,illustration3 ,bramley ,parker's ,specification4 ,english patent4 ,no4 #fjbg4 ,november #d1 #ahcj4 ,see page #baa4 ,,cycling ,,art1 ,,energy1 ,,and ,,locomotion3 ,a ,,series ,,of ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,bicycles1 ,,tricycles1 ,,and ,,man-,,motor ,,carriages4 ,,by ,,robert ,p4 ,,scott4 ,,illustrated4 ,,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company4 #ahhi4 ,copyright1 #ahhi1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,company4 ,illustration ,,dedication4 ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,members ,,individually1 ,,and ,,as ,a ,,body ,,corporate1 ,,of ,,the ,,baltimore ,,cycle ,,club4 ,,preface4 ,the average intelligence of the ,cycling fraternity can1 with justice1 be said to be above that of any other association of men and women1 devoted to pastime1 sport1 and exercise1 in the world2 yet withal it is with some considerable feeling of anxiety that this book is sprung upon them4 ,there can be no question but that we are a reading community1 and yet all attempts catering to our wants1 in the way of books1 seem to have met with a less hearty support than should have been expected4 ,the author of one of the greatest works connected with ,cycling has recently informed us that he is still many hundreds of dollars behind1 and other authors have good reason to complain that their books can be searched for even at club-houses1 where they surely ought to be found4 ,books consisting largely of advertisements have1 no doubt1 paid the compilers1 as have also the numerous periodicals1 but when we ponder over the colossal efforts of ,kron and ,stevens1 and think of the poorly-rewarded devotion of ,sturmey1 8,faed10 the ,pennels1 ,stables1 ,cortis1 and others1 the encouragement is not at all stimulating to writers2 especially since all books of these authors are of the most attractive character and easily comprehended1 whereas a large portion of this work is written with a view to inspiring a close study of the art1 and for that reason1 if for no other1 is liable to be dry reading4 ,however1 it is too late now to swerve from the task2 if one more must be added to the procession of dejected1 empty-pocketed venturers1 8so mote it be40 ,no petition is made to the ,fraternity to read this book in particular1 but it is hoped that all cycling books and periodicals will be patronized1 hereafter1 with the usual liberality so characteristic of wheelmen in connection with other matters1 and if this work should1 in any way1 foster this hope1 its mission will be more than filled4 ,in one way the writer has already been amply repaid2 if he had never undertaken this task it is just possible that he1 like many others1 might never have followed a cycler through ,india1 or have made the acquaintance of 8,the ,best of ,bull-,dogs40 ,the nature of this book has drifted1 to some extent1 from the rigid mathematical character originally intended1 partially because it just drifted1 and also perhaps intentionally1 in order to give it a more popular bearing4 ,if some severely practical readers should notice an attempt at humor1 or an amusing turn given to what should be stern mathematical or mechanical reasoning1 it is hoped that it will not be considered undignified or trivial1 for it is done with an object2 and if the popular reader should be averse to running off into abstract theories1 let him but remember how little we realize that everything we do1 or make1 in our daily experience rests upon some fundamental principle which we ought to know and be able to explain4 ,who would have thought that the principles underlying the simple matter of balancing a bicycle would confuse even a school-boy8 ,perhaps it ought not2 nevertheless1 the article on that subject is cut rather short1 for the reason that the writer1 even with the help of others more competent1 was unable to definitely determine all points in regard to it4 ,my thanks are due to ,prof4 ,e4 ,w4 ,davis1 of ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c41 ,gustav ,bissing1 ,ph4,d41 of ,baltimore2 ,prof4 ,robinson1 of ,columbus1 ,ohio2 ,f4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,a4,m41 of ,cambridge1 ,england1 and others1 for valuable assistance courteously rendered4 ,respectfully1 ,r4 ,p4 ,scott4 ,baltimore1 #ahhi4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,introductory #ag ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,cycle ,art #bj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,can we improve upon the ,creator's ,methods8 #bb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,direct ,application of ,power #bh ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,connecting ,link between the ,legs of ,nature and the ,wheel of ,mechanics #da ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,graphic ,illustration of the ,application of ,power to ,cycles--,kinematics #dh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,balancing1 and ,some ,questions of ,potential ,energy--,hill-,climbing #fb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,comparison of the ,curves of ,translation1 in ,machines of which the ,diameters1 or ,combination of ,wheels ,differ1 of a ,point taken in the same ,relative ,position on the ,several ,saddles--,consequent ,concussion and ,effect upon ,momentum #fi ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,springs in ,relation to the ,curves of ,translation1 ,momentum1 and ,concussion #hj ,,chapter ,x4 ,anti-,vibrators and ,spring ,forks #hg ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,saddles and ,springs in ,relation to ,anatomy and ,health #id ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,headers or ,croppers #ajc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,gearing ,up and ,down #aab ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the ,modern ,rover1 or ,rear-,driving ,safety #aag ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,the ,side-,slip of the ,safety #abh ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,ladies' ,bicycle #adj ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,tandems and the ,rational #add ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,workmanship in ,cycles--,english and ,american ,makers #adi ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,cranks and ,levers and ,tangent ,spokes #aef ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,antifriction ,bearings1 ,ball and ,roller #afi ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,aluminum in ,cycle ,construction--,strength of ,tubes #ahj ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,the ,cycle in ,war--,steam and ,electricity #ahg ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,cycle ,patents and ,inventors #aij ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,hobbies #aig ,,part ,,ii4 ,remarks on ,bolton ,machine1 ,american ,patent #bjh ,dennis ,johnson ,english ,patent #bjh ,brief of ,specification and ,remarks on ,croft ,american ,patent #bjh ,extracts from ,very ,old ,english ,patents #baj ,briefs of ,specification and ,remarks on ,bramley ,parker ,english ,patent #baa ,julien ,french ,patent #bae ,cochrane ,english ,patent #bag ,dalzell ,machine1 #ahde #bah ,landis ,american ,patent #bbj ,way ,american ,patent #bba ,lallement ,american ,patent #bbb ,moores ,american ,patent #bbe ,gleason ,american ,patent #bbg ,rhoads ,american ,patent #bbi ,estell ,american ,patent #bca ,christian ,reinhart ,american ,patent #bcc ,ward ,american ,patent #bce ,white ,american ,patent #bcg ,sturdy ,young ,american ,patent #bci ,lawson ,american ,patent #bdj ,flanders ,american ,patent #bda ,schmitt ,american ,patent #bdc ,leftwich ,english ,patent #bdd ,hemmings ,american ,patent #bdg ,wortmann ,american ,patent #bdi ,sawhill ,american ,patent #bea ,lowden ,american ,patent #bec ,lewis ,american ,patent #bed ,mey ,american ,patent #beg ,hornig ,american ,patent #bei ,scientific ,american ,illustration #bfj ,the ,coventry ,tricycle #bfa ,baker ,american ,patent #bfc ,higley ,american ,patent #bfd ,klahr ,american ,patent #bfe ,bruton ,english ,patent #bfg ,langmaak ,streiff ,american ,patent #bfh ,monnin ,filliez ,american ,patent #bfi ,scuri ,american ,patent #bgj ,smith ,american ,patent #bgc ,tragardh ,american ,patent #bgd ,renetti ,patent #bge ,hull ,o',rear ,american ,patent #bgg ,schaffer ,american ,patent #bgi ,burlinghausen ,american ,patent #bha ,von ,malkowsky ,american ,patent #bhc ,bevan ,american ,patent #bhe ,lose ,american ,patent #bhf ,libbey ,american ,patent #bhh ,leske ,german ,patent #bhi ,lawson ,american ,patent #bia ,hoak ,american ,patent #bic ,burbank ,american ,patent #bie ,williamson ,american ,patent #big ,duryea ,american ,patent #bii ,latta ,american ,patent #cja ,the ,wheel1 ,illustration #cjb ,the ,spalding ,patent ,flyer1 ,illustration #cjc ,scott ,bone-,shaker #cje ,cycling ,art1 ,,energy1 ,,and ,,locomotion4 ,,part ,i4 ,cycling ,art1 ,,energy1 ,,and ,,locomotion4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,locomotion as applied to the question of transportation of matter in all its varied forms has always been1 and will always continue to be1 one of the great problems of advancing civilization4 ,to such an extent does the element of transportation enter into our highly organized system of society that it is said to be the most powerful factor in the evolution of man4 ,so confidently is this believed1 that a great genius has been led to promulgate the theory that at some future time man will consist of a head and trunk2 that all use for the limbs being entirely dispensed with in the art of moving and manipulating matter1 these will gradually shrivel up and drop off1 as it has been said the tail did when we no longer used it for swinging our bodies from tree to tree1 like the proverbial monkey1 or as a projectile force so valuable to the locomotion of the kangaroo4 ,the development of mechanical means for transporting and manipulating all matter has1 to a wonderful extent1 excused the use of man's legs and arms3 and the facility with which a great mass is loaded for transportation1 delivered at its destination1 and there manipulated with scarcely the touch of human hands has1 it must be admitted1 greatly diminished the labor otherwise delegated to the limbs4 ,it is possible that almost all matter could be moved1 moulded into desirable form1 and utilized by civilized man for all his requirements1 by the use of mechanical means1 and man could no doubt transport himself by the same means1 without using his limbs1 and thereby reach a very high state of civilization2 but such means must include a great amount of mechanical appliance accompanying the transportation1 the more in proportion to each as the number of travellers is less in the same circuit4 ,now1 ,i think we can well admit that the very highest state of advancement will be marked by the greatest facility each man has to go his own way1 and when we come to think of the world crowded as it must eventually become1 does it not seem apparent to the reader that1 since the natural energy now encompassed within our system is sufficient to carry us about1 it will be for the best to continue to use this energy in our locomotion and make our improvements with the view to such a use1 not for the purpose of dispensing with the many mechanical conveniences that now subserve our demands1 but in order to add a simple and convenient means of unit transportation over reasonably long distances in a reasonably short space of time and accomplish the same with the least possible increase of mechanism8 ,humanity without the power to transport itself is to us an almost incomprehensible idea1 and at the present day it is almost equally hard to conceive the state of society in which the movement of large masses over even small distances was impossible2 yet there was a time when man could do no more than transport himself1 together with such articles as he could carry upon his back or hold in his hands4 ,it was probably not till long after this that he constructed a sled from the bark of a great tree to receive his chattels1 and pulled it along by some rude vine2 still nearer to our own time comes the invention of the wheeled vehicle or wagon1 and when we come to that marvel of modern inventive genius the railway and steam-driven locomotive we are within a period yet personally known to our oldest fellow-citizens4 ,so much inventive ingenuity1 so much marvellous energy has been expended upon the solution of the problem of transporting large masses1 in which we see the wheel has finally played an important part1 that the question of the individual transportation of individual men has received comparatively little attention1 and it is only within the last twenty-five years that an amount of labor and thought has been given to this problem at all commensurate with its importance4 ,this recent labor and thought has not been expended in vain2 it has placed the man1 too1 upon the wheel1 which has done so much towards developing the use of other energy1 and at last there spreads out before him a beautiful vista of independent locomotion unexampled in all the previous experience of his race4 ,as wheel suggests the name 8cycle10 let us call this art1 appertaining to the man and the wheel1 8,the ,cycle ,art10 or1 more definitely1 if we wish1 the art of 8,man-,motor ,carriages40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,cycle ,,art4 ,posterity will always consider this the embryo generation of the cycling art2 it might well be termed the 8living wheel age40 ,a number of valuable books have been written on the fundamental principles of locomotion by means of walking1 riding upon animate beings1 flying and creeping1 and also upon all kinds of inanimate or mechanical motors1 but little has been said about physical properties underlying the intervention of a wheel between the body of man and the surface to be travelled over1 the motor being man himself4 ,the interesting art of man-motor carriages has already developed an industry of such great importance that the certainty as to its permanency is beyond cavil1 and1 believing that it will yet assume much greater proportions and become of more and more absorbing interest1 there seems to be some excuse for an attempt to place even a limited amount of personal information before those connected with the industry and before the admirers of the art4 ,there are few industries the product of which is dispersed among so varied a class of patrons1 and scarcely none in which the patron takes so lively an interest in the respective articles produced4 ,in most industries1 where a machine is the product1 the consumer is expected to be an expert in the art to which the industry appertains1 and is therefore supposed to be capable of individual judgment as to the merits of what he acquires2 if a steam-engine is the object of the purchase1 it is expected that an expert of some ability in the art will judge of and afterwards run and repair it2 but how could this be expected with a bicycle8 ,there is probably no other machine used by mankind1 with the possible exception of the watch1 that does service to such a variety of individuals as the cycle4 ,now1 it would be of little use to write a book for popular reading on the mechanical construction of a watch1 because from its very nature none but an expert could appreciate the facts1 if any were given2 but greater hope might be entertained in regard to a larger machine1 because the buyer can at least see what he is about4 ,you never heard of a bicycle-rider blaming his repairer for stealing the wheels out of his machine and substituting others1 because he can see1 however inexperienced he may be1 that this has not been done4 ,now1 if we all could1 by a little observation1 learn one-half as much about our watches as we can about our bicycles1 the poor watch-maker would never suffer the indignities so universally and unjustly heaped upon him4 ,the primary knowledge above hinted at as possible1 among the hoped-for patrons of this work1 seems to be an auspicious circumstance in connection with an effort to teach them a little more4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,can ,,we ,,improve ,,upon ,,the ,,creator',s ,,methods8 8,we find in a great number of standard treatises a sort of accusation brought against nature for having entirely wasted a great part of the force of our muscles by causing them to act under a disadvantageous leverage40--,e4 ,j4 ,marey4#a propos of fundamental principles1 what are the requirements needful for the most successful means of man-motor locomotion8 ,in more homely phrase1 how can a man1 without calling upon the storage of energy other than that inherent in his own body1 propel himself from place to place with the least amount of physical exertion8 ,it is evident now1 that under very many circumstances the means provided us by the ,creator for such purposes are not the most economical2 that is to say1 it has been found that if we employ a medium through which to transmit our energy1 the energy will be more economically expended1 in carrying our bodies from place to place1 than if we apply the force directly to the work as nature seemed to intend in presenting us with a pair of legs4 ,the writer cheerfully concedes1 for one1 that for almost all purposes the legs are very practical2 as1 for instance1 in climbing a tree or a pair of stairs1 a rail fence1 or even a very steep hill1 or when1 as in some of our early travels1 we are compelled by an embarrassing paucity of funds to take to the cross-ties of a poorly ballasted railroad4 ,and further1 we admit that the invention of a pair of legs1 if properly claimed in a patent1 would1 with perfect justice1 have entitled the inventor to all uses to which they could be put1 including the pumping of a bicycle4 ,but we are perfectly willing to infringe the leg patent1 provided we can improve upon it even for certain purposes1 as we have in adopting the modern bicycle1 in its use1 for instance1 upon a reasonably smooth level road4 ,why we have been able to thus improve upon nature's device is not quite clear4 ,undoubtedly1 however1 there is some unnecessary friction in the leg method2 it cannot be on account of impact with the air1 because a man on a bicycle certainly catches as much air himself1 in addition to that of the machine1 as he would do in walking4 ,evidently1 then1 there must be more motion or extra friction or both in the body1 in the leg method1 than is really essential in conveying one over a good road4 ,probably the main cause of this friction is that the rider's body is supported differently2 it requires less muscular strain to sit than to stand4 ,we not only know this from experience1 but it is proved by the fact that the temperature of the body is lower while sitting than while standing2 also still lower when lying down1 showing that less energy is being expended and less muscle consumed4 ,since the spirit of the writer began to wrestle with the foregoing leg versus cycle controversy1 by happy chance he fell upon an estimable work#b of which a careful perusal would almost make us think that nature really had an embryo cycle or wheel method in view when we were planned for legs4 ,the great interest attaching to the above-mentioned work arises from the fact that the book was written before the cycle was at all broadly known to be of any assistance to the self-propulsion of man under any circumstances4 ,this work must be read to be appreciated4 ,i give some quotations1 the application of which shows that1 in the minds of some1 the ,creator had an idea of a wheel within a wheel2 in short1 that nature seemed to want to roll4 ,let us quote from page #ea1 8,animal ,locomotion40 8,when the right leg is flexed and elevated1 it rotates upon its iliac portion of the trunk in a forward direction to form the arch of a circle which is the converse of that formed by the right foot1 if the arcs alternately supplied by the right foot and the trunk are placed in opposition1 a more or less perfect circle is produced1 and thus it is that the locomotion of animals is approximated to the wheel in mechanics40 ,hence we roll1--but not far enough1--we approximate in nature1 but reach the goal by man's genius2 shown in the full circular wheel4 ,it will be seen from the following 7p4 #ea7 that the bones in man are not arranged for high speed2 hence we must make up for this deficiency4 8,the speed attained by man1 although considerable1 is not remarkable2 it depends on a variety of circumstances1 such as height1 age1 sex1 and muscular energy of the individual1 the nature of the surface to be passed over1 and the resistance to forward motion due to the presence of air whether still or moving4 ,a reference to the human skeleton1 particularly its inferior extremities1 will explain why the speed should be moderate40 ,page #eb4 8,another drawback to great speed in man 7as distinguished from animals7 is1 444 part of the power which should move 7serve as a motive power7 444 is dedicated to supporting the trunk40 ,now1 in the cycle method we support the trunk all right1 but should apparently make more use of the arms1--inventors take notice4 ,page #ef4 8,in this respect the human limbs1 when allowed to oscillate1 exactly resemble a pendulum40 ,here is the trouble with nature2 there is too much oscillation instead of continuous rotation2 nature does not go far enough4 ,page #eh4 8,the trunk also rotates in a forward direction on the foot which is placed on the ground for the time being2 the rotation begins at the heel and terminates at the toes40 ,thus the rotation is all right so far as it goes4 ,page #fj4 8,the right side of the trunk has now reached its highest level and is in the act of rolling over the right foot40 ,hence see the effort of nature to roll4 ,page #fa4 8,in traversing a given distance in a given time a tall man will take fewer steps than a short man1 in the same way that a large wheel will make fewer revolutions in travelling over a given space than a smaller one4 ,the nave of a large wheel corresponds to the ilio-femoral articulation 7hip-joint7 of the tall man1 the spokes to his legs1 and portions of the rim to his feet40 ,we thank nature very much for this suggestion of the wheel2 without it perhaps we should never have conceived of the veritable wheel itself4 ,i also find from another work3#c 8,living beings have frequently and in every age been compared to machines1 but it is only in the present day that the bearing and the justice of this comparison is fully comprehensible40 ,page #fg4 8,one might find in the animal organism many other appliances the arrangement of which resembles that of machines invented by man40 ,page #ia4 8,let us examine from this point of view the articulation in the foot of man3 we see in the tibio-tarsal articulation a curvature of small radius40 ,page #aab4 8,in addition to this the body is inclined and drawn up again2 at each movement of one of the legs it revolves on a pivot40 ,and so on in all works on animal locomotion will ever be found a continual reference to radius1 roundness1 and rolling4 ,these quotations show that while we must acknowledge that the fundamental principles involved in the cycle were anticipated1 to a certain extent1 by nature1 we may yet take great credit upon ourselves for developing the new or improved method to such a perfect and useful degree4 ,to the oscillating features found in the human organism the genius of man has added a full circular revolving mechanism1 pushing further nature's aspiration to roll4 ,nature rolls a little1 and then rolls back again2 man has so improved upon himself by the addition of a wheel that he can roll on forever4 ,it is quite evident that by such means he saves much energy2 let us now determine if possible how this saving can be still further increased4 ,the whole question of the advantages of the cycle method or wheel locomotion must resolve itself into one of reduction of organic friction as shown by fatigue in the body4 ,all inorganic friction1 such as metallic friction in the machine and upon the road1 must be finally overcome at the expense of organic friction due to the exercise of the muscles in man4 ,without stopping to discuss such profound questions as to just what organic friction is1 or as to how the display of energy creates friction1 we will confine ourselves to the more tangible problem1--to wit1 improvements upon the improvement2 that is to say1 granting the cycle method to be an improvement upon the leg method1 we will discuss improvements in the cycle method4 ,we feel perfectly justified1 from our own experience and observation1 in adopting1 as a basis upon which to build all future improvements1 the broad principle underlying the intervention of continually rolling wheels between the rider and his road-way4 ,now1 we ask1 what are the requirements appertaining particularly to this wheel method8 ,in order to approach the subject logically1 ,i repeat that the fundamental requirement is the reduction of organic friction or fatigue of the body4 ,the above requirement is met in two ways3 ,first1 directly2 that is to say1 by working the muscles of the body to the best possible advantage2 secondly1 indirectly1 by reducing the inorganic friction such as is found in the machine and in its action upon the road4 ,we shall attack first the reduction of direct organic friction by discussing the manner of applying the energy of man to revolve the wheel2 his position and economy of power2 and secondly1 the reduction of the indirect or inorganic friction in the machine by regulating the size of the wheels and weight thereof1 the jolt or jar1 the friction of the parts one upon another1 loss of momentum1 and such other problems as may present themselves in the course of our discussion4 ,the terms used in this book hereafter will be largely arbitrary4 ,man-motor and locomotive carriages1 velocipedes1 unicycles1 bicycles1 tricycles1 tandems1 and all such terms will be included more or less in the broad terms 8cycle0 and 8cycle-method40 ,wherever any distinctive feature is to be made prominent1 then such qualifying adjuncts or special terms will be used as express it4 ,in speaking of different styles of bicycles1 we will adopt the name 8,ordinary0 for the prominent form of machine which is provided with a large wheel fifty to sixty inches in front1 with a crank movement1 and the usual fifteen- to twenty-inch rear wheel4 ,the recent rear-crank driver1 with the two wheels of about equal size1 we will recognize as the 8,rover0 pattern1 in deference to the people who first pushed it into the market and so named it4 ,other terms will be adopted which will be self-evident to all acquainted with the art4 ,attention is called to the engravings in ,part ,,ii4 of this book1 which will give an idea of the different forms of machines used in the art4 #a ,animal ,mechanism1 #fe4 #b ,j4 ,bell ,pettigrew1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4,e41 8,animal ,locomotion40 #c ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 ,college of ,france1 ,academy of ,medicine1 8,animal ,mechanism10 #ahhg1 p4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,direct ,,application ,,of ,,power4 ,it is evident that one of the greatest1 if not the very greatest1 of the requirements of a practical road wheel1 or a man-motor carriage1 is that the power of the rider shall be transmitted to the said wheel in the most direct manner possible2 that is1 by causing the strain to come upon the muscles in such a way that these muscles shall be placed in the best possible position to overcome such strain1 and to take advantage of such conditions as nature has already provided for1 in training our muscles to the work we have had to do under the old rgime1 without the wheel4 ,the muscles of man are best adapted to a direct pull or push4 ,if we push upon a weight with the muscles at an angle to the direction in which we want the weight to move1 the effective power is limited in the same way that the effect upon a weight is limited if we push at it in a direction at an angle to that in which we wish to move it2 that is to say1 not the total1 but only a portion of the power will be effective in moving the weight4 ,the above facts apply particularly to our subject when we desire to transmit motion to a wheel by means of the weight or gravity of our bodies4 ,gravity acting downward in a vertical line1 if we are not placed over the resistance1 the resultant effect is in proportion to the cosine of the angle at which we work1 as follows3 ,let ,w the weight of the man and a be the centre of gravity and also the location of the source of power of said weight1 and let c represent the point at which it is desired to apply the power to turn the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,power angle4 ,now1 it is known that the weight ,w1 acting by gravity in the direction ab1 may be taken as proportional to the length of the line ab1 and the portion of the pressure ,p in the direction ac1 which will be effective to turn the wheel1 may be taken as proportional to ,p ac ac the length of the line ac2 that is1 ------ --------1 or ,p -------- ,w1 ,w ab ab ac where -------- is evidently always less than unity4 ,now1 if the angle bac ab ac is thirty degrees1 and ,w #aej pounds1 ,w times -------- is #acj pounds4 ab ,or1 by trigonometry1 the weight ,w1 acting in the direction ab1 by gravity as in working a cycle1 will have a resultant in the direction ac representing the power acting to turn the wheel equal to ,w cos bac4 ,if the angle bac is thirty degrees and ,w #aej pounds1 then ,w cos bac #acj pounds4 ,now1 in order to still get one hundred and fifty pounds of force on the wheel1 a pull on the handle-bars would have to be given sufficient to make up the lost twenty pounds1 which the rider would get without any pull on the bars if placed directly over the work4 ,this pull1 while not fatiguing to the legs beyond the necessary requirement of power1 is an entire loss of work in the arms1 and must tell on the system4 ,this is all an additional loss to that which ensues from the fact that nature has fitted us to stand upright and not to work in an angular position2 our every-day experience in walking gives us practice in a direct vertical strain on the muscles of the body1 and we should make it a point to apply our force as nature intended1 in so far as it is applicable to our wheel method4 ,these conditions apply more or less to any form of locomotion1 and particularly to the cycle4 ,from the foregoing remarks we are amply justified in drawing the conclusion that the resultant force available in the application of the physical power of man is in proportion to the cosine of the angle at which he exercises this force4 ,we are well aware that many apparent variations will occur when so rigid a mathematical fact comes to be applied to the exercise of man's energy in driving a bicycle2 but all we care for is to lead the reader well up to the point by means of reasoning1 which we hope will give at least a partial hypothesis for a conclusion well demonstrated by practical experience4 ,we assert that when we consider the application of the gravity of the body to work on either a bicycle1 or to other work of similar requirements1 our mathematical demonstration is strictly true4 ,it is justifiable1 therefore1 from a purely theoretical stand-point1 to say that the rider of a bicycle wants to get directly over the work2 let us see how our experience demonstrates this conclusion4 ,take first the differences between a modern ordinary bicycle and the old velocipede1 or 8bone-shaker10 so called4 ,the former is lighter and better made2 but the one great difference is that the rider is more nearly over his work4 ,it was this one advance which encouraged the development of other minor differences which had been roughly thought out before4 ,in fact1 the ,patent ,office shows that many of these improvements were on record1 but there would have been little use for them if the rider had not worked himself up into a place where he could do something4 ,just who raised him up from a midway position between the two wheels1 the saddle seventy-five degrees back of the vertical through the drive-wheel axle1 as in the old bone-shaker1 to nearly the top of the forward wheel1 working at an angle of thirty degrees1 as in some ordinaries1 we will not attempt to say2 but when he got there he has been willing1 for a long time at least1 to try to stay there1 even at the expense of frequently going down on the other side1 much to his annoyance1 particularly as the general construction of the thing compelled him to go down the other end up1 which end nature did not intend for terrestrial impact4 ,it may as well be stated just here1 however1 that when our rider raised and moved his saddle forward he would have gone clear up to the vertical had it not been that it was absolutely impossible for him to stay there at all without hanging a heavy counter-balance somewhere in the neighborhood of the rear wheel1 a scheme which1 by the way1 has been really recommended in modern cycle history4 ,one excuse for dwelling upon the foregoing dissertation is that many casual observers and some riders1 strange as it may seem1 assert that in the development of the modern rear-driving ,rover pattern1 we have been retrograding to the old velocipede1 whereas1 in fact1 we have made another step forward of a similar nature to that spoken of before in raising the rider up above the point of application of power4 ,in the ,rover machine we have landed the rider practically where1 as before said1 he could not remain at all before2 but in this new machine he has gained the advantage of being able to stay there4 ,thus our rider has been gradually getting up and over the work4 ,various devices have been used in order to facilitate this operation1 but1 unfortunately for our power-development theory1 many of the changes have been coupled with the safety feature so prominently that1 in efforts by makers to place the rider in the best possible position for work1 the safety feature is all that the casual observer has been able to see2 therefore it is that in several machines1 such as that called the 8,extraordinary ,challenge10 the sales have been made more on the strength of safety than on their other great point of real merit1 the advantage in power4 ,in such machines1 the rider has often been surprised to find that he had more power than he supposed1 but having bought his mount with a view to safety1 and it being still found to contain almost as great an element of risk as he before incurred1 considerable disfavor has been the result4 ,had the element of increased power been thoroughly understood and appreciated1 such machines would1 in spite of the great deterioration in appearance1 have been regarded more kindly4 ,no better illustration in other arts of the desire and tendency of the operator to get over his work can be had than in that of the ordinary foot-lathe4 ,no maker of lathes would think of attaching a treadle in such a manner that the workman could not perch himself directly over it4 ,in some experiments on foot-lathes1 the writer found that he could run at a given speed and resistance three times as long when over the work as when standing some twelve inches back and he had to reach out for it2 in fact1 it seems quite evident that our theoretical conclusion is fully established in actual practice4 ,granting then that the direct vertical application of power by the rider is a desirable acquisition1 let it be called a fundamental requirement4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed1 in this connection1 that the foregoing in any way justifies the swimming position1 or kicking back1 which some experimenters have of late been prone to adopt4 ,we must approach but never get beyond the vertical limit4 ,since this manuscript has been ready for the publisher1 articles in the ,bicycling ,news by 8,warrior0 and 8,semi-,racer0 have come under my notice1 from which ,i clip sections1 appertaining to this subject1 as follows3 8,if1 as #8,crawler' says1 it is a very great improvement to have the saddle well over the pedals1 how comes it that the contrary is now so universally advised1 and as much as four inches recommended between the line of saddle-peak and the line of crank-axle8 ,there never was a greater mistake made than when the saddle was generally placed in advance of the crank-axle4 ,apart altogether from its effect on the steering or easy running of the machine1 there are two very strong reasons why the saddle should be kept well back4 ,in the first place1 it is quite impossible to sit upon the tuberosities designed by nature to carry the weight of the body unless the legs are flexed at the hip-joints4 ,the parts resting upon the saddle are1 otherwise1 soft and delicate structures1 liable to injury from the violence of the saddle4 ,were it for no other reason1 this is enough to determine the position well to the rear of the crank-axle4 ,but another reason3 it is not a fact that one has greater power with the saddle1 as suggested by #8,crawler4' ,one may certainly throw his weight alternately upon either pedal readier1 because he is nearer a standing position2 but1 on the other hand1 with the saddle well back and the handles well forward1 the purchase so obtained gives far greater power from muscular contraction than the mere weight of the body gives1 and1 indeed1 many more muscles are called into action when the saddle is kept back4--,warrior40 8,with regard to gearing1 ,i consider that the position of the rider has much to do with this also4 ,a rider sitting well back can use his ankles much more effectively than one right over the pedals1 and can consequently exert a driving force through a considerably greater part of the stroke1 whereas the vertical rider depends chiefly upon the weight of his body during a comparatively short portion of the down stroke for propulsion1 and upon the momentum of the machine to carry him over the dead centre4 ,it will be found1 therefore1 that the rider using his ankles properly will be able to drive at least three inches higher with the same amount of force1 and1 at the same time1 there is much more equable strain on the machine4--,semi-,racer40 ,the quotations show one great trouble in writing a book3 such a long time elapses between writing and publishing1 that new facts and opinions come up in the mean time which demand attention and suggest alteration1 as1 for instance1 my former paragraph in regard to the swimming attitude should have been expanded4 8,warrior0 carries his theory to extremes4 ,he is all right in cautiously avoiding an unduly-forward saddle1 but when he places the front tip back of the vertical through the crank-axle1 he goes too far and is utterly wrong4 ,the cause for such diversity of opinion in this matter is that it is tested under different circumstances4 ,in riding over an easy1 slightly rolling country1 the tendency to get back on the saddle is indisputable1 for reasons noted by 8,warrior0 and fully treated of in my chapter on 8,saddles and ,springs in ,relation to ,health20 but notice how we slip forward1 almost off the saddle1 when we have any work to do1 as in mounting a difficult hill2 and also notice that the farther forward we get1 and the less the angle at the pedals between the saddle and the vertical1 the less will be the pull on the handle-bar4 7,see early part of this chapter47 ,in this connection the very long saddles1 largely adopted in ,america1 are of great advantage1 since1 when not working hard1 the rider can sit well back and then slide forward when occasion demands4 ,what 8,warrior0 means by 8greater power from muscular contraction0 is rather ambiguous4 ,i may admit that more power can be consumed when the saddle is back1 but ,i deny that more effective power to turn the wheel can be maintained4 ,the rider may get more exercise from 8muscular contraction0 than from the effect of his weight1 but he will cover less distance with equal fatigue4 ,as to 8,semi-,racer10 his statement1 that more ankle-motion is available when sitting back1 is absurd4 ,will he not lose in 8clawing0 force below what he gains above8 ,in my chapter on 8,ankle-,motion0 ,i would say that the wonderful power therein asserted as possible was attained by having the saddle well over the work4 ,before disposing finally of this digression1 let me express my pleasure that these subjects are meeting with general and enlightened discussion4 ,however much opinions may differ1 ,i regret1 as a loyal ,yankee1 that we in ,america have to depend so largely upon cross-water importations for the initiative2 but it is hoped that such importations may always be on the free list1 maugre the high-tariff proclivities of the writer and many others like him on this side4 ,the next point of importance is the mechanical means whereby the rider transmits a revolving motion to the drive-wheel1 and to lead up to this let us discuss the evolution from walking to riding4 ,the actual development has been of a legitimate character2 first1 walking2 second1 walking with the trunk supported on rolling mechanism2 third1 propulsion by means of mechanical things like legs1 the entire body supported upon rolling mechanism2 fourth1 propulsion and support all by means of1 and upon1 rolling mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,the ,dennis ,johnson wheel4 ,the early bicycle1 such as that of ,dennis ,johnson1 patented in ,england1 ,no4 #dcba1 #ahah1 did not support the rider entirely free from the ground4 ,it consisted in a pair of wheels placed under him1 constituting a sort of third or rolling leg1 the feet1 though not for support1 still touching the ground4 ,this machine is a fair sample of an intermediate stage between the era of oscillating devices subjoined to the trunk by nature--to wit1 the legs--and that of the present cycle4 ,in the ,johnson machine the legs are used for projectile force only1 and serve as a motor1 the weight of the body being supported on rolling mechanism as aforesaid2 hence it was a more natural and palpable sequence to walking than other prior contrivances in which the rider was raised upon a platform such as shown in the machine of ,bolton1 patented in the ,united ,states1 ,september #bi1 #ahjd4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bolton machine4 ,the ,bolton and similar machines really belong to a different class from that of ,johnson1 but if we confine ourselves to our bicycle or balancing-machine1 thus throwing out the ,bolton class1 the development from the leg to the wheel method proceeded in order1 for we have next the ,lallement crank-wheel1 ,united ,states patent1 ,november #bj1 #ahff1 which represents substantially the present single-track type4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lallement machine4 ,one illustrious gentleman1 ,croft by name1 patented a machine in the ,united ,states1 ,august #ba1 #ahgg4d ,illustration3 ,the ,croft machine4 ,in the ,croft machine a pair of bars held in the hands are used with which to propel by pushing against the ground1 instead of using the legs as in the ,johnson4 ,by supporting the body entirely free from the roadway1 ,croft takes a step in advance of ,johnson1 but he still retains his propulsive power by means of oscillating devices having contact with the ground1 and in this respect might be said to use a pair of mechanical legs4 ,he combined a walking method with that of rolling1 as was the case with ,johnson and ,baron ,draise1 but he seemed to think a mechanical extension to the arms a better medium through which to pass his energy than nature's own devices for that purpose4 ,quite a number of inventors have gone astray on this question of the power of the arms in these manumotors4 ,no doubt the arms could be made to help1 but our present physical development suggests the legs as better2 especially if one or the other plan is to be used alone4 ,true1 the ,croft machine could use the entire body1 as in the case of a man shoving a flat-boat or scow upon the water1 but the inventor's engraving does not show any such effort as necessary4 ,what a pity that we did not have a single-track machine1 propelled by the ,croft process1 between the time of ,johnson and ,lallement2 how nicely it would have helped us out in our chronological development4 ,we of the wheeling fraternity may1 however1 take a crumb of comfort from the fact that the two bicycles1 or balancing machines1 did make their appearance in respectful logical order4 ,in naming the ,bolton1 ,johnson1 ,lallement1 and ,croft machines1 ,i have not taken the trouble to ascertain whether they all were the very first machines of the kind in the art1 nor would it matter whether they were or not1 unless it could be shown that others were of equal prominence4 ,we should not recognize mere vagaries as an advance in the art3 the above gentlemen patented their machines1 and it is therefore reasonable to suppose that they were real workers1 and not simply chimerical characters flitting about in the minds of recent explorers4 ,the famous ,draisaine is worthy of mention1 but our man ,dennis will answer all purposes of illustration4 ,galvin ,dalzell is now reputed to have been the first to raise himself from the ground on a single-track machine1 and back as far as #afic one ,ozanam1 a ,frenchman1 is said to have made a four-wheeled vehicle of the ,bolton type1 but driven by the legs4 ,blanchard1 about #aghj1 did some work in connection with the subject1 and one ,nicephore ,niepse1 we are told1 made a machine of the ,johnson type about the year #ahae4 ,for further information on this subject1 see 8,sewing-,machine and ,cycle ,news10 in ,wheelman's ,gazette1 ,september1 #ahhh4 ,in quite a recent edition of ,the ,wheel the editor gives us a little foretaste of a book to which we look forward with interest4 ,in it he mentions improvements by ,gompertz in #ahba1 ,mareschal1 ,woirin1 and ,leconde as having worked on cranks in #ahfe1 and ,david ,santon as having brought a wheel to ,america in #ahgf4 ,l4 ,f4 ,a4 ,reviere1 of ,england1 is said to have made the large front and small rear wheel2 ,c4 ,k4 ,bradford1 of ,america1 the rubber tire2 ,e4 ,a4 ,gilman1 of ,england1 anti-friction bearings1 and ,a4 ,d4 ,chandler1 of ,boston1 is mentioned as an importer and rider of #ahgg4 #d ,this is not a misprint for #aggg4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,connecting ,,link ,,between ,,the ,,legs ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,wheel ,,of ,,mechanics4 ,we now proceed to compare the different modes which have been devised to transmit power from the rider to revolve the wheel2 of these there are two principal classes1 the simple crank and the lever and clutch4 ,these devices or connecting links relate to the motion of the legs as well as to the power transmitted through them4 ,it is not necessary to treat of the horizontal motion of the limbs1 as it is of little consequence provided the rider remains substantially over the work4 ,power is applied mainly through the vertical resultant1 and the consequent fatigue is the effect of the amount of energy given out in a vertical direction4 ,crank riders acquire a horizontal power1 or resultant force1 by what we call ankle-motion1 which has1 to quite an appreciable extent1 overcome the most serious inherent defect of the crank device2 without this force the dead centre appertaining to the crank1 in which the vertical resultant has no power to turn the wheel1 would have made it a prey to the champions of other contrivances4 ,the above remarks in regard to horizontal motion and resultant force apply equally well if the rider is not over the work1 except in that the phraseology would be different4 ,a man in straightening out his leg can apply power in a certain direction or in a certain line2 now1 if he is not over the work1 this will not be a vertical line2 hence the term horizontal motion would have to be called motion at right angles to the line of transmission of power4 ,the importance of the dead centre is too great to be passed over without some further discussion4 ,it would be a source of great satisfaction if a general conclusion could be reached in this crank versus lever and clutch controversy1 but aside from the difficulty of drawing our conclusion there is a lack of a specific hypothesis in regard to an important element of the problem1--to wit1 that as to the nature of the road and other resistance and consequent speed attainable or usually desirable4 ,there is little doubt but that1 so far as present developments show1 the crank machine has excelled upon a smooth road and at high speed2 yet this very fact leads us to suspect that perhaps for rough roads and at slow speed it might be objectionable1 for it is easy to see that all questions of dead centres would eliminate themselves at high speed4 ,taking a steam-engine1 of the crank