,,blackwood',s ,,edinburgh ,,magazine4 ,,no4 ,,cccclxviii4 ,,october1 #ahed4 ,,vol4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,contents4 ,,speculators ,,among ,,the ,,stars4--,,part ,,ii41 #cga ,,king ,,otho ,,and ,,his ,,classic ,,kingdom1 #djc ,,student ,,life ,,in ,,scotland4--,,part ,,ii41 #dbb ,,civilisation4--,,the ,,census1 #dce ,a ,,russian ,,reminiscence1 #deb ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,past4--,,nineveh ,,and ,,babylon1 #deh ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,ganges ,,canal1 #dge ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,beauty1 #dgf ,,spanish ,,politics ,,and ,,cuban ,,perils1 #dgg ,,edinburgh3 ,,william ,,blackwood ,,sons1 #de ,,george ,,street1 ,,and #cg ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london2 ,to whom all communications 7post paid7 must be addressed4 ,,sold ,,by ,,all ,,the ,,booksellers ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,blackwood ,,and ,,sons1 ,,edinburgh4 ,,blackwood',s ,,edinburgh ,,magazine4 ,,no4 ,,cccclxviii4 ,,october1 #ahed4 ,,vol4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,speculators ,,among ,,the ,,stars4#a ,,part ,,ii4 ,whatever we talk1 ,things are as they are--not as we grant1 dispute1 or hope2 depending on neither our affirmative nor negative4#b--;,,jeremy ,,taylor4 ,let us bear in mind the above passage1 pregnant with solemnising reflection1 while dealing with the question before us2 always remembering that it is one purely speculative1 however interesting1 however exciting1 to imaginative persons2 but to weak and superficial ones--to those of unsettled opinions--capable of becoming mischievous4 ,the state of that question is exactly this3 ,the heavenly bodies around us1 some or all of them1 are1 or are not1 in point of fact1 the abodes of intellectual and moral beings like ourselves--that is1 be it observed1 consisting of body and soul4 ,that there are other and higher orders of intelligent existence1 both the ,christian and the mere philosopher may1 and the former must1 admit as an article of his 8creed20 but what may be the mode of that existence1 and its relations to that physical world of which we are sensible1 we know not1 and conjecture would be idle4 ,that beings like ourselves exist elsewhere than here1 is not revealed in ,scripture2 and the question1 consequently1 for us to concern ourselves with is1 whether there nevertheless exist rational grounds for believing the fact to be so4 ,the accomplished and eminent person who has so suddenly started this discussion1 has1 since his ,essay appeared1#c and in strict consistency with it1 emphatically declared--8,i do not pretend to disprove a plurality of worlds2 but ,i ask in vain for any argument which makes the doctrine probable4 ,and as ,i conceive the unity of the world to be the result of its being the work of one ,divine ,mind1 exercising creative power according to ,his own ,ideas2 so it seems to me not unreasonable to suppose that man1 the being which can apprehend1 in some degree1 those ,ideas1 is a creature unique in the creation40 ,but what says ,sir ,david ,brewster1 speaking of the greatest known member of our planetary system1 ,jupiter8 8,with so many striking points of resemblance between the ,earth and ,jupiter1 the unprejudiced mind cannot resist the conclusion1 that ,jupiter has been created1 like the ,earth1 for the express purpose of being the seat of animal and intellectual life4 ,the ,atheist and the ,infidel1 the ,christian and the ,mahommedan1 men of all creeds1 nations1 and tongues1 the philosopher and the unlettered peasant1 have all rejoiced in this universal truth2 and we do not believe that any individual who confides in the facts of astronomy seriously rejects it4 ,if such a person exists1 we would gravely ask him1 for what purpose could so gigantic a world have been framed80#d ,i am such a person1 would say ,dr ,whewell1 and ,i declare that ,i cannot tell why ,jupiter was created4 8,i do not pretend to know for what purpose the stars were made1 any more than the flowers1 or the crystalline gems1 or other innumerable beautiful objects4444 ,no doubt the ,creator might make creatures fitted to live in the stars1 or in the small planetoids1 or in the clouds1 or on meteoric stones2 but we cannot believe that he has done this1 without further evidence40#e ,and as to the 8facts of astronomy10 let me patiently examine them1 and the inferences you seek to deduce from them4 ,besides which1 ,i will bring forward certain facts of which you seem to have taken no account4 ,as we foresaw1 ,dr ,whewell's ,essay is attracting increased attention in all directions2 and1 as far as we can ascertain the scope of contemporaneous criticism hitherto pronounced1 it is hostile to his views1 while uniformly recognising the power and scientific knowledge with which they are enforced4 8,we scarcely expected10 observes an accomplished diurnal ,london reviewer1#f 8that in the middle of the nineteenth century1 a serious attempt would have been made to restore the exploded ideas of man's supremacy over all other creatures in the universe2 and still less that such an attempt would have been made by any one whose mind was stored with scientific truths4 ,nevertheless a champion has actually appeared1 who boldly dares to combat against all the rational inhabitants of other spheres2 and though as yet he wears his vizor down1 his dominant bearing1 and the peculiar dexterity and power with which he wields his arms1 indicate that this knight-errant of nursery notions can be no other than the ,master of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge40 ,the reviewer falls1 it appears to us1 into a serious error as to the sentiments of ,dr ,whewell1 when charging him with requiring us 8to assume that1 in the creation of intelligent beings1 ,omnipotence must be limited1 in its operations1 to the ideas which human faculties can conceive of them3 that such beings must be men like ourselves1 with similar powers1 and have had their faculties developed by like means40 ,in the very passage cited to support this charge1 ,dr ,whewell will be found thus exactly limiting his proposition so as to exclude so impious and absurd a supposition3--8,in order to conceive1 on the ,moon1 or on ,jupiter1 a race of beings intelligent like man1 we must conceive there colonies of men1 with histories resembling1 more or less1 the histories of human colonies3 and1 indeed1 resembling the history of those nations whose knowledge we inherit1 far more closely than the history of any other terrestrial nation resembles that part of terrestrial history40#g ,in the passage which we have quoted in the preceding column1 ,dr ,whewell expressly declares1 as of course he could not help declaring1 that the ,creator no doubt might make creatures fitted to live on the stars1 or anywhere2 but the passage misunderstood by the reviewer1 appears to us possessed of an extensive significance1 of which he has hastily lost sight1 but which is closely connected with that portion of the author's speculations with which we briefly dealt in our last number1 especially that which regards ,man as a being of progressive#h development4 ,to this we shall hereafter return1 reminding the reader of the course of ,dr ,whewell's argument as thus far disclosed--namely1 that man's intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and spiritual nature1 is of so peculiar and high an order1 as to warrant our regarding him as a special and unique existence1 worthy of the station here assigned him in creation4 ,intellectually considered1 man 8has an element of community with ,god3 whereupon it is so far conceivable that man should be1 in a special manner1 the object of ,god's care and favour4 ,the human mind1 with its wonderful and perhaps illimitable powers1 is something of which we can believe ,god to be mindful30#i that ,he may very reasonably be thus mindful of a being whom he has vouchsafed to make in his own ,image1 after ,his likeness--the image and likeness of the awful ,creator of all things4 8,the privileges of man10 observes ,dr ,whewell1 in a passage essential to be considered by those who would follow his argument1#aj 8which make the difficulty in assigning him his place in the ,vast ,scheme of the universe1 we have described as consisting in his being an ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,religious creature4 ,perhaps the privileges implied in the last term1 and their place in our argument1 may justify a word more of explanation4444 ,we are now called upon10 proceeds the ,essayist1 after a striking sketch of the character and capacity of man1 especially as a spiritual creature1 8to proceed to exhibit the ,answer which a somewhat different view of modern science suggests to this difficulty or objection40 --8,the difficulty#aa appears great either way of considering it4 ,can the earth alone be the theatre of such intelligent1 moral1 religious1 and spiritual action8 ,or can we conceive such action to go on in the other bodies of the universe8444 ,between these two difficulties the choice is embarrassing1 and the decision must be unsatisfactory1 except we can find some further ground of judgment4 ,but this1 perhaps1 is not hopeless4 ,we have hitherto referred to the evidence and analogies supplied by one science1 namely1 ,astronomy4 ,but there are other sciences which give us information concerning the nature and history of the ,earth4 ,from some of these we may perhaps obtain some knowledge of the place of the ,earth in the scheme of creation2 how far it is1 in its present condition1 a thing unique1 or only one thing among many like it4 ,any science which supplies us with evidence or information on this head1 will give us aid in forming a judgment upon the question under our consideration40 ,thus the ,essayist reaches the second stage of his inquiry1 entering on the splendid domain of ,,geology4 ,to this great but recently consolidated science ,dr ,chalmers made no allusion in his celebrated 8,discourses on the ,christian ,revelation1 viewed in connection with the ,modern ,astronomy10#ab which were delivered in the year #ahag1 nearly thirty-seven years ago3 and then he spoke1 in his first ,discourse1 of ,astronomy as 8the most certain and best established of the sciences40 ,dr ,whewell1 however1 vindicates the claims of ,geology1 in respect of both the certainty and vastness of her discoveries1 in a passage so just and admirable1 that we must lay it before our readers4 8,as to the vastness of astronomical discoveries1 we must observe that those of ,geology are no less vast3 they extend through time1 as those of ,astronomy do through space2 they carry us through millions of years--that is1 of the earth's revolutions--as those of ,astronomy through millions of the earth's diameters1 or of diameters of the earth's orbit4 ,geology fills the regions of duration with events1 as ,astronomy the regions of the universe with objects4 ,she carries us backwards by the relation of cause and effect1 as ,astronomy carries us upwards by the relations of geometry4 ,as ,astronomy steps on from point to point of the universe by a chain of triangles1 so ,geology steps from epoch to epoch of the earth's history by a chain of mechanical and organical laws4 ,if the one depends on the axioms of geometry1 the other depends on the axioms of causation4444 ,but in truth1 in such speculations1 ,geology has an immeasurable superiority4 ,she has the command of an implement1 in addition to all that ,astronomy can use2 and one1 for the purpose of such speculations1 adapted far beyond any astronomical element of discovery4 ,she has1 for one of her studies1--one of her means of dealing with her problems1--the knowledge of life1 animal and vegetable4 ,vital organisation is a subject of attention which has1 in modern times1 been forced upon her4 ,it is now one of the main parts of her discipline4 ,the geologist must study the traces of life in every form--must learn to decipher its faintest indications and its fullest development4 ,on the question1 then1 whether there be1 in this or that quarter1 evidence of life1 he can speak with the confidence derived from familiar knowledge2 while the astronomer1 to whom such studies are utterly foreign1 because he has no facts which bear upon them1 can offer1 on such questions1 only the loosest and most arbitrary conjectures1 which1 as we have had to remark1 have been rebuked by eminent men as being altogether inconsistent with the acknowledged maxims of his science40#ac ,before we proceed to state the singular and suggestive argument derived from this splendid science1#ad we may apprise the reader that ,dr ,whewell's primary object is to show1 that even 8supposing the other bodies of the universe to resemble the earth1 so far as to seem1 by their materials1 forms1 and motions1 no less fitted than she is to be the abodes of life1 yet that1 knowing what we know of ,man1 we can believe the earth to be tenanted by a race who are the special objects of ,god's care40#ae ,the grounds for entertaining1 or rather impugning1 that supposition he subsequently deals with after his own fashion in ,chapters ,,vii41 ,,viii41 ,,ix41 ,x42 but the two with which we are at present concerned are the fifth and sixth1 respectively entitled1 as we intimated in our last ,number1 8,geology10 and 8,the ,argument from ,geology40 ,the exact object at which this leading section of the ,essay is aimed is1 in the ,essayist's words1 this3--8,a complete reply to the difficulty which astronomical discoveries appeared to place in the way of religion3--the difficulty of the opinion that ,man1 occupying this speck of earth but as an atom in the universe1 surrounded by millions of other globes larger1 and to all appearance nobler1 than that which he inhabits1 should be the object of the peculiar care and guardianship of the favour and government of the ,creator of ,all1 in the way in which religion teaches us that he is40#af ,what is that 8complete reply80 ,the following passage contains a key to the entire speculation of the ,essayist1 and deserves a thoughtful perusal3-- 8,that the scale of man's insignificance is of the same order in reference to time as to space4 ,that ,man--the ,human ,race from its origin till now--has occupied but an atom of time as he has occupied but an atom of space40444 8,if the earth1 as the habitation of ,man1 is a speck in the midst of an infinity of space1 the ,earth1 as the habitation of ,man1 is also a speck at the end of an infinity of time4 ,if we are as nothing in the surrounding universe1 we are as nothing in the elapsed eternity2 or rather in the elapsed organic antiquity during which the ,earth has existed1 and been the abode of life4 ,if ,man is but one small family in the midst of innumerable possible households1 he is also but one small family1 the successor of innumerable tribes of animals1 not possible only1 but actual4 ,if the planets may be the seats of life1 we know that the seas1 which have given birth to our mountains1 were so4 ,if the stars may have hundreds of systems of tenanted planets rolling round them1 we know that the secondary group of rocks does contain hundreds of tenanted beds1 witnessing of as many systems of organic creation4 ,if the ,nebul may be planetary systems in the course of formation1 we know that the primary and transition rocks either show us the earth in the course of formation1 as the future seat of life1 or exhibit such life as already begun4 8,how far that which ,astronomy thus asserts as possible1 is probable--what is the value of these possibilities of life in distant regions of the universe1 we shall hereafter consider2 but in what ,geology asserts1 the case is clear4 ,it is no possibility1 but a certainty4 ,no one will now doubt that shells and skeletons1 trunks and leaves1 prove animal and vegetable life to have existed4 ,even1 therefore1 if ,astronomy could demonstrate all that her most fanciful disciples assume1 ,geology would still have a complete right to claim an equal hearing--to insist on having her analogies regarded4 ,she would have a right to answer the questions of ,astronomy1 when she asks1 ,how can we believe this8 ,and to have her answer accepted40#ag ,we regret that our space prevents our laying before the reader the masterly and deeply interesting epitome of geological discoveries contained in these two chapters4 ,the stupendous series of these revelations may be thus briefly indicated3--,that countless tribes of animals tenanted the earth for countless ages before ,man's advent2 that former ocean-beds now constitute the centres of our loftiest mountains1 as the results of changes gradual1 successive1 and long continued2 that these vast masses of sedimentary strata present themselves to our notice in a strangely disordered state2 that each of these rocky layers contains a vast profusion of the remains of marine animals1 intermingled with a great series of fresh-water and land animals and plants endlessly varied--all these being different1 not only in species1 but in kind6--and each of these separate beds must have lasted as long1 or perhaps longer1 than that during which the dry land has had its present form4 ,the careful prosecution of their researches has forced on the minds of geologists and naturalists 8the general impression that1 as we descend in this long staircase of natural steps1 we are brought in view of a state of the earth in which life was scantily manifested1 so as to be near its earliest stages40#ah ,in the opinion of the most eminent geologists1 some of these epochs of organic transition were also those of mechanical violence1 on a vast and wonderful scale--as it were1 a vast series of successive periods of alternate violence and repose4 ,the general nature of such change is vividly sketched by the ,essayist1 in a passage to which we must refer the reader4#ai ,when1 continues the ,essayist1 we find strata bearing evidence of such a mode of deposit1 and piled up to the height of thousands and tens of thousands of feet1 we are naturally led to regard them as the production of myriads of years2 and to add new myriads1 as often as we are brought to new masses of strata of the like kind2 and again to interpolate new periods of the same order1 to allow for the transition from one group to another4#bj ,the best geologists and naturalists are utterly at fault1 in attempting to account for the successive introduction of these numerous new species1 at these immense intervals of time1 except by referring them to the exercise of a series of distinct ,acts of ,creation4 ,the chimerical notion of some natural cause effecting a transmutation of one series of organic forms into another1 has been long exploded1 as totally destitute of proof3 and 8the doctrine of the successive ,,creation of species10 says the ,essayist1 8remains firmly established among geologists40#ba ,there is nothing known of the cosmical conditions of our globe1 to contradict the terrestrial evidence for its vast antiquity as the seat of organic life1#bb says ,dr ,whewell3 and then proceeds thus1 in a passage which is well worth the reader's attention1 and has excited the ire of ,sir ,david ,brewster3-- 8,if1 for the sake of giving definiteness to our notions1 we were to assume that the numbers which express the antiquity of these four periods--the present organic condition of the earth2 the tertiary period of geologists which preceded that2 the secondary period which was anterior to that2 and the primary period which preceded the secondary--were on the same scale as the numbers which express these four magnitudes3--,the magnitude of the earth2 that of the solar system compared with the earth2 the distance of the nearest fixed stars compared with the solar system2 and the distance of the most remote nebul compared with the nearest fixed stars1--there is1 in the evidence which geological science offers1 nothing to contradict such an assumption4 ,and as the infinite extent which we necessarily ascribe to space allows us to find room1 without any mental difficulty1 for the vast distances which astronomy reveals1 and even leaves us rather embarrassed with the infinite extent which lies beyond our furthest explorations2 so the infinite duration which we1 in like manner1 necessarily ascribe to past time1 makes it easy for us1 so far as our powers of intellect are concerned1 to go millions of millions of years backwards1 in order to trace the beginning of the earth's existence--the first step of terrestrial creation40 ,to return1 however1 to the course of the argument4 ,we hear the oppressed observer asking1 as he reascends this 8long staircase of natural steps0 which had brought time down to the mystic origin of animal existence2 his eye dimmed with its efforts to 8decipher10 in the picturesque language of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 8downwards1 the pale and perishing alphabet#bc of the ,chronology of ,life0--,,where1 ,,all ,,this ,,while1 ,,was ,,man8 ,were ,europe at this moment to be submerged beneath the ocean1 or placed under a vast rocky stratum1 what countless proofs would present themselves to the exploring eyes of remote future geologists1 of the existence of both ,man and his handiwork6--of his own skeleton1 of the products of his ingenuity and power1 and the various implements and instruments with which he had effected them6 ,the rudest conceivable work of human art would carry us to any extent backward1 but it is not to be found6 ,man's existence and history incontestably belong to the existing condition of the earth2 and the ,essayist now addresses himself to the two following propositions3-- ,first1 ,that the existence and history of man are facts of an ,entirely ,different ,order from any which existed in any of the previous states of the earth4 ,secondly1 ,that his history has occupied a series of years which1 compared with geological periods1 may be regarded as very brief and limited4 ,here opens the 8,argument from ,geology0--and with it ,chapter ,,vi4 ,that the existence of man upon the earth is an event of an order quite different from any previous part of the earth's history2 and that there is no transition from animals to ,,man1 in even his most degraded1 barbarian1 and brutish condition1 the ,essayist demonstrates1 with affecting eloquence1 and with great argumentative power4 ,no doubt there are kinds of animals very intelligent and sagacious1 and exceedingly disposed and adapted to companionship with man2 but by elevating the intelligence of the brute1 we do not make it become that of the man2 nor by making man barbarous1 do we make him cease to be man4 ,he has a capacity1 not for becoming sagacious1 but rational1--or rather he has a capacity for ,,progress1 in virtue of his being rational4 ,after adverting to ,language1 as an awful and mysterious evidence of his exalted endowments1 and felicitously distinguishing instinct from reason1 the ,essayist observes that we need not be disturbed in our conclusions by observing the condition of savage and uncultivated tribes1 ancient or modern--the ,scythians and ,barbarians1 the ,australians and ,negroes4 ,the history of man1 in the earliest times1 is as truly a history of a wonderful1 intellectual1 social1 political1 spiritual creature1 as it is at present4#bd ,the savage and ignorant state is not the state of nature out of which civilised life has everywhere emerged3 their savage condition is one rather of civilisation degraded and lost1 than of civilisation incipient and prospective4 ,and even were it to be assumed to be otherwise1 that man1 naturally savage1 had a tendency to become civilised1 that ,,tendency is an endowment no less wonderful than those endowments which civilisation exhibits4 ,when1 however1 we know not only what man is1 but what he may become1 both intellectually and morally1 as we have already seen2 when we cast our mind's eye over the history of the civilised section of our race1 wherever authentic records of their sayings and doings exist1 we find repeated and radiant instances of intellectual and moral greatness1 rising into sublimity--such as compel us to admit that man is incomparably the most perfect and highly endowed creature which appears to have ever existed on the earth4 8,how far previous periods of animal existence were a necessary preparation of the earth as the habitation of man1 or a gradual progression towards the existence of man1 we need not now inquire4 ,but this1 at least1 we may say1 that man1 now that he is here1 forms a climax to all that has preceded--a term incomparably exceeding in value all the previous parts of the series--a complex and ornate capital to the subjacent column--a personage of vastly greater dignity and importance than all the preceding line of the procession40#be ,if we are thus to regard man as the climax of the creation in space1 as in time1 8can we point out any characters10 finally asks the ,essayist1 8which may tend to make it conceivable that the ,creator should thus distinguish him1 and care for him--should prepare his habitation1 if it be so1 by ages of chaotic and rudimentary life1 and by accompanying orbs of brute and barren matter8 ,if man be thus the head1 the crowned head1 of the creation1 is he worthy to be thus elevated8 ,has he any qualities which make it conceivable that1 with such an array of preparation and accompaniment0--the reader will note the sudden introduction of these elements of the question1 the 8accompanying orbs60--8he should be placed upon the earth1 his throne8 ,does any answer now occur to us1 after the views which have been presented to us8 ,that answer10 continues the ,essayist1 8is the one which has been already given30 8the transcendent intellectual1 moral1 and religious character of man--such as warrants him in believing that ,god1 in very deed1 is not only mindful of him1 but visits him40#bf ,this may be1 the objector is conceived to say2 but my difficulty haunts and harasses me3 that1 while man's residence is1 with reference to the countless glistening orbs revealed by ,astronomy1 scarcely in the proportion of a single grain of sand to the entire terraqueous structure of our globe1 ,i am required to believe that the ,almighty has dealt with him1 and with the speck in which he resides1 in the awfully exceptional manner asserted in the ,scriptures4 ,let us here remind the reader of a coarser1 and an insolent and blasphemous1 expression of this 8difficulty10 by ,thomas ,paine1 already quoted3--#bg 8,the system of a plurality of worlds renders the ,christian faith at once little and ridiculous1 and scatters it in the mind like feathers in the air3 the two beliefs cannot be held together in the same mind40 ,with such an opponent ,dr ,whewell expressly states that he has no concern2 he deals with a 8#8difficulty' felt by a friend30 wishing 8rather to examine how to quiet the troubled and perplexed believer1 than how to triumph over the dogmatical and self-satisfied unbeliever40 8,let the difficulty10 he says1 8be put in any way the objector pleases40 ,i4 ,is it that it is unworthy of the greatness and majesty of ,god1 according to our conception of ,him1 to bestow such peculiar care on so ,,small ,a ,,part of ,his creation8#bh ,but a narrow inspection of the atom of space assigned to man1 proves that ,he has done so4 ,he has made the period of mankind1 though only a moment in the ages of animal life1 the only period of ,intelligence1 ,morality1 ,religion4 ,if it be contrary to ,,our6 conception of ,him1 to suppose ,him to have done so1 it is plain that these conceptions are wrong4 ,god has not judged as to what is worthy of ,him1 as we have presumed to judge4 ,he has deemed it worthy of ,himself to bestow upon man this special care1 though he occupy so small a portion of ,,time3--why not1 then1 though he occupy so small a portion of ,,space8 ,,ii4 ,is the difficulty this3--,that supposing the earth1 alone1 to be occupied by inhabitants1 all the other globes of the universe are ,,wasted8--turned to ,,no ,,purpose8#bi ,is 8waste0 of this kind to be considered unsuited to the character of our ,creator8 ,but here again we have the like 8waste0 in the occupation of this earth6 ,all its previous ages1 its seas and its continents1 have been 8wasted0 upon mere brute life3 often1 apparently1 on the lowest1 the least conscious forms of life3--upon sponges1 coral1 shell-fish4 ,why1 then1 should not the seas and continents of other planets be occupied with life of this order1 or with no life at all8 ,who shall tell how many ages elapsed before this earth was tenanted by life at all8 ,will the occupation of a spot of land1 or a little water1 by the life of a sponge1 a coral1 or an oyster1 save it from being 8wasted08 ,if a spot of rock or water be sufficiently employed by its being the mere seat of organisation1 of however low and simple a type1--why not1 by its being the mere seat of attraction8 cohesion8 crystalline power8 ,all parts of the universe appear pervaded by attraction1 by forces of aggregation and atomic relation1 by light and heat3 why may not these be sufficient1 in the eyes of the ,creator1 to prevent the space from being 8wasted10 as1 during a great part of the earth's past history1 and over vast portions of its mass in its present form1 they are actually held by ,him to be sufficient8 since these powers1 or forces1 are all that occupy such portions4 ,this notion1 therefore1 of the improbability of there being in the universe so vast an amount of 8waste0 spaces1 or 8waste0 bodies1 as is implied in the notion that the earth alone is the seat of life1 or of intelligence1 is confuted by matter-of-fact1 existing1 in respect of vast spaces1 waste districts1 and especially waste times1 upon our own earth4 ,the avoidance of such 8waste10 according to our notions of waste1 is no part of the economy of creation1 so far as we can discern that economy in its most certain exemplification4 ,,iii4 ,is the difficulty this3--,that giving such a peculiar dignity and importance to the earth is ,,contrary ,,to ,,the ,,analogy ,,of ,,creation8#cj ,this objection1 be it observed1 assumes that there are so many globes similar to the earth1 and like her revolving1--some accompanied as she is1 by satellites1--on their axis1 and that therefore it is reasonable to suppose the destination and office of all1 the same2--that there are so many stars1 each1 like our sun1 a source of light1 probably also of heat2 and that it is consequently reasonable to suppose their light and heat1 like his1 imparted1 as from so many centres of systems1 to uphold life2--and that all this affords strong ground for believing all such planets1 as well those of our own as of other systems1 inhabited like our planet4 ,but the ,essayist again directs the eye of the questioner to the state of our own planet1 as demonstrated by ,geology1 in order to show the precariousness1 if not futility1 of supposing such an analogy to exist4 ,it would lead us to a palpably false conclusion--viz41 that during all the vast successive periods of the ,earth's history1 that ,earth was occupied with life of the same order--nay1 even1 that since the ,earth is now the seat of an intelligent population1 it must have been so in all its former conditions4 ,for it was then able1 and adapted1 to support animal life1 and that of creatures pretty closely resembling man#ca in physical structure4 ,nevertheless1 if evidence go for anything1 the ,earth did not do so6 8,even10 says ,dr ,whewell1 8those geologists who have dwelt most on the discovery of fossil monkeys1 and other animals nearest to man1 have not dreamed that there existed1 before him1 a race of rational1 intelligent1 and progressive creatures40#cb ,here1 however1 he is mistaken1 as we shall presently see ,sir ,david ,brewster revelling in such a dream4 ,as1 then1 the notion that one period of time in the ,earth's history must resemble another in the character of its population1 because it resembles it in physical conditions1 is negatived by the history of the ,earth itself2 so the notion that one part of the universe must resemble another in its population1 because it has a resemblance in physical conditions1 is negatived1 as a law of creation4 ,analogy really affords no support to such a notion4 ,,iv4 ,nay1 continues ,dr ,whewell1#cc we may go further3 instead of the analogy of creation pointing to such entire resemblance of similar parts1 it points in the opposite direction3 it is not entire resemblance1 but universal difference1 that we discover3 not the repetition of exactly similar cases1 but a series of cases perpetually dissimilar1 presents itself3 not constancy1 but change--perhaps advance2 not one permanent and pervading scheme1 but preparation1 and completion of successive schemes3--not uniformity1 and a fixed type of existences1 but progression and a climax4 ,viewing the advent of ,man1 and what preceded it1 it seems the analogy of nature that there should be inferior1 as well as superior1 provinces in the universe1 and that the inferior may occupy an immensely larger portion of ,time than the superior4 ,why not1 then1 of ,space8 8,the earth was brute and inert1 compared with its present condition2 dark and chaotic1 so far as the light of reason and intelligence are concerned1 for countless centuries before man was created4 ,why then may not other parts of creation be still in this brute and inert and chaotic state1 while the earth is under the influence of a higher exercise of creative power8 ,if the earth was for ages a turbid abyss of lava and of mud1 why may not ,mars or ,saturn be so still8444 ,the possibility that the planets are such rude masses1 is quite as tenable1 on astronomical grounds1 as the possibility that the planets resemble the earth1 in matters of which astronomy can tell us nothing4 ,we say1 therefore1 that the example of geology refutes the argument drawn from the supposed analogy of one part of the universe with another2 and suggests a strong suspicion that the force of analogy1 better known1 may tend in the opposite direction40#cd ,we have now gone through a large portion1 embracing two of the three sections into which we had divided this startling ,essay2 presenting as full and fair an account of it as is consistent with our limits4 ,though the author professes that he 8does not pretend to disprove the ,plurality of ,worlds1 but to deny the existence of arguments making the doctrine probable10 his undisguised object is to assign cogent reasons for holding the opposite to be the true doctrine--the ,unity of the ,world4 ,what has gone before is1 moreover1 on the assumption that the other bodies of the universe are fitted1 equally with the ,earth1 to be the abodes of life4 ,before passing on1 however1 to the remaining section of the ,essay1 which is decidedly hostile to that assumption1 let us here introduce on the scene ,dr ,whewell's only hitherto avowed antagonist1 ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,though it is impossible to treat otherwise than with much consideration1 whatever is published by this gentleman1 we must express our regret that he did not more deliberately approach so formidable an opponent as ,dr ,whewell1 and1 as we are compelled to add1 in a more calm and courteous spirit4 ,we never read a performance less calculated than this ,essay1 from its modesty and moderation of tone1 and the high and abstract nature of the topics which it discusses with such powerful logic1 and such a profusion of knowledge of every kind1 to provoke an acrimonious answer4 ,it is happily rare1 in recent times1 for one of two philosophic disputants1 to speak of the other's 8exhibiting an amount of knowledge so massive as occasionally to smother his reason20#ce 8ascribing his sentiments only to some morbid condition of the mental powers1 which feeds upon paradox1 and delights in doing violence to sentiments deeply cherished1 and to opinions universally believed20#cf characterising some of his reasonings as 8dialectics in which a large dose of banter and ridicule is seasoned with a little condiment of science20#cg and an elaborate argument1 of great strength and originality1 whether sound or not1 as 8the most ingenious1 though shallow piece of sophistry1 which we6 7,sir ,david ,brewster7 have encountered in modern times20#ch referring his 8theories and speculations to no better a feeling than a love of notoriety40#ci ,it is not to be supposed that ,sir ,david was not perfectly aware who his opponent was1#dj which occasions extreme surprise at the tone adopted throughout ,more ,worlds than ,one4 ,in his preface1 he explains as a cause of his anger1 that he found that 8the author0 of the ,essay1 8under a title calculated to mislead the public1 had made an elaborate attack upon opinions consecrated1 as ,sir ,david had thought1 by reason and revelation10--that the author had not only adopted a theory 7the ,nebular7 so universally condemned as a dangerous speculation1 8but had taken a view of the condition of the solar system calculated to disparage the science of astronomy1 and throw a doubt over the noblest of its truths40 ,we dismiss this topic with a repetition of our regret1 that so splendid a subject was not approached in a serener spirit2 that greater respect was not shown by one of his contemporaries for one of the most eminent men of the age2 and that sufficient time was not taken1 in order to avoid divers surprising macul occurring in even the composition1 and certain rash and unguarded expressions and speculations4 ,if ,dr ,whewell may be regarded as 7pace tanti viri67 a sort of ,star-,smasher1 his opponent is in very truth a ,star-,peopler4 ,though he admits that 8there are some difficulties to be removed1 and some additional analogies to be adduced1 before the mind can admit the startling proposition#da that the ,sun1 ,moon1 and all the satellites1 are inhabited spheres0--yet he believes that they are3#db that all the planets of their respective systems are so2 as well as all the single stars1 double stars1 and nebul1 with all planets and satellites circling about them6--though 8our faltering reason utterly fails us60 he owns1#dc 8when called on to believe that even the ,nebul must be surrendered to life and reason6 ,wherever there is matter there must be life60 ,one can by this time almost pardon the excitement1 the alarm rather1 and anger1 with which ,sir ,david ruefully beheld ,dr ,whewell go forth on his exterminating expedition through ,infinitude6 ,it was like a father gazing on the ruthless slaughter of his offspring4 ,planet after planet1 satellite after satellite1 star after star1 sun after sun1 single suns and double suns1 system after system1 nebula after nebula1 all disappeared before this sidereal ,quixote6 ,as for ,jupiter and ,saturn1 the pet planets of ,sir ,david1 they were dealt with in a way perfectly shocking4 ,the former turned out1 to the disordered optics and unsteady brain of the ,essayist1 to be a sphere of water1 with perhaps a few cinders at the centre1 and peopled 8with cartilaginous and glutinous monsters--boneless1 watery1 pulpy creatures1 floating in the fluid20 while poor ,saturn may be supposed turning aghast on hearing that1 for all his grand appearance1 he was little else than a sphere of vapour1 with a little water1 tenanted1 if at all1 by 8aqueous1 gelatinous creatures--too sluggish almost to be deemed alive--floating in their ice-cold waters1 shrowded for ever by their humid skies60 ,but talk after this of the pensive ,moon6 8,she is a mere cinder6 a collection of sheets of rigid slag1 and inactive craters60 ,this could be borne no longer2 so thus ,sir ,david pours forth the grief and indignation of the ,soul ,astronomic1 in a passage fraught with the spirit1 and embodying the results1 of his whole book1 and which we give1 as evidently laboured by the author with peculiar care4 8,those ungenial minds that can be brought to believe that the earth is the only inhabited body in the universe1 will have no difficulty in conceiving that it also might have been without inhabitants4 ,nay1 if such minds are imbued with geological truth1 they must admit that for millions of years the earth was without inhabitants2 and hence we are led to the extraordinary result1 that for millions of years there was not an intelligent creature in the vast dominions of the universal ,king2 and that before the formation of the protozoic strata1 there was neither a plant nor an animal throughout the infinity of space6 ,during this long period of universal death1 when ,nature herself was asleep--the sun1 with his magnificent attendants--the planets1 with their faithful satellites--the stars in the binary systems--the solar system itself1 were performing their daily1 their annual1 and their secular movements unseen1 unheeded1 and fulfilling no purpose that human reason can conceive2 lamps lighting nothing--fires heating nothing--waters quenching nothing--clouds screening nothing--breezes fanning nothing--and everything around1 mountain and valley1 hill and dale1 earth and ocean1 all meaning nothing4 #8,the stars ,did wander darkling in the eternal space4' ,to our apprehension1 such a condition of the earth1 of the solar system1 and of the sidereal universe1 would be the same as that of our own globe if all its vessels of war and of commerce were traversing its seas with empty cabins and freightless holds2 as if all the railways on its surface were in full activity without passengers and goods2 and all our machinery beating the air and gnashing their iron teeth without work performed4 ,a house without tenants1 a city without citizens1 present to our minds the same idea as a planet without life1 and a universe without inhabitants4 ,why the house was built1 why the city was founded1 why the planet was made1 and why the universe was created1 it would be difficult even to conjecture4 ,equally great would be the difficulty were the planets shapeless lumps of matter1 poised in ether1 and still and motionless as the grave4 ,but when we consider them as chiselled spheres1 and teeming with inorganic beauty1 and in full mechanical activity1 performing their appointed motions with such miraculous precision that their days and their years never err a second of time in hundreds of centuries1 the difficulty of believing them to be without life is1 if possible1 immeasurably increased4 ,to conceive any one material globe1 whether a gigantic clod slumbering in space1 or a noble planet equipped like our own1 and duly performing its appointed task1 to have no living occupants1 or not in a state of preparation to receive them1 seems to us one of those notions which could be harboured only in an ill-educated and ill-regulated mind--a mind without faith and without hope3 but to conceive a whole universe of moving and revolving worlds in such a category1 indicates1 in our apprehension1 a mind dead to feeling and shorn of reason40#dd 8,it is doubtless possible10 observes ,sir ,david1 however1 a little further on1#de as if with a twinge of misgiving1 8that the ,mighty ,architect of the universe may have had other objects in view1 incomprehensible by us1 than that of supporting animal and vegetable life in these magnificent spheres40 ,would that ,sir ,david ,brewster would allow himself to be largely influenced by this rational and devout sentiment6 ,his book is1 on the contrary1 crammed with assertions from beginning to end1 and of a peremptory and intolerant character unknown to the spirit of genuine philosophy4 ,the ,essayist1 however1 is not incapable of quiet humour3 and the following pregnant passage is at least worthy to stand side by side with that which we have just quoted from his indignant and eloquent opponent3-- 8,undoubtedly1 all true astronomers1 taught caution and temperance of thought by the discipline of their magnificent science1 abstain from founding such assumptions upon their discoveries4 ,they know how necessary it is to be upon their guard against the tricks which fancy plays with the senses2 and if they see appearances of which they cannot interpret the meaning1 they are content that they should have no meaning for them1 till the due explanation comes4 ,we have innumerable examples of this wise and cautious temper in all periods of astronomy4 ,one has occurred lately4 ,several careful astronomers1 observing the stars by day1 had been surprised to see globes of light glide across the field of view of their telescopes1 often in rapid succession1 and in great numbers4 ,they did not1 as may be supposed1 rush to the assumption that these globes were celestial bodies of a new kind1 before unseen1 and that1 from the peculiarity of their appearance and movement1 they were probably inhabited by beings of a peculiar kind4 ,they proceeded differently4 ,they altered the focus of their telescopes1 looked with other glasses1 made various changes and trials2 and finally discovered that these globes of light were the winged seeds of certain plants1 which were wafted through the air1 and which1 illuminated by the sun1 were made globular by being at distances unsuited to the focus of the telescopes60#df ,before proceeding to give our readers some idea of the mode in which ,sir ,david ,brewster encounters ,dr ,whewell1 let us offer a general observation concerning both these eminent gentlemen4 ,while the latter exhibits throughout his ,essay a spirit of candour and modesty1 without one harsh expression or uncharitable insinuation with reference to the holder of doctrines which he is bent upon impugning with all his mental power and multifarious resources2 the former1 as we have seen1 uses language at once heated1 uncourteous1 and unjustifiable3 especially where he more than insinuates that his opponent1 whose great knowledge and ability he admits1 either deliberately countenances doctrines tending really to ,atheism1 or may be believed 8ignorant of their tendency1 and to have forgotten the truths of ,inspiration1 and even those of ,natural ,religion40#dg ,to venture1 however circuitously1 to hint such imputations upon an opponent whom he had the slightest reason to suspect being one of such high and responsible academic position1 is an offence equally against personal courtesy and public propriety2 as we think ,sir ,david ,brewster would1 on reflection1 acknowledge4 ,both ,dr ,whewell and ,sir ,david ,brewster must excuse us1 if1 scanning both through the cold medium of impartial criticism1 their speculations1 questions1 or assertions appear to us disturbed and deflected by a leading prepossession or foregone conclusion1 which we shall indicate in the words of each4 ,dr ,,whewell4--8,the ,earth is really the largest ,planetary body in the ,solar system2 its domestic hearth1 and the ,only ,world i4 e4 collection of intelligent creatures in the ,universe40#dh ,sir ,,david ,,brewster4--8,life is almost a property of matter4444 ,wherever there is ,matter1 there must be ,life3--,life physical1 to enjoy its beauties2 ,life ,moral1 to worship its ,maker2 and ,life ,intellectual1 to proclaim ,his wisdom and ,his power4444 ,universal ,life upon ,universal matter1 is an idea to which the mind instinctively clings4444 ,every star in the ,heavens1 and every point in a nebula which the most powerful telescope has not separated from its neighbour1 is a sun surrounded by inhabited planets like our own4444 ,in peopling such worlds with life and intelligence1 we assign the cause of their existence2 and when the mind is once alive to this great ,truth1 it cannot fail to realise the grand combination of infinity of life with infinity of matter40#di ,the composition of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 though occasionally too declamatory and rhetorical1 and so far lacking the dignified simplicity befitting the subjects with which he deals1 has much merit4 ,it is easy1 vivid1 and vigorous1 but will bear retrenchment1 and lowering of tone4 ,as to the substantial texture of his work1 we think it betrays1 in almost every page1 haste and impetuosity1 and evidence that the writer has sadly under-estimated the strength of his opponent4 ,another feature of ,more ,worlds than ,one1 is a manifest desire provocare ad populum--a greater anxiety1 in the first instance1 to catch the ear of the million1 than to convince the 8fit audience1 though few40 ,now1 however1 to his work2 and1 as we have already said1 on him lies the labouring oar of proof4 ,all that his opponent professes to do1 is to ask for arguments 8rendering probable0 that 8doctrine0 which ,sir ,david pledges himself to demonstrate to be not only the 8hope0 of the ,christian1 but the creed of the philosopher3 as much1 that is1 an article of his belief1 as the doctrines of attraction and gravitation1 or the existence of demonstrable astronomical facts4 ,he commences with a brief introduction1 sketching the growth of the belief in a plurality of worlds--one steadily and firmly increasing in strength1 till it encountered the rude shock of the ,essayist1 whose 8very remarkable work0 is 8ably written10 and who 8defends ingeniously his novel and extraordinary views30 8the direct tendency of which is to ridicule and bring into contempt the grand discoveries in sidereal astronomy by which the last century has been distinguished40 ,in his next chapter1 ,sir ,david discusses 8the religious aspect of the question10 representing man1 especially the philosopher1 as always having pined after a knowledge of the scene of his future being4 ,he declares that neither the ,old nor the ,new ,testament contains 8a single expression incompatible with the great truth that there are other worlds than our own which are the seats of life and intelligence20 but1 on the contrary1 there are 8other passages which are inexplicable without admitting it to be true40 ,he regards1 as we have seen1 the noble exclamation of the ,psalmist1 8,what is man10 as 8a positive argument for a plurality of worlds20 and 8cannot doubt0 that he was gifted with a plenary knowledge of the starry system1 inhabited as ,sir ,david would have it to be6 ,dr ,chalmers1 let us remark1 in passing1 expressed himself differently1 and with a more becoming reserve3 8,it is not for us to say whether inspiration revealed to the ,psalmist the wonders of the modern astronomy10 but 8even though the mind be a perfect stranger to the science of these enlightened times1 the heavens present a great and an elevating spectacle1 the contemplation of which awakened the piety of the ,psalmist0--a view in which ,dr ,whewell concurs4 ,sir ,david then comes to consider the doctrine of 8,man1 in his future state of existence1 consisting1 as at present1 of a spiritual nature residing in a corporeal frame40 ,we must1 therefore1 find for the race of ,adam1 8if not for the races which preceded him60#ej 8a material home upon which he may reside1 or from which he may travel to other localities in the universe40 ,that house1 he says1 cannot be the earth1 for it will not be big enough--there will be such a 8population as the habitable parts of our globe could not possibly accommodate20 wherefore1 8we can scarcely doubt that their future abode must be on some of the primary or secondary planets of the solar system1 whose inhabitants have ceased to exist1 like those on the earth2 or on planets which have long been in a state of preparation1 as our earth was1 for the advent of intellectual life40 ,here1 then1 is 8the creed of the philosopher10 as well as 8the hope of the ,christian40 ,passing1 according to the order adopted in this paper1 from the first chapter 78,religious ,aspect of the ,question071 we alight on the seventh1 entitled 8,religious ,difficulties40 ,we entertain too much consideration for ,sir ,david ,brewster to speak harshly of anything falling from his pen2 but we think ourselves justified in questioning whether this chapter--dealing with speculations of an awful nature1 among which the greatest religious and philosophical intellects tremble as they 8go sounding on their dim and perilous way0--shows him equal to cope with his experienced opponent1 whom every page devoted to such topics shows to have fixed the ,,difficulty with which he proposed to deal1 fully and steadily before his eyes1 in all its moral1 metaphysical1 and philosophical bearings1 and to have discussed it cautiously and reverently4 ,we shall content ourselves with briefly indicating the course of observation on that 8difficulty0 adopted by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 and leaving it to the discreet reader to form his own judgment whether ,sir ,david has left the difficulty where he found it1 or removed1 lessened1 or enhanced it4 ,dr ,whewell1 in his ,dialogue1 thus temperately and effectively deals with this section of his opponent's lucubrations3-- 8,his own solution of the question concerning the redemption of other worlds appears to be this1 that the provision made for the redemption of man by what took place upon earth eighteen hundred years ago1 may have extended its influence to other worlds4 8,in reply to which astronomico-theological hypothesis three remarks offer themselves3 ,in the first place1 the hypothesis is entirely without warrant or countenance in the revelation from which all our knowledge of the scheme of redemption is derived2 in the second place1 the events which took place upon earth eighteen hundred years ago1 were connected with a train of events in the history of man1 which had begun at the creation of man1 and extended through all the intervening ages2 and the bearing of this whole series of events upon the condition of the inhabitants of other worlds must be so different from its bearing on the condition of man1 that the hypothesis needs a dozen other auxiliary hypotheses to make it intelligible2 and1 in the third place1 this hypothesis1 making the earth1 insignificant as it seems to be in the astronomical scheme1 the centre of the theological scheme1 ascribes to the earth a peculiar distinction1 quite as much at variance with the analogies of the planets to one another1 as the supposition that the earth alone is inhabited2 to say nothing of the bearing of the critic's hypothesis on the other systems that encircle other suns40#ea 8,in freely discussing the subject of a ,plurality of ,worlds10 says ,sir ,david1 8there can be no collision between ,reason and ,revelation40 ,he regrets the extravagant conclusion of some1 that the inhabitants of all planets but our own1 8are sinless and immortal beings that never broke the ,divine ,law1 and enjoying that perfect felicity reserved for only a few of the less favoured occupants of earth4 ,thus chained to a planet1 the lowest and most unfortunate in the universe1 the philosopher1 with all his analogies broken down1 may justly renounce his faith in a ,plurality of ,worlds1 and rejoice in the more limited but safer creed of the anti-,pluralist author1 who makes the earth the only world in the universe1 and the special object of ,god's paternal care40#eb ,he proceeds1 in accordance with 8men of lofty minds and undoubted piety10 to regard the existence of moral evil as a necessary part of the general scheme of the universe1 and consequently affecting all its ,rational ,inhabitants4#ec ,he 8rejects the idea that the inhabitants of the planets do not require a ,saviour2 and maintains the more rational opinion1 that they stand in the same moral relation to their ,maker as the inhabitants of the earth2 and seeks for a solution of the difficulty--how can there be inhabitants in the planets1 when ,god had but ,one ,son1 whom ,he could send to save them8 ,if we can give a satisfactory answer to this question1 it may destroy the objections of the ,infidel1 while it relieves the ,christian from his difficulties40#ed444 8,when our ,saviour died1 the influence of ,his death extended backward1 in the ,past1 to millions who never heard ,his name2 in the ,future1 to millions who never will hear it 444 a ,force which did not vary with any function of the distance4#ee444 ,emanating from the middle planet of the system40 ----,the earth the middle planet of the system8 ,how is this8 ,in an earlier portion of his book 7p4 #ef71 ,sir ,david had demonstrated that 8our earth is neither the middle his own italics planet1 nor the planet nearest the sun1 nor the planet furthest from that luminary3 that therefore the earth1 as a planet1 has no pre-eminence in the solar system1 to induce us to believe that it is the only inhabited world4444 ,jupiter is the middle planet 7p4 #ee71 and is otherwise highly distinguished60 ,how is this8 ,can the two passages containing such direct contradictions have emanated from the same scientific controversialist8--,to resume1 however3 --8,emanating from the middle planet of the system1 why may it not have extended to them all1 444 to the ,planetary ,races in the ,past1 and to the ,planetary ,races in the ,future8444 ,but to bring our argument more within the reach of an ordinary understanding0--he supposes our earth split into two parts6 the old world and the new 7as ,biela's comet is supposed to have been divided in #ahdf71 at the beginning of the ,christian era6#ef--8would not both fragments have shared in the beneficence of the ,cross--the penitent on the shores of the ,mississippi1 as richly as the pilgrim on the banks of the ,jordan8444 ,should this view prove unsatisfactory to the anxious inquirer1 we may suggest another sentiment1 even though we ourselves may not admit it into our creed4444 ,may not the ,divine ,nature1 which can neither suffer1 nor die1 and which1 in our planet1 once only clothed itself in humanity1 resume elsewhere a physical form1 and expiate the guilt of unnumbered worlds80#eg ,we repeat1 that we abstain from offering any of the stern strictures which these passages almost extort from us4 ,he proceeds to declare himself incompetent to comprehend the ,difficulty 8put in a form so unintelligible0 by the ,essayist--that of a kind of existence1 similar to that of men1 in respect of their intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual character1 and its progressive development1 existing in any region occupied by other beings than man4 ,he denies that ,progression has been the character of the history of man1#eh but rather frequent and vast retrogressions ever since the ,fall2 and asks 8which of these ever-changing conditions of humanity is the unique condition of the ,essayist--incapable of repetition in the scheme of the ,universe80#ei ,why may there not be an intermediate race between that of man and the angelic beings of ,scripture1 where human reason shall pass into the highest form of created mind1 and human affections into their noblest development8-- 8,why may not the intelligence of the spheres be ordained for the study of regions and objects unstudied and unknown on earth8 ,why may not labour have a better commission than to earn its bread by the sweat of its brow8 ,why may it not pluck its loaf from the bread-fruit tree1 or gather its manna from the ground1 or draw its wine from the bleeding vessels of the vine1 or inhale its anodyne breath from the paradise gas of its atmosphere80#fj ,and ,sir ,david thus concludes the chapter3-- 8,the difficulties we have been considering1 in so far as they are of a religious character1 have been very unwisely introduced into the question of a ,plurality of ,worlds4 ,we are not entitled to remonstrate with the sceptic1 but we venture to doubt the soundness of that philosopher's judgment who thinks that the truths of natural religion are affected by a belief in planetary races1 and the reality of that ,christian's faith who considers it to be endangered by a belief that there are other ,worlds than his own40 ,this last paragraph induces us to go so far as to doubt whether ,sir ,david ,brewster has addressed his understanding deliberately1 to the subject to which so large a portion of the most elaborate reasonings of ,dr ,whewell have been directed4 ,sir ,david does not quarrel with the ,essayist's account of the constitution of man2 and we must now see how he deals with the ,essayist's arguments drawn from ,geology4 ,sir ,david 8is not disposed to grudge the geologist even periods so marvellous0 as 8millions of years required for the formation of strata1 provided they be considered as merely hypothetical20 and admits that 8our seas and continents have nearly the same locality1 and cover nearly the same area1 as they did at the creation of ,adam20 but demurs to the conclusion that the earth was prepared for man by causes operating so gradually as the diurnal change going on around us4 8,why may not the ,almighty have deposited the earth's strata1 during the whole period of its formation1 by a rapid precipitation of their atoms from the waters which suspended them1 so as to reduce the period of the earth's formation to little more than the united generations of the different orders of plants and animals constituting its organic remains8 ,why not still further shorten the period1 by supposing that plants and animals1 requiring1 in our day1 a century for their development1 may in primitive times have shot up in rank luxuriance1 and been ready1 in a few days6 or months6 or years1 for the great purpose of exhibiting1 by their geological distribution1 the progressive formation of the earth80#fa ,these questions1 of which a myriad similar ones might be asked by any one1 we leave to our geological readers2 and hasten to inform them1 that in involuntary homage to the powerful reasonings of his opponent1 ,sir ,david ,brewster is fain to question the 8inference that man did not exist during the period of the earth's formation20#fb and to suggest that 8there may have existed intellectual races in present unexplored continental localities1 or the immense regions of the earth now under water60--8,the future of geology may be pregnant with startling discoveries of the remains of intellectual races1 even beneath the primitive ,azoic#fc formations of the earth6444 ,who can tell what sleeps beyond8 ,another creation may be beneath6 more glorious creatures may be entombed there6 the mortal coils of beings more lovely1 more pure1 more divine than man1 may yet read to us the unexpected lesson that we have not been the first1 and may not be the last of the intellectual race60#fd ,is he who can entertain and publish conjectures like these1 entitled to stigmatise so severely those of other speculators--as 8inconceivable absurdities1 which no sane mind can cherish--suppositions too ridiculous even for a writer of romance60 ,this wild license given to the fancy may not be amiss in a poet1 whose privilege it is that his 8eye in a fine phrenzy rolling0 may 8give to airy nothing a local habitation1 and a name30--but when set in the scale against the solemnly magnificent array of facts in the earth's history established by ,geology1 may be summarily discarded by sober and grave inquirers4 ,the ,essayist's suggested analogy between man's relation to time and to space appears to us not understood1 in either its scope or nature1 by ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,at this we are as much surprised1 as at the roughness with which he characterises the argument1 as 8the most ingenious though shallow piece of sophistry he has ever encountered in modern dialectics40 ,the ,essayist suggests a comparison between the numbers expressing the four magnitudes and distances1--of the earth1 the solar system1 the fixed stars1 and the nebul--and the numbers expressing the antiquity of the four geological periods 8for the sake of giving definiteness to our notions40 ,sir ,david abstains from quoting these last expressions1 and alleges that the ,essayist1 8quitting the ground of analogy10 founds an elaborate argument on the mutual relation of an atom of time and an atom of space4 ,the 8argument0 ,sir ,david thus presents to his readers1 the capital and italic letters being his own3 8,that is1 the earth1 the ,,atom ,,of ,,space1 is the only one of the planetary and sidereal worlds that is inhabited1 because it was so long without inhabitants1 and has been occupied only an ,,atom ,,of ,,time40#fe 8,if any of our readers10 he adds1 8see the force of this argument1 they must possess an acuteness of perception to which we lay no claim4 ,to us1 it is not only illogical2 it is a mere sound in the ear1 without any sense in the brain40 ,this is the language possibly befitting an irritated ,professor towards an ignorant and conceited student1 but hardly suitable when ,sir ,david ,brewster is speaking of such an antagonist as he cannot but know he has to deal with4 ,it does not appear to us the ,essayist's attempt1 or purpose1 to establish any arbitrary absolute relation between time and space1 or definite proportions of either1 as concurring or alternative elements for determining the probability of a plurality of worlds4 ,but he says to the dogmatic astronomical objector to ,christianity1 ,such arguments as you have hitherto derived from your consideration of ,,space1 ,,multitude1 and ,,magnitude1 for the purpose of depressing man into a being beneath his ,maker's special notice1 ,i encounter by arguments derived from recent disclosures concerning another condition of existence--,,duration1 or ,,time4 ,protesting that neither ,time nor ,space has any true connection with the subject1 nevertheless ,i will turn your own weapons against yourself4 ,my argument from ,time shall at least neutralise