae4 ,i talk half the time to find out my own thoughts1 as a schoolboy turns his pockets inside out to see what is in them4--,holmes4 #af4 ,let us therefore send for the soothsayers1 that they may interpret this thing unto us4--,bellamy4 #ag4 ,examples would indeed be excellent things1 were not people so modest that none will set1 and so vain that none will follow them4--,hare4 #ah4 ,be the reasons what they may1 the influence of generals1 statesmen1 and inventors is less deep and abiding than the influence of those poets who have sung of love and grief1 of war and worship1 and of the shepherd-care of ,god4--,hillis4 #ai4 ,the ,turk1 who believes that his doom is written on the iron leaf in the moment when he entered the world1 rushes on the enemy's sabre with undivided will4--,emerson4 #bj4 ,where a man can trust his own heart and those of his friends1 tomorrow is as good as today4--,stevenson4 #ba4 ,have you ever observed that we pay much more attention to a wise passage when it is quoted than when we read it in the original author8--,hamerton4 #bb4 ,if thou art worn and hard beset ,with sorrows1 that thou would'st forget1 ,if thou would'st read a lesson that will keep ,thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep1 ,go to the woods and hills4--,longfellow4 #bc4 ,while1 therefore1 good nature depends on the physical organization1 and cannot be cultivated by effort2 while good humor depends on circumstances1 and is no part of the man himself1--good temper is something which we can all acquire1 if we choose4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #bd4 ,and what wicked thing have you done1 that they should haunt you so8--,r4 ,h4 ,dana1 ,sr4 #be4 ,there is no poltroon in the world but can brag about what he would have done4--,thackeray4 #bf4 ,it is the bit of truth in every slander1 the hint of likeness in every caricature1 that makes us smart4--,lowell4 #bg4 ,no man has learned anything rightly until he knows that every day is ,doomsday4--,emerson4 #bh4 ,calvin1 whose life was darkened by disease1 had a morbid and gloomy element in his theology4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,compound ,,sentence ,in our study of dependent propositions1 we have considered in the main the complex sentence4 ,we shall now take up the compound sentence1 whose distinguishing characteristic is that it contains at least two independent propositions4 ,these propositions with their accompanying clauses1 if any1 constitute the members of a compound or complex-compound sentence1 and such a sentence may be classified according to the relation subsisting between its members4 ,on the basis of this relation we have the following classification3-- #a4 ,members may be in the same line of thought2 that is1 they may denote related events succeeding each other in time1 or they may tell similar things about the same subject1 or the second may be added to the first by way of supplementing or explaining it1 etc4 ,sentences of this kind are very common2 as1 8,we consecrate our work to the spirit of national independence1 and we wish that the light of peace may rest upon it forever40--,webster4 ,connective4--,for members in the same line of thought the typical conjunction is and4 ,all the other connectives so used are equivalent to and1 though they may have a slight additional meaning4 ,these are1-- 7a7 ,the cordinating conjunction nor or neither1 equivalent to and not2 as1 8,bolts and bars are not the best of our institutions1 nor is shrewdness in trade a mark of wisdom40--,emerson4 7b7 ,while4--,this must be carefully distinguished from the subordinating conjunction while1 and from while used to cordinate but equivalent to but2 as1 8,his lower limbs were sheathed like his body in flexible mail1 securing the legs and thighs1 while 7 and7 his feet rested in plated shoes which corresponded with the gauntlets40--,scott4 ,a common type of sentence which it seems best to classify here is one in which the first member is imperative1 the second declarative1 and the two joined by and2 as1 8,tell me what you like1 and ,i will tell you what you are40--,ruskin4 ,this is equivalent in meaning to a complex sentence containing a clause of condition1--8,if you tell me what you like1 ,i will tell you what you are40 ,but1 inasmuch as the author used and between his two propositions1 it would seem that he intended the condition to be equally important with the second statement4 ,sentences of this kind have a directness of appeal to the reader that gives them a peculiar force4 #b4 ,the members of a compound sentence may denote contrasting thoughts2 as1 8,in cities we study those around us1 but in the retirement of the country we learn to know ourselves40--,longfellow4 ,the second member often denotes a thought not to be expected after the first has been accepted2 as1 8,boys are capital fellows in their own way1 among their mates2 but they are unwholesome companions for grown people40--,lamb4 ,this sentence reminds us of the complex sentence containing a clause of concession1 for it might easily be recasted into one1--,though boys are capital fellows1 etc4 ,connective4--,the typical conjunction for this sentence is but2 all the substitutes for but are merely its various equivalents4 ,these are1-- 7a7 ,the conjunctions yet1 while1 and yet1 whereas2 as1 8,it is no longer a reality2 yet it was one40--,carlyle4 7b7 ,the adverbs still1 only1 nevertheless1 however4 ,these are conjunctions when used alone between independent propositions1 adverbs when associated with but4 ,they all imply an opposition between the two members2 for example1 8,he is glad of his pay--very properly so1 and justly grumbles when you keep him ten years without it--still1 his main notion of life is to win battles1 not to be paid for winning them40--,ruskin4 #c4 ,members of a compound sentence may present an alternation or choice between two thoughts4 ,in such a case only one of the members is true2 as1 8,come down and help us1 ,rustum1 or we lose40--,m4 ,arnold4 ,if the first proposition here is fulfilled1 the second will not be true4 ,if the second should be true1 it would be because the first was not fulfilled4 ,often1 as in this example1 the second member denotes a consequence of something which is the direct opposite of what is stated in the first member4 ,connective word4--7a7 ,the typical connective is the cordinating conjunction or4 ,sometimes the first member is preceded by either1 a correlative of or4 ,it may be remarked here that or is much oftener met between words or phrases than between propositions4 7b7 ,the adverbs else and otherwise when equivalent to or may be used in its stead4 #d4 ,the second member of a compound sentence may denote a result of the first1 either a direct consequence or a conclusion4 ,in other words1 the first member may denote 7a7 the cause of the second member2 as1 8,they speak ,english there1 so your difficulties are now pretty well over40--,bront4 7b7 ,the evidence which supports the second member2 as1 8,he was not at church ,sunday1 hence he must have been ill40 ,such sentences suggest the complex sentences containing a clause of real cause or a clause of reason2 and owing to the causal relation between the two members1 it may seem at first sight that one of them is a dependent proposition4 ,but such is not the case4 ,each of them is grammatically independent2 for both are presented as equally important1 and the cordinating conjunction and could be supplied between them in addition to the other conjunction4 ,connective4--,the typical conjunction is therefore4 ,we also find hence1 wherefore1 so1 so that1 so then1 consequently and accordingly1 all of which are equivalent to therefore4 #e4 ,frequently one member is added to another by way of explanation1 giving the author's reason for making the first statement4 ,it is introduced by for and usually preceded by a semicolon2 thus1 8,always pay2 for first or last you must pay your entire debt40--,emerson4 ,it is sometimes difficult to decide whether the second member is independent or dependent1 whether for is a cordinating or a subordinating conjunction4 ,the tests for the independent proposition must be these3--,did the author intend the second member to stand equal in importance to the first8 ,does the second member add something not necessary to the first member or affecting its meaning8 ,does the second member express a thought not perhaps in the author's mind when he wrote the first8 99 99 99 99 99 ,omission of the ,conjunction in ,compound ,sentences4--,often when the relation between two members is perfectly evident1 the connective is omitted4 ,this frequently occurs when the members are in the same line of thought2 as1 8,the place to observe nature is where you are2 the walk to take today is the walk you took yesterday40--,burroughs4 ,the connective is also omitted to avoid repetition when the sentence contains several members1 all sustaining the same relation to one another4 ,it should1 however1 be noticed here that authors differ in their mode of punctuation4 ,one author might combine two sentences into one compound sentence by placing a semicolon between them1 whereas another would place a period after each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,number of ,members in a ,compound ,sentence4--,in illustrating compound sentences we have given those that contain only two members1 but it must not be supposed that the number is restricted to two4 ,on the contrary we often find three or more4 ,however1 these are not often all of the same rank1 and the sentence must first be separated into cordinate members1 then if these members are compound they must be separated in like manner1 and so on4 ,take1 for instance1 the sentence1--8,genius is mainly an affair of energy1 and poetry is mainly an affair of genius2 therefore a nation whose spirit is characterized by energy may well be eminent in poetry1--and we have ,shakespeare40--,m4 ,arnold4 ,this complex-compound sentence is1 first of all1 made up of a compound sentence and a complex-compound sentence4 ,the relation between these two members is that of cause and result1 the second being a consequence of the first1 as is indicated by the conjunction therefore4 ,the first of these members is made up of two simple sentences in the same line of thought1 therefore joined by the conjunction and4 ,the second member is made up of a complex sentence and a simple sentence1 the second being an addition to the first and therefore joined to it by and4 ,exercise #ba ,reduce the following sentences to their component members--simple1 partially compound1 or complex4 ,state whether these members are declarative1 interrogative1 or imperative4 ,state also the relation existing between members1 and point out the connective4 #a4 ,occupy a youth early and wisely1 in agriculture or business1 in science or in literature1 and he will never think of war otherwise than as a calamity4--,ruskin4 #b4 ,one lackey carried the chocolate pot into the sacred presence2 a second milled and frothed the chocolate with the little instrument he bore for that function2 a third presented the favored napkin2 a fourth 7he of the two gold watches7 poured the chocolate out4--,dickens4 #c4 ,there was not a nook or a corner in the whole house fit to lodge any respectable ghost2 for every part was as open to observation as a literary man's character and condition1 his figure and estate4--,holmes4 #d4 ,the word lengthy has been charged to our ,american account1 but it must have been invented by the first reader of ,gower's works1 the only inspiration of which they were ever capable4--,lowell4 #e4 ,whenever and wherever we turned1 a sudden 8tinkle-tankle0 would show that we had nearly fallen over a prostrate cow2 therefore after half an hour of darkness1 ditches1 and cows1 we returned to the hotel and its comforts4--,bolles4 #f4 ,ye have quitted the ways of ,god or ye would not have been unhappy4--,carlyle4 #g4 ,glossy hammock-cloths concealed the persons of those who were on the deck1 while the close bulwarks gave the brigantine the air of a vessel equipped for war4--,cooper4 #h4 ,the trees have formed their buds in autumn every year since trees first waved2 yet you will find that the great majority of persons have never made that discovery1 but suppose that nature gets up those ornaments in spring4--,higginson4 #i4 ,marble columns may1 indeed1 moulder into dust1 time may erase all impress from the crumbling stone1 but their fame remains2 for with ,american liberty it rose1 and with ,american liberty only can it perish4--,webster4 #aj4 ,commit a crime1 and the earth is made of glass4--,emerson4 #aa4 ,the first attempt of the season1 ,i suspect1 had failed in a more secluded place under the hill1 so the pair had come up nearer the house for protection4--,burroughs4 #ab4 ,with a very few exceptions1 both the red and the white coral polyps are1 in their adult state1 firmly adherent to the sea-bottom2 nor do these buds naturally become detached and locomotive4--,huxley4 #ac4 ,but hospitality must be for service and not for show1 or it pulls down the host4--,emerson4 #ad4 ,the wide expanse of grassy upland stretched before them2 overhead the arch of heaven1 chequered by the white clouds1 was full of life and light and motion2 across the water of the lakes the church bells1 rung for amusement by the village lads1 came to the ear softened and yet enriched in tone2 the spring air1 fanned by a fresh breeze1 refreshed the spirits and the sense4--,shorthouse4 #ae4 ,milton's nature selected and drew to itself whatever was great and good1 while it rejected all the base and pernicious ingredients by which those finer elements were defiled4--,macaulay4 #af4 ,let us drive her away or hide the pomeloes1 else she will go and tell her mother all about it1 and that will be very bad for us4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #ag4 ,as a matter of fact we find ourselves believing1 we hardly know how or why4--,wm4 ,james4 #ah4 ,a man can have himself shot with cheerfulness1 but it needs first that he see clearly for what4--,carlyle4 ,exercise #bb ,analyze the following compound1 and complex-compound sentences4 ,they should first be separated into members1 as was done with sentences in ,exercise #ba4 #a4 ,a discovery results in an art2 an art produces a comfort2 a comfort made cheaply accessible adds family on family to the population2 and a family is a new creation of thinking1 reasoning1 inventing1 and discovering beings4--,everett4 #b4 ,all healthy people like their dinners1 but their dinner is not the main object of their lives4--,ruskin4 #c4 ,human nature has a much greater genius for sameness than for originality1 or the world would be at a sad pass shortly4--,lowell4 #d4 ,they come together1 not for exercise1 but pleasure1 and the more they crowd and cram and struggle1 and the louder they scream1 the greater the pleasure4--,warner4 #e4 ,each shrub and tree is eloquent of him2 ,for tongueless things and silence have their speech4--,aldrich4 #f4 ,william had only a two-wheeled sulky1 which could scarcely carry three2 so it was a relief to all of us when we saw1 coming from the bar1 a youth in a wagon1 driving a sprightly nag at a rattling pace4--,bolles4 #g4 ,give man air1 sun1 proper food and clothing1 ample and varied exercise1 and there is no curve of grace in ancient statuary which would not be reproduced today4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #h4 ,by ,red ,flower ,bagheera meant fire1 only no creature in the jungle will call fire by its proper name4--,kipling4 #i4 ,you must make it quite clear to your mind which you are most bent upon--popularity or usefulness--else you may happen to miss both4--,george ,eliot4 #aj4 ,nature comes home to one most when he is at home2 the stranger and the traveler finds her a stranger and a traveler also4--,burroughs4 #aa4 ,a book without art is simply a commodity2 it may be exceedingly valuable to the consumer1 very profitable to the producer1 but it does not come within the domain of pure literature4--,higginson4 #ab4 ,either the well was very deep or she fell very slowly1 for she had plenty of time as she went down to look about her and to wonder what was going to happen next4--,lewis ,carroll4 #ac4 ,nothing sooner inspires people with confidence in a business man than punctuality1 nor is there any habit which sooner saps his reputation than that of being always behind time4 #ad4 ,three sisters they are1 of one mysterious household2 and their paths are wide apart2 but of their dominion there is no end4--,de ,quincey4 #ae4 ,it is a blessed thing1 indeed1 that none of us can take our rubbish to another world2 for1 if we could1 some of the many mansions would be little better than lumber rooms4--,jean ,ingelow4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,conjunction ,,in ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,uses ,in our study of complex and compound sentences we have noted the office of conjunctions1 both subordinating and cordinating1 so far as they join propositions4 ,but this is by no means their sole office nor their most common one4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,cordinating ,conjunction4--,the abridgment of propositions has been carried so far that we find the cordinating conjunctions1 and1 or1 but1 joining words or phrases just as often as propositions1 for example1 8,the intimacy between man and nature began with the birth of man on the earth1 and becomes each century more intelligent and far-reaching40 ,the first and joins the two nouns man and nature1 the second the two predicates whose base-words are the verbs began and becomes1 the third the two adjective complements more intelligent and more far-reaching4 ,there is nothing at all peculiar or difficult in this use of the conjunction1 for we naturally expect it to join any two like elements1 provided they have the same office in the sentence4 ,occasionally1 however1 we find it joining unlike elements2 for example1 8,st4 ,edmund punishes terribly yet with mercy40--,carlyle4 ,here yet joins two modifiers of the verb punishes1 but one is an adverb1 the other a prepositional phrase4 ,a common substitute for and when it joins words or phrases is as well as1 the whole group of words having the value of one conjunction2 as1 8,truth needs the wisdom of the serpent as well as the simplicity of the dove40--,helps4 ,this conjunction has a peculiar force4 ,by its aid the sentence just quoted tells us not that truth needs two qualities1 which the conjunction and would imply1 but rather that1 while everybody grants that truth needs the simplicity of the dove1 it is the author's opinion that she needs1 too1 the wisdom of the serpent4 ,it is wonderful that the substitution of this little phrase as well as for and can make a sentence so different in meaning4 ,a group of words similar in office to as well as1 but not so often used1 is no less than2 as1 8,the first lesson of literature1 no less than of life1 is the learning how to burn your own smoke40--,lowell4 ,besides joining words1 phrases1 or propositions as the elements of one sentence1 the cordinating conjunction1 especially and or but1 is often found at the beginning of an entirely new sentence1 where its function is to show the relation in thought between the new sentence and the one preceding4 ,in such a position its office is not grammatical but logical2 for example1 8,but month after month only showed the king the uselessness of further resistance40--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 ,this conjunction is sometimes reinforced by an adverb2 thus1 8,and again1 ,drake's cannon would not have roared so loudly and so widely without seamen already trained in heart and hand to work his ships and level his artillery40--,froude4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,subordinating ,conjunction4--,owing to abridgment we find many sentences constructed like the following1-- 8,then safe1 though fluttered and amazed1 ,she paused1 and on the stranger gazed40--,scott4 ,here the subordinating conjunction of concession1 though1 seems to join two adjective modifiers of she4 ,these are safe and the two participial adjectives1 fluttered and amazed4 ,of course it would be proper to fill out the ellipsis and make a clause of concession1 though she was fluttered and amazed1 but it does not seem necessary1 and we certainly would not supply anything if but had been used instead of though4 ,the subordinating conjunction than is used in this way between like elements oftener than any other1 especially when it is associated with the adverb rather2 for example1 8,commonly a light is for the eyes rather than for the feet1 and a lamp is to read or sew by rather than to walk by40--,munger4 ,the ellipsis after than may be supplied here1 that is1 we may make the sentence read as follows1--8,commonly a light is rather for the eyes than it is for the feet1 and a lamp is rather to read or sew by than it is to walk by40 ,but if the sentence had been1--8,commonly a light is not for the feet but for the eyes10 etc41 we should say that but joins the two phrases and that the first one is modified by not4 ,so in the original sentence we may say that the first than joins the two prepositional phrases for the eyes and for the feet1 while the second joins the infinitives to read or sew by and to walk by4 ,rather is then an adverb modifying in one case the phrase for the eyes1 and in the other the infinitives to read or sew by4 99 99 99 99 99 ,correlatives4--,the correlatives when 444 then1 where 444 there1 so 444 as1 as 444 as1 though 444 yet1 whether 444 or1 have been sufficiently noted in previous lessons4 ,there remains something to be said about the familiar pairs either 444 or1 neither 444 nor1 both 444 and1 not only 444 but4 ,the first three pairs are alike in use1 the second word in each case1 or1 nor1 and1 being the connective1 and the first no part of speech whatever4 ,either1 neither and both1 when correlatives1 merely hint that the real conjunction is coming4 ,the correct position of these words is immediately before the first of the two elements joined by the conjunction4 ,either and both may be omitted without affecting either the meaning or the structure of the sentence4 ,these correlatives are found with verbs1 nouns1 adjectives1 adverbs1 phrases1 or propositions either independent or dependent2 for example1 8,generally1 good useful work1 whether of the hand or the head1 is either ill-paid or not paid at all40--,ruskin4 8,he neither pretended to high blood nor in good truth cared one fig about the matter40--,lamb4 8,there is a working class--strong and happy--among both rich and poor40 ,the correlatives not only 444 but are different in some respects from the others4 ,but is the conjunction1 and only is an adjective or adverb modifying the first of the two words joined by but1 while not makes this word negative2 thus1 8,longfellow has not only charmed the ear1 but has touched the heart of the world40 ,in this sentence but joins the two predicates4 ,the first predicate is modified by only and then denied by the negative adverb not4 ,in this use but is not an adversative conjunction1 that is1 it does not signify any opposition between the two predicates4 ,the sentence means that ,longfellow has done two things which are in the same line of action--he has charmed the ear of the world and in addition has touched its heart4 ,it is not uncommon for but to be reinforced by the adverb also2 for example1 8,punctuality should be made not only a point of courtesy1 but also a point of conscience40 ,exercise #bc ,state the office of all conjunctions in the following sentences4 ,determine1 if possible1 why the given conjunction is chosen instead of some other4 #a4 ,but ,i for one do not grudge ,amos ,barton his sweet wife4--,george ,eliot4 #b4 ,either they may be nomads1 living in tents and driving their flocks and herds from one pasture ground to another1 or they may be people with fixed habitations4 #c4 ,you must be able1 not only to hit any particular dog out of the team of twelve1 but also to accompany the feat with a resounding crack4 #d4 ,the finest passages are those which are lyric in form as well as in spirit4--,macaulay4 #e4 ,he was abstemious in his food and careless in what it consisted1 rarely or never touching wine4--,froude4 #f4 ,the prince or chief governor was elected annually1 but only by the nobles4--,motley4 #g4 ,in many parts of ,london it is difficult1 if not dangerous1 to cross the streets4 #h4 ,but the times were times for action rather than for contemplation4--,webster4 #i4 ,and you would say that sun and stars took part ,in that unnatural conflict2 for a cloud ,grew suddenly in ,heaven1 and darked the sun ,over the fighters' heads4--,m4 ,arnold4 #aj4 ,discipline1 no less than concentration1 is a cure for a weak will4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #aa4 ,but not only is its own population the vastest in the world2 a large population is poured into it every morning by railway and by steamer from all parts of ,england and from every continent and country on the globe4 #ab4 ,we are on the eve of a great political crisis1 if not of political change4--,ruskin4 #ac4 ,it is injurious to the mind as well as to the body to be always in one place1 and always surrounded by the same circumstances4--,jefferies4 #ad4 ,let us do our work as well1 ,both the unseen and the seen4--,longfellow4 #ae4 ,i recall him in the attitude of the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 standing full before a generous wood fire1 not facing it but quite the contrary4--,holmes4 #af4 ,rough work1 honorable or not1 takes the life out of us4--,ruskin4 #ag4 ,the elected chieftains had rather authority to persuade than power to command4--,motley4 #ah4 ,not only were the labors of ,hannah ,more extended to the ignorant and degraded by the establishment of schools1 but she employed her pen in their behalf4--,lord4 #ai4 ,they neither get fairly hold of their subject1 nor1 what is more important1 does it get hold of them4--,lowell4 #bj4 ,the rough work is1 at all events1 real1 honest1 and1 generally though not always1 useful2 while the fine work is1 a great deal of it1 foolish and false as well as fine1 and therefore dishonorable4--,ruskin4 #ba4 ,to detect the flavor of an olive is no less a piece of human perfection1 than to find beauty in the colors of a sunset4--,stevenson4 #bb4 ,all the ground was covered1 not with grass and green leaves1 but with radiant corollas4--,muir4 #bc4 ,the world is filled with the voices of the dead2 they speak not from the public records of the great world only1 but from the private history of our own experience4--,o4 ,dewey4 #bd4 ,and where now the steamers of all nations may be seen resting at anchor1 on that day one solitary ship from ,france discharged her cargo and was viewed with lingering interest by every colonist in ,quebec4--,mrs4 ,catherwood4 #be4 ,before him and facing him1 two paces in front1 stood ,dan1 his arms still bound to his sides1 his head uncovered1 and his legs free4--,caine4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,infinitive ,,phrase ,nature of the ,infinitive4--,in the preceding lessons1 we have studied but one element of the sentence2 namely1 the proposition4 ,this combination of subject and predicate we have looked at from the point of view of its value as a sentence element1 and we have found that in the communication of thought it is of the utmost importance by reason of its clearness4 ,in this respect it is superior to other simpler and briefer elements1 but nevertheless in the development of ,english prose we find the proposition steadily superseded1 wherever possible1 by several of the simpler elements4 ,this is the result of an ever-growing tendency toward brevity and conciseness4 ,in a recent monograph entitled 8,the ,history of the ,english ,paragraph10 the author states that the ,english sentence has decreased in length at least one-half in three hundred years1 and that it has shown very great decrease in formal predication4 ,the means by which predication is avoided without sacrificing clearness are various4 ,one of them1 is the infinitive phrase1 which we shall make the subject of this chapter4 ,by an infinitive phrase we mean a group of words of which an infinitive is the base1 the whole group being the equivalent of a clause and forming an element of a sentence4 ,it is an element employed so frequently that it is very easily interpreted1 and its great advantage is that it enables us to dispense with a subject and predicate4 ,the infinitive is a verb-form differing from the finite verb in this1--it expresses the action or state denoted by the verb without the limitations of person and number1 hence it cannot predicate4 ,it is defined by grammarians as a verbal noun4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that it always has the use of a noun1 but rather that it has the nature of a noun in this important respect1 that it names the action or state denoted by the verb4 ,just as a noun may be employed as an adjective or an adverb1 thus1 8,i have a gold watch10 8,i am going home10 and still retain its essential characteristic1 that of being a name-word1 so the infinitive may be used adjectively or adverbially and still be the name of an action or state4 ,the infinitive also retains its verb nature so far as to take any of the modifiers or complements of the verb2 for example1 in the sentence1--8,to furl a sail is to roll it up and secure it10 the subject is the infinitive phrase to furl a sail1 the base of which is the infinitive to furl4 ,now in so far as to furl is subject it has the use of a noun2 it has the nature of a noun1 too1 in naming an act2 but it also has the nature of a verb insomuch as it denotes action performed upon the object sail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,forms of the ,infinitive4--,there are two infinitives1 the root infinitive1 or infinitive with to1--to see1 to run1 to be1--and the gerund1 or infinitive in -ing1--seeing1 running1 being4 ,we shall study first the root infinitive4 ,besides the simple form1 to see1 called the present active infinitive1 there is the perfect active infinitive1 to have seen1 and the corresponding passive forms1 to be seen and to have been seen4 ,we may also add the active progressive forms1 to be seeing and to have been seeing4 ,intransitive verbs of course lack the passive forms4 ,of all these forms the one most used in the communication of thought is the simplest one of all1 the present active4 99 99 99 99 99 ,uses of the ,infinitive4--,the infinitive is used for many different purposes1 but nearly always in relation to some word whose meaning it serves to make more clear and without which it would not be in the sentence at all4 ,these relations of the infinitive to other words may perhaps be most clearly explained if we consider them in groups2 7#a7 its relation to the noun1 7#b7 to the verb1 7#c7 to the adjective or adverb4 ,i4 ,a noun may have an infinitive associated with it in two ways3-- #a4 ,as an adjective2 as1 8,leaves have their time to fall40--,mrs4 ,hemans4 ,here the infinitive is brought into the sentence by the noun time1 to specify what time the leaves have4 ,the expression time to fall means falling time or time for falling4 ,in the following sentence from ,carlyle1--8,he that speaks what is really in him will find men to listen10 the infinitive defines the noun men1 being equivalent to the restrictive adjective clause who will listen1 so we must say of the infinitive that it is used like an adjective modifying men4 ,it is better than the clause1 being simpler and briefer4 #b4 ,as a noun in apposition2 as1 8,he had formed the heroic resolution to defend the tower alone against the enemy40 ,here the infinitive phrase is associated with the noun resolution1 but instead of defining or qualifying resolution1 it tells exactly what the resolution is1 and so is used as a noun4 ,moreover1 we can make a sentence by putting the verb is between the noun resolution and the infinitive phrase2 as1 8,his resolution is to defend the tower10 etc4 ,this sentence is true1 and means that the subject and the complement of the verb are two names for the same thing4 ,when the infinitive is used with the noun as an adjective we cannot make such a sentence as the above2 for example1 we cannot say men are to listen1 meaning that men and to listen are equivalent4 ,of course few nouns can be explained by an infinitive in apposition2 no such noun1 for instance1 as city1 man1 book1 tree1 but such nouns as wish1 promise1 luck1 intention1 task4 ,this use of the infinitive reminds us of a substantive clause in apposition4 ,in fact1 both the adjective infinitive and the appositive are substitutes for clauses1 the former taking the place of a restrictive adjective clause1 the latter of either an unrestrictive adjective clause or a substantive clause4 ,in the sentence1 8,this is a day on which to travel10 we have an infinitive phrase made from an adjective clause and still retaining the relative pronoun4 ,the relative has an antecedent but does not join to it as usual a dependent proposition4 ,,note4--,when we say that an infinitive is used as an adjective or a noun1 we do not mean for an instant that it takes the place of any adjective or noun in the language4 ,so far from this being the case1 the infinitive is employed simply because there are no nouns or adjectives to say what the infinitive says for us4 ,,ii4 ,the infinitive may be related to a verb in various ways4 #a4 ,as subject2 as1 8,to pass this bridge was the severest trial40--,irving4 ,if we ask1 what was the severest trial8 the answer is the whole phrase1 to pass this bridge2 but the base of this phrase is the