---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are referenced4 ,there are numerous illustrations1 which are represented here by their captions and which have been moved slightly to fall in between paragraphs or sections4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,wonders of the ,,world4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,world3 ,a ,,complete ,,museum1 ,,descriptive ,,and ,,pictorial1 ,,of ,,the ,,wonderful ,,phenomena ,,and ,,results ,,of ,,nature1 ,,science ,,and ,,art4 ---------- ,,by ,,john ,,loraine ,,abbott4 ---------- ,,illustrated ,,from ,,original ,,designs ,,by ,,billings ,,and ,,others4 ,hartford3 ,,published ,,by ,,case1 ,,tiffany ,,and ,,company4 #ahef4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahee1 by ,,case1 ,,tiffany ,,and ,,company1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of ,connecticut4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ,the ancients boasted of their ,,seven ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,these were the ,pyramids of ,egypt1 the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 the ,aqueducts of ,rome1 the ,labyrinth on the banks of the ,nile1 the ,pharos of ,alexandria1 the ,walls of ,babylon1 and the temple of ,diana at ,ephesus4 ,but the ,,wonders known to those of the present day1 may be counted by hundreds3 wonders of ,nature1 wonders of ,science1 wonders of ,art1 and ,miscellaneous wonders2 each department full1 to overflowing1 of themes of the richest instruction and deepest interest4 ,to present some of the most striking of these wonders1 in a manner that shall be acceptable to the man of science and profound research1 and at the same time full of interest to the general reader1 and the family at the fireside1 has been the aim of the editor of the following pages4 ,the exaggerated and marvelous stories which the mischievous fancy of travelers has too often imposed on the credulity of the weak1 as well as the foolish fables founded in bigotry and superstition1 which were too often received as truths in the dark ages1 have been carefully avoided1 and1 where the narrative permitted1 exposed2 and nothing has been brought forward that has not been confirmed by the concurrent testimony of enlightened travelers1 and men of science1 and extended observation4 ,on the subjects in which ,nature1 in her various departments1 displays her most wondrous magnificence and beauty2 or in those in which ,science and ,art have sought out their most wondrous inventions1 and wrought out the most wondrous results1 the best authorities have been carefully consulted4 ,and the endeavor has been1 so to assemble and arrange the multiplied objects of wonder and delight1 as to confer a lasting benefit on the rising generation1 and on families1 and at the same time to present a work that shall commend itself to those whose lives have been wholly devoted to researches among the sublime wonders of nature1 science and art4 ,believing that the standard of general reading is constantly rising higher1 and that the sphere of intellectual tastes and pursuits is constantly growing wider1 the writer has endeavored to prepare a volume that shall have more than the interest of fiction1 and1 at the same time1 the ripe and rich instruction of the book of travels1 or the work of science or descriptive art4 ,the table of contents makes manifest how extensive the range of the topics presented2 while the list of engravings may show how profusely and richly the enterprise of the publishers has illustrated a work1 which it is hoped may meet with universal acceptance4 ,j4 ,l4 ,a4 ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,preface #c ,list of ,illustrations #h ,,mountains4 ,the ,andes #i ,chimborazo #ab ,cotopaxi #ac ,pichincha #ad ,mount ,etna #ae ,mount ,vesuvius #ba ,mount ,hecla #bh ,the ,geysers #cb ,the ,sulphur ,mountain 7,iceland7 #cf ,mont ,blanc #cg ,the ,glaciers1 or ,ice ,masses #ea ,the ,mer de ,glace #ea ,view from the ,buet #ee ,montserrat #eg ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe #ei ,the ,souffriere ,mountain1 7,st4 ,vincent1 ,w4 ,i47 #fi ,peter ,botte's ,mountain1 7,mauritius7 #gc ,kilauea1 7,sandwich ,islands7 #gd ,the ,peak of ,derbyshire #hb ,mountains of ,great ,britain #ig ,stromboli #aja ,lipari #ajc ,vulcano #ajd ,the ,himalaya ,mountains #aje ,asiatic ,volcanoes #aae ,islands which have risen from the ,sea #aai ,,subterranean ,,wonders4 ,the ,grotta del ,cane #aca ,the ,grotto of ,antiparos #acf ,caverns in ,hungary and ,germany1 containing ,fossil ,bones #aci ,the ,mammoth ,cave #ada ,the ,great ,cavern of ,guacharo #aeg ,fingal's ,cave1 or ,grand ,staffa ,cavern #afa ,other ,grottos and ,caverns #afd ,,mines1 ,,metals1 ,,gems1 ,c4 ,introductory #afh ,diamond ,mines #afi ,gold and ,silver ,mines #agh ,quicksilver ,mines #aic ,iron ,mines #aie ,copper ,mines #bjd ,tin ,mines #bji ,lead ,mines #baa ,coal ,mines #bab ,salt ,mines #bbc ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,ocean4 ,introductory #bcj ,saltness of the ,sea #bca ,congelation of ,sea-,water #bcd ,ice-,islands #bce ,icebergs #bdd ,luminous ,points in the ,sea #bde ,tides and ,currents #bdf ,,cataracts ,,and ,,cascades4 ,introductory #beb ,falls of ,niagara #bec ,falls of the ,montmorenci #bgj ,the ,tuccoa ,fall #bgb ,falls of the ,missouri #bgb ,catskill ,falls #bgd ,trenton ,falls #bge ,waterfall of ,south ,africa #bge ,cataracts of the ,nile #bgf ,cataract of the ,mender #bgf ,other ,cataracts #bgg ,,springs ,,and ,,wells4 ,st4 ,winifred's ,well #bhj ,wigan ,well #bhb ,dropping ,well at ,knaresborough #bhc ,broseley ,spring #bhd ,hot ,springs of ,st4 ,michael #bhd ,hot ,springs of the ,troad #bhe ,other ,springs #bhf ,,bituminous ,,and ,,other ,,lakes4 ,pitch ,lake of ,trinidad #bij ,mud ,lake of ,java #bia ,salt ,lake of ,utah #bib ,,atmospherical ,,phenomena4 ,meteors #bid ,aerolites #cjg ,aurora ,borealis and ,aurora ,australis #cab ,lumen ,boreale1 or ,streaming ,lights #cad ,luminous ,arches #caf ,ignes ,fatui1 or ,mock ,fires #cag ,specter of the ,brocken #cai ,the ,mirage #cbb ,fata ,morgana #cbc ,atmospherical ,refraction #cbd ,parhelia1 or ,mock ,suns #cbh ,lunar ,rainbow #ccj ,concentric ,rainbows #ccj ,thunder and ,lightning #cca ,remarkable ,thunder-,storms #ccd ,hail-,storms #cch ,hurricanes #cci ,the ,monsoons #cda ,whirlwinds and ,waterspouts #cdb ,sounds and ,echoes #cdh ,,buried ,,cities4 ,the ,yanar1 or ,perpetual ,fire #cej ,pompeii #cea ,the ,museum at ,naples #cfj ,herculaneum #cfb ,pompeii #cfe ,the ,museum #cge ,herculaneum #cgi ,,earthquakes4 ,introductory #chd ,earthquakes of ,ancient ,times #chi ,earthquake in ,calabria #chi ,the ,great ,earthquake of #agee #cia ,earthquake in ,sicily and in the ,two ,calabrias #dja ,earthquakes in ,peru #dji ,earthquake in ,jamaica1 #afib #daa ,earthquake in ,venezuela1 #ahab #dab ,,connection ,,of ,,earthquakes ,,with ,,volcanoes4 ,island of ,java #dac ,,basaltic ,,and ,,rocky ,,wonders4 ,the ,giant's ,causeway #dag ,basaltic ,columns #dbb ,,natural ,,bridges4 ,natural ,bridges of ,icononzo #dbd ,natural ,bridge in ,virginia #dbg ,,precipices ,,and ,,promontories4 ,besseley ,ghaut #dcb ,the ,cape of the ,winds #dcc ,the ,north ,cape #dce ,precipices of ,san ,antonia #dcf ,,geological ,,changes ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,introductory #dch ,extraneous ,fossils #ddf ,fossil ,crocodiles #ddh ,large ,fossil ,animal of ,maestricht #ddi ,fossil ,remains of ,ruminantia #dej ,fossil ,remains of ,elephants #dea ,fossil ,remains of the ,mastodon #dec ,fossil ,remains of the ,rhinoceros #ded ,fossil ,remains of the ,siberian ,mammoth #dee ,fossil ,shells #deg ,subterranean ,forests #deh ,moors1 ,mosses and ,bogs #dfj ,coral ,reefs and ,islands #dfe ,,wide ,,and ,,inhospitable ,,deserts4 ,asiatic ,deserts #dfi ,arabian ,deserts #dgj ,african ,deserts #dgj ,pilgrimage across the ,deserts #dgd ,sands of the ,desert #dhf ,,wonders ,,of ,,art4 ,the ,pyramids of ,egypt #dia ,the ,tombs at ,sakkara #ejf ,the ,sphinx #eji ,ruins and ,pyramids of ,mero #eaa ,pyramids and ,ruins of ,merawe #eaf ,egyptian ,temples and ,monuments #ebj ,bathing in the ,east #ebf ,egyptian ,temples1 ,monuments1 c4 #ebg ,other ,ruins in ,egypt1 c4 #eed ,the ,river ,nile #efb ,the ,african ,birds-nest #efh ,ruins of ,palmyra #efi ,ruins of ,balbec #egj ,ruins of ,babylon #egb ,babylonian ,bricks #egi ,later ,discoveries at ,babylon #ehj ,ruins of ,nineveh #ehb ,the ,ruins of ,persepolis #ehg ,royal ,palace of ,ispahan #ehi ,the ,temple of ,mecca #ehi ,,the ,,holy ,,land4 ,jacob's ,well #eia ,bethlehem #eib ,nazareth #eid ,the ,holy ,sepulcher at ,jerusalem #eid ,mount ,tabor #eif ,the ,mount of ,olives #eih ,other ,revered ,sites #eii ,mount ,carmel #eii ,mount ,ararat #fjj ,,wonders ,,of ,,art ,,resumed4 ,the ,mosque of ,omar #fja ,mosque of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople #fjb ,ruins of ,carthage #fjc ,the ,plain of ,troy #fjd ,athens #fjg ,temples of ,elephants #faj ,temples of ,salsette #fab ,mausoleum of ,hyder ,ali #fad ,the ,taje ,mahal #fad ,great ,wall of ,china #faf ,porcelain ,tower at ,nankin #fah ,the ,shoemadoo at ,pegu #fah ,colossal ,figure of ,jupiter ,pluvius1 or the ,apennine ,jupiter #fba ,the ,leaning1 or ,hanging ,tower of ,pisa1 in ,tuscany #fbd ,the ,coliseum at ,rome #fbg ,the ,pantheon #fcj ,roman ,amphitheater at ,nismes #fcb ,trajan's ,pillar #fcd ,column of ,antonine #fce ,naison ,carr1 at ,nismes #fce ,the ,pont du ,gard #fcf ,ancient ,aqueduct near ,rome #fcg ,the ,roman ,forum #fch ,st4 ,peter's of ,rome #fdb ,the ,soil of ,rome #fdf ,eddystone ,light-house #fdg ,bell ,rock ,light-house #fdi ,stonehenge #feb ,rocking ,stones #fed ,the ,round ,towers of ,ireland #fef ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral #feg ,first ,church in ,england #ffa ,westminster ,abbey #ffb ,cathedral of ,notre ,dame #ffe ,strasburg ,cathedral #ffe ,cathedral of ,cologne #ffi ,church of ,st4 ,mark1 at ,venice #ffi ,the ,cathedral of ,milan #fgj ,the ,tower of ,london #fga ,the ,bank of ,england #fgd ,monument of the ,great ,fire of #afff in ,london #fge ,the ,louvre #fgf ,the ,british ,museum #fgi ,madame ,tusseau's ,museum #fhf ,the ,palace of ,blenheim #fhi ,the ,palace of ,versailles #fia ,the ,palace of ,st4 ,cloud #fic ,the ,crystal ,palace in ,new ,york #fig ,the ,crystal ,palace in ,london #gjb ,the ,capitol at ,washington #gab ,the ,smithsonian ,institute #gad ,the ,washington ,monument #gae ,the ,column of ,vendome1 ,paris #gah ,the ,bunker ,hill ,monument #gai ,the ,arc de ,triomphe 7,paris7 #gba ,the ,cooper ,institute 7,new ,york7 #gbc ,vergnais's ,improved ,bridge over the ,seine at ,paris #gbe ,railroad ,bridge at ,portage1 ,new ,york #gbf ,the ,britannia ,tubular ,bridge1 over ,menai ,strait #gbh ,the ,suspension ,bridge over the ,menai ,strait #gcj ,great ,railway ,suspension ,bridge at ,niagara ,falls #gca ,other ,immense ,bridges #gcb ,the ,high ,bridge at ,harlem #gcc ,the ,boston ,reservoir #gcd ,aqueduct at the ,peat ,forest ,canal 7,england7 #gce ,the ,thames ,tunnel #gcg ,railroad ,tunnels #gci ,the ,colossus at ,rhodes #gda ,,miscellaneous ,,wonders4 ,youle's ,shot-,tower #gdd ,the ,emperor ,fountain #gdf ,the ,united ,states ,mint in ,philadelphia #gdg ,the ,air ,balloon #gdi ,the ,progress of ,navigation #gee ,steam ,navigation #geh ,chinese ,junks #gff ,the ,artesian ,well of ,grenelle #gfg ,the ,banyan-,tree #gfh ,the ,wedded ,banyan-,tree #gga ,the ,cocoa-,tree #gga ,the ,reindeer ,sledge #ggb ,the ,upas or ,poison-,tree #ggc ,the ,prairie on ,fire #gge ,the ,mammoth ,tree of ,california #ggf ,other ,mammoth ,trees in ,california #ggh ,the ,palm-,tree #ggh ,the ,bamboo-,tree #gha ,the ,manna-,tree #ghc ,continental ,money #ghc ,the ,milk-,tree #ghd ,the ,signal ,telegraph #ghf ,the ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph #ghg ,the ,art of ,printing #ghh ,the ,india-,rubber ,tree #gic ,the ,round ,tower at ,newport #gie ,diving ,armor #gif ,tree ,house in ,caffraria #gii ,the ,raining-,tree #hjj ,the ,traveler's ,friend #hjj ,the ,camphor-,tree #hja ,the ,cinnamon ,plant #hjb ,the ,tree ,temple at ,matibo in ,piedmont #hjc ,the ,termites1 or ,white ,ants #hjd ,huts in ,kamtschatka #hjf ,the ,whale #hjg ,landing of the ,pilgrims #hjh ,plymouth ,rock #hji ,a ,wonder of ,art #haa ,the ,whale ,killer #hab ,a ,pile of ,serpents #hac ,american ,ruins #had ,insect ,slavery #hae ,list of ,illustrations4 ,,page4 ,the ,cordilleras1 or ,andes1 near ,quito #aj ,crater of ,mount ,etna #af ,the 8,castano de ,cento ,cavilli10 or ,great ,chestnut ,tree of #ah ,mount ,etna ,mount ,vesuvius #bb ,mount ,hecla and the ,geysers #bi ,mont ,blanc and the ,glaciers #ch ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe #ei ,peter ,botte's ,mountain #gd ,bridge over the ,wye #ib ,source of the ,jumna #aji ,st4 ,michael's ,volcano #abb ,sabrina ,island #abe ,grotto of ,antiparos #acf ,the ,mammoth ,cave #ada ,diamond ,washing in ,brazil #aga ,discovery of ,silver in ,peru #agi ,silver ,mine at ,knigsberg1 ,sweden #ahe ,gold ,washing in ,california #ahh ,place where ,gold was first discovered in ,australia #aij ,copper ,mine in ,cornwall #bjg ,thin ,plates of ,coal #bac ,great ,salt ,mine of ,cracow #bbe ,icebergs1 or ,ice-,islands #bcf ,the ,maelstrom #bej ,niagara ,falls #bef ,niagara ,falls on the ,american side #bei ,suspension ,bridge over ,niagara ,river #bfe ,falls of ,montmorenci #bgj ,catskill ,falls #bgd ,dropping ,well at ,knaresborough1 ,england #bhc ,the ,emigrant ,family #bic ,specter of the ,brocken #cbj ,ship refracted in the ,air #cbg ,waterspout on the ,ocean #cdf ,temple of ,isis at ,pompeii #cef ,papyri #cfa ,earthquake at ,lisbon #cid ,natural ,bridge in ,virginia #dbh ,skeleton of the ,siberian ,mammoth #def ,the ,sphinx and ,pyramids #dib ,entrance to one of the ,pyramids of ,gizeh #dii ,entrance to the ,tombs of ,sakkara #ejg ,great ,gallery of the ,tombs of ,sakkara #eaj ,cleopatra's ,needle #eba ,the ,two ,colossi #ece ,the ,nilometer #efe ,african ,birds-nest #efh ,tower near ,babylon #egc ,colossal ,winged ,bull from ,nineveh #ehd ,jacob's ,well #eia ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher #eie ,mount ,tabor #eig ,the ,areopagus #fjh ,temple of ,jupiter ,olympius #fji ,great ,wall of ,china #fae ,porcelain ,tower at ,nankin #fag ,jupiter ,pluvius1 or the ,apennine ,jupiter #fbb ,the ,leaning ,tower at ,pisa #fbd ,the ,coliseum at ,rome #fbi ,ancient ,roman ,aqueduct #fch ,the ,arch of ,titus #fdj ,st4 ,peter's as seen from the ,tiber #fdc ,the ,eddystone ,light-house #fdh ,stonehenge #fec ,the ,first ,church in ,england #ffa ,strasburg ,cathedral #fff ,the ,crystal ,palace in ,new ,york #fig ,the ,capitol at ,washington #gab ,the ,smithsonian ,institute #gae ,the ,washington ,monument #gaf ,the ,bunker-,hill ,monument #gbj ,vergnais's ,herculean ,bridge #gbe ,the ,britannia ,tubular ,bridge #gbh ,the ,high ,bridge at ,harlem #gcc ,the ,boston ,reservoir #gce ,aqueduct on the ,peat ,forest ,canal #gcf ,tunnel in ,shakspeare's ,cliff #gdj ,the ,colossus of ,rhodes #gdb ,the ,emperor ,fountain #gdg ,the ,air ,balloon #gej ,early ,navigation #gef ,the ,launch of a ,packet-,ship #geg ,fulton's ,first ,steamboat #gei ,an ,ocean ,steamer #gfb ,chinese ,junks #gff ,the ,banyan-,tree #gfi ,the ,reindeer ,sledge #ggb ,the ,prairie on ,fire #gge ,the ,date-,palm #ggi ,the ,bamboo-,tree #ghb ,continental ,money #ghc ,the ,signal ,telegraph #ghe ,the ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph #ghg ,faust taking ,first ,proof from movable types #ghi ,franklin's ,printing-,press #gij ,hoe's ,eight-,cylinder ,power ,press #gib ,the ,india-,rubber ,tree #gic ,the ,old ,round ,tower at ,newport #gie ,submarine or ,diving ,armor #gif ,manner of working the ,diving-,armor #gig ,tree ,house in ,caffraria #gii ,the ,camphor-,tree #hja ,tree ,temple at ,matibo in ,piedmont #hjc ,ant-,hills of the ,white ,ant #hje ,huts in ,kamtschatka #hjf ,taking a ,whale #hjg ,landing of the ,pilgrims #hji ,plymouth ,rock #haj ,early ,settlers of ,new ,england going to ,church #haa ,,the ,wonders of the ,world4 ------------------------------------ ,,mountains4 8,and lo6 the mountains print the distant sky1 ,and o'er their airy tops faint clouds are driven1 ,so softly blending that the cheated eye1 ,forgets or which is earth1 or which is heaven60--,,fay4 8,mountains and all hills--let them praise the name of the ,lord1 for his name alone is excellent2 his glory is above the earth and heaven40--,,david4 ,among the wonders1 or uncommon phenomena of the world1 may be classed stupendous mountains4 ,for though compared with the entire diameter of the earth1 the highest elevations on its surface are no more than the inequalities on the skin of the orange to the orange itself1 yet to our eyes they often appear immensely lofty and sublime4 ,descriptions of such vast and striking objects often fail to excite corresponding ideas2 so that however accurate or poetical may be the accounts of this class of the prodigies of nature1 no just notions of their vastness can be conveyed1 by any written or graphical representation4 ,the magnitude of an object must be seen to be duly conceived2 and the mountain-wonders of the world will best be understood and felt by those who have visited ,wales1 ,scotland1 ,switzerland1 or the mountainous regions of ,america or ,asia4 ,,the ,,andes4 ,some of the loftiest and most extensive mountains in the world1 are the ,andes1 in ,south ,america4 ,these stupendous hills1 called by the ,spaniards the ,cordilleras1 7from the word cord or chain17 i4 e41 the chains of the ,andes1 stretch north and south near the western coast1 from the isthmus of ,darien1 through the whole of the continent of ,south ,america1 to the straits of ,magellan4 ,in the north1 there are three chains of separate ridges2 but in advancing from ,popayan toward the south1 the three chains unite into a single group1 which is continued far beyond the equator4 ,in ,equador1 near ,quito1 the more elevated summits of this group are ranged in two rows1 7as seen in the cut below17 which form a double crest to the ,cordilleras4 ,the extent of the ,andes mountains is not less than four thousand three hundred miles1 from one end to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cordilleras1 ,,or ,,andes1 ,,near ,,quito4 8,rocks rich in gems1 and mountains big with mines1 ,that on the high equator ridgy rise1 ,whence many a bursting stream auriferous plays40--,,thomson4 ,in this country1 the operations of nature appear to have been carried on on a larger scale1 and with a bolder hand1 than elsewhere2 and in consequence1 the whole is distinguished by a peculiar magnificence4 ,even the plain of ,quito1 which may be considered as the base of the ,andes1 is more elevated above the sea than the summits of many ,european mountains4 ,in different places the ,andes rise more than one-third higher than the famous peak of ,teneriffe1 the highest land in the ancient hemisphere4 ,their cloud-enveloped summits1 though exposed to the rays of the sun in the torrid zone1 are covered with eternal snows1 and below them the storm is seen to burst1 and the exploring traveler hears the thunder roll1 and sees the lightnings dart beneath his feet4 ,throughout the whole of the range of these extensive mountains1 as far as they have been explored1 there is a certain boundary1 above which the snow never melts2 which boundary1 in the torrid zone1 has been ascertained to be fourteen thousand1 six hundred feet1 or nearly three miles above the level of the sea4 ,the ascent to the plain of ,quito1 on which stands ,chimborazo1 ,cotopaxi1 ,pichincha1 c41 is thus described by ,don ,juan de ,ulloa3 8,the ruggedness of the road from ,taraguaga1 leading up the mountain1 is not easily described4 ,the declivity is so great1 in some parts1 that the mules can scarcely keep their footing2 and1 in others1 the acclivity is equally difficult4 ,the trouble of sending people before to mend the road1 the pain arising from the many falls and bruises1 and the being constantly wet to the skin1 might be supported2 but these inconveniences are augmented by the sight of such frightful precipices and deep abysses1 as excite in the mind constant terror4 ,the road1 in some places1 is so steep1 and yet so narrow1 that the mules are obliged to slide down without making any use whatever of their feet4 ,on one side of the rider1 in this situation1 rises an eminence of many hundred yards2 and1 on the other1 is an abyss of equal depth2 so that1 if he should give the least check to his mule1 and destroy the equilibrium1 both must inevitably perish4 8,having traveled nine days in this manner1 slowly winding along the sides of the mountains1 we began to find the whole country covered with a hoar-frost2 and a hut1 in which we reposed1 had ice in it4 ,at length1 after a perilous journey of fifteen days1 we arrived upon a plain1 at the extremity of which stands the city of ,quito1 the capital of one of the most charming regions in the world4 ,here1 in the center of the torrid zone1 the heat is not only very tolerable1 but1 in some places1 the cold is even painful4 ,here the inhabitants enjoy the temperature and advantages of perpetual spring2 the fields being constantly covered with verdure1 and enameled with flowers of the most lively colors4 ,but although this beautiful region is more elevated than any other country in the world1 and it employs so many days of painful journey in the ascent1 it is itself overlooked by tremendous mountains1 their sides being covered with snow1 while their summits are flaming with volcanoes4 ,these mountains seem piled one upon the other1 and to rise1 with great boldness1 to an astonishing hight4 ,however1 at a determined point above the surface of the sea1 the congelation is found at the same hight in all the mountains4 ,those parts which are not subject to a continual frost1 have here and there growing upon them a species of rush1 resembling the broom1 but much softer and more flexible4 ,toward the extremity of the part where the rush grows1 and the cold begins to increase1 is found a vegetable with a round bulbous head4 ,higher still1 the earth is bare of vegetation1 and seems covered with eternal snow4 ,the most remarkable of the ,andes are the mountains of ,chimborazo1 ,cotopaxi1 and ,pichincha40 ,,chimborazo4 ,this is the most lofty and majestic peak of the ,andes1 and has a circular summit4 ,it is twenty-two thousand feet1 or more than four miles high4 ,on the shores of the ocean1 after the long rains of winter1 ,chimborazo appears like a cloud in the horizon4 ,it detaches itself from the neighboring summits1 and raises its lofty head over the whole chain of the ,andes4 ,travelers who have approached the summits of ,mont ,blanc and ,mont ,rose1 are alone capable of feeling the effect of such vast1 majestic1 and solemn scenery4 ,the bulk of ,chimborazo is so enormous1 that the part which the eye embraces at once1 near the limit of the snows1 is twenty-two thousand1 nine hundred and sixty-eight feet1 or four miles and a third in breadth4 ,the extreme rarity of the strata of air across which the summits of the ,andes are seen1 contributes greatly to the splendor of the snow and the magical effect of its reflection4 ,under the tropics1 at a hight of sixteen thousand1 four hundred feet1 or upward of three miles1 the azure vault of the heavens appears of an indigo tint2 while1 in so pure and transparent an atmosphere1 the outlines of the mountains seem to detach themselves from the sky1 and produce an effect at once sublime1 awful1 and profoundly impressive4 ,with the exception of the loftiest of the ,himalaya1 in ,asia1 ,chimborazo is the highest known mountain in the world4 ,humboldt1 ,bonpland1 and ,montufar1 were persevering enough to approach within one thousand1 six hundred feet of the summit of this mighty king of mountains4 ,being aided in their ascent by a train of volcanic rocks1 destitute of snow1 they thus attained the amazing hight of nearly four miles above the level of the sea2 and the former of these naturalists is persuaded that they might have reached the highest summit1 had it not been for the intervention of a great crevice1 or gap1 which they were unable to cross4 ,they were1 therefore1 obliged to descend1 after experiencing great inconveniences and many unpleasant sensations4 ,for three or four days1 even after their return into the plain1 they were not free from sickness1 and an uncomfortable feeling1 owing1 as they suppose1 to the vast proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere above4 ,long before they reached the above surprising hight1 they had been abandoned by their guides1 the ,indians1 who had taken alarm and were fearful of their lives4 ,so great was the fall of snow on their return1 that they could scarcely recognize each other1 and they all suffered dreadfully from the intenseness of the cold4 ,a great number of ,spaniards formerly perished in crossing the vast and dangerous deserts which lie on the declivity of ,chimborazo2 being now1 however1 better acquainted with them1 such misfortunes seldom occur1 especially as very few take this route1 unless there be a prospect of calm and serene weather4 ,,cotopaxi4 ,this mountain is the loftiest of those volcanoes of the ,andes which1 at recent epochs1 have undergone eruptions4 ,notwithstanding it lies near the equator1 its summits are covered with perpetual snows4 ,the absolute hight of ,cotopaxi is eighteen thousand1 eight hundred and seventy-six feet1 or three miles and a half2 consequently it is two thousand1 six hundred and twenty-two feet1 or half a mile1 higher than ,vesuvius would be1 were that mountain placed on the top of the peak of ,teneriffe6 ,cotopaxi is the most mischievous of the volcanoes in the vicinity of ,quito1 and its explosions are the most frequent and disastrous4 ,the masses of scori1 and the pieces of rock1 thrown out of this volcano1 cover a surface of several square leagues1 and would form1 were they heaped together1 a prodigious mountain4 ,in #agch1 the flames of ,cotopaxi rose three thousand feet1 or upward of half a mile1 above the brink of the crater4 ,in #agdd1 the roarings of this volcano were heard at the distance of six hundred miles4 ,on the fourth of ,april1 #agfh1 the quantity of ashes ejected at the mouth of ,cotopaxi was so great1 that it was dark till three in the afternoon4 ,the explosion which took place in #ahjc1 was preceded by the sudden melting of the snows which covered the mountain4 ,for twenty years before no smoke or vapor1 that could be perceived1 had issued from the crater2 but in a single night the subterraneous fires became so active1 that at sunrise the external walls of the cone1 heated to a very considerable temperature1 appeared naked1 and of the dark color which is peculiar to vitrified scori4 8,at the port of ,guyaquil10 observes ,humboldt1 8fifty-two leagues distant in a straight line from the crater1 we heard1 day and night1 the noise of this volcano1 like continued discharges of a battery2 and we distinguished these tremendous sounds even on the ,pacific ocean40 ,the form of ,cotopaxi is the most beautiful and regular of the colossal summits of the high ,andes4 ,it is a perfect cone1 which1 covered with a perpetual layer of snow1 shines with dazzling splendor at the setting of the sun1 and detaches itself in the most picturesque manner from the azure vault above4 ,this covering of snow conceals from the eye of the observer even the smallest inequalities of the soil2 no point of rock1 no stony mass1 penetrating this coat of ice1 or breaking the regularity of the figure of the cone4 ,,pichincha4 ,though celebrated for its great hight1 ,pichincha is three thousand1 eight hundred and forty-nine feet1 or three-fourths of a mile1 lower than the perpendicular elevation of ,cotopaxi4 ,it was formerly a volcano2 but the mouth or crater on one of its sides is now covered with sand or calcined matter1 so that at present neither smoke nor ashes issue from it4 ,when it was ascended by ,don ,george ,juan and ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa1 for the purpose of their astronomical observations1 they found the cold on the top of this mountain extremely intense1 the wind very violent1 and the fog1 or1 in other words1 the cloud1 so thick1 that objects at the distance of six or eight paces were scarcely discernible4 ,on the air becoming clear1 by the clouds descending nearer the earth1 in such a manner as to surround the mountain on all sides to a vast distance1 these clouds afforded a lively representation of the sea1 in which the top of the mountain seemed to stand1 like an island in the center4 8,with aspect mild1 and elevated eye1 ,behold him seated on a mount serene1 ,above the fogs of sense1 and passion's storm3 ,all the black cares and tumults of this life1 ,like harmless thunders1 breaking at his feet40--,,young4 ,when the clouds descended1 the astronomers heard the dreadful noise of tempests1 which discharged themselves from them on the adjacent country4 ,they saw the lightning issue from the clouds1 and heard the thunder roll far beneath them4 ,while the lower parts were thus involved in tempests of thunder and rain1 they enjoyed a delightful serenity2 the wind abated1 the sky cleared1 and the enlivening rays of the sun moderated the severity of the cold4 ,but when the clouds rose1 their density rendered respiration difficult3 snow and hail fell continually1 and the winds returned with such violence1 that it was impossible to overcome the fear of being blown down the precipices1 or of being buried by the accumulation of ice and snow1 or by the enormous fragments of rocks which rolled around them4 ,every crevice in their hut was stopped1 and though the hut was small1 was crowded with inhabitants1 and several lamps were constantly burning1 the cold was so great1 that each individual was obliged to have a chafing-dish of coals1 and several men were employed every morning in removing the snow which had fallen during the night4 ,their feet were swollen1 and they became so tender and sensible1 that walking was attended with extreme pain2 their hands also were covered with chilblains1 and their lips were so swollen and chapped1 that every motion in speaking brought blood4 ,,mount ,,etna4 8,now under sulphurous ,cuma's sea-bound coast1 ,and vast ,sicilia1 lies the shaggy breast ,of snowy ,etna1 nurse of endless frost1 ,the pillared prop of heaven1 forever pressed3 ,forth from whose sulph'rous caverns issuing rise ,pure liquid fountains of tempestuous fire1 ,which vail in ruddy mists the noonday skies1 ,while wrapt in smoke the eddying flames aspire1 ,or gleaming through the night with hideous roar1 ,far o'er the redd'ning main huge rocky fragments pour4 8,but he1 ,vulcanian monster1 to the clouds ,the fiercest1 hottest inundations throws1 ,while1 with the burthen of incumbent woods1 ,and ,etna's gloomy cliffs o'erwhelmed he glows4 ,there on his flinty bed outstretch'd he lies1 ,whose pointed rock his tossing carcass wounds2 ,there with dismay he strikes beholding eyes1 ,or frights the distant ear with horrid sounds40--,,west4 ,mount ,etna1 one of the most majestic of all the volcanoes1 which the ancients considered as one of the highest mountains in the world1 and on the summit of which they believed that ,deucalion and ,pyrrha sought refuge1 to save themselves from the universal deluge1 is situated on the plain of ,catania1 in ,sicily4 ,its elevation above the level of the sea has been estimated at ten thousand1 nine hundred and sixty-three feet1 or upward of two miles4 ,on clear days it is distinctly seen from ,valetta1 the capital of ,malta1 a distance of one hundred and fifty miles4 ,it is incomparably the largest burning mountain in ,europe4 ,from its sides other mountains arise1 which1 in different ages1 have been ejected in single masses from its enormous crater4 ,the most extensive lavas of ,vesuvius do not exceed seven miles in length1 while those of ,etna extend to fifteen1 twenty1 and some even to thirty miles4 ,the crater of ,etna is seldom less than a mile in circuit1 and sometimes is two or three miles2 but the circumference of the ,vesuvian crater is never more than half a mile1 even when widely distended1 in its most destructive conflagrations4 ,and1 lastly1 the earthquakes occasioned by these adjacent volcanoes1 their eruptions1 their showers of ignited stones1 and the destruction and desolation which they create1 are severally proportionate to their respective dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,,crater ,,of ,,mount ,,etna4 ,a journey up ,etna is considered as an enterprise of importance1 as well from the difficulty of the route1 as from the distance1 it being thirty miles from ,catania to the summit of the mountain4 ,its gigantic bulk1 its sublime elevation1 and the extensive1 varied1 and grand prospects which are presented from its summit1 have1 however1 induced the curious in every age to ascend and examine it2 and not a few have transmitted1 through the press1 the observations which they have made during their arduous journey4 ,from its vast base it rises like a pyramid to the perpendicular hight of two miles1 by an acclivity nearly equal on all sides1 forming with the horizon an angle of about fifteen degrees1 which becomes greater on approaching the crater2 but the inclination of the steepest part of the cone nowhere exceeds an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,this prodigious volcano may be compared to a forge1 which1 in proportion to the violence of the fire1 to the nature of the fossil matters on which it acts1 and of the gases which urge and set it in motion1 produces1 destroys1 and reproduces1 a variety of forms2 and of this1 as of all active volcanoes1 we may say in the language of ,young1 8,the dread volcano ministers to good2 ,its smothered flames might undermine the world ,loud ,etnas fulminate in love to man40 ,the top of ,etna being above the common region of vapors1 the heavens1 at this elevation1 appear with an unusual splendor4 ,brydone and his company observed1 as they ascended in the night1 that the number of the stars seemed to be infinitely increased1 and the light of each was brighter than usual4 ,the whiteness of the milky way was like a pure flame which spread across the heavens2 and1 with the naked eye1 they could observe clusters of stars which were invisible from below4 ,they likewise noticed several of those meteors called falling stars1 which appeared as much elevated here as when viewed from the plain beneath4 ,this single mountain contains an epitome of the different climates throughout the world1 presenting at once all the seasons of the year1 and all the varieties of produce4 ,it is accordingly divided into three distinct zones or regions1 which may be distinguished as the torrid1 temperate1 and frigid1 but which are known by the names of the cultivated region1 the woody or temperate region1 and the frigid or desert region4 ,the former of these extends through twelve miles of the ascent toward the summit1 and is almost incredibly abundant in pastures and fruit-trees of every description4 ,it is covered with towns1 villages and monasteries2 and the number of inhabitants spread over its surface is estimated at one hundred and twenty thousand4 ,in ascending to the woody or temperate region1 the scene changes2 it is a new climate1 a new creation4 ,below1 the heat is suffocating2 but here1 the air is mild and fresh4 ,the turf is covered with aromatic plants2 and the gulfs1 which formerly ejected torrents of fire1 are changed into woody valleys4 ,nothing can be more picturesque than this2 the inequality of the soil displaying every moment some variety of scene3 here1 the ash and flowering thorns form domes of verdure2 and there1 the chestnut-trees grow to an enormous size4 ,the one called castagno de cento cavilli1 according to ,brydone and ,glover1 has a circumference of two hundred and four feet4 ,many of the oaks also are of a prodigious size4 ,mr4 ,swinburne measured one which had a circumference of twenty-eight feet4 ,the last1 or desert region1 commences more than a mile above the level of the sea4 ,the lower part is covered with snow in winter only2 but on the upper half of this sterile district the snows continually lie4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,castagno ,,de ,,cento ,,cavilli10 ,,or ,,great ,,chestnut ,,tree ,,of ,,mount ,,etna4 ,the cone of ,etna is1 in a right line1 about a mile in ascent4 ,the crater is about a mile and a half in circumference2 and from the inner part of this1 a column of smoke constantly rises2 while the liquid fiery matter may be seen rolling1 rising and falling within4 ,as to the vastness and beauty of the prospect from the summit of ,etna1 all writers agree that it is probably unsurpassed4 ,m4 ,houel was there at sunrise1 when the horizon was perfectly clear1 and the coast of ,calabria1 as seen in the distance1 appeared to the eye misty1 and undistinguishable from the sea4 ,the sky above was specked with the light floating clouds that are so often seen in that delightful climate before the rising of the sun2 and in the calm silence all nature seemed waiting the coming of the orb of day4 ,and very soon the promise thus given began to be fulfilled4 ,in a short time a fiery radiance appeared in the east4 ,the fleecy clouds were tinged with purple2 the atmosphere became strongly illuminated1 and1 reflecting the rays of the sun1 seemed to be filled with a bright refulgence of flame4 ,although the heavens were thus enlightened1 the sea still retained its dark azure1 and the fields and forests did not yet reflect the rays of the sun4 ,the gradual rising of this luminary1 however1 soon diffused light over the hills which lie below the peak of ,etna4 ,this last stood like an island in the midst of the ocean1 with luminous points multiplying every moment around1 and spreading over a wider extent with the greatest rapidity4 ,it was1 he said1 as if the world had been observed suddenly to spring from the night of non-existence4 8,ere the rising sun ,shone o'er the deep1 or 'mid the vault of night ,the moon her silver lamp suspended2 ere ,the vales with springs were watered1 or with groves ,of oak or pine the ancient hills were crowned2 ,then the ,great ,spirit1 whom his works adore1 ,within his own deep essence viewed the forms1 ,the forms eternal of created things3 ,the radiant sun2 the moon's nocturnal lamp2 ,the mountains and the streams3 the ample stores ,of earth1 of heaven1 of nature4 ,from the first1 ,on that full scene his love divine he fixed1 ,his admiration4 ,till1 in time complete1 ,what he admired and loved1 his vital power ,unfolded into being4 ,hence the breath ,of life1 informing each organic frame2 ,hence the green earth1 and wild resounding waves2 ,hence light and shade1 alternate2 warmth and cold2 ,and bright autumnal skies1 and vernal showers1 ,and all the fair variety of things40--,,akenside4 ,the most sublime object1 however1 which the summit of ,etna presents1 is the immense mass of its own colossal body4 ,its upper region exhibits rough and craggy cliffs1 rising perpendicularly1 fearful to the view1 and surrounded by an assemblage of fugitive clouds1 to increase the wild variety of the scene4 ,amid the multitude of woods in the middle or temperate region1 are numerous mountains1 which1 in any other situation1 would appear of a gigantic size1 but which1 compared to ,etna1 are mere mole-hills4 ,lastly1 the eye contemplates with admiration the lower region1 the most extensive of the three1 adorned with elegant villas and castles1 verdant hills and flowery fields1 and terminated by the extensive coast1 where to the south stands the beautiful city of ,catania1 to which the waves of the neighboring sea serve as a mirror4 ,etna has been celebrated as a volcano from the remotest antiquity4 ,eruptions are recorded by ,diodorus ,siculus1 as having happened five hundred years before the ,trojan war1 or sixteen hundred and ninety-three years before the ,christian era4 8,etna roars with dreadful ruins nigh1 ,now hurls a bursting cloud of cinders high1 ,involved in smoky whirlwinds to the sky2 ,with loud displosion to the starry frame1 ,shoots fiery globes1 and furious floods of flame3 ,now from her bellowing caverns burst away ,vast piles of melted rocks in open day4 ,her shattered entrails wide the mountain throws1 ,and deep as hell her flaming center glows40--,,warton4 ,in #affi1 the torrent of burning lava inundated a space fourteen miles in length1 and four in breadth1 burying beneath it part of ,catania1 till at length it precipitated itself into the sea4 ,for several months before the lava broke out1 the old mouth1 or great crater of the summit1 was observed to send forth much smoke and flame1 and the top had fallen in1 so that the mountain was much lowered4 ,eighteen days before1 the sky was very thick and dark1 with thunder1 lightning1 frequent concussions of the earth1 and dreadful subterraneous bellowings4 ,on the eleventh of ,march1 about sunset1 an immense gulf opened in the mountain1 into which when stones were thrown1 they could not be heard to strike the bottom4 ,ignited rocks1 fifteen feet in length1 were hurled to the distance of a mile2 while others of a smaller size were carried three miles4 ,during the night1 the red-hot lava burst out of a vineyard twenty miles below the great crater1 and ascended into the air to a considerable hight4 ,in its course1 it destroyed five thousand habitations1 and filled up a lake several fathoms deep4 ,it shortly after reached ,catania1 rose over the walls1 whence it ran for a considerable length into the sea1 forming a safe and beautiful harbor1 which was1 however1 soon filled up by a similar torrent of inflamed matter4 ,this is the stream1 the hideous deformity of which1 devoid of vegetation1 still disfigures the south and western borders of ,catania1 and on which part of the noble modern city is built4 ,the showers of scori and sand which1 after a lapse of two days1 followed this eruption1 formed a mountain called ,monte ,rosso1 having a base of about two miles1 and a perpendicular hight of seven hundred and fifty feet4 ,on the twenty-fifth1 the whole mountain1 even to the most elevated peak1 was agitated by a tremendous earthquake4 ,the highest crater of ,etna1 which was one of the loftiest parts of the mountain1 then sunk into the volcanic gulf1 and in the place which it had occupied1 there now appeared nothing but a wide gulf1 more than a mile in extent1 from which issued enormous quantities of smoke1 ashes and stones4 ,in #ahji1 twelve new craters opened about half-way down the mountain1 and threw out rivers of burning lava1 by which several estates were covered to the depth of thirty or forty feet2 and during three or four successive nights1 a very large river of red-hot lava was distinctly seen1 in its whole extent1 running down from the mountain4 ,in #ahaa1 several mouths opened on the eastern side of the mountain3 being nearly in the same line1 and at equal distances1 they presented to the view a striking spectacle2 torrents of burning matter1 discharged with the greatest force from the interior of the volcano1 illuminated the horizon to a great extent4 ,an immense quantity of matter1 which was driven to considerable distances1 was discharged from these apertures1 the largest of which continued for several months to emit torrents of fire4 ,even at the time when it had the appearance of being choked1 there suddenly issued from it clouds of ashes1 which descended1 in the form of rain1 on the city of ,catania and its environs1 as well as on the fields situated at a very considerable distance4 ,a roaring1 resembling that of a sea in the midst of a tempest1 was heard to proceed from the interior of the mountain2 and this sound1 accompanied from time to time by dreadful explosions1 resembling thunder1 rechoed through the valleys1 and spread terror on every side4 ,,mount ,,vesuvius4 8,the fluid lake that works below1 ,bitumen1 sulphur1 salt1 and iron scum1 ,heaves up its boiling tide4 ,the lab'ring mount ,is torn with agonizing throes4 ,at once1 ,forth from its sides disparted1 blazing pours ,a mighty river2 burning in prone waves1 ,that glimmer through the night1 to yonder plain4 ,divided there1 a hundred torrent streams1 ,each plowing up its bed1 roll dreadful on1 ,resistless4 ,villages1 and woods1 and rocks1 ,fall flat before their sweep4 ,the region round1 ,where myrtle-walks and groves of golden fruit ,rose fair2 where harvest wav'd in all its pride2 ,and where the vineyard spread its purple store1 ,maturing into nectar2 now despoiled ,of herb1 leaf1 fruit and flower1 from end to end ,lies buried under fire1 a glowing sea60--,,mallet4 ,this celebrated volcano1 which has for so many ages attracted the attention of mankind1 and the desolating eruptions of which have been so often and so fatally experienced1 is distant1 in an eastern direction1 about seven miles from ,naples4 ,it rises1 insulated1 upon a vast and well cultivated plain1 presenting two summits on the same base1 in which particular it resembles ,mount ,parnassus4 ,one of these1 ,la ,somma1 is generally agreed to have been the ,vesuvius of ,strabo and the ancients2 the other1 having the greatest elevation1 is the mouth of the volcano1 which almost constantly emits smoke4 ,its hight above the level of the sea1 is thirty-nine hundred feet1 and it may be ascended by three different routes1 which are all very steep and difficult1 from the conical form of the mountain1 and the loose ashes which slip from under the feet3 still1 from the base to the summit1 the distance is not more than three ,italian miles4 ,the circumference of the platform on the top1 is five thousand and twenty-four feet1 or nearly a mile4 ,thence may be seen ,portici1 ,capra1 ,ischia1 ,pausilippo1 and the whole coast of the gulf of ,naples1 bordered with orange-trees3 the prospect is that of ,paradise seen from the infernal regions4 ,illustration3 ,,mount ,,vesuvius4 ,on approaching the mountain1 its aspect does not convey any impression of terror1 nor is it gloomy1 being cultivated for more than two-thirds of its hight1 and having its brown top alone barren4 ,there all verdure ceases2 yet1 when it appears covered with clouds1 which sometimes encompass its middle only1 this circumstance rather adds to than detracts from the magnificence of the spectacle4 ,upon the lavas which the volcano long ago ejected1 and which1 like great furrows1 extend into the plain and to the sea1 are built houses1 villages and towns4 ,gardens1 vineyards and cultivated fields surround them2 but a sentiment of sorrow1 blended with apprehensions about the future1 arises on the recollection that1 beneath a soil so fruitful and so smiling1 lie edifices1 gardens and whole towns swallowed up4 ,portici rests upon ,herculaneum2 its environs upon ,resina2 and at a little distance is ,pompeii1 in the streets of which1 after more than seventeen centuries of non-existence1 the astonished traveler now walks4 ,after a long interval of repose1 in the first year of the reign of ,titus1 7the seventy-ninth of the ,christian era17 the volcano suddenly broke out1 ejecting thick clouds of ashes and pumice-stones1 beneath which ,herculaneum1 ,stabia and ,pompeii were completely buried4 ,this eruption was fatal to the elder ,pliny1 the historian1 who fell a victim to his humanity and love of science4 ,even at this day1 in speaking of ,vesuvius1 the remembrance of his untimely death excites a melancholy regret4 ,all the coast to the east of the gulf of ,naples was1 on the above occasion1 ravaged and destroyed1 presenting nothing but a long succession of ejected matters from ,herculaneum to ,stabia4 ,the destruction did not extend to the western part1 but stopped at ,naples1 which suffered comparatively little4 ,thirty-eight eruptions of ,vesuvius are recorded in history up to the year #ahjf4 ,that of #aggi1 has been described by ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 as among the most remarkable1 from its extraordinary and terrific appearance4 ,during the whole of ,july1 the mountain was in a state of considerable fermentation1 subterraneous explosions and rumbling noises being heard1 and quantities of smoke thrown up with great violence1 sometimes with red-hot stones1 scori1 and ashes4 ,on the fifth of ,august1 the volcano was greatly agitated1 a white sulphurous smoke1 apparently four times the hight and size of the volcano itself1 issuing from the crater1 at the same time that vast quantities of stones1 c41 were thrown up to the supposed hight of two thousand feet4 ,the liquid lava1 having cleared the rim of the crater1 flowed down the sides of the mountain to the distance of four miles4 ,the air was darkened by showers of reddish ashes1 blended with long filaments of a vitrified matter resembling glass4 ,on the seventh1 at midnight1 a fountain of fire shot up from the crater to an incredible hight1 casting so bright a light1 that the smallest objects were clearly distinguishable at any place within six miles of the volcano4 ,on the following evening1 after a tremendous explosion1 which broke the windows of the houses at ,portici1 another fountain of liquid fire rose to the surprising hight of ten thousand feet1 7nearly two miles17 while puffs of the blackest smoke accompanied the red-hot lava1 interrupting its splendid brightness here and there by patches of the darkest hue4 ,the lava was partly directed by the wind toward ,ottaiano1 on which so thick a shower of ashes1 blended with vast pieces of scori1 fell1 that had it been of longer continuance1 that town would have shared the fate of ,pompeii4 ,it took fire in several places2 and had there been much wind1 the inhabitants would have been burned in their houses1 it being impossible for them to stir out4 ,to add to the horror of the scene1 incessant volcanic lightning darted through the black cloud that surrounded them1 while the sulphureous smell and heat would scarcely allow them to draw their breath4 ,in this dreadful state they remained nearly half an hour4 ,the remaining part of the lava1 still red-hot and liquid1 fell on the top of ,vesuvius1 and covered its whole cone1 together with that of ,la ,somma1 and the valley between them1 thus forming one complete body of fire1 which could not be less than two miles and a half in breadth1 and casting a heat to the distance of at least six miles around4 ,the eruption of #agid is accurately described by the above writer2 but has not an equal degree of interest with the one cited above4 ,we subjoin a few particulars1 among which is a circumstance well deserving notice1 as it leads to an estimate of the degree of heat in volcanoes4 ,sir ,william says that although the town of ,torre del ,greco was instantly surrounded with red-hot lava1 the inhabitants saved themselves by coming out of the tops of their houses on the following day4 ,it is evident1 observes ,mr4 ,kirwan1 that if this lava had been hot enough to melt even the most fusible stones1 these persons must have been suffocated4 ,this eruption happened on the fifteenth of ,june1 at ten o'clock at night1 and was announced by a shock of an earthquake1 which was distinctly felt at ,naples4 ,at the same moment a fountain of bright fire1 attended with a very black smoke and a loud report1 was seen to issue1 and rise to a considerable hight1 from about the middle of the cone of ,vesuvius4 ,it was hastily succeeded by other fountains1 fifteen of which were counted1 all in a direct line1 tending for the space of about a mile and a half downward1 toward the towns of ,resina and ,torre del ,greco4 ,this fiery scene1 this great operation of nature1 was accompanied by the loudest thunder1 the incessant reports of which1 like those of a numerous heavy artillery1 were attended by a continued hollow murmur1 similar to that of the roaring of the ocean during a violent storm4 ,another blowing noise resembled that of the ascent of a large flight of rockets4 ,the houses at ,naples were for several hours in a constant tremor1 the doors and windows shaking and rattling incessantly1 and the bells ringing4 ,at this awful moment the sky1 from a bright full moon and starlight1 became obscured2 the moon seemed eclipsed1 and was soon lost in obscurity4 ,the murmur of the prayers and lamentations of a numerous population1 forming various processions1 and parading the streets1 added to the horrors of the scene4 ,on the following day a new mouth was opened on the opposite side of the mountain1 facing the town of ,ottaiano3 from this aperture a considerable stream of lava issued1 and ran with great velocity through a wood1 which it burnt2 but it stopped1 after having run about three miles in a few hours1 before it reached the vineyards and cultivated lands4 ,the lava which had flowed from several new mouths on the south side of the mountain1 reached the sea into which it ran1 after having overwhelmed1 burnt and destroyed the greater part of ,torre del ,greco1 through the center of which it took its course4 ,this town contained about eighteen thousand inhabitants1 all of whom escaped1 with the exception of about fifteen1 who through age or infirmity1 were overwhelmed in their houses by the lava4 ,its rapid progress was such1 that their goods and effects were entirely abandoned4 ,it was ascertained some time after1 that a considerable part of the crater had fallen in1 so as to have given a great extension to the mouth of ,vesuvius1 which was conjectured to be nearly two miles in circumference4 ,this sinking of the crater was chiefly on the west side1 opposite ,naples1 and1 in all probability1 occurred early in the morning of the eighteenth1 when a violent shock of an earthquake was felt at ,resina1 and other places situated at the foot of the volcano4 ,the clouds of smoke which issued from the now widely extended mouth of ,vesuvius1 were of such a density as to appear to force their passage with the utmost difficulty4 ,one cloud heaped itself on another1 and1 succeeding each other incessantly1 they formed in a few hours such a gigantic and elevated column1 of the darkest hue1 over the mountain1 as seemed to threaten ,naples with immediate destruction1 it having at one time been bent over the city1 and appearing to be much too massive and ponderous to remain long suspended in the air4 ,from the above time1 till #ahjd1 ,vesuvius remained in a state of almost constant tranquillity4 ,symptoms of a fresh eruption had manifested themselves for several months1 when at length on the night of the eleventh of ,august1 a deep roaring was heard at the hermitage of ,salvador1 and the places adjacent to the mountain1 accompanied by shocks of an earthquake1 which were sensibly felt at ,resina4 ,on the following morning1 at noon1 a thick black smoke rose from the mouth of the crater1 which1 dilating prodigiously1 covered the whole volcano4 ,in the evening1 loud explosions were heard2 and at ,naples a column of fire was seen to rise from the aperture1 carrying up stones in a state of complete ignition1 which fell again into the crater4 ,the noise by which these igneous explosions were accompanied1 resembled the roaring of the most dreadful tempest and the whistling of the most furious winds2 while the celerity with which the substances were ejected was such1 that the first emission had not terminated when it was succeeded by a second4 ,small monticules were at this time formed of a fluid matter1 resembling a vitreous paste of a red color1 which flowed from the mouth of the crater2 and these became more considerable in proportion as the matter accumulated4 ,in this state the eruption continued for several days1 the fire being equally intense1 with frequent and dreadful noises4 ,on the twenty-eighth1 amid these fearful symptoms1 another aperture1 ejecting fire and stones1 situated behind the crater1 was seen from ,naples4 ,the burning mass of lava which escaped from the crater on the following day1 was distinguished from ,torre del ,greco1 having the appearance of a vitreous fluid1 and advancing toward the base of the mountain between the south and south-west4 ,it reached the base on the thirtieth1 having flowed from the aperture1 in less than twenty-four hours1 a distance of three thousand and fifty-three feet1 while its mean breadth appeared to be about three hundred and fifty1 but at the base1 eight hundred and sixty feet4 ,in its course it divided into four branches1 and finally reached a spot called the ,guide's ,retreat4 ,its entire progress to this point was more than a mile1 so that1 taking a mean proportion1 this lava flowed at the rate of eighty-six feet an hour4 ,at the time of this eruption1 ,kotzebue was at ,naples4 ,vesuvius lay opposite to his window1 and when it was dark he could clearly perceive in what manner the masses of fire rolled down the mountain4 ,as long as any glimmering of light remained1 that part of the mountain was to be seen on the declivity of which the lava formed a straight but oblique line4 ,as soon1 however1 as it was perfectly dark1 and the mountain itself had vanished from the eye1 it seemed as if a comet with a long tail stood in the sky4 ,the spectacle was awful and grand6 ,kotzebue ascended the mountain on the morning succeeding the opening of a new gulf1 and approached the crater as nearly as prudence would allow4 ,from its center ascended the sulphurous yellow cone which the eruption of this year had formed3 on the other side1 a thick smoke perpetually arose from the abyss opened during the preceding night4 ,the side of the crater opposite to him1 which rose considerably higher than that on which he stood1 afforded a singular aspect2 for it was covered with little pillars of smoke1 which burst forth from it1 and had some resemblance to extinguished lights4 ,the air over the crater was actually embodied1 and was clearly to be seen in a tremulous motion4 ,below1 the volcano boiled and roared dreadfully1 like the most violent hurricane2 but occasionally a sudden deadly stillness ensued for some moments1 after which the roaring renewed with double vehemence1 and the smoke burst forth in thicker and blacker clouds4 ,it was1 he observes1 as if the spirit of the mountain had suddenly tried to stop the gulf1 while the flames indignantly refused to endure the confinement4 ,it is remarkable1 that the great eruption of #ahje1 happened on the twelfth of ,august1 within a day of that of the preceding year4 ,subterraneous noises had been previously heard1 and a general apprehension of some violent commotion prevailing1 the inhabitants of ,torre del ,greco and ,annunciada had left their homes1 through the apprehension of a shower of fire and ashes1 similar to that which buried ,pompeii4 ,the stream of lava took the same course with that of #agid1 described above1 one of the arms following the direction of the great road1 and rolling toward the sea4 ,the stream soon divided again1 and spreading itself with an increased celerity1 swept away many houses and the finest plantations4 ,the other branch1 at first1 took the direction of ,portici1 which was threatened2 but turning1 and joining the preceding one1 formed a sort of islet of boiling lava in the middle1 both ending in the sea1 and composing a promontory of volcanic matters4 ,in the space of twenty minutes the whole extent of ground which the lava occupied was on fire1 offering a terrible yet singular spectacle1 as the burning trees presented the aspect of white flames1 in contrast with those of the volcanic matters1 which were red4 ,the lava swept along with it enormous masses of whatever occurred in its course1 and1 on its reaching the sea1 nothing was to be seen or heard for a great extent of shore1 beside the boiling and hissing arising from the conflict of the water and fire4 ,it remains now to introduce a slight notice of the eruption of #ahjf1 which1 without any sensible indication1 took place on the evening of the thirty-first of ,may1 when a bright flame rose from the mountain to the hight of about six hundred feet1 sinking and rising alternately1 and affording so clear a light1 that a letter might have been read at the distance of a league around the mountain4 ,on the following morning1 without any earthquake preceding1 as had been customary1 the volcano began to eject inflamed substances from three new mouths1 pretty near to each other1 and about six hundred and fifty feet from the summit4 ,the lava took the direction of ,torre del ,greco and ,annunciada1 approaching ,portici1 on the road leading from ,naples to ,pompeii4 ,throughout the whole of the second of ,june1 a noise was heard1 resembling that of two armies engaged1 when the discharges of artillery and musketry are very brisk4 ,the current of lava now resembled a wall of glass in a state of fusion1 sparks and flashes issuing from it from time to time1 with a powerful detonation4 ,vines1 trees1 houses--whatever objects1 in short1 it encountered on its way1 were instantly overthrown or destroyed4 ,in one part1 where it met with the resistance of a wall1 it formed a cascade of fire4 ,in a few days ,portici1 ,resina1 and ,torre del ,greco1 were covered with ashes thrown out by the volcano2 and on the ninth1 the two former places were deluged with a thick black rain1 consisting of a species of mud filled with sulphurous particles4 ,on the first of ,july1 the ancient crater had wholly disappeared1 being filled with ashes and lava1 and a new one was formed in the eastern part of the mountain1 about six hundred feet in depth1 and having about the same width at the opening4 ,several persons1 on the above day1 descended about half-way down this new mouth1 and remained half an hour very near the flames1 admiring the spectacle presented by the liquid lava1 which bubbled up at the bottom of the crater1 like the fused matter in a glass-house4 ,this eruption continued until ,september1 made great ravages1 and was considered as one of the most terrible that had occurred in the memory of the inhabitants4 ,,mount ,,hecla4 ,see cut1 page #bi4 8,still pressing on beneath ,tornea's lake1 ,and ,hecla flaming through a waste of snow1 ,and farthest ,greenland1 to the pole itself1 ,where1 falling gradual1 life at length goes out1 ,the ,muse expands her solitary flight2 ,and hov'ring o'er the wide stupendous scene1 ,beholds new scenes beneath another sky4 ,throned in his palace of cerulean ice1 ,here ,winter holds his unrejoicing court1 ,and through his airy hall the loud misrule ,of driving tempest is forever heard2 ,here the grim tyrant meditates his wrath2 ,here arms his winds with all-subduing frost1 ,molds his fierce hail1 and treasures up his snows40 ,on proceeding along the southern coast of ,iceland1 and at an inconsiderable distance from ,skalholt1 ,mount ,hecla1 with its three summits1 presents itself to the view4 ,its hight is five thousand feet1 or nearly a mile above the level of the sea4 ,it is not a promontory1 but lies about four miles inland4 ,it is neither so elevated nor so picturesque as several of the surrounding ,icelandic mountains2 but has been more noticed than many other volcanoes of an equal extent1 partly through the frequency of its eruptions1 and partly from its situation1 which exposes it to the view of many ships sailing to ,greenland and ,north ,america4 ,the surrounding territory has been so devastated by these eruptions1 that it has been deserted4 8,vast regions dreary1 bleak and bare6 ,there on an icy mountain's hight1 ,seen only by the moon's pale light ,stern ,winter rears his giant form1 ,his robe a mist1 his life a storm3 ,his frown the shiv'ring nations fly1 ,and1 hid for half the year1 in smoky caverns lie40 ,illustration3 ,,mount ,,hecla ,,and ,,the ,,geysers4 ,the natives assert that it is impossible to ascend the mountain1 on account of the great number of dangerous bogs1 which1 according to them1 are constantly emitting sulphurous flames and exhaling smoke2 while the more elevated summit in the center is covered with boiling springs and large craters1 which continually propel fire and smoke4 ,to the south and west the environs present the most desolating results of frequent eruptions1 the finest part of the territory being covered by torrents of melted stone1 sand1 ashes1 and other volcanic matter2 notwithstanding which1 between the sinuosities of the lava in different parts1 some portion of meadows1 walls and broken hedges may be observed4 ,the devastation is still greater on the north and east sides1 which present dreadful traces of the ruin of the country and its habitations4 ,neither plants nor grass are to be met with to the extent of two leagues round the mountain1 in consequence of the soil being covered with stones and lava2 and in some parts1 where the subterraneous fire has broken out a second time1 or where the matter which was not entirely consumed has again become ignited1 the fire has contributed to form small red and black hillocks and eminences1 from scori1 pumice-stones and ashes4 ,the nearer the mountain the larger are these hillocks1 and there are some of them1 the summits of which form a circular hollow1 whence the subterraneous fire ejects the matter4 ,on approaching ,hecla the ground becomes almost impassable1 particularly near the higher branches of lava thrown from the volcano4 ,round the latter is a mountain of lava1 consisting of large fused stones1 from forty to seventy feet high1 and in the form of a rampart or wall4 ,these stones are detached1 and chiefly covered with moss2 while between them are very deep holes1 so that the ascent on the western side requires great circumspection4 ,the rocks are completely reduced to pumice1 dispersed in thin horizontal layers1 and fractured in every direction1 from which some idea may be formed of the intensity of the fire that has acted on them4 8,there ,winter1 armed with terrors here unknown1 ,sits absolute on his unshaken throne2 ,piles up his stores amidst the frozen waste1 ,and bids the mountains he has built stand fast2 ,beckons the legions of his storms away ,from happier scenes to make the land a prey2 ,proclaims the soil a conquest he has won1 ,and scorns to share it with the distant sun40 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,dr4 ,solander1 ,dr4 ,james ,lind1 of ,edinburgh1 and ,dr4 ,van ,troil1 a ,swede1 were the earliest adventurous travelers who ascended to the summit of ,mount ,hecla4 ,this was in #aggb2 and the attempt was facilitated by a preceding eruption in #agff1 which had greatly diminished the steepness and difficulty of the ascent4 ,on their first landing1 they found a tract of land sixty or seventy miles in extent1 entirely ruined by lava1 which appeared to have been in a state of complete liquefaction4 ,to accomplish their undertaking1 they had to travel from three hundred to three hundred and sixty miles over uninterrupted tracts of lava4 ,in ascending1 they were obliged to quit their horses at the first opening from which the fire had burst3 a spot1 which they describe as presenting lofty glazed walls and high glazed cliffs1 differing from anything they had ever seen before4 ,at another opening above1 they fancied they discerned the effects of boiling water2 and not far from thence1 the mountain1 with the exception of some bare spots1 was covered with snow4 ,the difference of aspect they soon perceived to be occasioned by the hot vapor ascending from the mountain4 ,the higher they proceeded1 the larger these spots became2 and1 about two hundred yards below the summit1 a hole about a yard and a half in diameter1 was observed1 whence issued so hot a stream1 that they could not measure the degree of heat with a thermometer4 ,the cold now began to be very intense4 ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 which at the foot of the mountain was at fifty-four degrees1 fell to twenty-four degrees2 while the wind became so violent1 that they were sometimes obliged to lie down1 from a dread of being blown into the most dreadful precipices4 ,on the summit itself they experienced1 at one and the same time1 a high degree of heat and cold2 for1 in the air1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer constantly stood at twenty-four degrees1 but when placed on the ground1 it rose to one hundred and fifty-three degrees4 ,messrs4 ,olafsen and ,povelsen1 two naturalists1 whose travels in ,iceland were undertaken by order of his ,danish majesty1 after a fatiguing journey up several small slopes1 which occurred at intervals1 and seven of which they had to pass1 at length reached the summit of ,mount ,hecla at midnight4 ,it was as light as at noonday1 so that they had a view of an immense extent1 but could perceive nothing but ice2 neither fissures1 streams of water1 boiling springs1 smoke1 nor fire1 were apparent4 ,they surveyed the glaciers in the eastern part1 and in the distance saw the high and square mountain of ,hrdabreid1 an ancient volcano1 which appeared like a large castle4 ,sir ,g4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 in his travels in ,iceland1 ascended ,mount ,hecla2 and from his account we extract the following interesting particulars4 ,in proceeding to the southern extremity of the mountain1 he descended1 by a dangerous path1 into a valley1 having a small lake in one corner1 and the opposite extremity bounded by a perpendicular face of rock1 resembling1 in its broken and rugged appearance1 a stream of lava4 ,while advancing1 the sun suddenly broke through the clouds1 and the brilliant reflection of his beams1 from different parts of this supposed lava1 as if from a surface of glass1 delighted our traveler by the instantaneous conviction that he had now attained one of the principal objects connected with the plan of his expedition to ,iceland4 ,he hastened to the spot1 and all his wishes were fully accomplished in the examination of an object which greatly exceeded the expectations he had formed4 ,on ascending one of the abrupt pinnacles1 which rose out of this extraordinary mass of rock1 he beheld a region1 the desolation of which can scarcely be paralleled4 ,fantastic groups of hills1 craters1 and lava1 leading the eye to distant snow-crowned 8jockuls10 7inferior mountains17 the mist rising from a waterfall2 lakes1 embosomed among bleak mountains2 an awful profound silence2 lowering clouds2 marks all around of the furious action of the most destructive of elements2 all combined to impress the soul with sensations of dread and wonder4 ,the longer he and his companions contemplated this scene1 the more unable they were to turn their eyes from it2 and a considerable time elapsed before they could bring themselves to attend to the business which had tempted them to enter so frightful a district of the country4 ,having proceeded a considerable distance along the edge of a stream of lava1 a narrow part of which they crossed1 they gained the foot of the south end of ,mount ,hecla4 ,while1 in ascending1 they had to pass over rugged lava1 they experienced no great difficulty in advancing2 but when they reached the steepest part of the mountain1 which was covered with loose slags1 they sometimes lost at one step by the yielding of these1 a space which had been gained by several4 ,having passed a number of fissures1 by leaping across some1 and stepping along masses of slags which lay over others1 they at length reached the summit of the first peak4 ,the clouds now became so thick1 that they began to despair of being able to proceed any further3 it was1 indeed1 dangerous even to move2 for the peak consists of a very narrow ridge of slags1 not more than two feet broad1 having a precipice on each side1 several hundred feet in depth4 ,one of these precipices forms the side of a vast hollow1 which seems to have been one of the craters4 ,at length the sky cleared a little1 and enabled them to discover a ridge below1 which seemed to connect the peak they had ascended with the middle or principal one4 ,they lost no time in availing themselves of this opportunity1 and1 by balancing themselves like rope-dancers1 succeeded in passing along a ridge of slags1 so narrow that there was scarcely room for their feet4 ,after a short1 but very steep ascent1 they gained the highest part of this celebrated mountain4 ,its earliest eruption is said to have happened in #ajjd1 since which time upward of twenty have occurred4 ,that of #afic was the most dreadful1 and occasioned terrible devastations1 the ashes having been thrown over the island in every direction1 to the distance of more than one hundred miles4 ,in #agbh1 a fire broke out among the surrounding lava2 and also in that to the west of the volcano1 in #aged1 which lasted for three days4 ,there has not been any eruption of lava since #agff2 but for some years after1 flames issued from the volcano4 ,,the ,,geysers4 ,see cut on page #bi4 8,nor stops the restless fluid1 mounting still1 ,though oft amid th' irriguous vale of springs2 ,but to the mountain courted by the sand1 ,that leads it darkling on in faithful maze1 ,far from the parent main1 it boils again6 ,fresh into day2 and all the glittering hill ,is bright with spouting rills4 ,the crystal treasures of the liquid world1 ,through the stirred sands a bubbling passage burst2 ,and welling out1 around the middle steep1 ,or from the bottoms of the bosomed hills1 ,in pure effusion flow40--,,thomson4 ,these celebrated fountains1 or hot spouting water springs1 being nearly connected with the operations of subterraneous fire1 so visible in every part of ,iceland1 may be properly introduced after the description of ,mount ,hecla1 given above4 ,they are seldom very near the volcanoes1 but are dispersed over the whole country1 and are even to be found on the summits of several of the ice mountains4 ,the largest and most remarkable of these is situated in a large field1 about sixteen miles to the north of ,skalholt4 ,at a great distance from it1 on one side1 are high mountains covered with ice1 and on the other ,hecla is seen rising above the clouds1 while opposite to it is a ridge of rocks1 at the foot of which water from time to time rushes forth4 ,at the distance of a mile and a half1 a loud roaring noise is heard1 like that of a torrent precipitated from stupendous rocks1 each ejection being accompanied by violent subterraneous detonations4 ,the depth of the opening from which the water rushes1 has not been ascertained2 but some seconds elapse before a stone thrown in reaches the surface4 ,the ,danish traveler1 ,olafsen1 asserts1 that the water rises as high as sixty fathoms3 while ,van ,troil estimates the highest jet at not more than sixty feet3 the latter allows1 however1 that the jets may be more elevated1 particularly in bad weather4 ,the greatness of the explosive power is evinced by its not only preventing stones thrown in from sinking1 but even forcing them up to a very great hight1 together with the water1 and splitting the pebbles into a thousand pieces4 ,the heat was found by ,van ,troil to be two hundred and twelve degrees of ,fahrenheit1 the boiling point4 ,the edges of the pipe or basin are covered by a coarse stalactitic rind1 and the water has been found to have a petrifying quality4 ,the opening is perfectly circular1 in diameter nineteen feet1 and forms above1 on the surface of the ground1 a basin fifty-nine feet in diameter1 the edge of which is nine feet above the orifice or hole4 ,in speaking of the ,geysers1 or hot spouting springs1 ,horrebow observes1 that if you fill a bottle at one of them1 the water it contains will boil three or four times1 at the same time with the water in the well4 ,the inhabitants boil their meat in it1 by putting the meat in a vessel of cold water1 which they place in the hot spring4 ,sir ,g4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 whose travels in ,iceland we have already cited1 visited the ,geysers at a season favorable to his observations1 the latter end of ,july4 ,he found the cultivation of the surrounding territory much higher than might have been inferred from the idea generally entertained of the barren and unproductive state of ,iceland4 ,all the flat ground in that quarter of the island was swampy1 but not so much so as to impede the progress of the party1 who1 having passed several hot springs to the eastward of ,skalholt1 and others rising among the low hills they had left to the right1 in proceeding to the great ,geyser1 came to a farm-house1 situated on a rising ground in the midst of the bogs4 ,here the people were busily employed in making hay1 a scene which afforded a pleasing change from the dreary solitude they had quitted4 ,the whole of this extensive district1 which abounds in grass1 would1 if drained1 our traveler observes1 prove a very rich pasture country4 ,farther on they came to several cottages at the foot of the mountain1 round which they turned1 and came in sight of the hill having the ,geysers at one of its sides4 ,this hill1 in hight not more than three hundred feet1 is separated from the mountain1 toward the west1 by a narrow slip of flat boggy ground1 connected with that which extends over the whole valley4 ,having crossed this bog1 and a small river which ran through it1 the party came to a farm-house at the east end of the hill1 and arrived at a spot where the most wonderful and awful effects of subterraneous heat are exhibited4 ,on the east side of the hill there are several banks of clay1 from some of which steam rises in different places2 and in others there are cavities1 in which water boils briskly4 ,in a few of these cavities1 the water being mixed with clay1 is thick and varies in color2 but is chiefly red and gray4 ,below these banks there is a gentle and uniform slope1 composed of matter which1 at some distant period1 has been deposited by springs which no longer exist4 ,the strata or beds thus formed1 seemed to have been broken by shocks of earthquakes1 particularly near the great ,geyser4 ,within a space not exceeding a quarter of a mile1 numerous orifices are seen in the old incrustations1 from which boiling water and steam issue1 with different degrees of force4 ,at the northern extremity is situated the great ,geyser1 sufficiently distinguishable from the others by every circumstance connected with it4 ,on approaching this spot1 it appeared that a mount had been formed of irregular1 rough-looking depositions1 upon the ancient regular strata1 the origin of which had been similar4 ,the slope of the latter has caused the mount to spread more on the east side2 and the recent depositions of the water may be traced till they coincide with them4 ,the perpendicular hight of the mount is about seven feet1 measured from the highest part of the surface of the old depositions4 ,from these the matter composing the mount may be readily distinguished1 on the west side1 where a disruption has taken place4 ,on the top of this mount is a basin1 which was found to extend fifty-six feet in one direction1 and forty-six in another4 ,at a quarter before three o'clock in the afternoon1 when the party reached the spot1 they found the basin full of hot water1 a little of which was running over4 ,having satisfied their curiosity at that time1 they proceeded to examine some other places1 whence they saw water ascending4 ,above the great ,geyser1 at a short distance1 they came to a large irregular opening1 the beauties of which1 the writer observes1 it is hardly possible to describe4 ,the water with which it was filled was as clear as crystal1 and perfectly still1 although nearly at the boiling point4 ,through it they saw white incrustations1 forming a variety of figures and cavities1 to a great depth1 and carrying the eye into a vast and dark abyss1 over which the crust supporting them formed a dome of an inconsiderable thickness2 a circumstance which though not of itself agreeable1 contributed much to the effects of this awful scene4 ,having pitched their tent at the distance of about one hundred yards from the ,geyser1 and so arranged matters that a regular watch might be kept during the night1 ,sir ,g4 ,s4 ,mackenzie took his station at eleven o'clock1 and his companions lay down to sleep4 ,about ten minutes before twelve he heard subterraneous discharges1 and waked his friends4 ,the water in the basin was greatly agitated1 and flowed over1 but there was not any jet4 ,the same occurred at half past two4 ,at five minutes past four on ,saturday morning1 an alarm was given by one of the company4 ,as our traveler lay next the door of the tent1 he instantly drew aside the canvas1 when at the distance of little more than fifty yards1 a most extraordinary and magnificent appearance presented itself4 ,from a place they had not before noticed1 they saw water thrown up1 and steam issuing with a tremendous noise4 ,there was little water2 but the force with which the steam escaped1 produced a white column of spray and vapor1 at least sixty feet high4 ,they enjoyed this astonishing and beautiful sight until seven o'clock1 when it gradually disappeared4 ,the remaining part of the morning was occupied in examining the environs of the ,geysers2 and at every step they received some new gratification4 ,following the channel which had been formed by the water escaping from the great basin during the eruptions1 they found several beautiful and delicate petrifactions4 ,the leaves of birch and willow were seen converted into white stone1 and in the most perfect state of preservation1 every minute fiber being entire4 ,grass and rushes were in the same state1 and also masses of peat4 ,several of these rare and elegant specimens were brought safely to ,great ,britain4 ,on the outside of the mount of the ,geyser1 the depositions1 owing to the splashing of the water1 are rough and have been justly compared to the heads of cauliflowers4 ,they are of a yellowish brown color1 and are arranged around the mount1 somewhat like a circular flight of steps4 ,the inside of the basin is comparatively smooth3 and the matter forming it is more compact and dense than the exterior crust2 when polished it is not devoid of beauty1 being of a gray color1 mottled with black and white spots and streaks4 ,the white incrustation formed by the water of the beautiful cavity before described1 had taken a very curious form at the water's edge1 very much resembling the capital of a ,gothic column4 ,,the ,,sulphur ,,mountain4 ,this mountain of ,iceland1 distant about three miles from the village of ,krisuvik1 presents a phenomenon very different from the one which has just been described1 viz41 that of a ,,caldron ,,of ,,boiling ,,mud4 ,we extract the following particulars of this singular curiosity from the relation given by ,sir ,g4 ,s4 ,mackenzie in his travels in ,iceland4 ,at the foot of the mountain is a small bank1 composed chiefly of white clay and sulphur1 from every part of which steam issues4 ,having ascended this bank1 a ridge presents itself1 immediately beneath which is a deep hollow1 whence a profusion of vapor arises1 with a confused noise of boiling and splashing1 accompanied by steam escaping from narrow crevices in the rock4 ,this hollow1 as well as the whole side of the mountain opposite1 being covered with sulphur and clay1 it was very hazardous to walk over a soft and steaming surface of such a description4 ,the vapor concealing the party from each other occasioned much uneasiness2 and there was some hazard of the crust of sulphur breaking1 or of the clay sinking beneath their feet4 ,they were thus several times in danger of being scalded1 as indeed1 happened to one of the party1 ,mr4 ,bright1 who accidentally plunged one of his legs into the hot clay4 ,when the thermometer was immersed in it1 to the depth of a few inches1 it generally rose to within a few degrees of the boiling point4 ,by stepping cautiously1 and avoiding every little hole from which steam issued1 they soon ascertained how far they might venture4 ,their good fortune1 however1 ,sir ,george observes1 ought not to tempt any person to examine this wonderful place1 without being provided with two boards1 with which every part of the banks may be traversed in perfect safety4 ,at the bottom of the hollow1 above described1 they found the caldron of mud1 which boiled with the utmost vehemence4 ,they approached within a few yards of it1 the wind favoring them in viewing every part of this singular scene4 ,the mud was in constant agitation1 and often thrown up to the hight of six or eight feet4 ,near this spot was an irregular space filled with water1 boiling briskly4 ,at the foot of the hill1 in a hollow formed by a bank of clay and sulphur1 steam rushed with great force and noise from among the loose fragments of rock4 ,in ascending the mountain1 our travelers met with a spring of cold water1 which was little to be expected in such a place4 ,at a greater elevation1 they came to a ridge1 composed entirely of sulphur and clay1 joining two summits of the mountain4 ,the smooth crust of sulphur was beautifully crystallized2 and beneath it was a quantity of loose granular sulphur1 which appeared to be collecting and crystallizing1 as it was sublimed along with the steam4 ,on removing the sulphurous crust1 steam issued1 and annoyed the party so much1 that they could not examine this place to any depth4 ,beneath the ridge1 on the farther side of this great bed of sulphur1 an abundance of vapor escaped with a loud noise4 ,having crossed to the side of the mountain opposite1 they walked to what is called the principal spring4 ,this was a task of much apparent danger1 as the side of the mountain to the extent of about half a mile1 was covered with loose clay1 into which the feet of our travelers sunk at every step4 ,in many places there was a thin crust1 beneath which the clay was wet1 and extremely hot4 ,good fortune attended them2 and without any serious inconvenience1 they reached the object they had in view4 ,a dense column of steam1 mixed with a small portion of water1 forced its way impetuously through a crevice in a rock1 at the head of a narrow valley1 or break in the mountain4 ,the violence with which it rushed out was so great1 that the noise1 thus occasioned1 might often be heard at the distance of several miles4 ,during the night while the party lay in their tent at ,krisuvik1 they more than once listened to it with mingled awe and astonishment4 ,behind the column of vapor was a dark-colored rock1 which added to the sublimity of the effect4 8,it is quite beyond my power10 observes ,sir ,george ,mackenzie1 8to offer such a description of this extraordinary place1 as would convey adequate ideas of its wonders1 or of its terrors4 ,the sensations of a person1 even of firm nerves1 standing on a support which feebly sustains him1 over an abyss where1 literally1 fire and brimstone are in dreadful and incessant action2 having before his eyes tremendous proofs of what is going on beneath him2 enveloped in thick vapors2 his ears stunned with thundering noises--must be experienced before they can be understood40 ,,mont ,,blanc4 ,see cut1 page #ch4 8,when mid the lifeless summits proud ,of ,alpine cliffs1 where to the gelid sky ,snows piled on snows in wint'ry torpor lie1 ,the rays divine of vernal ,phbus play2 ,th' awakened heaps1 in streamlets from on high1 ,roused into action1 lively leap away1 ,glad warbling through the vales1 in their new being gay40--,,thomson4 ,illustration3 ,,mont ,,blanc ,,and ,,the ,,glaciers4 ,this mountain1 in ,switzerland1 so named on account of its white aspect1 belongs to the great central chain of the ,alps4 ,it is truly gigantic1 and is the most elevated mountain in ,europe1 rising no less than fifteen thousand1 eight hundred and seventy-two feet1 somewhat more than three miles1 above the level of the sea1 and fourteen thousand1 six hundred and twenty-four feet above the lake of ,geneva1 in its vicinity4 ,it is encompassed by those wonderful collections of snow and ice1 called glaciers1 two of the principal of which1 are called ,mont ,dolent and ,triolet4 ,the highest part of ,mont ,blanc1 named the ,dromedary1 is in the shape of a compressed hemisphere4 ,from that point it sinks gradually1 and presents a kind of concave surface of snow1 in the midst of which is a small pyramid of ice4 ,it then rises into a second hemisphere1 which is named the ,middle ,dome2 and thence descends into another concave surface1 terminating in a point1 which among other names bestowed on it by the ,savoyards1 is styled 8,dome de ,goute10 and may be regarded as the inferior dome4 ,the first successful attempt to reach the summit of ,mont ,blanc was made in ,august1 #aghf1 by ,doctor ,paccard1 a physician of ,chamouny4 ,he was led to make the attempt by a guide1 named ,balma1 who1 in searching for crystals1 had discovered the only practicable route by which so arduous an undertaking could be accomplished4 ,the ascent occupied fifteen hours1 and the descent five1 under circumstances of the greatest difficulty2 the sight of the doctor1 and that of his guide1 ,balma1 being so affected by the snow and wind1 as to render them almost blind1 at the same time that the face of each was excoriated1 and the lips exceedingly swelled4 ,on the first of ,august of the following year1 #aghg1 the celebrated and indefatigable naturalist1 ,m4 de ,saussure1 set out on his successful expedition1 accompanied by a servant and eighteen guides1 who carried a tent and mattresses1 together with the necessary accommodations and various instruments of experimental philosophy4 ,the first night they passed under the tent1 on the summit of the mountain of ,la ,cote1 four thousand1 nine hundred and eight-six feet above the ,priory1 a large village in the vale of ,chamouny1 the journey thither being exempt from trouble or danger1 as the ascent is always over turf1 or on the solid rock2 though above this place it is wholly over ice or snows4 ,early next morning they traversed the glacier of ,la ,cote1 to gain the foot of a small chain of rocks1 inclosed in the snows of ,mont ,blanc4 ,the glacier is both difficult and dangerous1 being intersected by wide1 deep1 irregular chasms1 which frequently can be passed only by three bridges of snow1 which are suspended over the abyss4 ,after reaching the ridge of rocks1 the track winds along a hollow1 or valley1 filled with snow1 which extends north and south to the foot of the highest summit1 and is divided at intervals by enormous crevices4 ,these show the snow to be disposed in horizontal beds1 each of which answers to a year1 and notwithstanding the width of the fissures1 the depth can in no part be measured4 ,at four in the afternoon1 the party reached the second of the three great platforms of snow they had to traverse1 and here they encamped1 at the hight of nine thousand1 three hundred and twelve feet above the ,priory1 or twelve thousand1 seven hundred and sixty-eight feet 7nearly two miles and a half7 above the level of the sea4 ,from the center of this platform1 inclosed between the farthest summit of ,mont ,blanc on the south1 its high steps1 or terraces1 on the east1 and the ,dome de ,goute on the west1 nothing but snow appears4 ,it is quite pure1 of a dazzling whiteness1 and on the high summits presents a singular contrast with the sky1 which in these elevated regions is almost black4 ,here no living being is to be seen2 no appearance of vegetation3 it is the abode of cold and silence4 8,when10 observes ,m4 de ,saussure1 8,i represent to myself ,dr4 ,paccard and ,james ,balma first arriving1 on the decline of day1 in these deserts1 without shelter1 without assistance1 and even without the certainty that men could live in the places which they proposed to reach1 and still pursuing their career with unshaken intrepidity1 it seems impossible to admire too much their strength of mind and their courage40 ,the company departed1 at seven the next morning1 to traverse the third and last platform1 the slope of which is extremely steep1 being in some places thirty-nine degrees4 ,it terminates in precipices on all sides2 and the surface of the snow was so hard1 that those who went foremost were obliged to cut places for the feet with hatchets4 ,the last slope of all presents no danger2 but the air possesses so high a degree of rarity1 that the strength is speedily exhausted1 and on approaching the summit it was found necessary to stop at every fifteen or sixteen paces to take breath4 ,at eleven they reached the top of the mountain1 where they continued four hours and a half1 during which time ,m4 de ,saussure enjoyed1 with rapture and astonishment1 a view the most extensive as well as the most rugged and sublime in nature1 and made those observations which have rendered this expedition important to philosophy4 ,a light vapor1 suspended in the lower regions of the air1 concealed from the sight the lowest and most remote objects1 such as the plains of ,france and ,lombardy2 but the whole surrounding assemblage of high summits appeared with the greatest distinctness4 ,m4 de ,saussure descended with his party1 and the next morning reached ,chamouny1 without the smallest accident4 ,as they had taken the precaution to wear vails of crape1 their faces were not excoriated1 nor their sight debilitated4 ,the cold was not found to be so extremely piercing as it was described by ,dr4 ,paccard4 ,by experiments made with the hygrometer1 on the summit of the mountain1 the air was found to contain a sixth portion only of the humidity of that of ,geneva2 and to this dryness of the air1 ,m4 de ,saussure imputes the burning thirst which he and his companions experienced4 ,the balls of the electrometer diverged three lines only1 and the electricity was positive4 ,at times the air seems filled with electricity4 ,a recent traveler 7#ahed7 says1 that1 in the night1 his guide having come out from the cabin of the ,grand ,mulets1 saw the ridges of the mountain apparently all on fire4 ,he immediately communicated what he had observed to his companions1 who all rushed to assure themselves of the fact1 and then they saw that through the electricity generated by the tempest1 all the rocks of the ,grand ,mulets were illuminated4 ,they found the same phenomenon on their own persons4 ,when they raised their arms1 their fingers became phosphorescent4 ,m4 de ,saussure found it required half an hour to make water boil1 while at ,geneva fifteen or sixteen minutes sufficed1 and twelve or thirteen at the seaside4 ,none of his party discovered the smallest difference in the taste or smell of bread1 wine1 meat1 fruits or liquors1 as some travelers have pretended is the case at great hights2 but sounds were of course much weakened1 from the want of objects of reflection4 ,of all the organs1 that of respiration was most affected1 the pulse of one of the guides beating ninety-eight times in a minute1 that of the servant one hundred and twelve1 and that of ,m4 de ,saussure one hundred and one2 while at ,chamouny1 the pulsations respectively were forty-nine1 sixty1 and seventy-two4 ,a few days afterward1 ,mr4 ,beaufoy1 an ,english gentleman1 succeeded in a similar attempt1 although it was attended with greater difficulty1 arising from enlargements in the chasms in the ice4 ,a late traveler1 wandering amid the same sublime scenery that has been described1 says3 8,mont ,blanc is clearly visible from ,geneva1 perhaps once in the week1 or about sixty times in the year4 ,when he is visible1 a walk to the junction of the ,arve and the ,rhone1 either by the way of the plains on the ,genevan side1 or by the hights on the side toward the south of ,france1 affords a wonderful combination of sublimity and beauty on the earth and in the heavens4 ,those snowy mountain ranges1 so white1 so pure1 so dazzling in the clear azure depths1 do really look as if they belonged to another world2 as if1 like the faces of supernatural intelligences1 they were looking sadly and steadfastly on our world1 to speak to us of theirs4 ,some of these mountain peaks of snow you can see only through the perspective of other mountains1 nearer to you1 and covered with verdure1 which makes the snowy pyramids appear so distant1 so sharply defined1 so high up1 so glorious2 it is indeed like the voice of great truths stirring the soul4 ,as your eye follows the range1 they lie in such glittering masses against the horizon1 in such grand repose2 they shoot into the sky in bright weather in such infinite clearness1 so pure1 so flashing2 that they seem never to lose the charm of a sudden and startling revelation to the mind4 ,are they not sublime images of the great truths of ,god's own word1 that sometimes indeed are vailed with clouds1 but in fair weather do carry us1 as in a chariot of fire and with horses of fire1 into eternity1 into the presence of ,god8 ,the atmosphere of our hearts is so misty and stormy1 that we do not see them more than sixty times a year in their glory3 if every ,sabbath-day we get a view of them without clouds1 we do well2 but when we see them as they are1 then we feel their power1 then we are rapt by them from earth1 away1 away1 away1 into the depths of heaven6 8,in some circumstances1 when we are climbing the mountains1 even the mists that hang around them do add to the glory of the view2 as in the rising sun1 when they are so penetrated with brightness1 that they softly rise over the crags as a robe of misty light1 or seem like the motion of sweet ,nature breathing into the atmosphere from her morning altars the incense of praise4 ,and in the setting sun how often do they hang around the precipices1 glowing with the golden and crimson hues of the west1 and preventing us from clearly defining the forms of the mountains1 only to make them more lovely to our view4 ,so it is sometimes with the very clouds around ,god's word1 and the lights and shades upon it4 ,there is an inscrutability of truth which sometimes increases its power1 while we wait with solemn reverence for the hour when it shall be fully revealed to us2 and our faith1 like the setting sun1 may clothe celestial mysteries with a soft and rosy-colored light1 which makes them more suitable to our present existence1 than if we saw them in the clear and cloudless atmosphere of a spiritual noon4 8,you have a fine point for viewing ,mont ,blanc1 without going out of the city1 from the ramparts on the west side of ,rousseau's island4 ,here a brazen indicator is erected1 with the names of the different mountain summits and ridges1 so that by taking sight across the index1 you can distinguish them at once4 ,you will not mistake ,mont ,blanc1 if you see him2 but until you get accustomed to the panorama1 you may easily mistake one of his court for the king1 when the monarch himself is not visible4 8,a still better point of view you will have at ,coppet1 ascending toward the ,jura4 ,in proportion as you rise from the borders of the lake1 every part of the landscape becomes more beautiful1 though what you wish to gain is the most commanding view of the mountains1 every other object being secondary4 ,in a bright day1 nothing can be more clearly and distinctly defined than ,mont ,blanc1 with his attendant mighty ranges1 cut in dazzling snowy brightness against the clear blue sky4 ,the sight of those glorious glittering fields and mountains of ice and snow1 produces immediately a longing to be there among them4 ,they make an impression upon the soul1 of something supernatural1 almost divine4 ,although the whole scene lying before you is so beautiful1 7the lake1 the verdant banks1 the trees1 and the lower ranges of verdure-covered mountains1 constituting in themselves alone one of the loveliest pictures in the world17 yet the snowy ranges of ,mont ,blanc are the grand feature4 ,those glittering distant peaks are the only thing in the scene that takes a powerful hold upon the soul2 but they do quite possess it1 and tyrannize over it1 with an ecstatic thralldom4 ,one is never wearied with gazing and wondering at the glory4 ,i will lift up mine eyes unto the hills1 from whence cometh my help6 8,another admirable point1 much farther from the lake and the city than the preceding1 and at a greater elevation1 is what is called the promenade of the point ,sacconex4 ,a fine engraving of this view is printed on letter-paper for correspondence2 but there is not sufficient distinctness given to the outlines of ,mont ,blanc and the other summits of the glittering snowy range1 that seems to float in the heavens like the far-off alabaster walls of ,paradise4 ,no language1 nor any engraving1 can convey the ravishing magnificence and splendor1 the exciting sublimity and beauty of the scene4 ,but there are days in which the air around the mountains seems itself of such a hazy whiteness1 that the snow melts into the atmosphere as it were1 and dies away in the heavens like the indistinct outline of a bright but partially remembered dream4 ,there are other days in which the fleecy clouds1 like vails of light over the faces of angels1 do so rest upon and mingle with the snowy summits1 that you can hardly tell where one begins and the other ends4 ,sometimes you look upon the clouds thinking they are mountains1 and then again ,mont ,blanc himself will be revealed in such far-off1 unmoving1 glittering grandeur1 in such wonderful distinctness1 that there is no mistaking the changeful imitations of his glory for the reality4 ,sometimes the clouds and the mountains together are mingled in such a multitudinous and interminable array of radiances1 that it seems like the white-robed armies of heaven with their floating banners1 marching and countermarching in front of the domes and jeweled battlements of the celestial city4 ,when the fog scenery 7of which ,i shall give you a description7 takes place upon the earth1 and at the same time there are such revelations of the snowy summits in the heavens1 and such goings on of glory among them1 and you get upon the mountain to see them1 it is impossible to describe the effect1 as of a vast enchantment1 upon the mind4 8,the view of ,geneva1 the lake1 and the ,jura mountains from ,coligny is much admired2 and at sunset1 perhaps the world can not offer a more lovely scene4 ,it was here that ,byron took up his abode2 a choice which ,i have wondered at1 for you can not see ,mont ,blanc from this point1 and therefore the situation is inferior to many others4 ,ascending the hill farther to the east1 when you come to ,col4 ,tronchin's beautiful residence1 you have perhaps the finest of all the views of ,mont ,blanc1 in or around ,geneva4 ,go upon the top of ,col4 ,tronchin's tower about half an hour before sunset1 and the scene is not unworthy of comparison even with the glory of the sunrise as witnessed from the summit of the ,righi4 ,it is surprising to see how long ,mont ,blanc retains the light of day1 and how long the snow burns in the setting sun1 after his orb has sunk from your own view entirely behind the green range of the ,jura4 ,then after a succession of tints from the crimson to the cold gray1 it being manifest that the sun has left the mountain to a companionship with the stars alone1 you also are ready to depart1 the glory of the scene being over1 when suddenly and unaccountably the snowy summits redden again1 as if the sun were returning upon them1 the countenance of ,mont ,blanc is filled with rosy light1 and the cold gray gives place for a few moments to a deep warm radiant pink1 7as if you saw a sudden smile playing over the features of a sleeping angel17 which at length again dies in the twilight4 ,this phenomenon is extremely beautiful1 but ,i know not how to account for it2 nor was any one of our party wiser than ,i2 nevertheless1 our ignorance of causes need never diminish1 but often increases the pleasure of beautiful sights40 8,i have said ,i would give you a description of the #8fog-scenery4' ,in the autumn1 when the fogs prevail1 it is often a thick drizzling mist in ,geneva1 and nothing visible1 while on the mountain tops the air is pure1 and the sun shining4 ,on such a day as this1 when the children of the mist tell you that on the mountains it is fair weather1 you must start early for the range nearest ,geneva1 on the way to ,chamouny1 the range of the ,grand ,salve1 the base of which is about four miles distant1 prepared to spend the day upon the mountains1 and you will witness one of the most singular and beautiful scenes to be enjoyed in ,switzerland4 8,the day ,i set out was so misty1 that ,i took an umbrella1 for the fog gathered and fell like rain1 and ,i more than doubted whether ,i should see the sun at all4 ,in the midst of this mist ,i climbed the rocky zigzag half hewn out of the face of the mountain1 and half natural1 and passing the village that is perched among the high rocks1 which might be a refuge for the conies1 began toiling up the last ascent of the mountain1 seeing nothing1 feeling nothing1 but the thick mist1 the vail of which had closed below and behind me over village1 path and precipice1 and still continued heavy and dark above me1 so that ,i thought ,i never should get out of it4 ,suddenly my head rose above the level of the fog into the clear air1 and the heavens were shining1 and ,mont ,blanc1 with the whole illimitable range of snowy mountain tops around him1 was throwing back the sun6 ,an ocean of mist1 as smooth as a chalcedony1 as soft and white as the down of the eider-duck's breast1 lay over the whole lower world2 and as ,i rose above it1 and ascended the mountain to its overhanging verge1 it seemed an infinite abyss of vapor1 where only the mountain tops were visible1 on the ,jura range like verdant wooded islands1 on the ,mont ,blanc range as glittering surges and pyramids of ice and snow4 ,no language can describe the extraordinary sublimity and beauty of the view4 ,a level sea of white mist in every direction1 as far as the eye could extend1 with a continent of mighty icebergs on the one side floating in it1 and on the other a forest promontory1 with a slight undulating swell in the bosom of the sea1 like the long1 smooth undulations of the ocean in a calm4 8,standing on the overhanging crags1 ,i could hear the chime of bells1 the hum of busy labor1 and the lowing of cattle1 buried in the mist1 and faintly coming up to you from the fields and villages4 ,now and then a bird darted up out of the mist into the clear sun and air1 and sailed in playful circles1 and then dived and disappeared again below the surface4 ,by and by the wind began to agitate the cloudy sea1 and more and more of the mountains became visible4 ,sometimes you have a bright sunset athwart this sea of cloud1 which then rolls in waves burnished and tipped with fire4 ,when you go down into the mist again1 and leave behind you the beautiful sky1 a clear1 bracing atmosphere1 the bright sun and the snow-shining mountains1 it is like passing from heaven to earth1 from the brightness and serenity of the one1 to the darkness and cares of the other4 ,the whole scene is a leaf in nature's book1 which but few turn over2 but how rich it is in beauty and glory1 and in food for meditation1 none can tell but those who have witnessed it4 ,this is a scene in ,cloud-land1 which hath its mysteries of beauty1 that defy the skill of the painter and engraver4 8,the poet ,wordsworth has given two very vivid descriptions of these mist phenomena1 under different aspects from that in which ,i witnessed them4 ,the first is contained in his descriptive sketches of a pedestrian tour among the ,alps4 8#8',tis morn3 with gold the verdant mountain glows1 ,more high1 the snowy peaks with hues of rose4 ,far stretched beneath the many-tinted hills ,a mighty waste of mist the valley fills1 ,a solemn sea6 whose vales and mountains round ,stand motionless1 to awful silence bound4 ,a gulf of gloomy blue1 that opens wide ,and bottomless1 divides the midway tide4 ,like leaning masts of stranded ships appear ,the pines1 that near the coast their summits rear4 ,of cabins1 woods and lawns a pleasant shore ,bounds calm and clear the chaos still and hoar4 ,loud through that midway gulf ascending1 sound1 ,unnumbered streams with hollow roar profound4 ,mount through the nearer mist the chant of birds1 ,and talking voices1 and the low of herds1 ,the bark of dogs1 the drowsy tinkling bell1 ,and wild-wood mountain lutes of saddest swell4' 8,but this extract is not to be compared for power to the following from the same poem1 describing an ,alpine sunset after a day of mist and storm upon the mountains4 8#8',tis storm1 and hid in mist from hour to hour1 ,all day the floods a deepening murmur pour4 ,the sky is vailed1 and every cheerful sight1 ,dark is the region as with coming night1 ,but what a sudden burst of overpowering light ,triumphant on the bosom of the storm ,glances the fire-clad eagle's wheeling form4 ,eastward1 in long perspective glittering1 shine ,the wood-crowned cliffs1 that o'er the lake recline4 ,wide o'er the ,alps a hundred streams unfold1 ,at once to pillars turned1 that flame with gold4 ,behind his sail the peasant tries to shun ,the west1 that burns like one dilated sun1 ,where in a mighty crucible expire ,the mountains1 glowing hot1 like coals of fire6' 8,there was a time during the middle ages1 when ,chamouny was inhabited by monks4 ,the reigning lord of the country made a present of the whole valley to a convent of ,benedictine friars1 in the eleventh century4 ,two ,english travelers1 ,messrs4 ,pococke and ,windham1 drew attention to its wonderful scenery in #agda1 and now it is a grand highway of summer travel1 visited annually by three or four thousand people4 ,a visit to ,mont ,blanc has become a pilgrimage of fashion4 ,fashion does some good things in her day2 and it is a great thing to have the steps of men directed into this grand temple of nature1 who would otherwise be dawdling the summer perhaps at immoral watering-places4 ,a man can hardly pass through the vale of ,chamouny1 before the awful face of ,mont ,blanc1 and not feel that he is an immortal being4 ,the great mountain looks with an eye1 and speaks with a voice1 that does something to wake the soul out of its slumbers4 8,the sublime hymn by ,coleridge1 in the vale before sunrise1 is the concentrated expression of all the inspiring and heaven-directing influences of the scenery4 ,the poem is as remarkably distinguished above the whole range of poetry in our language1 for its sublimity1 as the mountain itself among all the great ranges of the ,alps4 ,i am determined to quote it in full1 for that and the tour of ,mont ,blanc ought to go together2 and ,i will present along with it the ,german original of the poem in twenty lines1 nearly as translated by ,coleridge's admiring and affectionate relative4 ,i am not aware that ,coleridge himself ever visited the vale of ,chamouny2 and if not1 then that wonderful hymn to ,mont ,blanc was the work of imagination solely1 building on the basis of the original lines in ,german4 ,this was a grand and noble foundation1 it is true2 but the hymn by ,coleridge was a perfect transfiguration of the piece1 an inspiration of it with a higher soul1 and an investiture of it with garments that shine like the sun4 ,it was the greatest work of the poet's great and powerful imagination1 combined with the deep worshiping sense of spiritual things in his soul4 8,on visiting the scene1 one is apt to feel as if he could not have written it in the vale itself3 the details of the picture would have been somewhat different2 and1 confined by the reality1 one may doubt if even ,coleridge's genius could have gained that lofty ideal point of observation and conception1 from which he drew the vast and glorious imagery that rose before him4 ,not because the poem is more glorious than the reality1 for that is impossible2 but because1 in painting from the reality1 the force and sublimity of his general conceptions would have been weakened by the attempt at faithfulness in the detail1 and nothing like the impression of the aerial grandeur of the scene1 its despotic unity in the imagination1 notwithstanding its variety1 would have been conveyed to the mind4 8,yet there are parts of it which at sunrise or sunset either1 the poet might have written from the very windows of his bedroom1 if he had been there in the dawn and evenings of days of such extraordinary brilliancy and glory1 as marked and filled the atmosphere1 during our sojourn in that blessed region4 ,a glorious region it is1 much nearer heaven than our common world1 and carrying a sensitive1 rightly constituted mind far up in spirit toward the gates of heaven1 toward ,god1 whose glory is the light of heaven1 and of whose power and majesty the mountains1 ice-fields and glaciers1 whether beneath the sun1 moon1 or stars1 are a dim1 though grand and glittering1 symbol4 #8,fire and hail1 snow and vapor1 stormy wind1 fulfilling ,his word1 mountains and all hills1 fruitful trees and all cedars1 praise the ,lord4 ,he looketh on the earth and it trembleth2 ,he toucheth the hills1 and they smoke4' 8,the following is the original ,german hymn1 in what the translator denominates a very bald ,english translation1 to be compared as a curiosity with its glorification in ,coleridge4 ,it occupies but five stanzas of four lines1 and is entitled1 #8,chamouny at ,sunrise4 ,to ,klopstock4' ,i have here put it into the metrical form of the original4 8,out of the deep shade of the silent fir-grove1 ,trembling ,i survey thee1 mountain-head of eternity1 ,dazzling 7blinding7 summit1 from whose vast hight ,my dimly perceiving spirit floats into the ,everlasting4 8,who sank the pillar deep in the lap of earth ,which1 for past centuries1 fast props thy mass up8 ,who uptowered1 high in the vault of ether1 ,mighty and bold1 thy beaming countenance8 8,who poured you from on high1 out of eternal ,winter's realm1 ,o jagged streams1 downward with thunder-noise8 ,and who bade aloud1 with the ,almighty ,voice1 #8,here shall rest the stiffening billows8' 8,who marks out there the path for the ,morning ,star8 ,who wreathes with blossoms the skirt of eternal ,frost8 ,to whom1 wild ,arveiron1 in terrible harmonies1 ,rolls up the sound of thy tumult of billows8 8,jehovah6 ,jehovah6 crashes in the bursting ice6 ,avalanche-thunders roll it in the cleft downward3 ,jehovah6 it rustles in the bright tree-tops2 ,it whispers murmuring in the purling silver-brooks4 8,this is very grand4 ,who but a mighty poet1 one seeing with #8the vision and the faculty divine'--what1 but a transfusing1 all-conquering imagination--would have dared the attempt to compose another poem on the same subject1 or to carry this to a greater hight of sublimity1 by melting it down anew1 so to speak1 and pouring it out into a vaster1 more glorious mold8 ,the more one thinks of it1 the more he will see1 in the poem so produced1 a proof most remarkable1 of the spontaneous1 deep-seated1 easily exerted1 and almost exhaustless power and originality of ,coleridge's genius4 ,now let us peruse1 #8with mute thanks and secret ecstacy1' his own solemn and stupendous lines4 ,,hymn ,,before ,,sunrise1 ,,in ,,the ,,vale ,,of ,,chamouny4 ,besides the rivers ,arve and ,arveiron1 which have their sources in the foot of ,mont ,blanc1 five conspicuous torrents rush down its sides2 and1 within a few paces of the glaciers1 the ,gentiana ,major grows in immense numbers1 with its #8flowers of loveliest blue4' 8,hast thou a charm to stay the ,morning ,star ,in his steep course8 so long he seems to pause ,on thy bald1 awful head1 ,o ,sovran ,blanc8 ,the ,arve and ,arveiron at thy base ,rave ceaselessly2 but thou1 most awful form6 ,risest from forth thy silent sea of pines1 ,how silently6 ,around thee and above1 ,deep is the air1 and dark1 substantial1 black2 ,an ebon mass3 methinks thou piercest it ,as with a wedge6 ,but when ,i look again1 ,it is thine own calm home1 thy crystal shrine1 ,thy habitation from ,eternity6 8,o dread and silent ,mount6 ,i gazed upon thee1 ,till thou1 still present to the bodily sense1 ,didst vanish from my thought3 entranced in prayer ,i worshiped the ,invisible alone4 8,yet1 like some sweet1 beguiling melody1 ,so sweet1 we know not we are listening to it1 ,thou1 the meanwhile1 wast blending with my thought1 ,yea1 with my life1 and life's own secret joy1 ,till the dilating ,soul1 enrapt1 transfused1 ,into the mighty vision passing1--there1 ,as in her natural form1 swelled vast to heaven6 8,awake my ,soul6 not only passive praise ,thou owest6 not alone these swelling tears1 ,mute thanks and secret ecstacy6 ,awake1 ,voice of sweet song6 ,awake1 my heart1 awake6 ,green vales and icy cliffs1 all join my hymn4 8,thou first and chief1 sole sovran of the vale ,oh1 struggling with the darkness all night long1 ,and all night visited by troops of stars1 ,or when they climb the sky1 or when they sink6 ,companion of the morning star at dawn1 ,thyself earth's rosy star1 and of the dawn ,coherald3 wake1 oh wake1 and utter praise6 ,who sank thy sunless pillars deep in earth8 ,who filled thy countenance with rosy light8 ,who made thee parent of perpetual streams8 8,and you1 ye five wild torrents1 fiercely glad6 ,who called you forth from night and utter death1 ,from dark and icy caverns called you forth1 ,down those precipitous1 black1 jagged rocks1 ,forever shattered1 and the same forever8 ,who gave you your invulnerable life1 ,your strength1 your speed1 your fury and your joy1 ,unceasing thunder and eternal foam8 ,and who commanded 7and the silence came17 ,here let the billows stiffen and have rest8 8,ye ice-falls6 ye that from the mountain's brow1 ,adown enormous ravines slope amain-- ,torrents1 methinks1 that heard a mighty voice1 ,and stopped at once1 amidst their maddest plunge6 ,motionless torrents6 silent cataracts6 ,who made you glorious as the gates of heaven ,beneath the keen full moon8 ,who bade the sun ,clothe you with rainbows8 ,who1 with living flowers ,of loveliest blue1 spread garlands at your feet8 ,,god6 let the torrents1 like a shout of nations1 ,answer6 and let the ice-plains echo1 ,,god6 ,,god6 sing1 ye meadow-streams1 with gladsome voice6 ,ye pine-groves1 with your soft and soul-like sounds6 ,and they1 too1 have a voice1 yon piles of snow1 ,and in their perilous fall shall thunder1 ,,god6 8,ye living flowers1 that skirt the eternal frost6 ,ye wild goats sporting round the eagle's nest6 ,ye eagles1 playmates of the mountain-storm6 ,ye lightnings1 the dread arrows of the clouds6 ,ye signs and wonders of the elements6 ,utter forth ,,god6 and fill the hills with praise6 8,thou1 too1 hoar ,mount1 with thy sky-pointing peaks1 ,oft from whose feet1 the avalanche1 unheard1 ,shoots downward1 glittering through the pure serene ,into the depths of clouds1 that vail thy breast2 ,thou too again1 stupendous mountain6 thou1 ,that as ,i raise my head1 awhile bowed low ,in adoration1 upward from thy base ,slow traveling with dim eyes suffused with tears1 ,solemnly seemest1 like a vapory cloud1 ,to rise before me1--,rise1 oh ever rise6 ,rise1 like a cloud of incense1 from the earth6 ,thou kingly spirit throned among the hills1 ,thou dread embassador from ,earth to ,heaven1 ,great ,hierarch6 tell thou the silent sky1 ,and tell the stars1 and tell yon rising sun1 ,earth1 with her thousand voices1 praises ,god6 8,thanks to thee1 thou noble poet1 for giving this glorious voice to ,alpine nature1 for so befitting and not unworthy an interpretation of ,nature's own voice1 in words of our own mother-tongue4 ,thanks to ,god for his grace vouchsafed to thee1 so that now thou praisest ,him amidst the infinite host of flaming seraphs1 before the mount supreme of glory1 where all the empyrean rings with angelic hallelujahs6 ,the creation of such a mind as ,coleridge's1 is only outdone by its redemption through the blood of the ,lamb4 ,oh1 who can tell the rapture of a soul1 that could give a voice for nations to such a mighty burst of praise to ,god in this world1 when its powers1 uplifted in eternity1 and dilated with absorbing1 unmingled1 unutterable love1 shall pour themselves forth in the anthem of redemption1 ,worthy is the ,lamb that was slain60 ,,the ,,glaciers1 ,,or ,,ice ,,masses4 ,the three great glaciers1 or ice-mountains1 which descend from the flanks of ,mont ,blanc1 add their ice to that of the ,miage1 and present a majestic spectacle1 amid the astonishing succession of icy summits1 of deep valleys1 and of wide chasms1 which have become channels for the innumerable torrents and cataracts with which these mountains abound4 ,the view which the glacier of ,talafre affords from its center1 looking toward the north1 is as extraordinary as beautiful4 ,it rises gradually to the base of a semicircular girdle1 formed of peaks of granite of a great hight1 and terminating in sharp summits1 extremely varied in their forms2 while the intervals between these peaks are filled up by ice1 which falls into this mass1 and this mass of ice is crowned by masses of snow1 rising in festoons between the black and vertical tables of granite1 the steepness of which does not allow them to remain4 ,a ridge of shattered wrecks divides this glacier lengthwise1 and forms its most elevated part1 being eight thousand1 five hundred and thirty-eight feet1 or upward of a mile and a half above the level of the sea4 ,this prospect has nothing in common with what is seen in other parts of the world4 ,the immense masses of ice1 surrounded and surmounted by pyramidal rocks1 still more enormous in magnitude2 the contrast between the whiteness of the snow and the obscure colors of the stones1 moistened by the water which trickles down their sides2 the purity of the air2 the dazzling light of the sun1 which gives to these objects extraordinary brilliancy2 the majestic and awful silence which reigns in these vast solitudes1 a silence which is only interrupted at intervals by the noise of some great mass of granite1 or of ice1 tumbling from the top of the mountain2 and the nakedness of these elevated rocks themselves1 on which neither animals1 shrubs1 nor verdure are to be seen1 combined with the recollection of the fertile country and rich vegetation which the adjacent valleys at so small a distance present2 all tend to produce a mixed impression of admiration and terror1 which tempts the spectator to believe1 that he has been suddenly transported into a world forgotten by the great ,author of nature4 ,one of these glaciers1 that of ,triolet1 is covered with the wrecks of another ice-mountain1 which fell some years ago1 and buried many huts1 flocks1 and shepherds beneath its ruins4 ,,the ,,mer ,,de ,,glace4 ,these glaciers have their foundation in the wonderful ,mer de ,glace1 or ,sea of ,ice2 shooting up from it their sharp peaks into the frozen air4 8,to get the best view of it as a whole10 says a modern ,alpine tourist1 8you cross the meadows in the vale of ,chamouny1 step over the furious ,arve1 and climb the mountain precipices to the hight of two thousand feet1 by a rough1 craggy path1 sometimes winding amidst a wood of firs1 and sometimes wandering over green grasses4 ,at ,montanvert you find yourself on the extremity of a plateau1 so situated1 that on one side you may look down into the dread frozen sea1 and on the other1 by a few steps1 into the lovely green vale of ,chamouny6 ,what astonishing variety and contrast in the spectacle6 ,far beneath1 a smiling and verdant valley1 watered by the ,arve1 with hamlets1 fields and gardens1 the abode of life1 sweet children and flowers2 far above1 savage and inaccessible crags of ice and granite1 and a cataract of stiffened billows1 stretching away beyond sight--the throne of death and winter4 8,from the bosom of the tumbling sea of ice1 huge granite needles shoot into the sky1 objects of singular sublimity1 one of them rising to the great hight of thirteen thousand feet1 seven thousand above the point where you are standing4 ,this is more than double the hight of ,mount ,washington in our country1 and this amazing pinnacle of rock looks like the spire of an interminable colossal cathedral1 with other pinnacles around it4 ,no snow can cling to the summits of these jagged spires2 the lightning does not splinter them2 the tempests rave round them2 and at their base1 those eternal drifting ranges of snow are formed1 that sweep down into the frozen sea1 and feed the perpetual1 immeasurable masses of the glacier4 ,meanwhile1 the laughing verdure1 sprinkled with flowers1 plays upon the edges of the enormous masses of ice1 so near1 that you may almost touch the ice with one hand1 and with the other pluck the violet4 ,so1 oftentimes1 the ice and the verdure are mingled in our earthly pilgrimage2 so1 sometimes1 in one and the same family1 you may see the exquisite refinements and the coarse repugnancies of human nature4 ,so1 in the same house of ,god1 on the same bench1 may sit an angel and a murderer2 a villain1 like a glacier1 and a man with a heart like a sweet running brook in the sunshine4 8,the impetuous arrested cataract seems as if it were plowing the rocky gorge with its turbulent surges4 ,indeed1 the ridges of rocky fragments along the edges of the glacier1 called moraines1 do look precisely as if a colossal iron plow had torn them from the mountain1 and laid them along in one continuous furrow on the frozen verge4 ,it is a scene of stupendous sublimity4 ,these mighty granite peaks1 hewn and pinnacled into ,gothic towers1 and these rugged mountain-walls and buttresses--what a cathedral6 with this cloudless sky1 by starlight1 for its fretted roof2 the chanting wail of the tempest1 and the rushing of the avalanche for its organ4 ,how grand the thundering sound of the vast masses of ice tumbling from the roof of the ,arve-cavern at the foot of the glacier6 ,does it not seem1 as it sullenly and heavily echoes1 and rolls up from so immense a distance below1 even more sublime than the thunder of the avalanche above us8 ,we could tell better if we could have a genuine upper avalanche to compare with it4 ,but what a stupendous scene6 #8,i begin now1' said my companion1 #8to understand the origin of the ,gothic architecture4' ,this was a very natural feeling2 but1 after all1 it could not have been such a scene1 that gave birth to the great idea of that #8frozen poetry' of the middle ages4 ,far more likely it was the sounding aisles of the dim woods1 with their checkered green light1 and festooned1 pointing arches4 8,the colossal furrows of rocks and gravel along the edges of the ice at the shores of the sea1 are produced by the action of the frost and the avalanches1 with the march of the glacier against the sides of the mountains4 ,nothing can be more singular than these ridges of mountain debris1 apparently plowed up and worked off by the moving of the whole bed of ice down the valley4 ,near the shore1 the sea is turbid with these rocks and gravel2 but as you go out into the channel1 the ice becomes clearer and more glittering1 the crevices and fissures deeper and more dangerous1 and all the phenomena more astonishing4 ,deep1 blue1 pellucid founts of ice-cold water lie in the opening gulfs2 and sometimes1 putting your ear to the yawning fissures1 you may hear the rippling of the rills below1 that from the bosom of the glacier are hurrying down to constitute the ,arve1 bursting furiously forth from the great ice-cavern in the valley4 8,this ,mer de ,glace is an easy and excellent residence for the scientific study of the glaciers1 a subject of very great interest1 formerly filled with mysteries1 which the bold and persevering investigations and theories of some modern naturalists have quite cleared up4 ,the strange movements of the glaciers1 their apparent willful rejection of extraneous bodies and substances to the surface and the margin1 their increase and decrease1 long remained invested with something of the supernatural3 they seemed to have a soul and a life of their own4 ,they look motionless and silent1 yet they are always moving and sounding on1 and they have great voices that give prophetic warning of the weather to the shepherds of the ,alps4 ,scientific men have set up huts upon the sea1 and landmarks on the mountains opposite1 to test the progress of the icy masses1 and in this way it was found that a cabin constructed by ,professor ,hugi on the glacier of the ,aar1 had traveled1 between the years #ahbg and #ahdj1 a distance of forty-six hundred feet4 ,it is supposed that the ,mer de ,glace moves down between four and five hundred feet annually4 8,it is impossible to form a grander image of the rigidity and barrenness1 the coldness and death of winter1 than when you stand among the billows of one of these frozen seas2 and yet it is here that ,nature locks up in her careful bosom the treasures of the ,alpine valleys1 the sources of rich summer verdure and vegetable life4 ,they are hoarded up in winter1 to be poured forth beneath the sun1 and with the sun in summer4 ,some of the largest rivers in ,europe take their rise from the glaciers1 and give to the ,swiss valleys their most abundant supply of water1 in the season when ordinary streams are dried up4 ,this is a most interesting provision in the economy of nature1 for if the glaciers did not exist1 those verdant valleys into which the summer sun pours with such fervor1 would be parched with drought4 ,so the mountains are parents of perpetual streams1 and the glaciers are reservoirs of plenty4 8,the derivation of the ,german name for glacier1 gletscher1 is suggested as coming not from their icy material1 but their perpetual motion1 from glitschen1 to glide2 more probably1 however1 from the idea of gliding upon their surface4 ,these glaciers come down from the air1 down out of heaven1 a perpetual frozen motion1 ever changing and gliding1 from the first fall of snow in the atmosphere1 through the state of consolidated grinding blocks of ice1 and then into musical streams that water the valleys4 ,first it is a powdery1 feathery snow1 then granulated like hail1 and denominated firn1 forming vast beds and sheets around the highest mountain summits1 then frozen into masses1 by which time it has traveled down to within seven thousand feet above the level of the sea1 where commences the great ice-ocean that fills the uninhabitable ,alpine valleys1 unceasingly freezing1 melting and moving down4 ,it has been estimated by ,saussure and others1 that these seas of ice1 at their greatest thickness1 are six or eight hundred feet deep4 ,they are traversed by deep fissures1 and as they approach the great precipices1 over which they plunge like a cataract into the vales1 they are split in all directions1 and heaved up into waves1 reefs1 peaks1 pinnacles and minarets4 ,underneath they are traversed by as many galleries and caverns1 through which run the rills and torrents constantly gathering from the melting masses above4 ,these innumerable streams1 gathering in one as they approach the termination of the glacier1 rush out from beneath it1 under a great vault of ice1 and thus are born into the breathing world1 full-grown roaring rivers1 from night1 frost and chaos4 8,a peasant has been known to have fallen into an ice-gulf in one of these seas1 near one of the flowing sub-glacial torrents1 and following the course of the stream to the foot of the glacier1 he came out alive6 ,the ,german naturalist1 ,hugi1 set out to explore the recesses of one of the glaciers through the bed of a former torrent1 and wandered on in its ice-caverns the distance of a mile4 #8,the ice was everywhere eaten away into dome-shaped hollows1 varying from two to twelve feet in hight1 so that the whole mass of the glacier rested at intervals on pillars1 or feet of ice1 irregular in size and shape1 which had been left standing4 ,as soon as any of these props gave way1 a portion of the glacier would of course fall in and move on4 ,a dim twilight1 scantily transmitted through the mass of ice above1 prevailed in these caverns of ice1 not sufficient to allow one to read1 except close to the fissures1 which directly admitted the daylight4 ,the intense blue of the mass of the ice contrasted remarkably with the pure white of the icy stalactites1 or pendents descending from the roof4 ,the water streamed down upon him from all sides1 so that1 after wandering about for two hours1 at times bending and creeping1 to get along under the low vault1 he returned to the open air1 quite drenched and half-frozen4' 8,this sea of ice1 which embosoms in its farthest recesses a little living flower-garden1 whither the humble-bees from ,chamouny resort for honey1 is also bordered by steep lonely beds of the fragrant rhododendron1 or rose of the ,alps4 ,this hardy and beautiful flower grows from a bush larger than our sweet-fern1 with foliage like the leaves of the ivory-plum4 ,it continues blooming late in the season1 and sometimes covers vast declivities on the mountains at a great hight1 where one would hardly suppose it possible for a handful of earth to cling to the rocky surface4 ,there1 amid the snows and ice of a thousand winters1 it pours forth its perfume on the air1 though there be none to inhale the fragrance1 or praise the sweetness1 save only #8the little busy bees1' that seem dizzy with delight1 as they throw themselves into the bosom of these beds of roses4 8,higher still on the opposite side of this great ice-sea1 there are mountain-slopes of grass at the base of stupendous rocky pinnacles1 whither the shepherds of the ,alps drive their herds from ,chamouny1 for three months' pasturage4 ,they have no way of getting them there but across the dangerous glacier2 and it is said that the passage is a sort of annual celebration1 when men1 women and children go up to ,montanvert1 to witness and assist the difficult transportation4 ,when the herds have crossed1 one peasant stays with them for the whole three months of their summer excursion1 living upon bread and cheese1 with one cow among the herd to supply him with milk4 ,when he is not sleeping1 he knits stockings1 and ruminates as contentedly as the browsing cattle1 his only care being to increase his store40 ,,view ,,from ,,the ,,buet4 ,before we take our leave of ,mont ,blanc and of the ,alps1 the peculiarly brilliant view from the summit of the ,buet ought to be noticed4 ,never1 says ,m4 ,bourrit1 did prospect appear so vast4 ,toward the west1 the ,rhone is seen1 winding for the space of thirty-six leagues through the rich plains of the ,valais2 the parts of the river which the mountains cover with their shade seeming like threads of silver1 and those which the sun illumines like threads of gold4 ,beyond the river and its rich plains1 the view extends to the highest mountains of ,switzerland1 ,st4 ,gothard1 and the ,grisons1 all covered with ice2 while on the east1 the hights sink suddenly1 from some of the loftiest elevations on the globe1 to level plains washed by the sea4 ,geneva seems like a spot at one end of the lake1 and the lake itself like a sinuous band1 dividing the fields which it waters4 ,beyond it are discovered the vast plains of ,franche ,comte and ,burgundy1 the mountains of which diminish by almost imperceptible gradations4 ,here the eye has neither power nor extent of sight to embrace the whole of the objects presented to its view4 ,amid the fearful aspect of the precipices which descend on every side1 what a contrast between the country decorated with all that is smiling and gay1 and the sublime spectacle of the ,alps1 their gloomy and aspiring summits1 and1 above all1 the prodigious hight of ,mont ,blanc1 that enormous colossus of snow and ice1 which parts the clouds1 and pierces to the very heavens6 ,below this mountain1 which bids defiance to time1 and whose eternal ice disregards the dissolving power of the sun1 a band of pyramidical rocks appear1 the intervals between them being so many valleys of ice1 the immensity of which appalls the imagination4 ,their deep chasms may be distinguished1 and the noise of the frequent avalanches 7falls of immense masses of snow7 presents to the mind the gloomy ideas of horror1 devastation and ruin4 ,farther on1 other summits of ice prolong this majestic picture4 ,among these are the high mountains of the ,st4 ,bernard1 and those which border on the ,boromean islands4 ,perhaps there is not in the old world a theater more instructive1 or more adapted for reflection1 than the summit of this mountain4 ,where1 beside1 can be seen such variety and contrast of forms2 such results of the efforts of time2 such effects of all the climates1 and of all the seasons8 ,at one glance may be embraced frosts equally intense with those of ,lapland1 and the rich and delightful frontiers of ,italy2 eternal ice1 and waving harvests2 all the chilling horrors of winter1 and the luxuriant vegetation of summer2 eighty leagues of fertile plains1 covered with towns1 with vineyards1 with fields and herds1 and adjoining to these1 a depth of twenty thousand feet of everlasting ice4 ,,montserrat4 8,here1 'midst the changeful scenery1 ever new1 ,fancy a thousand wond'rous forms descries1 ,more wildly great than ever pencil drew2 ,rocks1 torrents1 gulfs1 and shapes of giant size1 ,and glittering cliffs on cliffs1 and fiery ramparts rise40--,,beattie4 ,this ,spanish mountain1 which has been so long celebrated on account of the singularity of its shape1 but chiefly for its convent and its numerous hermitages1 is nine leagues north-west of ,barcelona1 in the province of ,catalonia4 ,it is in hight only three thousand1 three hundred feet above the level of the sea1 but it commands an enchanting prospect of the fine plain of ,barcelona1 extending to the sea1 as well as of the islands of ,majorca and ,minorca1 distant one hundred and fifty miles4 ,toward ,barcelona this mountain presents a bold and rugged front2 but on the west1 toward ,vacarisas1 it is almost perpendicular1 notwithstanding which1 a carriage-road winds round to the convent1 which is placed in a sheltered recess among the rocks1 at about half the hight of the mountain4 ,the ,llobregat roars at the bottom2 and the rock presents perpendicular walls from the edge of the water3 but above the convent1 the mountain divides into two crowns or cones1 which form the most prominent features2 while smaller pinnacles1 blanched and bare1 and split into pillars1 pipes1 and other singular shapes1 give a most picturesque effect4 ,here are seen fourteen or fifteen hermitages1 which are scattered over different points of the mountain1 some of them on the very pinnacles of the cones1 to which they seem to grow1 while others are placed in cavities hewn out of the loftiest pyramids4 ,the highest accessible part of the mountain is above the hermitage of ,st4 ,maddelena1 the descent from which is between two cones1 by a flight of steps1 called ,jacob's ladder1 leading into a valley which runs along the summit of the mountain4 ,the cones are here in the most grotesque shapes1 the southern one being named the ,organ1 from its resemblance to a number of pipes4 ,at the extremity of this valley1 which is a perfect shrubbery1 and on an eminence1 stands the hermitage of ,st4 ,jerome1 the highest and most remote of all2 and near it is the loftiest station of the whole mountain1 on which is a little chapel dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,from this elevated pinnacle the prospect is vast and splendid4 ,although the elements have wreaked all their fury on these shattered peaks1 yet ,nature has not been sparing in her gifts2 the spaces between the rocks being filled up with close woods1 while numerous evergreens1 and other plants1 serve to adorn the various chasms1 rendering them valuable depositories of the vegetable kingdom4 ,few1 indeed1 are the evergreens of ,europe which may not be found here2 and when the mountain was visited by ,mr4 ,swinburne1 the apothecary of the convent had a list of four hundred and thirty-seven species of plants1 and forty of trees1 which shoot up spontaneously1 and grace this hoary and venerable pile4 ,there being two springs only on the mountain1 there is a scarcity of water1 which is chiefly collected in cisterns2 an inconvenience1 however1 which is in a great measure counterbalanced by the absence of wolves1 bears1 and other wild beasts4 ,captain ,carlton1 an ,englishman1 who visited ,montserrat some years ago1 ascended to the loftiest hermitage1 that of ,st4 ,jerome1 by the means of spiral steps hewn out in the rock on account of the steep acclivity4 ,this1 he observes1 could not1 in his time1 be well accomplished by a stranger1 without following the footsteps of an old ass1 who carried from the convent a daily supply of food to the hermits4 ,this animal having his two panniers stored with the provisions divided into portions1 climbed without a guide1 and having stopped at each of the cells1 where the hermit took the portion allotted to him1 returned back to the convent4 ,he found that one of these hermits1 to beguile the wearisomeness of his solitude1 had contrived so effectually to tame the birds which frequented the groves surrounding his hermitage1 that he could draw them together with a whistle1 when they perched on his head1 breast1 and shoulders1 taking the food from his mouth4 ,the convent is situated on the eastern side of the mountain1 which seems to have been split by vast torrents of water1 or by some violent convulsion of nature3 in this way a platform has been formed in the cleft1 sufficiently ample for the purpose of its construction4 ,it is one of the forty-five religious houses of the ,spanish congregation of the order of ,st4 ,benedict4 ,the monks are bound to supply food and lodging for three days to all pilgrims who come up to pay their homage to the ,virgin2 besides which1 they entertain the hermits on ,sundays4 ,the latter1 who make a vow never to quit the mountain1 take their stations by seniority1 the junior hermit being placed at the greatest distance from the convent1 and descending progressively as the vacancies happen4 ,they are not altogether idle1 taking pains to rival each other in making basket-work and other fanciful productions1 which they display with great affability to their visitors4 ,they assemble every morning to hear mass and perform divine service1 in the parish church of ,st4 ,cecilia1 which lies considerably above the convent2 and twice a week they confess and communicate4 ,they wear their beards long1 and are clad in brown4 ,the church of ,st4 ,cecilia is a gloomy edifice1 the gilding of which is much sullied by the smoke of eighty-five silver lamps1 of various forms and sizes1 suspended round the cornice of the sanctuary4 ,for the supply of these with oil1 funds have been bequeathed by devotees4 ,the choir is decorated with wood carvings1 curiously wrought1 representing the most prominent passages in the life of ,christ4 ,,the ,,peak ,,of ,,teneriffe4 ,see cut below4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,peak ,,of ,,teneriffe4 ,the island of ,teneriffe has received its present name from the inhabitants of the adjacent island ,palma1 in whose language tener signifies snow1 and iffe1 a hill4 ,in extent1 wealth1 and fertility it exceeds all the other ,canary islands4 ,it continues to rise on all sides from the sea1 until it terminates in the celebrated peak represented in the cut1 which is1 however1 situated rather in the southern part than in the center of the island4 ,the ascent on the north side is more gradual than at the other parts1 there being a space along the shore about three leagues in breadth1 bounded on the sides by high mountains1 or rather cliffs2 but more inland it rises like a hanging garden all the way1 without any considerable interruption of hills or valleys4 ,the form of this island is triangular1 extending itself into three capes1 the nearest of which is about eighty leagues from the coast of ,africa4 ,in the middle it is divided by a ridge of mountains1 which have been compared to the roof of a church1 the peak forming the spire or steeple in the center4 ,the elevation of the peak of ,teneriffe1 according to the most accurate measurement1 made by ,cordier1 is twelve thousand1 one hundred and sixty-six feet1 or nearly two miles and one-third above the level of the sea4 ,in the ascent1 the first eminence is called ,monte ,verde1 or the green mountain1 from the high fern with which it is covered1 and presents a level plain of considerable extent4 ,beyond this is the mountain of pines1 which are said to have formerly grown there in great abundance2 but its steep sides are now craggy and barren1 and its whole appearance very different from that of the eminence described above4 ,after passing this summit1 the traveler reaches a plain1 on which the natives have bestowed the name of ,mouton de ,trigo1 and upon which the peak in reality stands4 ,it is a mountainous platform1 rising more than seven thousand feet1 or nearly a mile and a half1 above the level of the sea2 and here the currents of lava1 hitherto concealed by the vegetation1 begin to appear in all their aridity and confusion1 a few lowly shrubs and creeping plants alone diversifying the surface of a desert1 the most arid and rugged that can be imagined4 ,a small sandy platform of pumice-stones1 bordered by two enormous currents of vitreous lava1 and blocks of the same nature1 ranged in a semicircle1 forms what is called the station of the ,english1 on account of the peak having been so often visited by ,british travelers4 ,this platform is ninety-seven hundred and eighty-six feet1 or upward of a mile and three-quarters above the level of the sea2 and beyond it the acclivity is very steep1 great masses of scori1 extremely rough and sharp1 covering the currents of lava4 ,toward the summit1 nothing but pumice-stone is to be seen4 ,in fact the peak can only be ascended on the east and south-east sides4 ,as it is impossible to get round the crater1 the traveler's progress is arrested at the spot at which he reaches it4 ,here the two orders of volcanic substances are to be seen1 the modern lavas being thrown up amid the ruins of ejections much more ancient1 the immense masses of which constitute the platform on which the peak is placed4 ,the shattered sides present a series of thick beds1 almost all plunging toward the sea1 composed alternately of ashes1 volcanic sand1 pumice-stones1 lavas1 either compact or porous1 and scori4 ,an incalculable number of currents1 comparatively recent1 which have descended from the peak1 or have issued from its flanks1 form irregular furrows1 which run along the more ancient masses1 and lose themselves in the sea to the west and north4 ,among these currents more than eighty craters are scattered1 and augment with their ruins the confusion which prevails throughout4 ,the crater can alone be reached by descending down three chasms4 ,its sides are absolutely precipitous within1 and are most elevated toward the north4 ,its form is elliptical2 its circumference about twelve hundred feet2 and its depth according to ,cordier1 one hundred and ten feet4 ,humboldt1 however1 estimates it at not more than from forty to sixty feet4 ,the sides are1 agreeably to the former of these observers1 formed of an earth of snowy whiteness1 resulting from the decomposition of the blackest and hardest vitreous porphyritic lava4 ,all the rest is solid1 and the lowest part occupied by blocks1 which have fallen down from the sides4 ,these solid parts are covered with shining crystals of sulphur1 of a rhomboidal and octahedral figure1 some of which are nearly an inch high1 and are1 perhaps1 the finest specimens of native volcanic sulphur yet known4 ,vapors issue in abundance from among these blocks1 and from an infinity of fissures which preserve a very intense heat4 ,these vapors consist solely of sulphur and water1 perfectly insipid4 ,beside the incrustations of sulphur1 opal1 in thin plates1 is formed with great celerity4 ,humboldt regards the peak of ,teneriffe as an enormous basaltic mountain1 resting upon a dense secondary calcareous stone4 ,various travelers have asserted1 that the cold is intensely keen on the summit of the peak2 that respiration is difficult2 and that1 particularly1 spirituous liquors lose all their strength2 which latter circumstance they ascribe to the spirit being more or less exposed to the sulphureous fumes exhaled from the crater4 ,cordier1 and several other accurate observers1 declare1 however1 that neither the smell nor the strength of liquids appeared1 at this elevation1 to be in the least degree impaired2 and that volatile alkali1 ether1 and spirit of wine1 possessed their usual pungency4 ,they add1 that the cold is very supportable2 and that neither the aqueous sulphureous vapors1 nor the rarity of the air1 render breathing difficult4 ,we extract the following interesting particulars from ,humboldt's account of his visit to ,teneriffe4 8,toward three in the morning1 by the sombrous light of a few fir torches1 we began our expedition for the summit of the ,piton4 ,we scaled the volcano on the north-east1 where the declivities are extremely steep2 and came1 after two hours' toil1 to a small plain1 which on account of its isolated situation1 bears the name of ,alta ,vista4 ,it is the station also of the ,neveros1 those natives whose occupation it is to collect ice and snow1 which they sell in the neighboring towns4 ,their mules1 better practiced in climbing mountains than those hired by travelers1 reach ,alta ,vista1 and the ,neveros are obliged to transport the snow to this place on their backs4 ,above this point the ,malpays begins2 a term by which is designated here1 as well as in ,mexico1 ,peru1 and every other country subject to volcanoes1 a ground destitute of vegetable mold1 and covered with fragments of lavas4 8,we observed1 during the twilight1 a phenomenon which is not unusual on high mountains1 but which the position of the volcano we were scaling rendered very striking4 ,a layer of white and fleecy clouds concealed from us the sight of the ocean1 and the lower region of the island4 ,this layer did not appear above sixteen hundred yards high2 the clouds were so uniformly spread1 and kept so perfect a level1 that they wore the appearance of a vast plain covered with snow4 ,the colossal pyramid of the peak1 the volcanic summits of ,lanzerota1 of ,fortaventura1 and the isle of ,palma1 were like rocks amidst this vast sea of vapors1 and their black tints were in fine contrast with the whiteness of the clouds40 ,by an astronomical observation1 made at the above elevation at sunrise1 it was ascertained that the true horizon1 that is1 a part of the sea1 was distant one hundred and thirty miles4 ,our traveler proceeds thus3 8,we had yet to scale the steepest part of the mountain1 the ,piton1 which forms the summit4 ,the slope of this small cone1 covered with volcanic ashes1 and fragments of pumice-stone1 is so steep1 that it would have been almost impossible to reach the top1 had we not ascended by an old current of lava1 the wrecks of which have resisted the ravages of time4 ,these wrecks form a wall of scorious rocks1 which stretches itself into the midst of the loose ashes4 ,we ascended the ,piton by grasping these half-decomposed scori1 the sharp edges of which remained often in our hands4 ,we employed nearly half an hour to scale a hill1 the perpendicular hight of which does not exceed five hundred feet4 8,when we gained the summit of the ,piton1 we were surprised to find scarcely room enough to seat ourselves conveniently4 ,the west wind blew with such violence that we could scarcely stand4 ,it was eight in the morning1 and we were frozen with cold1 though the thermometer kept a little above the freezing point4 8,the wall1 which surrounds the crater like a parapet1 is so high1 that it would be impossible to reach the ,caldera1 if on the eastern side there was not a breach1 which seems to have been the effect of a flowing of very old lava4 ,we descended through this breach toward the bottom of the tunnel1 the figure of which is elliptical4 ,the greatest breadth of the mouth appeared to us to be three hundred feet1 the smallest two hundred feet4 8,we descended to the bottom of the crater on a train of broken lava1 from the eastern breach of the inclosure4 ,the heat was perceptible only in a few crevices1 which gave vent to aqueous vapors1 with a peculiar buzzing noise4 ,some of these funnels or ,crevices are on the outside of the inclosure1 on the external brink of the parapet that surrounds the crater4 ,we plunged the thermometer into them1 and saw it rise rapidly to sixty-eight and seventy-five degrees4 8,we prolonged in vain our stay on the summit of the peak1 to wait the moment when we might enjoy the view of the whole of the archipelago of the ,fortunate islands4 ,we discovered ,palma1 ,gomera1 and the ,great ,canary1 at our feet4 ,the mountains of ,lanzerota1 free from vapors at sunrise1 were soon enveloped in thick clouds4 ,on a supposition only of an ordinary refraction1 the eye takes in1 in calm weather1 from the summit of the volcano1 a surface of the globe of fifty-seven hundred square leagues1 equal to a fourth of the surface of ,spain4 8,notwithstanding the heat we felt in our feet on the edge of the crater1 the cone of ashes remains covered with snow during several months in the winter4 ,it is probable1 that under the cap of snow considerable hollows are found1 like those we find under the glaciers of ,switzerland1 the temperature of which is constantly less elevated than that of the soil on which they repose4 ,the cold and violent wind which blew from the time of sunrise1 engaged us to seek shelter at the foot of the ,piton4 ,our hands and faces were frozen1 while our boots were burnt by the soil on which we walked4 ,we descended in the space of a few minutes the sugar-loaf1 which we had scaled with so much toil2 and this rapidity was in part involuntary1 for we often rolled down on the ashes4 ,it was with regret that we quitted this solitary place1 this domain where ,nature towers in all her majesty40 ,to the above we subjoin the following extract from the account published in the first volume of the ,transactions of the ,geological ,society1 by the ,hon4 ,mr4 ,bennet4 ,at the distance of thirty-four leagues from the island1 ,mr4 ,bennet had a very distinct view of the peak1 rising like a cone from the bed of the ocean4 ,the rocks and strata of ,teneriffe1 he observes1 are wholly volcanic1 the long chain of mountains1 which may be termed the central chain1 traversing the island from the foot of the second region of the peak1 and sloping down on the eastern1 western and northern sides1 to the sea4 ,toward the south1 or more properly the south-south-west1 the mountains are nearly perpendicular1 and though broken into ridges1 and occasionally separated by deep ravines1 that are cut transversely as well as longitudinally1 there are none of those plains1 nor that gradual declination of strata1 which the south-eastern and north-western sides of the island exhibit4 ,mr4 ,bennet ascended the peak in the month of ,september1 #ahaj4 ,we give the abridged details of this expedition in his own words4 8,the road to the city of ,orotava1 is a gradual and easy slope for three or four miles1 through a highly cultivated country4 ,leaving the town1 after a steep ascent of about an hour1 through a deep ravine1 we quitted the cultivated part1 and entered into forests of chestnuts1 the trees of which are of a large size4 ,the form of this forest is oblong2 the soil is deep1 and formed of decomposed lava1 small ash and pumice4 ,i examined several channels in the strata1 or ravines worn by the rains1 and there was no appearance of any other rock4 ,leaving this forest1 the track passes over a series of green hills1 which we traversed in about two hours1 and at last halted to water our mules at a spot where there is a small spring of bad and brackish water issuing from a lava rock4 ,the ravine is of considerable depth4 ,the range of green hills extends a mile or two further1 the soil shallowing by degrees1 until at length the trees and shrubs gradually dwindling in size1 the ,spanish broom alone covers the ground4 ,leaving behind us this range of green hills1 the track1 still ascending1 leads for several hours across a steep and difficult mass of lava-rock1 broken here and there into strange and fantastic forms1 worn into deep ravines1 and scantly covered in places by a thin layer of yellow pumice4 ,as we proceeded on our road1 the hills on our left gradually rose in hight1 till the summits were lost in those of the central chain2 while1 on our right1 we were rapidly gaining an elevation above the lower range of the peak4 ,we met with several small conical hills1 or mouths of extinct volcanoes1 the decomposed lava on the edges of the craters having a strong red ochreous tint4 ,at length1 an immense undulated plain spreads itself like a fan1 on all sides1 nearly as far as the eye can reach4 ,this plain is bounded on the west-south-west and south-south-west1 by the regions of the peak2 and on the east and north-east1 by a range of steep perpendicular precipices and mountains1 many leagues in circumference1 called by the ,spaniards ,las ,faldas4 ,on this plain1 or desert1 for we had long left all show of vegetation1 except a few stunted plants of ,spanish broom1 a sensible change was felt in the atmosphere2 the wind was keen and sharp1 and the climate like that of ,england in the months of autumn4 ,all here was sad1 silent and solitary4 ,we saw at a distance the fertile plains on the coast1 lying as it were under our feet1 and affording a cheerful contrast to the scenes of desolation with which we were surrounded4 ,we were already seven or eight thousand feet above the level of the sea1 and had reached the bottom of the second region of the peak4 8,having reached the end of the plain1 we found ourselves at the bottom of a steep hill1 at the foot of which is a mass or current of lava4 ,after a laborious1 not to say hazardous ascent of about an hour1 the pumice and ash gave way1 and the mules sinking knee-deep at every step1 we arrived at about five in the afternoon at the other extremity of the stream of lava1 which1 descending from the summit of the second region of the peak1 divides at the foot of the cone into two branches1 the one running to the north-east1 and the other to the north-west4 ,it was here we were to pass the night2 so1 lighting a fire made of dry branches of the ,spanish broom1 and stretching a part of a sail over a portion of the rock1 we ate our dinner and laid ourselves down to sleep4 ,i1 however1 passed the best part of the night by the fire1 the weather being piercingly cold4 ,as ,i stood by the fire1 the view all around me was wild and terrific2 the moon rose about ten at night1 and1 though in her third quarter1 gave sufficient light to show the waste and wilderness by which we were surrounded4 ,the peak and the upper regions which we had yet to ascend1 towered awfully above our heads1 while below1 the mountains that had appeared of such a hight in the morning1 and had cost us a day's labor to climb1 lay stretched as plains at our feet4 ,from the uncommon rarity of the atmosphere1 the whole vault of heaven appeared studded with innumerable stars1 while the valleys of ,orotava were hidden from our view by a thin vail of light fleecy clouds1 that floated far beneath the elevated spot we had chosen for our resting-place2 the solemn stillness of the night was only interrupted by the crackling of the fire round which we stood1 and by the whistling of the wind1 which coming in hollow gusts from the mountain1 resembled the roar of distant cannon4 8,between two and three in the morning1 we resumed1 on foot1 our ascent of the mountain1 the lower part of which we had climbed on horseback the preceding evening2 the ascent1 however1 became much more rapid and difficult1 our feet sinking deep in the ashes at every step4 ,from the uncommon sharpness of the acclivity1 we were obliged to stop often to take breath3 after several halts1 we at last reached the head of the pumice hill4 ,after resting some short time here1 we began to climb the stream of lava1 stepping from mass to mass4 ,the ascent is steep1 painful and hazardous2 in some places the stream of lava is heaped up in dykes or embankments2 and we were obliged to clamber over them as one ascends a steep wall4 8,we halted several times during the ascent1 and at last reached a spot called ,la ,cueva1 one of the numerous caves that are found on the sides of the mountain2 this is the largest of them1 and is filled with snow and the most delicious water1 which was just at the point of congelation4 ,the descent into it is difficult1 it being thirty or forty feet deep4 ,one of our party let himself down by a rope3 he could not see the extent of the cave1 but the guides declared it to be three hundred feet in length1 and to contain thirty or forty feet of water in depth4 ,the roof and sides are composed of a fine stalactitic lava1 similar to that found on ,vesuvius1 and it is of the same nature as that which flowed on the surface4 ,we rested here about half an hour1 during which we had an opportunity of observing the rising of the sun1 and that singular and rapid change of night into day1 which is the consequence of an almost entire absence of twilight4 ,as we ascended the north-east side of the mountain1 this view was strikingly beautiful3 at first there appeared a bright streak of red on the horizon1 which gradually spread itself1 lighting up the heavens by degrees1 and growing brighter and brighter1 till at last the sun burst forth from the bed of the ocean1 gilding as it rose the mountains of ,teneriffe1 and those of the ,great ,canary2 in a short time the whole country to the eastward lay spread out as a map4 ,the ,great ,canary was easily to be distinguished2 and its rugged and mountainous character1 similar to that of the other islands1 became visible to the naked eye4 ,the cold at this time was intense1 the wind keen and strong1 and the thermometer sunk to thirty-two degrees4 ,after a short though rapid ascent1 we reached the summit of the second stage of the mountain1 passing over a small plain of white pumice1 on which were spread masses of lava1 and at length arrived at the foot of the cone4 ,this division of the mountain forms what is generally termed the peak of ,teneriffe3 it represents the present crater of ,vesuvius1 with this difference1 however1 that while the surface of that mountain is composed of a black cinder or ash1 the superfices of this appear to be a deposit of pumice of a white color1 of scori and lava1 with here and there considerable masses that were probably thrown out when the volcano was in action4 ,numerous small cavities on the side of the mountain emitted vapor1 with considerable heat4 ,here begins the only fatiguing part of the ascent2 the steepness of the cone is excessive2 at each step our feet sunk into the ash1 and large masses of pumice and lava rolled down from above2 we were all bruised1 and our feet and legs were cut1 but not materially hurt3 at last we surmounted all difficulties1 and seated ourselves on the highest ridge of the mountain4 ,this uppermost region does not appear to contain in superficies more than an acre and a half1 and is itself a small crater1 the walls of which are the different points on which we sat1 and are plainly visible from below4 ,within1 the lava is in the most rapid state of decomposition4 ,the surface is hot to the feet1 and the guides said it was dangerous to remain long in one spot3 as it was1 some of us sunk to our knees in the hot deposit of sulphur4 ,upon striking the ground with the feet1 the sound is hollow1 similar to what is produced by the same impulsion on the craters of ,vesuvius and ,solfaterra4 ,i estimate the depth of the crater to be1 from the highest ridge to the bottom1 about two hundred feet1 forming an easy and gradual descent4 8,the view from the summit is stupendous3 we could plainly discover the whole form of the island1 and we made out distinctly three or four of the islands1 which1 collectively1 are called the ,canaries2 we could not1 however1 see ,lancerotte or ,fuerteventura1 though we were told that other travelers had distinguished them all4 8,from this spot1 the central chain of mountains that run from south-west to north-east1 is easily to be distinguished4 ,these1 with the succession of fertile and woody valleys1 commencing from ,san ,ursula1 and ending at ,las ,horcas1 with the long line of precipitous lava rocks that lay on the right of our ascent1 and which traverse that part of the island running from east to west1 from their point of departure at the ,canales1 to where they end in an abrupt headland on the coast1 with their forests1 and villages1 and vineyards1 the port with the shipping in the roads1 the town of ,orotava1 with its spires glittering as the morning sun burst upon them1 afford a cheerful contrast to the streams of lava1 the mounds of ash and pumice1 and the sulphurated rock on which we had taken our seat4 ,the sensation of extreme hight was in fact one of the most extraordinary ,i ever felt2 and though ,i did not find the pain in my chest arising from the rarity of the atmosphere1 by any means so acute as on the mountains of ,switzerland1 yet there was a keenness in the air1 independent of the cold1 that created no small uneasiness in the lungs4 ,the respiration became short and quick1 and repeated halts were found necessary4 ,the idea also of extreme hight was to me more determinate and precise than on the mountains of ,switzerland2 and though the immediate objects of vision were not so numerous1 yet as the ascent is more rapid1 the declivity sharper1 and there is here no mountain like ,mont ,blanc towering above you1 the twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea appeared considerably more than a similar elevation above the lake of ,geneva4 ,we remained at the summit about three-quarters of an hour1 our ascent having cost us the labor of four hours1 as we left ,la ,estancia at ten minutes before three1 and reached the top of the peak before seven4 ,our thermometer1 which was graduated to the scale of ,fahrenheit1 was1 during our ascent1 as follows3 at ,orotava1 at eight in the morning1 seventy-four degrees2 at six in the evening1 at ,la ,estancia1 fifty degrees2 at one1 in the following morning1 forty-two degrees2 at ,la ,cueva1 at half past four1 thirty-two degrees2 at the bottom of the cone1 thirty-six degrees2 at the top of the peak1 one hour and a half after sunrise1 thirty-three degrees4 ,the descent down the cone is difficult1 from its extreme rapidity1 and from the fall of large stones1 which loosen themselves from the beds of pumice4 ,having at last scrambled to the bottom1 we pursued our march down the other course of the lava1 that is to say1 down its westerly side1 having ascended its eastern4 ,the ravines and rents in this stream of lava are deep and formidable2 the descent into them is always painful and troublesome1 often dangerous3 in some places we let ourselves down from rock to rock4 ,i can form no opinion why there should be these strange irregularities in the surface of this lava2 in places it resembles what sailors term the trough of the sea1 and ,i can compare it to nothing but as if the sea in a storm1 had by some force become on a sudden stationary1 the waves retaining their swell4 ,as we again approached ,la ,cueva1 we came to a singular steep valley1 the depth of which1 from its two sides1 can not be less than one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet1 the lava lying in broken ridges one upon the other1 similar to the masses of granite rock that time and decay have tumbled down from the top of the ,alps2 and1 except from the scori1 or what ,milton calls #8the fiery surge1' they in no degree bear the marks of having rolled as a stream of liquid matter4 8,we descended the pumice hill with great rapidity1 almost at a run1 and arrived at ,la ,estancia in little more than two hours4 ,we then mounted our mules1 and following the track by which we had ascended the preceding day1 we reached1 about four o'clock1 the country-house from which we had started40 ,the first eruption of which there is any distinct account1 occurred on the twenty-fourth of ,december1 #agjd1 when twenty-nine shocks of an earthquake were distinctly felt4 ,on the thirty-first a great light was observed on ,manja1 toward the ,white mountains4 ,here the earth opened1 and two volcanoes were formed1 which threw up such heaps of stones as to raise two considerable mountains3 the combustible matter1 which still continued to be thrown up1 kindled above fifty fires in the vicinity4 ,the whole country for three leagues round was in flames1 which were increased by another volcano opening by at least thirty different vents within the circumference of half a mile4 ,on the second of ,february following1 another volcano broke out in the town of ,guimar1 swallowing up a large church4 ,a subsequent eruption in #agjf filled up the port of ,guarachico4 ,the lava1 in its descent1 ran five leagues in six hours2 and on this lava1 houses are now built where ships formerly rode at anchor4 ,neither of these eruptions was from the crater on the summit of the peak1 for that has not ejected lava for centuries1 and it now issues from the flanks only4 ,the last eruption was on the ninth of ,june1 #agih1 and was very terrible4 ,three new mouths opened at the hight of eighty-one hundred and thirty feet1 or upward of a mile and a half above the level of the sea1 upon the inclined slope of the base of the peak toward the south-west4 ,above this1 at the hight of ten thousand1 two hundred and forty feet1 or nearly two miles1 ,m4 ,cordier found a vast crater nearly four miles and a half in circumference1 which lie ascertained to be very ancient4 ,its sides are extremely steep1 and it still presents the most frightful picture of the violence of subterraneous fire4 ,the peak rises from the sides of this monstrous aperture4 ,to the south-west is the mountain of ,cahora1 which is said to have become a volcano in #agig4 ,the other mountains of ,teneriffe1 which tradition reports to have been formerly volcanoes1 are ,monte ,roxo1 or the red mountain2 several mountains1 called the ,malpasses1 lying to the eastward2 and one 7,rejada7 in a southern direction4 ,throughout the whole of the distance between ,monte ,roxo and the bay of ,adexe1 according to ,mr4 ,glass1 the shore is about twenty-five hundred feet1 or nearly half a mile in hight1 and perpendicular as a wall4 ,the southern coast has a much superior elevation1 the chain of mountains by which it is bounded being1 agreeably to ,st4 ,vincent1 eighty-three hundred and twenty feet1 or more than a mile and a half1 above the level of the sea4 ,,the ,,souffriere ,,mountain4 ,this volcanic mountain1 the dreadful eruption of which we are about to describe1 is the most elevated and most northerly of the lofty chain running through the ,west ,india island of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,from the extraordinary frequency and violence of the earthquakes1 which in #ahaa1 are calculated to have exceeded two hundred1 some great movement or eruption was looked for4 ,in the interim the mountain indicated much disquietude2 but the apprehension was not so immediate as to restrain curiosity1 or to prevent repeated visits to the crater1 which had latterly been more numerous than ever4 ,even on the twenty-sixth of ,april1 #ahab1 the day preceding the eruption1 several gentlemen ascended and remained there for some time4 ,nothing unusual was then remarked1 nor any external difference observed1 except rather a stronger emission of smoke from the interstices of the conical hill1 at the bottom of the crater4 ,to those who have not visited this romantic and wonderful spot1 a slight description of it1 as it lately stood1 is previously necessary4 8,about two thousand feet from the level of the sea1 on the south side of the mountain1 and at rather more than two-thirds of its hight1 opens a circular chasm1 somewhat exceeding half a mile in diameter1 and between four hundred and five hundred feet in depth4 ,exactly in the center of this capacious bowl1 rose a conical hill about two hundred and sixty or three hundred feet in hight1 and about two hundred in diameter1 richly covered and variegated with shrubs1 brushwood and vines1 above half-way up1 and the remainder covered over with virgin sulphur to the top4 ,from the fissures of the cone and interstices of the rocks1 a thin white smoke was constantly emitted1 occasionally tinged with a slight bluish flame4 ,the precipitous sides of this magnificent amphitheater were fringed with various evergreens and aromatic shrubs1 flowers1 and many alpine plants4 ,on the north and south sides of the base of the cone were two pieces of water1 one perfectly pure and tasteless1 the other strongly impregnated with sulphur and alum4 ,this lonely and beautiful spot was rendered more enchanting by the singularly melodious notes of a bird1 an inhabitant of these upper solitudes1 and altogether unknown to the other parts of the island1 hence principally called or supposed to be invisible1 though it certainly has been seen1 and is a species of blackbird4 8,a century had now elapsed since the last convulsion of the mountain1 or since any other elements had disturbed the serenity of this wilderness1 besides those which are common to the tropical tempest4 ,it apparently slumbered in primeval solitude and tranquillity1 and from the luxuriant vegetation and growth of the forest1 which covered its side from the base nearly to the summit1 seemed to discountenance the fact1 and falsify the records of the ancient volcano4 ,such was the majestic1 peaceful ,souffriere1 on ,april the twenty-seventh2 but our imaginary safety was soon to be confounded by the sudden danger of devastation4 ,just as the plantation bell rang at noon on that day1 an abrupt and dreadful crash from the mountain1 with a severe concussion of the earth1 and tremulous noise in the air1 alarmed all around it4 ,the resurrection of this fiery furnace was proclaimed in a moment by a vast column of thick1 black1 ropy smoke1 like that of an immense glass-house1 bursting forth at once1 and mounting to the sky2 showering down sand1 gritty calcined particles of earth and ashes mixed1 on all below4 ,this1 driven before the wind toward ,wallibou and ,morne ,ronde1 darkened the air like a cataract of rain1 and covered the ridges1 woods and cane-pieces with light gray-colored ashes1 resembling snow when slightly covered by dust4 ,as the eruption increased1 this continual shower expanded1 destroying every appearance of vegetation4 ,at night a very considerable degree of ignition was observed on the lips of the crater2 but it is not asserted that there was as yet any visible ascension of flame4 ,the same awful scene presented itself on the following day2 the fall of ashes and calcined pebbles still increasing1 and the compact1 pitchy column from the crater rising perpendicularly to an immense hight1 with a noise at intervals like the muttering of distant thunder4 8,on ,wednesday1 the twenty-ninth1 all these menacing symptoms of horror and combustion still gathered more thick and terrific for miles around the dismal and half-obscured mountain4 ,the prodigious column shot up with quicker motion1 dilating as it rose like a balloon4 ,the sun appeared in total eclipse1 and shed a meridian of twilight over us1 that aggravated the wintry gloom of the scene1 now completely powdered over with falling particles4 ,it was evident that the crisis was yet to come1 that the burning fluid was struggling for a vent1 and laboring to throw off the superincumbent strata and obstructions1 which suppressed its torrent4 ,at night1 it was manifest that it had greatly disengaged itself from its burden1 by the appearance of fire flashing above the mouth of the crater4 8,on the memorable thirtieth of ,april1 the reflection of the rising sun on this majestic body of curling vapor was sublime beyond imagination3 any comparison of the ,glaciers1 or of the ,andes1 can but feebly convey an idea of the fleecy whiteness and brilliancy of this awful column of intermingled and wreathed smoke and clouds4 ,it afterward assumed a more sulphureous cast1 like what are called thunder-clouds1 and in the course of the day had a ferruginous and sanguine appearance1 with a much livelier action in the ascent1 and a more extensive dilatation1 as if almost freed from every obstruction4 ,in the afternoon1 the noise was incessant1 and resembled the approach of thunder still nearer and nearer1 with a vibration that affected the feelings and hearing3 as yet there was no convulsive motion1 or sensible earthquake4 ,the ,charaibs settled at ,morne ,ronde1 at the foot of the ,souffriere1 abandoned their houses1 with their live stock1 and everything they possessed1 and fled precipitately toward town4 ,the negroes became confused1 forsook their work1 looked up to the mountain1 and1 as it shook1 trembled1 with the dread of what they could neither understand or describe3 the birds fell to the ground1 overpowered with showers of ashes1 unable to keep themselves on the wing2 the cattle were starving for want of food1 as not a blade of grass or a leaf was now to be found2 the sea was much discolored1 but not uncommonly agitated2 and it is remarkable1 that throughout the whole of this violent disturbance of the earth1 it continued quite passive1 and did not at any time sympathize with the agitation of the land4 ,about four o'clock in the afternoon1 the noise became more alarming1 and just before sunset the clouds reflected a bright copper color1 suffused with fire4 ,scarcely had the day closed1 when the flames burst at length pyramidically from the crater1 through the mass of smoke2 the rolling of the thunder became more awful and deafening2 electric flashes quickly succeeded1 attended with loud claps2 and now1 indeed1 the tumult began4 ,those only who have witnessed such a sight1 can form any idea of the magnificence and variety of the lightning and electric flashes2 some forked and zigzag1 playing across the perpendicular column from the crater2 others shooting upward from the mouth like rockets of the most dazzling luster2 others like shells1 with their trailing fuses1 flying in different parabolas1 with the most vivid scintillations1 from the dark sanguine column1 which now seemed inflexible1 and immovable by the wind4 ,shortly after seven in the afternoon1 the mighty caldron was seen to simmer1 and the ebullition of lava to break out on the north-west side4 ,this1 immediately after boiling over the orifice1 and flowing a short way1 was opposed by the acclivity of a higher point of land1 over which it was impelled by the immense tide of liquefied fire which drove it on1 forming the figure ,v in grand illumination4 ,sometimes1 when the ebullition slackened1 or was insufficient to urge it over the obstructing hill1 it recoiled like a refluent billow1 from the rock1 and then again rushed forward1 impelled by fresh supplies1 and1 surmounting every obstacle1 carried rocks and woods together1 in its course down the slope of the mountain1 until it precipitated itself down some vast ravine1 concealed from our sight by the intervening ridges of ,morne ,ronde4 ,vast globular bodies of fire were seen projected from the fiery furnace1 and1 bursting1 fell back into it1 or over it upon the surrounding bushes1 which were instantly set in flames4 ,about four hours from the time of the lava's boiling over the crater1 it reached the sea1 as we could observe from the reflection of the fire and electric flashes attending it4 ,about half past one1 the following morning1 another stream of lava was seen descending to the eastward toward ,rabacca4 ,the thundering noise of the mountain1 and the vibration of sound that had been so formidable hitherto1 now mingled in the sudden monotonous roar of the rolling lava1 became so terrible1 that dismay was almost turned into despair4 ,at this time the first earthquake was felt2 this was followed by showers of cinders1 which fell with the hissing noise of hail1 during two hours4 8,at three o'clock1 a rolling on the roofs of the houses indicated a fall of stones1 which soon thickened1 and at length descended in a rain of intermingled fire1 which threatened at once the fate of ,pompeii or ,herculaneum4 ,the crackling coruscations from the crater at this period exceeded all that had yet passed4 ,the eyes were struck with a momentary blindness1 and the ears stunned with a confusion of sounds4 ,people sought shelter in the cellars1 under rocks1 or anywhere1 for every place was nearly the same2 and the miserable negroes1 flying from their huts1 were knocked down1 or wounded1 and many killed in the open air4 ,several houses were set on fire4 ,the estates situated in the immediate vicinity1 seemed doomed to destruction4 ,had the stones which fell been heavy in proportion to their size1 not a living creature could have escaped death3 these1 having undergone a thorough fusion1 were divested of their natural gravity1 and fell almost as light as pumice1 though in some places as large as a man's head4 ,this dreadful rain of stones and fire lasted upward of an hour1 and was again succeeded by cinders from three till six o'clock in the morning4 ,earthquake followed earthquake1 almost momentarily2 or rather the whole of this part of the island was in a state of continued oscillation2 not agitated by shocks vertical or horizontal2 but undulated like water shaken in a bowl4 8,the break of day1 if such it could be called1 was truly terrific4 ,utter darkness prevailed till eight o'clock1 and the birth of ,may dawned like the day of judgment3 a chaotic gloom enveloped the mountain1 and an impenetrable haze hung over the sea1 with black sluggish clouds of a sulphureous cast4 ,the whole island was covered with cinders1 scori1 and broken masses of volcanic matter4 ,it was not until the afternoon1 that the muttering noise of the mountain sunk gradually into a solemn yet suspicious silence4 ,such are the particulars of this sublime and tremendous scene1 from its commencement to its catastrophe40 ,,peter ,,botte',s ,,mountain4 ,see cut1 page #gd4 ,the singular peak represented in the cut1 is in the island of ,mauritius1 which lies in the ,indian ocean1 east of ,madagascar4 ,the island is about one hundred and forty miles in circuit1 and produces rice1 sugar1 cloves1 indigo1 and various tropical fruits4 ,it was first settled by the ,dutch2 but the ,french gained possession of it in #agae4 ,in #ahaj1 the ,english took it1 and it is still held by them4 ,the island seems to have been thrown up from the sea by volcanic eruptions1 as it everywhere bears marks of convulsions by inward fires4 ,in its central parts are wild craggy mountains1 the summits of which are always covered with snow4 ,and among these is the peak represented in the cut1 which is eighteen hundred feet in hight1 and surrounded by dismal ravines4 ,it is called ,peter ,botte's mountain1 from a legend that a man of that name once ascended to the top4 ,the general belief1 however1 is1 that it was never ascended till the year #ahcb1 when the top of it was reached by a party under ,capt4 ,lloyd1 an ,english engineer4 ,the exploit was one of the most hazardous1 and the account of it is almost painful to the reader1 from the evident peril of the adventurers4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,botte',s ,,mountain4 ,,kilauea4 ,while on the subject of wonderful volcanoes1 we must not omit to notice one that has been called the 8,niagara of volcanoes10 and the 8king of volcanoes10 viz41 ,kilauea1 the great volcano of the ,sandwich islands1 which is on the island of ,hawaii1 about thirty miles from ,hilo bay4 ,one of the missionaries1 from whom we have the account1 started to visit it on horseback2 but the way being rough and the animal unshod1 he severely felt the inconvenience of the lava1 became discouraged1 and moved so slowly1 that he was given up1 and the missionary and his associate proceeded on foot4 8,toward evening10 he continues1 8we reached ,olaa1 an inland settlement2 and the next day1 before noon1 had arrived at an elevation of some four thousand feet1 at a distance of twenty miles from ,hilo bay4 8,approaching the great crater of ,kilauea1 we had a fine view of the magnificent dome of ,mauna ,loa1 stretching on some twenty miles beyond it1 and rising above it to the lofty hight of ten thousand feet4 ,evidences of existing volcanic agency multiplied around us2 steam1 gas and smoke1 issued from the sulphur banks on the north-east and south-east sides of the crater1 and here and there1 from deep and extended fissures connected with the fiery subterranean agency2 and as we passed circumspectly along the apparently depressed plain that surrounds the crater1 we observed an immense volume of smoke and vapor ascending from the midst of it4 ,at the same time1 and from the same source1 various unusual sounds1 not easily described or explained1 fell with increasing intensity on the ear4 ,then the angry abyss1 the fabled habitation and throne of ,pele1 the great idol goddess whom the ,hawaiians formerly worshiped1 opened before us4 8,coming near to the rim1 ,i fell upon my hands and knees1 awe-struck1 and crept cautiously to the rocky brink2 for with all my natural and acquired courage1 ,i was unwilling at once to walk up to the giddy verge1 and look down upon the noisy1 fiery gulf beneath my feet4 ,shortly1 however1 ,i was able to stand very near1 and gaze upon this wonder of the world1 which ,i wish ,i could set before my readers1 in all its mystery1 magnitude and grandeur4 ,it is not a lofty cone1 or mountain-top pointing to the heavens1 but a vast chasm in the earth1 five or six times the depth of ,niagara falls1 and seven or eight miles in circumference4 ,it is situated on the flank of a vast mountain1 which has been gradually piled up by a similar agency during the course of ages4 ,such is the immense extent and depth of ,kilauea1 that it would take in1 entire1 the city of ,philadelphia or ,new ,york1 and make their loftiest spires1 viewed from the rim1 appear small and low4 ,but neither cities nor meadows1 nor water nor vegetation1 can be found in this chief of the deep places of the earth1 but a lake of lava1 some black and indurated1 some fiery and flowing1 some cooling as a floating bridge over the fathomless molten abyss1 seven times hotter than ,nebuchadnezzar's hottest furnace1 and some bursting up through this temporary incrustation1 rending it here and there1 and forming mounds and cones upon it4 ,the immense mass1 laboring to escape1 pressed against the great crater's sides1 which consist not of a frail #8,chinese wall1' built by human hands to resist human strength1 but an irregularly elliptical wall of basaltic rocks1 extending a thousand feet above the surface of the lava lake1 and to unknown depths below4 ,six hundred feet below1 the verge stretches around horizontally1 a vast amphitheater gallery of black indurated lava1 once fluid but now solid1 and on which an army of a hundred thousand men might stand to view the sublime spectacle beneath1 around1 and above them4 8,while through the eye1 the impressions of grandeur1 strong at first1 increased till the daylight was gone1 the impressions received through the ear1 were peculiar1 and by no means inconsiderable4 ,the fiercely whizzing sound of gas and steam1 rushing with varying force through obstructed apertures in blowing cones1 or cooling crusts of lava1 and the laboring1 wheezing1 struggling1 as of a living mountain1 breathing fire and smoke and sulphurous gas from his lurid nostrils1 tossing up molten rocks or detached portions of fluid lava1 and breaking up vast indurated masses with varied detonations1 all impressively bade us stand in awe4 ,when we reached the verge1 or whenever we came from a little distance to look over1 these strange sounds increased1 as if some intelligent power1 with threatening tones and gestures1 indignant at our obtrusiveness1 were forbidding us to approach4 ,the effect of all this on aboriginal visitors1 before the true ,god was made known to them1 may have been to induce or confirm the superstition1 that a deity or family of deities dwelt there1 and recognized the movements of men1 and in various ways expressed anger against them4 ,if my native fellow-travelers had not been cured of their superstition1 or had not known me to be opposed to all idolatry1 and particularly to the worship of ,pele1 the goddess whom they once supposed dwelt there1 they might naturally have mistaken my almost involuntary prostration1 as an act of religious homage to this discarded ,hawaiian deity4 ,but the missionaries had set at naught the tabus of this deity1 and ,kapiolani had openly invaded the same1 and descending into this crater had1 in a fearless and ,christian manner1 there acknowledged ,jehovah as the only true ,god1 and proclaimed to her countrymen that this was but one of the fires which he has kindled and controls4 ,so that the natives now with me were ready devoutly to acknowledge all this4 8,when seven years before our visit1 ,messrs4 ,ellis1 ,thurston1 ,bishop and ,goodrich1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,harwood1 visited this yawning gulf1 they said of it3 #8,the bottom was filled with lava1 and the south-west and northern parts of it were one vast flood of liquid fire1 in a state of terrific ebullition1 rolling to and fro its fiery surge and flaming billows4 ,fifty-one craters of various forms and sizes1 rose1 like so many conical islands from the surface of the burning lake4 ,twenty-two constantly emitted columns of gray smoke and pyramids of brilliant flame1 and many of them at the same time vomited from their ignited mouths1 streams of fluid lava1 which rolled in blazing torrents down their black1 indented sides1 into the boiling mass of fire below4' ,the surface of this body of lava is subject to unceasing changes from year to year2 for #8deep calleth unto deep' continually1 and the fiery billows of this troubled ocean never rest4 8,as night came on we took our station on the north side of the very brink1 where we supposed we should be able most securely and satisfactorily to watch the action of this awful laboratory during the absence of the light of the sun4 ,though the spot where we spread our blanket for a lodgment had been considered as the safest in the neighborhood1 there was room for the feeling of insecurity which some who had preceded us have thus described4 #8,the detachment of one small stone beneath1 or a slight agitation of the earth1 would have precipitated us1 amid the horrid crash of falling rocks1 into the burning lake4' ,had ,i thought the danger so imminent1 ,i should have deemed it prudent to take a position somewhat further off4 ,the mass which supported us had doubtless been shaken a thousand times1 and was liable every hour to be shaken again2 but being in the short curvature of the crater1 like the key-stone of an arch1 it could not easily be thrown from its position by any agitation that would naturally occur while this great safety-valve is kept open1 or the numerous fissures round it1 reaching to the very bowels of the mountain1 convey harmlessly from unknown depths1 gases and volumes of steam1 generated where water comes in contact with intense volcanic heat4 ,our position was about four thousand feet above the level of the sea1 and one thousand above the surface of the lake below us4 8,the great extent of the surface of this lava lake2 the numerous places in it where the fiery element was displaying itself2 the conical mouths here and there discharging glowing lava overflowing and spreading its waves around1 or belched out in detached and molten masses that were shot forth with detonations1 perhaps by the force of gases struggling through from below the surface1 while the vast column of vapor and smoke ascended up toward heaven1 and the coruscations of the emitted brilliant lava1 illuminating the clouds that passed over the terrific gulf1 all presented by night a splendid and sublime panorama of volcanic action1 probably nowhere surpassed1 if ever equaled1 and which to be imagined must be seen4 ,had ,vulcan employed ten thousand giant ,cyclops1 each with a steam-engine of a thousand horse-power1 blowing anthracite coal for smelting mountain minerals1 or heaving up and hammering to pieces the everlasting rocks and hills1 their united efforts would but begin to compare with the work of ,pele here4 8,there was enough of mystery connected with the wonderful experiments going on before our eyes1 to give ample employment to fancy and philosophy1 and materially to enhance the sublimity of the fearful scene4 ,for it might be asked1 how can such an immense mass of rocks and earth be kept incessantly in a state of fusion without fuel or combustion8 ,or by what process could such solid masses be fused at all1 in accordance with any mode of generating heat with which we are acquainted8 ,if there be combustion in the crater adequate to the melting of such vast masses of substances so hard1 rocky and earthy1 why is there an accumulation and increase of the general mass1 so that millions of cubic fathoms are1 from time to time1 added to the solid contents of the mountain8 ,but if the bowels of the mountain are supposed to be melted by intense heat in some way generated1 could they be heaved up by the expansion of steam or gas1 while an orifice equal to three or four square miles1 like that of ,kilauea1 or the terminal crater on the same mountain1 is kept open2 for steam and gas might be supposed to pass through the fluid masses and escape1 instead of raising them from a depth1 just as steam issues from the bottom of a boiling caldron1 without materially elevating the surface of its contents4 8,but if with one class of geologists1 we suppose the interior of the earth to be in a molten and fluid state1 as perhaps originally created1 and that ,kilauea and other volcanoes are but the openings and safety-valves of that subterranean1 fiery1 central ocean of red or white-hot matter1 then we have here no faint illustration of the bold imagery used by the sacred writers1 and of their phraseology1 which to some seems hyperbolical and even paradoxical1 as when they speak of the #8bottomless pit1' the #8fire that is not quenched1' #8the lake that burneth with fire and brimstone1' #8the smoke of their torment which ascendeth up forever and ever4' ,if such a vast mass of fiery fluid constitutes the main portion of the interior of the earth1 it is literally #8bottomless2' and the opened surface1 like that of ,kilauea1 may be strictly called a #8lake of fire2' and as sulphur and particles of the sulphuret of iron are present1 it may well be called #8a lake that burns with fire and brimstone4' 8,after gazing at the wonderful and wonderfully sublime scene for some twenty hours1 taking but a little time for repose1 we found the sense of fear subsiding1 and curiosity prompting to a closer intercourse with ,pele1 and a more familiar acquaintance with her doings and habits4 ,many who try the experiment1 though at first appalled1 are ready after a few hours1 to wend their way down the steep sides of the crater4 ,thus we descended into the immense pit from the north-east side1 where it was practicable1 first to the black ledge or amphitheater gallery1 and thence to the surface of the lava lake4 ,this we found extremely irregular1 presenting cones1 mounds1 plains1 vast bridges of lava recently cooled1 pits and caverns1 and portions of considerable extent in a movable and agitated state4 ,we walked over lava which1 by some process1 had been fractured into immensely large slabs1 as though it had been contracted by cooling1 or been heaved up irregularly by the semi-fluid mass below4 ,in the fissures of this fractured lava1 the slabs or blocks two feet below the surface1 were red-hot4 ,a walking-stick thrust down would be set on fire and flame instantly4 8,passing over many masses of such lava1 we ventured toward the more central part of the lake1 and came near to a recent mound which had probably been raised on the cooling surface1 after our arrival the day before4 ,from the top of it flowed melted lava1 which spread itself in waves to a considerable distance1 one side or the other1 all around4 ,the masses thrown out in succession moved sluggishly1 and as they flowed down the inclined plane1 a crust was formed over them1 which darkened and hardened1 and became stationary1 while the stream still moved on below it4 ,the front of the mass1 red-hot1 passed along down1 widening and expanding itself1 and forcing its way through a net-work1 as it were1 of irregular filaments of iron1 which the cooling process freely supplied4 ,this motion of a flowing mass1 whether smaller or larger1 seen from the rim of the crater by night1 gives the appearance of a fiery surf1 or a rolling wave of fire1 or the dancing along of an extended semicircular flame on the surface of the lake4 ,when one wave has expended itself1 or found its level1 or otherwise become stationary1 another succeeds and passes over it in like manner1 and then another1 sent out as it were1 by the pulsations of the earth's open artery1 at the top of the mound4 ,this shows how a mound1 cone1 pyramid1 or mountain1 can be gradually built of lava1 and wide plains covered at its base with the same material4 8,we approached near the border of some of these waves1 and reached the melted lava with a stick two yards long2 and thus obtained several specimens red-hot from the flowing mass4 ,i have since had occasion to be surprised at the absence of fear in this close contiguity with the terrible element1 where the heat under our feet was as great as our shoes would bear1 and the radiating heat from the moving mass was so intense that ,i could face it only a few seconds at a time at a distance of two or three yards4 ,yet having carefully observed its movements awhile1 ,i threw a stick of wood upon the thin crust of a moving wave where ,i believed it would bear me1 even if it should bend a little1 and stood upon it a few moments4 ,in that position1 thrusting my cane down through the cooling1 tough crust1 about half an inch thick1 ,i withdrew it1 and forthwith there gushed up of the melted1 flowing lava under my feet1 enough to form a globular mass two and a half or three inches in diameter1 which1 as it cooled1 ,i broke off and bore away as spoils from the ancient domain and favorite seat of the great idol goddess of the ,hawaiians4 ,parts that were in violent action we dared not approach4 8,there is a remarkable variety in the volcanic productions of ,hawaii2 a variety as to texture1 form and size1 from the vast mountain and extended plain1 to the fine-drawn and most delicate vitreous fiber1 the rough clinker1 the smooth stream1 the basaltic rock1 and masses compact and hard as granite or flint1 and the pumice or porous scori1 or cinders1 which1 when hot1 probably formed a scum or foam on the surface of the denser molten mass4 ,considerable quantities of capillary glass are produced at ,kilauea1 though ,i am not aware that the article is found elsewhere on the islands4 ,its production has been deemed mysterious4 ,in its appearance it resembles human hair1 and among the natives is familiarly called #8,lauoho o ,pele1' the hair of ,pele4 ,it is formed1 ,i presume1 by the tossing off of small detached portions of lava of the consistence of melted glass1 from the mouths of cones1 when a fine vitreous thread is drawn out between the moving portion1 and that from which it is detached4 ,the fine-spun product is then blown about by the wind1 both within and around the crater1 and is collected in little locks or tufts4 8,sulphur is seen1 but in small quantities1 in and around the crater2 and at a little distance from the rim there are yellow banks1 on which beautiful crystals of sulphur may be found4 ,in one place1 a pool of pure distilled water1 condensed from the steam that rises from a deep fissure1 affords the thirsty traveler a beverage far better than that of the ordinary distiller4 ,there is1 however1 a kind of sulphurous gas produced by the volcano1 which is highly deleterious if breathed often or freely4 ,this is one source of danger to the visitor1 which1 while ,i was down a thousand feet below the rim1 produced a temporary coughing4 8,i was1 perhaps1 too venturesome1 but other visitors have been far more so4 ,as one instance of this1 ,dr4 ,judd1 having become familiar with the volcanic power1 in his ardor to secure valuable and recent specimens for the ,united ,states exploring expedition1 on the visit of ,commodore ,wilkes and his company to this crater1 descended to the surface of the lake1 and then into a sub-crater in the midst of the larger4 ,while he was busily engaged there in collecting specimens1 a sudden bursting up of a huge volume of fluid lava from the bottom of the sub-crater1 alarmed him1 and threatened speedily to overwhelm and destroy him4 ,he sprang to escape1 but finding the rim overhanging1 he could not scale it where he was2 and the flowing mass was now too near to allow him to return to the place where he had descended2 and its radiating heat was too intense to be faced4 ,escape without assistance was utterly hopeless2 and the natives of the company who were about the brink1 and from whom such help might have been expected1 alarmed for themselves1 were flying for their lives4 ,dr4 ,judd1 giving himself up for lost1 offered a prayer to heaven1 and was about to resign himself to his fate1 when a friendly and resolute ,hawaiian1 who had been a pupil at the mission seminary1 compassionating the exposed sufferer1 faced the approaching fiery volume1 and braving its intense heat1 exposed his own life1 reached down his strong hand1 and firmly grasped the doctor's1 who thus1 at the last available moment1 through their united exertions and the blessing of heaven1 escaped with his life from the horrible pit and a fiery grave6 ,a mighty current instantly overflowed the place where they had just been standing1 and they were obliged to run for their lives before the molten flood2 and being able to outstrip it1 they ascended from the surface of the abyss to the lofty rim1 with heartfelt thanksgivings to their great deliverer4#a ,this proves the real danger of descending too far into the crater of the volcano2 and had it occurred in the days of unbroken superstition1 it would doubtless have been ascribed to the anger of ,pele1 and tended to increase the number of her deluded worshipers4 ,but now such a deliverance was justly ascribed to the kind providence of ,jehovah1 the knowledge of whose character1 as displayed in the gospel1 has introduced the ,hawaiian race into a new life4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,see ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 vol4 iv41 p4 #agc4 ----- 8,kilauea may be regarded as one of the safety-valves of a bottomless reservoir of melted earth1 below the cooled and cooling crust on which mountains rise1 rivers flow1 oceans roll1 and cities are multiplied as the habitations of men4 ,it has been kept open from time immemorial1 always displaying more or less of its active power4 ,the circumambient air which carries off the caloric1 sometimes aided by rain1 is incessantly endeavoring to shut up this valve1 or bridge over this orifice of three or four square miles of the fiery abyss4 ,sometimes the imperfect bridge of cooling lava is pierced with fifty or sixty large1 rough1 conical chimneys1 emitting gas1 smoke1 flame1 and lava2 and sometimes the vast bridge is broken up1 and all these cones submerged and probably fused again by the intense heat of the vast fluid mass supplied fresh from the interior4 ,the mass rises gradually higher and higher1 hundreds of feet1 till by its immense pressure against the sides of the crater1 aided1 perhaps1 by the power of gas or steam1 it forces a passage for miles through the massive walls1 and inundates with its fiery deluge some portion of the country below1 or passing through it1 as a river of fire1 pours itself into the sea at the distance of twenty-five miles1 thus disturbing with awful uproar the domains of old ,neptune1 and enlarging the dominions of the ,hawaiian sovereign4 8,the whole island1 with its ample and towering mountains1 is often shaken with awful throes1 and creation here #8groaneth and travaileth in pain4' ,in ,july1 #ahdj1 a river of lava flowed out from ,kilauea1 and passing some miles under ground1 burst out in the district of ,puna1 and inundated a portion of the country1 sweeping down forests1 carrying everything in its way before it1 and as a river a mile wide1 falling into the sea1 and heating the waters of the ocean1 making war upon its inhabitants1 and by the united action of this volcanic flood and the sea1 formed several huge1 rough hills of sand and lava along the shore4 ,and still later than the above date1 a similar flood has been poured from the summit of ,mauna ,loa1 flowing with terrific force for weeks1 and thus elevating a portion of the region between ,mauna ,loa and ,mauna ,kea2 and so extensive and splendid was this exhibition1 that it could be seen from the missionary station at ,hilo1 a distance of about forty miles4 8,after having spent some thirty hours on this king of all the volcanoes1 we set out to return4 ,and on our journey we passed over several large tracts of lava of different kinds1 some smooth1 vitreous and shining1 some twisted and coiled like huge ropes1 and some consisting of sharp1 irregular1 loose1 rugged volcanic masses1 of every form and size1 from an ounce in weight to several tuns1 thrown1 ,i could not conceive how1 into a chaos or field of the roughest surface1 presenting a forbidding area of from one to forty square miles in extent2 and though not precipitous1 yet so horrid as to forbid a path1 and to defy the approach of horses and cattle4 ,in the crevices of the more solid lava are found the ohelo1 which somewhat resembles the whortleberry1 nourished by frequent showers and dew4 ,at ten o'clock we halted for breakfast1 and by the time the sun was setting had reached ,waimea1 thus completing our excursion to this vast volcano1 which is truly one of the wonders of the world60 ,,the ,,peak ,,of ,,derbyshire4 ,this peak consists of a chain of high mountains in the county of ,derby1 in ,england1 and has been long celebrated1 as well on account of its mineral productions1 and natural curiosities in general1 as of what are called its seven wonders4 ,six of these are natural1 namely1 ,poole's ,hole1 ,elden ,hole1 the ,peak ,cavern1 or the ,devil's ,hole1 ,mam ,tor1 ,st4 ,ann's ,well1 and the ,ebbing and ,flowing ,well4 ,having described these1 we shall add a more recent discovery1 that of the ,crystallized ,cavern1 which possesses an equal interest4 ,poole's ,hole1 lying about a mile to the westward of ,buxton1 is a vast cavern formed by nature in the limestone rock1 and was1 according to tradition1 the residence of an outlaw1 named ,poole4 ,the entrance is low and contracted1 and the passage narrow2 but this widening1 at length1 leads to a lofty and spacious cavern1 from the roof of which stalactites or transparent crystals1 formed by the constant dropping of water laden with calcareous matter1 hang in spiral masses4 ,other portions of these petrifactions drop and attach themselves to the floor1 rising in cones1 and become what are termed stalagmites4 ,one of the dropping stalactites1 of an immense size1 called the ,flitch of ,bacon1 occurs about the middle of the cavern1 which here becomes very narrow1 but soon spreads to a greater width1 and continues large and lofty until the visitor reaches another surprisingly large mass of stalactite1 to which the name of ,mary ,queen of ,scots' ,pillar is given1 from the tradition that this unfortunate queen once paid a visit to the cavern1 and proceeded thus far into its recesses4 ,as this pillar can not be passed without some difficulty1 few persons venture beyond it2 nor does it seem desirable1 as1 by proceeding thus far1 a very competent idea of the cavern may be formed4 ,the path hitherto is along the side1 and at some hight from the bottom of the cavern2 but to visit and examine the interior extremity1 it becomes necessary to descend a few yards by very slippery and ill-formed steps4 ,the path at the bottom is tolerably even and level for about sixty feet1 when an almost perpendicular ascent commences1 which leads to the extremity of the fissure1 through the eye of ,st4 ,anthony's ,needle1 a narrow strait1 beyond which the steepness of the way is only to be surmounted by clambering over irregular masses of rock4 ,the cavern terminates nearly three hundred feet beyond the ,queen of ,scots' pillar4 ,toward the end is an aperture through a projecting rock1 behind which a candle is generally placed1 when any person has reached the extremity3 when seen at that distance1 it appears like a dim star4 ,the visitor returns along the bottom of the cavern1 beneath a considerable portion of the road by which he entered2 and1 by thus changing the path1 has an opportunity better to ascertain the hight and width of the cavern in every part1 and to view other accumulated petrifactions1 some of which are of a prodigious size1 and of an extraordinary form4 ,in one part of this passage is a fine spring of transparent water2 and a small stream1 which becomes more considerable in rainy seasons1 runs through the whole length of the cavern4 ,its sound1 in passing through this spacious and lofty concavity1 which resembles the interior of a ,gothic cathedral1 has a fine effect4 ,to the right1 in a small cavern called ,poole's chamber1 is a curious echo4 ,the various masses of stalactical matter which are everywhere met with in this natural excavation1 and which reflect innumerable rays from the lights carried by guides1 are distinguished by the names of the objects they are fancied most to resemble4 ,thus we have ,poole's saddle1 his turtle1 and his woolsack2 the lion1 the lady's toilet1 the pillion1 the bee-hive1 c4 ,it should be noticed1 however1 that the forms are constantly varied by the percolation of the water through the roof and sides of the rock4 ,the subterraneous passage is nearly a half a mile in length4 ,,elden ,,hole4 ,elden ,hole is situated on the side of a gentle hill about a mile to the north-west of the village of ,peak ,forest4 ,it is a deep chasm in the ground1 surrounded by a wall1 of uncemented stones1 to prevent accidents4 ,this fissure or cleft in the rock has been the subject of many exaggerated descriptions and superstitious reports1 having been represented not only as unfathomable1 but as teeming1 at a certain depth1 with so impure an air1 that it could not be respired without immediate destruction4 ,mr4 ,lloyd1 however1 who descended it about seventy years ago1 has proved the absurdity of these relations1 in a paper1 of which the following is a brief abstract1 published in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,for the first sixty feet1 he observes1 he descended somewhat obliquely1 the passage then becoming difficult from projecting crags4 ,at the further depth of thirty feet1 the inflection of his rope varied at least eighteen feet from the perpendicular4 ,the breadth of the chink was here about nine feet1 and the length eighteen2 the sides being irregular1 moss-grown1 and wet4 ,within forty-two feet of the bottom1 the rock opened on the east1 and he swung till he reached the floor of a cave1 one hundred and eighty-six feet only from the mouth1 the light from which was sufficiently strong to permit the reading of any book4 ,the interior of the chasm he describes as consisting of two parts1 which communicate with each other by a small arched passage1 the one resembling an oven1 the other the dome of a glass-house4 ,on the south side of the latter1 was a small opening1 about twelve feet in length1 and four feet in hight1 lined throughout with a kind of sparkling stalactite1 of a fine deep yellow color1 with petrifying drops hanging from the roof4 ,tracing the entrance he found a noble column1 above ninety feet high1 of the same kind of incrustation4 ,as he proceeded to the north1 he came to a large stone which was covered with the same substance2 and beneath it he found a hole six feet in depth1 uniformly lined with it4 ,from the edge of this hole sprung up a rocky ascent1 sloping1 like a buttress1 against the side of the cavern1 and consisting of vast1 solid1 round masses of the same substance and color4 ,having climbed this ascent to the hight of about sixty feet1 he obtained some fine pieces of stalactite1 which hung from the craggy sides of the cavern4 ,descending with some difficulty and danger1 he proceeded in the same direction1 and soon came to another pile of incrustations of a brown color1 above which he found a small cavern1 opening into the side of the vault1 which he now entered4 ,here he saw vast masses of stalactite1 hanging like icicles from every part of the roof3 several of these were four and five feet long1 and thick as a man's body4 ,the sides of the largest cavern were chiefly lined with incrustations of three kinds1 the first of which was a deep yellow stalactite2 the second1 a thin coating which resembled a pale stone-color varnish1 and reflected the light of the candle with great splendor2 and the third1 a rough efflorescence1 the shoot of which resembled a rose flower4 ,some more recent visitors have thus stated the result of their observations and inquiries relative to ,elden ,hole4 ,they describe the mouth of this chasm as opening horizontally1 in a direction from north to south2 its shape being nearly that of an irregular ellipse1 about ninety feet in length1 and twenty-seven in breadth at the widest part4 ,the northern end is fringed with small trees2 and moss and underwood grow out of the crevices on each side1 to the depth of forty or fifty feet4 ,as the fissure recedes from the surface1 it gradually contracts2 and at the depth of about seventy feet inclines considerably to the west1 so as to prevent its course from being further traced4 ,notwithstanding the obstacles of the bushes and projecting masses of stone1 it was sounded1 and its depth found not to exceed two hundred and two feet1 an estimate which corresponds with the assertion of three miners1 who had descended in search of the bodies of individuals who were missing1 and were supposed to have been robbed1 murdered1 and thrown into this frightful abyss4 ,,peak ,,cavern4 ,peak cavern1 also called the ,devil's ,hole1 is one of those magnificent1 sublime1 and extraordinary productions of nature1 which constantly excite the wonder and admiration of their beholders4 ,it has accordingly been considered one of the principal wonders of ,derbyshire1 and has been celebrated by several poets4 ,it lies in the vicinity of ,castleton1 and is approached by a path at the side of a clear rivulet1 leading to the fissure1 or separation of the rock1 at the extremity of which the cavern is situated4 ,it would be difficult to imagine a scene more august than that which presents itself to the visitor at its entrance3 on each side1 the huge gray rocks rise almost perpendicularly1 to the hight of nearly three hundred feet1 or about seven times the hight of a modern house1 and meeting each other at right or cross angles1 form a deep gloomy recess4 ,in front1 it is overhung by a vast canopy of rock1 assuming the appearance of a depressed arch1 and extending1 in width1 one hundred and twenty feet1 in hight forty-two1 and in receding depth about ninety4 ,after penetrating about ninety feet into the cavern1 the roof becomes lower1 and a gentle descent leads1 by a detached rock1 to the interior entrance of this tremendous hollow4 ,here the light of day1 having gradually diminished1 wholly disappears2 and the visitor is provided with a torch to illumine his further progress4 ,the progress now becoming extremely confined1 he is obliged to proceed1 in a stooping posture1 about twenty yards1 when he reaches a spacious opening1 named the ,bellhouse1 and is thence led to a small lake1 called the ,first ,water1 about forty feet in length1 but not more than two or three feet in depth4 ,over this he is conveyed in a boat to the interior of the cavern1 beneath a massive vault of rock1 which in some parts descends to within eighteen or twenty inches of the water4 8,we stood some time10 says ,m4 de ,st4 ,fond1 8on the brink of this lake2 and the light of our dismal torches1 which emitted a black smoke1 reflecting our pale images from its bottom1 we almost conceived we saw a troop of specters starting from an abyss to welcome us4 ,the illusion was extremely striking40 ,on landing1 the visitor enters a spacious vacuity1 two hundred and twenty feet in length1 two hundred feet in breadth1 and in some parts one hundred and twenty feet in hight1 opening into the bosom of the rock2 but1 from the want of light1 neither the distant sides nor the roof of this abyss1 can be seen4 ,in a passage at the inner extremity of this vast cave1 the stream which flows through the whole length of the cavern1 spreads into what is called the ,second ,water1 and near its termination is a projecting pile of rocks1 known by the appellation of ,roger ,rain's ,house1 from the incessant fall of water in large drops through the crevices of the roofs4 ,beyond this1 opens another tremendous hollow1 called the ,chancel1 where the rocks are much broken1 and the sides covered with stalactical or petrified incrustations4 ,here the visitor is surprised by a vocal concert which bursts in discordant tones from the upper regions of the chasm4 8,still10 observes a tourist1 8this being unexpected1 and issuing from a quarter where no object can be seen1 in a place where all else is still as death1 is calculated to impress the imagination with solemn ideas1 and can seldom be heard without that emotion of awe and pleasure1 astonishment and delight1 which is one of the most interesting feelings of the mind40 ,at the conclusion of the strain1 the choristers1 who consist of eight or ten women and children1 are seen ranged in the hollow of the rock1 about fifty feet above the floor4 ,the path now leads to a place whimsically called the ,devil's ,cellar and ,half-way ,house1 and thence1 by three natural and regular arches1 to a vast concavity1 which1 from its uniform bell-like appearance1 is called ,great ,tom of ,lincoln4 ,when illuminated by a strong light1 this concavity has a very pleasing effect2 the symmetrical disposition of the rocks1 the stream flowing beneath1 and the spiracles in the roof1 forming a very interesting picture4 ,from this point the vault gradually descends1 the passage contracts1 and at length does not leave more than sufficient room for the current of the stream1 which continues to flow through a subterraneous channel of several miles in extent1 as is proved by the small stones brought into it after great rains1 from the distant mines of the ,peak ,forest4 ,the entire length of this wonderful cavern is twenty-two hundred and fifty feet1 or nearly half a mile2 and its depth1 from the surface of the ,peak mountain1 about six hundred and twenty feet4 ,a curious effect is produced by the explosion of a small quantity of gunpowder1 wedged into the rock in the interior of the cavern2 for the sound appears to roll along the roof and sides1 like a tremendous and continued peal of thunder4 ,the effect of the light1 on returning from these dark recesses1 is particularly impressive2 and the gradual illumination of the rocks1 which becomes brighter as the entrance is approached1 is said to exhibit one of the most interesting scenes that ever employed the pencil of an artist1 or fixed the admiration of a spectator4 ,,mam ,,tor4 ,mam ,tor or the ,shivering ,mountain1 is a huge precipice facing the east or south-east1 chiefly composed of a peculiar kind of slate1 which1 although very hard before it is exposed to the air1 very easily crumbles to dust on such exposure4 ,hence it is perpetually wasted by the action of the rain and snow2 while the harder and larger masses of stone being thus loosened and disengaged1 necessarily fall from their positions1 and this with a rushing noise which is occasionally so loud as to be heard at ,castleton1 a distance of two miles4 ,the valley beneath is overwhelmed with their fragments to the extent of half a mile4 ,in many parts of the precipice1 they produce1 before their descent1 a cavernous appearance1 and even a romantic overhanging scenery1 highly dangerous to be approached4 ,it is affirmed by the most intelligent of the neighboring inhabitants1 that this mountain chiefly wastes during violent storms of snow and rain2 and ,mr4 ,martin1 who published an account of ,mam ,tor1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agbi1 affirms that the decay is not constantly the same4 ,he not only surveyed it closely1 but ascended the steepest part of the precipice1 without tracing any other shivering in the mountain1 beside that which was occasioned by the treading of his feet in the loose crumbled earth4 ,,the ,,ebbing ,,and ,,flowing ,,well4 ,in the vicinity of ,chapel-en-le-,frith is a steep hill1 rising to the hight of more than a hundred feet1 immediately beneath which this natural phenomenon lies4 ,it is of an irregular form1 but nearly approaching to a square1 from two or three feet in depth1 and about twenty feet in width4 ,its ebbings and flowings are irregular1 and dependent on the quantity of rain which falls in the different seasons of the year2 when it begins to rise1 the current can only be perceived by the slow movement of the blades of grass1 or other light bodies floating on the surface2 notwithstanding which1 before the expiration of a minute1 the water issues with a gurgling noise1 in considerable quantities1 from several small apertures on the south and west sides4 ,the interval of time between the ebbing and flowing is not always alike3 consequently the proportion of water it discharges at different periods1 also varies4 ,in the space of five minutes flowing1 the water occasionally rises to the hight of six inches2 and1 after remaining a few seconds stationary1 the well assumes its former quiescent state4 ,the cause of the intermittent flowing of this well may be satisfactorily explained1 on the principle of the action of the siphon1 and on the supposition of a natural one communicating with a cavity in the hill1 where the water may be supposed to accumulate2 but for the phenomenon of its ebbing1 no satisfactory reason has been assigned4 ,the opinion of a second siphon1 7which is ingeniously advanced by one tourist17 that begins to act when the water rises1 is inconsistent with the appearance of the well1 and therefore can not be just4 ,,st4 ,,anne',s ,,well4 ,this well1 the usual resort of the company who frequent ,buxton to drink the waters1 has been classed among the wonders of the peak1 on account of this singularity1 that within five feet of the hot spring by which it is supplied1 a cold one arises4 ,this is not1 however1 the only well of the kind1 since hot and cold springs rise near each other in many parts of ,england1 and in other countries4 ,the water is conveyed to the well1 which is an elegant classical building1 in the ,grecian style1 from the original spring1 by a narrow passage1 so close and well contrived as to prevent it from losing any considerable portion of its heat1 and is received in a white marble bason4 ,it is not so warm as the ,bath water1 its temperature being about eighty degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,,the ,,crystallized ,,cavern4 ,the crystallized cavern1 the new wonder of the ,derbyshire ,peak1 was discovered some years ago in the vicinity of the village of ,bradwell4 ,we extract the following particulars of this singular and beautiful natural excavation1 from ,hutchinson's tour in the ,high ,peak4 ,the entrance is rather terrific than grand2 and the descent1 for about thirty paces1 very abrupt4 ,the visitor has then to pass along the inclined way for nearly a quarter of a mile1 the opening being so low that it is impossible to proceed1 in particular parts1 in an erect posture4 ,the different crystallizations which now attract his attention on every side1 soon make him forget the irksomeness of the road1 and banish every idea of fatigue4 ,new objects of curiosity crowd one on the other4 ,in a place called the ,music ,chamber1 the petrifactions take the semblance of the pipes of an organ2 while in other parts1 these stalactites are formed into elegant small colonnades1 with as exact a symmetry as if they had been chiseled by the most skillful artist4 ,candles judiciously disposed within them1 give an idea of the imaginary palaces of fairies1 or of sylphs and genii1 who have chosen this for their magnificent abode4 ,still he has seen nothing comparable to what he is now to expect2 for1 at the distance of about a hundred paces further1 by a rugged descent1 he enters what is called the ,grotto of ,paradise4 ,this heavenly spot1 for it can not be compared to anything terrestrial1 is1 of itself1 a beautiful crystallized cavern1 about twelve feet high1 and in length twenty feet1 pointed at the top1 similar to a ,gothic arch1 with a countless number of large stalactites hanging from the roof4 ,candles placed among them give some idea of its being lighted up with elegant glass chandeliers2 while the sides are entirely incrusted1 and brilliant in the extreme4 ,the floor is checkered with black and white spar4 ,it has1 altogether1 a most novel and elegant appearance4 ,this glittering apartment would be left by the visitor with a certain degree of regret1 did he not expect to see it again on his return4 ,still continuing a route similar to the one he has passed1 in the course of which his attention is occasionally arrested by the curiosities of the place1 and by the gentle droppings of the water1 which scarcely break the solemn silence of the scene1 he at length reaches the ,grotto of ,calypso1 and the extremity of the cavern1 upward of two thousand feet from the entrance4 ,to see this grotto to advantage1 he has to ascend about six feet1 into a recess4 ,there1 the beautiful appearance of the different crystallizations1 some of them of an azure cast1 and the echoes reverberating from side to side1 make him fancy he has reached the secluded retreat of some mythological deity4 ,returning by the same path for a considerable distance1 another cavern1 which branches in a south-west direction from the one already explored1 presents itself4 ,the roads here are still more difficult of access1 but the stalactites are certainly most beautiful4 ,many of them1 more than a yard in length1 are pendent from the roof1 and the greater part do not exceed the dimension of the smallest reed4 ,the top and sides of this cavern are remarkably smooth1 particularly at the part called the ,amphitheater4 ,in general1 the stone is of a very dark color1 to which the transparent appearances before mentioned1 with each a drop of water hanging at its extremity1 form a fine contrast4 ,,speedwell ,,level4 ,in the ,speedwell ,level1 or ,navigation ,mine1 in the vicinity of ,castleton1 art has been combined with the subterraneous wonders of nature4 ,being provided with lights1 the guide leads the visitor beneath an arched vault1 by a flight of one hundred and six steps1 to the sough or level1 where a boat is ready for his reception1 and is put in motion by pushing against pegs driven into the wall for that purpose4 ,after proceeding about one-third of a mile through various caverns1 the level bursts into a tremendous gulf1 the roof and bottom of which are invisible1 but across which the navigation has been carried1 by throwing a strong arch over a part of the fissure where the rocks are least separated4 ,here1 leaving the boat1 and ascending a stage erected above the level1 the attention of the visitor is directed to the dark recess of the abyss beneath his feet2 and firm indeed must be his resolution1 if he can contemplate the scene unmoved1 and without an involuntary shudder4 ,to the depth of ninety feet all is vacuity and gloom2 but beyond that commences a pool of ,stygian waters1 not unaptly named the ,bottomless ,pit1 the prodigious range of which may in some measure be conceived1 by the circumstance of its having swallowed up more than forty thousand tuns of rubbish1 made in blasting the rock1 without any apparent diminution either of its depth or extent4 ,the guides assert that the former has not been ascertained2 but there is reason to believe that its actual depth in standing water is about three hundred and twenty feet4 ,there can not1 however1 be a doubt but that this abyss has communications with others still more deeply situated in the bowels of the mountain1 and into which the precipitated rubbish has found a passage4 ,the superfluous water of the level falls through a water-gate into this profound caldron1 with a noise like a rushing torrent4 ,this fissure is calculated to be about eight hundred feet beneath the surface of the mountain2 and so great is its reach upward1 that rockets of sufficient strength to ascend four hundred and fifty feet1 have been fired without rendering the roof visible4 ,the effect of a ,bengal light discharged in this stupendous cavity1 is extremely magnificent and interesting4 ,,the ,,high ,,tor4 ,this is one of the many sublime objects presented by ,matlock dale1 the beauties of which will be cursorily described1 in proportion as these objects pass under our review4 ,in approaching the bath1 which is nearly a mile to the south-west of the village of ,matlock1 a specimen of the scenery by which this charming vale is distinguished1 presents itself4 ,the entrance is through a rock1 which has been blasted for the purpose of opening a convenient passage2 and here a scene which blends the constituent principles of the picturesque1 the beautiful and the sublime1 opens suddenly on the view4 ,through the middle of a narrow plain flows the ,derwent1 overhung by a profusion of luxuriant beeches and other drooping trees4 ,toward the east are gently rising grounds1 and on the west the huge mural banks of the vale stretch along1 the white face of the rock of which they are composed occasionally displaying itself through the woody clothing of their sides and summits4 ,this magnificent scenery is singularly contrasted by the manufactories and lodging-houses at the bottom of the vale4 ,to see this magic spot to the greatest advantage1 it should be entered at its northern extremity1 its beauties then succeeding each other in a proper gradation1 and their grandeur and effect being rendered more impressive4 ,the chief attention is now attracted to the ,high ,tor1 a grand and stupendous rock1 which appears like a vast abrupt wall of limestone1 and rises almost perpendicularly from the river1 to the hight of upward of three hundred and fifty feet4 ,the lower part of this majestic feature is shaded by yew-trees1 elms1 limes1 and underwood of various foliage2 but the upper part1 for fifty or sixty yards1 presents a rugged front of one broad mass of perpendicular rock4 ,from its summit the vale is seen in all its grandeur1 diversified by woods of various hues and species4 ,the windings of the ,derwent1 the grayish-colored rocks1 and the white fronts of the houses1 embosomed amid groves of trees which sprout from every crevice of the precipices1 give variety and animation to a scene of wonderful beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,wye4 ,,chee ,,tor4 ,in a romantic and deep hollow1 near the little village of ,wormhill1 the river ,wye flows beneath this stupendous mass of rock1 which rises perpendicularly more than three hundred and sixty feet above its level4 ,the channel of the river1 which meanders at the base1 is confined between huge rocks of limestone1 having such a general correspondence of situation and form1 as to render it probable that they were once united4 ,in some parts they are partially covered with brushwood1 nut-trees and mountain-ash2 while in others1 they are totally naked1 precipitous and impending4 ,the chasm runs in a direction so nearly circular1 that the sublime ,chee ,tor1 and its dependent masses of rock1 are almost insulated by the river which rolls at their feet4 ,its length1 as far as it possesses any considerable beauty1 is between five and six hundred yards2 a distance which presents several picturesque and interesting views1 the general effect of the fine scenery being enhanced by the plantations on the neighboring hights1 and by a spring which flows into the river near the bottom of a deep descent1 as well as by a romantic bridge over the river itself1 a representation of which may be seen in the cut above4 ,not far from here is the well known ,masson hill1 celebrated in ,darwin's 8,loves of the ,plants10 which is so high as to overlook the country to a vast extent1 and compared with which even the ,high ,tor seems considerably diminished in grandeur and sublimity2 but this effect is partly compensated by the extent of the prospect1 and the variety of objects it comprehends4 ,the hight of this eminence is about seven hundred and fifty feet1 the path to its summit having been carried1 in a winding direction1 through a grove4 ,about half-way in the ascent is an alcove1 from which an extensive view of a great part of ,matlock dale may be seen1 through a fine avenue formed for that purpose4 ,,the ,,cumberland ,,cavern4 ,to the west and north-west of the village of ,matlock1 are three apertures in the rock1 respectively named the ,cumberland1 ,smedley1 and ,rutland caverns4 ,the former of these is well deserving of a short notice4 ,the entrance is partly artificial1 to afford a greater facility to the visitor1 who has to descend fifty-four steps4 ,the cavern now opens on him in solitary grandeur4 ,huge masses of stone are piled on each other with a tremendous kind of carelessness1 evidently produced by some violent concussion1 though at an unknown period4 ,he is conducted to a long and wide passage1 the roof of which has all the regularity of a finished ceiling1 and is bespangled by spars of various descriptions4 ,from above1 from beneath1 and from the sides1 the rays of the lights are reflected in every direction4 ,in an adjacent compartment1 rocks are heaped on rocks in terrible array1 and assume a threatening aspect4 ,next is an apartment decorated with what1 in the language of the country1 is called the snow-fossil1 a petrifaction which1 both in figure and color1 resembles snow1 as it is drifted by the winter storm into the cavities of a rock4 ,near the extremity of the cavern are to be seen fishes petrified and fixed in the several strata which form the surrounding recess4 ,one of these has its back jutting out of the side of the earth1 as if it had been petrified in the act of swimming4 ,in another branch of the cavern a well has been found of a considerable depth4 ,,reynard',s ,,hole4 ,after having proceeded about a mile in ,dove dale1 the romantic and sublime beauties of which will be hereafter noticed1 by a route constantly diversified by new fantastic forms1 and uncouth combinations of rock1 the visitor is led to a mass of mural rock1 bearing the above name1 and perforated by nature into a grand arch1 nearly approaching to the shape of the sharply pointed ,gothic style of architecture1 about forty-five feet in hight1 and in width twenty4 ,having passed through this arch1 a steep ascent leads to a natural cavern1 called ,reynard's ,hall1 forty-five feet in length1 fifteen in breadth1 and in hight thirty4 ,from the mouth of this cavern the scenery is singular1 beautiful and impressive4 ,the face of the rock which contains the arch1 rises immediately in front1 and would effectually prevent the eye from ranging beyond its mighty barrier1 did not its center open into the above-mentioned arch1 through which is seen a small part of the opposite side of the dale1 consisting of a mass of gloomy wood1 from the shade of which a huge detached rock1 solitary1 cragged1 and pointed1 starts out to a great hight1 and forms an object truly sublime4 ,this rock1 which has received the name of ,dove ,dale ,church1 is pleasingly contrasted by the little pastoral river1 ,dove1 and by its verdant turfy banks4 ,a narrow opening at the extremity of the cavern is supposed to lead to other similar cavities in the rock2 and on the left is a cavern1 about forty feet in length1 in breadth fourteen1 and in hight twenty-six1 called ,reynard's ,kitchen1 from the interior of which a pleasing view is presented of the upper part of the dale1 its river and rocks4 ,after passing ,reynard's ,hole1 already described1 the rocks rise more abruptly on either side1 and appear in shapes more wild and irregular1 but diversified and softened by shrubs4 ,dove dale is nearly three miles in length2 but from the sinuosity of its course1 and its projecting precipices1 the views are limited4 ,throughout the whole of this majestic feature of country1 the river ,dove flows1 in the halcyon days of summer1 with soft murmurs1 innocently and transparently over its pebbly bed2 but swells into rage during the winter months4 ,little tufts of shrubs and underwood form islands in miniature within its bed1 which enlarge and swell the other objects4 ,the scenery of this dale is distinguished from almost every other in the united kingdoms1 by the rugged1 dissimilar1 and frequently grotesque and fanciful appearance of the rocks4 ,to employ the words of a tourist here1 8,it is1 perhaps1 on the whole one of the most pleasing sceneries of the kind anywhere to be met with4 ,it has something peculiarly characteristic4 ,its detached1 perpendicular rocks stamp it with an image entirely its own1 and for that reason it affords the greater pleasure4 ,for it is in scenery as in life4 ,we are most struck with the peculiarity of an original character1 provided there be nothing offensive ,,thor',s ,,house4 8,where ,hamps and ,manifold1 their cliffs among1 ,each in his flinty channel winds along1 ,with lucid lines the dusky moor divides1 ,hurrying to intermix their sister tides1 ,where still their silver-bosom'd nymphs abhor ,the blood-smear'd mansion of gigantic ,thor-- ,erst fires volcanic in the marble womb ,of cloud-wrapp'd ,whetton rais'd the massy dome2 ,rocks rear'd on rocks1 in huge disjointed piles1 ,form the tall turrets1 and the lengthen'd aisles2 ,broad pond'rous piers sustain the roof1 and wide ,branch the vast rainbow ribs from side to side4 ,while from above1 descends1 in milky streams1 ,one scanty pencil of illusive beams1 ,suspended crags1 and gaping gulfs illumes1 ,and gilds the horrors of the deepen'd glooms4 ,here oft the ,naiads1 as they chanc'd to stray ,near the dread ,fane1 on ,thor's returning day1 ,saw from red altars streams of guiltless blood1 ,stain their green reed-beds1 and pollute their flood2 ,heard dying babes in wicker prisons wail1 ,and shrieks of matrons thrill the affrighted gale2 ,while from dark caves infernal echoes mock1 ,and fiends triumphant shout from every rock60--,,darwin4 ,this spacious cavern is situated about two miles above ,dove dale1 near the village of ,whetton2 and tradition says the ,druids here offered human sacrifices1 inclosed in wicker idols1 to ,thor1 the principal deity of the ,saxons and ,danes1 in the ages of their idolatrous worship4 ,beneath is an extensive and romantic common1 where the rivers ,hamps and ,manifold sink into the earth1 and rise again in ,islam gardens4 ,these rivers merit a brief description4 ,a wooden bridge has been thrown over an abyss in the rock1 out of which the river ,manifold bursts with surprising force1 after having pursued a subterraneous course of five miles1 from the point where it had engulfed itself in the earth1 called ,weston hill4 ,at the further distance of twenty yards a similar phenomenon occurs2 for here another fissure of a rock presents itself1 whence the river ,hamps throws its water into day4 ,this river disappears at ,leek-water ,houses1 a place between ,leek and ,ashbourn2 thus pursuing a subterraneous course of seven miles1 before it again emerges into light4 ,on their emersion1 the temperatures of the two rivers differ two degrees and a half1 the ,hamps being the coldest4 ,,the ,,lovers' ,,leap4 ,the environs of ,buxton abound in romantic sites1 among the most striking of which is the dale named the ,lovers' ,leap1 on account of a vast precipice which forms one side of a narrow chasm1 and from the summit of which a love-lorn female is said to have precipitated herself into the rocky gulf below4 ,each side of this beautiful dell is bounded by elevated rocks1 the proximity of which is such1 that for a considerable space there is scarcely room for the passage of the bubbling current of the ,wye4 ,several of these rocks are perpendicular1 and bare of vegetation2 while others are covered with ivy1 yew and ash-wood1 with a craggy steep occasionally starting through the verdure4 ,a circular road1 extending in circumference about three miles1 passes in view of the most romantic part of this dale1 and forms a very agreeable walk or ride from ,buxton4 ,at the southern extremity the scenery assumes a milder character1 the hollow taking the name of ,mill dale1 from a mill which is turned by the stream4 ,in conjunction with a rude bridge1 a mountainous path1 and other rural objects1 this forms a very picturesque view4 ,another fine scene is presented by a lofty rock1 called ,swallow ,tor1 which soars over a mass of wood1 the river at its base foaming and roaring over broken masses of limestone4 ,,the ,,moors4 ,derbyshire is everywhere fruitful in natural curiosities1 among the most striking of which may be reckoned the moors of ,hope parish1 inasmuch as they afford an extraordinary instance of the preservation of human bodies interred in them4 ,in the year #afgd1 a grazier and his female servant1 in crossing these moors on their way to ,ireland1 were lost in the snow1 with which they were covered from ,january to ,may1 and being then discovered1 the bodies were so offensive that the coroner ordered them to be buried on the spot4 ,after a lapse of twenty-nine years1 when the ground was opened1 they were in no way changed1 the color of the skin being fair and natural1 and the flesh as soft as that of persons newly dead4 ,for twenty succeeding years they were occasionally exposed as a spectacle1 but carefully covered after being viewed4 ,they lay at the depth of about three feet1 in a moist soil or moss4 ,the minister of ,hope parish was present in #agaf1 forty-two years after the accident1 at a particular inspection of these bodies4 ,on the stockings being drawn off1 the man's legs1 which had not been uncovered before1 were quite fair3 the flesh1 when pressed by the finger1 pitted a little2 and the joints played freely1 without the least stiffness4 ,such parts of the clothing as the avidity of the country people1 to possess so great a curiosity1 had spared1 were firm and good2 and a piece of new serge1 worn by the woman1 did not appear to have undergone any sensible change4 ,,other ,,english ,,curiosities4 ,having thus brought to a conclusion our details relative to the wonders of the peak1 and the various and interesting natural curiosities there to be found1 we subjoin a brief notice of several others1 which have1 in ,england1 attracted the notice of travelers4 ,among the extraordinary caverns to be found in the mountains of the north of ,england1 may be reckoned ,yordas cave1 in the vale of ,kingsland1 in ,yorkshire1 which contains a subterraneous cascade4 ,whethercot cave1 not far from ,ingleton1 is divided by an arch of limestones1 passing under which is seen a large cascade falling from a hight of more than sixty feet4 ,the length of this cave is about one hundred and eighty feet1 and the breadth ninety4 ,there are also in various parts of ,england many remarkable springs1 of which some are impregnated either with salt1 7as that of ,droitwich1 in ,worcestershire17 or sulphur1 7as the famous well of ,wigan1 in ,lancashire17 or bituminous matter1 7as that at ,pitchford1 in ,shropshire47 ,others have a petrifying quality1 as that near ,lutterworth1 in ,leicestershire1 and a dropping well in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire4 ,and1 finally1 some ebb and flow1 as that of the peak described above1 and ,laywell near ,torbay1 whose waters rise and fall several times in an hour4 ,to these we may add that remarkable fountain near ,richard's ,castle1 in ,herefordshire1 commonly called ,bone ,well1 which is generally full of small bones1 like those of frogs or fishes1 though often cleared out4 ,at a cliff near ,wigan1 in ,lancashire1 is the famous burning well3 the water is cold1 neither has it any smell2 yet so strong a vapor of sulphur issues out with the stream1 that upon applying a light to it1 the top of the water is covered with a flame1 like that of burning spirits1 which lasts several hours1 and emits such a heat that meat may be boiled over it4 ,,mountains ,,of ,,great ,,britain4 ,the ,british isles present many mountains of a bold and imposing character3 when contrasted1 however1 with those which have been already described1 they must be considered as comparatively diminutive4 ,,ben ,,nevis4 ,the loftiest of these mountains is ,ben ,nevis1 in ,scotland1 its elevation above the level of the sea being forty-three hundred and eighty feet1 or somewhat more than four-fifths of a mile4 ,it terminates in a point1 and elevates its rugged front far above all the neighboring mountains4 ,it is of easy ascent2 and at the perpendicular hight of fifteen hundred feet1 the vale beneath presents a very agreeable prospect1 the vista being beautified by a diversity of bushes1 shrubs1 and birch woods1 besides many little verdant spots4 ,the sea and the shore are also seen4 ,at the summit1 the view extends at once across the island1 eastward toward the ,german sea1 and westward to the ,atlantic ocean4 ,nature here appears on a majestic scale and the vastness of the prospect engages the whole attention1 at the same time the objects in view are of no common dimensions4 ,just over the opening of the sound1 at the south-west corner of ,mull1 ,colonsay rises out of the sea like a shade of mist1 at the distance of more than ninety miles4 ,shuna and ,lismore appear like small spots of rich verdure1 and1 though nearly thirty miles distant1 seem quite under the spectator4 ,the low parts of ,jura can not be discerned1 nor any part of ,isla2 far less the coast of ,ireland1 as has been asserted4 ,such is1 however1 the wide extent of view1 that it extends one hundred and seventy miles from the horizon of the sea at the ,murray frith1 on the north-east1 to the island of ,colonsay1 on the south-west4 ,on the north-east side of ,ben ,nevis is an almost perpendicular precipice1 certainly not less than fourteen hundred feet in depth2 probably more1 as it appears to exceed the third part of the entire hight of the mountain4 ,a stranger is astonished at the sight of this dreadful rock1 which has a quantity of snow lodged in its bosom throughout the whole year4 ,the sound of a stone thrown over the cliff to the bottom1 can not be heard when it falls1 so that it is impossible to ascertain in that way the hight of the precipice4 ,,snowdon4 ,this is the loftiest of the ,welch mountains1 its elevation above the level of the sea being thirty-seven hundred and twenty feet1 or nearly three-quarters of a mile4 ,it is accessible on one side only1 its flanks being in every other quarter precipitous4 ,its aspect soon convinces the spectator that he is not to look to the ,alps alone1 or to the rocky regions of ,altai1 bordering on ,siberia1 for romantic scenes of wildness1 confusion and disorder4 ,snowdon presents them in all their rude and native majesty4 ,in the ascent1 a narrow path not more than nine feet in width1 leads along the margin of a frightful precipice of nearly fifteen hundred feet in extent1 so perpendicular that it can not be approached without terror2 while to the north of the summit nearest to the one the most elevated1 a semi-amphitheater of precipitous rocks1 also of a great hight1 is seen2 and1 behind this summit1 another semicircle of equal depth and extent4 ,the loftiest summit here appears to descend in the form of a sharp ridge1 and beneath it another appears1 which1 on account of its color1 is called the ,black ,rock4 ,from the upper part of the valley1 one of these summits presents a grand1 vertical1 and very elevated point4 ,the bottom of each of the amphitheaters of rocks1 thirteen in number1 is occupied by a small lake of a circular form1 and very deep4 ,the one known by the name of ,llyn ,glass is remarkable for its green hue1 derived from its being impregnated with copper1 several mines of which line its borders4 ,than this mountain1 nothing in the ,alps can be more arid and desert1 those regions alone excepted which are too lofty to admit of vegetation4 ,here there is not a tree1 not even a shrub2 small patches of verdure1 which sheep can scarcely reach1 are alone to be seen4 ,its summit1 or highest peak1 is a flat of about eighteen feet only in circumference4 ,thence may be seen a part of ,ireland1 a part of ,scotland1 ,cumberland1 ,lancashire1 ,cheshire1 all ,north ,wales1 the isle of ,man1 and the ,irish and ,british seas1 with innumerable lakes2 while the whole island of ,anglesea is displayed so distinctly1 that1 its flat uncultivated plains1 bounded by the rich ,parys mountain in the vicinity of ,holyhead1 may be descried as on a map4 ,,cader ,,idris4 ,to the south of ,dolgellau1 ,cader ,idris towers above the subject mountains1 which seem to retire1 to allow its base more room to stand1 and to afford to their sovereign a better display4 ,it stands on a broad rocky base1 with a gradual ascent to its brow1 when the peaks elevate themselves in a manner at once abrupt1 picturesque and distinct4 ,the point emphatically named ,cader1 appears to the eye below to be little superior in hight to the saddle2 but the third point1 or apex1 which has a name expressive of its sterility1 is neither equal in hight1 nor in beauty1 to the other two4 ,on its loftiest peak a stone pillar has lately been erected1 for the purpose of a trigonometrical survey4 ,cader ,idris is the commencement of a chain of primitive mountains1 and is computed to be twenty-eight hundred and fifty feet above the green of ,dolgellau1 and thirty-five hundred and fifty feet1 or nearly three-fourths of a mile above the level of the sea4 ,it has been conjectured that at some remote period it was a volcano of immense magnitude4 ,the tract to the south of ,cader ,idris1 as far as ,talylyn and ,malwydd1 is peculiarly grand4 ,high and rugged mountains of every possible form1 close in on all sides1 while huge masses of rock hang over1 or lie scattered in misshapen fragments by the side of the road4 ,to add to the effect of this scene1 the river ,difi forms one continued cataract for five or six miles1 overflowing with the innumerable tributary torrents which precipitate themselves from the highest summits of the surrounding rocks2 while1 to crown the whole1 the shady head of ,cader ,idris towers1 the majestic sentinel of the group4 ,,penman-,,mawr4 ,the county of ,caernarvon1 in which this mountain is situated1 claims precedency over every other in ,wales1 for the loftiness of its mountains1 and the multitude of the eminences1 which in a curved and indented chain1 occupy nearly the whole of its extent4 ,in proceeding from ,conway to ,bangor1 by a route at once picturesque and romantic1 and amid a scenery which varies at every step1 ,penman-mawr discloses to the traveler its bulky head4 ,it protrudes itself into the sea1 and exhibits a fine contrast to the fertility which it interrupts1 by a rude view of gray weather-beaten stones and precipices4 ,the passage over the mountain was formerly terrific2 but the road has been latterly widened and secured1 near the verge of the precipice1 by a small wall about five feet in hight4 ,it forms the most sublime terrace in the ,british isles1 winding round the mountain on the edge of the abrupt cliff2 while the vast impending rocks above1 the roaring of the waves at a great distance below1 and the frequent howling of the wind1 all unite to fill the mind with solemnity and awe4 ,,skiddaw4 ,this ,english mountain1 which has an elevation of thirty-five hundred and thirty feet1 or nearly three-fourths of a mile above the level of the sea1 is situated in ,cumberland4 ,it is more remarkable on account of the scenery over which it presides1 and which exceeds in beauty whatever the imagination can paint1 than for those bold projections and that rugged majesty which might be expected1 but which will be here sought in vain4 ,except at such a distance as smooths the embossed work of all these rich fabrics1 and where its double summit makes it a distinguished object to mark and characterize a scene1 it may be considered as a tame and inanimate object4 ,,wharnside4 ,in some of the maps of ,yorkshire1 the hight of this mountain is greatly exaggerated1 its elevation above the sea not being more than twenty-five hundred feet1 or nearly half a mile4 ,as it is situated in the midst of a vast amphitheater of hills1 the prospect it affords is diversified with pleasing objects4 ,on its summit are four or five small lakes1 two of which are about nine hundred feet in length1 and nearly the same in breadth4 ,a thin seam of coal also occurs near the top1 and another is said to correspond with it on the summit of the lofty ,colm hill1 on the opposite side of ,dent dale4 ,numerous caves and other natural curiosities abound here1 as well as on ,pennigent1 about six miles to the eastward of ,ingleborough4 ,these latter mountains do not possess any particular interest4 ,,stromboli4 ,stromboli is the principal of the cluster of small islands1 lying to the north of ,sicily1 named the ,lipari isles1 the whole of which contain volcanoes4 ,at a distance1 its form appears to be that of an exact cone1 but on a closer examination it is found to be a mountain having two summits of different hights1 the sides of which have been torn and shattered by craters4 ,the most elevated summit1 inclining to the south-west1 is1 agreeably to ,spallanzani1 about a mile in hight4 ,in this volcanic mountain1 the effects of a constantly active fire are everywhere visible1 heaping up1 destroying1 changing1 and overturning every instant what itself has produced1 and incessantly varying in its operations4 ,at the distance of one hundred miles1 the flames it emits are visible1 whence it has been aptly denominated the light-house of that part of the ,mediterranean sea4 ,from the more elevated summit1 all the inner part of the burning crater1 and the mode of its eruption1 may be seen4 ,it is placed about half-way up1 on the north-west side of the mountain1 and has a diameter not exceeding two hundred and fifty feet4 ,burning stones are thrown up at regular intervals of seven or eight minutes1 ascending in somewhat diverging rays4 ,while a portion of them roll down toward the sea1 the greater part fall back into the crater2 and these being again cast out by a subsequent eruption1 are thus tossed about until they are broken and reduced to ashes4 ,the volcano1 however1 constantly supplies others1 and seems inexhaustible in this species of productions4 ,spallanzani affirms that1 in the more violent eruptions1 the ejected matter rises to the hight of half a mile1 or even higher1 many of the ignited stones being thrown above the highest summit of the mountain4 ,the erupted stones1 which appear black in the day-time1 have at night a deep red color1 and sparkle like fire-works4 ,each explosion is accompanied by flames or smoke1 the latter resembling clouds1 in the lower part black1 in the upper white and shining1 and separating into globular and irregular forms4 ,in particularly high winds from the south or south-east1 the smoke spreads over every part of the island4 ,spallanzani observed this volcano on a particular night1 when the latter of these winds blew with great violence4 ,the clear sky exhibited the appearance of a beautiful aurora borealis over that part of the mountain on which the volcano is situated1 and which from time to time became more red and brilliant1 in proportion as the ignited stones were thrown to a greater hight4 ,the violence of the convulsions depends on that of the wind4 ,the present crater has burned for more than a century1 without any apparent change having taken place in its situation4 ,the side from which the showers of ignited matter fall into the sea1 is almost perpendicular1 about half a mile broad at the bottom1 and a mile in length1 terminating above in a point4 ,in rolling down1 the lava raises the fine sand like a cloud of dust4 ,while this was observed by ,spallanzani1 the volcano suddenly made an eruption4 ,numerous pieces of lava of a dark red color1 and enveloped in smoke1 were ejected from the top of the precipice1 and thrown high into the air4 ,a part of them fell on the declivity1 and rolled down1 the smaller preceded by the greater2 after a few bounds1 dashing into the sea1 giving out a sharp hissing sound4 ,the more minute fragments1 from their lightness1 and the hindrance of the sand1 rolled slowly down1 and striking against each other1 produced nearly the same sound as hail-stones falling on a roof4 ,in a few minutes another explosion followed1 without any sensible noise2 and two minutes after a third eruption took place1 with a much louder explosion than the first1 and a far more copious ejection of lava4 ,the eruptions1 which were almost innumerable during the time ,spallanzani remained there1 all exhibited the same appearances4 ,on the night following the one above described1 the volcano raged with still greater violence1 and rapidly hurled to a great hight1 thousands of red-hot stones1 forming diverging rays in the air4 ,those which rolled down the precipice1 produced a hail of streaming fire1 which illuminated the steep descent4 ,independently of these ignited stones1 there was in the air which hovered over the volcano1 a vivid light1 which was not extinguished when that was at rest4 ,it was not properly flame1 but real light reverberated by the atmosphere1 impregnated by extraneous particles1 and more especially by the ascending smoke4 ,besides varying in intensity1 it appeared constantly in motion1 ascending1 descending1 dilating and contracting1 but always remaining perpendicular over the mouth of the volcano1 which showed that it was occasioned by the conflagration within the crater4 ,the detonations in the greater eruptions resembled the roaring of distant thunder1 and in the lesser ones1 the explosions of a mine4 ,in the smallest they were scarcely audible4 ,each was some seconds later than the ejection4 ,near the mouth of the volcano is a small cavern1 a projection above which secures it from the entrance of the ignited stones4 ,from this cavern ,spallanzani was enabled to look down into the very bowels of the volcano4 ,he describes the edges of the crater as of a circular form1 and not more than three hundred and forty feet in circumference1 the internal sides contracting as they descend1 and assuming the shape of a truncated inverted cone4 ,the crater itself1 to a certain hight1 is filled with a liquid red-hot matter1 resembling melted brass4 ,this is the fluid lava1 which appears to be agitated by two distinct motions1 the one intestine1 whirling and tumultuous1 and the other that by which it is impelled upward4 ,this liquid matter is raised1 sometimes with more1 and sometimes with less rapidity1 within the crater2 and when it has reached within twenty-five or thirty feet of the upper edge1 a sound is heard not unlike a short clap of thunder1 while at the same moment a portion of the lava1 separated into a thousand pieces1 is thrown up with indescribable swiftness1 accompanied by a copious eruption of smoke1 ashes and sand4 ,a few moments before the report1 the superficies of the lava is inflated and covered with large bubbles1 some of which are several feet in diameter2 on the bursting of these the detonation and fiery shower take place4 ,after the explosion1 the lava within the crater sinks1 but soon rises again as before1 and new bubbles appear1 which again burst and produce new explosions4 ,when the lava sinks1 it gives little or no sound2 but when it rises1 and particularly when it begins to be inflated with bubbles1 it is accompanied by a noise similar1 in proportion to the difference of magnitude1 to that of liquor boiling vehemently in a caldron4 ,,lipari4 ,this island1 which has given name to the whole cluster1 is deserving of notice on account of its celebrated 8stoves40 ,they are the only vestiges of subterraneous conflagration now remaining1 and lie to the west of the city1 on the summit of a mountain of considerable elevation1 called ,monte della ,stufe1 the ,mountain of ,stoves4 ,they consist of five excavations1 in the form of grottos2 but two of them have been abandoned on account of the great heat1 an exposure to which might cause suffocation4 ,even the stones are so hot that they can not be touched2 but still the heat varies1 and experiences all the vicissitudes of volcanoes4 ,the ground is not penetrated with hot vapors issuing from several apertures1 as has been asserted4 ,spallanzani1 however1 found one from which a thin stream of smoke issued from time to time1 with a strong sulphureous smell1 indicating the remains of conflagration existing beneath4 ,it is impossible to fix the exact epoch at which the fires of ,lipari were extinguished1 or rather the period at which the eruptions ceased1 for the existence of the former may be deduced from the hot springs and stoves4 ,dolomieu thinks the last eruptions are as old as the sixth century of the ,christian era1 and conjectures that they may have ceased since the fires found a new vent in ,vulcano1 since he does not entertain any doubt but that the two islands have a subterraneous communication4 ,of this the inhabitants of ,lipari are so well convinced1 that they are in the greatest agitation when ,vulcano does not smoke1 and when its passages are obstructed4 ,they fear shocks and violent eruptions1 suspecting even that the fires may again break out in their island4 ,it is a fact that the earthquakes1 which are very frequent1 generally cease when the eruptions of ,vulcano commence4 ,,vulcano4 ,this1 which is the last of the ,lipari isles1 bears in every part the stamp of fire4 ,it was the superstitious belief of the ancient inhabitants that ,vulcan had here established his forges1 there being constant fires during the night1 and a thick smoke throughout the day4 ,it consists of a mountain in the form of a truncated cone1 which is1 however1 merely a case opening and exposing to view a second cone within1 more exact than the other1 and in which the mouth of the volcano is placed4 ,the latter is thus enveloped on three sides by the ancient cone1 and is open only on that side which is immediately washed by the sea4 ,the base of the interior cone is separated from the steep sides of the ancient crater by a circular valley1 which terminates on one side at the junction of the two mountains1 and on the other sinks into the sea4 ,in this valley1 light pumice-stones are blended with fragments of black1 vitreous lava1 and buried in ashes perfectly white4 ,the blow of a hammer on these stones produces a loud hollow sound1 which rechoes in the neighboring caverns1 and proves that the surface is nothing more than the arch