yours from ,space3 mine shall involve the conditions of yours1 fraught with their supposed irresistible force1 and falsify them in fact1 as forming premises whence may be deduced derogatory inferences concerning man4 ,the ,essayist's ingenious and suggestive argument is intended not to prove an opinion1 but to remove an objection2 which1 according to the profound thinker1 ,bishop ,butler1 is the proper office of analogy4 ,it is asked1 for instance1 how can you suppose that man1 such as he is represented to be1 occupies only an immeasurably minute fraction of existing matter8 and it is answered1 ,i find that man occupies only an immeasurably minute fraction of elapsed time3 and this is1 to me1 an answer to the 8,how10 as concluding improbability4 ,how is balanced against ,how3 ,difficulty against difficulty3 they neutralise each other1 and leave the great question1 the great reality1 standing as it did before either was suggested1 to be dealt with according to such evidence as ,god has vouchsafed us4 ,we1 therefore1 do not see that the ,essayist is driven to say1 as ,sir ,david ,brewster alleges he is1 either that because man has occupied only an atom of space1 he must live only an atom of time on the earth2#ff or that because he has lived only an atom of time1 he must occupy but an atom of space4 ,in dismissing this leading portion of the ,essayist's reasonings1 we shall say only that we consider it worthy of the attention of all persons occupied in speculations of this nature1 as calculated to suggest trains of novel1 profitable1 and deeply interesting reflection4 ,thus far the ,essayist1 as followed by his opponent1 on the assumption that the other bodies of the universe are fitted1 equally with the earth1 to be the abodes of life4 ,but are they8 ,here we are brought to the last stage of the ,essayist's speculations--,what physical ,,evidence have we that the other bodies of the ,solar ,system1 besides the ,earth1 the ,fixed ,stars1 and the ,nebul1 are structures capable of supporting human life1 of being inhabited by ,rational and ,moral ,beings8 ,the great question1 in its physical aspect1 is now fully before us3 ,is there that analogy on which the pluralist relies8 ,for the existence of ,life several conditions must concur2 and any of these failing1 life1 so far as we know anything about it1 is impossible4 ,not air1 only1 and moisture1 but a certain temperature1 neither too hot nor too cold1 and a certain consistence1 on which the living frame can rest4 ,without the other conditions1 an atmosphere alone does not make life possible2 still less1 prove its existence4 ,a globe of red-hot metal1 or of solid ice1 however well provided with an atmosphere1 could not be inhabited1 so far as we can conceive4 ,the old maxim of the logicians is true3 that it requires all the conditions to establish the affirmative1 but that the negative of any one proves the negative4 ,first1 as to the smallest tenants of our system1 the thirty#fg planetoids1 some of which are certainly no larger than ,mont ,blanc4 ,sir ,david ,brewster dare not venture to suggest that they are inhabited1 or in any condition to become so1 any more than meteoric stones1 which modern science regards as masses of matter1 moving1 like the planets1 in the celestial spaces1 subject to the gravitating attraction of the ,sun2 the ,earth encountering them occasionally1 either striking directly upon them1 or approaching to them so closely that they are drawn by the terrestrial attraction1 first within the atmosphere1 and afterwards to the earth's surface4#fh ,here our ,essayist gives a thrust at his ,pluralist opponent not to be parried1 asking him why he shrunk from asserting the planetoids and meteoric stones to be inhabited8 ,if it be because of their being found to be uninhabited1 or of their smallness1 then 8the argument that they are inhabited because they are planets fails him40#fi 8,there is1 then10 says elsewhere the wary ,essayist1#gj 8a degree of smallness which makes you reject the supposition of inhabitants4 ,but where does that degree of smallness begin8 ,the surface of ,mars is only one-fourth that of the ,earth4 ,moreover1 if you allow all the planetoids to be uninhabited1 those planets which you acknowledge to be probably uninhabited far outnumber those with regard to which even the most resolute ,pluralist holds to be inhabited4 ,the majority swells every year2 the planetoids are now thirty4 ,the fact of a planet being inhabited1 then1 is1 at any rate1 rather the exception than the rule2 and therefore must be proved1 in each case1 by special evidence4 ,of such evidence ,i know not a trace60 ,we may add1 also1 that ,dr ,lardner1 vouched by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 as we shall soon see1 to be a thoroughly competent witness1 gives up the planetoids as seats of habitation for animal life4#ga ,let us now1 would say our ,essayist1 proceed on our negative tour1 so to speak1 and hasten to pay our respects to the ,moon1 our nearest neighbour1 and whose distance from the ,sun is admitted to adapt her1 so far1 for habitation4#gb ,if it appear1 by strong evidence1 that the ,moon is not inhabited1 then there is an end of the general principle1 that all the bodies of the solar system are inhabited1 and that we must begin our speculation about each with this assumption4 ,if the ,moon be not inhabited1 then1 it would seem1 the belief that each special body in the system is inhabited1 must depend upon reasons specially belonging to that body1 and cannot be taken for granted without these reasons4#gc ,now1 as to the ,moon1 we have latterly acquired the means of making such exact and minute inquiries1 that at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,hull last year1 ,mr ,phillips1 an eminent geologist1 stated that astronomers can discern the shape of a spot on the ,moon's surface1 only a few hundred feet in breadth4 ,passing by1 however1 the ,essayist's brief but able account of the physical condition of this satellite of ours1 we will cite the recent testimony of one accredited by ,sir ,david ,brewster#gd as 8a mathematician and a natural philosopher1 who has studied1 more than any preceding writer1 the analogies between the ,earth and the other planets0--,dr ,lardner1 who1 in the third volume 7published since our last ,number appeared7 of the work placed at the head of this article1 thus concludes his elaborate account of the ,moon1 as now regarded by the most enlightened astronomers--after proving it to be 8as exempt from an atmosphere as is the utterly exhausted receiver of a good air-pump60 8,in fine1 the entire geographical character of the moon1 thus ascertained by long-continued and exact telescopic surveys1 leads to the conclusion1 that no analogy exists between it and the earth which could confer any probability on the conjecture that it fulfils the same purposes in the economy of the universe2 and we must infer1 that whatever be its uses in the solar system1 or in the general purposes of creation1 it is not a world inhabited by organised races such as those to which the earth is appropriated40#ge ,we must leave ,sir ,david and ,dr ,lardner to settle their small amount of differences together2 for ,sir ,david will have it that 8the moon exhibits such proofs of an atmosphere that we have a new ground from analogy for believing that she either has1 or is in a state of preparation for receiving1 inhabitants20#gf whom1 8with monuments of their hands10 he 8hopes may be discovered with some magnificent telescope which may be constructed60#gg ,and he is compelled to believe that 8all the other unseen satellites of the solar system are homes to animal and intellectual life40#gh ,the ,essayist would seem not to have deemed it necessary to deprive the sun of inhabitants2 but our confident ,pluralist will not surrender the stupendous body so easily4 ,his friend ,dr ,lardner properly regards it 8as a vast globular furnace1 the heat emitted from each square foot of which is seven times greater than the heat issuing from a square foot of the fiercest blast-furnace3 to what agency the light and heat are due1 no one can do more than conjecture4 ,according to our hypothesis1 it is a great ,,electric ,,light in the centre of the system20#gi and 8entirely removed from all analogy with the earth0--8utterly unsuited for the habitation of organised tribes40#hj ,nevertheless ,sir ,david believes that 8the sun is richly stored with inhabitants0--the probability 8being doubtless greatly increased by the simple consideration of its enormous size0--a 8domain so extensive1 so blessed with perpetual light20 but it would seem that 8if it be inhabited10 it is probably 8occupied by the highest orders of intelligence60#ha who1 however1 are allowed to enjoy their picturesque1 and1 it must be owned1 somewhat peculiar1 but doubtless blessed position1 only by peeping every now and then through the sun's spots1 and so 8seeing distinctly the planets and stars0--in fact1 8large portions of the heavens60#hb ,perhaps it may be thought that this is not a very handsome way of dealing with such exalted beings6 ,the ,essayist has now our seven principal sister-planets to deal with--the two infra-terrestrial1 ,mercury and ,venus1 and the five extra-terrestrial--,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune2--and as to all these1 the question continues1 do they so resemble the earth in physical conditions1 as to lead us safely to the conclusion that they resemble it in that other capital particular1 of being the habitations of intellectual and moral beings8 ,here1 be it observed1 that every symptom of unlikeness which the ,essayist can detect1 greatly augments the burthen of proof incumbent upon his opponents4 ,when it was discovered that the old planets in certain important particulars resembled the earth1 being opaque and solid bodies1 having similar motions round the sun and on their own axis1 some accompanied by satellites1 and all having arrangements producing day and night1 summer and winter1 who could help wondering whether they must not also have inhabitants1 reckoning and regulating their lives and employments by days1 months1 and years8 ,this was1 at most1 however1 a mere guess or conjecture2 and whether it is now more probable than then1 depends on the intervening progress of astronomy and science in general4 ,have subsequent discoveries strengthened or impugned the validity of the conjecture8 ,the limits of our system have been since vastly extended by the discovery of ,uranus and ,neptune2 and the planetary sisterhood has also increased in number by thirty little and very eccentric ones4 ,now1 as to ,,neptune1 says the ,essayist1 in substance1 what reason has a sensible person for believing it peopled1 as the earth is1 by human beings--i4 e4 consisting of body and soul8 ,he is thirty times further than we are from the sun1 which will appear to it a mere star--about the size of ,jupiter to us2 and ,neptune's light and heat will be nine hundred times less than ours6#hc ,if it1 nevertheless1 contain animal and intellectual life1 we must try to conceive how they get on with such a modicum of those useful elements6 ,but have we general grounds for assuming all the planetary bodies inhabited8 ,beginning with the moon1 we have encountered a decided negative4 ,if any planet1 however1 have sufficient light1 heat1 clouds1 winds1 and a due adjustment of gravity1 and the strength of the materials of which organisation consist1 there may be life of some sort or other4 ,now we can measure and weigh the planets1 exactly1 by the law of gravitation1 which embraces every particle of matter in our system1 and find the mass of our earth to be only five times heavier than water4 ,comparing it with ,,jupiter--the bulk of which is #acca times greater than that of the ,earth--his density is1 as a whole1 only a quarter of that of the ,earth--not greater than it would be as a sphere of water2 and he is conjectured to be such1 and the existence of his belts to be lines of clouds1 fed with vapours raised by the sun's action on such a watery sphere--the lines of such clouds being of so steady and determined a character1 in consequence of his great rotatory velocity4 ,equal bulk for equal bulk1 he is lighter than the ,earth1 but of course much heavier altogether2 and as he is five times the ,earth's distance from the ,sun1 he must get a proportionally smaller amount of light and heat1 and even that diminished by the clouds enveloping him to so great an extent4 ,what a low degree of vitality1 and what kind of organisation must animal existence possess1 to suit such physical conditions1 especially with reference to gravity1 which1 at his surface1 is nearly two and a half times that on the ,earth6 ,boneless1 watery1 pulpy inhabitants of the cold waters2 or they may be frozen so far as to exclude the idea of animal existence2 or it may be restricted to shallow parts in a planet of ice4#hd ,but if this be so1 to what end his gorgeous array of satellites8--his four moons8 8,precisely the same10 answers our pertinacious ,essayist1 8as the use of our moon during the countless ages before man was placed on the earth2 while it was tenanted by corals1 madrepores1 shell-fish1 belemnites1 the cartilaginous fishes of the old red sandstone1 or the ,saurian monsters of the lias4 ,with these differences1 it is asked1 what becomes of analogy--of resemblances justifying our belief that ,jupiter is inhabited like ourselves80 ,to this answers ,sir ,david ,brewster--,jupiter's great size 8is alone a proof that it must have been made for some grand and useful purpose30 it is flattened at its poles2 revolves on its axis in nearly ten hours2 has different climates and seasons2 and is abundantly illuminated1 in the short absence of the sun1 by its four moons1 giving him1 in fact1 8perpetual moonlight40 ,why does the sun give it days1 nights1 and years8 ,why do its moons irradiate its continents and seas8 ,its equatorial breezes blow perpetually over its plains8 ,to what purpose could such a gigantic world have been framed1 unless to supply the wants1 and minister to the happiness1 of living beings8 ,still1 it is admitted1#he 8that certain objections or difficulties naturally present themselves40 ,the distance of ,jupiter from the sun precludes the possibility of sufficient light and heat from that quarter1 to support either such vegetable or animal life as exists on the earth2 the cold must be very intense--its rivers and seas must be tracks and fields of ice4#hf ,but it may be answered1 that the temperature of a planet depends on other causes--the condition of its atmosphere1 and the internal heat of its mass--as is the case with our earth2 and such 8may0 be the case in ,jupiter2 and1 8if0 so1 may secure a temperature sufficiently genial to sustain such animal and vegetable life as ours2 yet1 it is owned1 it cannot 8increase the feeble light which ,jupiter derives from the sun2 but an enlargement of the pupil of the eye1 and increased sensibility of the retina1 would make the sun's light as brilliant to ,jovians as to us40#hg ,besides1 a brilliant phosphorescent light 8may0 be excited in the satellites by the sun's rays4 ,again1 the day of ten hours may be thought insufficient for physical repose2 but1 it is answered1 five hours' repose are sufficient for five of labour4 8,a difficulty of a more serious kind1#hh however1 is presented by the great force of gravity on so gigantic a planet as ,jupiter20 but ,sir ,david gives us curious calculations to show that a ,jovian's weight would be only double that of a man on the earth4 ,struck by such a formidable array of differences1 when he was in quest of resemblances only1 8,alike1 but1 oh6 how different60 ,sir ,david rebukes the sceptic for forming so low an opinion of ,omnipotent ,wisdom1 as to assume that 8the inhabitants of the planets must be either men1 or anything resembling them2--is it10 he asks1 8necessary that an immortal soul should be hung upon a skeleton of bone1 or imprisoned in a cage of cartilage and skin8 ,must it see with two eyes1 and hear with two ears1 and touch with ten fingers1 and rest on a duality of limbs8 ,may it not rest in a ,polyphemus with one eyeball1 or in an ,argus with a hundred8 ,may it not reign in the giant forms of the ,titans1 and direct the hundred hands of ,briareus8#hi ,the being of another world may have his home in subterranean cities1 warmed by central fires2 or in crystal caves1 cooled by ocean tides2 or he may float with the ,nereids upon the deep2 or mount upon wings as eagles2 or rise upon the pinions of the dove1 that he may flee away1 and be at rest60#ij ,let us pause at this point1 and see how the question stands on the showing of the respectively imaginative and matter-of-fact disputants themselves4 ,sir ,david ,brewster1 being bound to show that analogy forces us to believe ,jupiter inhabited1 is compelled to admit a series of signal discrepancies in physical condition2 expecting his opponent1 in turn1 to admit such a series of essential alterations1 both of inert matter and organisation1 as will admit of what8--totally different modes of animal and intellectual existence--so different1 as to drive a philosopher into the fantastic dreams in which we have just seen him indulging4 ,not so the ,essayist1 a master of the ,inductive ,philosophy4 ,he does not presume impiously to limit ,omnipotence2 but reverently owns ,his power to create whatever forms and conditions of existence ,he pleases4 ,but when it is asserted that ,he has1 in fact1 made beings wholly different from any that we see1 8he cannot believe this without further evidence40#ia ,and on this very subject of the imaginary inhabitants of ,jupiter1 he says1 after reading what his heated and fanciful opponent has advanced1--8,you are hard10 he makes an objector say1 8on our neighbours in ,jupiter1 when you will not allow them to be anything better than #8boneless1 watery1 pulpy creatures4'0 ,to which he answers1 8,i had no disposition to be hard on them when ,i entered upon these speculations4 ,i drew1 what appeared to me1 probable conclusions from all the facts of the case4 ,if the laws of attraction1 of light1 of heat1 and the like1 be the same there as they are here1 which we believe to be certain1 the laws of life must also be the same2 and1 if so1 ,i can draw no other conclusions than those which ,i have stated40#ib ,says the ,essayist1 ,i know that my ,maker can invest with the intellect of a ,newton1 each of 8,the gay motes that people the sunbeams20 but before ,i believe that he has done so1 give me reasonable and adequate evidence of so wonderful and sublime a fact2 or ,i must believe in any kind of nonsense that any one can imagine4 ,the planet ,jupiter affords a fair sample of the procedure of the ,essayist and his opponent1 with reference to all the other primary planets of the ,solar system4 ,from ,mercury1 in red-hot contiguity to the ,sun1 to ,neptune1 which is at thirty times the ,earth's distance from it1 and from which as we have seen it derives only one nine-hundredth part of the light and heat imparted to ourselves by the ,sun1--,sir ,david ,brewster will have all inhabited1 and the physical condition of each correspondingly altered to admit of it3 central heat1 and eyes the pupils of which are sufficiently enlarged1 and the retina's sensibility sufficiently increased1 to admit of seeing with nine hundred times less light than is requisite for our own organs of sight6 8,uranus and ,neptune10 concludes the triumphant ,pluralist#ic--nothing daunted by the overwhelming evidences of physical difference of condition--8are doubtless0--with the ,sun--8the abodes of ,life and ,intelligence3 the colossal temples where their ,creator is recognised and worshipped--the remotest watch-towers of our system1 from which his works may be better studied1 and his glories more easily descried60 ,why1 with such elastic principles of analogy as his1 stop short of peopling the ,meteoric ,stones with rational inhabitants8 whom1 and whose doings1 as in the case of the ,moon1 8some magnificent0 instrument1 yet to be constructed1 may discover to us8 ,thus much for the planets1--before quitting which1 however1 we may state that1 according to ,dr ,lardner1 about as staunch a ,pluralist as his admirer ,sir ,david ,brewster1 a greater rapidity of rotation1 and smaller intervals of light and darkness1 are among the characteristics distinguishing the group of major planets from the terrestrial group4 ,he also adds that another 8striking distinction0 is the comparative lightness of the matter constituting the former4 ,the density of ,venus1 ,mars1 and our earth1 is nearly equal--about the same as that of ironstone2 while the density of the thoroughly-baked planet ,mercury is equal to that of gold4 8,now it appears1 on the contrary10 he continues1 8that the density of ,jupiter very little exceeds that of water2 that of ,uranus and ,neptune is exactly that of water2 while ,saturn is so light1 that it would float in water like a globe of pine wood4444 ,the seas and oceans of these planets must consist of a liquid far lighter than water4 ,it is computed that a liquid on ,jupiter1 which would be analogous to the terrestrial oceans1 would be three times lighter than sulphuric ether1 the lightest known liquid2 and would be such that cork would scarcely float in it60#id ,commending these trifling discrepancies to ,sir ,david's attention1 while manufacturing his planetary inhabitants in conformity with them1 shall we now follow his flight beyond the solar system1 and get among the ,fixed ,stars8 ,here we are gazing at the ,dog-,star6 8,i allow10 says a pensive objector to the ,essayist1#ie 8that if you disprove the existence of inhabitants in the planets of our system1 ,i shall not feel much real interest in the possible inhabitants of the ,sirian system4 ,neighbourhood has its influence upon our feelings of regard1--even neighbourhood on a scale of millions of miles60 ,here our ,pluralist is quite at home1 and evidently in great favour4 ,the stars twinkle and glitter with delight at his gleeful approach1 to elevate them into moral and intellectual dignity1 and at the same time1 perhaps1 select 8some bright particular0 one1 to be hereafter distinguished as the seat of his own personal existence2 whence he is to spend eternity in radiating astronomical emanations throughout infinitude4 8,then1 unembodied1 doth he trace1 ,by steps each planet's heavenly way8 ,a ,thing of ,eyes1 that all survey1 444 ,a ,thought ,unseen1 yet seeing all60#if ,he stands in the starry solitude1 waving his wand1 and lo6 he peoples each glistening speck with intellectual existence1 with the highest order of intelligence1 as in the case of that little star1 the sun1 which he has quitted4 ,now as to these same ,,fixed ,,stars1 we can easily guess the steps of ,sir ,david's brief and satisfactory argument4 ,if the stars be suns1 they are inhabited like our sun2 and if they be suns1 each has its planets1 like our sun2 and if they have planets1 they are inhabited like our planets2 and if they have satellites like some of ours1 they are also inhabited4 ,but the stars are suns1 and they all have planets1 and at least some of these planets1 satellites2 therefore1 all the fixed stars1 with their respective planetary systems1 are inhabited 7,q4 ,e4 ,d47 ,here are ,sir ,david's words3--8,we are compelled to draw the conclusion that wherever there is a sun1 there must be a planetary system2 and wherever there is a planetary system1 there must be ,life and ,intelligence40#ig ,this is the way in which1 it seems1 we worms of the earth feel ourselves at liberty to deal with our ,almighty ,creator3 dogmatically insisting that every scene of existence in which ,he may have displayed ,his omnipotence1 is but a repetition of that particular one in which we have our allotted place6 ,as if ,he had but one pattern for ,universal ,creation6 ,only one scheme for peopling and dealing with infinitude6 ,o1 that the clay should think thus of ,him that fashioneth it6#ih ,forgetting1 in an exulting moment of blindness and presumption1 ,his own awful words1 ,my thoughts are not as your thoughts1 neither are your ways my ways4 ,for as the ,heavens are higher than the ,earth1 so are my ways higher than your ways1 and my thoughts than your thoughts6#ii ,we are now1 however1 about to people the ,fixed ,stars4 ,the only proof that they are the centres of planetary systems1 resides in the assumption that these ,stars are like the ,sun2 and as resembling him in their nature and qualities1 so having the same offices and appendages3--independent sources of light1 and thence probably of heat2 therefore having attendant planets1 to which they may impart such light and heat1--and these planets' inhabitants living under and enjoying those benign influences4 ,everything here depends on this proposition1 that the ,stars are like the ,sun2 and it becomes essential to examine what evidence we have of the exactness of their likeness4#ajj ,in the ,preface to his ,second ,edition1 the ,essayist1 whose scientific knowledge few will venture to impugn1 boldly asserts that 8man's knowledge of the physical properties of the luminaries which he discerns in the skies1 is1 even now1 almost nothing20 and 8such being the state of our knowledge1 as bearing on the doctrine of the plurality of worlds1 the time appeared to be not inopportune for a calm discussion of the question1--upon which1 accordingly10 he adds1 8,i have ventured in the following pages40 ,in the same ,preface he has ably condensed into a single paragraph his views on the nature and extent of our present knowledge on the subject of the ,fixed ,stars4#aja ,in the opening of the chapter devoted to this subject 7ch4 viii471 he admits 8the special evidence10 as to the probability of these stars containing1 in themselves1 or in accompanying planets1 inhabitants of any kind1 8is1 indeed1 slight1 either way40 ,as to ,clustered and ,double stars1 they appear to give us1 he says1 but little promise of inhabitants4 ,in what degree of condensation the matter of these binary systems is1 compared with that of our solar system1 we have no means whatever of knowing3 but even granting that each individual of the pair were a sun like ours1 in the nature of its material1 and its state of condensation1 is it probable that it resembles our ,sun also in having planets revolving about it8 ,a system of planets revolving about1 or among1 a pair of ,suns1 which are at the same time revolving about one another1 is so complex a scheme apparently1 so impossible to arrange in a stable manner1 that the assumption of the existence of such schemes1 without a vestige of evidence1 can hardly require refutation4 ,no doubt1 if we were really required to provide such a binary system of ,suns with attendant planets1 this would be best done by putting the planets so near to one ,sun that they should not be sensibly affected by the other2 and this is accordingly what has been proposed4 ,for1 as has been well said by ,sir ,john ,herschell1 of the supposed planets in making this proposal1 8unless closely nestled under the protecting wing of their immediate superior1 the sweep of the other ,sun in his perihelion passage round their own1 might carry them off1 or whirl them into orbits utterly inconsistent with the existence of their inhabitants40 8,to assume the existence of the inhabitants1 in spite of such dangers1 and to provide against the dangers by placing them so close to one ,sun as to be out of the reach of the other1 though the whole distance of the two may not1 and as we know in some cases does not1 exceed the dimensions of our solar system1 is showing them all the favour which is possible4 ,but in making this provision1 it is overlooked that it may not be possible to keep them in permanent orbits so near to the selected centre4 ,their ,sun may be a vast sphere of luminous vapour1 and the planets plunged into this atmosphere may1 instead of describing regular orbits1 plough their way in spiral paths through the nebulous abyss of its central nucleus40#ajb ,in dealing with the ,single ,stars1 which are1 like the ,sun1 self-luminous1 can they be proved1 like him1 to be definite dense masses8 ,his density is about that of water4 ,or are they1 or many of them1 luminous masses in a far more diffused state1 visually contracted to points through their immense distance8 ,some of those which we have the best means of examining are one-third1 or even less1 in mass1 than he3 and if ,sirius1 for instance1 be in this diffused condition1 though that would not of itself prevent his having planets1 it would make him so unlike our ,sun1 as much to break the force of the presumption that he must have planets as he has4 ,again3 ,as far back as our knowledge of our ,sun extends1 his has been a permanent condition of brightness3 yet many of the fixed stars not only undergo changes1 but periodical1 and possibly progressive changes3--whence it may be inferred1 perhaps1 that they are not1 generally1 in the same permanent condition as our ,sun4 ,as to the evidence of their revolution on their axis1 this has been inferred from their having periodical recurrences of fainter and brighter lustre2 as if revolving orbs with one side darkened by spots4 ,of these1 five only can be at present spoken of by astronomers#ajc with precision4 ,nothing is more probable than that these periodical changes indicate the revolution of these stellar masses on their axis--a universal law1 apparently1 of all the large compact masses of the ,universe1 but by no means inferring their being1 or having accompanying planets1 inhabited4 ,the ,sun's rotation is not shown1 intelligibly1 connected with its having near it the inhabited ,earth4 ,in the mean time1 in so far as these stars are periodical1 they are proved to be1 not like1 but unlike our ,sun4 ,the only real point of resemblance1 then1 is that of being self-luminous1 in the highest degree ambiguous and inconclusive1 and furnishing no argument entitled to be deemed one from analogy4 ,humboldt deems the force of analogy to tend even in the opposite direction4 8,after all10 he asks1#ajd 8is the assumption of satellites attendant planets to the fixed stars1 so absolutely necessary8 ,if we were to begin from the outer planets1 ,jupiter1 c41 analogy might seem to require that all planets have satellites3--yet this is not so with ,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury20 to which may now be added the thirty ,planetoids--making a much greater number of bodies that have not1 than that have satellites4 ,the assumption1 then1 that the fixed stars are of exactly the same nature as the ,sun1 was originally a bold guess2 but there has not since been a vestige of any confirmatory fact3--no planet1 nor anything fairly indicating the existence of one revolving round a fixed star1 has ever hitherto been discerned2--and the subsequent discovery of nebul2 binary systems2 clusters of stars2 periodical stars2 of varied and accelerating periods of such stars1--all seem to point the other way3 leaving1 though possibly facts small in amount1 the original assumption a mere guess1 unsupported by all that three centuries of most diligent1 and in other respects1 successful research1 have been able to bring to light4 ,all the knowledge of times succeeding ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 and ,kepler1 7who might well believe the stars to be in every sense suns72--among other things1 the disclosure of the history of our own planet1 as one in which such grand changes have been constantly going on2 the certainty that in by far the greatest part of the duration of its existence it has been tenanted by creatures entirely different from those which give an interest1 and thence a persuasiveness1 to the belief of inhabitants in worlds appended to each star2 the impossibility of which appears1 in the gravest consideration of transferring to other worlds such interests as belong to our race in this world2--all these considerations1 it would seem1 should have prevented that old and arbitrary conjecture from growing up1 among a generation professing philosophical caution and scientific discipline1 into a settled belief4 ,finally1 it will be time enough to speculate about the inhabitants of the planets which belong to such systems1 as soon as we shall have ascertained that there are such planets1--or that there is one such4#aje ,in the ,dialogue1 written after the first edition of the 8,essay0 had appeared1 the ,essayist greatly strengthened the position for which he had contended in it1 by an important passage containing the results of the eminent astronomer ,m4 ,struve's recent examination of double stars1 and the result of his elaborate and comprehensive comparison of the whole body of facts in stellar astronomy4 ,among the brighter stars1 he arrives at the conclusion1 that every ,,fourth such star is physically double2 and that a completed knowledge of double stars may prove every ,,third bright star to be physically double6 ,and in the case of stars of inferior magnitude1 that the number of insulated stars1 though indeed greater than that of such compound systems1 is nevertheless only three times1 perhaps only twice as great4 ,thus the loose evidence of resemblance between our ,sun and the fixed stars becomes feebler the more it is examined2 and the assumption of stellar planetary systems appears1 when closely scrutinised1 to dwindle away to nothing4#ajf ,now1 to so much of the foregoing facts and speculations as are contained in the ,essay1 from which we have faithfully and carefully extracted the substance1 in order that our readers may judge for themselves1 ,sir ,david ,brewster answers1 in effect1 and generally in words1 thus3-- ,the greatest and grandest truth in astronomy1 is the motion of the solar system1 advancing with all the planets and satellites in the heavens1 at the rate of fifty-seven miles a second1 round some distant invisible body1 in an orbit of such inconceivable dimensions1 that millions of years may be required for a single orbit4 ,when we consider that this centre must be a sun with attendant planets like our own1 revolving in like manner round our sun1 8 or round their common centre of gravity1 the mind rejects1 almost with indignation1 the ignoble sentiment that ,man is the only being performing this immeasurable journey--and that ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune1 with their bright array of regal train-bearers1 are but as colossal blocks of lifeless clay1 encumbering the ,earth as a drag1 and mocking the creative majesty of ,heaven4 ,from the birth of man to the extinction of his race 6 the system to which he belongs will have described but an infinitesimal arc in that grand cosmical orbit in which it is destined to move4 ,this affords a new argument for the plurality of worlds4 ,since every fixed star must have planets1 the fact of our system revolving round a similar system of planets1 furnishes a new argument from analogy2 for as there is at least one inhabited planet in the one system1 there must for the same reason be one in the other1 and consequently as many as there are systems in the ,universe4#ajg ,thus our system is not absolutely fixed in space1 but is connected with the other systems in the ,universe4 ,the ,fixed ,stars are suns of other systems1 whose planets are invisible from their distance1 as are ours from the nearest fixed star4 ,every single star shining by its own native light is the centre of a planetary system like our own--the lamp that lights1 the stove that heats1 and the power that guides in their orbits1 inhabited worlds like our own4 ,many are double1 with a system of planets round each1 or the centre of gravity of both4 ,no one can believe that two suns would be placed in the heavens1 for no other purpose than to revolve round their common centre of gravity4 ,it is 8highly probable10 that our ,sun is one of a binary system1 and has at present an unseen partner2 and we are 8entitled to conclude0 that all the other binary systems have at least an inhabited planet3 wherever there is a self-luminous fixed or movable ,sun there must be a planetary system2 and wherever there is a planetary system1 there must be life and intelligence4#ajh ,apart from the assertion of his cardinal principle with which we are familiar1 namely1 that since our ,sun has an inhabited planet1 all others must2 and also that all planets must be inhabited2--the argumentative value of these two chapters seems to lie in this that they annihilate one of the ,essayist's points of unlikeness between our ,sun and other ,fixed ,stars1 inasmuch as it1 together with so many of them1 is one of a binary system3 wherefore what is true of it1 is true of them1 et vice versa4 ,he bases this proposition1 viz41 that our ,sun is one of a binary system1 on 8high probability10 from 8the motion of our own system round a distant centre40#aji ,the great truth of this motion1 he says the ,essayist 8has completely misrepresented1 foreseeing its influence on the mind as an argument for more worlds than one40#aaj ,what the ,essayist had said on the subject1 was this3#aaa he speaks of 8the attempt to show that the ,sun1 carrying with it the whole solar system1 is in motion2 and the further attempt to show the direction of that motion2--and again1 the hypothesis that the ,sun itself revolves round some distant object in space40 ,these minute inquiries and bold conjectures1 he says1 8cannot throw any light on the question1 whether any part besides the earth be inhabited3 any more than the investigation of the movements of the ocean and their laws can prove or disprove the existence of marine plants and animals4 ,they do not1 on that account1 cease to be important and interesting objects of speculation1 but they do not belong to our subject40 ,as to the ,sun's motion1 we are bound to say1 that the ,astronomer ,royal has recently declared that 8every astronomer who has examined the matter carefully1 has come to the conclusion of ,sir ,william ,herschell1 that the whole solar system is moving towards a point in the constellation ,hercules40#aab ,before quitting this part of the subject1 we may state that the ,essayist1 in his second ,preface1#aac points out the insecure character of astronomical calculations as to the amount of absolute light ascribed to some of the fixed stars4 ,it has been estimated that the illuminating power of ,alpha ,centauri is nearly double that of the ,sun1 placed at that distance1 which is two hundred thousand times as far off as is the ,sun2 but ,sir ,john ,herschell will not concur in more of the calculation than attributes to the star the emission of more light than our ,sun4 ,surely the critical and precarious character of such calculations should not be lost sight of by candid inquirers1 but incline them to scan somewhat closely any pretensions tinctured by astronomic dogmatism4 ,one immense step more1 however1--and it is our last1 brings to 8the outskirts of creation10 as the ,essayist calls it1--the ,nebul3 and here we find him once more confronted by his indefatigable and implacable opponent4 ,we must therefore take our biggest and best mental telescope to behold these two ,specks intellectual1 so far off in infinitude1 wrangling about a faint cloud vastly further off than themselves4 ,do you see how angry one of them looks1 and how provokingly stolid the other8 ',tis all about the nature of that same cloud1 or ,nebula2 and if we could only hear what they said1 we might catch a chord or two of the music of the spheres6 ,the ,essayist is required1 by his brother speck1 to believe that the faintly-luminous patch at which they are gazing--a thousandth part of the visible breadth of our own ,sun--contains in it more life than exists in as many such systems as the unassisted eye can see stars in the heavens on the clearest winter night3--a view of the greatness of creation so stupendous1 that the astounded speck1 the ,essayist1 asks for a moment's time to consider the matter4 8,we are entitled to draw the conclusion10 says the other1 8that these ,nebul are clusters of stars1 at such an immense distance from our own system1 that each star of which they are composed is the sun or centre of a system of planets2 and that these planets are inhabited--like our ,earth1 the seat of vegetable1 animal1 and intellectual life30#aad that all the ,nebul are resolvable into stars2 and appear as ,nebul only because they are more distant than the region in which they can appear as stars4#aae ,the conclusion1 however1 at which the ,essayist arrives1 after an elaborate examination of evidence1 and especially of the latest discoveries in this dim and distant region by ,sir ,john ,herschell and the ,earl of ,rosse1 is--that 8,nebul are vast masses of incoherent or gaseous matter1 of immense tenuity1 diffused in forms more or less irregular1 but all of them destitute of any regular system of solid moving bodies4444 ,so far1 then10 he concludes1 8as these ,nebul are concerned1 the improbability of their being inhabited appears to amount to the highest point that can be conceived4 ,we may1 by the indulgence of fancy1 people the summer clouds1 or the beams of the aurora borealis1 with living beings of the same kind of substance as those bright appearances themselves2 and in doing so1 we are not making any bolder assertion than when we stock the ,nebul with inhabitants1 and call them1 in that sense1 inhabited worlds40#aaf ,the ,essayist contends that the argument for the vastness of the scheme of the ,universe1 suggested by the resolution of the ,nebul1 is found to be untenable3--inasmuch as the greatest astronomers now agree in believing ,nebul to have distances of the same order as ,fixed ,stars4 ,their filmy appearance is a true indication of a highly attenuated substance3 so attenuated as to destroy all probability of their being inhabited worlds4 ,with this opinion as to the tenuity of ,nebul agrees the absence of all observed motion among their parts2 while the extraordinary spiral arrangement of many of them1 prove that nevertheless many of them really have motion1 and suggests modes of calculating their tenuity1 and showing how extreme it is4 8,it is probable10 said ,lord ,rosse1 in a paper which we ourselves heard him read not long ago1 from the chair of the ,royal ,society1 8that in the ,nebular systems1 motion exists4 ,if we see a system with a distinct spiral arrangement1 all analogy leads us to conclude that there has been motion2 and that if there has been motion1 that motion still continues40444 8,among the ,nebul10 he says1 8there are vast numbers1 much too faint to be sketched or measured with any prospect of advantage3 the most powerful instruments we possess showing in them nothing of an organised structure1 but merely a confused mass of nebulosity1 of varying brightness40#aag ,the ,essayist makes powerful use1 moreover1 of ,sir ,john ,herschell's celebrated observation of the ,magellanic ,clouds1 lying near the ,south ,pole2 exhibiting the coexistence1 in a limited compass1 and in indiscriminate position1 of stars1 clusters of stars1 nebul regular and irregular1 and nebular streaks and patches1 things different not merely to us1 but in themselves3 nebul1 side by side with stars and clusters of stars2 nebulous matter resolvable1 close to nebulous matter irresolvable2--the last and widest step by which the dimensions of the ,universe have been expanded1 in the notions of eager speculators1 being checked by a completer knowledge1 and a sager spirit of speculation4#aah ,in discussing such matters as these1 he finely observes--8,it is difficult to make men feel that so much ignorance can lie close to so much knowledge2 to make them believe that they have been allowed to discover so much1 and yet are not allowed to discover more40#aai ,in alluding to the ,nebul1 as subjects of our most powerful telescopic observation1 the ,essayist speaks in a tone of sarcasm concerning the 8shining dots10--the 8lumps of light0 which are rendered apparent amidst them3 asking1 what are these lumps8 7#a47 ,how large8 7#b47 ,at what distances8 7#c47 ,of what structure8 7#d47 ,of what use8--adding1 he must be a bold man who undertakes to answer the question1 that each is a ,sun1 with attendant systems of planets4 ,sir ,david1 exceedingly irate1 says1 8,we accept the challenge1 and appeal to our readers30--7#a47 ,the size of the dot1 or lump1 is large enough to be a ,sun4 7#b47 ,he cannot answer this1 for want of knowing #8the apparent distance between the centres of the dots4' 7#c47 ,like our ,sun--#8,it will consist of a luminous envelope1 enclosing a dark nucleus4' 7#d47 ,of no conceivable use1 but to give light to planets1 or to the solid nuclei of which they consist4 ,in his turn1 he asks the ,essayist--what is the size1 distance1 structure1 and use of the dots1 upon his hypothesis8 ,the ,essayist1 he observes1 is silent2#abj but in his ,essay1 he had said1 distinctly enough1 8,let us not wrangle about words4 ,by all means let these dots be stars1 if we know about what we are speaking3 if a star mean1 merely1 a luminous dot in the sky4 ,but that these stars shall resemble1 in their nature1 ,stars of the ,first ,magnitude1 and that such stars shall resemble ,our ,sun1 are surely very bold structures of assumption1 to build on such a basis4 ,some nebul are resolvable into distinct points3 but what would it amount to8 ,that the substance of all nebul is not continuous2 separate1 and separable into distinct luminous elements3--nebul are1 it would then seem1 as it were of a curdled or granulated texture2 they have run into lumps of light1 or been formed originally of such lumps40 ,and then follow some very ingenious and refined speculations1 into which we have not space to enter2 and indeed we may be well content with what we have done1 having travelled from a tolerable depth in the crust of our own little planet1 past planet after planet1 star after star1 till we reached the nebulous 8outskirts of creation20 accompanied by two ,mentors of ,infinitude1--whispering into our ear--one1 that life1 animal1 intellectual1 moral1 was swarming around us at every step2 the other1 that that life ceased with our own ,earth1 as far as we were able to detect its existence1 and giving us very solemn and mysterious reasons why it should be so4 ,our ,essayist1 however1 is not exhausted by the efforts he has made in his destructive career4 ,if he be a 8proud setter down0 of cosmological systems1 he determines1 in turn1 to be a 8putter up30 and so presents us with his own ,theory of the ,solar ,system2 and an explanation of the mode in which all appearances in the ,universe beyond may be reconciled with it4 8,it may serve0 he says1 8to confirm his argument1 if he give a description of the system which shall continue and connect his views of the constitution and peculiarities as to physical circumstances of each of the planets4 ,it will help us in our speculation1 if we can regard the planets as not only a collection1 but a scheme2--if we can give not an ,enunciation only1 but a ,theory4 ,now1 such a ,,scheme1 such a ,,theory1 appears to offer itself to us40#aba ,the scope of this scheme1 or theory1 is1 as we some time ago saw1 to make our earth1 in point of astronomical fact and reality1 the largest ,planetary ,body in the solar system2 its domestic hearth2 the only part of the frame revolving round the ,sun which has become a 8,,world40 ,we must1 however1 make short work of it4 ,the planets exterior to ,mars--especially ,jupiter and ,saturn--appear spheres of water1 or aqueous vapour4 ,the ,earth has a considerable atmosphere of air and of vapour2 while on ,venus or ,mercury--so close to the sun--we see nothing of a gaseous or aqueous atmosphere2 they and ,mars differing little in density from the earth4 ,,the ,,earth',s ,,orbit1 according to the ,essayist's theory1 ,,is ,,the ,,temperate ,,zone ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,system1 where only the play of hot and cold1 moist and dry1 is possible4 ,water and gases1 clouds and vapours1 form1 mainly1 the planets in the outer part of the solar system2 while masses1 such as result from the fusion of the most solid materials1 lie nearer the ,sun1 and are found principally within the orbit of ,jupiter4 ,after a further exposition of his 8theory10 the ,essayist observes that it agrees with the nebular hypothesis1 ,,so ,,far as it applies to the ,solar ,system2 exactly1 and very sternly1 repudiating that hypothesis as it applies to the ,universe in general4#abb 8,if we allow ourselves10 says he1 8to speculate at all on physical grounds respecting the origin of the ,earth1 the hypothesis1 that it has passed through a fluid and a gaseous condition1 does not appear more extravagant than any other cosmogonical hypothesis3 not even if we suppose that the other bodies of the ,solar ,system have shared in the like changes4 ,but1 that all the stars and the nebul have gone1 or are going through1 a series of changes such as those by which the ,solar ,system has been formed1--the nebular hypothesis1 as it applies to the ,universe in general1 is precisely the doctrine which ,i here reject1 giving my reasons40#abc ,the whole of the ,chapter devoted to 8the ,theory of the ,solar ,system10 is distinguished by remarkable ingenuity and originality4 ,it is1 however1 that entitled the ,argument from ,design1 which1 independently of all connection with the speculations of the author as already laid before our readers1 is worthiest of consideration1 by all interested in ,natural ,theology4 ,it touches many topics which must have occupied the profoundest thoughts of mankind1 and touches them with the utmost caution and delicacy4 ,in the #cdth ,section will be found a passage of singular boldness and imaginative eloquence2 but liable1 in our opinion1 to serious misconception1 and susceptible of misrepresentation--by those1 at least1 who are either unable1 or indisposed1 to weigh the entire chapter1 and ascertain its real value and tendency4 ,some expressions have startled us not a little1 when reflecting that they relate to the possible mode of action of ,omniscient ,omnipotence2 and we shall be gratified by seeing them vindicated or explained in the next edition of his 8,essay40 ,each of our speculators closes his book with a chapter devoted to 8,the ,future40 ,the ideas of ,sir ,david concerning the duration of the human race upon the earth 7which ,inspiration tells us is so awfully uncertain1 and will be cut short suddenly--in a moment--in the twinkling of an eye71 seem to be curiously definite2 for we have seen that in his sixth chapter he states that 8from the birth of man to the extinction of his race1 the ,solar ,system to which he belongs will have described but an infinitesimal arc in that grand cosmical orbit in which it is destined to move40 ,without pausing to ask who told him this1 let us intimate1 that in his final chapter he says that the scientific truths on which depends the plurality of worlds are intimately associated with the future destiny of man3 he turns to the future of the sidereal systems1 as the hallowed spots in which is to be spent his immortal existence4 ,scripture has not spoken articulately of the future locality of the blest2 but ,reason has combined the scattered utterances of ,inspiration1 and with an almost oracular voice declared that the ,maker of the worlds will place in these the beings of his choice4 ,in what region1 reason does not determine2 but it is impossible for man1 with the light of ,revelation as his guide1 to doubt for a moment that on the celestial spheres his future is to be spent in lofty inquiries2 social intercourse2 the renewal of domestic ties2 and in the service of his ,almighty benefactor4 ,the ,christian's future1 not defined in his creed1 enwrapt in apocalyptic mysteries1 evades his grasp3 it is only ,astronomy that opens the mysterious expanse of the ,universe to his eye1 and creates an intelligible paradise in the world to come3 wherefore1 says ,sir ,david1 we must impregnate the popular mind with the truths of natural science2 teaching them in every school1 and recommending1 if not illustrating1 them from every pulpit3 fixing in the minds and associating in the affections1 alike of age and youth1 the great truths in the planetary and sidereal universe1 on which the doctrine of ,more ,worlds than ,one must respectively rest--the philosopher scanning with a new sense the sphere in which he is to study2 and the ,christian the temples in which he is to worship4--,such1 in his own words1 is ,sir ,david ,brewster's final and authoritative exposition of the ,,creed of the philosopher1 and the ,,hope of the ,christian3--of such a nature are to be the new heavens and the new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness2 and such1 henceforth1 as he has indicated1 becomes the duty of the ,christian teacher in the ,family1 in the ,school1 in the ,pulpit6 ,so absolutely and irrefragably1 it seems1 are demonstrated the stupendous facts of astronomical science on which this ,creed and this ,faith depend3 so unerring are our telescopes and other instruments1 that he who does not receive this 8,creed0 is no philosopher1 nor he who rejects the 8,hope0 a ,christian4 ,but1 in the mean time1 how inconceivably embarrassing to such a philosopher1 and to such a ,christian1 is the possibility that many1 or a few years hence1 such immense improvements may be made in telescopes1 or in other modes of acquiring a knowledge of the celestial structures1 as to demonstrate to the sense1 as well as reason1 of us impatient and presumptuous tenants of the earth1 that the planets are not inhabited6 that the fixed stars are not suns1 and have not a planet a piece--no1 not even a solitary planet among them6 ,thus rendering our astounded and dismayed philosopher homeless and creedless1 and the ,christian helpless and hopeless3--the former one of those who professing themselves to be wise become fools2#abd the latter1 likened unto a foolish man which built his house upon the sand4#abe ,the 8,future0 of the ,essayist is of a different kind1 and adumbrated with becoming humility and diffidence4 8,i did not10 he says1 8venture further than to intimate1 that when we are taught1 that as we have borne the image of the ,earthy1 we shall also bear the image of the ,heavenly1 we may find1 in even natural science1 reasons for opening our minds to the reception of the cheering and elevating announcement40#abf ,we have now placed before our readers the substance of the arguments for and against a plurality of worlds1 so far as developed in the essays of ,dr ,whewell and ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,the former is a work so replete with subtle thought1 bold speculation1 and knowledge of almost every kind1 used with extraordinary force and dexterity1 as to challenge the patient and watchful attention of the most thoughtful reader2 and that whether he be1 or be not1 versed in astronomical speculations4 ,great as are the power and resources of the author1 we detect no trace of dogmatism or arrogance1 but1 on the contrary1 a true spirit of fearless1 but patient and candid1 inquiry4 ,it is a mighty problem of which he proposes a solution1 and he does no more than propose it3 in his ,preface declaring that1 to himself at least1 his arguments 8appear to be of no small philosophical force1 though he is quite ready to weigh carefully and candidly any answer which may be offered to them40 ,we feel grateful to the accomplished ,essayist for the storehouse of authentic facts1 and the novel combination of inferences from them1 with which he has presented us2 and we are not aware that he has given us just reason to regret confiding in his correctness or candour4 ,and in travelling with him through his vast and chequered course1 we feel that we have accompanied not only the philosopher and the divine1 but the gentleman3 one who1 while manifestly knowing what is due to himself1 as manifestly respects his intelligent reader4 ,in several of his astronomical assumptions and inferences we may be unable to concur1 particularly in respect of the nebulous stars4 ,we may also well falter at expressing a decisive 8,aye0 or 8,no10 to the great question proposed by him for discussion1 on scientific grounds1 and independently of ,scriptural ,revelation2 yet we acknowledge that he has sensibly shaken our opinion as to the validity of the reasons usually assigned for believing in a plurality of worlds4 ,he remorselessly ties us down to ,,evidence1 as he ought to do2 and all the more rigorously1 because the affirmative conclusion1 at which many heedless persons are disposed to jump1 is one which1 if well founded1 occasions religious difficulties of a grave character among the profoundest and perhaps even devoutest thinkers4 ,to suppose that ,omnipotence may not have peopled already1 or contemplate a future peopling of the starry spheres with intelligent beings1 of as different a kind and order as it is possible for our limited faculties to conceive1 yet in some way involved in physical conditions1 altogether inexplicable to us1 would be the acme of impious presumption4 ,when we look at ,sirius1 in his solitary splendour in the midnight sky1 pouring forth possibly fifty times the light and heat of our sun1 upon a prodigiously greater planetary system than our own1 it is natural to conjecture whether1 among many other possibilities1 it may be the seat of intelligence1 perhaps of a transcendent character4 ,here the imagination may disport itself as it pleases3 yet we shall feel ourselves compelled--those who can think about the matter--to own1 that our imaginations are1 as it were1 8cabined1 cribbed1 confined10 by the objects and associations to which we are at present restricted2 and as the late eminent ,prussian astronomer1 ,bessel1 observed1 those who imagine inhabitants in the moon and planets1 8supposed them1 in spite of all their protestations1 as like to men1 as one egg to another40 ,but when we proceed further1 and insist on likening these supposed inhabitants to ourselves1 intellectually and morally1 then it is that both philosophy and religion concur in rebuking us1 and enjoining a reverent diffidence4 ,we have probably read as much on these subjects as many of our readers1 and that with deep interest and attention2 but we never met with so cogent a demonstration as is contained in this ,essay1 of the theological difficulties besetting the popular doctrine of a plurality of worlds4 ,had ,god vouchsafed to tell us that it was so1 there would have been an end of the matter1 and with it all difficulty would have disappeared1 to one whose whole life1 as the ,christian's ought to be1 is one continued act of faith2 but ,god has thought fit to preserve an awful silence concerning his dealings with other scenes of physical existence3 while ,he has as distinctly revealed that of spiritual beings whose functions are vitally connected with man1 as he exists upon the earth1 the subject of a sublime economy1 which1 we are assured by ,inspiration1 that the angels desire to look into4 ,the ,christian implicitly believes that there ,,is a ,,heaven1 where the presence of the adorable ,deity constitutes happiness1 to the most exalted of ,his ministers and servants1 perfect and ineffable3 happiness in which ,he has solemnly assured us that we may hereafter participate3 for since the beginning of the world1 men have not heard1 nor perceived by the ear1 neither hath the eye seen1 ,o ,god1 beside ,thee1 what ,he hath prepared for him that waiteth for ,him4#abg ,this1 our ,maker has told us2 he has not told us the other1 nor anything about it3 no1 not when ,he visited the earth1 unless we can dimly see such a significance in the words1 8,in my ,father's house 77 are many mansions 773 if it were not so1 ,i would have told you4 ,i go to prepare a place 77 for you40 ,the word is used twice in the ,new ,testament1 and in the same chapter3#abh in the verse already quoted1 and in the #bc;d--8,if a man love me1 he will keep my words3 and my ,father will love him1 and we will come unto him1 and make our abode 77 with him40 ,here are the three words in the same verse1 1 1 4 ,in my ,father's house there are 1 many places of abode4 ,heaven is the 1 our common place1 and it has many subdivisions1 room enough for angels1 as well as for the spirits of just men made perfect4 ,it is possibly an allusion to the temple1 ,god's earthly house1 which had many chambers in it4 ,but who shall require us to believe that this 1 was a star1 or planet8 ,it may be so1 it may not2 there can be no sin in a devout mind conjecturing on the subject2 but the ,essayist does not meddle with these solemn topics3 confining himself to the physical reasons for conjecturing1 with more or less probability1 that the stars are habitations for human beings4 ,we take our leave of him with a quotation from his ,dialogue1 couched in grave and dignified terms3-- 8,u4 ,but your arguments are merely negative4 ,you prove only that we do not know the planets to be inhabited4 8,z4 ,if1 when ,i have proved that point1 men were to cease to talk as if they knew that the planets are inhabited1 ,i should have produced a great effect4 8,u4 ,your basis is too narrow for so vast a superstructure1 as that all the rest of the universe1 besides the earth1 is uninhabited4 8,z4 ,perhaps2 for my philosophical basis is only the earth--the only known habitation4 ,but on this same narrow basis1 the earth1 you build up a superstructure that other bodies ,,are inhabited4 ,what ,i do is1 to show that each part of your structure is void of tenacity1 and cannot stand4 8,it is probable that when we have reduced to their real value all the presumptions drawn from physical reasoning1 for the opinion of planets and stars being either inhabited1 or uninhabited1 the face of these will be perceived to be so small1 that the belief of all thoughtful persons on this subject will be determined by moral1 metaphysical1 and theological consideration40#abi 8,more ,worlds than ,one0 will not1 we are constrained to say1 in our opinion1 add to the well-earned reputation of ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,it is a hasty and slight performance1 entirely of a popular character2 and disfigured throughout1 not only by an overweening confidence and peremptoriness of assertion1 but by tinges of personality and outbursts of heat that are indeed strange disturbing forces in a philosophical discussion4 ,dr ,whewell's ,essay is a work requiring1 in a worthy answer1 great consideration2 and we do not think that 8,more ,worlds than ,one0 evidences a tithe of such consideration4 ,nor does ,sir ,david show a proper respect for his opponent2 nor has he taken a proper measure of his formidable proportions as a logical and scientific disputant1 one who should be answered in a cold and exact spirit2 or it were much better to leave him alone4 ,sir ,david must forgive us if we quote a sentence or two from devout old ,john ,wesley1 a man who had several points of greatness in him3-- 8,be not so positive1 especially with regard to things which are neither easy1 nor necessary to be determined4 ,when ,i was young1 ,i was sure of everything4 ,in a few years1 having been mistaken a thousand times1 ,i was not half so sure of most things as before4 ,at present1 ,i am hardly sure of anything1 but what ,god has revealed to me6444 ,upon the whole1 an ingenious man may easily flourish on this head4 ,how much more glorious is it for the great ,god to have created innumerable worlds than this little globe only6444 ,do you ask1 then1 what is ,this ,spot to the great ,god8 ,why1 as much as millions of systems4 ,,great and ,,little have place with regard to us2 but before ,him1 they vanish away60#acj ,fontenelle has much to answer for1 if we may judge from what has been said concerning the extent and nature of the influence he has exercised on thoughtless minds4 ,that flippant but brilliant trifler1 ,horace ,walpole1 for instance1 declared that the reading ,fontenelle had made him a sceptic6 ,he maintained1 on the supposition of a plurality of worlds1 the impossibility of any revelation6 ,that the reception of this opinion was sufficient1 with him1 to destroy the credibility of all revelation6#aca ,this ground he has1 if this report be true1 the honour of occupying with ,thomas ,paine4 ,let us1 however1 think and speak and act differently1 remembering fearfully1 how often the wisdom of this world is foolishness with ,god4 ,is it1 indeed1 consistent with even mere worldly wisdom1 on the ground of an assumption with regard to inhabited planets1 to reject a belief founded on direct and positive proofs1 such as is the belief in the truths of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion8 8,newton10 says ,dr ,chalmers1 in his discourse on the ,modesty of ,true ,science1 8knew the boundary which hemmed him4 ,he knew that he had not thrown one particle of light on the moral or religious history of these planetary regions4 ,he had not ascertained what visits of communication they received from the ,god who upholds them4 ,but he knew that the fact of a ,real ,visit to ,,this ,,planet had such evidence to rest upon that it was not to be disposted by any aerial imagination40 ,let this noble and devout spirit be in us3 both ,faith