infinitive to pass1 hence it is the essential subject4 ,a common way of using the infinitive as subject is that arrangement by means of the anticipative subject it1 which enables us to put the real subject after the verb2 as1 8,it is a most earnest thing to be alive in this world40--,carlyle4 ,,note4--,some grammarians prefer to call it a neuter personal pronoun1 subject of the verb1 and the infinitive its appositive1 or explanatory modifier4 #b4 ,as complement4 7a7 ,object of a transitive verb4 ,not all transitive verbs can take infinitives for objects4 ,most of those that do are verbs denoting some activity of the feelings or the will2 as1 8,he resolved to go02 8,they hoped to surprise this post40 ,the infinitives here answer the questions1 resolved what8 hoped what8 ,they are equivalent to substantive clauses1--,he resolved that he would go1 they hoped that they might surprise this post2 but when the action denoted by the infinitive is to be performed by the same person as that denoted by the subject of the predicate verb1 the infinitive is chosen instead of the clause4 ,it is simpler than the clause and has become by frequent use equally clear4 ,when the two actors are different1 two subjects must be expressed1 hence the clause is employed2 for example1 ,they resolved that ,i should go2 ,they hoped that their allies would surprise this post4 ,,note4--,the contraction of a noun clause to an infinitive phrase is very evident in such a sentence as this1--8,he did not know what to say40 ,the word what leads us to expect a subject and predicate to follow1 but we have merely an infinitive4 ,the second subject if expressed would be he1 the same as that of the principal verb4 ,verbs signifying begin1 continue1 or cease frequently take an infinitive for object2 as1 8,as he approached the stream1 his heart began to thump40--,irving4 ,the verb ought is always followed by an infinitive1 which is clearly seen to be its object when we remember that ought is an old past tense of the verb owe2 as1 8,the founder of this stately mansion ought surely to have stood in his own hall and to have offered the first welcome to so many eminent personages40--,hawthorne4 ,here the obligation owed by the founder is specified by the two infinitive phrases4 ,a use similar to the above is that of the infinitive after have2 as1 8,my friend1 the ,poet1 tells1 me he has to leave town whenever the anniversaries come round40--,holmes4 ,have means to possess1 or be under an obligation4 ,,note4--,the construction1 8,i had rather go than stay10 may be explained by treating go as an infinitive without the sign to used as object of the transitive verb had4 ,expanded the sentence reads1 8,i had to go rather than ,i had to stay40 ,the constructions1 8,i had sooner go than stay10 and1 8,i had as lief go as stay10 may be explained in the same way4 ,after dare1 need1 and please the sign of the infinitive to is usually omitted2 for example1 8,i dare do all that may become a man40 ,dare and need are often used with a subject in the third person singular1 whereas we should expect dares and needs2 thus1 8,he need not be angry about it40 7b7 ,as part of a double object of a transitive verb4 ,we have just said that if one person resolves that another person shall act1 or hopes he will1 the fact may be told by using a substantive clause2 as1 8,i resolved that ,john should go40 ,but if ,i expected that ,john would go ,i could tell it by using an infinitive2 thus1 8,i expected ,john to go40 ,this is a matter settled by usage2 some verbs must be followed by a clause object1 while others may be followed by a noun and an infinitive4 ,we call the noun 7or pronoun7 and the infinitive a double object4 ,it is not two objects2 it is one object the same as a clause1 but it consists of two essential parts closely related4 ,the logical relation between ,john and to go in the sentence above is that of subject and predicate2 but grammatically to go cannot be a predicate because the infinitive does not assert4 ,in this construction the infinitive is related first to the noun ,john and then together with ,john to the transitive verb expected4 ,sufficient proof that the two elements ,john and to go constitute the one direct object of expected is found in the fact that it takes both of them to answer the question expected what8 ,for we did not expect ,john1 nor did we expect to go4 ,furthermore1 the two elements may be changed to the equivalent noun clause1 that ,john would go1 in which ,john becomes subject and the infinitive becomes a finite verb1 the predicate of ,john4 ,this use must be carefully distinguished from that of the infinitive in such a sentence as this1--8,he bought apples to eat40 ,here apples alone answers the question bought what8 ,it is also plain that the relation between apples and to eat is not that of subject and predicate4 ,besides1 if this sentence were expanded1 merely the infinitive would be changed to a clause4 ,this might be an adverbial clause1--8,he bought apples that he might eat them02 or an adjective clause1--8,he bought apples that were good for eating40 ,another sentence not so easily discriminated is this4--8,i told ,john to go40 ,here there is what seems to be a double object1 but in reality to go is the direct object and ,john is an indirect object1 as in the sentence1 8,i told ,john a story40 ,if we recast the sentence1 employing a substantive clause1 we have1--8,i told ,john that he should go10 where ,john remains as indirect object and the infinitive alone is expanded to the object clause4 ,it is the same often after such a verb as order2 for example1 8,he ordered the men to march02 but in the sentence1 8,he ordered the message to be sent10 there is a true double object4 ,men is indirect object1 because it names those to whom the order was given1 but message does not name anything to which an order was given1--it merely tells what was to be sent4 ,the sentences expanded read1--8,he ordered the men that they should march10 and 8,he ordered that the message should be sent40 ,we may conclude that when verbs with the notion of telling in them1 as urge1 beg1 entreat1 persuade1 etc41 are followed by a personal word and an infinitive1--as1 8,he urged me to go10 we must carefully determine whether the personal word is more closely related to the predicate verb or to the infinitive4 ,if we find it more closely related to the predicate verb1 we must call it an indirect object1 and say that the infinitive needs no word for subject because it is understood that the subject of the infinitive is the same word as that used for indirect object4 ,the verbs most commonly followed by the double object are1--7a7 verbs of perception1 like see1 hear1 notice2 for example1 8,then1 on either hand1 ,i saw stately palaces rise gray and lofty from the dark waters40--,howells2 7b7 verbs of permitting or causing1 like make1 have1 let2 as1 8#8,why1 what would you have me do with you8' said the man40--,froude2 7c7 verbs of feeling1 like wish1 desire1 expect2 as1 8,why1 they all want him to get up and make speeches1 or songs1 or toasts40--,holmes4 7c7 ,as complement of an intransitive verb2 as1 8,the art of reading is to skip judiciously40--,hamerton4 8,for a long time the house has been to let40--,barrie4 ,the infinitive is plainly a completing term in both cases1 but in the first it denotes identity with the subject1 hence has the use of a noun complement2 while in the second it tells the condition of the house1 like the word vacant1 and hence has the use of a predicate adjective4 ,sometimes it is possible to change the infinitive to an equivalent adjective2 as1 8,the accident is to be deplored10 or1 8is deplorable40 ,seem and appear as well as forms of the verb be are followed by this adjective infinitive4 ,it is especially useful in denoting an action that is to take place in the future2 thus1 8,he is to come soon40 ,,note4--,some of the difficulty in disposing of infinitives is due to an attempt to speak of them in terms that apply to certain parts of speech4 ,sometimes this seems forced4 ,for instance1 in the sentence1 8,he seemed to tremble10 pupils are told to consider the infinitive as a predicate adjective1 when it does not seem to them to bear much resemblance to an adjective4 ,what the pupils must see is this1--that to tremble completes seem and tells something about the subject he4 ,the following sentences may be given1--8,he seems a coward10 8,he seems afraid10 8,he seems to tremble40 ,the verb in each case has a subjective complement1 but in one case this complement is a noun1 in another an adjective1 in another an infinitive1 the choice depending wholly on the special meaning to be brought out4 ,if the use of to tremble seems to the pupil sufficiently like that of afraid to warrant his calling it a predicate adjective1 let him do so4 ,if not1 let him not try to name it1 but say of it instead that it completes the verb and tells something about the subject4 ,the infinitive complement of a passive verb belongs here2 for example1 8,the human voice may be made to attain a wondrous strength and richness of tone40--,brook4 ,this construction often arises from changing a sentence containing a double object into the passive form4 ,in the active voice the sentence just quoted reads1--8,we may make the human voice attain a wondrous strength1 etc40 ,notice that the passive construction has the advantage over the active in this respect1 that it enables us to avoid telling who makes4 ,this is especially convenient with the verb say4 ,in the sentence1 8,he was said to have stolen the money10 no one is charged with having said that he stole4 ,,note4--,the familiar expressions1 8,that is to say10 8,it came to pass10 8,i came to know him10 also belong here2 came is used in the sense of became4 #c4 ,as an adverbial modifier of the verb4 ,the infinitive is very often joined to a verb to denote purpose2 as1 8,the salmon winters in the ocean1 but in spring ascends the fresh water rivers to spawn1 or lay its eggs40 ,sometimes this infinitive is introduced by so as or in order4 ,it has almost entirely displaced the adverbial clause of purpose4 ,the infinitive may also denote the result of an action2 as1 8,his half worn shoes would wait until his small brother grew to fit them40--,holmes4 ,in the following sentence from ,barrie1 8,leeby returned panting to say that the doctor might be expected in an hour10 the infinitive seems to be employed instead of another finite verb1 for the meaning is not that ,leeby returned in order to say1 but rather that ,leeby returned and said4 ,in the sentence1 ,he went home only to die1 the infinitive denotes neither the purpose nor the result of his going home1 but only a subsequent action4 ,it might be preferable in such cases to call the infinitive an accompaniment of the verb rather than a modifier4 ,in this sentence from ,holmes1 8,i grieve to say it1 but our people1 ,i think1 have not generally agreeable voices10 to say it denotes the cause of my grieving4 ,in this sentence from ,henry ,james1 8,he must have been an ,american1 to take the picturesque so prodigiously to heart10 the infinitive phrase is the equivalent of an adverbial clause of reason1 telling on what ground the main assertion rests4 ,the infinitive may also denote condition1 or manner2 for example1 8,you must have the imagination of a poet to transfigure them10 and1 8,is everything going to suit you80 ,in the former sentence the infinitive phrase is equivalent to the clause1 if you transfigure them4 ,in the latter it tells how things are going on4 ,in fact1 this useful little element may accompany a predicate verb to denote almost all the relations denoted by adverbial clauses4 ,sometimes it is difficult to decide whether an infinitive is a complement or a modifier4 ,perhaps the best way to settle the point is to ascertain what the infinitive is equivalent to1 or what question it answers2 for example1 8,if you continue your observations1 you will not fail to notice that the speed of its disappearance depends on the character of the day40--,tyndall4 ,here the infinitive answers the question1 fail in what respect8 and is equivalent to the phrase1 in noticing4 ,it is well1 then1 to consider it an adverbial modifier4 ,perhaps the infinitive is used after no other verbs oftener than after go and use1 as in the sentences1 8,i am going to stay until you are tired of me02 8,i used to wonder what this might be40 ,both go and use are intransitive verbs1 but the infinitives can hardly be described as their modifiers1 for the predication lies more in the infinitive than in the finite verbs1 am going or used4 ,the verb am going makes the action denoted by the infinitive intentional1 and used makes it customary4 ,such predicates as am going to stay and used to wonder should be described either as idiomatic verb-phrases1 or as consisting of an intransitive verb and an infinitive1 without any attempt to establish a complementary or modifying relation between the infinitive and the verb4 ,,note4--,the verb be is sometimes used in the sense of go or come1 and may then be modified by an infinitive of purpose1 as in the sentence1--8,the old ,master was talking about a concert he had been to hear40--,holmes4 ,,iii4 ,the infinitive may be associated with an adjective or an adverb4 ,a construction often met is a predicate adjective followed by an infinitive1 especially such adjectives as sure1 glad1 sorry1 apt1 anxious4 ,the infinitives answer such questions as sure of what8 anxious about what8 and so limit the meaning of the adjective2 for example1 8,we are right willing and able to work40--,carlyle4 8,he was careful to acquaint himself with the country40 ,often the adjective is first modified by the adverb enough or too2 thus1 8,this narrative is too significant to be omitted40--,carlyle4 ,when the adjective is first modified by so1 the infinitive is introduced by as1 and takes the place of a clause of result2 as1 8,be so kind as to stand40 ,here the infinitive is brought into the sentence by the adjective kind1 but as an infinitive of result1 may be said to modify the entire predicate be so kind4 ,the infinitive in this construction may also be associated with an adverb2 as1 8,he worked so swiftly as to surprise us all40 ,we notice that it is easy to avoid the clause here by substituting the infinitive1 for the subject of the clause is the same as the subject of the principal verb4 ,an adjective in the comparative degree is often followed1 not by a clause of degree as we should expect1 but by an infinitive introduced by than2 as1 8,he is wiser than to make such a remark40 ,the infinitive phrase modifies wiser and is joined to it by the subordinating conjunction than4 ,,iv4 ,in addition to the foregoing constructions we occasionally find the infinitive used as the object of a preposition4 ,the few prepositions governing infinitives are except1 but1 and save1 the two latter meaning except2 as1 8,make no expense but to do good to others or yourself40 ,usually1 to1 the sign of the infinitive1 is omitted after these prepositions4 ,in the following sentences the preposition governing an infinitive phrase is omitted4--8,it's worth quite a little fortune to any man who gets it1 and ,i understand that there are more vacancies than there are men1 so that the trustees are at their wits' end what to do with the money40--,conan ,doyle4 8,i am somewhat at a loss what to think40 ,the prepositional phrases at their wits' end and at a loss are complements of the verbs are and am1 used instead of adjectives because there are no equivalent adjectives4 ,the infinitive phrases answer the questions at their wits' end about what8 and at a loss about what8 and so are best disposed of as objects of the preposition about understood4 ,,note4--,in the construction1 8,i am about to go10 about is usually disposed of as a preposition governing the infinitive4 ,instead it should be considered as an adverb modifying the infinitive1 which is the complement of am4 ,the preposition for may take a double object2 thus1 8,a space was left between them for the garrison to pass out40 ,the answer to the question for what8 is1 the garrison to pass out4 ,such a prepositional phrase is often used as logical subject after the anticipative subject it2 thus1 8,it is not lawful for us to put any man to death40 ,,note4--,in the common construction1 8,i cannot but think10 the word think is an infinitive with to omitted1 used as object of the preposition but4 ,there is an ellipsis in this construction which must be supplied for analysis1 unless we dispose of the whole expression at once as an idiomatic verb-phrase4 ,supplying the ellipsis we have1 8,i cannot do anything but think40 ,the expression1 8,i can but think0 is best disposed of now as equivalent to 8,i can only think10 for that is what it signifies to us4 ,the verb then is can think1 and but is its adverbial modifier4 ,v4 ,the infinitive may be used independently1 having no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence2 thus1 8,to tell you the truth1 my errand is not so much to buy as to borrow40--,george ,eliot4 ,certain stereotyped phrases are used in this way1 such as to be sure1 to speak plainly1 to make a long story short4 ,they are useful to express in few words what in other more regular constructions it would take many words to say4 ,in this sentence of ,hale's1 8,this sort of vagueness1 not to say misapprehension1 affects the question1 ,who are our ,leaders80 we have an independent infinitive phrase which adds much to the meaning of the sentence4 ,it tells us here that the author uses the noun vagueness so as to be on the safe side1 but in his opinion misapprehension is the more precise term4 ,,note4--,an independent expression very similar to the one just given is found in the following sentence1--8,it appeals to our more purely human1 one might almost say domestic1 qualities40--,lowell4 ,exercise #bd ,dispose of all infinitive phrases in the following sentences4 #a4 ,the winter climate of ,venice is still so sharp as to make foreigners regret the generous fires and warmly built houses of the north4--,howells4 #b4 ,i started betimes in the evening so as not to hurry1 or waste any strength upon the way4--,blackmore4 #c4 ,the way to be original is to be healthy4--,lowell4 #d4 ,to learn obeying is the fundamental art of governing4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,the reward of a good sentence is to have written it4--,higginson4 #f4 ,follow the ,devil faithfully1 you are sure enough to go to the ,devil4--,carlyle4 #g4 ,the idea of a man's interviewing himself is rather odd1 to be sure4--,holmes4 #h4 ,i had the good fortune to see him at ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 and ,washington4--,thackeray4 #i4 ,when they tried to teach me to sing1 they told me to 8think of eight and sing seven40--,hale4 #aj4 ,it was death also for a soldier to leave his colors4--,prescott4 #aa4 ,i seem to have made foolish friendships ever since4--,lamb4 #ab4 ,the general course of misrule leaves them helpless1 to be the burden of the rest4--,ruskin4 #ac4 ,there is nothing to be done but to turn round and hoe back to the other end4--,warner4 #ad4 ,the sentinel warns them not to approach too closely4--,howells4 #ae4 ,to forget ,homer1 to cease to be concerned and even curious about ,homer1 is to make a fatal step towards a new barbarism4--,lang4 #af4 ,ladies of rank and of luxurious habits1 you know1 cannot be expected to surmise the details of poverty4--,george ,eliot4 #ag4 ,one of the most important lessons to be learned in life is the art of economizing time4 #ah4 ,there is no beautifier of complexion1 or form1 or behavior1 like the wish to scatter joy and not pain around us4--,emerson4 #ai4 ,indeed1 to do the best for others is finally to do the best for ourselves2 but it will not do to have our eyes fixed on that issue4--,ruskin4 #bj4 ,he had always 7it must not be forgotten7 to contend against sad memories and anticipations of further sorrow4--,ainger4 #ba4 ,but up to a considerable maturity of childhood ,i believed ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo to have been superhuman beings4--,holmes4 #bb4 ,as a whole1 she appeared to carry with her a sort of argumentative commentary on her own existence4--,t4 ,hardy4 #bc4 ,but1 to judge the action fairly1 we must transport ourselves to the age when it happened4--,prescott4 #bd4 ,but winter is apt to be very severe in mild climates4--,howells4 #be4 ,to make a long story short1 the company broke up and returned to the more important concerns of the election4--,irving4 #bf4 ,the way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion is to speak and write sincerely4--,emerson4 #bg4 ,you must be brave to have come so long and dangerous a journey4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #bh4 ,i have none to call me ,charley now4--,lamb4 #bi4 ,i cannot but think that all the characters of a region help to modify the children born in it4--,holmes4 #cj4 ,for what was he placed by ,providence in the highest position in the world1 except to benefit the world8--,lord4 #ca4 ,it is true that no language is ever so far gone in consumption as to be beyond the great-poet-cure4--,lowell4 #cb4 ,we were brought up to believe in ghosts4--,page4 #cc4 ,they are earnestly requested to leave this paper to young persons from the age of twelve to that of fourscore years and ten4--,holmes4 #cd4 ,let us so live when we are up1 that we shall forget we have ever been down4--,stockton4 #ce4 ,know how sublime a thing it is ,to suffer and be strong4--,longfellow4 #cf4 ,in other lands the man of whom you are a regular purchaser serves you well2 in ,italy he conceives that his long service gives him the right to plunder you if possible4--,howells4 #cg4 ,it seemed a time to strike a blow for freedom4--,motley4 #ch4 ,the vilification which was poured on ,luther and his doings was so bitter as to be ludicrous4--,draper4 #ci4 ,she had the natural tendency of excellent people to place others in subjection4--,howells4 #dj4 ,it is such a sad thing to be born a sneaking fellow1 so much worse than to inherit a hump-back4--,holmes4 #da4 ,this1 as ,i heard before1 could be let fall in a moment so as to crush a score of men and bar the approach of horses4--,blackmore4 #db4 ,after struggling for some time in the deep water he sank to rise no more4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #dc4 ,i know ,i used to shake the youngest of them with my hands1 stout as it is now1 with a trunk that would defy the bully of ,crotona4--,holmes4 #dd4 ,but ,sigurd is too experienced a chieftain to walk into this trap4--,boyesen4 #de4 ,ask yourself seriously whether you are fit to read such revelations as are to follow4--,holmes4 #df4 ,to sum up his personal enormities1 when he spoke he had a practice of always advancing his face as close as possible to the person he was addressing4--,miss ,ferrier4 #dg4 ,the one secret of life and development is not to devise and plan1 but to fall in with the forces at work1--to do every moment's duty aright4--,mac,donald4 #dh4 ,the blessed work of helping the world forward happily does not wait to be done by perfect men4--,george ,eliot4 #di4 ,various efforts were made to allay the panic among the native troops4--,mc,carthy4 #ej4 ,for this notion ,johnson has thought fit to make him the butt of much clumsy ridicule4--,macaulay4 #ea4 ,of course ,mowgli1 as a woodcutter's child1 inherited all sorts of instincts1 and used to make little play-huts of fallen branches without thinking how he came to do it4--,kipling4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,participial ,,phrase ,the participle has been defined by grammarians as a verbal adjective4 ,they do not mean that it limits or qualifies the meaning of a noun as an adjective does4 ,very few participles do that4 ,they mean only that it is brought into the sentence for the purpose of telling something about some noun4 ,it is not usually so close a modifier of the noun1 either in relation or position1 as many other noun adjuncts are2 often it is so loosely joined to its noun as to seem almost like a parenthetical element4 ,when the noun it modifies is the subject of the sentence1 then the great importance of the participle as a sentence-element lies in the fact that it is a convenient means of avoiding a predication4 ,participial ,forms4--,the participial forms of the transitive verb are six4 ,active--,seeing1 having seen4 ,active progressive--,having been seeing4 ,passive--,being seen1 seen1 having been seen4 ,the participles of the intransitive verb are four4 ,common form--,going1 gone1 having gone4 ,progressive--,having been going4 ,,note4--,we frequently meet these combinations of words3 being gone1 having been gone4 ,they are not passive participles of the verb go1 for they do not denote action received any more than do the phrases being sick and having been sick4 ,the word gone is a participle used as an adjective complement of the participles being and having been1 just as the word sick is used4 ,this is a very common construction1 seen in such familiar sentences as the following1--,he is risen1 the tree is fallen1 the coat is badly worn1 you are mistaken1 the meat is done4 ,in all these instances the participles denote a condition of the subject1 and are therefore complements of the verb4 ,the most common use of the simple participial forms1 like seeing and seen1 is to help form progressive verb-phrases and passive verb-phrases2 thus1 is seeing1 shall be seeing1 might have been seeing2 is seen1 shall be seen1 might have been seen4 ,these phrases are not to be separated into their constituent parts1 however1 but are to be treated as single verbs1 hence we are not concerned with the participles they contain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,uses of the ,participle4--#a4 ,the participial adjective4--,the one use of the participle which is almost identical with that of the adjective is seen in such expressions as running water1 trotting horse1 educated man1 spoiled child4 ,here the idea ,of action is not so prominent as that of quality4 ,some of these participles have become so far like adjectives as to admit of comparison2 for example1 striking in such an expression as striking appearance1 or deceiving in deceiving story4 ,some of them1 too1 may be modified by very1 which is never a verb modifier2 as1 loving in very loving children4 ,this participle is sometimes used substantively2 thus1 8,the loving are the daring40 8,the slain were left to die40 ,of course such a word as people is understood after these participles1 and in analyzing these sentences it may be supplied if one so desires1 but it is no more necessary than it is in the sentences1--8,the good are happy1 the righteous are blessed10 where a qualifying adjective is used as a noun4 #b4 ,the participial phrase as a substitute for a proposition4--,we come now to those frequent and important uses of the participle where it saves a predication4 ,it usually has other words associated with it1 either as complement or modifiers1 the whole group forming a participial phrase4 7a7 ,the participial phrase may take the place of an adjective clause2 as1 8,the use of the cartridges complained of was discontinued by orders issued in ,january #aheg40--,mc,carthy4 ,the participle is here equivalent to a restrictive adjective clause pointing out the particular cartridges4 ,just as often the participial phrase is equivalent to an unrestrictive clause1 and then it is very much like an appositive modifier2 as1 8,the first person ,i met was a poor old woman1 a little bowed down with age1 gathering grapes into a large basket40--,longfellow4 7b7 ,the participial phrase may take the place of an adverbial clause2 as1 8,and1 having once tasted a life like this1 he could no more return to what he had left behind him40--,boyesen4 ,here the participial phrase tells us why he could no more return to what he had left behind him4 ,if this idea were differently expressed1 we should have either a prepositional phrase modifying the predicate or an adverbial clause of cause introduced by since4 ,but all this does not make the phrase a grammatical adjunct of the predicate4 ,instead it is an adjunct of the subject he4 ,if it were expanded into a clause1 the subject he would have to be supplied and the phrase would become a predicate4 ,now1 as predicate it would tell something about the subject he2 and it does not cease to do this when it is changed to a participial phrase4 ,in the following sentence from ,geikie1--8,entering the polluted ,temple space1 and gazing round on the tumult and manifold defilement1 ,he could not remain impassive10 the phrase is plainly equivalent in meaning to an adverbial clause1 telling when 7and in some degree why7 he could not remain impassive4 ,but grammatically the phrase is an adjunct of the subject ,he4 ,lest it should not be perfectly clear to the reader what particular relation the participial phrase is intended to denote1 the author often indicates the relation by the same conjunction that he would use to introduce an adverbial clause2 as1 8,but we must above all other things take into account1 when considering the position of the ,hindoo ,sepoy1 the influence of the tremendous institution of caste40--,mc,carthy4 ,without when the reader's first thought would be that the phrase denotes cause4 ,in this sentence from ,cooper1--8,but the vessels of which we write1 though constructed at so remote a period1 would have done credit to the improvements of our own time10 the concessive phrase might have been interpreted as causal1 if though had not been inserted4 ,in this sentence from ,hamlin ,garland1--8,each soul was solemn1 as if facing the ,maker of the world10 the fact that the phrase denotes manner is made evident by the conjunction as if4 ,any conjunction used like when1 though1 as if in the sentences quoted1 may be said to introduce the participial phrase and to indicate its relation4 ,,note4--,in all such sentences as the above1 where the participial phrase is introduced by a subordinating conjunction1 it is perfectly proper1 before analyzing1 to supply the words necessary to make the participial phrase into an adverbial clause4 ,it is more satisfactory1 indeed1 to do this except in a few cases where such an expansion gives a verb that does not harmonize in tense or form of conjugation with the verb in the principal proposition2 for example1 8,though holding no office and steadily refusing an election to the ,storthing1 he has been the life and soul of the liberal party40--,boyesen4 ,here the concord of tenses would call for has held and has refused in the concessive clause instead of the progressive verb-phrases has been holding and has been refusing4 7c7 ,the absolute phrase as a substitute for a dependent proposition4--,in all the preceding examples the substitution of a participial phrase for a clause was made easy by the fact that the subject of the clause was the same as the subject of the principal proposition4 ,when the subject is not the same1 the clause is condensed into what has been termed an absolute phrase2 as1 8,nature1 her patience with him being ended1 leaves him desolate40--,carlyle4 ,the absolute phrase consists essentially of a substantive and a participle1 having to each other the logical relation of subject and predicate4 ,in the sentence quoted the phrase is equivalent to the adverbial clause of cause1 because her patience with him is ended4 ,the absolute phrase is usually said to be grammatically independent1 but it is so frequently used as to be a regular ,english construction now1 and as such may be said to modify the predicate of the principal proposition4 ,notice that it is not a participial phrase that modifies the predicate2 it is an absolute phrase4 ,the participial phrase is only one of the two equal parts of the absolute phrase2 it can hardly be said to modify the noun1 which is the other part1 but it stands side by side with the noun to make an absolute phrase4 ,the absolute phrase denotes other relations than that of cause4 ,the most common are concession and time2 as1 8,was ,oliver ,cromwell1 his bitterest enemies themselves being judges1 destitute of private virtues80--,macaulay4 8,night coming on1 they broke the bolts of the ,town gates40--,carlyle4 7d7 ,the chief use of the absolute phrase is to take the place of an independent proposition2 thus1 8,a child of three sat up in his crib and screamed at the top of his voice1 his fists clinched and his eyes full of terror40--,kipling4 ,here the absolute phrases have no relation of time1 cause1 concession1 etc41 to the principal proposition1 hence are not modifiers4 ,if expanded into propositions these phrases would only add cordinate thoughts to the first one--8,his fists were clinched10 and 8his eyes were full of terror40 ,it is best to call such phrases accompaniments of the predicate instead of modifiers4 ,,note4--,from the sentence just quoted we learn that the absolute phrase does not always contain a participle2 it may consist of a substantive and an adjective1 as in his eyes full of terror4 ,we also find absolute phrases in which a prepositional phrase takes the place of the participle2 as1 8,he left my side1 a summer bloom on his fair cheeks1 a smile parting his innocent lips40--,miss ,mitford4 ,it is even possible to make an absolute phrase of two substantives as1 8,hargreaves and ,arkwright1 both ,englishmen1 invented and improved spinning and weaving machinery40 ,it would be proper to supply the participle being before either the adjective1 the prepositional phrase1 or the noun1 but it is best to dispose of constructions just as we find them4 ,a construction parallel to the absolute phrase is found in the sentence1 8,half way up