and pitman type1 for example1 there is no trouble so long as speed is kept up1 but it is well known that a certain velocity must be maintained or the crank will stop at the dead centre1 even when provided with a heavy fly-wheel4 ,now1 in a bicycle there is practically no fly-wheel at all1 and1 to pursue the comparison still further1 we know that if the fly-wheel of an engine were removed great trouble would ensue2 still it might be possible to keep running if the speed were great enough4 ,it is evident1 from common observation1 that for intermitting slow and high speeds an engine1 or any other machine1 constructed without a fly-wheel must be provided with some means for continuing the power or carrying it over what would otherwise be dead centres4 ,multiple cylinders and rotary engines are made to serve this purpose4 ,the commonly accepted idea that a cycle for racing purposes upon a smooth road is a certain guide as to the requirements under other conditions is therefore hardly justifiable4 ,for best results the form of mechanism used as the connecting link between the legs of nature and the wheel of mechanics must be determined1 or at least be modified1 by the conditions under which we intend to work4 ,this problem is not at all confined to the art of cycling1 it appears in many departments of mechanics4 ,the same question has been mooted in respect to sewing-machines1 and non-dead-centre attachments have been made and used upon them1 but naturally the demand was not urgent1 as this machine comes within the realm of high-speed devices with fly-wheel and evenly-running resistance4 ,in scroll sawing by foot-power and in portable forges1 non-dead-centre clutches are used with great effect4 ,hence our general mechanical experience makes it safe to say that such modes of continuous application of power have valuable uses applicable to this problem4 ,it is not attempted to set up a definite unequivocal comparison or dictum in this matter as applied to cycles1 for it is the desire of the writer and his right to make conclusions comparable only to the proofs recognized in practice1 which in this case1 in the cycle art1 appear to be in favor of the crank machine4 ,however1 the writer's opinion1 based upon his theory and individual experience1 is that we have more to fear from the weight1 complication1 and friction of parts in the lever and clutch than from the inherent principle of transmitting power upon which it works1 and that some non-dead-centre device will finally prevail in the best all-around road cycles1 if it can be relieved of purely mechanical objections which somehow seem to be naturally coupled with it4 ,if the writer's conclusion in this respect is tenable1 the induction would follow that such a system1 or connecting link1 forms the most economical mode of applying power4 ,the body can stand a steady1 even pull upon its energy better than uneven intermitting jerks1 and ,i feel sure new riders who have not acquired the ankle-action on the crank cycle will agree in this4 ,this theory will apply to hill-climbing1 in which lever and clutch machines have made so enviable a reputation4 ,the rider has in clutch machines an even1 steady resistance during the entire downward thrust1 and he does not have to get all his power doubled up into a few inches of motion4 ,the two principal classes of connecting links1 the crank and ordinary form of lever and clutch1 need no explanation or discussion beyond their fundamental characteristics1 but there are several combinations of lever and crank which are of interest and properly come under the head of modifications of the crank4 ,these modifications are numerous in the market1 and there exists cardinal distinctions between them4 ,we annex diagrams of five distinct types which fall into two groups1 the first group being a combination of lever and crank1 in which the foot has an oval motion1 as shown by ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 the arrows showing the direction of progression4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,i4 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,,ii4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the second distinctive arrangement of lever and crank is where the lever is pivoted so as to return over the same track in which it descends1 as shown in ,figs4 #d and #e4 ,the first group1 with its oval motion1 has a decided advantage in regard to dead centre or continuous power2 since by an ankle-motion the rider can transmit some power in a circular direction to the crank2 that is to say1 he can actually push to some extent in a forward horizontal direction4 ,but it will be seen that the pivotal connection shown in ,figs4 #d and #e does not allow of any such possibility2 the rider must have momentum enough to throw the cranks over the dead centre or he is lost4 ,in ,fig4 #d1 which represents a form of pivoted treadle used on a reputable make of front-driving machine1 it will be noticed that the rider has less than one-half of the revolution of the crank in which any power can be transmitted at all1 which becomes apparent in observing a pedal in such devices while in motion1 from the fact that it descends more rapidly than it ascends1 thus giving the rider less than half the time in which he can transmit any power4 ,we are now speaking of one side only of the machine2 taking both sides together1 there are two short arcs of a circle in which there can be no propulsive power transmitted to the wheel on either side4 ,fig4 #f illustrates this as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,in the descent of the lever from b to c the power will only be transmitted through the arc between d and e2 taking an equal arc from f to g for the power given on the other side1 we have the two small arcs f d and g e1 all of whose points are dead points1 and we might say we have a dead line4 ,upon the other hand1 if the machine happens to be driven in the opposite direction from that of which we have been speaking1 or1 in other words1 if the pedal is in advance of instead of in the rear of the driving-axle1 as seen in ,fig4 #e1 we have an advantage1 since the arcs f d and g e would represent arcs in which the rider has power on both treadles instead of on neither1 and it might be said that1 instead of having an arc of dead centre or no power1 we have considerably less than no dead centre at all4 ,the lever and crank1 ,fig4 #e1 is a device used on some rear-driving machines1--the pedal descends slowly and ascends rapidly2 certainly a desirable arrangement4 ,that is to say1 if the arc d e raises and d f g e lowers the pedal1 it will then raise quickly and lower slowly2 whereas1 if d e lowers and d f g e raises the pedal1 it will raise slowly and lower quickly4 ,the study of wheels in the market made with front-driving mechanism1 on the plan of ,fig4 #d1 suggests an incontrovertible argument in favor of getting over the work1 in spite of the difficulty noticed in respect to dead centres2 such machines actually have a creditable reputation as powerful hill-climbers and rough-road machines1 which can only be explained on the theory that the vertical application of power more than makes up the deficiency caused by the arc of no power at all4 ,in speaking of the second group1 ,figs4 #d and #e1 it must be understood that the matter of driving from either the front or the rear wheel has nothing to do with the principle1 except in so far as it regulates the arrangement of the pedal and the direction of translation appertaining thereto4 ,the difference in principle depends on whether the driving or the returning arc of the crank is towards or farther from the pedal4 ,it strikes me that the style of lever and crank of the first group is a kind of cross between the direct crank and the pivoted lever and crank of ,group ,,ii41 and especially of ,fig4 #d of that group1 since it possesses some of the advantages and some of the objections found in both4 ,i find from observations1 which will be spoken of later1 that the ankle-power in the direct crank is very considerable1 and that it is diminished in the oval-motion lever1 ,group ,i41 and that it disappears absolutely in the pivoted lever1 ,group ,,ii4 ,these facts are really evident1 but as they came within the domain of other experiment1 ,i merely state the result4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,graphic ,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,power ,,to ,,cycles--,,kinematics4 ,the manner in which the construction and general arrangement of the driving mechanism1 the road surface1 and other conditions control the application of power is a curious study4 ,in connection with it ,i have made an instrument to illustrate the same graphically1 which1 for the sake of a name1 we will call the 8,cyclograph10 an engraving of which will be found below4 ,illustration3 ,the ,cyclograph4 ,a frame1 ,a ,a1 is provided with means to attach it to the pedal of any machine4 ,a table1 ,b1 supported by springs1 ,e1 ,e1 has a vertical movement through the frame ,a ,a1 and carries a marker1 ,c4 ,the frame carries a drum1 ,d1 containing within it mechanism which causes it to revolve regularly upon its axis4 ,the cylindrical surface of this drum1 ,d1 is wrapped with a slip of registering paper removable at will4 ,when we wish to take the total foot-pressure1 the cyclograph is placed upon the pedal and the foot upon the table4 ,the drum having been wound and supplied with the registering slip1 and the marker ,c with a pencil bearing against the slip1 we are ready to throw the trigger and start the drum1 by means of a string attached to the trigger1 which is held by the rider so that he can start the apparatus at just such time as he desires a record of the pressure4 ,the following are a few sample sections cut from registering slips illustrating some of the points discovered in these experiments4 ,only a few strokes of the crank or lever can be shown2 it is evident that great space and expense of reproduction would be required to give the entire record for even a small part of a mile4 ,it will be understood1 ,i think1 without further explanation1 that these curves show the extent and variation of pressure of the foot upon the pedal in order to drive the respective machines under circumstances named and described by the figures and thereafter4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 race-track2 getting up steam4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 race-track2 speed1 eighteen miles per hour4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 race-track2 speed1 ten miles per hour4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 race-track2 speed1 ten miles per hour4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty-five2 speed1 about eight miles per hour4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 starting up hill4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in ten2 stalled at four miles per hour4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty-five2 curves of both pedals superposed4 ,illustration3 #eb-;inch ,ordinary2 back pedal2 down hill1 grade1 one foot in twelve4 ,illustration3 ,rear-driver ,rover type1 #ed-;gear2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty2 speed1 nine miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,rear-driver ,rover type1 #ed-;gear2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty2 continuation of ,no4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,rear-driver ,rover type1 #ed-;gear2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in seven2 speed1 ten miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,lever rear-driver1 #cj-;inch wheels1 gear about #ej2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty2 speed1 eight miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,lever rear-driver1 #cj-;inch wheels1 gear about #ej2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty2 speed1 twelve miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,lever rear-driver1 #cj-;inch wheels1 gear about #ej2 up hill1 grade1 one foot in twenty2 continuation of ,no4 #ad1 over top of hill4 ,a six-inch crank was used upon the machines in these experiments1 and the lever action was such as to be comparable to a fifty-inch gear4 ,the height of a point on the curve shows the extent of and variation in power upon the pedal1 and the translation from left to right the time4 ,in consequence of the limit of pressure occurring but once in each stroke1 the number of undulations determines the speed1 since it would show the number of strokes in a given time1 and we know the number that make a mile4 ,the number of pounds' pressure at any point on a curve is shown by the figures upon the perpendicular line1 as1 for example1 in ,no4 #a the apex of the curve just to the right of the scale is about even with the hundred-and-fifty-pound point2 this pressure was maintained for a very short space of time1 since the curve travels a very short distance to the right at this point2 in other words1 it is quite sharp at the top4 ,stronger springs were used on the ,cyclograph in testing the safeties1 as ,i found myself liable to compress them beyond their limit2 hence the scales must be closely observed in making comparisons4 ,among the interesting results noticeable in these experiments ,i find1 for instance1 in ,nos4 #c and #d1 an abnormal deviation in the height of the curves at the same speed upon the same track at nearly the same time1 though running in opposite directions4 ,finding this strange difference of some fifty pounds in pressure1 ,i noticed an almost imperceptible breeze against me in the one1 and in my favor in the other1 direction4 ,no4 #ab illustrates how a hundred-and-fifty-pound man gets up a pressure of two hundred and forty pounds presumably by a ninety-pound pull on the handle-bar4 ,in ,no4 #i we see how one hundred and fifty pounds pressure is applied in back-pedalling down a grade of one foot in twelve4 ,that the curve would not be very regular is easily impressed upon the mind of the average rider4 ,one part of curve 7not shown71 of peculiar contour1 terminated experiment ,no4 #i at a rut a little farther down the hill1 with dire results to the operator and provoking influence upon the running gear of the 'graph1 which has been making some erratic curves of its own1 now and then1 ever since4 ,comparing ,nos4 #e1 #aj1 and #ac1 the curve of the lever machine 7#ac7 indicates that1 while pressure is not so great as in the others1 it is held for a longer time1 shown by the greater height and sharper tops to the curves of the crank machines4 ,the short cross-lines about three-fourths up on the left sides of the undulations in ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab designate the points at which the crank crosses the perpendicular at the top4 ,there is quite a pressure1 and it is a little odd that it should be found at this point2 it can only be attributed to ankle-action back of the natural dead centre4 ,in ,no4 #f1 and to some extent in all the others1 observe the jagged appearance in the general advance of the curves1 which must be due to vibration3 these results were all obtained upon tolerably smooth roads1 mostly in ,druid ,hill ,park1 ,baltimore4 ,no4 #f was taken upon a road perhaps a little rougher than the track around the lake1 but still upon an unusually smooth surface1 and it was a surprise1 not to say an alarming discovery1 that this vibration should occur under such circumstances4 ,the lake track1 upon which results #b and #c were found1 was in perfect condition1 smooth as a surface-plate1 and without the customary sprinkling of pebbles so common when dry weather has loosed the settings of these tiny obstructions and suffered them to roll out upon the roadway2 yet these figures show the saw-teeth1 and ,i have been unable to find a road smooth enough1 or jointed machine frames and springs good enough1 to make unwavering symmetrical lines4 ,these little deviations in the curves always seem to show themselves to the extent of several pounds in height in spite of all alleviating conditions1 suggesting that we have much to strive for in the construction of the ideal wheel free from all concussion4 ,in order to judge accurately of the total amount of power to turn the wheel1 we have to consider the register of both pedals superposed1 as in ,no4 #h1 but the curve made upon one generally answers all purposes4 ,the possibilities in this study are unlimited1 and1 with a perfectly-accurate instrument1 it strikes me1 the results of much more definite bearing than those acquired in the silly practice of testing machines by the strength of men4 ,i have refrained from giving any tests as to the comparative power required to drive machines of the same type and of different manufacture1 differences being liable to result from a bad condition of the machine1 such as the want of oil1 or from happening to get hold of an unusually bad sample1 making the liability to do injustice too great4 ,the writer does not feel himself called upon to judge of or express differences in quality of workmanship in general1 if for no other reason than that by the time the matter goes to press1 such merits or defects as he might have discovered may change4 ,workmanship does change1 principles never can2 and1 what is more1 the hypotheses and conclusions in regard to principles1 treated of in this or any other book1 are always open to contradiction2 if injustice is done to any maker of wares in a matter of principle1 said maker always has a remedy in defence1 and if he can disprove assertions made his justification is complete1 whereas if a mistake of fact is recorded1 such as the operation of a certain machine1 and the machine upon which the alleged fact is based happens to disappear1 the party interested is denied a just remedy4 ,there are of course certain criteria of good workmanship1 and the same should be touched upon in order to teach the reader how to judge of it2 but beyond this no writer should be allowed to go1 unless at least he has been paid for advertising competing wares at regular rates4 ,the cyclograph attached to the revolving pedal shows the total amount of pressure required to do a certain work on a machine2 but if it is desired to ascertain the track resistance or the friction of parts alone1 it is necessary to so place the instrument as to register the tangential resultant in turning the crank1 taking no note of any power thrown away by indirect application2 that is1 if we wish to register the circular or tangential resultant1 the cyclograph is attached by its frame rigidly to the crank or lever of a cycle1 and the revolving pedal1 which has been detached1 is hung upon the spring platform4 ,this last arrangement is used in experimenting to ascertain the extra power available by ankle-motion1 as will be shown hereafter4 ,,ankle-,,motion ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,cyclograph4 ,throughout this work a slight tendency to urge the element of dead centre as against the crank-cycle may have been discovered4 ,makers and riders who find fault with this apparent praise of lever and non-dead-centre devices can derive considerable comfort by the study of ankle-motion4 ,no better introduction to our diagrams1 showing the possibilities arising therefrom1 can be given than the following extract from the ,irish ,cyclist1 via ,the ,bicycling ,news and ,wheelman's ,gazette3 8,,ankle-,,action4 8,among the many thousands of riders in this country1 says the ,irish ,cyclist1 very few have any desire to improve their style or realize for a moment the vast importance of correct ankle-motion4 ,you meet a rider plodding along1 working his legs like pistons1 with a heavy1 lifeless motion4 ,remonstrate with him1 and see what he will say3 #8,oh1 he can go well enough2 he does not believe ankle-action makes such a difference1 and he does not want to 8scorch0 in any case4' ,now1 we want our readers to grasp these facts4 ,any rider can acquire a tolerable ankle-action by careful practice1 and the acquisition of such will increase his power by nearly one-fourth1 and will enable him to ride hills never before attempted1 and to keep up a better pace at the expense of the same amount of energy4 ,this being so1 the acquisition of such art should be a sine qu non to every rider4 ,that it is so can very easily be proved4 ,in following the pedal the foot describes a complete circle4 ,suppose the circle to be divided into eight segments1 taken in order from the highest point4#e ,with a rider who does not use his ankles1 force is applicable only through segments #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and in segments #a and #d1 the force not being applied at right angles to the end of the crank1 a large proportion is wasted1 and consequently it is only thoroughly effective through segments #b and #c1 or during one-fourth of the revolution4 ,the rider who has mastered the mysteries of ankle-action will drop his heel as the pedal approaches the highest point1 and he can apply a certain amount of force through segment #h4 ,after passing the so-called dead point1 his heel being still dropped1 the force is applied at right angles to the crank1 or nearly so1 and consequently he can utilize his full power through segment #a4 ,by rapidly straightening the ankle when entering segment #b an additional impetus is imparted1 and1 as before1 full power can be applied through segments #b and #c4 ,entering segment #d1 the heel should be raised and the pedal clawed backward1 and this clawing action will enable the rider to work past the dead point and well through segment #e4 ,consequently1 the man who rides with his ankles stiff can only work through segments #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 or half the whole circumference1 and his work is thoroughly effective only through segments #b and #c1 or one-fourth the circumference1 whereas the man who utilizes his ankles can work through segments #h1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1 or two-thirds the whole circumference1 and his work is thoroughly effective through segments #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d1 or one-half the whole circumference4 ,the advantage gained in the latter case is self-evident4 ,the acquisition of the art is often tedious and troublesome1 but if cyclists only knew the enormous increase of power which results they would not be content until they had mastered it4 ,from the cycling volume of the ,badminton ,series1 written by ,lord ,bury and ,g4 ,lacy ,hillier1 we take the following instructions3 8#8,seated either on a bicycle slung so that the wheel may revolve1 or upon a home-trainer1 the beginner should raise the pedal to its highest point1 and then1 steadying the wheel with the brake1 place his foot upon the pedal1 carefully fitting the slots in his shoes into their places1 and seeing in any case that the foot is straight4 ,then1 using the thigh muscle for the most part1 let him thrust the foot 7and pedal7 forward in a horizontal direction2 in fact1 a sort of sharp forward kick1 having the heel dropped as low as possible1 the toes well up1 and the foot firmly set on the pedal1 which will be at an angle4 ,this should be practised carefully with the brake slightly on1 and for this purpose1 though a bicycle may be used1 a tricycle will be found much handier4 ,if no home-trainer is available1 the brake can be put slightly on by means of a piece of string or strap to the lever1 tied to any convenient point1 and the novice can spend a few minutes daily practising this exercise2 in carrying out which programme the left foot should at first be used more than the right4 ,as soon as the usual awkwardness of the ankle-joint has been worked off this action will be found remarkably effective in starting the machine2 after a time the ankle muscles1 and those of the calf1 will become stronger1 and a sharp straightening of the ankle1 as the pedal passes through segments #a and #b1 will materially aid the propulsion of the machine4 ,this straightening of the ankle will be continued until the foot is brought into a position at right angles to the leg1 the muscular effort of which should now have by equal gradations become directly downward4 ,the pedal will now assume a horizontal position1 and the power of the leg with the weight of the body and the pull of the arms will all be exerted to force it downward2 at this point the crank throw is in the most effective position1 and the hardest work is put in4 ,when the pedal begins to follow a backward course1 the ankle-action becomes of the greatest value4 ,the toe is gradually dropped1 and the heel raised as the pedal gets nearer and nearer to the lowest point1 the action having at length reached the backward or 8clawing0 stage4 ,to secure the full advantage of ankle-work1 this 8clawing0 action must be very carefully practised2 the toes should be sharply pressed upon the sole of the shoe as if they were trying to grasp something1 whilst the ankle should be straightened as much as possible1 the foot being almost in a line with the leg1 the calf muscles being strongly retracted1 and the backward pull 7which of course requires fitted shoes7 can be made practically effective through segment #e1 and also of service well into segment #f4 ,the ineffective portion which exists on either side is soon reduced to a very small part of the circle1 for as soon as segment #g is entered upon the heel should be sharply dropped1 and an upward and forward kick or thrust1 as described in the directions for the first position1 will lift the pedal forward and upward through segment #h1 when1 of course1 the whole series of actions will be repeated4'--,bicycling ,news40 ,using the arrangement of cyclograph spoken of1 by which ankle-motion may be shown1 ,i find that ,i can begin to get a tangential resultant force on each crank at an angle of eighteen degrees back of the vertical line through the axle of the drive-wheel1 beginning at d and ending at e1 ,fig4 #a1--;in all1 thirty-six degrees over a half-circle on each crank4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,ankle-power4 ,the diagram shows the sections #a to #h1 and also gives an idea of the extra power4 ,to see the direct circular resultant force to turn the wheel1 imagine the length of a crank from m to n without ankle-motion and then m n plus n o for the length of the crank with ankle-motion added4 ,i have been able at each of the points a and i to get thirty pounds when the crank crosses the vertical line at the top and bottom4 ,thus it is discovered that by means of this ankle-motion on both cranks simultaneously1 ,i can get a force of sixty pounds in the direction to turn the wheel1 at a time when absolute dead centre would otherwise occur1 amounting to two-fifths of the maximum pressure resulting from my entire weight on one crank at the best possible point1 directly out in front1 going down4 ,i have more than verified the results shown by the cyclograph by suspending a fifty-four-inch bicycle1 with six-inch cranks1 above the floor1 placing myself in the saddle1 and having an attendant attach a twenty-pound weight at a point on the rim1 ninety degrees from the bottom4 ,this weight ,i was able to raise at the dead-centre point of both cranks1--that is1 vertically up and down1--which shows a real power at the pedals of ninety pounds1 or forty-five pounds on each1 and ,i do not suppose that ,i am by any means an expert in ankle-motion4 ,the above ninety pounds is a much greater showing than ,i made on the cyclograph in actual running1 but it is reasonably certain that1 by practice1 even such an amount could be obtained4 ,in the case of no ankle-motion1--that is1 with a direct downward pressure on the crank1--a tangential force in the direction available in turning the wheel begins as the crank crosses the vertical at the top1 and then increases as the sine of the angle the crank makes with the vertical1 until such angle reaches ninety degrees or extends out horizontally1 after which the power decreases as the sine of the angle the crank makes with the vertical below the centre until the crank crosses at the bottom1 at which point the power ceases4 ,to represent this variation of power by actual length of lines1 appended will be found a diagram1 ,fig4 #b1 showing the tangential resultant or force to turn the wheel1 imparted by a one-hundred-and-fifty-pound man with and without the use of ankle-motion4 ,a ,a is a line showing the divisions of the angles through which the crank passes in its revolution around the axle4 ,the line a f i is a sine curve4 ,using the middle section and beginning at the point a1 which is that at which the crank crosses the vertical above the axle1 making a zero angle therewith1 we have a direct downward pressure and1 without ankle-motion1 zero power4 ,now1 by means of ankle-motion on one crank at this point we get thirty pounds of power1 represented by the length of the line from a to b2 and by ankle-motion on both cranks we have sixty pounds1 represented by the total length of the line from a to c4 ,after the crank has advanced forward fifteen degrees1 we have thirty-nine pounds of direct power 7m n71 and then adding the ankle-power of twenty-three pounds 7n o71 we have a total resultant of sixty-two pounds1 represented by the length of the next line 7m o71 and so on up1 the direct power increasing and the ankle-power diminishing till we come to the top of the curve f1 when we have one hundred and fifty pounds of direct power4 ,passing through the angle of ninety degrees1 and now counting from the vertical below the axle1 we decrease in power inversely as we increased before4 ,fig4 #a will show a little more graphically to the eyes of some casual readers how the power expands4 ,take d a f i e as the regular swing of the crank with no power at a1 then d b f h e as the increase of power on one and the dotted lines c and g as the auxiliary ankle-power on the other crank added4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,ankle-power sine curve4 #e ,observe ,fig4 #a1 p4 #eh4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,balancing1 ,,and ,,some ,,questions ,,of ,,potential ,,energy--,,hill-,,climbing4 ,it seems pertinent at this point to make some further distinction between two distinctive classes of road wheels4 ,the conception in the mind of man of road carriages which require an element of balancing was a recent event in the development of vehicles in general1 and the similarity of the words bicycle and tricycle1 together with the fact that both are included in the generic term velocipede1 has led many to overlook a distinction of balancing1 which should class them under very different heads4 ,both are velocipedes if we mean machines run by foot-power2 both are man-motors in the light that human force or energy actuates them2 but the two-wheel single-track machine must employ a particular faculty on the part of the rider1 not required in running one of stable equilibrium4 ,it seems superfluous at this stage of development of the art to enlarge upon the fact that a bicycle has to be balanced by a particular action not required in any other form of carriage2 but when inventors will keep on getting up means to lock the steering device1 and riders will persist in reminding us that the steering head 8moves too easily10 it is severely pertinent to remark that while a certain law of whirling bodies might show us that a wheel will not fall over quite so quickly when rolling as when standing still1 yet it is not this law so much as the action of steering that differentiates the bicycle1 or single-track carriage1 from other machines4 ,the action of the handle-bar while in motion does substantially1 in balancing the bicycle1 what you would do if you were balancing a cane vertically on the end of your nose3 if the cane starts to fall1 you run in that direction with your nose till you get under the centre of gravity again4 ,but the bicycle can only fall sideways1 so1 when it tends to fall in that way1 or when the centre of gravity gets to one side of the vertical line from the point of support on the ground1 you cannot run directly sideways with the support as you would in the cane illustration1 but you can run indirectly sideways1 nevertheless1 with the point of support1 the only difference being that you must run considerably forward at the same time in order to shift the lower extremity1 or point of contact and support1 in that direction4 ,after considerable discussion of this apparently simple subject with eminent gentlemen well qualified to speak on such topics1 the following appeals to my mind as a more definite and complete explanation than that given in the nose and cane case1 bringing in an element of the problem omitted above1 to wit3 in running the point of support of contact across and under1 as it approaches the vertical plane of gravity and general forward momentum1 the steering wheel lies slightly across this plane1 and its own plane is still out of vertical1 leaning a little1 as it did before1 with the centre of gravity back of the point of support2 the forward momentum then throws the entire system upright4 ,in rapid running this momentum does a large proportion of the work1 and it has been vigorously maintained that all balancing is due to this element2 for small motions1 however1 the cane explanation is quite sufficient4 ,the foregoing explanation of uprighting the bicycle is1 to my mind1 almost entirely independent of any law of whirling bodies as generally understood4 ,an article showing that this subject is not devoid of interest or obsolete is given below from the ,bicycling ,world1 in which ,i think the law of whirling bodies will apply4 8,the ,rochester wheelmen debated the question1 #8,why does a bicycle stand up while rolling and fall down as soon as onward motion ceases8' ,the answer decided to be correct was1 that #8the bottom of the wheel can have no side motion because it rests on the ground2 and since the bottom is constantly becoming the top and the top the bottom1 if the upper part of the wheel gets any lateral motion1 it is checked by being brought round upon the ground again before the motion has too much influence4'0 ,i do not suppose this ingenious decision1 rendered by the high and mighty ,solons of the ,rochester ,club1 was a serious one2 however1 we do find that just such logic is quite common4 ,it is not plain whether the question discussed was that of a bicycle with or without a man upon it1 but ,i take it to be the latter4 ,some of the gentlemen had no doubt noticed that to give the machine a shove it would keep upright for a longer time running than when standing unsupported4 ,this is purely a case of the law that whirling things tend to keep their own plane1 as illustrated in the gyroscope and the spinning top4 ,in the running bicycle without a man upon it to constantly rectify its position1 the principle is simply one of the parallelogram of rotations4 ,if the wheel from any external force starts to fall over1 or1 in other words1 to revolve around a horizontal line normal to its geometric axis1 then1 since the wheel is already revolving about its axis in the axle1 the resultant of these two rotations will be a rotation about an axis inclined to the former axis of the wheel1 which means that the wheel will begin to circle around a centre at some distance from the wheel on the side towards which it starts to fall4 ,this new axis about which the wheel revolves will of course be in a plane perpendicular to the new plane of the wheel1 and will be inclined downward from the horizontal plane through its centre1 so that the wheel is no longer running in a vertical plane4 ,the rotation about the centre outside of the wheel1 towards which centre the wheel leans1 brings into play a centrifugal force acting to upright the wheel2 that is1 to bring it back to a vertical plane4 ,now1 if the wheel be run along a straight groove1 so that circling around a centre is prevented1 then it will fall as quickly as when standing still2 or if1 in the bicycle1 the steering-wheel be locked so that it will not turn out of the plane of the two wheels1 there would be no uprighting resultant1 and the machine1 according to ,newton's law of independent forces1 would fall4 ,,some ,,questions ,,of ,,potential ,,energy1 ,,momentum1 ,,and ,,hill-,,climbing4 ,when a cyclist climbs a hill1 he not only overcomes the friction which would be generated if he travelled over the same length of level road surface1 but he ought to be supposed to establish a certain amount of potential energy1 or energy against gravity1 and therefore should lose none4 ,yet he does lose considerable somewhere or he would not dread the hilly road as he does4 ,in this matter of potential energy in hill-climbing upon a cycle1 the subject assumes a different aspect from that of rolling on or off obstructions1 as in rough-road riding treated of elsewhere4 ,in climbing a hill there is no loss of momentum from a too sudden change in its direction2 the matter of inertia does not figure in the case in any way1 and we have a mere question of the rise and fall of a weight under certain modifications1 said weight being the rider and his machine1 said rise the ascent of the hill1 and the fall the descent thereof4 ,in a purely physical sense1 then1 we store up a certain amount of energy1 or1 in other words1 put so much energy to our credit as against gravity1 and theoretically we have a right to expect to get the benefit of it4 ,to illustrate this potential energy1 suppose we place a pulley at the top of a hill and a rider at each end of a rope running over the pulley1 with one man at the bottom starting up and the other at the top starting down the same hill4 ,the descent of one man would draw the other up1 excepting that each would have to work only just enough to make up the loss from friction1 as he would in case the road were level and of equal length4 ,i have little doubt that in such a pulley arrangement there would be much less loss of power and energy than riders now experience in the actual practice of hill-climbing4 ,to illustrate with one man how the potential energy should be returned and thereby benefit the rider1 let us place him at the top of a hill at the bottom of which another hill of the same height begins1 whence1 by the acceleration of gravity1 the rider ought to find himself at the bottom of the first hill with an amount of momentum acquired that would send him to the top of the next2 in other words1 we might naturally expect when we roll down one incline to roll just as far up another of the same grade1 or of the same vertical height regardless of the grade1 or else we should expect a return of the energy in sending us capering over a level road without further labor1 until the kinetic energy is exhausted4 ,we find1 however1 that such a desirable result does not appear1 and we notice that1 however long1 beyond a certain limit1 the hill may be1 we have no more momentum or kinetic energy at our disposal than we would in the case of a shorter hill4 ,to what can this loss be attributed8 ,there is but one visible cause1--to wit1 our work against the air4 ,if all riding were done in a vacuum1 we would more nearly get back our energy1 but somehow or other the vacuum is generally in the rider and doesn't count1 so there is an end to that4 ,the rider1 then1 loses the momentum he would acquire from gravity because the friction of the air is resisting his progress at the rate of1 or according to1 the square of his velocity4 ,in order to store up all the energy in a falling body we must allow gravity to increase the velocity as the square root of the distance4 ,but it is easily seen that a rate of speed will soon be reached such that the air by impact will entirely annul all increase of velocity1 and therefore all of the momentum we can expect to have at the bottom of the hill is just that which was acquired at the time and point at which the impact of the air balanced the accelerating force of gravity4 ,this will soon come to pass1 even omitting other friction1 which1 in connection with hill-climbing1 we can afford to omit with good reason1 because we should expect to have that to overcome if the road were level4 ,the mere difference in the length of the surface travelled over will not bother a cyclist if it be a good level road1 so we must blame it all on the air2 ,i see no other way out of it4 ,no manner of springs or anti-vibrators will help us out of this difficulty4 ,if our rider puts on the brake1 then of course there is no question as to where the work goes2 but1 as we all know1 with a safe machine and an expert rider this is not often done in an ordinary country4 ,in defence of our theory of loss of energy on very long hills1 observe the fact that a mere rolling road is not generally despised by the cyclist2 in fact1 many prefer it to a dead level1 the writer being decidedly one of their number4 ,the short intervals of labor and rest1 the continual barter and sale with gravity1 in the transfer of energy to and fro1 is not by any means an uncomfortable diversion to either our minds or bodies2 but when we come to suffer the usurious interest demanded by the action of the air against us1 we simply draw the line1 and go by another road1 even though the surface thereof be not of the most inviting character4 ,some ingenious mechanics have devised mechanism whereby they propose to store up the power lost in the brake action2 but it is doubtful if any riders would care for it after they become expert and daring1 which they all do in course of time in spite of all admonition against undue risk4 ,speaking of potential energy and momentum1 we naturally come upon the question of machine weight4 ,it is a peculiar fact that the weight of the man does not form so important a part in the bicycle exercise as that of the machine1 so that if a rider be heavier by twenty pounds than another1 it will not generally count against him2 but if that weight is in the machine1 competition is out of the question4 ,nature seems to make up in muscle1 or supply of energy in some way1 for the extra weight in the man1 but said nature is not so clever when this weight is outside of him4 ,it is sometimes thought that a heavy man or a heavy machine will descend a hill faster than a lighter4 ,this is not reasonable4 ,the accelerating force of gravity being independent of the mass1 the heavy system will have the same velocity at the bottom1 and momentum being represented by mass1 times velocity1 the increased mass will increase the momentum2 but the speed is the same3 this extra momentum is required in raising the heavier system to the same height as the lighter4 ,but even if the rider should get the benefit of all the energy he stores in climbing a hill1 there is still an indisputable objection to a heavy wheel1--to wit1 a man can labor long and continuously at a strain within reasonable limits1 and can do a large amount of work thereby2 but to strain the system beyond those limits1 and attempt to store up too much energy in too short a space of time1 is to make nature revolt1 resist the imposition1 and refuse to be appeased for some time to come and often not at all2 in short1 an overstrain is bad1 and by a heavy machine1 no matter what amount of energy you may store up at the top of the hill1 if in so doing nature has been overtaxed1 it will result disastrously4 ,so we see that1 outside of all mechanical questions of momentum and potential energy1 there is a vital objection to heavy machines on purely physiological grounds4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,curves ,,of ,,translation1 ,,in ,,machines ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,diameters ,,or ,,combination ,,of ,,wheels ,,differ1 ,,of ,a ,,point ,,taken ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,relative ,,position ,,on ,,the ,,several ,,saddles--,,consequent ,,concussion ,,and ,,effect ,,upon ,,momentum4 ,in discussing this matter it has been taken for granted that the proper point upon which to base calculations is that point in the saddle at which the motion of the machine may be supposed to be transmitted to the rider2 this happens to be very near the centre of gravity of the system1 and is also quite near the centre of gravity of the man4 ,the motion is of course partially transmitted to the rider at the pedals1 but we will for the present waive that modification4 ,simple as the running of two wheels over an obstruction seems to be1 there are some interesting points to study4 ,it was a surprise to the writer1 and it is his hope that it may be of interest to others1 that the saddle1 and of consequence the rider1 actually goes backward at times when the wheels are running forward2 as1 for instance1 when the machine rolls slowly from a four-inch obstacle1 as shown by the curve of the point in the fifty-two-inch ,ordinary given below1 and also particularly in the advance upon the same of the ,star rear-driver4 ,this reversion of momentum sometimes results in a drop of the rear wheel1 but it is always an actual reacting force in the front4 ,we feel the curves very plainly on a rigid machine1 but it is a satisfaction to know exactly what they are and what the springs must overcome4 ,,motion ,,at ,,the ,,saddle ,,as ,,wheels ,,roll ,,over ,,an ,,obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,ordinary1 #eb ,f41 #ah ,r42 #d-;in4 obstruction2 saddle twenty degrees back4 ,illustration3 ,fig #b4 ,rational ,ordinary1 #eb ,f41 #ah ,r42 #d-;in4 obstruction2 saddle thirty degrees back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,lever ,rear-driver ,star1 #ah ,f41 #eb ,r42 #d-;in4 obstruction2 saddle twenty degrees forward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,star1 #bj ,f41 #eb ,r42 saddle vertically over axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,star1 #bd ,f41 #ci ,r42 saddle over axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,kangaroo1 #dj ,f41 #ah ,r42 saddle twenty-five degrees back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,rear-driver ,rover1 #cj-;in4 wheels1 eleven inches apart2 saddle forty inches high1 twelve inches forward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,rear-driver1 #cj ,f41 #bd ,r42 saddle forty inches high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,dennis ,johnson1 #cj-;in4 wheels2 saddle thirty inches high1 midway between wheels4 ,the diagrams show the paths of the point in the various machines passing over a four-inch obstruction2 ,f designates the front and ,r the rear wheel1 and the arrows indicate the direction of translation1--that is1 the way the machine is running4 ,the degrees designate the angle between lines from the drive-wheel axle1 one extending vertically and the other through the saddle2 sometimes also expressed in inches of horizontal distance between verticals through the rear axle and saddle4 ,the heights or top points of the curves from the base line show the amount the machine is raised at the saddle as each wheel passes over the obstruction2 these heights give inferentially the position of the saddle between the wheels1 or1 rather1 between the vertical lines through the respective axles thereof1 since the nearer over a wheel the saddle is placed the more it will be elevated when the wheel passes over the obstruction4 ,again1 from the location of the saddle with reference to the axles we can determine the amount of weight carried by each wheel1 the weight each carries being proportional to the respective distances from the saddle horizontally4 ,the sum of the heights of the two curves from the general level will be the height of the obstacle4 ,theoretically there is no difference in the amount of work required to pass over an impediment1 no matter where the saddle is placed1 as the man must be raised in all to the height of the same1 and it does not matter whether he is lifted up half way twice or all the way once in so far as the amount of labor is concerned4 ,the man and the machine must be lifted up to a certain height in some way2 as it happens1 it is more comfortable to be lifted twice through half the distance than all at once2 but this should not affect the actual work done nor the energy expended4 ,our scale in the study of this question is one-sixteenth of an inch to the inch2 therefore in these diagrams one-eighth of an inch represents two inches in the full-size bicycle4 ,in this connection also it must be taken into consideration that the effect upon momentum is not shown entirely by the contour of these lines2 the sudden stoppage or checking of the system is generally shown by a vertical tendency in the curve1 but a very disagreeable shock to the body may occur and momentum be lost without any deviation in the curve whatever when1 for instance1 in the most pronounced case1 the saddle goes straight back upon its course4 ,this is shown by means of the short vertical