and ,reason assuring us1 that we stand1 in ,scriptural ,truth1 safe and immovable1 like a wise man1 which built his house upon a rock4#acb ,,king ,,otho ,,and ,,his ,,classic ,,kingdom4 ,the actual condition of ,greece is a disgrace to the political civilisation of ,europe4 ,there is hope for the ,othoman ,empire1 for the ,turks are sensible that they have much to learn2 but for the kingdom of ,greece there is no hope1 unless the modern ,hellenes lay aside the self-conceit which induces them to boast of their superior orthodoxy when the question relates to their practical ignorance4 ,englishmen and ,russians1 despots and demagogues1 princes and people1 ,europeans and ,americans1 all agree in pronouncing ,king ,otho's kingdom a satire on monarchical institutions1 constitutional legislation1 and central administration4 ,the valour and patriotism displayed by the ,albanians of ,suli and ,hydra1 and by the ,greeks of ,messolonghi and ,psara1 were the theme of well-merited praise1 and were rewarded by liberal gifts of money and other supplies from the friends of ,greece in ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,greece has great obligations to the people of ,western ,europe1 whom she now stigmatises as hostile ,latins4 ,it was the voice of the people that moved the ,cabinet of ,london to take the initiative in the negotiations which caused the battle of ,navarino1 and conferred on ,greece the rank of an independent kingdom by the treaty of #ahcb4 ,no political experiment during the present century--fruitful as the period has been in producing new ,states--excited higher expectations or warmer wishes for its success4 ,twenty-two years have now elapsed since ,greece became a kingdom under the sceptre of ,prince ,otho of ,bavaria4 ,he was then a minor1 and he was selected to fill the new throne more for his father's merits than from any promise of superior talent in his own person4 ,king ,louis of ,bavaria loved art1 and his want of political capacity and military power removed any feelings of jealousy on the part of the greater powers in ,europe to the addition thus made to the dignity of the house of ,wittelsbach4 ,king ,otho was known to be a youth of very moderate attainments2 but his natural deficiencies being fortunately united to an amiable disposition1 it was expected that he would prove a docile monarch1 and listen to good counsellors4 ,it has proved otherwise4 ,his limited capacity has not been more remarkable than his obstinacy and perverseness in following a line of policy which has inflicted serious injury on ,greece4 ,notwithstanding a natural love of justice1 and a good moral character1 his misgovernment has degenerated into corruption1 though it has not assumed a character of systematic tyranny4 ,on the whole1 his incapacity to perform the duties of his station1 and his silly eagerness to assume the appearance of being a despotic sovereign1 while he was unable to make any use of the greater part of the prerogatives willingly conceded to him by his subjects1 have made him a very apt regal type of the anarchical and rapacious nation he rules4 ,the result is1 that the hopes of ardent ,philhellenes1 the expectations of enthusiastic scholars1 and the wishes of cautious statesmen1 have all been utterly disappointed by the government of ,king ,otho4 ,more than this1 while the ,king of ,greece has shown himself a bad monarch1 the ,greeks have displayed extreme ignorance in all their attempts to supply his deficiencies4 ,instead of suggesting better principles for his guidance1 they have become the steady supporters of his system whenever he condescended to purchase their support by places and pensions4 ,it seems as if the ,bavarian monarchy had infused a morbid lethargy into ,romaic society1 so rapidly has the central administration of ,athens quenched the fervour of patriotism throughout liberated ,greece4 ,the ,albanian population has lost its valour and perseverance2 the ,greek has sunk back into that normal condition of rapacious imbecility which has characterised the ,hellenic race ever since the time of ,mummius4 ,the revolution which freed ,greece from the ,turkish yoke broke out early in the year #ahba1 so that the inhabitants of the kingdom have now enjoyed the advantages of political independence for thirty-three years4 ,a generation has grown up to manhood in possession of a greater degree of freedom than is possessed by most of the continental nations of ,europe4 ,municipal institutions existed1 to some extent1 under the ,turks1 and they acquired considerable importance during the revolutionary war4 ,the fullest exercise of the liberty of the press has prevailed ever since the first year of the revolution4 ,nor has this liberty been greatly abused1 though it has often been misused--a circumstance not to be wondered at in a country so torn by faction as ,greece has been ever since she commenced her struggle for independence4 ,this fact must be weighed against the many vices and corruptions of the ,greeks which it will be our task to notice1 for it affords decisive evidence that there still exists among the mass of the population a sound basis of public opinion4 ,the establishment of free and orthodox ,greece as an independent ,state1 under the protection of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,russia1 was a conception of ,george ,canning's genius1 and it received the sanction of the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,after ,canning's death1 his enemies made it a subject of reproach4 ,it is said that1 when his statue was erected in ,palace ,yard1 a royal duke1 walking beside it with the late ,lord ,eldon1 began to pour out a diatribe of harmless accusations against the honoured dead1 which he summed up1 saying1 8,he caused the battle of ,navarin1 ,eldon1 and he was not nearly so big as that statue20 to which the great ,lord ,chancellor1 whose patience had been long tried1 expanded his bushy eyebrows1 and exclaimed1 8,no1 truly--nor so green30 the statue being then1 as some of our readers may remember1 more remarkable for the verdant colour of its patent verdigris than for its size4 ,whether the battle of ,navarin was absolutely necessary to save ,greece from ,ibrahim ,pasha and his ,arabs1 may still admit of dispute2 but unquestionably it was the battle of ,navarin which did save ,greece4 ,when1 however1 the business of selecting a king1 and of organising the institutions of a central administration on monarchical principles came to be performed1 the genius of ,canning was represented by the torpor of ,aberdeen1 and the sagacity of ,wellington by the belligerent amenity of ,palmerston4 ,the ,russian sympathies of ,capodistrias succeeded in delaying the final settlement of the ,greek question1 with the hope of placing ,greece in a state of vassalage to the ,czar4 ,lord ,aberdeen combated the policy of the ,corfiote feebly and unsuccessfully4 ,he barely succeeded in preventing the execution of the ,russian schemes1 when the dagger of ,mavromichalis opened the way for making ,greece an independent kingdom by the assassination of ,capodistrias4 ,the only candidate worthy of the throne of ,greece was ,leopold of ,saxe-,cobourg1 the present ,king of ,belgium4 ,he was compelled to resign his pretensions on account of the mutilated form of the territory offered to him by ,lord ,aberdeen and the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,lord ,palmerston improved the territorial position of ,greece by giving it a better frontier than ,lord ,aberdeen1 but it remained still a very bad one1 as ,colonel ,leake pointed out at the time4 ,in #ahcb1 moreover1 ,lord ,palmerston administered his antidote to an improved frontier1 in the shape of a ,bavarian prince1 whom1 for some years1 he supported with his usual vigour and contempt of consequences4 ,king ,otho being a minor1 a regency accompanied him from ,bavaria to ,greece in #ahcc1 to govern in his name4 ,this regency consisted of three statesmen of purblind views--men of the limited political intelligence which distinguishes the artistic city of ,munich4 ,yet ,lord ,palmerston1 in concert with the other protecting powers1 consented to strangle the ,greek ,chambers1 in order to vest unlimited power in the hands of these ,bavarian regents4 ,count ,armansperg was chosen to do the honours1 ,m4 ,maurer was intrusted with the duty of organising the civil administration1 and ,general ,heideck was allowed to sketch uniforms for the ,greek army1 and instructed to paint pictures for the cabinet of ,king ,louis4 ,these three statesmen soon quarrelled among themselves1 and1 with ,teutonic bonhomie1 called in the ,greeks as spectators of their contests4 ,the foreign policy of the regency was quite as ill-judged as their domestic behaviour4 ,m4 ,maurer1 who got the upper hand for a year1 was ultra-,gallican2 ,count ,armansperg1 who at last succeeded in getting him shipped off to ,bavaria1 was ultra-,anglican4 ,the follies of the regency1 however1 did not prevent the three protecting powers from heaping benefits on the ,greek nation4 ,a large loan1 amounting to two million four hundred thousand pounds1 was placed at the disposal of the ,royal government4 ,the object which the protectors of ,greece had in view1 was to remove any difficulties which the finances of ,greece might have offered to a reform in the general system of taxation1 and at the same time to afford facilities for immediately commencing the construction of roads1 and other necessary improvements4 ,the ,greek treasury was rendered completely independent of the receipts of the annual revenues for the period necessary to effect a thorough reorganisation of every branch of the public service1 civil1 military1 naval1 and judicial4 ,greece had everything done for her which her friends could desire4 ,but the ,greeks1 instead of employing their energies1 and making use of the liberty of the press to restrain the ,bavarians from wasting the loan1 aided them to dissipate it in every way by which they could profit4 ,the whole force of public opinion1 it is true1 was employed in driving the ,bavarians from profitable employments2 but when success attended the clamours of the ,greeks1 instead of abolishing the offices which they had previously declared to be useless1 they installed themselves in the vacant places1 and employed the influence thus acquired to diminish even the scanty sum devoted to national improvements by the ,bavarians4 ,accordingly1 we find that the ,bavarians did as much for improving ,greece during their short period of power1 as the ,greeks during their long subsequent administration4 ,yet every traveller hears the ,greeks constantly declaring that all the evils in the country are caused by foreign interference4 ,the only truth in their observation is1 that they were and are utterly unfit to be trusted with the administration of any money beyond what they levy on themselves in the way of taxation4 ,nothing1 indeed1 shows the moral obliquity of the ,greeks more than the ingratitude with which they receive every public and private gift4 ,we consider that ingratitude a sufficient excuse for recapitulating some of the favours which the ,british ,government has conferred on them since ,otho the beloved ascended the ,hellenic throne4 ,nothing but the blindest self-conceit1 or the blackest ingratitude1 can prevent their acknowledging that the ,english ,cabinet has done infinitely more for advancing the commercial prosperity and extending the agricultural industry of ,greece1 than ,king ,otho's ministers or the ,greek ,chambers4 ,the personal interest which several members of our ,government took in the success of the kingdom they had contributed to found1 induced them to conclude a reciprocity treaty with the ,king's government at an early period4 ,to the same feeling we may ascribe the early repeal of the duty on currants imported into the ,british dominions from the ,greek kingdom4 ,this change of duty1 by placing the currants1 a most important product of the ,morea1 on the same footing as those of ,zante1 was a direct boon to the currant-growers of ,achaia1 a bounty on the cultivation of fruit in the ,greek kingdom1 a premium to commerce at ,patras1 and a considerable gift to ,king ,otho's treasury4 ,lord ,palmerston was ,foreign ,secretary during these changes1 and we therefore request the public writers at ,athens1 when they think fit to reproach him for quarrelling with their beloved monarch1 whom they believe is ever ready to sacrifice his throne for their orthodoxy1 to bear in mind that these measures have done more for the agricultural and commercial prosperity of ,greece1 than any which ,king ,otho or the ,greek ,chambers have adopted since they freed themselves from foreign domination4 ,for nearly five years--that is1 from the beginning of #ahcc to the end of #ahcg--the ,bavarians continued to waste the loan granted by the three powers1 partly in large salaries to themselves1 and partly in creating places and jobs for the ,greeks1 to induce the most influential and clamorous to consent to their mode of dissipating the public money4 ,notwithstanding this1 there can be no doubt that ,greece received some permanent benefit from the regency4 ,the ,greeks were not in a condition to establish an equitable system of laws4 ,m4 ,maurer endowed the country with this invaluable boon4 ,to him ,greece owes its excellent judicial organisation1 and its code of civil procedure4 ,whatever were the defects of ,m4 ,maurer as a statesman1 he was an able legislator1 practically conversant with every detail of legal administration4 ,the judicial system he planted in ,greece was so complete in all its parts1 that it has become an element in the political civilisation of the kingdom2 and it affords the strongest grounds of hope to those who look forward to the ,greek nation as the instrument for extending political civilisation in the ,east4 ,count ,armansperg governed ,greece much longer than ,m4 ,maurer1 but his improvements were not so beneficial4 ,he made court balls and political bribery national institutions4 ,during the whole of the ,bavarian domination1 a well-filled treasury1 a number of foreign officers and native councillors of state1 political sycophants1 dressed in handsome uniforms and speaking good ,french1 a hired press1 and a liberal distribution of ,king ,otho's ,order of the ,redeemer of ,greece1 with its ribbon and star1 to foreign diplomatists and ,english peers1 concealed from ,western ,europe the discontent1 civil wars1 and brigandage that fermented in the little kingdom4 ,the bands of robbers that infested ,greece during this period became so numerous as to give their system of plunder the character of a civil war4 ,in the year #ahce1 during the administration of ,count ,armansperg1 a body of about #ejj brigands remained for more than a month levying contributions under the walls of ,lepanto1 in which it kept the garrison blockaded until relieved by a general from ,athens with a strong detachment of ,bavarian and ,greek regular troops4 ,these armed bands repeatedly resisted the central government1 which drew all the money of the country to the capital without making any improvements in the provinces4 ,several foreign officers were charged with the task of re-establishing order4 ,generals ,schmaltz1 ,gordon1 and ,church1 each made a campaign against the brigands1 who rendered ,messenia1 ,etolia1 ,acarnania1 ,doris1 and ,phthiotis in turns the scene of their skirmishes with ,king ,otho's troops4 ,besides this extensive system of brigandage1 a regular civil war was caused in ,maina by the same central rapacity and want of judgment on the part of the ,regency4 ,in ,maina1 the ,bavarian troops were defeated1 and a considerable number were compelled to lay down their arms4 ,during the whole of the ,bavarian domination1 the ,greeks enjoyed the liberty of the press4 ,m4 ,maurer placed the newspapers under some reasonable restraints1 and ,count ,armansperg made one or two feeble demonstrations against them1 for he was timid in everything but emptying the ,greek treasury4 ,his attacks were easily repulsed1 and the ,greeks have the honour of retaining the liberty of the press by their own exertions1 though they have hitherto not rendered the privilege of much use to the nation4 ,at length1 in the month of ,december #ahcg1 the ,chevalier ,rudhart1 the last ,bavarian prime-minister1 resigned his office1 and from that time ,king ,otho has governed his kingdom with ,greek or ,albanian prime-ministers4 ,this office has been more than once held by men who could hardly read or write2 but the individuals have invariably been persons of some mark in the factions that divide the place-hunters of ,athens4 ,the ignorance and want of education of his ministers1 which is often made a reproach to ,king ,otho1 ought to be considered as a national disgrace1 for the court would never have selected men so destitute of administrative knowledge1 had they not possessed considerable influence and a numerous following4 ,ever since the commencement of the year #ahch1 the ,greeks have possessed a predominant influence in ,king ,otho's cabinet4 ,they are entirely responsible for the faults of his government from that time2 for if the ,greek ministers had used their power with a very little honesty1 and one single grain of patriotism1 they might have retained the direction of the internal administration in their own hands1 and effected every improvement the nation could desire4 ,indeed1 if they had ever shown a wish to improve the material condition of the population1 it is probable ,king ,otho would have given them his support in their endeavours4 ,but when the ,king saw them intent only on profiting by office to enrich themselves and create places for their partisans1 in order to perpetuate their tenure of office1 he very naturally looked about for means to form a royal party1 and thus render the court independent of the ministers4 ,we shall soon explain to our readers how effectually his ,hellenic ,majesty accomplished this object4 ,the ,greek ministers never made any serious effort to diminish the weight of taxation1 either by economy or by improving the barbarous manner in which the agricultural taxes are collected2 they thought only of appropriating the national lands1 and creating new places to reward their supporters4 ,instead of establishing systematic regulations for securing a respect to seniority and merit in civil1 judicial1 and military appointments1 they destroyed the system the ,bavarians had established1 and disposed of the highest offices in the most arbitrary and unprincipled manner4 ,judges have been appointed in violation of the law1 and men have been made generals who had never served in a military capacity4 ,worthless politicians and intriguing secretaries were decorated with military titles in order to enrich them with high pay4 ,these men may be seen at the balls in ,king ,otho's palace1 flaunting in vulgar embroidery1 and imitating with ,greek pertness the sumptuous ,albanian dress and ,mussulman gravity of the chiefs who filled the halls of ,ali ,pasha of ,joannina4 ,the ,greeks alone have enjoyed the profits of the corruption which has reigned in the administration since the year #ahch2 they are consequently not entitled to throw the blame on foreigners4 ,in consequence of the misconduct of the ,greek ministers and the servility of a council of state filled with official sycophants1 the ,greek government became such a scene of corruption that the patience of all ranks was exhausted1 and an attempt was made to reform the vicious system by a revolution in the year #ahdc4 ,a representative chamber and an imitation of ,louis ,philippe's senate of officials1 called in ,france a ,house of ,peers1 were constituted4 ,the deputies were chosen by universal suffrage1 but the election of the municipal authorities was left subject to the oligarchical restrictions imposed by the ,regency4 ,ten years have now elapsed since the constitutional system was established1 so that for ten years the ,greeks have made their own laws and voted their own budgets4 ,at the same time1 the enjoyment of the fullest liberty of the press1 and the existence of sixteen newspapers at ,athens1 have enabled every party and class to criticise the acts of the government with unrestrained license4 ,if corruption and venality have been the leading features of political society in ,greece during this period1 it is evident that the nation has been a party to the abuses1 from its refusal to punish the offenders4 ,the mass of those whose superior knowledge and rank have obtained for them the direction of public opinion in political matters1 have sacrificed the interests of the nation to advance their own personal schemes of profit4 ,the ,greeks ought not to feel surprised at the low estimation in which they are now held4 ,it is entirely their own fault4 ,they have hawked about their nationality at ,munich1 ,paris1 and ,st ,petersburg1 for illicit gains in a falling market at a very unpatriotic price4 ,yet we collect from the newspapers published at ,athens1 that a considerable number of well-educated men of all parties1 while they acknowledge the degraded state of their country1 assert that the whole blame ought to be ascribed to the three protecting powers4 ,many of these patriots1 it seems1 are nevertheless in the receipt of large salaries from the public treasury2 yet1 though they feel that they are themselves destitute of the patriotism necessary to lighten the burdens of their country1 they take the liberty of supposing that ,lord ,palmerston had the power of making all ,greeks honest men by the magic of a protocol4 ,we are not going to waste the time of our readers1 as the ,greek ,senate and ,house of ,representatives have wasted the resources of the country1 by exposing the childishness of modern ,greek political logic4 ,if the descendants of ,lucian's contemporaries can find relief in their present degradation1 by swallowing any dose of vanity they can mix for themselves1 we have no wish to deprive them of the solace4 ,but we cannot refrain from advising them to try some other remedy to remove the evils that are undermining the national strength and character4 ,instead of seeking for apologies to excuse their vices1 they had better commence reforming their vicious habits4 ,nothing has so much retarded the progress of the ,greek race as the inconceivable vanity and unbounded presumption of the class who make letters a profession4 ,those who believe in the unmixed purity of the ,hellenic blood might cite this besotted pride1 after two thousand years of national degradation1 as a proof that the ,greeks of the present day are lineal descendants of those who sold their country to the ,macedonians and the ,romans1 as they have lately attempted to sell it to the ,russians4 ,an admixture of foreign blood would probably have infused into the people a wish to look forward to a glorious future1 instead of leaving them to gaze at a reflection of the past1 distorted by their own senile visual orbits1 at moments when action1 not contemplation1 is their business4 ,the strange manner in which the modern ,greeks misrepresent history for the gratification of their national vanity1 is well displayed in their ecclesiastical history4 ,we will select one anecdote from the ,history of the ,patriarchs of ,constantinople1 written by ,malaxos1 one of the ,greek logiotati of the sixteenth century4 ,his work was first published by ,martin ,crusius in his ,turco-,grcia1 and has lately been reprinted in the new edition of the ,byzantine historians1 in the course of publication at ,bonn4 ,the ,greeks are in the habit of boasting that their ,church preserved their nationality under the ,turks4 ,considering the subserviency of the great body of the ,greek clergy during that period1 and the readiness with which they acted as spies and policemen for the ,othoman government1 we own that we entertain a very different opinion4 ,we think it would be nearer the truth to assert that the people1 having perpetuated their existence by the toleration of their conquerors1 preserved their nationality by their municipal organisation1 and that this preservation of their nationality was the cause of their ecclesiastical establishment surviving4 ,mohammed ,,ii4 reconstituted the patriarchate of ,constantinople1 after he had conquered the city1 merely as a branch of the ,othoman administration4 ,mr ,masson and other enthusiasts fancy they can discern ,presbyterian doctrines in the ,greek ,church4 ,it may be the case4 ,we have heard that chemists find gold in strawberries2 but the gold rarely sits heavy on the stomachs of those who eat strawberries1 and we opine that the ,presbyterian doctrines of the ,greek ,church never prevent its votaries from worshipping images4 ,so1 in the anecdote we are going to extract from the ,patriarchal ,history1 we find that the ,greeks regard violations of truth and honour as venial offences1 if not absolutely meritorious acts1 whenever they are supposed to have turned to the profit of their ecclesiastical establishment4 8,during the reign of the ,sultan ,suleiman the ,magnificent1 when ,toulphi ,pasha was grand vizier1#acc the attention of the ,sublime ,porte was called to the circumstance that the duty of the caliph of the ,mohammedan faith required the destruction of all places of worship belonging to ,infidels in every city which the true believers had taken with the sword4 ,now1 as ,mohammed ,,ii4 had taken ,constantinople by storm1 it was the sultan's duty to destroy all the ,christian churches within the walls2 and all the plagues and fires which had desolated the city1 and which1 it was observed1 generally consumed more ,turkish than ,greek property1 evidently arose from the ,divine anger at the neglect of this important command of the ,prophet4 ,sultan ,suleiman was said to have consulted the mufti on the necessity of only tolerating places of worship for the ,christians without the walls2 and it was believed that the mufti had delivered a fetva1 authorising the destruction of all the ,greek churches in ,constantinople4 ,sultan ,suleiman then issued an order to his grand vizier1 commanding him to carry the fetva into execution4 ,at this time ,jeremiah was patriarch of ,constantinople4 8,the patriarch heard the report1 and1 terrified at the news1 mounted his mule1 and hastened to the palace of the grand vizier1 who received him with kindness4 ,the two dignitaries discussed the matter of the sultan's order1 and concerted together a mode of evading its execution4 ,a meeting of the divan was held1 at which the grand vizier made a public communication of the imperial decree to the patriarch ,jeremiah4 ,but the head of the ,greek ,church gravely observed1 that the circumstances of the mufti's fetva were not applicable to the city of ,constantinople4 ,he declared that before ,mohammed ,,ii4 entered ,constantinople1 the ,emperor ,constantine1 finding the place no longer tenable1 had gone out of the city and presented the keys to the ,sultan1 who had admitted him to do homage as a subject for himself and the ,greek people1 before the gates were thrown open to admit the conqueror4 ,on this ground he pleaded that all the concessions made by ,mohammed ,,ii4 to the patriarchs and to the ,greek ,church were lawful4 ,well might all the members of the divan wonder at this strange tale concerning the conquest of ,constantinople4 ,but many had received large presents from the patriarch1 and many waited to hear the opinion of the grand vizier before pretending to doubt its accuracy4 ,the grand vizier declared that the question was so important that it would be proper to adjourn the business to a grand divan on the following day4 8,the report having spread among the whole population of ,constantinople1 that the ,government intended to destroy all the ,christian churches1 every class of society was in movement4 ,long before the meeting of the divan1 crowds of ,turks1 ,greeks1 ,armenians1 and ,jews assembled at the ,porte to hear the result of the deliberation4 ,the whole space from the gate of the serai to the court of ,st ,sophia's was filled with the multitude4 ,the ,patriarch ,jeremiah was waiting to be admitted to the divan1 and soon after the members had taken their places he was summoned to enter4 ,when he reached the centre of the hall1 he made his prostrations to the assembled viziers1 and then1 standing erect1 declared himself ready to answer for his church4 ,all admired the dignity of his presence4 ,his white beard descended on his breast1 and the sweat fell in large drops from his forehead4 ,the ,greeks declared that he emulated the passion of ,christ1 of whose orthodox church he was the representative on earth4 ,the archonts of the ,greek nation stood trembling beside him4 8,at length the grand vizier spoke4 #8,patriarch of the ,greeks1 a fetva of our law has been delivered1 and an order of the padishah has been issued1 prohibiting the existence of any church in the cities which the true believers have conquered sword in hand4 ,this city was taken by storm by the great ,sultan ,mohammed the conqueror4 ,therefore1 let your priests remove all their property from the churches in their possession1 and1 after shutting them up1 deliver the keys to our master's officers1 that the churches may be destroyed4' ,to this summons the patriarch replied in a distinct voice1 #8,i cannot answer1 ,o grand vizier6 for what happened in other cities2 but with regard to this city of ,constantinople ,i can solemnly affirm that the ,emperor ,constantine ,palaiologos1 with the nobles1 the clergy1 and the people1 surrendered it voluntarily to the ,sultan ,mohammed4' ,the grand vizier cautioned the patriarch not to assert anything which he could not prove by the testimony of ,mohammedan witnesses1 who were able to certify the truth of what he said4 ,the patriarch immediately engaged to produce witnesses1 and the affair was adjourned for twenty days4 8,the ,greeks were in great alarm4 ,everybody knew that the patriarch had engaged to prove a lie2 so that the only hope of safety appeared to be in the perpetual adjournment of the question4 ,to effect this1 the wealthiest ,greeks--,phanariotes and merchants--offered to supply the patriarch with the sums of money necessary to bribe the grand vizier and the members of the divan4 8,but the ,patriarch ,jeremiah and the grand vizier ,toulphi did not wish to admit any strangers into the secret of their proceedings4 ,so the patriarch sent men of experience to ,adrianople1 who met agents of the grand vizier1 and at last two aged ,mussulmans were found who were willing for a large bribe to testify that the patriarch had spoken the truth4 ,these witnesses were conducted to ,constantinople1 and presented to the ,patriarch ,jeremiah1 who embraced them1 and took care that they should be well fed1 lodged1 clothed1 and carefully watched1 until they appeared before the divan4 ,when they had rested from the fatigues of their journey1 they were conducted to the grand vizier1 who spoke kindly to them1 told them the patriarch was his friend1 and exhorted them to give their evidence without fear4 8,on the day appointed to hear the evidence1 the ,patriarch ,jeremiah presented himself before the divan4 ,the grand vizier asked if he was prepared to produce the evidence he had promised1 and the ,patriarch replied that the witnesses were waiting without to be examined4 8,two aged ,turks were now conducted into the hall4 ,their beards were white as the purest snow1 red circles surrounded their eyes1 from which the tears fell incessantly1 while their hands and feet moved with a continual tremor4 ,the viziers gazed at them with astonishment1 for two men so far advanced in years had never been seen before on earth standing side by side4 ,they looked like two brothers whom death had forgotten4 ,the grand vizier asked their names1 and encouraged them by making some other inquiries4 ,they replied that they were both about eighteen years of age when ,constantinople was taken by the ,sultan ,mohammed the victorious4 ,since that time they knew that eighty-four years had elapsed1 and therefore they were aware that they had reached the age of a hundred and two4 ,they then gave the following account of the conquest of ,constantinople3-- 8,the siege was formed by land and sea1 and long and bloody engagements took place1 but at last several breaches were made in the walls1 and it was evident that the place would soon be taken4 ,preparations were making for a final assault1 when the ,emperor of the ,greeks sent a deputation of his nobles to the sultan to demand a capitulation4 ,the sultan1 wishing to save the city from destruction1 and to spare the blood of the true believers1 granted the infidels the following terms of capitulation1 which the witnesses pretended to remember with accuracy1 because a copy had been publicly signed by the sultan and read aloud to the troops3 #8,i1 the ,sultan ,mohammed1 pardon the ,emperor ,constantine and the ,greeks1 and grant their petition to become my subjects1 and live in peace under my protection4 ,i allow the nobles to retain their slaves and property1 and ,i declare that the people shall live free from all illegal exactions1 and that their children shall not be taken to be enrolled in the corps of janissaries4#acd ,this charter shall be binding on me and my successors for ever4' ,with this charter the ,greek deputation returned to the emperor1 who came out immediately1 and falling on his knees before ,mohammed the ,second1 presented to him the keys of the city4 ,the sultan then raised ,constantine1 kissed him1 and made him sit down on his right hand4 ,for three days the two princes rejoiced together1 and then the emperor led the sultan into the city4 8,as soon as the members of the divan heard this account of the taking of ,constantinople from the two old men who had witnessed the events1 they drew up a report and transmitted it to ,sultan ,suleiman4 ,the sultan1 convinced that everything must have happened as the old ,mussulmans deposed1 immediately ordered that the ,christians should be allowed to retain possession of their churches1 and that no man should molest the patriarch of the ,greeks under any pretext40 ,now1 the whole of this tale is an absurd forgery4 ,moreover1 the ignorance of the ,greeks who framed it is even more extraordinary than their utter disregard for truth4 ,the accomplished sultan1 ,suleiman the ,magnificent1 and the learned grand vizier1 ,loufti ,pasha1 are represented as stupid ,turks1 destitute of all knowledge of the history of the ,othoman ,empire4 ,greek vanity is flattered by an exhibition of the way in which ,romaic genius nullifies the power of the padishah1 by availing itself of the corruption in the ,turkish administration4 ,but the strangest feature in the fable is the moral obtuseness of the ,hellenic mind1 which solicits admiration for the frauds and falsehoods of their patriarch4 ,the inventor of the tale had in all probability heard that ,loufti ,pasha was an ,albanian by birth1 but was ignorant of the fact that he was a man of learning4 ,he could not have known that1 when in exile at ,demotika1 ,loufti wrote a history of the ,othoman ,empire1 which is still preserved4 ,indeed1 a comparison of the flourishing state of ,turkish literature with the degraded condition of ,greek literature in the sixteenth century contrasts in a singular manner with the contempt displayed by the ,greeks in their illiterate records for the accomplished and warlike ,othomans4 ,but the ,greeks have always viewed the history of other nations through a mist of prejudices which has bewildered themselves far more than their enemies4 ,this anecdote presents a faithful picture of the ,hellenic mind1 and of ,greek political and historical knowledge1 three hundred years ago4 ,we shall now endeavour to place before our readers an equally correct picture of their mode of thinking and acting at present4 ,the constitutional system of government has proved as complete a failure in ,greece as the absolute monarchy which terminated at the revolution of #ahdc4 ,our description of the actual condition of the country will explain the particular causes which have corrupted the representative system and the central administration4 ,the court of ,king ,otho is really quite as much the predominant feature in the political condition of ,greece as his palace is in the landscape at ,athens4 ,both are great deformities in scenes of great interest4 ,there is a grotesque mimicry of royal state at the monster palace of the little capital of liberated ,greece4 ,a marshal of the palace and a master of the ceremonies1 a grandmatresse1 military and naval aides-de-camp1 ordinance officers1 ladies of honour1 and young ladies-in-waiting1 courtiers who cannot write1 and courtiers who cannot ride2 court carriages in a kingdom without mail-coaches2 royal steam-yachts1 but no packets even with oars2 crosses1 ribbons1 and stars2 salaries1 places1 and pensions2--everything which ruins a government1 and nothing which enriches a people4 ,the power of the crown is great4 ,it is supported by a civil list of one million of drachmas annually1 in a state which has a net revenue of twelve4 ,the enormous amount of this civil list may be estimated from the facts1 that the salaries of the ,greek ministers are only twelve thousand drachmas a year1 and of the ,greek senators only six thousand4 ,besides the influence which this exorbitant wealth confers on the monarch1 he possesses still greater social influence1 for the whole of the upper classes at ,athens consist of paid officials1 every one of whom is liable to lose his place at a word from ,king ,otho1 who1 with very little exertion on the part of that royal memory on which kings pride themselves1 may recollect every man who resides at his capital qualified to enter his palace4 ,the desire of ,king ,otho to extend his personal influence1 and centralise power in his own hands1 is so great1 that every individual who receives a public appointment1 however insignificant1 whether at ,athens or in the provinces1 is compelled to wait on his majesty to thank him for the favour1 which he naturally pretends to consider as a reward for his attachment to the royal ,bavarian1 not as a reward for his services to ,greece4 ,king ,otho has been an apt pupil of ,louis ,philippe in the political corruption that renders the constitutional system subservient to the royal power in a thoroughly centralised administration4 ,in one branch of political corruption ,king ,otho may boast that he has outdone all ,european sovereigns4 ,it is true1 he found in the ,hellenic mind a rich soil1 but he may claim the merit of having worked it like a first-rate farmer4 ,the local institutions to which the friends of ,greece looked for a firm basis for liberal institutions1 have in his hands been rendered the instrument for converting popular elections into royal nominations4 ,when the ,bavarian regency destroyed the communal system of ,greece1 they replaced it by municipalities of greater extent1 and rendered the local authorities dependent on the ,minister of the ,interior4 ,king ,otho availed himself of the central control created by the municipal law1 to make the mayor and local magistrates everywhere dependent on his personal favour4 ,the mayors are now agents and spies of the court4 ,this is effected in the following manner3 ,by one of those preposterous regulations1 framed by statesmen to delude the people with a show of conferring on them free institutions1 the nomination of the mayor is vested in the central government4 ,an oligarchical college of electors selects three members of the municipality1 and from these his majesty selects the most subservient to occupy the place4 ,by availing himself skilfully of this absurd law1 ,king ,otho has filled the towns of ,greece with magistrates entirely dependent on his will--men whom their fellow-citizens1 if universal suffrage prevailed in the municipal elections of the mayors as it does in the more important elections of deputies to the legislature1 would not allow to remain an hour in office4 ,these nominees of the court are placed in possession of considerable salaries by the will of the central government1 and as they are dependent on the court for their office1 they act as its devoted agents4 ,the consequence is1 that ,king ,otho is enabled to employ the funds of the ,greek municipalities in maintaining a species of court policemen over the whole country4 ,the influence thus gained may be estimated from the circumstance that upwards of two millions of drachmas are thus withdrawn from their legitimate use1 in making roads and facilitating communications by land and water1 and are devoted to pay a band of royal sbirri4 ,many persons in ,england have felt astonished that a man of such moderate talents as ,king ,otho could render such effectual service to ,russia1 as to agitate the whole of ,greece by making an invasion of ,turkey appear a national movement4 ,but the fact is1 that the power possessed by the central government through the municipalities is so great1 that we have to thank the extreme incapacity of ,king ,otho and the general corruption of the instruments he employed for rendering the attack on ,turkey as inefficient as it proved4 ,the ,king gave the signal for a general recruiting to aid the ,russian cause1 but his instruments in the provinces employed the opportunity in attending to their own interests1 before giving themselves much trouble about making a diversion for the profit of the ,czar or the ,bavarian4 ,king ,otho on this occasion paid the usual penalty of those who work by corruption4 ,we must not blame ,king ,otho too severely for making use of corrupt persuasion as an instrument of parliamentary government4 ,the proceedings of our ,ministers rise up before us as an apology for the ,greek monarchy4 ,a ,coalition of all the administrative talent of ,britain cannot conduct the non-centralised government of the empire without a little local jobbery4 ,even ,lord ,aberdeen's own department publicly owns the necessity of throwing a few corrupt sops to a hungry and restive body of ,liberal representatives4 ,in the ,treasury report1 recommending some reforms in our post-office1 the following words will be found1--it seems a very plain statement of adherence to the principles on which ,king ,otho influences the ,greek municipalities3 8,my ,lords 7of the ,treasury--i4 e41 ,messrs ,aberdeen ,co47 are of opinion that it is for the public interest that the appointments should be made as at present by my ,lords1 after consulting1 through the recommendation of the members for the county or town1 the convenience and wishes of the population40 ,population in this sentence1 we presume1 means the class who usually job such matters1 for we have never before heard it asserted that the mob was the best judge of administrative capacity4 ,the fact that a man so notoriously deficient in political wisdom as ,king ,otho has succeeded in establishing a system1 giving him a predominant influence over the ,greeks1 is a sad evidence of the extreme venality of ,greek society2 for there can hardly be a doubt that the ,greeks suggested to their ,king the employment of the national resources in purchasing the service of individuals instead of devoting them to the improvement of the nation4 ,we have but few observations to make on the late treacherous attack of ,king ,otho and his subjects on their neighbour and ally1 the ,sultan ,abdul ,medjid4 ,there could not be an act of greater folly2 and even amidst the incapable and cowardly exhibitions of modern times1 it is the national movement which has been conducted in the most incapable and cowardly manner4 ,of the complicity of ,king ,otho there never was a doubt1 in spite of the denials of the ,greek and ,german press4 ,the courts of ,london and ,paris have refrained from giving publicity to all the documents which fell into the hands of the ,turks proving this complicity1 as it was not their wish to increase the embarrassments of the hour by declaring the throne of ,greece vacant4 ,regarding the attack on ,turkey1 however1 in the light of a diversion for the advantage of ,russia1 it might have rendered important assistance to the ,czar4 ,had it been conducted with energy and ability1 it might have inflicted a serious blow on the ,othoman ,empire4 ,when ,king ,otho violated the treaties to which he owed his throne1 and appealed to force as the arbiter of his future relations with ,turkey1 he expected1 not without some chance of success1 to become master of the line of fortresses that defend the frontiers of ,turkey towards ,greece4 ,volo1 ,domoko1 ,arta1 and ,prevesa1 were almost without garrisons2 and it was only by the extreme incapacity of the ,greek leaders1 and the misconduct of those who invaded ,turkey1 that these fortresses escaped capture4 ,the court of ,athens acted on the conviction that the ,russian army would force the ,balkan in a few weeks1 and appear before the walls of ,constantinople without encountering any serious resistance4 ,it consequently believed that it would not be in the ,sultan's power to detach a force sufficient to protect ,thessaly and ,epirus4 ,once in possession of the fortresses which command these provinces1 the ,king believed that ,england and ,france would be compelled to treat with him1 and leave him in possession of the spoil4 ,fortunately for the ,othoman ,empire1 both the ,emperor ,nicholas and ,king ,otho are very bad generals4 ,both appear to have calculated that the armed rabble of ,greeks in fustanello could perform the duties of an army4 ,and ,king ,otho now finds that he has sacrificed the most valuable portion of his subjects' commerce to ,russian interests1 without any advantage to his cherished scheme of making himself an absolute monarch4 ,the political morality of ,king ,otho1 in his foreign as in his internal affairs1 deserves the severest condemnation4 ,his behaviour to ,turkey has met with the most galling punishment4 ,he retains his crown by the sufferance of those whom he has betrayed4 ,his folly has ruined the commerce of his subjects1 and transferred the neutral trade1 which might have enriched the ,greeks1 to the ships of the ,austrians1 ,genoese1 and ,neapolitans4 ,let us now contrast the conduct of the ,greek monarch with the behaviour of the ,president of the ,united ,states in a similar case4 ,cuba is quite as desirable a possession to the ,americans as ,thessaly and ,epirus are to the ,greeks4 ,in both countries a large part of the population eagerly desires the conquest4 ,there is1 however1 this difference3 ,the ,greeks could not make any impression on their enemy1 even though they took him by surprise2 but the ,americans would probably soon gain possession of ,cuba1 if their government only winked at the enterprises of private citizens4 ,had the ,president of the ,united ,states been as impolitic and selfish as ,king ,otho1 he might have encouraged piratical attacks on ,cuba4 ,the position of ,general ,pierce bore a strong resemblance to that of the ,king of ,greece1 but his conduct was diametrically opposite4 ,even though ,general ,pierce is now engaged in demanding from ,spain reparation for acts of violence committed on the property of ,american citizens in ,cuba1 and though it is possible that the disputes between the two countries may soon lead to hostilities1 the ,president of the ,united ,states uses the following terms in his ,message to the ,senate3-- 8,the formal demand for immediate reparation 7from ,spain7 has only served to call forth a justification of the local authorities of ,cuba1 which transfers the responsibility to the ,spanish government4444 ,meanwhile information was received that preparation was making within the limits of the ,united ,states1 by private individuals1 under military organisation1 for a descent upon the island of ,cuba1 with a view to wrest it from the dominion of ,spain4 ,international comity1 the obligations of treaties1 and the express provisions of the law1 alike required1 in my judgment1 that all the constitutional power of the executive should be exerted to prevent the consummation of such a violation of positive law1 and of that good faith on which mainly the amicable relations of neighbouring nations must depend4 8,in conformity with these convictions of public duty1 a proclamation was issued to warn all persons not to participate in the contemplated enterprise1 and to invoke the interposition in this behalf of the proper officers of government4 ,no provocation whatever can justify private expeditions of hostility against a country at peace with the ,united ,states40 ,contrast these words with ,king ,otho's declaration to the ministers of ,great ,britain and ,france1 that his royal conscience would not allow him to restrain the marauding forays and piratical expeditions of his subjects against ,turkey1 and that rather than attempt it he would himself march at their head4 ,international comity and the obligations of treaties now compel the two protecting powers to employ against ,king ,otho and the ,greeks that force to which they appealed as arbiter of their relations with ,turkey1 and they must be forcibly obliged to observe that good faith on which mainly the amicable relations of neighbouring ,states must depend4 ,unless1 therefore1 the ,greek ,king and the ,greek nation can give ample security that no provocation will again induce them to commence private acts of hostility against ,epirus and ,thessaly while the ,greek kingdom is at peace with the ,othoman ,empire1 the tranquillity of ,europe requires that the independence of ,greece should be suspended1 and the country remain in the power of a foreign force1 until a government be firmly established which will respect the principles of the law of nations as laid down by the ,president of the ,united ,states in his ,message to the ,senate4 ,the ,greeks in general apologise for their treacherous attempt to surprise the ,turks1 by declaring that the liberated territory is too small to constitute an independent ,state4 ,they seem to overlook the corollary which the ,european cabinets may be inclined to deduce from their violation of 8international comity and the obligations of treaties10 and extinguish their independence rather than increase their territory4 ,but the falsehood of the assertion is too apparent to deserve refutation4 ,the kingdom of ,greece is more thinly peopled than any other ,state in ,europe2 but this want of population is caused by its communications1 both by land and sea1 being in a worse state than they are in any other country4 ,idle clerks in public offices1 and armed men who frequent coffee-houses1 form a numerous section of the town population1 and these men consume all the revenues of the ,state1 which ought to be devoted to public improvements4 ,indeed1 the financial and political condition of ,king ,otho's dominions is so bad1 that it would be an act of inhumanity to transfer any portion of the population of the ,sultan's territory to the ,greek government4 ,if ,chios or ,samos were annexed to ,greece tomorrow1 the inhabitants would find their financial burdens greatly increased1 and their trade very much diminished1 without any corresponding improvement in their political condition for the present4 ,the benefits they would acquire might nevertheless awaken hopes of a better future4 ,they would be placed in possession of the liberty of the press1 and of a good judicial system1 so that when the corrupting influence of the court of ,athens1 of the ,phanariot place-hunters1 and of the palikari1 ceases to exist1 amendment may be expected by the enthusiastic4 ,judging from actual appearances1 ,king ,otho's dominions seem to be much too large1 both for the amount of the population1 and for the administrative capacity of the government4 ,even ,athens1 ,syra1 ,patras1 ,nauplia1 and ,chalcis1 are little better than undrained dirty towns1 destitute of proper municipal organisation and local police1 while the other towns in the country are merely overgrown villages4 ,with the exception of a few drives for the court carriages round ,athens1 and a road for the ,austrian traffic across the isthmus of ,corinth1 there is not a good cart-road in the kingdom1 and very few tolerable bridle-roads even from one town to another4 ,twenty islands of the ,archipelago1 each containing a town1 are not visited by any regular packets1 and it frequently happens that six weeks elapse without their receiving any news from the capital4 ,it is almost needless to say that a population living in such a state of isolation must be in a stationary1 if not in a declining1 condition4 ,if the numbers are kept up1 the buildings of past times are allowed to fall to decay1 and all the accumulated capital is rapidly deteriorating4 ,every traveller who has visited the islands of the ,archipelago1 and the towns in the interior of the ,peloponnesus1 must have noticed many proofs of this decay1 quite independent of the dilapidation caused by the revolutionary war1 or the civil broils which followed it4 ,other proofs of the incapacity of the existing government of ,greece to conduct the centralised system1 as established in the limited territory it now rules1 may be found in the civil wars already noticed1 in the general anarchy and contempt for the rights of property that prevails1 and in the enormous numbers of criminals in all the prisons of the kingdom4 ,we have now before us ,athenian newspapers of the month of ,july1 filled with complaints of acts of brigandage almost within sight of ,king ,otho's palace4 ,some years ago a party of pleasure was robbed during a picnic at ,kephisia2 and the newspapers have frequently recorded cases of boiling oil having been poured on women to compel them to show the robbers where the family hoards were concealed4 ,we have seen an occurrence of this kind recorded in ,attica while the ,chambers were in session4 ,the inference from these facts seems to be1 that ,king ,otho1 the ,greek ,chambers1 and the existing central administration1 are incompetent to establish order and security for life and property in the territory they now pretend to govern4 ,we ask whether it is possible for ,great ,britain and ,france to entertain the question of an augmentation of such a kingdom8 ,we may now turn from examining the position of ,king ,otho and the ,greek government in relation to their foreign policy1 and take a glance at the social and political condition of the nation4 ,we must commence by enumerating what the people have neglected to do4 ,this will serve to show how great the difficulties now are in the way of improving the country4 ,during the ten years of representative government which have now elapsed1 the ,greek deputies have made no systematic efforts to improve the condition of the agricultural population1 though three-quarters of the inhabitants of ,greece are chiefly dependent on agriculture for their subsistence4 ,no attempt has been made to reform the barbarous method of collecting the land-tax in kind1 which retains the population in the stationary condition into which it fell on the decline of the ,byzantine ,empire4 ,the municipalities have been allowed to become the vehicles of court corruption1 and no measures have been taken to enforce regular publication of their receipts and expenditure4 ,no criminal statistics are published4 ,instead of appropriating annually a sum of money for the construction of roads1 bridges1 quays1 and ferry-boats1 which are so necessary in a mountainous and insular ,state1 the national interests are sacrificed to the gains of individual senators and deputies4 ,new places are annually created1 and the trade of ,greece is transferred to ,austrian and ,french steam-companies4 ,the greatest commercial advantages ever placed at the disposal of any people have been neglected by the ,greek nation1 and perhaps completely thrown away by their late devotion to ,russia4 ,yet the ,greeks1 who see the number of foreign steamers daily increasing in their ports1 boast with their usual childish vanity of their superiority over every other people in naval skill4 ,they even throw out hints in their political writings that the real cause of ,lord ,palmerston's dissatisfaction with ,king ,otho was founded on a reasonable jealousy of the ,greek navy1 and a patriotic fear lest the subjects of that monarch should deprive ,england of her commercial supremacy6 ,yet while boasting in this ,hellenic strain1 like true descendants of the contemporaries of ,juvenal and ,lucian1 they have allowed the most profitable part of their own coasting trade to pass into the hands of the ,austrian ,lloyd ,steam ,company4 ,a tendency to social and political disintegration is quite as much a characteristic of the population of liberated ,greece as it was of ancient ,hellas4 ,national differences1 municipal distinctions1 local interests1 class prejudices1 and individual pretensions1 divide the people4 ,the first great social division is one of race4 ,only about three-quarters of the population of the ,greek kingdom consists of ,greeks--the other quarter is composed of ,albanians4 ,these races rarely intermarry1 and few ,greeks ever learn the ,albanian language2 yet the ,albanian race is rapidly acquiring political importance in the present condition of the ,othoman ,empire4 ,it enjoys two immense advantages over the ,greek race4 ,its geographical location concentrates the population1 and offers a strong barrier against any foreign conquerors2 while its military habits enables it to raise far larger and more efficient armies4 ,it is also physically as much superior to the ,greek as it is intellectually inferior4 ,the bravest men and the most beautiful women in the ,greek kingdom are of the purest ,albanian blood1 unadulterated with any admixture with the ,hellenic race4 ,marko ,botzaris1 ,miaoulis1 and ,konduriottis were ,albanians4 ,if the ,albanians should1 like their fellow-citizens the ,greeks1 become more eager to identify their existence with an ideal past than with a promising future1 there is no reason for their being behind-hand in boasting4 ,as descendants of the ,macedonians1 they may proudly vaunt that they have repeatedly conquered the ,hellenes2 and1 as a section of the great ,thracian people1 they trace their origin to a mightier source than the ,greeks4 ,consequently1 if race is to become a determining cause in the formation of independent ,states1 or even national representations1 within the limits of the ,othoman ,empire1 the warlike ,albanians1 in their inexpugnable mountains1 are likely to assume a more important position than the commercial ,greeks1 dispersed in exposed seaports and defenceless islands4 ,the application of ethnology to politics1 which the ,greeks have strongly-advocated1 is extremely likely to operate forcibly in preventing any considerable extension of their kingdom4 ,a ,greek empire would be an impossibility if a natural ethnological development were adopted as a basis for partitioning ,turkey in ,europe4 ,the ,vallachians1 ,sclavonians1 and ,albanians are as able and willing to arrest the progress of the ,greeks to-day1 as the ,thracians1 ,macedonians1 and ,epirots were in ancient times4 ,the next strongly-marked line of separation in the population of the ,greek kingdom is that between the agricultural population and the inhabitants of the towns1 whether the citizens live by orchard and garden culture1 or by trade and foreign commerce4 ,about three-quarters of the inhabitants of ,greece live by agriculture2 yet agricultural industry remains in the rudest state4 ,the ,bavarian ,regency1 the ,greek ,king1 and the representative ,chambers1 have hitherto done nothing to improve the condition of the agricultural class1 nor to increase the produce of the country4 ,the land which maintained one family four hundred years ago1 will only maintain one family at the present day2 the district which supported a thousand families under the ,turks1 can do no more under ,king ,otho4 ,the absurd fiscal arrangements concerning the collection of the land-tax in kind1 prevent the peasantry from planting trees2 so that in the richest plains devoted to the cultivation of cereals1 the agricultural class is in the most miserable condition--as in the fertile districts of ,thebes and ,messenia4 ,there is also no inducement to extend cultivation1 as no roads exist2 and a mule would1 in a large part of ,greece1 eat its load of barley before it reached the nearest market4 ,the agricultural class in ,greece is poor1 barbarous1 and industrious2 the population of the towns1 on the other hand1 is in easy circumstances1 advanced in civilisation1 and extremely idle4 ,in no other country are coffee-houses so numerous or so well filled4 ,the great number of persons living on places and pensions conferred by the central government1 or receiving pay from the municipalities with no duty to perform1 fills the streets of every town in ,greece with an amount of idle individuals which travellers view with wonder4 ,the third prominent feature in the social condition of the ,greek population is the existence of a military caste called ,palikars4 ,these palikars are nothing more than the armed followers of certain military chiefs who have secured to themselves an acknowledged position and regular pay in the ,greek kingdom4 ,the palikars wear the ,albanian dress1 and pretend to be professional soldiers1 though neither they nor their leaders know anything of military tactics or discipline4 ,a small number only are composed of the survivors of the irregular troops of the revolutionary war4 ,the greater part consists of idle young men who are incapable of learning a trade1 and disinclined to submit to discipline4 ,the utter uselessness of the palikars in military operations was displayed in the ease with which they were defeated and dispersed by ,fuad ,effendi4 ,these armed bands1 however1 though they are useless against an enemy1 are extremely dangerous to the native peasantry4 ,they march about the ,greek kingdom from one end to the other1 living at free quarters on the villagers1 and consuming annually as large a portion of the produce of the soil as is paid to the central government in the shape of land-tax4 ,in some disturbances which took place in the island of ,euba they were said to have consumed1 in forced contributions from the agricultural population1 nearly one-third of the whole annual produce of the island4 ,we do not intend to deny the services which the palikars rendered during the war against the ,turks4 ,in a defensive warfare against an undisciplined enemy like the ,turks of #ahba1 or an ill-organised force like the ,bavarians of #ahcc1 they were very efficient4 ,but against the ,french at ,argos they were utterly useless1 even though they had intrenched themselves in a manner which they fancied would give them a decided advantage over regular troops4 ,the ,french carried all their positions with the bayonet1 and the palikars soon fled in dismay4 ,the revival of the system of palikarism is one of the many evils which ,lord ,palmerston's knavish protg1 ,count ,armansperg1 bequeathed to ,greece4 ,m4 ,maurer had broken up the hordes of these children of anarchy in a very effectual manner1 though perhaps with unnecessary violence and severity4 ,the object of ,count ,armansperg in restoring palikarism was to form for himself a military party4 ,by the formation of troops enrolled under chiefs attached to his own person1 he expected to be able to keep down public opinion in the provinces2 while1 by a lavish distribution of money and places1 he knew he could silence it at ,athens4 ,the favoured captains were allowed to collect bands of armed followers1 almost without any control on the part of the minister-of-war1 and without the men or the officers being subjected to any discipline4 ,in the provinces1 these captains were intrusted with extraordinary powers1 which they used for party purposes2 and the palikars became an organ of the government for intimidating its opponents4 ,the consequences of ,count ,armansperg's conduct were most injurious4 ,those captains who were unable to gain his good-will collected bands of armed men1 or joined the brigands1 and endeavoured to increase the number of their followers by levying black-mail on the peaceful agriculturists1 in the hope that the government would eventually be compelled to purchase their services4 ,their calculation proved correct2 and ,count ,armansperg ended by taking into his pay the very men against whom he had employed his generals4 ,king ,otho adopted with delight the corrupt system of his regent1 and even extended its application4 ,he filled his palace with palikars1 and neglected the regular troops4 ,men ignorant of all military service were intrusted with military command in the provinces1 where their services were chiefly required to intimidate opposition1 and secure the election of court candidates as deputies and mayors4 ,koletti1 the favourite leader of the palikar class1 became ,king ,otho's favourite minister2 and the influence of that worthless ,vallachian ,aspropotamite enabled the count to nullify the constitution of #ahdd4 ,by the influence of the palikars1 assisted1 it is true1 by his own anti-constitutional love of administrative