of a vault covering an immense abyss4 ,the sound varies according to the thickness of the crust1 which must have considerable solidity to support the weight of the new mountain4 ,this1 according to ,dolomieu1 is higher and steeper than the cone which contains the crater of ,etna1 and its access still more difficult2 its perpendicular hight1 however1 is not more than twenty-six hundred and forty feet1 or half a mile4 ,he represents the crater of ,vulcano as the most magnificent he ever saw2 and ,spallanzani observes that1 with the exception of that of ,etna1 he does not know of any more capacious and majestic4 ,it exceeds a mile in circuit1 has an oval mouth1 and its greatest diameter is from the south-east to the west1 while its depth is not more than a quarter of a mile4 ,the bottom is flat1 and from many places streams of smoke exhale1 emitting a strong sulphureous vapor4 ,this vast cavity is very regular1 and as its entire contents are displayed to the eye1 presents one of the grandest and most imposing spectacles in nature4 ,on large stones being rolled down1 the mountain rechoes2 and on their reaching the bottom1 they appear to sink in fluid4 ,indeed1 with the aid of a glass1 two small lakes1 supposed to be filled with melted sulphur1 have been discovered4 ,the declivity of the interior walls is so great1 that1 even when there is not any danger from fire1 the descent is next to impossible4 ,after considerable difficulty1 however1 this was accomplished by ,spallanzani on the south-east side1 the only one accessible4 ,he found the bottom to be somewhat more than one-third of a mile in circumference1 and of an oval form4 ,the subterraneous noise was here much louder than on the summit1 sounding like an impetuous river foaming beneath1 or1 rather1 like a conflict of agitated waves meeting and clashing furiously together4 ,the ground was likewise in some places perforated with apertures1 from which hissing sounds issued1 resembling those produced by the bellows of a furnace4 ,it shook when pressed by the feet2 and a large piece of lava1 let fall five or six feet1 produced a subterraneous echoing sound1 which continued some time1 and was loudest in the center4 ,these circumstances1 combined with its burning heat1 and the strong stench of sulphur it emits1 prove that the fires of the volcano are still active4 ,its eruptions have been most considerable during the earthquakes which have desolated ,sicily and a greater part of ,italy4 ,in the month of ,march1 #aghf1 after subterraneous thunders and roarings1 which were heard over all the islands1 to the great terror of the inhabitants1 and were accompanied by frequent concussions1 the crater threw out a prodigious quantity of sand1 mixed with immense volumes of smoke and fire4 ,this eruption continued fifteen days1 and so great was the quantity of sand ejected that the circumjacent places were entirely covered with it to a considerable hight4 ,the lava did not flow at the time1 at least over the edges of the crater2 and indeed1 such a current is not remembered by any living person4 ,,the ,,himalaya ,,mountains4 ,,between ,,india ,,and ,,thibet4 8,the great ,himalayan snowy range10 says ,mr4 ,fraser1 8is only the high elevated crest of the mountainous tract that divides the plains of ,hindoostan from those of ,thibet1 or ,lesser ,tartary4 ,far as they predominate over1 and precipitously as they rear themselves above the rest1 all the hills that appear in distant ranges1 when viewed from the plains1 are indeed only the roots and branches of this great stem2 and1 however difficult to trace1 the connection can always be detected between each inferior mountain and some particular member of its great origin4 8,the horizontal depth of this mountainous tract1 on that side which overlooks ,hindoostan1 is no doubt various2 but1 from the difficulty of the country1 a traveler performs a journey of many days before he reaches the foot of the immediate snowy cliffs4 ,the best observations and surveys do not authorize the allowance of more than an average depth of about sixty miles from the plains to the commencement of these1 in that part of the country that forms the subject of this narrative4 ,the breadth of the snowy zone itself in all probability varies still more2 for huge masses advance in some places into the lower districts1 and in others the crest recedes in long ravines1 that are the beds of torrents1 while behind they are clothed by a succession of the loftier cliffs4 ,every account we receive of a passage through them1 7and this is no doubt found most commonly where the belt is narrowest17 gives a detail of many days' journey through the deserts of snow and rocks2 and it is to be inferred1 that on the north-east side they advance to1 and retreat from the low ground in an equally irregular manner4 ,indeed1 some accounts would induce the belief1 that long ranges1 crowned with snow-clad peaks1 project in various places from the great spine1 and include habitable and milder districts2 for1 in all the routes of which we have accounts1 that proceed1 in various directions toward the ,trans-,himalayan countries1 hills covered with snow are occasionally mentioned as occurring1 even after the great deserts are passed1 and the grazing country entered4 ,the breadth1 then1 of this crest of snow-clad rock itself1 can not fairly be estimated at less than from seventy to eighty miles4 8,the great snowy belt1 although its loftiest crest is broken into numberless cliffs and ravines1 nevertheless presents a barrier perfectly impracticable1 except in those places where hollows that become the beds of rivers have in some degree intersected it1 and facilitated approach to its more remote recesses1 or courageous and attentive perseverance has here and there1 discovered a dangerous and difficult path1 by which a possibility exists of penetrating across the range4 ,few rivers hold their course wholly through it3 indeed1 in the upper part the ,sutlej alone has been traced beyond this rocky barrier2 and there is a path along its stream1 from different parts of which roads diverge1 that lead in various directions through the mountain4 ,no reasonable doubt can now exist of the very long and extraordinary course which this river takes4 8,captain ,webb of the ,bengal establishment1 was at one time employed on a survey of a province of ,kumaoon4 ,on the twenty-first day of ,june1 his camp was eleven thousand1 six hundred and eighty feet above ,calcutta4 ,the surface was covered with very rich vegetation as high as the knee2 there were very extensive beds of strawberries in full flower2 and plenty of currant-bushes in blossom all around1 in a clear spot of rich black mold soil1 surrounded by a noble forest of pine1 oak and rhododendron4 ,on the twenty-second of ,june he reached the top of ,pilgoenta-,churhaee1 7or ascent17 twelve thousand1 six hundred and forty-two feet above ,calcutta4 ,he was prevented from distinguishing very distant objects by a dense fog2 but there was not the smallest patch of snow near him2 and the surface1 a fat black mold through which the rock peeped1 was covered with strawberry plants1 7not yet in flower17 butter-cups1 dandelions1 and a profusion of other flowers4 ,the shoulders of the hill above him1 about four hundred and fifty feet more elevated1 were covered with the same to the top2 and above five hundred feet below was a forest of pine1 rhododendron and birch4 ,there was some snow seen below in deep hollows1 but it dissolves in the course of the season4 ,these facts led ,captain ,webb to infer1 that the inferior limit of perpetual congelation on the ,himalaya mountains is beyond thirteen thousand1 five hundred feet1 at least1 above the level of ,calcutta3 and that the level of the table-land of ,tartary1 immediately bordering on their range1 is very far elevated beyond eight thousand feet1 the hight at which it has been estimated4 8,on the night of the sixteenth of ,july1 we slept at ,bheemkeudar1 near the source of the ,coonoo and ,bheem streams4 ,there is no wood near this place1 even in the very bottom of the valley1 and we had left even the stunted birch at a considerable distance below2 but there was a profusion of flowers1 ferns1 thistles1 c41 and luxuriant pasturage4 ,captain ,webb's limit of wood is at least as high as twelve thousand to twelve thousand1 three hundred feet4 ,i would1 therefore1 presume the site of ,bheemkeudar to be considerably above that level2 say thirteen thousand to thirteen thousand1 three hundred feet1 above the level of ,calcutta4 ,from thence we ascended at first rather gradually1 and then very rapidly1 till we left all luxuriant vegetation1 and entered the region of stripped and scattered and partially melting snow4 ,from calculating the distance passed1 and adverting to the elevation we had attained1 ,i would presume that this was at least fifteen hundred feet above ,bheemkeudar1 or from fourteen thousand1 five hundred1 to fifteen thousand feet above ,calcutta4 8,we proceeded onward1 ascending very rapidly1 while vegetation decreased gradually to a mere green moss1 with here and there a few snow-flowers starting through it2 snow fast increasing1 till at length we entered on what ,i presume was the perennial and unmelting snow1 entirely beyond the line of vegetation1 where the rock was bare even of lichens3 and in this we ascended1 as ,i think1 about eight hundred feet2 for1 though ,bamsooroo ,ghat may not be so far above this line1 we continued ascending1 even after crossing that point1 and ,i would incline to estimate this utmost extent of ascent at two thousand feet more1 or nearly seventeen thousand feet above the level of ,calcutta4 8,whilst proposing to consider the point of sixteen thousand to sixteen thousand1 five hundred feet1 as that of inferior congelation1 ,i must observe that there was no feeling of frost in the air1 and the snow was moist1 though hard1 chiefly through the influence of a thick mist1 which1 in fact1 amounted to a very small drizzling rain1 which fell around3 all which would seem to indicate1 that the true line of congelation had not there been attained2 but we were surrounded by snow which evidently never melted4 ,to a great depth below it extended all over the hills1 very little broken1 while on the valleys from whence the ,coonoo and ,bheem streams issue1 at full two thousand feet below1 it lay covering them and the surrounding mountains in an unbroken mass1 many hundred feet thick4 ,thus1 though it may seem contradictory1 the line of perpetual congelation1 in fact seems fixable at even below the point ,i have ventured to indicate1 and1 ,i presume1 might1 on these grounds1 be placed somewhere between fifteen and sixteen thousand feet above the level of ,calcutta4 8,the result of all the considerations that arise out of the foregoing remarks is a belief1 that the loftiest peaks of the ,himalaya range will be found to fall considerably short of the hight attributed to them by ,mr4 ,colebrooke2 and that their loftiest peaks do not more than range from eighteen thousand to twenty-two or twenty-three thousand feet above the level of the sea4 8,having reached the top of an ascent1 we looked down upon a very deep and dark glen1 called ,palia ,gadh1 which is the outlet to the waters of one of the most terrific and gloomy valleys ,i have ever seen4 ,but it would not be easy to convey by any description a just idea of the peculiarly rugged and gloomy wildness of this glen3 it looks like the ruins of nature1 and appears1 as it is said to be1 completely impracticable and impenetrable4 ,little is to be seen except dark rock3 wood only fringes the lower parts and the waters' edge3 perhaps the spots and streaks of snow1 contrasting with the general blackness of the scene1 highten the appearance of desolation4 ,no living thing is seen2 no motion is visible but that of the waters2 no sound is heard but their roar4 ,such a spot is suited to engender superstition1 and here it is accordingly found in full growth4 ,many wild traditions are preserved1 and many extravagant stories related of it4 8,the glen above described1 is by far the most gloomy1 savage scene we have yet met with4 ,i regret that the weather did not permit a sketch of it to be attempted4 ,beyond this we could see nothing in the course of the river but rocky banks4 ,the opposite side is particularly precipitous2 yet along its face a road is carried1 which is frequented as much as this1 and leads to villages still farther up4 ,by the time we had reached the village1 the clouds which had lowered around and sunk down on the hills1 began to burst with loud thunder and heavy rain4 ,the noise was fearfully reverberated among the hills2 and during the night more than once the sound was heard of fragments from the brows of the mountains1 crashing down to the depths below with a terrific din4 ,our quarters were good4 ,i slept in a temple1 neat1 clean and secure from the weather40 ,illustration3 ,,source ,,of ,,the ,,jumna4 ,,gungotree1 ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,the ,,jumna1 ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,the ,,ganges1 ,,in ,,the ,,himalaya ,,mountains4 ,gungotree1 the source of the ,jumna1 represented in the cut below1 the most sacred branch of the ,ganges1 ought to hold1 and does hold the first rank among its holy places4 ,here all is mythological ground4 ,here ,mahadeo sits enthroned in clouds and mist1 amid rocks that defy the approach of living thing1 and snows that make desolation more awful4 ,gods1 goddesses and saints here continually adore him at mysterious distance1 and you traverse their familiar haunts4 ,but1 although ,gungotree be the most sacred1 it is not the most frequented shrine1 access to it being far more difficult than to ,buddrinauth2 and consequently to this latter1 pilgrims flock in crowds1 appalled at the remoteness and danger of the former place of worship4 ,this may pretty fully account for the superior riches and splendor of ,buddrinauth4 ,here are temples of considerable extent1 priests and officials in abundance1 who preserve an imposing exterior1 and an appearance venerable from power and comparative magnificence1 and consequently procure rich and ample offerings to keep up their comfortable dignity4 ,the temple of ,bhadrinath1 is situated on the west bank of the ,alackunda1 in a valley four miles long1 and one mile in its greatest breadth4 ,the east bank rises considerably higher than the west bank1 and is on a level with the top of the temple4 ,the position of the sanctuary is considered equidistant from two lofty mountains1 which are designated by the names of the ,nar and the ,narayena ,purvatas4 ,the former is to the east1 the latter to the west1 and completely covered with snow from the summit to the base4 ,the temple of ,bhadri-,nath has more beneficed lands attached to it than any sacred ,hindoo establishment in this part of ,india4 ,it is said to possess seven hundred villages in different parts of ,gurwhal and ,kumaoon3 many of them have been conferred by the government2 others have been given in pledge for loans2 and some few1 purchased by individuals1 have been presented as religious offerings4 ,the annual ceremony of carrying the images of their gods to wash in the sacred stream of the ,jumna1 is1 it appears1 one of much solemnity among the inhabitants of the neighborhood2 and the concourse of people that here assemble1 are busily engaged1 and continue to be fully occupied in doing honor to it4 ,they dance to the sound of strange music1 and intoxicate themselves with a sort of vile spirit1 brewed from grain and particular roots1 sometimes1 it is said1 sharpened by pepper4 ,the dance is most grotesque and savage2 a multitude of men taking hands sometimes in a circle1 sometimes in a line1 beating time with their feet1 bend with one accord1 first nearly to the earth with their faces1 then backward1 and then sidewise1 with various wild contortions4 ,these1 and their uncouth dress of black and gray blankets1 give a peculiar air of brutal ferocity to the assemblage4 ,the men dance all day1 and in the evening they are joined by the women1 who mix indiscriminately with them1 and keep up dancing and intoxication till the night is far advanced4 ,they continue this frantic kind of worship for several days2 and1 in truth1 it is much in unison with their general manners and habits1 savage and inconsistent4 ,at a place so sacred1 the residence of so many ,brahmins1 and the resort of so many pilgrims1 we might expect to find a strict attention to the forms of religion1 and a scrupulous observance of the privations and austerities enjoined by it4 ,so far1 however1 is this from the truth1 that much is met with1 shocking even to those ,hindoos who are less bigoted4 8,there were several points to be arranged10 says ,mr4 ,fraser1 8before we could set off for ,gungotree1 the source of the ,jumna4 ,i did not deem it proper to go unarmed2 but agreed that only five men should be accoutered to attend us1 and that ,i should myself carry my gun4 ,but all these weapons of war were to be put aside before we got within sight of the holy spot1 and deposited in a cave near it1 under a guard4 ,i also pledged myself that no use should be made of these instruments1 nor any life sacrificed for the purpose of food1 either by myself or by any of my people1 after leaving the village1 until we returned2 moreover1 that ,i would not even carry meat of any sort1 dead or alive1 along with me1 but eat only rice and bread4 ,as to the putting off my shoes1 they did not even propose it to me1 and it could not have been done2 but ,i volunteered to put them off1 when entering into the precincts of the temple and holier places1 which pleased them greatly4 ,all the ,hindoos1 including the ,ghoorkhas1 went from the village barefoot4 8,just at the end of the bridge there is an overhanging rock1 under which worship is performed to ,bhyram1 and a black stone partly painted red1 is the image of the god2 and here not only were prayers and worship performed1 but every one was obliged to bathe and eat bread baked by the ,brahmins1 as preparatory to the great and effectual ablutions at the holier ,gungotree4 ,this occupied a considerable time1 as the party was numerous3 in the mean time ,i took a very imperfect sketch of the scene1 after which ,i bathed myself at the proper place1 which is the junction of the two streams1 while the ,brahmin prayed over me4 ,among the ceremonies performed1 he made me hold a tuft of grass while he prayed1 which at the conclusion he directed me to throw into the eddy occasioned by the meeting of the two waters4 8,by an unpleasant path we reached a step1 or level spot on the first stage of the mountain1 where1 in a thick grove of fir-trees1 is placed a small temple to ,bhyram1 a plain white building1 built by order of ,umur ,sing ,t'happa1 who gave a sum of money to repair the road1 and erect places of worship here1 and at ,gungotree4 ,having paid our respects to ,byramjee1 we proceeded along the side of the hill on the right bank1 north of the river1 gradually ascending by a path equally difficult and dangerous as the first part of our ascent1 but more fearful1 as the precipice to the river1 which rolls below us1 increases in hight1 and exceedingly toilsome from the nature of the ground over which it passes1 and which consists wholly of sharp fragments from the cliffs above1 with fallen trunks and broken branches of trees4 8,the path increases in difficulty from the very irregular nature of the ground1 as well as the steepness of the hill face across which it leads1 ascending and descending as the small1 though deep water-courses furrow the mountain side1 in loose soil1 formed of small fragments fallen from above1 and which slip down1 threatening to carry the traveler to the gulf below4 ,the shapeless blocks of rock now more completely obstruct the way1 and for hundreds of yards1 at times1 the passenger must clamber over these masses1 heaped as they are one upon another1 in monstrous confusion1 and so uncertain and unsteady1 that1 huge though they are1 they shake and move even under the burden of a man's weight4 ,so painful indeed is this track1 that it might be conceived as meant to serve as a penance to the unfortunate pilgrims with bare feet1 thus to prepare them for the special and conclusive act of piety they have in view1 as the object of their journey to these extreme wilds4 8,the spot which bears the name of ,gungotree1 is concealed by the roughness of the ground1 and the masses of fallen rock1 so as not to be seen till the traveler comes close upon it4 ,the temple is situated precisely on the sacred stone on which ,bhagirutte used to worship ,mahadeo1 and is a small building of a square shape for about twelve feet high1 and rounding in1 in the usual form of pagodas1 to the top4 ,it is quite plain1 painted white1 with red moldings1 and surmounted with the usual melon-shaped ornaments of these buildings4 ,from the eastern face of the square1 which is turned nearly to the sacred source1 there is a small projection covered with a stone roof1 in which is the entrance facing the east1 and just opposite this there is a small pagoda-shaped temple to ,bhyramjee4 ,the whole is surrounded by a wall of unhewn stone and lime1 and the space this contains is paved with flat stones4 ,in this space too1 there is a comfortable but small house for the residence of the ,brahmins who come to officiate4 ,without the inclosure there are two or three sheds constructed of wood1 called dhurum sallahs1 built for the accommodation of pilgrims who resort here2 and there are many caves around formed by overhanging stones1 which yield a shelter to those who can not find accommodation in the sheds4 8,the scene in which this holy place is situated1 is worthy of the mysterious sanctity attributed to it1 and the reverence with which it is regarded4 ,we have not here the confined gloominess of ,bhyram ,gattee3 the actual dread which can not but be inspired by the precipices and torrents1 and perils of the place1 here gives way to a sensation of awe1 imposing but not embarrassing1 that might be compared to the dark and dangerous pass to the center of the ruins of a former world2 for1 most truly1 there is little here that recalls the recollection of that which we seem to have quitted4 ,the bare and peaked cliffs which shoot to the skies1 yield not in ruggedness or elevation to any we have seen2 their ruins lie in wild chaotic masses at their feet1 and scantier wood imperfectly relieves their nakedness3 even the dark pine more rarely roots itself in the deep chasms which time has worn4 ,thus on all sides is the prospect closed1 except in front to the eastward2 where1 from behind a mass of bare spires1 four huge1 lofty1 snowy peaks arise3 these are the peaks of ,roodroo-,himala4 ,there could be no finer finishing1 no grander close to such a scene1 as is visible in the engraving4 8,we approach it through a labyrinth of enormous shapeless masses of granite1 which during ages have fallen from the cliffs above1 that frown over the very temple1 and in all probability will some day themselves descend in ruins and crush it4 ,around the inclosure1 and among these masses1 for some distance up the mountain1 a few fine old pine-trees throw a dark shade and form a magnificent foreground2 while the river runs impetuously in its shingly bed1 and the stifled but fearful sound of the stones which it rolls along with it1 crushing together1 mixes with the roar of its waters4 8,it is easy to write of rocks and wilds1 of torrents and precipices2 it is easy to tell of the awe such scenes inspire3 this style and these descriptions are common and hackneyed4 ,but it is not so simple1 to many surely not very possible1 to convey an adequate idea of the stern and rugged majesty of some scenes2 to paint their lonely desertness1 or describe the undefinable sensation of reverence and dread that steals over the mind while contemplating the death-like1 ghastly calm that is shed over them3 and when at such a moment we remember our homes1 our friends1 our firesides1 and all social intercourse with our fellows1 and feel our present solitude1 and far distance from all these dear ties1 how vain it is to strive at description6 ,surely such a scene is ,gungotree4 ,see cut1 page #aji4 ,nor is it1 independently of the nature of the surrounding scenery1 a spot which lightly calls forth powerful feelings4 ,we were now in the center of the stupendous ,himalaya1 the loftiest and perhaps most rugged range of mountains in the world4 ,we were at the acknowledged source of that noble river1 which is equally an object of veneration and a source of fertility1 plenty and opulence to ,hindoostan2 and we had now reached the holiest shrine of ,hindoo worship which these holy hills contain4 ,these are surely striking considerations1 combining with the solemn grandeur of the place1 to move the feelings strongly4 8,the fortuitous circumstance of being the first ,european that ever penetrated to this spot1 was no matter of boast1 for no great danger had been braved1 no extraordinary fatigues undergone2 the road is now open to any other who chooses to attempt it2 but it was a matter of satisfaction to myself4 ,the first object of inquiry that naturally occurs to the traveler1 after casting a glance over the general landscape1 is the source of the river4 ,here1 as at ,jumnotree1 you are told that no mortal has gone1 or can go further toward its extreme origin than this spot2 and the difficulty is indeed very apparent4 ,i made a trial to gain a point about two furlongs beyond the temple1 both for the purpose of observing the course of the river1 and of seeing ,gungotree in another point of view4 ,but having with considerable difficulty made my way over the unsteady fragments for some hundred yards1 at the risk of being precipitated into the stream1 ,i was forced to turn back4 8,the source is not more than five miles' horizontal distance from the temple1 and in a direction south-east1 eighty-five degrees nearly2 and beyond this place it is in all probability chiefly supplied by the melting of the great bosom of snow which terminates the valley1 and which lies between the peaks of the great mountain above mentioned4 8,this mountain1 which is considered to be the loftiest and greatest of the snowy range in this quarter1 and probably yields to none in the whole ,himalaya1 obtains the name of ,roodroo ,himala1 and is held to be the throne or residence of ,mahadeo himself4 ,it is also indiscriminately called ,pauch ,purbut1 from its five peaks1 and ,soomeroo ,purbot1 which is not to be confounded with the mountain so called near ,bunderbouch2 and sometimes the general appellation of ,kylas is given1 which literally signifies any snowy hill1 but is applied to this mountain by way of preminence4 ,it has five principal peaks1 called ,roodroo ,himala1 ,burrumpooree1 ,bissenpooree1 ,oodgurre ,kanta and ,soorga ,rounee4 ,these form a sort of semicircular hollow of very considerable extent1 filled with eternal snow1 from the gradual dissolution of the lower parts of which the principal part of the stream is generated3 probably there may be smaller hollows beyond the point to the right above ,gungotree1 which also supply a portion4 8,within the temple there are three images2 one1 that of ,kali2 and the elevated stone shelf on which they were placed was wet and soiled with the offerings made2 there was a peculiar smell1 but ,i know not whence it proceeded4 ,the place1 as usual1 was lighted by a small lamp3 no daylight had admittance4 ,just below the temple1 on the river side1 grew three poplar trees1 and a few small larches2 above there are the remains of a fine old silver fir-tree1 which overshadows some of the caves and sheds4 ,the whole people also bathed1 and contributed something to the priesthood2 and it was a matter of serious importance1 as well as of great joy to every one1 that we had thus happily reached a place of such supereminent sanctity3 such1 indeed1 that the act of bathing here is supposed to cleanse from every sin heretofore committed1 and the difficulty of which is so great1 that few1 except professional devotees1 ever attempt reaching the holy place4 8,it is customary that those who have lost their father and mother1 or either of these1 shall be shaved at this spot2 and it was curious to observe the whimsical changes produced by the operation1 which numbers underwent4 ,it appears also1 that one chief ordinance was the going frequently round the holy temple2 and we particularly observed that those who were noted as the greatest rogues were most forward in this pious exercise3 one man1 in particular1 who had been a notorious thief1 was unwearied in his perseverance4 8,well1 indeed1 do they say1 that ,seeva has made these recesses which he inhabits1 inaccessible to all but those whom true devotion leads to his shrine4 ,that man must have been indeed strongly impelled by devotion1 ambition1 or curiosity1 who first explored the way to ,gungotree4 ,it were unavailing to inquire1 and perhaps of little use1 if known1 to which of these motives we owe the enterprise2 but patience1 perseverance1 and courage1 must have been strongly united with it to lead him safely and successfully through those awful cliffs1 that would bar the way to most men4 ,another omen of favor pointed out was1 the increase of the river after bathing1 as at ,jumnotree2 and it is singular enough1 that during the time we remained here1 ,i remarked several increases and decreases of the water1 without any obvious causes2 but these may fairly be referred to the effects of sudden changes of temperature occurring frequently among the hills1 and acting on the body of snow that feeds the river40 ,,asiatic ,,volcanoes4 ,among the ,asiatic burning mountains1 a brief account of which we introduce after the above interesting notice of the grand ,himalaya chain1 those of ,japan are both remarkable and numerous4 ,on the summit of a mountain in the province of ,figo1 is a large cavern1 formerly the mouth of a volcano1 but the flame of which has ceased1 probably for want of combustible matter4 ,in the same province1 near a religious structure called the ,temple of the ,jealous ,god of ,aso1 a perpetual flame issues from the top of a mountain4 ,in the province of ,tsickusen is another burning mountain1 where was formerly a coal-pit1 which having been set on fire by the carelessness of the workmen1 has been burning ever since4 ,sometimes a black smoke1 accompanied by a very disagreeable stench1 is observed to issue from the summit of a famous mountain called ,fesi1 in the province of ,seruga4 ,this mountain is said to be nearly as high as the peak of ,teneriffe1 but in shape and beauty is supposed not to have an equal4 ,its top is covered with perpetual snow4 ,belonging to the ,japanese cluster1 and not far from ,piranda1 is a small rocky island1 which has been burning and trembling for many centuries2 and in another small island1 opposite to ,santzuma1 is a volcano which has been burning at different intervals for many ages4 ,captain ,gore1 when leaving ,japan1 passed by great quantities of pumice-stone1 several pieces of which were taken up1 and found to weigh from one ounce to three pounds4 ,it was conjectured that these stones had been thrown into the sea by eruptions at various times1 as many of them were covered by barnacles 7small shells7 and others were quite bare4 ,,volcanic ,,mountains ,,of ,,kamtschatka4 ,there are three burning mountains of ,kamtschatka1 which for many years have thrown out a considerable smoke1 but do not often burst into a flame4 ,one of these is situated in the vicinity of ,awatska2 and another1 named the volcano of ,tolbatchiek1 on a neck of land between the river ,kamtschatka and the ,tolbatchiek4 ,in the beginning of the year #agci1 the flames issued with such violence from the crater1 as to reduce to ashes the forests on the neighboring mountains4 ,this was succeeded by a cloud of smoke1 which overspread and darkened the whole country1 until it was dissipated by a shower of cinders1 which covered the ground to the distance of thirty miles4 ,the third volcano is on the top of the particular mountain of ,kamtschatka1 which is described as by far the highest in the peninsula4 ,it rises from two rows of hills1 somewhat in the form of a sugar-loaf1 to a very great hight4 ,it usually throws out ashes twice or thrice a year1 sometimes in such quantities1 that for three hundred versts1 7one hundred and sixty-five ,english miles17 the earth is covered with them4 ,in the year #agcg1 at the latter end of ,september1 a conflagration1 which lasted for a week1 was so violent and terrific1 that the mountain appeared1 to those who were fishing at sea1 like one red-hot rock2 and the flames which burst through several openings1 with a dreadful noise1 resembled rivers of fire4 ,from the inside of the mountains were heard thunderings1 crackings1 and blasts like those of the strongest bellows1 shaking all the neighboring territory4 ,during the night it was most terrible2 but at length the conflagration ended by the mountain's casting forth a prodigious quantity of cinders and ashes1 among which were porous stones1 and glass of various colors4 ,when ,captain ,clarke sailed out of the harbor of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 in ,june1 #aggh1 to the northward1 an eruption of the first of these volcanoes was observed4 ,a rumbling noise1 resembling distant hollow thunder1 was heard before daylight2 and when the day broke1 the decks and sides of the ships were covered with a fine dust1 resembling emery1 nearly an inch thick1 the air at the same time being charged with this substance to such a degree1 that toward the mountain1 which is situated to the north of the harbor1 the surrounding objects were not to be distinguished4 ,about twelve o'clock1 and during the afternoon1 the explosions became louder1 and were followed by showers of cinders1 which were in general about the size of peas1 though many were picked up on the deck larger than a hazel-nut4 ,along with the cinders fell several small stones which had not undergone any change from the action of fire4 ,,volcanic ,,mountain ,,of ,,albay4 ,the following details of the dreadful eruption of the volcano of ,albay1 in the island of ,luconia1 one of the ,philippines1 on the first of ,february1 #ahad1 are from an eye-witness of the dreadful scenes it presented4 8,during thirteen years the volcano of ,albay had preserved a profound silence4 ,it was no longer viewed with that distrust and horror with which volcanoes usually inspire those who inhabit the vicinity4 ,its extensive and spacious brow had been converted into highly cultivated and beautiful gardens4 ,on the first day of ,january last1 no person reflected1 in the slightest degree1 upon the damages and losses which so bad a neighbor had once occasioned4 ,previously to the former eruptions there had been heard certain subterraneous sounds1 which were presages of them4 ,but upon the present occasion we remarked nothing1 except that on the last day of ,january we perceived some slight shocks4 ,in the night the shocks increased4 ,at two in the morning one was felt more violent than those hitherto experienced4 ,it was repeated at four1 and from that time they were almost continual until the eruption commenced4 8,the day broke1 and ,i scarcely ever remarked in ,camarines a more serene and pleasant morning4 ,i observed1 however1 that the ridges nearest to the volcano were covered with mist1 which ,i supposed to be the smoke of some house that might have been on fire in the night4 ,but at eight o'clock the volcano began suddenly to emit a thick column of stones1 sand1 and ashes1 which with the greatest velocity1 was elevated into the highest regions of the atmosphere4 ,at this sight we were filled with the utmost dread1 especially when we observed that in an instant the brow of the volcano was quite covered4 ,we had never seen a similar eruption1 but were convinced that a river of fire was flowing toward us1 and was about to consume us4 ,the first thing which was done in my village was to secure some things esteemed sacred1 and then we betook ourselves to flight4 ,the swiftness with which the dreadful tide rolled toward us1 did not give us time either for reflection or consultation4 ,the frightful noise of the volcano caused great terror even in the stoutest hearts4 ,we all ran1 filled with dismay and consternation1 endeavoring to reach the highest and most distant places1 to preserve ourselves from so imminent a danger4 ,the horizon began to darken1 and our anxieties redoubled4 ,the noise of the volcano continually increased1 the darkness augmented1 and we continued our flight4 ,but1 notwithstanding our swiftness1 we were overtaken by a heavy shower of huge stones1 by the violence of which many unfortunate persons were in a moment killed4 ,this cruel circumstance obliged us to make a pause in our career1 and to shelter ourselves under the houses2 but the flames and burnt stones which fell from above1 in a short time reduced them to ashes4 8,the sky was now completely overcast1 and we remained enveloped and immersed in a thick and palpable darkness4 ,from that moment reflection was at an end4 ,the mother abandoned her children1 the husband his wife1 and the children forgot their parents4 8,in the houses we had no longer any shelter4 ,it was necessary to abandon1 or perish with them2 yet1 to go out uncovered1 was to expose one's self to a danger not less imminent1 because many of the stones were of an enormous size2 and they fell as thick as drops of rain4 ,it was necessary to defend ourselves as well as we could4 ,some covered themselves with hides1 others with tables and chairs1 and others with boards and tea-trays4 ,many took refuge in the trunks of trees1 others among the canes and hedges1 and some hid themselves in a cave1 where the brow of a mountain protected them4 8,about ten o'clock the heavy stones ceased to fall1 and a rain of thick sand succeeded4 ,at half past one the noise of the volcano began to diminish1 and the horizon to clear a little2 and at two it became quite tranquil2 and we now began to perceive the dreadful ravages which the darkness had hitherto concealed from us4 ,the ground was covered with dead bodies1 part of whom had been killed by the stones1 and the others consumed by the fire4 ,two hundred perished in the church of ,budiao1 and thirty-five in a single house in that village4 ,the joy the living felt at having preserved themselves1 was in many converted into the extremity of sorrow at finding themselves deprived of their relations and friends4 ,fathers found their children dead1 husbands their wives1 and wives their husbands1 in the village of ,budiao1 where there were very few who had not lost some of their nearest connections4 ,in other places we found many persons extended upon the ground1 wounded or bruised in a thousand ways4 ,some with their legs broken1 some without arms1 some with their skulls fractured1 and others covered with wounds4 ,many died immediately1 others on the following days1 and the rest were abandoned to the most melancholy fate1 without physicians1 without medicines1 and in want even of necessary food4 8,five populous towns were entirely destroyed by the eruption2 more than twelve hundred of the inhabitants perished amidst the ruins2 and twenty thousand who survived the awful catastrophe1 were stripped of their possessions and reduced to beggary4 8,the subsequent appearance of the volcanic mountain was most melancholy and terrific4 ,its side1 formerly so well cultivated1 and which afforded a prospect the most picturesque1 is now become a barren sand4 ,the stones1 sand and ashes1 which cover it1 in some places exceed the depth of ten and twelve yards2 and on the ground where lately stood the village of ,budiao1 there are spots in which the cocoa-trees are almost covered4 ,in the ruined villages1 and through the whole extent of the eruption1 the ground remains buried in the sand to the depth of half a yard1 and scarcely a single tree is left alive4 ,the crater of the volcano has lowered more than one hundred and twenty feet2 and the south side discovers a spacious and horrid mouth1 which is frightful to the view4 ,three new ones have opened at a considerable distance from the principal crater1 through which also smoke and ashes are incessantly emitted4 ,in short1 the most beautiful villages of ,camarines1 and the principal part of that fine province1 are deeply covered with barren sand40 ,,islands ,,which ,,have ,,risen ,,from ,,the ,,sea4 ,besides the convulsions of nature displayed in volcanoes1 the most remarkable particulars of which we have given in our history of mountains1 other operations are carried on below the fathomless depths of the sea1 the nature of which can only be conjectured by the effects produced4 ,nor is it more astonishing that inflammable substances should be found beneath the bottom of the sea1 than at similar depths on land1 and that there also the impetuous force of fire should cause the imprisoned air and elastic gases to expand1 and1 by its mighty force1 should drive the earth at the bottom of the sea above its surface4 ,these marine volcanoes are perhaps more frequent1 though they do not so often come within the reach of human observation1 as those on land2 and stupendous must be the operations carried on1 when matter is thrown up to an extent which the ingenuity of man does not enable him to reach by fathoming4 ,many instances have occurred1 as well in ancient as in modern times1 of islands having been formed in the midst of the sea2 and their sudden appearance has constantly been preceded by violent agitations of the surrounding waters1 accompanied by dreadful noises1 and in some instances by fiery eruptions from the newly formed isles1 which are composed of various substances1 frequently intermixed with a considerable quantity of volcanic lava4 ,such islands remain for ages barren1 but in a long course of time become abundantly fruitful4 ,it is a matter of curious inquiry1 whether springs are found on such newly created spots1 when the convulsions which gave them birth have subsided2 but on this point it would seem that we are not possessed of any certain information1 as it does not appear that they have been visited by any naturalist with the express view of recording their properties4 ,among the writers of antiquity who have transmitted accounts of islands which have thus started up to the view of the astonished spectator1 ,seneca asserts that1 in his time1 the island of ,therasea1 in the ,egean sea1 was seen to rise in this manner by several mariners1 who were sailing near the point of its ascent4 ,pliny's relation is still more extraordinary2 for he says that in the ,mediterranean1 thirteen islands emerged at once from the sea1 the cause of which he ascribes rather to the retiring of the waters1 than to any subterraneous operation of nature3 but he speaks at the same time of the island of ,hiera1 in the vicinity of ,therasea1 as having been formed by subterraneous explosions1 and enumerates several others said to have been derived from a similar origin1 in one of which he says1 a great abundance of fishes were found1 of which1 however1 all who ate1 perished soon afterward4 ,it is to the ,grecian archipelago1 and the ,azores1 or ,western isles1 that we are to look for the grandest and most surprising instances of this phenomenon4 ,we will select an example from each of these groups of islands1 beginning with the latter4 ,in ,december1 #agbj1 a violent earthquake was felt on the island of ,tercera1 one of the ,azores4 ,and on the following morning1 a new island1 which had sprung up in the night1 made its appearance1 and a huge column of smoke was seen rising from it4 ,the pilot of a ship which attempted to approach it1 sounded on one of these newly formed islands1 with a line of sixty fathoms1 but could not find a bottom4 ,on the opposite side1 the sea was deeply tinged with various colors1 white1 blue and green2 and was very shallow4 ,this island was larger on its first appearance than at some distance of time afterward2 it at length sunk beneath the level of the sea1 and is now no longer visible4 ,what can be more surprising than to see fire1 not only force its way out of the bowels of the earth1 but likewise make for itself a passage through the waters of the sea6 ,what can be more extraordinary1 or foreign to our common notions of things1 than to observe the bottom of the sea rise up in a mountain above its surface1 and become so firm an island as to be able to resist the violence of the greatest storms6 ,we know that subterraneous fires1 when pent up in a narrow passage1 are able to elevate a mass of earth as large as an island2 but that this should be done in so regular and precise a manner1 that the water of the sea should not be able to penetrate and extinguish those fires2 and that1 after they should have exhausted themselves1 the mass of earth should not fall down1 or sink again with its own weight1 but still remain in a manner suspended over the great arch below2 this seems more surprising than any of the facts which have been related of ,mount ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 or any other volcano4 ,in the first part of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society for the year #ahab1 ,captain ,tillard1 of the ,british navy1 has published a very interesting narrative of a similar phenomenon1 which occurred in the same sea near the ,azores4 ,we give this narrative in his own words4 8,approaching the island of ,st4 ,michael's1 on ,sunday1 the twelfth of ,june1 #ahaa1 in his majesty's sloop ,sabrina1 under my command1 we occasionally observed1 rising in the horizon1 two or three columns of smoke1 such as would have been occasioned by an action between two ships1 to which cause we universally attributed its origin4 ,this opinion was1 however1 in a very short time changed1 from the smoke increasing and ascending in much larger bodies than could possibly have been produced by such an event2 and having heard an account1 prior to our sailing from ,lisbon1 that in the preceding ,january or ,february1 a volcano had burst out within the sea near ,st4 ,michael's1 we immediately concluded that the smoke we saw proceeded from that cause1 and1 on our anchoring the next morning in the road of ,ponta del ,gada1 we found this conjecture correct as to the cause1 but not as to the time2 the eruption of ,january having totally subsided1 and the present one having only burst forth two days prior to our approach1 and about three miles distant from the one before alluded to4 8,desirous of examining as minutely as possible a contention so extraordinary between two such powerful elements1 ,i set off from the city of ,ponta del ,gada on the morning of the fourteenth1 in company with ,mr4 ,read1 the consul-general of the ,azores1 and two other gentlemen4 ,after riding about twenty miles across the north-west end of the island of ,st4 ,michael's1 we came to the edge of the cliff1 whence the volcano burst suddenly upon our view in the most terrific and awful grandeur4 ,see cut1 page #abb4 ,it was only a short mile from the base of the cliff1 which was nearly perpendicular1 and formed the margin of the sea2 this cliff being1 as nearly as ,i could judge1 from three to four hundred feet high4 ,to give you an adequate idea of the scene by description1 is far beyond my powers2 but for your satisfaction1 ,i shall attempt it4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,michael',s ,,volcano4 8,imagine an immense body of smoke rising from the sea1 the surface of which was marked by the slippery rippling of the waves1 occasioned by the light and steady breezes incidental to these climates in summer4 ,in a quiescent state1 it had the appearance of a circular cloud revolving on the water like a horizontal wheel1 in various and irregular involutions1 expanding itself gradually on the lee side1 when suddenly a column of the blackest cinders1 ashes and stones would shoot up in the form of a spire1 at an angle of from ten to twenty degrees from a perpendicular line1 the angle of inclination being universally to windward2 this was rapidly succeeded by a second1 third and fourth shower1 each acquiring greater velocity1 and overtopping the other till they had attained an altitude as much above the level of our eye1 as the sea was below it4 8,as the impetus with which the columns were severally propelled diminished1 and their ascending motion had nearly ceased1 they broke into various branches resembling a group of pines2 these again forming themselves into festoons of white feathery smoke1 in the most fanciful manner imaginable1 intermixed with the finest particles of falling ashes1 which at one time assumed the appearance of innumerable plumes of black and white ostrich feathers1 surmounting each other1 and another1 that of the light wavy branches of a weeping-willow4 8,during these bursts1 the most vivid flashes of lightning continually issued from the densest part of the volcano2 and the cloud of smoke1 now ascending to an altitude much above the highest point to which the ashes were projected1 rolled off in large masses of fleecy clouds1 gradually expanding themselves before the wind in a direction nearly horizontal1 and drawing up to them a quantity of water-spouts1 which formed a most beautiful and striking addition to the general appearance of the scene4 8,that part of the sea where the volcano was situated1 was upward of thirty fathoms deep1 and at the time of our viewing it the volcano was only four days old4 ,soon after our arrival on the cliff1 a peasant observed he could discern a peak above the water3 we looked but could not see it2 however1 in less than half an hour it was plainly visible1 and before we quitted the place1 which was about three hours from the time of our arrival1 a complete crater was formed above the water1 not less than twenty feet high on the side where the greatest quantity of ashes fell2 the diameter of the crater being apparently about four or five hundred feet4 8,the great eruptions were generally attended with a noise like the continued firing of cannon and musketry intermixed1 as also with slight shocks of earthquakes2 several of which having been felt by my companions1 but none by myself1 ,i had become half skeptical1 and thought their opinion arose merely from the force of imagination2 but while we were sitting within five or six yards of the edge of the cliff1 partaking of a slight repast which had been brought with us1 and were all busily engaged1 one of the most magnificent bursts took place which we had yet witnessed1 accompanied by a very severe shock of an earthquake4 ,the instantaneous and involuntary movement of each was to spring upon his feet2 and ,i said1 #8,this admits of no doubt4' ,the words had scarcely passed my lips1 before we observed a large portion of the face of the cliff1 about fifty yards on our left1 falling1 which it did with a violent crash4 ,so soon as our first consternation had a little subsided1 we removed about ten or a dozen yards further from the edge of the cliff1 and finished our dinner4 8,on the succeeding day1 ,june fifteenth1 having the consul and some other friends on board1 ,i weighed1 and proceeded with the ship toward the volcano1 with the intention of witnessing a night view2 but in this expectation we were greatly disappointed1 from the wind freshening1 and the weather becoming thick and hazy1 and also from the volcano itself being more quiescent than it was the preceding day4 ,it seldom emitted any lightning1 but occasionally as much flame as may be seen to issue from the top of a glass-house or foundry chimney4 ,on passing directly under the great cloud of smoke1 about three or four miles distant from the volcano1 the decks of the ship were covered with fine black ashes1 which fell intermixed with small rain4 ,we returned the next morning1 and late on the evening of the same day ,i took leave of ,st4 ,michael's1 to complete my cruise4 8,on the opening of the volcano clear of the north-west part of the island1 after dark on the sixteenth1 we witnessed one or two eruptions that1 had the ship been near enough1 would have been awfully grand4 ,it appeared one continued blaze of lightning2 but its distance from the ship1 upward of twenty miles1 prevented our seeing it with effect4 ,returning again toward ,st4 ,michael's1 on the fourth of ,july1 ,i was obliged1 by the state of the wind1 to pass with the ship very close to the island1 which was now completely formed by the volcano1 being nearly the hight of ,matlock ,high ,tor1 about eighty yards above the sea4 ,at this time it was perfectly tranquil2 which circumstance determined me to land1 and explore it more narrowly4 ,i left the ship in one of the boats1 accompanied by some of the officers4 ,as we approached we perceived that it was still smoking in many parts1 and1 upon our reaching the island1 found the surf on the beach very high4 ,rowing round to the lee-side1 with some little difficulty1 by the aid of an oar as a pole1 ,i jumped on shore1 and was followed by the other officers4 ,we found a narrow beach of black ashes1 from which the side of the island rose in general too steep to admit of our ascending2 and where we could have clambered up1 the mass of matter was much too hot to allow our proceeding more than a few yards in the ascent4 8,the declivity below the surface of the sea was equally steep1 having seven fathoms of water at scarcely the boat's length from the shore1 and at the distance of twenty or thirty yards we sounded twenty-five fathoms4 ,from walking round it in about twelve minutes1 ,i should judge that it was something less than a mile in circumference2 but the most extraordinary part was the crater1 the mouth of which1 on the side facing ,st4 ,michael's1 was nearly level with the sea4 ,it was filled with water1 at that time boiling1 and was emptying itself into the sea by a small stream about six yards over1 and by which ,i should suppose it was continually filled again at high water4 ,this stream1 close to the edge of the sea1 was so hot1 as only to admit the finger to be dipped suddenly in1 and taken out again immediately4 8,it appeared evident1 by the formation of this part of the island1 that the sea had1 during the eruptions1 broken into the crater in two places1 as the east side of the small stream was bounded by a precipice2 a cliff between twenty and thirty feet high1 forming a peninsula of about the same dimension in width1 and from fifty to sixty feet long1 connected with the other part of the island by a narrow ridge of cinders and lava1 as an isthmus1 of from forty to fifty feet in length1 from which the crater rose in the form of an amphitheater4 8,this cliff1 at two or three miles' distance from the island1 had the appearance of a work of art1 resembling a small fort or block-house4 ,the top of this we were determined1 if possible1 to attain2 but the difficulty we had to encounter in doing so1 was considerable3 the only way to attempt it was up the side of the isthmus1 which was so steep that the only mode by which we could effect it1 was by fixing the end of an oar at the base1 with the assistance of which we forced ourselves up in nearly a backward direction4 ,illustration3 ,,sabrina ,,island4 8,having reached the summit of the isthmus1 we found another difficulty3 for it was impossible to walk upon it1 as the descent on the other side was immediate1 and as steep as the one we had ascended2 but by throwing our legs across it1 as would be done on the ridge of a house1 and moving ourselves forward by our hands1 we at length reached that part of it where it gradually widened itself1 and formed the summit of the cliff1 which we found to have a perfectly flat surface1 of the dimensions before stated4 ,judging this to be the most conspicuous situation1 we here planted the union1 and left a bottle sealed up1 containing a short account of the origin of the island1 and of our having landed upon it1 and naming it ,sabrina island4 8,within the crater ,i found the complete skeleton of a guard-fish1 the bones of which1 being perfectly burnt1 fell to pieces upon attempting to take them up2 and1 by the account of the inhabitants on the coast of ,st4 ,michael's1 great numbers of fish had been destroyed during the early part of the eruption1 as large quantities1 probably suffocated or poisoned1 were occasionally found drifted into the small inlets or bays4 ,the island1 like other volcanic productions1 is composed principally of porous substances1 generally burnt to complete cinders1 with occasional masses of a stone1 which ,i should suppose to be a mixture of iron and limestone40 ,sabrina island has gradually disappeared1 since the month of ,october1 #ahaa1 leaving an extensive shoal4 ,smoke was discovered still issuing out of the sea in the month of ,february1 #ahab1 near the spot where this wonderful phenomenon appeared4 ,having thus spoken of the ,azores1 we now pass to some similar phenomena in the ,grecian archipelago4 ,before entering1 however1 on the details which are here furnished on this curious and most interesting subject1 it may not be improper to observe1 that the island of ,acroteri1 of great celebrity in ancient history1 appears to have its surface composed of pumice-stone1 incrusted by a surface of fertile earth2 and that it is represented by the ancients as having risen1 during a violent earthquake1 from the sea4 ,four neighboring islands are described as having a similar origin1 notwithstanding the sea is in that part of the archipelago of such a depth as to be unfathomable by any sounding line4 ,these arose at different times3 the first long before the commencement of the ,christian era2 the second in the first century2 the third in the eighth2 and the fourth in #aegc4 ,we now proceed to a phenomenon of a similar nature1 belonging to the same cluster of islands1 which being of a more recent date1 we are enabled to enter into all its particulars4 ,they are such as can not fail to interest and surprise4 ,on the twenty-second of ,may1 #agjg1 a severe earthquake was felt at ,stanchio1 an island of the archipelago2 and on the ensuing morning a party of seamen1 discovering not far off what they believed to be a wreck1 rapidly rowed toward it2 but finding rocks and earth instead of the remains of a ship1 hastened back1 and spread the news of what they had seen1 in ,santorini1 another of these islands4 ,however great the apprehensions of the inhabitants were at the first sight1 their surprise soon abated1 and in a few days1 seeing no appearance of fire or smoke1 some of them ventured to land on the new island4 ,their curiosity led them from rock to rock1 where they found a kind of white stone1 which yielded to the knife like bread1 and nearly resembled that substance in color and consistence4 ,they also found many oysters sticking to the rocks3 but while they were employed in collecting them1 the island moved and shook under their feet1 on which they ran with precipitation to their boats4 ,amid these motions and tremblings the island increased1 not only in hight1 but in length and breadth3 still occasionally1 while it was raised and extended on the one side1 it sunk and diminished on the other4 ,one person observed a rock to rise out of the sea1 forty or fifty paces from the island1 which1 having been thus visible for four days1 sunk1 and appeared no more3 several others appeared and disappeared alternately1 till at length they remained fixed and unmoved4 ,in the mean time the color of the surrounding sea was changed3 at first it was of a light green1 then reddish1 and afterward of a pale yellow1 accompanied by a noisome stench1 which spread itself over a part of the island of ,santorini4 ,on the sixteenth of ,july1 smoke first appeared1 not indeed on the island1 but issuing from a ridge of black stones which suddenly rose about sixty paces from it1 where the depth of the sea was unfathomable4 ,thus there were two separate islands1 one called the ,white1 and the other the ,black island1 from the different appearances they exhibited4 ,this thick smoke was of a whitish color1 like that of a lime-kiln1 and was carried by the wind to ,santorini1 where it penetrated the houses of the inhabitants4 ,in the night between the nineteenth and twentieth of ,july1 flames began to issue with the smoke1 to the great terror of the inhabitants of ,santorini1 especially of those occupying the castle of ,scaro1 who were distant about a mile and a half only from the burning island1 which now increased very fast1 large rocks daily springing up1 which sometimes added to its length1 and sometimes to its breadth4 ,the smoke1 also increased1 and there not being any wind1 ascended so high as to be seen at ,candia1 and other distant islands4 ,during the night1 it resembled a column of five1 fifteen1 or twenty feet in hight2 and the sea was then covered with a scurf or froth1 in some places reddish1 and in others yellowish1 from which proceeded such a stench1 that the inhabitants throughout the whole island of ,santorini burnt perfumes in their houses1 and made fires in the streets1 to prevent infection4 ,this1 indeed1 did not last above a day or two2 for a strong gale of wind dispersed the froth1 but drove the smoke on the vineyards of ,santorini1 by which the grapes were1 in one night1 parched up and destroyed4 ,this smoke also caused violent head-aches1 attended with retchings4 ,on the thirty-first of ,july1 the sea smoked and bubbled in two different places near the island1 where the water formed a perfect circle1 and looked like oil when beginning to simmer4 ,this continued above a month1 during which time many fishes were found dead on the shore of ,santorini4 ,on the following night a dull hollow noise was heard1 like the distant report of several cannon1 which was instantly followed by flames of fire1 shooting up to a great hight in the air1 where they suddenly disappeared4 ,the next day the same hollow sound was several times heard1 and succeeded by a blackish smoke1 which1 notwithstanding a fresh gale blew at the time1 rose up to a prodigious hight1 in the form of a column1 and would probably in the night have appeared as if on fire4 ,on the seventh of ,august1 a different noise was heard1 resembling that of large stones thrown1 at very short intervals1 into a deep well4 ,this noise1 having lasted for some days1 was succeeded by another much louder1 so nearly resembling thunder1 as scarcely to be distinguished from three or four real claps1 which were heard at the same time4 ,on the twenty-first1 the fire and smoke were very considerably diminished2 but the next morning they broke out with still greater fury than before4 ,the smoke was red1 and very thick1 the heat at the same time being so intense1 that all around the island the sea smoked and bubbled surprisingly4 ,at night1 by the means of a telescope1 sixty small openings or funnels1 all emitting a very bright flame1 were discovered on the highest part of the island1 conjointly resembling a large furnace2 and on the other side of the great volcano there appeared to be as many4 ,on the morning of the twenty-third1 the island was much higher than on the preceding day1 and its breadth increased by a chain of rocks which had sprung up in the night nearly fifty feet above the water4 ,the sea was also again covered with reddish froth1 which always appeared when the island seemed to have received any considerable additions1 and occasioned an intolerable stench1 until it was dispersed by the wind and the motion of the waves4 ,on the fifth of ,september1 the fire opened another vent at the extremity of the ,black island1 from which it issued for several days4 ,during that time little was discharged from the large furnace2 but from this new passage the astonished spectator beheld the fire dart up three several times to a vast hight1 resembling so many prodigious sky-rockets of a glowing1 lively red4 ,the following night the sub-aqueous fire made a terrible noise1 and immediately1 after a thousand sheaves of fire darted into the air1 where breaking and dispersing1 they fell like a shower of stars on the island1 which appeared in a blaze1 presenting to the amazed spectator at once a most dreadful and beautiful illumination4 ,to these natural fire-works1 succeeded a kind of meteor1 which for some time hung over the castle of ,scaro1 and which1 having a resemblance to a flaming sword1 served to increase the consternation of the inhabitants of ,santorini4 ,on the ninth of ,september1 the ,white and ,black islands united2 after which the western end of the island grew daily in bulk4 ,there were now four openings only which emitted flames2 these issued forth with great impetuosity1 sometimes attended with a noise like that of a large organ-pipe1 and sometimes like the howling of wild beasts4 ,on the twelfth1 the subterraneous noise was much augmented1 having never been so frequent or so dreadful as on that and the following day4 ,the bursts of this subterraneous thunder1 like a general discharge of the artillery of an army1 were repeated ten or twelve times within twenty-four hours1 and1 immediately after each clap1 the large furnace threw up huge red-hot stones1 which fell into the sea at a great distance4 ,these claps were always followed by a thick smoke1 which spread clouds of ashes over the sea and the neighboring islands4 ,on the eighteenth of ,september1 an earthquake was felt at ,santorini4 ,it did but little damage1 although it considerably enlarged the burning island1 and in several places gave vent to the fire and smoke4 ,the claps were also more terrible than ever2 and1 in the midst of a thick smoke1 which appeared like a mountain1 large pieces of rock1 which afterward fell on the island1 or into the sea1 were thrown up with as much noise and force as balls from the mouth of a cannon4 ,one of the small neighboring islands was covered with these fiery stones1 which being thinly crusted over with sulphur1 gave a bright light1 and continued burning until that was consumed4 ,on the twenty-first1 a dreadful clap of subterraneous thunder was followed by very powerful lightnings1 and at the same instant the new island was so violently shaken1 that part of the great furnace fell down1 and huge burning rocks were thrown to the distance of two miles and upward4 ,this seemed to be the last effort of the volcano1 and appeared to have exhausted the combustible matter1 as all was quiet for several days after3 but on the twenty-fifth1 the fire broke out again with still greater fury1 and among the claps one was so terrible1 that the churches of ,santorini were soon filled with crowds of people1 expecting every moment to be their last2 and the castle and town of ,scaro suffered such a shock1 that the doors and windows of the houses flew open4 ,the volcano continued to rage during the remaining part of the year2 and in the month of ,january1 #agjh1 the large furnace1 without one day's intermission1 threw out stones and flames1 at least once or twice1 but generally five or six times a day4 ,on the tenth of ,february1 in the morning1 a pretty strong earthquake was felt at ,santorini1 which the inhabitants considered as a prelude to greater commotions in the burning island2 nor were they deceived1 for soon after the fire and smoke issued in prodigious quantities4 ,the thunder-like claps were redoubled1 and all was horror and confusion3 rocks of an amazing size were raised up to a great hight above the water2 and the sea raged and boiled to such a degree as to occasion great consternation4 ,the subterraneous bellowings were heard without intermission1 and sometimes in less than a quarter of an hour1 there were six or seven eruptions from the large furnace4 ,the noise of repeated claps1 the quantity of huge stones which flew about on every side1 the houses at ,santorini tottering to their very foundations1 and the fire1 which now appeared in open day1 surpassed all that had hitherto happened1 and formed a scene terrific and astonishing beyond description4 ,the fifteenth of ,april was rendered memorable by the number and violence of the bellowings and eruptions1 by one of which nearly a hundred stones were thrown at the same instant into the air1 and fell again into the sea at about two miles distant4 ,from that day until the twenty-second of ,may1 which may be considered as the anniversary of the birth of the new island1 things continued much in the same state1 but afterward the fire and smoke subsided by degrees1 and the subterraneous thunders became less terrible4 ,on the fifteenth of ,july1 #agji1 the ,bishop of ,santorini1 accompanied by several friars1 hired a boat to take a near view of the island4 ,they made directly toward it on that side where the sea did not bubble1 but where it smoked very much4 ,being within the range of this vapor1 they felt a close1 suffocating heat1 and found the water very hot2 on which they directed their course toward a part of the island at the furthest distance from the large furnace4 ,the fires1 which still continued to burn1 and the boiling of the sea1 obliged them to make a great circuit1 notwithstanding which they felt the air about them to be very hot and sultry4 ,having encompassed the island1 and surveyed it carefully from an adjacent one1 they judged it to be two hundred feet above the sea1 about a mile broad1 and five miles in circumference2 but1 not being thoroughly satisfied1 they resolved to make an attempt at landing1 and accordingly rowed toward that part of the island where they perceived neither fire nor smoke4 ,when1 however1 they had proceeded to within the distance of a hundred yards1 the great furnace discharged itself with its usual fury1 and the wind blew upon them so dense a smoke1 and so heavy a shower of ashes1 that they were obliged to abandon their design4 ,having retired somewhat further1 they let down their sounding lead1 with a line ninety-five fathoms in length1 but it was too short to reach the bottom4 ,on their return to ,santorini1 they observed that the heat of the water had melted the greater part of the pitch employed in calking their boat1 which had now become very leaky4 ,from that time until the fifteenth of ,august1 the fire1 smoke and noises continued1 but not in so great a degree2 and it appears that for several years after1 the island still increased1 but that the fire and subterraneous noises were much abated4 ,the most recent account we have been enabled to collect1 is that of a traveler1 who1 in #ahaa1 passed this island at some distance4 ,it appeared to him like a stupendous mass of rock1 but was not inhabited or cultivated4 ,it had then long ceased to burn4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,subterranean ,,wonders4 ------------------------------------ ,,the ,,grotta ,,del ,,cane4 8,give me1 ye powers1 the wondrous scenes to show1 ,concealed in darkness in the caves below40 ,among the various subterranean wonders of the world1 which are worthy of special notice1 we would first mention the 8,grotta del ,cane40 ,this name has been given to a small cavern between ,naples and ,pozzuoli1 on this account1 that if a dog be brought into it1 and his nose held to the ground1 a difficulty of respiration instantly ensues1 and he loses all sensation and even life1 if he be not speedily removed into purer air4 ,there are other grottos endowed with the same deleterious quality1 especially in volcanic countries2 and the pestiferous vapors they exhale1 are quickly fatal both to animals and man1 though they do not offer to the eye the slightest indication of their presence4 ,these vapors are1 however1 for the greater part temporary2 while that of the ,grotta del ,cane is perpetual1 and seems to have produced its deadly effects even in the time of ,pliny4 ,a man standing erect within1 does not suffer from it1 the mephitic vapor rising to a small hight only from the ground4 ,it may1 therefore1 be entered without danger4 ,the smoke of a torch extinguished in this vapor1 or gas1 sinks downward1 assumes a whitish color1 and passes out at the bottom of the door4 ,the reason of this is1 that the fumes which proceed from the torch mix more readily with the gas than with the atmospherical air4 ,it has been supposed1 that the mischievous effects of the vapor were the result of the air being deprived of its elasticity2 but it has been clearly demonstrated by ,m4 ,adolphus ,murray1 that they are solely to be attributed to the existence of carbonic acid gas4 ,the person who is the keeper1 or guide1 at the grotto1 and who shows to strangers the experiment of the dog for a gratuity1 takes the animal1 when he is half dead and panting1 into the open air1 and then proceeds to throw him into the neighboring lake of ,agnano1 thus insinuating that this short immersion in the water is necessary to his complete restoration4 ,this1 however1 is a mere trick1 to render the experiment more specious1 and to obtain a handsome present from the credulous1 the atmospherical air alone sufficing for that purpose4 ,the celebrated naturalist1 the ,abbe ,spallanzani1 projected a regular series of experiments on the mephitic vapor of this grotto1 from a persuasion that they would tend to throw a new light on physiology and natural philosophy4 ,being1 however1 prevented from undertaking this1 by his duties as a professor1 his friend1 the ,abbe ,breislak1 who resided near the spot1 engaged in the task2 and the following is an abstract of his learned memoir on this subject4 ,it is well known1 the abbe observes1 that the mephitic vapor occupies the floor of a small grotto near the lake ,agnano1 a place highly interesting to naturalists from the phenomena its environs present1 and the hills within which it is included4 ,this grotto is situated on the south-east side of the lake1 at a little distance from it4 ,its length is about twelve feet1 and its breadth from four to five4 ,it appears to have been originally a small excavation1 made for the purpose of obtaining pozzuolana1 an earth which1 being applied as mortar1 becomes a powerful cement4 ,in the sides of the grotto1 among the earthy volcanic matters1 are found pieces of lava1 of the same kind with those which are met with scattered near the lake4 ,the abbe is persuaded that1 if new excavations were to be made in the vicinity of the grotto1 at a level with its floor1 or a little lower1 the same mephitic vapor would be found2 and thinks it would be curious to ascertain the limits of its extent4 ,it would also be advantageous to physical observations1 if the grotto were to be somewhat enlarged1 and its floor reduced to a level horizontal plane1 by sinking it two or three feet1 and surrounding it by a low wall1 with steps at the entrance4 ,in its present state it is extremely inconvenient for experiments1 and the inclination of the ground toward the door causes a great part of the vapor1 from the effect of its specific gravity1 to make its way out close to the ground4 ,when the narrow limits of this place are considered1 and the small quantity of the vapor which has rendered it so celebrated1 there can not be any doubt but that it has undergone considerable changes2 since it does not appear probable that ,pliny refers to the present confined vapor only1 when1 in enumerating many places from which a deadly air exhaled1 he mentions the territory of ,pozzuoli4 ,the internal fermentations by which it is caused1 are certainly much diminished in the vicinity of the lake ,agnano4 ,the water near its banks is no longer seen to bubble up1 from the disengagement of a gas1 as it appears from accounts1 not of very remote antiquity1 to have done4 ,the borders of the lake were attentively examined by the abbe1 when its waters were at the highest1 and after heavy rains2 but he could never discover a single bubble of air4 ,a number of aquatic insects which sport on the surface1 may at first sight occasion some deception2 but a slight observation soon detects the error4 ,if1 therefore1 we do not suppose those authors who have described the ebullition of the water near the banks of the lake ,agnano to have been deceived1 it must at least be confessed1 that this phenomenon has now ceased4 ,the quantity of the sulphureous vapors which rise in the contiguous stoves1 called the stoves of ,st4 ,germano1 must likewise be greatly diminished from what it anciently was3 for1 adjoining to the present stoves1 we still find the remains of a spacious ancient fabric1 with tubes of terra cotta inserted in the walls1 which1 by their direction1 show for what purpose they were intended4 ,it appears certain1 that this was a building in which1 by the means of pipes properly disposed1 the vapors of the place were introduced into different rooms for the use of patients4 ,to these ruins1 however1 the vapors no longer extend2 so that1 if this edifice had remained entire1 it could not have been employed for the purpose for which it was intended4 ,the veins of pyrites which produced the more ancient conflagrations of the ,phlegrean fields1 between ,naples and ,cuma1 and which1 in some places1 are entirely consumed1 approach their total extinction4 ,we will now proceed to the experiments within the grotto4 ,the object of the first was to determine the hight of the mephitic vapor at the center of the grotto1 that is1 at the intersection of the line of its greatest length with that of its greatest breadth4 ,the hight varies according to the different dispositions and temperatures of the atmosphere1 the diversity of winds1 and the accidental variations which take place in the internal fermentations by which the vapor is produced4 ,it may1 however1 be estimated at a mean1 at nearly nine ,english inches4 ,the second set of experiments regarded the degree of heat on entering into the mephitis3 it was slightly sensible in the feet and lower part of the legs2 notwithstanding which1 on taking out of the vapor several substances which had remained in it for a long time1 such as stones1 leaves1 the carcasses of animals1 c41 the abbe found that these were of the same temperature with the atmospheric air4 ,feeling in his body a slight degree of heat1 which he could not perceive in the substances removed from the mephitic vapor1 he was led by comparison to conclude1 that the temperature of the latter was the same with the atmospherical air1 agreeably to the principles of ,dr4 ,crauford4 ,he was1 however1 mistaken2 for in subsequent experiments1 he found a very distinct degree of heat4 ,he was now provided with a thermometer1 his former one having been broken1 and1 having suspended it at the aperture of the grotto1 three feet above the surface of the vapor1 found the mercury to stand at from sixty-two to sixty-four degrees of ,fahrenheit2 but1 on placing the ball on the ground so as to immerse it in the vapor1 the mercury rose to eighty1 and even eighty-two degrees4 ,that the substances taken out of the mephitis did not exhibit this diversity of temperature1 was1 he thinks1 owing to the quantity of humidity with which they are always loaded1 and which produces on their surface a constant evaporation4 ,he was the more particular in repeating these experiments1 because the naturalists who had1 before him1 made similar ones in the ,grotta del ,cane1 had not observed the vapor to produce any effect on the mercury in the thermometer4 ,thirdly4 ,he repeated for his own satisfaction1 the usual experiments made by naturalists1 with the tincture of turnsole1 lime-water1 the crystallizations of alkalies1 the absorption of water1 and the acidulous taste communicated to it2 which prove1 beyond all doubt1 the existence of fixed air1 or carbonic acid gas1 in the vapor of the grotto4 ,he ascertained that it was not formed of fixed air alone1 as might have been conjectured2 but that the relative quantities of the different gases which compose its mephitic air1 are as follows3 in one hundred parts there are ten of vital air1 or oxygen gas2 forty of fixed air1 or carbonic acid gas2 and fifty of phlogisticated air1 or azotic gas4 ,fourthly4 ,the phenomena of magnetism and electricity were investigated by the abbe in this grotto4 ,with respect to the former1 there was not any new appearance3 the magnetic needle1 being placed on the ground1 and consequently immersed in the mephitis1 rested in the direction of its meridian1 and1 at the approach of a magnetized bar1 exhibited the usual effects of attraction and repulsion1 in proportion as either pole was presented4 ,as to the latter1 electricity1 it was impossible to make the experiments within the mephitis1 not because this kind of air is a conductor of the electric fluid1 as has been imagined1 but because the humidity by which it is constantly accompanied1 disperses the electric matter2 and this1 not being collected in a conductor1 can not be rendered sensible4 ,he attempted several times to fire inflammable gas1 with electric sparks1 in the mephitic vapor1 by means of the conductor of the electrophus2 but1 notwithstanding his utmost endeavors to animate the electricity1 he could never obtain a single spark1 the non-conductor becoming a conductor the moment it entered into the mephitis1 on account of the humidity which adhered to its surface4 ,fifthly4 ,his latest experiments were directed to the theory of the combustion of bodies4 ,he first endeavored to ascertain whether those spontaneous inflammations that result from the mixture of concentrated acids with essential oils1 could be obtained within the grotto4 ,he placed on the ground a small vessel1 in such a situation that the mephitis rose six inches above its edges1 employing oil of turpentine1 and the vitriolic and nitrous acids3 the same inflammation1 accompanied by a lively flame1 followed1 as would have taken place in the open atmospheric air4 ,the dense smoke which always accompanies these inflammations1 being attracted by the humidity of the mephitis1 presented its undulations to the eye1 and formed a very pleasing object4 ,as he had put a considerable quantity of acid in the vessel1 he repeatedly poured in a little of the oil1 and the flame appeared in the mouth of the vessel fifteen times successively4 ,the oxygenous principle contained in the acids1 and with which the nitrous acid principally abounds1 undoubtedly contributed to the production and duration of this flame1 though enveloped in an atmosphere inimical to inflammation4 ,the abbe had1 in the district of ,latera1 observed that in a mephitis of hydrogenous sulphurated or hepatic gas a slow combustion of phosphorus took place1 with the same resplendence as in the atmospheric air4 ,on the present occasion1 his first experiment1 in the mephitis of ,agnano1 was made with common phosphoric matches1 five of which he broke1 holding them to the ground1 and consequently immersed in the mephitis4 ,they produced a short and transient flame1 which became extinguished the moment it was communicated to the wick of a candle4 ,his second experiment was as follows3 he placed on the ground1 within the grotto1 a long table1 in such a manner that one extremity was without the mephitis1 while the other1 and four-fifths of its length1 were immersed in it4 ,along this table he laid a train of gunpowder1 beginning from the end without the mephitis2 and1 at the other end1 which was immersed in it to the depth of seven inches1 he placed1 adjoining to the gunpowder1 a cylinder of phosphorus1 eight lines in length4 ,the gunpowder1 without the mephitis1 being fired1 the combustion was soon communicated to the other extremity of the train1 and to the phosphorus1 which took fire with decrepitation1 burned rapidly with a bright flame1 slightly colored with yellow and green1 and left on the wood a black mark1 as of charcoal4 ,the combustion lasted nearly two minutes1 when the whole phosphoric matter was consumed4 ,in succeeding experiments not any alteration was perceptible in the flame1 or manner of burning1 of the lighted phosphorus1 either at the moment of its entrance into the mephitis1 or during its continuance in it4 ,when suddenly withdrawn1 it ignited gunpowder equally well4 ,hence the abbe deduces1 that the mephitic gas of ,grotta del ,cane1 however it may be utterly unfit for the respiration of animals1 and for the inflammation of common combustible substances1 readily allows that of phosphorus1 which not only burns in it1 but emits1 as usual1 luminous sparks4 ,illustration3 ,,grotto ,,of ,,antiparos4 ,,grotto ,,of ,,antiparos4 ,antiparos1 one of the ,cyclades1 is situated in the ,egean sea1 or ,grecian archipelago4 ,it is a small island1 about sixteen miles in circumference1 and lies two miles to the west of the celebrated ,paros1 from which circumstance it derives its name1 anti in the ,greek language signifying opposite to4 ,its singular and most interesting grotto1 though so inferior in size to the cavern in ,kentucky of which we shall soon speak1 has attracted the attention of an infinite number of travelers4 ,the entrance to this superb grotto is on the side of a rock1 and is a large arch1 formed of craggy stones1 overhung with brambles and creeping plants1 which bestow on it a gloominess at once awful and agreeable4 ,having proceeded about thirty paces within it1 the traveler enters a low1 narrow alley1 surrounded on every side by stones1 which1 by the light of torches1 glitter like diamonds2 the whole being covered and lined throughout with small crystals1 which give by their different reflections1 a variety of colors4 ,at the end of this alley or passage1 having a rope tied round his waist1 he is led to the brink of an awful precipice1 and is thence lowered into a deep abyss1 the gloom pervading which makes him regret the 8alley of diamonds0 he has just quitted4 ,he has not yet1 however1 reached the grotto1 but is led forward about forty paces1 beneath a roof of rugged rocks1 amid a scene of terrible darkness1 and at a vast depth from the surface of the earth1 to the brink of another precipice1 much deeper and more awful than the former4 ,having descended this precipice1 which is not accomplished without considerable difficulty1 the traveler enters a passage1 the grandeur and beauty of which can be but imperfectly described4 ,it is one hundred and twenty feet in length1 about nine feet high1 and in width seven1 with a bottom of a fine green glossy marble4 ,the walls and arched roof are as smooth and polished as if they had been wrought by art1 and are composed of a fine glittering red and white granite1 supported at intervals by columns of a deep blood-red shining porphyry1 which1 by the reflection of the lights1 presents an appearance inconceivably grand4 ,at the extremity of this passage is a sloping wall1 formed of a single mass of purple marble1 studded with sprigs of rock crystal1 which1 from the glow of the purple behind1 appear like a continued range of amethysts4 ,another slanting passage1 filled with petrifactions1 representing the figures of snakes and other animals1 and having toward its extremity two pillars of beautiful yellow marble1 which seem to support the roof1 leads to the last precipice1 which is descended by means of a ladder4 ,the traveler1 who has descended to the depth of nearly fifteen hundred feet beneath the surface1 now enters the magnificent grotto1 to procure a sight of which he has endured so much fatigue4 ,it is in width three hundred and sixty feet2 in length three hundred and forty2 and in most places one hundred and eighty in hight4 ,by the aid of torch-light1 he finds himself beneath an immense and finely vaulted arch1 overspread with icicles of white shining marble1 many of them ten feet in length1 and of a proportionate thickness4 ,among these are suspended a thousand festoons of leaves and flowers1 of the same substance1 but so glittering as to dazzle the sight4 ,the sides are planted with petrifactions1 also of white marble1 representing trees2 these rise in rows one above the other1 and often inclose the points of the icicles4 ,from them also hang festoons1 tied as it were one to another1 in great abundance2 and in some places rivers of marble seem to wind through them4 ,in short1 these petrifactions1 the result of the dripping of water for a long series of ages1 nicely resemble trees and brooks turned to marble4 ,the floor is paved with crystals of different colors1 such as red1 blue1 green and yellow1 projecting from it1 and rendering it rugged and uneven4 ,these are again interspersed with icicles of white marble1 which have apparently fallen from the roof1 and are there fixed4 ,to these the guides fasten their torches2 and the glare of splendor and beauty which results from such an illumination1 may be better conceived than described4 ,to the above description we subjoin an extract from the one given by ,dr4 ,clarke1 a learned traveler1 who visited this celebrated grotto4 8,the mode of descent is by ropes1 which1 on the different declivities1 are either held by the guides1 or are joined to a cable which is fastened at the entrance around a stalactite pillar4 ,in this manner1 we were conducted1 first down one declivity1 and then down another1 until we entered the spacious chambers of this truly enchanted grotto4 ,the roof1 the floor1 the sides1 of a whole series of magnificent caverns1 were entirely invested with a dazzling incrustation as white as snow4 ,columns1 some of which were five and twenty feet in length1 pended in fine icicle forms above our heads3 fortunately some of them are so far above the reach of the numerous travelers1 who during many ages1 have visited this place1 that no one has been able to injure or remove them4 ,others extended from the roof to the floor1 with diameters equal to that of the mast of a first-rate ship of the line4 ,the incrustations of the floor1 caused by falling drops from the stalactites above1 had grown up into dendritic and vegetable forms1 which first suggested to ,tournefort the strange notion of his having here discovered the vegetation of stones4 ,vegetation itself has been considered as a species of crystallization2 and as the process of crystallization is so surprisingly manifested by several phenomena in this grotto1 some analogy may perhaps be allowed to exist between the plant and the stone2 but it can not be said1 that a principle of life existing in the former has been imparted to the latter4 ,the last chamber into which we descended surprised us more by the grandeur of its exhibition than any other4 ,probably there are many other chambers below this1 yet unexplored1 for no attempt has been made to penetrate further3 and1 if this be true1 the new caverns1 when opened1 would appear in perfect splendor1 unsullied1 in any part of them1 by the smoke of torches1 or by the hands of intruders40 ,,caverns ,,in ,,germany ,,and ,,hungary1 ,,containing ,,fossil ,,bones4 ,among the most remarkable of these caverns are those of ,gaylenreuth1 on the confines of ,bayreuth4 ,the opening to these1 which is about seven feet and a half high1 is at the foot of a rock of limestone of considerable magnitude1 and in its eastern side4 ,immediately beyond the opening is a magnificent grotto1 of about three hundred feet in circumference1 which has been naturally divided by the form of the roof into four caves4 ,the first is about twenty-five feet long and wide1 and varies in hight from nine to eighteen feet1 the roof being formed into irregular arches4 ,beyond this is the second cave1 about twenty-eight feet long1 and of nearly the same width and hight with the former4 ,a low and very rugged passage1 the roof of which is formed of projecting pieces of rocks1 leads to the third grotto1 the opening into which is a hole three feet high1 and four feet wide4 ,this grotto is more regular in its form1 and is about thirty feet in diameter1 and nearly round2 its hight is from five to six feet4 ,it is very richly and fantastically adorned by the varying forms of its stalactitic hangings4 ,the floor is also covered with a wet and slippery glazing1 in which several teeth and jaws appear to have been fixed4 ,from this grotto commences the descent to the inferior caverns4 ,within only about five or six feet an opening in the floor is seen1 which is partly vaulted over by a projecting piece of rock4 ,the descent is about twenty feet4 ,this cavern is about thirty feet in hight1 about fifteen feet in width1 and nearly circular2 the sides1 roof and floor1 displaying the remains of animals4 ,the rock itself is thickly beset with teeth and bones1 and the floor is covered with a loose earth1 the evident result of animal decomposition1 and in which numerous bones are imbedded4 ,a gradual descent leads to another grotto1 which1 with its passage1 is forty feet in length1 and twenty feet in hight4 ,its sides and top are beautifully adorned with stalactites4 ,nearly twenty feet further is a frightful gulf1 the opening of which is about fifteen feet in diameter2 and1 upon descending about twenty feet1 another grotto1 about the same diameter with the former1 but forty feet in hight1 is seen4 ,here the bones are dispersed about2 and the floor1 which is formed of animal earth1 has great numbers of them imbedded in it4 ,the bones which are here found1 seem to be of different animals2 but in this1 as well as in the former caverns1 perfect and unbroken bones are very seldom found4 ,sometimes a tooth is seen projecting from the solid rock1 through the stalactitic covering1 showing that many of these wonderful remains may here be concealed4 ,a specimen of this kind has been preserved1 and is rendered particularly interesting1 by the first molar tooth of the lower jaw1 with its enamel quite perfect1 rising through the stalactitic mass which invests the bone4 ,in this cavern the stalactites begin to be of a larger size1 and of a more columnar form4 ,passing on through a narrow opening in the rock1 a small cave1 seven feet long1 and five feet high1 is discovered2 another narrow opening leads to another small cave2 from which a sloping descent leads to a cave twenty-five feet in hight1 and about half as much in its diameter1 in which is a truncated columnar stalactite1 eight feet in circumference4 ,a narrow and most difficult passage1 twenty feet in length1 leads from this cavern to another1 twenty-five feet in hight1 which is everywhere beset with teeth1 bones and stalactitic projections4 ,this cavern is suddenly contracted1 so as to form a vestibule of six feet wide1 ten long1 and nine high1 terminating in an opening close to the floor1 only three feet wide and two high1 through which it is necessary to writhe1 with the body on the ground4 ,this leads into a small cave1 eight feet high and wide1 which is the passage into a grotto1 twenty-eight feet high1 and about forty-three feet long and wide4 ,here the prodigious quantity of animal earth1 the vast number of teeth1 jaws and other bones1 and the heavy grouping of the stalactites1 produce so dismal an appearance1 as to become a perfect model of a temple for a god of the dead4 ,here hundreds of cart-loads of bony remains might be removed1 pockets might be filled with fossil teeth1 and animal earth was found to reach to the utmost depth to which the workmen dug4 ,a piece of stalactite1 being here broken down1 was found to contain pieces of bones within it1 the remnants of which were left imbedded in the rock4 ,from this principal cave is a very narrow passage1 terminating in the last cave1 which is about six feet in width1 fifteen in hight1 and the same in length4 ,in this cave were no animal remains1 and the floor was the naked rock4 ,thus far only can these natural sepulchers be traced2 but there is every reason to suppose1 that these animal remains are disposed through a greater part of this rock4 ,whence this immense quantity of the remains of carnivorous animals could have been collected1 is a question which naturally arises2 but the difficulty of answering it appears to be almost insurmountable4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mammoth ,,cave4 ,,the ,,mammoth ,,cave4 ,for one of the earliest accounts of this stupendous cavern1 which is unparalleled in the entire history of subterranean wonders1 we are indebted to ,dr4 ,nahum ,ward1 who published it in a monthly magazine1 in ,october1 #ahaf4 ,it is in what was formerly ,warren1 but now ,edmonson county1 in the state of ,kentucky1 about ten miles from the great ,louisville and ,nashville turnpike4 ,the territory is not mountainous but broken1 differing in this respect from the vicinity of most other caverns of the same general kind4 ,not far from the entrance1 a hotel is now kept for the accommodation of visitors1 as the cave is quite a fashionable resort for travelers during the summer season4 ,perhaps we shall best gain correct ideas of this wonderful cavern1 which is almost a world in itself1 having its own seas1 mountains1 lakes1 rivers1 c41 by reading first the account given by ,dr4 ,ward1 and then that of a visitor who explored it in #ahed4 ,dr4 ,ward1 provided with guides1 two large lamps1 a compass and refreshments1 descended a pit forty feet in depth1 and one hundred and twenty in circumference2 having a spring of fine water at the bottom1 and conducting to the entrance of the cavern4 ,the opening1 which is to the north1 is from forty to fifty feet high1 and about thirty in width4 ,it narrows shortly after1 but again expands to a width of thirty or forty feet1 and a hight of twenty1 continuing these dimensions for about a mile1 to the first hoppers1#b where a manufactory of saltpeter had recently been established4 ,thence to the second of these hoppers1 two miles from the entrance1 it is forty feet in width1 and sixty in hight4 ,throughout nearly the whole of the distance handsome walls had been made by the manufacturers1 of the loose limestone4 ,the road was hard1 and as smooth as a flag pavement4 ,in every passage which the doctor traversed1 the sides of the cavern were perpendicular1 and the arches1 which have bid defiance even to earthquakes1 were regular4 ,in #ahjb1 when the heavy shocks of earthquakes came on which were so severely felt in this part of ,kentucky1 the workmen stationed at the second hoppers1 heard about five minutes before each shock1 a heavy rumbling noise issue from the cave1 like a strong wind4 ,when that ceased1 the rocks cracked1 and the whole appeared to be going in a moment to final destruction4 ,however1 no one was injured1 although large portions of rock fell in different parts of the cavern4 ----- ,footnote #b3 ,a hopper is an inverted cone1 into which corn is put at a mill before it runs between the stones4 ----- ,in advancing into the cavern1 the avenue leads from the second hoppers1 west1 one mile2 and thence1 south-west1 to the chief area or city1 which is six miles from the entrance4 ,this avenue1 throughout its whole extent from the above station to the cross-roads1 or chief area1 is from sixty to one hundred feet in hight1 of a similar width1 and nearly on a level1 the floor or bottom being covered with loose limestone and saltpeter earth4 8,when10 observes the doctor1 8,i reached this immense area 7called the chief city7 which contains upward of eight acres1 without a single pillar to support the arch1 which is entire over the whole1 ,i was struck dumb with astonishment4 ,nothing can be more sublime and grand than this place1 of which but a faint idea can be conveyed1 covered with one solid arch at least one hundred feet high1 and to all appearance entire40 ,having entered the area1 the doctor perceived five large avenues leading from it1 from sixty to one hundred feet in width1 and about forty in hight4 ,the stone walls are arched1 and were from forty to eighty feet perpendicular in hight before the commencement of the arch4 ,in exploring these avenues1 the precaution was taken to cut arrows1 pointing to the mouth of the cave1 on the stones beneath the feet1 to prevent any difficulty in the return4 ,the first which was traversed1 took a southerly direction for more than two miles2 when a second was taken1 which led first east1 and then north1 for more than two miles further4 ,these windings at length brought the party1 by another avenue1 to the chief city again1 after having traversed different avenues for more than five miles4 ,having reposed for a few moments on slabs of limestone near the center of this gloomy area1 and refreshed themselves and trimmed their lamps1 they departed a second time1 through an avenue almost north1 parallel with the one leading from the chief city to the mouth of the cavern2 and1 having proceeded upward of two miles1 came to the second city4 ,this is covered with a single arch1 nearly two hundred feet high in the center1 and is very similar to the chief city1 except in the number of its avenues1 which are two only4 ,they crossed it1 over a very considerable rise in the center1 and descended through an avenue which bore to the east1 to the distance of nearly a mile1 when they came to a third area1 or city1 about one hundred feet square1 and fifty in hight1 which had a pure and delightful stream of water issuing from the side of a wall about thirty feet high1 and which fell on a broken surface of stone1 and was afterward entirely lost to view4 ,having passed a few yards beyond this beautiful sheet of water1 so as to reach the end of the avenue1 the party returned about one hundred yards1 and passing over a considerable mass of stone1 entered another1 but smaller avenue to the right1 which carried them south1 through a third1 of an uncommonly black hue1 somewhat more than a mile2 when they ascended a very steep hill about sixty yards1 which conducted them to within the walls of the fourth city4 ,it is not inferior to the second1 having an arch which covers at least six acres4 ,in this last avenue1 the extremity of which can not be less than four miles from the chief city1 and ten from the mouth of the cavern1 are upward of twenty large piles of saltpeter earth on the one side1 and broken limestone heaped up on the other1 evidently the work of human hands4 ,from the course of his needle1 the doctor expected that this avenue would have led circuitously to the chief city2 but was much disappointed when he reached the extremity1 a few hundred yards' distance from the fourth city4 ,in retracing his steps1 not having paid a due attention to mark the entrances of the different avenues1 he was greatly bewildered1 and once completely lost himself for nearly fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,thus1 faint and wearied1 he did not reach the chief area till ten at night2 but was still determined to explore the cavern so long as his light should last4 ,having entered the fifth and last avenue from the chief area1 and proceeded south-east about nine hundred yards1 he came to the fifth area1 the arch of which covers upward of four acres of level ground1 strewed with limestone1 and having fire-beds of an uncommon size1 surrounded with brands of cane1 interspersed4 ,another avenue on the opposite side1 led to one of still greater capacity1 the walls or sides of which were more perfect than any that had been noticed1 running almost due south for nearly a mile and a half1 and being very level and straight1 with an elegant arch4 ,while the doctor was employed1 at the extremity of this avenue1 in sketching a plan of the cave1 one of his guides1 who had strayed to a distance1 called on him to follow4 ,leaving the other guide1 he was led to a vertical passage1 which opened into a chamber at least eighteen hundred feet in circumference1 and the center of the arch of which was one hundred and fifty feet in hight4 ,it was past midnight when he entered this chamber of eternal darkness2 and when he reflected on the different avenues through which he had passed since he had penetrated the cave at eight in the morning1 and now found himself buried several miles in the dark recesses of this awful cavern--the grave1 perhaps1 of thousands of human beings--he felt a shivering horror4 ,the avenue1 or passage1 which led from it was as large as any he had entered2 and it is uncertain how far he might have traveled had his lights not failed him4 ,all those who have any knowledge of this cave1 he observes1 conjecture that ,green river1 a stream navigable several hundred miles1 passes over three of its branches4 ,after a lapse of nearly an hour1 he descended by what is called the 8passage of the chimney10 and joined the other guide4 ,thence returning to the chief area or city1 where the lamps were trimmed for the last time1 he entered the spacious avenue which led to the second hoppers4 ,here he met with various curiosities1 such as spars1 petrifactions1 c42 and these he brought away1 together with a mummy which was found at the second hoppers4 ,he reached the mouth of the cave about three in the morning1 nearly exhausted with nineteen hours of constant fatigue4 ,he nearly fainted on leaving it1 and on inhaling the vapid air of the atmosphere1 after having so long breathed the pure air occasioned by the niter of the cave4 ,his pulse beat stronger when in the cave1 but not so quick as when on the surface4 ,here the doctor observes that he has hardly described half the cave1 not having named the avenues between its mouth and the second hoppers4 ,this part of his narrative is of equal interest with what has been already given4 ,he states that there is a passage in the main avenue1 upward of nine hundred feet from the entrance1 like that of a trap-door4 ,by sliding aside a large flat stone1 you can descend sixteen or eighteen feet in a very narrow defile1 where the passage comes on a level1 and winds about in such a manner1 as to pass under the main passage without having any communication with it1 at length opening into the main cave by two large passages just beyond the second hoppers4 ,this is called the 8glauber-salt room10 from salts of that kind being found there4 ,next come the sick room1 the bat-room1 and the flint-room1 together with a winding avenue1 which1 branching off at the second hoppers1 runs west and south-west for more than two miles4 ,it is called the 8haunted chamber10 from the echo within3 its arch is very beautifully incrusted with limestone spar2 and in many places the columns of spar are truly elegant1 extending from the ceiling to the floor4 ,near the center of this arch is a dome1 apparently fifty feet high1 hung in rich drapery1 festooned in the most fanciful manner for six or eight feet from the hangings1 and in colors the most rich and brilliant4 ,by the reflection of one or two lights1 the columns of spar and the stalactites have a very romantic appearance4 ,of this spar1 a large elevation1 called 8,wilkin's arm-chair10 has been formed in the center of the avenue and encircled with many smaller ones4 ,the columns of the spar1 fluted and studded with knobs of spar and stalactites2 the drapery of the various colors superbly festooned and hung in the most graceful manner1 these are shown with the greatest brilliancy by the reflection of the lamps4 ,in the vicinity of the haunted chamber1 the sound of a cataract was heard2 and at the extremity of the avenue was a reservoir of water1 very clear and grateful to the taste1 having1 apparently1 neither inlet nor outlet4 ,here the air1 as in many other parts of the cave1 was pure and delightful4 ,not far from the reservoir1 an avenue presented itself1 within which were several columns of the most brilliant spar1 sixty or seventy feet in hight1 and almost perpendicular1 standing in basins of water2 which1 as well as the columns1 were of surpassing splendor and beauty4 ,so far we have followed the brief and general account of ,dr4 ,ward4 ,turning now to other accounts1 we find that the cave extends for miles under the earth1 and that the end of it has never yet been reached by any explorer4 ,the air is not only pure1 but delightful and exhilarating1 and has been highly recommended for diseases of the lungs1 so much so1 that quite a number of small houses have been built within to accommodate consumptive persons1 who at times have resided there with benefit4 ,the temperature there is uniformly the same1 being in both winter and summer1 from fifty-five degrees to fifty-nine degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,combustion is perfect in all parts of the cave1 and decomposition is nowhere observable4 ,no reptiles1 of any description1 have ever been seen within it4 ,the loudest thunder can not be heard a quarter of a mile within1 and the only sound is the roar of the waterfalls1 of which there are some seven or eight4 ,the entire cave1 so far as explored1 contains two hundred and fifty or more avenues1 nearly fifty domes1 twenty-two pits and three rivers4 ,many of the avenues contain large and magnificent stalagmite columns1 extending from the floor to the ceiling1 and some of very grotesque and fanciful shape4 ,graceful stalactites may likewise be seen pendant from the ceilings1 as uniform and regular as if they were cut by the hand of man4 ,the engraving gives a view of one of those avenues where the stalagmites and stalactites abound in great profusion4 ,in another part of this avenue1 in what is called the ,gothic ,chapel1 these stalactic formations are still more striking1 very much resembling a monkish cathedral4 ,in the ,fairy ,grotto1 the formations likewise assume a great many fanciful shapes4 ,passing now to the second account of a visit to the cave1 to which we have already alluded1 we find the visitor saying1 that the cave is every way so wonderful1 that it is impossible to give more than a faint idea of its magnificence and splendor4 8,as in exploring the cave10 he continues1 8there are three rivers to cross and a great deal of climbing over rocks and crawling through narrow places1 ladies adopt the ,bloomer costume from necessity1 and gentlemen are provided with dresses according to their fancy1 so that a party starting out for a trip through the cave1 present a most grotesque and comical appearance4 ,on arriving at the mouth1 the visitor is provided with a lamp1 and makes an abrupt1 though comparatively easy descent of some seventy or eighty feet4 ,here he enters a dark avenue1 about five rods wide1 called the ,narrows1 and soon finds himself far beyond where daylight ever shone4 ,at the distance of about six hundred yards from the mouth1 this avenue expands and forms a large circular room1 called the ,rotunda1 or ,great ,vestibule4 ,the guide stops here1 and ignites a light1 a compound of sulphur1 saltpeter and antimony1 prepared for illuminating the various points of special interest through the cave4 ,this forms a most brilliant light1 and reveals a room some two or three hundred feet wide1 and forty-seven feet high4 ,the view revealed by this first illumination is most imposing and sublime4 ,i told my guide that he was certainly right in his ideas about describing the cave4 ,as he saw me getting my paper and pencil ready at the mouth1 he began laughing very significantly1 and said1 #8,writin 'bout the cave aint no use1 sir4 ,most everybody that goes in writes1 but they gin'ally throws it away when they comes out4 ,writin don't do no good4 ,if anybody wants to know 'bout the cave1 they must come and see it4' ,although ,i had barely commenced my journey through it1 ,i told my guide that ,i could heartily subscribe to the whole of his speech on this subject4 8,and right here1 in the great vestibule1 ,i will stop to say a few words about my guide4 ,there are four guides to the cave1 all of whom are said to be entirely familiar with it1 and to give the most perfect satisfaction to visitors4 ,at all events1 ,i was entirely satisfied with #8,alfred1' with whom ,i made four different journeys through the cave1 traveling under ground through various avenues more than fifty miles4 ,alfred formerly belonged to ,miss ,mary ,croghan1 whose elopement from a boarding-school on ,staten ,island about a dozen years ago1 with ,captain ,shinley1 created so great a sensation in ,new ,york and elsewhere4 ,after she went to ,england1 she gave ,alfred to some of her relatives1 and he belonged to ,dr4 ,croghan at the time of his death1 who was the owner of the cave4 ,by the terms of ,dr4 ,croghan's will1 ,alfred and his wife and children will be free in about eighteen months4 ,he is now drawing wages for his services1 which1 with the liberal presents he receives from visitors1 will enable him to make a very fine start in the world4 ,alfred has evidently been a great pet1 as he learned to read when very small2 and he astonishes visitors by his use of scientific terms1 and his knowledge of chemistry and geology4 ,he has now been a guide to the cave about sixteen years2 has visited it with a great many scientific men2 has most of the standard works on geology1 and is altogether an interesting character4 ,he sees persons from all parts of the union1 and understands all the excitements at the north1 from that created by ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin1 down to the ,forrest divorce trial4 ,he was anxious to buy ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin1 and was told that he had better buy a ,bible4 ,so he paid four dollars and a half for a ,bible1 and bought ,uncle ,tom too4 ,i can not do less than recommend all my friends who may visit the cave1 to try and secure ,alfred for a guide4 8,leaving the vestibule and passing the ,kentucky cliffs1 so called from their likeness to the cliffs in ,kentucky river1 we come to what is very appropriately named the ,church and ,galleries4 ,at various points upon the route thus far1 we have seen the leaching vats and other remains of the saltpeter works that were erected in the cave nearly fifty years ago4 ,the manufacture of saltpeter was carried on quite extensively in the cave for several years1 and the guide says the saltpeter was manufactured here with which the powder was made which was used in the battle of ,new ,orleans4 ,there is a very plain cart-path through this part of the cave1 and we saw the tracks of oxen which were made forty-seven years ago4 ,the church is the point in the cave where the miners assembled for worship4 ,the rude pulpit or stand from which the preacher addressed his congregation1 still remains4 ,but besides this there is a natural pulpit and galleries which are easily ascended by steps in the wall1 from which sermons are now frequently preached to visitors1 for whom seats are provided4 ,when illuminated1 this church is more awfully imposing and solemn1 than any temple built by human hands4 ,the cave is more than one hundred feet wide1 its massive rocky walls about fifteen feet high1 and stretching away in each direction until lost in the most impenetrable darkness4 ,for myself1 ,i could not understand how any man would consent to lift his puny voice where ,god speaks so impressively4 ,but there is a difference in tastes1 and many1 ,i doubt not1 are persuaded against their own will to gratify the strong desire of the visitors to hear preaching in the cave4 ,going on from this point we pass the ,grand ,arch1 a natural arch sixty-six feet high1 and about seventy yards wide1 and one hundred and fifty yards long2 and some distance beyond are shown the ,giant's ,coffin4 ,this is a huge rock1 so formed that the top of it is a fine representation of a coffin4 ,the shape is almost precisely that of a modern metallic coffin4 ,this rock lies exactly east and west1 by the compass1 and is fifty-seven and a half feet long4 8,here we left the broad main cave in which we had thus far been traveling1 and which stretched on indefinitely before us1 and turned off into a narrow1 circuitous1 irregular avenue1 and wandered indefinitely4 ,clambering over rocks1 going down precipitous steeps1 passing a great variety of rooms1 lofty domes1 intricate labyrinths1 pits from seventy-five to one hundred and seventy-five feet deep1 and a great many other points1 all appropriately and often very significantly named1 we at length came to ,gorin's ,dome1 so called from the name of its discoverer1 by far the most imposing ,i had yet seen4 ,coming to the end of a narrow avenue1 the guide directed me to look through an opening in the wall1 a kind of window1 and our lamps revealed hights above and depths below1 that seemed interminable6 ,he then kindled one of the lights that ,i have already described1 and placing it upon a board1 thrust it through the opening and told me to look1 first below and then above4 ,the view was utterly indescribable and almost overpowering4 ,the opening was not more than thirty feet in circumference1 and ,i have already forgotten the hight and depth as given me by the guide4 ,but ,i felt for hours and still feel the tremblings of those emotions that thrilled through my whole frame as ,i peered into those abysmal depths1 and looked up into those giddy hights4 ,none but ,jehovah could build such a dome4 8,i can not undertake to give the details of our route from avenue to avenue1 nor mention the various points of interest that we passed4 ,we were at length in a vast open space2 the guide took our lamps1 and going a short distance from us1 told us to look up1 and we at once discovered that we were in the far-famed ,star ,chamber4 ,the cave here is some twenty or thirty yards wide1 and about sixty or seventy feet high1 and in a dim light the arch above presents the appearance of the sky in a very starry night4 ,on looking up you see innumerable stars1 and as you gaze for a long time the sky seems to be very distant1 the stars increase in number1 and it seems quite as if you were really looking through an opening in the cave into the heavens4 ,our guide ,alfred was with ,professor ,silliman when he examined this arch by the aid of a ,drummond light1 to discover the cause of this appearance1 and found that it was crystals embedded in the wall4 ,after we had satisfied ourselves with viewing this artificial sky1 ,alfred took all our lamps and going into a cave below us1 by the shadows from his lamps gave us a representation of clouds passing over the sky1 obscuring the stars1 thunder-clouds rolling over and the stars appearing again1 and other interesting illusions4 ,after this he went still deeper in the cave below us1 leaving us in the most pitchy darkness4 ,we were so deep in the bowels of the earth that the loudest thunder has never been heard there1 and the silence and darkness were awfully impressive4 ,suddenly we saw in the direction in which our guide had disappeared1 a light like the rising of the moon1 which grew larger and larger1 until ,alfred emerged through some opening from the regions below1 and appeared in the distance in the same cave in which we were standing4 8,after leaving this chamber1 which was more beautiful than any we had entered1 we made our way to the ,gothic ,gallery4 ,this avenue was unlike anything we had yet seen4 ,it is some four or five rods wide and three-quarters of a mile long1 the path over which we walked being much more level than the most of those we had walked over1 and much of the wall over our heads looking almost as smooth as if it had been plastered4 ,in this avenue we visited the ,haunted ,chamber1 so called from the fact that two mummies were discovered here many years ago2 ,vulcan's ,forge1 so called from being very dark1 and a formation resembling cinders2 and near its end the ,gothic ,gallery4 ,this room has a great variety of stalactite and stalagmite formations1 many of which have formed solid massive pillars4 ,as we approached the ,chapel1 our guide made us all stay behind1 while he went ahead1 taking all our lamps with him2 and when we went forward at his call1 we found each of our lamps hung upon some one of these pillars1 and illuminating a room1 compared with which ,taylor's saloon on ,broadway1 or the most gorgeous saloon ,new ,york can boast1 is simplicity itself4 ,these formations are a wonderful curiosity4 ,they are of a very light color1 are nearly as hard as granite1 and are said to be formed by the drippings of lime water4 ,they are in a great variety of shapes1 to which a great many fanciful names have been given1 such as the ,pulpit1 the ,devil's ,arm-,chair1 the ,pillars of ,hercules1 c4 8,i had intended in this letter to speak of the chief points of interest in what is called the short route through the cave2 that is1 the portion of the cave that is visited without crossing either of the rivers4 ,i made two visits on this side of the rivers1 the first time traveling about six miles1 and the second time traveling ten miles and a half4 ,but ,i am the more willing to pass by the ,bandit's ,hall1 ,mammoth ,dome1 ,persico ,avenue1 ,crockett's ,dome1 ,snowball ,arch1 ,bunyan's ,way1 and other places of special interest1 with a mere mention of their names1 from the fact that it is so entirely impossible to describe them4 ,some of these are but rarely visited1 and it costs no little effort to reach them4 ,but however narrow the fissures in the rocks through which we squeezed1 however steep and slippery the ascent1 however long the distance we had to crawl on our hands and knees1 we were always more than paid for our pains4 8,omitting1 then1 any detailed account of what is called the short route1 ,i pass to a notice of the long route1 to which most of our time was given4 ,in taking this we entered the cave as before1 passed through the great vestibule1 and on for a mile or two through the main branch1 over the same route we had already traveled4 ,it seems impossible to realize that this is a cave1 it is so high1 so wide1 so vast4 ,several of our company remarked this fact4 ,we seemed rather to be in some deep1 dark ravine or mountain gorge1 wandering by the light of our dim lamps1 in some night that was utterly rayless and starless4 ,we at length reached the ,bottomless ,pit1 where we entered upon a path that was new to us4 ,this pit is a deep1 dark1 fearful chasm1 and received its name before anything like bottom had been found4 ,it has now been measured to the depth of one hundred and seventy-five feet1 and there may be fissures in the rock descending indefinitely below4 ,near this pit1 we passed over an artificial bridge1 and entered the ,valley of ,humility1 through which we made our way1 stooping and crawling1 until we reached what is the most comical and laughable point in the cave1 which is most appropriately named the ,winding ,way1 or ,fat ,man's ,misery4 ,this is an exceedingly circuitous opening in the rock1 about eighteen inches wide1 and between three and four hundred feet long4 ,at the entrance of this way1 the fissure through which we pass is not more than about two feet deep1 and the ceiling above us is so high that we could stand erect without difficulty2 but in advancing1 the fissure becomes deeper1 the rocks on either hand are higher and higher1 and the ceiling above becomes lower and lower1 and it seems to be1 indeed1 not only fat1 but tall men's misery4 ,it is a most laughable sight to see a party edging their way through this zigzag path2 a path that gives every indication of having been washed and worn by the action of the water for innumerable years4 ,our party was a decidedly lean one1 so that we did not1 like many others1 have the amusement of seeing some one of aldermanic proportions squeeze and worry his way through4 ,finally1 however1 we got through1 and came into a large open space1 which our guide called ,great ,relief1 and a relief it was1 sure enough4 ,passing on1 we entered a large1 roomy avenue called ,river ,hall1 where we were shown the high-water mark in the cave2 where1 in times of freshets1 the river rises fifty-seven feet1 perpendicularly1 above low-water mark in the cave4 ,we turned aside from this hall into a large room1 to witness a great curiosity called the ,bacon ,chamber4 ,here the formations overhead are such as to make the room look remarkably like a large smoke-house filled with hams2 and near by we were shown a smooth circular excavation in the wall above us1 which was pointed out as the kettle for boiling these hams1 now turned bottom upward4 ,returning to the ,hall1 we went forward1 passing several points of interest1 until we came to a pure and beautiful body of water called ,lake ,lethe1 upon which we embarked in a small boat provided for the purpose4 ,we were now all on the look-out for the eyeless fish that are found in the waters of the cave1 and were so fortunate as to catch in a small net1 first1 what was called a clawfish1 having legs like a lobster1 but eyeless and apparently bloodless1 being almost precisely the color of potato sprouts that have grown in the spring in a dark cellar4 ,afterward we caught a very small fish of the same color1 and having no eyes4 ,where the eyes should grow1 the flesh was smooth and just like the rest of the body4 ,whatever our doubts might have been before1 we here had ocular demonstration that the fish in these waters1 which are never illumined except by lamplight1 are entirely without sight4 8,leaving ,lake ,lethe1 we entered a most grand and imposing avenue1 with lofty rocky walls towering about two hundred and fifty feet high1 called the ,great ,walk4 ,this leads to the ,echo ,river1 one of the greatest of these subterranean wonders4 ,we sailed down this river a distance of three-quarters of a mile1 and such a sail6 ,where on the earth or under the earth1 could another such a sail be taken8 ,the water was cold1 clear and pure1 and in color remarkably like the ,niagara1 as it plunges over the falls4 ,at many places we could see the bottom1 and in others it seemed of very great depth4 ,it flowed in placid stillness1 unrippled by a single breeze1 between1 above and beneath walls of massive and eternal rock4 ,now the channel was deep1 narrow and tortuous1 and now it spread out into a broad1 pellucid stream4 ,now the massive ceiling above us was high1 and smooth1 and beautifully arched2 and now it was so rough1 broken and low1 that we had to stoop as we sat in our boat1 in order to pass under it4 ,we did not pass rapidly down this stream4 ,none of us were in a hurry4 ,we seemed scarcely to belong to this driving1 go-ahead world4 ,now a shout echoed wildly and magnificently through the rocky chambers2 and now we sat entranced while one of our company1 a splendid musician1 sang some beautiful song1 never as beautiful as now1 when it echoed and rechoed along these walls1 and died away in the darkness that our dim lamps could not penetrate4 ,this river1 too1 is most appropriately named4 ,the echoes are most perfect and beautiful4 ,we experimented in a great variety of ways1 singing alone and in concert1 shouting1 whistling1 clapping our hands1 and finally1 the whole company sung ,ortonville4 ,but there was one thing more impressive than all these1 and that was silence6 ,we sat in our boat as quietly as possible1 no one speaking or moving for some time2 and the stillness and the darkness by which we were surrounded1 were solemn and awful beyond all description4 ,we were deep in the bowels of the earth1 ,i know not how many feet below its surface1 but so low that no ray of light from the sun had ever penetrated its depths1 and no voice of loudest thunder had ever waked an echo there4 ,the silence was perfect1 save the sound of breathing which each one tried to suppress1 and the throbbing of our hearts that #8,still like muffled drums were beating1 ,funeral marches to the grave4' 8,god spoke in that stillness with a voice such as ,i had never heard before4 ,i had never before so realized how awfully impressive were darkness and silence4 ,i had entirely new ideas of the awful solitude of that period when the #8earth was without form and void1 and darkness was upon the face of the deep4' 8,on getting beyond this river1 we entered a region of avenues of incredible if not of interminable length1 which have been discovered within the last twelve or fifteen years4 ,one of the first of these is called ,silliman ,avenue1 in honor of ,professor ,silliman1 who has made very thorough explorations of the cave4 ,this avenue is a mile and a half long1 about three rods wide1 and has various interesting features which ,i have not time to notice4 ,at the termination of this avenue1 the cave widens into a large room1 several rods wide1 and some fifty or sixty feet high1 which is called ,ole ,bull's concert-room1 from the fact that this musician gave a free concert there to the visitors who were at the cave at the time of his visit4 8,beyond this room1 we entered an avenue two miles long1 called the ,pass of ,el ,gor4 ,this is an exceedingly rocky and uneven avenue1 leading1 by a most circuitous path up and down great piles of rock1 along a most rugged and desolate way1 near deep holes and fissures in the rocks1 until at length we come to a fine sulphur spring called ,hebe's ,spring1 which we found very refreshing4 ,here1 through a narrow opening in the rocks1 we climb a ladder eighteen feet high1 and find a scene that abundantly compensates for the rough walk we have taken to reach it4 ,on reaching the top of this ladder1 we find ourselves in ,martha's ,vineyard4 ,here is a vast room1 the sides of which are covered over with a formation resembling grapes4 ,they hang on the wall above1 plump1 round and perfect in form1 and in the greatest profusion4 ,they are so solid and hard that it is difficult to break off any of the clusters1 and are said to be formed by the drippings of the water through the rocks4 ,near the head of the ladder there is a fine representation of a vine1 of solid rock1 running along the wall2 and apparently connected with this vine1 there are seemingly cart-loads of these rocky grapes4 ,our guide illumined the vineyard with one of his ,bengal lights1 and the view was magnificent4 8,going on from this point through ,elindo's ,avenue and ,washington's ,hall1 we reached another of the remarkable rooms of the cave1 called the ,snowball ,room4 ,the cave is here about a hundred feet wide1 ten or fifteen feet high1 and the ceiling quite even and beautifully arched4 ,nature has here played most fantastic tricks4 ,i know of no way so good to describe this room1 as to say that its walls and ceiling overhead look like the end of some building that a score of school-boys have completely covered over with snowballs4 ,we examined these formations for some time with our lamps1 and then ,alfred gave us the benefit of an illumination4 ,but of its appearance when thus lighted up1 ,i will attempt no description4 8,we were now about seven miles from the mouth of the cave2 and with appetites sharpened by our long walk1 we sat down to the dinner which our host had sent along for us4 ,it was a magnificent dining-saloon in which we were seated4 ,taylor's saloon on ,broadway is splendid1 and has dazzled and bewildered multitudes1 when they first entered it2 but neither ,taylor1 nor prince1 nor potentate1 ever built a room so gorgeous as that in which we were seated4 ,none but the ,god who built the skies1 and bent and decorated the arch above us1 could build another comparable to it4 8,the ,snowball ,room is at the entrance of an avenue more extensive and beautiful than any other in the cave4 ,this is called ,cleveland's ,cabinet1 and is altogether indescribable4 ,it is about five rods wide and two miles long6 ,think of its dimensions a moment6 ,about as long as ,broadway from the ,battery to ,union ,square1 and with walls1 not of brick1 granite and marble1 shaped and graven by art and man's device1 but with walls and ceiling above covered all over with the exquisite and beautiful workmanship of its divine builder4 8,we passed slowly through this cabinet1 two miles long1 the guide conducting us from point to point of remarkable interest1 and all the way along showing us new and strange developments4 ,we went to ,mary's ,bower1 ,virginia's ,festoons1 ,saint ,cecelia's ,grotto1 ,flora's ,garden1 where were roses and lilies1 rosettes and wreaths1 as perfect as though they had been chiseled there by the most accomplished sculptor4 ,the formation on the wall in which these various flowers and other beautiful things are developed1 is gypsum of the most snowy whiteness2 and our guide said it was in three separate layers1 and that the forming process was constantly going on1 the inner layers crowding off the outer4 ,the floor was covered with tuns of these layers1 which had been crowded off1 and which visitors are at liberty to carry off as specimens1 while they are strictly prohibited from breaking anything from the walls4 ,but still it is with the utmost difficulty that the guides can preserve some of the most beautiful views in the cave from the destruction of vandal visitors4 ,this part of the cave is less beautiful than formerly1 having become a good deal smoked by the lamps of the thousands of visitors who have examined it4 ,but our guide took us into an avenue immediately under this1 which is but rarely visited1 and conducted us to a most enchanting spot called ,egeria's ,grotto4 ,here the formations were as pure1 and beautiful and white1 as if fresh from the hand of their ,maker4 ,here were formations1 not only of the purest white1 but of other most exquisite coloring4 ,we remained a long time in this grotto1 examining its various wonders1 and deemed ourselves very fortunate in seeing it1 as from this we could better understand how ,cleveland's ,cabinet above us appeared during the long ages that intervened before it was polluted by the presence of man4 ,another beautiful grotto was perfectly brilliant and gorgeous1 and looked as though its rough walls were a solid mass of diamonds4 ,the most gorgeous and brilliant room ever built in the palace of an earthly monarch1 is tameness itself compared with this diamond grotto4 8,emerging again into ,cleveland's ,cabinet1 we passed on to its termination1 where we ascended the ,rocky ,mountains1 a vast pile of loose1 broken rocks1 one hundred and sixty feet high1 which have apparently dropped down from the cave above1 leaving a vast vaulted opening in the cave above1 to indicate the place from which they have fallen4 ,beyond these mountains1 the cave branches in three directions4 ,we took the branch leading to ,croghan's ,hall1 the remotest point in the cave that has yet been visited1 and nine miles from its mouth4 ,on the right of this room there is a deep1 awful pit1 into which we threw stones1 as we had into many others1 and heard them roll and bound from rock to rock1 down a distance of one hundred and eighty-five feet4 ,the water from some point below us runs over these rocks1 and flows off1 no mortal knows where4 ,this hall contains large1 massive pillars1 elaborately carved and ornamented by the ,invisible ,architect1 stalactites and stalagmites of various beautiful forms1 and its walls are festooned with that rich drapery which no art can imitate1 and which only decks the grottos1 bowers and halls of this wonderful cave4 8,after refreshing ourselves here from a pleasant spring1 we started on our nine-mile tramp for the mouth of the cave1 taking only a hurried glance of the varied objects of interest as we passed them4 ,we1 however1 sailed very leisurely down ,echo ,river1 or the ,jordan1 as it is also called4 ,we again had solos and choruses1 and drank in rich delights from this enchanting sail4 ,when we reached ,lethe1 some of our party determined to send their clothes across in our boat and swim over4 ,they accordingly plunged in very boldly1 but hurried out in the quickest time possible2 and the chattering of teeth1 shivering1 leaping and running to get warm again1 seemed more befitting a bath in ,february1 than in one of the hottest days in ,august4 8,i had now made four different visits to the cave1 traveling1 according to the reckoning of my guide1 about fifty-four miles4 ,very few visitors explore it as thoroughly1 and yet ,i had not gone over one-third of the space that has already been explored4 ,the guide says that two hundred and fifty different avenues are already known1 measuring the distance of one hundred and sixty-five miles4 ,the temperature of the cave is uniformly about fifty-five degrees1 and its bracing1 invigorating character may be judged from the fact that ladies1 some of them quite delicate1 are constantly taking this #8long route1' traveling a greater number of miles than most men would think of going on foot above ground4 8,we felt but little fatigue from our rough1 clambering walk of some twenty miles1 until we emerged from the cave1 and came in contact with outer air4 ,after breathing the air of the cave from eight ,a4 ,m4 till five ,p4 ,m41 the atmosphere seemed very impure4 ,we could smell every tree1 and plant1 and old log2 and the air was so sultry and sickening1 that we had to rest awhile at the mouth before starting for the hotel1 some fifty rods distant4 8,i have thus attempted to redeem my promise in regard to writing you from the cave4 ,i had no thought of writing at so great length4 ,if the cave were possessed of mind and sensibility1 ,i would take off my hat to it1 and feelingly ask its pardon for the great injustice ,i have done it in these letters4 ,but as it is1 ,i will only say that ,i have over and over again assented to the truthfulness and justice of my guide ,alfred's idea of all descriptions of the cave3 #8,writin don't do no good4 ,if anybody wants to know how the cave looks1 they must come and see it4' ,and ,i can not conceive of any journey for this purpose so long and toilsome1 that those making it would not be abundantly compensated for their pains1 by a view of this wonderful work of a wonder-working ,god40 ,still another visitor1 writing to a friend in ,europe1 says of this wonderful cave1 8,i had heard and read descriptions of it1 long since2 but the half1 the quarter1 was not told4 ,its vastness1 its lofty arches1 its immense reach into the bosom of the solid earth1 fill me with astonishment4 ,it is1 like ,mont ,blanc1 ,chimborazo1 and the falls of ,niagara1 one of ,god's mightiest works4 ,shall ,i compare it with anything of a similar description1 which you have seen on the other side of the ,atlantic8 with the grotto of ,neptune1 or that of the ,sibyl1 at ,tivoli1 or with any of ,virgil's poetic ,italian machinery8 ,no comparison can be instituted4 ,i speak1 as you are aware1 from personal knowledge4 ,you1 seated on the opposite bank of the ,arno1 have seen me clamber up1 from the noisy waters below1 to the entrance of the far-famed grotto of ,neptune1 which ,i leisurely explored4 ,in point of capaciousness1 that grotto has little more to boast of than the cellar of a large hotel1 and1 like that1 was1 as ,i think1 excavated by human hands4 ,that of the ,tiburtine ,sibyl is still more limited in its dimensions4 ,indeed1 every cavern which ,i have ever seen1 if placed along side of this1 would dwindle into insignificance40 ,the same writer says1 8,i can not refrain from giving you an account of an incident that happened in this cave last spring4 ,a wedding party went to the cave to spend the honeymoon4 ,while there1 they went to visit those beautiful portions of the cave which lie beyond the river #8,jordan4' ,in order to do this1 a person has to sail down the river nearly a mile before reaching the avenue which leads off from the river on the opposite side1 for there is no shore1 or landing-place1 between the point above on this side1 where you come to the river1 and that below on the other2 for the river fills the whole width of one avenue of the cave1 and is several feet deep where the side walls descend into the water4 ,this party had descended the river1 visited the cave beyond1 and had again embarked on the water for their return homeward4 ,after they had ascended the river about half-way1 some of the party1 who were in a high glee1 got into a romp and overturned the boat4 ,their lights were all extinguished1 their matches wet1 the boat filled with water and sunk immediately2 and there they were1 in #8the blackness of darkness1' up to their chins in water4 ,no doubt1 they would all have been lost1 had it not been for the guide's great presence of mind4 ,he charged them to remain perfectly still2 for1 if they moved a single step1 they might get out of their depth in water2 and swimming would not avail them1 for they could not see where to swim to4 ,he knew that1 if they could bear the coldness of the water any length of time1 they would be safe2 for another guide would be sent from the cave house1 to see what had become of them4 ,and in this perilous condition1 up to their mouths in water1 in the midst of darkness #8more than night1' four miles under ground1 they remained for upward of five hours2 at the end of which time1 another guide came to their relief4 ,matthew1 or ,mat1 the guide who rescued them1 told me that1 when he got to where they were1 his fellow-guide1 ,stephen1 7the ,columbus of the cave17 was swimming around the rest of the party1 cheering them1 and directing his movements1 while swimming1 by the sound of their voices1 which were raised1 one and all1 in prayer and supplication for deliverance60 ,in conclusion it may be interesting to state1 that ,colonel ,croghan1 to whose family the ,mammoth cave belongs1 was a resident of ,louisville1 ,kentucky4 ,he went to ,europe some twenty years ago1 and found himself frequently questioned of the wonders of the ,mammoth cave1 a place he had never visited1 and of which he had heard but little at home1 though living within ninety miles of it4 ,he went there on his return1 and the idea struck him to purchase it1 and make it a family inheritance4 ,in fifteen minutes' bargaining he bought it for ten thousand dollars1 and shortly after he was offered one hundred thousand dollars for his purchase4 ,in his will he tied it up in such a way that it must remain in his family for two generations1 thus appending its celebrity to his name4 ,there are nineteen hundred acres in the estate1 though the cave probably runs under the property of a great number of other land owners4 ,for fear of those who might dig down and establish an entrance to the cave on their own property1 7a man's farm extending up to the zenith and down to the nadir17 great vigilance is exercised to prevent such subterranean surveys and measurements as would enable one to sink a shaft with any certainty4 ,the cave extends ten or twelve miles in several directions1 and there is probably many a back-woodsman sitting in his hut within ten miles of the cave1 quite unconscious that the most fashionable ladies and gentlemen of ,europe and ,america are walking without leave under his potatoes and corn4 ,,the ,,great ,,cavern ,,of ,,guacharo4 ,passing from the ,mammoth cave in ,north ,america1 let us next notice the great cavern of ,guacharo in ,south ,america1 as described in the narrative of ,humboldt1 which is abridged in the account that follows4 8,in a country where the people are fond of the marvelous1 a cavern that gives birth to a river1 and which is inhabited by thousands of nocturnal birds1 the fat of which is used to dress the food of the inhabitants1 is a ceaseless topic of conversation and discussion4 ,scarcely has a stranger arrived at ,cumana1 when he is told of the stone of ,araya for the eyes2 of the laborer of ,arenas who suckled his child2 and of the cavern of ,guacharo1 which is said to be several leagues in length2 till he is tired of hearing of them4 8,the ,cueva del ,guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a rock4 ,the entrance is toward the south1 and forms a vault eighty feet broad1 and seventy-two feet high4 ,the rock1 that surmounts the grotto1 is covered with trees of gigantic hight4 ,the mammee-tree1 and the genipa with large and shining leaves1 raise their branches vertically toward the sky2 while those of the courbaril and the erythrina form1 as they extend themselves1 a thick vault of verdure4 ,plants of the family of pothos with succulent stems1 oxalises1 and orchide of a singular structure1 rise in the driest cliffs of the rocks2 while creeping plants1 waving in the winds1 are interwoven in festoons before the opening of the cavern4 ,we distinguished in these festoons a bignonia of a violet blue1 the purple dolichos1 and for the first time that magnificent olandra1 the orange flower of which has a fleshy tube more than four inches long4 ,the entrances of grottos1 like the view of cascades1 derive their principal charm from the situation1 more or less majestic1 in which they are placed1 and which in some sort determines the character of the landscape4 ,what a contrast between the ,cueva of ,caripe1 and those caverns of the north crowned with oaks and gloomy larch-trees6 8,but this luxury of vegetation embellishes not only the outside of the vault1 it appears even in the vestibule of the grotto4 ,one sees with astonishment plantain-leaved heliconias eighteen feet high1 the praga palm-tree1 and arborescent arums1 follow the banks of the river even to those subterranean places4 ,the vegetation continues in the cave of ,caripe1 as in the deep crevices of the ,andes1 half excluded from the light of day2 and does not disappear1 till1 advancing into the interior1 we reach thirty or forty paces from the entrance4 ,we measured the way by means of a cord2 and we went on about four hundred and thirty feet1 without being obliged to light our torches4 8,daylight penetrates into this region1 because the grotto forms but one single channel1 which keeps the same direction from south-east to north-west4 ,where the light begins to fail1 are heard from afar the hoarse sounds of the nocturnal birds1 sounds which the natives think belong exclusively to those subterraneous places4 ,the guacharo is of the size of our fowls1 has the mouth of the goatsuckers and procnias1 and the port of those vultures1 the crooked beak of which is surrounded with stiff silky hairs4 ,it forms a new genus1 very different from the goatsucker by the force of its voice1 by the considerable strength of its beak1 containing a double tooth1 and by its feet without the membranes that unite the anterior phalanxes of the claws4 ,in its manners it has analogies both to the goatsuckers and the alpine crow4 ,the plumage of the guacharo is of a dark bluish-gray1 mixed with small streaks and specks of black4 ,it is difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise occasioned by thousands of these birds in the dark part of the cavern1 and which can only be compared to the croaking of our crows1 which1 in the pine forests of the north1 live in society1 and construct their nests upon trees1 the tops of which touch each other4 ,the shrill and piercing cries of the guacharoes strike upon the vaults of the rocks1 and are repeated by the echo in the depth of the cavern4 ,the ,indians showed us the nests of these birds1 by fixing torches to the end of a long pole4 ,these nests were fifty or sixty feet high above our heads1 in holes in the shape of funnels1 with which the roof of the grotto is pierced like a sieve4 ,the noise increased as we advanced1 and the birds were affrighted by the light of the torches of copal4 ,when this noise ceased around us1 we heard at a distance the plaintive cries of the birds roosting in other ramifications of the cavern4 ,it seemed as if these bands answered each other alternately4 8,the ,indians enter into the ,cueva del ,guacharo once a year1 near midsummer1 armed with poles1 by means of which they destroy the greater part of the nests4 ,at this season several thousands of birds are killed2 and the old ones1 to defend their brood1 hover around the heads of the savage ,indians1 uttering terrible cries1 which would appall any heart but that of man in an untutored state4 8,we followed1 as we continued our progress through the cavern1 the banks of the small river which issued from it1 and is from twenty-eight to thirty feet wide4 ,we walked on the banks1 as far as the hills formed of calcareous incrustations permitted us4 ,when the torrent wound among very high masses of stalactites1 we were often obliged to descend into its bed1 which is only two feet in depth4 ,we learned with surprise1 that this subterraneous rivulet is the origin of the river ,caripe1 which1 at a few leagues' distance1 after having joined the small river of ,santa ,maria1 is navigable for canoes4 ,it enters into the river ,areo under the name of ,canno de ,terezen4 ,we found on the banks of the subterraneous rivulet a great quantity of palm-tree wood1 the remains of trunks1 on which the ,indians climb to reach the nests hanging to the roofs of the cavern4 ,the rings1 formed by the vestiges of the old footstalks of the leaves1 furnish as it were the footsteps of a ladder perpendicularly placed4 8,the grotto of ,caripe preserves the same direction1 the same breadth1 and its primitive hight of sixty or seventy feet1 to the distance of fourteen hundred and fifty-eight feet1 accurately measured4 ,i have never seen a cavern in either continent1 of so uniform and regular a construction4 ,we had great difficulty in persuading the ,indians to pass beyond the outer part of the grotto1 the only part which they annually visit to collect the fat4 ,the whole authority of the priests was necessary1 to induce them to advance as far as the spot where the soil rises abruptly at an inclination of sixty degrees1 and where the torrent forms a small subterraneous cascade4#c ,the natives connect mystic ideas with this cave1 inhabited by nocturnal birds2 they believe1 that the souls of their ancestors sojourn in the deep recesses of the cavern4 #8,man1' say they1 #8should avoid places which are enlightened neither by the sun nor by the moon4' ,to go and join the guacharoes1 is to rejoin their fathers1 is to die4 ,the magicians and the poisoners perform their nocturnal tricks at the entrance of the cavern1 to conjure the chief of the evil spirits4 ----- ,footnote #c3 ,we find this phenomenon of a subterranean cascade1 but on a much larger scale1 in ,england1 at ,yordas cave1 near ,kingsdale1 in ,yorkshire4 ----- 8,at the point where the river forms the subterraneous cascade1 a hill covered with vegetation1 which is opposite the opening of the grotto1 presents itself in a very picturesque manner4 ,it appears at the extremity of a straight passage1 two hundred and forty toises in length4 ,the stalactites1 which descend from the vault1 and which resemble columns suspended in the air1 display themselves on a back-ground of verdure4 ,the opening of the cavern appeared singularly contracted1 when we saw it about the middle of the day1 illumined by the vivid light reflected at once from the sky1 the plants1 and the rocks4 ,the distant light of day formed somewhat of a magical contrast with the darkness that surrounded us in those vast caverns4 ,we climbed1 not without some difficulty1 the small hill1 whence the subterraneous rivulet descends4 ,we saw that the grotto was perceptibly contracted1 retaining only forty feet in its hight2 and that it continued stretching to the northeast1 without deviating from its primitive direction1 which is parallel to that of the great valley of ,caripe4 8,the missionaries1 with all their authority1 could not prevail on the ,indians to penetrate farther into the cavern4 ,as the vault grew lower1 the cries of the guacharoes became more shrill4 ,we were obliged to yield to the pusillanimity of our guides1 and trace back our steps4 ,we followed the course of the torrent to go out of the cavern4 ,before our eyes were dazzled with the light of day1 we saw without the grotto1 the water of the river sparkling amid the foliage of the trees that concealed it4 ,it was like a picture placed in the distance1 and to which the mouth of the cavern served as a frame4 ,having at length reached the entrance1 and seated ourselves on the bank of the rivulet1 we rested after our fatigues4 ,we were glad to be beyond the hoarse cries of the birds1 and to leave a place where darkness does not offer even the charms of silence and tranquillity40 ,,fingal',s ,,cave1 ,,or ,,grand ,,staffa ,,cavern4 ,staffa1 about seven miles north-north-east of ,jona1 and equidistant westward from the shores of ,mull1 about one mile in length1 and half a mile in breadth1 is noted for the basaltic pillars which support the major part of the island1 and for the magnificent spectacle afforded by the cave of ,fingal1 one of the most splendid works of nature4 ,notwithstanding the contiguity of this wonderful island to ,mull and ,iona1 and the numerous vessels which navigate these seas1 it was unknown to the world in general1 and even to most of the neighboring islanders1 until near the close of the last century1 when ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 then on his voyage to ,iceland1 in consequence of information received in the sound of ,iona1 from some gentlemen of ,mull1 was induced to sail thither4 ,it is1 indeed1 slightly mentioned by ,buchanan2 but assuredly it was not equally dead to fame at the time the ,norwegians had sway in these parts1 for from them it derives its name of ,staffa4 ,the basaltic pillars stand in natural colonnades1 mostly above fifty feet high1 in the south-western part1 upon a firm basis of solid unshapen rock3 above these1 the stratum1 which reaches to the soil of the island1 varies in thickness1 in proportion to the distribution of the surface into hill and valley4 ,the pillars are of three1 four and more sides2 but the number of those with five and six exceeds that of the others2 one of seven sides measured by ,sir ,joseph1 was four feet and five inches in diameter4 ,on the west side of ,staffa is a small bay1 the spot where boats usually land4 ,in this neighborhood occurs the first group of pillars3 they are small1 and instead of being placed upright1 are recumbent on their sides1 and form a segment of a circle4 ,further on is a small cave1 above which pillars again are seen1 of somewhat larger dimensions1 which incline in all directions2 in one place in particular1 a small mass of them much resembles the ribs of a ship4 ,beyond the cave is the first continued range of pillars1 larger than the former1 and opposite to them is a small island called ,bhuachaile1 7pronounced ,boo-sha-'lay17 or the ,herdsman's isle1 separated from the main by a channel not many fathoms wide4 ,the whole of this islet is composed of pillars without any strata above them2 they are small1 but by much the neatest formed of any in this quarter4 ,the first division of this islet1 for at high tide it is divided into two parts1 makes a kind of cone1 the pillars converging together toward the center4 ,on the other side the pillars are in general recumbent2 and in the front1 next the main1 the beautiful manner in which they are joined is visible from their even extremities3 all these have their transverse sections exact1 and their surfaces smooth2 but with the larger pillars the reverse is the case1 and they are cracked in all directions4 ,the main island opposite the ,boo-sha-'lay1 and thence toward the north-west1 is entirely supported by ranges of pillars1 pretty erect1 which1 although not apparently tall1 from their not being uncovered to the base1 are of large diameter2 at their feet is an irregular pavement1 made by the upper sides of such as have been broken off4 ,this extends as far under the water as the eye can reach4 ,in proceeding along the shore1 the superb cavern of ,fingal appears1 for such is the denomination given it by the ,highlanders1 to whom it is known4 ,it is supported on each side by ranges of columns1 and is roofed by the bottoms of such as have been broken away4 ,from the interstices of the roof a yellow stalactitic matter has exuded1 which precisely defines the different angles2 and1 varying the color1 tends to augment the elegance of its appearance4 ,what adds to the grandeur of the scene1 the whole cave is lighted from without1 in such a manner1 that the furthest extremity is plainly distinguished2 while the air within1 being constantly in motion1 owing to the flux and reflux of the tides1 is perfectly dry and wholesome1 and entirely exempt from the damp vapors to which natural caverns are generally subject4 ,the following are its dimensions3 ,feet4 ,in4 ,length of the cave from the rock without1 #cga #f ,length of the cave from the pitch of the arch1 #bej #j ,breadth of the cave at the mouth1 #ec #g ,breadth of the cave at the further end1 #bj #j ,hight of the arch at the mouth1 #aag #f ,hight of the arch at the end1 #gj #j ,hight of an outside pillar1 #ci #f ,hight of one at the north-west corner1 #ed #j ,depth of water at the mouth1 #ah #j ,depth of water at the extremity1 #i #j ,the cave runs to the rock in the direction1 by compass1 north-north-east4 ,the mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than such a space4 ,and1 indeed1 speaking of the general aspect of ,staffa1 ,sir ,joseph is led1 by his enthusiasm1 to make the following reflections3 8,compared to this1 what are the cathedrals or the palaces built by man6 mere models or playthings1 imitations as diminutive as his works will always be1 when compared to those of ,nature4 ,where is now the boast of the architect6 regularity1 the only part in which he fancied himself to exceed his mistress1 ,nature1 is here found in her possession1 and here it has been left undescribed for ages4 ,is not this the school where the art was originally studied8 ,and what has been added to this by the whole ,grecian school8 ,a capital to ornament the column of ,nature1 of which they could execute a model only2 and for that very capital they were obliged to a bush of acanthus4 ,how amply does ,nature repay those who study her wonderful works40 ,such were his feelings1 and in this way did he moralize1 when proceeding along shore1 and treading as it were on another ,giant's ,causeway1 he arrived at the mouth of the cave4 ,to the north-west are found the highest range of pillars4 ,here they are bare to their base1 and the stratum beneath is visible1 as it rises several feet above the water4 ,the surface of it is rough1 with frequent large pieces of stone sticking in it1 as if half immersed4 ,the base1 when broken1 appears to be composed of many heterogenous parts1 and much resembles lava4 ,many of the floating stones are of a similar substance with the pillars1 a coarse kind of basalt1 less beautiful than that of the ,giant's ,causeway3 the color is a dirty brown4 ,the whole of this stratum dips gradually to the south-east4 ,the thickness of the stratum of lava-like matter below the pillars1 the hight of the pillars1 and the thickness of the superincumbent stratum1 at three different places westward of the mouth of the cave1 beginning with the corner pillar of the cave1 are described as follows by ,sir ,joseph ,banks3 ,feet4 ,in4 ,feet4 ,in4 ,feet4 ,in4 ,stratum below1 #aa #j #ag #a #ai #h ,hight of pillars1 #ed #j #ej #j #ee #a ,stratum above1 #fa #f #ea #a #ed #g ,the stratum above the columns is uniformly the same1 consisting of numberless small pillars1 bending and inclining in all directions1 sometimes so irregularly1 that the stones can only be said to have an inclination to assume a columnar form2 in others more regularly2 but never breaking into1 or disturbing the stratum of large pillars1 whose tops keep everywhere an uniform line4 ,on the opposite side of the island is a cavern1 called ,oua-na-scarve1 or the ,cormorant's cave2 here the stratum under the pillars is lifted up very high1 and the pillars are considerably less than at the north-west side4 ,beyond1 a bay cuts deep into the island1 rendering it not more than a quarter of a mile across4 ,on the sides of this bay1 especially beyond a little valley1 which almost divides the island1 are two stages of small pillars1 with a stratum between1 exactly resembling that above1 formed of innumerable little pillars shaken out of their places1 and leaning in all directions4 ,beyond this1 the pillars totally cease4 ,the rock is of a dark-brown stone1 without regularity1 from the bay along the south-east end of the island2 beyond which1 a disposition to columnar formation is again manifested1 extending from the west side1 but in an irregular manner1 to the bending pillars first described4 ,,other ,,grottos ,,and ,,caverns4 ,there are few countries which have not to boast of a variety of natural excavations2 and these have1 from their extent1 structure1 and the curious phenomena they exhibit1 in the formation of petrifactions1 c41 been at all times objects of popular attention4 ,among those particularly deserving of notice are the following4 ,the volcanic country bordering on ,rome1 is peculiarly diversified by natural cavities of great extent and coolness2 on which last account it is related by ,seneca1 that the ,romans were accustomed to erect seats in their vicinity1 to enjoy their refreshing chillness in the summer season4 ,he gives a particular account of two such grottos belonging to the villa of ,vatia2 and it was in a place of this kind that ,tiberius was nearly destroyed while at supper4 ,its roof suddenly gave way1 and buried several of his attendants in its ruins2 which so alarmed the others1 that they fled and abandoned the emperor1 with the exception of ,sejanus1 who1 stooping on his hands and knees1 and covering the body of ,tiberius with his own1 received all the stones which fell at that part from the roof1 insomuch that1 although he himself sustained considerable injury1 the emperor escaped unhurt4 ,the grottos of the ,cevennes mountains1 in lower ,languedoc1 are both numerous and extensive4 ,the principal one is not to be explored without much precaution1 and without a safe guide4 ,the entrance1 which is low and narrow1 leads to a spacious amphitheater1 the petrifactions hanging from the roof of which have a most splendid effect by the light of torches4 ,hence the visitor has to descend to several chambers1 one of which is named the ,chamber of the ,winds2 another1 of ,echo2 another1 of the ,cascade2 another1 again1 of the ,statue1 c42 on account of their exhibiting these different phenomena4 ,in the grotto of ,valori1 at a small distance1 the different natural curiosities which are to be found at every step1 may be viewed at leisure1 and without apprehension1 as the visitor never loses sight of the light at the entrance1 and is1 therefore1 not under any dread of not returning in safety4 ,here he is gratified by a view of the most singular petrifactions1 representing flowers1 fruits1 bee-hives1 and1 in short1 a variety of objects1 in many of which the resemblance is nearly as accurate as if they had been sculptured4 ,in a wood1 about five leagues from ,besanon1 in the province of ,france called ,franche ,comte1 an opening1 formed by two masses of rock1 leads to a cavern more than nine hundred feet beneath the level of the country4 ,it is in width sixty feet1 and eighty feet high at the entrance1 and exhibits inside an oval cavity of one hundred and thirty-five feet in breadth1 and one hundred and sixty-eight in length4 ,to the right of the entrance is a deep and narrow opening1 bordered with festoons of ice1 which1 distilling in successive drops on the bottom of the cavern1 form a mass of about thirty feet in diameter4 ,a similar one1 but somewhat smaller1 produced by the water which drips in less abundance from the imperceptible fissures in the roof1 is seen on the left4 ,the ground of the cavern is perfectly smooth1 and covered with ice eighteen inches thick2 but the top1 on the outside1 is a dry and stony soil1 covered with trees1 and on a level with the rest of the wood4 ,the cold within this cavern is so great1 that1 however warm the external atmosphere may be when it is visited1 it is impossible to remain in it for any length of time4 ,these natural ice-houses are not unfrequent in ,france and ,italy1 and supply this agreeable luxury at a very cheap rate4 ,thus1 in the same province1 in the vicinity of ,vesoul1 is a cavern which1 in the hot season1 when it is eagerly sought1 produces more ice in one day1 than can be carried away in eight4 ,it measures thirty-five feet in length1 and in width sixty4 ,the large masses of ice which hang pendent from the roof1 have a very pleasing effect4 ,when mists are observed in this cavern1 they are regarded by the neighboring peasantry as infallible prognostics of rain2 and it is worthy of observation1 that although the water in the interior is always frozen in the summer1 it becomes liquid in the winter season4 ,a grotto near ,douse1 also in ,franche ,comte1 forms a similar ice-house1 and is remarkable on account of the various forms of its congelations1 which represent a series of columns1 sustaining a curious vault1 which appears to be carved with figures of men1 animals1 trees1 c4 ,the caverns of ,gibraltar are numerous1 and several of them of great extent4 ,the one more particularly deserving attention is called ,st4 ,michael's cave1 situated on the southern part of the mountain4 ,its entrance is one thousand feet above the level of the sea1 and is formed by a rapid slope of earth1 which has fallen in at various periods1 and which leads to a spacious hall1 incrusted with spar1 and apparently supported in the center by a large stalactitical pillar4 ,to this succeeds a long series of caves1 of difficult access4 ,the passages leading from the one to the other are over precipices1 which can not be passed without the aid of ropes and scaling-ladders4 ,several of these caves are three hundred feet beneath the upper one2 but at this depth the smoke of the torches carried by the guides becomes so disagreeable1 that the visitor is obliged reluctantly to give up the pursuit1 and leave other caves unexplored4 ,in these cavernous recesses1 the process and formation of the stalactites is to be traced1 from the flimsy quilt-like cone suspended from the roof1 to the robust trunk of a pillar1 three feet in diameter1 which rises from the floor1 and seems intended by nature to support the roof from which it originated4 ,the variety of forms which this matter takes in its different situations and directions1 renders this subterraneous scenery strikingly grotesque1 and in some places beautifully picturesque4 ,the stalactites of these caves1 when near the surface of the mountain1 are of a brownish yellow color2 but1 in descending toward the lower caves1 they lose the darkness of their color1 which is by degrees shaded off to a pale yellow4 ,fragments are broken off1 and1 when wrought into different forms1 and polished1 are beautifully streaked and marbled4 ,about seven ,english miles from ,adlersberg1 in ,carniola1 is a remarkable cavern1 named ,st4 ,magdalen's cave4 ,the road being covered with stones and bushes1 is very painful2 but the great fatigue it occasions is overbalanced by the satisfaction of seeing so uncommon a cavern4 ,the visitor first descends into a hole1 where the earth appears to have fallen in for ten paces1 when he reaches the entrance1 which resembles a fissure caused by an earthquake1 in a huge rock4 ,the torches are here lighted1 the cave being extremely dark4 ,this wonderful natural excavation is divided into several large halls1 and other apartments4 ,the vast number of pillars by which it is ornamented give it a superb appearance1 and are extremely beautiful3 they are as white as snow1 and have a semi-transparent luster4 ,the bottom is of the same materials2 insomuch that the visitor may fancy he is walking beneath the ruins of some stately palace1 amid noble pillars and columns1 partly mutilated1 and partly entire4 ,sparry icicles are everywhere seen suspended from the roof1 in some places resembling wax tapers1 which1 from their radiant whiteness1 appear extremely beautiful4 ,all the inconvenience here arises from the inequality of the surface1 which may make the spectator stumble while he is contemplating the beauties above and around him4 ,in the neighborhood of the village of ,szelitze1 in ,upper ,hungary1 there is a very singular excavation4 ,the adjacent country is hilly1 and abounds with woods1 the air being cold and penetrating4 ,the entrance into this cavern1 fronting the south1 is upward of one hundred feet in hight1 and forty-eight in breadth1 consequently sufficiently wide to receive the south wind1 which here generally blows with great violence2 but the subterraneous passages1 which consist entirely of solid rock1 winding round1 stretch still farther to the south4 ,as far as they have been explored1 their hight has been found to be three hundred feet1 and their breadth about one hundred and fifty4 ,the most inexplicable singularity1 however1 is1 that in the midst of winter the air in this cavern is warm2 and when the heat of the sun without is scarcely supportable1 the cold within is not only very piercing1 but so intense1 that the roof is covered with icicles of the size of a large cask1 which1 spreading into ramifications1 form very grotesque figures4 ,when the snow melts in spring1 the inside of the cave1 where its surface is exposed to the south sun1 emits a pellucid water1 which congeals instantly as it drops1 and thus forms the above icicles3 even the water which falls from them on the sandy ground1 freezes in an instant4 ,it is observed1 that the greater the heat is without1 the more intense is the cold within2 so that1 in the dog-days1 every part of this cavern is covered with ice4 ,in autumn1 when the nights become cold1 the ice begins to dissolve1 insomuch that1 when the winter sets in1 it is no longer to be seen2 the cavern then is perfectly dry1 and has a mild and gentle warmth4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising that swarms of flies1 gnats1 bats1 owls1 and even great numbers of foxes and hares1 resort thither1 as to their winter retreat1 and remain there till the return of spring4 ,,mines1 ,,metals1 ,,gems1 ,c4 8,through dark retreats pursue the winding ore1 ,search nature's depths1 and view the boundless store2 ,the secret cause in tuneful numbers sing1 ,how metals first were framed1 and whence they spring3 ,whether the active sun1 with chymic flames1 ,through porous earth transmits his genial beams ,with heat impregnating the womb of night ,the offspring shines with his paternal light3 ,or whether1 urged by subterraneous flames1 ,the earth ferments and flows in liquid streams2 ,purged from their dross1 the nobler parts refine1 ,receive new forms1 and with new beauty shine3 ,or whether by creation first they sprung1 ,when yet unpoised the world's great fabric hung3 ,metals the bases of the earth were made1 ,the bars on which its fixed foundation's laid3 ,all second causes they disdain to own1 ,and from the ,almighty's fiat sprung alone40 ,the transition from the caverns and caves of the earth1 to its ,,mines1 and the various metals and gems they contain1 is both natural and easy2 and having dwelt on the former1 we propose next to advert to the latter4 ,by the word 8mines0 we understand those excavations1 in which metals1 minerals and precious stones are sought and found2 and according to the substances which they yield they are variously spoken of as 8gold mines10 8silver mines10 8lead mines10 c41 c4 ,the richest and most celebrated gold and silver mines are those of ,mexico and ,peru1 in ,south ,america1 and those lately discovered in ,california and ,australia4 ,iron mines are more abundant1 or at least more abundantly worked1 in ,europe than elsewhere1 though the rapid increase of iron mining in the ,united ,states gives promise that our country may in this respect some day rival the old world4 ,copper mines have been found chiefly in ,england1 ,sweden and ,denmark2 and of late years copper has been found to be abundant in the region of our northern lakes4 ,lead and tin mines are numerous in ,england1 the latter chiefly in the county of ,cornwall2 and lead is also found in abundance in the ,united ,states4 ,quicksilver mines abound principally in ,hungary1 ,spain1 ,friuli1 in the ,venetian territories1 and in ,peru4 ,diamond mines are mainly in ,brazil1 and some in the ,east ,indies2 and salt mines are in ,poland4 ,to explain the structure of mines1 it should be observed that the internal parts of the earth1 as far as they have been investigated1 do not consist of any one uniform substance1 but of various strata1 or beds of substances1 extremely different in their appearances1 specific gravities and chemical qualities1 one from another4 ,neither are these strata similar to each other1 either in their nature or appearance1 in different countries2 insomuch that1 even in the short extent of half a mile1 sometimes1 the strata will be found quite different in one from what they are in another place4 ,as little are they the same either in depth or solidity4 ,innumerable cracks and fissures are found in all of them2 and these again are so entirely different in size and shape1 that it is impossible to form any inference from what may have been met with1 relative to that which remains to be explored4 ,in ,cornwall1 the most common opinion entertained by the miners1 is1 that crude and immature minerals nourish and feed the ores with which they are intermixed in the mines2 and that the minerals themselves will1 in process of time1 be converted into ores productive of those metals to which they have the nearest affinity1 and with which they are most closely intermingled4 ,and a distinguished professor1 who is familiar alike with geology1 chemistry and mineralogy1 after visiting the mining districts of ,california1 has given it as his opinion1 that gold is constantly being formed there1 by some powerful agency of nature which is still and steadily at work4 ,and as a somewhat kindred view1 ,mr4 ,price1 in his mineralogy of ,cornwall1 thinks it is most reasonable to conclude1 that metals were made and planted in veins1 at1 or very soon after1 the creation of the world2 but that1 in common with all other matter1 they are subject to a degree of fluctuation1 approaching to1 or receding from1 their ultimate degree of perfection1 either quicker or slower1 as they are of greater or less solid and durable frame and constitution4 ,he supposes in every metal a peculiar magnetism1 and an approximation of particles of the same specific nature1 by which its component principles are drawn and united together2 more particularly the matters left by the decomposition of the waters passing through the contiguous earths or strata1 and deposited in their proper nidus or receptacle1 until1 by the accretion of more or less of its homogeneous particles1 the metallic vein may be denominated either rich or barren4 ,,diamond ,,mines4 ,the word diamond1 is supposed to be a corruption of the word adamant1 in allusion to the great hardness of this gem1 which is the most valuable of all the precious stones4 ,diamonds were originally discovered in ,bengal1 and in the island of ,borneo2 and about the year #agbj1 were found in ,brazil4 ,they are found of all colors2 and those which are colorless1 or of some decided tint1 are most esteemed1 though the latter kind are very rare4 ,those which are slightly discolored are the least valuable4 ,the specific gravity of the diamond1 is1 to that of water1 in the proportion of about three and a half to one4 ,it is the hardest of all known substances1 and can only be cut and polished by its own dust or powder4 ,the art of splitting or cutting and polishing this gem1 though probably of remote antiquity in ,asia1 was first introduced into ,europe in #adhf1 by ,louis ,berghan1 of ,bruges1 who accidentally discovered that by rubbing two diamonds together1 their surfaces might be rendered smooth4 ,and the fine powder which is rubbed off by such friction1 serves to grind and polish them4 ,the diamond is of the nature of charcoal1 or pure carbon1 and is combustible3 under the blow-pipe it burns away in a blue1 lambent flame4 ,the high value attached to diamonds does not depend so much on their beauty and hardness1 as on their great scarcity1 and the labor and expense necessary in procuring them4 ,hitherto they have been observed only in the torrid zone2 and ,brazil is the only part of ,america in which they have been found4 ,the historical account of their discovery in that country is as follows4 ,near the capital of the territory of ,serro do ,frio flows the river ,milho ,verde1 where it was the custom to dig for gold1 or rather to extract it from the alluvial soil4 ,the miners1 during their search for gold1 found several diamonds1 which they were induced to lay aside in consequence of their particular shape and great beauty1 although they were ignorant of their intrinsic value4 ,the diamond works on the river ,jigitonhonha are described by ,mr4 ,mawe as the most important in the ,brazilian territory4 ,the river1 in depth from three to nine feet1 is intersected by a canal1 beneath the head of which it is stopped by an embankment of several thousand bags of sand1 its deeper parts being laid dry by chain-pumps4 ,the mud is now washed away1 and the cascalhao1 or earth which contains the diamonds1 dug up1 and removed to a convenient place for washing4 ,the process1 which is as follows1 is seen in the cut on the next page4 ,a shed1 consisting of upright posts which support a thatched roof1 is erected in the form of a parallelogram1 in length about ninety feet1 and in width forty-five4 ,down the middle of its area a current of water is conveyed through a canal covered with strong planks1 on which the earth is laid to the thickness of two or three feet4 ,on the other side of the area is a flooring of planks1 from twelve to fifteen feet in length1 imbedded in clay1 extending the whole length of the shed1 and having a gentle slope from the canal4 ,this flooring is divided into about twenty compartments1 or troughs1 each about three feet wide1 by means of planks placed on their edges2 and the upper ends of these troughs communicate with the canal1 being so formed that water is admitted into them between two planks about an inch separate from each other4 ,through this opening the current falls about six inches into the trough1 and may be directed to any part of it1 or stopped at pleasure1 by means of a small quantity of clay4 ,along the lower ends of the troughs a small channel is dug1 to carry off the water4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond ,,washing ,,in ,,brazil4 ,on the heap of earth1 at equal distances1 three high chairs are placed for the overseers1 who are no sooner seated than the negroes enter the troughs1 each provided with a rake of a peculiar form1 and having a short handle1 with which he rakes into the trough from fifty to eighty pounds' weight of the earth4 ,the water being then allowed to pass in by degrees1 the earth is spread abroad1 and continually raked up to the head of the trough1 so as to be kept in constant motion4 ,this operation is continued for a quarter of an hour1 when the water begins to run clearer2 and1 the earthy particles having been washed away1 the gravel-like matter is raked up to the end of the trough4 ,at length the current flowing quite clear1 the largest stones are thrown out1 and afterward those of an inferior size2 the whole is then examined with great care for diamonds4 ,when a negro finds one1 he instantly stands upright1 and claps his hands2 he then extends them1 holding the gem between the fore-finger and the thumb4 ,an overseer receives it from him1 and deposits it in a bowl1 suspended from the center of the structure1 and half filled with water4 ,in this vessel all the diamonds found in the course of the day are deposited1 and at the close of the work are taken out and delivered to the principal overseer1 who1 after they have been weighed1 registers the particulars in a book kept for that purpose4 ,when a negro is so fortunate as to find a diamond of the weight of seventeen carats and a half1 the following ceremony takes place3 he is crowned with a wreath of flowers1 and carried in procession to the administrator1 who gives him his freedom by paying his owner for it4 ,he also receives a present of new clothes1 and is permitted to work on his own account4 ,for small stones proportionate premiums are given2 while many precautions are taken to prevent the negroes from stealing the diamonds1 with which view they are frequently changed by the overseers1 lest these precious gems should be concealed in the corners of the troughs4 ,when a negro is suspected of swallowing a diamond1 he is confined in a solitary apartment1 and means taken to bring the gem to light4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 the kingdom of ,golconda1 extending two hundred and sixty miles along the bay of ,bengal1 and having a breadth of two hundred miles from east to west1 abounds in diamond mines4 ,they are chiefly in the vicinity of the rocky hills and mountains which intersect the country1 and in the whole of which diamonds are supposed to be contained4 ,in several of the mines they are found scattered in the earth1 within two or three fathoms of the surface1 and in others are met with in a mineral substance in the body of the rocks1 forty or fifty fathoms deep4 ,the laborers having dug five or six feet into the rock1 soften the stone by fire1 and proceed till they find the vein1 which often runs two or three furlongs under the rock4 ,the earth being brought out and carefully searched1 affords stones of various shapes1 and of a good water4 ,this earth is of a yellowish1 and sometimes of a reddish color1 frequently adhering to the diamond with so strong a crust that the separation becomes difficult4 ,to find the diamonds1 the workmen form a cistern of a kind of clay1 with a small vent on one side1 a little above the bottom2 in this vent they place a plug1 and throwing into the cistern the earth they have dug1 pour in water to dissolve it4 ,they then break the clods1 and stir the wet earth in the cistern1 allowing the lighter part to be carried off in the form of mud1 when the vent-hole is opened to let out the water4 ,they thus continue washing1 until what remains in the cistern is pretty clean2 and then1 in the middle of the day1 when the sun shines bright1 carefully look over all the sand1 at which practice they are so expert1 that the smallest stone can not escape them4 ,the brightness of the sun being reflected by the diamonds1 aids them in their research1 which would be foiled if a cloud were to intervene4 ,the largest known diamond was found in ,brazil1 and belongs to the king of ,portugal4 ,it weighs sixteen hundred and eighty carats2 and1 although uncut1 it is valued at the enormous sum of two hundred and twenty-four millions sterling1 which gives an estimate of nearly eighty pounds sterling for each carat1 the multiplicand of the square of its whole weight being taken4 ,the one next in magnitude and value1 is probably that mentioned by ,tavernier1 in possession of the ,great ,mogul4 ,it was found in ,golconda in #aeej2 is of the size of half a hen's egg1 and is said to weigh nine hundred carats4 ,this diamond is the same as the famous 8,koh-i-noor10 or 8,mountain of ,light10 now belonging to the queen of ,england1 and which attracted so much attention in the great exhibition at ,london1 in #ahea4 ,the one supposed to be next in value1 is that belonging to the crown jewels of ,russia1 which weighs seven hundred and seventy-nine carats1 and has been estimated at five millions sterling4 ,but perhaps the most perfect and beautiful diamond hitherto found1 is the one known as the ,pitt diamond1 which was brought from ,india by a gentleman of that name1 who sold it to the ,duke of ,orleans for one hundred thousand pounds sterling4 ,it was worn by ,bonaparte in the hilt of his sword4 ,it weighs about one hundred and thirty-six carats1 or five hundred and forty-four grains4 ,it ought1 however1 to be observed1 that these estimates1 founded on the magnitude and brilliancy of the gems1 are very different from the prices which the most princely fortunes can afford to pay for them4 ,the ,russian diamond cost about one hundred and thirty five thousand pounds sterling2 and the one called the ,pitt or ,regent1 although it weighed one hundred and thirty-six carats only1 was1 on account of its greater brilliancy1 purchased of a ,greek merchant1 for one hundred thousand pounds sterling4 ,several other large diamonds are preserved in the cabinets of the sovereigns and princes of ,europe4 ,why such immense value should be attached to diamonds1 in all civilized countries1 and by a kind of common consent1 is one of those singular things that seem inexplicable4 ,that a magnificent house1 with a large estate1 and the means of living not only in comfort but splendor1 should be set in competition with1 and even deemed inadequate to the purchase of1 a transparent crystallized stone1 not half the size of a hen's egg1 seems almost a kind of insanity6 ,if for the mere consciousness of possessing a diamond of less than the weight of an ounce1 any private gentleman were to pay four hundred and fifty thousand dollars in ready money1 and an annuity of twenty thousand dollars besides1 he would probably be thought beside himself4 ,and yet not only was the above sum given1 but a patent of nobility into the bargain1 by the empress ,catharine1 of ,russia1 for the famous diamond 8,nadir ,shah40 ,in this case1 however1 though the seller acquired much1 the purchaser did not suffer any personal privation2 and in reality1 notwithstanding the costliness and high estimation of diamonds1 they are not put in competition with the substantial comforts and conveniences of life4 ,among ornaments and luxuries1 however1 they unquestionably occupy1 and have ever occupied1 the highest rank4 ,even ,fashion1 proverbially capricious as she is1 has remained steady in this1 one of her earliest attachments1 during probably three or four thousand years4 ,there must be1 therefore1 in the nature of things1 some adequate reason for this universal consent2 which becomes a curious object of inquiry4 ,the utility of the diamond1 great as it is in some respects1 enters for little or nothing into the calculation of its price2 at least all that portion of its value which constitutes the difference between the cost of an entire diamond and an equal weight of diamond powder1 must be attributed to other causes4 ,the beauty of this gem1 depending on its unrivaled luster1 is1 no doubt1 the circumstance which originally brought it into notice1 and still continues to uphold it in the public estimation2 and certainly1 notwithstanding the smallness of its bulk1 there is not any substance1 natural or artificial1 which can sustain any comparison with it in this respect4 ,the vivid and various refractions of the opal1 the refreshing tints of the emerald1 the singular and beautiful light which streams from the six-rayed star of the girasol1 the various colors1 combined with high luster1 which distinguish the ruby1 the sapphire1 and the topaz1 beautiful as they are on a near inspection1 are almost entirely lost to a distant beholder2 whereas the diamond1 without any essential color of its own1 imbibes the pure solar ray1 and then reflects it1 either with undiminished intensity1 too white and too vivid to be sustained for more than an instant by the most insensible eye1 or decomposed by refraction into those prismatic colors1 which paint the rainbow1 and the morning and evening clouds1 combined with a brilliancy which hardly yields to that of the meridian sun4 ,other gems1 inserted into rings and bracelets1 are best seen by the wearer2 and if they attract the notice of the bystanders1 divide their attention1 and withdraw those regards which ought to be concentered on the person1 to the merely accessory ornaments4 ,the diamond1 on the contrary1 whether blazing on the crown of state1 or diffusing its starry radiance from the breast of titled merit1 or 8in courts of feasts and high solemnities10 wreathing itself with the hair1 illustrating the shape and color of the neck1 and entering ambitiously into contest with the lively luster of those eyes that 8rain influence0 on all beholders1 blends harmoniously with the general effect1 and proclaims to the most distant ring of the surrounding crowd1 the person of the monarch1 of the knight1 or of the beauty4 ,another circumstance tending to enhance the value of the diamond is1 that although small stones are sufficiently abundant to be within the reach of moderate expenditure1 and therefore afford1 to all those who are in easy circumstances an opportunity to acquire a taste for diamonds1 yet those of a larger size are1 and ever have been1 rather rare2 and of those which are celebrated for their size and beauty1 the whole number1 at least in ,europe1 scarcely amounts to half a dozen1 all of them being in possession of sovereign princes4 ,hence1 the acquisition even of a moderately large diamond1 is what mere money can not always command2 and many are the favors1 both political and of other kinds1 for which a diamond of a large size1 or of uncommon beauty1 may be offered as a compensation1 where its commercial price1 in money1 neither can be tendered1 nor would be received4 ,in many circumstances also1 it is a matter of no small importance for a person to have a considerable part of his property in the most portable form possible2 and in this respect what is there that can be compared to diamonds1 which possess the portability1 without the risk of bills of exchange8 ,it may further be remarked1 in favor of this species of property1 that it is but little liable to fluctuation1 and has gone on pretty regularly increasing in value1 insomuch that the price of stones of good quality is considerably higher than it was some years ago4 ,the art of cutting and polishing diamonds1 has a twofold object2 first1 to divide the natural surface of the stone in a symmetrical manner by means of highly polished polygonal planes1 and thus to bring out1 to the best advantage1 the wonderful refulgence of this beautiful gem2 and1 secondly1 by cutting out such flaws as may happen to be near the surface1 to remove those blemishes which materially detract from its beauty1 and consequently from its value4 ,the removal of such flaws is a matter of great importance2 for1 owing to the form in which the diamond is cut1 and its high degree of refrangibility1 the smallest fault is magnified1 and becomes obtrusively visible to all4 ,for this reason1 also1 it is by no means an easy matter1 at all times1 to ascertain whether a flaw is or is not superficial2 and a person with a correct and well-practiced eye1 may often purchase to great advantage1 stones which appear to be flawed quite through1 but which are in fact only superficially blemished4 ,before leaving the subject of diamonds1 it may be well to notice some other valuable stones that are much sought and prized for ornament4 ,one of these is the oriental ruby4 ,this1 in its most esteemed color1 is pure carmine1 or a blood-red of considerable intensity1 forming1 when well polished1 a blaze of the most exquisite and unrivaled tint4 ,it is1 however1 more or less pale1 and mixed with blue in various proportions2 and hence it occurs rose-red1 and reddish-white1 crimson1 peach-blossom red1 and lilac-blue1 the latter variety being named the oriental amethyst4 ,it is a native of ,pegu1 and is said to be found in the sand of certain streams near the capital of the country2 and it also occurs1 with the sapphire1 in the sands of the rivers of ,ceylon4 ,a ruby which is perfect both in color and transparency1 is much less common than a good diamond2 and when of the weight of three or four carats1 is even more valuable than a diamond of the same size4 ,the king of ,pegu1 and the monarchs of ,asia and ,siam1 monopolize the finest rubies1 in the same way as the sovereigns of ,india make a monopoly of diamonds4 ,the finest ruby in the world is in possession of the first of these kings4 ,its purity has passed into a proverb1 and its worth1 when compared with gold1 is inestimable4 ,the dubah of ,deccan1 also1 possesses a remarkably fine one1 which is a full inch in diameter4 ,the princes of ,europe can not boast of any rubies of first-rate magnitude4 ,the oriental sapphire ranks next in value to the ruby4 ,when it is perfect1 its color is a clear and bright ,prussian blue1 united to a high degree of transparency4 ,the astoria or star-stone1 is a remarkable variety of this beautiful gem3 it is semi-transparent1 with a reddish purple tinge4 ,and beside these1 there are the red sapphire1 often called the oriental ruby1 and the yellow sapphire1 which is called the oriental topaz4 ,and in addition to these precious stones1 or gems1 there are also the emerald1 of a beautiful green color2 the topaz1 which is of a yellow or light wine-color1 and which by being heated1 sometimes becomes rose-red1 so as to be passed off as a ruby2 the jasper and chalcedony1 which are of various colors2 the onyx1 which is a regularly banded agate1 much prized for cameos1 especially where the colors are very distinct and different2 the cornelian1 which is properly a red or flesh-colored chalcedony1 much valued for seal-stones1 c42 and the blood-stone1 or heliotrope1 which is deep green1 and somewhat translucent1 and variegated by blood-red spots3 all of which are much used in the various departments of jewelry4 ,we have reserved for this place1 a notice of the hot-well at ,clifton1 ,england1 which would have been mentioned in connection with the ,geysers and other hot springs1 but from its connection with the beautiful crystals known as ,bristol stones or diamonds1 some of which are so hard as to cut glass1 and are exceedingly clear1 colorless and brilliant4 ,when set in rings1 in their natural state1 these stones often appear of as high a polish and luster1 as if they had been wrought by the most skillful lapidary4 ,the warm spring1 or fountain1 in the vicinity of which they are found1 is called the hot-well4 ,it is in the parish of ,clifton1 and is so copious as to discharge sixty gallons of water in a minute4 ,it rises forcibly from an opening in the solid rock1 at about twenty-six feet below high-water mark4 ,on its immediate influx from the rock1 the water is much warmer than when it is pumped up for drinking1 for it is raised by pumps some thirty feet4 ,its qualities in a medicinal point of view are supposed to be valuable2 but it is not on this point that we propose to dwell1 and therefore we pass on to the rocks in the neighborhood1 near which the ,bristol stones are found4 ,just below the hot-well1 there rises a noble range of hills1 which are not more remarkable for their hight1 than for their being equally so on both sides the river1 the strata in some places answering on each side for about a mile and a half in a serpentine course4 ,these constitute one of the greatest natural curiosities in ,england4 ,the rock beyond the hot-well1 and on the same side1 is named ,st4 ,vincent's1 a chapel dedicated to that saint having been formerly built on its summit4 ,it is in hight three hundred feet1 and has a majestic appearance4 ,it supplies the naturalist with many curious fossils1 the botanist with a variety of scarce plants1 the antiquary with the remains of a ,roman camp1 and the less curious inquirer with a view of a most dreadful and surprising precipice4 ,the rocks in general1 when broken up1 are of a dusky red1 brown or chocolate colored marble1 very hard and close-grained1 and which1 on being struck with a hammer1 emit a strong sulphureous smell4 ,it will bear a polish equal to any foreign marble2 and1 when sawed into slabs and polished1 appears beautifully variegated with veins of white1 bluish-gray1 or yellow4 ,it is often employed for chimney-pieces2 but it is principally used for making lime1 for which purpose there is no stone in ,england so well calculated1 nor is there any lime so strong1 fine1 and white1 which excellent qualities occasion great demand for foreign consumption4 ,here1 and in the vicinity1 laborers are daily employed in blowing up the rocks with gunpowder1 by which process vast fragments are frequently thrown down1 and repeatedly strike the precipice with a dreadful crash1 which1 combined with the loud report of the explosion1 rechoed from side to side by the lofty cliffs1 makes a noise resembling thunder1 for which it is frequently mistaken by strangers4 ,it is the opinion of the greater part of those who have viewed these rocks1 that they were once united1 and were separated by some terrible convulsion of nature4 ,a bridge of one arch1 from rock to rock1 over the ,avon1 has long been in contemplation2 but if the blowing up of these rocks should still be persisted in1 the design will be rendered impracticable4 ,this is the more to be regretted1 because stone of the same quality is to be procured lower down the river4 ,now it is in the fissures and cavities of these rocks1 that the beautiful crystals called ,bristol stones1 or diamonds1 already mentioned1 are found4 ,they are clear and brilliant1 and being without color1 so richly and brilliantly reflect the light1 as to be almost next to the diamond in appearance1 and are often palmed off on the unpracticed for the latter gem4 ,they are extensively used in many of the plainer kinds of jewelry1 and when set over gold-leaf1 or thin paper of delicate tinges1 are often made closely to resemble some of the richest gems known4 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,mines4#d ,the mines of ,la ,plata1 so denominated on account of the abundance of silver they contain1 are chiefly situated in the provinces which were formerly attached to the ,spanish viceroyalty of ,rio de la ,plata2 but which1 since the ,south ,american states revolted from the mother country1 have been included in the republic of ,bolivia1 or ,upper ,peru as it is sometimes called4 ,with the exception of ,mexico1 ,bolivia is the richest country in silver which has yet been discovered1 and contains innumerable mines both of that metal and of gold4 ,all its northern provinces teem with mineral opulence2 and those of ,laricaja and ,carabaya1 have been distinguished by the production of the latter1 and still nobler metal1 in its virgin state4 ,in consequence1 however1 of the recent political convulsions1 mining1 once the richest source of revenue1 is in a depressed state2 many of the mines being filled with water and totally neglected4 ,footnote #d3 ,the account of the mines of ,south ,america and ,mexico is mostly from ,humboldt1 and as will be obvious to the reader1 has reference in many things to their past history and progress1 rather than to their present condition4 ,the mountain of ,potosi formerly produced weekly about five thousand marks of silver1 that is1 from thirty to forty thousand dollars2 a surprising produce1 when it is considered that it has been wrought since #aede1 at which time it was accidentally discovered by an ,indian1 or native1 as represented in the cut4 ,in hunting some goats1 he slipped from a slight elevation1 and to save himself caught hold of a shrub1 which coming away from the ground1 laid bare the silver at its root4 ,at the commencement it was still more abundant1 and the metal was dug up in a purer state4 ,illustration3 ,,discovery ,,of ,,silver ,,in ,,peru4 ,the silver was often found in shoots like roots1 imbedded in the earth4 ,six thousand ,indians were sent every eighteen months1 from the provinces of the viceroyalty1 to work this mine4 ,the expedition was called mita2 and these ,indians1 having been enrolled and formed into parties1 were distributed by the governor of ,potosi1 and received a small daily stipend1 7equal to about thirty-four cents of our currency17 until the period of their labor was completed4 ,they were thus doomed to a forced service1 nothing less than slavery1 so long as it lasted1 which the ,spaniards have endeavored to justify by the plea that laborers could not otherwise be procured4 ,lumps of pure gold and silver1 called papas1 from their resemblance to the potato1 were often found in the sands4 ,the poor likewise occupied themselves in lavaderos1 or in washing the sands of the rivers and rivulets1 in order to find particles of the precious metals4 ,to compensate for the mines rendered useless by the irruption of water1 or other accidents1 rich and new ones were daily discovered4 ,they were all found in the chains of mountains1 commonly in dry and barren spots1 and sometimes in the sides of the quebredas1 or astonishing precipitous breaks in the ridges4 ,however certain this rule might be in the region of ,bolivia1 it was contradicted in that of ,peru1 where1 at three leagues' distance from the ,pacific ocean1 not far from ,tagna1 in the province of ,arica1 there was discovered the famous mine of ,huantajaya1 in a sandy plain at a distance from the mountains1 of such exuberant wealth that the pure metal was cut out with a chisel4 ,from this mine a large specimen of virgin silver is preserved in the royal cabinet of natural history at ,madrid4 ,it attracted a considerable population1 although neither water nor the common conveniences for labor could be found there1 neither any pasturage for the cattle4 ,in the mint of ,potosi1 about six millions of dollars were annually coined2 and the mines of the old viceroyalty of ,la ,plata1 taken collectively1 are reckoned to have yielded about sixteen millions4 ,the mines of ,mexico1 or what was formerly called ,new ,spain1 have been more celebrated for their riches than those of ,la ,plata1 notwithstanding which they are remarkable for the poverty of the mineral they contain4 ,a quintal1 or sixteen hundred ounces of silver ore1 affords1 at a medium1 not more than three or four ounces of pure silver1 about one-third of what is yielded by the same quantity of mineral in ,saxony4 ,it is not1 therefore1 on account of the richness of the ore1 but from its abundance and the facility of working it1 that these mines have been so much superior to those of ,europe4 ,the fact of the small number of persons employed in working them1 is not less contrary to the commonly received opinion on this subject4 ,the mines of ,guanaxuato1 infinitely richer than those of ,potosi ever were1 afforded from #agjf to #ahjc1 nearly forty millions of dollars in gold and silver1 or very nearly five millions of dollars annually1 being somewhat less than one-fourth of the whole quantity of gold and silver from ,new ,spain2 notwithstanding which1 these mines1 productive as they were1 did not employ more than five thousand workmen of every description4 ,in ,mexico1 the labor of the mines was perfectly free1 and better paid than any other kind of industry1 a miner earning from five to five dollars and a half weekly1 while the wages of the common laborer did not exceed a dollar and a half4 ,the tenateros1 or persons who carried the ore on their backs1 from the spot where it was dug out of the mine1 to that where it was collected in heaps1 had a sum equal to a dollar and ten cents for a day's work of six hours4 ,neither slaves1 criminals1 nor forced laborers1 were employed in the ,mexican mines4 ,in consequence of the clumsy1 imperfect and expensive mode of clearing them from water1 several of the richest of these mines have been overflowed and abandoned2 while the lack of method in the arrangement of the galleries1 and the absence of lateral communications1 have added to the risk1 and greatly increased the expense of working them4 ,labor has not been1 as in the working of the ,european mines1 abridged1 nor the transportation of materials facilitated4 ,when new works were undertaken1 a due consideration was not bestowed on the preliminary arrangements2 and they were always conducted on too large and expensive a scale4 ,more than three-fourths of the silver obtained from ,america is extricated from the ore by means of quicksilver1 the loss of which1 in the process of amalgamation1 is immense4 ,the quantity that used to be consumed annually in ,mexico alone1 was about sixteen thousand quintals2 and in the whole of ,south ,america1 about twenty-five thousand quintals were yearly expended1 the cost of which there1 has been estimated at more than a million dollars4 ,the greater part of this quicksilver1 in later years1 was furnished by the mine of ,almaden in ,spain1 and that of ,istria in ,carniola1 the celebrated quicksilver mine of ,huancavelica in ,peru1 having greatly fallen off in its produce since the sixteenth century1 when it was highly flourishing4 ,the prosperity of the silver mines1 both in ,mexico and ,peru1 therefore depended very much on the supplies of quicksilver from ,spain1 ,germany and ,italy2 for such was the abundance of the ore in those provinces1 that apparently the only limit to the amount of silver obtained there1 was the want of mercury for amalgamation4 ,in taking a general view of the riches of the other portions of ,america1 ,humboldt1 who has supplied these details1 remarks that1 in ,peru1 silver ore exists in as great abundance as in ,mexico1 the mines of ,lauricocha being capable of yielding as great a produce as those of ,guanaxuato2 but that the art of mining1 and the methods of separating the silver from its ore1 are still more defective than in ,mexico4 ,notwithstanding this imperfect system1 the total amount of the precious metals annually furnished by ,america1 was at one time estimated at upward of forty-two million dollars2 the gold being in proportion to the silver as one to forty-six4 ,from #adib to #ahjc1 the quantity of gold and silver extracted from the ,american mines1 was equal in value to five billion1 seven hundred and six million1 seven hundred thousand dollars2 of which immense sum1 the portion carried to ,europe1 including the booty gathered by the conquerors of ,america1 is estimated at five billion1 four hundred and forty-five million dollars1 averaging seventeen million and a half of dollars yearly4 ,the annual importation up to #ahjc1 being divided into six periods1 appears to have constantly augmented1 and in the following progressive ratio4 ,from #adib to #aejj1 it did not exceed two hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,from #aejj to #aede1 it amounted to three millions of dollars4 ,from #aede to #afjj1 to eleven millions4 ,from #afjj to #agjj1 to sixteen millions4 ,from #agjj to #agej1 to twenty-two millions and a half4 ,and1 lastly1 from #agej to #ahjc1 to the prodigious sum of thirty-five million1 three hundred thousand dollars4 ,the first period was that of exchange with the natives1 or of mere rapine4 ,the second was distinguished by the conquest and plunder of ,mexico1 ,peru and ,new ,granada1 and by the opening of the first mines4 ,the third began with the discovery of the rich mines of ,potosi2 and in the course of it the conquest of ,chili was completed1 and various mines opened in ,mexico4 ,at the commencement of the fourth period1 the mines of ,potosi began to be exhausted2 but those of ,lauricocha were discovered1 and the produce of ,mexico rose from two millions to five millions of dollars annually4 ,the fifth period began with the discovery of gold in ,brazil2 and the sixth was distinguished by the prodigious increase of the mines of ,mexico1 while those of every other part of ,america1 with the exception of ,brazil1 were then constantly improving4 ,the gold mines of ,brazil have been very productive4 ,those called general1 were about seventy-five leagues from ,rio ,janeiro1 the staple and principal outlet of the riches of the ,brazilian territory4 ,they formerly yielded to the king1 annually1 for his right of fifths1 at least one hundred and twelve arobas 7weighing twenty-five pounds each7 of gold2 so that their yearly produce might then have been estimated at upward of three and a half millions of dollars1 and that of the more distant mines at about one-third the sum4 ,the gold drawn from them could not be carried to ,rio ,janeiro1 without being first brought to the smelting-houses established in each district1 where the right of the crown was received4 ,what belonged to private persons was remitted in bars1 with their weight1 number1 and an impression of the royal arms4 ,the gold was then assayed1 and its standard imprinted on each bar4 ,when these bars were carried to the mint1 their value was paid to the possessor in coin1 commonly in half-doubloons1 each worth eight ,spanish dollars4 ,upon each of these half-doubloons the king gained a dollar1 by the alloy and right of coinage4 ,the mint of ,rio ,janeiro was one of the most beautiful in existence1 and furnished with every convenience for working with the greatest celerity4 ,as the gold came from the mines at the same time that the fleets came from ,portugal1 the operations of the mint and the coinage proceeded with surprising quickness4 ,in ,africa1 the kingdom of ,mozambique abounds in gold1 which is washed down by the rivers1 and forms a chief part of the commerce of the country4 ,the kingdoms of ,monomotara and ,sofala likewise furnish considerable quantities of gold2 and the ,portuguese residing in the latter territory1 half a century ago1 reported that it yielded annually two millions of metigals1 equal to somewhat more than a million sterling4 ,the merchants exported from ,mecca1 and other parts1 about the same quantity of gold4 ,the soldiers were paid in gold dust1 in the state in which it was collected2 and this was so pure1 and of so fine a yellow1 as not to be exceeded1 when wrought1 by any other gold beside that of ,japan4 ,gold is likewise found on the island of ,madagascar4 ,the ,gold ,coast is so denominated from the abundance of gold found among the sands3 it is not1 however1 so productive as has been generally supposed1 owing to the intense heats1 which1 in a great measure1 prevent the natives from prosecuting their researches4 ,in ,asia1 the island of ,japan is most productive of gold1 which is found in several of its provinces1 and is1 in by far the greater proportion1 melted from its ore4 ,it is also procured by washing the sands1 and a small quantity is likewise found in the ore of copper4 ,the emperor claims a supreme jurisdiction1 not only over the gold mines1 but over all the mines of the empire1 which are not allowed to be worked without a license from him4 ,two-thirds of their produce belong to him1 and the other third is left to the governor of the province in which the mines are situated4 ,but the richest gold ore1 and that which yields the finest gold1 is dug in one of the northern provinces of the island of ,niphon1 a dependency of ,japan1 where the gold mines have1 in past times1 been highly productive1 though now they have much fallen off4 ,in the ,japanese province of ,tsckungo1 a rich gold mine1 having been filled with water1 was no longer worked3 as it was1 however1 so situated1 that by cutting the rock and making an opening beneath the mine1 the water could be easily drawn off1 this was attempted4 ,at the moment of beginning the operation1 so violent a storm of thunder and lightning arose1 that the workmen were obliged to seek shelter elsewhere2 and these superstitious people imagining that the tutelar god and protector of the spot1 unwilling to have the bowels of the earth thus rifled1 had raised the storm to make them sensible of his great displeasure at such an undertaking1 desisted from all further attempts1 through the fear of incurring his displeasure1 and could not be induced to go on with it4 ,thibet1 a mountainous country of ,india1 contains a great abundance of gold1 which is traced in the rivers flowing from that territory into the ,ganges4 ,in ,hindoostan there are not any mines of gold2 but in the ,irnada district gold is collected in the river which passes ,nelambur in the ,mangery ,talui1 a nair having the exclusive privilege of this collection1 for which he pays a small annual tribute4 ,silver is in general rare throughout the oriental regions1 and there is not any indication of this metal in ,india2 but in ,japan there are several silver mines1 more particularly in the northern provinces1 and the metal extracted from them is very pure and fine4 ,turning to ,europe1 ,dalmatia is said in ancient times to have produced an abundance of gold4 ,pliny reports that in the reign of the emperor ,nero1 fifty pounds of this precious metal were daily taken from the mines of that province2 and that it was found on the surface of the ground4 ,it is added1 that ,vibius1 who was sent by ,augustus to subdue the ,dalmatians1 obliged that hardy and warlike people to work in the mines1 and to separate the gold from the ore4 ,bossina1 in ,sclavonia1 contains many mineral mountains1 and has rich mines of gold and silver4 ,the district in which the latter are found1 is named the ,srebrarniza1 being derived from the word srebr1 which signifies silver in all the ,sclavonian dialects4 ,their produce resembles the native silver of ,potosi1 and is found1 combined with pure quartz1 in small1 thin leaves1 resembling moss4 ,the kingdom of ,norway formerly produced gold2 but the expense of working the mines1 and procuring the pure ore1 being greater than the profit1 these have been neglected4 ,there are1 however1 silver mines1 which are extremely valuable1 and give employment to several thousands of persons4 ,the principal of these is at ,knigsberg1 and was discovered in #afbc1 when the town was immediately built1 and peopled with ,german miners4 ,in #agea1 forty-one shafts and twelve veins1 were wrought in this mine1 and gave employment to thirty-five hundred officers1 artificers and laborers4 ,a view of one part of this mine is given in the cut on the next page4 ,the silver ore is not1 as was at first imagined1 confined to the mountain between ,knigsberg and the river ,jordal1 but extends its veins for several miles throughout the adjacent districts1 in consequence of which new mines have been undertaken in several places1 and prosperously carried on4 ,one of the richest and most ancient of the mines1 named 8,old ,god's blessing10 has sometimes1 in the space of a week1 yielded several hundred pounds' weight of rich ore4 ,the astonishing depth of this mine1 which is not less than a hundred and eighty fathoms1 perpendicularly1 fills the mind of the beholder with amazement2 and the circumference at the bottom forms a clear space of several hundreds of fathoms4 ,here the sight of thirty or forty fires1 burning on all sides in this gloomy cavern1 and continually fed to soften the stone in the prosecution of the labors1 seems1 according to the notions commonly entertained1 an apt image of hell2 and the swarms of miners1 covered with soot1 and bustling about in habits according to their several employments1 may well remind one of so many evil spirits2 more especially when1 at a given signal that the mine is to be sprung in this or that direction1 they exclaim aloud3 8,berg-livet1 berg-livet60 8,take care of your lives40 ,illustration3 ,,silver ,,mine ,,at ,k,,nigsberg4 ,the gold mines of ,cremnitz1 in ,hungary1 lie forty miles south of the ,carpathian hills2 and twenty miles further to the south are the silver mines of ,shemnitz4 ,these are called mining towns2 and the former is the principal1 its rich ores being found in what is styled metallic rock4 ,its mines also produce a certain proportion of silver4 ,hungary is beside enriched by a mineral peculiar to itself1 or one1 at least1 which has not hitherto been discovered elsewhere1 namely1 the opal1 a gem preferred to all others by the oriental nations4 ,the opal mines are situated at ,ozerwiniza1 where they are found in a hill consisting of decomposed porphyry1 a few fathoms beneath the surface4 ,their produce is of various qualities1 from the opaque-white1 or semi-opal1 to the utmost refulgence of the lively colors by which this noble gem is distinguished4 ,transylvania and the ,bannet1 contain numerous and valuable mines1 consisting chiefly of gray gold ore1 and white gold ore4 ,the finest gold is found at ,olapian1 not far from ,zalathna1 intermixed with gravel and sand4 ,the sands of the ,rhine1 also1 in various places contain traces of gold4 ,the mountains of ,spain were1 according to ancient writers1 very rich in gold and silver2 and accordingly ,gibbon calls that kingdom1 8the ,peru and ,mexico of the old world40 ,he adds1 that 8the discovery of the rich western continent of the ,phenicians1 and the oppression of the simple natives1 who were compelled to labor in their own mines for the benefit of strangers1 form an exact type of the more recent history of ,spanish ,america40 ,the ,phenicians were acquainted only with the sea-coasts of ,spain2 but avarice1 as well as ambition1 carried the arms of ,rome and ,carthage into the heart of the country1 and almost every part of the soil was found pregnant with gold1 silver and copper4 ,a mine near ,carthagena1 is said to have yielded daily twenty-five thousand drams of silver1 or over thirteen hundred thousand dollars a year4 ,the provinces of ,asturia1 ,gallicia and ,lusitania1 yielded twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold annually3 but rich as these mines are1 the modern ,spaniards have chosen rather to import the precious metals from ,america1 than to seek them at home4 ,portugal is in many parts mountainous2 and these mountains contain1 beside others1 rich ores of silver4 ,but the ,portuguese1 like the ,spaniards1 having been supplied with metals from ,south ,america1 and particularly with an abundance of gold and silver from ,brazil1 have not worked the mines in their own country4 ,gems of all kinds1 as turkoises and hyacinths1 are also found in these mountains1 together with beautifully variegated marbles1 and many curious fossils4 ,but the richest and most productive gold mines of ,europe1 at the present time1 are probably those of ,russia4 ,it had long been known that gold was to be found in the ,russian dominions2 but in #ahbi1 ,baron ,humboldt1 with two scientific associates1 at the request of the emperor of ,russia1 made a mineralogical tour to the ,ural and ,altai mountains4 ,in this journey1 they not only discovered new localities of gold and silver1 but from the geological features of the country suggested that1 at certain localities1 diamonds would also probably be found1 which accordingly happened4 ,and as the result of the report they made to the ,russian government1 mining operations were commenced on a large scale in these mountains1 which have now become one of the most prolific gold regions in the world4 ,the increase of these sources of gold1 in extent and amount1 has been such1 that from the value of about ten thousand dollars in #ahcf1 the amount received in #ahdc1 was some eighteen millions of dollars2 and the supply has since increased annually1 until at present1 #ahee1 it amounts to about twenty million dollars a year4 ,most of this large amount of gold is gathered from washing the sand and loose earth1 and not from deep mines2 and as it is every year becoming greater and greater1 it must add immensely to the wealth and resources of the ,russian empire4 ,but by far the greatest gold-field in the world1 has been opened by the discoveries of the last few years in ,california4 ,at the close of the late war with ,mexico1 the ,united ,states acquired1 by conquest and purchase1 a tract of country of some five hundred thousand square miles in extent1 known as the ,mexican territory of upper ,california4 ,and from the western portion of this region1 ,congress1 in #ahej1 created and admitted into the ,american confederacy1 the thirty-first state1 under the name of ,california4 ,it is almost superfluous to say1 that ,california is one of the most important mineral regions in the world1 particularly in its deposits of gold4 ,vague notions of the existence of this gold1 had from time to time been spread abroad2 but it was not till #ahdh1 that an accident discovered the marvelous fact of its abundance4 ,in that year1 a ,mr4 ,sutter1 a native of ,switzerland1 was settled near the mouth of the ,american fork of the ,sacramento river1 at the head of navigation1 one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth4 ,here he had founded ,new ,helvetia1 and obtained a grant of thirty miles round4 ,he had sent some men to the upper part of the ,american fork1 to clear out a mill-race4 ,the soil was washed down in the process1 and some shining scales laid bare4 ,these proved to be gold1 and on investigation1 not only the valley of this stream1 but the beds of all the other streams running into the ,sacramento1 were found to have a soil full of gold1 in minute scales and in bits1 from a grain to many ounces in weight4 ,new 8placers10 as the 8washings10 or 8dry diggings0 are called1 have constantly been discovered1 and people have rushed to these hills from all quarters1 with pans1 tubs1 pickaxes1 shovels1 hoes1 filtering-machines1 and energetic sinews1 till they have extracted1 by digging1 washing1 c41 millions on millions of dollars' worth of the yellow treasure4 ,gold is now found over an extent of many hundred miles1 and also on the ,gila1 and throughout the great central plateau1 north and north-east of it4 ,in a favorable locality1 the lucky finder of a placer will sift out hundreds of dollars' worth in a day4 ,persons with not a shirt to their backs1 and scarcely a whole garment upon them1 are seen with bags of gold in their hands4 ,prices of everything went up at once to an enormous rate3 laborer's wages became eight or ten dollars a day2 cooks at the diggings1 ten dollars a day2 clerks1 fifteen hundred dollars to six thousand dollars per annum1 c41 c4 ,as all the productive industry of the country is now turned to gold-digging1 and as such vast numbers of consumers are flocking in from all parts1 prices continue to range high for every article of necessity1 although such large quantities of goods have been sent4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,washing ,,in ,,california4 ,the gold first discovered was evidently not in its original place1 but had been washed down from higher regions2 and when all that is thus spread through the sands of ,california shall have been exhausted1 if it ever shall be1 there are large bodies of auriferous quartz1 which 7with greater labor and expense7 will doubtless afford large supplies of gold for generations to come4 ,the amount of capital invested in quartz-mining1 according to the state census of #aheb1 was about six millions1 and in placer and other mining operations1 about four millions of dollars2 and the sum total of these amounts has been greatly increased since that date4 ,up to the close of #ahea1 there had been deposited in the ,united ,states mint1 #ih1djg1iij of ,california gold2 and the deposits of #aheb amounted to #df1ebh1jgf1 making a total of #ade1jjj1jjj4 ,but all this falls far short of the real amount produced2 as probably quite as much more has been sent to ,europe in the shape of dust or bullion1 not to mention the unreported sums which have been privately taken out of the state4 ,an official estimate states the production of ,american gold in #ahec1 at #aji1aef1gdh2 and of this sum nearly the whole is from the mines of ,california4 ,and this vast amount is steadily on the increase1 in about the proportion of the increase of the mining population1 so that ,california not only is1 but is likely to continue to be the great gold-field of the world4 ,before leaving ,california1 it may not be amiss to add1 that the country abounds in mines of almost every kind1 as well as gold4 ,quicksilver1 plaster1 lead1 iron1 silver1 copper1 asphaltum and marble1 are found in ,butte1 and also in ,marion county2 rich silver mines and coal1 in ,san ,louis ,obispo2 copious salt springs1 in ,shasta2 bituminous springs1 in many places along the coast2 hot sulphur springs1 in ,santa ,barbara2 warm soda springs1 near ,benicia2 and platina is said to be widely distributed in almost every section where gold has been found4 ,silver has been discovered in several mines in the southern district2 copper is widely distributed in other sections beside those above-mentioned2 chromium occurs in large quantities in the serpentine rocks2 and diamonds are reported to have been recently found in several localities4 ,illustration3 ,,place ,,where ,,gold ,,was ,,first ,,discovered ,,in ,,australia4 ,at a date still later than the discovery of gold in ,california1 the same precious metal was discovered in ,australia4 ,the cut on the following page gives a view of the place where it was first found1 in the county of ,bathurst1 not far from ,sydney in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,it is worthy of note that we owe the discovery of gold in ,australia to the high state of geological science4 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 in his address to the ,london ,geographical ,society in #ahdd1 alluded to the possibly auriferous character of the great eastern chain of ,australia1 being led thereto by his knowledge of the auriferous chain of the ,ural1 and by his examination of ,count ,strzelecki's specimens1 maps and sections4 ,some of ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's observations having found their way to the ,australian papers1 a ,mr4 ,smith1 at that time engaged in some iron works at ,berrima1 was induced by them in the year #ahdi to search for gold1 and he found it4 ,he sent the gold to the colonial government1 and offered to disclose its locality on payment of five hundred pounds sterling4 ,the government1 however1 not putting full faith in the statement1 and being1 moreover1 unwilling to encourage a gold fever without sufficient reason1 declined to grant the sum1 but offered1 if ,mr4 ,smith would mention the locality1 and the discovery was found to be valuable1 to reward him accordingly4 ,very unwisely1 as it turned out1 ,mr4 ,smith did not accept this offer2 and it remained for ,mr4 ,hargraves1 who came with the prestige of his ,california experience1 to make the discovery anew1 and get the reward from the ,english government on their own conditions4 ,the first discovery was made in the banks of the ,summer ,hill creek and the ,lewis ,ponds river1 small streams which run from the northern flank of the ,conobalas down to the ,macquarrie4 ,the gold was found in the sand and gravel accumulated1 especially on the inside of the bends of the brook1 and at the junction of the two water-courses1 where the stream of each would be often checked by the other4 ,it was coarse gold1 showing its parent site to be at no great distance1 and probably in the quartz veins traversing the metamorphic rocks of the ,conobalas4 ,mr4 ,stutchbury1 the government geologist1 reported on the truth of the discovery1 and shortly afterward found gold in several other localities1 especially on the banks of the ,turon1 some distance north-east of the ,conobalas4 ,this was a much wider and more open valley than the ,summer ,hill creek1 and the gold accordingly was much finer1 occurring in small scales and flakes4 ,it was1 however1 more regularly and equably distributed through the soil1 so that a man might reckon with the greatest certainty on the quantity his daily labor would return him4 ,at the head of the ,turon river1 among the dark glens and gullies in which it collects its head-waters1 in the flanks of the ,blue mountains1 the gold got 8coarser10 occurred in large lumps or nuggets1 but these were more sparingly scattered4 ,as already said1 the discovery was made by ,mr4 ,hargraves1 in ,may1 #ahej2 and before the end of ,june1 there were more than twenty thousand persons at the mines4 ,when it was known in the town of ,bathurst1 that the discovery had been made1 and that the country1 from the mountain ranges1 back to an indefinite extent in the interior1 was probably one immense goldfield1 the excitement was intense and universal4 ,a complete phrensy seemed to seize on the entire population2 the business of the town was paralyzed2 and there was a universal rush to the diggings4 ,people of all trades1 callings and pursuits were quickly transformed into miners2 and many a hand which had been trained to kid gloves1 or accustomed only to the quill1 became nervous to clutch the pick or crowbar1 or to 8rock the cradle0 at the newly discovered mines4 ,the roads were literally alive with the crowds pressing on from every quarter1 some armed with pickaxes1 others shouldering crowbars and shovels1 and not a few strung round with hand-basins1 tin-pots and cullenders4 ,scores rushed from their homes1 with only a blanket1 and a pick or grubbing-hoe1 full of hope that a few days would give them heaps of the precious metal4 ,everything at once rose in price1 and the whole face of society was speedily changed in almost every aspect4 ,the first pieces found were in grains4 ,soon a piece was picked up weighing some eleven ounces2 and soon after1 several lumps weighing together about three pounds4 ,gold was speedily discovered in almost every place where it was looked for2 in the beds of the streams1 and in veins of quartz1 in grains1 in scales1 and in lumps of various weights4 ,some1 as might be expected1 were successful1 and some comparatively unsuccessful in seeking it2 the great mass of the miners averaging not more than four or five dollars a day1 while in some rare cases a single individual gathered to the value of a thousand dollars in the same time4 ,gold was soon discovered in the ,wellington district1 and in various other places4 ,one piece was picked up weighing almost five pounds2 and from a single cleft in a rock1 a miner took out eleven pounds' weight of gold1 in separate pieces of various sizes4 ,a ,scotchman gathered fourteen hundred dollars' worth in four days1 and eight of his associates averaged from thirty to forty dollars' worth a day4 ,apparently there is no end to the supply1 at least for years to come2 and all this within forty miles of a town where every comfort1 not to say luxury1 can be obtained1 with a good post-road all the way to ,sydney1 and in the midst of tracts of the most fertile land1 partly occupied1 and where food may be supplied for millions of inhabitants1 if needed4 ,an official statement estimates the supply of ,australian gold at sixty million dollars a year2 and in addition to the gold1 diamonds and platinum have also been found4 ,australia and ,california are likely to be the great sources of the supply of gold1 compared with which all others will be relatively unimportant4 ,before leaving the subject of gold1 it may be interesting to the reader to trace the process of its coinage1 which may thus be briefly stated4 ,the metal1 after being received in the deposit-room1 is carefully weighed1 and a receipt given4 ,each deposit is then melted separately in the melting-room1 and molded into bars4 ,these bars next pass through the hands of the assayer1 who with a chisel chips a small fragment from each one4 ,each chip is then rolled into a thin ribbon1 and filed down until it weighs exactly ten grains4 ,it is then melted into a little cup made of calcined bone ashes1 and all the base metals1 copper1 tin1 c41 are absorbed by the porous material of the cup or carried off by oxydation4 ,the gold is then boiled in nitric acid1 which dissolves the silver which it contains1 and leaves the gold pure4 ,it is then weighed1 and the amount which it has lost gives the exact proportion of impurity in the original bar1 and a certificate of the amount of coin due the depositor is made out accordingly4 ,after being assayed1 the bars are melted with a certain proportion of silver1 and being poured into a dilution of nitric acid and water1 assume a granulated form4 ,in this state the gold is thoroughly boiled in nitric acid1 and rendered perfectly free from silver or any other baser metals which may happen to cling to it4 ,it is next melted with one-ninth its weight of copper1 and1 thus alloyed1 is run into bars1 and delivered to the coiner for coinage4 ,the bars are rolled out in a rolling-mill until nearly as thin as the coin which is to be made from them4 ,by a process of annealing they are rendered sufficiently ductile to be drawn through a longitudinal orifice in a piece of steel1 thus reducing the whole to a regular width and thickness4 ,a cutting-machine next punches small round pieces from the bar1 about the size of the coin4 ,these pieces are weighed separately by the 8adjusters10 and if too heavy are filed down2 if too light they are melted again4 ,the pieces which have been adjusted are run through a milling-machine1 which compresses them to the right diameter and raises the edge4 ,two hundred and fifty are milled in a minute by the machine4 ,they are then again softened by the process of annealing1 and after a thorough cleaning are placed in a tube connecting with the stamping instrument1 and are taken thence one at a time by the machinery1 and stamped between the dies4 ,they are now finished1 and1 being thrown into a box1 are delivered to the treasurer for circulation4 ,the machinery1 of course1 for all those processes1 must be of the nicest kind4 ,when in full operation1 a mint like that of ,england1 or that of the ,united ,states at ,philadelphia1 can coin millions on millions in a year4 ,,quicksilver ,,mines4 ,quicksilver1 or mercury1 is the only metal which remains liquid at ordinary temperatures4 ,it is white and very brilliant1 as may be seen in common thermometers4 ,it boils at six hundred and sixty degrees of heat2 and freezes1 and assumes a crystalline texture1 at forty degrees below zero4 ,it is extensively used in its various forms in the arts1 and also for medicinal purposes4 ,the thermometer and barometer illustrate some of its uses in its pure state2 the backs of our common mirrors are covered with it1 which gives them their reflecting power2 it is used extensively in separating some of the purer metals from the mixtures with which they are found2 and in some of its forms or combinations1 it is the basis of calomel1 corrosive sublimate1 vermilion1 c4 ,mercury is found in various parts of the world4 ,among its principal mines are those of ,almaden1 near ,cordova1 in ,spain1 and of ,idria1 near ,carniola1 in ,austria2 though it is also found in ,peru1 ,california1 ,italy and ,china4 ,formerly most of the quicksilver came from ,germany2 but more recently the largest production is probably in ,spain4 ,so extensively is it used1 that in #ahca1 over three hundred thousand pounds were brought from the continent into ,england2 and for the fourteen years ending in #ahbh1 the imports of it into ,canton1 by the ,english and ,americans1 averaged nearly six hundred and fifty thousand pounds a year1 worth some three hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,of all the quicksilver mines1 those of ,idria1 mentioned above1 are some of the most interesting1 and demand a particular description1 as they have been celebrated in natural history1 poetry and romance4 ,the ban of ,idria1 is a district of ,austria1 lying west of ,carniola4 ,the town1 which is small1 is seated in a deep valley1 amid high mountains1 on the river of the same name1 and at the bottom of so steep a descent1 that its approach is a task of great difficulty1 and sometimes of danger4 ,the mines were discovered in #adig1 before which time that part of the country was inhabited by a few coopers only1 and other artificers in wood1 with which the territory abounds4 ,one evening1 a cooper having placed a new tub under a dropping spring1 to try if it would hold water1 on returning the next morning1 found it so heavy that he could scarcely move it4 ,he at first was led by his superstition to suspect that the tub was bewitched2 but spying1 at length1 a shining fluid at the bottom1 with the nature of which he was unacquainted1 he collected it1 and proceeded to an apothecary at ,laubach1 who1 being an artful man1 dismissed him with a small recompense1 requesting that he would not fail to bring him further supplies4 ,from this small beginning1 the product of these mines has steadily increased2 and now might easily be made six hundred tuns per year1 though to uphold the price of the metal1 the ,austrian government has restricted the annual production to one hundred and fifty tuns4 ,in #ahjc1 a disastrous fire took place in these mines1 which was extinguished only by drowning all the underground workings4 ,the mercury1 sublimed by the heat in this catastrophe1 occasioned diseases and nervous tremblings in more than nine hundred persons in the neighborhood4 ,the subterraneous passages of the great mine are so extensive1 that it would require several hours to pass through them4 ,the greatest perpendicular depth1 computing from the entrance of the shaft1 is eight hundred and forty feet2 but as these passages advance horizontally1 under a high mountain1 the depth would be much greater if the measure were taken from the surface4 ,one mode of descending the shaft is by a bucket1 but as the entrance is narrow1 the bucket is liable to strike against the sides1 or to be stopped by some obstacle1 so that it may be readily overset4 ,a second mode of descending1 which is safer1 is by means of a great number of ladders1 placed obliquely1 in a kind of zigzag3 as the ladders1 however1 are wet and narrow1 a person must be very cautious how he steps1 to prevent his falling4 ,in the course of the descent1 there are several resting-places1 which are extremely welcome to the wearied traveler4 ,in some of the subterraneous passages1 the heat is so intense as to occasion a profuse sweat2 and in several of the shafts the air was formerly so confined1 that several miners were suffocated by an igneous vapor1 or gaseous exhalation1 called the fire-damp4 ,this has been prevented by sinking the main shaft deeper4 ,near to it is a large wheel1 and a hydraulic machine1 by which the mine is cleared of water4 ,to these pernicious and deadly caverns1 criminals are occasionally banished by the ,austrian government2 and it has sometimes happened that this punishment has been allotted to persons of considerable rank and family4 ,the case of ,count ,alberti is an interesting instance of this kind4 ,the count1 having fought a duel with an ,austrian general1 against the emperor's command1 and having left him for dead1 was obliged to seek refuge in one of the forests of ,istria1 where he was apprehended1 and afterward rescued by a band of robbers who had long infested that quarter4 ,with these banditti he spent nine months1 until1 by a close investment of the place in which they were concealed1 and after a very obstinate resistance1 in which the greater part of them were killed1 he was taken and carried to ,vienna1 to be broken alive on the wheel4 ,this punishment was1 by the intercession of his friends1 changed into that of perpetual confinement and labor in the mines of ,idria2 a sentence which1 to a noble mind1 was worse than death4 ,to these mines he was accompanied by the countess1 his lady1 who belonged to one of the first families in ,germany1 and who1 having tried every means to procure her husband's pardon without effect1 resolved at length to share his miseries1 as she could not relieve them4 ,they were terminated1 however1 through the mediation of the general with whom the duel had been fought1 who as soon as he recovered from his wounds1 obtained a pardon for his unfortunate opponent2 and ,alberti1 on his return to ,vienna1 was again taken into favor1 and restored to his fortune and rank4 ,,iron ,,mines4 ,the metal which is called iron1 is familiar to all1 both for its value and its various uses4 ,it is capable of being cast in molds of any form2 of being drawn in wires1 extended in plates or sheets1 of being bent in every direction1 and of being sharpened1 hardened1 or softened at pleasure4 ,it accommodates itself to all our wants1 desires1 and even caprices2 it is equally serviceable to the arts1 the sciences1 to agriculture1 and to war2 and the same ore furnishes the sword1 the plowshare1 the scythe1 the pruning-hook1 the needle1 the graver1 the spring of the watch or that of the carriage1 the chisel1 the chain1 the anchor1 the compass1 the cannon1 the bomb1 the edge of the finest knife or razor1 and the ponderous trip-hammer of enormous weight4 ,it is a medicine of much virtue1 and the only metal which is always useful1 and tends to no injury to mankind4 ,the ores of iron are scattered over the entire crust of the globe in beneficent profusion1 and in proportion to the utility of the metal itself3 they are found in every latitude and zone1 in every mineral formation1 and in every soil and clime4 ,these ores are nineteen in number1 ten of which are worked to profit by the miner1 either for the sake of the iron they contain1 for use in their native state1 or for extracting from them some principle or material1 useful in manufactures or the arts4 ,native iron1 the existence of which was formerly questioned1 has been found in several places3 it is1 however1 far from being common1 though it occurs in several mines4 ,a mass of this description of iron was discovered in the district of ,santiago del ,estero1 in ,south ,america1 by a party of ,indians1 in the midst of a widely extended plain4 ,it projected about a foot above the ground1 nearly the whole of its upper surface being visible2 and the news of its having been found in a country where there are not any mountains1 nor even the smallest stone1 within the circumference of a hundred leagues1 was considered as truly surprising4 ,although the journey was attended with great danger1 on account of the want of water1 and abundance of wild beasts in these deserts1 several individuals1 in the hope of gain1 undertook to visit this mass2 and1 having accomplished their journey1 sent a specimen of the metal to ,lima and ,madrid1 where it was found to be very pure soft iron4 ,as it was reported that this mass was the extremity of an immense vein of the metal1 a metallurgist was sent to examine the spot1 and by him it was found buried in pure clay and ashes4 ,externally it had the appearance of very compact iron1 but was internally full of cavities1 as if the whole had been formerly in a liquid state4 ,this idea was confirmed by its having1 on its surface1 the impression of human feet and hands of a large size1 as well as that of the feet of a description of large birds1 very common in ,south ,america4 ,although these impressions seemed very perfect1 it was concluded either that they were lusus natur1 or that impressions of this kind were previously on the ground1 and that the liquid mass of iron1 in falling on it1 received them4 ,it had the greatest resemblance to a mass of dough2 which1 having been stamped with impressions of hands and feet1 and marked with a finger1 had afterward been converted into iron4 ,on digging round the mass1 the under surface was found covered with a coat of scori from four to six inches thick1 undoubtedly occasioned by the moisture of the earth1 the upper surface being clean4 ,no appearance of the formation of iron was observed in the earth1 below or round it1 for a great distance4 ,about two leagues to the eastward was a brackish mineral spring1 and a very gentle ascent of from four to six feet in hight1 running from north to south3 with this exception1 the adjacent territory was a perfect level4 ,about the spring1 as well as near the mass1 the earth was very light1 loose1 and greatly resembling ashes1 even in color4 ,the grass in the vicinity was very short1 small1 and extremely unpalatable to the cattle2 but that at a distance was long1 and extremely grateful to them4 ,from these concurrent circumstances it was concluded1 that this mass of native iron1 which was estimated to weigh about three hundred quintals1 was produced by a volcanic explosion4 ,it is stated as an undoubted fact1 that in one of the forests of the above district of ,santiago del ,estero1 there exists a mass of pure native iron1 in the shape of a tree with its branches4 ,at a little depth in the earth are found stones of quartz1 of a beautiful red color1 which the honey-gatherers1 the only persons who frequent this rude territory1 employ as flints to light their fires4 ,several of these were selected on account of their peculiar beauty1 they being spotted and studded1 as it were1 with gold3 one of them1 weighing about an ounce1 was ground by the governor of the district1 who extracted from it a dram of gold4 ,a fibrous kind of native iron has been found at ,ebenstock1 in ,saxony1 and also in ,siberia1 where one particular mass weighed sixteen hundred pounds4 ,it resembled forged iron in its composition1 and was malleable when cold1 but brittle when red-hot4 ,in ,senegal1 where it is most common1 it is of a cubical form1 and is employed by the natives in the manufacture of different kinds of vessels4 ,native meteoric iron1 called also nickeliferous1 from its containing nickel1 and native steel iron1 which has many of the characters of cast steel1 have also been found4 ,iron1 although one of the imperfect metals1 is susceptible of a very high polish1 and more capable than any other metal of having its hardness increased or diminished by certain chemical processes4 ,it is often manufactured in such a way as to be one hundred and fifty times1 and1 as will now be seen1 in some cases1 to be even above six hundred and thirty times more valuable than gold4 ,on weighing several common watch-pendulum springs1 such as are sold for ordinary work by the ,london artists1 at half a crown1 ten of them were found to weigh but one single grain4 ,hence one pound avoirdupois1 equal to seven thousand grains1 contains ten times that number of these springs1 which amount1 at half a crown each1 to eight thousand1 seven hundred and fifty pounds sterling4 ,reckoning the troy ounce of gold at four pounds sterling1 and the pound equal to fifty-seven hundred and sixty grains1 at forty-eight pounds sterling1 the value of an avoirdupois pound of gold is over fifty-eight pounds sterling4 ,the above amount of the value of the watch-springs weighing an avoirdupois pound1 being divided by that sum1 will give a ratio of somewhat more than one hundred and fifty to one4 ,but the pendulum-springs of the best kind of watches sell at half a guinea each2 and at this price the above-mentioned value is increased in the ratio of four and one-fifth to one2 which gives an amount of thirty-six thousand1 seven hundred and fifty pounds sterling4 ,this sum being divided by the value of the avoirdupois pound of gold1 gives a quotient of more than six hundred and thirty to one4 ,it is one of the valuable properties of iron1 after it is reduced into the state of steel1 that1 although it is sufficiently soft when hot1 or when gradually cooled1 to be formed without difficulty into various tools and utensils1 still it may be afterward rendered more or less hard1 even to an extreme degree1 by simply plunging it1 when red-hot1 into cold water4 ,this is called tempering1 the hardness produced being greater in proportion as the steel is hotter and the water cooler4 ,hence arises the superiority of this metal for making mechanics' instruments or tools1 by which all other metals1 and even itself1 are filed1 drilled and cut4 ,the various degrees of hardness given to iron1 depend on the quantity of ignition it possesses at the moment of being tempered1 which is manifested by the succession of color exhibited on the surface of the metal1 in the progress of its receiving the increasing heat4 ,these are1 the yellowish white1 yellow1 gold-color1 purple1 violet1 and deep blue2 after the exhibition of which the complete ignition takes place4 ,these colors proceed from a kind of scorification on the surface of the heated metal4 ,the largest iron-works in ,england are carried on in ,colebrookdale1 in ,shropshire4 ,this spot1 which is situated between two towering and variegated hills1 covered with wood1 possesses peculiar advantages1 the ore being obtained from the adjacent hills1 the coals from the vale1 and abundance of limestone from the quarries in the vicinity4 ,the romantic scenery which nature here exhibits1 and the works which are carried on1 seem to realize the ancient fable of the ,cyclops4 ,the noise of the forges1 mills1 c41 with all their vast machinery1 the flames bursting from the furnaces1 with the burning coal1 and the smoke of the lime-kilns1 are altogether horribly sublime4 ,to complete the peculiarities of the spot1 a bridge1 entirely constructed of iron1 is here thrown over the ,severn4 ,in one place it has parted1 and a chasm is formed2 but such is its firm basis1 that the fissure has neither injured its strength nor utility4 ,the great superiority of ,swedish iron over that of all other countries1 for the manufacture of steel1 is well known1 and is ascribed to the great purity of the ore from which the iron is smelted4 ,the ,british steel-makers have found it difficult to employ ,british iron in their processes1 it being too brittle to bear cementation2 but attempts have been made at ,sheffield1 with some success4 ,wootz1 a species of steel from ,india1 has been successfully used for nicer kinds of cutlery4 ,one of the most remarkable of the ,swedish mines1 if the name can with propriety be applied to it1 is ,tabern1 a mountain of a considerable size1 composed entirely of pure iron ore1 and occurring in a large tract of sand1 over which it seems to have been deposited4 ,this mountain has been wrought for nearly three centuries1 notwithstanding which its size is scarcely diminished4 ,but the richest iron mine of ,sweden is that of ,danmora1 in the province of ,upland4 ,it is in depth eighty fathoms2 occupies a considerable extent of territory2 and its ore is conveyed to the surface of the earth1 through several pits or openings made for that purpose1 by means of casks fixed to large cables1 which are put in motion by horses4 ,the workmen standing on the edges of these casks1 and having their arms clasped round the cable1 descend and ascend with the utmost composure4 ,the water is drawn from the bottom by a wheel sixty-six feet in diameter1 and is afterward conveyed along an aqueduct nearly a mile and a half in length4 ,at certain distances from ,danmora1 are several furnaces1 with large and populous villages exclusively inhabited by the miners4 ,in ,wraxall's tour through the north of ,europe1 the mine of ,danmora is described as yielding the finest iron ore in ,europe1 its produce being exported to every country1 and constituting one of the most important sources of national wealth and royal revenue4 ,the ore is not dug1 as is usual in other mines1 but is torn up by the force of gunpowder1 an operation which is performed every day at noon1 and is one of the most awful and tremendous that can possibly be conceived4 8,we arrived10 observes the tourist1 8at the mouth of the great mine1 which is nearly half an ,english mile in circumference1 in time to be present at it4 ,soon after twelve the first explosion took place1 and could not be so aptly compared to anything as to subterraneous thunder1 or rather volleys of artillery discharged under ground4 ,the stones were thrown up1 by the violence of the gunpowder1 to a vast hight above the surface of the ground1 and the concussion was so great as to shake the surrounding earth or rock on every side4 8,as soon as the explosion had ceased1 ,i determined to descend into the mine1 to effect which ,i had to seat myself in a large1 deep bucket1 capable of containing three persons1 and fastened by chains to a rope4 ,when ,i found myself thus suspended between heaven and earth by a rope1 and looked down into the dark and deep abyss beneath me1 to which ,i could see no termination1 ,i shuddered with apprehension1 and half repented my curiosity4 ,this was1 however1 only a momentary sensation1 and before ,i had descended a hundred feet1 ,i looked round on the scene with very tolerable composure4 ,it was nearly nine minutes before ,i reached the bottom2 and when ,i set my foot on the earth1 the view of the mine was awful and sublime in the highest degree4 ,whether1 as ,i surveyed it1 terror or pleasure formed the predominant feeling1 is hard to say4 ,the light of the day was very faintly admitted into these subterraneous caverns3 in many places it was absolutely lost1 and flambeaux were kindled in its stead4 ,beams of wood were laid across some parts1 from one side of the rock to the other2 and on these the miners sat1 employed in boring holes for the admission of gunpowder1 with the most perfect unconcern1 although the least dizziness1 or even a failure in preserving their equilibrium1 must have made them lose their seat1 and have dashed them against the rugged surface of the rock beneath4 ,the fragments torn up by the explosion1 previously to my descent1 lay in vast heaps on all sides1 and the whole scene was calculated to inspire a gloomy admiration4 8,i remained three-quarters of an hour in these frightful and gloomy caverns1 which find employment for not less than thirteen hundred workmen1 and traversed every part of them which was accessible1 conducted by my guides4 ,the weather above was very warm1 but here the ice covered the whole surface of the ground1 and ,i found myself surrounded with the colds of the most rigorous winter1 amid darkness and caves of iron4 ,in one of these1 which ran a considerable way beneath the rock1 were eight wretched beings warming themselves round a charcoal fire1 and eating the little scanty subsistence arising from their miserable occupation4 ,they rose with surprise at seeing so unexpected a guest among them1 and ,i was not a little pleased to dry my feet1 which were wet with treading on the melted ice1 at their fire4 8,having gratified my curiosity with a view of these subterraneous apartments1 ,i made the signal for being drawn up1 and felt so little terror while reascending1 compared with that of being let down1 that ,i am convinced1 after five or six repetitions1 ,i should have been perfectly indifferent to the undertaking4 ,so strong is the effect of custom on the human mind1 and so contemptible does danger or horror become when familiarized by repeated trials60 ,throughout the whole extent of ,sweden1 the iron mines at present wrought1 employ thousands of persons1 and yield annually upward of one hundred thousand tuns of metal4 ,there are said to be between five and six hundred mines in the entire country1 nearly half of which are situated in the central provinces3 this1 however1 includes mines of all descriptions1 though by far the most are of iron4 ,the products of all these mines would be vastly greater than they are1 were it not for the multiplied and unreasonable restrictions of the government4 ,the iron trade of the ,united ,states1 and the domestic manufacture of iron1 were spoken of by ,mr4 ,gallatin1 in a report to ,congress1 in #ahaj1 as being firmly established4 ,he was able to obtain very imperfect information about it1 but it was known that iron ore was plentiful2 that numerous forges and furnaces had been erected1 supplying 8a sufficient quantity of hollow-ware1 and of castings of every description40 ,from ,russia1 about forty-five hundred tuns of bar iron were imported yearly1 and perhaps another forty-five hundred from ,sweden and ,england4 ,a vague estimate gave fifty thousand tuns of bar iron as the annual consumption of the union1 of which he considered forty thousand as the product of the republic4 ,some good iron was made in ,virginia and ,pennsylvania1 but much inferior iron1 carelessly manufactured1 was brought into market4 ,of sheet1 slit1 and hoop iron1 about five hundred and sixty-five tuns were annually imported2 about seven thousand tuns were rolled and slit in the ,united ,states4 ,massachusetts had thirteen rolling and slitting mills1 and the value of cut nails and brads made within the republic in a year1 was estimated at twelve hundred thousand dollars4 ,nearly three hundred tuns of cut nails were exported4 ,agricultural implements were made at home1 and much coarse ironmongery2 but cutlery1 fine hardware1 and steel work1 were brought from ,britain4 ,about forty thousand muskets were yearly made in ,new ,england and at ,harper's ,ferry3 also balls1 shells1 and brass and iron cannon1 in various places4 ,there were several iron founderies for machinery castings1 and steam-engines had begun to be made at ,philadelphia4 ,mr4 ,gallatin valued the iron and manufactures of iron then annually made at home1 at from twelve to fifteen millions of dollars1 and the imports at near four millions1 as prices went4 ,adam ,seybert enumerates the domestic products of #ahaj1 at #ec1ijh tuns of pig iron1 from #aec furnaces2 #bd1eda tuns of bar iron from #ccj forges2 #ae1gbg1iad pounds of nails 7partly out of imported iron7 from #daj naileries2 and #f1ejj tuns of iron were required at #caf trip-hammers and thirty-four rolling and slitting mills4 ,his estimate of the value of the home manufacture is #ad1cfd1ebf4 ,in #ahjf or #ahjg1 ,chancellor ,livingston1 then our minister to ,france1 had to apply repeatedly to the ,british ministry for permission to buy in ,england1 and export to ,new ,york1 the steam-engine which ,fulton put on board his first steamboat on the ,hudson4 ,now1 the manufacture of steam-engines is an important branch of our home industry4 ,in #ahbg-h1 it was given in evidence before a committee of ,congress1 that ,pennsylvania had made1 during the past year1 #ba1hjj tuns of bar iron1 and #dg1jge tuns of cast iron2 that #c1jjj tuns of bar iron were made near ,lake ,champlain2 that three counties in ,new ,jersey had made #b1jej tuns1 and that in a circle of thirty miles' diameter1 in ,new ,york1 there were one hundred and ten forge fires1 each of them able to produce twenty-five to thirty-five tuns yearly4 ,in #ahcj1 a committee of ,congress reported on the iron trade1 and from their report and other later sources1 we learn that that year #aab1hff tuns of bar1 and #aia1ecg of pig iron1 worth #ac1cbg1gfj1 employing #bi1bed men1 who received #h1ggf1dbj in wages1 were made4 ,perhaps the quantity and number of workmen are overstated4 ,in #ahdj1 with improved machinery1 only #cj1dig men produced #dhd1acf tuns4 ,without coal and iron1 the ,united ,states and ,britain never could have risen to the rank of first-rate powers4 ,in fact1 without iron1 civilization must have made very slow progress1 as must be evident to any one who will take the trouble to try seriously to enumerate the various articles essential to society1 of which iron is an indispensable part4 ,in #ahci-dj1 according to the official returns1 which are imperfect1 the ,united ,states produced1 with #hjd furnaces1 #bhf1ijc tuns of cast iron1 and with #gie blomaries1 forges and rolling-mills1 #ahg1bcc tuns of bar iron4 ,the capital invested was nearly twenty and a half millions of dollars2 the men employed1 miners included1 were #cj1dig1 and #a1ebh1aaj tuns of fuel were employed in these operations4 ,the value of iron and steel1 and their manufactures1 imported in #ahci-dj1 as per official returns1 was #g1bda1djg4 ,the estimated value of the iron made in the ,united ,states that year1 was #bb1ggh1fce2 of which sum #ae1ehe1gcj were for labor1 including mining1 transportation1 coaling1 hauling1 c4 ,the persons employed in the iron manufacture1 and their families1 were estimated at #bac1eje1 which1 at twelve and a half cents each1 per day1 for agricultural products consumed1 would give #i1gda1aff4 ,in #ahde1 the product of the union was estimated thus3 #edj blast furnaces1 yielding #dhf1jjj tuns of pig iron2 #ied blomaries1 forges1 rolling-mills1 c4 yielding #bia1fjj tuns of bar1 hoop1 sheet1 boiler1 and other wrought iron1 #cj1jjj tuns of blooms and #aba1ejj tuns of castings2 value of the whole nearly forty-two millions of dollars4 ,the ,united ,states imported of iron1 chiefly bar and bolt1 rolled1 hammered1 or otherwise manufactured1 and pig1 hoop and sheet1 in #ahch-i1 #aae1fcg tuns2 in #ahci-dj1 #gb1gfi2 #ahdj-a1 #aab1aaa2 in #ahda-b1 #ajg1cib2 in #ahdb-c1 #ch1dje4 ,in #ahdf-g1 we find by the treasury report1 that the ,united ,states exported of domestic manufactures1 #c1aig1ace pounds of nails1 worth #afh1hag1 of which ,cuba took #b1cag1eej pounds2 also other articles of iron and steel to the value of #iih1ffg1 of which #dgh1fha to ,cuba1 and #afb1jbj to ,british ,north ,america4 ,in that year1 among the imports1 chiefly from ,england1 were #edi tuns of steel1 value #a1abf1deh2 #ee1eii tuns of bar iron2 #bh1jhc tuns of pig2 #a1hic tuns of scraps2 #f1afg1gbj pounds of chain cables2 #ac1daj1eef pounds of sheet and hoop2 #a1dab1ccb pounds of anvils2 #iba1hde pounds of nails2 #cfa1dbc pounds of anchors2 #ige1bef pounds of castings2 #agj1iji pounds of cast-iron butts2 #dca1iaf pounds of band2 #ffj1acc pounds of round or square2 #cdg1gcg pounds of nail or spike rods4 ,official tables show that the imports of manufactures of steel and iron in #ahci1 were worth #f1ejg1eaj2 in #ahdc1 #a1jab1jhf2 in #ahdd1 #c1cac1gif2 in #ahde1 #e1jgg1ghh2 and that in #ahci1 the value of pig and bar iron and steel imported was #f1cjb1eci2 in #ahdb and #ahde1 nearly four millions each year2 in #ahdc1 #a1jia1eih2 and in #ahdd1 #b1chj1jbg4 ,some idea of the extent of the iron trade inland may be formed from the quantities carried on the canals4 ,in #ahdg1 there came to the ,hudson on the ,new ,york canals1 pig iron1 #ba1fjh1jjj pounds2 bloom and bar #bf1cdh1jjj pounds2 iron ware1 #c1jad1jjj pounds3 #cdj tuns of iron and iron ware were cleared on the canals at ,buffalo and ,oswego2 ,st4 ,lawrence county1 ,n4 ,y41 shipped #eae tuns of pig1 a surplus made there2 #g1gaf tuns of pig iron reached ,buffalo via ,lake ,erie1 and #a1bef kegs of nails2 #ae1ajc1efe pounds of iron and nails arrived at ,cleveland via the ,ohio canal1 and #d1jhe tuns of iron and #ab1ecg kegs of nails were shipped from ,cleveland coastwise4 ,there were cleared at ,portsmouth1 ,chilicothe1 ,massillon1 and ,akron1 in #ahdg1 about #e1gac tuns of iron2 #e1bfi1jee pounds of nails were shipped at ,akron4 ,the trade in coal and iron on the western rivers and lakes is very large4 ,iron canal-boats were in common use in ,wales thirty years ago3 they are beginning to be made here2 also war-steamers4 ,fences1 and even porches to houses1 are often of iron4 ,the pipes for the ,croton water in ,new ,york required many thousand tuns4 ,the annual value of #aej1jjj tuns of iron ore of ,maryland is worth #fjj1jjj at ,baltimore4 ,a single foundery in ,tennessee sold1 in #ahdd1 of sugar-kettles1 #ej1jjj worth4 ,child's statistics show that in ,pennsylvania1 in #ahdg1 there were made1 at #bac furnaces1 #ih1cie tuns of cast iron1 and at #afi blomaries1 forges1 c41 #hg1bdd tuns of bar iron1 #aa1ebb men being employed1 including limestone miners1 and a capital of #g1gea1dgj invested4 ,in #ahdf1 there were #agc1cfi tuns manufactured1 seven of the furnaces using anthracite coal4 ,forty furnaces1 in #ahdg1 were in blast1 using anthracite1 and producing #aba1hjj tuns of iron1 at a reduced price1 which price had induced capitalists to put up extensive rolling-mills4 ,the ,american ,quarterly ,register has a list of nineteen anthracite rolling-mills in ,pennsylvania1 which make iron rails and plate1 bar and rod1 nails1 axle and small iron4 ,the first bar of railroad iron ever manufactured in the ,united ,states1 was made in #ahda1 and now it is said1 one hundred thousand tuns could be made easily2 while the annual product of iron from all the furnaces1 which are said to be some three hundred in number1 is estimated at over four hundred thousand tuns4 ,the yearly manufacture of iron in ,great ,britain1 is now estimated at nearly three millions of tuns4 ,in #ahbh1 there were in ,russia1 nineteen founderies1 forges and mines1 and in #ahjd1 that country exported to ,america over nine million pounds of iron4 ,in #ahai1 ,france produced seventy-four million pounds of iron1 and in #ahde1 this had increased