or diverging lines upon the curves4 ,these short lines show the distance forward the point in the saddle travels in proportion to the advance of the wheels in a forward direction in space2 each short line indicates an advance of two inches in the wheels4 ,when the lines are below the curve1 the saddle has actually dropped backward1--that is1 it has been directly reversed in its course4 ,when the short lines upon the curve are close together1 it shows that the saddle and rider are being checked proportionately as these lines are less than one-eighth of an inch apart4 ,on the other hand1 when the normal pace of the momentum of the heavier parts is slower than that of the wheels1 it is shown by the lines being more than an eighth of an inch apart4 ,in this case there is a tendency to increase the momentum instead of decreasing it1--a state of affairs not so much to be deplored if it were not evident that it is equally checked at some other point4 ,we know1 in practice with the ,ordinary1 that the loss of momentum by sudden checking can only happen to the full extent when the pace is reasonably slow2 should the momentum be too great it will simply refuse to be interfered with in its forward course1 and the rear wheel will leave the ground with a result and in a manner quite well known4 ,in the safer forms of bicycles1--those from which a header is improbable1--without proper springs1 the rider will simply slide forward on the saddle1 causing considerable loss of momentum besides that due to vibration1 since he must afterwards slide himself back again4 ,referring to the diagrams1 ,fig4 #a shows the ,ordinary bicycle with a fifty-two-inch front and an eighteen-inch rear wheel4 ,the front wheel mounts the obstacle with some difficulty1 the curve upward being rather sudden in its change of direction from the base line1 thus showing that the momentum is checked very rapidly2 see the short vertical lines upon the curves1 which are about one-half the distance apart of those on the base line between the curves and at the ends4 ,also notice that ,f 7the front wheel7 carries three-fourths of the weight1 one curve being about three times as high as the other4 ,particular attention is called to the easy and gradual curve shown by the mounting of the small rear wheel ,r2 it would seem to show that the great clamor of theorists for large rear wheels in the ,ordinary is somewhat unwarranted2 the drop down and back in rolling off the obstacle will be seen to be quite sudden1 but notice not very much more so than in ,fig4 #b1 which shows the ,rational1 so called1 with a fifty-two-inch driver and twenty-four-inch rear wheel4 ,the large rear wheel affects the drop to some extent1 but in all obstacles under four inches in height there is no perceptible benefit derived1 at least not such as to warrant the extra weight and disarrangement of the steering4 ,fig4 #c shows a machine with a fifty-two-inch rear driver1 ,r1 and an eighteen-inch front steering wheel1 ,f1 with the saddle twenty degrees in front of the vertical line through the driving axle4 ,the curves are just the reverse of the ,ordinary2 in the latter the quick drop1 down and back1 of the rear wheel in leaving is comparable to the backward thrust of the front wheel in ,fig4 #c running upon the obstruction4 ,no machine in the market at present makes exactly the curve of ,fig4 #c2 it is about that which the ,american ,star would make with its saddle a little farther forward1 and that of a recent rear-driving crank machine called the 8,eagle40 ,fig4 #d shows the ,american ,star1 as commonly seen1 with a fifty-two-inch rear driver and the saddle directly over the driving axle4 ,this curve shows no elevation of the saddle as the front wheel mounts the obstacle1 but a radical check to the momentum is shown2 observe the curve 7,f71 and note that the saddle is forced back in the order of the small numerals1 advancing to #a1 going back to #b1 then on to #c and #d1 which shows that the momentum is not deviated up or down1 but is directly reversed in its course4 ,fig4 #e shows a new machine of the ,star pattern1 with twenty-four-inch front steerer1 ,f1 and a thirty-nine-inch rear driver1 ,r4 ,the check in the momentum is not so radical as that shown in ,fig4 #d1 as the front wheel mounts the obstacle4 ,the one short line below the curve shows the backward thrust4 ,the sudden check in striking an obstacle1 with the machines last referred to1 shows the necessity and enormous advantage of a forward give to the saddle support adopted in some of those patterns4 ,this arrangement is not so necessary in the ,ordinary1 yet it would do no harm1 for it will be seen that the large front wheel of the latter strikes the obstacle with quite a sudden upward curve and check in the momentum sufficient to justify its use4 ,in the ,star1 ,eagle1 and such other types the man is raised upon the obstacle entirely by the large rear wheel1 which carries nearly all of the weight1 as shown by the height of the curve2 it raises beautifully upon the obstruction with little or no check in the momentum1 the diverging lines showing about the same distance apart as at the base4 ,it has been thought to be an advantage to reduce the weight upon the front wheel1 but the importance is very much exaggerated2 it will reduce the impact in dropping down from an obstruction1 and will thus cause less annoyance in rough-road riding2 still this does not alter the fact that the momentum in the man and part of the machine is not only stopped1 but reversed backward1 as shown in the diagrams4 ,if the wheel were lifted entirely free from the ground before advancing upon the obstruction1 it is obvious1 then1 that no harmful result would ensue1 not so much because the jolt and impact in dropping off is obviated1 but for the reason that the momentum forward is not interfered with4 ,if the rider should run full force against a wall with his forward wheel1 it would be of little consequence to him whether there was any weight upon it or not2 it is not always a question of vertical disturbance or of the action of gravity that is of annoyance to the bicycle rider2 it is sometimes better to have a heavy weight upon a wheel if it can be kept in contact with the obstruction1 as1 for instance1 upon the front wheel of the ,ordinary when it rolls off1 as it will be seen that the curve shows a splendid contour by which to give a good pull on the machine4 ,fig4 #f shows the ,kangaroo type1 with a forty-inch front driver and an eighteen-inch rear wheel2 this curve presents very little change from that of the ,ordinary4 ,fig4 #g illustrates the ,rover type1 having two thirty-inch wheels with their centres forty-one inches apart1 the saddle forty inches high and twelve inches in front of the vertical through the rear axle4 ,the mere contour of the curve in the last figure mentioned would be somewhat misleading did the diverging lines not show that in the rolling off of the rear wheel the momentum is considerably checked1--that is1 the saddle moves more slowly forward than the normal forward pace of the wheels1 though there is no direct reversion of the momentum1 as occurs in the ,ordinary and some others4 ,in this connection let me call particular attention to a cardinal distinction with reference to the action in rolling upon and from an obstruction4 ,if the wheels in descending hold the man back in order to remain in contact and thus roll off1 it will1 of course1 result in a check of momentum exactly equal to that which would occur in such advance upon an obstacle1 as would be shown by a similar curve in the opposite direction2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the momentum being a certain amount1 the effect is to cause the wheel to leave the obstruction entirely and not roll1 but jump off1 which result causes a great loss of energy and is sure to occur in rapid running4 ,in this case the forward momentum gets no benefit from the potential energy acquired in mounting the obstacle1 which shows the great necessity of proper springs such as will enable a man to swing forward slightly without rigidly drawing the machine after him4 ,the object of the springs in this connection should be to hold the wheel in contact and permit it to roll instead of forcing it to jump off2 if it rolls and is not carried off by the force of momentum1 the energy will be given out in driving the machine forward instead of being lost in the vibration caused by impact when the machine strikes the common level4 ,that is to say1 the machine should roll off1 but not hold the man back in order to do so2 by proper springs the wheels remain in contact1 while the man goes on at the regular pace of momentum4 ,the liability of the rear wheel to jump off is a serious difficulty in the present ,rover type of rear-driver2 there is no reversion of the momentum1 nor such a tendency to drop perpendicularly1 as in the ,ordinary1 yet it drops a greater distance and is charged with more weight4 ,this objection cannot be entirely remedied by any springs we now have in use2 it requires a lively vertical as well as a horizontal amplitude in the motion of the springs1 and they should be placed at the hub of the rear wheel in a manner similar to those used of late in connection with the front wheel4 ,it will be seen from the diagrams that the curves shown by the front wheels leaving the obstructions are never such as would show any liability to jump off2 advancing upon the obstruction must1 in them1 be mostly provided for4 ,in ,fig4 #h we have a machine provided with a thirty-inch front and twenty-four-inch rear driving-wheel4 ,this is a modification of the ,rover type recently favored by some ,english makers4 ,the drop of the rear wheel is more radical than that of a full thirty-inch4 ,in ,fig4 #i appears a ,dennis ,johnson machine1 with two wheels of the same size1 having the seat low down and exactly midway between them4 ,this is perhaps the easiest riding contrivance in so far as vibration1 jolt1 and shock are concerned4 ,observe the equable motion it displays4 ,this machine was patented in ,england1 as spoken of in an early chapter1 seventy years ago4 ,it will be seen1 from a general observation and study of all of the diagrams1 that the best and most gradual curves are made by the front wheel in descending from1 and by the rear wheel in advancing upon1 the obstacle2 hence it follows that the front wheel works against momentum more in ascending and the rear wheel more in descending4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,springs ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,curves ,,of ,,translation1 ,,momentum1 ,,and ,,concussion4 ,it was a pet scheme of the writer's to treat of the matter of the annoyance to the rider resulting from a shock or jolt and change in momentum in the various styles of bicycles in a purely mathematical form1 and to some extent it can be done2 but it is found that so many considerations enter that the question becomes almost interminable4 ,the aim was to find a formula with the sizes of wheels1 distances between centres1 and position of saddle as variables1 which would1 when applied1 give us a result representing the sum total of annoyance felt by the rider in passing over an obstacle or any depression1 rut1 or ditch of given height or depth on any combination of wheels likely to be used in one machine4 ,the difficulty in the question is in determining just what that annoyance results from or consists in2 no doubt the initial impact1 change of direction1 and sudden reduction of momentum1 and also the duration of the shock1 all enter into the grand total4 ,from a theoretical stand-point there need be no loss of power and consequently no annoyance in running over an obstacle1 since all the momentum lost in a forward direction ought to be transmitted vertically in mounting the obstacle1 thereby establishing a potential energy which would again be transformed into momentum forward as the wheel rolls down from the elevation4 ,neither should a rut have to be avoided1 since by running into it we gain a momentum that should carry us out2 hence1 as per theory1 the cycler should not worry about riding over rough roads1 for in mounting each obstacle he only loans a bit of power in going up1 which will be returned to him in going down1 and in running down into a rut momentum will be loaned to him sufficient to bring him out4 ,but1 alas6 he does not fancy the thing2 somehow he has a like prejudice against rough roads that he has to hills1 and as this prejudice cannot arise from purely theoretical considerations1 we must look for some violation of nature's laws1 or some cause why such laws are not directly applicable4 ,in my judgment there is a reasonably definite connection between the annoyance felt by the cycler in riding over a rough road and the actual loss of energy1 though not a similar one in all respects to that which applies in regard to hills4 ,a shock produced by a sudden check or deviation of the momentum is not only hurtful in causing a direct loss of kinetic energy1 which the rider has stored up and to regain which he must afterwards do work1 but also in contusing and jarring the muscular system1 which makes him less able to do the work4 ,in so far as the machine is concerned1 the loss of energy goes into vibration and into extra friction of the machine2 we cannot see any other means by which it can escape2 but as to the rider1 while energy is of course similarly lost1 the motive power is also interfered with4 ,now1 the application ,i wish to make of this fact1 i4e41 that the annoyance or shock felt by the rider in wheeling over rough roads is comparable to an actual loss of kinetic energy1 as well as in addition thereto1 is that the nearer we can approach to an even rolling motion affecting the rider least disastrously1 the nearer we will come to a perfect road bicycle without loss of momentum4 ,in other words1 the dynamical and physiological considerations lead us to the same end1--to relieve the annoyance by means of proper springs1 and to so distribute the inequalities of the momentum and modify the change in direction thereof as to minimize the loss of energy4 ,from experiments tried with properly-constructed springs1 ,i find that momentum can be diverted in striking the obstacle into its required new course1 upward and forward1 with very slight loss indeed1 and that much waste of power in rolling off the obstacle can also be saved1 the desired conditions and effect being as follows3 ,the wheel strikes the obstacle1 springs back a little1 and begins to rise upon it2 at the same time an upward thrust is given1 additionally compressing the vertical components of the springs1 the man going on forward at the usual pace of momentum and being gradually raised4 ,when the top is reached and the wheel starts down1 the weight of man and machine causes the wheel to spring forward a little at first1 and then1 when the weight would drop too slowly and the momentum would otherwise pull the wheel bodily off1 the vertical spring1 being compressed1 will1 by its quick action1 together with the pressure backward of the horizontal spring against the obstruction1 hold the wheel in contact and make it roll off4 ,this action is reversed in the case of a rut1 and is quite similar in either fore or hind wheel4 ,the principle is to avoid a too sudden attack upon the inertia1 to change the course of momentum gradually1 and to avoid concussion against inelastic parts4 ,the direct vertical amplitude in the springs of a cycle is of most benefit in regard to momentum in giving the vertical power time to act2 that is1 if the wheels are raised quickly the momentum is transmitted to and stored up in the springs and allowed to act gradually in raising all the parts without violent concussion or vibration and consequent loss of power4 ,when the machine drops suddenly in descending from an obstacle the springs will act more quickly than gravity can overcome the inertia of the system1 and the wheel will then remain in contact with the obstacle2 that is to say1 sufficient spring acting horizontally in the direction of the acquired momentum1 together with the necessary amount of vertical spring1 will store the energy otherwise lost in riding suddenly upon an obstacle2 said energy will then be given time to act and be utilized in raising the rider and such parts of the system which the springs control to a certain height1 establishing a potential1 which will be given out in increasing the forward momentum as the wheel rolls down to the common level4 ,springs having a horizontal movement relieving only the saddle can prevent loss of momentum in the man1 but cannot prevent the weight of the machine from being thrown dead against the obstacle4 ,this can only be remedied by elastic connections of a kind that prevent the shock from ever reaching the heavier parts1 which condition would save almost the entire work lost against the obstacle4 ,we see1 then1 that the subject of springs comprehends not only the question of comfort in regard to the shock sustained by the body1 but also the most serious and interesting factor in relation to the economy of power2 nor is this a theme at all confined to cycles2 it has been egregiously overlooked by makers and riders of many other vehicles4 ,no better illustration can be had of man's selfishness1 as against the brute creation1 than the fact that now1 in machines in which we have to pull our own load1 we are just beginning to contrive and apply all possible means to prevent a loss of momentum1 whereas in all our carriages drawn by horses we looked only to the ease and comfort of our bodies1 and provided good springs with a vertical give for that especial purpose1 having little care for any loss of power1 to avoid which loss we should also use horizontal springs so placed as to relieve the entire weight of the heavy running gear1 as well as that of the man1 from forward concussion4 ,i know full well1 even then1 that a horizontal spring has still some little to do with the ease of riding1 but with a heavy conveyance the advantage to the rider is slight as compared with the advantage that it would be to the horse which furnishes the power4 ,the time will come when the evil will be remedied in general carriages1 if only for the gain it will be to the comfort of the man4 ,there would be little hope1 indeed1 if the poor horse were the only party interested1 but when man is directly concerned we can expect more rapid development4 ,when we start our machines for a run it is considerable work to get up an initial velocity or momentum2 however1 after that there should be only the friction of the machine within itself and upon the road to be overcome1 together with the friction against the air2 that is to say1 if inequalities in the road could be run over without a loss of momentum being caused thereby1 there would not be nearly so much work in travelling upon the cycle as is now necessarily required4 ,the principal parts of the cycle should be as rigid and firm as possible1 so as not to respond at random in vibration to every little shock they should chance to receive1 for the spring or elasticity wants to be such as can be controlled1--that is1 made to store energy in the right way and give it out at the proper time with a desired effect upon the momentum4 ,it must be remembered in this connection that useful energy can be stored in the machine only in the plane of horizontal motion and gravity2 in other words1 vertically and horizontally4 ,any elasticity at an angle to this plane can only be of use in reducing the concussion upon the rider in a lateral direction2 and since1 upon a single-track machine1 but little if any shock can occur in such direction1 it should be seen to that no undue side motion is permitted4 ,in order to fully comprehend the loss of power that it is possible to save by proper springs1 observe as a particular case the annexed diagram showing two thirty-inch wheels arranged substantially as in the present rear-driving ,safety4 ,let c be the centre of gravity1 and let the line c o1 drawn to the obstacle1 pass through the centre of the front wheel and make an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizontal4 ,illustration3 ,rover momentum4 ,the momentum c l is split up into two equal components1 one acting in the direction c o1 and the other in the direction c k perpendicular to c o1 tending to turn the system about o as a centre4 ,the numerical value of the c k component1 calling m the momentum1 m is ------1 and its value in the forward direction c o is #b m m #a m ------ cos #de ------ ------ ------1 which is the forward momentum retained1 #b #b #b #b showing that in this case one-half of the forward momentum is saved and the other half lost4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that the use of an imaginary four-inch obstruction1 in our study of momentum and concussion1 is entirely arbitrary4 ,of course obstructions of all heights will evolve proportional results4 ,this proportion would not1 however1 be linear2 the nearest we can come to it is to say that the annoyance begins with an obstruction of zero height1 and increases about as a trigonometrical sine increases when the angle grows larger4 ,it is evident that all this theory applied to one obstruction is simply repeated in a number of them1 and a number of them make up a rough road1 bearing in mind that a rut is but one form of an obstacle4 ,some makers of late seem to realize the importance of springs which will allow of a horizontal as well as a vertical motion1 and have in them not only provided against the loss of momentum in the man1 but also in the entire machine exclusive of the front wheel4 ,this has apparently been done with another object in view1--i4e41 that of relieving the annoyance to the hands and arms by reducing the vibration in the handle-bar4 ,this object1 though worthy1 is far short of the ideal4 ,such springs might properly be called storage springs or power economizers2 they are1 however1 generally nominated ,anti-,vibrators and ,spring ,forks4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,anti-,,vibrators ,,and ,,spring ,,forks4 ,the abstract terms of the heading have1 so far1 generally been applied to certain devices constituting an elastic connection between the standards of the wheels 7#a71 or1 more precisely1 between the front fork and backbone4 ,the more recent forms of anti-vibrators are 7#b7 the spring hinge about midway in the rear frame1 or backbone1 of the machine2 7#c7 the spring joints at the extremity of the front fork connecting with the forward wheel axle2 7#d7 the spring fork proper1 in which the extensions are either wholly or in part elastic4 ,the last two are1 to my mind1 the most deserving of praise4 ,in the first named above1 the shock is mainly confined to the front half of the machine1--that is1 to the front wheel1 its fork1 and handle-bar1--while in the last two the front wheel alone receives the concussion to the full extent1 an intervening spring preventing the transmission of the shock to other parts of the system4 ,when it comes to be fully appreciated by the fraternity that the shock sustained by the machine and rider is not only to be treated as a matter of comfort or discomfort1 but that it has other very important claims to our consideration1 we may expect it to be more fully discussed4 ,not that we care so much about the vibration loosening every joint1 screw1 and pin in the entire contrivance1 which makes it worn out1 so called1 when it has scarcely begun to wear1--of course1 in the general march of progress1 we expect to remedy that also1--but it is the momentum we are most after4 ,the writer has always been one who has had a constitutional aversion to working up a speed and then having it all knocked out by a stray stone4 ,illustration3 ,recent ,american anti-vibrator4 ,the difficulty experienced by inventors in the line of anti-vibrators appears to be1 that while acquiring the desired elasticity in the proper direction an elasticity in other directions has followed1 making the machine feel unsteady and capricious1 especially in the steering4 ,this undoubtedly valid difficulty in the way is worthy of careful consideration before accepting an anti-vibrator2 in fact1 the very end desired can easily be missed in an imperfect device1 as it might1 while holding momentum in one direction1 lose it in another4 ,i cannot better express my opinion as to the general requirement of a good anti-vibrator than to say1 get plenty of spring1 but acting in the plane of momentum and gravity1 and get it as quickly as possible2 that is1 at the connection of the wheels with the forks1 or at the outer end of the spokes if it can be done without interfering with the rigid transmission of power to the driving-rim4 ,it is always difficult to apply any attachment to the driving-wheel of a machine2 in the ,ordinary it would be beneficial to attach an anti-vibrator to the forward wheel1 but as a matter of construction it would be about as difficult to do this as it would be to attach it to the rear wheel of the ,safety4 ,we hope to see and may expect a number of devices to be offered by makers which will fulfil all requirements4 ,appended find a cut of one recently patented1 of which ,i can speak with some confidence from having used a similar contrivance in experiments in this connection4 ,the figure here1 as in the patent1 shows the connecting-rod swinging through an almost useless arc of action1 but the general plan is good2 not1 however1 as neat as some others4 ,a great maker has of late1 however1 adopted a device which1 to my mind1 does not fulfil all of the requirements2 it is still confined too much to a vertical action1 and has really no horizontal amplitude unless the machine is ridden by a very heavy man1 in which case the spring will assume a very abnormal position4 ,other makers have adopted the joint to the centre of the frame or backbone of the ,safety type 7,no4 #b above71 so constructed that the pedals are also provided with a vertical motion2 this certainly helps to isolate the man from vertical concussion1 and it is good2 yet the horizontal give is lacking in these machines1 and the front fork1 together with the handle-bar1 still receives a shock and loses in vibration4 ,later1 an inventor has shown a new pedal in which1 apparently1 the rubber works upon a spring and has a vertical motion under the pressure of the foot4 ,this is a deserving though a misguided effort4 ,the connection of the man with the apparatus through which the power is transmitted to the machine should be as direct and rigid as possible3 all springs should be beyond this point4 ,an elastic pedal is quite a different device from that named in the last preceding paragraph1 in which the crank-shaft has a vertical motion and the 8connecting-link10 together with the source of power 7the man71 are all rigidly and inelastically connected together1 the whole1 as a system1 swinging vertically by a spring4 ,an ,english firm has for several years had upon the market a machine which1 from its external appearance1 is all springs2 the inventor thereof deserves greater credit than the success of the venture has awarded him4 ,if in the early samples put upon the market the parts had not been so frail and the appearance so exceedingly homely1 he might have fared better4 ,several premature freaks of advancement in this matter of springs have occurred1 but the general progress has been quite logical4 ,first1 we had the saddle provided with a very feeble amount of elasticity1 then an increased amount1 until makers vied with each other in producing the best spring for the old ,ordinary2 then we had the spring connection between the front fork and backbone in the ,safety1 confining the shock to the forward half of the machine2 and then came the spring fork isolating the entire system except the front wheel from the shock4 ,so far the inventions have been practical and are in use4 ,next we have a worthy1 but ,i fear impractical1 inventor1 who proposes springs between two outer rims of the wheel or substantially at the ends of the spokes1 thereby confining the concussion to one rim of the front wheel in the manner shown in cut4 7,see ,english spring rim47 ,this appeared to be the ultimatum1 but a shrewd ,american inventor has 8gone him one better0 and proposes to confine the shock and vertical thrust to a mere part of the rim4 ,this invention was patented in the ,united ,states in #ahhi1 and1 if practical1 would simply cause the wheel to roll over the obstruction almost as a man would step over in walking1--an ideal state of affairs1 to be sure6 ,such a wheel would not only aid man in his transmigration over smooth roads1 as claimed for the solid wheel in the fore part of this book1 but would be available on the cross-ties of the poorly-ballasted railroad2 and let the wheel be but tall enough1 and he may yet go over that old-time impediment to cross-country locomotion1 the rail fence1 as unwittingly as though it had not been there at all4 ,illustration3 ,english spring rim4 ,illustration3 ,american patent flexible rim4 ,one of the grandest ideas in the way of anti-vibration is suggested by the following from the ,american ,athlete3 8,an inventor of ,belfast1 ,ireland1 has made what he calls a #8,pneumatic ,safety1' the tires of which are two inches in diameter1 and of hollow rubber1 so that they contain air1 which vastly increases their elasticity4 ,the result is most favorably regarded by ,irish wheelmen1 and at the recent races at ,belfast a rider on a #8,pneumatic' won all the four first prizes1 the hollow rubber being described as phenomenally successful on the rough grass track40 ,if the liability of cutting and collapsing were not so apparent in this device1 ,i would be inclined to think it would have a great future4 ,by way of conclusion of the foregoing chapters on curves1 momentum1 and springs1 permit me to again call attention to the remarkable fact that a rear-driving ,safety of absolutely rigid construction1 striking an obstacle four inches high1 loses one-half of its entire momentum and that of the rider4 ,think of it6 ,not that we often strike a four-inch obstruction1 but that it does not take very many smaller to make one4 ,thus we are continually wasting strength when there is really no substantial necessity or occasion for it1 and the writer1 for one1 feels ready to maintain that even double the weight 7harmful as extra weight always is7 in a machine is justifiable if in so increasing the weight we can do away with this most potent source of loss of energy4 ,the bicycle1 or single-track machine1 too1 affords an unusual chance for proper manipulation of momentum1 and the rear-driver a special opportunity for the attachment of proper springs4 ,in a two-track machine1 on the other hand1 we are compelled to supply springs with lateral motion as a necessary appliance for the comfort of the rider1 which lateral motion results in loss of momentum and kinetic energy1 whereas in the bicycle our comfort and energy are all confined to one plane2 so that all we want now is to have our springs adroitly and amply applied to operate in this plane and no other1 and we shall then find that we invariably save our momentum1 preserve our comfort1 and retain our strength4 ,it will be a long time before we can expect to realize our dream of perfection in easy riding1 or to find cyclers hunting for the rough roads2 nor do we expect to see them peering eagerly forward through the misty morning1 greeting the dawning obstacle as glad tidings of 8,land ho60 but we do expect very soon to see the discomfort and loss of power now encountered in a great measure overcome4 ,if some one will only get us over the sandy places as nicely as we can reasonably expect1 in the future1 to glide over the rough places1 then we will all be happy4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,saddles ,,and ,,springs ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,anatomy ,,and ,,health4 ,the problem of saddles in cycles is really one of the greatest moment1 and will continue to be1 so long as any pain or discomfort is felt upon the bicycle sufficient to discriminate against it in contradistinction to that of sitting on a buggy-seat and being carried over a comparable distance4 ,too little attention has been paid to this subject in the past1 especially during the 8,ordinary0 rgime4 ,the general build of the ,ordinary is such as to make it quite difficult to attach comfortable springs and saddles3 many and various have been the attempts at improvement1 but all have been marked by only a comparative degree of success4 ,were it not1 however1 for this success1 small as it may be1 in making saddles comfortable1 the cycling fraternity would have had the entire medical profession down upon them1 as some of them are anyhow4 ,though a layman himself1 the writer met a prominent medical man from the ,west at the ,international ,medical ,congress1 who stated that unless these saddles were improved1 he would order off all the young men in any way under his charge1 as he had already been compelled to do in several individual cases4 ,it is needless to dwell upon proofs of these evils2 they are within the knowledge of every bicyclist of experience4 ,almost every rider knows of some special case of complaint1 if not one of real injury4 ,in an examination on one occasion1 made by the writer1 of some forty or fifty wheels at a club house1 fully two out of three were found that would have been condemned as unridable by any good physician who had given the matter careful attention4 ,the famous ,kirkpatrick style of suspension saddle is a great advance on most of the old short patterns1 yet the necessary amount of free elasticity is sadly lacking in the early patterns1 and to some extent the deficiency still exists4 ,it is questionable whether the ,kirkpatrick is much better than some of the ,english types which1 though shorter1 have a large amount of vertical play by means of good springs4 ,the old ,harrington cradle spring was a marked advance on the ,ordinary1 yet it was objected to as having 8too much motion40 ,it is little encouragement to inventors1 when they have1 after considerable labor1 improved upon an old device1 to hear riders1 who are more anxious to vent their opinions than to give honest experience1 make an objection to the very point so long striven for and finally attained4 ,with the ,rover pattern1 where the room for springs is much more ample1 harmful results are rapidly vanishing4 ,it is quite a novelty to watch the body of a rider upon a well-sprung rear-driver ,safety swinging through a vertical distance of several inches1 when we have been used to riding upon a spring of a half or three-quarters of an inch of amplitude4 ,the writer has examined machines where the saddle leather was down upon the sheet-iron frame1 and in which the entire motion of the spring would not amount to a half-inch4 ,if such devices do not breed mischief1 it will be for the reason that the riders are simply and absolutely impervious to any attack upon their systems1 and are possessed of spines in their bodies more invulnerable than those in the machines4 ,injury to the spine and other parts naturally showed itself more among ,american than ,english riders1 for the reason that the general average of the road surface is much in favor of the latter1 but complaint has not been unknown even among our ,english brethren4 ,it is a satisfaction to know that many have awakened to this question1 and it is a common and gratifying sight to see prospective buyers testing the saddle and springs of a new mount1 as a matter of preliminary inspection1 before other points are considered at all4 ,it is to be sadly feared that some old ,ordinary riders suffered greater injury than is commonly supposed to have been incurred1 but we hope that1 since they have come to ignore the supposed danger of being 8thrown off0 by a too lively spring1 there will be less trouble in the future4 ,the worst feature in the bicycle saddle is that nature did not intend man to sit astride of anything1 and this strikes me as the greatest oversight in the general plan of our physical make up as pertaining to cycle riding4 ,nature only provided three convenient ways of supporting the body1--to wit1 first1 on the feet2 second1 sitting down1 with the body bent at the thigh joints2 and third1 lying down4 ,yet advancing civilization desires something a little different from any of these4 ,in riding a cycle we find it best to stand erect upon the feet and yet get a partial support for the body at the middle1--a condition nature has not exactly provided for4 ,i have had prepared a cut of that part of the bony structure of the body immediately concerned in this question and sufficient in detail to enable us to understand the matter with the help of facts known to all4 ,it will be seen that the femurs1 a1 a1 would have to swing forward to a right angle with the trunk of the body--that is1 perpendicular to the plane of the paper--before we could sit upon the bones nature intended1--to wit1 on the tuberosities of the ischia1 e1 e1 or promontories of the pelvis4 ,this position can be partially obtained in horseback riding by the spread of the legs over the saddle4 ,when sitting upon a chair or buggy-seat1 our weight is entirely upon the right bones in the right way1 but upon the bicycle this posture cannot be attained except1 possibly1 in the act of coasting on the ,ordinary with the legs over the handle-bar4 ,it must be observed1 in working the bicycle1 that the legs are nearly straight down and the feet almost as close together as when walking2 hence1 unless a man is enormously bow-legged1 he cannot obtain a rest upon the proper bones1 as will be seen from the drawing1 which shows the position of the body while working the pedals4 ,the coaster on the ,ordinary can sit back upon the broad part of the saddle1 and how keenly he appreciates the relief immediately felt when he throws his legs over the handles6 ,it will be noticed that in the action of the bicycle saddle1 shown by the dotted lines b1 b1 the narrow part of the saddle rests in an angle1 c1 formed by the pubic bones1 which are joined together at the apex of the angle by a tissue the doctors call the pubic symphysis4 ,the saddle forms a wedge between these bones and tends to spread them2 and though this wedging action can be modified to some extent1 it is still vicious4 ,the broad part of the saddle catches a small proportion of the downward pressure upon the tuberosities of the ischia directly1 but this is only attained by severely distorting the fleshy parts1 as shown by the dotted lines b1 b4 ,the body must evidently be supported by the bones somewhere2 we cannot hang upon mere flesh2 and it is doubtful if ever a saddle can be devised that will be entirely natural and hygienic2 hence it is all-important to rest the weight as much as possible on the only other available support1 the feet4 ,this can be done by keeping well over the work and resting upon the pedals1 and1 above all by using good lively springs in connection with the saddle-support4 ,here again we come upon the question of proper springs1 and find it has an element of health connected therewith as well as one of momentum1 as hereinbefore treated of4 ,illustration3 ,bicycle saddle and anatomy4 ,objection might be raised that the body is less bent at the thigh when over the work than it was when we used to kick out forward in the old velocipede1 and that for this reason we are retrograding4 ,this view will not hold1 however1 for in any practical machine we have to get so nearly straight up anyhow that we had better go a little farther1 thus taking a perfect position for work1 and then attack the difficulty of support by means of proper saddle-springs and by resting upon the feet as much as possible4 ,in horseback riding there is no question of self-propulsion2 hence we can bend our bodies sufficiently to sit upon a good wide seat2 therefore the difficulty experienced in bicycle saddles does not apply in the equestrian art1 as would naturally be supposed4 ,upon inquiry as to just what the deleterious results are of riding poorly-sprung machines and improper saddles1 and the cause thereof1 ,i find that 8doctors differ0 slightly4 ,some have expressed their opinion that the trouble is in the irritation of the pubic symphysis resulting from the wedging action before spoken of2 others say it is the bending and irritation of the coccyx1 d1 shown in the cut1 owing to the pressure sustained by it instead of by the ischia2 others assert it is the constant concussion upon the spine4 ,i am inclined to think that the entire field is pretty well covered by a letter from ,dr4 ,entriken1 of ,ohio1 which will be found below4 8,r4 ,p4 ,scott3 8,dear ,sir1--,i do not agree with you in the idea as to the cause of the trouble with the bicycle saddle4 ,it is not the strain upon the ligaments1 muscles1 or bones1 nor the injury to the pubic symphysis or adjacent parts1 of which physicians complain4 ,it is the bruising and irritation of the urethra where it passes under the pubic symphysis1 and of the prostate gland1 etc42 also the necessity of muscular action in the lower limbs while the parts are so jostled1 bruised1 and irritated4 ,this muscular action pumps more blood into the parts1 increasing congestion and the tendency to cause disease of the parts ,i have mentioned4444 8,please note the usual narrow saddle fits close to the parts of the pubic bones1 and does not run back wide enough to allow the weight of the body to fall upon the tuberosities of the ischia1 as in the ,mexican and ,spanish saddles1 but bears upon the soft parts between4 ,you will note also that the ordinarily-shaped bicycle saddle turns up so as to allow some weight to fall upon the os coccyx1 or end of the backbone1 which brings in another factor in producing what has been not inaptly called the #8bicycle disease4' ,we have pressure where pressure should never be made1 and this pressure1 aggravated by the jolting motion1 causing a series of rapid concussions to fall upon the spinal column at the point where it is not intended to make resistance1--to wit1 the extreme end4 ,if a saddle could be constructed that would lift the soft parts of the perineum comparatively free and cause the weight to rest on the promontories of the ischia1 thus protecting the soft parts and communicating a less direct shock to the spine1 the trouble would be substantially overcome4 ,i know the difficulty of accomplishing this when the legs must be down and in motion1 but some genius will probably solve the problem4 8,yours truly1 8,f4 ,w4 ,entriken40 ,another opinion on the subject of health is as follows1 from ,the ,cyclist1 by ,dr4 ,jennings3 8#8,it is perhaps inevitable that persons who have no practical experience should accuse the exercise1 on theoretical grounds1 of producing various evils1 such as varicose veins1 hernia1 hemorrhoids1 urethral stricture1 and various forms of cardiac and nervous diseases4 ,as to varicose veins1 it seems to be clearly established that in those cases in which this condition is due to chronic local causes1 to constipation1 and a sedentary life1 actual benefit is derived from cycling1 and that even in those cases which are due to organic visceral disease no harm is done4444 ,as to cardiac and nervous disease1 the case is different4 ,race-meetings and the silly craze to 8break the record0 have much to answer for4 ,it is not difficult to understand how such exercises may cause permanent injury to the heart1 neurasthenia1 or even organic nervous disease4' ,we presume the writer refers to such exertions on the part of wholly or partially trained men1 for we have ,dr4 ,turner's word for it1 and that is also the word of a practical athlete1 that to men in condition harm does not result40 ,the importance of some care and knowledge on any subject connected with spirited exercise should always be borne in mind2 not only should we give attention to the matter of saddles1 but also to any other point which may seem to be important4 ,i append an article from the ,bicycling ,world1 on another branch of the subject of health in cycling1 which explains itself4 8,a ,,source ,,of ,,danger ,,to ,,wheelmen4 8,i would most earnestly call the attention of all wheelmen to that most dangerous custom of wearing belts drawn tightly about the waist to support the pants1 or even where they are laced tightly or where there is any constriction about the waist whatever4 8,many wheelmen are leading sedentary lives1 especially the older riders1 and are not physically in a proper condition to put forth the very severe muscular exertions which all wheelmen are called upon to do1 and one of the dangers which ,i wish to particularly call attention to is that of causing hernia or rupture4 8,i know of two cases of hernia caused directly by the severe exertions put forth in climbing steep hills4 ,one of them was a particularly strong1 healthy1 and robust young man1 and ,i am quite confident that the indirect cause of those herni was the wearing of tight belts4 ,the young man alluded to above has always been very active in out-door sports1 very fond of lifting1 and made it a common custom to put forth his utmost strength whenever opportunity offered1 and he never had any tendency towards such a result until he began bicycling1 which brought about an entire change in form of dress4 8,when any person puts forth his strength in lifting--#8hill-climbing is merely a form of lifting'--the abdominal muscles are called strongly into play1 and if by belting or other means they are prevented from expanding and increasing the circumference of the waist1 their force is then directed towards forcing the abdominal contents downward1 and thereby greatly increasing the chances of causing hernia4 8,the clothing should always be loose about the waist4 ,as suspenders are inconvenient to wear and very uncomfortable in hot weather1 ,i would suggest that the simplest1 and ,i think the best1 way of holding up the trousers is by means of a band sewed around the inside of the flannel shirt1 with buttons sewed through the shirt and band and then the button-holes made on an extra band on the inside of band of trousers1 the same as little boys' waists and trousers are joined4 8,i sincerely trust that no one will misconstrue this article as condemning wheeling2 no one believes in it more thoroughly than your humble servant4 ,i am writing from experience1 not hearsay1 and ,i would desire all wheelmen to give heed to my warning1 and so avoid a source of danger4 8,l4 ,a4 ,w41 #ah1ied40 8,the above is written by a physician who has made a special study of hernia4--,ed40 ,there are some strong opinions on the other side of this belt question1 if the belts are of proper kind and rightly worn4 ,very few agree unconditionally with ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 ,however1 it is hoped that no alarm will be taken from the discussion of these subjects4 ,they are not so serious as might appear1 except in cases of gross negligence4 ,but whatever danger there may be1 it is best to be fully aware of it1 and thus be forearmed4 ,as to saddles and springs1 let riders show the makers that they are alive to all improvements which will in any way eliminate causes for anxiety in this as well as in other respects1 and thereby show that the fact of making a mile in a little shorter space of time1 or that of getting one inch farther up a stiff hill1 is not all that the modern cyclist proposes to consider4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,headers ,,or ,,croppers4 8,taking headers10 or1 in the parlance of our brethren of ,england1 8coming croppers10 is perhaps a trivial heading for any article outside of newspaper or wheel periodical gossip1 but it has a popular twang1 and to the fraternity means a great deal4 ,every rider of the old ,ordinary can give us personal experiences on this subject2 among them will be found mishaps too serious to be chronicled in any jesting mood1 a few so serious that we would fain forget them were not this forbidden by our sympathy and respect for the sufferers as fellows of our craft4 ,from this sombre side of our story how joyfully we turn to the many humorous anecdotes which have been related in every club-room1 in some of which 8we ourselves were part of what we told60 ,the subject would ere this have been obsolete were it not for a large number who still maintain the supremacy of the 8,ordinary10 and those others who1 forming an intermediate class between the old and new1 have unfurled their banner as doughty champions of the 8,rational40 ,a header is the act of 8going down on the other side10 spoken of in a former chapter1 or1 more definitely1 it is the projection of the rider over the handle-bar to the ground in advance of his machine4 ,it is a simple process1 being a mere application of