despotism1 ,mavrocordatos was driven from the ministry1 and ,king ,otho re-established in absolute power1 by the assistance of palikarism and municipal corruption4 ,the late invasion of ,turkey could hardly have taken place1 if it had not been in ,king ,otho's power to launch these irregular bands against his neighbour's frontier2 for1 with all his folly and imprudence1 he would not have ventured to march regular troops openly against the ,sultan without a declaration of war4 ,on the other hand1 it was fortunate for ,europe that the utter worthlessness of these undisciplined bands for all military operations1 except the defence of mountain passes1 prevented their capturing the frontier fortresses of ,epirus and ,thessaly1 and enabled ,fuad ,effendi to defeat their army with so much ease at ,peta4 ,never1 certainly1 did any troops make a more despicable military display than the palikars of ,greece in their late attack on ,turkey4 ,while these invaders made their patriotism a pretext for plundering their unfortunate countrymen who were subjects of the ,othoman ,empire1 and devoted their chief attention to carrying off cattle and sheep belonging to ,greeks and ,christians1 instead of attempting to storm the ill-fortified holds of the ,turks1 the ,othoman troops displayed one of the highest characteristics in which the ,greek race has always been deficient--a sense of duty4 ,they bravely defended the posts committed to their care1 and success crowned their good conduct4 ,we have now given an impartial account of the faults of ,king ,otho1 and of the political vices of the ,greek nation2 we will proceed to enumerate the virtues of the people with equal impartiality4 ,the greatest enemies of the ,greeks cannot deny that they possess a high degree of patriotism4 ,whatever its origin may be1 and however much it may be disfigured by vanity1 it is a great virtue1 and produces abundant good fruit4 ,the sums of money which have been employed by private individuals in the construction of churches and school-houses over all ,greece1 the liberal donations they annually remit to ,athens for advancing the cause of education1 the munificent presents of books1 medals1 and philosophical instruments to the ,university and to the ,observatory1 and the immense contributions collected to aid the late impolitic attack on ,turkey1 all prove that1 under a better government1 and with good guidance1 the patriotism of the ,greeks might be rendered of great use in advancing the moral improvement and material prosperity of their country4 ,but their patriotic feelings must be directed to the improvement of morality and religion before much good can be effected4 ,the importance of private virtue is not sufficiently appreciated by the ,greeks as a guarantee for political honesty4 ,individual character has more influence as an element of national strength and greatness1 than the statesmen at ,athens are inclined to believe4 ,without citing historical examples1 we may remind them that a dispersed nation1 mingled as the ,greeks are with foreign races1 is much more amenable to the public opinion of other nations1 than a race pressed together in close geographical contiguity1 and with which foreigners rarely communicate4 ,the industry of the ,greeks is attested by their commercial activity1 and by their laborious agricultural operations4 ,the mass of the population1 it is true1 derives so little benefit from their toils1 that we might pardon them if they were much idler than they are4 ,those who are most successful in commerce are compelled to expatriate themselves1 which is always a great hardship to a ,greek4 ,those who labour at the fields and dig the vineyards are unable to live in tolerable ease2 for the want of roads prevents their finding a sale for their produce1 and deprives them of the power of purchasing the luxuries they most eagerly desire4 ,another honourable feature in ,greek society is the good feeling displayed by the classes which live beyond the sphere of court and political influence4 ,if a ,greek is neither a courtier1 a government official1 nor a palikar1 he is generally a tolerably honest man1 and by no means a bad fellow1 unless he be an ,ionian or a ,phanariot4 ,we may mention an anecdote1 which proves strongly the existence of virtue in the great mass of the labouring classes1 even on that most delicate of all subjects1 honesty in paying taxes4 ,when the ,bavarians arrived in ,greece1 they had not time to take any strong measures for enforcing a very strict collection of the national revenues4 ,the probable amount was estimated at four millions1 but the revenues of the preceding year had not reached that sum4 ,as it was necessary to leave much to the conscience of the people1 ,mr ,gladstone might have been satisfied with three millions and a half1 with a few five-pound notes falling in from time to time from the remorse of defaulters4 ,but the ,greeks paid down seven millions within the year2 and the experience of subsequent revenue returns proves that they must have paid the full amount to which government had any claim4 ,the state of the legal profession at ,athens impresses strangers with a favourable opinion of the educated classes1 when uncorrupted by the service of a corrupted central administration4 ,the advocates form a body of well-educated men1 whose professional gains render them independent of court influence1 and whose talents and character give them great power over public opinion on judicial matters4 ,hence they exercise a salutary control over the minister of justice and the judges4 ,this is doubly necessary1 from the circumstance that the judges hold their offices only during the pleasure of ,king ,otho1 who has frequently removed those who have displeased him from office1 or sent them into a dreary exile in some distant province in an inferior charge4 ,the power of public opinion1 as exercised by the bar1 is consequently of great importance to insure some degree of equity in the courts1 and control the general administration of justice in civil affairs2 and it has been used in a manner highly honourable both to the ,greek bar and to the national character4 ,there is another quality which the ,greeks possess in a high degree1 and which1 if properly directed by a good government1 would aid greatly in raising them from their present state of political degradation4 ,this is their aptitude for public discussion4 ,concentrated as at present on state affairs1 concerning which they are naturally quite ignorant1 it becomes a mere waste of words4 ,but if employed on their local and municipal affairs1 concerning every detail of which they are fully informed1 it would soon become the means of checking the corruptions of the court and of the central administration4 ,this aptitude for public business enabled them to retain a large share in the local administration of their provinces under the ,turks1 and to organise the communal system to which we are inclined to attribute their success in the revolutionary war4 ,the various central governments which followed one another in succession during the war with ,turkey1 never displayed much talent1 nor enjoyed much influence over the people4 ,the naval force1 though admirably conducted by ,miaoulis1 was1 in spite of the gallant deeds of ,kanaris1 inadequate to secure a decisive victory4 ,the military force was without organisation1 powerless for attack1 and extremely ill-directed4 ,no general in ,greece1 native or foreigner1 displayed any great military talent4 ,in the navy1 on the contrary1 the name of ,hastings1 who first employed hot shot and shells from ship artillery1 ranks justly with the glorious names of ,miaoulis and ,kanaris4 ,the war on land was entirely supported by the indomitable perseverance of the people4 ,their political and military leaders weakened their powers of resistance by their intrigues1 avarice1 and incapacity1 but the energy of the people never failed4 ,glorious examples are innumerable1 though ,mr ,tricoupi1 the ,greek historian of the war1 has not the judgment to select them4 ,lord ,byron describes their behaviour1 in speaking of the ,spaniards-- 8,back to the struggle2 baffled in the strife1 ,war6 war6 was still their cry--war1 even to the knife60 ,messolonghi attests its truth4 ,the friends of ,greece1--and she has still some sincere friends1 in spite of all her faults--may look forward to her communal system and local attachments as a basis on which political order and national prosperity can be firmly established4 ,but unless the restless activity of the people be usefully occupied in the management of their local affairs1 they will employ it1 as at present1 injuriously1 in profiting by the corruption of the central government4 ,the want of a proper sphere of energy for a large class of the population is evidently preparing ,greece for a series of revolutions4 ,a representative government and a free press1 linked to a centralised administration1 without the control of a municipal organisation1 tends naturally to revolution4 ,to remove a parish grievance1 it becomes necessary to overthrow a minister2 and a very little experience in such countries reveals the secret1 that it is easier to make a revolution than obtain a reform4 ,such was the state of ,greece when the ,french and ,english troops landed at the ,pirus in the month of ,june1 to prevent ,king ,otho from throwing the country into a state of complete anarchy by his insane policy of assisting ,russia4 ,the ,greeks1 who had invaded ,turkey1 were already defeated1 strong garrisons were already placed in all the ,turkish fortresses on the ,greek frontier1 and a fleet of ,turkish steamers commanded the ,archipelago4 ,the war had degenerated into a series of forays by land and piratical expeditions by sea1 in which the ,greeks carried off the cattle1 and plundered the warehouses and barns of the subjects of the ,porte4 ,on the other hand1 the ,othoman government1 unable to guard against these attacks1 threatened to invade ,greece1 and occupy the richest islands of the ,archipelago as a material guarantee for indemnity4 ,the interference of the ,allies was quite as necessary to defend the ,greek people as the ,turkish provinces4 ,a change was of course immediately effected in the government4 ,m4 ,alexander ,mavrocordatos1 then ,greek minister at ,paris1 was appointed ,prime ,minister4 ,the name of ,mavrocordatos is well known to all who are acquainted with the history of the ,greek revolution4 ,his merits and defects are correctly stated in ,general ,gordon's excellent work4 ,general ,kalergy1 another distinguished name in ,greek history1 was intrusted with the war department4 ,m4 ,george ,psyllas1 who for the last ten years has stood forward as the only consistent supporter of liberal measures and communal interests in the ,senate1 was named ,minister of ,religion and ,public ,instruction4 ,he is an ,athenian1 and represented ,athens at the first ,national ,assembly1 held at the commencement of the revolution1 when the constitution of ,epidaurus was framed4 ,these three men are undoubtedly the best men in ,greece for the offices committed to them4 ,but their colleagues are not so well selected4 ,kanaris is ,minister of the ,marine--no braver nor more patriotic man breathes1 but he is no better suited to be a minister than an archbishop4 ,the other ministers are positively very ill chosen4 ,m4 ,anastasios ,londos1 whose tergiversation and folly caused the quarrel with ,great ,britain in #ahej1 and the blockade of the ,pirus1 is ,minister of ,justice4 ,he is as deficient in knowledge of law and judicial administration1 as he has shown himself ignorant of the principles of political honesty1 and destitute of sound judgment4 ,the other individuals may be left nameless4 ,the only question of interest in ,great ,britain is1 whether these ministers can do anything to improve the condition of the people1 to establish a greater degree of security for life and property than now prevails1 open new fields for commercial and agricultural industry1 and make ,greece an improving and prosperous country2 for these changes alone can guarantee the tranquillity of the ,east4 ,the first step to be taken must be1 to abolish the existing manner of collecting the tenth of the gross produce of the land1 as a land-tax4 ,there is no other means of getting quit of the numerous fiscal regulations which deprive the agricultural classes of the power of disposing of their labour in the way most conducive to their profit4 ,the next thing is1 to restore life and energy to the municipal system1 and extend the independent sphere of action of the municipal authorities4 ,the present ,minister of the ,interior is perhaps as well fitted to do this as he is to swallow a camel4 ,the ,greeks generally have shown that they are deficient in the temper and capacity requisite to conduct a central government4 ,they still want the experience necessary to give ordinary men a sense of the value of political honesty1 and there is no possibility of their gaining it in any school but that of their own municipal practice4 ,if they are incurably addicted to peculation1 they had better commit their acts of dishonesty at home1 where the exact amount of their frauds can easily be ascertained1 and is sure to be made public4 ,palikarism must be utterly rooted out4 ,general ,kalergy has promptly commenced the work which no man is so well able to complete4 ,the army and navy must be reformed4 ,a corps of pioneers must be formed to build bridges2 steam-packets1 and galleys with oars1 must facilitate communications4 ,now1 is ,alexander ,mavrocordatos the man to do these things8 ,we cannot say4 ,he has always shown himself too much the slave of bureaucratic prejudices for us to feel any very firm confidence in his political views4 ,nevertheless1 at this moment1 he is the only ,greek who possesses the political honesty and diplomatic experience necessary for preserving friendly relations with the allies of ,turkey1 and at the same time saving the national independence of his country3 he has1 therefore1 our best wishes for his success4 ,the time is one of great difficulty4 ,a mighty revolution has commenced in the ,east1 which the ,greek race has neither the energy nor the power to direct4 ,if well and wisely governed1 it may profit by the course of events2 but if its national vanity force it into collision with any of the great actors in the scene1 it may be brushed rudely aside1 and sink back into the insignificant position it has held ever since the ,franks conquered ,constantinople and founded principalities in ,greece in #abjd4 ,hellenism and orthodoxy must yield to philanthropy and ,christian civilisation4 ,to us the future is dark2 but of one thing we are assured1 that the occupation of ,greece by the allied troops was absolutely necessary to enable any ministry to commence the task of improvement in the kingdom of ,greece4 ,,student ,,life ,,in ,,scotland4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,exemption from the authority of the ordinary legal or correctional tribunals was one of the remarkable features of the ancient universities1 and the relics of it which have come down almost to the present day in ,scotland are very curious4 ,the university was a state in itself1 where the administrators of the ordinary authority of the realm had no more power than in a neighbouring independent republic4 ,so jealously was this authority watched and fenced1 that usually when the dispute lay between the liegemen of the university and those of the ,state--between gown and town--the university haughtily arrogated the authority over both4 ,to be sure1 it was very much the practice of the age to adjust rights and privileges by balancing one against another--by letting them fight out1 as it were1 every question in a general contest1 and produce a sort of rude justice by the antagonism and balance of forces1 just as in some ,oriental states at this day the strangers of each nation have the privilege of living under their native laws2 a method which1 by pitting privilege against privilege1 and letting the stronger bear down the weaker1 saves the central government much disagreeable and difficult work in the adjustment of rights and duties4 ,so1 in the middle ages1 we had the ecclesiastical competing with the baronial interests1 and the burghal or corporate with both4 ,nay1 in these last there was a subdivision of interests1 various corporations of craftsmen being subject to the authority of their own syndics1 deans1 or mayors1 and entitled to free themselves from any interference in many of their affairs by the burghal or even the royal courts4 ,ecclesiastical law fought with civil law1 and chancery carried on a ceaseless undermining contest with common law2 while over ,europe there were inexhaustible varieties of palatinates1 margravates1 regalities1 and the like1 enjoying their own separate privileges and systems of jurisprudence4 ,but over this ,babel of authorities1 so complexly established in ,france that ,voltaire complained of changing laws as often as he changed horses1 what is conspicuous is the homage paid by all the other exclusive privileges to those of the universities1 and the separation of these grand institutions by an impassable line of venerated privileges from the rest of the vulgar world4 ,thus1 the ,state conceded freely to literature those high privileges for which the ,church in vain contended1 from the slaughter of ,becket to the fall of ,wolsey4 ,in a very few only of the ,states nearest to the centre of spiritual dominion1 could an exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction extending to matters both spiritual and temporal be asserted2 and ,france1 which acknowledged the isolated authority of the universities1 bade a stern defiance to the claims of the priesthood4 ,it can hardly be said that1 invested with these high powers1 the universities bore their honours meekly4 ,respected as they were1 they were felt to be invariably a serious element of turbulence1 and a source of instability to their respective governments4 ,in the affairs of the ,league1 the ,fronde1 and the various other contests which1 in former days1 as in the present1 have kept up a perpetual succession of conflicts in turbulent ,paris1 the position to be taken by the students was extremely momentous1 but was not easily to be calculated upon2 for these gentry imbibed a great amount both of restlessness and capriciousness along with their cherished prerogatives4 ,during the centuries in which a common spirit pervaded the whole academic body1 the fame of a particular university1 or of some celebrated teacher in it1 had a concentrating action over the whole civilised world1 which drew a certain proportion of the youth of all ,europe towards the common vortex4 ,hence1 when we know that there were frequently assembled from one to ten thousand young men1 adventurous and high-spirited1 contemptuous of the condition of the ordinary citizen1 and bound together by common objects and high exclusive privileges--well armed1 and in possession of edifices fortified according to the method of the day--we hardly require to read history to believe how formidable such bodies must have proved4 ,an incident in the history of a wandering ,scotsman1 though but a petty affair in itself1 illustrates the sort of feudal power possessed by the authorities of a university4 ,thomas ,dempster1 the author of ,etruria ,regalis1 and of a work better known than esteemed in ,scottish ,biography1 in the course of his ,continental wanderings found himself in possession of power--as sub-principal1 it has been said1 of the college of ,beauvais1 in the university of ,paris4 ,taking umbrage at one of the students for fighting a duel--one of the enjoyments of life which ,dempster desired to monopolise to himself--he caused the young gentleman's points to be untrussed1 and proceeded to exercise discipline in the primitive dorsal fashion4 ,the aggrieved youth had powerful relations1 and an armed attack was made on the college to avenge his insults4 ,but ,dempster armed his students and fortified the college walls so effectively that he was enabled1 not only to hold his post1 but to capture some of his assailants1 and commit them as prisoners to the belfry4 ,it appears1 however1 that like many other bold actions this was more immediately successful than strictly legal1 and certain ugly demonstrations in the court of the ,chatelain suggested to ,dempster the necessity of retreating to some other establishment in the vast literary republic of which he was a distinguished ornament--welcome wherever he appeared4 ,he had come of a race not much accustomed to fear consequences or stand in awe of the opinion of society4 ,his elder brother had1 among other ethical eccentricities--or1 as they would now be justly deemed1 enormities--taken unto himself for wife his father's cast-off mistress2 and when the venerable parent1 old ,dempster of ,muiresk1 intimated his disapproval of the connection1 he was fiercely attacked by a band of the ,gordon ,highlanders1 headed by his hopeful son4 ,defeated and put to flight with some casualties1 the heir hoisted the standard of an independent adventurer in ,orkney1 where1 setting fire to the bishop's palace1 he rendered the surrounding atmosphere too hot for him4 ,he made his final exit in the ,netherlands2 and his conduct there must have been1 to say the least of it1 questionable1 since his affectionate brother1 whose conduct in ,paris is the more immediate object of our notice1 records that his doom was to be torn to pieces by wild horses4 ,in such a family1 flagellation would have little chance of being condemned as a degrading punishment1 inconsistent with the natural dignity of man4 ,indeed1 to admit the plain honest truth1 the records of the ,scottish universities prove to us that this pristine discipline was inflicted on its junior members2 and it is especially assigned in ,glasgow as the appropriate punishment for carrying arms4 ,local peculiarities of costume gave facilities for it in some instances1 which were not so readily afforded by the padded trunk-hose and countless ribbon-points of the ,parisian 8swells0 of ,louis ,,xiii4's day4 ,the ,parisian aristocracy took serious umbrage at the conduct of ,dempster2 and he had to take his vast learning and his impracticable temper elsewhere4 ,this is a digression2 but ,thomas ,dempster is a good type of those ,scotsmen who brought over to us1 from their own energetic practice1 the observance of the ,continental notions of the independence and power of the universities4 ,his experience was ample and varied4 ,he imbibed a tinge of the ,anglican system at ,pembroke ,hall1 ,cambridge4 ,besides serving and commanding in different colleges at ,paris1 he held office at ,louvain1 ,rome1 ,douay1 ,tournay1 ,navarre1 ,toulouse1 ,montpelier1 ,pisa1 and ,bologna4 ,a man who has performed important functions in all these places may well be called a citizen of the world4 ,at the same time1 his connections with them were generally of a kind not likely to pass from the memory of those who came in contact with him4 ,he was a sort of roving ,bentley1 who1 not contented with sitting down surrounded by the hostility of nearly all the members of one university1 went about like a roaring lion1 seeking whom he might attack and insult1 and left behind him wherever he went the open wounds of his sword1 or of his scarcely less direful pen1 scattered thickly around him4 ,he was one of those who1 as ,anthony ,arnaud said of himself1 are to expect tranquillity only in a removal from that sublunary world in which1 like pieces of clockwork wound up1 they are doomed to a ceaseless motion during their vitality4 ,thomas ,dempster has many sins to answer for1 and at this day the most conspicuous of them is the cool impudence wherewith1 in his ,historia ,literaria ,gentis ,scotorum1 he makes every man whose birthplace is not notorious1 and whose name gives any excuse for dubiety1 a ,scotsman--as1 for instance1 ,macrobius1 who is claimed in virtue of his ,mac1 and in forgetfulness that his is a ,greek name1 signifying long-lifed4 ,yet peace to our countryman's long dispersed ashes4 ,he was a fine type of the fervent1 energetic1 brave1 enduring national character2 and the ungoverned waywardness of his career was an earnest of what his countrymen might achieve when a better day should dawn upon their poor distracted land4 ,but to return to the exclusive judicial authority of the universities1 and the relics of the system found in ,scotland1--we do remember that on the occasion of one of those great snowball emeutes1 which at intervals of years make the ,edinburgh students frantic1 the police had entered the quadrangle of the ,college and captured some of their sacred persons4 ,the occurrence was improved on by the students of ,aberdeen--then in possession of an organ of no despicable ability1 called the ,aberdeen ,magazine--who maintained that their own academical edifices were sacred from civic intrusion1 and pointed the finger of scorn at their southern brethren1 who submitted without rebellion to invasion by a body of glazed-hatted constables1 under the leadership of a superintendent of police4 ,it was said1 in retaliation1 that the reason why the universities of ,aberdeen were exempt from the visitations of the police was because there was no force of police constables in the northern capital2 and it was maintained that whenever they should make their appearance there1 they would pay no more respect to the precincts of the university than to those of the old privileged religious houses--whose boundaries1 sacred some centuries ago from civic intrusion1 are still set forth in the title-deeds of burghal estates4 ,we know not how the matter may really stand1 but we suspect that the broad-bonneted and broad-shouldered gentry who now make so curiously conspicuous a police in the streets of ,aberdeen1 are not sufficiently acquainted with the privileges of ,marischal ,college to pay them the due deference4 ,still we do find curious practical relics of the privileges of the universities4 ,on the #aith of ,june #aeji1 a general convocation--congregatio generalis--of the ,university of ,glasgow was held in the chapter-house of the cathedral--the now venerable ,university edifices had not then been built4 ,in that assembly solemn discussion was held upon certain momentous matters1 the first and most important of which was a representation by the ,chancellor and temporary ,rector of the ,university that the exclusive jurisdiction and adjudication of causes--jurisdictio1 causarumque cognitio--were falling into desuetude1 to the great prejudice of the ,university1 and the no small diminution of its valuable privileges4 ,the next notice that one finds in the ,records is a few years later--#bhth ,march #aebb--;but it is rather a conflict between the privileges of two of the universities than between the academic and the judicial authorities4 ,in the general convocation of the ,university1 ,peter ,alderstoun is accused of having served a citation from the ,conservator of the ,privileges 7,conservator ,priviligiorum7 of the ,university of ,st ,andrews on a certain ,mr ,andrew ,smyth--the aristocratic spelling is older than we thought it had been in ,scotland4 ,the breach of privilege was aggravated by its occurring in the habitation of the ,reverend ,david ,kinghorn1 ,pensioner of ,cross ,raguel4 ,the bailiff1 or whatever else he might be1 pleaded ignorance of the nature of the writ2 but he was obliged1 barehead1 to seek pardon from the injured party4 ,we find nothing more bearing on the question of the special university privileges1 until1 in the year #afgj1 a sudden and singularly bold attempt appears to be made for their revival1 a court of justiciary being held by the ,university1 and a student put on trial on a charge of murder4 ,the weighty matter is thus introduced3-- 8,anent the indytment given in by ,john ,cumming1 wryter in ,glasgow1 elected to be ,procurator-,fiscal of the said ,university2 and ,andrew ,wright1 cordoner in ,glasgow1 neirest of kin to umquhile ,janet ,wright1 servetrix to ,patrick ,wilson1 younger1 gairdner there1 killed by the shot of ane gun1 or murdered within the said ,patrick his dwelling-house1 upon the first day of ,august instant1 against ,robert ,bartoun1 son lawful of ,john ,bartoun1 gairdner in the said burgh1 and student in the said ,university1 for being guilty of the said horrible crime upon the said umquhile ,janet40#ace ,a jury was impannelled to try the question4 ,the whole affair bears a suspicious aspect of being preconcerted to enable the accused to plead the benefit of acquittal2 for no objection is taken on his part to the competency of the singular tribunal before which he is to be tried for his life2 on the contrary1 he highly approves of them as his judges1 and in the end is pronounced not guilty4 ,the respectable burgesses who acted as jurymen had1 however1 as it appears1 their own grave doubts about this assumption of the highest judicial functions2 and we find them in this curious little document1 which we offer in full1 expressing themselves with that cautious and sagacious scepticism which is as much a part of the national character as its ardour and enthusiasm4 8,patrick ,bryce1 chancellor1 and remanent persons who passed upon the said inquest1 before they gave in their verdict to the said court1 desired that they might be secured for the future1 lest they might be quarrelled at any time hereafter for going on1 and proceeding to pass on an inquest of the like nature1 upon ane warning by the officer of the said ,university2 and that in regard they declared the case to be singular1 never having occurred in the age of before to their knowledge1 and the rights and privileges of the ,university not being produced to them to clear their privilege for holding of criminal courts1 and to sit and cognosce upon crimes of the like nature2 whereunto it was answered by the ,rector and his assessors that they opponed their being content to pass upon the said inquest in initio1 and their making faith without contraverting their privilege2 but notwithstanding thereof1 for their satisfaction and ex abundanti gratia1 they declared themselves and their successors in office enacted1 bound1 and obliged for their warrandice of all cost1 skaith1 danger1 and expenses they or ane or other of them should sustain or incur through the passing upon the said inquest1 or whilk could follow thereupon1 through the said ,university their wanting of their original rights or writs for clearing to them the privilege and jurisdiction in the like cases4 ,whereupon the said ,patrick ,bryce1 as ,chancellor1 for himself1 and in name and in behalf of the haill remanent members of the said inquest1 asked acts of court40#acf ,though we are not aware of any instance in ,scotland where the academic tribunals have arrogated1 since the ,reformation1 so high a power1 it is not difficult to find other instances where exemption has been claimed1 even at a later period1 from the ordinary powers that be4 ,thus the ,glasgow ,records of the year #agba bear that-- 8,the faculty1 being informed that some of the magistrates of ,glasgow1 and particularly ,bailie ,robert ,alexander1 has examined two of the members of the ,university--viz41 ,william ,clark and ,james ,macaulay1 students in the ,greek class--for certain crimes laid to their charge some time upon the month of ,february last1 and proceeded to sentence against these students1 contrary to and in prejudice of the ,university and haill members1 do therefore appoint ,mr ,gershom ,carmichael1 c41 to repair to the said magistrates of ,glasgow1 and particularly ,bailie ,alexander1 and demand the cancelling of the said sentence1 and protest against the said practice of the said bailie or any of the magistrates for their said practice1 and for remeid of law as accords40#acg ,it was the principle1 not the persons--the protection of their privileges1 not the impunity of their students--that instigated the faculty on this occasion1 since in their next minute they are found visiting ,william ,clark and ,james ,macaulay with punishment for heavy youthful offences4 ,we offer no apology for quoting1 on such an occasion1 these scraps from technical documents4 ,it appears to us that when they are not oppressively long1 or too professional for ordinary comprehension1 there is no other way of affording so distinct a notion of any very remarkable social peculiarity1 such as we account the exclusive liability of the members of universities to their own separate tribunals to have been4 ,although the ,scottish universities never boasted of the vast concourse of young men of all peoples1 nations1 and languages1 which sometimes flocked to the ,continental schools1 and thus with their great privileges created a formidable imperium in imperio--yet naturally there has existed more or less of a standing feud between the citizen class and the student class4 ,the records before us show repeated contests by the authorities of universities1 against an inveterate propensity in the students to wear arms1 and to use them4 ,the weapons prohibited by the laws of ,king's ,college1 ,aberdeen1 are so varied and peculiar that we cannot venture to do their ,latin names into ,english1 and can only derive1 from the terms in which they are denounced1 a general notion how formidable a person a student putting the law at defiance must have been4 ,but for the difference in the ,latinity1 one might suppose himself reading ,strada's celebrated account of the weapons in the ,spanish ,armada4#ach ,from some incidental causes1 a slight tinge of the desperado habits1 indicated by such restrictions1 lingered around the ,scottish universities1 and perhaps was most loth to depart from that northernmost institution to which the prohibitions specially applied4 ,the main cause of their continuance may be attributed to the exigencies of the anatomical classes which gradually attached themselves to the schools of medicine4 ,in obtaining subjects there was a perpetual contest with unmitigable prejudices2 and as in the smaller university towns there were few or no people who followed systematically the trade of the resurrectionist1 the students had to help themselves4 ,it needed but the very fact of their having an occasional 8subject0 in the dissecting-room to expose them to an odious reputation1 which no argument about the blessed results of the healing art1 and the necessity of studying it in the structure of the human frame1 could in the slightest degree mitigate4 ,the feud thus caused was of a kind which widened as the progress of scientific acquirement enlarged the study of anatomy2 and it seemed as if a permanent and deadly hostility against the progress of an essential science were daily deepening and widening1 until public wrath1 concentrated and accumulated1 might be expected at last to burst on the devoted pursuit1 and annihilate it4 ,though the students of anatomy were generally among those who had passed through the ordinary curriculum of studies1 and no longer wore the distinguishing scarlet robe1 yet their younger brethren were1 not entirely without cause1 mixed up in their misdeeds4 ,horrible stories of their waylaying children1 and of their clapping plasters on the mouths of grown men met in lonely byways1 which stopped the breath1 and instantaneously extinguished life1 were greedily believed1 and founded tales capable of superseding ,bluebeard and ,the ,one-handed ,monk at the winter chimney-corner4 ,young lads in their early blushing scarlet were sometimes savagely assaulted1 as if the poor innocents were ghouls in search of the horrible prey peculiar to their order4 ,the public frenzy reached its climax on the revelation of the crimes of ,burke and ,hare4 ,it almost as suddenly collapsed after the passing of the ,anatomy ,act1 which removed from dissection that odium which previous legislation had factitiously imparted to it as part of the punishment of murder1 and accompanied the change with special facilities for the obtainment of subjects4 ,hence more than twenty years have passed since the habits of our students were tainted by this incidental peculiarity1 and its social effect must now be matter of tradition4 ,it can easily1 however1 be believed that the revolting preliminary which the votary of science had to undergo must have had an influence on his habits very far from propitious4 ,the nocturnal expedition was occasionally joined by those who had not the excuse of scientific ardour1 and thus the influence of the practice spread beyond the limits of the medical profession4 ,the mysterious horrors surrounding the reputation of such a pursuit were not without a certain fascination to the young gownsmen1 and some of them were supposed placidly to cultivate rather than suppress charges which would have seriously alarmed their more knowing and practical seniors4 ,though there was thus a good deal of exaggeration and boasting both from without and from within1 yet the practice did exist among the senior students1 while at the same time an occasional junior1 approved for his boldness and discretion1 might be admitted to act a subordinate part in a 8resurrectionising affair40 ,possibly he1 if not the others1 might find it necessary to employ some stimulant to brace his nerves for the formidable work in hand4 ,thus the adventure which provided the theatre of anatomy with the means of keeping a few students at hard work in one of the most important departments of human knowledge1 had probably occasioned more than one night of fierce dissipation1 and produced scenes which would have considerably astonished the good old aunts1 deprecating the exhausting labours of their virtuous nephews in the nasty hospitals and that horrid dissecting-room4 ,the excesses which concentrated themselves around this solemn and cheerless pursuit1 ramified themselves into others of a more fantastic and cheerful character4 ,probably it is all changed now2 but they are not very old men who remember how the smaller university towns were subject to fantastic superficial revolutions4 ,trees1 gates1 railings1 street lamps1 summer-houses1 shop signs1 and other 8accessories of the realty10 as lawyers call them1 disappearing or changing places like the shifting of the side-slips in a theatre4 ,perhaps there may even be alive some who have witnessed or participated in such divertisements4 ,is there any one who will admit participation in that transmutation which scandalised the bailie1 by exhibiting his suburban mansion under the auspices of the national achievement1 as 8licensed to sell spirits1 porter1 and ale10 just at the moment when the licentiate of the ,red ,lion was lamenting the disappearance of his insignia8 ,are none of those virtuous youths alive1 who called next day to express their horror of the deed1 and hold confidential communion with the bailie1 thus obtaining access to his arsenal1 and receiving the comfortable secret information--valuable for future conduct--that the blunderbuss1 the musket1 and the brace of pistols1 were loaded with powder only1 8but he wad warrant the scounrels wad get a fleg08 ,who was it1 we wonder1 that1 on the myrmidons of justice coming to his chambers1 under the well-warranted suspicion that he possessed an extensive and varied collection of shop signs1 had recourse to his incipient ,scripture knowledge by an apt quotation in reference to those who seek what they do not succeed in obtaining8 ,is it probable that in any private neuks in old dwelling-houses there may exist relics of those prized museums not acquired without toil and risk--and exhibited with much caution only to trusted friends--which consisted mainly of watchmen's rattles and battered lanterns8 ,lives there yet one of that laborious group1 who wished to illuminate the mansion of ,professor ,blanc in proper style1 and to that effect carried out a cluster of street lamps1 and planted them all alight in his garden1 so encountering labour and risk with no better reward than a reflection on the professor's puzzled countenance when he should awaken and behold the phenomenon8 ,n4,b4 ,street lamps in those days were fed with oil1 and were supported on wooden posts1 which it was not difficult for a couple of strong youths to uproot4 ,but we are shocking the virtue and civilisation of the age by such queries4 ,they hint at practices which we believe to be entirely eschewed by the superior class of young gentlemen who now frequent our universities4 ,if we have created a throb of terror in an amiable parent's breast1 we humbly beg his pardon4 ,he may take our word for it that his hopeful son is incapable of such pranks4 ,this is mainly an antiquarian article1 and the matter contained in it belongs more or less to the past1 and is founded on document or tradition4 ,the semi-monastic foundations by which the students live under the discipline of colleges or halls1 and assemble together at a common table1 are indissolubly connected in ,english notions with the idea of a university4 ,yet the system arose as an adjunct to the original universities1 and1 as late inquirers have shown1 the parasites have so overrun the parent stem that its original character is scarcely perceptible beneath their more luxuriant growth4 ,the origin of these institutions is simple enough4 ,when the great teachers brought crowds of young men together from all parts of ,europe1 the primary question was how they were to obtain food and shelter8 and a second arose when these needs were supplied--how could any portion of the discipline of the parental home be administered to them among strangers8 ,certain privileges were given to the houses inhabited by the students1 and streets and quarters sprung up for their accommodation1 as we now see the rows of red-tiled cottages sprout forth like lichens around the tall chimney of a new manufactory4 ,to prevent fluctuation1 and preserve the academic character wherever it had once established itself1 it was a frequent regulation that the houses once inhabited by students could be let to no other person so long as the rents were duly paid4 ,we find traces of this expedient in the records of ,glasgow1 where there seems to have been great difficulty in accommodating the students of the infant university1 on account of the extreme smallness of the town4 ,since the house once occupied by the student was thenceforth dedicated to his order1 speculators were induced to build entirely with a view to the accommodation of a certain number of young men living in celibacy1 and they naturally imitated the example set them in the construction of monasteries4 ,the edifice and its use thus suggested something like the monastic discipline--and1 indeed1 an establishment filled with young men1 having their separate dormitories and common table1 yet without any head or system of discipline among them1 would have been a social anomaly of the most formidable character4 ,the university required to give its sanction to the well ordering of the separate institutions thus rising around it4 ,at the same time munificent patrons of learning left behind them endowments for founding such institutions1 indicating at the same time the method in which the founders desired that they should be governed1 and appointing a portion of the funds to form stipendiary allowances to office-bearers4 ,so arose those great colleges and halls which in ,england have buried the original constitution of the university beneath them4 ,in the great ,continental universities which contained separate colleges1 these were more strictly under the central control4 ,in ,scotland1 the wealth at the disposal of the academic institutions1 and the numbers attending them1 were never sufficiently great to encourage the rise of separate bodies1 either independent or subordinate4 ,the system of monastic residence and a common table was adopted under the authority of the university1 but it is remarkable that while so many of the fundamental features of the original institution have been preserved1 this subsidiary arrangement has totally disappeared4 ,the indications of its existence1 however1 as they are preserved in the records1 have naturally considerable interest as vestiges of a social condition which has passed from the earth4 ,in the ,glasgow ,records we have1 of date #afjf1 a contract with ,andrew ,henderson touching the ,boarding of the ,masters and ,bursars1 commencing thus3 8,at ,glasgow1 the twenty-twa day of ,october1 the year of ,god ,jm ,,vjc and aucht yeares3 it is appoyntit and aggreit betwix the pairties following1 viz41 ,mr ,patrick ,schairp1 ,principal of the ,college of ,glasgow1 and ,regentes thairof1 with consent of the ordinar auditouris of the said ,college compts1 undersubscrivand on the ane part1 and ,andro ,hendersoun1 ,burges of the said burgh on the uther part1 in manner following40 ,having afforded this initial specimen of the document1 we shall take the liberty of somewhat modifying the spelling of such parts of the 8manner following10 in quoting such portions of it as seem by their curious character to demand notice2 and herein we may observe that we follow the example of a judicious ,quaker we had once the pleasure of being made known to1 who1 after a solicitous desire to know the ,christian name of his new acquaintance1 with a few preliminary thee's and thou's--as much as to say1 you see the set ,i belong to--afterwards ran into the usual current of conversation very much like a man of this world4 ,well1 the document1 with much precision1 continues to say3-- 8,the manner of the board shall be this3 ,at nine hours upon the flesh days--viz41 ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 and ,thursday--the said ,andrew shall prepare to the said masters1 and others that pay as they pay1 ane soup of fine white bread1 or ane portion of cold meat1 as best may be had1 with some dry bread and drink4 ,at twelve hours the said ,andrew shall cover ane table in the hall of the said ,college1 and shall serve them in brose1 skink1 sodden beef1 and mutton1 the best in the market1 rosted mutton or veel1 as the commodity of the season of the year shall serve1 with a fowl1 or the equivalent thereof1 with good wheat bread1 the best in the market1 without scarcity1 and #8gud staill aill1 aucht or ten dayis auld1 that sall be bettir nor the haill aill in the town1' and at supper suchlike4 ,and on fish days the said ,andrew shall furnish every ane in the morning #8ane callour fresch eg1 with sum cauld meit or milk and breid1 and sum dry breid and drink2 at noone1 kaill and eggis1 herring1 and thrie course of fische1 give thai may be had1 or the equivalent thairof in breid and milk1 fryouris with dry breid as of befoir1' and at supper suchlike4 ,the mess of the bursars1 which immediately follows1 must be given literatim3 #8,on the fleshe dayis1 in the morning1 everie ane of thame1 ane soup of ait breid and ane drink2 at noone1 broois with ane tailye of fresche beif1 with sufficient breid and aill to drink2 at evening1 on the said manner1 ane tailye of fresche beif to everie meiss4 ,on fische dayis1 breid and drink as in the flesche dayis2 at disjoone1 ane eg2 at noone1 eggis1 herring1 and ane uther course2 at evening sicklyke4'0#aci ,probably such a bill of fare may dispel some notions about the sordid living of our ancestors1 and the privations especially of those who dedicated themselves to a scholastic life4 ,the existence of meagre days--or fish days1 as they are called--in the year #afjh1 suggests explanations which we have not to offer4 ,it would almost appear1 however1 that1 at least in the dietary of the superior class1 a fish day was one in which fish was added to a comfortable allotment of meat1 instead of being substituted for it4 ,another contract occurs in the year #afdi1 varying little from 8the said ,andrew's10 except in the addition of a few luxuries4 ,the mess to be laid in the hall for dinner is to be 8broth1 skink1 sodden beef1 and mutton1 the best in the market1 with roasted mutton1 lamb1 veal1 or hudderin1 as the season of the year shall serve1 with wheat bread and good stale ale2 and at supper suchlike1 with a capon or hen1 or the equivalent40 ,the fish days continue to be distinguished less by the diminution of flesh--since there is to be two roasts in the day--than by the addition of fish4 ,at supper there are to be sweetmeats and 8stoved plumdamas10 which may be interpreted stewed prunes4 ,another article there introduced is called 8stamped kaile40 ,the application of the participle is new to us1 though1 as every one ought to know1 kail means broth1 or what the ,french call potage2 and a critic in such matters suggests that the word stamped may refer to the mashing of the materials4 ,in the earlier of the contracts which we have referred to1 the board-money was--for the master's table1 #cj per quarter1 7,scots money1 of course72 and for the bursars'1 #af4 #acs4 #d;d4 ,the value of money had so far risen that in the next period the sums were respectively #df and #bd4 ,the master's table was frequented by the young aristocracy of ,scotland1 apparently in as ample a proportion as those of ,england are now to be found at ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,thus1 in an inventory of occupied rooms1 apparently in one floor1 the aristocratic element has a decided preponderance in the nomenclature3 8,lord ,james's chamber1 ,francis ,montgomerie's chamber1 ,kilmarnock's chamber1 ,richard ,elphinstone's chamber1 ,george ,smyth's chamber1 ,james ,fleming's chamber1 ,joseph ,gill's chamber1 ,james ,simson's chamber40#adj ,it is not perhaps generally known that the practice of a common table was continued in ,st ,andrews down to about the year #ahbj4 ,in evidence before the ,university ,commission in #ahbg1 ,dr ,hunter stated that 8there were two public tables2 one of them1 the higher table1 was attended only by boarders1 and by the bursars on the ,ramsay mortification2 the board was high1 and the entertainment altogether was better3 the other was the bursars' table4 ,the college was induced to contract with an economist or provisor to supply both tables2 and if the boards fell short1 or if the expense increased from the articles of subsistence being dearer than ordinary in any year1 or exceeded the amount allowed by the contract1 the ,college often compensated to him that loss40 ,having thus offered some notices of the collegiate system in its full vitality1 and traced it to its last lurking-place1 we cannot help giving a place to the significant reflections which have occurred to the editor of the ,glasgow ,records on the extinction of the system4 8,in all the universities in ,scotland1 the old collegiate life1 so favourable for scholastic discipline1 has been abandoned4 ,perhaps the increasing numbers rendered living in college under the masters' eye inconvenient2 though some modification of the systems of living in the universities and the great schools of ,england might meet the difficulty4 ,the present academic life in ,scotland brings the master and the student too little in contact1 and does not enable the teacher to educate in that which is more important than scholastic learning1 nor to study and train the temper1 habits1 and character4 ,if the alternative which has been chosen inferred that the student enjoyed the benefit of parental or domestic care when out of the lecture-room1 the change might be less objectionable2 but when we observe the crowds of young men brought from distant homes to our universities1 living at large and altogether uncontrolled1 except in the classroom1 we may look back with some regret to the time when the good regent of a university1 living among his pupils1 came in the parent's place as well as the master's4 8,but it was not only the discipline of the university that was benefited by the collegiate life4 ,the spirit of fellowship that existed among young men set apart for the common object of high education1 was on the whole favourable1 though liable to exaggeration1 and often running into prejudice4 ,nearly all that common feeling of the youth of a great university is gone4 ,the shreds of it that are preserved by the dress1 scarcely honoured in the crowded streets of a great city1 and the rare occurrence of a general meeting of students1 serve only to suggest to what account it might be turned for exciting the enthusiasm and raising the standard of conduct among the youth of ,scotland4 ,if such collections as the present1 in revealing the old machinery of the scholar life1 tend in any degree to the renewal of the bond of common feeling among the younger students1 and of sympathy with their teachers1 they will not be useless40 ,we were led towards the vestiges of the collegiate system by the observation1 that while in ,england it had overshadowed and concealed the original outline of the universities1 it had in ,scotland disappeared1 leaving the primitive institutions in their original loneliness4 ,when we contemplate1 with this recollection1 the decayed remains of the older universities1 it will be seen that they were not so inferior in wealth and magnificence to those of our neighbours1 as the mass of collegiate institutions which these have gathered around the primitive university might lead one to suppose4 ,undoubtedly ,christ ,church and ,king's ,chapel are fine buildings2 but the remains of the chapels of ,st ,salvator at ,st ,andrews1 and of ,king's ,college in ,aberdeen1 are not to be despised4 ,of the former1 alas6 there are little more than the truncated walls and buttresses1 with here and there a decoration to show what the edifice was when it stood forth in all its symmetry4 ,near the end of last century a suspicion was entertained that the roof was decayed and would fall4 ,so groundless was the supposition1 that after the workmen who were removing it had gone too far to recede1 they found that they could not take it to pieces1 but must first weaken its connection with the wall plates1 and let it fall plump down4 ,of course it smashed to atoms nearly every interior ornament1 and it just left enough of the marble tomb of its founder1 ,bishop ,kennedy1 to let us see what a marvellous group of richly-cut ,gothic work it must have originally been4 ,within it there were found1 among other ornaments1 a heavy silver mace of ,parisian workmanship1 wonderful as the tomb itself for the quaint intricacy of its workmanship4 ,the chapel of ,king's ,college has fared better4 ,like a modest northern wild-flower1 its beauties are hidden from the common gaze of the peering tourist1 but to the adepts who examine them they are of no ordinary character4 ,from the difficulty of working the indigenous granite1 and the cost of importing freestone1 the ,gothic builders of this district seem to have been frugal in their stone decorations1 so that the glory of ,king's ,college consists in its interior wood-work of carved oak1 worked in architectural forms1 like fairy masonry4 ,we question if there is anywhere a collection of specimens of ,gothic fretwork more varied and delicate4 ,it is difficult to conceive anything more depictive of high and daring educational aspirations than the planting of this beautiful edifice in so distant a spot1 as the place of worship of those students who were to flock to it from the wild hills and dreary moors of the north4 ,its founder was ,bishop ,elphinston1 an ardent scholar1 a traveller1 and a frequenter of the ,continental universities1 who might rather have been expected1 had he followed the dictates of his refined tastes instead of his conscientious convictions1 and his zeal for the spread of learning1 to have spent his days among the ,continental scholars1 than to have carried their learning across the ,grampians4 ,the character of the foundation may be derived from the following abstract of the ,bull of erection of #adie1 prefixed to the ,spalding edition of the ,fasti ,aberdonienses4 8,bull of ,pope ,alexander ,,vi41 issued on the petition of ,james ,,iv41 ,king of ,scots1 which sets forth that the north parts of his kingdom were inhabited by a rude1 illiterate1 and savage people1 and therefore erecting in the ,city of ,old ,aberdeen a #8,studium ,generale' and ,university1 as well for theology1 canon and civil law1 medicine1 and the liberal arts1 as for any other lawful faculty1 to be there studied and taught by ecclesiastical and lay ,masters and ,doctors1 in the same manner as in the #8,studia ,generalia' of ,paris and ,bologna1 and for conferring on deserving persons the degrees of ,bachelor1 ,licentiate1 ,doctor1 ,master1 and all other degrees and honourable distinctions2 conferring on ,william1 ,bishop of ,aberdeen1 and his successors1 the office of ,chancellor1 empowering them1 or1 during the vacancy of the ,see1 the ,vicar deputed by the ,chapter1 to confer these degrees in all the faculties on such well-behaved scholars as shall1 after due examination1 be deemed fit by the ,rector1 ,regents1 ,masters1 or ,doctors of the faculty in which the degree is sought2 granting to such graduates full power of teaching in this or any other studium1 without any other examination2 giving power to the ,chancellor or his ,vicar1 the ,rector for the time1 and the resident ,doctors1 with the assistance of a competent number of ,licentiates in each faculty1 and of circumspect scholars of the said studium1 and of two of the ,king's ,councillors at the least1 to make statutes for the good government thereof2 and conferring on the students and graduates thereof all the privileges and immunities of any other ,university4 #aj ,february1 #adid-e40 ,the character of the institution1 and the extent to which it embodied the matured practices of the foreign universities1 will be more amply understood by a document1 dated a few years later1 in the shape of a collegiate endowment by the ,bishop1 applicable1 along with the foundation of a certain ,duncan ,scherar1 to thirty-six members4 8,of the foresaid thirty-six persons1 five to be ,masters of ,arts and ,students of ,theology1 exercising the functions of the priesthood1 and daily acting as readers and ,regents in ,arts1 each having a stipend of ten pounds1 four of them being paid out of the lands and feu-duties assigned by the ,bishop1 and the fifth out of the foundation of the foresaid ,duncan ,scherar2 thirteen to be scholars or poor clerks1 fit for instruction in speculative knowledge1 and whose parents cannot support them at scholastic exercises1 twelve of them having each a stipend of twelve merks from the revenues of the said churches1 with chambers and other college conveniences1 and the thirteenth a stipend of five pounds from the foundation of the said ,duncan ,scherar2 the five ,students of ,theology to be supported for seven years until they are licensed1 and one of these1 of sweet temper1 to be selected by the ,principal and ,sub-principal to read and teach poetry and rhetoric to the other ,students2 and the ,students in ,arts to be supported for three years and a half until made ,masters2 at the end of which periods1 these ,students of ,theology and ,arts1 whether graduated or not1 to be removed1 and others instituted in their stead2 the ,principal1 ,canonist1 ,civilist1 ,mediciner1 ,sub-principal1 and ,grammarian1 to be nominated by the ,bishop and his successors1 ,chancellors of the ,university2 the ,students of ,theology to be admitted by the ,chancellor1 and nominated by the ,rector1 ,dean of ,faculty of the ,arts1 ,principal and ,sub-principal2 and the thirteen ,scholars to be admitted in like manner1 and nominated by the above parties and the ,regent of ,arts2 of the thirteen ,students in ,arts1 the two first to be of the name of ,elphinstoun1 who1 after being graduated in ,arts1 shall be admitted among the ,students of ,theology1 and three to be from the parishes of ,aberlethnot1 ,glenmyk1 ,abirgerny1 and ,slanis3 all the members to have their residence within the ,college1 except the ,canonist1 ,mediciner1 ,grammarian1 and ,regent1 who are to have manses without the ,college2 the ,principal and the ,students of ,theology1 after being made ,bachelors1 to read ,theology every reading-day1 and to preach six times a year to the people2 and the ,students1 before being made ,bachelors1 to preach by turns in ,latin in the ,chapter of the ,college on every ,lord's day and holiday throughout the year before all the students2 the ,regents in ,arts to give instruction in the liberal sciences1 like the ,regents of the ,university of ,paris2 and the ,canonist1 ,civilist1 and ,mediciner to read in proper attire every reading-day1 after the manner observed in the ,universities of ,paris and ,orleans2 the ,rector or 7if he be a member of the ,college7 the ,dean of the ,faculty of ,arts1 and the ,official of ,aberdeen1 to visit the ,college once a year1 and to mark defects in the persons and property of the ,college1 an account of which shall be written by four persons1 deputed for that effect1 and presented to the ,chancellor1 who1 with their advice1 shall administer correction2 a ,procurator to be selected from the ,college by the ,principal1 ,canonist1 ,civilist1 ,sub-principal1 ,cantor1 and ,sacrist1 and to have for his pains1 in addition to his stipend1 five merks2 eight ,prebendaries and four youths1 accomplished in singing1 to be in the ,college1 and to celebrate matins1 vespers1 and mass1 in surplices and black copes1 in the presence of the members of the college2 the first of these ,prebendaries to be called the ,cantor1 and the second the ,sacrist1 each with a stipend of twenty merks2 the other prebendaries 7from among whom the ,chancellor must appoint one who is a proficient on the organ7 having sixteen merks1 and each of the youths five merks4 #ag ,september #aeje40 ,it is curious to mark how distinctly the traces of its ,french origin have remained in the northern ,university4 ,in addition to some instances in the preceding article1 it is worthy of notice that the ,students1 and even the common people1 are still familiar with such words as ,bejant and ,magistrand4 ,can our chubby friend there1 who blushes as brightly as the fresh scarlet gown in which he has gone forth to attract the gaze1 more spiteful than admiring1 of the untogaed schoolfellows whom he has left behind him1 tell why he is called a ,bejant8 ,ducange tells us that ,beanus means a new student who has just come to the academy1 and cites the statutes of the ,university of ,vienna1 prohibiting all persons from cheating or overcharging the new-comers1 who are called ,beani1 or assailing them with other injuries or contumelies4 ,lambecius1 in the ,epistol ,obscurorum1 finds ,beanus in a monogram--8,beanus est animal nesciens vitam studiosorum40 ,we come nearer the mark1 however1 in ,france1 the ,bejauni frequently occurring in ,bulleus's massive ,history of the ,university of ,paris4 ,thus1 in the year #acad1 a statute of the ,university is passed on the supplication of a number of the inexperienced youths1 qui vulgo ,bejauni appellebantur4 ,their complaint is an old and oft-repeated tale1 common to freshmen1 greenhorns1 griffins1 or by whatever name the inexperienced1 when alighting among old stagers1 are recognised4 ,the statute of the ,universitas states that a variety of predatory personages fall on the newly-arrived bejaune1 demanding a bejaunica1 or gratuity1 to celebrate a jocundus adventus2 that when it is refused1 they have recourse to insults and blows2 that there is brawling and bloodshed in the matter1 and thus the discipline and studies of the ,university are disturbed by the pestiferous disease4 ,it is thence prohibited to give any bejaunica1 except to the bejaun's companions living in the house with him1 whom he may entertain if he pleases2 and if any efforts are made by others to impose on him1 he is solemnly enjoined to give secret information to the procurators and the deans of the faculties4#ada ,the etymology attributed to the word bejaune is rather curious4 ,it is said to mean yellow neb--bc jaune--in allusion to the physical peculiarity of unfledged and inexperienced birds1 to whose condition those who have just passed from the function of robbing their nests to the discipline of a university are supposed to have an obvious resemblance4 8,ce mot10 says the ,trevaux1 8a t dit par corruption de bc jaune1 per mtaphore de oisons et autres oiseaux niais qui ont le bc jaune--ce qu'on a appliqu aux apprentis en tous les arts et sciences4--,rudis ,tiro ,imperitus40 ,yet in the same dictionary there are such explanations about the use of the words begayer1 to stutter1 and begayement1 stuttering1 as might1 one would think1 have furnished a more obvious origin than the ornithological4 8,les enfans10 we are told1 8begayent en apprenant parler4 ,ceux qui ont la langue grasse begayent toute leur vie4 ,quand un homme a b beaucoup il commence a begayer40 ,but it is used also figuratively3 8,des choses qu'on a peine d'expliquer1 ou de faire entendre--,ce commentateur n'a fait que begayer en voulant expliquer l',apocalypse40 ,whatever were its remote origin1 however1 the term was in full use in the ,university of ,paris1 whence it passed to ,aberdeen4 ,we have now shown our scarlet friend the reason for his being called a ,bejant1 but why the word should be corrupted into ,benjie1 