,transcriber's ,note3 ,the author's transliteration of ,arabic words into ,english is inconsistent1 and often wrong in its usage of the and characters4 ,they have been left as printed 7except where such marks were missing entirely1 in which case they have been supplied correctly74 ,on page #adc was changed to 4 ,a ,moslem ,seeker ,after ,god ,by ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer1 ,f4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 ,mohammed or ,christ4 ,illustrated4 ,introduction by ,rt4 ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,stileman1 ,m4 ,a41 sometime ,bishop of ,persia ,an account of the rapid spread of ,islam in all parts of the globe1 the methods employed to obtain proselytes1 its immense press1 its strongholds1 and suggested means to be adopted to counteract the evil4 ,the ,disintegration of ,islam4 ,illustrated1 #abmo1 cloth ,dr4 ,zwemer traces the collapse of ,islam as a political power in ,europe1 ,asia and ,africa1 as well as the inevitable effect of the impact of ,western civilization4 ,childhood in the ,moslem ,world4 ,illustrated1 #hvo1 cloth ,both in text and illustrations1 ,dr4 ,zwemer's new book covers much ground hitherto lying untouched in ,mohammedan literature4 ,arabia3 ,the ,cradle of ,islam4 ,maps and numerous ,illustrations1 cloth 8,the comprehensive scope of the volume covers a wide range of interest1 scientific and commercial1 historical and literary1 sociological1 religious40--,outlook4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer ,zigzag ,journeys in the ,camel ,country4 ,arabia in ,picture and ,story4 ,illustrated1 #abmo1 cloth 8,dr4 and ,mrs4 ,zwemer are charming guides4 ,we commend the book highly for interest and information40--,missionary ,review of the ,world4 ,topsy-,turvy ,land4 ,arabia ,pictured for ,children4 ,illustrated1 #abmo1 cloth 8,a book of pictures and stories for big children and small grown-up folk1 for all who love ,sinbad the ,sailor and his strange country40--,boston ,globe4 ,illustration3 ,the old ruined ,mosque at ,tus1 ,persia1 probably dating from the ,eleventh ,century4 ,illustration3 ,the supposed grave of ,abu ,hamid ,al ,ghazali at ,tus4 ,a ,moslem ,seeker ,after ,god3 ,showing ,islam at its ,best in the ,life and ,teaching of ,al-,ghazali ,mystic and ,theologian of the ,eleventh ,century ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,zwemer ,author of 8,the ,disintegration of ,islam10 8,childhood in the ,moslem ,world10 etc4 ,,illustrated ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,fleming ,h4 ,revell ,company ,,london ,,and ,,edinburgh ,copyright1 #aibj1 by ,,fleming ,h4 ,,revell ,,company ,new ,york3 #aeh ,fifth ,avenue ,chicago3 #ag ,north ,wabash ,ave4 ,london3 #ba ,paternoster ,square ,edinburgh3 #ge ,princes ,street ,to the ,faculties and ,students of the ,theological ,seminary1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,n4 ,j4 and the ,college of ,missions1 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 where the several chapters of this book were given as lectures #aiah-aibj ,introduction ,by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,rendel ,,harris ,al-,ghazali was a rare combination of scholar and saint1 of the orthodox ,moslem and the aberrant ,sufi4 ,this work is a real contribution to the history of religion1 and will have a peculiar value which attaches to ,sufism at the present time4 ,on the one hand we have the anthropologists engaged in the task 7and for the most part successfully engaged7 of tracing all religions to a common root1 or roots1 in the constitution and the fears of primitive man2 on the other hand we have the mystics1 of whom the ,sufi is a leading representative1 who are occupied in demonstrating experimentally that all religions which start at the bottom find their way to the top4 ,william ,penn said something in the same direction when he affirmed that all good men were of the same religion1 and that they would know one another when the livery was off4 ,but what did he mean by taking the livery off8 ,the abstinence from rites1 ceremonies and the like is a negative process which certainly would not satisfy the genuine ,sufi4 ,he would say with ,st4 ,paul1 8,not that we would be unclothed1 but rather clothed upon1 that mortality may be swallowed up of life40 ,that is real mystic language1 and suggests that we shall know one another1 not so much by being denuded of tradition and superstition 7however desirable the process may be in some points of view71 as by putting on the robe of light and sitting down in the heavenly places with ,jesus ,christ1 and with any one else whom ,he calls into ,his companionship4 ,al-,ghazali tells us in his ,confessions that he found the true way of life in ,sufism1 that is1 in ,pantheism1 yet he remained an orthodox ,moslem1 that is1 a ,transcendentalist4 ,at the present time1 when the effects of a war of unheard and unequalled severity are still perplexing men1 the ,transcendent and the ,immanent views of ,god are alike hard put to it4 ,sufism is on its back1 ,transcendentalism can scarcely keep its feet4 ,it is a poor time of day for seeing ,god in all1 almost as ill a time for believing ,him to be over all4 ,where speculation fails1 or limps along with lame feet or with broken wing1 there must be some other way of taking us to ,god ,himself1 beyond reason and safer than imagination4 ,al-,ghazali found it1 when he abandoned his lecture-room and went into the wilderness4 ,while he still continued to recite the formulas1 which affirm the ,unity of ,god and the authority of ,his ,apostle1 he found his way into the ,sufi inner sanctuary1 where one understands that 8he who lies1 ,folded in favour on the ,sultan's breast1 ,needs not a letter nor a messenger40 ,the book tells us something about this side of his experience in the ,quest of ,life1 and when the story is finished we are reminded not to seek the ,living among the dead1 but to believe that the same ,lord is rich unto all that call upon ,him in truth4 ,j4 ,r4 ,h4 ,friends' ,settlement1 ,woodbrooke1 ,england4 ,preface ,there are a score of lives of ,mohammed1 the great ,arabian ,prophet1 in the ,english language1 yet there is no popular biography of the greatest of all ,moslems since his day1 ,al-,ghazali4 ,even the ,encyclopdia ,britannica gives only scant information4 ,professor ,duncan ,b4 ,macdonald prepared a life of ,al-,ghazali with special reference to his religious experiences and influence in a paper published in the twentieth volume of 8,the ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society0 7#ahii71 but now out of print4 ,his scholarly investigations and conclusions1 however1 deal with ,al-,ghazali's inner experiences and his philosophy1 rather than with his environment and the events of his life4 ,we acknowledge our great indebtedness to his paper and to the original ,arabic sources on which it was based1 especially the introduction to the ,commentary on the ,ihya by ,sayyid ,murtadha in ten volumes and entitled ,ithaf as-saada4 ,i have found additional material in ,al-,ghazali's writings and other books mentioned in the bibliography given in the appendix of this book1 especially the ,tabaqat ash-shafaiya by ,as-,subqi1 who wrote long before ,murtadha and to whom ,macdonald refers1 but whose work he did not use4 ,the study of ,al-,ghazali's life and writings will1 more than anything else1 awaken a deeper sympathy for that which is highest and strongest in the religion of ,islam2 for the student of his works learns to appreciate ,islam at its best4 ,as ,jalal-ud-din says3 8,fools buy false coins because they are like the true4 ,if in the world no genuine minted coin ,were current1 how would forgers pass the false8 ,falsehood were nothing unless truth were there1 ,to make it specious4 ',tis the love of right ,lures men to wrong4 ,let poison but be mixed ,with sugar1 they will cram it into their mouths4 ,oh1 cry not that all creeds are vain6 ,some scent ,of truth they have1 else they would not beguile40 ,there is a real sense in which ,al-,ghazali may be used as a schoolmaster to lead ,moslems to ,christ4 ,his books are full of references to the teaching of ,christ4 ,he was a true seeker after ,god4 ,islam is the prodigal son1 the ,ishmael1 among the non-,christian religions2 this is a fact we may not forget4 ,now we read in ,christ's matchless parable of the prodigal how 8,when he was yet a great way off his father saw him and ran out to meet him and fell on his neck and kissed him40 ,have missionaries always had this spirit8 ,no one can read the story of ,al-,ghazali's life1 so near and yet so far from the ,kingdom of ,god1 so eager to enter and yet always groping for the doorway1 without fervently wishing that ,al-,ghazali could have met a true ambassador of ,christ4 ,then surely this great champion of the ,moslem faith would have become an apostle of ,christianity in his own day and generation4 ,by striving to understand ,al-,ghazali we may at least better fit ourselves to help those who1 like him1 are earnest seekers after ,god amid the twilight shadows of ,islam4 ,his life also has a lesson for us all in its devout ,theism and in its call to the practice of the ,presence of ,god4 ,s4 ,m4 ,z4 ,cairo1 ,egypt4 ,contents ,i4 ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century #ai ,,ii4 ,,birth ,,and ,,education #ea ,,iii4 ,,teaching1 ,,conversion1 ,,and ,,retirement #ha ,,iv4 ,,wanderings1 ,,later ,,years ,,and ,,death #aaa ,v4 ,,his ,,creed ,,and ,,credulity #ade ,,vi4 ,,his ,,writings #afi ,,vii4 ,,his ,,ethics #aie ,,viii4 ,,al-,,ghazali ,,as ,a ,,mystic #bai ,,ix4 ,,jesus ,,christ ,,in ,,al-,,ghazali #bee ,,appendix3 ,a4 ,bibliography #bie ,b4 ,translations of ,al-,ghazali's ,works #big ,c4 ,list of ,al-,ghazali's ,works #bii ,d4 ,comparative ,table of ,events #cjc ,illustrations ,the old ruined ,mosque at ,tus1 ,persia1 probably dating from the ,eleventh ,century ,frontispiece ,the supposed grave of ,abu ,hamid ,al-,ghazali at ,tus 0 ,facing page ,the ,east ,gate1 ,damascus #ed ,interior of the ,great ,mosque at ,damascus4 ,in the center the ,mihrab showing the direction of prayer and to the right the ,great ,pulpit #ajf ,the ,dome of the ,rock1 ,jerusalem1 as seen from the ,lutheran ,church #abf ,pen-case of ,al-,ghazali1 made of brass inlaid with silver1 preserved in the ,arab ,museum1 ,cairo #agb ,a facsimile page of the ,ihya 7,vol4 ,,ii1 page #ahj1 ,cairo ,ed474 ,it gives a diagram of the prayer kibla and the rules to be observed in facing it correctly #ahj ,facsimile title page of the last book ,al-,ghazali wrote1 entitled 8,minhaj ,al-,abidin40 ,on the margin this ,cairo edition gives another of his celebrated works1 8,badayat-al-,hadaya0 #bcb ,a ,mihrab or prayer-niche made of cedar wood and dating from the ,eleventh ,century4 7,cairo ,museum7 #bdb ,i ,the ,eleventh ,century 8,between the civilizations of ,christendom and ,islam there is a gulf which no human genius1 no concourse of events1 can entirely bridge over4 ,the most celebrated ,orientals1 whether in war or policy1 in literature or learning1 are little more than names for ,europeans40 --8,the ,assemblies of ,al-,hariri10 by ,thomas ,chenery4 8,with the time came the man4 ,he was ,al-,ghazali1 the greatest1 certainly the most sympathetic figure in the history of ,islam1 and the only teacher of the after generations ever put by a ,muslim on a level with the four great ,imams4 ,the equal of ,augustine in philosophical and theological importance4 ,by his side the ,aristotelian philosophers of ,islam1 ,ibn ,rushd and all the rest1 seem beggarly compilers and scholiasts4 ,only ,al-,farabi1 and that in virtue of his mysticism1 approaches him4 ,in his own person he took up the life of his time on all its sides and with it all its problems4 ,he lived through them all and drew his theology from his experience40 --8,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theory10 by ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald4 ,i ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century ,the great characters of history may be compared to mountain peaks that rise high above the plains and the lower foot-hills and are visible from great distances because they dominate the landscape4 ,in the historical study of ,islam four names stand out prominently4 ,they are those of ,mohammed himself2 of ,al-,bokhari1 the most celebrated collector of the ,traditions2 of ,al-,ashari1 the great dogmatic theologian and the opponent of rationalism2 and of ,al-,ghazali1 the reformer and mystic4 ,the last named has left a larger imprint upon the history of ,islam than any man save ,mohammed himself4 8,if there had been a prophet after ,mohammed10 said ,as-,suyuti1 8it would have been ,al-,ghazali40 ,it is in his life1 and more especially in his writings1 that ,i believe we can see ,islam at its best4 ,in trying to escape the dead weight of ,tradition and the formalism of its requirements1 ,moslems are more and more finding relief in the way of the mystic4 ,of all those who have found a deeper spiritual meaning in the teachings of the ,koran and even in the multitudinous and puerile detail of the ,moslem ritual1 none can equal ,al-,ghazali4 8,he was10 says ,jamal-ud-,din1 8the pivot of existence and the common pool of refreshing waters for all1 the soul of the purest part of the people of the ,faith1 and the road for obtaining the satisfaction of the ,merciful4444 ,he became the unique one of his own day and for all time among the ,moslem learned40 8,al-,ghazali10 said another writer1 nearly contemporary1 8is an imam by whose name breasts are dilated and souls revived1 in whose literary productions the ink horn exults and the paper quivers with joy1 and at the hearing of whose message voices are hushed and heads are bowed40 ,a celebrated saint1 ,ahmed ,as-,sayyed ,al-,yamani ,az-,zabdi1 also a contemporary of ,al-,ghazali1 said1 8,when ,i was sitting one day1 lo1 ,i perceived the gates of heaven opened1 and a company of blessed angels descended1 having with them a green robe and a precious steed4 ,they stood by a certain grave and brought forth its tenant and clothed him in the green robe and set him on the steed and ascended with him from heaven to heaven1 till he passed the seven heavens and rent after them sixty veils1 and ,i know not whither at last he reached4 ,then ,i asked about him1 and was answered1 #8,this is the ,imam ,al-,ghazali4' ,that was after his death2 may ,god ,most ,high have mercy on him60 ,another story is related of him as follows3 8,in our time there was a man in ,egypt who disliked ,al-,ghazali and abused him and slandered him4 ,and he saw the ,prophet 7,god bless him and give him peace67 in a dream2 ,abu ,bakr and ,omar 7may ,god be well pleased with both of them67 were at his side1 and ,al-,ghazali was sitting before him1 saying1 #8,o ,apostle of ,god1 this man speaks against me6' ,thereupon the ,prophet said1 #8,bring the whips6' ,so the man was beaten on account of ,al-,ghazali4 ,then the man arose from sleep1 and the marks of the whips remained on his back1 and he was wont to weep and tell the story40 ,and should this praise seem oriental and extravagant1 we add the words of ,professor ,duncan ,b4 ,macdonald1 who has made a more thorough study of ,al-,ghazali's life and writings than any other student of ,islam3--8,what rigidity of grasp the hand of ,islam would have exercised but for the influence of ,al-,ghazali might be hard to tell2 he saved it from scholastic decrepitude1 opened before the orthodox ,moslem the possibility of a life hid in ,god1 was persecuted in his life as a heretic1 and now ranks as the greatest doctor of the ,moslem ,church40 ,to understand the importance of ,al-,ghazali and of his teaching we must transport ourselves to the time in which he lived4 ,we cannot understand a man unless we know his environment4 ,biography is only a thread in the vast web of history1 in which time is broad as well as long4 ,al-,ghazali belongs to the small company of torch bearers in the ,dark ,ages4 ,he was born at ,tus1 in ,khorasan1 ,persia1 in the year #ajeh ,a4 ,d41 and died in #aaaa ,a4 ,d4 ,when ,al-,ghazali was born ,togrul ,bey had just taken ,bagdad1 ,henry ,,iv was ,emperor1 ,nicholas ,,ii was ,pope1 the ,norman conquest had just begun in the west1 and ,asia ,minor was overrun by the ,turks in the ,near ,east4 ,among ,al-,ghazali's other contemporaries in the west were ,hildebrand the ,pope1 ,abelard1 ,bernard1 ,anselm1 and ,peter the ,hermit4 ,about the time he wrote his greatest work1 ,godfrey of ,bouillon was ,king of ,jerusalem4 ,al-,ghazali was struggling with the problem of ,islam in its relation to the human heart thirsting for ,god1 about two hundred years after ,al-,kindi had written his remarkable apology for the ,christian faith at the court of ,haroun-ar-,rashd and two hundred years before ,raymond ,lull laid down his life a martyr in ,north ,africa4 ,the condition of the ,moslem world had utterly changed since the days when ,busrah with its rival city ,kufa were dominated by the victorious ,arabs of ,omar's ,caliphate4 ,the ,abbasside ,caliphs of the eleventh century were almost as much the shadows of former power as the ,emperors of the ,east2 they retained little more than their religious supremacy4 ,togrul ,bey1 the grandson of ,seljuk1 had been confirmed by the powerless ,caliph ,al-,qaim bi-amr ,allah1 in all his conquests1 loaded with honours1 saluted as ,king of the ,east and ,west1 and endowed with the hand of the ,caliph's daughter4 ,in the next reign1 that of ,al-,muqtadi1 the ,seljuk ,turks captured ,jerusalem4 8,about the year #ajjj10 says ,nldeke1#a 8,islam was in a very bad way4 ,the ,abbasside ,caliphate had long ceased to be of any importance1 the power of the ,arabs had long ago been broken4 ,there was a multitude of ,islamite ,states1 great and small2 but even the most powerful of these1 that of the ,fatimids1 was very far from being able to give solidity to the whole1 especially as it was ,shiite4444 ,these nomads 7the ,turks7 caused dreadful devastation1 trampled to the ground the flourishing civilization of vast territories1 and contributed almost nothing to the culture of the human race2 but they mightily strengthened the religion of ,mohammed4 ,the rude ,turks took up with zeal the faith which was just within reach of their intellectual powers1 and they became its true1 often fanatical1 champions against the outside world4 ,they founded the powerful empire of the ,seljuks1 and conquered new regions for ,islam in the northwest4 ,after the downfall of the ,seljuk empire they still continued to be the ruling people in all its older portions4 ,had not the warlike character of ,islam been revived by the ,turks1 the ,crusaders perhaps might have had some prospect of more enduring success40 ,togrul ,bey was invested with the title of ,sultan in the royal city of ,nishapur1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajch4 ,according to ,gibbon1 he was the 8father of his soldiers and of his people4 ,by a firm and equal administration ,persia was relieved from the evils of anarchy2 and the same hands which had been imbrued in blood became the guardians of justice and the public peace4 ,the more rustic1 perhaps the wisest1 portion of the ,turkmans continued to dwell in the tents of their ancestors2 and1 from the ,oxus to the ,euphrates1 these military colonies were protected and propagated by their native princes4 ,but the ,turks of the court and city were refined by business and softened by pleasure3 they imitated the dress1 language1 and manners of ,persia2 and the royal palaces of ,nishapur and ,rei displayed the order and magnificence of a great monarchy4 ,the most deserving of the ,arabians and ,persians were promoted to the honours of the state2 and the whole body of the ,turkish nation embraced with fervour and sincerity the religion of ,mahomet40#b ,the first of the great ,seljuk ,sultans was conspicuous by his zeal for the ,moslem faith4 ,he spent much time in prayer1 and in every city which he conquered built new mosques4 ,by force of arms he delivered the ,caliph of ,bagdad at the head of an irresistible force and taught the people of ,mosul and ,bagdad the lesson of obedience4 ,rescued from his enemies1 the alliance between the ,caliph and the ,sultan was cemented by the marriage of ,togrul's sister with the successor of the ,prophet4 ,in #ajfc ,togrul died and his nephew ,alp ,arslan succeeded him4 ,his name1 therefore1 was pronounced after that of the ,caliph in public prayer by all the ,moslems of the ,near ,east4 ,the character of his rule ,gibbon gives us in a sentence3 8,the myriads of ,turkish horse overspread a frontier of #fjj miles from ,taurus to ,erzeroum1 and the blood of #acf1jjj ,christians was a grateful sacrifice to the ,arabian prophet40 ,the 8valiant lion10 for that is the significance of his name1 displayed at once the fierceness and generosity of a typical ,oriental ruler4 ,christians suffered dreadful persecution4 ,enemies were assassinated2 but the learned1 the rich1 and the favoured were lavishly rewarded4 ,arslan was a valiant warrior of the faith and as eager for the battlefield as those whom ,moore describes3-- 8,one of that saintly murderous brood ,to carnage and the ,koran given1 ,who think through unbeliever's blood ,lies their directest path to heaven4 ,one who will pause and kneel unshod ,in the warm blood his hand hath poured ,to mutter o'er some text of ,god ,engraven on his reeking sword40 ,armenia was laid waste in the cruelest manner when the capital was taken on ,june #f1 #ajfd4 ,we are told that 8human blood flowed in torrents1 and so great was the carnage1 that the streets were literally choked up with dead bodies2 and the waters of the river were reddened from the quantity of bloody corpses40 ,the wealthy inhabitants were tortured1 the churches pillaged1 and the priests flayed alive4 ,al-,ghazali was then six years old4 ,in #ajgb ,alp ,arslan was assassinated4 ,his eldest son1 ,malek ,shah1 succeeded him4 ,he extended the conquests of his father beyond the ,oxus as far as ,bokhara and ,samarkand1 until his name was inserted on the coins and in the prayers of the ,tartar kingdom on the borders of ,china4 8,from the ,chinese frontiers1 he stretched his immediate jurisdiction or feudatory sway to the west and south1 as far as the mountains of ,georgia1 the neighbourhood of ,constantinople1 the holy city of ,jerusalem1 and the spicy groves of ,arabia ,felix4 ,instead of resigning himself to the luxury of the harem1 the shepherd king1 both in peace and war1 was in action in the field40 ,nizam ,al-,mulk was his vizier1 and it is largely due to his influence that the study of science and literature revived to such a remarkable degree4 ,the calendar was reformed1 schools and colleges erected1 and the learned competed with each other for the favour of royalty4 ,for thirty years ,nizam ,al-,mulk was honoured by the ,caliph as the very oracle of religion and science4 ,but at the age of ninety-three1 the venerable statesman1 to whom1 as we shall see later1 ,al-,ghazali owed so much1 was dismissed by his master1 accused by his enemies1 and murdered by a fanatic4 ,the last words of ,nizam attested his innocence1 and the remainder of ,malek's life was short and inglorious4 ,the ,arabic language had become dominant everywhere4 ,its vocabulary had leavened the whole lump of languages in the ,near ,east4 ,every race with which the ,arabs came in contact was more or less ,arabized4 8,the extent of this influence10 says ,chenery1#c 8may be perceived by comparing the ,persian of ,firdausi with that of ,sadi4 ,the language of the former1 who flourished in the early part of our eleventh century1 is tolerably pure1 while the ,gulistan1 which was produced some two hundred and fifty years later1 is in some places little more than a piecing together of ,arabic words with a cement of the original tongue4 ,it is to be noticed1 also1 that the latter author introduces continually ,arabic verses1 as the highest ornaments of his work1 and assumes that his readers are acquainted with this classic and sacred tongue40 ,trade routes extended everywhere4 ,there was intercourse with ,india and ,china on the east1 as well as with the ,spice ,islands1 so called1 of ,malaysia4 ,caravans carried trade across the whole of ,central ,asia and ,northern ,arabia to the emporiums of the ,west4 ,spain had intercourse with ,persia4 ,al-,hariri praises ,busrah 8as the spot where the ship and the camel meet1 the sea fish and the lizard1 the camel-leader and the sailor1 the fisher and the tiller40 ,in other words it was the port and emporium for all the lands watered by the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,the same was true of ,alexandria for the ,west4 ,we have evidences that an extensive trade was carried on between ,arabia and ,china in walrus and ivory4 ,an extensive work exists written in ,chinese in the twelfth century on trade with the ,arabs of which a recent translation has been published at ,petrograd4 ,more remarkable still is the fact that in ,scandinavia thousands of ,kufic coins have been found1 nearly all of which date from the eleventh century4 ,this would indicate that even this remote part of ,europe was in touch with the ,near ,east4#d ,judging from literature and history1 it was a time of looseness of morals and of divorce between religion and ethics1 even more startling than in the world of ,islam to-day4 ,there were those who wrote commentaries on the marvels of the ,koran1 like ,al-,harawi1 yet did not scruple to indulge in private wine-drinking and carousals and loose conversation4 ,the place of wine1 women1 and song1 not only in popular literature and poetry1 but even in the table talk of theologians and philosophers is clear evidence4 ,huart remarks in regard to the celebrated 8,book of the ,monasteries10 which is an anthology of the convents of the ,near ,east3 8,we must not forget that1 when ,moslems went to ,christian cloisters1 it was not to seek devotional impulses1 but simply for the sake of an opportunity of drinking wine1 the use of which was forbidden in the ,mohammedan towns4 ,the poets1 out of gratitude1 sang the praises of the blessed spots where they had enjoyed the delights of intoxication40 ,those who dared to preach and write against this public immorality had to suffer the consequences2 and because hypocrites were in power reformers were not heeded4 ,we read of ,ibn ,hamdun 7#aaja-aafg71 that when he openly attacked the evils which he saw around him in ,bagdad1 he was dismissed from his public office as secretary of state1 cast into prison1 and left to die4 ,punishments were cruel4 ,amputations for theft1 in accordance with the ,koran legislation1 were matters of such every-day occurrence that the maimed man was always a suspect4 ,we read of ,al-,zamakhshari1 that one of his feet had been frost-bitten during a winter storm1 necessitating an amputation1 and so he went about with a wooden leg1 but he also carried about with him a written testimony of witnesses to prove that he had been maimed by accident1 and not in punishment for a crime4 ,al-,baihaki1 the chronicler of the court at ,bagdad1 shows us that the zeal for the faith was often accompanied by a reckless disregard for the law of ,islam as regards the use of fermented liquor4 ,not only the soldiers and their officers had drunken brawls1 but the ,sultan ,masud used to enjoy regular bouts in which he frequently saw his fellow topers 8under the table40 ,here is a scene represented as having taken place at ,ghazni1 the capital of ,khorasan province4 8,fifty goblets and flagons of wine were brought from the pavilion into the garden1 and the cups began to go round4 #8,fair measure1' said the amir1 #8and equal cups--let us drink fair4' ,they grew merry and the minstrels sang4 ,one of the courtiers had finished five tankards--each held nearly a pint of wine--but the sixth confused him1 the seventh bereft him of his senses1 and at the eighth he was consigned to his servants4 ,the doctor was carried off at his fifth cup2 ,khalil ,dawud managed ten1 ,siyabiruz nine1 and then they were taken home2 everybody rolled or was rolled away1 till only the ,sultan and the ,khwaja ,abd-ar-,razzak remained4 ,the ,khwaja finished eighteen goblets and then rose1 saying1 #8,if your slave has any more he will lose both his wits and his respect for your ,majesty4' ,masud went on alone1 and after he had drunk twenty-seven full cups1 he too arose1 called for water and prayer-carpet1 washed1 and recited the belated noon and sunset prayers together as soberly as if he had not tasted a drop2 then mounted his elephant and rode to the palace40#e ,masud was put to death in #ajdj4 ,his sons and descendants for more than a century ruled this part of the ,moslem world4 ,but ,ghazni fell from the proud position of the capital of a kingdom to a mere dependency of the ,empire of ,malek ,shah4 ,the eleventh century was a period when the nations of ,western ,europe were beginning to crystallize both as regards their governments and civilization4 ,their influence was felt at home and abroad1 although the masses were still in the depths of barbarism4 ,among the clergy and nobility something of order and civilization1 and social development had appeared1 but we are told by one writer that it was a striking characteristic of the time to find side by side with barbarian violence and disorder1 and the constant display of the most brutal passions1 a strong religious feeling4 ,this feeling often took the form of superstition and fanaticism1 the performance of meritorious works1 especially a pilgrimage to the holy sepulcher4 ,thousands risked their life and health1 and spent all their fortune to reach the holy city1 with the same devotion and sacrifice which we still witness among the ardent ,russian pilgrims of to-day4 ,when ,asia ,minor and ,syria were conquered by the ,turks this access to ,jerusalem was cut off4 ,in #ajgf 7,al-,ghazali was then eighteen years old7 they massacred three thousand of these ,christian people and their subsequent rule was relentless in its tyranny4 ,we read that 8the venerable ,patriarch was dragged by the hair along the streets1 and cast into a dungeon2 the clergy of every sect were insulted2 and the unhappy pilgrims were made to suffer every indignity and abuse40 ,this treatment of ,christian pilgrims produced a storm of indignation and anger throughout the ,west4 ,peter the ,hermit himself visited ,jerusalem and returned to ,europe to arouse the nations4 ,the result was the first ,crusade1 in which ,pope ,urban ,,ii coperated4 ,three hundred thousand half-armed1 half-naked peasants forced their way across ,europe along the ,rhine and the ,danube4 ,only one-third of their number reached the shores of ,asia4 ,there they were utterly destroyed and only a pyramid of bones remained to tell of their fate4 ,the ,crusade under ,godfrey of ,bouillon was a well-appointed military expedition embracing the flower of ,europe4 ,there are said to have been mustered in the plains of ,bithynia one hundred thousand horsemen in full armour and six hundred thousand footmen4 ,these numbers may be exaggerated1 and pestilence and famine thinned their ranks1 but in less than three years they had attained the great object of their expedition4 ,in #ajig they laid siege to ,nicea and captured it4 ,they advanced against ,antioch and after seven weary months laid siege to the city4 ,in #ajii they advanced on ,jerusalem and after a siege of forty days the holy city surrendered4 8,the merciless ,franks did not fail to inflict a terrible vengeance for their own sufferings and the indignities which had been heaped upon their religion and their race4 ,the ,jews were burned in their synagogues2 and seventy thousand ,moslems were put to the sword4 ,for three days the city was given up to indiscriminate pillage and massacre1 until a pestilence was bred by the putrefaction of the slain40 ,soon ,godfrey and his successors extended their dominions until only four cities1 ,aleppo1 ,damascus1 ,hamath1 and ,hums remained in the possession of the ,moslems in ,syria4 ,everywhere the followers of the ,prophet were filled with grief and shame and with a great longing to wipe away the disgrace which had fallen on their religion4 8,in the year #dib ,a4 ,h410 says ,muir1#f 8consternation was spread throughout the land by the capture of ,jerusalem1 and cruel treatment of its inhabitants4 ,preachers went about proclaiming the sad story1 kindling revenge1 and rousing men to recover from infidel hands the ,mosque of ,omar1 and scene of the ,prophet's heavenly flight4 ,but whatever the success elsewhere1 the mission failed in the ,east1 which was occupied with its own troubles1 and moreover cared little for the ,holy ,land1 dominated as it then was by the ,fatimide faith4 ,crowds of exiles1 driven for refuge to ,bagdad1 and joined there by the populace1 cried out for war against the ,franks4 ,but neither ,sultan nor ,caliph had ears to hear4 ,for two ,fridays the insurgents1 with this cry1 stormed the ,great ,mosque1 broke the pulpit and throne of the ,caliph in pieces1 and shouted down the service2 but that was all4 ,no army went40 ,among ,moslems themselves religious rancour abounded4 ,at present the four orthodox sects worship together and live in peace as neighbours1 but in those days there were frequent and hot disputes between the rival schools and much controversial literature arose1 so that the hatred between the sects was deep and bitter4 ,the ,persian historian1 ,mirkhond1 has recorded a fact which shows how implacable the feeling had become towards the close of the ,caliphate4 ,when the ,mongols of ,genghiz ,khan appeared before the city of ,rei1 they found it divided into two factions--the one composed of ,shafiites1 the other of ,hanifites4 ,the former at once entered into secret negotiations undertaking to deliver up the city at night1 on condition that the ,mongols massacred the members of the other sect4 ,the ,mongols1 never reluctant to shed blood1 gladly accepted these proposals1 and being admitted into the city1 slaughtered the ,hanifites without mercy4 ,it was in this atmosphere of mutual hatred1 of war and bloodshed1 that ,al-,ghazali spent the last years of his life4 ,we may excuse in him much of what would otherwise seem intolerant and hateful1 when we remember how the passion of war blinds human judgment and makes it impossible to see any virtue in the invader4 ,we must not forget that ,al-,ghazali came into close touch with ,oriental ,christians from his boyhood4#g ,christianity was established in ,persia at the time of the ,moslem conquest1 and the ,nestorian ,church withstood its terrific impact when ,zoroastrianism was almost destroyed4 ,the coming of the ,arabs meant to the ,christians only a change of masters4 ,the ,nestorians became the rayah1 8people of protection10 of the ,caliphs4 ,they did not immediately sink into their present deplorable condition4 ,they still conducted foreign missions and during the entire ,abbasside period remained a very important factor of civilization in the ,east4 ,they were permitted to restore their ,churches1 but not to build new ones2 they were forbidden to bear arms or ride a horse1 save in case of necessity1 and they even then had to dismount on meeting a ,moslem2 they were subject to the usual poll-tax4 ,yet the ,nestorians were the most powerful non-,moslem community while the ,caliphs reigned at ,bagdad 7#gej-abeh71 and had a higher tradition of civilization than their masters4 ,they were used at court as physicians1 scribes1 and secretaries1 and thus gained great influence1 having much freedom in canonical matters1 elected ,patriarchs1 etc4 ,the ,arab scholarship which came to ,spain1 and was a great factor in medival learning1 begins in great part with the ,nestorians of ,bagdad4 ,they handed on to their ,arab masters the ,greek culture which was inherited in ,syriac translations4 ,so we find the ,caliphs treating them as chief of the ,christian communities1 and at times civil authority over all ,christians had been given to the ,nestorian ,patriarch4 ,early in the eleventh century ,al-,biruni1 a ,moslem writer from ,khiva1 mentions the ,nestorians as the most civilized of the ,christian communities under the ,caliph4 ,he says that there are three sects of ,christians--,melchites1 ,nestorians and ,jacobites4 8,the most numerous of them are the ,melchites and ,nestorians2 because ,greece and the adjacent countries are all inhabited by ,melchites1 whilst the majority of the inhabitants of ,syria1 ,irak and ,mesopotamia and ,khorasan are ,nestorians40#h ,al-,ghazali spent his first twenty years in ,khorasan4 ,did he ever become acquainted with ,christianity through perusal of the ,gospel8 ,we know that ,arabic1 if not ,persian1 translations existed at this period2 and not only are there many references to ,christ and ,his teaching in ,al-,ghazali's works1 but there are some very few passages accurate enough to be called quotations4 ,he himself states as we shall see later3 8,i have read in the ,gospel40 ,that there were translations of the ,bible into ,arabic to which ,al-,ghazali may have had access is probable4 ,dr4 ,kilgour tells of ,arabic ,gospel manuscripts of the ninth century and of translations of the ,old ,testament and portions of the ,new made in the ,fayyoum before #idb ,a4 ,d4 8,to the tenth century belong versions of some books of the ,old ,testament from ,syriac1 others from the ,,lxx41 and from the ,coptic2 and some fresh translations of the ,pentateuch1 using the ,samaritan text as well as the ,massoretic40#i ,diglot manuscripts in ,syriac and ,arabic are quite numerous4 ,the manuscript of the four ,gospels1 of which a few leaves are now in the ,british ,museum1 is a good specimen of such a diglot4 ,it was brought by ,tischendorf from the ,syrian ,convent of ,st4 ,mary ,deipara in the ,nitrian ,desert4 ,in the early part of the eleventh century an ,arabic scholar made a version of ,tatian's ,diatessaron1 that early ,syriac ,harmony of the ,gospels which helped the ,christian ,church to realize the main facts concerning our ,saviour4 ,a version of the ,psalms was prepared in the middle of the same century for use in the ,church services of the papal or ,melchite ,greeks4 ,this was translated from the ,greek ,psalter1 and1 from the place where it was first printed1 became known afterwards as the ,aleppo ,psalter4#aj ,it remains an interesting question whether ,al-,ghazali in his travels1 or while still in ,khorasan1 ever examined the ,new ,testament4 ,we are told that the ,jews translated their law into ,persian by #hbg ,a4 ,d4 ,it is1 therefore1 hard to acquit the ,christians of ,persia of negligence4 ,their bishops found time to write learned treatises in ,persian and ,arabic1 and even to translate ,aristotle1 but not to give ,moslems the ,scriptures4 ,yet ,al-,kindi and others like him1 many of whose names and writings are lost1 were not afraid to give their testimony even at the court of the ,caliphs4 8,the ,church10 says ,w4 ,t4 ,whiteley1#aa 8had not failed to exercise an influence on ,islam around it1 while ,christians might not1 on peril of death1 seek to win converts direct1 a command occasionally violated with honour and success1 yet all the development of ,islam at ,damascus and ,bagdad was in a ,christian atmosphere40 ,the ,christianity of that period was1 however1 not the religion of ,christ in its purity nor after the example of ,his love and toleration4 ,mutual hatred and suspicion prevented real intercourse of those who1 as devout ,christians and devout ,moslems1 were both seeking ,god4 ,the ,moslem was feared and the ,christian despised4 ,the followers of ,jesus were the enemies of ,allah in the eyes of ,moslems4 ,how ,christians were regarded at this time we may learn from the books of canon law of this period1 and that immediately following upon it4 ,they were considered infidels in the ,moslem sense of the word1 and were protected only by the payment of a poll tax1 which gave them certain rights as subjects4 ,the most distinguished jurist of the ,shafiite sect1 ,an-,nawawi1 who taught at ,damascus in #abfg1 lays down the law#ab as follows3 8,an infidel who has to pay his poll tax should be treated by the tax collector with disdain2 the collector remaining seated and the infidel standing before him1 the head bent and the body bowed4 ,the infidel should personally place the money in the balance1 while the collector holds him by the beard and strikes him upon both cheeks4 ,infidels should be forbidden to have houses higher than those of their ,moslem neighbours1 or even to have them as high2 a rule1 however1 that does not apply to the infidels who inhabit a separate quarter4 ,an infidel subject of our ,sovereign may not ride a horse2 but a donkey or a mule is permitted him1 whatever may be its value4 ,he must use an ikaf1 and wooden spurs1 those of iron being forbidden him1 as well as a saddle4 ,he must go to the side of the road to let a ,moslem pass4 ,he must not be treated as a person of importance1 nor given the first place at a gathering4 ,he should be distinguished by a suit of coloured cloth and a girdle outside his clothes4 ,if he enters a bathing house where there are ,moslems1 or if he undresses anywhere else in their presence1 the infidel should wear round his neck an iron or leaden necklace1 or some other mark of servitude4#ac ,he is forbidden to offend ,moslems1 either by making them hear his false doctrines1 or by speaking aloud of ,esdras or of the ,messiah1 or by ostentatiously drinking wine or eating pork4 ,and infidels are forbidden to sound the bells of their churches or of their synagogues1 or celebrate ostentatiously their sacrilegious rites40#ad 8,the history of ,christian communities10 says ,margoliouth1#ae 8under ,moslem rule cannot be adequately written2 the members of those communities had no opportunity of describing their condition safely1 and the ,moslems naturally devote little space to their concerns4 ,generally speaking1 they seem to have been regarded as certain old ,greek and ,roman sages regarded women3 as a necessary annoyance4 ,owing to their being unarmed their prosperity was always hazardous2 and though it is true that this was the case with all the subjects of a despotic state under an irresponsible ruler1 the non-,moslem population was at the mercy of the mob as well as of the sovereign2 they were likely scapegoats whenever there was distress1 and even in the best governed countries periods of distress frequently arose40 ,there are darker shades in the treatment of ,christians and in the moral condition of this period over which one might well draw the veil1 but some of the chapters of ,ghazali's ,ihya reflect such terrible conditions as ,margoliouth describes3 8,a form of passion which is nameless would appear at one time to have been as familiar among ,moslems as of old among ,hellenes4 ,christian lads seem often to have been the unhappy objects of this passion4 ,a story is told us by the biographer ,yakut of a young monk of ,edessa or ,urfah who had the misfortune to attract the fancy of one ,saad the copyist4 ,the visits and attentions of this ,moslem became so offensive that the monks had to put a stop to them4 ,thereupon this personage pined away1 and was finally found dead outside the monastery wall4 ,the ,moslem population declared that the monks had killed him1 and the governor proposed to execute and burn the young monk who had occasioned the disaster1 and scourge his colleagues4 ,they finally got off by paying a sum of #ajj1jjj dirhems40 ,not only among ,moslems1 however1 but among ,christians as well1 morals were at a low ebb in the eleventh century4 ,one of the annalists of the ,roman ,church says it was an iron age barren of all goodness1 a leaden age abounding in all wickedness4 8,christ was then1 as it appears1 in a very deep sleep1 when the ship was covered with waves2 and what seemed worse1 when the ,lord was thus asleep1 there were no disciples1 who by their cries might awaken him1 being themselves all fast asleep40 ,enemies of the ,papacy have perhaps exaggerated the vices and crimes of the popes in this and the preceding century2 but the ,church1 on the testimony of its own writers1 was immersed in profaneness1 sensuality1 and lewdness4 ,when ,otho ,i1 ,emperor of ,germany1 came to ,rome1 he introduced moral reforms by the power of the sword1 but according to ,milner1#af 8,the effect of ,otho's regulations was that the popes exchanged the vices of the rake and the debauchee for those of the ambitious politician and the hypocrite2 and gradually recovered1 by a prudent conduct1 the domineering ascendency1 which had been lost by vicious excesses4 ,but this did not begin to take place till the latter end of the eleventh century40 ,missionary effort in this century was confined to work in ,hungary1 the unevangelized portions of ,denmark1 ,poland1 and ,prussia4 ,adam of ,bremen1 who wrote in #ajhj1 says3 8,look at the very ferocious nation of the ,danes4 ,for a long time they have been accustomed1 in the praises of ,god1 to resound ,alleluia4 ,look at that piratical people4 ,they are now content with the fruits of their own country4 ,look at that horrid region1 formerly altogether inaccessible on account of idolatry2 they now eagerly admit the preachers of the word40 ,the ,prussians continued pagans in a great measure throughout this century4 ,we read that eighteen missionaries sent out to labour among them were massacred4 ,they seemed to have been among the last of the ,european nations to submit to the yoke of ,christ4 ,the noblest figure of the century in the ,west1 in the annals of ,christendom1 was undoubtedly that of ,anselm4 ,he was born about the time of ,al-,ghazali1 and died in #aaji4 ,his life in many respects is a parallel to that of his contemporary4 ,both were theologians and both were mystics1 seeking rest for their souls in withdrawing from the world and its allurements4 ,both were apologists for the ,faith and opponents of infidelity and philosophy4 ,both exerted an immense influence by their writings as well as through teaching2 and if ,al-,ghazali sought the revival of religious life in ,islam through his ,ihya1 ,anselm gave employment to his active mind in writing his celebrated treatise 8,cur ,deus ,homo80 ,both of them refuted philosophers in their effort to establish the ,faith4 ,it is interesting to note in this connection that ,anselm's famous book is now used in ,arabic translation by missionaries to ,moslems1 and that ,al-,ghazali's 8,confessions0 have been put into the hands of the ,english reader as a testimony of his sincerity and devotion4 ,both ,anselm and ,al-,ghazali lived and wrote under a deep consciousness of the world to come1 the terrors of the judgment day1 and the doom of the wicked4 ,this also was characteristic of the times4 ,to understand the time in which ,al-,ghazali lived we must also remember that it was one of great literary activity under the ,abbasside ,caliphs of ,bagdad and the ,seljuk sultans4 ,we have seen how rulers rewarded literary genius1 established schools1 and furthered education on religious lines4 ,arabic literature affords a galaxy of names during the latter half of the eleventh century in almost every department of ,moslem learning4 ,among ,ghazali's celebrated contemporaries1 men of literary fame1 we may mention ,abiwardi 7d4 #aaac71 the poet2 ,ibn ,al-,khayyat1 who was born at ,damascus in #ajeh and died in ,persia in #aabe2 ,al-,ghazi 7b4 #ajdi71 who composed elegies and panegyrics at ,nizamiyya ,college1 was a college mate of ,ghazali's1 and died in ,khorasan2 ,al-,tarabalusi 7b4 #ajhj71 a younger contemporary4 ,but the most famous poet of all was ,al-,hariri 7#ajed-aabb71 whose 8,assemblies0 throw so much light on the manners and morals of this period4 ,among the men at the ,nizamiyya ,university were ,al-,khatb 7b4 #ajcj71 the great philologist2 and ,ibn ,al-,arabi1 born at ,seville in #ajgf1 who visited ,bagdad to attend the teaching of ,al-,ghazali4 ,the greatest of all the ,shafiite doctors1 ,al-,ruyani1 was also a contemporary of ,al-,ghazali4 ,he taught at ,nishapur and wrote the most voluminous book on jurisprudence in existence1 called 8,the ,sea of ,doctrine40 ,in #aajh1 just as he had finished one of his lectures he was murdered by a fanatic of the ,assassin sect1 who were then holding the castle of ,alamut in the mountains4 ,we must also mention a schoolmate of ,al-,ghazali1 ,al-,harrasi 7#ajeh-aaaj71 who studied at ,nishapur under the ,imam ,al-,haramain1 was made his assistant1 and then went to ,bagdad1 where he taught theology in the ,nizamiyya ,university for the rest of his life4 ,nor must we forget ,al-,baghawi1 who wrote a famous commentary on the ,koran1 and other works of theology 7#aabb72 ,al-,raghib ,al-,ispahani1 who died in #aajh1 and wrote a dictionary of the ,koran1 arranged in alphabetical order1 called ,mufradat alfaz ,al-,koran1 with quotations from the traditions and from the poets2 he also wrote a treatise on morals1 which ,al-,ghazali always carried about with him 7,kitab ad-dharia71 and a commentary on the ,koran4 ,among the early contemporaries of ,al-,ghazali we must not forget to mention ,ali bin ,uthman ,al-,jullabi ,al-,hujwiri1 the author of the oldest ,persian treatise on ,sufism extant4 ,he was born in ,ghazni1 ,afghanistan1 and died in ,a4 ,d4 #ajfb1 when ,al-,ghazali was fourteen years old4 ,al-,hujwiri travelled far and wide through the ,mohammedan ,empire and his famous work ,kashf al-,mahjub anticipates much of the teaching of ,al-,ghazali1 who must have been familiar with this author4 ,and to complete this already long list of celebrities1 we may mention ,al-,maidani of ,nishapur1 who died in #aabd1 having written a great work on ,arabic proverbs2 ,al-,zamakhshari1 born in #ajgd1 who wrote a famous commentary on the ,koran2 ,ibn ,tumart1 the noted philosopher of the ,west who attended ,al-,ghazali's lectures at ,nizamiyya2 and ash-,shahristani who wrote on the