the physical forces of gravity and momentum4 ,a moving body tends to keep moving in a line until stopped or deviated by some counteracting force4 ,in riding a cycle a certain momentum is acquired and kept up against the resisting forces of friction1 impact of air1 road resistance1 etc4 ,headers are a result of a counteracting force1 generally caused by sudden impact against a stationary obstacle on the road1 or by the forward wheel becoming suddenly locked through a failure in the axle-bearings to work1 or by some clog in the wheel preventing it from revolving freely through the fork in which it is hung4 ,there are modifications of the header action even in machines of the same sizes of wheels and same rake1--rake being a term recognized to express the angle of the front fork from the vertical4 ,this rake has to do with the liability to headers only in so far as it regulates the centre of gravity of the system1 8more rake0 generally meaning that the rider is farther behind the vertical line through the front wheel axle4 ,in order to take a header1 a certain centre of gravity must get beyond a certain line4 ,this centre of gravity will vary in position in different machines1 and the modifications spoken of cause the line to move in a way which is1 ,i think1 sometimes overlooked4 ,if we discuss the crank ,ordinary1 it will be noticed that when the front wheel is stopped in its forward progress1 the frame of the machine together with the rider and all other parts of the system revolve about the centre of the wheel and cause an action within the system1 the same as that of the forward wheel revolving backward through the fork4 ,now1 it is just when such backward motion is prevented1 that the gravity line moves and alters the conditions1 decreasing the liability to headers4 ,if the forward wheel can revolve backward through the fork1 then1 in taking a header1 the system1 exclusive of the forward wheel1 will revolve about a point in the wheel centre2 but if it cannot so revolve1 then the entire system1 including the forward wheel1 must all tend to revolve about the point of contact of the wheel with the ground4 ,now1 it will be seen in the latter case1 or anti-header machine as we shall call it1 that as the system tends to revolve about the point of contact1 such point will constantly change2 in other words1 the wheel must roll onward1 and the point of contact will therefore advance4 ,illustration3 ,header action1 smooth road4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 in the annexed diagram1 we show the distance forward and upward1 a to b1 the rider must be thrown before he gets beyond the gravity line1 g1 in the ,ordinary2 ,fig4 #b shows the distance when the wheel will not revolve backward through the fork4 ,in either case1 the header is supposed to be taken on a smooth road and not against an obstruction2 this can easily occur in vaulting into the saddle or in leaning too far forward4 ,it will be noticed that the distance the rider is elevated1 or1 in other words1 the amount of work done against gravity1 is in both cases the same1 but the distance forward he must be thrown is considerably greater in ,fig4 #b4 ,this is for the reason that while the point of contact1 h1 with the ground remains the same in ,fig4 #a1 in ,fig4 #b the point rolls on to i4 ,for more accurate illustration of the work to be done against gravity1 and the distance forward the rider must be thrown1 see the header curves in ,figs4 #d and #e1 farther on4 ,we see1 then1 that the advantage which the anti-header 7,no4 #b7 has over the ,ordinary machine 7,no4 #a7 is not so very great when in both cases a smooth road is considered2 when1 however1 we consider the element of an obstacle in the path1 the difference is much more in favor of ,no4 #b4 ,let us compare the action of both classes of machines against a four-inch obstruction4 ,in all cases the action of ,no4 #a machine will be the same1--that is1 the wheel will remain in contact at h1 ,fig4 #a1 and the saddle will go on over1 just as it does in the case of no obstruction at all4 ,but in ,no4 #b the very act of taking the header must raise the entire weight and roll the system upon the obstacle1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,anti-header wheel action on obstruction4 ,the point of contact1 h1 over and beyond which the centre of gravity must be thrown1 will not only move forward1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 but will move to the top of the obstacle i1 ,fig4 #c4 ,or1 if the question is one of a rut or indentation in the surface of the roadway1 ,no4 #b will be caused to roll partially or altogether out of the rut4 ,now1 since the rider1 by the action of his momentum and that of the machine1 is rolled upon the obstacle or out of the rut1 it is easily seen that if he is attending strictly to his work and is at all a skilful rider1 he can1 by a lively thrust upon the pedal at the opportune time1 right himself and keep the drive-wheel rolling on1 in which case the rear part of the machine will1 in all ordinary cases1 drop back upon the ground1 from which1 of course1 it will have raised4 ,illustration3 ,ordinary header curve1 any obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,anti-header attachment1 smooth road4 ,illustration3 ,anti-header1 four-inch obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,anti-header1 eight-inch obstruction4 ,in the diagrams herewith annexed1 ,fig4 #d shows the curve of the saddle of a ,no4 #a 7,ordinary7 machine on a level road1 and which would be the same against any obstruction4 ,scale1 one-sixteenth4 ,remark how the rider must be lifted from the level c to b and be thrown forward from a to b4 ,fig4 #e shows the curve of a ,no4 #b machine1 with the anti-header device1 on a level road4 ,the elevation and forward throw are represented by the same letters as in ,fig4 #d2 it will be noticed that the distance from a to b is very much increased4 ,figs4 #f and #g show the curves or necessary projection1 forward and upward1 of the saddle in the header act of a ,no4 #b machine upon four- and eight-inch obstructions respectively4 ,the feature of a non-backward revolution of the drive-wheel through the fork is a natural consequence in some lever and clutch machines4 ,this element of anti-header has been the subject of an invention in the way of an attachment to the ,ordinary1 contrived with a view to reaching the same result1 but it cannot be said to be a successful venture in the market1 the probable reasons being1 first1 that it interferes1 to a slight extent1 in managing the dismounted wheel1 the operator being unable to run it backward1 as is sometimes desirable2 second1 that the anti-header element has not been really understood or appreciated among the fraternity1 as it does not appeal to the judgment of the casual observer that any such element results from the fact 8that a wheel won't run back40 ,in the lever and clutch machine a third objection is raised1--the rider cannot back-pedal1 but must depend entirely on the brake in descending hills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,header ,rational ,ordinary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,header ,kangaroo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,kangaroo anti-header1 four-inch obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,header ,star rear-driver lever machine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,header ,rover rear-driver type of machine4 ,fig4 #h shows the ,rational ,ordinary curve2 ,fig4 #i1 the curve made by the well-known ,kangaroo2 ,fig4 #aj1 the ,kangaroo with clutch or anti-header attachment2 ,fig4 #aa1 the ,american ,star combination of wheels2 ,fig4 #ab1 the curve of the regular crank ,rover machine4 ,the ,rover type of safety machine is practically free from the liability to direct headers1 for the reason that the centre of gravity of the system has to be raised to such a height that the rider swerves around sideways before he can go over2 nevertheless1 a modified form of the same might be possible through some remote concatenation of circumstances causing the machine to stop and throw the rider bodily over the handle-bar without keeping him company on the trip as usual1 in which case he1 at least1 escapes the usual subsequent annoyance of being pounded by the rear wheel4 ,a header cannot result from stopping the rotation of the rear wheel1 as generally supposed1 because the point of contact of the same being in the rear of the rider and centre of gravity1 the system cannot revolve about the said point in a forward direction1 or direction of momentum4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that if from any cause the rear wheel leaves the ground1 which it can do from a rebound against some obstruction1 the instant it does so the system will be simply carried forward by the rolling of the front wheel4 ,headers have been said to result from the above cause in the ordinary bicycle1 but the writer after several experiments has been unable to attain such a result4 ,yet it is quite possible that it might occur from the rebound of the rear wheel in striking an object with great force1 though it is altogether improbable if the drive-wheel were kept fully in motion4 ,an obstruction so great as to bodily raise the wheel sufficiently high to throw the centre of gravity over never gets a chance to act1 since the forward wheel must surmount it first1 and this is where the header occurs4 ,it can be easily seen that when the rear wheel1 from any cause1 is raised from the ground1 there can be no action within the system to make it raise any higher or to prevent the forward wheel from rolling onward as usual2 hence it is evident that as soon as the former leaves the ground it will simply drop back and rebound again at will4 ,but in the other case1 if the front wheel is locked1 the rear wheel cannot go on in a straight line and it must therefore go on over the top4 ,in the writer's experiments on the rear wheel1 he had an attendant throw a stick between the spokes while in motion2 it was not tried at very high speed1 however1 for the reason1 perhaps1 that any failure in the theory above provided might end rather disastrously to the experimenter and thereby cause an act of ingratitude to be perpetrated upon the prospective patron of this book1 through an inability to ever finish it4 ,if some ambitious cyclist will kindly complete these experiments1 the writer will gladly incorporate an account of them in future editions of this work1 together with an appropriate obituary notice in large type4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,gearing ,,up ,,and ,,down4 ,this familiar phrase means simply that the number of revolutions made by the drive-wheel in proportion to the number made by the cranks is greater or less4 ,broadly1 it varies the relative amount of motion of the pedals1 and consequently of the feet of the rider in travelling over a given distance4 ,in the simple crank device no change can be made in this respect except in the length of the cranks1 but in all of the sprocket-chain devices it is also possible to change the amount of motion in the pedals by altering the size of one or the other of the sprocket-wheels4 ,in lever machines and in those which have the sun and planet connection1 either with an oscillating lever or full revolving crank1 it is generally possible1 by some alteration1 to produce the same effect as that of changing a sprocket-wheel as mentioned4 ,the variation in the length of crank produces an effect comparable to the change of gearing in so far as the distance through which the feet travel in covering a certain distance is concerned1 but the difference lies in this1 that altering the crank means a given number of revolutions in a circle of varying radius1 while altering the gearing means a variable number of revolutions in a circle of given radius1 in order to cover a given length of road4 ,in popular language1 if a rider wishes more power1 he must lengthen the crank or decrease the size of the sprocket-wheel on the crank-axle2 vice versa1 if he desires greater speed and less power1 he must shorten the crank or enlarge the sprocket-wheel connected therewith4 ,it is needless to say that enlarging the gear-wheel on the crank-axle produces the same effect as decreasing the size of that on the drive-wheel4 ,in a sprocket-crank machine the real question of gearing is whether to change the length of crank or proportion of the sizes of the gear-wheels2 but you can't by any combination get power and speed both with the same amount of work done by the rider4 ,simple as all this matter of gearing is1 it is probable that there is no feature in cycles so indefinitely understood1 or1 we might say1 so persistently distorted4 ,the only trouble is that riders will not stop to apply a most fundamental law of nature4 ,if we gain speed1 we lose power2 if we gain power1 we must lose speed4 ,to apply this particularly to cycles1 if you gear up for speed1 you must push harder2 if we gear down1 we need not push so hard1 but must kick faster or go more slowly1 provided in each case the length of crank is the same4 ,we cannot go fast and push easy unless we increase the strength of the man4 ,to go over the same distance of given road1 the same amount of work is required1 no matter how the machine is arranged through which it is done4 ,this subject was better understood when no element but the length of the crank was to be considered2 but now1 since bicycles have appeared that are capable of being changed to a high or low gear1 some riders persist in treating it as an entirely new problem4 ,it has in one respect a new feature in that greater or less speed can be had without decreasing or increasing the length of the crank2 that is1 since the comparative speed of the pedal and rim of the wheel in space can be varied either by the length of the crank or the number of revolutions of the same1 we can make one turn of a six-inch crank do the same work at the same foot-pressure as two turns of a three-inch crank at the same pressure4 ,now1 this is a valuable feature1 because it allows us to increase the vertical amplitude through which to transmit power without change in the velocity of the pedal through space4 ,a convenient standard has been adopted in gearing cycles by comparing the speed of the driver to that of a wheel and crank connected and revolving together1 as in the ,ordinary2 that is to say1 a thirty-inch wheel geared to sixty means that one turn of the crank will drive the thirty-inch wheel twice around1 as it must do in order to cover the same distance as one turn of a sixty-inch wheel4 ,to find how high the machine is geared1 divide the number of teeth in the sprocket-wheel on the crank by the number in the sprocket-wheel on the driver1 then multiply the result by the diameter in inches of the drive-wheel4 ,in short1 the speed indicated by the size of the drive-wheel of the geared machine is to the real speed as the number of teeth in the gear upon the wheel is to the number of teeth in the gear on the crank-axle4 ,when tricycles first appeared in which the power was transmitted through sprocket-wheels and chain1 there was quite a cry for 8high-geared0 machines2 but the mistake was soon discovered1 and buyers eventually found that moderate gearing was best1 and in fact many adopted a level gearing 7equal-sized sprocket-wheels7 with thirty-six- to forty-two-inch drivers4 ,notwithstanding this experience1 when the geared bicycles came in there was still a great cry for fancied high speed4 ,an ,english maker in #ahhe complained to the writer that it was the bane of his existence1--this howl for high gears1--when it was well known to him that buyers would eventually be dissatisfied4 ,it was of no use to make1 said he1 what is really needed2 customers will not even try the machines1 so sure are they that by their scheme 8they can fly through the air with the greatest of ease10 which expression1 when used by the ordinary man1 means something like pulling a ten-horse load with one mule4 ,in the early days of gearing1 few riders could be more easily offended than by intimating that they wanted a low-geared machine1 say fifty to fifty-two2 no less than sixty or seventy would satisfy their cravings for great speed1 and in fact the writer has been asked seriously1 8,why not gear her up to about a hundred80 ,but now that the idol of so many riders has been shattered1 they will too complacently accept the word of the maker as to what they need1 and hence there is a real substantial reason for investigating this matter4 ,the advent of the gearing process has developed a new point1 as a result of conditions spoken of1 which is to make the machine suit the rider's strength and physical peculiarities as well as to fit him in the length of leg1--a point to which insufficient attention has been paid4 ,if one man wants a machine geared to fifty-six or sixty1 there is no conceivable reason why another who happens to have the same length of inseam of his trousers should want the same2 nor is it a matter simply of strength3 if two men can make the same number of miles in a day1 it is fair to presume that they are of nearly equal riding capacity1 yet each may accomplish the work most easily on machines geared quite differently4 ,an instance of this kind has occurred to the writer1 in riding day after day on a machine geared to about forty-eight1 with a man who preferred and could do his best work on a sixty4 ,this difference held good on smooth or rough roads1 and as a matter of my own experience it is a pleasure to ride a low gear1 and distressing toil to use a higher4 ,there are others whose experience is just the reverse1 and it is useless to try to guess at what is wanted2 it is best not to go to either extreme in buying unless you have proved the necessity by extended experience on the road4 ,it would be well for all riders to avail themselves of any good opportunity to make a thorough trial of machines geared differently from each other1 for it is possible to be unsuited and never know it4 ,even if you have been able to lead the van when you have been out on a run1 you do not know but that you could have led it much easier on something else than that which you rode4 ,the physical system in man may easily become adapted to a wheel which at first was not suitable1 but there are those to whom certain gearing will always be wrong4 ,it is safe to say that the prevailing mistake in the past has been the use of too high gears1 though this has been much improved of late by the use of long cranks4 ,there is one subject which should be touched upon with great caution1 since the prospects of some very worthy inventors might be unjustly interfered with2 it is that of multiple or two speed-gears4 ,i have tried to impress upon the reader the importance of gearing to suit his strength1 yet when once suited it is extremely doubtful if he should ever change it2 at least it is doubtful if he should do so on the same trip or even during the same season4 ,when a rider transfers his base of operations from a level to a hilly country permanently1 a change in his gear may not be out of the way2 but to fix the machine for more or less power alternately as hills and levels are met with is1 in the light of my experience1 more tiresome than the necessary variation in the effort of the man4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,modern ,,rover1 ,,or ,,rear-,,driving ,,safety4 ,as machines of this general type bid fair to engage the attention of cyclists to a marked degree1 it seems in place to give them more than a passing notice in the general discussion4 ,it is fair to presume that more than one-half of all the machines sold in the immediate future will be more or less after this general pattern4 ,the introduction of the ,rover has afforded us one of the most amusing incidents in cycling history4 ,the writer of these pages happened to be in ,coventry during the summer of '#he1 and he had a fortuitous opportunity1 fondly accepted1 of inventing fun at the expense of the 8,crocodile0 and of joining in the general laugh at the 7alleged7 ridiculous attempt of a ,coventry firm to 8foist0 7sic7 this most extraordinary freak of cycling inventive genius1 under a new name1 upon the market4 ,in the fall of the same year a notable ,washington agent1 allured by the attractive notices of a great prize for a hundred-mile race1 imported one of these self-same incongruous specimens into this country4 ,after a few weeks of hilarious humor1 followed by a sullen contempt for the thing1 this ,washingtonian shipped it to a great ,american manufacturer1 who made sport over it for a year or two before we all began to scramble around and make ready to prove that each one of us individually 8saw it all the time40 ,it has been a hard pull1 however1 and it is still uncertain on whom it did first begin to dawn that somebody had been guilty of colossal stupidity4 ,one thing the ,rover accomplishes1 previously touched upon1 is the location of the rider as nearly over the work as he chooses to be2 which has been the end and aim of all our efforts in that direction4 ,had this machine been offered to the public1 in good shape1 at the end of the old bone-shaker rgime1 it is questionable if the ,ordinary would ever have acquired the prominence it did4 ,in early times1 when learning to ride a tall machine was considered quite a feat of gymnastic exercise1 such as only the young and sprightly could ever perform1 many1 who afterwards by force of circumstances did accomplish the feat1 would never have tried it if there had been anything else1 such as the present ,safety1 to learn upon4 ,every accident on the ,ordinary would have told heavily against it in the market1 and every severe casualty would have made a new ,safety rider2 as it was1 however1 there was only one of three things to do1--take to a three-track machine1 stop riding1 or try the old mount again4 ,it is needless to say that1 almost to a man1 the last condition was accepted1 and the result is that now we have a class of men who can handle an ,ordinary with such dexterity that many of them conscientiously aver that there can be nothing safer4 ,however1 among those most devoted to it at the present time there are few1 if any1 of the close observers who would have stood sponsor for their favorite machine had the rear-driver made its appearance in its present form prior to the advent of the ,ordinary4 ,to say that the latter would ever have obtained a footing above the level of a fad or a curiosity1 would be equal to denying that the ,safety will now ever hold an enviable place among us4 ,in the minds of many the sprocket-wheels and chain stood much against the introduction of the rear-driver2 true1 many good tricycles were implanted firmly on the market with such devices for conveying power to its necessary locality1 but there was always such a vast chasm lying between the single- and double-track machines that riders did not care to get down to minute details of differences4 ,to an ,ordinary rider the idea of sprocket-wheels was1 and is yet1 for that matter1 an abomination1 only second to that of being dropped down from his elevated position to the humble plane in which his fellow on the ,safety is wont to revel2 but nothing in the way of change in the cycle art is unbearable after we become accustomed to it4 ,no doubt the old ,kangaroo1 as bad a failure as it was1 led us up to endure more complacently the rear-driver in respect to the sprocket-chain2 yet in no type of machine could the subject have been brought to our notice in a worse form4 ,the tricycles using a single chain did away with one of the great evils which appertain to this system as found in the ,kangaroo1 in which we have two chains working entirely independently4 ,the evil of such an arrangement is easily seen3 no old ,kangaroo rider1 or rider of any other double-chain device1 is ignorant of the annoyance caused by reversing the slack in each at every half-revolution of the pedal4 ,keep the chains ever so tight1 this slack will be felt as the pedal crosses the dead-centre line at the top and the bottom4 ,in spite of all this1 some reputable makers persist in constructing rear-drivers having the double chain1 and as a matter of course justly fail to meet with much approval from the riders thereof4 ,a word in regard to the nature of sprocket-wheels and chain4 ,it is perhaps not generally understood how important it is that they should be well made1 with especial view to resist stretching and alteration of pitch1 any tightening device1 no matter how deftly made1 being an inconsistency in mechanics4 ,to be sure1 the spreading of the wheel-centres cannot do much harm1 and it saves some annoyance1 but it does not cure the real evil1 nor is it any better to take a link out2 it is the length of each and every link that is wrong1 and it can only be cured by either changing each link or by altering the sizes of the sprocket wheels4 ,two gear-wheels cannot run properly together unless they are proportional in size to the number of teeth4 ,now1 the stretching of a sprocket-chain alters the pitch in a manner similar to that of retaining the same number of teeth in each of two intermeshing wheels1 and then altering the size of one4 ,a sprocket-chain acts substantially as an idle wheel2 when it stretches we have1 as it were1 this idle wheel made larger while the size of the others and the number of teeth in each remain the same4 ,increasing the distance between the centres does not affect the size of the wheels1 and when a sprocket-chain stretches or becomes longer by wear the wheels should either be larger or else the number of teeth diminished4 ,it is a general idea among mechanics that chain gearing is about the most undesirable of all means of transmitting power we have4 ,this is perhaps an exaggeration1 and ,i think the cycle art has proved it to be so2 but the idea no doubt is fostered by this constant tendency of the chain to stretch1 and when this stretch takes place a very considerable amount of friction must result4 ,there is another annoyance felt by patrons of the small wheel3 the chains being low down and well oiled1 as they should be1 especially if once they become stretched1 have a superlative capacity for accumulating and holding dirt1 causing a grinding second only to that of a finely-set quartz-crusher4 ,this feature is not so much to be deplored if the dirt can be kept out of the chain-link bearings1 since it is not the wear of the link against the tooth of the wheel1 but that within the link1 which makes it longer1 alters the pitch1 and causes great friction4 ,we shall1 however1 have to accept this chain arrangement for the present in ,safeties1 as it cannot be helped4 ,some ingenious inventor will no doubt ere long come to our assistance2 but until then we can tolerate it with a good grace1 since it is a necessary concomitant of so valuable an acquisition to our assortment of mounts4 ,there is apparently little difference in the construction of the crank ,rover ,safeties1 yet there is more than a cursory glance would lead us to suspect4 ,to begin with1 there is quite a variation in the slant of the neck or front fork1 many makers giving a considerable curve to the fork1 thus throwing the neck much straighter up4 ,then we have the telescope head1 where the front fork revolves inside the tubular front extension of the main frame2 and lastly1 the swing-joint or ,stanley head4 ,no very startling difference in the durability of these two heads has as yet developed itself4 ,the telescope is often hung in balls1 which makes it work as freely as the ,stanley1 if not more so2 it has also a little advantage in appearance2 still1 a large majority of the makers have adopted the ,stanley1 probably because it is a little cheaper and quite as efficient4 ,there seems to be less disadvantage in the slant of the front fork than might have been expected4 ,according to an old theory in the ,ordinary1 the more nearly vertical the head1 the less 8sensitive0 the steering2 but experience demonstrates that by practice all machines are so easily steered that the point is really not so vital4 ,the original ,rover machine as put upon the market has everything combined to give it a full slant in the neck2 that is to say1 it has a large thirty-six-inch front wheel and no curve to the fork1 while in other machines of the same general pattern a thirty-inch front wheel is used with considerable curve to the fork1 which taken together make the neck almost vertical2 riders1 however1 are equally satisfied with either style4 ,it will be well to notice here that though ,i speak of the curve of the fork in relation to steering1 it really has necessarily nothing to do with it1 since a perfectly straight fork could have a more vertical head bearing than one much curved4 ,the slant of the pivotal line is the important feature1 and this may be varied in either by bending the fork or1 in the ,stanley1 by setting back the lower bearing4 ,the four drawings below show necks of equal slant and considerable variation in the curve or shape of the forks4 ,illustration3 ,rear-driver front forks4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,any of the four patterns above work exactly the same in the hands of the rider4 ,so much for the manner of obtaining slant of the head or pivotal connection1 as we shall call it2 but as to the amount of this slant it is desirable to obtain much more can be said4 ,the great system of castering1 so knowingly discussed by some expounders of cycling faith1 has in it really something of substantial importance4 ,it is asserted that if the machine is so constructed that the line of pivotal connection strikes the ground in front of the point of contact of the wheel 7see ,fig4 #a71 a castering element comes into play which will cause the machine to retain its forward course1 and enables the rider to go 8hands off40 ,note that the line a b strikes at c in front of d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,supposed caster4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,real caster4 ,i have observed many rear-drivers1 and cannot see that this makes much difference2 the various kinds seem to be equally well ridden1 with respect to easy steering1 if only the riders happen to be thorough experts2 of course all sorts of theories in regard to the action of the steering have been advanced4 ,i take it that there is only one truly tenable theory of castering2 this when applied will obviate 8sensitiveness0 completely and under all circumstances2 it is as follows3 ,the pivotal connection must be such that the line a b strikes in front of the point of support1 as before spoken of1 and it must also be so constructed and placed in such a position that no motion of the handle-bar will cause the machine to lower its centre of gravity4 ,if by turning the handles any weight is lowered1 you can depend upon it that the force of gravity1 always tending to lower this weight1 will inversely cause the handle-bar to turn4 ,it will be noticed that when the machine stands upright the steering apparatus is not in a state of stable equilibrium2 that is to say1 the weight of the machine tends to shift the wheel1 and it can hardly keep straight by means of such castering element as results simply from the line of the pivotal connection striking in front of the point of contact4 ,the necessary conditions are as follows 7see ,fig4 #b73 ,the pivotal line a b must strike at c in front of d1 and the line a b c must be vertical in order that no motion on its axis can lower any weight when the machine stands upright4 ,now1 it follows from these conditions that the head must be vertical and no part of the pivotal line in the rear of a vertical through the centre of the wheel4#f ,the automatic steering devices do not work as successfully on a bicycle as on the leading wheel of a tricycle4 ,there are two principal plans which have been in use2 in one of which a spring forces the steering-bar into a position for running straight ahead2 the other plan for the same purpose consists in a ,v slot and pin4 ,in the latter the weight of the rider keeps the wheel straight by forcing the pin into the bottom of the ,v slot1 and it will rest there until forced out by the action of the handle-bar4 ,either of the above devices is objectionable in a bicycle1 because the constant working of the steering-bar for the purpose of balancing is so continuous1 as compared with that of steering pure and simple1 that any force tending to hold it in any one position will soon tire the arms and make riding more laborious4 ,a new form of the rear-driving ,safety was shown in the season of #ahhg1 invented by a ,german4 ,i give herewith a cut of the same1 citing what he claims4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,rothigiesser0 principle4 8,can be ridden any distance and on any road without using the handle-bar4 ,the new principle--pedals on the rear wheel and saddle on the front wheel--is just the reverse of the construction of the ordinary bicycle1 and is the only true principle for a ,safety2 the fault of the common rear-driving ,safeties being that both saddle and pedals are fixed on the rear wheel1 so that the front wheel must be controlled by the arms of the rider40 ,i have tried the principle1 but could not get much out of it4 ,if there is anything in it at all it would be quite valuable2 but ,i am inclined to the opinion that the inventor relied rather too much on his theory and not enough on actual practice4 ,notice that the handle-bar1 trunk of the body1 arms1 and saddle are all within one system1 there being no power to steer except in the action between the trunk and feet1 instead of between the arms and trunk1 as in other machines4 ,a new machine has been favorably noticed of late which strikes me as a modification of the ,german's principle1 or rather as a combination of that with the old plan of steering4 ,in this device there is some motion between the saddle and the handles1 as of old1 and in addition thereto we find a motion between the saddle and the pedals1 which is intended possibly to combine all of the good elements4 ,the cut explains itself4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,rothigiesser0 modification4 ,but to return to our mutton4 ,the important features which have compelled us to recognize with favor this most homely and awkward-looking machine--the modern rear-driving ,safety--are1 first1 the safety element1 and1 secondly1 the advantage of being more nearly over the work1 these two features including many minor characteristics4 ,then there are a number of independent peculiarities which can hardly be said to necessarily belong to this type of machine1 but which are still adopted in it1 such1 for instance1 as gearing up and down1 foot-rests for coasting1 etc4 ,until recently there did not seem to be any great fault in the machine except its looks1 but a controversy has arisen which is not only extremely important but is so far unsettled2 ,i refer to the discussion of the side-slip1 which1 in showing the number of explanations that different observers will give for the same set of facts1 has been not unmixed with an element of the humorous4 #f ,since the subject of a patent4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,side-,,slip ,,of ,,the ,,safety4 ,the question of side-slip is not entirely new2 it was first mooted in connection with the ,safety of the ,kangaroo type1 which had a driver of from thirty-six to forty inches in front of a rear wheel of eighteen or twenty inches1 as will be noticed in the cut of this machine given hereinafter4 ,now1 to come to the specific features supposed to account for the side-slip1 note that1 in order to make room for the sprocket-wheels1 the cranks had to be unusually wide apart and1 by the necessary construction of the machine1 also very low down2 in other words1 the machine had a very wide tread1 swinging very close to the ground4 ,the slip of this wheel was something fearful to behold1 and its cause was supposed to be fully explained by the peculiarities of construction just noted1 in accordance with a theory which1 though religiously believed in at the time1 has of late been somewhat shaken1 and which we now proceed to develop4 ,in order to compare the different machines in respect to this theory1 suppose we take1 first1 the ,ordinary with a fifty-inch wheel and cranks1 say1 eight inches apart1 or four inches from the centre of the wheel to either crank4 ,now1 if the pedal b 7,fig4 #a7 is four inches long1 the distance from the centre of the pedal to the centre of the axle of the drive-wheel is six inches1 and the diameter of the wheel fifty inches2 then1 when the crank is extended horizontally out in front1 this being the position when it is supposed to be subjected to the greatest strain1 we have the following conditions 7see ,fig4 #b73 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,side-slip diagrams4 ,let a b represent the distance of the centre of the wheel from the centre of the pedal1 a c the vertical height of the pedal from the ground1 and ,w the weight of the man4 ,then ,w applied vertically downward at b will create a horizontal side-slip pressure1 ,r at ab c1 in the direction of the arrow1 such that ,r ,w --------4 ,if1 ac then1 ,w #aej pounds and a b and a c #f and #be inches #f respectively1 we have ,r #aej ---- #cf pounds4 ,supposing the theory #be to be correct1 the above may be said to represent the side-slip resultant in the fifty-inch ,ordinary4 ,in the ,kangaroo the cranks1 being below the centre of the wheel1 average about twelve inches from the ground when power is applied4 ,the pedals are about a foot apart1 so that ab #h1 ac #ab1 and ,w #aej1 whence ,r by the same formula equals one hundred pounds4 ,the above1 though perhaps slightly exaggerated in its application to some of the ,kangaroo patterns1 is substantially correct1 showing the difference to be sixty pounds against it4 ,according to this theory1 then1 the greater the tread and the less the distance of the pedals from the ground1 the greater should be the side-slip4 ,appertaining to this matter1 ,i have used a machine with the same sizes of wheels as those found in the ,kangaroo1 but in which the power devices were very close together1 and ,i have found it comparatively free from slip2 and ,i am also informed by riders of the machine called the ,facile1 in which the pedals are closer together1 that it is remarkably free from the same difficulty4 ,but these facts cannot be taken as a proof of the theory under consideration1 for the reason that ab the application of the formula ,r ,w -------- to the two machines ac just spoken of1 at best1 still gives1 as a result1 a large amount of side pressure1 which in actual practice does not exist4 ,what difference it may make in the ,facile or other treadle machines that the point of application of power is in the rear of the driving axle1 ,i cannot say1 or what difference a lever motion would show as compared with the simple crank is also not apparent2 in fact1 there is very little of established data from which to draw a conclusion1 and a good reason which would now deter any cautious man from offering much experience or any theory in the matter will be readily surmised after reading the following extracts from the ,cyclist on the subject4 8,,side-,,slipping ,,on ,,safeties4 8,one of the principal causes of the falling out of favor of the #8,kangaroo' type of ,safety was the great proneness it had to side-slipping upon greasy roads1 and it was confidently and freely asserted when the rear-driver was introduced that this defect was1 in its construction1 overcome4 ,that this is not the case every one who has had any extensive experience with this class of machine will admit2 indeed1 the side-slipping of the ,safety is its one great fault4 ,as our readers know1 the forks of a ,safety of this type are considerably sloped1--some more so than others4 ,it matters not whether the forks are straight or curved1 so far as the point we are dealing with now is concerned4 ,the sloping of the fork places the wheel1 unless travelling in an absolutely straight line1 more or less on its side4 ,the result is manifest4 ,there is a strong force behind pushing it forward4 ,so long as the ground gives enough frictional resistance to the wheel1 well and good2 but so soon as the surface is lubricated1 as it is1 by the slippery mud1 then the tendency is at once to push the machine over4 ,this tendency is increased1 as with the side-slipping upon other forms of machines1 by a sloping road surface1 the side of a rut1 or the cant of the machine in turning a corner2 and1 moreover1 the harder the rider pushes the more chance there is of the machine slipping4 ,having1 then1 pointed out the cause of side-slipping1 it remains for those who devote their time and talents to invention to overcome it4 ,so far as we can see1 a vertical steering-fork should do that which is needed40#g 99 99 99 99 99 8#aaac4--,your leader in last week's issue re the side-slipping of rear-driving ,safety bicycles is1 in my opinion1 somewhat calculated to mislead4 ,i cannot for one moment think you are right in stating that the cause of side-slipping in this class of machine is the sloping fork of the steering-wheel4 ,you conclude with the following remark3 #8,so far as we can see1 a vertical steering-fork should do that which is needed4' ,here again ,i must say ,i emphatically disagree with you4 ,had you tried one of the old #8,b4,s4,a4' ,safeties1 you would not say this4 ,these machines were far worse than any sloping-forked machine4 ,i gave one an extensive trial1 and found that the side-slipping was one of its worst features4 ,further1 you have only to take one of the old #8,humber' ,safeties1 for example1 with the perpendicular fork4 ,was side-slipping impossible on these8 8,in my humble opinion1 sir1 you have entirely overlooked the real cause of side-slipping on rear-driving ,safeties1 which is the absence of sufficient weight on the driving-wheel4 ,my argument is still further proved by the fact that the #8,scout' ,safety 7two-chain rear-driver71 on which machine the weight of the rider is thrown as near as possible over the centre of the axle1 will not slip sideways on the most greasy surface2 and again1 the ,american #8,star1' ,i am told by experienced riders of this machine1 possesses a like good quality4 ,here1 again1 the weight is almost entirely on the driver4 8,the subject of side-slipping on the most popular machine of the day--viz41 the rear-driving ,safety--is so serious a one that ,i am sure you will see your way to open your columns to a discussion on the same4 ,sydney ,lee40 99 99 99 99 99 8,the position of the weight doubtless forms an important factor in the question of side-slipping1 and the thanks of the community are due to ,mr4 ,lee for his experiments in that direction4 ,we are bound to say1 however1 that our experience1 so far as the question as to which wheel slips first1 and also as to the stability of the tandem ,safety on greasy roads1 and on the point of safety at high speed1 is exactly the reverse of that found by ,mr4 ,lee4--,ed40 99 99 99 99 99 8#aaad4--;,i have read with great interest your article on side-slipping in ,safeties1 and1 being a ,safety rider myself1 should be indeed thankful to see this very serious fault overcome4 ,i am very much inclined to your opinion as to the cause1--viz41 the canting over of the steering-wheel in turning1--which can only be obviated1 as you suggest1 by having a vertical steering-post4 8,side-slip40 99 99 99 99 99 8#aaca4--,the #8side-slip' of the ,safety seems to be the argument of to-day1 and probably it is the great and all-important question to winter riders1 as well as the members of clubs1 near large towns1 who attend the ,saturday runs1 and have to endure the double dose from our friend the #8water-cart4' ,undoubtedly1 the argument of ,the ,cyclist is correct4 ,j4 ,nicholson40 99 99 99 99 99 8#aacb1--;,i have been trying experiments on the greasy wood and asphalt roads these last few days1 and ,i have come to the conclusion that the nearer the rider can get to a vertical position over the centre of the driving-wheel the less liability to side-slip4 8,c4 ,leni40 ,the above quotations explain themselves1 and many other such1 8from experience0 7sic71 might be given4 ,the ,cyclist editor and ,mr4 ,lee are justly considered to be authorities in such matters4 ,it is beyond all question that all of these writers are strictly honest and speak the truth so far as they know it1 but we may well ask1 under these circumstances1 what is any individual experience worth8 ,certainly nothing1 until it becomes verified and definitely settled by the general verdict of all sides4 ,for such reasons the writer is loath to offer his own observations on this subject as of much value4 ,it is a peculiar fact1 and one worthy of notice by all who desire to form an accurate opinion in the matter of cycling or of any other art1 that the experience of an interested party is generally as one-sided as his desires4 ,a machine will do an enormous amount in the mind of the user1 if he wants it to2 and this is not said in a spirit of criticism or deprecation1 for the writer has found himself just as liable to the same error as others4 ,in being interested1 ,i do not mean that it is necessary to be financially interested2 all a man has to do is to take a side1 and he is deeply enough interested for all practical purposes3 let him set up an opinion and ten to one his experience will bear him out1 not in the way of villanous1 premeditated misrepresentation1 but results will honestly appear to justify him4 ,it does not appear that we must contend with this vicious tendency to any greater extent in connection with the cycle than in any other art4 ,almost every rider is prone to consider himself an expert in our pet subject1 and it very often happens that he is2 yet he may not be an observer capable of defending himself against himself in the delusions of experience4 ,having probably confused the reader's mind sufficiently by this time to go on with the subject1 ,i may say that another fact why the reasoning and formula in regard to the side-slip are not correct is that the same rule applied to the ,rover does not in any way justify the results we find by experience4 ,the slipping of the ,rover is much more than it should be1 in the light of any conclusion based on our formula2 in fact1 ,i believe the entire theory is1 and always has been1 an unmitigated blunder4 ,a well-known correspondent1 ,mr4 ,gerald ,stoney1 has thrown a little light on the subject by an article in the ,irish ,cyclist1 which1 though death to one theory1 sets up another still of dubious tenability4 8,,side-,,slipping ,,of ,,bicycles4 8,mr4 ,gerald ,stoney1 in last week's ,irish ,cyclist1 adds the following to this interesting and important discussion4 ,it will be noticed his deductions differ both from those of ,mr4 ,lee and ourselves4 8,in a leader in ,the ,cyclist of ,november #bh1 the reason that low machines of the ,kangaroo type slip more than the high ,ordinary is referred to the pressure of the foot being low down1 pushing the bottom of the wheel to one side more than in a high machine when it is high up4 ,we should wish to point out that no such effect can take place so long as the pressure of the foot does not cause the machine to wabble2 since1 so long as there is no change in the velocity or direction of motion of the machine1 the position1 direction1 or amount of internal forces1 such as the pressure of the foot1 do not affect the position1 direction1 or amount of external forces1 such as the pressure of the wheel on the ground4 ,this is one of the first great elementary principles of mechanics4 ,the reason why a small bicycle has1 in general1 more tendency to slip sideways than one in which the rider is seated high up is1 that if the wheel slips off a stone or down the side of a rut1 the distance sideways to which the wheel will slip is independent of the size of the wheel1 and depends on the size of the stone or rut1 the state of the road1 the speed the machine is going at1 etc4 ,but the amount by which the machine is inclined to the vertical from a given side-slip will depend on how high the centre of gravity is1 and1 therefore1 on how high the rider is seated1 and accordingly it will be less the higher the saddle is4 ,now1 it is a theorem in mechanics1 which we will ask the reader to assume1 that the greater this inclination the greater the tendency of the wheel to go on slipping1 when it has hopped off the rut1 stone1 etc41 and1 therefore1 the higher the saddle the less side-slipping there will be in similar machines4'0 ,i think the above sufficiently exposes the sophistry of the wide-tread theory1 but lest some of the old adherents to the idea should not be willing to accept ,mr4 ,stoney's mechanical reasoning1 ,i have had made a device to test the matter in this way 7see ,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,roller experiment4 ,we have an upright frame provided with two cross pieces1 bc and ef1 a saddle at a1 rests for the feet at b and c1 and a roller1 d1 placed under ef4 ,sitting upon the saddle a1 ,i was totally unable to move the roller d by any pressure upon either pedal b or c4 ,the above ,i consider conclusive proof and the result unbiased by prejudice in trying the experiment1 because ,i tested the matter before looking carefully into ,mr4 ,stoney's article and becoming convinced that in this he is right4 ,the laws applying to internal forces or forces within a system are very often disregarded1 and especially are internal confounded with external forces1 as in this case4 ,in any machine where the rider throws his weight on and vertically over the pedal1 the formula given for the side-slip does represent a force acting to swing the machine out of perpendicular and to cause it to 8wabble10 as ,mr4 ,stoney calls it1 but not to slip it on the surface of the roadway1 as many would suppose4 ,the rider rarely1 however1 throws his weight directly over the pedal sideways1 as he does in raising upon it in a forward direction in order to get over the work4 ,the lateral or wabbling strain in a cycle of the foot-pressure in one direction is balanced by the pull on the handle-bars and pressure of the leg against the saddle4 ,the only feasible connection the formula theory can possibly have in this matter is that the thrust on the pedal is so sharp and violent that the inertia of the man and other heavy parts of the system are not perceptibly affected sideways2 hence we might get an action against the slight weight in the lower part of the wheel4 ,i cannot1 however1 detect any slipping action of this or any other kind in the roller experiment4 ,the futility of an effort to slip the machine sideways by a force upon the crank might be illustrated in this manner3 ,suppose the drive-wheel of an ,ordinary is made rigidly fast to the front fork4 ,now1 it would be impossible for the rider to slip the tire on the road-bed by pressure on the crank1 as he can when the wheel is free to revolve in its bearings1 no matter how long the crank may be2 if the rider leans out over it1 the machine could be rolled forward1 but not slipped on the surface4 ,loosen the wheel so that it can revolve as usual1 then it can be slipped1 as every good rider well knows4 ,suppose now that the drive-wheel is rigidly fixed in the frame of the bicycle so far as any lateral motion is concerned1 and the wheel cannot revolve within the system about any horizontal line at right angles to the axle of the wheel1 as it would have to do in order to make it slip in the manner it would in the other case1 then it is easy to see that the machine and rider might be rolled over sideways by throwing the weight on one crank2 but it cannot be slipped3 the only slipping that can occur is when the machine is allowed to get out of perpendicular1 but the angle at which it would begin to slip would be the same regardless of width of tread4 ,if the wide tread does affect the slipping1 it is the result of other forces than those generally supposed4 ,i do not believe that the extra weight on the drive-wheel will relieve the trouble4 ,i have a ,rover pattern machine in which the weight is almost entirely in the rear1 and ,i can conscientiously aver that it is the worst slipper ,i was ever on4 ,now1 this is in spite of the fact that there was every reason to believe1 and to desire1 that it should not slip at all4 ,one of the ,cyclist correspondents mentions the ,american ,star1 and justly says that it does not slip2 yet that fact could be explained by our formula1 since it is a tall machine with narrow tread4 ,i cannot see1 after all1 that any theory of wide or narrow tread could be applied to the ,rover type1 even if it were found to be valid in other cases1 because there seems to be complaint1 and ,i have found it so in practice1 that the machine will slip more than the old ,ordinary1 even when not pushing on the cranks at all4 ,it seems to slip worse than any other in making a curve or in descending hills and upon cobble-stones1 whether there is any pressure on the crank or not4 ,this will apply against the ,cyclist idea that the slanting fork breeds the mischief1 since1 if it slips in running a straight line1 the slant of the fork could not possibly have anything to do with it4 ,in answer to the idea advanced that the fault is due to the mere size of the wheel1--that a large one has more surface exposed to contact1 etc41 and will hold better1--the writer has noticed very little difference in his thirty-eight-inch narrow-tread front-driving pattern as compared with a fifty-two-inch ,ordinary2 if there is any difference caused by the size of the wheel1 this fourteen inches ought to have shown itself more than it did4 ,if the small wheel in a bicycle is a cause for slipping1 we could naturally ask why it does not show itself more in the rear wheel of the ,ordinary4 ,it may be said1 in answer to this1 that there is but little weight on it1 and that1 not being a driver1 whatever capers it might choose to cut are ignored by its regal1 imperturbable leader2 hence1 if the rear wheel slips1 it is immediately drawn up in line again4 ,another plea is that the lack of weight on the front wheel of the ,safety makes it slip1 and then it carries the rear wheel with it4 ,to the last ,i can simply reply1 as ,i would to the ,cyclist's notion of the slanting fork1 that it is the rear wheel which slips first1 last1 and all the time1 or else a large majority of riders are very much misled1 and really can't tell what is going on under them4 ,certainly we must say that if appearances and sensations of the riders are worth anything1 the doctrine of the front wheel slipping first must go to the wall and carry several ingenious solutions with it4 ,still another bright speculation is1 that the unusual bumping of the front wheel holds it back1 and the rear pushing on1 for the nonce1 cannot go forward1 hence it must go sideways4 ,if we admit that the ,american ,star does not slip1 then the theories of small weight on the front wheel1 the slanting fork1 and front bumper must all go for naught4 ,there are some other qualifications1 however1 which would modify or exclude the ,star as a reference4 ,the fork is slanting to a greater extent than in any other machine1 but the small front steerer is swung from a point directly above the centre1 which1 it is said1 gives the wheel a better chance to caster4 ,to our ingenious front-bumper friend1 ,i would also suggest the trial of a first-class anti-vibrator to the fork1 which will let it spring back a good way4 ,and again1 it has been stated1 in regard to the ,rover slip1 that the large rear wheel swings from side to side1 or wabbles1 humorously likened by some to the wagging of a duck's tail4 ,this feeling of disturbance in the rear part of the machine is felt in the ,ordinary when supplied with the large rear wheel advocated by some1 and it may have something to do with the slip1 though it is hardly possible that it would in the well-built1 steady machines of the present time4 ,as to the high-up saddle or centre of gravity1 true1 an inch side-slip at the ground1 of a machine with a low-down centre of gravity1 will cause it to assume a greater slant or angle from the vertical than a higher2 hence our friend could well say that when the ,safety starts to slip it will be more certain to go on down4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 as against this idea1 that other machines with low-down saddles do not slip4 ,taking all the theories and experiences1 pro and con1 into consideration1 ,i am inclined to believe that no one cause can account for the entire difficulty2 it is probably a combination of smaller elements partly belonging to several of the theories advanced4 ,the elements which have been most strongly urged are1 first1 the driver being small2 second1 the driver being in the rear2 third1 the weight being in the rear2 fourth1 the work being done between the wheels4 ,all these seem to work to the same end4 ,again1 any drive-wheel will slip worse than a non-driver1 since a sliding force in any direction will tend to loosen the hold of the rubber tire from the surface of the road more than any rolling action4 ,a short slide from a stone is felt more when the weight is upon the wheel1 and the drop in rolling off so distinctly felt in connection with the small wheel is much sharper than a similar action of a large one4 ,a rider can certainly manage himself better and more surely when he drives1 steers1 and leads with the same wheel and has his weight upon it4 ,this is what he does on the ,ordinary and just what he does not do on the rear-driver4 ,the deepest and most profound explanation of all side-slip was recently proposed to the writer by a mathematician of great ability2 but it is so complex that he has not worked it out himself yet1 though expecting daily to hand in the solution4 ,he says it is all from the relation of the points1 first1 of the centre of gravity1 second1 of the centre of oscillation1 and third1 of the transmission of power1 to each other4 ,just where and how they ought to be is1 as yet1 not fully determined4 ,to remedy the evil of the side-slip in the most obvious ways would be to make the rear-driving ,safety no longer the same machine2 it would ruin1 to a great extent1 the very qualities for which it is prized1 and therefore1 if any such theories as before enumerated should prove tenable1 the only clear way out of the difficulty would be in the use of non-slipping tires1 if such can be produced4 ,in regard to the angle at which any machine will slip in rounding a corner1 some1 who have advanced the idea that the ,safety slipped because it had to lean more1 do not appear to be aware of1 or take into account1 the fact that the angle at which the cycle1 or any other machine1 must lean under such circumstances is entirely independent of the height of the centre of gravity4 ,the angle is a function of the speed and radius of curvature only4 #g ,mr4 ,sturmey should have broached this subject in its relation to castering4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,ladies' ,,bicycle4 ,probably the most daring innovation the ladies have made in the domain of sports and pastime within the past decade consists in their riding the bicycle4 ,there is no earthly reason why they should not ride a bicycle if they wish to2 that is to say1 those bicycles of the modern type especially made for them4 ,at least no objection can be urged that would not equally apply to tandem and single tricycles4 ,notwithstanding the above fact1 there is and has been a reluctance on the part of the ladies to take up the two-wheeler1 and probably a greater reluctance on the part of the community at large to countenance the step4 ,it is needless to discuss the propriety of ladies riding tricycles2 the question has been settled by themselves by simply riding2 and there is the end of it1--they came1 saw1 rode1 and conquered4 ,granted that a woman may ride a tricycle with propriety1 it would seem a shame to deny her the right to the less cumbersome and much neater mount4 ,the ladies' bicycle certainly is the more modest appearing1 if we were used to both1 and it takes much less work to run it2 if it does not thrive1 it will mean simply that the entire system of ladies' cycle riding must go4 ,common prejudice cannot long sustain such a senseless discrimination as to keep her on the 8trike40 ,tandems1 of course1 have an advantage in that the spectators can imagine that the man is doing all the work1 which is generally about as true as that he does all the work when the family cook-stove is to be moved4 ,no better illustration of the change of public opinion in the matter of ladies' cycle riding can be had1 than in the little story told of ,mr4 ,james ,k4 ,starley1 relating an event which is said to have occurred some years back on the streets of ,coventry4 ,this indefatigable genius of modern cycle art was pumping one of his early tricycles about the nooks and corners of ,smithford1 ,hereford1 ,jordan ,well1 ,little and ,much ,park1 in the ancient city1 amid the jeers and contemptuous sneers of the lusty silk weavers and cynical watchmakers2 whereupon1 being goaded to desperation by their taunts1 he rose and exclaimed1 8,why1 the time will come when ladies will ride these things through your streets40 ,and ladies have long since ridden them through the streets of ,coventry1 as well as through the streets of many other towns1 without compromising themselves or exciting undue comment1 while the noble city of its birth has become the centre of modern cycledom4 ,social forms stick1 often in spite of reason1 and it may be a long time before it will be generally conceded that woman is in her legitimate sphere when perched upon the saddle of either a tricycle or bicycle1 and if the lack of physical development continues to be one of the chief angelic characteristics of womankind in the mind of man1 the time will be very remote indeed4 ,but should it be discovered that less seraphic and more muscular tissue tends to make us all happier1 then perhaps the time and doctors' bills will be shorter4 ,it is scarcely necessary to explain the construction of the bicycle intended for ladies' use2 suffice it to say1 that a modern ,rover ,safety is used in which the backbone drops down to a level with the cranks1 and the rider can step between the wheels and rise into the saddle by the pedal mount2 not a difficult task1 to judge from the grace and ease with which women accomplish the feat every day4 ,it is not within the province of this book to pass encomiums upon any tribe1 class1 or individual1 nor to compliment any sex1 but it would be heinous selfishness not to give the ladies some credit when it is so justly their due1 as in this matter of the 8bike40 ,when1 on the streets of ,washington1 ,i see apparently timid girls make the pedal mount and move off so naturally and adroitly1 the feeling of comparative superior physical dexterity1 generally accredited to our sex1 suffers a tremendous blow within me4 ,in meeting these fair riders at their homes it is quite evident that they still retain the old-time graces and accomplishments common to the sex which men delight to honor4 ,all this proves once for all and conclusively that some of the ideas entertained by mankind about womankind approach very nearly to the sphere of unmitigated humbug4 ,below will be found an energetic opinion of one of the ladies1 as chronicled in the ,bicycling ,world4 8,,women1 ,,bicycles1 ,,and ,,doctors4 8,being a member of the ,l4 ,a4 ,w41 ,i naturally see the ,world1 and ,i have beside me a copy of your paper1 in which ,i notice an article on #8,why a woman should ride4' ,i agree with the writer in that the ladies should ride1 and from my own experience ,i have found it improves my #8health and complexion' very much4 ,i have only been riding since last ,june1 but ,i am stronger now1 and enjoy living much better than ,i ever did before that time4 ,the pains and the doctors have both gone1 where1 ,i don't know and care less1 so long as they have gone and so long as ,i still have my bicycle and can take my ride every day4 ,it seems to give me life1 and ,i feel the life-giving exhilaration born of this splendid exercise after ,i take a five-mile run around the city1 or1 perchance1 the country4 ,it is such sport to leave far behind fast-trotting horses1 and men and women who are obliged to take the street-car every place they go4 ,and what could be more amusing than to see some or all in a car rush to that side to see a #8lady riding a bicycle4' ,i sometimes get just a trifle angry when ,i hear some old feminine fuss and feathers say1 #8,oh1 isn't that disgraceful to see a woman riding a man's bicycle6' ,they1 ,i suppose1 never read the papers1 as they would scarcely ever have time after working1 worrying1 and scolding their husbands 7if they are lucky enough to have one74 ,if they could just for an hour have the pleasure of riding as ,i do1 ,i think the cross1 fretful1 and worrying fits would be few and far between4 ,i could not do without my bicycle now4 ,sometimes when ,i have been out ,i come home laughing1 and as ,i trot my five-year-old baby on my knee1 she sometimes says1 #8,what's happened that's so funny8 tell me4' ,and as ,i take her little hands and we fly around the room together1 ,i feel that no woman on earth is as happy as ,i4 ,even after riding ten miles ,i do not feel tired1 but come home feeling better than when ,i started4 ,my husband is very much pleased that ,i ride1 and here ,i will mention that the advantage in having a lady's ,safety is that either can ride4 ,i actually think sometimes that my bicycle is keeping me too young in actions1 and that ,i am not growing old gracefully as ,i ought to4 8,now ,i don't want any one to infer from this that ,i am one of those strong-minded women that want to vote1 and keep the men in petticoats4 ,oh1 no1 indeed6 ,i am very well satisfied to let the men run this government as it is1 or as it will be after ,march next4 8,grace ,e4 ,s40 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,tandems ,,and ,,the ,,rational4 ,the ,tandem is a cycle in which two riders are mounted1 one in front of the other1 upon the same machine4 ,we have the tandem tricycle1 which is a two- or three-track machine on the tricycle principle1 and the tandem bicycle1 or single-track machine with two wheels4 ,of the tandem tricycle ,i shall have little to say1 as my experience does not justify the attempt2 also of the single tricycle ,i cannot give much of an account4 ,this book does not pretend to treat of man-motor carriages so generally as to include all of the two- or three-track devices1 nor of the three- or four-in-hand4 ,latterly remarkable records have been made on a 8triplet10 and we hope this machine is all that is claimed for it4 ,but there is too great a step from a single-track machine to the double or triple to treat of them all1 so for the present ,i shall confine myself principally to that class in which the rider is maintained in an upright position by means of steering4 ,the only single-track tandem which now bids fair to attain any conspicuous position is that built upon the ,rover ,safety principle1 where two low wheels support two saddles and the rear wheel is made the driver by means of a series of sprocket-chains and cranks4 ,no lever-motion machine1 for two1 of any pattern1 has as yet made an appearance in the market4 ,it is quite probable that the rear-driving tandem will acquire an enviable place in the sphere of cycling1 and it certainly deserves to be enthusiastically welcomed among us4 ,very few cyclers care to take a spin all alone1 and it takes two riders at least to make company3 why not then mount them sociably upon one vehicle8 ,surely the tandem method must steadily gain favor1 and when it is finally and securely launched in our midst1 we shall derive much pleasure from its use1 and for touring it must become invaluable4 ,no doubt a very little increase of weight of parts and cost can and will finally serve two happy cyclists4 ,when this is accomplished it will take but little palaver to sell to touring parties at once1 since one machine1 even if of double weight1 can be handled1 in many cases1 by two men much more easily than each can handle a light one alone4 ,the ,tandem takes up less space in a railroad car than two separate machines1 and any store-room can be made to accommodate an increased number of saddles4 ,the machines will mostly be made for each to accommodate both a lady and gentleman or two gentlemen1 as may be preferred1 and on this account they will1 at some not far distant time1 partially supplant single mounts4 ,some will also be made convertible2 that is1 capable of being divided into two single cycles4 ,it is hardly probable that machines for more than two will ever become general1 at least not for social riding2 no better reason can be given than the old saw1 8two's company and three's a crowd40 ,we do not1 however1 venture to prophesy positively about multiple riding 7that is1 more than double71 since it has a start now1 and there is no telling where it will end4 ,in experimenting on tandem bicycles1 ,i have found one difficulty which1 so far1 has been very serious2 it is the tendency of switching between the riders2 that is to say1 the twist of the machine4 ,it is difficult to make a frame strong enough to prevent this1 since the rear end has to be kept perpendicular by means of a direct twist on a long backbone4 ,both riders cannot be uprighted as the same weight can be when it is all centred in one spot4 ,it is the distribution of the weight more than the amount of it that causes the trouble4 ,it is well known that a man of two hundred and fifty pounds avoirdupois can ride without much trouble1 but two men of one hundred and twenty-five pounds each1 sitting two feet apart1 will strain a single-track machine tremendously2 this annoyance will not be finally escaped by means of mere strength of parts4 ,some novel arrangement of the wheels1 saddles1 or other mechanism will have to be called into play to modify the unsightly length of the present tandem bicycles1 though it is not right to disparage them on account of it4 ,much objection has been raised to the 8shape of the thing10 but since the advent of the ,safety bicycles1 appearance must take a second place to that which it held when we sat perched upon the noble old ,ordinaries4 ,if we must slip along the ground like beetles1 let us not be too fastidious as to just how we look4 ,let the ,tandem come on2 and be received with open arms4 ,those of us who are a little weak want to make a combination with some flyers1 to make up our deficiencies in scorching runs4 ,if we can get on the rear seat and eat doughnuts part of the time1 so much the better4 ,,the ,,rational ,,ordinary4 ,as the above term seems to be indigenous to ,england1 and emanates indirectly from the fertile brain of the distinguished editor of the ,cyclist1 ,i append below a quotation from that journal by way of introduction to this subject4 8,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,ordinary4 8#8,the ,ordinary is doomed1' we very frequently hear people say1 but we are not of that opinion4 ,true1 it has #8had its nose put out of joint' by the ,safety lately1 but this only shows us the correctness of the opinions we have always held1 and proves to us that1 if the makers will only look after the safety and comfort of ,ordinary riders a little more1 the old love for the high wheel will return1 and good business will result4 ,in the introduction to the #8,indispensable ,bicyclists' ,hand-,book' this year we say2 #8,the ,ordinary bicycle1 for the young and active1 is the most delightful form of cycle to possess1 and the youth of ,england and other active nations will ever select it in preference to its perhaps safer1 yet more cumbrous rival4 ,to retain its hold as a touring machine1 however1 ,i feel certain that more attention must be paid to the comfort and comparative safety of the rider1 and ,i hope to see in the near future a gradual inclination towards larger back wheels1 more rake1 longer cranks1 and the addition of foot-rests1 when the ordinary and original machine will1 with common care1 be equal in safety to any form of cycle extant4'444 8,this being so1 we ask makers1 in their own interests and in the interests of the ,ordinary as a type1 to deal with the matter and give attention to the points enumerated above4 ,we are sure it would pay any maker1 who has the proper facilities for doing so1 to place a machine built as described vigorously on the market1 and we hope next season to see it done1 when we feel assured the rationally-built ,ordinary will gradually work its way back into the public estimation40 ,in spite of the laudatory notices of subsequent writers in the ,cyclist1 ,i am not disposed to treat this subject seriously4 ,if not already consigned to oblivion1 no doubt the ideas advanced in the foregoing quotation will be by the time this book reaches the reader2 something must be said about it1 however1 since the importance of the question is now quite generally felt4 ,to long cranks little objection can be made1 but as to increased rake and large rear wheels1 this is a thrust at the heart of all we have to admire in the ,ordinary4 ,we are willing to take the old mount with all its dangers1 for the sake of its neat appearance and ease of running1 but when we get back nearly off the large wheel2 when we reach out to the end of a longer crank2 when we get over and drag along after us a great ungainly rear wheel to wag about over the road2 and lastly1 when we strike at the life of easy steering1 pray what have we left8 ,why not go back to the old bone-shaker1 curl up like a sleeping chimpanzee and kick up in the air as we used to do1 and be done with it8 ,no6 ,if we propose to stick to the old high perch1 let us be men and take it as it has been perfected1 neat and comfortable1 with the rider upon the front wheel and within a reasonable distance of the point over his work4 ,if not that1 then let us gracefully accept our place down among the dogs1 and take the ,safety1 depending upon having so little else to attend to that we can kick off the festive canines and take up the time we would otherwise spend in patching up our skin with sticking plaster1 in wiping off the accumulated dust from our machines4 ,no man can edit a journal without making mistakes1 and ,i shall probably find that books cannot be written without incurring the same liability1 but for all this we cannot excuse the ,rational4 ,the more generally correct an editor is the more keenly we feel his freaks2 so let this be my defence in noticing this little idiosyncratic perturbation of ,mr4 ,sturmey's otherwise infallible intellect4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,workmanship ,,in ,,cycles--,,english ,,and ,,american ,,makers4 ,unfortunately1 it is next to impossible to practically test the durability and general excellence of a wheel before purchasing4 ,the buyer therefore has to depend upon his skill in judging of workmanship4 ,it is impossible to give many set rules that would be of much assistance to a prospective buyer1 but of one thing he can be reasonably certain1--if he finds a single poorly made or undeniably botched part1 it is a valid cause for a rigid examination into all others4 ,a first-class manufacturer is not liable to botch a single part1 but if you find that he has done so1 it is well to be very cautious in patronizing him4 ,it is generally a safe plan to examine a machine that has been in use in order to judge of the durability of a maker's work1 though durability will generally accompany good workmanship and finish when new4 ,a cheap quality of nickel-plating often gives the appearance of a good job1 but it will peel and rust2 and to prevent this good platers put on a coat of copper under the nickel as a base upon which to plate4 ,it is difficult to determine in a new machine the amount of the nickel deposit1 or whether it is upon a copper base2 hence it will be seen that the maker's work in the past is the only standard from which such matters can be judged4 ,with enamel and paint it is much more easy to determine the quality1 though a glossy surface is not necessarily a true gauge of good work4 ,it is the finish of the under surfaces that takes the labor4 ,a good job of painting is to my mind superior to enamel or japan1 but it is attended with considerable labor4 ,in olden times1 when paint was more common1 a maker could be identified by the finish and striping of his machines2 there was such a difference in the quality of the work4 ,now1 however1 since the dead-black japan rules the day1 it is more difficult to judge between makers by the outward finish of their wares4 ,there cannot be much difference in the amount of labor put upon the work by the various manufacturers1 for the reason that a certain process has to be gone through before it can be done at all4 propos of striping1 it may be considered gaudy1 but an artistic job sets off a machine as compared with a plain black now in vogue4 ,the quality of rubber in the tire of a bicycle affords a splendid field for an expert2 only those who have to use rubber in other connections realize the great differences in its quality4 ,rubber can be made absolutely useless by adulteration2 and when we see how easily some tires cut1 we cannot doubt that makers often sacrifice quality for the sake of price4 ,buyers should notice carefully the old tires of different makers1 and see how they have stood the test4 ,in the matter of quality of tubing of which machines are made there is little difficulty at present1 as nearly all of the firms buy from one or the other of two great ,english factories1 but when the industry of weldless tube-making becomes more disseminated1 and small concerns with inadequate facilities enter the field1 we can expect more trouble4 ,about the brazing of the tubes it is utterly impossible to tell anything except from the way it stands4 ,the screws and nuts about a machine should be provided with sharp1 deep threads1 and work easily though not loosely4 ,a maker can almost always be judged by the kind of screws he cuts4 ,the nuts and screw-heads should be case-hardened and be neat and square on the corners1 and not rounded by the nickel polisher4 ,in all cases where it is practicable some device for preventing the nuts from coming loose1 or being entirely lost1 is a great boon2 this point will have to be looked after now since complicated machines are becoming more popular4 ,the device generally used on the outer end of pedals should become more common1 especially on tricycles1 tandems1 and chain ,safeties1 where there are so many parts4 ,a good practical jam-nut has never yet been invented1 and the cycle-builders are therefore not to blame for not having provided some means against loose nuts generally4 ,in the matter of saddle and other springs1 we are somewhat at a loss for a guide2 there is not so much carelessness in quality of the steel used as in the tempering1 and in this the buyer has again to rely on reputation and observance of other machines of the same make4 ,the quality of leather often used in saddles is simply an insult to the judgment of the fraternity1 and if we will go on in blindly taking any and everything that is offered1 the imposition will continue4 ,if buyers scrutinize closely1 the makers will be proportionately careful1 thus making it harder for unscrupulous tradesmen to foist poor work upon the market1 an evil which has existed and will increase as the industry advances4 ,,about ,,english ,,and ,,american ,,makers4 ,one of the most frequent questions asked by the would-be purchaser of either a two- or three-wheeler is1 8,what make shall ,i buy80 ,and before he settles down to a matter of comparison between individual firms he must first settle whether he will buy an ,english or ,american mount4 ,this difficulty is1 however1 of less importance than he is apt to imagine1 because1 beyond all question1 there are wheels good enough for any one made in either country4 ,the chief trouble will lie in choosing between the different makers1 especially if he concludes to try an ,english wheel4 ,this1 as regards the ,english builders1 arises from no general lack of capability among them1 but it is simply due to the fact that the industry is so much more widely disseminated there than here4 ,that is to say1 there are so many more factories already established and new ones starting there1 that1 as a natural consequence1 some incompetent people1 with inadequate plant and machinery1 will be certain to creep into the field4 ,this is a temporary condition of affairs as between the two countries1 for it will not be long until the same conditions will apply here in ,america4 ,now1 the reader might infer that we condemn new and small makers1 but by no means is this so4 ,there are many small shops that turn out the best of work1 some of them do not make the entire machine1 but purchase many parts from manufacturers of specialties2 but1 as a general rule1 it is a little safer to buy of a larger concern1 that makes1 as nearly as possible1 the entire machine4 ,this will apply in any line of business1 especially if the buyer is not an expert in judging of the goods4 ,on the other hand1 there is this fact to contend against with the larger manufacturers1--when they make a mistake at all it is almost sure to be one comparable to the size of their business4 ,in the small shops an error will be discovered more quickly1 and1 as a rule1 will be rectified before many machines go on the market4 ,in ,america the larger concerns are so vastly predominant over the small that the buyer has only to decide between articles of established reputation2 the ,american factories do not seem to have ever been small4 ,in a large majority of cases there are certain peculiarities about the machines which not only settle the matter nationally1 but as to individual makers4 ,some little point at once takes the eye or the heart of the buyer1 and that settles it all2 and perhaps it is best it should be so4 ,nationally considered1 the ,english have had much larger and more varied experience in the cycle industry than we have had2 they have more experts in the line and are nearer to the fountain head of supplies1 particularly in regard to tubing1 and no matter how soon we on this side may have tube-works1 it will be some time before we can depend upon them4 ,the ,english have taken advantage of their good fortune1 and1 together with the natural precedence in this art which we all agree has been allotted to them1 they have gone ahead without the erroneous veneration generally felt in favor of their grandfather's method1 which has blinded them so often in their advancement in other arts4 ,it was a marvellous sight to the writer to see a bicycle firm1 flush with the times in all their work1 in a factory almost nestling against other places devoted to making fusee watches with 8,granddaddy winding-apparatuses10 making watch-cases by gradually punching them into a conical cast-iron cavity1 cutting alleged screw bezels with a chaser in a lathe pulled back by a hickory spring1 and such eocenic appliances4 ,in ,coventry there stood1 wet and rusting in an old botanical conservatory1 one of the finest of ,american watch-case tools1 which some ambitious ,english watch-maker1 in a fit of sanity1 had taken over2 but his men could not1 or probably would not1 use it4 ,yet a great cycle firm had just bought1 and was using1 one of the very finest ,brown ,sharp lathes1 merely1 ,i suppose1 to make sure that no ,yankee should get the better of them in tools4 ,this is not an admission on their part that all ,english tools are immature affairs2 they need not admit anything of the kind1 for among the number of tons of cast iron in a twelve-inch screw lathe which you see in every cycle shop1 a small part of one ton1 at least1 is fixed to do some work1 and accurate work at that4 ,it was a fortunate thing for our mother country in the cycle business that it was clogged by no fettering precedents or medival rules of mechanics4 ,the ,english cycle-makers are abreast of the times in their line1 and there is no better illustration of the total absence of all effect of surroundings upon this great industry than the fact that the lightest cycles in the world are made with such ponderous tools4 ,it must have been a great feat1 in view of their proclivities for substantial machinery1 to shave off the last superfluous ounce in a bicycle4 ,in short1 it has been impressed very forcibly on the writer's mind that the famous ,yankee ingenuity is simply unchained ,english genius4 ,in our heated discussions as to whether the ,american manufacturer1 with a higher rate of wages1 could hold his own against the ,english without a discriminating tariff duty1 there may be two sides in regard to watch-making and some other industries1 but when applied to cycles it is nonsense to suppose that we could compete4 ,as to ,american machines1 that which would strike us as remarkable in the ,english would be1 to a large extent1 natural to our institutions2 that all machine parts should be accurately made and be interchangeable would be taken for granted when coming from one of our factories1 but it is a little odd to find it approached by others4 ,the absolute regularity and similarity with which work is turned out by us is sometimes an objection2 if a part is too hard or brittle1 or in any way bad in its construction and form1 a part for the same purpose1 from the same factory1 will be sure to be just like the one you want to replace2 in fact1 if you have one bad part1 depend upon it there have been thousands made just like it1 and you will be pretty certain to get one of them4 ,it is generally conceded that the ,american maker is more careful to test his new plans before placing the product upon the market2 anyhow1 since the customer in this country is able to get to head-quarters more easily with his complaint1 he generally favors buying at home1 though it is often a very close contest in his mind just what to do4 ,however a cyclist may feel in regard to this question of ,english or ,american machines1 it would be best in the long run to settle the question entirely upon the merits and quality of the work4 ,it is a bad plan to implicitly take the word of a salesman regardless of one's own judgment4 ,the variety of machines has become so great that it is more than likely the customer will generally have to buy from the maker who has adopted the special style of machine the buyer is determined to have4 ,but let this not deter him from insisting on a high grade of workmanship and excellence of material4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,cranks ,,and ,,levers ,,and ,,tangent ,,spokes4 ,the subject of cranks and levers has been touched upon from a philosophical stand-point1 but an ingenious squib in a maker's catalogue on the subject has suggested the propriety of treating its mechanical features more fully4 ,the squib referred to runs as follows3 8,,cranks ,,vs4 ,,levers4 8,the question of a motive power for cycles is as old as the first idea of wheel riding4 ,inventors1 after having persistently tried and abandoned every other known motor1--steam1 electricity1 etc41--have made every effort to discover the best way of applying leg-power4 8,while nine-tenths of the cycles have always been driven by cranks1 in a few cases the attempt has been made to show that power could absolutely be created by the use of levers1 and that if the power could be applied on one side only of the axle1 avoiding the return stroke of a crank1 the result would equal a man's lifting himself over a fence by his boot-straps4 8,in their eager pursuit of this one idea its advocates have lost sight of the fact that the question is of the economical use of the power we have1 and that it is as impossible to create a power as to overcome the laws of gravitation4 ,for hundreds of years the machinery of the world1 practically speaking1 has been driven by cranks4 ,in this fact we have the testimony of the highest mechanical genius the world has known4 8,engineers agree that the crank is the only economical method of applying power--that it transmits to the driving shaft ninety-nine per cent4 of the power applied4 ,in no class of machinery except cycles is the attempt made to use levers where cranks could be used4 8,careful experiments have shown that the use of a lever is misleading1 in that1 while power can be converted into speed and speed into power1 the development of either is at the expense of the other4 ,it is at once evident that with levers we have more friction1 more weight1 and more complication than with cranks1 and that absolutely more power is required1 as the springs which are used to return the levers must be forced down at the expenditure of power which should be applied to the propulsion of the machine4 ,several years ago lever-power was tried in ,england on bicycles and tricycles and extensively introduced1 but has been so generally abandoned that there is to-day no machine of importance so driven4 ,the worst feature of the lever action1 however1 is that the movement of the foot does not become automatic1 as is the case in the use of the crank4 ,there is absence of regularity1 and a consequent loss of momentum4 ,a rotary motion is more natural to the feet1 being more like walking1 while a lever motion is like treading water while swimming1 or like constantly climbing up stairs4 ,not only does the mechanical use of the legs require a regular movement1 but it is better to use always the same length of crank1 never varying the throw4 8,a special set of muscles can be trained to such work as the use of the lever action2 but such development is abnormal and at the expense of other parts of the body40 ,there is little doubt in the minds of reasonable people that a good machine can be made either with cranks or levers2 and this possibility makes it an interesting point in cycle discussion4 ,it is hardly fair1 however1 to hold a maker responsible for matter written for the purpose of advertising his wares1 nor do ,i wish to do so4 ,the article above quoted puts1 in unique form1 the opinions of a large class of observers1 and for that reason it is given here4 ,i take up the lever side of the question simply because there is more to talk about on that side1 and also perhaps for the reason that ,i have had large experience at considerable cost in experimenting on different forms of levers4 ,some of the remarks about 8creating power0 are true1 but might be applied equally well to some of our crank theorists4 ,to say that the machinery of the world is driven by cranks1 is hardly tenable2 even though the engine generally has a crank4 ,but now1 since we must reduce our comparisons down to the human motor1 in combination with the crank of a bicycle1 let us say the pitman rod represents the man's leg4 ,this rod has to push and pull1 which a man cannot do with one leg2 but for this you say he has two legs2 admitting1 then1 that two legs represent the pitman1 we are still out a fly-wheel and an evenly-running resistance4 7,see chapter on 8,connecting ,link407 ,a great deal of the power of machinery is transmitted through pulleys and belts2 now ,i take it that this is much more similar to some of the drum and lever machines than to a simple crank4 ,there is1 however1 a form of lever and crank combined1 of which ,i have spoken elsewhere1 that is really worse than any simple form of either1 but we have just as much right to say the crank ought to make it good as to say the lever makes it bad2 if the crank is such a great cure for all evils1 as the maker quoted seems to imply1 it ought not be so bad in any combination4 ,there is no loss of power in pushing down a spring if it is only just strong enough to lift the leg1 since the leg would otherwise have to be lifted by the expenditure of muscular energy4 ,in using a spring we press down with a little more weight than is required to run the machine1 so that a storage of power is the result which is given out in lifting the leg4 ,in fact this is done to some extent in the crank machines2 the rider not only puts enough power on each crank to turn the wheel1 but also enough to lift the other leg2 this is true at least when the rider is quite tired4 ,examples are known wherein a racer on long distances could no longer lift his legs1 even with the aid of a spring1 though at the same time1 he still had strength enough left to propel the machine4 ,in fine1 this difference between the crank and spring lever is that in the former1 a little extra power is exerted to lift the other leg1 while1 in the latter1 energy is stored to be used in raising the same leg4 ,in a perfectly fresh man ,i have found1 by the registers of the cyclograph1 that the rider lifts all weight from a returning crank1 but this does not happen when he becomes tired4 ,evidently1 if the spring is strong enough to more than lift the leg1 a loss of power will result1 since the rider would have to hold it in check even in coming up in order to keep it from stopping with a bang1 as is sometimes noticed when he jumps from a treadle machine4 ,the winding and unwinding of the spring involves no loss of power except in heat incident to motion and imperfect elasticity1 which is quite small4 ,this loss from heat within the molecular structure1 ,i am constrained to think1 is not what is popularly meant by loss of power in springs4 ,coming back to our quotation1 true1 in ,england levers have been tried and expunged4 ,a prominent ,american1 ,i believe1 assisted some little in enlightening our too susceptible ,english brethren on the subject1 yet some attempts have been made with them in this country which no fair person can call unsuccessful4 ,a little printer's ink will answer the last sentence of our quotation4 ,simply change the words 8lever-action10 and substitute 8cranks10 and you will have the following3 8,a special set of muscles can be trained to such work as the use of cranks1 but such development is abnormal and at the expense of other parts of the body40 ,so the reader can see how a little slip in the type would have changed the whole argument4 ,this discussion could be continued with great interest to both sides if we could only find in some maker's catalogue of lever machines an attempt to 8down0 the crank machine on general principles4 ,as it is1 it must close for lack of antagonism in so far as broad principle goes4 ,as to the construction of crank machines1 the subject is so familiar to every one1 and the device is so simple1 that it is impossible to write much of an essay on it4 ,with regard to levers1 however1 the subject is inexhaustible4 ,the most salient features claimed for the clutch machines now in the market are1 first1 non-dead centre1--that is1 even1 continuous power2 second1 entire rest of the legs when power is not required4 ,the objections are chiefly1 first1 insecurity and entire dependence on the brake found in the absence of all back pedalling2 second1 non-support of the legs1 springs being insufficient to sustain their weight4 ,to the above objections appertaining to the lever and clutch machine1 a third may be added1--viz41 the complexity of parts1 liability to breakage1 and danger of accidents therefrom4 ,at one time the advantage of safety was found in the clutch machine almost exclusively1 but at the present time we have complete safety elements in certain forms of crank-wheels4 ,much difficulty has been experienced by makers of lever cycles in finding a suitable clutching device1 a difficulty with which most of the experience the writer has had is concerned4 ,in conducting experiments in this line ,i have found that the rattle of the old ratchet was annoying1 and it was quite a problem in my mind why makers used them2 but any one who undertakes to make a bicycle clutch will soon discover the reason1 though at what cost 8deponent sayeth not40 ,a neophyte in the bicycle experimenting ranks might justly suppose that the matter of clutches is a well-developed art in mechanics2 to a certain extent it is1 but not in the direction he will need4 ,clutches may be divided into three classes1--first1 the common ratchet and pawl1 either spring or gravity2 second1 the ratchet and friction pawl2 third1 surface-friction clutches proper4 ,the first two grip on corrugated surfaces1 the last on a perfectly plain or smooth surface4 ,the first class rattles according to the pressure on the pawl or the weight of the same1 and also to the amount of drop4 ,the second class rattles only under certain conditions2 that is1 when both ratchet and pawl are in motion in the same direction1 one moving a little faster than the other4 ,the third class is entirely noiseless4 ,let us pass over the first class1 as being familiar to everybody4 ,the second class is not so well known and has never been used in any of the arts in this country so far as ,i know1 except as recently applied to bicycles4 ,this clutch is very similar in appearance to a regular ratchet1 the difference being that in the former the pawl is held out of contact by friction against some of the moving parts1 and when the motion is reversed the friction in a certain direction throws the pawl into action4 ,a good mechanic would have hardly conceded such an arrangement as practicable in any machine1 much less in a bicycle1 for the reason that when the motion is reversed the pawl plunges into the teeth with so much force that damage would be supposed to result4 ,several patents are registered in ,england upon the noiseless