and still more why he should be called a 8,buttery benjie10 are etymological problems which we no more pretend to solve1 than the reason why his fellow freshman at ,heidelberg is called a ,leathery fox4 ,we could notice several other relics of ancient university phraseology still clinging round the usages of our humble institutions in ,scotland4 ,the ,lauration is still preserved as the apt and classical term for the ceremony of admission to a degree2 and even ,dr ,johnson1 little as he respected any ,scottish form1 especially when it competed with the legitimate institutions of ,england1 has given in his dictionary the word ,laureation1 with this interpretation attached thereto3 8,it denotes in the ,scottish universities the act or state of having degrees conferred1 as they have in some of them a flowery crown1 in imitation of laurel among the ancients40 ,elsewhere we are honoured in the same work with a more brief but still a distinctive notice4 ,among the definitions of 8,humanity10 after 8the nature of man10 8humankind10 and 8benevolence10 we have 8,philology--grammatical studies2 in ,scotland1 humaniores liter40 ,the term is still as fresh at ,aberdeen as when ,maimbourg spoke of ,calvin making his humanities at the ,college of ,la ,mark4 ,the 8,professor of ,humanity0 has his place in the almanacs and other official lists as if there were nothing antiquated or peculiar in the term1 though jocular people have been known to state to unsophisticated ,cockneys and other foreign persons1 that the object of the chair is to inculcate on the young mind the virtue of exercising humanity towards the lower animals2 and we believe more than one stranger has conveyed away1 in the title of this professorship1 a standing illustration of the elaborate kindness exercised towards the lower animals in the ,united ,kingdom1 and in ,scotland especially4 ,a curious incidental matter calls us back to ,king's ,college and its connection with ,paris4 ,in his visit to ,scotland in #afcc1 ,charles ,i4 observed1 or learned from his adviser1 ,archbishop ,laud1 who had more prying eyes1 that the ancient formalities of the ,scottish universities had fallen into disuse4 ,it appears that his hopes of a restoration were chiefly centred in ,aberdeen1 where he knew that the ,presbyterian spirit had its loosest hold1 and he resolved to commence the work there4 ,a curious royal letter to ,patrick ,forbes1 ,bishop of ,aberdeen1 and ,chancellor of the ,university1 drops mysterious hints about having 8observed some things which we think fit to put in better ordour1 which we shall do as we shall find cause40 ,but in the mean time there is a very strong reprehension of the unacademic practice of sending the students 8to the parish churches to service and sermon1 and there sit promiscuously with the rest of the audience1 which loses much of the honour and dignity of the ,universities40 ,the cause of ,university restoration1 after such a kingly hint1 naturally received much local support2 and at a sort of convocation of the ,university dignitaries at the ,bishop's ,palace on the #aith of ,december #afcd1 some investigations were made to obtain materials 8for re-establishing of this ,university in her jurisdiction1 conservatorie1 and privileges1 according to her ancient rights granted thereanent40 ,among the other methods of inquiry1 there is sent 8a special letter to our native countryman and special good friend1 ,dr ,william ,davidson1 ,doctor of ,physic1 and resident in ,paris in ,france1 requesting him to deal1 in name of the said ,university of ,aberdeen1 with the rector and ,university of ,paris1 for a just and perfect written double of the rights and privileges of that ,university of ,paris1 for the better clearing and setting in good order the rights and privileges belonging to this ,university of ,aberdeen40#adb ,a letter from ,archbishop ,laud is read to the meeting1 showing that he was in communication with the restorers4 8,for the business which you have recommended to me10 he says1 8,dr ,gordon hath been with me1 and delivered me a copy of all those things which he hath to move the king4 ,i have already spoken with his majesty about them1 and shall continue to do him all the kindness ,i can to help on his despatch1 and to show all the favour ,i can to the ,university40#adc ,it would be interesting to know more than the printed documents show us of the projects then under discussion4 ,laud was a meddler with many things--in ,scotland1 unfortunately1 with at least one too many4 ,his activity in university matters is sufficiently known to fame in the ,laudeian ,code of ,oxford4 ,but it has been the fate of that system to be charged with a subversion of the fundamental principles of the ,english universities1 while in ,aberdeen the movement which its author seems to have directed was towards the restoration of the old ,parisian model4 ,the apparent difference1 however1 has been probably caused by unintended practical results in ,england1--the object was doubtless the same in both cases4 ,among the projects of ,king ,charles with which his adviser of course interfered1 was the union of ,king's and ,marischal ,colleges in ,aberdeen4 ,in fact1 they are not only two colleges1 but1 in the literal sense of the term1 two universities2 and thus1 according to the statistical distribution of these institutions1 ,aberdeen used to appear as well supplied with the commodity as all ,england4 ,between the two establishments1 little more than a mile apart1 there is1 indeed1 unfortunately1 a gulf1 wider than the mileage between ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,the one was founded before1 the other after1 the ,reformation2 and there were elements so distinct and repulsive in the spirit of the foundations1 that nothing but great coercive force could bring the two into union4 ,king ,charles1 who was too apt to suppose that fundamental changes could be made by an ,act of ,visitation1 or an ,order in ,council1 professed to unite them1 and called them1 in conjunction1 the ,caroline ,university4 ,but in reality they never were chemically fused into one4 ,on the contrary1 the documents connected with the nominal union1 which at this juncture may perhaps be read with some interest1 lead one to suppose that the two bodies of office-bearers could hardly have met round the same table without kicking each other's shins4 ,the senior institution exhibits itself as overbearing and dictatorial--the junior as sensitive to every slight4 ,all latent hatreds seem to have sprung into vivid life on the command to be united in peace4 ,the juveniles appear to have taken the matter up1 and each college passes a law requiring that its students shall not insult the professors of the other1--apparently with the same effect1 if not intention1 as the ,irish injunction not to duck the bailiff in the horse-pond4 ,we wonder if the same thing is to be repeated in this day4 ,we have heard it1 indeed1 maintained from a very grave authority1 that nearly all things are possible save the fusion of these institutions2 that it may have been easy to unite ,england and ,scotland1 or ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 but that the eternal laws of the universe show it to be impossible to unite the ,king's ,college and ,university of ,aberdeen with the ,marischal ,college and ,university thereof4 ,,civilisation4--,,the ,,census4 ,my dear ,eusebius1--,if you wonder at the speculations with which ,i have amused myself and bewildered all within reach of inquiry1 remember what a celebrated phrenologist said1 that ,i should never make a philosopher3 you remarked1 ,so much the better1 for that the world had too many already4 ,i am not sure that ,i was not piqued2 and1 owing a little spite against these unapproachable superiors--philosophers--have rather encouraged a habit of posing them2 and finding so many in this my experience inferior to the common-sense portion of mankind1 ,i amuse myself with them1 and treat them as monkeys1 now and then throwing them a nut to crack a little too hard for them4 ,wry faces break no syllogisms1 so we laugh1 and they gravitate in philosophy4 ,what is civilisation8 ,is that a nut8--a very hard one1 indeed4 ,i1 at least1 cannot tell what it is1 in what it consists1 or how this summum bonum is to be attained2 but ,i am no philosopher4 ,i have taken many a one by the button1 and plunged him head foremost into the chaos of thought1 and seen him come out flushed with the suffocation of his dark bewilderment4 ,less ambitious persons will scarcely stay to answer the question--,what is civilisation8 ,the careless1 who cannot answer it1 laugh1 and think they win in the game of foolishness4 ,perhaps no better answer can be given1 and the laughing philosopher1 after all1 may be as wise as the speaking one4 ,a neighbour1 who had been acquainted with the money markets1 told me he did not exactly know what it was1 but he thought its condition was indicated by the ,three-per-cent ,consols4 ,an economist of the new school1 who happened to be on a visit to him1 preferred as a test 8,american bread-stuffs40 ,he argued that such stuffs were the staff of life1 supported life1 and were1 therefore1 both civilisation and the end and object of civilisation4 ,my neighbour's son ,thomas1 a precocious youth of thirteen years of age1 stepped forward1 and said civilisation consisted in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic3 upon this1 a parish boy1 the ,inspector's pet of the ,national ,school1 said with rival scorn1 8,you must go a great deal farther than that--it is knowledge1 and knowledge is knowing the etymologies of cosmography and chronology40 ,i asked the red-faced plethoric ,farmer ,brown2--8,what's what60 quoth he1 with a voice of thunder1 and1 like a true ,john ,bull1 stalked off in scornful ignorance4 ,my next inquiry was of your playful little friend1 flirting ,fanny of the ,grove1 just entering her fifteenth year4 8,what a question60 said she1 and her very eyes laughed deliciously--8the latest fashions from ,paris1 to be sure40 ,make what you please of it1 ,eusebius2 put all the answers into the bag of your philosophy1 and shake them well together1 your little friend's will have as good a chance as any of coming up with a mark of truth upon it4 ,the people that can afford to invent fashions must have a large freedom from cares4 ,there must be classes who neither toil nor spin1 yet emulate in grace1 beauty1 and ornament the lilies of the field4 ,if you were obliged to personify civilisation1 would you not1 like another ,pygmalion1 make to yourself a feminine wonder1 accumulate upon your stature every grace1 vivify her wholly with every possible virtue1 then throw a ,parisian veil of dress over her1 and--oh1 the profanation of your old days6--fall down and worship her8 ,there is no better mark of civilisation than well-dressed feminine excellence1 to which men pay obeisance4 ,wherever the majority do this1 there is humanity best perfected4 ,homer teacheth that1 when he exhibits the aged council of statesmen and warriors on the walls of ,troy paying homage to the grace of ,helen4 ,the poet wished to show that the personages of his ,epic were not barbarians1 and chose this scene to dignify them4 ,ruminate upon the answer1 8,the latest fashions from ,paris40 ,what a mass of civilising detail is contained in these few words6--the leisure to desire1 the elegance to wear1 the genius to invent1 the benevolent employment of delicate hands1 the trades encouraged1 the soft influences--the very atmosphere breathes the most delicate perfume of loves4 ,it is not to the purpose to interpose that this ,paris of fashion suddenly turned savage1 and revelled in brutal revolution1 sparing not man nor woman4 ,it was because1 in their anti-aristocratic madness1 the unhappy people threw off this reverential respect that the uncivilised portion slaughtered the civilised4 ,it was a vile atheistical barbarism that waged war with civilisation4 ,think no more of that black spot in the ,history of ,humanity--that plague-spot4 ,rather1 ,eusebius1 turn your thoughts to your work1 and fabricate1 though it be only in your imagination1 your own paradise1 and she shall be named ,civilisation4 ,in case your imagination should be at this moment dull1 rest satisfied with a description of an image now before me1 which ,i think1 as a personification1 answers the question admirably2 for supposing it to be a portrait from nature1 what a civilised people must they be among whom such a wonder was born--not only born1 but sweetly nurtured1 and arrayed in such a glory of dress6 ,if you think this indicates a foolish extravagant passion1 know that this fair one must have 8died of old age0 some centuries before ,i was born4 ,there she is1 in all her pale loveliness1 in a black japan figured frame1 over the mantelpiece of my bedroom at ,h----1 where ,i am now writing this letter to you4 ,mock not1 ,eusebius2 she is1 or rather was1 ,chinese4 ,i look upon her now as giving out her answer from those finely-drawn lips--8,i represent civilisation40 ,if ,i could pencil like that happy painter--happiest in having such uncommon loveliness to sit to him--,i would send you another kind of sketch2 it would be a failure4 ,be content with feeble words4 ,first1 then1 for dress3 ,she wears a brown kind of hat1 or cap1 the rim a little turned up1 of indescribable shape and texture3 the head part is blue2 around it are flowers1 so white and transparent1 just suffused with a blush1 as if instantaneously vitrified into china4 ,lovely are they--such as botanical impertinences never scrutinised4 ,on the right side of this cap or hat two cock's feathers1 perfectly white1 arch themselves1 as if they would coquet with the fairer cheek4 ,you see how firm they are1 and would spring up strong from the touch1 emblems of unyielding chastity4 ,the hair1 little of which is seen1 is of a chestnut-brown2 low down on the throat is a broad band of black1 apparently velvet1 just peeping above which is the smallest edging of white1 exactly like the most modern shirt-collar1 fastened above1 where it is parted1 by a gold clasp4 ,the upper dress is of a pink red1 such as we see in ,madonna pictures2 below this is a dark blue-green shirt-dress1 richly flowered to look like enamel2 over the shoulders a ,madonna kerchief1 fastened in a knot over the chest2 it is of a clear brownish hue1 such as we see in old pictures4 ,the upper red dress does not meet1 but terminates on each1 side with a gold border1 of a pattern centre1 with two lines of gold4 ,thus a rather broad space is left across the bosom1 which in modern costume is occupied by a habit-shirt2 but such word would ill describe either the colour or the texture here worn2 it is of a gossamer fabric1 of a most delicately-greenish white1 diapered and flowered all over2 nothing can be conceived more exquisite than this4 ,it would make the fortune of a modern modiste to see and to imitate it4 ,a clasp of elegant shape fastens skirt to upper dress2 the sleeve of upper dress reaches only half-way down the arm2 the lower sleeve is of the rich blue-green1 but altogether ample4 ,attitude1 slightly bent forward2 over the left arm1 which crosses the waist1 is suspended a fruit-basket of unknown material1 and finely patterned1 brown in colour1 in which are grapes and other fruit2 expression1 sweetly modest2 complexion--how shall it be described8 ,never was ,european like it4 ,it is finest porcelain1 variegated with that under-living immortal ichor of the old divinities4 ,eyes clear-cut or pencilled1 rather hazel in colour2 background1 rockwork garden1 rising to a hill1 on which are trees--but such trees6 ,aladdin may have seen the like in his enchanted subterranean garden4 ,then there is a lake1 and a boat on it1 at a distance1 with an awning4 ,she is the goddess1 or the queen1 of this ,elysium1 which her presence makes1 and has enchanted into a porcelain earth1 whose flowers and trees are of its lustre4 ,wherever1 ,eusebius1 this portrait was taken1 it was1 and is1 an epitome1 an emblem of high civilisation4 ,it speaks so plainly of all exemption from toil and care1 of the unapproachableness of danger4 ,there is living elegance in a garden of peace4 ,it is1 in fact1 the type of civilisation4 ,what6 will the economist1 the philosopher of our day1 be ready to say1--,civilisation amongst ,chinese and ,tartars6 and that centuries perhaps ago4 ,civilisation is 8,the ,nineteenth ,century60 ,the glory of the ,nineteenth ,century is the ,press4 ,we are ,civilisation4 ,very well1 gentlemen2 nevertheless it would be pleasant if you could exhibit a little more peace and quietness1 a little less turmoil1 a little more unadulterating honesty1 a little less careworn look in your streets1 as the mark of your boasted civilisation4 ,you are doing wonders1 and1 like ,katerfelto with his hair on end1 are in daily wonderment at your own wonders4 ,you steam--annihilate space and time4 ,you have ripped open the bowels of knowledge1 and well-nigh killed her in search of her golden egg4 ,you are full1 to the throat and eyes1 of sciences and arts4 ,you are hourly astonishing yourselves and the world4 ,nevertheless1 you have one great deficiency as to the ingredients that make up civilisation2 you are decidedly too conceited2 you lack charity2 you count bygone times and peoples as nothing and nobodies3 yet you build a great ,crystal ,palace1 and boast of it1 as if it were all your own2 whereas the whole riches of it1 in the elegances of all arts1 are imitations of the works of those bygone times and peoples4 ,who is satisfied with your model-civilisation8 ,eusebius1 is not the question yet to be asked--,what is it8 in what does it consist8 how is it to be obtained8 ,true civilisation has no shams--we have too many1 and they arise out of our swaggering and boasting2 so that we force ourselves to assume every individual virtue1 though we have it not4 ,we are contemptuous2 and contempt is a burr of barbarism sticking to us still1 even in this 8,nineteenth ,century10 a phrase in the public mouth glorifying self-esteem4 ,i must1 for the argument1 go back to the ,chinese lady in her narrow japanned gilt frame4 ,as ,i have drawn my curtains1 ,eusebius1 at the dawn of day1 and that placid beauty 7though not to be admitted in any book of that name7 has smiled upon me from lips so delicate1 so unvoracious--did she pick grains of rice1 like ,amine in the ,arabian tale8--,i verily thought she must have lived in as civilised an age as ours4 ,yes--perhaps she was not very learned1 excepting in ,chinese romances1 and very good learning that is3 but neither you nor ,i1 ,eusebius1 lay very great stress upon knowledge1 nor call it 8,power10 nor think that happiness necessarily grows out of it4 ,one evil of it is1 that it unromances the age2 and romance--why not say it8--romance is a main ingredient in true1 honest1 unadulterated civilisation4 ,you would prefer being as mad as ,don ,quixote1 and be gifted with his romance1 to being the aptest of matter-of-fact economists and material philosophers4 ,romance1 then1 springs from the generous heart and mind2--methinks1 ,eusebius1 you are progressing1 and reaching one of the ingredients of this said desideratum1 8,civilisation40 ,as a people1 it may be doubted if we are quite as romantic as formerly2 if so1 however we may advance in knowledge and sciences1 we are really retrograding from the summum bonum of social virtues4 ,i remember once hearing a celebrated physician1 who knew as much as most men of mankind1 their habits and manners1 speak of an ,american 8gentleman10 adding1 8and he was a savage40 ,you can imagine it possible1 that1 in the presence and impertinence of ,anglo-,saxon vulgarity1 the grave and courteous demeanour of a so-called barbarian would be a very conspicuous virtue4 ,i read the other day1 in ,prince's ,worthies of ,devon1 a quaint passage to the point1 which much amused me for its singular expression4 ,it relates to ,sir ,francis ,drake1 who1 touching at one of the ,molucca ,islands1 was1 as the author words it1 8by the king thereof1 a true gentleman pagan1 most honourably entertained40 ,of this 8gentleman pagan0 ,prince adds1 that he told ,general ,drake 8that they and he were all of one religion1 in this respect1 that they believed not in gods made of stocks and stones1 as did the ,portuguese2 and further1 at his departure he furnished him with all the necessaries that he wanted40 ,yet1 perhaps1 some of the habits of such gentlemen pagans had been scoffed at by ,europeans1 and often met with worse usage than contempt4 ,whoever has no consideration for others1 no indulgence for habits contrary to his own1 though he may be born in nominally the most civilised nation under the sun1 is really a barbarian4 ,it was well said that1 upon the accidental meeting of the finest drest gentleman1 with a powdered head1 and a tatooed ,indian1 he who should laugh first would be the savage4 ,the well-known story of the horror expressed by different people at the disposal of their deceased parents is curious1 showing that opposite actions arise from the same feelings4 ,in this case it was of filial piety4 ,one party was asked if he would bury his father in the earth8 ,he was amazed at the question--shocked4 ,not for the world2 as an act of piety1 he would eat him4 ,the other1 asked to eat his father1 was hurt and disgusted beyond measure4 ,let us be a little more even in our judgments1 and speak somewhat kindly1 if we can1 of these gentlemen pagans all over the world4 ,we may be often called upon to admire their disinterested heroism1 even when lavished upon mistaken objects4 ,here is an example from the misnamed weaker sex--misnamed1 for they are wonderfully gifted with fortitude4 ,i have been reading of a poor young creature1 widow of a chief among some cannibal race4 ,she was to have been immolated1 according to custom1 at the burial of her husband4 ,her courage at the moment failed her3 she was induced by1 if ,i remember rightly1 some good missionaries1 to fly1 and they protected her4 ,in the night she repented of her irresolution1 escaped1 swam across a river1 and presented herself for the sacrifice and the feast4 ,scholars1 you read with love and admiration of ,iphigenia at ,aulis2 her first reluctance2 her after self-devotion3 you have imagined her youth1 her beauty1 so vividly painted by the poet4 ,was ,iphigenia more the heroine than this poor girl whom we are pleased to pass unhistoried as a savage8 ,she gave herself up1 not only to death1 perhaps a cruel one1 but with the knowledge that she would be devoured also that night4 ,iphigenia was certain of funeral honours1 of immortal fame1 and believed that her sacrifice would insure victory to her father and the ,greeks4 ,we have written exercises at school in praise of the suicide of ,cato1 whose act1 in comparison with this poor savage's1 was cowardice2--more than that1 we have been taught to mouth out with applause the blasphemy of the celebrated hexameter1 8,victrix causa ,diis placuit sed victa ,catoni40 ,why should we not be a little more even in our judgments8 ,the poor gentlemen pagans of the islands would cut as good a figure as heathen ,cato1 if their names and deeds could be turned into tolerable ,latin1 and passed off as of the classical age4 ,henley1 in a letter to ,swift1 tells the speech of a farmer1 who said1 8,if ,i could but get this same breath out of my body1 ,i'd take care1 by ,g--1 how ,i let it come in again60 ,henley makes the pithy remark1 8,this1 if it was put into fine ,latin1 ,i fancy would make as good a sound as any ,i have met with40 ,i did not mean to induce a belief1 ,eusebius1 that the ,chinese excelled in the fine arts when ,i wrote down the description of the ,chinese lady4 ,the portrait had its peculiarities1 and would not have been hung upon the line in the ,royal ,academy4 ,i only chose it for its historical expression1 which spoke of civilisation of manners1 of security1 and as containing in itself things which civilised people boast of4 ,but there the argument is not very much in favour of this our 8,nineteenth ,century20 for the chiefest works of art in painting are of the cinque cents4 ,it is not pretended that we have thrown into oblivious shade the masters of old celebrity2 nor that we have made better statues than did ,phidias and ,praxiteles2 nor excelled the ,greeks in architecture2 nor even the artist builders of the ages which we are pleased to style 8,dark20 so that we have at least lost some marks of civilisation4 ,nay1 to come to nearer times for comparison3 ,it would be a hard thing for our swaggerers to find a dramatist willing to be taken by the collar1 and contrasted face to face with the portraits of ,shakespeare and ,ben ,jonson1 taking their plays as their representatives4 ,there were worthies of a high romance in the civilised days of the 8,glorious ,gloriana40 ,what marks of essential civilisation are visible in the comedies of ,shakespeare--what delightful mixture of the real and unreal--the mind springing from its own natural elasticity above the fogs and blight of worldly business1 that ever tend to keep the spirits from rising6 ,and why say comedies8 ,tragedies too4 ,how fresh is the atmosphere mankind seem then to breathe4 ,humanity is made lovable or dignified4 ,if we might judge of civilisation from the works of writers of that age1 we might be justified in pronouncing it most civilised1 for it was governed by a vivid and romantic spirit4 ,take as contrast the literature of ,queen ,anne's boasted time4 ,it is quite of another spirit4 ,there is a descending1 a degradation of the whole mind4 ,there begins visible worldliness4 ,we see man taking his part in the affairs of the world for what he can get as an individual4 ,there is a prominence of the business1 and less made of the enjoyments of life2--the commercial spirit predominating1 which has since overwhelmed the imaginative faculties1 and buried the better1 the more civilised pleasures of life1 under the weight of avarice4 ,we are1 my dear ,eusebius1 too money-loving and money-getting to deserve the name of a thoroughly civilised people4 ,is a true and just perception of the fine arts a sign of civilisation8 ,what is admired--what is eagerly purchased--what intellectual food do the purchases convey8 ,is the mere visual organ gratified by the lowest element of the arts--imitation--or the mind's eye enlarged to receive and love what is great and noble8 ,in one sense1 undoubtedly1 the art of living is better understood1 because1 the romance of life fading away1 personal comforts and little luxuries become exigencies1 and engross the thoughts1 filling up the vacancies that romance has left4 ,shall ,i shock you1 my dear ,eusebius1 if ,i add my doubts if liberty is either civilisation or a sign of it8 ,great things have been done in the world1 where there has been little of it enough1 as well as where there has been much4 ,the fine arts are certainly not much indebted to it4 ,there is much in the question which yet remains to be considered4 ,the questioned may well ask1 as did the heathen philosopher on one more important1 and of an infinite height and depth--another day of thought to answer it1 and each succeeding day another still4 ,is civilisation that condition in which all the human faculties may be so continually exercised1 as to make the more intellectual moral and religious being8 when the plant humanity1 like every other plant1 shall by cultivation assume a new character and even appearance8 ,i fear this condition necessarily implies a degradation also4 ,for as in no state do the many reach the high standard1 equality must be destroyed1 so that inferiority will not only have its moral mark1 but also its additional toil1 far above the share it would have supposing a state nearer equality4 ,but then1 it may be answered1 the question is not about the many1 but regards only examples1 without considering number4 ,human plants may be exhibited of extraordinary culture and beauty--beauty that must be seen and admired--and1 if so1 imitated2 and this law of imitation will draw in the many1 in process of time1 to improvement4 ,very true1 ,eusebius2 and in a race naturally energetic1 this imitation--while1 on the whole1 it will improve general manners--creates a social vice1 affectation--which is vulgarity4 ,the example of our ,anglo-,saxon race is to the point--of wondrous energy1 but in no race under the sun is vulgarity so conspicuous4 ,if1 then1 the condition which forces all the human faculties to exertion be that of civilising tendency1 does it follow that it is one of the greatest happiness8 ,the history of the world says manifestly that it is not one of peace1 of quietness1 of content1 of simplicity--alas6 shall we say of honesty8 ,for it must be confessed civilisation acts upon the mixed character which every man has1 and therefore gives progression both to vice and virtue4 ,man is only made great by trials2 difficulties promote energies4 ,it is the law of preparation for this world and for the next4 ,long1 steep1 and arduous is the way to excellence4 ,the verse of ,hesiod brings to mind a passage of greater authority4 ,the smooth and broad way1 and ever-ready way1 is not so good4 8 ' 4 1 ' 1 ,k ' ' 1 40 --,,hesiod4 ,here we have toil1 trouble1 and a rough road4 ,now for a little entanglement of the subject4 ,who will sit for this aspirant for all the virtues--for civilisation8 ,i look up to the portrait of the ,chinese lady1 who first set my thoughts upon this speculation4 ,surely she never got that placid do-nothing look from any long habit of toil and trouble2 she never worked hard4 ,i confess1 ,eusebius1 as ,i question her1 she does look a little more silly than ,i thought her4 ,she never went the up-hill rough road4 ,how should she8 ,she was never shod for it2 nay1 were the truth told--for the painter has judiciously kept it out of sight--she had no proper feet to walk withal4 ,they had been pinched to next to nothing4 ,she never could have danced2 would have been a sorry figure in a ,european ball-room2 and in the way she must have stood1 would have made but 7as ,goldsmith calls it7 8a mutilated curtsey40 ,it is hard to give up a first idea4 ,i proposed her as an emblem of civilisation--and why not8 ,she does not represent civilisation in its progress--in its work2 but in its result--its perfection4 ,for look at her1--she stands not up with a bold impudence1 like ,luxury in the 8,choice of ,hercules10 puffed up and enlarged in the fat of pride1 and redder and whiter than nature--a painted ,jezebel4 ,quite the reverse4 ,she is most delicately slender2 her substance is of the purity of the finest ,china tea-cup4 ,in fact1 she seems to have been set up as the work of a whole nation's toil1--as a sign1 a model1 of their civilisation4 ,they who imagined such a creature1 and set her upon her legs--yet ,i can hardly say that1 considering the feet--must have made many after the same model1 or seen many2 and exquisite must have been the manners of such a piece of life-porcelain4 ,indeed1 ,eusebius1 we have greatly mistaken these people1 the ,chinese4 ,i will believe their own account of themselves1 and that they were a polished people when the ancient ,britons went naked1 and painted themselves with woad4 ,besides1 here is another picture at hand1 clearly showing them to have been1 as probably they are still1 a sensible people1 for they evidently agree with the wisest man who said1 8,spare the rod and spoil the child40 ,here they have pictured a school1 and the pedagogue is flogging a boy1 and he has a very legitimate rod4 ,if this is not a mark of civilisation--for it certainly leaves one1 giving1 as it were1 a bottomry bond of future wisdom--,i should like to know what is4 ,birch-buds are the smart-money of education1 and wonderfully improve the memory without touching the head1 but reaching the brain by a harmless and distant sympathy4 ,i am sure the ,chinese must be a people well worth studying2 and1 with all our national conceit1 we may learn a good deal from them4 ,if we scatter them about with our artillery1 and stick them upon bayonets1 and despise them because they are innocent1 or have been till recently1 in the arts of destruction1 who are the most savage--the slaughtered or the slaughterers8 ,are we to call war1 civilisation8 ,perhaps it may be the 8rough way0 it has to pass4 ,ask the ,czar to answer the question4 ,he will undoubtedly say1 that it is cutting the throats of the ,turks and filching their property2 and he will show you one undoubted proof of the highest civilisation of modern times1 consummate hypocrisy--committing murder by wholesale in the name of religion4 ,shall ,i advance a seeming paradox8 ,civilisation is impeded by knowledge--that is1 by the modern demand for it4 ,the memory becomes crammed1 till there be no room in the brain for legitimate thought to work in4 ,hence a bewilderment1 a confusion of other men's ideas1 and none of our own2 a general perplexity1 and little agreement among people in sentiment1 for they have no time left to consider upon their differences4 ,the world is overstocked with the materials of knowledge1 and yet there is ever a demand for more4 ,the time of man's best wisdom was when he was not overburthened with books4 ,happy are scholars that so many of the classics are lost4 ,were all that have been written extant1 the youth that should graduate in honours would be the miracle of a short time1 and an idiot the remainder of his life4 ,then our own literature3 it is frightful to see the bulky monthly catalogue of publications4 ,had ,i to begin the world1 ,i should throw down the list in despair1 and prefer being a literary fool1 with a little common sense4 ,besides1 the aspirant in education must learn all modern languages also4 ,what a quantity6 ,i made a note from a paper published1 ,november #ahea4 ,here is a quotation4 ,a letter from ,leipsic says--8,the catalogue for the book fair of ,st ,michael has been just published4 ,it results from it that during the short space of time which has elapsed since the fair of ,easter last1 not fewer than three thousand eight hundred and sixty new books have been published in ,germany1 and that one thousand one hundred and fifty others are in the press4 ,more than one-half of these works are on scientific subjects40 ,mercy on the brains of the people6--they will be inevitably addled4 ,what with all this learning and reading1 summing and analysing1 and making book-shelves of themselves1 they are retrograding in natural understanding1 which ought to be the strong foundation of civilisation4 ,and there is the necessity growing up of reading all the daily papers beside4 ,better1 ,eusebius1 that the human plant should grow1 like a cucumber1 to belly1 and run along the common ground1 than shoot out such head-seed as is likely to come out of such a hotbed under a surfeit of dry manure4 ,verily it must shortly come to pass1 that ,ignoramus will be the wisest if not the knowingest among us4 ,he may have common sense1 a few flights of imagination unchoked with the dust of learning1 or many wholesome prejudices1 a great deal of honest feeling1 and with these homespun materials keep his morals and religion pure1 and1 walking in humbleness1 reach unawares the summit of civilisation4 ,if you think him an imaginary being1 wed him to the ,chinese ,purity in the japan frame1 and no one will write the epithalamium so happily as my friend ,eusebius4 ,i might here have ended my letter1 rather expecting to receive a solution to the great question than pretending to offer one4 ,but having written so far1 and about to add a concluding sentence1 ,i received a visit from our matter-of-fact friend ,b41 whom people hereabout call the ,economist ,general3 he is a professed statist1 great in all little things4 ,he is alway at work1 volunteering unacceptable advices and schemes to boards of guardians and the ,government4 ,i told him ,i was writing to you1 and the subject of my letter1--8,then10 said he1 8,i can assist you4 ,the census newly come out is the thing4 ,in that you will learn everything4 ,you will1 in fact1 find civilisation depicted scientifically4 ,i will send it to you40 ,we conversed an hour2 ,i promised to read his census return in the course of the day4 ,he smiled strangely1 but said nothing4 ,i soon understood what the smile meant1 when ,i saw a labouring man take out of a little cart a huge parcel1 which upon opening ,i found to contain the ,census in nineteen volumes or books1 varying in shapes and sizes1 some of which being very bulky1 ,i judged to contain heavy matter4 ,the idea of reading over and digesting the ,census in an afternoon appeared now so ridiculous that ,i could not refrain from laughing myself4 ,nineteen books to examine in an afternoon6 ,it was evident there would be six months' toil1 and as many hands as ,briareus wanted to turn over the leaves2 to say nothing of the number of heads to hold the matter4 ,what horsepower engine in the brain to work up a digested process equal to the task6 ,i was1 however1 being somewhat idle1 curious to see what could have made our friend such an enthusiast2 ,i therefore looked into some of the books--became interested--read more and more1 though in a desultory manner4 ,it is wonderful to see society so daguerreotyped in all its phases4 ,what could have given rise to so much varied ingenuity8--,what schemes1 what contrivances for getting at everything6--the commissioners must have been ,titans in ingenuity4 ,was it the necessity of the case that induced so much elaboration8 ,i have read that the cost of the ,census exceeds #abj1jjj4 ,that accounts for it1 ,eusebius2 such a sum is not to be clutched without some inventive powers4 ,our friend thinks the ,census will help to solve the question of civilisation2 so pray borrow the volumes of an ,m4,p4 ,if you cannot get at the marrow of the thing you want1 you will find much for after speculation4 ,there is something frightful1 ,eusebius1 in the idea that no class of men1 no individuals1 can henceforth escape the eye of this ,great ,inquisitor-,general--a ,census commission4 ,there is no conceivable thing belonging to man1 woman1 or child that may not come under the inspection1 and be in the books1 of this great ,gargantuan ,busybody4 ,in truth1 he was born a gigantic infant in #ahja4 ,hermes1 in the ,homeric hymn1 leaped out of his cradle upon mischievous errands almost as soon as born3 so did our big ,busybody4 ,ere he was six months old he took to knocking at people's doors1 and running#add away4 ,he soon grew bolder1 stood to his knock1 and asked if ,mr ,thompson did not live there4 ,then he had the trick of getting into houses like the boy ,jones1 and counted the skillets in the scullery1 the pap-dishes in the nursery1 turned over the beds in the garrets1 and booked men and maids who slept in them before they could put their clothes on4 ,with a thirst for domestic knowledge1 he insisted upon knowing who were married and who not4 ,he would burst in upon a family at their prayers1 and note what religion they were of4 ,he would know every one's age1 condition1 business1 and be very particular as to sex female1 why they married or why they lived single2 he could tell to a day when any would lie in4 ,the most wonderful thing was the paper case he carried with him wherever he went4 ,it would have made ,gargantua himself stare with astonishment1 for it is said1 upon competent authority1 to have weighed 8nearly forty tons40 ,this paper case contained particulars noted down of every one's possible concerns4 ,he had another at home1 in which he kept circulars for distribution1 demanding further information4 ,it was said to be bigger still2#ade as he grew robust and bold1 of course it took more to feed ,busybody4 ,it is almost incredible what a number of the people's loaves he ate up in one year2 but that there is the baker's bill to vouch for it1 no one would believe it4 ,the quantity of food required for himself and his numerous retainers has already made him look about with some anxiety to foist upon the country a scheme for sure agricultural statistics1 to ascertain the number of loaves to the acre4 ,it cannot be said of him1 as of many1 that his eye is bigger than his belly1 for the former cannot as yet see 8bread-stuffs0 enough to fill the latter4 ,besides1 he has quite an army to maintain of officials1 enumerators1 and registrars1 who all1 after the manner of benchers1 must eat their way into the universal knowledge required of them4 ,such is ,busybody4 ,in my afternoon nap1 ,i have dreamed of him1 ,eusebius1 and offer you this description of him--his birth1 life1 habits1 and manners--as by a dreaming intuition ,i received them4 ,what think you of the monster8 ,as perilous a beast as the ,wooden ,horse of ,troy4 8,inspectura domos1 venturaque desuper urbi40 ,it would not be surprising if ,irish mothers1 when they find that all their babes are registered1 age and sex noted down1 were to take into their heads that they are to be fattened2 and ,swift's scheme1 which a popular author has unwisely characterised as serious cannibalism1 is at length to be realised1 and thus ,bigmouth of the old fair and puppet-show will appear as ,busybody-,general4 ,perhaps the 8,king of the ,cannibal ,islands10 since we have taught him to read and write1 will avail himself of this new registration system2 for with him all is alike meat in the market4 ,i have been reading an account of such a people's doings1 and find the only difference between human and other is1 that the former is sold as 8long pig10 the other short pig4 ,i mentioned the ingenuity displayed in the ,census--turn to the maps and diagrams4 ,you will see a map of ,england and ,wales1 shaded so that the depth of colour shall denote the density of the population3 there are figures also to tell the number of persons to a square mile1 and towns and cities are represented by round dots1 larger or smaller1 according to the number of inhabitants4 ,it is a very curious and pretty plaything2 but of what imaginable use8 ,it is like the shadowing on the maps of the moon4 ,london looks awful--a horrible black pit--and must give children1 who will be delighted with the plaything1 a notion that our great metropolis must be a sink of iniquity4 ,cobbett's notion of the 8great wen0 was by no means agreeable2 to make it such a black pit of destruction is far less flattering4 ,there are diagrams also showing1 by the closeness of dots1 the density of population at various periods4 ,it was certainly a very ingenious contrivance of the inventor1 for the enlargement and continuance of his work and employment2 in a matter1 too1 where1 at first view1 so little was required to be done4 ,if not more profitable1 it at least provides as much amusement as ,diogenes afforded when he rolled his tub about1 to show that he must be busy4 ,the inventor was1 however1 wiser than the philosopher2 for the philosopher aimed at satire only1 the inventor of the maps and diagrams at pay and profit4 ,everything should nowadays be turned into the channel of education2 it might be suggested to the educational purveyors1 and to masters and inspectors of schools1 who stand a chance of wanting something to teach1 to have these maps and diagrams printed cheaply on thick or board paper1 that1 even in their recreation hours1 the scholars may learn something1 and the favourite 8game of goose10 of ominous name1 be profitably superseded4 ,the two diagrams of ,london1 the one for the year #ahja1 the other #ahea1 may serve quite as well as the 8,chinese puzzle0 to exercise growing or dull memories1 having a like advantage of not burthening the mind1 already too full1 with any useful knowledge whatever4 ,for instance1 it will be quite sport to learn by heart that1 as to density of ,london in #ahja1 8on an average1 there were nearly #cid square yards of land to every person1 #bghd square yards to every inhabited house40 ,as to proximity in #ahja1 that1 8on an average1 the mean distance from house to house 7inhabited7 was nearly #eg yards2 from person to person #ba yards40 ,that1 as to density in #ahea1 8on an average1 there were nearly #afj square yards of land to every person2 #abcd square yards to every inhabited house40 ,as to proximity1 that in #ahea1 8on an average1 the mean distance from house to house 7inhabited7 was nearly #ch yards2 from person to person #ad yards40 ,so that every person is approaching his neighbour in person1 but not probably in love or liking1 so rapidly1 as that he has already seven yards of the area of his liberty taken from him since #ahja4 ,it will be comfortably and philosophically answered1 that most of those who enjoyed that liberty in #ahja1 more than half a century ago1 cannot complain1 for they are now silent1 and in less space1 that of six feet by four2 and that the present generation easily accommodate themselves in less space1 having the better liberty of making more noise4 ,these are the trifles1 the games1 and the plays that amuse children six feet high4 ,let them by all means roll about their tub in the streets1 if they will remain contented with their sport and their wages4 ,they have1 however1 we may both of us surmise and fear1 done far less innocent work4 ,it is not pleasant to know that the pure1 chaste secresy of your house has been invaded1 taken possession of1 and is no longer exclusively yours2 that you are in name or in number1 as ,no4 #a or ,no4 #b1 put away in a pigeon-hole somewhere in that black pit you have seen in the map1 to be drawn out1 one of these days1 at the will of any impertinent official1 and further questioned1 perhaps1 as the phrase is1 squeezed1 when anything is to be got out of you4 ,you may have a commission sent down to your house1 and take possession of it1 for some scrutiny or other1 while you are taking your morning walk2 on your return1 you will find two or three commissioners have coolly taken your joint off the spit1 and are politely drinking your health out of your choicest sherry2 and as an excuse of extraordinary business1 question you about the age and property of your great-grandmother deceased4 ,how do you or ,i know what use will be made of all these registered particulars about us8 ,it would be far pleasanter to be let alone4 ,i have an antipathy to curious questioning people4 ,dr ,franklin1 when he came to a strange place1 knowing the inquisitive disposition of the people1 used to say at once1 8,my name is ,benjamin ,franklin2 ,i come from such a place1 and am going to such a place2 age so and so1 and on such business2 and now let me have out a horse40 ,i should for one like to compound with this scrutinising government1 on condition of exemption from place in their books1 to put out weekly posted to my door the names1 ages1 and sex of every inmate1 with a diary of their employments the six days2 requesting not to be called to account for my time on the hallowed seventh4 ,there is no chance of such a composition being accepted on their part2 for you will see1 ,eusebius1 there is nothing they are so busy about as to know what religion you are of4 ,there is a separate book for this very purpose2 nay1 they go farther--they have superseded all known authorities in these matters1 and have dictated what shall be your creed1 giving you only a latitude of 8,churches0--such they call every denomination in their ,report presented to ,parliament1 and her ,majesty1 who as yet happily has recognised but one ,church of ,england1 in which matter the ,report is undoubtedly at variance with the fundamental law of the ,constitution1 and passes a kind of insulting suggestion upon her ,majesty's highest prerogative1 her very crown and dignity4 ,this is a matter for other consideration2 the religious ,report must be examined2 ,i only see at present1 and note the fact1 that the ,church of ,england is put down as but one of the sects4 8,increase and multiply0 was at the beginning1 and from the beginning to this day is1 the ,divine command4 ,some would infer that there must be a blessing attending obedience to it1 others would in part abrogate the law1 and1 with ,malthus1 admit no crowding at the bountiful table which nature supplies4 ,the presumption fairly is1 that as security to life and happiness is the main cause of increase2 viewing this world only1 such increase must be a great good1 and it implies advancement in civilisation1 which possibly may not be ill defined as the art of promoting life and happiness4 ,it includes moral advancement4 ,but the beneficence of our ,maker allows us to look beyond this world4 ,hence1 the awful thought1 and the responsibility incurred by its increase of population1 is an increase of immortal souls4 ,there is a depth in this argument beyond my scope4 ,it is a curious fact which this ,census shows4 ,in #ahja1 the population of ,great ,britain was #aj1egh1ief2 in #ahea1 it had reached #bj1iei1dgg4 ,thus the population has nearly doubled in fifty years4 ,but further1 8,the population of the ,united ,kingdom1 including the army1 navy1 and merchantseamen1 was #ba1bgb1ahg in #ahba1 and about #bg1gbd1hdi in #ahea2 but in the interval #b1fhe1gdg persons emigrated1 who1 if simply added to the population of the ,united ,kingdom1 make the survivors and descendants of the races within the ,british ,isles in #ahba1 now #cj1daj1eie40 ,perhaps1 ,eusebius1 you never considered that you have only right and title to a certain limited area1 to live and breathe in1 in this your beloved country4 ,your area is becoming more circumscribed every day4 ,people are approximating fearfully4 ,you may come to touch very disagreeable people2 at present you are only a few yards apart4 ,there are two things1 according to this ,census1 threatening you--8density0 and 8proximity40 ,for 8density0 a ,french writer proposes 8specific population after the analogy of specific gravity10 so that if there be an accelerating ratio1 you may be run in upon and crushed by your neighbours1 after the annihilating principle of some of our railroads4 ,i remember when a boy hearing an old gentleman make a curious calculation1 equalising rights to the air we breathe4 ,he came to the conclusion that a man who smoked tobacco took up more room in the atmosphere than he had any right to4 ,this1 now that we are so rapidly approximating1 ought1 you will think1 to come under the consideration of the ,legislature4 ,see your danger--8the people of ,england were on an average one hundred and fifty-three yards asunder in #ahja1 and one hundred and eight yards asunder in #ahea40 ,thus the regular goers1 the world-walkers1 are coming in upon you2 but there are some as erratic as comets1 whose contiguity you will dread4 ,i say this is your danger1 for you do not suppose such infinite pains would have been taken1 and such vast expense incurred1 merely out of idle curiosity to give you this information4 ,perhaps it is kindly meant to give you a hint that your room would be preferred to your company4 8,tempus abire tibi est40 ,more than this--not only persons1 but houses are encroaching upon each other4 8,the mean distance apart of their houses was three hundred and sixty-two yards in #ahja1 and two hundred and fifty-two yards in #ahea40 ,you see1 then1 you must not only set yourself in order to depart1 but you must 8set your house in order0 also4 ,it is really astonishing that the ,census ,commission should have taken such a world of trouble in making calculations which1 at first sight1 look so puerile2 we must only conclude1 that somehow or other the labour is as much worth the hire1 as the labourer is worthy his hire4 ,i dare to say1 among your ignorances1 you are ignorant of this1 that the ,british ,isles are at least five hundred in number4 8,five hundred islands and rocks have been numbered1 but inhabitants were only found and distinguished on the morning of ,march #ca1 #ahea1 in one hundred and seventy-five islands1 or groups of islands40 ,i cannot very well tell what is meant by 8distinguished10 but you will perceive that there is a chance1 if you fear the 8crushing density and proximity0 of escape to one of these islands1 as yet uninhabited1 where you may exist without contact or contagion1 as a very 8distinguished0 individual4 ,you may be another ,alexander ,selkirk1 and 8monarch of all you survey10 and have the honour of a distinction1 in the next census1 now enjoyed by a lone lady4 ,you will be enumerated as1 and as solely taking care of1 number one4 ,there are ,british isles that have each but two inhabitants4 8,little ,papa0 has but one--a woman2 and 8,inchcolm one solitary man40 ,what think you of this 8last man0 and this 8last woman10 each upon his or her 8ultima ,thule80 ,the motherless man-hating woman1 in contempt of the parental name1 alone treading under foot 8,little ,papa40 ,the 8solitary man10 if1 as is likely he be1 brutish1 may live out of the fear of a recent ,act of ,parliament4 ,for if he disdains the marital luxury1 he cannot be punished for beating his wife4 ,the writer of these statistics1 aware that there is a good deal of dry matter1 prudently sprinkles it with a little saltwater poetry4 ,thus1 as a kind of preface to these ,british islands1 he says1 8,the ,scandinavian race survives in its descendants round the coasts of the ,british ,isles1 and the soul of the old ,viking still burns in the seamen of the ,british fleet1 in the ,deal boatmen1 in the fishermen of the ,orkneys1 and in that adventurous1 bold1 direct1 skilful1 mercantile class1 that has encircled the world by its peaceful conquests4 ,what the ,greeks were in the ,mediterranean ,sea1 the ,scandinavians have been in the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,a population of a race on the islands and the island coasts1 impregnated with the sea1 in fixing its territorial boundaries would exhibit but little sympathy with the remonstrating ,roman poet1 in his ,sabine farm over the ,mediterranean3 #8,nequidquam ,deus abscidit ,prudens occano dissociabili ,feras1 si tamen impi ,non tangenda rates trausiliunt vada4'0 ,a writer or compiler of statistics should ride his own hobby4 ,pegasus is hard-mouthed to his hand2 if he attempts the use of the curb1 he is thrown1 and thus is sure to be run away with4 ,so here he has got quite beyond the ground of matter-of-fact4 ,by the ,vikings' soul in the ,british seamen--the burning soul too--he declares himself of the ,pythagorean philosophy1 quite gratuitously2 and in the following sentence carries his transmigration notions to a strange but practical conclusion1 for he tells us of a race 8impregnated with the sea10 imaging sailors' mothers and wives as mermaids--that is1 previous to the marine and marital alliances2 by which unaccountable flight of poetic diction1 ,i presume1 he means only that the sea was rather a rough nursing-mother3 and how could he imagine that such an untutored race ever read1 or could read1 a syllable of what ,horace wrote8 ,doubtless1 he must have been weary1 counting up these five hundred mostly barren islands1 and1 coming in the list to 8,rum10 it must have made for him a comfortable suggestion2 and in consequence1 a pretty stiff tumbler set all his ideas at once afloat1 and poetically1 8half seas over0 among the islands1 steering1 however1 steadily1 as he was bound towards ,mull ,port1 and the more pleasant hospitality of its #gdhe inhabitants4 ,having descended from this marine ,pegasus1 the author proceeds in his statistics4 ,the number of inhabited houses in ,great ,britain in #ahja amounted to #a1hgj1dgf2 in #ahea1 to #c1fdh1cdg3 these contained #d1cab1chh families--persons1 #bj1haf1cea4 ,thus it is seen that the number of houses since #ahja is nearly doubled4 ,how commonly we boast1 ,eusebius1 of things that have passed away6 ,you hear it now often said that an ,englishman's house is his castle1 the garrison of which has been hitherto supposed to be known only to himself4 ,there has been an idea that not only the master1 but all down to the very scullion1 are ready to stand with spits and skillets to keep out unwelcome invaders2 whereas the truth is1 as shown in this ,census1 that the castle has its government inspector1 who notes down and registers the numbers1 ages1 names1 sexes1 and occupations of every individual the said castle contains4 ,houses are a very nice tangible property for the convenience of government taxation2 by judicious scrutiny1 of which the ,census ,commission provides ample means1 it will be easily ascertained what each family has to live upon2 or1 what is quite the same thing for the getting the taxation1 what on 8an average0 the ,commissioners may think the said family ought to have to live upon2 thus the income-tax is facilitated in computation and collection4 ,these are surely encroachments1 that1 by little and little1 are domineering over the subjects' liberty4 ,there are other ,acts of ,parliament also which affect this liberty in the 8castle20 some general1 some local4 ,in few places can a man make alterations in his building1 inside or out1 without an application for consent1 and of course a fee to some commissioner or other4 ,if he succeeds1 there is a further penalty upon his improvements1 though they may have been required for the very health of his family4 ,he has1 through this ,census scrutiny1 to pay a tax upon his improvements1 nor is he allowed any deduction for repairs4 ,this ,englishman's castle1 then1 you see1 is as much besieged as ,bomarsund6 ,at first it was pretty well thrown out of its own windows by the window-tax1 and is always at the mercy of commissions1 whether it shall or shall not be turned out of doors4 ,many a one is there that has a ten-pound battery playing upon it all the year round4 ,if1 weary of watching your besiegers1 you turn yourself out of house1 and live a rambling1 roving life how you can1 you will not so easily escape2 you will have an inspector after you with note-book and ink-horn1 and you will be booked and pigeon-holed for further use when wanted4 8,finally1 there is the population sleeping in barns1 in tents1 and in the open air1 comprising1 with some honest1 some unfortunate people out of employment1 or temporarily employed1 gypsies1 beggars1 strollers1 vagabonds1 vagrants1 outcasts1 criminals4 ,the enumeration of the houseless population1 unsettled in families1 is necessarily imperfect1 and the actual number must exceed the #ah1bdi returned2 namely1 #iigb in barns1 and #hbgg in the open air40 ,the poor strollers6 why should they be stigmatised and classed with vagabonds1 vagrants1 outcasts1 and criminals8 are they not following their lawful vocation1 and doing something1 as it is hoped they are1 towards civilising the people through legitimate amusement8 ,is the compiler of these statistics a descendant of the old ,puritans1 and still retaining an unwarrantable prejudice8 ,it were better he had the charity of the chimney-sweeper boy1 who remonstrated with a brother sweep1 who pointed his finger at ,garrick in the streets1 and said1 8,there be one of the player-folk40 8,don't say so10 said the discreet one1 8for thee dostn't know what thee and ,i may come to40 ,but ,i know1 as you rather patronise gypsies1 you will be pleased to hear that one tribe of them baffled the officials4 8,it is mentioned in one instance that a tribe of gypsies struck their tents1 and passed into another parish in order to escape enumeration40 ,the great king whom we read of in history1 who1 in the excess of his felicity1 thought it needful to have a flapper appointed to remind him every day that he was mortal1 though he was made the example of many a theme in our school days1 ,i look upon now as a very silly fellow4 ,i have often heard you express your dislike of any impertinent memento moris--you have even thought it irreligious1 and unthankful for present good2 and tending to chill the life-blood1 the little that is left in the old1 and to throw a wet blanket over the cheerfulness of the young1 out of which cheerfulness elastic manhood is to spring1 and to take upon itself to do the manly responsible duties of life vigorously4 ,i repeat that you have always maintained1 that to thrust a memento mori in every man's face1 or to carve it upon his walking-stick1 is irreligious1 because it is essential unthankfulness4 ,it is not pleasant1 certainly1 to have one's days numbered by other people1 and sent to you in circulars4 ,i knew one of these life-calculators2 a clergyman called to condole with him on the recent death of his wife4 ,all he could get from him was partly a submission to a necessity1 and partly a congratulation that death had not taken him4 8,yes1 sir10 said he1 8if ,a does not die1 in all probability ,b will2 and if neither ,a nor ,b die1 ,c must40 ,you will be indignant1 but your philosophy will have the pleasure of its indignation1 if ,i pointed out to your notice ,busybody's table of mortality4 ,when last he knocked at your door1 and booked your age1 did his eyebrows arch with surprise8 ,eusebius1 that look meant to tell you that you had no right whatever at that moment to be alive4 ,he longed to filch your name out of his pigeon-hole of life4 ,you are a hale man1 and will1 ,i hope1 doing so much good as you do1 outlive a couple of censuses yet4 ,have your eye upon ,busybody when he next appears2 not like ,death1 with one of his warnings1 but ready to receive a certificate of burial4 ,there is a table showing how very few who were alive in #ahja are now living1 and so on1 at every succeeding census4 8,by the ,english ,life ,table it is shown that the half of a generation of men of all ages passes away in thirty years1 and that more than three in every four of their number die in half a century40 ,but ,i pass by this unwelcome subject--nor will ,i be the one to say to you or to any man1 8,proximus ardet1 ,ucalegon40 ,let ,ucalegon's house escape if it can4 ,it is more agreeable to contemplate births than deaths4 ,there is something very curious in that hidden law which evidently regulates the proportion of the sexes to each other4 ,it has been commonly thought that the males have exceeded the females1 in order to make allowance for the greater waste of life to which the males are subject by wars and the elements4 ,but the facts show the contrary4 8,the number of the male population of ,great ,britain was #aj1chf1jdh1 of the female population #aj1gce1iai2 the females exceeded the males by #cdi1hga2 and the males at home were #aj1bbc1eeh2 consequently the females exceeded by #eab1cfa the males in ,great ,britain4 ,to every #ajj1jjj females the males were #if1gda1 including #aech males abroad1 the exclusion of whom leaves #ie1bjc males at home4 ,the excess of females over males was nearly the same proportionally in #ahja and #ahea4 ,thus1 in #ahja1 to every #ajj1jjj males there were #ajc1cec females2 in #ahea1 the females were #ajc1cfi to the same number of males4 ,the proportion in both periods was nearly #cj males to #ca females40 ,it may be inferred from this that there is rather a greater waste of female life than of male4 ,it would be worth while to ascertain how long this excess has been found to have taken place2 ,i am inclined to suspect that the unhealthy employments of young women1 to so large an extent1 may have been the cause2 for it seems to be the law of nature to make a supply for the greater waste4 ,humanity requires a strict scrutiny into the healthy or deleterious employments of young women1 especially in our manufacturing districts1 to account for this excessive supply1 that as far as is possible some remedial measures may be adopted4 ,that all is regulated by a law of ,providence1 there can be no doubt in any mind4 ,my present knowledge of the ,census is entirely confined to the ,report ,no4 #a of #ahea4 ,i shall look to the second ,part for an elucidation of this problem4 ,it is surprising1 however1 on the whole1 to see how evenly the sexes are balanced2 it would be a speculation not uninteresting to see what causes may have induced occasional variations4 ,thus speaks the ,report3 8,the sexes have apparently increased at different rates in certain decennaries1 but the average annual rates of increase through the whole period have been so nearly the same 7males #a4cbh1 females #a4cbi per cent7 as to cause a slight difference only in the third decimal place1 and have differed little from #a annually4 ,the decennial rates of increase were1 males #ad4ajh1 females #ad4aaa40 ,the 8law of population10 as it relates to proportion of sexes1 is a mystery4 ,no human polity can provide for that4 ,it is plain to see1 however1 that there is a wise1 benevolent1 superintending power which makes and maintains the law in a just equilibrium4 ,whether people shall marry or no may depend on human laws and civil institutions2 whether due encouragement be given1 or the reverse4 ,we learn from ,herodotus that among the ,sauromat1 a people in the northern parts of ,europe and ,asia1 the women dressed in the habits of men1 and1 like them1 engaged in battle2 that none were allowed to marry till she shall first have killed her man4 ,hence it happened1 we are further told1 that many died old maids1 never having been able to fulfil the conditions4 ,how any population could be kept up under the existence of such a law1 no one now can question the historian4 ,i suppose1 from the necessity of the case1 that a reform was