to three hundred and forty-two millions1 or over one hundred and fifty thousand tuns4 ,of iron and steel1 and the various manufactures from them1 ,great ,britain exported in #ahde1 to the extent of thirty-three millions4 ,,copper ,,mines4 ,copper 7from cuprum1 a corruption of cuprium1 from the island of ,cyprus1 whence it was formerly brought7 was known at a very remote period2 and in the early ages of the world1 before iron was extensively in use1 was the chief ingredient in domestic utensils and instruments of war4 ,it is abundant2 and is found both native and in many ores1 the most important of which are the varieties of pyrites1 which are sulphurets of copper and iron4 ,the genus copper includes some thirteen species1 and each of these contains several varieties4 ,the purest copper obtained in ,europe1 is the produce of the mines of the ,swedish province of ,dalecarlia4 ,the following is a brief description of the principal of these immense and gloomy caverns1 all of which boast a high antiquity4 ,the traveler's curiosity is first attracted by the hydraulic machines which convey the water to the different quarters1 and the power of which is such1 that one of the wheels has a diameter of not less than forty-four feet4 ,another wheel1 of proportionate magnitude1 is employed to raise the ore from the mine to the surface of the earth1 and is admirably constructed4 ,regular circles are placed on each side1 and round these the chain rises1 taking a larger or smaller circumference1 in proportion to the necessary circle to be made1 so as to counterbalance the weight1 and consequently the increased motion of the bucket4 ,exteriorly1 a vast chasm of a tremendous depth presents itself to the view4 ,this being the part of the mine which was first opened1 either through the ignorance or neglect of those who had then the management of the works1 the excavations so weakened the foundations of the hill1 that the whole fell in1 leaving a most chaotic scene of precipitated rocks1 and a gaping gulf resembling the mouth of a volcano4 ,great care has been since taken that no such disaster should again occur4 ,plans and sections are drawn of all the galleries1 c42 and where the prosecution of the works in the same direction might be dangerous1 orders are issued for the miners to stop1 and an iron crown is fixed on the spot1 as a prohibition ever to proceed further4 ,the workmen then explore in a different direction1 while every subterraneous excavation is nicely watched4 ,the traveler passes into the great chasm by a range of wooden steps1 which cross1 in a variety of directions1 the rough masses of fallen rocks1 of gravel1 and of the ancient machinery4 ,ere he reaches the entrance of the cavern1 he has to descend nearly two hundred feet1 and this being accomplished1 proceeds horizontally to a considerable distance within4 ,he now loses the pure air of day1 and gradually breathes an oppressive vapor1 which rolls toward him1 in volumes1 from the mouths of a hundred caves leading into the main passage4 ,he now feels as if he were inhaling the atmosphere of ,tartarus4 ,the ,swedish iron mines which have been described1 are mere purgatories when compared with this satanic dwelling4 ,the descent is performed entirely by steps laid in the winding rock2 and1 in following the subterraneous declivity1 the traveler reaches the tremendous depths of these truly ,stygian dominions4 ,the pestilential vapors which environ him with increasing clouds1 and the style of the entrance1 remind him of ,virgil's description of the descent of ,eneas to the infernal regions4 ,here are to be seen the same caverned portico1 the rocky1 rough descent1 and the steaming sulphur1 with all the deadly stenches of ,avernus4 ,the wretched inmates of this gloomy cavern1 appear to him like so many specters1 as poetic fiction has described them3 and he is induced by the length of the way1 joined to the excessive heat and its suffocating quality1 to fancy that he will be made to pay dearly for his curiosity4 ,in one part the steam is so excessively hot1 as to scorch at the distance of twelve paces1 at the same time that the sulphureous smell is intolerable4 ,near this spot a volcanic fire broke out some years ago1 in consequence of which strong walls were constructed1 as barriers to its power1 and several contiguous passages1 which1 had it spread1 would have proved dangerous to the mine1 closed up4 ,the visitor has now to traverse many long and winding galleries1 as well as large vaulted caverns1 where the workmen are dispersed on all sides1 employed in hewing vast masses of the rock1 and preparing other parts for explosion4 ,others wheel the brazen ore toward the black abyss1 where the suspended buckets hang ready to draw it upward4 ,from the effect of such violent exercise1 combined with the heat1 they are obliged to work almost naked4 ,their groups1 occupations1 and primitive appearance1 scantily lighted by the trembling rays of torches1 form a curious and interesting scene4 ,the depth of the mine being at least twelve hundred feet1 a full hour is required to reach to the bottom4 ,the mass of copper lies in the form of an inverted cone4 ,five hundred men are employed daily2 but females are not admitted1 on account of the deleterious quality of the vapors4 ,this mine was anciently a state prison1 in which criminals1 slaves and prisoners of war toiled out their wretched existence4 ,near the bottom is a rocky saloon1 furnished with benches4 ,it is called the ,hall of the ,senate1 on account of its having been the resting-place of several ,swedish kings1 who came1 attended by the senators1 to examine the works1 and here took refreshments4 ,it was in this mine that the immortal ,gustavus ,vasa1 disguised as a peasant1 labored for his bread1 during a long concealment1 after having been robbed by his guide2 and his first adherents in the struggle which placed him on the throne1 were from the miners and peasants of ,dalecarlia4 ,in the year #agea1 a very rich copper mine was wrought in the county of ,wicklow1 ,ireland4 ,from this mine ran a stream of blue-colored water1 of so deleterious a nature as to destroy all the fish in the river ,arklow1 into which it flowed4 ,one of the workmen1 having left an iron shovel in this stream1 found it some days after incrusted with copper4 ,this led one of the proprietors of the mine to institute a set of experiments1 from which he concluded that the blue water contained an acid holding copper in solution2 that iron had a stronger affinity for the acid than copper2 and that the consequence of this affinity was the precipitation of the copper1 and the solution of the iron1 when pieces of that metal were thrown into the blue water4 ,these ideas induced the miners to dig several pits for the reception of this water1 and to put bars of iron into them4 ,the result was1 that they obtained an abundance of copper1 much purer and more valuable than that which they had procured from the ore itself by smelting4 ,on the island of ,anglesea1 near ,dulas bay1 on the north coast1 is ,parys mountain1 which contains the most considerable quantity of copper ore perhaps ever known4 ,the external aspect of the hill is extremely rude1 and it is surrounded by enormous rocks of coarse white quartz4 ,the ore is lodged in a basin1 or hollow1 and has on one side a small lake1 over the waves of which1 as over those of ,avernus1 fatal to the feathered tribe1 it is said that birds are never known to pass4 ,the effect of the mineral operations has been1 that the whole of this tract has assumed a wild and savage appearance4 ,suffocating fumes of the burning heaps of copper arise in all parts1 and extend their baneful influence for miles around4 ,that the ore was worked in a very remote period1 appears by vestiges of the ancient operations1 which were carried on by trenching1 and by heating the rocks intensely1 when water was suddenly poured on them1 so as to cause them to crack or scale4 ,in the year #agfh1 after a long search1 which was so little profitable that it was on the eve of being abandoned1 a large body of copper ore was found2 and this has ever since been worked to great advantage1 still promising a vast supply4 ,the water lodged in the bottom of the bed of ore1 being strongly impregnated with the metal1 is drawn up and distributed in pits1 where the same process is employed as in the ,wicklow mine4 ,the copper thus procured differs little from native copper1 and is very highly prized4 ,in the ,parys mine1 eight tuns of gunpowder are annually expended in blasting the rock4 ,nature has here been profuse in bestowing her mineral favors2 for1 above the copper ore1 and not more than two feet beneath the soil1 is a bed of yellowish greasy clay1 from three to twelve feet in thickness1 containing lead ore1 from a tun of which metal1 upward of fifty ounces of silver are generally obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,copper ,,mine ,,in ,,cornwall4 ,the copper mines of ,cornwall1 a view of one of which is given in the cut1 are very numerous1 and several of them large and very rich in ore4 ,it is remarkable that in various parts of this country the earth has produced such an exuberance of this metal1 as to afford it in large massy lumps of malleable copper1 several pieces of which are shown in very curious vegetable forms4 ,the particular ore named mundic1 found in the tin mines1 was for many ages considered of no other use but to nourish that metal while in the mine4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 a laudable curiosity tempted several private individuals to examine into its nature2 but the design miscarried1 and the mundic was thrown1 as useless1 into the old pits in which the rubbish was collected4 ,however1 about a century ago1 this purpose was effected by degrees2 and the copper extracted from the ore now produces1 on an average1 upward of twelve thousand tuns1 valued at between four and five millions of dollars1 annually1 equaling in goodness the best ,swedish copper1 while the ore itself yields a proportionate quantity of lapis calaminaris1 for the making of brass4 ,at ,ecton hill1 near the river ,dove1 in ,derbyshire1 a valuable copper mine was discovered some years ago1 and has since been worked to great advantage4 ,in its position1 situation and inclination1 it differs from any mine yet discovered in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa or ,america2 the wonderful mass of copper ore not running in regular veins or courses1 but sinking perpendicularly down1 widening and swelling out at the bottom in the form of a bell4 ,the works are four hundred and fifty feet beneath the river ,dove1 it being the deepest mine in ,great ,britain4 ,on the opposite side of ,ecton hill is a valuable lead mine1 the veins of which approach very nearly to the copper mine4 ,copper is converted into brass by the agency of calamine1 an oxyd of zinc4 ,it occurs frequently in beds1 and in some places exists in great abundance4 ,the ,mendip hills1 in ,somersetshire1 were once celebrated for their mines of calamine1 which are now in a great measure exhausted4 ,it is dug out of the earth1 and being broken into small pieces1 is exposed to the action of a current of water1 which washes away the light earthy matter1 and leaves the calamine4 ,the whole is then thrown into deep wooden vessels filled with water1 and agitated for a considerable time4 ,the galena sinks to the bottom1 the calamine is deposited in the center1 and the earthy matter lies on the surface4 ,the calamine1 thus separated from its impurities1 is ground to powder1 and becomes fit for use4 ,hungary abounds in valuable ores and minerals1 and is most celebrated for its vast copper works1 at a town called ,herrengrund1 built on the summit of a mountain1 and exclusively inhabited by miners4 ,here the process1 noticed above1 of apparently converting iron into copper1 is pursued with great success1 several hundred weight of iron being thus transmuted every year4 ,the vitriol1 with which the blue water is strongly impregnated1 can not be strictly said to convert the iron into copper1 but insinuates into it the copper particles with which it is saturated2 and this seeming transmutation requires a fortnight or three weeks only3 but if the iron be suffered to lie too long in this vitriolic solution1 it becomes at length reduced to powder4 ,in ,japan1 copper is the most common of all the metals1 and is considered as the finest and most malleable anywhere to be found4 ,much of this copper is not only of the purest quality1 but is blended with a considerable proportion of gold1 which the ,japanese separate and refine4 ,the whole is brought to ,saccin1 one of the five principal cities of ,japan2 and it is there purified1 and cast into small cylinders1 about a span and a half in length1 and a finger's breadth in thickness4 ,brass is there very scarce1 and much dearer than copper1 the calamine employed in making it being imported from ,tonquin in flat cakes1 and sold at a very high price4 ,in addition to the copper mines thus described1 copper has1 within a few years1 been found in the richest abundance in the vicinity of ,lake ,superior4 ,the existence of copper there1 was1 indeed1 known as early as #afcf2 and the trace of these early discoveries was never entirely lost4 ,but the first scientific researches were made in #ahdb1 by ,dr4 ,douglas ,houghton1 who was acting as geological surveyor for the state of ,michigan4 ,according to his report1 native copper exists in two or three different deposits about ,lake ,superior1 where it is found in the richest abundance1 both in veins and in large masses in the native state4 ,dr4 ,jackson also states1 that he has seen one of these masses1 twenty feet long1 nine feet wide1 and from four to six inches in thickness1 and weighing about twenty tuns4 ,he adds1 that in a single year1 thirty-three men1 of whom only twenty were properly miners1 had taken out forty-three tuns of ore1 yielding thirty tuns of pure copper4 ,among the masses of copper obtained from these mines as early as #ahdh1 were four1 the weights of which1 respectively1 were seven thousand and eighteen1 seven thousand four hundred and eighty-four1 seven thousand six hundred and seventy-eight1 and fourteen thousand pounds4 ,since that date new openings have been made2 new mining companies formed1 and the products of the mines very greatly increased3 and it may yet be1 that these mines will prove some of the richest and most valuable of the world4 ,,tin ,,mines4 ,tin1 in its pure state1 has nearly the color and luster of silver4 ,in hardness1 it is midway between gold and lead4 ,it was known to the ancients1 who procured it from ,spain and ,britain1 and appears to have been in use in the time of ,moses4 ,it is rather a scarce metal1 being found in but few parts of the world in any considerable quantity4 ,cornwall is its most productive source2 it also occurs in the mountains between ,gallicia and ,portugal1 and in those between ,saxony and ,bohemia4 ,it has1 also1 been brought from ,malacca1 in ,india1 and from ,chili and ,mexico4 ,there are but two ores of tin2 one of which1 the native peroxyd1 is the chief source of all the supplies of this metal1 as the other ore1 which is the double sulphuret of tin and copper1 sometimes called bell-metal ore1 is extremely rare4 ,cornwall has been in all ages1 famous for its numerous mines of tin1 which are in general very large1 and rich in ore4 ,the tin-works are of different kinds1 dependent on the various forms in which the metal appears4 ,in many places its ore so nearly resembles common stones1 that it can only be distinguished from them by its superior weight4 ,in other parts1 the ore is a compound of tin and earth1 concreted into a substance almost as hard as stone1 of a bluish or grayish color1 and to which the mundic1 impregnated with copper1 frequently gives a yellowish cast4 ,this ore is always found in a continued stratum1 which the miners call lode2 and this1 for the greater part1 is found running through the solid substance of the hardest rocks1 beginning in small veins near the surface1 perhaps not above half an inch or an inch wide1 and increasing1 as they proceed1 into large dimensions1 branching out into several ramifications1 and bending downward in a direction which is1 generally1 nearly east and west4 ,these lodes1 or veins1 are sometimes white1 very wide1 and so thick1 that large lumps of the ore are frequently drawn up of more than twenty pounds' weight4 ,the lodes of tin ore are not always contiguous1 but sometimes break off so entirely1 that they seem to terminate2 but the sagacious miner knows by experience1 that1 by digging at a small distance on one side1 he will meet with a separated part of the lode1 apparently tallying with the other end1 as nicely as if it had been broken off by some sudden shock of the rock4 ,the miners of ,cornwall follow the lode1 or vein1 in all its rich and meandering curves through the bowels of the flinty earth4 ,the waters are sometimes drained from the mines1 by subterraneous passages1 formed from the body of the mountain to the level country4 ,these passages are called adits1 and are occasionally the labor of many years2 but when effected1 they save the constant expense of large water-works and fire-engines4 ,from the surface of the earth the workmen sink a passage to the mine1 which they call a shaft1 and place over it a large winch1 or1 in works of greater magnitude1 a wheel and axle1 by which means they draw up large quantities of ore at a time1 in vessels called kibbuls4 ,this ore is thrown into heaps1 which great numbers of poor people are employed in breaking to pieces1 and fitting the ore for the stamping-mills4 ,a third form in which tin appears is that of crystals2 for this metal will1 under proper circumstances1 readily crystallize4 ,hence1 in many parts of the mineral rocks1 are found the most perfectly transparent and beautiful crystals of pure tin4 ,beside these crystals1 in many of the cavernous parts of the rocks1 are found those transparent crystals1 called ,cornish diamonds1 they being extremely brilliant when well polished4 ,the form is that of a six-sided prism pointed on the top1 and they are sometimes four or five inches in length4 ,the value of the tin exported from ,great ,britain1 in #ahec1 the greater part of which came from the ,cornwall mines1 was nearly six million dollars4 ,,lead ,,mines4 ,lead is one of the metals most anciently known1 being mentioned in the books of ,moses4 ,it is found in some thirteen species of ore1 only one of which 7galena7 occurs in masses sufficiently large to make it valuable as an object of mining and metallurgy4 ,the uses of lead are so familiar that they need not be mentioned3 they are known to all4 ,among the most remarkable lead mines of the world1 may be mentioned those of the state of ,illinois1 including also parts of ,iowa and ,wisconsin1 which have been1 and still are immensely productive1 extending over thousands of acres1 and furnishing the mineral in the richest abundance4 ,these mines were formerly known as the mines of 8,upper ,louisiana40 ,they are now chiefly worked in the vicinity of ,galena1 a city which has sprung up1 and is almost entirely supported by the trade in lead4 ,so vast is the production of these mines1 that forty million pounds of lead1 valued at sixteen hundred thousand dollars1 were shipped from ,galena alone1 in #ahec4 ,the mineral in one of the earliest opened mines1 is said to be of two kinds1 the gravel and fossil4 ,the gravel mineral is found immediately under the soil1 intermixed with gravel1 in pieces of solid mineral weighing from one to fifty pounds4 ,beneath the gravel is a sand rock1 which being broken1 crumbles to a fine sand1 and contains mineral nearly of the same quality as that of the gravel4 ,but the mineral of the first quality is found in a bed of red clay1 under the sand rock1 in pieces of from ten to five hundred pounds' weight1 on the outside of which is a spar1 or fossil1 of a bright1 glittering appearance1 resembling spangles of gold and silver1 as solid as the mineral itself1 and of a greater specific gravity4 ,this being taken off1 the mineral is solid1 unconnected with any other substance1 of a broad grain1 and what mineralogists call potters' ore4 ,in other mines1 in the vicinity of the above1 the lead is found in regular veins1 from two to four feet in thickness1 containing about fifty ounces of silver in a tun4 ,in ,great ,britain1 there are numerous and exceedingly valuable lead mines1 among which may be cited that of ,arkingdale1 in ,yorkshire1 and those with which ,shropshire abounds4 ,in the south of ,lanarkshire1 and in the vicinity of ,wanlock-head1 ,scotland1 are two celebrated lead mines1 which yield annually above two thousand tuns of metal4 ,the ,susannah-vein lead-hills1 have been worked for many years1 and have been productive of great wealth4 ,the above are considered as the richest lead mines of ,europe4 ,several of the ,irish lead mines have yielded a considerable proportion of silver2 and mention is made of one1 in the county of ,antrim1 which afforded1 in thirty pounds of lead1 a pound of that metal4 ,another1 less productive of silver1 was found at ,ballysadare1 near the harbor of ,sligo1 in ,connaught2 and a third in the county of ,tipperary1 thirty miles from ,limerick4 ,the ores of this last were of two kinds1 most usually of a reddish color1 hard and glittering2 the other1 which was the richest in silver1 resembled a blue marl4 ,the works were destroyed in the ,irish insurrections in the reign of ,charles ,i4 ,the mine1 however1 is still wrought on account of the lead it contains4 ,,coal ,,mines4 ,coal is one of the most valuable of all mineral treasures1 and one that is of the highest service in making the others available to the use and comfort of man4 ,and hence it has been searched after with unremitting diligence1 and worked with all the lights of science and the resources of art4 ,it is found in beds or strata1 in that group of the secondary rocks which includes the red sandstone and mountain limestone formations1 commonly called the carboniferous group1 or the coal measures4 ,from the peculiarities of their position1 they are often spoken of as coal-basins1 and coal-fields4 ,there are two or three points of some theoretical interest and importance as to the origin of coal1 on which geological authorities are nearly unanimous4 ,one is1 that our present coal is exclusively of vegetable origin1 formed apparently from the destruction of vast forests and immense quantities of leaves and shrubs2 another1 that it was formed when the climate of the regions where it is found was not merely tropical1 but ultra-tropical1 instead of being as now1 temperate2 and a third1 that its deposits1 though originally regular1 have evidently been since elevated1 and often singularly dislocated and contorted by forces acting from below1 and probably of a volcanic nature4 ,each of these points will more or less appear in the progress of the following remarks4 ,that the coal formations are of vegetable origin1 is perfectly evident from even a slight examination1 especially with the microscope4 ,let a piece of coal be cut in very thin slices1 or plates1 and its appearance will be like that seen in the following cut4 ,the vegetable fossils thus shown are1 indeed1 very different from any existing species1 unless it be a few which are the productions only of torrid climates4 ,and while the cut gives the appearance of but a single leaf in each specimen1 the masses of coal are generally more like one thick imbedded mass of leaves1 not so much crushed together1 as overlaying and mixed with each other4 ,according to ,dr4 ,linley1 the coal vegetation consisted of ferns1 in great abundance2 of large coniferous trees1 of a species resembling lycopodiac1 but of most gigantic dimensions2 of a numerous tribe apparently analogous to cact1 but probably not identical with them2 of palm1 and other monocotyledones2 and finally1 of numerous vines1 plants1 c41 the exact nature of which is uncertain4 ,where leaves most abound1 the coal is said to be of the best quality2 though as any one kind of coal hardens1 the impressions of such leaves become gradually less distinct1 until finally they can hardly be traced1 even with a powerful magnifier4 ,a hundred and twenty varieties of these vegetable impressions have been found in the vicinity of ,pottsville1 in the course of a few months1 each as distinctly marked as the most delicate tracings of an artist's pencil2 and in almost any coal formation1 there are so many hundreds of different plants1 trees1 and flowers1 that a single representative of each kind would form a vast museum4 ,specimens which exhibit impressions of the bark1 limbs1 or trunks of trees1 are1 of course1 correspondingly large and heavy1 and could not easily be sketched in a small engraving1 while the variety of leaves and flowers is so great1 that it would be tedious to mention and describe them4 ,illustration3 ,,thin ,,plates ,,of ,,coal4 ,with these few remarks1 we proceed to notice first1 some of the coal mines of ,great ,britain1 and then some of our own country4 ,perhaps there is no country where coal mines are so rich1 so frequent1 and so successfully worked thus far1 as those of ,great ,britain2 and it is to this cause that the opulence of that country has often been chiefly ascribed4 ,it is1 in truth1 the coal of her mines1 that is the very life of her manufactures1 and consequently of her commerce1 every manufacturing town being established in the midst of a coal country4 ,of this striking instances are afforded by ,bristol1 ,birmingham1 ,wolverhampton1 ,sheffield1 ,newcastle1 and ,glasgow4 ,the coals of ,whitehaven and ,wigan are esteemed the purest2 and the cannel and peacock coals of ,lancashire are so beautiful1 that they are suspected by some to have constituted the gagates1 or jet1 which the ancients ascribed to ,great ,britain4 ,in ,somersetshire1 the ,mendip coal mines are distinguished by their productiveness3 they occur there1 as indeed in every other part1 in the low country1 and are not to be found in the hills4 ,the beds of coal are not horizontal1 but sloping1 dipping to the south-east at the rate of about twenty-two inches per fathom4 ,hence they would speedily sink so deep that it would not be possible to work them1 were it not that they are intersected at intervals by perpendicular dikes or veins1 of a different kind of mineral1 on the other side of which these beds are found considerably raised up4 ,they are seven in number1 lying at regular distances beneath each other1 and separated by beds of a different kind of substance1 the deepest being placed more than two hundred feet beneath the surface of the earth4 ,the town of ,newcastle1 in ,northumberland1 has been celebrated during several centuries for its very extensive trade in coal4 ,it was first made a borough by ,william the ,conqueror1 and the earliest charter for digging coals1 granted to the inhabitants1 was in the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 in #abci2 but in #acjf1 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in ,london1 by royal proclamation1 chiefly because it injured the sale of wood1 with which the environs of the capital were then overspread4 ,this interdict did not1 however1 continue long in force2 and coals may be considered as having been dug for exportation at ,newcastle for more than four centuries4 ,it has been estimated that there are twenty-four considerable collieries lying at different distances from the river1 from five to eighteen miles2 and that they produced1 for an average of six years1 up to the close of #aggf1 an annual consumption of three hundred and eighty thousand chaldrons1 ,newcastle measure1 7equal to seven hundred and seventeen thousand1 six hundred and fifteen chaldrons1 ,london measure17 of which about thirty thousand chaldrons were exported to foreign parts4 ,the boats employed in the colliery are called keels1 and are described as strong1 clumsy1 and oval1 each carrying about twenty tuns2 and of these four hundred and fifty are kept constantly employed4 ,in the year #aggf an estimate was made of the shipping employed in the ,newcastle coal trade2 and from this estimate it appears1 that three thousand1 five hundred and eighty-five ships1 were during that year engaged in the coasting trade1 and three hundred and sixty-three in the trade to foreign ports1 their joint tunnage amounting to seven hundred and thirty-eight thousand1 two hundred and fourteen tuns4 ,as already said1 it is a common opinion among geologists1 that coal is of vegetable origin1 and that it has been brought to its present state by the means of some chemical process1 not at this time understood4 ,this opinion is abundantly supported by the existence of vast depositions of matter1 halfway1 as it were1 between perfect wood and perfect coal2 which1 while it obviously betrays its vegetable nature1 has in several respects so near an approximation to coal1 as to have been generally distinguished by the name of coal4 ,one of the most remarkable of these depositions exists in ,devonshire1 about thirteen miles south-west of ,exeter1 and is well known under the name of ,bovey coal4 ,its vegetable nature has been ascertained by ,mr4 ,hatchet1 in a set of experiments in which he found both extractive matter and resin1 substances which belong to the vegetable kingdom4 ,the beds of this coal are seventy feet in thickness1 and are interspersed with beds of clay4 ,on the north side they lie within a foot of the surface1 and dip south at the rate of about twenty inches per fathom4 ,the deepest beds are the blackest and heaviest1 and have the closest resemblance to coal1 while the upper ones strongly resemble wood1 and are considered as such by those who dig them4 ,they are brown1 and become extremely friable when dry1 burning with a flame similar to that of wood1 and assuming the appearance of wood which has been rendered soft by some unknown cause1 and1 while in that state1 has been crushed flat by the weight of the incumbent earth4 ,this is the case1 not only with the ,bovey coal1 but also with all the beds of wood-coal which have been hitherto examined in different parts of ,europe4#e ,footnote #e3 ,we are informed by ,liebig and other eminent chemists1 that when wood and other vegetable matter are buried in the earth1 exposed to moisture1 and partially or entirely excluded from the air1 they decompose slowly1 and evolve carbonic acid gas2 thus parting with a portion of their original oxygen4 ,by this means they are gradually converted into lignite1 or wood-coal1 which contains a larger proportion of hydrogen than wood does4 ,a continuance of decomposition changes this lignite into common or bituminous coal1 chiefly by the discharge of carbureted hydrogen1 or the gas by which we illuminate our streets and houses4 ,according to ,birchoff1 the inflammable gases which are always escaping from mineral coal1 and are so often the cause of fatal accidents in mines1 always contain carbonic acid1 carbureted hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and olefiant gas4 ,the disengagement of all these gradually transforms ordinary or bituminous coal into anthracite1 to which the various names of splint-coal1 glance-coal1 culm1 and many others1 have been given4 ,the coal mines of ,whitehaven may be considered as among the most extraordinary in the known world4 ,they are excavations which have1 in their structure1 a considerable resemblance to the gypsum quarries of ,paris1 and are of such magnitude and extent1 that in one of them alone1 a sum exceeding half a million sterling1 was1 in the course of a century1 expended by the proprietors4 ,their principal entrance is by an opening at the bottom of a hill1 through a long passage hewn in the rock1 leading to the lowest vein of coal4 ,the greater part of this descent is through spacious galleries1 which continually intersect other galleries1 all the coal being cut away1 with the exception of large pillars1 which1 where the mine runs to a considerable depth1 are nine feet in hight1 and about thirty-six feet square at the base4 ,such is the strength there required to support the ponderous roof4 ,the mines are sunk to the depth of one hundred and thirty fathoms1 and are extended under the sea to places where there is1 above them1 sufficient depth of water for ships of large burden4 ,these are the deepest coal mines which have hitherto been wrought2 and perhaps the miners have not1 in any other part of the globe1 penetrated to so great a depth beneath the surface of the sea1 the very deep mines in ,hungary1 ,peru and elsewhere1 being situated in mountainous countries1 where the surface of the earth is elevated to a great hight above the level of the ocean4 ,in these mines there are three strata of coal1 which lie at a considerable distance one above the other1 and are made to communicate by pits2 but the vein is not always continued in the same regularly inclined plane1 the miners frequently meeting with hard rock1 by which their further progress is interrupted4 ,at such places there seem to have been breaks in the earth1 from the surface downward1 one portion appearing to have sunk down1 while the adjoining part has preserved its ancient situation4 ,in some of these places the earth has sunk ten1 twenty fathoms1 and even more2 while in others the depression has been less than one fathom4 ,these breaks the miners call dikes1 and when they reach one of them1 their first care is to discover whether the strata in the adjoining part are higher or lower than in the part where they have been working2 or1 according to their own phrase1 whether the coal be cast down or cast up4 ,in the former case they sink a pit2 but if it be cast up to any considerable hight1 they are frequently obliged1 with great labor and expense1 to carry forward a level1 or long gallery1 through the rock1 until they again reach the stratum of coal4 ,coal1 the chief mineral of ,scotland1 has been there worked for a succession of ages4 ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 in his description of ,europe1 written about #adej1 mentions that he beheld with wonder black stones given as alms to the poor of ,scotland4 ,this mineral may1 however1 be traced to the twelfth century2 and a very early account of the ,scottish coal mines1 explains with great precision1 the manner of working the coal1 not neglecting to mention the subterraneous walls of whin which intersect the strata1 particularly a remarkable one1 visible from the river ,tyne1 where it forms a cataract1 and passes by ,prestonpans1 to the shore of ,fife4 ,the ,lothians and ,fifeshire1 particularly abound with this useful mineral1 which also extends into ,ayrshire2 and near ,irwin is found a curious variety1 named ribbon-coal4 ,a singular coal1 in veins of mineral1 has been found at ,castle ,leod1 in the east of ,ross-shire2 and it is conjectured that the largest untouched field of coal in ,europe1 exists in a barren tract of country in ,lanarkshire4 ,the process of mining coal is a combination of boring and digging4 ,shafts are sunk1 levels are driven1 and drains are carried off1 by the help of picks or pickaxes1 wedges and hammers1 the rocks being also sometimes loosened by blasting with gunpowder4 ,in searching for coal1 a shaft is sunk through the uppermost soft stratum1 and the rock is then bored1 by striking it continually with an iron borer terminating in an edge of steel1 which is in the mean time turned partly round2 and1 at proper intervals1 a scoop is let down to draw up the loose fragments4 ,in this manner a perforation is sometimes made for more than an hundred fathoms1 the borer being lengthened by pieces screwed on2 it is then partly supported by a counterpoise1 and worked by machinery4 ,should it happen to break1 the piece is raised by a rod furnished with a hollow cone1 as an extinguisher1 which is driven down on it4 ,the borer is sometimes furnished with knives1 which are made to act on any part at pleasure1 and to scrape off a portion of the surrounding substance1 which is collected in a proper receptacle4 ,those who have the direction of deep and extensive coal mines1 are obliged1 with great art and care1 to keep them ventilated with perpetual currents of fresh air1 which afford the miners a constant supply of that vital fluid1 and expel from the mines damps and other noxious exhalations1 together with such other burnt and foul air1 as has become deleterious and unfit for respiration4 ,in the deserted mines1 which are not thus ventilated with currents of fresh air1 large quantities of these damps are frequently collected2 and in such works they often remain for a long time without doing any mischief4 ,but when1 by some accident1 they are set on fire1 they then produce dreadful explosions1 and1 bursting out of the pits with great impetuosity1 like the fiery eruptions from burning mountains1 force along with them ponderous bodies to a great hight in the air4 ,various instances have occurred in which the coal has been set on fire by the fulminating damp1 and has continued burning for several months1 until large streams of water were conducted into the mine1 so as to inundate the parts where the conflagration existed4 ,by such fires several collieries have been entirely destroyed1 in the vicinity of ,newcastle1 and in other parts of ,england1 as well as in ,fifeshire1 in ,scotland4 ,in some of these places the fire has continued to burn for ages4 ,to prevent1 therefore1 as much as possible1 the collieries from being filled with these pernicious damps1 it has been found necessary carefully to search for the crevices in the coal whence they issue1 and1 at those places1 to confine them within a narrow space1 conducting them through large pipes into the open air1 where1 being set on fire1 they consume in perpetual flame as they continually arise out of the earth4 ,mr4 ,spelling1 an engineer of the ,whitehaven coal mines1 having observed that the fulminating damp could only be kindled by flame1 and that it was not liable to be set on fire by red-hot iron1 nor by the sparks produced by the collision of flint and steel1 invented a machine called a steel-mill1 in which a wheel of that metal is turned round with a very rapid motion1 and1 by the application of flints1 great plenty of sparks are emitted1 which afford the miners such a light as enables them to carry on their work in close places1 where the flame of a candle1 or a lamp1 would1 as has already happened in various instances1 occasion violent explosions4 ,in that dreadful catastrophe1 the explosion of the ,felling colliery1 the particulars of which will be hereafter detailed1 it will be seen that mills of this description were employed1 in searching for the remains of the victims of the sad disaster2 but this event happened before the invention of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy's safety-lamp1 a discovery which1 while it affords a more certain light1 holds out every security to the miner against accidents which1 without such a resource1 might still be superadded to those already recorded1 as arising from the flame of a candle or lamp4 ,a greater number of mines have1 however1 been ruined by inundations than by fires2 and here that noble invention1 the fire-engine1 displays its beneficial effects4 ,it appears from nice calculations1 that it would require about five hundred and fifty men1 or a power equal to that of one hundred and ten horses1 to work the pumps of one of the largest fire-engines1 having a cylinder seventy inches in diameter1 now in use1 and thrice that number of men to keep an engine of that size constantly at work4 ,it also appears that as much water may be raised by such an engine1 as can be drawn1 within the same space of time1 by twenty-five hundred and twenty men with rollers and buckets1 after the manner long practiced in many mines2 or as much as can be borne on the shoulders of twice that number of men1 as is said to be done in several of the mines of ,peru4 ,so great is the power of the elastic steam of the boiling water in those engines1 and of the outward atmosphere1 which1 by their alternate actions give force and motion to the beam1 and through it to the pump rods which elevate the water through tubes1 and discharge it from the mine6 ,years since there were four fire-engines belonging to the ,whitehaven colliery1 which when all at work1 discharged from it about twelve hundred and twenty-eight gallons of water every minute1 at thirteen strokes2 and at the same rate1 one million1 seven hundred and sixty-eight thousand1 three hundred and twenty gallons1 upward of seven thousand tuns1 every twenty-four hours4 ,by these engines nearly twice the above-mentioned quantity of water might be discharged from mines not more than sixty or seventy fathoms deep1 which depth is rarely exceeded in the ,newcastle collieries1 or in any other ,english collieries1 with the exception of the above4 ,coal pits have sometimes taken fire by accident1 and have continued to burn for a considerable length of time4 ,about the year #afdh1 a coal mine at ,benwell1 a village near ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 was accidentally kindled by a candle3 at first the fire was so feeble1 that a reward of half a crown1 which was asked by a person who offered to extinguish it1 was refused4 ,it gradually increased1 however1 and had continued burning for thirty years1 when the account was drawn up and published in the ,philosophical ,transactions3 it was not finally extinguished until all the fuel was consumed4 ,examples of a similar kind have happened in ,scotland and in ,germany4 ,but of all the recorded accidents relative to coal mines1 that of ,felling colliery1 near ,sunderland1 a concise narrative of which here follows1 was the most disastrous4 ,felling is a manor about a mile and a half east of ,gateshead4 ,it contains several strata of coal1 the uppermost of which were extensively wrought in the beginning of the last century4 ,the stratum called the high-main1 was begun in #aggi1 and continued to be wrought till the nineteenth of ,january1 #ahaa1 when it was entirely excavated4 ,the present colliery was in the seam called the low-main4 ,it commenced in ,october1 #ahaj1 and was at full work in ,may1 #ahab4 ,this mine was considered by the workmen as a model of perfection in the purity of its air1 and orderly arrangements2 its inclined plane was saving the daily expense of at least thirteen horses2 the concern wore the features of the greatest possible prosperity1 and no accident1 except a trifling explosion of fire-damp1 slightly burning two or three workmen1 had occurred4 ,two shifts1 or sets of men1 were constantly employed1 except on ,sundays4 ,twenty-five acres of coal had been excavated4 ,the first shift entered the mine at four o'clock1 ,a4 ,m41 and were relieved at their working-posts by the next at eleven o'clock in the morning4 ,the establishment employed under ground1 consisted of about one hundred and twenty-eight persons1 who1 from the eleventh to the twenty-fifth of ,may1 #ahab1 wrought six hundred and twenty-four scores of coal1 equal to thirteen hundred ,newcastle1 or twenty-four hundred and fifty-five ,london chaldrons4 ,about half past eleven o'clock1 on the morning of the twenty-fifth of ,may1 #ahab1 the neighboring villages were alarmed by a tremendous explosion in this colliery4 ,the subterraneous fire broke forth with two heavy discharges from the low-main1 which were almost instantaneously followed by one from the high-main4 ,a slight trembling1 as from an earthquake1 was felt for about half a mile around the workings2 and the noise of the explosion1 though dull1 was heard to three or four miles' distance1 and much resembled an unsteady fire of infantry4 ,immense quantities of dust and small coal accompanied these blasts1 and rose high into the air1 in the form of an inverted cone4 ,the heaviest part of the ejected matter1 such as corves1 pieces of wood1 and small coal1 fell near the pits2 but the dust1 borne away by a strong west wind1 fell in a continued shower from the pit to the distance of a mile and a half4 ,as soon as the explosion was heard1 the wives and children of the workmen ran to the pit2 the scene was distressing beyond the power of description4 ,of one hundred and twenty-eight persons in the mine at the time of the explosion1 only thirty-two were brought to daylight3 twenty-nine survived the fatal combustion2 the rest were destroyed4 ,nor from the time of the explosion till the eighth of ,july1 could any person descend4 ,but after many unsuccessful attempts to explore the burning mine1 it was reclosed1 to prevent the atmospheric air from entering it3 this being done1 no attempt was afterward made to explore it1 till the morning of the last-mentioned day2 from which time to the nineteenth of ,september1 the heart-rending scene of mothers and widows examining the putrid bodies of their sons and husbands1 for marks by which to identify them1 was almost daily renewed2 but very few of them were known by any personal mark2 they were too much mangled and scorched to retain any of their features4 ,their clothes1 tobacco-boxes1 shoes1 c41 were1 therefore1 the only indexes by which they could be recognized4 ,at the crane twenty-one bodies lay in ghastly confusion3 some like mummies1 scorched as dry as if they were baked4 ,one wanted its head1 another an arm4 ,the scene was truly frightful4 ,the power of fire was visible upon them all2 but its effects were extremely variable3 while some were almost torn to pieces1 there were others who appeared as if they had sunk down overpowered with sleep4 ,the ventilation concluded on ,saturday the nineteenth of ,september1 when the ninety-first body was dug from under a heap of stones4 ,at six o'clock in the morning the pit was visited by candle-light1 which had not been used in it for the space of one hundred and seventeen days2 and at eleven o'clock in the morning the tube furnace was lighted4 ,from this time the colliery has been regularly at work2 but the ninety-second body has never yet been found4 ,all these persons1 except four1 who were buried in single graves1 were interred in ,heworth chapel-yard1 in a trench1 side by side1 two coffins deep1 with a partition of brick and lime between every four coffins4 ,having thus glanced at some of the coal mines of ,great ,britain1 we now pass to some of those of the ,united ,states4 ,in these coal is found in four different forms3 first1 the genuine anthracite1 or glance coal1 as near ,worcester1 ,mass41 and ,newport1 ,r4 ,i42 second1 coal destitute of bitumen1 commonly called anthracite1 but which is more properly anasphaltic1 which is found at ,pottsville1 ,mauch ,chunk1 ,lackawanna1 ,wilkesbarre1 c42 third1 bituminous coal1 usually found in the slate rock1 as at ,tioga1 ,lycoming1 etc42 and fourth1 the lignite coal1 found along the south shore of the bay of ,south ,amboy1 ,new ,jersey4 ,from the state of ,alabama to ,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia1 the coal beds can be followed in a north-east direction1 for fifteen hundred miles2 and from ,richmond1 in ,virginia1 to ,rock ,river1 in ,illinois1 they are continually crossed at right angles1 for about eight hundred miles4 ,at ,richmond1 the coal is bituminous2 on the ,alleghany belt1 it is anthracite4 ,geologists think that the anthracite was lifted out of its horizontal position when the great ,alleghany belt was upheaved1 and that its non-bituminous quality is owing to the influence of the intense heat that accompanied its upheaval4 ,taylor1 in his book on coal1 estimates the area of bituminous coal in the ,united ,states1 east of the ,mississippi river1 at one hundred and twenty-four thousand1 seven hundred and thirty-five square miles1 and west of the ,mississippi1 at eight thousand1 three hundred and ninety-seven square miles2 ,british ,north ,america1 eighteen thousand square miles bituminous4 ,more than one-third of the area of ,pennsylvania1 is more or less marked by coal formations2 one-third of ,kentucky1 ,ohio and ,virginia1 one-fifth of ,indiana1 and three-fourths of ,illinois1 are occupied by carboniferous strata4 ,western ,pennsylvania abounds in bituminous coal1 and it is found also in several counties of ,new ,york4 ,by the census of #ahci-dj1 we find that the quantity of bituminous coal produced that year in the ,united ,states1 was twenty-seven million1 six hundred and three thousand1 one hundred and ninety-one bushels1 employing about four thousand men1 and a capital of some two million dollars2 and that about four million dollars of capital were invested in raising anthracite coal1 of which some nine hundred thousand tuns 7of about twenty-eight bushels each7 were produced by the labors of about three thousand men4 ,most of this was from ,pennsylvania4 ,in #ahai1 the anthracite coal trade had no existence2 in #ahbj1 this kind of coal was first used as fuel1 and just three hundred and sixty-five tuns were sent to market2 in #ahde1 the amount was two million tuns2 in #ahej1 about three million1 five hundred thousand tuns1 and the present year 7#ahed7 the amount will probably be between six and seven million tuns4 ,the demand and supply so steadily and rapidly increase that it is impossible to estimate the vast extent the business of coal mining is yet to attain4 ,glancing for a moment at other countries1 we find that ,belgium1 in #ahde1 had two hundred and twelve mines1 employing thirty-eight thousand miners and five hundred steam-engines1 and producing five million tuns2 ,france1 four hundred and forty-nine mines1 employing thirty thousand miners1 and producing five million tuns2 ,prussia1 in #ahdj1 seven hundred and fifty-two mines1 employing twenty-four thousand miners1 and raising three million1 five hundred thousand tuns2 and that ,great ,britain1 in #ahdf1 produced thirty-five million tuns1 valued at forty-five million dollars at the mines4 ,austria and ,spain1 also1 have excellent mines1 though less productive4 ,and as a late and interesting discovery1 it may be added1 that the recent ,arctic expedition sent out from ,england1 found coal in those northern regions1 on the island of ,disco1 outcropping near the shore4 ,they also1 in another locality not far off1 discovered some curious specimens of petrified trees1 and near them extensive quarries of anthracite coal1 of good quality4 ,there appeared to be no limit to the quantity that might be thrown into a boat with ease1 and in the space of three hours they conveyed not less than twelve tuns to the steamer1 three-quarters of a mile distant4 ,it proved1 on trial1 to be of good quality1 the combustion was perfect1 and the coal as economical as the ,welsh4 ,we will conclude the subject of coal mines1 with the statement of a recent tourist1 as to some of the wonders of the ,cornish mines in ,england1 as he saw them in #ahed4 ,he says3 8,some of the mines are truly grand undertakings4 ,the #8consolidated mines1' the largest of the ,cornish group1 employ upward of three thousand persons4 ,one of the engines pumps water from a direct depth of sixteen hundred feet1 the weight of the pumping apparatus alone being upward of five hundred tuns2 the pumping-rod is one thousand1 seven hundred and forty feet long1 and it raises about two million gallons of water in a week1 from a depth equal to five times the hight of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,these are1 indeed1 wonders to marvel at6 ,the consolidated and united mines1 both belonging to one company1 are stated to have used the following vast quantities of materials in a year3 coals1 fifteen thousand1 two hundred and seventy tuns2 candles1 one hundred and thirty-two thousand1 one hundred and forty-four pounds2 gunpowder1 eighty-two thousand pounds2 leather1 for straps1 c41 thirteen thousand1 four hundred and ninety-three pounds2 pick and shovel handles1 sixteen thousand1 six hundred and ninety-eight dozens4 ,sir ,charles ,lemon has estimated1 that in the whole of the ,cornish mines1 thirteen thousand pounds' worth of gunpowder is used annually2 that the timber employed in the underground works1 equals the growth of one hundred and forty square miles of ,norwegian forest2 and that thirty-seven million tuns of water are raised annually from the mines40 ,,salt ,,mines4 ,hence with diffusive salt old ,ocean steeps1 ,his emerald shallows1 and his sapphire deeps4 ,oft in wide lakes1 around their warmer brim1 ,in hollow pyramids the crystals swim2 ,or1 fused by earth-born fires1 in cubic blocks ,shoot their wide forms1 and harden into rocks4--,,darwin4 ,culinary salt1 or1 as it is termed in chemistry1 muriate of soda1 exists abundantly in a native state1 both in a solid form1 and dissolved in water4 ,it occurs1 in solution1 not only throughout the wide range of the ocean1 but in various springs1 rivers and lakes2 and is known1 in its solid form1 as a peculiar mineral1 under the names of rock-salt1 fossil salt1 and salt-gem4 ,its beds are mostly beneath the surface of the ground1 but sometimes rise into hills of considerable elevation4 ,at ,cordova1 in ,spain1 a hill1 between four and five hundred feet in hight1 is nearly composed of this mineral4 ,but the most celebrated salt mines are those of ,wielicza1 in ,gallicia1 commonly called the salt mines of ,cracow1 those of ,tyrol1 of ,castile1 7in ,spain17 and of ,cheshire1 in ,england4 ,in the province of ,lahore1 in ,hindoostan1 is a hill of rock-salt1 of equal magnitude with that near ,cordova4 ,the mines of ,iletski1 in ,russia1 yield vast quantities of this substance4 ,it is so plentiful in the desert of ,caramania1 and the air so dry1 that it is there used as a material for building4 ,it forms the surface of a large part of the northern desert of ,lybia2 and is found in great abundance in the mountains of ,peru4 ,it has a pure saline taste1 without any mixture of bitterness2 and crystallizes in cubes when obtained by slow evaporation from its solution4 ,in ,germany the mines of this kind are numerous3 one of the largest is that of ,hallein1 near ,saltzburg1 in which the salt is hewn out from subterraneous caverns of a considerable range1 and exhibits almost every diversity of color1 as yellow1 red1 blue and white2 in consequence of which it is dissolved in water1 to be liberated from its impurities1 and afterward recrystallized4 ,the salt mines of ,cracow1 and those of ,cheshire1 merit a particular description4 ,,salt ,,mines ,,of ,,cracow4 ,thus1 cavern'd round1 in ,cracow's mighty mines1 ,with crystal walls a gorgeous city shines2 ,scoop'd in the briny rock long streets extend ,their hoary course1 and glittering domes ascend3 ,down their bright steeps1 emerging into day1 ,impetuous fountains burst their headlong way1 ,o'er milk-white vales in ivory channels spread1 ,and wondering seek their subterraneous bed4 ,form'd in pellucid salt1 with chisel nice1 ,the pale lamp glittering through the sculptur'd ice1 ,with wild reverted eyes fair ,lotta stands1 ,and spreads to heaven1 in vain1 her glassy hands2 ,cold dews condense upon her pearly breast1 ,and the big tear rolls lucid down her vest4 ,far gleaming o'er the town1 transparent fanes ,rear their white towers1 and wave their golden vanes3 ,long lines of lusters pour their trembling rays1 ,and the bright vault resounds with mingled blaze4--,,darwin4 ,these celebrated excavations are about five miles distant from the city of ,cracow1 in a small town named ,wielicza1 which is entirely undermined1 the cavities reaching to a considerable extent beyond its limits4 ,the length of the great mine1 a view of which is seen on the next page1 from east to west1 is six thousand feet2 its breadth1 from north to south1 two thousand2 and its greatest depth eight hundred2 but the veins of salt are not limited to this extent1 the depth and length of them1 from east to west1 being yet unknown1 and their breadth only1 hitherto determined4 ,there are at present ten shafts2 and not a single spring has been discovered throughout the extent of the mine4 ,in descending to the bottom1 the visitor is surprised to find a kind of subterraneous commonwealth1 consisting of many families1 who have their peculiar laws and polity4 ,here are likewise public roads and carriages1 horses being employed to draw the salt to the mouths of the mine1 where it is taken up by engines4 ,these horses1 when once arrived at their destination1 never more see the light of the sun2 and many of the people seem buried alive in this strange abyss1 having been born there1 and never stirring out2 while others are not denied frequent opportunities of breathing the fresh air in the fields1 and enjoying the surrounding prospects4 ,the subterraneous passages1 or galleries1 are very spacious1 and in many of them chapels are hewn out of the rock-salt4 ,in these passages crucifixes are set up1 together with the images of saints1 before which a light is kept constantly burning4 ,the places where the salt is hewn out1 and the empty cavities whence it has been removed1 are called chambers1 in several of which1 where the water has stagnated1 the bottoms and sides are covered with very thick incrustations of thousands of salt crystals1 lying one on the other1 and many of them weighing half a pound and upward4 ,when candles are placed before them1 the numerous rays of light reflected by these crystals emit a surprising luster4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,salt ,,mine ,,of ,,cracow4 ,in several parts of the mine1 huge columns of salt are left standing1 to support the rock2 and these are very fancifully ornamented4 ,but the most curious object in the inhabited part1 or subterraneous town1 is a statue which is considered by the immured inhabitants as the actual transmutation of ,lot's wife into a pillar of salt2 and in proportion as this statue appears either dry or moist1 the state of the weather above ground is inferred4 ,the windings in this mine are so numerous and intricate1 that the workmen have frequently lost their way2 and several1 whose lights have been extinguished1 have thus perished4 ,the number of miners to whom it gives employment1 is computed at between four and five hundred2 but the whole amount of the men employed in it is about seven hundred4 ,the salt lies near the surface1 in large1 shapeless masses1 from which blocks of sixty1 eighty1 or a hundred feet square1 may be hewn2 but at a considerable depth it is found in smaller lumps4 ,about six hundred thousand quintals of salt are dug annually out of the mines of ,cracow4 ,the worst and cheapest is called green salt1 from its greenish color1 occasioned by a heterogenous mixture of a grayish mineral1 or clay1 and entirely consists of salt crystals of different dimensions4 ,a finer sort is dug out in large blocks2 and the third kind is the sal gemm1 or crystal salt1 which is found in small pieces interspersed in the rock1 and1 when detached from it1 breaks into cubes of rectangular prisms4 ,this is usually sold unprepared4 ,the color of the salt stone is a dark gray mixed with yellow4 ,,salt ,,mines ,,and ,,springs ,,of ,,cheshire1 ,,england4 ,the ,cheshire rock-salt1 with very few exceptions1 has hitherto been ascertained to exist only in the valleys bordering on the river ,weaver and its tributary streams2 in some places manifesting its presence by springs impregnated with salt1 and in others being known by mines actually carried down into the substance of the salt strata4 ,between the source of the ,weaver and ,nantwich1 many brine springs make their appearance2 and occur again at several places1 in proceeding down the stream4 ,at ,moulton1 a mine has been sunk into the body of rock-salt1 and a similar mine is wrought near ,middlewich4 ,at ,northwich1 brine springs are very abundant2 and there also many mines have been sunk for the purpose of working out the fossil salt4 ,in that vicinity a body of rock-salt has been met with in searching for coal4 ,the brines in this district are formed by the penetration of spring or rain waters to the upper surface of the rock-salt1 in passing over which they acquire such a degree of strength1 that one hundred parts have yielded twenty-seven of pure salt1 thus nearly approaching to the perfect saturation of brine4 ,their strength is therefore much greater than that of the salt springs met with in ,hungary1 ,germany and ,france4 ,the brine having been pumped out of the pits1 is first conveyed into large reservoirs1 and afterward drawn off as it is needed1 into pans made of wrought iron4 ,here heat is applied in a degree determined by the nature of the salt to be manufactured1 and various additions are made to the brine1 with a view either to assist the crystallization of the salt1 or to promote the separation of the earthy particles1 which exist in a very small proportion4 ,the importance of the manufacture of ,cheshire salt will be sufficiently obvious from the statement1 that1 besides the salt made for home consumption1 the annual amount of which has exceeded sixteen thousand tuns1 the average of the quantity sent yearly to ,liverpool for exportation1 has not been less than one hundred and forty thousand tuns4 ,the mine of rock-salt first worked was discovered by accident at ,marbury1 near ,northwich about a century and a half ago2 and this bed had been wrought for more than a century1 when1 in the same neighborhood1 a second and inferior stratum was fallen in with1 separated from the former by a bed of indurated clay4 ,this lower stratum was ascertained to possess a very great degree of purity1 and freedom from earthy admixture2 on which account1 and from the local advantages of ,northwich for exportation1 the fossil salt is worked in the vicinity of that place only4 ,it occurs in two great strata or beds1 lying nearly horizontally1 and separated1 the superincumbent from the subjacent stratum1 by several layers of indurated clay1 or argillaceous stone4 ,these intervening beds possess1 in conjunction1 a very uniform thickness of from thirty to thirty-five feet1 and are irregularly penetrated by veins of fossil salt4 ,there is every reason to believe that the beds of rock-salt at ,northwich1 are perfectly distinct from any others in the salt district1 and form what are termed by mineralogists incumbent bodies or masses of mineral4 ,these enormous masses stretch a mile and a half in a longitudinal direction from north-east to south-west2 but their transverse extent1 as measured by a line at right angles from the former1 does not exceed forty-two hundred feet1 somewhat more than three-quarters of a mile4 ,without this area1 the brine which is met with1 is of a very weak and inferior quality1 and at a short distance disappears altogether4 ,the thickness of the upper bed varies from sixty to ninety feet2 and a general estimate made from its level1 shows that its upper surface1 which is ninety feet beneath that of the earth1 is at least thirty-six feet beneath the low-water mark of the sea at ,liverpool2 a fact not unimportant in determining the nature of the formation of this mineral4 ,the thickness of the lower bed has not hitherto been ascertained2 but the workings are usually begun at the depth of from sixty to seventy-five feet1 and are carried down for the space of fifteen or eighteen feet1 through what forms the purest portion of the bed4 ,in one of the mines a shaft has been sunk to a level of forty-two feet still lower1 without passing through the body of rock-salt4 ,there is thus an ascertained thickness of this bed of about a hundred and twenty feet1 and without any direct evidence that it may not extend to a considerably greater depth4 ,although two distinct beds1 only1 of fossil salt have been met with at ,northwich1 it has been ascertained that the same limitations do not exist throughout the whole of the salt district4 ,at ,lawton1 near the source of the river ,wheelock1 three distinct beds have been found1 separated by strata of indurated clay3 one at the depth of one hundred and twenty-six feet1 four feet in thickness2 a second1 thirty feet lower1 twelve feet in thickness2 and a third1 forty-five feet further down1 which was sunk into seventy-two feet1 without passing through its substance4 ,the intervening clay1 the structure of which is very peculiar1 is called the shaggy metal1 and the fresh water which passes through its pores has the expressive appellation of ,roaring ,meg4 ,this epithet will not appear too strong1 when it is mentioned that in a mine in which the section of strata was taken1 and where the 8shaggy metal0 was found at the depth of about eighty feet1 the quantity of water ascertained to issue from its pores in one minute1 was not less than three hundred and sixty gallons2 a circumstance which greatly enhances the difficulty of passing a shaft down to the body of rock-salt4 ,in many of these beds of argillaceous stone1 a portion of salt1 sufficiently strong to affect the taste1 is found to exist2 and this saltness increases1 as might be expected1 in proportion as the body of rock-salt is approached4 ,in the strata or layers immediately above the rock1 which in all the mines are perfectly uniform in their appearance and structure1 this is particularly remarkable1 notwithstanding there are not1 in these strata1 any veins of rock-salt connected with the great mass below4 ,on the contrary1 the line between the clay and rock-salt is drawn with great distinctness in every instance1 without presenting any of those inequalities which would arise from a mutual penetration of the strata4 ,not any marine exuvi1 or organic remains1 are found in the strata above the rock-salt2 and the almost universal occurrence of gypsum1 in connection with beds of fossil salt1 is a fact still more deserving of observation1 because it appears1 not only in these mines1 but also in the salt mines of ,hungary1 ,poland and ,transylvania2 on which account ,werner1 in his geognostic system1 assigns to the rock-salt and fletz gypsum a conjunct situation4 ,the fossil salt extracted from the ,northwich mines is of different degrees of purity1 and more or less blended with earthy and metallic substances4 ,the purer portion of the lower bed yields a rock-salt1 which1 being principally exported to the ,baltic1 obtains the name of ,prussian rock4 ,the extent of the cavity formed by the workings1 varies in different mines1 the average depth being about sixteen feet4 ,in some of the pits1 where pillars from eighteen to twenty-four feet square form the supports of the mine1 the appearance of the cavity is singularly striking1 and the brilliancy of the effect is greatly increased when the mine is illuminated by candles fixed to the sides of the rock4 ,the scene thus formed almost appears to realize the magic palaces of eastern poets4 ,some of the pits are worked in aisles or streets1 but the choice here is wholly arbitrary4 ,among the methods employed in working out the rock-salt1 the operation of blasting is applied to the separation of large masses from the body of the rock1 and these are afterward broken down by the mechanical implements in common use4 ,the present number of mines is eleven or twelve1 from which there are raised1 on an annual average1 fifty or sixty thousand tuns of rock-salt4 ,the greater part of this quantity is exported to ,ireland and the ,baltic1 the remainder being employed in the ,cheshire district1 in the manufacture of white salt1 by solution and subsequent evaporation4 ,the general situation occupied by the rock-salt in ,cheshire is very similar to that of the ,transylvanian and ,polish mines1 the beds of this mineral being disposed in small plains1 bounded by hills of inconsiderable hight1 forming a kind of basin or hollow1 from which there is usually only a narrow egress for the waters4 ,the situation of the ,austrian salt mines near ,saltzburg is1 however1 very different4 ,the mineral there appears to be disposed in beds of great thickness1 which occur near the summits of limestone hills1 at a great elevation above the adjoining country4 ,this is a singular fact2 and if the hypothesis be allowed that rock-salt is formed from the waters of the sea1 it is necessary to suppose the occurrence on this spot of the most vast and surprising changes6 ,though there are no salt mines in the ,united ,states1 there are salt springs in several places4 ,by far the most important and valuable of these1 are in the neighborhood of ,syracuse1 in the state of ,new ,york4 ,the land containing these springs1 is owned by the state1 and is leased free of rent1 to be used only for the manufacture of salt4 ,the wells are dug1 and the water pumped up at the expense of the state1 and the manufacturer pays a duty of one cent on each bushel he makes4 ,some of the wells are sunk to the depth of four hundred feet4 ,fine salt is prepared by boiling2 and coarse by solar evaporation4 ,in #ahej1 the number of salt manufactories in this vicinity was one hundred and ninety-two2 and the quantity of salt produced in #ahec1 amounted to more than five million bushels4 ,the salt of this region has been thoroughly tested1 and found to be fully equal to any of foreign manufacture4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,ocean4 ------------------------------------ 8,they that go down to the sea in ships1 that do business in great waters2 these see the works of the ,lord1 and his wonders in the deep40--,,psalms4 8,with wonder mark the moving wilderness of waves1 ,from pole to pole through boundless space diffused1 ,magnificently dreadful6 where1 at large1 ,leviathan1 with each inferior name ,of sea-born kinds1 ten thousand thousand tribes1 ,find endless range for pasture and for sport4 ,adoring own ,the ,hand ,almighty1 who in channeled bed ,immeasurable sunk1 and poured abroad1 ,fenced with eternal mounds1 the fluid sphere2 ,with every wind to waft large commerce on4 ,join pole to pole1 consociate severed worlds1 ,and link in bonds of intercourse and love ,earth's universal family40--,,mallet4 ,that huge mass of waters impregnated with salt1 which encompasses all parts of the globe1 and by the means of which1 in the present improved state of navigation1 an easy intercourse subsists between the most distant nations1 is denominated the ocean1 and has three grand divisions assigned to it4 ,first1 that vast expanse of water which lies to the westward of the northern and southern continents of ,america1 and by which those continents are divided from ,asia4 ,on account of the uniform and temperate gales which sweep its surface within the tropics1 it is named the ,pacific ocean2 and has again been distinguished into the northern and southern ,pacific1 7the equator being considered as the dividing line17 and the ,southern ocean1 or ,south sea1 being consequently that part of the general assemblage of waters which is contained between the fortieth degree of south latitude and the south pole4 ,its general width is estimated at about ten thousand miles4 ,secondly1 the ,atlantic ocean1 which divides ,europe and ,africa from the two ,american continents1 and has a general width of about three thousand miles2 while the waters which occupy the polar regions are named the ,northern sea4 ,and1 lastly1 the ,indian ocean1 which extends from the eastern shores of ,africa along the southern coasts of ,asia1 and has the same general width with the preceding one4 ,among the chief of those less expansive sheets of water1 properly called seas1 may be mentioned the ,baltic1 the ,mediterranean sea1 and the ,black and ,red seas4 ,the ,caspian sea1 being entirely encompassed by land1 might1 with more propriety1 have been styled a lake2 but as its water possesses the quality of saltness1 it is ranked among the seas4 ,it is1 notwithstanding1 certain that ,lake ,superior has a still greater circumference1 extending around its shores at least fourteen hundred miles1 while the extent of the ,caspian does not exceed twelve hundred4 ,of the origin of this division into different seas1 and seas of different depths1 little is known2 but it is highly probable that many of the larger excavations and partitions now met with1 have existed1 without much change as to their extent1 from the creation4 ,others have undoubtedly been the result of that conflict which is perpetually taking place between the elements of land and water1 and which has1 for the greater part1 given rise to islands1 isthmuses and peninsulas2 while subterraneous volcanoes1 and the truly surprising and indefatigable exertions of coral1 madrepores1 tubipores1 and other restless and multitudinous zophytes1 have laid1 and are daily laying1 the foundation of new islands and continents in the middle of the widest and deepest seas4 ,the quantity of water in the ocean1 not only remains constantly the same1 but1 notwithstanding its most violent and incessant motion1 continues stable within certain limits4 ,this1 however1 can not be inferred from observation2 for1 although in the almost infinite variety of disturbances to which the ocean is liable1 from the action of irregular causes1 it may appear to return to its former state of equilibrium1 still it may be apprehended that some extraordinary cause may communicate to it a shock1 which1 though inconsiderable at first1 may augment continually1 and elevate it above the highest mountains4 ,it is1 therefore1 interesting to investigate the conditions which are necessary for the absolute stability of the ocean4 ,this has been effected by the celebrated ,laplace1 who has demonstrated that the equilibrium of the ocean must be stable1 if the density be less than the mean density of the earth1 which is known to be the case4 ,he has likewise determined1 by means of his refined analysis1 that this stability would cease to exist1 if the mean density of the sea were to exceed that of the earth2 so that the stability of the equilibrium of the ocean1 and the excess of the density of the terrestrial globe above that of the waters which cover it1 are reciprocally connected with each other1 and indicate infinite wisdom and contrivance in such an adjustment4 ,,saltness ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,of the various phenomena of the sea1 that of its saltness is one of the most obvious4 ,no questions concerning the natural history of our globe have been discussed with more attention1 or decided with less satisfaction1 than that concerning its primary cause1 which had perplexed the philosophers before the time of ,aristotle1 and surpassed even the great genius of that profound inquirer into natural causes4 ,kircher1 after having consulted not less than thirty-three authors on this subject1 could not help remarking1 that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions concerning the origin of its saline impregnation4 ,this question does not seem capable of admitting an illustration from experiment2 at least1 not from any experiments hitherto made for that purpose3 it is1 therefore1 not surprising1 that it remains nearly as problematical in the present age1 as it has been in any of the preceding4 ,had observations been made three or four centuries ago1 to ascertain the saltness of the sea1 then1 at any particular time and place1 we might now1 by making similar observations at the same place1 in the same season1 have been able to know1 whether the saltness1 at that particular place1 was increasing or decreasing1 or an invariable quantity4 ,this kind and degree of knowledge would have served as a clue to direct us to a full investigation of this matter in general4 ,it is to be regretted1 however1 that observations of this nature have not1 in former days1 been made with any degree of precision4 ,one of the principal opinions maintained on this subject by modern philosophers1 and more particularly supported by ,halley1 is1 that since river-water1 in almost every part of the globe1 is impregnated in a greater or less degree by sea-salt1 the sea must have gradually acquired its present quantity of salt from the long continued influx of rivers4 ,the water which is carried into the sea by these rivers1 is again separated from it by evaporation1 and being dispersed over the atmosphere by winds1 soon descends in rain or vapor upon the surface of the earth1 whence it hastens to pour into the bosom of the ocean the fresh tribute of salt it has collected in its inland progress4 ,thus the salt conveyed into the sea not being a volatile substance1 nor performing an incessant circulation1 must be a perpetually increasing quantity2 and sufficient time1 it is contended1 has elapsed since the creation1 for the sea to acquire1 from this source1 its present quantity of salt4 ,this opinion has been successfully combated2 and it is denied that freshwater rivers could1 in the course of thousands or even millions of years1 have produced saltness in the sea4 ,if this were the case1 every sea1 or great body of water1 which receives rivers1 must have been salt1 and have possessed a degree of saltness in proportion to the quantity of water which these rivers discharge4 ,but so far is this from being true1 that the ,palus ,motis1 and our great ,american lakes1 do not contain salt water1 but fresh4 ,it may indeed be objected1 that the quantity of salt which rivers carry along with them1 and deposit in the sea1 must depend on the nature of the soil through which they flow1 which may in some places not contain any salt2 and that this is the reason why the great lakes in ,america and the ,palus ,motis are fresh4 ,but to this opinion1 which is merely hypothetical1 there are insurmountable objections4 ,it is a curious fact1 that the saltness of the sea is greatest under the equator1 and diminishes gradually toward the poles2 but it can not therefore be assumed that the earth contains more salt in the tropical regions than in the temperate zones1 and more in these again than in the frigid zones4 ,on the other hand1 if it be allowed that the sea receives its saltness from the rivers1 it must be equally salt1 or nearly so1 in every part of the earth2 since1 according to a simple and well-known principle in chemistry1 when any substance is dissolved in water with the assistance of agitation1 at whatever part of the water it is introduced1 it will be equally diffused through the whole liquid4 ,now1 though it were true that a greater quantity of salt should have been introduced into the sea under the equator1 than toward the poles1 from the constant agitation occasioned by the wind and tide1 the salt must have soon pervaded the whole mass of water4 ,neither is this greater proportion of saltness owing to a superior degree of heat1 since it is an established principle in chemistry1 that cold water and hot water dissolve nearly the same proportion of salt4 ,the saltness of the sea has also been ascribed to the solution of subterraneous mines of salt1 that are supposed to abound in the bottom of the sea1 and along its shores4 ,but this hypothesis can not be supported4 ,if the sea were constantly dissolving salt1 it would soon become saturated2 for it can not be said that it is deprived of any portion of its salt by evaporation1 since rain-water is fresh4 ,if the sea were to become saturated1 neither fishes nor vegetables could live in it4 ,it may hence be inferred that the saltness of the sea can not be accounted for by secondary causes1 and that it has been salt since the beginning of time4 ,it is indeed impossible to suppose that the waters of the sea were at any time fresh since the formation of fishes and sea-plants2 neither will they live in water which is fresh4 ,it may hence be concluded that the saltness of the sea has1 with some few exceptions1 perhaps arising from mines of rock-salt dispersed near its shores1 been nearly the same in all ages4 ,this hypothesis1 which is the simplest1 and is involved in the fewest difficulties1 best explains the various phenomena dependent on the saltness of the sea4 ,although this saline property may be one of the causes by which the waters of the sea are preserved from putridity1 still it can not be considered as the principal cause4 ,the ocean has1 like rivers1 its currents1 by which its contents are circulated round the globe2 and these may be said to be the great agents which keep it sweet and wholesome4 ,a very enlightened navigator1 ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 speaks of a calm1 in which the sea1 having continued for some time without motion1 assumed a very formidable aspect4 8,were it not10 he observes1 8for the moving of the sea by the force of winds1 tides and currents1 it would corrupt all the world4 ,the experiment of this ,i saw in the year #aeij1 lying with a fleet about the islands of the ,azores1 almost six months1 the greater part of which time we were becalmed4 ,upon which1 all the sea became so replenished with various sorts of gellies1 and forms of serpents1 adders and snakes1 as seemed wonderful2 some green1 some black1 some yellow1 some white1 some of divers colors1 and many of them had life2 and some there were a yard and a half1 and two yards long2 which1 had ,i not seen1 ,i could hardly have believed4 ,and hereof are witnesses all the companies of the ships which were then present2 so that hardly a man could draw a bucket of water clear of some corruption4 ,in which voyage1 toward the end thereof1 many of every ship fell sick1 and began to die apace4 ,but the speedy passage into our country1 was a remedy to the diseased1 and a preservative to those who were not touched40 ,,congelation ,,of ,,sea-,,water4 ,although the assertion that salt water never freezes1 has been contradicted by repeated experience1 it is still certain that it requires a much greater degree of cold to produce its congelation1 than fresh water4 ,it is1 therefore1 one of the greatest blessings which we derive from this element1 that when we find all the stores of nature locked up to us on the land1 the sea is1 with few exceptions1 ever open to our necessities4 ,it is well known that at particular seasons1 the mouth of the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 the entrance into the ,baltic sea1 c41 are so much frozen over as to be impassable by ships2 while the vast mountains and fields of ice in the polar regions1 have for ages past been insurmountable obstructions to the daring researches of modern navigators4 ,these exceptions1 however1 will appear of comparatively trifling importance to navigation1 when the number of ports which are1 in almost every region1 open at all seasons of the year1 are considered2 and this facility of intercourse would certainly not have been afforded1 if sea-water had admitted of as easy a congelation as that of water not impregnated with salt4 ,on the origin of ice in the frozen seas1 different opinions have been entertained4 ,the authority of ,capt4 ,cook and ,lord ,mulgrave1 has been cited by ,bishop ,watson1 to show that good fresh water may be procured from ice found in those seas2 but he observes that1 notwithstanding the testimonies of these very able navigators1 it may still be doubted whether the ice from which the water was obtained1 had been formed in the sea1 and1 consequently1 whether sea-water itself would1 when frozen1 yield fresh water4 ,he thinks it probable that the ice had either been formed at the mouths of large fresh-water rivers1 and had thence1 by tides or torrents been drifted into the sea1 or that it had been broken by its own weight1 from the immense cliffs of ice and frozen snow which1 in countries where there are few rivers1 are found in high latitudes to project a great way into the sea4 ,an early navigator1 ,fotherbye1 in the relation of his voyage toward the south pole1 in #afad1 considers snow to be the original cause of the ice found at sea1 he himself having observed it to lie an inch thick on the surface2 and ,captain ,cook1 from his own observation in the ,south sea1 was disposed to think that the vast floats of ice he met with in the spring1 were formed from the congelation of snow4 ,it is certain that the snow which falls upon the surface of the sea1 being in a solid state1 and1 bulk for bulk1 lighter than sea-water1 will not readily combine with it1 but may1 by a due degree of cold in the atmosphere1 be speedily converted into a layer of ice4 ,the upper layer of this first surface of ice being elevated above the surface of the sea1 will receive all the fresh water which falls from the atmosphere in the form of snow1 sleet1 rain or dew1 by the successive congelation of which1 the largest fields of ice may at length be formed4 ,it is a matter of little consequence to a navigator1 whence the ice which supplies him with fresh water is produced4 ,leaving1 therefore1 these hypotheses relative to the formation of ice in frozen seas1 it should be observed that the question1 whether congealed sea-water will1 when thawed1 yield fresh water1 has been satisfactorily decided by experiments made with every suitable attention4 ,a quantity of sea-water having been taken up off the ,english coast1 was exposed to a freezing atmosphere1 and afforded an ice perfectly free from any taste of salt2 and it has likewise been found1 that not only sea-water1 but water containing double the proportion of salt commonly found in our sea-water1 and more than is contained in the sea-water of any climate1 may be frozen by the cold prevailing in our atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,,icebergs1 ,,or ,,ice-,,islands4 ,,ice-,,islands4 ,ice-islands1 or icebergs1 as they are commonly called1 is the name given by seamen to the huge1 solid masses of ice which abound in the sea near or within the polar circles1 and which often float down nearer to the equator1 till they are gradually dissolved by the increasing warmth of the air and water4 ,the cut gives a view of them as seen by ,dr4 ,scoresby1 who counted five hundred of them between latitude sixty-nine degrees and seventy degrees north1 which were from one hundred to two hundred feet high1 and from a few yards to a mile in circumference4 ,many of these fluctuating islands are met with on the coasts of ,spitzbergen1 to the great danger of the vessels employed in the ,greenland fishery4 ,in the midst of these tremendous masses1 navigators have been arrested and frozen to death4 ,in this manner the brave ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby perished1 with all his crew1 in #aeec2 and in the year #aggc1 ,lord ,mulgrave1 after every effort which the most accomplished seaman could make1 to reach the termination of his voyage1 was caught in the ice1 and nearly experienced the same unhappy fate4 ,the scene he describes1 divested of the horrors attendant on the eventful expectation of change1 was most beautiful and picturesque4 ,two large ships becalmed in a vast basin1 surrounded on all sides by ice-islands of various forms2 the weather clear2 the sun gilding the circumambient ice1 which was smooth1 low1 even1 and covered with snow1 except where pools of water1 on a portion of the surface1 shot forth new icy crystals1 and on the smooth surface of the comparatively small space of sea in which they were hemmed4 ,such is the picture drawn by our navigator1 amid the perils by which lie was surrounded4 ,after fruitless attempts to force their way through the fields of ice1 the limits of these became at length so contracted1 that the ships were immovably fixed4 ,the smooth extent of surface was soon lost2 the pressure of the pieces of ice1 by the violence of the swell1 caused them to pack2 and fragment rose upon fragment1 until they were in many places higher than the main-yard4 ,the movements of the ships were tremendous and involuntary1 in conjunction with the surrounding ice1 actuated by the currents4 ,the water having shoaled to fourteen fathoms1 great apprehensions were entertained1 as the grounding of the ice1 or of the ships1 would have been equally fatal3 the force of the ice might have crushed them to atoms1 or have lifted them out of the water1 and have overset them2 or1 again1 have left them suspended on the summits of the pieces of ice1 at a tremendous hight1 exposed to the fury of the winds1 or to the risk of being dashed to pieces by the failure of their frozen dock4 ,an attempt was made to cut a passage through the ice2 but after a perseverance truly worthy of ,britons1 it proved ineffectual4 ,the commander1 who was at all times master of himself1 directed the boats to be made ready to be hauled over the ice1 till they should reach navigable water1 proposing in them to make the voyage to ,england2 but after they had thus been drawn over the ice1 for three progressive days1 a wind having sprung up1 the ice separated sufficiently to yield to the pressure of the ships in full sail4 ,after having labored against the resisting fields of ice1 they at length reached the harbor of ,smeerinberg1 at the west end of ,spitzbergen4 ,the vast islands of floating ice which abound in the high southern latitudes1 are a proof that they are visited by a much severer degree of cold than equal latitudes toward the north pole4 ,captain ,cook1 in his second voyage1 fell in with one of these islands in latitude fifty degrees1 forty minutes1 south4 ,it was about fifty feet high1 and half a mile in circuit1 being flat on the top1 while its sides1 against which the sea broke exceedingly high1 rose in a perpendicular direction4 ,in the afternoon of the same day1 the tenth of ,december1 #aggc1 he fell in with another large cubical mass of ice1 about two thousand feet in length1 four hundred feet in breadth1 and in hight two hundred feet4 ,mr4 ,foster1 the naturalist of the voyage1 remarks that1 according to the experiments of ,boyle and ,marian1 the volume of ice is to that of sea-water as ten to nine3 consequently1 by the known rules of hydrostatics1 the volume of ice which rises above the surface of the water1 is to that which sinks below it as one to nine4 ,supposing1 therefore1 this mass of ice to have been of a regular figure1 its depth under water must have been eighteen hundred feet1 and its whole hight1 twenty hundred feet3 estimating its length1 as above1 at twenty hundred feet1 and its breadth at four hundred feet1 the entire mass must have contained sixteen hundred millions of cubic feet of ice4 ,two days after1 several other ice-islands were seen1 some of them nearly two miles in circuit1 and six hundred feet high2 and yet such was the force of the waves1 that the sea broke quite over them4 ,they exhibited for a few moments a view very pleasing to the eye2 but a sense of danger soon filled the mind with horror2 for had the ship struck against the weather-side of one of these islands1 when the sea ran high1 she must in an instant have been dashed to pieces4 ,the route to the southward was afterward impeded by an immense field of low ice1 the termination of which could not be seen1 either to the east1 west or south4 ,in different parts of this field were islands1 or hills of ice1 like those which had before been found floating in the sea4 ,at length these ice-islands became as familiar to those on board as the clouds and the sea4 ,whenever a strong reflection of white was seen on the skirts of the sky1 near the horizon1 then ice was sure to be encountered2 notwithstanding which1 that substance itself was not entirely white1 but often tinged1 especially near the surface of the sea1 with a most beautiful sapphirine1 or rather berylline blue1 evidently reflected from the water4 ,this blue color sometimes appeared twenty or thirty feet above the surface1 and was probably produced by particles of sea-water which had been dashed against the mass in tempestuous weather1 and had penetrated into its interstices4 ,in the evening1 the sun setting just behind one of these masses1 tinged its edges with gold1 and reflected on the entire mass a beautiful suffusion of purple4 ,in the larger masses1 were frequently observed shades or casts of white1 lying above each other in strata1 sometimes of six inches1 and at other times of a foot in hight4 ,this appearance seemed to confirm the opinion entertained relative to the increase and accumulation of such huge masses of ice1 by heavy falls of snow at different intervals2 for snow being of various kinds1 small-grained1 large-grained1 in light feathery locks1 c41 the various degrees of its compactness may account for the different colors of the strata4 ,in his third attempt to proceed southward1 in ,january1 #aggd1 ,capt4 ,cook was led1 by the mildest sunshine which was1 perhaps1 ever experienced in the frigid zone1 to entertain hopes of penetrating as far toward the south pole as other navigators have done toward the north pole2 but on the twenty-sixth of that month1 at four in the morning1 his officers discovered a solid ice-field of immense extent before them1 bearing from east to west4 ,a bed of fragments floated around this field1 which was raised several feet above the surface of the water4 ,while in this situation1 the southern part of the horizon was illuminated by the rays of light reflected from the ice1 to a considerable hight4 ,ninety-seven ice-islands were distinctly seen within the field1 besides those on the outside2 many of them very large1 and looking like a ridge of mountains1 rising one above the other until they were lost in the clouds4 ,the most elevated and most ragged of these ice-islands1 were surmounted by peaks1 and were from two to three hundred feet in hight1 with perpendicular cliffs or sides astonishing to behold4 ,the largest of them terminated in a peak not unlike the cupola of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,the outer1 or northern edge of this immense field of ice1 was composed of loose or broken ice1 closely packed together1 so that it was not possible to find any entrance4 ,such mountains of ice1 ,captain ,cook was persuaded1 were never seen in the ,greenland seas1 so that no comparison could be drawn2 and it was the opinion of most of the persons on board1 that this ice extended quite to the pole1 from which they were then less than nineteen degrees2 or1 perhaps1 that it was joined to some land to which it had been fixed from the earliest time4 ,our navigator was of opinion that it is to the south of this parallel that all the ice is formed which is found scattered up and down to the northward1 and afterward broken off by gales of wind1 or other causes1 and brought forward by the currents which are always found to set in that direction in high latitudes4 8,should there10 he observes1 8be land to the south behind this ice1 it can afford no better retreat for birds1 or any other animals1 than the ice itself1 with which it must be wholly covered4 ,i1 who was ambitious1 not only to go further than any one had been before1 but as far as it was possible for man to go1 was not sorry at meeting with this interruption2 as it in some measure relieved us1 or at least shortened the dangers and hardships inseparable from the navigation of the southern polar regions40 ,the approximation of several fields of ice of different magnitudes1 produces a very singular phenomenon4 ,the smaller of these masses are forced out of the water1 and thrown on the larger ones1 until at length an aggregate is formed of a tremendous hight4 ,these accumulated bodies of ice float in the sea like so many rugged mountains1 and are continually increased in hight by the freezing of the spray of the sea1 and the melting and then freezing of the snow which falls on them4 ,while their growth is thus augmented1 the smaller fields1 of a less elevation1 are the meadows of the seals1 on which these animals at times frolic by hundreds4 ,the collision of great fields of ice1 in high latitudes1 is often attended by a noise1 which1 for a time1 takes away the sense of hearing anything beside2 and that of the smaller fields1 with a grinding of unspeakable horror4 ,the water which dashes against the mountainous ice1 freezes into an infinite variety of forms1 and presents to the admiring view of the voyager ideal towns1 streets1 churches1 steeples1 and almost every form which imagination can picture to itself4 ,after such notices of the ice-islands from the earlier voyagers1 it may be interesting to know how they have appeared to later beholders2 and this may be seen in the following account from the journal of a seaman who was in the well known 8,arctic ,expedition10 in #ahej-ea4 ,under the date of the thirtieth of ,june1 #ahej1 he writes3 8,moored to an iceberg2 weather calm2 sky cloudless1 and #8beautifully blue2' surrounded by a vast number of stupendous bergs1 glittering and glistening beneath the refulgent rays of a midday sun4 ,a great portion of the crew had gone on shore to gather the eggs of the wild sea-birds that frequent the lonely ice-bound precipices of ,baffin's bay1 while those on board had retired to rest1 wearied with the harassing toils of the preceding day4 ,to me1 walking the deck and alone1 all nature seemed hushed in universal repose4 ,whilst thus contemplating the stillness of the monotonous scene around me1 ,i observed in the offing a large iceberg1 completely perforated1 exhibiting in the distance an arch1 or tunnel1 apparently so uniform in its conformation1 that ,i was induced to call two of the seamen to look at it1 at the same time telling them1 that ,i had never read or heard of any of our arctic voyagers passing through one of these arches1 so frequently seen through large bergs1 and that there would be a novelty in doing so2 and if they chose to accompany me1 ,i would get permission to take the small boat1 and endeavor to accomplish the unprecedented feat4 8,they readily agreed1 and away we went4 ,on nearing the arch1 and ascertaining that there was a sufficiency of water for the boat to pass through1 we rowed slowly and silently under1 when there burst upon our view one of the most magnificent specimens of nature's handiwork ever exhibited to mortal eyes2 the sublimity and grandeur of which no language can describe1 no imagination conceive4 ,fancy an immense arch of eighty feet span1 fifty feet high1 and upward of one hundred feet in breadth1 as correct in its conformation as if it had been constructed by the most scientific artist1 formed of solid ice1 of a beautiful emerald green1 its whole expanse of surface smoother than the most polished alabaster1 and you may form some slight conception of the architectural beauties of this icy temple1 the wonderful workmanship of time and the elements4 ,when we had got about half-way through the mighty structure1 on looking upward1 ,i observed that the berg was rent the whole breadth of the arch1 and in a perpendicular direction to its summit1 showing two vertical sections of irregular surfaces1 #8darkly1 deeply1 beautifully blue1' here and there illuminated by an arctic sun1 which darted its golden rays between1 presenting to the eye a picture of ethereal grandeur1 which no poet could describe1 no painter portray4 ,i was so enraptured with the sight1 that for a moment ,i fancied the #8blue vault of heaven' had opened1 and that ,i actually gazed upon the celestial splendor of a world beyond this4 ,but1 alas6 in an instant the scene changed1 and ,i awoke as it were from a delightful dream1 to experience all the horrors of a terrible reality4 ,i observed the fracture rapidly close1 then again slowly open4 ,this stupendous mass of ice1 millions of tuns in weight1 was afloat1 consequently in motion1 and apparently about to lose its equilibrium1 capsize1 or burst into fragments4 8,our position was truly awful4 ,my feelings at the moment may be conceived1 but can not be described4 ,i looked downward and around me2 the sight was equally appalling2 the very sea seemed agitated4 ,i at last shut my eyes from a scene so terrible1 the men at the oars1 as if by instinct1 #8gave way1' and our little craft swiftly glided from beneath the gigantic mass4 ,we then rowed round the berg1 keeping at a respectful distance from it1 in order to judge of its magnitude4 ,i supposed it to be about a mile in circumference1 and its highest pinnacle two hundred and fifty feet4 ,thus ended an excursion1 the bare recollection of which1 at this moment1 awakens in me a shudder2 nevertheless1 ,i would not have lost the opportunity of witnessing a scene so awfully sublime1 so tragically grand1 for thousands of pounds1 but ,i would not again run such a risk for a world4 ,we passed through the berg about two ,p4 ,m41 and at ten o'clock the same night1 it burst1 agitating the sea for miles around4 ,i may also observe1 that the two men who were with me in the boat1 did not observe that the berg was rent until ,i told them1 after we were out of danger1 we having agreed1 previously to entering the arch1 not to speak a word to each other1 lest echo itself should disturb the fragile mass40 ,as further describing the appearances of icebergs1 we give the following narrative by ,mr4 ,abbott1 who himself was a witness of the splendid scenery he so graphically describes4 ,he says3 8,the trip of the ,baltic1 in ,march1 #ahed1 is likely to be somewhat memorable4 ,we left ,sandy ,hook1 on ,sunday morning1 the fifth1 and had a propitious and rapid run1 until ,friday the tenth1 about three o'clock4 ,when in latitude forty-six degrees and longitude forty-eight degrees1 our attention was arrested by some small pieces of broken ice1 floating in every direction around us4 ,the weather was thick and hazy1 so that we could nowhere see the horizon4 ,in the course of an hour or two1 the fog partly disappeared1 and we found ourselves nearly half-surrounded by an immense field of drift-ice1 and large numbers of icebergs1 extending from north-east by south to south-west4 8,our speed was immediately slackened1 and the course of the ship changed to the northward and westward4 ,it soon appeared that we were completely hemmed in on every side1 by immense fields of floating drift1 sometimes in loose and broken masses1 sometimes in a compact and immovable jam1 and everywhere studded with vast and towering icebergs1 of almost every conceivable form and size4 8,the fog gradually lifted1 now in one direction1 and now in another1 just sufficient to discover to us1 that we were fairly surrounded1 and that1 to whatever point of the compass we could turn the eye or the ship1 interminable masses of drift-ice1 of uplift1 and icebergs1 seemed to cover the sea4 ,so sudden and unexpected was this discovery1 that it seemed more like fairy work than reality4 ,surprise and astonishment1 at the novel and wonderful scene around us1 seemed at first to make us all unconscious of our own critical situation4 ,separating from it the idea of danger1 it would be difficult to imagine a scene combining and blending more of the elements of beauty1 grandeur and sublimity4 ,far as the eye could reach1 it was no longer sea and sky1 but ice1 ice1 ice1 floating like an archipelago of a thousand isles1 great and small1 of highland and lowland1 mountain1 peninsula1 promontory1 and ,gibraltar rock4 8,running in countless directions through these masses1 the ocean waves appeared in narrow but doubly dark currents1 forming the most crooked and irregular passages1 of rivulet and river1 and endless indentations of inlet and bay4 ,through these labyrinthine passages1 perpetually opening and closing by the action of winds and waves1 our escape was to be made4 ,once1 in attempting to force a passage through a long but narrow neck of broken blocks of ice1 which had drifted across our way1 the cutwater1 bows and wheels of the ship1 were pretty seriously battered4 8,all night long the ship was kept running slowly1 threading her way through these little passages of clear water1 until four o'clock in the morning1 when she was so pressed on every side1 with sheets of ice1 crowded and packed far above the surface of the water1 and urged on by the momentum of vast masses of iceberg1 that prudence required to stop the engine and wait for daylight4 ,the morning brought little cheering prospect4 ,the man at mast-head reported no clear water1 as far as the eye could reach1 excepting in narrow and scarcely navigable patches and veins4 ,the surface of the sea all around the horizon1 seemed an almost unbroken plain of field and mountain ice4 ,as early as light allowed1 the ship was again under way for the largest space of clear water that could be seen1 and continued all day long to retrace her path to the westward1 veering her course1 however1 through every point of the compass1 to find the intricate passages toward the open sea4 ,the wind1 fresh from the north-west1 came with intense and piercing cold4 ,the man at the mast-head could not stand its severity more than half an hour4 ,the masts1 shrouds and cordage of the ship1 were completely incrusted1 and altogether what with field-ice1 drift1 and icebergs1 snow1 rain and hail1 gale and storm1 these days in the ice will not soon be forgotten4 8,the different aspects of these scenes by day and night furnished an incessant source of interest4 ,the vast fields of drift1 in their varied forms1 by daylight and by moonlight1 were picturesque and beautiful in the highest degree4 ,they ranged in extent from a quarter of a mile1 to perhaps ten miles square4 ,in some cases1 the entire field seemed to be composed of small broken fragments1 floating in close proximity to each other1 yet yielding readily to the play of the waves1 rising and falling with the swell of the sea4 ,the superincumbent weight upon the surface of the water1 diminished the elevation of the waves1 but the reflected light from its uneven silver surface1 revealed far more distinctly and beautifully1 the extent of motion and the action of the waves4 ,the long swells of the sea stretched away in graceful curves for miles1 resembling more than anything else ,i can suggest1 some of the rolling prairies of the west1 as they must appear in snow1 with this difference1 that the swells seemed #8all alive1' as if some mighty monsters of the deep were working their way beneath1 perpetually shifting their position1 and vainly endeavoring to lift the load that covers them1 to find a breathing in the open air4 ,in other instances1 these vast fields1 stretching as far as the eye could reach over half the visible horizon1 were one compact and apparently motionless mass of solid ice1 as fixed as a #8rock-bound coast4' 8,another form of peculiar interest was that of a wide field1 of many miles in extent1 apparently formed by a long succession of #8uplifts4' ,the action of the waves had gradually forced large blocks of ice beneath one edge1 and the long continuation of this process1 had lifted as it would seem1 almost the entire mass1 many feet out of water4 ,the outer edge of these uplifts presented an abrupt and perpendicular wall4 ,in one case1 at night1 the captain estimated that he had sailed for ten miles1 along such a wall1 the hight of the wheel-house1 about forty feet4 ,a very beautiful effect was once produced by a small mass of this kind4 ,it was several miles distant1 and of very considerable length4 ,as it rolled and pitched1 one side1 apparently fifteen or twenty feet high1 dipped in the waves1 and rising again1 lifted an immense volume of water1 which then ran off1 in a beautiful and magnificent torrent1 over the rising edge4 ,i watched with my glass for an hour1 the graceful evolutions of this interesting cataract1 which is probably still performing1 by its regular rise and fall1 a very respectable1 but intermittent ,niagara1 in the middle of the ,atlantic1 with all the regularity of a pendulum4 8,the icebergs1 themselves1 which we saw1 were very numerous1 and of almost every conceivable form and size4 ,during our passage through three hundred miles1 the number we observed was variously estimated from five hundred to one thousand4 ,i counted at one time thirty-six1 and at another forty-five1 all of notable magnitude4 ,they sometimes were of most curious and fantastic shapes4 ,hill and mountain of every imaginable outline1 castle and tower1 turret1 and out-jutting and overhanging crags1 magnificent needle forms shooting to the sky1 like the spire of ,trinity1 crouching lions1 and polar bears1 trees of ice1 and natural bridges1 in short1 you can scarcely fancy anything odd1 that snow and ice can be made to resemble1 that had not its type around us4 8,but1 perhaps1 the most wonderful of all1 was the great #8plunging iceberg4' ,it was a round1 oblong mass of ice1 estimated by careful comparison with our wheel-house1 to be fifty by seventy-five feet4 ,a side view made it appear about as large as the front of a large1 double1 four story dwelling4 ,but it was as true and perfect an oval1 as the most exquisitely beautiful bald head you have ever seen4 ,it looked exactly like the upper part of a head of some gigantic being4 ,this1 as it floated past us1 gradually descended in the waves1 until it sunk beneath the surface4 ,it then rose with a most majestic movement1 lifting the pure white crown1 to the hight of fifty feet4 ,it presented on the whole1 one of the grandest sights ,i ever beheld4 ,it continued thus sinking and rising till it was out of our sight4 ,it seemed like a creature of life1 paying its respects to our noble ship40 ,,icebergs4 ,analogous to the ice-fields described above1 are those large bodies of ice1 perhaps more properly named icebergs1 which fill the valleys between the high mountains in northern latitudes4 ,among the most remarkable1 are those of the east coast of ,spitzbergen4 ,they are seven in number1 and lie at considerable distances from each other1 extending through tracts unknown1 in a region totally inaccessible in the internal parts4 ,the most distant of them exhibits over the sea a front three hundred feet in hight1 emulating the color of the emerald2 cataracts of melted snow fall down in various parts2 and black1 spiral mountains1 streaked with white1 bound the sides1 rising crag above crag1 as far as the eye can reach in the background4 ,at times immense fragments break off1 and precipitate themselves into the water with a most alarming dashing4 ,a portion of this vivid green substance was seen by ,lord ,mulgrave1 in the voyage above referred to1 to fall into the sea2 and1 notwithstanding it grounded in twenty-four fathoms of water1 it spired above the surface fifty feet4 ,similar icebergs are frequent in all the arctic regions2 and to their fall is owing the solid mountainous ice which infests those seas4 ,the frost sports wonderfully with these icebergs1 and gives them majestic1 as well as other most singular forms4 ,masses have been seen to assume the shape of a ,gothic church1 with arches1 windows and doors1 and all the rich drapery of that style of architecture1 composed of what the writer of an ,arabian tale would scarcely have ventured to introduce among the marvelous suggestions of his fancy1 crystals of the richest sapphirine blue4 ,tables with one or more feet2 and often immense flat-roofed temples1 like those of ,luxor1 on the bank of the ,nile1 supported by round transparent columns of cerulean hue1 float by the astonished spectator4 ,these icebergs are the creation of ages1 and acquire annually additional hight by falls of snow and rain1 which latter often freezes instantly1 and more than repairs the loss occasioned by the influence of the sun's heat4 ,,luminous ,,points ,,in ,,the ,,sea4 ,among the phenomena which have long exercised the sagacity of philosophers1 that of the luminous appearance of the surface of the sea1 during the obscurity of the night1 is highly curious4 ,a variety of experiments were made by a ,french naturalist at ,cayenne1 at different seasons1 to ascertain its true cause2 and to him it appeared that these luminous points were produced by motion and friction alone1 as he could not1 with the help of the best glasses1 perceive any insects floating in the water4 ,but it would seem1 from the experiments and observations of many learned men1 that this phenomenon is produced by various causes1 both jointly and separately4 ,it has been proved by one set of experiments1 that the putrefaction of animal substances produces light and scintillation in the sea4 ,a little white fish placed in seawater rendered it luminous in the space of twenty-eight hours4 ,on another hand1 it is certain that there is in the sea a prodigious quantity of shining insects or animalcules1 which contribute to this phenomenon4 ,a ,french astronomer1 ,m4 ,dangelet1 who returned from ,terra ,australis in #aggd1 brought with him several kinds of worms which shine in water1 when it is set in motion2 and ,m4 ,rigaud affirms1 that the luminous surface of the sea1 from ,brest to the ,antilles1 contains a great quantity of little1 round1 shining polypi1 of about a quarter of a line in diameter4 ,other learned men1 who acknowledge the existence of these luminous animals1 can not1 however1 be persuaded to consider them as the cause of all that light and scintillation which appear on the surface of the ocean4 ,they imagine that some substance of a phosphoric nature1 arising from putrefaction1 must be admitted as one of the causes of this phenomenon4 ,by other naturalists it has been ascribed to the oily and greasy substances with which the sea is impregnated2 in proof of which a kind of fish1 resembling the tunny1 is cited1 as being provided with an oil which shines with considerable luster4 ,the ,abbe ,nollent was convinced1 by a series of experiments1 that this phenomenon is caused by small animals1 either by their luminous aspect1 or by some liquor or effluvium which they emit4 ,he did not1 however1 exclude other causes2 and among these1 the spawn or fry of fishes is deserving of attention4 ,m4 ,dangelet1 in sailing into the bay of ,antongil1 in the island of ,madagascar1 observed a prodigious quantity of fry1 which covered the surface of the sea for the extent of more than a mile1 and which he at first1 on account of its color1 mistook for a bank of sand4 ,this immense accumulation of spawn or fry exhaled a disagreeable odor2 and it should be remarked that the sea had1 for some days before1 appeared with uncommon splendor4 ,the same accurate observer1 perceiving the sea remarkably luminous in the road of the cape of ,good ,hope1 during a perfect calm1 remarked that the oars of the canoes produced a whitish and pearly kind of luster3 when he took in his hand the water1 which contained phosphorus1 he discerned in it1 for some minutes1 globules of light as large as the heads of pins4 ,on pressing these globules1 they appeared to his touch like a soft and thin pulp2 and some days after the sea was covered with entire banks of small fishes1 in innumerable multitudes4 ,from all these facts it may be deduced1 that various causes contribute to the light and scintillation of the sea2 and that the light which the ,cayenne naturalist attributed to agitation and friction1 differs from that which is extended far and near1 seeming to cover the whole surface of the ocean1 and producing a very beautiful and striking appearance1 particularly in the torrid zone1 and in the summer season4 ,,tides ,,and ,,currents4 ,alternate tides in sacred order run4--,,blackmore4 ,among the most wonderful phenomena of nature may be reckoned the tides of the sea4 ,they were but little understood by the ancients1 although ,pliny1 ,ptolemy and ,macrobius1 were of opinion that they were influenced by the sun and moon4 ,the former expressly says1 that the cause of the ebb and flow is in the sun1 which attracts the waters of the ocean2 and he adds1 that the waters rise in proportion to the proximity of the moon to the earth4 ,the phenomena of the tides have been ascribed to the principle of innate gravitation2 but ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 in his theory of the system of the universe1 refers them to that general law of motion which he considers as the primary and proximate cause of all phenomena1 operating1 in a descending series1 from the rotation of the sun round the fulcrum of the solar system1 to the fall of an apple to the earth4 ,this motion being transferred through all nature from its source1 serves as the efficient cause of every species of vitality1 of every organic arrangement1 and of all those accidents of body heretofore ascribed to attraction4 ,the waters of the ocean are observed to flow and rise twice a day1 in which motion1 or flux1 which in the same direction lasts nearly six hours1 the sea gradually swells1 and1 entering the mouths of rivers1 drives back the river-waters toward their head4 ,after a continued flux of six hours1 it seems to repose for a quarter of an hour1 and then begins to ebb1 or retire back1 for six hours more2 in which time1 by the subsidence of the waters1 the rivers resume their usual course4 ,after a quarter of an hour1 the sea again flows and rises as before4 ,according to the theory of ,newton1 these phenomena were supposed to be produced by an imaginary power called attraction4 ,the moon was supposed to attract the waters by the influence of an occult power inherent in all matter2 just as the earth was supposed to attract the moon1 the moon the earth1 and the planets one another4 ,others1 again1 ridicule this idea1 as unsustained and visionary1 giving in their turn some theory that has no better argument to sustain it4 ,and it is probable the time is yet future when we shall have any theory that will fully account for all the phenomena of the tides4 ,on account of the shallowness of some seas1 and the narrowness of the straits in others1 there arises a great diversity in the phenomena1 only to be accounted for by an exact knowledge of the place4 ,for instance1 in the ,english channel and the ,german ocean1 the tide is found to flow strongest in those places that are narrowest1 the same quantity of water being1 in this case1 driven through a smaller passage4 ,it is often seen1 therefore1 rushing through a strait with great force1 and considerably raised1 by its rapidity1 above that part of the ocean through which it runs4 ,the shallowness and narrowness of many parts of the sea1 give rise also to a peculiarity in the tides of some parts of the world3 for in many places1 in the ,british seas in particular1 the greatest swell of the tide is not while the moon is in its meridian hight1 and directly over the place1 but some time after it has declined thence4 ,the sea1 in this case1 being obstructed1 pursues the moon with what dispatch it can1 but does not arrive with all its waters1 until after the moon has ceased to operate4 ,lastly1 from this shallowness of the sea1 and from its being obstructed by shoals and straits1 it happens that the ,mediterranean1 the ,baltic and the ,black sea1 have not any sensible tides1 to raise or depress them in a considerable degree4 ,among the phenomena of the tides1 one of the most singular is the bore1 peculiar to several rivers3 it is ascribed to the waters1 which were before expansive1 being suddenly pent up1 and confined within a narrow space4 ,this bore or impetuous rush of waters1 accompanies the first flowing of the tide in the ,ferret1 in ,somersetshire1 and in the ,seine1 in ,france4 ,it is also one of the peculiarities of the ,severn1 the most rapid river in ,england4 ,one of the greatest known tides is that of the ,bristol channel1 which sometimes flows upward of forty feet4 ,at the mouth of the river ,indus1 the water rises thirty feet4 ,the tides also are remarkably high on the coasts of ,malay1 in the straits of ,sunda1 in the ,red sea1 at the mouth of the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 along the coasts of ,china and ,japan1 at ,panama1 and in the gulf of ,bengal4 ,the most remarkable tides1 however1 are those at ,batsha1 in the kingdom of ,tonquin1 in twenty degrees1 fifty minutes1 north latitude4 ,in that port1 the sea ebbs and flows once only in twenty-four hours1 while in all other places there are two tides within that space4 ,what is still more extraordinary1 twice in each month1 when the moon is near the equinoctial1 there is not any tide1 the water being for some time quite stagnant4 ,these1 with other anomalies of the tides there1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 with peculiar sagacity1 ascertained to arise from the concurrence of two tides1 one from the ,south sea1 and the other from the ,indian ocean4 ,of each of these two tides there come successively two every day2 two at one time greater1 and two at another which are less4 ,the time between the arrival of the two greater was considered by him as high tide2 that between the two less1 as ebb4 ,in short1 with these simple facts in his possession1 that great mathematician solved every appearance1 and so established his theory as to silence every opposer4 ,besides the common and periodical tides1 a variety of local currents are met with in different seas1 on different parts of the ocean1 and for the greater part at an inconsiderable distance from land4 ,they have been usually ascribed to particular winds2 but their origin is not easy to trace1 as they have been occasionally found beneath the surface of the water1 running in a contrary direction to the stratum above1 and can not1 therefore1 have been owing to winds or monsoons4 ,these particular currents have been ascribed to the immense masses of polar ice1 which produce a greater degree of cold in the under than in the upper stratum of waters2 and it has been suspected that there is an under-current of cold water flowing perpetually from the poles toward the equator1 even where the water above flows toward the poles4 ,the great disparity of temperature which is frequently found in deep and superficial soundings of the same space of water1 is thus accounted for4 ,the most extraordinary current of this kind1 is that of the gulf of ,florida1 usually called the ,gulf stream1 which sets along the coast of ,north ,america to the northward and eastward1 and flows with an uninterrupted rapidity4 ,it is ascribed to the trade-winds1 which1 blowing from the eastern quarter into the great ,mexican gulf1 cause there an accumulation above the common level of the sea4 ,the water1 therefore1 constantly runs out by the channel where it finds least resistance1 that is1 through the gulf of ,florida1 with such force as to continue a distinct stream to a very great distance4 ,a proof of its having thus originated is1 that the water in the ,gulf stream has been found to have retained a great portion of the heat it had acquired in the torrid zone4 ,a very singular upper current often prevails to the westward of ,scilly1 and is highly dangerous to ships which approach the ,british channel4 ,currents of this description are1 however more frequently met with about the straits of ,gibraltar1 and near the ,west ,india islands1 the coasts of which are so subject to counter-tides1 or extraordinary currents1 that it is often dangerous for boats to land4 ,they proceed to the westward1 along the coasts of ,yucatan and ,mexico1 and running round into the gulf1 return into the great ocean by the straits of ,bahama1 along the coasts of ,florida1 in order to pursue1 in the north1 the course ordained them by the great ,author of nature4 ,in this course the waters run with an extraordinary rapidity1 passing on1 however1 by a motion so even and imperceptible1 that their speed is not realized by the spectator4 ,but against the shores and coasts of the various islands in their way1 their progress becomes very manifest1 and even dangerous1 interrupting the navigation1 and rendering it hardly possible to stem them in their course4 ,in addition to these regular currents1 there are others1 called counter-tides1 which are observable on the sea-coasts and shores4 ,in places where these flow1 the sea rolls and dashes in an extraordinary manner1 becoming furious without any apparent cause1 and without being moved by any wind4 ,the waves rise and open very high1 breaking on the shore with such violence1 that it is impossible for vessels to land4 ,these counter-tides have been1 by some1 ascribed to the pressure of the heavy black wind-clouds which are occasionally seen to hang over an island1 or over the sea where they occur1 though it is far more probable that in every case they are caused by under-currents and hidden shoals1 by which the ordinary currents are checked and broken so as to cause the effects described4 ,somewhat similar to these1 at least in its hidden cause1 is the celebrated ,maelstrom on the coast of ,norway1 a view of which is given in the cut4 ,this is caused by the tides1 in their violent passage between the ,loffoden islands2 and its terrors1 though at all times great1 are sometimes greatly increased by the winds4 ,the roar of the sea1 when the ,maelstrom is in full action1 is said to be terrific4 ,it is stated that not only ships1 but even whales1 have been sucked into this vortex1 and killed by being dashed against the hidden rocks4 ,the following description1 though imaginary1 gives a correct idea of the destruction of a ship in this whirlpool4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,maelstrom4 8,the breeze1 which had been long flagging1 now lulled into a calm1 and soon a low continual hum1 like that of an army of bees1 which seemed to rise out of the stilled ocean1 became audible to every ear4 ,not a word was spoken2 every one held his breath whilst he listened with an intensity of eagerness that betokened the awe that was fast filling the heart4 #8,it is the ,moskoestrom6' cried the boatswain4 #8,the ,moskoestrom6' echoed the crew4 #8,away1 men6' shouted the mate2 #8down to the hold1 bring up the spare sails1 clear the deck1 set up a spar for a mast2 away1 away6' 8,the din of preparation drowned the stern hum of the distant whirlpool3 there was1 however1 an anxious pause when the new sail was set into the air2 and experienced sailors suffered themselves to be cheated with the hope that there was still breeze enough to make the good ship answer her helm4 ,but1 alas6 the heavy canvas refused to expand its folds1 and not a breath of wind ruffled the dull surface of the sullen waters4 ,they had not another hope2 the sailors looked on one another with blank dismay1 and now they heard1 with awful distinctness1 the roar of the terrible ,maelstrom1 and the frowning rocks of ,loffoden were but too plainly visible on the right4 ,it became evident to all1 that the ship1 borne along by the tide1 was fast drawing near the dreadful whirlpool4 ,the vessel continued slowly to approach1 and the certainty of unavoidable death became every moment more overpowering and intense4 ,at first the sailors stood together in a group1 gazing gloomily upon one another2 but as the roar of the whirlpool became louder and louder1 and the conviction of inevitable destruction became stronger1 they all dispersed to various parts of the ship4 99 99 99 8,it was a beautiful day2 the sun shone forth without a cloud to dim his luster1 the waves sparkled beneath his influence1 and the white plumage of a thousand busy sea-birds became more dazzling with his rays4 ,the isle of ,moskoe was close at hand1 and looked cheerful and inviting1 but the ship was not to approach nearer to its shores2 the stream which bore her along never suffered any vessel to pause in its career4 ,and now there arose at some distance ahead of the vessel1 a horrible and dismal bellowing4 ,it was the voice of the leviathan in his agony2 and when those on deck who had still ears for exterior sounds looked forward to ascertain its cause1 they beheld a huge black monster upon the surface of the sea1 struggling against the irresistible stream1 and with his immense tail lashing the waters into foam1 as he vainly strove to escape from destruction4 ,they beheld him borne away by the might of his furious enemy2 and they heard his last roar above the noise of the whirlpool1 as he was sucked down into the never satisfied abyss1 and disappeared from their eyes to be torn to atoms2 for such is the fate of everything that seeks the depths of the ,maelstrom4 8,the ship glides along faster and faster2 she begins to toss and roll uneasily in the angry rapids that boil around her2 her race is nearly run4 ,terrible6 terrible moment6 ,the ship hurries on to her doom with mad impetuosity4 ,she is in the rapids6 she hurries along swift as a flash of fire4 ,she is in the whirl of water6 round1 round1 round she goes2 her inmates catch hold of her bulwarks and of each other1 to steady themselves4 ,and now her bow sprit is under the waves1 and a wild shriek of despair rises into the sky6 ,the whirlpool1 with greedy jaws1 has sucked her under40 ,the water of the whirlpool is said to be two hundred and fifty feet deep1 and at ebb its noise is as loud as a cataract4 ,in #afde1 it was so violently agitated by a storm1 that in ,moskoe the houses were so shaken as to cause the stones to fall to the ground4 ,fragments of vessels wrecked in the ,maelstrom are frequently seen on the coast1 brought up by the return of the tide1 their edges mashed and jagged as with a saw1 which would induce the belief that the bottom is composed of sharp rocks4 ,similar in its cause to the ,maelstrom1 though on a much inferior scale1 is the current1 or whirlpool1 called ,hurlgate or ,hellgate1 between the ,east river and ,long ,island sound1 near ,new ,york4 ,in the narrow channel here1 the tide flows backward and forward with great force2 and there being large1 irregular rocks in this channel1 the water is thrown into the most violent agitation4 ,in passing through the place1 it is easy to see the waves seeming to boil as if in a pot4 ,this place is dangerous to vessels1 and many have been wrecked here2 though the navigation is now so well understood1 that fewer accidents happen than formerly4 ,the steamboats generally pass in safety1 but still the superb ,oregon got upon the rocks here1 within a few years1 and came near being lost4 ,between ,sicily and the main land are the straits of ,messina1 where the current is rapid4 ,ancient mariners deemed this a terrible place2 one side they called ,scylla1 and the other ,charybdis4 ,the poets depicted the sailor in this rapid1 as beset by horrors2 for if he escaped ,scylla on one side1 ,charybdis was ready to dash him in pieces on the other4 ,this idea has come down to our day1 and has even passed into a proverb4 ------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- --- ------------------------------------ ,,cataracts ,,and ,,cascades ,it has often been remarked that no one is insensible to the beauty of flowing water4 ,when it glides quietly on in a stream1 its character is that of gentleness1 and it suggests only the ideas of calm and tranquil beauty4 ,but when it expands to a greater width1 and its floods are poured forth in an impetuous tide1 then it assumes the aspect of grandeur1 and wakens in the beholder the emotions of sublimity4 ,the beauty of running water has1 indeed1 long been celebrated1 and the river has often suggested an image illustrative of human life4 ,even ,pliny1 who wrote some two thousand years ago1 likens a river to the progress of man4 8,its beginnings10 he says1 8are insignificant1 and its infancy is frivolous2 it plays among the flowers of a meadow1 it waters a garden1 or turns a mill4 ,gathering strength in its growth1 it becomes wild and impetuous4 ,impatient of the restraint it meets with in the hollows of the mountains1 it is restless and fretful1 quick in its turnings1 and unsteady in its course4 ,now it is a roaring cataract1 tearing up and overturning whatever opposes its progress1 and it shoots headlong down a rock2 then it becomes a gloomy1 sullen pool1 buried in the bottom of a glen4 ,recovering breath by repose1 it again dashes along1 till1 tired of uproar and mischief1 it quits all that it has swept along1 and leaves the opening of the valley strewed with the rejected waste4 ,now1 quitting its retirement1 it comes abroad into the world1 journeying with more prudence and discretion through cultivated fields1 yielding to circumstances1 and winding round what would trouble it to overwhelm or remove4 ,it passes through the populous cities1 and all the busy haunts of man1 tenders its services on every side1 and becomes the support and ornament of the country4 ,increased by numerous alliances1 and advanced in its course1 it becomes grave and stately in its motions1 loves peace and quiet1 and in majestic silence rolls on its mighty waters1 till it is laid to rest in the vast abyss40 ,,falls ,,of ,,niagara4 ,cataracts or falls are formed by the descent of rivers over rocks1 from a higher to a lower level4 ,that of ,niagara1 is situated on the river ,niagara1 between ,canada and the ,united ,states1 which takes its rise in the eastern extremity of ,lake ,erie1 and1 after flowing for thirty-five miles1 empties itself into ,lake ,ontario4 ,its breadth is nine hundred feet1 and its depth very considerable2 but its current is so exceedingly strong and irregular1 and its channel so frequently interspersed with rocks1 that it is navigable for small boats only4 ,proceeding lower1 the stream widens1 and the rocks gradually recede from the view1 and the current though strong1 is smooth and regular4 ,at ,fort ,chippewa1 however1 situated one league above the cataracts1 the scene is again changed1 and the river so agitated1 that a boat would be inevitably dashed in pieces1 were it permitted to pass ,fort ,niagara1 situated on its bank4 ,so impetuously do the waves break among the rocks1 that the mere sight of them1 from the adjacent shore1 is sufficient to strike terror in the spectator4 ,as it approaches the falls1 the stream rushes along1 with redoubled fury1 until it reaches the edge of the stupendous precipice1 when it tumbles suddenly to the bottom1 without meeting with any obstruction in its descent4 ,precisely at this place1 the river strikes off to the right1 and the line of cataracts winds obliquely across1 instead of extending1 in the shortest direction1 from the one bank to the other4 ,it ought to be observed1 that the water does not precipitate itself down the vast abyss in one entire sheet1 but1 being separated by islands1 forms three distinct1 collateral falls4 ,one of these is called the great or ,horseshoe fall1 from the similarity of its form to that of a horseshoe4 ,it is situated on the north-west extremity of the river1 and is most deserving of the attention of the spectator1 as probably seven-eighths of the water passes over it1 and as its grandeur is evidently superior to that of the adjacent cataracts1 although its hight may be somewhat less4 ,as the extent of this fall can be ascertained by the eye only1 it is impossible precisely to describe its limits2 but its circumference is generally computed at eighteen hundred feet1 somewhat more than one-third of a mile4 ,beyond the intervening island1 the width of which may be equal to one thousand and fifty feet1 is the second fall1 about fifteen feet wide2 and at the distance of ninety feet1 occupied by the second island1 is the third fall1 the dimensions of which may be reckoned equal to those of the large island2 so that the entire extent of the precipice1 including the intermediate islands1 is four thousand and five feet2 a computation which certainly does not exceed the truth4 ,the quantity of water precipitated from the falls is prodigious1 and it has been estimated1 amounts to six hundred and seventy thousand1 two hundred and fifty tuns per minute4 ,from the eminence entitled the ,table rock1 the spectator has a fine prospect of the terrific rapids above the falls1 and of the surrounding shores1 embellished with lofty woods4 ,he there sees to advantage the adjacent ,horseshoe fall1 and the dread abyss1 into which he may look perpendicularly from the edge of the rock1 if his courage be equal to his curiosity4 ,the immensity of the various objects which here present themselves to the view1 infallibly overwhelms a stranger with astonishment1 and several minutes must elapse before he can possibly collect himself sufficiently to form any just conception of the awful and magnificent scene before him1 which requires that all its component parts should be separately examined1 and which affords so truly surprising an exhibition1 that persons who have resided in its vicinity for several years1 and who have been constantly habituated to its sublimity1 ingenuously acknowledge1 at their last visit1 that they were never able before to discover its peculiar grandeur4 ,from a cliff nearly opposite to one extremity of the third fall1 the falls are seen in a very interesting point of view3 the scenery there1 it is true1 is less magnificent1 but is infinitely more beautiful than from any other station4 ,for several miles beneath the precipice the river is bounded1 on either side1 by steep and lofty cliffs1 composed of earth and rocks1 which in most parts are perpendicular4 ,the descent to the bottom of the falls was formerly accomplished by two ladders1 formed of long pine trees1 with notches on their sides1 on which the traveler rested his feet1 and passed down amidst a variety of huge misshapen rocks and pendant trees1 seeming to threaten him with instantaneous destruction4 ,the breadth of the river in this part is about two furlongs2 and toward the right1 on the opposite side1 the third fall appears in a very advantageous point of view4 ,about one-half of the ,horse-shoe fall is concealed by the projecting cliff1 but its partial prospect is extremely fine4 ,the bottom of the former of these falls is skirted with a beautiful white foam1 which ascends from the rock in thick volumes1 but does not rise into the air like a cloud of smoke1 as is the case with that of the latter fall1 although its spray is so considerable1 as to descend like a shower of rain1 near the second ladder1 on the opposite side of the river4 ,on its brink1 and along the strand1 to the great fall1 are to be constantly seen shattered trees and bodies of animals1 which have been carried away by the extreme violence of the current4 ,the color of the water of the cataracts1 as it descends perpendicularly on the rocks1 is occasionally a dark green1 and sometimes a foaming1 brilliant white1 displaying a thousand elegant variations1 according to the state of the atmosphere1 the hight of the sun1 or the force of the wind4 ,a portion of the spray1 resulting from the falls1 frequently towers above the hight1 and literally mingles with the clouds3 while the remainder1 broken in its descent by fragments of rocks1 is in continual agitation4 ,the noise1 irregularity1 and rapid descent of the stream1 continue about eight miles further2 and the river is not sufficiently calm to admit of navigation1 till it reaches ,queenstown1 on the west side of the river1 and nine miles from the falls4 ,a late tourist has given us a more recent and fresh view of this wonderful cataract1 which will aid us more fully to understand its various aspects as taken from different points of observation4 8,from the bank just below the #8,clifton ,house1' he says1 8is perhaps the finest panoramic view of the falls4 ,the general outline bears a resemblance to the shape of a human ear2 the great ,horseshoe fall which is represented on the right hand of the cut below constituting the upper lobe1 while ,goat island and the ,american fall as seen on the left represent the remaining portion4 ,the river1 whose general course has been east and west1 makes a sharp turn to the right just at the point where the fall now is4 ,its breadth is here contracted from three-fourths of a mile to less than one-fourth4 ,the ,horseshoe fall only occupies the head of the chasm1 while the ,american cataract falls over its side2 so that this fall and a part of the ,horseshoe lie directly parallel with the ,canada shore1 and its whole extent can be taken in at a single glance4 ,it is this oneness of aspect which renders the prospect from this side so much the more impressive for a first view of ,niagara4 ,it gives a strong1 sharp outline which may afterward be filled up at leisure4 ,illustration3 ,,niagara ,,falls4 8,the most complete view of the ,horseshoe fall is that from the bottom of the cliff1 at a point near the ferry landing4 ,if1 however1 the water is unusually high1 the quiet pool which is ordinarily seen in the foreground1 becomes a fierce and angry rush of waters1 foaming above and around the jagged rocks4 ,if the water is very low1 the bed of this pool is entirely dry4 ,last year #aheb there were but few days when the whole spot was not overflowed4 ,the current nearest the ,canada shore runs up-stream1 as though seeking an outlet in the direction from which it came4 ,the middle distance is marked by a line of white foam1 beyond which the current runs downstream4 ,the center of the ,horse-shoe fall is directly in front1 defined on the right by the verge of ,table ,rock1 and on the left by the upper extremity of ,goat island4 ,just below the tower which seems to rise from the midst of the waters on the ,american side1 an immense mass of rock is dimly visible1 which became detached from the precipice in ,february1 #aheb4 8,a very charming glimpse of that portion of the fall directly in front of the tower1 may be caught through a clump of trees which stand a little above the ferry landing4 ,the limitation of view hightens the effect1 when contrasted with the unlimited prospect of the fall presented from almost every other point on the ,canada side4 8,it is no very difficult task for a stout pedestrian to make his way along under the edge of the precipice from the ferry up to the foot of the fall4 ,the path winds among huge fragments of rock which have tumbled from above1 and is slippery with the falling spray4 ,you stop to rest upon a huge rock1 where a couple of rough-coated men are fishing4 ,they tell you that it is named #8,bass rock1' and you recognize the propriety of the appellation1 as you observe the finny spoil that has repaid their labor4 ,the water rushes foaming and eddying around the fragments of rock1 sometimes rising in great swells to the spot on which you stand4 ,fragments of timber1 their ends rounded and worn like pebbles on a wave-beaten shore1 are scattered around3 some groaning and tossing in the water1 others stranded high and dry upon the rocks1 where they have been flung by some swell higher than usual4 ,you are so near the foot of the fall that the descending sheet of water occupies the entire field of vision3 the immense rock which interposes between ,bass rock and the descending water has as yet received no distinctive name4 8,the path now begins to ascend the sloping bank1 winding around huge bowlders1 and among gay shrubs which the perpetual spray nourishes in luxuriant greenness1 wherever there is a resting-place for a patch of soil4 ,at last you reach the dilapidated staircase which descends the perpendicular face of the cliff1 and clambering around its base upon a rotten and slimy plank1 you find yourself below the overhanging mass of ,table ,rock4 ,you are close at the edge of the falling water1 which descends in a mass apparently as solid as though carved from marble4 ,you now begin to comprehend the hight of the fall4 ,it makes you dizzy to look up to the upper edge of the rushing column4 ,you stand just midway between the top and the bottom4 ,above you hangs the imminent mass of ,table ,rock2 below1 far down by the wet and jagged rocks1 is the seething whirlpool1 where the water writhes and eddies as though frenzied with its fearful leap4 ,round and round it goes in solemn gyrations1 bearing with it whatever floating object may have been plunged into its vortex4 8,a year ago this very month of ,august1 a young woman walked in the cool gray morning down to the brink of the cliff and flung herself into the whirlpool below4 ,so resolute was the leap1 that she shot clear of the jagged rocks at the base1 and plunged sheer into the water beyond4 ,when the visitors came sauntering down to the fall1 her body was seen whirling round and round in the mad eddies1 now submerged for an instant1 and then leaping up1 as though imploring aid4 ,a day or two afterward1 ,i was one of a group to whom a rough-looking man was describing the scene4 ,he told how he and two others had descended amid the blinding spray close to the foot of the fall4 ,a rope was then fastened to his body1 which was held fast from above by the others1 while he groped his misty way down to the very edge of the waters1 where he waited till they whirled the corpse close inshore4 ,he then darted a spear with a spring-barb into the body1 but the force of the current tore out the hold1 and it drifted away4 ,again it came within reach1 and again the hold of the spear was too weak to overcome the force of the current4 ,a third time the body approached1 and the spear was darted4 ,this time it caught among the strong muscles of the thigh1 and held1 so that the body was drawn to shore4 ,the narrator was a rough man1 roughly clad1 and told his story roughly2 but there was in his voice a low thrill of horror as he told how he was obliged to cut the spear-head out of the flesh with his knife1 before the weapon could be extracted3 #8,it was too bad1' said he2 #8but it couldn't be helped4' ,and it was with unconscious pathos that he told how they stripped off their own rough garments1 and tenderly covered the poor maimed and mutilated body before they bore it up the bank4 ,it was a commentary1 wrought out into practice1 upon ,hood's immortal #8,bridge of ,sighs4' 8,with the exception of the fall itself1 the ,canada side presents little of interest4 ,the brink of the gorge is bare and naked1 the trees which once clothed it having been cut away4 ,the regular drive seems to be up to the ,burning ,spring1 and thence back by way of ,drummondville and ,lundy's ,lane4 ,at the ,burning ,spring you register your name1 pay your fee1 and are introduced into a small apartment1 in the floor of which is a spring in constant ebullition from the escape of an inflammable gas4 ,the flaxen-pated children of the show-woman place a receiver over the spring1 and set fire to the gas1 as it comes out of the jet2 they then remove the receiver1 and light the gas as it rises to the surface of the water2 and that is all4 ,you take your departure1 looking vastly edified2 while the driver thrusts his tongue into his cheek1 as though he were mentally quoting a certain proverb touching #8a fool and his money4' ,illustration3 ,niagara ,falls on the ,american side 8,in the early morning you commit yourself to the little boat in which you are to be ferried over to the ,american shore4 ,your half-felt misgivings are dissipated as you see the dexterous manner with which the brawny boatman handles his oars1 and takes advantage of the #8up-eddy' and #8down-eddy2' and in a few minutes you are landed close at the foot of the ,american fall4 ,half-way up the ferry-stairs is an opening which gives access to a path along the foot of the perpendicular precipice to the verge of the falling water4 ,from this point in the early morning1 may be gained one of the most picturesque views of ,niagara4 ,your position gives a fine view of the fall on the ,american side1 as seen in the cut2 the hight of which forms a standard by which you measure that of the ,horseshoe fall1 which stretches away in the distant perspective4 ,completing the ascent of the ferry-stairway1 you reach ,prospect point1 at its head1 from whence the same general view is gained1 from a more elevated point4 ,it is hard to say whether the view from above or below is the finer4 ,the latter brings more into notice the hight of the falling column of water1 thus gaining an additional element of grandeur1 while the latter embraces a view of the wooded islands above the fall1 adding greatly to the picturesque effect4 ,the precise point from which the artist has taken this sketch is not now attainable4 ,it was a projecting shelf of rock1 a few feet below the precipice1 which has been cut away to make room for the terribly unpicturesque1 but most convenient stairway4 8,this was apparently the point from which honest ,father ,hennepin1 who has left us the earliest written account of ,niagara1 gazed upon that #8prodigious ,cadence of ,waters1 which falls down after a surprising and astonishing ,manner1 insomuch that the ,universe can not afford its parallel4' #8,the ,waters1' goes on the quaint narrative1 #8which fall from this horrible ,precipice1 do foam and boyle after the most hideous ,manner imaginable1 making an outrageous ,noise more terrible than that of ,thunder4' ,the good ,jesuit would seem to have been deeply moved by this #8dismal ,roaring2' for in the curious picture which he gives of the falls1 he represents the spectators holding their hands to their ears to shut out the din2 and he hints that the ,indians were forced to abandon the neighborhood of the falls1 lest they should become deafened by the uproar4 ,but the good father must have heard the #8horrid ,noise of the ,falls1' as he elsewhere calls it1 with the imagination rather than with the ear4 ,you hardly notice it as you loiter along the brink1 except when some sudden atmospheric change varies its deep and solemn monotone4 ,the sound is like the continuous and pervading murmur of the wind through a forest of somber pines4 ,you are not forced to raise your voice in conversing with a friend by whose side you loiter along the brink of the fall1 toward the bridge which gives you access to the wooded islands that beckon you on4 8,nothing can exceed the picturesque beauty of the small wooded islands which stud the rapids upon the ,american side4 ,two of rare beauty1 known as ,ship and ,brig islands1 stem the current a little above the bridge which connects ,goat island with the shore4 ,it needs but little effort of the imagination to fancy them vessels under full press of sail1 endeavoring to sheer out of the current that hurries them inevitably down4 ,the former of these islands is accessible by a bridge which connects it with ,bath island1 and is one of the loveliest spots imaginable4 ,the old cedars1 whose gnarled and contorted trunks overhang the waters1 dipping their branches into the current1 seem to cling with desperate clutch to the rocks1 as though fearful of losing their hold and being swept away4 8,from the bridge leading to ,goat island1 the rapids present that same appearance of plunging from the sky which renders their view from the ,canadian shore so impressive4 ,goat island--so let it still be called1 in spite of the foppery which has lately attempted to change its name to ,iris island--presents an aspect almost as wild as it did before it had been rendered accessible to human foot4 ,were it not for the path which girdles its entire circumference1 and the rustic seats disposed here and there1 one might fancy that he was the first who had ever sauntered through its grand and stately woods4 ,the beauty and variety of the trees on this island are wonderful4 ,there is the maple1 greeting the early spring sunshine with its fire-tipped buds2 spreading out in summer its broad dome of dark green leaves in masses so thick1 that beneath them you have no fear of the passing shower2 and in autumn wearing its gorgeous crimson robe like an oriental monarch4 ,the beech shows its dappled trunk and bright green foliage at every point1 giving perpetual life and vivacity to the scene4 ,the silvery trunks of the white birch gleam among the underwood4 ,an occasional aspen1 with its ever-quivering leaves1 which almost shed a sense of breezy coolness in the stillest1 sultriest day1 contrasts finely with the dark evergreens by which it is relieved4 ,almost all of our northern fauna have their representatives here4 ,even upon the little ,ship island1 which can be crossed in any direction in a dozen strides1 and which appears to a hasty view but a mass of twisted and gnarled cedars1 there are at least seven distinct species of trees4 ,those trees1 however1 which immediately overhang the falls1 have an aspect peculiar to themselves4 ,they are bent1 broken1 twisted and contorted1 in every direction4 ,they seem to be starting back in horror from the abyss before them1 and to wind their long finger-like roots around the rocks1 in order to maintain their hold4 8,one of these1 an aged birch1 growing upon the ridge known as the #8,hog's ,back1' affords a resting-place from which to gain one of the finest views of the ,american falls4 ,right in front is the small central fall1 and the footbridge which leads to ,luna island1 with its trees dwarfed and stunted by the weight of frozen spray which loads them in the winter4 ,beyond is the serrated line of the ,american fall2 while the distance is filled up with the receding lines of the banks of the river below4 8,a few paces--past groups of blithe tourists1 past companies of somber ,indian girls in blue blankets and high-crowned hats1 with their gay wares spread out at their feet--brings you to the ,biddle staircase1 down which you wind to the foot of the precipice4 ,the path to the left leads along the foot of the overhanging cliff1 up to the verge of the ,horseshoe fall1 only a portion of whose circumference is visible from any point on the ,american shore4 ,you are here close upon the fragments of rock that fell from just in front of the tower1 in ,february1 #aheb1 the latest of those changes which are slowly and almost imperceptibly altering the form and position of the falls4 ,this fall of rock was seen by an artist who has given us a faithful picture of its effects4 ,he was just recovering from an illness1 and while sitting in his room at the ,clifton ,house1 on the opposite ,canadian shore1 he was startled by a crash1 almost like that of an earthquake4 ,tottering to the window1 he beheld the immense curtain of rock in front of the tower precipitated from its ancient hold1 and lying in huge masses upon the ice below2 while a few streams of water trickled down the brown cliff1 where but a moment before nothing had been seen but a surface of dazzling ice4 ,the water at this extremity of the fall descends in light feathery forms1 contrasting finely with the solid masses in which it seems to plunge down the center of the sweeping curve4 ,the tower is perched upon the very brink of the precipice1 so close that the next fall of rock must carry it along with it4 ,the path to the right from the foot of the staircase1 leads to the entrance to the ,cave of the ,winds1 which lies behind the central fall4 ,it is hard to imagine how this cavern missed being called the #8,cave of olus1' by those classicists who have exhausted ancient mythology for appellations for our ,american scenery4 ,but it has escaped this infliction2 and the #8,cave of the ,winds1' it is1 and will be4 ,from the little house close by the entrance1 where the requisite changes of dress are made1 you look down into an abyss of cold gray mist1 driven ever and anon like showers of hail into your face1 as you grope your way down the rocky slope4 ,haste not1 pause not4 ,here is the platform1 half-seen1 half-felt amid the blinding spray4 ,shade of ,father ,hennepin1 this is truly a #8dismal roaring' of wind and water4 ,we are across1 and stand secure on the smooth1 shaly bottom of the cave4 ,look up3 what a magnificent arch is formed by the solid rock on the one side1 and the descending mass of water on the other4 ,which is the solider and firmer you hardly know4 ,yet look again--for it is sunset--and see what we shall see nowhere else on earth1 three rainbows one within another2 not half-formed and incomplete1 as is the scheme of our daily life1 but filling up the complete circle1 perfect and absolute4 8,upon an isolated rock at the very brink of the cataract stands a round tower4 ,it is approached by a long1 narrow bridge1 resting now upon ledges of solid rock1 and now upon loose bowlders4 ,from the balcony upon its summit1 you can lean far over the edge of the precipice1 and there catch the freshness of the cloud of spray that rises evermore from the unseen foot of the great fall4 ,or you can climb down the low rock upon which the tower stands1 and gather shells and pebbles from within arm's length of the verge of the descent1 so gentle1 to all appearance1 is the current4 ,but be not over-bold4 ,these waters1 apparently so gentle1 sweep down with a force beyond your power to stem4 ,not many months ago1 a man fell from the bridge into their smooth flow1 and was in the twinkling of an eye swept to the brink of the descent4 ,here he lodged against one of those rocks that lie apparently tottering upon the brow1 looking over the fearful descent1 with as little power to retrace his course1 as he would have had to reascend the perpendicular fall4 ,a rope was floated down to him1 which he had just strength to fasten around his body1 and he was drawn up from his perilous position4 8,it is usual to speak of the ,horseshoe fall as ,canadian2 and our rather slow neighbors across the river have been wont to plume themselves upon the possession of the more magnificent part of ,niagara2 while ,young ,america has been heard to mutter between his teeth something about #8annexation1' on the ground that the lesser nation has no fair claim to the possession of the major part of the crowning wonder of the continent4 ,but the portion of ,niagara belonging to ,canada is hardly worth contending for4 ,the boundary line between the two countries is the deepest water1 which runs far over toward the ,canadian shore4 ,the line passes through the lonely little isle in the center of the river1 which has never been trodden by human foot4 ,right through the very center of the ,horseshoe fall1 where the water is greenest1 cutting the thickest pillar of spray1 through the inmost convolution of the whirlpool1 through the calmest part of the quiet reach of water above the suspension bridge1 through the maddest work of the rapids below1 goes the boundary line1 leaving to ,canada nothing of ,niagara except ,table ,rock1 which yearly threatens to fall1 and the half of the great fall3 while to ,america it gives1 together with full one-half of the ,horseshoe fall1 the varying beauties of the lesser cataracts1 and the whole wealth of the lovely islands which gem the rapids4 8,the general form of the falls is slowly changing from age to age4 ,when ,father ,hennepin saw them1 a century and three-quarters ago1 they presented little of that curved and indented outline which now forms their most striking peculiarity4 ,the fall on the western side extended in nearly a straight line from the head of ,goat island to ,table ,rock1 which terminated in a bluff that turned a portion of the water from its direct course1 forming another cataract which fell to the east4 ,a century later1 this projecting rock had disappeared1 but the spot which it had occupied was distinctly traceable4 ,from the character of the strata through which the water has slowly worn its way back from the shores of ,lake ,ontario1 we learn what must have been the appearances of the fall at any period of its history4 ,thus it can never have overcome the descent of three hundred and fifty feet at ,lewiston at a single leap1 but must have formed at least three cataracts separated by intervening rapids4 ,when the falls occupied the position of the whirlpool1 three miles below their present site1 the descent was evidently greater than at any period before or since4 ,but there never can have been a period when their beauty equaled that which they present at the present age4 ,the immense breadth of the sheet of falling water1 its graceful sweep of curves1 and the picturesque islands that stud the brink1 belong solely to our present ,niagara4 ,the falls recede at present1 we are told1 at the rate of something less than a foot in a year4 ,geology is able to predict that when a recession of a mile has taken place1 some five or six thousand years hence1 the hight of the fall will be reduced by a score of feet4 ,another five thousand years will subtract two score more of feet4 ,ten thousand years more1 when the fall shall have worn its way four miles further back1 all that constitutes ,niagara will have disappeared1 and the whole descent will be accomplished by a series of rapids like those near the whirlpool4 8,it is strange how little of direct human interest is connected with ,niagara4 ,one would have supposed that it would have been a sacred spot with the ,indians2 but1 with the exception of a few graves on the upper extremity of ,goat island1 no special memorial of the aborigines exists here4 ,the falls have been known to the white race for too short a time to gather around them legendary associations4 ,one or two points are associated with the memory of a young ,englishman who1 something like a score of years ago1 set up as the #8,hermit of the ,falls4' ,a picturesque little break in the rapids between ,goat island and one of the rocky islets known as the ,three ,sisters1 has been named from him the #8,hermit's cascade4' ,it is a lovely spot1 by the side of which one may lie under the overarching trees1 and while away the noontide hour1 lulled into dreamy slumber by the deep voice of the cataract4 ,this hermit seems hardly worthy of being made the hero of the falls4 ,little is told of him except that he was fond of music and of pacing by night along the margin of the river2 that he was alike indisposed for human society and for clean linen4 ,it is said1 indeed1 that he was accustomed to record his musings in ,latin1 but as no fragments of these were discovered after his death1 we may set the story down as apocryphal4 ,a deeper tragic interest is attached to a tale1 now some three years old1 which will be told you as you stand by the margin of the lesser fall4 ,a party of visitors stood here1 in gay discourse4 ,among them were a young man and his affianced bride1 and with them a laughing child4 ,the young man1 catching up the child1 said sportively to her1 #8,now ,i shall throw you over2' when she1 gliding from his hold in affright1 half real and half feigned1 slipped1 and falling1 plunged headlong into the stream2 he sprang after1 but the current was stronger than his strength1 and swept them both down the smooth slope1 and over the fall4 ,their bodies1 mangled and bruised1 were recovered from the rocks below4 8,the pedestrian can hardly find a pleasanter summer day's ramble1 than that along the river to ,lewiston1 descending on the ,american side1 and returning by the opposite bank4 ,for a mile below the falls1 where the channel is narrowest1 the current is so smooth1 that one might fancy he was gazing down into some quiet tarn embosomed in the mountains1 were it not that you catch the white margin of the lower rapids just where the suspension bridge stretches its slender line from the summits of the opposing cliffs40 ,this bridge1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 is about two and a half miles below the falls1 and spans the river near the head of the rapids1 above the whirlpool4 ,from pier to pier it is eight hundred feet long1 and in breadth eight feet4 ,it is suspended on eight wire cables1 four on each side1 which pass over towers fifty-four feet high1 built of heavy timber4 ,the present structure is only the scaffolding for constructing a larger bridge1 intended for the passage of railroad cars4 ,the towers for the large bridge will be of solid masonry1 each eighty feet high4 ,each of the cables is eleven hundred feet long1 and composed of seventy-two strong1 ,no4 #aj iron wires1 closely wrapped round with small wire three times boiled in linseed oil1 which anneals it1 and prevents injury from rust or exposure to the weather4 ,the cables1 after passing over the piers on the banks1 are fast anchored in solid masonry fifty feet back of them4 ,the suspenders1 which form the sides1 are composed of eight wires each1 and are four and a half feet apart4 ,the bridge itself is two hundred feet above the water1 and is a wonder alike of enterprise and art4 ,illustration3 ,suspension ,bridge over ,niagara ,river ,our tourist proceeds as follows4 8,in the quiet reach of the water below this bridge1 plies the little steamer1 the ,maid of the ,mist4 ,after passing the ugly1 bustling little village growing up around the ,american extremity of the bridge1 a path leads through quiet fields and woods along the very verge of the precipice4 ,here and there some tree growing upon the brink forms a safe balustrade over which you lean1 and look down upon the green water dashing furiously through its confined channel far below4 8,the whirlpool1 three miles below the falls1 is an adjunct worthy of ,niagara4 ,the stream makes a sharp bend just where the channel is narrowest and the descent of the rapids the steepest4 ,at the angle the current has scooped out an immense basin1 around whose whole circumference the water circles before it can find an outlet4 ,all floating bodies that pass down the river are drawn into the whirlpool1 where they are borne round and round for days1 and weeks sometimes1 it is said1 before they make their escape4 ,a practicable path winds down the bank to the water's edge4 ,the character of the banks gradually changes as we descend toward the outlet of the river4 ,the hard limestone overlying the softer rock1 and forming the perpendicular portion of the cliff1 becomes thinner2 the sloping talus at the foot grows higher1 and the rocks are clothed with a luxurious forest growth4 ,a half mile below the whirlpool is a deep cleft in the precipitous bank1 which is connected with a wild ,indian legend ascribing terrible convulsions of nature1 and even the approach of the fatal white men1 to an unauthorized violation of the privacy of a great demon who once abode here4 ,this was the scene of a terrible tragedy in the old ,french wars4 ,a convoy of ,british soldiers fell into an ambush of ,indians at this point1 and were all1 with the exception of two1 slain outright or driven over the edge of the chasm4 ,the little rivulet which flows over the brink1 ran red with the blood of the slaughtered1 and thus gained the name1 which it still bears1 of the ,bloody ,run4 8,close by the ,devil's ,hole1 the railroad now in course of construction from ,lewiston to the falls1 gains the level of the top of the bank4 ,from this point downward1 it is excavated in the face of the cliff1 forming a steep grade to its bottom4 ,an almost continuous line of shanties1 occupied by the laborers engaged in the excavation1 extends along the very verge of the precipice4 ,it was curious1 as ,i passed along in the early ,april days1 to see children whom we should scarcely trust out of the nurse's arms1 sprawling upon the very verge of the cliff4 ,the laborers are apparently all ,irish1 and it is noteworthy to see how much more intelligent is the aspect of the younger than of the older children4 ,i thought ,i could distinguish by their mere physical appearance1 those who were born under the freer and happier auspices which surround them here4 ,at the foot of the cliff the suspension bridge stretches like a slender thread across the stream1 its supporting towers resting on a ledge above the level of the roadway4 ,no line of guards watches the quiet frontiers of two great nations4 ,the sole police is a small boy at the gate1 and the only passport demanded is a shilling for toll4 ,you climb the smooth slope to the summit1 where the shattered monument to the noble ,brock is the only memorial of the day when the thrice-won victory was at last wrenched from the hands of the ,americans4 ,a flock of sheep are cropping the tender herbage2 a couple of lambs have found a shady resting-place in the crumbling archway of the monument4 ,to the right the white village of ,lewiston presents an aspect of bustling activity2 while to the left1 on the opposite ,canadian shore1 ,queenstown rests gray and somber4 ,at your feet1 just below the dilapidated memorial of war1 the bridge1 symbol of union1 binds the two shores3 may it never be a pathway for the march of hostile armies6 8,there are two or three things in the way of excursion which must sooner or later be performed4 ,some bright afternoon1 when the west is all aglow1 as you sit upon ,table ,rock1 watching the clouds of spray momently torn from the face of the descending column1 the guide with the hollow voice1 whose mission is to conduct visitors behind the great sheet1 presents himself4 ,you commit yourself to his guidance1 and donning the suit of yellow oil-skin1 follow him down the spiral staircase1 along the base of the precipice up to the verge of the cataract4 ,you shudder1 and hesitate to enter the blinding spray along that winding path1 which seems in the dimness like a slender line drawn upon the face of the rock4 ,the guide whispers a word of encouragement1 deftly insinuating how boldly #8the lady' trod its slippery length4 ,you take courage and advance4 ,you can scarcely breathe1 much less see2 but you feel that the torrent is plunging from the immeasurable hight above into the unfathomable depth below4 ,somehow1 how you hardly know1 you have passed through the thick curtain of blinding spray1 and are peering eagerly into the gray depth beyond4 ,you are on ,termination rock1 and further than this mortal foot may never penetrate within the vail4 ,whichever way you turn1 it is all cold gray mist1 shrouding the overhanging rock and the overarching water above1 and the profound depths below2 all mist1 cold gray mist above1 below1 around1 except when you turn your eyes back along the path by which you entered1 where you behold a strip of golden sky between the grim rock and the edge of the descending flood4 ,drenched and dripping1 spent and exhausted1 as a shipwrecked sailor flung by the surf upon some inhospitable shore1 you follow your guide back along the misty path1 and emerge gladly enough into the clear outer air1 into the free sunshine1 and beneath the bright sky4 ,as you doff the heavy oil-skin integuments1 a printed paper is put into your hand1 certifying that you #8have been under the great sheet of water1 the distance of two hundred and forty feet from the commencement of the falls to the termination of ,table ,rock1' verified by the signature of the proprietor of #8,table ,rock ,house4' ,your guide looks on you complacently1 as though he would assure you that the great end of life was now attained1 and you might take up your #8,nunc dimittis4' 8,or you take your place upon the deck of the ,maid of the ,mist1 hard by the suspension bridge1 and are steamed up to the foot of the cataract4 ,the little steamer answers but poorly to her romantic name4 ,she swings wearily from her moorings1 and goes panting and tugging up the current4 ,yet she manages to hold her course1 unless the wind blows too strong down-stream1 and slowly wins her way close up to the huge rocks on which the waters of the ,american fall are broken and shattered into the thickest of spray4 ,in that spray a sharp and angry gust of wind tears a sudden rent1 and through it you catch a glimpse of the green crest of the ,horseshoe fall1 sinking grandly into the ocean of vapor below4 ,or better still1 if in some calm moonlight night1 you glide1 with the boatman1 along the foot of the ,american fall1 keeping just outside of the dark line of shadow1 you will find there is nothing on earth so weird and ghost-like as the spectacle before you4 ,the column of spray rises from the blackness below1 like the specter of some gigantic tree1 and spreads solemnly up into the clear air above4 8,the mere summer tourist1 however1 sees but half the glory of ,niagara4 ,in the winter the great rocks at the foot of the fall are piled up with an accumulation of frozen spray to the depth of half a hundred feet4 ,by creeping cautiously up the slippery ascent1 you may stand face to face with the cataract1 half-way up its giddy hight4 ,every shrub on its margin is loaded with glittering ice4 ,the thick-branched evergreens are bowed beneath its weight1 and bend to the ground like enormous plumes4 ,the face of the cold gray rock is cased in the frozen element1 and ribbed with pillars and pilasters which flash back the reflection of all the gems in the rays of the sun2 and when in a clear1 unclouded day1 that sun shines down in its splendor1 the scene is one of matchless magnificence and glory40 ,thus we have attempted a full description of ,niagara2 and yet words seem but feeble to set forth the magnificence and grandeur of the scene as it rises to the view of the actual beholder4 ,there1 in its vast volume and resistless power1 it ever flows on with ceaseless1 patient1 unwearied tide4 ,at midnight and noonday1 through summer and winter1 and seed-time and harvest1 it is still the same4 ,the drought of summer does not sensibly diminish1 or the freshets of spring augment its mighty current4 ,the scorching sun does not dry it up1 and the chains of winter do not bind it4 ,emblem of ,god and of eternity1 it rolls on1 speaking in calm sublimity of ,him who made it4 ,nor is sublimity the only characteristic of this greatest of waterfalls4 ,there are traits of beauty1 which seem even to highten the effect of its grandeur4 ,the rainbow1 ever playing in sunshine over its awful front1 and seeming indifferent to the boiling whirlpool beneath2 the tide of many-colored gems1 into which the spray often seems converted1 as it plunges over the rocks2 the heaps of foam1 white as wool1 dancing on the billows that rush away from the foot of the fall2 and more than all1 an aspect of tranquillity and of repose1 which settles upon the whole scene1 when viewed at a little distance1 are all incidents which blend in the majestic picture imprinted on the memory by this stupendous yet lovely work of nature's ,god4 ,the falls of ,niagara have been the frequent theme of poetry1 but the following lines by ,brainard are deemed the finest that have been produced upon the subject4 8,the thoughts are strange that crowd into my brain1 ,while ,i look upward to thee4 ,it would seem ,as if ,god poured thee from his #8hollow hand1' ,and hung his bow upon thine awful front2 ,and spoke in that loud voice1 which seemed to him ,who dwelt in ,patmos for his ,saviour's sake1 #8,the sound of many waters2' and had bade ,thy flood to chronicle the ages back1 ,and notch ,his centuries in the eternal rocks6 8,deep calleth unto deep1 and what are we1 ,that hear the question of that voice sublime8 ,oh6 what are all the notes that ever rung ,from war's vain trumpet1 by thy thundering side6 ,yea1 what is all the riot man can make ,in his short life1 to thine unceasing roar6 ,and yet1 bold babbler1 what art thou to ,him1 ,who drown'd a world1 and heaped the waters far ,above its loftiest mountains8--a light wave1 ,that breaks and whispers of its ,maker's might60 ,,falls ,,of ,,the ,,montmorenci4 ,the ,montmorenci empties itself at the distance of about eight miles northeast of ,quebec1 into the great river ,st4 ,lawrence1 to the coast of which it gradually descends from the elevated mountain on which it has its source4 ,at a station called ,la ,motte1 situated on the northern extremity of a sloping ground1 its waters diffuse themselves into shallow currents1 interrupted by rocks which break them into foam1 and accompanied by murmuring sounds which enliven the solitude and solemn stillness prevailing throughout the surrounding forests and desolate hills4 ,further down1 its channel is bounded by precipitous rocks1 its breadth becoming extremely contracted1 and the rapidity of its current proportionably augmented4 ,at a place called 8the natural steps10 there are several beautiful cascades of ten or twelve feet4 ,these steps1 which are extremely regular1 have been gradually formed by the accession of waters the river receives in its progress1 at the breaking up of winter1 by the melting of the snows4 ,from the middle of ,april to the end of ,may1 its waters roll with increasing hight and rapidity4 ,being powerfully impelled in their course1 they insinuate themselves between the strata of the horizontal rock1 vast fragments of which are detached by the rushing violence of the sweeping torrent4 ,illustration3 ,,falls ,,of ,,montmorenci4 ,on the eastern side1 the bank1 which is almost perpendicular1 and fifty feet high1 is surmounted by lofty trees4 ,the south-west bank rises beyond the steps1 and terminates in a precipice4 ,on the opposite side1 the bank is regular1 and of a singular shape1 resembling the ruin of an elevated wall4 ,the trees by which the banks are inclosed1 united with the effect produced by the foaming currents1 and the scattered masses of stone1 form a scene wild and picturesque4 ,the stream now taking a southern direction1 is augmented in its velocity1 and forms a grand cascade interrupted by huge rocks4 ,a quarter of a mile further down a similar effect is produced4 ,after exhibiting an agreeable variety through its course1 the river is precipitated1 in an almost perpendicular direction1 over a rock two hundred and fifty feet in hight4 ,a view of this latter cascade is given in the cut4 ,wherever it touches the rock1 it falls in white clouds of rolling foam2 and1 beneath1 where it is propelled with uninterrupted gravitation1 it forms numerous flakes1 like wool or cotton1 which are gradually protracted in the descent1 until they are received into the boiling profound abyss beneath4 ,the effect from the summit of the cliff is awfully grand1 and truly sublime4 ,the prodigious depth of the descent of the waters of this surprising fall2 the brightness and volubility of their course2 the swiftness of their movement through the air2 and the loud and hollow noise emitted from the basin1 swelling with incessant agitation from the weight of the dashing waters1 forcibly combine to attract the attention1 and to impress the mind of the spectator with sentiments of grandeur and elevation4 ,the clouds of rising vapor1 which assume the prismatic colors1 contribute to enliven the scene4 ,they fly off from the fall in the form of a revolving sphere1 emitting with velocity pointed flakes of spray1 which spread in receding1 until they are interrupted by the neighboring banks1 or dissolved in the atmosphere4 ,the breadth of the fall is one hundred feet2 and the basin1 which is bounded by steep cliffs1 forms an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,when viewed from the beach1 the cataract is seen1 with resplendent beauty1 to flow down the gloomy precipice1 the summit of which is crowded with woods4 ,the diffusion of the stream1 to the breadth of fifteen hundred feet1 and the various small cascades produced by the inequalities of its rocky bed1 on its way to the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 display a very singular and pleasing combination4 ,,the ,,tuccoa ,,fall4 ,this fall1 in ,franklin county1 ,georgia1 is as yet scarcely known to the best informed of our geographers1 and is notwithstanding one of the most beautiful that can be conceived4 ,it is much higher than the great fall of ,niagara2 and the water is charmingly propelled over a perpendicular rock4 ,when the stream is full1 it passes down the steep in one expansive sheet1 magnificent to behold4 ,,falls ,,of ,,the ,,missouri4 ,the most prominent features of this great river1 which is fed by so many streams1 having their sources in a great variety of soils and climates1 are its wonderful falls1 rapids and cascades1 the following connected view of which is abstracted from the very accurate draught and survey made by ,captain ,clarke4 ,this river is nine hundred feet wide at the point where it receives the waters of ,medicine river1 which is four hundred and one feet in width4 ,the united current continues five thousand1 four hundred and twelve feet1 somewhat more than a mile1 to a small rapid on the north side1 from which it gradually widens to four thousand1 two hundred feet1 and at the distance of nine thousand and forty-two feet1 7nearly a mile and three-fourths17 reaches the head of the rapids1 narrowing as it approaches them4 ,here the hills on the north1 which had withdrawn from the bank1 closely border the river1 which1 for the space of a mile1 makes its way over the rocks with a descent of thirty feet3 in this course the current is contracted to sixteen hundred and forty feet1 and1 after throwing itself over a small pitch of five feet1 forms a beautiful cascade of twenty-six feet1 five inches2 this does not1 however1 fall quite perpendicularly1 being stopped by a part of the rock1 which projects at about one-third of the distance4 ,after descending this fall1 and passing the ,cotton-wood island1 on which the eagle has fixed its nest1 the river goes on for eight thousand1 seven hundred and seventy-eight feet1 7more than a mile and a half17 over rapids and little falls1 the estimated descent of which is thirteen feet six inches1 till it is joined by a large fountain boiling up underneath the rocks near the edge of the river1 and falling into it with a cascade of eight feet4 ,it is of the most perfect clearness1 and rather of a bluish cast2 and even after falling into the ,missouri it preserves its color for half a mile4 ,from this fountain the river descends with increased rapidity for the distance of thirty-five hundred and thirty-one feet1 during which the estimated descent is five feet3 from this1 for a distance of twenty-two hundred and twenty-seven feet1 the river descends fourteen feet seven inches1 including a perpendicular fall of six feet seven inches4 ,the river has now become pressed into a space of fourteen hundred and nineteen feet1 and here forms a grand cataract1 by falling over a plain rock1 the whole distance across the river1 to the depth of forty-seven feet1 eight inches3 after recovering itself1 the ,missouri then proceeds with an estimated descent of three feet1 till at the distance of sixteen hundred and eighty-three feet it again is precipitated down the crooked falls1 nineteen feet perpendicularly2 below this at the mouth of a deep ravine1 is a fall of five feet1 after which1 for the distance of sixteen thousand and five feet1 7upward of three miles17 the descent is much more gradual1 not being more than ten feet1 and then succeeds a handsome level plain for the space of twenty-nine hundred and thirty-seven feet1 7more than half a mile17 with a computed descent of three feet1 making a bend toward the north4 ,thence it descends1 during seventy-nine hundred and twenty feet1 about eighteen feet and a half1 when it makes a perpendicular fall of two feet1 which is fourteen hundred and eighty-five feet beyond the great cataract1 in approaching which it descends thirteen feet1 within a distance of about six hundred feet1 and gathering strength from its confined channel1 which is only eight hundred and forty feet wide1 rushes over the fall to the depth of eighty-seven feet and three-quarters of an inch4 ,after raging among the rocks1 and losing itself in foam1 it is compressed immediately into a bed of two hundred and seventy-nine feet in width2 it continues for fifty-six hundred and ten feet to the entrance of a run or deep ravine1 where there is a fall of three feet1 which1 joined to the decline of the river during that course1 makes the descent six feet4 ,as it goes on1 the descent within the next thirty-nine hundred and sixty feet is only four feet2 from this1 passing a run or deep ravine1 the descent for sixteen hundred feet is thirteen feet3 within thirty-nine hundred and sixty feet1 is a second descent of eighteen feet2 thence twenty-six hundred and forty feet further1 is a descent of six feet2 after which1 to the mouth of ,portage creek1 a distance of forty-six hundred and twenty feet1 the descent is ten feet4 ,from this survey and estimate it results that the river experiences a descent of three hundred and fifty-two feet in the course of fifteen or sixteen miles1 from the commencement of the rapids1 to the mouth of ,portage creek1 exclusive of almost impassable rapids which extend for a mile below its entrance4 ,,catskill ,,falls4 ,the ,catskill1 or ,kauterskill falls1 represented in the cut below1 are in the south-west part of the town of ,catskill1 about fourteen miles from the village1 and two miles west from ,pine ,orchard1 a celebrated summer resort on the brow of the ,catskill mountain4 ,two ponds1 uniting their outlets1 pour the stream thus formed1 by falls and rapids in a deep ravine1 to the plain below4 ,the first fall is a hundred and eighty feet perpendicular2 and the second1 which is within a short distance1 about eighty feet4 ,behind the first fall is an immense natural amphitheater1 into which the visitor can go1 and look through the water as it falls from above4 ,the view from the #8,mountain house1' near by1 is extensive and varied4 ,the landscape1 in a clear atmosphere1 is visible for sixty miles4 ,illustration ,,trenton ,,falls4 ,among the most beautiful and romantic cascades of the ,united ,states1 may justly be reckoned ,trenton falls1 situated about eighteen miles north-east of ,utica1 in the state of ,new ,york1 on ,west ,canada creek4 ,here1 within a course of two miles1 there are six falls1 with an aggregate descent of three hundred and twelve feet4 ,the scenery is the most wild and picturesque imaginable2 the stream flowing through a narrow ravine1 between perpendicular walls of limestone1 which in some places are one hundred and fifty feet high4 ,the pathway of the spectator is mostly along the very margin of the chasm which forms the channel of the rushing waters1 on a ledge1 or shelf1 so narrow and perilous1 that the head often is giddy from the sight2 and sometimes it is difficult to sustain one's self4 ,these cascades are more remarkable for the wildness and variety of scenery1 than for the volume of water they present4 ,the hight of the principal fall is estimated at one hundred feet4 ,,waterfall ,,of ,,south ,,africa4 ,the great chain of mountains which runs from north to south through the colony of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 divides into two branches1 one of which stretches south-east1 and the other due south4 ,at the extremity of the latter branch is 8the waterfall mountain10 in one of the clefts of which a large stream of water falls from the high rock above1 and presents1 in the winter season1 when swollen by the rains1 a glorious spectacle4 ,to view this fall to advantage1 the traveler has to climb to a considerable hight over the steep and broken rocks which form one side of the mountain1 and1 on reaching the top1 sees it on the other side4 ,its hight is estimated at between eighty and ninety feet1 and its breadth at between thirty and forty4 ,adequate terms can not be found to describe the sublimity of this scene1 after abundant rains1 when it is in its full beauty4 ,in the vale beneath1 the water is collected in a vast and deep basin1 excavated in the stone2 and by the side of the stream is a grotto1 which runs within the rock to the depth of between thirty and forty feet4 ,the arched entrance to this grotto is close to the falling water1 when the stream is full4 ,the rocks about it are thickly grown over with shrubs1 which are then sprinkled by the spray4 ,the ,european travelers who proceed from ,cape ,town to the interior of ,south ,africa1 seldom fail to make a pilgrimage to this enchanting spot4 ,,cataracts ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 ,this celebrated river1 through its long and fertile range of about two thousand ,british miles1 in winding through abrupt and precipitous countries1 exhibits very considerable cataracts1 ten or twelve of which1 having a descent of more than twenty feet1 occur1 before it reaches the level of ,egypt4 ,the one which1 by way of eminence1 is called the cataract of the ,nile1 was visited by ,mr4 ,bruce1 from whose relation the following particulars are extracted4 ,at the distance of half a mile beneath the cataract1 the river is confined between two rocks1 over which a strong bridge of a single arch has been thrown1 and runs into a deep trough1 with great roaring1 and an impetuous velocity4 ,on ascending1 the cataract presents itself amid groves of beautiful trees1 and exhibits a most magnificent and stupendous sight1 such as1 ,mr4 ,bruce observes1 ages1 added to the greatest length of human life1 could not efface or eradicate from his memory4 ,it struck him with a kind of stupor1 and total oblivion of where he was1 as well as of every sublunary concern4 ,at the time of his visit1 the river had been considerably increased by rains1 and fell in one sheet of water1 above half an ,english mile in breadth1 and to the depth of at least forty feet1 with a force and noise which were truly terrific1 and which1 for a time1 stunned him1 and made him giddy4 ,a thick fume1 or haze1 covered the fall in every part1 and hung over the course of the stream both above and below1 marking its track1 although the waters were not seen4 ,the river1 although much swollen1 preserved its natural clearness1 and fell1 partly into a deep pool1 or basin1 in the solid rock1 and partly in twenty different eddies to the very foot of the precipice4 ,in falling1 a portion of the stream appeared to run back with great fury on the rock1 as well as forward in the line of its course1 raising waves1 or violent ebullitions1 which chafed against each other4 ,,cataract ,,of ,,the ,,mender4 ,the cataract which constitutes the source of this river1 the ,scamander of the ancients1 is thus beautifully described by ,doctor ,clarke4 8,our ascent1 as we drew near to the source of the river1 became steep and rocky4 ,lofty summits towered above us1 in the greatest style of alpine grandeur2 the torrent1 in its rugged bed below1 all the while foaming on our left4 ,presently we entered one of the sublimest natural amphitheaters the eye ever beheld2 and here the guides desired us to alight4 ,the noise of waters silenced every other sound4 ,huge craggy rocks rose perpendicularly1 to an immense hight2 whose sides and fissures1 to the very clouds1 concealing their tops1 were covered with pines4 ,these grew in every possible direction1 among a variety of evergreen shrubs2 and enormous plane-trees waved their vast branches above the torrent4 ,as we approached its deep gulf1 we beheld several cascades1 all of foam1 pouring impetuously from chasms in the naked face of a perpendicular rock4 ,it is said the same magnificent cataract continues all seasons of the year1 wholly unaffected by the casualties of rain or melting snow4 ,having reached the chasms whence the torrent issues1 we found1 in their front1 a beautiful natural basin1 six or eight feet in depth1 serving as a reservoir for the water during the first moments of its emission4 ,it was so clear that the minutest object might be discerned at the bottom4 ,the copious overflowing of this reservoir causes the appearance1 to a spectator below1 of different cascades1 falling to the depth of about forty feet1 but there is only one source4 ,behind are the chasms whence the water issues4 ,we entered one of these1 and passed into a cavern4 ,here the water appeared1 rushing with great force1 beneath the rock1 toward the basin on the outside4 ,the whole of the rock about the source was covered with moss2 close to the basin grew hazel and plane trees2 above were oaks and pines2 and all beyond a naked and fearful precipice40 ,the bold and precipitous country of the ,alps offers a variety of waterfalls and perpendicular torrents which are well deserving of notice2 more particularly those in the vicinity of ,mount ,rosa1 a part of the northern boundary of ,piedmont4 ,the river ,oreo1 fed by numerous streams from ,mount ,st4 ,gothard1 ,mount ,cenis1 and several branches of the ,apennines1 forms1 at ,cerosoli1 a vertical cascade1 estimated at four hundred fathoms1 or twenty-four hundred feet2 while the torrent ,evanson1 descending from another part of ,mount ,rosa1 exhibits a fall of more than two hundred fathoms1 rolling down pebbles of quartz1 veined with the gold which is occasionally traced in the mountains of ,challand4 ,the ,cascata del ,marmore1 or ,marble ,cascade1 so denominated from the mountain down which the ,velcino falls being almost wholly of marble1 lies about three miles from ,terni4 ,in proceeding toward it1 the traveler is struck with terror on viewing the precipices1 which are of a romantic hight2 but is sufficiently rewarded1 when1 on reaching the summit of the mountain1 he regards the stupendous cataract1 formed by the river as it rushes from the mountain4 ,having reached the declivity of its channel1 the waters descend with a rapid course for a short space1 and then fall from a perpendicular hight of three hundred feet1 breaking against lateral rocks1 which cause vapors to ascend much higher than the summit of the cataract1 by which the neighboring valley receives a perpetual fall of rain4 ,after this descent1 the waters rush into the cavities of the rocks1 and then bursting through several openings1 at length reach the bed of the river4 ,the grand cascade of the ,anio1 near ,tivola1 flows down the edge of a steep rock2 and at its foot1 the water1 in a succession of ages1 has hollowed grottos of various shapes and sizes1 in a manner so beautifully picturesque1 as to baffle all description4 ,of these1 the grotto of ,neptune is the most celebrated4 ,near to it are three smaller cascades1 which rush murmuring through the ruins of the villa ,mecnas1 down the woody steep which forms the opposite bank of the river1 and present the painter with one of the most picturesque views imaginable1 the foreground varying beautifully at every step he takes4 ,in ,savoy1 the ,arve flows many miles between high1 craggy and inaccessible rocks1 which appear to have been purposely cleft to give its waters a free passage4 ,the surprising echoes and continual sounds occasioned by its streams1 the trampling of the horses and mules1 the hallooing of passengers1 c41 are1 in these places1 reverberated three1 four1 and even in some parts six or seven times1 with a noise so deep and wild1 as to strike with terror the traveler who is unaccustomed to them2 and the firing of a gun or pistol1 is there more terrible than the loudest claps of thunder4 ,a steep precipice1 with monstrous impending rocks1 which seem ready to fall1 joined to the roaring of the river1 add largely to the general sublimity4 ,the cataracts of this river are more or less loud and terrible1 in proportion as the waters are more or less swollen by the melting snows1 with which the tops of the mountains are covered4 ,one in particular1 called the ,nun of ,arpena1 falls from a prodigiously high rock with great noise and violence3 its descent is said to exceed eleven hundred feet4 ,in ,dalmatia1 the river ,cettina forms a magnificent cascade1 called by the inhabitants ,velica ,gubavisa1 to distinguish it from a less fall a little below4 ,the waters precipitate themselves from a hight of above one hundred and fifty feet1 forming a deep majestic sound1 which is caused by the echo resounding between the steep and naked marble banks4 ,many broken fragments of rocks1 which impede the course of the river after its fall1 break the waves1 and render them still more lofty and sonorous4 ,by the violence of the repercussion1 their froth flies off in small white particles1 and is raised in successive clouds1 which are scattered1 by the agitation of the air1 over the valley4 ,when these clouds ascend directly upward1 the inhabitants expect the noxious south-east wind called the sirocco4 ,the fall of the ,staub-,bach1 in the valley of ,lauterbrannen1 is estimated at nine hundred feet of perpendicular hight2 and about a league from ,schaffhausen1 at the village of ,lauffen1 in ,switzerland1 is a tremendous cataract of the ,rhine1 where that river precipitates itself from a rock said to be seventy feet in hight1 and not less than four hundred and fifty feet broad4 ,in ,sweden1 near ,gottenburgh1 the river ,gotha rushes down from a prodigiously high precipice into a deep pit1 with a dreadful noise1 and with such amazing force1 that the trees designed for the masts of ships1 which are floated down the river1 are usually turned upside down in their fall1 and shattered in pieces4 ,they frequently sink so far under water1 as to disappear for a quarter of an hour1 half an hour1 and sometimes for three-quarters of an hour4 ,the pit into which the torrent precipitates them1 is of a depth not to be ascertained1 having been sounded with a line of several hundred fathoms1 without the bottom being found4 ,in addition to the other ,north ,american cataracts already described1 may be noticed the ,passaic falls1 formed by the river ,passaic1 which discharges itself into the sea at the northern extremity of the state of ,new ,jersey4 ,about twenty miles from the mouth of this river1 where it has a breadth of about a hundred and twenty feet1 and runs with a very swift current1 it reaches a deep chasm1 or cleft1 which crosses its channel1 and falls about seventy feet perpendicularly in an entire sheet4 ,one end of the cleft is closed up1 and the water rushes out of the other with incredible rapidity1 in an acute angle to its former direction1 and is received into a large basin4 ,it thence takes a winding course through the rocks1 and spreads again into a very considerable channel4 ,the cleft is from four to twelve feet in breadth1 and is supposed to have been produced by an earthquake4 ,the falls of ,st4 ,anthony1 on the river ,mississippi1 descend from a perpendicular hight of thirty feet1 and are nearly eight hundred feet in width1 while the shore on each side is a level flat1 without any intervening rock or precipice4 ,in ,england1 among the cataracts which merit a brief mention1 may be cited the one in ,devonshire1 near the spot where the ,tamer receives the small river ,lid4 ,the water there falls above a hundred feet3 it proceeds from a mill at some distance1 and after a course on a descent of nearly one hundred feet from the level of the mill1 reaches the brink of the precipice1 whence it falls in a most beautiful and picturesque manner1 and1 striking on a part of the cliff1 rushes from it in a wider cataract to the bottom2 where falling again with great violence1 it makes a deep and foaming basin in the ground4 ,this fine sheet of water causes the surrounding air at the bottom to be so impregnated with aqueous particles1 that those who approach it find themselves in a mist4 ,in ,cumberland there are several cataracts2 but these are exceeded in beauty by a remarkable fall of the ,tees1 on the western side of the county of ,durham1 over which is a bridge suspended by chains1 seldom passed unless by the adventurous miners4 ,asgarth force1 in ,yorkshire1 is likewise a very interesting fall4 ,in ,scotland1 the fall of ,eyers1 near ,loch ,ness1 is a vast cataract1 in a darksome glen of a stupendous depth4 ,the water rushes beneath1 through a narrow gap between two rocks1 and thence precipitating itself more than forty feet lower into the bottom of the chasm1 the foam1 like a great cloud of smoke1 rises and fills the air4 ,the sides of this glen are stupendous precipices1 blended with trees overhanging the water1 through which1 after a short space1 the waters discharge themselves into the lake4 ,about half a mile to the south of this fall1 is another which passes through a narrow chasm1 whose sides it has undermined for a considerable distance4 ,over the gap is a true alpine bridge1 formed of the trunks of trees covered with sods1 from the middle of which is an awful view of the water roaring beneath4 ,in ,perthshire1 the river ,keith presents a very considerable cataract1 the noise produced by which is so violent as to stun those who approach it4 ,the western coast of ,ross-shire is1 however1 peculiarly distinguished by these natural wonders1 among which may be cited the grand cataract of the river ,kirkag1 and the cascade of ,glamma1 which latter being situated amid the constant obscurity of woody hills1 is truly sublime4 ,in ,ireland1 the noble river ,shannon has a prodigious cataract1 which1 at about fifty miles from its mouth1 prevents it from being longer navigable for vessels of a large burden4 ,,springs ,,and ,,wells4 ,,st4 ,,winifred',s ,,well4 ,holywell1 in ,flintshire1 is famous for ,st4 ,winifred's well1 one of the finest springs in the world4 ,on account of the sanctity in which it was holden1 it gave name to the town4 ,this well pours out1 each minute1 twenty-one tuns of water1 which1 running to the middle of the town1 down the side of a hill1 is made use of by every house as it passes1 after which it turns several mills1 and is employed in various manufactures1 which greatly increase the population of the place and its neighborhood4 ,over the spring1 where a handsome bath has been erected1 is a neat chapel1 supported by pillars1 and on the windows are painted the chief events of ,st4 ,winifred's 7or1 as it was anciently written1 ,wenefrede's7 life4 ,about the well grows moss1 which the ignorant and superstitious devotees most stupidly imagine to be ,st4 ,winifred's hair4 ,this saint is reported to have been a virgin martyr1 who lived in the seventh century1 and1 as the legend says1 was ravished and beheaded in this place by a pagan tyrant2 the spring having miraculously risen from her blood4 ,hence this bath was much frequented by popish pilgrims1 out of devotion1 as well as by those who came to bathe in it for medicinal purposes4 ,mr4 ,pennant says1 8,the custom of visiting this well in pilgrimage1 and offering up devotions there1 is not yet entirely laid aside3 in the summer a few are to be seen in the water1 in deep devotion1 up to their chins for hours1 sending up their prayers1 or performing a number of evolutions round the polygonal well40 ,it might have been supposed that the present enlightened age would have been secure against a repetition of impostures of this kind2 but ,doctor ,milner1 a ,catholic bishop1 of ,wolverhampton1 took much pains to persuade the world that an ignorant proselyte1 of the name of ,winefrid ,white1 was there cured of various chronic diseases1 so late as the year #ahjd1 by a miracle4 ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 having1 in the ,monthly ,magazine1 referred this pretended miracle to the known effect of strong faith on ignorant minds1 in any proposed means of cure1 was attacked by the ,catholic clergy for his incredulity2 but in number three hundred and two1 of the ,monthly ,magazine1 he replies in the following words4 8,we have no doubt whatever that ,winefrid ,white was cured by her journey to ,holywell1 and by bathing in the wonderful natural spring at that place2 but we are not credulous enough to believe that her cure was effected by any antagonist properties of the water to the cause of her disease2 nor impious enough so to sport with eternal omnipotence1 as to assert that a capricious suspension of the laws of nature took place for this purpose4 ,on the contrary1 we believe that the poor woman was cured by causes well known to every medical practitioner1 and proved in hundreds of recorded instances2 that is to say1 by her faith in the means proposed for her cure1 wrought to the highest pitch by her religion1 and by the assurances of those to whom she was accustomed to defer4 ,we think1 nevertheless1 that the publication of this #8case of ,winefrid ,white1' savors strongly of religious empiricism1 and is exactly analogous to the #8cases of cure' which we every day see advertised in all the newspapers4 ,we refrain from treating the subject theologically1 yet it appears to us that ,matthew xxiv4 #bd1 proves that #8signs and wonders' are not only no evidence of divine interposition1 but may be used even by #8false prophets1 so as to deceive the very elect4' ,the continuance of miraculous powers will be found1 we suspect1 to depend on other circumstances than the date of the year4 ,they disappear wherever the printing-press begins to be freely used1 and1 by its agency1 fixes all the circumstances that attend them2 and they still continue to flourish wherever the history of the circumstances depends for any period on traditional evidence4 ,miracles are1 therefore1 performed in abundance1 even in our days1 among the negroes1 the ,hottentots1 the ,caffres1 the ,tartars1 the ,south ,sea islanders1 and the ,indians of the two ,americas4 ,the last we believe on record are to be found in the ,hon4 ,m4 ,elphinstone's published embassy to ,cabul in #ahjh3 he states that the sick were carried after him many days' journey2 and1 at page twenty-eight1 he says3 #8,some thought we could raise the dead2 and there was a story current1 that we had made and animated a wooden ram at ,mooltaun2 that we had sold him as a ram2 and that it was not till the purchaser began to eat him1 that the material of which he was made was discovered4' ,we forbear to press the subject further40 ,,wigan ,,well4 ,about a mile from ,wigan1 in ,lancashire1 is a spring1 the water of which burns like oil4 ,on applying a lighted candle to the surface1 a large flame is suddenly produced1 and burns vigorously4 ,a dishful of water having been taken up at the part whence the flame issues1 and a lighted candle held to it1 the flame goes out2 notwithstanding which the water in this part boils and rises up like water in a pot on the fire1 but does not feel warm on introducing the hand4 ,what is still more extraordinary1 on making a dam1 and preventing the flowing of fresh water to the ignited part1 that which was already there having been drained away1 a burning candle being applied to the surface of the dry earth at the same point where the water before burned1 the fumes take fire1 and burn with a resplendent light1 the cone of the flame ascending a foot and a half from the surface of the earth4 ,it is not discolored1 like that of sulphureous bodies1 neither has it any manifest smell1 nor do the fumes1 in their ascent1 betray any sensible heat4 ,the latter unquestionably consist of inflammable air1 or hydrogen gas2 and it ought to be observed that the whole of the country about ,wigan1 for the compass of several miles1 is underlaid with coal4 ,this phenomenon may therefore be referred to the same cause which occasioned the dreadful explosion of ,felling colliery2 but in the present case1 this destructive gas1 instead of being pent up in the bowels of the earth1 accompanies the water in its passage to the surface4 ,,dropping ,,well ,,at ,,knaresborough4 ,this dropping well1 or petrifying spring1 rises at the foot of a limestone rock1 at an inconsiderable distance from the bank of the river ,nidd4 ,the spring1 after running about sixty feet1 divides1 and spreads itself over the top of the rock1 whence it trickles very fast1 from thirty or forty places1 into a channel hollowed for the purpose1 as seen in the cut1 each drop producing a musical kind of tinkling1 probably owing to the concavity of the rock1 which1 bending in a circular projection from the bottom to the top1 occasions its brow to overhang about fifteen feet4 ,this rock1 which is about thirty feet in hight1 forty-eight in length1 and from thirty to fifty in breadth1 started1 in the year #agjd1 from the common bank1 and left a chasm1 from five to nine feet wide1 over which the water passes by an aqueduct formed for the purpose4 ,it is clothed with evergreen and other shrubs1 which add greatly to the beauty of this very interesting scene4 ,illustration3 ,,dropping ,,well ,,at ,,knaresborough4 ,the water is said to abound with fine particles of a nitrous earth1 which it deposits1 but when in a languid motion only1 and leaves its incrustations on the leaves1 moss1 c41 which it meets with1 in trickling thus slowly through the cavities of the rock4 ,this spring is estimated to send forth twenty gallons of water in a minute4 ,here are to be seen pieces of moss1 bird's nests with their eggs1 and a variety of other objects1 some of them very curious which have been incrusted or petrified by the water4 ,,broseley ,,spring4 ,this celebrated boiling spring1 or well1 at ,broseley1 in ,shropshire1 was discovered in the month of ,june1 #agaa4 ,it was first announced by a terrible noise in the night1 there having been a remarkable thunder-storm4 ,several persons who resided in the vicinity having been awakened in their beds by this loud and rumbling noise1 arose1 and proceeding to a bog under a small hill1 about two hundred yards from the river ,severn1 perceived a surprising commotion and shaking of the earth1 and a little boiling up of water through the grass4 ,they took a spade1 and digging up a portion of the earth1 the water immediately flew up to a great hight1 and was set on fire by a candle which was presented to it4 ,to prevent the spring from being destroyed1 an iron cistern has been placed over it1 provided with a cover1 and a hole in the center1 through which the water may be viewed4 ,if a lighted candle1 or any burning substance1 be presented to this aperture1 the water instantly takes fire1 and burns like spirit of wine1 continuing to do so as long as the air is kept from it2 but on removing the cover of the cistern1 it quickly goes out4 ,the apparent boiling and ascent of the water of this spring1 are still more obviously the result of hydrogen gas1 or inflammable air1 than in the preceding instance of ,wigan well4 ,,hot ,,springs ,,of ,,st4 ,,michael4 ,in the eastern part of this island1 7one of the ,azores17 is a round1 deep valley surrounded by high mountains1 in which are many hot springs2 but the most remarkable is that called the ,caldeira1 situated in the eastern part of the valley on a small eminence by the side of a river1 on which is a basin about thirty feet in diameter1 where the water continually boils with prodigious fury4 ,a few yards distant from it1 is a cavern in the side of a bank1 in which the water boils in a dreadful manner1 throwing out a thick1 muddy1 unctuous water1 several yards from its mouth1 with a hideous noise4 ,in the middle of the river are several places where the water boils with so intense a heat1 that a person can not dip his finger into it without being scalded4 ,on its banks are several apertures1 out of which the steam rises to a considerable hight1 and is so hot that it can not be approached by the hand4 ,in other parts1 the spectator would be led to suppose that the bellows of a hundred forges were blowing in concert2 while sulphureous streams issue out in a thousand places4 ,the bushes even1 near these spots1 are covered with pure brimstone1 condensed from the steam which issues from the ground4 ,in the small caverns whence the steam issues1 many of the inhabitants prepare their food4 ,,hot ,,springs ,,of ,,the ,,troad4 ,the ,troad1 a country of ,phrygia1 in ,asia ,minor1 of which ,troy was the capital1 abounds with hot springs2 the most interesting one of which is thus described by ,doctor ,clarke4 ,it is situated near a place called ,bonarbashy1 signifying literally 8the head of the springs10 and gushes perpendicularly out of the earth1 rising from the bottom of a marble and granite reservoir1 and throwing up as much water as the famous fountain of ,holywell1 in ,wales4 ,its surface seems vehemently boiling2 and1 during cold weather1 the condensed vapor above it causes the appearance of a cloud of smoke over the well4 ,while the mercury stood at forty-six degrees in the open air1 it rose1 when the thermometer was plunged in the water1 to sixty-two degrees4 ,notwithstanding the warmth of this spring1 fishes were seen sporting in the reservoir4 ,in every part of the district through which the ,mender flows1 from ,ida to the ,hellespont1 are many of these springs1 of different degrees of temperature4 ,the ,geysers have already been described1 in treating of ,mount ,hecla1 and its surprising volcano4 ,in following up the details of the phenomena of this nature given above1 by a brief notice of other bubbling1 tepid and boiling springs1 it may not be improper to premise that heat1 water and vapors of various kinds1 exist in prodigious quantities beneath the surface of the earth2 and frequently1 as has been seen in the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes1 burst forth from enormous openings1 with tremendous destruction4 ,it often happens1 however1 that the openings are small and porous1 and that the vapors ascending through them1 are simply combined with water4 ,hence that almost infinite variety in the characters of these springs1 fountains and lakes1 the waters of which are combined with extraneous substances4 ,in some cases the clastic gases1 or vapors1 ascend from specific levity alone1 and are destitute of all taste and odor2 insomuch that springs are found which bubble without boiling1 or betraying heat or any other foreign quality4 ,in other cases they are strongly impregnated with heat2 and are then either tepid or boiling1 according to the proportion of extricated caloric they contain4 ,occasionally1 whether hot or cold1 they are blended with metallic1 sulphureous1 saline1 and other substances1 and hence assume the name of mineral waters2 while1 if the substance thus dissolved be combustible1 as naphtha1 bitumen1 or turpentine1 the fountain will often inflame and burn on the application of a lighted torch4 ,the water of the noted boiling spring at ,peroul1 near ,montpelier1 is observed to heave and boil up very furiously in small bubbles1 which manifestly proceed from a vapor breaking out of the earth1 and rushing through the water1 so as to throw it up with noise1 and in many bubbles2 for on digging in the vicinity of the ditch where the spring lies1 and pouring fresh water on the dry spot newly dug1 the same boiling is immediately observed4 ,a similar bubbling of the water is likewise found near ,peroul1 on the seashore4 ,in several dry places near the spring1 are small ventiducts1 passages or clefts1 whence steam issues2 and at the mouths of these passages1 small light bodies1 such as feathers1 pieces of straw1 leaves1 c41 being placed1 are soon blown away4 ,this vapor1 on the application of a lighted candle or torch1 does not flame or take fire1 as is the case with that of the boiling spring at ,wigan2 so that there are two different sorts of steam1 to occasion these boilings1 at the same time that neither of the fountains is medicinal1 or even warm4 ,other boiling waters1 of a very different temperature1 possess1 like those of the hot springs of ,st4 ,michael1 a sufficient degree of heat to boil eggs1 and to serve for other culinary purposes4 ,among these may be instanced those of the ,solfatara1 near ,naples2 those on the summit of ,mount ,zebio1 in the ,modenese territory2 and those which constitute the source of the imperial bath at ,aix la ,chapelle4 ,in ,japan1 a hot spring is said to burst forth which constantly maintains the boiling-point1 and the water of which retains its heat much longer than common water4 ,it does not flow regularly1 but during an interval of two hours each day2 and the force and violence of the vapors are then so great1 that large stones are ejected1 and raised to the hight of ten or twelve feet1 with a noise like that of the explosion of a piece of artillery4 ,from the phenomena which have been adduced1 it appears that the exhalations constantly escaping from the vast subterraneous magazines in which they are prepared1 vary greatly in their qualities and effects4 ,some are cold and dry1 resembling air or wind1 as those near ,peroul1 and in the cavities of mountains1 especially those of olus and other hills of ,italy1 as well as in particular mines4 ,others are inflammable1 and of a bituminous nature1 though not positively warm1 as those of ,wigan well4 ,others are very hot1 sulphureous and saline1 more especially those of the natural stoves1 sweating-vaults1 grottos1 baths and volcanoes near ,naples1 ,bai1 ,cuma and ,pozzuoli1 as also in some of the subterraneous works at ,rome4 ,and others1 again1 are of an arsenical1 or other noxious quality1 as those of the ,grotta del ,cane4 ,now1 these various streams meeting with1 and running through water1 must occasion in it a great variety of phenomena and effects4 ,it is observed by ,doctor ,thomson1 in his history of the ,royal ,society1 that the hot spring at ,bath1 has continued at a temperature higher than that of the air for a period of not less than two thousand years1 although it is so far distant from any volcano1 that1 without a very violent and improbable extension of the agency of volcanic fires1 it can not be ascribed to them4 ,there are various decompositions of mineral bodies1 which generate considerable heat2 or1 to speak more properly1 water is itself the decomposed substance generating heat by its decomposition4 ,the evolution of azotic gas is a proof that the heat of the ,bath waters is owing to a particular decomposition which takes place within the bowels of the earth4 ,the greatest heat of these waters is one hundred and sixteen degrees of ,fahrenheit's scale2 but that of the mineral waters of ,carlsbad1 in ,bohemia1 ascends to one hundred and sixty-five degrees4 ,there are several curious springs which are worthy of notice in this connection1 though somewhat varying from the class thus far mentioned4 ,one of these was recently discovered in ,california1 about fifty miles east of ,san ,felipe1 in ,san ,diego county4 ,it was discovered by a party engaged in surveying the public lands1 and consists of a collection of fountains or springs of soda water1 situated in a sandy plain or depression of the surface of the desert4 ,the spring is in a mound of symmetrical shape1 tapering like a sugar-loaf1 in the center of the top of which is a hole1 apparently unfathomable1 containing the carbonated beverage fresh from some natural laboratory below4 ,some of these mounds are six feet high1 and clothed with a green and luxuriant coat of grass1 while others are shaped like an inverted bowl1 and fringed by a growth of cane4 ,the water is described as having the same sparkling and effervescing quality as that ordinarily sold by apothecaries1 and was drunk with avidity by both the men and animals belonging to the party discovering it4 ,when impregnated with acid of any kind1 it produced instant effervescence1 and in that form was peculiarly refreshing as a drink4 ,another singular spring has also been discovered on the way from the ,great ,salt lake1 to ,los ,angelos1 through the ,cajon pass4 ,the traveler who gives the account of it says3 8,we had crossed the great desert without any accident1 and then camped on a stream of deliciously cool water1 about twelve to eighteen inches wide1 which distributes itself about half a mile lower down in a meadow covered with luxuriant grasses4 ,this camp-ground is called by the ,spaniards1 #8,las ,vegas4' ,once more we had plenty of grass for our fatigued animals1 and we determined to rest here for the day4 ,during our journey we passed a number of deserted wagons1 chairs1 c4 ,an ox-train from ,little ,salt lake had preceded about ten days2 and it was not difficult to follow their trail1 for in the space of one hour ,i counted the putrid carcasses of nineteen oxen and horses4 ,what a lesson to those who venture on such a journey unadvisedly and unprepared6 ,the strong north wind which blew all day1 raised a cloud of dust which almost blinded me1 although ,i had goggles and a green vail to protect my eyes2 however1 the delightful and refreshing water of this oasis soon purified me2 and ,i felt1 having crossed the desert1 breakfasted and bathed1 much more comfortable1 both mentally and physically4 ,the acacia was the only tree on this stream4 ,having remained at this camp all one day1 the next morning we were on the road to ,cottonwood springs1 some twenty miles distant1 where we would find water and grass1 and then commence a journey over another desert of fifty-five miles4 ,we followed up this little stream for about three miles1 when the road turned a little to the right2 but ,i was anxious to see the head of the stream1 for1 from the appearance of the surrounding country1 ,i judged it to be very near4 ,several gentlemen and myself continued up the stream1 and after a ride of half a mile1 we came to a large spring1 thirty-five feet wide and forty long1 surrounded by acacias in full bloom4 ,we approached through an opening1 and found it to contain the clearest and most delicious water ,i ever tasted2 the bottom appeared to be not more than two feet from the surface1 and to consist of white sand4 ,one of the party prepared himself for a bath1 and soon his body divided the crystal waters4 ,while ,i was considering whether ,i should go in1 ,i heard him calling to me that it was impossible to sink1 the water was so buoyant4 ,i hardly believed it1 and1 to be able to speak certainly1 ,i also undressed and jumped in4 ,what was my delight and astonishment to find that all my efforts to sink were futile4 ,i raised my body out of the water1 and suddenly lowered myself1 but ,i bounded upward as if ,i had struck a springing-board2 ,i walked about the water up to my armpits1 just the same as if ,i had been walking on dry land4 ,the water instead of being about two feet deep1 was over fifteen1 the length of the longest tent-pole we had along4 ,it is impossible for a man to sink over his head in it2 the sand on the banks is very fine and white2 the temperature is seventy-eight degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,i can form no idea as to the cause of this singular phenomenon4 ,great ,salt lake also possesses this quality1 but this water is perfectly sweet4 ,in the absence of any other name ,i have called it ,buoyant spring4 ,i have never heard of it as possessing this quality1 and should like some of the savants to explain the cause of buoyancy4 ,we lingered in the spring for fifteen minutes1 when we dressed and resumed our ride1 highly delighted and gratified by our exploration4 ,i made drawings of this spot and surrounding mountains40 ,still another singular spring1 also in ,california1 was discovered by a ,mr4 ,dabney1 when boring for water in ,san ,jose4 ,the auger penetrated through a stiff bed of clay fifty-eight feet thick1 when a stream of water was struck which forced itself up the aperture with unprecedented power1 and in a volume greater1 it is believed1 than all the other artesian streams in the neighborhood combined4 ,from this well alone flowed a sufficiency of water to turn a mill4 ,it boiled up with great force1 and ran off in a stream four feet wide and six inches deep4 ,at the mouth the current washed out a hole of several feet wide and very deep4 ,serious apprehensions were entertained1 when the stream first burst forth1 that it would be impossible to control it4 ,the water was cold and delightful1 and it was estimated that the spring would be sufficient to supply the whole city plentifully4 ,reciprocating fountains1 or springs1 may be cited among the most curious phenomena of nature4 ,an irregularity of flow is not uncommon in boiling springs2 but there are other springs which evince a periodical influx and reflux1 almost as regular as the tides of the ocean4 ,these changes1 it will be seen1 frequently occur several times in a day1 or even in an hour4 ,they are ascribed to various causes1 either subterraneous or superficial2 but in general1 springs and lakes of this description1 have been ascertained to communicate with others beneath1 through pores or apertures of various diameters1 which serve equally to carry off the waters1 and to supply them afresh4 ,in such cases the flux and reflux of the upper head of water1 must necessarily depend on the state of that beneath2 and the causes which alternately augment and diminish the latter1 must produce a similar effect on the former4 ,paderborn spring1 in ,westphalia1 disappears twice in twenty-four hours1 returning constantly1 after a lapse of six hours1 with a great noise1 and so forcibly as to drive three mills at a short distance from its source4 ,the inhabitants call it the bolderborn1 that is1 the boisterous spring4 ,lay-well spring1 near ,torbay1 is about six feet in length1 five in breadth1 and nearly six inches deep4 ,the flux and reflux1 which are very visible1 are performed in about two minutes2 when the spring remains at its lowest ebb for the space of about three minutes4 ,in this way it ebbs and flows twenty times within the hour4 ,as soon as the water begins to rise1 many bubbles ascend from the bottom2 but on its falling1 the bubbling instantly ceases4 ,giggleswick spring1 in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 lies at the foot of a hill of limestone1 named ,giggleswick ,scar4 ,its reciprocations are irregular1 both with respect to duration and magnitude1 the interval of time between any two succeeding flows being sometimes greater1 and at other times less1 insomuch that a just standard of comparison can not be formed4 ,the rise of the water1 in the stone trough or cistern which receives it1 during the time of the well's flowing1 is equally uncertain1 varying from one inch to nine or ten inches1 in the course of a few reciprocations4 ,this spring1 like the preceding one1 discharges bubbles of air at the time of its flowing4 ,near the lake of ,bourget1 in ,savoy1 is a reciprocating spring which rises and falls with a great noise1 but not at stated and regular times4 ,after ,easter1 its ebbings and flowings are frequently perceived six times in an hour2 but in dry seasons not more than once or twice4 ,it issues from a rock1 and is called ,la ,fontaine de ,merville1 the marvelous fountain4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,bituminous ,,and ,,other ,,lakes4 ,,pitch ,,lake ,,of ,,trinidad4 ,near ,point la ,braye1 7,tar point17 the name assigned to it on account of its characteristic feature1 in the island of ,trinidad1 is a lake which at the first view appears to be an expanse of still water1 but which1 on a nearer approach1 is found to be an extensive plain of mineral pitch1 with frequent crevices and chasms filled with water4 ,on its being visited in the autumnal season1 the singularity of the scene was so great1 that it required some time for the spectators to recover themselves from their surprise1 so as to examine it minutely4 ,the surface of the lake was of an ash color1 and not polished or smooth1 so as to be slippery1 but of such a consistence as to bear any weight4 ,it was not adhesive1 although it received in part the impression of the foot1 and could be trodden without any tremulous motion1 several head of cattle browsing on it in perfect security4 ,in the summer season1 however1 the surface is much more yielding1 and in a state approaching to fluidity1 as is evidenced by pieces of wood and other substances1 thrown upon it1 having been found enveloped in it4 ,even large branches of trees1 which were a foot above the level1 had1 in some way1 become enveloped in the bituminous matter4 ,the interstices1 or chasms1 are very numerous1 ramifying and joining in every direction2 and being filled with water in the wet season1 present the only obstacle to walking over the surface4 ,these cavities are in general deep in proportion to their width1 and many of them unfathomable3 the water they contain is uncontaminated by the pitch1 and is the abode of a variety of fishes4 ,the arrangement of the chasms is very singular1 the sides invariably shelving from the surface1 so as nearly to meet at the bottom1 and then bulging out toward each other with a considerable degree of convexity4 ,several of them have been known to close up entirely1 without leaving any mark or seam4 ,the pitch lake of ,trinidad contains many islets covered with grass and shrubs1 which are the haunts of birds of the most exquisite plumage4 ,its precise extent can not1 any more than its depth1 be readily ascertained1 the line between it and the neighboring soil not being well defined2 but its main body may be estimated at three miles in circumference4 ,it is bounded on the north and west sides by the sea1 on the south by a rocky eminence1 and on the east by the usual argillaceous soil of the country4 ,,mud ,,lake ,,of ,,java4 ,the following details relative to the volcanic springs of boiling mud in ,java are extracted from the ,penang ,gazette4 ,having received an account of a wonderful phenomenon in the plains of ,grobogna1 a party set off1 from ,solo1 in ,september1 #ahad1 to examine it4 ,on approaching the place1 they saw what at first appeared like the surf breaking over the rocks1 with a heavy spray falling to the leeward4 ,alighting1 they went to the 8,bluddugs10 as the ,javanese call them1 which they found to be an elevated plain of mud1 about two miles in circumference1 in the center of which immense bodies of soft mud were thrown up to the hight of ten or fifteen feet1 in the form of large bubbles1 which bursting1 emitted great volumes of dense white smoke4 ,the largest bubbles1 of which there were two1 rose and burst some seven or eight times a minute1 throwing up from one to three tuns of mud1 the smell of the smoke from which was very offensive1 like the washings of a gun-barrel4 ,it was both difficult and dangerous to go near the large bubbles1 as the surface1 except where it had been hardened by the sun1 was all a quagmire4 ,they went1 however1 close to a small bubble1 7the plain was full of them1 of all sizes17 and observed it for some time4 ,it appeared to heave and swell1 and when the air within had raised it to some hight1 it burst1 and the mud fell down in concentric circles1 and then remained quiet till again it was raised1 again to burst2 which was at intervals of from one to two minutes4 ,the water drained from the mud was collected by the ,javanese1 and being exposed to the sun deposited crystals of salt4 ,next morning the party rode to a place in the forest1 to view a salt lake1 a mud hillock1 and various boiling pools4 ,the lake was about half a mile in circumference1 of dirty-looking water1 boiling up all over in gurgling eddies2 the water being cold1 bitter and salt1 with an offensive smell4 ,the mud hillock1 which was near1 was about fifteen feet high1 in the form of a cone1 with a base of eighty1 and a top of eight feet diameter4 ,the top was open1 and the interior1 which was full of boiling and heaving mud1 was found to be eleven fathoms deep4 ,every rise of the mud was attended by a rumbling noise from within2 and the mud was more liquid than at the bluddugs1 and unattended by smoke4 ,near the foot of this hillock was a small pool of water1 like that of the lake1 boiling violently2 and some two hundred yards distant1 two larger pools or springs of the same general description1 the smell of which was very offensive1 and the boiling of which could be heard at quite a distance1 resembling the noise of a small waterfall4 ,the water both of the bluddugs and of the lake1 is used medicinally by the ,javanese1 and also1 as stated above1 for the making of salt1 which is gathered in considerable quantities1 and the government income from which adds not a little to the public revenues4 ,the general cause of the phenomena here witnessed1 is supposed1 beyond all question1 to be volcanic2 the salt water being thrown up by this agency in a heated state1 and thus mingling with the soil to produce the boiling and heaving mud above described4 ,,salt ,,lake ,,of ,,utah4 ,before leaving the subject of lakes1 springs1 c41 we must not omit to mention the ,great ,salt lake of ,utah territory1 which has been gazed upon with interest by many an emigrant1 passing with his family1 as represented in the following cut1 to his far western home4 ,this lake lies in a region abounding with scenery of unrivaled magnificence and beauty4 8,descend from the mountains10 says a late writer1 8where you have the scenery and climate of ,switzerland1 to seek the sky of your choice among the many climates of ,italy1 and you may find1 welling out of the same hills1 the freezing springs of ,mexico1 and the hot springs of ,iceland1 both together coursing their way to the great salt sea in the plain below4 ,the pages of ,malte ,brun provide me with a less truthful parallel to it1 than those which describe the happy valley of ,rasselas1 or the continent of ,balnibarbi4 ,in the midst of this interesting region1 the most remarkable object is the ,great ,salt lake3 which1 in the saltness of its waters1 in the circumstance of its having no outlet1 and being fed from another and smaller lake of fresh water1 7with which it is connected by a stream which has appropriately been called the ,jordan17 and in the rugged character of some portions of the surrounding region1 bears a remarkable resemblance to the ,dead sea of ,palestine4 ,instead1 however1 of lying one thousand feet below1 it is more than four thousand feet above the level of the sea2 and its waters1 being an almost pure solution of common salt1 are free from the pungent and nauseous taste which characterizes those of the ,dead sea4 ,this lake is about seventy miles long1 and thirty miles wide1 and is so intensely salt that no living thing can exist in it2 and by evaporation in hot weather1 it leaves on its shores a thick incrustation of salt4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,emigrant ,,family4 ,some twenty-five miles south of this1 and connected with it by the river ,jordan1 as mentioned above1 is ,utah lake1 a body of fresh water1 some thirty-five miles in length1 which abounds with trout and other fish4 ,and some seven hundred feet higher still1 is ,pyramid lake1 on the slope of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains1 so named from a singular pyramidal mount rising from its transparent waters to the hight of some six hundred feet2 and walled in by almost perpendicular precipices1 in some places three thousand feet high4 ,some distance from here1 too1 are the boiling springs1 described by ,fremont1 the largest basin of which is several hundred feet in circumference1 and has a circular space at one end some fifteen feet in diameter1 entirely occupied with the boiling water4 ,a pole sixteen feet in length1 was entirely submerged on thrusting it down near the center2 and the temperature of the water near the edge was two hundred and six degrees4 ,in this vicinity also1 are appearances similar to the mirages of the great deserts of the old world4 ,in traveling over the salt deserts of the ,fremont basin1 his party saw themselves reflected in the air1 probably1 as ,fremont himself suggests1 from the saline particles floating in the atmosphere1 and in some way affecting its refracting power4 ,the entire region1 is one of great wildness and grandeur4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,atmospherical ,,phenomena4 ------------------------------------ ,,meteors4 ,from look to look1 contagious through the crowd ,the panic runs1 and into wond'rous shapes ,the appearance throws3 armies in meet array1 ,thronged with aerial spears and steeds of fire2 ,till the long lines of full-extended war ,in bleeding fight commixt1 the sanguine flood ,rolls a broad slaughter o'er the plains of heaven4 ,as thus they scan the visionary scene1 ,on all sides swells the superstitious din4 ,incontinent2 and busy frenzy talks ,of blood and battle2 cities overturned1 ,and late at night in swallowing earthquake sunk1 ,or hideous wrapt in fierce ascending flame2 ,of sallow famine1 inundation1 storm2 ,of pestilence1 and every great distress2 ,empires subversed1 when ruling fate has struck ,the unalterable hour3 even nature's self ,is deemed to totter on the brink of time4 ,not so the man of philosophic eye1 ,and aspect sage2 the waving brightness he ,curious surveys1 inquisitive to know ,the causes1 and materials1 yet unfixed1 ,of this appearance beautiful and new4--,,thomson4 ,the nature of those splendid phenomena of the heavens which are embraced under the general term meteors1 can not be so well elucidated as by an extract from the travels of ,messrs4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland to the equinoctial regions of the new continent4 ,the sublime wonders described by the former of these travelers were witnessed by them at ,cumana1 a city of ,venezuela1 in ,south ,america4 8,the night of the eleventh of ,november1 #aggi1 was cool and extremely beautiful4 ,toward the morning1 from half after two1 the most extraordinary luminous meteors were seen toward the east4 ,m4 ,bonpland1 who had risen to enjoy the freshness of the air in the gallery1 perceived them first4 ,thousands of bolides 7fire-balls7 and falling stars1 succeeded each other during four hours4 ,their direction was very regular1 from north to south4 ,they filled a space in the sky extending from the true east thirty degrees toward the north and south4 ,in an amplitude of sixty degrees the meteors were seen to rise above the horizon at east-north-east1 and at east to describe arcs more or less extended1 falling toward the south1 after having followed the direction of the meridian4 ,some of them attained a hight of forty degrees2 and all exceeded twenty-five or thirty degrees4 ,there was very little wind in the low regions of the atmosphere1 and this blew from the east4 ,no trace of clouds was to be seen4 ,m4 ,bonpland relates1 that from the beginning of the phenomenon1 there was not a space in the firmament equal in extent to three diameters of the moon which was not filled at every instant with bolides and falling stars4 ,the first were fewer in number1 but as they were seen of different sizes1 it was impossible to fix the limit between these two classes of phenomena4 ,all these meteors left luminous traces from five to ten degrees in length1 as often happens in the equinoctial regions4 ,the phosphorescence of these traces1 or luminous bands1 lasted seven or eight seconds4 ,many of the falling stars had a very distinct nucleus1 as large as the disk of ,jupiter1 from which darted sparks of vivid light4 ,the bolides seemed to burst as by explosion2 but the largest1 those from one degree to one degree and fifteen minutes in diameter1 disappeared without scintillation1 leaving behind them phosphorescent bands 7trabes7 exceeding in breadth fifteen or twenty minutes1 or sixtieth parts of a degree4 ,the light of these meteors was white1 and not reddish1 which must be attributed1 no doubt1 to the absence of vapors1 and the extreme transparency of the air4 ,for the same reason1 under the tropics1 the stars of the first magnitude have1 at their rising1 a light evidently whiter than in ,europe4 8,almost all the inhabitants of ,cumana were witnesses of this phenomenon1 and did not behold these bolides with indifference2 the oldest among them remembered1 that the great earthquakes of #agff were preceded by similar phenomena4 ,the fishermen in the suburbs asserted1 that the fire-work had begun at one o'clock2 and that1 as they returned from fishing in the gulf1 they had already perceived very small falling stars toward the east4 ,they affirmed at the same time1 that igneous meteors were extremely rare on those coasts after two in the morning4 8,the phenomenon ceased by degrees after four o'clock1 and the bolides and falling stars became less frequent2 but we still distinguished some toward the north-east1 by their whitish light1 and the rapidity of their movement1 a quarter of an hour after sunrise4 ,this circumstance will appear less extraordinary1 when ,i state that in full daylight1 in #aghh1 the interior of the houses in the town of ,popayan was highly illumined by an aerolite of immense magnitude4 ,it passed over the town when the sun was shining clearly1 about one o'clock4 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself1 during our second residence at ,cumana1 after having observed on the twenty-sixth of ,september1 #ahjj1 the immersion of the first satellite of ,jupiter1 succeeded in seeing the planet distinctly with the naked eye1 eighteen minutes after the disk of the sun had appeared in the horizon4 ,there was a very slight vapor in the east1 but ,jupiter appeared on an azure sky4 ,these facts prove the extreme purity and transparency of the atmosphere under the torrid zone4 ,the mass of diffused light is so much less1 as the vapors are more perfectly dissolved4 ,the same cause that weakens the diffusion of the solar light1 diminishes the extinction of that which emanates either from a bolis1 ,jupiter1 or the moon1 seen on the second day after her conjunction4 8,the researches of ,m4 ,chladni having singularly fixed the attention of the scientific world upon the bolides and falling stars1 at my departure from ,europe1 we did not neglect during the course of our journey from ,caraccas to the ,rio ,negro1 to inquire everywhere1 whether the meteors of the twelfth of ,november had been perceived4 ,in the savage country1 where the greater number of the inhabitants sleep out in the air1 so extraordinary a phenomenon could not fail to be remarked1 except when concealed by clouds from the eye of observation4 ,the ,capuchin missionary at ,san ,fernando de ,apura1 a village situated amid the savannas of the province of ,varinas1 and the ,franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of the ,orinoco1 and at ,maroa1 on the banks of the ,rio ,negro1 had seen numberless falling stars and bolides illumine the vault of heaven4 ,maroa is south-west of ,cumana1 and one hundred and seventy-four leagues' distance4 ,all these observers compared the phenomenon to a beautiful fire-work1 which had lasted from three till six in the morning4 ,some of the monks had marked the day upon their ritual2 others had noted it by the nearest festivals of the church4 ,unfortunately1 none of them could recollect the direction of the meteors1 or their apparent hight4 ,from the position of the mountains and thick forest which surround the missions of the cataracts and the little village of ,maroa1 ,i presume that the bolides were still visible at twenty degrees above the horizon4 ,on my arrival at the southern extremity of ,spanish ,guiana1 at the little fort of ,san ,carlos1 ,i found a party of ,portuguese1 who had gone up the ,rio ,negro from the mission of ,st4 ,joseph of the ,maravitains1 and who assured me1 that in that part of ,brazil1 the phenomenon had been perceived1 at least as far as ,san ,gabriel das ,cachoeiras1 consequently as far as the equator itself4 8,i was powerfully struck at the immense hight which these bolides must have attained1 to have been visible at the same time at ,cumana1 and on the frontiers of ,brazil1 in a line of two hundred and thirty leagues in length4 ,but what was my astonishment1 when at my return to ,europe1 ,i learned that the same phenomenon had been perceived1 on an extent of the globe of sixty-four degrees of latitude1 and ninety-one degrees of longitude2 at the equator1 in ,south ,america1 at ,labrador1 and in ,germany6 ,i found accidentally1 during my passage from ,philadelphia to ,bordeaux1 in the memoirs of the ,pennsylvanian society1 the corresponding observations of ,mr4 ,ellicott 7latitude thirty degrees1 forty-two minutes27 and1 upon my return from ,naples to ,berlin1 ,i read the account of the ,moravian missionaries among the ,esquimaux1 in the library of ,gttingen4 ,several philosophers had already discussed at this period the coincidence of the observation in the north with those at ,cumana1 which ,m4 ,bonpland and ,i had published in #ahjj4 8,the following is a succinct enumeration of facts4 ,first1 the fiery meteors were seen in the east1 and the east-north-east1 to forty degrees of elevation1 from two to six hours at ,cumana1 7latitude ten degrees1 twenty-seven minutes1 fifty-two seconds1 longitude sixty-six degrees1 thirty minutes27 at ,porto ,cabello1 7latitude ten degrees1 six minutes1 fifty-two seconds1 longitude sixty-seven degrees1 five minutes27 and on the frontiers of ,brazil1 near the equator1 in the longitude of seventy degrees west of the meridian of ,paris4 ,secondly1 in ,french ,guiana1 7latitude four degrees1 fifty-six minutes1 longitude fifty-four degrees1 thirty-five minutes17 the northern part of the sky was seen all on fire4 ,innumerable falling stars traversed the heavens during an hour and a half1 and diffused so vivid a light1 that those meteors might be compared to the blazing sheaves shot out from fire-works4 ,thirdly1 ,mr4 ,ellicott1 an astronomer in the ,united ,states1 having terminated his trigonometric operations for the rectification of the limits on the ,ohio1 being1 on the twelfth of ,november1 in the gulf of ,florida1 in the latitude of twenty-five degrees1 and longitude eighty-one degrees1 fifty minutes1 saw1 in all parts of the sky1 #8as many meteors as stars1 moving in all directions3 some appeared to fall perpendicularly2 and it was expected every minute that they would drop into the vessel4' ,the same phenomenon was perceived upon the ,american continent as far as the latitude of thirty degrees1 forty-two minutes4 ,fourthly1 in ,labrador1 at ,nain 7latitude fifty-six degrees1 fifty-five minutes7 and ,hoffenthal 7latitude fifty-eight degrees1 four minutes17 and in ,greenland1 at ,lichtenau 7latitude sixty-one degrees1 five minutes7 and ,new ,herrnhutt1 7latitude sixty-four degrees1 fourteen minutes1 longitude fifty-two degrees1 twenty minutes17 the ,esquimaux were frightened at the enormous quantity of bolides which fell during twilight toward all points of the firmament1 some of them being a foot broad4 ,fifthly1 in ,germany1 ,m4 ,zeissing1 vicar of ,itterstadt1 near ,weimar1 7latitude fifty degrees1 fifty-nine minutes1 longitude nine degrees1 one minute east17 perceived1 on the twelfth of ,november1 between the hours of six and seven in the morning1 when it was half after two at ,cumana1 some falling stars1 which shed a very white light4 ,soon after1 toward the south and south-west1 luminous rays appeared from four to six feet long3 they were reddish1 and resembled the luminous track of a sky-rocket4 ,during the morning twilight1 between the hours of seven and eight1 the south-west part of the sky was seen1 from time to time1 strongly illuminated by white lightning1 which ran in serpentine lines along the horizon4 ,at night the cold increased1 and the barometer rose4 8,the distance from ,weimar to the ,rio ,negro1 is eighteen hundred sea leagues2 and from ,rio ,negro to ,herrnhutt1 in ,greenland1 thirteen hundred leagues4 ,admitting that the same fiery meteors were seen at points so distant from each other1 we must also admit1 that their hight was at least four hundred and eleven leagues4 ,near ,weimar1 the appearance like sky-rockets was seen in the south and south-east2 at ,cumana1 in the east and in the east-north-east4 ,we may therefore conclude1 that numberless aerolites must have fallen into the sea1 between ,africa and ,south ,america1 to the west of the ,cape ,verde islands4 ,but1 since the direction of the bolides was not the same at ,labrador and at ,cumana1 why were they not perceived in the latter place toward the north1 as at ,cayenne8 ,i am inclined to think1 that the ,chayma ,indians of ,cumana did not see the same bolides as the ,portuguese in ,brazil1 and the missionaries in ,labrador2 but1 at the same time1 it can not be doubted1 and this fact appears to me very remarkable1 that in the new world1 between the meridians of forty-six degrees and eighty-two degrees1 between the equator and sixty-four degrees north1 at the same hour1 an immense number of bolides and falling stars were perceived2 and that those meteors had everywhere the same brilliancy1 throughout a space of nine hundred and twenty-one thousand square leagues4 8,the scientific men who have lately made such laborious researches on falling stars and their parallaxes1 consider them as meteors belonging to the furthest limits of our atmosphere1 between the region of the aurora borealis and that of the lightest clouds4 ,some have been seen1 which had not more than fourteen thousand toises1 or about five leagues of elevation4 ,the highest do not appear to exceed thirty leagues4 ,they are often more than a hundred feet in diameter2 and their swiftness is such1 that they dart1 in a few seconds1 over a space of two leagues4 ,some of these have been measured1 the direction of which was almost perpendicularly upward1 or forming an angle of fifty degrees with the vertical line4 ,this extremely remarkable circumstance has led to the conclusion1 that falling stars are aerolites1 which1 after having hovered about a long time in space1 take fire on entering accidentally into our atmosphere1 and fall toward the earth4 8,whatever may be the origin of these luminous meteors1 it is difficult to conceive any instantaneous inflammation taking place in a region where there is less air than in the vacuum of our air-pumps2 and where 7twenty-five thousand toises high7 the mercury in the barometer would not rise to twelve-thousandths of a line4 ,we have ascertained the uniform mixture of atmospheric air to three-thousandths nearly1 only to an elevation of three thousand toises3 consequently1 not beyond the last stratum of fleecy clouds4 ,it might be admitted1 that1 in the first revolutions of the globe1 gaseous substances which yet remain unknown to us1 may have risen toward that region1 through which the falling stars pass3 but accurate experiments1 made upon mixtures of gases which have not the same specific gravity1 prove that we can not admit a superior stratum of the atmosphere entirely different from the inferior strata4 ,gaseous substances mix and penetrate each other with the least motion2 and a uniformity of their mixture would have taken place in the lapse of ages1 unless we suppose in them the effects of a repulsive action unexampled in those substances which we can subject to our observations4 ,further1 if we admit the existence of a particular aerial fluid in the inaccessible region of luminous meteors1 falling stars1 bolides1 and the aurora borealis1 how can we conceive why the whole stratum of those fluids does not at once take fire1 but that the gaseous emanations1 like the clouds1 occupy only limited spaces8 ,how can we suppose an electrical explosion without some vapors collected together1 capable of containing unequal charges of electricity1 in air1 the mean temperature of which is1 perhaps1 twenty-five degrees below the freezing-point of the centigrade thermometer1 and the rarefaction of which is so considerable1 that the compression of the electrical shock could scarcely disengage any heat8 ,these difficulties would in great part1 be removed1 if the direction of the motion of falling stars allowed us to consider them as bodies with a solid nucleus1 as cosmic phenomena 7belonging to space beyond the limits of our atmosphere7 and not as telluric phenomena 7belonging to our planet only47 8,supposing that the meteors of ,cumana were only at the usual hight at which falling stars in general move1 the same meteors were seen above the horizon in places more than three hundred and ten leagues distant from each other4 ,now1 what an extraordinary disposition to incandescence must have reigned on the twelfth of ,november1 in the higher regions of the atmosphere1 to have furnished1 during four hours1 myriads of bolides and falling stars1 visible at the equator1 in ,greenland1 and in ,germany4 8,mr4 ,benzenberg judiciously observes1 that the same cause1 which renders the phenomenon more frequent1 has also an influence on the largeness of the meteors1 and the intensity of their light4 ,in ,europe1 the nights when there are the greatest number of falling stars1 are those in which very bright ones are mixed with very small ones4 ,the periodicalness of the phenomenon augments the interest which it excites4 ,there are months1 in which ,m4 ,brandes has reckoned in our temperate zone1 only sixty or eighty falling stars in one night2 and in other months their number has risen to two thousand4 ,whenever one is observed1 which has the diameter of ,sirius or of ,jupiter1 we are sure of seeing so brilliant a meteor succeeded by a great number of smaller meteors4 ,if the falling stars be very frequent during one night1 it is very probable that this frequency will continue during several weeks4 ,it would seem that1 in the higher regions of the atmosphere1 near that extreme limit where the centrifugal force is balanced by gravity1 there exists1 at regular periods1 a particular disposition for the production of bolides1 falling stars1 and the aurora borealis4 ,does the periodicalness of this great phenomenon depend upon the state of the atmosphere8 or upon something which the atmosphere receives from without1 while the earth advances in the ecliptic8 ,of all this we are still as ignorant as men were in the days of ,anaxagoras4 8,with respect to the falling stars themselves1 it appears to me1 from my own experience1 that they are more frequent in the equinoctial regions than in the temperate zone2 more frequent over the continents1 and near certain coasts1 than in the middle of the ocean4 ,do the radiation of the surface of the globe1 and the electrical charge of the lower regions of the atmosphere1 which varies according to the nature of the soil1 and the positions of the continents and seas1 exert their influence as far as those hights1 where eternal winter reigns8 ,the total absence even of the smallest clouds1 at certain seasons1 or above some barren plains destitute of vegetation1 seems to prove1 that this influence can be felt at least as far as five or six thousand toises high4 ,a phenomenon analogous to that of the twelfth of ,november1 was observed thirty years before1 on the table-land of the ,andes1 in a country studded with volcanoes4 ,at the city of ,quito1 there was seen1 in one part of the sky1 above the volcano of ,gayambo1 so great a number of falling stars1 that the mountain was thought to be in flames4 ,this singular sight lasted more than an hour4 ,the people assembled in the plain of ,exico1 where a magnificent view presents itself of the highest summit of the ,cordilleras4 ,a procession was already on the point of setting out from the convent of ,st4 ,francis1 when it was perceived that the blaze of the horizon was caused by fiery meteors1 which ran along the skies in all directions1 at the altitude of twelve or thirteen degrees40 ,the bolides1 or fire-balls1 and falling stars1 so striking an example of which is given above1 are of all sizes1 from a small shooting-star of the fifth magnitude1 to a cone or cylinder of two or three miles in diameter4 ,they differ in consistency as much as in dimensions1 and in color as much as in either4 ,occasionally1 they are a subtile1 luminous and pellucid vapor2 and sometimes a compact ball1 or globe1 as though the materials of which they are formed1 were more condensed and concentrated4 ,not unfrequently they have been found to consist of both1 and consequently to assume a comet-like appearance1 with a nucleus or compact substance in the center1 or toward the center1 and a long1 thin1 pellucid or luminous main1 or tail1 sweeping on each side4 ,they are sometimes of a pale white light2 at others1 of a deep igneous crimson2 and1 occasionally iridescent and vibratory4 ,the rarer meteors appear frequently to vanish on a sudden1 as though abruptly dissolved or extinguished in the atmospheric medium1 their flight being accompanied by a hissing sound1 and their disappearance by an explosion4 ,the most compact of them1 or the nuclei of those which are rarer1 have often descended to the surface of the earth1 and with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the soil2 generally exhibiting marks of imperfect fusion and considerable heat4 ,the substance is1 in these cases1 for the greater part metallic2 but the ore of which they consist is not anywhere to be found1 in the same constituent proportions1 in the bowels of the earth4 ,under this form the projected masses are denominated aerolites1 or meteoric stones4 ,it may not be uninteresting to preface a succinct account of the most surprising of these meteors1 by a notice of the hypotheses which have been imagined concerning them2 however justly the learned ,humboldt may have concluded1 in the words of the extracts given above1 that we are still 8as ignorant on this subject as men were in the days of ,anaxagoras40 ,sir ,j4 ,pringle contended1 with other philosophers1 that they are revolving bodies1 or a kind of terrestrial planets4 ,doctor ,halley conjectured them to consist of combustible vapors1 accumulated and formed into concrete bodies on the outskirts1 or extreme regions of the atmosphere1 and to be suddenly set on fire by some unknown cause2 an opinion which1 with little difference1 has been since entertained by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton and ,dr4 ,king4 ,dr4 ,blagdon regarded them altogether as electrical phenomena4 ,m4 ,izarn believed them to consist of volcanic materials1 propelled into the atmosphere in the course of explosions of great violence4 ,m4 ,chladni supposed them to be formed of substances existing exteriorly to the atmosphere of the earth and other planets1 which have never incorporated with them1 and are found loose in the vast ocean of space1 being there combined and inflamed by causes unknown to us4 ,lastly1 another and rather wild hypothesis is1 that the whole1 or at least the more compact division of these meteors1 are made up of materials thrown from immense volcanoes in the moon4 ,this hypothesis1 which was started by ,m4 ,olbers1 in #agie1 has been since very plausibly supported by the celebrated ,laplace1 but does not apply to the smaller and less substantial meteors1 named shooting-stars4 ,hence these philosophers derive the latter phenomena from some other cause1 as electricity1 or terrestrial exhalations2 and observe1 in support of the distinction they find it necessary to make1 that shooting-stars must be of a different nature from fire-balls1 since they sometimes appear to ascend as well as to fall4 ,this observation has been especially dwelt on by ,messrs4 ,chladni and ,benzenberg1 both of them favorably noticed1 as accurate observers1 by ,humboldt4 ,by far the most plausible and satisfactory theory1 however1 is one somewhat like that of ,dr4 ,halley1 which may be illustrated thus4 ,if a stick of wood1 after being covered over night in the hot ashes1 so as to become in part or wholly charred1 be taken out in the morning1 and waved back and forth in the air1 every one has noticed that it will send forth sparks by hundreds and thousands4 ,now the more modern theory as to these aerolites1 or falling-stars1 is1 that they are thrown off from small1 opaque1 planetary bodies1 revolving in space1 which when they come within the atmosphere of the earth1 are heated from their rapid motion through it1 and throw off small heated portions1 like the sparks from the waving brand4 ,and this theory is confirmed by the fact1 that1 of late years1 these meteoric showers have been annual1 and always at about the same period of the year1 as if the earth was then passing in that part of her orbit where she meets with the planetary bodies spoken of1 and they come in contact with her atmosphere4 ,in the volumes of the 8,american ,journal of ,science10 may be found abundant facts on this subject1 and also the various theories started to account for the facts4 ,on the twenty-first of ,march1 #afgf1 two hours after sunset1 an extraordinary meteor was seen to pass over ,italy4 ,at ,bononia1 its greatest altitude in the south-south-east1 was thirty-eight degrees2 and at ,sienna1 fifty-eight degrees toward the north-north-east4 ,in its course1 which was from east-north-east to west-south-west1 it passed over the ,adriatic sea1 as if coming from ,dalmatia4 ,it crossed all ,italy1 being nearly vertical to ,rimini and ,savigniano1 on the one side1 and to ,leghorn on the other3 its perpendicular altitude was at least thirty-eight miles4 ,at all the places near its course it was heard to make a hissing noise as it passed1 like that of artificial fireworks4 ,in passing over ,leghorn1 it gave a very loud report1 like that of a cannon2 immediately after which another sort of sound was heard1 like the rattling of a deeply loaded wagon passing over the stones1 which continued for several seconds4 ,the professor of mathematics at ,bononia1 calculated the apparent velocity of this surprising meteor at not less than one hundred and sixty miles in a minute of time1 which is above ten times as swift as the diurnal rotation of the earth under the equinoctial1 and not many times less than that with which the annual motion of the earth about the sun is performed4 ,it there appeared larger than the moon in one diameter1 and above half as large again in the other2 which1 with the given distance of the eye1 made its real smaller diameter above half a mile1 and the larger one in proportion4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising1 that so great a body1 passing with such an amazing velocity through the air1 however rarefied it may be in its upper regions1 should occasion so loud a hissing noise as to be heard at such a distance4 ,it finally went off to sea toward ,corsica4 ,two luminous meteors of great magnitude were noted at ,leipsic within the space of six years4 ,on the twenty-second of ,may1 #afhj1 about three in the morning1 the first of these was seen1 to the great terror of the spectators1 descending in the north1 and leaving behind it a long white streak where it had passed4 ,as the same phenomena was witnessed in the north-north-east at ,haarburg1 and also at ,hamburg1 ,lubeck and ,stralsund1 all of which places are about a hundred and fifty ,english miles from ,leipsic1 it was concluded that this meteor was exceedingly high above the earth4 ,the second meteor was still more terrific4 ,on the ninth of ,july1 #afhf1 at half past one in the morning1 a fire-ball with a tail was observed in eight and a half degrees of ,aquarius1 and four degrees north1 which continued nearly stationary for seven or eight minutes1 with a diameter nearly equal to half the moon's diameter4 ,at first1 its light was so great that the spectators could see to read by it2 after which it gradually disappeared4 ,this phenomenon was observed at the same time in several other places1 more especially at ,schlaitza1 a town distant from ,dantzic forty ,english miles toward the south1 its altitude being about six degrees above the southern horizon4 ,at ,leipsic it was estimated to be distant not more than sixty ,english miles1 and to be about twenty-four miles perpendicular above the horizon1 so that it was at least thirty miles high in the air4 ,a very extraordinary meteor1 which the common people called a flaming sword1 was first seen at ,leeds1 in ,yorkshire1 on the eighteenth of ,may1 #agaj1 at a quarter after ten at night4 ,its direction was from south to north3 it was broad at one end1 and small at the other2 and was described by the spectators as resembling a trumpet1 moving1 with the broad end foremost4 ,the light was so sudden and intense1 that they were startled at seeing their own shadows1 when neither sun nor moon shone upon them4 ,this meteor was1 in its course1 seen not only in ,yorkshire and ,lancashire1 but also in the counties of ,nottingham and ,derby1 notwithstanding which1 each of those who observed it1 although so many miles distant from each other1 fancied it fell within a few yards of him4 ,in disappearing1 it presented bright sparklings at the small end4 ,a blazing meteor was1 on the nineteenth of ,march1 #agai1 seen in every part of ,england4 ,in the metropolis1 about a quarter after eight at night1 a sudden powerful light was perceived in the west1 far exceeding that of the moon1 which then shone very bright4 ,the long stream it gave out appeared to be branched about the middle2 and the meteor1 in its course1 turned pear-fashioned1 or tapering