ratchet2 they are all alike in general principle1 but it is due to the energy of an ,american maker that it has been made a success in cycle construction1 and ,i am inclined to think it is the first time such a ratchet has ever been used to any extent in any kind of machinery4 ,illustration3 ,noiseless ratchets4 ,as to the third class of clutches1 much of interest can be said for the benefit of those particularly concerned4 8,a friction clutch0 to mechanics is a familiar term1 since the name is applied to all pulley clutches1 that grip on a smooth surface4 ,many of these clutches are a success for the purpose for which they are intended4 ,the most common form used on machines where the requirements are similar to those of a cycle1 is the 8,roller40 ,the cycle experimenter nearly always strikes upon this clutch first1 and with sufficiently good reason4 ,it has been adopted in many arts1 and is used in ,england upon tricycles in combination with cranks1 with moderate success1 but just here allow me to call attention to a cardinal difference in the requirements of a clutch as used on crank tricycles and successfully in the arts heretofore4 ,in the crank-clutch cycles the clutch is used for the purpose of detaching the cranks from the spindle when the machine requires no driving1 as in running down grade1 but when once the clutch is gripped1 it remains so till further power ceases to be required4 ,now1 this is also just the action of all belt-pulley clutches1 and between such action and that required in a lever-clutch cycle the difference is exceedingly conspicuous4 ,in the crank-clutch cycle1 as in other uses1 the immediate solid grip is a matter of little concern2 if a half turn of the parts takes place before clutching1 it does little harm1 since it is so small a fraction of the entire number of revolutions to be made before the grip is released4 ,but if a grip is to be taken at every down stroke of the foot1 as in a lever-clutch cycle1 the least slip or lost motion is fatal4 ,this incessant clutching action1 together with the great weight the parts have to sustain1 and the repeated concussion of one piece upon another under this weight1 makes up a combination of disturbing elements which will cause mischief against which it is almost impossible to provide4 ,in a form of roller-clutch ,i have tried1 the inner frame or carrier is made loose upon a spindle4 ,in the drawing herewith annexed we have first a spindle in the centre1 then a little open space around it1 and then the clutch frame bb1 which is connected loosely1 not rigidly1 to the drum4 ,by this arrangement the pressure is distributed evenly upon the three rollers d1 d1 d1 outwardly at three points against the casing1 and in no event is the work done by a single roller4 ,this device worked as well as any of this class ,i have tried2 but the patterns are for sale at a very reasonable price4 ,the main trouble ,i found in this contrivance and all other roller clutches was1 that the great pressure disintegrated the oil1 making a paste that would cause the rollers to slip in spite of everything4 ,if it were not that another ,american1 a cycle-maker1 has apparently made a success of a roller-clutch1 ,i should be tempted to warn all experimenters against it as a thing that 8stingeth like a serpent and biteth like an adder40 ,illustration3 ,loose centre roller-clutch4 ,under a bench in a shop not far from the geographical centre of ,england may still be found about a bushel of friction-clutches of various and ingenious forms1 which future historians in the art will find very interesting4 ,should any one wish to enter the arena as a searcher for the true friction-clutch1 let him first examine these specimens1 and he will start several years ahead4 ,the nearest approach to a success which the writer has fallen upon is illustrated below for the purpose of helping those who may wish to carry on the search1 or experiment in clutch-cycles1--if any should think it worth while in view of the alleged success of the ,american above referred to4 ,the clutch illustrated below was contrived by a fellow-laborer in the field4 ,the drawing represents the device in a crude form2 some improvements having been necessary to complete it4 ,b is a cog-wheel within another1 ,a1 the latter fast to the wheel-hub1 and the former to the clutch-drum4 ,a wedge1 ,e1 follows between the wheels1 whence it will be seen that they can revolve1 in relation to each other1 in one direction only4 ,illustration3 ,scott wedge-clutch4 ,for those who wish to study this question more minutely1 ,kempe1 on link motion1 will be found a valuable work in connection with the construction of levers in any art1 when it is desired to obtain a motion in a straight line from an oscillating or circular4 ,in the way of conclusion1 reverting to the possibilities of direct application of these remarks to the actual purchase and use of cycles1 ,i wish to say1 in regard to the mechanical difficulties in this matter of lever and clutch machines1 that so long as the use of oil is necessary1 ,i have very grave doubts if a thoroughly satisfactory1 noiseless friction-clutch for use on cycles will ever be invented4 ,,tangent ,,vs4 ,,direct ,,spokes4 ,illustration3 ,tangent spokes4 ,the subject of ,tangent vs4 ,direct ,spokes1 or ,direct vs4 ,partial ,tangent1 is one on which so much has been written and said within the last few years that it is probably well understood in the main by all enthusiastic wheelmen1 but a few points may not come amiss to the beginner4 ,in the first place1 there is no such thing as partial tangency4 ,a tangent spoke is tangent1 and that is all there is about it4 ,a tangent is a definite thing1 and means a line normal to a radius at the circumference2 at least1 we can accept this definition as well enough suited to the cycle art4 ,and1 in speaking of tangency1 we ought rather to say tangent hub than tangent wheel1 since the spokes are not tangent to the rim of the wheel1 but to the hub4 ,all cyclists know very well1 nevertheless1 what is meant by partial tangency in the cycle art1 and ,i will therefore use the term4 ,if a long spoke went straight from one point in the rim to another nearly opposite1 and just touched the outside circumference of the hub in one place1 it would make two purely tangent spokes4 7,see cut47 ,as1 for instance1 a b and cd make all together four spokes1 af1 bf1 de1 and ce4 ,if a spoke runs from any point1 a1 c1 b1 or d1 to any point on the circumference of the hub between f and e1 it will not be a full tangent spoke4 ,the distinctive characteristic of a full tangent spoke is that1 when the force tending to revolve the wheel is applied1 it pulls from the point on the hub which would recede most rapidly from that point in the rim to which the other end of the spoke is affixed4 ,hence1 the common expression that 8a tangent hub gives a direct end-pull on the spokes20 but so does any other hub1 if the spoke is swivelled into it4 ,with a direct spoke screwed into the hub1 the weight of the man is sustained by a direct end-pull1 and a slight power is transmitted to the rim by the resistance to flexure or bending in the spoke tending to revolve the wheel1 and it will be found in practice that any hub with a direct spoke will turn independently of the rim far enough to increase the distance slightly between the ends of the spokes so as to really make an end-pull as in the tangent spoke1 but evidently the hub must revolve a great way in order to increase the length a very little4 ,here comes in the advantage of the tangent spoke1 for1 in order to turn the hub within the rim1 the spoke has to stretch an amount equal to the distance a point on the circumference of the hub moves4 ,to represent this in popular terms1 if the hub turns one-eighth of an inch1 the spoke has to stretch that amount if tangent1 whereas the necessary increase in length of the direct spoke is almost imperceptible4 ,one point must not be forgotten in this matter1 which redounds to the credit of the absolute direct spoke4 ,it is that the driving strain passes through every spoke from the hub to the rim1 whereas1 in a tangent or partial tangent spoke1 the strain is resisted by only one-half of the entire number4 ,this defect is partially remedied by the late plan of soldering the spokes together at the points of crossing1 this binding together being what really makes the tangent spokes so strong in resisting buckling1 to which they were very liable before the soldering process was used4 ,i am inclined to think that the midway or partial tangent hubs are the best1 as they seem to combine all of the possible advantages1 but the plan of crossing the spokes just once is1 in the light of my experience1 very bad1 as it seems to combine the faults of both with the advantages of neither2 they should be more nearly full tangent than direct if varied from the midway position at all4 ,the small eighteen- or even thirty-inch wheel is good enough1 if well made1 with either direct or tangent hubs1 especially in the one not used as a driver4 ,illustration3 ,old bone-shaker wheel4 ,the soldering of the spokes together1 and other difficulties in the way of screwing them into tangent hubs1 has led makers to adopt the plan of screwing them into the rim2 this seems unavoidable1 but is not very desirable1 if for no other reason than that the wheel getting wet1 the screw threads are apt to rust off and strip4 ,with brass1 aluminum1 or bronze nipples1 however1 this difficulty can be to a great extent overcome4 ,tangent wheels are as old as the industry of cycling4 ,starley1 of ,coventry1 is said to have experimented and shown1 many years ago1 that a tangent wheel with silk spokes would resist the revolving strain on the hub equal to a direct wire spoke1 and the ,scientific ,american gave an illustration of a tangent hub in their issue of ,september #a1 #ahgg4 ,the cross bar in the old bone-shaker made practically two tangent spokes1 and pulled from the rim1 so to speak1 as will be noticed in our essay on hobbies4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,antifriction ,,bearings1 ,,ball ,,and ,,roller4 ,the cycle art has developed the use of antifriction1 or1 we might say1 rolling-friction bearings1 to an extent never before attained2 these bearings are in the form of balls and rollers2 the former are made in several styles and the latter in at least two1 but all are more or less old in the arts4 ,illustration3 #ahfa4 ,ball-bearing patent4 ,the first prominent patent in the ,american office1 upon balls or rollers1 is dated ,june #ah1 #ahfa1 ,no4 #cb1fjd4 ,there are some three hundred drawings of roller and ball-bearing patents on file at the ,united ,states office2 this1 however1 does not represent the entire number issued4 ,all of the more recent patents are substantially modifications of former patterns1 such as ,no4 #bi1egj1 #ahfj2 #cg1gfe1 #ahfc2 #eh1gci1 #ahff2 #fc1fji1 #ahfg2 #hb1ffe1 #ahfh2 #aac1hfg1 #ahga2 #bjb1bga1 #ahgh1 and ,peter's1 ,november #bj1 #ahgg1 ,no4 #aig1bhi4 ,one of the most useful variations and the one best adapted to the cycle art1 is the lateral adjusting bearing of this style4 ,illustration3 ,rear-wheel bearing4 ,below find selected figure and claim from a prominent patent over which there has been much contention4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hughes1 ,,bearing ,,for ,,wheels1 ,,no4 #bbg1fcb1 ,,patented ,,may #ah1 #ahhj4 ,illustration3 ,hughes's ,patent4 8,what ,i claim1 and wish protected by ,letters ,patent is1-- 8,in bearings for bicycles1 tricycles1 or carriages1 the combination of hardened conical or curved surfaces1 hardened spherical balls1 and the means1 substantially as shown and described1 of adjusting or setting up the parts1 for the purposes set forth4 8,joseph ,henry ,hughes40 ,other forms1 such as the disk pattern with an annular groove upon its face1 have their special uses4 ,as to friction1 ball-bearings may be said to reduce this to nothing1 since in mathematical calculations1 rolling friction on hard surfaces is usually neglected1 as compared with sliding friction4 ,in actual practice this would not quite hold good1 since oil and dirt will make a difference4 ,the balls1 in the ordinary bearings in the market1 roll upon conical1 spherical1 or cylindrical surfaces4 ,in either of the last two cases the radius of curvature of the box is so much greater than that of the ball that the effect is the same as upon the cone1 and in all cases where a bearing is well constructed the action is the same as that of a ball rolling upon a flat surface4 ,true1 some friction results from the contact of the balls with each other1 but as there is no force driving them together1 it is very slight4 ,illustration3 ,annular1 ball-bearing4 ,so long as the bearings are new and properly made1 each ball touches and rolls along what may be considered a mathematical line1 and there is1 in fact1 no friction worthy of consideration4 ,nevertheless there is some1 and in time a small groove is worn1 or rolled1 into the bearing1 which groove just fits the ball4 ,the friction is greater now than before1 and increases with the deepening groove until1 finally1 when the depth of the groove equals the radius of the ball1 the friction reaches its maximum and would be at that time nearly equal to one-fourth of the amount of friction engendered if the ball actually slid in the groove4 ,the ball would then roll on lines along the groove through points c1 c thirty-eight and one-fourth degrees around from ,e towards ,d1 as shown in the annexed diagram4 7,fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,rolling ,lines1 ball-bearing4 ,the reader can form a tolerably clear idea of the amount of friction caused by the ball sliding without rolling2 let this then be the unit4 ,also let the radius of the ball be the unit depth of groove4 ,the following table gives roughly in these units the frictions for the groove depths expressed in tenths4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,groove ,depths #j 4#a 4#b 4#c 4#d 4#e 4#f 4#g 4#h 4#i #a4j ,frictions #j 4#ja4jb4jc4je4jg4ji4ab4ae4ah4ba ---------------------------------------- -------- ,to what is this friction due8 ,look at this diagram 7,fig4 #b71 representing a transverse section of the groove and ball4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,transverse section groove and ball4 ,is it not evident that the ball really rolls on two parallel lines in the groove somewhere between ,d and ,e1 say the lines through cc perpendicular to the plane of the paper8 ,this granted1 it follows that points on the ball-surface touching the groove above c are going faster1 while those touching below c are going slower than points touching at c4 ,hence1 no wonder there is friction4 ,the position of cc is such that the sum of the moments of friction above cc balances the sum of the moments of friction below cc4 ,take axes ,,ox1 ,,oy1 as indicated2 let the x of cc be a1 and that of ,d ,d1 b2 put d s for an element of arc1 and let ,a be the angle between the radius to d s and ,,oy4 ,then the friction on ds is proportional to ds cos ,a dy1 and its moment about cc is proportional to dy 7x a71 or1 dy 7a x71 according as ds is above or below cc4 7#a a7 7#a b7 ,therefore1 7x a7 dy 7a x7 dy #j 7#a a7 ,the ball's radius being unity1 the solution of the above equation is1-- arc cos b a 7---------------------- b 7#a b771 7#a b7 which determines a for all values of b2 that is1 determines the points c1 c4 ,it was stated above that d s was proportional to the friction upon itself4 ,of course1 we meant that it was proportional so long as a remained constant4 ,in terms of the unit given at the beginning of this discussion1 the friction ds is ------------------------------1 and the total friction upon the ball is therefore #b;a 7#a a7 7#a a7 #d 7x a7 dy #j arc cos a ---------------------------------- ---------------------- #a1 #b;a 7#a a7 7#a a7 which is the formula used to calculate our table above4 ,as to the weight balls can safely carry in any bearing1 below will be found results of experiments and calculations made by ,professor ,robinson1 of the ,ohio ,state ,university4 ,this article is the result of careful1 exhaustive work1 and ,i am under great obligations for the privilege of introducing it here1 as it has never before been in print4 8,to find the load which a single hardened steel ball will safely carry in any ball-bearing1 either when running between two flat surfaces or between two equally grooved surfaces of hardened steel1 in each case the following formula may be applied1--viz43 ,load in d pounds #aij d 7#a ------------------71 where d equals the diameter d d of the ball in inches and d equals the diameter of the groove in which the ball runs1 either top or bottom4 ,for flat surfaces1 d for top and bottom bearing of ball d and ------------------ #j1 so d d that1 for a ball between hardened flat plates1 ,load #aij d4 ,for n balls in a nest1 all in equally fair bearings1 the load equals d n #aij d 7#a --------------------72 for example1 a one-inch ball between d d flat surfaces will carry one hundred and ninety pounds safely4 #aij 8,again a one-half-inch ball will carry ------ #dg4e pounds2 and again #d a one-inch ball in a groove of one and one-eighth-inch diameter top #a and bottom will carry #aij 7#a ------------------7 #egj pounds4 ,so that #a 7#h #a7 there is great advantage in supplying grooves for the balls to run in4 ,again1 suppose the ball be one inch and the grooves one and one-eightieth inches in diameter2 then the load equals seventeen hundred and ten pounds4 ,again1 if the ball is one-half-inch diameter1 and the groove nine-sixteenths-inch diameter1 the load equals #adb4e pounds1 etc4 8,hundreds of experiments in all were made on this subject1 and the above formula deduced by theory was found to agree almost exactly with the experimental results for hardened steel for balls and track for same4 ,when a much greater load than the above is attempted to be carried1 the balls will indent a groove of their own until the necessary bearing surface is obtained4 8,i am not aware that the coefficient of friction for ball-bearings is definitely known4 ,experiments made with the ,lick telescope1 in which the weights of some parts had to be guessed at1 gives 4#jjage for the value of friction coefficient for one-inch balls2 but this1 though the best ,i have1 is not a reliable figure4 ,it is for hardened steel on hardened steel40 ,mr4 ,robinson here shows an advantage in the groove so far as capacity for resisting strain is concerned1 but he would hardly construct a ball-bearing with grooves fitting the balls after a careful perusal of our section on grooves and friction4 ,as to ball-heads to bicycles1 they have been highly recommended by a few makers and much admired by some riders4 ,as before said1 the balancing of the bicycle is accomplished by means of the steering apparatus1 and the easier the head swivels the less work the rider has to do to effect his object4 ,if simple steering--that is1 changing the general course of the rider's progress--happened to be all for which the head is swivelled1 it would make little difference whether it moved very easily or not2 nay1 it would be better to have it move a little stiff1 since it would then stay in place4 ,but when it comes to balancing1 the head is constantly moving1 and every resistance is work to be overcome by the rider's muscular exertion4 ,to say that a head cannot swivel too easily1 would be a valid axiom in the art of balancing2 hence a ball-head could do no harm1 and might do some good4 ,in the ,rover or ,safety pattern1 ball-heads are quite common and are rather a valuable acquisition1 especially in the telescope4 ,in the ,stanley head1 however1 it is very questionable whether the advantage gained is sufficient to justify the extra complication and weight of the parts4 ,conical heads can be1 and are1 made to work so smoothly and the amount of motion is so small that the same question in regard to friction does not apply as in the case of other bearings about the machine4 ,it is the opinion of the writer that every other part about a wheel should be about perfect1 and of the very highest grade1 before the question of ball-heads should be considered at all4 ,in regard to the patents on1 and general use of1 ball-bearings in cycles1 ,i think the necessity of using the prominent lateral adjusting bearings is really not so absolute as many suppose2 of course this is the most artistic form and the most easily-made pattern of all1 and is in every way adapted to cycle use2 but it would not be policy to throw aside any other advantage in a wheel to gain the lateral adjustment in the bearings4 ,there are some other styles of ball-bearing boxes which answer the purpose very well1 the chief difficulty being that a greater amount of work is necessary for their adjustment4 ,if the boxes are split in a plane through the geometric axis of the axle1 they will be slightly out of round after adjusting1 but when it is taken into consideration that the weight is all on one side or1 as in a bicycle1 on the top1 the fault will not be noticeable2 it is more serious when the boxes revolve than when they are stationary4 ,the patents now existing on lateral adjusting bearings have caused many attempts at other methods of taking up the wear4 ,the validity of these patents is questioned by many1 and considerable litigation has been the result1 though in many cases makers prefer to use other devices to running the chance of a law suit4 ,the happy medium adopted by others is to pay the royalty demanded2 this is1 perhaps1 the best course to pursue if the said royalty is not made burdensome4 ,every maker1 however1 should assure himself1 by special examination1 if his particular bearing really infringes any patent before paying2 the fact of it being a ball-bearing with a lateral adjustment is not an incontrovertible reason that it should infringe1 since both of these elements are1 in themselves1 old4 ,it is only a special ball-bearing with a special adjustment that is patented4 ,unhappily1 however1 the special adjustment is a screw4 ,how the patent will stand1 time alone can tell2 its validity is certainly questionable4 ,a word here in regard to paying royalties in general4 ,makers are too scrupulously averse to such payments1 even when small1 and buyers have the idea that any one who pays a royalty is naturally working at a disadvantage4 ,this is not necessarily the case4 ,some would save more by the use of an ingenious machine for making the parts than several times the royalty often amounts to4 ,in the manufacturing business there are so many ways of saving and losing money1 that unless a careful watch is kept all round the little matter of royalty on some one part will fall into insignificance as compared with other leaks4 ,the advertisement of a maker that he pays no royalty gives us but little assurance that he can make a better machine for less money4 ,when a patent is evaded by slight changes1 such1 for instance1 as the increase or decrease of an inch in the diameter of a wheel1 it shows not so much a great shrewdness on the part of the pirate as a frailty in the patent2 this sort of evasion of royalties is considered to be perfectly legitimate1 however1 and means that either the attorney who took out the patent was incompetent1 or that there was but little invention to be claimed4 ,,rollers4 ,theoretically there is less friction in roller- than in ball-bearings1 as there need be no sliding action whatever in the former if well made4 ,but in actual practice no bearing can be made in which there is no tendency of the rollers to run together2 and if we place them in a frame to hold them apart we shall have about as much friction as when they rub against one another4 ,the most perfect plan is to place a small roller between each of the larger2 with this arrangement the friction is practically nothing4 ,the action of rollers upon the boxes is always a pure rolling friction1 which cannot be the case with balls after the slightest groove is worn in the casing4 ,one reason for rollers being little used is that they tend to work out of line with the axle and box1 which causes some ends to get a little in advance of the others1 when they can no longer work perfectly4 ,for an oscillating bearing1--that is1 one that goes backward and forward1 instead of continually around1--,i have found rollers very good1 since they cannot get much out of line2 even when the bearing is a little imperfect1 the rollers cannot multiply the imperfection1 as they will in one that keeps going on in the same direction4 ,the other great fault of the roller is its non-adjustability1 although this can be rectified in the following way3 ,illustration3 ,roller construction4 ,the above cut shows a bearing and the construction lines that must be followed in its manufacture4 ,the taper of the axle1 roller1 and box must all meet in a point1 as at a2 this arrangement is evident4 ,the roller must be kept in proper position and roll around the large end in the same number of turns as the small end2 hence the circumference of the small end of the roller must bear the same relation to the circumference of the larger as the relative ends of the axle and box bear to each other4 ,the geometrical conditions are as follows3 being the relation of circumference to the diameter1 referring to the diagram1 we have bc 3 fg 33 cd 3 gh 33 be 3 fi2 hence bc 3 fg 33 cd 3 gh 33 be 3 fi4 ,now1 by virtue of the last formula1 when the axle or box is revolved1 each end of the roller will travel through exactly the same number of degrees around the axle and in the box1 wherefore the axle rollers and box all keep straight4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,aluminum ,,in ,,cycle ,,construction--,,strength ,,of ,,tubes4 8,we really thought that we were going to pass over a period of three months without having to chronicle the discovery 787 of a method of producing aluminum at a cost of not more than that of first-class steel4 ,the periodical inventor has appeared1 and this time he hails from ,melrose1 ,mass41 and his name is ,washburn4 ,next660--,bicycling ,world4 ,inventors do little harm in periodically making cheap aluminum or increasing its strength without adding to its gravity1 but when a large corporation is started1 as was done some months ago1 with a lot of money and aluminum medals issued1 the same being made out of copper1 then the matter becomes serious4 ,probably1 next to the hobby of separating water and creating enormous power thereby1 the aluminum hobby holds undisputed sway4 ,but as there really is something of interest to cyclists and cycle makers in the subject1 there seems a need to touch upon it4 ,among the articles in the manufacture of which aluminum can be satisfactorily used we find in the catalogue of a well-known smelting firm mention made of bicycles1 tricycles1 etc4 ,the idea exists in the minds of many that a bicycle made from pure aluminum would be a practical machine and much lighter than one of steel4 ,this notion arises from the fact that aluminum in the pure state has a specific gravity of only #b4e1 or about one-fourth the weight of steel4 ,below we print a letter from the ,cowles ,smelting and ,aluminum ,company on the subject4 8,lockport1 ,n4,y41 ,u4,s4,a41 ,august #bj1 #ahhh4 8,r4 ,p4 ,scott1 ,esq41 ,baltimore ,md43 ,dear ,sir1--,replying to your favor of ,august #af1 you can obtain the book on ,aluminum1 by ,richards1 from ,philadelphia4 ,aluminum has a great many uses in its commercial state1 but a simple pure aluminum casting has not sufficient strength to make it desirable for small parts4 ,if you could have it rolled or hammered to shape1 so as to make it rigid1 it would become much more tenacious1 but to secure strength desired in bicycle parts1 your castings would necessarily be so large as to be ungainly1 and we doubt if you would attain the most desirable end1--viz41 light weight4 ,the alloys of copper and aluminum are much better adapted to your requirements than the pure metal could possibly be4 8,yours very truly1 8,the ,cowles ,e4 ,s4 and ,al4 ,co4 8,tucker40 ,it will be seen that the metal in its pure state lacks strength1 and can only be used in the arts to any extent when alloyed with copper about in the proportion of nine of copper to one of aluminum4 ,when alloyed as above1 it is about as heavy as steel4 ,,average ,,ultimate ,,tensile ,,strength ,,of ,,metals ,,and ,,alloys4 7,from ,trautwine's ,engineer's ,pocket ,book1 #ahhe47 ,pounds per square inch4 ,cast brass #bc1jjj ,annealed brass wire #di1jjj ,cast copper #bd1jjj ,annealed copper wire #cb1jjj ,gun bronze of copper and tin cast #ci1jjj ,average ,american cast iron #af1jjj ,good wrought iron #ej1jjj ,best ,american wrought iron 7exceptional7 #gf1ajj ,iron wire ropes #ch1jjj ,malleable iron castings #dh1jjj ,steel plates 7rolled7 #ha1jjj ,cast steel average ,bessemer ingots #fc1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,aluminum ,,bronze4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,per cent4 ,tensile strength per ,ingots of ,grade4 square inch4 ,elongation4 per aluminum4 pound4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,a #a #ij1jjj lbs4 and over4 #j to #e per cent4 #j4de ,a #b #ge1jjj to #ij1jjj lbs4 #aj per cent4 and over4 4#dj #aj ,a #c #fe1jjj to #ge1jjj lbs4 #be 0 0 4#cg #g ,b #dg1ejj to #fe1jjj lbs4 #bj 0 0 4#cc #e ,c #ce1jjj to #dg1ejj lbs4 #be 0 0 4#bf #b ,d #bg1ejj to #ce1jjj lbs4 #cj 0 0 4#bj #a ,e #bj1jjj to #bg1ejj lbs4 #ae 0 0 4#af ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the specific gravity of the ,a grade is #g4ef1 that of steel being #g4hh4 ,its coefficient of expansion is small at ordinary temperatures2 its electrical conductivity is about #i1 and with the lower grades the expansion by heat1 specific gravity and heat and electrical conductivity increases the nearer the metal approaches to pure copper4 ,with more than eleven per cent4 of aluminum the bronze rapidly becomes brittle4 ,in color1 aluminum bronze of the ,c and ,d grades is the nearest to gold of any known metal1 the higher grades being lighter in hue than the lower4 ,the ,a grade melts at about #agjj ,f41 a little higher than ordinary bronze or brass4 ,aluminum bronze shrinks about twice as much as brass4 ,in working aluminum ,i have found it to be a splendid substitute for malleable iron1 especially in many cases where the iron could not be procured in time1 or when it came so warped as to be unfit for use4 ,i have never been able1 however1 to get castings which would come quite up to the strength claimed for it2 the most satisfactory grade was that of ten-per-cent4 aluminum1 which by the way is very hard to work1 especially in drilling4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that it can be made to take the place of steel in many instances4 ,a knowledge of aluminum is a great boon to experimenters1 as it will probably come into quite general use with the manufacturer4 ,the ten-per-cent4 aluminum finishes very handsomely1 and in olden times it would have been a splendid substitute for the brass hubs then so common4 ,as an antifriction metal it is unsurpassed by any of the bronzes4 ,it casts bright and sharp1 but shrinks amazingly1 although not dangerously2 at least ,i have never had a part of the casting drop off1 as in malleable it often does1 and though the aluminum sometimes leaves a great depression in the heavy part of the casting1 it causes no sponginess underneath4 ,it can be readily bronzed or soldered4 ,aluminum bronze drawn into wire will make very good spokes1 and it has been used for this purpose to some extent in ,england4 ,all tendency to rust is obviated1 and it saves all nickeling2 it resists corrosion sufficiently well to dispense with any covering1 but it does not look as well as a nickel finish4 ,no better authority on the subject can be had than that of the ,cowles ,catalogue2 useful information also can be gathered from 8,richards's ,aluminum10 and 8,thurston's ,material of ,engineering40 ,the last-named treatise speaks on the subject as follows3 8,the alloys of aluminum are very valuable4 ,its remarkable lightness1 combined with its strength1 makes it useful as a constituent of those alloys in which strength and lightness are the needed qualities4 ,it has a pleasant metallic ring when struck1 and confers a beautiful tone when introduced into bellmetal4 8,aluminum may be added to bronzes and brasses with good results4 ,the alloys 7copper ninety per cent41 aluminum ten per cent47 may be worked cold or hot like wrought iron1 but not welded4 ,its tenacity is sometimes nearly one hundred thousand pounds per square inch4 ,its specific gravity is #g4g4 ,in compression this alloy has been found capable of sustaining a little more than in tension1--one hundred and thirty thousand pounds per square inch 7nine thousand one hundred and thirty nine kilos per square millimetre71--and its ductility and toughness were such that it did not even crack when distorted by this load4 ,it is so ductile and malleable that it can be drawn down under the hammer to the fineness of a cambric needle4 8,it works well1 casts well1 holds a fine surface under the tool and when exposed to the weather1 and it is in every respect considered the best bronze yet known4 ,its high cost alone has prevented its extensive use in the arts4 ,these alloys are very uniform in character and work regularly and smoothly4 ,even one per cent4 of aluminum added to copper causes a considerable increase in ductility and fusibility1 and enables it to be used satisfactorily in making castings4 ,two per cent4 gives a mixture used for castings which are to be worked with a chisel4 ,it is softened by sudden cooling from a red heat4 ,its coefficient of expansion is small at ordinary temperatures4 8,it has great elasticity when made into springs2 it has been found useful for watches1 and has the decided advantage over steel of being little liable to oxidization4 ,kettles of aluminum bronze are used in making fruit syrups and preserves4 ,steel containing but 4#jh per cent4 of aluminum is said to be greatly improved by its presence40 ,aluminum bronze1 such as would be required for cycle castings1 costs from thirty to fifty cents per pound1 according to quality and quantity4 ,a valuable alloy of aluminum and iron has recently been made1 by which it is maintained that wrought-iron castings are possible4 ,the factory is1 ,i believe1 at ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,in our endeavor to learn more upon the subject we have been referred to the ,united ,states ,mitis ,co41 ,no4 #bf ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 which company has the exclusive right in this country to make ,mitis castings1 or of granting permission to those who desire to make these castings themselves4 ,,strength ,,of ,,tubes4 ,metal in the form of tubes resists all strain liable to occur in cycle work better than in any other form4 ,in regard to strain of compression1 we find1 in 8,wood's ,resistance of ,materials10 the following summary3 8,experiments heretofore made do not indicate a specific law of resistance to buckling1 but the following general facts appear to be established3 ,the resistance of buckling is always less than that of crushing1 and is nearly independent of the length4 ,cylindrical tubes are strongest1 and next in order are square tubes1 and then ------- the rectangular4 ,rectangular tubes are not so strong as ------- ------ tubes of this form 40 ------ ,there is1 however1 very little direct crushing strain on the tubes in a cycle2 it is almost entirely a strain of flexure or bending2 hence this is the only interesting feature pertaining to the subject in cycling work4 ,since a tube is stronger than a solid bar1 for same weight the intuitive idea is to make the tube as large as possible1 and the mathematical demonstration which we append shows this to be correct1 generally speaking4 ,let ,r equal the strain per square inch of cross-section of the tube at the point farthest removed from the neutral axis at the instant of rupture4 ,illustration3 ,tube sections4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,suppose ,fig4 #a to represent the half of the tube1 and that you are trying to bend it down at the ends4 ,the particles towards the top will be pulled apart1 while those at the bottom are crowded together2 somewhere between the top and bottom the particles are neither pulled apart nor crowded together4 ,were the tube solid1 the line of these particles would be the neutral axis4 ,in the tube an imaginary line through the centre of the hole does not vary much from said axis4 ,now ,r the moment of rupture ------------7r r71 where r and r 7,fig4 #d r ,r #b7 are the exterior and interior radii2 -------- is a constant1 which #d we will call ,k1 whence we can write moment of rupture ,k7r r7 7r r7 r4 ,here the factor 7r r7 is proportional to the area of the annular cross-section and is constant1 while the other factor1 r 7r r7 r or1 r -------- r1 though less than #br1 r gets nearer and nearer to #br as r gets large and r approaches r4 ,therefore we have1 that in resistance to flexure the tube should be as large in diameter as practicable1 which means that it must be as thin as possible4 ,this result is only modified in practice by the necessity of guarding against dinging and also against imperfections in the steel4 ,a surface crack will ruin a very thin tube which otherwise may be harmless in a thicker1 but it is safe to say that it is best to use reasonably large thin tubes4 ,oval tubes are of an advantage only when the direction of the strain is positively known and when it invariably occurs in that direction4 ,since the tube finds its greatest limit of general resistance in cylindrical form1 to alter that form must necessarily weaken it more in one direction than it strengthens it in another4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,cycle ,,in ,,war--,,steam ,,and ,,electricity4 ,no more important and interesting phase in the development of the wheel has recently occurred than the consideration and partial adoption of the cycle in military affairs4 ,already this subject has engaged the attention of ,english and continental war departments4 ,at first the tricycle was adjudged the most promising form of man-motor carriage for the army1 but latterly authorities have directed their attention to the more sensible and practical plan of adopting the ,rover-type ,safety4 ,some advantages could be named favoring the tricycle1 but certainly1 with the slight effort needful to master the rear-driver1 if the cycle ever attains any prominent place in the military field1 it will be in the form of a single-track machine4 ,in all countries where reasonable roads can be expected the cycle must succeed in this warlike department of usefulness2 not that we ever expect to hear of the charge of the cycle corps1 or of a hand-to-hand sword combat upon the 8festive bikes10 though such things are within the pale of possibility2 what we do expect to hear of in the next war is the cycle scout and forager and of the cycle corps getting there ahead of the cavalry4 ,with a light bicycle that can be lifted over small obstructions1 an expert could go almost anywhere that it would be practicable to take a horse1 and when you consider how much easier it would be to conceal your cycle1 in case a little excursion on foot were necessary1 and how much less danger there would be when no provender or shelter is required for the steed1 certainly the idea is feasible4 ,it has been said that a horse can go where a cycle cannot2 while this is sometimes true1 on the other hand1 there are places where the cycle can be taken when the horse would have to be left behind4 ,for instance1 a steep rocky cliff might be surmounted by the man and his bicycle1 since the latter could be easily drawn over after him2 in fact1 he could go with his machine over almost any place which it would be possible to clamber himself1 while by no means would this apply to the horse2 in short1 we feel assured that war cycling promises great development in the armies of all civilized nations1 and to this end the most solid1 powerful1 unbreakable1 and at the same time light1 wheel must be striven for by any maker who would advance the art in this direction1 and reap the consequent substantial returns to his exchequer4 ,,steam1 ,,electricity1 ,,springs1 ,,and ,,compressed ,,air ,,as ,,motors4 ,this heading is not entirely germane to the subject of man-motor locomotion1 but we will take advantage of the fact that in all mechanical motors that will ever be applied to bicycles and tricycles there will have to be an auxiliary apparatus for the feet4 ,this is obvious1 since in any break-down the rider will need some means of getting home4 ,as the ocean steamers retain some apologies for sails1 so the cycler will have to retain his foot-power mechanism in any machine he might adopt for individual transportation1 though the main motor power be steam or electricity1 one of which may finally be adopted in cycles4 ,that every rider will care for this extraneous assistance is doubtful1 as the element of exercise would be eliminated to a great extent4 ,for practical uses aside from exercise1 as in the transaction of business1 etc41 other motors than that of human energy would be a boon in the present cycle1 but they would never be used to the exclusion of the legs4 ,already many experiments have been made1 some quite successful1 both in steam and electricity1 but the steam ,i think affords the greater prospect of success1 because the necessary conditions are naturally more nearly complete4 ,whatever motor is used1 it will be necessary to have supply-stations at intervals along the road1 which would require but little effort to establish for steam1 since oil and water can be obtained almost anywhere now1 and positive arrangements could easily be made to have the necessary supplies kept at all the cross-roads stores4 ,all that is required is that some one shall put a practical steam bicycle upon the market1 with all parts as light as possible and with oil for fuel4 ,the main principles have all been worked out separately1 and what we need now is a combination of the most improved methods and a go-ahead man to push the business4 ,electricity is as yet too indefinite in its development1 in this direction1 to encourage the hope that it can1 at present1 be made available4 ,the only prospective means of utilizing it as a road-motor is by the use of secondary or storage batteries1 which would require dynamos scattered along the road for recharging them2 but the slightest thought will show that this expensive arrangement is hardly a possibility considering the enormous distances and length of roads1 especially in this country4 ,we have only to mention compressed air and springs1 in order to dispose of them2 the former does not promise much1 and as to the latter1 all efforts in that direction which have come under the writer's notice have been quite nonsensical4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,cycle ,,patents ,,and ,,inventors4 ,the ever ubiquitous ,yankee inventor fell upon an inexhaustible mine when he tapped the virgin soil of cycledom1 and his ,english brother has not been much less fortunate2 in fact1 it is questionable whether ,jonathan has been able to keep the start of ,brother ,bull in this matter1 with three thousand patents on record in the ,american office against three thousand five hundred provisional in the ,english1 thirteen hundred and twenty of the latter being sealed1 up to ,march1 #ahhi4 ,few fields of invention have ever developed so rapidly and interested so many inventors with as little apparent advance to the casual observer4 ,as ,i have stated in a former chapter1 the advance has been a sort of evolution1 creditable to those who work the changes1 yet with little chance at any time for what is termed a broad patent4 ,when the saddle was raised up over the cranks and the front wheel enlarged1 a great stride forward in the art was made1 yet it is questionable whether such changes afforded sufficient ground for strong patent claims2 twenty years ago they certainly would not have done so1 with the feeling and usual action of the patent authorities and general stupidity of patent attorneys at that time4 ,mere changes in the sizes of wheels would stand a much better chance of being patentable now than some time ago4 ,we have1 in fact1 a patent now existing1 given out to an ,englishman1 on the ,safety rear-driving pattern of machine1 in which the proportional diameter of the wheels is pretty well claimed4 ,how this patent was wedged into the ,american office is somewhat remarkable2 if it could be held valid1 makers of rear-drivers with a front wheel as large or larger than the rear would find it warm work to continue4 ,fitting cranks upon the drive-wheel would1 with modern patent attorneys1 have afforded a broad field for good claims1 but it did not seem to in ,lallement's time1 seeing the kind he got4 ,the rubber tire1 in spite of the fact that it was perhaps the greatest element of all in making a cycle a practical roadster1 was so old in other relations that the ,u4 ,s4 patent of ,serrel1 ,no4 #hg1gac1 afforded no protection to the inventor2 but even if it had been used on the wheels of some machines within the knowledge of the ,patent ,office1 which could be used as a reference1 a good attorney would now hardly abandon a claim for its use in a cycle on that account4 ,the claim to the hollow or tubular construction of frame1#h though ingenious1 was laughed at by good patent experts2 it was the one thing that was old and by right absolutely unpatentable4 ,yet the attempt to hold it had at one time better prospects of being successful than any other in connection with the great principles in modern cycles2 unless the mud-guard should be considered a great principle4 ,the ball-bearings were broadly old1 as shown in the ,american office2 still1 very good patents have been obtained upon them1 sufficient to cause several famous law-suits4 ,there was some good ground for these patents1 but ,i doubt if any better than was found in the case of the rubber tire1 the large drive-wheel1 or1 particularly1 the step for mounting the ordinary bicycle1 and possibly no better than was found in the tubular construction4 ,the ,american ,patent ,office and the courts more recently take the view that if a man has really done something in the art they will give him a patent4 ,this is absolutely necessary under existing circumstances1 as it is almost impossible1 with the enormous number of patents that have been issued1 to invent anything upon which the ,office cannot find some sort of reference1 and for this reason it is proper that the evidence of invention should rest largely on the fact of general success and value in the market4 ,the courts are liable to ask1 8,why1 if a certain invention is so old and obvious and in such great demand1 was it not used before80 ,the ,patent ,offices1 both in ,america and in ,england1 have become so utterly clogged with cycle patents that it takes great ingenuity to get in anything that is broadly new4 ,the patents are necessarily on some detail of construction1 except perhaps in the open field afforded by the innovation of the rear-driver1 just as there has been some attempt to improve upon the 8,rothigiesser system10 in which a ,german inventor claims to ride 8hands-off01 as spoken of elsewhere4 ,there is also a good opening in tandem bicycles and tricycles1 and in the anti-vibration element of the rear-driver1 but the field is rapidly closing in4 ,,the ,,cycle ,,inventor4 ,close upon the question of patents comes the idea of the cycle inventor4 ,it is not my desire to in any way curtail the income of the respective governments of the world1 or to embarrass the ,patent ,offices thereof1 by causing a lack of new applications1 but the cycle inventor1 as well as inventors in other departments1 might profit by a little advice from a personal stand-point4 ,a glance at the numerous samples of patents illustrated in this book1 and a thought of the total number issued1 should be enough to convince any fair-minded reader that many useless fees are yearly dropped into the patent-slot at both the ,american and ,english offices4 ,this fact1 together with an extended experience in other departments of invention and a limited turn at the gridiron upon which the cycle inventor is grilled1 has caused a few facts appertaining to inventors and patents to dawn upon me1 which ,i now propose to inflict upon the reader4 ,these things are not the discovery of a sore-head2 they are related by one who has to thank the patent department of his country for all of his worldly financial success4 ,if you think of a good thing in cycles1 don't rush off to the ,patent ,office all at once2 just stop a little1 there is no hurry1 