various religions and sects--the standard work among all ,moslems to-day on comparative religion4 ,the period was in many respects the golden age of ,islamic literature1 and it is high praise indeed that1 in the judgment of ,moslem and ,christian1 ,al-,ghazali surpassed all his literary contemporaries1 if not in style and eloquence1 at least in the scope and character of his writings--still more by the enduring and outreaching influence of his life4 ,the story of that life and the character of his message we will now attempt to sketch for the reader4 ,,ii ,birth and ,education 8,ghazali is without doubt the most remarkable figure in all ,islam4 ,his doctrine is the expression of his own personality4 ,he abandoned the attempt to understand this world4 ,but the religious problem he comprehended much more profoundly than did the philosophers of his time4 ,these were intellectual in their methods1 like their ,greek predecessors1 and consequently regarded the doctrines of ,religion as merely the products of the conception or fancy or even caprice of the lawgiver4 ,according to them ,religion was either blind obedience1 or a kind of knowledge which contained truth of an inferior order4 8,on the other hand ,ghazali represents ,religion as the experience of his inner ,being4 ,it is for him more than law and more than ,doctrine2 it is the ,soul's experience40 --8,philosophy in ,islam10 ,t4 ,j4 ,de,boer4 ,,ii ,,birth ,,and ,,education ,as already stated1 ,al-,ghazali was born and educated in ,khorasan1 ,persia1 and there also he spent the closing years of his life4 ,persia1 as ,huart expresses it1 possessed 8an intangible force1 the ,aryan genius1 the powerful1 imaginative1 and creative mind of the great ,indo-,european family1 the artistic1 philosophic1 and intellectual brain which1 from the ,abbasside period onward1 so mightily affected ,arab literature1 enabling it to develop in every quarter of the ,caliph's realms1 and to produce the enormous aggregate of works40 ,it was this ,aryan genius which explains much of the powerful influence of ,al-,ghazali upon ,moslem thought1 and the revival of that influence in our day when ,islam is again facing disintegrating forces4 ,at the time of ,al-,ghazali1 ,persian influence was supreme4 ,it pervaded everything4 ,the ,arabs had ceased to write4 ,the realms of poetry1 theology1 and science1 were dominated by those of ,persian birth4 ,all posts1 administrative and legal1 were held by men who were not ,arabs1 and yet the language they used was that of the ,koran1 and remained the sole literary language of the huge empire of the ,caliphs4 8,all races1 ,persians1 ,syrians1 ,berbers from ,maghrib1 were melted and amalgamated in this mighty crucible40 ,al-,ghazali was a ,persian by birth1 an ,aryan in his modes of thought1 a ,semite in his religion and he became a cosmopolitan by travel and education4 ,his long residence in all the great centres of ,islam of his day brought him into close touch with men of every school of thought and followers of all manners of religions and philosophies4 ,when we remember this1 we have the key to his enormous literary productiveness4 ,his horizon stretched from ,afghanistan to ,spain1 and from ,kurdistan to ,southern ,arabia4 ,what happened outside the ,dar ul ,islam in infidel ,europe was brought to the notice of all by the ,crusades4 ,men of learning had intercourse by correspondence with those of similar tastes in every part of the ,moslem world4 ,we have records of letters received by ,al-,ghazali from ,spain and ,morocco as well as from ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,palestine4 ,questions of jurisprudence1 philosophy1 and theology were referred by ,sultans to celebrated authorities for reply4 ,all this produced the cosmopolitan atmosphere we find in his works4 ,the poet ,moore describes ,al-,ghazali's native land as 8444 the delightful ,province of the ,sun1 ,the first of ,persian lands he shines upon1 ,where1 all the loveliest children of his beam1 ,flowerets and fruits blush over every stream1 ,and1 fairest of all streams1 the ,murga roves ,among ,merou's bright palaces and groves40 ,illustration3 ,the ,east ,gate1 ,damascus4 ,khorasan1 indeed1 signifies 8the land of the sun10 and was one of the four geographical divisions into which the ancient kingdom of the ,sassanians was divided4 ,they were named according to the cardinal points of the compass4 ,after the ,arab conquests the name was used both for a definite province and also in a looser sense for the whole eastern region of ,persia4 ,even now the boundaries of the province are scarcely determined4 ,the total area is about #aej1jjj square miles1 and the present population not over #hjj1jjj4 ,it was doubtless far more in ,al-,ghazali's day4 ,towards the north and southwest ,khorasan is mountainous4 ,in the east the country is hilly1 but between the mountain ranges there extend broad tracts of waste land4 ,by far the most extensive of these saline wastes is the ,dasht-i-,kabir1 or ,great ,salt ,desert of ,khorasan4 ,throughout the province1 and especially near ,tus1 the arid plains and the grassy valleys have been engaged in a perpetual struggle for the mastery4 ,the shifting sands have already absorbed some towns and villages4 ,there are scarcely any rivers1 and the few streams are brackish and intermittent1 losing themselves in the great salt desert4 ,the salt brought down by the rivers is deposited in the marshes4 ,the fierce summer heat dries these up until the winter floods occur again4 ,this process being repeated for ages1 in the course of time the whole stretch of soil over which the marsh extends has become incrusted with salt4 ,travellers and students of climate seem to be agreed that the country offers unmistakable evidence of desiccation4 ,ruins of cities and villages are incredibly numerous and point to a larger population and better climate and irrigation in the days past4 ,it would not be just to attribute the decay of ,persia entirely to the devastations of war and the misrule of ,islam4 8,a comparison of the four provinces of ,khorasan1 ,azerbaijan1 ,kirman1 and ,seyistan is instructive10 says ,ellsworth ,huntington4#ag ,khorasan 8has suffered from war more severely than has any other province of ,persia4 ,its northern portion1 where the rainfall is heaviest1 and where the greatest amount of fighting has taken place1 is to-day one of the most prosperous portions of ,persia4 ,it contains numerous ruins1 but they are by no means such impressive features as are those farther south4 ,the southern and drier part of the province is full of ruins1 and has suffered great depopulation4 ,azerbaijan1 which 444 has suffered from war more than any province except ,khorasan1 is the most prosperous and thickly settled part of ,persia4 ,the relative abundance of its water supply renders its future hopeful4 ,seyistan has suffered from wars1 but less severely than the two preceding provinces4 ,nevertheless1 it has been depopulated to a far greater extent4 ,its extreme aridity renders recovery well-nigh impossible1 except along the ,helmund4 ,kirman lies so remote behind its barriers of desert and mountains that it has suffered from war much less than any of the three other provinces4 ,yet its ruined cities and its appearance of hopeless depopulation are almost as impressive as those of ,seyistan4 ,if war and misgovernment are the cause of the decay of ,persia1 it is remarkable that the two provinces which have suffered most from war1 and not less from misgovernment1 should now be the most prosperous and least depopulated2 while the two which have suffered less from war and no more from misgovernment have been fearfully1 and1 it would seem1 irreparably depopulated40 ,the surface of the province of ,khorasan to-day consists mainly of highlands1 the saline deserts1 and the fruitful well-watered upland valleys4 ,in these fruitful regions rice1 cotton1 saffron1 but especially melons and other fruits1 are raised in profusion4 ,other products are manna1 gum1 asaftida for export to ,india1 and turquois4 ,the chief manufactures have always been sabres1 pottery1 carpets1 woolen and cotton goods4 ,the town of ,mashad1 the present capital of ,khorasan1 has supplanted the older city and district of ,tus1 which was an ancient capital4 ,the ruins of this city lie fifteen miles to the northwest4 ,as early as the tenth century we have references to the birthplace of ,al-,ghazali4 ,thus ,misar ,muhalhil 7about #ida ,a4 ,d47 writes3 8,tus is made up of the union of four towns1 two of which are large and the other two of minor importance2 its area is a square mile4 ,it has beautiful monuments that date from the time of ,islam1 such as the house of ,hamid1 son of ,kahtabah1 the tomb of ,ali1 son of ,musa1 and that of ,rashid in the environs 7lit4 gardens7 of the town40 ,istakhri 7#iea ,a4 ,d471 writing ten years later1 speaks of ,tus as a dependency with four large towns or settlements4 ,he says3 8,taking ,tus as a dependency of the province of ,nishapur1 its towns are ,radkan1 ,tabaran1 ,bazdghur1 and ,naukan1 in which 7latter7 is the tomb of ,ali1 son of ,musa ar-,riza 7may the peace of ,god be upon him71 and the tomb of ,haroun ar-,rashd4444 ,the tomb of ,ar-,riza is about one-quarter of a farsakh distant towards the village called ,sanabadh40 ,the best summary of the history of ,tus and description of its present condition is given by ,professor ,a4 ,v4 ,williams ,jackson in his most interesting book1 8,from ,constantinople to the ,home of ,omar ,khayyam40 ,he tells us that the name of the town is as old as the half-legendary warrior ,tusa of the ,avesta1 who gave battle against ,turan4 ,alexander the ,great passed through it in pursuit of ,bessus1 the slayer of the last ,darius4 ,during the ,zoroastrian sway1 the city of ,tus shared with ,nishapur the distinction of being the seat of a ,nestorian ,christian bishop4 ,when the ,arab conquest of ,persia came ,tus fell before the invaders and it became a great ,moslem centre1 famous especially as the home of the poet ,firdausi1 who was born there about #ice ,a4 ,d4 and died #ajbe ,a4 ,d4 ,professor ,jackson thus describes the present ruined condition of the city3 8,the crumbling walls of the dead city were once broad and lofty ramparts of clay and rubble1 much like those already mentioned at ,bustam and ,rei1 but they had become much flattened with the lapse of ages1 although traces of their towers were still to be seen1 while their outline showed the contour of the town1 which must have formed a very irregular quadrilateral1 following roughly the points of the compass4444 ,the scene1 as we saw it1 presented a strange paradox of the destructive effects of the hand of man1 and the eternal power of nature to rise and bloom again4 ,the devastating inroads of the ,ghuzz hordes and the ,mongol armies1 aided by earthquakes1 had indeed laid mighty ,tus in ruins3 but its dust still contains the resurrection seed of flowers and grain1 bringing life anew in the midst of death4 ,acres of barley and fields of thick clover spread their rich green on all sides1 in contrast with stretches of arid waste that told only too well the story of ruin wrought in the past40 ,professor ,jackson goes on to say3 8,it is clear that the ruined site of ,tus we have been examining1 with the ,rudbar and ,rizan ,gates1 formed part of the borough of ,tabaran1 an important section of the town in ,firdausi's day1 when the city covered a large area comprising several thickly populated centres1 as we know from the ,oriental geographers of the tenth century1 or the period covering the better portion of the poet's life4 ,it was in ,tabaran that ,al-,ghazali was buried1 and there he must have had his home during the closing years of his life40#ah ,religious disputation must have been the very atmosphere of ,tus4 ,christians were numerous and the ,moslem ,shiahs were almost as strong as the orthodox4 ,some of their most celebrated writers and scholars1 for example ,abu ,jafar ,muhammed1 were born at ,tus2 and ,ibn ,abi ,hatim1 one of the earliest and most important critics of the science of ,tradition1 died at ,tus in #ici4 ,in spite of its learned men1 however1 ,tus did not have a high reputation1 as we know from the following anecdote related of ,ibn-,habbariyya4 ,he was asked by an enemy of ,nizam ,al-,mulk to compose a satire on this ruler4 8,how can ,i attack a man to whose kindness ,i owe everything ,i see in my house80 asked the poet4 ,however1 on being pressed1 he penned these lines3 8,what wonder is it that ,nizam ,al-,mulk should rule1 ,and that ,fate should be on his side8 ,fortune is like the water-wheel ,which raises water from the well-- ,none but oxen can turn it60 ,when the vizier was informed of this attack upon him1 he merely remarked that the poet had simply intended to allude to his origin--he came from ,tus in ,khorasan1 and1 according to a popular saying1 all the men of ,tus were oxen 7one would say asses1 nowadays74 8,the people of ,khorasan10 says ,chenery1 8were renowned for their stinginess1 and it is not surprising that the inhabitants of the mother town were said to excel in it all the rest of the world4 ,witness the story1 related in ,saadi's ,gulistan1 if ,i remember well1 of the merchant of ,merv1 who would not allow his son to eat cheese1 but made him rub his bread against the glass cover under which it was kept40 ,to prove the stupidity of the ,khorasanis to-day1 ,major ,p4 ,m4 ,sykes#ai tells a story of three ,persians who met and were all praising their own provinces4 ,the ,kermani said1 8,kerman produces fruit of seven colours40 ,the ,shirazi continued1 8,the waters of ,ruknabad issue from the very rock40 ,but the poor ,khorasani could only say1 8,from ,khorasan come all the fools like myself40 ,yet ,khorasan1 in the words of ,hujwiri1 was that land 8where the shadow of ,god's favour rested10 as regards the teaching of the ,mystics4 ,he mentions nine leading ,sufis who belong to ,khorasan1 and taught there before ,al-,ghazali's day1 all of them distinguished for the 8sublimity of their aspiration1 the eloquence of their discourse1 and the sagacity of their intelligence40 ,he then goes on to say3 8,it would be difficult to mention all the sheikhs of ,khorasan4 ,i have met three hundred in that province alone who had such mystical endowments that a single man of them would have been enough for the whole world4 ,this is due to the fact that the sun of love and the fortune of the ,sufi ,path is in the ascendant in ,khorasan40#bj ,in view of such statements it is clear that ,al-,ghazali owed much to his environment as well as to his own genius4 ,he did not originate mysticism1 but used what his predecessors had already written on the subject4 ,the very chapter headings of ,kashf al-,mahjub are the same as those found in ,al-,ghazali's books on mysticism4 ,according to ,murtadha 7who follows ,as-,subqi71 ,al-,ghazali's full name was ,abu ,hamid ,mohammed bin ,mohammed bin ,mohammed at-,tusi al-,ghazali1 and he was born at ,tus in the year of the ,hegira #dej 7,a4 ,d4 #ajeh74 ,in regard to his name1 it is related that others before him had the peculiarity of the family name three times repeated4 8,ibn-,kutaibah states that ,abu'l-,bakhtari's name was ,wahb b4 ,wahb b4 ,wahb1 the same name thrice in one continuation2 and that similar to this among the names of the ,persian kings was that of ,bahram b4 ,bahram b4 ,bahram2 among the ,talibis 7the descendants of ,abu-,talib7 that of ,hasan b4 ,hasan b4 ,hasan1 and among the ,ghassan that of al-,harith the junior b4 al-,harith and the senior b4 al-,harith40#ba ,concerning the spelling of his name1 whether it should be spelled with two z's or with one1 there has been long and strong dispute4 ,professor ,macdonald thinks the name should be spelt ,ghazzali and has given his arguments in a special essay4#bb ,this spelling is given by ,ibn ,khallikan in his biographical dictionary 7d4 ,a4 ,d4 #abhb74 ,but apparently1 according to the authority of ,as-,samani1 the name is derived from ,ghazala1 a village near ,tus1 and is not a professional noun1 such as are common among patronymics4 ,abu ,sad ,abd al-,karim ,as-,samani was born only two years after ,al-,ghazali's death1 and wrote a famous book of patronymics in eight volumes4 ,he was1 therefore1 an expert in names and genealogies1 and we may well accept his authority for the spelling of the name of the great imam1 who was his own countryman4 ,the sheikhs of the ,azhar ,university in ,cairo all follow this authority and write ,al-,ghazali4#bc ,some say that there had already been two scholars in the family1 one an elder ,al-,ghazali1 at whose tomb in the cemetery of ,tus prayer was answered4 ,this was a paternal uncle of ,ghazali's father4 ,the other was a son of the same4 ,the story is told1 apparently on the authority of ,ghazali himself1 that at the time of his father's death he committed his two boys1 ,mohammed and ,ahmed1 to the care of a trusted ,sufi friend for their education4 ,he himself seems to have had unfulfilled desires in regard to his own education and was determined that his boys should have a better opportunity4 ,so he left in trust what money he had for the purpose with this friend1 who proved faithful and taught and cared for them until the money was all gone4 ,then he advised them to go to a madrasa1 where1 according to ,moslem custom1 they would receive food for their need and shelter4 ,ghazali used to tell the story of this experience in after life1 and would add the remark1 8,we became students for the sake of something else than ,god1 but ,he was unwilling that it should be for the sake of anything but ,himself40 ,this instance doubtless throws light on the motives for his studies and his great diligence4 ,at the outset he was in search rather of reputation and wealth through learning than of piety4#bd ,of ,al-,ghazali's home life at ,tus1 and of his own family life afterwards1 we know next to nothing4 ,his name ,abu ,hamid was doubtless given him much later1 and would seem to indicate that he had a son of that name who probably died in infancy4 ,we know that he married before he was twenty and that at least three daughters survived him4 ,of his younger brother1 however1 who died fifteen years after he did 7#aabf71 and was buried at ,kazvin1 we know the following3 ,he succeeded ,al-,ghazali in the professorial chair at the ,nizamiyya ,school4 ,like him1 he was a mystic and preached his views with great eloquence as well as with a prolific pen4 ,we are told that he was a man of splendid appearance1 and had the gift of healing4 ,so fond was he of public preaching that he neglected his judicial studies4 ,he wrote an abridgement of his brother's great work1 and also a celebrated treatise on mysticism called ,minhaj al-albab 7,path for ,hearts71 in which he deals with the advantages of poverty1 and advocates the wearing of a special garb by the dervishes4 ,another of his books was in defense of music1 called ,bawariq al-ilma2 but this was considered frivolous by strict ,moslems1 although the ,sufis used music to produce the state of ecstasy4 ,of ,al-,ghazali's mother we know nothing beyond the fact that she survived her husband and lived to see both her sons famous at ,bagdad1 whither apparently she accompanied or followed them4 ,an interesting story is told of how1 when ,abu ,hamid was at the height of his fame at ,bagdad1 his brother ,ahmed not merely failed to show him proper respect1 but acted in such a manner as to discredit him in the eyes of the people4 ,the full account is worth giving4 8,he had a brother called ,ahmed1 surnamed ,jamal-ud-,din1 or1 as others say1 ,zain-ud-,din1 who1 notwithstanding the high rank which his brother held1 would not take part with him in the prayers 7i4 e41 would not recognize him as a man fitted to lead the public prayers71 even while thousands of the commonalty and nobility arranged themselves in ranks behind him4 ,so he complained to his mother what he experienced at his brother's hands1 7saying7 that it almost led to people doubting him1 seeing that his brother was celebrated for his good conduct and piety1 and he asked his mother to order him 7,ahmed7 to treat him as other people did4 ,he complained about this repeatedly1 and pressed his demand4 ,his mother urged him 7,ahmed7 time and again to agree to this1 and he agreed on condition that he stand apart from the ranks4 ,the ,imam accepted this condition1 and when one of the appointed times of prayer arrived1 the ,imam went to the ,mosque1 and the people followed him1 till1 when the ,imam began the prayer1 and the people began it after him1 ,jamal-ud-,din followed him in the prayer in the distance4 ,and while they were praying ,jamal-ud-,din suddenly interrupted him4 ,so this trial was worse than the first2 and when he was asked the reason 7of his conduct7 he replied that it was impossible for him to take as his pattern an ,imam whose heart was full of blood1 indicating by this expression the vileness of one who took a share in the work of worldly men of learning40#be ,al-,ghazali must have begun his education at a very early age1 and his studies at ,tus met with such success that he went to the larger educational centre of ,jurjan before the age of twenty1 a distance of over one hundred miles1 and no inconsiderable journey at that time4 ,in ,al-,ghazali's autobiography we have a glimpse of how he himself conceived the growth of a child in wisdom and stature4 8,the first sense revealed to man10 he says1 8is touch1 by means of which he perceives a certain group of qualities--heat1 cold1 moist1 dry4 ,the sense of touch does not perceive colours and forms1 which are for it as though they did not exist4 ,next comes the sense of sight1 which makes him acquainted with colours and forms2 that is to say1 with that which occupies the highest rank in the world of sensation4 ,the sense of hearing succeeds1 and then the senses of smell and taste4 ,when the human being can elevate himself above the world of sense1 towards the age of seven1 he receives the faculty of discrimination2 he enters then upon a new phase of existence and can experience1 thanks to this faculty1 impressions1 superior to those of the senses1 which do not occur in the sphere of sensation40 ,al-,ghazali must have been an early riser from his youth4 ,in his 8,beginner's ,guide to ,religion and ,morals0 7,al ,badayet7 he writes3 8,when you awaken from sleep1 endeavour to arise before early dawn1 and may the first thing that enters your heart and your tongue be the remembrance of ,god ,most ,high1 saying1 #8,thanks be to ,god who hath given us life after the death of sleep4 ,to ,him do we return4 ,he hath awakened us and awakened all nature4 ,the greatness and the power belong to ,god2 the majesty and the dominion to the ,lord of the worlds4 ,he hath awakened us to the religion of ,islam and the testimony of ,his unity1 and the religion of ,his ,prophet ,mohammed and the sect of our father ,abraham1 who was a ,hanif and a ,moslem1 and not a polytheist4 ,o ,god1 ,i ask ,thee that ,thou wouldst this day send me all good and deliver me from all evil4 ,by ,thee1 ,o ,god1 do we arise from sleep1 and by ,thee do we reach the even-tide4 ,in ,thee do we live and die and to ,thee do we return4' ,and when you put on your garments1 remember that ,god desires you to cover your nakedness with them and to show forth ,god's beauty to those around you40 ,in another place in the same little volume he again inculcates early rising by saying3 8,know that the night and the day consist of twenty-four hours4 ,let therefore your sleep during the night and day be not more than eight hours2 for it will suffice you to think after you have lived sixty years that you have lost twenty years of it solely in sleep40 ,he probably began to read even before the age of seven1 for we find that his studies at ,tus1 and afterwards at ,jurjan1 apparently included not only religious science but also a thorough knowledge of ,persian and ,arabic4 ,of his religious studies we will speak later4 ,he himself tells us that the philosophical sciences taught included 8mathematics1 logic1 physics1 metaphysics1 politics1 and moral philosophy40 ,and although he does not speak in his ,confessions of his earliest studies1 what he says in regard to mathematics throws a flood of light on his youthful scepticism4 ,he says1 8,mathematics comprises the knowledge of calculation1 geometry1 and cosmography3 it has no connection with the religious sciences1 and proves nothing for or against religion2 it rests on a foundation of proofs which1 once known and understood1 cannot be refuted4 ,mathematics tend1 however1 to produce two bad results4 ,the first is this3 ,whoever studies this science admires the subtlety and clearness of its proofs4 ,his confidence in philosophy increases1 and he thinks that all its departments are capable of the same clearness and solidity of proofs as mathematics4 ,but when he hears people speak of the unbelief and impiety of mathematicians1 of their professed disregard for the