upward4 ,at the lower end it came at length to be larger and spherical1 although not so large as the full moon4 ,its color was whitish1 with an eye of blue of a most vivid1 dazzling luster1 which seemed in brightness very nearly to resemble1 if not to surpass1 that of the body of the sun in a clear day4 ,this brightness obliged the spectator to turn his eyes several times from it1 as well when it was a stream1 as when it was pear-fashioned and a globe4 ,it seemed to move1 in about half a minute or less1 about the length of twenty degrees1 and to disappear about as much above the horizon4 ,where it had passed1 it left behind a track of a cloudy or faint reddish-yellow color1 such as red-hot iron or glowing coals have3 this continued more than a minute1 seemed to sparkle1 and kept its place without falling4 ,this track was interrupted1 or had a chasm toward its upper end1 at about two-thirds of its length4 ,no explosion was heard2 but the place where the globe of light had been1 continued for some time after it was extinct1 of the same reddish-yellow color with the stream1 and at first sparks seemed to issue from it1 such as proceed from red-hot iron beaten out on an anvil4 ,it was agreed by all the spectators in the capital1 that the splendor of this meteor was little inferior to that of the sun4 ,within doors the candles did not give out any light2 and in the streets1 not only all the stars disappeared1 but the moon1 then nine days old1 and high near the meridian1 the sky being very clear1 was so far effaced as scarcely to be seen3 it did not even cast a shade1 where the beams of the meteor were intercepted by the houses2 so that1 for a few seconds of time1 there was in every respect1 a resemblance of perfect day4 ,the perpendicular hight of this surprising meteor was estimated at sixty-four geometrical miles2 and it was computed to have run about three hundred of these miles in a minute4 ,it was seen1 not only in every part of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 but likewise in ,holland1 in the western parts of ,germany1 in ,france and in ,spain1 nearly at the same instant of time4 ,the accounts from ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 and the neighboring counties1 were unanimous in describing the wonderful noise which followed its explosion4 ,it resembled the report of a large cannon1 or rather of a broadside at some distance1 which was soon followed by a rattling noise1 as if many small arms had been promiscuously discharged4 ,this tremendous sound was attended by an uncommon tremor of the air2 and everywhere in those counties1 not only the windows and doors of the houses were sensibly shaken1 but1 according to several of the reports1 even the houses themselves1 beyond the usual effect of cannon1 however near4 ,on the eleventh of ,december1 #agda1 at seven minutes past one in the afternoon1 a globe of fire1 somewhat larger than the horizontal full moon1 and as bright as the moon appears at any time when the sun is above the horizon1 was seen at ,peckham1 in ,surrey1 in a south-south-east direction1 moving toward the east with a continued equable motion1 and leaving behind it a narrow streak of light1 whiter than the globe itself1 throughout its whole course4 ,toward the end it appeared less than at the beginning of its motion2 and within three or four seconds suddenly vanished4 ,its apparent velocity was nearly equal to half the medium velocity of the ordinary meteors called falling or shooting stars2 and its elevation1 throughout the whole of its course1 about twenty degrees above the horizon4 ,on the eighteenth of ,august1 #aghc1 an uncommon meteor was seen in several parts of ,great ,britain1 as well as on the continent4 ,its general appearance was that of a luminous ball1 which1 rising in the north-north-east1 nearly of a globular form1 became elliptical1 and gradually assumed a tail as it ascended4 ,in a certain part of its course it underwent a remarkable change1 which might be compared to bursting1 and which1 it ought to be observed1 has been since frequently noticed in the passage of the aerolites1 or meteoric stones1 particular mention of which will be made hereafter4 ,after this it no longer proceeded as an entire mass1 but was apparently divided into a great number1 or cluster of balls1 some larger than others1 and all carrying a tail1 or leaving a train behind4 ,under this form1 it continued its course with a nearly equable motion1 dropping or casting off sparks1 and yielding a prodigious light1 which illumined all objects to a surprising degree2 until1 having passed the east1 and verging considerably to the southward1 it gradually distended1 and was at length lost to the sight4 ,the time of its appearance was sixteen minutes past nine in the evening1 mean time of the meridian of ,london1 and it continued visible about half a minute4 ,this beautiful meteor having been seen in ,shetland1 and in the northern parts of ,scotland1 ascending from the north1 and rising like the planet ,mars1 little doubt was entertained of its course having commenced beyond the furthest extremity of ,great ,britain1 somewhere over the northern ocean4 ,having passed over ,essex and the straits of ,dover1 it probably entered the continent not far from ,dunkirk1 where1 as well as at ,calais and ,ostend1 it was thought to be vertical4 ,still holding on its course to the southward1 it was seen at ,brussels1 at ,paris1 and at ,nuits in ,burgundy2 insomuch that there was sufficient proof of its having traversed thirteen or fourteen degrees of latitude1 describing a track of at least one thousand miles over the surface of the earth2 a length of course far exceeding the extent of what had been then ascertained of any similar phenomenon4 ,during the passage of this meteor over ,brussels1 the moon appeared quite red1 but soon recovered its natural light4 ,the results of several observations give it an elevation of more than fifty miles above the surface of the earth1 in a region where the air is at least thirty thousand times rarer than here below4 ,notwithstanding this great elevation1 the fact of a report having been heard some time after it disappeared1 rests on the testimony of too many witnesses to be controverted4 ,it was compared to the falling of some heavy body in a room above stairs1 or to the discharge of one or more large cannon at a distance3 this report was loudest in ,lincolnshire and the adjacent counties1 and also in the eastern parts of ,kent4 ,supposing the transverse diameter of this meteor to have subtended an angle of thirty minutes when it passed over the zenith1 and that it was fifty miles high1 it must have been almost half a mile across4 ,the tail sometimes appeared ten or twelve times longer than the body2 but most of this was train1 and the real elongation behind seems seldom to have exceeded twice or thrice its transverse diameter2 it consequently was between one and two miles in length4 ,now if the cubical contents be considered1 for it appeared equally round and full in all directions1 such an enormous mass must afford just matter of astonishment1 when the extreme velocity with which it moved is considered4 ,this velocity1 agreeably to the observations of ,sir ,william ,herschel and several other astronomers1 could not have been less than twenty miles in a second1 exceeding that of sound above ninety times1 and approaching toward that of the earth in her annual orbit4 ,at such a rate it must have passed over the whole island of ,great ,britain in less than half a minute1 and would1 in the space of less than seven minutes1 have traversed the whole diameter of the earth6 ,on the fourth of ,october1 of the above year1 #aghc1 two meteors were seen in ,england4 ,the first1 at three in the morning1 on account of the early hour1 was witnessed by but few spectators1 who represented it as rising from the north to a small altitude1 and then becoming stationary with a vibratory motion1 and an illumination like daylight3 it vanished in a few moments1 leaving a train behind4 ,this sort of tremulous appearance has been noticed in other meteors1 as well as their continuing stationary for some time1 either before they begin to shoot1 or after their course is ended4 ,the second of these meteors appeared at forty-three minutes past six in the evening1 and was much smaller1 and also of much shorter duration1 than the one seen in ,august4 ,it was first observed to the north1 like a stream of fire1 similar to that of the common shooting-stars1 but large2 and having proceeded some distance under this form1 suddenly burst out into that intensely bright bluish light1 peculiar to such meteors1 which may be most aptly compared to the blue lights of ,india1 or to some of the largest electrical sparks4 ,the illumination was very great2 and on that part of its course where it had been so bright1 a dusky red streak or train was left1 which remained visible about a minute1 and was thought by some gradually to change its form4 ,except this train1 the meteor had not any tail1 but was nearly of a round body1 or1 perhaps1 somewhat elliptical4 ,after moving not less than ten degrees in this bright state1 it became suddenly extinct1 without any appearance of bursting or explosion4 ,,aerolites4 ,these phenomena1 otherwise entitled meteoric stones1 have been ascertained1 by recent observations1 to be connected with the bolides1 or fire-balls1 described above4 ,scoriaceous masses have frequently been either actually seen to fall at the time of the disappearance of the latter1 or have been found soon after on the surface of the earth4 ,most of the stones which have fallen from the atmosphere1 have been preceded by the appearance of luminous bodies1 or meteors4 ,these meteors burst with an explosion1 and then the shower of stones falls to the earth4 ,sometimes the stones continue luminous till they sink into the earth2 but most commonly their luminousness disappears at the time of their explosion4 ,these meteors move in a direction nearly horizontal1 and seem to approach the earth before they explode4 ,the stony bodies1 when found immediately after their descent1 are always hot4 ,they commonly bury themselves some depth under ground4 ,their size differs1 from fragments of a very inconsiderable weight1 to masses of several tuns4 ,they usually approach the spherical form1 and are always covered with a black crust2 in many cases they smell strongly of sulphur4 ,the black crust consists chiefly of oxyd of iron2 and from several accurate analyses of these stones1 the following important inferences have been drawn3 that not any other bodies have as yet been discovered on our globe which contain the same ingredients2 and that they have made us acquainted with a species of pyrites not formerly known1 nor anywhere else to be found4 ,the ancients were not unacquainted with these meteoric stones1 a shower of which is reported by ,livy to have fallen at ,rome under the consulate of ,tullus ,hostilius1 and another under that of ,c4 ,martius and ,m4 ,torquatus4 ,pliny relates that a shower of iron 7for thus he designates these stones7 fell in ,lucania1 a year before the defeat of ,crassus1 and likewise speaks of a very large stone which fell near the river ,negos1 in ,thrace4 ,in the chronicle of ,count ,marcellin1 there is an account of three immensely large stones having fallen in ,thrace1 in the year #deb before the advent of ,christ4 ,to proceed to more modern and well authenticated instances of the fall of aerolites4 ,on the seventh of ,november1 #adib1 a little before noon1 a dreadful thunder-clap was heard at ,ensisheim1 in ,alsace1 instantly after which a child saw a huge stone fall on a field newly sown with wheat4 ,on searching1 it was found to have penetrated the earth about three feet1 and weighed two hundred and sixty pounds1 making its size equal to a cube of thirteen inches the side4 ,all the contemporary writers agree in the reality of this phenomenon1 observing that1 if such a stone had before existed in a plowed land1 it must have been known to the proprietor4 ,the celebrated astronomer ,gassendi relates an instance of an aerolite descent of which he was himself an eye-witness4 ,on the twenty-seventh of ,november1 #afbg1 the sky being clear1 he saw a burning stone fall on ,mont ,vasir1 in the south-east extremity of ,france1 near ,nice4 ,while in the air1 it seemed to be about four feet in diameter1 was inclosed in a luminous circle of colors like a rainbow1 and in its fall produced a sound like the discharge of cannon4 ,it weighed fifty-nine pounds1 was very hard1 of a dull metallic color1 and had a specific gravity considerably greater than that of marble4 ,in the year #afgb1 two stones fell near ,verona1 in ,italy1 the one weighing three hundred1 the other two hundred pounds4 ,this phenomenon was witnessed in the evening1 by three or four hundred persons4 ,the stones fell1 with a violent explosion1 in a sloping direction1 and in calm weather4 ,they appeared to burn1 and plowed up the ground4 ,paul ,lucas1 the traveler1 relates that when he was at ,larissa1 a town of ,greece1 near the gulf of ,salonica1 a stone weighing seventy-two pounds1 fell in the vicinity4 ,it was observed to come from the northward1 with a loud hissing noise1 and seemed to be enveloped in a small cloud1 which exploded when the stone fell4 ,it looked like iron dross1 and smelt of sulphur4 ,in ,september1 #agec1 several stones fell in the province of ,bresse1 to the west of ,geneva3 one in particular fell at ,pont de ,vesle1 and another at ,liponas1 places nine miles distant from each other4 ,the sky was clear1 and the weather warm4 ,a loud noise1 and a hissing sound1 were heard at those two places1 and for several miles round1 on the fall of these stones1 which exactly resembled each other1 were of a darkish1 dull color1 very ponderous1 and manifesting on their surface that they had suffered a violent degree of heat4 ,the largest weighed about twenty pounds1 and penetrated about six inches into the plowed ground2 a circumstance which renders it highly improbable that they could have existed there before the explosion4 ,this phenomenon has been described by the astronomer ,delalande1 whose strict inquiries on the spot enabled him to testify the truth of the circumstances he relates4 ,in the year #agfh1 three stones were presented to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 which had fallen in different parts of ,france2 one at ,luce1 in the ,maine2 another at ,aire1 in ,artois2 and the third in ,cotentin4 ,they were all externally of the same identical appearance2 and on the former of them a particular report was drawn up by ,messrs4 ,fougeraux1 ,cadet and ,lavoisier4 ,this report states1 that on the eighteenth of ,september1 #agfh1 between four and five in the afternoon1 there was seen1 near the above village of ,luce1 a cloud in which a short explosion took place1 followed by a hissing noise1 but without any flame4 ,the same sound was heard by several persons about ten miles from ,luce2 and1 on looking up1 they perceived an opaque body describe a curve in the air1 and fall on a piece of green turf near the high road4 ,they immediately ran to the spot1 where they found a kind of stone1 half-buried in the earth1 extremely hot1 and weighing about seven pounds and a half4 ,in the particular instance now to be cited1 very distinct traces were left to show the progress of aerolites through the air4 ,during the explosion of a meteor near ,bordeaux1 on the twentieth of ,august1 #aghi1 a stone1 in diameter about fifteen inches1 fell through the roof of a cottage1 and killed a herdsman and some cattle4 ,part of this stone is now in the ,greville museum1 and part in the museum of ,bordeaux4 ,on the twenty-fourth of ,july1 #agij1 between nine and ten at night1 a shower of stones fell near ,agen1 in ,guienne1 near the south-west angle of ,france4 ,first a luminous ball of fire was seen traversing the atmosphere with great rapidity1 and leaving behind it a train of light which lasted about fifty seconds2 soon after this a loud explosion was heard1 and sparks were seen to fly off in all directions4 ,this was soon after followed by the fall of stones1 over a considerable extent of ground1 and at various distances from each other4 ,these were all alike in appearance1 but of many different sizes1 the greater number weighing about two ounces1 but many a vast deal more4 ,some fell with a hissing noise1 and entered the ground2 but the smaller ones remained on the surface4 ,the only damage done by this shower of stones was1 that they broke the tiles of several houses1 in falling on which they had not the sound of hard and compact substances1 but of matter in a soft1 half-melted state4 ,such as fell on straws adhered to them1 and could not be readily separated2 a manifest proof that they were in a state of fusion4 ,on the eighteenth of ,december1 #agie1 several persons near the house of ,captain ,topham1 in ,yorkshire1 heard a loud noise in the air1 followed by a hissing sound1 and soon after felt a shock1 as if a heavy body had fallen to the ground at a little distance from them4 ,in reality1 one of them saw a huge stone fall to the earth1 at the distance of eight or nine yards from the place where he stood4 ,when he first observed it1 it was seven or eight yards above the ground2 and in its fall it threw up the mold on every side1 burying itself twenty-one inches in the earth4 ,this stone on being dug up1 was found to weigh fifty-six pounds4 ,on the seventeenth of ,march1 #agih1 a body1 burning with an intense light1 passed over the vicinity of ,ville ,franche1 on the ,saone1 near ,lyons1 accompanied by a hissing sound1 and leaving behind a luminous track4 ,this phenomenon exploded with a great noise1 about twelve hundred feet from the ground1 and one of the splinters1 still luminous1 having been observed to fall in a neighboring vineyard1 was traced4 ,it was about a foot in diameter1 and had penetrated twenty inches into the ground4 ,on the fourth of ,july1 #ahjc1 a ball of fire struck a public house at ,east ,norton1 in ,oxfordshire4 ,the chimney was thrown down1 the roof partly torn off1 the windows shattered to atoms1 and the dairy1 c41 converted into a heap of rubbish4 ,it was of considerable magnitude1 and1 on coming in contact with the house1 exploded with great noise1 and a very oppressive sulphureous smell4 ,several fragments of stones were found on the spot1 having a surface of a dark color1 and varnished1 as if in a state of fusion1 with numerous globules of a whitish metal1 combining sulphur and nickel4 ,the indentures on these surfaces render it probable that the ball was soft when it descended2 and it was obviously in a state of fusion1 as the grass was burned where the fragments fell4 ,the motion of the fire-ball1 while in the air1 was very rapid1 and apparently parallel to the horizon4 ,the latest remarkable fall of aerolites in ,europe1 of which there is a distinct account1 was in the vicinity of ,laigle1 in ,normandy1 early in the afternoon of the twenty-sixth of ,april1 #ahab4 ,a fiery globe of a very brilliant splendor1 which moved in the air with great rapidity1 was followed in a few seconds by a violent explosion1 which lasted five or six minutes1 and was heard to the extent of more than thirty leagues in every direction4 ,three or four reports1 like those of a cannon1 were followed by a discharge resembling a fire of musketry1 after which a dreadful rumbling was heard like the beating of a drum4 ,the air was calm1 and the sky serene1 with the exception of a few clouds1 such as are frequently observed4 ,the noise proceeded from a small cloud of a rectangular form1 the largest side being in a direction from east to west4 ,it appeared motionless all the time the phenomenon lasted2 but the vapor of which it was composed was projected momentarily from the different sides by the effect of the successive explosions4 ,this cloud was about half a league to the north-north-east of the town of ,laigle1 and was at so great an elevation1 that the inhabitants of two hamlets1 a league distant from each other1 saw it at the same time over their heads4 ,in the whole canton over which this cloud hovered1 a hissing noise1 like that of a stone discharged from a sling1 was heard2 and a multitude of meteoric stones were seen to fall at the same time4 ,the district in which they fell forms an elliptical extent of about two leagues and a half in length1 and nearly one in breadth2 the greatest dimension being in a direction from south-east to north-west1 forming a declination of about twenty-two degrees4 ,this direction1 which the meteor must have followed1 is exactly that of the magnetic meridian2 which is a remarkable fact4 ,the number of these stones was reckoned to exceed three thousand2 and the largest of them weighed nearly twenty pounds4 ,they were friable some days after their fall1 and smelt strongly of sulphur4 ,they subsequently acquired the degree of hardness common to this kind of stones4 ,while1 in ,europe1 these phenomena thus strongly confirmed the long exploded idea of the vulgar1 that many of the luminous meteors observed in the atmosphere1 are masses of ignited matter1 an account of one of precisely the same description was received from the ,east ,indies4 ,on the nineteenth of ,december1 #agih1 at eight in the evening1 a large fire-ball1 or luminous meteor1 was seen at ,benares1 and at several places in its vicinity4 ,it was attended by a loud rumbling noise2 and1 about the same time1 the inhabitants of ,krakhut1 fourteen miles from ,benares1 saw the light1 heard what resembled a loud thunder-clap1 and1 immediately after1 the noise of heavy bodies falling around them4 ,next morning the mold in the fields was found to have been turned up in many spots2 and unusual stones of various sizes1 but of the same substances1 were picked from the moist soil1 generally at a depth of six inches4 ,one stone fell through the roof of a hut1 and buried itself in the earthen floor4 ,from these multiplied evidences it is proved that1 in various parts of the world1 luminous meteors have been seen moving through the air with surprising rapidity1 in a direction more or less oblique1 accompanied with a noise1 commonly like the whizzing of cannon-balls1 followed by explosion1 and the fall of hard1 stony1 or semi-metallic masses in a heated state4 ,the constant whizzing sound2 the fact of stones being found1 like each other1 but unlike all others in the vicinity1 at the spots toward which the luminous body1 or its fragments1 had been seen to move2 the scattering or plowing up of the soil at those spots1 always in proportion to the size of the stones2 the concussion of the neighboring ground at the same time2 and especially1 the impinging of the stones on bodies somewhat above the earth1 or lying loose on its surface2 all these are circumstances perfectly well authenticated in these reports1 proving that such meteors are usually inflamed hard masses1 descending rapidly through the air to the earth4 ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,and ,,aurora ,,australis4 ,these splendid meteors are generally considered as the result of a combination of the two powers of magnetism and electricity4 ,when the light1 or aurora1 appears chiefly in the north part of the heavens1 it is called the aurora borealis1 or northern lights2 and when chiefly in the south part1 the aurora australis1 or southern lights4 ,where the coruscation is more than ordinarily bright and streaming1 which1 however1 seldom occurs in the north1 it is denominated lumen boreale2 and where these streams have assumed a decided curvature1 like that of the rainbow1 they are distinguished by the name of luminous arches4 ,the aurora is chiefly visible in the winter season1 and in cold weather4 ,it is usually of a reddish color1 inclining to yellow1 and sends out frequent coruscations of pale light1 which seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidal1 undulating form1 shooting with great velocity up to the zenith4 ,it never appears near the equator2 but of late years has frequently been seen toward the south pole4 ,the aurora borealis has appeared at some periods more frequently than at others4 ,this phenomenon was so rare in ,england1 or so little regarded1 that its appearance was not recorded in the ,english annals between a remarkable one observed on the fourteenth of ,november1 #aeed1 and a very brilliant one on the sixth of ,march1 #agaf1 and the two succeeding nights1 but which was much strongest on the first night4 ,hence it may be inferred1 that the state of either the air or earth1 or perhaps of both1 is not at all times fitted for its production4 ,the extent of these appearances is surprisingly great4 ,the very brilliant one referred to above was visible from the west of ,ireland to the confines of ,russia1 and the east of ,poland1 extending over1 at the least1 thirty degrees of longitude1 and1 from about the fiftieth degree of latitude1 over almost all the northern part of ,europe4 ,in every place1 it exhibited1 at the same time1 the same wonderful features4 ,the elevation of these lights is equally surprising3 an aurora borealis which appeared on the sixteenth of ,december1 #agcg1 was ascertained1 by means of thirty computations1 to have an average hight from the earth of one hundred and seventy-five leagues1 equal to four hundred and sixty-four ,english miles4 ,captain ,cook1 in his first voyage round the world1 observed that these coruscations are frequently visible in southern latitudes4 ,on the sixteenth of ,september1 #aggj1 he witnessed an appearance of this kind about ten o'clock at night1 consisting of a dull1 reddish light1 and extending about twenty degrees above the horizon4 ,its extent was very different at different times1 but it was never less than eight or ten points of the compass4 ,rays of light1 of a brighter color1 passed through and without it2 and these rays vanished and were renewed nearly in the same time as those in the aurora borealis1 but had little or no vibration4 ,its body bore south-south-east from the ship1 and continued1 without any diminution of its brightness1 till twelve o'clock1 when the observers retired4 ,the ship was at this time within the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,on the seventeenth of ,february1 #aggc1 during his second voyage1 ,captain ,cook speaks of a beautiful phenomenon that was observed in the heavens4 8,it consisted of long columns of a clear white light1 shooting up from the horizon to the eastward1 almost to the zenith1 and spreading gradually over the whole southern parts of the sky4 ,these columns even sometimes bent sideways at their upper extremity2 and1 although in most respects similar to the northern lights1 7the aurora borealis of our hemisphere17 yet differed from them in being always of a whitish color2 whereas ours assume various tints1 especially those of a fiery and purple hue4 ,the stars were sometimes hidden by1 and sometimes faintly to be seen through the substance of these southern lights1 aurora australis4 ,the sky was generally clear when they appeared1 and the air sharp and cold1 the mercury in the thermometer standing at the freezing-point2 the ship being then in fifty-eight degrees south40 ,on six different nights of the following month 7,march7 the same phenomenon was observed4 ,,lumen ,,boreale1 ,,or ,,streaming ,,lights4 ,on the eighth of ,october1 #agbf1 uncommon streams of light were exhibited in every part of the heavens1 about eight o'clock in the evening4 ,they were seen throughout ,england1 as well as in the southern parts of ,europe4 ,they were mostly pointed1 and of different lengths1 assuming the appearance of flaming spires or pyramids2 some again were truncated1 and reached but half-way2 while others had their points reaching up to the zenith1 or near it1 where they formed a sort of canopy1 or thin cloud1 sometimes red1 sometimes brownish1 sometimes blazing as if on fire1 and sometimes emitting streams all around it4 ,this canopy was manifestly formed by the matter carried up by the streaming on all parts of the horizon4 ,it sometimes seemed to ascend with a force1 as if impelled by the impetus of some explosive agent below2 and this forcible ascent of the streaming matter gave a motion to the canopy1 and sometimes a gyration1 like that of a whirlwind4 ,this was manifestly caused by the streams striking the outer part of the canopy2 but if they struck the canopy in the center1 all was then confusion4 ,the vapors between the spires1 or pyramids1 were of a blood-red color1 which gave those parts of the atmosphere the appearance of blazing lances and bloody-colored pillars4 ,there was also a strange commotion among the streams1 as if some large cloud or other body was moving behind and disturbing them4 ,in the northern and southern parts the streams were perpendicular to the horizon2 but in the intermediate points they seemed to decline more or less in one way or the other1 or rather to incline toward the meridian4 ,several persons declared1 that in the time of the streaming1 they heard a hissing1 and in some places a crackling noise1 like that which is reported to be often heard in earthquakes4 ,at ,naples1 on the sixteenth of ,december1 #agcg1 early in the evening1 a light was observed in the north1 as if the air was on fire1 and flashing4 ,its intenseness gradually increasing1 about seven o'clock it spread to the westward4 ,its greatest hight was about sixty-five degrees4 ,its extremities were unequally jagged and scattered1 and followed the course of the westerly wind2 so that for a few hours it spread considerably wider1 yet without ever extending to the zenith4 ,about eight o'clock1 a very regular arch1 of a parabolic figure1 was seen to rise gently to two degrees of rectangular elevation1 and to twenty degrees of horizontal amplitude4 ,at ten the intenseness of the color disappeared2 and by midnight not any traces of this phenomenon were left4 ,it was seen throughout ,italy1 as the subsequent accounts will show4 ,at ,padua1 on the appearance of this extraordinary meteor1 the air was calm1 and the barometer remarkably high4 ,at five in the afternoon a blackish zone1 with its upper limb of a sky-color1 appeared near the horizon2 and above this zone was another1 very luminous1 resembling the dawn pretty far advanced4 ,the highest zone was of a red1 fiery color4 ,a little after six o'clock1 the upper parts of these zones emitted an abundance of red streamings1 or rays2 their vivid color being occasionally intermixed with whitish and dark spots4 ,in a few seconds after1 there issued from the west1 a red and very bright column1 which ascended to the third part of the heavens1 and a little after became curved like a rainbow4 ,at half past eight1 almost instantaneously1 the bright zone1 from eight degrees west to fifty degrees east1 became more vivid1 and rose higher2 and above this appeared another and larger one1 of a red1 fiery color1 with several successive streamings tending upward1 and exceeding sixty degrees of altitude2 the western part having assumed the form of a thin cloud4 ,at midnight these splendid lights disappeared entirely4 ,at ,bononia1 this surprising meteor spread to such an extent as to occupy about one hundred and forty degrees of the heavens4 ,its light was so vivid that houses could be distinguished1 at eight in the evening1 at a very considerable distance2 and these were so reddened1 that many persons thought there was a fire in the neighborhood4 ,at that time the aurora formed itself into a concave arch toward the horizon2 and in half an hour1 at its eastern limit1 a pyramid was displayed1 of a more intense color toward the north1 from the center of which there shot up vertically a streak of light1 between a white and a yellow color4 ,a very dark1 narrow cloud crossed the whole phenomenon1 and terminated in the pyramid4 ,at the upper part1 a very considerable tract of the heavens was enlightened by a very vivid red light1 which was interrupted by several streaks or columns of a bright yellowish light4 ,these streamings shot up vertically1 and parallel to each other1 the narrow cloud seeming to serve them as a basis4 ,under the cloud there issued forth two tails of a whitish light1 hanging downward on a basis of a weak red1 and seeming to kindle and dart the light downward4 ,a white streak1 which passed across these two tails1 and extended from one end of the phenomenon to the other1 in a position almost parallel to the above-mentioned cloud1 gave a splendid effect to the whole4 ,this surprising and beautiful meteor disappeared a short time after nine o'clock2 but an abundance of falling stars were afterward seen in the south4 ,similar observations were made at ,rome2 but in ,great ,britain1 where this phenomenon was likewise seen1 different appearances were displayed4 ,at ,edinburgh1 at six in the evening1 the sky appeared to be in flames4 ,an arch of red light reached from the west1 over the zenith1 to the east1 its northern border being tinged with a color approaching to blue4 ,this aurora did not first form in the north1 as usually happens1 and after forming an arch there1 rise toward the zenith2 neither did the light shiver1 and spread itself1 by sudden jerks1 over the hemisphere1 as is common1 but it gradually and gently stole along the face of the heavens1 till it had covered the whole hemisphere3 this alarmed the vulgar1 and was indeed a strange sight4 ,at ,rosehill1 in ,sussex1 it appeared as a strong and very steady light1 nearly of the color of red ocher4 ,it did not dart or flash1 but kept a steady course against the wind1 which blew fresh from the south-west4 ,it began in the north-north-west1 in the form of a pillar of light1 at a quarter past six in the evening3 in about ten minutes a fourth part of it divided from the rest1 and never joined again4 ,in ten minutes more it described an arch1 but did not join at the top2 and at seven o'clock it formed a bow1 disappearing soon after4 ,it was lightest and reddest at the horizon1 and gave as much light as a full moon4 ,,luminous ,,arches4 ,in the month of ,march1 #aggd1 a very beautiful luminous arch was seen at ,buxton4 ,it was white1 inclining to yellow3 and its breadth in the crown was apparently equal to that of the rainbow4 ,as it approached the horizon1 each leg of the arch became gradually broader4 ,it was stationary and free from any sensible coruscations4 ,its direction was from north-east to south-west2 and its crown or most elevated part1 not far from the zenith4 ,this phenomenon lasted about half an hour4 ,the grandest spectacle of this kind which appears to have been seen in ,great ,britain1 was observed at ,leeds1 in ,yorkshire1 on the twelfth of ,april1 #aghc1 between the hours of nine and ten at night4 ,a broad arch of a bright pale yellow1 and having an apparent breadth of about fifteen degrees1 arose in the heavens1 and passed considerably south of the zenith4 ,such was its varied density1 that it appeared to consist of small columns of light1 having a sensible motion4 ,after about ten minutes1 innumerable bright coruscations shot out at right angles from its northern edge1 elongating themselves more and more till they had nearly reached the northern horizon4 ,as they descended1 their extremities were tipped with an elegant crimson1 such as is produced by the electric spark in an exhausted tube4 ,after some time this beautiful northern light ceased to shoot1 and1 forming a line of bright yellow clouds1 which extended horizontally about the fourth of a circle1 its greatest portion1 which darted from this arch toward the north1 as well as the cloudlike and more stationary aurora1 became so dense as to hide the stars from view4 ,the moon was eleven days old1 and shone brightly during this scene1 but did not eclipse the splendor of these coruscations4 ,the wind was in the north1 a little inclined to the east4 ,a similar phenomenon was observed at ,leeds on the twenty-sixth of the same month4 ,from a mass or broad column of light in the west1 issued three luminous arches1 each of which made a different angle with the horizon4 ,they had not been viewed many minutes when they were rendered invisible by a general blaze of aurora borealis1 which possessed the space just before occupied by these arches4 ,,ignes ,,fatui1 ,,or ,,mock ,,fires4 ,these meteors1 denominated by the vulgar1 ,will-with-a-wisp1 and ,jack-with-a-lantern1 and at sea or on the coast1 mariner's lights1 or ,st4 ,helmo's fires1 are now considered as real exhalations from the earth1 produced by gas1 vapor1 or some other attenuated substance1 emanating from vegetable1 animal or mineral materials1 and combined with the matter of light or heat1 or both4 ,instead of being dense or solid1 they are uniformly rare and subtile2 and1 instead of originating in the loftiest regions of the atmosphere1 or beyond its range1 are generated for the greater part in low1 marshy plains or valleys4 ,to the fearful and superstitious1 they are a source of as much terror as the nobler and sublimer meteors which have just been contemplated2 and it is probable that they have occasionally been the source of real and extensive damage1 when in a state of actual combustion1 and that they have still more frequently seduced a timid and benighted traveler into dangerous bogs and quagmires4 ,in ,italy1 in the ,bolognese territory1 they are so frequent1 in the morassy grounds1 that they are to be seen every night1 some of them affording as much light as a kindled torch1 and others not being larger than the flame of a candle1 but all of them so luminous as to shed a luster on the surrounding objects4 ,they are constantly in motion1 but this motion is various and uncertain4 ,they sometimes rise and at other times sink1 sometimes suddenly disappearing1 and appearing again in an instant in some other place4 ,they usually hover about six feet from the ground1 differing both in figure and size1 and spreading out and contracting themselves alternately4 ,sometimes they break to appearance into two parts1 soon after uniting again in one body1 and at intervals float like waves1 letting fall portions of ignited matter1 like sparks from a fire4 ,they are more frequently observed in winter than in summer1 and cast the strongest light in rainy and moist weather4 ,they are most friendly to the banks of brooks and rivers1 and to morasses2 but they are likewise seen on elevated grounds1 where they are1 however1 of a comparatively diminutive size4 ,in the month of ,march1 #agbh1 a traveler being in a mountainous road1 about ten miles south of ,bononia1 perceived1 as he approached the river ,riovedere1 between eight and nine in the evening1 a light shining very brightly on some stones which lay on the banks4 ,it was elevated about two feet above them2 its figure describing a parallelopiped1 more than a foot in length1 and about six inches high1 its longest side lying parallel to the horizon4 ,its light was so strong that he could distinguish by it very plainly a part of a neighboring hedge1 and the water in the river4 ,on a near approach1 it changed from a bright red to a yellowish color1 and on drawing still nearer1 became pale2 but when the observer reached the spot it vanished4 ,on his stepping back1 he not only saw it again1 but found that the further he receded1 the stronger and more luminous it became4 ,this light was afterward seen several times1 both in spring and autumn1 precisely at the same spot1 and preserving the same shape4 ,on the twelfth of ,december1 #aggf1 several very remarkable ignes fatui were observed on the road to ,bromsgrove1 five miles from ,birmingham1 in ,england1 a little before daylight4 ,a great many of these lights were playing in an adjacent field1 in different directions2 from some of which there suddenly sprang up bright branches of light1 somewhat resembling the explosion of a rocket1 filled with many brilliant stars1 if1 in the case of the latter1 the discharge be supposed to be upward1 or vertical1 instead of taking the usual direction4 ,the hedge1 and the trees on each side1 were strongly illuminated4 ,this appearance continued a few seconds only1 when the ignes fatui played as before4 ,the spectator was not sufficiently near to observe whether the apparent explosions were attended with any report4 ,in the month of ,december1 #afic1 between the twenty-fourth and thirtieth1 a fiery exhalation1 without doubt generated in the same way with the meteors described above1 set fire to sixteen ricks of hay1 and two barns filled with corn and hay1 at the village of ,hartech1 in ,pembrokeshire4 ,it had frequently been seen before1 proceeding from the sea1 and in these instances lasted for a fortnight or three weeks4 ,it not only fired the hay1 but poisoned the grass1 for the extent of a mile1 so as to induce a distemper among the cattle4 ,it was a weak blue flame1 easily extinguished1 and did not in the least burn any of the men who interposed their endeavors to save the hay1 although they ventured1 not only close to it1 but sometimes into it4 ,all the damage sustained happened constantly in the night4 ,belonging to this class of meteors is the draco volans1 a fiery exhalation1 frequent in marshy and cold countries4 ,it is most common in summer2 and1 although principally seen playing near the banks of rivers1 or in boggy places1 still it sometimes mounts up to a considerable hight in the air1 to the no small terror of the amazed beholders4 ,its appearance is that of an oblong 7sometimes roundish7 fiery body1 with a long tail4 ,it is entirely harmless1 frequently sticking to the hands and clothes of the spectators1 without doing them the least injury4 ,,specter ,,of ,,the ,,brocken4 ,this is one of those curious and interesting atmospheric phenomena1 or deceptions1 which proceed from one common cause1 an irregularity in the tenuity of the atmospheric fluid4 ,this fluid is commonly of an homogeneous or equable tenuity1 and consequently suffers the rays of the sun to penetrate it without any obstruction or change2 but is at times irregular1 and composed of parts of bodies of a denser medium than its general texture and constitution4 ,under these circumstances1 the fluent ray1 if it do not enter the denser medium in a direct or perpendicular line1 will be either reflected1 or refracted1 or both2 and the object surveyed through it1 will assume a new1 and1 not unfrequently1 a grotesque or highly magnified appearance4 ,the specter of the ,brocken is an aerial figure which is sometimes seen among the ,hartz mountains in ,hanover4 ,the phenomenon has been witnessed by various travelers1 and among them by ,m4 ,haue1 from whose relation the following particulars are extracted4 8,having ascended the ,brocken mountain for the thirtieth time1 ,i was at length so fortunate as to have the pleasure of seeing this phenomenon4 ,the sun rose about four o'clock1 and the atmosphere being quite serene toward the east1 its rays could pass without any obstruction over the ,heinrichshohe mountain4 ,in the south-west1 however1 toward the mountain ,achtermannshohe1 a brisk west wind carried before it thin transparent vapors4 ,about a quarter past four1 ,i looked round1 to see whether the atmosphere would permit me to have a free prospect to the south-west1 when ,i observed1 at a very great distance toward the ,achtermannshohe1 a human figure of monstrous size6 ,a violent gust of wind having almost carried away my hat1 ,i clapped my hand to it2 and in moving my hand toward my head1 the colossal figure did the same4 8,the pleasure which ,i felt at this discovery can hardly be described2 for ,i had already walked many a weary step in the hope of seeing this shadowy image1 without being able to gratify my curiosity4 ,i immediately made another movement1 by bending my body1 and the colossal figure before me repeated it4 ,i was desirous of doing the same once more1 but my colossus had vanished4 ,i remained in the same position1 waiting to see whether it would return2 and in a few minutes it again made its appearance on the ,achtermannshohe4 ,i then called the landlord of the neighboring inn1 and having both taken the position which ,i had taken alone1 we looked toward the ,achtermannshohe1 but did not perceive anything4 ,we had not1 however1 stood long1 when two such colossal figures were formed over the above eminence1 as represented in the cut1 which repeated their compliments by bending their bodies as we did1 after which they vanished4 ,we retained our position1 kept our eyes fixed on the spot1 and in a little time the two figures again stood before us1 and were joined by a third1 that of a traveler who then came up and joined the party4 ,every movement made by us1 these figures imitated2 but with this difference1 that the phenomenon was sometimes weak and faint1 sometimes strong and well defined40 ,illustration3 ,,specter ,,of ,,the ,,brocken4 ,in ,clarke's 8,survey of the ,lakes10 a phenomenon similar to that of the specter of the ,brocken1 is recorded to have been observed in the years #agdc and #agdd1 on ,souter-,fell1 a mountain in ,cumberland4 ,it excited much conversation and alarm at the time1 and exposed to great ridicule those who asserted they had witnessed it4 ,it is1 however1 too well attested not to deserve a short notice here1 and may be referred to the same causes by which the above aerial images on the ,brocken mountain were produced4 ,the relation is as follows4 ,souter-,fell is a mountain about half a mile in hight1 inclosed on the north and west sides by precipitous rocks1 but somewhat more open on the east1 and easier of access4 ,at ,wilton ,hall1 within half a mile of this mountain1 on a summer's evening1 in the year #agdc1 a farmer and his servant1 sitting at the door1 saw the figure of a man with a dog1 pursuing some horses along ,souter-,fell side1 a place so steep that a horse could scarcely travel on it4 ,they appeared to run at a very great pace1 till they got out of sight at the lower end of the fell4 ,on the following morning the farmer and his servant ascended the steep side of the mountain1 in full expectation that they should find the man lying dead1 being persuaded that the swiftness with which he ran must have killed him1 and imagining also that they should pick up some of the shoes which they thought the horses must have lost1 in galloping at so furious a rate4 ,they were1 however1 disappointed in these expectations1 as not the least vestige of either man or horses could be discovered1 not so much1 even1 as the mark of a horse's hoof on the turf4 ,on the twenty-third of ,june1 of the following year1 #agdd1 about half past seven in the evening1 the same servant1 then residing at ,blakehills1 at an equal distance from the mountain1 being in a field in front of the farm-house1 saw a troop of horsemen riding on ,souter-,fell side in pretty close ranks1 and at a brisk pace4 ,having observed them for some time1 he called out his young master1 who before the spot was pointed out to him1 discovered the aerial troopers2 and this phenomenon was shortly after witnessed by the whole of the family4 ,the visionary horsemen appeared to come from the lowest part of ,souter-,fell1 and were visible at a place called ,knott3 they then moved in regular troops along the side of the fell1 till they came opposite to ,blakehills1 when they went over the mountain4 ,they thus described a kind of curvilinear path1 and their first as well as their last appearance1 was bounded by the foot of the mountain4 ,their pace was that of a regular swift walk1 and they were seen for upward of two hours1 when darkness intervened4 ,several troops were seen in succession1 and frequently the last1 or last but one in the troop1 would quit his position1 gallop to the front1 and then observe the same pace with the others4 ,the same change was visible to all the spectators2 and the sight of this phenomenon was not confined to ,blakehills1 but was witnessed by the inhabitants of the cottages within a mile4 ,it was attested before a magistrate by the two above-cited individuals in the month of ,july1 #agde4 ,twenty-six persons are said in the attestation to have witnessed the march of these aerial travelers4 ,it should be remarked that these appearances were observed on the eve of the rebellion1 when troops of horsemen might be privately exercising2 and as the imitative powers of the specter of the ,brocken demonstrate that the actions of human beings are sometimes pictured in the clouds1 it seems highly probable1 on a consideration of all the circumstances of this latter phenomenon on ,souter-,fell1 that certain thin vapors must have hovered round the summit of the mountain when the appearances were observed4 ,it is also probable that these vapors may have been impressed with the shadowy forms which seem to 8imitate humanity10 by a particular operation of the sun's rays1 united with some singular but unknown refractive combinations then taking place in the atmosphere4 ,,the ,,mirage4 ,this very curious phenomenon1 which was remarked by ,m4 ,monge1 one of the ,french savans belonging to the institute of ,cairo1 in the hot and sandy desert between ,alexandria and that city1 is described by him as resulting from an inverted image of the cerulean sky intermixed with the ground scenery1 the neighboring villages appearing to be surrounded with a most beautiful sheet of water1 and to exist1 like islands1 in its liquid expanse1 tantalizing the eye by an unfaithful representation of what the thirsty traveler earnestly desires4 ,doctor ,clarke1 in his interesting travels1 introduces the following animated description of this phenomenon4 8,here at the village of ,utko we procured asses for our party1 and1 setting out for ,rosetta1 began to recross the desert1 appearing like an ocean of sand1 but flatter and firmer as to its surface1 than before4 ,the ,arabs1 uttering their harsh1 guttural language1 ran chattering by the side of our asses2 until some of them calling out #8,raschid6' we perceived its domes and turrets1 apparently upon the opposite side of an immense lake or sea1 that covered all the intervening space between us and the city4 ,not having in my own mind1 at the time1 any doubt as to the certainty of its being water1 and seeing the tall minarets and buildings of ,rosetta1 with all its groves of dates and sycamores1 as perfectly reflected by it as by a mirror1 insomuch that even the minutest detail of the architecture and of the trees might have been thence delineated1 ,i applied to the ,arabs to be informed in what manner we were to pass the water4 ,our interpreter1 although a ,greek1 and therefore likely to have been informed of such a phenomenon1 was as fully convinced as any of us1 that we were drawing near to the water's edge1 and became indignant1 when the ,arabs maintained1 that within an hour we should reach ,rosetta1 by crossing the sands in the direct line we then pursued1 and that there was no water4 #8,what6' said he1 giving way to his impatience1 #8do you suppose me an idiot1 to be persuaded contrary to the evidence of my senses8' ,the ,arabs1 smiling1 soon pacified him1 and completely astonished the whole party1 by desiring us to look back at the desert we had already passed1 where we beheld a precisely similar appearance4 ,it was1 in fact1 the mirage1 a prodigy to which all of us were then strangers1 although it afterward became more familiar4 ,yet upon no future occasion did we ever behold this extraordinary illusion so marvelously displayed4 ,the view of it afforded us ideas of the horrible despondency to which travelers must sometimes be exposed1 who1 in traversing the interminable desert1 destitute of water1 and perishing with thirst1 have sometimes this deceitful prospect before their eyes40 ,this appearance is often seen1 when the sun shines1 upon the extensive flat sand upon the shores of the ,bristol channel1 in ,somersetshire1 and probably on the sea-shore in other parts of ,england4 ,,fata ,,morgana4 8,as when a shepherd of the ,hebride isles1 ,placed far amid the melancholy main1 7,whether it be lone fancy him beguiles1 ,or that aerial beings sometimes deign ,to stand embodied to our senses plain17 ,sees on the naked hill1 or valley low1 ,the whilst in ocean ,phbus dips his wain1 ,a vast assemblage moving to and fro2 ,then all at once in air dissolves the wondrous show40--,,thomson4 ,these optical appearances of figures in the sea and air1 in the ,faro of ,messina1 are the great delight of the populace1 who1 whenever the vision is displayed1 run about the streets shouting for joy1 and calling on every one to partake of the glorious sight4 ,to produce this pleasing deception1 many circumstances must concur which are not known to exist in any other situation4 ,the spectator must stand with his back to the east1 in some elevated place behind the city1 that he may command a view of the whole bay1 beyond which the mountains of ,messina rise like a wall1 and darken the background of the picture4 ,the winds must be hushed1 the surface of the water quite smooth1 the tide at its hight1 and the waters pressed up by currents to a great elevation in the middle of the channel4 ,all these events coinciding1 as soon as the sun surmounts the eastern hills behind ,reggio1 7on the ,calabrian coast opposite17 and rises high enough to form an angle of forty-five degrees on the water before the city1 every object1 existing or moving at ,reggio1 will be repeated a thousand-fold in this marine mirror1 which1 by its tremulous motion1 is1 as it were1 cut into facets4 ,each image will pass rapidly off in succession1 as the day advances1 and the stream carries down the wave on which it appeared4 ,thus the parts of this moving picture will vanish in the twinkling of an eye4 ,sometimes the air is at this time so impregnated with vapors1 and undisturbed by winds1 as to reflect objects in a kind of aerial screen1 rising about thirty feet above the level of the sea4 ,in cloudy1 heavy weather1 they are drawn on the surface of the water1 bordered with fine prismatic colors4 ,swinburne1 in his travels1 cites ,father ,angelucci as having been the first to describe this phenomenon accurately4 ,his relation is as follows4 8,on the fifteenth of ,august1 #afdc1 as ,i stood at my window1 ,i was surprised with a most wonderful and delectable vision4 ,the sea which washes the ,sicilian shore1 swelled up1 and became1 for twelve miles in length1 like a chain of dark mountains2 while the waters near our ,calabrian coast grew quite smooth1 and in an instant appeared as one polished mirror1 reclining against the aforesaid ridge4 ,on this glass was depicted1 in chiar-oscura1 a string of several thousands of pilasters1 all equal in altitude1 distance and degree of light and shade4 ,in a moment they lost half their hight1 and bent into arcades1 like ,roman aqueducts4 ,a long cornice was next formed on the top1 and above it rose castles innumerable1 all perfectly alike4 ,these soon split into towers1 which were shortly after lost in colonnades1 then in windows1 and at last ended in pines1 cypresses1 and other trees1 even and similar4 ,this was the ,fata ,morgana1 which1 for twenty-six years1 ,i had thought a mere fable40 ,,atmospherical ,,refraction4 ,a surprising instance of atmospherical refraction occurred at ,hastings1 ,england1 on the twenty-sixth of ,july1 #agih4 ,w4 ,latham1 ,esq41 sitting in his dining-room1 situated on the parade1 close to the sea-shore1 and nearly fronting the south1 about five in the afternoon1 had his attention suddenly drawn by a great number of people running down to the seaside4 ,on inquiring the reason1 he was informed that the coast of ,france was plainly to be distinguished by the naked eye4 ,on going down to the shore1 he was surprised to find that1 even without the assistance of a telescope1 he could very plainly see the cliffs on the opposite coast2 which1 at the nearest part1 are between forty and fifty miles distant1 and are not to be discerned1 from that low situation1 by the aid of the best glasses4 ,they appeared to be only a few miles off1 and seemed to extend for some leagues along the coast4 ,pursuing his walk along the shore to the eastward1 close to the water's edge1 and conversing on the subject with the sailors and fishermen1 they could not1 at first1 be persuaded of the reality of the appearance2 but soon became so thoroughly convinced1 by the cliffs gradually appearing more elevated1 and approaching nearer as it were1 that they pointed out and named to him the different places they had been accustomed to visit1 such as1 the ,bay1 the ,old ,head or ,man1 the ,windmill1 c41 at ,boulogne2 together with ,st4 ,vallery1 and other places on the coast of ,picardy4 ,this they afterward confirmed1 when they viewed them1 thus refracted1 through their telescopes1 observing that the above places appeared as near as if they had been sailing1 at a small distance1 into the harbors4 ,from the eastern cliff1 which is of a very considerable hight1 a most beautiful scene presented itself to ,mr4 ,latham's view1 for there he could at once see ,dungeness1 ,dover cliffs1 and the ,french coast1 all along from ,calais1 ,boulogne1 c41 to ,st4 ,vallery2 and1 as some of the fishermen affirmed1 as far to the westward even as ,dieppe4 ,by the telescope1 the ,french fishing-boats were plainly to be seen at anchor1 and the different colors of the land on the hights1 with the buildings1 were perfectly discernible4 ,this curious phenomenon continued in the highest splendor till half past eight o'clock1 notwithstanding a black cloud for some time totally obscured the face of the sun1 and then vanished gradually4 ,so remarkable an instance of atmospherical refraction had not been before witnessed by the oldest inhabitant of ,hastings4 ,it was likewise observed at ,winchelsea1 and other places along the coast4 ,the day was remarkably hot1 without a breath of wind stirring4 ,as another instance of this refracting power of the atmosphere1 ,dr4 ,vince1 an ,english philosopher1 was once looking through a telescope at a ship1 which was so far off1 that he could only see the upper parts of the masts4 ,the hulk was entirely hidden by the bending of the water1 but between himself and the ship he saw two perfect images of it in the air4 ,these were of the same form and color as the real ship2 but one of them was turned upside down4 ,and when ,captain ,scoresby was in the polar sea with his ship1 he was separated by the ice from that of his father for some time1 and looked out for her every day with great anxiety4 ,at length1 one evening1 to his utter astonishment1 he saw her suspended in the air1 in an inverted position1 traced on the horizon in the clearest colors1 and with the most distinct and perfect representation4 ,he sailed in the direction in which he saw this visionary phenomenon1 and actually found his father's vessel by its indication4 ,he was separated from the ship by immense masses of icebergs1 and at such a distance that it was impossible to have seen her in her actual situation1 or to have seen her at all1 if her spectrum had not been thus raised several degrees above the horizon in the air by this most extraordinary refraction4 ,it is by this bending of the rays of light that the images of people are often seen at a distance1 and sometimes magnified to a gigantic size4 ,we have given an account of such an appearance in the ,hartz mountains1 in ,germany4 ,another singular instance of the refracting power of the atmosphere1 was witnessed within the present year1 7#ahed17 by ,mr4 ,elliott1 the aeronaut1 while ascending in his balloon from ,petersburg1 ,virginia4 ,after he had ascended about three thousand feet he discharged some five pounds of ballast1 when he shot onward and upward with amazing rapidity till he began to approximate to the clouds4 ,he then discharged about five pounds more of sand1 the remainder of the bag1 when he again darted upward among the clouds1 which were so dense as to wholly exclude all terrestrial objects from his view1 and of course he was lost to all observers below4 ,these discharges were distinctly seen by persons watching him1 and on the first occasion some one exclaimed that the balloon had burst4 ,while among the clouds1 it seemed to him as if he was in the midst of a large ground-glass globe1 some two or three hundred feet in diameter1 against the side of which opposite to the sun1 the shadow of his balloon rested1 some five or six times larger than the corporeal one4 ,about half-way between him and the shadow1 which seemed as if resting on the glass wall1 another balloon was seen1 of a size between the shadow and the real one1 resting as if in a vacuum1 which displayed every color of the original faithfully4 ,he then saw another ,elliott1 clad and with features like himself1 and seemingly self-like4 ,he then extended his own fingers1 when he was mimicked by his image2 and whether he extended one finger or more1 or whatever he did1 this figure duplicated exactly4 ,when he would cause his balloon to oscillate1 this balloon would move exactly like his4 ,when he threw out more ballast to elevate himself1 this figure sank down instead of rising with him2 and when he arose above the clouds into the rays of the unclouded sun1 he left the mimic aeronaut below him4 ,in the rays of the sun above the clouds he found it so warm as to cause him to perspire freely1 a state of heat never before experienced at this hight1 nearly twenty-four thousand feet1 where the air is very rarefied and generally very chilly4 ,he then opened the valve for the purpose of descending1 and as soon as he had sunk one or two thousand feet1 which he ascertained by barometrical indications1 he felt as if he had entered an ice-house1 and a cold chill seized his whole person4 ,here he again met his mimic aerial voyager1 whom he kept in company for some time1 from philosophical motives4 ,whenever he moved sideways1 this mum gentleman would move in the same direction4 ,but when he moved up or down1 the duplicate would move in a directly opposite way2 and when he concluded to descend1 the image moved upward until the tricolored flag was out of sight1 when he could see the car and the aeronaut still standing in it as if in a basket attached to nothing4 ,he continued to look until his head was ,robespierred1 and finally1 piece by piece1 his body1 and1 at last1 his feet and basket1 ascended out of his sight4 ,mr4 ,elliott said that he had been up a hundred and one times1 but never had seen anything in the form of an illusion like this before4 ,illustration3 ,,ship ,,refracted ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,but one of the most remarkable cases of atmospheric refraction of which we have any record1 is that which occurred at ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 in the early settlement of the colony4 ,the colonists had built a ship1 and freighted her for ,england with a valuable cargo1 with which she sailed from their harbor in the winter of #afdg1 having several of their principal men on board4 ,they were obliged to cut their way through the ice to get out of the harbor2 and the ship1 never being heard of afterward1 was supposed to have foundered at sea4 ,no tidings arriving of the ship or of her fate1 the colonists were deeply distressed1 and 8were very earnest in their prayers1 both public and private1 that ,god would in some way make manifest to them what had become of their friends40 ,in the following ,june1 a violent thunder-storm arose out of the north-west1 after which the atmosphere being very calm and serene1 about an hour before sunset1 a ship of the dimensions and form of the one they had lost1 with all her canvas set and flags flying1 appeared in the air1 coming up the harbor1 her sails filled as though by a fresh gale1 and sailing against the wind1 for the space of half an hour4 ,at length1 as she came nearer1 her maintop seemed to be blown off1 though left hanging in the shrouds2 then1 her mizzen-top2 then all her masting seemed blown away by the board2 quickly after1 her hulk careening1 she overset1 and seemed to sink and vanish in the clouds1 and as these clouds passed away1 the air where she was seen1 was1 as before1 perfectly clear4 ,the crowd of spectators could distinguish the appearance of the various parts of the ship1 the principal rigging1 and such proportions as made them satisfied that this was indeed their ship2 and ,mr4 ,davenport1 the minister1 declared1 in public1 that ,god1 for the quieting of the hearts of the people1 had given them this extraordinary exhibition and account of what he had done with their property and friends4 ,but science gives us a more natural and less miraculous explanation of the matter1 in the refracting power of the air when in certain states2 and the probability is1 that the ship1 thus seen in the air1 was some strange vessel 7which they imagined looked like their own7 coming up the harbor before the breeze1 and then driven off and wrecked by the storm1 which reached her after it had passed ,new ,haven2 or else that it was1 indeed1 their own ship1 which after being driven about for months1 was now coming back to her port1 when she was thus caught in the tempest and destroyed4 ,and as confirming this view of the matter1 it may be added1 in conclusion1 that within the present century1 it is said1 a similar refraction of a ship in the air1 has been witnessed in the same place4 ,,parhelia1 ,,or ,,mock ,,suns4 ,on the fifth of ,february1 #afgd1 near ,marienberg1 in ,prussia1 the sky being everywhere serene1 the sun1 which was still some degrees above the horizon1 was seen to lance out very long and reddish rays1 forty or fifty degrees toward the zenith1 notwithstanding it shone with great luster4 ,beneath this planet1 toward the horizon1 there hung a somewhat thin small cloud1 at the inferior part of which there appeared a mock sun1 of the same apparent size with the true sun1 and of a reddish color4 ,soon after1 the true sun descending gradually to the horizon1 toward the said cloud1 the spurious sun beneath it grew clearer and clearer1 in so much that the reddish color in this apparent solar disk vanished1 and it put on the genuine solar light1 in proportion as it was approached by the genuine disk of the sun4 ,the latter1 at length1 passed into the lower counterfeit sun1 and thus remained alone4 ,this phenomenon was considered the more wonderful1 as it was perpendicularly under the sun1 instead of being at its side1 as parhelia usually are2 not to mention the color1 so different from that which is usual in mock suns1 nor the great length of the tail cast up by the genuine sun1 of a far more vivid and splendid light than parhelia commonly exhibit4 ,this appearance was soon followed by an exceedingly intense frost1 which lasted till the twenty-fifth of ,march1 the whole bay being frozen up from the town of ,dantzic to ,hela in the ,baltic sea4 ,on the twenty-eighth of ,august1 #afih1 about eight o'clock in the morning1 there was seen at ,sudbury1 in ,suffolk1 ,england1 the appearance of three suns1 which were then extremely brilliant4 ,beneath a dark1 watery cloud1 in the east1 nearly at its center1 the true sun shone with such strong beams1 that the spectators could not look at it2 and on each side were the reflections4 ,much of the firmament was elsewhere of an azure color4 ,the circles were not colored like the rainbow1 but white2 and there was also1 at the same time1 higher in the firmament1 and toward the south1 at a considerable distance from the other phenomena1 the form of a half-moon1 but apparently of double the size1 with the horns turned upward4 ,this appearance was1 within1 of a fiery red color1 imitating that of the rainbow4 ,these phenomena faded gradually1 after having continued about two hours4 ,two mock suns1 an arc of a rainbow inverted1 and a halo1 were seen at ,lyndon1 in the county of ,rutland1 on the twenty-second of ,october1 #afba1 at eleven in the morning4 ,there had been an aurora borealis the preceding night1 with the wind at west-south-west4 ,the two parhelia1 or mock suns1 were bright and distinct1 and in the usual places1 namely1 in the two intersections of a strong and large portion of a halo1 with an imaginary circle parallel to the horizon1 passing through the true sun4 ,each parhelion had its tail of a white color1 and in direct opposition to the true sun2 that toward the east being some twenty or twenty-five degrees long1 and that toward the west from ten to twelve degrees1 both narrowest at the remote ends4 ,the mock suns were evidently red toward the sun1 but pale or whitish at the opposite sides1 as was the halo also4 ,still higher in the heavens1 was an arc of a curiously inverted rainbow1 about the middle of the distance between the top of the halo and the vertex4 ,this arc was as distinct in its colors as the common rainbow1 and of the same breadth4 ,the red color was on the convex1 and the blue on the concave of the arc1 which seemed to be about ninety degrees in length1 its center being in or near the vertex4 ,on the top of the halo was a kind of inverted bright arc4 ,this phenomenon was seen on the following day1 and1 again1 on the twenty-sixth4 ,on the eleventh of the preceding month1 ,september1 a very splendid and remarkable aurora borealis1 presenting truly unaccountable motions and removals1 was witnessed in ,rutlandshire1 in ,northamptonshire1 and at ,bath4 ,,lunar ,,rainbow4 ,this very rare phenomenon was witnessed at ,glapwell ,hall1 in ,derbyshire1 ,england1 on the twenty-fifth of ,december1 #agaj1 about eight in the evening1 with a remarkable and very unusual display of colors4 ,the moon had passed her full about twenty-four hours1 and the evening had been rainy2 but the clouds were dispersed1 and the moon then shone quite clear4 ,this iris lunaris had all the colors of the solar iris1 exceedingly beautiful and distinct1 only faint in comparison with those which are seen in the day2 as must necessarily have been the case1 both from the different beams by which it was occasioned1 and the disposition of the medium4 ,what most surprised the observer was the largeness of the arc1 which was not so much less than that of the sun1 as the different dimensions of their bodies1 and their respective distances from the earth1 seemed to require2 but the entireness and beauty of its colors furnished a charming spectacle4 ,,concentric ,,rainbows4 ,this extraordinary phenomenon1 which is seen at sunrise on the ,andes1 in ,south ,america1 was first witnessed by ,ulloa and his companions in the wild heaths of ,pambamarca1 and is thus described by him4 8,at day-break the whole of the mountain was enveloped in dense clouds1 which at sunrise were dissipated1 leaving behind them vapors of so extreme a tenuity1 as not to be distinguishable to the sight4 ,at the side opposite to that where the sun rose on the mountain1 and at the distance of about sixty yards from the spot where we were standing1 the image of each of us was seen represented as if in a mirror1 and three concentric rainbows1 the last or most exterior colors of one of which touched the first of the following one1 were centered on each head4 ,without the whole of them1 and at an inconsiderable distance1 was seen a fourth arc purely white4 ,they were all perpendicular to the horizon2 and in proportion as any one of us moved from one side to the other1 he was accompanied by the phenomenon1 which preserved the same order and disposition4 ,what was1 however1 most remarkable1 was this1 that although six or seven persons were thus standing close together1 each of us saw the phenomenon as it regarded himself1 but did not perceive it in the others4 ,this1 adds ,bouguer1 is a kind of apotheosis1 in which each of the spectators1 seeing his head adorned with a glory formed of three or four concentric crowns of a very vivid color1 each of them presenting varieties similar to those of the first rainbow1 tranquilly enjoys the sensible pleasure of reflecting that the brilliant garland he can not discover in the others is destined for himself alone40 ,a similar phenomenon is described by ,mr4 ,hagarth1 as having been seen by him in ,wales1 on the thirteenth of ,february1 #aghj4 ,his relation is as follows4 8,in ascending1 at ,rhealt1 the mountain which forms the eastern boundary of the vale of ,clwyd1 7in ,denbighshire17 ,i observed a rare and curious phenomenon4 ,in the road above me1 ,i was struck with the peculiar appearance of a very white1 shining cloud1 which lay remarkably close to the ground4 ,the sun was near setting1 but shone extremely bright3 ,i walked up to the cloud1 and my shadow was projected into it1 its superior part being surrounded1 at some distance1 by a circle of various colors1 whose center appeared to be near the situation of the eye1 and whose circumference extended to the shoulders4 ,this circle was complete1 except what the shadow of my body intercepted4 ,it exhibited the most vivid colors1 the red being outermost2 and all of them appearing in the same order and proportion as they are presented to the view by the rainbow4 ,it resembled very exactly what in pictures is termed a glory1 surrounding the heads of saints2 not indeed that it exhibited the luminous radiance that is painted close to the head1 but an arch of concentric colors placed separately and distinctly from it4 ,as ,i walked forward1 this glory approached or retired1 just as the inequality of the ground shortened or lengthened my shadow4 ,the cloud being sometimes in a small valley below me1 sometimes on the same level1 or on higher ground1 the variation of the shadow and glory became extremely striking and singular4 ,to add to the beauty of the scene1 there appeared1 at a considerable distance to the right and left1 the arches of a white1 shining bow4 ,these arches were in the form of1 and broader than a rainbow2 but were not completely joined into a semicircle above1 on account of the shallowness of the cloud40 ,,thunder ,,and ,,lightning4 ,to conceive justly of the nature of thunder and lightning1 we have only to view the effects of a common electrical machine1 and its apparatus1 in an apartment4 ,these experiments mimic the great1 wonderful and terrific phenomena of nature4 ,the stream1 or spark1 from the machine to the hand1 represents the shaft of lightning from the clouds to the earth2 and the snapping noise of the diminutive spark corresponds with the explosion produced by the lightning1 which we call thunder4 ,in what manner the clouds become electrified1 and1 in short1 what is the nature of electricity itself1 our present range of experiments so little qualify us to determine1 that a century will perhaps elapse before a philosophical precision can be attained4 ,at present we only know for certain that the electrical power displays itself merely on the surface of bodies2 and whether it is a fluid per se1 a vacuum restoring itself1 or whatever its nature may be1 the state of experimental knowledge does not enable us to determine4 ,the obvious analogy between lightning and electricity1 had long been suspected1 and was placed beyond a doubt by ,franklin1 who was the first to conceive the practicability of drawing down lightning from the clouds4 ,having found by previous experiments1 that the electric fluid is attracted by points1 he apprehended that lightning might likewise possess the same quality2 although the effects of the latter would in that case surpass those of the former in an astonishing degree4 ,flashes of lightning1 he likewise observed1 are generally seen crooked and waving in the air2 and the electric spark drawn from an irregular body at some distance1 when it is drawn by an irregular body1 or through a space in which the best conductors are disposed in an irregular manner1 always exhibits the same appearance4 ,lightning strikes the highest and most pointed objects in its way1 in preference to others1 as high hills1 trees1 spires1 masts1 c42 and all pointed conductors receive and throw off the electric fluid more readily than those which are terminated by flat surfaces4 ,lightning is observed to take the best and readiest conductor2 and this is also the case with electricity1 in the discharge of the ,leyden phial2 whence ,franklin inferred that1 in a thunder-storm1 it would be safer for a person to have his clothes wet than dry4 ,lightning burns1 dissolves metals1 rends some particular bodies1 such as the roots and branches of trees1 strikes persons with blindness1 destroys animal life1 deprives magnets of their virtue and reverses their poles2 and these are well known properties of electricity4 ,lightning not only gives polarity to the magnetic needle1 but to all bodies which have any portion of iron in them1 as brick1 c42 and1 by observing which way the poles of these bodies lie1 the direction in which the stroke has passed may be known with the utmost certainty4 ,in order to demonstrate1 by actual experiment1 the identity of the electric fluid with the matter of lightning1 ,franklin contrived to bring lightning from the heavens by means of an electrical kite1 which he raised on the approach of a thunder-storm2 and1 with the electricity thus obtained1 charged phials1 kindled spirits1 and performed all other electrical experiments1 as they are usually exhibited by an excited globe or tube4 ,this happened in #ageb1 a month after the ,french electricians1 pursuing the method which he had proposed1 had verified the same theory2 but without any knowledge on his part of what they had done4 ,on the following year1 he further discovered that the air is sometimes electrified positively1 and sometimes negatively2 and that in the course of one thunder-storm1 the clouds change from positive to negative electricity several times4 ,he was not long in perceiving that this important discovery was capable of being applied to practical use2 and proposed a method1 which he soon accomplished1 of securing buildings from being damaged by lightning1 by means of conductors1 or lightning-rods1 the use of which is now universally known4 ,from a number of judicious experiments made by him1 ,signor ,beccaria concluded that the clouds serve as conductors to convey the electric fluid from those parts of the earth which are overloaded with it1 to those where it is exhausted4 ,the same cause by which a cloud is first raised1 from vapors dispersed in atmosphere1 draws to it those which are already formed1 and still continues to form new ones1 till the whole collected mass extends so far as to reach a part of the earth where there is a deficiency of the electric fluid1 and where the electric matter will discharge itself on the earth4 ,a channel of communication being thus produced1 a fresh supply of electric matter is raised from the overloaded part1 which continues to be conveyed by the medium of the clouds1 till the equilibrium of the fluid is restored between the two places of the earth4 ,he further observes that as the wind constantly blows from the place where the thunder-cloud proceeds1 the sudden accumulation of such a prodigious quantity of vapors must displace the air1 and repel it on all sides4 ,indeed1 many observations of the descent of lightning confirm his theory of the mode of its ascent2 for it often throws before it the parts of conducting bodies1 and distributes them along the resisting medium through which it must force its passage2 and on this principle the longest flashes of lightning seem to be produced1 by its forcing in its way part of the vapors in the air4 ,one of the chief reasons why the report of these flashes is so much protracted1 is the vast length of the vacuum made by the passage of the electric matter2 for although the air collapses the moment after it has passed1 and the vibration1 on which the sound depends1 commences at the same moment1 still1 when the flash is directed toward the person who hears the report1 the vibrations excited at the nearer end of the track will reach his ear much sooner than those from the remote end1 and the sound will1 without any echo or repercussion1 continue till all the vibrations have successively reached him4 ,the rattling noise of the thunder1 which makes it seem as if it passed through arches or were variously broken1 is probably owing to the sound being excited among clouds hanging over one another1 and the agitated air passing irregularly between them4 ,among other precautions pointed out by ,franklin1 he recommends to those who happen to be in the fields1 at the time of a thunder-storm1 to place themselves within a few yards of a tree1 but not quite near it4 ,signor ,beccaria1 however1 cautions persons not to depend on a higher1 or1 in all cases1 a better conductor than their own body2 since1 according to his repeated observations1 the lightning by no means descends in one undivided track1 but bodies of various kinds conduct their share of it at the same time1 in proportion to their quantity and conducting power4 ,the late ,earl of ,stanhope1 in his principles of electricity1 observes that damage may be done by lightning1 not only by the main stroke and lateral explosion1 but likewise by what he calls the returning stroke2 that is1 by the sudden violent return of that part of the natural share of electricity of any conducting body1 or any combination of conducting bodies1 which had been gradually expelled from such body or bodies respectively1 by the superinduced elastic electrical pressure of a thunder-cloud's electrical atmospheres4 ,among the awful phenomena of nature1 none have excited more terror than thunder and lightning4 ,it is recorded of several of the profligate ,roman emperors1 who had procured themselves to be deified1 that when they heard the thunder1 they tremblingly concealed themselves1 acknowledging a divine power greater than their own2 a ,jupiter thundering in the heavens4 ,,remarkable ,,thunder-,,storms4 ,a few instances in which the effects of these storms have been particularly characterized1 will be both interesting and instructive4 ,that fermented liquors are apt to be soured and spoiled by thunder1 is a fact well known2 but that dried substances should be so acted on1 is a still more remarkable phenomenon1 and not so easy of explanation4 ,it happened1 however1 some years ago1 that in the immense granaries of ,dantzic1 the repositories of the corn1 of ,polish growth1 intended for exportation1 the wheat and rye1 which were before dry and sweet1 were1 by the effect of a violent thunder-storm in the night1 rendered clammy and stinking1 insomuch that it required several weeks to sweeten them and render them fit for shipping4 ,the effects of a thunder-storm on a house and its furniture1 at ,new ,forge1 ,ireland1 on the ninth of ,august1 #agjg1 were very singular4 ,it was observed that the day was1 throughout1 close1 hot and sultry1 with scarcely any wind1 until toward evening1 when a breeze came on with mizzling rain1 which lasted about an hour4 ,as the air darkened after sunset1 several faint flashes of lightning were seen1 and thunder-claps heard1 as at a distance2 but between ten and eleven o'clock they became1 in their approach1 very violent and terrible1 progressively increasing in their intensity1 and coming on with more frequency1 until toward midnight4 ,a flash of lightning1 and a clap of thunder1 louder and more dreadful than all the rest1 came simultaneously1 and shook and inflamed the whole house4 ,the mistress being sensible1 at that instant1 of a strong sulphureous smell in her chamber1 and feeling a thick1 gross dust fall on her hands and face as she lay in bed1 concluded that part of her house had been thrown down by the thunder1 or set on fire by the lightning4 ,the family being called up1 and candles lighted1 both the bed-chamber1 and the kitchen beneath it1 were found to be filled with smoke and dust4 ,a looking-glass in the chamber had been broken with such violence1 that not a piece of it was to be found of the size of half a crown3 several of the pieces were stuck in the chamber-door1 which was of oak1 as well as on the other side of the room4 ,the edges and corners of some of the pieces of broken glass were tinged of a light flame color1 as if they had been heated by the fire4 ,on the following morning it was found that the cornice of the chimney next the bed-chamber had been struck off1 and a breach twenty inches in breadth1 made in the wall4 ,at this part there was seen on the wall a smutted scar or trace1 as if left by the smoke of a candle1 which pointed downward to another part of the wall1 where a similar breach was made4 ,within the chamber1 the boards on the back of a large hair trunk1 filled with linen1 were forced in1 and two-thirds of the linen pierced or cut through1 the cut appearing of a quadrangular figure4 ,several pieces of muslin and wearing apparel1 which lay on the trunk1 were dispersed about the room1 not in any way singed or scorched1 notwithstanding the hair on the back of the trunk1 where the breach was made1 was singed4 ,in the kitchen1 a cat was found dead1 with its legs extended as in a moving posture1 without any other sign of being hurt1 except that the fur was singed a little about the rump4 ,in the parish of ,samford ,courtney1 near ,oakhampton1 in ,devon1 on the seventh of ,october1 #ahaa1 about three in the afternoon1 a sudden darkness came on4 ,several persons being in the church-porch1 a great fire-ball fell among them1 and threw them down in various directions1 but without any one being hurt4 ,the ringers in the belfry declared that they never knew the bells go so heavily1 and were obliged to desist from ringing4 ,looking down from the belfry into the church1 they perceived four fire-balls1 which suddenly burst1 and the church was filled with fire and smoke4 ,one of the congregation received a blow in the neck1 which caused him to bleed both at nose and mouth4 ,he observed the fire and smoke to ascend to the tower1 where a large beam1 on which one of the bells was hung1 was broken1 and the gudgeon breaking1 the bell fell to the floor4 ,one of the pinnacles of the tower1 next the town1 was carried away1 and several of the stones were found near a barn1 at a considerable distance from the church4 ,on the fifteenth of ,december1 #aged1 a vast body of lightning fell on the great hulk at ,plymouth4 ,it burst out a mile or two to the westward of the hulk1 and rushed toward it with incredible velocity4 ,a portion of the derrick 7a part of the apparatus which served to hoist in and fix the masts of the men-of-war7 was cut out1 of a diameter of at least eighteen inches1 and about fifteen feet in length3 this particular piece was in three or four places girt with iron hoops1 about two inches broad1 and half an inch thick1 which were completely cut in two by the lightning1 as if done by the nicest hand and instrument4 ,the lightning was immediately succeeded by a dreadful peal of thunder1 and that by a most violent shower of hail1 the hailstones being as large as nutmegs1 and for the greatest part of the same size and shape4 ,among the many fatal accidents by lightning which have befallen ships1 the following is a remarkable instance4 ,in the year #agdf1 a ,dutch ship lay in the road of ,batavia1 and was preparing to depart for ,bengal4 ,the afternoon was calm1 and toward evening the sails were loosed1 to take advantage of the wind which then constantly blows from the land4 ,a black cloud gathered over the hills1 and was brought by the wind toward the ship1 which it had no sooner reached1 than a clap of thunder burst from it1 and the lightning set fire to the maintopsail3 this being very dry1 burned with great fury3 and thus the rigging and mast were set on fire4 ,an attempt was immediately made to cut away the mast1 but this was prevented by the falling of the burnt rigging from the head of the mast4 ,by degrees the fire communicated to the other masts1 and obliged the crew to desert the ship1 the hull of which afterward took fire1 and burning down to the powder magazine1 the upper part was blown into the air1 and the lower part sunk where the ship was at anchor4 ,in crossing the ,atlantic1 in the month of ,november1 #agdi1 the crew of an ,english ship observed a large ball of blue fire rolling on the water4 ,it came down on them so fast1 that before they could raise the main-tack1 they observed the ball to rise almost perpendicularly1 and within a few yards of the main chains3 it went off with an explosion as if hundreds of cannon had been fired off simultaneously1 and left behind it a great smell of brimstone4 ,the maintopmast was shattered into a thousand pieces1 and splints driven out of the mainmast which stuck in the main-deck4 ,five seamen were knocked down1 and one of them greatly burnt1 by the explosion4 ,the fireball was apparently of the size of a large millstone1 and came from the north-east4 ,the ingenious and indefatigable ,professor ,richman lost his life on the sixth of ,august1 #agec1 as he was observing1 with ,m4 ,sokolow1 engraver to the royal academy of ,st4 ,petersburgh1 the effects of electricity on his gnomon1 during a thunder-storm4 ,it was ascertained that the lightning was more particularly directed into the professor's apartment1 by the means of his electrical apparatus1 for ,m4 ,sokolow distinctly saw a globe of blue fire1 as large as his clenched hand1 jump from the rod of the right gnomon1 toward the forehead of ,professor ,richman1 who at that instant was about a foot distant from the rod1 observing the electrical index4 ,the globe of fire which struck the professor1 was attended with a report as loud as that of a pistol4 ,the nearest metal wire was broken in pieces1 and its fragments thrown on ,m4 ,sokolow's clothes1 on which burnt marks of their dimensions were left4 ,half of the glass vessel was broken off1 and the metallic filings it contained thrown about the room4 ,hence it is plain that the force of the lightning was collected on the right rod1 which touched the filings of metal in the glass vessel4 ,on examining the effects of the lightning in the professor's chamber1 the door-case was found split half through1 and the door torn off1 and thrown into the chamber4 ,the lightning therefore seems to have continued its course along the chain conducted under the ceiling of the apartment4 ,in a ,latin treatise1 published by ,m4 ,lomonosow1 member of the royal academy of sciences of ,st4 ,petersburgh1 several curious particulars are mentioned relative to this melancholy catastrophe4 ,at the time of his death1 ,professor ,richman had in his left coat-pocket seventy silver coins1 called rubles1 which were not in the least altered by the accident which befell him4 ,his clock1 which stood in the corner1 of the next room1 between an open window and the door1 was stopped2 and the ashes from the hearth thrown about the apartment4 ,many persons without doors declared that they actually saw the lightning shoot from the cloud to the professor's apparatus at the top of his house4 ,the author1 in speaking of the phenomena of electricity1 observes that he once saw during a storm of thunder and lightning1 brushes of electrical fire1 with a hissing noise1 communicate between the iron rod of his apparatus and the sides of his window1 and that these were three feet in length1 and a foot in breadth4 ,somewhat analogous to these movements of electricity1 are those connected with the electric telegraph during the violent thunder-storms that so often take place in the summer season4 ,when such storms are raging1 and particularly when the lightning is abundant and near1 not only is the operation of the telegraph entirely suspended1 but sometimes the lightning itself passes with great violence over the wires1 in some cases melting and destroying them1 and in others passing by them as it does by the lightning-rod1 and manifesting its violence chiefly at the point of their termination4 ,in some instances1 the wires have been instantly melted by the electric fluid1 and in others the machinery of the offices injured or destroyed1 while at other times persons have been struck1 or dwellings set on fire by its power4 ,,hail-,,storms4 ,on the seventeenth of ,july1 #afff1 a violent storm of hail fell on the ,english coast1 in ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,at ,north ,yarmouth the hailstones were comparatively small2 but at ,snapebridge1 one was taken up which measured a foot in circumference2 at ,seckford ,hall1 one which measured nine inches2 and at ,melton1 one measuring eight inches4 ,at ,friston ,hall1 one of these hailstones1 being put into a balance1 weighed two ounces and a half4 ,at ,aldborough1 it was affirmed that several of them were as large as turkeys' eggs4 ,a carter had his head broken by them through a stiff felt hat3 in some places it bled1 and in others tumors arose3 the horses were so pelted that they hurried away his cart beyond all command4 ,the hailstones were white1 smooth without1 and shining within4 ,on the twenty-fifth of ,may1 #afhf1 the city of ,lille1 in ,flanders1 was visited by a tremendous hail-storm4 ,the hailstones weighed from a quarter of a pound to a pound in weight1 and even more4 ,one was observed to contain in the center a dark brown matter1 and being thrown into the fire1 gave a very loud report4 ,others were transparent1 and melted instantly before the fire4 ,this storm passed over the city and citadel1 leaving not a whole glass in the windows on the windward side4 ,the trees were broken1 and some beaten down1 and partridges and hares killed in abundance4 ,in #afig1 a horrid black cloud1 attended with frequent lightnings and thunder1 coming with a south-west wind out of ,caernarvonshire1 in ,wales1 and passing near ,snowdon1 was the precursor of a most tremendous hailstorm4 ,in the part of ,denbighshire bordering on the sea1 all the windows on the weather side were broken by the hailstones discharged from this cloud1 and the poultry and lambs1 together with a large mastiff1 killed4 ,in the north part of ,flintshire1 several persons had their heads broken1 and were grievously bruised in their limbs4 ,the main body of this hail-storm fell on ,lancashire1 in a right line from ,ormskirk to ,blackburn1 on the borders of ,yorkshire4 ,the breadth of the cloud was about two miles1 within which compass it did incredible damage1 killing all descriptions of fowl and small creatures1 and scarcely leaving a whole pane of glass in any of the windows where it passed4 ,what was still worse1 it plowed up the earth1 and cut off the blade of the green corn1 so as utterly to destroy it1 the hailstones burying themselves in the ground4 ,these hailstones1 some of which weighed five ounces1 were of different forms1 some round1 others semi-spherical2 some smooth1 others embossed and crenulated1 like the foot of a drinking-glass1 the ice being very transparent and hard2 but a snowy kernel was in the midst of most of them1 if not of all4 ,the force of their fall showed that they descended from a great hight4 ,what was thought to be most extraordinary in this phenomenon was1 that the vapor which disposed the aqueous parts thus to congeal1 should have continued undispersed for so long a tract as upward of sixty miles1 and should1 during this extensive passage1 have occasioned so extraordinary a coagulation and congelation of the watery clouds1 as to increase the hailstones to so vast a bulk in so short a space as that of their fall4 ,on the fourth of ,may1 #agfg1 at ,hitchin1 in ,hertfordshire1 after a violent thunder-storm1 a black cloud suddenly arose in the south-west1 about two o'clock in the afternoon1 the wind then blowing strongly in the east1 and was almost instantly followed by a shower of hail1 several of the hailstones measuring from seven or eight to thirteen or fourteen inches in diameter4 ,the extremity of the storm fell near ,offley1 where a young man was killed1 and one of his eyes was beaten out of his head1 his body being in every part covered with bruises4 ,another person1 nearer to ,offley1 escaped with his life1 but was much bruised4 ,at a nobleman's seat in the vicinity1 seven thousand squares of glass were broken1 and great damage was done to all the neighboring houses4 ,the large hailstones fell in such immense quantities1 that they tore up the ground1 and split many large oaks and other trees1 cutting down extensive fields of rye1 and destroying several hundred acres of wheat1 barley1 c4 ,their figures were various1 some being oval1 others round1 others pointed1 and others again flat4 ,,hurricanes4 ,the ruin and desolation accompanying a hurricane can scarcely be described4 ,like fire1 its resistless force rapidly consumes everything in its track4 ,it is generally preceded by an awful stillness of the elements1 and a closeness and mistiness in the atmosphere1 which make the sun appear red1 and the stars of more than an ordinary magnitude4 ,but a dreadful reverse succeeding1 the sky is suddenly overcast and wild2 the sea rises at once from a profound calm into mountains2 the wind rages and roars like the noise of cannon2 the rain descends in a deluge2 a dismal obscurity envelops the earth with darkness2 and the superior regions appear rent with lightning and thunder4 ,the earth1 on these occasions1 often does1 and always seems to tremble1 while terror and consternation distract all nature3 birds are carried from the woods into the ocean2 and those whose element is the sea1 fly for refuge to the land4 ,the affrighted animals in the fields assemble together1 and are almost suffocated by the impetuosity of the wind1 in searching for shelter1 which1 when found1 serves them only for destruction4 ,the roofs of houses are carried to vast distances from their walls1 which are beaten to the ground1 burying their inmates beneath them4 ,large trees are torn up by the roots1 and huge branches shivered off1 and driven through the air in every direction1 with immense velocity4 ,every tree and shrub that withstands the shock1 is stripped of its boughs and foliage4 ,plants and grass are laid flat to the earth4 ,luxuriant spring is in a moment changed to dreary winter4 ,this direful tragedy ended1 when it happens in a town1 the devastation is surveyed with accumulated horror3 the harbor is covered with wrecks of boats and vessels2 and the shore has not a vestige of its former state remaining4 ,mounds of rubbish and rafters in one place2 heaps of earth and trunks of trees in another2 deep gullies from torrents of water2 and the dead and dying bodies of men1 women and children1 half-buried1 and scattered about1 where streets but a few hours before were1 present to the miserable survivors a shocking conclusion of a spectacle1 often followed by famine1 and1 when accompanied by an earthquake1 by mortal diseases4 ,such is the true and terrific picture of a hurricane in the ,west ,indies1 as drawn by an actual observer4 ,on the ,indian coast1 hurricanes are both frequent and disastrous4 ,on the second of ,october1 #agdf1 the ,french squadron1 commanded by ,le ,bourdonnai1 being at anchor in ,madras roads1 a hurricane came on which in a few hours destroyed nearly the whole of the fleet1 together with twenty other ships belonging to different nations4 ,one of the ,french ships foundered in an instant1 and only six of the crew were saved4 ,on the thirtieth of ,december1 #agfj1 during the siege of ,pondicherry1 a tremendous hurricane drove ashore and wrecked three ,british ships belonging to the besieging squadron3 the crews were saved4 ,on the twentieth of ,october of the following year1 #agfa1 the ,british fleet1 then lying in ,madras roads1 had to encounter a violent hurricane4 ,the men-of-war put to sea1 and were thus providentially saved2 but all the vessels which still lay at anchor were lost1 and scarcely a soul on board saved4 ,on the twenty-ninth of ,october1 #agfh1 another hurricane was1 on the coast of ,coromandel1 fatal to the ,chatham ,indiaman1 which neglected to put to sea4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 a tremendous hurricane on the twenty-first of ,october1 #ahag1 was particularly severe at the island of ,st4 ,lucie4 ,all the vessels in the port were entirely lost4 ,the government-house was blown down1 and all within its walls1 comprising the governor1 his lady and child1 his staff1 secretaries1 servants1 c41 amounting to about thirty persons1 were buried in its ruins3 not one survived the dreadful accident2 and still more horrid to relate1 the barracks of the officers and soldiers were demolished1 and all within them 7about two hundred persons7 lost4 ,all the estates on the island were reduced to a heap of ashes4 ,at ,dominica1 nearly the whole of the town was inundated1 with an immense destruction of property4 ,in ,great ,britain1 a dreadful hurricane1 commonly called the great storm1 set in at ten at night on the twenty-sixth of ,november1 #agjc1 and raged violently until seven the next morning4 ,it extended its ravages to every part of the kingdom4 ,in the capital1 upward of two thousand stacks of chimneys were blown down4 ,the lead on the tops of several churches was rolled up like skins of parchment4 ,many houses were leveled with the ground1 and by the fall of the ruins1 twenty-one persons were killed1 and more than two hundred wounded4 ,the ships in the ,thames broke from their moorings3 four hundred wherries were lost1 and many barges sunk1 with a great loss of lives4 ,at sea the destruction was still greater3 twelve ships of war1 with upward of eighteen hundred men on board1 were totally lost1 together with many merchantmen4 ,,the ,,monsoons4 ,the setting in of the monsoon1 or tropical sea-wind1 in the ,east ,indies1 is thus described by ,forbes in his 8,oriental ,memoirs40 ,the scene was at ,baroche1 where the ,british army was encamped4 8,the shades of evening approached as we reached the ground1 and just as the encampment was completed1 the atmosphere grew suddenly dark1 the heat became oppressive1 and an unusual stillness presaged the immediate setting in of the monsoon4 ,the whole appearance of nature resembled those solemn preludes to earthquakes and hurricanes in the ,west ,indies1 from which the east in general is providentially free4 ,we were allowed very little time for conjecture2 in a few minutes the heavy clouds burst over us4 ,i had witnessed seventeen monsoons in ,india1 but this exceeded them all in its awful appearance and dreadful effects4 ,encamped in a low situation1 on the borders of a lake formed to collect the surrounding water1 we found ourselves in a few hours in a liquid plain4 ,the tent-pins giving way1 in a loose soil1 the tents fell down1 and left the whole army exposed to the contending elements4 ,it requires a lively imagination to conceive the situation of a hundred thousand human beings of every description1 with more than two hundred thousand elephants1 camels1 horses and oxen1 suddenly overwhelmed by this dreadful storm1 in a strange country1 without any knowledge of high or low ground2 the whole being covered by an immense lake1 and surrounded by thick darkness1 which prevented our distinguishing a single object1 except such as the vivid glare of lightning displayed in horrible forms4 ,no language can describe the wreck of a large encampment thus instantaneously destroyed1 and covered with water1 and this amid the cries of old men and helpless women1 terrified by the piercing shrieks of their expiring children1 unable to afford them relief4 ,during this dreadful night1 more than two hundred persons and three thousand cattle perished1 and the morning dawn exhibited a shocking spectacle40 ,the south-west monsoon generally sets in very early in certain parts of ,india4 8,at ,anjengo10 observes the above author1 8it commences with great severity1 and presents an awful spectacle2 the inclement weather continues1 with more or less violence1 from ,may to ,october3 during that period1 the tempestuous ocean rolls from a black horizon1 literally of #8darkness visible1' a series of floating mountains heaving under hoary summits1 until they approach the shore1 when their stupendous accumulations flow in successive surges1 and break upon the beach2 every ninth wave is observed to be generally more tremendous than the rest1 and threatens to overwhelm the settlement4 ,the noise of these billows equals that of the loudest cannon1 and1 with the thunder and lightning1 so frequent in the rainy season1 is truly awful4 ,during the tedious monsoon ,i passed at ,anjengo1 ,i often stood upon the trembling sand-bank1 to contemplate the solemn scene1 and derive comfort from that sublime and omnipotent decree1 #8,hitherto shalt thou come1 but no further2 and here shall thy proud waves be stayed6'0 ,,whirlwinds ,,and ,,waterspouts4 8,the dreadful spout ,which shipmen do the hurricano call ,constring'd in mass by the almighty sun40 ,,shakspeare 7,troilus and ,cressida47 ,in number three hundred and two of the ,monthly ,magazine1 ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 in describing a waterspout observed by him1 points out the connection between those phenomena and hurricanes1 and offers a very philosophical explanation of the formation of the former4 ,it happened to him1 he observes1 on the twenty-seventh of ,june1 #ahag1 about seven in the evening1 to witness the formation1 operation and extinction of what is called a waterspout4 ,his attention was drawn to a sudden hurricane which nearly tore up the shrubs and vegetables in the western gardens1 and filled the air with leaves and small collections of the recently cut grass4 ,very dark clouds had collected over the adjacent country1 and some stormy rain1 accompanied by several strokes of lightning1 followed this hurricane of wind4 ,the violence lasted a few minutes1 and it was evident that a whirlwind agitated a variety of substances which had been raised into the air4 ,the storm proceeded from west to east1 that is1 from ,hampstead over ,kentish-,town1 toward ,holloway4 ,in about five minutes1 in the direction of the latter place1 a magnificent projection was visible from the clouds1 somewhat like a tunnel1 with the smallest part downward4 ,it descended two-thirds of the distance from the clouds toward the earth1 and evidently consisted of parts of clouds descending in a vortex1 violently agitated like smoke from the chimney of a furnace recently supplied with fuel4 ,it then shortened1 and appeared to be drawn up toward the stratum of clouds1 and finally drew itself into the cloud2 but a small cone1 or projecting thread1 of varying size and length1 continued for ten minutes4 ,at the time1 and for half an hour after1 a severe storm of rain was visibly falling from the ruins of clouds connected with it1 the extent being exactly defined by the breadth of ,holloway1 ,highgate and ,hornsey4 ,about two hours after1 it was found that one of the heaviest torrents of rain remembered by the inhabitants1 had fallen around the foot of ,highgate hill2 and some persons having seen the projected cloud1 an absolute belief existed that a waterspout had burst at the crossing of the new and old roads4 ,on proceeding toward ,london1 various accounts agreeing with the superstition or preconceived notions of the bystanders were given2 and at one place it appeared that some haymakers were stacking hay from a wagon which stood between two ricks1 and that the same whirlwind which passed over ,kentish-,town1 had passed over the loaded wagon with an impetus sufficient to carry it about twenty yards from its station1 and to put the men on it and on the rick1 in fear of their lives4 ,passing the road1 it carried with it a stream of hay1 and1 nearly unroofing a shed on the other side1 filled the air to a great hight with fragments of hay1 leaves and boughs of trees1 which resembled a vast flight of birds4 ,a family in the vicinity beheld the descending cloud1 or waterspout1 pass over1 and saw its train1 which1 at the time1 they took to be a flight of birds4 ,they afterward beheld the descending cloud draw itself upward1 and they and other witnesses described it as a vast mass of smoke working about in agitation2 to them it was nearly vertical in a northern direction2 and to persons a quarter of a mile north1 it was nearly vertical in a southern direction2 and all agree that it drew itself up without rain1 and was followed near the earth by the train of light bodies4 ,it appeared also1 on various testimony1 to let itself down in a gradual and hesitating manner1 beginning with a sort of knob in the cloud1 and then descending lower1 and curling and twisting about till it shortened1 and gradually drew itself into the cloud4 ,the inferences which ,sir ,richard draws from what he saw and heard1 are as follows4 ,that the phenomenon called a waterspout is a mere collection of clouds1 of the same rarity as the mass whence they are drawn4 ,that the descent is a mechanical effect of the whirlwind1 which creating a vacuum1 or high degree of rarefaction1 extending between the clouds and the earth1 the clouds descend in it by their gravity1 or by the pressure of the surrounding clouds or air4 ,that the convolutions of the descending mass1 and the sensible whirlwind felt at the earth1 as well as the appearance of the commencement1 increase and decrease of the mass1 all demonstrate the whirl of the air to be the mechanical cause4 ,that the same vortex1 whirl or eddy of the air1 which occasions the clouds to descend1 occasions the loose bodies on the earth to ascend4 ,that1 if in this case the lower surface had been water1 the same mechanical power would have raised a body of foam1 vapor and water1 toward the clouds4 ,that1 as soon as the vortex or whirl exhausts or dissipates itself1 the phenomena terminate by the fall to the lower surface of the light bodies or water1 and by the ascent of the cloud4 ,that when water constitutes the light body of the lower surface1 it is probable that the aqueous vapor of the cloud1 by coalescing with it1 may occasion the clouds to condense1 and fall at that point1 as through a siphon4 ,that if the descending cloud be highly electrified1 and the vortex pass over a conducting body1 as a church steeple1 it is probable it may be condensed by an electrical concussion1 and fall at that spot1 discharging whatever has been taken up from the lower surface1 and producing the strange phenomena of showers of frogs1 fish1 c4 ,and1 lastly1 it appears certain1 that the action of the air on the mass of clouds1 pressing toward the mouth of the vortex as to a funnel1 7which1 in this case1 it exactly represented17 occasioned such a condensation as to augment the simultaneous fall of rain to a prodigy4 ,in the month of ,july1 #ahjj1 a waterspout was seen rapidly to approach a ship navigating between the ,lipari islands4 ,it had the appearance of a viscid fluid1 tapering in its descent1 and proceeding from the cloud to join the sea4 ,it moved at the rate of about two miles an hour1 with a loud sound of rain1 passing the stern of the ship1 and wetting the after part of the mainsail4 ,it was thence concluded that waterspouts are not continuous columns of water1 which has been confirmed by subsequent observations4 ,in ,november1 #ahja1 about twenty miles from ,trieste1 in the ,adriatic sea1 a waterspout was seen eight miles to the southward3 round its lower extremity was a mist1 twelve feet high1 nearly of the form of an ,ionian capital1 with very large volutes1 the spout resting obliquely on its crown4 ,at some distance from this spout1 the sea began to be agitated1 and a mist rose to the hight of about four feet3 a projection then descended from the black cloud which was impending1 and met the ascending mist about twenty feet above the sea1 the last ten yards of the distance being described with great rapidity4 ,a cloud of a light color appeared to ascend in this cloud like quicksilver in a glass tube4 ,the first spout then snapped at about one-third of its hight1 the inferior part subsiding gradually1 and the superior curling upward4 ,several other projections from the cloud1 appeared with corresponding agitations of the water below1 but not always in spouts vertically under them3 seven spouts in all were formed1 and two other projections reabsorbed4 ,some of the spouts were not only oblique1 but curved1 the ascending cloud moving most rapidly in those which were vertical4 ,they lasted from three to five minutes1 and their dissipation was not attended with any fall of rain4 ,for some days before the weather had been very rainy1 with a south-east wind1 but not any rain had fallen on the day of observation4 ,in some cases1 however1 the waterspout at sea1 is a continuous column of water1 carried upward from the surface of the waves1 and possibly meeting with water brought down from the clouds and condensed by the force of the revolving hurricane4 ,such waterspouts are now and then seen on the ocean1 having an appearance like that represented in the cut on the next page4 ,and as the wind blows first this way1 and then that1 they often writhe and bend1 from one point to another1 while the sea below1 and all around1 is agitated and covered with foam4 ,woe to that vessel that comes within the reach of one of these mighty phenomena4 ,it would be crushed and sunk like a leaf on the waters4 ,the usual defense at sea is to fire a cannon-shot into the whirling waterspout1 which commonly breaks and dispels it1 and causes the water to fall in a tremendous cataract or shower4 ,illustration3 ,,waterspout ,,on ,,the ,,ocean4 ,waterspouts1 however1 are not confined to the ocean4 ,they are occasionally witnessed on the great fresh-water lakes of our own country1 as they have been on the inland seas of other parts of the globe4 ,several of these remarkable phenomena were seen in #ahed1 on ,lake ,ontario1 two of which were visible at ,sodus point4 ,they were dense1 cone-shaped columns1 and formed a continuous line from the earth to the clouds4 ,one of them1 the largest1 which was nearly thirty feet in diameter1 was precipitated against the bluffs1 and broke with a deafening noise upon the rocks below1 causing so great a commotion of the waters that a large quantity of logs and lumber were torn from their moorings and washed far out into the lake4 ,the smaller of the two pursued its terrific and onward course as far as the eye could reach1 filling the beholders with wonder and astonishment1 and awakening such a feeling of grandeur and sublimity that they stood almost mute and statue-like1 until the sound of this gigantic column of water died far away in the distance4 ,a portion of the pier of the light-house was swept away by the elements1 and considerable damage was done to the light-house4 ,there was a severe storm out on the lake1 and several schooners1 brigs1 c41 came scudding in1 under bare poles1 seeking security from the tempestuous billows without1 upon the placid bosom of the harbor4 ,the velocity and power of the whirlwind which caused these waterspouts1 were very great4 ,as it passed on westward in its furious course1 it is said that in a town in ,ohio1 a grove of oak-trees was almost entirely blown down by it4 ,the trunk of one of these trees1 on being measured1 was found to be about three feet in diameter4 ,assuming1 however1 that its diameter was but two and a half feet1 it would require to break it1 a force of one hundred and forty-nine thousand pounds4 ,the surface of the tree exposed to the action of the wind1 was about one thousand square feet1 which would give a pressure by the wind of one hundred and forty-seven pounds to the square foot1 or a velocity of not less than one hundred and seventy-one miles per hour1 which is nearly one-fourth the velocity of a cannon-ball just leaving the cannon4 ,allowing the hight of the hurricane or whirlwind to have been sixty feet1 the whole force exerted1 at one time1 along its track1 was equal to more than half the steam power of the globe6 ,these corresponding phenomena of whirlwinds have been occasionally productive of much mischief1 as the following brief narratives will show4 ,on the thirtieth of ,october1 #affi1 about six in the evening1 the wind being then westwardly1 a formidable whirlwind1 scarcely of the breadth of sixty yards1 and which spent itself in about seven minutes1 arose at ,ashly1 in ,northamptonshire1 ,england4 ,its first assault was on a milkmaid1 whose pail and hat were taken from off her head1 and the former carried many scores of yards from her1 where it lay undiscovered for some days4 ,it next stormed a farmyard1 where it blew a wagon body off the axletrees1 breaking in pieces the latter1 and the wheels1 three of which1 thus shattered1 were blown over a wall4 ,another wagon1 which did not1 like the former1 lie across the passage of the wind1 was driven with great speed against the side of the farm-house4 ,a branch of an ash-tree1 so large that two stout men could scarcely lift it1 was blown over a house without damaging it1 although torn from a tree one hundred yards distant4 ,a slate was carried nearly two hundred yards1 and forced against a window1 the iron bar of which it bent4 ,several houses were stripped2 and in one instance1 this powerful gust1 or stream of air1 forced open a door1 breaking the latch2 whence it passed through the entry1 and1 forcing open the dairy door1 overturned the milk-pans1 and blew out three panes of glass4 ,it next ascended to the chambers1 and blew out nine other panes4 ,lastly1 it blew a gate-post1 fixed two feet and a half in the ground1 out of the earth1 and carried it many yards into the fields4 ,on the thirtieth of ,october1 #agca1 at one in the morning1 a very sudden and terrific whirlwind1 having a breadth of two hundred yards1 was experienced at ,cerne-,abbas1 in ,dorsetshire4 ,from the south-west side of the town1 it passed to the north-east1 crossing the center1 and unroofing the houses in its progress4 ,it rooted up trees1 broke others in the middle1 of at least a foot square1 and carried the tops a considerable distance4 ,a sign-post1 five feet by four1 was broken off six feet in the pole1 and carried across a street forty feet in breadth1 over a house opposite4 ,the pinnacles and battlements of one side of the church-tower were thrown down1 and the leads and timber of the north aisle broken in by their fall4 ,a short time before1 the air was remarkably calm4 ,it was estimated that this sudden and terrible gust did not last more than two minutes4 ,about the middle of ,august1 #agda1 at ten in the morning1 several peasants being on a heath near ,holkham1 in ,norfolk1 perceived1 about a quarter of a mile from them1 a wind like a whirlwind approach them gradually1 in a straight line from east to west4 ,it passed through the field where they were plowing1 and tore up the stubble and grass in the plowed ground1 for two miles in length1 to the breadth of thirty yards4 ,in reaching an inclosure at the top of a rising ground1 it appeared like a great flash or ball of fire1 emitting smoke1 and accompanied by a noise similar to that of carts passing over a stony ground4 ,both before and after the wind passed1 there was a strong smell of sulphur2 and the noise was heard long after the smoke had been perceived4 ,this fiery whirlwind moved so slowly forward1 that it was nearly ten minutes in proceeding from the inclosure to a farm-house in the vicinity1 where it did much mischief4 ,,sounds ,,and ,,echoes4 ,sound is propagated successively from the sounding body to the places which are nearest to it1 then to those more distant1 c4 ,every observer knows that when a gun is fired at a considerable distance from him1 he perceives the flash a certain time before he hears the report2 and the same thing is true with respect to the stroke of a hammer1 or of a hatchet1 the fall of a stone1 or1 in short1 any visible action which produces a sound or sounds4 ,in general1 sound travels through the air at the rate of eleven hundred and forty-two feet in a second1 or about thirteen miles in a minute4 ,this is the case with all kinds of sounds2 the softest whisper flying as fast as the loudest thunder4 ,sound1 like light1 after it has been reflected from several places1 may be collected into one point as a focus1 where it will be more audible than in any other part2 and on this principle whispering galleries are constructed4 ,the particulars relative to the celebrated whispering gallery in the dome of ,st4 ,paul's church1 ,london1 will be comprehended in the description of that noble edifice4 ,an echo is the reflection of sound striking against a surface adapted to the purpose1 as the side of a house1 a brick wall1 hill1 c41 and returning back again to the ear1 at distinct intervals of time4 ,if a person stand about sixty-five or seventy feet from such a surface1 and perpendicularly to it1 and speak1 the sound will strike against the wall1 and be reflected back1 so that he will hear it as it goes to the wall1 and again on its return4 ,if a bell situated in the same way be struck1 and an observer stand between the bell and the reflecting surface1 he will hear the sound going to the wall1 and also on its return4 ,lastly1 if the sound strike the wall obliquely1 it will go off obliquely1 so that a person who stands in a direct line between the bell and the wall will not hear the echo4 ,according to the greater or less distance from the speaker1 a reflecting object will return the echo of several1 or of fewer syllables2 for all the syllables must be uttered before the echo of the first syllable reaches the ear1 to prevent the confusion which would otherwise ensue4 ,in a moderate way of speaking1 about three and a half syllables are pronounced in one second1 or seven syllables in two seconds3 therefore1 when an echo repeats seven syllables1 the reflecting object is eleven hundred and forty-two feet distant2 for sound travels at the rate of eleven hundred and forty-two feet per second1 and the distance from the speaker to the reflecting object1 and again from the latter to the former1 is twice eleven hundred and forty-two feet4 ,when the echo returns fourteen syllables1 the reflecting object must be twenty-two hundred and eighty-four feet distant1 and so on4 ,the most remarkable echo recorded1 is at the palace of a nobleman1 within two miles of ,milan1 in ,italy4 ,the building is of some length in front1 and has two wings jutting forward2 so that it wants only one side of an oblong figure4 ,about one hundred paces before the mansion1 a small brook glides gently2 and over this brook is a bridge forming a communication between the mansion and the garden4 ,a pistol having been fired at this spot1 fifty-six reiterations of the report were heard4 ,the first twenty were distinct2 but in proportion as the sound died away1 and was answered at a greater distance1 the repetitions were so doubled that they could scarcely be counted1 the principal sound appearing to be saluted in its passage by reports on either side at the same time4 ,a pistol of a larger caliber having been afterward discharged1 and consequently with a louder report1 sixty distinct reiterations were counted4 ,from this example it follows1 that the further the reflecting surface is1 the greater number of syllables the echo will repeat2 but that the sound will be enfeebled nearly in the same proportion1 until at length the syllables can not be distinctly heard4 ,on the other hand1 when the reflecting object is too near1 the repetition of the sound reaches the ear1 whilst the perception of the original sound still continues1 in which case an indistinct resounding is heard1 as may be observed in empty rooms1 passages1 c4 ,in such places1 several reflections from the walls to the hearer1 as also from one wall to the other1 and then to the hearer1 clash with each other1 and increase the indistinctness of the sound4 ,,buried ,,cities4 ,,the ,,yanar1 ,,or ,,perpetual ,,fire4 ,before passing on to the buried cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 it may be as well to notice a singular phenomenon1 supposed by some to be of volcanic origin1 viz41 the ,yanar1 or perpetual fire4 ,captain ,beaufort1 of the ,british navy1 among the interesting details of his survey of ,karamania1 on the south coast of ,asia ,minor1 describes this curious phenomenon2 and from his account the following particulars are extracted1 as supplementary to and connected with the details of volcanoes and their effects4 ,having perceived during the night a small but steady light among the hills1 he found that this was represented by the inhabitants as a yanar or volcanic light2 and on the following morning curiosity led him to visit the spot4 ,in the inner corner of a ruined building he came to a wall1 so undermined as to leave an aperture of about three feet in diameter1 and shaped like the mouth of an oven4 ,from this aperture the flame issued1 giving out an intense heat1 but without producing any smoke on the wall2 and although several small lumps of caked soot were detached from the neck of the opening1 the walls were scarcely discolored4 ,trees1 brushwood and weeds1 grew close around this little crater2 a small stream trickled down the hill in its vicinity2 and the ground did not appear to feel the effect of its heat at more than a few yards' distance4 ,no volcanic productions were perceived near to it2 but at a short distance1 lower down on the side of the hill1 was another hole or aperture1 which had apparently been at some remote period the vent of a similar flame4 ,it was asserted1 however1 by the guide1 that1 in the memory of the present race of inhabitants1 there had been but one such volcanic opening1 and that its size and appearance had been constantly the same4 ,he added1 that it was never accompanied by earthquakes or noises2 and that it did not eject either stones1 smoke or noxious vapors2 but that its brilliant and perpetual flame could not be quenched by any quantity of water4 ,at this flame1 he observed1 the shepherds were in the habit of cooking their food4 ,this phenomenon appeared to ,captain ,beaufort to have existed for many ages1 and he was persuaded that it is the spot to which ,pliny alludes in the following passage3 8,mount ,chimera1 near ,phaselis1 emits an unceasing flame1 which burns day and night40 ,within a short distance is the great mountain of ,takhtalu1 the naked summit of which rises1 in an insulated peak1 seventy-eight hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,in the month of ,august a few streaks of snow were discernible on the peak2 but many of the distant mountains of the interior were completely white for nearly a fourth the way down their sides4 ,it may hence be inferred1 that the elevation of this part of ,mount ,taurus is not less than ten thousand feet1 which is equal to that of ,mount ,etna4 ,such a striking feature as this stupendous mountain1 in a country inhabited by illiterate and credulous people1 can not fail to have been the subject of numerous tales and traditions4 ,accordingly1 the captain was informed by the peasants1 that there is a perpetual flow of the purest water from the very apex2 and that notwithstanding the snow1 which was still lingering in the chasms1 roses blew there all the year round4 ,he was assured by the agha of ,deliktash1 that every autumn a midnight groan is heard to issue from the summit of the mountain1 louder than the report of any cannon1 but unaccompanied by fire or smoke4 ,the agha professed his ignorance of the cause1 but on being pressed for his opinion1 gravely replied1 that he believed it was an annual summons to the elect1 to make the best of their way to ,paradise4 ,however amusing this theory may have been1 it may possibly be true that such explosions take place4 ,the mountain artillery heard by ,lewis and ,clarke1 among the ,rocky mountains1 and similar phenomena which are said to have occurred in ,south ,america1 seem to lend some probability to the account4 ,the natives have also a tradition1 that when ,moses fled from ,egypt1 he took up his abode near this mountain1 which was therefore named ,moossa-,daghy1 or the mountain of ,moses4 ,between this story1 and the ,yanar1 as it has been described above1 may there not have been some fanciful connection8 ,the site of this volcanic opening is at an inconsiderable distance from the mountain2 and the flame issuing from the thicket which surrounds it1 may have led to some confused association with the burning bush on ,mount ,horeb1 of which we have the account in the book of ,exodus4 ,,pompeii4 ,to every traveler through the southern part of ,europe1 ,pompeii and ,herculaneum are1 of course1 the objects of earliest attention and deepest interest4 ,the tragic story of these buried towns is now familiar to most intelligent persons2 while the vivid romance of ,bulwer makes one feel as if he had known the inhabitants1 and almost as though he had been a witness of the catastrophe4 ,the story is recorded not more faithfully by the younger ,pliny1 in his celebrated letter to ,tacitus1 than it is plainly read in the material evidence1 whose unexpected discovery1 almost in our own day1 has supplied both to the antiquarian and the geologist1 most valued and truthful evidences2 contemporary records1 expounding to the antiquary an interesting chapter of human history1 filled with the minutest details of personal interest1 and to the geologist1 the close of one and the commencement of another of those great cycles of change1 whose history1 strangely connected in this instance with the vicissitudes of his own race1 engrosses his delighted attention4 ,a great and rich town1 which1 after sleeping eighteen centuries in its deep and dark grave1 is again shone on by the sun1 and stands among other cities as much a stranger to them as any one of its former inhabitants would be among men of the present day1 is surely one of the wonders of the world2 and such is ,pompeii4 ,the distance from ,naples to ,pompeii1 is little more than ten ,english miles4 ,near the ,torre dell',annunziata1 to the left1 and amid hills planted with vineyards1 the town itself1 which1 throwing off its shroud of ashes1 came forth from its grave1 breaks on the view4 ,the buildings are without roofs1 which are supposed to have been destroyed by the lava1 or torn off by the hurricane which preceded it4 ,the tracks of the wheels which anciently rolled over the pavement are still visible4 ,an elevated path runs by the side of the houses1 for foot-passengers2 and1 to enable them in rainy weather to pass more commodiously to the opposite side1 large flat stones1 three of which take up the width of the road1 were laid at a distance from each other4 ,as the carriages1 in order to avoid these stones1 were obliged to use the intermediate spaces1 the tracks of the wheels are there most visible4 ,the whole of the pavement is in good condition3 it consists merely of considerable pieces of lava1 which1 however1 are not cut as at present into squares1 and may have been on that account the more durable4 ,the part which was first cleared1 is supposed to have been the main street of ,pompeii2 but this is much to be doubted1 as the houses on both sides1 with the exception of a few1 were evidently the habitations of common citizens1 and were small and provided with booths4 ,the street itself likewise is narrow3 two carriages only could go abreast2 and it is very uncertain whether it ran through the whole of the town2 for1 from the spot where the moderns discontinued digging1 to that where they recommenced1 and where the same street is supposed to have been again found1 a wide tract is covered with vineyards1 which may perhaps occupy the places of the most splendid streets and markets1 still concealed underneath4 ,among the objects which attract particular attention1 is a booth in which liquors were sold2 the marble table within which1 bears the marks of the cups left by the drinkers4 ,next to this is a house1 the threshold of which is inlaid with a salutation in black stone1 as a token of hospitality4 ,on entering the habitations1 the visitor is struck by the strangeness of their construction4 ,the middle of the house forms a square1 something like the cross passages of a cloister1 often surrounded by pillars3 it is cleanly1 and paved with party-colored mosaic1 which has an agreeable effect4 ,in the middle is a cooling well1 and on each side a little chamber1 about ten or twelve feet square1 but lofty1 and painted with a fine red or yellow4 ,the floor is of mosaic2 and the door is made generally to serve as a window1 there being but one apartment which receives light through a thick blue glass4 ,many of these rooms are supposed to have been bed-chambers1 because there is an elevated1 broad step1 on which the bed may have stood1 and because some of the pictures appear most appropriate to a sleeping-room4 ,others are supposed to have been dressing-rooms1 from the fact that on the walls a ,venus is described decorated by the ,graces1 added to which1 little flasks and boxes of various descriptions have been found in them4 ,the larger of these apartments served for dining-rooms1 and in some are suitable accommodations for cold and hot baths4 ,the manner in which a whole room was heated1 is particularly curious4 ,against the usual wall a second was erected1 standing at a little distance from the first4 ,for this purpose large square tiles were taken1 having1 like modern tiles1 a sort of hook1 thus keeping the first wall as it were off from them3 a hollow space was thus left all around1 from the top to the bottom1 into which pipes were introduced1 that carried the warmth into the chamber1 and as it were rendered the whole of the place one stove4 ,the ancients were also attentive to avoid the vapor or smell from their lamps4 ,in some houses there is a niche made in the wall for the lamp1 with a little chimney in the form of a funnel1 through which the smoke escaped4 ,opposite to the house-door the largest room is placed3 it is properly a sort of hall1 for it has only three walls1 being quite open in the fore part4 ,the side rooms have no connection with each other1 but are divided off in little cells1 the door of each leading to a fountain4 ,most of the houses consist of one such square1 surrounded by rooms4 ,in a few1 some decayed steps seem to have led to an upper story1 which is no longer in existence4 ,some habitations1 however1 probably belonging to the richer and more fashionable1 are far more spacious4 ,in these1 a first court is often connected with a second1 and even with a third1 by passages3 in other respects their arrangements are similar to those above described4 ,many garlands of flowers and vine-branches1 and many handsome pictures1 are still to be seen on the walls4 ,the guides were formerly permitted to sprinkle these pictures with fresh water1 in the presence of travelers1 and thus revive their former splendor for a moment3 but this is now strictly forbidden2 and1 indeed1 not without reason1 since the frequent watering might at length totally rot away the wall4 ,one of the houses belonged to a statuary1 whose workshop is still full of the vestiges of his art4 ,another appears to have been inhabited by a surgeon1 whose profession is equally evident from the instruments discovered in his chamber4 ,a large country-house near the gate1 undoubtedly belonged to a very wealthy man1 and would1 in fact1 still invite inhabitants within its walls4 ,it is very extensive1 stands against a hill1 and has many stories4 ,its finely decorated rooms are unusually spacious2 and it has airy terraces1 from which you look down into a pretty garden1 that has been now again planted with flowers4 ,in the middle of this garden is a large fishpond1 and near that an ascent from which1 on two sides1 six pillars descend4 ,the hinder pillars are the highest1 the middle somewhat lower1 and the front the lowest3 they appear1 therefore1 rather to have propped a sloping roof1 than to have been destined for an arbor4 ,a covered passage1 resting on pillars1 incloses the garden on three sides2 it was painted1 and probably served in rainy weather as an agreeable walk4 ,beneath is a fine arched cellar1 which receives air and light by several openings from without2 consequently its atmosphere is so pure1 that in the hottest part of summer it is always refreshing4 ,a number of amphor1 or large wine-vessels1 are to be seen here1 still leaning against the wall1 as the butler left them when he carried up the last goblet of wine for his master4 ,had the inhabitants of ,pompeii preserved these vessels with stoppers1 wine might still have been found in them2 but as it was1 the stream of ashes running in1 of course forced out the wine4 ,more than twenty human skeletons of fugitives1 who thought to save themselves here under ground1 but who must have experienced a tenfold more cruel death than those suffered who were in the open air1 were found in this cellar4 ,the destiny of the ,pompeians must have been dreadful4 ,it was not a stream of fire that encompassed their abodes3 they could then have sought refuge in flight4 ,neither did an earthquake swallow them up2 sudden suffocation would then have spared them the pangs of a lingering death4 ,but a rain of ashes buried them alive ,,by ,,degrees6 ,hear the delineation of ,pliny3 8,a darkness suddenly overspread the country2 not like the darkness of a moonless night2 but like that of a closed room1 in which the light is of a sudden extinguished4 ,women screamed1 children moaned1 men cried4 ,here1 children were anxiously calling their parents2 and there1 parents were seeking their children1 or husbands their wives2 all recognized each other only by their cries4 ,the former lamented their own fate1 and the latter that of those dearest to them4 ,many wished for death1 from the fear of dying4 ,many called on the gods for assistance3 others despaired of the existence of the gods1 and thought this the last eternal night of the world4 ,actual dangers were magnified by unreal terrors4 ,the earth continued to shake1 and men1 half-distracted1 to reel about1 exaggerating their own fears1 and those of others1 by terrifying predictions40 ,such is the frightful but true picture which ,pliny gives us of the horrors of those who were1 however1 far from the extremity of their misery4 ,but what must have been the feelings of the ,pompeians1 when the roaring of the mountain and the quaking of the earth1 awaked them from their first sleep8 ,they also attempted to escape the wrath of the gods2 and1 seizing the most valuable things they could lay their hands upon in the darkness and confusion1 endeavored to seek their safety in flight4 ,in this street1 and in front of the house marked with the friendly salutation on its threshold1 seven skeletons were found3 the first carried a lamp1 and the rest had still between the bones of their fingers something that they wished to save4 ,on a sudden they were overtaken by the storm which descended from heaven1 and buried in the grave thus made for them4 ,before the above mentioned country-house1 was still a male skeleton1 standing with a dish in his hand2 and1 as he wore on his finger one of those rings which were allowed to be worn by ,roman knights only1 he is supposed to have been the master of the house1 who had just opened the back garden gate with the intent of flying1 when the shower overwhelmed him4 ,several skeletons were found in the very posture in which they had breathed their last1 without having been forced by the agonies of death to drop the things they had in their hands4 ,this leads to a conjecture1 that the thick mass of ashes must have come down all at once1 in such immense quantities as instantly to cover them4 ,it can not otherwise be imagined how the fugitives could all have been fixed1 as it were by a charm1 in their position2 in which manner their destiny was the less dreadful1 seeing that ,death suddenly converted them into motionless statues1 and thus was stripped of all the horrors with which the fears of the sufferers had clothed him in imagination4 ,but what then must have been the pitiable condition of those who had taken refuge in the buildings and cellars6 ,buried in the thickest darkness1 they were secluded from everything but lingering torment2 and who can paint to himself without shuddering1 a slow dissolution approaching1 amid all the agonies of body and of mind8 ,the soul recoils from the contemplation of such images4 ,to proceed now to the public edifices4 ,the temple of ,isis is still standing1 with its ,doric pillars1 and its walls painted with emblems of the service of the deity1 such as the hippopotamus1 cocoa-blossom1 ibis1 c4 ,a view of it is given in the cut4 ,the sacred vessels1 lamps and tables of ,isis1 are still to be seen4 ,from a little chapel within1 a poisonous vapor is said to have formerly arisen1 which the heathen priests may have used for every species of deception4 ,this vapor is said to have increased after the violent eruption of ,vesuvius2 but it has not latterly given out the slightest smell4 ,a small ,grecian temple1 of which only two pillars remain1 had been probably already destroyed by an earthquake1 which1 in the reign of ,titus1 preceded the dreadful irruption of the volcano4 ,on the opposite side of this temple there is still an edifice1 called the quarters of the soldiers1 because all sorts of arms1 pictures of soldiers1 and a skeleton in chains1 were found there4 ,by others it has been considered as the forum of ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,,at ,,pompeii4 ,two theaters1 the smaller one particularly1 are in an excellent state of preservation4 ,the structure of this one is such as was usually adopted by the ancients1 and is better arranged than some of modern construction1 as it affords the spectators commodious seats1 a free view of the stage1 and facility of hearing4 ,although sufficiently large to contain two thousand persons1 the plebeians1 standing in a broad gallery at the top1 were quite as able to see all that was passing on the stage1 as the magistrate in his marble balcony4 ,in this gallery the arrangements for spreading the sail-cloth over the spectators are still visible4 ,the stage itself is very broad1 as it has no side walls2 and appears less deep than it really is4 ,a wall runs across it1 and cuts off just as much room as is necessary for the accommodation of the performers4 ,but this wall has three very broad doors2 the middle one is distinguished by its hight1 and the space behind it is still deeper than in front4 ,if these doors1 as may be conjectured1 always stood open1 the stage was in fact large1 and afforded besides the advantage of being able to display a double scenery3 if1 for example1 the scene in front was that of a street1 there might have been behind a free prospect into the open field4 ,the cemetery lies before the gate of the high road4 ,the tomb of the priestess ,mammea is very remarkable3 it was erected1 according to the epitaph1 by virtue of a decree of the decemvirs4 ,in the midst of little boxes of stone1 in square piles1 and on a sort of altar1 the family urns were placed in niches2 and without these piles the broken masks are still to be seen4 ,in front of the cemetery1 by the road-side1 is a beautiful seat1 forming a semicircle1 that will contain twenty or thirty persons4 ,it was probably overshaded by trees eighteen hundred years ago2 under which the women of ,pompeii sat in the cool evenings1 while their children played before them1 and viewed the crowds which were passing through the gate4 ,to the above particulars from the pen of the elegant and lively ,kotzebue1 the following details1 given by a later and accurate traveler1 are subjoined4 ,the entrance into ,pompeii is by a quadrangular court2 and this court is surrounded on every side by a colonnade which supports the roof of a gallery2 and the latter leads to several small apartments1 not unlike the cells of a prison4 ,the columns are of brick1 stuccoed over1 and painted of a deep red3 they are in hight from ten to twelve feet1 are placed at about a like distance from each other1 and are of the ,doric order1 fluted two-thirds from the top1 and well proportioned4 ,after a variety of conjectures relative to the purpose to which this building was applied1 it has been ascertained that it was either a barrack for soldiers1 7various pieces of armor having been found in some of the cells17 or the prtorium of the governor1 where a body of military must have been stationed4 ,adjacent to it stood the theaters1 the forum1 and one or two temples1 all connected by very neat and well-paved courts4 ,the smaller of the theaters is to the right1 and is called the covered theater1 because it was so constructed1 that by the means of canvas awnings1 the spectators were defended from the sun and rain4 ,a door through the wall leads to the different galleries1 and to the open space in the center1 resembling the pit of a modern theater4 ,the interior is beautifully neat2 and with the exception of the spoliation of the marble slabs1 removed to the palace at ,naples1 with which the whole of the inside1 not excepting the seats1 had been covered1 it is in excellent preservation4 ,on each side are the seats for the magistrates2 the orchestra1 as in modern theaters1 is in front of the stage2 and the latter1 with its brick wings1 is very shallow4 ,this theater was calculated to contain about two thousand spectators4 ,from its level a staircase leads to an eminence on which several public buildings are situated4 ,the most conspicuous of these is a small temple said to have been dedicated to ,isis1 and having a secret passage1 perforated in two places1 whence the priests are supposed to have delivered to the deluded multitude the oracles of that deity4 ,within a paved court is an altar1 of a round shape1 on the one side1 and on the other side a well4 ,a cistern1 with four apertures1 was placed at a small distance1 to facilitate the procuring of water4 ,in this court1 sacrifices and other holy rites are conjectured to have taken place1 various utensils for sacrifice1 such as lamps1 tripods1 c41 having been found1 when the place was first excavated4 ,one of the tripods is of the most admirable workmanship4 ,on each of the three legs1 a beautiful sphinx1 with an unusual head-dress1 is placed1 probably in allusion to the hidden meanings of the oracles which were delivered in the above-mentioned temple4 ,the hoop in which the basin for the coals was sunk1 is elegantly decorated with rams' heads connected by garlands of flowers2 and within the basin1 which is of baked earth1 the very cinders left from the last sacrifice 7nearly two thousand years ago7 are seen as fresh as if they had been the remains of yesterday's fire6 ,from the above court1 you enter on a somewhat larger1 with a stone pulpit in the center and stone seats near the walls4 ,the spot1 therefore1 was either the auditory of a philosopher1 or the place where the public orators pleaded in the presence of the people4 ,everything here is in the highest order and preservation4 ,the great amphitheater proudly rears its walls over every other edifice on the same elevated spot4 ,it is a stupendous structure1 and has twenty-four rows of seats1 the circumference of the lowest of which is about seven hundred and fifty feet4 ,it is estimated to have contained about thirty thousand spectators4 ,the upper walls are much injured1 having partially projected above ground long before the discovery of ,pompeii4 ,a corn-field leads to the excavated upper end of the high street1 which consists of a narrow road for carts1 with foot-pavements on each side4 ,the middle is paved with large blocks of marble1 and the ruts of the wheels proclaim its antiquity1 even at the time of its being overwhelmed4 ,the foot-paths are elevated about a foot and a half from the level of the carriage-road4 ,the houses on each side1 whether shops or private buildings1 have no claim to external elegance3 they consist of a ground-floor only1 and1 with the exception of the door1 have no opening toward the street4 ,the windows of the private houses look into an inner square court1 and are in general very high4 ,the apartments themselves are1 with the exception of one in each house1 which probably served as a drawing-room1 both low and diminutive4 ,in point of decoration they are neat1 and1 in many instances1 elegant3 the floors generally consist of figured pavements1 either in larger stones of various colors1 regularly cut and systematically disposed1 or are formed of a beautiful mosaic1 with a fanciful border1 and an animal or figure in the center4 ,the geometrical lines and figures in the design of the borders1 have an endless variety of the most pleasing shapes1 to display the fertile imagination of the artists4 ,their tesselated pavements alone must convince us that the ancients were well skilled in geometry4 ,the ground is usually white1 and the ornaments black2 but other colors are often employed with increased effect4 ,the walls of the apartments are equally 7if not still more7 deserving attention4 ,they are painted1 either in compartments1 exhibiting some mythological or historical event1 or simply colored over with a light ground1 adorned with a border and perhaps an elegant little vignette1 in the center or at equal distances4 ,but few of the historical paintings now exist in ,pompeii2 for wherever a wall was found to contain a tolerable picture1 it was removed and deposited in the museum at ,naples4 ,to effect this1 the greatest care and ingenuity were required1 so as to peel off1 by the means of sawing pieces of wall1 twenty and more square feet in extent1 without destroying the picture4 ,this1 however1 was not a modern invention2 for1 among the excavated remains of ,stabi1 the workmen came to an apartment containing paintings which had been separated by the ancients themselves from a wall1 with the obvious intent of their being introduced in another place4 ,this was1 however1 prevented by the ruin of the city2 and the paintings1 therefore1 were found leaning against the wall of the apartment4 ,another excavated portion of ,pompeii is likewise part of a street1 and1 being perfectly in a line with the one already described1 is conjectured to be a continuation1 or rather the extremity of the latter2 in which case ,pompeii must have been a city of considerable importance1 and its main street nearly a mile in length4 ,the houses here1 as in the other instance1 are distributed into shops and private dwellings1 some of the latter of which are distinguished by the remains of former internal elegance1 such as tesselated pavements1 painted walls1 c43 most of them have likewise an interior court1 surrounded by apartments4 ,,the ,,museum ,,at ,,naples4 ,the museum was formerly at ,portici1 but was removed to ,naples some years ago and is now called the ,muso ,borbonico4 ,the best statues1 busts1 vases1 and in short1 whatever was supposed1 from its materials or construction1 to have a superior value1 were packed in fifty-two chests1 and conveyed from ,portici to ,palermo1 at the time the court sought refuge in that city1 on the ,french penetrating into the ,neapolitan territory4 ,what still remains1 however1 in the museum1 has a high intrinsic value2 since no one can behold1 without the strongest emotions of admiration1 the relics of the most transitory things1 which for nearly eighteen hundred years1 have braved the ravages of time4 ,here are to be seen bread1 corn1 dough which was about to be placed in the oven1 soap which had been used for washing1 figs1 and even egg-shells perfectly white1 and in as good a state as if the cook had broken them an hour before4 ,here a kitchen presents itself provided with everything requisite3 trivets and pots stand on the hearth2 stew-pans hang on the wall2 skimmers and tongs are placed in the corner2 and a metal mortar rests on the shaft of a pillar4 ,weights1 hammers1 scythes1 and other utensils of husbandry1 are here blended with helms and arms4 ,sacrificing bowls and knives2 a number of well shaped glasses2 large and small glass bottles2 lamps2 vases2 decorations for furniture2 a piece of cloth2 nets2 and even shoe soles2 all sorts of female ornaments--necklaces1 rings and ear-rings2 a wooden chess-board1 reduced1 indeed1 to a cinder3 all these things are more or less injured by the fire2 but still are distinguishable at first sight4 ,every apartment of the museum is laid with the most charming antique floors1 which are partly mosaic1 from ,pompeii1 and partly marble1 from ,herculaneum4 ,statues1 vases1 busts1 chandeliers1 altars1 tables of marble and bronze1 are all in as good a state as if they had just come from the hands of the artist4 ,the coins which have been collected are very numerous1 and fill several cases4 ,medallions of marble1 containing on each side a bas-relief1 are suspended by fine chains from the ceiling of one of the apartments1 and are within the reach of the hand1 so as to be conveniently turned and examined4 ,most of the pictures found at ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii and ,stabi1 and now deposited in the museum1 have been sawed from the walls of the edifices they adorned4 ,these unique relics of ancient art form an extensive gallery of genuine antique pictures1 the only one in the world1 and may on that account alone1 be considered as an invaluable treasure4 ,they are placed in a range of apartments on the ground floor1 and are suspended against the walls in plain frames4 ,their size varies from a foot square1 to whole-length groups1 nearly as large as life4 ,beside the injury they have sustained by having been exposed to the heat of burning cinders1 they have been impaired by the modern varnish which was intended to protect them3 it would1 therefore1 not be right to subject their coloring to the rigid rules of art2 but the grouping of the ,minotaur1 of the ,telephus1 of the sitting ,orestes1 and of the ,bacchus and ,ariadne1 is admirable4 ,in their paintings1 as well as in their sculptures1 the ancients were influenced by that love of simplicity which distinguishes their works from those of the moderns1 and the result is1 that in them the chief merits of composition are combined1 unity of subject1 and unity of interest4 ,when1 again1 it is considered that the paintings collected in the museum at ,naples were taken from the provincial towns1 it must be inferred1 that those which were admitted in the chief seats of art corresponded in excellence with the ,laocon and the ,apollo4 ,such1 at least1 was the judgment of the ancients themselves1 and their taste is not to be disputed4 ,illustration3 ,,papyri4 ,the museum at ,naples excels all others in ancient bronze1 a substance which1 although dearer1 more difficult to be wrought1 more inviting to the rude grasp of avarice1 and less beautiful than marble1 forms the greater proportion of the statues4 ,the larger of them had been originally composed of pieces connected by dove-tail joints2 and these promiscuous fragments have been recompiled into new figures1 as in the instance of the single horse made from four1 in the center of the court-yard of the museum4 ,those fragments which had escaped fusion1 were rent1 inflated1 or bruised1 by the burning lava4 ,in addition to these misfortunes1 they have been made up unhappily2 for the eye of an artist can sometimes detect two styles of art1 evidently different1 the large and the exquisite1 soldered together in the same statue4 ,the figures the most admired are1 the drunken ,faun1 the sleeping ,faun1 the sitting ,mercury1 the ,amazon adjusting her robe1 and an ,augustus and a ,claudius1 both of heroic size4 ,the most remarkable objects in the museum at ,naples are the manuscripts1 found in two chambers of a house at ,herculaneum4 ,although they have been so frequently described1 they must be seen1 to furnish a correct idea of them4 ,before they are unrolled1 they resemble sticks of charcoal1 or cudgels reduced to the state of a cinder1 and partly petrified4 ,their general appearance before they are unrolled may be seen on the previous page4 ,in color they are black and chesnut-brown3 and they are unfortunately so decayed1 that under each of them1 as they lie in glass cases1 a quantity of dust and detached fragments may be perceived4 ,their characters are legible in a certain light only1 by a gloss and relief which distinguishes the ink1 or rather black paint1 from the tinder4 ,cut1 crushed1 crumbled on the edge1 and caked by the sap remaining in the leaves of the papyrus1 they require in the operator great sagacity to meet the variety of injuries they have received2 since1 in gluing rashly the more delicate parts1 he might reach the heart of a volume1 while working at the outside4 ,at first1 it appeared almost impracticable ever to decipher a syllable of them2 but to the industry and talents of man nothing is impossible1 and his curiosity impels him to the most ingenious inventions4 ,,herculaneum4 ,this city was1 together with ,pompeii and ,stabi1 involved in the common ruin occasioned by the dreadful eruption of ,vesuvius1 in the reign of ,titus1 which has already been described in our previous pages4 ,it was situated on a point of land stretching into the gulf of ,naples1 about two miles distant from that city1 near where the modern towns of ,portici and ,resini1 and the royal palace1 by which they are separated1 now stand4 ,the neck of land on which it was built1 and which has since disappeared1 formed a small harbor4 ,hence the appellation of ,herculis ,porticum1 7the small haven of ,hercules17 sometimes given to ,herculaneum1 and thence in all probability1 the modern name of ,portici4 ,the latter being situated immediately above some of the excavations of ,herculaneum1 the just fear of endangering its safety1 by undermining it1 is given as a principal reason why so little progress has been made in the ,herculanean researches4 ,the discovery of ,herculaneum is thus explained4 ,at an inconsiderable distance from the royal palace of ,portici1 and close to the seaside1 ,prince ,elbeuf1 in the beginning of the last century1 inhabited an elegant villa4 ,to obtain a supply of water a well was dug1 in the year #agcj1 through the deep crust of lava on which the mansion itself had been reared4 ,the laborers1 after having completely pierced through the lava1 which was of considerable depth1 came to a stratum of dry mud4 ,this event precisely agrees with the tradition relative to ,herculaneum1 that it was in the first instance overwhelmed by a stratum of hot mud1 which was immediately followed by a wide stream of lava4 ,whether this mud was thrown up from ,vesuvius1 or formed by torrents of rain1 does not appear to have been decided4 ,within the stratum the workmen found three female statues1 which were sent to ,vienna4 ,it was not until some years after this1 that the researches at ,herculaneum were seriously and systematically pursued4 ,by continuing ,elbeuf's well1 the excavators at once came to the theater1 and from that spot carried on their further subterraneous investigation4 ,the condition of ,herculaneum was at that time much more interesting1 and more worthy the notice of the traveler1 than it is at present4 ,the object of its excavation having unfortunately been confined to the discovery of statues1 paintings1 and other curiosities1 and not carried on with a view to lay open the city1 and thus to ascertain the features of its buildings and streets1 most of the latter were again filled up with rubbish as soon as they were divested of everything movable4 ,the marble even was torn from the walls of the temples4 ,herculaneum may therefore be said to have been overwhelmed a second time by its modern discoverers2 and the appearance it previously presented1 can now only be ascertained from the accounts of those who saw it in a more perfect state4 ,agreeably to them1 it must at that time have afforded a most interesting spectacle4 ,the theater was one of the most perfect specimens of ancient architecture4 ,it had1 from the floor upward1 eighteen rows of seats1 and above these1 three other rows1 which1 being covered with a portico1 seem to have been intended for the female part of the audience1 to screen them from the rays of the sun4 ,it was capable of containing between three and four thousand persons4 ,nearly the whole of its surface1 as well as the arched walls which led to its seats1 was cased with marble4 ,the area1 or pit1 was floored with thick squares of giallo antico1 a beautiful marble of a yellowish hue4 ,on the top stood a group of four bronze horses1 drawing a car1 with a charioteer1 all of exquisite workmanship4 ,the pedestal of white marble is still to be seen in its place2 but the group itself had been crushed and broken in pieces by the immense weight of lava which fell on it4 ,the fragments having been collected1 might easily have been brought together again1 but having been carelessly thrown into a corner1 a part of them were stolen1 and another portion fused1 and converted into busts of their ,neapolitan majesties4 ,at length1 it was resolved to make the best use of what remained1 that is1 to convert the four horses into one1 by taking a fore leg of one of them1 a hinder leg of another1 the head of a third1 c41 and1 where the breach was irremediable1 to cast a new piece4 ,to this contrivance the bronze horse now shown in the museum of ,naples owes its existence2 and1 considering its patchwork origin1 it still conveys a high idea of the skill of the ancient artist4 ,in the forum1 which was contiguous to the theater1 beside a number of inscriptions1 columns1 c41 two beautiful equestrian statues of the ,balbi family were found4 ,these were of white marble1 and were deposited in the hall of the left wing of the palace at ,portici4 ,adjoining to the forum stood the temple of ,hercules1 an elegant rotunda1 the interior of which was decorated with a variety of paintings1 such as ,theseus returning from his ,cretan adventure with the ,minotaur1 ,telephus's birth1 ,chiron1 the centaur1 instructing ,achilles1 c4 ,these were carefully separated from the walls1 and are deposited in the museum at ,naples4 ,the most important discovery1 however1 was that of a villa1 at a small distance from the forum2 not only on account of the peculiarity of its plan1 but because the greater number of the works of art were dug out of its precinct2 and more especially because it contained a library consisting of more than fifteen hundred volumes1 which are likewise safely deposited in the museum1 and which1 were they legible1 would form a great classic treasure4 ,these have been mentioned in the account of the museum at ,naples1 which will be found on a previous page4 ,the villa is conjectured to have belonged to one of the ,balbi family4 ,although elegant1 it was small1 and consisted of a ground-floor only1 like those of ,pompeii4 ,beside a number of small closets round an interior hall1 it contained a bathing-room1 curiously fitted up with marble and water-pipes1 and a chapel of a diminutive size1 without any window or aperture for daylight1 the walls of which were painted with serpents1 and within which a bronze tripod1 filled with cinders and ashes1 was found standing on the floor4 ,the apartment which contained the library was fitted up with wooden presses around the walls1 about six feet in hight3 a double row of presses stood insulated in the middle of the room1 so as to admit a free passage on every side4 ,the wood of which the presses had been made1 was burned to a cinder1 and gave way at the first touch2 but the volumes1 composed of a much more perishable substance1 the ,egyptian or ,syracusan papyrus1 were1 although completely carbonized through the effect of the heat1 still so far preserved as to admit of their removal to a similar set of modern presses1 7provided1 however1 with glass doors17 in the museum4 ,in the middle of the garden belonging to this villa1 was a large basin1 having its edges faced with stone1 and the two narrow ends rounded off in a semicircular form4 ,this piece of water was surrounded by beds or parterres of various shapes2 and the garden was on every side inclosed by a covered walk supported by columns4 ,of these columns there were sixty-four1 ten for each of the shorter1 and twenty-two for each of the longer sides of the quadrangle3 they were made of brick1 neatly stuccoed over1 exactly similar to those in the ,pompeian barracks4 ,each pillar supported one end of a wooden beam1 the other extremity of which rested on the garden wall1 thus forming an arbor1 in all probability planted with vines around the whole garden4 ,under this covered walk1 several semicircular recesses1 which appear to have served as bathing-places1 were built4 ,the spaces between the pillars were decorated with marble busts and bronze statues1 alternately arranged4 ,this garden was surrounded by a narrow ditch2 and another covered walk1 of a considerable length1 led to a circular balcony1 or platform1 the ascent to which was by four steps1 but which overhung the sea about fifteen feet4 ,the floor of the balcony consisted of a very beautiful tesselated pavement4 ,from this charming spot the prospect over the whole bay of ,naples1 including the mountains of ,sorrento1 the island of ,capri1 and ,mount ,posilipo1 must have been delightful4 ,,pompeii4 ,having thus given the accounts of ,kotzebue1 and also of an ,english tourist1 as to ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 we will now add the narrative of our distinguished fellow-citizen1 ,professor ,silliman1 who passed over the same ground in #ahea4 ,all these views are given1 because the subject is one of so much intrinsic interest1 and because some objects are mentioned by each writer that are not by the others4 ,professor ,silliman says3 8,we passed rapidly along through ,portici1 ,resina1 and ,torre del ,greco1#f which form one long-continued street1 lying over ,herculaneum1 a large city1 whose entombed remains were far beneath our carriage wheels4 ,vesuvius was on our left1 quiet and sublime4 ,clouds vailed its crater from our view1 but its venerable sides were enveloped in the black drapery of its own lava floods4 ,the currents have often flowed over the road on which we were traveling4 ,here and there1 the lava had been cut through in the streets1 and it protrudes in black1 rocky masses1 upon which many of the houses have been erected4 ,lava formed the walls of the houses1 and the fences around the fields1 and lava1 only lava1 was everywhere around us4 ,after a short interval of cultivated fields1 we arrived in ,torre del ,annunciata1 in a street similar to those we had passed1 and surrounded by a country in the highest state of cultivation1 where every foot of the rich volcanic soil is made available4 ,farm-houses and villas appeared clustering around the eastern and southern foot of ,vesuvius1 and creeping up its sloping sides1 so reckless are the people of past catastrophes1 although ,herculaneum reposes in its profound grave at the foot of the mountain1 and the great sepulcher of ,pompeii1 with its funereal monuments1 is in full view before them4 ,they have also been very recently warned again1 by the terrific eruption of ,february1 #ahej1 which1 bursting out back of ,vesuvius1 on the east1 took an unwonted direction1 thus giving another proof that no situation on or near the mountain is safe2 but still the inhabitants repose in careless security4 ----- ,footnote #f3 8,torre del ,greco1 a town containing eighteen thousand people1 was overwhelmed1 in #agid1 by an eruption of lava from ,vesuvius1 flowing from the middle of its western slope1 only five miles above the town4 ,the melted torrent buried the place1 and inundated the sea1 encroaching upon it one-third of a square mile40 ----- 8,as we drove slowly onward1 checking the horses from time to time1 in order to realize the scenes around us1 ,antonio1 from the coach-box1 suddenly exclaimed1 #8,there is ,pompeii6' ,we eagerly looked1 and saw a low1 green ridge of land1 covered by grass and shrubs4 ,it appeared as an extended mound1 over which the traveler might have driven1 as thousands have heedlessly done in centuries past1 unconscious that a city of the dead slumbered beneath the hoofs of the horses4 ,only a few minutes elapsed1 before standing erect in the carriage1 we discerned the still naked heaps of pumice that have been thrown out during the excavations2 and immediately after1 in breathless silence1 we were at the door of the house of ,diomede6 ,an elegant country-house1 a ,roman villa1 just outside of the walls of the city1 still stands1 almost eighteen hundred years after the great catastrophe4 ,its columns are erect1 its walls entire1 and its open doors seem to invite the stranger to enter2 but the family are not there1 and silence reigns in the halls of ,diomede6 8,i never before felt as ,i did when ,i entered this deserted house--pensive1 solemn1 and in full sympathy with the tragical story4 ,sentinels still keep these doors2 not the helmeted ,roman1 who1 firm and unmoved1 surveyed the storm of fire but yielded not to fear1 preferring to die at his post1#g but ,neapolitans stationed there by the government to prevent invasion of the ruins4 ,one there was1 a veteran1 whose snowy hair1 and visage so deeply marked by time1 made us almost feel as if he must have been present when the volcanic tempest raged1 and had1 ,salathiel-like1 come down to our time to relate the events of those dreadful days4 ,but a garrulous guide1 who spoke tolerable ,english1 placed himself at the head of our party1 and was our cicerone through an intensely interesting day4 ,we mused for a few minutes in the vacant rooms of the house of ,diomede1 walked upon the still beautiful mosaic pavements and floors1 passed through the dormitories1 the triclinium1 the impluvium1 and the hall for conversation2 observed the water-cistern1 and the channels worn in the stone curb by the friction of the rope1 and then descended to the vaults beneath1 in which so many members of the family met their fate4 ,this gallery is strongly arched with brick1 and was used as a wine-cellar1 as appears from twenty-five amphor still remaining there1 and which were found filled with volcanic matter4 ----- ,footnote #g3 8,in the ,pompeian museum at ,naples1 we afterward saw the skull of such a ,roman1 whose head was still covered by his helmet1 and whose skeleton was found at his station in the gate of ,pompeii40 ----- 8,on the twenty-fourth of ,august1 in the year #gi of our own era1 and not long after midday1 ,vesuvius broke the repose of untold ages1 and resumed1 with tragical energy1 his ancient reign of fire1 awakening the slumbering echoes of his power with terrible detonations and fearful earthquakes4 ,a darkness that might be felt1 shrouded in the profoundest gloom the midday sun1 and ashes fell like snow upon the mountain1 the plain1 the bays of ,naples and ,bai1 and far into the surrounding country4 ,rain from the condensed steam of the eruption deluged the whole district2 torrents of fluid mud1 formed by the ashes and water1 swept over every obstruction1 and filled to overflowing every depression of the surface4 ,the terrified inhabitants1 overwhelmed by superstitious fears1 joined the droves of domestic animals1 whose keener instincts had already impelled them to desert a district filled with sulphureous vapors1 and vibrating with ominous and unwonted sounds1 wandering1 they knew not where1 in search of some place where the frightful evidences of the wrath of the gods might be avoided4 8,but the family of ,diomede sought refuge from the falling pumice under the strong arch of the wine-cellar1 strong enough to resist and sustain the load of falling materials1 but not proof against the deluge of volcanic mud1 whose unexpected inundation brought death to the mistress1 her children1 and fifteen female slaves4 ,the record of the manner of their death is even now perfectly legible4 ,the form of the mistress1 with her back and head to the wall1 with outstretched arms1 is clearly delineated by the difference of color4 ,surrounding her are the impressions of the persons of seventeen others1 various in stature1 but all standing1 save one infant in the arms4 ,when these silent vaults were excavated1 here stood the skeletons of these unfortunate people1 the rich jewels of the mistress and of her daughter circling the bony fingers and wrists and neck4 ,these we afterward saw in the museum at ,naples1 the left shoulder of the mother1 as also the skull of the daughter1 whose name1 ,julia1 was engraved upon her bracelet4 ,equally strange and wonderful was it to see the cast of the bosom of this ,roman matron1 taken with lifelike precision1 in the soft and fluid tufa4 ,her hand still grasped the purse1 whose contents are also among the wonderful treasures of the same museum4 ,beyond the garden and the fish-pond1 which are contiguous to the wine-cellar1 there is a gateway where were found two skeletons1 with valuable vessels and money2 one hand held a rusted key1 and the other a bag with coin and cameos1 and vessels of silver and bronze were here4 ,these are believed to have been the remains of the master ,diomede and his servant4 ,a wrapper contained eighty pieces of silver money1 ten of gold1 and some bronze4 ,it appears highly probable that1 having left the family in a place which was believed to be safe1 they were engaged in transporting valuables to a place of deposit1 when they were overtaken by the same deluge which destroyed their friends4 8,the water-line to which the fluid magma rose in this quadrangular vaulted gallery1 is still visible upon the walls1 7some twelve to fifteen inches above the tallest head17 nearly even with several small apertures through which1 as well as through the door1 it probably flowed4 ,it is not unlikely that this inundation was accompanied by torrents of carbonic acid and other noxious gases1 so abundantly exhaled in more modern eruptions of ,vesuvius1 by which these refugees from the dangers above ground were perhaps so suddenly suffocated as to remain unmoved in the positions where they were found4 ,the sudden death of the elder ,pliny1 who1 his nephew says1 was suffocated by a noxious exhalation upon the same occasion1 and at no great distance from ,pompeii1 may1 with much probability1 be ascribed to the same cause4 8,the facts now detailed clearly show that vast torrents of mud must have passed through the streets of ,pompeii1 since dry ashes and ejections of lapilli and pumice1 unaided by water1 could never have found their way into the interior of closed amphor1 nor made perfect molds of the human form1 nor left a level water-line upon the inner walls of close arched passages4 ,the shower of materials which buried the city1 was mainly composed of small pieces of white pumice and rounded lapilli of various colors1 interspersed with some large projected masses of rock-bombs1 such as ,vesuvius has often thrown out in later times4 ,these by their fall broke through the roofs1 and at the places where they struck1 depressed the mosaic pavements into a concave form1 as we saw in several of the houses4 ,a darker colored sand appears to have alternated with the pumice1 and often forms a distinct and thick layer upon it4 ,numerous such alternations have been made out by the ,neapolitan geologists1 and we afterward saw the same order of stratification distinctly in another part of the town1 where fresh excavations were going on4 ,the fresh section here showed1 that these loose materials fell much as snow falls in our northern climates when driven by the wind1 being thicker in the angles than in the centers of the houses1 and rising in curves corresponding to the elevations and depressions of the surface4 8,the celebrated ,appian way passed by the house of ,diomede1 and through ,pompeii to ,stabi4 ,the road is now above ground1 and is evidently as perfect as when ,pompeii was buried4 ,it is paved with large blocks of the ancient lava of ,mount ,somma1 which1 of course1 proves the occurrence of early eruptions of the volcano1 although at an unknown era4 ,deep ruts are worn by the wheels in the solid lava1 which is as firm as trap1 while the stones are strongly marked by the rust of the iron worn off from the wheel-tires4 ,the furrows prove that the wheels were not more than four feet apart4 ,this is proved also by the position of the stepping-stones for crossing the streets1 which were so placed that the wheels passed between them4 ,the stepping-stones were very large1 and two and a half or three feet long1 their longest diameter coinciding with the direction of the street2 and they were laid so near to each other that the passengers could pass quite across the street from one side-walk to the opposite1 without stepping down4 ,there were side-walks in the principal streets1 about three feet wide1 and two feet above the pavement4 ,the streets were paved with the same hard lava rock1 and in many places it was worn into deep hollows by human feet1 thus proving the high antiquity of the city4 ,the street near the barracks is only thirteen feet wide4 ,we passed through one street in which the pavement was in very bad order2 the ruts were worn irregularly and very deep1 the stones were tilted out of the proper level1 and there1 as sometimes happens in modern cities1 the street commissioners had evidently not done their duty4 8,the ,appian way1 near to ,pompeii1 but outside of the walls and immediately contiguous to them1 is1 as at ,rome1 bordered on both sides by tombs4 and in general they are in good condition1 having been preserved during seventeen centuries equally from injuries by the weather and by wanton violation4 ,they are of marble1 and their ,latin inscriptions still commemorate their tenants4 ,one tomb1 constructed in the manner of the columbaria1 is dedicated to the gladiators1 and is decorated with bas-reliefs representing their combats4 ,near the tombs1 and outside of the walls1 we saw sheds for the horses of those who arrived after the gates of the city were closed4 ,no stables have been discovered in the town1 but skeletons of horses were found at this place1 where there was a large tavern4 8,pompeii was first discovered in #agdh4 ,it lies about twelve miles south-east from ,naples4 ,the town was extremely compact1 and appears to have been only three-fourths of a mile long by half a mile wide4 ,the houses were joined together4 ,twenty streets1 which are only fifteen feet wide1 had been uncovered twenty years since4 ,although only one-third part of the city has been cleared of its covering1 five or six hours were industriously employed by us1 with our two guides1 in visiting the most interesting private dwellings and the public buildings4 ,we were indeed richly rewarded for our effort4 ,here we were1 walking in the very streets and on the very pavements on which the ancient ,romans trod2 we were surveying the very houses in which they dwelt3 we saw the vestibules1 the impluvium 7an interior and central receptacle for the rain-water from the roofs27 their triclinia1 or dining-halls2 their colonnades1 surrounding an interior open area1 in which they walked and conversed with their families and friends2 the fish-ponds1 also in an open area2 the private marble baths2 the kitchens and other arrangements for culinary purposes2 the gardens in the rear of the houses1 the halls and colonnades opening into the garden2 the whole forming a domestic dominion secure from public inspection4 ,all these arrangements were perfectly intelligible to us2 and as we walked from house to house1 it was not difficult to imagine that we were making calls1 and that the people were not at home4 8,everywhere1 even in the smaller houses1 the floors were adorned with mosaic2 many of the best designs have been sent to ,naples1 but1 including what is still covered1 much more remains in place1 and not essentially injured4 ,when it is considered that no melted lava flowed into ,pompeii1 but that it was covered solely by a volcanic shower of comminuted pumice and other pulverulent materials1 which accumulated until the roofs were crushed inward by the weight1 it will be easily understood that the mosaic floors may have remained for seventeen or eighteen hundred years1 substantially uninjured4 ,the mosaic of ,pompeii is uncovered in many places1 and when the dust is brushed away and the surface is wiped with a wet cloth1 as was done for our gratification1 all the original brightness and beauty of the figures shine forth1 and in the finest patterns1 the execution was in a high degree tasteful and elegant4 ,at the door of the mansion of the edile ,glaucus1 which was one of the largest and best in the city1 there was1 in the vestibule and before entering the house1 a very startling mosaic figure of a large and powerful dog1 secured by a chain around his neck1 but crouching and fierce1 as if about to spring upon the visitor2 and immediately before this vigilant sentinel1 you read in large ,roman letters1 ,,cave ,,canem--beware of the dog6 ,the inscription is preserved in the original place where we saw it1 but the dog has been removed to the museum at ,naples4 ,it is still a perfect figure of a ,roman dog4 8,the frescoes of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 have put us in possession of very perfect specimens of the skill of the ,romans in the art of painting4 ,the only examples of their pictorial talent previously known1 were the comparatively imperfect decorations in the baths of ,titus at ,rome4 ,in these buried cities nearly all the walls of the houses are frescoed1 and among these1 have been found many superb specimens of ancient art4 ,most of the best have been removed to the museum of ,naples1 but some of considerable merit still remain in place1 and no doubt further excavations will show numerous others now unknown4 ,the colors are somewhat faded1 but are bright when wet4 ,the copies in water-colors1 sold at ,naples1 give very perfectly the idea of these frescoes1 but with more brilliancy than is possessed by the original4 ,many of these figures are nude1 although many are draped4 ,we were particularly struck with the singularity of some of the figures on the walls1 having shoes very much like our modern ones4 ,as the great object of art is to present ,nature in her forms of greatest purity and grace1 these nude figures can not meet with more objections than their modern representatives4 ,we saw nothing in ,pompeii or ,herculaneum1 worthy of so much criticism in point of taste1 as may be seen in almost any of the ,european galleries of modern painting4 ,titian's ,loves of the ,gods in ,blenheim palace1 certainly surpass the ancients in this respect4 8,an expected visit of the ,duke d',aumale 7son of ,louis ,philippe1 and allied by marriage to the royal family of ,naples7 has been made the occasion of an additional excavation1 which is now being carried on by order of the king4 ,we thought it rare good fortune1 that we could stand by and see the moving of materials which had not been disturbed since the catastrophe4 ,they are entirely unconsolidated1 and are easily moved by the shovel4 ,the accumulations did not appear to be more than ten feet above the tops of the houses1 but if measured from the level of the streets1 they might have been twenty feet in thickness4 ,in it were distinctly visible the alternation of fine pumice1 coarse pumice1 lapilli and dark colored sand1 before mentioned4 8,we had the pleasure of seeing apartments that had been recently opened1 and of going into several of them4 ,in these1 the pictures are fresh1 and far less faded than in those that have been long exposed4 ,in one of these houses1 all the marble figures found around the impluvium1 and colonnade1 and fountain1 have been allowed to remain intact1 as the ,romans left them1 when they fled for their lives4 ,around the fountain in one of these houses1 there were numerous grotesque jets formed of marble1 in the shape of miniature bulls1 ducks and dolphins1 and associated with them was a ,bacchus4 ,a leaden tube which formerly conveyed water for the fountain1 remains in place as it passed through the wall4 ,we observed1 as illustrating the condition of the art of working this metal among the ,romans1 that the pipe was not drawn nor cast1 but was made by folding up a sheet into the tubular form1 and closing the joint by a lap without solder4 ,in this house was a large vaulted music room1 the walls of which are nearly perfect4 ,the object for which the room was constructed1 was sufficiently indicated by figures of musical instruments1 and of persons playing upon them4 ,columns were in general use in the better houses1 around the included area1 in the gardens1 and in other places4 ,in the best dwellings they are of polished marble1 in many they are stuccoed4 ,some of the ,roman houses1 in their most perfect and uninjured condition1 must have been very beautiful1 although their accommodations were much more limited than those of modern times4 ,the rooms1 the dormitories especially1 were much smaller1 and the houses were low1 and rarely rose above two stories4 ,they were so constructed as to admit of the most perfect domestic seclusion3 no eye could scrutinize the family privacy from the street1 or from another house4 ,various names have been given to several of the larger and more beautiful houses in ,pompeii1 sometimes fanciful1 but more frequently from some statue1 mosaic1 painting1 or other distinctive work of art found in them1 referring1 as is sometimes supposed1 to the owner4 ,thus we saw the houses of the ,faun1 of the ,medusa1 of the three ,fountains1 and those of ,pansa1 of ,glaucus1 of ,sallust1 and of ,cicero4 ,it is doubtful whether ,cicero had a house at ,pompeii1 and still more doubtful whether the one called by his name had any connection with him4 ,the three fountains in the house of that name1 are decorated with modern sea-shells1 such as now abound in the ,mediterranean1 and in a style of patterns still prevalent in ,naples4 ,the fountains in the two houses newly exposed were very elegant1 and in perfect condition4 8,the forum was large and handsome1 and surrounded with double rows of columns for a covered colonnade4 ,in connection with it1 was a temple of ,jupiter1 and another opposite to it1 of ,venus1 both decorated with massive monolithic columns4 ,half-dressed blocks of marble and portions of columns lie on the ground in the forum1 where they were in process of preparation1 to repair the injuries done to the building by the shocks of an earthquake1 before the destructive eruption4 ,numerous dislocated and propped walls in the city bear testimony to the same event1 which occurred in the year #fc4 ,connected with the forum1 was the basilica or hall of justice1 a structure adorned with columns1 and provided with an elevated tribune for the judges4 ,vaulted apartments beneath1 were used as a prison1 communicating by a circular opening in the crown of the arch1 with the hall above4 ,in this prison1 which we entered1 were found three skeletons of prisoners1 ironed to the floor1 doubtless waiting their examination at the time of the catastrophe1 which so unexpectedly changed the venue of their trial to another bar6 ,many acres are inclosed by the various structures of the forum1 whose very ruins1 with their numerous columns1 make a grand appearance4 ,among the ruins1 are those of a temple to ,esculapius1 one for ,hercules1 and another for ,fortune4 8,numerous monuments and inscriptions in ,pompeii1 indicate the ,greek origin of the original colony1 and the ,egyptian customs and society which preceded the ,roman dynasty4 ,the temple of ,isis still shows its sacrificial altar1 and inscriptions in ,egyptian characters cover the columns4 ,some of the largest and most beautiful of the silver vessels in the museum at ,naples1 were found in this temple4 ,curiously enough1 as we entered these ancient precincts1 in which the serpent was held sacred1 a snake1 reputed by the guide as venomous1 crossing our path1 was made a victim1 which we offered on the altar4 8,beneath a superb portico in the street of the tombs1 the skeletons of a female and several children were discovered2 in the street near the temple of ,isis1 another skeleton was found at the depth of ten feet1 and below it1 a large collection of gold and silver medals in perfect preservation1 chiefly of the reign of ,domitian4 8,the theaters1 whose remains are distinct1 are the comic1 the tragic1 and the amphitheater4 ,they were lined with polished marble1 and were1 in every way1 highly finished and elegant4 ,of the two former1 the entire plan and the greater part of the structure are visible1 and most of the seats are in place4 8,the amphitheater was in a remote part of the city1 near the eastern wall4 ,it has undergone so little dilapidation1 that it appears almost perfect4 ,we approached it by ascending the ground until we were quite at the top1 and we then descended by the stone seats1 quite to the arena1 which1 by pacing1 we found to be two hundred and forty feet by one hundred and twenty4 ,from the arena we looked up over the entire circuit and elevation of the seats1 which are almost perfectly preserved--thanks to the sepulture of seventeen hundred years4 ,had this amphitheater been in the midst of ,naples1 as the ,coliseum was at ,rome1 it would1 no doubt1 have fared as ill at the hands of the architects4 ,it was easy for us now to people it in imagination1 with the thousands of ,romans who have so often gazed and applauded from these seats1 while blood1 both brute and human1 was flowing in the arena where we were standing4 ,such may have been the scenes when the tempest of fire broke forth1 for the people of ,pompeii are said to have been then engaged in the amphitheater4 8,there are two buildings for public baths1 which are well preserved2 the bronze seats and braziers still remain in them4 ,for men1 there was a common bath1 circular and large enough for entire immersion2 it is of marble1 and is now in good condition4 ,the dome1 or ceiling1 has in part fallen in1 but the portion over the bath is preserved4 ,we measured the room and found it to be sixty feet by twenty4 ,there was another bath for women1 contiguous to this1 but at a proper distance4 ,this marble bath is quite perfect1 and the room being entirely arched has been preserved uninjured4 ,it is most interesting4 ,there is a living fountain at one end1 and there was an arrangement1 whose object is even now quite apparent1 for warming the room by hot air or steam4 ,here1 in this ancient ladies' bath1 we dined upon our stores brought out from ,naples4 ,intruding upon this retreat1 once so sacred1 we seated ourselves quite conveniently1 on the side of the bath1 in a fine frescoed room of sixty feet by sixteen4 ,this was the most perfect building that we saw in ,pompeii4 ,in this vicinity1 there is a living fountain still abundant1 and the river ,sarno runs at this moment beneath ,pompeii4 ,through a wide opening we saw its copious and lively stream still flowing in its ancient channel1 apparently undisturbed by volcanic and earthquake convulsions4 8,the walls of ,pompeii are still in good condition2 they were three miles in circuit1 from eighteen to twenty feet high1 and twenty feet thick4 ,seven gates have been discovered2 the gate of ,herculaneum1 of ,vesuvius1 of ,capua1 of ,nola1 of ,sarno1 of ,stabi1 and of the theaters4 ,the sites of nine towers have been ascertained4 ,we ascended the wall by stairs of stone1 doubtless coeval with the wall itself3 the view was imposing4 ,vesuvius rose above the desolated city1 looking down upon its naked walls and roofless houses4 ,the volcanic mound still covers two-thirds of the city1 and nothing on its upper surface tells of what lies below4 ,it were greatly to be desired1 that an enlightened and energetic government1 with adequate means1 would uncover the entire city1 with its numerous hidden works of art and materials of history4 8,the baker's shop1 with his oven of arched and modern form1 the tub of stone in which he wet his broom1 and the hourglass-shaped mills of hard lava for grinding the grain1 we saw all perfect4 ,there were mills of two sizes3 one small1 such as could be turned by hand1 as when #8two women were grinding at the mill1' and one much larger1 and provided with square holes to receive the ends of levers1 requiring1 of course1 much more force to turn them1 and doubtless worked by men4 ,the shops of the wine and oil merchants were provided with large amphor set in masonry under the counter1 for storing those fluids1 and numerous other arrangements for the convenience of the occupants were visible4 8,in one house we saw a small circular window1 in which part of the glass plate which originally filled it still remains4 ,one other similar glass is said to have been found1 although shutters were in general use for most of the windows4 ,as there were no windows1 as with us1 opening upon the street1 and all the doors and windows of the house opened upon private courts and gardens1 there was in this mild and equable climate far less occasion for the use of glass than might seem at first requisite4 ,that they understood the manufacture of glass1 and how to color it1 by the use of the oxyds of cobalt and copper1 is abundantly proved by the remains of this ancient art now in the ,borbonico museum1 at ,naples4 8,one peculiarity in the construction of the ,pompeian houses favors the removal and preservation of the frescoes4 ,the walls upon which the pictures are painted are not solid1 but the frescoed surface is supported by studs of masonry or iron1 at a distance of some four or five inches in front of the brick walls4 ,security from dampness is thus obtained1 and the task of removing the valued surface much simplified and facilitated4 ,the declining sun found us still lingering on the seats of the amphitheater1 at the remotest angle of the city wall1 dwelling with delight upon these memorials of the past1 and speculating upon the probability of renewed activity in ,vesuvius1 whose quiet blue cone rose over our right shoulders crowned with a soft cloud of vapor4 ,it was late in the evening of this most interesting day when we reached the door of our hotel1 long after darkness had hidden the landscape4 ,,the ,,museum4 8,the ,muso ,borbonico 7as it is now called7 contains all the most choice and valued works of art and objects of interest which the excavations at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii have brought to light4 ,to this we repaired on the day following our visit to ,pompeii1 to follow up our researches into the details of these most interesting discoveries4 ,here we saw the golden ornaments found upon the skeletons in the house of ,diomede1 as before mentioned1 and many others also4 ,one pair of bracelets weighed a pound each4 ,as for the workmanship1 all that was said of the ,etruscan golden ornaments is substantially true of the ,pompeian4 ,the ladies of these cities were certainly well provided with costly jewelry1 both of pure gold and of the same metal set with precious stones4 ,there was one ribbon of wrought gold4 ,ring stones and brooches without number are preserved here1 and among the cameos in agate1 are the largest as well as the smallest and most exquisite of these elaborate works of art ever found4 ,many of the latter can be appreciated only when examined under a strong magnifier4 8,utensils in earthen ware are abundant1 but porcelain seems to have been unknown to the ,romans4 ,blown and molded glass of various forms and colors1 and designed for various uses1 is also common4 ,pickle jars and olive jars1 still retaining their preserved fruits in good condition1 were found1 and others contained cosmetics or colors4 ,one elegant vase1 of the color of lapis lazuli1 has figures in white enamel cut on its sides1 reminding us of the celebrated ,portland vase4 ,the ,romans seldom employed iron for culinary purposes1 but almost every vessel of this description was fashioned from bronze4 ,a very extensive collection is found in this museum1 reproducing nearly all our modern metallic vessels both of utility and ornament4 ,they are generally elegant in form1 and are often ornamented with artistic designs1 especially in the attachment of the spouts1 handles1 feet or other prominent parts4 ,they are generally also in a remarkable state of preservation1 being for the most part merely covered by a thin coating of greenish rust1 easily removed4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are corroded through and through with holes4 ,among the bronze vessels in the collection is one showing that the ,romans were well acquainted with the modern device of a heater to keep liquids hot in a large vessel4 ,it is quite on the model of the coffee urn of our day4 ,they also employed1 as is evident1 steam and hot water to keep dishes hot2 for there is a very pretty affair in bronze1 like a shallow pan1 to hold water1 set on legs1 with a fire beneath1 and provided with valves for the escape of steam4 8,among the objects most frequently found in ,pompeii are fishing-nets and tackle1 showing the habits of the people in this particular to be similar to those of the modern towns of the same coast1 although now ,pompeii is a mile from the sea4 ,the iron rings in the walls for fastening vessels were also found1 and prove still more conclusively the accumulations in seventeen hundred years4 ,two vases were discovered in ,pompeii full of water2 in one it was tasteless and limpid1 and in the other brown and alkaline4 ,among the things preserved in the buried cities were walnuts1 chestnuts1 almonds1 dates1 dried figs1 prunes1 corn1 oil1 peas1 lentils1 pies and hams4 ,papyri were found in large numbers1 but the rolls were blackened1 as were the timber and the corn1 as vegetables are by inhumation in coal beds4 ,beside the pickles1 and olives1 and roe of fish1 already mentioned1 we saw in a glass globe1 in this part of the museum1 wheat1 and barley also1 blackened by age and dampness4 ,the loaves of bread1 bearing the baker's stamp1 which were found in the shop already named1 are singularly perfect1 showing distinctly the lines of quartering in which the loaf was designed to be cut4 8,the works of art found in ,herculaneum are in general much better than those from ,pompeii1 and every external sign proves it to have been a town of more refinement and wealth than its neighbor4 ,numerous statues in bronze and marble have been collected from these cities1 and a large hall in the museum is devoted to their exhibition4 ,many are mythological1 but busts and statues of the several emperors are also common4 ,one bronze horse1 considerably injured and corroded1 has been found1 and an admirable bronze ,hercules4 ,the candelabra were numerous and elegant4 ,one we observed fitted to take apart for the convenience of traveling2 its sliding rod drops into a case or sheath1 and the tripod foot folds together as snugly as the wing of a bird4 ,a very beautiful candelabrum1 taken from the house of ,diomede1 has a basis formed of a small flat table of bronze standing upon feet4 ,it is elegantly inlaid with silver in the form of a running vine and of leaves2 some portions have been burnished1 to give an idea of its original beauty4 ,a perpendicular rod rises three feet in hight1 and supports a cross upon which are suspended four lamps4 ,all the parts are preserved2 and were this tasteful candelabrum put in order and burnished1 it would be a fine form for our modern artists to copy1 who1 indeed1 often profit by ancient models4 8,the ,roman steelyards had a scale suspended so as to receive the thing to be weighed1 and the weight slid1 as with us1 upon a graduated beam2 in one the counterpoise is fashioned into an elegant female head4 ,there is a collection of surgical instruments1 some of them very similar to those used at the present day4 ,iron probes1 iron teeth extractors1 elevators for the operation of trepanning1 a cauterizing iron1 lancets1 catheters1 amputating instruments1 spatulas and obstetric forceps4 ,along with these things are rolls of the apothecary1 ready to be divided into pills4 ,the articles of the toilet are abundant2 pins of ivory in large numbers and great variety for the hair2 combs1 curling-tongs1 boxes for perfumes and rouge1 which is preserved in a small glass bottle2 mirrors of metal1 small1 but sufficient for a lady's face1 and reflectors1 to be used probably in a position to give seasonable notice of the approach of a visitor from the vestibule1 similar to the arrangement now common in ,holland and ,germany4 ,numerous small objects attracted our attention1 among which were the ivory dice1 and tickets of bone or ivory for admission to the theater1 marked and numbered4 ,musical instruments were common2 among them numerous flutes or flageolets1 prepared from bone4 ,numerous bronze penates1 truly dii minores1 often less than a finger's length in hight1 some partly finished1 are to be seen in the museum at ,naples4 8,there is an apartment here1 finished in the style of an ancient ,roman house4 ,this is in the extreme end of one of the long suites of rooms4 ,the sky-blue panels have each1 in the center1 a female figure1 volant or quiet2 the upper part of the side walls1 and of the dome1 is divided into compartments1 which are decorated by colored lines and forms of great beauty1 the entire effect of which is charming4 ,the eye delights to dwell upon them1 and would never be tired1 because the beauty1 although exquisite1 is simple and tasteful4 ,we saw in the museum1 as already mentioned1 the helmet and skull of the ,roman sentinel found at his post in the city gate at ,pompeii1 with his short sword by his side2 there1 too1 was the complete armor of a ,roman knight with a decorated and crested helmet1 with figures embossed upon the breast-plate1 and the coverings of the arms and limbs4 ,we must not forget the iron stocks for punishment4 ,a bar of iron or bronze of great weight had metallic projections standing upward1 between which the feet were placed1 and secured by a cross pin4 ,it does not appear that the head was pinioned1 as in modern times2 but we could well understand how the feet of the apostles were rendered lame by confinement in the ,roman stocks4 8,the hall of ancient sculpture1 chiefly from ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 with some figures from ,rome1 powerfully attracted our attention4 ,these sculptures1 usually of full size1 and sometimes colossal1 are very fine4 ,excellent1 manly forms1 and noble1 elevated features of men1 and of women1 worthy of such companions1 with great variety of characteristic attitude1 and in general1 in full costume1 served to convey to us1 as we may believe1 a very perfect idea of the personal appearance of ,roman citizens of that age4 ,the family of ,balbus found in ,herculaneum1 is particularly interesting4 ,it is composed of the father1 a noble figure1 the mother1 equally impressive1 and sons and daughters worthy of such parentage4 ,their features are calm and mild4 ,it is a most interesting group1 and in perfect preservation4 ,the moral and intellectual expression of the figures in these rooms--through a long series of apartments and a host of figures--is as various as that of living people4 8,it is convenient to introduce here a notice of the ,farnesian bull2 for this inimitable piece of sculpture is in this place1 although it was not found interred in ,pompeii or ,herculaneum1 but buried among the ruins of the baths of ,caracalla4 ,a large bull1 of perfect and beautiful form1 is rearing upon his hind legs1 as if about to bound away in his course2 but this he is prevented from doing1 as he is powerfully held by the horns and the nose by two resolute1 athletic young men1 one on each side1 who have him in such durance that his massive neck is wrinkled in large folds1 as he turns his head backward in his efforts to escape from their grasp4 ,the cause of the struggle becomes apparent1 when we glance at a fine female form recumbent1 and see that her abundant tresses are interwoven with the strands of a rope which is noosed around the horns of the bull1 and it flashes at once on the mind1 that should the maddened animal escape from his keepers1 she will be quickly torn in pieces4 ,her noble sons have1 in a critical moment1 sprung forward to her rescue1 and are just able to arrest her impending fate4 ,filial love proves to be stronger than disapprobation of an imputed fault1 for which their mother was to have been immolated by this horrible death4 ,in such a crisis we are not careful to balance the moral question3 we instinctively applaud the filial piety1 and do not ask for the spirit of ,brutus4 ,this wonderful group was sculptured out of a single block of marble of nine feet eight inches by thirteen feet1 by ,appollonius and ,tauriscus1 two artists in ,greece1 from which country it was brought1 to grace the baths of ,caracalla4 ,it is truly wonderful that such a ponderous mass1 embracing so many figures1 could be brought over seas1 from a distant country1 to ,rome1 and again be transported from that city to ,naples1 without injury1 after being buried for fifteen centuries in the baths of ,caracalla4 ,,herculaneum4 8,the same eruption which destroyed ,pompeii1 ,stabi1 ,oplontia and ,teglanum1 entombed ,herculaneum also4 ,its site was1 however1 unknown1 as well as that of the other buried towns2 and the fatal event is only occasionally alluded to by the ,roman writers4 ,in the year #fc1 an earthquake had shattered these cities1 a precursor of their coming doom4 ,in #agaa1 a peasant1 in digging a well1 discovered1 at twenty feet depth1 pieces of colored marble4 ,in #agac1 the digging being continued1 they struck down into a temple1 and discovered the statues of ,cleopatra and ,hercules2 and subsequent explorations disclosed the theater4 ,our time being very fully occupied with ,pompeii on the day when we were there1 we reserved to another opportunity a visit to ,herculaneum4 ,we descended quite conveniently down steps of stone1 and arrived at the pit of the theater1 seventy-nine feet below the level of the main street of ,portici1 and ,torre del ,greco4 ,with a guide1 we proceeded1 by the light of candles and torches1 until we came to this subterranean theater1 which had been filled with volcanic materials4 ,i do not call it lava1 because there is every reason to believe that1 like ,pompeii1 ,herculaneum was buried by pumice1 cinders1 ashes1 lapilli and sand4 ,there has been much discussion on this subject2 but had the buildings of ,herculaneum been inclosed in heated lava1 it is obvious that every fresco painting and marble would have been destroyed1 and much more1 the numerous papyri and other substances of an organic character1 which have been found there4 ,now it happens that the frescoes of ,herculaneum1 so far as it has been uncovered1 are not only of a higher character in respect of art than those in ,pompeii1 but also in better preservation4 ,the solidity of the material enveloping ,herculaneum is easily understood1 when we remember that it has been for over seventeen hundred years under the enormous pressure of seventy or eighty feet of superincumbent rock4 ,since the catastrophe of ,august1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 numerous flows of molten lava have passed over the site of ,herculaneum2 and these successive accumulations have amounted to the thickness just named4 ,add the effects of water1 dissolving lime and silica1 and infiltrating these materials among the loose pumice1 and we see cause enough to account for the solidification of these loose materials4 ,moreover1 no sluggish and semi-viscid lava 7such as the ,vesuvian lavas a short distance from their outlet always are7 could ever have entered all the intricate passages of the theater and other buildings2 while a fluid magma of volcanic mud would act in the same situation just as it is now found1 like plaster of ,paris in a mold4 8,when we see with what labor and expense the excavations have been made in ,herculaneum1 and how difficult it is to dispose of the materials1 which must be borne a long way through narrow passages like the galleries of a mine1 and raised nearly one hundred feet to the surface1 where a populous town forbids the accumulation of rubbish2 we are the more easily reconciled to the suspension of the labor1 and to the throwing of the fragments into cavities that had been previously excavated1 and from which all interesting matters had been removed4 8,discoveries in ,herculaneum have been very numerous1 but are so similar to those made in ,pompeii that it is unnecessary to go much into detail beyond what has been already mentioned4 ,this city being1 in fact1 contemporary with ,pompeii1 we should1 of course1 expect to find great similarity4 ,it would seem1 however1 to have been a grander city1 and probably more populous4 ,it has been computed that the theater would contain ten thousand people1 which would imply a large population4 ,two temples were discovered1 one of them one hundred and fifty feet by sixty4 ,this contained a statue of ,jupiter4 ,opposite to this was another building of two hundred and twenty-eight feet by one hundred and thirty-two1 supposed to have been constructed for the courts of justice4 ,it had a colonnade supporting a portico2 its pavement was of marble1 its walls were frescoed1 and there were bronze statues standing between the forty-two columns that supported the roof4 8,the theater is now the only public place that can be seen in ,herculaneum1 and the excavations have brought its form very distinctly into view4 ,its marble seats and the pit have been so far cleared1 that we distinctly comprehend the design and plan4 ,the galleries of access from the streets1 and some of the rooms that were appendages of the theater1 have been opened4 ,it appears to have had two principal gates and seven entrances1 called vomitories4 ,many statues1 and mosaics1 and frescoes1 have been found in ,herculaneum1 and some of them1 especially the statues1 are of surpassing beauty4 ,we were desirous to see the famed impression of a mask1 and by holding a candle near to it the form could be distinctly seen4 ,the impression is in concave1 and is that of a strongly marked face of an adult2 the copy is well defined1 and corresponds perfectly with a molding made by soft aqueous materials1 and not at all to one made by lava4 8,the well1 by which the light was originally let down upon the theater1 of course attracted our attention4 ,it is now enlarged into a pit of fifteen to twenty feet in diameter1 and narrowed toward the bottom to the size of a common well2 it descends far below the bottom of the theater1 and1 like other wells1 contains water4 ,a flood of light flows down through this orifice2 and it is cheering to pass from the dark chambers of the theater1 to look up again upon the light of heaven4 ,the subterranean walk1 aided by candles1 of which each person carries one1 is1 however1 far from being unpleasant4 ,steps are cut in the solid mass1 all obstacles are cleared away1 and although we find it cool and damp1 it is not gloomy1 but in a high degree solemn and impressive4 ,we are walking in an ancient tomb--the tomb of a buried city--a city which was large and populous4 ,it was active with pleasure and business long before our ,saviour was on earth1 and it was overwhelmed while some of his apostles were still alive4 ,how different was our situation here and at ,pompeii4 ,in the latter city we walked the streets in open day and on the common level3 here1 we were deep down in a stony sepulcher2 the mansions of the departed were all around us1 but they were wrapped in solid rock4 ,the rumbling of the carriages in the streets of another city1 whose busy population was passing nearly one hundred feet above our heads1 was loud and incessant4 ,it was an earthquake from above1 and we could easily understand how the earthquake from below should so readily propagate its vibrations through many miles1 or hundreds of miles1 of solid materials4 ,among the interesting places heretofore excavated1 but now filled again1 were the basilica1 the market1 the schol1 a columbarium1 and the so-called villa of ,aristides1 in which papyrus1 bronzes1 rare mosaics1 and all things that attested to the wealth and taste of the proprietor1 were found4 ,in excavations made prior to #agbh they found the most splendid house of the ancients that had ever been seen by modern eyes4 8,a great work on ,herculaneum was published by royal authority1 in the thirty-eight years intervening between #aged and #agib1 in nine folio volumes1 including the pictures1 lamps1 bronzes and candelabra2 seven hundred and thirty-eight pictures were named in the catalogue1 and the other articles were proportionally numerous4 ,the work was presented1 by royal munificence1 to the principal public libraries of ,europe4 8,both ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were mentioned with commendation by ,cicero4 ,both appear to have been favorite residences of the opulent ,romans2 both towns were in the first class of provincial cities1 and ,herculaneum especially was adorned by many villas4 ,they had all the public establishments that were usual in ,rome4 ,indeed1 the entire circuit1 from ,cape ,misenum around through the towns and villages of the bay of ,bai1 and onward through ,naples to ,herculaneum1 and ,pompeii1 and ,stabi1 appears to have been within the range of ,roman sumptuousness1 and a cherished resort for rural retirement from the eternal city4 8,the papyri of ,pompeii are generally illegible1 being penetrated by the pulverulent material1 which1 aided by water1 had usurped the place of the vegetable matter1 or assimilated it to coal2 a portion of it was found to be soluble in naphtha4 ,those buried in ,herculaneum were not penetrated by the enveloping matter2 and the inscriptions1 although black like tinder1 could still be read1 as writing can often be seen upon burnt paper4 ,the papyri ,,mss4 were generally written in ,greek2 a few are in ,latin4 ,there is much variety of chirography1 and there are many erasures4 ,tickets were attached to the bundles1 stating the title of the work4 ,in a single villa in ,herculaneum were found sixteen hundred and ninety-six rolls of papyrus1 of the eighteen hundred thus far known4 ,in #ahai1 four hundred and seven of the sixteen hundred and ninety-six had been unrolled1 of which only eighty-eight were legible2 twenty-four had been sent as presents to foreign princes2 of the remaining twelve hundred and sixty-five1 only from eighty to one hundred and twenty were in a state to promise any success1 according to the chemical method at that time recommended by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,the titles of four hundred of those least injured1 which have been read1 although new are unimportant1 music1 rhetoric and cookery being the chief subjects4 ,there are two volumes of ,epicurus on ,nature1 and there are other works by that school4 ,the rolls1 in their coiled condition1 were scarcely a span long1 and two or three inches thick2 they were made of pieces of ,egyptian papyrus1 glued together2 some of the rolls were1 when extended1 forty or fifty feet long4 ,the method found most successful for unrolling the papyri is to suspend them by silk cords in a glass case2 and by attaching the delicate lining membrane of some species of bird to the back1 with the aid of silken cords and regulated weights suspended by pulleys1 gravity slowly unfolds the brittle tissue at a rate of almost inappreciable tardiness4 ,we were permitted to see this curious process4 8,a little further from ,vesuvius than ,pompeii1 but in the same direction1 was ,stabi1 which was covered at the same time with the other cities4 ,the town of ,castel del ,mare is built over a portion of it4 ,a part of ,stabi was excavated1 but has been covered again1 so that at present there is nothing of it to be seen4 ,some manuscripts on papyrus were found there1 as at ,herculaneum1 but very few skeletons have been discovered2 it is probable that most of the inhabitants had time to make their escape4 ,i have elsewhere alluded to the death of the elder ,pliny1 which happened here4 ,as commander of the ,roman fleet1 he was stationed on the opposite side of the bay1 at ,cape ,misenum2 but the splendid outburst of ,vesuvius1 then novel1 induced him1 prompted by his humanity and by his zeal in natural science1 to cross over with a few attendants2 he approached too near1 and was constrained to remain over night4 ,being corpulent and of an asthmatic habit1 he was suffocated by the deadly gases exhaled in the volcanic tempest1 which proved too much for his peculiar condition1 and he died on the spot4 ,the affecting and beautiful narrative written by his nephew1 the younger ,pliny1 addressed to the historian ,tacitus1 is familiar to the readers of ,roman literature1 and can never be perused without a deep and painful interest40 ,we would merely add1 in closing this long but deeply interesting narrative of the buried cities1 that it is supposed that about one-third of the entire city of ,pompeii is now uncovered1 including four principal streets1 and all the important buildings of the ancient city4 ,a long street1 leading to the ,stabian gate1 is now being excavated2 and in this street1 one of the most remarkable discoveries has been made of any which have yet occurred2 viz41 that of the complete roofing of a house4 ,as already stated1 ,pompeii1 having been destroyed by falling ashes1 and then covered with earth1 had suffered the loss of the roofs of its houses4 ,indeed1 some supposed they had been carried away by a whirlwind which they imagined must have preceded or attended the volcanic eruption4 ,the little care used in clearing away the incumbent matter1 had left us in the dark as to the construction of the ancient roofings4 ,but quite recently1 this discovery has been made of a complete roof of a house1 formed of tiles1 each about twelve inches square1 with coping tiles running between them2 and over the backbone1 so to speak1 of the construction1 a cement was applied to make the roofing water-tight4 ,so perfect is this roof1 that it might have been constructed yesterday2 and it would suit a modern ,english or ,american cottage as well as a ,roman dwelling4 ,the whole is now inclosed in a railing1 and for the present will not probably be removed4 ,,earthquakes4 8,he looketh on the earth1 and it trembleth3 he toucheth the hills1 and they smoke40--,,psalms4 8,towers1 temples1 palaces1 ,flung from their deep foundations1 roof on roof ,crushed horrible1 and pile on pile o'erturned1 ,fall total40--,,mallet4 8,the globe around earth's hollow surface shakes1 ,and is the ceiling of her sleeping sons4 ,o'er devastation we blind revels keep2 ,whose buried towns support the dancer's heel40--,,young4 ,that fires1 to a very great extent1 and produced by various causes1 exist at different depths beneath the surface of the earth1 must be entirely evident to those who have perused the accounts of volcanoes in our previous pages2 and recent experiments have shown1 that where the substances in which such fires occur1 lie at a considerable depth1 and are surmounted by a very deep and heavy superincumbent pressure1 more especially when they contain large portions of elastic gases1 the effect of such fires will be much greater1 and more diversified1 than where these circumstances are absent4 ,among the most powerful and extraordinary of these effects earthquakes are to be reckoned4 ,they are unquestionably the most dreadful of the phenomena of nature1 and are not confined to those countries which1 from the influence of climate1 their vicinity to volcanic mountains1 or any other similar cause1 have been considered as more particularly subject to them1 their effects having oft been felt in ,north ,america1 although not in so extensive and calamitous a degree4 ,their shocks and the eruptions of volcanoes1 have been considered as modifications of the effects of one common cause2 and where the agitation produced by an earthquake extends further than there is reason to suspect a subterraneous commotion1 it is probably propagated through the earth nearly in the same way that a noise is conveyed through the air4 ,the different hypotheses which have been imagined on this subject may be reduced to the following4 ,some naturalists have ascribed earthquakes to water1 others to fire1 and others1 again1 to air2 each of these powerful agents being supposed to operate in the bowels of the earth1 which they assert to abound everywhere with huge subterraneous caverns1 veins and canals1 some filled with water1 others with gaseous exhalations1 and others replete with various substances1 such as niter1 sulphur1 bitumen and vitriol4 ,each of these opinions has its advocates1 who have written copiously on the subject4 ,in a paper published in the 8,philosophical ,transactions10 ,dr4 ,lister ascribes earthquakes1 as well as thunder and lightning1 to the inflammable breath of the pyrites1 a substantial sulphur1 capable of spontaneous combustion2 in a word1 as ,pliny had observed before him1 he supposes an earthquake to be nothing more than subterraneous thunder4 ,dr4 ,woodward thinks1 that the subterraneous fire which continually raises the water from the abyss1 or great reservoir1 in the center of the earth1 for the supply of dew1 rain1 springs and rivers1 being diverted from its ordinary course by some accidental obstruction in the pores through which it is used to ascend to the surface1 becomes1 by such means1 preternaturally assembled in a greater quantity than usual1 in one place1 and thus causes a rarefaction and intumescence of the water of the abyss1 throwing it into greater commotions1 and at the same time making the like effort on the earth1 which1 being expanded on the surface of the abyss1 occasions an earthquake4 ,mr4 ,mitchell supposes these phenomena to be occasioned by subterraneous fires1 which1 if a large quantity of water be let loose on them suddenly1 may produce a vapor1 the quantity and elastic force of which may fully suffice for the purpose4 ,again1 ,m4 ,amontus1 a member of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 endeavors to prove1 that1 on the principle of experiments made on the weight and elasticity of the air1 a moderate degree of heat may bring that element into a state capable of causing earthquakes4 ,modern electrical discoveries have thrown much light on this subject4 ,dr4 ,stukely strenuously denies that earthquakes are to be ascribed to subterraneous winds1 fires or vapors1 and thinks that there is not any evidence of the cavernous structure of the earth1 which such a hypothesis requires4 ,subterraneous vapors he thinks1 are altogether inadequate to the effects produced by earthquakes1 more particularly in cases where the shock is of considerable extent3 for a subterraneous power1 capable of moving a surface of earth only thirty miles in diameter1 must be lodged at least fifteen or twenty miles below the surface1 and move an inverted cone of solid earth1 whose basis is thirty miles in diameter1 and its axis fifteen or twenty miles1 which he thinks absolutely impossible4 ,how much more inconceivable is it1 then1 that any such power could have produced the earthquake of #agee1 which was felt in various parts of ,europe and ,africa1 and in the ,atlantic ocean2 or that which in ,asia ,minor1 in the seventeenth year of the ,christian era1 destroyed thirteen great cities in one night1 and shook a mass of earth three hundred miles in diameter4 ,to effect this1 the moving power1 supposing it to have been internal fire or vapor1 must have been lodged two hundred miles beneath the surface of the earth6 ,besides1 in earthquakes1 the effect is instantaneous2 whereas the operation of elastic vapor1 and its discharge1 must be gradual1 and require a long space of time2 and if these be owing to explosions1 they must alter the surface of the country where they happen1 destroy the fountains and springs1 and change the course of its rivers1 results which are contradicted by history and observation4 ,to these and other considerations the doctor adds1 that the strokes which ships receive during an earthquake1 must be occasioned by something which can communicate motion with much greater velocity than any heaving of the earth under the sea1 caused by the elasticity of generated vapors1 which would merely produce a gradual swell1 and not such an impulsion of the water as resembles a violent blow on the bottom of a ship1 or its striking on a rock4 ,hence he deems the common hypothesis insufficient1 and adduces several reasons to show that earthquakes are in reality electric shocks4 ,to confirm this opinion1 he notices1 among other phenomena1 either preceding or attending earthquakes1 that the weather is usually dry and warm for some time before they happen1 and that the surface of the ground is thus previously prepared for that kind of electrical vibration in which they consist2 while1 at the same time1 in several places where they have occurred1 the internal parts1 at a small depth beneath the surface1 were moist and boggy4 ,hence he infers1 that they reach very little beneath the surface4 ,that the southern regions are more subject to earthquakes than the northern1 he thinks is owing to the greater warmth and dryness of the earth and air1 which are qualities so necessary to electricity4 ,it may here be noticed1 that1 before the earthquakes of ,london1 in #agdi1 all vegetation was remarkably forward2 and it is well known1 that electricity quickens vegetation4 ,the frequent and singular appearance of boreal and austral auror1 and the variety of meteors by which earthquakes are preceded1 indicate an electrical state of the atmosphere2 and the doctor apprehends that1 in this state of the earth and air1 nothing more is necessary to produce these phenomena1 than the approach of a non-electric cloud1 and the discharge of its contents1 on any part of the earth1 when in a highly electrified state4 ,in the same way as the discharge from an excited tube occasions a commotion in the human body1 so the shock produced by the discharge between the cloud and many miles in compass of solid earth1 must be an earthquake1 and the snap from the contact the noise attending it4 ,the theory of ,m4 de ,st4 ,lazare differs from the above hypothesis1 as to the electrical cause4 ,it ascribes the production of earthquakes to the interruption of the equilibrium between the electrical matter diffused in the atmosphere1 and that which belongs to the mass of our globe1 and pervades its bowels4 ,if the electrical fluid should be superabundant1 as may happen from a variety of causes1 its current1 by the laws of motion peculiar to fluids1 is carried toward those places where it is in a similar quantity2 and thus it will sometimes pass from the internal parts of the globe into the atmosphere4 ,this happening1 if the equilibrium be restablished without difficulty1 the current merely produces the effect of what ,m4 de ,st4 ,lazare calls ascending thunder2 but if this restablishment be opposed by considerable and multiplied obstacles1 the consequence is then an earthquake1 the violence and extent of which are in exact proportion to the degree of interruption of the equilibrium1 the depth of the electric matter1 and the obstacles which are to be surmounted4 ,if the electric furnace be sufficiently large and deep to give rise to the formation of a conduit or issue1 the production of a volcano will follow1 its successive eruptions being1 according to him1 nothing more in reality than electric repulsions of the substances contained in the bowels of the earth4 ,from this reasoning he endeavors to deduce the practicability of forming a counter-earthquake1 and a counter-volcano1 by means of certain electrical conductors1 which he describes1 so as to prevent these convulsions in the bowels of the earth4 ,the opinion of ,signior ,beccaria is nearly similar2 and from his hypothesis and that of ,dr4 ,stukely1 the celebrated ,priestly has endeavored to form one still more general and more feasible4 ,he supposes the electric fluid to be1 in some mode or other1 accumulated on one part of the surface of the earth1 and1 on account of the dryness of the season1 not to diffuse itself readily3 it may thus1 as ,beccaria conjectures1 force its way into the higher regions of the air1 forming clouds out of the vapors which float in the atmosphere1 and may occasion a sudden shower1 which may further promote its progress4 ,the whole surface being thus unloaded1 will1 like any other conducting substance1 receive a concussion1 either on parting with1 or on receiving any quantity of the electric fluid4 ,the rushing noise will likewise sweep over the whole extent of the country2 and1 on this supposition also1 the fluid1 in its discharge from the surface of the earth1 will naturally follow the course of the rivers1 and will take the advantage of any eminences to facilitate its ascent into the higher regions of the air4 ,such are the arguments in favor of the electrical hypothesis2 but1 since it has been supported with so much ability1 an ingenious writer1 ,whitehurst1 in his 8,inquiry into the ,original ,state and ,formation of the ,earth10 contends that subterraneous fire1 and the steam generated from it1 are the true and real causes of earthquakes4 ,when1 he observes1 it is considered that the expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as twenty-eight to one1 it may be conceded that this expansive force1 and the elasticity of steam1 are in every way capable of producing the stupendous effects attributed to these phenomena4 ,this is1 now1 the almost universally received theory as to the cause of earthquakes1 that they originate in the same general causes which produce volcanoes2 that is1 from the action of the heat and fires that are found in the interior of the earth4 ,when these fires find ready vent1 they produce the overflowing volcano2 but when shut up and confined1 their force is so great as to shake the solid crust of the globe which covers them4 ,among the most striking phenomena of earthquakes1 which present a fearful assemblage of the combined effects of air1 earth1 fire and water1 in a state of unrestrained contention1 may be noticed the following4 ,before the percussion a rumbling sound is heard1 proceeding either from the air1 or from fire1 or1 perhaps1 from both in conjunction1 forcing their way through the chasms of the earth1 and endeavoring to liberate themselves3 this1 as has been seen1 likewise happens in volcanic eruptions4 ,secondly1 a violent agitation or heaving of the sea1 sometimes preceding1 and sometimes following the shock3 this is also a volcanic effect4 ,thirdly1 a spouting up of the waters to a great hight1 a phenomenon which is common to earthquakes and volcanoes1 and which can not be readily accounted for4 ,fourthly1 a rocking of the earth1 and1 occasionally1 what may be termed a perpendicular rebounding3 this diversity has been supposed by some naturalists to arise chiefly from the situation of the place1 relatively to the subterraneous fire1 which1 when immediately beneath1 causes the earth to rise1 and when at a distance1 to rock4 ,fifthly1 earthquakes are sometimes observed to travel onward1 so as to be felt in different countries at different hours of the same day4 ,this may be accounted for by the violent shock given to the earth at one place1 and communicated progressively by an undulatory motion1 successively affecting different regions as it passes along1 in the same way as the blow given by a stone thrown into a lake1 is not perceived at the shore until some time after the first concussion4 ,sixthly1 the shock is sometimes instantaneous1 like the explosion of gunpowder1 and sometimes tremulous1 lasting for several minutes4 ,the nearer to the observer the place where the shock is first given1 the more instantaneous and simple it appears2 while1 at a greater distance1 the earth seems to redouble the first blow1 with a sort of vibratory continuation4 ,lastly1 as the waters have in general so great a share in the production of earthquakes1 it is not surprising that they should generally follow the breaches made by the force of fire1 and appear in the great chasms opened by the earth4 ,,earthquakes ,,of ,,ancient ,,times4 ,the earliest earthquake1 worthy of notice1 of which we have any record1 was that which in the year #fc so severely injured ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 and from the effects of which they had not been restored when they were overwhelmed by the volcano4 ,some of the most remarkable earthquakes of ancient times are described by ,pliny4 ,among the most extensive and destructive of these1 was the one already noticed1 by which thirteen cities in ,asia ,minor were swallowed up in one night4 ,another which succeeded1 shook the greater part of ,italy4 ,but the most extraordinary one1 described by him1 happened during the consulate of ,lucius ,marcus and ,sextus ,julius1 in the ,roman province of ,mutina4 ,he relates1 that two mountains felt so tremendous a shock1 that they seemed to approach and retire with a most dreadful noise4 ,they at the same time1 and in the middle of the day1 cast forth fire and smoke1 to the dismay of the astonished spectator4 ,by this shock several towns were destroyed1 and all the animals in their vicinity killed4 ,during the reign of ,trajan1 the city of ,antioch was1 together with a great part of the adjacent country1 destroyed by an earthquake2 and about three hundred years after1 during the reign of ,justinian1 it was again destroyed1 with the loss of forty thousand of its inhabitants4 ,lastly1 after an interval of sixty years1 that ill-fated city was a third time overwhelmed1 with a loss of sixty thousand souls4 ,the earthquake which happened at ,rhodes1 upward of two hundred years before the ,christian era1 threw down the famous colossus1 together with the arsenal1 and a great part of the walls of the city4 ,in the year #aahb1 the greater part of the cities of ,syria1 and of the kingdom of ,jerusalem1 were destroyed by a similar catastrophe2 and in #aeid1 the ,italian writers describe an earthquake at ,puteoli1 which occasioned the sea to retire two hundred yards from its former bed4 ,,earthquake ,,in ,,calabria4 ,the dreadful earthquake which happened in ,calabria1 in #afch1 is described by the ,jesuit ,kircher1 who was at that time on his way to ,sicily to visit ,mount ,etna4 ,in approaching the gulf of ,charybdis1 it appeared to whirl round in such a manner as to form a vast hollow1 verging to a point in the center4 ,on looking toward ,etna1 it was seen to emit large volumes of smoke1 of a mountainous size1 which entirely covered the whole island1 and obscured from his view the very shores4 ,this1 together with the dreadful noise1 and the sulphurous stench1 which was strongly perceptible1 filled him with apprehensions that a still more dreadful calamity was impending4 ,the sea was agitated1 covered with bubbles1 and had altogether a very unusual appearance4 ,his surprise was still more increased by the serenity of the weather1 there not being a breath of air1 nor a cloud1 which might be supposed to put all nature thus in motion4 ,he therefore warned his companions that an earthquake was approaching1 and landed with all possible diligence at ,tropa1 in ,calabria4 ,he had scarcely reached the ,jesuits' college1 when his ears were stunned with a horrid sound1 resembling that of an infinite number of chariots driven fiercely forward1 the wheels rattling1 and the thongs cracking4 ,the tract on which he stood seemed to vibrate1 as if he had been in the scale of a balance which still continued to waver4 ,the motion soon becoming more violent1 he was thrown prostrate on the ground4 ,the universal ruin around him now redoubled his amazement3 the crash of falling houses1 the tottering of towers1 and the groans of the dying1 all contributed to excite emotions of terror and despair4 ,danger threatened him wherever he should flee2 but1 having remained unhurt amid the general concussion1 he resolved to venture for safety1 and reached the shore1 almost terrified out of his reason4 ,here he found his companions1 whose terrors were still greater than his own4 ,he landed on the following day at ,rochetta1 where the earth still continued to be violently agitated4 ,he had1 however1 scarcely reached the inn at which he intended to lodge1 when he was once more obliged to return to the boat3 in about half an hour the greater part of the town1 including the inn1 was overwhelmed1 and the inhabitants buried beneath its ruins4 ,not finding any safety on land1 and exposed1 by the smallness of the boat to a very hazardous passage by sea1 he at length landed at ,lopizium1 a castle midway between ,tropa and ,euphmia1 the city to which he was bound4 ,here1 wherever he turned his eyes1 nothing but scenes of ruin and horror appeared3 towns and castles were leveled to the ground2 while ,stromboli1 although sixty miles distant1 was seen to vomit flames in an unusual manner1 and with a noise which he could distinctly hear4 ,from remote objects his attention was soon diverted to contiguous danger3 the rumbling sound of an approaching earthquake1 with which he was by this time well acquainted1 alarmed him for the consequences4 ,every instant it grew louder1 as if approaching2 and the spot on which he stood shook so dreadfully1 that being unable to stand1 he and his companions caught hold of the shrubs which grew nearest to them1 and in that manner supported themselves4 ,this violent paroxysm having ceased1 he now thought of prosecuting his voyage to ,euphmia1 which lay within a short distance4 ,turning his eyes toward that city1 he could merely perceive a terrific dark cloud1 which seemed to rest on the place4 ,he was the more surprised at this1 as the weather was remarkably serene4 ,waiting1 therefore1 until this cloud had passed away1 he turned to look for the city2 but1 alas6 it was totally sunk1 and in its place a dismal and putrid lake was to be seen4 ,all was a melancholy solitude1 a scene of hideous desolation4 ,such was the fate of the city of ,euphmia2 and the other devastating effects of this earthquake were so great1 that along the whole coast of that part of ,italy1 for the space of two hundred miles1 the remains of ruined towns and villages were everywhere to be seen1 and the inhabitants1 without dwellings1 dispersed over the fields4 ,kircher at length terminated his distressful voyage1 by reaching ,naples1 after having escaped a variety of perils both by sea and land4 ,,the ,,great ,,earthquake ,,of #agee4 ,this very remarkable and destructive earthquake extended over a tract of at least four millions of square miles4 ,it appears to have originated beneath the ,atlantic ocean1 the waves of which received almost as violent a concussion as the land4 ,its effects were even extended to the waters1 in many places where the shocks were not perceptible4 ,it pervaded the greater portions of the continents of ,europe1 ,africa and ,america2 but its extreme violence was exercised on the south-western part of the former4 ,lisbon1 the ,portuguese capital1 had already suffered greatly from an earthquake in #aeca2 and1 since the calamity about to be described1 has had three such visitations1 in #agfa1 #agfe1 and #aggb1 which were not1 however1 attended by equally disastrous consequences4 ,in the present instance it had been remarked that since the commencement of the year #agej1 less rain had fallen than had been known in the memory of the oldest of the inhabitants1 unless during the spring preceding the calamitous event4 ,the summer had been unusually cool2 and the weather fine and clear for the last forty days4 ,at length1 on the first of ,november1 about forty minutes past nine in the morning1 a most violent shock of an earthquake was felt2 its duration did not exceed six seconds2 but so powerful was the concussion1 that it overthrew every church and convent in the city1 together with the royal palace1 and the magnificent opera house adjoining to it2 in short1 no building of any consequence escaped4 ,about one-fourth of the dwelling-houses were thrown down2 and1 at a moderate computation1 thirty thousand persons perished4 ,the sight of the dead bodies1 and the shrieks of those who were half-buried in the ruins1 were terrible beyond description2 and so great was the consternation1 that the most resolute man durst not stay a moment to extricate the friend he loved most affectionately1 by the removal of the stones beneath the weight of which he was crushed4 ,self-preservation alone was consulted2 and the most probable security was sought1 by getting into open places1 and into the middle of the streets4 ,those who were in the upper stories of the houses1 were in general more fortunate than those who attempted to escape by the doors1 many of the latter being buried beneath the ruins1 with the greater part of the foot-passengers4 ,those who were in carriages escaped the best1 although the drivers and horses suffered severely4 ,the number1 however1 of those who perished in the streets1 and in the houses1 was greatly inferior to that of those who were buried beneath the ruins of the churches2 for1 as it was a day of solemn festival1 these were crowded for the celebration of the mass4 ,there were very many of these churches2 and the lofty steeples in most instances1 fell with the roof1 insomuch that few escaped4 ,the first shock1 as has been noticed1 was extremely short1 but was quickly succeeded by two others2 and the whole1 generally described as a single shock1 lasted from five to seven minutes4 ,about two hours after1 fires broke out in three different parts of the city2 and this new calamity prevented the digging out of the immense riches concealed beneath the ruins4 ,from a perfect calm1 a fresh gale immediately after sprang up1 and occasioned the fire to rage with such fury1 that in the space of three days the city was nearly reduced to ashes4 ,every element seemed to conspire toward its destruction2 for1 soon after the shock1 which happened near high-water1 the tide rose in an instant forty feet1 and at the castle of ,belem1 which defended the entrance of the harbor1 fifty feet higher than had ever been known4 ,had it not subsided as suddenly1 the whole city would have been submerged4 ,a large new quay sunk to an unfathomable depth1 with several hundreds of persons1 not one of the bodies of whom was afterward found4 ,before the sea thus came rolling in like a mountain1 the bar was seen dry from the shore4 ,the terrors of the surviving inhabitants were great and multiplied4 ,amid the general confusion1 and through a scarcity of hands1 the dead bodies could not be buried1 and it was dreaded that a pestilence would ensue2 but from this apprehension they were relieved by the fire1 by which these bodies were for the greater part consumed4 ,the fears of a famine were more substantial2 since1 during the three days succeeding the earthquake1 an ounce of bread was literally worth a pound of gold4 ,several of the corn magazines having been1 however1 fortunately saved from the fire1 a scanty supply of bread was afterward procured4 ,next came the dread of the pillage and murder of those who had saved any of their effects2 and this happened in several instances1 until examples were made of the delinquents4 ,the great shock was succeeded about noon by another1 when the walls of several houses which were still standing1 were seen to open1 from the top to the bottom1 more than a fourth of a yard1 and afterward to close again so exactly as not to leave any signs of injury4 ,between the first and the eighth of ,november twenty-two shocks were reckoned4 ,a boat on the river1 about a mile distant from ,lisbon1 was heard by the passengers to make a noise as if it had run aground1 although then in deep water3 they at the same time saw the houses falling on both sides of the river1 in front of which1 on the ,lisbon side1 the greater part of a convent fell1 burying many of its inmates beneath the ruins1 while others were precipitated into the river4 ,the water was covered with dust1 blown by a strong northerly wind2 and the sun entirely obscured4 ,on landing1 they were driven by the overflowing of the waters to the high grounds1 whence they perceived the sea1 at a mile's distance1 rushing in like a torrent1 although against wind and tide4 ,the bed of the ,tagus was in many places raised to its surface2 while ships were driven from their anchors1 and jostled together with such violence that their crews did not know whether they were afloat or aground4 ,the master of a ship1 who had great difficulty in reaching the port of ,lisbon1 reported that1 being fifty leagues at sea1 the shock was there so violent as to damage the deck of the vessel4 ,he fancied he had mistaken his reckoning1 and struck on a rock4 ,the following observations1 relative to this fatal earthquake1 were made at ,colares1 about twenty miles from ,lisbon1 and within two miles of the sea4 ,on the last day of ,october1 the weather was clear1 and remarkably warm for the season4 ,about four o'clock in the afternoon a fog arose1 proceeding from the sea1 and covering the valleys1 which was very unusual at that season of the year4 ,the wind shifted soon after to the east1 and the fog returned to the sea1 collecting itself1 and becoming exceedingly thick4 ,as the fog retired1 the sea rose with a prodigious roaring4 ,on the first of ,november1 the day broke with a serene sky1 the wind continuing at the east2 but about nine o'clock the sun began to be obscured2 and about half an hour after a rumbling noise was heard1 resembling that of chariots1 and increasing to such a degree1 that at length it became equal to the explosions of the largest artillery4 ,immediately a shock of an earthquake was felt2 and this was succeeded by a second and a third1 at the same time that several light flames of fire1 resembling the kindling of charcoal1 issued from the mountains4 ,during these three shocks1 the walls of the buildings moved from east to west4 ,in another spot1 where the sea-coast could be descried1 a great quantity of smoke1 very thick1 but somewhat pale1 issued from the hill named the ,fojo4 ,this increased with the fourth shock1 at noon1 and afterward continued to issue in a greater or less degree4 ,at the instant the subterraneous rumblings were heard1 the smoke was observed to burst forth at the ,fojo2 and its volume was constantly proportioned to the noise4 ,on visiting the spot whence it was seen to arise1 no sign of fire could be perceived near it4 ,after the earthquake1 several fountains were dried up2 while others1 after undergoing great changes1 returned to their pristine state4 ,in places where there had not been any water1 springs burst forth1 and continued to flow2 several of these spouted to the hight of nearly twenty feet1 and threw up sand of various colors4 ,on the hills1 rocks were split1 and the earth rent2 while toward the coast several large portions of rock were thrown from the eminences into the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,earthquake ,,at ,,lisbon4 ,at ,oporto1 the earthquake was felt with great violence4 ,the river continued to rise and fall five or six feet1 for four hours2 the houses of the city were rocked as if by convulsions1 and the earth was seen to heave up4 ,st4 ,ubes1 twenty miles distant1 was entirely swallowed up by the repeated shocks1 and by the vast surf of the sea4 ,and at ,cadiz it was so violent1 that1 but for the great solidity of the buildings1 everything would have been destroyed4 ,those who had quitted the houses and churches1 seeking safety in the open air1 had scarcely recovered from their first terror1 when they were plunged into a new alarm4 ,at ten minutes after eleven o'clock1 a wave was seen coming from the sea at the distance of eight miles1 and at least sixty feet higher than usual4 ,it dashed against the west part of the city1 which is very rocky4 ,although its force was much broken by these rocks1 it at length reached the walls1 and beat in the breastwork1 which was sixty feet above the ordinary level of the water1 removing pieces of the fabric1 of the weight of eight or ten tuns1 to the distance of forty or fifty yards4 ,at half past eleven came a second wave2 and this was followed by four others of equal magnitude4 ,others1 but smaller1 and gradually lessening1 continued at uncertain intervals until the evening4 ,a considerable part of the rampart was thrown down1 and carried by the torrent above fifty paces4 ,several persons perished on the causeway leading to the isle of ,lesu4 ,the accounts brought to ,cadiz reported that ,seville had been much damaged1 and that a similar fate had attended ,st4 ,lucar and ,cheres4 ,conel was said to have been destroyed2 and1 indeed1 with the exception of the provinces of ,catalonia1 ,aragon and ,valencia1 the effects of this earthquake were felt throughout ,spain4 ,at ,madrid the shock was very sensibly felt soon after ten in the morning1 and lasted five or six minutes4 ,at first the inhabitants fancied they were seized with a swimming in the head2 and1 afterward1 that the houses were falling4 ,in the churches the sensations were the same1 and the terror so great1 that the people trod each other under foot in getting out4 ,those who were within the towers were still more affrighted1 fancying every instant while the shock lasted1 that they were falling to the ground4 ,it was not sensible to those who were in carriages1 and very little so to foot-passengers4 ,at ,gibraltar it was felt about the same time as at ,madrid1 and began with a tremulous motion of the earth1 which lasted about half a minute4 ,a violent shock succeeded2 and this again was followed by a second tremulous motion1 of the duration of five or six seconds4 ,another shock1 not so violent as the first1 subsided gradually2 and the whole lasted about two minutes4 ,several of the guns on the batteries were seen to rise1 and others to sink1 while the earth had an undulating motion4 ,the greater part of the garrison and inhabitants were seized with giddiness and sickness3 several fell prostrate2 others were stupefied2 and many who were walking or riding1 became sick1 without being sensible of any motion of the earth4 ,every fifteen minutes the sea rose six feet2 and then fell so low1 that the boats and small vessels near the shore were left aground1 as were also numbers of small fish4 ,the flux and reflux lasted till next morning1 having decreased gradually from two in the afternoon4 ,in ,africa1 this earthquake was felt almost as severely as it had been in ,europe4 ,a great part of the city of ,algiers was destroyed4 ,at ,arzilla1 a town belonging to the kingdom of ,fez1 about ten in the morning1 the sea suddenly rose with such impetuosity1 that it lifted up a vessel in the bay1 and impelled it with such force on the land1 that it was shattered in pieces2 and a boat was found two musket-shots within land from the sea4 ,at ,fez and ,mequinez1 great numbers of houses fell down1 and a multitude of people were buried beneath the ruins4 ,at ,morocco1 similar accidents occurred2 and at ,salle also1 much damage was done4 ,at ,tangier the earthquake began at ten in the morning1 and lasted ten or twelve minutes4 ,at ,tetuan it commenced at the same time1 but was of less duration2 three of the shocks were so extremely violent1 that it was feared the whole city would be destroyed4 ,in the city of ,funchal1 in the island of ,madeira1 a shock of this earthquake was felt at thirty-eight minutes past nine in the morning4 ,it was preceded by a rumbling noise in the air1 like that of empty carriages passing hastily over a stone pavement4 ,the observer felt the floor beneath him immediately to be agitated by a tremulous motion1 vibrating very quickly4 ,the shock continued more than a minute2 during which space the vibrations1 although continual1 were twice very sensibly weakened and increased in force4 ,the increase after the first remission of the shock was the most intense4 ,during the whole of its continuance it was accompanied by a noise in the air2 and this lasted some seconds after the motion of the earth had ceased1 dying away like a peal of distant thunder rolling through the air4 ,at three-quarters past eleven1 the sea1 which was quite calm1 suddenly retired several paces2 when rising with a great swell1 and without any noise1 it as suddenly advanced1 overflowed the shore1 and entered the city4 ,it rose fifteen feet perpendicularly above high-water mark1 although the tide1 which there flows seven feet1 was at half-ebb4 ,the water immediately receded2 and after having fluctuated four or five times between high and low water mark1 it subsided1 and the sea remained calm as before4 ,in the northern part of the island the inundation was more violent1 the sea there retiring above a hundred paces at first1 and suddenly returning1 overflowed the shore1 forcing open doors1 breaking down the walls of several magazines and storehouses1 and leaving great quantities of fish ashore and in the streets of the village of ,machico4 ,all this was the effect of one rising of the sea1 for it never afterward flowed high enough to reach the high-water mark4 ,it continued1 however1 to fluctuate here much longer before it subsided than at ,funchal2 and in some places further to the westward1 it was hardly1 if at all1 perceptible4 ,these were the phenomena with which this remarkable earthquake was attended1 in those places where it was most violent4 ,the effects of it1 however1 reached to an immense distance2 and were perceived chiefly by the agitations of the waters1 or some slight motion of the earth4 ,its utmost boundaries to the south are unknown2 the barbarousness of the ,african nations rendering it impossible to procure any intelligence from them1 except where the effects were dreadful4 ,on the north1 however1 we are assured1 that it reached as far as ,norway and ,sweden4 ,in the former kingdom1 the waters of several rivers and lakes were violently agitated4 ,in the latter1 shocks were felt in several provinces1 and all the rivers and lakes were strongly agitated1 especially in ,dalecarlia4 ,the river ,dala suddenly overflowed its banks1 and as suddenly retired4 ,at the same time1 a lake at the distance of a league from it1 and with which it had no manner of communication1 bubbled up with great violence4 ,at ,fahlun1 a town in ,dalecarlia1 several strong shocks were felt4 ,in many places of ,germany the effects of this earthquake were very perceptible2 but in ,holland1 the agitations were still more remarkable4 ,at ,alphen on the ,rhine1 between ,leyden and ,woerden1 in the afternoon of the first of ,november1 the waters were agitated to such a violent degree1 that buoys were broken from their chains1 large vessels snapped their cables1 small ones were thrown out of the water upon the land1 and others lying on land were set afloat4 ,at ,amsterdam1 about eleven in the forenoon1 the air being perfectly calm1 the waters were suddenly agitated in the canals1 so that several boats broke loose2 chandeliers were observed to vibrate in the churches2 but no motion of the earth1 or concussion of any building was observed4 ,at ,haerlem1 in the forenoon1 for nearly four minutes1 not only the waters in the rivers1 canals1 c41 but also all kinds of fluids in smaller quantities1 as in coolers1 tubs1 c41 were surprisingly agitated1 and dashed over the sides1 though no motion was perceptible in the vessels themselves4 ,in these small quantities also the fluid apparently ascended prior to its turbulent motion2 and in many places1 even the rivers and canals rose one foot perpendicularly4 ,the agitation of the waters was also perceived in various parts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,at ,barlborough1 in ,derbyshire1 between eleven and twelve in the forenoon1 in a boat-house on the west side of a large body of water1 called ,pibley ,dam1 supposed to cover at least thirty acres of land1 was heard a surprising and terrible noise2 a large swell of water came in a current from the south1 and rose two feet on the sloped dam-head at the north end of the water4 ,it then subsided1 but returned again immediately1 though with less violence4 ,the water was thus agitated for three-quarters of an hour2 but the current grew every time weaker and weaker1 till at last it entirely ceased4 ,at ,busbridge1 in ,surrey1 at half an hour after ten in the morning1 the weather being remarkably still1 without the least wind1 in a canal nearly seven hundred feet long1 and fifty-eight in breadth1 with a small spring constantly running through it1 a very unusual noise was heard at the east end1 and the water there observed to be in great agitation4 ,it raised itself in a heap or ridge in the middle2 and this heap extended lengthwise about thirty yards1 rising between two and three feet above the usual level4 ,after this1 the ridge heeled or vibrated toward the north side of the canal1 with great force1 and flowed above eight feet over the grass walk on that side4 ,on its return back into the canal1 it again ridged in the middle1 and then heeled with yet greater force to the south side1 and flowed over its grass walk4 ,during this latter motion1 the bottom on the north side was left dry for several feet4 ,this appearance lasted for about a quarter of an hour1 after which the water became smooth and quiet as before4 ,during the whole time1 the sand at the bottom was thrown up and mixed with the water2 and there was a continual noise like that of water turning a mill4 ,at ,cobham1 in ,surrey1 ,dunstall1 in ,suffolk1 ,earsy ,court1 in ,berkshire1 ,eatonbridge1 ,kent1 and many other places1 the waters were variously agitated4 ,at ,eyam bridge1 in ,derbyshire ,peak1 the overseer of the lead mines1 sitting in his writing-room1 about eleven o'clock1 felt a sudden shock1 which very sensibly raised him up in his chair1 and caused several pieces of plaster to drop from the sides of the room4 ,the roof was so violently shaken1 that he imagined the engine-shaft had been falling in4 ,upon this he immediately ran to see what was the matter1 but found everything in perfect safety4 ,at this time two miners were employed in carting1 or drawing along the drifts of the mines1 the ore and other materials to be raised up at the shafts4 ,the drift in which they were working was about a hundred and twenty yards deep1 and the space from one end to the other fifty yards or upward4 ,the miner at the end of the drift had just loaded his cart1 and was drawing it along2 but he was suddenly surprised by a shock1 which so terrified him1 that he immediately quitted his employment1 and ran to the west end of the drift to his partner1 who was no less terrified than himself4 ,they durst not attempt to climb the shaft1 lest that should be running in upon them3 but while they were consulting what means they should take for their safety1 they were surprised by a second shock1 more violent than the first2 which frightened them so much1 that they both ran precipitately to the other end of the drift4 ,they then went down to another miner1 who worked about twelve yards below them4 ,he told them that the violence of the second shock had been so great1 that it caused the rocks to grind upon one another4 ,his account was interrupted by a third shock1 which1 after an interval of four or five minutes1 was succeeded by a fourth1 and1 about the same space of time after1 by a fifth2 none of which were so violent as the second4 ,they heard1 after every shock1 a loud rumbling in the bowels of the earth1 which continued about half a minute1 gradually descending1 or seeming to remove to a greater distance4 ,at ,shireburn ,castle1 ,oxfordshire1 a little after ten in the morning1 a very strange motion was observed in the water of a moat which encompassed the building4 ,there was a pretty thick fog1 not a breath of air1 and the surface of the water all over the moat was smooth as a looking-glass1 except at one corner1 where it flowed into the shore1 and retired again successively1 in a surprising manner4 ,how it began to move is uncertain1 as it was not then observed4 ,the flux and reflux1 when seen were quite regular4 ,every flood began gently1 its velocity increasing by degrees1 until at length it rushed in with great impetuosity1 till it had attained its full hight4 ,having remained for a little time stationary1 it then retired1 ebbing gently at first1 but afterward sinking away with great swiftness4 ,at every flux the whole body of water seemed to be violently thrown against the bank2 but neither during the time of the flux1 nor that of the reflux1 did there appear even the least wrinkle of a wave on the other parts of the moat4 ,lord ,parker1 who had observed this motion1 being desirous to know whether it was universal over the moat1 sent a person to the other corner of it1 at the same time that he himself stood about twenty-five yards from him to examine whether the water moved there or not4 ,he could not perceive any motion there2 but another person1 who went to the north-east corner of the moat1 diagonally opposite to his lordship1 found it as considerable there as where he was4 ,his lordship imagining1 that in all probability the water at the corner diagonally opposite to where he was would sink as that by him rose1 ordered the person to signify by calling out1 when the water by him began to sink1 and when to rise4 ,this he did2 but to his lordship's great surprise1 immediately after the water began to rise at his own end1 he heard the voice calling that it began to rise with him also2 and in the same manner he heard that it was sinking at that end1 soon after he perceived it to sink by himself4 ,a pond just below was agitated in a similar manner2 but the risings and sinkings happened at different times from those at the pond where ,lord ,parker stood4 ,at ,white ,rock1 in ,glamorganshire1 about two hours' ebb of tide1 and near a quarter to seven in the evening1 a vast quantity of water rushed up with a great noise1 floated two large vessels1 the least of them above two hundred tuns' burden1 broke their moorings1 drove them across the river1 and nearly overset them4 ,the whole rise and fall of this extraordinary body of water did not last above ten minutes1 nor was it felt in any other part of the river1 so that it seemed to have gushed out of the earth at that place4 ,similar instances occurred at ,loch ,lomond and ,loch ,ness1 in ,scotland4 ,at ,kinsale1 in ,ireland1 and all along the coast to the westward1 many similar phenomena were observed4 ,shocks were also perceived in several parts of ,france1 as at ,bayonne1 ,bourdeaux and ,lyons2 and commotions of the waters were observed at ,angoulesme1 ,belleville1 ,havre de ,grace1 c41 but not attended with the remarkable circumstances above mentioned4 ,these are the most striking phenomena with which the earthquake of the first of ,november1 #agee1 was attended on the surface of the earth4 ,those which happened below ground can not be known but by the changes observed in springs1 c41 which were in many places very remarkable4 ,at ,tangier1 all the fountains were dried up1 so that there was no water to be had till night4 ,a very remarkable change was observed in the medicinal waters of ,toplitz1 a village in ,bohemia1 famous for its baths4 ,these waters were discovered in the year #gfb2 from which time the principal spring had constantly thrown out hot water in the same quantity1 and of the same quality4 ,on the morning of the earthquake1 between eleven and twelve1 in the