and do this4 ,draw off a good sketch of the thing1 put a date upon it at once1 and explain it to one or two trustworthy friends and have them sign the sketch as witnesses4 ,get this done1 and then breathe a little while4 ,next1 write out this question in large bold letters1--,do ,i want to go into the cycle business8 ,after cool deliberation1 taking into account your capacity1 your wealth1 your family1 present occupation1 and prospects1 if you can answer in the affirmative1 then you may be bolder4 ,if your answer is nay1 then go very cautiously4 ,in any case1 be sure you do this next4 ,send the sketch and about ten dollars to a first-class patent-attorney1 with instructions to make a five-dollar preliminary examination and to spend the other five dollars in copies of patents nearest allied to your invention1 and insist that the attorney sends these copies to you4 ,either in the ,english or ,american office you should be able to get them at twenty-five cents each1 and for less if you order a quantity4 ,if you have any knowledge of the art1 you ought to be as good a judge as the attorney whether these patents anticipate your own or not2 but whatever you do1 don't take out a patent simply because one can be had4 ,study calmly and lucidly whether your thing is of any account or not1 and practically try it1 if possible4 ,if you conclude to take out a patent1 be sure and employ a good attorney1 being particularly wary of the low-priced men4 ,not that ,i would say to always employ the old attorneys of great reputation1 because a young practitioner1 if unusually bright1 will perhaps make up in extra time spent upon the case what he lacks in astuteness of snap judgment4 ,beware of the 8no patent1 no pay0 fellows4 ,it costs just as much to find out that the office will not grant the patent as to find out that it will1 unless a careful preliminary settles the case definitely4 ,you can be assured that if the invention is promising it will ultimately1 in all probability1 have to stand the scrutiny of a court before it will be of any great value4 ,if you do not intend to go into the manufacture of your invention1 a good plan is to offer it to a reliable man already in the business before you go into any expense at all2 of course1 taking the precaution of having your sketch witnessed1 as before advised4 ,very few manufacturers in the cycle or any other line are the notorious patent thieves they are commonly supposed to be2 especially are they loath to take advantage of a confiding inventor who has no patent4 ,of course1 if you have taken out a patent1 and pretend by virtue thereof to assert that you are protected1 you make yourself a legitimate prey if your patent happens to be invalid1 which it often is even when the invention deserves the most rigid protection4 ,there are1 in all1 over five thousand patents in the world in connection with the cycle art1 many of which are sound4 ,think of this before you divert your mind from your legitimate business4 ,it seems hard to the general would-be inventor to say it1 but ,i believe that the proper persons to spend their time and talents in the invention of cycles are the persons employed by the manufacturers for that purpose4 ,in trusting to the judgment of the manufacturer in regard to any idea you may have1 if you keep your sketch and a copy of your correspondence1 it will be powerful evidence against him if he plays false with you and goes into a fight for priority of invention4 ,almost any manufacturer will answer a letter about a new idea in his own line1 and if he decides against you he will generally give his reasons1 from which you can judge whether it will pay you to go ahead or not4 ,this advice may seem to encourage a great risk to the inventor1 but ,i give it from the experience on both sides of the fence4 ,inventors will say that they get no attention from manufacturers2 this1 when true1 is almost invariably because the alleged invention is absolutely unworthy of any attention at all1 though of course all inquiries should receive courteous answers4 ,the real inventor is a very nice fellow1 but the chronic inventor is generally a bore4 ,take notice1 my dear reader1 of one fact1 how few of the great inventions were the work of chronic inventors4 ,i do not refer to men who have simply taken out a number of patents in their own particular line3 one of the best cures for chronic inventorism is to resolve to confine yourself to one line2 the next best cure being to firmly conclude never to take out a second patent until the first has paid you something1 or has done you some good in some way4 ,the great inventors are those who stick to one thing until success is attained or absolute failure fully demonstrated4 ,why1 now1 this anathema against the chronic inventor8 ,it is this3 the chronic inventor is lazy2 you say he will stay up at night1 work all day1 and never sleep2 well1 let him1 all except the work2 this element is supposititious4 ,it is not work1 and here is just where the trouble comes in1--the chronic inventor stops just where the work begins4 ,it is fun to invent1 and it only takes a little practice to be able to accomplish it2 it is as easy as 8castle-building10 but when you come to build the real castle1 out of good hard stone and grimy mortar1--8ay1 there's the rub60 ,the men who have really done something to the benefit of the world1 are those who have reduced their inventions 7or those of some one else7 to practice and brought them before the people4 ,a great invention which has never gotten beyond the confines of the brain that evolved it might as well never have been evolved at all4 ,nor is it any better that a pasteboard model lies moulding in the garret2 and1 strange as it may appear1 a record of the same in the ,patent ,office does not help matters much4 ,see the number of patents1 many of which are good1 lying in the files at the ,patent ,office1--neglected and forgotten by everybody except the examiner1 who persistently uses them as ammunition against the real benefactor of mankind who1 though subsequent1 would like to do something with them4 ,before my early entrance into the arena of invention1 ,i had a suspicion that some of the work of benefiting mankind1 if so high a title be justifiable1 consisted in getting an invention into practical and useful form for general use4 ,i also had some premonition that it would require a portion of the ingenuity to get the pay for it at the hands of the populace4 ,in this connection a diverting amusement was discovered in the way of apportioning the ingenuity to the different departments of the required work4 ,my original scale was as follows3 ,one-half of the ingenuity to inventing the thing1 one-fourth to getting up the tools and making same1 and one-fourth to placing upon the market and gathering in the returns4 ,after a little experience the schedule was remodelled1 making one-third to each section4 ,later on1 the entire schedule underwent a most decided and radical change4 ,it stands now as follows3 ,scale of proportional genius required for each department in benefiting mankind 7and yourself7 by means of invention3 ,two per cent41 inventing2 seven per cent41 getting into shape2 three per cent41 getting ,american patent2 one-hundredth of one per cent41 getting ,english patent2 ten per cent41 getting patent through court2 twenty-eight per cent41 getting the money2 forty-nine and ninety-nine-hundredths per cent41 keeping it after you get it4 #h ,pickering1 ,march #cj1 #ahfi1 ,no4 #hhejg4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,hobbies4 ,the cycle hobbyist is one of the quaint characters of the fraternity1 and he exists in profusion2 turns up at all the meets1 and always makes his ubiquitous presence felt4 ,only make a wheel big enough1 a lever long enough1 or a spring strong enough1 and he has you foul4 ,some of them have pet schemes of storing compressed air in the tubes2 others1 more practical1 make vague hints at a mile a minute with their electrical or steam motors2 while others of these embryo inventors would outdo the now notorious ,keely with their wonders2 and the only surprise is that they would stop to fix the thing to a cycle1 when a most diverting amusement could be found in starting the earth around backward or in drawing the poles straight up and thereby making an eternal spring4 ,such fundamental principles as that a short lever hung in the middle is just as powerful as a long one hung in the same way2 that two turns of a small wheel rolls over as much ground as one turn of another twice the size2 that there is no more power in a spring than you put into it1 and many other like principles1 all seem to be forgotten in the general rush to be the first to make a mile a minute on a dirt road4 ,truly we inhabit a wonderful sphere2 only just make gravity pull sideways1 and we would have no further use for locomotives4 ,somehow or other1 however1 the contrary old gravity continues to haul everything just its own way1 and that is just the way we do not care to go1 either now or in the distant future4 ,certainly all would-be perpetual-motion makers must feel that something satanic is working against them in this unceasing pull of gravity in the wrong direction4 ,but to revert to our cycle hobbyist in particular4 ,a friend of the writer's1 a prominent man1 intelligent in all other things1 once proposed to pull all the ,chicago street-cars by having a man in each1 continually winding a spring1 said spring to drive the car2 and he knit his brow in half offence at the suggestion that there would be less danger of the wheels slipping if the spring-worker would get out and pull by the front platform4 ,no one can readily believe how common such ideas as the above spring method are till they scour the patent-office records1 or talk to the cycle hobbyist4 ,intelligent men often remark 8how powerful0 a certain machine must be 8with that long lever10 when the lever is hung to be worked from the short end2 and how often we have heard them condemn the thirty-inch safeties as being slow1 on account of the small wheel4 ,even to cycle-riders not aspiring to the high degree of hobbyists it was a matter of surprise1 when the old ,kangaroo came out1 that it pushed harder when geared to the sixty than others geared to fifty4 8,big wheel1 big speed10 seems to be indelibly written in the mind of the cycle hobbyist2 but we will forgive him all such little inconsistencies if he will only let us continue to believe that there is no innate power in a gear wheel4 ,i once knew a successful manufacturer who geared up a sausage-cutter to double speed1 and then down again to the same1 and he believes to this day that it runs easier on account of these four gear wheels4 ,i have often thought that the cycling fraternity would not have cared much whether it did or not1 if he had only made it large enough to take in a few cycle hobbyists4 8,pull a bicycle from the rim10 and you have power only equalled by the pinch-bar4 ,did anybody notice the half-page advertisement of a prominent ,english maker a few years ago1 of the tricycle that pulled from the rim 7probably not endorsed by the said maker1 it being merely contract work for an outsider78 and have any of our ,american readers ever seen the old bone-shaker wheel with the cross-bar on the hub8 7,see cut47 ,for years they were used in ,england with the benighted idea1 in the minds of many1 that they thereby gained in power4 ,one of these wheels of eight-day size is suspended in front of a building in ,coventry 7or was a few years ago71 used as a sign4 ,this wheel 8pulls by the rim10 at least so ,i was quite often informed1 not always by reputable ,english makers1 but by riders1 who mostly see these great principles 787 first4 ,illustration3 ,old bone-shaker wheel4 ,the error appertaining to all such ideas is generally the result of confusing external with internal forces4 ,we must have the hub of a wheel connected to the rim in some substantial manner1 so that both will revolve rigidly together2 further than this the manner of connecting them can matter but little so far as transmission of power is concerned4 ,all that is necessary is that the hub shall not revolve within the rim independently and thereby cause a lack of firmness4 ,another sample of the hobbyistic idea is promulgated in the following from ,the ,cyclist in a recent issue4 8,a ,,new ,,brake4 8,mr4 ----1 of ----1 has patented a good idea4 ,on the other side of the forks from the regulation plunger he introduces another spoon connected with the front under the arch of the fork1 provision being made for the mud-guard4 ,on moving the lever1 both brakes act in unison1 thus duplicating the resistance with the same power required to work the brake in its single form40 ,if it takes a certain pressure to hold the first brake down1 and none to hold the second1 why not put on two seconds and no first1 and thus have a good brake power without any pressure at all8 ,since penning the above ,i have heard further of the new brake in question1 and have been tempted to cancel the paragraph1 since injustice might be done to an honest inventor2 but on second thought concluded to retain it as an example of careless statement1 knowing that others were misled by the same4 ,had the inventor simply remarked that he had made use of his momentum1 transmitted through the rim of the wheel1 and acting to wedge one of the brakes against the head or the other brake1 whereby to increase the brake1 or some such explanation1 everybody would have acquiesced in it as a reasonable possibility1 even if they had not the slightest idea of what the inventor was talking about4 ,it is a satisfaction to know that it is becoming a little dangerous1 in the cycle art1 to make a statement that savors of getting something for nothing4 ,a prominent ,american maker1 whose wares now stand high in our market1 must have been a hobbyist once too1 when he climbed the steps into an ,english bicycle factory on his lever tricycle4 ,probably he has reformed1 as ,i hear of no step-climbing now4 ,only within a few days ,i have had an offer to inspect a machine that the inventor assumes will make a mile a minute4 8,no other machine was ever made to work by hand and foot10 says the same inventor4 ,he also assures me that wire wheels are a mistake1 and that the old wooden ones are just as good and cheaper4 ,this machine has an ingenious device by which to lock the front wheel of a bicycle1 to save the trouble of holding the handle-bars 8when you don't want to steer40 ,this much ,i believe the inventor may be right about4 ,a machine1 properly made1 run by hand and foot1 might make short distances very rapidly1 since the entire energy of the man could be quickly used up2 but whether such a machine would be of marketable value is a question4 ,quite recently a new 8hickory wheel0 man of more formidable caliber has entered the lists1 and again we are called back to bone-shaker days4 ,well6 after the beetle 7rear-driver7 has been so fondly embraced1 let us be prepared for anything that may come4 ,we have dropped down from the cat to the kitten1 and can now get out through a pretty small hole if hard pressed2 so for the present we will hold the hickory wheel on probation4 ,a gentleman at ,coventry1 a few years ago1 conceived1 and spent a small fortune upon1 a plan for overcoming the dead centre in crank tricycles2 his method was quite simple3 he only had to turn an angle on the crank at the outer extremity like a letter ,l1 so that when the straight or radial part1 represented by the stem of the ,l with the axle through the upper end1 stood vertical1 the pedal1 which is supposed to be attached to the tip of the horizontal extension1 would have passed some two inches beyond the dead-centre point4 ,this same inventor had an enormous steel spring ensconced beneath the seat of his machine1 which he wound with his hands as he went along4 ,whenever the proprietor of the establishment where these experiments were being conducted ran short of work he invariably proposed to the inventor to 8go out and try the tricycle40 ,the writer was a moderate hobbyist himself once1 and has perhaps not yet entirely recovered from the spell4 ,below find a letter written some time ago1 while the delusion was still upon him4 8,,an ,,american ,,hobbyist4 8,trials and ,tribulations of an ,american ,abroad--,how ,pet ,theories are received in the ,bicycling ,centre of the ,world4 8,editor ,springfield ,wheelmen's ,gazette3 8,some friend has kindly sent me a copy of the ,gazette1 and ,i make haste to remit you the amount of subscription4 8,i will not assume that the bicycling papers of the country of which ,i am now a guest are not good4 ,in fact1 to do so would libel my host2 ,i simply say that1 being an ,american1 ,i like ,american papers4 8,in the letter ,i first wrote1 of which this is in main a copy1 ,i asserted that the papers here were too much taken up by race-course news1 but even since then ,i have received a copy of an ,english periodical which ,i find is not open to the objection given2 hence ,i will still speak cautiously1 lest ,i do not know all yet4 8,i have no penchant for the race-course2 in fact1 ,i never ran but one race1 and then ,i was left so far behind that ,i have never been interested in racing news since4 ,in one respect my race was a success1 for ,i was loudly cheered by the crowd opposite the starting-point1 for by some fortunate error they got the idea that ,i had been handicapped half a lap1 that being about my distance in the rear at the end of the first round4 ,since that time ,i have confined myself exclusively to touring1 with which object my brother and ,i came to ,england this spring4 8,i have been admitted to membership in the ,cyclists' ,touring ,club1 and must say it is a grand institution1 and the official organ thereof is a valuable journal4 8,if you and your readers will permit me to speak of my object in making a centre at ,coventry without denouncing it as merely a scheme whereby to benefit in a free advertisement1 ,i would say that ,i have taken the liberty--almost a criminal one it seems here--of having a hobby relating to an #8ideal bicycle4' ,this is from a tourist's stand-point2 not that of a racer1 or it would have been all right4 8,my hobby consists in the following hobbies in detail3 #a4 ,a bicycle with a large front wheel1 because it rides smoother and steers easier than any other4 #b4 ,a bicycle in which you are directly over the work and do not have to reach out to do it1 or lean over the handle-bar to get your centre of gravity over it4 ,i should think the #8,grasshopper' good in this respect4 #c4 ,a bicycle in which the legs are at rest on all down grades1 or when work is unnecessary1 la ,star4 #d4 ,a bicycle with a treadle motion1 as ,i think power is more economically applied by the same4 7,this is largely theory1 so far47 #e4 ,a bicycle with no dead centre at any time1 as ,i think it is a continual impediment in up-hill or rough roads 7also theory74 #f4 ,a bicycle where one foot going down lifts the other positively1 as in a crank2 to lift by springs ,i consider bad4 #g4 ,a bicycle safer from headers than the common large wheel machines1 say about comparable with the #8,grasshopper4' ,i do not aspire to the security of the small wheelers1 nor do ,i like the other known safety devices 7probably prejudice74 #h4 7,ordinary bicyclers' pride suggests ,no4 #h47 ,a bicycle as neat and trim in appearance as the common large wheel crank-machine without octopus-clawed walking beams1 gear wheels1 or chains swinging through the air in full view at long range4 #i4 ,a bicycle that brakes from the hind wheel1 as there is less danger of headers4 #aj4 ,a bicycle with some good sort of safety handle-bar that will be open to no objections found in those now used4 ,this is to prevent injury in case of a header1 and also to store the bicycle in less space4 8,you will infer1 of course1 that ,i had a plan for combining these hobbies2 hence my trip to ,coventry with a view to having such a machine made for my own use4 ,when ,i arrived here and called on some of the bicycle manufacturers and made my purpose known1 ,i cannot say that ,i was quite so well received as your correspondent ,c42 in fact1 a ,yankee inventor does not seem to be such desirable property in ,coventry as a foreign agent1 and yet ,i doubt not that a real genius of the former sort might do them much more good4 ,now1 ,i think ,i was entitled to the reception of such a character for at least the few minutes it would have taken to expose the error1 but there seems to be a sort of suspicious dread of a ,yankee inventor1 which is all wrong and against their interest4 ,the greatest fault ,i have to find is in the manner in which they insist that ,i could not possibly know anything about the bicycle business1 or have a right to a hobby and waste some money on it if ,i wanted to4 8,the bad weather has detained us here much longer than we thought to stay1 but we do not regret it1 as it is the best centre in ,england from which to make short tours4 ,the attractions of this ancient city are innumerable1 and the proximity of ,kenilworth1 ,warwick1 and ,stratford-on-,avon need only be mentioned to make ,coventry all ,i assert4 8,you will pardon me if ,i say that my new machine is all and more than ,i expected2 but a word to all hobbyists before ,i close3 ,have you a hobby8 ,if so1 then #8bend low and with bated breath ,i will a secret tale unfold4' 8,have your hobby1 nourish it1 talk and write about it1 and make everybody believe you can fly2 don't let anybody down you1 get in the last kick at every man who won't think just as you do1 but just as you are going to put it in practice1 stop6 slip quietly to your escritoire1 get out your book1 go straight to the bank1 and have it accurately footed up2 if there is a fat balance1 and you are unmarried1 with no other care on your mind1 and nothing to do for seven years1 then go in1 and ,god speed to you4 8,if the above conditions fail you1 go straight home1 kiss your wife1 and baby if you have any1 and thank ,providence that you are saved from the lunatic asylum and your family from poverty and want4 8,r4 ,p4 ,s4 8,coventry1 ,england1 ,june #aa1 #ahhe40 ,,part ,,ii4 ,designed to amuse rather than to instruct the reader1 and intended as a reward to those who have struggled through the foregoing pages4 ,illustration3 ,ordinary1 #ej-;inch front1 #ah-;inch rear wheel4 ,illustration3 ,rover type1 rear-driver safety1 #cj-;inch wheels4 ,illustration3 ,star type1 #bj front1 #eb rear4 ,illustration3 ,kangaroo safety1 #dj front1 #ah rear4 ,illustration3 ,rear-driver tandem1 #cj-;inch wheels4 ,illustration3 ,facile lever-action1 #dj front1 #ah rear4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,bolton ,u4 ,s4 ,,patent1 ,,september #bi1 #ahjd4 7,see cut1 page #cf47 ,this early inventor1 who had the honor of ,president ,jefferson's signature to his patent1 was a clever genius in his time4 ,i am constrained to think he was of that school which believes in the inherent power of the gear wheel2 at least the four wheels1 where there is no demand for more than two1 would suggest this idea4 ,according to our present system of gauging1 this machine is geared to about fifteen4 ,mr4 ,bolton1 however1 was a pioneer1 and as such we must hold him in great veneration4 ,,english ,,patent1 ,,december #b1 #ahah4 7,see cut1 page #ce47 ,there has been considerable discussion anent the earliest bicycle inventor1 but after all his name seems to have been 8,dennis10 or rather ,dennis ,johnson4 ,as 8,dennis0 has been before us in the periodicals for a number of years1 we will not dwell upon him2 suffice it to say that his name will always hold the high place it deserves1 as the first patentee of a single-track balancing machine4 ,,croft ,,american ,,patent4 ,the inventor1 ,mr4 ,croft1 a cut of whose machine will be found on page #ch1 was one1 and probably the earliest1 of those who have deceived themselves with the idea that power could be increased by means of a solid grip on the ground1 forgetting a common principle that1 so long as the hold does not give way1 one plan is as good as another in this respect4 ,below find a brief of his specification4 8,,united ,,states ,,patent ,,office4 8,,matthew ,e4 ,,croft1 ,,of ,,horicon1 ,,wisconsin4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,tricycles4 7,see cut1 page #ch47 8,the object of this invention is to furnish an improved tricycle1 designed for use by mechanics and others for going to and from their places of business1 by merchants and others for sending small parcels from one place to another1 and by youths and others for amusement and exercise1 and which shall be simple in construction and easily operated4 8,to the stirrups ,j are pivoted the rear ends of two rods ,k1 the forward ends of which are pivoted to the forward axle ,b1 near its ends1 so that the rider can guide and turn the machine with his feet4 8,the rider propels the machine by means of two rods1 ,l1 which he holds in his hands1 and which he presses against the ground4 ,in starting1 the rider presses both rods ,l against the ground at the same time1 but after he has got up enough motion to give momentum to the machine1 he can use the rods ,l alternately4 8,if desired1 a receptacle may be secured to the bolster ,e1 to contain a lunch or other small parcels40 ,,some ,,extracts ,,from ,,very ,,old ,,english ,,patents4 8,a4,d4 #afia ,june #ab--,no #bfi ,greene1 ,john ,new engines or carryages of certaine shapes and measures to be drawne or driven by man or beast upon one or more wheeles1 wherein the lading carryed about with every revolution of the wheele1 which for ease of the burthen or draft and labour exceeds all others that were ever yett invented or used1 being of great benefit and service to the publique 8,a4,d4 #afic ,march #c--,no #cae ,hadley1 ,john ,engines moved by wind1 useful for drawing severall machines and carryages instead of horses ,a4,d4 #aghg ,may #ab--,no #afjb ,george ,watkin--,anti-friction axle ,the axis is surrounded by a number of rollers or cylinders ,a4,d4 #agia ,october #ab--,no #ahbi ,the principle lies in the interposition of rollers ,a4,d4 #agid ,august #ab--,no #bjjf ,vaughan1 ,philip ,the axle is provided with grooves for the reception of balls which serve as anti-friction rollers1 the wave of each wheel being provided with grooves corresponding with those in the arms of the axle 8,,propelling ,,carriages1 ,,vessels1 c4 8,,bramley ,,and ,,parker',s ,,specification4 7,one drawing of this patent is used as a frontispiece47 8,to all to whom these presents shall come1 we1 ,thomas ,bramley1 ,gentleman1 and ,robert ,parker1 ,lieutenant in the ,royal ,navy1 both of ,mousley ,priory1 in the ,county of ,surrey1 send greeting4 8,whereas ,his present most ,excellent ,majesty ,king ,william the ,fourth1 by ,his ,letters ,patent under the ,great ,seal of ,great ,britain1 bearing date at ,westminster1 the ,fourth day of ,november1 ,one thousand eight hundred and thirty1 in the first year of ,his reign1 did1 for ,himself1 ,his heirs and successors1 give and grant unto us1 the said ,thomas ,bramley and ,robert ,parker1 444 a patent for 444 ,certain ,improvements on ,locomotive and other ,carriages or ,machines applicable to ,rail and other ,roads1 which ,improvements1 or ,part or ,parts thereof1 are also applicable to ,moving ,bodies on ,water and ,working other ,machinery40 ,illustration3 ,side-view locomotion carriage1 applicable to common roads4 ,bramley ,parker4 ,english patent4 ,the cut on opposite page is a part of the ,bramley ,parker ,english patent of #ahcj4 ,these early inventors were apparently the original tandem makers1 and they possibly originated the expression 8lay down to the work40 ,if the cuts fairly represent the inventors1 truly no one can deny that they were handsome fellows1 and that they deserve a greater reward than can be said to have accrued to them after the shades of fifty years have fallen upon this1 probably the greatest effort of their lives4 ,below find another part of their specification1 which illustrates the verbosity of legal language found in those1 and to some extent in the present ,english patents4 8444 ,in which said ,letters ,patent is contained a proviso that we1 the said ,thomas ,bramley or ,robert ,parker1 or one of us1 shall cause a particular description of the nature of my said ,invention1 and in what manner the same is to be performed1 to be inrolled in ,his said ,majesty's ,high ,court of ,chancery within six calendar months next and immediately after the date of the said in part recited ,letters ,patent1 as in and by the same1 reference being thereunto had1 will more fully and at large appear40 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,julien4 ,french patent4 ,june #cj1 #ahcj4 ,,french ,,patent4 ,m4 ,,julien4 ,,june #cj1 #ahcj4 ,the ,french patent to ,m4 ,julien1 date of ,june #cj1 #ahcj1 of whose machine a cut will be found on the opposite page1 seems to be for a sort of combination of cycle and plough4 ,it is to be inferred that ,m4 ,julien proposes to do up his ploughing1 and then mount his cycle and off to town for an airing4 ,jeering and contemptuous cyclers will be liable to overlook a novel and invaluable feature of this invention relating to security in descending long and dangerous hills4 ,the rider can1 by easy manipulation of certain simple and ingenious devices1 lower the plough and thereby bring into operation a brake of great power and unquestionable holding-back proclivities4 ,as to the steering1 it does not appear1 from the drawing1 how this may be accomplished1 but so fertile a brain cannot have left this necessary adjunct unprovided for4 ,that the machine can be worked with little exertion is implied by the skilful introduction1 on the part of the draughtsman1 of the chimney-pot hat which adorns the brow of the supposed agricultural gentleman upon the box1 and also by the general appearance of ease and comfort which pervades the entire picture4 ,illustration3 ,cochrane4 ,english patent4 ,no4 #faej4 ,august #aj1 #ahca4 8,,propelling ,,carriages ,,and ,,vessels1 ,,driving ,,machinery1 c4 8,,cochrane',s ,,specification4 8,to all to whom these presents shall come1 ,i1 ,alexander ,cochrane1 of ,norton ,street1 ,great ,portland ,street1 in the county of ,middlesex1 ,esquire1 send greeting4 8,and be it remembered1 that on the ,tenth day of ,february1 in the year of our ,lord #ahcb1 the aforesaid ,alexander ,cochrane came before our said ,lord the ,king in ,his ,chancery1 and acknowledged the ,specification aforesaid1 and all and every thing therein contained and specified1 in form above written4 ,and also the ,specification aforesaid was stamped according to the tenor of the ,statute made for that purpose4 8,inrolled the ,tenth day of ,february1 in the year of our ,lord ,one thousand eight hundred and thirty-two40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this rowing-motion carriage has been invented over again several times since #ahca4 ,illustration3 ,dalzell machine1 #ahde4 8,,the ,,original ,,bicycle4 8,at the late ,stanley ,show was exhibited the machine which is now generally conceded to be the original bicycle4 ,we present a cut of the machine reproduced from the ,scottish ,cyclist1 also a representation of the features of the inventor1 one ,gavin ,dalzell1 a merchant of ,lesmahgon1 ,lanarkshire1 ,scotland4 ,dalzell was born ,august #bi1 #ahaa1 and died ,june #ad1 #ahfc4 ,he possessed decided talent for mechanical inventions4 ,from the written testimony of a letter1 and the testimony of ,j4 ,b4 ,dalzell1 son of the inventor and present owner of the machine1 it is proved that it was in use previous to #ahdf1 and there are eye-witnesses who recollect the inventor riding his bicycle over the roads of ,lanarkshire4 8,in construction the ,dalzell bicycle is the exact prototype of the now popular rear-driving safety4 8,it is constructed chiefly of wood1 which1 though worm-eaten1 is still wonderfully strong1 especially in the wheels1 these seeming to have stood the ravages of time and rough usage much better than the frame-work4 ,the rear wheel--the driver--is of wood1 shod with iron1 about forty inches in diameter1 and has twelve spokes1 each about an inch in diameter4 ,the front wheel is of similar construction1 but only of about thirty inches in diameter4 ,from the front wheel hub the fork--straight1 and with a rake which some of our modern makers could copy with profit--passes up1 and is joined together1 through the fore-part of the wooden frame-work4 ,a pair of handles are then attached and bent backward into a ,v shape to suit the rider1 who sits about two feet behind the front-wheel hub4 ,these were commonly termed the #8reins4' ,the main frame is somewhat like that which is now termed the #8dip' pattern1 the design of which is applied in an extended form to ladies' safeties4 8,a wooden mud-guard rises from this frame1 covering about one-fourth of the circumference of the hind wheel2 from this to the back forks1 which are horizontal1 and of wood1 vertical flat stays run down1 forming a dress-guard after the manner of those on the latest cycling development1--the ladies' safety4 ,the action thus obtained is not rotary1 being a downward and forward thrust with return1 the feet describing a small segment of a circle4 ,that the gearing1 which constitutes the chief wonder to the critical and historical reader1 was actually on the machine while being ridden by ,mr4 ,dalzell1 is proved by the receipted accounts of the blacksmith1 ,john ,leslie1 who made all the iron-work used in its construction40--8,bi ,news10 in ,the ,wheel4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,landis4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bi1bhh4 ,patented ,july #bd1 #ahfj4 ,this inventor1 a ,baltimorean1 was probably not aware1 at the time1 that he was one of the earliest cycle inventors4 ,the cut gives a clear illustration of working parts1 the motion being quite like that of horseback riding4 ,this patent might be considered an anticipation of the broad principle of the rear-driver as shown in some later machines4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,a4 ,way4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ga1efa4 ,patented ,november #bf1 #ahfg4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,charles ,a4 ,way1 of ,charlestown1 in the county of ,sullivan1 and ,state of ,new ,hampshire1 have invented certain new and useful ,improvements in ,velocipedes4 8,this invention consists in a novel arrangement of cranks and short axles with reference to the seat1 side rails1 and supporting-wheels of a velocipede1 whereby the wheels may be operated to propel the apparatus with much greater facility than if the cranks were attached directly thereto4 8,the invention further consists in so arranging the cords that work the guiding-caster that they shall cross each other in such manner as to act more directly and consequently more efficiently upon the said caster than as hitherto applied40 ,not apparently made for anybody to ride2 8but in other respects a very good0 velocipede4 ,illustration3 ,p4 ,lallement4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ei1iae4 ,patented ,november #bj1 #ahff4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,pierre ,lallement1 of ,paris1 ,france1 temporarily residing at ,new ,haven1 in the county of ,new ,haven and ,state of ,connecticut1 have invented a new ,improvement in ,velocipedes2 and ,i do hereby declare the following1 when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings1 and the letters of reference marked thereon1 to be a full1 clear1 and exact description of the same1 and which said drawings constitute part of this specification4 8,my invention consists in the arrangement of two wheels1 the one directly in front of the other1 combined with a mechanism for driving the wheels1 and an arrangement for guiding1 which arrangement also enables the rider to balance himself upon the two wheels4 8,by this construction of a velocipede1 after a little practice1 the rider is enabled to drive the same at an incredible velocity with the greatest ease4 8,having1 therefore1 thus fully described my invention1 what ,i claim as new and useful1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1 is-- 8,the combination and arrangement of the two wheels ,a and ,b1 provided with the treadles ,f and the guiding-arms ,d1 so as to operate substantially as and for the purpose herein set forth4 8,pierre ,lallement40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this inventor has generally been accredited as being the first to apply cranks to the single-track machine2 but priority is now claimed by ,dalzell4 ,if this claim be valid1 ,lallement would have to confine himself to the honor of being the first to apply the feet directly to the cranks1 and to being the first patentee4 ,it is stoutly maintained in ,coventry that others had applied cranks1 in a manner similar to that described in the foregoing specification1 some time prior to the date of this patent2 it is fair to say1 however1 that ,lallement was the most energetic in pushing his invention1 and that he did as much1 if not more1 than any other man in the great work which has now assumed such mammoth proportions4 ,considering the short time it has taken to firmly establish this new and useful mode of locomotion as a recognized necessity to mankind1 there is little need to quarrel over the exact division of the honors2 there is enough for all1 and all will be in time duly credited with their respective claims4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,c4 ,moores4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #db1fgh4 ,patented ,may #aj1 #ahfd4 8,,united ,,states ,,patent ,,office4 8,,wm4 ,c4 ,,moores1 ,,of ,,bloomfield1 ,,wisconsin4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,economizing ,,human ,,power4 8,the object of this invention is to furnish means whereby the strongest muscles of the human body may be advantageously used in propelling machinery1 whether for locomotion or for stationary work1 thus cheapening motive power4 8,what ,i claim as my invention is1-- 8#a4 ,the ratchet-wheel ,a1 with its notches cut in each direction and worked by means of the levers ,b1 ,b1 with the pawls ,c1 ,c1 and springs ,d1 ,d1 as described4 8#b4 ,in combination with the above1 the treadles ,e1 ,e1 attached to the ends of the levers ,b1 ,b1 constructed in box form1 as described4 8#c4 ,the seat ,f1 constructed as described1 when used in combination with the ratchet-wheel ,a1 levers ,b1 ,b1 and pawls ,c1 ,c1 and treadles ,e1 ,e1 and springs ,g1 ,g1 all arranged as set forth4 8,wm4 ,c4 ,moores40 99 99 99 99 99 ,if this lever-motion had been properly claimed1 and his tilting pedals adroitly covered by patents1 he might have given no end of trouble to future manufacturers2 but he lived too soon2 his patents would have all expired ere they would have been useful in the art as later developed4 ,mr4 ,moores claims 8a machine for economizing human power10 which shows that his ideas were broad1 or at least those of his attorneys were for him4 ,illustration3 ,o4 ,t4 ,gleason1 of ,maine4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #gg1dgh4 ,patented ,may #e1 #ahfh4 ,,gleason ,,specification4 8,the object of this invention is to obtain locomotion by the direct application of the weight of the operator4 8,an endless track1 composed of the hinged parts ,c1 ,c1 ,c1 as shown1 loosely close each of the two wheels on a side1 and are kept in proper position by means of the flanges ,b of the rolling wheels as shown4 8,by this means the track is laid in front of the wheels1 and passes over from the rear of the same in an endless belt1 as shown4 8,the guide-rails ,g are supported above the traction-wheels1 by means of arms e1 as shown1 and prevent the jointed track from leaving the flanges4 8,when a level pavement is available1 or the ordinary road is of sufficient evenness1 the jointed track may be dispensed with1 and the traction-wheels used directly upon the ground or pavement4 8,in this case the flanges ,b1 being disks of sheet metal1 attached by means of bolts to the traction-wheels1 are readily removed40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,gleason was determined to prevent slipping of the wheels in climbing hills1 and probably succeeded4 ,we have not seen any of the machines on the market1 but they are1 no doubt1 all right4 ,the draughtsman did well to show the rider with his coat off2 the work would in all probability keep him warm enough4 ,illustration3 ,t4 ,rhoads4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #gf1had4 ,patented ,april #ad1 #ahfh4 8,,united ,,states ,,patent ,,office4 8,,thomas ,,rhoads1 ,,of ,,fiskilwa1 ,,illinois4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,propelling ,,vehicles4 8,this invention relates to the propelling of vehicles for practical use1 and consists of the spring and wheel-work mechanism attached thereto1 as will be set forth in the following4 8,the propelling power is derived from the spring ,s1 which is affixed to a cross-rod in the frame1 as indicated at g4 8,the other end of the spring is attached to the shaft of the wheel ,h1 in the usual manner4 8,by this invention1 vehicles may be propelled on common roads1 with more or less speed1 according to the level or uneven character of the road4 8,its advantage1 in dispensing with the use of horses1 is obvious4 8,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1-- 8#a4 ,the arrangement1 with relation to the revolving shaft ,l1 carrying the wheels ,a1 of the wheels ,g1 ,h1 ,j1 pinion b1 and spring ,s1 as herein described1 for the purpose specified40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is a fair sample of 8deriving power from springs40 ,the poor horse will now have his long-needed rest4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,f4 ,estell1 of ,richmond1 ,ind4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #hg1jcc4 ,patented ,february #af1 #ahfi4 ,,estell ,,specification4 8,the nature of my invention relates to an improved method of constructing velocipedes1 whereby the propelling-power is communicated to the hind wheel by means of cranks and shafts1 or pitman-rods1 the latter being connected at their forward ends with levers1 that are worked with the feet4 8,what ,i claim1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1 is1-- 8,the velocipede1 in which the brace ,w is secured to the front part of the reach forming part of the bearing for the vertical shaft ,u1 and supports for the pendent levers ,l1 ,l1 secured to the brace1 one on each side1 in combination with rods ,p1 ,p1 connected with cranks ,n1 and attached to the pendent levers ,l1 ,l1 by means of pivots1 all combined as herein shown and described4 8,samuel ,f4 ,estell40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is almost an exact copy of the ,dalzell contrivance1 alleged to have been made in #ahde-df4 ,the greatest fault in this system consists in the direction of application of power1 being a forward thrust instead of a downward4 ,the machine has merit1 however2 and should have been heard from in the early days of cycling4 ,illustration3 8,,velox40 ,a4 ,christian and ,j4 ,reinhart4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #hg1bde4 ,patented ,february #bc1 #ahfi4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,patent ,,to ,,christian ,,and ,,reinhart4 ,,velocipede4 ,this drawing is a fine illustration of the practice of draughtsmen1 in which they essay to impress upon the office and the public1 by means of their deft pencils1 the miraculous speed and easy locomotion attainable in their clients' devices4 ,this drawing has always been an amusing one to me1 a bright spot in the tedious work of going through the patent files4 ,some wag of the office1 having been similarly struck with the humor of this picture1 embossed beneath the principal figure1 in a large bold hand1 the simple word 8,,velox40 ,now1 ,i never happened to have a lexicon at hand in which to look up the exact meaning of the word1 but ,i did not1 for one moment1 doubt its appropriateness4 ,there seemed to be something in the word that carried conviction with it2 if it did not mean anything pertinent to the subject1 there was always a feeling that it ought to4 ,in scanning patent drawings1 in this art1 ,i always turned 8,velox0 down so that when wearied by the toil of research1 ,i could turn over the papers and smile at 8,velox40 ,the modern drop-frame for tricycles and rear-driving bicycles would be a valuable improvement on ,messrs4 ,christian and ,reinhart's invention2 some of our ladies would object to a free exhibition of quite so much shoe-top4 ,illustration3 ,t4 ,w4 ,ward1 of ,new ,york4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #hh1fhc4 ,patented ,april #f1 #ahfi4 8,the drawing represents a perspective view of my improved one-wheeled velocipede4 8,this invention relates to a certain improvement on that class of one-wheeled velocipedes in which the driver's seat is arranged above the wheel1 it being pivoted to the axle of the same4 8,the invention has for its object to provide for an easy balancing of the frame1 and consists in attaching weights to the lower end of the seat-frame1 whereby the same will be retained in a vertical position4 8,the balance can1 with this weight-attachment1 not be so readily lost as without it1 and the operation of the one-wheeled velocipede is made easier and more practicable4 8,from the lower ends of the frame are suspended1 as near to the ground as possible1 weights ,e1 ,e1 which tend to keep the frame in a vertical position1 and which are intended to balance the weight of the rider1 so that the difficulty of holding the seat in the desired direction1 above the axle1 will be considerably reduced4 8,the velocipede may be propelled by means of foot-cranks a1 a1 or by other suitable mechanism4 8,having thus described my invention1 8,what ,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1 is1-- 8,the weights ,e1 ,e1 suspended from the lower ends of the frame ,c of a one-wheeled velocipede1 for the purpose of balancing the frame1 substantially as herein shown and described4 ,thomas ,w4 ,ward40 99 99 99 99 99 ,how ,mr4 ,ward proposed to steer is not made quite plain4 ,the claim is strong1 and the invention was really never patented before4 ,any one wishing to use it can do so now1 however1 as the patent has expired4 ,i wish to call attention to the fact that the combined weights ,e1 ,e1 as arranged in drawing1 need not exceed five hundred pounds in order to balance a hundred-and-sixty-pound man4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,j4 ,white1 of ,philadelphia4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #hh1icj4 ,patented ,april #ac1 #ahfi4 ,,white ,,specification4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,john ,j4 ,white1 of ,philadelphia1 in the county of ,philadelphia and ,state of ,pennsylvania1 have invented a new and ,improved ,velocipede4 8,this invention relates to a new velocipede1 which consists entirely of two wheels and their connecting-axles1 the axles supporting a frame in which the seat and driving-gear are arranged1 so that they can be conveniently operated4 ,the wheels can1 with this arrangement1 be made very large1 to obtain great velocity1 and the whole apparatus can be made light and convenient4 8,the invention consists in the general arrangement of the apparatus1 and1 furthermore1 in the special arrangement of a hinged seat which can be swung down when on going up-hill the rider desires to leave the seat and walk with the vehicle4 8,the invention also consists in the application of convenient brakes1 by means of which the instrument can be conveniently stopped and steered4 8,the neck of the driver rests against the upper bar1 b1 which is hollowed for its reception1 and which can be adjusted up and down on the bars a1 to be adapted to the size of the rider40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,white has at least provided some way to stop1 and also to 8walk with the vehicle10 if he should so desire1 which we think he probably would4 ,illustration3 ,sturdy ,young1 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #hi1gjj4 ,patented ,may #d1 #ahfi4 ,,some ,,young ,,and ,,sturdy 8,,children ,,of ,,larger ,,growth0 ,,invent ,a ,,whirligig4 8,this invention relates to a new and useful improvement in velocipedes1 whereby they are better adapted to be employed as a medium of amusement and exercise for children and youth1 as well as for #8children of a larger growth4' ,it is chiefly designed for use in play-grounds1 lawns1 gardens1 and play-rooms2 and 8,the invention consists in rotating a large horizontal wheel1 formed of two concentric rings1 tied together by bars1 and supported on vertical wheels1 each of which is revolved1 by means of cranks1 with the feet1 after the manner of the