the hill he met ,bagheera with the morning dew shining like moonstones on his coat40--,kipling4 ,here the object of the preposition with is the whole group of words following it1 and of this group the base-words are the noun dew and the participle shining1 which have the logical relation of subject and predicate4 ,this is a very common construction after the prepositions with and without4 #c4 ,the participial phrase often takes the place not of a whole proposition but only of a predicate2 for example1 8,westward on the banks of the ,thames1 the towers of ,westminster ,abbey stand guarding the ashes of ,england's greatest men40 ,the meaning here is1 the towers stand and guard2 but by means of the participle one of these predicates is subordinated to the other4 ,the participial phrase is not so much a complement of the verb stand as an accompaniment of it2 at the same time it tells an attribute of the subject4 ,a construction seemingly like the one just given1 but in reality different1 is found after verbs of going or coming4 ,these verbs may be followed by participles which tell not an accompanying action1 but how the going or coming is accomplished2 as1 8,sometimes a wandering leaf came floating and wavering downward1 and settled on the water40--,longfellow4 ,this does not mean that the leaf came and floated and wavered1 but only that it floated and wavered1 and these actions were the means of its coming4 ,such a participle is truly a modifier of the verb4 #d4 ,the participle as part of a double object4--,after a few verbs like keep1 find1 see1 hear1 feel1 have1 we find the participle taking the place of the infinitive in a double object4 ,the participle is almost always chosen when a passive construction is needed2 as1 8,the saddle fell to earth1 and he heard it trampled under-foot by his pursuer40--,irving4 ,when the active construction is called for1 the advantage of the participle over the infinitive is that it gives the idea of longer continuance of the action2 as1 8,just then he heard the black steed panting and blowing close behind him40--,irving4 ,the expression kept me waiting is grammatically equivalent to made me wait4 #e4 ,there are two constructions of the participle that are quite different from any of those cited1 being deviations from its ordinary use4 7a7 ,the participle used adverbially to denote degree2 thus1 boiling hot1 stinging cold1 dripping wet4 ,here the participles unmistakably modify adjectives4 7b7 ,the participle used independently2 thus1 8,speaking of those yellow squash-bugs1 ,i think ,i disheartened them by covering the plants so deep with soot and wood-ashes that they could not find them40--,warner4 ,this participial phrase corresponds to the infinitive phrase used independently1 though it is more rarely met4 ,exercise #be ,dispose of all participles or participial phrases in the following sentences4 #a4 ,he was noted for his success in capturing ,spanish ships freighted with silver from the mines of ,mexico and ,peru4 #b4 ,they came and went restlessly1 sitting down and knocking their steel scabbards against the tables1 or rising and straddling off with their long swords kicking against their legs4--,howells4 #c4 ,the girths of the saddle gave way and he felt it slipping from under him4--,irving4 #d4 ,the populations of ,india became stricken with alarm as they saw their native princes thus successively dethroned4--,mc,carthy4 #e4 ,she was dressed to please her own fancy1 evidently1 with small regard to the modes declared correct by the ,rockland milliners and mantua-makers4--,holmes4 #f4 ,knowing that ,i have no right to speak here1 ,i ask your leave4--,kipling4 #g4 ,livingstone taught himself ,latin grammar while working at the loom4 #h4 ,these three guineas deducted1 ,i still had nine1 or thereabouts4--,de ,quincey4 #i4 ,speaking in quite unofficial language1 what is the net purpose and upshot of war8--,carlyle4 #aj4 ,the fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole4--,dickens4 #aa4 ,thus inundated by mighty rivers1 quaking beneath the level of the ocean1 belted about by hirsute forests1 this low land1 nether land1 hollow land1 or ,holland1 seemed hardly deserving the arms of the all-accomplished ,roman4--,motley4 #ab4 ,the writing is a kind of pugilism--the strokes being made straight out from the shoulder4--,howells4 #ac4 ,mother ,wolf lay with her big gray nose dropped across her four tumbling1 squealing cubs1 and the moon shone into the mouth of the cave where they all lived4--,kipling4 #ad4 ,the schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and heel upon the starveling ribs of old ,gunpowder1 who dashed forward1 snuffling and snorting4--,irving4 #ae4 ,at last he heard them entering the defile4 #af4 ,five lakes are spread over the valley1 occupying one tenth of its surface4--,prescott4 #ag4 ,mrs4 ,cratchit made the gravy hissing hot4--,dickens4 #ah4 ,the river was swollen with the long rains4--,stevenson4 #ai4 ,farms1 stripped of their fences and deserted by their owners1 had for years produced only weeds4--,greeley4 #bj4 ,granting the horse1 granting good companionship1 granting a good seat1 and a pleasant day1 a horseback ride certainly does unite all the requisites for healthful exercise4--,hale4 #ba4 ,i have sometimes been puzzled in ,venice to know why churches should keep cats1 church-mice being proverbially so poor and so little capable of sustaining a cat in good condition4--,howells4 #bb4 ,her heavy black hair lay in a braided coil1 with a long gold pin shot through it like a javelin4--,holmes4 #bc4 ,thirty years ago1 ,last ,island lay steeped in the enormous light of even such magical days4--,hearn4 #bd4 ,the tower had just been vacated by the garrison1 who1 hearing of the approach of the ,austrians1 had fled1 leaving their arms1 consisting of thirty excellent muskets4 #be4 ,and then again a thousand echoes go booming along the iron-bound coast4--,black4 #bf4 ,you see it growing gradually less dense4--,tyndall4 #bg4 ,touching the ,giant's ,stairs in the court of the palace1 the inexecrable dates would not permit me to rest in the delusion that the head of ,marin ,falier had once bloodily stained them as it rolled to the ground4--,howells4 #bh4 ,the air was biting and smelled of frost4--,stevenson4 #bi4 ,the wind1 roaring round its broad verandas1 hissing through every crevice with the sound and force of steam1 appeared to waste its rage4--,hearn4 #cj4 ,away then they dashed1 through thick and thin1 stones flying and sparks flashing at every bound4--,irving4 #ca4 ,lying down on the grass1 ,i spoke in my soul to the earth1 the sun1 the air1 and the distant sea far beyond sight4--,jefferies4 #cb4 ,daffodils perished like criminals in their condemned caps without their petals ever seeing daylight4--,holmes4 #cc4 ,they advanced singing and shouting their war cries1 briskly charging the enemy1 as rapidly retreating and making use of ambuscades1 sudden surprises1 and the light skirmish of guerilla warfare4--,prescott4 #cd4 ,lost wealth may be replaced by industry1 lost knowledge by study1 lost health by temperance or medicine2 but lost time is gone forever4 #ce4 ,but today being ,saturday rather complicates matters4--,conan ,doyle4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,gerund ,the gerund1 or infinitive in -ing1 is substantive in its nature1 for like the root infinitive it names the action or state asserted by the verb4 ,it is not so easily identified in the sentence as the root infinitive1 however1 for in form it is precisely like the participle1 from which it has to be distinguished entirely by its use4 ,the forms of the gerund are shown in the following examples3-- #a4 ,the transitive verb see3 ,active--seeing1 having seen4 ,active progressive--having been seeing4 ,passive--being seen1 having been seen4 #b4 ,the intransitive verb rise3 ,common form--rising1 having risen4 ,progressive form--having been rising4 ,the use of the gerund is almost entirely restricted to that of the noun4 ,when found without adjuncts it does not materially differ from the noun2 for example1 ,painting is a fine art4 ,but usually the verb-nature of the gerund is prominent as well as its noun-use1 for usually it is accompanied by a complement or adverbial modifiers2 as1 8,the need of feeling responsible all the livelong day has been preached long enough in our ,new ,england40--,wm4 ,james4 ,the gerund together with its adjuncts forms a gerund-phrase4 ,it has certain advantages over the root infinitive4 ,in many places it is preferable because it gives the idea of an action in progress4 ,it is also employed in relation to some words where usage does not permit the root infinitive4 ,furthermore1 its substantive nature comes out more prominently than that of the root infinitive1 for like the noun it may be modified by an article or a possessive2 thus1 8,pascal said that most of the evils of life arose from man's being unable to sit still in a room40--,bagehot4 ,i4 ,the gerund used as a noun4 #a4 ,subject of a verb2 as1 8,lying in bed and listening to their dreary music had a pleasure in it40--,holmes4 #b4 ,object of a verb2 as1 8,i remember being told that it was the sound of the waves40--,holmes4 #c4 ,objective complement2 as1 8,if a child finds itself in want of anything it runs in and asks its father for it--does it call that doing its father a service80--,ruskin4 ,here the gerund phrase helps to complete the verb does call and at the same time is an attribute of the direct object that4 #d4 ,subjective complement2 as1 8,the first of all ,english games is making money40--,ruskin4 #e4 ,appositive modifier2 as1 8,i recommend this most faithful form of reading--learning by heart40 #f4 ,object of a preposition2 as1 8,nelson attributed all his success in life to having been a quarter of an hour before his time40 ,this is the commonest use of the gerund1 for while the root infinitive may be used after very few prepositions1 the gerund may be used after many4 #g4 ,objective adverbial4--,the adjective worth is usually followed by a noun that expresses a measure of value1 answering the question worth how much8 or worth what8 ,it may be followed by a gerund answering the same question2 as1 8,that is worth paying for40--,warner4 ,,ii4 ,the gerund used adjectively4--,we find the gerund used adjectively in such expressions as sleeping-car1 mourning-robes1 dining-table1 eating-apples4 ,these gerunds seem at first like the participles in such expressions as singing-bird1 shooting-star1 barking-dog2 but they are not like participles in meaning1 as can be proved by changing them to equivalent elements of other kinds4 ,a singing-bird is a bird that sings1 but a sleeping-car is not a car that sleeps2 it is a car for sleeping in4 99 99 99 99 99 ,peculiar ,constructions4--,it cannot always be settled to one's entire satisfaction whether a certain element is a participle or a gerund4 ,in order to decide one must know just how a certain expression came to be1 that is1 of what earlier and older form it is a development4 ,sometimes it seems impossible to ascertain this4 ,for instance1 take the sentence1 8,nanny has been busy ironing this evening40--,george ,eliot4 ,is ironing a participle1 and does the order of words in this sentence arise from a transposition of the sentence1--8,nanny1 ironing1 has been busy this evening08 ,or is ironing a gerund1 and is this sentence a parallel construction with1 8,nanny has been busy at her ironing this evening08 ,either interpretation of the sentence is a sensible one4 ,another puzzling instance is found in the sentence1--8,he was two weeks learning to use his flippers40--,kipling4 ,is learning a part of the progressive verb-phrase was learning1 and does the sentence mean1 8,he was learning to use his flippers during two weeks08 ,or is learning a gerund1 object of at understood1 that is1 is the sentence a parallel construction with this1--8,you were a long time at it08 ,one cannot pronounce with certainty on this point1 but must choose the construction that seems to him most reasonable4 ,exercise #bf ,dispose of all gerunds or gerund-phrases in the following sentences4 #a4 ,a serious percentage of books are not worth reading at all4--,f4 ,harrison4 #b4 ,after a quarter of an hour's chipping and hammering with very little result1 he paused to rest4--,j4 ,hawthorne4 #c4 ,the cat did not like being whipped1 and she was still more annoyed at having been caught stealing4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #d4 ,answering of this question is giving us the soul of the history of the man or nation4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,the only drawback to my rejoicing over the finishing of the first hoeing is that the garden now wants hoeing the second time4--,warner4 #f4 ,i wonder when ,englishmen will learn these hospitable graces4 ,they are worth learning4--,stevenson4 #g4 ,what was called governing them meant only wearing fine clothes and living on good fare at their expense4--,ruskin4 #h4 ,there are but three ways of living2 by working1 by stealing or by begging4--,froude4 #i4 ,he spent all the day roaming over the house4--,kipling4 #aj4 ,i believe they find adorning the body a more profitable vocation than adorning the mind4--,miss ,mitford4 #aa4 ,she promised to befriend him and advised his disguising himself1 lest the ,magician should see him and turn him likewise into stone4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #ab4 ,the buying a new coat is as to the cost of it a much more important matter of consideration to me than building a new ,exchange is to you4--,ruskin4 #ac4 ,she had been busy all the morning making tea-bread and sponge-cakes4--,mrs4 ,gaskell4 #ad4 ,it is not the finding of a thing1 but the making something out of it after it is found1 that is of consequence4--,lowell4 #ae4 ,a perfectly truthful man1 who loves truth for its own sake1 is not contented with being as truthful as other people4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #af4 ,it'll be no use their putting their heads down and saying1 8,come up again1 dear60--,lewis ,carroll4 ,exercise #bg ,analyze the following sentences3-- #a4 ,miss ,binson was1 to quote her neighbors1 a little too sharp-set4--,miss ,jewett4 #b4 ,on she came1 swaying1 rocking1 plunging1 with a great whiteness wrapping her about like a cloud1 and moving with her moving4--,hearn4 #c4 ,a mind must work to grow4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #d4 ,everybody loves to hear of strange cases2 people are eager to tell the doctor of the wonderful cures they have heard of2 they want to know what is the matter with somebody or other who is said to be suffering from a complication of diseases1 and above all to get a hard name1 ,greek or ,latin1 for some complaint which sounds altogether too commonplace in plain ,english4--,holmes4 #e4 ,and at the same time he hated having to break with old associations1 and to part from anything to which he had been long accustomed4--,ainger4 #f4 ,it paused there an instant1 with its fore quarters in the doorway1 one fore foot raised1 the end of its long tail waving4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #g4 ,to have what we want is riches1 but to be able to do without is power4--,mac,donald4 #h4 ,the sergeants1 seeing these things1 told him secrets generally hid from young officers4--,kipling4 #i4 ,children learn to speak by watching the lips and catching the words of those who know how already4--,lowell4 #aj4 ,strength of will is the power to resist1 to persist1 to endure1 to attack1 to conquer obstacles1 to snatch success from the jaws of death and despair4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #aa4 ,the waves of yesterday are gone today2 and the calm of today will be tumultuous tomorrow4--,beecher4 #ab4 ,to suffer and to do1 that was thy portion in this life4--,de ,quincey4 #ac4 ,the city seems to burst into song with the advent of these golden days and silver nights4--,howells4 #ad4 ,to tell the truth1 the day was so fine that he regretted going in-doors4--,a4 ,s4 ,hardy4 #ae4 ,it 7education7 meant the leading along the baby till he became the quick1 honest1 and fearless boy4--,hale4 #af4 ,the potato1 usually planted in the vegetable mold left by recently exterminated forests1 yielded its edible tubers with a bounteous profusion unknown to the husbandry of our day4--,greeley4 #ag4 ,born in the country he was ignorant as a sign-post of what came out of the soil4--,j4 ,t4 ,fields4 #ah4 ,it is a great deal better to live a holy life than to talk about it4--,moody4 #ai4 ,an hour's reading of these newspaper paragraphs made a boy's heart sick within him and caused a resolve to shoot up in it that he would turn him right about and classify him in future with quite a different order of boys4--,annie ,preston4 #bj4 ,he was never known to laugh4--,irving4 #ba4 ,he must have had rather dull feelings not to have looked forward with some interest to her entrance into the room4--,george ,eliot4 #bb4 ,the strength of the ,british ,empire lies in the strength of character of the individual ,englishman taken all alone by himself4--,wm4 ,james4 #bc4 ,for a time he was afraid of being dropped2 then he grew angry1 but he knew better than to struggle2 and then he began to think4--,kipling4 #bd4 ,artists1 poets1 and musicians are apt to be irritable4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #be4 ,the best way to put boyishness to shame is to foster scholarship and manliness4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #bf4 ,at any rate1 ,i used to hide my eyes from the sloops and schooners that were wont to lie at the end of the bridge4--,holmes4 #bg4 ,we were dismayed to behold the injured husband and his abandoned foe playfully scuffling behind the scenes4--,howells4 #bh4 ,he was always being cured without improving his health4--,stephen4 #bi4 ,what distinguishes the ,norseman above other nations is1 generally speaking1 an indestructible self-respect and force of individuality4--,boyesen4 #cj4 ,he was too shackled with weakness to cry out1 to stand up4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #ca4 ,he had spent half his youth with an older brother hunting horses in ,texas4--,hale4 #cb4 ,those who work deserve to eat2 those who do not work deserve to starve4--,froude4 #cc4 ,at present the penny was doubly dear to him1 having been long lost and lately found4--,barrie4 #cd4 ,sunday is coming to stand for perspiration1 not inspiration4--,hillis4 #ce4 ,the art of knowing when one is needed is more difficult than that of helping4--,a4 ,s4 ,hardy4 #cf4 ,i cannot but think that the tennis and tramping and skating habits and the bicycle craze1 which are so rapidly extending among our dear sisters and daughters in this country1 are going also to lead to a sounder and heartier moral tone1 which will send its tonic breath through all our ,american life4--,wm4 ,james4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,prepositional ,,phrase ,function4--,no other sentence-element is more frequently employed or more useful for the precise expression of thought than the prepositional phrase4 ,by its aid we can define exactly the scope of a noun1 a verb1 or an adjective4 ,this is due not to the great number of prepositions in the ,english language1 for there are not a hundred in all1 but to the many different relations that may be denoted by one preposition4 ,a striking illustration of this is found in the following sentence3 8,one of the useful and grateful tasks of historians and biographers is to bring forward to the eye of every new generation of men and women those illustrious characters who made a great figure in the days of their grandfathers and grandmothers1 yet who have nearly faded out of sight in the rush of new events and interests1 and the rise of new stars in the intellectual firmament40--,lord4 ,here we find the preposition of used eight times and expressing almost as many different relations4 ,the first of-phrase1 of the useful and grateful tasks of historians and biographers1 serves to point out the whole group or class of things from which the one thing talked about is selected4 ,the second phrase1 of historians and biographers1 limits tasks by telling who performed these tasks4 ,the third phrase of every new generation of men and women1 limits eyes by telling whose eyes are meant4 ,the fourth phrase1 of men and women1 limits the application of the noun generation to human beings only1 and brings in the nouns men and women to serve as antecedents of the pronoun their later in the sentence4 ,the fifth phrase1 of their grandfathers and grandmothers1 specifies what days by locating them in the past4 ,the sixth phrase out of sight1 has the preposition of reinforced by out so that the two words are equivalent to from1 and thus the phrase denotes not only place but movement away from it4 ,the seventh phrase1 of new events and interests1 and the eighth1 of new stars1 are alike in function2 they tell what things rush and rise4 ,every one of these phrases except out of sight modifies a noun2 but just as often a phrase introduced by of modifies a verb or an adjective4 ,as soon as we hear the adjectives capable1 full1 glad1 jealous1 proud1 rid1 sure1 weary1 do we not expect an answer to the question1 capable of what8 full of what8 glad of what8 etc4 ,and do we not usually find such verbs as borrow1 buy1 complain1 cure1 make1 smell1 speak1 taste1 tell1 think1 warn1 followed by an of-phrase8 ,what is true of the extensive use of of is no less true of other prepositions1--at1 by1 from1 in1 on1 to1 with2 while there are some whose use is much more limited1--across1 after1 before1 up1 toward4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase used ,adjectively4--,we say of prepositional phrases that they are adjective or adverbial1 according to what they modify--nouns1 verbs1 or adjectives4 ,we have seen from the sentence quoted how freely the prepositional phrase may be joined to a noun1 and how many different relations it may express4 ,let us see now what sentence-elements this adjective prepositional phrase takes the place of4 ,in the following sentence from ,geikie1--8,the stay of ,jesus in ,capernaum at this time was very short10 the phrase of ,jesus takes the place of the possessive noun ,jesus's4 ,it is better than the possessive here1 not so much because this particular possessive is an awkward form as because stay is the more important word and should have the prominent place at the beginning of the sentence4 ,in ,higginson's sentence1--8,yet he has found readers at all periods alike among men of thought and men of action10 the phrases of thought and of action take the place of the adjectives thinking and active4 ,but the adjectives1 preceding their nouns1 seem less important than the nouns2 while the phrases1 coming after the nouns1 imply that the contrasted words thought and action contain the more important ideas4 ,in ,boyesen's sentence1--8,according to ,norwegian law at that time1 every son of a king was entitled to his share of the kingdom10 the phrase at that time is a substitute for the clause1 which was operative at that time2 but it is preferable1 not only for brevity1 but because it makes the modifier less prominent1--it is not forced upon the reader's attention as it would be by a subject and predicate4 ,we may well repeat here what was said in one of our first chapters1 that several different elements may be exact equivalents before they are in a sentence1 but as soon as we desire to make use of one of them for the communication of thought1 they are not equivalent--one of them will almost invariably serve our turn better than the other4 ,thinking men1 men of thought1 men who think are identical in meaning1 but in a sentence the special setting of these expressions1 the accompanying ideas1 will determine which most clearly and precisely conveys our meaning and should therefore be used4 ,besides modifying a noun1 the adjective prepositional phrase may complete an intransitive verb2 as1 8,my march was of long duration40--,audubon4 8,all these writers are of a revolutionary cast40--,de ,quincey4 8,all the floors in ,venice are of stone40--,howells4 ,in sentences like these the phrase denotes an attribute of the subject4 ,it is usually employed because there is no adjective that expresses so well the precise meaning4 ,the adjective long1 if used in the first sentence quoted1 would imply that the march was long in space1 in miles traversed1 but the phrase means only that it consumed much time4 ,the adjective revolutionary1 if used in the second sentence1 might be interpreted to mean that the writers belong to a revolutionary period1 or that they are decidedly in favor of revolution2 but the phrase means only that they have a leaning toward revolutionary ideas4 ,in the third sentence the noun stone used adjectively would be to the general reader an exact equivalent of the phrase of stone4 ,,note4--,occasionally we find a prepositional phrase completing a verb and seeming more like a noun complement than an adjective2 as1 8,a common means of transportation was in clumsy carts drawn by oxen going at the most but three or four miles an hour40--,draper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase used ,adverbially4--,the prepositional phrase often modifies a verb or an adjective1 and may modify an adverb4 ,as a verb modifier it may denote the various relations denoted by clauses1 though place1 time1 and manner are the most common2 as1 8,they come in the summer months by hundreds and hundreds of thousands out of the cold gray sea40--,kipling4 ,here we have three phrases modifying come1 introduced by in1 by1 and out of1 and denoting respectively time1 manner1 and place4 ,the prepositional phrase of place tells1--7a7 where an action occurs or a condition exists2 as1 8,herring appear in immense schools off the coast of ,norway and the northern shores of the ,british ,isles02 7b7 whence an action proceeds2 7c7 whither an action tends4 ,both of these last we find in the sentence1-- 8,from underneath an aged oak1 ,that slanted from an islet rock1 ,a little skiff shot to the bay40--,scott4 ,the prepositional phrase of time may denote almost all the relations denoted by the adverbial clause of time1 and several of the words used as conjunctions to introduce those clauses1 such as after1 before1 since1 till1 were originally prepositions and are still employed as such4 ,the prepositional phrase of manner is found quite as often as the adverb of manner2 for example1 8,he had fired with great rapidity yet with surprising accuracy40 ,if adverbs had been used here the sentence would read1 8,he had fired very rapidly yet surprisingly accurately40 ,the combination of the last two adverbs is exceedingly awkward4 ,when a prepositional phrase modifies an adjective it generally serves to limit its application by denoting the particular respect in which its meaning is to be considered2 thus1 8,our fathers emerged from their arduous1 protracted1 desolating ,revolutionary struggle1 rich indeed in hope1 but poor in worldly goods40--,greeley4 ,here the phrases tell in what particular our fathers were rich and poor4 ,,note4--,the prepositional phrase may modify the interjection alas1 which is equivalent to the assertion ,i am sorry2 thus1 8,one may believe that the golden age is behind us or before us1 but alas for the forlorn wisdom of him who rejects it altogether40--,higginson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase used ,substantively4--,we often find a prepositional phrase used as the object of a preposition4 ,this gives rise to a succession of two prepositions like from among1 from beneath1 until within1 till after4 ,some grammarians treat these as one compound preposition1 but it seems to us best to consider them separately4 ,in the following sentence from ,bolles1--8,the river came from between abrupt1 rocky walls10 the phrase between abrupt1 rocky walls denotes a place that no noun in the language names1 hence the phrase is employed to name the place1 and as such a name it is the object of the preposition from4 ,it is very common for the preposition except or but 7meaning except7 to be followed by a prepositional phrase used as its object2 thus1 8,nobody comes to ,novastoshnah except on business40--,kipling4 8,no great art ever yet rose on earth but among a nation of soldiers40--,ruskin4 ,a phrase of this sort is usually preceded by some negative expression1 and is necessary to the truth of the sentence1 as it brings in a reservation or exception to some sweeping negative statement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase in an ,absolute ,phrase4--,the prepositional phrase1 as we saw in ,chapter ,,xxi41 is sometimes used with a noun to form an absolute phrase4 ,it is not then an ordinary adjective modifier of the noun1 but is more like a predicated attribute1 the verb being omitted4 ,it may be called an appositive modifier of the noun2 for example1 8',tis written that the serving angels stand ,beside ,god's throne1 ten myriads on each hand40--,e4 ,arnold4 ,the participle is omitted from the absolute phrase in such a sentence because it can readily be supplied by the reader from the verb in the predicate4 ,it is always mentally supplied for the interpretation of the sentence1 but it need not be supplied for its analysis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,object of a ,preposition4--,the word or group of words that is brought into relation to some other word by a preposition is called the object of the preposition4 ,it is always a substantive1 but not always a noun or pronoun4 ,some of the common substitutes for the noun are the gerund1 the prepositional phrase1 and the noun clause4 ,the prepositional phrase in this use we have just discussed4 ,the gerund and the noun clause were discussed in ,chapters ,,xxii4 and ,,vii4 respectively4 ,all of the above are regular constructions1 but there are a few peculiar stereotyped phrases in the language1 made up of a preposition and an adjective or adverb2 as1 from far1 at all1 at once1 at the best4 ,it is wiser in such a case not to separate the phrase into any component parts1 but to think of it and treat it as if it were one word4 ,sometimes a preposition is associated with a verb or verbal in such a way as not to require an object4 ,such a construction is usually passive or infinitive2 for example1 8,i was going to say something about our boarders the other day1 when ,i got run away with by my local reminiscences40--,holmes4 8,those who are still in a state to require being taken care of by others must be protected against their own actions as well as against external injury40--,mill4 8,one child in a household of grown people is usually made very much of1 and in a quiet way ,i was a good deal taken notice of by ,mrs4 ,bretton40--,bront4 ,prepositions so used may sometimes be considered as adverbs1 as in the expressions1 money to do with1 firesides to sit at2 but oftener it is impossible to separate them from the verb-phrase or verbal-phrase of which they form a part4 ,they help to express the one notion denoted by a whole group of words and have not the function of any part of speech4 99 99 99 99 99 ,peculiar ,prepositions4--,some words originally participles have a use so much resembling that of prepositions that they are no longer thought of as verbals1 but have come to be considered prepositions4 ,some of these are regarding1 concerning1 during1 excepting2 as1 8,our judgments concerning the worth of things1 big or little1 depend on the feelings the things arouse in us40--,wm4 ,james4 ,some combinations of words1 like as to1 out of1 instead of1 according to1 owing to1 are now regarded as single prepositions4 ,they express a single relation1 and often one word may be substituted for them2 as1 8,you drive a gambler out of the gambling room who loads dice40--,ruskin4 8,the ,prince of ,orange had not been consulted as to the formation of the league40--,motley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is 8,like0 a ,preposition8--,it is not uncommon to find both verbs and nouns taking as an adjunct a phrase introduced by like2 for example1 8,that hand was cold1 a frozen thing1--it dropped from his like lead40--,mrs4 ,hemans4 8,now and then he would see a thin fin1 like a big shark's fin1 drifting along close to shore40--,kipling4 ,in such a phrase there is always a substantive1 and if this is changed to a personal pronoun we find that it is in the objective case2 for example1 8,a writer is so like a lover40--,holmes4 ,substituting a pronoun for lover we find that usage calls for the objective form him4 ,does this prove that like is a preposition and him its object8 ,there is authority in dictionaries and grammars for calling like a preposition1 and this is certainly both simple and convenient2 but sometimes it leads us into difficulties4 ,in the sentence1--8,he walks more like a soldier than a priest10 shall we say that the preposition like is compared8 ,in the sentence1--8,it is very like a whale10 shall we say that the preposition like is modified by the adverb very1 a word that we expect to modify only adjectives and adverbs8 ,in the sentence1--8,like to an angel of peace she seemed that day10 how shall we dispose of to if we call like a preposition governing angel8 ,if we go back to the writings of ,milton and ,shakespeare1 we find the words liker and likest1 showing plainly that in their time like was looked upon as an adjective or adverb4 ,we often find1 too1 the preposition to or unto expressed after like4 ,it is best1 therefore1 to dispose of like as an adjective1 meaning similar1 when it introduces a phrase modifying a noun or completing a verb2 and as an adverb1 when the phrase modifies a verb4 ,it will then be necessary to supply