demanded1 and more peaceful marriages were the first-fruits of a free trade4 ,it must have been an adventurous thing for a man to marry a woman who had once killed her man to obtain one husband2 he might have lived in continual fear that she might kill a second man to have another husband4 ,it appears that marriage1 though it is nominally free1 is under restriction2 were it otherwise1 the increase of population would be far greater4 8,in ordinary times a large proportion of the marriageable women of every country are unmarried40 ,the writer might have spared his ink2 but he adds3 8,and the most direct action on the population is produced by their entering the marriage state40 ,as one example may serve a general purpose1 the ,census gives that of the south-eastern division1 comprising ,surrey1 ,kent1 ,sussex1 ,hants1 and ,berks1 in which 8the number of women of the age of #bj1 and under #de1 amounted at the last ,census to #bij1bji1 of whom #afi1hjf were wives1 and #abj1djc were spinsters or widows4 #di1iig births were registered in the same counties during the year #ahej1 or #aj children were born in #ahej to every #eh women living in #ahea40 ,it is to be presumed that among matrimonial chances every lot is a prize4 ,the difficulty of a choice1 where multitudes assemble1 maintains a law of hesitation--of indecision--by which it happens that celibacy becomes wise1 and is fond of repeating the philosopher's advice as to the time to marry3 if young1 not yet2 if middle-aged1 wait2 if old1 never4 ,let us see how the reverse operates where the choice is very limited4 ,st ,kilda1 in the parish of ,harris1 is #gj miles away from the mainland in the ,western ,hebrides2 the population is #aaj--dh males1 #fb females2 #cb families in #cb houses4 8,there are #ai married couples on the island1 #b widowers1 #h widows4 ,five unmarried men1 #e unmarried women of the age of #bj1 and under #df40 ,one would imagine these had only to meet and to marry4 ,five is no great choice2 the greater haste1 you would suppose1 to take a partner4 ,is the solution to be found in this extraordinary fact1 that there is no clergyman to unite the couples resident on the island8 ,the five couples must wait2 and as the clergyman on the mainland may hesitate to go #adj miles to marry one couple1 he is probably waiting for all five to come to a decision4 ,it must have been some such unfortunate place as ,st ,kilda which supplied the wit to the epigrammatist upon the question of marriages ceasing elsewhere1 the priest asserting that women are not to be found there2 the reply being-- 8,women there are1 but ,i'm afraid ,they cannot find a priest40 8,on ,st ,kilda10 says the ,census1 8there is a manse and a church1 but no medical man--no clergyman resident on the island40 ,will the world be better1 ,eusebius1 for all these statistics2 will civilisation be one jot advanced1 by registering our tailors as well as their paletots8--by knowing how many tinkers there are in the world to mend our kettles8 ,they will1 be sure of it1 trudge about just the same1 and do their work as badly or as well as before4 ,all trades will be governed by their own instincts1 without the least difference2 unless1 indeed1 statistics take a more useful turn1 and fix their stigma upon the adulterators of goods4 ,we may have reason to say something in favour of the ,scrutinizer,general1 when he can tell us where the wines called port are manufactured that never came from ,portugal1 and who make them2 who adulterates our drugs1 so that people are dying for lack of the genuine2 who1 in fact1 poison all we eat and drink1 and put devils'-dust on our backs for woollen cloth4 ,it is very little to the purpose to have the number of thieves and rascals that infest the world1 if the ,augean stable of crime is left uncleansed4 ,if dishonesty should ever be driven out of common trades1 which it has so notoriously infected1 a great thing would be done2 and we might bear with a grateful quietude more numbering and registering of us and all our concerns than we quite like2 although it surely is not necessary for this to carry on such espionage as this ,census contains4 ,perhaps even its absurdity is dangerous1 for it induces people to fix their minds upon that1 not upon its ulterior purposes4 ,while men are laughing at things1 wilily ridiculous in themselves1 they know not what mischief is secretly brewing4 ,i maintain that it is a great offence in any way to touch the sanctity of the hearth--that what economists and statistic inventors may please to call public liberty1 should be allowed to destroy home liberty4 ,it is something monstrous that every one should be obliged to give an account of every inmate in his house1 their ages1 conditions1 and their relationship4 ,it is better to let some of the peccadilloes of life escape notice1 than register them and the house4 ,if ,miss or ,mrs ,debora ,wilkins shall receive under her hospitality a big nephew1 it is very hard upon her to be obliged to certify the exact relationship1 or induce her into the great error of writing down a falsehood4 ,men may be a little more careless in such matters1 but feminine nicety is touched to the quick4 ,i remember once an ,irishman walking into a drawing-room1 and introducing to the lady of the house a tall youth1 as1 8,give me leave to introduce my nephew20 then putting his hand aside of his mouth1 he added1 in a whisper which may be truly termed ,irish1 for it was quite as loud as the first introduction1 8he's my son40 ,could you1 having any bowels of compassion1 extort a like confession from such an unprotected female as ,miss ,debora8 ,a registration commission might1 if encouraged1 hereafter ransack her unfortunate boxes to find baby-linen4 ,is there to be nothing but one rigid rule--no charity shown to sex and age--but the unsparing discovery of both on that fatal #cjth of ,march8 ,must no female1 then1 escape to her lover's arms in male attire--no 8lubberly boy0 pass for a sweet ,anne ,page1 that sweet ,anne ,page fall not to the lot of a fool8 ,must foibles1 frailties1 and follies be all registered in damnatory schedules8 ,surely there might be a little decent connivance1 such as would spare the two village ladies1 who1 being born in the same anno ,domini1 annually visited each other to determine what should be their ages for the ensuing year4 ,their only comfort will be in bribery and corruption1 which they will be thankful is not yet put down1 and a fee will spare what uncharitable census would expose4 ,there may be something in attacking crimes and discovering frauds which touch the whole community4 ,these are not much harboured in homes1 but in public-houses1 and in shops1 which are not homes1 but as having a public character1 and giving public invitation to all to enter them1 ought to come under some kind of surveillance2 but when the citizen shuts his street-door1 let none force an entrance4 ,let no ,asmodeus take off his roof1 and publish the within little histories1 nor make gimlet-holes in walls and ceilings4 ,such doings are but1 as at present1 a slight exaggeration or caricature of a census4 ,let there be a police1 and a good one2 even with much secret scrutiny allowed them1--it is for the public safety2 but there let it end in its admitted authority4 ,make not a police of a census commission1 nor let the one interfere with or usurp the office of the other4 ,let a census be content to number the people--a police take crime under its cognisance4 ,the undying1 ever-seeing1 and acting arrangement of a police is one of the most curious phenomena of society4 ,for revolutions that appear to overturn everything1 scarcely touch a well-ordered police2 the excellence of which is1 that it lives and moves unseen1 unfelt1 by the good--that it is a protector4 ,i remember years ago reading an anecdote showing the perfection of the old ,parisian police4 ,a gentleman had sojourned in ,paris a week or two1 when one day he was requested to attend at the police-office4 ,he was surprised when told how he had occupied himself since he had been in ,paris--what houses he had frequented1 what friends visited1 what business he had transacted4 ,he was finally asked the home-question1 8,are you a man of courage--can you rely upon yourself80 ,he thought he might4 ,then he was told that there was a plot to murder him in his bed that night--that his own servant was in conspiracy with others for that purpose4 ,he was desired to go to bed as usual1 and1 if he did not sleep1 to appear to sleep1 and to fear nothing4 ,in the night he heard his room-door open1 a person or persons enter--he knew steps were softly approaching his bed--he fancied the arm uplifted to murder him4 ,his reliance and his courage failed him not4 ,under his bed1 and elsewhere in his room1 soldiers had been secreted4 ,to make the story short1 his servant and the accomplices were taken4 ,the census which a police quietly makes has an object of general safety4 ,it has its one pursuit4 ,it has its particular game1 and we may well give it its license4 ,by it we sleep safely in our beds4 ,it does its complicated but defined work silently2 whereas the other census is perpetually knocking at every man's door1 to ask impertinent questions4 ,it is a perpetual warning to 8beware the ,ides of ,march20 for then it will come and toss the clothes off your bed at earliest dawn1 lest you should rise and escape2 and you must give an account of all the beds1 and all who slept in them4 ,and what is all this disturbance for8 ,for no earthly good that any of the persecuted can yet see1 but all mistrust the end4 ,must every one of us have a ticket and number on his back8 ,it is the same thing1 if he and his concerns1 and all the relations of his life1 are down in ,busybody's book4 ,there he sits in his ,centralisation ,office1 with his millions of electric wires passing underground1 and coming up unseen in every man's house4 ,he means to have his hook in every man's nose1 nay1 every man's1 woman's1 and child's1 and to draw them in when he wills1 as a big spider does his flies1 and perhaps to leave them sucked as dry1 suspended in his million-threaded web4 ,and has he not as many eyes as that ugly creature1 and as many ways of spreading out his ubiquitous legs--backward1 forward1 or circular8 ,oh1 this ,busybody6--he means to have a line in every one's mouth1 and to draw all after him as ,gulliver did the diminutive fleet4 ,but ,i say1 ,eusebius1 that1 ,liliputians as we are in his eyes1 it is hard if we cannot combine1 get our multitudinous toils round his legs1 and with a long pull1 and a strong pull1 and a pull altogether1 throw him on his back1 tie him down hands and feet1 search his pockets for his hooks1 and then shoot our sharpest arrows into the body of this ,quintus ,flestrin4 ,we will not be any more gulled by this huge ,gulliver4 ,he is the ,great ,humbug and ,deceiver1 cajoling silly ones into a belief in the marvel of his arithmetic2 that all the commonest things of life must be done by his mystical numbers1 or will be done ill2 that they must count and think of how many joints1 bones1 muscles1 and sinews they have in their toes1 before venturing their feet a single step4 ,what is become of civilisation all this while1 ,eusebius8 ,this ,census1 which was to tell so much1 has not thrown light upon the question4 ,yet1 perhaps1 after all1 it is a more simple one than you or ,i thought it to be4 ,i go back to the placidity of the ,chinese lady in the picture4 ,i am now gazing on her expressive trustfulness--upon a complexion that1 if there be many such1 justifies the title of 8,celestial ,empire40 ,she1 the feminine representative of a nation1 the prized pearl of the ,romance of the ,porcelain ,empire1 the very 8,gentilezza10 the embodied purity of a people's best thoughts1 the endowed growth of a perfection above nature1 for so much worship as humanity may1 for its improvement in civilisation1 be allowed to set up in the garden of imaginary virtues1 the very ,goshen where grow plants and flowers1 and sweet waters glide unknown to working nature1 and all courting the enchanting and enchanted beauty4 8,l'acqua la terra in suo favor s'inchina40 ,not to be tedious with you in this fancied passion1 ,eusebius1 ,i come to the point ,i aim at4 ,she is the emblem of civilisation1 and that is feminine influence4 ,its ideal has beautified that porcelain world1 as it will ever beautify every other where it is felt and maintained4 ,yes1 ,eusebius1 civilisation1 like common sense1 aptly called mother-wit1 comes from the mother4 ,he who1 as child and boy1 loved and reverenced for all her purity1 truth1 and goodness1 a mother1 when he becomes man will ever do his part in civilising the world4 ,from the first romance of mother's love groweth every other romance2 for romance is a noble and delicate sentiment4 ,to propagate this is to propagate civilisation4 ,but if any lack this reverence1 from whatever cause1 and would palm upon society1 as better than its romance1 an idle knowledge1 a low spirit of calculation1 an accumulation of mere facts and figures1 trust him not with the secrets of your breast2 all his doings tend to selfishness and rebarbarism4 ,a mother to him is but as poor old ,mrs ,bounderby ignored4 ,for my own part1 ,eusebius1 when ,i see such glib statistical calculators boasting of their practical knowledge1 ,i bethink me of the learned dog in the show1 who with perseverance has acquired the trick of putting his paw upon letters and numbers1 and of arithmetising required ages4 ,take heed to your pocket on such occasions2 for though you have paid your admission-ticket1 there remains the last acquirement1 the last main trick to be exhibited1 the going round the company with the hat in his mouth4 ,a ,,russian ,,reminiscence4 ,upon one of the coldest days of ,february #ahec1 ,i left ,paris by the ,orleans ,railway4 ,the weather was extremely severe1 the frozen snow lay thick in the streets1 the asphalt of the boulevards was slippery as glass1 sledges scoured the ,champs ,elyses and ,bois de ,boulogne4 ,an icy wind whistled round the train as we quitted the shelter of the station1 and ,i regretted1 as ,i buttoned myself to the chin1 and shrank into my corner1 that the carriage was not full1 instead of having but one occupant besides myself4 ,opposite to me sat a hale man of about sixty-five1 with a quick bright eye1 an intelligent1 good-humoured countenance--somewhat weather-beaten--and the red rosette of the ,legion of ,honour in his button-hole4 ,during the first half-hour he pored over a letter1 whose contents1 judging from the animated expression of his physiognomy1 interested him strongly4 ,he seemed scarcely aware of my presence4 ,at last he put up the letter1 and then for the first time looked me in the face4 ,i had been but a few days out of a sick-bed1 and was sensitive to the cold1 and doubtless my appearance was chilly and woebegone enough1 for ,i detected a slight approach to a smile at the corners of the stranger's mouth4 ,to one or two commonplace remarks he replied courteously but laconically1 like a man who is neither unsociable nor averse to conversation1 but who prefers his own thoughts to that bald talk with which travellers sometimes weary each other rather than sit silent4 ,so our dialogue soon dropped4 ,the cold increased1 my feet were benumbed1 and ,i stamped them on the floor of the carriage to revive the circulation4 ,my companion observed my proceedings with a comical look1 as if he thought me a very tender traveller4 8,this carriage must be badly closed10 ,i remarked4 8,it is bitter cold to the feet40 8,for that discomfort ,i have little pity10 replied the ,frenchman4 8,a ride on the railway is soon over1 and a good fire or a brisk walk is a quick and easy remedy4 ,mine is a different case4 ,for forty years ,i have never known warm feet40 8,for forty years80 ,i repeated1 thinking ,i had misunderstood him4 8,yes1 sir1 forty years2 since the winter of #ahab--the winter of the ,russian campaign40 8,you were in that terrible campaign80 ,i inquired1 in a tone of interest and curiosity4 ,my companion1 previously taciturn1 suddenly became communicative4 8,all through it1 sir10 he replied2 8from the ,niemen to the ,kremlin1 and back again4 ,it was my first campaign1 and was near being my last4 ,i was in others afterwards2 in ,germany in #ahac1 when the combined ,germans and ,russians drove us before them1 for want of the brave fellows we had left in ,muscovy's snows2 in ,france in #ahad1 when the ,emperor made his gallant struggle against overwhelming forces2 and at the closing scene in ,flanders3 but not all those three campaigns put together1 nor1 as ,i believe1 all that this century has witnessed1 can match the horrors of that dreadful winter in ,russia40 ,he paused1 and1 leaning back in his corner1 seemed to revolve in his mind events of powerful interest long gone by4 ,i waited a while1 in hopes he would resume the subject4 ,as he did not do so1 ,i asked him to what arm he belonged when in ,russia4 8,i was assistant-surgeon in a regiment of hussars10 he answered1 8and in my medical capacity ,i had abundant opportunity to make acquaintance with the horrors of war4 ,on the #gth of ,september1 for instance1 at the ,moskwa--,heavens6 what a shambles that was6 ,ah1 it was fine to see such valour on both sides--for the ,russians fought well--gallantly1 sir1 or where would have been the glory of beating them8 ,but ,ney6 ,ney6 ,oh6 he was splendid that day6 ,his whole countenance gleamed1 as he again and again led the bloody charge1 exposing himself as freely as any corporal in the ranks4 ,and ,eugene1 the ,viceroy1 with what vigour he hurled his masses against that terrible redoubt6 ,when at last it was his1 what a sight was there6 ,the ground was not strewn with dead2 it was heaped1 piled with them4 ,they had been shot down by whole ranks1 and there they lay1 prostrate1 in line as they had stood40 ,the surgeon paused4 ,i thought of ,byron's beautiful lines1 beginning1 8,even as they fell1 in files they lay20 but ,i said nothing1 for ,i saw that my companion was now fairly started1 and needed no spurring4 8,monsieur10 he presently resumed1 8all those things have been brought strongly to my mind by the letter you saw me just now reading4 ,it is from an old friend1 a captain in #ahab1 a general now1 who went through the campaign1 and whom ,i was so fortunate as to save from a grave in those infernal plains where most of our poor comrades perished4 ,i will tell you how it happened4 ,we were talking of the battle of ,borodino4 ,seventy thousand men1 it is said1 were killed and wounded in that murderous fight4 ,we surgeons1 as you may well think1 had our hands full1 and still could not suffice for a tithe of the sufferers4 ,it was a rough breaking-in for a young hand1 as ,i then was4 ,such frightful wounds as were there1 of every kind and description--from shot1 shell1 and bullet1 pike and sabre4 ,well1 sir1 all the misery and suffering ,i then saw1 all that vast amount of human agony and bloodshed1 whose steam1 ascending to ,heaven1 might well have brought down ,god's malediction on ,his creatures1 who could thus destroy and deface each other1 was nothing compared with the horrible misery we witnessed on our retreat4 ,i have read everything that has appeared in ,france concerning that campaign--,sgur1 ,labaume1 and other writers4 ,their narratives are shocking enough1 but nothing to the reality4 ,they would have sickened their readers had they told all they saw4 ,if anybody1 who went through the campaign1 could remember and set down all he witnessed1 he would make the most heart-rending book that ever yet was printed1 and would be accused of gross exaggeration4 ,exaggeration1 indeed6 there was no need to heighten the horrors of the winter of #ahab4 ,all that frost and famine1 lead and steel1 could inflict1 was then endured2 all the crimes that reckless despair and ruthless cruelty could prompt were then perpetrated40 8,and how10 ,i asked1 8did you escape1 when so many1 doubtless as strong and courageous1 and more inured to hardship1 miserably perished80 8,under ,providence1 ,i owed my preservation to the trustiest and most faithful servant ever master had4 ,paul had been several years in the hussars--was an old soldier1 in fact1 although still a young man2 and at a time when all discipline and subordination were at an end1 when soldiers heeded not their officers1 officers avoided their generals1 and servants and masters were all alike and upon a level1 ,paul proved true as steel4 ,as if cold and the ,cossacks were not enough1 hunger was added to our sufferings3 there was no longer a commissariat or distribution of rations2--rations1 forsooth6--dead horse was a luxury ,i have seen men fight for till death1 lean meat though it was1 for the poor brutes were as starved as their riders4 ,what little there was to eat in the villages we passed through fell to the share of the first comers4 ,empty larders--often smoking ruins--were all that remained for those who came behind4 ,well1 sir1 when things were at the worst1 and provender at the scarcest1 ,paul always had something for me in his haversack4 ,one day it would be a bit of bread1 on the morrow a handful of grain or some edible roots1 now and then a slice of horse-beef--and how delicious that seemed1 grilled over our smoky scanty fires6 ,there was never enough to satisfy my hunger1 but there was always a something--enough to keep body and soul together4 ,paul1 as ,i afterwards discovered1 husbanded his stores1 for he well knew that if he gave me all at once ,i should leave nothing1 and then ,i must have fasted for days1 and perhaps have fallen from my horse for weakness4 ,but think of the courage and affection of the poor fellow1 himself half-starved1 to carry food about him day after day1 and refrain from devouring the share secretly set aside for me6 ,there were not many men in the army1 even of general's rank1 capable of such devotion to the dearest friend they had1 for extreme misery had induced a ferocious selfishness1 which made us more like hyenas than ,christians40 8,i should think the cold must have been even worse to endure than hunger10 said ,i1 screwing up my chilly extremities1 which the interest of the doctor's conversation had almost made me forget4 8,it was1 sir1 harder and more fatal--at least a greater number died of it2 although1 to say the truth1 frost and famine there worked hand in hand1 and with such unity of action1 that it was often hard to say which was the cause of death4 ,but it was a shocking sight1 of a morning1 to see the poor fellows lying dead round the bivouac fires4 ,unable to resist fatigue and the drowsy influence of the cold1 they yielded to slumber1 and passed from sleep into death4 ,for1 there1 sleep was death40 8,but how then10 ,i asked1 8did any ever escape from ,russia1 for all must have slept at times80 8,i do not believe that any who escaped did sleep1 at least not of a night1 at the bivouac4 ,we used to rouse each other continually1 to prevent our giving way1 and then get up and walk as briskly as we could1 to quicken the sluggish circulation4 ,we slept upon the march1 in our saddles1 and1 strange as it may seem to you1 even those on foot slept when marching4 ,they marched in groups or clusters1 and those in the centre slept1 propped and supported by their companions1 and moving their legs mechanically4 ,i do not say that it was a sound1 deep sleep1 but rather a sort of feverish dozing4 ,such as it was1 however1 it was better than nothing1 and assuredly saved some who would otherwise have sunk4 ,others1 who would have given way to weariness upon the long monotonous march1 were kept from utter despair and self-abandonment only by the repeated harassing attacks of the ,cossacks4 ,the excitement of the skirmish warmed their blood1 and gave them1 as it seemed1 fresh hold upon life4 ,in one of those skirmishes1 or rather in a sharp combat1 a dear friend of mine1 a captain in the same regiment1 had his left arm carried off by a cannon-shot4 ,after the affair was over1 ,i came suddenly upon him1 where he lay moaning by the roadside1 his face ashy pale1 his arm still hanging by the sinews4 ,his horse had either galloped away1 or been taken by the fugitives4 8#8,ah1 mon ami6' he cried1 when he saw me1 #8all is over--,i can go no further4 ,i shall never see ,france again6' 8,i saw that1 like the majority of those who received severe wounds in that retreat1 his moral courage was subdued1 and had given way to despair4 ,i was terribly shocked1 for ,i felt how slight was his chance of escape4 ,i need hardly tell you there was very little dressing of wounds during that latter part of the retreat2 most of the surgeons were dead1 the hospital-waggons with medicine and instruments had been left on the road2 transport for the sick was out of the question4 ,i assumed as cheerful a countenance as ,i could4 8#8,why1 ,prville1' ,i cried1 #8this will not do2 we must get you along somehow4 ,come6 courage1 my friend6 ,you shall see ,france again1 in spite of all4' 8#8,ah6 doctor1' replied he1 in piteous tones1 #8it is no use4 ,here ,i shall die4 ,all you can do for me is to blow my brains out1 and save me from the ,cossack lances4' 8,by this time ,i had dismounted and was at his side4 ,the intense cold had stopped the bleeding of his wound4 ,i saw that there was no lack of vitality in him1 and that1 but for this mishap1 few would have got out of the campaign in better plight4 ,even now1 his despondency was perhaps his greatest danger4 ,i reminded him of his wife and child 7he had been married little more than a year1 and news of the birth of a daughter had reached him on our forward march71 of his happy home1 his old mother--of all the ties1 in short1 that bound him to life4 ,whilst speaking1 ,i severed the sinews that still retained his shattered arm1 and bound it up as best ,i might4 ,he still despaired and moaned1 but suffered me to do as ,i would4 ,he was like an infant in my hands--that man who1 in the hour of battle1 was a very lion for courage4 ,but long suffering and the sudden shock--occurring1 too1 when we seemed on the verge of safety--had overcome his fortitude4 ,with ,paul's help ,i got him upon my horse4 ,the poor brute was in no case to carry double1 so ,i walked and led it1 although at that time ,i could hardly hobble4 8#8,it is all useless1 my dear doctor1' ,prville said2 #8this is my last day2 ,i feel that4 ,far better shoot me1 or leave me by the roadside1 than risk your life for my sake4' 8,i took no heed1 but tried to cheer him4 ,those unclean beasts1 the ,cossacks1 were hovering around us as usual1 and at times the bullets fell pretty thick4 ,not a quarter of an hour had elapsed since ,i set ,prville on my horse1 when a shot struck his right eye--not entering the head1 but glancing across the globe1 and completely destroying the sight4 ,well1 sir1 then there occurred a physiological phenomenon which ,i have never been able satisfactorily to account for4 ,this man1 whom the loss of an arm had reduced to despair1 seemed to derive fresh courage from the loss of an eye4 ,at any rate1 from that moment he complained no more of his fate1 resumed his usual manly tone1 and bore up like a hero4 ,paul was lucky enough to catch a riderless horse1 which ,i mounted4 ,the worst was over1 and we soon got a respite4 ,without troubling you with details1 and incredible though it may seem to you1 my poor friend escaped with life1 although with a limb and an eye the less40 8,there must have been many extraordinary escapes from that campaign10 ,i remarked4 8,innumerable4 ,there was a sergeant of dragoons1 a former comrade of my servant's1 who1 for many days1 marched beside me and ,paul4 ,he received a severe wound4 ,there were some vehicles still with us at that time1 and we got him a place in one of them1 and made him as comfortable as we could4 ,the following night we stopped at a town4 ,in the morning1 as we were about to march1 the ,cossacks came down4 ,there was great confusion2 several baggage-carts were captured in the street1 and some of the wounded were abandoned in the houses where they had passed the night4 ,amongst these was ,sergeant ,fritz4 ,not many houses in the town were still in good condition--most of them had been burned and knocked to pieces by the soldiers4 ,the house in which ,fritz lay had still its doors and windows1 and was one of the most comfortable in the place1 on which account it had been converted into a temporary hospital4 ,well1 the ,russians came in1 brought their wounded1 and turned out our poor fellows to make room for them4 ,some1 who could not move quickly enough1 were brutally pitched through a low window into a garden behind the house1 there to perish miserably4 ,fritz was one of these4 ,only just able to crawl1 he made his way round the garden1 seeking egress4 ,he reached a gate communicating with another garden4 ,it was locked1 and pain and weakness forbade his climbing over4 ,he sat close to the gate1 propped against it1 and looking wistfully through the bars at the windows of a house1 and at the cheerful glow of a fire1 when he was perceived by a young girl4 ,she came out and opened the gate1 and helped him into the house4 ,her father was a ,german clockmaker1 long settled in ,russia1 and ,fritz1 a ,swiss1 spoke ,german well4 ,the kind people put him to bed1 hid his uniform1 and tended him like a son4 ,when1 in the following spring1 his health was restored1 and he would have left them1 the ,german proposed to him to remain and assist him in his trade4 ,he accepted the offer1 married the ,german's daughter1 and remained in ,russia until his father-in-law's death1 when he was taken with a longing to revisit his native mountains1 and returned to ,switzerland with his wife and family4 ,i met him since at ,paris1 and he told me his story4 ,but although his escape was narrow1 and romantic enough1 there must have been others much more remarkable4 ,most of the prisoners made by the ,russians1 and who survived severe cold and harsh treatment1 were sent to ,moscow1 to labour at rebuilding the city4 ,when the fine season came1 some of them managed to escape1 and to make their way1 in various disguises1 and through countless adventures1 back to their own country40 ,i have set down but the most striking portions of our conversation--or rather1 of the doctor's narrative1 since ,i did little but listen2 and occasionally1 by a question or remark1 direct his communicativeness into the channel ,i wished it to take4 ,we were now near ,orleans4 8,the letter ,i was reading when we started10 said my companion1 8and which has brought back to my memory all that ,i have told you--at risk1 perhaps1 of wearying you10 he added with a slight bow and smile1 8and a host of other circumstances1 to me of thrilling and everlasting interest1 is from ,general ,prville1 who lives in the south of ,france1 but has come unexpectedly to ,orleans to pass a month with me4 ,that is his way4 ,he lives happily with a married daughter2 but now and then the desire to see an old comrade1 and to fight old battles over again1 comes so strongly upon him1 that he has his valise packed at an hour's notice1 and takes me by surprise4 ,he knows well that #8,the ,general's ,room' and an affectionate reception always await him4 ,i received his letter--full of references to old times--yesterday evening1 and am now hurrying back to ,orleans to see him4 ,he may very likely be waiting for me at the station2 and you will see that1 for a man who gave himself up for dead forty years ago in the snows of ,russia1 and begged1 as a favour1 a bullet through his brain1 he looks tolerably hearty and satisfied to live40 8,there is one thing1 ,monsieur le ,docteur10 ,i said1 8which you have not yet explained to me1 and which ,i do not understand4 ,did you mean literally what you said1 that since the ,russian campaign you have never had your feet warm80 8,literally and truly1 sir4 ,when we got to ,orcha1 where ,jomini was in command1 and where the heroic ,ney1 who had been separated from the army1 rejoined us with the skeleton of his corps--having cut his way1 by sheer valour and soldiership1 through clouds of ,platoff's ,cossacks--we took a day's rest4 ,it was the #bjth of ,november1 the last day of anything approaching to comfort which we were to enjoy before crossing the ,russian frontier4 ,true1 we made one more halt1 at ,molodetschino1 whence ,napoleon dated his bulletin of our terrible disasters1 but then only a portion of us could find lodging2 we were sick1 half-frozen1 and numbers died in the streets4 ,at ,orcha we found shelter and tranquillity2 the governor had provided provisions against our passage1 the enemy left us quiet1 and we enjoyed a day of complete repose4 ,my baggage had long since been lost1 and my only pair of boots were torn to shreds4 ,i had been riding with fragments of a soldier's jacket tied round my feet1 which ,i usually kept out of the stirrups1 the contact of the iron increasing the cold4 ,at ,orcha1 the invaluable ,paul brought me a ,jew 7the ,jews were our chief purveyors on that retreat7 with boots for sale4 ,i selected a pair and threw away my old ones1 which for many days ,i had not taken off4 ,my feet were already in a bad state1 sore and livid4 ,i bathed them1 put on fresh stockings and my new boots1 and contrived with a pair of old trousers1 a sort of leggings or overalls1 closed at the bottom1 and to be worn over the boots4 ,from that day till we got beyond the ,niemen1 a distance of one hundred and ten leagues1 which we took three weeks to perform1 ,i never took off any part of my dress4 ,during that time ,i suffered greatly from my feet2 they swelled till my boots were too tight for me1 and at times ,i was in agony4 ,when we at last were comparatively in safety1 and ,i found myself1 for the first time since ,i left ,orcha1 in a warm room1 with a bed to lie upon and water to wash1 ,i called ,paul to pull off my boots4 ,sir1 with them came off my stockings1 and the entire skin of both feet4 ,a flayer's knife could hardly have done the thing more completely4 ,for a moment ,i gave myself up as lost4 ,i had seen enough of this kind of thing to know that my feet were on the verge of mortification4 ,there was scarcely time to amputate1 had any been at hand to do it1 and had ,i been willing to preserve life at such a price4 ,only one thing could save me1 and ,i resolved to try it4 ,i ordered ,paul to bring a bottle of brandy2 ,i put a piece of silver between my teeth1 and bade him pour the spirits over my feet4 ,i can give you no idea of the excruciating torture ,i then endured4 ,whilst it lasted1 assuredly no martyr's sufferings ever exceeded mine4 ,it was agony--but it was safety4 ,i bit the florin nearly in two1 and broke this tooth40 7,here the doctor drew up his lip and exhibited a defective tooth1 in company with some very white and powerful grinders47 8,the martyrdom saved me2 ,i recovered1 but the new integuments1 which in time covered my scarred feet1 seem chilled by the recollection of their predecessors' sufferings1 and from that day to this ,i have never had my feet otherwise than cold4 ,but here we are at ,orleans1 sir1 and yonder as ,i expected stands my old ,prville40 ,the train stopped as he concluded1 and a fine-looking veteran1 with white hair1 an empty sleeve1 and a silken patch over one eye1 peered inquisitively into the carriages4 ,like most ,englishmen1 ,i have a particular aversion to the ,continental fashion of men kissing and hugging each other1 but ,i confess ,i beheld with interest and sympathy the cordial embrace of these two old comrades1 who then quickly separated1 and1 with hands grasped1 looked joyously and affectionately into each other's faces1 whilst a thousand recollections of old kindness and long comradeship were evidently swelling at their hearts4 ,in his joy1 my travelling companion did not forget the attentive listener1 whose journey he had so agreeably shortened4 ,turning to me1 he presented me to the general1 as an ,englishman and a new acquaintance1 and then cordially invited me to pass the rest of the day at his house4 ,but the business that took me to ,orleans was urgent1 and my return to ,paris must be speedy4 ,and had it been otherwise1 ,i think ,i still should have scrupled to restrain1 by a stranger's presence1 the first flow of intimate communion to which the two friends evidently looked forward with such warm and pleasurable feelings4 ,so ,i gratefully declined1 but pledged myself to take advantage of the doctor's hospitality upon my next visit to ,orleans4 ,when that occurs1 ,i shall hope to glean another ,russian ,reminiscence4 ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,past4--,,nineveh ,,and ,,babylon4 ,history must ever possess an undying fascination for the minds of men1 for its subject is the story of their race1 and its interest is ever human to the core4 ,its burden is now a song of rejoicing at the triumphs1 or a wail of lamentation over the errors and sufferings1 of mankind4 ,how history1 in gifted hands1 exults as it reaches those blooming points in a nation's career--those eras of ,pericles1 of ,augustus1 of ,haroun-,alraschid1 or of our own ,elizabeth1--or1 piercing back through the veil of time1 discerns with joy the brilliant era of a ,vicramaditya in the old world of the ,hindoos1--the grandeur of a ,rameses1 or still remoter monarchs in ,egypt--or a rule of then unequalled justice and beneficence extending back for countless ages in the early history of secluded ,china4 ,and how it saddens to see these old empires pass away1--to behold ,rome1 and ,greece1 and ,nineveh1 and ,egypt1 ,susa and ,persepolis1 and the grand old cities of ,india1 withered1 rolled up like a scroll1 and vanishing from the face of the earth4 ,yet with what quiet hopefulness1 with what assured resignation1 does it contemplate all those changes4 8,passing away10 it knows1 is written from the first upon the brow of empires as well as of men2 and even when the mighty fabrics of human power are seen crumbling into dust beneath internal decay or external assault1--when the stores of knowledge1 the monuments of art--in fact1 a whole civilisation--seems rushing into oblivion before an onslaught of barbarism1 the philosophic historian1 with an assuredness of faith stronger than other men's1 knows that the human race is but on the eve of some new and higher development--that all is ordered by ,one without whom not a sparrow falls to the ground1 and that from out of the present chaos will emerge new kingdoms and communities of men1 purged from the dross of the old1 yet inheriting the larger portion of their wisdom4 8,all changes1 naught is lost4 ,the forms are changed1 ,and that which has been1 is not what it was1-- ,yet that which has been1 is40 ,history has a grand work yet before it1--one which mankind is just beginning to long for1 and which will yet one day be accomplished4 ,history must grow wider in its scope and nobler in its aims as the career of our race advances4 ,it must rise above the colourings of national bias1 and the prejudices of particular eras4 ,it must cease--and some day it will cease--to reflect but one phase at a time of that many-sided thing ,truth1 and will seize and set forth for the instruction of mankind the priceless gem under whatever form it appear1 however attired in the strange costume of distant times or foreign countries4 ,it must tell to man a continuous story of his existence4 ,it must recognise the truth that in all those various nations that have flourished and passed away1 there has been enshrined the self-same human soul1 which the great ,creator made in ,his own image1 and which1 however manifold in its aberrations1 will still be found1 on the whole1 to reflect more of truth than of error4 ,nothing is more elevating than the study of the human race through its successive phases of existence4 ,therein is to be discovered the scheme of ,god's ,providence among the nations1 slowly raising the race from one stage of progress to another and higher4 ,the world advances slowly1--but still 8it moves60 ,severed into distinct nations1 and divinely placed or led into climes congenial to the peculiar development of each1--secluded behind mountain chains1 deserts1 or seas1 each section of mankind has been left to develop a civilisation of its own--forms of government1 religion1 art1 science1 philosophy1 more or less peculiar to itself4 ,through long ages this birth of nations has been going on1 each learning for itself the lessons of life4 ,and each of those nations1 whether ancient or modern1 has attached itself in a peculiar manner to some one of the many forms of truth1 carrying it to greater perfection than the other sections of the race4 ,every one knows that such was the case among the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 the ,egyptians1 the ,hebrews1--but do not let it be supposed that the wisdom of the ancient world ends here4 ,do not suppose that nothing is to be learned from the old history and writings of ,china--that land where social ethics and utilitarian science were first carried to comparative perfection2 or from the ancient ,hindoos1 who first pre-eminently devoted themselves to the study of the spiritual nature of man1 and in whose lofty speculations may be found the germ of almost every system of philosophy1 whether true or false1 to which the ,european world has given birth4 ,hegel and ,spinosa are but ,hindoos reviving in the eighteenth century4 ,auguste ,comte1 with his boasted new science of ,positivism1 is but a systematiser of the doctrines of ,confucius and the old philosophers of ,china1--and what are magnetism1 clairvoyance1 and suchlike researches at present making into the spiritual powers of man1 but unconscious repetitions of what has been known or imagined in ,india for three thousand years8 ,had the human race formed from the first but one nation--swayed by but one great impulse1 and enlightened but by its own single experience1 how comparatively stationary would have been the condition of the species6 ,but severed into separate communities1 each seeking truth for itself1 and1 as intercommunication became wider1 comparing its experiences with those of its neighbours1 the march of mankind has been greatly accelerated4 ,there have been a hundred searchers after truth instead of one4 ,it is only now1 however1 in these latter days1 that mankind are beginning to perceive and reap the benefit of the beneficent scheme of ,providence which has so long kept them secluded in location and antagonistic in feeling4 ,it is in those days of running to and fro upon the earth--when commerce1 and railways1 and steam-navigation are uniting the most distant regions--that the varied stores of knowledge which have been accumulating in private hoards through long centuries are now being thrown into general circulation4 ,the more advanced nations are teaching the less enlightened4 ,but the gain is not all on one side2 and the former will be unworthy of their high position1 if they fail to perceive in how very many things they may receive instruction from those whom they regard as their inferiors4 ,the whole tendency of the rapidly-increasing communication between the various nations and countries of the earth is to shake men loose from local prejudices1 and1 by expanding the mind1 to fit it for the reception of that pure and entire truth1 towards the attainment of which the human mind is journeying1 and to which the matchless plans of ,divine ,providence are slowly but surely conducting the human race4 ,to the eye of the philosopher1 the world is a prism through which ,truth is shining--and the nations are the various colours and hues of the spectrum into which that light is broken4 ,hitherto mankind1 split into sections1 has only exhibited those scattered and disunited1 but brilliant1 rays1--truth refracted and coloured by the national mind through which it passed2 but now1 in the fulness of time1 the process is being reversed4 ,the long training of isolated nations is drawing to a close2 the barriers of space or feeling which shut them in are being thrown down2 an interchange of intellectual as well as material benefits is commencing2 and the dissevered rays of partial knowledge are beginning to be reunited into the pure and perfect light of truth4 ,let1 then1 some ,newton or ,humboldt of history--some one who grudges not a lifetime of genius to the task1 and to whom ,providence may give length of days1--let such an one take up the theme of those old nations4 ,by the might of his graphic pen let him evoke them and their crumbled empires from the dust1 and place them in their pristine glory before the eye of the reader4 ,let him paint the people1 the land in which they dwelt1 the temples in which they worshipped2--let him glance with graphic touch over the leading points of their history1 the master-spirits who influenced1 and the poets who adorned it2--let him depict the arts of life and the arts of beauty which characterised them2 and1 hardest task of all1 let him dive into the depths of their religion and philosophy--not the fantastic crust of superstition1 but the more spiritual dogmas which lie below2 and1 wasting but little time upon what was false1 set himself to eliminate the true1 and place it once more before the world4 ,in this way let him paint the ,chinese1 stout1 square-set1 and supple1--ever labouring contentedly in their rice-fields1 and delighting in social intercourse2 but also1 with a free and martial spirit1 of which the world is now incredulous1 repelling with slaughter the nomade hordes of ,central ,asia which subsequently overthrew the mighty empires of the ,west4 ,let him depict the country covered with district-schools1 and the people trained in social morals by a ,government system of education1 centuries before the birth of ,christ4 ,let him set forth the practical good sense and kindliness of spirit which characterised the inhabitants of that vast empire1 as well as their eminence in the social and industrial arts of life2 yet glance with brief but warning words at the materialistic tendencies1 alike in creed and practice1 by which these good qualities were in some degree counterbalanced4 ,or turn to the ,hindoo1 with his slim and graceful figure1 symbolising the fine and susceptible spirit within4 ,see him among the flowery woods1 luxuriant vegetation1 and countless sparkling waters of the ,indian land1--so spiritual and alive to the impressions of the external world1 that he feels bound in lively sympathy with every living thing around him1 whether it be beast or bird1 tree or flower1--and in the faith of the most imaginative pantheism that the world ever saw1 regarding himself and all created forms as incarnations of the ,deity1 animated directly by the spirit of the great ,creator2 and1 a firm believer in the transmigration of souls1 regarding every object around him with plaintive tenderness1 as possibly the dwelling of the soul of some lost friend or relative4 ,see him under his master-sentiment of love4 ,that passion1 almost universally in the ancient world1 was a mere thirst of the senses2 and the few instances in which it figures in the literature of ,greece and ,rome1 it is made to strike its victims like a frenzy4 ,but among the ,hindoos we perceive it often sweetened and refined by sentiment1--a spiritual as well as a sensuous yearning1--purer1 as ardent1 more pervading than the love-passion of contemporaneous nations4 ,and the same spirituality of nature which made the ,hindoo thus1 fitted him also for the subtlest and loftiest flights of speculation1--savouring little of the utilitarian1 indeed1 but tending to gratify the soul in many of its highest and purest aspirations4 ,caste1 unknown in ,china1 was in ,india all-prevalent2 and there1 also1 we meet in its sternest form that spirit of devoted asceticism by which the mystics of the ,east1 and subordinately even in the ,christian ,church1 have striven to exalt themselves above the level of humanity by extinguishing all earthly passion1 and so drawing into nearer communion with the ,deity4 ,or pass to ,egypt1 and behold the now desolate valley-land of the ,nile reinvested with its old splendour and fertility4 ,let a thousand irrigating canals spread again over the surface1 re-clothing the land with verdure2 while up from the sands spring miles of temples1 pyramids1 and endless avenues of sphinxes1 obelisks1 and gigantic statues4 ,and ,thebes with its 8hundred gates10 its libraries1 and stately palaces1--and ,memphis with its immense population1 whose bones are still seen whitening the desert sands whereon the city once bloomed amidst verdure1--reappear with crowds of artisans and professional men1 carrying the division of labour almost as far as it is done in modern times2 while all around a rural population is tending herds or tilling the thrice-fertile soil2 and1 wearily and worn1 innumerable bands of captives--,nubians from the south1 ,negroes from the desert1 ,arabs from across the ,red ,sea1 and ,syrians and ,assyrians from ,euphrates to the foot of ,mount ,taurus--are toiling in digging canals1 in making bricks1 or in quarrying1 transporting1 or raising to their place1 those huge blocks of granite which fill with astonishment the engineers even of our own times4 ,turn from all this pomp and bustle and busy hum of life1 along that silent mile-long avenue of double sphinxes2 and1 passing beneath the stupendous ornamented portals of ,karnac or ,luxor1 or some other temple of the land1 enter the vast halls and countless apartments devoted to sacerdotal seclusion1--where the white-robed priests of the ,nile1 bathing three times a day to maintain mental purity and calm1 engaged in the abstract sciences1 or searched deep into the secrets of nature for that magical power by which they fascinated and subjugated the minds of the people1 and which enabled them to contend on almost equal terms with the divinely-commissioned champion of the ,hebrews4 ,or turn the eye northward1 and see the ,persian preparing to descend from his mountains and conquer the world4 ,verdant valleys amidst sterile hills and sandy plains are his home1 blazed over by a sun to whose bright orb he kneels in adoration as an emblem of the ,deity4 ,hardy1 handsome1 chivalrous1 luxurious1 despotic1 and ambitious1--yet animated by a spirit of justice1 and by a religious belief so pure as at once to sympathise with that of the ,hebrews1 and to win for the ,persian monarch the title of the 8,servant of ,god20 they are the first in history to exhibit a nation1 few in numbers1 but strong in arms and wisdom1 lording it over an immense tract of country1 and over subjugated tribes--,syrians1 ,assyrians1 ,asiatic ,greeks1 and ,egyptians--of divers origin and customs from themselves4 ,the iron phalanx of ,alexander at length caused this empire of satrapies to crumble into the dust2 but under a new dynasty it revived again1 so as to wage war successfully even with the all-conquering legions of ,rome4 ,away1 around the shores of the lovely gean--on the sunny slopes of ,asia ,minor1 among the sparkling vine-clad islets of the ,cyclades1 and on the rocky1 picturesque1 bay-indented peninsula of ,greece1 the gay and martial ,hellenic race disported themselves4 ,as a race1 young1 imaginative1 superstitious1 and enamoured of the beautiful1 they ascribed every phenomenon in nature to the action of a god--peopled the woods1 the hills1 the waters1 with graceful imaginary beings sympathising with and often visible to man1 and filling even the highest heaven with divinities who were gods but in power1 and wholly men in passion4 ,keenly alive to pleasure1 and hearing little of the deeper voices of the soul1 their thoughts clung wholly to the beautiful world around them2 and1 while acknowledging the soul's immortality1 they ever looked upon ,elysium1 their world beyond the grave1 as a shadowy land where joy becomes so diluted as hardly to be worth the having4 ,the greatest poets the world ever saw1 they embodied their conceptions1 alike in literature1 in architecture1 and the plastic arts1 in forms of such divine beauty1 that after-ages have abandoned in despair even the hope of rivalling them4 ,the story of ,greece is not easily told2 it excelled in so many departments of human effort--producing almost simultaneously an ,alexander1 a ,socrates1 a ,plato1 a ,demosthenes1 an ,aristotle--not to speak of a ,democritus1 a ,thales1 an ,anaxagoras1 and others1 in whose daring but vaguely-framed systems of the universe are to be found not a few brilliant anticipations of world-wide truth1 which modern science is now recovering1 and placing on the firm and only definite basis of experiment4 ,add to the story of these nations that of the ,roman--the great conquerors and legislators1--the story of a city that came to throw its chains over the world1--and thence pass over the dying ashes of ,paganism into the new world of ,christianity1 and to the congeries of kingdoms which arose under its beneficent sway in medival ,europe1 at first small1 and never presenting those great contrasts so observable in the old empires of ,paganism1 but each telling its lesson to those who study it1 and some of them already influencing the fortunes of the human race to an extent never possible or dreamt of in prior times4 ,the 8meteor-flag0 of ,england is the great object which1 in these latter days1 arrests the eye of the philosophic observer1--bridging over the seas1 peopling continents and islands with civilised man1--and carrying the science1 the religion1 and the beneficent sway of ,great ,britain over an empire upon which the sun never sets1 and to climes 8where ,csar's eagles never flew40 ,paradoxical as it may seem1 the further we recede from the era of those old nations1 the better able are we becoming to write their history and understand their civilisation4 ,not only are mankind becoming tolerant of truth in whatever attire it present itself1 and thus learning to sympathise with1 and so comprehend1 those old forms of civilisation1 but the recent study of the languages of ,india and ,china have opened up to us the literature and life of those old countries4 ,the discovery of a clue to the hieroglyphics of ,egypt1 to the rock-inscriptions of ,persia1 and to the arrow-headed chronicles of ,assyria1 constitutes a series of unexpected triumphs1 which promises to rend the veil of oblivion from the face of those long-perished empires4 ,lastly1 the earth herself has been giving us back their skeletons4 ,two old ,roman cities1 ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 accidentally discovered1 have been cleared of their superincumbent mass of lava and ashes1 and given back to the light precisely as they stood on the day when the eruption of ,vesuvius overwhelmed them eighteen hundred years ago4 ,into those long-buried streets we have descended1 and seen the domestic civilisation of imperial ,rome mirrored in those hastily-abandoned boudoirs and dining-rooms1 baths1 temples1 and public buildings4 ,in the wastes of ,persia1 ,chardin stumbled upon the ruins of imperial ,persepolis1 whose very site had for ages dropt out of the world's memory4 ,the thousand monuments of ,egypt have been studied1 their historic sculptures and mural paintings magnificently copied1 and a portrait-gallery published of its ancient dynasties4 ,finally1 ,layard and ,botta have carried the thirst of discovery to the banks of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 and have exhumed from the mounds of long-lost ,nineveh striking and instructive vestiges of the first of the so-called 8universal0 empires4 ,the opportuneness of these revelations of the past cannot but strike one as remarkable4 ,knowledge revealed too early is lost4 ,steam1 the compass1 gunpowder1 the principle of the electric telegraph1 and a hundred other discoveries made of old might be mentioned1 which1 in consequence of mankind not being ready for them1 wholly dropt out of mind again1 or languished on as mere toys or curiosities4 ,and had those old cities been unbared at some earlier period1 would they not most lamentably have shared the fate of the monuments which remained above ground--been wantonly destroyed by a barbarous population1 or been used as quarries1 from whence the degenerate successors of the elder race might indolently draw their building materials8 ,but the earth took them into her own safe keeping1 and covered them up until the world had grown older and wiser1 and knew how to prize such monuments of memorable but long-forgotten times4 ,of all the great empires which have enduringly impressed themselves upon the world's memory1 no one has perished leaving so few visible marks of its existence as that which first rose into greatness in the land of ,assyria4 ,it was this memorable region which gave birth to the first of the old 8universal empires40 ,on the plains of ,shinar1 on the banks of the ,lower ,euphrates1 a community of civilised men was assembled more than four thousand years ago4 ,there1 in course of time1 arose ,babylon1 with its impregnable walls1 behind which the city might eat and drink and be merry1 though the mightiest of ancient hosts were encamped outside4 ,there were the fabled hanging-gardens1 the wonder of the world1 erected by one of its monarchs to please his young ,median bride1 whose heart yearned for the hills and groves of her native land4 ,towering above all was the vast temple of ,belus1 unequalled for magnificence in the ancient world1--crowned with its gigantic golden statue of the sun-god1 rising so high1 and flashing so brightly in the upper air1 that to the crowds below it seemed invested with the splendours of the deity whom it symbolised4 ,but more than two thousand years have elapsed since all this grandeur came to a sudden end2 and so thoroughly has the city mouldered into the dust1 and so completely has it buried itself in its own ruins1 that during the recent excavations executed on its site1 scarcely a detached figure in stone1 or a solitary tablet1 says ,mr ,layard1 was dug out of the vast heaps of rubbish4 8,babylon is fallen1 is fallen6 and all the graven images of her gods ,he hath broken unto the ground40 ,to the north1 near the head of the great ,mesopotamian valley1 on the banks of the ,tigris1 stood the sister or rival city of ,nineveh--,babylon and it forming1 as it were1 the foci of the ,assyrian realm1 which spread out like an ellipse around them4 ,nineveh1 8that great city10 against which ,jonah of old uttered his prophetic warnings--from whose gates ,sennacherib1 ,sargon1 and ,holofernes successively set forth1 with their spearmen1 and horses1 and chariots against ,damascus and ,israel1 and the coasts of ,tyre and ,sidon1--and around whose walls the combined armies of ,persia and ,babylonia encamped for three years in vain1 fell at last by a doom as sudden and overwhelming as that which overtook ,babylon--perishing so utterly1 that when ,xenophon and the ,ten ,thousand passed that way1 even its name was forgotten1 and he notices its mounds of ruins simply as having been those of 8an ancient city10 which he calls ,larissa4 ,as ,xenophon left those ruins ,layard found them4 ,riding1 in company with a friend as daring and enthusiastic as himself1 down the right bank of the ,tigris1 in ,april #ahdj1 he rested for the night at a small ,arab village1 around which are still the vestiges of an ancient town2 and here he got his first look of the buried city whose discovery was to immortalise his name4 8,from the summit of an artificial eminence10 he says1 8,i looked down upon a broad plain1 separated from us by the river4 ,a line of lofty mounds bounded it on the east1 and one of a pyramidal form rose high above the rest4 ,beyond it could be faintly traced the waters of the ,zab4 ,its position rendered its identification easy4 ,this was the pyramid which ,xenophon had described1 and near which the ,ten ,thousand had encamped2 the ruins around it were those which the ,greek general saw twenty-two centuries before1 and which were even then the remains of an ancient city40 ,it must not be supposed1 because ,nineveh and ,babylon are the only cities made much mention of in ,assyrian history1 that none others of importance existed in the country around4 ,on the contrary1 again and again1 in the course of his journeys1 does ,mr ,layard speak of mounds of ruins1 marking the site of what must once have been 8large cities40 ,in truth1 the valley-land of ,mesopotamia1 with its rich alluvial plains1 intersected by the ,tigris and ,euphrates and their numerous tributaries1 presented a vast surface1 which at any moment the industry of man might convert into a garden4 ,in remotest times1 if in imagination we can recur to the period when first mankind began to settle on its plains1 it must have presented a spectacle very much like that which now meets the eye--wide plains of fertile soil springing into verdure wherever it is touched by water1 but desert almost everywhere for a great portion of the year4 ,the latent fertility of the region was forthwith developed by the race who there took up their abode4 ,the waters of the rivers were led over the flat plains in long canals1 diffusing in all directions their irrigating streams1 and causing the teeming soil1 under the rays of a glowing and never-failing sun1 to produce food in abundance for both man and beast4 8,a system of navigable canals1 that may excite the admiration of even the modern engineer1 connected together the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,with a skill showing no common knowledge of the art of surveying1 and of the principles of hydraulics1 the ,babylonians took advantage of the different levels in the plains1 and of the periodical rises in the rivers1 to complete the water-communication between all parts of the province1 and to fertilise1 by artificial irrigation1 an otherwise barren and unproductive soil40#adf ,this system of irrigation1 it is true1 was not carried to perfection until a late period in the history of the ,assyrian empire2 but it must1 at the same time1 be recollected1 that as far back as the light of history penetrates1 it is always civilised man that is discerned in the valley of the ,euphrates4 ,the vague whisperings of tradition1 even1 cannot speak of a time when savage tribes wandered over its plains4 ,if we investigate who were the settled inhabitants of the land when first the light of history breaks upon it--the people among whom the old ,assyrian empire arose--we will come to the conclusion that the great mass of the population belonged to that purely ,syrian race whose settlements have in all ages extended from the banks of the ,euphrates to the shores of the ,levant4 ,but mixed with this race1 very much in the neighbourhood of ,babylon1 and more faintly as we proceed northwards1 were offshoots of the ,cushite race1--a people having its principal seats in southern ,arabia1 along the coasts of the ,indian and ,red ,seas1 imperfectly represented by the ,himyarite ,arabs of the present day1 and forming a connecting link between the old races of ,syria and ,egypt4 ,into the population thus constituted descended the ,chaldeans1--a tribe from the highlands which border the ,mesopotamian valley on the north-east1 and who1 though ,syrians in the main1 probably approximated somewhat in character to the ,persian race4 ,this tribe obtained the ascendant among the population at ,nineveh and in the upper portion of the ,mesopotamian valley1--imparting to that population1 apparently1 a sterner character than prevailed in the lower part of the valley and around ,babylon4 ,frequent wars occurred between these half-rival half-sister cities2 the general result of which was1 that the people of ,nineveh held the ,babylonians in a more or less perfect state of dependence4 ,in the course of time1 too1 the ,cushite element in the ,babylonian population 7and which probably gave to it its turn for commerce and maritime enterprise7 became extinct2 while the ,chaldean element1 which differed but little from the general mass of the population1 seems to have greatly increased4 ,it was from ,ur of the ,chaldees1 in the vicinity of ,nineveh1 that ,abraham1 in obedience to the ,divine voice1 went forth1 journeying south-westwards1 through the desert lying between the ,euphrates and ,syria1 and1 reaching ,palestine1 became the father of the ,hebrew nation4 ,from his loins also proceeded the ,idumeans1 who proved their superiority to the rest of the ,arabian tribes by founding the kingdom of ,edom1 and excavating the wondrous rock-city of ,petra4 ,such1 then1 appears to have been the old population of ,assyria4 ,in ,genesis we are informed that ,ashur went forth out of the land of ,shinar1 and founded new habitations in the north1--8,nineveh and the city ,reheboth1 and ,calah1 and ,resen1 which is a great city20 but according to the ,chaldean historians1 the builders of the cities of ,assyria came down from the mountains of ,armenia4 ,these statements1 so far from being inconsistent1 tend to corroborate the conjecture which1 from other considerations1 we had arrived at1--namely1 that the ,chaldeans were not the first comers into the plains around ,nineveh1 but found there a lowland population in an advanced state of society1 and closely allied in blood and language