forenoon1 this principal spring cast forth such a quantity of water1 that in the space of half an hour all the baths ran over4 ,about half an hour before this great increase of the water1 the spring flowed turbid and muddy2 then1 having stopped entirely for a minute1 it broke forth again with prodigious violence1 driving before it a considerable quantity of reddish ocher4 ,after this1 it became clear1 and flowed as pure as before4 ,it still continued to do so1 but the water was in greater quantity1 and hotter1 than before the earthquake4 ,at ,angoulesme1 in ,france1 a subterraneous noise1 resembling thunder1 was heard2 and presently after1 the earth opened1 and discharged a torrent of water1 mixed with red sand4 ,most of the springs in the neighborhood sunk in such a manner1 that for some time they were thought to be quite dry4 ,in ,britain1 no considerable alteration was observed in the earth1 except that1 near the lead mine above-mentioned1 in ,derbyshire1 a cleft was observed about a foot deep1 six inches wide1 and one hundred and fifty yards in length4 ,at sea the shocks of this earthquake were felt most violently4 ,off ,st4 ,lucar1 the captain of the ,nancy frigate felt his ship so violently shaken1 that he thought she had struck the ground2 but1 heaving the lead1 he found she was in a great depth of water4 ,captain ,clark1 from ,denia1 in north latitude thirty-six degrees1 twenty-four minutes1 between nine and ten in the morning1 had his ship shaken and strained as if she had struck upon a rock1 so that the seams of the deck opened1 and the compass was overturned in the binnacle4 ,tho master of a vessel bound to the ,american islands1 being in north latitude twenty-five degrees1 west longitude forty degrees1 and writing in his cabin1 heard a violent noise as he imagined1 in the steerage2 and while he was asking what the matter was1 the ship was put into a strange agitation1 and seemed as if she had been suddenly jerked up1 and suspended by a rope fastened to the mast-head4 ,he immediately started up with great terror and astonishment1 and looking out at the cabin-window1 saw land1 as he took it to be1 at the distance of about a mile4 ,coming upon the deck1 the land was no more to be seen1 but he perceived a violent current cross the ship's way to the leeward4 ,in about a minute1 this current returned with great impetuosity2 and at a league's distance1 he saw three craggy-pointed rocks throwing up waters of various colors1 resembling fire4 ,this phenomenon1 in about two minutes1 ended in a black cloud1 which ascended very heavily4 ,after it had risen above the horizon1 no rocks were to be seen2 though the cloud1 still ascending1 was long visible1 the weather being extremely clear4 ,between nine and ten in the morning1 another ship1 forty leagues west of ,st4 ,vincent1 was so strongly agitated1 that the anchors1 which were lashed1 bounced up1 and the men were thrown a foot and a half perpendicularly up from the deck4 ,immediately after this1 the ship sunk in the water as low as the main-chains4 ,the lead showed a great depth of water1 and the line was tinged of a yellow color1 and smelt of sulphur4 ,the shock lasted about ten minutes2 but they felt smaller ones for the space of twenty-four hours4 ,,earthquakes ,,in ,,sicily1 ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,two ,,calabrias4 ,these earthquakes began on the fifth of ,february1 #aghc1 and continued until the latter end of the ,may following1 doing infinite damage1 and exhibiting at ,messina1 in the parts of ,sicily nearest to the continent1 and in the two ,calabrias1 a variety of phenomena4 ,the part of the ,calabrian provinces most affected by this heavy calamity1 lies between the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth degrees of latitude1 being the extreme point of the continent2 and the greatest force of the earthquakes was exerted at the foot of the particular mountains of the ,apennines1 named ,monte ,deio1 ,monte ,sacro and ,monte ,caulone1 extending westward to the ,tyrrhene sea4 ,the towns1 villages and farm-houses1 nearest to these mountains1 whether situated on the hills1 or in the plains1 were totally ruined by the first shock1 which happened about noon2 and there the destruction of lives was the greatest4 ,the towns still more remote1 were1 however1 greatly damaged by the subsequent shocks1 particularly those of the seventh1 twenty-sixth and twenty-eighth of ,february1 and that of the first of ,march4 ,the earth was in a constant tremor1 and its motions were various1 being either vortical1 horizontal or oscillatory1 that is1 by pulsations or beatings1 from the bottom upward4 ,this variety increased the apprehensions of the unfortunate inhabitants1 who momentarily expected that the earth would open beneath their feet1 and swallow them up4 ,the rains had been continual and violent1 often accompanied by lightning and furious gusts of wind4 ,there were many openings and cracks in the earth2 and several hills had been lowered1 while others were quite level4 ,in the plains1 the chasms were so deep1 that many roads were rendered impassable4 ,huge mountains were severed1 and portions of them driven into the valleys1 which were thus filled up4 ,the course of several rivers was changed2 and many springs of water appeared in localities which had before been perfectly dry4 ,from the city of ,amantea1 situated on the coast of the ,tyrrhene sea1 in lower ,calabria1 proceeding along the western coast to ,cape ,spartivento1 in upper ,calabria1 and thence along the eastern coast to ,cape ,alice1 a part of lower ,calabria1 on the ,ionian sea1 the towns and villages1 amounting to nearly four hundred1 whether on the coast or inland1 were either totally destroyed1 or suffered greatly4 ,at ,casal ,nuovo1 the ,princess ,gerace1 and upward of four thousand of the inhabitants1 lost their lives4 ,at ,bagnara1 the number of dead amounted to upward of three thousand2 and ,radicina and ,palmi experienced a similar loss4 ,the total amount of the mortality occasioned by these earthquakes1 in ,sicily and the two ,calabrias1 was1 agreeably to the official returns1 thirty-two thousand1 three hundred and sixty-seven2 but ,sir ,william ,hamilton thought it still greater1 and carries his estimate to forty thousand1 including foreigners4 ,on the first shock of the earthquake1 on the fifth of ,february1 the inhabitants of ,scylla escaped from their houses1 built on the rock1 and1 following the example of their prince1 took shelter on the sea-shore4 ,by this shock the sea had been raised and agitated so violently1 that much damage had been done on the point of the ,faro of ,messina2 but here it acted with still greater violence1 for1 during the night1 an immense wave1 which was falsely represented to have been boiling hot1 and to have scalded many persons on its rising to a great hight1 flowed furiously three miles inland1 and swept off in its return two thousand1 four hundred and seventy-three of the inhabitants1 with the prince at their head1 who were either at that time on the strand1 or in boats near the shore4 ,the shocks felt since the commencement of these formidable earthquakes1 amounted to several hundreds2 and among the most violent may be reckoned the one which happened on the twenty-eighth of ,march4 ,it affected most of the higher part of upper ,calabria1 and the inferior part of lower ,calabria1 being equally tremendous with the first4 ,indeed1 these shocks were the only ones sensibly felt in ,naples4 ,with relation to the former1 two singular phenomena are recorded4 ,at the distance of about three miles from the ruined city of ,oppido1 in upper ,calabria1 was a hill1 having a sandy and clayey soil1 nearly four hundred feet in hight1 and nearly nine hundred feet in circumference at its basis4 ,this hill is said to have been carried to the distance of about four miles from the spot where it stood1 into a plain called ,campo di ,bassano4 ,at the same time1 the hill on which the city of ,oppido stood1 and which extended about three miles1 divided into two parts3 being situated between two rivers1 its ruins filled up the valley1 and stopped their course1 forming two large lakes1 which augmented daily4 ,the accounts from ,sicily were of a most alarming nature4 ,the greatest part of the fine city of ,messina was destroyed by the shock of the fifth of ,february1 and what remained was greatly injured by the subsequent shocks4 ,the quay in the port had sunk considerably1 and was in some places more than a foot beneath the water4 ,that superb building1 the palazzata1 which gave the port a more magnificent appearance than any other in ,europe could boast1 was entirely thrown down2 and the lazaretto greatly damaged4 ,the citadel suffered little2 but the cathedral was destroyed1 and the tower at the point of the entrance of the harbor much damaged4 ,the wave which had done so much mischief at ,scylla1 had passed over the point of land at the ,faro1 and swept away twenty-four persons4 ,the accounts from ,melazzo1 ,patti1 ,terra di ,santa ,lucia1 ,castro ,reale1 and from the island of ,lipari1 were very distressing1 but the damage done there by the earthquakes not so considerable as at ,messina4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 from the limited boundaries of these earthquakes1 was persuaded that they were caused by some great operation of nature1 of a volcanic kind4 ,to ascertain this1 he began his tour by visiting the parts of the coasts of the two ,calabrias which had suffered most from this severe visitation4 ,he everywhere came to ruined towns and houses1 the inhabitants of which were in sheds1 many of them built on such insalubrious spots1 that an epidemic had ensued4 ,these unfortunate people agreed that every shock they had felt1 seemed to come with a rumbling noise from the westward1 beginning usually with the horizontal motion1 and ending with the vortical 7or whirling7 motion1 which last had ruined most of the buildings4 ,it had also been generally observed1 that1 before a shock1 the clouds seemed to be fixed and motionless2 and that1 after a heavy shower of rain1 a shock quickly followed4 ,by the violence of some of the shocks1 many persons had been thrown down2 and several of the peasants described the motion of the earth as so violent1 that the tops of the largest trees almost touched the ground from side to side4 ,during a shock1 the oxen and horses1 they said1 kept their legs wide asunder1 to prevent being thrown down1 and gave evident signs of being sensible of the approach of each shock4 ,being thus warned1 the neighing of a horse1 the braying of an ass1 or the cackling of a goose1 drove them from their temporary huts4 ,from ,monteleone1 ,sir ,william descended into the plain1 and passed many towns and villages in a ruined state3 the city of ,mileto1 lying in a bottom1 was totally destroyed1 without a house standing4 ,among the many examples afforded by these earthquakes1 of animals being able to live a long time without food1 was that of two hogs1 which had remained buried under a heap of ruins at ,soriano for forty-two days1 and were dug out alive4 ,he had frequent opportunities for observing that the habitations situated on high grounds1 having a soil of a gritty sandstone1 somewhat like granite1 but without its consistence1 suffered less than those in the plain1 the soil of which is a sandy clay4 ,the latter were universally leveled with the ground4 ,during the first shock1 he was told1 a fountain of water1 mixed with sand1 had been forced to a considerable hight3 prior to this phenomenon1 the river was dry1 but it soon returned and overflowed its banks4 ,the other rivers in the plain underwent the like vicissitudes2 to account for which1 ,sir ,william supposes the first impulsion of the earthquake to have come from the bottom upward2 and that such was the fact1 the inhabitants attested4 ,the surface of the plain having suddenly risen1 the rivers1 which are not deep1 would naturally disappear2 and the plain seeking with violence its former level1 the rivers would necessarily return and overflow1 at the same time that the sudden depression of the boggy grounds would as naturally force out the water which lay hidden beneath the surface4 ,it had been stated1 in the reports made to the government1 that two tenements1 named ,macini and ,vaticano1 had1 by the effect of the earthquake1 changed their situation4 ,in this fact ,sir ,william agrees1 and he accounts for it in the following manner4 ,they were situated in a valley surrounded by high grounds1 and the surface of the earth which had been removed1 had probably been long undermined by the little rivulets which flow from the mountains1 and which were in full view on the bare spot the tenements had deserted4 ,he conjectures besides1 that1 the earthquake having opened some depositions of rain-water in the clayey hills which surrounded the valley1 the water1 mixing with the loose soil1 and taking its course suddenly through the undermined surface1 had lifted it up1 together with the large olive and mulberry trees1 and a thatched cottage1 floating the entire piece of ground1 with all its vegetation1 about a mile down the valley1 where he saw it1 with most of the trees erect4 ,these two tenements occupied a space of ground about a mile in length1 and half a mile in breadth4 ,there were in the vicinity several deep cracks in the earth1 not one of which was then more than a foot in breadth2 but ,sir ,william was credibly assured1 that1 during the earthquake1 one had opened wide1 and had swallowed up an ox and nearly a hundred goats4 ,in this valley he saw hollows1 in the form of inverted cones1 from which water and sand had been ejected violently at the time of the earthquakes1 similar to those which had been pointed out to him at ,rosarno4 ,as well at the latter place1 as in every ruined town he visited1 an interesting remark was made to him1 namely1 that the male dead were generally found under the ruins1 in the attitude of struggling against the danger2 but that the attitude of the females was usually with the hands clasped over the head1 as if giving themselves up to despair1 unless they had children near them3 in this case they were always found clasping them in their arms1 or in some attitude which indicated their anxious care to protect them4 ,how striking an instance of maternal tenderness6 ,sir ,william traveled four days in the plain1 in the midst of indescribable misery4 ,such was the force of the first shock1 on the fifth of ,february1 that the inhabitants of the towns were buried in an instant beneath the ruins of their houses4 ,of the population of the town of ,polistene1 which was badly situated between two rivers1 wont to overflow their banks1 twenty-one hundred individuals perished out of six thousand4 ,it was built near a ravine of great depth2 and1 by the violent motion of the earth1 two huge portions of the ground on which a considerable part of the town1 consisting of several hundreds of houses1 stood1 were detached into the ravine1 and nearly across it1 to the distance of about half a mile from their original position4 ,what was most extraordinary1 many of the inhabitants of these houses1 who had taken this singular leap in them1 were dug out alive1 and several unhurt4 ,terra ,nuova lost three-fourths of a population of sixteen hundred inhabitants2 and near to this town and to the ravine1 many acres of land covered with trees and corn-fields had been detached and thrown into the latter1 often without having been overturned1 insomuch that the trees and crops were growing as well as if they had been planted there4 ,other such pieces of ground were lying in the bottom1 in an inclined situation2 and others1 again1 were quite overturned4 ,two immense portions of land1 having been detached opposite to each other1 filled the valley1 and stopped the course of the river1 the waters of which formed a great lake4 ,having walked over the ruins of ,oppido1 ,sir ,william descended into the ravine1 which he carefully examined4 ,here he saw the wonderful force of the earthquake1 which had produced exactly the same effects as in the ravine of ,terra ,nuova1 but on a scale infinitely greater4 ,the enormous masses of the plain1 detached from each side of the ravine1 lay in confused heaps1 forming real mountains2 and1 having stopped the course of two rivers1 great lakes were formed4 ,he occasionally met with a detached piece of the surface of the plain1 many acres in extent1 with the large oaks and olive-trees1 having lupines and corn beneath them1 growing as well1 and in as good order at the bottom of the ravine1 as their companions from which they had been separated1 were in the plain1 at least five hundred feet higher1 and at the distance of about three-quarters of a mile4 ,entire vineyards1 which had taken a similar journey1 were in the same order in the bottom4 ,in another part of the ravine was a mountain1 composed of a clayey soil1 which was probably a portion of the plain1 detached by an earthquake at some former period3 it was in hight about two hundred and fifty feet1 and about four hundred feet in diameter at its basis4 ,it was well attested1 ,sir ,william observes1 that this mountain traveled down the ravine nearly four miles1 having been put in motion by the first shock4 ,the abundance of rain which fell at that time2 the great weight of the newly detached pieces of the plain1 which were heaped up at its back2 the nature of its soil2 and particularly its situation on a declivity3 these1 in his opinion1 satisfactorily account for this phenomenon4 ,the ,prince of ,cariati showed him two girls1 one of the age of about sixteen years1 who had remained eleven days without food under the ruins of a house in ,oppido2 and the other1 about eleven years of age1 who had been under the same circumstances six days1 but in a very confined and distressing posture4 ,sir ,william describes the port of ,messina1 and the town1 in their half-ruined state1 when viewed by moonlight1 as strikingly picturesque4 ,on landing1 he was assured by several fishermen1 that1 during the earthquake of the fifth of ,february1 at night the sand near the sea was hot1 and that in many parts they saw fire issue from the earth4 ,this had been often repeated to him in the ,calabrian plain2 and the idea he entertained was1 that the exhalations which issued during the violent commotions of the earth1 were full of electric fire1 just as the smoke of volcanoes is constantly observed to be during violent eruptions2 for he did not1 during any part of his tour1 perceive an indication of volcanic matter having issued from the fissures of the earth4 ,he was1 therefore1 convinced that the whole damage had been done by exhalations and vapors only4 ,in this city1 where they had so long an experience of earthquakes1 he was told1 that all animals and birds are1 in a greater or less degree1 more sensible of an approaching shock of an earthquake than any human being2 but that geese1 above all1 were the soonest and the most alarmed at the approach of a shock3 if in the water1 they quit it immediately1 and they can not be driven into it for some time after4 ,the force of the earthquakes1 although very violent at ,messina1 and at ,reggio1 on the opposite side of the strait1 was not to be compared to that which was felt in the plain4 ,in the former city the mortality did not exceed seven hundred1 of a population of thirty thousand4 ,a curious circumstance happened there also1 to prove that animals can sustain life for a long time without food4 ,two mules belonging to the ,duke of ,belviso1 remained under a heap of ruins1 the one twenty-two1 and the other twenty-three days3 for some days after they refused their food1 but drank plentifully1 and finally recovered4 ,there were numberless instances of dogs remaining many days in the same situation2 and a hen1 belonging to the ,british vice-consul1 having been closely shut up beneath the ruins of his house1 was taken out on the twenty-second day1 and recovered1 although at first it showed but little signs of life3 like the mules1 it did not eat for some days1 but drank freely4 ,from these instances1 and from those above related1 of the girls at ,oppido1 and the hogs at ,soriano1 as well as from several others of the same kind1 it may be concluded1 that long fasting is always attended with great thirst1 and a total loss of appetite4 ,a circumstance worth recording1 and which was observed throughout the whole coast of the part of the ,calabrian provinces which had been most affected by the earthquakes1 was1 that a description of small fishes1 named cicirelli1 resembling what in ,england are called white-bait1 but larger1 and which usually lie at the bottom of the sea1 buried in the sand1 were1 from the commencement of these earthquakes1 and for a considerable time after1 taken near the surface1 and in such abundance as to become the common food of the poorer sort of people2 whereas1 before these events1 they were rare1 and reckoned among the greatest delicacies4 ,fishes in general having been taken1 wherever the effects of the shocks had reached1 in much greater abundance1 and with greater facility than before1 ,sir ,william conjectures1 either that the bottom of the sea may have been heated by the volcanic fire beneath it1 or that the continual tremor of the earth had driven the fishes out of their strongholds1 in the same way as an angler1 when he wants a bait1 obliges the worms to come out of a turf on the river-side1 by trampling on it with his feet1 which motion never fails of its effect4 ,the commandant of the citadel of ,messina1 assured him1 that on the fatal fifth of ,february1 and the three following days1 the sea1 at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from that fortress1 rose and boiled in a most extraordinary manner1 and with a horrid and alarming noise1 while the water in the other parts of the ,faro was perfectly calm4 ,this appeared to him to point out exhalations or eruptions from cracks at the bottom of the sea1 which were probably made during the violence of the earthquakes2 and to these phenomena he ascribes a volcanic origin4 ,he thus attempts to explain the nature of the formidable wave which was represented as boiling hot1 and which1 as has been already noticed1 was so fatal to the inhabitants of ,scylla4 ,sir ,william concludes by remarking1 that the local earthquakes here described1 appear to have been caused by the same kind of matter as that which gave birth to the olian or ,lipari isles4 ,he conjectures that an opening may have been made at the bottom of the sea1 most probably between ,stromboli and upper ,calabria2 for from that quarter1 it was agreed by all1 the subterraneous noises seemed to proceed4 ,he adds1 that the foundation of a new island1 or volcano1 may have been laid1 although it may be ages1 which to nature are but moments1 before it shall be completed1 and appear above the surface of the sea4 ,nature is ever active2 but her acts are in general carried on so very slowly1 as scarcely to be perceptible to the mortal view1 or recorded in the very short space of what we call history1 let it be ever so ancient4 ,it is probable1 also1 he observes1 that the whole of the destruction he has described1 may have simply proceeded from the exhalations of confined vapors1 generated by the fermentation of such minerals as produce volcanoes1 which would escape where they met with the least resistance1 and would consequently affect the plain in a greater degree than the high and more solid grounds by which it is surrounded4 ,count ,francesco ,ippolito1 in speaking of the last great shock of the twenty-eighth of ,march1 as it affected the ,calabrian territory1 is persuaded that it arose from an internal fire in the bowels of the earth1 for it took place precisely in the mountains which cross the neck of the peninsula formed by the two rivers1 the ,lameto and the ,corace1 the former of which flows into the gulf of ,st4 ,euphemia1 and the latter into the ,ionian sea4 ,all the phenomena it displayed1 made this evident4 ,like the other shocks1 it came in a south-west direction3 the earth at first undulated1 then shook1 and finally rocked to and fro to such a degree1 that it was scarcely possible to stand4 ,it was preceded by a terrible groan from beneath the ground2 and this groan1 which was of the same duration with the shock1 terminated with a loud noise1 like that of the explosion of a mine4 ,these thunderings accompanied not only the shock of that night1 and of the succeeding day1 but likewise all the others which were afterward felt2 at the same time that the earth was continually shaken1 at first every five minutes1 and subsequently each quarter of an hour4 ,during the night1 flames were seen to issue from the ground in the neighborhood of ,reggio1 toward the sea1 to which the explosion extended1 insomuch that many of the peasants ran away through fear4 ,these flames issued precisely from a spot where some days before an extraordinary heat had been perceived4 ,after this great shock there appeared in the air1 in a slanting direction1 and toward the cast1 a whitish flame1 resembling electric fire3 it was seen for the space of two hours4 ,several hills were either divided or laid level2 and within the surface of the earth apertures were made1 from which a great quantity of water1 proceeding either from subterraneous concentrations1 or from the rivers adjacent to the ground thus broken up1 spouted for several hours4 ,from one of these openings1 in the territory of ,borgia1 and about a mile from the sea1 there issued a large quantity of salt water1 which for several days imitated the motions of the sea4 ,warm water likewise issued from the apertures made in the plains of ,maida4 ,in all the sandy parts1 where the explosion took place1 there were observed1 from distance to distance1 apertures in the form of an inverted cone1 emitting water1 and which seemed to prove the escape of a flake of electric fire4 ,amid the various phenomena which either preceded or followed this particular shock1 the following are well deserving of notice4 ,the water of a well at ,maida1 which was of an excellent quality1 was affected1 just before the shock1 with so disgusting a sulphurous flavor1 that it could not even be smelled4 ,on the other hand1 at ,catanzaro1 the water of a well1 which before could not be used1 on account of its possessing a strong smell of calcination1 became drinkable4 ,for a long time before the earth shook1 the sea was considerably agitated1 so as to terrify the fishermen1 at the same time that there was not a breath of wind4 ,on the side of ,italy1 the volcanoes had not emitted any eruptions for a considerable time before2 but in the same way as1 during the first great shock1 ,etna was in flames1 so ,stromboli emitted fire during this last4 ,,earthquakes ,,in ,,peru1 c4 ,south ,america has been at all times very subject to earthquakes2 and it is remarkable1 that the city of ,lima1 the capital of ,peru1 situated in about twelve degrees of south latitude1 although scarcely ever visited by tempests1 and equally unacquainted with rain as with thunder and lightning1 has been singularly exposed to their fury4 ,they1 indeed1 happen so frequently there1 that the inhabitants are under continual apprehensions of being1 from their suddenness and violence1 buried beneath the ruins of their houses4 ,still they have their presages1 one of the principal of which is a rumbling noise in the bowels of the earth1 heard about a minute before the shocks are felt1 and seeming to pervade all the subterraneous adjacent parts4 ,this is followed by the dismal howlings of the dogs1 who seem to give notice of the approaching danger2 while the beasts of burden1 in their passage through the streets1 stop suddenly1 as it were by a natural instinct1 and seek the attitude which may best secure them from falling4 ,on these portents1 the terrified inhabitants flee from their houses into the streets1 forming large assemblies1 in the midst of which cries of children are blended with the lamentations of the females1 whose agonizing prayers to the saints increase the common fear and confusion4 ,in a word1 the entire city exhibits a dreadful scene of consternation and horror4 ,since the establishment of the ,spaniards in ,peru1 the first earthquake in this capital happened in #aehb2 but the damage it did was much less considerable than that of some of those which succeeded4 ,six years after ,lima was again visited by an earthquake1 the results of which were so dreadful1 that it is still solemnly commemorated every year4 ,in #afji1 a third convulsion threw down many houses3 and on the twenty-seventh of ,november1 #afcj1 so much damage was done by an earthquake1 that in acknowledgment of the city not having been entirely demolished1 a festival is also on that day annually celebrated4 ,on the third of ,november1 #afed1 the most stately edifices in ,lima1 and a great number of houses1 were destroyed by a similar event2 but the inhabitants having had timely presages1 withdrew themselves from their houses1 insomuch that few perished4 ,in #afgh1 another dreadful concussion took place4 ,among the most tremendous earthquakes with which the ,peruvian capital has been visited1 may be reckoned that which happened on the twenty-eighth of ,october1 #afhg4 ,the first shock was at four in the morning1 when several of the finest public buildings and houses were destroyed1 with the loss of many lives4 ,this was1 however1 merely a prelude to what followed2 for1 two hours after1 a second shock was felt1 with such impetuous concussions1 that all was laid in ruins1 and every description of property lost4 ,during this second shock the sea retired considerably1 and then returned in mountainous waves1 entirely overwhelming ,callao1 the seaport of ,lima1 distant five miles1 as well as the adjacent country1 together with the wretched inhabitants4 ,from that time six other earthquakes were felt at ,lima1 prior to that of #agdf1 which likewise happened on the twenty-eighth of ,october1 at half past ten at night4 ,the early concussions were so violent1 that in somewhat more than three minutes1 the greater part 7if not all7 of the buildings in the city1 were destroyed1 burying under their ruins such of the inhabitants as had not made sufficient haste into the streets and squares1 the only places of safety4 ,at length the horrible effects of the first shock ceased2 but the tranquillity was of short duration1 the concussions swiftly succeeding each other4 ,the fort of ,callao was dilapidated2 but what this building suffered from the earthquake1 was inconsiderable when compared with the dreadful catastrophe which followed4 ,the sea1 as is usual on such occasions1 receding to a considerable distance1 returned in mountainous waves1 foaming with the violence of the agitation1 and suddenly buried ,callao and the neighboring country in its flood4 ,this1 however1 was not entirely effected by the first swell of the waves2 for the sea1 retiring still further1 returned with greater impetuosity1 and covered not only the buildings1 but also the lofty walls of the fortress3 so that what had even escaped the first inundation1 was totally overwhelmed by these succeeding mountainous waves4 ,of twenty-three ships and vessels of light burden1 then in the harbor1 nineteen were sunk2 and the four others1 among which was a frigate1 named the ,san ,firmin1 were carried by the force of the waves to a considerable distance up the country4 ,this terrible inundation extended1 as well as the earthquake1 to other parts of the coast1 and several towns underwent the fate of ,lima4 ,the number of persons who perished in that capital1 within two days after the earthquake commenced1 on an estimate of the bodies found1 amounted to thirteen hundred1 beside the wounded and maimed1 many of whom survived their tortures but a short time4 ,the earthquake of ,jamaica1 in #afib1 was one of the most dreadful history has had to record4 ,in the space of two minutes it destroyed the town of ,port ,royal1 and sunk the houses in a gulf forty fathoms deep4 ,it was attended with a hollow1 rumbling noise1 like that of thunder4 ,in less than a minute1 the greater part of the houses1 on one side of the streets1 were1 with their inhabitants1 sunk beneath the water1 while those on the other side were thrown into heaps1 the sandy soil on which they were built rising like the waves of the sea1 and suddenly overthrowing them on its subsidence4 ,the water of the wells was discharged with a most vehement agitation2 and the sea was equally turbulent1 bursting its mounds1 and deluging whatever came in its way4 ,the fissures in the earth were in some places so great1 that one of the streets appeared of more than twice its original breadth4 ,in many places the earth opened and closed again2 and this agitation continued for a considerable time4 ,several hundreds of these openings were to be seen at the same moment3 in some of them the wretched inhabitants were swallowed up2 while in others1 the earth suddenly closing1 caught them by the middle1 and thus crushed them to death4 ,other openings1 still more dreadful1 swallowed up entire streets2 while others1 again1 spouted up cataracts of water1 drowning those whom the earthquake had spared4 ,the whole was attended with a most noisome stench4 ,the thunderings of the distant falling mountains1 the sky overcast with a dusky gloom1 and the crash of the falling buildings1 gave unspeakable horror to the scene4 ,this dreadful calamity having ceased1 the whole island exhibited a scene of desolation4 ,few of the houses which had not been swallowed up were left standing2 and whatever grew on the plantations shared in the universal ruin4 ,these cultivated spots were now converted into large pools of water1 which when dried up by the sun1 left so many plains of barren sand4 ,the greater part of the rivers had1 during the earthquake1 been choked by the falling in of the detached masses of mountains2 and it was not until some time after1 that they made themselves new channels4 ,the mountains seem to have been more particularly exposed to the force of the first tremendous shock2 and it was conjectured that the principal seat of the concussion was among them4 ,such of the inhabitants as were saved1 sought shelter on board the ships in the harbor1 and remained there above two months1 the shocks continuing during that interval with more or less violence every day4 ,,earthquake ,,in ,,venezuela4 ,on the twenty-sixth of ,march1 #ahab1 between four and five in the afternoon1 ,venezuela was visited by one of those tremendous earthquakes which now and then ruin whole provinces4 ,during a minute and fifteen seconds the earth was convulsed in every direction1 and nearly twenty thousand persons fell victims4 ,the towns of ,caraccas1 ,la ,guayra1 ,mayquetia1 ,merida and ,san ,felipe1 were totally destroyed4 ,barquisimeto1 ,valencia1 ,la ,vittoria1 and others1 suffered considerably4 ,this catastrophe happened on ,holy ,thursday1 a day when the ,romish church peculiarly commemorates the sufferings of our blessed ,redeemer1 and at the very hour when the people were crowding into the churches to attend the processions which are usual in ,roman ,catholic countries1 and to see the representation of our ,saviour led to the cross4 ,troops are placed on such occasions at the entrance of the churches to follow the procession2 and many churches1 and the principal barracks at ,caraccas1 being thrown down1 there was a considerable number of soldiers killed1 and many thousand persons crushed under their ruins4 ,the arms and ammunition destined for the defense of the country were buried in a similar manner2 and what was worse1 an unconquerable enemy to the independence of ,venezuela seemed to raise its head from among the ruins--that religious prejudice which the earthquake inspired4 ,in an era less remarkable1 a mere convulsion of nature would have had no influence on a new government2 but1 notwithstanding the prosperity ,venezuela then enjoyed1 the seeds of discontent had fallen on one class of the community4 ,the principles which formed the basis of the new constitution were democratical1 and it had been necessary to deprive the priesthood of some of their privileges1 which of course created enmity in their minds to the present government4 ,immediately after the earthquake1 the priests proclaimed1 that the ,almighty condemned the revolution3 they denounced his wrath on all who favored it2 and a counter-revolution1 attended by great bloodshed1 was the unhappy consequence4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,connection ,,of ,,earthquakes ,,with ,,volcanoes4 ------------------------------------ ,,island ,,of ,,java4 ,the connection of earthquakes with volcanoes has been already noticed2 and a remarkable occurrence of this nature happened in ,java4 ,papandayang was formerly one of the largest volcanoes in that island2 but in the month of ,august1 #aggb1 the greatest part of it was1 after a short but severe combustion1 swallowed up by a dreadful convulsion of the earth4 ,this event was preceded by an uncommonly luminous cloud1 attended with flashes of light1 by which the mountain was completely enveloped1 and which so terrified the inhabitants dwelling at the foot and on its declivities1 that they betook themselves to flight4 ,before they could all save themselves1 however1 the mountain began to give way1 and the greater part of it actually fell in and disappeared in the earth4 ,at the same time1 a tremendous noise was heard1 resembling the discharge of the heaviest cannon2 while the immense quantities of volcanic substances which were thrown out1 and spread in every direction1 extended the effects of the explosion through the space of many miles4 ,it was estimated that an extent of ground1 belonging to the mountain itself1 and to its immediate environs1 fifteen miles in length1 and six in breadth1 was by this commotion swallowed up in the bowels of the earth4 ,six weeks after the catastrophe1 persons who were sent to examine the condition of the surrounding territory1 reported1 that it was impossible to approach the mountain1 on account of the heat of the substances which covered its circumference1 and which were piled on each other to the hight of three feet4 ,it has been reported1 that forty villages1 partly swallowed up by the opening of the earth1 and partly covered by the substances ejected1 were destroyed on this melancholy occasion1 with the loss of nearly three thousand lives4 ,a proportionate number of cattle was destroyed2 and the greater part of the plantations of cotton1 indigo and coffee1 in the adjacent districts1 were buried beneath the volcanic matter4 ,the effects of this explosion were long apparent on the remains of the volcanic mountain4 ,we here introduce a sketch of several curious and novel details of volcanic phenomena in ,java1 on account of their intimate connection with the subterraneous operations of nature in the production of earthquakes4 ,it may be considered as supplementary to the detailed account of volcanoes given at the beginning of this work4 ,there are in ,java thirty-eight large mountains1 which1 although they differ from each other in external figure1 agree in the general attribute of volcanoes1 by their having a broad base1 which gradually verges toward the summit1 in the form of a cone4 ,one of these is named ,tankuban-,prahu1 on account of its resembling1 at a distance1 a boat turned upside down3 it forms a vast truncated cone4 ,its base extends to a considerable distance1 and it is not only one of the largest mountains in the island1 but a most interesting volcano4 ,although it has not for many ages had any violent eruption1 as is evident from the progress of vegetation1 and from the depth of black mold which covers its sides1 its interior has continued in a state of uninterrupted activity4 ,its crater is large1 and has1 in general1 the shape of a funnel1 but with its sides very irregular3 the brim1 or margin1 which bounds it at the top1 has also different degrees of elevation1 rising and descending along the whole course of its circumference4 ,this may be estimated at a mile and a half2 and the perpendicular depth on the south side1 where it is very steep1 is at least two hundred and fifty feet3 toward the west it rises considerably higher4 ,the bottom of the crater has a diameter of nine hundred feet1 but is not regular in its form1 which depends on the meeting of the sides below4 ,near the center it contains an irregular oval lake1 or collection of water1 the greatest diameter of which is nearly three hundred feet4 ,the water being white1 it exhibits the appearance of a lake of milk1 boiling with a perpetual discharge of large bubbles1 occasioned by the development of fixed air4 ,toward its eastern extremity are the remaining outlets of the subterraneous fires1 consisting of several apertures1 from which an uninterrupted discharge of sulphurous vapors takes place4 ,these vapors rush out with an incredible force1 with violent subterraneous noises1 resembling the boiling of an immense caldron in the bowels of the mountain4 ,when at the bottom1 the force of the impression made on the spectator by this grand and terrific scene1 is increased by the recollection of the dangers he had to encounter in the descent2 while the extent of the crater1 and the remains of the former explosions1 afford an indescribable enjoyment1 and fill his mind with the most awful satisfaction4 ,the explosions of mud1 called by the natives bledeg1 are1 as we have already seen1 a great curiosity4 ,this volcanic phenomenon is in the center of a limestone district1 and is first discovered1 on approaching it from a distance1 by a large volume of smoke1 which rises and disappears at intervals of a few seconds1 and resembles the vapors arising from a violent surf4 ,a dull noise1 like that of thunder1 is at the same time heard2 and on a nearer approach1 when the vision is no longer impeded by the smoke1 a large hemispherical mass is observed1 consisting of black earth1 mixed with water1 about sixteen feet in diameter1 rising up to the hight of twenty or thirty feet in a perfectly regular manner1 and1 as it were1 pushed up by a force beneath4 ,this mass suddenly explodes with a dull noise1 and scatters1 in every direction1 a volume of black mud4 ,after an interval of a few seconds1 the hemispherical body of earth or mud again rises and explodes4 ,in the same manner this volcanic ebullition goes on without interruption1 throwing up a globular body of mud1 and dispersing it with violence through the neighboring plain4 ,the spot where the ebullition occurs is nearly circular1 and perfectly level1 and is entirely covered with the earthy particles1 impregnated with salt water1 which are thrown up from below4 ,the circumference may be estimated at about half a mile4 ,in order to conduct the salt water to the circumference1 small passages1 or gutters1 are made in the loose muddy earth1 which lead it to the borders1 where it is collected in holes1 or salt wells1 dug in the ground1 for the purpose of evaporation4 ,the mud recently thrown up1 possesses a degree of heat greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere1 and emits a strong1 pungent and sulphurous smell4 ,this volcanic phenomenon is situated near the center of the large plain which interrupts the series of the more considerable volcanoes1 and owes its origin to the general cause of the numerous volcanic eruptions which occur in the island of ,java4 ,the tremendous violence with which nature marks the operations of volcanoes in these regions1 will be best exemplified by the following details of the extraordinary and wide-spreading phenomena which accompanied the eruption of the ,tomboro mountain1 in the island of ,sumbawa1 one of the ,javanese cluster4 ,this eruption1 which happened in ,april1 #ahae1 was sensibly felt over the whole of the ,molucca islands1 over ,java1 and over a considerable portion of ,celebes1 ,sumatra and ,borneo1 to a circumference of a thousand statute miles from its center1 by tremulous motions and loud explosions2 while1 within the range of its more immediate activity1 embracing a space of three hundred miles around it1 it produced the most astonishing effects and excited the most alarming apprehensions4 ,on ,java1 at the distance of three hundred miles1 it seemed to be awfully present4 ,the sky was overcast at noonday with a cloud of ashes2 the sun was enveloped in an atmosphere1 the palpable density of which it was unable to penetrate2 showers of ashes covered the houses1 the streets and the fields1 to the depth of several inches2 and1 amid this darkness1 explosions were heard at intervals1 like the report of artillery1 or the noise of distant thunder4 ,every one conceived1 that the effects experienced might be caused by eruptions of some of the numerous volcanoes on the island2 but no one could have conjectured1 that the shower of ashes which darkened the air1 and covered the ground of the eastern district of ,java1 could have proceeded from a mountain in ,sumbawa1 at the distance of several hundred miles4 ,the first explosions were heard at ,java1 on the evening of the fifth of ,april1 and continued until the following day1 when the sun became obscured1 and appeared to be enveloped in a fog4 ,the weather was sultry2 the atmosphere close2 and the pressure of the latter1 added to the general stillness1 seemed to forebode an earthquake4 ,this lasted for several days1 the explosions continuing1 but not with so much violence as at first4 ,on the evening of the tenth1 the eruptions1 however1 were more loud and more frequent2 ashes fell in abundance2 the sun was nearly obscured2 and in several parts of the island a tremulous motion of the earth was felt4 ,on the following day1 the explosions were so tremendous as to shake the houses perceptibly in the more eastern districts4 ,in the island of ,sumbawa itself1 there was a great loss of lives1 and the surviving inhabitants were reduced to extreme misery4 ,it appears from the account of the rajah1 who was a spectator of the eruption1 that on the evening of the tenth of ,april1 three distinct columns of flame1 all apparently within the verge of the crater of the ,tomboro mountain1 burst forth1 and1 after ascending separately to a very great hight1 united their tops in the air4 ,the whole of the mountain now appeared like a body of liquid fire1 extending itself in every direction4 ,stones and ashes were precipitated2 and a whirlwind ensued1 which blew down the greater part of the houses in an adjoining village4 ,it tore up by the roots the largest trees1 and carried them into the air1 together with men1 horses1 cattle1 and whatever came within its influence4 ,the sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than usual1 a phenomenon commonly attendant on earthquakes1 overwhelming the plantations of rice1 and sweeping away houses1 with whatever came within its reach4 ,it is calculated that full twelve thousand individuals perished4 ,the trees and herbage of every description1 along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula1 were completely destroyed1 with the exception of a high point of land near the spot where the village of ,tomboro stood4 ,the extreme misery to which the inhabitants of the western part of the island were reduced1 was dreadful to behold4 ,the roads were strewed with dead bodies2 the villages were almost entirely deserted1 and the houses fallen down4 ,the peasants wandered in all directions in search of food2 and the famine became so severe1 that one of the daughters of the rajah died of hunger4 ,to judge of the violence of the eruption1 it will suffice to state1 that the cloud of ashes which had been carried with so much celerity as to produce utter darkness1 extended1 in the direction of the island of ,celebes1 two hundred and seventeen nautical miles from the seat of the volcano2 and1 in a direct line toward ,java1 upward of three hundred geographical miles4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,basaltic ,,and ,,rocky ,,wonders4 ------------------------------------ ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway4 ,this vast collection of basaltic pillars is in the vicinity of ,ballimony1 in the county of ,antrim1 ,ireland4 ,the principal1 or grand causeway1 7there being several less considerable and scattered fragments of a similar nature17 consists of an irregular arrangement of many hundred thousands of columns1 formed of a black rock1 nearly as hard as marble4 ,the greater part of them are of a pentagonal figure1 but so closely and compactly situated on their sides1 though perfectly distinct from top to bottom1 that scarcely anything can be introduced between them4 ,these columns are of an unequal hight and breadth3 several of the most elevated1 visible above the surface of the strand1 and at the foot of the impending angular precipice1 are of the hight of about twenty feet1 which they do not exceed1 at least not any of the principal arrangement4 ,how deeply they are fixed in the strand1 has never yet been ascertained4 ,this grand arrangement extends nearly two hundred yards1 as it is visible at low water2 but how far beyond is uncertain3 from its declining appearance1 however1 at low water1 it is probable that it does not reach beneath the water as far as it is seen above4 ,the breadth of the principal causeway1 which runs out in one continued range of columns1 is in general from twenty to thirty feet3 in some parts it may1 for a short distance1 be nearly forty4 ,from this account are excluded the broken and scattered pieces of the same kind of construction1 which are detached from the sides of the grand causeway1 as they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the principal arrangement1 although they have been frequently comprehended in the width1 which has led to such wild and dissimilar representations of this causeway1 in the different accounts that have been given4 ,its highest part is the narrowest1 at the very spot of the impending cliff1 whence the whole projects2 and there1 for about the same space in length1 its width is not more than from twelve to fifteen feet4 ,the columns of this narrow part incline from a perpendicular a little to the westward1 and form a slope on their tops1 by the unequal hight of their sides2 and in this way a gradual ascent is made at the foot of the cliff1 from the head of one column to the next above1 to the top of the great causeway1 which1 at the distance of about eighteen feet from the cliff1 obtains a perpendicular position1 and lowering from its general hight1 widens to between twenty and thirty feet1 being for nearly three hundred feet always above the water4 ,the tops of the columns being1 throughout this length1 nearly of an equal hight1 form a grand and singular parade1 which may be walked on1 somewhat inclining to the water's edge4 ,but from the high-water mark1 as it is perpetually washed by the beating surges at every return of the tide1 the platform lowers considerably1 becoming more and more uneven1 so as not to be walked on but with the greatest care4 ,at the distance of a hundred and fifty yards from the cliffs1 it turns a little to the east for the space of twenty or thirty yards1 and then sinks into the sea4 ,the figure of these columns is1 with few exceptions1 pentagonal1 or composed of five sides2 and the spectator must look very narrowly indeed to find any of a different construction1 having three1 four or six sides4 ,what is very extraordinary1 and particularly curious is1 that there are not two columns in ten thousand to be found1 which either have their sides equal among themselves1 or display a like figure4 ,the composition of these columns or pillars1 is also deserving the attention of the curious observer4 ,they are not of one solid stone in an upright position1 but composed of several short lengths1 nicely joined1 not with flat surfaces1 but articulated into each other like a ball and socket1 or like the joints in the vertebr of some of the larger kinds of fish1 the one at the joint having a cavity1 into which the convex end of the opposite is exactly fitted4 ,this is not visible unless on disjointing the two stones4 ,the depth of the concavity or convexity is generally about three or four inches4 ,it is still further remarkable1 that the convexity and correspondent concavity of the joint1 are not conformable to the external angular figure of the column1 but exactly round1 and as large as the size or diameter of the column will admit2 consequently1 as the angles of these columns are in general very unequal1 the circular edges of the joints are seldom coincident with more than two or three sides of the pentagonal1 and are1 from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the exterior sides and angles1 quite plain4 ,it ought likewise to be noticed as a singular curiosity1 that the articulations of these joints are frequently inverted1 in some of them the concavity being upward1 in others the reverse4 ,this occasions that variety and mixture of concavities and convexities on the tops of the columns1 which is observable throughout the platform of this causeway1 without any discoverable design or regularity with respect to the number of either4 ,the length of these particular stones1 from joint to joint1 is various3 they are in general from eighteen inches to two feet long2 and for the greater part1 longer toward the bottom of the columns than nearer the top1 the articulation of the joints being there somewhat deeper4 ,the size1 or diameter1 likewise of the columns1 is as different as their length and figure3 in general they are from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter4 ,throughout the whole of this combination there are no traces of uniformity or design1 except in the form of the joint1 which is invariably by an articulation of the convex into the concave of the piece next above or below it3 nor are there traces of a finishing in any part1 whether in the hight1 length or breadth4 ,if there be particular instances in which the columns above water have a smooth top1 others near them1 of an equal hight1 are more or less convex or concave1 which shows them to have been joined to pieces that have been washed away1 or by other means taken off4 ,it can not be doubted but that those parts which are constantly above water have gradually become more and more even1 at the same time that the remaining surfaces of the joints must necessarily have been worn smoother1 by the constant action of the air1 and by the friction in walking over them1 than where the sea1 at every tide1 beats on the causeway1 continually removing some of the upper stones1 and exposing fresh joints4 ,as all the exterior columns1 which have two or three sides exposed to view1 preserve their diameters from top to bottom1 it may be inferred1 that such is also the case with the interior columns1 the tops of which alone are visible4 ,notwithstanding the general dissimilitude of the columns1 relatively to their figure and diameter1 they are so arranged and combined at all the points1 that a knife can scarcely be introduced between them1 either at the sides or angles4 ,it is most interesting to examine the close contexture and nice insertion of the infinite variety of forms exhibited on the surface of this grand parade4 ,from the great dissimilarity of the figures of the columns1 the spectator would be led to believe the causeway a work of human art1 were it not1 on the other hand1 inconceivable that the genius or invention of man should construct and combine such an infinite number of columns1 which should have a general apparent likeness1 and still be so universally dissimilar in their figure1 as that on the minutest examination1 not two in ten or twenty thousand should be found having their angles and sides equal among themselves1 or those of one column to those of another4 ,as there is an infinite variety in the configuration of the several parts1 so there are no traces of regularity or design in the outlines of this curious phenomenon3 including the broken or detached pieces of a similar structure1 they are extremely scattered and confused4 ,whatever may have been their original state1 they do not at present appear to have any connection with the grand or principal causeway1 as to any supposable design or use in its first construction2 and as little design can be inferred from the figure or position of the several constituent parts4 ,this singular formation is not confined to the ,giant's ,causeway2 but to quite a distance from it1 the cliffs exhibit1 in many parts1 similar columns4 ,at the depth of ten or twelve feet from the summit of the cape of ,bengore1 the rock begins to assume a columnar tendency1 and forms a range of massy pillars of basalt1 which stand perpendicular to the horizon1 presenting in the sharp face of the promontory1 the appearance of a magnificent gallery or colonnade1 upward of sixty feet in hight4 ,this colonnade is supported on a solid base of coarse1 black1 irregular rock1 nearly sixty feet thick1 abounding in what are called blebs1 7that is1 little blisters as it were on the rock17 and also in air holes2 but1 though comparatively irregular1 it evidently affects a peculiar figure1 tending in many places to run into regular forms1 resembling the shooting of salts and many other substances during a hasty crystallization4 ,beneath this great bed of stone1 stands a second range of pillars from forty to fifty feet high1 more exactly defined1 and emulating in the neatness of its columns1 those of the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,this lower range is upborne by a layer of red ocher stone1 which serves as a relief to show it to greater advantage4 ,the two admirable natural galleries1 with the interjacent masses of irregular rock1 form a perpendicular hight of one hundred and seventy feet1 from the base of which the promontory1 covered with rock and grass1 slopes down to the sea a considerable space1 so as to give an additional hight of two hundred feet1 making in all nearly four hundred feet of perpendicular elevation1 and presenting a mass1 which for beauty and variety of coloring1 for elegance and novelty of arrangement1 and for the extraordinary magnitude of its objects1 can not1 perhaps1 be rivaled by anything at present known4 ,the promontory of ,fairhead raises its lofty summit more than four hundred feet above the level of the sea1 and forms the eastern termination of ,ballycastle bay4 ,it presents a vast compact mass of rude columnar stones1 the forms of which are extremely gross1 many being a hundred and fifty feet in length4 ,at the base of these gigantic columns lies a wild waste of natural ruins of an enormous size1 which1 in the course of successive ages1 have been tumbled down from their foundations by storms1 or some more powerful operations of nature4 ,these massive bodies have occasionally withstood the shock of their fall1 and often lie in groups1 and clumps of pillars1 resembling artificial ruins1 and forming a very novel and striking landscape4 ,many of these pillars lie to the east1 in the very bottom of the bay1 at the distance of about one-third of a mile from the causeway4 ,there the earth has evidently fallen away from them upon the strand1 and exhibits a very curious arrangement of pentagonal columns1 in a perpendicular position1 apparently supporting a cliff of different strata of earth1 clay1 rock1 c41 to the hight of a hundred and fifty feet4 ,some of these columns are from thirty to forty feet high1 from the top of the sloping bank beneath them2 and being longer in the middle of the arrangement1 shortening on either of the sides1 have obtained the appellation of organs1 from a rude likeness in this particular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that instrument4 ,as there are few broken pieces on the strand1 near this assemblage of columns1 it is probable that the outside range1 as it now appears1 is in reality the original exterior line toward the sea2 but how far these columns extend internally into the bowels of the incumbent cliff is unknown4 ,the very substance1 indeed1 of that part of the cliff which projects to a point1 between the two bays on the east and west of the causeway1 seems composed of similar materials2 for1 besides the many pieces which are seen on the sides of the cliff1 as it winds to the bottom of the bays1 particularly on the eastern side1 there is at the very point of the cliff1 and just above the narrow and highest part of the causeway1 a long collection of them1 the heads or summits of which just appearing without the sloping bank1 make it evident that they lie in a sleeping position1 and about half-way between the perpendicular and horizontal4 ,the heads of these columns are likewise of mixed surfaces1 convex and concave2 and they evidently appear to have been removed from their original upright position1 to the inclining or oblique one they have now assumed1 by the sinking or falling of the cliff4 ,,basaltic ,,columns4 ,in the country surrounding ,padua1 in ,italy1 there are several basaltic columns1 similar to those of the ,giant's ,causeway1 although less magnificent in appearance4 ,about seven miles in a southern direction from that city1 is a hill named ,monte ,rosso1 or the ,red mount1 which presents a natural range of prismatic columns1 of different shapes and sizes1 placed in a direction nearly perpendicular to the horizon1 and parallel to each other1 nearly resembling that part of the ,giant's ,causeway1 called the organs4 ,at an inconsiderable distance is another basaltine hill1 called ,il monte del ,diavolo1 or the ,devil's hill1 along the sides of which prismatic columns are arranged in an oblique position4 ,this causeway extends along the side of the vale beneath1 with nearly the same arrangement of the columns as is displayed on the hill4 ,although the columns of both these hills are of the simple1 or unjointed kind1 still they differ very remarkably from each other in many respects1 but principally in their forms1 and in the texture and quality of their parts4 ,those of the ,monte del ,diavolo commonly approach a circular form1 as nearly as their angles will allow2 which is also observable in the columns of the ,giant's ,causeway and of most other basaltic groups4 ,on the contrary1 those of ,monte ,rosso assume an oblong or oval figure4 ,the columns of the former measure1 one with the other1 nearly a foot in diameter1 varying but little in their size2 while those of the latter present a great variety in their dimensions1 the diameter of some of them being nearly a foot1 and that of others scarcely three inches3 their common width may be estimated at six or eight inches4 ,they differ1 therefore1 very considerably in size from those of the ,giant's ,causeway1 some of which measure two feet in width4 ,the length of the columns of the ,monte del ,diavolo can not be ascertained1 as they present only their summits to the view3 their remaining parts are deeply buried in the hill1 and in some places entirely covered4 ,those of ,monte ,rosso1 as far as they are visible1 measure from six to eight or ten feet in hight2 an inconsiderable size when compared with the hight of those of the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,the columns of these groups display1 however1 all the varieties of prismatic forms1 which are observable in those of the latter1 and other similar groups4 ,they are usually of five1 six or seven sides2 but the hexagonal form seems chiefly to prevail4 ,the texture and quality of these columns are not less different than their forms4 ,those of the ,monte del ,diavolo present a smooth surface1 and1 when broken1 appear within of a dark iron-gray color1 manifesting also a very solid and uniform texture2 in which characters they correspond with the columns of the ,giant's ,causeway1 and those of most other basaltic groups4 ,but the columns of ,monte ,rosso are in these respects very different1 having not only a very rough 7and sometimes knotty7 surface1 but displaying likewise1 when broken1 a variegated color and unequal texture of parts4 ,they are commonly speckled1 more or less distinctly1 and resemble an inferior sort of granite1 of which ,monte ,rosso is itself formed1 and which serves as a base to the range of columns in question4 ,it is1 in general1 not quite so hard as the alpine and oriental granites1 and is sometimes even friable4 ,this species of granite abounds in ,france1 where large tracts of it are to be seen in ,auvergne1 and the adjoining regions4 ,but it is still more common in ,italy1 seeing that1 besides ,monte ,rosso1 the bulk of the ,euganean hills1 of which that is a part1 principally consists of it2 and these hills occupy a considerable tract in the plains of ,lombardy4 ,it is also common in the ,roman and ,tuscan states2 and of this substance the mountain close to ,viterbo1 on the road to ,rome1 is entirely composed4 ,the columns of ,monte ,rosso appear1 therefore1 of a different character from any hitherto described by mineralogists1 who mention those only of an uniform color and texture4 ,but the great singularity here is1 that such a range of prismatic columns should be found1 bedded as it were1 in a mass of granite1 and composed nearly of the same substance4 ,an instance of this kind1 relative to any other causeway1 is not recorded2 and this circumstance seems to render that of ,monte ,rosso1 in one respect at least1 more curious and singular than the celebrated ,giant's ,causeway is known to be1 from the regular articulation of its columns4 ,it is certain1 that the basaltic group of ,monte ,rosso is not only highly curious in itself1 but interesting on account of the great light it throws on the origin of granites in general4 ,it is likewise remarkable1 that the columns in the two groups of ,monte ,rosso and ,monte del ,diavolo1 preserve respectively the same position1 nearly parallel to each other2 which is not usually the case in basaltic groups4 ,for1 although the principal aggregate of which the ,giant's ,causeway is formed1 stands in a direction perpendicular to the horizon1 still other small detached groups of columns also appear on the eminence above1 assuming by their position different degrees of obliquity4 ,among the numerous basaltic hills of ,auvergne and the adjoining regions1 in ,france1 phenomena which seem to abound in those provinces more than in any other part of ,europe1 and1 perhaps1 of the known globe1 nothing is more common than to see the columns of the same group lying in all possible directions1 as irregularly almost as the prisms in a mass of common crystal4 ,nor is this variety of position so observable in single columns as in whole masses or ranges of them1 that often present themselves on the same hill1 disposed in different strata or stages1 as it were1 one above the other1 many of them assuming very different1 and even opposite directions4 ,the columns of the ,monte del ,diavolo are bedded in a kind of volcanic sand1 by which1 in many parts of the hill1 they are entirely covered3 it is probable1 however1 that they repose beneath on a base of basaltic rock of a similar nature4 ,nothing is more common1 in the provinces of ,france1 above mentioned1 than to see insulated basaltic hills almost exclusively composed of different layers of columns1 which present themselves in stages1 one above the other1 often without any other stratum between them1 resembling in some measure1 if the comparison can be allowed1 a huge pile or stack of cleft wood4 ,although the columnar crystallization of ,monte ,rosso is the only one yet known or described1 in a mass of granite1 still other groups of columns have elsewhere been met with1 which are equally of a heterogeneous substance or texture1 however they may otherwise differ from those of ,monte ,rosso1 as well as from the common basalts4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,natural ,,bridges4 ------------------------------------ ,,natural ,,bridges ,,of ,,icononzo4 ,amid the majestic and varied scenery of the ,cordilleras of ,south ,america1 that of their valleys most forcibly strikes the imagination of foreign travelers4 ,the enormous hight of these mountains is not discoverable but at a considerable distance1 and while the spectator is on one of those plains which extend from the sea-coasts to the foot of the central chain4 ,the flats1 or table-lands1 which surround the snow-clad summits of the mountains1 are themselves1 for the greater part1 of an elevation of from seven to nine thousand feet1 or nearly a mile and three-quarters1 above the level of the sea4 ,this circumstance diminishes1 to a certain degree1 the impression of greatness produced by the colossal masses of ,chimborazo1 ,cotopaxi1 ,pichincha1 c41 when seen from the flats of ,riobamba1 or from those of ,quito4 ,it is not1 however1 with the valleys as with the mountains3 deeper and narrower than those of the ,alps and the ,pyrenees1 the valleys of the ,cordilleras present situations still more wild than these1 and more adapted to fill the soul with admiration and with terror4 ,fissures and chasms present themselves1 having their bottoms and sides ornamented with a vigorous vegetation1 and of such a depth1 that ,vesuvius and the ,puy-de-,dome might be placed within several of them1 and not show their summits above the edge of the neighboring mountains4 ,in passing along the back of the ,andes1 from ,pasto to ,villa d',ibarra1 and in descending the ,loxa toward the banks of the river ,amazon1 the traveler reaches the celebrated fissures of ,chota and ,cutaco1 the former of which is nearly a mile1 and the latter upward of three-quarters of a mile1 in perpendicular depth4 ,to give a more complete idea of the grandeur of these geological phenomena1 it should be observed1 that the bottoms of these fissures are by one-fourth only1 less elevated above the level of the sea1 than the passages of ,st4 ,gothard and ,mount ,cenis4 ,the valley of ,icononzo1 or of ,pandi1 is less remarkable for its dimensions1 than for the extraordinary form of its rocks1 which appear as if shaped by the hand of man4 ,their naked and barren summits form the most picturesque contrasts with the tufts of trees and herbaceous vegetables which cover the edges of the fissure4 ,the little torrent which has worked itself a passage through the valley of ,icononzo1 bears the name of ,rio de la ,summa ,paz4 ,it descends from the eastern chain of the ,andes1 which1 with the republic of ,new ,grenada1 separates the basin of the river of ,magdelena from the vast plains of the ,meta1 ,guaviare and ,oronoco4 ,this torrent1 confined within a bed almost inaccessible1 could not have been crossed without many difficulties1 had not ,nature herself formed ,,two ,,bridges ,,of ,,rocks1 which are justly regarded in the country as among the objects most worthy of the attention of travelers4 ,these ,,natural ,,bridges are on the route from ,bogota to ,popayan and ,quito4 ,icononzo is the name of an ancient village of ,muyscas ,indians1 situated on the south side of the valley1 and of which scarcely any vestige now remains1 except a few scattered huts4 ,the nearest inhabited place to this remarkable spot is the little village of ,pandi1 or ,mercadillo1 distant about a mile4 ,the road from ,bogota to ,fusagasuga1 and thence to ,pandi1 is one of the most difficult and least beaten to be met with in the ,andes4 ,none but those who passionately love the beauties of ,nature1 would fail to prefer the usual road which leads from the flat of ,bogota to the banks of the ,magdelena1 to the perilous descent from the ,paramo de ,san-,fortunato1 and the mountains of ,fusagasuga1 toward the natural bridges of ,icononzo4 ,the deep chasm through which the torrent of ,summa ,paz precipitates itself1 occupies the center of the valley of ,icononzo4 ,near the first natural bridge1 it maintains1 for a length of nearly four-fifths of a mile1 a direction from east to west4 ,the river forms two fine cascades1 the one at the spot where it enters the chasm on the west of ,doa1 and the other at that where it leaves it1 in descending toward ,melgar4 ,it is possible that this chasm1 which resembles1 but on an enormous scale1 the gallery of a mine1 may have been the result of an earthquake1 and that1 at its formation1 the compact bed of quartz1 composing the superior stratum of rock1 had resisted the force which tore asunder these mountains4 ,the uninterrupted continuation of this quartzose bed would thus form the bridge1 which affords a passage from one part of the valley to the other4 ,this surprising natural arch is forty-eight feet in length1 forty in width1 and eight feet in thickness at the center4 ,by experiments carefully made on the fall of bodies1 its hight above the level of the water of the torrent1 has been ascertained to be about three hundred and twenty feet4 ,the depth of the torrent at the mean hight of the water1 may be estimated at twenty feet4 ,the ,indians of the valley of ,icononzo1 for the security of travelers1 have formed a fence of reeds1 which extends to the road leading to this first natural bridge4 ,at the distance of sixty feet below is another1 to which the traveler is conducted by a path descending along the edge of the chasm4 ,three enormous masses of rock have fallen into such positions as enable them reciprocally to support each other4 ,the one in the center forms the key of the vault1 an accident which may have conveyed to the natives of this spot an idea of arched masonry1 which was unknown to the people of the new world1 as well as to the ancient inhabitants of ,egypt4 ,it is uncertain whether these portions of rock have been projected from a distance1 or are merely the fragments of an arch which has been destroyed on the spot1 but which was originally similar to the upper natural bridge4 ,this last supposition is rendered probable by an analogous accident1 observable in the ,coliseum at ,rome1 where there are seen1 in a wall half-fallen1 several stones which were arrested in their descent1 because in falling they happened to form an arch4 ,in the midst of this second natural bridge is an aperture of about twenty-five feet in every direction1 through which the eye reaches the bottom of the abyss4 ,the torrent appears to run into a dark cavern1 whence a mournful sound proceeds1 formed by the cries of an infinity of nocturnal birds which inhabit the chasm1 and which at first sight may be taken for those bats of a monstrous size1 so well known in the equinoctial regions4 ,they can only be perceived by the help of lighted brands1 thrown into the chasm to illuminate its sides2 and thousands of them may thus be distinguished1 skimming along the surface of the water4 ,their plumage is uniformly of a brown gray color2 and ,m4 ,humboldt1 from whose account these particulars are extracted1 was assured by the ,indians1 that these hitherto undescribed birds are of the size of a chicken1 with the eyes of an owl1 and a curved beak4 ,on account of the depth of the valley1 it was impossible to obtain a near view of them4 ,the elevation of the bridges of ,icononzo1 these surprising productions of nature1 above the level of the ocean1 is two thousand seven hundred feet1 somewhat more than half a mile4 ,in concluding his description of them1 ,m4 ,humboldt has noticed several other natural bridges1 among which is that in ,virginia1 noticed more particularly below4 ,he considers this1 as well as the bridge of earth1 called ,rumichaca1 which is on the declivity of the porphyritic mountains of ,chumban1 in ,south ,america2 together with the bridge of ,madre de ,dios1 named ,dantcu1 near ,totonilco1 in ,mexico2 and the perforated rock near ,grandola1 in the province of ,alemtejo1 in ,portugal1 as geological phenomena1 which have some resemblance to the natural bridges of ,icononzo2 but he doubts whether1 in any other part of the world1 there has yet been discovered an accidental arrangement so extraordinary as that of three masses of rock1 which1 reciprocally sustaining each other1 form a natural arch4 ,,natural ,,bridge ,,in ,,virginia4 ,this natural bridge1 which has been described by ,mr4 ,jefferson1 and many other writers1 is one of the most sublime productions of nature1 as well as one of the great curiosities and wonders of the world4 ,it is situated in ,rockbridge county1 in ,virginia1 on the ascent of a hill which seems to have been cloven through its length by some mighty convulsion4 ,it consists of a stupendous arch of limestone1 spanning a small stream1 called ,cedar creek4 ,its hight above the stream to the top1 is two hundred and fifteen feet2 its average width1 eighty feet2 its extreme length at the top1 ninety-three feet2 and its thickness1 from the under to the upper side1 fifty-five feet4 ,the chasm over which it passes1 is fifty feet wide at the bottom1 and ninety feet at the top4 ,the view from the top is exceedingly grand and impressive2 from below1 equally sublime and more interesting1 because divested of associations of fear4 ,the bridge is of important use1 forming a road over this immense chasm1 which is not otherwise passable for several miles in either direction4 ,the top of the bridge is covered with a coat of earth1 which affords growth to many large trees4 ,the residue1 with the hill on both sides1 is a solid rock of limestone4 ,the arch1 as is seen in the engraving of the bridge1 approaches the semi-elliptical form2 though the larger axis of the ellipsis1 which would be the chord of the arch1 is many times longer than its transverse4 ,although the sides of this bridge are provided in some parts with a parapet of rocks1 yet few persons have sufficient resolution to stand on them1 and look over into the abyss4 ,the passenger involuntarily falls on his hands1 creeps to the parapet and peeps over it4 ,looking down from this hight1 for the space of a minute1 occasions giddiness and sometimes headache4 ,but if the view from above be so painful as not long to be borne1 that from beneath is delightful in the extreme4 ,it is impossible for the emotions arising from the sublime1 to be felt in a greater degree than at this spot4 ,the sensations of the spectator can not be described1 when he surveys an arch at once so beautiful1 so elevated1 and so light1 springing up1 as it were1 to heaven6 ,illustration ,this grand natural bridge1 as already mentioned1 is of limestone2 and this is so soft that it may easily be cut with a knife4 ,in this fact there may be a foundation for the following interesting1 though somewhat overdrawn sketch1 from the graphic pen of ,elihu ,burritt1 designed to illustrate the effect of perseverance and an honorable ambition4 8,the scene opens with a view of the great natural bridge in ,virginia4 ,there are three or four lads standing in the channel below1 looking up with awe to that vast arch of unhewn rocks1 which the ,almighty bridged over those everlasting butments #8when the morning stars sang together4' ,the little piece of sky spanning those measureless piers1 is full of stars1 although it is midday4 ,it is almost five hundred feet from where they stand1 up those perpendicular bulwarks of limestone1 to the key-rock of that vast arch1 which appears to them only of the size of a man's hand4 ,the silence of death is rendered more impressive by the little stream that falls from rock to rock down the channel4 ,the sun is darkened1 and the boys have unconsciously uncovered their heads1 as if standing in the presence-chamber of the ,majesty of the whole earth4 ,at last1 this feeling begins to wear away2 they look around1 and find that others have been there before them4 ,they see the names of hundreds cut in the limestone butments4 ,a new feeling comes over their young hearts1 and their knives are in their hands in an instant4 #8,what man has done1 man can do1' is their watchword1 while they draw themselves up1 and carve their names a foot above those of a hundred full-grown men who have been there before them4 ,they are all satisfied with this feat of physical exertion1 except one1 whose example illustrates perfectly the forgotten truth1 that there is no royal road to intellectual eminence4 ,this ambitious youth sees a name just above his reach1 a name that will be green in the memory of the world1 when those of ,alexander1 ,csar1 and ,bonaparte1 shall rot in oblivion4 ,it was the name of ,washington4 ,before he marched with ,braddock to that fatal field1 he had been there1 and left his name a foot above all his predecessors4 ,it was a glorious thought of the boy1 to write his name side by side with that of the great father of his country4 ,he grasps his knife with a firmer hand2 and1 clinging to a little jutting crag1 he cuts again into the limestone1 about a foot above where he stands2 he then reaches up and cuts another for his hands4 ',tis a dangerous adventure2 but as he puts his feet and hands into those gains1 and draws himself up carefully to his full length1 he finds himself a foot above every name chronicled in that mighty wall4 ,while his companions are regarding him with concern and admiration1 he cuts his name in rude capitals1 large and deep1 into that rocky album4 ,his knife is in his hand1 and strength in his sinews1 and a new created aspiration in his heart4 ,again he cuts another niche1 and again he carves his name in larger capitals4 ,this is not enough4 ,heedless of the entreaties of his companions1 he cuts and climbs again4 ,the graduations of his ascending scale grow wider apart4 ,he measures his length at every gain he cuts4 ,the voices of his friends wax weaker and weaker1 till their words are finally lost on his ear4 ,he now for the first time casts a look beneath him4 ,had that glance lasted a moment1 that moment would have been his last4 ,he clings with a convulsive shudder to his little niche in the rock4 ,an awful abyss awaits his almost certain fall4 ,he is faint with severe exertion1 and trembling from the sudden view of the dreadful destruction to which he is exposed4 ,his knife is worn half-way to the haft4 ,he can hear the voices1 but not the words1 of his terror-stricken companions below4 ,what a moment6 ,what a meager chance to escape destruction6 ,there is no retracing his steps4 ,it is impossible to put his hands into the same niche with his feet1 and retain his slender hold a moment4 ,his companions instantly perceive this new and fearful dilemma1 and await his fall with emotions that #8freeze their young blood4' ,he is too high1 too faint1 to ask for his father and mother1 his brothers and sisters1 to come and witness or avert his destruction4 ,but one of his companions anticipates his desire4 ,swift as the wind1 he bounds down the channel1 and the situation of the fated boy is told upon his father's hearth-stone4 8,minutes of almost eternal length roll on1 and there are hundreds standing in that rocky channel1 and hundreds on the bridge above1 all holding their breath1 and awaiting the fearful catastrophe4 ,the poor boy hears the hum of new and numerous voices both above and below4 ,he can just distinguish the tones of his father1 who is shouting with all the energy of despair1 #8,william6 ,william6 ,don't look down6 ,your mother1 and ,henry1 and ,harriet are all here1 praying for you6 ,don't look down6 ,keep your eye toward the top6' ,the boy didn't look down4 ,his eye is fixed like a flint toward heaven1 and his young heart on ,him who reigns there4 ,he grasps again his knife4 ,he cuts another niche1 and another foot is added to the hundreds that remove him from the reach of human help from below4 ,how carefully he uses his wasting blade6 ,how anxiously he selects the softest places in that vast pier6 ,how he avoids every flinty grain6 ,how he economizes his physical powers6 resting a moment at each gain he cuts4 ,how every motion is watched from below6 ,there stand his father1 mother1 brother1 sister1 on the very spot where1 if he falls1 he will not fall alone4 ,the sun is now half-way down the west4 ,the lad has made fifty additional niches in that mighty wall1 and now finds himself directly under the middle of that vast arch of rocks1 earth and trees4 ,he must cut his way in a new direction1 to get from under this overhanging mountain4 ,the inspiration of hope is dying in his bosom2 its vital heat is fed by the increasing shouts of hundreds perched upon cliffs and trees1 and others who stand with ropes in their hands on the bridge above1 or with ladders below4 ,fifty gains more must be cut before the longest rope can reach him4 ,his wasting blade strikes again into the limestone4 ,the boy is emerging painfully1 foot by foot1 from under that lofty arch4 ,spliced ropes are ready in the hands of those who are leaning over the outer edge of the bridge4 ,two minutes more1 and all will be over4 ,that blade is worn to the last half-inch4 ,the boy's head reels2 his eyes are starting from their sockets4 ,his last hope is dying in his heart2 his life must hang upon the next gain he cuts4 ,that niche is his last4 ,at the last faint gash he makes1 his knife1 his faithful knife1 falls from his little nerveless hand1 and1 ringing along the precipice1 falls at his mother's feet4 ,an involuntary groan of despair runs like a death-knell through the channel below1 and all is still as the grave4 ,at the hight of nearly three hundred feet1 the devoted boy lifts his hopeless heart and closing eyes to commend his soul to ,god4 ',tis but a moment--there6--one foot swings off6--he is reeling--trembling--toppling over into eternity6 ,hark6 a shout falls on his ear from above6 ,the man who is lying with half his length over the bridge1 has caught a glimpse of the boy's head and shoulders4 ,quick as thought1 the noosed rope is within reach of the sinking youth4 ,no one breathes4 ,with a faint1 convulsive effort1 the swooning boy drops his arms into the noose4 ,darkness comes over him1 and with the words1 ,god6 and ,mother6 whispered on his lips just loud enough to be heard in heaven1 the tightening rope lifts him out of his last shallow niche4 ,not a lip moves while he is dangling over that fearful abyss2 but when a sturdy ,virginian reaches down and draws up the lad1 and holds him up in his arms before the tearful1 breathless multitude1 such shouting and leaping and weeping for joy1 never greeted the ear of a human being so recovered from the yawning gulf of eternity40 ,we will only add before leaving the subject of natural bridges1 that the one in ,virginia is not1 as has been generally supposed1 the only geological wonder of the kind in the ,united ,states4 ,in ,carter county1 ,kentucky1 there is a natural bridge across the ,rockbridge branch of the ,cany fork of ,little ,sandy4 ,it has a span of one hundred and ninety-five feet1 and is twelve feet wide1 twenty feet thick in the middle of the arch1 and one hundred and seven feet above the water4 ,in the county of ,walker1 in ,alabama1 there is another similar natural curiosity1 which was discovered in a recent geological exploration4 ,the span is one hundred and twenty feet1 and the hight nearly seventy feet4 ,this bridge is formed of sandstone1 and is very symmetrical4 ,large beech and hemlock trees grow on the bridge1 and the surrounding scenery is represented as sublime4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,precipices ,,and ,,promontories4 ------------------------------------ ,,bessely ,,ghaut4 ,the precipitous pathways which frequently occur in the ,indian ,apennines1 a chain of mountains extending along the western or ,malabar coasts of the peninsula1 are called ghauts2 and of these abrupt and perpendicular precipices1 ,bessely ghaut is considered as the most romantic4 ,it is admirably described in the travels of ,lord ,valentia1 from which the following particulars are extracted4 ,on entering the defiles of the chain of mountains by which the table-land of ,mysore is separated from the low country of ,canara and ,malabar1 the scenery becomes extremely wild and romantic4 ,having reached ,purneah ,chuttoor1 situated on the summit of this celebrated ghaut1 his lordship began his descent at three in the morning1 by a road formed with great labor out of a bed of loose rock1 over which the torrents of the preceding winter had run with such force1 as to wash away all the softer parts1 and in several places to leave single rocks1 of four or five feet diameter1 standing in the center of the road1 and not more than two feet asunder4 ,he alighted from his palanquin to admire the sublimity of the scene1 and entered a forest of the largest oriental trees1 several of which were one hundred feet in the stem before a single branch extended itself2 notwithstanding which1 the descent was so steep1 that he was frequently on a level with their tops1 at so small a distance as to be able to distinguish them1 by the gleam of the numerous torches by which his party was accompanied1 but which were insufficient to enlighten the impenetrable canopy of foliage which for miles concealed the face of heaven1 or the deep gloom of the abyss into which he appeared to descend4 ,in the day-time the scene could not have been half so awful or magnificent4 ,the descent was impeded by numerous droves of oxen which were ascending the ghaut4 ,at break of day an opening1 in a winding part of the road1 displayed the lofty mountain the party had descended1 covered with forests nearly to its summit4 ,they passed several rivulets1 which at one spot had united1 and formed a small stream4 ,the surrounding vegetation was richly variegated2 and the branches of the loftiest trees covered by plants of the parasitical tribe4 ,the inhabitants of a small village1 in the center of this immense forest1 were employed in thrashing their grain in a truly patriarchal manner3 on a floor of hard earth the grain was trodden out by oxen1 which1 agreeably to the ,mosaical law1 were unmuzzled4 ,,the ,,cape ,,of ,,the ,,winds4 ,the fortress of ,mankoop1 in the ,crimea1 is of a very extraordinary magnitude1 and may be described as being literally stationed on the clouds4 ,it covers the summit of a semicircular insulated mountain1 which1 from its frightful aspect1 its altitude1 and craggy perpendicular sides1 independently of every other consideration than as a surprising work of nature1 fills the mind with wonder on entering the defile4 ,in this singular situation1 where there are no visible means of ascent toward the hight1 and still less of conveying the necessary materials for the completion of so astonishing a work1 the ,genoese constructed this citadel1 perhaps without a parallel in ,europe1 the result of their wealth1 address and enterprise4 ,being at a remote distance from the coast1 it is natural to conjecture that it was employed to curb the hostile spirit of the natives toward the maritime colonial possessions4 ,the latest possessors of this fortress were ,jews1 in the cemetery of whose colony the traveler meets with ruined tombs of marble and stone1 lying beneath the trees he has to pass in his ascent4 ,the whole of the passage up the mountain is steep and difficult2 nor is it rendered more practicable by the amazing labors of its original possessors1 whose dilapidated works occur almost at every step4 ,on reaching the summit1 caverns and gloomy galleries1 perforated in the rock1 present on every side their dark mouths4 ,on the most elevated part of this extraordinary eminence1 is a beautiful plain1 covered with fine turf3 it is partly fenced in by the moldering wall of the fortress1 but otherwise open to the surrounding precipices4 ,from this spot the adjacent mountains1 valleys1 hills1 woods and villages1 may be discerned4 8,while10 observes the traveler by whom these details are supplied1 8with dismay and caution we crept on our hands and knees to look over the brink of these fearful hights1 a half-clad ,tartar1 wild as the winds of the north1 mounted without a saddle1 and without any other bridle except the twisted stem of a wild vine1 on a colt equally unsubdued1 galloped to the very edge of the precipice1 where1 as his horse stood prancing on the borders of eternity1 he amused himself with pointing out to us the different places in the vast district which the eye commanded4 ,we entered one of the excavated chambers1 a small square apartment1 which led to another on our right hand2 and1 on our left1 a narrow passage conducted us to an open balcony1 with a parapet in front1 formed of the rock1 on the very face of one of the principal precipices1 whence the depth below might be contemplated with less danger4 ,the vultures which hovered over the valleys did not appear larger than swallows2 and the tops of the hills1 covered by tufted woods1 with the villages scattered amid the rocks and defiles1 appeared at so intimidating a depth1 that the blood chilled at the view4 ,at length1 being conducted to the north-eastern point of the crescent1 that being the shape of the summit on which the fortress of ,mankoop was built1 and descending a few stone steps1 neatly hewn out in the rock1 we entered by a square door the cavern1 called by the ,tartars1 the ,cape of the ,winds4 ,it has been chiseled1 like the rest1 out of the solid stone2 but is open on four sides4 ,from the amazing prospect here commanded of all the surrounding country1 it probably served as a post of military observation4 ,the apertures1 or windows1 are large arched chasms in the rock3 through these1 a most extensive range of scenery over the distant mountains and rolling clouds1 forms a sublime spectacle4 ,there is nothing in any part of ,europe to surpass the tremendous grandeur of the place4 ,beneath the cavern is another chamber leading to the several cells on its different sides3 these have all been cut out of the same rock40 ,the party1 in descending1 pursued a route1 which1 if they had taken in their ascent1 would1 our traveler observes1 have afforded them a view of the sublimest scenery imaginable4 ,they now passed beneath an old arched gateway of the citadel1 once its principal entrance4 ,this road flanks the northern side of the mountain2 and the fall into the valley is so bold and profound1 that a single false step would precipitate both horse and rider headlong to it4 ,by alighting1 the danger is avoided2 and the terror of the descent is compensated by the noblest scenery the eye ever beheld4 ,it was dark before they reached the bottom2 and they had some difficulty to regain the principal road which leads through the defile1 owing principally to the trees which project over all the lanes in the vicinity of ,tartar villages1 and so effectually obstruct the passage of persons on horseback1 that they are in continual danger of being thrown4 ,the defile itself is not without danger in certain seasons of the year1 immense masses of limestone detaching themselves from the rocks above1 and carrying all before them in their descent4 ,several of these masses1 detached from the northern precipices1 had crossed the river at the bottom1 and1 by the prodigious velocity acquired in their descent1 had actually rolled nearly half-way up the opposite side4 ,,the ,,north ,,cape4 ,this cape forms the most northerly point of the continent of ,europe1 and may be regarded as one of the wonders of nature4 ,it is situated within the arctic circle1 in seventy-one degrees1 ten minutes1 north latitude4 ,it has been accurately described by a voyager1 from whose account the following particulars are extracted4 ,in approaching the cape1 a little before midnight1 its rocks at first appeared to be nearly of an equal hight1 until they terminated in a perpendicular peak2 but1 on a nearer view1 those within were found to be much higher than those of the extreme peak1 or point4 ,their general appearance was highly picturesque4 ,the sea1 breaking against this immovable rampart1 which had withstood its fury from the remotest ages1 bellowed1 and formed a thick border of white froth4 ,this spectacle1 equally beautiful and grand1 was illumined by the midnight sun2 and the shade which covered the western side of the rocks rendered their aspect still more sublime and almost terrific4 ,the hight of these rocks could not be ascertained2 but here everything was on so grand a scale1 that a point of comparison could not be afforded by any ordinary known objects4 ,on landing1 the party discovered a grotto1 formed of rocks1 the surface of which had been washed smooth by the waves1 and having within a spring of fresh water4 ,the only accessible spot in the vicinity was a hill1 some hundred paces in circumference1 surrounded by enormous crags4 ,from the summit of this hill1 turning toward the sea1 they perceived to the right a prodigious mountain1 attached to the cape1 and rearing its sterile mass to the skies4 ,to the left1 a neck of land1 covered with less elevated rocks1 against which the surges dashed with violence1 closed the bay1 and admitted but a limited view of the ocean4 ,to see as far as possible into the interior1 our navigators climbed almost to the summit of the mountain1 where a most singular landscape presented itself to the view4 ,a lake in the foreground had an elevation of at least ninety feet above the level of the sea2 and on the top of an adjacent1 but less lofty mountain1 was another lake4 ,the view was terminated by peaked rocks1 checkered by patches of snow4 ,at midnight the sun still remained several degrees above the horizon1 and continued to ascend higher and higher till noon1 when having again descended1 it passed the north1 without dipping below the horizon4 ,this phenomenon1 which is as extraordinary to the inhabitants of the torrid and temperate zones1 as snow is to the inhabitants of the torrid zone1 could not be viewed without a particular interest4 ,two months of continued daylight1 during which space the sun never sets1 seem to place the traveler in a new state of existence2 while the effect on the inhabitants of these regions is singular4 ,during the time the sun is perpetually above the horizon1 they rise at ten in the morning1 dine at five or six in the evening1 and go to bed at one4 ,but1 during the winter season1 when1 from the beginning of ,december until the end of ,january1 the sun never rises1 they sleep above half of the twenty-four hours1 and employ the other half in sitting over the fire1 all business being at an end1 and a constant darkness prevailing4 ,the cause of this phenomenon1 as it affects the northern and southern regions of the earth1 may be readily understood4 ,the sun always illumines half the earth at once1 and shines on every side ninety degrees from the place where he is vertical4 ,when he is vertical over the equator1 or equidistant from both poles1 he shines as far as each pole2 and this happens in spring and autumn4 ,but1 as he declines to the north in summer1 he shines beyond the north pole1 and all the countries near that pole turn round in perpetual sunshine3 while at the same time1 he leaves the south pole an equal number of degrees1 so that those parts turn round in darkness4 ,,precipices ,,of ,,san ,,antonia4 ,the mountain of ,san ,antonia1 on the route from ,guyaquil to ,quito1 is described by ,ulloa as presenting a series of the most fearful precipices4 ,in crossing this mountain1 the declivity was in some parts so great1 that the mules could not have kept their footing1 had not the paths been filled with holes1 upward of two feet in depth1 in which the mules placed their fore and hinder feet1 occasionally dragging their bellies1 and the legs of the rider1 along the ground4 ,without these holes which serve as steps1 the precipice would not be practicable4 ,should the creature happen1 however1 to place his foot between two of these holes1 or to falter in the slightest degree1 the rider would fall1 and perish inevitably4 ,to lessen the difficulties and dangers of these craggy paths1 the ,indians who go before the travelers1 dig small trenches across4 ,the descent from the hights was a task of imminent danger4 ,owing to the excessive steepness1 the water had washed away a greater part of the holes2 while1 on the one side were steep eminences1 and on the other1 the most frightful abysses4 ,the mules were themselves sensible of the caution requisite in descending2 for1 on reaching the top of an eminence1 they stopped1 and having placed their fore feet close together1 as in a posture of stopping themselves1 they also placed their hinder feet together a little forward1 as if going to lie down4 ,in this attitude1 having1 as it were1 taken a survey of the road1 they slid down with great swiftness to the bottom4 ,all the rider had to do1 was to keep himself fast in his saddle1 without checking his beast2 as the slightest motion would have been sufficient to destroy its equilibrium1 and both would have inevitably perished4 ,the address of the creatures was truly wonderful1 for1 in this rapid motion1 when they seemed to have lost all government of themselves1 they followed exactly the different windings of the road1 as if they had previously reconnoitered1 and settled in their minds the route they were to follow1 and taken every precaution for their safety1 amid so many irregularities4 ,the safety of the rider depended entirely on their experience and address2 but1 long as they had been accustomed to travel these roads1 they seemed to feel a degree of horror on reaching the top of a steep declivity4 ,without being checked by their rider1 they stopped2 and if he inadvertently endeavored to spur them on1 they were immovable until they had placed themselves in a secure posture4 ,they seemed as if they were actuated by reason2 for they not only viewed the road attentively1 but trembled and snorted at the danger2 emotions which inspired the party with the most dreadful apprehensions4 ,the ,indians went before1 and1 placing themselves along the sides of the mountain1 where they held by the roots of trees1 animated the beasts with shouts1 until they at last started down the declivity4 ,there were some parts where the declivities were not on the side of the precipices2 but the road was so narrow and hollow1 and the sides so nearly perpendicular1 that the danger was almost equal4 ,the track being extremely narrow1 with scarcely a sufficient width of the road to admit the mule with its rider1 if the former had fallen1 the latter would necessarily have been crushed1 and1 for want of room to disengage himself1 would have been mutilated in his limbs1 if he had escaped with life4 ,it was truly wonderful to consider with what exactness these animals1 after having overcome the first emotions of their fear1 and when they were going to slide down the declivity1 stretched out their fore-legs1 to the end that they might preserve their equilibrium4 ,the gentle inclination they made with the body1 at a proper distance1 in following the several windings of the road1 was also a mark of surprising sagacity2 and1 lastly1 their address in stopping themselves at the end of the impetuous career1 was truly deserving of observation4 ,greater prudence and conduct could not have been exhibited by man6 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,geological ,,changes ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ------------------------------------ ,there are more things in heaven and earth ,than are dreamt of in our philosophy4--,,shakspeare4 ,the variety of fossil substances1 many of them marine productions1 which are found in mountains remote from the sea1 are undeniable proofs that the earth's surface has undergone considerable changes1 some of which indicate an alteration of climate not easily to be explained4 ,the remains of animals inhabiting hot countries1 and the marine productions of hot climates1 which are frequently found in high northern latitudes1 lead to a suspicion that the earth's axis was at a very remote period differently inclined from what it is at present4 ,the tropics now extend twenty-three degrees and a half on each side the equator2 but if they were extended to forty-five degrees1 then the arctic circle and the tropics would coincide1 and thence would arise inconceivable variations in the productions and phenomena of the earth4 ,all this would form an amusing speculation to a person possessed of a terrestrial globe1 who might tie a thread round it to represent the tropics at forty-five degrees of elevation4 ,by the gradual operation of the sea and of rivers1 the face of the globe has1 in the course of ages1 undergone very material changes4 ,the former has encroached in particular parts1 and retired from others2 and the mouths of large rivers1 running through low countries1 have often been variously modified1 by a deposition and transfer of the matter washed down from the land4 ,at ,havre1 the sea undermines the steep coast2 while it recedes at ,dunkirk1 where the shore is flat4 ,in ,holland the ,zuyder ,zee was probably formed1 in the middle ages1 by continual irruptions of the sea1 where only the small lake ,flevo had before existed4 ,the mouths of the ,rhine have been considerably altered1 as well in their dimensions as in their directions4 ,the mud1 as it is deposited by large rivers1 generally causes a delta1 or a triangular piece of land1 to grow out into the sea4 ,thus the mouth of the ,mississippi is said to have advanced above fifty miles since the discovery of ,america4 ,the island called ,sandy ,hook1 at the entrance of the harbor of ,new ,york1 was formerly a peninsula attached to the main land4 ,the old citizens of ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 point out places where once boats1 and even small vessels1 used to anchor1 but which are now at quite a distance from the water and covered with the dwellings of the inhabitants4 ,most of the large rivers of the ,united ,states are more or less changing their banks1 and the places of their channels1 from year to year4 ,the sea1 within the space of forty years1 has retired more than a mile from ,rosetta1 in ,egypt2 and the mouths of the ,arno1 and of the ,rhone1 consist in a great measure of new land4 ,the ,javanese have a tradition1 that in former times the islands of ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,bali and ,sumbawa1 were united1 and afterward separated into nine different parts4 ,they add1 that when three thousand rainy seasons shall have passed away1 they will be united4 ,in the ,mediterranean1 geological phenomena evince1 that the island of ,malta1 and that of ,gozo1 its dependency1 now separated by a wide channel1 and the intermediate small island of ,cumino1 formed1 together with the latter1 a single island4 ,by the encroachments of the sea1 and the subsidence of some parts of the land1 the islands of ,scilly1 the aboriginal inhabitants of which carried on a considerable trade in tin with the ,phenicians1 ,greeks and ,romans1 are now little more than barren rocks1 with small patches of earth interspersed in the hollows4 ,strabo describes the ,phenicians as having been so jealous of their lucrative traffic with these islands1 that they ran a vessel purposely on shore1 and risked the lives of the crew1 rather than have it made known to the ,romans4 ,the land within which these tin mines were worked1 must now be sunk1 and buried beneath the sea4 ,on the shifting of the sands between the islands1 walls and ruins are frequently seen2 the difference of level1 since these walls or fences were made1 to prevent the encroachments of the sea1 being estimated at sixteen feet4 ,there is little doubt but that there must have been a subsidence of the land1 followed by a sudden inundation4 ,this1 indeed1 seems to be confirmed by tradition1 there being a strong persuasion in the western parts of ,cornwall1 that there formerly existed a large country between the ,land's-end and the islands of ,scilly1 now laid many fathoms under water4 ,although there are no positive evidences of such an ancient connection between the main land and these islands1 still it is extremely probable1 that the cause of the inundation which destroyed the greater part of them1 may have reached the ,cornish shores1 there being several proofs of a subsidence of the land in ,mount's bay4 ,the principal anchoring place1 which was called a lake1 is now a haven1 or open harbor2 and the mount1 from its ,cornish name1 signifying the gray rock in a wood1 must have formerly stood in a wood1 but is now at full tide half a mile in the sea4 ,examples of a similar kind1 relative to every known country1 might be multiplied4 ,one of the most considerable inundations to be met with in history1 is that which happened in the reign of ,henry ,i4 and which overflowed the estates of ,earl ,goodwin1 forming the banks called the ,goodwin or ,godwin sands4 ,in the year #aedf1 a similar irruption of the sea destroyed a hundred thousand persons in the territory of ,dort1 in the ,united ,provinces1 and a still greater number round ,dollart4 ,in ,friezland and ,zealand more than three hundred villages were overwhelmed2 and their remains are still visible1 on a clear day1 at the bottom of the water4 ,the ,baltic sea has1 by slow degrees1 covered a large part of ,pomerania2 and1 among others1 overwhelmed the famous port of ,vineta4 ,the ,norwegian sea has formed several little islands from the main land1 and still daily advances on the continent4 ,the ,german sea has advanced on the shores of ,holland1 near ,catt1 to such a degree1 that the ruins of an ancient citadel of the ,romans1 formerly built on that coast1 are now under water4 ,the country surrounding the isle of ,ely was1 in the time of ,bede1 about a thousand years ago1 one of the most delightful and highly cultivated spots in ,great ,britain3 it was overwhelmed1 and remained for several centuries under the water1 until at length1 the sea1 by a caprice similar to the one which had prompted its invasions1 abandoned the earth1 but without the latter being able to recover its primitive state1 that of one of the most fertile valleys in the world4 ,on the other hand1 the sea has in many instances1 deserted the land2 and by the deposition of its sediment in some places1 and the accumulation of its sands in others1 has also formed new lands4 ,in this manner the isle of ,oxney1 near ,romney marsh1 was produced4 ,in ,france1 the town of ,aigues ,mortes1 which was a seaport in the time of ,louis ,,ix41 is now removed more than four miles from the sea4 ,psalmodi1 also in that kingdom1 was an island in the year #hae1 and is now upward of six miles within the land4 ,in ,italy1 a considerable portion of land has been gained at the mouth of the river ,arno2 and ,ravenna1 which once stood by the sea-side1 is now between four and five miles from it4 ,every part of ,holland seems to be a conquest from the sea1 and to have been rescued1 in a manner1 from its bosom4 ,the industry of man1 however1 in the formation of dikes1 is here to be brought into account2 for the surface of the earth1 in that country1 is for the greater part below the surface of the sea4 ,three-fifths of the surface of the globe are covered by the sea1 the average depth of which has been estimated at from five to ten miles4 ,demonstrative proofs exist in ,great ,britain1 and in various parts of the world1 that great changes have taken place in the relative positions of the present continents with the ocean1 which1 in former ages1 rolled its waves over the summits of our present elevated mountains4 ,to illustrate this subject1 and before these proofs are entered on1 in the consideration of the geological phenomena named extraneous fossils1 it will be proper to introduce the pleasing and truly philosophical view of the successive changes the earth has undergone1 contained in ,sir ,richard ,phillips's ,morning ,walk to ,kew4 ,in passing near the banks of the ,thames1 ,sir ,richard was led1 in two several places1 to introduce the following observations and reflections on this highly curious and interesting subject4 ,they apply the principles and facts of geology in a way in which they may be applied to any river1 and indicate how much we are daily surrounded by the wonders of creation1 the process of which1 as ,sir ,richard observes1 is never ceasing4 ,in passing over the alluvial flat of ,barnes common1 he introduces the following thoughts1 which are given in very nearly his own language4 8,on this common1 nature still appears to be in a primeval and unfinished state4 ,the entire flat from the high ground to the ,thames1 is evidently a mere fresh-water formation1 of comparatively modern date1 created out of the rocky ruins which the rains1 in a series of ages1 have washed from the high grounds1 and further augmented by the decay of local vegetation4 ,the adjacent high lands1 being elevated above the action of the fresh water1 were no doubt marine formations1 created by the flowing of the sea during the long period when the earth was last in its perihelion during our summer months2 which was probably thousands of years since4 ,the flat1 or freshwater formation1 on which ,i was walking1 still only approaches its completion2 and the desiccated soil has not yet fully defined the boundaries of the river4 ,at spring-tides1 particularly when the line of the moon's apsides coincides with the syzygies1 or when the ascending node is in the vernal equinox1 or after heavy rains1 the river still overflows its banks1 and indicates its originally extended site under ordinary circumstances4 8,the state of transition also appears in marshes1 bogs and ponds1 which1 but for the interference of man1 would1 many ages ago1 have been filled up with decayed forests and the remains of undisturbed vegetation4 ,rivers thus become agents of the never-ceasing creation1 and a means of giving greater equality to the face of the land4 ,the sea as it retired1 either abruptly from some situations1 or gradually from others1 left dry land1 consisting of downs and swelling hills1 disposed in all the variety which would be consequential on a succession of floods and ebbs during several thousand years4 ,these downs1 acted upon by rain1 were mechanically1 or in solution1 carried off by the water to the lowest levels1 the elevations being thereby depressed1 and the valleys proportionally raised4 ,the low lands became1 of course1 the channels through which the rains returned to the sea1 and the successive deposits on their sides1 hardened by the wind and sun1 have in five or six thousand years1 created such tracts of alluvial soil1 as those which now present themselves in contiguity with most rivers4 ,the soil1 thus assembled and compounded1 is similar in its nature to the rocks and hills whence it was washed2 but1 having been so pulverized1 and so divided by solution1 it forms the finest medium for the secretion of all vegetable principles1 and hence the banks of the rivers are the favorite residences of man4 ,should the channel constantly narrow itself more and more1 till it becomes choked in its course1 or at its outlet1 then1 for a time1 lakes would be formed1 which1 in like manner1 would narrow themselves and disappear4 ,new channels would then be formed1 or the rain would so diffuse itself over the surface1 that the fall and the evaporation would balance each other4 8,such are the unceasing works of creation1 constantly taking place on the exterior surface of the earth2 where1 though less evident to the senses and experience of man1 matter apparently inert is in as progressive a state of change1 from the operation of unceasing and immutable causes1 as in the visible generations of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,thus water1 wind and heat1 the energies of which never cease to be exerted1 are constantly producing new combinations1 changes and creations2 which1 if they accord with the harmony of the whole1 are fit and #8good2' but1 if discordant1 are speedily re-organized or extinguished by contrary and opposing powers4 ,in a word1 whatever is1 is fit2 and whatever is not fit1 is not1 or soon ceases to be6 ,such seems to be the governing principle of ,nature1 the key of all her mysteries1 the primary law of creation6 ,all things are the proximate effects of a balance of immutable powers2 those powers are results of a primordial cause2 while that cause is inscrutable and incomprehensible to creatures possessing but a relative being1 who live only in time and space1 and who feel and act merely by the impulse of limited senses and powers40 ,and1 again1 the same writer introduces the following apposite remarks on this very interesting subject4 8,as ,i approached a sequestered mansion-house1 and the other buildings connected with it1 ,i crossed a corner of the meadow toward an angle formed by a rude inlet of the ,thames1 which was running smoothly toward the sea1 at the rate of four miles an hour4 ,the tide unites here with the ordinary current1 and running a few miles above this place1 exhibits twice a day the finely reduced edge of that physical balance-wheel1 or oscillating fluid-pendulum1 which creates the earth's centrifugal power1 and varies the center of its forces4 ,in viewing the beautiful process of nature1 presented by a majestic river1 we cease to wonder that priestcraft has often succeeded in teaching nations to consider rivers of divine origin1 and as proximate living emblems of omnipotence4 ,ignorance1 whose constant error is to look only to the last term of every series of causes1 and which charges impiety on all who venture to ascend one term higher1 and atheism on all who dare to explore several terms1 7though every series implies a first term17 would easily be persuaded by a crafty priesthood to consider a beneficent river as a tangible branch of the ,godhead4 ,but we now know that the waters which flow down a river1 are but a portion of the rains and snows which1 having fallen near its source1 are returning to the ocean1 there to rise again and re-perform the same circle of vapors1 clouds1 rains and rivers4 ,what a process of fertilization1 and how still more luxuriant would have been this vicinity1 if man had not leveled the trees1 and carried away the crops of vegetation4 ,what a place of shelter would thus have been afforded to tribes of amphibi1 whose accumulated remains often surprise geologists1 though necessarily consequent on the fall of crops of vegetation on each other1 near undisturbed banks of rivers4 ,happily1 in ,britain1 our coal-pits1 or mineralized forests1 have supplied the place of our living woods2 or man1 regardless of the fitness of all the parts to the perfection of every natural result1 might here1 as in other long-peopled countries1 ignorantly have thwarted the course of nature by cutting down the timber1 which1 acting on the electricity of the clouds1 affects their destiny1 and causes them to fall in fertilizing showers4 ,such has been the fate of all the countries famous in antiquity4 ,persia1 ,syria1 ,arabia1 parts of ,turkey1 and the ,barbary coast1 have been rendered arid deserts by this inadvertency4 ,the clouds from the ,western ocean would long since have passed over ,england without disturbance from the conducting power of leaves of trees1 or blades of grass1 if our coal-works had not saved our natural conductors2 while the ,thames1 the agent of so much abundance and of so much wealth1 might1 in that case1 have become a shallow brook1 like the once equally famed ,jordan1 ,granicus1 or ,ilyssus4 8,i now descended toward a rude space near the river1 which appeared to be in the state in which the occasional overflowings and gradual retrocession of the river had left it4 ,it was one of those wastes which the lord of the manor had not yet enabled some industrious cultivator to disguise2 and in large tracts of which ,great ,britain still exhibits the surface of the earth in the pristine state in which it was left by the secondary causes that have given it form4 ,the ,thames1 doubtless1 in a remote age1 covered the entire site2 but it is the tendency of rivers to narrow themselves1 by promoting prolific vegetable creations on their consequently increasing and encroaching banks1 though the various degrees of fall produce every variety of currents1 and1 consequently1 every variety of banks1 in their devious course4 ,in due time1 the course of the river becomes choked where a flat succeeds a rapid1 and the detained waters then form lakes in the interior4 ,these lakes likewise generate encroaching banks1 which finally fill up their basins1 when new rivers are formed on higher levels4 ,these in their turn1 become interrupted1 and repetitions of the former circle of causes produce one class of those elevations of land above the level of the sea1 which have so much puzzled geologists4 ,the only condition which a surface of dry land requires to increase and raise itself1 is the absence of salt water1 consequent on which is an accumulation of vegetable and animal remains4 ,the ,thames has not latterly been allowed to produce its natural effects1 because for two thousand years the banks have been inhabited by man1 who unable to appreciate the general laws by which the phenomena of the earth are produced1 has sedulously kept open the course of the river1 and prevented the formation of interior lakes4 ,the ,caspian sea1 and all similar inland seas and lakes1 were1 for the most part1 formed from the choking up of rivers which once constituted their outlets4 ,if the course of nature be not interrupted by the misdirected industry of man1 the gradual desiccation of all such collections of water will1 in due time1 produce land of higher levels on their sites4 ,in like manner1 the great lakes of ,north ,america1 if the ,st4 ,lawrence be not sedulously kept open1 will in the course of ages1 be filled up by the gradual encroachment of their banks1 and the raising of their bottoms with strata of vegetable and animal remains4 ,new rivers would then flow over these increased elevations1 and the ultimate effect would be to raise that part of the continent of ,north ,america several hundred feet above its present level4 ,even the very place on which ,i stand was1 according to ,webster1 once a vast basin1 extending from the ,nore to near ,reading1 but now filled up with vegetable and animal remains2 and the illustrious ,cuvier has discovered a similar basin round the site of ,paris4 ,these once were ,caspians1 created by the choking and final disappearance of some mighty rivers2 they have been filled up by gradual encroachments1 and now the ,thames and the ,seine flow over them2 but these1 if left to themselves1 will1 in their turn1 generate new lakes or basins1 and the successive recurrence of a similar series of causes will continue to produce similar effects1 till interrupted by superior causes4 8,this situation was so sequestered1 and therefore so favorable to contemplation1 that ,i could not avoid indulging myself4 ,what1 then1 are those superior causes1 ,i exclaimed1 which will interrupt this series of natural operations to which man is indebted for the enchanting visions of hill and dale1 and for the elysium of beauty and plenty in which he finds himself8 ,alas6 facts prove that all things are transitory1 and that change of condition is the constant and necessary result of that motion which is the chief instrument of eternal causation1 but which1 in causing all phenomena1 wears out existing organizations while it is generating new ones4 ,in the motions of the earth as a planet1 doubtless are to be discovered the superior causes which convert seas into continents1 and continents into seas4 ,these sublime changes are occasioned by the progress of the perihelion point of the earth's orbit through the ecliptic1 which passes from extreme northern to extreme southern declination1 and vice versa1 every ten thousand1 four hundred and fifty years2 and the maxima of the central forces in the perihelion occasion the waters to accumulate alternately upon either hemisphere4 ,during ten thousand1 four hundred and fifty years1 the sea is therefore gradually retiring and encroaching in both hemispheres3 hence all the varieties of marine appearances and accumulations of marine remains in particular situations2 and hence the successions of layers or strata1 one upon another1 of marine and earthly remains4 ,it is evident1 from observation of those strata1 that the periodical changes have occurred at least three times2 or in other words1 it appears that the site on which ,i now stand has been three times covered by the ocean1 and three times has afforded an asylum for vegetables and animals6 ,how sublime1 how interesting1 how affecting is such a contemplation6 ,how transitory1 therefore1 must be the local arrangements of man1 and how puerile the study of the science miscalled antiquities6 ,how foolish the pride which vaunts itself on splendid buildings and costly mausoleums6 ,how vain the ostentation of large estates1 of extensive boundaries1 and of great empires6 ,all1 all will1 in due time1 be swept away and defaced by the unsparing ocean2 and1 if recorded in the frail memorials of human science1 will be spoken of like the lost ,atlantis1 and remembered only as a philosophical dream60 ,such are the speculations of ,phillips1 containing many things highly interesting and instructive2 though1 with our advanced knowledge of geology1 we involuntarily smile at his 8periods0 of 8ten thousand1 four hundred and fifty years10 knowing1 as we now do1 that some of the great changes of which he speaks must have occupied the long ages of the earth's chaotic state1 before ,god1 by his word1 formed it again to life and order and beauty4 ,the merest tyro in science now knows1 that in the great facts of geology ,god as truly speaks by his works1 as in the book of revelation he speaks by his word2 and though we are far more liable to misunderstand and misinterpret the former than the latter1 yet rightly understood there is no discrepancy between the two1 but both speak the same language of truth4 ,in the very structure of the earth itself1 we have the evidence of the changes it has passed through4 ,the wonderful wrecks of a former state of nature1 preserved1 like ancient medals or marbles in the ruins of an extinct empire1 tell of the progress of the earth in past ages1 and teach us that many of the changes which ,phillips would refer to comparatively modern times1 belong to a period far back of the creation of our first parents1 when our planet1 though existing1 had not as yet been prepared for the habitation of mankind4 ,we will not1 however1 dwell on these points2 but merely allude to them1 referring our readers to any of the elementary treatises on geology1 where they may find the full details of facts1 and also the various theories which reconcile these facts with the statements of the ,mosaic history4 ,,extraneous ,,fossils4 ,the fossil remains of animals not now in existence1 entombed and preserved in solid rocks1 present us with durable monuments of the great changes which our planet has undergone in former ages4 ,we are led to a period when the waters of the primitive ocean must have covered the summits of our highest mountains1 and are irresistibly compelled to admit one of two conclusions3 either that the sea has retired1 and sunk beneath its former level2 or that some power1 operating from beneath1 has lifted up the islands and continents1 with all their hills and mountains1 from the watery abyss to their present elevation above its surface4 ,the calcareous1 or limestone mountains in ,derbyshire1 and at ,craven1 in ,yorkshire1 having an elevation of about two thousand feet above the present level of the sea1 contain1 in a greater or less abundance1 and throughout their whole extent1 fossil remains of zoophytes1 shell-fish1 and marine animals4 ,no remains of vegetables have been found in the calcareous mountains of ,england2 but1 in the thick beds of shale and gritstone lying upon them1 are found various vegetable impressions1 and above these regular beds of coal1 with strata1 containing shells of fresh-water mussels4 ,in the earthy limestone of the upper strata are sometimes found fossil flat-fish1 with the impression of the scales and bones quite distinct4 ,the mountains of the ,pyrenees are covered in the highest part1 at ,mont ,perdu1 with calcareous rocks1 containing impressions of marine animals2 and1 even where the impressions are not visible in the limestone1 it yields a fetid cadaverous odor1 when dissolved in acids1 owing1 in all probability1 to the animal matters it contains4 ,mont ,perdu1 which rises ten thousand five hundred feet1 or about two miles above the level of the sea1 is the highest situation in which any marine remains have been found in ,europe4 ,in the ,andes they have been observed by ,humboldt at the hight of fourteen thousand feet1 more than two miles and a half4 ,lastly1 in southern countries1 in and under beds of clay-covering chalk1 the bones of the elephant1 and of the rhinoceros are frequently found4 ,these bones1 as they have been brought from different parts of the world1 have been examined with the utmost attention by the sagacious naturalist ,cuvier4 ,he has observed characteristic variations of structure1 which prove that they belong to animals not now existing on our globe3 nor have many of the various zophytes and shell-fish1 found in calcareous rocks1 been discovered in our present seas4 ,from these very curious facts he makes the following deductions4 8,these bones are buried1 almost everywhere1 in nearly similar beds3 they are often blended with some other animals resembling those of the present day4 ,the beds are generally loose1 either sandy or marly2 and always neighboring1 more or less1 to the surface4 ,it is1 then1 probable that these bones have been enveloped by the last1 or by one of the last1 catastrophes of this globe4 ,in a great number of places they are accompanied by the accumulated remains of marine animals2 but in some places1 which are less numerous1 there are none of these remains3 sometimes the sand or marl1 which covers them1 contains only fresh-water shells4 ,no well authenticated account proves that they have been covered by regular beds of stone1 filled with sea-shells2 and1 consequently1 that the sea has remained on them undisturbed1 for a long period4 ,the catastrophe which covered them was1 therefore1 a great1 but transient1 inundation of the sea4 ,this inundation did not rise above the high mountains2 for we find no analogous deposits covering the bones1 nor are the bones themselves there met with1 not even in the high valleys1 unless in some of the warmer parts of ,america4 ,these bones are neither rolled nor joined in a skeleton1 but scattered1 and in part fractured4 ,they have not1 then1 been brought from afar by inundation1 but found by it in places where it has covered them1 as might be expected1 if the animals to which they belonged had dwelt in these places1 and had there successively died4 ,before this catastrophe1 these animals lived1 therefore1 in the climates in which we now dig up their bones3 it was this catastrophe which destroyed them there2 and1 as we no longer find them1 it is evident that it has annihilated those species4 ,the northern parts of the globe1 therefore1 nourished formerly1 species belonging to the genus elephant1 hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 and tapir1 as well as to that of the mastodon2 genera of which the four first have no longer any species existing1 except in the torrid zone2 and the last1 none in any part40 ,the researches of ,dr4 ,buckland1 connected with the kind of relics of which we are speaking1 have given them additional interest1 especially as connected with certain points of diluvial geology1 and with their assemblage in caverns4 ,in these caverns1 the bones are usually found mixed with mud1 stones and fragments2 and circumstances seem to show that the animals resided in them for a great length of time4 ,the celebrated ,kirkdale cavern1 in ,yorkshire1 discovered in #ahba1 contains the remains of the hyena1 tiger1 bear1 wolf1 fox1 weasel1 elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 horse1 ox1 deer1 hare1 rabbit1 rat1 mouse1 raven1 pigeon1 lark1 thrush1 and a species of duck4 ,from the mode in which these remains were strewed over the bottom of the cavern1 from the great proportion of hyenas' teeth over those of other animals1 and from the manner in which many of the bones were gnawed and fractured1 ,dr4 ,buckland infers that this cavern was the den of hyenas for a long succession of years2 that they brought in as their prey1 the animals whose remains are thus mixed with their own2 and that this state of things was suddenly terminated by an irruption of turbid water into the cave1 which buried the whole in the mud in which they are now intermingled4 ,in other cases1 the bones of other animals have been found1 indicating the same general facts as to the existence of animals now no longer known in the same latitudes4 ,that every part of the dry land was once covered by the ocean1 is a fact on which all geologists agree2 and the discovery1 noticed above1 of the fossil remains of many genera of quadrupeds1 once existing1 but which have now disappeared from the earth1 leads to another fact1 not less interesting1 and which is at the same time coincident with the oldest records or traditions of the human race1 namely1 that at the period when these great changes took place1 man was not an inhabitant of the planet4 ,these fossil remains1 now about to be particularized1 are among the most surprising of nature's phenomena1 and irresistibly lead to most interesting speculations respecting the past and future condition of the terrestrial globe4 ,,fossil ,,crocodiles4 ,the fossil remains of crocodiles have been collected in the neighborhood of ,honfleur1 on the coast of ,france1 and were found in a bed of hard limestone1 of a bluish gray color1 which becomes nearly black when wet1 and which is found along the shore on both sides of the mouth of the ,seine1 being in some places covered by the sea1 and in others1 above its level1 even at high water4 ,remains of crocodiles have also been found in other parts of ,france2 as at ,angers and ,mans4 ,some of these remains seem to show1 that at least one of the fossil species above noticed is also found in other parts of ,france besides ,honfleur4 ,the remains of crocodiles have been also found in different parts of ,england2 but particularly on the coast of ,dorsetshire1 and of ,yorkshire near ,whitby1 in the neighborhood of ,bath1 and near ,newark in ,nottinghamshire4 ,somersetshire1 particularly in the neighborhood of ,bath1 the cliffs on the ,dorsetshire1 or southern coast1 and on the ,yorkshire1 or northern coast1 are the places in this island in which the remains of the animals of this tribe have been chiefly found4 ,the matrix in which they are found is in general similar to that which has been already mentioned as containing the fossils of ,honfleur1 a blue limestone1 becoming almost black when wet4 ,this description exactly agrees with the limestone of ,charmouth1 ,lime1 c41 in ,dorsetshire1 on the opposite coast to that of ,france on which ,honfleur is situated4 ,at ,whitby and ,scarborough1 where these fossils are also found1 the stone is indeed somewhat darker than in the former places2 but no difference is observable which can be regarded as offering any forcible opposition to the probability of the original identity of this stratum1 which is observed on the northern coast of ,france1 on the opposite southern ,english coast1 and at the opposite northern extremity of the island4 ,some of these remains are also found in quarries of common coarse gray and whitish limestone4 ,instances of this kind of matrix1 for these remains1 are observable in the quarries between ,bath and ,bristol4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hawker1 of ,woodchester1 in ,gloucestershire1 formerly had in his possession1 perhaps one of the handsomest specimens of the remains of the crocodile discovered in all ,england4 ,it was found by him in the neighborhood of ,bath1 and contained a great part of the head and of the trunk of the animal4 ,,large ,,fossil ,,animal ,,of ,,maestricht4 ,the large animal1 whose fossil remains are found in the quarries of ,maestricht1 has been deservedly a frequent object of admiration2 and the beautiful appearance which its remains possess1 in consequence of their excellent state of preservation1 in a matrix which admits of their fair display1 has occasioned every specimen of this fossil to be highly valued4 ,the lower jaw of this animal1 and some other specimens1 which were presented by ,dr4 ,peter ,camper to the ,royal ,society1 and which are now in the ,british museum1 are among the most splendid and interesting fossils in existence4 ,in #aggj1 the workmen having discovered part of an enormous head of an animal imbedded in the solid stone1 in one of the subterraneous passages of the mountain1 gave information to ,m4 ,hoffman1 who1 with the most zealous assiduity1 labored until he had disengaged this astonishing fossil from its matrix4 ,but when this was done1 the fruits of his labors were wrested from him by an ecclesiastic1 who claimed it as being proprietor of the land over the spot on which it was found4 ,hoffman defended his right in a court of justice2 but through the influence employed against him1 he was doomed not only to the loss of this inestimable fossil1 but to the payment of heavy law expenses4 ,but in time1 justice1 though tardy1 at last arrived2 the troops of the ,french republic secured this treasure1 which was conveyed to the national museum4 ,the length of the cervical1 dorsal and lumbar vertebrae1 appears to have been about nine feet five inches1 and that of the vertebr of the tail about ten foot2 adding to which the length of the head1 which may be reckoned1 considering the loss of the intermaxillary bones1 at least at four feet1 we may safely conclude the whole length of the skeleton of the animal to have approached very nearly to twenty-four feet4 ,the head is a sixth of the whole length of the animal2 a proportion approaching very near to that of the crocodile1 but differing much from that of the monitor1 the head of which animal forms hardly a twelfth part of the whole length4 ,the tail must have been very strong1 and its width1 at its extremity1 must have rendered it a most powerful oar1 and have enabled the animal to have opposed the most agitated waters1 as has been well remarked by naturalists who have examined it4 ,from this circumstance1 and from the other remains which accompany those of this animal1 there can be no doubt of its having been an inhabitant of the ocean4 ,taking all these circumstances into consideration1 ,m4 ,cuvier concludes1 and certainly on fair1 if not indisputable grounds1 that this animal must have formed an intermediate genus between those animals of the lizard tribe which have an extensive and forked tongue1 which include the monitors and the common lizards1 and those which have a short tongue and the palate armed with teeth1 which comprise the iguanas1 marbres1 and anolis4 ,this genus1 he thinks1 could only have been allied to the crocodile by the general characters of the lizards4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,ruminantia4 ,among the fossils of the ,british empire1 none are more calculated to excite astonishment than the enormous stags' horns which have been dug up in different parts of ,ireland4 ,their dimensions1 as given by ,dr4 ,molyneux1 are as follows4 ,feet4 ,inch4 ,from the extreme tip of each horn1 #aj #aj ,from the tip of the right horn to its root1 #e #b ,from the tip of one of the inner branches to the tip of the opposite branch1 #c #g ,the length of one of the palms1 within the branches1 #b #e ,the breadth of the same palm within the branches1 #a #aj ,the length of the right brow antler1 #a #b ,a similar pair1 found ten feet under ground1 in the county of ,clare1 was presented to ,charles ,,ii4 and placed in the horn-gallery1 ,hampton ,court2 but was afterward removed into the guard-room of the same palace4 ,at ,ballyward1 near ,ballyshannon2 at ,turvey1 eight miles from ,dublin2 and at ,portumery1 near the river ,shannon1 in the county of ,galway1 similar horns have been found4 ,in the common-hall of the ,bishop of ,armagh's house1 in ,dublin1 was a forehead1 with two amazingly large beams of a pair of this kind of horns1 which1 from the magnitude of the beams1 must have much exceeded in size those of which the dimensions are given above4 ,dr4 ,molyneux states1 that in the last twenty years1 thirty pair of these horns had been dug up by accident in the country3 the observations1 also1 of several other persons1 prove the great frequency with which these remains have been found in ,ireland4 ,various opinions have been entertained respecting this animal and its existing prototype4 ,this1 however1 does not appear to have been yet discovered2 and these remains may1 therefore1 be regarded as having belonged to an animal now extinct4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,elephants4 ,numerous remains of elephants have been found in ,italy2 and1 although a very considerable number of elephants were brought from ,africa into that country1 yet the vast extent through which these remains have been found1 and the great probability that the ,italians1 particularly the ,romans1 would have known enough of the value of ivory1 to have prevented them from committing the tusks to the earth1 lead to the belief1 that by far the greater number of these remains which have been dug up1 have been deposited here1 not by the hands of man1 but by the changes that the surface of this globe has undergone1 at very remote periods4 ,the circumstances1 indeed1 under which many of these have been found1 afford indubitable proof of this fact4 ,in ,france1 where it is well known that living elephants have been much less frequent1 at least in times of which we have any record1 than either in ,italy or ,greece1 their fossil remains have been found in a great number of places1 and in situations which prove their deposition at a very remote period4 ,the whole valley through which the ,rhine passes1 yields fragments of this animal1 and perhaps more numerously on the side of ,germany than on that of ,france4 ,not only in its course1 but in the alluvia of the several streams which empty themselves into it1 are these fossil remains also found4 ,thus ,holland abounds with them1 and even the most elevated parts of the ,batavian kingdom are not exempt from them4 ,germany and ,switzerland appear particularly to abound in these wonderful relics4 ,the greater number found in these parts1 is1 perhaps1 as is observed by ,m4 ,cuvier1 not attributable to their greater abundance1 but to the number of well-informed men1 capable of making the necessary researches1 and of reporting the interesting facts they discover4 ,as in the banks of the ,rhine1 so in those of the ,danube1 these fossils abound4 ,in the valley of ,altmuhl is a grand deposit of these remains4 ,the bones which have been found at ,krembs1 in ,sweden2 at ,baden1 near ,vienna2 in ,moravia2 in different parts of ,hungary and of ,transylvania2 at the foot of the ,hartz2 in ,hesse2 at ,hildesheim--all appear to be referable to this animal4 ,so also are those which are found on the ,elbe1 the ,oder1 and the ,vistula4 ,different parts of the ,british empire are not less productive of these remains4 ,in ,london1 ,brentford1 ,harwich1 ,norwich1 ,gloucestershire1 ,staffordshire1 ,warwickshire1 ,salisbury1 and1 indeed1 in several other parts of ,great ,britain1 different remains of these animals have been found4 ,when we add to those places which have been already enumerated1 ,scandinavia1 ,norway1 ,iceland1 ,russia1 ,siberia1 ,tunis1 parts of ,north ,america1 and ,ibarra1 in the northern part of ,equador1 it will appear that there is hardly a part in the known world1 whose subterranean productions are known to us1 in which these animal remains have not been discovered4 ,m4 ,cuvier is satisfied1 from the actual comparison of several skulls of the ,east-,indian and ,african elephants1 that different specific characters exist in them respectively4 ,in the ,indian elephant1 the top of the skull is raised in a kind of double pyramid2 but in the ,african it is nearly rounded4 ,in the ,indian the forehead is concave1 and in the ,african it is rather convex4 ,several other differences exist1 not necessary to be here particularized1 which seem to be fully sufficient to mark a difference of species4 ,a cursory view is sufficient to enable us to determine that the ordinary fossil teeth of elephants are not those of the ,african species1 and it may be further said1 that the greater number of these teeth bear a close resemblance to those of the ,east-,indian species1 showing1 on their masticating surface1 bands of an equal thickness through their whole length1 and rudely crenulated4 ,so great1 indeed1 is the resemblance1 that ,pallas1 and most other writers1 have considered the fossil elephant as being of the same species with the ,asiatic4 ,m4 ,cuvier1 anxious to discover the degree of accordance of the fossil elephant's skeleton with that of the living species1 compared the fossil skull1 found in ,siberia by ,messerschmidt1 with those of the ,african and ,asiatic elephants4 ,the result of his comparison was1 that in the fossil species the alveoli of the tusks are much longer2 the zygomatic arch is of a different figure2 the post-orbital apophysis of the frontal bone is longer1 more pointed1 and more crooked2 and the tubercle of the os lachrymalis is considerably larger1 and more projecting4 ,to these peculiarities of the fossil skull1 ,m4 ,cuvier thinks1 may be added the parallelism of the molares4 ,comparing together the bones of the ,asiatic and of the ,african elephant1 he was able to discover some differences between them1 as well as between those and some of the fossil bones which he possessed4 ,these latter he found1 in general1 approached nearest to those of the ,asiatic elephant4 ,he concludes with supposing that the fossil remains are of a species differing more widely from the ,asiatic elephant than the horse does from the ass1 and therefore does not think it impossible but that it might have existed in a climate that would have destroyed the elephant of ,india4 ,it may1 therefore1 be assumed as certain1 from the observations of ,m4 ,cuvier1 that at least one species of elephants has existed1 of which none are now known to be living2 and1 should the difference of structure which has been pointed out in some of the fossil teeth1 be admitted as sufficient to designate a difference of species1 it may be then said1 that there exist the fossil remains of1 at least1 two species of elephants1 which were different from those with which we are acquainted4 ,from the preceding observations it appears1 then1 that the fossil elephantine remains1 notwithstanding their resemblance in some respects to the bones of the ,asiatic elephant1 have belonged to one or more species1 different from those which are now known4 ,this circumstance agrees with the facts of the fossil remains of the tapir and rhinoceros1 which appear to have differed materially from the living animals of the same genera4 ,the remains of elephants obtained from ,essex1 ,middlesex1 ,kent1 and other parts of ,england1 confirm the observation of ,cuvier1 that these remains are generally found in the looser and more superficial parts of the earth1 and most frequently in the alluvia which fill the bottoms of the valleys1 or which border the beds of rivers4 ,they are generally found mingled with the bones of other quadrupeds of known genera1 such as those of the rhinoceros1 ox1 horse1 c41 and frequently1 also1 with the remains of marine animals4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,mastodon4 ,we now come to the examination of one of the most stupendous animals known1 either in a recent or a fossil state2 one which1 whether we contemplate its original mode of existence1 or the period at which it lived1 can not but fill our minds with astonishment4 ,the first traces of this animal are sketched in a letter from ,dr4 ,mather1 of ,boston1 to ,dr4 ,woodward1 in #agab1 and are transcribed from a work in manuscript1 entitled ,biblia ,americana4 ,in this work1 teeth and bones of prodigious size1 supposed to be human1 are said to have been found near what is now ,albany1 in the state of ,new ,york4 ,about the year #agdj1 numerous similar bones were found in ,kentucky1 on the ,ohio1 and were dispersed among the ,european virtuosi4 ,many bones of this animal were found1 in #agii1 in the state of ,new ,york1 in a large plain1 bounded on every side by immense mountains1 in the vicinity of ,newburg1 situated on the ,hudson or ,north river4 ,these remains have also been found on the side of the ,alleghany mountains1 in the interior parts of ,pennsylvania and ,carolina1 and in ,new ,jersey1 not far from ,philadelphia4 ,and quite lately 7#ahed7 the tusks of a mastodon1 apparently of enormous size1 were discovered protruding from the inclined side of a marshy declivity1 a few miles from the city of ,poughkeepsie4 ,measures were immediately taken to excavate the place and exhume the skeleton4 ,we are informed that the work thus far has been remarkably successful1 and the condition of the skeleton such as to promise the security of the most perfect specimen of the mastodon ever found4 ,the location is extremely favorable4 ,the excavation1 which is prosecuted under the direction of ,professor ,morse1 the discoverer of the magnetic telegraph1 who resides at ,poughkeepsie1 has succeeded as far as the head and shoulders of the mammoth4 ,the bones are partially petrified as far as the exhumation has extended1 and this promises the recovery of the entire skeleton in a more perfect state than any yet discovered4 ,if our information is correct1 and it emanates from an entirely responsible source1 an object of great interest will be added to the science and study of natural history4 ,from a careful attendance to every circumstance1 ,m4 ,cuvier conceives we have a right to conclude1 that this great mastodon1 or animal of the ,ohio1 did not surpass the elephant in hight1 but was a little longer in proportion1 its limbs rather thicker1 and its belly smaller4 ,it seems to have very much resembled the elephant in its tusks1 and1 indeed1 in the whole of its osteology2 and it also appears to have had a trunk4 ,but1 notwithstanding its resemblance to the elephant1 in so many particulars1 the form and structure of the grinders are sufficiently different from those of the elephant1 to demand its being placed in a distinct genus4 ,from the later discoveries respecting this animal1 ,m4 ,cuvier is also inclined to suppose that its food must have been similar to that of the hippopotamus and the boar1 but preferring the roots and fleshy parts of vegetables2 in the search of which species of food it would1 of course1 be led to such soft and marshy spots as it appears to have inhabited4 ,it does not1 however1 appear to have been at all formed for swimming1 or for living much in the waters1 like the hippopotamus1 but rather seems to have been entirely a terrestrial animal4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,rhinoceros4 ,there appear to be three living species of rhinoceros3 #a4 ,that of ,india1 a unicorn1 with a rugose coat1 and with incisors1 separated1 by a space1 from the grinders4 #b4 ,that of the ,cape1 a bicorn1 the skin without rug1 and having twenty eight grinders1 and no incisors4 #c4 ,that of ,sumatra1 a bicorn1 the skin but slightly rugose1 thus far resembling that of the ,cape1 but having incisive teeth1 like that of ,india4 ,the fossil remains of the rhinoceros have been generally found in the same countries where the remains of elephants have been found2 but they do not appear to have so generally excited attention2 and1 perhaps1 but few of those who discovered them were able to determine to what animal they belonged4 ,thus a tooth of this animal is described by ,grew merely as the tooth of a terrestrial animal2 and the remains of this animal1 found in the neighborhood of ,canterbury1 were supposed to have belonged to the hippopotamus4 ,the first remains of this species1 of which positive mention is made1 were collected in ,england1 in #affh1 near ,canterbury1 in the course of digging a well4 ,in #agea1 a large number of bones of this kind were disinterred in the chain of the ,hartz1 and their form caused them at first to be taken for those of elephants2 but the celebrated anatomist1 ,meckel1 having compared one of the teeth found in this heap with the teeth of the living rhinoceros he had observed at ,paris1 proved1 in an explicit manner1 and by the same method which has yielded us such knowledge of lost species1 that the bones found in the ,hartz were the bones of the rhinoceros4 ,thence the path was clearly opened for all the paleontological researches on this kind of fossil4 ,twenty years after the discovery made on the slopes of the ,hartz1 a much more extraordinary discovery1 of which ,siberia was the scene1 threw a truly striking light upon the question4 ,a fossil rhinoceros1 not reduced to bones alone1 but entire1 with its skin1 was found in the month of ,december1 #agga1 on the borders of the ,wiluji1 a river which flows into the ,lena1 below ,yakoutsk1 in ,siberia1 in the forty-fourth degree of latitude4 ,what characterized this individual1 which was covered with hair1 proves that the species to which it belonged1 differing from that of warm countries1 the only one we now know1 was created to inhabit cold and temperate regions4 ,unfortunately1 the skin of this precious animal has not been preserved4 ,since that time1 constant attempts have been made to discover the bones of the rhinoceros1 in a multitude of countries of northern ,europe and ,asia2 and ,m4 ,cuvier1 in his 8,researches on ,fossil ,bones10 has given minute descriptions of them2 but unfortunately1 no individual as complete as that of ,wiluji has since been discovered4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,siberian ,,mammoth4 ,it has been demonstrated by ,cuvier1 that this animal was of a different species from the mastodon1 or ,american mammoth4 ,its bones have been found in the alluvial soil near ,london1 ,northampton1 ,gloucester1 ,harwich1 ,norwich1 in ,salisbury plain1 and in other places in ,england2 they also occur in the north of ,ireland2 and in ,sweden1 ,iceland1 ,russia1 ,poland1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,hungary1 the bones and teeth have been met with in abundance4 ,its teeth have also been found in ,north and ,south ,america1 and abundantly in ,asiatic ,russia4 ,pallas says1 that from the ,don to the ,tchutskoiness1 there is scarcely a river that does not afford the remains of the mammoth1 and that they are frequently imbedded in alluvial soil1 containing marine productions4 ,the skeletons1 a view of one of which is given in the cut below1 are seldom complete2 but the following interesting narrative will show that1 in one instance1 the animal has been found in an entire state4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,siberian ,,mammoth4 ,in the year #agii1 a ,tungusian fisherman observed a strange shapeless mass projecting from an ice-bank1 near the mouth of a river in the north of ,siberia1 the nature of which he did not understand1 and which was so high in the bank as to be beyond his reach4 ,the next year he observed the same object1 which was then rather more disengaged from among the ice1 but was still unable to conceive what it was4 ,toward the end of the following summer1 #ahja1 he could distinctly see that it was the frozen carcass of a huge animal1 the entire flank of which1 and one of its tusks1 had become disengaged from the ice4 ,in consequence of the ice beginning to melt earlier1 and to a greater degree than usual1 in #ahjc1 the fifth year of this discovery1 the enormous carcass became entirely disengaged1 and fell down from the ice-crag on a sand-bank forming part of the coast of the ,arctic ocean4 ,in the month of ,march of that year1 the ,tungusian carried away the two tusks1 which he sold for fifty rubles1 about thirty-eight dollars4 ,two years afterward this animal still remained on the sand-bank1 where it had fallen from the ice2 but its body was then greatly mutilated4 ,the peasants had taken away considerable quantities of its flesh to feed their dogs2 and the wild animals1 particularly the white bears1 had also feasted on the carcass2 yet the skeleton remained quite entire1 except that one of the fore legs was gone4 ,the entire spine1 the pelvis1 one shoulder-blade1 and three legs1 were still held together by their ligaments1 and by some remains of the skin2 and the other shoulder-blade was found at a short distance4 ,the head remained1 covered by the dried skin1 and the pupil of the eyes was still distinguishable4 ,the brain also remained within the skull1 but a good deal shrunk and dried up2 and one of the ears was in excellent preservation1 still retaining a tuft of strong bristly hair4 ,the upper lip was a good deal eaten away1 and the under lip was entirely gone1 so that the teeth were distinctly seen4 ,the animal was a male1 and had a long mane on its neck4 ,the skin was extremely thick and heavy1 and as much of it remained as required the exertions of ten men to carry away1 which they did with considerable difficulty4 ,more than thirty pounds of the hair and bristles of this animal were gathered from the wet sand-bank1 having been trampled into the sand by the white bears1 while devouring the carcass4 ,the hair was of three distinct kinds3 one consisting of stiff black bristles1 a foot or more in length2 another of thinner bristles1 or coarse flexible hair1 of a reddish-brown color2 and the third of coarse reddish-brown wool1 which grew among the roots of the hair4 ,these afford an undeniable proof that this animal had belonged to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold region1 with which we are unacquainted1 and by no means fitted to dwell in the torrid zone4 ,it is also evident that this enormous animal must have been frozen up by the ice at the moment of its death4 ,,fossil ,,shells4 ,at whatever elevations these shells may have been found1 and however remote from the parts of the globe now occupied by water1 it is certain that they were once generated in the sea1 by which they were deposited4 ,the ,altain chain of primitive mountains in ,siberia is flanked on each side by a chain of hills inclosing marine shells4 ,on a comparison of the forms1 contexture and composition of these shells1 as they have been found imbedded in rocks1 not the slightest difference can be detected between several varieties of them and those which still inhabit the sea4 ,at ,touraine1 in ,france1 a hundred miles from the ocean1 and about nine feet beneath the surface1 a bed of fossil shells has been found nine leagues in length1 and about twenty feet in thickness4 ,such beds are known to exist in every part of ,europe2 and in ,south ,america1 according to ,ulloa1 they are very frequent4 ,great ,britain abounds in these fossil productions4 ,in the cliffs of the isle of ,sheppey1 bordering on the ,thames1 several varieties of the crab1 and lobsters nearly whole1 have been found in a petrified state4 ,within the elevated lands in the vicinity of ,reading1 in ,berkshire1 an abundance of oyster-shells has been found1 many of them entire1 and having both their valves united4 ,at ,broughton1 in ,lincolnshire1 there are two quarries abounding in fresh-water shells1 which are found in a blue stone1 supposed to have been formerly clay1 and to have been gradually indurated4 ,a bed of shells1 twelve feet thick1 and lying in a greenish sand1 has been found about a mile from ,reculver1 in ,kent4 ,at ,harwich1 at the entrance of the river1 a sandy cliff1 fifty feet in hight1 contains shells1 of which there are no less than twenty-eight varieties4 ,on digging a moorish pasture1 in ,northamptonshire1 many snails and river shells were found2 and these were the more abundant in proportion as the workmen proceeded to a greater depth4 ,and1 lastly1 the petrifactions known by the name of belemnites1 have been found in chalk pits1 in different parts of the kingdom3 they are usually cylindrical1 or conical1 and sometimes contain a hollow nucleus4 ,they are supposed to constitute a species of nautilus1 and very frequently occur in the coarser kinds of marble4 ,,subterranean ,,forests4 ,in the year #agjh1 a breach made by the ,thames1 at an extraordinary high tide1 inundated the marshes of ,dagenham and ,havering1 in ,essex4 ,such was the impetuous rush of the water1 that a large passage or channel was torn up1 three hundred feet in width1 and in some parts twenty feet in depth4 ,in this way1 a great number of trees1 that had been buried there many ages before1 were exposed to view4 ,with one exception1 that of a large oak1 having the greatest part of its bark1 and some of its heads and roots in a perfect state1 these trees bore a greater resemblance to alder than to any other description of wood4 ,they were black and hard1 and their fibers were extremely tough4 ,no doubt was entertained of their having grown on the spot where they lay2 and they were so numerous1 that in many places they afforded steps to the passengers4 ,they were imbedded in a black oozy soil1 on the surface of which they lay prostrate1 with a covering of grey mold4 ,in passing along the channel torn up by the water1 vast numbers of the stumps of these subterraneous trees1 remaining in the posture in which they grew1 were to be seen1 some with their roots running down1 and others branching and spreading about in the earth1 as is observed in growing trees4 ,that they were the ruins1 not of the deluge1 but of a later age1 has been inferred from the existence of a bed of shells1 which lies across the highway1 on the descent near ,stifford bridge1 leading to ,south ,okendon4 ,at a perpendicular depth of twenty feet beneath this bed of shells1 and at the distance of nearly two hundred feet1 in the bottom of the valley1 runs a brook which empties itself into the ,thames at ,purfleet4 ,this brook is known to ebb and flow with the ,thames2 and1 consequently1 if the bed of shells1 as has been conjectured1 was deposited in that place by an inundation of the ,thames1 it must have been such as to have drowned a vast proportion of the surrounding country1 and have overtopped the trees near the river1 in ,west ,horrock1 ,dagenham1 and the other marshes1 overturning them in its progress4 ,in support of this hypothesis1 it should be remarked1 that the bed of earth in which the trees grew1 was entire and undisturbed1 and consisted of a spongy1 light1 oozy soil1 filled with the roots of reeds1 of a specific gravity much less than that of the stratum above it4 ,the levels of ,hatfield chase were1 in the reign of ,charles ,i41 the largest chase of red deer in ,england4 ,they contained about one hundred and eighty thousand acres of land1 about one-half of which was yearly inundated2 but being sold to one ,vermuiden1 a ,dutchman1 he contrived1 at a great labor and expense1 to dischase1 drain1 and reduce these lands to arable and pasture grounds not subject to be overflowed4 ,in every part of the soil1 in the bottom of the river ,ouse even1 and in that of the adventitious soil of all marsh land1 together with the skirts of the ,lincolnshire wold1 vast multitudes of the roots and trunks of trees of different sizes are found4 ,the roots are fixed in the soil1 in their natural position1 as thick as they could have grown2 and near to them lie the trunks4 ,many of these trees appear to have been burned1 and others to have been chopped and squared2 and this in such places1 and at such depths1 as could never have been opened1 since the destruction of the forest1 until the time of the drainage4 ,that this was the work of the ,romans1 who were the destroyers of all the woods and forests which are now found underground in the bottoms of moors and bogs1 is evidenced by the coins and utensils1 belonging to that nation1 which have been collected1 as well in these levels1 as in other parts of ,great ,britain where these subterraneous forests have been discovered4 ,,moors1 ,,mosses ,,and ,,bogs4 ,it having been reported in ,lincolnshire1 that a large extent of islets of moor1 situated along its coast1 and visible only at the lowest ebbs of the tide1 was chiefly composed of decayed trees1 ,dr4 de ,serra1 accompanied by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 proceeded1 in the month of ,september1 #agif1 to examine their nature and extent4 ,they landed on one of the largest of these islets1 when the ebbs were at the lowest1 and found its exposed surface to be about ninety feet in length1 and seventy-five in width4 ,they were enabled to ascertain1 that these islets consist almost entirely of roots1 trunks1 branches1 and leaves of trees and shrubs1 intermixed with leaves of aquatic plants4 ,the remains of many of the trees were still standing on their roots2 but the trunks of the greater part of them lay scattered on the ground1 in every direction4 ,the bark of the trees and roots appeared in general as fresh as when they were growing2 in that of the birches particularly1 many of which were found1 even the thin silvery membranes of the outer skin were discernible4 ,the timber of all kinds1 on the contrary1 was decomposed and soft1 in the greater part of the trees2 in some it was firm1 especially about the knots4 ,sound pieces of timber had been often found by the country people4 ,in general1 the trunks1 branches and roots of the decayed trees were considerably flattened2 a phenomenon which has been observed in the surtarbrand1 or fossil wood of ,iceland1 and also in that found near the lake of ,thun1 in ,switzerland4 ,the soil was chiefly composed of rotten leaves2 and1 on being thrown into water1 many of these were taken out in a perfect state4 ,these islets extended about twelve miles in length1 and one in breadth1 opposite the shore of ,sutton1 at which place1 on digging a well1 a moor of the same nature was found under ground1 at the depth of sixteen feet1 and1 consequently1 very nearly on the same level with that which constitutes the islets4 ,on boring in the fields belonging to the ,royal ,society1 in the parish of ,mablethorpe1 to ascertain the cause of the subterraneous stratum of decayed vegetables1 a similar moor was found4 ,the appearance of these decayed vegetables was found exactly to agree with that of the moor which was thrown up in ,blankney fen1 and in other parts of the east fen of ,lincolnshire1 in making their embankments2 barks1 like those of the birch-tree1 being there also abundantly found4 ,this moor has been traced as far as ,peterborough1 sixty miles south of ,sutton4 ,on the north side1 the moory islets extend as far as ,grimsby1 on the south of the mouth of the ,humber3 and it is a remarkable circumstance1 that in the large tracts of low land which lie on the south banks of that river1 a little above its mouth1 there is a subterraneous stratum of decayed trees and shrubs1 exactly resembling those observed at ,sutton4 ,at ,axholme isle1 a similar stratum extends over a tract of ten miles in length1 by five in breadth4 ,the roots there also stand in the places where they grew2 while the trunks lie prostrate1 amid the roots of aquatic plants and reeds4 ,little doubt can be entertained of the moory islets of ,sutton being a part of this extensive subterraneous stratum1 which1 by some inroad of the sea1 has been there stripped of its covering of soil4 ,the identity of the levels2 that of the species of trees2 the roots of these affixed1 in both1 to the soil where they grew2 and1 above all1 the flattened shape of the trunks1 branches1 and roots1 found in the islets1 which can only be accounted for by the heavy pressure of a superinduced stratum1 are sufficient reasons for this opinion4 ,such a wide-spread assemblage of vegetable ruins1 lying almost in the same level1 and that level generally under the common mark of low water1 naturally gives rise to reflections on the epoch of this destruction1 and the agency by which it was effected4 ,the original catastrophe which buried this immense forest must have been of very ancient date2 but it is to be suspected1 that the inroad of the sea which uncovered the decayed trees of the islets of ,sutton1 is comparatively recent4 ,the state of the leaves1 and the timber1 and also the tradition of the country people1 concur to strengthen this suspicion4 ,leaves and other delicate parts of plants1 though they may be long preserved in a subterraneous situation1 can not remain uninjured when exposed to the action of the waves1 and of the air4 ,the inhabitants of ,sutton believe that their parish church once stood on the spot where the islets now are1 and was submerged by the inroads of the sea2 that1 at very low water1 their ancestors could even discern its ruins2 and that their present church was built to supply the place of that which was washed away4 ,so many concomitant 7though weak7 testimonies1 render their report to a certain degree deserving of credit1 and lead to a supposition1 that some of the stormy inundations of the ,north sea1 which in these last centuries have washed away such large tracts of land on its shores1 may have carried away a soil resting on clay1 and have finally uncovered the trees of these moory islets4 ,bogs and mosses are little more than lakes filled up with vegetable matter1 usually of aquatic origin4 ,they are to be found not only in ,ireland and ,scotland1 but also in every northern country1 more especially when thinly peopled4 ,it should be remarked1 that ,ireland abounds in springs1 which are mostly dry in summer2 and that grass and weeds grow abundantly about these spots4 ,in the winter these springs swell and run1 softening and loosening all the earth about them4 ,now1 that sward or surface of the earth which consists of the roots of grass1 being lifted up1 and made fuzzy or spongy by the water in the winter1 is dried in the spring1 and does not fall together1 but withers in a tuft4 ,the new grass which springs through it is again lifted during the following winter2 and thus the spring is still more and more stopped1 and the sward grows thicker and thicker1 till at length it makes what is called a quaking bog4 ,in proportion as it rises and becomes drier1 and as the grass roots and other vegetables become more putrid1 together with the mud and slime of the water1 it acquires a blackness1 and becomes what is called a turf bog4 ,when the vegetables rot1 it is considered that the saline particles are in general carried away by the water1 in which they are dissolved2 but that the oily or sulphureous particles remain and float on the water2 and it is thus that the turf acquires its inflammability4 ,the highest mountains of ,ireland are1 as well as the plains1 covered with bogs1 because they abound in springs1 which1 on account of a defective population1 are not cleared2 and thus they are overrun with bogs4 ,in that country mosses also abound2 and the particular kind which grows in bogs1 is remarkable on this account1 that a congeries of its threads1 before it is decayed1 constitutes the substance of the light spongy turf1 which thus becomes so tough as not to yield to the spade4 ,this curious substance1 in the north of ,ireland1 is called old wives' tow1 and is not unlike flax4 ,the turf hardens by degrees1 but is still stringy when broken1 and at length becomes the red turf employed as fuel4 ,the production of the quaking bogs is as follows4 ,when a stream or spring runs through a flat1 it becomes filled with weeds in summer1 and trees fall across and dam it up4 ,during the winter season the water stagnates more and more every year1 until the whole flat is covered4 ,a coarse kind of grass1 peculiar to these bogs1 springs up in tufts1 the roots of which are consolidated1 and which1 in a few years1 grow to the hight of several feet4 ,in the winter the grass rots1 and falls with its seed on the tufts1 thus adding to their growth the ensuing spring4 ,the tops of flags and grass are sometimes interwoven on the surface of the water1 and gradually becoming thicker1 cover its surface4 ,on this covering herbs grow2 and by the interweaving of their roots1 it is rendered so strong as to bear a man4 ,some of these bogs sink1 where a man stands1 to a considerable depth1 and rise before and behind3 underneath1 the water is clear4 ,even these in time become red bogs2 but may easily be converted into meadow land1 by clearing a trench for the passage of the water4 ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 in his account of the bogs of ,ireland1 published in the 8,philosophical ,transactions10 notices a curious fact1 namely1 that when the turf-diggers1 after having dug out the earth proper to make turf or peat1 reached the bottom1 so as to come to the clayey or other soil1 by draining off the water1 they met with the roots of fir-trees1 with their stumps standing upright1 and their branches spread out on every side horizontally4 ,this was evidently the place of the growth of these trees1 the branches of the roots of which are in some parts matted1 as is seen in the roots of trees closely planted4 ,large pieces of wood have been found1 not only in clay-pits1 but likewise in quarries or stone-pits1 in the blocks of stone raised out of their strata or layers4 ,the black spongy mold employed for peat smells strongly of bitumen1 or petroleum1 a great proportion of the oil of which is yielded by distillation2 so that1 singular as it may appear1 not only oil1 but a material which may be used for candles1 may be extracted from these peat-bogs in large quantities2 and it has even been proposed that this business should be carried on on a large scale1 with a view to giving prosperity to the country4 ,in several parts of ,ireland a singular phenomenon has been observed3 on horses trampling with their feet on a space of soft ground1 a sudden appearance of light ensued4 ,on the mold1 which agreed in color1 lightness1 c41 with peat earth1 being examined with a microscope1 the light was found to proceed from an abundance of small1 semi-transparent1 whitish1 live worms which lay in it4 ,the commissioners appointed by parliament to inquire into the nature and extent of the bogs of ,ireland1 and the practicability of draining them1 represent them as occupying thousands of acres1 indeed1 many square miles4 ,their nature and constituent parts are described by them as consisting of an accumulation of vegetable matter1 settling in successive generations on itself1 and converted by the want of ventilation and motion to a stagnant pool1 which first furnished the elements of life and increase to the plants covering its surface4 ,the progress of the accumulation may be best conceived by imagining a basin1 or concave reservoir1 of a certain extent and depth1 formed of clay1 limestone1 gravel1 c41 through which the water1 scantily but constantly supplied1 can not obtain an issue4 ,undisturbed in this water1 a surface of bog moss grows1 decays and putrefies4 ,to this a second generation succeeds2 and this is followed by others1 until1 at length1 the bulk rises considerably above the level of its bed1 forming hillocks of various hights1 shapes and dimensions4 ,the surface of a bog is not level like a lake1 but undulating2 and it terminates somewhat abruptly1 and almost perpendicularly4 ,the average hight of the great bogs1 above the level of high-water mark in ,dublin harbor1 is about two hundred and fifty feet4 ,many acres of these bogs have been reclaimed2 and the practicability of draining and cultivating the greater proportion of them has been pointed out in the reports of the commissioners4 ,perthshire1 in ,north ,britain1 abounds in mosses1 the contents of which are computed to exceed nine thousand acres4 ,the greatest hight of the moss1 above the clay on which it lies1 is fourteen feet and a half4 ,its surface1 when viewed at a distance1 seems wholly covered with heath3 but when closely examined1 is found to be composed of small tufts of heath1 intermixed with a variety of moss-plants4 ,here also are found innumerable trunks of trees1 lying along close to their roots1 the latter being still fixed in the clay1 as in the natural state4 ,the irruption of what is called ,solway moss has greatly attracted the public attention2 for1 although the cause of it is obvious1 still the alteration it produced on the surface of the earth1 was more considerable than any known in ,great ,britain1 as resulting from a natural cause1 since the destruction of ,earl ,goodwin's estate4 ,it happened in the year #agga1 after severe rains which had in many places produced great inundations of the rivers4 ,the following is a concise description of the spot where this event happened4 ,along the side of the river ,esk1 is a vale1 about a mile in breadth1 bounded on the south-east by the river1 and on the north-west by a steep bank1 about thirty feet in hight above the level of the vale4 ,from the top of the bank the ground rises on an easy ascent for about a quarter of a mile1 where it is terminated by the moss1 which extends about two miles north and south1 and about a mile and a half east and west1 being bounded on the north-west by the river ,sark4 ,it is probable that the solid ground1 from the top of the bank above the vale1 was continued in the same direction under the moss1 before its irruption1 for a considerable space2 for the moss1 at the place where the irruption happened1 was inclined toward the sloping ground4 ,from the edge of the moss there was a gully or hollow1 called by the country people the gap1 and said to be thirty yards deep where it entered the vale3 down this hollow ran a small rill of water1 which was often dry in summer1 not having any other supply but what filtered from the moss4 ,the irruption happened1 at the head of this gap1 on the night of the sixteenth of ,november1 between the hours of ten and eleven1 when all the neighboring rivers and brooks were prodigiously swollen by the rains4 ,a large body of the moss was forced1 partly by the great fall of rain1 and partly by the springs beneath1 into a small beck or burn1 which runs within a few yards of its border to the south-east4 ,by the united pressure of the water behind it1 and of this beck1 which was then very high1 it was carried down a narrow glen between two banks about three hundred feet high1 into a wide and spacious plain1 over a part of which it spread with great rapidity4 ,the moss continued for some time to send off considerable quantities of its substance1 which1 being borne along by the torrent1 on the back of the first great body1 kept it for many hours in perpetual motion1 and drove it still further on4 ,during the first night1 at least four hundred acres of fine arable land were covered with moss from three to twelve or fifteen feet in depth4 ,several houses were destroyed1 much corn lost1 c42 but all the inhabitants escaped4 ,when the waters subsided1 the moss also ceased to flow2 but two pretty considerable streams continued to run from the heart of it1 and carried away some pieces of mossy matter to the place where it burst4 ,they then joined the beck1 already mentioned1 which with this addition1 resumed its former channel1 and with a little assistance from the people of the neighborhood1 made its way to the ,esk1 through the midst of that body of moss which obstructed its course4 ,thus1 in a great measure drained1 the new moss fell several feet1 and when the fair weather came on at the end of ,november1 it settled in a firmer and more solid body on the lands it had overrun4 ,by this inundation about eight hundred acres of arable ground were overflowed before the moss stopped1 and the habitations of twenty-seven families destroyed4 ,tradition has preserved the memory of a similar inundation in another part of ,north ,britain4 ,at ,monteith a moss changed its course in one night1 and covered a great extent of ground4 ,there is also an account in the 8,philosophical ,transactions0 of a moving moss near ,churchtown1 in ,lancashire1 which greatly alarmed the neighborhood1 and was regarded as a miracle4 ,the moss was observed to rise to a surprising hight1 and soon after to sink as much beneath the level1 moving slowly toward the south4 ,,coral ,,reefs ,,and ,,islands4 ,coral belongs to the class of those surprising productions of nature1 which are named zophytes1 or plant-animals1 on account of their filling up the intermediate space between the animal and vegetable kingdoms2 and in treating of them this curious substance will be distinctly considered4 ,in the mean time1 the production of coral reefs and islands presents one of those geological changes1 by which the earth's surface has been modified1 and has received a new accession from the sea4 ,the common foundation of the clusters of islands discovered by modern navigators in the ,pacific ocean1 as well as of those belonging to ,new ,south ,wales1 is evidently of coral structure1 immense reefs of which shoot out in all directions4 ,there is every reason to believe that the islands which are occasionally raised by the tremendous agency of subterraneous volcanoes1 do not bear any proportion to those which are perpetually forming1 by the silent but persevering efforts of the sea worms by which coral is produced4 ,banks of coral are found at all depths1 and at all distances from the shore1 entirely unconnected with the land1 and detached from each other4 ,by a quick progression1 they grow up toward the surface2 while the winds1 heaping up the coral from deeper water1 rapidly accelerate the formation of these banks into shoals and islands4 ,they become gradually shallower2 and when once the sea meets with resistance1 the coral is quickly thrown up by the force of the waves breaking against the bank4 ,these coral banks have been seen in all their stages3 some in deep water2 others with a few rocks appearing above the surface1 just formed into islands without the least appearance of vegetation2 and1 lastly1 others covered with soil and weeds4 ,the loose corals1 rolled inward by the billows in large pieces1 strike upon the grounds1 and1 the reflux being unable to carry them away1 become a bar to the coagulated sand with which they are always intermixed4 ,this sand1 being easiest raised1 is lodged at top2 and when its accumulated mass is elevated by violent storms1 and no longer within the reach of common waves1 it becomes a resting-place to birds whom the search of prey draws thither4 ,their excrement1 feathers1 c41 augment the soil1 and prepare it for the reception of accidental roots1 branches and seeds cast up by the waves1 or brought thither by birds4 ,thus islands are formed3 the leaves and rotten branches1 intermixing with the sand1 produce in time a light black mold1 in which trees and shrubs vegetate and thrive4 ,cocoa-nuts1 which continue long in the sea without losing their vegetative powers1 having been thrown on such islands1 produce trees which are particularly adapted to all soils1 whether sandy1 rich or rocky4 ,the violence of the waves1 within the tropics1 must generally be directed to two points1 according to the monsoons4 ,hence the islands formed from coral banks must be long and narrow1 and lie nearly in a meridional direction4 ,even supposing the banks to be round1 as they seldom are when large1 the sea meeting most resistance in the middle1 must heave up the matter in greater quantities there1 than toward the extremities2 and1 by the same rule1 the ends will generally be open1 or at least lowest4 ,they will also commonly have soundings there1 as the remains of the banks1 not accumulated1 will be under water4 ,where the coral banks are not exposed to the common monsoon1 they will alter their direction1 and become either round1 or extended in the parallel1 or of irregular forms1 according to accidental circumstances4 ,captain ,flinders1 in his voyage to the ,south ,pacific1 gives an account of an unbroken reef of coral1 three hundred and fifty miles long1 on the coast of ,new ,holland2 and he states1 that between that country and ,new ,guinea1 the coral formations extend through a distance of seven hundred miles1 interrupted by no intervals of more than thirty miles in length4 ,he also gives us a lively and interesting description of a coral reef on the southern coast of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,on this reef he landed1 and the water being very clear round the edges1 a new creation1 as it were1 but imitative of the old1 was presented to the view4 ,wheat sheaves1 mushrooms1 stags' horns1 cabbage leaves1 and a variety of other forms1 were glowing under water with vivid tints of every shade betwixt green1 purple1 brown and white2 equaling in beauty1 and excelling in grandeur1 the most favorite parterre of the curious florist4 ,these were different species of coral and fungus1 growing1 as it were1 out of the solid rock1 and each had its peculiar form and shade of coloring2 but1 whilst contemplating the richness of the scene1 the destruction with which it was pregnant could not be forgotten4 ,different corals in a dead state1 concreted into a solid mass of a dull white color1 composed the stone of the reef4 ,the negro heads were lumps which stood higher than the rest2 and being generally dry1 were blackened by the weather2 but even in these the forms of the different corals and some shells were distinguishable4 ,the edges of the reef1 but particularly on the outside where the sea broke1 were the lightest parts2 within these were pools and holes containing live corals1 sponges1 sea-eggs and cucumbers2 and many enormous cockles were scattered upon different parts of the reef4 ,at low water1 these cockles seem most commonly to lie half open1 but frequently close with much noise1 and the water within the shells then spouts up in a stream1 three or four feet high3 it is from this noise and the spouting of the water that they are discovered1 for1 in other respects1 they are scarcely to be distinguished from the coral rock4 ,his description of a coral island which he afterward visited on the same coast1 is truly philosophical and throws great light on these surprising productions of nature4 8,this little island1 or rather the surrounding reef1 which is three or four miles long1 affords shelter from the south-east winds4 ,it is scarcely more than a mile in circumference1 but appears to be increasing both in elevation and extent4 ,at no very distant period of time1 it was one of those banks produced by the washing up of sand and broken coral1 of which most reefs afford instances1 and those of ,torres' strait a great many4 ,these banks are in different stages of progress3 some1 like this1 are become islands1 but not yet habitable2 some are above high-water mark1 but destitute of vegetation2 whilst others are overflowed with every returning tide4 ,it seems to me1 that1 when the animalcules which form the corals at the bottom of the ocean1 cease to live1 their structures adhere to each other1 by virtue either of the glutinous remains within1 or of some property in salt water2 and the interstices being gradually filled up with sand and broken pieces of coral washed by the sea1 which also adhere1 a mass of rock is at length formed4 ,future races of these animalcules erect their habitations upon the rising bank1 and die in their turn1 to increase1 but principally to elevate1 this monument of their wonderful labors4 ,the care taken to work perpendicularly in the early stages1 marks a surprising instinct in these diminutive creatures4 ,their wall of coral is for the most part in situations where the winds are constant1 and when it reaches the surface1 it affords a shelter1 to the leeward of which their infant colonies may be safely sent forth2 and to this their instinctive foresight it seems to be owing1 that the windward side of a reef exposed to the open sea1 is generally1 if not always1 the highest part1 and rises almost perpendicular1 sometimes from the depth of two hundred1 and perhaps many more fathoms4 ,to be constantly covered with water1 seems necessary to the existence of the animalcules1 for they do not work1 except in holes upon the reef1 beyond low-water mark2 but the coral sand and other broken remnants thrown up by the sea adhere to the rock1 and form a solid mass with it1 as high as the common tides reach4 ,that elevation surpassed1 the future remnants1 being rarely covered1 lose their adhesive property2 and remaining in a loose state1 form what is usually called a key upon the tops of the reef4 ,the new bank is not long in being visited by sea-birds2 salt plants take root upon it1 and a soil begins to be formed2 a cocoa-nut is thrown on shore2 land birds visit it and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees2 every high tide1 and still more every gale1 adds something to the bank2 the form of an island is gradually assumed1 and last of all comes man to take possession4 ,this island is well advanced in the above progressive state2 having been many years1 probably some ages1 above the reach of the highest spring-tides1 or the wash of the surf in the heaviest gales4 ,i distinguished1 however1 in the rock which forms its basis1 the sand1 coral and shells formerly thrown up1 in a more or less perfect state of cohesion2 small pieces of wood1 pumice-stone1 and other extraneous bodies1 which chance had mixed with the calcareous substances when the cohesion began1 were inclosed in the rock1 and1 in some cases1 were still separable from it without much force4 ,the upper part of the island is a mixture of the same substances in a loose state1 with a little vegetable soil1 and is covered with the casuarina and a variety of other trees and shrubs1 which give food to paroquets1 pigeons1 and some other birds2 to whose ancestors it is probable the island was originally indebted for this vegetation40 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,wide ,,and ,,inhospitable ,,deserts4 ------------------------------------ ,,asiatic ,,deserts4 ,in ,africa1 as well as ,asia1 there are immense tracts of land called deserts1 which consist of vast plains composed of loose sand4 ,large portions of these are utterly destitute of vegetation1 and sometimes1 in crossing them1 the traveler sees not a hill or mountain1 or human dwelling1 or even a tree or shrub1 or blade of grass4 ,all around is a sea of sand2 and far as the eye can reach1 it is one scene of lifeless solitude and desolation4 ,these trackless wastes are traversed by caravans1 which are companies of travelers usually mounted upon camels4 ,horses travel in these sands with difficulty4 ,their feet sink in the soil2 they are overcome with heat1 and parched with drought4 ,the camel1 on the contrary1 has a large1 spongy foot1 which does not sink in the sand2 he can bear excessive heat1 and by a curious contrivance of nature1 is enabled to go without water for five or six days4 ,this valuable creature is called the ship of the desert1 because it enables the merchants of ,asia and ,africa to transport their merchandise over the sea of sand1 just as a ship carries goods from one part of the world to another1 across the briny ocean4 ,it seems really as if ,providence had provided this singular animal on purpose to enable mankind to traverse the great deserts which are spread out upon the eastern continent4 ,the chief ,asiatic deserts are in ,persia and ,arabia1 the former of which countries contains three of considerable extent and celebrity4 ,the first of these commences on the east of the ,tigris1 in latitude thirty-three1 and extends to the north of ,shuster4 ,the second reaches from the vicinity of ,korn very nearly to the ,zurra1 in a line1 from east to west1 of about four hundred ,english miles1 and from north to south1 of about two hundred and fifty4 ,in the latter direction it joins the great desert of ,kerman1 which1 alone1 extends over a tract of three hundred and fifty miles4 ,the two may1 therefore1 be considered as forming one common desert1 stretching north-west and south-east1 over a space of about seven hundred miles2 thus intersecting this wide empire into two nearly equal portions4 ,this vast region is impregnated with niter and other salts1 which taint the neighboring lakes and rivers1 and has1 on that account1 been denominated the ,great ,saline ,desert4 ,,arabian ,,deserts4 ,the sandy deserts of ,arabia form one of the most striking objects of that country4 ,from the hills of ,omon1 which appear to be a continuation of those on the other side of the ,persian gulf1 as far as ,mecca1 the greater part of ,negad is one prodigious desert1 interrupted1 toward the frontiers of ,hejaz and ,yemen1 or ,arabia ,felix1 by ,kirge1 containing the district of ,sursa1 and several oases1 or fertile spots4 ,the north-west part of ,negad presents almost a continued desert1 and is considered as a prolongation of the one above mentioned4 ,the ,beled el ,haram1 or ,holy ,land of ,islam1 of which ,mecca is the capital1 is comprehended between the ,red sea1 and an irregular line which1 commencing at ,arabog1 about sixty miles to the north of ,djedda1 forms a bend from the north-east to the south-east1 in passing by ,yelemlem1 two days' journey to the north-east of ,mecca4 ,it thence continues to ,karna1 nearly seventy miles to the east of the same place1 and twenty-four miles to the west of ,taif1 which is without the limit of the ,holy ,land2 after which1 turning to the south-west1 it passes by ,drataerk1 and terminates at ,mehherma upon the coast1 at the port named ,almarsa ,ibrahim1 about ninety miles to the south-east of ,djedda4 ,it therefore appears that the holy land is about one hundred and seventy miles in length1 from the north-west to the south-east1 and eighty-four miles in breadth1 from the north-east to the south-west2 which space is comprehended in that part of ,arabia known by the name of ,el ,hedjeaz1 or the ,land of ,pilgrimage1 and includes the cities of ,medina and ,taif4 ,it has not any river2 and the only water to be found1 is that of some inconsiderable springs1 which are not numerous1 and the brackish water obtained from the deep wells4 ,thus it is a real desert4 ,it is at ,mecca and ,medina alone1 that cisterns have been wrought to preserve the rain-water2 on which account1 a garden is very rarely to be seen throughout this vast territory4 ,the plains are composed either of sand1 or barren earth1 entirely abandoned2 and1 as the inhabitants do not1 in any part of the country1 sow any description of grain1 they are supplied with flour1 c41 from upper ,egypt1 ,yemen and ,india4 ,,african ,,deserts4 ,the most striking feature of ,africa consists of the immense deserts which pervade its surface1 and which are supposed to comprise the one-half of its whole extent4 ,the chief of these is1 by way of eminence1 called ,sahara1 or the ,desert4 ,it stretches from the shores of the ,atlantic1 with few interruptions1 to the confines of ,egypt1 a space of more than forty-five degrees1 or about three thousand miles1 by a breadth of twelve degrees1 or about nine hundred miles2 its whole extent being two-thirds as large as that of the ,united ,states4 ,it is one prodigious expanse of red sand1 and sandstone rock1 of the granulations of which the red sand consists4 ,it is1 in truth1 an empire of sand which seems to defy every exertion of human power or industry1 although it is interspersed with various islands1 and fertile and cultivated spots of different sizes1 where water collects in springs or pools1 around which vegetation springs up4 ,these places1 which present a delightful contrast to the surrounding sterility1 and cheer the eye of the weary traveler1 are called oases4 ,fezzan1 or ,fessan1 is the chief of those which have been hitherto explored4 ,nearly in the center of the southern line of this sandy ocean1 and about midway between the ,mediterranean sea and the coast of ,guinea1 rise the walls of ,timbuctoo1 a city which constitutes the great mart for the commerce of all the interior of ,africa4 ,to maintain this commerce is the laborious work of the akkabaars1 or caravans1 which cross this enormous desert from almost every part of the ,african coast4 ,the mode in which it is traversed is highly curious4 ,the caravans consist of several hundred loaded camels1 accompanied by the ,arabs who let them out to the merchants for the transportation of their goods4 ,during their route1 they are often exposed to the attacks of the roving ,arabs of ,sahara1 who generally commit their depredations on the approach to the confines of the desert4 ,in this tiresome journey1 the caravans do not proceed to the place of their destination1 in a direct line across the trackless desert1 but turn occasionally eastward or westward1 according to the situation of the oases of which we have spoken1 which are interspersed in various parts of the ,sahara1 like islands in the ocean4 ,these serve as watering-places to the men1 as well as to feed1 refresh and replenish the hardy and patient camel4 ,at each of these cultivated spots1 the caravan sojourns several days1 and then proceeds on its journey1 until it reaches another spot of the same description4 ,in the intermediate journeys1 the hot winds1 denominated shume1 or simoom1 are often so violent and penetrating1 as considerably1 if not entirely1 to exhale the water carried in skins by the camels for the use of the passengers and drivers4 ,on these occasions1 it is affirmed by the ,arabs1 five hundred dollars have been frequently given for a draught of water1 and that ten or twenty dollars are often paid1 when a partial exhalation has occurred4 ,these scorching winds are sometimes called the samiel1 and are supposed by some1 to be pestilential in their nature4 ,in #ahje1 a caravan proceeding from ,timbuctoo to ,tafilet1 was disappointed in not finding water at one of the usual watering-places1 when1 horrible to relate1 the whole of the persons belonging to it1 two thousand in number1 besides one thousand eight hundred camels1 perished of thirst6 ,accidents of this nature1 account for the vast quantities of human and other bones which are found heaped together in various parts of the desert4 ,the following is the general route of the caravans1 in crossing the great desert4 ,having left the city of ,fez1 they proceed at the rate of three miles and a half an hour1 and travel seven hours each day4 ,in the space of eighteen days they reach ,akka1 where they remain a month1 as this is the place of rendezvous at which they are formed into one grand accumulated caravan4 ,in proceeding from ,akka to ,tagassa1 sixteen days are employed2 and here again1 the caravan sojourns fifteen days to refresh the camels4 ,it then directs its course to the oasis and well of ,taudeny1 which is reached in seven days2 and1 after another stay of fifteen days1 it proceeds to ,arawan1 a watering-place1 situated at a like distance4 ,after having sojourned there fifteen days1 it sets out1 and reaches ,timbuctoo on the sixth day1 after having performed a journey of fifty-four days of actual traveling1 and seventy-five of repose2 making1 altogether1 from ,fez to ,timbuctoo1 one hundred and twenty-nine days1 or four lunar months and nine days4 ,another caravan sets out from ,wedinoon and ,sok ,assa1 traversing the desert between the ,black mountains of ,cape ,bojador and ,gualata3 it touches at ,tagassa and ,el ,garbie1 or ,west ,tagassa1 where having staid to collect salt1 it proceeds to ,timbuctoo4 ,the time occupied by this caravan is five or six months1 as it proceeds as far as ,gibbelel-bied1 or the ,white mountains1 near ,cape ,blanco1 through the deserts of ,mograffa and ,woled ,abusebah1 to a place named ,agadeen1 where it sojourns twenty days4 ,the caravans which cross the desert1 may be compared to fleets of merchant vessels under convoy2 the stata1 or convoy of the desert1 consisting of a certain number of ,arabs1 belonging to the tribe through whose territory the caravan passes4 ,thus1 in crossing the territory of ,woled ,abusebah1 it is accompanied by ,sebayhees1 or people of that country1 who1 on reaching the confines of the territory of ,woled ,deleim1 deliver their charge to the protection of the chiefs of that country4 ,these1 again1 conduct it to the confines of the territory of the ,mograffa ,arabs1 under whose care it at length reaches ,timbuctoo4 ,any assault on the caravan during this journey1 is considered as an insult to the whole tribe to which the convoy belongs2 and for such an outrage they never fail to take ample revenge4 ,besides these grand caravans1 others cross the desert1 on an emergency1 without a convoy or guard4 ,this is1 however1 a perilous expedition1 as they are too often plundered near the northern confines of the desert1 by two notorious tribes1 named ,dikna and ,emjot4 ,in the year #agih1 a caravan consisting of two thousand camels1 laden with the produce of the ,soudan territory1 together with seven hundred slaves1 was plundered and dispersed1 with great slaughter4 ,these desperate attacks are conducted in the following manner4 ,the tribe being assembled1 the horses are picketed at the entrance of the tents1 and scouts sent out1 to give notice when a caravan is likely to pass4 ,these scouts being mounted on the fleet horses of the desert1 quickly communicate the intelligence1 and the whole tribe mount their horses1 taking with them a sufficient number of female camels1 on whose milk they entirely subsist4 ,having placed themselves in ambush near an oasis1 or watering-place1 they issue thence on the arrival of the caravan1 which they plunder without mercy1 leaving the unfortunate merchants entirely destitute4 ,the food1 dress and accommodations of the people who compose the caravans1 are simple and natural4 ,being prohibited by their religion the use of wine and intoxicating liquors1 and exhorted by its principles to temperance in all things1 they are commonly satisfied with a few nourishing dates1 and a draught of water1 traveling for weeks successively without any other food4 ,at other times1 when they undertake a journey of a few weeks across the desert1 a little barley meal1 mixed with water1 constitutes their only nourishment4 ,in following up this abstemious mode of life1 they never complain1 but solace themselves with the hope of reaching their native country1 singing occasionally during the journey1 whenever they approach a habitation1 or when the camels are fatigued4 ,their songs are usually sung in trio2 and those of the camel-drivers who have musical voices1 join in the chorus4 ,these songs have a surprising effect in renovating the camels2 while the symphony and time maintained by the singers1 surpass what any one would conceive who has not heard them4 ,the day's journey is terminated early in the afternoon1 when the tents are pitched1 prayers said1 and the supper prepared by sunset4 ,the guests now arrange themselves in a circle1 and1 the sober meal being terminated1 converse till they are overcome by sleep4 ,at day-break next morning1 they again proceed on their journey4 ,it might seem that these inhabitants of the desert would lead a miserable life1 and especially that they would often be swallowed up in the terrific sand storms1 which sometimes sweep over these wastes4 ,the sand1 being loose and dry1 is borne upward by the whirling tempest1 and is seen driving over the plain1 like a terrific thunder-cloud4 ,the experienced traveler sees the coming danger1 and prepares himself for it4 ,he throws himself upon the ground1 and covers his face so as not to be choked with the dust4 ,the horses and camels1 guided by instinct1 also put their noses to the earth to prevent being suffocated4 ,if the storm is slight1 the party escapes2 but sometimes1 such immense waves of sand are drifted upon the wind1 as to bury the traveler deeply beneath it1 and make it his winding-sheet forever4 ,sometimes whole caravans1 with their horses and camels1 have been in this manner overwhelmed2 thus making the waves of the desert as fatal as the waves of the sea4 ,yet1 despite the terrors of the desert1 the ,arabs are a lively and cheerful race4 ,on their march1 they stop at night2 and in their tents1 spread beneath the starry canopy1 the laugh1 the jest and the song go round4 ,there are among them professed story-tellers1 who delight the listeners with fanciful tales of enchantment1 adventure1 and love1 or perhaps they repeat1 in an animated manner1 some fine specimens of ,arabic poetry4 ,thus it is1 that mankind1 occupying the gloomiest parts of the earth1 have amusements4 ,as the steel is made to yield its spark1 so the ,arab finds pleasure in the desert4 ,,pilgrimage ,,across ,,the ,,deserts4 ,the following very lively description of a pilgrimage across the desert1 is given by ,ali ,bey1 in his travels in ,morocco1 ,tripoli1 c4 ,it is an animated picture1 which portrays in the strongest colors the perils and sufferings encountered in these enterprises4 8,we continued marching on in great haste1 for fear of being overtaken by the four hundred ,arabs whom we wished to avoid4 ,for this reason we never kept the common road1 but passed through the middle of the desert1 marching through stony places1 over easy hills4 ,this country is entirely without water2 not a tree is to be seen in it1 not a rock which can afford a shelter or shade4 ,a transparent atmosphere2 an intense sun1 darting its beams upon our heads2 a ground almost white1 and commonly of a concave form1 like a burning-glass2 slight breezes1 scorching like a flame4 ,such is a faithful picture of this district1 through which we were passing4 ,every man we meet in this desert is looked upon as an enemy4 ,having discovered about noon a man in arms1 on horseback1 who kept at a certain distance1 my thirteen ,bedouins united the moment they perceived him1 and darted like an arrow to overtake him1 uttering loud cries1 which they interrupted by expressions of contempt and derision2 as1 #8,what are you seeking1 my brother8' #8,where are you going1 my son8' ,as they made these exclamations they kept playing with their guns above their heads4 ,the discovered ,bedouin profited by his advantage1 and fled into the mountains1 where it was impossible to follow him4 ,we met no one else4 8,we had now neither eaten nor drank since the preceding day2 our horses and other beasts were equally destitute2 though ever since nine in the evening we had been traveling rapidly4 ,shortly after noon we had not a drop of water remaining1 and the men1 as well as the poor animals1 were worn out with fatigue4 ,the mules1 stumbling every moment1 required assistance to lift them up again1 and to support their burden till they rose4 ,this terrible exertion exhausted the little strength we had left4 ,at two o'clock in the afternoon a man dropped down stiff1 and as if dead1 from great fatigue and thirst4 ,i stopped with three or four of my people to assist him4 ,the little wet which was left in one of the leathern budgets1 was squeezed out of it1 and some drops of water poured into the poor man's mouth1 but without any effect4 ,i now felt that my own strength was beginning to forsake me2 and becoming very weak1 ,i determined to mount on horseback1 leaving the poor fellow behind4 ,from this moment others of my caravan began to drop successively1 and there was no possibility of giving them any assistance2 they were abandoned to their unhappy destiny1 as every one thought only of saving himself4 ,several mules with their burdens were left behind1 and ,i found on my way two of my trunks on the ground1 without knowing what was become of the mules which had been carrying them1 the drivers having forsaken them as well as the care of my effects and of my instruments4 8,i looked upon this loss with the greatest indifference1 as if they had not belonged to me1 and pushed on4 ,but my horse began now to tremble under me1 and yet he was the strongest of the whole caravan4 ,we proceeded in silent despair4 ,when ,i endeavored to encourage any of the party to increase his pace1 he answered me by looking steadily at me1 and by putting his fore-finger to his mouth to indicate the great thirst by which he was affected4 ,as ,i was reproaching our conducting officers for their inattention1 which had occasioned this want of water1 they excused themselves by alleging the mutiny of the oudaias2 and besides1 added they1 #8,do we not suffer like the rest8' ,our fate was the more shocking1 as every one of us was sensible of the impossibility of supporting the fatigue to the place where we were to meet with water again4 ,at last1 at about four in the evening1 ,i had my turn and fell down with thirst and fatigue4 ,extended without consciousness on the ground in the middle of the desert1 left only with four or five men1 one of whom had dropped at the same moment with myself1 and all without any means of assisting me1 because they knew not where to find water1 and1 if they had known it1 had not strength to fetch it1 ,i should have perished with them on the spot1 if providence1 by a kind of miracle1 had not preserved us4 8,half an hour had already elapsed since ,i had fallen senseless to the ground1 7as ,i have since been told17 when1 at some distance1 a considerable caravan1 of more than two thousand souls1 was seen advancing4 ,it was under the direction of a marabout or saint called ,sidi ,alarbi1 who was sent by the sultan to ,ttemsen or ,tremecen4 ,seeing us in this distressed situation1 he ordered some skins of water to be thrown over us4 ,after ,i had received several of them over my face and hands1 ,i recovered my senses1 opened my eyes1 and looked around me1 without being able to discern anybody4 ,at last1 however1 ,i distinguished seven or eight shereefs and faquirs1 who gave me their assistance1 and showed me much kindness4 ,i endeavored to speak to them1 but an invincible knot in my throat seemed to hinder me2 ,i could only make myself understood by signs1 and by pointing to my mouth with my finger4 ,they continued pouring water over my face1 arms and hands1 and at last ,i was able to swallow small mouthfuls4 ,this enabled me to ask1 #8,who are you8' ,when they heard me speak1 they expressed their joy1 and answered me1 #8,fear nothing2 far from being robbers1 we are your friends2' and every one mentioned his name4 ,i began by degrees to recollect their faces1 but was not able to remember their names4 ,they then poured over me a still greater quantity of water1 gave me some to drink1 filled some of my leather bags1 and left me in haste1 as every minute spent in this place was precious to them1 and could not be repaired4 8,this attack of thirst is perceived all of a sudden by an extreme aridity of the skin2 the eyes appear to be bloody2 the tongue and mouth1 both inside and outside1 are covered with a crust of the thickness of a crown piece2 this crust is of a dark yellow color1 of an insipid taste1 and of a consistence like the soft wax from a beehive4 ,a faintness or languor takes away the power to move2 a kind of knot in the throat and diaphragm1 attended with great pain1 interrupts respiration4 ,some wandering tears escape from the eyes1 and at last the sufferer drops down to the earth1 and in a few moments loses all consciousness4 ,these are the symptoms which ,i remarked in my unfortunate fellow-travelers1 and which ,i experienced myself4 ,i got with difficulty on my horse again1 and we proceeded on our journey4 ,my ,bedouins and my faithful ,salem were gone on different directions to find out some water1 and two hours afterward they returned one after another1 carrying along with them some good or bad water1 as they had been able to find it3 every one presented to me part of what he had brought2 ,i was obliged to taste it1 and ,i drank twenty times1 but as soon as ,i swallowed it my mouth became as dry as before2 at last ,i was not able either to spit or to speak4 8,the greatest part of the soil of the desert consists of pure clay1 except some small traces of a calcareous nature4 ,the whole surface is covered with a bed of chalky1 calcareous stone of a whitish color1 smooth1 round and loose1 and of the size of the fist2 they are almost all of the same dimension1 and their surface is carious like pieces of old mortar3 ,i look upon this to be a true volcanic production4 ,this bed is extended with such perfect regularity1 that the whole desert is covered with it2 a circumstance which makes pacing over it very fatiguing to the traveler4 ,no animal is to be seen in this desert1 neither quadrupeds1 birds1 reptiles1 nor insects1 nor any plant whatever2 and the traveler who is obliged to pass through it1 is surrounded by the silence of death4 ,it was not till four in the evening that we began to distinguish some small plants burnt with the sun1 and a tree of a thorny nature without blossom or fruit40 ,the passage across the ,nubian desert1 is1 in its general features1 the same as that over the great desert of ,sahara4 ,the following narrative is somewhat abridged from ,bayard ,taylor's 8,journey to ,central ,africa40 8,my little caravan consisted of six camels1 including that of the guide4 ,we passed the miserable hamlet of ,korosko1 turned a corner of the mountain chain into a narrow1 stony valley1 and in a few minutes lost sight of the ,nile and his belt of palms4 ,thenceforward1 for many days1 the only green thing to be seen in the wilderness was myself4 ,the first day's journey lay among rugged hills1 thrown together in confusion1 with no apparent system or direction4 ,they were of jet black sandstone1 and resembled immense piles of coke or anthracite4 ,the small glens and basins inclosed in this chaos1 were filled with glowing yellow sand1 which1 in many places1 streamed down the crevices of the black rocks1 like rivulets of fire4 ,the path was strewn with hollow globes of hard1 black stones1 precisely resembling cannon-balls4 ,the guide gave me one of the size of a rifle bullet1 with a seam around the center1 as if cast in a mold4 ,the thermometer showed a temperature of eighty degrees at two o'clock in the afternoon1 but the heat was tempered by a pure fresh breeze4 ,after eight hours' travel1 ,i made my first camp1 at sunset1 in a little hollow inclosed by the mountains1 where a gray jackal1 after being twice shot at1 came and looked into the door of the tent4 8,i found dromedary-riding not at all difficult4 ,one sits on a very lofty seat1 with his feet crossed over the animal's shoulders1 or resting on his neck4 ,the body is obliged to rock backward and forward1 on account of the long1 swinging gait2 and as there is no stay or fulcrum1 except a blunt pommel1 around which the legs are crossed1 some little power of equilibrium is necessary4 ,my dromedary was a strong1 stately beast1 of a light cream color1 and of so even a gait that it would bear the ,arab test3 that is1 one might drink a cup of coffee while going on a full trot1 without spilling a drop4 ,i found great advantage in the use of the oriental costume4 ,my trowsers allowed the legs perfect freedom of motion1 and ,i soon learned so many different modes of crossing those members that no day was sufficient to exhaust them4 ,the rising and kneeling of the animal is hazardous at first1 as his long legs double together like a carpenter's rule1 and you are thrown backward and then forward1 and then backward again2 but the trick is soon learned4 ,the soreness and fatigue of which many travelers complain1 ,i never felt2 and ,i attribute much of it to the ,frank dress4 ,i rode from eight to ten hours a day1 read and even dreamed in the saddle1 and was at night as fresh and unwearied as when ,i mounted in the morning4 8,my caravan was accompanied by four ,arabs4 ,they owned the burden camels1 which they urged along with the cry of #8,yoho6 ,shekh ,abd-el ,kader6' and a shrill barbaric song1 the refrain of which was1 #8,o prophet of ,god1 help the camels1 and bring us safely to our journey's end6' ,they were very susceptible to cold1 and a temperature of fifty degrees1 which we frequently had in the morning1 made them tremble like aspen leaves1 and they were sometimes so benumbed that they could scarcely lead the camels4 ,they wore long swords1 carried in a leathern scabbard over the left shoulder1 and sometimes favored us with a war-dance1 which consisted merely in springing into the air with a brandished sword1 and turning round once before coming down4 ,they were all very devout1 retiring a short distance from the road to say their prayers1 at the usual hours1 and performing the prescribed ablutions with sand instead of water4 ,on the second morning1 we passed through a gorge in the black hills1 and entered a region called ,el ,biban1 or #8,the ,gates4' ,here the mountains1 though still grouped in the same disorder1 were more open1 and gave room to plains of sand several miles in length4 ,the narrow openings1 through which the road passes from one plain to another1 gave rise to the name4 ,the mountains are higher than on the ,nile1 and present the most wonderful configurations3 towers1 fortresses1 walls1 pyramids1 temples in ruin1 of an inky blackness near at hand1 but tinged of a deep1 glowing violet hue in the distance4 ,toward noon ,i saw a mirage1 a lake in which the broken peaks were reflected with great distinctness4 ,one of the ,nubians who was with us1 pointed out a spot where he was obliged to climb the rocks1 the previous summer1 to avoid being drowned4 ,during the heavy tropical rains which sometimes fall here1 the hundreds of pyramidal hills pour down such floods that the sand can not immediately drink them up1 and the valleys are turned into lakes4 ,the man described the roaring of the waters1 down the clefts of the rocks1 as something terrible4 ,in summer the passage of the desert is much more arduous than in winter1 and many men and camels perish4 ,the road was strewn with bones and carcasses1 and ,i frequently counted twenty dead camels within a stone's throw4 ,the stone-heaps which are seen on all the spurs of the hills1 as landmarks for caravans1 have become useless1 since one could find his way by the bones in the sand4 ,my guide1 who was a great believer in afrites and devils1 said that formerly many persons lost the way and perished from thirst1 all of which was the work of evil spirits4 ,toward noon1 on the third day1 we passed the last of the #8gates1' and entered the ,bahr bela ,ma1 7river without water17 a broad plain of burning yellow sand4 ,the gateway is very imposing1 especially on the eastern side1 where it is broken by a valley or gorge of ,tartarean blackness4 ,as we passed the last peak1 my guide1 who had ridden in advance1 dismounted beside what seemed to be a collection of graves--little ridges of sand1 with rough head and foot stones4 ,he sat by one which he had just made4 ,as ,i came up he informed me that all travelers who crossed the ,nubian desert1 for the first time1 are here expected to pay a toll1 or fee to the guide and camel-men4 #8,but what if ,i do not choose to pay8' ,i asked4 #8,then you will immediately perish1 and be buried here4 ,the graves are those of persons who refused to pay4' ,as ,i had no wish to occupy the beautiful mound he had heaped for me1 with the thigh-bones of a camel at the head and foot1 ,i gave the men a few piasters1 and passed the place4 ,he then plucked up the bones and threw them away1 and restored the sand to its original level4#h ----- ,footnote #h3 8,burckhardt gives the following account of the same custom1 in his travels in ,nubia4 #8,in two hours and a half we came to a plain on the top of the mountain called ,akabet el ,benat1 the ,rocks of the ,girls4 ,here the ,arabs who serve as guides through these mountains1 have devised a singular mode of extorting presents from the traveler3 they alight at certain spots in the ,akabet ,el ,benat1 and beg a present2 if it is refused1 they collect a heap of sand1 and mold it into the form of a diminutive tomb1 and then placing a stone at each of the extremities1 they apprise the traveler that his tomb is made2 meaning1 that henceforward1 there will be no security for him1 in this rocky wilderness4 ,most persons pay a trifling contribution1 rather than have their graves made before their eyes2 there were1 however1 several tombs of this description dispersed over the plain4'0 ----- 8,the ,bahr bela ,ma spread out before us1 glittering in the hot sun4 ,about a mile to the eastward lay 7apparently7 a lake of blue water4 ,reeds and water-plants grew on its margin1 and its smooth surface reflected the rugged outline of the hill beyond4 ,the waterless river is about two miles in breadth1 and appears to have been at one time the bed of a large stream4 ,it crosses all the caravan routes in the desert1 and is supposed to extend from the ,nile to the ,red sea4 ,it may have been the outlet for the river1 before its waters forced a passage through the primitive chains which cross its bed at ,assouan and ,kalabshee4 ,a geological exploration of this part of ,africa could not fail to produce very interesting results4 ,beyond the ,bahr bela ,ma extends the broad central plateau of the desert1 fifteen hundred feet above the sea4 ,it is a vast reach of yellow sand1 dotted with low1 isolated hills1 which in some places are based on large beds of light-gray sandstone of an unusually fine and even grain4 ,small towers of stone have been erected on the hills nearest the road1 in order to guide the couriers who travel by night4 ,near one of them the guide pointed out the grave of a merchant1 who had been murdered there two years previous1 by his three slaves4 ,the latter escaped into the desert1 but probably perished1 as they were never heard of afterward4 ,in the smooth1 loose sand1 ,i had an opportunity of reviving my forgotten knowledge of trackography1 and soon learned to distinguish the feet of hyenas1 foxes1 ostriches1 lame camels and other animals4 ,the guide assured me that there were devils in the desert2 but one only sees them when he travels alone4 8,on this plain the mirage1 which first appeared in the ,biban1 presented itself under a variety of wonderful aspects4 ,thenceforth1 ,i saw it every day1 for hours together1 and tried to deduce some rules from the character of its phenomena4 ,it appears on all sides1 except that directly opposite to the sun1 but rarely before nine in the morning1 or after three of the afternoon4 ,the color of the apparent water is always precisely that of the sky1 and this is a good test to distinguish it from real water1 which is invariably of a deeper hue4 ,it is seen on a gravelly as well as a sandy surface1 and often fills with shining pools the slight depressions in the soil at the bases of the hills4 ,where it extends to the horizon there is no apparent line1 and it then becomes an inlet of the sky1 as if the walls of heaven were melting down and flowing in upon the earth4 ,sometimes a whole mountain chain is lifted from the horizon and hung in the air1 with its reflected image joined to it1 base to base4 ,i frequently saw1 during the forenoon1 lakes of sparkling blue water1 apparently not a quarter of a mile distant4#i ,the waves ripple in the wind2 tall reeds and water-plants grow on the margin1 and the desert rocks behind cast their shadows on the surface4 ,it is impossible to believe it a delusion4 ,you advance nearer1 and suddenly1 you know not how1 the lake vanishes4 ,there is a grayish film over the spot1 but before you have decided whether the film is in the air or in your eyes1 that too disappears1 and you see only the naked sand4 ,what you took to be reeds and water-plants probably shows itself as a streak of dark gravel4 ,the most probable explanation of the mirage which ,i could think of1 was1 that it was actually a reflection of the sky upon a stratum of heated air1 next the sand4 ----- ,footnote #i3 ,in a previous chapter1 ,taylor says3 8,before returning on board1 we saw a wonderful mirage4 ,two lakes of blue water1 glittering in the sun1 lay spread in the yellow sands1 apparently not more than a mile distant4 ,there was not the least sign of vapor in the air2 and as we were quite unacquainted with the appearance of the mirage1 we decided that the lakes were ,nile water1 left from the inundation4 ,i pointed to them1 and asked the ,arabs1 #8,is that water8' #8,no1 no6' they all exclaimed2 #8that is no water2 that is ,bar ,shaytan1' a river of the devil60 ----- 8,i found the desert life not only endurable but very agreeable4 ,no matter how warm it might be at midday1 the nights were always fresh and cool1 and the wind blew strong from the north-west1 during the greater part of the time4 ,the temperature varied from fifty or fifty-five degrees at six in the morning1 to eighty or eighty-five degrees at two in the afternoon4 ,the extremes were forty-seven and a hundred degrees4 ,so great a change of temperature every day was not so unpleasant as might be supposed4 ,in my case1 ,nature seemed to make a special provision in order to keep the balance right4 ,during the hot hours of the day ,i never suffered inconvenience from the heat1 but up to eighty-five degrees felt sufficiently cool4 ,i seemed to absorb the rays of the sun1 and as night came on and the temperature of the air fell1 that of my skin rose1 till at last ,i glowed through and through1 like a live coal4 ,it was a peculiar sensation1 which ,i never experienced before1 but was rather pleasant than otherwise4 ,my face1 however1 which was alternately exposed to the heat radiated from the sand1 and the keen morning wind1 could not accommodate itself to so much contraction and expansion4 ,the skin cracked and peeled off more than once1 and ,i was obliged to rub it daily with butter4 ,i mounted my dromedary with a #8shining morning face1' until1 from alternate buttering and burning1 it attained the hue and crispness of a well-basted partridge4 8,i soon fell into a regular daily routine of travel1 which1 during all my later experiences of the desert1 never became monotonous4 ,i rose at dawn every morning1 bathed my eyes with a handful of the precious water1 and drank a cup of coffee4 ,after the tent had been struck and the camels laden1 ,i walked ahead for two hours1 often so far in advance that ,i lost sight and hearing of the caravan4 ,i found an unspeakable fascination in the sublime solitude of the desert4 ,i often beheld the sun rise1 when1 within the wide ring of the horizon1 there was no other living creature to be seen4 ,he came up in awful glory1 and it would have been a natural act1 had ,i cast myself upon the sand and worshiped him4 ,the sudden change in the coloring of the landscape1 on his appearance1 the lighting up of the dull sand into a warm golden hue1 and the tintings of purple and violet on the distant porphyry hills1 was a morning miracle1 which ,i never beheld without awe4 ,the richness of this coloring made the desert beautiful2 it was too brilliant for desolation4 ,the scenery1 so far from depressing1 inspired and exhilarated me4 ,i never felt the sensation of physical health and strength in such perfection1 and was ready to shout from morning till night1 from the overflow of happy spirits4 ,the air is an elixir of life1 as sweet and pure and refreshing as that which the first man breathed1 on the morning of creation4 ,you inhale the unadulterated elements of the atmosphere1 for there are no exhalations from moist earth1 vegetable matter1 or the smokes and steams which arise from the abodes of men1 to stain its purity4 ,this air1 even more than its silence and solitude1 is the secret of one's attachment to the desert4 ,it is a beautiful illustration of the compensating care of that providence which leaves none of the waste places of the earth without some atoning glory4 ,where all the pleasant aspects of nature are wanting2 where there is no green thing1 no fount for the thirsty lip1 scarcely the shadow of a rock to shield the wanderer in the blazing noon2 ,god has breathed upon the wilderness his sweetest and tenderest breath1 giving clearness to the eye1 strength to the frame1 and the most joyous exhilaration to the spirits4 8,achmet always insisted on my taking a saber as a protection against the hyenas1 but ,i was never so fortunate as to see more than their tracks1 which crossed the path at every step4 ,i saw occasionally the footprints of ostriches1 but they1 as well as the giraffe1 are scarce in this desert4 ,toward noon1 we made a halt in the shadow of a rock1 or if no rock was at hand1 on the bare sand1 and took our breakfast4 ,one's daily bread is never sweeter than in the desert4 ,the rest of the day ,i jogged along patiently beside the baggage camels1 and at sunset halted for the night4 ,a divan on the sand1 and a well-filled pipe1 gave me patience while dinner was preparing1 and afterward ,i made the necessary entries in my journal4 ,i had no need to court sleep1 after being rocked all day on the dromedary4 ,until noon of the fourth day we journeyed over a vast plain of sand1 interrupted by low reefs of black rock4 ,soon after midday the plain was broken by low ranges of hills1 and we saw in front and to the east of us many blue mountain-chains4 ,our road approached one of them1 a range1 several miles in length1 the highest peak of which reached an altitude of a thousand feet4 ,the sides were precipitous and formed of vertical strata1 but the crests were agglomerations of loose stones1 as if shaken out of some enormous coal-scuttle4 ,the glens and gorges were black as ink2 no speck of any other color relieved the terrible gloom of this singular group of hills4 ,their aspect was much more than sterile3 it was infernal4 ,the name given to them by the guide was ,djilet e' ,djindee1 the meaning of which ,i could not learn4 ,at their foot ,i found a few thorny shrubs1 the first sign of vegetation since leaving ,korosko4 ,we encamped half an hour before sunset on a gravelly plain1 between two spurs of the savage hills1 in order that our camels might browse on the shrubs1 and they were only too ready to take advantage of the permission4 ,they snapped off the hard1 dry twigs1 studded with cruel thorns1 and devoured them as if their tongues were made of cast-iron4 ,we were now in the haunts of the gazelle and the ostrich1 but saw nothing of them4 8,on the fifth day we left the plain1 and entered a country of broken mountain-ranges4 ,in one place the road passed through a long1 low hill of slate rock1 by a gap which had been purposely broken4 ,the strata were vertical1 the lamin varying from one to four inches in thickness1 and of as fine a quality and smooth a surface as ,i ever saw4 ,a long wady1 or valley1 which appeared to be the outlet of some mountain-basin1 was crossed by a double row of stunted doum-palms1 marking a water-course made by the summer rains4 ,eyoub pointed it out to me1 as the half-way station between ,korosko and ,abou-,hammed4 ,for two hours longer we threaded the dry wadys1 shut in by black1 chaotic hills4 ,it was now noonday1 ,i was very hungry1 and the time allotted by ,eyoub for reaching ,bir ,mrr-ht had passed4 ,he saw my impatience and urged his dromedary into a trot1 calling out to me to follow him4 ,we bent to the west1 turned the flank of a high range1 and after half an hour's steady trotting1 reached a side-valley or cul-de-sac1 branching off from the main wady4 ,a herd of loose camels1 a few goats1 two black camel's-hair tents1 and half a dozen half-naked ,ababdehs1 showed that we had reached the wells4 ,a few shallow pits1 dug in the center of the valley1 furnished an abundance of bitter1 greenish water1 which the camels drank1 but which ,i could not drink4 ,the wells are called by the ,arabs el morra1 #8the bitter4' ,fortunately1 ,i had two skins of ,nile-water left1 which1 with care1 would last to ,abou-,hammed4 ,the water was always cool and fresh1 though in color and taste it resembled a decoction of old shoes4 ,we left ,mrr-ht at sunrise1 on the morning of the sixth day4 ,i walked ahead1 through the foldings of the black mountains1 singing as ,i went1 from the inspiration of the brilliant sky and the pure air4 ,in an hour and a half1 the pass opened on a broad plain of sand1 and ,i waited for my caravan1 as the day was growing hot4 ,on either side1 as we continued our journey1 the blue lakes of the mirage glittered in the sun4 ,several isolated pyramids rose above the horizon1 far to the east1 and a purple mountain-range in front1 apparently two or three hours distant1 stretched from east to west4 #8,we will breakfast in the shade of those mountains1' ,i said to ,achmet1 but breakfast-time came and they seemed no nearer1 so ,i sat down in the sand and made my meal4 ,toward noon we met large caravans of camels1 coming from ,berber4 ,some were laden with gum1 but the greater part were without burdens1 as they were to be sold in ,egypt4 ,in the course of the day upward of a thousand passed us4 ,the afternoon was intensely hot1 the thermometer standing at one hundred degrees1 but ,i felt little annoyance from the heat1 and used no protection against it4 ,the sand was deep and the road a weary one for the camels1 but the mountains which seemed so near at hand in the morning were not yet reached4 ,we pushed forward2 the sun went down1 and the twilight was over before we encamped at their base4 ,the tent was pitched by the light of the crescent moon1 which hung over a pitchy-black peak4 ,i had dinner at the fashionable hour of seven4 ,achmet was obliged to make soup of the water of ,mrr-ht1 which had an abominable taste4 ,i was so drowsy that before my pipe was finished1 ,i tumbled upon my mattress1 and was unconscious until midnight1 when ,i awoke with the sensation of swimming in a river of lava4 8,the tent was struck in the morning starlight1 at which time the thermometer stood at fifty-five degrees4 ,i walked alone through the mountains1 which rose in conical peaks to the hight of near a thousand feet4 ,the path was rough and stony until ,i reached the outlet of the pass4 ,on leaving the mountain1 we entered a plain of coarse gravel1 abounding with pebbles of agate and jasper4 ,another range1 which ,eyoub called ,djebel ,dighlee1 appeared in front1 and we reached it about noon4 ,the day was again hot1 the mercury rising to ninety-five degrees4 ,it took us nearly an hour to pass ,djebel ,dighlee1 beyond which the plain stretched away to the ,nile1 interrupted here and there by a distant peak4 ,far in advance of us lay ,djebel ,mokrt1 the limit of the next day's journey4 ,from its top1 said ,eyoub1 one may see the palm-groves along the ,nile4 ,we encamped on the open plain1 not far from two black pyramidal hills1 in the flush of a superb sunset4 ,the ground was traversed by broad strata of gray granite1 which lay on the surface in huge bowlders4 ,our camels here found a few bunches of dry1 yellow grass1 which had pierced the gravelly soil4 ,to the south-east was a mountain called by the ,arabs ,djebel ,nogra1 7the mountain of the ,drum17 because1 as ,eyoub declared1 a devil who had his residence among its rocks1 frequently beat a drum at night1 to scare the passing caravans4 8,the stars were sparkling freshly and clearly when ,i rose1 on the morning of the eighth day1 and ,djebel ,mokrt lay like a faint shadow on the southern horizon4 ,the sun revealed a few isolated peaks to the right and left1 but merely distant isles on the vast1 smooth ocean of the desert4 ,it was a rapture to breathe air of such transcendent purity and sweetness4 ,i breakfasted on the immense floor1 sitting in the sun1 and then jogged on all day1 in a heat of ninety degrees1 toward ,djebel ,mokrt1 which seemed as far off as ever4 ,the sun went down1 and it was still ahead of us4 #8,that is a ,djebel ,shaytan1' ,i said to ,eyoub2 #8or rather1 it is no mountain2 it is an afrite4' #8,o effendi6' said the old man1 #8don't speak of afrites here4 ,there are many in this part of the desert1 and if a man travels alone here at night1 one of them walks behind him and forces him to go forward and forward1 until he has lost his path4' ,we rode on by the light of the moon and stars2 and two hours after sunset1 we killed ,djebel ,mokrt1 as the ,arabs say3 that is1 turned its corner4 ,the weary camels were let loose among some clumps of dry1 rustling reeds1 and ,i stretched myself out on the sand1 after twelve hours in the saddle4 ,our water was nearly exhausted by this time1 and the provisions were reduced to hermits' fare1 bread1 rice and dates4 ,i had1 however1 the spice of a savage appetite1 which was no sooner appeased1 than ,i fell into a profound sleep4 ,i could not but admire the indomitable pluck of the little donkeys owned by the ,kenoos4 ,these animals not only carried provisions and water for themselves and their masters1 the whole distance1 but the latter rode them the greater part of the way2 yet they kept up with the camels1 plying their little legs as ambitiously the last day as the first4 ,i doubt whether a horse would have accomplished as much under similar circumstances4 8,the next morning we started joyfully1 in hope of seeing the ,nile2 and even ,eyoub1 for the first time since leaving ,korosko1 helped to load the camels4 ,in an hour we passed the mountain of ,mokrt1 but the same endless plain of yellow gravel extended before us to the horizon4 ,eyoub had promised that we should reach ,abou-,hammed in half a day1 and even pointed out some distant blue mountains in the south1 as being beyond the ,nile4 ,nevertheless1 we traveled nearly till noon without any change of scenery1 and no more appearance of river than the abundant streams of the mirage1 on all sides4 ,i drank my last cup of water for breakfast1 and then continued my march in the burning sun1 with rather dismal spirits4 ,finally1 the desert1 which had been rising since we left the mountain1 began to descend1 and ,i saw something like round granite bowlders lying on the edge of the horizon4 #8,effendi1 see the doum-trees6' cried ,eyoub4 ,i looked again3 they were doum-palms1 and so broad and green that they must certainly stand near water4 ,soon we descended into a hollow in the plain1 looking down which ,i saw to the south a thick grove of trees1 and over their tops the shining surface of the ,nile4 #8,ali1' ,i called to my sailor-servant1 #8look at that great bahr shaytan6' ,the son of the ,nile1 who had never before1 in all his life1 been more than a day out of sight of its current1 was almost beside himself with joy4 #8,wallah1 master1' he cried2 #8that is no river of the devil3 it is the real ,nile1 the water of ,paradise4' ,it did my heart good to see his extravagant delight4 #8,if you were to give me five piasters1 master1' said he1 #8,i would not drink the bitter water of ,mrr-ht4' ,the guide made me a salutation1 in his dry way1 and the two ,nubians greeted me with #8,a great welcome to you1 ,o effendi6' ,with every step the valley unfolded before me2 such rich deeps of fanlike foliage1 such a glory in the green of the beans and lupines1 such radiance beyond description in the dance of the sunbeams on the water6 ,the landscape was balm to my burning eyes1 and the mere sight of the glorious green herbage was a sensuous delight1 in which ,i rioted for the rest of the day40 ,,sands ,,of ,,the ,,desert4 8,now o'er their head the whizzing whirlwinds breathe1 ,and the live desert pants and heaves beneath2 ,tinged by the crimson sun1 vast columns rise ,of eddying sands1 and war amid the skies1 ,in red arcades the billowy plain surround1 ,and stalking turrets dance upon the ground40--,,darwin4 ,in the pathless desert1 high mounds of sand1 shifting with every change of wind1 surround the traveler on every side1 and conceal from his view all other objects4 ,there the wind is of a surprising rapidity2 and the sand is so extremely fine1 that it forms on the ground waves which resemble those of the sea4 ,these waves rise up so fast1 that in a very few hours a hill of from twenty to thirty feet high is transported from one place to another4 ,the shifting of these hills1 however1 does not take place on a sudden1 as is generally believed1 and is not by any means capable of surprising and burying a caravan while on the march4 ,the mode in which the transposition of the hills takes place is not difficult of explanation4 ,the wind sweeping the sand from the surface continually1 and that with an astonishing rapidity1 the ground lowers every moment3 but the quantity of sand in the air increasing as quickly by successive waves1 can not support itself there1 but falls in heaps1 and forms a new hill1 leaving the place it before occupied level1 and with the appearance of having been swept4 ,it is necessary to guard the eyes and mouth against the quantity of sand which is always flying about in the air2 and the traveler has to seek the right direction1 to avoid being lost in the windings made in the middle of the hills of sand which bound the sight1 and which shift from one spot to another so often1 as not to leave anything to be seen besides the sky and sand1 without any mark by which the position can be known4 ,even the deepest footstep in the sand of either man or horse disappears the moment the foot is raised4 ,the immensity1 the swiftness1 and the everlasting motion of these waves when the wind is blowing1 disturb the sight both of men and beasts1 so that they are almost continually marching as if in the dark4 ,the camel gives here a proof of his great superiority2 his long neck1 perpendicularly erected1 removes his head from the ground1 and from the thick part of the waves2 his eyes are well defended by thick eye-lids1 largely provided with hair1 and which he keeps half shut2 the construction of his feet1 broad and cushion-like1 prevents his treading deep into the sand2 his long legs enable him to pass the same space with only half the number of steps of any other animal1 and therefore with less fatigue4 ,these advantages give him a solid and easy gait1 on a ground where all other animals walk with slow1 short1 and uncertain steps1 and in a tottering manner4 ,hence the camel1 intended by nature for these journeys1 affords a new motive of praise to the ,creator1 who in his wisdom has given the camel to the ,african1 as he has bestowed the reindeer on the ,laplander4 ,lieutenant ,pottinger1 in his travels in ,beloochistan1 a province of ,india1 gives the following interesting account of those curious phenomena4 ,he had to pass over a desert of red sand1 the particles of which were so light1 that when taken in the hand they were scarcely more than palpable1 the whole being thrown by the winds into an irregular mass of waves1 principally running east and west1 and varying in hight from ten to twenty feet4 ,the greater part of them rose perpendicularly on the opposite side to that from which the prevailing north-west wind blew1 and might readily have been fancied1 at a distance1 to resemble a new brick wall4 ,the side facing the wind sloped off with a gradual declivity toward the base of the next windward wave1 and then again ascended in a straight line1 in the same extraordinary manner as above described1 so as to form a hollow or path between them4 ,our traveler kept as much in these paths as the direction he had to take would allow2 but it was not without great difficulty and fatigue that the camels were urged over the waves1 when it was requisite to do so1 and more particularly when they had to clamber up the leeward or perpendicular face of them1 in attempting which they were often defeated4 ,on the oblique or shelving side they ascended pretty well1 their broad feet saving them from sinking deeper than did the travelers themselves2 and the instant they found the top of the wave giving way from their weight1 they most expertly dropped on their knees1 and in that posture gently slid down with the sand1 which was luckily so unconnected1 that the leading camel usually caused a sufficient breach for the others to follow on foot4 ,the night was spent under shelter of one of these sand waves1 the surrounding atmosphere being uncommonly hot and close4 ,on the following day1 in crossing a desert of the same description1 the like impediments occurred2 but these were trifling compared with the distress suffered1 not only by our traveler and his people1 but also by the camels1 from the floating particles of sand2 a phenomenon for which he confesses himself at a loss to account4 ,when he first observed it1 in the morning1 the desert appeared to have1 at the distance of half a mile or less1 an elevated and flat surface from six to twelve inches higher than the summits of the sand waves4 ,this vapor appeared to recede as he advanced1 and once or twice completely encircled his party1 limiting the horizon to a very confined space1 and conveying a most gloomy and unnatural sensation to the mind of the beholders1 who were at the same moment imperceptibly covered with innumerable atoms of small sand1 which getting into the eyes1 mouth and nostrils1 caused excessive irritation1 attended by an extreme thirst1 which was increased in no small degree by the intense heat of the sun4 ,this annoyance is supposed by the natives to originate in the solar beams causing the dust of the desert1 as they emphatically call it1 to rise and float through the air2 a notion which appears to be in a great measure correct1 this sandy ocean being only visible during the hottest part of the day4 ,the following simple theory of these moving sands is submitted by the author4 ,when the violent whirlwinds which prevail in the desert1 terminate in gusts of wind1 they usually expand over several square miles of surface1 raging with irresistible force1 and bearing upward an immense body of sand1 which descends as the current of air that gave it action dies away1 thus creating the extraordinary appearance in question4 ,if it should be asked what prevents the sand from subsiding altogether1 when it has so far accomplished this as to rest apparently on the waves1 the answer is1 that all the grosser particles do settle1 but that the more minute ones become rarefied to such a degree by the heat produced by the burning sand on the red soil1 that they remain as it were in an undecided and undulating state1 until the returning temperature restores their specific gravity2 when1 by an undeviating law of nature1 they sink to the earth4 ,this in some measure coincides with the opinion of the native ,brahoes2 but1 conformably to their notion1 it is evident that the floating sands would be apparent at all periods of excessive solar influence2 which not being the case1 it becomes necessary to find a primary cause for the phenomenon4 ,to remove any suspicion of his having been deceived in the reality of this floating vapor of sand1 he adds that he has seen this phenomenon1 and the shurab1 or watery illusion so frequent in deserts1 called by the ,french mirage1 in opposite quarters at the same moment1 each of them being to his sight perfectly distinct4 ,while the former had a cloudy and dim aspect1 the latter was luminous1 and could not be mistaken for water4 ,to corroborate what he has here advanced1 he states that he was afterward joined by a faquir from ,kaboul1 who informed him that he had witnessed the moving sands1 in passing through the desert from ,seistan1 to a much greater degree than has been described2 and1 what is scarcely credible1 he spoke of having been forced to sit down1 in consequence of the density of the cloud in which he was enveloped4 ,our traveler next proceeds to a curious description of the pillars or columns of sand formed in the deserts4 ,he experienced a violent tornado1 or gust of wind1 which came on so suddenly1 that1 if he had not been apprised of its strength by the guide1 it might have been disastrous to his party1 in whom it would have been an act of temerity to have endeavored to sit on the camels during its impetuous fury4 ,before it began1 the sky was clear1 save a few small clouds in the north-west quarter2 and the only warnings it afforded1 were the oppressive sultriness of the air1 and a vast number of whirlwinds springing up on all sides4 ,these whirlwinds1 he observes1 might perhaps be more correctly expressed by some other name2 but as the wind issued from them he adopts the term4 ,they are vast columns of sand1 which begin by a trifling agitation1 with a revolving motion on the surface of the desert1 and gradually ascend and expand1 until their tops are lost to the view4 ,in this manner they move about with every breath of wind1 and are observed1 thirty or forty of them at the same time1 of different dimensions1 apparently from one to twenty yards in diameter4 ,those who have seen a waterspout at sea1 may exactly conceive the same formed of sand on shore4 ,the moment the guide saw the whirlwinds disperse1 which they did as if by magic1 and a cloud of dust approaching1 he advised the party to dismount1 which they had hardly time to do1 and lodge themselves snugly behind the camels1 when a storm burst upon them with a furious blast of wind1 the rain falling in huge drops1 and the air being so completely darkened1 that they were unable to discern any object at the distance of even five yards4 ,the following is ,bruce's account of this singular phenomenon1 which he represents as one of the most magnificent spectacles imaginable1 and by which he and his companions were at once surprised and terrified4 ,having reached the vast expanse of desert which lies to the west and north-west of ,chendi1 they saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances1 at times moving with great celerity1 and at others stalking on with a majestic slowness4 ,at intervals the party thought they should be overwhelmed by these sand-pillars2 and small quantities of sand did actually more than once reach them4 ,again1 they would retreat so as to be almost out of sight1 their summits reaching the very clouds4 ,there the tops often separated from the bodies2 and these once disjointed1 dispersed in the air1 and did not appear more4 ,they were sometimes broken near the middle1 as if struck by a large cannon-shot4 ,about noon they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon the party1 the wind being very strong at north4 ,eleven of them ranged alongside1 at about the distance of three miles from them2 and at this interval the greatest diameter of the largest of them appeared to ,mr4 ,bruce to be about ten feet4 ,they retired with a wind at south-east1 leaving an impression on our traveler's mind1 to which he could give no name1 though assuredly one of its ingredients was fear1 blended with a considerable portion of wonder and surprise4 ,it was in vain to think of fleeing3 the swiftest horse1 or fastest sailing ship1 would have been of no use in rescuing him from his danger4 ,the full persuasion of this riveted him as it were to the spot where he stood1 and he allowed the camels to gain on him so much1 that it was with difficulty he could overtake them4 ,on a subsequent occasion1 an assemblage of these moving pillars of sand1 more numerous1 but less in size than the former1 approached ,mr4 ,bruce's party soon after sunrise1 and appeared like a thick wood4 ,they almost darkened the sun1 the rays of which1 shining through them for nearly an hour1 gave them an appearance of pillars of fire4 ,his people became desperate1 some saying it was the day of judgment1 and others1 that the world was on fire4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 in his travels in ,egypt1 thus describes this phenomenon4 8,one of those immense columns of sand1 mentioned by ,bruce1 came rapidly toward us1 turning upon its base as upon a pivot3 it crossed the ,nile so near us1 that the whirlwind by which it was carried1 placed our vessel upon its beam-ends1 bearing its large sail quite into the water1 and nearly upsetting the boat4 ,as we were engaged in righting the vessel1 the column disappeared4 ,it is probable that those columns do not fall suddenly upon any particular spot1 so as to be capable of overwhelming an army or a caravan2 but that1 as the sand1 thus driven1 is gradually accumulated1 it becomes gradually dispersed1 and the column1 diminishing in its progress1 at length disappears4 ,a great quantity of sand is no doubt precipitated1 as the effect which gathers it becomes weaker2 but1 from witnessing such phenomena upon a smaller scale1 it does not seem likely that the whole body of the sand is at once abandoned40 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,wonders ,,of ,,art4 ------------------------------------ ,,the ,,pyramids ,,of ,,egypt4 ,from the natural wonders of the desert1 let us next pass to some of the wonders of art which attract the attention of the traveler in lands that once were as flourishing and powerful1 as now they are degraded and depressed4 ,most of these monuments are1 indeed1 in ruins2 but many of them still stand in all their original grandeur1 and all are enduring and faithful witnesses to the wealth and greatness of nations that have now passed away forever4 ,the pyramids of ,egypt are familiar1 by name1 to every intelligent reader1 not to say to every child4 ,the largest of these stupendous monuments1 equally famous for their enormous size and their remote antiquity1 are those of ,djiza1 or 7as now spelled7 ,gizeh1 so called from a village of that name1 on the bank of the ,nile1 some three or four miles above ,cairo4 ,the three which perhaps most attract the attention of travelers1 stand near each other1 on the west side of the river1 almost opposite ,cairo1 and not far from the site of the ancient ,memphis4 ,a view of them1 and of the celebrated sphinx1 which is spoken of hereafter1 is given in the engraving on the next page4 ,when seen from a distance1 peering above the horizon1 they display the fine distinct appearance so often remarked by travelers in the various objects seen through the clear1 transparent atmosphere of the ,egyptian climate4 ,m4 ,savary1 having approached to within three leagues of them1 in the nighttime1 while the full moon shone bright upon them1 describes them as appearing to him1 under this particular aspect1 like two points of rock crowned by the clouds4 ,on a nearer approach1 their sloping and angular forms disguise their real hight1 and lessen it to the eye2 independently of which1 as whatever is regular is great or small by comparison1 and as these masses of stone eclipse in magnitude every surrounding object1 at the same time that they are inferior to a mountain1 to which alone the imagination can successfully compare them1 a degree of surprise is excited on finding the first impression produced by a distant view so much diminished in drawing near to them4 ,on attempting1 however1 to measure any one of these gigantic works of art by some known and determinate scale1 it resumes its immensity to the mind2 since1 on drawing near to the opening1 the persons who stand beneath it appear so small that they can scarcely be taken for men4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sphinx ,,and ,,pyramids4 ,the base of the great pyramid of ,cheops1 so named after a king of ,egypt1 is estimated by ,denon at seven hundred and twenty feet1 and its hight at four hundred and forty-eight feet1 calculating the base by the mean proportion of the length of the stones1 and the hight by the sum of that of each of the steps or stages4 ,its construction required so many years1 and employed such a multitude of laborers1 that the expenditure for garlic and onions alone1 for their consumption1 is said to have amounted to one thousand and sixty talents1 or more than twelve hundred thousand dollars4 ,its interior is thus accurately described by the above traveler4 8,the entrance of the first gallery is concealed by the general outer covering which invests the whole of the pyramid4 ,it is1 however1 probable1 that the attention of the earlier searchers was by some particular appearance directed to this spot4 ,this gallery goes toward the center of the edifice1 in a direction sloping downward to the base3 it is sixty paces in length2 and at the further end are two large blocks of granite1 an obstacle which caused some uncertainty in the digging4 ,a horizontal passage has been made for some distance into the mass of stone2 but this undertaking was afterward abandoned4 8,returning to the extremity of the first gallery1 and working upward by the side of the two granite blocks1 you come to the beginning of the first sloping staircase1 which proceeds in an oblique direction upward1 for a hundred and twenty feet4 ,you mount the steep and narrow gallery1 helping your steps by notches cut in the ground1 and by resting your hands against the sides4 ,at the top of this gallery1 which is formed of a calcareous stone cemented with mortar1 you find a landing-place about fifteen feet square1 within which1 to the right of the entrance1 is a perpendicular opening called the well4 ,this appears1 from its irregularity1 to have been the result of a fruitless attempt at a search1 and has a diameter of about two feet by eighteen inches4 ,there were no means of descending it2 but by throwing down a stone1 it was ascertained that its perpendicular direction could not be very considerable4 ,on a level with the landing is a horizontal gallery1 a hundred and seventy feet in length1 running directly toward the center of the pyramid2 and at the extremity of this gallery is a small room1 called the queen's chamber4 ,this is an oblong square of eighteen feet and two inches1 by fifteen feet and eight inches2 but the hight is uncertain1 the floor having been turned up by the avidity of the searchers4 ,one of the side walls has also been worked into1 and the rubbish left on the spot4 ,the roof1 which is formed of a fine calcareous stone1 very nearly brought together1 has the form of an angle nearly equilateral1 but contains neither ornament1 hieroglyphic1 nor the smallest trace of a sarcophagus4 ,whether it was intended to contain a body1 is uncertain2 but1 in this case1 the pyramid must have been built with a view of containing two bodies1 and would not therefore have been closed at once4 ,if the second tomb was really that of the queen1 the two blocks of granite at the end of the first gallery1 must have been finally reserved to close all the interior chambers of the pyramid4 8,returning again from the queen's chamber to the landing-place1 you ascend a few feet1 and immediately find yourself at the bottom of a large and magnificent staircase1 or rather inclined plane1 one hundred and eighty feet in length1 taking a direction upward1 and still bearing toward the center of the edifice4 ,it is six and a half feet in breadth1 in which are to be included two parapets1 each nineteen inches in diameter1 and pierced every three and a half feet1 by oblong holes twenty-two inches by three4 ,the sarcophagus must have ascended this passage1 and the series of holes must have been intended to receive a machine of some description1 to assist in raising so heavy a mass as the sarcophagus up so steep an ascent4 8,the side walls of this ascending gallery rise perpendicularly for twelve feet1 and then form a sloping roof of an excessively high pitch1 not by a regular angle1 but by eight successive projections1 each of them six feet in hight1 rising above the other1 and approaching nearer to the corresponding projection on the opposite side1 till the roof is entirely shut in4 ,the hight of this singularly contrived vault may be estimated at sixty feet from the part of the floor immediately beneath4 ,the ascent of the staircase is facilitated by pretty regular but modern footings cut in the floor2 and at the top is a small platform1 in which is a thick block of granite1 resembling an immense chest1 imbedded in the solid building1 and hollowed out so as to leave alternate projections and retirings1 into which are let blocks of the same material1 with corresponding grooves and projections1 intended forever to conceal and protect the entrance to the principal chamber which is behind them4 ,it must have required immense labor to construct this part of the edifice1 and not less to have broken an opening through2 so that the zeal of superstition has here been opposed to the eagerness of avarice1 and the latter has prevailed4 ,after mining through thirteen feet of solid granite1 a door three feet and three inches square1 has been discovered1 which is the entrance to the principal chamber4 ,this is a long square1 sixteen feet by thirty-two1 and eighteen in hight4 ,the door is in the angle facing the gallery1 corresponding to the door of the queen's chamber1 below4 ,when it is said that the tomb is a single piece of granite1 half-polished1 and without cement1 all that is remarkable in this strange monument1 which exhibits such rigid simplicity in the midst of the utmost magnificence of human power1 will have been described4 ,the only broken part is an attempt at a search at one of the angles1 and two small holes nearly round and breast high4 ,such is the interior of this immense edifice1 in which the work of the hand of man appears to rival the gigantic forms of nature40 ,to the above account by the accurate ,denon1 we subjoin the following pleasing one by the celebrated ,dr4 ,clarke4 ,the impression made by these monuments1 when viewed at a distance1 can never1 he observes1 be obliterated from his mind4 8,by reflecting the sun's rays1 they appeared as white as snow1 and of such surprising magnitude1 that nothing we had previously conceived in our imagination had prepared us for the spectacle we beheld4 ,the sight instantly convinced us that no power of description1 no delineation1 can convey ideas adequate to the effect produced in viewing these stupendous monuments4 ,the formality of their structure is lost in their prodigious magnitude3 the mind1 elevated by wonder1 feels at once the force of an axiom1 which1 however disputed1 experience confirms--that in vastness1 whatsoever be its nature1 there dwells sublimity6 8,having arrived at the bottom of a sandy slope1 leading up to the principal pyramid1 a band of ,bedouin ,arabs1 who had assembled to receive us upon our landing1 were much amused by the eagerness excited in our whole party1 to prove who should first set his foot upon the summit of this artificial mountain4 ,as we drew near its base1 the effect of its prodigious magnitude1 and the amazement caused in viewing the enormous masses used in its construction1 affected every one of us2 but it was an impression of awe and fear rather than of pleasure4 ,in the observations of travelers who had recently preceded us1 we had heard the pyramids described as huge objects which gave no satisfaction to the spectator1 on account of their barbarous shape1 and formal appearance3 yet to us it appeared hardly possible that persons susceptible of any feeling of sublimity could behold them unmoved4 ,with what amazement did we survey the vast surface that was presented to us1 when we arrived at this stupendous monument1 which seemed to reach the clouds8 ,here and there appeared some ,arab guides upon the immense masses above us1 like so many pigmies1 waiting to show the way up to the summit4 ,now and then we thought we heard voices1 and listened2 but it was the wind in powerful gusts1 sweeping the immense ranges of stone4 ,already some of our party had begun the ascent1 and were pausing at the tremendous depth which they saw below4 ,one of our military companions1 after having surmounted the most difficult part of the undertaking1 became