the preposition to or unto4 ,words whose use much resembles that of like are near and its comparative and superlative forms1 nearer1 nearest and next2 as1 8,near the foot of the walls there are magnificent groves of live oaks and pines40--,muir4 ,in this sentence we consider near an adverb1 modified by a phrase introduced by to understood4 ,indeed1 the preposition is very often expressed2 for example1 8,it was next to impossible for a peasant or artisan or even a merchant to pass that line40--,lord4 ,a construction similar to this is found in the sentence1 8,to be the supreme authority in anything is a satisfaction to self-love next door to the precious delusions of dementia40--,holmes4 ,here next door takes the place of next4 ,it should be treated as one adjective element modifying satisfaction and itself modified by the adverbial propositional phrase following it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase modified4--,we sometimes find a prepositional phrase accompanied by an adverb or by a noun used adverbially1 as a sort of measure2 thus1 8,before his father and mother died1 they had built1 some way from their palace1 a very beautiful temple40--,old ,deccan ,days4 ,in this sentence the verb built is modified by the phrase some way from their palace1 the base of this being the prepositional phrase from their palace2 this phrase is modified by some way1 a noun element used adverbially to answer the question how far from their palace8 ,in this sentence from ,john ,lord1--8,why did no great scholars arise1 even in the church80 the adverb even modifying the phrase in the church has a very important office4 ,its presence in the sentence entirely changes the meaning4 ,without even1 the sentence would tell us that no great scholars arose in one place1 the church2 but with even the sentence tells us that no great scholars arose anywhere1 and that it was very strange that they did not arise in the church1 where we should naturally expect to find them4 ,two prepositional phrases joined by and are often each modified by the adverb partly1 or even by the pronoun what used adverbially4 ,what may also modify one prepositional phrase2 thus1 8,what with teaching others and studying closely myself1 ,i had hardly a spare moment40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,preposition modified4--,so many prepositions were originally adverbs or may be used as adverbs1 that it is not strange to find them taking adverbial modifiers4 ,hence we frequently meet such a succession of words as ever since1 just outside1 right over2 as1 8,a horticulturist of eminence wanted me to sow lines of strawberries and raspberries right over where ,i had put my potatoes in drills40--,warner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,preposition4--,the word preposition1 meaning placed before1 implies that this part of speech precedes its object1 but this it not always the case4 ,it is not uncommon in poetry to find the phrase inverted2 for example1 8,pleasant it was when woods were green1 ,and winds were soft and low1 ,to lie amid some sylvan scene1 ,where1 the long drooping boughs between1 ,shadows dark and sunlight sheen ,alternate come and go40--,longfellow4 ,we find the transposition1 too1 in the familiar expressions the year round1 the night through1 the world over2 as1 8,the evergreens can keep a secret the year round1 some one has said40--,burroughs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase as an ,abridgment of a ,proposition4--,in the chapter on the adverbial clause of degree we found that the clause as expressed frequently consists only of the conjunction and a prepositional phrase2 as1 8,the force of the wind had never been greater than at this moment40 ,we cannot give a satisfactory analysis of such a sentence without supplying after than the subject it and the verb was4 ,it is best also to supply where a clause of manner has been abridged2 as1 8,the scene changed as at a theatre40 ,but there are sentences in which propositions have been abridged to prepositional phrases and no ellipsis can be supplied2 for example1 8,in manner he was quiet and gentlemanlike1 with the natural courtesy of high breeding40--,froude4 ,in this sentence the phrase is equivalent to an independent proposition joined to the first proposition by the conjunction and1--8and he had the natural courtesy of high breeding40 ,such a phrase may be described as an accompaniment of the predicate rather than a modifier of any word in it4 ,exercise #bh ,dispose of all prepositional phrases in the following sentences4 #a4 ,one object of the celebration was to obtain the means of raising a monument to ,clive in his native country4--,mc,carthy4 #b4 ,next to deciding when to start your garden1 the most important matter is1 what to put in it4--,warner4 #c4 ,the monument is clearly right as to the year of his death4--,lowell4 #d4 ,it ran north from ,jerusalem1 past ,bethel1 between the height of ,libana on the left hand1 and of ,shiloh on the right1 entering ,samaria at the south end of the beautiful valley1 which further north stretches past the foot of ,mounts ,gerizim and ,ebal4--,geikie4 #e4 ,the last time he had seen her was at a brother mason's marriage4--,dr4 ,john ,brown4 #f4 ,hendry slowly pulled out his boots from beneath the table4--,barrie4 #g4 ,at that time he used to preach in a little church something like a barn4--,george ,eliot4 #h4 ,just outside this room ,sylvia met with a little adventure4--,m4 ,a4 ,h4 ,clarke4 #i4 ,moreover1 he found that the parrots1 instead of being an expense1 were the means of increasing his fortune4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #aj4 ,indeed1 but for the discovery of the capacities of the chrysanthemum1 modern life would have experienced a fatal hitch in its development4--,warner4 #aa4 ,their wives never came to the island until late in ,may or early in ,june4--,kipling4 #ab4 ,his head was small1 and flat at top1 with huge ears1 large green glassy eyes1 and a long snipe nose1 so that it looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew4--,irving4 #ac4 ,we cannot transform the world except very slowly4--,higginson4 #ad4 ,it was near the close of a bright summer afternoon that ,i visited this celebrated spot for the first time4--,longfellow4 #ae4 ,no well-endowed clergy were on the alert to quit their cathedrals and set up a pompous hierarchy in the frozen wilderness4--,everett4 #af4 ,mowgli repeated with the ,kite's whistle at the end of the sentence4--,kipling4 #ag4 ,we are continually assuming that nations become strong according to their numbers4--,ruskin4 #ah4 ,owing to circumstances over which he had had entire control1 the ,colonel's reputation--either as a promoter or as anything else--was of a sort that no longer could be trifled with4--,janvier4 #ai4 ,now1 notwithstanding this state of his own feelings1 he had never made a declaration in so many words to ,miss ,wilkins4--,r4 ,m4 ,johnston4 #bj4 ,she was seated across a donkey between a pair of glittering milk-cans2 and1 as she went1 she kicked jauntily with her heels upon the donkey's side1 and scattered shrill remarks among the wayfarers4--,stevenson4 #ba4 ,he was a mongoose1 rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail1 but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits4--,kipling4 #bb4 ,the critical moment of the day as regards the weather is at sunrise and sunset4--,burroughs4 #bc4 ,i am going to take it for granted now and henceforth4--,holmes4 #bd4 ,his spare frame shook1 and his knees knocked against each other as in an ague fit4--,r4 ,h4 ,dana1 ,sr4 #be4 ,who of this crowd tonight shall tread ,the dance till daylight gleam again8--,bryant4 #bf4 ,longfellow was exquisitely sensitive to the beautiful4 #bg4 ,it cannot be brought from far4--,webster4 #bh4 ,nay1 the hunger and the cold and the whistling bullets have brought pleasant messages to many a man before now4--,ruskin4 #bi4 ,from this time forth he is an outlaw1 hunted over field and fell1 and roaming with untold sufferings through the mountains and wilderness4--,boyesen4 #cj4 ,just at that moment the moon shone out from behind a cloud4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #ca4 ,she was dressed in plain dull black1 save for a sort of dark blue kerchief which was folded across her bosom4--,h4 ,james4 #cb4 ,until very lately1 the promenaders in the ,piazza were exclusively foreigners1 or else the families of such government officials as were obliged to show themselves there4--,howells4 #cc4 ,just then he heard the black steed panting and blowing close behind him4--,irving4 #cd4 ,and people remembered her mother1 how silent she had been1 and how patient1 and how like to what ,mona was1 and they said now1 as they had said long ago1 8,she's going down the steep places40--,caine4 #ce4 ,the causes of this change lie partly in the altered character of the whole world's civilization1 partly in the increasing poverty of the city4--,howells4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,appositive ,,phrase ,function4--,as a means of avoiding a predication1 perhaps no other sentence-element is oftener employed than the appositive phrase2 as1 8,they have the genius for hard work--the most desirable kind of genius40 ,the appositive is a very loosely joined adjunct1 but its position in the sentence and the frequency of its use make its relation easily intelligible4 ,the appositive phrase comes about in this way4 ,the sentence quoted above really amounts to two independent propositions2 namely1 ,they have the genius for hard work1 and1 ,the genius for hard work is the most desirable kind of genius4 ,these propositions joined into a closely built sentence with proper subordination might read thus1--,they have the genius for hard work1 which is the most desirable kind of genius4 ,here we have an unrestrictive adjective clause4 ,the important part of this clause1 the only part that adds anything new to the sentence1 is the complement1 the most desirable kind of genius4 ,the subject which merely represents a previous word1 and the verb is is only a link between the subject and its attribute1 the complement4 ,these two words help in the grammatical structure of the proposition1 but since they are easily supplied by a reader1 they may just as well be omitted1 as in fact is often the case4 ,this brings the really important words into a position next to what they explain or describe1 but without any relation-words between them4 ,a group of words so used is called an appositive phrase4 ,the base-word of the phrase1 usually a noun1 is called a noun in apposition4 ,in general the appositive is not a necessary element of the sentence4 ,so far as the truth of the statement and the grammatical structure of the sentence are concerned1 it may be omitted4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is joined to a noun to point out a special individual or class1 when it resembles the restrictive adjective clause2 as1 8,it is quite true that practical life is a kind of long1 competitive examination1 conducted by that severe pedagogue1 ,professor ,circumstance40--,huxley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,base-,word of an ,appositive ,phrase4--,when the base-word of an appositive phrase is a noun1 it gives another name for something1 and so makes that thing more fully known by revealing another of its attributes2 as1 8,we turn to commemorate the genius and virtues of ,john ,milton1 the poet1 the statesman1 the philosopher1 the glory of ,english literature1 the champion and the martyr of ,english liberty40--,macaulay4 ,attributes are just as often told by adjectives as by nouns1 hence we find many appositive adjectives2 as1 8,at the first glimpse he thought it a dog--long1 lean1 skulking1 prowling1 tawny--on the scent of his tracks40--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 ,the adjectives are an abridgment of an unrestrictive adjective clause1 just as appositive nouns are4 ,besides the noun and the adjective1 the base-word of an appositive phrase may be1-- 7a7 ,a reflexive pronoun2 as1 8,the old ,professor himself sometimes visited the house after it had changed hands40--,holmes4 ,this pronoun does not explain or describe in the least4 ,it is put into the sentence for emphasis4 7b7 ,a personal pronoun4 ,this forms a convenient word to add a phrase or clause to2 as1 8,how good it was of him ,to mind a slender man like me1 ,he of the mighty limb40--,holmes4 7c7 ,a pronominal adjective4 ,this does not explain4 ,it has not sufficient meaning in itself for that4 ,like the personal pronoun it is to be modified by some phrase or other sentence-element that has meaning2 as1 8,on a gently rising ground in the heart of the city rises ,st4 ,paul's1 one of the largest churches in the world1 and a masterpiece of ,wren1 one of the greatest architects40 ,in neither place here does one mean anything until it is modified by the phrase telling class4 ,such an appositive may serve many purposes4 ,in the following sentence from ,lowell1 8,the poetry of the ,danes was much of it authentic history10 it narrows the scope of what it modifies1--the poetry of the ,danes4 7d7 ,the infinitive4 ,see ,chapter ,,xx4 7e7 ,the gerund4 ,see ,chapter ,,xxii4 7f7 ,the participle4 ,when a participial phrase is clearly an abridgment of an unrestrictive adjective clause1 it may be said to be in apposition2 as1 8,all are architects of ,fate1 ,working in these walls of ,time40--,longfellow4 7g7 ,the noun clause4 ,see ,chapter ,,vii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,words that take an ,appositive ,modifier4--,the appositive is usually added to a noun1 but not always4 ,a pronoun may be made definite in its application by an appositive2 thus1 8,we are doing the ,english cathedral towns1 ,aunt ,celia and ,i40--,mrs4 ,wiggin4 ,,note4--,in the following sentence from ,wordsworth1-- 8,but oh1 ye fountains1 meadows1 hills1 and groves1 ,forebode not any severing of our loves10 many would consider the nouns in the first line as appositives of ye4 ,it seems better to consider ye as filling the office of a limiting adjective4 ,if we spoke about the fountains1 we would say these fountains2 speaking to them it is usage to employ the pronoun ye in the place of these4 ,occasionally we find an adjective1 adverb1 phrase1 or clause1 explained by some sort of appositive2 as1 8,active and sprightly people are called mercurial1 that is1 born under the planet ,mercury40 ,here a participial phrase is in apposition with the adjective mercurial4 ,the appositive may even be used to explain a predicate1 a use in which it very much resembles one use of the adjective clause2 as1 8,the surplus beyond what was required for the support of the national worship was distributed in alms among the poor2 a duty strenuously prescribed by their moral code40--,prescott4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,the appositive is frequently introduced or brought into the sentence by such words or expressions as namely1 to wit1 as1 that is1 or1 in other words2 as1 8,the whale is a mammal1 that is1 a warm-blooded1 air-breathing animal that suckles its young40 ,the introductory as is useful in limiting the application of a noun1 signifying that it is to be considered only to the extent denoted by the appositive2 as1 8,to the ,esquimaux1 the auk1 as an article of food1 is second in importance only to the seal40 ,with this restrictive office as often introduces an appositive to a possessive pronoun2 as1 8,as masters your first object must be to increase your power40--,ruskin4 ,it will readily be seen that masters is an appositive of your if the sentence is changed thus1 8,the first object of you1 as masters1 must be1 etc40 ,such as or as often brings in the names of several individuals belonging to a certain class2 thus1 8,the leaves and tender twigs are an agreeable food to many domestic animals1 as the cow1 horse1 sheep1 and goat40--,thoreau4 ,a noun whose meaning is broad may have two appositives1 specific in meaning1 joined by or and introduced by whether2 as1 8,there is always something to see about a church1 whether living worshipers or dead men's tombs40--,stevenson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,case and ,number of the ,noun in ,apposition4--,the appositive noun is usually in the same case as the noun it explains1 but often when it is joined to a possessive noun1 the possessive case ending is dropped from the first noun for the sake of euphony1 and added only to the appositive4 ,in number an appositive usually agrees with its noun1 but not always2 for example1 8,the priests were each devoted to the service of some particular deity40 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,appositive ,phrase4--,usually the appositive follows immediately the group of words it explains2 but sometimes the two are separated by intervening words2 thus1 8,these votive pictures are no less interesting as works of art than as expressions of hopeless superstition40--,howells4 ,sometimes the appositive begins a sentence2 as1 8,one burnished sheet of living gold1 ,loch ,katrine lay beneath him rolled40--,scott4 8,calm1 strong1 and nobly aglow with love of country1 he has no need of going into paroxysms in order to prove his sincerity40--,boyesen4 ,exercise #bi ,dispose of all appositives in the following sentences4 #a4 ,as a composition the ,declaration is ,mr4 ,jefferson's4--,webster4 #b4 ,there is one topic peremptorily forbidden to all well-bred1 to all rational mortals1 namely1 their distempers4--,emerson4 #c4 ,long before ,i had dealings with him1 ,i knew him by the superb song1 or rather incantation1 with which he announced his coming on the ,grand ,canal4--,howells4 #d4 ,he made his ,masque what it ought to be1 essentially lyrical and dramatic only in semblance4--,macaulay4 #e4 ,do ,i not remember the time when ,i myself haunted the station8--,stevenson4 #f4 ,grandchild of ,henri ,quatre1 niece of ,louis ,,xiii41 cousin of ,louis ,,xiv41 first princess of the blood1 and with the largest income in the nation 7#ejj1jjj livres7 to support these dignities1 ,mademoiselle was certainly born in the purple4--,higginson4 #g4 ,two kinds of men make good teachers--young men and men who never grow old4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #h4 ,devils1 thicker than tiles on housetops1 scare him not from his work4--,motley4 #i4 ,unostentatious illustrations of divine power1 such as healing the sick1 opening the eyes of the blind1 or the ears of the deaf1 were not enough4--,geikie4 #aj4 ,punctuality must be cultivated by all who would succeed in any calling1 whether lofty or humble4 #aa4 ,the old ,norse poets were many of them natives of ,iceland4--,carlyle4 #ab4 ,the bold assertions of these people have of late impressed a large portion of the public with an opinion that ,james the ,second was expelled simply because he was a ,catholic1 and that the ,revolution was essentially a ,protestant ,revolution4--,macaulay4 #ac4 ,restless1 sleepless1 unable to read1 tired of sitting1 driven on by the desire to get rid of his own thoughts1 he started out to walk4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #ad4 ,we none of us spoke of money1 because that subject savored of commerce and trade1 and though some might be poor we were all aristocratic4--,mrs4 ,gaskell4 #ae4 ,the question must have raised the sense of ,his supreme right as consecrated ,son of ,god4--,geikie4 #af4 ,the refined formality with which the literary product of ,provence is for the most part stamped as with a trade mark1 was doubtless the legacy of ,gallo-,roman culture1 itself at best derivative and superficial4--,lowell4 #ag4 ,this was ,blomidon1 simple1 majestic1 inspiring4--,bolles4 #ah4 ,he was an accomplished scholar intimately acquainted with the languages and literatures of continental ,europe4 #ai4 ,they have all had a truth in them or men would not have taken them up4--,carlyle4 #bj4 ,you ,americans1 he said1 wear too much expression on your faces4--,wm4 ,james4 ,exercise #cj ,analyze the following sentences4 #a4 ,throughout this period1 ,rousseau was1 for the last time in his life1 at peace with most of his fellows4--,morley4 #b4 ,in life it is difficult to say who does the most mischief--enemies with the worst intentions1 or friends with the best4--,bulwer4 #c4 ,for men of force are generally men of faults4 #d4 ,close under the eastern foot of ,gerizim1 at the opening of the side valley from the wide plain1 on a slight knoll1 a mile and a half from the town1 surrounded now by stones and broken pillars1 is ,jacob's ,well4--,geikie4 #e4 ,prudence had kept him away from the other girl1 but he was feeling a great want2 some one to applaud him4--,barrie4 #f4 ,self-reliance1 self-restraint1 self-control1 self-direction1 these constitute an educated will4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #g4 ,the aspect of the venerable mansion has always affected me like a human countenance4--,hawthorne4 #h4 ,farewell1 ye vanishing flowers1 that shone ,in my fairy wreath1 so bright and brief4--,moore4 #i4 ,what was it that filled the ears of the prophets of old but the distant tread of foreign armies1 coming to do the work of justice8--,george ,eliot4 #aj4 ,a woman kept the summer school1 sharp1 precise1 unsympathetic1 keen and untiring4--,beecher4 #aa4 ,the street-lamps always burn2 but scarce a casement ,in house or palace front from roof to basement ,doth glow or gleam athwart the mirk air cast4--,james ,thomson4 #ab4 ,men dress their children's minds as they do their bodies1 in the prevailing fashion4--,spencer4 #ac4 ,the choice of ,capernaum by ,jesus as his future center was significant4--,geikie4 #ad4 ,but his marvelous moral beauty1 even as a child1 attracted the attention of the ,emperor ,hadrian4--,lord4 #ae4 ,facts and the consequences of facts draw the writer back to the falconer's lure from the giddiest heights of speculation4--,de ,quincey4 #af4 ,the northern curve of the rock basin's wall was broken by a narrow perpendicular rift1 reaching from the sky down to within sixty or eighty feet of the surface of the pool4--,bolles4 #ag4 ,she starts1 and is lost sight of round the cliff1 gone straight away for the very ends of the world4--,jefferies4 #ah4 ,a veteran ,american sailor1 he had learned to know the great ,gulf as scholars know deep books by heart4--,hearn4 #ai4 ,we come1 as ,americans1 to mark a spot which must forever be dear to us and our posterity4--,webster4 #bj4 ,two of them were guests like ourselves1 both men of the north4--,stevenson4 #ba4 ,indeed1 man is naturally more prone to subtlety than open valor1 owing to his physical weakness in comparison with other animals4--,irving4 #bb4 ,kotick was the only one who asked questions1 and none of his companions could tell him anything except that the men always drove seals in that way for six weeks or two months of every year4--,kipling4 #bc4 ,as compared with the two other writers1 ,epictetus shortens his sword2 that is1 his sentences4--,higginson4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,direct ,,object ,the direct object of a transitive verb is so familiar a sentence-element that it makes itself understood without much special investigation4 ,it presents few peculiarities1 and these are not difficult4 ,the transitive verb is usually defined as one that denotes action terminating on an object4 ,this definition does not cover all verbs called transitive1 for instance1 the verb have1 meaning own1 which does not denote any action whatever4 ,but it would be difficult indeed to make a better definition4 ,the definition1 a transitive verb is one that takes an object1 is open to the objection that it applies only to transitive verbs in the active voice1 whereas passive verbs are also transitive in meaning4 ,we may say this much1 however1--7a7 no verb is considered transitive unless it has two substantives1 a subject and a complement1 the two meaning different things1 an agent and a non-agent4 7b7 ,a sentence containing a transitive verb can always be changed to the passive form1 the complement becoming the subject1 and the subject of the active verb becoming the object of the preposition by4 ,this second point is a better test of the transitive verb than the definition is4 ,for example1 take the verb earn in the sentence1--8,indeed1 a man may earn twenty thousand dollars a year by writing #8sensation-stories1' and have nothing to do with literature in any high sense40--,higginson4 ,it is true that when a man earns he acts1 but his action is not performed upon the twenty thousand dollars4 ,in so far this verb does not come under the definition of a transitive verb2 but it answers the test1 that is1 it may be changed to the passive2 thus1 8,twenty thousand dollars was earned by him40 ,this does not mean that the twenty thousand dollars received an action2 it means that twenty thousand became his possession as a result of his work4 ,of transitive verbs denoting action performed directly upon some object1 examples are in the following sentences4 7a7 8,let us build altars to the ,beautiful ,necessity1 which secures that all is made of one piece40--,emerson4 7b7 8,when ,gabriel blows his trumpet ,i hope he will select the moment before sunrise for his summons40--,bolles4 7c7 8,many men eat finer cookery1 drink dearer liquors1 with what advantage they can report and their doctors can40--,carlyle4 ,examples of transitive verbs like earn that take an object and denote action1 but not action really performed upon the object1 are found in the following sentences4 7a7 ,these deluded people visit fortune tellers in the hope of finding out what is to happen in the future4 7b7 8,he entered the street at the end opposite to the ,holborn entrance40--,george ,eliot4 7c7 8,as he approached the village1 he met a number of people40--,irving4 ,action always suggests to us at first thought physical action1 that accompanied by movement2 but there are other kinds of action which may be told by transitive verbs4 #a4 ,action of the mind1 denoted by such verbs as believe1 learn1 think1 remember2 as1 8,to know anything that turns up is1 in the infinity of knowledge1 to know nothing40--,f4 ,harrison4 #b4 ,action of the emotions1 denoted by such verbs as hate1 love1 revere2 as1 8,when ,pre ,antoine was a very young man1 he had a friend whom he loved as he loved his life40 #c4 ,action of the senses1 denoted by the verbs see1 hear1 feel1 smell1 taste2 as1 8,to see a good man and hear his voice once a week would be reason enough for building churches and pulpits40--,holmes4 ,verbs of saying1 like tell1 remark1 declare1 exclaim1 are followed by a direct object1 usually a quotation or a noun clause telling just what was said2 thus1 8,he cried in the bitterness of his soul that ,god had hid his face from him40--,macaulay4 ,the verbs ask and teach are often followed by two direct objects1 one of the person and the other of the thing2 as1 8,whoever will teach the people of ,new ,england the advantages of good food1 fresh air1 and sunshine1 will renew the physical constitution of the race40--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 8,ask a great money-maker what he means to do with his money--he never knows40--,ruskin4 ,these verbs are really used in a double sense4 ,for instance1 in the first sentence1 in so far as will teach takes the object the people of ,new ,england1 it means instruct2 in so far as it takes the object the advantages of good food1 fresh air and sunshine1 it means impart4 ,when such a sentence is changed to the passive form1 either object may become the subject1 and the other may remain as the object of the passive verb2 or1 if the personal object remains1 it may be called an indirect object4 ,some verbs usually intransitive may become transitive by being followed by a cognate object1 that is1 one whose meaning is akin to that of the verb1 as in the familiar expressions run a race1 dream a dream1 smile a smile2 as1 8,there he fell into evil paths1 and on a fatal day sinned a great sin40--,hillis4 ,some transitive verbs may be followed by an object meaning the same person or thing as the subject4 ,this is called a reflexive object2 as1 8,on the wall opposite1 about a mile across the gulf1 a brook was pouring itself to the valley40--,king4 ,in this sentence the brook is conceived in two aspects1 that of a doer and that of a receiver--it pours and is poured4 ,some verbs are made transitive by the addition of an adverb2 as1 8,ring out the old1 ring in the new1 ,ring out the false1 ring in the true40--,tennyson4 ,here the old is the object not of the verb ring1 but of the verb ring out4 ,frequently a preposition is to be taken with a verb1 the two words denoting one idea and that transitive2 as1 8,you cannot stir abroad but ,jews and ,christians pounce upon you with unsettled bonds40--,carlyle4 ,a test for this sort of compound verb is that when it is changed to the passive form1 the two words--verb and preposition--remain together2 thus1 8,you are pounced upon by ,jews and ,christians40 ,in the sentence1 8,make up your mind to forego driving sledge10 we have four different direct objects4 7#a7 ,the compound verb make up takes the object your mind4 7#b7 ,the whole group of words make up your mind is equivalent to the one verb decide1 and as such takes the infinitive phrase for object1 to forego driving sledge4 7#c7 ,the object of the infinitive to forego is the gerund-phrase driving sledge4 7#d7 ,the object of the gerund driving is the noun sledge4 ,a combination of two verbs with the meaning of one transitive verb is found in the every-day expression make believe1 meaning pretend4 ,this cannot be separated4 ,it is usually followed by an infinitive or a noun clause used as its object4 ,for example1 8,whereupon the puppy jumped into the air off all its feet at once1 with a yelp of delight1 and rushed at the stick and made believe to worry it40--,lewis ,carroll4 ,exercise #ca ,explain how all verbs and verbals in the following sentences are completed4 #a4 ,storms shall sob themselves to sleep4--,beecher4 #b4 ,the time will come1 let us hope1 when all boys will be taught the use of tools1 and all girls the principles of cooking4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #c4 ,he doubted1 as he has himself owned1 whether he had not been born 8an age too late40--,macaulay4 #d4 ,you will hear more wit and better wit in an ,irish street row than would keep ,westminster ,hall in humor for five weeks4--,bagehot4 #e4 ,he was her special pet and she disapproved of the nurse4--,kipling4 #f4 ,conclave after conclave asked him to be ,pope4--,hale4 #g4 ,when the clock strikes the hour1 his mind begins to work4--,hillis4 #h4 ,he said he was a surgeon1 and that in case any accident occurred on board he must always be in readiness4--,crawford4 #i4 ,it must not be supposed that the ,italians hate the ,austrians as individuals4--,howells4 #aj4 ,then ,i shall hang you for yourself1 as a rogue and a rascal4--,froude4 #aa4 ,the ,saxon is wanting in taste1 which is as much as to say that he has no true sense of proportion4--,lowell4 #ab4 ,however1 she soon made out that she was in the pool of tears which she had wept when she was nine feet high4--,lewis ,carroll4 #ac4 ,all ruin1 desolateness1 imperfectness of hut or habitation you must do away with4--,ruskin4 #ad4 ,to study a nest is to make an acquaintance4--,olive ,t4 ,miller4 #ae4 ,go1 seek it1 and redeem thy sin-- ',tis sweet to let the pardoned in4--,moore4 #af4 ,even in books ,i like a confined locality4--,miss ,mitford4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,subjective ,,complement ,function4--,when we wish to assert that a thing possesses a certain quality1 we do it by a predicate made up of some form of the verb be together with an adjective2 as in the sentence1 8,the very name was uncanny40--,page4 ,here the idea words are the subject noun and the adjective in the predicate2 the verb was serves merely as a copula1 or tie-word1 necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence1 but having little1 if any1 meaning4 ,the verb is employed in the same way when we wish to denote-- 7a7 ,the identity of two ideas2 as1 8,the secret of success is concentration40--,schreiner4 7b7 ,the class to which a thing belongs2 as1 8,ben ,battle was a soldier bold40--,hood4 ,in such sentences as the three quoted1 we call the adjective or noun in the predicate a subjective complement of the verb4 ,the noun is often termed a predicate nominative1 and the adjective a predicate adjective4 ,in either case the complement tells some attribute of the subject1 and it is for the express purpose of telling this attribute that such sentences are made4 ,these sentences are very common1 being framed to answer certain questions that it is natural for the mind to ask2 namely1 who is he8 what is it8 what kind of person is he8 what sort of thing is it8 ,the noun used as base-word of a subjective complement does not necessarily agree with the subject in number2 as1 8,justice and ,reverence are the everlasting central ,law of the ,universe40--,carlyle4 ,neither does the subjective complement have to succeed its verb4 ,sometimes the whole order of the sentence is inverted2 thus1 8,fair as a summer dream was ,margaret40--,lowell4 8,a very attractive person is that child-loving girl40--,miss ,mitford4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,subjective ,complement not always a ,noun or ,adjective4--,often1 as was stated in ,chapter ,,xxiii1 a prepositional phrase takes the place of a predicate adjective1 usually because we have no adjective adequate to express the meaning of the phrase4 ,in this sentence from ,lowell1--8,popular literature is of value10 the adjective valuable might well be substituted for the phrase2 but in the