divine ,law1 which is notorious1 it is true that1 out of regard for authority1 he echoes these accusations1 but he says to himself at the same time that1 if there was truth in religion1 it would not have escaped those who have displayed so much keenness of intellect in the study of mathematics40 ,next1 when he becomes aware of the unbelief and rejection of religion on the part of these learned men1 he concludes that to reject religion is reasonable4 8,how many of such men gone astray ,i have met1 whose sole argument was that just mentioned60 7p4 #bh74 ,not only mathematics but astronomy and other sciences were then in alleged conflict with the facts of revelation4 ,al-,ghazali must have felt this very keenly1 for he says3 8,the ignorant ,moslem thinks the best way to defend religion is by rejecting all the exact sciences4 ,accusing their professors of being astray1 he rejects their theories of the eclipses of the sun and moon1 and condemns them in the name of religion4 ,these accusations are carried far and wide1 they reach the ears of the philosopher who knows that these theories rest on infallible proofs2 far from losing confidence in them1 he believes1 on the contrary1 that ,islam has ignorance and the denial of scientific proofs for its basis1 and his devotion to philosophy increases with his hatred to religion4 ,it is therefore a great injury to religion to suppose that the defense of ,islam involves the condemnation of the exact sciences4 ,the religious law contains nothing which approves them or condemns them1 and in their turn they make no attack on religion4 ,the words of the ,prophet3 #8,the sun and moon are two signs of the power of ,god2 they are not eclipsed for the birth or the death of any one2 when you see these signs take refuge in prayer1 and invoke the name of ,god'--these words ,i say1 do not in any way condemn the astronomical calculations which define the orbits of these two bodies1 their conjunction and opposition according to particular laws40#bf ,we must remember in this connection that it was ,omar ,khayyam1 the poet astronomer1 who at this very time was leading many into scepticism4 ,after a knowledge of ,arabic grammar1 and memorizing the ,koran1 the diligent student would take up its critical and devotional study4 ,al-,ghazali's teachers undoubtedly emphasized1 as he did himself1 the importance of correct reading of the sacred volume4 ,in one of the most beautiful passages in his ,ihya1 ,al-,ghazali himself notes the following points3 ,the reader must be clean outwardly1 and respect the book with outward reverence4 ,he must read the proper quantity4 ,he quotes with approval the practice of ,saad and ,othman1 that the ,koran should be read through once a week4 ,one should use chanting 7tartil71 for this is helpful to the memory1 and makes us read slowly1 and rapid reading is not approved4 ,one should read it with weeping1 i4 e41 sorrow for sins4 ,one should give the proper responses in the proper places4 ,one should use the opening prayer before beginning to read4 ,it may be read secretly or aloud4 ,it must be read beautifully--according to the ,tradition3 8,adorn the ,koran by the sweetness of your voice20 or another ,tradition3 8,he who does not sing the ,koran is not of our religion40 ,one day when the ,prophet heard ,abu ,musa reading the ,koran he said3 8,verily1 to this reader ,god has given the voice of ,david when he wrote the ,psalms40 ,we may believe that ,yusuf ,nassaj1 his first teacher1 who was a mystic1 as well as1 later1 the ,imam al-,haramain1 laid considerable emphasis on the points here mentioned4 ,the atmosphere in which ,al-,ghazali was educated1 we must never forget1 was that of mysticism4 ,the study of the ,koran was followed by that of the ,traditions1 of which the standard collections were already in circulation4 ,after this1 a youth in ,al-,ghazali's day would begin the study of ,fiqh1 or ,moslem jurisprudence4 ,we know from the contents of the standard works on this subject1 written before ,al-,ghazali's time1 and later by himself1 what engrossed the attention in the schools of ,tus and ,jurjan4#bg ,his first lesson would be on ceremonial purity by the use of ablution1 the bath1 the tooth-pick and the various circumstances of legal defilement when ghasl or complete ablution is prescribed2 of the ailments of women and the duration of pregnancy4 ,then came the second part of the book on prayer1 its occasions1 conditions1 and requirements1 including the four things in which the prayer of a woman differs from that of a man4 ,he would learn all about the poor-rate 7zakat71 about fasting and pilgrimage1 about the laws of barter and sale and debt2 about inheritance and wills--a most difficult and complicated subject4 ,then the pupil would pass on to marriage and divorce1 a very large subject1 and one on which ,moslem law books show no reserve1 and leave no detail unmentioned4 ,then would follow the laws in regard to crime and violence1 ,holy ,war1 and the ritual of sacrifice at the ,great ,feast4 ,the last three chapters of books on ,fiqh generally deal with oaths1 evidence1 and the manumission of slaves4#bh ,from his youth up ,al-,ghazali belonged to the ,shafi ,school1 one of the four orthodox systems of jurisprudence4 ,the ,imam ash-,shafii1 whose tomb at ,cairo was afterwards visited by ,al-,ghazali1 and is still a place of pilgrimage1 died in ,a4 ,h4 #bjd4 ,he chose the via media between the slavery of tradition and the freedom of logic and deduction in ,moslem law4 ,according to ,macdonald1 8,ash-,shafii was without question one of the greatest figures in the history of law4 ,perhaps he had not the originality and keenness of ,abu ,hanifa2 but he had a balance of mind and temper1 a clear vision and full grasp of means and ends1 that enabled him to say what proved to be the last word in the matter4 ,after him came attempts to tear down2 but they failed4 ,the fabric of the ,muslim canon law stood firm40 ,the adherents of the school of ,shafii now number some sixty million persons1 of whom about a half are in the ,netherland ,indies1 and the rest in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,hadramaut1 ,southern ,india1 and ,malaysia4 ,among all of these ,al-,ghazali the ,shafiite naturally holds a place of supreme honour4 ,an interesting story is told in connection with his studies under the ,imam ,abu ,nasr al-,ismaili4 ,he took copious notes under this celebrated teacher1 but neglected to memorize what he had written4 ,this seems to have been a characteristic of his1 according to ,macdonald1 because his quotations are often exceedingly careless2 and one of the charges brought against him by his assailants afterwards was that he falsified tradition4 8,on his way back to ,tus from ,jurjan1 however1 he got his lesson4 ,he tells the story himself4 ,robbers fell upon him1 stripped him1 and even carried off the bag with his manuscripts4 ,this was more than he could stand2 he ran after them1 clung to them though threatened with death1 and entreated the return of the notes--they were of no use to them4 ,al-,ghazali had a certain quality of dry humour1 and was evidently tickled by the idea of these thieves studying law4 ,the robber chief asked him what were these notes of his4 ,said ,al-,ghazali with great simplicity3 #8,they are writings in that bag2 ,i travelled for the sake of hearing them and writing them down1 and knowing the science in them4' ,thereat the robber chief laughed consumedly1 and said3 #8,how can you profess to know the science in them1 when we have taken them from you and stripped you of the knowledge1 and there you are without any science8' ,but he gave them him back4 #8,and1' says ,al-,ghazali1 #8this man was sent by ,god to teach me4' ,so ,al-,ghazali went back to ,tus1 and spent three years there committing his notes to memory as a precaution against future robbers40#bi ,shortly afterwards ,al-,ghazali left ,tus a second time to pursue his studies at ,nishapur under the most celebrated teacher of that period in this great literary centre4 ,nishapur was situated forty-nine miles west of ,tus1 and was captured by the ,arabs in ,a4 ,h4 #ca4 ,yakut1 in his geographical dictionary1 says that of all the cities he had visited this was the finest4 ,it was in this city that ,hamadhani wrote his four-hundred ,maqamat and vanquished his great literary rival4 ,other great names are connected with the city1 among them ,omar ,khayyam the poet1 the ,koran commentator ,ahmed al-,thalabi1 and ,maidani the author of the well-known collection of ,arabic proverbs4 ,the older name of the town or district was ,abrashahr4 ,the importance of the place under the ,sasanians was in part religious2 one of the three holiest fire temples was in its neighbourhood4 ,nishapur under the ,moslems contained a large ,arab element2 it became the capital of ,khorasan1 and greatly increased in prosperity1 under the almost independent princes of the house of ,tahir 7,a4 ,d4 #hbj-hgc74 ,istakhri describes it as a well-fortified town1 a league square1 with a great export of cotton goods and raw silk4 ,in the decline of the empire the city had much to suffer from the ,turkomans1 whose raids have in modern times destroyed the prosperity of this whole region4 ,in #aaec it was utterly ruined by the ,ghuzz ,turkomans1 but soon rose again1 because1 as ,yakut remarks1 its position gave it command of the entire caravan trade with the ,east4 ,it was taken and razed to the ground by ,mongols in #abba1 but a century later ,ibn ,batuta found the city again flourishing1 with four colleges1 numerous students1 and an export of silk-stuffs to ,india4 ,nishapur was famous for its fruits and gardens which gave it the epithet of 8little ,damascus40 ,we have an interesting portrait of ,al-,ghazali's chief teacher while he was at ,nishapur1--,abul-,maali ,abdal-,malik ,al-,juwaini ,imam al-,haramain4 ,he was born at ,bushtaniqan1 near ,nishapur1 on the twelfth of ,february1 #ajbh1 and was one of the most learned and celebrated teachers of ,moslem law in his day4 8,on the death of his father1 ,abu ,muhammed ,abdallah ibn ,yusuf1 who was a teacher in the latter town1 he took his place1 though barely twenty years of age40 ,but this was a time of literary prodigies due to precocious talent and prodigious power of memory4 8,to complete his own studies1 and to make the sacred pilgrimage1 he went to ,bagdad and thence to the two holy cities1 ,mecca and ,medina1 where he taught for four years2 hence his surname1 which signifies #8the teacher of the two holy places4' ,when he returned to ,nishapur1 ,nizam ,al-,mulk founded a school for him1 in which he gave courses of lessons till his death1 which overtook him on the twentieth of ,august1 #ajhe1 while on a visit to his native village1 whither he had gone in the hope of recovering from an illness4 ,along with his professorial duties1 he had discharged those of a preacher4 ,at ,nishapur he held gatherings every ,friday1 at which he preached sermons1 and presided over discussions on various doctrinal points3 to these occupations he added that of managing the waqfs1 or landed property devoted to the support of pious undertakings4 ,for more than thirty years he continued in undisputed possession of these various posts4 ,when he died1 the mourning was general2 the great pulpit of the ,mosque from which he had delivered his sermons was broken up1 and his pupils1 to the number of four hundred and one1 destroyed their pens and ink-horns1 and gave up their studies for a year40#cj ,it is certain that ,al-,ghazali sat at his feet as a learner1 both at ,nishapur and ,bagdad1 and we may imagine that he had a part also in the general mourning at the death of the ,imam1 the manuscript of whose masterpiece1 ,nihayat al-,matlab 7,finality of ,inquiry71 is still preserved in ,cairo in the ,sultania ,library4 ,at ,nishapur1 ,al-,ghazali was one of the favourite pupils of this ,imam1 and here his studies were of the broadest1 embracing theology1 dialectics1 philosophy and logic4 ,he was a teacher as well as a student1 for we are told that he would 8read to his fellow students and teach them1 until in a short time he became infirm and weak40 ,under the double task his health failed1 but he did not give up his studies4 ,the ,imam once said of him1 and two other notable pupils3 8,al-,ghazali is a sea to drown in1 ,al-,kiya is a tearing lion1 and ,al-,khawafi is a burning fire40 ,another saying of his about the same three was3 8,whenever they contend together1 the proof belongs to ,al-,khawafi1 the warlike attacks to ,al-,ghazali1 and clearness to ,al-,kiya40 ,to this time of his life belongs the remark also1 made by some one unnamed1 8,the youth ,al-,ghazali showed externally a vain-glorious disposition1 but underneath there was something that when it did appear showed graceful expression and delicate allusion1 soundness of attention1 and strength of character40 8,i cannot ascertain10 says ,macdonald in speaking of this period of ,al-,ghazali's life1 8whether while he was still at ,nishapur he touched those depths of scepticism of which he speaks in the ,munqidh4 ,they must certainly have been reached some time before the year ,a4 ,h4 #dhd1 and must have been the outcome of a long drift of development2 but probably so long as he was under the influence of the ,imam-al-,haramain1 a devout ,sufi1 he would be held more or less fast to the old faith40 ,of these struggles of his soul in an age of doubt and how he found relief the next chapter will tell us4 ,,iii ,teaching1 ,conversion1 and ,retirement 8,al-,ghazali is one of the deepest thinkers1 greatest theologians and profoundest moralists of ,islam4 ,in all ,muhamadan lands he is celebrated both as an apologist of orthodoxy and a warm advocate of ,sufi mysticism4 ,intimately acquainted with all the learning of his time1 he was not only one of the numerous ,oriental philosophers who traverse every sphere of intellectual activity1 but one of those rarer minds whose originality is not crushed by their learning4 ,he was imbued with a sacred enthusiasm for the triumph of his faith1 and his whole life was dedicated to one purpose1 the defense of ,islam40 --8,mystics and ,saints of ,islam10 ,claud ,field4 ,,iii ,,teaching1 ,,conversion1 ,,and ,,retirement ,with the death of the ,imam in ,a4 ,h4 #dgh a great change came into the life of ,al-,ghazali4 ,he left ,nishapur to seek his fortune and it brought him to the camp court of the great ,vizier ,nizam ,al-,mulk4 ,here ,al-,ghazali sought advancement and the honours of learning4 ,the camp court was the travelling capital of the ,seljuk ,sultans4 ,this imperial camp was laid out into squares and streets4 ,we read how in a few hours a city1 as if built by enchantment1 would rise on the uninhabited plain4 ,the camp exhibited a motley collection of tents and dwellings and palm-leaf huts4 ,the only regular part of the encampment were the streets of shops1 each of which was constructed in the manner of a booth at an ,english fair4 ,moore gives us the picture in these words3 8,whose are the gilded tents that crowd the way1 ,where all was waste and silent yesterday8 ,this ,city of ,war1 which1 in a few short hours1 ,hath sprung up here1 as if the magic powers ,of him who1 in the twinkling of a star1 ,built the high pillar'd halls of ,chilminar1 ,had conjured up1 far as the eye can see1 ,this world of tents and domes and sun-bright armoury4-- ,princely pavilions1 screen'd by many a fold ,of crimson cloth1 and topp'd with balls of gold2-- ,steeds1 with their housings of rich silver spun1 ,and camels1 tufted o'er with ,yemen's shells1 ,shaking in every breeze their light-toned bells40#ca ,as for ,nizam ,al-,mulk we have an interesting autobiography which he wrote and left as a memorial for future statesmen4 7,it is quoted in ,mirkhond's 8,history of the ,assassins407 8,one of the greatest of the wise men of ,khorasan10 says he1 8was the ,imam ,mowaffak of ,nishapur1 a man highly honoured and reverenced1--may ,god rejoice his soul2 his illustrious years exceeded eighty-five1 and it was the universal belief that every boy who read the ,koran or studied the traditions in his presence would assuredly attain to honour and happiness4 ,for this cause did my father send me from ,tus to ,nishapur with ,abd-us-,samad1 the doctor of law1 that ,i might employ myself in study and learning under the guidance of that illustrious teacher4 ,towards me he ever turned an eye of favour and kindness1 and as his pupil ,i felt for him extreme affection and devotion1 so that ,i passed four years in his service4 ,when ,i first came there1 ,i found two other pupils of mine own age newly arrived--,hakim ,omar ,khayyam1 and the ill-fated ,ibn ,sabbah1 founder of the sect of the ,assassins4 ,both were endowed with sharpness of wit and the highest natural powers2 and we three formed a close friendship together4 ,when the ,imam rose from his lectures1 they used to join me1 and we repeated to each other the lessons we had heard4 ,now ,omar was a native of ,nishapur1 while ,hasan ,ibn ,sabbah's father was one ,ali1 a man of austere life and practice but heretical in his creed and doctrine4 ,one day ,hasan said to me and to ,khayyam3 #8,it is a universal belief that the pupils of the ,imam ,mowaffak will attain to fortune4 ,now1 even if we all do not attain thereto1 without doubt one of us will2 what then shall be our mutual pledge and bond8' ,we answered3 #8,be it what you please4' #8,well1' he said1 #8let us make a vow1 that to whomsoever this fortune falls1 he shall share it equally with the rest1 and reserve no preminence for himself4' #8,be it so1' we both replied1 and on these terms we mutually pledged our words4 ,years rolled on1 and ,i went from ,khorasan to ,transoxiana1 and wandered to ,ghazni and ,kabul2 and when ,i returned ,i was invested with office1 and rose to be administrator of affairs during the ,sultanate of ,sultan ,alp ,arslan40 ,after his education at ,nishapur ,nizam ,al-,mulk served ,alp ,arslan1 the successor of ,togrul ,bey1 and for more than twenty years the burden of the empire of the ,seljuks rested on his shoulders4 ,when ,alp ,arslan died in #dfe ,malek ,shah succeeded him and from that time until his assassination1 on the tenth of ,ramadan1 #dhe1 ,nizam ,al-,mulk was the greatest man in the empire and its real ruler4 ,he was a friend of learning and letters and established colleges in many centres4 ,in ,a4 ,h4 #dhd1 ,al-,ghazali gained high fame at court and was appointed by ,nizam ,al-,mulk to teach in the ,madrasa at ,bagdad1 the capital of the whole of ,eastern ,islam4 ,we have an interesting picture of the city of ,bagdad about this time from the pen of ,rabbi ,benjamin1 of ,tudela1 who visited the city some years after ,al-,ghazali's death 7#aafj74 ,he says3 8,the circumference of the city of ,bagdad measures three miles2 the country in which it is situated is rich in palm-trees1 gardens and orchards1 so that nothing equals it in ,mesopotamia2 merchants of all countries resort thither for purposes of trade1 and it contains many wise philosophers well skilled in sciences1 and magicians proficient in all sorts of witchcraft4 ,the palace of the ,caliph at ,bagdad is three miles in extent4 ,it contains a large park of all sorts of trees1 both useful and ornamental1 and all sorts of beasts1 as well as a pond of water led thither from the river ,tigris2 and whenever the ,caliph desires to enjoy himself and to sport and to carouse1 birds1 beasts and fishes are prepared for him and for his councillors1 whom he invites to his palace40 ,he gives us a glimpse of what went on behind the walls of these royal palaces when he says3 8,all the brothers and other members of the ,caliph's family are accustomed to kiss his garments1 and every one of them possesses a palace within that of the ,caliph2 but they are all fettered by chains of iron1 and a special officer is appointed over every household to prevent their rising in rebellion against the great king4 ,these measures are enacted in consequence of an occurrence which took place some time ago1 and upon which occasion the brothers rebelled and elected a king among themselves4 ,to prevent this in future1 it was decreed that all the members of the ,caliph's family should be chained1 in order to prevent their rebellious intentions4 ,every one of them1 however1 resides in his palace1 is there much honoured1 and they possess villages and towns1 the rents of which are collected for them by their stewards2 they eat and drink1 and lead a merry life4 8,the palace of the great king contains large buildings1 pillars of gold and silver1 and treasures of precious stones4 ,the ,caliph leaves his palace but once every year1 viz41 at the time of the feast called ,ramadan4 ,upon this occasion many visitors assemble from distant parts1 in order to have an opportunity of beholding his countenance4 ,he then bestrides the royal mule1 dressed in kingly robes1 which are composed of gold and silver cloth4 ,on his head he wears a turban1 ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value2 but over this turban is thrown a black veil1 as a sign of humility1 and as much as to say3 #8,see1 all this worldly honour will be converted into darkness on the day of death4' ,he is accompanied by a numerous retinue of ,mohammedan nobles1 arrayed in rich dresses1 and riding upon horses2 princes of ,arabia1 of ,media1 of ,persia1 and even of ,thibet1 a country distant three months' journey from ,arabia4 ,this procession goes from the ,palace to the ,mosque at the ,basra gate1 which is the ,metropolitan ,mosque4 ,all those who walk in procession are dressed in silk and purple1 both men and women4 ,the streets and squares are enlivened by singing1 rejoicings1 and by parties who dance before the great king1 called ,caliph4 ,he is loudly saluted by the assembled crowd1 who cry1 #8,blessed art thou1 our lord and king4' ,he thereupon kisses his garment1 and by holding it in his hand1 acknowledges and returns the compliment4 ,the procession moves on into the court of the ,mosque1 where the ,caliph mounts a wooden pulpit1 and expounds their law unto them4 ,the learned ,mohammedans rise1 pray for him1 and praise his great kindness and piety2 upon which the whole assembly answer1 #8,amen4' ,he then pronounces his blessing and kills a camel1 which is led thither for that purpose1 and this is their offering1 which is distributed to the nobles4 ,these send portions of it to their friends1 who are eager to taste of the meat killed by the hands of their holy king1 and are much rejoiced therewith4 ,he then leaves the ,mosque1 and returns alone to his ,palace along the banks of the ,tigris1 the noble ,mohammedans accompanying him in boats until he enters his buildings4 ,he never returns by the way he came1 and the path on the bank of the river is carefully guarded all the year around1 so as to prevent any one treading in his footsteps4 ,the ,caliph never leaves his palace again for a whole year4 8,he is a pious and benevolent man1 and has erected buildings on the other side of the river1 on the banks of an arm of the ,euphrates which runs on one side of the city4 ,these buildings include many large houses1 streets1 and hostelries for the sick poor1 who resort thither in order to be cured4 ,there are about sixty medical warehouses here1 all well provided from the king's stores with spices and other necessaries2 and every patient who claims assistance is fed at the king's expense until his cure is completed4 ,there is further the large building called ,dar-ul-,marastan 7the abode of the insane71 in which are locked up all those insane persons who are met with1 particularly during the hot season1 every one of whom is secured by iron chains until his reason returns1 when he is allowed to return to his home40 ,we may add what the poet1 ,al-,hamadhani1 a contemporary1 tells us of the luxuries of the table at ,bagdad3 8,we found ourselves among a company who were passing their time amid bunches of myrtle twigs1 and bouquets of roses1 broached wine vats and the sound of the flute and the lute4 ,we approached them and they advanced to receive us4 ,then we clave to a table whose vessels were filled1 whose gardens were in flower1 and whose dishes were arranged in rows with viands of various hues2 opposite a dish of something intensely black was something exceedingly white1 and against something very red was arranged something very yellow40 ,and in another place3 8,i was in ,bagdad in a famine year1 and so ,i approached a company1 united like the ,pleiades1 in order to ask something of them4 ,now there was among them a youth with a lisp in his tongue and a space between his front teeth4 ,he asked3 #8,what is thy affair8' ,i replied3 #8,two conditions in which a man prospers not3 that of a beggar harassed by hunger1 and that of an exile to whom return is impossible4' ,the boy then said3 #8,which of the two breaches dost thou wish stopped first8' ,i answered3 #8,hunger1 for it has become extreme with me4' ,he said3 #8,what sayest thou to a white cake on a clean table1 