giddy in consequence of looking down from the elevation he had attained2 and being compelled to abandon the project1 he hired an ,arab to assist him in effecting his descent4 ,the rest of us1 more accustomed to the business of climbing hights1 with many a halt for respiration1 and many an exclamation of wonder1 pursued our way toward the summit4 ,the mode of ascent has been frequently described2 and yet1 from the questions which are often proposed to travelers1 it does not appear to be generally understood4 ,the reader may imagine himself to be upon a staircase1 every step of which1 to a man of middle stature1 is nearly breast high2 and the breadth of each step is equal to its hight2 consequently1 the footing is secure2 and although a retrospect1 in going up1 be sometimes fearful to persons unaccustomed to look down from any considerable elevation1 yet there is little danger of falling4 ,in some places1 indeed1 where the stones are decayed1 caution may be required2 and an ,arab guide is always necessary1 to avoid a total interruption2 but1 upon the whole1 the means of ascent are such that almost every one may accomplish it4 ,our progress was impeded by other causes4 ,we carried with us a few instruments2 such as our boat-compass1 a thermometer1 a telescope1 c43 these could not be trusted in the hands of ,arabs1 and they were liable to be broken every instant4 ,at length we reached the topmost tier1 to the great delight and satisfaction of all the party4 ,here we found a platform1 thirty-two feet square1 consisting of nine large stones1 each of which might weigh about a tun2 although they are much inferior in size to some of the stones used in the construction of this pyramid4 8,the view from the summit of the pyramid amply fulfilled our expectations2 nor do the accounts which have been given of it1 as it appears at this season of the year1 7in the month of ,august17 exaggerate the novelty and grandeur of the sight4 ,all the region toward ,cairo and the delta resembled a sea covered with innumerable islands4 ,forests of palm-trees were seen standing in the water2 the inundation spreading over the land where they stood1 so as to give them an appearance of growing in the flood4 ,to the north1 as far as the eye could reach1 nothing could be discerned1 but a watery surface thus diversified by plantations and by villages4 ,to the south we saw the pyramids of ,sakkara2 and1 upon the east of these1 smaller monuments of the same kind1 nearer to the ,nile4 ,an appearance of ruins might indeed be traced the whole way from the pyramids of ,gizeh to those of ,sakkara2 as if they had been once connected1 so as to constitute one vast cemetery4 ,beyond the pyramids of ,sakkara we could perceive the distant mountains of the ,said2 and upon an eminence near the ,libyan side of the ,nile appeared a monastery of considerable size4 ,toward the west and south-west1 the eye ranged over the great ,libyan desert1 extending to the utmost verge of the horizon1 without a single object to interrupt the dreary horror of the landscape1 except dark floating spots1 caused by the shadows of passing clouds upon the sand4 8,the stones of the platform upon the top1 as well as most of the others used in constructing the decreasing ranges from the base upward1 are of soft limestone4 ,those employed in the construction of the pyramids1 are of the same nature as the calcareous rock on which they stand1 and which was apparently cut away to form them4 ,herodotus says1 however1 that they were brought from the ,arabian side of the ,nile4 8,the ,french attempted to open the smallest of the three principal pyramids2 and having effected a very considerable chasm in one of its sides1 have left this mark behind them1 as an everlasting testimony of their curiosity and zeal4 ,the landing of our army in ,egypt put a stop to their labor4 ,had it not been for this circumstance1 the interior of that mysterious monument would probably be now submitted to the inquiry which has long been an object among literary men4 8,having collected our party upon a soft platform before the entrance of the passage leading to the interior1 and lighted a number of tapers1 we all descended into the dark mouth of the larger pyramid4 ,the impression made upon every one of us1 in viewing the entrance1 was this3 that no set of men whatever could thus have opened a passage1 by uncovering precisely the part of the pyramid where the entrance was concealed1 unless they had been previously acquainted with its situation2 and for these reasons4 ,first1 because its position is almost in the center of one of its planes1 instead of being at the base4 ,secondly1 that not a trace appears of those dilapidations which must have been the result of any search for a passage to the interior2 such as now distinguish the labors of the ,french upon the smaller pyramid1 which they attempted to open4 ,the persons who undertook the work1 actually opened the pyramid in the only point1 over all its vast surface1 where1 from the appearance of the stones inclined to each other above the mouth of the passage1 any admission to the interior seems to have been originally intended4 ,so marvelously concealed as this was1 are we to credit the legendary story of an ,arabian writer1 who1 discoursing of the wonders of ,egypt1 attributed the opening of this pyramid to ,almamon1 a caliph of ,babylon1 about nine hundred and fifty years since8 8,proceeding down this passage1 which may be compared to a chimney about a yard wide1 we presently arrived at a very large mass of granite3 this seems to have been placed on purpose to choke up the passage2 but a way has been made round it1 by which we were enabled to ascend into a second channel1 sloping1 in a contrary direction1 toward the mouth of the first4 ,having ascended along this channel1 to the distance of one hundred and ten feet1 we came to a horizontal passage1 leading to a chamber with an angular roof1 in the interior of the pyramid4 ,in this passage we found1 upon our right hand1 the mysterious well1 which has been so often mentioned4 ,pliny makes the depth of it equal to one hundred and twenty-nine feet2 but ,greaves1 in sounding it with a line1 found the plummet rest at the depth of twenty feet4 8,we threw down some stones1 and observed that they rested at about the depth which ,greaves has mentioned2 but being at length provided with a stone nearly as large as the mouth of the well1 and about fifty pounds in weight1 we let this fall1 listening attentively to the result from the spot where the other stones rested3 we were agreeably surprised by hearing1 after a length of time which must have equaled some seconds1 a loud and distinct report1 seeming to come from a spacious subterraneous apartment1 accompanied by a splashing noise1 as if the stone had been broken in pieces1 and had fallen into a reservoir of water at an amazing depth4 ,thus does experience always tend to confirm the accounts left us by the ancients2 for this exactly answers to the description given by ,pliny of this well4 8,after once more regaining the passage whence these ducts diverge1 we examined the chamber at the end of it1 mentioned by all who have described the interior of this building4 ,its roof is angular2 that is to say1 it is formed by the inclination of large masses of stone leaning toward each other1 like the appearance presented by those masses which are above the entrance to the pyramid4 ,then quitting the passage altogether1 we climbed the slippery and difficult ascent which leads to what is called the principal chamber4 ,the workmanship1 from its perfection1 and its immense proportions1 is truly astonishing4 ,all about the spectator1 as he proceeds1 is full of majesty1 and mystery1 and wonder4 ,presently we entered that #8glorious roome1' as it is justly called by ,greaves1 where1 #8as within some consecrated oratory1 art may seem to have contended with nature4' ,it stands #8in the very heart and center of the pyramid1 equidistant from all its sides1 and almost in the midst between the basis and the top4 ,the floor1 the sides1 the roof of it1 are all made of vast and exquisite tables of ,thebaick marble4' ,so nicely are these masses fitted to each other upon the sides of the chamber1 that1 having no cement between them1 it is really impossible to force the blade of a knife within the joints4 ,this has been often related before2 but we actually tried the experiment1 and found it to be true4 ,there are only six ranges of stone from the floor to the roof1 which is twenty feet high2 and the length of the chamber is about twelve yards4 ,it is also about six yards wide4 ,the roof or ceiling consists of only nine pieces1 of stupendous size and length1 traversing the room from side to side1 and lying1 like enormous beams1 across the top40 ,mr4 ,salt1 the traveler1 having paid a later visit to the principal pyramid1 in company with a ,british officer1 ascertained that the short descending passage at its entrance1 which afterward ascends to the two chambers1 is continued in a straight line through the base of the pyramid into the rock on which it stands4 ,this new passage1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 after joining what was formerly called the well1 is continued forward in a horizontal line1 and terminates in a well1 ten feet in depth1 exactly beneath the apex of the pyramid1 and at the depth of one hundred feet beneath its base4 ,mr4 ,salt's companion likewise discovered an apartment immediately above the king's chamber1 exactly of the same size1 and of the same fine workmanship1 but only four feet in hight4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids ,,of ,,gizeh4 ,the base of the pyramid of ,cephrenes1 the next in magnitude1 of the pyramids of ,gizeh1 to that of ,cheops1 is estimated at six hundred and fifty-five feet1 and its hight at three hundred and ninety-eight4 ,the pyramid of ,mycerinus has a base of two hundred and eighty feet1 and an elevation of one hundred and sixty-two4 ,but1 as well suggested by ,thompson1 in his 8,egypt ,past and ,present10 no mere detail of figures and statistics1 can convey an idea of the size of these vast bodies as they impress us when we stand before them4 8,no idea10 he says1 8can be given of the great pyramid1 by the statement that it covers an area of nearly five hundred and fifty thousand square feet1 measures seven hundred and fifty feet upon each of its four sides at the base1 and is four hundred and sixty feet in hight1 or that it would fill the whole length of ,washington square in ,new ,york1 and exceed its breadth by half1 and would rise nearly two hundred feet higher than the spire of ,trinity church4 ,the mass of masonry is what impresses you4 ,eighty-five million cubic feet of solid masonry1 gives you no very definite idea of the mass of stone here piled together with such mathematical precision that astronomical calculations could be based upon its angles and shadows4 ,no1 you must see the mass itself1 not now smooth and polished1 as when originally completed1 but stripped of its outer casing1 and showing tier on tier of huge stones squared and fitted at mathematical angles1 and now forming a series of rude steps1 each from two to four feet high1 extending to the very top4 ,that top is now a platform about thirty feet square2 and the view from its elevation is unparalleled in the world6 ,before you is ,cairo1 with its lofty minarets1 and its overhanging citadel1 the mountains of ,mokuttam skirting its rear2 the green valley of the ,nile is spread out for miles northward and southward2 at your feet are the mounds of sand that cover the ancient ,memphis2 southward is the whole range of pyramids to ,sakkara2 behind you are fragments of other pyramids1 the ,libyan mountains1 and the wide waste of the great desert4 ,but the present is lost in the associations of the past4 ,you are standing upon a monument that is known to have stood within a score of four thousand years2 that was as old as are our associations of ,plymouth rock1 when ,abraham came into ,egypt1 and journeyed to ,memphis to enjoy the favor of the king4 ,he looked with wondering eyes upon this self-same monument1 and heard the then dim tradition of the tyrant1 who1 having built it for his own sepulcher by the sweat and blood of half a million of his subjects1 was compelled to beg of his friends to bury him privately in some secret place1 lest after his death1 his body should be dragged by the people from the hated tomb60 ,the pyramids of ,sakkara1 which are numerous1 are interesting on account of the peculiarities of their structure4 ,the largest of them is of an irregular form1 the line of the terminating angle being sloped like a buttress reversed4 ,another1 of a middling size1 is composed of stages rising one above another4 ,the smaller ones are greatly decayed2 but the whole occupy an extent of two leagues4 ,this multitude of pyramids scattered over the district of ,sakkara1 ,denon observes1 prove that this territory was the necropolis 7city of the dead7 to the south of ,memphis1 and that the village opposite to this1 in which the pyramids of ,gizeh are situated1 was another necropolis1 which formed the northern extremity of ,memphis4 ,the extent of that ancient city may thus be measured4 ,to these interesting accounts of this group of the pyramids1 may be subjoined the graphic sketch of ,bayard ,taylor1 who visited them so recently as #ahea4 8,when we threw open the latticed blinds of our cabin1 before sunrise the next morning1 the extraordinary purity of the air gave rise to an amusing optical delusion on the part of my friend4 #8,see that wall6' said he1 pointing to a space between two white houses2 #8what a brilliant color it is painted1 and how those palms and these white houses are relieved against it6' ,he was obliged to look twice before he perceived that what he had taken for a wall close at hand1 was really the sky1 and rested upon a far-off horizon4 ,our donkeys were in readiness on the bank1 and taking ,achmet with us1 we rode off gayly among the mud hovels and under the date-trees of ,gizeh1 on our way to the pyramids4 ,the rising sun shone redly upon them1 as we rode out on the broad harvest land of the ,nile4 ,the black unctuous loam was still too moist from the inundation to be plowed1 except in spots1 here and there1 but even where the water had scarce evaporated1 millions of germs were pushing their slender blades up to the sunshine4 ,in that prolific soil1 the growth of grain is visible from day to day4 ,the ,fellahs were at work on all sides1 preparing for planting1 and the ungainly buffaloes drew their long plows slowly through the soil4 ,where freshly turned1 the earth had a rich1 soft luster1 like dark-brown velvet1 beside which the fields of young wheat1 beans and lentils1 glittered with the most brilliant green4 ,the larks sang in the air and flocks of white pigeons clustered like blossoms on the tops of the sycamores4 ,there1 in ,november1 it was the freshest and most animating picture of spring4 ,the direct road to the pyramids was impassable1 on account of the water1 and we rode along the top of a dike1 intersected by canals1 to the edge of the ,libyan desert1 a distance of nearly ten miles4 ,the ruptures in the dike obliged us occasionally to dismount1 and at the last canal1 which cuts off the advancing sands from the bounteous plain on the other side1 our donkeys were made to swim1 while we were carried across on the shoulders of two naked ,arabs4 ,they had run out in advance to meet us1 hailing us with many ,english and ,french phrases1 while half a dozen boys1 with earthen bottles which they had just filled from the slimy canal1 crowded after them1 insisting1 in very good ,english1 that we should drink at once and take them with us to the pyramids4 8,our donkeys' hoofs now sank deep in the ,libyan sands1 and we looked up to the great stone-piles of ,cheops1 ,cephrenes and ,mycerinus1 not more than half a mile distant4 ,our sunrise view of the pyramids on leaving ,gizeh1 was sufficient1 had ,i gone no further2 and ,i approached them1 without the violent emotion which sentimental travelers experience1 but with a quiet feeling of the most perfect satisfaction4 ,the form of the pyramid is so simple and complete1 that nothing is left to the imagination4 ,those vast1 yellowish-gray masses1 whose feet are wrapped in the silent sand1 and whose tops lean against the serene blue heaven1 enter the mind and remain in the memory with no shock of surprise1 no stir of unexpected admiration4 ,the impression they give and leave1 is calm1 grand and enduring as themselves4 8,the sun glared hot on the sand as we toiled up the ascent to the base of ,cheops1 whose sharp corners were now broken into zigzags by the layers of stone4 ,as we dismounted in his shadow1 at the foot of the path which leads up to the entrance1 on the northern side1 a dozen ,arabs beset us4 ,they belonged to the regular herd who have the pyramids in charge1 and are so renowned for their impudence that it is customary to employ the janissary of some consulate in ,cairo1 as a protection4 ,i took three of them and commenced the ascent1 leaving ,achmet and my friend below4 ,two boys followed us1 with bottles of water4 ,at first1 the way seemed hazardous1 for the stones were covered with sand and fragments which had fallen from above1 but after we had mounted twenty courses1 the hard1 smooth blocks of granite formed broader and more secure steps4 ,two ,arabs went before1 one holding each of my hands1 while the third shoved me up from the rear4 ,the assistance thus rendered was not slight1 for few of the stones are less than four feet in hight4 ,the water-boys scampered up beside us with the agility of cats4 ,we stopped a moment to take breath1 at a sort of resting-place half-way up1 an opening in the pyramid1 communicating with the uppermost of the interior chambers4 ,i had no sooner sat down on the nearest stone1 than the ,arabs stretched themselves at my feet and entertained me with most absurd mixture of flattery and menace4 ,one1 patting the calves of my legs1 cried out1 #8,oh1 what fine1 strong legs6 how fast they came up3 nobody ever went up the pyramid so fast6' while the others added1 #8,here you must give us backsheesh3 everybody gives us a dollar here4' ,my only answer was1 to get up and begin climbing1 and they did not cease pulling and pushing till they left me breathless on the summit4 ,the whole ascent did not occupy more than ten minutes4 8,the view from ,cheops has been often described4 ,i can not say that it increased my impression of the majesty and grandeur of the pyramid1 for that was already complete4 ,my eyes wandered off from the courses of granite1 broadening away below my feet1 to contemplate the glorious green of the ,nile-plain1 barred with palm-trees and divided by the gleaming flood of the ancient river2 the minarets of ,cairo2 the purple walls of the far ,arabian mountains2 the pyramid groups of ,sakkara and ,dashoor1 overlooking disinterred ,memphis in the south2 and the arid yellow waves of the ,libyan desert1 which rolled unbroken to the western sky4 ,the clear1 open heaven above1 which seemed to radiate light from its entire concave1 clasped in its embrace and harmonized the different features of this wonderful landscape4 ,there was too much warmth and brilliance for desolation4 ,everything was alive and real2 the pyramids were not ruins1 and the dead ,pharaohs1 the worshipers of ,athor and ,apis1 did not once enter my mind4 8,my wild attendants did not long allow me to enjoy the view quietly4 ,to escape from their importunities for backsheesh ,i gave them two piasters in copper coin1 which instantly turned their flatteries into the most bitter complaints4 ,it was insulting to give so little1 and they preferred having none2 if ,i would not give a dollar1 ,i might take the money back4 ,i took it without more ado1 and put it into my pocket4 ,this rather surprised them1 and first one1 and then another1 came to me and begged to have it again1 on his own private account4 ,i threw the coins high into the air1 and as they clattered down on the stones1 there ensued such a scramble as would have sent any but ,arabs over the edge of the pyramid4 ,we then commenced the descent1 two seizing my hands as before1 and dragging me headlong after them4 ,we went straight down the side1 sliding and leaping from stone to stone without stopping to take breath1 and reached the base in five or six minutes4 ,i was so excited from the previous aggression of the ,arabs1 that ,i neither felt fatigue nor giddiness on the way up and down1 and was not aware how violent had been my exertions4 ,but when ,i touched the level sand1 all my strength vanished in an instant4 ,a black mist came over my eyes1 and ,i sank down helpless and nearly insensible4 ,i was scarcely able to speak1 and it was an hour before ,i could sit upright on my donkey4 ,i felt the pyramid in all my bones1 and for two or three days afterward moved my joints with as much difficulty as a rheumatic patient4 8,in returning1 in about an hour and a half we reached the ruined pyramids of ,abousir1 where our path turned southward into the desert4 ,after seeing ,cheops and ,cephrenes1 these pyramids are only interesting on account of their dilapidated state and the peculiarity of their forms1 some of their sides taking a more obtuse angle at half their hight4 ,they are buried deep in the sand1 which has so drifted toward the plain1 that from the broad hollow lying between them and the group of ,sakkara1 more than a mile distant1 every sign of vegetation is shut out4 ,vast1 sloping causeways of masonry lead up to two of them1 and a large mound1 occupying the space between1 suggests the idea that a temple formerly stood there4 ,the whole of the desert promontory1 which seemed to have been gradually blown out on the plain1 from the hills in the rear1 exhibits traces here and there of ruins beneath the surface4 ,my friend and ,i1 as we walked over the hot sand1 before our panting donkeys1 came instinctively to the same conclusion1 that a large city must have once occupied the space between1 and to the southward of the two groups of pyramids4 ,it is not often that amateur antiquarians find such sudden and triumphant confirmation of their conjectures1 as we did4 8,on the way1 ,achmet had told us of a ,frenchman who had been all summer digging in the sand1 near ,sakkara4 ,after we had crawled into the subterranean dpt of mummied ibises1 and nearly choked ourselves with dust in trying to find a pot not broken open2 and after one of our donkeymen went into a human mummy pit and brought out the feet and legs of some withered old ,egyptian1 we saw before us the residence of this ,frenchman2 a mud hut on a high sand-bank4 ,it was an unfortunate building1 for nearly all the front wall had tumbled down1 revealing the contents of his kitchen4 ,one or two ,arabs loitered about1 but a large number were employed at the end of a long trench which extended to the hills4 ,before reaching the house a number of deep pits barred our path1 and the loose sand1 stirred by our feet1 slid back into the bottom1 as if eager to hide the wonders they disclosed4 ,pavements1 fresh as when first laid2 basement-walls of white marble1 steps1 doorways1 pedestals and fragments of pillars glittered in the sun1 which1 after the lapse of more than two thousand years1 beheld them again4 ,i slid down the side of the pit and walked in the streets of ,memphis4 ,the pavement of bitumen1 which once covered the stone blocks1 apparently to protect them and deaden the noise of horses and chariots1 was entire in many places4 ,here a marble sphinx sat at the base of a temple1 and stared abstractedly before her2 there a sculptured cornice1 with heavy moldings1 leaned against the walls of the chamber into which it had fallen2 and over all were scattered fragments of glazed and painted tiles and sculptured alabaster4 ,the principal street was narrow1 and was apparently occupied by private dwellings1 but at its extremity were the basement-walls of a spacious edifice4 ,all the pits opened on pavements and walls1 so fresh and cleanly cut1 that they seemed rather the foundations of a new city1 laid yesterday1 than the remains of one of the oldest capitals of the world4 8,we approached the workmen1 where we met the discoverer of ,memphis1 ,mr4 ,auguste ,mariette4 ,on finding we were not ,englishmen1 7of whose visits he appeared to be rather shy17 he became very courteous and communicative4 ,he apologized for the little he had to show us1 since on account of the vandalism of the ,arabs1 he was obliged to cover up all his discoveries1 after making his drawings and measurements4 ,the ,egyptian authorities are worse than apathetic1 for they would not hesitate to burn the sphinxes for lime1 and build barracks for filthy soldiers with the marble blocks4 ,besides this1 the ,french influence at ,cairo was then entirely overshadowed by that of ,england1 and although ,m4 ,mariette was supported in his labors by the ,french academy1 and a subscription headed by ,louis ,napoleon's name1 he was forced to be content with the simple permission to dig out these remarkable ruins and describe them4 ,he could neither protect them nor remove the portable sculptures and inscriptions1 and therefore preferred giving them again into the safe keeping of the sand4 ,here they will be secure from injury1 until some more fortunate period1 when1 possibly1 the lost ,memphis may be entirely given to the world1 as fresh as ,pompeii1 and far more grand and imposing4 8,i asked ,m4 ,mariette what first induced him to dig for ,memphis in that spot1 since antiquarians had fixed upon the mounds near ,mitrahenny 7a village in the plain below1 and about four miles distant17 as the former site of the city4 ,he said that the tenor of an inscription which he found on one of the blocks quarried out of these mounds1 induced him to believe that the principal part of the city lay to the westward1 and therefore he commenced excavating in the nearest sand-hill in that direction4 ,after sinking pits in various places he struck on an avenue of sphinxes1 the clue to all his after discoveries4 ,following this1 he came upon the remains of a temple1 7probably the ,serapeum1 or temple of ,serapis1 mentioned by ,strabo17 and afterward upon streets1 colonnades1 public and private edifices1 and all other signs of a great city4 ,the number of sphinxes alone1 buried under these high sand-drifts1 amounted to two thousand1 and he had frequently uncovered twenty or thirty in a day4 ,he estimated the entire number of statues1 inscriptions and reliefs1 at between four and five thousand4 ,the most remarkable discovery was that of eight colossal statues1 which were evidently the product of ,grecian art4 ,during thirteen months of assiduous labor1 with but one assistant1 he had made drawings of all these objects and forwarded them to ,paris4 ,in order to be near at hand1 he had built an ,arab house of unburnt bricks1 the walls of which had just tumbled down for the third time4 ,his workmen were then engaged in clearing away the sand from the dwelling of some old ,memphian1 and he intended spreading his roof over the massive walls1 and making his residence in the exhumed city4 ,the man's appearance showed what he had undergone1 and gave me an idea of the extraordinary zeal and patience required to make a successful antiquarian4 ,his face was as brown as an ,arab's1 his eyes severely inflamed1 and his hands as rough as a bricklayer's4 ,his manner with the native workmen was admirable1 and they labored with a hearty good-will which almost supplied the want of the needful implements4 ,all they had were straw baskets1 which they filled with a sort of rude shovel1 and then handed up to be carried off on the heads of others4 8,strabo states that ,memphis had a circumference of seventeen miles1 and therefore both ,m4 ,mariette and the antiquarians are right4 ,the mounds of ,mitrahenny probably mark the eastern portion of the city1 while its western limit extended beyond the pyramids of ,sakkara1 and included in its suburbs those of ,abousir and ,dashoor4 ,the space explored by ,m4 ,mariette is about a mile and a half in length1 and somewhat more than half a mile in breadth4 ,he was then continuing his excavations westward1 and had almost reached the first ridge of the ,libyan hills1 without finding the termination of the ruins4 ,the magnitude of his discovery will be best known when his drawings and descriptions are given to the world4 ,a few months after my visit1 his labors were further rewarded by finding thirteen colossal sarcophagi of black marble1 and he has recently added to his renown by discovering an entrance to the ,sphinx4 ,yet at that time1 the exhumation of the lost ,memphis1 second only in importance to that of ,nineveh1 was unknown in ,europe1 except to a few sarans in ,paris1 and the first intimation which some of my friends in ,cairo and ,alexandria had of it1 was my own account of my visit1 in the newspapers they received from ,america4 ,but ,m4 ,mariette is a young man1 and will yet see his name inscribed beside those of ,burckhardt1 ,belzoni and ,layard4 8,we had still a long ride before us1 and ,i took leave of ,memphis and its discoverer1 promising to revisit him on my return from ,khartoum4 ,as we passed the brick pyramid of ,sakkara1 which is built in four terraces of equal hight1 the dark1 grateful green of the palms and harvest-fields of the ,nile appeared between two sand-hills1 a genuine balm to our heated eyes4 ,we rode through groves of the fragrant mimosa to a broad dike1 the windings of which we were obliged to follow across the plain1 as the soil was still wet and adhesive4 ,it was too late to visit the beautiful pyramids of ,dashoor1 the first of which is more than three hundred feet in hight1 and from a distance has almost as grand an effect as those of ,gizeh4 ,our tired donkeys lagged slowly along to the palm-groves of ,mitrahenny1 where we saw mounds of earth1 a few blocks of red granite and a colossal statue of ,remeses ,,ii41 7,sesostris17 which until now were supposed to be the only remains of ,memphis4 ,the statue lies on its face in a hole filled with water4 ,the countenance is said to be very beautiful1 but ,i could only see the top of ,sesostris's back1 which bore a faint resemblance to a crocodile4 ,through fields of cotton in pod and beans in blossom1 we rode to the ,nile1 dismissed our donkeys and their attendants1 and lay down on some bundles of cornstalks to wait the arrival of our boat4 ,but there had been a south wind all day1 and we had ridden much faster than our men could tow4 ,we sat till long after sunset before the stars and stripes1 floating from the mizzen of the ,cleopatra1 turned the corner below ,bedrasheyn4 ,when1 at last1 we sat at our cabin-table1 weary and hungry1 we were ready to confess that the works of art produced by our cook1 were more marvelous and interesting than ,memphis and the pyramids40 ,,the ,,tombs ,,at ,,sakkara4 ,the prediction of ,taylor1 quoted above1 8that ,m4 ,mariette1 though a young man1 would yet see his name inscribed beside those of ,burckhardt1 ,belzoni and ,layard10 is in a fair way for fulfillment2 for the finding of the wonderful tombs of ,sakkara1 and their magnificent sarcophagi1 is1 perhaps1 the greatest discovery which has been made relative to the antiquities of ,egypt1 since the days of ,belzoni himself4 ,the tomb1 a view of the entrance to which is given in the cut below1 is situated in the desert near ,sakkara1 to the north-west of and near the pyramid1 about four or five hours' ride from ,cairo1 by way of ,toura1 where the ,nile must be crossed4 ,monsieur ,mariette1 to whose knowledge and research this discovery is due1 is employed by the ,french government4 ,a passage in ,strabo having led him to infer that a line of sphinxes led to the ,serapeum1 he commenced his search1 under a firman from the viceroy of ,egypt1 about two years and a half since1 in the moving sand-hills of ,sakkara4 ,he discovered the line of sphinxes1 one of which had been found in #ahcb1 by ,signor ,marucchi2 but they not being in a straight direction1 and turning abruptly at the entrance of the ,serapeum1 it was with difficulty they were traced4 ,they were one hundred and forty in number1 and sixteen feet apart4 ,the whole avenue proved eleven hundred and twenty feet in length4 ,at the termination were eleven ,greek statues of ,homer1 ,pindar1 ,solon1 ,lycurgus1 ,aristotle1 and other poets1 philosophers1 and lawgivers of ,greece4 ,one sphinx1 having the name of ,apis inscribed upon it1 was met with under a depth of sixty or seventy feet of sand3 stone peacocks nine feet high1 and colossal lions1 were also found here4 ,the tomb of ,apis was now sought for1 and discovered1 after a whole year of labor1 on the twelfth of ,november1 #ahea4 ,from the avenue a mastaba1 or bench1 and passage two hundred and ninety feet long1 leads to a pylon1 the entrance of the great temple4 ,the tomb runs from south to north1 and the great gallery from east to west4 ,this is about five hundred and twenty yards in length1 and from four to five yards wide4 ,the chambers are not formed throughout the whole length of the gallery1 and some passages are altogether without them4 ,the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the tomb are1 in one instance1 if not more1 unfinished2 and the doors erected at the entrance are too small to have allowed the passage of the sarcophagi1 and must1 therefore1 have been built after the latter were introduced4 ,the chambers are not opposite each other1 but arranged alternately1 in the usual manner of ,egyptian places of sepulture4 ,the appearance of this long gallery1 when lighted up by numerous candles1 receding in dim perspective into gloom--the massive sarcophagi1 of polished granite1 each in its chamber1 looking tranquillity1 is an imposing sight1 as may be seen in the next following cut4 ,they are of enormous size and weight3 one1 and that not the largest1 has been estimated to weigh1 including the lid1 upward of sixty tuns4 ,to have moved these and lowered them into their receptacles1 which are some six feet below the floor of the gallery1 in so confined a space1 must have required a considerable amount of mechanical skill and power4 ,in the walls are holes1 apparently for the introduction of the ends of beams4 ,the chambers may1 however1 have been filled with sand1 the sarcophagus pushed in and gradually lowered by abstracting the sand4 ,the under side of one of the sarcophagi is rounded1 and it was kept steady by wooden blocks on each side4 ,when these are removed it can be rocked by the hand4 ,a groove1 about two feet broad and two or three inches in depth1 runs down the middle of the gallery4 ,a wooden capstan was found near the tombs1 and is supposed to have been used for moving the stones4 ,the entrance is inclined4 ,the tombs are excavated in a soft friable limestone1 containing numerous small veins of gypsum1 about half an inch in thickness4 ,to prevent the roof from falling1 it has been coated with flagstones1 cemented to it by a gypseous cement2 but1 either by the hand of violence1 or that of time1 these have been detached1 and have fallen to the ground1 encumbering1 and partially choking the galleries and rooms4 ,the mortar1 however1 still adheres in several places to the walls1 and projects where the joints of the stones have been4 ,in one chamber is a self-sustained stone arch2 another proof1 if any were now necessary1 that its construction was known to the ancients4 ,this chamber contains a small sarcophagus1 in which1 probably1 were the bones of a young bull4 ,the bones of bulls have been found in several sarcophagi2 but every one had been opened1 and some heaped with stones2 an eastern mark of contempt1 probably the work of the ,persians4 ,at the entrance were numerous ex voto offerings of inscribed tablets inserted in small recesses in the walls4 ,there are also inscriptions1 in the ,demotic character1 on the outer doorway4 ,in some chambers are large recesses to the right and left of the tomb1 which in one instance contained a large granite tablet with hieroglyphics4 ,the number of sarcophagi already discovered is twenty-five4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,tombs ,,of ,,sakkara4 ,these tombs merit the visit of all antiquaries and travelers passing through ,egypt2 and ,m4 ,mariette's work describing them is looked for with anxiety by all savans4 ,to his kindness and courtesy1 which1 as well as his hospitality1 are well known1 the public are indebted for the greater portion of this information4 ,near to ,sakkara1 on the site of ,memphis1 ,hekekyan ,bey has been making excavations connected with the geological investigations of the ,nile valley1 instituted at the request of ,mr4 ,leonard ,horner and the ,geological ,society of ,london1 by the viceroy1 who has very recently received from the ,english government1 through ,mr4 ,murray1 a letter of thanks for his liberal aid to the cause of science4 ,a view of the great gallery of these tombs1 as it appears when lighted up1 is given on the next page4 ,,the ,,sphinx4 ,before passing to the pyramids and ruins of ,mero in ,ethiopia1 let us notice the celebrated ,sphinx1 which stands near the great pyramids of ,gizeh1 and the enormous bulk of which attracts the attention of every traveler4 ,of all the monuments of ,egypt1 this1 in many respects1 is the most mysterious and impressive4 ,it is cut out of the solid rock1 and by some is supposed to have been the sepulcher of ,amasis4 ,it is more than sixty feet from the ground to the crown of the head2 more than a hundred feet around the forehead2 and nearly one hundred and fifty feet in length4 ,the nose has been shamefully mutilated4 8,though its proportions are colossal1 its outline10 says ,denon1 8is pure and graceful2 the expression mild1 gracious1 and tranquil2 the character is ,african2 but the mouth1 the lips of which are thick1 has a softness and delicacy of execution truly admirable2 it seems real life and flesh4 ,art must have been at a high pitch when this monument was executed2 for1 if the head is deficient in what is called style1 that is1 in the straight and bold lines which give expression to the figures under which the ,greeks have designated their deities1 yet sufficient justice has been rendered to the fine simplicity and character of nature displayed in this figure40 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,gallery ,,of ,,the ,,tombs ,,of ,,sakkara4 ,thus far the description of ,denon4 ,but ,taylor1 who says of this monument that 8there is nothing like it in the world10 adds1 that 8those travelers who pronounce its features to be negro in their character1 are certainly very hasty in their conclusions4 ,that it is an ,egyptian head1 is plainly evident1 notwithstanding its mutilation4 ,the type1 however1 is rather fuller and broader than is usual in ,egyptian statues40 ,who reared it1 and for what purpose1 and by what mighty enginery1 is utterly unknown4 ,but there it stands1 8on the verge of the desert whose sands are heaped around it1 and in advance of the three vast pyramids that form an immovable phalanx as if to guard it from destruction1 looking out in unfathomable silence over the empty plain where once stood ,memphis in the pride of the earlier ,pharaohs1 and where ,cambyses battered down that pride with the recklessness of a barbarian invader4 ,once an altar stood before it1 and a dromos of crouching lions and other figures formed a fit approach to the gigantic symbol of ,egypt deified4 ,but now the sands drift in perpetually to hide all but the head1 whose sublime repose neither the war-club of the ,persian1 nor tho fury of the sirocco has ever disturbed40 ,,ruins ,,and ,,pyramids ,,of ,,mero4 ,passing up the ,nile to its great fork in about latitude seventeen degrees1 we come to the wonderful ruins and pyramids of ,mero1 in ,ethiopia4 8,the discovery of these ruins10 says the well known traveler last quoted1 8is of comparatively recent date2 and it is only within a very short time that their true place and character in ,ethiopian history have been satisfactorily established4 ,hoskins1 ,cailliaud and ,ferlini were the first to direct the attention of antiquarians to this quarter1 and the later and more complete researches of ,lepsius leave room for little more to be discovered concerning them4 ,it is remarkable that both ,bruce and ,burckhardt1 who traveled by land from ,berber to ,shendy1 failed to see the ruins1 which must have been visible from the road they followed4 ,the former1 in fact1 speaks of the broken pedestals1 carved stones and pottery which are scattered over the plain1 and sagely says1 #8,it is impossible to avoid risking a guess that this is the ancient city of ,mero2' but he does not mention the groups of pyramids which are so conspicuous a feature in the landscape4 ,our path led over a plain covered with thorny shrubs at first1 but afterward hard black gravel1 and we had not gone more than a mile before the ras pointed out the pyramids of the ancient ,ethiopian city4 ,i knew it only from its mention in history1 and had never read any description of its remains2 consequently ,i was surprised to see before me1 in the vapory morning air1 what appeared to be the ruins of pyl and porticos1 as grand and lofty as those of ,karnak4 ,rising between us and the mountains1 they had an imposing effect1 and ,i approached them with excited anticipations4 ,as advanced1 however1 and the morning vapors melted away1 ,i found that they derived much of their apparent hight from the hill upon which they are built1 and that1 instead of being the shattered parts of one immense temple1 they were a group of separate pyramids1 standing amid the ruins of others which have been completely destroyed4 8,we reached them after a walk of about four miles4 ,they stand upon a narrow1 crescent-shaped hill1 which rises forty or fifty feet from the plain1 presenting its convex front to the ,nile1 while toward the east its hollow curve embraces a small valley lying between it and the mountain range4 ,its ridge is crowned with a long line of pyramids1 standing so close to each other that their bases almost meet1 but presenting no regular plan or association1 except in the direction of their faces4 ,none of them retains its apex1 and they are all more or less ruined1 though two are perfect to within a few courses of the top4 ,i climbed one of the highest1 from which ,i could overlook the whole group1 as well as another cluster1 which crowned the summit of a low ridge at the foot of the mountains opposite4 ,of those among which ,i stood1 there were sixteen1 in different degrees of ruin1 besides the shapeless stone-heaps of many more4 ,they are all built of fine red sandstone1 in regular courses of masonry1 the spaces of which are not filled1 or cased1 as in the ,egyptian pyramids1 except at the corners1 which are covered with a narrow hem or molding1 in order to give a smooth outline4 ,the stones are about eighteen inches high1 and the recession of each course varies from two to four inches1 so that the hight of the structure is always much greater than the breadth of the base4 ,a peculiarity of these pyramids is1 that the sides are not straight but curved lines1 of different degrees of convexity1 and the breadth of the courses of stone is adjusted with the utmost nicety1 so as to produce this form4 ,they are small1 compared with the enormous piles of ,gizeh and ,dashoor1 but singularly graceful and elegant in appearance4 ,not one of the group is more than seventy feet in hight1 nor when complete could have exceeded one hundred4 ,all1 or nearly all1 have a small chamber attached to the exterior1 exactly against the center of their eastern sides1 but no passage leading into the interior2 and from the traces of ,dr4 ,lepsius's labors1 by which ,i plainly saw that he had attempted in vain to find an entrance1 it is evident that they are merely solid piles of masonry1 and that1 if they were intended tombs1 the bodies were deposited in the outer chambers4 ,some of these chambers are entire1 except the roof1 and their walls are profusely sculptured with hieroglyphics1 somewhat blurred and worn down1 from the effect of the summer rains4 ,their entrances resembled the doorways of temples1 on a miniature scale1 and the central stones of two of them were sculptured with the sacred winged globe4 ,i saw on the jamb of another1 a figure of the god ,horus4 ,the chambers were quite small1 and not high enough to allow me to stand upright4 ,the sculptures have a very different character from those in the tombs of ,thebes1 and their resemblance to those of the ,ptolemaic period was evident at the first glance4 ,the only cartouches of monarchs which ,i found were so obliterated that ,i could not identify them2 but the figure of one of the kings1 grasping in one hand the hair of a group of captives1 while with the other he lifts a sword to slay them1 bears a striking resemblance to that of ,ptolemy ,euergetes1 on the pylon of the temple at ,edfou4 ,many of the stones in the vast heaps which lie scattered over the hills1 are covered with sculptures4 ,i found on some the winged globe and scarabes1 while others retained the scroll or fillet which usually covers the sloping corners of a pylon4 ,on the northern part of the hill ,i found several blocks of limestone1 which exhibited a procession of sculptured figures brilliantly colored4 8,the last structure on the southern extremity of the hill1 is rather a tower than a pyramid1 consisting of a high base or foundation1 upon which is raised a square building1 the corners presenting a very slight slope toward the top1 which is covered with ruins1 indicating that there was originally another and narrower story upon it4 ,when complete1 it must have borne considerable resemblance to the ,assyrian towers1 the remains of which are found at ,nineveh4 ,on this part of the hill there are many small detached chambers1 all facing the east1 and the remains of a large building4 ,here ,lepsius appears to have expended most of his labors2 and the heaps of stone and rubbish he has left behind him1 prevent one from getting a very clear idea of the original disposition of the buildings4 ,he has quarried one of the pyramids down to its base1 without finding any chamber within or pit beneath it4 ,my ras1 who was at a loss to comprehend the object of my visit1 spoke of ,lepsius as a great ,frank astrologer1 who had kept hundreds of the people at work for many days1 and at last found in the earth a multitude of chickens and pigeons1 all of solid gold4 ,he then gave the people a great deal of backsheesh and went away1 taking the golden fowls with him4 ,the most interesting object he has revealed is a vaulted room1 about twenty feet long1 which the ras pointed out as the place where the treasures were found4 ,it is possible that he here referred to the discoveries made about twenty years ago by ,ferlini1 who excavated a great quantity of rings and other ornaments1 ,greek and ,roman1 as well as ,ethiopian1 which are now in the museum at ,berlin4 ,the ceiling of this vault is on the true principle of the arch1 with a keystone in the center1 which circumstance1 as well as the character of the sculptures1 would seem to fix the age of the pyramids at a little more than two thousand years4 ,i took a sketch of this remarkable cluster of ruins from their northern end1 and afterward another from the valley below1 whence each pyramid appears distinct and separate1 no one covering the other4 ,the ras and sailors were puzzled what to make of my inspection of the place1 but finally concluded that ,i hoped to find a few golden pigeons1 which the ,frank astrologer had not carried away4 ,i next visited the eastern group1 which consists of ten pyramids1 more or less dilapidated1 and the ruined foundations of six or eight more4 ,the largest1 which ,i ascended1 consists of thirty-five courses of stone1 and is about fifty-three feet in hight1 eight or ten feet of the apex having been hurled down4 ,each side of the apex is seventeen paces1 or about forty-two feet long1 and the angle of ascent is consequently much greater than in the pyramids of ,egypt4 ,on the slope of the hill are the substructions of two or three large buildings1 of which sufficient remains to show the disposition of the chambers and the location of the doorways4 ,toward the south1 near where the valley inclosed between the two groups opens upon the plain1 are the remains of other pyramids and buildings1 and some large1 fortress-like ruins are seen on the summits of the mountains to the east4 ,i would willingly have visited them1 but the wind was blowing fresh1 and the ras was impatient to get back to his vessel4 ,many of the stones of the pyramids are covered with rude attempts at sculpturing camels and horses2 no doubt by the ,arabs1 for they resemble a school-boy's first drawings on a slate2 straight sticks for legs1 squares for bodies1 and triangles for humps4 8,leaving the ruins to the company of the black goats that were browsing on the dry grass1 growing in bunches at their eastern base1 ,i walked to another group of pyramids1 which lay a mile and a half to the south-west1 toward the ,nile4 ,as we approached them1 a herd of beautiful gray gazelles started from among the stones and bounded away into the desert4 #8,these were the tents of the poor people1' said the ras1 pointing to the pyramids2 #8the ,frank found no golden pigeons here4' ,they were1 in fact1 smaller and more dilapidated than the others4 ,some had plain burial chambers attached to their eastern sides1 but the sculptures were few and insignificant4 ,there were sixteen in all1 more or less ruined4 ,scattering mounds1 abounding with fragments of bricks and building stones1 extended from these ruins nearly to the river's bank1 a distance of more than two miles2 and the foundations of many other pyramids might be seen among them4 ,the total number of pyramids in a partial state of preservation1 7some being nearly perfect1 while a few retained only two or three of the lower courses17 which ,i counted on the site of ,mero1 was forty-two4 ,besides these1 ,i noticed the traces of forty or fifty others1 which had been wholly demolished4 ,the entire number1 however1 of which ,mero could boast1 in its prime1 was one hundred and ninety-six4 ,the mounds near the river1 which cover an extent of between one and two miles1 point out the site of the city1 the capital of the old hierarchy of ,mero1 and the pyramids are no doubt the tombs of its kings and priests4 ,it is rather singular that the city has been so completely destroyed1 as the principal spoilers of ,egypt1 the ,persians1 never penetrated into ,ethiopia1 and there is no evidence of the stones having been used to any extent by the ,arabs1 as building materials4 8,the examination of ,mero has solved the doubtful question of an ,ethiopian civilization anterior to that of ,egypt4 ,hoskins and ,cailliaud1 who attributed a great antiquity to the ruins1 were misled by the fact1 discovered by ,lepsius1 that the ,ethiopian monarchs adopted as their own1 and placed upon their tombs the nomens of the earlier ,pharaohs4 ,it is now established beyond a doubt1 that1 so far from being the oldest1 these are the latest remains of ,egyptian art2 their inferiority displays its decadence1 and not the rude1 original type1 whence it sprang4 ,starting from ,memphis1 where not only the oldest ,egyptian1 but the oldest human records yet discovered1 are found1 the era of civilization becomes later1 as you ascend the ,nile4 ,in ,nubia1 there are traces of ,thothmes and ,amunoph ,,iii41 or about fifteen centuries before the ,christian era2 at ,napata1 the ancient capital of ,ethiopia1 we can not get beyond ,king ,tirhaka1 eight centuries later2 while at ,mero1 there is no evidence which can fix the date of the pyramids earlier than the first1 or at furthest1 the second century before ,christ4 ,egypt1 therefore1 was not civilized from ,ethiopia1 but ,ethiopia from ,egypt4 ,the sculptures at ,mero also establish the important fact that the ancient ,ethiopians1 though of a darker complexion than the ,egyptians1 7as they are in fact represented1 in ,egyptian sculpture17 were1 like them1 an offshoot of the great ,caucasian race4 ,whether they were originally emigrants from northern ,india and the regions about ,cashmere1 as the ,egyptians are supposed to have been1 or1 like the ,beni ,koreish at a later period1 crossed over from the ,arabian peninsula1 is not so easily determined4 ,the theory of ,pococke and other scholars1 based on the presumed antiquity of ,mero1 that here was the first dawning on ,african soil of that earliest ,indian civilization1 which afterward culminated at ,memphis and ,thebes1 is overthrown but we have what is of still greater significance1 the knowledge that the highest civilization1 in every age of the world1 has been developed by the race to which we belong4 8,i walked slowly back to the boat1 over the desolate plain1 striving to create from those shapeless piles of ruin the splendor of which they were once a part4 ,the sun1 and the wind1 and the mountains1 and the ,nile1 were what they had ever been2 but where the kings and priests of ,mero walked in the pomp of their triumphal processions1 a poor1 submissive peasant knelt before me with a gourd full of goat's milk2 and if ,i had asked him when that plain had been inhabited1 he would have answered me1 like ,chidhar1 the prophet3 #8,as thou seest it now1 so has it been forever6'0 ,,pyramids ,,and ,,ruins ,,of ,,merawe4 ,there are other pyramids and ruins in ,ethiopia that would be worthy of extended notice1 but that they are so far surpassed in number and magnificence by those already described4 ,the principal of these are found at ,merawe1 the former capital of ,darshygeea1 to the north-west of ,mero1 where the ,nile1 flowing south-west1 reaches the frontier of ,dongola4 ,this ,merawe must not be confounded with ,mero1 the ruins of which have just been described4 ,the identity of the sounds of the names1 did1 indeed1 at first deceive antiquarians1 who supposed the temples and pyramids in this neighborhood to have belonged to the capital of the old hierarchy of ,mero2 but it is now satisfactorily established that they mark the site of ,napata1 the capital of ,ethiopia up to the time of the ,csars4 ,it was the limit of the celebrated expedition of the ,roman soldiers1 under ,petronius4 ,djebel ,berkel1 at whose base the principal remains are found1 is in latitude eighteen degrees1 thirty-five minutes1 or thereabouts4 ,as the traveler already quoted1 rose in the morning1 to go over to the mountain and the ruins at its base1 8,i was10 says he1 8enchanted with the picture which the shores presented4 ,the air was filled with a light1 silvery vapor1 7a characteristic of sultry weather in ,africa17 softening the deep1 rich color of the landscape4 ,the eastern bank was one bower of palms1 standing motionless1 in perfect groups1 above the long1 sloping banks of beans in blossom4 ,such grace and glory1 such silence and repose1 ,i thought ,i had never before seen in the vegetable world4 ,opposite1 the ruined palaces of the old ,shygheean kings1 and the mud and stone hovels of modern ,merawe1 rose in picturesque piles above the river bank and below the red sandstone bluffs of the ,nubian desert1 which overhung them and poured the sand through deep rents and fissures upon their very roofs4 ,the mosque1 with a tall1 circular minaret1 stood embowered in a garden of date-palms1 under one of the highest bluffs4 ,up the river1 which stretched glittering into the distance1 the forest of trees shut out the view of the desert1 except ,djebel ,berkel1 which stood high and grand above them2 the morning painting its surface with red lights and purple shadows4 ,over the misty horizon of the river rose a single conical peak1 far away4 ,the sky was a pale1 sleepy blue1 and all that ,i saw seemed beautiful dream-pictures1 everywhere grace1 beauty1 splendor of coloring1 steeped in elysian repose4 ,it is impossible to describe the glory of that passage across the river4 ,it paid me for all the hardships of the desert4 8,when we touched the other shore and mounted the little donkeys we had taken across with us1 the ideal character of the scene disappeared1 but left a reality picturesque and poetic enough4 ,we rode under a cluster of ruined stone buildings1 one of which occupied considerable space1 rising pylon-like1 to the hight of thirty feet4 ,the shekh informed me that it had been the palace of a ,shygheean king1 before the ,turks got possession of the country4 ,it was wholly dilapidated1 but a few ,arab families were living in the stone dwellings which surround it4 ,these clusters of shattered buildings extend for more than a mile along the river1 and are all now known as ,merawe4 ,our road led between fields of ripening wheat1 rolling in green billows before the breeze1 on one side1 and on the other1 not more than three yards distant1 the naked sandstone walls of the desert1 where a blade of grass never grew4 ,over the wheat1 along the bank of the ,nile1 rose a long forest of palms1 so thickly ranged that the eye could scarcely penetrate their dense1 cool shade2 while on the other hand the glaring sand-hills showed their burning shoulders above the bluffs4 ,it was a most violent contrast1 and yet1 withal1 there was a certain harmony in these opposite features4 ,we now approached the mountain1 which is between three and four miles from the town4 ,it rises from out the sands of the ,nubian desert1 to the hight of five hundred feet1 presenting a front completely perpendicular toward the river4 ,it is inaccessible on all sides except the north1 which in one place has an inclination of forty-five degrees4 ,its scarred and shattered walls of naked sandstone stand up stern and sublime in the midst of the hot and languid landscape4 ,as we approached1 a group of pyramids appeared on the brow of a sand-hill to the left1 and ,i discerned at the base of the mountain several isolated pillars1 the stone-piles of ruined pylons1 and other remains of temples4 ,the first we reached was at the south-eastern corner of the mountain4 ,amid heaps of sandstone blocks and disjointed segments of pillars1 five columns of an exceedingly old form still point out the court of a temple1 whose adyta are hewn within the mountain4 ,they are not more than ten feet high and three in diameter1 circular1 and without capital or abacus1 unless a larger block1 rudely sculptured with the outlines of a ,typhon-head1 may be considered as such4 ,the doorway is hurled down and defaced1 but the cartouches of kings may still be traced on the fragments4 ,there are three chambers in the rock1 the walls of which are covered with sculptures1 for the most part representing the ,egyptian divinities4 ,the temple was probably dedicated to ,typhon1 or the ,evil ,principle1 as one of the columns is still faced with a caryatid of the short1 plump1 big-mouthed and bat-eared figure1 which elsewhere represents him4 ,over the entrance is the sacred winged globe1 and the ceiling shows the marks of brilliant coloring4 ,the temple is not remarkable for its architecture1 and can only be interesting in an antiquarian point of view4 ,it bears some resemblance in its general style to the temple-palace of ,goorneh1 at ,thebes4 8,the eastern base of the mountain1 which fronts the ,nile1 is strewn with hewn blocks1 fragments of capitals1 immense masses of dark bluish-gray granite1 and other remains1 which prove that a large and magnificent temple once stood there4 ,the excavations made by ,lepsius and others have uncovered the substructions sufficiently to show the general plan of two buildings4 ,the main temple was at the north-eastern corner of the mountain1 under the highest point of its perpendicular crags4 ,the remains of its small propylons stand in advance1 about two hundred yards from the rock1 going toward which1 you climb the mound formed by the ruins of a large pylon1 at the foot of which are two colossal ram-headed sphinxes of blue granite1 buried to their necks in the sand4 ,beyond this is a portico and pillared court1 followed by other courts and labyrinths of chambers4 ,several large blocks of granite1 all more or less broken and defaced1 lie on the surface or half quarried from the rubbish4 ,they are very finely polished and contain figures of kings1 evidently arranged in genealogical order1 each accompanied with his name4 ,the shekh had a great deal to tell me of the ,franks1 who dug up all the place1 and set the people to work at hauling away the lions and rams1 which they carried off in ships4 ,i looked in vain for the celebrated pedestal2 it has probably become the spoil of ,lepsius4 8,it was now noon1 and only the pyramids remained to be seen on that side of the river4 ,the main group is about a third of a mile from the mountain1 on the ridge of a sand-hill4 ,there are six pyramids1 nearly entire1 and the foundations of others4 ,they are almost precisely similar to those of the real ,mero1 each having a small exterior chamber on the eastern side4 ,like the latter1 they are built of sandstone blocks1 only filled at the corners1 which are covered with a hem or molding2 the sides of two of them are convex4 ,on all of them the last eight or ten courses next the top have been smoothed to follow the slope of the side4 ,it was no doubt intended to finish them all in this manner4 ,one of them has also the corner molding rounded1 so as to form a scroll1 like that on the cornice of many of the ,egyptian temples4 ,they are not more than fifty feet in hight1 with very narrow bases4 ,one of them1 indeed1 seems to be the connecting link between the pyramid and the obelisk4 ,nearer the river is an older pyramid1 though no regular courses of stone are to be seen any longer4 ,these sepulchral remains1 however1 are much inferior to those of ,mero4 ,the oldest names found at ,napata are those of ,amenoph ,,iii4 and ,remeses ,,ii4 7#afcj ,b4 ,c4 and #adjj ,b4 ,c47 both of whom subjected ,nubia to their rule4 ,the remains of ,ethiopian art1 however1 go no further than ,king ,tirkaka1 #gcj ,b4 ,c4--the ,ethiopian monarch1 who1 in the time of ,hezekiah1 marched into ,palestine to meet ,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria4 ,napata1 therefore1 occupies an intermediate place in history1 between ,thebes and ,mero1 showing the gradual southward progress of ,egyptian art and civilization4 ,it is a curious fact that the old religion of ,egypt should have been here met face to face1 and overthrown1 by ,christianity1 which1 starting in the mountains of ,abyssinia1 followed the course of the ,nile northward4 ,in the sixth century of our era1 ,ethiopia and ,nubia were converted to ,christianity and remained thus until the fourteenth century1 when they fell beneath the sword of ,islam4 8,the next morning1 the shekh proposed going with me to the remains of a temple1 half an hour distant1 on the eastern bank of the river4 ,after walking a mile and a half over the sands1 which have here crowded the vegetation to the very water's edge1 we came to a broad mound of stones1 broken bricks and pottery1 with a foundation wall of heavy limestone blocks1 along the western side4 ,there were traces of doors and niches1 and on the summit of the mound the pedestals of columns similar to those of ,el ,berkel4 ,from this place commenced a waste of ruins1 extending for nearly two miles toward the north-west1 while the breadth1 from east to west1 was about equal4 ,for the most part1 the buildings were entirely concealed by the sand1 which was filled with fragments of pottery and glass1 and with shining pebbles of jasper1 agate and chalcedony4 ,half a mile further1 we struck on another mound1 of greater extent1 though the buildings were entirely level with the earth4 ,the foundations of pillars were abundant1 and fragments of circular limestone blocks lay crumbling to pieces in the rubbish4 ,the most interesting object was a mutilated figure of blue granite1 of which only a huge pair of wings could be recognized4 ,the shekh said that all the ,frank travelers who came there broke off a piece and carried it away with them4 ,i did not follow their example4 ,toward the river were many remains of crude brick walls1 and the ground was strewn with pieces of excellent hard-burnt bricks4 ,the sand evidently conceals many interesting objects4 ,i saw in one place1 where it had fallen in1 the entrance to a chamber1 wholly below the surface4 ,the ,arabs were at work in various parts of the plain1 digging up the sand1 which they filled in baskets and carried away on donkeys4 ,the shekh said it contained salt1 and was very good to make wheat grow1 whence ,i inferred that the earth is nitrous4 ,we walked for an hour or two over the ruins1 finding everywhere the evidence that a large capital had once stood on the spot4 ,the bits of water-jars which we picked up were frequently painted and glazed with much skill4 ,the soil was in many places wholly composed of the debris of the former dwellings4 ,this was1 without doubt1 the ancient ,napata1 of which ,djebel ,berkel was only the necropolis4 ,napata must have been one of the greatest cities of ancient ,africa1 after ,thebes1 ,memphis and ,carthage4 ,i felt a peculiar interest in wandering over the site of that half-forgotten capital1 whereof the ancient historians knew little more than we4 ,that so little is said by them in relation to it is somewhat surprising1 notwithstanding its distance from the ,roman frontier40 ,,egyptian ,,temples ,,and ,,monuments4 ,returning from ,ethiopia to ,egypt1 we find not a few of its monuments and temples worthy of our notice as wonderful testimonies to the art and wealth of their ancient builders4 ,,pompey',s ,,pillar ,,and ,,cleopatra',s ,,needle4 ,passing out1 toward the south1 from modern ,alexandria1 one of the first objects that greets the eye of the traveler1 is ,pompey's pillar1 which rears its stupendous mass of polished granite in solitary grandeur1 a monument of buried empires and of nations that have passed away4 ,though it now stands alone1 it is supposed to have been but one of the four hundred stately columns of the ,serapeum as it once stood in all its grandeur4 8,this pillar10 says ,thompson1 8is the one solitary monument of the old city upon its southern front1 and answers to the one standing obelisk that is its solitary monument on the north4 ,of its origin1 history is as silent as the mummy of ,belzoni's tomb2 but there is no doubt that #8,pompey's pillar is really a misnomer2' for the inscription #8shows it to have been erected by ,publius1 the prefect of ,egypt1 in honor of ,diocletian1' who subdued a revolt at ,alexandria by capturing the city1 ,a4 ,d4 #bif4 ,but whether it was then first hewn from the quarry1 or was transported from some decaying temple up the ,nile1 the ,greek lettering does not inform us4 ,if the latter1 7which1 considering the decline of art and the pilfering propensities of the ,romans1 is probable17 then this now lonely sentinel1 an ,egyptian column with a ,greek inscription to a ,roman emperor1 has witnessed in turn the decay of ,egypt1 of ,greece1 and of ,rome1 upon the soil where it still disputes with ,time the empire of the past4 ,to the reader of ,gibbon1 it may seem strange that a monument should have been reared at ,alexandria in honor of a conqueror1 who1 during a siege of eight months1 wasted the city by the sword and by fire1 and who1 when it finally capitulated and implored his clemency1 caused it to feel #8the full extent of his severity1' and destroyed #8thousands of its citizens in a promiscuous slaughter4' ,the fact may serve to show the worthlessness of such monuments as testimonials to character1 or as expressions of public esteem4 ,but whatever may be its history or its associations1 one can not look upon this column without a feeling of astonishment and awe4 ,outside of the modern city walls and some six hundred yards to the south of them1 away from the present homes of men1 but on an eminence that overlooks the entire city1 and in striking contrast with the meager1 attenuated style of its present architecture1 stands this stupendous column of red granite1 ninety-nine feet in hight by thirty in circumference1 its shaft an elegant monolith measuring seventy-three feet between the pedestal and the capital4 ,it marks the site of an ancient stadium1 and as some conjecture1 of the gymnasium1 which was surrounded with majestic porticos of granite40 ,illustration3 ,,cleopatra',s ,,needle4 ,from ,pompey's pillar1 to ,cleopatra's needles1 is a distance of about a mile through the city in a north-easterly direction4 8,these obelisks10 says ,thompson1 8have no more relation to ,cleopatra1 than the pillar has to ,pompey4 ,their hieroglyphics1 according to ,wilkinson and ,lepsius1 date back as far as the exodus from ,egypt2 and they were brought to ,alexandria from the city of ,heliopolis1 or ,on1 about a hundred miles to the south4 ,each #8needle' is a solid block of red granite1 about seventy feet high1 and nearly eight feet in diameter at the base4 ,how such huge blocks were cut from the quarry1 transported hundreds of miles1 and erected upon their pedestals1 is a mystery not solved by anything yet discovered of ancient mechanic arts4 ,only one of the obelisks is standing4 ,the other was taken down to be transported to ,england1 but now lies half buried in the mud and sand4 ,on one side of the standing obelisk the hieroglyphics are distinctly legible1 but on the northern or seaward side they are much defaced by the action of the weather4 ,it stands upon the edge of the great harbor1 in a line with the rock of ,pharos that forms the extreme northern point of the horseshoe port4 8,besides the pillar and the needles nothing remains to testify the former splendor of ,alexandria2 a capital that once vied with ,rome1 containing a population equal to that of ,new ,york1 7three hundred thousand freemen and as many slaves17 and that so late as the seventh century1 according to the testimony of ,amrou1 its ,saracenic conqueror1 contained #8four thousand palaces1 four thousand baths1 four hundred theaters1 twelve thousand shops for the sale of vegetables1 and forty thousand tributary ,jews4' ,a few ruins are pointed out1 but these are fast disappearing with the ravages of time4 ,its name is the only memorial of its founder2 and the long range of catacombs along the shore to the west of the city1 the sole vestige of its ancient population4 ,so rapid was the growth of the city1 that at the commencement of the ,christian era1 it was #8second only to ,rome itself1' and #8comprehended a circumference of fifteen miles' within its walls4 ,it was a great seat of commerce4 #8,idleness was unknown4 ,either sex1 and every age1 was engaged in the pursuits of industry2' the blowing of glass1 the weaving of linen1 manufacturing the papyrus1 or conducting the lucrative trade of the port4 ,alexander1 fresh from the conquest of ,tyre1 boasted that he would here build an emporium of commerce surpassing that which he had ruined1 and thus would recreate in his own image the world he had destroyed4 ,the site of ,alexandria1 more felicitous than that of ,tyre1 promised to realize his ambitious dream4 ,its gates #8looked out on the gilded barges of the ,nile1 on fleets at sea under full sail1 on a harbor that sheltered navies1 and a light-house that was the mariner's star1 and the wonder of the world4' ,but neither the felicity of its location1 nor the enterprise of its ,ptolemaic rulers1 nor the wealth of its commerce1 nor the learning that gathered to its schools the students of art1 of philosophy1 of medicine1 of science1 and of religion1 could withstand the march of empire from ,asia to ,europe1 nor the laws of trade that followed in its track40 ,the present population of ,alexandria is less than a hundred thousand2 a mixture of all the oriental races1 with many ,europeans and ,jews4 ,in passing through its narrow and dirty streets1 now occupied with a motley and poverty-stricken populace2 in traversing the villages of hovels within its walls1 where the ,arab lies down with his sheep1 his goat1 his dog1 and his donkey1 all in the mud inclosure of a few feet square1 which must be entered by stooping2 and in climbing the huge mounds that are said to cover the ancient capital1 it is difficult to realize that here once dwelt the hundred thousand ,jews1 for whom the seventy made their celebrated ,greek version of the ,old ,testament2 that here the eloquent ,apollos was born1 and the learned ,athanasius conducted his theological controversies2 that here ,theodosius1 by imperial edict1 destroyed the temple of ,serapis1 and publicly established ,christianity in place of the outcast divinities of the ,egyptian ,greeks2 that here was a school to which the sages of ,greece resorted for instruction in philosophy1 science and letters1 and where ,jewish rabbins and ,christian apologists vied with ,greek dialecticians in the various pursuits of learning2 and that here was a library of seven hundred thousand manuscript volumes1 a ,british museum or a ,smithsonian institute1 boasting the originals or the duplicates of many of the most valuable works of the then current literature1 and which1 after the accidental destruction of a part of it in the insurrection against ,julius ,csar1 and the willful destruction of another portion in the sanguinary religious wars under ,theodosius1 yet contained enough of written papyrus to heat for six months the four thousand baths of the city1 under the summary decree of ,omar3 8,if these writings of the ,greeks agree with the book of ,god1 they are useless1 and need not be preserved2 if they disagree1 they are pernicious1 and ought to be destroyed40 ,it is difficult amid such surroundings1 to realize that here ,csar and ,antony dallied with the charms of ,cleopatra4 ,it is difficult to realize that where now bigotry1 fanaticism and superstition hold sway over an ignorant and degraded people1 were schools of theology1 and learned fathers1 and astute controversialists of the early ,christian church2 that here ,christianity triumphed over paganism in popular tumults backed by imperial decrees2 that here ,mark preached the gospel of the kingdom where the ,ethiopian eunuch had preceded him with the tidings of the great salvation4 ,and yet that old ,alexandria1 which began to be in the fourth century before ,christ1 and of all whose palaces and temples and monuments only two columns are now standing1 was the youngest of ,egyptian cities1 and was built by the conqueror of ,egypt when ,thebes1 and ,memphis1 and the university city of ,heliopolis1 were already in their decline4 ,such is the antiquity that meets us at the threshold of the land of the ,nile4 ,,the ,,catacombs ,,of ,,alexandria4 ,in connection with ,alexandria1 it is in place to speak of its crypt or catacombs1 a range of primeval sepulchers1 on which a prodigious amount of labor must have been bestowed4 ,they are situated about half a league along the shore1 to the westward of the modern city2 and their intricacy is such1 that formerly the guides would not enter them without a clew of thread1 which they unwound as they went in1 so that by following it on their return1 they might secure their safe retreat4 ,dr4 ,clarke is very particular in his description of these subterranean abodes of the dead2 and from his interesting narrative the following particulars have been gathered4 ,the original entrance to them is now closed1 and is externally concealed from observation4 ,the only place by which admittance to the interior is practicable1 is a small aperture made through the soft and sandy rock1 barely large enough to admit a person upon his hands and knees4 ,here1 sometimes1 the traveler has encountered jackals1 escaping from the interior when alarmed by any person approaching2 on which account1 a gun or pistol used often to be discharged before entering1 to prevent any sally of this kind4 8,having passed this aperture10 says ,dr4 ,clarke1 8with lighted tapers1 we arrived1 by gradual descent1 in a square chamber1 almost filled with earth3 to the right and left of this are smaller apartments1 chiseled in the rock2 each of these contains on either side of it1 except that of the entrance1 a soros for the reception of a mummy2 but1 owing to the accumulation of sand in all of them1 this part of the catacombs can not be examined without great difficulty4 ,leaving the first chamber1 we found a second of still larger dimensions1 having four crypt with soroi1 two on either side1 and a fifth at its extremity toward the south-east4 ,from hence1 penetrating toward the west1 we passed through another forced aperture1 which conducted us into a square chamber1 without any receptacles for dead bodies2 thence1 pursuing a south-western course1 we persevered in effecting a passage1 over heaps of sand1 from one chamber to another1 admiring everywhere the same extraordinary effects of labor and ingenuity1 until we found ourselves bewildered with so many passages1 that our clew of thread became of more importance than we at first believed it would prove to be4 ,at last we reached the stately antechamber of the principal sepulcher1 which had every appearance of being intended for a regal repository4 ,it was of a circular form1 surmounted by a beautiful dome1 hewn out of the rock1 with exquisite perfection1 and the purest simplicity of workmanship4 ,in a few of the chambers we observed pilasters1 resembling1 in their style of architecture1 the ,doric1 with architraves1 as in some of the most ancient sepulchers near ,jerusalem2 but they were all integral parts of the solid rock4 ,the dome covering the circular chamber was without ornament2 the entrance to it being from the north-west4 ,opposite to this entrance was a handsome square crypt with three soroi2 and to the right and left were other crypt1 similarly surrounded with places for the dead4 ,hereabouts we observed the remarkable symbol1 sculptured in relief1 of an orb with extending wings1 evidently intended to represent the subterraneous sun1 or sol inferus1 as mentioned by ,macrobius4 ,we endeavored to penetrate further toward the south-west and south1 and found that another complete wing of the vast fabric extended in those directions1 but the labor of the research was excessive4 8,the crypt upon the south-west side corresponded with those which we have described toward the north-east4 ,in the middle1 between the two1 a long range of chambers extended from the central and circular shrine toward the north-west2 and in this direction appears to have been the principal and original entrance4 ,proceeding toward it we came to a large room in the middle of the fabric1 between the supposed ,serapeum and the main outlet1 or portal1 toward the sea4 ,here the workmanship was very elaborate2 and to the right and left were chambers1 with receptacles ranged parallel to each other4 ,further on1 in the same direction1 is a passage with galleries and spacious apartments on either side2 probably the chambers for embalming the dead1 or those belonging to the priests1 who constantly officiated in the ,serapeum4 ,in the front is a kind of vestibulum1 or porch2 but it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain precisely the nature of the excavation toward the main entrance1 from the manner in which it is now choked with earth and rubbish4 ,if this part were laid open1 it is possible that something further would be known as to the design of the undertaking2 and1 at all events1 one of the most curious of the antiquities of ,egypt would then be exposed to the investigation it merits4 ,having passed about six hours in exploring1 to the best of our ability1 these gloomy mansions1 we regained1 by means of our clew1 the aperture by which we had entered1 and quitted them forever40 ,,bathing ,,in ,,the ,,east4 ,before leaving ,alexandria1 it may be interesting to glance at the process and luxury of oriental bathing1 so often described by travelers in ,turkey and ,egypt4 ,the narrative is from ,taylor1 who1 though deceived by his dragoman as to the excellence of the bath compared with others which he might have visited1 gives us a vivid picture of the process the bather undergoes1 and the full comfort that follows it4 ,he says1 8,the bath to which he conducted us1 he declared was the finest in ,alexandria1 the most superb in all the orient1 but it did not at all accord with our ideas of eastern luxury4 ,moreover1 the bath-keeper was his intimate friend1 and would bathe us as no ,christians were ever bathed before4 ,one fact ,ibrahim kept to himself1 which was1 that his intimate friend and he shared the spoils of our inexperience4 ,we were conducted to a one-story building1 of very unprepossessing exterior4 ,as we entered the low1 vaulted entrance1 my ears were saluted with a dolorous1 groaning sound1 which ,i at first conjectured to proceed from the persons undergoing the operation1 but which ,i afterward ascertained was made by a wheel turned by a buffalo1 employed in raising water from the well4 ,in a sort of basement hall1 smelling of soap-suds1 and with a large tank of dirty water in the center1 we were received by the bath-keeper1 who showed us into a room containing three low divans with pillows4 ,here we disrobed1 and ,ibrahim1 who had procured a quantity of napkins1 enveloped our heads in turbans and swathed our loins in a simple ,adamite garment4 ,heavy wooden clogs were attached to our feet1 and an animated bronze statue led the way through gloomy passages1 sometimes hot and steamy1 sometimes cold and soapy1 and redolent of anything but the spicy odors of ,araby the blest1 to a small vaulted chamber1 lighted by a few apertures in the ceiling4 ,the moist heat was almost suffocating2 hot water flowed over the stone floor1 and the stone benches we sat upon were somewhat cooler than kitchen stoves4 ,the bronze individual left us1 and very soon1 sweating at every pore1 we began to think of the three ,hebrews in the furnace4 ,our comfort was not increased by the groaning sound which we still heard1 and by seeing1 through a hole in the door1 five or six naked figures lying motionless along the edge of a steaming vat1 in the outer room4 ,presently our statue returned with a pair of coarse hair-gloves on his hands4 ,he snatched off our turbans1 and then1 seizing one of my friends by the shoulder as if he had been a sheep1 began a sort of rasping operation upon his back4 ,this process1 varied occasionally by a dash of scalding water1 was extended to each of our three bodies1 and we were then suffered to rest awhile4 ,a course of soap-suds followed1 which was softer and more pleasant in its effect1 except when he took us by the hair1 and holding back our heads1 scrubbed our faces most lustily1 as if there were no such things as eyes1 noses and mouths4 ,by this time we had reached such a salamandrine temperature that the final operation of a dozen pailfuls of hot water poured over the head1 was really delightful4 ,after a plunge in a seething tank1 we were led back to our chamber and enveloped in loose muslin robes4 ,turbans were bound on our heads and we lay on the divans to recover from the languor of the bath4 ,the change produced by our new costume was astonishing4 ,the stout ,german became a ,turkish mollah1 the young ,smyrniote a picturesque ,persian1 and ,i--,i scarcely know what1 but1 as my friends assured me1 a much better ,moslem than ,frank4 ,cups of black coffee and pipes of inferior tobacco completed the process1 and in spite of the lack of cleanliness and superabundance of fleas1 we went forth lighter in body1 and filled with a calm content which nothing seemed able to disturb40 ,,egyptian ,,temples1 ,,monuments1 ,c4 ,the ruins of the temple of ,hermopolis1 or the great city of ,mercury1 which were thought wonderful till the later discoveries in ,egypt threw them comparatively in the shade1 give some idea of the great range and high perfection the arts had attained in that country4 ,many parts of these ruins have preserved their original position1 without having been altered or deformed by the works of modern times1 and have remained untouched for well nigh four thousand years4 ,they are of freestone1 of the fineness of marble1 and have neither cement1 nor any other means of union1 except the perfect fitting of the respective parts4 ,the colossal proportions of the edifice1 evince the power the ,egyptians possessed to raise such enormous masses4 ,the portico is one hundred and twenty feet long1 and its hight sixty feet4 ,not a spring of an arch remains1 to throw light on the dimensions of the whole extent of the temple1 or of the nave4 ,the architecture is still richer than the ,doric order of the ,greeks4 ,the shafts of the pillars represent fasci1 or bundles2 and the pedestal1 the stem of the lotus4 ,under the roof between the two middle columns1 are winged globes2 and all the roofs are ornamented with a wreath of painted stars1 of an aurora color on a blue ground4 ,the temple of ,apollinopolis ,magna is described by ,denon as surpassing in extent1 majesty1 magnificence1 and high preservation1 whatever he had seen in ,egypt1 or elsewhere4 ,this building is a long suite of pyramidal gates1 of courts decorated with galleries1 of porticos1 and of covered naves1 constructed1 not with common stones1 but with entire rocks4 ,this superb edifice is situated on a rising ground1 so as to overlook1 not only its immediate vicinity1 but the whole valley4 ,on the right is the principal gate1 placed between two huge mounds of buildings1 on the walls of which are three orders of hieroglyphic figures1 increasing in their gigantic dimensions1 insomuch that the last have a length of twenty-five feet4 ,the inner court is decorated with a gallery of columns1 bearing two terraces1 which come out at two gates1 through which is the passage to the stairs1 leading to the platform of the mounds4 ,behind the inner portico are several apartments1 and the sanctuary of the temple4 ,a wall of circumvallation is decorated both within and without with innumerable hieroglyphics1 executed in a very finished and laborious style4 ,this magnificent temple appears to have been dedicated to the evil genius1 the figure of ,typhon being represented in relief on the four sides of the plinth which surmounts each of the capitals4 ,the entire frieze1 and all the paintings within1 are descriptive of ,isis1 defending herself against the attacks of that monster4 ,,the ,,ruins ,,of ,,thebes4 ,the ruins of the ancient city of ,thebes1 which ,homer has characterized by the single expression of the city with a hundred gates1 are of so immense an extent as to convince the spectator that fame has not exaggerated its size4 ,for1 as if the diameter of old ,egypt was not sufficient to contain it1 its monuments rest on two chains of contiguous mountains1 while its tombs occupy the valleys toward the west1 stretching off into the desert4 ,the large temple on the eastern side is between two and three leagues distant from ,medeenet ,abou1 where the most western temple is situated2 and the modern village of ,karnak is built on a small part of the site of a single temple1 which is half a mile in circumference4 ,of the remains of this temple1 ,denon tells us1 that 8of the hundred columns of the portico alone1 the smallest are seven feet and a half in diameter1 and the largest twelve4 ,the space occupied by the circumvallation of the temple contains lakes and mountains4 ,in short1 to be enabled to form a competent idea of so much magnificence1 the reader ought to fancy what is before him to be a dream1 as he who views the objects themselves rubs his eyes to know whether he is awake4 ,the avenue leading from ,karnak to ,luxor1 a space nearly half a league in extent1 contains a constant succession of sphinxes and other chimerical figures to the right and left1 together with fragments of stone walls1 of small columns1 and of statues40 ,the village of ,luxor1 ,denon describes 8as also built on the side of the ruins of a temple1 not so large as that of ,karnak1 but in a better state of preservation1 the masses not having as yet fallen through time1 and by the pressure of their own weight4 ,the most colossal parts consist of fourteen columns of nearly eleven feet in diameter1 and of two statues in granite1 at the outer gate1 buried up to the middle of the arms1 and having in front of them the two largest and best preserved obelisks known4 ,the ,french1 when in ,egypt1 deemed their means insufficient1 not to hew out1 but merely to transport these two monuments1 which are not more than a fragment of one of the numerous edifices of the astonishing city of ,thebes4 ,they are of rose-color granite1 are still seventy feet above the ground1 and to judge by the depth to which they are supposed to be covered with sand1 are believed to be at least one hundred feet in hight4 ,their preservation is perfect1 and the hieroglyphics with which they are covered being cut deep1 and in relief at the bottom1 show the bold hand of a master1 and a beautiful finish4 ,the chisels which could cut such hard materials must have been of an admirable temper2 and the machines to drag such enormous blocks from the quarries1 to transport them thither1 and to set them upright1 together with the time required for the labor1 surpass all conception60 ,in speaking of the gate of the temple1 which is now that of the village of ,luxor1 ,denon remarks as follows4 8,nothing can be more grand1 and at the same time more simple1 than the small number of objects of which this entrance is composed4 ,no city whatever makes so proud a display at its approach as this wretched village1 the population of which consists of two or three thousand souls1 who have taken up their abode on the roofs and beneath the galleries of this temple1 which has1 nevertheless1 the air of being in a manner uninhabited40 ,the tombs of the kings of ,thebes are grottos consisting of a regular double gallery supported by pillars1 behind which is a row of chambers1 often double4 ,in proportion as the hight of these grottos increases1 they become more richly decorated2 and the spectator is soon convinced1 by the magnificence both of the paintings and sculptures1 and of the subjects they represent1 that he is among the tombs of great men or heroes4 ,those which appear to have belonged to the ancient kings1 are only distinguished from the others by the magnificence of the sarcophagi1 and the mysterious solitude of their situation2 the others immediately overlooking the great buildings in the city4 ,the sculpture in all is incomparably more labored and more highly finished than that of the temples1 and displays a high perfection of the art4 ,the lines of the hieroglyphics have been cut with a firmness of touch1 and a precision1 of which marbles offer but few examples2 and the figures have a particular elegance and correctness of contour4 ,small subjects taken from nature are introduced2 and in these the groups of persons are given in perspective2 and cut in deep relief1 in simple and natural attitudes4 ,several of these subjects bear but little analogy to the spot in which they are immured2 for bass-reliefs are seen representing games1 such as rope-dancing1 and asses taught to play tricks and rear on their hind legs1 sculptured with all the traits of genuine nature and simplicity4 ,the plan of these excavations is singular2 and many are so vast and complicated1 that they might be mistaken for labyrinths1 or subterraneous temples4 ,after passing the elegant apartments described above1 long and gloomy galleries present themselves1 winding backward and forward in numerous angles1 and seeming to occupy a great extent of ground4 ,they are melancholy1 repulsive1 and without any decoration2 but open from time to time into other chambers covered with hieroglyphics1 and branch out into narrow paths1 leading to deep perpendicular pits4 ,at the bottom of these pits are other adorned chambers2 and lower still a new series of perpendicular pits and horizontal chambers1 until at length1 ascending a long flight of steps1 the visitor reaches an open place on a level with the chambers he first entered4 ,thus far we have followed the brief outline given by ,denon1 and the earlier travelers4 ,but our ideas of these wonderful ruins will become much more enlarged1 as well as accurate1 by perusing the descriptions of more recent tourists and explorers2 such for example as ,taylor and ,thompson4 ,the former1 before beginning the recital of his visit1 gives an outline of the topography of ,thebes4 8,the course of the ,nile10 he says1 8is here nearly north1 dividing the site of the ancient city into two almost equal parts4 ,on approaching it from ,kenneh1 the mountain of ,goorneh which abuts on the river1 marks the commencement of the western division4 ,this mountain1 a range of naked limestone crags1 terminating in a pyramidal peak1 gradually recedes to the distance of three miles from the ,nile1 which it again approaches further south4 ,nearly the whole of the curve1 which might be called the western wall of the city1 is pierced with tombs1 among which are those of the queens1 and the grand priestly vaults of the ,assasseef4 ,the valley of the kings' tombs lies deep in the heart of the range1 seven or eight miles from the river4 ,after passing the corner of the mountain1 the first ruin on the western bank is that of the temple-palace of ,goorneh4 ,more than a mile further1 at the base of the mountain1 is the ,memnonium1 or temple of ,remeses the ,great1 between which and the ,nile the two ,memnonian colossi are seated on the plain4 ,nearly two miles to the south of this is the great temple of ,medeenet ,abou1 and the fragments of other edifices are met with1 still further beyond4 ,on the eastern bank1 nearly opposite ,goorneh1 stands the temple of ,karnak1 about half a mile from the river4 ,eight miles eastward1 at the foot of the ,arabian mountains1 is the small temple of ,medamot1 which1 however1 does not appear to have been included in the limits of ,thebes4 ,luxor is directly on the bank of the ,nile1 a mile and a half south of ,karnak1 and the plain extends several miles beyond it1 before reaching the isolated range1 whose three conical peaks are the landmarks of ,thebes to voyagers on the river4 ,these distances convey an idea of the extent of the ancient city1 but fail to represent the grand proportions of the landscape1 so well fitted1 in its simple and majestic outlines1 to inclose the most wonderful structures the world has ever seen4 ,the green expanse of the plain2 the airy coloring of the mountains2 the mild1 solemn blue of the cloudless ,egyptian sky3 these are a part of ,thebes1 and inseparable from the remembrance of its ruins4 8,at sunrise we crossed to the western bank and moored our boat opposite ,goorneh4 ,it is advisable to commence with the tombs1 and close the inspection of that side with ,medeenet ,abou1 reserving ,karnak1 the grandest of all for the last4 ,the most unimportant objects in ,thebes are full of interest when seen first1 whereas ,karnak1 once seen1 fills one's thoughts to the exclusion of everything else4 ,there are ,arab guides for each bank1 who are quite familiar with all the principal points1 and who have a quiet and unobtrusive way of directing the traveler2 and with one of them1 we set off on a stirring gallop for the temple of ,goorneh and the valley of the kings' tombs1 leaving ,achmet to follow with our breakfast1 and the ,arab boys with their water bottles4 ,the temple of ,goorneh was built for the worship of ,amun1 the ,theban ,jupiter1 by ,osirei and his son1 ,remeses the ,great1 the supposed ,sesostris1 nearly fourteen hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,it is small1 compared with the other ruins1 but interesting from its rude and massive style1 a remnant of the early period of ,egyptian architecture4 ,the two pylons in front of it are shattered down1 and the dromos of sphinxes has entirely disappeared4 ,the portico is supported by a single row of ten columns1 which neither resemble each other1 nor are separated by equal spaces4 ,what is most singular1 is the fact that notwithstanding this disproportion1 which is also observable in the doorways1 the general effect is harmonious4 ,we tried to fathom the secret of this1 and found no other explanation than in the lowness of the building1 and the rough granite blocks of which it is built4 ,one seeks no proportion in a natural temple of rock1 or a cirque of ,druid stones4 ,all that the eye requires is rude strength1 with a certain approach to order4 ,the effect produced by this temple is of a similar character1 barring its historical interest4 ,its dimensions are too small to be imposing1 and ,i found1 after passing it several times1 that ,i valued it more as a feature in the landscape1 than for its own sake4 8,the sand and pebbles clattered under the hoofs of our horses1 as we galloped up the gorge of ,biban el ,molook1 the #8gates of the kings4' ,the sides are perpendicular cliffs of yellow rock1 which increased in hight1 the further we advanced1 and at last terminated in a sort of basin1 shut in by precipices several hundred feet in hight and broken into fantastic turrets1 gables and pinnacles4 ,the bottom is filled with huge heaps of sand and broken stones1 left from the excavation of the tombs in the solid rock4 ,there are twenty-one tombs in this valley1 more than half of which are of great extent and richly adorned with paintings and sculptures4 ,some have been filled with sand or otherwise injured by the occasional rains which visit this region1 while a few are too small and plain to need visiting4 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson has numbered them all in red chalk at the entrances1 which is very convenient to those who use his work on ,egypt as a guide4 ,i visited ten of the principal tombs1 to the great delight of the old guide1 who complained that travelers are frequently satisfied with four or five4 ,the general arrangement is the same in all1 but they differ greatly in extent and in the character of their decoration4 8,the first we entered was the celebrated tomb of ,remeses ,i41 discovered by ,belzoni4 ,from the narrow entrance1 a precipitous staircase1 the walls of which are covered with columns of hieroglyphics1 descends to a depth of forty feet1 where it strikes a horizontal passage leading to an oblong chamber1 in which was formerly a deep pit1 which ,belzoni filled4 ,this pit protected the entrance to the royal chamber1 which was also carefully walled up4 ,in the grace and freedom of the drawings1 and the richness of their coloring1 this tomb surpasses all others4 ,the subjects represented are the victories of the monarch1 while in the sepulchral chamber he is received into the presence of the gods4 ,the limestone rock is covered with a fine coating of plaster1 on which the figures were first drawn with red chalk1 and afterward carefully finished in colors4 ,the reds1 yellows1 greens and blues are very brilliant1 but seem to have been employed at random1 the gods having faces sometimes of one color1 sometimes of another4 ,in the furthest chamber1 which was left unfinished1 the subjects are only sketched in red chalk4 ,some of them have the loose and uncertain lines of a pupil's hand1 over which one sees the bold and rapid corrections of the master4 ,many of the figures are remarkable for their strength and freedom of outline4 ,i was greatly interested in a procession of men1 representing the different nations of the earth4 ,the physical peculiarities of the ,persian1 the ,jew and the ,ethiopian are therein as distinctly marked as at the present day4 ,the blacks are perfect counterparts of those ,i saw daily upon the ,nile1 and the noses of the ,jews seem newly painted from originals in ,new ,york4 ,the burial-vault1 where ,belzoni found the alabaster sarcophagus of the monarch1 is a noble hall1 thirty feet long by nearly twenty in breadth and hight1 with four massive pillars forming a corridor on one side4 ,in addition to the light of our torches1 the ,arabs kindled a large bonfire in the center1 which brought out in strong relief the sepulchral figures on the ceiling1 painted in white on a ground of dark indigo hue4 ,the pillars and walls of the vault glowed with the vivid variety of their colors1 and the general effect was unspeakably rich and gorgeous4 ,this tomb has already fallen a prey to worse plunderers than the ,medes and ,persians4 ,belzoni carried off the sarcophagus1 ,champollion cut away the splendid jambs and architrave of the entrance to the lower chambers1 and ,lepsius has finished by splitting the pillars and appropriating their beautiful paintings for the museum at ,berlin4 ,at one spot1 where the latter has totally ruined a fine doorway1 some indignant ,frenchman has written in red chalk1 #8,meurtre commis par ,lepsius4' ,in all the tombs of ,thebes1 wherever you see the most flagrant and shameless spoliations1 the guide says1 #8,lepsius4' ,who can blame the ,arabs for wantonly defacing these precious monuments1 when such an example is set them by the vanity of ,european antiquarians8 8,bruce's tomb1 which extends for four hundred and twenty feet into the rock1 is larger than ,belzoni's1 but not so fresh and brilliant4 ,the main entrance slopes with a very gradual descent1 and has on each side a number of small chambers and niches1 apparently for mummies4 ,the illustrations in these chambers are somewhat defaced1 but very curious1 on account of the light which they throw upon the domestic life of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,they represent the slaughtering of oxen1 the preparation of fowls for the table1 the kneading and baking of bread and cakes1 as well as the implements and utensils of the kitchen4 ,in other places the field laborers are employed in leading the water of the ,nile into canals1 cutting dourra1 threshing and carrying the grain into magazines4 ,one room is filled with furniture1 and the row of chairs around the base of the walls would not be out of place in the most elegant modern drawing-room4 ,the illustrated catalogue of the ,london exhibition contains few richer and more graceful patterns4 ,in a chamber nearer the royal vault1 two old1 blind minstrels are seen1 playing the harp in the presence of the king1 whence this is sometimes called the harper's tomb4 ,the pillars of the grand hall1 like those of all the other tombs we visited1 represent the monarch1 after death1 received into the presence of the gods1 stately figures1 with a calm and serious aspect1 and lips1 which1 like those of the ,sphinx1 seemed closed upon some awful mystery4 ,the absurdity of the coloring does not destroy this effect1 and a blue-faced ,isis1 whose hard1 black eyeball stares from a brilliant white socket1 is not less impressive than the same figure1 cut in sandstone or granite4 ,the delicacy and precision of the hieroglyphics1 sculptured in intaglio1 filled me with astonishment4 ,in the tomb of ,amunoph ,,iii41 which ,i visited the next day1 they resembled the ciphers engraved upon seals in their exquisite sharpness and regularity4 ,only the principal tombs1 however1 are thus beautified4 ,in others the figures are either simply painted1 or apparently sunken in the plaster1 while it was yet fresh1 by prepared patterns4 ,the latter method accounts for the exact resemblance of long processions of figures1 which would otherwise require a most marvelous skill on the part of the artist4 ,in some unfinished chambers ,i detected plainly the traces of these patterns1 where the outlines of the figures were blunt1 and the grain of the plaster bent1 and not cut4 ,the family likeness in the faces of the monarchs is also too striking1 unfortunately1 for us to accept them all as faithful portraits4 ,they are all apparently of the same age1 and their attributes do not materially differ4 ,this was probably a flattery on the part of the artists1 or the effect of a royal vanity1 which required to be portrayed in the freshness of youth and the full vigor of body and mind4 ,the first faces ,i learned to recognize were those of ,remeses ,,ii41 the supposed ,sesostris1 and ,amunoph ,,iii4 8,the tomb of ,memnon1 as it was called by the ,romans1 is the most elegant of all1 in its proportions1 and is as symmetrical as a ,grecian temple4 ,on the walls of the entrance are several inscriptions of ,greek tourists1 who visited it in the era of the ,ptolemies1 and spent their time in carving their names1 like ,americans nowadays4 ,the huge granite sarcophagus in which the monarch's mummy was deposited1 is broken1 as are those of the other tombs1 with a single exception4 ,this is the tomb of ,osirei ,i41 the grandfather of ,sesostris1 and the oldest in the valley4 ,i visited it by crawling through a hole barely large enough to admit my body1 after which ,i slid on my back down a passage nearly choked with sand1 to another hole1 opening into the burial chamber4 ,here no impious hand had defaced the walls1 but the figures were as perfect and the coloring as brilliant as when first executed4 ,in the center stood an immense sarcophagus1 of a single block of red granite1 and the massive lid1 which had been thrown off1 lay beside it4 ,the dust in the bottom gave out that peculiar mummy odor perceptible in all the tombs1 and in fact long after one has left them1 for the clothes become saturated with it4 ,the guide1 delighted with having dragged me into that chamber1 buried deep in the dumb heart of the mountain1 said not a word1 and from the awful stillness of the place and the phantasmagoric gleam of the wonderful figures on the walls1 ,i could have imagined myself a neophyte1 on the threshold of the ,osirian mysteries4 ,we then rode to the western valley1 a still deeper and wider glen1 containing tombs of the kings of the foreign dynasty of ,atin-,re4 ,we entered the two principal ones1 but found the paintings rude and insignificant4 ,there are many lateral passages and chambers1 and in some places deep pits1 along the edge of which we were obliged to crawl4 ,in the last tomb a very long and steep staircase descends into the rock4 ,as we were groping after the guide1 ,i called to my friend to take care1 as there was but a single step1 after making a slip4 ,the words were scarcely out of my mouth before ,i felt a tremendous thump1 followed by a number of smaller ones1 and found myself sitting in a heap of sand1 at the bottom1 some twenty or thirty feet below4 ,fortunately1 ,i came off with but a few slight bruises4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,two ,,colossi4 8,returning to the temple of ,goorneh1 we took a path over the plain1 through fields of wheat1 lupines and lentils1 to the two colossi1 which we had already seen from a distance4 ,these immense sitting figures1 fifty-three feet above the plain1 which has buried their pedestals1 overlook the site of vanished ,thebes and assert the grandeur of which they and ,karnak are the most striking remains4 ,they were erected by ,amunoph ,,iii41 and though the faces are totally disfigured1 the full1 round1 beautiful proportions of the colossal arms1 shoulders and thighs do not belie the marvelous sweetness of the features which we still see in his tomb4 ,except the head of ,antinous1 ,i know of no ancient portrait so beautiful as ,amunoph4 ,the long and luxuriant hair1 flowing in a hundred ringlets1 the soft grace of the forehead1 the mild serenity of the eye1 the fine thin lines of the nostrils1 and the feminine tenderness of the full lips1 triumph over the cramped rigidity of ,egyptian sculpture1 and charm you with the lightness and harmony of ,greek art4 ,in looking on that head1 ,i can not help thinking that the subject overpowered the artist1 and led him to the threshold of a truer art4 ,amunoph1 or ,memnon1 was a poet in soul1 and it was meet that his statue should salute the rising sun with a sound like that of a harp-string4 ,modern research has wholly annihilated this beautiful fable4 ,memnon now sounds at all hours of the day1 and at the command of all travelers who will pay an ,arab five piasters to climb up into his lap4 ,we engaged one1 who threw off his garments1 hooked his fingers and toes into the cracks of the polished granite1 and soon hailed us with #8salaam' from the knee of the statue4 ,there is a certain stone on ,memnon's lap1 which1 when sharply struck1 gives out a clear1 metallic ring4 ,behind it is a small square aperture1 invisible from below1 where one of the priests no doubt stationed himself to perform the daily miracle4 ,our ,arab rapped on the arms and body of the statue1 which had the usual dead sound of stone1 and rendered the musical ring of the sun-smitten block the more striking40 ,and ,thompson tells us1 that while he and his associates sat before it on their donkeys1 they saw 8a boy of fifteen1 with a solitary rag round his waist1 scrambling up the side of the statue1 and presently he was completely hidden in its lap1 just where the sly priest used to hide himself over night4 ,then striking with a hammer the hollow1 sonorous stone1 it emitted a sharp1 clear sound1 like the striking of brass10 though it was 8not sunrise1 but the middle of a scorching afternoon40 8,an avenue of sphinxes10 continues ,taylor1 8once led from these colossi to a grand temple1 the foundations of which we found about a quarter of a mile distant4 ,on the way are the fragments of two other colossi1 one of black granite4 ,the enormous substructions of the temple and the pedestals of its columns1 have been sufficiently excavated to show what a superb edifice has been lost to the world4 ,a crowd of troublesome ,arabs1 thrusting upon our attention newly baked cinerary urns1 newly roasted antique wheat1 and images of all kinds fresh from the maker's hand1 disturbed our quiet examination of the ruins1 and in order to escape their importunities1 we rode to the ,memnonium4 ,this edifice1 the temple-palace of ,remeses the ,great1 is supposed to be the ,memnonium1 described by ,strabo4 ,it is built on a gentle rise of land at the foot of the mountain1 and looks eastward to the ,nile and ,luxor4 ,the grand stone pylon which stands at the entrance of its former avenue of sphinxes1 has been half leveled by the fury of the ,persian conquerors2 and the colossal granite statue of ,remeses1 in the first court of the temple1 now lies in enormous fragments around its pedestal4 ,mere dimensions give no idea of this immense mass1 the weight of which1 when entire1 was nearly nine hundred tuns4 ,how poor and trifling appear the modern statues which we call colossal1 when measured with this1 one of whose toes is a yard in length2 and how futile the appliances of modern art1 when directed to its transportation for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles6 ,the architrave at each end of the court was upheld by four caryatides1 thirty feet in hight4 ,though much defaced1 they are still standing1 but are dwarfed by the mighty limbs of ,remeses4 ,it is difficult to account for the means by which the colossus was broken4 ,there are no marks of any instruments which could have forced such a mass asunder1 and the only plausible conjecture ,i have heard is1 that the stone must have been subjected to an intense heat and afterward to the action of water4 ,the statue1 in its sitting position1 must have been nearly sixty feet in hight1 and is the largest in the world1 though not so high as the rock-hewn monoliths of ,aboo-,simbel4 ,the ,turks and ,arabs have cut several mill-stones out of its head1 without any apparent diminution of its size4 ,the ,memnonium differs from the other temples of ,egypt in being almost faultless in its symmetry1 even when measured by the strictest rules of art4 ,i know of nothing so exquisite as the central colonnade of its grand hall--a double row of pillars1 forty-five feet in hight and twenty-three in circumference1 crowned with capitals resembling the bell-shaped blossoms of the lotus4 ,one must see them to comprehend how this simple form1 whose expression is all sweetness and tenderness in the flower1 softens and beautifies the solid majesty of the shaft4 ,in spite of their colossal proportions1 there is nothing massive or heavy in their aspect4 ,the cup of the capital curves gently outward from the abacus on which the architrave rests1 and seems the natural blossom of the columnar stem4 ,on either side of this perfect colonnade are four rows of ,osiride pillars1 of smaller size1 yet the variety of their form and proportions only enhances the harmony of the whole4 ,this is one of those enigmas in architecture which puzzle one on his first acquaintance with ,egyptian temples1 and which he is often forced blindly to accept as new laws of art1 because his feeling tells him they are true1 and his reason can not satisfactorily demonstrate that they are false4 8,we waited till the yellow rays of sunset fell on the capitals of the ,memnonium1 and they seemed1 like the lotus flowers1 to exhale a vapory light1 before we rode home4 ,all night we wandered in dreams through kingly vaults1 with starry ceilings and illuminated walls2 but on looking out of our windows at dawn1 we saw the red saddle-cloths of our horses against the dark background of the palm grove1 as they came down to the boat4 ,no second nap was possible1 after such a sight1 and many minutes had not elapsed before we were tasting the cool morning air in the delight of a race up and down the shore4 ,our old guide1 however1 was on his donkey betimes1 and called us off to our duty4 ,we passed ,goorneh1 and ascended the eastern face of the mountain to the tombs of the priests and private citizens of ,thebes4 ,for miles along the mountain side1 one sees nothing but heaps of sand and rubbish1 with here and there an ,arab hut1 built against the face of a tomb1 whose chambers serve as pigeon-houses and stalls for asses4 ,the earth is filled with fragments of mummies1 and the bandages in which they were wrapped2 for even the sanctity of death itself1 is here neither respected by the ,arabs nor the ,europeans whom they imitate4 ,the first tomb we entered almost cured us of the desire to visit another4 ,it was that called the ,assasseef1 built by a wealthy priest1 and it is the largest in ,thebes4 ,its outer court measures one hundred and three by seventy-six feet1 and its passages extend between eight and nine hundred feet into the mountain4 ,we groped our way between walls as black as ink1 through long1 labyrinthine suites of chambers1 breathing a deathlike and oppressive odor4 ,the stairways seemed to lead into the bowels of the earth1 and on either hand yawned pits of uncertain depth4 ,as we advanced1 the ghostly vaults rumbled with a sound like thunder1 and hundreds of noisome bats1 scared by the light1 dashed against the walls and dropped at our feet4 ,we endured this for a little while1 but on reaching the entrance to some darker and deeper mystery1 were so surrounded by the animals1 who struck their filthy wings against our faces1 that not for ten kings' tombs would we have gone a step further4 ,my friend was on the point of vowing never to set his foot in another tomb1 but ,i persuaded him to wait until we had seen that of ,amunoph4 ,i followed the guide1 who enticed me by flattering promises into a great many snakelike holes1 and when he was tired with crawling in the dust1 sent one of our water-carriers in advance1 who dragged me in and out by the heels4 8,the temple of ,medeenet ,abou is almost concealed by the ruins of a ,coptic village1 among which it stands1 and by which it is partially buried4 ,the outer court1 pylon1 and main hall of the smaller temple1 rise above the mounds and overlook the plain of ,thebes1 but scarcely satisfy the expectation of the traveler1 as he approaches4 ,you first enter an inclosure surrounded by a low stone wall1 and standing in advance of the pylon4 ,the rear wall1 facing the entrance1 contains two single pillars1 with bell-shaped capitals1 which rise above it and stand like guards before the doorway of the pylon4 ,here was another enigma for us4 ,who among modern architects would dare to plant two single pillars before a pyramidal gateway of solid masonry1 and then inclose them in a plain wall1 rising to half their hight8 ,yet here the symmetry of the shafts is not injured by the wall in which they stand1 nor oppressed by the ponderous bulk of the pylon4 ,on the contrary1 the light columns and spreading capitals1 like a tuft of wild roses hanging from the crevice of a rock1 brighten the rude strength of the masses of stone with a gleam of singular loveliness4 ,what would otherwise only impress you by its size1 now endears itself to you by its beauty4 ,is this the effect of chance1 or the result of a finer art than that which flourishes in our day8 ,i will not pretend to determine1 but ,i must confess that ,egypt1 in whose ruins ,i had expected to find only a sort of barbaric grandeur1 has given me a new insight into that vital beauty which is the soul of true art4 ,we devoted little time to the ruined court and sanctuaries which follow the pylon1 and to the lodges of the main temple1 standing beside them like watch-towers1 three stories in hight4 ,the majestic pylon of the great temple of ,remeses ,,iii4 rose behind them1 out of heaps of pottery and unburnt bricks1 and the colossal figure of the monarch in his car1 borne by two horses into the midst of the routed enemy1 attracted us from a distance4 ,we followed the exterior wall of the temple1 for its whole length of more than six hundred feet1 reading the sculptured history of his conquests4 ,the entire outer wall of the temple presents a series of gigantic cartoons1 cut in the blocks of sandstone1 of which it is built4 ,remeses is always the central figure1 distinguished from subjects and foes1 no less by his superior stature1 than by the royal emblems which accompany him4 ,here we see heralds sounding the trumpet in advance of his car1 while his troops pass in review before him2 there1 with a lion walking by his side1 he sets out on his work of conquest4 ,his soldiers storm a town1 and we see them climbing the wall with ladders1 while a desperate hand-to-hand conflict is going on below4 ,in another place1 he has alighted from his chariot and stands with his foot on the neck of a slaughtered king4 ,again1 his vessels attack a hostile navy on the sea4 ,one of the foreign craft becomes entangled and is capsized1 yet while his spearmen hurl their weapons among the dismayed enemy1 the sailors rescue those who are struggling in the flood4 ,after we have passed through these strange and stirring pictures1 we find the monarch reposing on his throne1 while his soldiers deposit before him the hands of the slaughtered1 and his scribes present to him lists of their numbers1 and his generals lead to him long processions of fettered captives4 ,again1 he is represented as offering a group of subject kings to ,amun1 the ,theban ,jupiter1 who says to him3 #8,go1 my cherished and chosen1 make war on foreign nations1 besiege their forts and carry off their people to live as captives4' ,on the front wall1 he holds in his grasp the hands of a dozen monarchs1 while with the other hand he raises his sword to destroy them4 ,their faces express the very extreme of grief and misery1 but he is cold and calm as fate itself4 ,we slid down the piles of sand and entered by a side-door into the grand hall of the temple4 ,here1 as at ,dendera1 a surprise awaited us4 ,we stood on the pavement of a magnificent court1 about one hundred and thirty feet square1 around which ran a colonnade of pillars1 eight feet square and forty feet high4 ,on the western side is an inner row of circular columns1 twenty-four feet in circumference1 with capitals representing the papyrus blossom4 ,the entire court1 with its walls1 pillars and doorways1 is covered with splendid sculptures and traces of paint1 and the ceiling is blue as the noonday sky1 and studded with stars4 ,against each of the square columns facing the court once stood a colossal caryatid1 upholding the architrave of another colonnade of granite shafts1 nearly all of which have been thrown from their bases and lie shivered on the pavement4 ,this court opens toward the pylon into another of similar dimensions1 but buried almost to the capitals of its columns in heaps of rubbish4 ,the character of the temple is totally different from that of every other in ,egypt4 ,its hight is small in proportion to its great extent1 and it therefore loses the airy lightness of the ,memnonium and the impressive grandeur of ,dendera4 ,its expression is that of a massive magnificence1 if ,i may use such a doubtful compound3 no single epithet suffices to describe it40 ,the visit to this temple ended our traveler's survey of the western division of ,thebes1 8two long days of such experience10 he remarks1 8as the contemplation of a lifetime can not exhaust20 and at sunset they crossed over the ,nile1 to ,,luxor ,,and ,,its ,,temple4 ,the temple of ,luxor is imbedded in the modern village1 and only the front of the pylon1 facing toward ,karnak1 and part of the grand central colonnade1 are free from its hovels and their accessories4 ,for this reason1 though of much grander proportions than the ,memnonium1 its effect is less agreeable and impressive4 8,its plan1 however10 says ,taylor1 8is easily traced2 and having been built by only two monarchs1 ,remeses the ,great and ,amunoph ,,iii41 or1 to use their more familiar titles1 ,sesostris and ,memnon1 it is less bewildering1 in a historical point of view1 to the unstudied tourist1 than most of the other temples of ,egypt4 ,the sanctuary1 which stands nearest the ,nile1 is still protected by the ancient stone quay1 though the river has made rapid advances1 and threatens finally to undermine ,luxor as it has already undermined the temples of ,antopolis and ,antino4 ,i rode into what were once the sacred chambers1 but the pillars and sculptures were covered with filth1 and the ,arabs had built in1 around and upon them1 like the clay nests of the cliff-sparrow4 ,the peristyle of majestic ,osiride pillars1 in front of the portico1 as well as the portico itself1 are buried to half their depth1 and so surrounded by hovels1 that to get an idea of their arrangement you must make the tour of a number of hen-houses and asses' stalls4 ,the pillars are now employed as drying-posts for the buffalo dung which the ,arabs use as fuel4 ,proceeding toward the entrance1 the next court1 which is tolerably free from incumbrances1 contains a colonnade of two rows of lotus-crowned columns1 twenty-eight feet in circumference4 ,they still uphold their architraves of giant blocks of sandstone1 and rising high above the miserable dwellings of the village1 are visible from every part of the plain of ,thebes4 ,the ,english vice-consul occupies a house between two of these pillars4 ,he gave us the agreeable news that the consul was endeavoring to persuade the pasha to have ,karnak cleared of its rubbish and preserved from further spoliation4 ,if ,i possessed despotic power1 7and ,i then wished it for the first time17 ,i should certainly make despotic use of it1 in tearing down some dozens of villages and setting some thousands of ,copts and ,fellahs at work in exhuming what their ancestors have mutilated and buried4 ,the world can not spare these remains4 ,tear down ,roman ruins if you will2 level ,cyclopean walls2 build bridges with the stones of ,gothic abbeys and feudal fortresses2 but lay no hand on the glory and grandeur of ,egypt6 ,we ascended the great pylon of the temple1 on the face of the towers of which the victories of ,remeses are sculptured2 but his colossi1 solid figures of granite1 which sit on either side of the entrance1 have been much defaced4 ,the lonely obelisk1 which stands a little in advance1 on the left hand1 is more perfect than its ,parisian mate4 ,from this stately entrance1 an avenue of colossal sphinxes once extended to the ,ptolemaic pylon of ,karnak1 a distance of a mile and a half4 ,the sphinxes have disappeared1 and the modern ,arab road leads over its site1 through fields of waste grass40 ,,karnak ,,and ,,its ,,ruins4 8,and now we galloped forward1 through a long procession of camels1 donkeys1 and desert ,arabs armed with spears1 toward ,karnak1 the greatest ruin in the world1 the crowning triumph of ,egyptian power and ,egyptian art4 ,except a broken stone here and there protruding through the soil1 the plain is as desolate as if it had never been conscious of a human dwelling2 and only on reaching the vicinity of the mud hamlet of ,karnak1 can the traveler realize that he is in ,thebes4 ,here the camel-path drops into a broad excavated avenue1 lined with fragments of sphinxes and shaded by starveling acacias4 ,as you advance1 the sphinxes are better preserved and remain seated on their pedestals1 but they have all been decapitated4 ,though of colossal proportions1 they are seated so close to each other1 that it must have required nearly two thousand to form the double row to ,luxor4 ,the avenue finally reaches a single pylon1 of majestic proportions1 built by one of the ,ptolemies1 and covered with profuse hieroglyphics4 ,passing through this1 the sphinxes lead you to another pylon1 followed by a pillared court and a temple built by the later ,remesides4 ,this1 ,i thought1 while my friend was measuring the girth of the pillars1 is a good beginning for ,karnak1 but it is certainly much less than ,i expect4 #8,tl min hennee6' 7come this way67 called the guide1 as if reading my mind1 and led me up the heaps of rubbish to the roof and pointed to the north4 ,ah1 there was ,karnak6 ,had ,i been blind up to this time1 or had the earth suddenly heaved out of her breast the remains of the glorious temple8 ,from all parts of the plain of ,thebes ,i had seen it in the distance--a huge propylon1 a shattered portico1 and an obelisk1 rising above the palms4 ,whence this wilderness of ruins1 spreading so far as to seem a city rather than a temple2 pylon after pylon1 tumbling into enormous cubes of stone1 long colonnades1 supporting fragments of ,titanic roofs1 obelisks of red granite1 and endless walls and avenues1 branching out to isolated portals8 ,yet they stood as silently amid the accumulated rubbish of nearly four thousand years1 and the sunshine threw its yellow luster as serenely over the despoiled sanctuaries1 as if it had never been otherwise since the world began4 ,figures are of no use1 in describing a place like this1 but since ,i must use them1 ,i may say that the length of the ruins before us1 from west to east1 was twelve hundred feet1 and that the total circumference of ,karnak1 including its numerous pyl1 or gateways1 is a mile and a half4 8,we mounted and rode with fast-beating hearts to the western or main entrance1 facing the ,nile4 ,the two towers of the propylon 7pyramidal masses of solid stone7 are three hundred and twenty-nine feet in length1 and the one which is least ruined1 is nearly one hundred feet in hight4 ,on each side of the sculptured portal connecting them1 is a tablet left by the ,french army1 recording the geographical position of the principal ,egyptian temples4 ,we passed through1 and entered an open court1 more than three hundred feet square1 with a corridor of immense pillars on each side1 connecting it with the towers of a second pylon1 nearly as gigantic as the first4 ,a colonnade of lofty shafts1 leading through the center of the court1 once united the two entrances1 but they have all been hurled down1 and lay as they fell1 in long lines of disjointed blocks1 except one1 which holds its solitary lotus-bell against the sky4 ,two mutilated colossi of red granite still guard the doorway1 whose lintel-stones are forty feet in length4 ,climbing over the huge fragments which have fallen from above and almost blocked up the passage1 we looked down into the grand hall of the temple4 ,i knew the dimensions of this hall1 beforehand2 ,i knew the number and size of the pillars1 but ,i was no more prepared for the reality than those will be1 who may read this account of it and afterward visit ,karnak for themselves4 ,it is the great good luck of travel that many things must be seen to be known4 ,nothing could have compensated for the loss of that overwhelming confusion of awe1 astonishment1 and delight1 which came upon me like a flood4 ,i looked down an avenue of twelve pillars1 six on each side1 each of which was thirty-six feet in circumference and nearly eighty feet in hight4 ,crushing as were these ponderous masses of sculptured stone1 the spreading bell of the lotus-blossoms which crowned them1 clothed them with an atmosphere of lightness and grace4 ,in front1 over the top of another pile of colossal blocks1 two obelisks rose sharp and clear1 with every emblem legible on their polished sides4 ,on each side of the main aisle are seven other rows of columns1 one hundred and twenty-two in all2 each of which is about fifty feet high and twenty-seven in circumference4 ,they have the ,osiride form1 without capitals1 and do not range with the central shafts4 ,in the efforts of the conquerors to overthrow them1 two have been hurled from their places and thrown against the neighboring ones1 where they still lean1 as if weary with holding up the roof of massive sandstone4 ,i walked alone through this hall1 trying to bear the weight of its unutterable majesty and beauty4 ,that ,i had been so oppressed by ,dendera1 seemed a weakness which ,i was resolved to conquer1 and ,i finally succeeded in looking on ,karnak with a calmness more commensurate with its sublime repose2 but not by daylight4 ,my next visit was at night1 at the time of the full moon4 ,there was a wan haze in the air1 and a pale halo around the moon1 on each side of which appeared two faint mock-moons4 ,it was a ghostly light1 and the fresh north wind1 coming up the ,nile1 rustled solemnly in the palm-trees4 ,we trotted silently to ,karnak1 and leaped our horses over the fragments until we reached the foot of the first obelisk4 ,here we dismounted and entered the grand hall of pillars4 ,there was no sound in all the temple1 and the guide1 who seemed to comprehend my wish1 moved behind me as softly as a shadow1 and spoke not a word4 ,it needs this illumination to comprehend ,karnak4 ,the unsightly rubbish has disappeared3 the rents in the roof are atoned for by the moonlight they admit2 the fragments shivered from the lips of the mighty capitals are only the crumpled edges of the flower2 a maze of shadows hides the desolation of the courts1 but every pillar and obelisk1 pylon and propylon is glorified by the moonlight4 ,the soul of ,karnak is soothed and tranquillized4 ,its halls look upon you no longer with an aspect of pain and humiliation4 ,every stone seems to say3 #8,i am not fallen1 for ,i have defied the ages4 ,i am a part of that grandeur which has never seen its peer1 and ,i shall endure forever1 for the world has need of me4' ,i climbed to the roof1 and sat looking down into the hushed and awful colonnades1 till ,i was thoroughly penetrated with their august and sublime expression4 ,i should probably have remained all night1 an amateur colossus1 with my hands on my knees1 had not the silence been disturbed by two arrivals of romantic tourists1 an ,englishman and two ,frenchmen4 ,we exchanged salutations1 and ,i mounted my restless mare again1 touched her side with the stirrup1 and sped back to ,luxor4 ,the guide galloped beside me1 occasionally hurling his spear into the air and catching it as it fell1 delighted with my readiness to indulge his desert whims4 ,i found the captain and sailors all ready and my friend smoking his pipe on deck4 ,in half an hour we had left ,thebes40 ,such is a faint view of these ruins of forty centuries1 the remains of that splendid city1 ,thebes1 in comparison with which ,new ,york is but an infant to the mighty giant6 8,yes1 proud upstart of this nineteenth century10 says ,thompson1 8the so-called ,empire city1 commercial emporium of the west1 great metropolis of the new world1 if thy rivers should sweep over and bury thee1 not all the stone of the ,croton reservoir1 and the city hall1 and the ,astor house1 and of a hundred churches forsooth1 would make one pile like ,karnak2 nor could any of these furnish a single stone for the lintels of its gates4 ,yet ,karnak1 which began to be in that other nineteenth century before ,christ1 is not yet a ruin6 ,its gateways stand2 its grand hall stands1 its columns nearly all unbroken1 and not one spire of grass1 or tuft of moss1 or leaf of ivy1 hides its speaking sculptures4 ,only the sand has covered them2 and when this is removed1 they are as fresh as yesterday40 8,such is the skeleton of ,thebes1 as we can reconstruct it of such materials and from such localities as yet mark its site4 ,but what was ,thebes when1 resting upon the ,lybian mountains on the west and the ,arabian on the east1 with the ,nile flowing through its center1 it filled a circuit of twenty-five miles in a plain of twice that area1 teeming with fertility6 ,what was ,thebes when she could pour forth twenty thousand chariots of war1 and when the grand triumphal procession of priests1 and officers of state1 and soldiers1 and captives1 swept through these colossal avenues to grace the conqueror's return6 ,what was ,thebes when1 by the way of the ,red sea1 ,arabia and the ,indies poured all their commerce into her lap1 and the ,nile brought her the spoils of ,ethiopia and of the great sea6 ,what was ,thebes when she possessed wealth1 and mechanic arts1 and physical force1 to rear such monuments even in the midst of war1 and sometimes more than one in the reign of a single monarch6 ,what was ,thebes1 with all the arts and inventions of civilized life that are sculptured upon the tombs of her kings to mark the progress of their day2 from building arches and bridges1 to glass-blowing and porcelain manufactures1 to the making of umbrellas1 fans1 chairs1 and divans1 fine linens1 and all the appurtenances of a modern drawing-room6 ,what was ,thebes when all merchants resorted thither from ,persia1 from ,ethiopia1 from ,lybia1 and the ,levant6 ,what was ,thebes when the artists and scholars of infant ,greece and ,rome went thither to school6 ,was not ,egypt the mother of nations8 ,where is the art of ,greece or ,rome that was not tutored in ,egypt2 that has not simply graced ,egyptian forms--nor always this8 ,where is the philosophy of ,greece or ,rome that was not borrowed from ,egypt8 ,even the divine ,plato1 who only waited for the true ,logos1 learned at ,egypt's shrine4 ,egypt gave birth to art1 gave birth to thought1 before ,greece and ,rome were born4 ,she was the grand repository of human power2 the originator of all great forms of human development2 the originator1 the inventor1 the great prototype of the world's history1 here laid up in her hieroglyphic archives4 ,in all material things1 yes1 and in all great intellectual forms1 in poetry1 in art1 in philosophy1 in science1 and in the religion of nature1 this nineteenth century is but the recipient of the mighty past4 ,whatever she has of these1 she but inherits through ,rome and ,greece from their old mother ,egypt4 ,what she has better than these1 she has by gift divine1 through that ,christianity which purifies1 enfranchises1 and ennobles man1 reforms society1 and makes free the state4 ,if she hold fast by this1 she will become resplendent with a glory that ,egypt never knew2 but if she slight this1 and sell her birthright for luxury and power1 the meanest grave at ,thebes would suffice to bury this nineteenth century with its boasted inventions48 ,,thebes1 ,,as ,,seen ,,in ,,history4 ,all the mere ruins of ,thebes1 however1 immense and magnificent as they are1 fail to give us true views of her greatness1 till we go back to her origin1 and trace up her history2 and this is so graphically done by ,thompson1 in his 8,egypt1 ,past and ,present10 that we quote from it1 what he so appropriately calls 8,dissolving ,views3 ,panorama of ,karnak40 8,in order10 he says1 8to a complete view of ,thebes1 past and present1 one should reproduce its sculptured story1 and make it witness for itself4 ,the temple of ,karnak1 in its several parts1 marks the rise1 the growth1 the decline1 and the fall of ,egypt4 ,this temple had a growth of twenty-five hundred years1 from a small sanctuary to #8a city of temples4' ,every principal era of the national history is represented in this stupendous pile2 and as we go leisurely around it1 and translate into our own language1 or vivify into present actual scenes1 the processions1 the battles1 the ceremonies1 the religious offerings1 and the state displays1 sculptured on its walls and columns1 and for the most part still legible1 we behold all ,egypt move before us as in a panorama1 whose scenes and actors are instinct with life4 ,this animated reproduction of the sculptures1 which ,i attempted when on the ground1 ,i would hope to convey to the reader by following in course the histories here written on the stone4 8,i stood in ,karnak1 under the light of the full moon4 ,it was an hour for silence1 and we enjoined this upon each other1 and gave ourselves to solitary musing4 ,the cuckoo1 that had wooed us with his note as we reposed under the great pillars in the sultry noon1 had gone to nestle with his mate2 and the myriad birds that by day had fluttered along the corridors1 had hid themselves in the crevices of the capitals4 ,even the owl that hooted as we entered1 was still4 ,only the moon was there1 threading the avenues with silver footsteps1 and holding her clear light that we might read the sculptured chronicles of kings4 ,we sat down in the center of the grand avenue4 ,twelve majestic pillars1 on either hand1 towered along its length1 and seemed1 as of old1 to support an arch of azure studded with stars4 ,the dismantled towers of the grand entrance1 whose bases stand like pyramids truncated to sustain the firmament1 grew more gigantic in the shadow of the columns1 while their once massive gates1 uncovered by the hand of time1 seemed only to have lifted up their heads to let the ,king of ,glory in4 ,in the avenue that crossed beside our seat1 7one of twelve1 having each ten columns of huge dimensions17 at either extremity1 a column had fallen crosswise against its neighbor1 carrying with it its fragment of the stone roof1 and there it hung almost ethereal in the still moonlight1 a symbol of the struggle between man and time4 ,under the corridors1 darkness brooded over the fragments of sculptured stone2 but beyond the other portal1 the yet perfect obelisk stood in pensive majesty among its fallen mates1 and from its clear1 hard face projected in the moonbeams the symbols of the power that built these halls1 and of the worship that sustained them4 ,the spell of ,egypt was complete4 ,for two months ,i had lived under its deepening power4 ,at length1 in the sepulchers of its kings1 and on the walls and pillars of its temples1 ,i had seen the ,egypt of forty centuries revived as in a panorama fresh from the artist's pencil1 and had lived in the ,egypt that the ,nile then watered1 as in the so-called ,egypt that it waters now4 ,and here ,i had come to bid it farewell1 to take a last look at its grave2 and yet the witching moonlight made it live again4 ,the breath of the south fanning the columns that in their fourth decade of centuries wear no ivied wreath of age1 warmed their still grandeur into life1 and with ,memnon's charm they sang to the moon the great epic of the past4 ,as ,i listened1 all art1 all learning1 all religion1 all poetry1 all history1 all empire1 and all time1 swept through my wondering soul4 ,leaving my companions1 ,i wandered over the fragments of columns and sphinxes and colossi1 till1 gaining a mound that half buries the front area of the temple1 ,i clambered up the steps worn by age in its stupendous wall1 and standing in their foremost tower1 looked back on ,karnak4 ,but no change of place1 nor sight of fallen columns and decaying walls1 could break the spell4 ,i had walked over the grave of ,egypt1 ,i had stumbled against the fragments of its sepulcher1 yet ,egypt stood before me4 8,first came the second son of ,ham1 with a long retinue of camels and of servants1 lured southward by the fertile valley of the ,nile1 till1 where the mountains widen their embrace around the well-watered plain1 he pitches his tent1 and founds an infant city4 ,generations pass1 and the son who in this plain inherits the patriarchal wealth and power1 greedy of the patrimony of his brethren to the north1 wages a fratricidal war1 and seizing upon all ,mizr or #8the land of ,ham1' effaces from it the name of his ancestors1 and1 investing it with his own1 gives ,egypt 7,copt or ,gurt7 a name and a power in the newly divided earth4 ,other generations pass1 and the first king of ,egypt comes with barbaric pomp1 from the capital he has founded at the north1 to visit his native ,theba1 the real #8head' or capital1 and here offers to its divinity the rude shrine whose traces linger behind yonder obelisk4 ,ages roll on4 ,the swelling ,nile pours out increasing fatness on the land4 ,the earth brings forth by handfuls4 ,fat-fleshed1 well-favored cattle come up out of the river and feed in the meadow4 ,there is great plenteousness for man and beast4 ,but with all the plenty there is no waste4 ,in every city huge granaries are built1 and in these the grain is piled1 as the sand of the sea1 without measure4 ,there is a strange wisdom near the throne of ,pharaoh4 ,again1 the east wind blows1 and the scorching sands of the ,arabian desert are heaped upon the fertile ,nile4 ,in the mountains of ,ethiopia there is no rain4 ,the river shrinks away4 ,the plain of ,thebes is dry4 ,the people cry for bread1 but the keys of the great storehouses are in the hand of the ruler of the land4 ,they bring to him their money2 they bring to him their cattle2 they sell to him their land3 they sell to him their very selves for bread4 ,again1 the east wind ceases2 the rains fall1 the river rises2 the desert retreats2 the land revives4 ,and now the great ,pharaoh1 whom the counsel of a captive ,jew has made possessor of all the treasure and all the land of ,egypt1 moved by a religious sentiment but half enlightened1 would make a votive offering to his god4 ,a fleet of barges covers the bosom of the ,nile1 which with waving banners and gorgeous emblems and increasing music1 have borne the monarch from his northern to his southern capital4 ,with solemn pomp the procession of priests and soldiers and chief officers of state1 with the uplifted monarch in the midst1 files from the river to the rude sanctuary of ,menes1 which the skill of masons and of sculptors has already surrounded with columns of rich red granite1 and chambers of polished stone1 and with colossal statues of the king--the offering he brings to the divinity1 whom he adores as the preserver of the land2 and while the monarch bows before the god1 the sound of trumpets1 and the fragrance of incense1 and the chanting of the priests1 announce to the multitude that ,amun accepts the gift1 and will be henceforth worshiped in their temple4 ,osirtasen the ,great passes away4 8,the ages roll4 ,a native ,theban usurps the throne of the northern ,pharaohs1 and succeeds to the power they had consolidated through the counsel of the ,hebrew1 vouchsafed to them through fourscore years4 ,but ,joseph is dead2 embalmed and coffined in a royal sarcophagus2 and ,amosis the usurper knows him not4 ,oppression fills the land1 and falls most heavily upon the seed of ,joseph4 ,another ,theban ,pharaoh mounts the throne1 and to preserve the power that the wisdom of a ,hebrew gave1 determines to cut off the issue of the ,hebrews from the land4 ,yet in his own house1 even as a son1 in all the learning of his schools1 amid all the splendors of his court1 is nurtured a young ,hebrew who yet shall desolate the land that ,joseph blessed4 ,but just now this rising terror has fled into the desert1 and the first ,thothmes comes in peaceful pomp to offer to the divinity of ,thebes the gigantic obelisks that bear his name4 ,he plants them yonder in the area before the sanctuary of ,osirtasen4 ,the third ,thothmes is on the throne4 ,there is groaning throughout the land of ,egypt2 there is deep sorrow in the land of ,goshen4 ,the monarch would make his name immortal by the temples1 the palaces1 and the monuments he rears in every city1 from the great sea to the cataracts of ,nubia4 ,he adorns his native capital upon its western bank with a new sanctuary added to the temple of his father1 and with another temple inclosed with brick1 that bear in hieroglyphics his own initials2 and here at ,karnak1 he builds behind the sanctuary1 a thousand feet from where ,i stand1 the grand edifice of fifty columns that surpasses all the royal architecture yet seen in ,thebes4 ,in its adytum he enshrines a colossal figure of the deified hawk that he worships4 ,he is the great architect of ,egypt1 and he will fill the land with the memorials of his reign4 ,heliopolis and ,noph1 ,zoan and ,sin1 attest his grandeur4 ,but the voice of another ,god now thunders in his ear4 ,the exiled ,hebrew has returned4 ,the land is filled with plagues1 frogs1 lice1 flies1 blood1 murrain1 hail1 locusts1 darkness1 death4 ,the king has gone from ,thebes to ,zoan1 his most northern seat1 where these judgments overtake him4 ,the land of ,goshen1 that had sweltered under his exactions1 breathes more freely1 and he lets the people go4 ,but gathering his chariots of war in mad haste1 he pursues them1 and hems them in between the mountains and the sea4 ,eager for his prey1 he plunges into the channel ,god has made for them1 and the proud architect of ,egypt returns not1 even to occupy the gorgeous tomb he had prepared for himself at ,thebes4 8,the ages roll on1 and a mighty conqueror sits on the throne of ,egypt4 ,with his myriad chariots he sweeps ,ethiopia on the south1 and ,canaan on the north1 and gathering all the forces of the ,nile1 he shakes ,lebanon with his tread1 and scatters the hosts of ,syria on the plains of the ,euphrates4 ,and now there is an unwonted stir in ,thebes4 ,from all ,egypt the priests and the great men are gathered to greet the conqueror's return4 ,in the distance1 amid clouds of infantry1 is seen the chariot of the king4 ,bound to his chariot wheels are the captive princes he has taken in his wars4 ,behind him are his son1 and the royal scribe who bears the record of his victories4 ,a long line of captives1 bound about the necks with cords1 follow in his train4 ,the cortege moves from temple to temple through the city1 till it reaches that of ,karnak4 ,here1 alighting from his chariot1 the monarch enters the temple of ,amunre1 to present his captives and booty to the protecting deity of ,thebes2 then laying his captives on the block1 with a ponderous club he dashes out their brains as a sacrifice to the god1 and amid the acclamations of the people1 is borne like a god to his own palace4 ,and now the conqueror1 reposing on his laurels1 gives himself to the work of enriching the capital with new and more splendid edifices for the honor of its divinities1 and the commemoration of his reign4 ,from all ,egypt are summoned the masons and sculptors1 the painters and artificers and #8cunning workmen2' and the army that had stormed the hights of ,lebanon now levies from the mountains of the ,arabian desert their tribute of limestone and sandstone and granite of various hues1 of syenite and porphyry and alabaster1 to construct these temples1 and to adorn these avenues4 ,the grand hall of ,karnak rises in its majestic proportions1 a fit approach to the sanctuary of ,amun4 ,its gates lift up their heads4 ,its tenfold avenues rear their massive1 lofty1 graceful pillars--each a single stone hewn into a rounded1 swelling shaft1 with a wreathed or flowered capital--and with their roof of solid stone1 compose the portico that there in the moonlight1 restored to its original perfection1 stands confessed the wonder of the world4 ,the chisel sculptures on its walls and columns the battle scenes of the king and his offerings to the god1 and the name of ,osirei passes into history4 ,his son succeeds to his victories and to his glory4 ,for1 on the far off plains of ,asia1 the great ,sesostris breaks the power of the ,assyrian hosts1 and leads their captive chiefs in chains4 ,babylon bows to ,egypt4 ,there is another day of exultation in the capital2 but the pomp of the returning ,osirei pales before the national ovation to his son4 ,the priests1 in their sacred vestments1 go forth to meet him1 bearing aloft the figures of his illustrious ancestors1 from ,menes to ,osirei4 ,the king1 alighting from his chariot1 mounts the triumphal car prepared for his reception1 whose fiery steeds are led by liveried grooms4 ,his fan-bearers wave the flabella over his head1 and the priests and the chief men of the nation kneel in homage at his throne4 ,and now the grand procession forms to enter the city4 ,trumpeters herald its approach1 and bands of music1 with choristers1 form the van4 ,in long line the priests and officers of state precede the monarch1 bearing scepters1 arms1 and other insignia1 and the cushioned steps of the throne4 ,the statues of his ancestors head the royal column1 and after these is borne a statue of the god upon men's shoulders under a gilded canopy4 ,the sacred bull1 adorned with garlands1 is led by members of the sacerdotal order4 ,the monarch is attended by his scribes1 who exhibit proudly the scroll of his achievements4 ,behind his car are dragged the captives1 their chained hands uplifted for mercy1 and their cries and lamentations mingling wildly with the bursts of music and the shouts of the multitude4 ,these are followed by the spoils of war--oxen1 chariots1 horses1 and sacks of gold2 and beyond1 a corps of infantry in close array1 flanked by numerous chariots1 bring up the rear4 ,the vast throng sweep from temple to temple1 and rend the air with acclamations4 ,at length the divinity1 that had been taken from its shrine to welcome the victor1 is brought before its own adytum4 ,here the high-priest offers incense to the monarch1 who1 in turn1 alights from his throne and burns incense to the god4 ,and now the horrid sacrifice of war is made to the patron deity4 ,the wretched captives are beaten in the presence of the king2 their right hands are cut off1 and being counted by the scribes1 are retained as trophies3 their persons are horribly mutilated2 their heads are severed by the sword or mangled by the mace1 and the gorgeous1 barbarous scene is closed4 8,there is peace in ,egypt2 and the king builds1 on yonder western bank1 the majestic and beautiful ,memnonium1 covers its walls with the story of his victories1 and sets before its gate the stupendous statue of himself1 the symbol of the grandeur and the power of ,egypt1 enthroned in a sublime and an immortal repose4 ,he builds the vast area of ,luxor1 with its massive gates and towers1 and before these plants colossal statues of himself and lofty obelisks1 and lines with huge symbolic sculptures the avenue to ,karnak4 ,here he lays up before the shrine of ,amun1 as depicted on the walls1 a gorgeous barge overlaid with gold without1 and with silver within1 a tribute from the spoils of war4 ,he enriches the walls of the grand hall by adding to the sculptured story of his father's reign the battle scenes of his own1 and before the portico constructs this area of a hundred thousand square feet1 surrounded with its covered corridor1 and adorned with sphinxes and a central avenue of tufted columns1 and faced with these stupendous towers4 ,he throws around the whole a massive wall1 and ,karnak stands complete in the glory of the great ,remeses4 ,then follows the resplendent dynasty of all the ,osirei and the ,remeses1 and ,egypt culminates to its meridian splendor4 ,her schools rise with her temples1 and the epic bard of ,scio sings the #8hundred gates of ,thebes1' while the priests and the philosophers of young ,greece resort to the mother of mythology and of letters1 and ,grecian sculptors come to study the forms and creations of the mother of art4 ,the king of ,israel1 whose fame for wisdom and for wealth is known in all the earth1 wooes the daughter of the king of ,egypt1 and she whom #8the sun had looked upon' on the confines of ,ethiopia1 shines in the golden palace at ,jerusalem1 #8beautiful as ,tirzeh1 and comely as the tents of ,kedar4' 8,but again the hosts of ,egypt are marshaled for battle2 again they sweep the borders of the north2 again is heard the shout of victory2 again ,thebes is astir for the conqueror's return4 ,now ,shishak brings to the temple of ,amun the treasures of the house of ,jehovah at ,jerusalem2 the golden shields of ,solomon1 and the treasures of the palace he had built4 ,twelve hundred chariots1 and sixty thousand horsemen1 and footmen without number1 swell the train of the victorious king4 ,nailing the heads of his wretched captives to the block of the executioner1 he whets his sword to sacrifice them to the god2 and the blood of ,israel once more cries to ,god from the land of ,egypt4 ,from afar the voice of the prophet speaks the answer of ,jehovah to that cry3 #8,behold1 ,i am against ,pharaoh king of ,egypt1 and will break his arms2 and ,i will cause the sword to fall out of his hand4 ,howl ye2 woe1 woe the day6 ,for the day is near1 even the day of the ,lord is near1 a cloudy day4 ,the sword shall come upon ,egypt2 and the pride of her power shall come down4' ,again a mighty host1 sweeping from the north1 hovers upon the plain of ,thebes4 ,the idols are moved in their temples1 the cry of the people is in the streets4 ,but it is not now the return of her victorious king that stirs the royal city4 ,the great ram from the plains of ,persia1 pushing westward and southward1 gores ,egypt with his horns1 overthrows her temples and her statues1 treads ,memnon and ,remeses in the dust1 drinks up the river and devours the valley4 ,there is sorrow and groaning in the land of ,egypt for a hundred years1 when lo6 again the dust of mighty hosts sweeps from the north4 ,the he-goat from the west1 moved with choler at the ram1 that drinks up the great rivers1 rushes upon him in the fury of his power1 and casts him down and stamps upon him4 ,the ,persian conqueror of ,thebes retires before the ,macedonian conqueror of ,persia4 ,greece1 though a conqueror1 pays homage to ,egypt as her mistress4 ,new cities are built2 temples and monuments are restored4 ,upon the plain of ,thebes1 new works of art unite the sculptured records of the ,ptolemies with the broken tablets of the ,pharaohs4 ,karnak itself opens new portals1 and revives its ancient splendor4 ,again the schools of ,egypt are visited from ,greece4 ,and where ,homer drank his inspiration1 and ,herodotus pored over the hieroglyphics1 and the papyrus records1 and the dim traditions of the then old world1 ,plato comes to ponder the great mysteries of the soul's existence1 and its relations to the infinite4 8,but the doom of ,egypt is not yet fulfilled4 ,her resurrection can not now come4 ,the gigantic horn that sweeps the stars1 trails the young ,egypt of ,alexander in the dust4 ,again she lifts her head and wooes her conqueror to repose awhile in the lap of luxury4 ,beauty usurps the dominion of power2 and the golden barge of ,cleopatra sweeps up the ,nile with silken sails perfumed with sweetest odors1 or moves with silver oars attuned to the soft melody of lutes4 ,rome adds her tamer art to the great majesty of ,egypt1 and restores yet further what the ,persian had destroyed4 ,yet ,egypt may not rise4 ,a new power enters to possess the land4 ,under the ,roman name1 the religion that had visited the land with ,abraham1 with ,joseph1 and with ,moses1 comes to enshrine itself in these old temples1 emptied of their gods and broken in their forms4 ,the voice of prayer and praise to the ,god of ,israel is heard in the temple built by their oppressor1 and the name of the infant whom ,egypt sheltered1 is spoken with reverence and adoration in all her holy places4 ,yonder1 in the furthest temple of this mighty pile1 a ,christian church assembles2 there1 in the court of ,luxor1 stands another ,christian altar1 while1 across the river1 the colonnade of ,medeenet ,abou encompasses the lesser columns of a ,christian temple built within its folds4 ,but the spirit of the old temple lingers in its form1 and with it embraces the new4 ,again the liveried priests march through the corridors1 bearing mysterious symbols1 and chanting unknown strains4 ,again the pomp of state is blended with the pomp of worship1 and the pictured saint but plasters over the sculptured deity4 ,the religion and the empire of ,rome are alike effete1 and can give no life to ,egypt4 ,and now barbaric hordes from the east pour in upon the land1 and sweep these both away4 ,the sword of the ,moslem1 hacking the plastered walls1 writes there in blood the forgotten truth1 there is one ,god1 though it add thereto the stupendous lie1 that makes the other cardinal of his religion4 ,the wild man of the desert pitches his tent upon the plain where ,mizraim halted centuries before1 or hides himself under the cover of broken tombs and temples4 ,he hardly moves from his retreat1 when the imperious ,turk1 his brother ,moslem1 proclaims himself master of ,egypt and ,arabia by the will of ,god4 ,and now here sits the ,arab on this luxurious plain1 among these crumbling giants of the past1 startled at his own shadow1 without the spirit to fight either for himself against his tyrant1 or for his country in that tyrant's service4 ,here he sits1 where ,osirei and ,remeses and ,shishak have chronicled their names and deeds beside their own gigantic portraits4 ,here he sits1 where moved in royal state the conqueror of ,ethiopia1 of ,judah1 of ,syria1 and of ,babylon4 ,here he sits1 where the fierce ,cambyses dealt his retribution2 where ,alexander moved with a pomp that none but he could boast2 where ,csar followed in the train of mighty men--yet owned the greater might of woman4 ,here he sits--#8,il faut descendre1' said my guide1 who had tortured his ,arabic gutturals into a rude ,french2 #8il faut descendre1' 7it is necessary to go down47 ,il faut descendre1 repeated ,i1 as ,i looked over upon the tombs of the kings1 all drear and ghostly in the moonlight2 and looked where ,memnon stood1 and all was desolate2 and looked toward ,luxor1 where the moonlight stole faintly through its broken towers2 and turned and looked at ,karnak1 as the meridian moon now shone upon heaps of rubbish1 and broken columns1 and crumbling walls4 ,il faut descendre1 ,,it ,,must ,,go ,,down2 and1 turning to descend1 ,i stumbled over an ,arab hovel1 plastered upon the very top of the tower of ,sesostris1 and heard the yelping of the dogs from the huts that bury the side temple of the conqueror of ,babylon4 ,the spell was broken2 and ,egypt was a dream4 ,riding back1 amid barking dogs and shivering1 shrinking ,arabs1 over the dusty plain to ,luxor1 ,i lay down upon the divan where1 two months before1 ,i had dreamed of ,egypt1 when1 entering the ,nile1 ,i felt her resistless spell4 ,but no dream of ,egypt came4 ,egypt herself had vanished4 ,as a dream when one awaketh1 so1 ,o ,lord1 when thou awakedst1 thou didst despise her image40 ,,other ,,ruins ,,in ,,egypt1 ,c4 ,there are in ,egypt and the valley of the ,nile1 numerous other ruins1 relics and monuments of the mighty past1 on which it would be most interesting and instructive to dwell1 were they not overshadowed by the wonderful structures we have been considering4 ,some of these1 however1 ought not to be passed without notice4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,dendera4 ,the temple of ,dendera 7formerly ,tentyra7 is on the western bank of the ,nile1 nearly opposite ,kenneh4 ,passing from the latter place1 the path of the traveler leads through a palm grove1 where the lofty shafts of the date and the vaulted foliage of the doum-palm1 blend in the most picturesque groupage1 and in contrast with the lace-like texture of the flowering mimosa1 and the cloudy boughs of a kind of gray cypress4 ,crossing the meadows to ,dendera1 leagues of rank grass roll away toward the desert in shining billows1 while the wind wafts the rich and mingled odors of the various flowers on the traveler's course4 ,in the midst of this beautiful plain1 rise the earthy mounds of ,dendera2 and the portico of the temple1 almost buried beneath them1 stands like a beacon1 marking the boundary of the desert4 8,we galloped our animals along the dike10 says a late traveler1 8and dismounted at a small pylon1 which stands two or three hundred paces in front of the temple4 ,the huge jambs of sandstone1 covered with sharply cut hieroglyphics and figures of the ,egyptian gods1 and surmounted by a single block1 bearing the mysterious winged globe and serpent1 detained us but a moment1 and we hurried down what was once the dromos of the temple1 now represented by a double wall of unburnt bricks4 ,the portico1 more than a hundred feet in length1 and supported by six columns1 united by screens of masonry1 no stone of which1 or of the columns themselves1 is unsculptured1 is massive and imposing1 but struck me as being too depressed to produce a very grand effect4 ,what was my astonishment1 on arriving at the entrance1 to find that ,i had approached the temple on a level with half its hight1 and that the pavement of the portico was as far below as the scrolls of its cornice were above me4 ,the six columns ,i had seen1 covered three other rows1 of six each1 all adorned with the most elaborate sculpture and exhibiting traces of the brilliant coloring which they once possessed4 ,the entire temple1 which is in an excellent state of preservation1 except where the hand of the ,coptic ,christian has defaced its sculptures1 was cleaned out by order of ,mohammed ,ali1 and as all its chambers1 as well as the roof of enormous sandstone blocks1 are entire1 it is considered one of the most complete relics of ,egyptian art4 ,i find my pen at fault1 when ,i attempt to describe the impression produced by the splendid portico4 ,the twenty-four columns1 each of which is sixty feet in hight1 and eight feet in diameter1 crowded upon a surface of one hundred feet by seventy1 are oppressive in their grandeur4 ,the dim light1 admitted through the half closed front1 which faces the north1 spreads a mysterious gloom around these mighty shafts1 crowned with the fourfold visage of ,athor1 still rebuking the impious hands that have marred her solemn beauty4 ,on the walls1 between columns of hieroglyphics1 and the cartouches of the ,csars and the ,ptolemies1 appear the principal ,egyptian deities1 the rigid ,osiris1 the stately ,isis and the hawk-headed ,orus4 ,around the bases of the columns spring the leaves of the sacred lotus1 and the dark-blue ceiling is spangled with stars1 between the wings of the divine emblem4 ,the sculptures are all in raised relief1 and there is no stone in the temple without them4 ,i can not explain to myself the unusual emotion ,i felt while contemplating this wonderful combination of a simple and sublime architectural style with the utmost elaboration of ornament4 ,my blood pulsed fast and warm on my first view of the ,roman forum1 but in ,dendera ,i was so saddened and oppressed1 that ,i scarcely dared speak for fear of betraying an unmanly weakness4 ,the portico opens into a hall1 supported by six beautiful columns1 of smaller proportions1 and lighted by a square aperture in the solid roof4 ,on either side are chambers connected with dim and lofty passages1 and beyond is the sanctuary and various other apartments1 which receive no light from without4 ,we examined their sculptures by the aid of torches1 and our ,arab attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks1 which cast a strong red light on the walls4 ,the temple is devoted to ,athor1 the ,egyptian ,venus1 and her image is everywhere seen1 receiving the homage of her worshipers4 ,even the dark staircase1 leading to the roof1 up which we climbed over heaps of sand and rubbish1 is decorated throughout with processions of symbolical figures4 ,the drawing has little of that grotesque stiffness which ,i expected to find in ,egyptian sculptures1 and the execution is so admirable in its gradations of light and shade1 as to resemble1 at a little distance1 a monochromatic painting4 ,the antiquarians view these remains with little interest1 as they date from the comparatively recent era of the ,ptolemies1 at which time sculpture and architecture were on the decline4 ,we1 who had seen nothing else of the kind1 were charmed with the grace and elegance of this sumptuous mode of decoration4 ,part of the temple was built by ,cleopatra1 whose portrait1 with that of her son ,csarion1 may still be seen on the exterior wall4 ,the face of the colossal figure has been nearly destroyed1 but there is a smaller one1 whose soft1 voluptuous outline is still sufficient evidence of the justness of her renown4 ,the profile is exquisitely beautiful4 ,the forehead and nose approach the ,greek standard1 but the mouth is more roundly and delicately curved1 and the chin and cheek are fuller4 ,were such an outline made plastic1 were the blank face colored with a pale olive hue1 through which should blush a faint1 rosy tinge1 lighted with bold black eyes and irradiated with the lightning of a passionate nature1 it would even now #8move the mighty hearts of captains and of kings4' ,besides the temple1 there are also the remains of a chapel of ,isis1 with a pylon1 erected by ,augustus ,csar1 and a small temple1 nearly whelmed in the sand1 supposed to be one of the mammeisi1 or lying-in houses of the goddess ,athor1 who was honored in this form1 on account of having given birth to the third member of the divine triad40 ,,the ,,temples ,,of ,,hermontis ,,and ,,of ,,esneh4 ,passing up the ,nile1 on the same side of it1 and nearly opposite ,luxor and ,karnak1 is the village of ,erment1 the ancient ,hermontis1 which is still graced with a small temple to the goddess ,reto4 8,the group of pillars in the outer court10 says ,taylor1 8charmed us by the richness and variety of their designs4 ,no two capitals are of similar pattern1 while in their combinations of the papyrus1 the lotus and the palm-leaf1 they harmonize one with another and as a whole4 ,the abacus1 between the capital and the architrave1 is so high as almost to resemble a second shaft4 ,in ,karnak and the ,memnonium it is narrow1 and lifts the ponderous beam just enough to prevent its oppressing the lightness of the capital4 ,i was so delighted with the pillars of ,hermontis that ,i scarcely knew whether to call this peculiarity a grace or a defect4 ,i have never seen it employed in modern architecture1 and judge therefore that it has either been condemned by our rules or that our architects have not the skill and daring of the ,egyptians4 ,we reached ,esneh the same night1 but were obliged to remain all the next day in order to allow our sailors to bake their bread4 ,we employed the time in visiting the temple1 the only remnant of the ancient ,latopolis1 and the palace of ,abbas ,pasha1 on the bank of the ,nile4 ,the portico of the temple1 half buried in rubbish1 like that of ,dendera1 which it resembles in design1 is exceedingly beautiful4 ,each of its twenty-four columns is crowned with a different capital1 so chaste and elegant in their execution that it is impossible to give any one the preference4 ,the designs are mostly copied from the doum-palm1 the date-palm1 and the lotus1 but the cane1 the vine1 and various water-plants are also introduced4 ,the building dates from the time of the ,ptolemies1 and its sculptures are uninteresting4 ,we devoted all our time to the study of the capitals1 a labyrinth of beauty1 in which we were soon entangled4 ,the governor of ,esneh1 a most friendly and agreeable ,arab1 accompanied us through the temple1 and pointed out all the fishes1 birds and crocodiles he could find1 to him the most interesting things in it40 ,the same day they also visited the rock tombs of ,el-,kab1 the ancient ,eleuthyas1 which are among the most curious in ,egypt4 8,there are a large number of these1 but only two are worth visiting1 on account of the light which they throw on the social life of the ,egyptians4 ,the owner of the tomb and his wife1 a red man and a yellow woman1 are here seen1 receiving the delighted guests4 ,seats are given them1 and each is presented with an aromatic flower1 while the servants in the kitchen hasten to prepare savory dishes4 ,in other compartments1 all the most minute processes of agriculture are represented with wonderful fidelity4 ,so little change has taken place in three thousand years1 that they would answer1 with scarcely a correction1 as illustrations of the ,fellah agriculture of modern ,egypt40 ,the northern part of ,nubia abounds in ,egyptian remains1 such1 for example1 as the temples of ,dabod1 ,kalabshee1 ,dakkeh1 ,dendoor1 ,sebooa1 c41 c42 and the whole valley of the ,nile is filled with the ruins of cities whose names have hardly survived their overthrow4 ,noticing but two or three more of these ruins1 we will then pass on to other themes4 ,,abydos1 ,,and ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,memnon4 ,abydos was the reputed burial-place of ,osiris1 one of the most sacred gods of ancient ,egypt4 ,according to ,strabo1 it formerly held the next rank to ,thebes1 and judging from its ruins1 ,wilkinson thinks it yielded to few cities in upper ,egypt in size and magnificence4 ,going toward it from ,girgeh1 says ,thompson1 8we came upon a mound of sand and dust1 and broken bricks and pottery1 strewed over with bleaching human bones1 and ascending this for several rods1 and to an elevation of about sixty feet1 we came out upon the massive blocks of stone that form the roof of the old temple-palace of ,memnon4 ,here1 crawling upon our hands and knees1 we got under the roof far enough to see that it covers two large halls supported by rows of massive columns1 whose capitals are in the form of the lotus bud1 still distinctly preserved4 ,the walls1 as far as could be seen1 are covered with sculptures1 among which the ibis frequently recurs2 there are also ceremonial processions and battle scenes1 such as are usually depicted in the sculptures of ,egyptian temples4 ,no doubt1 if this temple should be excavated1 it would be one of the most remarkable monuments in ,egypt4 ,it dates back nearly fourteen hundred years before ,christ4 ,the formation of the roof was peculiar4 ,large blocks of stone were laid endwise from one row of columns to the other1 and then an arch was hollowed out of this solid masonry1 still leaving a roof two feet in thickness at its center4 ,the stones were so nicely adjusted1 that they fitted closely without cement4 ,the ceiling was studded with stars1 and with sculptures beautifully colored4 ,i have not seen in ,egypt more exquisite workmanship4 ,yet the visitor is doomed to disappointment through the great difficulty of access to the temple1 in consequence of the drifting in of the sand from the desert and the neighboring mountains4 ,near by is another temple1 also inaccessible1 the temple of ,osiris1 built by the great ,remeses1 and enriched with alabaster walls1 some fragments of which may yet be found4 ,the neighboring mountains are filled with tombs1 some of which are nearly four thousand years old4 ,everything indicates that here was the site of a great city1 a city of wealth1 population and power1 enriched with trophies of conquest and monuments of religion4 ,but these buried temples alone remain1 and the ,arabs1 who now squat in their rags upon the top of the splendid sanctuary of ,osiris1 have given to the place the expressive name of #8,the ,buried4'0 ,,the ,,temples ,,of ,,abou ,,simbel4 ,passing up the ,nile to about latitude twenty-two degrees1 on its west side1 nearly up to the second cataract1 we come to the temples of ,abou ,simbel4 ,reaching the bank of the river about midnight1 the traveler we have so often quoted tells us3 8,as ,i was awakened from a deep sleep by the shock of the boat striking the shore1 ,i saw a huge wall of rock before me1 against which six enormous statues leaned as they looked from deep niches cut in its front4 ,their solemn faces were touched by the moon1 which shone full on the cliff1 and only their feet were wrapped in shadow4 ,the lines of deep-cut hieroglyphics over the portal of this rocky temple were also filled with shadow1 and painted legibly on the gray1 moonlit rock4 ,below them yawned the door1 a square of complete darkness4 ,a little to the left1 over a long drift of sand that sloped from the summit of the cliff nearly to the water's edge1 peered the mitered head of a statue of still more colossal proportions4 ,i gazed on this broad1 dim1 and wonderful picture for a moment1 so awed by its majesty that ,i did not ask myself where nor what it was4 ,this is some grand ,egyptian dream1 was my first thought1 and ,i closed my eyes for a few seconds1 to see whether it would vanish4 ,but it stood fast and silent as ever1 and ,i knew it to be ,abou ,simbel4 ,my servants all slept1 and the ras and boys noiselessly moored the boat to the shore1 and then lay down and slept also4 ,still ,i lay1 and the great statues looked solemnly down upon me1 and the moon painted their kingly nomens and banners with yet darker distinctness on the gray rock4 ,in the morning1 ,i found that we lay at the foot of the smaller temple4 ,i quietly waited for my cup of coffee1 for the morning reality was infinitely less grand than my vision of the night4 ,i then climbed to the door and entered4 ,the interior is not large nor imposing1 after one has seen the temples of ,egypt4 ,the exterior1 however1 is on such a colossal scale1 that1 notwithstanding the want of proportion in the different statues1 the effect is very striking4 ,the largest ones are about thirty-five feet high1 and not identical1 as are those of the great temple4 ,one1 who stands with one leg advanced1 while he holds a sword with the handle pressed against his breast1 is executed with much more spirit than is usually met with in statues of this period4 ,the sculptures of the interior are interesting1 and being of the time of ,remeses the ,great1 whose history they illustrate1 are executed with much skill and labor4 ,the head of the goddess ,athor1 on the face of the columns in the hall1 is much less beautiful than that of the same goddess at ,dendera4 ,it is1 in fact1 almost broad and distorted enough to represent the genius ,typhon4 8,the front of the great temple is not parallel to that of the other1 nor does it face the river1 which here flows in a north-east course4 ,the line of the cliff is broken between the two1 so that the figures of the great ,remeses1 seated on each side of the door1 look to the east1 the direction of the line of the face being nearly north4 ,through the gap in front1 the sands have poured down from the desert behind1 almost wholly filling up the space between the two cliffs2 and though since the temple was first opened1 in #ahag1 it has been cleared nearly to the base more than once1 the rapid accumulation of sand has again almost closed the entrance4 ,the southern colossus is only buried about half-way to the knee1 but of the two northern ones there is little else to be seen except the heads4 ,obscured as is the effect of this grand front1 it is still without parallel in the world4 ,i had not thought it possible that in statues of such enormous magnitude there could be such singular beauty of expression4 ,the face of ,remeses1 the same in each1 is undoubtedly a portrait1 as it resembles the faces of the statues in the interior1 and those of the king in other places4 ,besides1 there is an individuality in some of the features which is too marked to represent any general type of the ,egyptian head4 ,the fullness of the drooping eyelid1 which yet does not cover the large1 oblong ,egyptian eye2 the nose1 at first slightly inclining to the aquiline1 but curving to the round1 broad nostrils2 the generous breadth of the calm lips1 and the placid1 serene expression of the face1 are worthy of the conqueror of ,africa and the builder of ,karnak and ,medeenet ,abou4 ,the statue next the door1 on the southern side1 has been shivered to the throne on which it is seated1 and the fragments are not to be seen1 except a few which lie upon the knees4 ,the great doorway of the temple is so choked up with sand1 that ,i was obliged to creep in on my knees4 ,the sun by this time had risen exactly to the only point where it can illumine the interior2 and the rays1 taking a more yellow hue from the rock and sand on which they fell1 shone down the long drift between the double row of colossal statues1 and lighted up the entrance to the second hall of the temple4 ,i sat down in the sand1 awed and half frightened by the singular appearance of the place4 ,the sunshine1 falling obliquely on the sands1 struck a dim reflection against the sculptured roof1 and even lighted up the furthest recesses of the grand hall sufficiently to show its imposing dimensions4 ,eight square pillars1 four on either side of the central aisle1 seem to uphold the roof1 and on their inner sides1 facing each other1 are eight statues of the king4 ,the features of all are preserved1 and have something of the grace and serenity1 though not the majesty1 of the great statues outside4 ,they look into each other's eyes1 with an eternal question on their fixed countenances1 but none can give answer4 ,there was something so stern and strange in these eight faces1 that ,i felt a shudder of fear creep over me4 ,the strong arms are all crossed on their breasts1 and the hands hold various sacred and regal symbols1 conspicuous among which is something resembling a flail1 which one sees often in ,egyptian sculpture4 ,i thought of a marvelous story ,i once read1 in which a genie1 armed with a brazen flail1 stands at the entrance of an enchanted castle1 crushing with the stroke of his terrible weapon all who come to seek the treasure within4 ,for a moment the childish faith in the supernatural was as strong as ever1 and ,i looked at the gloomy entrance beyond1 wishing to enter1 but fearing the stony flails of the terrible ,remesi on either hand4 ,the faces were once partially colored1 and the black eyeball1 still remaining on the blank eye of stone1 gives them an expression of stupor1 of death in life1 which accounted to me for the nervous shock ,i experienced on entering4 8,there is nothing in ,egypt which can be likened to the great temple of ,abou-,simbel4 ,karnak is grander1 but its grandeur is human4 ,this belongs rather to the superhuman fancies of the ,east--the halls of the ,afrites--or to the realm of the dethroned ,titans1 of early ,greek mythology4 ,this impression is not diminished1 on passing the second hall and corridor1 and entering the adytum1 or sacred chamber of the temple4 ,there the granite altar yet stands in the center1 before the undestroyed figures of the gods1 who1 seated side by side1 calmly await the offerings of their worshipers4 ,the peculiar individuality of each deity is strikingly shown in these large statues1 and their attitude is much less constrained than in the sitting statues in the tombs of ,thebes4 ,these look as if they could rise1 if they would4 ,the walls are covered with sculptures of them and of the contemplar deities1 in the grand1 bold style of the age of ,remeses4 ,some visitors had left a supply of dry palm-branches near the entrance1 and of these ,i made torches1 which blazed and crackled fiercely1 flaring with a rich red light on the sculptured and painted walls4 ,there was sufficient to enable me to examine all the smaller chambers1 of which there are eight or nine1 cut laterally into the rock1 without any attempt at symmetry of form1 or regularity of arrangement4 ,several of them have seats running around three sides1 exactly like the divans in modern ,egyptian houses4 ,they were probably designed for the apartments of the priests or servants connected with the temple4 ,the sculptures on the walls of the grand hall are1 after those of ,medeenet ,abou1 and on the exterior wall of ,karnak1 the most interesting ,i have seen in ,egypt4 ,on the end wall1 on either side of the entrance1 is a colossal bass-relief1 representing ,remeses slaying a group of captive kings1 whom he holds by the hair of their heads4 ,there are ten or twelve in each group1 and the features1 though they are not colored1 exhibit the same distinction of race as ,i had previously remarked in ,belzoni's tomb1 at ,thebes4 ,there is the negro1 the ,persian1 the ,jew1 and one other form of countenance which ,i could not make out1 all imploring with uplifted hands the mercy of the conqueror4 ,on the southern wall1 the distinction between the negro and the ,egyptian is made still more obvious by the coloring of the figures4 ,in fact1 ,i see no reason whatever to doubt that the peculiar characteristics of the different races of men were as strongly marked in the days of ,remeses as at present4 ,the sculptures on the side walls of the temple represent the wars of ,remeses1 who1 as at ,medeenet ,abou1 stands in a chariot which two horses at full speed whirl into the ranks of the enemy4 ,the king discharges his arrows against them1 and directly in front of him a charioteer1 mortally wounded1 is hurled from his overthrown chariot4 ,the groups are chiseled with great spirit and boldness2 the figures of the king and his horses are full of life4 ,towering over all1 as well by his superior proportions as by the majesty and courage of his attitude1 ,remeses stands erect and motionless amid the shock and jar and riot of battle4 ,there is no exultation in his face2 only the inflexible calmness of destiny4 ,i spent some time contemplating these grand and remarkable memorials of the greatest age of ,egypt1 and left with my feeling for ,egyptian art even stronger than before40 ,,the ,,river ,,nile4 8,with annual pomp1 ,rich king of floods6 o'erflows the swelling ,nile60--,,thompson4 ,though the river ,nile is properly to be classified with the wonders of nature1 rather than with those of art1 yet as it is so intimately and constantly associated with the wonderful ruins that everywhere line its banks1 it may be well to notice it before passing from the wonders of ,egypt and of the regions south of it4 ,this celebrated river1 which divides ,egypt into two parts1 and passes on south through ,nubia1 ,ethiopia1 c41 is formed mainly by two streams1 the ,blue ,nile and the ,white ,nile4 ,the ,blue ,nile1 the sources of which were discovered by ,bruce1 rises near latitude eleven degrees north1 in the mountains of ,godjam1 on the south-western frontier of ,abyssinia1 and flows with a winding course some eight hundred miles to ,khartoum1 where it unites with the western branch of the river1 thus forming the main stream4 ,the sources of the ,white ,nile 7so called from the light brown1 muddy color of its waters1 as the ,blue is from the dark bluish-green of its stream7 are as yet undiscovered4 ,twelve hundred miles above its junction1 and thirty-three hundred above the ,mediterranean1 it is still a broad and powerful stream1 of whose source even the tribes that dwell in those far off regions are ignorant4 ,taylor is confident1 that when its hidden fountains shall at last be reached1 and the problem of twenty centuries solved1 the entire length of the ,nile will be found to be not less than four thousand miles1 and that it will take rank with the ,mississippi and the ,amazon1 as one of the three great streams of the world4 ,in some respects1 he says1 8there is a striking resemblance between the ,nile and the former river4 ,the ,missouri is the true ,mississippi1 rolling the largest flood1 and giving its color to the mingled streams4 ,so the ,white ,nile1 which is broad and turbid1 pollutes the clear blue flood that has usurped his name and dignity4 ,in spite of what geographers may say1 and they are still far from being united on the subject1 the ,blue ,nile is not the true ,nile4 ,there1 at the point of junction1 his volume of water is greater1 but he is fresh from the mountains and constantly fed by large1 unfailing affluents1 while the ,white ,nile has rolled for more than a thousand miles on nearly a dead level1 through a porous1 alluvial soil1 in which he loses more water than he brings with him40 ,the two rivers meet at right angles1 but do not mingle their waters till they have rolled some eight or ten miles in their common bed4 ,both rivers are of about the same breadth at the point of confluence1 but the current of the ,blue branch is the strongest4 ,on this account1 the native boatmen speak of the ,blue river as he1 and of the ,white as she4 ,and it is remarkable that the name ,nile1 which is never heard in ,egypt1 7where the river is called el-bahr1 8the sea107 is retained in ,ethiopia1 and there applied to the ,blue ,nile1 probably for the same reason4 ,the ,white ,nile has been traced up by ,dr4 ,knoblecher and his associates further than by any one before him4 ,in ,january1 #ahej1 he passed the furthest point reached by any previous expedition2 and on the sixteenth of that month reached the village of ,logwek1 which takes its name from a solitary granite peak about six hundred feet high1 which stands on the left bank of the ,nile4 ,this is in latitude four degrees and ten minutes north1 and is the most southern point which has yet been reached on the ,white ,nile4 ,dr4 ,knoblecher ascended the mountain1 which commanded a view of almost the entire ,bari country4 ,toward the south-west the river wound out of sight between the mountains ,rego and ,kidi1 near which is the mountain of ,kereg1 containing rich iron mines which are worked by the natives2 and to the south1 on the very verge of the horizon1 rose a long range of hills1 whose forms could not be observed with exactness1 owing to the great distance4 ,beyond the ,logwaya range1 which appeared in the east1 dwell the ,berri tribes1 whose language is distinct from the ,baris1 and who are neighbors of the ,gallas1 that warlike race1 whose domain extends from ,abyssinia to the wilds of ,mozambique1 along the great central plateau of ,uniamesi4 ,the natives of ,logwek knew nothing whatever of the country to the south4 ,the furthest mountain range was probably under the parallel of latitude three degrees north1 so that the ,white ,nile has now been traced nearly to the equator4 ,at ,logwek1 it was about six hundred and fifty feet wide1 and from five to eight feet deep1 at the time of ,dr4 ,knoblecher's visit1 which was during the dry season4 ,such an abundance of water allows us to estimate with tolerable certainty the distance to its unknown sources1 which must undoubtedly lie beyond the equator4 ,the great snow mountain of ,kilimandjar1 discovered in #ahej by ,dr4 ,krapf1 the ,german missionary1 on his journey inland from ,mombas1 on the coast of ,zanzibar1 has been located by geographers in latitude three degrees south4 ,it is therefore most probable that the source of the ,white ,nile will be found in the range of mountains1 of which ,kilimandjar is the crowning apex4 ,the geographer ,berghaus1 in a long and labored article1 endeavors to prove that the ,gazelle river is the true ,nile1 and makes it rise in the great lake ,n',yassi1 in latitude thirteen degrees south4 ,dr4 ,knoblecher1 however1 who examined the ,bahr el-,ghazl at its mouth1 says it is an unimportant stream1 with a scarcely perceptible current4 ,he considers the ,white ,nile as being1 beyond all question1 the true river4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nilometer4 ,following the river on to its mouth1 the greater part of lower ,egypt is contained in a triangular island1 formed by the ,mediterranean sea1 and the two great branches of the ,nile1 which dividing itself five or six miles from ,old ,cairo1 flows on the one side to the north-east1 falling into the sea at ,damietta2 while the other branch runs to the north-west1 and enters the sea at ,rosetta4 ,what is called the ,delta1 resembling the ,greek letter of that name1 and constituting a triangle1 is thus formed4 ,the water of the ,nile is here1 for the most part1 thick and muddy1 more particularly when the river is swollen by the heavy rains which constantly fall within the tropics in the beginning of the summer season1 and which are doubtless the principal cause of its overflowing the low lands of ,egypt4 ,a similar phenomenon is found in the ,ganges2 and it is the same with all the rivers which have either their rise or course within the tropics3 they annually break their bounds1 and cover the lands for many miles on each side1 before they reach the sea4 ,they likewise leave prolific mud1 which1 like that of the ,nile1 fertilizes the land2 beside which1 the north winds prevailing about the latter end of ,may1 drive in the waters from the sea1 and keep back those of the river1 in such a manner as considerably to assist the swell4 ,the ,egyptians1 and the ,copts more especially1 are persuaded that the ,nile always begins to rise on the same day of the year2 as1 indeed1 it generally commences about the same time in ,june4 ,its rise was observed for three successive years by ,dr4 ,pococke1 who found it to ascend during the first five days from five to ten inches2 and it thus continued rising till it had attained the hight of nine feet1 when the canal of ,cairo was cut4 ,it then rose from three to five inches only in the day2 for1 having spread over the land and entered the canal1 although more water might have descended than before1 its rise was less considerable4 ,the other canals were now laid open at stated times1 and those which water the lower grounds the last4 ,these canals are carried along the highest parts of the country1 so that from their elevation the water may be conveyed to the valleys4 ,so important is this matter of the rise and fall of the river to the whole country1 that a thin column or pillar1 called the ,nilometer1 has been erected1 to mark the elevation or depression of its waters4 ,a view of it is given in the cut following4 ,it is situated in the middle of a round tower1 on the island of ,rhoda1 not far from ,cairo1 in the middle of the river4 ,in this tower is a marble cistern1 through which the ,nile flows2 its bottom and the bottom of the river being on the same level4 ,from the center of this cistern rises a slender pillar1 as seen in the engraving1 marked off into twenty divisions of twenty inches each2 the entire space marked on the column being somewhat more than thirty-six feet4 ,this column is of the greatest interest to the people1 as connected with their prospects of a harvest2 and of the greatest importance to the government1 as enabling it to fix the tribute1 or tax1 according to the hight of the inundation4 ,the tower in which it is placed1 is lighted by some eighteen or twenty windows1 which form a belt around the base of the dome2 and beneath these1 and above the cistern1 are rooms or apartments for those who come to see the hight of the waters1 from which rooms a flight of some thirty stone steps leads to the marble pavement in the center of which the cistern and ,nilometer are placed4 ,as soon as the attendants ascertain that the overflow will be such as to fertilize all the land1 the large canals are all opened with great ceremony and rejoicing4 ,and as soon as the waters retire again from the fields1 they are sown with all kinds of grain1 so that in a short space of time the whole face of the country is variegated with the rich hues of the flowering plants and the ripening grain4 ,the ,nile has one peculiar characteristic4 ,other rivers being supplied by rivulets1 the ground is lowest near their banks2 but as no water flows into the ,nile in its passage throughout ,egypt1 and as it is necessary that this river should overflow the land1 the country is generally lower at a distance from1 than near to it2 and1 in most parts1 the land has a gradual descent from the river to the foot of the hills1 which terminate the sandy plains most benefited by the irrigation4 ,among other remarkable appearances1 the celebrated ,bruce notices a very singular one attendant on the inundation of the ,nile4 ,in ,abyssinia1 the early part of the morning is constantly clear in that season1 with a fine sunshine4 ,about nine1 a small cloud1 not above four feet in apparent breadth1 appears in the east1 whirling violently round as if on an axis2 but having approached nearly to the zenith1 it first abates its motion1 and then loses its form1 extending itself greatly1 and seeming to call up vapors from all the opposite quarters4 ,the clouds thus formed having attained nearly the same hight1 rush against each other with great violence1 and remind the spectator of ,elisha foretelling rain on ,mount ,carmel4 ,the air being impelled before the heaviest mass1 or swiftest mover1 makes an impression of its form on the collection of clouds opposite2 and the moment it has taken possession of the space made to receive it1 the most violent thunder possible to be conceived follows instantly1 attended by rain4 ,after some hours the sky again clears1 with a wind at north2 and it is always disagreeably cold when the thermometer is below sixty-three degrees4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 in his travels1 draws the following elegant picture of this most interesting river4 8,here we were unexpectedly greeted with an astonishing view of the ,nile1 the ,delta1 and the numerous groves in the neighborhood of ,rosetta4 ,the scene is beyond description4 ,the sudden contrast it offers1 opposed to the desert we had traversed1 the display of riches and abundance poured forth by the fertility of this ,african paradise1 with all the local circumstances of reflection excited by an extensive prospect of the ,nile1 and of the plains of ,egypt1 render it one of the most interesting sights in the world4 ,the beautiful boats of the ,nile1 with their large1 wide-spreading sails1 were passing up and down the river4 ,unable to quit the spot1 we dismissed our guides1 and remained some time contemplating the delightful picture4 ,afterward1 descending on foot1 close by the superb mosque of ,abu-,mandur1 we continued our walks along the bank of the river1 through gardens richer than imagination can portray1 beneath the shade of enormous overhanging branches of sycamore and fig trees1 amid bowers of roses1 and through groves of date1 citron1 lime and banana trees1 to ,rosetta40 ,,the ,,barrage1 ,,or ,,great ,,dam ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 ,we end our sketches of ,egypt1 and the ,nile1 by a notice of the barrage1 or great dam1 at the northern part of the ,delta1 just below where the river divides into the two great streams which empty themselves at ,rosetta on the west1 and ,damietta on the east4 ,this immense work1 which is hardly heard of out of ,egypt1 is one of the greatest undertakings of modern times4 ,it is nothing less than a damming of the ,nile1 so as to hold back its waters and keep them in reserve1 till1 by letting them out1 at the proper seasons1 two inundations may be produced each year1 and so the crops doubled throughout the ,delta4 ,this great work is not only projected1 but far advanced toward completion4 ,each branch of the river is to be spanned by sixty-two arches1 besides a central gateway ninety feet in breadth1 and flanked by lofty stone towers4 ,the point of the ,delta1 between the two dams1 is protected by a curtain of solid masonry1 and the abutments which it joins are fortified by towers sixty or seventy feet in hight4 ,the piers have curved breakwaters on the upper side1 while the opposite parapet of the arches rises high above them1 so that the dam consists of three successive terraces1 and presents itself like a wedge1 against the force of such an immense body of water4 ,the material is brick1 faced with stone4 ,when complete1 it is intended to close the side arches during low water1 leaving only the central gateway open4 ,by this means sufficient water will be gained to fill all the irrigating canals1 while a new channel1 cut through the center of the ,delta1 will render productive a vast tract of fertile land4 ,the project is a grand one1 and the only obstacle to its success is the light1 porous character of the alluvial soil on which the piers are founded4 ,the undertaking was planned and commenced by ,m4 ,linant1 and has been continued by other engineers4 8,the ,egyptian boatmen10 says ,taylor1 8have reason to complain of the barrage4 ,the main force of the river is poured through the narrow space wherein the piers have not yet been sunk1 which can not be passed without a strong north wind4 ,forty or fifty boats were lying along the shore1 waiting the favorable moment4 ,we obtained permission from the engineer to attach our boat to a large government barge1 which was to be drawn up by a stationary windlass4 ,as we put off1 the wind freshened1 and we were slowly urged against the current to the main rapid1 and at last reached smoother water1 and sailed off gaily for ,cairo40 ,,the ,,african ,,birds' ,,nest4 ,before passing to the ruins of some of the cities of antiquity1 we would here1 by way of variety1 briefly describe the wonderful and curious nest of the 8sociable weavers10 as they are called1 which abound in some parts of ,africa2 a view of which is given in the engraving below4 ,hundreds of these birds1 in one community1 join to form a structure of interwoven grass1 containing various apartments1 all covered by a sloping roof1 which is extended1 from year to year1 as the increase of their numbers may require4 ,a traveler1 having examined one of these huge nests1 found it to consist mainly of grass1 without any mixture1 but so firmly basketed together as to be impenetrable to the rain1 and extending like a canopy over all the particular nests built by the individual birds4 ,the one he examined contained no less than three hundred and twenty cells4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,birds' ,,nest4 ,returning from this digression1 we now pass to the notice of some of the ruins of the cities of antiquity2 and first to the ,,ruins ,,of ,,palmyra4 ,this noble city of ancient ,syria1 also called ,tadmor1 is of uncertain date and origin1 but is thought by some to have been the 8,tadmor in the wilderness0 built by ,solomon4 ,the first view of the city is exceedingly magnificent1 the snow-white appearance of the innumerable columns and buildings1 contrasting strikingly with the yellow sand of the desert4 ,its ruins are not to be compared1 as to the size of the gates1 columns and temples1 with those of ,balbec or ,thebes2 but they are more remarkable for their vast extent1 and are less encumbered with modern fabrics than most ancient remains4 ,they consist of temples1 palaces1 gateways and porticos of ,grecian architecture1 scattered over an extent of several miles4 ,one of the most remarkable of them is the temple of the ,sun1 the ruins of which extend over a square of more than two hundred yards4 ,the temple itself1 which points north and south1 is thirty-three yards in length and about fourteen in width4 ,at its center1 on the west side1 is a magnificent entry1 on the remains of which vines and clusters of grapes are carved in a bold and masterly imitation of nature4 ,over the door is a pair of wings1 extending the whole breadth4 ,its north extremity is adorned with curious fret-work and bass-relief1 and in the center is a dome1 or cupola1 about ten feet in diameter1 of solid stone4 ,to the north of this is an obelisk of seven large stones1 which probably once supported a statue2 and about a quarter of a mile distant are others similar to it1 as if forming originally part of a continued row4 ,about one hundred paces from the middle obelisk1 straight forward1 is a magnificent entry to a piazza1 forty feet in breadth and more than half a mile in length1 inclosed with two rows of marble pillars twenty-six feet high1 and eight or nine feet in compass4 ,of these there still remain one hundred and twenty-nine2 and by a moderate computation1 there could not have been originally less than five hundred and sixty4 ,at the west side of this piazza are several apertures for gates into the court of the palace1 each of them ornamented with four porphyry pillars1 not standing in a line with those of the wall1 but placed by couples in the front of the gate facing the palace1 two on each side4 ,two of these only remain entire1 and one only standing in its place4 ,they are thirty feet in length1 and nine in circumference4 ,on the east side of the piazza stand a great number of marble pillars1 some perfect1 but the greater part mutilated4 ,in one place eleven of them are ranged in a square1 the space they inclose being paved with broad flat stones1 but without any remains of a roof4 ,at a little distance are the remains of a small temple1 also without a roof1 and having its walls much defaced4 ,before the entry1 which faces the south1 is a piazza supported by six pillars1 two on each side of the door1 and one at each end4 ,the pedestals of those in front have been filled with inscriptions1 both in the ,greek and ,palmyrene languages1 which are become totally illegible4 ,among these ruins are many sepulchers1 ranged on each side of a hollow way toward the north part of the city1 and extending more than a mile2 some being mere heaps of rubbish2 others half fallen1 exposing their shattered chambers2 while one or two remain almost entire4 ,they are built in the shape of square towers1 from three to four stories in hight1 each forming a sepulchral chamber1 with recesses divided into compartments for the reception of the bodies4 ,some of the chambers are beautifully ornamented with ,corinthian pilasters and sculptures1 almost in perfect preservation1 executed in bold relief2 the walls are of white stucco1 and the ceilings are divided into diamond-shaped compartments1 delicately ornamented with white stars on a blue ground2 while over the doorways are inscriptions both in the ,greek and ,palmyrene languages4 ,the outsides are of common stone2 but the floors and partitions of each story are of marble4 ,a walk crosses the center of this range of buildings1 and the space on each side is subdivided by thick walls1 into six partitions1 the space between which is wide enough to receive the largest corpse4 ,in these niches six or seven are piled on one another4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,balbec4 ,baal-bec1 or ,balbec1 is supposed by many to be the same as ,baal-ath1 built by ,solomon in ,lebanon1 as mentioned in the eighth chapter of the second book of ,chronicles4 ,its magnificent ruins are described by ,mr4 ,bruce as even surpassing what he had seen at ,palmyra4 ,he was particularly struck by the splendid vestiges of the great temple1 supposed to have been dedicated to the sun4 ,the castle of ,balbec1 or tower of ,lebanon1 is described by ,leander1 a ,carmelite monk1 in his interesting travels1 as a surprising monument of antiquity1 built according to the tradition of the natives1 by ,solomon4 ,his relation is as follows4 8,balbec is distant from ,damascus1 toward the north1 about fifty miles1 and on the southern side is watered by springs and rivulets1 brought thither1 no doubt1 to fill the ditches by which it was to have been surrounded for defense1 but which were not completed4 ,it is situated on the lofty summit of a hill1 in approaching which the faade of the castle is seen1 having two towers at its right angles1 between which is a great portico1 resembling the mouth of a vast cave1 and provided with very strong walls4 ,that on the right hand1 by which the portico is attached to the tower1 from the west to the north1 is composed of four stones only1 the fifth1 which was to have completed the fabric1 being deficient4 ,the length of each of these stones is not less than sixty-two feet1 and their breadth and hight thirteen4 ,they are so artfully brought together1 without any cement1 that they appear to be only one solid block4 ,the remainder of the wall to the left is of hewn stones1 well cemented with quick-lime1 the smallest of which are six feet in length1 and four feet and six inches in hight3 there are many which are upward of fifteen feet in length1 but the hight of all of them is the same4 8,having entered the cavern by the grand portico1 the traveler proceeds in obscurity to the distance of eighteen paces1 when he at length perceives a ray of light proceeding from the aperture of the door which conducts to the center4 ,at each of the sides1 and within this grand portico1 is a flight of stone steps which leads to the subterraneous prisons4 ,their aspect is horrid1 and they were formerly dangerous1 being frequented by banditti and robbers1 who would plunder1 kill1 and here bury such wretched travelers as were imprudently led by their curiosity to penetrate1 and risk the descent without being well escorted4 ,following the road above1 by the cavern1 to the extent of fifty paces1 an ample area of a spherical figure presents itself1 surrounded by majestic columns of granite1 some of them of a single piece1 and others formed of two pieces1 the whole of them of so large a dimension1 that two men can with difficulty girt them4 ,they are of the ,ionic order of architecture1 and are placed on bases of the same stone1 at such distances from each other that a coach and six might commodiously turn between them4 ,they support a flat tower or roof1 from which projects a cornice wrought with figures of matchless workmanship3 these rise above the capitals with so nice an union1 that the eye can not distinguish the place where they are joined4 ,at the present time the greater part of this colonnade is destroyed1 the western part alone remaining perfect and upright4 ,this fabric has an elevation of five hundred feet1 and is four hundred feet in length4 ,in its exterior1 and behind1 it is flanked by two other towers similar to those of the first faade1 the whole projecting from the wall1 which within is provided with loop-holes1 to keep off the enemy1 in case of necessity1 by the means of stones1 fire1 c4 ,it also surrounds the colonnade1 more particularly in the part which looks toward the east4 ,at the left flank rises a temple1 which tradition says was the hall of audience of ,solomon1 in hight at least eighty feet1 and long and large in proportion4 ,its stones are all sculptured with bass-reliefs1 similar to those which ornament ,trajan's column at ,rome1 representing many triumphs and naval engagements4 ,several of these bass-reliefs have been defaced by the ,saracens1 who are the decided enemies of all sculptures4 ,without this grand hall is an avenue of the same size and breadth1 where the traveler admires a large portal constructed with three stones only1 attached to which1 in the middle part1 serving as an architrave1 is seen1 in a garland of laurel interwoven with flowers1 a large eagle admirably sculptured in bass-relief4 ,at the sides of the portal are placed two columns1 in one of which1 although formed of a single stone1 is a winding staircase by which to ascend to the architrave3 the passage is however very narrow4 ,there is in the vicinity another temple1 of an octangular shape1 with a portico of superb architecture1 and having three windows on the side opposite to the former40 ,three times ,leander returned to visit this splendid vestige of antiquity2 and on the last of these occasions1 being well escorted1 he proceeded to the distance of about a mile1 to the foot of the mountains of ,damascus1 whence the stones employed in its construction were brought4 ,he measured the stone which remained there1 and which has already been noticed as having been intended for the fifth in the construction of the wall3 it had been hewn out on all sides1 was lying on the ground1 and was simply attached to the rock at the lower part4 ,its length and dimensions were such that he could not conceive how it would have been possible to detach it1 and still less with what machines to move1 transport1 and raise it to the hight at which other stones are placed1 more especially as the sites1 the roads1 and the masses of rock are such1 as to exceed in roughness and difficulty whatever the imagination can picture to itself4 ,in the vicinity of the cave whence the stones were drawn is a very beautiful sepulcher supported by columns of porphyry1 over which is a dome of the finest symmetry1 and of great beauty4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,babylon4 ,the ruins of ,babylon are deeply interesting1 not only on account of their great antiquity1 but from the associations connected with them4 ,they have been visited and described by ,mr4 ,rich1 resident for the ,east ,india company at ,bagdad2 and the result of his researches is given by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,maurice1 author of 8,indian ,antiquities10 and assistant librarian to the ,british museum1 in his elaborate work entitled 8,observations connected with ,astronomy and ,ancient ,history1 ,sacred and ,profane1 on the ,ruins of ,babylon40 ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,near ,,babylon4 ,babylon was situated in a plain of vast extent1 and bisected by the noble river ,euphrates4 ,over this river was thrown a bridge of massive masonry1 strongly compacted with iron and lead1 by which the two sides of the city were connected2 and the embankments on each side1 to restrain its current1 were lofty1 and formed of the same durable materials as the walls of the city4 ,the city itself is represented by ,herodotus to have been a perfect square1 inclosed by a wall in circumference four hundred and eighty furlongs4 ,it is stated to have abounded in houses three or four stories in hight1 and to have been regularly divided into streets1 running parallel to each other1 with tranverse avenues occasionally opening to the river4 ,it was surrounded with a wide and deep trench1 the earth dug out of which was formed into square bricks and baked in a furnace4 ,with these1 cemented together with heated bitumen1 intermixed with reeds to bind the viscid mass1 the sides of the trenches were lined2 and of the same solid materials the walls of the vast dimensions above described were formed4 ,at certain regular distances on them1 watch-towers were erected2 and below they were divided and adorned with a hundred immense gates of brass4 ,as you float down the river from ,bagdad1 you pass a plain that hears the name of ,dura1 which tradition says1 is the very place where ,nebuchadnezzar set up the golden image1 and commanded all to bow down and worship it3 it is now a wilderness1 with here and there a shapeless mound1 the remains of some ancient habitation4 ,and still further down1 as you approach the city1 is a tower1 some two hundred feet high1 on the east bank of the river1 with an ascending way winding round it on the outside1 like the spiral of a screw1 as seen in the cut below1 reminding the traveler of the common ideal pictures of the tower of ,babel4 ,it marks the site of the ancient city of ,samarrah1 where the ,roman army under ,jovian rested after marching and fighting a long summer's day4 ,it was afterward the capital of the eighth caliph of the ,abbasside dynasty4 ,in the center of each of the grand divisions of the city itself1 a stupendous public fabric was erected4 ,in one 7the eastern side7 stood the temple of ,belus1 and in the other1 7or western division17 in a large or strongly fortified inclosure1 the royal palace1 intended1 doubtless1 for defense as well as for ornament4 ,the temple of ,belus was a square pile1 on each side of the extent of two furlongs4 ,the tower erected in its center was a furlong in breadth1 and as much in hight1 the latter of which 7taking the furlong at only five hundred feet7 is enormous1 being higher1 by twenty feet1 than the great pyramid of ,memphis4 ,on this tower1 as a base1 seven other lofty towers were erected in regular succession2 and the whole was crowned1 we are told by ,diodorus1 with a brazen statue of ,belus1 forty feet high6 ,the palace1 intended also as a citadel1 was erected on an area a mile and a half square1 and was surrounded with three vast circular walls1 which1 as we are informed by ,diodorus ,siculus1 were ornamented with sculptured animals resembling life1 richly painted in their natural colors on the bricks of which they were composed1 and afterward burnt in4 ,this may be mentioned as nearly the earliest specimen of enameling on record4 ,indeed1 it was scarcely possible for a nation1 who were so well practiced in the burning of bricks even to a vitreous hardness1 to have been ignorant of this fine art2 and that they could also engrave upon them1 is evident1 as we may soon see1 from the characters at this day sculptured upon those that have been dug up and brought to ,europe1 many of which are preserved in the ,british museum4 ,on the far-famed hanging gardens1 and the subterraneous vault or tunnel constructed by ,semiramis1 or ,nitocris1 or the founder of ,babylon1 whoever he was1 there is no necessity to dilate1 as every trace of them1 except what the idle fancy of travelers has surmised1 must long since have disappeared2 but such1 in its general outline1 was the mighty ,babylon--,,babylon ,,the ,,great4 ,mr4 ,rich1 whose residence at the court of ,bagdad1 with the powerful protection of the pacha1 afforded him every facility for comprehensive investigation1 describes the whole country between ,bagdad and ,hella1 a distance of forty-eight miles1 as a perfectly flat1 and1 for the greater part1 uncultivated waste2 though it is evident1 from the number of canals by which it is traversed1 and the immense ruins that cover its surface1 that it must formerly have been both well peopled and cultivated4 ,about two miles above ,hella1 the more prominent ruins commence1 among which1 at intervals1 are discovered1 in considerable quantities1 burnt and unburnt bricks and bitumen3 two vast mounds in particular attract attention from their size1 and these are situated on the eastern bank of the ,euphrates4 ,at the time of his visit1 there were scarcely any remains of ruins visible1 immediately opposite on the western bank1 but there were some of stupendous magnitude on that side1 about six miles to the south-west of ,hella4 ,the first grand mass of ruins described by ,mr4 ,rich1 extends one thousand one hundred yards in length1 and eight hundred in its greatest breadth1 its figure nearly resembling that of a quadrant2 its hight is irregular2 but the most elevated part may be about fifty or sixty feet above the level of the plain1 and it has been dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks4 ,on the north is a valley of five hundred and fifty yards in length1 the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass1 and crossed by a line of ruins of very little elevation4 ,to this succeeds the second grand heap of ruins1 the shape of which is nearly a square1 seven hundred yards in length and breadth1 and having its south-west angle connected with the north-west angle of the mounds of ,amran1 by a ridge of considerable hight1 and nearly one hundred yards in breadth4 ,this he thought the most interesting part of the ruins of ,babylon2 every vestige discoverable in it declaring it to have been composed of buildings far superior to all the rest which had left traces in the eastern quarter3 the bricks were of the finest description2 and1 notwithstanding this was the grand storehouse of them1 and that the greatest supplies had been and then were constantly drawn from it1 they appeared still to be abundant4 ,but the operation of extracting the bricks had caused great confusion1 and contributed much to increase the difficulty of deciphering the original design of this mound1 as1 in search of them1 the workmen had pierced into it in every direction1 hollowing out deep ravines and pits1 and throwing up the rubbish in heaps on the surface4 ,in some places they had bored into the solid mass1 forming winding caverns and subterraneous passages1 which1 from their being left without adequate support1 sometimes fell and buried the workmen in the rubbish4 ,in all these excavations1 walls of burnt brick1 laid in lime mortar of a very good quality1 are seen2 and1 in addition to the substances generally strewed on the surfaces of all these mounds1 here are found fragments of alabaster vessels1 fine earthenware1 marble1 and great quantities of varnished tiles1 the glazing and coloring of which are surprisingly fresh4 ,in a hollow near the southern part1 ,mr4 ,rich found a sepulchral urn of earthenware1 which had been broken in digging1 and near it lay some human bones1 which pulverized with the touch4 8,not more than two hundred yards10 he says1 8from the northern extremity of the above mound is a ravine hollowed out by those who dig for bricks1 in length nearly a hundred yards1 and thirty feet wide1 by forty or fifty deep4 ,on one side of it1 a few yards of wall remain standing1 the face of which is very clean and perfect1 and which appears to have been the front of some building4 ,the opposite side is so confused a mass of rubbish1 that it would seem as if the ravine had been worked through a solid building4 ,under the foundations at the southern end an opening is made1 which discovers a subterraneous passage seven feet in hight1 and winding to the south1 floored and walled with large brick1 laid in bitumen and covered over with pieces of sandstone1 a yard thick1 and several yards long1 on which the whole pressure is so great as to have given a considerable degree of obliquity to the side walls of the passage4 ,the superstructure is cemented with bitumen1 other parts of the ravine with mortar1 and the bricks all have writing on them4 ,the northern end of the ravine appears to have been crossed by an extremely thick wall of yellowish brick1 cemented with a brilliant white mortar1 which has been broken through in hollowing it out2 and a little to the north is sculptured a lion of colossal dimensions1 standing on a pedestal1 of a coarse kind of gray granite1 and of rude workmanship2 in the mouth is a circular aperture1 into which a man may introduce his fist40 ,the next considerable mass to that of ,amran is the ,kasr1 or palace1 as it is called by the natives1 and it is thus described by ,mr4 ,rich4 8,it is a very remarkable ruin1 which1 being uncovered1 and in part detached from the rubbish1 is visible from a considerable distance1 but so surprisingly fresh in its appearance1 that it was only after a minute inspection ,i was satisfied of its being in reality a ,babylonian remain4 ,it consists of several walls and piers1 7which face the cardinal points17 eight feet in thickness1 in some places ornamented with niches1 and in others1 strengthened by pilasters and buttresses1 built of fine burnt brick1 7still perfectly clean and sharp17 laid in lime cement1 of such tenacity1 that those whose business it is have given up working1 on account of the extreme difficulty of extracting them whole4 ,the tops of these walls are broken1 and may have been much higher4 ,on the outside1 they have in some places been cleared nearly to the foundations2 but the internal spaces1 formed by them1 are yet filled with rubbish1 in some parts almost to their summit4 ,one part of the wall has been split into three parts1 and overthrown1 as if by an earthquake2 some detached walls of the same kind1 standing at different distances1 show what remains to have been only a small part of the original fabric2 indeed1 it appears that the passage in the ravine1 together with the wall which crosses its upper end1 were connected with it4 ,there are some hollows underneath1 in which several persons have lost their lives2 so that no one will now venture into them1 and their entrances have become choked up with rubbish4 ,near this ruin is a heap of rubbish1 the sides of which are curiously streaked by the alternation of its materials1 the chief part of which1 it is probable1 was unburnt brick1 of which ,i found a small quantity in the neighborhood2 but no reeds were discoverable in the interstices4 8,a mile to the north of the ,kasr1 or full five miles distant from ,hella1 and nine hundred and fifty yards from the river bank1 is the last ruin of this series1 which has been described by ,pietro ,della ,valle1 who determines it to have been the tower of ,belus1 an opinion adopted by ,rennel4 ,the natives call it ,mukallibe1 or1 according to the vulgar ,arab pronunciation of these parts1 ,mujelibe1 meaning overturned2 they sometimes also apply this term to the mounds of the ,kasr4 ,it is of an oblong shape1 irregular in its hight and the measurement of its sides1 which face the cardinal points2 the northern side being two hundred yards in length1 the southern two hundred and nineteen1 the eastern one hundred and eighty-two1 and the western one hundred and thirty-six2 the elevation of the south-east1 or highest angle1 one hundred and forty-one feet4 ,the western face1 which is the least elevated1 is the most interesting1 on account of the appearance of building it presents4 ,near the summit of it appears a low wall1 with interruptions1 built of unburnt bricks1 mixed up with chopped straw or reeds1 and cemented with clay-mortar of great thickness1 having between every layer a layer of reeds2 and on the north side are1 also1 some vestiges of a similar construction4 ,the south-west angle is crowned by something like a turret1 or lantern3 the other angles are in a less perfect state1 but may originally have been ornamented in a similar manner4 ,the western face is lowest and easiest of ascent1 the northern the most difficult4 ,all are worn into furrows by the weather2 and in some places1 where several channels of rain have united together1 these furrows are of great depth1 and penetrate a considerable way into the mound4 ,the summit is covered with heaps of rubbish1 in digging into some of which1 layers of broken burnt brick1 cemented with mortar1 are discovered1 and whole bricks1 with inscriptions on them1 are here and there found4 ,the whole is covered with innumerable fragments of pottery1 brick1 bitumen1 pebbles1 vitrified brick1 or scoria1 and even shells1 bits of glass1 and mother of pearl40 ,mr4 ,rich1 having now finished his observations on the ruins of the east bank of the ,euphrates1 enters upon the examination of what1 on the opposite west bank1 have been by some travelers supposed 7and their suppositions have been adopted by ,major ,rennel7 to be the remains of this great city4 ,those1 however1 which ,mr4 ,rich describes1 are of the most trifling kind1 scarcely exceeding one hundred yards in extent1 and wholly consisting of two or three insignificant mounds of earth1 overgrown with rank grass4 ,the country1 too1 being marshy1 he doubts the possibility of there having been any buildings of considerable magnitude erected in that spot1 and1 much less1 buildings of the astonishing dimensions of those described by the classical writers of antiquity4 ,he then opens to our view a new and almost unexplored remain of ancient grandeur1 in the following passage4 8,but1 although there are not any ruins in the immediate vicinity of the river1 by far the most stupendous and surprising mass of all the remains of ,babylon is situated in the desert about six miles to the south-west of ,hella4 ,it is called by the ,arabs ,birs ,nimrod1 by the ,jews1 ,nebuchadnezzar's prison4 ,it is a mound of an oblong figure1 the total circumference of which is seven hundred and sixty-two yards4 ,at the eastern side it is cloven by a deep furrow1 and is not more than fifty or sixty feet high2 but at the western it rises in a conical figure to the elevation of one hundred and ninety-eight feet2 and on its summit is a solid pile of brick1 thirty-seven feet high by twenty-eight in breadth1 diminishing in thickness to the top1 which is broken and irregular1 and rent by a large fissure extending through a third of its hight4 ,it is perforated by small square holes1 disposed in rhomboids4 ,the fine burnt bricks of which it is built have inscriptions on them2 and so admirable is the cement1 which appears to be lime-mortar1 that1 though the layers are so close together that it is difficult to discern what substance is between them1 it is nearly impossible to extract one of the bricks whole4 ,the other parts of the summit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of brick-work1 of no determinate figure1 tumbled together and converted into solid vitrified masses1 as if they had undergone the action of the fiercest fire1 or been blown up with gunpowder1 the layers of the bricks being perfectly discernible2 a curious fact1 and one for which ,i am utterly incapable of accounting4 ,round the ,birs are traces of ruins to a considerable extent4 ,to the north is the canal which supplies ,mesjiid ,ali with water1 which was dug at the expense of the ,nuwaub ,shujahed ,doulah1 and called after his country1 ,hindia4 ,we are informed that1 from the summit of the ,birs1 in a clear morning1 the gilt dome of ,mesjiid ,ali may be seen40 ,before passing on to a brief notice of the later discoveries at ,babylon1 a word may be said on the subject of the ,,babylonian ,,bricks4 ,one of the ancient methods of writing1 was on stone or brick1 of which1 as the earliest example on record1 if allowable to be cited1 may be adduced that of the two pillars of ,seth1 the one of brick and the other of stone1 said by ,josephus to have been erected before the deluge1 and to have contained the history of antediluvian arts and sciences4 ,however disputable this account may be1 that of the tables of stone on which the decalogue was written by the finger of the ,deity1 and delivered to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 can admit of no doubt1 no more than can the hieroglyphic characters in the most ancient periods1 engraved on the marbles of ,egypt1 at present so abundant in the collections of ,europe1 and which remain to this day1 and will be1 for centuries to come1 a lasting proof of the high advance in the engraving art1 as well as in chemical science1 of a nation1 who1 at that early period1 could fabricate instruments to cut them so deep and indelibly on the almost impenetrable granite4 ,in countries destitute of stone1 like ,chaldea1 an artificial substance1 clay1 intermixed with reeds1 and indurated by fire1 was made use of for that purpose4 ,of this substance1 formed into square masses1 covered with mystic characters1 the walls and palaces of ,babylon were1 for the most part1 constructed3 and it has been seen in the accounts of travelers who have visited these ruins1 examined the bricks1 and observed those reeds intermingled with their substance1 how durable1 through a vast succession of ages1 those bricks1 with their inscribed characters1 have remained4 ,their real meaning1 or that of the ,persepolitan arrow-headed obelistical characters1 and the still more complicated hieroglyphics of ,egypt1 however partially deciphered by the labors of the learned1 will1 perhaps1 never be fathomed in its full extent1 by the utmost ingenuity of man4 ,of the bitumen with which these ,babylonian bricks were cemented together1 and which was plentifully produced in the neighborhood of ,babylon1 it may be proper in this place to remark1 that it binds stronger than mortar1 and in time becomes harder than the brick itself4 ,it was also impenetrable to water1 as was formerly well known1 for both the outside and the inside of the ark was incrusted with it4 ,gen4 vi4 #ad4 ,it may be proper to add here1 that the bitumen1 to deprive it of its brittleness1 and render it capable of being applied to the brick1 must be boiled with a certain proportion of oil1 and that it retains its tenacity longest in a humid situation4 ,mr4 ,rich informs us1 that it is 8at present principally used for calking boats1 coating cisterns1 baths1 and other places which usually come in contact with water4 ,the fragments of it scattered over the ruins of ,babylon are black1 shining and brittle1 somewhat resembling pit-coal in substance and appearance40 ,it will not be forgotten1 that the custom above alluded to1 of mixing straw or reeds with bricks baked in the sun1 in order to bind them closer1 and so make them more firm and compact1 was also used in ,egypt1 as may be inferred from ,exodus v4 #g1 where ,pharaoh commands the taskmasters of the oppressed ,israelites 8not to give them straw to make bricks10 in order to multiply their vexations and increase their toil4 ,speaking of the ,babylonian bricks1 and their variety in respect to size1 color1 hardness1 c41 ,mr4 ,rich tells us1 that the general size of the kiln-burnt brick is thirteen inches square1 by three thick2 and that some are of about half these dimensions1 and a few of different shapes for particular purposes1 such as rounding corners1 c4 ,they are of different colors3 white1 with a yellowish tinge1 like what are called fire-brick2 red1 like our ordinary brick1 which are the coarsest of all2 and some blackish1 and very hard4 ,the sun-dried brick are generally the largest1 and more or less mixed with chopped straw1 for the obvious purpose of binding them2 and some even of the fire-burnt bricks seem to have been made of the same material4 ,in the palace1 or ,kasr1 ,mr4 ,rich found far finer specimens of art than the mere brick-work affords2 for in addition to the substances usually strewed on the surfaces of all these mounds1 he saw fragments of alabaster vessels1 fine earthen-ware1 marble1 and great quantities of varnished tiles1 the glazing and coloring of which was surprisingly fresh4 ,the process from making pottery to molding figures in clay1 was not difficult2 but the designs in brass1 and the grouping of figures1 must have required much greater skill and labor4 ,,later ,,discoveries ,,at ,,babylon4 ,as the traveler approaches very near to ,babylon1 from the north1 the first great ruin1 as we have already said1 is the 8mound of ,babel10 better known as the ,mujelib1 or the 8overturned10 a vast mound1 from the top of which rises a solitary mass of brick-work1 and beyond which are long undulating heaps of earth1 bricks and pottery4 ,on all sides are fragments of glass1 marble1 earthen-ware1 and inscribed brick1 mingled with that peculiar nitrous and blanched soil1 which1 bred from the remains of ancient habitations1 checks or destroys vegetation1 and renders the site of ,babylon a naked and hideous waste1 fit only for the abode of owls and jackals4 ,southward from this spot1 for nearly three miles1 there is an almost uninterrupted line of mounds1 the ruins of the vast edifices which once formed part of the city4 ,mr4 ,layard commenced his excavations in one of these mounds1 finding arrow-heads of iron and bronze1 glass bottles1 colored and ribbed1 and of various forms and sizes1 c41 c41 c4 ,on going deeper1 the workmen soon reached solid piers and walls of brick masonry1 many of the bricks bearing the usual superscription of ,nebuchadnezzar2 and the remains of similar buildings were found in various places4 ,but though ,mr4 ,layard's discoveries of this kind were numerous1 few things were brought to light materially different from what had been found and described by others before him4 ,about the year #ahej1 however1 the ,french government sent out three gentlemen to make scientific and artistic researches in ,media1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,babylon4 ,one1 ,m4 ,jules ,oppert1 has just returned to ,paris1 7#ahed17 and it appears1 from his report1 that he and his colleagues thought it advisable to begin by confining themselves to the exploration of ancient ,babylon4 ,this task was one of immense difficulty1 and it was enhanced by the excessive heat of the sun1 by privations of all kinds1 and by the incessant hostility of the ,arabs4 ,after a while ,m4 ,oppert's two colleagues fell ill1 so that all the labors of the expedition devolved on him4 ,he first of all made excavations of the ruins of the famous suspended gardens of ,babylon1 which are now known by the name of the hall of ,amran-ibn-,ali2 and obtained in them a number of curious architectural and other objects1 which are destined to be placed in the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,he next1 in obedience to the special orders of his government1 took measures for ascertaining the precise extent of ,babylon1 a matter which the reader is aware has always been open to controversy4 ,he has succeeded in making a series of minute surveys1 and in drawing up detailed plans of the immense city4 ,his opinion is1 that even the largest calculations as to its vast extent are not exaggerated2 and he puts down that extent at the astounding figure of five hundred square kilometres1 ,french measure1 7the square kilometre is eleven hundred and ninety-six square yards47 ,this is very nearly eighteen times the size of ,paris4 ,but1 of course1 he does not say that this enormous area was occupied1 or anything like it3 it comprised within the walls huge tracts of cultivated lands and gardens1 for supplying the population with food in the event of a siege4 ,m4 ,oppert has discovered the ,babylonian and ,assyrian measures1 and by means of them has ascertained exactly what part of the city was inhabited1 and what part was in fields and gardens4 ,on the limits of the town1 properly so called1 stands at present the flourishing town of ,hillah4 ,this town1 situated on the banks of the ,euphrates1 is built with bricks from the ruins1 and many of the household utensils1 and personal ornaments of its inhabitants1 are taken from them also4 ,beyond this town is the vast fortress1 strengthened by ,nebuchadnezzar1 and in the midst of it is the royal palace1 itself almost as large as a town4 ,m4 ,oppert says1 that he was also able to distinguish the ruins of the famous tower of ,babel2 they are most imposing1 and stand on a site formerly called ,borsippa1 or the tower of languages4 ,the royal town1 situated on the two banks of the ,euphrates1 covers a space of nearly seven square kilometres1 and contains most interesting ruins4 ,amongst them are those of the royal palace1 the fortress1 and the suspended gardens4 ,in the collection of curiosities which ,m4 ,oppert has brought away with him1 is a vase1 which he declares to date from the time of one of the ,chaldean sovereigns named ,narambel1 that is1 somewhere about sixteen hundred years before ,christ2 also a number of copies of cuneiform inscriptions which he has every reason to believe that he will be able to decipher4 ,it may not be out of place1 to add1 here1 that in the excavations recently made in ,persia1 it is said that the palace of ,shushan and the tomb of ,daniel have probably been found2 and also the very pavement described in ,esther i4 #f1 8of red1 and blue1 and white1 and black marble40 ,on the tomb is the sculptured figure of a man bound hand and foot1 with a huge lion in the act of springing upon him to devour him4 ,no history could speak more graphically the story of ,daniel in the lion's den4 ,various other discoveries have also been made1 all of which bear out the statements of the ,old ,testament history as to the times of the prophet1 and the nation of which he speaks4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,nineveh4 ,nineveh1 famous in the ancient world1 as the splendid capital of the ,assyrian empire1 had been hidden some two thousand years in its unknown grave1 when a ,french savant and a wandering ,english scholar sought out the seat of that once mighty power1 and throwing off its shroud of sand and ruin1 revealed to the astonished world its temples1 palaces1 and idols1 the representations of the wars of the ancient ,assyrians1 and their triumphs in civilization and art4 ,niebuhr was one of the first to give attention to these ruins1 and especially to stimulate the curiosity and enterprise of others4 ,and after him ,rich1 ,botta1 and others1 and especially and above all1 ,layard1 carried on investigations which have brought to light the wonderful remains of this long-buried city4 ,the earliest successful excavations were made by ,botta at ,khorsabad1 in #ahdc2 and by these he was led on to the discovery of an immense monument worthy to be compared in richness and ornament to the most sumptuous productions bequeathed us by ancient ,egypt4 ,the first discovery was of the remains of a chamber1 which evidently was but part of a large building buried in the mound1 the walls of which were covered with bass-reliefs4 ,and next1 finding a bronze lion1 and the heads and wings of the winged bulls1 ,m4 ,botta was satisfied that the whole space was full of ancient remains4 ,after various difficulties and obstacles1 which were at length overcome1 in #ahdd1 he had three hundred laborers at work making excavations1 while an artist copied the bass-reliefs and inscriptions as fast as they were uncovered4 ,these1 with the most remarkable and best preserved pieces of sculpture1 were sent to ,paris1 where they arrived in #ahdf1 and where they now form one of the greatest attractions in the noble museum of the ,louvre4 ,the last and most important1 however1 of the laborers in the field of ,assyrian antiquities1 is ,austen ,henry ,layard1 who visited this region in #ahdj1 and again in #ahdb4 ,in #ahde1 under the patronage1 and through the assistance of ,sir ,stratford ,canning1 he again went to ,assyria1 and commencing his excavations1 first discovered the long wished for bass-reliefs on the twenty-eighth of ,november4 ,soon afterward he dug up a gigantic human head1 much to the terror of the ,arabs1 who believed it to be the head of ,nimrod himself4 ,next1 he came upon a rich collection of sculptures1 in an excellent state of preservation1 among which were kings1 priests1 griffins1 eunuchs1 symbolic trees1 c41 c4 ,another discovery was that of a vaulted chamber1 in the center of a wall some fifty feet thick1 and fifteen feet below the surface of the mound1 the top of which was as regularly arched as any modern room could be4 ,tubular drain-tiles for carrying off the water that fell from the roofs of buildings1 and thin layers of bitumen under the floors and slabs1 to keep them from the dampness of the ground beneath1 were also discovered in various places4 ,the gigantic lions which ,m4 ,botta had seen1 were also examined by ,mr4 ,layard2 and new chambers1 covered with bass-reliefs of battles1 sieges1 victories1 triumphs1 banquetings1 sacrifices1 c41 were explored4 ,a large obelisk of black marble was shipped for ,england2 and from some twenty chambers explored within about four months1 numerous articles were gathered and sent forward to the same country4 ,as a specimen of the wonderful sculptures brought to light by the indefatigable labors of ,layard1 we may mention the colossal winged bull1 represented in the cut on page #ehd4 ,the features of the face1 the cap on the head1 and the arrangement of the hair and beard1 are ,persian4 ,the wings extend over the back4 ,the figure is supposed to represent one of the ,assyrian deities1 as the attributes of intelligence1 strength1 and swiftness1 are typified by the head of a man1 the body of a bull1 and the wings of an eagle4 ,somewhat similar to this was another large sculpture of a colossal winged lion1 on a slab nine feet square4 ,the countenance of this figure is noble and benevolent in expression2 the features being of a true ,persian type4 ,it wears an egg-shaped cap1 with a cord round the base of it4 ,the hair at the back of the head has seven ranges of curls2 the beard being divided into three ranges of curls1 with intervals of wavy hair4 ,the elaborately sculptured wings extend over the back of the animal to the very verge of the slab4 ,all the flat surface is covered with what is termed a cuneiform inscription4 ,round the loins is a succession of numerous cords1 which are drawn into four separate knots2 at the extremities are fringes1 forming as many distinct tassels4 ,the strength of the lion is admirably delineated in the sculpture1 showing that the artist had a complete acquaintance with the details of its figure and anatomy4 ,both these huge sculptures were sent to ,england1 though only with immense labor and expense2 and they are now in the ,british museum4 ,illustration3 ,,colossal ,,winged ,,bull ,,from ,,nineveh4 ,in the brief space which can be allotted to the ruins of ,nineveh1 it would be impossible to give more than a glance at all the wonderful discoveries made there4 ,a mere outline is all that will be attempted1 while for the complete description1 the reader is referred to the published volumes of ,layard himself4 ,the platform of ,khorsabad1 for example1 was in somewhat the shape of the letter ,t2 and the latter1 or south-eastern end of this was nine hundred and seventy-five feet wide1 by four hundred and twenty deep2 and here some of the principal monuments were found4 ,the great portal to the building1 forming the center of the faade1 consisted1 on each side1 of three colossal bulls1 with human heads and eagles' wings1 and a gigantic figure of a man1 each formed of a single block of alabaster4 ,passing through this gateway1 we come to a court three hundred and forty by one hundred and fifty-seven feet1 the entrance of which is guarded by symbolic figures which are combinations of the man1 the bull1 and the eagle1 bearing a general resemblance to those spoken of above4 ,near by is a gigantic figure1 supposed to be intended for ,nimrod himself2 and also another of a winged man1 or divinity1 with four wings1 offering a pine cone with one hand1 and holding a basket in the other4 ,in the different chambers1 are bass-reliefs of the great king and his officers1 in their various appropriate dresses2 the sword1 the sandals1 the bracelets1 the ear-rings1 and even the fly-flappers of the attending eunuchs1 all being perfectly distinct as if carved but yesterday4 ,not far from these1 are seen the king's cup-bearers1 and his grooms leading horses2 a representation of the building of a port1 or road1 and ships bringing timber and other materials to be used in the work2 and then come sea-monsters and various inhabitants of the deep1 among which are the shell-fish which furnished the famous ,tyrian dye4 ,in another apartment1 the gate of which was fastened by a huge wooden lock1 are seen the figures of tribute-bearers from the various conquered nations1 the governors of provinces1 c41 bringing their offerings2 and in another1 priests1 and the eagle-headed divinity1 the king himself1 and images of baked clay1 of frightful aspect1 which seem to have been teraphim or idols of some kind4 ,in still other apartments1 are the symbolic trees2 sieges of highly fortified places1 with battering-rams and other instruments of war2 manacled prisoners2 bow-men and spear-men2 eunuchs engaged1 in one place in weighing spoil1 and in another in hewing a prisoner to pieces2 the magi1 and philosophers2 courts of justice2 prisoners bound for trial or punishment2 the king putting out the eyes of a captive2 full illustrations of the pleasures of the table and the chase2 the king and his sons engaged in hunting1 and also in shooting at a target2 various kinds of birds and animals2 full historical pictures of various events2 the burning of forts and besieged cities2 chairs1 altars1 chariots1 horses1 tables1 vases1 c43 in a word1 almost everything connected with the daily life1 or social customs1 or civil history of the people4 ,the king's court1 the historical chamber1 the inner chamber1 the divining-chamber1 the hall of judgment1 the hall of historical records1 the chamber of audience1 the presence-chamber1 the banqueting-hall1 the retiring-chamber--all these are but a part of the names of apartments in this single palace1 each of which abounds in the sculptures and bass-reliefs which are naturally suggested by their respective titles4 ,a large number of these wonderful sculptures have been transported to ,england1 and are now in the ,british museum4 ,the great winged lion and bull are there1 to fix the attention and excite the wonder of every visitor2 and with these1 more than a hundred other sculptures or bass-reliefs representing scenes like those already described4 ,many of these are from ,nimroud1 where have been found some representations not mentioned above1 such1 for example1 as various forms of chariots2 mummers dancing2 stables1 and horses being curried2 the interior of the royal kitchen2 birds of prey1 picking at the dead and dying on the battle-field2 troops crossing rivers2 the siege of ,damascus2 lion and bull hunts2 ,parthian bow-men2 the felling of trees2 elephants1 camels1 and monkeys1 c41 c41 all in a style of both art and sculpture quite different from those at ,khorsabad1 and apparently less ancient than the latter4 ,and in addition to all these things1 the sculptures relating to costume and dress are quite numerous in many of the apartments of these ruins4 ,the head-dress1 the mode of wearing the beard and hair1 vases1 rings1 bracelets1 umbrellas1 bronzes1 the arrangement of funerals1 ivory caskets and ornaments1 carved heads of various animals1 7used as ornaments17 and many other kinds of curiosities1 have been found in great numbers4 ,among the more recent discoveries1 made so lately as #ahej1 ,mr4 ,layard thinks he has found1 in the ,nimroud mound1 the very throne on which the reigning monarch of some three thousand years ago sat in his splendid palace4 ,it is composed of metal and ivory2 the former being richly wrought1 and the latter most beautifully carved4 ,it seems to have been separated from the state apartments by means of a large curtain1 the rings by which this was drawn and undrawn being still preserved4 ,no human remains have been found1 and everything indicates the destruction of the palace by fire2 the throne itself being partially fused1 as if by great heat4 ,beautifully engraved copper vessels have been found at ,nimroud2 and in ,nineveh1 a large assortment of slabs illustrative of the rule1 conquests1 domestic life1 and arts of the ancient ,assyrians2 and apparently there can be no limit to the number of such discoveries1 if they are but prosecuted for a sufficient length of time1 and with a sufficient number of laborers4 ,in #aheb1 ,mr4 ,layard was appointed to an important official post at home1 by the ,british government1 so that his personal attention to the researches he had so long carried on1 was of course suspended4 ,but since that date1 the ,french explorers have been able to examine the whole palace of ,khorsabad and its dependencies2 in doing which1 they have obtained proof that the ,assyrians were not ignorant of any of the principles or resources of architecture4 ,among their discoveries1 is a gate twelve feet high1 apparently one of the entrances to the city2 several constructions in marble1 beautifully wrought2 the cellar of the palace1 with regular rows of wine jars1 which have at the bottom the violet-colored deposit from the evaporated wine1 c4 ,and in the adjoining mounds and hills within a few leagues of ,khorsabad1 they have found monuments1 tombs1 jewelry1 articles of gold and stone1 colossal figures and bass-reliefs1 and last1 but far from least1 a series of full length portraits of the kings of ,assyria6 ,all these discoveries1 as soon as made1 are copied by the photographic process1 and sent to ,paris1 so that ere long1 doubtless1 all will be able to see how they appear when reproduced by the skill of the engraver4 ,,the ,,ruins ,,of ,,persepolis4 ,the most striking feature1 on a first approach to these splendid ruins1 is the staircase and its surrounding walls1 and the tall slender columns which stand out so prominently to view4 ,two grand flights of stairs1 facing each other1 lead to the principal platform4 ,to their right is an immense wall of the finest masonry1 and of the most massive stones2 to the left1 are other walls1 equally well built1 but not so imposing4 ,on arriving at the summit of the staircase1 the first objects which present themselves directly facing the platform1 are four vast portals and two columns4 ,two portals first1 then the columns1 and then two portals again4 ,on the front of each are represented1 in bass-relief1 figures of animals1 which1 for want of a better name1 may be called sphinxes4 ,the two sphinxes on the first portals face outwardly1 i4 e41 toward the plain and the front of the building4 ,the two others1 on the second portals1 face inwardly1 i4 e41 toward the mountain4 ,from the first1 7to the right1 on a straight line17 at the distance of fifty-four paces1 is a staircase of thirty steps1 the sides of which are ornamented with bass-reliefs1 originally in three rows1 but now partly reduced by the accumulation of earth beneath1 and by mutilations above4 ,this staircase leads to the principal compartment of the whole ruins1 which may be called a small plain1 thickly studded with columns1 sixteen of which are now erect4 ,having crossed this plain1 on an eminence are numerous stupendous remains of frames1 both of windows and doors1 formed by blocks of marble of sizes most magnificent4 ,these frames are ranged in a square and indicate an apartment the most royal that can be conceived4 ,on each side of the frames are sculptured figures1 and the marble still retains a polish which1 in its original state1 must have vied with the finest mirrors4 ,on each corner of this room are pedestals1 of an elevation much more considerable than the surrounding frames3 one is formed of a single block of marble4 ,the front of this apartment seems to have been to the south-west1 for few marks of masonry are to be seen on that exposure1 and the base of that side is richly sculptured and ornamented4 ,this front opens upon a square platform1 on which no building appears to have been raised4 ,but on the side opposite to the room just mentioned1 there is the same appearance of a corresponding apartment1 although nothing but the bases of some small columns1 and the square of its floor1 attest it to have been such4 ,the interval between these two rooms1 7on those angles which are the most distant from the grand front of the building17 is filled up by the base of a sculpture1 similar to the bases of the two rooms1 excepting that the center of it is occupied by a small flight of steps4 ,behind1 and contiguous to these ruins1 are the remains of another square room1 surrounded on all sides by frames of doors and windows4 ,on the floor are the bases of columns3 from the order in which they appear to have stood1 they formed six rows1 each of six columns4 ,a staircase1 cut into an immense mass of rock1 leads into the lesser and inclosed plain below4 ,toward the plain are also three smaller rooms1 or rather one room and the bases of two closets4 ,everything on this part of the building indicates rooms of rest or retirement4 ,in the rear of the whole of these remains1 are the beds of aqueducts1 which are cut into the solid rock4 ,they occur in every part of the building1 and are probably1 therefore1 as extensive in their course1 as they are magnificent in their construction4 ,the great aqueduct is to be discovered among a confused heap of stones1 not far behind the buildings described above1 on that quarter of the palace1 and almost adjoining to a ruined staircase4 ,its bed in some places is cut ten feet into the rock4 ,this bed leads east and west2 to the eastward its descent is rapid1 about twenty-five paces2 it there narrows1 but again enlarges1 so that a man of common hight may stand upright in it4 ,it terminates by an abrupt rock4 ,proceeding from this toward the mountains1 situated in the rear of the great hall of columns1 stand the remains of a magnificent room4 ,here are still left walls1 frames and porticos1 the sides of which are thickly ornamented with bass-reliefs of a variety of compositions4 ,this hall is a perfect square4 ,to the right of this1 and further to the southward1 are more fragments1 the walls and component parts apparently of another room4 ,to the left of this1 and therefore to the northward of the building1 are the remains of a portal1 on which are to be traced the features of a sphinx4 ,still toward the north1 in a separate collection1 is the ruin of a column1 which1 from the fragments about it1 must have supported a sphinx4 ,in a recess of the mountain1 to the northward1 is a portico4 ,almost in a line with the center of the hall of columns1 on the surface of the mountain1 is a tomb4 ,to the southward of that is another1 in like manner on the mountain's surface2 between both1 and just on the point where the ascent from the plain commences1 is a reservoir of water4 ,these1 according to ,mr4 ,morier1 in the account of his embassy to ,persia1 constitute some of the principal objects among the ruins of ,persepolis2 and this is confirmed by ,sir ,robert ,ker ,porter1 who gives still more copious accounts of these ruins1 as may be seen in the very interesting narrative of his travels4 ,,royal ,,palace ,,of ,,ispahan4 ,the palaces of the king are inclosed in a fort of lofty walls1 which is estimated to have a circumference of three miles4 ,the palace of the ,chehel ,sitoon1 or #8forty pillars1' is situated in the middle of an immense square1 which is intersected by various canals1 and planted in different directions by the beautiful chenar tree4 ,in front is an extensive square basin of water1 from the furthest extremity of which the palace is beautiful beyond either the power of language or the correctness of pencil to delineate4 ,the first saloon is open toward the garden1 is supported by eighteen pillars1 all inlaid with mirrors1 and1 the glass being in a much greater proportion than the wood1 appears at a distance to be formed of glass only4 ,each pillar has a marble base1 which is carved into the figures of four lions placed in such attitudes1 that the shaft seems to rest on their four united backs4 ,the walls1 which form its termination behind1 are also covered with mirrors placed in such a variety of symmetrical positions1 that the mass of the structure appears to be of glass1 and when new must have glittered with most magnificent splendor4 ,the ceiling is painted in gold flowers1 which are still fresh and brilliant4 ,large curtains are suspended on the outside1 which are occasionally lowered to lessen the heat of the sun4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,mecca4 ,this magnificent temple1 to which pilgrims resort from every quarter of the globe where the religion of ,islamism is practiced1 is known by the ,mussulmans under the name of ,el ,haram1 or the temple of excellence4 ,it is situated nearly in the middle of the city1 which is built in a valley1 having a considerable slope from the north to the south4 ,it is composed of the house of ,god1 ,beit ,allah1 or as it is called also1 ,la ,kaaba2 of the well of ,zemzem1 ,bir ,zemzem2 of the ,cobba1 or place of ,abraham1 ,makham ,ibrahim2 of the places of the four orthodox rites1 ,makam ,hhaneffi1 ,makam ,shaffi1 ,makam ,maleki1 and ,makam ,hhanbeli2 of two ,cobbas1 or chapels1 ,el-,cobbatain2 of an arch1 called ,babes-selem1 7in the same style as a triumphal arch17 near the place of ,abraham2 of ,el-,monbar or the tribune for the priest2 of the wooden staircase1 ,daureh1 which leads to the saloon of the house of ,god2 of an immense court1 surrounded by a triple row of arches2 of two smaller courts1 surrounded with elegant piazzas2 of nineteen doors2 and of seven towers1 or minarets1 five of which adhere to the edifice1 and the other two are placed between the neighboring houses out of the inclosure4 ,la ,kaaba1 ,beit ,allah1 or the house of ,god1 is a quadrilateral tower1 the sides and angles of which are unequal1 so that its plan forms a true trapezium4 ,the size of the edifice1 and the black cloth which covers it1 make this irregularity disappear1 and give to it the figure of a perfect square4 ,the black stone1 ,hhajera el ,assouad1 or heavenly stone1 which all true ,mussulmans believe to have been brought thither by the angel ,gabriel1 is raised forty-two inches above the surface1 and is bordered all round with a large plate of silver1 about a foot broad4 ,the part of the stone that is not covered by the silver at the angle is almost a semicircle1 six inches in hight1 by about eight inches diameter at its base4 ,el ,bir ,zemzem1 or the well of ,zemzem1 is situated fifty-one feet distant to the north-east of the black stone4 ,it is about seven feet and eight inches in diameter1 and fifty-six feet deep to the surface of the water4 ,the brim is of fine white marble1 five feet high4 ,tradition says that this well was miraculously opened by the angel of the ,lord for ,hagar1 when she was nearly perishing from thirst in the desert with her son ,ishmael1 after having been sent from ,abraham's house4 ,the ,kaaba1 and the stones of ,ishmael1 are situated nearly in the center of the temple1 and occupy the middle of an oval or irregular elliptical surface1 which forms a zone of thirty-nine feet wide round the edifice1 upon which the pilgrims make their tours round the ,kaaba4 ,it is paved with fine marble1 and is situated upon the lowest plane of the temple4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,the ,,holy ,,land4 ------------------------------------ ,the entire country known as ,palestine1 or ,judea1 or the ,holy ,land1 is full of interest1 and associated to our minds with the wonders and miracles connected with the advent of ,christ to our world4 ,time would fail to notice all the localities of this country1 on which the mind loves to linger2 but a few of them will be alluded to4 ,one of these1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 is ,illustration3 ,,jacob',s ,,well4 ,,jacob',s ,,well4 ,this was near to ,shechem1 one of the most ancient cities of ,canaan1 which was the capital of the kingdom of ,israel in the time of ,jeroboam1 and was associated with some of the most interesting events of patriarchal times1 as well as with the discourse of ,christ to the woman of ,samaria1 which resulted in the conversion of several of the ,samaritans to the true faith4 8,i found this well10 says a late traveler1 8in the midst of the ruins of a magnificent building that once covered and adorned it4 ,hewn stones1 blocks of marble1 and fragments of granite columns1 were to be seen amid the general wreck4 ,the narrow mouth of the well was stopped up with large loose stones1 at which we all tugged until ,i nearly broke my back2 but one of them defied our utmost endeavors4 ,i kneeled down and peeped into the arched chamber1 from the floor of which the well proper is sunk into the living rock some hundred feet or more4 ,a little1 gray-headed old ,arab held my horse2 the younger men stood around and looked on1 while ,i sat down at the indubitable well of the patriarch1 and read3 #8,jesus1 therefore1 being wearied with his journey1 sat thus on the well3 and it was about the sixth hour4 ,there cometh a woman of ,samaria to draw water4 ,jesus saith unto her1 ,give me to drink4 7,for his disciples had gone away unto the city to buy meat47 ,then saith the woman unto him1 ,how is it that thou1 being a ,jew1 askest drink of me1 who am a woman of ,samaria8 7for the ,jews have no dealings with the ,samaritans47 ,jesus answered and said unto her1 ,if thou knewest the gift of ,god1 and who it is that saith to thee1 ,give me to drink1 thou wouldst have asked of him1 and he would have given thee living water4 ,the woman saith unto him1 ,sir1 thou hast nothing to draw with1 and the well is deep2 from whence1 then1 hast thou that living water8 ,art thou greater than our father ,jacob1 who gave us the well and drank thereof himself1 and his children1 and his cattle8 ,jesus answered and said unto her1 ,whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again2 but whosoever drinketh of the water that ,i shall give him shall never thirst2 but the water that ,i shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life4' ,here ,i closed the book1 and with a gush of unutterable joy1 exclaimed1 #8,spring up1 ,o well1 ,i ever cry1 spring up within ,,my soul6'0 ,,bethlehem4 ,bethlehem1 celebrated throughout the world as the birthplace of the ,redeemer1 is situated at the distance of six miles south-west from ,jerusalem1 in a fine country1 blest with a salubrious air1 and abundant fertility4 ,the water is conveyed in a low aqueduct which formerly passed to ,jerusalem4 ,the fons signatus is a charming spring1 yielding a constant supply of water to three large cisterns1 one of which is still in good preservation4 ,at a small distance from these1 a beautiful rivulet called the delici ,solomonis1 laves the herbage of the valley1 and fertilizes several fine gardens1 while the circumjacent soil is richly clothed with an elegant assemblage of fig-trees1 vines and olives4 ,bethlehem received its name1 which signifies the house of bread1 from ,abraham2 and it was surnamed ,ephratah1 the fruitful1 after ,caleb's wife1 to distinguish it from another ,bethlehem1 in the tribe of ,zebulon4 ,it belonged to the tribe of ,judah1 and also went by the name of the city of ,david1 that monarch having there been born1 and tended sheep in his childhood4 ,elimelech1 ,obed1 ,jesse1 and ,boaz1 were1 like ,david1 natives of ,bethlehem1 and here must be placed the scene of the admirable eclogue of ,ruth4 ,matthew1 the apostle1 was also born in the village of ,bethlehem4 ,the convent now at ,bethlehem is connected with the church by a court inclosed with lofty walls4 ,this court leads by a small side door into the church4 ,the edifice is certainly of high antiquity1 and though often destroyed and as often repaired1 it still retains marks of its ,grecian origin4 ,on the pavement at the foot of the altar1 you observe a marble star1 which corresponds1 as tradition would have us believe1 with the point of the heavens where the miraculous star that conducted the three kings became stationary4 ,the ,greeks occupy the choir of the ,magi1 as well as the two other naves formed by the transform of the cross4 ,these last are empty1 and without altars4 ,two spiral staircases1 each composed of fifteen steps1 open on the sides of the outer church1 and conduct to the subterraneous church situated beneath this choir4 ,at the further extremity of the crypt1 on the east side1 is the spot where tradition reports that the ,redeemer of mankind was born4 ,this spot is marked by a white marble1 incrusted with jasper1 and surrounded by a circle of silver1 having rays resembling those with which the sun is represented4 ,around it are inscribed these words3 ,,hic ,,de ,,virgine ,,maria ,,jesus ,,christus ,,natus ,,est4 ,at the distance of seven paces toward the south1 after you have passed the foot of one of the staircases leading to the upper church1 you find what is called 8the ,manger40 ,you go down to it by two steps1 for it is not upon a level with the rest of the crypt4 ,it is a low recess1 hewn out of the rock4 ,a block of white marble1 raised about a foot above the floor1 and hollowed in the form of a manger1 indicates the spot where tradition says our ,saviour was