following sentences the language affords no equivalent adjectives4--8,i am in love with this green earth40--,lamb4 8,j4 ,g4 ,whittier is of a ,quaker family and was born in ,haverhill1 ,massachusetts40 ,the noun clause1 the root infinitive1 the gerund1 and the participle used as subjective complements1 have been discussed in preceding chapters4 ,to this use must also be referred the personal pronoun in the possessive case used as in the sentence1--8,all the beauty of these summer days is mine40 ,is this pronoun a predicate nominative meaning my beauty1 or is it a predicate adjective meaning possessed by me1 or shall we make no attempt to classify it at all8 ,the word so often does duty as a subjective complement4 ,it is used to avoid a repetition of some noun or adjective2 as1 8,the house is empty and has been so for months40 99 99 99 99 99 ,verbs that take a ,subjective ,complement4--,the verb be is by no means the only one that may be completed by a subjective complement4 ,there are numerous others1 most of which will fall in the following classes4 #a4 ,become1 and verbs of similar meaning1 like grow1 get1 turn2 as1 8,bob had grown up very handsome40--,page4 #b4 ,certain verbs of position like stand1 sit1 lie2 as1 8,the moon stood bright and full in the heavens40--,howells4 #c4 ,verbs signifying to appear to the senses1 like look1 feel1 smell1 sound1 taste2 as1 8,our own thought sounds new and larger from his mouth40--,emerson4 8,both he and his wife looked outwardly gentlefolks40--,lamb4 #d4 ,a few verbs denoting action1 like begin1 come1 go1 rise1 spring2 as1 8,one that goes in a nurse may come out an angel40--,holmes4 ,with this class of verbs an adjective complement often seems to partake of the nature of an adverb2 as1 8,they descended fearless into all gulfs and bedlams40--,carlyle4 ,the author must decide whether to use the adjective or the adverb by his purpose4 ,that is1 does he wish to make more prominent the condition of the subject or the manner of the action8 #e4 ,certain passive verbs4 ,in general these are3-- 7a7 ,verbs of calling2 as1 8,the place is fitly called ,inspiration ,point40--,king4 7b7 ,verbs of deeming2 as1 8,i have been counted a successful teacher40--,annie ,preston4 7c7 ,verbs of making2 as1 8,the forlorn condition of the new settlers was made still worse by domestic feuds40--,prescott4 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,after some verbs it is usage to precede the complement by as or for1 sometimes even by the infinitive to be4 ,these words are not connectives1 nor do they add anything to the meaning of the sentence1 though often they do serve to make it more clear2 thus1 8,chaucer undoubtedly began as an imitator1 perhaps as mere translator40--,lowell4 ,if as were omitted1 it might not be clear at once that imitator is not a direct object of began4 ,exercise #cb ,explain how all verbs and verbals in the following sentences are completed4 #a4 ,duck-hunting was my favorite sport1 and the marshes on the river were fine grounds for them usually1 but this season the weather had been so singularly warm that the sport had been poor4--,page4 #b4 ,it is not simply beets and potatoes and corn and string-beans that one raises in his well-hoed garden2 it is the average of human life4--,warner4 #c4 ,the cultivation of this delightful and beautiful art of reading should be recognized as a part of a liberal education4--,brook4 #d4 ,bread is found fresh at the baker's4--,howells4 #e4 ,blithe were it then to wander here4--,scott4 #f4 ,we'll choose among them as they lie asleep4 #g4 ,you come hot and tired from the day's battle and this sweet minstrel sings to you4--,thackeray4 #h4 ,the doctor had been and gone1 and the hand had been pronounced as injured but slightly1 though it would of course have been considered a far more serious case if ,mr4 ,smith had been a richer man4--,t4 ,hardy4 #i4 ,half the secret of human intercourse is to make allowance for each other4--,leigh ,hunt4 #aj4 ,the eating-houses are almost without number4--,howells4 #aa4 ,we read of cliffs that spring naked and sheer to an equal height4--,king4 #ab4 ,he stood concealed amid the brake ,to view this ,lady of the ,lake4--,scott4 #ac4 ,christians were cast to the lions1 but the ,christian church grew up a stately and spreading tree4--,mill4 #ad4 ,the wind was blowing a hurricane4--,page4 #ae4 ,two years later1 ,mexico became independent of ,spain1 and ,california was made a ,mexican province4 #af4 ,why are we never quite at our ease in the presence of a schoolmaster8--,lamb4 #ag4 ,a chieftain's daughter seemed the maid4--,scott4 #ah4 ,his meat was locusts and wild honey4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,objective ,,complement ,function4--,sometimes an action performed upon an object makes a different thing of that object4 ,our desire to tell this as briefly as possible has given rise to sentences in which a transitive verb is followed by two complements1 one a direct object naming the thing acted upon1 and the other an attribute of the direct object telling the outcome of the activity denoted by the verb2 as1 8,by his ,sketch ,book ,irving has made the ,hudson a classic river40 ,the second complement is quite as often an adjective as a noun2 for example1 8,shafts of sunshine from the west ,paint the dusky windows red40--,longfellow4 ,we understand from this sentence that the windows undergo the action denoted by the words paint red1 and are therefore changed from dusky windows to red windows4 ,such a word as river in the first sentence or red in the second is called an objective complement4 ,a noun used in this office somewhat resembles an appositive1 being a second name for an object already named2 but the appositive has no relation to any word except the noun it explains1 while the objective complement has a very important relation to the predicate verb4 ,so close is this relation that we may often express the meaning of the two words1 the verb and the objective complement1 by one word2 as1 8,political freedom makes every man an individual40--,higginson4 ,here the verb makes and the objective complement an individual may be combined into the one verb individualizes4 ,the close complementary relation of the objective complement to the predicate verb is still further brought out when a sentence of this type is changed to the passive form4 ,there arises the sentence discussed in section #e in the preceding chapter1 a sentence wherein the direct object of the active verb has become the subject of the passive verb1 and the objective complement still remains after the verb but becomes a subjective complement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,verbs that take an ,objective ,complement3-- 7a7 ,verbs of making1 such as render1 elect1 appoint1 called factitive verbs2 as1 8,old habits of work1 old habits of hope1 made my endless leisure irksome to me40 7b7 ,verbs of thinking1 such as consider1 regard1 look upon2 as1 8,the student is to read history actively and not passively1 to esteem his own life the text1 and books the commentary40--,emerson4 7c7 ,verbs of naming or calling2 as1 8,we do not hesitate to pronounce them a brave1 a wise1 an honest1 and a useful body40--,macaulay4 7d7 ,the verbs feel1 find1 leave1 prove1 see2 as1 8,he had never seen her so radiant1 so young40--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 8,chaucer1 like ,dante1 found his native tongue a dialect and left it a language40--,lowell4 7e7 ,some intransitive verbs are completed in this way1 especially when the direct object is a reflexive personal pronoun2 as1 8,they shouted themselves hoarse40 8,she cried herself sick40 ,these sentences mean--8,they made themselves hoarse by shouting02 8she made herself sick by crying40 99 99 99 99 99 ,introductory ,word4--,after some verbs usage puts in the word as or for before the objective complement1 using it merely as an introductory word2 thus1 8,i respected him as a sound and accurate scholar40--,de ,quincey4 8,no harmless thing that breathed1 ,footed or winged1 but knew him for a friend40--,aldrich4 ,when these sentences are changed to the passive1 the introductory word is usually retained before the subjective complement4 ,,note4--,after as the participle may take the place of an adjective2 as1 8,i consider him as having lost his right40 ,the participle has here the same use that the adjective destitute has in the expression destitute of his right4 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,objective ,complement4--,it usually follows the direct object1 but the adjective so used is sometimes placed next to the verb1 and the noun may1 to render it emphatic1 be placed at the beginning of the sentence2 as1 8,grape shot will sweep clear all streets40--,carlyle4 8,a perpetual fountain of good sense ,dryden calls ,chaucer40--,lowell4 ,we have certain stereotyped verb-phrases such as make free1 think best1 and see fit1 in which the adjective is so closely related to the verb that it is placed next to it1 and the two words have acquired the meaning of one verb4 ,make free has almost the meaning of dare2 for the other two phrases there are no good substitutes4 ,these phrases are followed by an infinitive phrase used as direct object4 ,for example1--8,a native of that region saw fit to build his house very near it40--,holmes4 ,exercise #cc ,explain how the verbs and verbals in the following sentences are completed4 #a4 ,enthusiasm had made them ,stoics4--,macaulay4 #b4 ,to make the common marvellous is the test of genius4--,lowell4 #c4 ,for the purpose of public instruction we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his property4--,webster4 #d4 ,none but the dissolute among the poor look upon the rich as their natural enemies4--,ruskin4 #e4 ,he had so far completed his preparations as to have leisure to be talking himself hot and hoarse with the neighboring barber4--,howells4 #f4 ,alfred left ,england better1 wiser1 happier in all ways than he found it4--,dickens4 #g4 ,grenadier1 ,i salute you2 you have proved yourself the bravest of the brave4 #h4 ,haste can make you slipshod1 but it can never make you graceful4--,higginson4 #i4 ,a murderer he has written himself down4--,birrell4 #aj4 ,if you will only call a headache a ,cephalalgia it acquires dignity at once1 and a patient becomes rather proud of it4--,holmes4 #aa4 ,when mobs were roaring themselves hoarse for ,wilkes and liberty1 he denounced ,wilkes as a worthless profligate4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ab4 ,before he had finished his toilet a stroke of apoplexy stretched him senseless upon the floor4--,motley4 #ac4 ,sad or sinful is the life of that man who finds not the heavens bluer and the waves more musical in maturity than in childhood4--,higginson4 #ad4 ,meanwhile the ,french and ,bretons made good their ascent on either flank4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ae4 ,the excitement on shore became wild2 men shouted themselves hoarse2 women laughed and cried4--,hearn4 #af4 ,in the fullness of my heart ,i laid bare our plans before him4--,stevenson4 #ag4 ,they have criticised the ,insurrection as evincing in the rioters an extreme backwardness to battle4--,carlyle4 #ah4 ,but seeing that our host sets us the good example of forgetting ceremony1 ,i shall likewise throw it aside and make free to intrude on his privacy4--,hawthorne4 ,exercise #cd ,analyze the following sentences4 #a4 ,he placed the guns1 together with a good supply of ammunition1 under the loop-holes that commanded the road by which the enemy must advance4 #b4 ,the standing difficulty in the long run is not want of places1 but want of men4--,hale4 #c4 ,act faithfully1 and you really have faith1 no matter how cold and even how dubious you may feel4--,wm4 ,james4 #d4 ,learned sergeant eloquence1 were it continued until the learned tongue wore itself small in the indefatigable learned mouth1 cannot make unjust just4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,we charge every man with positive dishonesty who drives birds from his garden in fruit time2 the fruit is theirs as well as yours4--,beecher4 #f4 ,the ,austrians are simply hated as the means by which an alien and despotic government is imposed upon a people believing themselves born for freedom and independence4--,howells4 #g4 ,the desert heavens have felt her sadness2 ,her earth will weep her some dewy tears4--,jean ,ingelow4 #h4 ,finally he shook himself free from the dreamy spell of the place1 and turned his face southward again4--,h4 ,h4 #i4 ,bob had always been a great favorite with the ,colonel1 and ever since he had been a small boy1 he had been used to coming over and staying with him4--,page4 #aj4 ,but they detest ,venice as a place of residence4--,howells4 #aa4 ,place a tree or plant in an unusual position1 and it will prove itself equal to the occasion and behave in an unusual manner4--,burroughs4 #ab4 ,the grand essentials of happiness are something to do1 something to love1 and something to hope for4--,chalmers4 #ac4 ,to touch the ,temple was1 in the eyes of the ,jews1 to incur the vengeance of the ,almighty4--,geikie4 #ad4 ,daily work is one of the blessed influences which keep the soul strong and sane4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #ae4 ,who toiled a slave may come anew a ,prince ,for gentle worthiness and merit won2 ,who ruled a king may wander earth in rags ,for things done and undone4--,e4 ,arnold4 #af4 ,it was somewhat wistfully that she asked her husband how far this place was from her home1 and whether1 when he was at work1 she could not come down here by herself4--,black4 #ag4 ,they set up their country as their idol1 and proposed to themselves the heroes of ,plutarch as their examples4--,macaulay4 #ah4 ,he was sent to ,st4 ,luke's and dismissed as cured4--,miss ,mitford4 #ai4 ,mrs4 ,smith was a matron whose countenance addressed itself to the mind rather than to the eye4--,t4 ,hardy4 #bj4 ,at the far end of the vista he could behold her in her childhood as the daughter of a cavalier land-holder in the valley of the ,james4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #ba4 ,it amused me vastly at times to think that he was of our shrewd ,yankee race4--,h4 ,james4 #bb4 ,i know this1 that the way ,mother ,earth treats a boy shapes out a kind of natural theology for him4--,holmes4 #bc4 ,the aim which ,bonaparte avowed as his highest ambition for ,france1 to convert all trades into arts1 is being rapidly fulfilled all around us4--,higginson4 #bd4 ,no man becomes a saint in his sleep4--,carlyle4 #be4 ,she taught the youth how to make friends with the crickets and squirrels1 and how to call the thrush and the robin to eat from his hand4--,hillis4 #bf4 ,he will hunt among these hills during the next moon1 so he has told me4--,kipling4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,indirect ,,object ,function4--,many verbs are followed by two substantives1 both of which are called objects2 for example1 8,abbot ,samson read his monks a severe lecture40--,carlyle4 8,i will tell you a common case40--,de ,quincey4 8,for this did ,god send her a great reward40--,de ,quincey4 ,if we ask the questions read what8 will tell what8 did send what8 the answers are the direct objects of the verbs1 namely1 a severe lecture1 a common case1 a great reward4 ,if we go farther and ask the questions1 read a severe lecture to whom8 will tell a common case to whom8 did send a great reward to whom8 the answers are--to his monks1 to you1 to her4 ,but in the sentences as quoted the preposition to is not expressed1 the meaning being evident without it4 ,a word used like monks1 you1 her1 is called the indirect object of the verb4 ,it is not a complement1 for the meaning of the verb is complete without it2 but it is brought into the sentence by the verb1 and is therefore its adjunct4 ,the indirect object is usually defined as denoting the one to whom or for whom something is done4 ,it is not always1 however1 a personal word1 as is seen in ,shakespeare's sentence1--8,give thy thoughts no tongue nor any unproportioned thought his act40 99 99 99 99 99 ,position of the ,indirect ,object4--,the position of the indirect object is next to the verb4 ,if its position is changed1 the preposition is expressed1 as is seen in the sentences1--8,mother made me a dress10 and 8,mother made a dress for me40 ,the logical use of the word me is identical in the two sentences1 but the sentences are built differently4 ,it prevents confusion if we call me in the second sentence the object of the preposition for1 the phrase for me being an adjunct of the verb just as the one word me is an adjunct of the verb in the first sentence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,indirect ,object in a ,passive ,sentence4--,when sentences containing direct and indirect objects are changed to the passive form1 the direct object should become the subject1 and the indirect object should remain after the verb or should become the object of an expressed preposition4 ,if we change the sentence1 8,abbot ,samson read his monks a severe lecture10 we should have1 8,a severe lecture was read to his monks by ,abbot ,samson40 ,but it is a common practice to make the indirect object the subject of the passive verb and leave the direct object unchanged2 thus1 8,the monks were read a severe lecture by ,abbot ,samson40 ,in this sentence lecture is called a residual object of the passive verb were read4 ,sentences arising in this way are often extremely awkward1 and should not be tolerated2 for example1 8,i was sold a horse40 99 99 99 99 99 ,verbs that take an ,indirect ,object4--,the most common are bring1 build1 cost1 cut1 do1 fling1 forgive1 get1 give1 grant1 hand1 leave1 make1 offer1 pay1 play1 pledge1 promise1 reach1 read1 sell1 send1 show1 teach1 tell1 throw1 weigh1 win1 wish1 yield4 ,since the indirect object is not a necessary sentence-element1 it follows that it is frequently omitted1 so that we find these verbs taking only the direct object4 ,on the other hand1 we occasionally find verbs followed by an indirect object and no direct object4 ,this comes about in several ways4-- 7a7 ,when the sentence is changed to the passive form and the preposition to or for is not supplied2 as1 8,this chance was never offered me before40--,james ,thomson4 7b7 ,when the direct object is omitted1 being unimportant or else well known2 as1 8,after he had earned the reward the committee refused to pay him40 7c7 ,when the verb is intransitive2 as1 8,the effort cost him his life40 ,the word life is not a direct object but an answer to the question how much8 therefore an adverbial noun4 ,exercise #ce ,dispose of all indirect objects in the following sentences4 ,account for the sentences in the passive form4 #a4 ,the constant sight of chilblains among people who bring you bread1 cut you cheese1 and weigh you out sugar1 by no means reconciles the ,northern stomach to their prevalence4--,howells4 #b4 ,give a busy man ten minutes to write a letter1 and he will dash it off at once4 #c4 ,build thee more stately mansions1 ,o my soul1 ,as the swift seasons roll4--,holmes4 #d4 ,the boy believes there is a teacher who can sell him wisdom4--,emerson4 #e4 ,the amiable manners of the ,indian girl had won her the regard of the wife of one of the caciques4--,prescott4 #f4 ,he was allowed abundance of food and liberty to walk in the courtyard of the tower4--,shorthouse4 #g4 ,i think the old fellow has hitherto had scant justice done him in the main4--,lowell4 #h4 ,but since he was denied speech1 he scorned the inarticulate mouthings of the lower animals4--,warner4 #i4 ,paul1 seeing a servant in the yard1 ordered the boy something to eat4--,r4 ,h4 ,dana1 ,sr4 #aj4 ,in ,venetian streets they give the fallen snow no rest--,howells4 #aa4 ,there is the large wooden reel which the blear-eyed old ,deacon sent the minister's lady4--,holmes4 #ab4 ,we are shown the power of our country growing and expanding4--,froude4 #ac4 ,it costs a beautiful person no exertion to paint her image on our eyes1 yet how splendid is that benefit4--,emerson4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,the ,,adverbial ,,noun ,function4--,questions like how long8 how far8 when8 where8 are often answered by adverbs1 phrases1 or clauses2 but they may be answered by nouns1 as in the following sentences1--8,a while she paused2 no answer came40--,scott4 8,we are transported a hundred and fifty years back40--,macaulay4 8,every moment they came nearer4 ,next door lives a carpenter40--,miss ,mitford4 ,it is clear that the italicized expressions are used adverbially1 modifying respectively the verb paused1 the adverb back1 the verb came1 and the verb lives4 ,the base-word of each of these expressions is a noun1 called an adverbial noun4 ,it is immaterial to us what case this noun is in1 but a study of ,old ,english teaches us that it is in the objective case1 while a further proof is that we frequently employ a preposition before it4 ,the adverbial noun usually denotes measure of some sort1 of time1 distance1 space1 weight1 value1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what the ,adverbial ,noun modifies4--#a4 ,a verb2 as1 8,a man could have found places where he could have jumped three thousand feet in one descent to the valley40--,king4 #b4 ,an adjective2 as1 8,he was nearly a head taller than myself40 ,the adjective worth is always modified by an adverbial noun answering the question how much8 and frequently by others answering various other questions2 as1 8,wheat worth a dollar a bushel last week is selling now for eighty cents40 ,notice that the modifiers of worth differ in closeness of relation2 the closest is dollar1 the next bushel1 and the next week4 ,this is not determined by position4 #c4 ,an adverb2 as1 8,the oldest sergeant present stepped a pace forward40 #d4 ,a phrase2 as1 8,centuries before this the ,chinese had printed books by means of carved wooden blocks40 #e4 ,a clause2 as1 8,his room is hung round with cases of them1 each impaled on a pin driven through him something as they used to bury suicides40--,holmes4 ,in such a sentence as1 8,he is forty years of age10 it is somewhat difficult to determine whether years modifies of age or of age modifies years4 ,this arises perhaps from the fact that neither years nor of age makes a good base for the complement of is4 ,he is not forty years1 neither does the sentence mean that he is of age4 ,we must say that is is completed by the expression forty years of age1 used adjectively and having the meaning of one word4 ,if we wish to go further and analyze this complement1 we say that of age is the base1 meaning old1 and that this phrase is modified by the adverbial noun forty years4 ,it is the same in the sentence1 8,we often read about precipices that are thousands of feet in descent40--,king4 ,the verb are is completed by the group of words1 thousands of feet in descent1 having the meaning of very high4 ,of this group in descent is the base modified by the adverbial noun thousands of feet4 ,a common construction is found in the sentence1 8,about two weeks ago ,i looked down from the ,mariposa trail into the tremendous fissure of the ,sierras40 ,in analyzing the adverbial element about two weeks ago1 we find the base-word to be the adverb ago2 this is modified by the adverbial noun about two weeks1 the base of which is weeks modified first by two and then by about4 ,,notes4--#a4 ,many prefer to consider about a preposition1 governing weeks1 and ago an adjective modifying weeks4 ,but in the familiar expression long ago1 ago is said to be an adverb1 and its use seems to us the same in the expression two weeks ago4 ,it is a case where use rather than derivation should determine the part of speech4 ,about has the same relation to two weeks that almost would have in the same position4 #b4 ,a further expression denoting degree1 which may well be noticed here1 is found in the sentences1--8,john is good and strong02 8,she sailed good and fast40 ,in the first sentence it is not the author's intention to give two attributes of ,john2 the sentence means that ,john is very strong4 ,in analyzing the sentence it is best not to separate the group of words good and strong4 ,in the following sentence from ,stevenson1--8,but ,i was rare and hungry10 the substitution of rare for good makes the sentence mean1--8,i was unusually hungry40 ,exercise #cf ,dispose of all nouns used adverbially in these sentences4 #a4 ,a few years later1 ,prof4 ,s4 ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 an ,american1 invented the electric telegraph4 #b4 ,if you had been able to keep awake only a year or two longer1 you would not have been so wholly surprised by our industrial system4--,bellamy4 #c4 ,he is the chieftain who looms a head above all his people4--,boyesen4 #d4 ,judgment for an evil thing is many times delayed some day or two1 some century or two1 but it is sure as life1 it is sure as death4--,carlyle4 #e4 ,the snow lay half an inch deep on the brown tiles4--,howells4 #f4 ,dante died only seven years before ,chaucer was born4--,lowell4 #g4 ,soon his face was worth going far to see4--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 #h4 ,the desolate and splintered walls of ,horeb and ,sinai are not a quarter so high4--,king4 #i4 ,some years ago ,i was traveling by railway1 no matter whence or whither4--,froude4 #aj4 ,he was exactly five feet six inches in height and six feet five inches in circumference4--,irving4 #aa4 ,only about three weeks since1 there was a leader with this or a similar title4--,ruskin4 #ab4 ,i arrived one winter morning about five o'clock1 and was not so full of soul as ,i might have been in warmer weather4--,howells4 #ac4 ,some of you are1 perhaps1 more livingly aware than you were an hour ago of the depths of worth that lie around you1 hid in alien lives4--,wm4 ,james4 #ad4 ,he did not know that he bore with him from school and college a character worth much fine gold1 but was pleased to find his mess so kindly4--,kipling4 #ae4 ,this was a bad beginning2 so1 half an hour after the gun was withdrawn1 the ,austrian colonel ordered an assault4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,peculiar ,,modifications ,it is not uncommon to find words modified in what seems to us an ungrammatical way2 for example1 an article modifying an adjective1 as in the phrase all the same1 or an adverb modifying a noun1 as in the sentence1 8,we walked the whole distance1 exactly three miles10 where the adverb exactly is a modifier of the noun phrase three miles4 ,some of these modifications we shall now consider4 #a4 ,the article the modifying an adjective4--,we find this in many phrases that have become current in literature no less than in conversation2 for example1 all the quicker1 none the worse1 quite the contrary1 at the best4 ,in some instances1 as in the last example given1 we may say that the adjective has become a substantive in meaning and hence may be modified by the article4 ,in other cases a noun may be supplied after the adjective1 and the article may be said to modify the noun4 ,but in most cases the adjective is used in the sense of an adjective1 and it is impossible1 too1 to supply any noun after it1 so we must take the expression as we find it and say that the article modifies an adjective1 the construction being idiomatical4 ,illustrations of this construction are found in the following sentences3-- 7a7 8,hundreds and hundreds of thousands of seals watched them being driven1 but they went on playing just the same40--,kipling4 7b7 8,the negroes declared that under the old house were solid rock chambers which had been built for dungeons1 and had served for purposes which were none the less awful because they were vague and indefinite40 ,many of these phrases contain a modifying adverb4 ,in just the same1 the adverb just modifies the same4 ,in all the more we have all used adverbially to modify the more4 ,the base-word of these phrases is just as often an adverb as an adjective1 as in the sentences1 8,this news only made us walk the faster02 8,he did it none the worse for the many interruptions40 #b4 ,in such expressions as a few books1 a good many trees1 the article a may seem at first thought to modify a plural noun2 but this is not the case4 ,the article modifies the pronominal adjectives few and many1 having the meaning of collective nouns1 that is1 meaning individuals taken as a group instead of singly4 ,this pronominal is then modified by the prepositional phrase of books1 of trees1 with the preposition of understood4 ,usage alone settles for us when the preposition is to be expressed4 ,we say a few of them2 but if we use a noun in place of the pronoun them we omit the preposition2 as1 a few pennies4 ,we say a score of years1 and a couple of years1 but we omit the preposition after dozen1 another word denoting number1 and say a dozen years4 ,after the collective noun crowd we express the preposition2 as1 a crowd of boys2 but if we say a great many in place of crowd1 we omit the preposition1 saying a great many boys4 ,for analysis1 however1 the preposition should always be supplied4 #c4 ,adverbs sometimes modify nouns4--,this comes about often by abridging an adjective clause to an appositive phrase2 for example1 8,john ,adams was born at ,quincy1 then part of the ancient town of ,braintree1 on the #aith day of ,october 7,o4 ,s47 #agce40--,webster4 ,if we supply which was after the noun ,quincy1 we have an adjective clause1 in which the adverb then modifies the whole predicate--a regular construction4 ,but in the sentence as originally written1 the adverb modifies the noun part4 ,we occasionally find nouns used in the place of these modifying adverbs4 ,we may say thrice the amount1 wherein amount is modified by the adverb thrice1 or we may substitute for thrice the noun phrase three times4 ,we also find the noun something used in the place of the adverb somewhat1 as in the sentence1--8,he had something the manner of a ,southerner40 ,such a word restricts the application of the noun it modifies4 ,the adverbs almost and about are used in the same way1 as in almost a year1 about a pound4 ,but is frequently used adjectively in the sense of only1 having a limiting or restrictive force2 thus1 8,he was but one generation removed from the soil40--,boyesen4 ,examples of adverbs modifying nouns are found in the following sentences3 7a7 8,the ,scheld1 almost exclusively a ,belgian river1 after leaving its fountains in ,picardy1 flows through the pleasant provinces of ,flanders and ,hainault40--,motley4 7b7 8,it may well be doubted whether ,roman literature1 always a half-hardy exotic1 could ripen the seeds of living reproduction40--,lowell4 7c7 8,south ,dome is a vast globe of bold rock1 almost a full mile in height40--,king4 7d7 8,i fell a helpless prey to a boatman who addressed me in some words of wonderful ,english and then rowed me to the sea wall at about thrice the usual fare40--,howells4 #d4 ,some nouns like howl1 cry1 shock1 derived from verbs denoting action1 may be modified by an adverbial clause of time or place4 ,we may say1 8,he cried out joyfully when he caught sight of me10 where the clause modifies the predicate cried out joyfully2 or we may say1 8,his cry when he caught sight of me was joyful10 where the same clause with the same meaning modifies the subject his cry4 ,a clause introduced by as1 with the meaning and construction of an adverbial clause of manner1 may modify a noun and so save several words2 for example1 8,their plays are much shorter than the standard drama as it is known to us40--,howells4 ,here as is equivalent to the group of words in the form in which4 #e4 ,there are some modifiers of verbs consisting of several words which should not be separated1 inasmuch as they express only one idea4 ,some of these are by and by1 off hand1 day by day1 side by side4 ,some of these expressions after they have been considered as units may be separated into their compound elements4 ,in the sentence1 8,they have infested the place time out of mind10 we say that the predicate have infested the place is modified by the adverbial phrase time out of mind1 this having the force of one adverb4 ,we may then say that this phrase is made up of the noun time modified by the prepositional phrase out of mind4 #f4 ,certain absolute phrases have become equivalent to single words and as such are used adjectively or adverbially to modify nouns or verbs4 ,some of these are wrong side out1 upside down1 one behind the other4 ,each of these consists of a substantive--wrong side1 upside1 one1--and an attribute of this substantive--out1 down1 and behind the other4 ,these attributes are joined directly to the substantive because of the omission of the participle being4 ,examples of these phrases are found in the following sentences3 7a7 8,apoplexy is only egotism wrong side out40--,holmes4 7b7 8,salvationists sat three in a seat and played concertinas40--,bolles4 ,exercise #cg ,find examples of peculiar modifications in the following sentences4 #a4 ,one is always the better for a walk in the morning air1 a medicine which may be taken over and over again without any sense of sameness or any failure of its invigorating quality4--,lowell4 #b4 ,her gratitude for such thoughtfulness of his smote him like a reproach2 all the more that he knew her gentle heart had never held a thought of reproach in it towards him4--,h4 ,h4 #c4 ,these barges were all tied one behind the other with tow-ropes1 to the number of twenty-five or thirty4--,stevenson4 #d4 ,i ran the same way1 outstripping a good many1 and soon came facing the sea4--,dickens4 #e4 schylus was1 head and heart1 a lyric poet4--,macaulay4 #f4 ,the dog-whip is six yards long1 and the handle but sixteen inches4 #g4 ,civilis was hemmed in by the