picked herbs with very sour vinegar1 fine date wine with pungent mustard1 roast meat ranged on a skewer with a little salt1 placed now before thee by one who will not put thee off with a promise nor torture thee with delay1 and who will afterwards follow it up with golden goblets of the juice of grape8 ,is that preferable to thee1 or a large company1 full cups1 variety of dessert1 spread carpets1 brilliant lights1 and a skilful minstrel with the eye and neck of a gazelle8'0 ,from all this we can imagine what ,al-,ghazali enjoyed when he went to dine with the ,nizam ,al-,mulk or other men of wealth and there was no famine in ,bagdad6 ,the ,nizamiyya ,college which ,al-,ghazali attended and in which he was one of the leading lecturers at two periods of his life1 was built on the eastern river bank of the ,tigris1 near the ,bridge of ,boats and close to the wharf and the large market-place4 ,the college was founded in ,a4 ,d4 #ajfe1 being especially established for the teaching of ,shafiite law4 ,close to the college was another college called the ,bahaiyah and the hospital ,maristan ,tutushi4 ,the traveller1 ,ibn ,jubayr1 attended prayers in the ,nizamiyya on the first ,friday after his arrival in ,bagdad1 in the year #eha 7,a4 ,d4 #aahe71 and he describes it as the most splendid of the thirty and odd colleges which then adorned the ,city of ,east ,bagdad4444 ,ibn ,jubayr further reports that in his day the endowments derived from domains and rents belonging to the college amply sufficed both to pay the stipends of professors and to keep the building in good order1 besides supplying an extra fund for the sustenance of poor scholars4 ,the ,suk1 or market of the ,nizamiyya1 was one of the great thoroughfares of this quarter1 and it is described as lying adjacent to the 8,mashraah0 or wharf1 which proves that the college must have stood near the ,tigris bank4#cb 444 ,writing a dozen years later than ,ibn ,batuta1 ,hamd-,allah1 the ,persian historian1 briefly alludes to the ,nizamiyya1 which he calls 8the mother of the ,madrasahs0 in ,bagdad4 ,this proves that down to the middle of the fourteenth century ,a4 ,d4 the college was still standing1 though at the present time all vestiges of it have disappeared1 as indeed appears already to have been the case in the middle of the last century1 for ,niebuhr found no traces of the ,nizamiyya to describe in his painstaking account of the ruins in the city of ,caliphs1 as these still existed in the time of his visit4 ,it was here1 at the ,nizamiyya ,school1 that ,al-,ghazali first embarked on his career as an independent teacher4 ,his lectures drew crowds4 ,he gave fatwas1 or legal opinions1 on matters of the law1#cc he wrote books1 he preached in the mosque1 and was a leader of the people4 ,then suddenly in the midst of all this prosperity a great change came over him4 ,he seemed to be attacked by a mysterious disease4 ,his speech became hampered1 his appetite failed1 and his physicians said the malady was due to mental unrest4 ,he suddenly left ,bagdad in the month of ,dhu-l-,qada1 #dhh1 appointed his brother ,ahmed to teach in his place1 and abandoned all his property1 except so much as was necessary for his own support and that of his children4 ,this sudden retirement from active life and academic honour was unintelligible to the theologians of his days4 ,they looked upon it as a calamity for ,islam4 ,some interpreted it as fear of the ,government1 a flight from responsibility1 but the real reason of his renunciation he himself tells us in his 8,confessions40 ,this book reveals the story of his spiritual experiences from his youth up to his fiftieth year4 ,he says3 8,know then1 my brother 7may ,god direct you in the right way71 that the diversity in beliefs and religions1 and the variety of doctrines and sects which divide men1 are like a deep ocean strewn with shipwrecks1 from which very few escape safe and sound4 ,each sect1 it is true1 believes itself in possession of the truth and of salvation2 #8each party1' as the ,koran saith1 #8rejoices in its own creed'2 but as the chief of apostles1 whose word is always truthful1 has told us1 #8,my people will be divided into more than seventy sects of whom only one will be saved4' ,this prediction1 like all others of the ,prophet1 must be fulfilled4 8,from the period of adolescence1 that is to say1 previous to reaching my twentieth year to the present time when ,i have passed my fiftieth1 ,i have ventured into this vast ocean2 ,i have interrogated the beliefs of each sect and scrutinized the mysteries of each doctrine1 in order to disentangle truth from error and orthodoxy from heresy4 ,i have never met one who maintained the hidden meaning of the ,koran without investigating the nature of his belief1 nor a partisan of its exterior sense without inquiring into the results of his doctrine4 ,there is no philosopher whose system ,i have not fathomed1 nor theologian the intricacies of whose doctrine ,i have not followed out4 8,sufism has no secrets into which ,i have not penetrated2 the devout adorer of ,deity has revealed to me the aim of his austerities2 the atheist has not been able to conceal from me the real reason of his unbelief4 ,the thirst for knowledge was innate in me from my early age2 it was like a second nature implanted by ,god1 without any will on my part4 ,no sooner had ,i emerged from boyhood than ,i had already broken the fetters of tradition and freed myself from hereditary beliefs4 8,having noticed how easily the children of ,christians become ,christians1 and the children of ,moslems embrace ,islam1 and remembering also the traditional saying ascribed to the ,prophet3 #8,every child has in him the germ of ,islam1 then his parents make him ,jew1 ,christian1 or ,zoroastrian1' ,i was moved by a keen desire to learn what was this innate disposition in the child1 the nature of the accidental beliefs imposed on him by the authority of his parents and his masters1 and finally the unreasoned convictions which he derives from their instructions40 ,again he is full of doubts when he says3 8,perhaps also ,death is that state he is speaking of a possible state of being which will bear the same relation to our present state as this does to the condition when asleep1 according to a saying of the ,prince of ,prophets3 #8,men are asleep2 when they die1 they wake4' ,our present life in relation to the future is perhaps only a dream1 and man1 once dead1 will see things in direct opposition to those now before his eyes4 8,such thoughts as these threatened to shake my reason1 and ,i sought to find an escape from them4 ,but how8 ,in order to disentangle the knot of this difficulty1 a proof was necessary4 ,now a proof must be based on primary assumptions1 and it was precisely these of which ,i was in doubt4 ,this unhappy state lasted about two months1 during which ,i was not1 it is true1 explicitly or by profession1 but morally and essentially a thoroughgoing sceptic40 ,that ,al-,ghazali was driven to scepticism must not surprise us4 ,schools of free thinkers had been established fifty years earlier at ,bagdad and ,busrah4 ,every ,friday they gathered together4 ,some were rationalists1 some downright materialists4 ,not only philosophers but poets were the leaders of these circles4 ,among them we must mention ,abu'l ,ala ,al-,maarri1 born in #igc ,a4 ,d4 ,this blind poet is said to have written a ,koran in imitation of ,mohammed1 and when some one complained to him that although the book was well written it did not make the same impression as the true ,koran1 he replied3 8,let it be read from the pulpit of the mosques for four hundred years and then you will all be delighted with it40 ,his quatrains rival those of ,omar ,al-,khayyam in their utter pessimism and rank infidelity from the orthodox ,moslem standpoint4 ,for example1 he writes3 8,lo3 there are many ways and many traps ,and many guides and which of them is ,lord8 ,for verily ,mohammed has the sword ,and he may have the truth--perhaps8 perhaps8 ,now this religion happens to prevail ,until by that one it is overthrown1-- ,because men dare not live with men alone1 ,but always with another fairy-tale4 ,religion is a charming girl1 ,i say2 ,but over this poor threshold will not pass1 ,because ,i can't unveil her1 and alas2 ,the bridal gift ,i can't afford to pay40 ,nor could this poet have had much reverence for the religion of ,islam when he wrote3 8,where is the valiance of the folk who sing ,these valiant stories of the world to come8 ,which they describe1 forsooth1 as if it swung ,in air and anchored with a yard of string40 444 8,two merchantmen decided they would battle1 ,to prove at last who sold the finest wares2 ,and while ,mohammed shrieked his call to prayers1 ,the true ,messiah waved his wooden rattle40 ,as in the nineteenth century for ,christianity1 so in the eleventh century for ,islam1 the struggle between science and orthodoxy waged fiercely4 ,the rationalistic school of the ,mutazilites still exercised great influence while the literalists and the blind followers of traditional ,islam were often more distinguished for ,pharisaism than piety4 ,we need only turn to the 8,maqamat0 of ,al-,hamadhani to know what the sceptic of that day thought of the public religious services4 8,so ,i slipped away from my companions10 says his hero1 8taking advantage of the opportunity of joining in public prayers1 and dreading1 at the same time1 the loss of the caravan ,i was leaving4 ,but ,i sought aid against the difficulty of the desert through the blessing of prayer1 and1 therefore1 ,i went to the front row and stood up4 ,the ,imam went up to the niche and recited the opening chapter of the ,quran according to the intonation of ,hamza1 in regard to using #8,madda' and #8,hamza1' while ,i experienced disquieting grief at the thought of missing the caravan1 and of separation from the mount4 ,then he followed up the ,surat ,al-,fatiha with ,surat ,al-,waqia while ,i suffered the fire of impatience and tasked myself severely4 ,i was roasting and grilling on the live coal of rage4 ,but1 from what ,i knew of the savage fanaticism of the people of that place1 if prayers were cut short of the final salutation1 there was no alternative but silence and endurance1 or speech and the grave6 ,so ,i remained standing thus on the foot of necessity till the end of the chapter4 ,i had now despaired of the caravan and given up all hope of the supplies and the mount4 ,he next bent his back for the two prostrations with such humility and emotion1 the like of which ,i had never seen before4 ,then he raised his hands and his head and said3 #8,may ,god accept the praise of him who praises ,him1' and remained standing till ,i doubted not but that he had fallen asleep4 ,then he placed his right hand on the ground1 put his forehead on the earth and pressed his face thereto4 ,i raised my head to look for an opportunity to slip away1 but ,i perceived no opening in the rows1 so ,i re-addressed myself to prayer until he repeated the ,takbir for the sitting posture4 ,then he stood up for the second prostration1 recited the ,suras of ,al-,fatiha and ,al-,qaria with an intonation which occupied the duration of the ,last ,day and well-nigh exhausted the spirits of the congregation4 ,now1 when he had finished his two prostrations and proceeded to wag his jaws to pronounce the testimony to ,god's unity1 and to turn his face to the right and to the left for the final salutation1 ,i said3 #8,now ,god has made escape easy1 and deliverance is nigh'2 but a man stood up and said3 #8,whosoever of you loves the companions of the ,moslem community let him lend me his ears for a moment4'0--,such was the impression made by the formalities of orthodoxy6 ,al-,ghazali found no help for his doubts among these scholastic theologians nor has any ,moslem since his day4 ,professor ,macdonald tells us why4 8,grant the theologians their premises1 and they could argue2 deny them1 and there was no common ground on which to meet4 ,their science had been founded by ,al-,ashari to meet the ,mutazilites2 it had done that victoriously1 but could do no more4 ,they could hold the faith against heretics1 expose their inconsistencies and weaknesses2 but against the sceptic they could do nothing4 ,it is true that they had attempted to go further back and meet the students of philosophy on their own ground1 to deal with substances and attributes and first principles generally2 but their efforts had been fruitless4 ,they lacked the necessary knowledge of the subject1 had no scientific basis1 and were constrained eventually to fall back on authority40#cd 8,nor did he find light in philosophy1 although he thoroughly studied the various systems of his day and refuted them4 ,religion is not merely of the mind but of the heart2 philosophy had its place but could satisfy only the intellect and left the deepest longings of the soul unsatisfied4 ,next he examined the teachings of the ,talimites1 the contemporary sect of the ,ishmaelites founded by ,hassan ,ibn as ,sabbah4 ,theirs was the doctrine of an ,imam or infallible spiritual guide and the sect found large following4 ,but ,al-,ghazali1 so far from being attracted by them1 wrote several books against them40#ce ,no other path remained open for the perplexed and sceptical seeker after ,god than the way of the mystics4 ,it was a return to the early teaching he received at ,tus and ,nishapur and to the atmosphere of his native land which was for centuries steeped in mysticism4 ,of this period of his life he was wont to say3 8,when ,i wished to plunge into following the people and to drink of their drink1 ,i looked at my soul and ,i saw how much it was curtained in1 so ,i retired into solitude and busied myself with religious exercises for forty days1 and there was doled to me of knowledge ,i had not had purer and finer than what ,i had known4 ,then ,i looked upon it1 and lo1 in it was a legal element4 ,so ,i returned to solitude and busied myself with religious exercises for forty days1 and there was doled to me other knowledge1 purer and finer than what had befallen me at first1 and ,i rejoiced in it4 ,then ,i looked upon it1 and lo1 in it was a speculative element4 ,so ,i returned to solitude a third time for forty days1 and there was doled to me other knowledge that is known 7i4 e41 not simply perceived1 felt71 and ,i did not attain to the people of the inward sciences4 ,so ,i know that writing on a surface from which something has been erased is not like writing on a surface in its first purity and cleanness1 and ,i never separated myself from speculation except in a few things40 ,who can read this and doubt his utter sincerity in the search for ,god and for ,truth8 ,he tells the rest of the story in his 8,confessions03 8,i saw that ,sufism consists in experiences rather than in definitions1 and that what ,i was lacking belonged to the domain1 not of instruction but of ecstasy and initiation4 8,the researches to which ,i had devoted myself1 the path which ,i had traversed in studying religious and speculative branches of knowledge1 had given me a firm faith in three things--,god1 inspiration1 and the ,last ,judgment4 ,these three fundamental articles of belief were confirmed in me1 not merely by definite arguments1 but by a chain of causes1 circumstances1 and proofs which it is impossible to recount4 ,i saw that one can only hope for salvation by devotion and the conquest of one's passions1 a procedure which presupposes renouncement and detachment from this world of falsehood in order to turn towards eternity and meditation on ,god4 ,finally1 ,i saw that the only condition of success was to sacrifice honours and riches and to sever the ties and attachments of worldly life4 8,coming seriously to consider my state1 ,i found myself bound down on all sides by these trammels4 ,examining my actions1 the most fair-seeming of which were my lecturing and professorial occupations1 ,i found to my surprise that ,i was engrossed in several studies of little value1 and profitless as regards my salvation4 ,i probed the motives of my teaching and found that1 in place of being sincerely consecrated to ,god1 it was only actuated by a vain desire of honour and reputation4 ,i perceived that ,i was on the edge of an abyss1 and that without an immediate conversion ,i should be doomed to eternal fire4 ,in these reflections ,i spent a long time4 ,still a prey to uncertainty1 one day ,i decided to leave ,bagdad and to give up everything2 the next day ,i gave up my resolution4 ,i advanced one step and immediately relapsed4 ,in the morning ,i was sincerely resolved only to occupy myself with the future life2 in the evening a crowd of carnal thoughts assailed and dispersed my resolutions4 ,on the one side the world kept me bound to my post in the chains of covetousness1 on the other side the voice of religion cried to me3 #8,up1 ,up1 thy life is nearing its end1 and thou hast a long journey to make4 ,all thy pretended knowledge is nought but falsehood and fantasy4 ,if thou dost not think now of thy salvation1 when wilt thou think of it8 ,if thou dost not break thy chains to-day1 when wilt thou break them8' ,then my resolve was strengthened1 ,i wished to give up all and flee2 but the ,tempter returning to the attack said3 #8,you are suffering from a transitory feeling2 don't give way to it1 for it will soon pass4 ,if you obey it1 if you give up this fine position1 this honourable post exempt from trouble and rivalry1 this seat of authority safe from attack you will regret it later on without being able to recover it4' 8,thus ,i remained1 torn asunder by the opposite forces of earthly passions and religious aspirations1 for about six months from the month ,rajab of the year ,a4 ,d4 #ajif4 ,at the close of them my will yielded and ,i gave myself up to destiny4 ,god caused an impediment to chain my tongue and prevented me from lecturing4 ,vainly ,i desired1 in the interest of my pupils1 to go on with my teaching1 but my mouth became dumb4 8,the enfeeblement of my physical powers was such that the doctors despairing of saving me1 said3 #8,the mischief is in the heart1 and has communicated itself to the whole organism2 there is no hope unless the cause of his grievous sadness be arrested4' 8,finally1 conscious of my weakness and the prostration of my soul1 ,i took refuge in ,god as a man at the end of himself and without resources4 #8,he who hears the wretched when they cry' 7,koran1 xxviii4 #fc7 deigned to hear me2 ,he made easy to me the sacrifice of honours1 wealth1 and family0 78,the ,confessions10 pp4 #db-de74 ,that his conversion did not mean ethically all that the word means in the ,christian sense is evident from what immediately follows4 ,he dissembled3 8,i gave out publicly that ,i intended to make the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 while ,i secretly resolved to go to ,syria1 not wishing that the ,caliph 7may ,god magnify him7 or my friends should know my intention of settling in that country4 ,i made all kinds of clever excuses for leaving ,bagdad with the fixed intention of not returning thither4 ,the ,imams of ,irak criticized me with one accord4 ,not one of them would admit that this sacrifice had a religious motive1 because they considered my position as the highest attainable in the religious community4 #8,behold how far their knowledge goes' 7,koran1 liii4 #ca74 ,all kinds of explanations of my conduct were forthcoming4 ,those who were outside the limits of ,irak attributed it to the fear with which the ,government inspired me4 ,those who were on the spot and saw how the authorities wished to detain me1 their displeasure at my resolution and my refusal of their request1 said to themselves1 #8,it is a calamity which one can only impute to a fate which has befallen the ,faithful and ,learning4' 8,at last ,i left ,bagdad1 giving up all my fortune4 ,only1 as lands and property in ,irak can afford an endowment for pious purposes1 ,i obtained a legal authorization to preserve as much as was necessary for my support and that of my children2 for there is surely nothing more lawful in the world than that a learned man should provide sufficient to support his family4 ,i then betook myself to ,syria1 where ,i remained for two years1 which ,i devoted to retirement1 meditation1 and devout exercises4 ,i only thought of self-improvement and discipline and of purification of the heart by prayer in going through the forms of devotion which the ,sufis had taught me4 ,i used to live a solitary life in the ,mosque of ,damascus1 and was in the habit of spending my days on the minaret after closing the door behind me0 7pp4 #de-df74 ,when ,al-,ghazali determined to abandon the world and set out as a pilgrim he was only following the custom of his time4 ,not only religious men but adventurers found in travel relief and recreation4 ,the pious did it1 as they asserted1 in imitation of ,jesus1 the ,messiah1 whose name is often interpreted as meaning 8one who travels constantly40 ,and the worldly-minded often donned the garb of religious fakirs to satisfy their desire for adventure and their ambition to see distant lands4 ,because of facilities for travel by post and caravan routes1 this period seemed one of wanderlust second to none4 ,a scholar was not satisfied unless he had seen the world of ,islam4 ,of ,at-,tabrizi 7,a4 ,d4 #ajcj-aajj71 one of the contemporaries of ,al-,ghazali1 who was also professor at the ,nizamiyya ,school1 we read that when he desired to go on a journey for literary purposes 8he had no money wherewith to hire a horse1 so he put his book into a sack and started to walk the long journey from ,persia to ,syria4 ,the sweat on his back oozed through the material of his sack and stained the precious manuscript1 which was long preserved and shown to visitors in one of the libraries of ,bagdad40 ,the ,persian poet ,saadi was left an orphan at an early age1 went to ,bagdad to attend the ,nizamiyya ,university course1 made the ,mecca pilgrimage several times over1 acted1 out of charity1 as a water-carrier in the markets of ,jerusalem and the ,syrian towns1 was taken prisoner by the ,franks1 and forced to work with ,jews at cleaning out the moats of ,tripoli in ,syria2 he was ransomed by an ,aleppan1 who gave him his daughter in marriage4 ,he himself mentions his visits to ,kashgar in ,turkestan1 to ,abyssinia1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,he even travelled about ,india1 passing through ,afghanistan on his way4 ,illustration3 ,interior of the ,great ,mosque at ,damascus4 ,in the center the ,mihrab showing the direction of prayer and to the right the ,great ,pulpit4 ,we have a picture of such a dervish 7a dishonest one1 however7 in ,hamadhani's forty-second ,maqamat3 8,so ,i started wandering1 as though ,i was the ,messiah1 and ,i journeyed over ,khorasan1 its deserted and populous parts1 to ,kirman1 ,sijistan1 ,jilan1 ,tabaristan1 ,oman1 to ,sind and ,hind1 to ,nubia and ,egypt1 ,yemen1 ,hijaz1 ,mecca and al ,taif4 ,i roamed over deserts and wastes1 seeking warmth and the fire and taking shelter with the ass1 till both my cheeks were blackened4 ,and thus ,i collected of anecdotes and fables1 witticisms and traditions1 poems of the humorists1 the diversions of the frivolous1 the fabrications of the lovesick1 the saws of the pseudo-philosophers1 the tricks of the conjurors1 the artifices of the artful1 the rare sayings of convivial companions1 the fraud of the astrologers1 the finesse of quacks1 the deception of the effeminate1 the guile of the cheats1 the devilry of the fiends1 such that the legal decisions of al-,shaabi1 the memory of al-,dabbi and the learning of al-,kalbi would have fallen short of4 ,and ,i solicited gifts and asked for presents4 ,i had recourse to influence and ,i begged4 ,i eulogized and satirized1 till ,i acquired much property1 got possession of ,indian swords and ,yemen blades1 fine coats of mail of ,sabur and leathern shields of ,thibet1 spears of al-,khatt and javelins of ,barbary1 excellent fleet horses with short coats1 ,armenian mules1 and ,mirris asses1 silk brocades of ,rum and woolen stuffs of ,sus40#cf ,to the honest traveller1 like ,al-,ghazali1 however1 it was not so easy a life4 ,not only were there the hardships of travel and its loneliness1 but the asceticism of the beggar and the wayfarer4 8,and to such a pass did we come10 says ,hariri1 8through assailing fortune and prostrating need1--that we were shod with soreness1 and fed on choking1 and filled our bellies with ache1 and wrapped our entrails upon hunger1 and anointed our eyes with watching1 and made pits our home1 and deemed thorns a smooth bed1 and came to forget our saddles1 and thought destroying death to be sweet and the ordained day to be tardy40 ,we may believe that so keen an observer as ,al-,ghazali carried his 8,baedeker0 with him on his travels4 ,he was doubtless acquainted with the chief geographical works of that period1 some of which contained maps and even illustrations4 ,the most important work was that by ,abu ,abdallah