laid upon straw4 ,two paces further1 opposite to the manger1 stands an altar1 which1 the same tradition would teach1 occupies the place where ,mary sat when she presented the ,child of ,sorrow to the adoration of the ,magi4 ,nothing can be more pleasing to the view than this subterraneous church4 ,it is adorned with pictures of the ,italian and ,spanish schools4 ,these pictures represent the mysteries of the place1 the ,virgin and ,child1 after ,raphael1 the annunciation1 the adoration of the wise men1 the coming of the shepherds1 and all those miracles of mingled grandeur and innocence4 ,the ornaments of the manger are of blue satin embroidered with silver4 ,incense is continually smoking before the cradle of the ,saviour4 ,the grotto of the ,nativity leads to the subterraneous chapel1 where tradition places the sepulcher of the ,innocents3 8,herod sent forth and slew all the children that were in ,bethlehem1 and in all the coasts thereof1 from two years old and under4 ,then was fulfilled that which was spoken by ,jeremiah the prophet1 saying3 ,in ,rama was there a voice heard10 c4 ,,nazareth4 ,the village of ,nazareth is situated in a long valley1 surrounded by lofty hills1 between which a road leads to the neighboring plain of ,esdraelon1 and to ,jerusalem4 ,the convent is situated in the lower part of the village2 and the church belonging to it1 a very handsome edifice1 is erected over the grotto1 or cave1 in which 7tradition says7 the ,virgin ,mary took up her residence4 ,the other objects of interest in ,nazareth are1 the synagogue1 where ,christ is said to have read the ,scriptures to the ,jews1 at present a church2 a precipice without the town1 where1 they say1 the ,jews endeavored to cast ,christ down after his speech in the synagogue2 and a church called 8the church of the ,annunciation10 erected1 as they say1 on the spot where ,mary1 the mother of our ,lord1 received the divine message4 ,it is the most magnificent church in the land except that of the ,holy ,sepulcher at ,jerusalem4 ,,the ,,holy ,,sepulcher ,,at ,,jerusalem4 ,the church of the ,holy ,sepulcher1 a view of which is given on the next page1 is very irregular1 owing to the nature and situation of the places which it was designed to comprehend4 ,it is nearly in the form of a cross1 being one hundred and twenty paces in length1 exclusive of the descent to what is called the place of the discovery of the ,holy ,cross1 and seventy in breadth4 ,it has three domes1 of which that covering the ,holy ,sepulcher serves for the nave of the church4 ,it is thirty feet in diameter1 and is covered at the top like the rotunda at ,rome4 ,there is not any cupola1 the roof being supported by large rafters1 brought from ,mount ,lebanon4 ,on entering the church1 you come to the 8stone of unction10 on which tradition says the body of our ,lord was anointed with myrrh and aloes1 before it was laid in the sepulcher4 ,some say1 that it is of the same rock as ,mount ,calvary2 and others assert1 that it was brought to this place by ,joseph and ,nicodemus1 secret disciples of ,jesus ,christ1 who performed this pious office1 and that it is of a greenish color4 ,be that as it may1 on account of the indiscretion of certain pilgrims1 who broke off pieces1 it was found necessary to cover it with white marble1 and to surround it with an iron railing1 lest people should walk over it4 ,this stone is eight feet1 wanting three inches1 in length1 and two feet1 wanting one inch1 in breadth3 and above it1 eight lamps are kept continually burning4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,sepulcher4 ,the ,holy ,sepulcher1 as it is called1 is thirty paces from this stone1 exactly in the center of the great dome3 it resembles a small closet1 hewn out of the solid rock4 ,the entrance1 which faces the east1 is only four feet high1 and two feet and a quarter broad4 ,the interior of the sepulcher is nearly square4 ,it is six feet1 wanting an inch1 in length1 and six feet1 wanting two inches1 in breadth1 and from the floor to the roof1 eight feet and one inch4 ,there is a solid block of the same stone1 which was left in excavating the other part3 this is two feet1 four inches and a half high1 and occupies half of the sepulcher1 for it is six feet1 wanting one inch1 in length1 and two feet and five-sixths wide4 ,on this table1 tradition says1 the body of our ,lord was laid1 with the head toward the west1 and the feet to the east2 but1 on account of the superstitious devotion of the ,orientals1 who imagine that1 if they leave their hair upon this stone1 ,god will never forsake them1 and also1 because the pilgrims broke off pieces1 it has received a covering of white marble1 on which mass is now celebrated4 ,forty-four lamps are constantly burning in this sacred place1 and three holes have been made in the roof for the emission of the smoke4 ,the exterior of the sepulcher is also faced with slabs of marble1 and adorned with several columns1 having a dome above4 ,the ,holy ,sepulcher is composed of three churches3 that of the ,holy ,sepulcher1 properly so called2 that of ,calvary2 and the church of the ,discovery of the ,holy ,cross4 ,the first is built in the valley at the foot of ,calvary1 on the spot where tradition reports that the body of ,christ was deposited4 ,this church was in the form of a cross1 the chapel of the ,holy ,sepulcher constituting1 in fact1 the nave of the edifice4 ,it is circular1 like the ,pantheon at ,rome1 and is lighted only by a dome1 beneath which is the sepulcher4 ,sixteen marble columns adorn the circumference of this rotunda3 they are connected by seventeen arches1 and support an upper gallery1 likewise composed of sixteen columns and seventeen arches1 of smaller dimensions than those of the lower range4 ,niches1 corresponding with the arches1 appear above the frieze of the second gallery1 and the dome springs from the arch of these niches4 ,the origin of the church of the ,holy ,sepulcher is of high antiquity4 ,the author of the 8,epitome of the ,holy ,war0 asserts1 that forty-six years after the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,vespasian and ,titus1 the ,christians obtained permission of ,adrian to build1 or rather rebuild1 a church over the tomb of their ,lord1 and to inclose1 in the new city1 the other places venerated by the ,christians4 ,this church1 he adds1 was greatly enlarged and repaired by ,helena1 the mother of ,constantine4 ,,mount ,,tabor4 ,this remarkable mountain1 a view of which is given in the cut on the next page1 is on the confines of ,zebulon and ,naphthali1 on the north-east border of the plain of ,esdraelon1 about six miles south of ,nazareth4 ,it is graceful and picturesque in its outlines1 presenting different appearances as viewed from different points1 which accounts for the diversities in the pictorial representations we have of it4 ,from the north it has the appearance of the segment of a sphere1 and appears beautifully wooded on the summit1 affording retreats to the animals for whom 8the net was spread on ,tabor40 7,hosea v4 #a47 ,from the west it is like a truncated cone1 appearing much steeper and higher1 with the southern side almost destitute of trees4 ,but on all sides it is a marked and prominent object1 as the prophet intimates when he says1 8as ,tabor is among the mountains40 7,jeremiah xlvi4 #ah47 ,the view from the summit is truly beautiful4 ,the foundations of ancient buildings1 and the remains of water-tanks1 in which cool water is still collected from the drippings of the rocks1 are still to be seen on the top of ,tabor4 ,on this mountain was the encampment of ,barak's army on the eve of its battle with the hosts of ,sisera4 7,judges iv4 #f1 #ad47 ,tradition indicates this as the scene of ,christ's transfiguration4 ,this may well be doubted1 owing to the distance of this mountain from ,csarea ,philippi1 near which place our ,lord left the nine disciples the day before4 ,besides1 this mountain was at the time occupied by a fortified town1 and thus did not1 as well as some other hights1 answer the description of 8a high mountain apart10 or solitary4 7,matthew xvii4 #a47 ,no doubt the name of the mountain was concealed by design1 to avoid giving occasion to the superstitious observances of place1 which our ,lord foresaw would be practiced1 in after ages1 by many calling themselves after his name4 ,the ,arab name of ,tabor is ,jebel-,tur4 ,there was a ,levitical city on ,tabor of the same name4 7#a ,chronicles vi4 #gg47 ,the ,tabor mentioned in #a ,samuel x4 #c1 was not ,mount ,tabor1 but a place in the vicinity of the territory of ,benjamin4 ,illustration3 ,,mount ,,tabor4 ,,the ,,mount ,,of ,,olives4 ,the following descriptions of some of the spots in the ,holy ,land which excite a more particular interest1 are extracted from ,dr4 ,clarke's very valuable 8,travels in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa40 8,as we advanced1 our journey led through an open campaign country1 until1 upon our right1 the guides showed us the mount where it is believed that ,christ preached to his disciples that memorable sermon1 concentrating the sum and substance of every ,christian virtue4 ,we left our route to visit this elevated spot2 and1 having attained the highest point of it1 a view was presented1 which1 for its grandeur1 independently of the interest excited by the different objects contained in it1 has no parallel in the ,holy ,land4 ,from this situation we perceived that the plain1 over which we had been so long riding1 was itself very elevated4 ,far beneath appeared other plains1 one lower than the other1 and extending to the surface of the sea of ,tiberias1 or sea of ,galilee4 ,this immense lake1 almost equal1 in the grandeur of its appearance1 to that of ,geneva1 spreads its waters over all the lower territory1 extending from the north-east toward the south-west1 and then bearing east of us4 ,its eastern shores present a sublime scene of mountains1 extending toward the north and south1 and seeming to close it in at either extremity1 both toward ,chorazin1 where the ,jordan enters1 and the ,aulon1 or ,campus-magnus1 through which it flows to the ,dead sea4 ,the cultivated plains reaching to its borders1 which we beheld at an amazing depth below our view1 resembled1 by the various hues their different produce exhibited1 the motley pattern of a vast carpet4 ,to the north appeared snowy summits1 towering1 beyond a series of intervening mountains1 with unspeakable greatness4 ,we considered them as the summits of ,libanus2 but the ,arabs belonging to our caravan called the principal eminence ,jebel el ,sieh1 saying it was near ,damascus2 probably1 therefore1 a part of the chain of ,libanus4 ,this summit was so lofty1 that the snow entirely covered the upper part of it2 not lying in patches1 as ,i have seen it1 during summer1 upon the tops of very elevated mountains1 7for instance1 upon that of ,ben ,nevis1 in ,scotland17 but investing all the higher part with that perfect white and smooth1 velvet-like appearance which snow exhibits when it is very deep2 a striking spectacle in such a climate1 where the beholder1 seeking protection from a burning sun1 almost considers the firmament to be on fire40 ,,other ,,revered ,,sites4 8,as we rode toward the sea of ,tiberias1 the guides pointed to a sloping spot from the hights upon our right1 whence we had descended1 as the place where the miracle was accomplished by which our ,saviour fed the multitude3 it is therefore called the ,multiplication of ,bread2 as the mount above1 where the sermon was preached to his disciples1 is called the ,mountain of ,beatitudes1 from the expressions used in the beginning of that discourse4 ,the lake now continued in view upon our left4 ,the wind rendered its surface rough1 and called to mind the situation of our ,saviour's disciples1 when1 in one of the small vessels which traverse these waters1 they were tossed in a storm1 and saw ,jesus in the fourth watch of the night1 walking to them upon the waves4 ,often as this subject has been painted1 combining a number of circumstances adapted for the representation of sublimity1 no artist has been aware of the uncommon grandeur of the scenery1 memorable on account of the transaction4 ,the lake of ,genesareth is surrounded by objects well calculated to highten the solemn impression made by such a picture2 and1 independent of the local feelings likely to be excited in its contemplation1 affords one of the most striking prospects in the ,holy ,land4 ,along the borders of this lake may still be seen the remains of those ancient tombs1 hewn by the earliest inhabitants of ,galilee1 in the rocks which face the water4 ,similar works were before noticed among the ruins of ,telmessus4 ,they were deserted in the time of our ,saviour1 and had become the resort of wretched men1 afflicted by diseases1 and made outcasts of society2 for in the account of the cure performed by our ,saviour upon a maniac in the country of the ,gadarenes1 these tombs are particularly alluded to2 and their existence to this day1 7although they have been neither noticed by priests nor pilgrims1 and have escaped the ravages of the empress ,helena1 who would undoubtedly have shaped them into churches17 offers strong internal evidence of the accuracy of the evangelist who has recorded the transaction3 #8,there met him out of the tombs a man with an unclean spirit1 who had his dwelling among the tombs4'0 ,,mount ,,carmel4 ,mount ,carmel is a tall promontory1 forming the termination of a range of hills1 in the northern part of ,palestine1 and toward the sea4 ,it is fifteen hundred feet high1 and is famous for its caverns1 which are said to be more than a thousand in number4 ,most of them are in the western part of it4 ,here also was the cave of the prophet ,elijah4 ,both ,elijah and ,elisha used to resort to this mountain1 and here it was that the former opposed the prophets of ,baal with such success4 ,here it was1 too1 that this prophet went up1 when he told his servant to look forth toward the sea yet seven times1 and the seventh time he saw a cloud coming from the sea 8like a man's hand20 when the prophet knew the promised rain was at hand1 and girded up his loins and ran before ,ahab's chariot even to the gates of ,jezreel4 7,see #a ,kings xviii4 #d-df47 ,,mount ,,ararat4 ,this mountain1 which is highly worthy of our notice as the one on which the ark rested1 is1 by the general consent of western ,asia and of ,europe1 decided to be the mountain of ,ara ,dagh in ,armenia2 and that this opinion is correct1 would seem plain from the statement of the ,bible that ,ararat was in ,armenia1 taken in connection with the fact1 that in all that country there is no mountain comparable to this4 ,it is in all respects a most noble mountain1 and one of the finest in the world4 8,when our eyes first beheld it10 says ,kitto1 8we had already seen the loftiest and most remarkable mountains of the old world2 but yet the effect of the view of this mountain was new and surprising4 ,the reason appeared to be this1 that most of the loftiest mountains of the world are but peaks of the uppermost ridge of mountain chains2 but ,ararat1 though not so high as many of these1 is far more grand and impressive1 because it is not merely the summit of a ridge1 but a whole and perfect mountain40 8,nothing10 as ,mr4 ,morier well remarks1 8can be more beautiful than its shape1 or more awful than its hight2 all the surrounding mountains sink into insignificance when compared with it4 ,it is perfect in all its parts2 having no hard1 rugged features1 and no unnatural prominences2 but everything is in harmony1 and all combines to render it one of the sublimest objects of nature40 ,it rises from the valley of the river ,aras1 the ancient ,araxes1 gradually towering from its broad base1 till it reaches the region of perpetual snow1 7which is about one-third below its summit17 when it becomes more conical and steep1 and is surmounted with a crown of ice which glitters in the sun with peculiar brightness4 ,and near to this peak1 and rising from the same broad base1 is another almost exactly like it1 but smaller1 which is doubtless the reason why the sacred text speaks of 8the mountains of ,ararat10 rather than of a single mountain4 ,the tallest of the two is seventeen thousand1 seven hundred and fifty1 and the lowest thirteen thousand1 four hundred and twenty feet above the level of the sea1 which is some three thousand feet lower than the plain on which ,ararat stands4 ,the top of the mountain1 it is said1 was never reached till #ahbi1 when ,mr4 ,parrot1 a ,german1 succeeded in climbing to it1 and there found a slightly convex1 and almost circular plain1 some two hundred and twenty feet in diameter1 declining steeply on all sides2 from which some suppose1 that the ark must have rested on the lesser ,ararat1 as it would have been difficult for its inmates1 including heavy cattle1 to have descended from the higher summit4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,wonders ,,of ,,art ,,resumed4 ------------------------------------ ,,the ,,mosque ,,of ,,omar4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 on viewing this mosque1 observes1 that 8the sight was so grand1 that he did not hesitate to pronounce it the most magnificent piece of architecture in the ,turkish empire1 and considered it1 externally1 far superior to the mosque of ,st4 ,sophia1 in ,constantinople40 ,by the sides of the spacious area in which it stands1 are certain vaulted remains1 which plainly denote the masonry of the ancients2 and he thinks that evidence may be adduced to prove1 that they belonged to the foundations of ,solomon's temple4 ,he observed also that reticulated stucco1 which is commonly considered as an evidence of ,roman work4 ,phocas believed the whole space surrounding this building to be the ancient area of the temple2 and ,golius1 in his notes upon the ,astronomy of ,alferganes1 says that the whole foundation of the original edifice remained4 ,as to the mosque itself1 there is no building at ,jerusalem that can be compared with it1 either in beauty or riches4 ,the lofty ,saracenic pomp so nobly displayed in the style of the building2 its numerous arcades2 its capacious dome1 with all the stately decorations of the place2 its extensive area1 paved and variegated with the choicest marbles2 the extreme neatness observed in every avenue toward it2 and1 lastly1 the sumptuous costume observable in the dresses of all the eastern devotees1 passing to and from the sanctuary1 make it altogether one of the finest sights the ,mohammedans have to boast4 ,,mosque ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia ,,at ,,constantinople4 ,the dome of this celebrated structure is one hundred and thirteen feet in diameter1 and is built on arches1 sustained by vast pillars of marble4 ,the pavement and staircase are also of marble4 ,there are two rows of galleries supported by pillars of party-colored marble1 and the entire roof is of fine mosaic work4 ,in this mosque is the superb tomb of the emperor ,constantine1 for which the ,turks have the highest veneration4 ,beside the above1 two other mosques attract the particular notice of travelers who visit the ,turkish capital4 ,that of the ,valide-,sultan1 founded by the mother of ,mohammed ,,iv41 is the largest1 and is built entirely of marble4 ,its proportions are stupendous2 and it boasts the finest symmetry4 ,the mosque of ,sultan ,solyman is an exact square1 with four line towers in the angles2 in the center is a noble cupola1 supported by beautiful marble pillars4 ,two smaller ones at the extremities are supported in the same manner4 ,the pavement and gallery surrounding the mosque are of marble2 and under the great cupola is a fountain1 adorned with such finely colored pillars1 that they can scarcely be deemed of natural marble4 ,on one side is the pulpit1 of white marble2 and on the other the little gallery for the grand seignior4 ,a fine staircase leads to it2 and it is built up with gilt lattices4 ,at the upper end is a kind of altar1 on which the name of ,god is inscribed3 and before it stand two candlesticks1 six feet in hight1 with wax candles in proportion4 ,the pavement is spread with fine carpets1 and the mosque illuminated by a vast number of lamps4 ,the court leading to it is very spacious1 with galleries of marble1 supported by green columns1 and covered by twenty-eight leaden cupolas on the sides1 with a fine fountain in the center4 ,the mosque of ,sultan ,selim ,i4 at ,adrianople1 is another surprising monument of ,turkish architecture4 ,it is situated in the center and most elevated part of the city1 so as to make a very noble display4 ,the first court has four gates1 and the innermost three2 both being surrounded by cloisters1 with marble pillars of the ,ionic order1 finely polished1 and of very lively colors3 the entire pavement is of white marble1 and the roof of the cloisters is divided into several cupolas or domes1 surmounted with gilt balls4 ,in the midst of each court are fine fountains of white marble2 and1 before the grand entrance1 is a portico1 with green marble pillars1 provided with five gates4 ,the body of the mosque is one prodigious dome1 adorned with lofty towers1 whence the imaums1 or priests1 call the people to prayers4 ,the ascent to each of these towers is very artfully contrived3 there is but one door1 which leads to three different staircases1 going to three different stories of the tower1 in such a manner1 that three priests may ascend and descend1 by a spiral progress1 without meeting each other4 ,the walls of the interior are inlaid with porcelain1 ornamented with small flowers and other natural objects1 in very lively colors4 ,in the center hangs a vast lamp of gilt silver1 besides which there are at least two thousand smaller ones3 the whole1 when lighted1 have a very splendid effect4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,carthage4 ,the remains of the grandeur and magnificence of ,carthage1 the rival of ,rome1 and one of the most commercial cities of the ancient world1 are not so striking as might be expected2 and1 at a little distance1 can scarcely be distinguished from the ground on which they lie4 ,the vestiges of triumphal arches1 of superb specimens of ,grecian architecture1 of columns of porphyry or granite1 or of curious entablatures1 are no longer discernible3 all are vanished2 and thus will it be in future ages with the most renowned cities now on earth6 ,to discover these ruins requires some method4 ,leaving ,tunis1 the traveler rides along the shore in an east-north-east direction1 and reaches1 in about half an hour1 the salt-pits1 which extend toward the west1 as far as a fragment of wall1 very near to the 8great reservoirs40 ,passing between these salt-pits and the sea1 jetties are seen running out to a considerable distance under water4 ,the sea and the jetties are on his right2 on his left he perceives a great quantity of ruins1 upon eminences of unequal hight2 and below these ruins a basin of a circular form1 and of considerable depth1 which formerly communicated with the sea by means of a canal1 traces of which are still to be seen4 ,this basin appears to have been the 8,cothon10 or inner port of ,carthage4 ,the remains of the immense works discernible in the sea1 in this case indicate the site of the outer mole4 ,some piles of the dam said to have been constructed by ,scipio1 for the purpose of blocking up the port1 may be still distinguished4 ,a second inner canal is conjectured to have been the cut made by the ,carthaginians1 when they opened a new passage for their fleet4 ,the greater part of ,carthage was built on three hills4 ,on a spot which overlooks the eastern shore is the area of a spacious room1 with several smaller ones adjoining3 some of them have tesselated pavements2 and in all are found broken pieces of columns of fine marble and porphyry4 ,they are conjectured to have been summer apartments beneath one of the palaces1 such as the intense heat of the climate must have required4 ,in rowing along the shore1 the common sewers are still visible1 and are but little impaired by time4 ,with the exception of these1 the cisterns have suffered the least4 ,besides such as belong to private houses1 there are two sets for the public use of the ,tunisians4 ,the largest of these was the grand reservoir1 and received the water of the aqueduct4 ,it lay near the western wall of the city1 and consisted of upward of twenty contiguous cisterns1 each about one hundred feet in length1 and thirty in breadth4 ,they form a series of vaults1 communicating with each other1 and are bordered throughout their whole length by a corridor4 ,the smaller reservoir has a greater elevation1 and lies near the ,cothon or inner port4 ,the ruins of the noble aqueduct which conveyed the water into the larger cisterns1 may be traced as far as ,zawan and ,zungar1 at least fifty miles distant4 ,this must have been a truly magnificent1 and at the same time1 a very expensive work4 ,that part of it which extends along the peninsula was beautifully faced with stone4 ,at ,arriana1 a village to the north of ,tunis1 are several entire arches each seventy feet high1 and supported by piers sixteen feet square4 ,the water-channel is vaulted over1 and plastered with a strong cement4 ,a person of an ordinary hight may walk upright in it2 and at intervals are apertures1 left open1 as well for the admission of fresh air1 as for the convenience of cleansing it4 ,the water-mark is nearly three feet high2 but it is impossible to determine the quantity daily conveyed to ,carthage by this channel1 without knowing the angle of descent1 which1 in its present imperfect state1 can not be ascertained4 ,temples were erected at ,zawan and ,zungar1 over the fountains by which this aqueduct was supplied4 ,that at ,zungar appears to have been of the ,corinthian order1 and terminates very beautifully in a dome with three niches1 probably intended for the statues of the divinity of the spring4 ,,the ,,plain ,,of ,,troy4 ,according to ,homer's description of the ,trojan territory1 it combined certain prominent and remarkable features1 not likely to be affected by any lapse of time4 ,of this nature was the ,hellespont2 the island of ,tenedos2 the plain itself2 the river by whose inundations it was occasionally overflowed2 and the mountain whence that river issued4 ,the following is an abstract of ,dr4 ,clarke's accurate account of the vestiges of high antiquity contained in this truly classic spot4 8,we entered an immense plain1 in which some ,turks were engaged in hunting wild-boars4 ,peasants were also employed in plowing a deep and rich soil of vegetable earth4 ,proceeding toward the east1 and round the bay distinctly pointed out by ,strabo as the harbor in which the ,grecian fleet was stationed1 we arrived at the sepulcher of ,ajax1 upon the ancient ,rhtean promontory4 ,the view here afforded of the ,hellespont and the plain of ,troy is one of the finest the country affords4 ,from the ,aianteum we passed over a heathy country to ,halil ,elly1 a village near the ,thymbrius1 in whose vicinity we had been instructed to seek the remains of a temple once sacred to the ,thymbrean ,apollo4 ,the ruins we found were rather the remains of ten temples than of one4 ,the earth to a very considerable extent was covered by subverted and broken columns of marble1 granite1 and of every order in architecture4 ,doric1 ,ionic and ,corinthian capitals lay dispersed in all directions1 and some of these were of great beauty4 ,we observed a bass-relief representing a person on horseback pursued by a winged figure2 also a beautiful representation1 sculptured after the same manner1 of ,ceres in her car drawn by two scaly serpents4 8,at the town or village of ,tchiblack1 we noticed very considerable remains of ancient sculpture1 but in such a state of disorder and ruin1 that no precise description of them can be given4 ,the most remarkable are upon the top of a hill called ,beyan ,mezaley1 near the town1 in the midst of a beautiful grove of oak-trees1 toward the village of ,callifat4 ,here the ruins of a ,doric temple of white marble lay heaped in the most striking manner1 mixed with broken stel1 cippi1 sarcophagi1 cornices and capitals of very enormous size1 entablatures and pillars4 ,all of these have reference to some peculiar sanctity by which this hill was anciently characterized4 ,we proceeded hence toward the plain2 and no sooner reached it1 than a tumulus of very remarkable size and situation drew our attention1 for a short time1 from the main object of our pursuit4 ,this tumulus1 of a high conical form and very regular structure1 stands altogether insulated4 ,of its great antiquity no doubt can be entertained by persons accustomed to view the everlasting sepulchers of the ancients4 ,on the southern side of its base is a long natural mound of limestone3 this1 beginning to rise close to the artificial tumulus1 extends toward the village of ,callifat1 in a direction nearly from north to south across the middle of the plain4 ,it is of such hight that an army encamped on the eastern side of it1 would be concealed from all observation of persons stationed on the coast1 by the mouth of the ,mender4 ,if the poems of ,homer1 with reference to the plain of ,troy1 have similarly associated an artificial tumulus and a natural mound1 a conclusion seems warranted1 that these are the objects to which he alludes4 ,this appears to be the case in the account he has given of the tomb of ,ilus and the mound of the plain4 ,from this tomb we descended into the plain1 when our guides brought us to the western side of it1 near its southern termination1 to notice a tumulus1 less considerable than the last described1 about three hundred paces from the mound1 almost concealed from observation by being continually overflowed1 upon whose top two small oak-trees were then growing4 8,we now came to an elevated spot of ground1 surrounded on all sides by a level plain1 watered by the ,callifat ,osmack1 and which there is every reason to believe the ,simoisian4 ,here we found1 not only the traces1 but also the remains of an ancient citadel4 ,turks were then employed raising enormous blocks of marble1 from foundations surrounding the place2 possibly the identical works constructed by ,lysimachus1 who fenced ,new ,ilium with a wall4 ,all the territory within these foundations was covered by broken pottery1 whose fragments were parts of those ancient vases now held in such high estimation4 ,many ,greek medals had been discovered in consequence of the excavations made there by the ,turks4 ,as these medals1 bearing indisputable legends to designate the people by whom they were fabricated1 have also1 in the circumstances of their discovery1 a peculiar connection with the ruins here1 they may be considered as indicating1 with tolerable certainty1 the situation of the city to which they belonged4 ,these ruins evidently appear to be the remains of ,new ,ilium2 whether we regard the testimony afforded by their situation1 as accordant with the text of ,strabo1 or the discovery there made of medals of the city40 ,the conclusions relative to ,troas1 drawn by this learned writer1 are as follows4 8,that the river ,mender is the ,scamander of ,homer1 ,strabo1 and ,pliny4 ,the amnis navigabilis of ,pliny flows into the archipelago1 to the south of ,sigeum4 ,that the ,aianteum1 or tomb of ,ajax1 still remains1 answering the description given of its situation by ancient authors1 and thereby determining also the exact position of the naval station of the ,greeks4 ,that the ,thymbrius is yet recognized1 both in its present appellation ,thymbreck1 and in its geographical position4 ,that the spacious plain lying on the north-eastern side of the ,mender1 and watered by the ,callifat ,osmack1 is the ,simoisian1 and that stream the ,simois4 ,that the ruins of ,palaio ,callifat are those of the ,ilium of ,strabo4 ,eastward is the ,throsmos1 or mound of the plain4 ,that ,udjek ,tepe is the tomb of syetes4 ,the other tombs mentioned by ,strabo1 as at ,sigeum1 are all in the situation he describes4 ,that the springs of ,bonarbashy may possibly have been the #8,doiai ,pelai' of ,homer2 but they are not sources of the ,scamander4 ,they are1 moreover1 warm springs4 ,that the source of the ,scamander is in ,gargarus1 now called ,kasdaghy1 the highest mountain of all the ,idan chain4 ,that the altars of ,jupiter1 mentioned by ,homer1 and by ,eschylus1 were on the hill called ,kuchunlu ,tepe1 at the foot of ,gargarus2 where the ruins of the temple now remain4 ,that ,palae ,scepsis is yet recognized in the appellation ,esky ,skupshu2 that na is the ,ainei of ,strabo2 and ne ,tepe1 perhaps1 the tomb of neas4 ,that the extremity of the ,adramyttian gulf inclines round the ridge of ,gargarus1 toward the north-east2 so that the circumstance of ,xerxes having this mountain upon his left1 in his march from ,antandrus to ,abydus1 is thereby explained4 ,and lastly1 that ,gargarus affords a view1 not only of all the plain of ,troy1 but of all the district of ,troas1 and a very considerable portion of the rest of ,asia ,minor40 ,,athens4 ,the approach to this celebrated city by sea1 presents a spectacle1 which was viewed by ,dr4 ,clarke and his companions with great transports of joy4 ,it was no sooner descried1 than its lofty edifices1 catching the sun's rays1 rendered the buildings in the ,acropolis visible at the distance of fifteen miles4 8,the reflected light gave them a white appearance4 ,the ,parthenon appeared first1 above a long chain of hills in the front2 presently we saw the top of ,mount ,anchesmus1 to the left of the temple2 the whole being backed by a lofty mountainous ridge1 which we supposed to be ,parnes4 ,as we drew near to the walls1 we beheld the vast ,cecropian citadel1 crowned with temples that originated in the veneration once paid to the memory of the illustrious dead1 surrounded by objects telling the same theme of sepulchral grandeur1 and now monuments of departed greatness1 gradually moldering in all the solemnity of ruin4 ,so paramount is this funeral character in the approach to ,athens from the ,pireus1 that1 as we passed the hill of the ,museum1 which was1 in fact1 an ancient cemetery of the ,athenians1 we might have imagined ourselves to be among the tombs of ,telmessus1 from the number of the sepulchers hewn in the rock1 and from the antiquity of the workmanship1 evidently not of later date than anything of the kind in ,asia ,minor4 ,in other respects the city exhibits nearly the appearance so briefly described by ,strabo eighteen centuries before our coming2 and1 perhaps1 it wears a more magnificent aspect1 owing to the splendid remains of ,adrian's temple of ,olympian ,jove1 which did not exist when ,athens was visited by the disciple of ,xenarchus4 ,the prodigious columns belonging to this temple appeared full in view between the citadel and the bed of the ,ilissus3 high upon our left rose the ,acropolis1 in the most impressive grandeur3 an advanced part of the rock upon the western side of it is the hill of the ,areopagus1 a view of which is given in the cut on the next page1 where ,st4 ,paul preached to the ,athenians1 and where their most solemn tribunal was held4 ,beyond all1 appeared the beautiful plain of ,athens1 bounded by ,mount ,hymettus4 ,we rode toward the craggy rock of the citadel1 passing some tiers of circular arches at the foot of it2 these are the remains of the ,odeum of ,herodes ,atticus1 built in memory of his wife ,regilla4 ,thence continuing to skirt the base of the ,acropolis1 the road winding rather toward the north1 we saw also1 upon our left1 scooped in the solid rock1 the circular sweep on which the ,athenians were wont to assemble to hear the plays of ,eschylus1 and where the theater of ,bacchus was afterward constructed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,areopagus4 8,we proceeded toward the east1 to ascend ,mount ,anchesmus1 and to enjoy in one panoramic survey the glorious prospect presented from its summit1 of all the antiquities and natural beauties in the ,athenian plain4 ,we ascended to the commanding eminence of the mount1 once occupied by a temple of ,anchesmian ,jupiter4 ,the pagan shrine has1 as usual1 been succeeded by a small ,christian sanctuary3 it is dedicated to ,st4 ,george4 ,of the view from this rock1 even ,wheeler could not write without emotion4 #8,here1' said he1 #8a ,democritus might sit and laugh at the pomps and vanities of the world1 whose glories so soon vanish2 or a ,heraclitus weep over its manifold misfortunes1 telling sad stories of the various changes and events of fate4' ,the prospect embraces every object1 excepting only those upon the south-west side of the castle4 ,the situation of the observer is north-east of the city2 and the reader may suppose him to be looking1 in a contrary direction1 toward the ,acropolis1 which is in the center of this fine picture2 thence regarding the whole circuit of the citadel1 from its north-western side1 toward the south and cast1 the different parts of it occur in the following order1 although to a spectator they all appear to be comprehended in one view4 ,the lofty rocks of the ,acropolis1 crowned with its majestic temples1 the ,parthenon1 ,erectheum1 c41 constitute the central object4 ,in the foreground is displayed the whole of the modern city of ,athens1 with its gardens1 ruins1 mosques1 and walls1 spreading into the plain beneath the citadel4 ,on the right1 or north-west wing1 is the temple of ,theseus2 and on the left1 or south-west wing1 the temple of ,jupiter ,olympius4 ,proceeding from the west to the south and east1 the view beyond the citadel displays the ,areopagus1 the ,pnyx1 the ,ilissus1 the site of the temple of ,ceres in ,agr1 the fountain ,callirhoe1 the ,stadium ,panthenaium1 the site of the ,lyceum1 c4 ,in a parallel circuit1 with a more extended radius1 are seen the hills and defile of ,daphne1 or the ,via ,sacra1 the ,pireus1 ,munychia and ,phalerum1 ,salmais1 gina1 the more distant isles1 and ,hymettus4 ,a similar circuit1 but still more extended1 embraces ,parnes1 the mountains beyond ,elusis and ,megara1 the ,acropolis of ,corinth1 the ,peloponnesian mountains1 and the gean and distant islands4 ,and lastly1 immediately beneath the eye1 lies the plain of ,athens40 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter ,,olympius4 ,of the many ruins without the city of ,athens1 the tourist notices with peculiar interest those of the temple of ,jupiter ,olympius1 as it was the first conceived and the last executed of all the sacred monuments of ,athens4 ,it was begun by ,pisistratus1 but was not finished till the time of the ,roman emperor ,adrian1 which was some seven hundred years afterward4 ,all that remains of this once magnificent building1 is seen in the cut on the previous page4 ,originally there were one hundred and twenty columns supporting this noble temple2 but of all these1 only some sixteen remain2 standing in their silent and solitary grandeur to testify of the triumphs of ancient art1 and to the power of ,time the destroyer4 ,,temples ,,of ,,elephanta4 ,the island of ,elephanta1 distant about two leagues from ,bombay1 has a circumference of about three miles1 and consists of two rocky mountains1 covered with trees and brushwood4 ,near the landing-place is the figure of an elephant1 as large as life1 shaped out of a rock1 and supposed to have given its name to the island4 ,having ascended the mountain by a narrow path1 the visitor reaches the excavation which has so long excited the attention of the curious1 and afforded such ample scope for the discussion of antiquarians4 ,with the strongest emotions of surprise and admiration1 he beholds four rows of massive columns cut out of the solid rock1 uniform in their order1 and placed at regular distances1 so as to form three magnificent avenues from the principal entrance to the grand idol which terminates the middle vista2 the general effect being hightened by the blueness of the light1 or rather gloom1 peculiar to the situation4 ,the central image is composed of three colossal heads1 reaching nearly from the floor to the roof1 a hight of fifteen feet4 ,it represents the triad deity in the ,hindoo mythology1 ,brama1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva1 in the characters of the creator1 preserver1 and destroyer4 ,the middle face displays regular features1 and a mild and serene character2 the towering head-dress is much ornamented1 as are those on each side1 which appear in profile1 lofty1 and richly adorned with jewels4 ,the countenance of ,vishnu has the same mild aspect as that of ,brama2 but the visage of ,siva is very different3 severity and revenge1 characteristic of his destroying attribute1 are strongly depicted2 one of the hands embraces a large cobra de capello2 while the others contain fruit1 flowers1 and blessings for mankind1 among which the lotus and pomegranate are readily distinguishable4 ,the former of these1 the lotus1 so often introduced into the ,hindoo mythology1 forms a principal object in the sculpture and paintings of their temples1 is the ornament of their sacred lakes1 and the most conspicuous beauty in their flowery sacrifices4 ,on either side of the ,elephanta triad1 is a gigantic figure leaning on a dwarf1 an object frequently introduced in these excavations4 ,the giants guard the triple deity1 and separate it from a large recess filled with a variety of figures1 male and female1 in different attitudes3 they are in tolerable proportion1 but do not express any particular character of countenance3 one conspicuous female1 like the ,amazons1 is single-breasted2 the rest1 whether intended for goddesses or mortals1 are generally adorned1 like the modern ,hindoo women1 with bracelets and rings for the ankles2 the men have bracelets only4 ,the intervening space between these figures is occupied by small aerial beings1 hovering about them in infinite variety4 ,the larger images in these groups are in alto-relievo1 and most of the smaller in basso-relievo1 brought sufficiently forward from the rock to produce a good effect4 ,the sides of the temple are adorned with similar compositions1 placed at regular distances1 and terminating the avenues formed by the colonnades1 so that only one group is seen at a time1 except on a near approach2 and the regularity and proportion of the whole are remarkably striking4 ,the figures are in general in graceful attitudes2 but those of herculean stature do not indicate any extraordinary muscular strength4 ,among many thousands of them1 few of the countenances express any particular passion1 or mark a decided character3 they have generally a sleepy aspect1 and bear a greater resemblance to the tame sculpture of ,egypt than to the animated works of the ,grecian chisel4 ,from the right and left avenues of the principal temple are passages to smaller excavations on each side3 that on the right is much decayed1 and very little of the sculpture remains entire4 ,a pool of water penetrates from it into a dark cavern far under the rock2 but whether natural or artificial1 has not been decided4 ,a small corresponding temple on the left side1 contains two baths1 one of them elegantly finished3 the front is open1 and the roof supported by pillars of a different order from those in the large temple2 the sides are adorned with sculpture1 and the roof and cornice painted in mosaic patterns2 some of the colors are still bright4 ,the opposite bath1 of the same proportions1 is less ornamented2 and between them is a room detached from the rock1 containing a colossal representation of the lingam1 or symbol of ,siva4 ,several small caves branch out from the grand excavations4 ,an anecdote is related by ,mr4 ,forbes1 in his 8,oriental ,memoirs10 relative to these sculptured monuments4 ,he accompanied an eminent ,english artist on his first visit to the ,elephanta4 8,after the glare of a tropical sun1 during the walk from the landing-place1 it was some time before the eye had accommodated itself to the gloom of these subterraneous chambers1 sufficiently to discriminate objects in that somber light4 ,we remained for several minutes without speaking1 or looking particularly at each other3 at length1 when more familiarized to the cavern1 my companion still remaining silent1 ,i expressed some fear of having been too warm in my description1 and that like most other objects1 the reality fell short of the anticipated pleasure4 ,he soon relieved my anxiety by declaring1 that however highly ,i had raised his imagination1 he was so absorbed in astonishment and delight1 on entering this stupendous scene1 as to forget where he was4 ,he had seen the most striking objects of art in ,italy and ,greece2 but never anything which filled his mind with such extraordinary sensations40 ,so enraptured was this artist with the spot1 that after staying until a late hour1 he quitted it most reluctantly4 ,the caves of the isle of ,elephanta can not be sufficiently admired1 when the immensity of such an undertaking1 the number of artificers employed1 and the extraordinary genius of its projector1 are considered1 in a country until lately accounted rude and barbarous by the now enlightened nations of ,europe4 ,had this work been raised from a foundation1 like other structures1 it would have excited the admiration of the curious2 but when the reflection is made1 that it is hewn inch by inch in the hard and solid rock1 how great must the astonishment be at the conception and completion of the enterprise6 ,,temples ,,of ,,salsette4 ,the excavations of the island of ,salsette1 also contiguous to ,bombay1 are hewn in the central mountains4 ,the great temple is excavated at some distance from the summit of a steep mountain1 in a commanding situation4 ,this stupendous work is upward of ninety feet long1 thirty-eight wide1 and of a proportionate hight1 hewn out of the solid rock1 and forming an oblong square1 with a fluted concave roof4 ,the area is divided into three aisles by regular colonnades1 similar to the ancient basilic1 a pile of building twice as long as it was wide1 and one of the extremities of which terminated in a hemicycle1 two rows of columns forming a spacious area in the center1 and leaving a narrow walk between the columns and the wall4 ,in these basilici the ,roman emperors of the east frequently administered justice4 ,this magnificent excavation at ,salsette appears to be on the same plan1 although1 doubtless1 intended for a place of worship4 ,toward the termination of the temple1 fronting the entrance1 is a circular pile of solid rock1 nineteen feet high1 and forty-eight in circumference1 most probably a representation of the lingam1 the symbol already alluded to in the description of the temples of ,elephanta4 ,in this temple there are not any images1 nor any kind of sculpture1 except on the capitals of the pillars1 which are in general finished in a very masterly style1 and are little impaired by time4 ,several have been left in an unfinished state2 and on the summit of others is something like a bell1 between elephants1 horses1 lions1 and animals of different kinds4 ,the lofty pillars and concave roof of the principal temple at ,salsette present a much grander appearance than the largest excavation at the ,elephanta1 although that is much richer in statues and bass-reliefs4 ,the portico at ,salsette1 of the same hight and breadth as the temple1 is richly decorated3 on each side a large niche contains a colossal statue1 well executed2 and facing the entrance are small single figures1 with groups in various attitudes1 all of them in good preservation4 ,the outer front of the portico1 and the area before it1 corresponding in grandeur with the interior1 are now injured by time1 and the moldering sculpture intermingled with a variety of rock-plants4 ,on the square pillars at the entrance are long inscriptions1 the characters of which are obsolete1 and which modern ingenuity has not as yet succeeded in deciphering4 ,further up the mountain1 a flight of steps1 hewn in the rock1 and continued to the summit1 leads1 by various intricate paths1 to smaller excavations1 most of which consist of two rooms1 a portico and benches1 cut in the rock4 ,to each is annexed a cistern of about three cubic feet1 also hewn in the rock1 for the preservation of rain-water4 ,some of these excavations are larger and better finished than others2 and a few1 although inferior in size and decoration1 in their general effect resemble the principal temple4 ,the whole appearance of this excavated mountain indicates it to have had a city hewn in its rocky sides1 capable of containing many thousand inhabitants4 ,the largest temple was1 doubtless1 their principal place of worship2 and the smaller1 on the same plan1 inferior ones4 ,the rest were appropriated as dwellings for the inhabitants1 differing in size and accommodation according to their respective ranks in society2 or1 as it is still more probable1 these habitations were the abode of religious ,bramins1 and of their pupils1 when ,india was the nursery of art and science1 and the nations of ,europe were involved in ignorance and barbarism4 ,,mausoleum ,,of ,,hyder ,,ali4 ,this splendid monument of oriental grandeur is situated at the western extremity of the great garden of ,seringapatam1 a city of ,hindoostan1 and capital of the ,mysore territory4 ,it is surrounded by a grove of beautiful cypress-trees1 and was erected by ,tippoo ,saib in honor of the deceased sovereign1 his father4 ,beneath tombs of black marble1 elevated about eighteen inches from the ground1 lie the bodies of ,hyder ,ali1 his consort1 and ,tippoo ,saib4 ,they are covered with rich cloths1 and have canopies over them4 ,the whole of this sumptuous edifice is1 together with its dome1 supported by brilliantly polished black marble columns4 ,it is surrounded by a magnificent area1 within which the faquirs have cells allotted to them2 and on an elevated platform are the tombs of several faithful servants4 ,the mosque annexed to it is flanked by two towers4 ,the moulahs stationed there still publicly read the ,koran2 and three pagodas are daily distributed in charity at the mausoleum4 ,,the ,,taje ,,mahal4 ,this grand mausoleum1 which stands due north and south1 on the southern bank of the river ,jumna1 was built by command of the emperor ,shah ,jehan for the interment of his favorite sultana ,momtaz-mehl1 or ,montazal ,zumani1 the 8preminent in the seraglio10 or 8paragon of the age10 and at his death his remains were also here deposited1 by order of his son ,aurungzebe4 ,this building1 in point of design and execution1 is one of the most extensive1 elegant1 commodious1 and perfect works ever undertaken and finished by one man4 ,to this celebrated architect ,shah ,jehan gave the title of ,zerreer-dust1 or 8jewel-handed10 to distinguish him from all other artists4 ,it is built entirely of pure white marble1 on an immense square platform of the same material1 having a lofty minaret of equal beauty at every corner4 ,on each side and behind the imperial mausoleum1 is a suite of elegant apartments1 also of white marble1 highly decorated with colored stones4 ,the tombs and other principal parts of this vast fabric are inlaid with wreaths of flowers and foliage in their natural colors1 entirely composed of carnelians1 onyxes1 verd-antique1 lapis lazuli1 and a variety of agates1 so admirably finished as to have the appearance of an ivory model set with jewels4 ,it was commenced in the fifth year of the reign of the emperor ,shah ,jehan1 and the whole completed in sixteen years1 four months1 and twenty-one days4 ,it cost ninety-eight lacs1 or nine million1 eight hundred and fifteen thousand rupees1 equal to more than six million dollars1 although the price of labor then was1 and still continues to be1 very reasonable in ,india4 ,,great ,,wall ,,of ,,china4 ,this stupendous wall1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 extends across the northern boundary of the ,chinese empire1 and is deservedly ranked among the grandest labors of art4 ,it is conducted over the summits of high mountains1 several of which have an elevation of over five thousand feet1 across deep valleys and over wide rivers1 by means of arches3 in many parts it is doubled or trebled1 to command important passes2 and at the distance of nearly every hundred yards is a tower or massive bastion4 ,its extent is computed at fifteen hundred miles2 but in some parts1 where less danger is apprehended1 it is not equally strong or complete1 and toward the north-west consists merely of a strong rampart of earth4 ,near ,kookpekoo it is twenty-five feet in hight1 and the top about fifteen feet thick3 some of the towers1 which are square1 are forty-eight feet high1 and about forty feet in width4 ,in its strongest parts1 and for hundreds of miles in extent1 this wall is so thick as to allow six men on horseback to ride upon it4 ,the structure consists of two parallel walls of solid masonry1 filled in between with earth2 the top is paved with stone4 ,the stone employed in the foundations1 angles1 c41 is a strong gray granite2 but the materials for the most part consist of bluish bricks1 and the mortar is remarkably pure and white4 ,the amount of materials used in constructing this wall1 is immense4 ,in a lecture on ,china1 given a year or two since in ,england1 ,dr4 ,bowring said it had been calculated1 that if all the bricks1 stones and masonry of ,great ,britain were gathered together1 they would not be able to furnish materials enough for the wall of ,china2 and that all the buildings in ,london put together would not make the towers and turrets which adorn it4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,wall ,,of ,,china4 ,the area of the construction of this great barrier1 which has been and will continue to be the wonder and admiration of ages1 is considered by ,sir ,george ,staunton as having been absolutely ascertained2 and he asserts that it has existed for two thousand years4 ,in this assertion he appears to have followed ,du ,halde1 who informs us that 8this prodigious work was constructed two hundred and fifteen years before the birth of ,christ1 by order of the first emperor of the family of ,tsin1 to protect three large provinces from the irruptions of the ,tartars40 ,however1 in the history of ,china1 contained in his first volume1 he ascribes this erection to the second emperor of the dynasty of ,tsin1 named ,chi ,hoang ,ti2 and the date immediately preceding the narrative of this construction is the year #acg before the birth of ,christ4 ,hence suspicions may arise1 not only concerning the epoch when this work was undertaken1 but also as to the purity and precision of the ,chinese annals in general4 ,mr4 ,bell1 who resided some time in ,china1 and whose travels are deservedly esteemed for the accuracy of their information1 assures us that this wall was built somewhere about the year #aafj1 by one of the emperors1 to prevent the frequent incursions of the ,monguls1 whose numerous cavalry used to ravage the provinces1 and effect their escape before an army could be assembled to oppose them4 ,renaudot observes that this wall is not mentioned by any oriental geographer whose writings boast a higher antiquity than three hundred years2 and it is surprising that it should have escaped ,marco ,paulo1 who1 admitting that he entered ,china by a different route1 can hardly be supposed1 during his long residence in the north of ,china1 and in the country of the ,monguls1 to have remained ignorant of so stupendous a work4 ,amid these difficulties1 it may be reasonably conjectured1 that similar modes of defense had been adopted in different ages2 and that the ancient rude barrier1 having fallen into decay1 was replaced by the present erection1 which1 even from its state of preservation1 can scarcely aspire to a very remote antiquity4 ,illustration3 ,,porcelain ,,tower ,,at ,,nankin4 ,,porcelain ,,tower ,,at ,,nankin4 ,this elegant and commodious building1 a very correct idea of which may be formed from the cut on the preceding page1 may be regarded as a fine specimen of the oriental pagodas4 ,the tower is about two hundred feet in hight1 and derives its name from its having a porcelain coating4 ,the ,portuguese were the first to bestow on these superb edifices the title of pagodas1 and to attribute them to devotional purposes4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that in many instances they have been rather erected as public memorials or ornaments1 like the columns of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,mr4 ,ellis1 in his 8,journal of the ,embassy to ,china10 relates that1 in company with three gentlemen of the embassy1 he succeeded in passing completely through the uninhabited part of the city of ,nankin1 and in reaching the gateway visible from the ,lion hill4 ,the object of the party was to have penetrated through the streets to the porcelain tower1 apparently distant two miles4 ,to this1 however1 the soldiers who accompanied them1 and who from their willingness in allowing them to proceed thus far1 were entitled to consideration1 made so many objections1 that they were forced to desist1 and to content themselves with proceeding to a temple on a neighboring hill1 from which they had a complete view of the city4 ,from this station the porcelain tower presented itself as a most magnificent object4 ,,the ,,shoemadoo ,,at ,,pegu4 ,the object in ,pegu that most attracts and most merits notice1 says ,mr4 ,symes in his 8,embassy to ,ava10 is the noble edifice of ,shoemadoo1 or the ,golden ,supreme4 ,this extraordinary pile of buildings is erected on a double terrace1 one raised upon another4 ,the lower and greater terrace is about ten feet above the natural level of the ground1 forming an exact parallelogram3 the upper and lesser terrace is similar in shape1 rising about twenty feet above the lower terrace1 or thirty above the level of the country4 ,mr4 ,symes judged a side of the lower terrace to be thirteen hundred and ninety-one feet2 of the upper1 six hundred and eighty-four4 ,the walls that sustained the sides of the terrace1 both upper and lower1 are in a ruinous state2 they were formerly covered with plaster1 wrought into various figures2 the area of the lower is strewed with the fragments of small decayed buildings1 but the upper is kept free from filth1 and is in tolerable good order4 ,there is reason to conclude that this building and the fortress are coeval1 as the earth of which the terraces are composed appears to have been taken from the ditch2 there being no other excavation in the city1 or in its neighborhood1 that could have afforded a tenth part of the quantity4 ,the terraces are ascended by flights of stone steps1 which are now broken and neglected4 ,on each side are dwellings of the ,rhahaans1 raised on timbers four or five feet from the ground3 these houses consist only of a large hall2 the wooden pillars that support them are turned with neatness2 the roofs are covered with tiles1 and the sides are made of boards2 and there are a number of bare benches in every house1 on which the ,rhahaans sleep2 but we saw no other furniture4 ,the ,shoemadoo is a pyramidal building composed of brick and mortar1 without excavation or aperture of any sort2 octagonal at the base1 and spiral at the top3 each side of the base measures one hundred and sixty-two feet2 this immense breadth diminishes abruptly1 and a similar building has not unaptly been compared in shape to a large speaking-trumpet4 ,six feet from the ground there is a wide projection that surrounds the base1 on the plane of which are fifty-seven small spires of equal size1 and equidistant2 one of them measured twenty-seven feet in hight1 and forty in circumference at the bottom4 ,on a higher ledge there is another row consisting of fifty-three spires of similar shape and measurement4 ,a great variety of moldings encircle the building2 and ornaments somewhat resembling the fleur de lis surround the lower part of the spire3 circular moldings likewise girt it to a considerable hight1 above which there are ornaments in stucco not unlike the leaves of a ,corinthian capital2 and the whole is crowned by a tee1 or umbrella1 of open iron-work1 from which rises a rod with a gilded pennant4 ,the tee or umbrella is to be seen on every sacred building that is of a spiral form4 ,the raising and consecration of this last and indispensable appendage1 is an act of high religious solemnity1 and a season of festivity and relaxation4 ,the king himself bestowed the tee that covers the ,shoemadoo4 ,it was made at the capital2 and many of the principal nobility came down from ,ummerapoora to be present at the ceremony of its elevation4 ,the circumference of the tee is fifty-six feet2 it rests on an iron axis fixed in the building1 and is further secured by large chains strongly riveted to the spire4 ,round the lower rim of the tee are appended a number of bells1 which1 agitated by the wind1 make a continual jingling4 ,the tee is gilt1 and it was said to be the intention of the king to gild the whole of the spire4 ,all the lesser pagodas are ornamented with proportionable umbrellas of similar workmanship1 which are likewise encircled by small bells4 ,the extreme hight of the edifice1 from the level of the country1 is three hundred and sixty-one feet1 and above the interior terrace1 three hundred and thirty one feet4 ,on the south-east angle of the upper terrace there are two handsome saloons1 or kioums1 the roofs of which are composed of different stages1 supported by pillars4 ,mr4 ,s4 judged each to be about sixty feet in length1 and in breadth thirty4 ,the ceiling of one is embellished with gold leaf1 and the pillars are lacquered2 the decoration of the other is not yet completed4 ,they are made entirely of wood2 and the carving on the outside is laborious and minute4 ,mr4 ,symes saw several unfinished figures of animals and men in grotesque attitudes1 designed as ornaments for different parts of the building4 ,some images of ,gaudama1 the supreme object of ,birman adoration1 lay scattered around4 ,at each angle of the interior and higher terrace1 there is a temple sixty-seven feet high1 resembling1 in miniature1 the great temple3 in front of that1 in the south-west corner1 are four gigantic representations1 in masonry1 of ,palloo1 or the evil genius1 half beast1 half human1 seated on their hams1 each with a large club on the right shoulder4 ,the pundit who accompanied ,mr4 ,symes1 said that they resembled the ,rakuss of the ,hindoos4 ,these are guardians of the temple4 ,nearly in the center of the east face of the area are two human figures in stucco1 beneath a gilded umbrella4 ,one1 standing1 represents a man with a book before him and a pen in his hand3 he is called ,thasiamee1 the recorder of mortal merits and mortal misdeeds4 ,the other1 a female figure kneeling1 is ,mahasumdera1 the protectress of the universe1 so long as the universe is doomed to last2 but when the time of general dissolution arrives1 by her hand the world is to be overwhelmed and everlastingly destroyed4 ,a small brick building near the north-east angle contains an upright marble slab1 four feet high1 and three feet wide3 there was a long legible inscription on it4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,symes was told1 was an account of the donations of pilgrims of only a recent date4 ,along the whole extent of the north face of the upper terrace1 there is a wooden shed for the convenience of devotees who come from distant parts of the country4 ,on the north side of the temple are three large bells of good workmanship1 suspended near the ground1 between pillars2 several deers' horns lie strewed around3 those who come to pay their devotions first take up one of the horns1 and strike the bell three times1 giving an alternate stroke to the ground3 this act is to announce to the spirit of ,gaudama the approach of a suppliant4 ,there are several low benches near the foot of the temple1 on which the person who comes to pray1 places his offering1 commonly consisting of boiled rice1 a plate of sweetmeats1 or cocoa-nut fried in oil3 when it is given1 the devotee cares not what becomes of it2 the crows and wild dogs often devour it in presence of the donor1 who never attempts to disturb the animals4 ,mr4 ,symes saw several plates of victuals disposed of in this manner1 and understood it to be the case with all that was brought4 ,there are many small temples on the areas of both terraces1 which are neglected1 and suffered to fall into decay4 ,numberless images of ,gaudama lie indiscriminately scattered around4 ,a pious ,birman who purchases an idol1 first procures the ceremony of consecration to be performed by the ,rhahaans2 he then takes his purchase to whatever sacred building is most convenient1 and there places it in the shelter of a kioum1 or on the open ground before the temple2 nor does he ever again seem to have any anxiety about its preservation1 but leaves the divinity to shift for itself4 ,some of those idols are made of marble that is found in the neighborhood of the capital of the ,birman dominions1 which admits of a very fine polish2 many are formed of wood1 and gilded1 and a few are of silver2 the latter1 however1 are not usually exposed and neglected like the others4 ,silver and gold are rarely used1 except in the composition of household gods4 ,on both the terraces are a number of white cylindrical flags1 raised on bamboo poles2 these flags are peculiar to the ,rhahaans1 and are considered as emblematical of purity1 and of their sacred function4 ,on the top of the staff there is a henza or goose1 the symbol both of the ,birman and ,pegu nations4 ,,colossal ,,figure ,,of ,,jupiter ,,pluvius1 ,,or ,,the ,,apennine ,,jupiter4 ,statues above the ordinary size1 were named by the ancients1 colossi1 from a ,greek word which signifies 8members40 ,that at ,rhodes was the most famous1 executed by ,carelus1 a pupil of ,lysippus4 ,there were several at ,rome2 the most considerable was that of ,vespasian1 in the amphitheater1 that bore the name of ,colisa4 ,claudius caused a colossal statue of himself to be raised on a rock exposed to the sea waves1 in front of the port of ,ostium4 ,nero had his person and figure painted on a linen cloth1 one hundred and twenty feet in hight4 ,in the court of the ,capitol1 and in the palace ,farnesi1 c41 are colossi1 either entire or mutilated4 ,illustration3 ,,jupiter ,,pluvius1 ,,or ,,the ,,apennine ,,jupiter4 ,the colossal figure of ,jupiter ,pluvius is found at ,pratolino1 in ,italy4 ,the space in which it stands is planted round1 on all sides1 with lofty fir and beech trees1 the trunks of which are hid by a wood of laurel1 wherein niches have been cut for statues4 ,the middle part is a green lawn1 and at a little distance1 is a semicircular basin of water1 behind which rises the colossal statue of the ,apennine ,jupiter4 ,enchased1 as it were1 in the groves1 it can only be surveyed in front1 and from a point of view marked by the artist1 in the adjoining engraving4 ,elevated on a base to appearance irregular1 and of itself lofty1 at which the astonished spectator arrives through two balustrades that run round the basin1 this colossus1 a view of which is given in the cut above1 looks1 at first1 like a pyramidal rock1 on which the hand of man might have executed some project analogous to what the statuary ,stasicrates had conceived respecting ,mount ,athos1#aj and which ,alexander nobly rejected4 ,but soon he recognizes the genius of a pupil and worthy rival of ,michael ,angelo4 ,footnote #aj3 ,stasicrates proposed to ,alexander to transform ,mount ,athos into a durable statue of himself1 and one that would be most prominent to a world of beholders4 ,his left hand to contain a city peopled with ten thousand inhabitants1 and from the right a great river to flow1 its waters descending to the sea4 ,the proposition of this gigantesque monument was rejected by ,alexander1 who1 in reply to his proposal1 said1 8,the passage of ,mount ,caucasus1 the ,tanais1 and the ,caspian1 which ,i have forced1 shall be my monuments40 ,it was1 in fact1 ,john of ,bologna1 who1 by an inspiration derived from the ancients1 executed their beau ideal of ,jupiter ,pluvius4 ,this name seems more suitable to the figure than that of ,father ,apennine1 which has been assigned to it4 ,the style1 in point of magnitude1 is of the largest1 and the character of the head is in perfect conformity to the subject4 ,his brows and front brave the tempest1 and seem the region of the hoar-frost2 his locks descend in icicles on his broad shoulders1 and the flakes of his immense beard resemble stalactites2 his limbs seem covered with hoar-frost1 but with no alteration in their contour1 or in the form of the muscles4 ,to add to the extraordinary effect1 about the head is a kind of crown1 formed of little jetteaux1 that drop on the shoulders and trickle down the figure1 shedding a sort of supernatural luster1 when irradiated by the sun4 ,it would be difficult to imagine a composition more picturesque and perfect in all its proportions4 ,the figure harmonizes with the surrounding objects1 but its real magnitude is best shown by comparison with the groups promenading about the water1 and which in comparison1 at a certain distance1 resemble pigmies4 ,a nearer approach exhibits a truly striking proportion of the limbs4 ,a number of apartments have been fabricated in the interior1 and within the head is a beautiful belvedere1 wherein the eyeballs serve for windows4 ,the extremities are of stone2 the trunk is of bricks overlaid with a mortar or cement that has contracted the hardness of marble1 and which1 when fresh1 it was easy to model in due forms4 ,it is related in the life of ,john of ,bologna1 that several of his pupils1 unaccustomed to work with the hand1 while engaged in this work1 forgot the correct standard of dimensions1 both as to the eye and hand1 and that ,father ,apennine and his enormous muscles made them spoil a number of statues4 ,the greatest difficulty in the workmanship was to impress on the mass1 the character of monumental durability4 ,the artist has succeeded in uniting the rules of the statuary with those of construction1 in combining the beauty of the one with the solidity of the other4 ,all the parts refer to a common center of gravity1 and the members are arranged so as to serve for a scaffolding to the body1 without impairing its dignity or magnitude4 ,the colossal statues of the ancients may have suggested the idea of this configuration1 or as before hinted1 the artist may have aimed to represent the ,jupiter ,pluvius4 ,however1 it seems probable that ,poussin1 in his painting of the plains of ,sicily1 has1 from this1 formed his ,polyphemus1 seated on the summit of a lofty rock4 ,from the beauty of its proportions1 and skill in the execution1 all artists who have to work on colossal figures1 ought to cherish the preservation of this1 as an imposing object1 that can not be too profoundly studied4 ,,the ,,leaning1 ,,or ,,hanging ,,tower ,,of ,,pisa1 ,,in ,,tuscany4 ,this celebrated tower1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 likewise called the ,campanile1 on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells1 stands in a square close to the cathedral of ,pisa4 ,it is built entirely of white marble1 and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories1 each adorned with a round of columns1 rising one above another4 ,it inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular1 that dropping a plummet from the top1 which is one hundred and eighty-eight feet in hight1 it falls sixteen feet from the base4 ,much pains have been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the architect2 but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another cause1 namely1 from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side4 ,the pillars are there considerably sunk2 and this is also the case with the very threshold1 which shows that the position of the building is accidental1 caused by the settling of the ground on one side1 and not1 as some think1 by the ambition of the architect1 endeavoring to show how far he could with safety deviate from the perpendicular1 and thus display a novel specimen of his art2 for had this been his design1 he would have shortened the pilasters on that side1 so as to exhibit them entire1 without the appearance of sinking4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,leaning ,,tower ,,at ,,pisa ,this tower1 from its singular appearance and position1 has attracted the notice of all travelers passing near ,pisa1 who1 of course1 fail not to visit it4 ,we give the impressions of two of these3 ,professor ,silliman1 who saw it in #ahea2 and ,mr4 ,hillard1 who was there at a still later date4 ,the former says1 8,this structure has excited so much surprise1 and been seen with such deep interest by thousands of travelers for more than six hundred years1 that it is almost universally known1 and it is not difficult for one who has not seen it to form a clear and distinct conception of it4 ,still1 on approaching the tower1 you are strongly impressed by its grandeur and beauty2 and when you ascend it1 you obtain an almost overwhelming conception of its majesty2 although it is perfectly safe2 and if you do not feel apprehension that it will fall1 you may not be able to keep that idea quite out of your mind4 ,the hight of the leaning tower is one hundred and seventy-eight feet1 the thickness of the wall ten feet1 and the diameter is fifty feet at the base4 ,it is composed of eight stories1 all adorned by columns and arches4 ,its form is slightly conical4 ,it is ascended by three hundred and thirty very easy steps1 very well lighted1 and it is a pleasant journey to the top4 ,there are seven bells in this grand belfry2 they were rung while we were near1 and the sound is very soft and musical1 especially of the great bell1 which weighs twelve thousand pounds1 and is placed upon the side of the tower1 opposite to that which overhangs4 ,it was this bell which was formerly used to give notice of public executions4 ,the leaning of the tower of ,pisa was evidently caused by unequal subsidence of the ground2 and it is obvious that the architect1 as the work rose1 before the tower was half up1 perceived it1 and he endeavored to counteract it as far as possible by balancing his materials4 ,after a particular hight1 the columns are higher on the leaning side1 and1 of course1 shorter on the other4 ,the builder appeared to be aiming to bring the upper part of the tower into a vertical position1 although he did not succeed4 ,it is about thirteen or fourteen feet beyond the vertical2 but the center of gravity still falls within the base2 and as the blocks of stone1 being now firmly united by cement1 can not slide upon each other1 they1 in fact1 form one mass4 ,the walls are1 moreover1 fortified by iron bars1 and it is not probable that anything short of an earthquake can produce its downfall4 ,i can not think with some1 that it requires strong nerves to ascend the leaning tower of ,pisa4 ,we ascended with a perfect consciousness of security1 and it is certain that were it filled in every story by an armed host1 it would not quiver or vibrate4 ,the view from the summit of the tower is most splendid4 ,the beautiful city is at your feet1 and you are in the midst of it4 ,the ,mediterranean is in the horizon1 ,leghorn is visible in the distance1 the ,arno shows its windings1 here and there1 and a rich plain in full cultivation reaches far inland to the lofty ,apennines1 in the vicinity of ,lucca4 ,it is said1 that1 in clear weather1 ,corsica may be discerned4 ,this tower is one of the most beautiful objects in ,italy1 and one would never be tired with looking at it or from it2 so beautiful is it1 that its leaning becomes a mere incident1 interesting indeed1 but the tower possesses commanding attractions independently of this circumstance4 ,we can not descend from it without remembering that here ,galileo made his decisive experiments upon the law of the descent of falling bodies1 and upon the vibration of the pendulum4 ,his great name is associated with the permanent glory of his country1 and will be honored to the end of time1 while his persecutors are remembered only to be despised and detested40 ,mr4 ,hillard1 the other tourist to whom we have alluded1 says1 8,on a bright1 sunny morning1 ,i first saw the leaning tower of ,pisa4 ,this piece of architectural eccentricity was1 and ,i suppose is1 one of the common-places of geography1 and is put into the same educational state-room with the wall of ,china1 the great tun of ,heidelberg1 and the natural bridge of ,virginia4 ,i can not recall the time when its name was not familiar to me2 and now1 here it was1 bodily before me2 no vision1 no delusion1 but a very decided fact1 with a most undeniable inclination on one side2 so much so1 that a nervous person would not sleep soundly in the house that stands under its lee1 on a windy night4 ,this singular structure is simply a campanile1 or bell-tower1 appurtenant to the cathedral1 as is the general custom in ,italy4 ,it is not merely quaint1 but beautiful2 that is1 take away the quaintness1 and the beauty will remain4 ,it is built of white marble1 wonderfully fresh and pure1 when we remember that nearly seven centuries have swept over it4 ,i will not describe it1 nor give its dimensions1 for these may be found in every guide-book1 and nearly every book of travels2 nor will ,i condense the arguments which have been called forth by the question1 whether the inclination be accidental or designed4 ,to one who has been on the spot1 and observed the spongy nature of the soil1 as evidenced by the slight subsidence of the cathedral1 there is really no room for argument or doubt4 ,the ascent is very easy and gradual4 ,the summit is secured by double rails1 and the inclination is less perceptible when on the top than when it is observed from the ground4 ,there is no peculiar sense of danger to interfere with the full enjoyment of the beauty of the view1 which embraces mountain and plain1 land and sea2 a combination at once varied1 extensive and picturesque4 ,this was my first sight of the ,mediterranean1 whose blue waters blended in the distant horizon with the blue of the sky4 ,to the eye1 it was but common water reflecting the universal sky2 but a man must be very insensible1 not to recognize peculiar elements in his first view of that many-nationed sea1 upon whose shores so much of the poetry and history of the world has grown40 ,,the ,,coliseum ,,at ,,rome4 ,on approaching the majestic ruins of this vast amphitheater1 the most stupendous work of the kind antiquity can boast1 a sweet and gently moving astonishment is the first sensation which seizes the beholder2 and soon afterward the grand spectacle swims before him like a cloud4 ,to give an adequate idea of this sublime building1 is a task to which the pen is unequal3 it must be seen to be duly appreciated4 ,it is upward of sixteen hundred feet in circumference1 and of such an elevation that it has been justly observed by a writer1 7,ammiamus17 8the human eye scarcely measures its hight40 ,nearly the one-half of the external circuit still remains1 consisting of four tiers of arcades1 adorned with columns of four orders1 the ,doric1 ,ionian1 ,corinthian1 and composite4 ,its extent1 as well as its elevation1 may be estimated by the number of spectators it contained1 amounting1 according to some accounts1 to eighty thousand1 and agreeably to others1 to one hundred thousand4 ,thirty thousand captive ,jews are said to have been engaged by ,vespasian1 whose name it occasionally bears1 in the construction of this vast edifice2 and they have not discredited their forefathers1 the builders of ,solomon's temple1 by the performance4 ,it was not finished1 however1 until the reign of his son ,titus1 who1 on the first day of its being opened1 introduced into the arena not less than five thousand1 or1 according to ,dio ,cassius1 nine thousand wild beasts1 between whom1 and the primitive ,christians held captive by the ,romans1 combats were fought4 ,at the conclusion of this cruel spectacle the whole place was put under water1 and two fleets1 named the ,corcyrian and the ,corinthian1 represented a naval engagement4 ,to render the vapor from such a multitude of persons less noxious1 sweet-scented water1 and frequently wine mixed with saffron1 was showered down from a grated work above1 on the heads of the spectators4 ,the ,roman emperors who succeeded ,titus were careful of the preservation of this superb edifice3 even the voluptuous ,heliogabalus caused it to be repaired after a great fire4 ,the rude ,goths1 who sacked the city of ,rome1 were contented with despoiling it of its internal ornaments1 but respected the structure itself4 ,the ,christians1 however1 through an excess of zeal1 have not been satisfied with allowing it gradually to decay4 ,pope ,paul ,,ii4 had as much of it leveled as was necessary to furnish materials for building the palace of ,st4 ,mark1 and his pernicious example was imitated by ,cardinal ,riario1 in the construction of what is now called the ,chancery4 ,lastly1 a portion of it was employed by ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 in the erection of the palace ,farnese4 ,notwithstanding all these dilapidations1 there still exists enough of it to inspire the spectator with awe4 ,immense masses appear fastened to and upon one another without any mortar or cement2 and these alone1 from their structure1 are calculated for a duration of many thousands of years4 ,occasionally1 where the destroyers have not effectually attained their object1 the half-loosened masses appear to be holden in the air1 as if by some invisible power2 for the wide interstices among them leave no other support than their joints1 which seem every moment as if about to yield unavoidably to the superior force of gravitation4 8,they will fall20 8they must fall20 8they are falling20 is1 and has been the language of all beholders during the vast periods through which this stupendous edifice has thus hung together in the air4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,coliseum ,,at ,,rome4 ,silliman1 speaking of the ,coliseum1 says1 8,it is the most magnificent and imposing monument of ancient ,rome4 ,after all the spoliation it has suffered for many centuries1 by which two-thirds of its materials have been plundered1 to build palaces and other structures1 it still stands a stupendous ruin1 solemn1 awful1 and even in desolation beautiful4 ,its position is very near to the forum1 and we pass to it through the arch of ,titus4 ,we felicitate ourselves that we saw the almost perfect amphitheater at ,nismes1 as from that1 and even from the less perfect one at ,arles1 we obtained those strong and correct impressions1 which have enabled us more justly to appreciate the gigantic ruin1 which still towers in venerable majesty1 above both the ,rome of the ,csars1 and the ,rome of the popes4 ,the ,coliseum was begun ,a4 ,d4 #gc1 by ,vespasian1 and finished by ,titus1 ,a4 ,d4 #hj1 ten years after the conquest of ,jerusalem4 ,church tradition states that its architect was ,gaudentius1 a ,christian martyr1 and that some twelve thousand captive ,jews and ,christians were employed in its construction4 ,it is built chiefly of travertine1 although there are large quantities of bricks and tufa in the structure4 ,its form is elliptical3 there are four stories adorned by columns3 the lower is ,doric1 thirty feet high3 the second is ,ionic1 thirty-three feet high2 the third1 ,corinthian1 fifty-four feet1 and above this1 was the frieze and cornice4 ,the hight of the outer wall was one hundred and fifty-seven ,english feet4 ,the longer axis1 walls included1 was six hundred and twenty feet2 the shorter1 five hundred and thirteen2 circumference1 seventeen hundred and seventy feet2 the arena1 two hundred and eighty-seven feet long and a hundred and eighty feet broad4 ,the superficial area was nearly six acres4 ,the arches were numbered1 externally1 from one to eighty4 ,one arch is not numbered1 and this is believed to have been the private entrance of the emperor4 ,there were1 within the amphitheater1 four groups of seats1 corresponding1 as at ,nismes1 to the different orders of people4 ,the seats could receive eighty-seven thousand persons1 or one hundred and ten thousand1 including those who stood4 ,the interior has been very much despoiled1 and the seats are almost ruined2 but a staircase has been constructed1 by which we ascended securely to the top of the building1 and enjoyed a grand view1 not only by day1 but by a full moon4 ,byron's splendid description in ,manfred1 does it no more than justice40 ,the building1 as may be seen in the cut on the preceding page1 is much decayed2 and it is1 also1 8deformed by innumerable holes on the outside1 believed to have been produced by the extraction of the dowels of bronze1 which were originally placed in the joints to keep the stones in place4 ,at the dedication of the amphitheater by ,titus1 five thousand1 or according to some1 nine thousand wild beasts were slaughtered1 and the savage exhibition went on during one hundred days4 ,on the occasion of the triumph of ,trajan over the ,dacians1 the shows were continued one hundred and twenty-three days2 eleven thousand animals were slain1 and one thousand gladiators matched against each other4 ,besides malefactors1 captives and slaves1 freeborn citizens1 even those of noble birth1 hired themselves as gladiators2 and women volunteered on the arena1 to exhibit their skill in murder4 ,the barbarous gladiatorial games were continued during four hundred years2 the last show of the wild beasts was under ,theodoric1 and these brutal entertainments were abolished by ,honorius40 ,,the ,,pantheon4 ,the ,pantheon1 says a late tourist1 8is the most perfect1 as a whole1 of all the structures which have come down to us from ancient ,rome4 ,the invasion of time alone would not have injured it materially1 and1 notwithstanding the spoliations of popes and other depredators1 it still remains a grand and beautiful building4 ,it stands in a dirty1 disagreeable herb market1 and the accumulations of earth and rubbish have almost entirely covered its lofty steps1 which were seven in number1 until its floor is now nearly on a level with the street4 ,its dome was covered with gilt bronze1 and its portico lined with the same metal1 which was plundered to be cast for the pillars and other parts of the baldacchino in ,st4 ,peter's4 ,on this occasion1 four hundred and fifty thousand pounds were taken4 ,the emperor ,constans ,,ii4 had previously1 in #feg1 stripped the roof1 and plundered the silver from the interior of the dome4 ,he destined these things for the ornament of his imperial palace at ,constantinople2 but being murdered at ,syracuse1 on his return1 the plunder was borne to ,alexandria4 ,it was1 originally1 the spoils of ,egypt after the battle of ,actium1 and now returned to ,egypt again4 ,the external facings of polished marble1 have also been torn off2 but although thus despoiled1 the ,pantheon is still magnificent1 notwithstanding that the fires have often heated it1 the overflowing ,tiber has deluged its floor1 and the rains have poured in at the only opening1 which is in the dome4 ,this is a circular hole in the center of the dome1 twenty-eight feet in diameter1 and is said to have been once glazed4 ,the rich marble facings and magnificent columns of the interior1 still remain4 ,the beautiful columns are of polished granite and porphyry4 ,the niches1 originally filled by the statues of the pagan gods1 have not been disturbed2 but they are now occupied by saints1 and virgins1 and other symbols of ,catholic worship4 ,the interior is one vast room1 one hundred and forty-three feet in diameter1 exclusive of the walls1 which are twenty feet thick1 and it is of the same hight1 one hundred and forty-three feet3 the dome occupies one-half of the hight4 ,it is not inaptly illustrated by the rotunda of the ,capitol at ,washington1 which1 although smaller1 is of the same form4 ,when in the ,roman ,pantheon1 you look up to its sky-lighted dome1 there is an impression of simple grandeur which even ,st4 ,peter's does not produce3 8#8,simple1 erect1 severe1 austere1 sublime-- ,shrine of all saints1 and temple of all gods4' 8,an inscription on the frieze records that the ,pantheon was erected by ,agrippa1 ,b4 ,c4 anno #bf2 and another inscription on the architrave records its subsequent restoration by ,septimius ,severus4 ,in #fjh1 ,boniface obtained from the emperor ,phocas permission to consecrate the ,pantheon as a ,christian church1 which1 doubtless1 saved it from destruction4 ,how much is it to be regretted that a similar protection had not saved the ,coliseum and other precious works1 whose ruins bear testimony to the misdirected zeal of the ,christian church in early ages4 ,the portico is one hundred and ten feet long and forty-four deep4 ,it contains sixteen ,corinthian monolithic columns of oriental granite1 forty six and one-half feet high and five feet in diameter1 with capitals and bases of ,greek marble4 ,the pediment still shows where the figures in bass-relief were attached4 8,the magnificent bronze doors are thirty-nine feet high1 and the entire opening is nineteen wide4 ,it is believed that they are the original doors erected by ,agrippa4 ,no doubt they would have been used for the decoration of ,st4 ,peter's1 had not the ,pantheon been consecrated as a church4 ,the interior cornice at the bottom of the dome has been perfectly preserved1 with its rich sculptures4 ,the pavement of the ,pantheon is of porphyry1 alternating with other polished stones in geometric figures4 ,some antiquarians have argued that the ,pantheon was originally an appendage of the baths of ,agrippa1 and that the portico was of subsequent construction1 when the building was converted into a temple4 ,however this may be1 it is one of the most interesting structures of ancient or modern times2 and had it not been most shamefully robbed it would have stood to-day perfect in beauty as it was when ,christ died1 and when ,paul preached and suffered in ,rome4 ,we bent with deep interest over the grave of ,raphael1 whose remains still slumber beneath the pavement of the ,pantheon1 marked only by a humble slab of marble level with the floor4 ,it is well known that until #ahcc his place of interment was only matter of conjecture2 in that year1 owing to unexpected evidence1 the present grave was opened in presence of the pope and numerous artists4 ,the skull was of a singularly fine form2 and its discovery spoiled the speculations of the phrenologists on another skull in the academy of ,st4 ,luke's1 which had before been supposed to be that of the great painter40 ,,roman ,,amphitheater ,,at ,,nismes4 ,nismes1 anciently ,nemausis1 was formerly a flourishing colony of ,romans1 established by ,augustus ,csar1 after the battle of ,actium4 ,among its splendid monuments of antiquity1 the amphitheater1 being infinitely better preserved than those of ,rome and ,verona1 is the finest monument of the kind now extant4 ,it was built in the reign of ,antonius ,pius1 who contributed a large sum of money toward its erection4 ,it is of an oval figure1 one thousand and eighty feet in circumference1 sufficiently capacious to contain twenty thousand spectators4 ,the architecture is of the ,tuscan order1 sixty feet high1 composed of two open galleries1 built one over another1 consisting each of sixty arcades4 ,the entrance into the arena was by four great gates1 with porticos2 and the seats1 of which there were thirty-two rows1 sufficient to contain some twenty-five thousand people1 rising one above another1 consisted of great blocks of stone1 many of which still remain4 ,over the north gate1 appear two bulls1 in alto-relievo1 extremely well executed1 emblems which1 according to the usage of the ,romans1 signified that the amphitheater was erected at the expense of the people4 ,in other parts are heads1 busts1 and other sculptures in bass-relief4 ,this magnificent structure stands in the lower part of the city1 and strikes the spectator with awe and veneration4 ,the external architecture is almost entire in its whole circuit4 ,it was fortified as a citadel by the ,visigoths1 in the beginning of the sixth century3 they raised within it a castle1 two towers of which are still extant1 and surrounded it with a broad and deep moat1 which was filled up in the thirteenth century4 ,in all the subsequent wars to which the city of ,nismes was exposed1 it served as the last refuge of the citizens1 and sustained a great number of successive attacks2 so that its fine preservation is almost miraculous4 ,silliman says of this amphitheater1 that it gives a very exact idea of the ,coliseum at ,rome1 though it is of course smaller4 8,it is built10 he adds1 8of limestone in immense blocks1 laid in courses with perfect regularity and without mortar4 ,mortise holes in the center of the upper surface of each block show that the ,romans employed the same means still in use1 to raise and handle large masses of stone4 ,the accuracy of the masonry seems the more remarkable if we consider the elliptical form of the structure1 making all the vertical joints converge to the foci of the ellipse4 ,in one place we saw a line of light through a joint of this sort where the wall was at least four feet thick4 ,the passages1 of course1 all expand outward also1 and thus admit of a speedy evacuation of the amphitheater through its sixty vomitori4 ,the dimensions of this ellipse are four hundred and thirty-seven by three hundred and twenty-two feet4 ,by walking deliberately around the structure1 these dimensions are more readily realized than by a numerical statement3 the circuit is a quarter of a mile4 ,the cornice was decorated with carving and finished with a frieze2 except in the portion corresponding to nine or ten arches1 the capping and cornice are complete around the entire circuit4 ,in the part where the cornice is deficient1 the ,saracens1 more than eleven hundred years ago1 erected two towers1 which were destroyed by ,charles ,martel1 and fire applied by him disfigured the amphitheater4 ,as it was all of stone he could not destroy it1 but the wood placed in its arches and corridors burned as in a furnace4 ,he wished to destroy the building1 which had often been used as a fortress in the numerous wars that followed the downfall of the ,roman empire4 ,he succeeded only in blackening it with smoke which remains to this day4 ,the heat1 however1 caused some portions of the limestone to flake off2 but very little progress was made toward the destruction of the amphitheater4 ,the building is national property1 and the ,french government has restored many of the arches1 laid anew the pavements1 and has taken precautions to guard against further dilapidation4 ,the exterior of the building is1 indeed1 somewhat corroded by time1 but had war and violence been restrained1 this noble monument of antiquity would have remained1 an architectural wonder to all future ages4 ,many of the rows of marble seats remain entire1 and enable the observer perfectly to understand the whole arrangement4 ,the emperor and his household entered by a lower and special corridor1 and the vestal virgins by a corresponding opening on the opposite side4 ,the senators and patricians entered higher up1 while the plebeians1 entering still higher1 occupied the more elevated positions1 and the slaves the uppermost of all4 ,the police also had their appointed place4 8,projecting outward from the cornice at regular intervals were stones1 pierced with holes six inches or more in diameter1 through which passed poles to sustain the awning1 the lower ends of the poles being sustained by corbel stones projecting from the wall below4 ,the amphitheater had no other covering but the awning1 and this1 on occasions of the use of the building for public games1 was stretched upon ropes crossing from side to side of the arena4 ,this covering secured the spectators from sun and rain1 while it permitted free ventilation4 ,the gladiators entered on one side of the arena and the wild beasts on the other1 and probably the same rule prevailed when gladiator was to contend with gladiator4 ,here man fought his fellow-man1 or with the fierce wild beast1 to pamper the cruel appetite for blood4 ,strange feelings of awe and grandeur are excited by seeing the vast space which was so often filled with human beings1 and one's mind runs wild with excitement when he sees in imagination1 the lion's eye glancing at the grating until he was enlarged to spring upon his victim4 ,the weeds and grass now grow among the seats1 and green-sward covers the once ensanguined arena4 ,the little lizards leap from stone to stone1 and their brief generations are now the sole tenants of these ancient piles40 ,,trajan',s ,,pillar4 ,this historical column was erected at ,rome by the emperor ,trajan to commemorate his victories over the ,dacians1 and is considered the masterpiece of the splendid monuments of art elevated by that emperor in the ,roman capital4 ,its celebrity is chiefly owing to the beautifully wrought bass-reliefs1 containing about two thousand figures1 with which it is ornamented4 ,it stands in the middle of a square1 to form which1 a hill1 one hundred and forty feet in hight1 was leveled2 and was intended1 as appears by the inscription on its base1 both as a tomb for the emperor1 and to display the hight of the hill1 which had thus with incredible labor1 been reduced to a plane surface4 ,it was erected in the year #aad of the ,christian era2 and the emperor ,constantine1 two centuries and a half afterward1 regarded it as the most magnificent structure by which ,rome was even at that time embellished4 ,this pillar is built of white marble1 its base consisting of twelve stones of enormous size1 being raised on a socle1 or foot of eight steps2 and within it is a staircase illuminated by forty-four windows4 ,its hight1 equaling that of the hill which had been leveled1 to give place to the large square called the ,forum ,romanum1 is one hundred and forty feet1 being thirty-five feet less elevated than the ,antonine column4 ,,column ,,of ,,antonine4 ,this grand column is one of the most conspicuous monuments of ancient ,rome4 ,it is near the present post-office1 in a busy1 populous square--the ,piazza ,colonna--in the midst of the modern city4 ,the hight of the column of ,antonine is one hundred and sixty-eight feet2 diameter1 eleven and one-half2 the pedestal is twenty-five feet and eight inches high4 ,it was erected by the senate and people of ,rome to ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus1 ,a4 ,d4 #agd4 ,bass-reliefs1 as in ,trajan's column1 run spirally around the monument1 representing military movements and victories4 ,one of the reliefs represents ,jupiter as dropping rain from his extended arms4 ,this has been supposed to allude to the effect attributed to the prayers of the ,christian legion from ,mytilene1 in the army of the emperor1 who1 at his request1 prayed for rain when there was a great drought4 ,the column is composed of pieces of white marble1 and in the interior are one hundred and ninety steps lighted by forty-two loopholes4 ,by a strange incongruity1 a statue of ,st4 ,paul1 ten feet high1 has been made to replace the emperor on the top of the column4 ,this was done by ,sixtus ,v4 ,it is said that the drawn sword which the apostle holds in his hand proves a conductor to the lightning1 and that the column has been several times injured4 ,,maison ,,carre1 ,,at ,,nismes4 ,if the amphitheater of ,nismes strikes the spectator with an idea of greatness and sublimity1 the ,maison ,carr enchants him with the most exquisite beauties of architecture and sculpture4 ,this fine structure1 as is evidenced by the inscription discovered on its front1 was built by the inhabitants of ,nismes1 in honor of ,caius ,csar1 and ,lucius ,csar1 grandchildren of ,augustus1 by his daughter ,julia1 the wife of ,agrippa4 ,it stands upon a pediment six feet high1 is eighty-two feet long1 thirty-five broad1 and thirty-seven in hight1 without reckoning the pediment4 ,the body of it is adorned with twenty columns engaged in the wall2 and the peristyle1 which is open1 with ten detached pillars that support the entablature4 ,they are all of the ,corinthian order1 fluted and embellished with capitals of the most exquisite sculpture3 the frieze and cornice are much admired1 and the foliage is esteemed inimitable4 ,the proportions of the building are so happily blended1 as to give it an air of majesty and grandeur1 which the most indifferent spectator can not behold without emotion4 ,to enjoy these beauties1 it is not necessary to be a connoisseur in architecture3 they are indeed so exquisite that they may be visited with a fresh appetite for years together4 ,what renders them still more interesting is1 that they are entire1 and very little affected1 either by the ravages of time1 or the havoc of war4 ,cardinal ,alberoni declared this elegant structure to be a jewel which deserved a cover of gold to preserve it from external injuries4 ,an ,italian painter1 perceiving a small part of the roof repaired by modern ,french masonry1 tore his hair1 and exclaimed in a rage1 8,zounds6 what do ,i see8 ,harlequin's hat on the head of ,augustus60 ,in its general architectural effect1 as well as in all its details of sculpture and ornament1 the ,maison ,carr of ,nismes is ravishingly beautiful1 and can not be paralleled by any structure of ancient or modern times4 ,that which most excites the astonishment of the admiring spectator1 is to see it standing entire1 like the effect of enchantment1 after such a succession of ages1 subjected as several of them were1 to the ravages of the barbarians who overran the most interesting parts of ,europe4 ,in the progress of many centuries1 the ,maison ,carr has been used as a ,christian church1 and also for many ordinary purposes1 some of them of the lowest character4 ,the fine ,corinthian columns of this building have been much corroded by time1 and two that were contiguous1 were mutilated in the flutings to make more room for the passage of a farmer's cart when the temple was used as a barn or stable2 and1 to afford more accommodations1 walls were built up between the columns of the portico4 ,in the eleventh century it was used as town-house1 or htel de ville4 ,when attached to the ,augustine convent it was employed as a sepulcher2 and in the days of terror1 the revolutionary tribunal held its meetings here4 ,the building is at present occupied as a museum4 ,it contains many interesting objects1 especially ,roman antiquities3 the pictures are not remarkable4 ,there is in it a beautiful mosaic pavement taken up entire from a ,roman house4 ,this temple is supposed to have been only the center of a much larger building1 extending with wings and long colonnades to the right and left1 whose foundations have been discovered4 ,,the ,,pont ,,du ,,gard4 ,this celebrated ,roman monument is distant about three leagues from the city of ,nismes4 ,instead of finding it in a ruinous condition1 as he might reasonably have expected1 the traveler1 on approaching it1 is agreeably disappointed when he perceives that it looks as fresh as a modern bridge of a few years' standing4 ,the climate is either so pure and dry1 or the freestone with which it is built is so hard1 that the very angles of the stones remain as acute as if they had been recently cut4 ,a few of them have1 indeed1 dropped out of the arches2 but the whole is admirably preserved1 and presents the eye with a piece of architecture1 so unaffectedly elegant1 so simple1 and1 at the same time1 so majestic1 that it defies the most phlegmatic spectator to view it without admiration4 ,it was raised in the ,augustan age1 by the ,roman colony of ,nismes1 to convey a stream of water between two mountains1 for the use of that city4 ,by means of it the arena of the amphitheater could be flooded for the naumachi4 ,it stands over the river ,gardon1 a beautiful pastoral stream1 brawling among rocks which form a number of pretty natural cascades1 and overshadowed on each side by trees and shrubs1 which add greatly to the rural beauties of the scene4 ,this elegant structure consists of three bridges1 or tiers of arches1 one above another2 the first of six1 the second of eleven1 and the third of thirty-six arches4 ,the hight1 comprehending the aqueduct on the top1 is one hundred and seventy-four feet and three inches1 and the length1 between the two mountains1 which it unites1 is seven hundred and twenty-three feet4 ,the order of the architecture is ,tuscan2 but its symmetry is inconceivable4 ,by scooping the bases of the pilasters of the second tier of arches1 a passage was made for foot-travelers2 but although the ancients far excelled the moderns in point of beauty and magnificence1 they certainly fell short of them in point of convenience4 ,the inhabitants of ,avignon have1 in this particular1 improved the ,roman work by a new bridge by apposition1 constructed on the same plan with that of the lower tier of arches1 of which indeed it seems to be a part1 affording a broad and commodious passage over the river1 to horses and carriages4 ,the aqueduct for the continuance of which this superb work was raised1 conveyed a stream of pure water from the fountain of ,eure1 near the city of ,uzes1 and extended nearly six leagues in length4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,roman ,,aqueduct4 ,,ancient ,,aqueduct ,,near ,,rome4 ,in this connection1 we may notice an ancient ,roman aqueduct1 the arches of which may still be seen by the tourist as he approaches the 8eternal city20 and a view of which is given in the cut on the next page4 ,it reminds us1 in its general outlines1 of the ,pont du ,gard which has just been described1 except that the latter has three tiers of arches while this has but two2 and the styles of architecture in the two are different4 ,these immense structures1 carried for miles over valleys and through hills1 were reared by the ancients at the cost of vast expense and labor1 that they might supply themselves with pure water for domestic and public uses4 ,and their ruins still bear witness to the gigantic scale on which such works were planned and completed1 at an age and among a people that we are accustomed to think of as far inferior to our own4 ,,the ,,roman ,,forum4 ,there has been much discussion as to the form and extent of the ,roman forum1 and as to the use of some of the structures whose ruins are found within its area4 ,sometimes the word forum was applied to market-places--forum boarium1 fora venalia1 as well as to places where justice was administered1 fora civilia4 ,the great ,roman ,forum at the foot of the ,capitol1 and contiguous to the ,palatine hill1 was1 no doubt1 intended by ,romulus for the assemblies of the people4 ,it was adorned with an immense number of ,grecian statues1 among which were twelve gilt statues of the principal gods4 ,numerous relics of its former grandeur now fill the campo vaccino--broken porticos1 ruined arches1 single columns1 and the remains of temples4 ,to each of these belongs a story of curious antiquarian research4 ,without wishing to follow the beaten path of all travelers1 it is impossible to pass these world-renowned memorials of a by-gone age without some brief notice4 ,one of these is ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,severus4 ,the arch of ,septimius ,severus stands in the ,forum1 on the eastern front of the ,capitol4 ,the soil and rubbish there accumulated was fifteen feet deep1 but the ground was excavated under ,napoleon1 and the whole of this fine monument was thus brought into view4 ,it was erected ,a4 ,d4 #bje1 by the senate and people of ,rome1 in honor of the emperor and his sons1 on account of their conquests of the ,parthians and ,persians4 ,this is recorded upon the monument1 in an inscription which is still perfectly legible4 ,the monument was constructed entirely of ,grecian marble4 ,there is a large and lofty middle arch1 and there are two lateral arches4 ,in one of the columns is a staircase of fifty steps1 leading to the top1 on which there was originally a car drawn by six horses1 containing the figures of the emperor and of his two sons1 ,geta and ,caracalla4 ,geta was murdered by his brother1 and the inscription which alluded to both was mutilated by ,caracalla1 so as to leave out the name of ,geta2 this obliteration is obvious on inspection4 ,there are on the panels many figures in high relief1 representing deeds of war1 in which the ,romans so much delighted4 ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,titus4 ,this1 which is one of the most beautiful of the ,roman arches1 and a view of which is given in the cut on the next page1 was erected to commemorate the conquest of ,jerusalem by ,titus4 ,it stands at the eastern end of the ,forum1 and the via sacra passes beneath it4 ,it is built of ,grecian marble1 and has only a single arch1 with fluted columns on each side4 ,on the side toward the ,forum there is a mutilated figure of ,victory standing over the arch4 ,the side toward the ,coliseum is the most perfect2 and nearly all the cornice and the ant are preserved4 ,this arch has a peculiar interest attached to it1 because it illustrates ,scripture history4 ,on one of the bass-reliefs1 inside of the arch1 a procession are bearing the spoils of the temple--the golden candlestick and the silver trumpets--the only authentic representations of those sacred objects1 and perfectly corresponding with the description given by ,josephus4 ,the seven-branched candlestick itself was lost in the ,tiber1 and now reposes amidst its yellow sands4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,titus4 ,,the ,,capitol4 ,the modern ,capitol is erected on the foundation of the ancient4 ,the huge blocks of peperino stone which underlie the present ,capitol rise from the area of the ,forum1 far below2 and it is quite obvious that the modern structure is superimposed4 ,the ,capitol hill is the highest ground in old ,rome2 and the summit of its tower is1 as already observed1 higher than any other building in ,rome east of the ,tiber4 ,we ascend to the present ,capitol from the west1 by a series of marble steps4 ,on the right and left1 at the top of the stairs1 are antique equestrian and colossal statues of ,castor and ,pollux1 mounted upon high pedestals4 ,in the middle of the area1 in front of the ,capitol1 is the colossal equestrian statue believed to be that of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,it is in bronze1 and is a most noble specimen of ancient art4 ,the emperor is truly imperial1 and the horse is admirable2 it can not be exceeded in symmetry and grandeur4 ,this statue1 had it not been mistaken for a statue of ,constantine1 would have shared the fate of other productions of pagan art4 ,it was originally gilded1 and the gold is still visible upon it here and there4 ,the head and neck of the horse are copied by modern sculptors1 as being the best specimens of the form of this part of the noble animal in existence4 ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,the ,,capitol4 ,this museum is situated in two wings1 on the right and left of the ,capitoline hill4 ,they do not form a part of the same structure4 ,it is exceedingly instructive1 as the statues are very numerous2 and we can not doubt that they exhibit faithfully the persons of the ancient ,romans1 with their features and costumes4 ,many of the most distinguished ,roman emperors1 poets1 historians1 and orators1 are represented in marble or bronze2 ,trajan1 ,caligula1 ,hadrian1 ,nero1 ,nerva1 ,julius ,csar and his murderer ,brutus1 ,cicero1 ,virgil1 ,caracalla1 and a multitude more4 ,some of the statues are colossal4 ,there are several parts of an immense statue of ,nero1 which was designed to be one hundred and fifty feet high1 and to rival in altitude the ,coliseum itself4 ,in crime and infamy1 he was indeed a colossus4 ,his countenance has a groveling1 animal expression1 very strongly marked in a bust contained in a private museum1 where1 as if to correspond with the blackness of his character1 he is sculptured in basalt1 or black marble4 8,we saw in the museum of the ,capitol10 says ,professor ,silliman1 8the original of that bust of ,cicero1 which represents him as a large man with a full face and round head1 the very reverse of the bust formerly said to be ,cicero's1 and which ,i saw in #ahje in the ,earl of ,pembroke's palace1 near ,salisbury1 ,england4 ,that bust made ,cicero's features lean1 muscular1 and sharp1 with a wart on the right cheek1 near the nose4 ,artists and antiquaries have no doubt1 ,i believe1 of the authenticity of the bust in the ,capitol1 which bears his name1 and was found in a villa of ,mecnas4 ,an excellent copy of this bust1 by our countryman1 ,crawford1 is in the ,trumbull gallery in ,yale college1 along with copies by the same artist of the busts of ,demosthenes and ,homer1 the originals of which we saw in the ,capitol museum4 ,in this museum is also to be seen the celebrated ,venus of the ,capitol1 to which a separate saloon is devoted4 ,the dying ,gladiator is in a room with other noble antique statues4 ,byron has completely embalmed this figure in his memorable description in the fifth canto of ,childe ,harold's pilgrimage4 ,it is probable that the artist himself1 could he have read the passage1 would have confessed that it expressed his sentiment even more perfectly than the marble4 ,any one who has traversed ,italy with ,byron in his hand1 will readily appreciate not only the wonderful fidelity of his descriptions1 but that all other language seems poverty-stricken and unmeaning when compared with the masterly touches by which he has painted the various monuments of antiquity which adorn his pictured page4 ,for example1 besides the passage just alluded to1 we have his tomb of ,cecilia ,metella1 the ,thunder-stricken ,nurse of ,rome6 the ,coliseum1 the ,pantheon1 and ,st4 ,peter's1 c4 ,the original bronze wolf1 representing the early nursing of ,romulus and ,remus1 is in the ,capitol museum4 ,the little urchins1 also in bronze1 are eagerly drawing from the savage wet-nurse the means of life4 ,this fable affords not an unapt symbol of the ferocious disposition of ,romulus1 who slew his brother1 and of most of the ,roman people1 of whatever rank1 to whom human blood seems to have been a delightful nectar4 ,there has been much discussion as to the antiquity of this wolf4 ,it appears probable that this is the image referred to by ,cicero2 and it bears marks of having been struck by lightning1 according to tradition4 ,there is a large piece of metal torn out of one of the hind legs of the wolf1 and this is stated by tradition to have happened from a thunder-stroke1 7to which1 of course1 ,byron alludes in his immortal lines17 which fell upon the wolf the moment when it was announced in the ,capitol that ,julius ,csar was dead40 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,of ,,rome4 ,the piazza of this masterpiece of architecture1 a view of which as seen from the ,tiber is given in the cut on the next page1 is altogether sublime4 ,the double colonnade on each side1 extending in a semicircular sweep1 the stupendous ,egyptian obelisk1 the two fountains1 the portico1 and the admirable faade of the church1 form such an assemblage of magnificent objects1 as can not fail to impress the mind with awe and admiration4 ,the church appears in the background1 and on each side is a row of quadruple arches1 resting on two hundred and eighty-four pillars1 and eighty-eight pilasters3 these arches support one hundred and ninety-two statues1 twelve feet in hight4 ,the two noble fountains throw a mass of water to the hight of nine feet1 from which it falls in a very picturesque manner1 and adds greatly to the beauty of the scene4 ,in the center is the fine obelisk4 ,at the first entrance into ,st4 ,peter's1 the effect is not so striking as might be expected3 it enlarges itself1 however1 insensibly on all sides1 and improves on the eye every moment4 ,the proportions are so accurately observed1 that each of the parts are seen to an equal advantage1 without distinguishing itself above the rest4 ,it appears neither extremely high1 nor long1 nor broad1 because a just equality is preserved throughout4 ,although every object in this church is admirable1 the most astonishing part of it is the cupola4 ,on ascending to it1 the spectator is surprised to find1 that the dome which he sees in the church1 is not the same with the one he had examined without doors1 the latter being a kind of case to the other1 and the stairs by which he ascends into the ball lying between the two4 ,had there been the outward dome only1 it would not have been seen to advantage by those who are within the church2 or had there been the inward one only1 it would scarcely have been seen by those who are without2 and had both been one solid dome of so great a thickness1 the pillars would have been too weak to have supported it4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,as ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,tiber4 ,it is not easy to conceive a more glorious architectural display than the one which presents itself to the spectator who stands beneath the dome4 ,if he looks upward1 he is astonished at the spacious hollow of the cupola1 and has a vault on every side of him1 which makes one of the most beautiful vistas the eye can possibly have to penetrate4 ,to convey an idea of its magnitude1 it will suffice to say1 that the hight of the body of the church1 from the ground to the upper part of its ceiling1 is four hundred and thirty-two feet1 and that sixteen persons may place themselves1 without inconvenience1 in the globular top over the dome1 which is annually lighted1 on the twenty-ninth of ,june1 by four thousand lamps and two thousand fire-pots1 presenting a most delightful spectacle4 ,the vestibule of ,st4 ,peter's is grand and beautiful4 ,over the second entrance is a fine mosaic from ,giotto1 executed in the year #acjc2 and at the corners1 to the right and left1 are the equestrian statues of ,constantine and ,charlemagne4 ,of the five doors leading to the church itself1 one1 called the holy door1 is generally shut up by brick-work1 and is only opened at the time of the jubilee4 ,the middle gate is of bronze1 with bass-reliefs4 ,of the one hundred and thirty statues with which this church is adorned1 that of ,st4 ,peter is the most conspicuous3 it is said to have been recast from a bronze statue of ,jupiter ,capitolinus4 ,one hundred and twelve lamps are constantly burning around the tomb of this saint2 and the high altar close to it1 on which the pope alone reads mass1 is overshadowed by a ceiling1 which exceeds in loftiness that of any palace of ,rome4 ,the splendid sacristy was built by ,pius ,,vi4 ,but by far the greatest ornaments of the interior are the excellent works in mosaic1 all copied from the most celebrated pictures1 which are thus guarded from oblivion4 ,the great and truly awful dome of ,st4 ,peter's is only two feet less in diameter than that of the ,pantheon1 being one hundred and thirty-seven feet2 but it exceeds the latter in hight by twenty feet1 being one hundred and fifty-nine feet1 besides the lantern1 the basis pedestal of the top1 the globular top itself1 and the cross above it1 which1 collectively1 measure one hundred and twenty feet4 ,the roof of the church is ascended by easy steps2 and here the visitor seems to have entered a small town1 for he suddenly finds himself among a number of houses1 which either serve as repositories of implements and materials for repairing the church1 or are inhabited by the workmen4 ,the dome1 at the foot of which he now arrives1 appears to be the parish church of this town2 and the inferior domes seem as if intended only for ornaments to fill up the vacuities4 ,add to this1 that he can not see the streets of ,rome1 on account of the surrounding high gallery and its colossal statues1 and the singularity of such a scene may be easily conceived4 ,it is besides said1 that a market is occasionally held here for the aerial inhabitants4 ,but although the adventurous stranger is now on the roof1 he has still a great hight to ascend before he reaches the summit of the dome4 ,previously to his engaging in this enterprise1 he is conducted to the inside gallery of the dome4 ,from this spot the people within the body of the church appear like children4 ,the higher he goes1 the more uncomfortable he finds himself1 on account of the oblique walls over the narrow staircase2 and he is often compelled to lean with his whole body quite to one side4 ,several marble plates are affixed in those walls1 containing the names of the distinguished personages who have had the courage to ascend to the dome1 and even to climb up to the lantern1 and the top4 ,the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 is twice mentioned2 and ,paul ,i4 as grand duke4 ,in some parts1 where the stairs are too steep1 more commodious steps of wood have been placed4 ,by these the lantern can be reached with greater facility2 and the view which there waits the visitor1 is magnificent beyond description3 it is an immense panorama1 bounded by the sea4 ,silliman1 in his late 8,visit to ,europe10 adds points of interest with regard to ,st4 ,peter's not given above1 which therefore we quote4 8,the interior10 he says1 8is beyond description rich and magnificent4 ,it is said to have cost fifty million dollars4 ,the circumference of each of the four great pillars which support the dome1 is two hundred and thirty-four feet4 ,the diameter of the dome is one hundred and ninety-five feet2 the hight of the dome to the lantern1 is four hundred and five feet2 to the top of the cross1 is four hundred and thirty-four feet4 ,the floor is composed entirely of marble of various colors1 and disposed in ornamental forms2 indeed1 the whole interior of the church1 the columns and pilasters excepted1 is faced with the most beautiful marble1 highly polished2 while numerous medallions1 exquisite monuments1 and splendid mosaic copies of the best pictures1 adorn the interior1 and form an integral part of its walls4 ,the roof1 or ceiling1 is stuccoed in sunken squares or panels1 richly gilt4 ,there is no part which is not sumptuously decorated4 ,it seems as if ingenuity1 art1 taste1 talent1 and skill1 all the resources of wealth1 and of ,nature herself1 through all her vast storehouse of materials1 had been laid under contribution1 to make ,st4 ,peter's the most glorious of the structures reared by man4 ,with a pure faith1 it would be a temple worthy of the ,god who created all the materials with which it is built1 and who furnished man with all the faculties1 which have enabled him to rear and adorn this unrivaled structure1 a fit abode1 like the glorious fane of ,jerusalem1 for the habitation of the spiritual influence of ,jehovah4 ,st4 ,peter's was one hundred and seventy-six years in building4 ,indeed1 including all its vicissitudes1 the period was three hundred and fifty years1 under forty-three popes4 ,it was finally dedicated by ,urban ,,viii41 ,november eighteenth1 #afbf4 ,the vases for holding holy water serve to give an idea of the immensity of the building4 ,they are supported by cherubs1 which1 on first entering the church1 appear like children1 but on approaching them they are found to be six feet high4 ,another illustration is derived from the mosaic figures of the four evangelists1 with their emblems over the arches4 ,the pen in the hand of ,st4 ,mark is six feet long4 ,upon the frieze running round the basis of the dome is this inscription1 each letter of which is six feet long1 and yet the writing is only conveniently legible below3 ,,tv ,,es ,,petrvs ,,et ,,svper ,,hanc ,,petram ,,aedificabo ,,ecclesiam ,,meam ,,et ,,tibi ,,dabo ,,claves ,,regni40 ,,the ,,soil ,,of ,,rome4 ,in leaving the wonders of ,rome1 and the city itself1 we will quote an interesting extract from ,townsend's 8,tour in ,italy10 in #ahej4 8,many authors10 he says1 8have asserted1 as their interpretation of some parts of the ,apocalypse1 that ,rome will be destroyed by fire from heaven1 or swallowed up by earthquakes1 or overwhelmed with destruction by volcanoes1 as the visible punishment of the ,almighty1 for its popery and its crimes4 ,i am unwilling1 having read so many books on the interpretation of the prophecy1 to deduce any argument of this kind from the prophecies which are unfulfilled2 but ,i behold everywhere--in ,rome1 near ,rome1 and through the whole region from ,rome to ,naples--the most astounding proofs1 not merely of the possibility1 but the probability that the whole region of central ,italy will one day be destroyed by such a catastrophe4 ,the soil of ,rome is tufa1 with a volcanic subterranean action still going on4 ,at ,naples the boiling sulphur is to be seen bubbling near the surface of the earth4 ,when ,i drew a stick along upon the ground1 the sulphurous smoke followed the indentation2 and it would never surprise me to hear of the utter destruction of the southern peninsula of ,italy4 ,the entire country and district is volcanic4 ,it is saturated with beds of sulphur and the substrata of destruction4 ,it seems as certainly prepared for the flames as the wood and coal on the hearth are prepared for the taper which shall kindle the fire to consume them4 ,i again read the remarks of ,dr4 ,cumming3 #8,rome1' he believes1 #8is to be overthrown by judgment2 not to be converted by the agency of the gospel1 nor to be exhausted by political assaults4 ,it is literally to be consumed by fire4' ,whether he is correct in regarding such an event as the fulfillment of the prophecies1 and the demonstration of the anger of the ,creator against the incorrigible assumption of an erring and influential church1 ,i know not2 but the divine hand alone seems to me to hold the element of fire in check by a miracle as great as that which protected the cities of the plain1 till the righteous ,lot had made his escape to the mountains40 ,,eddystone ,,light-,,house4 ,the ,eddystone rocks1 on which this celebrated light-house is built1 are situated nearly south-south-west from the middle of ,plymouth sound1 being distant from the port of ,plymouth nearly fourteen miles1 and from the promontory called ,ramshead1 about ten miles4 ,they are almost in the line1 but somewhat within it1 which joins the ,start and the ,lizard points2 and as they lie nearly in the direction of vessels coasting up and down the channel1 they were necessarily1 before the establishment of a light-house1 very dangerous1 and often fatal to ships under such circumstances4 ,their situation1 likewise1 relatively to the bay of ,biscay and the ,atlantic ocean1 is such that they lie open to the swells of both from all the south-western points of the compass2 which swells are generally allowed by mariners to be very great and heavy in those seas1 and particularly in the bay of ,biscay4 ,it is to be observed1 that the soundings of the sea1 from the south-west toward the ,eddystone1 are from eighty fathoms to forty1 and that in every part1 until the rocks are approached1 the sea has a depth of at least thirty fathoms2 insomuch that all the heavy seas from the south-west reach them uncontrolled1 and break on them with the utmost fury4 ,the force and hight of these seas are increased by the fact that the rocks stretch across the channel1 in a direction north and south1 to the length of above one hundred fathoms1 and by their lying in a sloping manner toward the south-west quarter4 ,this striving of the rocks1 as it is technically called1 does not cease at low-water1 but still goes on progressively2 so that1 at fifty fathoms westward1 there are twelve fathoms of water2 neither does it terminate at the distance of a mile4 ,from this configuration it happens1 that the seas are swollen to such a degree1 in storms and heavy gales of wind1 as to break on the rocks with the utmost violence4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the dangers to which navigators were exposed by the ,eddystone rocks should have made a great commercial nation desirous to have a light-house erected on them4 ,the wonder is that any one should have had sufficient resolution to undertake its construction4 ,such a man was1 however1 found in the person of ,mr4 ,henry ,winstanley1 of ,littleburgh1 in ,essex1 who1 being furnished with the necessary powers to carry the design into execution1 entered on his undertaking in #afif1 and completed it in four years4 ,so certain was he of the stability of his structure1 that he declared it to be his wish to be in it 8during the greatest storm which ever blew under the face of the heavens40 ,in this wish he was but too amply gratified2 for while he was there with his workmen and light-keepers1 that dreadful storm began1 which raged most violently on the night of the twenty-sixth of ,november1 #agjc2 and of all the accounts of the kind with which history has furnished us1 no one has exceeded this in ,great ,britain1 nor has been more injurious or extensive in its devastations4 ,on the following morning1 when the storm was so much abated1 that an inquiry could be made1 whether the light-house had suffered from it1 nothing was to be seen standing1 with the exception of some of the large irons by which the work was fixed on the rock2 nor were any of the people1 nor any of the materials of the building ever found afterward4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eddystone ,,light-,,house4 ,in #agji1 another light-house was built of wood1 on a very different construction1 by ,mr4 ,john ,rudyerd1 then a silk-mercer on ,ludgate hill4 ,this very ingenious structure1 after having braved the elements for forty-six years1 was burned to the ground in #agee4 ,on the destruction of this light-house1 that excellent mechanic and engineer1 ,mr4 ,smeaton1 was selected as the fittest person to build another4 ,he found some difficulty in persuading the proprietors1 that a stone building1 properly constructed1 would be in every respect preferable to one of wood2 but having at length convinced them1 he turned his thoughts to the shape which would be most suitable to a building so critically situated4 ,reflecting on the structure of the former buildings1 it seemed to him a material improvement to procure1 if possible1 an enlargement of the base1 without increasing the size of the waist1 or that part of the building placed between the top of the rock and the top of the solid work4 ,hence he thought a greater degree of strength and stiffness would be gained1 accompanied with less resistance to the acting power4 ,on this occasion1 the natural figure of the waist1 or bole of a large spreading oak1 occurred to our sagacious engineer4 ,with these very enlightened views1 as to the proper form of the superstructure1 ,mr4 ,smeaton began the work on the second of ,april1 #ageg1 and completed it on the fourth of ,august1 #agei4 ,its appearance1 as completed1 may be seen in the cut on the preceding page4 ,the rock1 which slopes toward the south-west1 is cut into horizontal steps1 into which are dovetailed1 and united by a strong cement1 ,portland stone and granite4 ,the whole to the hight of thirty-five feet from the foundation1 is a solid body of stones1 engrafted into each other1 and united by every means of additional strength that could be devised4 ,the building has four rooms1 one over the other1 and at the top a gallery and lantern4 ,the stone floors are flat above1 but concave beneath1 and are kept from pressing against the sides of the building by a chain let into the walls4 ,it is nearly eighty feet in hight1 and since its completion has been assaulted by the fury of the elements1 without suffering the smallest injury4 ,to trace the progress of so vast an undertaking1 and to show with what skill and judgment this unparalleled engineer overcame the greatest difficulties1 would far exceed the limits of this work4 ,,bell ,,rock ,,light-,,house4 ,the ,bell rock1 or ,inch cape1 is situated on the north-east coast of ,great ,britain1 twelve miles south-west from the town of ,arbroath1 in ,fifeshire1 and thirty miles north-east from ,st4 ,abb's head1 in the county of ,berwick4 ,it lies in the direct trace of the firth of ,tay1 and of a great proportion of the shipping of the firth of ,forth1 embracing a very extensive local trade4 ,this estuary is besides the principal inlet on the northern coast of ,britain1 in which the shipping of the ,german ocean and ,north sea take refuge when overtaken by easterly storms4 ,at neap-tides1 or at the quadratures of the moon1 the ,bell rock is scarcely uncovered at low-water2 but in spring-tides1 when the ebbs are greatest1 that part of the rock which is exposed to view at low-water1 measures about four hundred and twenty-seven feet in length1 by two hundred and thirty in breadth2 and in this low state of the tides1 its average perpendicular hight above the surface of the sea is about four feet4 ,beyond the space included in these measurements1 at very low tides1 a reef extends about a thousand feet in a south-west direction1 from the higher part of the rock just described2 and on this reef the light-house is erected4 ,in the erection of a light-house on the ,bell rock1 independently of its distance from the main land1 a serious difficulty presented itself1 arising from the greater depth of water at which it was necessary to carry on the operations1 than in the case of the ,eddystone light-house1 described above1 or of any other building of the same kind1 ancient or modern1 which had been hitherto undertaken4 ,its description is as follows4 ,the ,bell rock light-house1 which has not improperly been termed the ,scottish ,pharos1 is a circular building1 the foundation stone of which is nearly on a level with the surface of the sea at low-water of ordinary spring-tides2 and1 consequently1 at high-water of these tides the building is immersed to the hight of about fifteen feet4 ,the first two1 or lowest courses of the masonry1 are imbedded1 or sunk into the rock1 and the stones of all the courses are curiously dovetailed and joined with each other1 forming one connected mass from the center to the circumference4 ,the successive courses of the work are also attached to each other by joggles of stone2 and1 to prevent the stones from being lifted up by the force of the sea1 while the work was in progress1 each stone of the solid part of the building had two holes bored through it1 entering six inches into the course immediately below1 into which oaken tree-nails1 two inches in diameter1 were driven1 after ,mr4 ,smeaton's plan at the ,eddystone light-house4 ,the cement used at the ,bell rock1 like that at the latter1 was a mixture of pozzuolana1 earth1 lime1 and sand1 in equal parts1 by measure4 ,the stones employed in this surprising structure weigh from two tuns to half a tun each4 ,the ground course measures forty-two feet in diameter1 and the building diminishes as it rises to the top1 where the parapet wall of the light-room has a diameter of thirteen feet only4 ,it is solid from the ground course to the hight of thirty feet1 where the entry door is placed1 the ascent to which is by a kind of rope-ladder1 with wooden steps1 hung out at ebb-tide1 and taken into the building again when the water covers the rock2 but strangers to this sort of climbing are taken up in a kind of chair1 by a small movable crane projected from the door1 from which a narrow passage leads to a stone staircase thirteen feet in hight4 ,here the walls are seven feet thick1 but they gradually diminish from the top of the staircase to the parapet wall of the light-room1 where they measure one foot only in thickness4 ,the upper part of the building is divided into six apartments for the use of the light-house keepers1 and for containing the light-house stores4 ,the lower1 or first of these floors1 contains the water-tanks1 fuel1 and other bulky articles2 the second1 the oil-cisterns1 glass1 and other light-room stores2 the third is occupied as a kitchen2 the fourth is the bed-room2 the fifth1 the library1 or stranger's room2 and the upper apartment forms the light-room4 ,the floors of the several apartments are of stone1 and the communication from the one to the other is effected by wooden ladders1 except in the case of the light-room1 where every article being fire-proof1 the steps are made of iron4 ,in each of the three lower apartments are two windows2 but the upper rooms have four windows each4 ,the casements of the windows are double1 and are glazed with plate-glass1 having besides an outer storm-shutter1 or dead-light1 of timber1 to defend the glass from the waves and spray of the sea4 ,the parapet wall of the light-room is six feet in hight1 and has a door leading out to the balcony1 or walk1 formed by the cornice round the upper part of the building1 which is surrounded by a cast-iron rail1 curiously wrought like net-work4 ,this rail reposes on batts of brass1 and has a massive coping1 or top-rail1 of the same metal4 ,the light-room was1 with the whole of its apparatus1 framed and prepared at ,edinburgh4 ,it is of an octagonal figure1 measuring twelve feet across1 and fifteen feet in hight1 formed with cast-iron sashes1 or window frames1 glazed with large plates of polished glass1 measuring about two feet and six inches1 by two feet and a quarter1 and the fourth of an inch in thickness4 ,it is covered with a dome roof of copper1 terminating in a large gilt ball1 with a vent-hole in the top4 ,the light is very powerful1 and is readily seen at the distance of seven leagues1 when the atmosphere is clear4 ,it is from oil1 with argand burners1 placed in the focus of silver-plated reflectors1 measuring two feet over the lips1 the silver surface being hollowed1 or wrought to the parabolic curve4 ,that this splendid light may be the more easily distinguished from all the other lights on the coast1 the reflectors are ranged on a frame with four faces1 or sides1 which1 by a train of machinery1 is made to revolve on a perpendicular axis once in six minutes4 ,between the observer and the reflectors1 on two opposite sides of the revolving frame1 shades of red glass are interposed in such a manner1 that1 during each entire revolution of the reflectors1 two appearances1 distinctly differing from each other1 are produced3 one is the common bright light familiar to all2 but on the other1 or shaded sides1 the rays are tinged of a red color4 ,these red and bright lights1 in the course of each revolution1 alternate with intervals of darkness1 and thus in a very beautiful and simple manner1 characterize this light4 ,as a further warning to the mariner in foggy weather1 two large bells1 each weighing about twelve hundred pounds1 are tolled day and night by the same machinery which moves the lights4 ,as these bells1 in moderate weather1 may be heard considerably beyond the limits of the rock1 vessels1 by this expedient1 get warning to put about1 and are thereby prevented from running on the rock in thick and hazy weather1 a disaster to which ships might otherwise be liable1 notwithstanding the erection of the light-house4 ,the establishment consists of a principal light-keeper1 with three assistants1 two of whom are constantly at the light-house1 while the third is stationed at a tower erected at ,arbroath1 where he corresponds by signals with the light-keepers at the rock4 ,this stupendous undertaking is highly creditable to ,mr4 ,stevenson1 the engineer1 and does honor to the age in which it has been produced4 ,the lights were exhibited1 for the first time1 on the first of ,february1 #ahaa4 ,,stonehenge4 ,this celebrated monument of antiquity1 a view of which is given in the cut on the next page1 stands in the middle of a flat area near the summit of a hill1 six miles distant from ,salisbury4 ,it is inclosed by a double circular bank and ditch1 nearly thirty feet broad1 after crossing which an ascent of thirty yards leads to the work4 ,the whole fabric1 of which the cut exhibits only a section1 was originally composed of two circles and two ovals4 ,the outer circle is about one hundred and eight feet in diameter1 consisting1 when entire1 of sixty stones1 thirty uprights1 and thirty imposts1 of which there now remain twenty-four uprights only1 seventeen standing1 and seven down1 three feet and a half asunder1 and eight imposts4 ,eleven uprights have their five imposts on them at the grand entrance3 these stones are from thirteen to twenty feet high4 ,the smaller circle is somewhat more than eight feet from the inside of the outer one1 and consisted of forty smaller stones1 the highest measuring about six feet1 nineteen only of which now remain1 and only eleven standing4 ,the walk between these two circles is three hundred feet in circumference4 ,the adytum1 or cell1 is an oval formed of ten stones1 from sixteen to twenty-two feet high1 in pairs1 and with imposts above thirty feet high1 rising in hight as they go round1 and each pair separate1 and not connected as the outer pair3 the highest eight feet4 ,within these1 are nineteen other smaller single stones1 of which six only are standing4 ,at the upper end of the adytum is the altar1 a large slab of blue coarse marble1 twenty inches thick1 sixteen feet long1 and four broad3 it is pressed down by the weight of the vast stones which have fallen upon it4 ,the whole number of stones1 uprights and imposts1 comprehending the altar1 is one hundred and forty4 ,the stones1 which have been by some considered artificial1 were most probably brought from those called the gray weathers on ,marlborough downs1 distant fifteen or sixteen miles2 and if tried with a tool1 appear of the same hardness1 grain and color1 being generally reddish4 ,the heads of oxen1 deer1 and other beasts1 have been found in digging in and about ,stonehenge2 and in the circumjacent barrows1 human bones4 ,from the plain to this structure there are three entrances1 the most considerable of which is from the north-east2 and at each of them were raised1 on the outside of the trench1 two huge stones1 with two smaller parallel ones within4 ,illustration3 ,,stonehenge4 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 in his history of the ,britons1 written in the reign of ,king ,stephen1 represents this monument as having been erected at the command of ,aurelius ,ambrosius1 the last ,british king1 in memory of four hundred and sixty ,britons who were murdered by ,hengist the ,saxon4 ,polydore ,virgil says that it was erected by the ,britons as the sepulchral monument of ,aurelius ,ambrosius1 and other writers consider it to have been that of the famous ,british queen ,boadicea4 ,inigo ,jones is of opinion that it was a ,roman temple2 and this conclusion he draws from a stone sixteen feet in length1 and four in breadth1 placed in an exact position to the eastward1 altar-fashion4 ,by ,charlton it is ascribed to the ,danes1 who were two years masters of ,wiltshire2 a tin tablet1 on which were some unknown characters1 having been dug up in the vicinity1 in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,this tablet1 which is lost1 might have given some information respecting its founders4 ,its common name1 ,stonehenge1 is ,saxon1 and signifies a 8stone gallows10 to which the stones1 having transverse imposts1 bear some resemblance4 ,it is also called in ,welch1 choir gour1 or the giants' dance4 ,mr4 ,grose1 the antiquary1 is of opinion that ,doctor ,stukely has completely proved this structure to have been a ,british temple1 in which the ,druids officiated4 ,he supposes it to have been the metropolitan temple of ,great ,britain1 and translates the words choir gour1 8the great choir or temple40 ,it was customary with the ,druids to place one large stone on another for a religious memorial2 and these they often placed so equably1 that even a breath of wind would sometimes make them vibrate4 ,of such stones one remains at this day in the pile of ,stonehenge4 ,the ancients distinguished stones erected with a religious view1 by the name of ambrosi petr1 amber stones1 the word amber implying whatever is solar and divine4 ,according to ,bryant1 ,stonehenge is composed of these amber stones2 and hence the next town is denominated ,ambresbury4 ,,rocking ,,stones4 ,the rocking stone1 or logan1 is a stone of a prodigious size1 so nicely poised1 that it rocks or shakes with the smallest force4 ,several of the consecrated stones mentioned above1 were rocking stones2 and there was a wonderful monument of this kind near ,penzance in ,cornwall1 which still retains the name of main-amber1 or the sacred stones4 ,with these stones the ancients were not unacquainted4 ,pliny relates that at ,harpasa1 a town of ,asia1 there was a rock of such a wonderful nature1 that1 if touched with the finger1 it would shake1 but could not be moved from its place with the whole force of the body4 ,ptolemy ,hephistion mentions a stone of this description near the ocean1 which was agitated when struck by the stalk of the plant asphodel1 or day-lily1 but could not be removed by a great exertion of force4 ,another is cited by ,apollonius ,rhodius1 supposed to have been raised in the time of the ,argonauts1 in the island ,tenos1 as the monument of the two-winged sons of ,boreas1 slain by ,hercules2 and there are others in ,china1 and in other countries4 ,many rocking stones are to be found in different parts of ,great ,britain2 some natural1 and others artificial1 or placed in their position by human art4 ,that the latter are monuments erected by the ,druids1 many suppose can not be doubted2 but tradition has not handed down the precise purpose for which they were intended4 ,in the parish of ,st4 ,leven1 ,cornwall1 there is a promontory called ,castle ,treryn4 ,on the western side of the middle group1 near the top1 lies a very large stone1 so evenly poised1 that a hand may move it from one side to the other2 yet so fixed on its base1 that no lever1 or other mechanical force1 can remove it from its present situation4 ,it is called the logan-stone1 and is at such a hight from the ground as to render it incredible that it was raised to its present position by art4 ,there are1 however1 other rocking stones1 so shaped and situated1 that there can not be any doubt of their having been erected by human strength4 ,of this kind the great quoit1 or karn-le hau1 in the parish of ,tywidnek1 in ,wales1 is considered4 ,it is thirty-nine feet in circumference1 and four feet thick at a medium1 and stands on a single pedestal4 ,in the island of ,st4 ,agnes1 ,scilly1 is a remarkable stone of the same kind4 ,the under rock is ten and a half feet high1 forty-seven feet round the middle1 and touches the ground with not more than half its base4 ,the upper rock rests on one point only1 and is so nicely balanced1 that two or three men with a pole can move it4 ,it is eight and a half feet high1 and forty-seven in circumference4 ,on the top is a basin hollowed out1 three feet and eleven inches in diameter at a medium1 but wider at the brim1 and three feet in depth4 ,from the globular shape of the upper stone1 it is highly probable that it was rounded by human art1 and perhaps even placed on its pedestal by human strength4 ,in ,sithney parish1 near ,helston1 in ,cornwall1 stood the famous logan1 or rocking stone1 commonly called ,men ,amber1 that is1 ,men an ,bar1 or the top stone4 ,it was eleven feet by six1 and four high1 and so nicely poised on another stone1 that a little child could move it4 ,it was much visited by travelers2 but ,shrubsall1 the governor of ,pendennis castle1 under ,cromwell1 caused it to be undermined1 by dint of much labor1 to the great grief of the country4 ,there are some marks of the tool on it2 and it seems probable1 by its triangular shape1 that it was dedicated to ,mercury4 ,,the ,,round ,,towers ,,of ,,ireland4 ,every one1 almost1 has heard of the round towers of ,ireland2 and yet1 who has been able to explain their origin1 or solve the mystery that hangs over the history of their builders1 and the purposes for which they were erected8 ,of these towers1 one hundred and seven are known to have existed2 but probably there were many more4 ,some are still perfect1 others are in ruins4 ,they bear a general resemblance to each other1 seeming1 therefore1 to have had the same object in view2 yet there were many minute points of difference4 ,some were but forty feet high2 others sixty1 eighty1 and one a hundred and twenty feet4 ,the common hight is about eighty or ninety feet4 ,most of them were of a cylindrical form1 and were covered with a conical roof4 ,they were generally divided into three stories1 with a window to each4 ,the door of entrance was from six to twenty-four feet from the ground2 but how this was reached is not known4 ,in some cases1 they were built of hewn stone1 nicely laid in mortar2 in others1 the stones are merely hammered2 in others still1 they are small and of all shapes1 but always firmly cemented by mortar1 nearly as hard as the rock itself4 ,that these towers are very ancient1 is clear from the fact that when ,ireland was first invaded by the ,english1 in the twelfth century1 they were then deemed antiquities1 and no one was able to tell their origin or design4 ,some have been used as towers and belfries of churches2 but these churches were built in later times1 and this use of the towers was1 evidently1 but an adaptation of old structures to new purposes4 ,the fact that near them1 in most cases1 ancient churches1 or their remains1 are found1 has led to the belief that they were ecclesiastical structures1 erected by the early ,christians of ,ireland4 ,this idea is exploded by the circumstance that no such buildings have ever been known to be erected in any other part of the world1 in connection with the ,christian religion2 nor is it possible to conjecture for what object1 as part of ,christian worship1 they could have been designed4 ,the more prevalent and probable opinion1 on the subject1 seems to be this3 that they were erected by the ,phnicians or ,carthaginians1 who are known to have had settlements in ,ireland before the ,christian era2 or that they were built by the remote ,irish1 who bore the name of ,scoti1 and who were of ,asiatic origin4 ,the object of these buildings1 on this supposition1 was the preservation of the sacred fire1 kindled in honor of ,bel1 or ,baal1 a heathen divinity of the east1 and who is known to have been worshiped in ,ireland4 ,indeed1 to the present day1 some of the religious rites of the ,irish are evidently but the perpetuation of the ceremonies of their ancestors1 turned from their pagan origin and blended with ,catholic observances4 ,this view of the origin and object of the round towers is strongly confirmed by the fact that in their vicinity are still to be found the well known relics of ancient paganism1 such as the sun-stone1 the cromlech1 the fire-house1 the spring of sacred water1 necessary in mystic rites1 c4 ,to this it may be added1 that in ,persia and ,india1 where fire-worship originated1 and has had its most extensive and enduring seat1 there are towers of various forms and sizes1 ascribed1 in their origin1 to this species of idolatry4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that the early settlers of ,ireland brought from ,asia1 their original country1 ideas of religion1 which became modified in the course of ages1 but which1 still remaining essentially the same1 displayed themselves in the structures which we have described4 ,the fact that ,christian churches1 or their remains1 are found near these towers in ,ireland1 does not controvert the opinion we express1 as1 in the first place1 they are evidently more modern than the towers themselves1 and are of a different style of architecture2 and1 moreover1 we know that the early ,christians often chose1 as the seat of their churches1 the very sites on which paganism had reared its structures1 and not unfrequently adapted the structures themselves to the purposes of ,christian worship2 a fact which rather confirms than opposes the common theory as to these towers4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral4 ,the chief ecclesiastical ornament of ,london is the cathedral church of ,st4 ,paul1 which stands in the center of the metropolis1 on an eminence rising from the valley of the ,fleet4 ,the body of the church is in the form of a cross4 ,over the space where the lines of that figure intersect each other1 rises a stately dome1 from the top of which springs a lantern adorned with ,corinthian columns1 and surrounded at its base by a balcony2 on the lantern rests a gilded ball1 and on that a cross 7gilt also7 crowning the ornaments of the edifice4 ,the length of the church1 including the portico1 is five hundred and ten feet2 the breadth1 two hundred and eighty-two2 the hight to the top of the cross1 four hundred and four2 the exterior diameter of the dome1 one hundred and forty-five2 and the entire circumference of the building1 twenty-two hundred and ninety-two feet4 ,a dwarf stone wall1 supporting a balustrade of cast iron1 surrounds the church1 and separates a large area1 which is properly the church-yard1 from a spacious carriage and foot-way on the south side1 and a foot pavement on the north4 ,the dimensions of this cathedral are great2 but the grandeur of the design1 and the beauty and elegance of its proportions1 more justly rank it among the noblest edifices of the modern world4 ,it is adorned with three porticos2 one at the principal entrance1 facing the west1 and running parallel with the opening of ,ludgate street and the other two facing the north and south1 at the extremities of the cross aisle1 and corresponding in their architecture4 ,the western portico combines as much grace and magnificence as any specimen of the kind in the world4 ,it consists of twelve lofty ,corinthian columns below1 and eight composite above1 supporting a grand pediment2 the whole resting on an elevated base1 the ascent to which is by a flight of twenty-two square steps of black marble1 running the entire length of the portico4 ,the portico at the northern entrance consists of a dome1 supported by six ,corinthian columns1 with an ascent of twelve circular steps1 of black marble4 ,the southern portico is similar1 except that the ascent consists of twenty-five steps1 the ground on that side being lower4 ,the great dome is ornamented with thirty-two columns below1 and a range of pilasters above4 ,at the eastern extremity of the church is a circular projection1 forming a recess within for the communion table4 ,the walls are wrought in rustic1 and strengthened and ornamented by two rows of coupled pilasters1 one above the other1 the lower being ,corinthian1 and the other composite4 ,the northern and southern sides have an air of uncommon elegance4 ,the corners of the western front are crowned with turrets of an airy and light form4 ,to relieve the heavy style of the interior1 statues and monuments have been erected to the memory of great men4 ,the statues are plain full-length figures1 standing on marble pedestals1 with appropriate inscriptions1 in honor of such men as ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1 ,howard the philanthropist1 ,sir ,william ,jones1 c41 c4 ,several of the monuments would disgrace the most barbarous age1 and ought to be removed4 ,the tomb of the great ,nelson is beneath the pavement immediately under the dome4 ,the two turrets on the right and left of the west front are each two hundred and eight feet in hight4 ,in the one on the southern side is the great clock1 the bell of which1 weighing eleven thousand1 four hundred and seventy-four pounds1 and being ten feet in diameter1 may be heard in the most distant part of ,london1 when the wind blows toward that quarter4 ,the entire pavement1 up to the altar1 is of marble1 chiefly consisting of square slabs1 alternately black and white1 and is very justly admired4 ,the floor round the communion table is of the same kind of marble1 mingled with porphyry4 ,the communion table has no other beauty2 for1 though it is ornamented with four fluted pilasters1 which are very noble in their form1 they are merely painted and veined with gold1 in imitation of lapis lazuli4 ,eight ,corinthian columns of blue and white marble1 of exquisite beauty1 support the organ gallery4 ,the stalls in the choir are beautifully carved1 and the other ornaments are of equal workmanship4 ,this cathedral was built at the national expense1 and cost over thirty-five hundred thousand dollars4 ,the iron balustrade on the wall surrounding the space that is properly the church-yard1 including its seven iron gates1 weighs two hundred tuns1 and cost over fifty thousand dollars4 ,this immense edifice was reared in thirty-five years1 the first stone being laid on the twenty-first of ,june1 #afge1 and the building completed in #agaj1 exclusive of some of the decorations1 which were not finished till #agbc4 ,the highest stone of the lantern was laid on by ,mr4 ,christopher ,wren1 son of the architect1 in #agaj4 ,it was built by one architect1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren2 by one mason1 ,mr4 ,strong2 and while one prelate1 ,dr4 ,henry ,compton1 filled the see of ,london4 ,the dimensions of ,st4 ,paul's1 from east to west1 within the walls1 are five hundred and ten feet2 from north to south1 within the doors of the porticos1 two hundred and eighty-two2 the breadth of the west entrance1 one hundred2 its circuit1 twenty-two hundred and ninety-two2 its hight within1 from the center of the floor to the cross1 three hundred and forty feet4 ,the circumference of the dome is four hundred and thirty feet2 the diameter of the ball1 six2 from the ball to the top of the cross1 thirty2 and the diameter of the columns of the porticos1 four feet4 ,the hight to the top of the west pediment1 under the figure of ,st4 ,paul1 is one hundred and twenty feet2 and that of the tower of the west front1 two hundred and eighty-seven4 ,from the bottom of the whispering-gallery are two hundred and eighty steps2 including those to the golden gallery1 five hundred and thirty-four1 and to the ball1 in all1 six hundred and sixteen steps4 ,the weight of the ball is fifty-six hundred pounds4 ,the weight of the cross is thirty-three hundred and sixty4 ,the extent of the ground whereon this cathedral stands1 is two acres and sixteen perches4 ,the length of the hour figures1 two feet and two and a half inches2 the circumference of the dial is fifty-seven feet4 ,the whispering-gallery is a very great curiosity4 ,it is one hundred and forty yards in circumference4 ,a stone seat runs round the gallery along the foot of the wall4 ,on the side directly opposite the door by which the visitor enters1 several yards of the seat are covered with matting1 on which the visitor being seated1 the man who shows the gallery1 whispers1 with the mouth close to the wall1 near the door1 at the distance of one hundred and forty feet from the visitor1 who hears his words in a loud voice1 seemingly at his ear4 ,the mere shutting of the door produces a sound to those on the opposite seat like violent claps of thunder4 ,the effect is not so perfect if the visitor sits down half-way between the door and the matted seat1 and still less so if he stands near the man who speaks1 but on the other side of the door4 ,the marble pavement of the church is extremely beautiful1 seen from this gallery4 ,the paintings on the inner side of the dome1 by ,sir ,james ,thornhill1 are viewed with most advantage here4 ,the ascent to the ball is attended with some difficulty1 and is encountered by few1 yet both the ball and passage to it well deserve the labor4 ,the diameter of the interior of the ball is nearly six feet1 and twelve persons may sit within it4 ,the prospect from every part of the ascent to the top of ,st4 ,paul's1 wherever an opening presents itself1 is extremely curious4 ,the effect is most complete from the gallery surrounding the foot of the lantern4 ,the metropolis1 from that spot1 has a mimic appearance1 like the objects in a fantoccino4 ,the streets1 the pavements1 the carriages1 and foot-passengers1 have the appearance of fairy ground and fairy objects4 ,the spectator1 contemplating the bustle of the diminutive throng below1 is moved a little out of the sphere of his usual sympathy with them2 and1 as if they were emmets1 asks himself involuntarily1 8,about what are those little1 inconsequential animals engaged80 ,the form of the metropolis1 and the adjacent country1 is most perfectly seen from the gallery at the foot of the lantern1 on a bright summer day4 ,the ascent to this gallery is by five hundred and thirty-four steps1 of which two hundred and sixty1 nearest the bottom1 are extremely easy2 those above difficult1 and in some parts dark and unpleasant4 ,in the ascent to this gallery may be seen the brick cone that supports the lantern1 with its ball and cross2 the outer dome being turned on the outside of the cone1 and the inner dome turned on the inside4 ,the entire contrivance to produce the effect within the church and on the outside1 intended by the architect1 is extremely fine1 even marvelous4 ,from the pavement of the church1 the interior appears one uninterrupted dome to the upper extremity2 but it consists1 in fact1 of two parts1 the lower and principal dome having a large circular aperture at its top1 through which is seen a small dome1 which appears to be part of the great and lower dome1 although entirely separated from it1 being turned also within the cone1 though considerably above it4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,church ,,in ,,england4 ,,the ,,first ,,church ,,in ,,england4 ,before passing to speak of ,westminster ,abbey1 which next to ,st4 ,paul's is the great ecclesiastical edifice of ,london1 it may be interesting to go back to the earliest church-building in ,britain1 and notice the kind of edifices in which our remote ancestors assembled for divine worship4 ,one of these buildings is represented in the cut below2 as to which only a few words of explanation will be needed4 ,about the close of the sixth century1 it is said1 the pope sent ,austin1 with some forty missionaries1 to convert ,britain to popery4 ,many of the ancient ,britons1 however1 shut themselves up in the fastnesses of ,wales1 and refused to be either persuaded or driven to embrace the new faith which he proclaimed4 ,still ,austin went on with his work1 and the more efficiently to fulfill it1 erected rude edifices1 in which to gather the people1 to teach them1 and train them to the forms of worship4 ,the first building erected under his auspices1 was at ,glastonbury1 in the county of ,somerset4 ,the view given of it above is from ,somme's 8,britannia ,antiqua ,illustrata20 and the following particulars about the building itself are taken mainly from the 8,chronicles of ,william of ,malmesbury40 ,its length was sixty feet1 and its breadth twenty-six4 ,its walls were made of twigs winded and twisted together1 8after the ancient custom that kings' palaces were used to be built40 8,nay1 castles themselves in those daies were formed of the same materials1 and weaved together40 ,its roof was of straw1 8or1 after the nature of the soil in that place1 of hay or rushes40 ,the top of the door reached to the roof2 it had three windows on the south side1 and one on the east1 over the altar1 or communion-table4 ,such was the rude and humble building in which ,austin first preached to those that he was able to gather to hear the gospel from his lips4 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,this interesting edifice derives its name of ,westminster ,abbey from its situation in the western part of the metropolis1 and its original destination as the church of a monastery4 ,the present church was built by ,henry ,,iii4 and his successors1 with the exception of the two towers at the western entrance1 which are the work of ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,the length of the church is three hundred and sixty feet2 the breadth of the nave seventy-two feet2 and the cross aisle one hundred and ninety-five feet4 ,the roof of the nave and of the cross aisle is supported by two rows of arches1 one above the other1 each of the pillars of which is a union of one ponderous round pillar1 and four of similar form1 but extremely slender4 ,these aisles being extremely lofty1 and one of the small pillars continued1 throughout1 from the base to the roof1 produce an effect uncommonly grand and impressive4 ,the choir is one of the most beautiful in ,europe4 ,it is divided from the western part of the great aisle by a pair of noble iron gates1 and is terminated at the east by an elegant altar of white marble4 ,the altar is inclosed with a very fine balustrade1 and in the center of its floor is a large square of curious mosaic work1 of porphyry1 and other stones of various colors4 ,in this choir1 near the altar1 is performed the ceremony of crowning the kings and queens of ,england4 ,at the southern extremity of the cross aisle are erected monuments to the memory of several of the most eminent poets4 ,this interesting spot is called the poet's corner2 and never could place be named with more propriety2 for here are to be found the names of ,chaucer1 ,spenser1 ,shakspeare1 ,ben ,jonson1 ,milton1 ,dryden1 ,butler1 ,thomson1 ,gay1 ,goldsmith1 ,addison1 ,johnson1 c4 ,here also1 as if this spot was dedicated to all genius of the highest rank1 are the tombs of ,handel1 ,chambers1 and ,garrick4 ,the curiosities of ,westminster ,abbey consist chiefly of its highly interesting chapels1 at the eastern end of the church1 with their tombs4 ,immediately behind the altar stands a chapel dedicated to ,edward the ,confessor1 upon an elevated floor1 to which there is a flight of steps on the northern side4 ,the shrine of the ,confessor1 which stands in the center1 was erected by ,henry ,,iii41 and was curiously ornamented with mosaic work of colored stones1 which have been picked away in every part within reach4 ,within the shrine is a chest1 containing the ashes of the ,confessor4 ,the frieze representing his history from his birth to his death1 put up in the time of ,henry ,,iii41 is highly curious1 and deserves the study and attention of every lover of antiquity4 ,the tomb of ,henry ,,iii4 is in this chapel3 it has been extremely splendid1 but is now mutilated4 ,the table on which lies the king's effigy in brass1 is supported by four twisted pillars1 enameled with gilt4 ,this tomb1 which is a fine specimen of its kind1 is almost entire on the side next the area4 ,it likewise contains the tombs of ,edward ,i4 and his queen1 ,eleanor2 of ,edward ,,iii4 and ,queen ,philippa2 of ,richard ,,ii4 and his queen2 of ,margaret1 daughter of ,king ,edward ,,iv42 of ,king ,henry ,v42 and of ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,king ,henry ,,vii4 ,the grand monument of ,henry ,v4 is inclosed by an iron gate4 ,the great arch over the tomb is full of ribs and panels1 and the headless figure of ,henry still remains3 the head was of solid silver1 and was stolen during the civil wars4 ,there was a chantry directly over the tomb1 which had an altarpiece of fine carved work4 ,the armor of ,henry once hung round this chantry2 his helmet yet remains on the bar1 and the very saddle which he rode at the battle of ,agincourt1 stripped of everything which composed it1 except the wood and iron1 hangs on the right4 ,contiguous to the eastern extremity of the church1 and opening into it1 stands the famous chapel of ,henry ,,vii4 dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary1 one of the finest and most highly finished pieces of ,gothic architecture in the world4 ,on its site formerly stood a chapel1 dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary1 and also a tavern1 distinguished by the sign of the ,white ,rose4 ,henry1 resolving to erect a superb mausoleum for himself and his family1 pulled down the old chapel and tavern2 and on the eleventh of ,february1 #aejc1 the first stone of the present edifice was laid by ,abbot ,islip1 at the command of the king4 ,it cost seventy thousand dollars1 a prodigious sum for that period1 7equal to fourteen hundred thousand dollars of our money27 and still more so1 considering the parsimonious temper of the king4 ,the labor merely of working the materials will1 at a glance1 be seen to be immense1 and almost incredible2 and the genius employed both in this structure and ,henry's tomb1 must be mentioned with admiration4 ,the exterior of this chapel is remarkable for the richness and variety of its form1 occasioned chiefly by fourteen towers1 in an elegant proportion to the body of the edifice1 and projecting in different angles from the outermost wall4 ,it has of late years been repaired and renewed with exquisite taste1 and at great cost4 ,the inside is approached by the area behind the chapels of ,edward the ,confessor and ,henry ,v4 ,the floor is elevated above that of the area1 and the ascent is by a flight of marble steps4 ,the entrance is ornamented with a beautiful ,gothic portico of stone1 within which are three large gates of gilt brass1 of most curious open workmanship1 every panel being adorned with a rose and a portcullis alternately4 ,the chapel consists of the nave and two small aisles4 ,the center is ninety-nine feet in length1 sixty-six in breadth1 and fifty-four in hight1 and terminates at the east in a curve1 having five deep recesses of the same form4 ,the entrance to these recesses being by open arches1 they add greatly to the relief and beauty of the building4 ,it is probable that they were originally so many smaller chapels1 destined to various uses4 ,the side aisles are in a just proportion to the center1 with which they communicate by four arches1 turned on ,gothic pillars4 ,each of them is relieved by four recesses1 a window running the whole hight of each recess1 and being most minute and curious in its divisions4 ,the upper part of the nave has its four windows on each side1 and ten at the eastern extremity1 five above and five below4 ,the entire roof of the chapel1 including the side aisles1 and the curve at the end1 is of wrought stone1 in the ,gothic style1 and of most exquisite beauty4 ,an altar tomb1 erected by ,henry1 at the cost of fifty thousand dollars1 to receive his last remains1 stands in the center of the chapel4 ,it is of basaltic stone1 ornamented with gilt brass1 and is surrounded with a magnificent railing of the same4 ,this monument is by ,pietro ,torregiano1 a ,florentine sculptor1 and possesses uncommon merit4 ,six devices in bass-relief1 and four statues1 all of gilt brass1 adorn the tomb4 ,it is impossible to conceive ,gothic beauty of a higher degree than the whole of the interior of ,henry the ,seventh's chapel2 and it is with regret that the antiquary sees the stalls of the knights reared against the pillars and arches of the nave1 forming screens that separate the smaller aisles from the body of the chapel1 and diminish the airiness1 and interrupt the harmony of the plan4 ,since its restoration in #ahbj1 this chapel has formed one of the most beautiful adjuncts of the abbey1 affording one of the most beautiful specimens of its peculiar style4 ,the prospect from the top of one of the western towers1 the ascent to which consists of two hundred and eighty-three steps1 is infinitely more beautiful1 though less extensive1 than that from ,st4 ,paul's4 ,the many fine situations and open sites at the west end of the town1 and its environs1 occasion the difference4 ,the banqueting-house at ,whitehall1 ,st4 ,james's park1 with the parade and ,horse-guards1 ,carlton house1 the gardens of the queen's palace1 the ,green park1 the western end of ,piccadilly1 and ,hyde park1 with its river1 lie at once under the eye1 and compose a most grand and delightful scene4 ,the bridges of ,westminster1 ,waterloo1 and ,blackfriars1 with the broad expanse of water between them1 the ,adelphi and ,somerset house on its banks1 ,st4 ,paul's stupendous pile1 and the light ,gothic steeple of ,st4 ,dunstan's in the ,east1 are alike embraced with one glance1 and happily contrast with the former prospect4 ,from this tower1 the exterior form of ,st4 ,paul's1 when the sun falls upon it1 is distinctly seen3 and here its exquisite beauty will be more fully comprehended than in any part of the city1 for a sufficient area to take in the entire outline is not there to be found4 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,notre ,,dame4 ,passing from ,england to the continent1 one of the first church edifices that attracts attention1 both as to its antiquity and grandeur1 is the cathedral of ,notre ,dame1 in ,paris4 ,this vast erection of world-wide fame1 stands on an island in the ,seine1 where was the center of the old city of the ,parisii in the days of ,julius ,csar4 ,it is a cruciform structure1 four hundred and forty-two feet long1 one hundred and sixty-two wide1 and more than one hundred feet high to the vaulting of the roof1 having all the characteristics of a vast ancient ,gothic cathedral4 ,it was begun in the year #ajaj1 and was nearly four hundred years in building1 not being finished till #adjg4 ,at the west end are two lofty towers1 each two hundred and thirty-five feet high1 designed as bases for steeples1 which as yet have never been added4 ,the inside of the church has a very splendid and imposing appearance1 owing to its numerous aisles and chapels2 and the west front1 with its three large gates1 and circular window1 and noble gateway1 is worthy of the highest admiration4 ,in its imposing appearance1 no church in ,paris will compare with it4 ,,strasburg ,,cathedral4 ,but by far the most magnificent church edifice in all ,france1 is the cathedral of ,strasburg1 a view of which is given in the cut1 and which is famous all over the world4 ,till the time of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,strasburg was a free imperial city2 but he seized1 and the ,french have for one hundred and fifty years held it1 as a frontier fortress1 and the key to ,germany4 ,in the city there are many objects of interest1 one of the most conspicuous of which is a colossal bronze statue of ,john ,guttenberg1 who here first practiced the art of printing2 another is a colossal bronze monument1 in honor of ,general ,kleber2 and still another is a beautiful monument to the memory of ,marshal ,saxe4 ,but the wonder of the city is the cathedral1 the spire of which rises four hundred and seventy-four feet above the pavement1 which is nearly as high as the great pyramid of ,egypt1 and one hundred and forty feet higher than ,st4 ,paul's4 ,still1 owing to the large dimensions of the building1 and the light and graceful structure of the spire1 it does not impress the observer as being of this extraordinary altitude4 ,the nave of the church is two hundred and thirty feet high1 and the round window at the end is forty-eight feet in diameter4 ,this wonderful structure was begun nearly eight hundred years ago4 ,the material is red sandstone1 obtained in the vicinity1 which has proved very enduring2 the church has therefore suffered very little from time1 and the chiseled and carved material1 after so many centuries of exposure to the weather1 retains the sharpness of outline which it had when first finished4 ,illustration3 ,,strasburg ,,cathedral4 ,the artist who designed this admirable masterpiece of airy open-work1 was ,erwin1 of ,steinbach3 his plans are still preserved in the town4 ,he died in #acah1 when the work was only half finished3 it was continued by his son1 and afterward by his daughter ,sabina4 ,the tower1 begun #abgg1 was not completed till #adci1 long after their deaths1 and four hundred and twenty-four years after the church was commenced4 ,it was then finished by ,john ,hltz1 of ,cologne1 who was summoned to ,strasburg for this end4 ,had the original design been carried into execution1 both the towers would have been raised to the same hight4 ,a doorway1 in the south side of the truncated tower1 leads to the summit of the spire4 ,on the platform1 about two-thirds of the way up1 is a telegraph1 and a station for the watchmen1 who are set to look out for fires4 ,one of them will accompany those who wish to mount the upper spire1 and will unlock the iron gate which closes the passage4 ,there is no difficulty or danger in the ascent1 to a person of ordinary nerve or steadiness of head2 but the stone-work of the steeple is so completely open1 and the pillars which support it are so wide apart1 and cut so thin1 that they more nearly resemble a collection of bars of iron or wood2 so that at such a hight one might almost fancy one's self in a cage1 high up1 over the city1 rather than in the steeple of a church that has stood firm for ages4 ,the cathedral1 as already said1 was intended to have two towers1 like those of the cathedrals of ,york and ,westminster1 in ,england2 but as the expense is enormous1 it is probable that the existing tower will remain solitary4 ,this deficiency gives the building a disfigured appearance1 especially as the unfinished tower1 which is square1 rises but half-way4 ,externally1 ,strasburg cathedral is distinguished by a light and airy gracefulness1 both of structure and material2 the sandstone is cut and carved into a thousand forms1 some of them1 especially in the finished tower1 extremely delicate and beautiful4 ,even the statues and images1 which are very numerous1 are chiseled out of sandstone1 which has an agreeable color of reddish gray4 ,there is not an image of marble upon the whole building4 ,the number of images that cluster around the portal and adhere to its walls is very great3 they form a host of little beings1 in addition to the statues of full size4 ,indeed1 the profusion of these decorations appears to be extravagant both in point of taste and economy1 and some are quite out of place4 ,in a temple1 a building devoted to religion1 it is not easy to understand the propriety of mounting men on horseback high up in the towers2 for such aerial equestrians are to be seen here1 sentinel-like1 in positions where saints and angels would seem more appropriate ornaments4 ,in the interior of this cathedral there is a simple dignity and grandeur1 a holy majesty that is almost overpowering4 ,the magnificent rows of columns of gigantic dimensions and altitude1 seen in long perspective1 exceed in effect all we can well imagine4 ,the extreme richness of the windows1 filled on both sides with stained glass1 commemorating1 both historically and allegorically1 the events of the ,bible1 and the characters and catastrophes of saints and martyrs1 fills both the eye and the mind with delight2 and when we turn from gazing to the right and the left along the extended line of lateral windows1 and look upon the vast circle of gorgeous light which streams down from the great picture luminary at the end1 7a circular window forty-eight feet in diameter1 and presenting1 in radiating lines1 more than the colors of the rainbow17 we are ready to exclaim that ,art has not fallen short of ,nature in beauty1 while she excels her in the permanency of her hues1 which have not here been dimmed by the lapse of centuries2 and if no violence is committed on this temple1 they will be equally brilliant after a thousand years more shall have passed away4 ,there is in this cathedral a wonderful clock1 which has been substituted for an older one that has been removed4 ,the present clock was constructed by a man who is still living2 it appears to be about fifty feet high1 and more than half that width2 it was mute for fifty years1 but is now again a living chronometer4 ,among its many performances are the following4 ,it tells the hours1 half-hours and quarter-hours1 and the bells which make the report of the flight of time1 are struck by automaton figures4 ,a youth strikes the quarter1 a mature man the half-hour1 and an old man1 as the figure of ,time1 the full hour4 ,this clock tells also the times and seasons of ecclesiastical events1 as far as they are associated with astronomical phenomena1 and it gives the phases of the moon and the equation of time4 ,at noon1 a cock1 mounted on a pillar1 crows thrice1 when a procession of the apostles comes out1 and passes in view of the ,saviour3 among them is ,peter1 who1 shrinking from the eye of his ,lord1 shows1 by his embarrassed demeanor1 that he has heard the crowing of the cock1 and has fully understood its meaning4 ,among the movements of its automatons1 is that of a beautiful youth1 who turns an hour-glass every fifteen minutes4 ,there is also a celestial orrery1 that shows the motions of the heavenly bodies with great accuracy and beauty4 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,cologne4 ,the cathedral of ,cologne is at once its ornament and its reproach4 ,it was begun in #abdh by the elector ,conrad1 more than six hundred years ago1 but it is not yet finished1 although the present ,prussian king is expending vast sums upon it4 ,since the city has passed under the ,prussian dominion1 and more especially since the accession of the present king1 important aid has been obtained from the government4 ,the unfinished towers are rising year by year2 and if the annual supplies that have been granted are continued1 another fifteen years may possibly see it completed4 ,the estimated expense of finishing it is five million dollars4 ,it is considered as a very fine specimen of the ,gothic architecture4 ,one tower1 that on the front1 is completed4 ,this cathedral is exceedingly gorgeous in decorations1 combining all the features that belong to that species of architecture4 ,the choir is finished1 and exceeds in splendid beauty almost everything of the kind which the traveler will meet with in ,europe4 ,it is very rich in stained glass1 and this is true also of the body of the church4 ,much of the pictured glass is modern3 it is set in the same window with the ancient1 and is not inferior to it in splendor4 ,the cathedral is paved with rude1 common stones1 doubtless intended to be temporary only1 and to be in due time replaced by marble4 ,it was originally intended that the towers of this cathedral should be five hundred feet high4 ,the dimensions on the ground are four hundred feet by one hundred and eighty4 ,the nave is supported by one hundred columns1 of which the middle ones are forty feet in circumference4 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,mark1 ,,at ,,venice4 ,this splendid old church has well been described as 8a stupendous pile of oriental magnificence40 ,a thousand years do not cover the whole period of its existence4 ,it is adorned with the columns and gems of the east1 and no wonder1 for every ,venetian captain of a ship and every traveler of that nation was required to bring home something to adorn this temple3 ,greece and ,constantinople1 ,palestine and all ,europe1 have contributed to its embellishment4 ,it is totally unlike almost every other temple4 ,it has round arches and regular domes1 and from every part of them1 there look down upon you1 in permanent mosaic of gold and colored stones1 and even precious gems1 colossal images of the ,saviour1 of the virgin mother1 of apostles and saints1 and of multiform beings of religious allegory1 so numerous and various1 and so fresh1 rich1 and gorgeous1 that you are quite bewildered1 and involuntarily drop your eyes to the floor1 where you are almost equally dazzled by the precious marbles1 and jaspers1 and serpentines1 and verd-antique1 and red porphyry1 disposed in endless variety of most beautiful patterns1 as if it had been the work of a magician artist4 ,you read there also the instability of human glory in the worn and mutilated condition of parts of the pavement1 and in the waving hollows and upward curves which prove that its foundations were laid in the sea4 ,you again lift your eyes1 and in the permanent mosaics 7for no perishable frescoes or oil paintings are here7 you read in large and distinct historical figures the early ,bible history of our race1 and the annals of the patriarchal families4 ,around the church1 hang rich lamps of silver and gold4 ,huge candles and lights perpetually burning1 symbolize the immortality of the soul4 ,passing out of the church1 precious columns are on your right and on your left1 columns of marble and porphyry brought from ,constantinople1 and ,jerusalem1 and ,st4 ,jean d',acre4 ,lifting your eyes again to the roof1 you there see domes1 and dome upon dome2 minarets and carvings in arabesque1 and other rich forms of oriental architecture1 with images and statues innumerable1 standing as sentinels on all the cornices and angles1 and in the niches4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,milan4 ,passing on to the last of the church edifices to be described1 we come to the cathedral of ,milan4 ,a good picture is necessary to give even a faint impression of the richness and harmonious proportions of this wonderful building2 but it is possible1 from description1 to form a correct conception of its magnitude1 and of its principal parts4 ,its length is four hundred and eighty-five feet2 breadth1 two hundred and fifty-two2 breadth across the transepts1 two hundred and eighty-seven feet2 hight of the nave1 one hundred and fifty-three feet4 ,the hight from the pavement to the top of the crown of the ,madonna1 on the summit of the spire1 is three hundred and fifty-five feet4 ,this cathedral is one of the most stupendous piles ever erected2 but it is not yet finished1 although it has been almost five hundred years in building4 ,several duomos have been destroyed that once occupied this place4 ,the first cathedral was destroyed by ,attila in the fifth century2 the second was burnt by accident in #ajge2 and the third was partially ruined by ,frederic ,barbarossa4 ,a lofty bell-tower1 demolished by him1 crushed the duomo in its fall4 ,the first stone of the present cathedral was laid in ,march1 #achf1 by ,g4 ,g4 ,visconti4 ,the interior presents a wilderness of columns1 some of which are almost twelve feet in diameter at the base1 and more than eight in the shaft4 ,fifty-two pillars1 of the hight of eighty feet1 support the pointed arches on which the roof rests4 ,the exterior shows equally a wilderness of statues and pinnacles4 ,each pinnacle1 if placed on the ground1 would appear a considerable spire4 ,the statues already in place number three thousand1 and forty-live hundred are necessary to carry out the plan4 ,each pinnacle or minaret is crowned by a statue1 and there are many more in the niches1 among the pinnacles1 as well as in other situations4 ,in order to become acquainted with them1 you must ascend to the roof1 and then you will see life and meaning in them all2 if seen from below1 they appear indeed as a multitude of statues in marble1 but without any obvious design4 ,whatever the moral may be1 it is exhibited at an immense expense of treasure2 but1 in ,italy1 it is a national passion1 which has come down to them from the ,romans1 to people their ideal world with marble forms1 commemorating those who once lived on earth1 or the imaginary beings of allegory and of a fabulous mythology4 ,in this cathedral1 in addition to statues of the size of life or beyond its dimensions1 there are many of inferior magnitude3 little pretty cherubs and imaginative beings are seen1 single or in clusters4 ,in all parts of the building1 there are delicate and elaborately wrought carvings in marble1 and even in situations where they can not be seen except by a diligent explorer4 ,ascending to the roof of the cathedral1 and walking over it1 the traveler will observe that it is composed of massive blocks of marble accurately adjusted to each other1 and although the weight is immense1 no cracks are visible4 ,one moves as freely upon the roof1 and with as much confidence as if a mountain of marble were beneath his feet2 and the view from it is as glorious as it could be from a mountain rearing its lofty head in place of this structure reared by the art of man6 ,,the ,,tower ,,of ,,london4 ,the ,tower of ,london was anciently a palace occupied by the various sovereigns of ,england1 till the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,it was begun by ,william the ,conqueror in #ajgc2 and additions were made to it by several of the later monarchs4 ,the extent within the walls is over twelve acres2 and the exterior circuit of the ditch that surrounds it is over three thousand feet4 ,a broad and handsome wharf1 or gravel terrace1 runs along the banks of the river parallel with the ,tower1 from which it is separated by the ditch4 ,within the walls of the ,tower are several streets2 and a variety of buildings1 the principal of which are1 the church1 the white tower1 the ordnance office1 the record office1 the jewel office1 the horse armory1 the grand storehouse1 the small armory1 the houses belonging to the officers of the tower1 barracks for the garrison1 c4 ,the white tower1 which was the original building1 is a large square structure1 situated in the center of the fortress4 ,on the top are four watch-towers1 one of which1 at present1 is used as an observatory4 ,it consists within of three lofty stories1 beneath which are large1 commodious vaults4 ,in the first story are two grand rooms1 one of which is a small armory for the sea-service1 and contains various sorts of arms1 curiously laid up1 which would serve upward of ten thousand seamen4 ,in the other rooms1 in closets and presses1 are abundance of warlike tools and instruments of death4 ,in the upper stories1 are arms and armorers' tools4 ,the models of all newly invented engines of destruction1 which have been presented to the government1 are preserved in this tower4 ,on the top is a large cistern1 filled from the ,thames by a water-engine1 to supply the garrison with water4 ,the grand storehouse1 which stands north of the white tower1 is a plain building of brick and stone1 three hundred and forty-five feet long and sixty feet broad4 ,the jewel office is a little to the east of the grand storehouse4 ,it is a dark and strong stone room4 ,the horse armory is a brick building eastward of the white tower4 ,the record office is in the ,wakefield tower1 opposite the platform4 ,the rolls from the time of ,king ,john to the beginning of the reign of ,richard ,,iii41 are kept here in fifty-six wainscot presses4 ,they contain the ancient tenures of land in ,england1 the original laws and statutes1 the rights of ,england to the dominion of the ,british seas1 the forms of submission of the ,scottish kings1 and a variety of other records1 c4 ,the principal entrance to the ,tower is on the west4 ,it consists of two gates on the outside of the ditch2 a stone bridge built over the ditch1 and a gate within the ditch4 ,on the right hand1 at the west entrance1 the menagerie was formerly kept2 but having been superseded by that belonging to the ,zological ,society in the ,regent's park1 it was broken up a few years ago4 ,what was called the ,spanish armory1 contains the trophies of the famous victory of ,queen ,elizabeth over the ,spanish armada4 ,among these the most remarkable are the thumb-screws1 intended to be used to extort confession from the ,english where their money was hidden4 ,in the same room are other curiosities2 among which is the ax with which the unfortunate ,anne ,boleyn was beheaded1 to gratify the capricious passions of her husband1 ,henry ,,viii4 ,a representation of ,queen ,elizabeth in armor1 standing by a cream-colored horse1 attended by a page1 is also shown in this room4 ,her majesty is dressed in the armor she wore at the time she addressed her army in the camp of ,tilbury1 #aehh1 with a white silk petticoat1 ornamented with pearls and spangles4 ,the small armory is one of the finest rooms of its kind in ,europe4 ,it is three hundred and forty-five feet in length1 and in general it contains complete stands of arms for no less than one hundred thousand men4 ,they are disposed in a variety of figures1 in a very elegant manner4 ,among them is a piece of ordnance from ,egypt1 sixteen feet long1 and seven inches and a half bore4 ,there are several other curiosities1 among which are arms taken at various periods from rebels2 the ,highland broad-sword deserves particular notice4 ,in many respects this room may be considered as one of the wonders of the modern world4 ,the volunteer armory is in the white tower1 and contains arms1 piled in beautiful order1 for thirty thousand men1 with pikes1 swords1 c41 in immense numbers1 arranged in stars and other devices4 ,at the entrance of this room stands a fine figure of ,charles ,brandon1 ,duke of ,suffolk in the time of ,henry ,,viii41 in bright armor1 and having the very lance he used in his lifetime1 which is eighteen feet long4 ,the sea armory is also in this tower1 and contains arms for nearly fifty thousand sailors and marines4 ,in this room are two elegant pieces of brass cannon1 presented by the city of ,london to the ,earl of ,leicester1 and various similar curiosities4 ,part of the royal train of artillery is kept on the ground-floor1 under the small armory4 ,the room is three hundred and eighty feet long1 fifty feet wide1 and twenty-four in hight4 ,the artillery is ranged on each side1 a passage ten feet in breadth being left in the center4 ,in this room are twenty pillars that support the small armory above1 which are hung round with implements of war1 and trophies taken from the enemy4 ,there are many peculiarly fine pieces of cannon to be seen here3 one 7of brass7 is said to have cost two hundred pounds in ornamenting4 ,it was made for ,prince ,henry1 eldest son of ,james ,i4 ,others are extremely curious for their antiquity4 ,among them is one of the first invented cannon4 ,it is formed of bars of iron hammered together1 and bound with iron hoops4 ,it has no carriage1 but was moved by six rings1 conveniently placed for that purpose4 ,the horse armory is a noble room1 crowded with curiosities4 ,the armor of ,john of ,gaunt1 ,duke of ,lancaster1 and son of ,edward ,,iii41 is seven feet in hight4 ,the sword and lance are of a proportionable size4 ,a complete suit of armor1 rough from the hammer1 made for ,henry ,,viii4 when eighteen years old1 is six feet high4 ,the kings of ,england on horseback1 are shown in armor1 from the ,conqueror to ,george ,,ii4 ,the jewel office contains3 #a4 ,the imperial crown1 with which the kings of ,england are crowned4 ,it is of gold1 enriched with diamonds1 rubies1 emeralds1 sapphires and pearls2 within is a cap of purple velvet1 lined with white taffeta1 and turned up with three rows of ermine4 ,this is never used but at coronations1 and of course is not often produced4 #b4 ,the golden globe4 ,this is put into the king's right-hand before he is crowned2 and when he is crowned1 he bears it in his left-hand1 having the scepter in his right4 #c4 ,the golden scepter and its cross1 upon a large amethyst1 decorated with table diamonds4 #d4 ,the ancient scepter1 covered with jewels and ,gothic enamel work1 and surmounted with an onyx dove4 ,this scepter is believed to be far the most ancient in the collection1 and probably is a part of the original regalia4 ,it was found by the keeper in #ahad1 exactly at the time of the general peace4 ,it is estimated at a very high value4 #e4 ,st4 ,edward's staff4 ,it is four feet seven inches and a half long1 and three inches and three-quarters round1 made of beaten gold4 ,it is borne before the king in the coronation procession4 #f4 ,the gold salt-cellar of state4 ,in make it is the model of the square white tower1 and is of excellent workmanship4 ,at the coronation it is placed on the king's table4 #g4 ,the sword of mercy4 ,it has no point4 #h4 ,a grand silver font1 used for christenings of the royal family4 #i4 ,the crown of state1 which is worn by the sovereign at the meeting of parliament1 and other state occasions4 ,it is of extreme splendor and value1 being covered with large-sized precious stones1 and on the top of its cross is a pearl which ,charles ,i4 pledged to the ,dutch republic for eighteen thousand pounds4 ,under the cross is an emerald diamond of a pale green color1 seven inches and a half in circumference1 and valued at one hundred thousand pounds2 and in the front is a rock ruby1 unpolished1 in its purely natural state1 three inches long1 and the value of which can not be estimated4 #aj4 ,the golden eagle1 with which the king is anointed1 and the golden spur4 #aa4 ,the diadem1 worn by the ,queens ,anne and ,mary4 #ab4 ,the crown of ,queen ,mary1 the cross of ,king ,william1 and many other valuable jewels4 ,in this office are all the crown jewels worn by the princes and princesses at coronations1 and abundance of curious old plate4 ,independently of several of the jewels which are inestimable1 the value of the precious stones and plate contained in this office1 is not less than two millions sterling4 ,the chapel1 situated at the north end of the parade1 is not otherwise attractive1 than as it contains a few ancient tombs and monuments4 ,,the ,,bank ,,of ,,england4 ,the building thus entitled is an immense and very extensive stone edifice1 situated a little to the north-west of ,cornhill4 ,until #ahbe1 this edifice exhibited a great variety of incongruous styles of architecture2 but endeavors have since been made1 and with success1 to produce more uniformity of appearance4 ,on the east side of the principal entrance1 is a passage leading to a spacious apartment called the rotunda1 fifty-seven feet in diameter1 in which business in the public funds is transacted2 and1 branching out of this apartment1 are various offices appropriated to the management of each particular stock4 ,in each of these1 under the several letters of the alphabet1 are arrayed the books in which the amount of every individual's interest in such a fund is registered4 ,the bank of ,england covers an extent of more than eight acres1 and is completely insulated4 ,its shape is that of an irregular parallelogram1 the longest side of which measures four hundred and forty feet4 ,its exterior is not unsuitable to the nature of the establishment1 conveying the idea of great strength and security4 ,in the interior1 a variety of alterations and improvements have been made to accommodate the vast increase of business and of the paper money and discounting systems4 ,this has required considerable enlargements of the offices in every department1 and has led1 in the space of thirty or forty years1 to the increase of the clerks from two hundred to about eleven hundred4 ,the capital1 or stock1 also1 of this grand national establishment1 has been considerably and progressively augmented1 until1 from twelve hundred thousand pounds1 it has risen to eleven million1 six hundred and forty-seven thousand1 seven hundred and fifty pounds1 or nearly sixty million dollars4 ,the direction is vested in a governor1 deputy-governor1 and twenty-four directors1 all elected annually2 and thirteen of the directors1 with the governor1 form a court for the management of the business of the institution4 ,,the ,,monument4 ,about two hundred yards north of ,london bridge1 is situated one of the finest pillars in the world1 erected by ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 in memory of the great fire1 which1 in #afff1 broke out at a house on this spot1 and destroyed the metropolis from the ,tower to ,temple ,bar4 ,it is a fluted column of the ,doric order2 its total hight is two hundred and two feet2 the diameter at the base is fifteen feet2 the hight of the column1 one hundred and twenty feet2 and the cone at the top1 with its urn1 forty-two feet4 ,the hight of the massy pedestal is forty feet4 ,within the column is a flight of three hundred and forty-five steps2 and from the iron balcony at the top is a most fascinating prospect of the metropolis and the adjacent country4 ,it is impossible not to lament the obscure situation of this beautiful monument1 which1 in a proper place1 would form one of the most striking objects of the kind that architecture is capable of producing4 ,,the ,,louvre4 ,this splendid palace1 which was planned in the reign of ,francis ,i41 at the commencement of the sixteenth century1 is a quadrangular edifice1 having a court in the center1 and forming a square of about four hundred and sixteen ,english feet4 ,the front was built in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 and is one of the most beautiful monuments of his reign4 ,a spacious gallery1 fourteen hundred and fifty ,english feet in length1 connects this palace with that of the ,tuilleries4 ,here was displayed1 under the title of the ,musee ,napoleon1 that inestimable collection of paintings1 one thousand and thirty in number1 consisting of the chefs-d'uvre of the great masters of antiquity1 and constituting a treasury of human art and genius1 far surpassing every other similar institution4 ,the ante-room leading to the gallery contained several exquisite paintings1 the fruits of the triumphs of ,bonaparte1 or which had been presented to him by the sovereigns who had cultivated his alliance4 ,this apartment was styled by the ,parisians the ,nosegay of ,bonaparte3 its most costly pictures were from the gallery of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany2 and to these were added a selection from those procured at ,venice1 ,naples1 ,turin and ,bologna4 ,it would be impossible adequately to describe the first impressions made on the spectator on his entrance into the gallery1 where such a galaxy of genius and art was offered to his contemplation4 ,it was lined by the finest productions of the ,french1 ,flemish and ,italian schools1 and divided by a curious double painting upon slate1 placed on a pedestal in the middle of the room1 representing the front and back views of the same figures4 ,from the ,museum the visitor descends into the ,salle des ,antiques1 containing the finest treasures of ,grecian and ,roman statuary4 ,his notice is instantly attracted by the ,belvidere ,apollo1 a statue surpassing1 in the opinion of connoisseurs1 all the others in the collection4 ,this matchless statue is thus described by ,sir ,john ,carr1 in his work entitled 8,the ,stranger in ,france40 8,all the divinity of a god beams through this unrivaled perfection of form4 ,it is impossible to impart the impressions which it inspires3 the riveted beholder is ready to exclaim with ,adam1 when he first discerns the approach of ,raphael3 8#8,behold what glorious shape ,comes this way moving3 seems another morn ,risen on mid-noon2 some great behest from heaven4' 8,the imagination can not form such an union of grace and strength4 ,one of its many transcendent beauties consists in its aerial appearance and exquisite expression of motion40 ,the ,medicean ,venus1 from the palace ,pitti1 at ,florence1 also formed a part of this magnificent collection of statues4 ,the classic ,addison1 in speaking of this statue1 which he saw at ,florence1 observes1 that it appeared to him much less than life1 in consequence of its being in the company of others of a larger size2 but that it is1 notwithstanding1 as large as the ordinary size of women1 as he concluded from the measure of the wrist2 since1 in a figure of such nice proportions1 from the size of any one part it is easy to guess at that of the others4 ,the fine polish of the marble1 communicating to the touch a sensation of fleshy softness1 the delicacy of the shape1 air and posture1 and the correctness of design1 in this celebrated statue1 are not to be expressed4 ,the ,paris museum1 and ,salle des ,antiques1 although deprived1 at the termination of the contest with ,france1 of so many chefs-d'uvre of art1 still contain others which render them highly interesting4 ,the finest productions of ,le ,brun1 several of them on an immense scale1 still remain2 as do likewise the matchless marine paintings by ,vernet2 the truly sublime works of ,poussin1 consisting of the chief of his masterpieces2 together with many choice paintings by ,rubens1 ,wouvermans1 ,de ,witte1 c4 ,many of the statues remaining in the ,salle des ,antiques are likewise admirable specimens of sculpture4 ,in the gallery of the ,louvre a very curious collection of models1 representing the fortresses of ,france and other countries1 was once exhibited2 but it was removed1 that the paintings might be seen with greater effect4 ,these models1 executed in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 and amounting to upward of one hundred and eighty1 were wrought with the greatest accuracy1 and so naturally1 as to represent the several cities which they describe1 with their streets1 houses1 squares and churches1 together with the works1 moats1 bridges and rivers1 not neglecting the adjacent territory1 as consisting of plains1 mountains1 corn-lands1 meadows1 gardens1 woods1 c4 ,several of these models were so contrived as to be taken in pieces1 so that the curious observer might be better able to perceive their admirable construction4 ,of this splendid building and gallery1 ,silliman1 in his late tour1 says1 8,a mere catalogue of the objects in the ,louvre1 with the most brief description1 would swell to a volume4 ,the building forms part of a vast unfinished quadrangle1 upon the usual plan of ancient castles and palaces4 ,in various stages of its progress1 during many centuries1 it has been used both as a castle and a palace4 ,from its windows1 or from the windows of a building occupying the same place1 the infamous ,charles ,,ix4 fired upon his ,protestant subjects during the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,august twenty-fourth1 #aegb1 crying1 with the voice of a fiend1 #8,kill6 kill66' 8,the ,louvre1 as a grand museum of the arts1 is indebted chiefly to ,napoleon and ,louis ,philippe4 ,even as late as the reign of ,louis ,,xvi41 the greater part of the ,louvre remained without a roof4 ,the magnificent bronze gates are due to ,napoleon4 ,he and ,louis ,philippe did more for the embellishment of ,paris than any monarch1 except ,louis ,,xiv4 ,had we seen the ,louvre when we were first in ,paris1 it would have made a much stronger impression than now2 and this remark can be1 in a degree1 extended to all its various contents1 whether statues1 ancient or modern1 antiquities of various ages and nations1 ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,etruscan1 ,grecian1 ,roman1 ,mexican1 or ,peruvian1 or of whatever name4 ,exquisite objects1 in curious arts1 may be included--cameos1 gems1 crystal vessels1 and ornaments4 ,even at this late period of our tour1 the ,louvre has1 however1 made a very strong impression4 ,it is a glorious spectacle3 there is no museum that can compare with it1 except that of the ,vatican4 ,the ,british museum is not a fair subject of comparison with either of these1 as its plan and main objects are different4 ,the ,louvre is strictly a museum of the fine arts and of antiquities4 ,libraries it has not1 nor does it include natural history1 which is so abundantly illustrated at the ,garden of ,plants1 and in the other excellent institutions in ,paris4 ,that hall of the ,louvre which is called the long gallery is thirteen hundred and thirty-two feet in length1 over a quarter of a mile1 and forty-two feet wide1 all seen in one view4 ,the walls are entirely covered by pictures1 amounting in the aggregate to fourteen hundred and eight1 of which three hundred and eighty are ,french1 five hundred and forty are ,flemish and ,german1 four hundred and eighty are ,italian1 and eight are modern copies of ancient pictures4 ,only the works of deceased artists are admitted into this museum1 which was formed principally by ,napoleon1 and enriched with most of the chefs-d'uvre of ,europe4 ,the greater part of those foreign pictures were claimed and removed by the allies in #ahae2 but they are hardly missed2 for1 even now1 this gallery is one of the finest in the world4 8,i have already had occasion to remark that in our tour we have seen a number of pictures and statues in various cities1 particularly in ,italy1 which1 having traveled to ,paris1 were restored after the ,russian campaign and the battle of ,waterloo4 ,there were1 however1 so many fine things left behind in the different galleries from which those pictures had been taken1 that the omission would hardly be noticed there1 any more than their absence from the ,louvre is observed now1 except by a few scrutinizing artists and connoisseurs4 ,in despair of making any progress in this vast collection1 ,i shall not even attempt to describe any particular pictures1 and thus ,i must pass by the grandest gallery perhaps in the world1 because ,i can not do it any justice1 and for a still worse reason1 because so many galleries of less importance have been visited first4 ,the room called ,salle de ,bijoux is very rich in the rare and costly things which kings are wont to collect1 and which are here so numerous and beautiful that they surpass the similar collections in the ,pitti palace in ,florence1 but they are inferior in splendor and magnificence to those we had lately seen at ,dresden4 ,there is here1 however1 a profusion of gems1 diamonds1 sapphires1 rubies1 c42 and the vessels fabricated from rock crystal are numerous1 large and splendid4 ,the ,egyptian museum is particularly rich in everything which illustrates the history and manners of that country4 ,the gallery of ancient statuary1 and of modern copies1 is so similar to what we have seen in ,italy1 that ,i will not enter into particulars4 ,there is nothing here more surprising than the stupendous sculptured stones from ,nineveh1 sent out by ,m4 ,botta1 the ,french consul4 ,they are not so numerous as in the collection which we saw in the ,british museum1 but there are figures here which surpass in magnitude any that are there2 at least such is my recollection4 ,the winged bulls1 with a lion's head1 and the figures on the reverse of the stone panels1 are of such vast size1 that we are astonished that they could have been transported without injury from the other side of the world4 ,a tall man is a dwarf by their side40 ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 ,this grand national collection of antiquities1 books and natural curiosities1 is placed in the noble house formerly belonging to the ,duke of ,montagu1 in ,great ,russell street1 ,bloomsbury4 ,it is a stately edifice1 in the ,french style of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 and on the plan of the ,tuilleries4 ,the celebrated ,french architect1 ,peter ,paget1 was sent over from ,paris1 by ,ralph1 first ,duke of ,montagu1 expressly to construct this splendid mansion1 which is1 perhaps1 better calculated for its present purpose than for a private residence4 ,the ,british museum was established by act of parliament1 in #agec1 in consequence of the will of ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 who left his museum to the nation1 which he declared in his will1 cost him upward of fifty thousand pounds1 on condition that parliament should pay twenty thousand pounds to his executors1 and purchase a house sufficiently commodious for it4 ,the parliament acted with great liberality on this occasion2 several other valuable collections were united to this of ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 and the whole establishment completed for the sum of eighty-five thousand pounds1 which was raised by the way of a lottery4 ,parliament afterward added1 at various times1 to the ,sloanean museum1 the ,cottonian library2 that of ,major ,edwards2 the ,harleian collection of manuscripts2 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's invaluable collection of ,greek vases2 the ,townleian collection of antique marbles2 the manuscripts of the ,marquis of ,lansdowne2 and1 lastly1 the celebrated ,elgin marbles1 which comprise what are considered as the finest specimens of ancient sculpture4 ,the whole of the important library of printed books and manuscripts which had been gradually collected by the kings of ,england from ,henry ,,viii4 to ,william ,,iii41 was presented to the museum by ,george ,,ii42 and ,george ,,iii4 bestowed on it a numerous collection of valuable pamphlets1 which had been published in the interval between #afdj and #affj4 ,his majesty likewise contributed the two finest mummies in ,europe2 the sum of eleven hundred and twenty-three pounds1 arising from lottery prizes1 which had belonged to his royal predecessor2 and1 in #aggb1 a complete set of the journals of the lords and commons4 ,to these contributions he afterward added a collection of natural and artificial curiosities1 sent to him1 in #agif1 by ,mr4 ,menzies1 from the north-west coast of ,america1 and several single books of great value and utility4 ,the trustees have at various times added ,greenwood's collection of stuffed birds2 ,hatchet's minerals2 ,halhed's oriental manuscripts2 ,tyssen's collection of ,saxon coins2 ,doctor ,bentley's classics2 and the ,greville collection of minerals4 ,to these may be added numerous donations from several of the sovereigns of ,europe1 as well as from learned bodies and private individuals1 including the splendid monuments from ,nineveh1 and other wonderful and curious contributions that will be mentioned4 ,the building itself is a spacious quadrangle of some two thousand feet1 or nearly two-fifths of a mile in circuit1 occupying a large part of ,great ,russel square2 and even now1 greatly enlarged as it has been1 it is quite inadequate for the growing demands for space in all departments4 ,the ground-floor consists of twelve main rooms1 and contains the library of printed books4 ,the first room of the upper story contains modern works of art from all parts of the world1 arranged in cases4 ,in the one in the center are several beautiful miniatures1 among which are those of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 ,charles ,i41 and ,oliver ,cromwell1 the latter having his watch placed by its side4 ,two curious portraits of ,william ,,iii4 and ,queen ,mary1 are carved on two walnut-shells4 ,in the presses are arranged1 in geographical order1 some fine specimens of ,china1 and a variety of implements of war from different quarters of the globe4 ,here is to be seen the rich collection of curiosities from the ,south ,pacific ocean1 brought by ,captain ,cook4 ,in the left corner is the mourning dress of an ,otaheitan lady1 in which taste and barbarity are singularly blended2 and opposite1 are the rich cloaks and helmets of feathers from the ,sandwich islands4 ,among these is one1 which1 in elegance of form1 vies even with the ,grecian helmets4 ,in another case are the cava bowls1 and above them battoons1 and other weapons of war4 ,the next objects of attention are the idols of the different islands1 presenting in their hideous rudeness1 a singular contrast with many of the works of art formed by the same people2 near these are the drums and other instruments of music1 and a breast-plate from the ,friendly islands4 ,the ceiling of this room1 or vestibule1 represents the fall of ,phton4 ,the second room consists of similar objects4 ,the third is devoted to the ,lansdowne collection of manuscripts1 which have been handsomely bound and lettered4 ,in the fourth are the ,sloanean and ,birchean collections of manuscripts4 ,the fifth contains part of the ,harleian library of manuscripts1 and the sixth1 the first part of the same1 and additions made since the establishment of the museum4 ,the seventh is appropriated to the royal and ,cottonian library of manuscripts4 ,on a table1 in a glazed frame1 is the original of the ,magna ,charta1 belonging to the ,cottonian library4 ,against the press1 number twenty-one1 of the ,cottonian collection1 is the original of the articles preparatory to the signing of the great charter1 perfect1 with the seal4 ,the magnificent saloon is filled with the ,greville collection of minerals1 the finest in the world1 admirably arranged1 and luminously colored4 ,the dome of this saloon merits notice4 ,it was painted by ,la ,fosse1 and has been described as the apotheosis of ,iris1 or birth of ,minerva4 ,in the middle of the window stands a table1 composed of a variety of lavas from ,mount ,vesuvius1 presented by the ,earl of ,exeter4 ,the eighth room contains a department of natural history1 part of which is the valuable donation of ,mr4 ,cracherode1 disposed in two tables1 nearly in the ,linnan order2 and a much more extensive series1 arranged according to the ,wernerian system4 ,the principal productions are very valuable1 consisting of minerals from ,derbyshire1 ,siberia1 the ,south seas1 volcanic and rock stones from ,germany1 c4 ,one very curious specimen of natural history is pointed out in the fifth division of the ,cracherodean collection1 an egg-shaped piece of chalcedony1 containing water1 which may be seen by gently shaking the vase4 ,here1 also1 in a glass case1 is the famous fossil skeleton from ,gaudaloupe1 which has been the object of much interesting controversy among eminent naturalists4 ,the ninth is appropriated to petrifactions and shells4 ,in the first division of the cases in the middle of the room1 is a valuable univalve shell1 of the species called the paper nautilus1 or argonaut shells1 remarkable for the slightness of its fabric1 and the elegance of its shape4 ,it is inhabited by an animal not unlike a cuttle-fish1 which by extending a pair of membranes1 adhering to the top of its longest arms1 has the power of sailing on the surface of the sea4 ,under the tables are deposited1 in this and the next room1 a great number of volumes and parcels1 containing collections of dried plants2 which1 from the fragile nature of their contents1 are shown only on particular leave4 ,the tenth room is entirely filled with vegetable productions1 zophytes1 sponges1 c4 ,the contents of the eleventh room are birds1 and arranged as far as convenience would admit1 according to the ,linnan system4 ,among the curious specimens of ornithology is a humming-bird1 scarcely larger than a bee2 also another beautiful little creature called the harlequin humming-bird1 from the variety of its colors4 ,in this room there is a curious picture1 executed many years ago in ,holland1 of that extremely rare and curious bird1 the dodo1 belonging to the tribe gallin4 ,in the table in the middle are preserved the nests of several birds1 among the most curious of which are several hanging nests1 chiefly formed by birds of the oriole tribe2 nests of a substance resembling isinglass1 which the ,chinese make into a rich soup2 scarce feathers1 c4 ,in the second table are deposited a variety of eggs and nests3 among the former may be noticed the eggs of the ostrich1 the cassowary1 the crocodile1 c4 ,in the cases between the windows are several of the rarer quadrupeds2 among these the most curious are1 two orang-outangs1 in a young state1 a long-tailed macauco1 ermine1 c42 in cases under the tables are an armadillo1 or porcupine1 several young sloths1 and a fine specimen of the two-toed ant-eater4 ,the twelfth room contains a general and extensive arrangement of fishes1 serpents1 lizards1 frogs1 c4 ,the ,townley marbles and ,egyptian antiquities1 are deposited in a very elegant suite of rooms built purposely for them4 ,the first room is devoted to a collection of bass-reliefs1 in terra cotta1 pronounced the finest in ,europe4 ,the second is a beautiful circular room1 whence you have a fine view of the whole suite of apartments1 bounded at the end by an exquisitely-wrought discobolon1 or ancient quoit-player4 ,this room is devoted to ,greek and ,roman sculptures1 among which may be pointed out a fine candelabrum1 with several beautiful busts and statues4 ,the third and fourth rooms are also filled with ,greek and ,roman sculptures3 in the latter are several fine bass-reliefs4 ,the fifth contains a collection of ,roman sepulchral monuments1 and a beautiful mosaic pavement1 discovered in digging the foundations for a new building at the bank of ,england4 ,the sixth exhibits a miscellaneous collection of one hundred grand pieces of ,roman and ,greek sculpture4 ,the seventh is devoted to ,roman antiquities1 and the eighth1 on the left1 to ,egyptian antiquities1 among which are the two mummies before mentioned1 with their coffins2 a manuscript1 or papyrus1 taken from a mummy1 c4 ,among the ,egyptian sculptures in the ninth room1 is the celebrated sarcophagus1 commonly called the tomb of ,alexander the ,great1 an engraving and dissertation on which appeared in the ,monthly ,magazine for ,february1 #ahji4 ,the tenth contains ,greek and ,roman sculptures of singular beauty4 ,thence returning1 and proceeding up stairs1 the visitor is conducted to the eleventh room1 containing ancient and modern coins and medals1 arranged in geographical order1 those of each country being kept separate4 ,it is not shown unless by the permission of the trustees1 or of the principal librarian4 ,not more than two persons are admitted at one time1 without the presence of the principal librarian1 or of some other officer4 ,the twelfth room contains the collection of the late ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 which has been removed from the saloon4 ,it principally consists of penates1 or household gods1 bronze vessels1 utensils1 c41 specimens of ancient glass1 necklaces1 bull1 fragments of relievos1 and ancient armor1 tripods1 knives1 patent lamps1 seals1 weights1 sculpture in ivory1 bracelets1 bits1 spurs1 ancient paintings from ,herculaneum1 ,babylonish bricks1 and his unrivaled collection of ,greek vases1 the greater part of which were found in the sepulchers of ,magna ,grecia4 ,the forms of the vases are much varied1 and are equally simple and beautiful4 ,in the thirteenth is deposited the extensive and valuable collection of prints and drawings1 the most important part of which was bequeathed by the ,rev4 ,william ,cracherode4 ,the contents of this room can be seen only by a few persons at a time1 by particular permission4 ,in addition to the various curiosities enumerated above1 ,professor ,silliman mentions many others which have been contributed to the museum more recently2 and more fully describes some already noticed4 8,here10 he says1 8is a rich collection of ,etruscan vases1 from the cemeteries of the ancient inhabitants of ,italy1 who preceded the ,roman empire4 ,a part of this collection was deposited by the ,prince de ,canino1 son of ,lucien ,bonaparte4 ,the ,maltese are now the only people who fabricate ware like the ancient ,etruscan4 ,through the kindness of a gentleman attached to the museum1 we were permitted to see the original ,portland vase4 ,it is of moderate dimensions4 ,the material1 contrary to my former impression1 is glass1 and not earthen-ware4 ,the basis was dark blue1 almost black1 and in the manner of the modern ,bohemian glass1 it appears to have been dipped into a semi-transparent white enamel1 which gave it an exterior coating of that color4 ,this was then cut away1 so as to leave the exquisitely wrought figures of the human form by which it is adorned4 ,it was successfully imitated by the late ,mr4 ,wedgwood1 in his peculiar porcelain1 but it has never been surpassed in beauty of model1 or in the perfection of its decorations4 ,mr4 ,wedgwood's copies cost fifty pounds each1 which1 even with a large subscription1 did not reimburse him4 ,mr4 ,webber1 the artist1 received fifty pounds for modeling it4 ,the original was discovered in the tomb of ,alexander ,severus1 who died as early as the year #bce1 and the ,duchess of ,portland paid one thousand guineas for it2 hence it was called the ,portland vase4 ,it will appear incredible that any one should be willing to destroy such a gem of art2 still1 a few years ago1 a man who was believed to be either drunk or insane1 7very probably both17 hurled a stone at it1 and shivered the beautiful antique into fragments4 ,a fac-simile of the vase1 as it lay in ruins1 is preserved in a glazed frame in the room4 ,but by great care and skill1 the fragments have been reunited1 and cemented together1 so that the joinings can be perceived only by a near approach4 ,the culprit was imprisoned for two years2 and a law being afterward made to fit such cases1 7ex post facto1 perhaps17 he is1 ,i believe1 not yet liberated1 and1 certainly1 ought not to be1 without satisfactory evidence of a sounder state of mind4 ,in the same room with the ,portland vase is a rich collection of antique ornaments in gold4 ,they are personal ornaments1 ,etruscan1 ,roman1 ,british1 ,saxon1 ,norman1 ,scotch and ,irish4 ,among them are elegant forms1 rings1 bracelets1 girdles1 tiaras1 brooches1 c4 ,they are in appearance as rich and bright as if made yesterday2 and evince that in ages long past1 both the value of gold and the manner of working it were well understood4 ,some of these things were found in graves1 some in morasses1 and1 probably1 some on battle-fields4 8,here1 also1 we saw the colossal monuments of stone1 disinterred by the labors of ,mr4 ,layard1 and brought from ancient ,nineveh4 ,the bull and the lion1 each with the wings of an eagle1 and the face of a man1 symbolical of strength1 courage1 speed and intelligence1 are at present in the lower room1 along with the two gigantic figures in human form1 each being originally divided transversely above the waist4 ,it is now intended to reunite them1 when the ,nineveh figures receive their final position in the museum4 ,these stupendous pieces of primeval sculpture fill the observer with astonishment1 both that they could ever have been constructed1 and that they should ever have been extricated from their long-forgotten sepulchers1 and transported1 without the slightest injury1 from a position far inland1 across wide oceans1 to this distant country1 which did not begin to emerge from barbarism until ages after the very site of ,nineveh had passed into oblivion4 ,these colossal forms are so vast in their dimensions1 that man1 by the side of them1 appears a pigmy2 and still they were shaped by human hands1 which for thousands of years have crumbled into dust1 while their works remain fresh and perfect as when first finished by the chisel of the now long-forgotten artist4 ,our polite conductor also accompanied us to a lower room1 in which are stored a great number of the alabaster panels of ,nineveh4 ,they are very large1 and are covered by figures in relief1 bold and perfect2 scenes of war and of peace1 figures of master and servant1 of monarch and subject1 of warrior and soldier1 and of victor and prisoner4 ,in fact1 they are exactly such figures as are represented in the published volumes of ,mr4 ,layard1 the illustrations in which are in no degree exaggerated1 but1 on the contrary1 the figures are copied with the most scrupulous exactness4 ,a hall is in preparation for these precious relics of an age coeval with the dawn of art and civilization1 and of which1 as extended to our time1 the entire ,christian era forms but an integral part4 ,at first view1 it appears very surprising that they have escaped through thirty or forty centuries without injury2 and this is the more remarkable1 as they are composed of so soft a material as alabaster4 ,it would certainly have been worn and corroded by the hand of time had it not been protected by the mildness of the climate1 and still more by the position of these sculptures1 cut off from the atmosphere1 and buried in the crumbled and dry earth of the buildings when they were destroyed40 ,the collection of minerals1 c41 ,silliman goes on to say1 is arranged in sixty cases in four rooms4 ,and here is the fossil woman of ,gaudaloupe1 a skeleton both headless and footless1 but having ribs1 spine1 limbs1 c41 so complete as to show beyond doubt that once it belonged to a living woman2 and with it there were found numerous other human bodies as well as utensils1 rude weapons1 c4 ,here1 too1 are the remains of the enormous lizards of geological antiquity4 8,the fossil saurians1 in the collection of ,mr4 ,hawkins10 says the writer just quoted1 8purchased by the museum1 were skeletons of ichthyosauri1 plesiosauri1 and other forms of reptilian life4 ,there is a perfect fossil skeleton of the ichthyosaurus1 which ,i measured4 ,it is fully twenty feet long2 and there is beneath it a series of vertebr of another individual1 doubly cup-shaped1 like the vertebr of fishes4 ,they seem to be all present1 and must have belonged to an animal still larger than the one which ,i have named4 ,the figures of these ancient distinct races are now familiar in our elementary books1 and ,i shall not enter into any minute details4 ,most of the fossil saurians were marine4 ,they appeared soon after the period of the coal formation1 and were continued to that of the chalk4 ,a miniature lizard has been recently found in the old-red-sandstone4 8,the collection in the ,british museum is appalling4 ,it fills one with astonishment1 as we here contemplate the indubitable remains of an age gone by1 never to return4 ,still more astonishing are the reptilian remains1 brought to light chiefly by the researches of ,dr4 ,mantell1 aided by ,dr4 ,buckland and other coadjutors4 ,but to ,dr4 ,mantell solely belongs the credit of having established the existence of several families of land lizards1 whose magnitude far exceeds that of the marine saurians4 ,the bones of the iguanodon1 of the hylosaurus1 and pelorosaurus1 are colossal--equal to those of the largest elephants1 and in some individuals even surpassing them1 while their length1 in some instances1 was equal to that of the longest whales4 ,the form of their teeth1 and the hollow condition of their bones1 with a large canal for marrow1 prove that their habits were those of terrestrial animals2 while the form of the teeth1 and the solid condition of the bones of the saurians1 before named1 adapt them to a marine life2 since the buoyancy derived from the sustaining power of the water would enable them to swim with this additional weight4 ,the bones of these land lizards discovered by ,dr4 ,mantell1 and now in the museum1 with those in his own house1 studied and disposed of anatomically1 by his skill in comparative anatomy1 and in the general principles of physiology1 prove the existence of these giants of antiquity1 which were not carnivorous1 but were vegetable eaters1 in a climate capable of producing a tropical vegetation1 which then existed both in ,england and on the ,european continent1 and probably pervaded1 more or less1 the entire planet4 ,dr4 ,mantell's original memoirs and published volumes must be consulted for the proofs of these positions1 and for the details of anatomical structure4 ,he was with me in my last visit to the museum1 and gave additional explanations on the grand fossils deposited there1 especially those of his own gathering1 and also on those obtained by ,mr4 ,hawkins1 of ,gloucester4 ,both collections relate chiefly to the extinct colossal lizards of the gone-by geological ages4 ,the immense collection of fossils from the ,himalaya mountains also passed under review4 ,they have added much to our knowledge of zological antiquity4 ,dr4 ,buckland discovered near ,oxford the bones of a large carnivorous reptile1 the megalosaurus1 which approximated toward the magnitude of the lizards of ,dr4 ,mantell40 ,,madame ,,tusseau',s ,,museum4 ,this museum consists of a celebrated collection of wax figures1 which 8enjoys a high and deserved reputation10 says ,silliman2 and which1 he adds1 8is the only one of the kind from which ,i have ever received any pleasure40 8,there are three successive rooms10 he continues1 8in which are seen a great number of personages in costume1 and in natural and characteristic positions in relation to each other4 ,in the vestibule the visitor passes through groups of marble statues1 such as may be seen in many other places4 ,on entering the first room of the museum1 exactly at the door1 and sitting in a chair1 a pleasant looking young ,chinese1 a door-keeper1 as ,i supposed1 almost spoke to me1 and ,i did quite speak to him1 so lifelike was he2 but as he seemed not to understand ,english1 we passed on4 ,the next personage1 in the right corner of the room1 was a well dressed gentleman1 whom ,i for the moment mistook for a living ,englishman2 he looked so very affable1 that ,i took him for an official1 and was about to make an inquiry of him1 when ,i perceived that he too belonged to the deaf mutes4 ,next came those to whom ,i must not speak1 the queen with ,prince ,albert1 and four of their sweet children1 mounted on an elevated platform4 ,the likenesses are so striking1 judging from pictures1 statues and information1 7for ,i have not seen them17 that the royal personages might be readily recognized by one who knew them2 for1 as seen here1 they are all but speaking1 and moving1 and breathing4 8,although no figures in these rooms spoke1 three gave signs of life4 ,one1 a ,chinese lady in a rich oriental dress1 was standing on her little feet1 by her husband1 while he1 a ,hong merchant1 in splendid attire1 was listening to some communication from her2 and although we could not hear what she said1 she gave effect to her address by an earnest look and by a gentle movement of her head4 ,another lady1 ,madame ----1 afterward a victim of ,robespierre's cruelty1 because she indignantly refused to become the victim of his lust1 lies asleep on her couch in her day dress1 probably in prison prior to her execution4 ,she breathes1 and her bust1 with her dress1 rises and falls so naturally with the respiration1 that you instinctively move softly1 lest she should be disturbed in her slumber4 ,in these rooms are seen imposing occasions of state4 ,the queen1 in another scene than which has been named1 with her family1 is surrounded by her ministers1 bishops1 and lords and ladies1 and by courtiers1 and generals1 and foreign embassadors2 7,i blend two of these scenes into one27 all are in full court-dress1 in magnificent robes1 and sparkling with factitious diamonds4 ,the illusion is so complete1 that were an observer introduced suddenly into the scene1 without an intimation of the deception1 he would be startled at finding himself in such company4 8,hundreds of the most eminent persons1 both of the living and the dead1 are here1 and the likenesses are so good that ,i readily recognized several1 either of those whom ,i had seen when living1 7e4 g41 ,george ,,iii41 ,pitt1 and ,fox17 or whose pictures or busts were familiar1 7,voltaire1 ,sir4 ,w4 ,scott1 and ,washington47 ,calvin1 ,luther and ,john ,knox are in one group1 and the latter is addressing ,queen ,mary of ,scotland1 on whom he seems not likely to make any more impression now than he did of yore4 ,i might multiply these instances4 ,napoleon and his marshals2 ,louis ,,xvi4 and his children and sister2 ,louis ,philippe and his family2 ,queen ,elizabeth and her courtiers2 ,anne ,boleyn and her bloody husband2 ,charles ,i4 and ,,ii41 the former listening to a talk from ,cromwell2 ,james ,i4 and ,,ii42 the royal dukes1 sons of ,george ,,iii42 ,lord ,wellington2 ,lord ,john ,russell2 ,admiral ,napier1 of ,acre memory2 and many1 many more4 ,pictures of eminent persons and of interesting scenes are hung all around the lofty rooms1 which are gilded and adorned in the manner of a palace4 ,a throng of visitors were in the apartments1 but from their dress and appearance1 it was obvious that they belonged not to the upper ten thousand1 but to the lower million1 and most of them were probably of that class1 who1 having been drawn to ,london by the great exhibition1 take the opportunity to see other wonders of the great metropolis1 and we were pleased that they could be thus gratified4 8,passing the room of horrors1 7that is of murders and executions17 where an additional sixpence is demanded for the pleasure of seeing what all should desire to avoid1 we entered a room called the hall of ,napoleon1 occupied chiefly by relics of that great captain and emperor1 who made such an impression on the age in which he lived1 that his name and his deeds--the deeds of more than twenty years of sanguinary conflict1 with only short interludes of repose--are now enrolled in history1 and will go down to the end of time4 ,the relics here preserved are personal articles1 which once belonged to him4 ,his own hair is inclosed in the same locket with that of his son1 the ,duke of ,reichstadt4 ,there is the sword of the ,egyptian campaign1 which was waved in many a bloody battle4 ,here are the more harmless utensils of his table2 but the most conspicuous things are his carriages1 three in number4 ,in one of these he made his excursions from ,longwood1 in ,st4 ,helena1 to the boundaries of that small island1 rough with volcanic rocks4 ,this carriage is a plain yellow barouche1 with nothing peculiar in its appearance4 ,his common or usual traveling carriage was in the post-chaise form1 with inside seats for only two persons1 and there is a low division between them4 ,his iron bedstead was folded like the legs of a grasshopper1 packed in a case1 and hung beneath the coachman's seat4 ,inside of the carriage is a writing-desk1 which can be drawn out at pleasure1 to accommodate the traveler2 and it still retained its connection with the front of the carriage4 ,there is a movable board1 which answered for a table2 and a door opens in front1 beneath the writing-desk1 to afford room for the limbs when the traveler wishes to sleep4 ,the bedstead might perhaps admit of a partial contraction1 so as to be placed in the carriage1 in front of the seat1 as a support1 or there might have been some other contrivance for this purpose4 ,this carriage is said to be lined with concealed iron plates1 to afford protection against the bullets of assassins4 ,that found on the field of ,waterloo is yellow1 and the paint and varnish1 have come off in certain places1 so that it is defaced in appearance4 ,this latter carriage is a common coach with two seats1 the front seat1 as usual1 reversed2 but there is nothing peculiar in its appearance or conveniences1 and it was probably taken in haste after the return from ,elba2 for the hundred days included ,napoleon's hegira1 his brief sway in ,paris1 and his downfall at ,waterloo1 and to that fatal field he rode in this carriage4 ,but the most interesting relic is the bed on which the fallen emperor died4 ,we were assured that it was the very bed and bedstead of ,st4 ,helena1 and that it was the camp establishment of his campaigns40 ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,blenheim4 ,the palace of the famous ,duke of ,marlborough1 presented to him by the nation1 in honor of his services1 is not far from ,oxford1 in ,england4 ,this magnificent structure has often been described1 and recently by ,silliman in his 8,visit to ,europe40 8,we entered10 he says1 8by the splendid portal erected to the memory of her husband by the surviving ,duchess of ,marlborough4 ,the palace is situated on a plain in the midst of an extensive domain1 eleven miles in circuit1 laid out in the finest style of an ,english park4 ,there are twenty-five hundred acres covered with the richest verdure1 including a beautiful lake1 from which large pike are obtained4 ,the palace is an immense structure1 and has been greatly improved by the present duke1 who1 it is said1 has recently expended eighty thousand pounds upon the establishment4 ,it is in vain to attempt a detailed description4 ,the north front measures three hundred and eighty-four feet from one wing to the other4 ,we were courteously conducted through the palace by a man of good appearance1 and of civil but formal manners4 ,he was dressed in black3 you would take him for a gentleman1 and feel that it would be improper to offer him money1 but he took it from our party4 ,we were taken through one splendid room after another1 until it would seem as if there would be no end of them4 ,they were generally lofty1 apparently twenty to twenty-five feet high1 and ornamented with rich ceilings1 gilding1 and fresco paintings4 ,the principal apartments are the hall1 the bow-window room1 the state bedroom1 the billiard-room1 the breakfast-room1 the grand cabinet1 the small drawing-room1 the great drawing-room1 the dining-room1 the saloon1 the green drawing-room1 the state drawing-room1 the crimson drawing-room1 the library1 the chapel1 and the ,titian room4 ,this palace had no appearance of being the comfortable home of the family1 who1 it is said1 keep it up out of regard to the glory of their great ancestor2 but that they are too poor to live in it in a style of appropriate magnificence4 ,the gardens or pleasure grounds1 and the private grounds1 were not visible4 8,the pictures in this palace are numerous1 and many of them are admirable4 ,vandyke1 ,sir ,godfrey ,kneller1 ,rubens1 ,holbein1 ,paul ,veronese1 ,leonardi da ,vinci1 ,reynolds1 ,poussin1 ,carlo ,dolci1 ,corregio1 ,rembrandt1 ,teniers1 ,titian1 and other eminent artists1 by mental creations1 contributed the living glowing images of their own minds1 or transferred living features to the canvas4 ,many very beautiful and lovely women and princely men look down upon the observer from these animated and eloquent walls2 for the palace is1 in fact1 an immense gallery of pictures1 divided among many rooms4 ,the victories of the ,duke of ,marlborough are displayed in ,antwerp tapestry upon the walls of several of the apartments4 ,the tapestry pictures are of great size3 a single picture covers a side1 sometimes two sides of a large room2 so that there is space to exhibit also the scenery of the country2 there is room also for portraits of the principal officers1 as large as life--of the duke himself1 and even of the horses2 and near or remote1 the hostile armies are lingering on the fearful edge of battle1 or they are actually engaged in deadly combat4 ,how touching the reflection1 how sad the remembrance1 that1 excepting the present duke and his family1 only one individual of all the vast number of human beings represented by these pictures survives4 ,one that appears as a little child in a large family group1 is now the aged grandmother of a distinguished peer4 ,all the rest have passed away1 and the great ,marlborough himself1 and his proud1 aspiring duchess1 lie under the marble pavement of the chapel in the palace1 as ,louis ,,xiv41 the ,grand1 reposes in his own tomb1 and ,queen ,anne in hers2 and all the sanguinary conflicts of that eventful period are now to be found in history alone4 ,war1 by a spirit of chivalry1 was then a kind of duel on a great scale2 it is said that military courtesy sometimes offered the first fire to the enemy2 and a similar offer being made in return1 they thus bandied compliments as if in sport1 when they knew that the first fire would lay many a gallant soldier low4 8,one room is one hundred and eighty-three feet in length1 and contains the ducal library1 consisting of seventeen thousand volumes4 ,they are protected by a wire netting in front4 ,at the upper end of the library is a fine marble statue of ,queen ,anne1 which cost five thousand guineas4 ,this palace1 like most of the ancient public structures in ,england constructed of olite1 is externally much corroded by time4 ,these immense establishments are1 of course1 very expensive in repairs1 in embellishments1 in service1 and in many other ways2 but they bring no income2 nor1 in general1 does the vast domain which surrounds the palace4 ,if kept in high order1 as they generally are1 they require a great number of laborers1 especially in the horticultural department2 and for all this there is little or no return1 unless it may be something toward supplies of food for the household4 ,there is at ,blenheim a column or obelisk to the memory of the ,duke of ,marlborough1 which is one hundred and thirty-four feet high1 crowned with a statue in ,roman dress4 ,the gallery of ,titian is secluded in a separate building1 and for reasons obvious to those who have seen it1 is exhibited in a more reserved manner to artists and amateurs40 ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,versailles4 ,this splendid palace was founded by ,louis ,,xiv4 8,a building on this ground10 says a late tourist1 8had been used by his immediate predecessors as a hunting-lodge2 but in #affj1 ,louis commenced converting it into a palace1 and1 after many additions1 it became the royal residence in #afha4 ,for a century or more it was a favorite abode of the kings of ,france1 and no expense was spared upon its decorations4 ,in #agib1 the palace was devastated by the revolutionists4 ,everything convertible into money was sold for the nation1 and but for ,napoleon1 it would have been completely destroyed4 ,it was said1 that he would have made it his residence1 had it not required fifty millions of francs to put it in order4 ,louis ,,xiv4 expended upon it forty millions of pounds sterling1 and ,louis ,philippe fifteen millions of francs4 ,the latter restored it to splendor1 and labored to concentrate in it splendid illustrations of the glories of ,france4 ,all the painted ceilings1 gildings1 c41 were restored1 and new galleries and saloons were formed4 ,an immense series of paintings1 sculptures1 and works of art1 illustrative of every important event that has reflected honor on the annals of ,france1 now fills the splendid halls of this noble palace1 forming a historical museum that has not its parallel in ,europe1 or in the world4 ,it would be a vain attempt to endeavor to describe the palace4 ,its buildings and grounds are of very great extent4 ,it is said to contain one hundred and thirty-seven grand saloons and lesser apartments1 which are furnished with ten thousand pictures4 8,four hours are allowed for the inspection of the rooms and of their contents3 and this time we employed most industriously1 passing through the apartments with painful rapidity4 ,no sooner were we attracted by a room1 or interested in a picture1 than we were hurried on to another1 and another1 and another apartment1 until our faculties were tired1 and our eyes satiated with the brilliant display4 ,many of the pictures are very large2 and it appeared1 from the delineations on some of the larger ones1 which were in an unfinished state1 that the canvas was hanging on the wall where the pictures now are when they were painted4 ,most of the pictures are battle scenes1 from ,clovis1 ,charlemagne1 and the crusaders1 down to ,napoleon's wonderful career1 and even to the war in ,algeria4 ,the figures are of such dimensions as generally to appear of the size of life1 notwithstanding the distance and elevation from which they are seen4 ,it is painful to observe how large a part of human effort has been expended upon war4 ,there are1 however1 many pictures of quiet scenes1 and an immense number of portraits4 ,although the productions of the ,french pencil are here of unequal excellence1 there are certainly among them no small number of fine pictures4 ,here also we see a vast collection of statues in marble and of casts in plaster1 and a great series of medals and coins4 ,the pictures of royal residences represent many that no longer exist1 and with them are illustrations of the costumes of past times4 ,some of the galleries in the palace are three hundred feet long1 and are filled with statuary4 ,in order to see all the works of art1 it is necessary to walk three or four miles4 8,we looked into the private theater and chapel4 ,prayers and divine service were held in the one1 and plays acted for the royal entertainment in the other2 and here members of the royal family sometimes appeared on the stage4 ,the confessional of ,louis ,,xiv4 is a small room1 by the side of which is a window1 where a soldier was always stationed while the king was at confession2 and the very chair in which his confessor1 ,pre la ,chaise1 sat1 and the very cushion on which ,louis ,,xiv4 kneeled1 are here in their places4 ,strange infatuation6 ,the confessor who urged and obtained the revocation of the edict of ,nantes1 which was to let loose the dogs of persecution upon the ,protestants1 and the pliable monarch who yielded himself to license this cruel work of death on thousands1 and of banishment upon many thousands more1 could here meet in a private act of devotion1 while they were about to violate the first laws of humanity6 ,the bed in which the king slept1 and in which he died1 is still to be seen in his bedroom1 and no one has since slept in that room4 ,the private room of ,marie ,antoinette1 queen of ,louis ,,xvi41 has a small door in the side1 through which the queen escaped in ,october1 #aghi1 when the palace was forced4 ,through this door she was compelled to fly in her night dress1 while a faithful officer of her guard was killed on the spot4 ,all these melancholy places we saw1 and also the gallery in which the king and queen and their children appeared1 ,october sixth1 #aghi1 to appease the fury of the ,parisian mob1 many thousands of whom filled the immense court of the palace yard4 ,in this gallery ,la ,fayette also appeared with them1 and in sight of the people kissed the queen's hand1 to testify his loyalty and fidelity4 ,it required no small share of courage and firmness thus to appear as the friend and protector of the royal pair1 and their children1 in the face of an infuriated multitude4 ,this palace is associated with many other interesting events4 ,in the time of ,louis ,,xiv4 it was the scene of more splendor than any palace in ,europe4 ,and though for a time neglected after the flight of ,louis ,philippe1 yet more recently under the government of ,louis ,napoleon1 it has been adorned and restored in a very lavish and expensive manner4 ,i had no opportunity to see the splendid play of the waters3 the fountains were undergoing repair2 besides1 they play only on ,sundays1 which is the great gala day of the ,french1 and when vast numbers of people1 as in past times1 resort to ,versailles for amusement4 ,in the time of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,,xv41 and ,,xvi41 there were here extensive military establishments1 which are now in decay4 ,there was a manufactory of arms1 which produced annually fifty thousand stands2 but it was plundered by the ,prussians1 when the allies took ,paris in #ahad4 ,the court of the palace measures eight hundred feet by five hundred1 and is paved1 as the courts of the ,french palaces generally are4 ,in this court there are statues of great men1 ,colbert1 ,turenne1 and others1 of ultra-colossal size4 ,in the center of the court there is an equestrian statue of ,louis ,,xiv41 also of enormous dimensions4 ,versailles1 nourished by the power1 influence and money of ,louis ,,xiv41 became a splendid city of one hundred thousand people2 but the population has now dwindled to thirty thousand4 ,louis ,,xvi4 was an excellent mechanic3 happy had it been for him had a shop instead of a throne been his lot4 ,we saw a good door-lock of his construction1 which was still serviceable2 and there is yet to be seen a brass meridian made by him1 and inlaid in the floor4 ,several of the royal carriages are here in a perfect state of preservation4 ,they are gorgeous in the extreme1 being all covered massively with gilded carving1 and superbly lined40 ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,st4 ,,cloud4 8,this splendid palace is close upon the ,seine1 at a point where that river takes a graceful curve1 and1 in the course of several miles1 is crossed by numerous bridges of stone1 elegantly arched1 and of the most solid construction4 ,the landscape is here very rich and picturesque4 ,barracks of superior construction1 and other handsome buildings1 rise on the slope of a hill from the river1 and the palace crowns the summit4 ,the palace of ,st4 ,cloud was founded in #aegb1 by a rich financier4 ,in #afeh1 it was purchased by ,louis ,,xiv4 for his brother1 the ,duke of ,orleans1 who adorned it expensively4 ,in #aghb1 ,louis ,,xvi4 bought it for his queen1 ,marie ,antoinette4 ,it was a favorite place with her1 as it was subsequently with ,napoleon and ,josephine4 ,the principal front is one hundred and forty feet long and seventy feet high4 ,important events have happened here4 ,in this palace ,henry ,,iii4 was assassinated by ,jacques ,clement1 in #aehi1 and our guide assured us1 that a place in the long room1 which he indicated1 was the very spot where the deed was done4 ,henrietta1 the queen of ,charles ,i4 of ,england1 died here4 ,here ,napoleon1 ,november tenth1 #agii1 completed the subjugation of the then existing government1 dispersed the members of the council of ancients1 whom he had adjourned to this place from ,paris1 and assumed the reins himself4 ,in this place1 the capitulation of ,paris was signed in #ahae4 ,here ,charles ,x41 in #ahcj1 was informed of the explosion of the revolution2 and here ,louis ,philippe rested a short time1 during his flight from ,paris in #ahdh4 8,we have seen nothing in ,europe so delightful as this palace4 ,its situation is splendid2 being elevated high upon the side of a hill rising from the ,seine1 it overlooks ,paris1 and all the populous and most beautiful country around2 the ,seine winds gracefully along through the meadows1 and appears wider than at ,paris1 where it is narrowed by the quays and other structures of the city4 ,the views into the park are very fine on all sides of the palace2 in the interior the ground rises1 and vistas open up the green slope1 with a long avenue of statues standing in the open air in one direction1 and a tower in the distance in another1 while a noble park of old and lofty forest trees1 stretches over the flat ground in front1 quite to the river4 ,in the interior of the palace1 everything is in the best taste4 ,the furniture of the rooms remains as it was left by ,josephine1 ,maria ,louisa1 and the family of ,louis ,philippe4 ,the ,duchess of ,orleans1 daughter-in-law of the late king1 passed much time here with her children1 and their beds1 as well as that of ,louis ,philippe and his queen1 remain undisturbed1 with their rich silk curtains and covers4 8,the pictures at ,st4 ,cloud are very numerous1 and are lovely exhibitions of that almost creative art4 ,they are all drawn from quiet scenes1 such as must ever remain grateful to the human mind4 ,among the hundreds of pictures by the first masters that adorn these walls1 there is not a single battle-piece4 ,in this respect1 ,st4 ,cloud presents a striking and very agreeable contrast with the carnage that crimsons the long galleries of ,versailles4 ,louis ,philippe sought1 in that palace1 to gratify the national avidity for glory1 by multiplying battle-scenes in which the arms of ,france had been triumphant1 and by depicting the persons of her heroes1 until the tired eye that gazes on them is satiated with gorgeous costume1 and the mind afflicted with human suffering4 ,at ,st4 ,cloud a more amiable feeling was cherished1 as appears by the charming pictures of rural scenery1 of mild and splendid landscapes1 of peaceful buildings1 abodes of happy domestic life1 scenes living and real1 and ever grateful4 ,as the private rooms in which the successive royal families lived1 are rich in elegant simplicity1 in a style of chaste beauty1 they are in strong contrast with the rooms of state1 which are extremely magnificent1 and adorned by a profusion of princely decorations4 ,their domes are all alive with the imaginary beings of fabulous antiquity4 ,gods and goddesses1 and muses and nymphs1 and a multitude of creations of poetic fancy and records of old legends1 decorate the ceilings4 ,a principal ornament of the public rooms is the ,gobelin tapestry1 manufactured and hung by order of ,louis ,philippe4 ,all that ,i had seen before at ,windsor castle1 or at ,blenheim palace1 fades in comparison with the rich decorations of the ,gobelin looms1 which adorn the public halls of ,st4 ,cloud4 ,these textile pictures are perfectly beautiful1 and from their magnitude and the august personages of the historical dramas which they present so impressively to the eye1 they are sublime4 ,no one viewing them from the distance across the room1 would even suspect that they are anything else than the most perfect productions of the pencil1 and even when the observer approaches them1 it is not easy to convince himself that the splendid illusion is produced by the interweaving of colored woolen and silken threads4 ,five of the scenes here depicted in ,gobelin tapestry are copied from original paintings still existing in the ,louvre1 executed by ,rubens1 for ,marie de ,medicis4 ,the first is the duke of ,anjou1 declared king of ,spain 7,philip ,v47 ,the second of these pictures1 which is not less than twenty-five feet square1 is the birth of ,marie de ,medicis2 the third is the presentation of her picture to ,henry ,v42 the fourth1 his marriage with her2 the fifth represents his departure from his capital1 and the committing of the government to the care of the queen4 ,we saw also most magnificent vases of ,svres porcelain3 one of them was presented to ,maria ,antoinette2 it must have been1 ,i believe1 five feet high without the pedestal1 and of the capacity of a barrel or two4 ,we have nothing in ,america that can convey a full impression of these superb productions of the plastic art4 ,they are modeled after the forms of the most beautiful ,etruscan vases2 the most perfect purity of the porcelain material is contrasted with the finest efforts of the pencil1 in the pictures1 which being incorporated by the fire1 are indissolubly wedded to the basis on which they are delineated1 and they are resplendent with gold and blue enamel of cobalt4 ,one is at a loss which most to admire1 the productions of the ,gobelin looms or those of the ,svres furnaces4 8,the floors of the palace1 according to the general custom in ,french houses1 are made of pieces of boards4 ,they rarely exceed six inches in width1 and are tastefully disposed in various geometrical figures4 ,all the floors that we have seen in ,paris1 except some that are covered by carpets1 are kept waxed2 the waxing is renewed daily1 and they are so smooth as to appear hazardous to those unaccustomed to walk upon them4 ,the floors of the palace of ,st4 ,cloud have been1 heretofore1 covered by ,gobelin carpets1 which1 at the time of our visit1 were rolled and put away for safe keeping4 ,we saw the council table of ,napoleon and ,louis ,philippe1 memorable for the deliberations which have been held over its boards4 ,st4 ,cloud was the favorite place of consultation on matters of peace and war2 here ,napoleon planned some of his campaigns2 here ,louis ,philippe passed much time with his family1 and his daughter-in-law1 the ,duchess of ,orleans1 found a quiet retreat with her little son1 the ,count de ,paris1 whom she in person presented in the legislative hall during the revolution of #ahdh4 ,her husband1 the ,duke of ,orleans1 presumptive heir to the throne1 having been killed by a mysterious providence1 she naturally hoped that the legislature would acknowledge the claims of her son1 founded on both those of his father and his grandfather ,louis ,philippe2 but all the world knows that she was disappointed1 and was fain to retreat and seek protection for her child and herself4 ,there was a deep feeling of pensiveness connected with our visit to ,st4 ,cloud2 closed now as it is and quite solitary1 without a single individual remaining of those who formerly figured there2 it was to us an instructive memento of the vanity of human glory4 ,the splendid apartments remain1 with all their furniture and decorations in perfect order4 ,the solitary chapel1 chastely elegant1 although grave in its architecture1 seemed all ready and waiting for the arrival of worshipers2 and the entire palace1 with its beautiful grounds1 impresses one almost with the belief1 that kings and queens1 and courtiers and nobles1 and guests of renown1 will soon return and give life and joy to those vacant scenes2 but alas1 except some few members of the family of ,louis ,philippe and of ,napoleon1 all are gone to the tomb4 ,the dreaded conqueror of nations found his second prison and his grave on a bleak rock1 in the ocean1 and his final tomb among those invalids whom1 in their youth1 he led to fields of battle and victory4 ,josephine1 once an ornament of ,st4 ,cloud1 as she was of every scene in which she presided1 went with a broken heart from ,malmaison to her grave4 ,an old man1 our guide through the palace1 said to us1 #8,i have been thirty years here1 and ,i have seen three monarchs expelled from this palace and from their thrones4' ,i have omitted to mention the large library of ,louis ,philippe1 which still remains at ,st4 ,cloud1 undisturbed and in perfect order4 ,it is my impression that the number of volumes was stated at twelve thousand40 ,,the ,,crystal ,,palace ,,in ,,new ,,york4 ,turning now from palaces constructed for the kings and monarchs of the earth1 let us pass to palaces reared for the exhibition of the works of industry and art of the people4 ,and the first of these which we will notice is the crystal palace in ,new ,york4 ,this splendid structure1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 was erected for the exhibition of the industry and art of all nations4 ,this magnificent building was erected on ,reservoir square1 at the northern extremity of the city of ,new ,york1 from plans furnished by ,messrs4 ,carstensen and ,gildermeister4 ,the building is now standing1 and is filled with the works of industry and art from every part of the globe4 ,its main features are as follows4 ,it is1 with the exception of the floor1 entirely constructed of iron and glass4 ,the general idea of the edifice is that of a ,greek cross1 surmounted by a dome at the intersection4 ,each diameter of the cross is three hundred and sixty-five feet and five inches long4 ,there are three entrances1 each forty-seven feet wide1 and one of which is approached by a flight of eight steps4 ,over each front is a large semicircular fan-light1 forty-one feet wide and twenty-one feet high1 answering to the arch of the nave4 ,each arm of the cross is on the ground-plan one hundred and forty-nine feet broad4 ,this is divided into a central nave and two aisles1 one on each side2 the nave forty-one1 each aisle fifty-four feet wide4 ,the central portion or nave is carried up to the hight of sixty-seven feet1 and the semicircular arch by which it is spanned1 is forty-one feet broad4 ,there are thus in effect two arched naves crossing each other at right angles1 forty-one feet broad1 sixty-seven feet high to the crown of the arch1 and three hundred and sixty-five feet long2 and on each side of these naves is an aisle fifty-four feet broad and forty-five feet high4 ,the exterior of the ridgeway of the nave is seventy-one feet4 ,each aisle is covered by a gallery of its own width1 and twenty-four feet from the floor4 ,the central dome is one hundred feet in diameter1 sixty-eight feet inside from the floor to the spring of the arch1 and one hundred and eighteen feet to the crown2 and on the outside1 with the lantern1 one hundred and forty-nine feet4 ,the exterior angles of the building are ingeniously filled up with a triangular lean-to1 twenty-four feet high1 