ocean2 his country1 long the basis of ,roman military operations1 was accessible by river and canal4--,motley4 #h4 ,sea ,catch was fifteen years old1 a huge gray fur-seal with almost a mane on his shoulders1 and long1 wicked dog-teeth4--,kipling4 #i4 ,he was the representative of the great dynasty whose name and effigies had been borne by all the coin of ,india until within some twenty years before4--,mc,carthy4 #aj4 ,it is better to do a few things precisely as they should be done1 than to do ten times as many in a loose1 slovenly way4 #aa4 ,one of these tunes1 just as it had sounded from her spiritual touch1 had been written down by an amateur of music4--,hawthorne4 #ab4 ,he was a lean1 nervous1 flibbertigibbet of a man1 with something the look of an actor1 and something the look of a horse jockey4--,stevenson4 #ac4 ,the shock to the senses there1 as one rides out from the level and sheltered forest1 up to which our horses had been climbing two days1 is scarcely less than if he had been instantly borne to a region where the ,creator reveals more of himself in his works than can be learned from the ordinary scenery of this world4--,king4 #ad4 ,thus the whole life upon the globe1 as we see it1 is the result of this blind groping and putting forth of nature in every direction4--,burroughs4 #ae4 ,i know very well that he could better himself1 and earn twice what ,i am able to give him4--,conan ,doyle4 ,exercise #ch ,analyze the following sentences4 #a4 ,the sight of the resting country does his spirit good4--,stevenson4 #b4 ,to go to bed was to lie awake of cold1 with an added shudder of fright whenever a loose casement or a waving curtain chose to give you the goose-flesh4 #c4 ,the house had been built many generations before by a stranger in this section1 and the owners never made it their permanent home4--,page4 #d4 ,one stick1 pointed1 makes him a spear2 two sticks rubbed together make him a fire2 fifty sticks tied together make him a house4--,drummond4 #e4 ,i often thought that he felt the dumb limitations which denied him the power of language4--,warner4 #f4 ,lengths of brownish-green and yellow tapestry1 none the fresher for its two centuries and more of existence1 still protested against the modern heresy of wall-paper4--,j4 ,hawthorne4 #g4 ,centuries ago his granite crumbled and his marble became dust1 but his sweet psalms and songs do still abide4--,hillis4 #h4 ,besides the cattle we saw no living thing except a few birds and a great many fishermen4--,stevenson4 #i4 ,i passed some pleasant hours1 a few years since1 in the ,registry of ,deeds and the ,town ,records1 looking up the history of the old house4--,holmes4 #aj4 ,dennis dealt him a blow upon the face which felled him to the ground4--,dickens4 #aa4 ,the strength of a rope may be but the strength of its weakest part2 but poets are to be judged in their happiest hours1 and in their greatest works4--,birrell4 #ab4 ,why are you not on your way home8--,froude4 #ac4 ,many a gardener will cut you a bouquet of his choicest blossoms for small fee1 but he does not love to let the seeds of his rarest varieties go out of his own hands4--,holmes4 #ad4 ,the spirit of local self-government1 always the life-blood of liberty1 was often excessive in its manifestations4--,motley4 #ae4 ,shere ,khan was the tiger who lived near the ,waingunga ,river1 twenty miles away4--,kipling4 #af4 ,this was not the first time that ,i had been refused a lodging4--,stevenson4 #ag4 ,it cost him the best years of his life to conquer them4--,lord4 #ah4 ,the society was formed four centuries and a half after the poet's death4--,lowell4 #ai4 ,the whites have too frequently set them an example of violence1 by burning their villages and laying waste their slender means of subsistence1 and yet they wonder that savages do not show moderation and magnanimity towards those who have left them nothing but mere existence and wretchedness4--,irving4 #bj4 ,i arrived one winter morning about five o'clock1 and was not so full of soul as ,i might have been in warmer weather4--,howells4 #ba4 ,there is a gentleman with them1 who somewhat resembles ,st4 ,nicholas as he appeared to the young ,van ,gleeks on the fifth of ,december4--,mrs4 ,dodge4 #bb4 ,it took him twenty years to subdue these fierce warriors4--,lord4 #bc4 ,one good1 kind1 story-telling1 ,bible-rehearsing aunt at home1 with apples and gingerbread premiums1 is worth all the schoolma'ams that ever stood by to see poor little fellows roast in those boy-traps called district schools4--,beecher4 #bd4 ,the spectre started full jump with him4--,irving4 #be4 ,as in his tales he had endeavored to concentrate into a few strongly defined types the modern folk-life of the ,north1 so in his dramas the same innate love of his nationality leads him to seek the typical features of his people1 as they are revealed in the historic chieftains of the past4--,boyesen4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,independent ,,elements ,in the chapters on the infinitive phrase and the participial phrase1 we discussed those phrases used independently1 that is1 thrown loosely into the sentence and forming no part of its structure1 as in the following sentences1--8,it will then1 to borrow the elegant language of the play-bills1 be withdrawn to make room for the forthcoming novelties40--,macaulay4 8,there is no custom that can1 properly speaking1 be final40--,carlyle4 ,besides phrases of these kinds1 there are several other varieties of independent elements that are commonly used and form very interesting material in the sentence4 ,their function is often an important one1 and they could not be dispensed with without necessitating a very roundabout and clumsy form of expression4 ,some of these elements are single words1 some are phrases1 and some are propositions1 both independent in structure and dependent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,words used ,independently4--,i4 ,the noun of address4--,this is used in two ways3 7a7 ,in oral or written conversation or formal address1 where the name of the person spoken is used1 either to invite his attention or for the sake of courtesy2 as1 8,upon my life1 ,mr4 ,caudle1 that's very cool40--,jerrold4 7b7 ,in more or less impassioned composition1 often poetry or oratory1 where the person or thing spoken about is addressed as if actually present and capable of understanding the address4 ,such an address has the nature of an explanation4 ,it forms the figure of speech called apostrophe2 as1-- 8,o star of strength4 ,i see thee stand ,and smile upon my pain40--,longfellow4 #b4 ,we also have the noun used independently by pleonasm1 that is1 either for emphasis or to call the reader's attention to the subject that is to be talked about2 as1 8,the birds that come about one's door in winter or that build in his trees in summer1 what a peculiar interest they have40--,burroughs4 ,the base of this independent element is the noun birds2 the element is long because of the two restrictive adjective clauses modifying birds4 ,often this independent noun is introduced by as for or as to2 thus1 8,as for the boy1 he turned up after a while as a constant guest40--,howells4 ,the words as for indicate that the boy had already been the subject of discourse in some previous sentence4 #c4 ,the words well1 now1 why often begin a sentence4 ,they may indicate the writer's state of mind1 his attitude toward what he is going to say1 also the tone1 whether of conviction1 remonstrance1 surprise1 or deliberation1 with which the sentence should be read2 as1 8,why1 let him go home in the rain1 to be sure40--,jerrold4 8,now1 the capitalists were men of understanding and wise in their generation40--,bellamy4 #d4 ,the interjection is an independent element4 ,it may be a single word or a group of words with the office of one4 ,such words and expressions as ,ah6 ,oh6 ,alas6 ,dear me6 ,o my stars and garters6 ,hurrah6 fudge6 pooh6 are used to communicate not our thoughts but our feelings4 ,in doing this they perform the work of a whole declarative sentence2 as1-- 8,hurrah6--,hurrah6--the west wind ,comes freshening down the bay1 ,the rising sails are filling1-- ,give way1 my lads1 give way60 --,whittier4 ,the interjection eh8 is interrogative4 ,whoa6 and hist6 are imperative4 ,o is frequently used before the noun of address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,prepositional ,phrase used ,independently4--,this is usually a stereotyped phrase ready to hand for any one who wishes to use it1 such a phrase as for example1 in fact1 in short1 at any rate4 ,in the following sentence from ,stevenson1 8,i take it1 in short1 that ,i was about as near ,nirvana as would be convenient in practical life2 and if this be so ,i make the ,buddhists my sincere compliments10 the little independent phrase signifies to the reader that the author1 instead of going on with a long description of his state of feeling1 has thought of a happy way by which he can communicate a knowledge of it in very few words4 ,in ,irving's sentence1 8,this1 by the way1 is a mere casual remark1 which ,i would not for the universe have it thought ,i apply to ,governor ,van ,twiller10 the independent phrase indicates that this sentence also is only a casual remark1 much like a personal 8aside0 from the author to the reader4 ,in this sentence from ,mrs4 ,gaskell1--8,in the first place1 ,cranford is in possession of the ,amazons10 the phrase is equivalent to the independent infinitive phrase to begin with4 ,it informs the reader that the remark it introduces is necessary as a setting or background for further description of ,cranford4 99 99 99 99 99 ,propositions used ,independently4--#a4 ,the imperative sentence addressed to the reader2 as1 8,mind you1 this was the world as ,i first knew it40--,holmes4 ,this independent element is like a note of warning1 telling the reader not to conclude that this is the world as the writer knew it later4 #b4 ,an exclamation like 8,bless your soul60 or 8,thank ,god60 wherein the subject of the verb is omitted4 ,such an expression reveals the author's feeling about the statement2 as1 8,the civilized world is learning1 thank ,god1 more and more of the importance of physical science40--,kingsley4 ,an expression somewhat similar to this is found in the sentence1 8,thanks to you1 ,i am able to speak ,french40 ,here the cause of my ability to speak ,french is given in the expression ,thanks to you2 but this is not so constructed as to be a grammatical modifier of the predicate1 and hence must be considered independent4 #c4 ,a proposition introduced by as4--,this has the structure of an adverbial clause1 but in meaning it is not a modifier of any part of the sentence4 ,many of these expressions are stereotyped2 for example1 as it were1 as it will be seen1 as the case might be1 as it was called4 ,they are usually parenthetical4 ,their value in the sentence can best be seen from a few examples4 7a7 8,time1 as it will be seen afterward1 did not allow ,sir ,george ,lewis any chance of making good this prediction40--,mc,carthy4 ,the independent element here informs the reader that the author will not drop the matter under discussion with the single statement of it1 but will take it up more at length later4 ,a similar expression1 8as we have seen10 takes the reader's mind back to something he has read before4 7b7 8,the ,saxon1 as it appears to me1 has never shown any capacity for art40--,lowell4 ,the independent clause signifies here that the author makes his statement not as a matter of fact but only as a matter of personal opinion4 7c7 8,she was1 as ,i had supposed1 a gentlewoman whom a change of circumstances had brought down from her high estate40--,holmes4 ,this independent clause conveys to the reader the author's satisfaction in making a statement that is true and that coincides with his own supposition4 7d7 8#8,you don't know what your thoughts are going to be beforehand6' said the #8,member of the ,haouse1' as he called himself40--,holmes4 ,this independent element gives the authority for the preceding quotation1 and together with the quotation marks absolves the writer from all responsibility for spelling and pronunciation4 ,familiar forms of this clause are--as everybody says1 as the ,bible says1 as ,shakespeare puts it4 ,we often use the first of these when we are unwilling ourselves to be held responsible for our statements4 ,the other two are sometimes used lest people should think we are trying to pass off a quoted remark for an original one4 #d4 ,a clause of reason introduced by for4 ,when such a clause is independent1 it gives the reason not for any action expressed in the sentence nor for the whole statement1 but rather the author's reason for using a particular word or phrase2 as1 8,the bitterest opponent of the poet 7for like every strong personality he has many enemies7 is thus no less his debtor than his warmest admirer40--,boyesen4 ,such a clause is not always enclosed in a parenthesis2 it is just as often set off by commas or dashes4 #e4 ,an independent proposition1 declarative4--,many of these independent elements are stereotyped2 such as1 ,i dare say1 it seems1 it is said1 it is true4 ,the following sentences contain familiar instances4 7a7 8,mr4 ,swinburne1 ,heaven knows1 has been imitated enough40--,saintsbury4 ,the independent element here makes the sentence emphatic1 even makes it mean that ,mr4 ,swinburne has been imitated too much4 7b7 8,to equip so small a book with a preface is1 ,i am half afraid1 to sin against proportion40--,stevenson4 ,the independent words are here apologetic1 revealing to the reader the author's misgiving that the preface is uncalled for1 but not his full conviction4 7c7 8,i want my #8asides1' you see1 to whisper loud to you who read my notes40--,holmes4 ,the independent words1 a familiar personal remark to the reader1 indicate the author's appreciation of the fact that the reader understands fully as well as the author the purpose of the 8asides40 ,sentences like the last three quoted could be re-arranged so that the independent element would become the principal proposition and the rest of the sentence a noun clause2 thus1 8,heaven knows that ,mr4 ,swinburne has been imitated enough40 ,this transposition is unjust1 for it makes a different sentence from what the author intended4 ,oftentimes sentences read as if the independent element were not in the author's mind when he began to write1 but occurred to him during the writing and so was put in loosely1 parenthetically--for a purpose1 to be sure1 but not as part of the structure of the sentence4 ,if we transpose such sentences1 we give the independent element an undue importance1 not intended for it by the author4 ,exercise #ci ,select the independent elements in the following sentences4 ,tell the function of each4 #a4 ,keen son of trade1 with eager brow1 ,who is now fluttering in thy snare8 ,thy golden fortunes1 tower they now ,or melt the glittering spires in air8--,bryant4 #b4 ,now1 we will not discuss the point on any rigid principles of morality4--,macaulay4 #c4 ,for my part1 ,i had never been in a canoe under sail in my life4--,stevenson4 #d4 ,these strangers or neighbors1 as the case might be1 were looking at the display of toys and petty commodities in ,hepzibah's shop-window4--,hawthorne4 #e4 ,without a word to either of them--and that was not his wont--he passed to the stern of the yacht4--,black4 #f4 ,why1 bless your soul1 if all the cities of the world were reduced to ashes1 you'd have a new set of millionaires in a couple of years or so out of the trade in potash4--,holmes4 #g4 ,as to the nature of the dinner1 it of course varies somewhat according to the nature of the diner4--,howells4 #h4 ,to be frank1 the ,doctor's little establishment was dusty and disorderly--very4--,cable4 #i4 ,they'll come and look at me1 but1 you may depend upon it1 they will dine at your expense before they go home again4--,froude4 #aj4 ,when the thunders of universal ,france1 as even yet may happen1 shall proclaim the grandeur of the poor shepherd-girl that gave up all for her country1 thy ear1 young shepherd-girl1 will have been deaf for five centuries4--,de ,quincey4 #aa4 ,depend upon it1 there is now truer duty to be done in raising harvests than in burning them4--,ruskin4 #ab4 ,and hark6 how blithe the throstle sings6 ,he1 too1 is no mean preacher2 ,come forth into the light of things1 ,let ,nature be your teacher4--,wordsworth4 #ac4 ,in a word1 ,rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own4--,irving4 #ad4 ,poor as he was1--for his income was little more than two hundred a year1--and springing as he did from a family of no political importance1 it was by sheer dint of genius that the young cornet of horse1 at whose youth and inexperience ,walpole had sneered1 seized a power which the ,whig houses had ever since the ,revolution kept in their grasp4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ae4 ,call her1 ,king of ,france1 but she will not hear thee6--,de ,quincey4 #af4 ,the beauty of the scene increased1 thanks largely to the brilliant effects of cloud masses and an ardent setting sun4--,bolles4 #ag4 ,as for the carnival1 which once lasted six months of the year1 charming hither all the idlers of the world by its peculiar splendor and variety of pleasure1 it does not1 as ,i said1 any longer exist4--,howells4 #ah4 ,the fireplace1 it should be noted1 was built on the side of the room opposite to the windows2 that is to say1 in one of the partition walls4--,j4 ,hawthorne4 #ai4 ,ho6 ye who suffer6 know ,ye suffer from yourselves4 ,none else compels4--,e4 ,arnold4 #bj4 ,and now1 being a trifle choleric in his temperament1 the lieutenant governor uplifted the heavy hilt of his sword1 wherewith he so beat and banged upon the door that1 as some of the bystanders whispered1 the racket might have disturbed the dead4--,hawthorne4 #ba4 ,maule's ,lane1 or ,pyncheon ,street1 as it were now more decorous to call it1 was thronged at the appointed hour as with a congregation on its way to church4--,hawthorne4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,sentence ,,modifiers ,closely allied to the independent elements discussed in the preceding chapter are certain adverbs and adverbial phrases1 which seem to modify not any special part of the sentence but the whole assertion4 ,in some cases it is difficult to decide whether it is better to call a certain expression a sentence modifier or an independent element1 but this need not trouble us greatly1 for it is not the name we give to an element that is the vital point2 it is a clear perception of what that element does in the sentence for the communication of the author's thought4 99 99 99 99 99 ,classification of ,sentence ,modifiers4--,certain of these modifiers are so clearly distinguishable from all other sentence-elements that we may study them in the following groups4 #a4 ,adverbs4--,most of these are modal adverbs1 denoting the manner in which an assertion is made4 ,this may be positive1 doubtful1 or negative1 hence the adverbs surely1 perhaps1 and not are very common sentence modifiers4 ,other adverbs make the sentence emphatic1 as indeed2 others denote the extent of its application1 as generally2 still others take the reader back in thought to some previous statement1 and denote the logical relation between this previous statement and the sentence in which they occur1 as moreover1 however1 anyhow1 though4 ,examples of the use of these adverbs are found in the following sentences3 7a7 8,perhaps1 ,mr4 ,wilson1 you would have the great kindness to recommence your narrative40--,conan ,doyle4 7b7 8,indeed1 almost all slang is like parched corn and should be served up hot or else not at all40--,higginson4 7c7 8,it served1 moreover1 as a council of state to assist the monarch in the transaction of public business40--,prescott4 #b4 ,prepositional phrases4--,these denote1 for the most part1 what the modal adverbs denote4 ,usually they may be changed to adverbs that are nearly or quite equivalent in meaning2 for example1 8on the other hand0 however2 8at all events0 anyhow2 8of course0 certainly4 ,it may seem best to some persons to say of these phrases1 as likewise of the adverbs1 that they modify the predicate instead of the whole sentence4 ,there can be no objection to this1 as the predicate is the asserting part of the sentence4 ,examples of these phrases are found in the following sentences3 7a7 8,for the most part1 young people have a pretty keen sense of honor1 so that the main thing is to keep it fresh and active40--,munger4 7b7 8,for my part1 ,i travel not to go anywhere1 but to go40--,stevenson4 7c7 8,for the life of me1 ,i cannot understand it40--,stevenson4 #c4 ,phrases or clauses introduced by as2 for example1-- 7a7 8,as luck would have it1 there was a fair spring morning shining over the city40--,black4 ,this clause means luckily1 and tells the author's opinion of the statement he makes4 7b7 8,as a rule1 we disbelieve all facts and theories for which we have no use40--,wm4 ,james4 ,this phrase means generally1 and denotes the extent to which the statement is true4 7c7 8,as sure as my name is ,jack ,copley1 ,i saw the prettiest girl in the world today40--,mrs4 ,wiggin4 ,this clause means truly1 verily1 and is used to make the statement emphatic4 #d4 ,we frequently meet sentences containing a phrase like that italicized in the following1--8,far from showing due reverence to ,st4 ,edmund1 he did not even show him common justice40--,carlyle4 ,this phrase1 it is plain1 means 8instead of showing due reverence to ,st4 ,edmund10 but in addition it implies there is a very wide difference between two things1--the thing he did not do and the thing he did do4 ,it would be natural for us to say--8,instead of white1 she wore pink02 and it would be just as natural to say--8,far from wearing white1 she wore black40 ,our choice of phrases depends on the degree of difference between the two things contrasted4 ,the difference between white and pink is not great2 but the difference between white and black is one hundred and eighty degrees4 ,when we analyze this sentence modifier we find it to consist of the adverb far for a base-word1 modified by a prepositional phrase introduced by from4 ,the object of the preposition is a gerund1 which may be complete or incomplete1 modified or unmodified4 ,it is not uncommon for far to be modified by so1 which only intensifies its meaning2 thus1 8,for the ,king's subjects1 so far from being charmed by his resolution to marry a woman out of their midst1 are scandalized40 ,exercise #dj ,dispose of the sentence modifiers in the following sentences4 #a4 ,nevertheless1 an important part of culture is to acquire the habit of finishing every work4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #b4 ,for my own part1 ,i think there is such a thing as being too ,anglo-,saxon4--,lowell4 #c4 ,people1 as a rule1 only pay for being amused or for being cheated1 not for being served4--,ruskin4 #d4 ,believe me1 my dear ,miss ,elizabeth1 that your modesty1 so far from doing you any disservice1 rather adds to your other perfections4--,jane ,austen4 #e4 ,true eloquence1 indeed1 does not consist in speech4--,webster4 #f4 ,had we seen this charming landscape immediately after bidding farewell to ,chocorua1 it would have failed to make the strong impression upon us which as a matter of fact it did produce4--,bolles4 #g4 ,of course1 genius and enthusiasm are1 for both sexes1 elements unforeseen and incalculable2 but1 as a general rule1 great achievements imply great preparations and favorable conditions4--,higginson4 #h4 ,probably the election goes by avoirdupois weight2 and1 if you could weigh bodily the tonnage of any hundred of the ,whig and the ,democratic party in a town on the ,dearborn balance1 as they passed the hayscales1 you could predict with certainty which party would carry it4--,emerson4 #i4 ,to be inefficient or shiftless is the unpardonable sin1 to the mind of a born ,new ,englander4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #aj4 ,with a frank cordiality charming to contemplate1 they severally and collectively did their very best to make him feel that1 so far from being a stranger in a strange land1 he was very much at home among genuine friends4--,janvier4 ,exercise #da ,analyze the following sentences4 ,as far as possible analyze independent elements4 #a4 ,for1 to repeat1 the ground of a man's joy is often hard to hit4--,stevenson4 #b4 ,alas6 they had been friends in youth2 ,but whispering tongues can poison truth2 ,and constancy lives in realms above2 ,and life is thorny2 and youth is vain2 ,and to be wroth with one we love ,doth work like madness in the brain4--,coleridge4 #c4 ,surely this was his native village which he had left but the day before4--,irving4 #d4 ,as a rule1 when ,i have heard some slight indication of the course of events1 ,i am able to guide myself by the thousands of other similar cases which occur to my memory4--,conan ,doyle4 #e4 ,milton1 it is said1 inherited what his predecessors created4--,macaulay4 #f4 ,for my own part1 as the gondola slipped away from the blaze and bustle of the station down the gloom and silence of the broad canal1 ,i forgot that ,i had been freezing two days and nights2 that ,i was at that moment very cold and a little homesick4--,howells4 #g4 ,the king1 as we have seen1 must be an experienced warrior4--,prescott4 #h4 ,our solar system1 far from being alone in the universe1 is only one of an extensive brotherhood bound by common laws and subject to like influences4--,draper4 #i4 ,fight on1 thou brave true heart1 and falter not through dark fortune and through bright4--,carlyle4 #aj4 ,further1--and this was where the pinch came1--his reputation as a promoter had been most severely injured4--,janvier4 #aa4 8,so1 my dear ,miss ,pyncheon10 said the daguerreotypist1--for it was that sole other occupant of the seven-gabled mansion1--8,i am glad to see that you have not shrunk from your good purpose40--,hawthorne4 #ab4 ,the voice1 for example1 in a surprisingly large number of us1 has a tired and plaintive sound4--,wm4 ,james4 #ac4 ,as for this old man1 he had the beard of a saint and the dignity of a senator4--,howells4 #ad4 ,fortunately for us1 want of food1 great heat1 extreme cold1 produce promptings too peremptory to be disregarded4--,spencer4 #ae4 ,in the first place1 he was named 8,frank10 a circumstance ,i mentally resented2 but1 what was more to the point1 he had an evident desire to spill us over the steepest bank he could find4--,bolles4 #af4 ,thanks to the beneficent mysteries of hereditary transmission1 no capital earns such interest as personal culture4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #ag4 ,the human species1 according to the best theory ,i can form of it1 is composed of two distinct races1 the men who borrow1 and the men who lend4--,lamb4 #ah4 ,the first author1 it is plain1 could not have taken anything from books1 since there were no books for him to copy from4--,bagehot4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,elliptical ,,sentences ,in preceding chapters we have spoken of the tendency in ,english speech and composition towards abridgment4 ,independent propositions become clauses1 clauses become phrases1 and phrases give place to words4 ,this tendency to abbreviate the expression of thought is due to two causes3 7#a7 a predominating interest in one's ideas and a minor interest in the expression4 ,in such a case one uses only the significant words1 leaving out all those that can be supplied by the reader4 7#b7 ,a desire to be impressive1 to gain and keep the reader's attention4 ,at such times one rejects all unnecessary words as distracting attention from the main purpose and retarding the progress of the main thought4 ,the result of either of these causes is an elliptical sentence--one that cannot be analyzed without supplying certain elements necessary to its grammatical structure4 ,elliptical sentences are very common4 ,some of them have been already mentioned in different chapters1 for instance1 the common idiom1 8,i cannot but think40 ,some other ellipses we shall make the subject of inquiry in the present chapter1 and for convenience we shall take them up as ellipses in subordinate propositions and ellipses in principal propositions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ellipses in ,subordinate ,propositions4-- #a4 ,an elliptical adjective clause2 as1-- 8,a sound as of myriads singing ,from far and near stole in40--,whittier4 ,this ellipsis comes about through the omission of 7#a7 the correlative of as1 which in this case is such1 7#b7 the noun sound1 which can easily be supplied from the principal proposition1 and 7#c7 the verb is4 ,expanded the sentence reads1--8,such a sound as a sound of myriads singing is1 from far and near stole in40 #b4 ,the elliptical adverbial clause of time2 as1 8,st4 ,patrick1 when a boy of twelve1 lights a fire with icicles40--,froude4 ,in discussing adverbs as modifiers of nouns in ,chapter ,,xxx1 we found that an adjective clause is frequently abridged to an appositive phrase in which the base-word1 or noun in apposition1 is modified by an adverb4 ,a sentence like the following might have arisen in such a way1--8,st4 ,patrick1 then a boy of twelve1 lighted a fire with icicles40 ,here we have an abridgment1 but it is unnecessary to supply any ellipsis1 for we may say that the adverb then modifies boy of twelve4 ,but in the sentence quoted we have not the simple adverb then1 but the subordinating connective when4 ,in order that it may perform its ordinary and proper function in the sentence1 we supply after it the two words he is1 making a regular adverbial clause of time1 when he is a boy of twelve4 #c4 ,the elliptical clause of manner2 as1 8,a great city sprang up as if by magic40 ,this construction has been spoken of in the chapter on prepositional phrases4 ,it resembles the elliptical time clause in that the connective as if is a subordinating connective and needs a complete proposition following it4 ,in the sentence quoted we must therefore supply the words it sprang up4 ,in the elliptical modal clause the connective is often the one word as1 though it generally has the meaning of as if2 as1 8,on that ,i found scratched as with a nail or fork1 the following inscription40--,holmes4 #d4 ,the elliptical adverbial clause of condition4 7a7 ,an omission of the connective and the subject2 as1 8,this frame of mind was the great exploit of our voyage1 take it all in all40--,stevenson4 ,expanded for analysis this clause becomes1 8if we take it all in all40 7b7 ,an omission of the subject and the verb4 ,this is found in the familiar expression if possible1 which is really if it be possible1 also in such sentences as the following1--8,what is the use of health and life if not to do some work with them80--,here we may supply after if the words the use is or it is4 #e4 ,the elliptical adverbial clause of concession4 7a7 ,an omission of connective and subject2 as1 8,do what we may1 summer will have its flies40--,emerson4 ,in this sentence the verb do is also to be supplied after the auxiliary may4 ,expanded the clause reads1 though we do what we may do4 7b7 ,an omission of subject and verb1 the latter being a copula2 as1 8,solitude1 though silent as light1 is1 like light1 the mightiest of agencies2 for solitude is essential to man40--,de ,quincey4 ,since the noun solitude immediately precedes the clause as subject of the principal proposition1 the clause is perfectly clear without even the pronoun it for a subject1 and the verb is is easily understood4 ,only the new and necessary ideas need be expressed and these are the attribute silent as light4 ,the base of such an attribute is not always an adjective2 it may be a noun1 a participle1 or a prepositional phrase4 7c7 ,an omission of connective and subject1 sometimes also of copula or auxiliary1 before a pair of words in opposition to each other and joined by or2 as1 8,rain or shine1 the ,king rode every day for hours40--,thackeray4 ,this elliptical expression means 8though it might rain or might shine40 #f4 ,the elliptical adverbial clause consisting of a connective and a participial phrase4 ,this may denote various relations1--time1 manner1 condition1 etc41 but is so frequent a construction that it seems best to treat it by itself4 ,we have already spoken of this construction in the chapter on participial phrases1 where we gave illustrations which might be disposed of without supplying any ellipsis4 ,however1 this disposition is not always satisfactory1 and some may prefer to expand the clause in all cases of this kind4 ,illustrations are found in the following sentences3-- 7a7 ,denoting time1--8,no amount of hereditary virtue has thus far saved the merely devout communities from deteriorating1 when let alone1 into comfort and good dinners40--,higginson4 7b7 ,denoting manner1--8,it blew in enormous sighs1 dying away at regular intervals1 as if pausing to draw breath40--,hearn4 7c7 ,denoting concession1--8,such men1 however pressed with business1 are always found capable of doing a little more40 #g4 ,the elliptical adverbial clause of degree4--,this is so frequent that we seldom find a clause of degree involving a comparison that is not elliptical4 ,we shall take up first the ellipses after the conjunction than4 7a7 ,an omission of the predicate when it is about the same as the predicate of the principal proposition2 as1 8,alas6 books cannot be more than the men who write them 7are740 7b7 ,an omission of both subject and verb when these are readily supplied from the context2 as1 8,in no other spot had sympathy been more fiercely kindled than along that ,western border where life was always tense with martial passion40--,j4 ,l4 ,allen4 ,after than