al-,maqdisi1 who spent a great part of his life travelling all over the ,moslem empire1 with the possible exception of ,india and ,spain4 ,his book was entitled3 8,the ,best ,classification for the ,knowledge of ,climates40 ,it was written in ,a4 ,d4 #ihe4 ,another work of a contemporary of ,al-,ghazali1 ,abu ,ubaid al-,bakri of ,cordova1 was a general geography of all the roads and provinces of the ,moslem world4 ,although we have no details of ,al-,ghazali's wanderings we can at least follow him on his journeys and learn something of the places he visited and their condition in his day4 ,the course of his travels seems to have been from ,bagdad to ,damascus1 a journey of nearly five hundred miles1 from ,damascus to ,jerusalem and ,hebron1 thence on to the birthplace of the ,prophet at ,mecca and his tomb at ,medina and back over a thousand miles more of caravan travel4 ,all through this period of ,al-,ghazali's life ,damascus was experiencing the storm and stress of war4 ,shortly before his time the city was taken by the ,karmatians and much of it was destroyed by fire4 ,there were frequent changes of governors1 uprisings and riots4 ,in #ajfh the great ,mosque was set on fire4 ,in #ajgf the ,seljuk generals seized the city1 built anew the citadel and other buildings1 among them a famous hospital4 ,this was about fifteen years before ,al-,ghazali's arrival there from ,bagdad4 ,the great ,ummayad ,mosque of ,damascus was said to be the grandest of all ,mohammedan buildings4 ,there was praying space for #bj1jjj men2 and it is said to have taken the whole revenue of ,syria for forty-seven years1 not counting eighteen shiploads of gold and silver from ,cyprus to complete the building4 8,when the wondrous work was finished1 the ,caliph would not look at the accounts brought to him on eighteen laden mules1 but ordered that they should be burned and thus addressed the crowd3 #8,men of ,damascus1 you possess four glories above other people2 you are proud of your water1 your air1 your fruits1 your baths2 your mosque shall be your fifth glory4'0 ,like other famous places of ,moslem worship1 this mosque was once the site of a ,christian church1 dedicated to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 to whom there is still an imposing shrine4 ,for some years the building was shared between ,christians and ,mohammedans1 but in ,a4 ,d4 #gjh the ,christians were driven out4 ,to this day one of the three minarets is called by the name of ,isa 7,jesus71 and above a gate1 long since closed1 is the ,greek inscription1 8,,thy ,,kingdom1 ,o ,,christ1 ,,is ,,an ,,everlasting ,,kingdom1 ,,and ,,thy ,,dominion ,,endureth ,,throughout ,,all ,,generations40 ,al-,ghazali spent many hours for many years under the shadow of this great building1 and it was in the minaret of ,jesus that he had long meditations4 ,the minaret of ,jesus1 according to ,h4 ,saladin1#cg was built in the eleventh century1 shortly before the time of ,al-,ghazali's visit4 ,did he ever find or understand the inscription on the gate and meditate on that ,prophet whose kingdom has no end and no frontier8 ,,iv ,wanderings1 ,later ,years1 and ,death 8,then came the immediate breaking up of the ,seljukian ,empire into a number of independent principalities4 ,syria1 ,palestine1 and all ,asia ,minor1 were partitioned among a dozen different ,turkish ,emirs4 ,khorasan and ,irak became the scene of a fierce civil war1 extending over several years1 between two sons of ,malek ,shah1 ,barkiaroc and ,muhammed4 ,drought was added to the horrors of war2 the people perished by thousands of famine2 the incessant marching and counter-marching of the hostile armies destroyed the remnant of food which had survived the want of rain4 ,to crown all1 from the borders of ,christendom a fresh scourge was beheld preparing for ,islam4 ,the hosts of the ,red ,cross passed the ,bosphorus1 and fought their way knee-deep in blood to the walls of ,jerusalem4 ,the capture of the ,holy ,city struck like the point of a poisoned dagger to the heart of every true ,moslem40 --8,islam under the ,khalifs of ,baghdad10 by ,robert ,durie ,osborn4 ,,iv ,,wanderings1 ,,later ,,years1 ,,and ,,death ,the chronology of ,al-,ghazali's life was a puzzle even to those who wrote only a century after his death4 ,there seems great uncertainty not only as to the time of his various journeyings but as to their order1 and there is dispute even regarding the places he visited4 ,we know that the date of his conversion was ,a4 ,h4 #dhh 7,a4 ,d4 #ajie71 when he was thirty-eight years old1 and that shortly after this he went into exile4 ,in ,a4 ,h4 #dih 7,a4 ,d4 #aajd7 he is said to have returned to active life1 and to have spent two years in retirement in ,syria4 ,the other dates are quite uncertain4 ,following the best authorities at our disposal1 especially his own 8,confessions10 we continue the story where we left off in the last chapter4#ch 8,from ,damascus10 says ,al-,ghazali1 8,i proceeded to ,jerusalem1 and every day secluded myself in the ,sanctuary of the ,rock4 ,after that ,i felt a desire to accomplish the ,pilgrimage1 and to receive a full effusion of grace by visiting ,mecca1 ,medina1 and the ,tomb of the ,prophet4 ,after visiting the shrine of the ,friend of ,god 7,abraham71 ,i went to the ,hejaz4 ,finally1 the longings of my heart and the prayers of my children brought me back to my country1 although ,i was so firmly resolved at first never to revisit it4 ,at any rate1 ,i meant1 if ,i did return1 to live there solitary and in religious meditation2 but events1 family care1 and vicissitudes of life changed my resolutions and troubled my meditative calm4 ,however irregular the intervals which ,i could give to devotional ecstasy1 my confidence in it did not diminish2 and the more ,i was diverted by hindrances1 the more steadfastly ,i returned to it4 ,ten years passed in this manner40 ,according to this account his pilgrimage to ,jerusalem and ,hebron1 to ,medina and ,mecca1 was part of one itinerary2 it also is the natural route of travel from ,bagdad to the birthplace of ,islam4 ,the statement made by some authorities that he first remained ten years at ,damascus is therefore probably inaccurate4 ,if we are to believe al-,isnawi1 the course of events was as follows3 ,he set out in the year ,a4 ,d4 #ajie for the ,hejaz4 ,on his return from the pilgrimage1 he journeyed to ,damascus1 and made his abode there for some years in the minaret of the ,grand ,mosque1 composing several works of which the ,ihya is said to be one4 ,then after visiting ,jerusalem and perhaps ,cairo and ,alexandria1 he returned to his home at ,tus4 ,according to one ,arabic authority1 when ,al-,ghazali left ,damascus in his wanderings1 he was accompanied by a disciple1 a certain ,abu ,tahir ,ibrahim1 who had been a pupil also at ,nishapur under the great ,imam2 he returned afterwards to ,jurjan1 his native place1 and died a martyr in ,a4 ,h4 #eac4 ,other pupils of his at ,damascus are also mentioned1 but the authorities do not agree4 ,among many shrines at ,jerusalem1 ,al-,ghazali visited the ,mosque of ,omar1 and the ,dome of the ,rock4 ,in ,sura xvii4 #a1 ,mohammed is represented as having taken his flight from ,mecca to ,jerusalem4--8,celebrated be the praises of ,him who by night took his servant from the ,masjidu 'l-,haram 7the ,sacred ,mosque7 to the ,masjidu 'l-,aqsa 7the ,remote ,mosque71 the precinct of which we have blessed40 ,as-,suyuti says ,jerusalem is specially honoured by ,moslems as being the scene of the repentance of ,david and ,solomon4 8,the place where ,god sent ,his angel to ,solomon1 announced glad tidings to ,zacharias and ,john1 showed ,david a plan of the ,temple1 and put all the beasts of the earth and fowls of the air in subjection to him4 ,it was at ,jerusalem that the prophets sacrificed2 that ,jesus was born and spoke in ,his cradle2 and it was from ,jerusalem that ,jesus ascended to heaven2 and it will be there that ,he will again descend4 ,gog and ,magog shall subdue every place on the earth but ,jerusalem1 and it will be there that ,god ,almighty will destroy them4 ,it is in the holy land of ,jerusalem that ,adam and ,abraham1 and ,isaac and ,mary are buried4 ,and in the last days there will be a general flight to ,jerusalem1 when the ,ark and the ,shechinah will be again restored to the ,temple4 ,there will all mankind be gathered at the ,resurrection for judgment1 and ,god will enter1 surrounded by ,his angels1 into the ,holy ,temple1 when ,he comes to judge the earth40 ,here ,al-,ghazali would see the sacred footprint of ,mohammed made in the rock on his journey to heaven2 the praying places of ,abraham and ,elijah would be pointed out to him2 the round hole where the rock let ,mohammed through when he ascended to heaven2 the holy place in the roof of the cavern where it arose to allow him to stand erect and to pray2 the tongue with which it spoke2 and the marks of the ,angel ,gabriel's finger where it had to be held down from following him in his ascension6 ,the place is also pointed out by ,moslems to-day where ,solomon tormented the demons1 and also near the eastern wall where the throne stood whereon he sat when dead1 the corpse leaning on his staff to cheat the demons until the worms had gnawed it through and the body fell forward4 ,all this is found in ,moslem ,tradition1 and must have stirred the credulity or the scepticism of ,al-,ghazali4 ,he himself tells us in one of his books that on the last day ,israfil1 who1 with ,gabriel and ,michael1 has been restored to life1 8standing on the rock of the temple of ,jerusalem1 will at the command of ,god call together the souls from all parts1 those of believers from ,paradise and the unbelievers from hell1 and throw them into his trumpet4 ,there they will be ranged in little holes1 like bees in a hive1 and will1 on his giving the last sound1 be thrust out and fly like bees1 filling the whole space between earth and heaven4 ,then they will repair to their respective bodies4 ,the earth will then be an immense plain without hills or villages1 and the dead1 after they have risen1 will sit down each one on his tomb1 anxiously waiting for what is to come40#ci ,a modern traveller describes other ,moslem superstitions connected with this ,mosque4 8,the little arcades at the top of the steps of the platform are called #8,balances1' because the scales of judgment are to be suspended there on the ,great ,day4 ,the ,dome of the ,chain owes its name to the circumstance that there a golden chain hung at ,david's place of judgment1 which had to be grasped by witnesses and dropped a link when a lie was told4 ,a place in the outer wall is shown from which a wire will be suspended on the ,day of ,judgment1 whose other end will be made fast to the ,mount of ,olives4 ,christ will sit on the wall and ,mohammed on the mount4 ,over this wire must all men find their way1 but only the good will cross1 the wicked falling into the valley beneath4 ,in the ,al-,aqsa ,mosque a couple of pillars stand very near each other1 so worn that they are perceptibly thinned4 ,the space between them bulges1 and a piece of spiked iron work is now inserted between them4 ,these are another test for the final award--he who could squeeze himself between them1 and he alone1 had found the true #8narrow way to heaven4'0 ,we have descriptions of ,jerusalem by a ,moslem who wrote at the end of the tenth1 and by another of the middle of the eleventh century4 ,the latter estimated the population at twenty thousand1 and fancied that as many more ,moslem pilgrims came to the city in the month of their pilgrimage2 ,christians and ,jews then visited the city as they do to-day4 ,both these writers praise the place for its cleanliness1 which they attribute to its geographical position and natural drainage4 ,yet the history of ,jerusalem throughout this century is little more than the record of damage and repair to ,christian and ,moslem sanctuaries4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ajaj the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre was destroyed by the mad ,sultan ,hakim4 ,this was followed by other humiliations of the pilgrims and persecutions1 until ,peter the ,hermit arose in protest and the ,crusades began4 ,we have no information as to how ,al-,ghazali spent his days during this visit at ,jerusalem4 ,it was a time of war and tumult throughout ,syria1 on the eve of the ,crusades4 ,one can imagine with what interest ,al-,ghazali studied the whole situation and how this ardent champion of the ,moslem faith was stirred by the coming events whose shadows were already resting on the ,holy ,land at the time of his visit there4 ,we do know that he lived the life of a mystic1 and devoted himself to prayer and fasting4 ,prayer occupies a large place in the life of every conscientious ,moslem4 ,not only are there the five ritual prayers1 but the night prayer which1 according to ,al-,ghazali himself1 must be performed between midnight and the beginning of dawn4 ,it has been calculated that a ,moslem conscientiously performing his devotions recites the same form of prayer at least seventy-five times a day4 ,in addition to these prayers1 however1 there are prayers called witr to be performed after the night prayer2 dhuha1 the prayer used in the forenoon2 and the prayer of night vigils1 which take place between the last evening prayer and midnight4 ,in addition to observing all the above mentioned prayers1 those who would reach a high degree of perfection are recommended by ,al-,ghazali1 in accordance with his own practices at this period1 to engage in certain additional devotional exercises called wird4 ,we may best note the character of this mystical devotion1 in which he spent whole days and nights1 by quoting in substance from the ,ihya as follows3 8,from many verses of the ,koran it appears that the only way of becoming united with ,god is constant intercourse with ,him4 ,this is the object of the devotional services called wird in which the believer can engage at all times of the day as well as the night4 ,the wirds to be observed during the day are seven3 ,first wird4 ,the ,moslem on rising early mentions the name of ,god1 and praises ,him1 reciting certain petitions2 while dressing1 he recites the appointed petitions1 cleans his teeth with the miswak1 performs the ,wudhu1 then prays two ,sunna rakas of dawn4#dj ,after this he repeats a petition and goes to the mosque with collected thoughts4 ,he enters the mosque solemnly and respectfully with the right foot first1 saying the appointed petitions on entering and leaving4 ,he enters the first rank of worshippers if there be room1 and prays the two rakas of dawn1 if he has not done so already at home2 then two rakas of #8,saluting the ,mosque1' and sits down repeating petitions and praises1 awaiting the assembling of the congregation4 ,after having repeated the obligatory prayer of dawn1 he remains sitting in the mosque till sunrise1 meditating and repeating certain petitions1 and praises a certain number of times1 counting them by the rosary1 and reciting portions of the ,koran4 ,we know that the rosary was in general use from a reference to it in the 8,assemblies0 of al-,hariri1 and in ,al-,ghazali's 8,alchemy of ,happiness40 ,the second wird is between sunrise and an advanced forenoon hour2 the worshipper says a prayer of two rakas1 and when the sun has risen the length of a lance above the horizon two more rakas4 ,this is the time when the believer may perform good works1 such as visiting the sick1 etc4 ,when nothing of the kind requires his attention1 he spends his time in repeating petitions1 in zikr1 meditation and reading the ,koran4 ,the third wird is between morning and the ascending of the sun2 the believer1 after taking care of his worldly affairs1 engages in the devotional exercises as before mentioned4 ,between the time when the sun has become somewhat high and the noon prayer1 four rakas between the ,azan and the ,ikama are said and portions of the ,koran are recited2 this is the fourth wird4 ,the fifth1 sixth and seventh occur after this until vespers4 ,finally there are the wirds of the night which are five1 divided and described as follows3--,first night wird3 after sunset1 when the prayer of sunset has been performed1 to the time when darkness has set in1 the worshipper says two rakas1 in which certain portions of the ,koran are recited1 then four long rakas1 and as much of the ,koran as time allows4 ,this wird may be performed at home2 but it is preferable to do so in the mosque4 ,second night wird3 this is from the darkness of the last ,isha to the time when people retire to sleep4 ,this consists of three things3 7#a7 the obligatory ,isha prayer2 ten rakas1 viz41 four before it and six after it2 7#b7 performing a prayer of thirteen rakas1 the last of which is the witr prayer4 ,in this about three hundred verses of the ,koran are to be recited4 7#c7 ,the witr prayer before going to sleep1 unless one is accustomed to rise in the night1 when it may be performed later on1 which is more meritorious4 ,third night wird3 this consists of sleep1 and sleep may well be considered a devotional act1 if enjoyed in the proper way4 ,fourth night wird3 this is from the time when the first half of the night is spent to when only one-sixth of it still remains4 ,at this time the believer ought to rise from sleep and perform the prayer of tahajjud4 ,this prayer is also called the hujud4 ,mohammed mostly made it a prayer of thirteen rakas4 ,fifth night wird3 this begins with the last sixth of the night1 called the ,sahar1 the early morning before dawn to the appearing of dawn40 ,to these devotional exercises1 described in the ,ihya1 it was considered meritorious to add four additional good actions3 fasting1 almsgiving1 visiting the sick1 attending funerals2 and finally all this punctilious remembrance of ,god through prayer was supplemented by what is called dhikr--the special method of worship used by the ,sufi saints4 ,al-,ghazali describes the method and effects of this practice in a passage which ,macdonald has summarized as follows3 8,let the worshipper reduce his heart to a state in which the existence of anything and its non-existence are the same to him4 ,then let him sit alone in some corner1 limiting his religious duties to what is absolutely necessary1 and not occupying himself either with reciting the ,koran or considering its meaning or with books of religious traditions or with anything of the sort4 ,and let him see to it that nothing save ,god most ,high enters his mind4 ,then1 as he sits in solitude1 let him not cease saying continuously with his tongue1 #8,allah1 ,allah1' keeping his thought on it4 ,at last he will reach a state when the motion of his tongue will cease1 and it will seem as though the word flowed from it4 ,let him persevere in this until all trace of motion is removed from his tongue1 and he finds his heart persevering in the thought4 ,let him still persevere until the form of the word1 its letters and shape1 is removed from his heart1 and there remains the idea alone1 as though clinging to his heart1 inseparable from it4 ,so far1 all is dependent on his will and choice2 but to bring the mercy of ,god does not stand in his will or choice4 ,he has now laid himself bare to the breathings of that mercy1 and nothing remains but to wait what ,god will open to him1 as ,god has done after this manner to prophets and saints4 ,if he follows the above course1 he may be sure that the light of the ,real will shine out in his heart4 ,at first unstable1 like a flash of lightning1 it turns and returns2 though sometimes it hangs back4 ,and if it returns1 sometimes it abides and sometimes it is momentary4 ,and if it abides1 sometimes its abiding is long1 and sometimes short40 ,such is the teaching of ,al-,ghazali in regard to the true life of devotion and such we may believe was his own practice at ,damascus and ,jerusalem during the years that followed his life of exile--the endless repetition of ,god's great names and 8prayer without ceasing0 in the ,moslem sense4 ,one wonders what part of the day remained for the literary work and teaching in which we know he was also engaged4#da ,an interesting story is told of his life at ,jerusalem in these words3 8,there came together the ,imams ,abu ,hamid ,al-,ghazali and ,ismail ,al-,kakimi and ,ibrahim ,ash-,shibaki and ,abu-l-,hasan ,al-,basri1 and a large number of foreign elders1 in the ,cradle of ,isa 7upon him be peace67 in ,jerusalem1 and he 7,al-,ghazali1 apparently7 recited these two lines3 8#8,may ,i be thy ransom6 were it not for love thou wouldst have ransomed me1 but by the magic of two eye-pupils thou hast taken me captive4 ,i came to thee when my breast was straitened through love1 and if thou hadst known how was my longing1 thou wouldst have come to me4' ,then ,abu-l-,hasan ,al-,basri constrained himself to an ecstasy which affected those that were present1 and eyes wept and garments were rent and ,mohammed ,al-,kazaruni died in the midst of the assembly in ecstasy40 ,in ,jerusalem he is said to have written his ,risalat ,al-,qudsiya2 and the date of his visit there must have been shortly before ,a4 ,h4 #dib1 for in that year ,jerusalem was captured by the ,crusaders4#db ,it was natural for one of ,al-,ghazali's temperament to desire to pay homage also at the tomb of ,abraham1 whom ,moslems delight to call the 8,friend of ,god40 ,the religion of ,islam is continually called the religion of ,abraham in the ,koran4 ,tradition locates the so-called ,machpelah ,cave in the eastern part of the present-day ,hebron1 on the edge of the valley1 and the mosque which now stands there is supposed to enclose the grave4 ,hebron is about seventeen miles southwest of ,jerusalem4 ,before the twelfth century the ,cave of ,machpelah began to attract visitors and pilgrims4 8,benjamin of ,tudela relates3 #8,at ,hebron there is a large place of worship called 8,st4 ,abraham10 which was previously a ,jewish synagogue4 ,the natives erected there six sepulchres1 which they tell foreigners are those of the ,patriarchs and their wives1 demanding money as a condition of seeing them4 ,if a ,jew gives an additional fee to the keeper of the cave1 an iron door which dates from the time of our forefathers opens1 and the visitor descends with a lighted candle4 ,he crosses two empty caves1 and in the third sees six tombs1 on which the names of the three ,patriarchs and their wives are inscribed in ,hebrew characters4 ,the cave is filled with barrels containing bones of people1 which are taken there as to a sacred place4 ,at the end of the field of the ,machpelah stands ,abraham's house with a spring in front of it4'0#dc ,the mosque of ,hebron1 over the tomb of ,abraham1 consists at present of a quadrangular platform about seventy yards long by thirty-five wide4 ,the tomb which it covers is one of the sites which few ,christian eyes have seen4 ,it is permitted to none but ,moslems to approach nearer the entrance than the seventh step of the staircase along the eastern wall4#dd ,illustration3 ,the dome of the rock1 ,jerusalem1 as seen from the ,lutheran ,church4 ,hebron is one of the oldest cities in the world and legends of all sorts have gathered about the place4 ,even in ,al-,ghazali's day it was spoken of as the place of ,adam's creation and death1 the scene of ,abel's murder1 and the place where ,abraham made his home4 ,after ,al-,ghazali's visit to ,hebron he probably made his pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,whether the journey was made by sea or by land1 we do not know4 ,in any case it was full of peril at that period4 ,very possibly ,al-,ghazali took the long caravan journey1 following the route of the ,damascus pilgrimage in our day4 ,it was considered proper1 however1 to visit ,mecca first1 and ,medina on the return journey4 ,al-,ghazali himself advises this in his directions for the correct performance of the rites of pilgrimage4#de ,in what spirit he fulfilled the rites we know from one of his spiritual teachers whose text-book on the subject ,al-,ghazali had mastered4 8,a man who had just returned from the pilgrimage came to ,junayd4 ,junayd said3 #8,from the hour when you first journeyed from your home have you also been journeying away from all sins8' ,he said #8,no4' #8,then1' said ,junayd1 #8you have made no journey4 ,at every stage where you halted for the night did you traverse a station on the way to ,god8' #8,no1' he replied4 #8,then1' said ,junayd1 #8you have not trodden the road1 stage by stage4 ,when you put on the pilgrim's garb at the proper place1 did you discard the qualities of human nature as you cast off your clothes8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not put on the pilgrim's garb4 ,when you stood on ,arafat1 did you stand one moment in contemplation of ,god8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not stood at ,arafat4 ,when you went to ,muzdalifa and achieved your desire1 did you renounce all sensual desires8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not