to themselves4 ,moses of ,chorene expressly records that such was the case2 but the real strength of the supposition we rest upon general grounds1 which it is needless here to enter upon4 ,this ,chaldean tribe1 then1 which ultimately became the predominant one in the valley of the ,upper ,tigris1 were not the actual founders of the ,assyrian cities2 but under their ascendancy these cities were strengthened1 extended1 and embellished so much1 as to become as it were the creations of their hands4 ,the architecture of a nation is ever dependent to a great extent upon the building materials at its command4 ,the alluvial plains of ,assyria1 unbroken by a single eminence1 were singularly destitute of stone of any kind1 especially in the lower portion of the valley2 so that the inhabitants had to betake themselves to bricks1 which they could manufacture in endless abundance by mixing a little straw with the alluvial soil4 ,in ,babylonia1 where not a slab of stone could be got within hundreds of miles1 these bricks were carefully made1--being kiln-dried1 and often coloured1 and1 while the colours were still moist1 glazed in the fire4 ,around ,nineveh they were1 for the most part1 merely dried for a day or two in the hot sun1--and with bricks of this description the houses of ,mesopotamia are built to this day4 ,but ,nineveh1 being nearer the mountains1 had a great advantage over ,babylon4 ,the plains around it1 and the lowlands lying between the ,tigris and the hill-country1 abound in a kind of coarse alabaster or gypsum1 large masses of which protrude in low ridges from the alluvial soil1 or are exposed in the gullies formed by winter torrents4 ,ornamental from its colour and transparency1 and offering few difficulties to the sculptor1 this alabaster was used by the people of ,nineveh in their public buildings4 ,cut into large slabs1 it was used as panels to cover the inner surface of the brick walls1--each slab bearing on its back an inscription recording the name1 title1 and descent of the king undertaking the work1 and being kept in its place by cramps and plugs of metal or wood4 ,after being thus fixed against the wall1 the face of the slabs was covered with sculptures and inscriptions1--in some edifices1 as at ,kouyunjik1 each chamber being reserved for some particular historical incident1 and each palace1 it would appear1 only recording in its sculptures the exploits of the king who built it4 ,no pillars are to be found in ,assyrian architecture2 and the difficulty experienced by the builders in the construction of expansive roofs is shown by the great narrowness of the rooms compared with their length2 the most elaborately ornamented hall at ,nimroud1 although above #afj feet in length1 being only #ce feet broad4 ,forty-five feet appears to have been the greatest width spanned over by a roof2 for the great central hall in the north-west palace at ,nimroud 7#aaj feet by #ij7 may have been entirely open to the sky1--and1 as it did not contain sculptures1 it probably was so4 ,the rooms ranged from #af to #bj feet in height2 the side-walls being covered to twice the height of a man by the sculptured slabs1 and their upper portion being built of baked bricks richly coloured1 or of sun-dried bricks covered by a thin coat of plaster1 on which various ornaments were painted4 ,of the mode of roofing these palaces we know nothing4 ,probably the roof was formed of beams resting solely on the side-walls2 but as this method would not have sufficed for the larger rooms1 from #ce to #de feet in width1 we may conjecture that the beams in some instances were made to meet and rest against each other at a slight angle in the centre of the ceiling1 or 7more improbably7 that wooden pillars or posts were employed which have since entirely mouldered away4 ,no traces of windows are to be found1 even in the chambers next the outer walls2 so that1 as in the temples of ,egypt1 there must have been square openings or skylights in the ceilings1 which may have been closed during the winter-rains by canvass or some such material4 ,the pavement of the chambers was formed either of alabaster slabs1 or of kiln-burnt bricks1 covered with inscriptions relating to the king2--and beneath this pavement1 drains led from almost every room1 showing that water might occasionally have entered the rooms from above1 by such apertures in the ceiling as have been conjectured4 ,the interior of these ,assyrian palaces must have been as magnificent as imposing4 ,mr ,layard thus graphically describes the spectacle which1 in days of old1 met the eye of those who entered the abode of the ,assyrian kings3-- 8,he was ushered in through the portal guarded by the colossal lions or bulls of white alabaster4 ,in the first hall he found himself surrounded by the sculptured records of the empire4 ,battles1 sieges1 triumphs1 the exploits of the chase1 the ceremonies of religion1 were portrayed on the walls--sculptured in alabaster1 and painted in gorgeous colours4 ,under each picture were engraved1 in characters filled up with bright copper1 inscriptions describing the scenes represented4 ,above the sculptures were painted other events--the king1 attended by his eunuchs and warriors1 receiving his prisoners1 entering into alliances with other monarchs1 or performing some sacred duty4 ,these representations were enclosed in coloured borders of elaborate and elegant design4 ,the emblematic tree1 winged bulls1 and monstrous animals were conspicuous amongst the ornaments4 ,at the upper end of the hall was the colossal figure of the king in adoration before the supreme deity1 or receiving from his eunuch the holy cup4 ,he was attended by warriors bearing his arms1 and by the priests or presiding divinities4 ,his robes1 and those of his followers1 were adorned with groups of figures1 animals1 and flowers1 all painted with brilliant colours4 8,the stranger trod upon alabaster slabs1 each bearing an inscription1 recording the titles1 genealogy1 and achievements of the great king4 ,several doorways1 formed by gigantic winged lions or bulls1 or by the figures of guardian deities1 led into other apartments which again opened into more distant halls4 ,in each were new sculptures4 ,on the walls of some were processions of colossal figures--armed men and eunuchs following the king1 warriors laden with spoil1 leading prisoners1 or bearing presents and offerings to the gods4 ,on the walls of others were portrayed the winged priests1 or presiding divinities1 standing before the sacred trees4 8,the ceilings above him were divided into square compartments1 painted with flowers1 or with the figures of animals4 ,some were inlaid with ivory1 each compartment being surrounded by elegant borders and mouldings4 ,the beams1 as well as the sides of the chambers1 may have been gilded1 or even plated with gold and silver2 and the rarest woods1 in which the cedar was conspicuous1 were used for the wood-work4 ,square openings in the ceilings of the chambers admitted the light of day4 ,a pleasing shadow was thrown over the sculptured walls1 and gave a majestic expression to the human features of the colossal forms which guarded the entrances4 ,through these apertures was seen the bright blue of an eastern sky1 enclosed in a frame on which were painted1 in vivid colours1 the winged circle1 in the midst of elegant ornaments1 and the graceful forms of ideal animals4 8,these edifices1 as it has been shown1 were great national monuments1 upon the walls of which were represented in sculpture1 or inscribed in alphabetic characters1 the chronicles of the empire4 ,he who entered them might thus read the history1 and learn the glory and triumphs of the nations4 ,they served1 at the same time1 to bring continually to the remembrance of those who assembled within them on festive occasions1 or for the celebration of religious ceremonies1 the deeds of their ancestors1 and the power and majesty of their gods40 ,this royal magnificence was well guarded4 ,the external walls of the ,assyrian cities1 as we learn from the united testimony of ancient authors1 were of extraordinary size and height4 ,according to ,diodorus ,siculus1 the walls of ,nineveh were one hundred feet high1--so broad that three chariots might be driven abreast along their summit1--and fortified with fifteen hundred towers1 each of which was two hundred feet in height4 ,according to the same authority1 the circumference of the city was sixty miles1--a statement which exactly tallies with the dimensions given in the ,book of ,jonah1 where ,nineveh is said to have been three days' journey round about4 ,this is an immense circuit1--but it must be recollected that the dimensions of an ,eastern city do not bear the same proportion to its population as those of an ,european city4 ,the custom1 prevalent to some degree in ,southern ,asia1 even in the earliest times1 of secluding the women in apartments removed from those of the men1 as well as the heat of the climate1 renders a separate house for each family almost indispensable1 and is perfectly incompatible with that economy of space1 and close aggregation of dwellings1 which we witness in the cities of the ,west4 ,moreover1 within the circuit of those old cities there used to be a 8paradise0 or hunting-ground for the king1 and orchards1 gardens1 and an extensive tract of arable land2 so that the inhabitants1 behind their impregnable walls1 could bid defiance alike to force and to famine4 ,from the expression of ,jonah1 that there was much cattle within the walls of ,nineveh1 it may be inferred that there was also pasture for them4 ,many cities of the ,east--as1 for instance1 ,damascus and ,ispahan--are still built in this manner2 the amount of their population being greatly disproportionate1 according to our ,western notions1 to the site which they occupy4 ,if we take the four great mounds of ,nimroud1 ,kouyunjik1 ,khorsabad1 and ,karamles1 as the corners of an elongated quadrangle 7eighteen miles by twelve71 it will be found that the form as well as the circumference of the city correspond pretty accurately with the statements of ancient writers4 ,each quarter of this vast city1 says ,mr ,layard1 may have had its peculiar name2 hence the palace of ,evorita1 where ,saracus destroyed himself--and the ,mespila and ,larissa of ,xenophon1 which names the ,greek general applies respectively to the mound-ruins at ,kouyunjik and ,nimroud4 ,it is certain that large fortified enclosures existed within the outer walls1 surrounding the principal buildings or palaces1 and capable of defence after the rest of the city was stormed4 ,these four great mounds1 the scene of ,mr ,layard's excavations1 mark the site of the principal public buildings of ,nineveh1--apparently at once temples and palaces1--built upon elevated platforms of masonry1 like the temples of the ancient ,mexicans1 and1 from their great strength1 always placed so as to form part of the external defences of the city4 ,but these were not the only great buildings in ,nineveh2 for within the quadrangle described by these ruins1 many other large mounds are to be seen1 and the face of the country is strewed with the remains of pottery1 bricks1 and other fragments4 ,the space between the great public buildings was doubtless occupied by private houses1 standing in the midst of gardens1 and built at distances from each other2 or forming streets which enclosed gardens of considerable extent1 and even arable land4 ,the absence of the remains of these houses1 says ,mr ,layard1 is easily accounted for4 8,they were constructed almost entirely of sun-dried bricks1 and1 like the houses now built in the country1 soon disappeared altogether when once abandoned1 and allowed to fall into decay4 ,the largest palaces would probably have remained undiscovered1 had not slabs of alabaster marked the walls4 ,there is1 however1 sufficient to indicate that buildings were once spread over the space above described2 for1 besides the vast number of small mounds everywhere visible1 scarcely a husbandman drives his plough over the soil without exposing the vestiges of former habitations40 ,from the numerous large mound-ruins visible on the ,mesopotamian plains1 it is evident that the work of excavation is only commenced4 ,the long-sealed book of ,assyrian history and antiquities has only begun to be unrolled2 and in the course of another generation the labours of ,layard will probably be as far exceeded as those of ,belzoni in ,egypt have been by the recent investigations of ,lepsius and ,champollion-le-,jeune4 ,it is needless1 then1 at present to waste time in the discussion of moot points in ,assyrian history1 which in a few years fresh discoveries may at once set definitively at rest4 ,as yet1 ,assyrian chronology has been but little advanced by the recent researches1--and this principally owing to the circumstance1 already mentioned1 that the sculptures and inscriptions of each palace relate only to the career of the particular king who erected or embellished it4 ,all we know is1 that the palaces at ,nimroud 7if we except the unfinished one7 must have been built at least nine centuries ,b4,c42 but that the earliest of them may have been reared by the great ,ninus himself#adg 7#bjjj ,b4,c471--a most unsatisfactory state of knowledge2 and that the palaces at the other angles of the city--namely1 ,kouyunjik1 ,karamles1 and ,khorsabad--were erected1 to all appearance1 between the ninth and sixth centuries ,b4,c4 ,we know1 however1 with all certainty1 that a great crisis and convulsion in the fortunes of the ,state occurred between the erection of the earlier and later series of palaces4 ,this convulsion was probably occasioned by the successful revolt of the ,medes under ,arbaces1 and the capture of ,nineveh1 about #iej ,b4,c41 which brought to an end the ancient dynasty of ,ninus and ,semiramis1 after thirteen centuries of power1 and established a new family on the throne4 ,ninus--whose character as a great hunter of the lion and panther tallies with the scriptural accounts of ,nimrod--is said1 by the general consent of many ancient writers1 to have founded the ,assyrian monarchy more than two thousand years before ,christ1--doing so in the midst of a people far advanced in civilisation1 whose works1 says ,moses of ,chorene1 the new-comers endeavoured to destroy1 and whose knowledge of the arts was taken advantage of by the conquerors in the erection and embellishment of their palaces4 ,in corroboration of this it may be stated1 that of all the specimens of ,assyrian art which have been discovered1 the most ancient are invariably the best1--a curious fact1 agreeing with1 but not establishing1 the hypothesis that the builders of the most ancient edifices at ,nineveh were assisted by a people of skill superior to their own4 ,the boundaries of the ,assyrian monarchy1 like that of every other long-established empire1 fluctuated from age to age4 ,at the epoch of its greatest power1 it appears to have maintained an ascendancy over ,persia and ,media1 and from thence westwards to the shores of the ,levant2 while it is indisputable that its rule was for long dominant in ,asia ,minor1 where towns were built and colonies founded by the ,assyrian monarchs1--,troy itself1 according to ,plato1 having been one of their dependencies4 ,the prowess of the ,assyrian armies in later times made itself felt even in ,egypt2 but in the wars between these two great antagonists1 there is reason to believe that the balance of success lay chiefly with the ,egyptians4 ,it would appear that for a considerable period1 between the #adth and #ith centuries ,b4,c41 a close connection1 either by conquest or friendly intercourse1 existed between these two empires1--which connection produced considerable changes in the arts and customs of ,assyria1 as may be witnessed in the introduction of the sitting sphinxes of ,nimroud1 and the lotus-shaped ornaments of ,khorsabad and ,kouyunjik4 ,on the earliest monuments of ,nineveh we read of expeditions undertaken against ,babylon1 which city was at first unquestionably independent of the ,assyrian princes1 but which ere long became subject to them--wearing their chains1 however1 unwillingly1 and occasionally in name rather than in fact4 ,when the ,medes revolted under ,arbaces1 the governor of ,babylon took part with the rebels1 and in alliance with them succeeded in capturing ,nineveh1 and destroying its public buildings--if not depopulating it4 ,under the new or later dynasty1 however--which counts in its brief roll the great names of ,sargon and ,sennacherib--,nineveh rose in renewed splendour and power3 the palaces of ,kouyunjik1 ,karamles1 and ,khorsabad were built1 the last of which excelled all its predecessors in magnificence2 and the city attained those vast dimensions described by ,diodorus and the prophet ,jonah4 ,but the days of this great city and ancient empire were fast drawing to a close4 ,headed by ,cyaxares and ,nabopolassar1 the combined armies of the ,persians and ,babylonians again approached its walls2 and after a protracted siege of nearly three years1 they at length 7#fjf ,b4,c47 captured the city at a time when the river had overflowed its bed and carried away a portion of the wall4 ,the city was then utterly destroyed--the torch was put to its noble palaces1 and its inhabitants were compulsorily distributed among the adjoining towns and villages4 ,nineveh was no more4 ,twelve centuries afterwards 7,a4,d4 #fbg71 the great battle between ,heraclius and ,rhazates was fought within the space once compassed by its walls4 8,the city1 and even the ruins of the city10 says ,gibbon1 8had long ago disappeared3 the vacant space afforded a spacious field for the operations of the two armies40 ,the primitive religion of the ,assyrians appears to have been a form of ,sabanism4 ,it appears to have consisted in the worship of the sun--not as the ,deity1 but as an emblem of the ,deity--as the greatest1 most glorious1 and most beneficent of ,his works in the eye of man1 and the mystery of whose unbeholdable splendours not unaptly symbolised the presence of ,him 8who dwelleth in light that is inaccessible and full of glory40 ,but the peculiar part of the ,chaldean faith or philosophy was the influence which it ascribed to the planets over the life and fortunes of men4 ,the belief in astrology is one of the oldest1 if not absolutely the very oldest1 which one meets with in the history of postdiluvian mankind4 ,it was not confined to any one nation1 or any one era of the world4 ,it has lived from the earliest times1 down through several thousand years1 to the middle ages of ,europe1 and still lingers even at the present day4 ,to take the last spots in the world where one is likely to find old-world notions lingering--8,raphaels0 and 8,zadkiels0 are to be found even in the capitals of ,england and ,france1 where astrological almanacs are at this moment yearly published1 containing predictions of the future--one of which modern ,magi boasts that he correctly predicted the death of the 8hero of ,waterloo10 and both of whom1 we believe1 prophesied two years ago that #ahed is to be the death-year of ,louis ,napoleon6 ,but the ,east is the native land of astrology2 and there1 to this day1 it is believed in as firmly as if it belonged to the domain of the positive sciences4 ,it is curious to know that one of the causes of the disastrous issue of the last battle 7,august #e7 between the ,turks and ,russians in ,asia1 was the obstinate adhesion of the ,turkish general to an astrological crotchet4 ,the ,russians had detached a division of their army to ,bayazid1 where they surprised and defeated a ,turkish corps2 but no sooner did ,general ,guyon learn of this movement1 than he counselled the ,turkish commander1 ,zarif ,pasha1 immediately to advance and attack the main body of the ,russians while thus weakened4 ,the ,pasha1 however1 while assenting to the plan1 would not move at the time required1 alleging that neither that day nor the morrow would do for the attack1 8because the stars were unpropitious40 ,eight-and-forty hours were thus lost1 big with the fortunes of the campaign2 and the consequence was1 that when the ,turks did at last advance1 they found not only that the ,russian detachment had rejoined the main body1 but that the ,russian general had been fully apprised by his spies of the meditated night-march of his enemies4 ,we have not space here to undertake an investigation of the old ,chaldean faith1 nor to point out the principles in human nature by a rash reasoning upon which astrology seems to have arisen4 ,we would remark1 however1 that the convulsion which intervened between the fall of the first ,assyrian dynasty and the rise of the second1 occasioned1 or was at least accompanied by1 a change in the ,state-religion of the country4 ,in the palaces at ,khorsabad and ,kouyunjik1 built by the second dynasty1 we find no traces of the religious emblems so frequent in the sculptures of the earliest palaces at ,nimroud4 ,the emblem of the great ,divinity--the winged figure within the circle--has never been found in the later-built palaces2 and from the frequent representations of the fire-altar in the bas-reliefs from those ruins1 and on cylinders1 evidently of the same period1 there is reason to believe that a fire-worship1 like that introduced by ,zoroaster among the ,persians1 had succeeded to the purer forms of ,sabanism4 ,although eagle-headed figures1 and other mythic forms1 exist in the earliest sculptures at ,nineveh1 in no case do they appear to have been objects of worship4 ,the king is only seen in adoration before one symbol of the ,deity--the figure of which we have already spoken1 with the wings and tail of a bird enclosed in a circle1 resembling the ,ormuzd of the ,persian monuments4 ,he is generally standing or kneeling beneath this circled figure with his hand raised in sign of prayer or adoration4 ,this symbol of the ,deity is never represented above any person of inferior rank1 but appears to watch specially over the king--who among the ,assyrians1 as among all the old nations1 was regarded as the type and representative of the nation4 ,it is seen above him on all occasions1 in the sculptures1 sympathising with and assisting him1 like a good ,providence4 ,if it presides over a triumph1 its action resembles that of the king2 and when represented over the king in war1 it is seen1 like a god of battles1 shooting its arrows against the enemies of the ,assyrians4 ,the most superficial examination of the sculptures suffices to prove the sacred character of the king4 ,not only is the symbol of the great ,deity above him1 as well as the sun1 moon1 and planets2 but the priests1 or lesser divinities 7whichever the winged human figures so frequently found on the ,assyrian monuments may be71 are represented as waiting upon or ministering to him4 ,this is just a development of the old patriarchal principle1 by which a father used to worship on behalf of his family4 ,at this day the principle is carried out to the fullest extent in ,china1 where the 8higher sacrifices0 can only be offered by the ,emperor in person1 who actually regards himself as the father of the nation1 and who1 on occasion of national calamities1 fasts and makes public confession of his sins and shortcomings1 looking upon them as the reason why the ,divine wrath is poured out upon his people4 ,a marked difference is likewise observable in the style of ornamental art under the earlier and later dynasties4 ,what principally distinguishes ,assyrian from ,egyptian sculpture is1 that the former is entirely free from the angular mode of treatment so conspicuous in the latter4 ,it is more florid1 and altogether more advanced2 but at the same time it must be said1 that in regard to accuracy we incline to place greater estimation upon the portrait-sculpture of ,egypt than upon that of ,assyria4 ,in the later monuments of ,nineveh we find direct1 although not very extensive1 traces of ,egyptian influence2 but the principal distinction between the earlier and later sculptures is1 the greater knowledge of design and composition displayed in the former4 ,the bas-relief representing the ,lion-hunt1 now in the ,british ,museum1 is a good illustration of the earliest school of ,assyrian art yet discovered4 ,it far exceeds the later sculptures in the vigour of treatment1 the elegance of the forms1 and in what the ,french aptly term mouvement1--as well as by the evident attempt at composition1 the artistical arrangement of the groups4 ,the sculptors who worked at ,khorsabad and ,kouyunjik perhaps possessed more skill in handling their tools1 and their work is frequently superior to that of the earlier artists in delicacy of execution--as1 for instance1 in the details of the features--and in boldness of relief2 but they are decidedly inferior to their ancestors in the higher branches of art--in the treatment of a subject1 and in beauty and variety of form4 ,the domestic furniture1 arms1 utensils1 and personal ornaments of the ,assyrians show a very refined and cultivated taste4 ,in their arms they rivalled even the ,greeks in elegance of design4 ,their drinking-cups and vessels used on festive occasions were apparently of gold1 like those of ,solomon1 or of silver2 and they were frequently wrought into the shape of the head and neck of an animal--such as a lion or bull--and resembled those afterwards in use among the ,greeks1 and found in the tombs of ,etruria4 ,their thrones1 tables1 and couches were made both of metal and wood2 and the tables and chairs were frequently shaped like our camp-stools1 and may have been made to close4 ,on the earliest monuments1 the chair is represented richly cushioned1 with the seat and legs tastefully carved1 but without a back1--in the later monuments the back is added1 but the chairs exhibit less elegance4 ,indeed1 in domestic and personal ornament1 as in the higher branches of art1 the most ancient ,assyrian monuments greatly exceed the later4 8,many forms had been preserved10 says ,mr ,layard1 8as in the swords1 bracelets1 and armlets2 but they had evidently degenerated1 and are more coarsely designed in the sculptures4 ,this is also evident in the embroideries of the robes1 and in the details of the chariots4 ,we see the same love of elaborate and profuse decoration1 but not that elegance and variety so conspicuous in the ornaments of the first period4 ,the kneeling bull or wild-goat1 the graceful flower1 and the groups of men and animals skilfully combined1 are succeeded by a profusion of rosettes1 circles1 and squares1 covering the whole surface of the dress1 or the sides of the chariots4 ,although there is a certain richness of appearance1 yet the classic forms1 if the term may be used1 of the earlier artists1 are wanting40 ,the materials at our command are as yet too scanty to enable us to arrive at definite conclusions as to the manners and private life of the ,assyrians2 but we do not doubt that future discoveries will yet supply the desideratum4 ,mr ,layard says3-- 8,from casual notices in the ,bible and in ancient history1 we learn that the ,assyrians1 as well as those who succeeded them in the empire of ,asia1 were fond of public entertainments and festivities1 and that they displayed on such occasions the greatest luxury and magnificence4 ,the ,assyrian king1 called ,nabuchodonosor in the book of ,judith1 on returning from his victorious expedition against ,arphaxad1 feasted with his whole army for one hundred and twenty days4 ,the same is related by the ,greek authors of ,sardanapalus1 after his great victory over the combined armies of the ,medes4 ,the ,book of ,esther describes the splendour of the festivals given by the ,babylonian king4 ,the princes and nobles of his vast dominions were feasted for one hundred and eighty days2 and for one week all the people of ,susa assembled in the gardens of his palace1 and were served in vessels of gold4 ,the richest tapestries adorned the halls and tents1 and the most costly couches were prepared for the guests4 ,wine was served in abundance1 and women1 including even the wives and concubines of the monarch1 were frequently present to add to the magnificence of the scene4 ,according to ,quintus ,curtius1 not only did hired female performers exhibit on these occasions1 but the wives and daughters of the nobles1 forgetting their modesty1 danced before the guests1 divesting themselves even of their garments4 ,wine was drunk immoderately4 ,when ,babylon was taken by the ,persians1 the inhabitants were celebrating one of their great festivals1 and even the guards were intoxicated4 ,the ,babylonian king1 ignorant of the approaching fate of his capital1 and surrounded by one thousand of his princes and nobles1 and by his wives and concubines1 drank out of the golden vessels that had been carried away from the ,jewish temple4 ,on the walls of the palace at ,khorsabad was a bas-relief representing a public feast1 probably in celebration of a victory4 ,men were seen seated on high chairs with drinking-cups in their hands2 whilst attendants were bringing in bowls1 goblets1 and various fruits and viands1 for the banquet4 ,at ,nimroud part of a similar bas-relief was discovered4 ,music was not wanting on these occasions40 ,the arts and civilisation of ,nineveh represent those of ,babylon also4 ,babylon1 though it was long of attaining to the political greatness of her rival1 was evidently an older city4 ,it can hardly be doubted that it arose from the first gathering of mankind upon the plains of ,shinar4 ,from notices of it on ,egyptian monuments of the time of ,thothmes ,,iii41 it is evident that it was a place of considerable note at least in the fifteenth century before ,christ4 ,although for long politically overshadowed by her neighbour ,nineveh1 ,babylon at an early period became famous for the extent and importance of her commerce4 ,no position could then have been more favourable than hers for carrying on a trade with all the regions of the known world4 ,she stood upon a navigable stream that brought to her quays the produce of the temperate highlands of ,armenia--running westward in one part of its course to within a hundred miles of the ,mediterranean1 and emptying its waters into a gulf of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,parallel to this great river1 and scarcely inferior to it in size1 was the ,tigris1 flowing through the fertile plains of ,assyria1 and carrying their produce to the ,babylonian cities4 ,the inhabitants turned these natural advantages to the best account2 and their industry and enterprise1 cooperating with that of civilised people in the adjoining countries1 greatly increased the means of locomotion4 ,highroads and causeways across the ,desert connected ,babylonia with ,syria and ,palestine4 ,fortified stations protected the merchant from the wandering tribes of ,arabia1--walled cities served as resting-places and storehouses1--and wells at regular intervals gave an abundant supply of water during the hottest season of the year4 ,one of those highways was carried through the centre of ,mesopotamia1 and1 crossing the ,euphrates near the town of ,anthemusia1 led into ,central ,asia2--a second appears to have left ,babylon by the western quarter of the city1 and entered ,idumea1 after passing through the country of the ,nabathans2--while others branched off to ,tadmor1 and to other cities built in the ,desert almost solely for purposes of trade4 ,to the east of ,babylon was the celebrated military and commercial road described by ,herodotus1 leading from ,sardis to ,susa in ninety days' journey1 and furnished at intervals of about fifteen miles with stations and public hostelries1 probably resembling the modern caravanserais of ,persia4 ,a very considerable trade was likewise carried on with ,india1 through ,media1 ,hyrcania1 and the centre of ,asia1--by which route it was1 probably1 that the greater part of the precious stones and gold were supplied to ,babylon4 ,a coasting trade existed along the shores of the ,persian ,gulf eastwards4 ,the prophet ,isaiah alludes to the ships of the ,chaldeans2 and we learn from the ,kouyunjik inscriptions that the inhabitants of the country at the mouth of the ,euphrates possessed vessels in which1 when defeated by the ,assyrians1 they took refuge on the sea4 ,it is difficult to determine to how far the ,babylonians may have navigated the ,indian ,ocean2 but of the merchandise in which they traded1 the pearls1 cotton1 spices1 precious stones1 ivory1 ebony1 silks1 and dyes1 a large portion1 if not the whole1 must have been obtained from the southern coasts of ,arabia1 and from the ,indian peninsula4 ,their exports consisted both of manufactures and of the natural produce of the country4 ,corn was cultivated to a great extent1 and sent to distant provinces2 and the ,babylonian carpets1 silks1 and woollen fabrics1 woven or embroidered with figures of mythic animals1 and with exquisite designs1 were not less famous for the beauty of their texture and workmanship1 than for the richness and variety of their colours4 ,babylon reached her zenith of power and magnificence immediately after the final destruction of ,nineveh4 ,under ,nebuchadnezzar she succeeded to the proud position so long held by her rival4 ,the bounds of the city were extended2 buildings of extraordinary size and magnificence were erected1 and her victorious armies conquered ,syria and ,palestine1 and penetrated into ,egypt4 ,but her greatness as an independent ,state was short-lived4 ,the ,medians and ,persians1 who had been the principal agents in the overthrow of the ,assyrian empire1 now united under one king1 turned their warlike strength against their former ally ,babylon2 and scarcely half a century had elapsed from the fall of ,nineveh1 when 8,belshazzar1 the king of the ,chaldeans1 was slain1 and ,darius the ,median took the kingdom40 ,from that time ,babylonia sank into a province of ,persia--still retaining1 however1 much of its former power and trade2 and1 as we learn from the rock-inscriptions of ,bisutun1 as well as from ancient authors1 struggling more than once to regain its independence4 ,when ,alexander the ,great overthrew the ,persian empire1 ,babylon opened its gates to him1 and he deemed the city worthy to become the capital of his mighty empire4 ,the early death of the conqueror1 however1 without leaving a successor1 prevented his splendid projects being carried into execution2 and the last blow to the prosperity of ,babylon was given by ,seleucus1 when he laid the foundations of his new capital 7,seleucia7 on the banks of the ,tigris 7,b4,c4 #cbb74 ,nevertheless1 a considerable population seems to have lingered in the fast-decaying city2 for1 five centuries afterwards1 we find the ,parthian king ,evemerus sending numerous families from ,babylon into ,media1 to be sold as slaves1 and burning many great and beautiful edifices which still remained standing4 ,at the time of the ,arab invasion1 in the beginning of the seventh century1 the ancient cities of ,babylon were 8a desolation1 a dry land1 and a wilderness40 ,amidst the heaps that marked the site of ,babylon herself1 there rose the small town of ,hillah1 which1 with its falling gateway1 mean bazaar1 and a few half-ruined mosques1 still exists1 as if in mockery of the power and splendour which in long-departed ages had there its abode4 ,moral corruption was the ruin of ,babylon1 as of all the great empires of the old world4 ,her vast trade1 which rendered ,babylon the gathering-place of men from all parts of the known world1 which poured wealth into her coffers1 and furnished her with luxuries of all kinds1 had the effect of producing an effeminacy and general profligacy1 which mainly contributed to her fall4 ,there is no necessary connection between prosperity and corruption2 nevertheless1 in nations as in individuals1 it is generally found that a long lease of prosperity--especially if conjoined with much wealth1 which at once allows of indolence and invites to self-indulgence--dwarfs the generous and lofty feelings of our nature1 and renders both men and nations selfish in feeling1 and absorbed in the material comforts and pleasures of life4 ,in ,babylon this tendency was aggravated1 at least in later times1 by the corruptions of its religion1 promoted by a hierarchy which1 in course of time1 became at once too rich and too powerful for its own purity1 and too profligate not to insure the corruption of the people4 ,the description given by ,herodotus of the manners of the people1 when under the dominion of the ,persian kings1 is sufficient to explain the cause of ,babylon's speedy fall and ultimate ruin2 and his account tallies perfectly with the denunciations of the city's wickedness by the prophets of ,israel4 ,her inhabitants1 as generally happens1 along with their moral integrity lost their warlike character4 ,when the ,persians broke into the city1 they were revelling in debauchery and lust2 and when the ,macedonian conqueror appeared at their gates1 they received with indifference the yoke of a new master4 8,it is not difficult10 says ,mr ,layard1 8to account for the rapid decay of the country around ,babylon4 ,as the inhabitants deserted the city10 and a foreign yoke pressed heavily upon them1 8the canals were neglected2 and when once those great sources of fertility were choked up1 the plains became a wilderness4 ,upon the waters conveyed by their channels to the innermost parts of ,mesopotamia1 depended not only the harvests1 the gardens1 and the palm-groves1 but the very existence of the numerous towns and villages far removed from the river-banks40 ,built of unbaked bricks1 8they soon turned to mere heaps of earth and rubbish4 ,vegetation ceased2 and the plains1 parched by the burning heat of the sun1 were ere long once more a vast arid waste40 ,so flourished and so fell ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,for fourteen centuries the ,assyrian empire1 of which they formed the pillars1 was the leading ,power in ,western ,asia1--overlapping to the south with that of ,egypt1 with which it was sometimes at peace1 sometimes at war1 at first a dependent and latterly victorious4 ,we think the character of these two old empires may be symbolised by their different styles of architecture1--,egypt built with granite1 and ,assyria with alabaster and painted brick4 ,it was not to geographical position that the difference was owing4 ,the valley of the ,nile and that of the ,euphrates are much alike4 ,both are alluvial in their character1 and possess but little stone2 and with both nations1 accordingly1 brick was the ordinary material employed in building4 ,in both countries quarries of granite and other stone existed in the mountains which bordered the valley-land1 with rivers upon which the stone might be floated down on rafts4 ,but the one nation used this material1 and the other did not4 ,the ,egyptians1 indomitable in science1 and animated by grander views than their ,asiatic rivals1 sent several hundred miles for intractable but everlasting granite1 whereon to design their sculptures and inscriptions1 and with which to rear those vast and countless edifices which seem destined to perpetuate the fame and history of their founders to the end of time4 ,the ,assyrians1 fonder of luxury than of fame1 more desirous of display than of enduring strength1 contented themselves with materials which they could get without trouble1 but ornamenting the brick with colours1 or coating it with slabs of soft alabaster1 which they found protruding from the ground beneath their feet4 ,the architecture of ,egypt was grand and strong--that of ,assyria was vast and showy4 ,egyptian sculpture was angular1 and strove to be correct1--that of ,assyria was round and florid4 ,although we know as yet but little of the arts and customs of life among the ,assyrians1 we may confidently conjecture that they were left comparatively unshackled by rule1 and at the sway of individual impulse2 whereas in ,egypt rule and system pervaded everything1 alike in art and in society4 ,of all the empires of the first period of the world1 the ,assyrian is the one whose history and civilisation most closely connect themselves with the subsequent destinies of mankind4 ,india and ,china were isolated empires1 each developing a civilisation for itself1 independent of and wholly uninfluencing the rest of the world4 ,egypt was less so2 but it also1 secluded in position and unproselytising in spirit1 stands apart from the community of nations1 and may be studied like an isolated statue placed in a niche4 ,with ,assyria1 however1 the case is far otherwise4 ,its influence1 extending for centuries over ,western and ,southern ,asia--from the frontiers of ,affghanistan to the ,levant1 from the ,persian ,gulf to the shores of the gean ,sea--was potent in modifying a vast population1 destined to give birth to many civilised ,states4 ,from its loins proceeded the empire of ,persia1--which was1 in fact1 in all respects only a modification of the empire which it supplanted2 while these two1 by their great influence over all western ,asia1 including the ,greek settlements of ,ionia1 must have affected in no slight degree the ,hellenic mind--especially from the period when ,alexander by his conquests drew ,greece bodily into ,asia4 ,as yet1 as we have said1 the book of ,assyrian history and civilisation is only beginning to be unrolled2 but there are already in the possession of the literati of ,europe written cylinders and inscriptions which1 when deciphered1 will cast important light upon matters as yet in the dark4 ,doubtless many more will be found even in the ruins already opened1--only one of which1 let it be noted1 has been thoroughly searched4 ,above all1 ruins upon ruins are to be seen scattered over the plains of ,mesopotamia1 which ,mr ,layard himself describes as the evident remains of ancient cities1 and which offer ample scope for the labours of more than one generation of investigators4 ,we shall get at the truth at last4 ,years may roll by1 and still see but little progress made in the search2--but there1 underneath1 lie the records of the past for which we seek1 and earth will keep them safe until we are ready to dig for them in earnest4 ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,ganges ,,canal4 #hth ,april #ahed4 ,from distant-lying lands1 ,lone in grey surges of the misty north1 ,the little band came forth1 ,who meet their ,god to-day with thankful prayer3 ,the myriads clap their hands1 ,sons of the soil now desolate and bare1 ,and their glad voices rise upon the morning air4 ,it comes1 long-wished-for1 comes1 ,the tamed and friendly flood1 ,while blatant arms and rattling drums ,sway to the peaceful conquest their unwonted mood4 ,and you1 ,o ancient peaks1 ,cold-glancing in the early sun6 ,this crowd1 in every murmur1 speaks ,your glory2--now is done ,your lonely age2 your true life is begun3 ,still through the night1 from ledge to ledge ,the avalanches fall1 ,still rears its crag and breathless edge ,your prmemorial wall2 ,yet may you swell our hymn to-day1 ,your old reproach is taken away1-- ,barren no more6 ,like her who bore ,in her white age the lost hope of her prime1 ,yet heard the ,heavenly pledge with glad surprise1 ,ye1 having won your heritage from time1 ,lift your hoar heads with laughter to the skies4 ,and years to come shall hear your praise1 ,far other than the fame of demon-gods1 ,holding their grim abodes ,on ,meru's top through fabled scular days2 ,years hence1 some aged man may say-- ,of those who stand to-day ,by the glad baptism of your youngest born2-- ,where1 from his fruit-grove1 far around ,he eyes the green and affluent ground3-- 8,i stood among them on that shining morn1 ,i saw the ruler of the land ,let loose the waters with an easy hand2 ,the river1 vainly idolised of yore1 ,now first her servants blessed2 ,the white-topped mountains never bore ,us benefit before1 ,till taught by those wise strangers of the ,west4 ,one shade alone hung o'er us1 ,to cloud the scene before us1 ,and temper with humility our joy-- ,one mild but earnest voice1 though still1 ,told us of mingled good and ill1 ,and the old moral of the world's alloy60 ,ah6--may our names1 like his1#adh be known1 ,when we are passed and grown ,but ,memories1 as ,greek and ,moghul are1 ,by deeds like these alone1 ,true triumphs1 that atone1 ,and vindicate the violence of war4 ,h4,g4,k4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,beauty4 ,heart-throbs of ,poesy2 ,old storied walls2 ,tint-beams of brilliancy ,when daylight falls2 ,floods of wild melody ,through palace-halls2 ,twilight mists on the deep2 ,keen stars above2 ,woman's sweet fellowship1 ,holy home--,love2-- ,all that ,earth preaches ,by ,beauty1 is given ,to train and to teach us1 ,and mould us for ,heaven4 ,h4,g4,k4 ,,spanish ,,politics ,,and ,,cuban ,,perils4 ,madrid1 #adth ,september #ahed4 ,dear ,ebony1--,the political chronicle1 since last ,i wrote to you1 is far from offering such stirring incidents as were recorded in my ,july and ,august despatches4 ,there has been no fighting1 although we were once on the brink of it1 and things have gone pretty quietly1 and1 upon the whole1 satisfactorily4 ,after the fray comes the feast2 and just as my last letter went off1 a banquet was given at the ,theatre-,royal1 by the press of ,madrid1 to the ministers and a large number of notable persons4 ,the press took an important part in the recent movements here1 and has not been unrewarded1 several of its members having been appointed to high posts under government4 ,after the dinner1 at which speeches and patriotism were plentiful1 the next incident of note was the return to ,madrid of the small division that first1 under ,o',donnell and ,dulce1 raised the banner of revolt against the ,sartorius tyranny1 and fought the brief but sanguinary fight of ,viclvaro4 ,but the principal event of the last thirty days1 the only one which 7with its consequences7 is worth dwelling upon1 is the departure--,i might almost say the escape--of ,queen ,christina from ,madrid and from ,spain4 ,in former letters ,i have given you an idea of the detestation with which ,ferdinand's widow1 once so beloved1 has long been regarded4 ,to those who remember the affection and enthusiasm testified for her during the early years of her residence in this country1 the contrast with the storm of hatred and execration amidst which she has quitted it1 is very striking4 ,then she was the hope of ,spain1 the idol of the ,liberal party2 her appearance abroad was the signal for cheers as vehement and heartfelt as any that have since been raised for ,espartero4 ,her name was the soldier's battle-cry1 when combating1 amidst the rugged hills of northern and eastern ,spain1 the partisans of ,charles ,v42 it was the burthen of the songs with which he enlivened his brief intervals of repose1 and beguiled the weariness of the march4 ,as ,i write1 there recurs to my memory the burthen of one of those cheerful ditties1 in which ,spaniards are called upon joyfully to exclaim 8,viva la ,reina1 ,maria ,cristina1 she who broke the chains that bound and oppressed us0--and more to that effect4 ,little more than a month ago1 as ,i walked through the ,puerta del ,sol--the heart of ,madrid1 which is the centre of ,spain--blind men and ill-favoured women shouted at every corner the titles and contents of scurrilous pamphlets that recounted the misdeeds of 8,mother ,christina40 ,it may truly be said that1 of the fourteen millions that people ,spain1 not one person 7save her own creatures7 could be found to raise his voice in her favour4 ,the charges brought against her are numerous1 and but too well founded4 ,she is accused of gross and wilful neglect of her daughter's education--neglect which has been the main origin of the scandal ,isabella has caused1 and of the humbled and perilous position in which she now finds herself2 her crown tottering on her head1 and her only chance of not losing it consisting in implicit obedience to her minister's directions4 ,she is accused of having betrayed the liberties of ,spain1 which were intrusted to her keeping2 of having trampled on the laws she had sworn to maintain2 of having built up a colossal fortune at the expense of the nation2 of having1 by her unscrupulous greed and shameful political intrigues1 by her own conduct1 and by her patronage of1 and complicity with1 some of the worst men in ,spain1 destroyed all public morality1 and augmented to an inconceivable extent administrative corruption4 ,on all these charges1 an immense jury1 composed of the whole ,spanish nation1 has unanimously found her guilty4 ,and1 since her departure1 the general hope and prayer are that she may never again set foot in the country she has so deeply injured4 8,may the accursed ,italian10 said a newspaper the other day1 8never return hither to make a traffic of all that is most sacred and holy upon earth40 ,but1 before she had left1 the feeling concerning her was in one respect different4 ,it was the opinion of many that it was neither safe nor just to allow her to leave the country4 ,it was remembered how1 during her three years' exile in ,france1 she had intrigued and manuvred1 and lavished treasure1 until1 aided by the divisions in the ,liberal camp and by the incapacity of the ,liberal government1 she rode into ,madrid in the triumphal car of ,reaction4 ,then1 it is true1 she had a staunch and interested ally in the wily and unscrupulous chief of the house of ,orleans4 ,deprived of his powerful aid and cooperation1 she is manifestly much less to be dreaded4 ,but a portion of the ,spanish nation1 and especially of the inhabitants of the capital1 well acquainted with her great cunning and skill in intrigue1 and overrating1 perhaps1 the elements and resources she can command in a foreign country for the purpose of again disturbing ,spain's tranquillity1 insisted that she should be caged and not expelled1 and moreover that she should be brought to account before the ,cortes for the peculations and robberies attributed to her by the voice of the entire nation4 ,you will remember the scenes that occurred at the palace soon after ,espartero's arrival here1 and the vain attempts then made to get her off in safety1 whilst armed and menacing crowds were vigilant to prevent her passage1 and could be induced to abandon their watch over their sovereign's palace1 and their stations upon the roads from ,madrid1 only by a promise from the government that the object of the popular wrath should not be allowed clandestinely to depart4 ,but it soon was found that if there was a probability of her being dangerous abroad1 there was a certainty of her being so at home4 ,her daughter's residence again became a focus of intrigue4 ,this got so well known1 the reactionary party1 encouraged by having their old protectress to lean upon1 were so active1 and symptoms were observed so dangerous to public tranquillity1 that the chiefs of the national guard sent a deputation to the government1 urging strongly the removal of ,christina from the palace4 ,as the national guard of ,madrid now consists of upwards of twenty thousand men1 and as they elect their own chiefs1 who must therefore be considered to represent the opinions and enjoy the confidence of the majority1 the prayer of such a deputation naturally had weight2 and at cabinet councils held on that and the following day1 the principal question discussed was--,what is to be done with the ,queen-mother8 ,the impossibility of preventing her intrigues1 should she remain in ,spain1 except by confinement too rigorous to be legal1 determined the council to expel her from the country2 attaching her property until the ,cortes should have investigated her conduct1 and decided concerning the charges brought against her4 ,this plan resolved upon1 it was immediately put into execution4 ,the determination was come to on the evening of the #bgth ,august4 ,on the #bhth1 at seven in the morning1 the ministers were at the palace1 to witness the ,queen-mother's departure4 ,the adieus were brief4 ,christina betrayed no emotion at parting from her daughter1 who1 on her part1 dropped a few decorous tears1 but was not very greatly afflicted4 ,there has never been much affection between the two queens1 although the elder of them1 by her astuteness and superior strength of character1 has exercised great influence over the younger4 ,the ,queen-mother then took leave of the ministers1 whom she must heartily detest2 recommended her daughter to the care and watchful guardianship of ,espartero1 and entered a large travelling-vehicle1 accompanied by her husband1 who looked grievously dejected1 and attended by an ecclesiastic of high rank1 and by several persons of her household4 ,her children's departure had preceded hers4 ,some were in ,portugal1 others in ,france4 ,escorted by two squadrons of cavalry1 under the command of the well-known ,general ,garrig1 she reached1 by short stages1 and without molestation1 the frontier of the former country4 ,few persons were present at ,christina's departure1 although it was stated in the ,french papers1 whose blunders concerning ,spanish affairs are incessant and amusing1 that the windows of the palace were filled with ladies waving handkerchiefs1 and that its roof was crowded with national guards4 ,the truth is1 that hardly anybody in ,madrid knew of the ,queen-mother's going1 until she had actually gone4 ,as the news spread1 a certain excitement was manifested1 and towards eleven o'clock a crowd of men1 many of them armed1 thronged the small square in front of ,espartero's residence1 with menacing shouts of ,down with the ,ministry6 and loud demands for the return of ,christina4 ,an aide-de-camp presenting himself at a window to address them1 firearms were levelled at him1 and he was compelled to retire4 ,the fermentation each moment increased4 ,deputations from various public bodies waited upon the premier to express their disapproval of the step taken4 ,the general impression abroad was1 that a trick had been played on the people1 that faith had been broken with them1 and that the government was pledged not to suffer the departure of ,christina until the ,cortes had decided concerning her4 ,the verbal pledge given by ,espartero to a deputation1 at a time when it was a great object to get rid of the bodies of armed men who beset the palace1 and infested the environs of ,madrid1 making it their business to guard against the escape of the ,queen-mother1 was1 that she should not depart furtively1 either by day or by night4 ,her departure1 therefore1 at eight in the morning1 when the gazette containing its announcement had been but an hour published1 was held to be a violation of this promise1 as far as regarded the people4 ,on the other hand1 the national guard had insisted1 through its chiefs1 that ,christina should not remain at the palace2 there was danger to the tranquillity of ,madrid if she continued there2 her property in ,spain1 and her pension of thirty thousand pounds a year1 which was suspended1 offered considerable security for the financial improprieties of which she might be found to have been guilty4 ,to let her leave the country was manifestly the wisest course1 and it was adopted4 ,it has been urged that it would have been more straightforward of the government1 and would have prevented even the imputation of a breach of faith1 to have summoned commissions of the national guards1 the corporation1 and other bodies1 and from them to have obtained1 beforehand1 that approval of the measure which was almost unanimously accorded to them a few hours after it had been taken4 ,but in cases of this kind there is a wide difference between before and after4 ,the same men who1 when the thing was done1 supported the cause of order and the government1 of whose good intentions they were sure1 and of the wisdom of whose conduct they presently became persuaded1 might have assumed a different attitude had they been consulted in advance4 ,moreover1 by acting in that way1 by deferring on every occasion to the popular voice1 whether it spoke words of wisdom or words of folly1 the ministers could never hope to gain strength1 which was what they most needed4 ,in short1 it might have been a very difficult and dangerous business to get ,christina out of ,madrid1 had the intention been published the day before2 and doubtless the government preferred risking the unfounded imputation of a deception1 to incurring the responsibility of fresh collisions4 ,in my opinion1 as an eyewitness of all that passed1 it would have been hazardous to have acted otherwise than the ministers did4 ,as it was1 not a shot was fired1 not a wound received2 and three days after the affair1 everybody seemed convinced that the best had been done4 ,i shall not dwell upon the incidents of the afternoon and night of the #bhth ,august1 of which you will have already seen accounts4 ,for a short time things looked menacing1 and many expected a fight4 ,the council of ministers1 assembled in the large building on the ,puerta del ,sol which is at once the ,spanish 8,home ,office0 and the main guard-house1 received numerous delegates from the corporation1 the provincial deputation1 and from other public bodies2 expounded to them their views and reasons1 and received promises of support4 ,meanwhile the national guard--a portion of it somewhat sulky and dissatisfied--took up arms and prepared to maintain order4 ,a considerable number of barricades had been thrown up4 ,the presence and exhortations of ,general ,san ,miguel sufficed for some of these to be removed by their makers4 ,but in a small section of the town they were maintained2 and a few hundred malcontents busied themselves in strengthening them1 and declared their intention of defending them4 ,over their uneven summits were to be seen the barrels of muskets and fowling-pieces1 and a few familiar faces which had often crossed my sight during the revolution of ,july4 ,it was not certain what the barricaders wanted2 in fact1 there was a strange combination of elements2 but the chief demand they put forward was1 the dismissal of the ministry1 whom they declared to have betrayed the people4 ,as far as ,i could observe1 ,espartero was excepted from this verdict2 but only by those of the insurgents who1 however mistaken in the course they pursued1 acted in good faith1 and in support of their own political views4 ,there were many others who were actuated by widely different motives4 ,the reactionary and absolutist party had its representatives at the barricades2 foreign influence was also at work2 and it has been supposed by some that ,christina had supplied funds--not1 perhaps1 in anticipation of the outbreak 7although even that she may have foreseen71 but to be in readiness for any occasion of mischief that might present itself4 ,it was clearly for her interest1 the revolution having gone so far1 to see it carried farther4 ,if the ultra-democratic party1 aided by the rabble of the low districts of ,madrid1 could gain the ascendant1 the certain result was anarchy4 ,then would come reaction1 and ,christina and her friends might hope to resume their places and recommence their spoliations4 ,accordingly1 there can be no doubt--indeed1 it were easily proved--that agents of the expelled party--the ,palacos1 as they are called--stimulated and assisted in the disturbances of the #bhth ,august4 ,their efforts were of no avail against the steady attitude of the national guards1 who remained for eighteen hours under arms in the streets1 obedient to their officers1 and turning a deaf ear to the perfidious insinuations of agents who sought to set them against the government1 and to divide them amongst themselves4 ,the insurgents1 seeing that their cause was hopeless1 and having the promise1 from ,espartero's own lips1 of a brisk cannonade at daybreak1 abandoned their barricades in the course of the night4 ,many of them left their arms behind them2 a considerable number were taken prisoners2 more escaped by concealing themselves in houses until such time as the national guards1 all danger being over1 retired to their homes4 ,on the #bith1 ,madrid was as quiet as if nothing had occurred4 ,a foreigner1 lately resident in this capital1 and who1 within little more than a year1 has acquired a rather unenviable celebrity1 is here generally believed to have had a hand in the outbreak of the #bhth ultimo4 ,i refer to the ,minister of the ,united ,states at ,madrid4 ,a ,frenchman by birth1 but compelled to abandon his country previous to the revolution of #ahcj1 in consequence of certain political writings1 ,m4 ,pierre ,soul settled on the other side of the ,atlantic1 and became heart and soul an ,american4 ,a man of great energy1 vigorous intellect1 and considerable astuteness1 he attained to high practice at the bar1 to a seat in ,congress1 and to the leadership of the party which seeks1 without much regard to the means employed1 to annex ,cuba to the ,states4 ,with that unscrupulous party1 his open profession of the most distorted views on questions of international right made him highly popular4 ,from his seat in the ,senate1 early in #aheb1 he bitterly attacked the government of ,mr ,fillmore for not taking up the cause of the adventurers under ,lopez2 some of whom had been executed1 and others sent to prison1 for their piratical attempt on the island of ,cuba4 ,in #ahec1 shortly before his appointment as minister at ,madrid1 he made a long and eloquent speech1 in which he lauded ,lopez and his companions as heroes1 indulged in stinging sarcasms on ,spain and ,spaniards1 and1 speaking of ,cuba1 urged the government1 in metaphorical phrase1 not to delay too long to pluck the fruit from the tree1 lest it should rot upon the stem4 ,this is the man whom ,mr ,franklin ,pierce thought proper to send as envoy to ,spain4 ,you will remember that1 on his arrival at ,new ,york to embark for ,europe1 a meeting was held in that city1 composed of members of the ,lone ,star ,society1 of fugitives from ,cuba1 and of other partisans of annexation1 who proceeded to serenade him1 bearing banners on which were inscriptions coupling ,mr ,soul's name with the rescue of ,cuba from the ,spanish yoke4 ,a member of the procession made a high-flown speech1 in which he expressed a hope that1 when the honourable envoy returned to his own country with fresh claims upon the esteem of his fellow-citizens1 a new star would shine in the celestial vault of ,young ,america4 ,m4 ,soul replied to this address1 referring to ,cuba as a suffering people2 and declaring that1 as an ,american minister1 he did not cease to be an ,american citizen2 and that1 as an ,american citizen1 he had a right to attend to the sobs of anguish of the oppressed4 ,taken in connection with his harangues in the ,senate1 and with the address to which it replied1 his speech was certainly most significant1 indiscreet1 and offensive to ,spain4 ,it caused great scandal1 not only in ,europe1 but amongst the right-thinking portion of the people of the ,united ,states4 ,mr ,pierce was loudly censured for the appointment1 and ,american newspapers declared that it was his duty1 as soon as he knew what had passed in ,new ,york1 to send a steamer after ,mr ,soul to bring him back1 since he had proved himself completely unfit to fill the office of ,american minister in ,spain4 ,i believe it to be a fact that the ,united ,states did not expect their envoy to be received as such at ,madrid4 ,but they underrated the meanness and pusillanimity of the ,spanish ministry then in power4 ,after some delay at ,paris1 employed1 it was said1 in ascertaining what sort of reception awaited him in the ,spanish capital1 ,mr ,soul proceeded to his destination4 ,he had been but a short time there1 when an unfortunate affair brought him into bad odour4 ,at a ball at the ,french ambassador's1 the ,duke of ,alba1 referring to ,mrs ,soul's dress1 which struck him as peculiar1 compared her to ,mary of ,burgundy4 ,probably the comparison was not very apt2 possibly the grandee who made it was not particularly conversant with the costumes of the middle ages3 there certainly does not appear to have been any offensive intention of comparing persons1 but merely of criticising a costume4 ,mr ,soul's son1 however1 a very young man1 overheard the remark1 took it in bad part1 and provoked the ,duke of ,alba4 ,the result was a bloodless duel1 fought with very long swords1 lasting a very long time1 and followed up by a very long letter to the papers1 which ,mr ,soul1 jun41 had1 for his own sake1 much better have left unwritten4 ,out of this affair grew a second duel1 more serious in its character and results1 between ,mr ,soul and the ,french minister at ,madrid4 ,they fought with pistols1 and the ,marquis de ,turgot received an unfortunate wound in the leg1 which1 to this day1 compels him to use crutches4 ,the whole details of these unpleasant circumstances were at the time placed before the public by the ,english and ,french press1 and the general opinion certainly seemed to be that the ,souls had unnecessarily commenced1 and afterwards wilfully aggravated a foolish quarrel1 which1 as new-comers to the country and considering the diplomatic character of the senior1 and the imputations of hostility to ,spain under which he laboured1 they ought to have done