we are to understand the words it had been kindled4 7c7 ,an omission of the subject4 ,this may be the impersonal it2 as1 8,his features were more refined than 7it7 was usual in ,roman faces40--,froude4 ,or the subject understood may be the indefinite pronoun what2 as1 8,we have a great deal more kindness than 7what7 is ever spoken40--,emerson4 7d7 ,very much like the last type of sentence is one in which we cannot supply what but must supply those who1 with the verb are for the predicate of those2 as1 8,he met more people than could be remembered40 ,this clause expanded reads1 8than those are who can be remembered40 ,this gives us a restrictive adjective clause within the clause of degree4 7e7 ,we find cases of ellipsis after than which it is difficult to supply1 and some of them are familiar everyday expressions current everywhere and therefore invaluable in the communication of thought2 as1 8,naturally the coming of the ,marques de ,valdeflores at this critical juncture was regarded by the colonel as nothing less than providential40--,janvier4 ,shall we make a clause here reading than a providential thing is8 ,another difficult ellipsis is found in the sentence1--8,he may look up to a tower of rock and see its broken edges1 softened by more than three-fourths of a mile of distance1 directly above his eyes40--,king4 ,it seems best here not to attempt to supply anything1 but to take the italicized words as a unit1 as if the one word mile had been in their place4 ,this sentence could1 however1 be expanded to read--softened by more of distance than three fourths of a mile is4 ,another common instance is found in the sentence1--8,he was more than venerated in his day40--,lord4 ,this passive construction comes from the active--8,we more than venerated him10 which in turn comes from the sentence1--8,we did more than venerate him40 ,it is possible to supply the ellipsis in the last sentence1 making it1--8,we did more than to venerate him 7is much710 but the other two sentences must be considered idiomatic4 ,an idiom similar to the last is found in the sentence1--8,in very marked contrast with this younger man is the something more than middle-aged ,register of ,deeds40--,holmes4 ,the italicized words are a group signifying one idea1 for which we have no single word4 ,the base-word of the group is more1 but this alone is not a modifier of ,register of ,deeds4 ,so far as the group of words modifies the noun phrase ,register of ,deeds1 it cannot be separated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come now to ellipses in clauses of degree after the conjunction as4 7a7 ,the subject may be omitted2 as1 8,these are by no means so nearly connected as might be thought at first sight40--,bagehot4 ,here we may supply it after as1 or we may make the clause read 8as they might be thought to be at first sight40 7b7 ,the subject and auxiliary of the verb may be omitted when they can easily be supplied from the principal proposition2 as1 8,his fellow-conspirators were hanged nearly as fast as taken40--,howells4 ,the clause expanded is 8as they were taken40 7c7 ,as after than1 so after as we have some idiomatic expressions arising by ellipsis which it seems best not to fill out2 as1 8,he knew that into the world where ,ramona really lived he did not so much as enter40--,h4 ,h4 ,this predicate may be expanded to read did not do so much as to enter is much1 but this is very awkward4 ,besides1 so much as has to us an adverbial force1 being almost equivalent to the adverb even4 ,an extension of this construction is found in the following sentence from ,hawthorne1--8,it was doubtful whether the poor lady had so much as closed her eyes during the brief night of midsummer40 ,the ellipsis could be supplied if the predicate were had done so much as close1 but as it stands it must be considered an idiom and left as it is4 ,this construction has even gone over into the passive voice2 as1 8,parliament is not so much as mentioned in the whole instrument40--,webster4 ,another familiar elliptical construction is found in the sentence1--8,but you think you may as well have the right thing for your money40--,ruskin4 ,if one wishes he may expand this sentence so that it will read1--8you may have the right thing for your money as well as you may not have it40 ,here the entire clause is to be supplied4 ,sometimes a portion of it is expressed1 as in the sentence1--8,you may as well go as not40 ,a peculiar expression denoting degree1 which it seems best to give here although it follows neither than nor as is found in the sentence1 ,he was all but killed4 ,it seems best not to separate all but1 but to consider the expression as one adverbial modifier of the passive verb was killed4 ,in the sentence1 ,he was all but dead1 we may say if we choose that all is used as the base-word of the adjective complement of was1 and is modified by the prepositional phrase but dead4 ,however1 the sentence does not appeal to us in this way2 we do not naturally make the separation between all on one side and but dead on the other4 ,still less do we make such a separation when the word following but is a verb2 as in1 8,we all but won40 ,instead of this we keep the words all but together as if they were one word1 having almost the same meaning as the adverb nearly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ellipses in ,principal ,propositions4--#a4 ,the entire subject and part of the predicate may be omitted2 as1 8,a prick 7 ,i gave her a prick7 and she passed the most inviting stable door40--,stevenson4 ,here the abbreviated expression accords well with the thought4 #b4 ,if part of a compound sentence is the same as what has already been expressed1 it is frequently omitted2 as1 8,the former seems to have been a loyal and homely soul2 the latter 7seems to have been7 restless1 imperious1 penetrating1 unamiable40--,morley4 #c4 ,in replies to questions1 that part is often omitted which can be supplied from the question2 as1 8#8,what do you hope8' #8,that long before this moon has grown old1 you will be quite strong again4'0--,miss ,mulock4 ,the reply is here a noun clause1 object of hope1 which with its subject ,i is to be supplied4 #d4 ,in sentences beginning with the words no wonder1 the verb is and the anticipative subject it are to be supplied4 ,the real subject is a noun clause following no wonder2 as1 8,no wonder the princess loved him40--,stockton4 #e4 ,the verb and the anticipative subject it are often omitted at the beginning of sentences introduced by no matter2 as1 8,no matter just at this moment1 what he said40--,holmes4 ,here the real subject of the predicate is no matter is the noun clause what he said4 #f4 ,some interrogative or exclamative sentences begin with the words what if4 ,the word what is all that is left of a principal proposition1 and if introduces a conditional clause4 ,it may seem best sometimes to dispose of this if-clause as a noun clause used as the real subject of the principal proposition4 ,the principal proposition may be expanded to read1--8,what does it matter10 8what matter is it10 8what difference does it make10 etc42 as1 8,what 7would the result be7 if one of the ,himalayas could be cloven from its topmost tile of ice to its torrid base80--,king4 #g4 ,a construction similar to the last is one in which the negative adverb not takes the place of a whole proposition2 as1 8,not that ,i could see the boat drift1 for ,i could not1 the stars being all gone by this time40--,s4 ,l4 ,clemens4 ,we may expand this sentence to read1--8,i do not mean that ,i could see10 or 8,i would not say that ,i could see40 #h4 ,exclamative sentences expressing a wish often begin with the verb would1 which is to be taken as equivalent to wish with the subject ,i omitted4 ,would is followed by a noun clause used as its object2 as1 8,would to ,heaven that we had a sieve1 that we could so much as fancy any kind of sieve that would do this work40 #i4 ,the imperative let is sometimes omitted at the beginning of a sentence1 especially before the verb suffice2 as1 8,suffice it here to say that the people in all times enjoyed a freedom far above that possessed by any other city of ,europe40--,besant4 ,exercise #db ,expand the following elliptical sentences4 ,analyze them4 #a4 ,slow wavelets caressed the bland brown beach with a sound as of kisses and whispers4--,hearn4 #b4 ,i am alone2 my bugle strain ,may call some straggler of the train2 ,or1 fall the worst that may betide1 ,ere now this falchion has been tried4--,scott4 #c4 ,the thing for thee to do is1 if possible1 to cease to be a hollow-sounding shell of hearsays and become a faithful discerning soul4--,carlyle4 #d4 ,another1 his big brother1 though evidently some years younger1 is selling doughnuts and bonbons4--,mrs4 ,dodge4 #e4 ,while resting thus1 she became aware of another presence1 and turning her head1 beheld a small boy with his cap in one hand and a hammer in the other4--,m4 ,a4 ,h4 ,clarke4 #f4 ,philip1 so far from having the least disposition to yield in the matter of the great religious persecution1 was more determined as to his course than ever4--,motley4 #g4 ,the others1 to do them justice1 more than atoned for ,dr4 ,thophile's coldness by their effusive friendliness4--,janvier4 #h4 ,the stranger attempted once or twice to stem the torrent of words1 but in vain2 so he bowed his head and suffered it to flow on4--,irving4 #i4 ,no matter whether or not ,moses was gifted in a most extraordinary degree to write his code4--,lord4 #aj4 ,what if thou withdraw ,unheeded by the living1 and no friend ,take note of thy departure4--,bryant4 #aa4 ,would ,i were in a wilderness of apes1 tossing cocoanuts about1 grinning and grinned at4--,lamb4 #ab4 ,the country rose as one man at his refusal4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ac4 ,mr4 ,simon ,watts1 though of extremely limited means1 had some ambition4--,r4 ,m4 ,johnston4 #ad4 ,never do we more evince our arrogant ignorance than when we boast our knowledge4--,everett4 #ae4 ,they are soon to be matched in a longer and more determined combat than the world has ever seen4--,motley4 #af4 ,grief of that sort1 and at that age1 has killed more than ever have been counted amongst its martyrs4--,de ,quincey4 #ag4 ,this resolution was in the same words1 when originally submitted by ,mr4 ,lee1 as when finally passed4--,webster4 #ah4 ,what matter if the ,governor removes you from office8 he cannot remove you from the lake2 and if readers or customers will not bite1 the pickerel will4--,higginson4 #ai4 ,to ,thompson's credit be it recorded he showed no tendency to desert the cause he had espoused4--,tyndall4 #bj4 ,in #aghd1 when he was twenty-one years of age1 ,carlton ,palace was given to him1 and furnished by the nation with as much luxury as could be devised4--,thackeray4 #ba4 ,more than a thousand feet beneath us was the arching head of a waterfall4--,king4 #bb4 ,now it sank to a murmur1 as of one who consoles and soothes and promises things to come4--,besant4 #bc4 ,they built their cities as if for eternity4--,froude4 #bd4 ,to ,nature therefore we turn as to the oldest and most influential teacher of our race4--,mabie4 #bc4 ,his legs1 though exceeding short1 were sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to sustain2 so that1 when erect1 he had not a little the appearance of a robustious beer-barrel standing on skids4--,irving4 #bf4 ,this is a sturdy looking personage of a good deal more than middle age4--,holmes4 #bg4 ,there seems no end to the charm of their vast1 smooth1 all but melancholy expanses4--,howells4 #bh4 ,no wonder that the ladies look complacently at the glassy ice2 with a stove for a footstool1 one might sit easily beside the ,north ,pole4--,mrs4 ,dodge4 #bi4 ,not that my motives were not as pure and as patriotic as ever carried any man into public office4--,clay4 #cj4 ,despising every other acquirement as superficial and useless1 they came to their task as to a sport4--,lamb4 #ca4 ,wet or dry1 light or dark1 the stout old ,george was always in his place to say amen to the chaplain4--,thackeray4 #cb4 ,here the poet caught the first glimpse of a greater and freer life than moved within the narrow horizon of the ,norwegian capital4--,boyesen4 #cc4 ,seven altogether2 a delightful number for a dinner party1 supposing the units to be delightful1 but everything depends on that4--,george ,eliot4 #cd4 ,even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued as in the presence of higher qualities4--,webster4 #ce4 ,we ought to be as cheerful as we can1 if only because to be happy ourselves is a most effective contribution to the happiness of others4--,sir ,john ,lubbock4 #cf4 ,this only proves the profundity of an observation made by ,mr4 ,bagehot--a man who carried away into the next world more originality of thought than is now to be found in the ,three ,estates of the ,realm4--,birrell4 #cg4 ,venice lures you in a gondola into one of her remote canals1 where you glide through an avenue as secret and as still as if sea-deep under our work-day world4--,howells4 #ch4 ,what if their palaces were grand1 and their villas beautiful1 and their dresses magnificent1 and their furniture costly1 if their lives were spent in ignoble and enervating pleasures1 as is generally admitted8--,lord4 #ci4 ,antwerp shook as with an earthquake4--,motley4 #dj4 ,his age1 though rich in minor decorative arts1 had no accomplished statuary4--,lang4 #da4 ,his pride never appeared in loftier and nobler form than in his attitude towards the people at large4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #db4 ,suffice it to say that he received an offer of the high and responsible station of ,chief ,justice of the ,supreme ,court of ,massachusetts4--,webster4 #dc4 ,that one purpose of malice faithfully pursued has quartered some people upon our national funds of homage as by a perpetual annuity4--,de ,quincey4 #dd4 ,though not more than twice as large as ,new ,england1 it presented every variety of climate4--,prescott4 #de4 ,although it was slipping down more than half a mile of undisturbed depth it appeared to be creeping at its own will and leisure4--,king4 #df4 ,he did not seem so much desirous of provoking discussion by the questions which he asked1 as of obtaining information at any rate4--,lamb4 #dg4 ,would to ,heaven ,i could persuade you of this world-old fact1 than which ,fate is not surer1 that ,truth and ,justice alone are capable of being conserved4--,carlyle4 #dh4 ,but death was then scarcely intelligible to me1 and ,i could not so properly be said to suffer sorrow as a sad perplexity4--,de ,quincey4 #di4 ,sink or swim1 live or die1 survive or perish1 ,i give my hand and my heart to this vote4--,webster4 #ej4 ,their frequent overflow when forced back upon their currents by the strong sea1 rendered the country almost uninhabitable4--,motley4 #ea4 ,what if this man ,odin should have felt that perhaps he was divine8--,carlyle4 #eb4 ,i do not see my way through it as clearly as could be wished4--,de ,quincey4 #ec4 ,woe to the child who happens to be born with a weak will in ,new ,england4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #ed4 ,turn wheresoe'er ,i may ,by night or day1 ,the things which ,i have seen ,i now can see no more4--,wordsworth4 #ee4 ,at close quarters his striped coat is all but as fine as the tiger's1 while the form and movement of his body are in every way nobler4--,drummond4 ,,miscellaneous ,,sentences #a4 ,who knows but the world may end to-night8--,browning4 #b4 ,the white-coated sentinels never cease to pace the bastions1 night or day4--,howells4 #c4 ,marcus ,aurelius is immortal1 not so much for what he did as for what he was4--,lord4 #d4 ,to the right lay the sea1 sometimes at full tide1 sometimes withdrawn to the very horizon2 but he knew it for the same sea4--,kipling4 #e4 ,outside her kennel1 the mastiff old ,lay fast asleep1 in moonshine cold4--,coleridge4 #f4 ,come to read the other side of her1 she had a trust in ,god ,almighty that was like the bow-anchor of a three-decker4--,holmes4 #g4 8,what is a ,caucus-race80 said ,alice2 not that she much wanted to know1 but the ,dodo had paused as if it thought that somebody ought to speak1 and no one else seemed inclined to say anything4--,lewis ,carroll4 #h4 ,the ,general was on his feet as if by the touch of a spring4--,cable4 #i4 ,it isn't fair to judge a man's promise by one performance1 and that one a livery stable1 so ,i shall say nothing4--,mrs4 ,wiggin4 #aj4 ,finishing a thing1 doing it thoroughly before we begin anything else1 is very important to our own happiness and the good of others4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #aa4 ,upon the beach lies a piece of timber1 part of a wreck2 the wood is torn and the fibres rent where it was battered against the dull edge of the rocks4--,jefferies4 #ab4 ,and then1 being given many rich gifts by the old ,rajah1 he set out to return home4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #ac4 ,there should find a peaceable refuge the odd volumes of honored sets1 which go mourning all their days for their lost brother4--,holmes4 #ad4 ,look backward only to correct an error of conduct for the next attempt4--,george ,meredith4 #ae4 ,every failure teaches a man something1 if he will learn4--,dickens4 #af4 ,a man can find more reasons for doing as he wishes than for doing as he ought4--,ruskin4 #ag4 ,mist may rest upon the surrounding landscape1 but our own path is visible from hour to hour1 from day to day4--,gladstone4 #ah4 ,i cannot1 however1 but think that the world would be better and brighter if our teachers would dwell on the ,duty of ,happiness as well as on the ,happiness of ,duty4--,lubbock4 #ai4 ,in character1 in manners1 in style1 in all things1 the supreme excellence is simplicity4--,longfellow4 #bj4 ,one thorn of experience is worth a whole wilderness of warning4--,lowell4 #ba4 ,his home was at the top of a house of four floors1 each with accommodation for at least two families1 and here he had lived with his mother since his father's death six months ago4--,barrie4 #bb4 ,as usual1 the king-bird united the characters of brave defender and tender lover4--,olive ,t4 ,miller4 #bc4 ,and thus ,i came to the robber's highway1 walking circumspectly1 scanning the skyline of every hill1 and searching the folds of every valley1 for any moving figure4--,blackmore4 #bd4 ,mistakes themselves are often the best teachers of all4--,froude4 #be4 ,every position in life1 great or small1 can be made as great or as little as we desire to make it4--,dean ,stanley4 #bf4 ,blessed is he who has found his work2 let him ask no other blessing4--,carlyle4 #bg4 ,granted that swimming must be learned2 granted that the arts of the orator must be learned4--,hale4 #bh4 ,then you can imagine the times that he had with his companions ducking under the rollers2 or coming in on top of a comber and landing with a swash and a splutter as the big wave went whirling far up the beach4--,kipling4 #bi4 ,when each man is true to himself1 then must all things prosper4--,spencer4 #cj4 ,how easy it is to follow one of the two lives--the animal or the intellectual6 how difficult to conciliate the two6--,hamerton4 #ca4 ,govern the lips ,as they were palace-doors1 the ,king within4 #cb4 ,the way to be satisfied with the present state of things is to enjoy that state of things4--,bagehot4 #cc4 ,it is lawful to pray ,god that we be not led into temptation2 but not lawful to skulk from those that come to us4--,stevenson4 #cd4 ,the consequence was that just when we were the most afraid to laugh1 we saw the most comical things to laugh at4--,beecher4 #ce4 ,it's wiser being good than bad2 ,it's safer being meek than fierce2 ,it's fitter being sane than mad4 #cf4 ,to be sure1 eyes are not so common as people think1 or poets would be plentier4--,lowell4 #cg4 ,the actual problem to be solved is not what to teach1 but how to teach4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #ch4 ,if it be the pleasure of heaven that my country shall require the poor offering of my life1 the victim shall be ready at the appointed hour of sacrifice1 come when that hour may4--,webster4 #ci4 ,the ministers are good talkers1 only the struggle between nature and grace makes some of 'em a little awkward occasionally4--,holmes4 #dj4 ,i hope your hearts will never get to be so dry and hard that they will not beat responsive to brave and noble deeds1 even if they are not exactly prudent4--,munger4 #da4 ,for months his only splendid possession had been a penny despised by trade because of a large round hole in it1 as if some previous owner had cut a farthing out of it4--,barrie4 #db4 ,better to finish one small enterprise than to leave many large ones half-done4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #dc4 ,but woe to the man who is not ready for the opportunity when it comes4--,hale4 #dd4 ,they were assigned a dwelling place in the vilest and unhealthiest part of the city4--,howells4 #de4 ,for to miss the joy is to miss all4--,stevenson4 #df4 ,the reason why men succeed who mind their own business is because there is so little competition4--,crawford4 #dg4 ,all that is purchasable in the capitals of the world is not to be weighed in comparison with the simple enjoyment that may be crowded into one hour of sunshine4--,higginson4 #dh4 ,how the ,english navy came to hold so extraordinary a position is worth reflecting on4--,froude4 #di4 ,the most troublesome meddler was1 as might be expected1 an ,english sparrow4--,olive ,t4 ,miller4 #ej4 ,we look before and after ,and pine for what is not2 ,our sincerest laughter ,with some pain is fraught2 ,our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought4 --,shelley4 #ea4 ,but no living person is sunk so low as not to be imitated by somebody4--,wm4 ,james4 #eb4 #8,robinson ,crusoe' is simply a narrative of facts1 though the facts did not happen to take place4--,stephen4 #ec4 ,when the ,yosemite was discovered1 it was supposed to be the only valley of the kind2 but nature is not so poor as to possess only one of anything4--,muir4 #ed4 ,the haste to get rich1 and the intense struggles of business rivalry1 probably destroy as many lives in ,america every year as are lost in a great battle4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #ee4 ,i must be ,mabel after all1 and shall have to go and live in that poky little house1 and have next to no toys to play with1 and oh6 ever so many lessons to learn4--,lewis ,carroll4 #ef4 ,as soon as a stranger is introduced into any company1 one of the first questions which all wish to have answered1 is1 ,how does that man get his living8--,emerson4 #eg4 8,revenge may be wicked1 but it's natural10 answered ,miss ,rebecca4--,thackeray4 #eh4 ,and was not their experience1 who lived in remote cabins1 or wandered night after night through the loneliest woods1 stronger evidence than the cold reasoning of those who hardly ever stirred abroad except in daylight8--,page4 #ei4 ,his head was a perfect sphere1 and of such stupendous dimensions1 that ,dame ,nature1 with all her sex's ingenuity would have been puzzled to construct a neck capable of supporting it2 wherefore she wisely declined the attempt1 and settled it firmly on the top of his backbone1 just between the shoulders4--,irving4 #fj4 ,once an artist has chosen evil and not good1 his clay model ceases to be art and becomes only a mass of mud4--,hillis4 #fa4 ,kill not--for ,pity's sake--and lest ye slay ,the meanest thing upon its upward way4--,e4 ,arnold4 #fb4 ,then we are told how ,fielding emptied his pockets into those of a poorer friend2 and when the tax-gatherer came1 said1 8,friendship has called for the money2 let the collector call again60--,stephen4 #fc4 ,he visited the nest when empty2 he managed to have frequent peeps at the young2 and notwithstanding he was driven off every time1 he still hung around1 with prying ways so exasperating that he well deserved a thrashing1 and ,i wonder he did not get it4--,olive ,t4 ,miller4 #fd4 ,divinity lies all about us1 and culture is too hide-bound to even suspect the fact4--,wm4 ,james4 #fe4 ,i heard a thousand blended notes1 ,while in a grove ,i sate reclined1 ,in that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts ,bring sad thoughts to the mind4--,wordsworth4 #ff4 ,it is the people who rule4--,hale4 #fg4 ,you will walk in no public thoroughfare or remotest byway of ,english ,existence1 but you will meet a man1 an interest of men1 that has given up hope in the ,everlasting ,true1 and placed its hope in the ,temporary1 half or wholly ,false4--,carlyle4 #fh4 ,to separate pain from ill-doing is to fight against the constitution of things1 and will be followed by far more pain4--,spencer4 #fi4 ,there was a story in our family1 which ,i used to hear when a boy1 that ,governor ,brooks1 when an officer in the ,revolution1 received an order from ,general ,washington to go somewhere1 when he was lying helpless from rheumatism4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #gj4 ,summer and winter came again--crocuses and roses2 why not little ,jane8--,de ,quincey4 #ga4 ,every here and there1 in an opening1 appeared the great gold face of the west4--,stevenson4 #gb4 ,if ,i were writing a poem1 you would expect1 as a matter of course1 that there would be a digression now and then4--,holmes4 #gc4 ,one said1 8,i am ,health1 and whom ,i touch shall never know pain nor sickness40--,schreiner4 #gd4 ,i never knew a man to escape failure1 in either body or mind1 who worked seven days in the week4--,peel4 #ge4 ,now this blush of beauty upon the cheek without represents regular habits for the health within4--,hillis4 #gf4 ,thus the sovereign voluntary path to cheerfulness1 if our spontaneous cheerfulness be lost1 is to sit up cheerfully1 to look round cheerfully1 and to act and speak as if cheerfulness were already there4--,wm4 ,james4 #gg4 ,enough if in our hearts we know ,there's such a place as ,yarrow4--,wordsworth4 #gh4 ,the early white settlers of ,kentucky soon became more than a match for the ,indians in everything wherein the ,indian excelled4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #gi4 ,an honorable defeat is better than a mean victory1 and no one is really the worse for being beaten1 unless he loses heart4--,lubbock4 #hj4 ,god's influence on the heart was like the flowing wind--free1 felt1 and yet mysterious4--,geikie4 #ha4 ,ha1 it was only last week ,i had a new nozzle put on that umbrella4--,jerrold4 #hb4 ,we doubt whether there is in ,english literature a more triumphant book than ,boswell's4--,birrell4 #hc4 ,they would not eat except from off one plate4--,old ,deccan ,days4 #hd4 ,science has nothing to do with ,christ1 except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in admitting evidence4--,darwin4 #he4 ,think of being moved religiously by looking at a pinnacle or bluff from thousand feet high1 and then think what the earth contains which might move us4--,king4 #hf4 ,it was ,bagheera1 the ,black ,panther1 inky black all over1 but with the panther markings showing up in certain lights like the pattern of watered silk4--,kipling4 #hg4 ,it is not desirable to go out of one's way to be original2 but it is to be hoped that it may lie in one's way4--,higginson4 #hh4 ,if men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery1 they may indeed wait forever4--,macaulay4 #hi4 ,i know few ,christians so convinced of the splendor of the rooms in their ,father's house as to be happier when their friends are called to those mansions than they would have been if the ,queen had sent for them to live at court2 nor has the ,church's most ardent 8desire to depart and be with ,christ0 ever cured it of the singular habit of putting on mourning for every person summoned to such departure4--,ruskin4 #ij4 ,then to side with ,truth is noble when we share her wretched crust1 ,ere her cause bring fame and profit1 and 'tis prosperous to be just4--,lowell4 #ia4 ,the very word 8education0 is a standing protest against dogmatic teaching4--,c4 ,w4 ,eliot4 #ib4 ,he is as noiseless in a room as any of us women2 and1 more than that1 with all his look of unmistakable mental firmness and power1 he is as nervously sensitive as the weakest of us4--,collins4 #ic4 ,in a word1 as ,alphonse ,karr puts it1 the more we change1 the more we remain the same4--,besant4 #id4 ,marshy ground covered their right2 on the left1 the most exposed part of the position1 the hus-carles or body-guard of ,harold1 men in full armor and wielding huge axes1 were grouped round the ,golden ,dragon of ,wessex and the ,standard of the ,king4--,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #ie4 ,i was startled at hearing her address by the familiar name of ,benjamin the young physician ,i have referred to1 until ,i found on enquiry1 what ,i might have guessed by the size of his slices of pie and other little marks of favoritism1 that he was her son4--,holmes4 #if4 ,it is when to-morrow's burden is added to the burden of to-day1 that the weight is more than a man can bear4--,mac,donald4 #ig4 ,he grieved to give up his dog and gun2 he dreaded to meet his wife2 but it would not do to starve among the mountains4--,irving4 #ih4 ,to know what you prefer instead of humbly saying ,amen to what the world tells you you ought to prefer1 is to have kept your soul alive4--,stevenson4 #ii4 ,were half the power that fills the world with terror1 ,were half the wealth1 bestowed on camps and courts1 ,given to redeem the human mind from error1 ,there were no need of arsenals and forts4--,longfellow4 #ajj4 ,modern imaginative literature has become so self-conscious1 and therefore so melancholy1 that ,art1 which should be 8the world's sweet inn10 whither we repair for refreshment and repose1 has become rather a watering place1 where one's own private touch of the liver-complaint is exasperated by the affluence of other sufferers whose talk is a narrative of morbid symptoms4--,lowell4 #aja4 ,the farmer was twisting a halter to do what he threatened1 when the fox1 whose tongue had helped him in hard pinches before1 thought there could be no harm in trying whether it might not do him one more good turn4--,froude4 #ajb4 ,if the youth decides to consume all his time and strength in making his arms big and his legs brawny1 he ends his career a physical giant1 indeed1 but also an intellectual pigmy4--,hillis4 #ajc4 ,experienced soldiers tell us that at first men are sickened by the smell and newness of blood1 almost to death and fainting2 but that as soon as they harden their hearts and stiffen their minds1 as soon as they will bear it1 then comes an appetite for slaughter4--,bagehot4 #ajd4 ,take away from us what the ,greeks have given2 and ,i hardly can imagine how low the modern ,european would stand4--,ruskin4 #aje4 ,and no voice but was praising this ,roland of mine1 ,as ,i poured down his throat our last measure of wine1 ,which 7the burgesses voted by common consent7 ,was no more than his due who brought good news from ,ghent4 --,browning4 #ajf4 ,though the ,french sailed out again1 romance remained behind to dwell forever in ,port ,royal's placid basin4--,bolles4 #ajg4 ,there is a time in every man's education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance1 that imitation is suicide4--,emerson4 #ajh4 ,now to ,baloo's word ,i will add one bull1 and a fat one1 newly killed1 not half a mile from here1 if ye will accept the man's cub according to the ,law4--,kipling4 #aji4 ,i believe it is by persons believing themselves in the right that nine-tenths of the tyranny of this world has been perpetrated4--,thackeray4 #aaj4 ,it is a just and a feeling remark of ,dr4 ,johnson's that we never do anything consciously for the last time without sadness of heart4--,de ,quincey4 #aaa4 ,i do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference between savage and civilized man4--,darwin4 #aab4 ,it's no matter what you say when you talk to yourself1 but when you talk to other people1 your business is to use words with reference to the way in which those other people are like to understand them4--,holmes4 #aac4 ,mammon is not a god at all2 but a devil1 and even a very despicable devil4--,carlyle4 #aad4 ,the ship-builder who built the pinnace of ,columbus has as much claim to the discovery of ,america as he who suggests a thought by which some other man opens new worlds to us has to a share in that achievement by him unconceived and inconceivable4--,lowell4 #aae4 ,where1 twisted round the barren oak1 ,the summer vine in beauty clung1 ,and summer winds the stillness broke1 ,the crystal icicle is hung4--,longfellow4 #aaf4 ,whilst ,johnson was preminently a reasonable man1 reasonable in all his demands and expectations1 ,carlyle was the most unreasonable mortal that ever exhausted the patience of nurse1 mother1 or wife4--,birrell4 #aag4 ,that house was built on purpose to show in what an exceeding small compass comfort may be packed4--,mitford4 #aah4 ,but the life which is to endure grows slowly2 and as the soil must be prepared before the wheat can be sown1 so before the kingdom of heaven could throw up its shoots there was needed a kingdom of this world where the nations were neither torn in pieces by violence1 nor were rushing after false ideals and spurious ambitions4--,fronde4 #aai4 ,words afford a more delicious music than the chords of any instrument2 they are susceptible of richer colors than any painter's palette2 and that they should be used merely for the transportation of intelligence1 as a wheelbarrow carries brick1 is not enough4--,higginson4 #abj4 ,it always seems to be raining harder than it really is when you look at the weather through the window4--,lubbock4 #aba4 ,sleep and dreams exist on this condition--that no one wake the dreamer4--,schreiner4 #abb4 ,it is