common velocipede1 thus rotating the main wheel1 the construction1 arrangement1 and operation being as hereinafter more fully described4 8,the accompanying drawing is a perspective view of the combined velocipede1 showing the manner of its construction and operation4 8,a represents the double-rimmed wheel1 which may be made of any required diameter1 and of any suitable material1 and in any equivalent manner4 8,we do not confine ourselves to propelling by the feet exclusively4 ,the driving-wheels may be rotated by the hands1 as in some descriptions of velocipede1 or by the feet and the weight of the body combined1 as in the rocking-saddle kind4 8,having thus described our invention1 8,what we claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1 is1-- #b4 ,a velocipede formed of a horizontal wheel or rim1 when supported on vertical wheels adapted to be rotated by means of cranks1 substantially as set forth4 8,george ,j4 ,sturdy4 8,solomon ,w4 ,young40 ,illustration3 ,b4 ,s4 ,lawson4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ij1efc4 ,patented ,may #be1 #ahfi4 8,my invention relates to velocipedes2 and it consists mainly in a seat-spring of novel construction1 upon which the seat is made adjustable in a novel manner40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is another of the ,dalzell patterns4 ,the mechanism is not claimed in the patent1 as will be noticed from the above brief4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,b4 ,flanders1 of ,philadelphia4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ia1ecd4 ,patented ,june #bb1 #ahfi4 8,the steering of the velocipede may be readily effected by the movement of the body1 or by bringing one or other of the stirrups in contact with the ground4 ,owing to the roller on the stirrup1 its contact with the ground will not interfere with the convenience of the operator4 8,although ,i have shown the driving-wheel as arranged for being operated by hand1 the ordinary treadle-devices used in connection with common velocipedes may be employed1 so as to impart the desired movement to the wheel by the legs and feet of the operator40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this monocycle inventor has not forgotten to provide a means of steering1 which is done by the stirrups4 ,simply tilting the body will not answer4 ,illustration3 ,f4 ,schmitt1 of ,springfield1 ,ill4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ia1afi4 ,patented ,june #h1 #ahfi4 ,,schmitt ,,specification4 8,the nature of my invention consists in constructing a velocipede with three wheels1 one in front1 for a guide1 the other two in rear1 connected together by a revolving axle4 8,the motive-power is communicated to the velocipede by means of machinery over the revolving axle and under the seat1 which machinery is put in operation by the weight of and backward or forward motion of the occupant of the seat1 or rider4 8,the operation of this machinery is as follows3 8,the weight of the rider upon the seat o1 and a slight movement backward or forward causes the seat-support g to move backward or forward1 which motion is communicated to the upright lever f by the connecting-bar h1 which in turn starts the revolution of the driving-wheel axle l4 8,this movement of the lever f also gives a corresponding movement to the jointed levers k1 k1 and in such a way that one lever1 k1 is moving backward while the other is moving forward1 and so one of the snappers1 l1 is always caught in the ratchet-wheel e1 and assisting in the revolution of the driving-wheel axle d1 and in this way the impelling force of the machine never ceases for an instant4 8,this revolution of the ratchet-wheel e forces the revolution of the driving-wheel c1 which1 by its connection with the pinion b1 forces the revolution of the axle ,a and wheels ,b40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this patent shows a clever method of transmitting power by means of an oscillating motion of the body1 and is valuable as a curiosity4 ,the overcoat might be dispensed with1 however1 as it is not probable that the rider would need it even on the coldest of days4 ,illustration3 ,leftwich's ,specification1 ,english4 ,no4 #bagc4 ,july #ai1 #ahfi4 8,specification in pursuance of the conditions of the ,letters ,patent1 filed by the said ,william ,leftwich in the ,great ,seal ,patent ,office on the #ahth ,january #ahgj4 8,to all to whom these presents shall come1 ,i1 ,william ,leftwich1 of ,tufnell ,park ,west1 ,holloway1 in the ,county of ,middlesex1 send greeting4 8,whereas ,her most ,excellent ,majesty ,queen ,victoria1 by ,her ,letters ,patent1 bearing date the ,nineteenth day of ,july1 in the year of our ,lord ,one thousand eight hundred and sixty-nine1 in the thirty-third year of ,her reign1 did1 for ,herself1 ,her heirs and successors1 give and grant unto me1 the said ,william ,leftwich1 ,her special licence that ,i1 the said ,william ,leftwich1 my executors1 administrators1 and assigns1 or such others as ,i1 the said ,william ,leftwich1 my executors1 administrators1 and assigns1 should at any time agree with1 and no others1 from time to time and at all times thereafter during the term therein expressed1 should and lawfully might make1 use1 exercise1 and vend1 within the ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the ,channel ,islands1 and ,isle of ,man1 an ,invention for #8,improvements in ,construction of ,velocipedes4' 8,having thus described and ascertained the nature of my said ,invention1 and in what manner the same is to be performed1 ,i would observe in conclusion that what ,i consider novel and original1 and therefore claim as constituting the ,invention secured to me by the said herein-before in part recited ,letters ,patent is1 the combination and arrangement of parts and mechanism for lowering the saddle bars of #8bicycles1' substantially as herein-before described and set forth1 or any mere modifications thereof40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is one of the earliest patents using the word bicycle4 ,the method of raising the saddle while in motion might be used to scare off the dogs or to raise yourself up out of their way1 but is of doubtful utility in other respects4 ,illustration3 ,richard ,c4 ,hemmings1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ib1ebh4 ,patented ,july #ac1 #ahfi4 ,,hemmings ,,specification4 8,this invention relates to a new and improved method of constructing and operating velocipedes1 whereby they are made more durable1 and at less expense1 than heretofore2 and 8,it consists in rotating a traction-wheel1 by means of a traversing-wheel bearing on its inner surface1 and revolved by the operator within the rim of the wheel1 as hereinafter more fully described4 8,the propelling-power is applied to the band-wheels ,e by means of the hand-cranks f1 f1 leaving the feet of the operator at all times free4 8,in starting the velocipede1 the first movement is given by the operator's running or walking a short distance on the ground while astride the saddle4 ,when a start is thus obtained1 the motion is readily continued by turning the pulleys ,e with the hands4 8,when the weight is below the centre1 and the feet near the ground1 and always free1 very little difficulty is experienced in balancing and guiding the machine2 and1 as numerous experiments have proved1 the ease with which it is worked and the velocity obtained render it quite equal1 if not superior to any velocipede in use1 while the expense of constructing them is far less4 8,having thus described my invention1 8,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1-- 8#a4 ,in combination with a single-wheeled velocipede1 the reach ,c1 with its guide-pulleys e1 e1 and traverse wheel ,b1 arranged substantially as and for the purposes herein shown and described4 8#b4 ,the combination of the traction-wheel ,a with the traverse-wheel ,b1 substantially as and for the purposes herein shown and described4 8,richard ,c4 ,hemmings40 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,wortmann1 of ,new ,york4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ic1jcj4 ,patented ,july #bg1 #ahfi4 ,an early tandem showing the true sociability of the same2 observe the peaceful harmony of the city gentleman1 with chimney-pot hat1 and the sombreroed cow-boy4 ,,wortmann ,,specification4 8,this invention relates to a new vehicle1 which is to be propelled by the upper or lower extremities of the person or persons which it supports1 and which is provided with a fly-wheel in such a manner that the same may at will be thrown into or out of gear4 ,this fly-wheel will gather power in going down-hill1 and will then give it up in going up-hill1 thereby facilitating the ascending of hills1 and preventing too great rapidity while going down-hill4 8,the invention consists in the general combination of parts1 whereby two persons may be accommodated on the vehicle1 and also in the aforementioned arrangement of the fly-wheel4 8,when the fly-wheel is thrown into gear1 as aforesaid1 it will serve to gather power1 to facilitate the riding up-hill1 and to steady the motion down-hill4 8#b4 ,the fly-wheel ,k1 mounted on a separate shaft1 ,j1 the sliding pinion f1 in combination with the lever g1 substantially as herein shown and described1 for the purpose specified4 8,the above specification of my invention signed by me1 this ninth day of ,june1 #ahfi4 8,simon ,wortmann40 99 99 99 99 99 ,you will have to make that front man do some work1 ,simon1 or you will fall behind the band-wagon in spite of your fly-wheel4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,h4 ,sawhill1 of ,cambridge1 ,ohio4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ic1gea4 ,patented ,august #ag1 #ahfi4 ,,sawhill ,,specification4 8,this invention relates to a new two- or three-wheeled velocipede1 which is to be propelled by hand1 and which is so constructed that it can be easily operated1 and that the body will be sustained in the most advantageous position4 8,the invention consists in several improvements of the driving-mechanism1 of the foot-supports1 and steering-mechanism1 which1 separately or combined1 tend to produce a simple and convenient apparatus4 8,a1 in the drawing1 represents the front wheel of my improved velocipede4 8,the rider1 holding the feet on these fixed bars ,i1 can readily1 and by an imperceptible motion1 turn the post to guide the apparatus in any desired direction4 8,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1-- 8#a4 ,the steering-post ,c1 constructed1 as described1 of the two parallel bars a1 a1 hung upon the crank-axle ,b1 and connected by the plates b1 d1 between which the end of the reach ,d is pivoted1 said post being provided at its upper end with the crank-shaft ,j1 and near its lower end with the foot-rests ,i1 as herein described1 for the purpose specified40 99 99 99 99 99 ,another manumotor carriage4 ,had the inventor ever attempted to climb some of the hills to be seen in ,maryland1 ,i fear he would have sacrificed his ambition1 let the idea go unheralded to the world1 and saved his patent fee4 ,illustration3 ,g4 ,lowden1 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #if1abh4 ,patented ,october #bf1 #ahfi4 8,there are only a few of us left40 8,this invention relates to a new and useful improvement in velocipedes1 and consists in the method in which power is applied for driving it4 8,power is applied to this ratchet by means of the pawls f and g1 the former of which is pivoted to the frame h1 and to which the saddle i is attached2 the other pawl is pivoted to the frame ,j1 to which the foot-pieces k are attached4 8,when the weight of the rider is thrown either upon the saddle or upon the foot-pieces1 the pawls act upon the ratchet-wheel1 and rotate the axle4 8,as before stated1 motion is given the velocipede by working the pawls in the ratchet-wheel1 as the weight of the rider is thrown alternately upon the saddle and upon the foot-pieces4 8,this operation gives him the motion and exercise of a horseback ride4 8,no crank is employed1 and consequently the vehicle may be started at any point1 and the operating parts being attached to and supported by the main axle1 there is nothing likely to break or get out of order4 8,having thus described my invention1 8,what ,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1 is1-- 8#a4 ,in combination with a velocipede1 the ratchet-wheel ,e1 pawls f and g1 and yokes h and ,j1 arranged and operating on the axle ,a1 substantially as described4 8,in combination with the ratchet-wheel ,e and weighted yokes h and ,j1 the reach ,m1 post ,o1 brake ,s1 and rods r1 arranged substantially as described1 for the purposes set forth4 8,george ,lowden40 99 99 99 99 99 ,only get the motion of a man on horseback1 and our early cycle inventors thought the goal was reached4 ,one would almost think that this motion was what gave power to the horse in those days4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,a4 ,lewis1 of ,missouri4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #if1abd4 ,patented1 ,oct4 #bf1 #ahfi4 8,this invention has for its object to so construct the cranks of velocipedes that they are made longer where the greatest power is required1 without increasing the diameter of the circle to be described by the foot4 8,the invention consists in the use of sliding cranks1 which project from both sides of the shaft4 8,one end of each crank is guided by a fixed eccentric groove or track1 in such manner that the crank-pin is moved away from the shaft as long as the power is applied to the same by the foot4 ,when the power is not required1 on the return stroke1 the crank-pin is drawn close to the shaft1 and thus1 without describing a large circle1 the crank-lever is made longer than usual1 when required4 8,thus1 a twelve-inch crank-bar can produce a nine- or ten-inch working-crank1 while the crank-pin describes a circle of not more than twelve inches diameter4 ,heretofore1 a twelve-inch circle was described by a six-inch crank4 ,greater leverage and power are thus obtained by my invention4 8,edwd4 ,a4 ,lewis40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is one of the most deceptive schemes in cycle history2 if it worked as the inventor implies1 we should have perpetual motion in fact4 ,a man cannot transmit power to the wheel while the crank is coming up1 except the little he can get by ankle-motion4 ,a close examination will show that1 whereas the crank is longer1 the man has a proportionally less number of degrees through which he can drive it4 ,time1 as well as force1 enters into the problem of driving a bicycle2 the time is equal to the number of degrees the crank travels through2 here a man only has one-third1 or less1 of the circle1 through which he has any power to turn the wheel4 ,it is of no advantage to have one-third longer leverage if you have one-third1 or over1 less time1 or number of degrees1 to transmit power4 ,the enormous mistake of this inventor consists in the fact that it would actually be better if he transmitted his power through the arc of short1 rather than that of the long1 leverage4 ,if you do not increase your vertical amplitude1 or resultant1 depend upon it you cannot increase your power unless1 at least1 you push through a comparable number of degrees at better advantage4 ,illustration3 ,f4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mey1 of ,buffalo4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #aji1fdd4 ,patented ,november #bi1 #ahgj4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,f4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mey1 of ,buffalo1 in the county of ,erie and ,state of ,new ,york1 have invented a new and improved ,dog-,power ,vehicle4 8,this invention relates to vehicles which move from place to place on roads1 pavements1 etc41 and consists in an improved construction thereof4 8,a is the driving-wheel1 which in this instance is in the front of a vehicle having three wheels1 but may be in the rear1 if preferred1 or in any other location4 8,the animals being placed in this tread-rim1 as represented in ,fig4 #b1 and caused to work1 will impart motion to the wheel and to the vehicle1 as will be clearly understood4 8,having thus described my invention1 8,i claim as new1 and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent1-- 8,the combination of wheel ,a ,b ,c with a pair of wheels and body to form the running-gear of a vehicle1 in the manner shown and described4 8,f4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mey40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the claim could have been greatly improved by including the whip ,d and female ,e in the combination2 at least1 it is certain that these two elements would be needful4 ,two twenty-five pound dogs would hardly tread-mill a hundred-pound vehicle and a hundred-and-fifty-pound female up some of the ,baltimore hills4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,l4 ,hornig1 of ,jersey ,city4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #aia1ade4 ,patented ,may #bb1 #ahgg4 ,,hornig ,,specification4 8,the saddle ,i may be made adjustable longitudinally on the balance-beam ,e1 or it may be made to slide thereon longitudinally4 8,a hand-lever1 ,k1 pivoted to the reach1 and connected with the crank g1 serves to throw the crank off the centre in starting the vehicle4 8,the saddle ,i may be a side-saddle for ladies' use1 and two removable saddles may be provided for a single vehicle1 one of which may be a side-saddle1 and in this way a single velocipede may be used either by a gentleman or lady1 or by boys and girls4 8,the operation of the invention is as follows3 ,the rider throws his weight alternately on the treadle and on the seat1 rising on his feet when throwing his weight on the treadle1 and lowering himself upon the saddle again1 as in riding a galloping horse4 ,in this way the entire weight of the body is utilized1 both in rising and falling1 to propel the vehicle1 the muscles being used in a far more advantageous manner1 and furnishing a much more healthful exercise than in the propulsion of a velocipede by the use of first one foot and then the other in the highly-disadvantageous method of applying muscular power heretofore employed40 99 99 99 99 99 ,good for ,mr4 ,hornig6 ,but he will have to get his galloping velocipede on the market pretty soon or his patent will expire4 ,illustration3 ,scientific ,american1 ,september #a1 #ahgg4 8,,the ,,coventry ,,tricycle4 8,the tricycle1 as it is designated1 shown in the accompanying engraving1 consists of a rectangular frame made of iron or steel tube1 which carries a double-cranked shaft in patent parallel bearings4 ,the driving wheel1 forty-two inches in diameter1 is arranged on a left-hand side of the rider2 and the other side of the rectangular frame is produced1 front and back1 for carrying the forks of two #bb-;inch steering wheels4 ,these forks are connected by a rod1 fixed to the outside of one and the inside of the other1 so that both wheels are turned together by the steering handle4 ,the effect of this arrangement is that the rider is enabled to thread his way between other vehicles with the greatest ease2 and it is even said that he can describe a figure #h in a length of twelve feet4 ,the seat is mounted on four steel springs of ,s form1 which are attached to the frame by nuts on the screwed ends of the stays carrying the pin on which the pedals work4 ,rods jointed to the pedals turn the crank-shaft1 as will be seen in the engraving4 ,the second handle is merely to afford support for the left hand while the right is occupied in steering4 8,the tricycle is fitted with tangent wheels1 in which the spokes are crossed1 and each spoke locks the other4 ,by this arrangement greater lightness can be obtained for a given strength2 and another great advantage is that in the event of a spoke being broken1 another can be replaced by the rider in a few minutes4 ,the machine can be readily taken to pieces and packed in small compass40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is the pattern of tricycle shown upon the ,starley monument at ,coventry1 and is that which was afterwards changed from the lever-motion to the crank and sprocket-chain1 and extensively manufactured at a great works in the ,cycle ,city4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,baker1 of ,salem1 ,mass4 ,devices for propelling wagons4 ,no4 #bjj1jaf4 ,patented ,february #e1 #ahgh4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,elbridge ,baker1 of ,salem1 in the county of ,essex and ,state of ,massachusetts1 have invented ,improvements in ,wagons1 of which the following is a specification3 8,this improvement in wagons consists in mechanism arranged1 as hereinafter described1 to act directly on the ground to propel the wagon4 8,each rod has a pronged foot-piece1 f1 and between the foot-piece f and the crank-hanging of each rod the rod is suspended by a flexible line1 g1 from the body of the wagon4 8,turning the crank-shaft b in any suitable manner causes the pronged foot-pieces1 f of the rods d#a1 d1 d#d1 and d#e to take hold of the ground1 and thereby propel the wagon1 and by arranging the cranks as is shown in the drawings one rod after the other is brought into and out of action1 securing a continuous action of the mechanism to propel the wagon1 all as is obvious without further explanation4 8,the lines g hold and keep the rods to the action of their crank-arms1 and cause the rods to be properly brought1 from time to time1 by the cranks into operating positions on the ground40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this device is a logical sequence of ,mr4 ,croft's1 being a combination of shoving-bars worked by machinery instead of by hand4 ,this patent is now expired and can be used by anybody4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,n4 ,higley1 of ,somersworth1 ,n4 ,h4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bja1agi4 ,patented ,march #ab1 #ahgh4 8,the invention consists in an arrangement of pulleys upon each side of the crank-arm1 and pulleys of similar construction upon the sides or ends of the axle of the road-wheel1 and connected together by chains or other suitable means1 whereby the carriage may be propelled by the feet alone without turning around or otherwise operating the hand-shaft2 or the hand-shaft may be employed1 when desired1 to aid or assist the feet1 as circumstances may require2 or both sets of pulleys may be used by the hands and feet to increase the speed of the carriage40 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,klahr1 of ,meyerstown1 ,pa4 ,bicycle4 ,no4 #bhe1hba4 ,patented ,october #b1 #ahhc4 ,mr4 ,klahr was one of the early geniuses that appreciated the utility of the anti-vibrator4 ,notice the spring upon the front reach4 ,this is a device quite similar to that used by many makers of rear-drivers in the past few years4 ,the inventor does not claim this1 however4 ,illustration3 ,bruton's ,english ,patent4 ,provisional specification4 ,no4 #bjh4 ,january #ah1 #ahgi4 ,,imparting ,,motion ,,to ,,velocipedes1 c4 7,this ,invention received ,provisioned ,protection only47 8,edward ,george ,bruton1 of ,no4 #a1 ,park ,crescent1 ,oxford4 #8,certain ,improvements in the ,form and ,method of ,imparting ,motion to ,velocipedes1 ,carriages1 or other ,vehicles4' 8,this ,invention consists of a new form of imparting motion to velocipedes or other vehicles having three or more wheels1 which wheels shall receive their motion from a traversing platform1 to which motion is imparted by walking or running thereon2 the platform consisting of endless bands1 of a substance offering resistance to the foot1 passing over rollers suspended from the said vehicle1 which rollers1 by pulley-bands1 chains1 or other means1 put in motion certain wheels of the said vehicle and thereby propel the same40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have heard the tricycle compared to a tread-mill by unkind and wearied riders1 but it has remained for our ,english brother1 ,mr4 ,bruton1 to make the comparison a veritable fact4 ,illustration3 ,f4 ,langmaak and ,p4 ,streiff1 of ,san ,francisco4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bbh1ijh ,patented ,june #ae1 #ahhj4 ,a ,,lever-,,motion ,,unicycle4 8444 ,by having a pair of the levers an alternate motion is kept up and a continuous revolution of the driving-wheel maintained4 8,a ratchet and pawl1 ball-clutch1 or eccentric friction-clutch will accomplish this object1 the latter being preferable1 owing to the absence of noise4 8,with the large wheel1 and the rider sitting below the centre of gravity1 a slow motion can be maintained and the effort to propel it need not necessarily be great40 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,c4 ,monnin and ,p4 ,filliez1 of ,canton1 ,o4 ,bicycle4 ,no4 #cfa1caj4 ,patented ,april #ai1 #ahhg4 8,it will be seen that by our peculiar arrangement an operator can use his hands and feet in propelling the bicycle proper1 and that great speed can be made by reason of the wheels ,e working on the pinions b4 ,it will be understood that to the rear end of the arm ,g is attached1 in the ordinary manner1 a small travelling wheel1 and1 if desired1 two wheels may be attached to the arm ,g4 ,it will also be understood that a suitable saddle is to be properly attached to the arm ,g40 ,illustration3 ,g4 ,b4 ,scuri1 of ,italy4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bdb1afa4 ,patented ,may #ca1 #ahha4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,g4 ,battista ,scuri1 a citizen of the ,kingdom of ,italy1 residing at ,turin1 have invented new and useful ,improvements in ,velocipedes4 8,my invention relates to improvements in that class of velocipedes called #8monocycles1' in which but one wheel is employed1 that serves both as a propelling and steering wheel4 8,the velocipedes which have heretofore been chiefly used are the bicycle and the tricycle1 and to a limited extent the quadricycle1 or four-wheeled velocipede1 in all of which the support for the driver is so arranged as to practically throw his weight upon the front and rear wheel axles4 ,the power required to propel these various species of conveyances increases proportionally with the number of wheels employed1 and the relative diameters of the latter1 as well as the mechanism employed for propelling and steering the same1 together with the weight of the apparatus4 ,it is obvious therefore that the power required to propel these conveyances diminishes proportionally with the number of the elements referred to4 ,consequently1 to reduce this power to a minimum1 it will only be necessary to correspondingly reduce the number of propelling-wheels1 the propelling and steering mechanism1 and the weight of the apparatus4 8,to obtain these results ,i employ but one wheel4 8,in a monocycle that is constructed to support the entire weight of its driver1 it is absolutely necessary that said weight1 as well as that of the supports for the same and all other mechanism1 either for propelling or steering1 should be thrown upon the one wheel-axle and be adapted to be equally balanced thereon4 8,by means of this construction and arrangement ,i obtain a velocipede that can be propelled with comparatively little fatigue1 and the cost of construction of which is reduced nearly one-half of that of the ordinary velocipede40 99 99 99 99 99 ,judging from this invention they must be expert riders in every way in ,italy2 it must be supposed that the inventor at least could manage it4 ,if reducing the mechanism increases the power in such a proportion1 why not do away with all mechanism and have infinite power8 ,illustration3 ,b4 ,smith1 of ,san ,francisco4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bdi1bjg4 ,patented ,november #h1 #ahha4 ,,smith ,,specification4 8,the rider is supported upon a seat or saddle1 ,q1 directly above the stirrups1 in a nearly standing position1 his feet resting upon the stirrups1 and he operates the clutches alternately by a walking movement1 or he can operate the mechanism in a standing position without the seat or saddle4 ,the clutch-levers alternately engage with the rims or pulleys on the axle1 as their outer ends are pressed downward by the backward walking movement of the foot of the rider1 and releasing them as the foot rises in stepping forward1 the rope reeving through the pulleys in each direction alternately as the levers are alternately raised and depressed4 8,the operation will then be as follows3 ,when a downward pressure is applied to one lever its lower arm or prong1 g1 pressing upon the face of the disk ,f1 draws the case or frame forward1 so as to press the rollers h against the face of the disk1 thus clutching or gripping the disk at three points1 so as to clamp the frame or case to it4 ,the downward pressure of the lever then turns the disk and axle until the lever of the opposite clutch has gripped the other disk in the same way4 8,in a four-wheeled carriage a seat or body can be placed upon the front part of the vehicle for carrying another person or parcels4 8,i thus provide a vehicle that is propelled by a walking movement similar to that employed in operating the bicycle4 ,it can be operated with very little exertion1 and it enables the rider to carry another person or packages1 if he desires40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this gallant tandem inventor was at least not guilty of requiring his lady to do any work4 ,illustration3 ,r4 ,tragardh1 of ,chicago4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bej1fjg4 ,patented ,december #f1 #ahha4 ,this is a sample of many patents in which the inventors try to combine the elements of a bicycle and tricycle1 thereby defeating the end of each4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,renetti4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #if1ifc4 ,patented ,november #af1 #ahfi4 ,a clutch-lever machine of some merit1 considering the early date of the patent4 ,this is a rear-driver with front wheel as large as the rear1 though not a single-track machine4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,h4 ,hull and ,j4 ,w4 ,o',rear4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bei1hec4 ,patented ,june #bj1 #ahhb4 ,,hull ,,and ,o',,rear ,,specification4 8,this invention consists of the construction and arrangement1 as hereinafter described1 of a vehicle to be propelled and guided by the rider1 the driving-power being applied by means of hand-cranks and the guiding being effected by the foot of the operator4 8,a represents the hind axle1 whereon the two hind wheels1 ,b1 are fitted by means of the well-known rose-clutch device ,c1 the frame ,h1 and turned by hand-cranks ,i1 to be worked by the operator1 who sits upon the saddle ,j4 8,we have also arms1 ,y1 for the application of the feet of the operator to steer the vehicle1 while the lever ranges rearward towards the operator for being conveniently worked by hand4 8,the construction is very simple and cheap1 and the arrangement is calculated to afford a convenient and easily-operated hand-power vehicle40 99 99 99 99 99 ,messrs4 ,hull and ,o',rear find that it is better to steer with the feet and propel the machine by the arms4 ,the rider is peering anxiously forward as though somebody was ahead of him1 and he appears rather disconcerted from some cause2 which makes us think the picture has been taken from real life4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,m4 ,schaffer1 of ,louisville1 ,ky4 ,no4 #bia1gha4 ,patented ,january #h1 #ahhd4 ,,schaffer ,,specification4 8,the object of my invention is to furnish a safe and convenient velocipede of the unicycle type2 and to that end my invention consists in certain novel features of construction and arrangement1 as hereinafter described and claimed4 8,the operator may stand erect1 and in order to obtain the necessary vertical space without too large a wheel the rim or felly is made of considerable width1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,with this wide tire the wheel will stand without support1 and ,i prefer to use a recessed tire or two smaller tires1 as shown1 between which is a rubber or elastic band to prevent concussion and noise4 8,to allow of entering the machine1 a portion1 c1 of one felly is made separate1 and the hub a made with a hinged segment1 a1 to which the spokes from the felly-segment c connect1 so that the latter can be swung out40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,schaffer does not seem to have provided any very ready means of escape for the bird in case the cage should run away or collide with another4 ,illustration3 ,b4 ,g4 ,burlinghausen1 of ,cleveland1 ,o4 ,one-wheeled ,velocipede4 ,no4 #bii1fag4 ,patented ,june #c1 #ahhd4 ,,burlinghausen ,,specification4 8,my invention relates to improvements in one-wheel velocipedes2 and it consists in certain features of construction and in combination of parts hereinafter described1 and pointed out in the claim4 8,as the operator must sit some distance back of the axis of the wheel1 some force is required to support or balance the seat and operate in the required position1 and this is furnished by the sliding weight ,h secured by a set-screw on the rod ,g4 8,what ,i claim is1-- 8,in a one-wheel velocipede1 the combination1 with the hubs1 the hangers ,d1 depending from said hubs1 and cranks secured to the hubs for revolving the wheel1 of the cross-piece ,e1 the balance-rod provided with the adjustable foot-rest1 and the seat secured to the upper surface of the cross-bar1 substantially as described4 8,in testimony whereof ,i sign this specification1 in the presence of two witnesses1 this sixth day of ,march1 #ahhd4 8,bernerd ,g4 ,burlinghausen40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this device works entirely as a manumotor or hand-carriage4 ,it is questionable if any prudent rider would care to be enclosed within this structure if there were many hills to descend4 ,to be sure1 if the seat gets fast1 he can kick the spokes1 as in the case of a squirrel and cage-reel1 thus keeping himself upright1 but this would be attended with great labor and requisite skill4 ,illustration3 ,r4 von ,malkowsky1 of ,new ,york4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #caj1edh4 ,patented ,january #f1 #ahhe4 ,,combined ,,bicycle ,,and ,,accordion1 ,,patented ,,by ,,mr4 ,,von ,,malkowsky4 ,just fills a need long felt by the cyclist4 ,there is a certain action claimed for it1 in which pressure of air is used on the treadles which helps to propel the machine2 but this is only a secondary element in the mind of the wary cyclist2 no sooner will he see this invention than he will grasp the idea of getting keys to it and having it play him a tune1 as he speeds on his lonely way4 ,and then1 how nice to sit down1 unscrew a pedal1 remove his treasure1 and produce sweet strains of silvery music4 ,a new short method of instruction for playing upon this new combination may go with each cycle sold1 such that any rider could soon comprehend4 ,below find brief of specification4 99 99 99 99 99 8,from the lower ends of the fork ,c extend1 in downwardly or backwardly direction1 fixed brackets1 ,c1 to which are applied closed expansible bellows1 ,d1 of oblong shape1 one at each side of the driving-wheel ,a4 8,the combination1 in a velocipede1 with the driving-wheel1 of closed bellows supported on fixed brackets of the fork1 forked pedal-rods connected at the lower end of the bottom of the bellows1 and at the upper end to a transverse oscillating balance-rod4 8,r4 von ,malkowsky40 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,bevan1 of ,london1 ,england4 ,safety ,attachment for ,bicycles4 ,no4 #cai1che4 ,patented ,june #b1 #ahhe4 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,william ,bevan1 a subject of the ,queen of ,england1 residing at ,london1 ,england1 have invented a new and useful ,improved ,bicycle ,safety ,attachment for ,learners1 of which the following is a specification4 8,if the wheels ,b be raised from the ground a short distance1 considerable swaying of the machine will be possible without its quite tumbling over4 8,as shown in ,fig4 #b1 the wheels are upon the same level as the large wheel1 and the machine is well supported1 so that a person ignorant of the art of riding a bicycle can ride a machine fitted with this appliance40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is another gentleman who thinks he can balance the bicycle by means of out-riggers4 ,however ridiculous this scheme may be1 this inventor does not deserve the first prize4 ,a machine shown at one of the ,london exhibitions1 in which the two small wheels were replaced by iron sled-runners1 should be the subject of our highest award4 ,the inventor of our machine shown can well say that a person need not be able to ride2 ,i recommend he make himself expert at headers1 however4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,o4 ,lose1 of ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j4 ,one-wheeled vehicle4 ,no4 #cbe1edh4 ,patented ,september #a1 #ahhe4 8,i may operate my unicycle by either clock-work or steam1 instead of foot-power4 8,a small boiler may be placed under the platform ,o1 with steam-pipe to convey the steam to the inner rim of the large wheel ,a40 99 99 99 99 99 ,you have all heard of the 8merchant of ,rotterdam1 whose legs were a compound of clock-work and steam40 8,to all whom it may concern3 8,be it known that ,i1 ,john ,otto ,lose1 a subject of the ,emperor of ,germany1 residing at ,paterson1 in the county of ,passaic and ,state of ,new ,jersey1 have invented certain new and useful ,improvements in ,one-,wheeled ,vehicles4 8,my invention relates to a unicycle or one-wheeled vehicle1 without spokes1 which will carry one or more persons1 as well as a bicycle or tricycle1 and which is operated from within1 carries the passenger inside1 and only one wheel touching the ground4 ,i attain these objects by the means of the devices illustrated in the accompanying drawings4 8,when the machine is not in operation1 it will stand by itself1 for the treadle and driving wheels being heavier than the idler-wheel ,h1 ,h will rise and the front part of platform will drop1 and the treadle-wheels will rest on the ground40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,lose drew his unicycle in better proportions than his man2 perhaps he made the rider's limbs light to show that the machine would run easy4 ,illustration3 ,h4 ,w4 ,libbey4 ,hood attachment for bicycles4 ,no4 #cci1gic4 ,patented ,april #ac1 #ahhf4 8,the object of my invention is to provide a means for protecting riders of bicycles and tricycles from exposure to the sun and rain40 ,illustration3 ,leske1 two-wheeled machine on the ,otto principle4 ,this is a ,german patent by ,herr ,leske1 of ,berlin1 dated ,august #d1 #ahhg4 ,the inventor can1 at least1 be said to accommodate the entire body with plenty of work4 ,mr4 ,leske may be heard from later4 ,illustration3 ,h4 ,j4 ,lawson4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #cde1hea4 ,patented ,july #bj1 #ahhf4 ,,lawson ,,specification4 8,my invention relates to that class of bicycles in which the front wheel is employed for steering and the rear wheel for driving1 the pedal crank-axle being arranged between the wheels and connected with the axle of the rear wheel for driving by an endless driving-chain4 8,the object in this construction is to secure the rider against being thrown forward over the front wheel by keeping his centre of gravity low and setting his seat or saddle as far back as is practicable from the centre of the front wheel4 ,this mode of driving through the medium of sprocket-wheels and chains also allows the driving-wheel to be geared up or down to suit individual tastes4 8,what ,i do claim is1-- 8#a4 ,a bicycle having two wheels arranged tandem as shown1 the rear wheel being no larger than the front wheel1 and provided with a pedal crank-axle arranged between said wheels and connected to the rear wheel1 for driving by an endless chain and sprocket-wheel1 substantially as specified40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the other drawing of this patent is used to illustrate the ,rover rear-driver4 ,i wish to call particular attention to the claim as given in above brief of specification1 as it is somewhat extraordinary4 ,the ,english patent to this same inventor would indicate that he was an early1 but negligent1 inventor of the modern rear-driver safety4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,hoak1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #cda1iaa4 ,patented ,may #ah1 #ahhf4 ,a4 ,,hoak',s ,,velocipede4 ,the important part of the specification is as follows3 8,the shaft-gearing of these spur-wheels consists of impact roller motions1 so that the crank centrally on the shaft1 within easy reach of the operator upon the seat and between the driving-wheels1 may be effectually operated by the hand1 and a lever from the guide-wheel is designed to be in such a position as to be within easy reach of the operator's feet forwardly1 so that no difficulty will be encountered1 all of which will now be fully set forth4 8,the operation of this device is very simple4 ,the operator seated within the machine operates the crank ,o of the shaft ,l1 and the spur-wheels ,n1 engaging with the spur-wheels ,i1 move the vehicle forward4 ,the steering-wheel ,c is operated by the feet in connection with the lever ,e40 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is all right1 except that it would seem cruel to have such legs as the draughtsman has given the rider1 and only use them for steering purposes4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,s4 ,burbank1 of ,iowa4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #ceb1ihi4 ,patented ,november #bc1 #ahhf4 ,,burbank ,,specification4 8,by thus providing the bicycle with a circular track engaging the driving-wheel the said track forms virtually the driving-wheel of the bicycle or velocipede1 and as it is of very greatly increased diameter as compared with the driving-wheel of the velocipede1 it enables the machine to be driven over rough and uneven roads without violent bumping and jolting1 and without discomfort to the rider4 ,it also prevents the velocipede from being overturned when it encounters an obstruction1 and prevents the rider from #8taking a header4' 8,when the machine encounters a stone or other obstruction1 the frame ,m is moved rearwardly against the pressure of the spring ,l1 and thus causing the wheel ,b and the rider to be moved forwardly past the centre of the circular track for a corresponding distance1 thus enabling the weight of the rider to be utilized in causing the circular track to pass over the obstruction40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this patent is a fair sample of the big-wheel idea2 it has some good features1 such as the spring ,l1 which allows the inside machine1 together with the rider1 to swing forward when the outer wheel strikes an obstacle1 thus acting as an anti-vibrator or momentum spring4 ,the small inner wheel with cranks would make the machine run slow1 but the appearance of the thing would be1 ,i think1 rather unique4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,a4 ,williamson4 ,seat for bicycles4 ,no4 #cfd1jge4 ,patented ,may #ca1 #ahhg4 8,the advantages of my back support or rest for a bicycle seat will be readily understood by users of the machine4 8,instead of folding the rest down upon the seat as shown1 it might be arranged to be folded down behind the seat1 if desired4 8,i am aware that various forms of seats have been provided with hinged back-rests1 and do not claim1 broadly1 a seat having a hinged back-rest4 8,i claim as my invention-- 8,in combination with the frame and an ordinary seat of a bicycle1 an arm secured at one end to the frame under the seat and extending upwardly at the back of the seat1 and a back-rest located behind the seat and having hinge-connection with the arm above the top of the seat1 whereby it is adapted to be folded down1 substantially as set forth4 8,catherine ,a4 ,williamson40 99 99 99 99 99 ,miss ,williamson is mistaken in her disclaimer4 ,i do not think anybody ever put a back on a bicycle seat before4 ,it is also probable that a 8dis0 7before advantages7 was omitted by the printer in the first line of above brief2 but we must not be ungallant to the ladies1 and criticise too harshly4 ,perhaps the invention will come in on the ,rovers where the ladies may mount in front4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,e4 ,duryea1 of ,st4 ,louis4 ,bicycle4 ,no4 #cfd1bca4 ,patented ,june #g1 #ahhg4 ,,duryea ,,specification4 8,the improvement relates partly to the handle-bars1 partly to the pedals1 and partly to the head1 of the bicycle4 8,the advantage of this form of handle-bars is that it enables the rider to mount from in rear of the large wheel in the usual manner1 and to dismount either in the rear or in the front of the large wheel4 ,it also permits of an upward pull upon the handle in propelling the wheel4 8,the structure of the spokes1 hub1 and rim will not be claimed in this case1 as they will form the subject of another application by me for patent thereon4 8,i am aware that heretofore the handle-bar has been angled1 but know of no case where it extends backwardly1 outwardly1 and upwardly40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this idea for handle-bars has often occurred to riders of the old ,ordinary2 it would have saved many serious falls1 by way of the front dismount1 heads down4 ,the weight and complication are its defects4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,g4 ,latta1 ,friendship1 ,n4 ,y4 ,velocipede4 ,no4 #cgh1bec4 ,patented ,february #ba1 #ahhh4 ,,latta ,,specification4 8,the object of this invention is to provide a machine which is safe1 strong1 and serviceable1 and more easily steered than the machines now in use1 and also to construct the machine in such manner that the same can be folded when not required for use1 so as to require little storage-room and facilitate its transportation4 8,in bicycles of ordinary construction1 when the rider anticipates a fall it is customary to turn the steering-wheel in the direction towards which the rider is inclined to fall4 ,when the steering-wheel of my improved velocipede is deflected1 the saddle swings in an opposite direction to that in which the rider tends to fall1 which enables the rider to regain his balance with very little movement of the steering-pivot1 and also to maintain a direct course with greater ease than with the ordinary machines40 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is one of ,mr4 ,latta's weekly patents1 and is a sample of the many efforts now being made to overcome the sensitive steering qualities of the recent rear-driver4 ,the invention is also intended to answer the purpose of the 8,rothigiesser system10 spoken of in a former chapter4 ,mr4 ,pat4 ,gallagher1 of ,new ,york1 invents a tricycle with fly-wheels4 ,illustration 8,a tricycle designed to be easily operated and guided is illustrated herewith1 and has been patented by ,mr4 ,patrick ,gallagher1 of ,no4 #ade ,east ,forty-second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,it has a light but strong iron frame-work1 and is propelled by means of a crank-handle mounted in arms adjustably pivoted to uprights on the frame1 one of the ends of the crank-handle having a sprocket-wheel connected by an endless chain with a sprocket-wheel on the axle of the driving-wheels1 while the other end of the crank-handle has two fly-wheels to steady the motion of the machine1 and so that but little exertion will be required to run it after a high degree of momentum has been obtained40 ,illustration3 ,r4 ,j4 ,spalding4 ,flying-machine4 ,no4 #cih1ihd4 ,patented ,march #e1 #ahhi4 ,illustration3 ,cadiz and ,wheeling ,plank ,road4 ,,an ,,american ,,bone-,,shaker1 #ahfi4 ,as it is a common practice to present patrons with a portrait of the venturesome culprit who aspires to engage the temporary notice of the public1 by works of this kind1 it is possible that some readers may1 perchance1 procure books with such expectations in view1 and feel disappointed if no such custom has prevailed4 ,now1 therefore1 the writer has overhauled his effects and brought to light a picture which1 8though not as new as it was10 is a fair specimen of the photographer's handicraft1 which represents your hopeful tyro upon his original velocipede1 one made by himself in #ahfh-fi4 ,this machine was probably the earliest single-track crank-machine made in the ,state of ,ohio and one of the first in the ,united ,states4 ,looking at the reproduction herewith annexed1 ,i notice1 with regret1 that the rider has not improved as rapidly as have the machines4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by pluses is in small caps 7small caps74