which gives the ground-plan an octagonal shape1 each side or face being one hundred and forty-nine feet wide4 ,at each angle is an octagonal tower eight feet in diameter1 and seventy-five feet high4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crystal ,,palace ,,in ,,new ,,york4 ,ten large and eight winding staircases connect the principal floor with the gallery1 which opens on the three balconies that are situated over the entrance hall1 and afford ample space for flower decorations1 statues1 vases1 c4 ,the ten principal staircases consist of two flights of steps with two landing-places to each2 the eight winding staircases are placed in the octagonal towers1 which lead also to small balconies on the tops of the towers and to the roof of the building4 ,the building contains on the ground-floor1 one hundred and eleven thousand square feet of space1 and in its galleries1 which are fifty-four feet wide1 sixty-two thousand square feet more1 making a total area of one hundred and seventy-three thousand square feet1 for the purposes of exhibition4 ,there are thus on the ground-floor two acres and a half1 or exactly two and fifty-two hundredths2 in the galleries1 one acre and forty-four hundredths2 total1 within an inconsiderable fraction1 four acres4 ,there are on the ground-floor one hundred and ninety octagonal cast-iron columns1 twenty-one feet above the floor1 and eight inches in diameter1 cast hollow1 of different thicknesses1 from half an inch to one inch4 ,these columns receive the cast-iron girders4 ,these are twenty-six and one-third feet long and three feet high1 and serve to sustain the galleries and the wrought-iron construction of the roof1 as well as to brace the whole structure in every direction4 ,the girders1 as well as the second-story columns1 are fastened to the columns in the first story1 by connecting pieces of the same octagonal shape as the columns1 three feet and four inches high1 having proper flanges and lugs to fasten all pieces together by bolts4 ,the number of lower-floor girders is two hundred and fifty-two1 besides twelve wrought-iron girders of the same hight1 and forty-one feet span over a part of the nave4 ,the second story contains one hundred and forty-eight columns1 of the same shape as those below1 and seventeen feet and seven inches high4 ,these receive another tier of girders1 numbering one hundred and sixty1 for the support of the roofs of the aisles1 each nave being covered by sixteen cast-iron semicircular arches1 each composed of four pieces4 ,the dome will strike every one as the grand architectural feature of the building4 ,its diameter is one hundred feet1 and its hight to the springing line is nearly seventy feet1 and to the crown of the arch1 one hundred and twenty-three feet4 ,it is said to be the largest1 as well as almost the only dome hitherto erected in the ,united ,states4 ,it is supported by twenty-four columns1 which rise beyond the second story1 and to a hight of sixty-two feet above the principal floor4 ,the system of wrought-iron trusses which connects them together at the top1 and is supported by them1 forms two concentric polygons1 each of sixteen sides4 ,they receive a cast-iron bed-plate1 to which the cast-iron shoes for the ribs of the dome are bolted4 ,the latter are thirty-two in number4 ,they are constructed of two curves of double angle iron1 securely connected together by trellis-work4 ,the requisite steadiness is secured by tie-rods1 which brace them both vertically and horizontally4 ,at the top the ribs are bolted to a horizontal ring of wrought and cast iron1 which has a diameter of twenty-feet in the clear1 and is surmounted by the lantern4 ,as in the other roofs of the building1 the dome is cased with matched deal and tin sheathing4 ,light is communicated to the interior through the lantern1 and also in part from the sides1 which are pierced for thirty-two ornamental windows4 ,these are glazed with stained glass1 representing the arms of the union and of its several states1 and form no inconsiderable part of the interior decoration4 ,the external walls of the building are constructed of cast-iron framing and panel-work1 into which are inserted the sashes of the windows and the louvers for ventilation4 ,the glass is one-eighth of an inch thick1 and was manufactured at the ,jackson glass works1 ,new ,york1 and afterward enameled by ,cooper ,belcher1 of ,camptown1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the enamel1 with which the whole of it is covered1 is laid upon the glass with a brush1 and after drying1 is subjected to the intense heat of a kiln1 by which the coating is vitrified1 and rendered as durable as the glass itself4 ,it produces an effect similar to that of ground glass1 being translucent1 but not transparent4 ,the sun's rays1 diffused by passing through it1 yield an agreeable light1 and are deprived of that heat and glare which belong to them in this climate4 ,in the absence of a similar precaution in the crystal palace at ,hyde park1 in ,england1 7of which an account will next be given17 the roofs of which1 as well as walls1 were inclosed with transparent glass1 it was found necessary to cover the interior of the building with canvas1 to produce the required shade4 ,at each angle of the building there is an octagonal tower1 eight feet in diameter and seventy-six feet in hight4 ,these contain winding stairways1 which lead to the galleries and roofs1 and were intended for the use of the officers and employees of the association4 ,twelve broad staircases1 one on either side of each entrance1 and four beneath the dome1 connect the principal floor with the gallery4 ,the latter are circular in part1 and consist of two flights of steps with two landing-places4 ,the flooring of the galleries is made of closely matched planks1 while those forming the floor of the first story are separated by narrow intervals1 in the same manner and for the same purpose as in the ,london building4 ,over each of the principal entrance halls1 the galleries open upon balconies1 which afford ample space for placing flowers1 vases and statues for decoration4 ,above the balconies1 the ends of the naves are adorned with large fan-lights1 corresponding to the semicircular arches within4 ,on each side of the entrances there are ticket offices1 and adjacent to them rooms are provided for the officers of the association1 telegraph1 c4 ,the rapid and unexpected increase of the applications of exhibitors1 induced the association to erect a large addition to the building already described4 ,it consists of two parts1 of one and two stories respectively1 and occupies the entire space between the main building and the reservoir4 ,its length is four hundred and fifty-one feet and five inches1 and its extreme width is seventy-five feet4 ,it is designed for the reception of machinery in motion1 the cabinets of mining and mineralogy1 and the refreshment rooms1 with their necessary offices4 ,the second story1 which is nearly four hundred and fifty feet long1 twenty-one feet wide1 and extends the whole length1 is entirely devoted to the exhibition of pictures and statuary4 ,it is lighted from a skylight1 four hundred and nineteen feet long1 and eight feet and six inches wide4 ,the decorations of the building were intrusted to ,henry ,greenough1 ,esq41 brother of the lamented sculptor of the same name4 ,mr4 ,greenough has made art his study1 and in its pursuit has resided long in ,italy4 ,the leading idea in the plan of decoration1 has been to bring out the beautiful construction of the building2 to decorate construction rather than to construct decoration4 ,to do this1 and at the same time to preserve a general harmony of effect1 has given ,mr4 ,greenough ample opportunity to display his knowledge of the resources of his art4 ,the result is surprisingly beautiful4 ,the colors employed on the exterior are mixed in oil1 the base being the white lead manufactured by the ,bellville ,company4 ,the exterior presents the appearance of a building constructed of a light-colored bronze1 of which all features purely ornamental are of gold4 ,the interior has a prevailing tone of buff1 or rich cream color1 which is given to all the cast-iron constructive work4 ,this color is relieved by a moderate and judicious use of the three positive colors1 red1 blue and yellow1 in their several tints of vermilion1 garnet1 sky-blue and orange1 7certain parts of the ornamental work being gilt17 to accord with the arrangement of colors employed in the decoration of the ceilings4 ,the only exceptions to the use of oil colors are the ceilings of the ,american lean-to and the dome2 these decorations are executed on canvas4 ,the effect of the interior of the dome1 7designed by ,sr4 ,monte ,lilia17 is particularly splendid4 ,the rays from a golden sun1 at the center1 descend between the latticed ribs1 and arabesques of white and blue1 relieved by silver stars1 surround the openings4 ,the building is supplied with gas and water in every part4 ,the gas was1 at first1 designed for the use of the police1 in protecting the property by night2 but was so arranged that now1 when the building is opened in the evenings1 it affords the most ample light throughout the entire edifice4 ,the water is accessible at numerous points1 with convenience for drinking1 also for the attachment of hose1 in case of fire4 ,the whole quantity of iron employed in the construction amounts to eighteen hundred tuns2 of which three hundred tuns are wrought and fifteen hundred tuns cast iron4 ,the quantity of glass is fifteen thousand panes1 or fifty-five thousand square feet4 ,the quantity of wood used amounts to seven hundred and fifty thousand feet1 board measure4 ,the general mode of erection by base pieces1 columns1 connecting pieces and girders1 is the same with that of the great ,hyde park building1 but the construction of the arched nave1 and of the dome1 is of course entirely peculiar1 and the general effect of the building is completely different4 ,the ,london building was certainly deficient in architectural effect4 ,the form of the ,new ,york edifice affords the requisite scope for a pleasing variety of embellishments1 by which all monotony can be avoided1 and allows a very economical use of the ground4 ,the dome1 independent of its effect in the interior arrangement of the edifice1 will give hight and majesty to the exterior4 ,to complete the explanation of the construction of the building1 we recapitulate its principal dimensions4 ,ft4 ,in4 ,from principal floor to gallery floor1 #bd ,from principal floor to top of second tier of girders1 #dd #d ,from principal floor to top of third tier of girders1 #ei #aj ,from principal floor to ridge of nave1 #fg #d ,from principal floor to top of bed-plate1 #fi #aa ,from principal floor to top of upper ring of dome1 #abc #f ,from ,sixth avenue curb-stone to top of lantern1 #aea ,from ,sixth avenue curb-stone to top of towers1 #gf #i ,area of first floor1 #aeg1aie square feet4 ,area of second floor1 #ib1dif square feet4 ------- ,total area1 #bdi1fib or #e acres4 ,the magnitude of these proportions alone1 is calculated to excite feelings of profound awe in the spectator's mind2 and when we see added the gorgeous but subdued chromatic decoration with which the interior is ornamented1 and the innumerable works of art and industry with which it is so richly filled1 we may well be proud of an erection which is destined to confer lasting honor on the ,american name4 ,it was to be hoped that this splendid building1 filled with the products of the industry and art of all nations1 might have remained permanently in ,new ,york1 to be an ornament to the city1 and a museum for the entertainment and instruction of visitors from every part of the country and the world2 but since the above was written1 it has been decided that the building is to be taken down1 either for removal to some other place1 or for the sale of its materials4 ,,the ,,crystal ,,palace ,,in ,,london4 ,having spoken of the ,new ,york crystal palace1 we now pass to the crystal palace of ,london1 which preceded the former in the order of time1 and far surpassed it in size and magnificence4 ,this splendid building1 erected for the great exhibition of #ahea1 was located on the south side of ,hyde park1 near the ,kensington road1 in a position highly favorable in all respects to its intended objects4 ,the construction of the edifice presented not a few difficulties4 ,the building committee1 comprising some of the leading architects and engineers of ,great ,britain1 advertised for plans to be presented for the building2 and as the result1 no less than two hundred and forty designs were laid before them4 ,a large part of these were at once put aside as utterly worthless2 and then from about sixty1 which were thought worthy of consideration1 the committee proceeded to prepare a design which pleased nobody1 not even themselves4 ,this plan1 however1 such as it was1 was decided upon1 and advertisements were issued for proposals to build it4 ,objections were at once raised1 both against the plan proposed1 and the possibility of its execution2 but while the committee1 perplexed with the difficulties suggested1 were doubting what they should do1 relief came to them from an unexpected quarter1 which we must go back a little to explain4 ,in #ahci1 ,sir ,robert ,schomburg1 a distinguished botanist1 in going up the river ,berbice1 in ,demerara1 had discovered in the still waters of the stream1 a gigantic water-lily1 of a shape hitherto unknown1 and had transmitted some of its seeds to ,england1 where the plant growing from them1 under the care of ,joseph ,paxton1 the head gardener of the ,duke of ,devonshire1 was called the ,victoria ,regia4 ,this plant was the occasion1 and in some respects the model for the crystal palace4 ,every means was adopted to place this wonderful exotic in its accustomed circumstances4 ,a tropical soil was formed for it1 of burned loam and peat4 ,coal-heat was substituted for that of the tropical sun2 and by means of a wheel1 a ripple1 like that of its native river1 was communicated to the waters of the tank upon which its broad leaves reposed in beauty4 ,in these circumstances the lily grew luxuriantly1 and ,mr4 ,paxton was obliged to plan an edifice capable of holding it4 ,this he was doing just about the time when the committee were poring wearily over their two hundred and forty plans2 and in ,june1 he drew out a design for the exhibition building1 which had been suggested to his mind while preparing an abode for the ,victoria ,regia4 ,in ten days he had completed his elevations1 sections1 working plans and specifications2 and the whole being submitted to the inspection of competent and influential persons1 was unanimously declared to be practicable1 and the only practicable scheme presented4 ,the design1 thus prepared1 was next laid before the contractors1 ,messrs4 ,fox ,henderson1 who at once determined to submit a tender for the construction of a building in accordance with it4 ,and in a single week1 they had calculated the amount and cost of every pound of iron1 every pane of glass1 every foot of wood1 and every hour of labor1 which would be required1 and were prepared with an offer and specifications for the construction of the edifice4 ,but here arose a difficulty4 ,the committee had advertised only for proposals for carrying out their own design2 but1 fortunately1 they had invited the suggestion1 on the part of contractors1 of any improvements on it2 and so ,mr4 ,paxton's plan was presented simply as 8an improvement0 upon that of the committee1 though it had not a single feature in common with it4 ,this1 with certain modifications1 was adopted2 and the result was the celebrated crystal palace1 the first of the name1 and the suggester of all others of the same general character--the great1 original crystal palace2 itself the greatest wonder of the most wonderful exhibition the world has ever seen6 ,the building consisted1 or rather still consists1 of three series of elevations1 of the respective hights of sixty-four1 forty-four1 and twenty-four feet1 intersected at the central point of meeting1 by a transept of seventy-two feet in width1 having a semicircular roof rising to the hight of one hundred and eight feet in the center4 ,it extended in length eighteen hundred and fifty-one feet from north to south1 or more than one-third of a mile1 with a breadth of four hundred and fifty-six feet on the ground2 thus covering a surface of some eighteen acres1 or nearly double the extent of ,washington square in ,new ,york1 and exceeding1 by more than one-half1 the dimensions of the ,park or the ,battery4 ,the whole rested upon cast-iron pillars1 united by bolts and nuts1 fixed to flanges perfectly true1 so that if the socket was placed level1 the columns and connecting pieces could not but stand upright2 and in point of fact1 not a single crooked line1 it is said1 was discoverable in the combination of such an immense number of pieces in the building as first erected1 or as it now stands4 ,for the support of the columns1 holes were dug in the ground1 in each of which was placed a bed of concrete1 and upon this rested the iron sockets1 of from three to four feet in length1 according to the level of the ground2 to which sockets the columns were firmly attached by bolts and nuts4 ,at the top1 each column was attached by a girder to its opposite column1 both longitudinally and transversely1 so that the whole eighteen acres of pillars were securely framed together4 ,the roofs1 of which there were five1 one to each of the elevations1 were constructed on the ridge and furrow principle1 and glazed with sheets of glass of forty-nine inches in length4 ,the construction will be easily understood1 by imagining a series of parallel rows of the letter ,v1 extending 7thus1 ,,vvv7 in uninterrupted lines the whole length of the building4 ,the apex of each ridge was formed by a wooden sash-bar1 with notches on each side for holding the laths in which the edges of the glass were fitted4 ,the bottom bar1 or rafter1 was hollowed at the top1 so as to form a gutter to carry off the water1 which passed through transverse gutters into the iron columns1 which were made hollow so as to serve as water-pipes2 while in the base of each column a horizontal pipe was inserted to convey the accumulated water into the sewers4 ,the exhalations from so large a surface1 from the plants and from the breath of the innumerable visitors1 rising against the glass and there being condensed1 would1 if the roof had been flat1 have descended in the form of a perpetual mist1 or dropping rain2 but it was found that from glass pitched at a particular angle1 the moisture did not fall1 but would glide down its surface4 ,the bottom bars1 therefore1 were grooved on the inside1 thus forming interior gutters1 by which the moisture found its way down the interior of the columns1 and thus through the drainage pipes into the sewers4 ,these grooved rafters1 of which the total length was two hundred and five miles1 were formed by machinery1 at a single operation4 ,the lower tier of the building was boarded2 the walls of the upper portion being composed1 like the roof1 of glass4 ,ventilation was provided for by the basement portion being walled with iron plates1 placed at an angle of forty-five degrees1 known as luffer-boarding1 which admits the air freely1 while it excludes the rain4 ,a similar provision was made at the top of each tier of the building2 the plates all being so constructed that they could be closed at pleasure4 ,in order to subdue the intense light in a building having such an immense extent of glass surface1 the whole roof and the south side were covered with canvas1 which also precluded any possible injury from hail1 as well as rendered the edifice much cooler than it otherwise would have been4 ,in the construction of the building the utmost care was taken to give each part the stiffest and strongest form possible in a given quantity of material4 ,the columns were hollow2 and the girders which united them were trellis-formed4 ,the utmost weight which it was supposed any girder would be likely to have upon it1 was seven and a half tuns2 and not one was used till after having been tested to the extent of fifteen tuns2 while the breaking weight was calculated at thirty tuns4 ,at first sight it would seem as if there might be danger that a building presenting so vast a surface to the action of the wind1 might be liable to be blown down1 or at least forced out of position4 ,but from the manner in which the columns were framed together1 they could not be overthrown except by breaking them2 and experiments showed1 that in order to break the one thousand and sixty columns on the ground floor1 a force of sixty-three hundred and sixty tuns must be exerted1 at a hight of twenty-four feet4 ,but the greatest force of the wind known1 is computed at twenty-two pounds to the superficial foot2 so that assuming even a force of twenty-eight pounds1 and supposing a hurricane with that momentum to strike at once the whole side of the building1 the total force1 it was said1 would be less than fifteen hundred tuns1 not one-fourth what the building could easily sustain1 independently of the bracings1 which added materially to its strength4 ,so that1 if any reliance at all could be placed on theoretical engineering1 there could1 it was said1 be no doubt whatever but that the building would be safe in the most violent tempest4 ,the building being thus erected1 the spectator entering at the main east or west entrance1 found himself in a nave sixty-four feet in hight1 and seventy-two in breadth1 and extending without interruption the whole length of the building1 one-third of a mile4 ,parallel with this1 but interrupted by the transept in the center1 was a series of side aisles1 of forty-eight and twenty-four feet in breadth1 and with a hight of forty-four and twenty-four feet4 ,and over the center of the nave1 swelled the semicircular roof of the transept1 overarching the stately trees beneath2 thus forming a gigantic green-house1 with the ancient elms of the park in the place of geraniums and rose-bushes4 ,the whole area of the ground-floor was seven hundred and seventy-two thousand1 seven hundred and eighty-four square feet1 and that of the galleries1 two hundred and seventeen thousand2 making in all nearly a million square feet1 to which should be added five hundred thousand feet of hanging space1 available for the display of the innumerable products of human skill and labor1 that made the exhibition one of the most wondrous of all the wonders of the world4 ,there were three refreshment rooms2 one in the transept1 and one near each end of the building1 around the huge trees of the park1 which1 as already said1 were left standing4 ,no wine1 spirits or fermented liquors were allowed to be sold1 but only tea1 coffee and unfermented drinks2 while pure water was to be furnished gratis to all1 by the lessees of the refreshment rooms4 ,as to the decoration of the interior1 it may here be added1 that the shafts of all the columns were painted yellow2 the concave portions of the capitals1 blue2 the under sides of the girders1 red2 and their vertical surfaces1 white4 ,we might dwell in detail on the vast collection of the products of human industry and art which filled the interior of this immense structure1 and made it the resort of visitors from every part of the world4 ,but the history of 8the great exhibition0 is familiar to most if not all of our readers4 ,we will only add1 that among all the wonders of the crystal palace1 nothing was more wonderful than its cheapness1 and the rapidity of its construction4 ,possession of the site was obtained on the thirtieth of ,july2 and in a period of one hundred and forty-five working days1 the building was mainly completed4 ,its cost was less1 by the cubic foot1 than an ordinary barn4 ,if it had been used only for the exhibition1 and at its close returned to the contractors1 its cost would have been nine-sixteenths of a penny per foot2 and if it had been left remaining permanently1 it would have been but one penny and one-twelfth of a penny per foot4 ,the astonishing fact1 that a building of glass and iron1 including thirty-three million cubic feet1 and covering eighteen acres1 and affording room for nine miles of tables1 should have been completed in less than five months from the day when the contract was entered into1 at a cost less than that of the humblest hovel1 opens a new era in the art of building4 ,silliman1 in his late 8,visit to ,europe10 under the date of the twenty-ninth of ,march1 #ahea1 says3 8,into this wonderful and imposing structure we have to-day merely made our entrance4 ,as we drove along the eastern side of ,hyde park1 on a bright and beautiful morning1 the splendid vision caught our eyes1 as the sunlight was thrown wide around by this immense mirror4 ,it was merely a glance that we took on this occasion1 reserving more deliberate observation for future opportunities4 ,it was not accessible1 as yet1 to visitors1 but by particular favor1 through an introduction to one of the managers1 we were admitted into the interior4 ,it has become so familiar1 in all its aspects1 to the whole world1 that at this date1 after its complete development1 any detailed description would be out of place4 ,the general impression made upon us1 by our walks through this stupendous conservatory of the arts1 was that of great splendor and magnificence4 ,it appeared a fairy palace1 like the creations of fable2 a building equally unique and original in its structure2 original1 also1 in its bearing upon the concord and amicable rivalry of nations2 in this respect of most auspicious tendency4 ,already the consignments of the world are coming in1 and to a great extent have actually arrived4 ,african ,tunis sends its contributions1 and even more remote countries are beginning to occupy the large space allotted to them4 ,the palace is so high as to cover several of the large trees of ,hyde park1 where it is erected2 and we saw1 not without a shudder1 a man dangling in the air at the end of a rope near the roof1 at the hight of eighty feet4 ,he had been drawn up simply by holding on the end of the rope by his hands1 and was whirled around and around1 until he reached a plank almost in the angle of the roof1 where at last he was safely landed40 ,and at a later date1 he adds3 8,although ,i have walked many hours1 and ,i presume ten miles in this immense structure1 ,i seem only to have begun to see it4 ,in despair of my ability to convey any adequate idea of it1 ,i am almost disposed to pass it in silence1 but this would disappoint those for whom ,i write4 ,pictures and descriptions of the building had reached ,america before ,i left home1 and it is known that its front extends more than one-third of a mile1 besides its branches4 ,the area which it covers is eighteen acres1 and under its vaulted transept are included some large and lofty trees that were growing in the park4 ,so many accounts of its contents1 and so many views of its form1 both within and without1 have been since published1 that a better idea of both can be obtained from numerous sources1 than from anything that ,i can write4 ,i shall1 therefore1 attempt nothing more than some general remarks1 and will mention a few examples4 ,when we were here in ,march1 ,i expressed my admiration of the general design4 ,so far as ,i know it is novel4 ,exhibitions of the productions1 whether in nature or art1 of particular countries1 have often been made1 and in some countries they are annual1 as in ,france1 ,england1 and in the ,united ,states2 but ,i believe it was reserved for ,prince ,albert to originate the design of inviting all nations to bring to one place the results of their industry and skill1 and specimens of their physical resources4 ,for obvious reasons1 no place was so proper as ,london1 the commercial metropolis of the world1 and ,i suppose now containing a greater population1 and certainly more wealth1 and exerting more influence on mankind1 than any other city4 ,the invitation was a pledge of universal good-will1 and it has evidently tended to produce kind feelings among the nations4 ,instead of new fortresses of stone and iron1 instead of walls and battlements to protect this immense city from invasion1 there rises in its grand domain of ,hyde park1 a crystal palace1 the temple of arts and industry4 ,it rose like an exhalation1 a magical illusion of the senses4 ,the frame-work of iron1 although strong enough to sustain the weight and to resist the winds1 is so little apparent to the eye1 that the crystal palace appears a sea of glass1 as in the ,revelations1 #8,a sea of glass like unto crystal4' ,one might dream1 as in the #8,arabian ,nights1' of such a creation1 #8in the visions of the night1 when deep sleep falleth upon men1' and might find on waking that it was all an illusion1 when it would vanish like the fabric of a dream1 and leave not a wreck behind4 ,but there it stands1 a splendid reality1 and with its widely extended transepts1 wings and galleries1 has proved sufficient to receive and protect the gathered riches of mankind4 8,i mentioned in my passage from ,boulogne1 that ,i was in company with a large number of ,french people coming over to see the crystal palace4 ,crowds of all nations throng this palace2 fifty thousand1 or sixty thousand1 and sometimes seventy thousand in a day4 ,as you walk about1 or thread your way through the great masses of human beings that crowd the avenues1 you may hear half the languages of ,europe1 and some of those of the orient4 ,i imagined that before our return from the continent the deluge of nations would have subsided1 and this consideration was not without weight in inducing us to prefer a late inspection of the splendid wonder2 but in this particular we have been disappointed4 ,the numbers who daily resort to the crystal palace are undiminished3 it may be that there are fewer foreigners1 but since the price has been reduced to a shilling1 the country people come in1 parents and children1 and mothers with their infants2 steamboats and cars are crowded1 and it seems as if the rural population of the kingdom were all rushing into ,london4 8,as to the contents of the palace1 it is impossible to enumerate them4 ,a mere catalogue1 with the most brief descriptive notices1 would fill a large volume4 ,i can only mention groups of things1 with here and there a particular instance4 ,the collection embraces the useful as well as the fine arts4 ,all kinds of agricultural machines are here to be seen1 and there are seeds1 and specimens of crops1 all duly arranged and labeled4 ,the ,american department has been somewhat undervalued1 because it was not so splendid1 and was less full than the collections from some other countries1 but even the ,times1 which has generally an unfriendly bearing in relation to our country1 has commended the ,american department on the score of utility4 ,indeed1 it was not reasonable to expect that a country occupied but two centuries by civilized people1 should be able fully to compete with nations who have been civilized for a thousand years2 and our great distance1 and the difficulty and expense of transporting articles across the ocean1 and of coming over to look after them1 must have prevented our appearing as we do at home1 in the great industrial exhibitions of ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia and ,boston4 ,i have seen such gatherings at ,niblo's and the ,castle ,garden1 in ,new ,york1 and in ,boston1 not only of useful1 but of elegant things1 as ,i should feel proud to see in the ,american department in the crystal palace4 ,two agricultural instruments are1 however1 spoken of as giving the palm to ,america above all competition4 ,i refer to the plow and the reaping-machine of ,american manufacture4 ,the plow is said to have attained the perfection of form1 and the reaping-machine to be recommended by its great utility4 8,iron1 as it is the material which1 more than others1 7wood excepted17 contributes indispensable aid to the arts of life1 occupies a conspicuous place in the exhibition4 ,its ores and its castings1 and its wrought articles1 whether in a locomotive1 or the hair-spring of a chronometer1 whether in chain-cables or a cambric needle1 are displayed in endless variety of useful and beautiful forms1 and in this department ,england justly claims and fully proves her preminence4 ,iron1 lead1 copper1 bismuth1 zinc1 antimony1 and silver1 gold and platinum1 are conspicuous here4 ,england glories in her tin1 lead and copper3 in the two latter we can compete with her2 our lead is inexhaustible1 and our native copper of ,lake ,superior1 is unequaled for abundance4 ,a large mass of it has been brought over for the exhibition1 weighing many thousand pounds4 8,nothing can exceed the beauty of the articles of silver1 whether utensils or ornaments1 which are exposed to view in the gallery of the crystal palace4 ,the most graceful forms both of peaceful men1 and of warriors1 armed cap--pie2 and of woman in the very beau ideal of her loveliness1 are here in profusion2 and if ,england excels in these articles in silver1 ,france is not behind her1 both in them and in gilded furniture1 and bronze1 as seen in all the splendor and elegance of the show windows of the ,palais ,royal4 ,the silver extracted from lead by ,pattinson's process is here seen in piles so rich1 with a perfect purity of whiteness1 and in scaly pyramids1 a kind of flaky mound1 that the observer looks on with delight1 as also upon the same metal cast in ponderous ingots4 ,here is the gold of ,california1 one brilliant mass weighing in value eight hundred pounds sterling1 equivalent to nearly four thousand dollars4 ,there are three masses of native ,siberian1 or ,russian platinum1 weighing respectively twenty-one1 twenty-three1 and twenty-five pounds1 and many wrought articles of the same metal4 ,the copper of ,russia1 in the form of malachite1 here makes a great figure4 ,the same material which we saw in the ,vatican1 and in the palace of the king of ,prussia1 in the form of magnificent vases1 is here seen wrought into innumerable forms of beauty4 ,there is even a large paneled door fabricated entirely of malachite4 ,of course many pieces are united to afford the requisite mass4 ,there are tables1 vases1 urns1 chairs1 settees1 c41 mounted with the same rich material4 ,the gems form a conspicuous ornament of the collection4 ,queen ,victoria has loaned her largest diamond1 with several smaller ones1 to be exhibited1 and here also are some of the most precious of the diamonds1 rubies1 sapphires1 topazes1 emeralds1 chrysoberyls1 opals1 and pearls of the regalia of ,russia1 ,spain and ,india4 ,the ,duke of ,devonshire has an emerald deposited by ,mr4 ,tenant1 nearly two inches in the diagonal diameter1 and two to three inches in length2 it is of surpassing beauty1 being perfectly crystallized1 and of the most intense and uniform grass-green color4 ,there is no end to the bijouterie of the ,french4 ,a case in the gallery is composed of four pieces of plate glass1 each between five and six feet long1 and four to five broad4 ,this case is entirely filled with elegant ornamental articles4 8,i can not pretend to enumerate the marbles1 granites1 porphyries1 serpentines1 and other architectural materials1 nor the piles of mineral coal1 and anthracite1 nor the perfect imitations of beautiful and useful mineral compositions1 such as serpentines1 verd-antique1 porphyry1 and verd-antique marbles1 c4 ,the chemical products1 too1 of great beauty1 are numerous4 ,the crystallizations of carbonate and bi-carbonate of soda1 of alum1 of the prussiates1 yellow and red1 of the sulphate of iron1 and the sulphate of copper1 and sal-ammoniac1 are splendid1 and evince that the chemical arts are not behind the mechanical4 ,large cakes of metallic antimony are crystallized in beautiful fern-like radiations4 8,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,austria1 ,germany1 ,prussia1 ,turkey1 the ,barbary states1 ,egypt1 ,bermuda1 the ,east ,indies1 ,canada1 ,australia1 and other countries1 have combined to decorate the crystal palace4 ,superb silks have come from the east1 and pictured stuffs1 shawls1 carpets1 c41 from ,germany2 the antipodes have conspired to crown the glorious spectacle2 plain and useful materials1 leather1 hemp1 ropes of manilla grass and of other fibrous vegetables1 and glass and pottery in their varieties1 are not omitted4 ,to give animation to the scene1 steam generated out of doors is brought in through concealed tubes and applied to machinery4 ,cotton-gins and paper-making machines are at work1 and the palace resounds with the noise of actual and productive labor4 ,ship models are presented in many forms1 especially ships of war1 in sections longitudinal and transverse1 with all their interior structure4 ,life-boats and life-preservers1 and in harmony with them1 mirrors for light-houses2 but in contrast1 swords1 pistols1 revolvers1 guns1 dirks and daggers1 and multiform contrivances to do the work of killing the greatest number of men in the shortest time2 such are man's inconsistencies6 8,but time would fail to tell of the furniture1 the carriages1 the musical instruments1 the ceramic wares1 and all the countless and indescribable throng of articles which contribute their effect in the tout ensemble of this vast storehouse of the nations4 ,the statuary arranged along the naves is a conspicuous and interesting feature4 ,many of the prominent and more meritorious of these marbles1 have since become so familiar from the engravings in the ,art ,journal and other illustrated works1 that it is needless at this late day to call attention to them individually4 ,the famous ,amazon of ,kiss1 the same which was in ,london1 is now the most remarkable artistic object in the ,american crystal palace4 ,the most interesting view is obtained from the galleries of the moving masses of human life below4 ,it is a panorama where multitudes are passing to and fro1 and soon are seen no more1 fleeting as the jets-d'eau which sport among them from living fountains1 that curl over and descend in graceful sweeps1 and seem to enliven the stately palms and other living plants and trees which grace the scene40 ,in closing this extended notice of the crystal palace1 we hardly need add1 that after the close of the great exhibition1 it was taken down and removed2 and that at present1 it rears its splendid form and stately transepts in a new and more beautiful situation at ,sydenham1 with many important additions and improvements4 ,it now stands in the midst of a magnificent undulating park of three hundred acres1 surrounded with rural delights1 fountains1 shaded walks and silvan temples2 while within1 it has been converted into a great permanent museum of arts1 antiquities and science1 with living groves of palms1 enlivened by singing birds and sparkling fountains4 ,for eighteen pence the ,london artisan can visit it1 including the ride out and back upon the railway4 ,this is being done by a private association at a cost of near four million dollars4 ,,the ,,capitol ,,at ,,washington4 ,among the public buildings at ,washington1 the capital city of the nation1 the first in architectural merit1 and in point of interest1 is the ,capitol1 which contains the halls of the national legislature1 the supreme court room1 c41 c4 ,this building 7a view of which1 as it will appear when the enlargement now in progress is completed1 is given in the cut below7 is situated on an eminence at the eastern part of the city1 about seventy feet above tidewater1 its main front looking toward the west4 ,as it was before the commencement of the alterations and improvements now in progress1 it consisted of a center building1 with two wings1 having a total length of three hundred and fifty-two feet1 and a depth at the wings of one hundred and twenty-one feet4 ,the central building contains a rotunda1 ninety-six feet in diameter1 and the same in hight1 crowned by a magnificent dome which rises one hundred and forty-five feet from the ground4 ,the wings1 as they were1 were each surmounted by a flat dome4 ,the eastern front1 which was intended for the main one1 projects1 including the steps1 sixty-five feet1 and is graced by a portico of twenty-two ,corinthian columns1 thirty feet in hight1 forming a colonnade one hundred and sixty feet in length1 presenting one of the most commanding fronts in the ,united ,states4 ,the western front projects eighty-three feet1 including the steps1 and is embellished with a recessed portico of ten columns4 ,this front1 though not so imposing1 in itself1 as the eastern1 commands the finest view anywhere to be had in ,washington1 overlooking all the central and western parts of the city1 and all the principal public buildings4 ,on the steps of the east front is a noble statue of ,columbus1 supporting a globe in his outstretched arm4 ,in the interior of the western projection is the library of ,congress1 a part of which was burned in the winter of #ahea-b4 ,before that event it contained over fifty thousand volumes4 ,it has been rebuilt so as to be fire-proof4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,capitol ,,at ,,washington4 ,on entering the rotunda1 the first objects that strike the attention1 are the paintings which adorn the walls4 ,there are 8,the ,declaration of ,independence10 8,the ,surrender of ,burgoyne10 8,the ,surrender of ,cornwallis10 8,washington resigning his ,commission10 8,the ,embarkation of the ,pilgrims at ,leyden10 8,the ,landing of ,columbus10 8,the ,baptism of ,pocohontas10 and 8,the ,discovery of the ,mississippi by ,de ,soto40 ,surrounding the rotunda1 are a number of chambers1 passages1 committee-rooms1 rooms for the president1 members of the cabinet1 c4 ,the senate-chamber is on the second floor of the north wing1 of which it occupies about half1 and is of a semicircular form1 being seventy-five feet long1 and forty-five high4 ,a gallery for spectators1 supported by iron or bronze pillars1 surrounds the semicircle1 and fronts the chair of the presiding officer1 which stands in the middle of the chord of the semicircle4 ,in the rear of the chair1 and above it1 is a gallery1 supported by ,ionic columns of the conglomerate or ,potomac marble1 in which sit the reporters1 fronting the senators4 ,the hall of representatives is on the second floor of the south wing1 and is also semicircular1 but much larger than the senate-chamber1 being ninety-six feet long1 and sixty high1 and surrounded by twenty-four ,corinthian columns of ,potomac marble1 with capitals of ,italian marble4 ,the galleries are similar in their arrangement to those of the senate-chamber4 ,over the chair of the speaker is a statue of ,liberty1 supported by an eagle with spread wings4 ,in front of the chair1 and immediately above the main entrance1 is a figure representing ,history recording the events of the nation4 ,the enlargement of the ,capitol1 commenced in #ahea1 and now in progress1 will1 however1 materially change and improve its appearance4 ,it will comprehend two wings1 two hundred and thirty-eight by one hundred and forty feet1 which are to be surrounded on three sides by colonnades1 and on the fourth side to communicate by corridors1 forty-four feet long and fifty feet wide1 with the main building4 ,the whole will be seven hundred and fifty-one feet long1 and will cover three and one-half acres1 or more than one hundred and fifty-three thousand square feet4 ,the architect of the new building has completed the design of a magnificent new dome for the center of the enlarged building1 which is said to be a splendid conception of genius1 and which is to take the place of the present dome1 and thus perfect the symmetry and architectural beauty of the entire building when complete4 ,it will be constructed entirely of cast iron1 and will be on the foundation of the old dome4 ,and if it at all meets the expectations formed of it1 it will be a lasting monument of the skill and genius of the architect4 ,the whole cost of the building as it now stands1 before the extension1 was some two million dollars2 but the improvement will cost several millions more4 ,the original structure was commenced in #agic1 and had not been completed when it was burned1 by an act of vandalism1 in #ahad2 and was not entirely finished till #ahbh4 ,the grounds around the ,capitol1 embracing some thirty acres1 and forming an oblong on three sides1 and a semicircle on the west1 are handsomely laid out1 and planted with trees and shrubbery1 presenting1 during the spring and summer1 a scene of great beauty4 ,about the center of the grounds1 on the eastern front1 is a colossal statue of ,washington1 by ,greenough4 ,the material of the ,capitol is a porous stone of a light yellow color1 painted white4 ,the enlargement is to be of marble4 ,,the ,,smithsonian ,,institute4 ,south-west from the ,capitol1 and midway between it and the president's house1 on a gently rising ground1 in the midst of a new park which has recently been laid out1 stands the ,smithsonian ,institute1 one of the noblest institutions and finest structures in ,washington1 a view of which is given in the cut beyond4 ,illustration3 ,the ,smithsonian ,this edifice is four hundred and fifty feet long1 by one hundred and forty wide1 and is built of red sand-stone1 in the ,romanesque or ,norman style1 embellished by nine towers1 from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet high1 and of different forms4 ,in the building is a lecture-room1 large enough to seat some two thousand persons2 a museum1 for objects of natural history1 some two hundred feet long2 one of the best supplied laboratories in the ,united ,states2 a gallery for paintings and statuary2 a library-room1 capable of containing one hundred thousand volumes2 and various other smaller apartments connected with the designs of the building4 ,the institution was endowed by ,james ,smithson1 an ,englishman1 who left his whole fortune1 some five hundred thousand dollars1 8to found1 at ,washington1 an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men40 ,the fund1 which is in the keeping of the ,united ,states government1 yields an income of more than thirty thousand dollars per year2 and this increase is divided into two parts1 one of which is to be devoted to the increase and diffusion of knowledge by means of original research and publications1 and the other to the gradual formation of a library1 a gallery of art1 museum1 c4 ,,the ,,washington ,,monument4 ,on the proposed new park1 and between the ,smithsonian ,institute and the president's house1 has been commenced a colossal monument to the memory of ,washington1 to be erected by the voluntary contributions of the people4 ,a view of it1 as it will appear when completed1 is given in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,washington ,,monument4 ,the plan contemplates1 as a base1 a circular temple1 two hundred and fifty feet in diameter1 and one hundred feet high1 from the center of which is to rise a shaft1 seventy feet square1 to the hight of six hundred feet above the ground1 and to be cased in marble4 ,the base is intended to be the ,westminster ,abbey of the ,united ,states1 to contain the statues of the revolutionary worthies1 and in the center1 7if his family approve17 are to be placed the remains of ,washington4 ,the temple1 at the base1 will be entirely surrounded by a colonnade of thirty pillars1 in the ,doric style1 forty-five feet high by twelve in diameter1 surmounted by an entablature of twenty feet1 which1 in turn1 is to be surmounted by a balustrade of fifteen feet in hight4 ,each state in the union is invited to furnish a block of native stone or other material1 with an inscription1 which will be inserted in the interior1 where the block may be seen and the inscription read in coming ages4 ,a triumphal car1 with a statue of ,washington1 is to stand over the grand entrance1 as seen in the engraving4 ,the column1 at present1 has reached the hight of less than two hundred feet2 but if completed according to the original plan1 it will form the most magnificent monument ever erected4 ,it is said that there is not a column1 either ancient or modern1 in ,europe1 as high as the ,bunker-hill monument4 ,and yet1 such are the gigantic proportions of the ,washington monument1 that ,bunker-hill monument could be placed inside of it without much impeding the operations of the workmen2 and when it is finished1 any two of the monuments of ,europe could be stowed away within its walls without being noticed from the exterior4 ,the design has been severely criticised2 and the great hight of the column1 receding so suddenly from so wide a base1 has been strongly objected to4 ,but the plan was deliberately adopted after much consideration1 and when the work is finished1 it will doubtless be approved by the great mass of beholders4 ,certainly it will attract the gaze of thousands as a monument not merely to a man1 but to principles which should be dear to every ,american4 ,the endowments of the great man whom it commemorates1 were peculiarly adapted to the exigency which called them into action4 ,he was brave1 but cautious2 earnest1 yet calm2 resolved1 yet guarded against rash adventure2 a patriot1 in whose heart the love of country predominated2 a statesman1 in whose conduct every public virtue was exemplified2 a citizen1 whose intercourse with his fellow-men was without reproach4 ,placed in a position at once responsible and perilous1 he felt and was ever ready to acknowledge the overruling providence of ,god1 by whose blessing alone he could succeed4 ,it was not one great quality which formed the character of ,washington1 but a rare union of many great qualities4 ,these1 with unfeigned devotion1 he laid on the altar of his country1 and for the promotion of her interests he was ready to sacrifice his personal comfort and his life4 ,wonderfully was he sustained in his self-denying and eventful career1 and remarkable was the success which accompanied his efforts4 ,the most formidable obstacles were surmounted1 the most powerful opposition subdued2 his country was liberated2 the battle of free institutions was fought and won2 and he1 superior to the impulses of mere personal ambition1 nevertheless achieved a fame which has no parallel in the world's history4 ,if he was 8first in war10 he was 8first too in peace10 and he still remains 8first in the hearts of his countrymen40 ,such a name should never be forgotten2 such an example should never lose its influence4 ,,the ,,column ,,of ,,vendome1 ,,paris4 ,the ,place de ,vendome1 formed upon the site of a hotel that belonged to the ,duke de ,vendome1 was begun by ,louis ,,xiv41 who1 in #afhe1 purchased and leveled the hotel1 intending to erect1 round a public place1 edifices for the royal library1 the mint1 the extraordinary embassadors1 c4 ,this project1 however1 was abandoned1 and the property ceded to the city of ,paris1 with a stipulation to erect a place upon the site4 ,mansard1 who furnished the first plans1 was charged with the second2 and the buildings1 as they now stand1 were begun in #afii1 and finished by the financier ,law4 ,the form of the place is a symmetrical octagon1 the larger sides of which measure respectively1 four hundred and twenty and four hundred and fifty feet4 ,two wide streets1 forming the only entrances to it1 the ,rue de la ,paix and the ,rue de ,castiglione1 equisect its northern and southern sides4 ,the buildings are uniform1 consisting of a rustic basement surmounted by upper stories1 ornamented with ,corinthian pilasters1 and high roofs pierced with lucarne windows4 ,the middle of each side is graced with a pediment supported by ,corinthian columns4 ,this place was first called the ,place des ,conqutes1 then the ,place ,louis le ,grand1 and afterward the ,place ,vendome4 ,in the middle formerly stood a colossal equestrian statue of ,louis ,,xiv41 in bronze1 erected in #affi1 but demolished the tenth of ,august1 #agib2 the bronze figures that ornamented its base were saved1 and are still to be seen in the ,muse de la ,sculpture ,moderne4 ,the mutilated pedestal remained till #ahjf1 when it was replaced by the triumphal pillar1 erected by ,napoleon1 to commemorate the success of his arms in the ,german campaign of #ahje4 ,this column is an imitation of the pillar of ,trajan at ,rome1 of which it preserves the proportions on a scale larger by one-twelfth4 ,its total elevation is one hundred and thirty-five feet1 and the diameter of the shaft is twelve feet4 ,the pedestal is twenty-one feet in hight1 and from seventeen to twenty in breadth4 ,the pedestal and shaft are of stone1 covered with bass-reliefs1 representing victories of the ,french army1 in bronze1 made from twelve hundred pieces of brass cannon taken from the ,russians and ,austrians4 ,the metal employed in this monument weighs about three hundred and sixty thousand pounds4 ,the bass-reliefs of the pedestal represent the uniforms1 armor and weapons of the conquered troops4 ,above the pedestal are garlands of oak1 supported at the four angles by eagles1 each weighing five hundred pounds4 ,the door1 of massive bronze1 is decorated with crowns of oak1 surmounted by an eagle of the highest finish2 above is a bass-relief1 representing two figures of ,fame1 supporting a tablet1 with an inscription in honor of ,napoleon1 and commemorating the victories which the column was erected to celebrate4 ,the bass-reliefs of the shaft pursue a spiral direction to the capital1 and display1 in chronological order1 the principal actions1 from the departure of the troops from ,boulogne to the battle of ,austerlitz4 ,the figures are three feet high2 their number is said to be two thousand1 and the length of the scroll eight hundred and forty feet2 a spiral thread divides the lines1 and bears inscriptions of the actions they represent4 ,the figure of ,napoleon on the top of the column1 is eleven feet high4 ,the statue of ,napoleon1 in imperial robes1 was melted down in #ahad1 to form a part of the equestrian statue of ,henry ,,iv41 but was replaced by ,louis ,philippe1 ,may first1 #ahcb1 clad in military costume1 shrouded by crape4 ,from the summit of the monument1 which is reached by a spiral staircase1 there is a splendid view of the capital1 and admission is obtained through one of ,napoleon's veterans1 who keeps the door4 ,,the ,,bunker ,,hill ,,monument4 ,this celebrated monument1 a view of which is given in the cut on the next page1 is in the town of ,charlestown1 ,mass41 on the hill where the first battle was fought between the provincial and ,british troops in the war of the revolution4 ,the hill was originally called ,breed's hill1 ,bunker hill being to the north of it1 at the entrance of the peninsula on which ,charlestown is situated4 ,on this hight a detachment of one thousand men were directed to intrench themselves1 on the night of the sixteenth of ,june1 #agge4 ,by some mistake1 they proceeded to ,breed's hill1 which is nearer ,boston1 and which has since been called ,bunker hill1 as the name is associated with the battle4 ,the men had worked with such secrecy1 that by the dawn of day they had1 unperceived by the enemy1 thrown up a redoubt eight rods square4 ,the incessant fire from the shipping and a battery on ,copp's hill1 in ,boston1 did not prevent the ,americans from completing by midday1 with great labor and fatigue1 a slight breastwork from the redoubt to the bottom of the hill on the east side4 ,between twelve and one o'clock1 the ,british1 to the number of three thousand men1 with a portion of artillery1 under ,generals ,howe and ,pigot1 landed in ,charlestown1 and having formed their men in two lines1 advanced slowly to the attack1 frequently halting to allow their artillery time to fire4 ,the ,americans1 in their intrenchments1 coolly waited their approach4 ,it is said that ,general ,putnam1 who was a leader1 though ,colonel ,prescott had the chief command1 told the men that they had not a charge of powder to waste1 and exhorted them not to fire upon the enemy till they could see the whites of their eyes4 ,they were suffered to approach to within ten or twelve rods1 when these practiced ,american marksmen fired with such deadly aim as to throw the ,british ranks into confusion1 and cause them to retreat precipitately to the bottom of the hill4 ,by the efforts of their officers they were formed a second time and advanced to the attack4 ,the ,americans waited till they were within five or six rods1 when they again opened a destructive fire1 which brought them to a stand and threw them into confusion4 ,at this critical moment ,general ,clinton arrived from ,boston1 and succeeded in rallying his men1 and in bringing them to a charge1 while some cannon were brought to a station that enabled them to rake the breastwork from end to end4 ,the works were now attacked with fixed bayonets1 and as the ,americans were not furnished with them1 and they found their ammunition beginning to fail1 they were obliged to retreat over ,charlestown neck4 ,the ,british were victorious2 but it was a dearly bought victory4 ,their loss1 by the acknowledgment of ,general ,gage1 was ten hundred and fifty-four killed and wounded2 while the engagement was particularly fatal to the officers1 as they were singled out by the ,american marksmen4 ,nineteen commissioned officers were killed1 and seventy wounded4 ,of the men1 two hundred and twenty-six were killed1 and eight hundred and twenty-eight wounded2 while of the ,americans1 who had only fifteen hundred men engaged1 only one hundred and forty-five were killed1 and three hundred and four wounded and missing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bunker ,hill ,monument ,on the site of this celebrated battle1 sixty-two feet above the level of the harbor1 on ground purchased for the purpose1 the ,bunker hill monument1 a splendid obelisk1 has been erected4 ,the corner-stone was first laid by ,la ,fayette1 on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle1 in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens1 the seventeenth of ,june1 #ahbe1 when an address was delivered by ,daniel ,webster4 ,this foundation1 however1 having been found insufficient1 the corner-stone of the present structure was laid1 in a more substantial manner1 in ,march1 #ahbg2 and the monument was completed the twenty-third of ,july1 #ahdb4 ,the obelisk is thirty feet square at the base1 and sixteen and one-third feet at the top2 and is substantially built of hewn ,quincy granite4 ,the hight from the base to the top of the apex1 is two hundred and twenty-one feet2 and the cost of the work was about one hundred and twenty thousand dollars4 ,the interior is circular1 having a diameter of ten feet and seven inches at the bottom1 and of six feet and four inches at the top1 and is ascended by two hundred and ninety-four steps4 ,the top is an elliptical chamber1 about eighteen feet high1 with four windows1 the view from which is truly magnificent1 embracing ,boston1 and its harbor and environs1 together with the mountain scenery in the distance1 and the adjacent towns nearer at hand4 ,the monument consists of ninety courses of hewn stone1 eighty-four above the base1 and six below it4 ,there are a number of windows in the sides1 closed with iron shutters1 beside numerous apertures4 ,the completion of the monument in #ahdb1 was hailed by the firing of cannon1 and other testimonials of rejoicing4 ,the monument itself1 being the most elevated object in the vicinity1 will serve as a landmark to seamen1 and will long stand in commemoration of the brave men who here fought1 and many of whom fell1 in defense of the rights of their country1 nobly contributing to the independence of the ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,arc ,,de ,,triomphe4 ,this triumphal arch1 says a late tourist1 8is one of the most wonderful conceptions of that wonderful man1 ,napoleon4 ,it was begun by him1 but finished by his successors4 ,this stupendous fabric strikes one with astonishment2 and after we had opportunity to compare it with the triumphal arches of the ,roman emperors1 we were still more impressed with its grandeur4 ,dimensions are indispensable1 if we would produce in others any correct conceptions of structures or space2 but they fail to impress the mind as does the actual vision1 and this is eminently the fact with this elaborate work4 ,napoleon decreed its erection in #ahjf1 after his successful campaigns in ,prussia and ,germany4 ,the plan of the triumphal arch was furnished in #ahji4 ,the foundations were sunk twenty-five feet below the surface1 and it was only above ground in #ahaa4 ,in #ahad1 the works were suspended1 and remained neglected until #ahbc4 ,after various interruptions1 the pile was finished by ,louis ,philippe in #ahcf1 thirty years from the decree which gave birth to it1 and from the laying of the first stone4 ,the cost was ten million1 four hundred and twenty thousand francs1 or over two million dollars4 ,the monument consists of a vast central arch1 ninety feet in hight by forty-five in width1 over which rises a bold entablature1 frieze and cornice4 ,there is also a transversal arch1 fifty-seven feet high and twenty-five feet wide4 ,the total hight of the structure is a hundred and fifty-two feet1 and its breadth and depth are a hundred and thirty-seven and sixty-eight feet respectively4 ,these dimensions are more than realized by actual inspection4 ,the panels1 frieze1 and pediment of this structure1 are covered by figures in bold relief1 eighteen feet in hight1 three times the size of life1 and those above are half of this size4 ,all of them illustrate the history of ,france1 and they are chiefly warlike4 ,one group may be mentioned as an example4 ,victory is crowning ,napoleon with a laurel wreath2 ,history is writing the narrative of his deeds1 and ,fame1 soaring above1 is proclaiming them with her trumpet4 8,the observer should ascend the monument1 when he will realize more than ever its great hight and magnitude1 and its massy materials4 ,an aged woman at the door furnished us with a lantern for our ascent through dark passages4 ,the stairs are easy1 although narrow1 and we mounted1 without difficulty1 up the two hundred and sixty-one steps4 ,the floor which covers the arches1 is composed of very large stones1 hewn into perfect symmetry4 ,notwithstanding the mountain weight of this structure1 not the slightest crack in the massy stones1 or opening in the joints1 can be perceived1 in any part of the pile4 ,the top affords a secure and convenient place for observation1 and from this place the observer enjoys a glorious view of ,paris and its environs4 ,away into the country stretches interminably1 as far as the eye can discern1 a beautiful road1 almost of the same ample width as that of the broad avenue1 at the head of which the triumphal arch stands4 ,looking from the arch to the north1 the avenue leads through and along the ,elysian ,fields1 the ,place de la ,concorde1 the gardens and palace of the ,tuilleries1 the ,carrousel and palace of the ,louvre1 all of which are in one continuous line of two or three miles4 ,on our right1 looking east1 are the dome of the ,invalides1 the extensive ,champs de ,mars1 and the ,ecole ,militaire near that field4 ,the triumphal arch of ,napoleon in the ,carrousel1 the cathedral of ,notre ,dame1 and the commemorative column of ,july1 #ahcj1 erected on the site of the ancient ,bastile1 are seen on the north-east4 ,alas6 how much blood has this arch of triumph cost4 ,the places of ninety-six victories are given on the monument1 with the names of the generals by whom they were won1 the latter making an aggregate of three hundred and eighty-four40 ,,the ,,cooper ,,institute4 ,this is a structure1 not yet complete1 but to be of huge proportions1 the foundations of which are imbedded deep in the earth1 there resting on masses of stone1 from which1 as they rise from the ground1 they ascend in columns and arches of iron4 ,it is situated near the upper part of ,broadway1 in the city of ,new ,york1 not far from the ,astor library1 the ,bible house1 and the fine building of the ,mercantile ,library ,association4 ,like the ,bible house it covers a whole block1 and extends on every side as far as the streets which surround will allow4 ,the space inclosed is nearly three-quarters of an acre4 ,the ground is excavated to the depth of twenty-five feet1 to lay the broadest foundations1 and also to furnish space below the level of the street for a large hall1 which may be used for public assemblies4 ,here1 under one corner1 is to be a complete apparatus for the manufacture of gas1 and also for warming and ventilating the whole building4 ,from the pavement the edifice rises to six stories1 reaching a hight nine feet above the ,bible house4 ,the lower story1 which1 from its long row of iron arches1 presents a noble appearance1 is intended for stores1 the rent of which will be a perpetual endowment for the support of the institution4 ,the second story is to be fitted up for offices1 which will also be a source of revenue4 ,with the third story1 commences the portion of the edifice devoted strictly to scientific purposes4 ,here1 occupying the body of the building1 is a hall1 which will hold four thousand people1 and will probably be found the best place for lectures in the city1 being much more spacious and elegant than the ,tabernacle4 ,it will not be quite so large as the ,academy of ,music1 which is out of all proportion with ordinary speaking and hearing2 but it will hold as large an audience as can well get within the sound of one man's voice4 ,on this floor1 a room of ample dimensions is set apart for a school of design for ladies4 ,this is an admirable feature in the plan4 ,it will furnish hundreds of young women1 who have a taste for drawing1 with facilities for becoming perfect in that accomplishment1 and also with a means of support for such as wish to teach4 ,another spacious apartment is devoted to ,egyptian antiquities4 ,the fine collection brought to this country by ,dr4 ,abbott has been secured1 and will form one of the attractions of the ,cooper ,institute4 ,here will be placed the famous bulls1 and all the wonders brought from the land of the ,nile4 ,other divisions of the building will contain collections of natural history1 of beasts1 birds and reptiles4 ,thus will be formed a grand museum1 bringing together what is rare and curious from the earth1 air and sea4 ,here1 too1 the mineralogist and the botanist will find a place for their collections1 and the chemist be furnished with his laboratory4 ,connected with these departments1 there will be professors and courses of lectures4 ,the design of the benevolent founder is to furnish to young men1 free of expense1 an education in any branch of science or art4 ,in many of its features1 this institution is modeled after the ,polytechnic school in ,paris4 ,to every young man who has a thirst for science1 is here afforded the means of satisfying it4 ,the fountains of knowledge will be open to him1 and he may drink freely4 ,we doubt not1 many will avail themselves of this opportunity4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy once said1 the greatest discovery he ever made was the discovery of the poor ,irish boy1 ,michael ,faraday1 now the world-renowned professor of ,london4 ,may not such a one yet be picked up in the streets of ,new ,york1 who will here find open to him a path to science and to fame4 ,many a country lad1 whose desire for knowledge can not be satisfied in a district school1 will here find an ampler field of study4 ,in future years1 the dwellers in that part of the city will often see1 at midnight1 the lights gleaming in those high windows1 where ardent youth pore over books1 exploring that world of science then1 for the first time1 opened to their gaze4 ,in another year1 i4 e41 by #ahef1 we hope to see it in full operation4 ,a structure so immense1 of course1 can advance but slowly4 ,it has been delayed1 also1 for want of stone1 and in order to have made1 specially for this building1 iron girders1 which take the place of wood1 and which give greater strength and security4 ,it is guarded against fire1 in every possible way1 and built in the firmest manner2 and when completed1 it will be a huge mass of rock and iron4 ,it is built to last for ages1 and will stand as a monument to the liberality of a private individual1 who1 having1 on this very spot1 begun life himself as a poor boy1 and risen1 by a long course of industry1 to be one of the merchant princes of the land1 desired to found an institution for the benefit of the young men of his native city4 ,illustration3 ,,vergnais',s ,,herculean ,,bridge4 ,,vergnais',s ,,improved ,,bridge4 ,various plans have from time to time been formed1 for giving strength and security to bridges2 the history of which1 from the time when streams were first crossed by rude logs or trees thrown over them1 up to the latest inventions1 would be full of interest4 ,one of the latest improvements in this department1 designed and invented by an ingenious ,french engineer1 ,m4 ,vergnais1 is presented in the preceding cut4 ,it was originally intended to be thrown across the river ,seine1 at ,paris4 ,some years ago1 a wire suspension bridge at ,angiers gave way1 while a body of troops was crossing1 precipitating an entire regiment into the water1 with a terrible loss of life4 ,since that dreadful catastrophe there has always been a feeling of aversion in ,france1 toward the erection of suspension bridges4 ,the ingenious improvement here presented is designed to relieve all possible danger of breakage1 and yet allow of the construction of a bridge of gigantic proportions1 without in the least impeding navigation4 ,in the ordinary suspension bridge1 the main cables sustain the entire weight1 and should the connection between the bridge and the cables give way1 or either of the cables break1 a most melancholy end awaits all who have happened to be trusting their lives to its security at the moment4 ,in the application of ,vergnais's improvement1 the utmost security is afforded4 ,a monster arch of iron is thrown across from shore to shore4 ,this arch is composed of such strong materials as not to require great bulk1 so that it presents an aerial appearance4 ,the flooring of the bridge is suspended from the arch by innumerable pendants of iron1 so that the weight of a body1 in crossing the bridge1 is brought to bear gradually upon the structure1 and when it reaches the center1 where common bridges are the weakest1 under this invention it reaches the strongest part1 for it is directly beneath the arch4 ,besides1 should any of the pendants give way1 the entire bridge does not yield1 for it is impossible for all the pendants to break at once4 ,this plan is certainly a new and novel one1 so far as suspension bridges are concerned4 ,we hope that the inventor will be encouraged to erect them in this country4 ,railroad companies will find them to be in every way advantageous to their interest1 since the cars may run across them at the highest speed1 with perfect security4 ,,railroad ,,bridge ,,at ,,portage1 ,,new ,,york4 ,a group of natural and artificial wonders more varied and magnificent than at ,portage1 ,n4 ,y41 is not to be found in this land of sublime scenery and rapid improvement4 ,it is destined to be a ,mecca of travel1 only to be classed with the ,white mountains1 ,niagara and the ,mammoth cave4 ,no descriptive language will appear exaggerated to one who visits the scene1 or studies the measurements and details now presented4 ,these do not tell half the story2 a complete account would require a guide-book of pen-and-pencil sketches4 ,the small village of ,portage lies on the ,genessee river1 at a point where it enters a stupendous gorge1 which continues seventeen miles1 in a north-east direction1 to ,mount ,morris4 ,here it flows into the famous ,genessee valley1 which extends from ,dansville to ,rochester1 and is a level tract of rich farms and shaded meadows1 that are said to resemble ,english park scenery more than anything in our country4 ,the river enters the lake a few miles below the ,rochester falls1 thirty miles north of ,mount ,morris4 ,to begin back1 just below ,portage village is a noble aqueduct of the ,genessee canal3 this is built of hewn limestone1 and is much like the high bridge at ,harlem1 in size and appearance4 ,passing this and advancing into the river-gulf1 with the ,genessee on one hand1 the canal on the other1 and two hundred and fifty feet of wooded declivity inclosing both1 a short walk brings you suddenly to the new bridge of the ,buffalo and ,new ,york city railroad4 ,the first and last look at this bridge must be one of dumb amazement4 ,it is the crystal palace of all bridges4 ,how any mortal ever conceived1 or having conceived ever dared to attempt carrying it into execution1 passes our comprehension4 ,resting on six heavy stone basements in the water1 and as many more on the land1 it rises to the immense hight1 for a bridge1 of two hundred and thirty-four feet1 and is eight hundred feet long1 lifting its immense net-work of timber1 as if a whole village of house-frames and rectangular streets were raised up and set perpendicularly on edge4 ,the first fall of the river1 a sidelong1 broken descent of sixty feet1 is a few steps below the structure1 and visible from its top1 long before reaching which the ascending mist is dissipated4 ,one and a half million feet of timber1 being the product of two hundred acres of land1 together with thirty tuns of iron spikes1 were required for this climax of modern engineering4 ,the cost is estimated at one hundred and thirty thousand dollars4 ,before the work had reached its completion1 the railroad passengers were taken in carriages two miles around from one end of the bridge to the other1 a very comfortable hotel having been erected at the eastern extremity4 ,below the monster bridge and its waterfall1 the river chasm widens into a deep basin of hills1 with a pond in the center1 and the second fall1 a descent of eighty feet1 at the lower extremity4 ,this grand natural temple of cliffs1 has thus at each end an organ with a shining range of silver pipes2 on the left side are several galleries in the shape of canal aqueducts of wood1 built to avoid the incessant slides of quicksand2 and1 at the upper entrance1 the six-story bridge furnishes fifty rostrums for as many orators4 ,connected with the lower falls is a singular semicircular chasm1 and1 at its base1 a cave1 worn by water1 which1 as a matter of course1 has been afflicted with a ,satanic name3 it is of difficult access4 ,here begin the imposing precipices of three hundred feet in hight1 forming1 at this point1 a mighty amphitheater1 around the eastern brink of which winds the canal1 protected by a stone parapet4 ,a gigantic tunnel was first constructed1 and still remains in part2 but the rock proved so insecure1 that the overhanging roof was thrown off1 at great expense1 into the river1 and the bed of the canal laid in cement4 ,nearly the whole array of these wonders could be brought into one view from a high point on the western bank1 where the artist ,cole1 when this scenery was in its pristine wildness1 once took a sketch for a very large autumnal picture1 which is now in the possession of ,hon4 ,w4 ,h4 ,seward4 ,some distance below the places now described1 is a third fall1 very grotesque in its features1 and made remarkable by a tall natural tower1 left by the wearing of the river and surmounted by a crown of foliage4 ,,the ,,britannia ,,tubular ,,bridge4 ,this wonder of modern engineering1 a view of which is given in the cut1 forms part of the railroad from ,chester to ,holyhead1 and is thrown over the ,menai strait which separates ,caernarvon1 in ,wales1 from the island of ,anglesey4 ,this strait appears to the eye as a beautiful river1 half a mile wide1 through which the tide1 which here rises twenty and twenty-five feet1 rushes with great rapidity and force4 ,the tubular bridge over it is one hundred feet above high-water level1 and formed of long1 hollow1 rectangular tubes1 one for up1 and the other for down trains1 composed of wrought-iron boiler-plates riveted together1 and resting on huge and massive towers of masonry4 ,of these tubes or galleries1 eight in number1 four for each line1 the four shortest are each two hundred and thirty feet1 and the four longest each four hundred and seventy-two feet in length4 ,the middle and largest pier or tower1 is sixty-two feet by fifty-two at the base1 and rises majestically to a hight of two hundred and thirty feet4 ,the workmen engaged upon this bridge1 with their wives and families1 were equal in number to the population of a moderately sized town1 and had the usual provisions for large communities1 of a clergyman1 schoolmaster1 surgeon1 etc4 ,the entire cost of the stupendous structure1 was about three million1 five hundred thousand dollars4 ,the number of rivets used in fastening the tubes of this bridge was over two million2 and the entire length of it is eighteen hundred and thirty-four feet4 ,silliman says of this immense and ingenious structure1 that it 8is wonderful4 ,to construct10 he adds1 8a vast tube of iron strong enough to admit of railroad trains passing safely through it2 to build it in separate pieces down on the common level2 to float them to the site1 and there raise them to their elevation of one hundred feet1 and place them on firm pillars of masonry as supports1 and then to unite them into one continued tube1 as part of the grand railroad connection between ,london and ,holyhead and ,ireland1 is an achievement which must forever place the name of ,robert ,stevenson above all praise40 ,to show the immense strength of this bridge1 he goes on to say1 8,an enormous weight of between three and four hundred thousand pounds1 caused a depression of the level only three inches4 ,the ordinary pressure of the railroad trains produces a depression of one-eighth of an inch1 or even less1 discernible only by instruments4 ,a pressure of more than six hundred thousand pounds produced a deflection of less than an inch and a half4 ,as works of art1 this bridge1 and the one next to be mentioned1 are triumphs of mechanical skill and science1 and they not only establish the connection which has been named between ,wales1 ,anglesey and ,ireland1 but they afford the prospect of a still more important connection from ,galway1 in ,ireland1 to ,nova ,scotia1 by steamers1 thus bringing ,europe and ,america within a week of each other4 ,the most massy stone pier1 the ,britannia1 was erected upon a firm rock which is in the middle of the river4 ,the term tube1 as here applied to the body of the bridge1 may convey an erroneous idea2 for instead of being round1 it is square4 ,it is an immense iron corridor1 or parallelopiped1 closed in1 forming a horizontal iron gallery1 or passage1 in which the rails are laid4 ,it is thirty feet high in the middle1 and twenty-two feet toward the ends4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,britannia ,,tubular ,,bridge4 8,this stupendous structure proves to be a very delicate thermometer4 ,a little sunshine raises the center an inch1 7as the expansion can not extend downward17 and produces a horizontal deflection or swelling of an inch and a half4 ,for every fifteen degrees of ,fahrenheit1 it expands one ten-thousandth of its length1 or half an inch4 ,alternate sunshine and showers of rain1 cause the tubes to expand and contract4 ,if one of the tubes was placed on end in ,st4 ,paul's churchyard1 ,london1 it would rise one hundred and seven feet higher than the top of the cross4 ,the rivets that unite the plates are an inch in diameter2 they were put in red-hot1 and beaten with heavy hammers1 and in cooling1 they contracted so strongly as to draw the plates together with a force requiring four to six tuns to make them slide on each other4 ,the tubes were raised from their position afloat on the water1 by means of a ,brahmah hydraulic press1 into which the water was injected by powerful steam-engines4 ,the force exerted by this power would throw water nearly twenty thousand feet high2 more than five times the hight of ,snowdon1 the highest mountain in ,wales1 and almost five thousand feet higher than the summit of ,mont ,blanc4 ,the greatest number of men employed at any one time on this bridge1 was two thousand1 and the fatal casualties were seven4 ,the second tube was floated to its place ,december fourth1 #ahdi1 and the opening of the bridge by the passage of cars took place ,march fifth1 #ahej4 ,it may be deflected thirteen inches without injury1 and would bear a weight of one thousand tuns40 ,,the ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,in the same vicinity1 and over the same strait1 is the great suspension bridge1 which1 when it was finished in #ahbf1 was deservedly esteemed one of the wonders of the world1 and is still entitled to hold that rank4 ,it is indeed a stupendous structure1 of which the full details may be learned from the official reports2 but the following are among the principal facts4 ,it is one hundred feet above the water1 so that the ships1 even those of a large size1 are not impeded1 and can pass under it without lowering a sail or a spar4 ,the bridge is built out upon arches from both sides of the river1 to a certain distance1 leaving the space between the points of suspension1 five hundred and sixty feet4 ,the platform is about thirty feet wide4 ,the whole is suspended from four lines of strong iron cables1 by perpendicular iron rods1 five feet apart4 ,the cables pass over rollers1 on the tops of pillars1 and are fixed to iron frames under ground1 which are kept down by masonry4 ,the weight of the whole bridge between the points of suspension is four hundred and eighty-nine tuns4 ,the massy materials of which this bridge is composed1 the admirable manner in which they are locked together1 the great elevation at which it crosses this grand strait1 its persistence without sign of failure during more than a quarter of a century1 its importance as a connecting link between ,england and ,ireland1 and the result of this early effort to conquer formidable physical difficulties1 fill the beholder with admiration and delight1 and do lasting honor to ,mr4 ,telford1 the distinguished architect4 ,,great ,,railway ,,suspension ,,bridge ,,at ,,niagara ,,falls4 ,we have before1 on page #bfe1 given some account of this vast structure as it was1 when so far completed as to be used for ordinary passage4 ,but we advert to it again here1 both because it has since had added to it the superstructure for railway-trains1 and also that we may bring in comparison1 the first suspension bridge ever attempted1 7an account of which has been given17 and one of the last and largest ever undertaken4 ,the first train of cars passed over this bridge on the ninth of ,march1 #ahee1 from the ,canada to the ,american shore1 the engine and tender being crowded with people1 having the ,english and ,american colors flying1 while bands of music were playing alternately the national airs of ,great ,britain and of the ,united ,states4 ,the opening of this mighty and magnificent structure1 well worthy of being classed with the world's wonders1 really forms an epoch in the history of the world4 ,it unites with strong iron bands two countries1 to the intelligence and enterprise of whose inhabitants the bridge owes its existence1 and stands a fitting monument4 ,its strength can never be fully tested2 the weight of a fully laden train being but a trifle in comparison to its capacity4 ,a train of eight cars1 filled with passengers1 two baggage-cars1 locomotive and tender1 weigh but about one hundred and thirty tuns2 this being only one-sixtieth of its immense capacity4 ,the railway portion of the bridge is leased to and controlled by the ,great ,western railway company1 and has laid upon it tracks of three different gauges1 viz41 the ,new ,york ,central1 four feet and eight and a half inches2 the ,elmira and ,niagara ,falls1 six feet2 and the ,great ,western1 five feet and six inches1 thus affording facilities for the transit of both passengers and freight1 without change of cars4 ,the following statistics will give some idea of this immense structure and its capacity4 ,length of span from center to center of towers1 #hbb feet4 ,hight of tower above rock on the ,american side1 #hh feet4 ,hight of tower above rock on the ,canada side1 #gh feet4 ,hight of tower above rock on the floor of railway1 #fj feet4 ,number of wire cables1 #d ,diameter of each cable1 #aj inch4 ,number of ,no4 #i wires on each cable1 #c1fei ,ultimate aggregate strength of cables1 #ab1dji tuns4 ,weight of superstructure1 #gej tuns4 ,weight of superstructure and maximum loads1 #a1bej tuns4 ,maximum weight the cable and stays will support1 #g1bjj tuns4 ,hight of track above water1 #bcd feet4 ,,other ,,immense ,,bridges4 ,at ,peru1 in ,illinois1 is the great bridge of the ,illinois ,central railroad1 which is thirty-five hundred feet1 or nearly two-thirds of a mile long4 ,this is perhaps the greatest work of the kind in all the western states4 ,it reaches from bluff to bluff1 is seventy-five feet in hight1 and contains over one million feet of lumber1 beside immense quantities of iron and stone4 ,the top is covered with tin1 and made water-tight2 the trains of cars are to run on the top of all2 and beneath them1 and between the frames1 pass the roads for wagons2 while underneath all are the river and canal4 ,an ornamental railing is placed on each side of the track4 ,another large bridge1 on the suspension principle1 is that over the ,mississippi1 near ,st4 ,anthony and ,minnesopolis1 in ,minnesota4 ,the work consists of a wire suspension bridge1 of one span of six hundred and thirty feet1 having seventeen feet of roadway1 connecting the western bank of the ,mississippi river with ,nicollet island1 about one hundred yards above the first break of its waters into rapids above the falls4 ,but perhaps the largest bridge ever built1 will be1 when completed1 that now erecting over the ,st4 ,lawrence1 called the ,victoria 7railroad7 bridge1 which is to be an immense iron tube1 ten thousand1 two hundred and eighty-four feet1 or nearly two miles long4 ,it is to be set on twenty-four piers1 from two hundred and twenty to three hundred feet apart4 ,at the highest point it will be some sixty feet from the water2 and it is estimated that it will take at least five years to finish it4 ,these are some of the largest bridges1 7in addition to those already particularly mentioned17 ever erected in any part of the world4 ,,the ,,high ,,bridge ,,at ,,harlem4 ,the ,high bridge at ,harlem1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 forms part of the immense works erected to bring the water of the ,croton river into the city of ,new ,york4 ,the dam at the river1 which is seventy feet wide at the bottom1 seven feet wide at the top1 and two hundred and fifty feet long and forty feet high1 creates a pond five miles long1 covering a surface of four hundred acres1 and containing five hundred million gallons of water4 ,from this the aqueduct proceeds1 sometimes tunneling through solid rocks1 crossing valleys by embankments1 and brooks by culverts1 till it reaches the ,harlem river1 a distance of thirty-three miles4 ,it is built of stone1 brick and cement1 arched over and under1 and is made large enough to discharge sixty millions of gallons every twenty-four hours4 ,it crosses the ,harlem river on a magnificent bridge of stone1 fourteen hundred and fifty feet long1 having fourteen piers1 eight of them bearing arches of eighty feet span1 and seven others of fifty feet span1 one hundred and fourteen feet above tide-water at the top4 ,the aqueduct then passes on to a first1 or receiving reservoir1 which covers thirty-five acres and will hold one hundred and fifty million gallons1 and thence to the second1 or distributing reservoir1 which holds twenty million gallons1 whence it is distributed by pipes through the city4 ,the entire cost of the work has been fifteen million dollars4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,high ,,bridge ,,at ,,harlem4 ,,the ,,boston ,,reservoir4 ,the mention of the ,high bridge at ,harlem1 and its connection with the aqueduct which brings the ,croton water to the city of ,new ,york1 suggests some notice of the aqueduct by which water is brought to the city of ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,so early as #agie1 an association was formed in ,boston for supplying the inhabitants with pure water2 and for years it was brought from ,jamaica pond1 in ,roxbury1 some four miles distant1 in logs which were bored for the purpose4 ,these logs were capable of supplying some fifty thousand gallons daily1 which could be raised to the hight of forty-nine feet above tide-water4 ,this supply1 however1 was soon found inadequate to the wants of the city1 though in #ahde1 some fifteen miles of pipes had been laid1 and some three thousand houses were regularly supplied with water4 ,a plan was therefore formed in #ahde1 to supply the city with water from ,lake ,cochituate1 or ,long pond1 as it was formerly called1 about twenty miles west of ,boston4 ,this lake covers a surface of some six hundred and fifty acres1 is seventy feet deep1 and drains the springs1 it is supposed1 of some eleven thousand acres4 ,its elevation is one hundred and twenty-four feet above spring-tide1 so that the descent is such as to make the conveyance of water to the city both easy and sure4 ,the water is carried in a brick conduit or tunnel1 high enough for a man to walk upright in1 as far as the receiving reservoir in ,brookline1 and from there is taken in thirty and thirty-six inch pipes to the distributing reservoir on ,beacon hill1 in ,boston4 ,it is this reservoir1 a view of which is given in the cut beyond1 from which the water is distributed in pipes throughout the city4 ,the average daily supply of water needed for the present population of ,boston1 is about five million gallons4 ,the water-works are capable of supplying twenty million gallons daily2 and the ,cochituate lake is capable1 7by laying down another main pipe17 of supplying forty million gallons daily4 ,the supply of the lake is fully equal to the wants of half a million of people4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,boston ,,reservoir4 ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,the ,,peat ,,forest ,,canal4 ,this aqueduct forms part of the ,peat ,forest canal1 which is a branch of one of the canals extending out from ,manchester in ,england4 ,the latter city is the great center of the cotton manufacture for ,england1 and perhaps the principal manufacturing town in the world4 ,before the invention of what was called the spinning-frame1 in #agfg1 the entire imports of cotton into ,great ,britain did not amount to four million pounds a year1 and the value of exported cotton goods was not over one million dollars4 ,but so rapid has been the improvement of machinery1 and the increase of manufactures1 that in #ahdj the imports of cotton amounted to the prodigious quantity of nearly six hundred million pounds1 of which nearly five hundred million were manufactured4 ,and in #ahed1 these imports amounted to nearly nine hundred million pounds1 of which about the same proportion was manufactured as in #ahdj4 ,of this immense manufacture1 ,manchester is the center2 and to this may be added various other manufactures1 as in silks1 worsteds1 machinery1 c41 c41 c4 ,as a consequence of this immense business1 seeking1 of course1 outlets to market1 ,manchester has become a great center of internal navigation4 ,so early as #agfa1 the ,duke of ,bridgewater's canal was constructed2 and this was soon followed by the ,bury and ,bolton canal1 in #agia2 by that to ,ashton and ,oldham1 in #agib2 and by that to ,rochdale1 in #agid4 ,and these1 again1 are connected with other canals in such a manner as to establish an easy communication with the eastern1 central and southern counties1 including the ports of ,hull1 ,london and ,bristol1 as well as ,liverpool1 which1 of all others1 is the port of ,manchester4 ,it is on one of these side canals that the aqueduct1 a view of which is given in the cut above1 is located2 or rather1 it forms part of the canal itself4 ,it is not so much to be noted for its greatness or expensiveness1 as for the fact that it was among some of the earliest structures of this kind1 which have since become common wherever canal navigation is known4 ,illustration3 ,,aqueduct ,,on ,,the ,,peat ,,forest ,,canal4 ,,the ,,thames ,,tunnel4 ,a tunnel1 in engineering1 is a subterranean passage cut through a hill1 or under a river1 for the purpose of carrying a canal1 road1 or railway1 c4 ,one of the most remarkable works of this kind1 ever executed1 is the tunnel under the river ,thames1 planned by ,mr4 ,brunel1 and successfully executed under his direction4 ,two previous attempts had been made to carry a tunnel under the river2 one in #agii1 and the other in #ahjd2 but both were unsuccessful4 ,in #ahbd1 however1 an act of parliament1 authorizing operations on the plan of ,mr4 ,brunel1 was obtained2 and shortly after the work was commenced4 ,a short account of the progress of the work will probably be the best mode of conveying a notion of the nature and difficulty of tunneling in general4 ,mr4 ,brunel began his operations by making preparations for a shaft fifty feet in diameter1 which he commenced one hundred and fifty feet from the river on the ,surrey side2 this he effected by constructing on the surface of the ground a substantial brick cylinder of that diameter1 forty-two feet in hight and three feet in thickness4 ,over this he set up a steam-engine1 necessary for pumping out the water1 and for raising the earth to be taken from within the cylinder1 and then proceeded to sink it bodily into the earth4 ,by this means he succeeded in passing through a bed of sand and gravel twenty-six feet deep1 constituting1 in part1 a quicksand1 and in which the drift-makers of the former undertaking had been compelled to suspend their work4 ,the cylinder having been sunk to the depth of sixty-five feet1 the horizontal excavation was commenced at the depth of sixty-three feet2 and in order to have sufficient thickness of ground to pass safely under the deep part of the river1 the excavation was made to descend two feet and three inches in every hundred feet4 ,this excavation is thirty feet wide1 and twenty-two and a half feet high1 and the process of making it may briefly be described as follows4 ,it was accomplished by means of a powerful apparatus of iron1 called a shield1 and which consisted of twelve large frames1 standing close to each other1 like so many volumes on the shelf of a book-case1 these frames being twenty-two feet in hight1 and about three feet in width4 ,they were divided into three stages or stories1 thus presenting thirty-six cells or chambers for the miners4 ,the front of each one of these cells was protected by narrow boards1 technically called polling-boards1 each of which was separately held in its place by an apparatus constructed for the purpose4 ,the miner commenced by removing the upper polling-board in his division of the shield1 thus exposing a small portion of earth2 into this earth he made an excavation of six inches in depth1 throwing the earth behind him1 from whence it was removed to the mouth of the tunnel1 and from thence raised by steam to the surface of the ground4 ,he then replaced the polling-board1 causing it to press against the face of the newly excavated earth1 and thus advancing it six inches beyond the other polling-boards of his division4 ,then successively taking down the remaining boards1 excavating the earth six inches behind them1 and replacing the boards six inches further in than before1 he very soon had advanced that distance over the whole length of his division4 ,all the other miners in the thirty-six cells having done the same1 the framework was moved forward1 and six inches more of earth removed4 ,it was in this way1 by these slow degrees1 that the work was finally completed4 ,as the frame-work advanced1 it was closely followed by a solid mass of brick-work1 inclosing two arched passages4 ,these two passages were separated by a solid wall1 three and a half feet at the top and four at the bottom4 ,other arches1 however1 were formed in this wall1 for the purpose of opening a communication between one tunnel and the other4 ,the whole of the brick-work is laid in ,roman cement1 and each archway is finished with a lining of cement1 a carriage-road1 and a narrow foot-path adjoining the central wall4 ,this immense enterprise was not finally completed without serious delay and apparently insurmountable obstacles4 ,the works were thrice interrupted3 in #ahbf1 by the breaking off of the clay1 leaving the shield exposed to the influx of the land-water for six weeks2 also in ,may1 #ahbg1 and in ,january1 #ahbh1 when the river broke in and filled the tunnel4 ,this was quickly remedied1 however1 by filling the holes or chasms with strong bags of clay2 the structure1 on clearing the tunnel of the water1 being found in a most satisfactory state4 ,some time later1 the works were suspended for seven years1 owing to the want of funds4 ,parliament1 however1 after repeated applications1 granted an advance for their completion1 and the works were resumed and continued1 till they were brought to a successful termination4 ,the cost of the tunnel1 with the approaches on both sides of the river1 was about three million and a half dollars2 much less than the cost of the modern metropolitan bridges which span the ,thames between ,surrey and ,middlesex4 ,,railroad ,,tunnels4 ,the establishment of railroad communication has given rise1 both in this country and ,europe1 to some stupendous undertakings in the way of tunneling2 one or two of which are worthy of notice as illustrating the nature and extent of this kind of work4 ,and the first of these which we shall mention1 and one of the most remarkable1 is the ,box tunnel on the ,great ,western railway in ,england4 ,this tunnel pierces what is called ,box hill1 between ,chippenham and ,bath1 part of which is four hundred feet above the level of the track4 ,it is ninety-six hundred and eighty feet long1 thirty-nine feet high1 and thirty-five wide to the outside of the brick-work4 ,the shafts for making and ventilating it1 are thirteen in number1 and vary in depth from eighty to three hundred and six feet4 ,the excavation amounted to four hundred and fourteen thousand cubic yards2 and the brick-work and masonry1 to more than fifty-four thousand cubic yards4 ,the number of bricks used1 was thirty million4 ,a tun of gunpowder and a tun of candles were consumed every week for two years and a half2 and eleven hundred men and two hundred and fifty horses were kept constantly employed for all that time4 ,for a considerable distance the tunnel passes through freestone rock1 from the fissures of which there was1 at times1 an immense influx of water1 by which on one occasion the works were interrupted for a period of nine months4 ,on another occasion after an irruption1 water was for some time discharged by the engine at the rate of thirty-two thousand hogsheads a day4 ,this tunnel is on an inclined plane of one in a hundred4 ,there are several other tunnels of great extent in ,england1 such as the ,kilsby tunnel1 on the ,london and ,birmingham road1 which is over seven thousand feet long2 and the tunnel from ,wapping to ,edge hill1 on the ,liverpool and ,manchester road1 which is over six thousand feet long1 and quite a number of others of five thousand1 four thousand1 three thousand feet long1 c4 ,one of these remarkable tunnels1 is that on the ,south-eastern or ,dover railway1 a view of which is given in the cut on the following page1 which passes through what is called ,shakspeare's cliff1 at ,dover1 7though the cliff to which the poet alluded has been undermined and thrown down1 and the name is now given to another part of the same range17 on the north side of the ,british channel4 ,this cliff is a high bluff of chalk1 on the west of the town1 the white appearance of which gave the name of ,albion 7white7 to ,england4 ,there are two openings in the tunnel2 and through these the whizzing locomotives fly along the dizzy precipice1 as if it were an ordinary highway4 ,there is1 also1 a second tunnel in the same cliff4 ,this last is called the ,abbot's-cliff tunnel1 and is about a mile in length1 coming out on the face of the rock about sixty feet above the sea4 ,the track passes along the front of the rampart for about a mile1 and then enters the ,shakspeare tunnel1 which is also about a mile in length4 ,thence1 again1 it issues on the face of the cliff1 and proceeds to the station at ,dover4 ,illustration3 ,,tunnel ,,in ,,shakspeare',s ,,cliff4 ,in the ,united ,states there are quite a number of railroad tunnels of great extent4 ,one of these is the ,blue ,ridge tunnel1 in ,virginia1 the length of which1 when completed1 will be forty-two hundred and sixty feet1 of which more than half is already 7#ahee7 finished4 ,the work has been commenced on each side of the mountain1 and is progressing at the rate of about fifty feet a month1 at which rate of progress it would take about three years to complete it4 ,but probably the most gigantic work ever proposed in the way of tunneling1 is the ,hoosic tunnel1 on the line of the ,troy and ,greenfield railroad1 by which it is designed to shorten the passage from the former place to ,boston4 ,this immense tunnel it is proposed to carry through the solid rock of the mountain for a distance of some four miles1 and to make it wide enough for a double track for the railroad2 the expense of doing which is variously estimated1 at from four million to six million dollars4 ,by the ordinary method of drilling and blasting1 it would take so long a time1 and require so large an expenditure1 that all idea of thus accomplishing the work has long since been given up1 if1 indeed1 it was ever entertained4 ,and the plan is1 by immense boring machines1 constructed for the purpose1 to make grooves round large masses of the rock1 and when these latter are broken up by blasting1 to remove them piece by piece4 ,several such machines have been invented and constructed with reference to this very work1 and one or two of these have been found successful in practice1 though the immense strain caused by the boring is such as to require corresponding strength in the borer4 ,to give the necessary ventilation1 and now and then light to the tunnel1 both when in the course of construction1 and especially when finished and in use1 it is proposed at proper intervals to sink dry wells1 or openings from the top of the mountain1 down to the tunnel itself2 so that the constant stream of air entering the mouth of the latter1 at either end1 may be always and steadily passing up through these chimneys or ventilators1 thus carrying off the smoke of the engines1 or any impurities of the otherwise stagnant air4 ,the work1 when completed1 if it ever is1 will be a monument of enterprise and perseverance1 unrivaled in the history of tunneling in this or any other country of the world4 ,,the ,,colossus ,,at ,,rhodes4 ,this was a celebrated brazen image of ,apollo1 of the enormous hight of one hundred and five ,grecian1 or one hundred and twenty-five ,english feet1 placed at the entrance of one of the harbors of the city of ,rhodes1 7anciently ,rhodus17 which is about twenty miles from the coast of ,lycia and ,caria1 in the ,mediterranean sea4 ,the island of ,rhodes is about one hundred and twenty miles in circumference1 and was early occupied by a colony of ,greeks from ,crete and ,thessaly1 who in time became both wealthy and powerful4 ,their capital city was on the east of the island2 it was built in the form of an amphitheater1 and had numerous splendid buildings1 among which was a temple to ,apollo4 ,having for a time submitted to the power of ,alexander the ,great1 they afterward refused to assist ,antigonus in his war with ,egypt1 when he sent his son ,demetrius against them1 with an immense fleet and army4 ,they1 however1 being aided by ,ptolemy1 king of ,egypt1 were enabled to repulse his forces and to oblige him to agree to a peace4 ,and he being thus reconciled to them1 in admiration of the courage they had displayed1 presented to them all the engines he had employed in the attack1 by the sale of which1 for three hundred talents1 they raised the famous colossus1 a view of which is given in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,colossus ,,of ,,rhodes4 ,this immense statue1 as already said1 was of brass1 and was erected in honor of ,apollo1 the tutelary god of the island1 in acknowledgment of the protection he was supposed to have rendered the ,rhodians in their recent conflict4 ,it was the workmanship of ,chares1 7a pupil of ,lysippus1 a celebrated sculptor and statuary of ,greece17 who1 with an assistant1 was engaged in the work for more than twelve years4 ,the hight of the statue1 as already said1 was one hundred and twenty-five feet2 its thumb was so large that few people could grasp it2 and the fingers were each larger than the bodies of statues of ordinary size4 ,it was hollow1 and to counterbalance the weight1 and render it steady on its feet1 its legs were lined with heavy masonry2 and within them1 were winding staircases leading to the top of the statue1 from which one could easily see ,syria1 and the ships sailing to ,egypt4 ,it is supposed to have stood1 with distended legs1 on the two moles which formed the entrance of the harbor2 but as the city had two harbors1 one twenty1 and the other fifty feet wide at the entrance1 it has been supposed to have been at the narrowest4 ,it bore a light1 or lantern1 so as to serve as a light-house2 but whether on the head1 or in one of the hands1 as represented in the cut1 is not certainly known4 ,the statue was erected ,b4 ,c4 #cjj1 and after having stood about sixty years1 was thrown down by an earthquake4 ,after its fall1 the ,rhodians solicited help from the kings of ,macedonia and ,egypt1 and in other countries1 to enable them to restore it2 and so great was the commercial importance of ,rhodes1 that their appeal was promptly met by magnificent gifts2 but the oracle at ,delphos forbade them again to raise the colossus4 ,the statue then remained in ruins for the space of eight hundred and ninety-four years1 when1 in the year #fgb ,a4 ,d41 it was sold by the ,saracens1 who were then masters of the island1 to a ,jewish merchant of ,edessa1 who loaded nine hundred camels with the metal which had composed it1 and which1 estimated at eight hundred pounds for each camel-load1 would have amounted to seven hundred and twenty thousand pounds' weight4 ,the character of ,rhodian art was a mixed ,grco-,asiatic style1 which seems to have delighted in executing gigantic and imposing conceptions2 for beside this celebrated colossus1 7which was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world17 there were three thousand other statues adorning the city2 and of these1 about one hundred were on such a scale of size and magnificence1 that the presence of any one of them would have been thought sufficient to dignify almost any other spot4 ,the architecture of ,rhodes was of the most stately character3 the plan of the city was by the same architect who built the ,pirus at ,athens2 and all was designed with such symmetry1 that ,aristides remarks1 8,it is as if it had been one house40 ,the streets were wide1 and of unbroken length2 and the fortifications1 strengthened at intervals with lofty towers1 did not appear1 as in other cities1 detached from the buildings which they inclosed1 but by their boldness1 and decision of outline1 hightened the unity and conception of the groups of architecture within4 ,the temples were decorated with paintings1 by ,protogenes1 ,zeuxis1 and other celebrated artists of the school of ,rhodes2 and of one of these pictures1 it is said1 that when taken to ,rome1 it was the object of universal admiration4 ,the island1 after passing through various fortunes1 has1 for a long time1 been part of the ,turkish empire4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,miscellaneous ,,wonders4 ------------------------------------ ,having dwelt so long on the ,,wonders ,,of ,,nature1 and the ,,wonders ,,of ,,art1 both ancient and modern1 we pass to some of the wonders and curiosities of the world of a miscellaneous nature4 ,some things are wonders only through their associations1 as is the case with many of the localities of ,palestine1 for example1 where the ,saviour lived and walked1 and wrought his miracles of power and mercy4 ,some are wonders as exhibiting the inventive powers of man1 or the progress of our age as compared with another2 some as exhibiting the singularities of nature2 and some as combining the wonders both of science and art4 ,the steamboat1 the printing-press1 the air-balloon1 the residence of ,washington1 the hut of the ,kamtschatkadale1 the spot where the 8,pilgrim ,fathers0 landed1 the telegraph1 the diving-bell or armor1 the prairie on fire1 the nest of the ,african tailor-bird1 each of these1 and of a multitude of other things that might be enumerated1 is1 in some way1 or for some reason1 associated to our minds with what is more or less wonderful1 while still it may not be strictly a wonder either of nature or of art4 ,some of these we propose now to notice1 interspersing them at intervals with some of the more miscellaneous wonders of nature1 or art1 or both1 so as to give variety to the pages that follow4 ,and the first of this class of wonders we will notice1 is1 ,,youle',s ,,shot-,,tower4 ,this edifice1 which is one of the best of its class1 is situated at the foot of ,fifty-fourth street1 on the ,east river1 in the city of ,new ,york4 ,it is hexagonal in form1 and rises to the hight of one hundred and seventy-five feet2 being sixty feet in diameter at the base1 and gradually growing smaller as it rises toward the top4 ,it forms a most striking object of interest2 and is remarked by the multitudes who pass by it going up and down the sound1 to and from ,new ,york4 ,when we consider the small size of the article to the manufacture of which this lofty structure is devoted1 the means appear greatly out of proportion with the result4 ,formerly in casting shot1 the apparatus was merely a plate of copper1 in the hollow of which were punched a number of holes4 ,this was placed a few feet above a kettle of water1 into which the melted lead descended1 after passing through the holes in the plate4 ,but in falling so short a distance1 and being so suddenly cooled and hardened1 the shot did not acquire a perfectly globular form1 a desideratum which is now attained by means of shot-towers4 ,in the tower of ,mr4 ,mc,cullough1 the largest shot falls from the summit of the tower to the bottom of a well twenty-five feet below the surface of the earth1 making the descent one hundred and seventy-five feet4 ,the size of the shot is determined by the size of the holes through which it passes4 ,the furnaces for melting the lead are situated near the top of the tower2 three or four tuns of shot are manufactured per day4 ,this method of casting shot was invented by ,mr4 ,watt1 the celebrated engineer1 in consequence1 it is said1 of a dream4 ,he tried the experiment from the tower of the church of ,st4 ,mary1 ,radcliffe1 and finding it very successful1 obtained a patent1 which he afterward sold for ten thousand pounds4 ,there are now several shot-towers in the vicinity of ,london1 and different parts of the world2 but none more worthy of notice than the one of which we are now speaking4 ,an iron staircase ascends from the base to the summit of the tower4 ,arsenic is mingled with the lead in proportion of forty pounds to one tun4 ,in casting1 the metal is poured through a tube1 but descends through the open space of the tower in a continual stream of silvery drops4 ,as the weight of the lead prevents it from scattering or being blown about like water-drops1 the workmen pass to and fro1 without danger1 close by this fiery cascade4 ,the shot is of different sizes1 from number one1 swan shot1 to number twelve1 dust shot4 ,mr4 ,james ,mc,cullough has brought the art of the manufacture of the shot to perfection4 ,certain portions of his factory are kept entirely secret2 and the shot manufactured in ,new ,york are not surpassed in the world4 ,the cause of most of the imperfections in the manufacture of lead shot1 is the too rapid cooling of the spherules by their being dropped too hot into the water1 whereby their surfaces form a solid crust1 while the interior remains fluid1 and in its subsequent concretion shrinks so as to produce the irregularities of the shot4 ,the patent shot-towers originally constructed in ,england1 obviate this evil1 by exposing the fused spherules1 after they pass through the cullender1 to a large body of air during their descent into the water-tub placed on the ground4 ,the greatest erection of this kind is probably at ,villach1 in ,carinthia1 being two hundred and forty ,vienna1 or two hundred and forty-nine ,english feet high4 ,the following is the process4 ,melt a tun of soft lead1 and sprinkle round the sides of the iron pot about two shovelfuls of wood ashes1 taking care to leave the center clear4 ,then put into the middle about forty pounds of arsenic1 to form a rich alloy with the lead4 ,cover the pot with an iron lid1 and lute the joints quickly with loam or mortar1 to confine the arsenical vapors1 keeping up a moderate fire to maintain the mixture fluid for three or four hours2 after which1 skim carefully1 and run the alloy into ingots or pigs4 ,the composition thus made is in proportion of one pig to one thousand pounds of melted lead4 ,two or three tons are usually melted at once in large establishments4 ,a crust of oxyd of a white spongy nature1 sometimes called cream by the workmen1 covers the surface of the lead1 which is of use to coat over the bottom of the cullender4 ,the cullenders are hollow hemispheres of sheet-iron1 about ten inches in diameter1 perforated with holes perfectly round and free from burs4 ,these must be of a uniform size in each cullender2 but1 of course1 a series of different cullenders1 with sorted holes for every different size of lead shot1 must be prepared4 ,the operation is always carried on with three cullenders at a time1 which are supported upon projecting grates of a kind of chafing-dish made of sheet-iron1 somewhat like a triangle4 ,this chafing-dish should be placed immediately above the fall2 while at the bottom there must be a tub half-filled with water1 for receiving the granulated lead4 ,the cullenders are not in contact1 but must be parted by burning charcoal1 in order to keep the lead constantly at the proper temperature1 and to prevent its solidifying in the filter4 ,the hight from which the particles should be let fall1 varies likewise with the size of the shot2 as the congelation is the more rapid1 the smaller they are4 ,the workman then puts the filter stuff into the cullender1 pressing it well against the sides2 he next gently pours lead into it with an iron ladle4 ,the center of the cullender being less hot1 affords larger shot than the sides4 ,occasionally1 also1 the three cullenders employed together1 may have holes of different sizes2 the shot will then be of different magnitudes4 ,these are separated by square sieves of different fineness1 and after passing through other minute processes1 are ready for sale and use4 ,,the ,,emperor ,,fountain4 ,this splendid fountain1 a view of which is given in the cut beyond1 is one of the most remarkable in the world1 and in commemoration of a visit paid to it in #ahdd1 by the emperor of ,russia1 it was called the ,emperor fountain1 though since the outbreak of the war between ,great ,britain and ,russia1 the name is said to have been changed to that of the ,victoria fountain4 ,it is situated in ,chatsworth1 one of the most luxurious seats of the ,english nobility2 famous for its exceeding beauty and its costly embellishments4 ,its walks1 lawns1 parterres1 mimic ,alpine scenery1 conservatories1 gardens1 cascades1 halls1 pictures1 and sculpture1 and music1 and fountains1 have all been constructed and arranged with consummate taste and with lavish expense4 ,a month would scarcely suffice to visit all that is worthy of observation in this wonderful place1 and perhaps few sights could produce a deeper impression of the wealth possessed by the ,english aristocracy4 ,we have from this munificent storehouse selected a single object to be delineated by the pencil4 ,the ,emperor fountain is fed by immense artificial reservoirs on the hills above ,chatsworth1 covering eight acres of ground1 into which various springs and streams have been diverted4 ,our ,american ideas of a fountain are usually limited to a beautiful jet of water forced twenty or thirty feet in hight2 hence it is with amazement1 if not incredulity1 that we hear of the fountain of ,chatsworth1 which throws its jet to the hight of two hundred and sixty-seven feet6 ,such is the velocity with which the water is ejected1 that it is calculated to escape at the rate of one hundred miles a minute6 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,emperor ,,fountain4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,mint ,,in ,,philadelphia4 ,the ,united ,states mint was founded in #agij2 and the business of coining commenced in #agic1 in the building now occupied by the ,apprentice's library4 ,in #ahcj1 it was removed to the fine building it now occupies1 on ,chestnut street1 above ,olive street4 ,the edifice is of white marble2 and the north front1 opposite to ,penn square1 is one hundred and twenty feet long1 with a portico of sixty feet long1 having six ,ionic columns2 while the south front1 on ,chestnut street1 has a similar portico4 ,since the enormous influx of gold from ,california1 the ,united ,states mint has become an object of more than common interest and attention2 and the place is usually filled with visitors1 watching the various processes the metal goes through before it comes out in finished coin4 ,the machinery and apparatus by which these are accomplished1 are of the most complete and perfect character4 ,the rooms in which the smelting1 refining1 and alloying are done1 are spacious apartments in which a large number of workmen are employed4 ,heaps of the rich ores are to be seen lying around1 just as they were extracted from the mines1 or gathered in dust from the sands of the mountain-streams of ,california4 ,bars of the pure metal1 of thousands of dollars' value1 are passing through hands1 which like those of the fabled ,midas1 seem to turn all they touch into gold4 ,the heat of this place is very great2 the fires glow with the intensity of those in a foundery2 the men1 in appearance1 resemble the workmen in a smithy2 and there is a suffocating sensation of hot air1 steam1 and perspiration1 penetrating the atmosphere1 which is anything but pleasant to experience1 especially when one is palpitating under the heat of a summer temperature1 without the freshness of the open air to modify and alleviate it4 ,crucibles are handled with iron tongs1 and cotton or woolen mittens2 and the metal is shaped into bars1 and then reduced to the requisite fineness4 ,all this takes place in one apartment4 ,in another room1 is seen a most beautiful steam-engine1 which drives all the rolling and stamping machinery4 ,it is of one hundred horse-power1 and works the rolling machinery1 the draw-benches1 and the cutting presses4 ,it is called a steeple-engine1 and has two cylinders2 its boilers are forty feet long1 and forty inches in diameter2 and the steam from them also moves a ten horse1 and a five horse engine1 in the separating and cleaning apartments4 ,this main engine is of the most elegant workmanship1 polished like a piece of cutlery1 and works with the most admirable precision and regularity1 without the least perceptible jar1 and with scarcely a noise4 ,from this room1 the visitor walks into that where the rolling machines are at work1 turning out the metal to the proper degree of thickness which each particular kind of coin requires4 ,the metal is cast into ingots fourteen inches long1 and about five-eighths of an inch thick2 and these are rolled to very near the proper thickness1 when they are passed through the draw-benches to equalize them4 ,the strips are then cut at the presses1 which is done at the rate of about two hundred to two hundred and sixty per minute4 ,there are fourteen men employed in this room1 two at each pair of rolls4 ,the pieces1 as thus cut1 then pass to the adjusting room1 where each piece is weighed separately1 and if too heavy1 filed down1 or if too light1 or any way imperfect1 thrown back to be remelted4 ,there are fifty-four females employed in this room4 ,the pieces are next taken to the milling and coining room1 where from two hundred to four hundred are milled in a minute1 according to their size4 ,in another apartment1 the coins are cut with a punch to the desired size1 and then stamped4 ,for this purpose they are placed1 by a person seated at the machine1 in a perpendicular tube1 down which they descend1 one at a time1 being seized as they drop by a part of the machinery1 which pushes the coin under the stamp1 whence it falls beneath the machine into a glass-covered box4 ,this part of the process used formerly to be performed by a press which required eight men to work its lever and screw2 but now the process requires scarcely any manual labor except handling the various pieces of coin4 ,the rapidity with which the pieces are executed1 is surprising2 being at the rate of from seventy-five to two hundred per minute4 ,cents1 dimes1 dollars1 eagles and double-eagles are turned out with equal facility1 the process being the same in all4 ,some idea of the extensiveness of these operations may be had1 when it is stated1 that1 in a single month1 lately1 nearly three million pieces of gold1 silver and copper were coined1 and that over four million dollars in value are coined every month4 ,in addition to the other attractions of the mint1 there is a most extensive cabinet of coins1 ancient and modern1 of various nations1 which is one of the greatest of curiosities to be found1 probably1 in any part of the world4 ,here1 too1 are exhibited specimens of all the existing or past coins of the mint itself1 and models or specimens of any intended coins4 ,the officers and attendants of the mint are polite and attentive to all visitors1 and endeavor to make their visit one of instruction as well as amusement2 and any one1 by calling at appointed hours1 can go through the various apartments of the building1 and see the various processes which have thus been described4 ,,the ,,air ,,balloon4 ,from the earliest ages1 the notion of flying in the air1 either by wings or by supernatural agency1 seems to have been in the minds of at least some of mankind2 but the idea of the balloon1 consisting of an envelope containing something light enough to make it rise and float in common air1 is comparatively of much later date4 ,it is said that the first definite notion of the balloon originated with a ,jesuit1 by the name of ,francis ,lana1 who in #afgj conceived the idea of raising metal balls in the atmosphere1 which had previously been exhausted of air1 but which should be at the same time so thin1 as to weigh less than their bulk of air4 ,the experiment1 however1 he never tried1 as1 in his age1 it was not believed that ,god would allow an invention to succeed1 by means of which civil government could so easily be disturbed4 ,later experiments have proved that strength to resist the external air is incompatible with the necessary degree of thinness in the material4 ,from this period1 one hundred years elapsed1 before the idea of raising a body in the air1 by means of its being lighter than the air whose space it occupies1 was pursued any further4 ,in #aghb1 an attempt was made to raise bodies filled with hydrogen gas1 a substance which1 as is well known1 is lighter than atmospheric air4 ,the experimenter succeeded1 however1 in raising nothing heavier than a soap-bubble4 ,in the same year1 the brothers ,montgolfier1 paper-makers at ,lyons1 attempted to raise a paper balloon by means of hydrogen gas4 ,being unsuccessful in this1 they conceived the idea of applying fire underneath a large balloon of paper built upon a framework of wood1 and containing a receptacle for fire in the place where1 in modern balloons1 the car is suspended4 ,this experiment being so far successful as to show the correctness of the principle1 they next made a balloon of linen cloth1 and kindled under it a fire made and fed by bundles of chopped straw1 apparently with the impression that it was the smoke rather than rarefied air which had the ascending power4 ,the balloon1 thus inflated1 rose about a mile in a direct line1 and then described a horizontal line of about seven thousand feet1 after which it gradually sunk4 ,the next attempt was upon a balloon of lutestring dipped in a solution of ,india rubber1 and filled with hydrogen gas4 ,the experiment at first failed1 but on the twenty-seventh of ,august1 the same year1 at ,paris1 the balloon rose beautifully to a great hight1 and fell about twelve miles off4 ,soon after1 animals 7sheep1 ducks1 c47 were sent up2 and on the fifteenth of ,october1 the first human aeronaut made an ascent of a hundred feet4 ,the balloon1 however1 was held by a rope1 and connection with the earth not entirely severed4 ,a month later1 on the twenty-first of ,november1 the daring feat of completely leaving the earth was performed by two gentlemen1 one of whom was ,m4 ,rosier1 and the other the ,marquis d',arlandes4 ,the balloon was a ,montgolfier1 or one in which the elevating power was air rarefied by fire4 ,the signature of ,benjamin ,franklin1 who at that time was ,american minister to ,paris1 is upon the official paper describing the balloon1 its dimensions1 c4 ,it was seventy feet high1 forty-six in diameter1 and carried a weight of from sixteen to seventeen hundred pounds2 it rose to the hight of five miles in twenty-five minutes4 ,when the aeronauts wished to ascend still higher1 they shook a bundle of straw into the flame2 when they wished to sink1 they let the fire smolder1 or extinguished it with a wet sponge4 ,the attempt was successful1 and the voyagers alighted in safety1 after an absence of a little less than an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,air ,,balloon4 ,the first trial of a hydrogen balloon was made a week later1 from the garden of the ,tuilleries1 just after sunset4 ,it ascended two miles with perfect ease2 its occupants here came in sight of the sun1 which seemed to rise again1 as at morning1 in the east4 ,the balloon and its two travelers were the only illuminated objects1 all the rest of nature being plunged in shadow4 ,during the next two years1 many ascensions were made by different persons1 and successive improvements and inventions were added4 ,the parachute was invented in #aghd1 and the first attempt at steering a balloon was made in this year1 but without success4 ,in #ahjb1 ,m4 ,garnerin descended successfully from a great hight by means of a parachute4 ,in #ahjf1 two aeronauts ascended to such a distance1 that they came into an atmosphere so rarefied as to burst the balloon4 ,the remnants1 however1 broke the fall1 and they descended in safety4 ,from the beginning of this century to the present day1 but little progress has been made in an art which seems destined to be of little service to mankind4 ,no possible means of guiding the balloon have yet been discovered1 or any practicable method of giving it a horizontal motion1 so as to withdraw it from the influence of winds and currents4 ,it has now become a mere toy1 and for any practical or scientific purpose1 has long since ceased to be of the slightest account4 ,one of the largest balloons ever constructed is that of ,mr4 ,green1 a celebrated ,english aeronaut1 which is called the ,continent1 and has made many ascensions from ,london and ,paris4 ,the following account of an ascent from the ,hippodrome at ,paris1 in #ahdh1 is from a leading ,french journal4 ,it is from the pen of ,theophile ,gautier1 an eminent ,parisian romancer and feuilletonist4 8,last ,sunday1 about five o'clock in the afternoon1 ,green's balloon sprung from the inclosure of the ,hippodrome into the blue abyss of the heavens4 ,the ascension of a balloon is certainly not a novelty at the present day2 but an aerostat1 like the one belonging to ,green1 is not of the ordinary class3 its colossal dimensions1 the extraordinary care with which it is constructed1 the comfort of its arrangements1 make it the wonder of aerial navigation1 and place it in the rank of a vessel of a hundred guns4 ,to see it swelling its enormous taffeta case under the net-work of cords which holds the car lined with red velvet1 one feels perfectly at ease as to the dangerous chances of a voyage through the air4 ,it would seem safer than an excursion in a diligence or upon a railroad4 ,admitted into the reserved inclosure1 we of course saw the departure1 being near the spot4 ,nothing could be more quiet or more gentle4 ,mr4 ,green1 in a black coat and white cravat1 like a gentleman going out to dine1 stepped into his carriage--,i should say his balloon--with confidence and self-possession4 ,a charming young ,english girl1 accompanied by a friend1 had already taken her place in the boat or car4 ,she was calm and smiling2 animation tinged her cheeks slightly1 but it arose rather from embarrassment at seeing so many eyes fixed upon her1 than from any fear whatever4 ,her intelligent face breathed that confidence in the inventions of human genius1 which characterizes the ,english and ,american races4 ,a ,parisian lady would have screamed loudly4 8,the balloon held by cords1 trembled1 and balanced itself1 preparing to take flight4 ,a strong cord still held it to the earth1 but soon1 upon a signal from ,mr4 ,green1 the cable was cut1 and the aerial vessel arose steadily1 with a movement at once easy1 powerful1 and of exceeding majesty4 ,as much as the locomotive has an infernal appearance1 so has the balloon a celestial one1 without any play upon words4 ,the one borrows its auxiliaries from iron1 coal1 fire and boiling water2 the other employs only silk and gas1 a thin cloth filled with a light wind4 ,the engine1 with its frightful shrieks1 its noisy rattling1 and its black puffs of smoke1 runs upon inflexible rails1 roars through the bowels of the earth1 and dives into the darkness of tunnels1 seeming as if seeking some evil genius who might have invented it2 the balloon1 without noise and without effort1 leaves the earth1 where the laws of gravity hold us1 and mounts tranquilly up toward heaven4 ,unhappily1 the balloon1 like the fancied inspiration of the poet1 goes where the wind guides it2 this every one knows2 while the steam-engine1 like prose1 goes straight upon its road4 ,green and his balloon were soon overlooking ,paris and all its horizon2 long trails of sand1 ballast that he threw over to raise himself higher1 streaked the heavens with their white tracks1 proving1 by the time it took them to descend to the earth1 the hight to which the intrepid aeronaut had mounted in a few minutes4 ,he had disappeared1 while the crowd was still looking for him1 in the blue depths of the atmosphere4 ,what a splendid and magnificent spectacle the triumphal arch1 and the giant city with its black ants1 illuminated by the setting sun1 must have afforded him6 ,what greatness1 and at the same time what littleness6 and how mean1 from that distance1 must seem the cares and ambitions of the world6 8,while looking with the rest of the crowd1 a world of thoughts came whirling through our brain4 ,the balloon1 which it was endeavored to make perform a useful part in the battle of ,fleurus1 and at the siege of ,toulon1 has only been considered1 up to this time1 as an amusing experiment of natural philosophy4 ,it is made to figure in fetes and in public solemnities2 for the crowd1 who have more feeling for great things than academies and wise bodies1 feel an interest in balloon ascensions1 which has not diminished since the first attempts of ,montgolfier4 ,it is a profoundly human instinct1 which induces us to follow into the air1 until it is lost to the sight1 this globe swelled with smoke1 as if it contained the destinies of the future4 ,man1 the king of creation in intelligence1 is1 physically1 but indifferently endowed4 ,he has neither the swiftness of the stag1 the eye of the eagle1 the scent of a dog1 the wing of the bird1 nor the fin of the fish2 for everything in man is sacrificed to the brain4 ,all these auxiliaries he has been forced to furnish himself by the skill of his hand and the sweat of his brow4 ,the horse1 the carriage and the rail-car make up to him for his want of speed2 the telescope and the microscope equal the eagle's eye2 the compass enables him to follow a track as unerringly as a dog2 the ship1 the steamboat and the diving-bell open to him the dominion of the waters4 ,nothing remained but the air1 where the bird escaped us1 followed only a few hundred feet by the arrow or gun1 ingenious means of bringing distances nearer together4 ,it really seems as if ,god should have given us such wings as the painters lend the angels2 but the beauty and grandeur of man consist in his not having these giant appendages1 or being embarrassed by fins4 ,with the power of thought1 and the hand1 that admirable tool1 he must seek and find1 out of himself1 all his physical powers4 8,the idea of mounting into the air is not new2 it is not to-day that ,phaeton asked to get into ,phbus's car1 and that ,ddalus launched into the air his son ,icarus4 ,their descents were only unaccomplished ascents4 ,the griffins1 the hippogriffs1 the ,pegasus1 the winged shoes of ,mercury1 the arrow of ,abarys1 the carpet of the four ,facardins1 testify to the continuance and persistence of this idea4 ,at night1 does not the dream deliver us from the laws of weight8 ,does it not give us the faculty of going1 of coming1 and of flying to the summit of things before unattainable1 or of losing ourselves in the infinite hights8 ,this general and oft-repeated dream1 which expresses the secret desire of humanity1 has it not something prophetic8 ,perhaps modern skepticism treats too lightly the meaning of these flights of the soul1 temporarily freed from the more earthly control of reason and sense4 ,with the astonishing simplicity of the operations of nature1 a miracle took place in the fireplace1 without attracting attention1 every time that the smoke carried out of the chimney a piece of burnt paper4 ,it required six thousand years to take a hint from this simple fact4 ,the balloon floats in the air as oil floats upon wine1 as cork upon water1 as the cannon-ball upon mercury1 by relations of weight and of lightness1 one single law everywhere4 ,but unfortunately1 the balloon has neither wings1 nor tail1 nor neck1 nor feet1 nothing which can guide it2 it is a vessel without sail or helm1 a fish without fins1 a bird without feathers2 it floats1 that is all2 it is immense1 and it is nothing4 ,why do not all the inventors1 wise mechanicians1 chemists1 poets1 occupy themselves by endeavoring to solve the problem of the guiding of balloons8 ,is it not shameful for man to have found the hippogriff which transports him to the celestial regions1 and not to know how to guide it2 while every day the birds go and come on airy wings1 as if to instruct and defy us8 ,the air1 although a fluid1 offers points of propulsion1 since the condor1 or the sparrow1 mounts1 descends1 goes to the right and left1 quickly or slowly1 as he pleases2 and why should not man be able to do the same8 ,the time when he shall do this may be near4 ,that will be a great day6 ,man will truly become master of his planet1 and will have conquered his atmosphere6 ,no more seas1 no more rivers1 no more mountains1 no more valleys2 that will be the true reign of liberty4 ,merely by this knowledge of the direction of balloons1 the whole face of the world will change immediately4 ,other forms of government1 other manners1 a new style of architecture1 a different system of fortification1 will be needed2 but then men will no longer make war4 ,the custom-house and its taxes1 and the stronghold1 will disappear4 ,visit1 if you can1 with your gauge and your yardstick1 balloons ten thousand feet in the air2 of what use will be moats1 ditches1 portcullis and bridges1 against an aerial army8 ,what a fine spectacle it will be to see crossing one another in the air1 at different hights1 these swarms of balloons1 painted with brilliant colors1 guided during the day by the light1 and at night with their lanterns1 having the appearance of stars traversing the firmament6 ,the ascension of the highest mountains will then be but child's play4 ,we shall penetrate into ,china1 and go to ,timbuctoo as one goes to ,st4 ,cloud2 the deserts of ,africa1 of ,asia and of ,america1 will be forced to deliver up their secrets4 ,we shall go even to the border of the atmosphere which surrounds us4 ,we shall visit creation in every nook and recess4 ,there will be servant balloons and master balloons2 and in speaking of the luxury or extravagance of a person1 it will be said1 #8,he is rich2 he has a balloon of thirty-four thousand cubic feet of gas2' which will be equivalent to saying that he has a coach and four4 ,and when this dream is realized1 the execution of another1 already dreamed by the poets1 will be attempted4 ,man1 arrived at the outward limits of his atmosphere1 will wish to leave his planet2 and will seriously attempt to reach the moon6 ,and who shall say that at some time he shall not do it80 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,navigation4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,navigation4 ,one of the wonders of the world1 is to be found in tracing the progress of navigation1 from its small beginning1 up to its present wonderful condition and results4 ,there is an old legend1 that1 ages ago1 a piece of reed floating on the water1 first suggested the idea of navigation4 ,and if so1 the next step might have been1 the use of logs for crossing rivers2 then1 the use of rafts2 then1 of canoes of hollowed logs2 and then1 of artificial boats1 of various forms and materials1 some of wood1 some of skins1 and some of bark4 ,the earliest navigators on an extended scale were the ,phnicians1 who made voyages through the ,mediterranean1 and along the northern coasts of ,europe1 and down the ,red sea1 as early as the days of ,solomon1 one thousand years before the ,christian era4 ,their earliest attempts to navigate the waters1 might perhaps be represented in the following cut1 in which several forms of boats may be seen4 ,their larger and later vessels were somewhat of the shape of those now in use1 though more perhaps of the ,dutch1 than of the ,english or ,american form4 ,the sails of these vessels are said to have been suggested by the little sea animal1 called the nautilus4 ,the vessels themselves had no decks1 and were not over twenty or thirty tuns' burden4 ,they had masts and rudders1 and the prow was decorated with paint and gilding1 and represented the image of some god4 ,the ships of the ,greeks and ,romans1 in after times1 were larger1 but they were uncouth structures1 managed with difficulty1 and liable to numerous accidents and hindrances4 ,the war ships were nothing but large row-boats4 ,these were very long and narrow1 like canoes4 ,the cable and anchor were later inventions4 ,the latter at first was a large stone4 ,in the days of the ,roman emperors1 vessels of immense size were occasionally built1 but they were of little use1 except for the transportation of heavy objects4 ,in the middle ages1 navigation made little progress2 but about the close of the fifteenth century1 its strides were prodigious4 ,the mariner's compass had been invented1 and the sailor had now a guide over the mysterious ocean4 ,hence ,america was discovered in #adib1 though the three ships of ,columbus were not so large as our common schooners1 and had no proper decks2 so that it seems a wonder to us1 that with these comparatively small vessels he should have ventured so far on the mighty deep4 ,from his day to the present1 there has been a steady advance in ship-building4 ,the forms of vessels have been improved2 their size greatly increased2 and their number multiplied1 a thousand fold2 so that if the great navigator were now again to visit the earth1 he would be astonished at the huge structures built as packet and freight ships for crossing the ocean4 ,for a long time1 the ,english took the lead in ship-building2 but it is now admitted that the fastest vessels in the world1 as well as those of most graceful appearance1 are those built in the ,united ,states4 ,in the cut above1 is a view of one of our large packet-ships1 just ready to be launched from the stocks4 ,vessels of this class may vary from fifteen hundred to two thousand tuns' burden2 their main cabins are beautifully furnished with mahogany and gilded carvings2 and no expense is spared that may contribute to their elegance1 or the comfort of passengers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,launch ,,of ,a ,,packet-,,ship4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,so far as we know1 the ancients were unacquainted with the nature and properties of steam4 ,some accounts1 indeed1 have come down to us1 of engines of a very early date1 such1 for example1 as that proposed by ,hero1 of ,alexandria1 in which the mechanical agency of steam was more or less used2 but it does not appear that those who invented and applied these machines1 understood the properties of vapor1 or had any correct idea of the effect of heat when applied to liquids4 ,even at a much later date1 the effects produced by steam were ascribed1 not to the vapor of water1 but to the force of the air which was supposed to be expelled from water by heat4 ,in the seventeenth century1 ,de ,caus proposed the construction of a machine by which a column of water was raised by the elastic force of steam1 but he does not seem to have understood the principle on which it was effected4 ,about the middle of the same century1 ,lord ,worcester published the description of a high pressure steam-engine1 which has since formed so remarkable a feature in all histories of steam-engines4 ,toward the latter end of the century1 however1 the actual properties of vapor began to be more unfolded4 ,in #afhc1 ,sir ,samuel ,morland discovered the exact numerical proportion in which water increases its volume when evaporated4 ,a few years later1 ,papin discovered the method of producing a vacuum by the condensation of steam2 and this discovery was1 by others1 soon applied to mechanical purposes4 ,about the middle of the eighteenth century1 ,watt applied himself to the improvement of the steam-engine2 and from this time forward1 the various discoveries of chemistry1 and the experiments of scientific and practical men1 prepared the way for rapid progress in the application of steam4 ,in #agic1 ,fulton1 the celebrated engineer1 engaged actively in endeavoring to improve inland navigation4 ,even at that early period1 he had conceived the idea of propelling vessels by steam2 and he speaks1 in some of his manuscripts1 with great confidence of its practicability4 ,in #agig1 he went to ,paris1 and1 while there1 projected the first panorama that was ever exhibited there4 ,he also planned a submarine boat4 ,in #ahjc1 he completed his first steamboat1 which was tried upon the ,seine1 and proved completely successful4 ,he now proceeded to ,new ,york1 to carry his ideas of steam navigation into practical effect2 and in #ahjg1 his first steamboat1 a view of which is given in the cut beyond1 ascended the ,hudson river1 to the great delight and wonder of thousands of spectators4 ,she was called the ,clermont2 and was only one hundred feet long1 twelve wide1 and seven deep4 ,her first trip was made1 ,september first1 #ahjg1 from ,new ,york to ,albany1 one hundred and sixty miles1 in thirty-six hours2 the fare for the passage being seven dollars1 exclusive of meals4 ,thus this great man brought to a successful issue his long meditated invention1 and determined the possibility of applying steam to navigation4 ,several steamboats were soon after constructed under ,mr4 ,fulton's directions1 and also a steam-frigate4 ,he continued to make various experiments till his death1 which occurred in #ahae4 ,illustration3 ,,fulton',s ,,first ,,steamboat4 ,still later than this1 we find a description of the ,clyde steamboat1 which is spoken of in an ,english magazine as follows3 8,its extreme length is seventy-five feet1 its breadth fourteen feet1 and the hight of the cabins six and a half feet4 ,she is built very flat1 and draws from two feet and nine inches to three feet of water4 ,the best or after-cabin1 is twenty feet long1 and is entered from the stern3 between the after-cabin and the engine1 a space of fifteen feet is allotted for goods4 ,the engine is a twelve horsepower1 and occupies fifteen feet2 the fore-cabin is sixteen feet long1 and is entered from the side4 ,the paddles1 sixteen in number1 form two wheels of nine feet diameter1 and four feet broad1 made of hammered iron3 they dip into the water from one foot and three inches to one foot and six inches4 ,along the outer edge of these wheels a platform and rail are formed quite round the vessel1 projecting over the sides1 and supported by timbers reaching down to the vessel's side4 ,this steamboat runs at the rate of four or four and a half miles per hour in calm weather2 but against a considerable breeze1 three miles only4 ,it can accommodate two hundred and fifty passengers1 and is wrought by five men4 ,the engine consumes twelve hundred weight of coals per day4 ,the funnel of the boiler is twenty-five feet high2 and carries a square-sail twenty-two feet in breadth40 ,in the same connection1 we find an article published in the ,monthly ,magazine1 by ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 with the express object of giving clear ideas of the utility of steamboats1 and of quieting apprehensions as to their safety1 which at the present day it is truly amusing to read4 ,the writer says3 8,the groundless alarms relative to a supposed increase of danger from traveling by steam-packets1 led the editor of the ,monthly ,magazine1 within the current month1 7,july1 #ahag17 to make a voyage1 in one of them1 from ,london to ,margate4 ,this vessel left her moorings1 at the ,tower of ,london1 about half past eight in the morning1 at the time the tide was running strong up the river1 and when no other vessel could make progress1 except in the direction of the tides4 ,the steam-packet proceeded1 however1 against the stream1 in a gallant style1 at the rate of six or seven miles an hour2 and a band of music1 playing lively airs on the deck1 combined with the steadiness of the motion1 to render the effect delightful4 ,an examination of the steam-engine1 and of her rate of working1 proved that no possibility of danger exists4 ,it appeared that the boiler had been proved at twenty-five pounds to the square inch2 but that the valve was held down by a weight of only four pounds1 and that the mercurial gauge did not indicate an employment of actual pressure of above two pounds and a half per square inch4 ,hence it follows1 that1 although the engine was capable of sustaining a pressure of at least twenty-five pounds1 only four pounds1 or less than a sixth1 was the whole force which the valve would permit to be exerted2 and that1 in point of fact1 a pressure of only two pounds and a half to the square inch1 or only one-tenth of the proven power of the boiler1 was employed4 ,there is1 therefore1 less danger in passing some hours in contact with such a machine1 than there is in sitting near a boiling tea-kettle1 tea-urn1 or saucepan1 under circumstances in which they are often used4 ,opposite ,greenwich1 a fine commentary was afforded of the value of steam as a navigating power1 in preference to winds and tides2 a ,margate sailing-packet passing toward ,london1 which had been a day and two nights on its passage1 a period of time which it appears is not uncommon4 ,in short1 with uninterrupted pleasure1 and in an hour sooner than the captain had named at starting1 the vessel was carried along-side ,margate pier1 having employed nine hours in performing a voyage of ninety miles4 ,in this case it appeared1 that a pressure of two pounds to the square inch1 produced about forty rotations per minute of the acting water-wheels2 and1 as these were ten feet in diameter1 the motion of the impelling floats1 or wheel-paddles1 would be at the rate of fifteen with1 or against the stream1 at an average of ten miles an hour4 ,the consumption of coals during the voyage was less than a caldron2 but it was described as amounting frequently to a caldron and a half4 ,on the whole1 nothing could be more demonstrative of the worth and security of this mode of navigation2 and there can be little doubt but1 in a few years1 vessels of every size1 and for every extent of voyage1 will be provided with their steam-engine1 which will be more used1 and more depended upon1 than winds or tides4 ,the chances of accidents are lower than those under most other circumstances in which men are placed in traveling4 ,by land1 horses kill their thousands per annum1 open chaises their hundreds1 and stage-coaches their scores2 and1 by water1 the uncertainty of winds has destroyed thousands1 by prolonging the voyage1 and increasing the exposure to bad weather2 but in a steam-packet1 navigated by an engine whose proven powers necessarily exceed what can be exerted during its use1 or in general by such engines as those used on the ,thames or ,clyde1 no accident can possibly happen2 unless1 by a miracle1 it were to happen1 that a force of four pounds should overcome a resistance of twenty-four pounds40 ,from the above amusing article1 we pass to notice the immense ocean steamers of the present day1 as they so forcibly illustrate the progress of steam navigation4 ,the chief lines of those with which we are familiar1 are the ,cunard line and the ,collins line1 both plying between the ,united ,states and ,england4 ,before describing them particularly1 however1 it should here be mentioned1 that the first steamship that ever crossed the ,atlantic sailed from ,savannah1 in ,georgia1 for ,liverpool1 on the twenty-sixth of ,may1 #ahai1 and made the voyage in twenty-two days4 ,she was telegraphed at ,liverpool as 8a ship on fire0 and a revenue-cutter was dispatched to her relief1 when the officers and crew of the latter were struck with astonishment at not being able to overtake a vessel under bare poles4 ,at ,liverpool1 and afterward at ,copenhagen1 ,stockholm1 and ,st4 ,petersburg1 whither she went1 she was visited by crowds of wondering people2 and at the latter place a service of plate was presented to her officers4 ,she was commanded by ,captain ,rodgers1 of ,new ,london1 ,conn41 and some of her officers are still living4 ,after this1 it was a long time before another steamship crossed the ,atlantic4 ,at last1 however1 the experiment was again and still again tried1 until now the ocean is constantly traversed by the huge steamers above alluded to1 in the average time of about eleven days and a half1 though the passage has been made1 in some single cases1 in a little over nine days4 ,a good idea of these ocean steamers may be formed from the view given of one of them in the cut below1 in connection with the following description of the ,baltic1 belonging to the ,collins line4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ocean ,,steamer4 ,the ,baltic is of thirty-two hundred tuns' burden1 carpenter's measure2 in length1 two hundred and eighty-seven feet2 breadth of beam1 forty-six feet2 depth of hold1 thirty-two feet2 to the top of the gunwale1 thirty-four feet and six inches4 ,the diameter of her wheels is thirty-six feet2 the number of floats1 7corresponding to the buckets or paddles of a common water-wheel17 twenty-six in each wheel2 their length1 twelve feet and a half2 their breadth1 twenty-eight1 and their thickness1 three inches and a half2 each float being armed with three hundred pounds of iron1 so that it requires six men to lift it4 ,the engine has two working cylinders1 each ninety-six inches in diameter2 the length of their stroke is ten feet2 and the number of revolutions is from eleven to fourteen in a minute4 ,the vacuum is equivalent to fourteen pounds upon the square inch2 a near approximation to a perfect vacuum1 which corresponds to fifteen pounds on the square inch4 ,the pressure of steam is from twelve to twenty pounds upon the square inch2 usually from twelve to fifteen pounds2 this is all the amount of the power tending to produce explosion1 while including what is gained by the vacuum1 the effective motive power is equivalent to twenty-six1 twenty-nine and thirty-four pounds on the square inch4 ,the highest pressure used in an ordinary passage may be about eighteen pounds1 equivalent to a working force of thirty-two pounds2 and the lowest about seven or eight pounds1 giving a moving force of twenty-one or twenty-two pounds4 ,the ability of the boilers corresponds to fifty pounds1 and with the addition of the vacuum1 to sixty-four pounds2 it follows1 therefore1 that they are generally worked with less than half their power4 ,the entire weight of the steam machinery is one thousand tuns1 and it occupies sixty feet in the length of the ship4 ,as to capacity for passengers1 there are one hundred and sixty berths1 aside from the accommodations for the people of the ship4 ,as to strength of structure1 the timbers are fitted side by side1 and calked so tight that it was said the ship would float even before she was planked4 ,plates of iron six inches wide and an inch and a quarter thick1 are let1 obliquely1 into the timbers at the distance of twenty-eight inches from the centers of each1 and therefore they are twenty-two inches apart4 ,these are crossed obliquely by other bars or plates of the same dimensions1 which are let into the boards or planks that are nailed over them4 ,copper bolts1 for twenty feet from the keel1 pass through the plates of iron at their intersection1 and in many other places1 and copper sheathing covers eighteen feet of the lower part of the hull1 the draught being nineteen feet1 and twenty with the coal in4 ,the ships of this line are as strong as wood1 iron and copper can make them1 and they hardly leak at all4 ,they would bear long thumping upon the rocks before they would go to pieces4 ,the movement of the machinery1 and the stroke of the waves1 produce scarcely a perceptible tremor1 and not the slightest deviation in the deck from a right line can be seen1 when viewed horizontally from stem to stern through its length of nearly three hundred feet4 ,no opening of a joint is perceived even in the beams that form the capping of the gunwale2 a knife-blade can not be passed between their contiguous ends4 ,the machinery rests on an iron bed-plate1 on the keelson1 or engine bed2 and the bed-plate1 which is cast in one piece1 weighs forty tuns4 ,the machinery is below1 and is invisible from the deck1 except through certain doors4 ,a wave can hardly reach it at all1 even should it break over the ship2 and by closing the apertures above1 the engine room is safe from flooding1 while ventilation is secured by large tubes1 having their orifices higher than the upper or promenade deck4 ,the people below1 on the level of the keelson1 where there is little motion1 hardly know when there is a storm above2 they live in a comparatively quiet world of their own1 and always in a tropical climate1 even when among icebergs4 ,the working of the machinery is admirable4 ,it travels onward with the greatest ease and regularity2 even with a heavy head-wind and opposing waves1 it moves like clockwork1 without apparent labor1 throwing up its mighty arms and moving its ponderous levers as if there were no weight to be lifted1 or vis inerti to be overcome4 ,by observations made up to the tenth day of one of the passages1 there had not been the slightest leak of steam1 nor had it been necessary to turn a screw1 although for several days together there was a heavy head-sea1 impelled by adverse winds4 ,except the effect of hidden flaws in the immense masses of wrought iron that form some of the principal moving parts1 there seems to be little cause for anxiety1 as the machinery appears to be1 in general1 equal to every emergency4 ,danger from fire1 is always a subject of anxiety2 but in ships protected as the ,baltic is1 the danger is believed to be less than in a sailing ship4 ,the engine room is lined with iron2 the boilers and their furnaces are everywhere surrounded by that metal and by water1 and no wood is in a position to be unduly heated4 ,all lights1 except those necessary to the management of the ship1 are extinguished at eleven o'clock2 many people are up all night1 and are about in every place2 there are fire-engines always ready to flood the ship1 and they are adapted so as to be wrought both by hand and by steam power4 ,the behavior of the ,baltic as a sea-boat1 is admirable in every variety of weather4 ,this immense vessel rides upon the waves like a duck1 and has1 in general1 a dry and comfortable deck1 rarely shipping a sea1 although the spray dashes over the forecastle in showers4 ,the ship is warmed by steam tubes1 passing under the marble tables4 ,more than fifty persons are employed about the machinery1 of whom forty-eight attend to the coal and the fires1 and there are six or eight engineers4 ,there are between thirty and forty servants1 twenty or twenty-five sailors1 and three or four supernumerary officers2 in all1 about one hundred and forty1 besides passengers4 ,the style and furnishing of the ,baltic are elegant1 rich enough for a nobleman's villa4 ,of mirrors1 large and small1 there are about fifty2 indeed1 they are in such excess that a passenger can not look in any direction without meeting his own image or the faces of his companions4 ,the tables of these steamers are amply supplied1 and have the best attendance2 and of luxuries1 there seems to be no end4 ,the saloons of these steamers are fitted up in superb style4 ,some of the table-covers are of beautiful variegated marble1 and the panels around are finely decorated with emblems of the various ,american states4 ,the cabin-windows are of beautiful painted glass1 embellished with the arms of various ,american cities4 ,there are large circular glass ventilators reaching from the deck to the lower saloon4 ,there is a rich and elegant ladies' drawing-room near the chief saloon1 and there are berths for about one hundred and fifty passengers4 ,each berth has a bell-rope communicating with one of ,jackson's patented ,american annunciators4 ,crossing the ocean in one of these steamers1 some one has said1 is no cross at all6 ,such are the present ocean steamers2 and yet even these immense structures will soon be thrown in the background by steamers of still vaster dimensions4 ,for the ,edinburgh ,journal gives an account of an immense iron steamer1 now 7#ahee7 being constructed for the ,australian trade1 which will far surpass them4 ,the actual measurements of this leviathan vessel are1 six hundred and seventy-five feet long1 eighty-three feet wide at her greatest breadth of beam1 and sixty feet deep in the hold1 forming four decks4 ,she will be furnished with paddle-wheels and a screw1 the former of a nominal power of one thousand horses1 the latter of sixteen hundred horses2 but practically1 the combined power may be estimated at three thousand horses4 ,the four cylinders in which the pistons are to work1 are the largest in the world2 each of them weighs twenty-eight tuns4 ,when they are lying on the ground1 a man1 with his hat on1 may walk through them without touching the upper side4 ,the engines1 when erected and put together1 will be upward of fifty feet in hight4 ,the weight of the entire machinery will be about three thousand tuns1 and of the hull1 ten thousand tuns1 making thirteen thousand tuns4 ,she will carry several thousand tuns of coal and merchandise1 sixteen hundred passengers1 and her measurement capacity gives about twenty-five thousand tuns' burden6 ,notwithstanding1 her draught of water will be but small1 not exceeding twenty feet when light1 and thirty feet when fully loaded4 ,she will carry five or six masts1 and five funnels4 ,her cost will be about eighteen hundred thousand dollars4 ,she will carry coal enough for a voyage round the world1 and is built upon a model to insure great speed4 ,her ordinary speed is expected to be eighteen or twenty miles an hour4 ,she is expected to make the voyage from ,england to ,australia in thirty days1 and return by ,cape ,horn in thirty days more2 thus making the circuit of the globe in two months4 ,more wonderful still1 it is said that ,mr4 ,vanderbilt1 of ,new ,york1 is about building an immense steamer1 which is to be eight hundred feet in length1 and of corresponding proportions throughout1 which of course will surpass even the huge steamship just described4 ,where the rivalry and enterprise in this matter are to end1 who can tell8 ,,chinese ,,junks4 ,as in perfect and wonderful contrast to the magnificent floating palaces just described1 we close the subject of navigation by a view of the clumsy ,chinese junk1 which is represented in the cut below4 ,the ,chinese1 though neither a savage1 nor a barbarous people1 are still1 in most respects1 very unlike other civilized nations4 ,in houses1 dress1 furniture1 equipage1 worship1 indeed1 in most of the actions1 feelings1 and opinions of life1 they are a peculiar people4 ,they have1 in fact1 struck out a civilization of their own4 ,their religion1 their literature1 their arts1 are all ,chinese1 and nothing but ,chinese4 ,it is curious to observe that although1 for many centuries1 they have been a cultivated people1 and have even preceded the ,europeans in many useful and ingenious discoveries1 they seem to stand still at a certain point1 beyond which they are not capable of improvement4 ,there they remain1 century after century2 and1 while other nations have surpassed them1 they still conceive that they are the most learned1 civilized and polished people in the world4 ,all other nations they conceive to be barbarians1 and hold them in supercilious contempt4 ,and the ,chinese vessels may serve as a sample of their national character4 ,we give above a picture of one of their junks1 which shows some ingenuity1 and no little industry2 yet how clumsy1 how ineffective is it1 in comparison with a ,yankee steamboat6 ,the ,chinese can go1 by dint of rowing1 three miles an hour1 while we go fifteen4 ,this is about the difference between the energy of the ,chinese and the civilized people of ,europe and ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,junks4 ,,the ,,artesian ,,well ,,of ,,grenelle4 ,artesian wells1 or fountains1 are made by boring in the earth to a great depth1 till at last water rises to the surface1 and often with such force as to form abundant and elevated jets4 ,the name artesian is derived from ,artois1 a province of ,france1 where especial attention has been given to this means of obtaining water2 though it appears from sufficient evidence1 that wells of this kind were well known to the ancients4 ,olympiadorus1 who flourished in the sixth century at ,alexandria1 states that where wells were dug in the oases of the desert to the depth of two1 three or five hundred yards1 rivers of water gushed out from their orifices1 of which advantage was taken by agriculturists to water their fields4 ,the oldest artesian well known in ,france1 is at ,lillers1 in ,artois1 and is said to have been made in #aabf4 ,in the great desert of ,sahara1 water is said to have been obtained in this way2 and the ,chinese1 we are told1 have practiced it for thousands of years4 ,artesian wells are now common in ,europe and in the ,united ,states4 ,the artesian well of ,grenelle1 is a famous fountain of this kind1 and as such is worthy of notice4 ,it is not far from the ,hotel des ,invalides1 and was undertaken chiefly with reference to the great slaughter-houses in its vicinity4 ,it was begun ,january first1 #ahcd1 and the boring was prosecuted during seven years and two months4 ,it opened with a diameter of twelve inches2 at the depth of thirteen hundred feet it was contracted to six inches4 ,water was struck at the depth of eighteen hundred feet1 and the entire depth is two thousand feet1 or nearly two-fifths of a mile4 ,the water rose at first in a fine thread1 but soon after it came so rapidly as to injure the machinery4 ,it rose to the hight of one hundred and twelve feet above the surface2 high enough to flow into the attics of the most lofty houses in ,paris1 and into many of its towers4 ,the entire depth of the boring is five and a half times the hight of the dome of the ,hotel of the ,invalids1 and more than five times that of the cross on the summit of ,st4 ,paul's1 in ,london4 ,in a diagram of the strata1 seen in section1 the cathedral of ,strasburg1 and the church of ,st4 ,peter1 at ,rome1 are figured at the bottom on the level of the subterranean fountain1 and they appear very humble1 compared with the great distance to the surface of the ground4 ,the flow of the water was equivalent to six hundred gallons in a minute2 five hundred thousand gallons in twenty-four hours2 and the quantity thus far is not diminished4 ,some time after the opening of the well1 it flowed bountifully over the top of the tube1 and with a force that would doubtless have raised it to the full hight1 although at that time the upper part of the tube had been removed for repairs4 ,it had collapsed1 and a new tube was about to be inserted2 the old tube was twenty-one inches wide at the top and seven at the bottom2 but the new tube was to be reduced to five inches4 ,it is now1 and was formerly1 made of galvanized iron4 ,the temperature of the water1 at first1 was eighty-three and three-fourths degrees of ,fahrenheit1 and it is now stated to be eighty-five degrees2 a degree of permanent heat far exceeding that of midsummer in ,paris4 ,indeed1 it is so warm1 that it does not answer for the use of the slaughter-houses1 as was at first proposed1 and they are compelled to resort to water from other sources4 ,it was quite warm to the touch1 when a hand was immersed in it4 ,the labor attending this boring was immense2 and great difficulties were encountered4 ,the boring instrument broke several times1 and fell in4 ,this happened at the depth of thirteen hundred and thirty-five feet1 and it required incessant labor during fourteen months to recover it4 ,the government1 at whose expense it was prosecuted1 was1 at times1 nearly discouraged4 ,quite recently1 in boring an artesian well in ,livingston1 ,alabama1 an egg was brought up from the depth of three hundred and thirty-five feet below the surface1 of which distance1 three hundred feet were through the solid rock4 ,the egg was completely petrified1 and perfect in shape1 except in one place where the auger had defaced it4 ,how it came there1 and in what remote age1 it might puzzle the wisest geologist or philosopher to tell6 ,,the ,,banyan-,,tree4 ,the banyan1 or burr tree1 the ficus ,indica of ,linnus1 a picture of which is given in the cut beyond1 claims our particular attention4 ,it is considered as one of the most curious and beautiful of ,nature's productions in the genial climate of ,india1 where she sports with the greatest profusion and variety4 ,each tree is in itself a grove1 and some of them are of an amazing size1 as they are continually increasing1 and1 contrary to most other animal and vegetable productions1 seem to be exempted from decay3 for every branch from the main body throws out its own roots1 at first in small tender fibers1 several yards from the ground1 which continually grow thicker2 until by a gradual descent1 they reach its surface2 where1 striking in1 they increase to a large trunk1 and become a parent tree1 throwing out new branches from the top4 ,these1 in time1 suspend their roots1 and1 receiving nourishment from the earth1 swell into trunks1 and shoot forth other branches2 thus continuing in a state of progression so long as the first parent of them all supplies her sustenance4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,banyan-,,tree4 ,a banyan-tree with many trunks1 forms the most beautiful walks1 vistas and cool recesses1 that can be imagined4 ,the leaves are large1 soft1 and of a lively green2 the fruit is a small fig1 of a bright scarlet when ripe1 affording sustenance to monkeys1 squirrels1 peacocks1 and birds of various kinds1 which dwell among the branches4 ,the ,hindoos are peculiarly fond of this tree2 they consider its long duration1 its outstretching arms1 and overshadowing beneficence1 as emblems of the ,deity1 and almost pay it divine honors4 ,the ,brahmins1 who thus 8find a fane in every sacred grove10 spend much of their time in superstitious solitude under the shade of the banyan-tree2 they plant it near the dewals1 or ,hindoo temples1 improperly called pagodas2 and in those villages where there is no structure for public worship1 they place an image under one of these trees1 and there perform their morning and evening sacrifice4 ,these are the trees under which a sect of naked philosophers1 called ,gymnosophists1 assembled in ,arrian's days2 and this historian of ancient ,greece1 says ,forbes1 in his 8,oriental ,memoirs10 affords a true picture of the modern ,hindoos4 8,in winter the ,gymnosophists enjoy the benefit of the sun's rays in the open air2 and in summer1 when the heat becomes excessive1 they pass their time in cool and moist places1 under large trees2 which1 according to the accounts of ,nearchus1 cover a circumference of five acres1 and extend their branches so far1 that ten thousand men may easily find shelter under them40 ,on the banks of the ,narbudda1 in the province of ,guzzerat1 is a banyan-tree1 supposed by some persons to be the one described by ,nearchus1 and certainly not inferior to it4 ,it is distinguished by the name of the ,cubbeer-,burr1 which was given to it in honor of a famous saint4 ,high floods have1 at various times1 swept away a considerable part of this extraordinary tree2 but what still remains is nearly two thousand feet in circumference1 measured round the principal stems2 the overhanging branches1 not yet struck down1 cover a much larger space2 and under it grow a number of custard-apple1 and other fruit trees4 ,the large trunks of this single tree amount to three hundred and fifty1 and the smaller ones exceed three thousand4 ,each of these is constantly sending forth branches and hanging roots1 to form other trunks1 and become the parents of a future progeny4 ,the ,cubbeer-,burr is famed throughout ,hindoostan1 not only on account of its great extent1 but also of its surpassing beauty4 ,the ,indian armies generally encamp around it2 and1 at stated seasons1 solemn jatarras1 or ,hindoo festivals1 to which thousands of votaries repair from every part of the ,mogul empire1 are there celebrated4 ,it is said that seven thousand people find ample room to repose under its shade4 ,it has long been the custom of the ,british residents in ,india1 on their hunting and shooting parties1 to form extensive encampments1 and spend weeks together1 under this magnificent pavilion1 which affords a shelter to all travelers1 particularly to the religious tribes of the ,hindoos4 ,it is generally filled with a variety of birds1 snakes and monkeys1 the latter of whom both divert the spectator by their antic tricks1 and interest him by the parental affection they display to their young offspring1 in teaching them to select their food1 to exert themselves in jumping from bough to bough1 and in taking1 as they acquire strength1 still more extensive leaps from tree to tree4 ,in these efforts1 they encourage them by caresses1 when timorous1 and menace1 and even beat them1 when refractory4 ,,the ,,wedded ,,banyan-,,tree4 ,among the varieties of the banyan1 or burr tree1 is the peipal1 or ficus religiosa1 which is not uncommon in ,guzzerat1 and causes a singular variety of vegetation4 ,it may be considered as belonging to the order of creepers1 and often springs round different trees1 particularly the palmyra1 or palm4 ,the latter growing through the center of a banyan-tree1 looks extremely grand4 ,the peipal frequently shoots from old walls1 and runs along them1 so as to cause a singular phenomenon of vegetation4 ,in the province of ,bahar1 one of these trees was seen by an ,english traveler1 on the inside of a large brick well1 the whole circumference of the internal space of which it lined1 and thus actually became a tree turned inside out4 ,a banyan-tree thus inverted is uncommon2 but the general usefulness and beauty of this variety1 especially in overshadowing the public wells and village markets1 can only be known by those who live in a sultry climate4 ,,the ,,cocoa-,,tree4 ,of all the gifts which ,providence has bestowed on the oriental world1 the cocoa-tree is the one most deserving of notice4 ,the blessings which are conveyed to man1 by this single production of nature1 are incalculable4 ,it grows in a stately column1 from thirty to fifty feet in hight1 crowned by a verdant capital of waving branches1 covered with long spiral leaves3 under this foliage1 bunches of blossoms1 clusters of green fruit1 and others arrived at maturity1 appear in mingled beauty4 ,the trunk1 though porous1 furnishes beams and rafters for the habitations2 and the leaves1 when platted together1 make an excellent thatch1 as well as common umbrellas1 coarse mats for the floor1 and brooms2 while their finest fibers are woven into very beautiful mats for the rich4 ,the covering of the young fruit is extremely curious1 resembling a piece of thick cloth1 in a conical form1 as close and firm as if it came from the loom2 it expands after the fruit has burst through its inclosure1 and then appears of a coarser texture4 ,the nuts contain a delicious milk1 and a kernel sweet as the almond3 this1 when dried1 affords abundance of oil2 and when that is expressed1 the remainder answers to feed cattle and poultry1 and make a good manure4 ,the shell of the nut furnishes cups1 ladles1 and other domestic utensils2 while the husk which incloses it is of the utmost importance3 it is manufactured into ropes1 and cordage of every kind1 from the smallest twine to the largest cables1 which are far more durable than those of hemp4 ,in the ,nicobar islands1 the natives build their vessels1 make the sails and cordage1 supply them with provisions and necessaries1 and provide a cargo of arrack1 vinegar1 oil1 jaggree or coarse sugar1 cocoa-nuts1 coir1 cordage1 black paint1 and several inferior articles1 for foreign markets1 entirely from this tree4 ,many of the trees are not permitted to bear fruit2 but the embryo bud1 from which the blossoms and nuts would spring1 is tied up to prevent its expansion2 and a small incision being then made at the end1 a cool pleasant liquor1 called tarre1 or toddy1 the palm-wine of the poets1 oozes out in gentle drops4 ,,the ,,reindeer ,,sledge4 ,the reindeer is a native of ,greenland1 and the cold climates of the extreme north4 ,to the ,greenlander he supplies the place of the horse1 the locomotive1 and the steamboat to us1 as may be seen in the cut1 which illustrates the mode of traveling in ,greenland4 ,the reindeer is swift of foot1 sharp-sighted1 and of acute smell and hearing4 ,his flesh supplies the ,greenlander with food2 while his skin1 with its thick1 warm hair1 affords material for his tent1 his bedding and his clothing4 ,the bones and antlers1 or horns1 are worked into implements for domestic use1 for fishing and hunting1 and the tendons are split into threads for various purposes4 ,the speed of the ,greenlander on his sledge1 is said to rival that of the locomotive on the railroad4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reindeer ,,sledge4 ,,the ,,upas1 ,,or ,,poison-,,tree4 ,although a serious refutation of the gross imposition practiced on the people of ,europe1 by the romance of ,foersch1 on the subject of the upas1 or celebrated poison-tree of ,java1 may at this time be in a great measure superfluous1 as the world has long ceased to be the dupe of his story1 and as regular series of experiments have been instituted both in ,england and in ,france1 to ascertain the nature and potency of the poison2 yet an authentic account of this poison1 as drawn out by ,doctor ,horsfield1 and given in the seventh volume of the ,batavian transactions1 can not fail to be interesting4 ,almost every one has heard of its fabulous history1 which1 from its extravagant nature1 its susceptibility of poetical ornament1 its alliance with the cruelties of a despotic government1 and the sparkling genius of ,darwin1 whose purpose it answered to adopt and personify it as a malignant spirit1 7in his 8,loves of the ,plants107 has obtained almost equal currency with the wonders of the ,lernian hydra1 or any other of the classic fictions of antiquity4 ,although1 as ,doctor ,horsfield observes1 the account published by ,foersch1 so far as relates to the situation of the poison-tree1 to its effects on the surrounding country1 and to the application said to have been made of the upas on criminals in different parts of the island1 has1 as well as the description of the poisonous substance itself1 and its mode of collection1 been demonstrated to be an extravagant forgery2 yet the existence of a tree in ,java1 from the sap of which a poison is prepared1 equal in fatality1 when thrown into the circulation1 to the strongest animal poisons hitherto known1 is a fact which it is his object to establish and illustrate4 ,the tree which produces this poison is the anchar1 and grows in the eastern extremity of the island4 ,the work of ,rhumphius contains a long account of the upas1 under the denomination of arbor toxicaria4 ,the tree does not grow in ,ambonia1 and his description was made from the information he obtained from ,macassar4 ,his figure was drawn from a branch of what is called the male-tree1 sent to him from the same place1 and establishes the identity of the poison-tree of ,macassar1 and the other eastern islands1 with the anchar of ,java4 ,the simple sap of the arbor toxicaria 7according to ,rhumphius7 is harmless1 and requires the addition of several substances of the affinity of ginger1 to render it active and mortal4 ,in so far it agrees with the anchar1 which1 in its simple state1 is supposed to be inert1 and1 before being employed as a poison1 is subjected to a particular preparation4 ,besides the true poison-tree1 the upas of the eastern islands1 and the anchar of the ,javans1 this island produces a shrub1 which1 as far as observations have hitherto been made1 is peculiar to the same1 and by a different mode of preparation1 furnishes a poison far exceeding the upas in violence4 ,its name is chetik2 but the genus to which it belongs has not yet been discovered or described4 ,the anchar is one of the largest trees in the forests of ,java4 ,the stem is cylindrical1 perpendicular1 and rises completely naked to the hight of sixty1 seventy1 or eighty feet4 ,it is covered with a whitish bark1 slightly bursting in longitudinal furrows4 ,near the ground this bark is1 in old trees1 more than half an inch thick1 and1 upon being wounded1 yields plentifully the milky juice from which the celebrated poison is prepared4 ,a puncture or incision being made into the tree1 the juice or sap appears oozing out1 of a yellowish color from old trees2 but paler1 or nearly white1 from young ones2 and when exposed to the air1 its surface becomes brown4 ,the consistence very much resembles milk2 but it is more thick and viscid4 ,this sap is contained in the true bark1 7or cortex17 which1 when punctured1 yields a considerable quantity1 so that in a short time a cupful may be collected from a large tree4 ,the inner bark 7or liber7 is of a close fibrous texture1 like that of the morus papyrifera1 and1 when separated from the other bark1 and cleansed from the adhering particles1 resembles a coarse piece of linen4 ,it has been worked into ropes1 which are very strong2 and the poorer class of people employ the inner bark of the younger trees1 which is more easily prepared1 for the purpose of making a coarse stuff1 which they wear in working in the fields4 ,but it requires much bruising1 washing1 and a long immersion1 before it can be used2 and1 when it appears completely purified1 persons wearing this dress1 being exposed to rain1 are affected with an intolerable itching1 which renders it insupportable4 ,it appears from the account of the manner in which the poison is prepared1 that the deleterious quality exists in the gum1 a small portion of which still adhering1 produces1 when exposed to wet1 this irritating effect2 and it is singular that this property of the prepared bark is known to the ,javans in all places where the tree grows1 while the preparation of a poison from its juice1 which produces a mortal effect when introduced into the body by pointed weapons1 is an exclusive art of the inhabitants of the eastern extremity of the island4 ,,the ,,prairie ,,on ,,fire4 ,one of the most striking features in the geography of the ,western states1 is the prairies1 or natural meadows4 ,these are immense plains1 often stretching1 in every direction1 further than the eye can reach1 entirely destitute of trees1 and covered with grass and wild flowers4 ,these prairies cover a vast extent of country north of the ,ohio and west of the ,mississippi1 affording pasturage to countless herds of the buffalo1 deer and other wild animals4 ,when the grass has been dried and parched by the heat of summer1 it sometimes takes fire1 as represented in the cut above1 and then a sea of flame is swept by the wind over these vast plains1 spreading1 it is said1 more swiftly than the fleetest horse can run before it4 ,in such cases1 the only resort is1 to pull up the grass around one1 and kindle on every side a counter-flame1 which burning outward1 in every direction1 leaves the hunter or traveler in a place of safety4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,prairie ,,on ,,fire4 ,,the ,,mammoth ,,tree ,,of ,,california4 ,one of the vegetable wonders of the world1 is the immense tree discovered1 a year or two since1 in ,california4 ,the first reports concerning this huge giant of the forest seemed fabulous1 so extraordinary were the particulars2 but it is found that the largest statement did not exceed the truth4 ,the tree is a cedar1 of the species called arbor vit1 and was first discovered by some miners in the mountains of ,calaveras1 ,california1 in a forest called the ,redwoods1 on ,trinidad bay1 some twenty or thirty miles from the mouth of ,klamath river1 on the northern sea-coast of the state1 a region that has been but very little explored4 ,a correspondent of the ,sonora ,herald1 who recently made an excursion to see it1 thus describes it4 8,at the ground its circumference was ninety-two feet2 four feet above that1 it was eighty-eight2 and ten feet above that1 it was sixty-one feet in circumference2 and the tapering of the shaft was very gradual4 ,its hight1 to the end of the trunk1 is two hundred and eighty-five feet2 or1 if we include the topmost branches1 three hundred and twenty-five feet4 ,this tree is by no means a deformity1 as most trees with large trunks are4 ,it is throughout one of perfect symmetry1 while its enormous proportions are inseparable concomitants of its grandeur4 ,i have said that this is the largest tree yet discovered in the world4 ,it is so4 ,the celebrated tree of ,fremont would have to grow many centuries before it could pretend to be called anything but a younger brother4 ,it is said that a tree was once found in ,senegal1 in ,africa1 whose trunk measured ninety feet in circumference4 ,but nobody has been able to find it since its first discovery4 ,there is a tree in ,mexico called the taxodium1 which is said to be one hundred and seventeen feet in circumference1 but this is said to be formed by the union of several trees4 ,the hight of all these foreign trees is not more1 in any case1 than seventy feet2 and none of the trunks are more than ten feet4 ,the age of this mammoth cedar of ,california1 if each zone may be reckoned one year1 is about twenty-five hundred and twenty years4 ,a section of the wood which ,i brought home with me1 exclusive of the sap1 which is only about one inch thick1 numbers about fourteen zones or grains to the inch4 ,at that rate1 if it were permitted to grow1 it would increase its diameter one-seventh of an inch every year4 ,in eighty-four years its diameter would be increased one foot2 in eight hundred and forty years1 ten feet2 and in twenty-five hundred and twenty years1 it would be forty feet in diameter1 and one hundred and twenty in circumference4 8,it seems like an act of desecration to cut down such a noble tree1 such a magnificent specimen of the growth of the primeval forest4 ,but it has been done1 not1 however1 without a vast deal of labor4 ,it was accomplished by first boring holes through the body with long augers1 worked by machinery1 and afterward sawing from one to the other4 ,of course1 as the sawing drew to a close1 the workmen were on the alert to notice the first sign of toppling1 but none came2 the tree was so straight and evenly balanced on all sides that it retained its upright position after it had been sawed through4 ,wedges were then forced in1 and a breeze happening to spring up1 over went the monster with a crash which was heard for miles around4 ,the bark was stripped from it for the length of fifty feet from the base1 and is from one to two feet in thickness4 ,it was taken off in sections1 so that it can be placed1 relatively1 in its original position1 and thus give the beholder a just idea of the gigantic dimensions of the tree4 ,so placed1 it will occupy a space of about thirty feet in diameter1 or ninety feet in circumference1 and fifty feet in hight4 ,a piece of the wood will be shown1 which has been cut out from the tree across the whole diameter4 ,we are told that this piece of wood shows a vestige of bark near the middle1 and that this bark was evidently charred many centuries ago1 when the tree was comparatively a sapling40 ,since the above was written1 the section of this huge tree alluded to1 has been exhibited in ,stockton and ,san ,francisco1 and thence brought to the ,united ,states1 so that some of our readers may be able to get a view of this monster of the ,california woods for a trifling admission fee4 ,in its natural condition1 rearing its majestic head toward heaven1 and waving in all its native vigor1 strength and verdure1 it was a sight worth a pilgrimage to see2 and it will still be a rich gratification to look upon the section of it1 though that will give but a faint idea of what the whole was in its native forest4 ,notwithstanding the calculation given above by the writer in the ,sonora ,herald1 it is supposed that this tree can not be less than three thousand years old2 for1 for a large space on the outer surface next to the bark1 the rings of growth are so thin as not to be distinguishable from each other4 ,add one-third to the hight of ,bunker-hill monument1 and the outward dimensions of the main trunk of this tree would be about the same4 ,from actual measurement it contained more than three hundred cords of wood4 ,one hundred men could easily stand within the hollow of it at the same time1 and a six-foot man rode a full-sized horse through it without touching his hat to the upper surface4 ,,other ,,mammoth ,,trees4 ,a ,california paper says1 that in the neighborhood of the mammoth tree just described1 within a circumference of half a mile1 there are twelve immense trees1 which rival1 or even surpass that huge giant of the forest4 ,one of these is called the ,father ,pine4 ,this is dead1 and has fallen to the earth4 ,its dimensions are as follows3 length1 four hundred feet2 circumference1 one hundred and ten feet4 ,the trunk of this tree is hollow1 and it has been traced for a distance of two hundred and fifty feet4 ,there is a little pond of water in the center of this cavity1 four feet in depth4 ,this tree1 two hundred and fifty feet from the stump1 is no less than twelve feet in diameter4 ,the cluster called the ,three ,sisters1 taken together1 is ninety-two feet in circumference1 and three hundred feet in hight4 ,the center one is bare of branches for two hundred feet above the ground4 ,the ,mother ,tree is ninety-one and a half feet in circumference1 and three hundred and twenty-five feet high4 ,the ,mother and ,son are ninety-two feet in circumference and three hundred feet in hight1 united at the base4 ,the ,twin ,sisters1 one hundred feet in circumference and three hundred feet in hight4 ,the ,pioneer's ,cabin is a remarkable curiosity4 ,this tree has been partially burned2 the result of the scorching is the dividing of the trunk into several compartments1 which are known as the parlor1 bedroom and kitchen4 ,the hollow1 which is two hundred feet in hight1 is called the chimney4 ,this tree is eighty-five feet in circumference4 ,the ,siamese ,twins is ninety feet in circumference1 three hundred and twenty-five feet in hight4 ,guardian of the ,times1 eighty-five feet in circumference1 three hundred and twenty-five feet in hight4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin1 ninety-four feet in circumference1 three hundred feet in hight4 ,pride of the ,forest1 eighty-seven feet in circumference1 three hundred feet in hight4 ,beauty of the ,forest1 seventy-two feet in circumference1 three hundred feet in hight4 ,two ,friends1 eighty-five feet in circumference1 three hundred feet in hight4 ,the above trees are all embraced in an area not exceeding half a mile in extent4 ,the surrounding country is exceedingly picturesque and beautiful1 and the scenery1 at many points along the road1 is said to be unsurpassed for sublimity and grandeur4 ,,the ,,palm-,,tree4 ,passing from ,california to the countries of the east1 let us next glance at the palm-tree4 ,this tree1 which is called by ,linnus1 from its noble and stately appearance1 8the prince of the vegetable kingdom10 is of several kinds1 the chief of which are the doum-palm1 and the date-palm4 ,they are chiefly found in the tropics4 ,the doum or ,theban palm1 the same that is found in ,florida1 differs from the columnar date-palm in the form of its leaves1 which are fan-like1 and so thickly set as to resemble a huge bushy mop1 though they are always gracefully disposed1 and also in having a branching trunk4 ,the main stem divides a few feet from the root1 each of the branches again forming two1 and each of these two more1 till the tree receives a broad1 rounded top4 ,the fruit hangs below in clusters1 resembling small cocoa-nuts1 7or1 says a late traveler1 still more of the size1 shape1 and appearance of a yellowish-white potato1 of full growth17 and has a sort of gingerbread flavor1 which is not disagreeable4 ,when fully dry and hard1 it takes a polish like ivory1 and is manufactured by the ,arabs into beads1 pipe-bowls and other small articles4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,date-,,palm4 ,the more common1 or date-palm1 a view of which is given in the cut1 produces the sweet fruit which is brought to us from ,smyrna1 and other ports of the ,mediterranean1 with which all are familiar1 under the name of the date4 ,in the regions between ,barbary and the great desert1 the soil1 which is of a sandy nature1 is so much parched by the intense heat of the sun's rays1 that none of the corn-plants will grow2 and in the arid district1 called the land of dates1 the few vegetables that can be found are of the most dwarfish description4 ,no plants arise to form the variety of food to which we are accustomed2 and the natives of these districts live almost exclusively upon the fruit of the date-tree4 ,a paste is made of this fruit by pressing it in large baskets4 ,this paste is not used for present supply1 but is intended for a provision in case of a failure in the crops of dates1 which sometimes occurs1 owing to the ravages committed by locusts4 ,the date1 in its natural state1 forms the usual food2 and the juice yielded by it when fresh1 contains so much nutriment as to render those who live upon it extremely fat4 ,as1 by the ,moors1 corpulence is esteemed an indispensable requisite of beauty1 the ladies belonging to the families of distinction among them1 nourish themselves1 during the season1 solely with the fresh fruit1 and by continuing this regimen during two or three months1 they become of an enormous size6 ,the date-palm flourishes very generally on sandy soils in the hot countries of ,asia and ,africa4 ,not always1 however1 is the soil that supports it so barren as the one we have described4 ,it is frequently found by streams1 and as the tired traveler sees its foliage waving afar1 he hastens toward it1 hoping to find a stream of water4 ,sometimes its tall stem is surrounded by beautiful climbing plants1 and the most brilliant flowers flourish beneath4 ,this kind of palm not only rises to a great hight1 often sixty or eighty feet1 but is also frequently of great diameter and strength2 being unlike in this respect1 some other species of palm1 whose slight forms yield to the winds4 ,it was to this tree that the psalmist alluded when he said1 8,the righteous shall grow as the palm-tree20 firm and unmoved by the shocks of temptation and the storms of adversity4 ,the clusters of dates are sometimes five feet in length1 and when ripe are of a bright gold color1 surrounded from above with the deep1 rich leaves1 as with a crown4 ,this kind of the palm is trained to its high growth1 without a single branch on its solitary1 upright trunk1 by trimming off the leaves every year from the young stalk2 so that its strength shoots upward2 and by this process1 also1 the bark is formed into a succession of steps or notches1 by which the barefooted ,arab easily mounts to the top4 ,from the very top of the tree1 the long1 pointed leaves curl gracefully on every side1 like the close-set frame of a parachute2 and just where the broad1 ridge-shaped base of the leaf adheres to the tree1 the fruit hangs in clusters1 all around the trunk4 ,when its early training is neglected1 the palm-tree grows less gracefully2 sometimes dividing at the root into several trunks1 which grow without branches to various hights1 and then spread out their leafy crests4 ,the palm-tree looks most majestic and picturesque1 when it stands alone upon some broad plain or gentle bluff1 and when its leaves are gently stirred by the wind4 ,the eye then takes it in at one view1 measures it by some mental standard1 or disdaining all mathematical proportions1 dreamily contemplates the waving lines of beauty1 and the straight1 slender1 yet stately stalk that stands in bold relief against the stainless sky4 ,the date-palm is unknown in the ,united ,states1 except in rare garden culture2 but in ,egypt it grows everywhere1 and is to the people food1 shelter1 shade1 fuel1 raiment1 timber1 divan1 cordage1 basket1 roof1 screen4 ,its fruit is found in perfection on the confines of ,nubia4 ,,the ,,bamboo-,,tree4 ,nature1 or rather the great ,author of nature1 has conferred on the inhabitants of hot countries few gifts more valuable than the bamboo-tree1 a view of which is given over the leaf4 ,to such a multitude of useful purposes are its light1 strong and graceful stems applied1 that almost any other production of the vegetable world might more easily be spared than this4 ,these stems spring from a strong-jointed1 subterraneous root-stalk1 which is the trunk of the tree1 the shoots being the branches4 ,they are hollow1 and jointed1 and of a hard1 woody texture1 the outside being coated with silex1 and the inside consisting of a close1 fibrous and very hard wood4 ,the bamboo grows with great rapidity2 and the shoots1 when quite young1 are sometimes cut and boiled like asparagus3 but when full grown and vigorous1 it becomes a large and strong tree4 ,its shoots vary in size1 from six to one hundred and fifty feet in length4 ,when fully grown1 the bamboo is a straight rod1 bearing a number of stiff branches1 which shoot at nearly right angles from the main stem4 ,it seems1 at first1 difficult to imagine how such a stem elevates itself through the dense mass of rigid branches1 which cross each other in every direction4 ,this is1 however1 arranged in a very simple manner4 ,the young shoot1 when it is first produced1 is nothing but a sucker1 as already said1 like a shoot of asparagus2 but1 having a sharp point1 it easily pierces the dense and overhanging branches4 ,it is only when it has arrived at its full length1 and has penetrated through all obstacles1 that it forms its lateral shoots1 which readily interpose themselves amid the stems4 ,there are many species of the bamboo1 all of which are useful4 ,the young shoots1 as mentioned above1 are sometimes eaten as food2 the full-grown stems1 when ripe and hard1 are converted into bows1 arrows1 quivers1 fishing-rods1 masts of vessels1 bed-posts1 walking-sticks1 floors1 supporters of rustic bridges1 chairs1 and a variety of other purposes4 ,by notching their sides1 the ,malays form wonderfully light ladders4 ,bruised and crushed in water1 the leaves and stems form ,chinese paper2 some species are used for lining tea-chests2 cut into lengths1 and the partitions knocked out1 they form durable water-pipes4 ,slit into strips1 they form excellent materials for weaving mats1 baskets1 window-blinds1 and even the sails of boats4 ,it is1 however1 for the purposes of building1 that the bamboo is most important4 ,the frame-work of the houses in ,sumatra is chiefly composed of this material4 ,the floors are made of the whole canes1 laid close to each other4 ,the sides are made of the stems1 split and flattened1 and the roof is formed of a thatch split into various strips4 ,great hopes are entertained of introducing this most useful tree into other countries2 and1 as it grows in dry and stony places1 where nothing else flourishes1 its introduction would be of great importance4 ,a few species of the bamboo are found in the tropical parts of ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bamboo-,,tree4 ,,the ,,manna-,,tree4 ,manna1 in our version of the ,bible1 is a term applied to the food that ,god gave the ,israelites in the wilderness4 ,but what we now call manna1 is a saccharine substance that exudes from the bark of a species of ash-tree found in the southern parts of ,europe1 and especially in ,sicily and ,calabria4 ,at the warmest season1 the tree most abounds in sap1 and1 accordingly1 in ,august1 the people make incisions into the bark4 ,these are two inches long horizontally1 and half an inch in depth4 ,on incision1 the manna immediately begins to flow1 at first in the form of water1 but it gradually becomes thicker4 ,a leaf is inserted into the incision1 which conducts the juice into a vessel placed at the foot of the tree4 ,the liquor does not harden till it has remained some time4 ,it has an unpleasant taste1 but after the watery parts have evaporated1 it is sweeter1 but slightly nauseous4 ,manna is used in medicine as a mild aperient4 ,it differs remarkably from common sugar1 in not being susceptible of what is called vinous fermentation2 so that if mixed with common sugar and yeast1 and subjected to the process of fermentation1 while the sugar is converted into alcohol1 the manna remains unaltered in the liquor4 ,illustration3 ,continental ,money ,,continental ,,money4 ,one of the curiosities1 if not wonders of the world1 is afforded in the ,continental money1 or ,continental bills1 issued by congress in the early stages of the ,revolutionary struggle1 a specimen of which may be seen in the cut4 ,these bills were of various denominations1 and were issued by thousands on thousands4 ,but from the very great extent of their issue1 and the fact that the government could not redeem them in silver and gold1 they rapidly depreciated in value1 till at last they became almost worthless4 ,as they are now almost never seen1 except it be in some museum1 or collection of old curiosities1 the fac-simile given above can not fail to be of interest4 ,,the ,,milk-,,tree4 ,that singular production of nature called the masseranduba1 or milk-tree1 is found in the tropical regions of ,south ,america1 and is thus described by ,wallace1 in his 8,travels on the ,amazon40 ,speaking of the various interesting objects of the journey he was making1 he says3 8,what most interested us1 however1 were several large logs of the masseranduba1 or milk-tree4 ,on our way through the forest1 we had seen some trunks much notched by persons who had been extracting the milk4 ,it is one of the noblest trees of the forest1 rising with a straight stem to an enormous hight4 ,the timber is very hard1 fine-grained1 and durable1 and is valuable for works which are much exposed to the weather4 ,the fruit is eatable and very good1 the size of a small apple1 and full of a rich and very juicy pulp4 ,but strangest of all is the vegetable milk1 which exudes in abundance when the bark is cut4 ,it has about the consistence of thick cream1 and1 but for a very slight peculiar taste1 could scarcely be distinguished from the genuine product of the cow4 ,mr4 ,leavens ordered a man to tap some logs that had lain nearly a month in the yard4 ,he cut several notches in the bark with an ax1 and in a minute the rich sap was running out in great quantities4 ,it was collected in a basin1 diluted with water1 strained1 and brought up at tea-time1 and at breakfast next morning4 ,the peculiar flavor of the milk seemed rather to improve the quality of the tea1 and gave it as good a color as rich cream4 ,in coffee it is equally good4 ,mr4 ,leavens informed us that he had made a custard of it1 and that1 though it had a curious dark color1 it was very well tasted4 ,the milk is used for glue1 and is said to be as durable as that made use of by carpenters4 ,as a specimen of its capabilities in this line1 ,mr4 ,leavens showed us a violin he had made1 the belly-board of which1 formed of two pieces1 he had glued together with it applied fresh from the tree1 without any preparation4 ,it had been done two years4 ,the instrument had been in constant use2 and the joint was now perfectly good and sound throughout its whole length4 ,as the milk hardens by exposure to air1 it becomes a very tough1 slightly elastic substance1 much resembling gutta percha2 but not having the property of being softened by hot water1 it is not likely to become so extensively useful as that article40 ,,the ,,telegraph4 ,tho old-fashioned telegraph1 which was in common use before the wonderful invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph by ,morse1 was an arrangement for the communication of intelligence by signals1 or movements1 previously agreed upon2 which signals represented letters1 words1 or ideas1 which could thus be transmitted from one station to another1 as far as the signals could be seen4 ,it was first devised in ,france1 about #agic or #agid1 and soon became extensively adopted and used in other nations4 ,a good idea of its appearance may be formed from the cut below4 ,it consisted of a mast1 or frame1 in connection with shutters1 or sliding-boards1 worked by ropes pulled like bell-ropes1 and exhibiting1 in all1 sixty-three signals2 by which were represented the nine digits1 the letters of the alphabet1 and several generic words3 and1 sometimes1 to these were added other signals1 expressive of entire phrases4 ,the observers at these telegraphs were not expected to keep their eye constantly at the glass1 but to look only every five minutes for the signal to make ready4 ,the telescopes used for observation1 were commonly what are called ,dolland's achromatics1 which possess no recommendation but their enlarged field1 and their freedom from prismatic colors in that field2 points of no consequence in looking through a fixed glass at a fixed and circumscribed object4 ,sometimes a common and powerful spy-glass was found sufficient4 ,in the use of this kind of telegraph1 dead flats or levels were found to be universally unfavorable2 and generally stations were found to be useless nearly in the proportion of the miles of dead flat looked over4 ,on the contrary1 stations between hill and hill1 looking across a valley1 or a series of valleys1 were found to be mostly clear2 and water surfaces were found to produce fewer obscure days than land in any situation4 ,the period least favorable of the same day was an hour or two before and after the sun's passage of the meridian1 particularly on dead levels1 where the play of the sun's rays on the rising exhalations1 renders distant vision exceedingly obscure4 ,the tranquillity of the morning and evening were ascertained to be the most favorable hours for observation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,signal ,,telegraph4 ,the old line of this kind of telegraph between ,london and ,portsmouth1 had twelve stations2 and another chain from ,london to ,yarmouth1 had nineteen stations4 ,the distances of the stations averaged about eight miles1 yet some of them extended to twelve or fourteen2 and the lines were often increased by circuits1 for want of commanding hights4 ,after about twenty years' experience1 they found they could calculate on about two hundred days on which signals could be transmitted throughout the day2 about sixty others on which they could pass only part of the day1 or at particular stations2 and about one hundred days in which few of the stations were visible to each other4 ,a message from ,london to ,portsmouth1 was usually transmitted in about fifteen minutes2 but1 by an experiment tried for the purpose1 a single signal has been transmitted to ,plymouth and back again in three minutes1 which1 by the telegraph route1 is at least five hundred miles4 ,in this instance1 however1 notice had been given to make ready1 and every captain was at his post to receive and return the signals4 ,the progress was at the rate of one hundred and seventy miles in a minute1 or three miles a second1 or three seconds at each station2 a rapidity truly wonderful for so imperfect an apparatus6 ,and yet1 clumsy and slow-moving as all this now seems to us1 it was the best telegraph known before the invention of ,morse4 ,in contrast to it1 let us turn to the latter4 ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telegraph4 ,the invention of this wonderful instrument1 it is now universally admitted1 is due to ,professor ,s4 ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 of whom some one has well said1 that 8if ,franklin brought the lightning from heaven1 ,morse both tamed it1 and taught it the ,english language40 ,so early as #ahbb1 ,mr4 ,morse described his invention to reliable witnesses2 and having obtained an appropriation from ,congress1 for the purpose of testing it on an extended scale1 he set up the wires from ,washington to ,baltimore1 a distance of about forty miles1 and thus established the first electro-magnetic telegraph ever known1 and the parent of that wonderful system that now threads every continent1 conveying messages literally on the lightning's wing4 ,a view of the instrument used for transmitting messages1 is given in the cut below4 ,by this instrument connecting with the wires1 messages are either written or printed2 by the system of ,house1 in actual letters1 and by the systems of ,morse and ,bain1 in a cipher4 ,illustration3 ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telegraph4 ,the telegraphic wires having been extended throughout the ,united ,states and the continent of ,europe1 it is now proposed to carry them under the ,atlantic1 and so connect ,america and ,europe4 ,the plan now is1 to carry the cable from the northernmost point of the ,highlands of ,scotland to ,iceland1 by way of the ,orkney1 ,shetland and ,ferroe islands2 to lay it from ,iceland across to the nearest point in ,greenland1 thence down the coast to ,cape ,farewell1 where the cable would again take to the water1 span ,davis's straits1 and then go across ,labrador and ,upper ,canada to ,quebec4 ,here it would lock in with the ,north ,american meshwork of wires1 which hold themselves out like an open hand for the ,european grasp4 ,this plan seems quite feasible1 for in no part of the journey would the cable require to be more than nine hundred miles long2 and as it seems pretty certain that a sand-bank extends1 with good soundings1 all the way to ,cape ,farewell1 there would be little difficulty in mooring the cable to a level and soft bottom4 ,among the most startling wonders in connection with electricity and the telegraph1 is the announcement that ,m4 ,bonelli1 of ,turin1 has invented a new electric telegraph1 by which trains in motion on a railway are enabled to communicate with each other at all rates of velocity1 and1 at the same time1 with the telegraphic stations on the line2 while the latter are1 at the same time1 able to communicate with the trains4 ,it is added1 that ,m4 ,bonelli is in possession of a system of telegraphic communication by which wires are entirely dispensed with4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,printing4 ,from the telegraph1 to printing1 and the printing-press1 is but a step2 and one that is naturally suggested4 ,the origin of printing is involved in mystery4 ,some think it was practiced as far back as the building of ,babylon4 ,the ,romans1 we know1 had metal stamps with which they marked words and names on their various articles2 but having no paper1 they could hardly be said to print4 ,printing from engraved blocks of wood1 was practiced by the ,chinese nearly fifty years before the ,christian era4 ,but the credit of first introducing movable types1 is commonly attributed to ,john ,fust1 or ,faust1 of ,mentz1 who is represented1 in the cut on the next page1 as looking1 with his associates1 at the first proof taken from movable types4 ,this was supposed to be not far from the year #adej4 ,between #adej and #adee1 the celebrated 8,mentz ,bible0 appeared1 without date2 and this was the occasion of the art being discovered by the public4 ,next followed the 8,psalter10 in #adeg2 and from this time1 printing rapidly spread throughout ,europe4 ,william ,caxton was the first to introduce printing into ,england1 about #adgd4 ,the first book in which ,greek types appear1 was printed in #adfe2 and the first using the ,roman character1 in #adfg4 ,illustration3 ,,faust ,,taking ,,first ,,proof ,,from ,,movable ,,types4 ,printing-presses were gradually improved4 ,the old-fashioned press was made of wood1 with an iron screw that had a bar fitted in it2 and to the lower end of this screw was attached1 horizontally1 a flat piece of wood1 called the platen1 which was brought down by means of the screw1 and pressed the paper on the face of the types1 and thus the impression was given4 ,this kind of presses1 however1 soon gave place to those made of iron4 ,the ,stanhope press was a great improvement on anything that had gone before it2 and the ,caledonian press1 invented by ,george ,clymer1 an ,american1 was a great improvement1 in many respects1 on the latter4 ,the press represented in the cut on the following page1 on which ,franklin printed1 was one of these old-fashioned hand-presses1 on which it would have been a hard day's work to print twenty-five hundred impressions1 or twelve hundred and fifty sheets on both sides1 in a day4 ,after a time1 a plan was devised of obtaining impressions from types by means of cylinders2 and in #ahjd1 the idea was started1 of applying steam-power to printing-presses4 ,it was not1 however1 till after years of experiments1 and an immense outlay of capital1 that the invention was brought to a successful issue1 so as to be advantageously applied in practice4 ,when1 however1 in #ahad1 the machine was completed1 it was adopted in the office of the ,london ,times newspaper1 and was thus spoken of in the papers of the day4 ,illustration3 ,,franklin',s ,,printing-,,press4 8,a new printing-press1 or printing-engine1 has recently excited the attention of the typographical world4 ,it is wrought by the power of steam1 and1 with the aid of three boys1 perfects nearly a thousand sheets per hour4 ,a common press1 worked by two men1 takes off but two hundred and fifty impressions on one side1 and requires eight hours to perfect a thousand sheets4 ,hence1 three boys in one hour are enabled1 by this new application of the power of steam1 to perform the labor of two men for eight hours4 ,such are the present capabilities of this engine3 but as there is no limit to its required powers1 and the size of the form is no obstacle to its perfect performance1 it is proposed to take impressions on double-demy1 in which case three boys will1 in one hour1 perform the labor of thirty-two men4 ,this engine is now at work at the printing-office of ,bensley ,sons1 near ,fleet street1 and another on a similar 7but less perfect7 construction1 has for some time past been employed on a morning newspaper4 ,in its general analogy1 this press is not unlike the rolling-press of copper-plate printers4 ,the forms being fixed on the carriage1 are drawn under a cylinder1 on which the sheet being laid1 and the ink distributed by an arrangement of rollers1 the impression is taken on one side4 ,the sheet is then conveyed off by bands to a second cylinder1 around which it is conveyed on the second form1 and the reiteration is produced in perfect register1 without the aid of points4 ,all the manual labor is performed by a boy1 who lays the sheet of paper on the first cylinder1 by one who takes it off from the second cylinder1 and by a third1 who lays the sheets even on the bank4 ,as a further instance of economy in the materials1 we may mention1 that the waste steam from the copper is carried in tubes round the entire suit of offices1 with a view to warm them40 ,passing on1 over various improvements1 we come1 last of all1 to what thus far is the perfection of all printing-machines1 viz41 ,hoe's eight-cylinder power-press1 a view of which is given in the cut on the following page4 ,this immense printing-machine is thirty-three feet long1 fourteen feet and eight inches high1 and six feet wide4 ,it has one large central cylinder on which the type is secured1 and eight smaller cylinders arranged around it1 at convenient distances4 ,eight persons supply the eight small cylinders with the sheets1 and at each revolution of the large cylinder1 eight impressions are given off1 the sheets being delivered in neat order by the machine itself4 ,the limit to the speed is in the ability of the eight persons to supply the sheets4 ,at the rate of twenty-five hundred sheets to each1 the press would give off the unparalleled number of twenty thousand printed impressions per hour4 ,the press is thus far used exclusively for newspaper and similar printing4 ,what it may next be applied to1 or what will be the next stride in the rapidity and perfection of printing1 only the future can reveal4 ,illustration3 ,,hoe',s ,,eight-,,cylinder ,,power-,,press4 ,before leaving the subject of printing1 it may not be uninteresting to mention1 that a composing1 or type-setting machine1 is said to have been recently invented1 in ,denmark4 ,one who has seen it in operation1 says3 8,it is now in actual operation in the office of the ,fdrelandet4 ,instead of the usual cases and composing-sticks1 and the compositor standing at his work1 we see a person sitting before a machine with keys like a piano1 which he plays on incessantly1 and every touch on the tangent is followed by a click2 the letter already in its place in the long mahogany channel prepared for it4 ,the whole is excessively ingenious4 ,in fact it is fairy work4 ,the most wonderful part is that it distributes the already used types at the same time that it sets the new page1 and with an exactness perfectly sure4 ,no mistake can ever occur4 ,the compositor1 by this machine1 does four times as much work as another workman2 but as he requires an assistant to line and page the set type1 this brings it to twice the amount of type set4 ,the whole is so clean and pleasant1 that it will probably soon be a favorite employment for women4 ,the machine occupies a very small space1 not more than a large chair1 and is beautifully made of hard woods1 brass and steel4 ,its success is now beyond all doubt4 ,the proprietors of the ,fdrelandet are so gratified by the one they now have1 that they have ordered another4 ,the price is twenty-four hundred ,danish dollars4 ,it will last1 apparently1 for a century or two without repair4 ,mr4 ,sorenson1 the inventor1 himself a compositor all his life1 kindly shows the machine to any visitor4 ,of course1 a compositor can not set with this machine at once2 it will take a short time1 a few days1 for him to become familiar with the details1 but he is then a gentleman compared to his old comrades40 ,,the ,,india-,,rubber ,,tree4 ,india-rubber1 called1 also1 caoutchouc1 is produced from several different trees1 all of them of the ficus1 or fig species4 ,the ficus elasticus is the tree from which it is chiefly obtained4 ,this is a native both of ,india and of ,south ,america2 and its general appearance may be seen in the cut below4 ,when the bark is cut or broken1 it gives forth a milky liquid1 which1 being exposed to the air1 produces the gum elastic which is so much in use among us4 ,it is now about a hundred years since it was first introduced into ,europe4 ,for a long time it was only used to erase the marks of lead-pencils4 ,the natives of ,south ,america had1 however1 long employed it1 as we do now1 for boots and shoes4 ,they also smear the inside of baskets with it1 thus providing a tough and tight lining4 ,in the vicinity of ,quito1 they make it into a kind of cloth4 ,its multiplied uses in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 are familiar to every reader4 ,in a volume lately published in ,new ,york1 entitled 8,scenes and ,adventures on the ,banks of the ,amazon10 is found the following account of this singular and most useful tree4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,india-,,rubber ,,tree4 8,a number of blacks1 bearing long poles on their shoulders1 thickly strung with ,india-rubber shoes1 also attracted our attention4 ,these are for the most part manufactured in the interior1 and are brought down the river for sale by the natives4 ,it has been estimated that at least two hundred and fifty thousand pairs of shoes are annually exported from the province1 and the number is constantly increasing4 ,a few words here respecting the tree itself1 and the manufacture of the shoes1 may not be out of place4 ,the tree is quite peculiar in its appearance1 and sometimes reaches the hight of eighty and even a hundred feet4 ,the trunk is perfectly round1 rather smooth1 and protected by a bark of a light color4 ,the leaves grow in clusters of three together1 are thin1 and of an ovate form1 and are from ten to fifteen inches in length4 ,the center leaf of the cluster is always the longest4 ,this remarkable tree bears a curious fruit of the size of a peach1 which1 although not very palatable1 is eagerly sought after by different animals4 ,it is separated into three lobes1 which contain each a small black nut4 ,the trees are tapped in the same manner that the ,new ,englanders tap maple-trees2 the trunk having been perforated1 a yellowish liquid1 resembling cream1 flows out1 which is caught in small clay cups fastened to the tree4 ,when these become full1 their contents are emptied into large earthen jars1 in which the liquid is kept until desired for use4 ,the operation of making the shoes is as simple as it is interesting4 ,imagine yourself in one of the seringa groves of ,brazil4 ,around you are a number of good-looking natives of low stature and olive complexions4 ,one is stirring1 with a long wooden stick1 the contents of a caldron1 placed over a pile of blazing embers4 ,this is the liquid as it was taken from the rubber tree4 ,into this a wooden #8last1' covered with clay1 and having a handle1 is plunged4 ,a coating of the liquid remains4 ,another native then takes the #8last1' and holds it in the smoke arising from the ignition of a species of palm fruit1 for the purpose of causing the glutinous substance to assume a dark color4 ,the #8last' is then plunged again into the caldron1 and this process is repeated as in dipping candles1 until the coating is of the required thickness4 ,you will moreover notice a number of ,indian girls engaged in making various impressions1 such as flowers1 c41 upon the soft surface of the rubber1 by means of their thumb-nails1 which are especially pared and cultivated for that purpose4 ,after this final operation1 the shoes are placed in the sun to harden1 and large numbers of them may be seen laid out on mats in exposed situations4 ,the aboriginal name of the rubber is cahchu1 from which the formidable word of caoutchouc is derived40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,round ,,tower ,,at ,,newport4 ,,the ,,round ,,tower ,,at ,,newport4 8,the tower0--8the old round tower0--8the old stone tower10 at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 if not one of the wonders of the world1 has at least excited wonder enough in some of its inhabitants1 and been a monument of deep interest to the traveler1 the antiquarian1 the controversialist1 and the poet4 ,its appearance may be seen in the cut below1 which is taken from a drawing made on the spot4 ,for a long time it was the prevailing belief1 that it was built by the ,northmen1 who1 it was supposed1 coasted along the ,new ,england shores as early as the twelfth century4 ,even the society of ,danish antiquaries1 gravely came to this conclusion1 from some drawings and accounts that were sent them2 and the discovery of a 8skeleton in armor10 on the main land1 near ,newport1 gave currency to this impression4 ,later investigations1 however1 have settled the point that it was originally built for a windmill1 about #afgf4 ,it is about seventy-five feet above high-water level in the harbor1 and about one hundred and twenty rods from the shore4 ,thus has been dissipated the foundation of many a wild theory1 and many a joyous hoax of other days4 ,illustration3 ,,submarine ,,or ,,diving ,,armor4 ,,diving ,,armor4 ,the mention of the ,india-rubber tree1 on a previous page1 suggests the application of the valuable substance derived from it1 to one of its many important uses1 viz41 to the submarine or diving armor4 ,this is represented in the cut below1 where the diver1 or person about to descend into the sea1 is seen encased with a water-proof dress1 made chiefly of ,india rubber4 ,his feet are heavily loaded with boots which have soles made of thick plates of lead4 ,on his head is a helmet-shaped covering1 made of iron1 from which rises a hose1 through which fresh air is forced to him1 by powerful air-pumps1 when he is under the water4 ,this helmet1 which is well padded1 is furnished with two glass eyes1 which are protected by wire gratings4 ,around the waist is a strong girdle provided with iron rings1 one on each side1 from which ascend cords to the persons in the boat from which the diver descends1 for the purpose not only of aiding to guide him over the rocks1 and helping him to an upright position1 but to serve for signalizing in case of sudden danger or accident1 and as a means of hauling him up when required4 ,thus although the diver is at perfect liberty to direct his own movements1 he is still held in leading-strings from the boat1 and all his motions are vigilantly watched and cared for by his companions above4 ,to aid him in keeping under water1 the diver also wears two heavy plates of lead1 one in front and the other behind1 which are so adjusted as to leave his arms at liberty1 and at the same time give equilibrium to his submerged body4 ,in this case1 he also has a bag in front1 into which he may put valuables of small size picked up in the deep1 such1 for example1 as pearls1 or amber1 both of which have been sought for by persons thus equipped4 ,illustration3 ,,manner ,,of ,,working ,,the ,,diving ,,armor4 ,the method of exploring with this armor1 is seen in the second cut1 where the diver is represented as below the water1 while his companions are in the boat above1 some of them holding the ropes1 some pumping down air1 and others holding the ladder1 while the diver himself is picking up some object of value from the bottom of the sea4 ,this armor has been used in searching for amber1 pearls1 lost treasure1 c41 c4 ,and when1 some years since1 the ,united ,states steam-frigate ,missouri was sunk in ,gibraltar harbor1 so as to obstruct navigation1 and all attempts by distinguished ,english engineers to raise her had proved in vain1 an ,american1 going down in the above-described armor1 explored her position1 and then contracted to blow her to pieces1 which he successfully accomplished1 though she was in twenty-six feet water1 and covered by fifteen feet of sand4 ,in doing this1 he consumed forty-three thousand pounds of powder1 raised sixteen hundred tuns of iron1 and some eight hundred tuns of oysters that had grown to the iron4 ,all his men were clothed in the submarine armor1 and so perfect was the management1 that not a life was lost1 and not an accident happened during the whole of the operation4 ,in this connection1 the recently invented 8,nautilus diving-bell0 is worthy of notice4 ,this bell is provided with air-tight compartments1 which hold either air or water1 as ascent or descent is required3 and is so ballasted that1 when filled with water1 buoyancy is destroyed1 and the machine gradually sinks4 ,expel the water from the tanks1 and the machine comes of course at once to the surface4 ,by opening a valve near the bottom of the bell1 the water enters through a pipe into the tanks2 the air at the same time escaping through a valve at the top1 opened or closed by the operator at will4 ,descent is thus effected4 ,on the contrary1 let air be turned into the tanks1 escape at top be closed1 and valves at bottom opened1 water is expelled and ascent secured4 ,to raise heavy weights1 a greater or less amount of water is expelled4 ,suspension-chains attached to weight1 immediately tighten2 machine and weight become buoyant1 and then by cables attached to anchors working through stuffing-boxes1 windlasses may be transported to any desired spot1 and there deposited4 ,free communication may be held with the bottom through an opening of between twelve and fifty square feet1 according to size of bell1 closed by an iron door1 and secured by bolts4 ,by throwing the door back1 an equilibrium between air and water may be attained at any depth1 by greater or less amounts of air1 as determined by suitable gauges permanently fastened in the bell4 ,such is the ingenious mechanism of this wonderful contrivance4 ,,tree-,,house ,,in ,,caffraria4 ,in ,caffraria1 in ,africa1 there is an 8inhabited tree10 which travelers thus describe3 8,it stands at the base of a range of mountains1 due east from ,kurrichaine1 in a place called #8,ongorutcie ,fountain4' ,its gigantic limbs contain seventeen conical huts4 ,these are used as dwellings1 being beyond the reach of the lions1 which1 since the incursion of the ,mantates from the adjoining country1 when so many thousands of persons were massacred1 have become very numerous in the neighborhood1 and destructive to human life4 ,the branches of the tree are supported by forked sticks1 or poles1 and there are three tiers1 or platforms1 on which the huts are constructed4 ,the lowest is nine feet from the ground1 and holds ten huts2 the second1 about eight feet high1 has three huts2 and the upper story1 if it may be so called1 contains four4 ,the ascent to these is made by notches cut in the supporting poles2 and the huts are built with twigs1 thatched with straw1 and will contain ten persons1 conveniently40 ,illustration3 ,,tree-,,house ,,in ,,caffraria4 ,a view of one of these trees is given in the cut on the previous page4 ,other villages have been seen by travelers1 built somewhat similarly to the above2 but these were erected on stakes1 instead of trees1 about eight feet above the ground1 about forty feet square1 larger in some places1 and containing about seventy or eighty huts4 ,the inhabitants sit under the shade of these platforms during the day1 and retire at night to the huts above4 ,,the ,,raining-,,tree4 ,the island of ,fierro is one of the most considerable of the ,canaries1 and some suppose its name to have been given upon this account3 that its soil1 not affording so much as a drop of fresh water1 seems to be of iron2 and1 indeed1 there is in this island neither rivulet1 nor well1 nor spring1 save that only toward the seaside there are some wells2 but they lie at such a distance from the city1 that the inhabitants can make no use thereof4 ,but the great ,preserver and ,sustainer of all1 remedies this inconvenience by a way so extraordinary1 that we can but sit down and acknowledge that he gives in this1 undeniable demonstration of his goodness and infinite providence4 ,for in the midst of the island1 says a late traveler1 there is a tree1 which is the only one of the kind1 insomuch that it hath no resemblance to those mentioned by us in this relation1 nor to any other known to us in ,europe4 ,the leaves of it are long and narrow1 and continue in constant verdure1 winter and summer2 and its branches are covered with a cloud1 which is never dispelled1 but resolved into a moisture1 causing to fall from its leaves a very clear water1 and that in such abundance1 that the cisterns1 which are placed at the foot of the tree to receive it1 are never empty1 but contain enough to supply both man and beast4 ,,the ,,traveler',s ,,friend4 ,somewhat like the tree last mentioned1 is one which is found in ,madagascar1 and which1 from its property of yielding water1 is called 8the traveler's friend40 ,it differs from most other trees in having all its branches in one plane1 like the sticks of a fan or the feathers of a peacock's tail4 ,at the extremity of each branch grows a broad double leaf1 several feet in length1 which spreads itself out very gracefully4 ,these leaves radiate heat so rapidly after sunset1 that a copious deposition of dew takes place upon them1 which1 soon collecting into drops1 forms little streams1 which run down the branches to the trunk4 ,here it is received into hollow spaces of considerable magnitude1 one of which is found at the root of every branch4 ,these branches lie one over the other alternately1 and when a knife1 or1 which is better1 a flat piece of stick 7for it is not necessary to cut the tree7 is inserted between the parts which overlap1 and slightly drawn to one side1 so as to cause an opening1 a stream of water gushes out as if from a fountain4 ,hence the appropriate name of 8the traveler's friend40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,camphor-,,tree4 ,,the ,,camphor-,,tree4 ,the camphor-tree1 a view of which is given in the cut below1 grows naturally in the woods of ,japan1 and in many of the islands of the far distant ,pacific ocean4 ,the part which smells stronger of camphor than any other1 is the root1 which yields it in great quantities4 ,the bark of the stalk has outwardly rather a rough appearance2 the inner surface is smooth and mucous1 and is very easily separated from the wood1 which is dry in its nature1 and white in its color4 ,the leaves stand upon slender1 delicate foot-stalks1 having an entire undulating margin running out into a point2 the upper surface of the leaf is of a lively1 shining green1 and the lower1 herbaceous and silky4 ,the flowers are produced on the tops of footstalks1 which proceed from the arm-pits of the leaves1 but not till the tree has attained considerable age and size4 ,the flower-stalks are slender1 branched at the top1 and divided into very short pedicles1 each supporting a single flower2 these flowers are white1 and consist of six petals1 which are succeeded by a shining purple berry1 of the size of a pea4 ,this is composed of a soft1 pulpy substance1 of a purple color1 having the taste of cloves and camphor1 and of a kernel of the size of a pepper1 which is covered with a black1 shining skin1 of an insipid taste4 ,the camphor is a solid concrete juice1 extracted from the wood of the camphor-tree4 ,pure camphor is very white1 clear1 and unctuous to the touch3 the taste is bitterish-aromatic1 and accompanied with a sense of coolness3 the smell is particularly fragrant1 something like that of rosemary1 but much stronger4 ,it has been long esteemed for its medicinal qualities1 and has been justly celebrated in fevers1 malignant and epidemic distempers4 ,in delirium1 where opiates failed in procuring sleep1 but rather increased and aggravated the symptoms1 this medicine has been often found to procure it4 ,physicians attribute these effects to its sedative qualities4 ,it is a powerful medicine1 capable of doing great good or harm4 ,it is said to be poisonous to animals1 often putting them into a sleep from which they never waken4 ,,the ,,cinnamon-,,plant4 ,this plant grows most abundantly in ,ceylon1 and is thus described by ,bishop ,heber4 ,after speaking of the visits of a forenoon1 he adds3 8,in the afternoon we drove through the far-famed cinnamon-gardens1 which cover upward of seventeen thousand acres of land on the coast1 the largest of which are near ,colombo4 ,the plant thrives best in a poor1 sandy soil1 in a damp atmosphere4 ,it grows wild in the woods to the size of an apple-tree1 but when cultivated is never allowed to grow more than ten or twelve feet in hight1 each plant standing separate4 ,the leaf is something like the laurel in shape1 but of a lighter color4 ,when it first shoots out it is red1 and changes gradually to green4 ,it is now out of blossom1 but ,i am told the blossom is white1 and spreads1 when in full blossom1 to cover the garden4 ,after hearing so much of the spicy gales from this island1 ,i was much disappointed at not being able to discover any scent1 at least from the plants4 ,in passing through the gardens1 there is a very fragrant-smelling flower growing under them1 which at first led us into the belief that we smelt the cinnamons1 but we were soon undeceived4 ,on pulling off a leaf or twig1 you perceived the spicy odor very strongly1 but ,i was surprised to hear that the flower had little or none4 ,as the cinnamon forms the only considerable export of ,ceylon1 it is of course preserved with care4 ,by the old ,dutch law the penalty for cutting a branch was no less than the loss of a hand2 at present a fine expiates the offense4 ,the neighborhood of ,colombo is particularly favorable to its growth1 being well sheltered1 with a high1 equable temperature1 and as showers fall frequently1 the ground is never parched40 ,illustration3 ,,tree ,,temple ,,at ,,matibo ,,in ,,piedmont4 ,,the ,,tree ,,temple4 ,among the miscellaneous wonders1 or at least curiosities1 that the traveler may behold as he passes through ,italy1 may be mentioned the tree temple1 a view of which is given in the engraving below4 ,this singular tree is one of the curious ornaments of a beautiful estate1 called ,matibo1 in the neighborhood of ,savigliano1 in ,piedmont1 in northern ,italy4 ,it was planted some seventy years ago2 but it was only within some thirty years that the idea was started of making it grow in the form of a temple1 which1 after much time1 perseverance and labor1 was finally realized4 ,it consists1 as may be seen in the engraving1 of two stories1 each of which has eight windows1 and is capable of containing twenty persons4 ,the floors are formed of branches twined together with great skill1 and covered by nature with leafy carpets2 and all around1 the natural growth and verdure of the tree have formed thick walls1 where flocks of birds have taken up their abodes and built their nests4 ,the proprietor of the island ,matibo has never disturbed these joyous little tenants of his property1 but rather encouraged their presence2 so that at all hours of the day1 they may be heard fearlessly sporting and warbling1 to the delight of the numerous visitors1 who here enjoy alike the cool breezes and the beautiful prospect4 ,,the ,,termites1 ,,or ,,white ,,ants4 ,these curious and wonderful insects are found both in ,india and ,africa4 ,they are of several species1 one or two of which construct works surpassing in skill those even of the bee and beaver1 and comparatively of far greater size for them1 than the boasted pyramids of the ancients are for man4 ,the laborers employed among them in these works1 are not a quarter of an inch in length2 and yet the structures they rear rise to the hight of ten or even twelve feet above the surface of the earth1 and in their interior construction and various arrangements1 exceed even the works of man himself4 ,the most striking parts of these structures are the royal apartments1 the nurseries1 magazines of provisions1 the arched chambers and galleries1 with their various communications2 the ranges of the ,gothic-shaped arches1 projected1 and not formed by mere excavation1 some of which are two or three feet high1 but which diminish rapidly1 like the arches of aisles in perspective2 the various roads1 sloping staircases1 and bridges consisting of one vast arch1 constructed to shorten the distance between the several parts of the building1 which would otherwise be connected only by winding passages4 ,in the following engraving may be seen1 on the right1 one of the ant-hills as it appears externally2 and on the left1 a section of one of them1 surmounted by its conical roof4 ,in some parts of ,senegal1 the number1 magnitude and closeness of these structures make them appear like the villages of the natives2 and their strength is such1 that when they have been raised to about half their hight1 the wild bulls of the country stand on them1 as sentinels1 while the rest of the herd are feeding below4 ,when at their full hight of ten or twelve feet1 they are used by ,europeans as look-out stations1 whence they can see over the grass1 which in ,africa is1 on an average1 of the hight of thirteen feet4 ,four or five persons may stand on the top of one of these buildings1 to look out for a vessel the approach of which may be expected4 ,illustration3 ,,ant-,,hills ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,ant4 ,the termites themselves are divided into three distinct ranks1 or orders1 viz41 the laborers1 or working insects2 the soldiers1 or the fighting order1 who avoid all labor1 and are about twice as long as the laborers1 and nearly fifteen times their bulk2 and lastly1 the winged or perfect insects1 which may be styled the nobility or gentry1 who neither fight nor work1 and from whom come the kings and queens of the establishment4 ,these insects are extremely destructive2 and it is said that a deserted town has been known to be utterly destroyed by them in two or three years1 so that not a vestige of it remained4 ,at ,bombay1 in a few hours1 they will demolish a large chest of books1 papers1 silks1 or clothes1 perforating them with a thousand holes2 and they sometimes penetrate and eat up the timbers and boards of houses1 and in the same manner destroy the timbers of a ship4 ,the only way to preserve anything from their depredations1 when they are in a neighborhood1 is to put it on a platform resting on glass bottles1 which1 if kept free from dust1 they can not ascend4 ,illustration3 ,,huts ,,in ,,kamtschatka4 ,,huts ,,in ,,kamtschatka4 ,side by side with the finished structures of animal instinct exhibited in the engraving of the ant hills above1 we next give a picture of the rude huts of the uncivilized inhabitants of ,kamtschatka1 in their cold northern home1 at the north-eastern extremity of ,asia1 which is one of the coldest spots on the face of the earth4 ,it is impossible1 in so severe a climate1 to raise wheat1 corn1 or the common productions of warmer regions4 ,the people1 however1 have a compensation for the scantiness of vegetable productions in the profusion of animal life which seems to fill alike the earth1 the air and the water4 ,the coasts swarm with seals and other marine animals2 the rocks are covered with shell-fish2 the bays abound in herrings1 and the rivers with salmon and other most valuable fish4 ,flocks of grouse1 wild geese and ducks1 often darken the air4 ,the country abounds in bears1 which are fat1 and greatly esteemed by the inhabitants as food4 ,from all these sources1 the people are supplied with the greatest abundance2 and1 as a consequence1 they have sunk into a lazy and almost stupid sensuality4 ,they are a short and copper-colored race1 somewhat like the ,esquimaux4 ,like them1 they have dogs1 which they use in sledges1 as seen in the engraving4 ,their winter houses are half sunk in the earth1 while those for summer are elevated on poles above it4 ,illustration3 ,,taking ,a ,,whale4 ,,the ,,whale4 ,this vast monster of the deep is one of the wonders of the world1 or at least of its mighty oceans4 ,it is found chiefly in the more northern seas1 where its food1 consisting of small molluscous and crustaceous animals1 but chiefly of the clio borealis1 is found4 ,whales are often found from fifty to sixty1 and some of them from ninety to one hundred feet in length1 and from thirty to forty feet1 and even more1 in circumference4 ,the true whale is remarkable for the immense size of its head1 which constitutes a full third of the entire length of the animal4 ,the eyes are very small1 and placed just above the angles of the mouth4 ,the external opening of the ears is scarcely perceptible4 ,the pectoral fins are of moderate size1 and located about two feet behind the angles of the mouth4 ,the tail1 or1 more properly1 the tail fin1 consists of two parts1 or lobes1 of immense strength1 measuring1 in a full-grown whale1 some twenty feet across1 from tip to tip4 ,it is wielded by muscles of enormous power1 and thus becomes a weapon of offense and defense for the whale1 as well as its chief means of locomotion4 ,a single blow of the tail is sufficient to cut the stoutest whaleboat in two1 and to send its fragments whirling through the air4 ,the engraving gives a view of a right whale about to be harpooned2 while in the distance is another1 lashed to the ship for 8cutting in10 and still another1 which the sailors1 having killed1 are towing in toward it4 ,the whale fishery was carried on by the ,biscayans as early as the twelfth century2 afterward it was taken up by the ,dutch and the ,english1 and it now engages nearly a tenth of the tunnage of the ,united ,states4 ,,landing ,,of ,,the ,,pilgrims4 ,one of the most wonderful events in the history of the world1 was the voluntary exile of the forefathers of ,new ,england from their native country1 and their landing 7,december twenty-first1 #afbj7 at ,plymouth--here1 in the new world1 to organize a community where they might enjoy personal freedom1 and liberty of conscience1 and to worship ,god as seemed right to themselves4 ,the engraving on the following page gives a view of them as they landed1 in a howling wilderness1 inhabited only by savages and wild beasts1 in the depth of winter1 with no place of abode1 or even shelter1 and no trust but in their own resources and the kind providence of ,god which had thus far watched over and protected them4 ,the history of their trials1 their preservation1 their growth and prosperity as a people1 and of the wonderful country that has sprung up1 and is still growing1 with a giant growth1 in the broad land which they found a wilderness1 is one that fills us with wonder as we ponder it1 and that should fill us with deep thankfulness to the great source of all mercies1 both to them and ourselves4 ,illustration3 ,,landing ,,of ,,the ,,pilgrims4 ,the place where the pilgrims landed is well known as the celebrated ,,plymouth ,,rock4 ,this is1 in part1 still in the same place where it stood when our forefathers first stepped upon it at their landing1 and is pointed out to the visitor as 8,plymouth rock10 or the 8,pilgrim rock10 or the 8,rock of the ,pilgrims40 ,it is a hard kind of syenitic granite1 of a dark gray color4 ,the mica1 which in part composes it1 is in very small quantity1 and in fine black particles4 ,the rock is now in two pieces1 each of which is about four feet through4 ,one of these pieces1 about six feet and a half in diameter1 as already said1 is still at the water's edge1 in its original position4 ,the other part1 represented in the engraving on the next page1 has been removed from its natural location1 and inclosed in an iron railing in front of 8,pilgrim hall10 which was erected as a monumental edifice on land that once belonged to ,governor ,carver4 ,here it is visited by thousands1 who1 from year to year1 go1 as to a shrine of the most sacred associations1 to the spot which is consecrated by the sufferings1 the courage1 and the piety of the founders of our nation4 ,illustration3 ,,plymouth ,,rock4 ,we might fill pages with the narratives of their exposures1 hardships and dangers2 but they are more or less familiar to all4 ,the history of their perils from the ,indians1 the native lords of the forest1 is of itself full of excitement and thrilling interest4 ,the latter1 fearful lest the superior knowledge and rising power of the white men should in the end be the ruin of their own supremacy1 were stirred up to endeavor to exterminate them2 and though some powerful chiefs and tribes were steadfastly friendly1 others were as steadfastly their foes4 ,for years after the firm establishment of the colonies1 the early settlers were compelled to go to church1 on the ,sabbath1 armed1 as represented in the engraving on the next page1 that they might be ready1 if need be1 to defend themselves in case of an attack by the ,indians4 ,during the days of the ,indian warfare such scenes were not uncommon1 and more than once a congregation has been roused by such an attack1 and gone forth to meet and disperse the foe1 and then1 setting their sentinels to watch1 returned to the house of ,god1 to thank him for their deliverance1 and continue the worship of his holy day4 ,thanks to their labors1 and toils1 and self-denials1 and heroic enterprise1 to the principles that guided them and the institutions they established1 and to the divine blessing attending all1 we are not exposed to such perils2 but may safely enjoy the privileges they have handed down to us1 with none to molest us or make us afraid4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,settlers ,,of ,,new ,,england ,,going ,,to ,,church4 ,a ,,wonder ,,of ,,art4 ,there is now 7#ahee7 on exhibition in ,paris1 one of the most remarkable pieces of masterwork which the union of art and science has ever produced4 ,it consists of a picture1 of about three feet square4 ,this picture is made up of colors admirable for their beauty and boldness1 but there is no subject4 ,the most experienced eye can detect nothing but disjointed and half-formed approximations toward a coherent design4 ,the most able artist sees there only the finest colors1 but no one can tell what they are intended to represent4 ,in the middle of the picture1 which is horizontally placed1 is a mirror formed by a copper cylinder covered by a perfectly polished coating of silver4 ,this mirror is usually veiled4 ,so far there is little remarkable1 and the greatest amateurs in painting would hardly consent to spend five francs on such an apparently profitless study4 ,but it is impossible not to feel a glow of admiration1 when1 on uncovering the mirror1 there is represented upon it in the brightest reflected rays1 the whole scene of the ,crucifixion4 ,the partial coloring then takes a character of incontestable superiority1 and presents to the astonished spectators a picture composed of six most perfect figures1 depicted with a degree of boldness such as the master painters alone knew how to impart to the subject which it was their glory to represent4 ,,the ,,whale-,,killer4 ,this fish is one of the wonders of the mighty deep1 well known to those engaged in whaling1 and in the ,pacific cruisers4 ,it is thus described by one who has often witnessed its attacks on the whale4 8,the killer is the wolf of the ocean1 and hunts in packs1 and their tall dorsal fin can be constantly seen above the water4 ,this fish has always as a companion1 but swimming deeper1 the sword-fish1 and now and then can be seen the shark4 ,on sighting their prey1 which the killer sees at a great distance1 the pack gives chase4 ,the unconscious whale is slowly moving near the surface1 and occasionally spouting1 as it were in sport1 jets of water above him4 ,but he now suddenly sees the sea-wolf near him4 ,instinct at once teaches him that on the surface he can not be safe1 and1 taking in a long breath1 he flukes2 that is1 dives4 ,but there has been another enemy watching him from the depths below--the sword-fish1 which now darts at him with the velocity of lightning1 and perforates the whale beneath1 with his long and spear-like nose4 ,this sends him at once to the surface2 here he again meets with his enemies1 the killers2 but as yet they are afraid to approach him4 ,the whale now begins to see the extent of his danger1 and for a time merely lashes the water with his ponderous fluke4 ,he soon tires of this1 and remains for a short time at rest2 the pack now approach him1 and he seeks safety in flight4 ,but what can he do8 ,the poor whale has a hump on his back1 and steers unsteadily1 while the killer's tail and stiff fin steady him on his course4 ,nearer and nearer approach the pack to their victim2 again he takes a long breath and dives4 ,the sword-fish has steadily kept him in view2 he1 too1 has a tall fin and long slender propelling tail2 and while it is an effort to the whale to increase his speed1 it is but play to the sword-fish1 which again darts and perforates his prey1 and sends the wounded whale again to the surface4 8,the race again commences1 but this time with diminished speed1 the killers having separated to watch the rise of the whale1 who1 finding his enemies in every direction1 courses in a circle1 and again makes a third1 and sometimes a fourth attempt to escape by diving1 but is always met by the terrible spike of the sword-fish4 ,he at last1 weak1 exhausted and dispirited1 returns to the surface1 where he again attempts escape by flight4 ,streams of blood mark his course2 his enemies still follow steadily after him1 until he stops and begins to lash and make the ocean foam around him2 but now large streams of his life-blood are pouring out1 and he is only increasing his weakness by the exertion1 and merely lashing amidst his own gore4 ,tired1 exhausted and faint1 he rolls over4 ,the deep red streaks of blood flowing from large orifices in his white belly can now be distinctly seen4 ,the hungry pack now close1 and one more bold than the rest seizes him near the throat and tears away the white skin and fat2 he opens his mouth and bellows with pain4 ,this is generally the signal for a combined attack4 ,his tongue is seized and torn out2 so are his eyes4 ,the sword-fish now rises to the surface1 and his tall spar-like protuberance is seen projecting over the body of the whale2 the sharks also close in and feed on the fat rejected by the killers4 ,in this state the whale makes a few dying struggles4 ,the feast now commences and continues until the fat and sufficient flesh are stripped off to cause the carcass to become too heavy to float on the surface1 and it sinks4 ,the shark is left to enjoy his few streaks of fat1 while the killer pack1 accompanied by their companion1 the sword-fish1 rove again the broad ocean to seek another leviathan of the great deep40 ,a ,,pile ,,of ,,serpents4 ,baron ,humboldt says3 8,in the savannas of ,izacubo1 ,guiana1 ,i saw the most wonderful and terrible spectacle that can be seen2 and although it be not uncommon to the natives1 no traveler has ever mentioned it4 ,we were ten men on horseback1 two of whom took the lead1 in order to sound the passages1 while ,i preferred to skirt the great forests4 ,one of the blacks who formed the vanguard returned at full gallop1 and called to me1 #8,here1 sir1 come and see the serpents in a pile4' ,he pointed to something elevated in the middle of the savanna or swamp1 which appeared like a bundle of arms4 ,one of my company said1 #8,this is certainly one of the assemblages of serpents which heap themselves on each other after a violent tempest4 ,i have heard of these1 but never saw any2 let us proceed cautiously1 and not too near them4' ,when we were within twenty paces of it1 the terror of our horses prevented our approaching nearer1 to which none of us were inclined4 ,on a sudden1 the pyramid mass became agitated2 a horrid hissing issued from it1 thousands of serpents rolled spirally on each other1 and shot forth out of the circle their hideous heads1 presenting their envenomed darts and fiery eyes to us4 ,i own ,i was the first to draw back1 but when ,i saw this formidable phalanx remain at its post1 and appear to be more disposed to defend itself than to attack us1 ,i rode round1 in order to view its order of battle1 which faced the enemy on every side4 ,i then thought what could be the design of this numerous assemblage2 and ,i concluded that this species of serpent dreaded some colossean enemy1 which might be the great serpent or cayman1 and they reunite themselves after seeing the enemy1 so as to resist this enemy in a mass40 ,,american ,,ruins4 ,the recent discoveries in what is called the 8,great ,basin10 a tract of table-land lying between the ,rocky and the ,pacific chain of mountains1 are exciting much interest1 and awakening inquiry and speculation again as to the origin of the people who evidently1 in a former period1 inhabited these now desolate regions4 ,captain ,walker1 the mountaineer1 passed through the center of this basin in #ahej1 and made some interesting revelations of what he saw4 ,these statements have been called in question1 on account of their supposed improbability2 but a later trip of ,lieutenant ,beale gives a degree of confirmation to the facts1 which will make the credibility of the statements more readily admitted4 ,the whole country1 from the ,colorado to the ,rio ,grande1 between the ,gila and ,san ,juan1 is full of ruined habitations and cities1 most of which are on this table-land4 ,captain ,walker states that1 in traversing this desert1 he had frequently met with crumbling masses of masonry and numberless specimens of antique pottery4 ,in his last trip across1 he saw the ruins of a city more than a mile in extent1 the streets of which ran at right angles4 ,the houses had all been built of stone1 but all had been reduced to ruin by the action of some great heat1 which had evidently passed over the whole country4 ,in the center of the city rose abruptly a rock twenty or thirty feet high1 upon the top of which stood a portion of the walls of what had once been an immense building4 ,the outline of the building was still distinct1 although only the northern angle1 with walls fifteen or eighteen feet long1 and ten feet high1 was standing4 ,these walls were constructed of stone1 well quarried and well built4 ,lieutenant ,beale1 on his first trip across the continent1 discovered in the midst of the wilderness of ,gila1 what appeared to be a strong fort1 the walls of great thickness1 built of stone4 ,he traversed it1 and found it contained forty-two rooms4 ,a correspondent of the ,placerville ,herald gives an account more wonderful still1 of a stone bridge1 which had also been discovered1 the foundations of which were of stone1 and nearly six hundred feet from one of the outer abutments to the other1 while between the two are no less than seven distinct piers4 ,this bridge has the appearance of a river once flowing between its piers1 though now there is not the slightest appearance of such a river in that vicinity4 ,next we have an account of a strange race of people1 neither whites nor ,indians1 called ,moquis1 lighter in color than the ,indians of ,california4 ,the women are tolerably fair1 not being so much exposed to the sun4 ,among them ,captain ,walker saw three perfectly white1 with white hair and light eyes4 ,they raise all kinds of grain1 melons and vegetables4 ,they have also a number of orchards1 filled with many kinds of fruit-trees4 ,the peaches they raise are particularly fine4 ,they have large flocks of sheep and goats1 but very few beasts of burden or cattle4 ,they are a harmless1 inoffensive race2 kind and hospitable to strangers1 and make very little resistance when attacked4 ,the warlike ,navajos1 who dwell in the mountains to the north-east of them1 are in the habit of sweeping down upon them every two or three years1 and driving off their stock4 ,at such times1 they gather up all that is movable from their farms1 and fly for refuge to their mountain stronghold4 ,here their enemies dare not follow them4 ,when a stranger approaches1 they appear on the top of the rocks and houses1 watching his movements4 ,one of their villages1 at which ,captain ,walker stayed for several days1 is over six hundred yards long4 ,the houses are mostly built of stone and mortar2 some of adobe4 ,they are very snug and comfortable1 and many of them are two and even three stories high4 ,the inhabitants are considerably advanced in some of the arts1 and manufacture excellent woolen clothing1 blankets1 leather1 basket-work and pottery4 ,unlike most of the ,indian tribes in this country1 the women work within doors1 the men performing all the farm and out-door labor4 ,these people1 according to the accounts1 have never had any intercourse with the white race4 ,,insect ,,slavery4 ,the most remarkable fact connected with the history of ants1 is the propensity possessed by certain species to kidnap the workers of other species1 and compel them to labor for the benefit of the community1 thus using them completely as slaves2 and1 as far as we yet know1 the kidnappers are red or pale-colored ants1 and the slaves1 like the ill-treated natives of ,africa1 are of a jet black4 ,the time for capturing slaves extends over a period of about ten weeks1 and never commences until the male and female are about emerging from the pupa state2 and thus the ruthless marauders never interfere with the continuation of the species4 ,when the red ants are about to sally forth on a marauding expedition1 they send scouts to ascertain the exact position in which a colony of negroes may be found4 ,these scouts having discovered the objects of their search1 return to the nest and report their success4 ,shortly afterward1 the army of red ants marches forth1 headed by a vanguard1 which is perpetually changing2 the individuals which constitute it1 when they advance a little before1 are sent to the rear1 and their places occupied by others4 ,the vanguard consists of eight or ten ants only4 ,when they have arrived near the negro colony1 they disperse1 wandering through the herbage and hunting about1 as if aware of the propinquity of the object of their search1 yet ignorant of its exact position4 ,at last they discover the settlements1 and the foremost of the invaders1 rushing impetuously to the attack1 are met1 grappled with1 and frequently killed by the negroes on guard4 ,the alarm is quickly communicated to the interior of the nest2 the negroes sally forth by thousands1 and the red ants rushing to the rescue1 a desperate conflict ensues1 which1 however1 always terminates in the defeat of the negroes1 who retire to the innermost recesses of their habitation4 ,now follows the scene of pillage4 ,the red ants1 with their powerful mandibles1 tear open the sides of the ant-hills1 and rush into the heart of the citadel4 ,in a few minutes each invader emerges1 carrying in its mouth the pupa of a worker negro1 which it has obtained in spite of the vigilance and valor of its natural guardians4 ,the red ants return in perfect order to their nests1 bearing with them their living burdens4 ,on reaching the nest the pupa appears to be treated precisely as their own2 and the workers1 when they emerge1 perform the various duties of the community with the greatest energy and apparent good-will4 ,they repair the nest1 excavate passages1 collect food1 feed the larv1 take the pupa into the sunshine1 and perform every office which the welfare of the colony seems to require4 ,they conduct themselves entirely as if fulfilling their original destination4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,at #id4cb1 there is a paragraph preceding some verse which ends abruptly1 without punctuation4 ,it seems that the intent was to continue the thought with the first lines of the poem4 ,at #ecj4ah1 a closing quote mark occurs where there is no opening quote4 ,the previous paragraph closes an extended quotation1 which is not re-opened4 ,it is difficult to say whether the #8voice' has shifted4 ,in any case1 the closing quote in question has been removed4 ,the word #8bass-relief' appears thirty-two times1 while the more familiar #8bas-relief' appears only twice4 ,both versions have been retained4 ,other errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original4 #i4ah an object must be seen1 ,removed4 #ah4a 8,,the ,,casta,g,,no ,,de ,,cento ,,cavilli10 ,inserted4 #bf4ag rate of eighty-six feet an hour ,added4 #bh4b wholly disappeared ,inserted4 #cf4a mottled with black and and white spots ,redundant4 #hb4ag ,mauna ,loa and ,mauna ,r_/,kea ,replaced4 #hg4cc ,in many y_/parts of the precipice ,replace4 #abf4bc by any sounding line1_/4 ,replaced4 #aih4ab carried on in ,colebrook dale ,removed4 #bcj4ag ,earth's universal family40 ,added4 #bge4bc #8_/8the waterfall mountain10 ,replaced4 #bhi4a some of the savants ,inserted4 #cag4ag or ,st4 ,helmo's fires sic3 ,elmo's4 #cbd4bh ,i had thought a mere fable4'_/0 ,replaced4 #cdh4cf from such a surface ,inserted4 #dba4f four hunddred feet ,removed4 #dbg4bg its extreme length ,added4 #ddf4ba fresh-water muscle_/sels ,replaced4 #dgj4bc the name of ,ed_/l ,hedjeaz ,probable4 #dgj4bd the cities of ,median_/na and ,taif ,transposed4 #eaa4ae ,,pyramids ,,of ,,mero,e_/ ,replaced4 #eaf4c so has it been forever6'0 ,added4 #ebe4cg and quitted them forever40 ,added4 #faj4ae in ,agr4_/1 ,replaced4 #fcd4bb these ancient piles40 ,added4 #fdi4ce the fri_/irth of ,forth ,transposed4 #fee4bd ,on the top is a baso_/in ,replaced4 #gaj4cg 8,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,added4 #gih4bg closed by the operator at will4 ,restored4