only when you stick it in the silver candlestick and introduce it into the drawing-room1 that a tallow-dip seems plebeian1 dim1 and ineffectual4--,george ,eliot4 #abc4 ,the crow boasts from the moment his loud voice first comes back to his ears from the echoing hillside1 he steals from the time he sees the corn blades start from the furrow4--,bolles4 #abd4 ,a man who has learned to do anything well enjoys doing it4 ,this is the lure which wise ,nature uses to lead us to finish our work4--,j4 ,f4 ,clarke4 #abe4 ,a great ,bostonian1 whom ,i remember to have heard speculate on the superiority of a state of civilization in which you could buy two cents' worth of beef to one in which so small a quantity was unpurchasable1 would find the system perfected in ,venice1 where you can buy half a cent's worth4--,howells4 #abf4 ,at the foot of these fairy mountains1 the voyager may have descried the light smoke curling up from a village1 whose shingle-roofs gleam among the trees1 just where the blue tints of the upland melt away into the fresh green of the nearer landscape4--,irving4 #abg4 ,it is easy to sugar to be sweet and to nitre to be salt4--,emerson4 #abh4 ,even ,baloo1 half smothered under the monkeys on the edge of the terrace1 could not help chuckling as he heard the big ,black ,panther asking for help4--,kipling4 #abi4 ,even ,shakespeare1 who seems to come in after everybody has done his best with a 8,let me take hold a minute and show you how to do it10 could not have bettered this 7a line of ,chaucer's74--,lowell4 #acj4 ,when ,i had the pleasure of staying at your father's house1 you told me1 rather to my surprise1 that it was impossible for you to go to balls and dinner-parties because you did not possess such a thing as a dress coat4--,hamerton4 #aca4 ,if1 in the future1 an age of general well-being is to arrive1 its children will turn1 as all men who have the opportunity must1 to what is best in human art1 to the literature of ,greece4--,lang4 #acb4 ,i fear you will laugh when ,i tell you what ,i conceive to be about the most essential mental quality for a free people1 whose liberty is to be progressive1 permanent1 and on a large scale2 it is much stupidity4--,bagehot4 #acc4 ,look beneath the surface anywhere and you can find ugly things enough1 especially if you have a taste for the revolting4--,stephen4 #acd4 ,tug as he would at the old man's wrists1 the hangman could not force him to unclinch his hands4--,dickens4 #ace4 ,his dislike of books was instinctive1 hearty1 and uncompromising4--,boyesen4 #acf4 ,it ceased2 yet still the sails made on ,a pleasant noise till noon1 ,a noise like of a hidden brook ,in the leafy month of ,june1 ,that to the sleeping woods all night ,singeth a quiet tune4--,coleridge4 #acg4 ,toil--toil1 either of the brain1 of the heart1 or of the hand--is the only true manhood1 the only true nobility4--,orville ,dewey4 #ach4 ,he had his eye all but exclusively directed on terrestrial matters4--,carlyle4 #aci4 ,and then1 again1 some of our old beliefs are dying out every year1 and others feed on them and grow fat1 or get poisoned1 as the case may be4--,holmes4 #adj4 ,old ,matthew ,maule1 in a word1 was executed for the crime of witchcraft4--,hawthorne4 #ada4 ,our lodging-places must be the simple homes of ,gaelic-speaking ,presbyterians1 in whose eyes we should be foreigners1 not to say heathen4--,bolles4 #adb4 ,dr4 ,bushby is said to have kept his hat on in the presence of ,king ,charles1 that the boys might see what a great man he was4--,lubbock4 #adc4 ,look strictly into the nature of the power of your ,goddess of ,getting-on2 and you will find she is the goddess--not of everybody's getting on--but only of somebody's getting on4--,ruskin4 #add4 ,now1 ,tabaqui knew as well as any one else that there is nothing so unlucky as to compliment children to their faces4--,kipling4 #ade4 ,the capacity of indignation makes an essential part of the outfit of every honest man1 but ,i am inclined to doubt whether he is a wise one who allows himself to act upon its first hints4--,lowell4 #adf4 ,we honor the rich1 because they have externally the freedom1 power1 and grace which we feel to be proper to man1 proper to us4--,emerson4 #adg4 ,originality is simply a fresh pair of eyes4--,higginson4 #adh4 ,in a word1 ,rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own4--,irving4 #adi4 ,there are more fools and fewer hypocrites than the wise world dreams of4--,schreiner4 #aej4 ,it has been well said that an ,englishman is never happy but when he is miserable2 that a ,scotchman is never at home but when he is abroad2 that an ,irishman is never at peace but when he is at war4--,walker4 ,,index ,a1 modifying a pronominal adjective1 #aid4 ,about1 modifying an infinitive1 #abe1 note4 ,absolute phrase1 #acd2 without a participle1 #ace2 after with or without1 #ace2 containing a prepositional phrase1 #aeb2 stereotyped1 #aig4 ,according as1 introducing a clause of degree1 #ij4 ,according to1 a preposition1 #aed4 ,adverbs1 modifying prepositional phrases1 #aef1 #aid2 modifying nouns1 #aie2 used independently1 #bjb2 as sentence modifiers1 #bji4 ,adverbial noun1 function of1 #ahi2 modifying a prepositional phrase1 #aef1 #aij2 an adjective1 #aij2 an adverb1 #aij2 a clause1 #aij4 ,ago1 modified by an adverbial noun1 #aia4 ,all but1 #bba4 ,all the quicker1 #aic4 ,analysis1 method of1 #ch1 #ea1 #ff4 ,and1 introducing a sentence1 #ajf4 ,anticipative subject1 there1 #di2 it1 #dd4 ,appositive1 a noun clause1 #dg2 function of1 #afa2 with base-word a noun1 #afb2 an adjective1 #afc2 a pronoun1 #afc2 a pronominal adjective1 #afc2 a participle1 #afc2 an infinitive1 #aad2 a gerund1 #ada2 what it modifies1 #afd2 introductory word1 #afd2 case and number of appositive noun1 #afe2 position of appositive phrase1 #aff4 ,as1 introducing an appositive1 #afe2 a relative pronoun1 #cb2 a subjective complement1 #agh2 an objective complement1 #aha2 a proposition used independently1 #bjd2 a phrase or clause modifying a sentence1 #baj4 ,as for1 introducing an independent noun1 #bjb4 ,as if1 as though1 introducing a modal clause1 #fd4 ,ask1 followed by two direct objects1 #agb4 ,as long as1 as soon as1 introducing a clause of time1 #ef4 ,as to1 a preposition1 #aed2 introducing an independent noun1 #bjb4 ,as well as1 a cordinating conjunction1 #ajf4 ,at a loss1 #abd4 ,at the best1 #aic4 ,at their wits' end1 #abe4 ,be1 meaning go1 #abc1 note4 ,by and by1 #aif4 ,but1 a relative pronoun1 #cb2 introducing a noun clause1 #de2 a clause of result1 #ge2 a sentence1 #ajg2 used adjectively1 #aie4 ,can but1 cannot but1 #abe1 note4 ,clauses1-- ,adjective1 function of1 #bh2 classification1 #bi2 restrictive1 #cj2 unrestrictive1 #cj2 introductory word1 #cj2 what they modify1 #cc2 position of1 #ce2 introduced by subordinating conjunction that1 #cc2 modifying it1 #cd2 modifying a proposition1 #cd4 ,adverbial1 modifying nouns1 #aie2 of time1 #ec2 introductory word1 #ed2 what it modifies1 #ef2 of place1 function of1 #ei2 peculiarities1 #fj2 introductory word1 #fj2 of manner1 function of1 #fb2 introductory word1 #fc2 position of1 #fd2 of cause1 function of1 #fh2 what it denotes1 #fi2 connective1 #gj2 what it modifies1 #gj2 position of1 #ga2 reason clause used independently1 #bje2 of purpose1 #gc2 connective1 #gc2 of result1 #gd2 of condition1 #gh2 what it modifies1 #hj2 introductory word1 #hj2 of concession1 #hb2 introductory word1 #hc2 of degree or comparison1 #hg2 classification1 #hh4 ,substantive1 #db2 function of1 #db2 uses1 subject1 #dc2 object of verb1 #dd2 objective complement1 #de2 object of preposition1 #de2 appositive1 #dg2 subjective complement1 #dg2 after a preposition understood1 #dg2 introductory word1 #dg4 ,compound sentences1 #ah1 #ig2 members of in same line of thought1 #ig2 one imperative1 one declarative1 #ih2 in contrast1 #ih2 in alternation1 #ii2 second member a consequence1 #ii2 an inference1 #ajj2 an explanation1 #ajj2 omission of conjunction in1 #aja2 number of members in1 #aja4 ,conjunctions1 cordinating1 joining dissimilar elements1 #ajf2 subordinating1 introducing participial phrases1 #acb4 ,conjunctive adverbs1 introducing adjective clauses1 #ce2 noun clauses1 #dh2 participial phrases1 #aca4 ,correlatives1 #ajh2 whether--or1 #dh1 #hc1 #afe2 when--then1 #ee2 where--there1 #fj2 as--so1 #fc2 so--that1 #gd2 though--yet1 #he2 either--or1 #ii1 #ajh2 by as much--by so much1 #ij2 neither--nor1 #ajh2 both--and1 #ajh2 not only--but1 #ajh2 so--as1 #aba4 ,day by day1 #aif4 ,ellipses1 cause of1 #bad2 in adjective clauses1 #bae2 in adverbial clauses of time1 #bae2 of manner1 #baf2 of condition1 #baf2 of concession1 #bag2 of degree1 introduced by than1 #bah2 by as1 #bbj2 resulting in a participial phrase1 #bah2 in independent propositions1 #bbb2 in compound sentences1 #bbb2 in answers to questions1 #bbb4 ,even1 modifying a prepositional phrase1 #aef4 ,exclamative sentences1 #bf2 used independently1 #bjd2 introduced by would1 #bbc4 ,far from1 introducing a sentence modifier1 #baa4 ,for1 as cordinating conjunction1 #ajj2 introducing an objective complement1 #aha2 an independent element1 #bje4 ,gerund1 nature1 #aci2 forms1 #aci2 uses1 subject1 #adj2 object1 #adj2 objective complement1 #ada2 subjective complement1 #ada2 appositive1 #ada2 object of preposition1 #ada2 adverbial noun1 #ada2 adjective1 #ada2 peculiar constructions1 #ada4 ,go1 followed by an infinitive1 #abc4 ,good and strong1 an idiom1 #aia1 note4 ,had rather1 #aag1 note4 ,have1 followed by an infinitive1 #aag4 ,if1 introducing clause of concession1 #hd4 ,imperative sentences1 #be2 used independently1 #bjd4 ,independent elements1 noun of address1 #bja2 pleonastic noun1 #bjb2 adverb1 #bjb2 interjection1 #bjb2 prepositional phrase1 #bjc2 imperative sentence1 #bjd2 exclamative sentence1 #bjd2 clause of reason1 #bje4 ,indirect object1 function of1 #ahf2 position of1 #ahf2 becoming subject of passive verb1 #ahg2 after certain verbs1 #ahh4 ,infinitives1 nature of1 #aab2 forms1 #aac2 uses1 adjective1 #aad2 appositive1 #aad2 subject1 #aad2 after anticipative subject1 it1 #aaf2 object of verb1 #aaf2 part of double object of verb1 #aag2 of preposition for1 #abe2 subjective complement1 #abj2 adverbial modifier1 of verb1 #aba2 of adjective or adverb1 #abc2 object of preposition1 #abe2 independent1 #abe2 sign to omitted1 #aag4 ,in other words1 introducing an appositive1 #afe4 ,in proportion as1 introducing clause of degree1 #ij4 ,instead of1 a preposition1 #aed4 ,interjection1 #bjb4 ,it1 modified by an adjective clause1 #cd2 used as anticipative subject before a noun clause1 #dc2 before an infinitive1 #aaf4 ,just the same1 #aid4 ,let1 introducing clause of condition1 #hj4 ,like1 is it a preposition8 #aed4 ,make believe1 followed by object1 #agc4 ,make free1 followed by an infinitive1 #ahb4 ,make up your mind1 followed by an object1 #agc4 ,mine1 as subjective complement1 #agf4 ,namely1 introducing an appositive1 #afd4 ,near1 next1 next door1 #aee4 ,nevertheless1 cordinating conjunction1 #ii4 ,night through1 the1 #aeg4 ,no less than1 a cordinating conjunction1 #ajg4 ,no matter1 introducing clause of concession1 #hc2 remaining after an ellipsis1 #bbb4 ,no wonder1 #bbb4 ,none the less1 #aic4 ,none the worse1 #aic4 ,not1 as an abridgment of a proposition1 #bbc4 ,notwithstanding1 introducing clause of concession1 #hd4 ,now that1 introducing clause of time1 #ef4 ,object1 direct1 a noun clause1 #dc2 nature of1 #afi2 cognate1 #agb2 reflexive1 #agc2 of preposition1 #aea2 a noun clause1 #de4 ,objective complement1 function of1 #agi2 a noun clause1 #dd2 gerund1 #ada2 participle1 #ahb1 note2 after certain verbs1 #aha2 introduced by as or for1 #aha2 position of1 #ahb4 ,off hand1 #aif4 ,only1 a cordinating conjunction1 #ii4 ,one behind the other1 #aig4 ,or1 introducing an appositive1 #afe4 ,ought1 followed by an infinitive1 #aag4 ,out of1 a preposition1 #aed4 ,owing to1 a preposition1 #aed4 ,participles1 introducing clause of condition1 #hj2 nature of1 #abi2 forms1 #acj2 seeming passive1 #acj1 note2 uses1 mere adjective1 #aca2 substantive1 #aca2 instead of adjective clause1 #aca2 of adverbial clause1 #acb2 in absolute phrase1 #acd2 accompanying a verb1 #ace2 part of double object1 #acf2 adverbial1 #acf2 independent1 #acf2 in peculiar constructions1 #adb2 as prepositions1 #aed2 as base of objective complement1 #ahb1 note2 remaining after an ellipsis in a clause1 #bag4 ,partly1 modifying prepositional phrase1 #aef4 ,prepositions1 omitted before noun clause1 #df2 two in succession1 #aea2 as part of verb phrase1 #aec2 compound1 #aed2 modified by adverbs1 #aeg2 position of1 #aeg4 ,prepositional phrases1 function of1 #adf2 used adjectively1 modifying nouns1 #adh2 completing intransitive verbs1 #aej2 noun complement1 #aej1 note2 adverbial modifier1 of verb1 #aej2 of adjective1 #aea2 modifying alas1 #aea1 note2 object of preposition1 #aec2 part of absolute phrase1 #aeb2 with adverb or adjective for object1 #aed2 modified1 by a noun1 #aef2 by an adverb1 #aef1 #aic2 used independently1 #bjc2 as sentence modifiers1 #bji4 ,propositions1 constituent parts of1 #g2 classification1 #aa2 principal or independent1 #ab2 tests for1 #ac2 subordinate or dependent1 #ab2 function of1 #ad2 independent1 #bjd4 ,provided1 providing1 introducing clauses of condition1 #hj4 ,quite the contrary1 #aic4 ,relative pronouns1 introducing adjective clauses1 #ca2 as and but1 #cb2 position in clause1 #ce2 omission of antecedent1 #ce2 introducing noun clauses1 #dg4 ,say1 introducing clause of condition1 #hj4 ,see fit1 followed by an infinitive1 #ahb4 ,sentences1 classification1 according to structure1 #ah2 according to form1 #bc2 difficult to classify1 #ai2 simple1 #ah2 complex1 #ah2 compound1 #ai2 complex-compound1 #ai2 partially-compound1 #bj2 declarative1 #bc2 interrogative1 #bc2 imperative1 #be2 exclamative1 #bf4 ,sentence modifiers1 adverbs1 #bji2 prepositional phrases1 #baj2 phrases introduced by as1 #baj2 clauses introduced by as1 #baa4 ,side by side1 #aig4 ,so1 as subjective complement1 #agg4 ,so far as1 introducing clauses of degree1 #ia4 ,still1 as cordinating conjunction1 #ii4 ,subjective complement1 function of1 #age2 a noun clause1 #dg2 an infinitive1 #aai2 a participle1 #acj1 note2 a gerund1 #ada2 a prepositional phrase1 #agf2 after certain verbs1 #agg2 introduced by as or for1 #agh4 ,such1 modified by an as-clause1 #cb4 ,suffice1 introducing a sentence1 #bbc4 ,suppose1 supposing1 introducing clauses of condition1 #hj4 ,teach1 followed by two direct objects1 #agb4 ,tell1 followed by noun and infinitive1 #aai4 ,than1 joining cordinate elements1 #ajg2 introducing infinitives1 #abd4 ,thanks to you1 #bjd4 ,that1 subordinating conjunction introducing adjective clauses1 #cc4 ,that is1 introducing an appositive1 #afe4 ,that is to say1 #abb4 ,the1 modifying an adjective or adverb1 #aic4 ,think best1 followed by an infinitive1 #ahb4 ,though1 joining cordinate elements1 #ajg4 ,time out of mind1 #aig4 ,to wit introducing an appositive1 #afe4 ,transitive verbs1 nature of1 #agj4 made so by addition of adverb or preposition1 #agb4 ,upside down1 #aig4 ,used1 followed by an infinitive1 #abc4 ,what1 retained in infinitive phrases1 #aaf2 modifying prepositional phrases1 #aef4 ,what if1 #bbb4 ,which1 retained in infinitive phrases1 #aaf4 ,while1 introducing clauses of concession1 #hd2 as cordinating conjunction1 #ih1 #ii4 ,with1 without1 followed by an absolute phrase1 #ace4 ,world over1 the1 #aeg4 ,worth1 followed by a gerund1 #ada2 by a noun1 #aij4 ,would1 introducing exclamative sentences1 #bbc4 ,wrong side out1 #aig4 ,year round1 the1 #aeg4 ,,advertisements ,,garner',s ,,government ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,by ,,james ,w4 ,,garner1 ,professor of ,political ,science1 ,university of ,illinois ,with ,special ,state ,editions ,merits the special consideration of teachers in secondary schools because in the first place it includes the most recent governmental problems of interest and importance1 and in the second it devotes an unusual amount of space to a practical account of the workings of our government4 ,the treatment1 which is simple and interesting1 proceeds from the simple to the most complex1 presenting in turn the local1 state1 and national forms of government4 ,the book shows how our governmental system has been affected by the direct primary movements1 the initiative and referendum1 the commission form of municipal government1 and new legislation regarding publicity of campaign expenditure and corrupt practices at elections4 ,it is1 however1 the spirit and actual workings of our government that are emphasized1 rather than its mere mechanism1 thus adding to the interest of the student as well as to the value of the study4 ,the book is up to date in every respect4 ,statistics used are from the latest census4 ,it describes the most recent changes in the organization and activities of the national1 state1 and municipal governments4 ,for example it deals with the recent reorganization of the federal courts1 the establishment of postal savings banks1 the parcels post question1 the question of second class postal rates1 primary elections1 the new federal corporation tax1 and the income tax amendment4 ,unusual attention is devoted to the important subject of citizenship1 and to state and local governments4 ,wider reading among students is encouraged by the frequent lists of references to collateral reading1 the documentary or source materials1 the numerous search questions1 etc4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,outlines ,,of ,,ancient ,,history ,by ,,william ,c4 ,,morey1 ,professor of ,history and ,political ,science1 ,university of ,rochester ,this course in ancient history1 from the earliest times to ,charlemagne1 meets fully the requirements of the ,college ,entrance ,examination ,board1 and of the ,new ,york ,state ,education ,department4 ,the same vital features which have made the author's ,greek ,history and ,roman ,history so successful1 have been retained in this book4 ,the same topical method of treatment1 the same arrangement by paragraphs1 the same simple1 direct style1 and the same clear and graphic presentation1 are among its chief characteristics4 ,the book indicates the historical relations of the various countries to one another1 and the contributions which each has made to the progress of mankind4 ,throughout the author has aimed to develop in the pupil's mind a scientific spirit1 by emphasizing the continuity of history1 and by making clear the relation of special facts to general movements1 the relation of these general movements to the growth of the national character and institutions1 and the relation of each nation's career to the general progress of mankind4 ,the usual division of ancient history into ,oriental1 ,greek1 and ,roman has been followed1 and great care has been taken in each case to lay emphasis on those particular features which have distinguished one nation from another1 and which have given it the peculiar place it holds in history4 ,the important relation of geography to history has constantly been kept in view4 ,more than twenty progressive maps are given to show the successive changes which took place in the development and decline of the different nations4 ,each chapter is followed by a synopsis for review1 while at the end of the book there is a list of references for reading4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,new ,,medieval ,,and ,,modern ,,history ,from ,charlemagne to the ,present ,day ,by ,,samuel ,,bannister ,,harding1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,professor of ,european ,history1 ,indiana ,university4 ,based upon the author's 8,essentials in ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history10 prepared in consultation with ,,albert ,,bushnell ,,hart1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,history1 ,harvard ,university4 ,while based on the author's previous ,essentials in ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history1 in the present volume the plan has been so reorganized1 the scope so extended1 and the matter so largely rewritten1 that the result is practically a new book4 ,the present volume reflects the suggestions of many teachers who have used the previous work in their classes4 ,the aim of this book has been to increase the emphasis on social1 industrial1 and cultural topics and to enable the student to understand modern conditions and tendencies4 ,the narrative is brought fully up-to-date1 including such recent events as the ,british ,parliament ,act of #aiaa1 the ,italian-,turkish ,war1 and the ,balkan ,war1 #aiab-aiac4 ,each topic is made definite and concrete1 and such important subjects as the unification of ,italy and the unification of ,germany are treated in separate chapters4 ,the teaching apparatus has been made as useful as possible by the arrangement and the typography of the text and by the addition of chronological tables1 lists of important dates1 suggestive topics and questions for the pupil to investigate1 and brief directions for general reading4 ,adequate illustrations and maps are inserted profusely throughout the text4 ,variety and color are imparted to the narrative by frequent quotations from the sources1 and by striking characterizations from modern works4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,foundations ,,of ,,german ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,kayser1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,professor of ,german1 ,normal ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york2 and ,f4 ,,monteser1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,head of ,german ,department1 ,de ,witt ,clinton ,high ,school1 ,new ,york4 ,this course reduces to a minimum all preparatory work1 and introduces the learner at the earliest possible moment to the literature of the language4 ,among its distinctive features are3 ,i4 ,it includes only topics absolutely essential for any progress whatever1 and it presents them as briefly as is consistent with perfect clearness4 ,,ii4 ,it makes large use of 8the living grammar40 ,in this way it enlivens instruction in grammar1 stimulates self-activity1 and develops the feeling for correctness1 which is the chief thing to be looked for in all language study4 ,,iii4 ,it lends itself excellently to conversational practice4 ,the vocabulary has been selected very carefully from everyday language1 and the phrases of the ,german exercises are all of a colloquial and strictly idiomatic character4 ,while primarily intended to illustrate definite grammatical phenomena1 their tone and language are so natural that whole exercises may be turned into impromptu conversation1 thus combining drill in speaking and in grammar4 ,this is still more true of the connected readings1 which are very simple4 ,,iv4 ,it offers a firm foundation on which a solid superstructure can be erected4 ,the lessons are steadily progressive2 no attempt is made to minimize difficulties at the beginning4 ,the ,english exercises give the pupil a chance to test his knowledge and power1 while the exercises in word formation stimulate his interest in the building up of his vocabulary1 which will be of great service in future sight reading4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,fran,,ois' ,,essentials ,,of ,,french ,by ,,victor ,e4 ,,fran,,ois1 ,ph4,d41 ,associate ,professor of ,french1 ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,a course for beginners1 whose acquirement of a foreign language is often hampered by an incomplete mastery of ,english grammar4 ,the development here proceeds from the known ,english form to the unknown ,french form1 with constant comparison and contrast of the two languages4 ,this system will tend to fortify students by forcing them to notice and analyze the ,english as well as the ,french forms of expression4 ,the models precede the rules1 the salient features being made prominent by heavy type4 ,the rules cover the necessary facts of the language as simply and completely as possible1 but the student is not confused by masses of exceptions1 peculiarities1 and idioms rarely seen and still more rarely used4 ,the vocabulary1 of moderate extent1 is composed of ordinary words likely to be used in everyday conversation1 and is increased slowly1 care being taken to repeat the words again and again in succeeding exercises4 ,the first lessons have been made short and simple1 in order to allow for the initial difficulties4 ,the exercises are composed of sentences connected in sense so far as this is possible without detriment to the application of the principles and repetition of words4 ,each lesson includes generally four exercises3 a review1 a portion of ,french text1 a set of questions based on the text and usually followed by a grammar drill1 and an ,english exercise based entirely on the text and on the rules developed in the lesson4 ,reading lessons are introduced at intervals and may serve also as exercises in pronunciation1 dictation1 conversation1 or review of rules4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,milne',s ,,standard ,,algebra ,by ,,william ,j4 ,,milne1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,president of the ,new ,york ,state ,normal ,college1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,standard ,algebra conforms to the most recent courses of study4 ,the inductive method of presentation is followed1 but declarative statements and observations are used1 instead of questions4 ,added to this kind of unfolding and development of the subject are illustrative problems and explanations to bring out specific points1 the whole being driven home by varied and abundant practice4 ,the problems are fresh in character1 and besides the traditional problems include a large number drawn from physics1 geometry1 and commercial life4 ,they are classified according to the nature of the equations involved1 not according to subject matter4 ,the statement of necessary definitions and of principles is clear and concise1 but the proofs of principles1 except some important ones1 are left for the maturer years of the pupil4 ,accuracy and self-reliance are encouraged by the use of numerous checks and tests1 and by the requirement that results be verified4 ,the subject of graphs is treated after simple equations1 introduced by some of their simple uses in representing statistics1 and in picturing two related quantities in the process of change1 and again after quadratics4 ,later they are utilized in discussing the values of quadratic expressions4 ,factoring receives particular attention4 ,not only are the usual cases given fully and completely with plenty of practice1 but the factor theorem is taught4 ,the helpful and frequent reviews are made up of pointed oral questions1 abstract exercises1 problems1 and recent college entrance examination questions4 ,the book is unusually handy in size and convenient for the pocket4 ,the page size is small4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,plant ,,life ,,and ,,plant ,,uses ,by ,,john ,,gaylord ,,coulter1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,an elementary textbook providing a foundation for the study of agriculture1 domestic science1 or college botany4 ,but it is more than a textbook on botany--it is a book about the fundamentals of plant life and about the relations between plants and man4 ,it presents as fully as is desirable for required courses in high schools those large facts about plants which form the present basis of the science of botany4 ,yet the treatment has in view preparation for life in general1 and not preparation for any particular kind of calling4 ,the subject is dealt with from the viewpoint of the pupil rather than from that of the teacher or the scientist4 ,the style is simple1 clear1 and conversational1 yet the method is distinctly scientific1 and the book has a cultural as well as a practical object4 ,the text has a unity of organization4 ,so far as practicable the familiar always precedes the unfamiliar in the sequence of topics1 and the facts are made to hang together in order that the pupil may see relationships4 ,such topics as forestry1 plant breeding1 weeds1 plant enemies and diseases1 plant culture1 decorative plants1 and economic bacteria are discussed where most pertinent to the general theme rather than in separate chapters which destroy the continuity4 ,the questions and suggestions which follow the chapters are of two kinds2 some are designed merely to serve as an aid in the study of the text1 while others suggest outside study and inquiry4 ,the classified tables of terms which precede the index are intended to serve the student in review1 and to be a general guide to the relative values of the facts presented4 ,more than #bjj attractive illustrations1 many of them original1 are included in the book4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,essentials ,,of ,,biology ,by ,,george ,,william ,,hunter1 ,a4 ,m41 ,head of ,department of ,biology1 ,de ,witt ,clinton ,high ,school1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,this new first-year course treats the subject of biology as a whole1 and meets the requirements of the leading colleges and associations of science teachers4 ,instead of discussing plants1 animals1 and man as separate forms of living organisms1 it treats of life in a comprehensive manner1 and particularly in its relations to the progress of humanity4 ,each main topic is introduced by a problem1 which the pupil is to solve by actual laboratory work4 ,the text that follows explains and illustrates the meaning of each problem4 ,the work throughout aims to have a human interest and a practical value1 and to provide the simplest and most easily comprehended method of demonstration4 ,at the end of each chapter are lists of references to both elementary and advanced books for collateral reading4 ,,sharpe',s ,,laboratory ,,manual ,,in ,,biology ,in this ,manual the #ef important problems of ,hunter's ,essentials of ,biology are solved2 that is1 the principles of biology are developed from the laboratory standpoint4 ,it is a teacher's detailed directions put into print4 ,it states the problems1 and then tells what materials and apparatus are necessary and how they are to be used1 how to avoid mistakes1 and how to get at the facts when they are found4 ,following each problem and its solution is a full list of references to other books4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,webster',s ,,secondary ,,school ,,dictionary ,this new dictionary is based on ,webster's ,new ,international ,dictionary1 and therefore conforms to the best present usage4 ,it presents the largest number of words and phrases ever included in a school dictionary--all those1 however new1 likely to be needed by any pupil4 ,it is a reference book for the reader and a guide in the use of ,english1 both oral and written4 ,it fills every requirement that can reasonably be expected of a dictionary of moderate size4 ,this new book gives the preference to forms of spelling now current in the ,united ,states1 in cases of doubt leaning toward the simpler forms that may be coming into use4 ,in the matter of pronunciation such alternatives are included as are in very common use1 but the one that is preferred is clearly indicated4 ,each definition is in the form of a specific statement accompanied by one or more synonyms1 between which careful discrimination is made4 ,in addition1 this dictionary includes an unusual amount of supplementary information of value to students3 the etymology1 syllabication and capitalization of words2 many proper names from folklore1 mythology1 and the ,bible2 a list of prefixes and suffixes2 all irregularly inflected forms2 rules for spelling2 #bcbi lists of synonyms1 in which #ceah words are carefully discriminated2 answers to many questions on the use of correct ,english constantly asked by pupils2 a guide to pronunciation2 abbreviations used in writing and printing2 a list of #abjj foreign words and phrases2 a dictionary of #edjj proper names of persons and places1 etc4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,descriptive ,,catalogue ,,of ,,high ,,school ,,and ,,college ,,textbooks ,published ,complete and in ,sections ,we issue a ,catalogue of ,high ,school and ,college ,textbooks1 which we have tried to make as valuable and as useful to teachers as possible4 ,in this catalogue are set forth briefly and clearly the scope and leading characteristics of each of our best textbooks4 ,in most cases there are also given testimonials from well-known teachers1 which have been selected quite as much for their descriptive qualities as for their value as commendations4 ,for the convenience of teachers this ,catalogue is also published in separate sections treating of the various branches of study4 ,these pamphlets are entitled3 ,english1 ,mathematics1 ,history and ,political ,science1 ,science1 ,modern ,foreign ,languages1 ,ancient ,languages1 ,commercial ,subjects1 and ,philosophy and ,education4 ,a single pamphlet is devoted to the ,newest ,books in all subjects4 ,teachers seeking the newest and best books for their classes are invited to send for our ,complete ,high ,school and ,college ,catalogue1 or for such sections as may be of greatest interest4 ,copies of our price lists1 or of special circulars1 in which these books are described at greater length than the space limitations of the catalogue permit1 will be mailed to any address on request4 ,all correspondence should be addressed to the nearest of the following offices of the company3 ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago1 ,boston1 ,atlanta4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,bold type thus3 strong4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,perceived typographical errors have been changed4