their utmost to avoid4 ,be this as it may1 and without entering into the political animosities that are said to have mingled in the affair1 the ,spaniards naturally took the part of their countryman and of ,m4 ,turgot--the case of the latter exciting particular sympathy1 since he had been dragged into and maimed in a quarrel with which he had not the least concern4 ,thenceforward the society of ,madrid avoided that of the ,soul family4 ,these unpleasant incidents had scarcely ceased to arrest the public attention1 when the affair of the ,black ,warrior again brought ,mr ,soul's name prominently before the world4 ,this affair has been so much discussed that its main facts must be generally and well known1 and ,i will use the utmost brevity in here recapitulating them1 which ,i do for the sake of adding a few comments1 and of relating one or two circumstances in the dispute to which they gave rise that ,i believe are not widely known4 ,on the #bhth ,february last1 the ,black ,warrior steam-ship1 a regular trader between ,mobile and ,new ,york1 arrived from the former place in the port of ,havanah4 ,she was entered at the custom-house as in ballast1 and the manifest presented was conformable with that declaration1 ship's provisions being the only cargo set down4 ,her clearance was then applied for2 but on the searcher from the custom-house visiting the vessel1 she was found to be cotton-laden2 whereupon her departure was stopped1 and judicial proceedings were commenced1 the delay having expired that is allowed by law for the rectification of the manifest4 ,article #afb of the ,customs ,regulations of the ,havanah states1 that 8after the twelve hours allowed by ,article #ae for the rectification of1 or addition to1 the manifest1 shall have expired1 all goods that may have been omitted in it shall be seized2 and1 moreover1 the captain shall be fined to the amount of their value1 provided always the amount of duty which would have to be paid on the contents of the package or packages do not exceed four hundred dollars2 because if it exceed that sum1 and if the goods belong1 or are consigned to1 the owner1 captain1 or supercargo1 the fine shall not be imposed1 but1 instead of it1 the vessel1 together with its freights and everything else available1 shall be seized40 ,this is explicit enough2 and it is to be noted that a copy of the custom-house regulations1 printed in ,english1 was handed to ,captain ,bullock1 commanding the ,black ,warrior1 as soon as he entered the port4 ,by order of the authorities the cargo was landed1 and found to consist of #ieg bales of cotton4 ,the amount of seizure and of fines incurred was very large1 and the ,marquis of ,pezuela1 captain-general of the ,havanah1 desired the superior board of administration to consider the matter1 with a view to its reduction4 ,that board fully confirmed the legality of the steps taken and fines imposed1 but left it at the discretion of the captain-general to reduce the latter if he thought proper4 ,he consulted the attorney-general of the island1 who recommended their reduction to ten thousand dollars1 exclusive of all expenses incurred in discharging the cargo2 but general ,pezuela finally decided to reduce the penalty to six thousand dollars1 including all costs and charges4 ,in the mean time the consignees had made various applications to the captain-general1 admitting their fault1 declaring the captain's omission to have arisen from ignorance1 pleading ignorance on their own part also1 begging that the vessel might be allowed to depart upon payment of the transit duties1 corresponding to a ship laden as she was2 and1 finally1 when the fine of six thousand dollars was definitely fixed upon1 entreating its further reduction4 ,this1 however1 the captain-general1 who had officially announced his decision1 refused to grant2 but he forwarded a petition from the consignees to the ,queen of ,spain1 in which it was set forth that there could have been no fraudulent intention--cotton not being an article of consumption in the island of ,cuba--in which the heavy loss arising from the detention1 discharge1 and reloading of the vessel was urged1 and the remission of the fine craved4 ,this prayer was subsequently granted2 but before that was done the dispute between ,spain and the ,united ,states had assumed menacing proportions4 ,this statement of well-ascertained facts shows the ,cuban authorities to have acted strictly within the law throughout the whole business1 and with great clemency to the persons who had transgressed it4 ,if it suited ,american vessels1 trading between ,mobile and ,new ,york1 to call at the ,havanah to take in coals1 or for other objects1 they were bound to comply in every respect with the laws and regulations of the colony1 and could not expect to get off scot-free if they transgressed them4 ,but there is a circumstance to be taken into consideration which somewhat modifies this view of matters in the case of the ,black ,warrior4 ,it appears that1 owing to the remissness1 indulgence1 or--it has been suggested1 but ,i have not seen it proved--the corruptness of the ,cuban authorities1 the ,black ,warrior had been in the habit of entering the port with a cargo1 exhibiting a manifest that stated her to be in ballast1 and being entered and cleared accordingly1 and that she had actually made more than thirty voyages in that manner without let or impediment4 ,it is scarcely possible that this should not have been known to the ,cuban custom-house1 and if so1 it must be admitted that the course pursued on the occasion of the voyage made in ,february #ahed was1 although doubtless strictly legal1 harsh and injudicious4 ,the neglect to enforce the law on more than thirty previous voyages might not suffice to abrogate it2 but it should have induced the ,cuban authorities--though it had been but from considerations of prudence--to re-enforce it less suddenly4 ,it is easy to understand that the new captain-general1 and one or two other newly-appointed and high functionaries1 who had gone out with him to the ,havanah only a few weeks before the occurrence of the difficulty1 were fired with zeal for reform2 and it is stated that1 during the first few months of their administration1 the revenue of the island increased4 ,but they should have gone to work more coolly and gradually4 ,in consideration of the long impunity the irregularities of the ,black ,warrior had enjoyed1 it would surely have sufficed1 on the #bhth ,february1 to have warned the captain and consignees that such could be no longer permitted1 and that1 on her next voyage1 the law would be rigidly enforced1 should occasion be given4 ,towards a country of equal or inferior power1 this would have been the fairest and most proper course to pursue2 but towards so potent and aggressive a neighbour as the ,united ,states1 it was most unwise to adopt any other4 ,but although numerous misrepresentations have been circulated on the subject1 this fault of judgment is the only one in the affair of the ,black ,warrior that can fairly be imputed to ,general ,pezuela and his subordinates4 ,of course1 the business was a godsend to ,president ,pierce and the annexation party in the ,united ,states4 ,the former forthwith sent a strong--,i might almost say a violent--message to the ,house of ,representatives1 declaring the seizure of the ,black ,warrior to present 8a clear case of wrong10 attributing habitual misconduct to the authorities of ,cuba1 and stating that he had already given instructions for the demand of an immediate indemnity2 in the event of the refusal of which1 he declared1 in menacing terms1 that he would 8vindicate the honour of the ,american flag40 ,now ,mr ,soul appears again upon the scene4 ,the demands addressed by him to the ,spanish government were an indemnity of #fj1jjj sterling1 the dismissal of all those ,cuban authorities that had been concerned in the proceedings against the ,black ,warrior 7this would of course include ,general ,pezuela1 although his name appears not to have been mentioned in the note71 and finally that1 in future1 the governor of ,cuba should have power to settle disputes with the ,united ,states without reference to the home government--an arrangement directly opposed to the colonial policy of ,spain4 ,as may be supposed1 the ,spanish ministry demurred to such exorbitant and unreasonable demands4 ,calderon de la ,barca1 the feeble and timid foreign minister of the ,sartorius cabinet1 was no match for ,mr ,soul4 ,he even suffered himself to be bullied by the ,american secretary of legation1 who1 on conveying to him a communication1 took out his watch and stated the exact time he would allow him to answer it4 ,and although ,sartorius came to the aid of his aged and incapable colleague1 he quickly disgusted ,mr ,soul by his double-dealing1 evasions1 and procrastination4 ,none of the communications that have passed during the discussion of the ,black ,warrior affair have as yet been published in ,spain1 or1 that ,i am aware of1 in ,america4 ,all the correspondence that passed in ,cuba is before us1 so that we are enabled to form an opinion on the merits of the case2 but there our documentary information stops4 ,what is positively known from other sources is1 that there seemed so little chance of the affair being settled with ,mr ,soul1 that the ,spanish government directed ,seor ,cueto to try to arrange it at ,washington1 and sent after him1 soon after his departure1 by ,seor ,galiano1 notes and instructions to aid him in the task4 ,for a considerable time after that1 scarcely anything was heard of the matter2 and there is strong reason to believe that ,mr ,soul was himself left without communications from his government for a length of time that annoyed and perhaps surprised him4 ,this naturally awakens a doubt whether his proceedings have been altogether approved at headquarters4 ,his friends here maintain that they have4 ,it is presumable that they derive their information from himself4 ,on the #ast of ,august last1 in compliance with the desire of the ,united ,states ,senate1 ,president ,pierce sent to it a message with respect to the state of ,american relations with ,spain since his former menacing message of the #afth ,march4 ,all that he said that directly referred to the ,black ,warrior affair1 was that ,spain1 instead of granting prompt reparation1 had justified the conduct of the ,cuban authorities1 and thereby assumed the responsibility of their acts4 ,the tone of the whole message was threatening to ,spain1 and the probability of war at no distant period was plainly indicated4 ,it nevertheless excited little apprehension here1 where it was generally considered to be merely an unprincipled attempt1 on the part of ,mr ,pierce1 to regain1 by an appeal to the passions of the people1 the popularity he had lost1 and at the same time to keep up alarm in ,cuba1 and to wear out the energies of ,spain1 in hopes that at last1 disheartened and intimidated1 a ,spanish government would be found willing to sell the island4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether any ,spanish minister would dare to entertain proposals for its purchase4 ,mr ,soul has declared himself1 in his place in ,congress1 decidedly opposed to that mode of acquiring ,cuba1 on the ground that it must1 at no distant date1 fall into the lap of the ,union without costing a dollar4 ,this declaration is nearly tantamount to saying that it is less expensive to take a thing by force than to buy it with money1 and conveys pretty much the sentiment for the practical carrying out of which on a small scale1 men used to be hung1 and are now transported4 ,mr ,soul is unquestionably a man of talent--eloquent1 wary1 skilful in adapting himself to the persons with whom he comes in contact--but he is deficient in good taste1 as he has more than once shown since he came to ,madrid1 and his patriotism and philanthropy1 with respect to the island of ,cuba1 smack too strongly of piracy to obtain much respect in ,europe1 however acceptable they may prove1 and however loudly they may be applauded1 in a lodge of the 8,lone ,star10 or at a ,new ,orleans public meeting4 ,but although 8,cuba without cost0 may be the device inscribed on his banner--a black one1 it is to be presumed--when he came to ,spain as the representative of his government1 he was bound to obey his instructions1 and these1 there can scarcely be a doubt1 were to offer a large sum of money for the much-coveted island4 ,knowing what we know of the ,sartorius ministry1 we are justified in believing that they would have had no objection to effect a sale which they assuredly would have made the means of filling their own pockets4 ,but however inclined they may have felt1 they dared not do it4 ,for some weeks the ,black ,warrior question had been comparatively little spoken of in ,madrid1 and the general opinion seemed to be that it had been amicably adjusted at ,washington1 or was in a fair way to be so1 when the ,o',donnell insurrection and the ,july revolution concentrated the public thought on home politics4 ,things had scarcely begun to settle down1 when1 on the #bast ,august1 the arrival of the ,president's message of the #ast once more drew attention to ,cuba1 and to the state of affairs between ,spain and ,america4 ,just a week later1 on the #bhth1 occurred the outbreak ,i have described in the early part of this letter4 ,on that same day1 before the revolt was suppressed1 it was said in ,madrid that the ,american minister was concerned in the insurrection4 ,the next day1 when things were quiet1 the part he was alleged to have played was matter of common conversation1 and then the newspapers took up the matter4 ,the ,diario ,espaol1 usually one of the best written and best informed of the ,madrid journals1 which supports the present government1 and is believed to be the special organ of ,general ,o',donnell1 published on the #cjth ,august a very strong article on the subject4 ,it had been stated the day before with truth that ,mr ,soul was about to leave ,madrid for ,france1 and the supposition had been added that he did so in order to avoid being in the ,spanish capital when news should arrive of a piratical invasion of ,cuba by citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,taking this for a text1 the ,diario ,espaol indignantly asked if ,mr ,soul feared for his personal safety1 and mistrusted the honour of ,spaniards4 ,he would have no cause for such apprehension1 the paper continued1 8even if he had been wanting in the respect due to the nation1 and had sought by every means to favour projects tending to deprive ,spain of her most precious colony3 even if it were certain that he had sought to profit by the days of degradation of the ,spanish government 7under ,sartorius71 and to take advantage of the insatiable voracity of high and low influences3 even if it were certain that he had endeavoured to profane the sanctity of the revolution1 and to sow discord amongst the people1 seducing the unwary1 engaging in a vile intrigue1 giving money and promising arms to destroy the power of the honourable and patriotic men who now direct the destinies of ,spain3 even if he had succeeded in gaining over a few deluded persons who had failed to discern1 through the cloud of his honeyed and flattering words1 the latent idea of keeping up agitation and disorder in the ,peninsula1 and so of depriving ,cuba of the succours the mother-country might otherwise send thither3 even though the people knew that he had attempted to take advantage of a moment of effervescence traitorously to excite its indignation1 and to hurry it to revolt40 ,this was pretty plain speaking4 ,on the same day that the article appeared1 ,mr ,soul addressed an angry letter to the ,diario ,espaol1 which did not publish it4 ,the letter afterwards appeared in a ,french frontier newspaper4 ,the following is a translation of its contents1 as given in the ,bayonne ,messager of the #ith ,august3-- 8,,madrid1 #cjth ,august4 8,a ,monsieur le ,directeur du ,diario ,espaol4 8,sir1--,the tone and character of the article concerning me published in your sheet of this day1 too plainly prove the influences that have inspired it for me not to honour it by a word of reply4 8,i leave ,madrid because it pleases me to leave it1 and because ,i have no account to render to anybody1 either of my proceedings or of the motives that determine them4 8,i will never absent myself from any place through fear of being insulted or put in peril by those whom my presence may displease4 8,i do not fear impertinence1 nor even assassins4 8,and especially1 ,sir1 ,i do not fear the people4 8,the people respects what deserves to be respected2--it brands only the miserable men who flatter and deceive it4444 ,it fights--but it does not assassinate4 8,as to the perfidious insinuations of which your article is full1 they are beneath my contempt4 8,i leave to you the merit of the varnish with which you have covered them1 and1 to those who dictated them1 the infamy of their invention4 8,i am1 ,sir1 your ,servant1 8,,pierre ,,soul40 ,the charges brought by the ,diario ,espaol1 and to which the above characteristic epistle was the reply1 were endorsed to a greater or less extent by public opinion in ,madrid4 ,on the #abth of ,august1 ,mr ,soul1 unable to attend the banquet given by the ,press1 had addressed to the committee of management a letter1 in which occurred the following passage3 8,the heart of ,young ,america1 doubt it not1 will palpitate with joy and delight at the breath of the perfumed breeze that shall waft to it across the ocean the acclamations of liberated ,spain4 ,may ,i be permitted to say1 that mine is intoxicated with felicity by the hope that ,europe1 apathetic though it seem1 will not suffer those germs of regeneration1 which the sublime sacrifice of some of her sons has just so miraculously caused to sprout1 to become debilitated1 and to die40 ,it is charitably supposed1 by those who credit the ,american minister's participation in the events of the #bhth ,august1 that the intoxication referred to in this flowery and figurative paragraph had not entirely passed away at that date1 and that the writer of the letter to the dining committee thought it his duty1 as the representative of ,young ,america1 to contribute his aid to that germination of regeneration which apathetic ,spain showed herself tardy in promoting4 ,at the same time1 there certainly are not wanting evil-disposed persons1 who affirm that ,mr ,soul has so concentrated his vision on his adopted country1 that he can scarcely discern any other2 that he looks with contempt upon the herd of slaves who range about ,europe1 and that to him it would be matter of indifference to see the ,old ,world perish1 so that the ,new ,world prospered--and1 with it1 his ambition4 ,it has further been said that1 neither prudent nor scrupulous in the means he employed1 he condescended assiduously to court that ,dowager ,queen whose whole life has been a contradiction to the principles he professes1 and to admit the society of a yet more illegitimate influence at the ,spanish court4 ,it has been declared1 and believed by many1 that ,mr ,soul1 knowing that the government of ,espartero and ,o',donnell was not one that he could either intimidate or buy1 and beholding in its character an insurmountable obstacle to the attainment of the great object of his desires1 resolved to work for its downfall by every means in his power1 and that1 notwithstanding his fervent sympathy with the welfare and liberties of ,spain1 he would have preferred either anarchy or despotism to the triumph of a system which1 whilst maintaining those liberties1 rendered more and more remote the prospect of realisation of that cherished project1 whose accomplishment would introduce a new star 8into the celestial vault of ,young ,america10 and at the same time vastly add to the importance and popularity in the ,states of the ,american minister at ,madrid4 ,all these things have been said1 and have found wide credence in this capital and elsewhere4 ,enough1 however1 on this branch of the subject4 ,the sum of ten million dollars1 demanded by ,mr ,pierce to make head against the possible contingency of a war with ,spain1 having been refused him by the ,american ,senate1 the probabilities of such a war occurring are greatly diminished1 and the ,spanish government entertains little apprehension on that score4 ,upon the other hand1 notwithstanding ,mr ,pierce's declaration in his ,message of the #ast ,august that the whole of the means which the constitution allows to the executive power should be employed to prevent the violation of law1 treaties1 and international right1 contemplated by certain citizens of the ,united ,states1 who1 as the government was officially and positively informed1 were fitting out an expedition for the invasion of ,cuba--notwithstanding this assurance1 ,i say1 there appear grounds for fearing that1 owing perhaps to the weakness of the executive arm in the ,states1 the expedition in question will yet sail for the coveted shores of the ,pearl of the ,antilles4 ,whether1 if attempted1 it will meet the fate of that under ,lopez1 or whether it will succeed1 not only in landing1 but in holding its ground until it can receive those reinforcements which would probably flock to it from the ,southern ,states1 as soon as it became known there that it had occupied1 and was maintaining1 a position1 is a matter of anxious uncertainty4 ,the island is strongly garrisoned1 but ,american riflemen are formidable opponents4 ,the ,spanish government feels confident of the result1 and fully reckons on the fidelity and valour of the two or three and twenty thousand good troops now in ,cuba4 ,where the ,americans will be most deficient will doubtless be in cavalry and artillery4 ,the ,spaniards have a thousand dragoons1 several batteries of field-artillery1 and numerous large ,paixhans guns garnishing the forts and batteries of the island4 ,and although ,spanish cavalry1 judging from what we see here1 is generally but indifferently mounted1 it is abundantly able to cope with irregular infantry1 and indeed would prove most formidable to the invaders1 if they ventured forth from the shelter of forests and hedges1 or from the broken ground favourable to sharp-shooters4 ,as to the courage of the men1 when well led1 there is no doubt of that4 ,good leading1 which they have rarely had1 is all that ,spaniards want to be as valiant troops as any in ,europe4 ,only the other day1 at ,viclvaro1 with ,general ,garrig and other brave and determined officers at their head1 regiments of dragoons repeatedly galloped up to the very mouths of batteries1 which received them1 at a few yards' distance1 with volleys of grape4 ,men who would do this1 would hardly flinch from charging irregular riflemen1 however accurate and deadly their fire4 ,the ,spanish artillery is considered the best arm in the service2 it is certainly the one with which the most pains are taken1 and which possesses the best-instructed officers4 ,the infantry now in ,cuba is about twenty thousand strong1 well disciplined1 in good condition1 and accustomed to the climate4 ,were these forces1 infantry1 cavalry1 and artillery1 concentrated in the field against the ,american pirates1 it is difficult to believe that the latter could succeed in getting together1 or at least in landing1 a force capable of resisting their attack4 ,to speak positively on this point1 however1 it would be necessary to be somewhat in the confidence of the filibusteros1 or at least to know more than is positively known of their resources1 plans1 and places of rendezvous4 ,but even supposing that they muster more than we1 in our imperfect information1 think probable1 it is to be borne in mind that the very best irregular troops1 however formidable their valour and skill with their weapons may render them in small numbers1 are far less to be feared when they act in large masses4 ,then the deficiency in discipline and drill tells heavily against them4 ,i am far from underrating the indomitable pluck of the ,americans1 or their coolness or steadiness when in peril1 and only desire to see those valuable qualities displayed in a better cause than the one to which we are assured they are shortly to be devoted4 ,but in an open plain1 or in the attack of a fortress1 and when opposed to regular troops of average bravery1 something more than pluck and coolness is required4 ,upon the other hand1 it must not be forgotten1 when we seek to strike the balance of chances1 that the garrison of ,cuba could not be brought entire into the field4 ,certain forts1 and towns1 and positions must be held1 and although it is probable that many of these would be left to the keeping of the numerous volunteers that would take up arms the moment an invasion occurred1 still portions of the garrison must be detached from the main body4 ,an intelligent ,spaniard1 who has spent several years in ,cuba1 and but recently returned thence1 gave it me as his opinion that from ten to twelve thousand men could be employed as the army of operation4 ,he estimated the present garrison at rather under twenty thousand men effective for the field1 which is somewhat less than the government estimate4 ,the ,european ,spaniards in the island he believed to be about fifty thousand1 a large proportion ,basques and ,catalans1 and who would readily enrol themselves as volunteers in case of peril1 would prove formidable antagonists1 and fight desperately for their homes and property4 ,as to the native ,cubans1 many of them would be likely to join the ,americans1 if these were strong1 and gained advantages at first starting2 but if the invaders were worsted1 the ,cubans would fly to arms and vaunt their fidelity to ,spain4 ,the negroes1 who have no wish to exchange ,spanish for ,american masters1 and who are aware of the many disadvantages under which even a free man of colour labours in the ,states1 would all be ready to fight1 if arms were given to them4 ,the negro mode of fighting1 as described to me by persons who are well acquainted with it1 is peculiar and dangerous4 ,they fire a volley1 receive the enemy's fire1 throw away their muskets1 and rush in with cutlass or poniard4 ,the long narrow shape of the island of ,cuba1 which bears a strong resemblance to a lizard with the head looking eastward1 is favourable to its defenders1 since it facilitates the cutting off of the invading force4 ,it will be a great advantage if ,general ,concha's arrival takes place previously to any attack4 ,he is the very man to command under such circumstances4 ,quick of eye and ready of resource1 he will inspire the troops with confidence1 and raise the courage of the ,cubans4 ,amongst these he has1 what no captain-general of ,cuba in our time has had1 a strong party--persons who are attached to him1 like his mode of administration1 prefer him to any other captain-general1 and will stand by him to the utmost with all the influence and power they may possess4 ,this is a principal reason why he readily and gladly accepted the destination towards which he is now steaming1--if indeed he has not arrived there1 since his departure from ,corunna took place upwards of a fortnight ago4 ,the ,spanish government--and indeed ,spaniards generally1 as far as my means of observation extend--entertain a sanguine belief that1 with the troops at his command1 and with the moral and physical support of the majority of the dwellers on the island1 ,concha will so handle the intruding annexionists as to make them heartily repent their unprovoked and unjustifiable aggression4 ,there are other points to be taken into consideration when we discuss the probable issue of the anticipated conflict4 ,one of these1 on which such conflicting testimony has been given that it is scarcely possible to form a decided opinion with respect to it1 is the amount of support the ,americans would find in the island itself4 ,the ,spaniards1 as ,i have above intimated1 think it would be unimportant4 ,ask a ,yankee annexionist1 and he will tell you that the whole island1 with the exception of the ,european ,spaniards resident in it1 pines for release from the intolerable yoke of ,spain1 longs to hoist the ,stripes and ,stars1 and to cling to the proud neck of the ,american eagle4 ,i have been told by ,americans of the numbers of letters received from inhabitants of ,cuba1 expressive of these sentiments1 and imploring sympathy and assistance4 ,but it must be observed that a few malcontents1 or ,american settlers in the island1 would suffice to circulate an immense number of such complaints and prayers4 ,one may imagine1 for instance1 the consignees of the ,black ,warrior1 after inditing their submissive and penitent letters to the governor-general1 and their petition to the ,queen of ,spain for the remission of the fine1 dipping their sharpest iron pen into the ink-bottle1 and relieving their afflicted souls by throwing off screaming despatches to their friends in ,new ,york and ,new ,orleans1 inveighing against the tyranny of ,spanish rule1 and longing for the day when ,cuba should join the ,union4 ,by those to whom such letters were welcome1 they would naturally be made the most of2 they would be handed about1 talked of1 and their contents verbally repeated1 until it would seem as if a hundred letters had arrived instead of one4 ,the ,spaniards themselves admit that a part of the ,creole population would be glad to see the island detached from ,spain4 ,to these ,i suppose we may safely add1 as partisans of ,cuba's becoming a ,state of the ,union1 all the ,anglo-,americans resident in the island4 ,beyond this1 ,i am in possession of no trustworthy evidence2 and when ,i say that only a small portion of the ,creoles or native whites are disaffected to the ,spanish government1 ,i state it1 as you will observe1 on ,spanish authority1 but1 at the same time1 on the authority of ,spaniards long resident in the island1 particularly capable1 by their position and intelligence1 of forming a correct judgment1 and the sole drawback to the value of whose opinion is the admissible supposition that it may be biassed by their natural wishes on the subject4 ,supposing that1 in the autumn of #ahed1 an ,american expedition1 starting from ,florida1 or from one of the small islands in the ,bahama channel1 made a descent upon ,cuba1 were entirely worsted1 and cut off or compelled to re-embark4 ,how long a time would elapse before a third expedition were got ready8 ,would not the interval probably be shorter than the one between the ,lopez expedition and the present date8 ,the dogged tenacity of a certain class of ,americans1 when bent upon acquisition1 is well known4 ,and is it not probable that each expedition would exceed the preceding one in strength1 until one went forth strong enough to triumph8 ,the passage of the island from the feeble hands of bankrupt decrepid ,spain into the strong ones of the young and vigorous ,union1 is a mere question of time1 unless other nations interfere4 ,are any prepared to do so8 ,england and ,france are of course the only powers to which ,spain might look for aid to prevent her being robbed of her last valuable colony4 ,and would she not look to them in vain1 at least under present circumstances8 ,i do not believe that the ,spaniards reckon on such assistance4 ,the reflecting portion of the nation--those who think upon the subject at all--seem convinced that the island must sooner or later pass from them4 ,some would be disposed to sell it1 whilst it still has value1 before the ,americans feel so certain of getting it by other means that they will no longer feel disposed to disburse4 ,others1 on the contrary1 are for holding it to the last1 burning the last cartridge before giving in1 and1 as a last desperate resource1 emancipating the slaves4 ,the most rational and profitable of the two courses would doubtless be the sale4 ,and yet1 owing to the ignorance and national conceit of a large number of ,spaniards--who believe that the valour of ,spanish troops must always suffice to guard ,cuba1 and who have not sufficient knowledge of the past and present history of the world to see that in the course of nature they must lose it--it would be difficult for any ministry to brave the storm of indignation that would here be raised by the sale of the island4 ,it could1 of course1 under the present regime1 be done only with the sanction of the ,cortes2 and perhaps the wisest thing the ,espartero ministry could do would be to bring forward the subject when that body meets in ,november4 ,to give advice to ,spain is1 ,i am aware1 a delicate thing for foreign governments to do1 but the men at present at the head of affairs here are not likely to mistake the motive1 or to take offence at a well-intended counsel4 ,if ,england and ,france be quite decided to take no steps towards the preservation of ,cuba to ,spain1 and if the government of this country be not already perfectly aware of that decision1 it would be but right to give it the information1 so that it might fairly and fully appreciate its position and chances1 and not delude itself with vain hopes1 never to be realised1 of ultimate succour from powerful allies4 ,assuredly no ,spanish government was ever more in want than is the present one of the pecuniary supplies which the sale of ,cuba would place at its disposal4 ,the state of the finances of the country is lamentable1 and ministers are the more to be pitied1 since their embarrassed position is the consequence of no fault of theirs1 but of the scandalous misrule and malversation of several preceding governments1 and especially of that of ,sartorius4 ,the ,spanish and ,english newspapers have already supplied many details on this head4 ,i will content myself with throwing together a few of the principal and most striking facts4 ,when the present government assumed office1 it found an empty treasury1 and1 even worse than that1 the resources on which it might have reckoned for advances were already anticipated4 ,there was no money anywhere4 ,the ,sartorius-,domenech-,collantes ministry had made a clean sweep of everything4 ,the forced loan decreed on the #aith ,may1 and which was to be paid during the months of ,june and ,july1 had not flowed in with that gratifying rapidity announced by the organs of the ,polaco cabinet2 but nevertheless about four hundred and seventy thousand pounds sterling had been collected1 out of nearly two millions1 which it was estimated that it should yield4 ,of the #dgj1jjj1 about #adj1 or thirteen thousand reals1 remained in the treasury4 ,the confusion in the public accounts rendered necessary the appointment of commissioners to investigate them1 and to report the real state of the finances4 ,the labours of these commissioners brought to light a whole system of iniquity and of downright robbery4 ,the most shameful jobs had been perpetrated2 funds set apart for particular purposes1 and which could not legally be otherwise employed1 had been misappropriated2 enormous amounts had been expended in secret-service money1 of which no account was to be found2 everything the government had to pay was in arrears1 and all they had to receive was in advance4 ,the result of the examination was to exhibit a balance against the treasury amounting to seven millions sterling1 of two and a half millions of which the payment was urgent4 ,to meet this heavy deficiency1 equal to half a year's revenue1 the new ministry had literally nothing but their good intentions and recognised honesty--excellent things1 but not always convertible into specie4 ,the consequences of the revolution added to their embarrassments4 ,nothing was to be obtained from the provincial treasuries1 which were found to be nearly all empty1 some of them having been drained to the last real by the departed ministers2 whilst in other cases there is reason to conclude that the local juntas1 formed during the revolution1 had spent the money4 ,during the latter half of ,july1 every place had its junta1 legislating as it thought fit1 taking off taxes1 admitting foreign goods free of duty1 sapping the foundations of the revenue4 ,the effects of this on the revenue for the month of ,july was a diminution of a quarter of a million sterling1 or fully one-fifth4 ,although1 early in ,august1 the juntas were prohibited from passing laws and altering the established system of the country1 whilst since then many of them have altogether dissolved themselves1 fears are entertained that for some months the revenue will continue below what it is in ordinary times4 ,the period of revolution was a jubilee for the smuggler4 ,at some points of the frontier he was suddenly converted into a fair trader by the abolition1 decreed by juntas1 of all import duties4 ,but1 amidst the confusion consequent on the revolution1 he nowhere had any difficulty in carrying on his commerce4 ,from ,gibraltar1 from ,portugal1 from ,france1 foreign goods poured in1 to the exhaustion of the smuggling depts in those three countries4 ,those large illicit importations must for some time to come have a serious effect on the custom-house revenue4 ,it is predicted that the falling-off in the whole revenue for ,august will be even greater than in that for ,july4 ,this appears to me doubtful1 although nearly certain in the item of custom duties2 and on the other hand1 we may hope the expenditure will be less under an honest and economical government--whose economy1 however1 has not1 in every instance1 been as rigorous as itself1 ,i fully believe1 earnestly desired4 ,the difficulties environing a government that is borne into power in ,spain on the billows of a revolution like that of #ahed1 are not to be imagined by any who have not witnessed them4 ,to form some faint idea of them1 one must be acquainted with the ramifications and extent of the empleomania--mania for place--which is the great curse of ,spain1 and which1 when one beholds the extent to which it is carried1 makes him almost despair of the improvement of the nation4 ,it were reasonable to suppose that when ,espartero and his colleagues took office1 under as difficult circumstances1 certainly1 as any set of men that ever accepted it1 even here1 they would be allowed to give their whole time and undivided attention to the necessities of the country1 to the getting rid of abuses1 to the introduction of proper economics1 to the adoption of measures calculated to improve the wretched financial situation4 ,not so3 the idea of their supporters evidently was that their first duty was the portioning out of places1 not only to old friends1 but to many new ones--libraux du lendemain4 ,from the day they took office down to the present date1 ministers have been besieged1 pestered1 overwhelmed1 by a stream of applicants eager to live upon the budget4 ,espartero1 from his popularity and influence1 was the chief victim of these cormorants4 ,for a very long time his anterooms were thronged from early morning till late at night1 by persons who could not go away1 who would see the general1 although perhaps the request they had to make had no possible connection with his department1 and should have been addressed to some other minister1 to the intendant of the palace1 the captain-general of the province1 or the civil governor of ,madrid4 ,sometimes1 when there were thirty or forty persons waiting at the door of his cabinet1 all deaf to the remonstrances of weary aides-de-camp1 he would come out himself1 as if in despair at ever obtaining repose1 despatch them all1 one after the other1 as quickly as might be1 and then retreat with his secretary into his private room1 giving orders that nobody should be admitted1 to try to get two or three hours' uninterrupted work before the usual hour for the sitting of the council arrived4 ,and then the host of letters--nearly all prayers and petitions1 setting forth the services and sufferings of the writers1 and their strong claims to place or patronage6 ,the supplicants were of all kinds and classes2 from the colonel who thought his merits would not be over-rewarded by a brigadier's embroideries1 from the aspirant to some fat berth of many thousand reals a year1 down to the suitor for a porter's place or a sergeant's stripes1 and even to individuals desirous of being appointed quitamanchas1 grease-spot extractors 7fact7 to the palace1 and who could think of no more fitting person to apply to than the prime-minister4 ,ah this greedy mob pestered1 and still pester1 the president of the council1 and in a less degree the other ministers1 with their daily applications4 ,the craving after place is disgusting to behold1 and extends1 with a few honourable exceptions1 through all classes4 ,as to patriotism in ,spain1 ,i have the utmost difficulty1 after witnessing what has followed upon this revolution1 in crediting its existence1 except in the breasts of a small minority of the population4 ,patriotism here appears to consist in turning out one party in order that another may step into the enjoyment of the good things it possessed4 ,it is truly sickening to hear the selfish cuckoo-song of the seekers after places1 to hear them vaunt their past services1 and tell of their sufferings for the liberal cause during the eleven long years that succeeded #ahdc--sufferings consisting1 for the most part1 when they come to be inquired into1 simply in exclusion from those loaves and fishes for a share of which they now hungrily plead4 ,with a certain and too-numerous class of ,spaniards1 a man is a patriot and a martyr by the mere fact of his drawing nothing from the treasury4 ,there were many persons who really had done great service to the triumphant cause2 men who had risked their lives1 laboured hard1 and been forward and most useful in the hour of danger4 ,these men1 on account both of their merits and of their abilities1 had not to solicit1 but were at once placed in high and responsible situations4 ,for each one appointed1 how many malcontents were made6 ,of these malcontents some must be conciliated2 others had claims which deserved attention1 and which they had not sufficient self-denial and love for their country altogether to withdraw4 ,under these circumstances1 how was it possible for the government to economise as it should and might have done8 ,the pressure brought to bear upon it1 the influences exerted1 were more than it could resist1 and many a place was given that ought to have been suppressed in the interest of ,spain's exhausted treasury4 ,it gives small hope for the future of a country when one sees even the best of her sons doing nothing without hope of reward1 nothing for the pure and disinterested love of their native land4 ,and to this rule1 in ,spain1 ,i fear there are but few exceptions4 ,a careful investigation and calm review of the present state of the finances of ,spain1 leave upon the mind a strong doubt as to whether a national bankruptcy can possibly be avoided4 ,i have exposed the misery of the treasury1 as left by the ministry of ,sartorius--seven millions sterling deficiency1 and not as many pence in the coffers of the ,state for the pressing necessities of the new government4 ,with some difficulty1 and by the aid of the signature of the ,san ,fernando ,bank1 the finance minister has obtained about fifty thousand pounds sterling1 secured on colonial revenues4 ,of course1 a very short time will see the last of that small sum2 and what is then to be done1 in presence of a revenue which it is expected1 with good show of reason1 will1 for some time to come1 be below an average8 ,economise1 it may be said2 but economy is not to be effected1 on an important scale1 at a few days' notice4 ,it is probably in the army that reform and reduction1 if made1 would most rapidly be felt4 ,it is said to be the intention of the minister of war greatly to reduce it2 and no opportunity can be better than the present1 for when all the men who1 in virtue of the boon of two years' remission of service lately granted to the whole army1 have completed their time1 shall have received their discharge1 the military forces of ,spain will probably be smaller than they ever have been since the beginning of the ,carlist war4 ,the expense of the ,spanish army is about three millions sterling--an enormous burthen on the scanty revenue4 ,there are other burthens more difficult to diminish4 ,the system pursued in this country of turning out numbers of public officers and employs when a new government comes in1 to make room for its friends and supporters1 has loaded ,spain with pensions1 half-pay1 and retired allowances4 ,these amount to a million and a half sterling4 ,how is this load to be lightened8 ,but very gradually1 it is evident2--by filling up vacant places with pensioned men1 whose pensions thereupon cease4 ,to abolish all those pensions not due to long service or ill-health would be to condemn thousands of families to starvation1 and to raise a storm that no government could withstand4 ,such a sweeping measure would not be just1 nor is it practicable4 ,a reform of the tariff is an obvious and most effectual means of improving the financial position4 ,let the government reduce the duties on foreign manufactured cottons to twenty per cent ad valorem4 ,the importations 7chiefly contraband7 of that class of merchandise at present amounts1 as ,i am informed1 to about three millions sterling4 ,a twenty-per-cent duty would demolish the smuggler1 and yield the revenue six hundred thousand pounds a year4 ,would it not then be possible for ,spain to get a small loan on reasonable terms1 the coupons being accepted1 as soon as due1 in payment of custom-house duties1 and an arrangement1 or the promise of an early one1 being at the same time made with respect to the amount of coupons which ,bravo ,murillo laid upon the shelf8 ,it is1 however1 unnecessary to answer this question until we have reduced the duty4 ,here1 again1 great difficulties present themselves1 and jealous interests bar the way4 ,catalonia and the smugglers would be in arms the very moment such a measure was promulgated4 ,catalonia1 which produces 7,i speak from experience of its goods7 wretched wares at exorbitant prices1 has long been the great impediment to ,spain's prosperity1 or at least improvement4 ,that one province pretends to make the whole country buy its inferior merchandise in preference to that of ,england and ,france2 and this pretension it enforces1 to the great profit and contentment of the contraband trader4 ,time and a strong government are needed to bring about that reduction of duties on foreign manufactures which would prove so great a benefit to ,spain1 and to its revenue4 ,and at present1 time is wanting4 ,something must be done quickly4 ,as things now stand1 it is hard to tell whence is to come the money for the next dividend on the home and foreign debt4 ,at this date but a small portion of the last dividend due on the home debt has been paid4 ,it has been suggested that much will depend on the composition of the constituent ,cortes4 ,if the country elects representatives who will support the present government1 and so give confidence in its duration and strength1 it is thought that capitalists will perhaps be found to come to its aid4 ,but if the good sense of ,spanish electors prove unequal to the emergency--if they return a ,chamber composed of a mixture of demagogues and of partisans of reaction1 and not containing a good working majority in favour of the policy of moderate progress1 which is that of the ,espartero-,o',donnell cabinet--there is nothing but fresh trouble in store for ,spain1 and the question of finance will then appear almost hopeless4 ,whilst contemplating the gloomy1 or at least uncertain1 prospects of the ,spanish treasury1 ,i am forcibly reminded of ,cuba and of ,american proposals for its purchase4 ,i have not heard a statement of the exact amount the ,states are disposed to give2 but ,i have been assured1 on no mean authority1 that it would suffice to pay off the whole of the debt1 home and foreign1 and that a handsome surplus would still remain for roads and railways4 ,besides these advantages1 ,cuba1 once sold1 ,spain might safely reduce her fleet and army1 for she would then have no reason to apprehend war with the ,united ,states1 as she at present has none to anticipate aggression or interference on the part of any ,european power4 ,relieved of her heaviest burthens1 and blessed with an honest government 7if indeed it be possible that such endure in a country upon which the curse of misgovernment seems to rest71 ,spain might soon and easily forget the loss of that cherished colony1 whose retention1 under present circumstances1 is more a question of pride than of profit1 and to whose loss without compensation1 she must1 ,i fear1 by the force of events1 be prepared sooner or later to submit4 ,,vedette4 ,printed by ,william ,blackwood ,sons1 ,edinburgh4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,of the ,plurality of ,worlds2 an ,essay4 ,also a ,dialogue on the same subject4 ,second ,edition4 ,parker and ,son1 #ahed4 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 the ,creed of the ,philosopher1 and the ,hope of the ,christian1 ,by ,sir ,,david ,,brewster1 ,k4,h41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,murray1 #ahed4 ,the ,planets3 ,are they ,inhabited ,worlds8 ,museum of ,science and ,art4 ,by ,,dionysius ,,lardner1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,chapters i41 ii41 iii41 iv4 ,walton and ,maberly1 #ahed4 ,footnote #b3 ,works1 vol4 xi4 p4 #aih 7,bishop ,heber's edition74 ,the following is the entire sentence of which the above is the commencing section3 8,whatever we talk1 things are as they are--not as we grant1 dispute1 or hope2 depending on neither our affirmative nor negative1 but upon the rate and value which ,god sets upon things40 ,footnote #c3 ,dialogue1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #d3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #e3 ,dialogue1 pp4 #e1 #f4 ,footnote #f3 ,daily ,news4 ,footnote #g3 ,essay1 p4 #abj4 ,footnote #h3 ,ante1 p4 #cjj1 ,no4 cccclxvii4 ,footnote #i3 ,essay1 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ibid41 pp4 #acd-acf4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid41 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #ab3 ,one or two of these 8,discourses10 all of which were delivered in the ,tron ,church1 ,glasgow1 at noon on the week day1 were heard by the writer of this paper1 then a boy4 ,he had to wait nearly four hours before he could gain admission as one of a crowd1 in which he was nearly crushed to death4 ,it was with no little effort that the great preacher could find his way to his pulpit4 ,as soon as his fervid eloquence began to stream from it1 the intense enthusiasm of the auditory became almost irrestrainable2 and in that enthusiasm the writer1 young as he was1 fully participated4 ,he has never since witnessed anything equal to the scene4 ,footnote #ac3 ,essay1 pp4 #aic1 #aid4 ,footnote #ad3 ,in the 8,dialogue10 ,dr ,whewell states that it was not till after the publication of his 8,essay0 that he became acquainted with the fact of the coincidence of his views1 on the subject of ,geology1 with those of ,mr ,hugh ,miller1 in his 8,first ,impressions of ,england10 with reference to astronomical objections to ,revelation4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid41 chap4 vii41 #a1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid41 chap4 vi41 #bg1 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #ag3 ,essay1 pp4 #aia1 #aib4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ibid41 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #ai3 ,ibid41 pp4 #aea1 #aeb4 ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid41 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid41 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ibid41 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #bc3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #bd3 ,essay1 p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #be3 ,essay1 pp4 #aih-aii4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid41 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ante1 p4 #bhi4 ,footnote #bh3 ,essay1 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #bi3 ,essay1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid41 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #ca3 ,even of monkeys1 there have been found fossil remains4 ,footnote #cb3 ,essay1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #cc3 ,essay1 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid41 pp4 #aii1 #bjj4 ,footnote #ce3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #bcg1 7we quote from the first edition74 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid41 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid41 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #ch3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ibid41 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #dj3 ,in fact1 in a note to page #bdg1 ,sir ,david thus slily alludes to those 8conjectures0 of ,dr ,whewell in his ,bridgewater ,treatise1 to which we have referred 7ante1 pp4 #bij1 #bia73--8;,a very different opinion is stated by ,dr ,whewell1 in his ,bridgewater ,treatise20 adding1 after citing the passages1 8the rest of the chapter1 #8,on the vastness of the ,universe1' is well worthy of the perusal of the reader1 and forms a striking contrast with the opinions of the ,essayist40--,this is perfectly fair4 ,footnote #da3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #db3 ,ibid41 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid41 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #dd3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 pp4 #ahj1 #ahc4 ,footnote #de3 ,ibid41 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #df3 ,essay1 ch4 vii4 sec4 #ag1 p4 #bba4 ,footnote #dg3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #dh3 ,essay1 chap4 x4 sec4 #aj1 pp4 #cjh1 #cji2 chap4 xii4 sec4 #a1 p4 #cei4 ,footnote #di3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 pp4 #agh1 #agi4 ,footnote #ej3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #ea3 ,dialogue1 pp4 #fb-fd4 ,footnote #eb3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #ed3 ,ibid41 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #ee3 ,ibid41 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #ef3 ,ibid41 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #eg3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 pp4 #ada-adb4 ,footnote #eh3 ,ibid41 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ibid41 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ibid41 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid41 pp4 #dd-dg4 ,footnote #fb3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #fc3 ,azoic signifies those primary rocks which contain no traces of organic life1 no remains of plants or animals4 ,footnote #fd3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #fe3 ,ibid41 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #ff3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 pp4 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,footnote #fg3 ,a thirtieth planetoid was discovered by ,mr ,hind since the publication of the second edition of the ,essay4 ,footnote #fh3 ,,lardner1 ,museum of ,science and ,art1 vol4 i4 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #fi3 ,dial41 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #gj3 ,ibid41 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #ga3 ,museum1 c41 vol4 i4 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #gb3 ,p4 #bga4 ,her distance from us is #bdj1jjj miles2 and our ,essayist1 by the way1 tells us 7chap4 x4 #g7 that 8a railroad-carriage1 at its ordinary rate of travelling1 would reach her in a month40 ,we should not like to travel by the ,lunar ,express1 but should prefer the parliamentary train1 and hope1 starting from the ,hanwell station1 to get to the terminus in a couple of years or so4 ,good ,bishop ,wilkins intended to be taken up by birds of flight trained for the purpose4 ,when the ,duchess of ,newcastle asked him where he intended to bait by the way1 he answered1 8,your ,grace is the last person to ask me the question1 having built so many castles in the air60 ,footnote #gc3 ,essay1 p4 #bgb4 ,footnote #gd3 ,pp4 #hj1 #ha4 ,footnote #ge3 ,museum1 c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #gf3 ,p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #gg3 ,p4 #bd4 ,footnote #gh3 ,museum1 c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #gi3 ,p4 #aab4 ,footnote #hj3 ,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #ha3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 pp4 #ig1 #aja4 ,footnote #hb3 ,pp4 #ii1 #ajj4 ,footnote #hc3 ,essay1 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #hd3 ,essay1 p4 #bha1 #bhi4 ,footnote #he3 ,brewster1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #hf3 ,to descend1 for a moment1 to details4 ,sir ,david ,brewster will not allow himself to be driven to elect between the icy or watery constituency of ,jupiter4 ,he declares direct experiment to have proved that it is neither2 that if ,jupiter were a sphere of water1 the light reflected from his surface1 when in his quadratures1 must contain1 as it does not1 a large portion of polarised light2 and if his crust consist of mountains1 precipices1 and rocks of ice1 some of whose faces must occasionally reflect the incident light at nearly the polarising angle1 the polarisation of their light would be distinctly indicated4 ,the ,essayist1 in his ,dialogue1 8doubts whether the remark is applicable2 for ,jupiter's watery or icy mass must be clothed in a thick stratum of air1 and aqueous vapour1 and clouds4 ,but even were the planet free from clouds1 the parts of the planet's surface from which polarised light would be reflected1 would be only as points compared with the whole surface2 and the common light reflected from the whole surface would quite overwhelm and obliterate the polarised light40--,dial4 p4 #fd4 ,we cite this as a sample of the ingenuity of both disputants1 in a point of scientific contact4 ,whether ,sir ,david's conjectural polarised light be or be not thus obliterated1 in our view the item in dispute is quite lost in the general question1 and the great principles on which its solution depends4 ,if driven to elect between ice and water1 asks ,sir ,david playfully1 8may we not1 upon good grounds1 prefer the probable ice to the possible water1 and accommodate the inhabitants of ,jupiter with very comfortable quarters1 in huts of snow and houses of crystal1 warmed by subterranean heat1 and lighted with the hydrogen of its waters1 and its cinders not wholly deprived of their bitumen80--,pp4 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,the answer of his opponent would be obvious4 ,footnote #hg3 ,brewster1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ibid41 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #hi3 ,ibid41 pp4 #fe1 #ff4 ,footnote #ij3 ,ibid41 pp4 #fh1 #fi4 ,footnote #ia3 ,dial41 p4 #f4 ,footnote #ib3 ,ibid41 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #ic3 ,dial41 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #id3 ,museum1 c41 vol4 i4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #ie3 ,dial41 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #if3 ,lord ,byron--,hebrew ,melodies4 8,the philosopher will scan10 says ,sir ,david1 at the close of his eloquent ,treatise1 8with a new sense1 the lofty spheres in which he is to study40--,p4 #bei4 ,footnote #ig3 ,pp4 #afd1 #afe4 ,footnote #ih3 ,isaiah1 xlv4 #i4 ,footnote #ii3 ,isaiah1 lv4 #h1 #i4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,essay1 p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #aja3 ,pp4 vii4-viii4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,essay1 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,see them specified1 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,cosmos1 iii4 #cgc4 ,footnote #aje3 ,ch4 viii41 passim4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,dial41 pp4 #bj-bc4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 ,ch4 vi41 passim4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 ,ch4 viii41 passim4 ,footnote #aji3 ,ibid41 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,ibid41 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,essay1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #aab3 ,lect4 on ,astron41 #b;d edit4 7#ahdi47 ,footnote #aac3 ,pp4 ix4 x4 ,footnote #aad3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #aae3 ,essay1 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,essay1 pp4 #bce-bcf4 ,footnote #aag3 ,dial41 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #aah3 ,essay1 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #aai3 ,ibid41 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #abj3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #aba3 ,essay1 p4 #bih4 ,footnote #abb3 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 p4 #cae1 and note4 ,footnote #abc3 ,ibid41 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #abd3 ,romans1 i4 #bb4 ,footnote #abe3 ,matthew1 vii4 #bf4 ,footnote #abf3 ,dialogue1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #abg3 ,isaiah1 lxiv4 #d2 #a ,cor41 ii4 #i4 ,footnote #abh3 ,john1 xiv4 #b1 #bc4 ,footnote #abi3 ,dialogue1 p4 #db4 ,footnote #acj3 ,wisdom of ,god in the ,worlds of ,creation1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #aca3 ,monthly ,magazine1 ,a4,d4 #agih--;art4 8,walpoliana40 ,footnote #acb3 ,matthew1 vii4 #bd4 ,footnote #acc3 ,this must evidently mean ,loufti ,pasha1 who was grand vizier from ,a4,d4 #aeci to #aeda4 ,footnote #acd3 ,this passage may be admitted as a proof that the tribute of children was not regularly exacted from the population of the capital4 ,the difficulty ,mohammed the ,second found in repeopling ,constantinople explains the exemption4 ,footnote #ace3 ,glasgow ,records1 ii4 #cda4 ,footnote #acf3 ,ibid41 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote #acg3 ,ibid41 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #ach3 8,gladios1 pugiones sicas machras rhomphas acinaces fustes1 prsertim si prferrati vel plumbati sint1 veruta missilia tela sclopos tormenta bombardas balistas ac arma ulla bellica nemo discipulus gestato40--,fasti ,aberdonienses1 #bdb4 ,the ,glasgow list is less formidable3 8,nemo gladium pugionem tormenta bellica aut aliud quodvis armorum et telorum genus gestet2 sed apud prfectum omnia deponat40--,instituta1 #di4 ,footnote #aci3 ,instituta ,univ4 ,glasg41 p4 #eai1 #ebj4 ,footnote #adj3 ,fasti ,univ4 ,glasg41 p4 #edh4 ,footnote #ada3 ,hist4 ,univ4 ,paris1 iv4 #bff4 ,footnote #adb3 ,fasti1 p4 #djj4 ,footnote #adc3 ,ibid41 p4 #djj4 ,footnote #add3 ,there was an attempt to enforce returns upon religious and educational statistics1 but1 in the words of the ,report1 8,it was1 however1 considered doubtful whether1 upon a rigid construction1 the ,census ,act rendered it compulsory upon parties to afford information upon these particulars2 and the inquiry was1 therefore1 pursued as a purely voluntary investigation40--,report1 ,no4 #a4 ,footnote #ade3 8,the weight of the schedules1 blank enumeration-books1 and other forms despatched from the ,central ,office1 exceeded fifty-two tons40--,report1 ,no4 #a4 ,footnote #adf3 ,,layard4 ,alexander the ,great1 after he had transferred his seat of empire to the ,east1 so fully appreciated the importance of those great works that he ordered them to be cleansed and repaired1 and superintended the work in person1 steering his boat with his own hand through the channels4 ,similar operations undertaken now would again restore to ,mesopotamia its old fertility1 and fit ,babylon1 not only for regaining her place as the emporium of the ,eastern world1 but for becoming the great entrepot of commerce between the ,west and ,east1 which will ere long1 in consequence of the introduction of railways1 again flow into its old overland route by ,palmyra1 through the deserts1 from the ,levant to the head of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,footnote #adg3 ,ctesias and other writers speak of the ,bactrian and ,indian expedition of ,ninus and ,semiramis2 and in connection with this it is important to notice1 that upon the obelisk discovered at ,nimroud--which belongs to the period of the earliest palace1 having been erected by the son of the founder of that building--are represented the ,bactrian camel1 the elephant1 and the rhinoceros--7all animals from ,india and ,central ,asia7--brought as tribute by a conquered people to the ,assyrian king4 ,footnote #adh3 ,the ,hon4 ,james ,thomason1 late ,lieutenant-,governor of the ,north-,west ,provinces1 who lingered too long in ,india1 chiefly in the hope to have been present on the occasion above commemorated4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,typos fixed2 non-standard spelling and dialect retained4 ,used numbers for footnotes1 placing them all at the end of the last chapter4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 ,the caret 77 serves as a superscript indicator1 applicable to individual characters 7like #b;d7 and even entire phrases 7like #ast74