gone to ,muzdalifa4 ,when you circumambulated the ,kaaba1 did you behold the immaterial beauty of ,god in the abode of purification8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not circumambulated the ,kaaba4 ,when you ran between ,safa and ,marwa1 did you attain to purity 7safa7 and virtue 7muruwwat78' #8,no4' #8,then you have not run4 ,when you came to ,mina1 did all your wishes 7muna7 cease8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not yet visited ,mina4 ,when you reached the slaughter place and offered sacrifices1 did you sacrifice the objects of worldly desire8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not sacrificed4 ,when you threw the pebbles1 did you throw away whatever sensual thoughts were accompanying you8' #8,no4' #8,then you have not yet thrown the pebbles1 and you have not yet performed the pilgrimage4'0 ,such was the mystical interpretation of the rites at ,mecca taught by the ,sufis to their disciples4 ,mecca1 when ,al-,ghazali made the pilgrimage1 was under the rule of the ,sherif ,abu ,hashim 7,a4 ,d4 #ajfc-ajid74 ,half a century earlier the ,karmathians1 perhaps the most fanatic of all ,moslem sects1 had besieged ,mecca1 captured the city1 murdered the pilgrims by thousands1 and carried away the famous black stone to ,bahrein on the ,persian ,gulf4#df ,by taking away this sacred treasure they hoped to put an end to the pilgrimage1 but were disappointed4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #iej the stone was returned for a heavy ransom4#dg ,it was because of the constant disputes between the ,caliphs of ,bagdad and ,egypt that the defense of the holy cities was finally given into the hand of the ,sherifs4 ,abu ,hashim was a time-server1 and cared more for bribes than for religion1 according to the testimony of ,arabian chroniclers4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ajgj he changed the name of the ,fatimide ,sultans for that of the ,abbassides at ,friday prayers1 and received much bounty4 ,in #ajge he sold the same privilege to the ,fatimides1 and in #ajgf to the ,caliphs of ,bagdad4 ,this conduct so enraged the ,sultan of ,bagdad that in #ajia he sent bands of ,turkomans against ,mecca4 ,chronicles of the holy city during this period show that the pilgrimage was accompanied by grave dangers because of ,bedouin robbers as well as disturbances in ,mecca itself4 ,sometimes these uprisings were directed by ,abu ,hashim himself1 as was the case in ,a4 ,d4 #ajid4dh ,just about the time of ,al-,ghazali's visit1 the various buildings at ,mecca and the ,beit ,allah itself1 had been repaired and beautified4 ,the four maqams or places of prayer for the orthodox sects as they now stand were built in ,a4 ,h4 #ajgd4 ,the place of the ,shafi sect to which ,al-,ghazali belonged1 is directly over the well of ,zem ,zem1 to which it serves as an upper chamber4 ,the building1 erected in #ajgb1 is in use to-day4 ,the great pulpit of white marble was sent to ,mecca in ,a4 ,h4 #ifi by the ,sultan of ,egypt4 ,it is still in use4 ,perchance ,al-,ghazali ascended these very stairs and addressed the pilgrims4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ajcj a violent torrent swept over ,mecca1 and nearly ruined the ,kaaba4 ,the repairs were not finished until #ajdj4di ,with his religious pilgrimage to ,mecca and ,medina it seems that ,al-,ghazali's life of strict retirement ended1 except for his visit to ,alexandria and beyond4 ,apparently he proposed to make a journey to ,spain and the great ,sultan of the ,west1 ,yusuf bin ,tashfin1 on whose behalf he had given ,fatwas or religious decisions1 but the news of the ,sultan's death put an end to his plans1 according to some authorities4 ,others say that at this time he was summoned to teach again at ,nishapur4 ,the details of his life during the mysterious ten years of his wanderings are most conflicting4 ,according to ,abd al-,ghafir1 a personal friend of ,al-,ghazali1 he went a second time to ,mecca1 afterwards to ,syria1 and then wandered from shrine to shrine for nearly ten years4 ,next to 8,the ,confessions10 the best authority on his life is undoubtedly this same ,abd al-,ghafir4 ,what he tells us of ,al-,ghazali's life must have been gained from personal knowledge1 or go back immediately to ,al-,ghazali himself4 8,according to him1 ,al-,ghazali set out on pilgrimage to ,mecca1 then went to ,syria1 and remained there wandering from place to place and shrine to shrine nearly ten years4 ,at this time he composed several of his works1 the ,ihya and books abbreviated from it1 such as the ,arbain and the ,rasail2 besides labouring at his own spiritual advancement and growth through the religious exercises of the ,sufis4 ,then he returned to his home and lived there a retired life for some time1 absorbed in meditation1 but gradually becoming more and more sought after as a teacher and guide to the spiritual life4 ,at length ,fakhr al-,mulk ,ali b4 ,nizam ,al-,mulk ,jamal ,ash-,shuhada1 who had previously been ,wazir to ,barqiyaruq1 became ,wazir to ,sinjar the son of ,malik ,shah at ,nishapur1 and by him such pressure was put on ,al-,ghazali that he finally consented to resume teaching in the ,maymuna ,nizamiyya ,madrasa there40#ej ,we have reference to but no detail of ,al-,ghazali's visit to ,cairo1 the great centre of ,moslem architecture and learning in the ,west1 as ,bagdad was in the ,east4 ,nor1 strange to say1 have ,i found reference in his works to this visit4 ,it is possible that he was not received altogether with favour by the religious leaders of ,al-,azhar at the time1 but his reputation was already world-wide1 and many of his pupils at ,bagdad and ,nishapur were from ,egypt and ,north ,africa4 ,at the time of ,al-,ghazali's visit1 ,cairo was still the great centre of ,arab civilization1 and had all the glory which the ,fatimid dynasty had bestowed upon it4 ,the splendid palaces of the ,caliphs formed the central portion of the town4 ,the three massive gates which still command admiration at the present day1 ,bab ,al-,futuh1 ,bab ,al-,nasr and ,bab ,az-,zuwaila1 led into the city4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ajhg the walls were rebuilt1 and these massive gateways constructed along with others which are no longer standing4 ,in the vault of the archways of these gates1 there used to be two chambers1 and these were used by the ,egyptian sovereigns and their friends to watch the various spectacles1 especially the departure and return of the sacred carpet4 ,the intellectual and religious life of the city centred in the great mosque of ,al-,azhar1 which had been completed in ,a4 ,d4 #ajab4 ,cairo was not yet the economic centre for all ,egypt which it became later1 but it was the seat of a splendid court1 with military pageantry1 as well as a centre of religious learning4 ,ibn ,tuwair and others have given us vivid pictures of the ceremonial processions and festivals1 the magazines1 treasuries1 stables1 and royal household4 ,as for ,alexandria1 where we know ,al-,ghazali lived for some time before his return to ,syria1 it did not have a high reputation at that time for learning4 ,it was rather a port of trade1 from which men passed on to ,misr 7,cairo7 or went by sea to ,syria4 ,hamadhani makes one of his characters say3 8,i am of the citizens of ,alexandria1 ,of sound and pure stock among them1 ,the age and the people thereof are stupid1 ,therefore ,i made my stupidity my steed60 ,but in ,moslem tradition1 ,alexandria has high honour4 ,moslems show the tomb of ,daniel the prophet1 also that of ,alexander the ,great whose story is told in the ,koran4 ,alexandria also boasts two celebrated ,walis or holy men4 ,one is ,mohammed al ,busiri1 the author of the poem called ,al ,burdah1 universally celebrated2 and the other ,abu ,abbas ,al-,andalusi1 at whose tomb prayer is never offered in vain4 ,there is also a prophecy that when ,mecca falls into the hands of the infidels ,alexandria will succeed to its honours4#ea ,from ,alexandria ,al-,ghazali went to ,damascus and then to ,nishapur and from there to ,bagdad1 or from ,damascus direct to ,bagdad1 where he taught the ,ihya and preached4 ,as-,subki tells us that the people crowded to hear him1 and that notes of his sermons to the number of #ahc were taken by one of those present1 who read them to ,al-,ghazali before they were circulated4 ,the following story is told of his life at this time3 ,once while teaching the ,ihya at ,bagdad1 he began to quote3 8,he has made beloved the homes of men1 as abodes of desire which the heart has decreed2 whenever they remember their homes these remind them of the pledges of youth there1 and they long thither40 ,then he wept1 and those present wept with him4 ,thereafter some one saw him in the open country with a patched dervish-garment on1 a water-vessel and an iron-shod staff in his hand1--all in strange contrast to the states in which he had seen him before1 with three hundred pupils around him1 including one hundred of the chief men of ,bagdad4 ,so he said1 8,o ,imam1 is not the teaching of science more fitting80 ,but ,al-,ghazali looked at him with red eyes and said1 8,when the full moon of happiness rises in the firmament of will1 the sun of setting departs in the ,east of union40 ,then he recited1 8,i abandoned the love of ,layla and my happiness was far1 and ,i returned to the companionship of my first alighting-place2 then cried to me my longings1 #8,welcome6 these are the alighting-places of her whom thou lovest1 draw up and alight4'0 ,of his spiritual experiences during these ten years of retirement and wandering1 and during the years that followed1 when he taught others the way of the mystic1 we will speak later4 ,we know that he left ,bagdad1 returned to ,tus1 his native place1 and settled down to study and contemplation4 ,strange to say1 at this time of his life he seems to have found the greatest delight in going back again to the study of ,tradition1 especially the collections of ,al-,bokhari and of ,muslim4 ,all his biographers seem to agree in this4 ,he had charge of a madrasa and of the khanka or monastery for ,sufis4 ,every moment was filled with study and devotion until in the fifty-fifth year of his life 7lunar calendar7 the end came4 ,the austerity and privations of his long wanderings doubtless wore down his strength4 ,one who had risen to so high a position of authority on religious matters also had to pay the price of leadership in controversy with opponents1 and of their envy1 and their slander1 as we are told by al-,ghafir4 ,this may have been1 ,macdonald thinks1 one of the causes for his removal from ,nishapur to ,tus4 ,a friend remarks in regard to his attitude towards those who opposed his teaching and envied his influence3 8,however much he met of contradiction and attack and slander1 it made no impression on him1 and he did not trouble himself to answer his assailants4 ,i visited him many times1 and it was no bare conjecture of mine that he1 in spite of what ,i saw in him in time past of maliciousness and roughness towards people1 and how he looked upon them contemptuously through his being led astray by what ,god had granted him of ease in word and thought and expression1 and through the seeking of rank and position1 had come to be the very opposite and was purified from these stains4 ,and ,i used to think that he was wrapping himself in the garment of pretense1 but ,i realized after investigation that the thing was the opposite of what ,i had thought1 and that the man had recovered after being mad40 ,al-,ghazali died on ,monday1 the fourteenth of ,jumada ,,ii1 ,a4 ,h4 #eje 7,dec4 #ahth1 #aaaa74 ,his brother ,ahmad 7quoted by ,murtadha from ,ibn ,jawzi's ,kitab ath-thabat ind al-mamat7 gives the following account of his death3 8,on ,monday1 at dawn1 my brother performed the ablution and prayed4 ,then he said1 #8,bring me my grave-clothes1' and he took them and kissed them and laid them on his eyes and said1 #8,i hear and obey to go in to the ,king4' ,and he stretched out his feet towards ,mecca1 and was taken to the good will of ,god ,most ,high4 ,he was buried at1 or outside of1 ,tabran1 the citadel of ,tus1 and ,ibn ,as-,samani visited his grave there40 ,later biographers were not satisfied with the bare facts of his decease4 ,murtadha gives a far more interesting story4 8,when death drew near to the ,imam ,abu ,hamid ,al-,ghazali1 he commanded his servant1 an excellent and religious man1 to dig his grave in the middle of his house1 and to summon the people of the neighbouring villages to attend his funeral2 that they should not touch him1 but that a company of three men unknown in the region of ,al-,iraq would come out of the desert1 that two of them would wash him1 and the third would undertake the prayer over him without the advice or command of any one4 ,then1 when he died1 the servant did according to all that he had commanded1 and required the presence of the people4 ,and when the people gathered to attend the funeral1 they saw three men who had come out of the desert4 ,two of them began to wash the corpse1 while the third vanished and did not appear4 ,but when they had washed him and arranged him in the grave-clothes1 and carried his bier and laid it on the edge of the grave1 the third appeared wrapped in his robe with a black border on both sides1 turbaned with wool1 and he prayed for him and the people prayed with him4 ,then he gave the benediction and departed and hid from the people4 ,and some of the excellent of the people of ,al-,iraq who were present at the funeral had noticed him carefully1 but did not know him until some of them heard a ,hatif in the night saying to them1 #8,the man who led the people in prayer is ,abu ,abd ,allah ,mohammed b4 ,ishaq ,amghar1 the ,sharif4 ,he came from the farthest ,maghrib1 from ,ayn al-,qatr1 and those who washed the corpse are his comrades ,abu ,shuayb ,ayyub b4 ,said and ,abu ,isa ,wajih4' ,and when they heard that they journeyed from ,al-,iraq to ,sanhaja of the farthest ,maghrib1 and when they had reached them and asked of them their prayers1 they returned to ,al-,iraq and related it to the ,sufis and published their miracle 7karama74 ,then a company of them1 when they heard that1 went to visit them and found them to be those whom they noticed carefully1 and they asked of them their prayers4 ,and this is a strange story40#eb ,an equally remarkable story is told of the death of ,al-,ghazali's younger brother in the books of the ,persian mystics4#ec ,the verses given might well apply to ,al-,ghazali himself and his views of life and death4 8,moghith related1 on the authority of ,kadiri tradition1 how the famous ,ahmed-,al-,ghazali1 native of ,tus in ,persia1 said one day to his disciples1 #8,go and bring me new and white garments4' ,they went2 and on returning with the objects required1 found their master dead2 by his side was a paper on which were written the following stanzas3 8#8,tell my friends1 who behold me dead1 ,weeping and mourning my loss a while1 ,think not this corpse before you myself3 ,that corpse is mine1 but it is not ,i4 ,i am an undying life1 and this is not my body1 ,many years my house and my garment of change2 ,i am the bird1 and this body was my cage1 ,i have wing'd my flight elsewhere1 and left it for a token4 ,i am the pearl1 and this my shell1 ,broken open and abandon'd to worthlessness2 ,i am the treasure1 and this was a spell ,thrown over me1 till the treasure was released in truth4 ,thanks be to ,god1 who has delivered me1 ,and has assign'd me a lasting abode in the highest4 ,there am ,i now the day conversing with the happy1 ,and beholding face to face unveiled ,deity2 ,contemplating the ,mirror wherein ,i see and read ,past and present1 and whatever remains to be4 ,food and drink too are mine1 yet both are one2 ,mystery known to him who is worthy to know4 ,it is not 8wine sweet of taste0 that ,i drink2 ,no1 nor 8water10 but the pure milk of a mother4 ,understand my meaning aright1 for the secret ,is signified by words of symbol and figure1-- ,i have journey'd on1 and left you behind2 ,how could ,i make an abode of your halting-stage8 ,ruin then my house and break my cage in pieces1 ,and let the shell go perish with kindred illusions2 ,tear my garment1 the veil once thrown over me2 ,then bury all these1 and leave them alike for ,i go4 ,deem not death death1 for it is in truth ,life of lives1 the goal of all our longings4 ,think lovingly of a ,god whose ,name is love1 ,who joys in rewarding1 and come on secure of fear4 ,whence ,i am1 ,i behold you undying spirits like myself1 ,and see that our lot is one1 and you as ,i4'0 ,we are indebted to the ,rev4 ,dwight ,m4 ,donaldson of ,mashad1 ,persia1 for the interesting photographs of the ruins of ,tus and of the supposed tomb of ,al-,ghazali4 ,the mosque is very old and probably dates from the time of ,al-,ghazali4 ,the grave shown in the picture1 however1 may not be the grave of ,al-,ghazali the mystic but of another celebrated ,ghazali4 ,for we read in ,as-,subqi 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cf7 that there was one called ,ahmed ibn ,mohammed ,abu ,hamed ,al-,ghazali1 the older and earlier one4 ,he says that people have thrown doubt upon his very existence1 but that after careful inquiry he has found mention of this man in several books1 including the ,kitab ,al ,ansab of ,ibn ,as-,samani4 ,he mentions the fact that this man also lived in ,khorasan1 was celebrated for his learning1 wrote books on theological questions1 and was buried at ,tus1 where his grave was well known2 and because of this people called him the ,old ,ghazali1 and used to come to his grave in order to obtain answers to their prayers4 ,he thinks that this ,ghazali was either the uncle or the grand-uncle of ,al-,ghazali1 whose biography we have written4 ,incidentally we may conclude from this statement of ,as-,subqi that the name of ,al-,ghazali was not given to him because his father was a spinner of wool6 ,it must have been an old family name4 ,mr4 ,donaldson gives this interesting information3 8,the walls of the old city of ,tus still stand4 ,it is one farsakh around them1 three and a third miles4 ,there are many fragments of towers and in nine places there are remains of gates4 ,the wall was originally five yards wide4 ,in the largest cemetery the tombstone of ,ahmad ,ghazali may still be seen4 ,this cemetery lies southwest from the city and while the bulk of it is now under cultivation1 the more distant part that lies on the higher ground beyond the waterway has been kept a cemetery4 8,the picture ,i have enclosed of ,ghazali's tomb is not as satisfactory as ,i would have liked4 ,it shows that a large chip has been taken from one corner of the grave4 ,the stone is about two yards long1 one-third yard wide1 and one-third yard high4 ,there are positive indications of an effort having been made to cut off the portion on which the name of ,ahmed ,al-,ghazali appears4 ,it is the part that is chipped in the picture4 ,about at the point where the chipping appears to begin there is a straight line cut about one inch deep across the top of the stone4 8,on the road that runs through the city from the southwest gate the old mosque is imposing even in its ruined condition4 ,it stands eighteen yards high and the inner measurements show it to consist of a square base1 five yards high1 then an octagonal structure eight yards high4 7,see illustration47 8,outside the southwest gate an ancient bridge is still in use1 as caravans from ,mashad come through the old city of ,tus4 ,this bridge has eight arches1 each four and one-half yards wide4 ,the name of the stream is the ,kashf ,rud4 8,the fortress itself is interesting2 it is surrounded by a moat and a wall1 within which lies a large courtyard and the high approach to the fort itself4 ,at present we could walk around the wall and approach the fort by a passage in the rear4 ,in the courtyard they are now raising the best water-melons we have eaten in ,persia4 ,four gigantic corner fragments of the fort are now standing4 ,in the midst of the dbris of bricks within these old walls we found interesting fragments of pottery40 ,in another letter from ,mashad1 ,persia1 dated ,january #ag1 #aiag1 the ,rev4 ,dwight ,m4 ,donaldson writes3 8,this week ,i made another trip to ,tus1 carefully examining again the tombstone of ,ghazali4 ,as ,i wrote you before1 the stone has been badly worn and in addition to that has been mutilated4 ,however1 on the point of doubt as to whether the stone photographed was really the one marking ,mohammed ,al-,ghazali's tomb1 or the tomb of another ,ahmad ,al-,ghazali1 ,i can now say that ,i believe it is the tomb of ,abu ,hamed ibn ,mohammed ibn ,mohammed ibn ,mohammed ,al-,ghazali1 for the reason that we can clearly read on the corner of the top of the stone1 the end which some one in times past attempted to cut off1 the name and 4 ,and as one studies the stone he is almost willing to declare that the name is fully intelligible with the exception of the initial aleph4 ,the whole top is badly worn indeed1 but the word that my mirza first read as ,ahmad is clearly not ,ahmad1 but what it is we cannot tell4 ,the damage is too complete4 8,you will notice that ,ghazzali appears in the stone to have been spelled with a tashdeed and yet the mark we have considered a tashdeed is not the usual form 7v instead of w740 ,this investigation1 therefore1 would seem to settle two points3 that we have at ,tus the neglected and mutilated grave of the great mystic and theologian1 ,al-,ghazali2 and that on this grave the middle letter of the name is double4 ,in view of the common usage1 however1 and in deference to the authorities of ,moslems themselves1 we have uniformly written ,ghazali4 ,v ,his ,creed and ,credulity 8,this man1 7,al-,ghazali7 if ever any have deserved the name1 was truly a #8divine1' and he may be justly placed on a level with ,origen1 so remarkable was he for learning and ingenuity1 and gifted with such a rare faculty for the skilful and worthy exposition of doctrine4 ,all that is good1 noble1 and sublime that his great soul had compassed he bestowed upon ,mohammedanism1 and he adorned the doctrines of the ,koran with so much piety and learning that1 in the form given them by him1 they seem1 in my opinion1 worthy the assent of ,christians4 ,whatsoever was most excellent in the philosophy of ,aristotle or in the ,sufic mysticism he discreetly adapted to the ,mohammedan theology2 from every school he sought the means of shedding light and honour upon religion2 while his sincere piety and lofty conscientiousness imparted to all his writings a sacred majesty4 ,he was the first of ,mohammedan divines40 --,dr4 ,august ,tholuck4 ,v ,,his ,,creed ,,and ,,credulity ,although1 according to his own testimony in his 8,confessions10 ,al-,ghazali was troubled from his earliest years with doubt and scepticism1 he was not willing to yield to it1 and his faith rose triumphant above all his doubts4 ,this is one of the outstanding facts in his biography4 ,he could say with the writer of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews that 8faith is the substance of things hoped for and the evidence of things not seen40 ,not only did he find ,god in nature and in his own conscience and consciousness1 but he was a firm believer in revelation4 ,naturally the only revelation to which ,al-,ghazali turned as the basis1 the very bed-rock of religious faith1 was the ,koran1 the eternal1 uncreated word of ,god according to ,moslem teaching2 and also to the life of the ,prophet ,mohammed1 his practices and his precepts handed down in orthodox ,tradition--this also was a revelation from ,god4 ,whether he ever read the ,old and ,new ,testament is a question we consider unanswered4 ,he did not draw his creed from this source4 ,al-,ghazali gives the distinction very clearly1 almost as clearly as the ,epistle of ,james1 between faith and works4 ,he was a dogmatic theologian and laid down1 as we shall see in this chapter1 with punctilious care every point of dogma2 but he was also a moralist and a man of high ideals which he sought to attain through prayer and fasting and pilgrimage1 and a life of utter devotion to the will of ,god4 ,his faith was living and practical1 not theoretical and scholastic4 ,in his great work1 the ,ihya1 he discusses the whole subject of faith1 and enumerates the following classes of believers3 8,he who combines inner belief with outward confession and good works is a true believer and enters ,paradise4 8,he who combines inner belief with outward confession and some good works but commits one or more great sins1 does not thereby cease to be a believer1 though his faith is not of the highest degree4 ,the ,mutazila deny that such a one can be considered a believer1 but that nevertheless by committing deadly sins he does not become an unbeliever but is in an intermediate state between a believer and an infidel4 ,an infidel is an impious person and goes into everlasting hell-fire40 ,the opinions with regard to the person who combines inner belief with outward confession1 but has no good works are divided4 ,abu ,talibu'l ,makki says3 8,good works are part of the faith1 and faith cannot exist without them40 ,the ,sunni doctors of ,islam1 however1 reject this opinion as absolutely false1 for they say that it is a truth accepted by general agreement1 that a man who believes and confesses and dies before he has done any good work1 is a true believer and enters ,paradise2 that good works cannot consequently be considered as a necessary part of faith1 and that faith can exist without them4 8,he who believes in his heart1 but dies before he has either confessed or performed good works1 is nevertheless a true believer and enters into ,paradise4 ,those who consider confession a necessary part of faith naturally consider that such a one has died without faith1 an opinion absolutely contrary to the ,sunni dogma4 8,he who believes in his heart1 and has time and opportunity of confessing1 and knows that it is the duty of the ,moslem to do so1 and does not confess his faith1 is nevertheless a believer in the sight of ,god1 and will not be cast into everlasting hell-fire1 for faith is the mere belief1 intellectual conviction and assent1 and this belief does not cease to exist through the want of outward confession4 ,such a man is a believer in the sight of ,god1 but an unbeliever in this world before the court of justice and with regard to the rights of ,moslems4 ,in case of an impediment of the tongue1 a sign with the hand is as good as confession with the tongue4 ,the sect of the ,murjia go too far by saying that a believer1 even if he act wickedly1 will never enter hell-fire4 ,the orthodox doctrine on this subject is that every one1 even the most perfect believer1 will enter hell-fire1 for no one is free from committing some sins1 for which he must enter fire2 only infidels1 however1 will remain in it forever40 8,he who confesses with the tongue saying3 #8,there is no ,god but ,god1 and ,mohammed is ,his apostle1' but does not believe it in his heart is an infidel in the sight of ,god1 and will be cast into eternal hell-fire4 ,in this world1 however1 he is to be considered and treated as a believer and a ,moslem1 for man cannot penetrate into the secrets of the heart1 and the confession of the mouth must be taken to be the interpreter of the thoughts of the heart4 ,in order1 however1 to make a man a ,moslem in this world1 before the law1 in the sight of the ,qadi1 confession is necessary40 ,not only does he classify believers in this careful way1 but he also discusses the question1 in the first book of his ,ihya1 whether ,islam is the same thing as iman 7faith7 or not1 and if these two are not the same thing1 can they exist separately or must they necessarily be combined8 8,some say that ,islam and ,iman are synonymous terms and that consequently every believer is a ,moslem and every ,moslem a believer40 ,this is the opinion held by the orthodox school4 ,others say that they are distinct things but joined together4 ,al-,ghazali answers this difficult question in this way3 ,iman 7,faith71 from the linguistic point of view1 means belief1 intellectual conviction and assent2 ,islam means submission1 subjection1 obedience4 ,the seat of ,iman is the heart or mind1 and the tongue is its interpreter4 ,islam comprises belief with the heart and confession with the tongue1 and good works by the members of the body1 and is consequently a more comprehensive term than ,iman4 ,iman is one of the component parts of ,islam1 and ,islam1 therefore1 includes it2 but ,iman1 being a more restricted term1 does not include ,islam4 ,from a linguistic point of view the two terms are therefore not synonymous4 ,from the point of view of the law and religion1 and in a theological sense the two terms are sometimes used as being synonymous1 and sometimes as having different meanings and as being intermingled1 comprised in each other4 ,iman and ,islam are found in the individual who believes in his heart and outwardly observes the precepts of ,islam2 ,islam exists separately in the individual1 who only believes in his heart2 but neither confesses1 nor does good works1 and ,islam exists separately in him who outwardly observes the precepts of ,islam1 without inner belief4 ,what the faith of ,islam meant to ,al-,ghazali we know from all his works1 especially from the ,ihya1 which besides other topics gives a full exposition of ,moslem belief in regard to the six articles of their creed and the five pillars of practice4 ,the reader may judge for himself both the contents and omissions of ,al-,ghazali's credo from the following brief exposition which he wrote for his pupils3 ,,his ,,creed#ed 8,we say--and in ,god is our trust--,praise belongeth unto ,god1 the ,beginner1 the ,bringer-back1 the ,doer of what ,he willeth1 the ,lord of the ,glorious ,throne and of ,mighty ,grasp1 the ,guider of ,his chosen creatures to the right path and to the true way1 the ,granter of benefits to them after the witness to the ,unity 7tawhid7 by guarding their articles of belief from obscurities of doubt and opposition4 ,he that bringeth them to follow ,his ,apostle1 the ,chosen one 7,al-,mustafa7 and to imitate the traces of ,his ,companions1 the most honoured1 through ,his aid and right guidance revealed to them in ,his essence and ,his works by ,his beautiful qualities which none perceives1 save he who inclines his ear4 ,he is the witness who maketh known to them that ,he in ,his essence is ,one without any partner 7sharik74 ,single without any similar1 ,eternal without any opposite1 ,separate without any like4 ,he is ,one1 ,prior 7qadim7 with nothing before ,him1 from eternity 7azali7 without any beginning1 abiding in existence with none after ,him1 to eternity 7abadi7 without any end1 substituting without ending1 abiding without termination4 ,he hath not ceased and ,he will not cease to be described with glorious epithets2 finishing and ending1 though the cutting off of the ages and the terminating of allotted times have no rule over ,him1 but ,he is the ,first and ,last1 the ,external and the ,internal1 and ,he knoweth everything4 8,we witness that ,he is not a body possessing form1 nor a substance possessing bounds and limits2 ,he does not resemble bodies1 either in limitation or in accepting division4 ,he is not a substance and substances do not exist in ,him2 and ,he is not an accident and accidents do not exist in ,him1 nay ,he does not resemble an entity1 and no entity resembles ,him2 nothing is like ,him and ,he is not like anything2 measure does not bound ,him and boundaries do not contain ,him2 the directions do not surround ,him and neither the earth nor the ,heavens are on different sides of ,him4 ,lo1 ,he is seated firmly upon ,his throne 7arsh71 after the manner which ,he has said1 and in the sense in which ,he willed a being-seated firmly 7istawa71 which is far removed from contact and fixity of location and being established and being enveloped and being removed4 ,the ,throne does not carry ,him1 but the ,throne and those that carry it are carried by the grace of ,his power and mastered by ,his grasp4 ,he is above the ,throne and the ,heavens and above everything unto the limit of the ,pleiades1 with an aboveness which does not bring ,him nearer to the ,throne and the ,heavens1 just as it does not make ,him further from the earth and the ,pleiades4 ,nay1 ,he is exalted by degrees from the ,throne and the ,heavens1 just as ,he is exalted by degrees from the earth and the ,pleiades2 and ,he1 in spite of that1 is near to every entity and is #8nearer to a creature than the artery of his neck' 7,koran #ej1 #ae71 and ,he witnesseth everything1 since ,his nearness does not resemble the nearness of bodies1 just as ,his essence does not resemble the essence of bodies4 ,he does not exist in anything1 just as nothing exists in ,him2 ,he has exalted ,himself far therefrom that a place should contain ,him1 just as ,he has sanctified ,himself far therefrom that time should limit ,him4 ,nay1 ,he was before ,he had created ,time and ,place and ,he is now above that which ,he was above1 and distinct from ,his creatures through ,his qualities4 ,there is not in ,his essence ,his equal1 nor in ,his equal ,his essence4 ,he is far removed from change of state or of place4 ,events have no place in ,him1 and mishaps do not befall ,him4 ,nay1 ,he does not cease1 through ,his glorious epithets1 to be far removed from changing1 and through ,his perfect qualities to be independent of perfecting increase4 ,the existence of ,his essence is known by reason2 ,his essence is seen with the eyes1 a benefit from ,him and a grace to the pious1 in the ,abiding ,abode and a completion in beatitude from ,him1 through gazing upon ,his gracious face4 8,we witness that ,he is living1 powerful1 commanding1 conquering2 inadequacy and weakness befall ,him not2 slumber seizes ,him not1 nor sleep4 ,passing away does not happen to ,him1 nor death4 ,he is ,lord of the ,worlds1 the ,visible and the ,invisible1 that of ,force and that of ,might2 ,he possesses ,rule and ,conquest and ,creation and ,command2 the heavens are rolled in ,his right hand and the created things are overcome in ,his grasp2 ,he is separate in creating and inventing2 ,he is one in bringing into existence and innovating2 ,he created the creation and their works and decreed their sustenance and their terms of life2 not a decreed thing escapes ,his grasp and the mutations of things are not distant from ,his power2 the things which ,he hath decreed cannot be reckoned and the things which ,he knoweth have no end4 8,we witness that ,he knoweth all the things that can be known1 comprehending that which happeneth from the bounds of the earth unto the topmost heavens2 no grain in the earth or the heavens is distant from ,his knowledge4 ,yea1 ,he knows the creeping of the black ant upon the rugged rock in a dark night1 and ,he perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air2 ,he knows the secret and the concealed and has knowledge of the suggestions of the minds and the movements of the thoughts and the concealed things of the inmost parts1 by a knowledge which is prior from eternity2 ,he has not ceased to be describable by it1 from the ages of the ages1 not by a knowledge which renews itself and arises in ,his essence by arrival and removal4 8,we witness that ,he is a ,willer of the things that are1 a ,director of the things that happen2 there does not come about in the world seen or unseen1 little or much1 small or great1 good or evil1 advantage or disadvantage1 faith or unbelief1 knowledge or ignorance1 success or loss1 increase or diminution1 obedience or rebellion1 except by ,his will4 ,what ,he wills is1 and what ,he wills not is not4 ,not a glance of one who looks1 or a slip of one who thinks is outside of ,his will2 ,he is the creator1 the ,bringer back1 the ,doer of that which ,he wills4 ,there is no opponent of ,his command and no repeater of ,his destiny and no refuge for a creature from disobeying ,him1 except by ,his help and ,his mercy1 and no strength to a creature to obey ,him except by ,his will4 ,even though mankind and the ,jinn and the ,angels and the ,shaytans were to unite to remove a single grain in the world or to bring it to rest without ,his will1 they would be too weak for that4 ,his will subsists in ,his essence as one of ,his qualities2 ,he hath not ceased to be described through it as a ,willer1 in ,his infinity of the existence of things at their appointed times which ,he hath decreed4 ,so they come into existence at their appointed times even as ,he has willed in ,his infinity without precedence or sequence4 ,they happen according to the agreement of ,his knowledge and ,his will1 without exchange or change in planning of things1 nor with arranging of thoughts or awaiting of time1 and therefore one thing does not distract ,him from another4 8,and we witness that ,he is a ,hearer and a ,seer4 ,he hears and sees and no audible thing is distant from ,his hearing1 and no visible thing is far from ,his seeing1 however fine it may be4 ,distance does not curtain off ,his hearing and darkness does not dull ,his seeing2 ,he sees without eyeball or eyelid1 and hears without earholes or ears1 just as ,he knows without a brain and seizes without a limb and creates without an instrument1 since ,his qualities do not resemble that quality of created things1 just as ,his essence does not resemble the essences of created things4 8,and we witness that ,he speaks1 commanding1 forbidding1 praising1 threatening1 with a speech from all eternity1 prior1 subsisting in ,his essence1 not resembling the speech of created things4 ,it is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air1 or striking of bodies2 nor is it a letter which is separated off by closing down a lip or moving a tongue4 ,and the ,koran and the ,tawrat 7the ,law of ,moses7 and the ,injil 7the ,gospel7 and the ,zabbur 7the ,psalms7 are ,his books revealed to ,his ,apostles4 ,and the ,koran is repeated by tongues1 written in copies1 preserved in hearts2 yet it in spite of that1 is prior subsisting in the essence of ,god1 not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves4 ,and ,musa heard the speech of ,god without a sound and without a letter1 just as the pious see the essence of ,god1 in the other world without a substance or an attribute4 8,and since ,he has those qualities1 ,he is living1 ,knowing1 ,powerful1 a ,willer1 a ,hearer1 a ,seer1 a ,speaker1 through ,life1 ,power1 ,knowledge1 ,will1 ,hearing1 ,seeing1 ,speech1 not by a thing separated from ,his essence4 8,we witness that there is no entity besides ,him1 except what is originated from ,his action and proceeds from ,his justice1 after the most beautiful and perfect and complete and just of ways4 ,he is wise in ,his actions1 just in ,his determinations2 there is no analogy between ,his justice and the justice of creatures1 since tyranny is conceivable in the case of a creature1 when he deals with the property of some other than himself1 but tyranny is not conceivable in the case of ,god4 ,for ,he never encounters any property of some other than ,himself so that ,his dealing with it might be tyranny4 ,everything besides ,him1 consisting of men and ,jinn and ,angels and ,shaytans and the heavens and the earth and animals and plants and inanimate things and substance and attribute and things perceived and things felt1 is an originated thing1 which ,he created by ,his power before any other had created it1 after it had not existed1 and which ,he invented after that it had not been a thing1 since ,he in eternity was an entity by ,himself1 and there was not along with ,him any other than ,he4 ,so ,he originated the creation thereafter1 by way of manifestation of ,his power1 and verification of that which had preceded of ,his ,will1 and of that which existed in eternity of ,his ,word2 not because ,he has any lack of it or need of it4 ,and ,he is gracious in creating and in making for the first time and in imposing of duty--not of necessity--and ,he is generous in befitting2 and well-doing and gracious helping belong to ,him1 since ,he is able to bring upon ,his creatures different kinds of punishment and to test them with different varieties of pains and ailments4 ,and if ,he did that it would be justice on ,his part1 and would not be a vile action or tyranny in ,him4 ,he rewardeth ,his believing creatures for their acts of obedience by a decision which is of generosity and of promise and not of right and of obligation1 since no particular action towards any one is incumbent upon ,him1 and tyranny is inconceivable in ,him1 and no one possesses a right against ,him4 ,and ,his right to acts of obedience is binding upon the creatures because ,he has made it binding through the tongues of ,his prophets1 not by reason alone4 ,but ,he sent apostles and manifested their truth by plain miracles1 and they brought ,his commands and forbiddings and promisings and threatenings4 ,so1 belief in them as to what they have brought is incumbent upon the creation4 8,the second ,word of ,witnessing is witnessing that the apostolate belongs to the apostle1 and that ,god sent the unlettered ,qurayshite prophet1 ,mohammed1 with his apostolate to the totality of ,arabs and foreigners and ,jinn and men4 ,and ,he abrogated by his law the other ,laws except so much of them as ,he confirmed2 and made him excellent over the rest of the prophets and made him the ,lord of ,mankind and declared incomplete the ,faith that consists in witnessing the ,unity1 which is saying1 #8,there is no god except ,god1' so long as there is not joined that of witnessing to the ,apostle1 which is saying #8,mohammed is the ,apostle of ,god4' ,and ,he made obligatory upon the creation belief in ,him1 as to all which ,he narrated concerning the things of this world and the next4 ,and then ,he would not accept the faith of a creature1 so long as he did not believe in that which the ,prophet narrated concerning things after death4 ,the first of these is the question of ,munkar and ,nakir2 these are two awful and terrible beings who will cause the creature to sit up in his grave1 complete1 both soul and body2 and they will ask him1 #8,who is thy ,lord1 and what is thy religion 7din71 and who is thy ,prophet8' ,they are the two testers in the grave and their questioning is the first testing after death4 ,and that he should believe in the punishment of the grave--that it is a ,verity and that its judgment upon the body and the soul is just1 according to what ,god wills4 ,and that he should believe in the ,balance--it with the two scales and the tongue1 the magnitude of which is like unto the stages of the heavens and the earth4 ,in it1 deeds are weighed by the power of ,god ,most ,high2 and its weights in that day will be the weight of motes and mustard seeds1 to show the exactitude of its justice4 ,the leaves of the good deeds will be placed in a beautiful form in the scale of light2 and then the ,balance will be weighed down by them according to the measure of their degree with ,god1 by the grace of ,god4 ,and the leaves of evil deeds will be cast in a vile form into the scale of darkness1 and the ,balance will be light with them1 through the justice of ,god4 ,and that he should believe that the ,bridge 7as-,sirat7 is a ,verity2 it is a bridge stretched over the back of ,hell 7,jahannam71 sharper than a sword and finer than a hair4 ,the feet of the unbelievers slip upon it1 by the decree of ,god1 and fall with them into the ,fire4 ,but the feet of believers stand firm upon it1 by the grace of ,god1 and so they pass into the ,abiding ,abode4 ,and that he should believe in the ,tank 7,hawdh71 to which the people shall go down1 the ,tank of ,mohammed from which the believers shall drink before entering the ,garden and after passing the ,bridge4 ,whoever drinks of it a single draught will never thirst again thereafter4 ,its breadth is a journey of a month2 its water is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey2 around it are ewers in numbers like the stars of heaven2 into it flow two canals from ,al-,kawthar 7,koran #ajh74 ,and that he should believe in the ,reckoning and in the distinctions between men in it1 him with whom it will go hard in the ,reckoning and him to whom compassion will be shown therein1 and him who enters the ,garden without reckoning1--these are the honoured 7muqarrab74 ,god ,most ,high will ask whomsoever ,he will of the prophets1 concerning the carrying of ,his message1 and whomsoever ,he will of the unbelievers1 concerning the rejection of the messengers2 and ,he will ask the innovators 7,mubtadis7 concerning the ,sunna2 and the ,moslems concerning works4 ,and that he should believe that the attestors of ,god's ,unity 7muwahhids7 will be brought forth from the ,fire1 after vengeance has been taken on them1 so that there will not remain in ,hell an attestor of ,god's ,unity4 ,and that he should believe in the intercession 7shafaa7 of the prophets1 next of the learned 7ulama71 next of the martyrs1 next of the rest of the believers--each according to his dignity and rank with ,god ,most ,high4 ,and he who remains of the believers1 and has no intercessor1 shall be brought forth of the grace of ,god1 whose are ,might and ,majesty4 ,so there shall not abide eternally in the ,fire a single believer1 but whoever has in his heart the weight of a single grain of faith shall be brought forth therefrom4 ,and that he should confess the excellence of the ,companions--,may ,god be well pleased with them--and their rank2 and that the most excellent of mankind1 after the ,prophet is ,abu ,bakr1 next ,umar1 next ,uthman1 next ,ali--,may ,god be well pleased with them2 ,and that he should think well of all the ,companions and should praise them like as he praises ,god1 whose are ,might and ,majesty1 and ,his ,apostles4 ,all this is that which has been handed down in tradition from the ,prophet and in narratives from the followers4 ,he who confesses all this1 relying upon it1 is of the ,people of the ,truth and the ,company of the ,sunna1 and hath separated himself from the band of error and the sect of innovation 7bida74 ,so we ask from ,god perfection of certainty and firm standing in the ,faith 7din7 for us and for all ,moslems through ,his compassion4--,lo6 ,he is the ,most ,compassionate6--and may the blessing of ,god be upon our ,lord ,mohammed and upon every chosen creature40 ,the above is ,doctor ,macdonald's careful translation of what ,al-,ghazali taught was involved when ,moslems say3 ,there is no ,god but ,allah1 and ,mohammed is ,allah's ,apostle4 ,surely he gave this shortest of all creeds its full significance and value4 ,it is necessary1 however1 not only to see in it the faith of ,al-,ghazali but his credulity as well1 if we desire to understand the man and his times4 ,once his early scepticism was overcome1 he was always and everywhere an orthodox ,moslem1 and therefore swallowed the ,traditions and the ,koran apparently without any philosophic doubt4 ,he believed that ,mohammed was the greatest of all the prophets1 and that1 so he says1 8,god has established ,mohammed's prophetic character by miracles1 such as the splitting of the moon1 and the praising of him by stones1 the gushing out of water from between his fingers4 ,one of the greatest miracles1 proving his divine mission1 is the ,koran1 for none of the ,arabs were able to produce anything like it4 ,another sign of his prophetic character is his being able to foretell things which are to come to pass1 such as his victorious entry into ,mecca1 the defeat of the ,greeks and their subsequent victories40 7,see the special chapter in the ,ihya on this subject47 ,he was a predestinarian in the fullest sense4 ,in one place he writes3 8,when ,god ,almighty let ,his hands pass over the back of ,adam and gathered men into ,his two hands1 ,he placed some of them in ,his right hand and the others in ,his left2 then ,he opened both ,his hands before ,adam1 and ,adam looked at them and saw them like imperceptible atoms4 ,then ,god said3 #8,these are destined for ,paradise and these are destined for hell-fire4' ,he then asked them3 #8,am ,i not your ,lord8' ,and they replied3 #8,certainly1 we testify that ,thou art our ,lord4' ,god then asked ,adam and the angels to be witnesses to the act2 after this ,god replaced them into the loins of ,adam4 ,they were at that time purely spiritual beings without bodies4 ,he then caused them to die1 but gathered them and kept them in a receptacle near ,his throne4 ,when the germ of a new being is placed in the womb of the mother1 it remains there till its body is sufficiently developed2 the soul in the same is then dead yet4 ,when ,god ,almighty breathes into the spirit1 ,he restores to it its most precious part of which it had been deprived while preserved in the receptacle near the throne4 ,this is the first death and the second life4 ,then ,god places man in this world till he has reached the term fixed for him40 ,the great ,mystic was also superstitious4 ,some of his books deal with magical formul taken from the ,koran and the medicinal use of its text or of the names of ,god4 ,one of the most celebrated magic squares used on amulets1 etc41 is called the 8,square of ,al-,ghazali0 or ,al-,buduh4 ,it may interest in conclusion to give an account of this form of magic1 approved by ,al-,ghazali1 because it is one of the things by which he is best known among the masses in the world of ,islam4 ,in the older ,arabic books on magic this formula plays a comparatively minor part2 but after it was taken up by ,al-,ghazali and cited in his ,munkidh 7pp4 #df and #ej of ed4 of ,cairo1 #acjc7 as an inexplicable1 but certain assistance in cases of difficult labour1 it came to be universally known as 8the three-fold talisman1 or seal1 or table of ,al-,ghazali0 7al-wakf1 al-khatam1 al-jadwal1 al-muthallath lil-,ghazali7 and finally has become the starting point for the whole 8,science of ,letters0 7,ilm ul-huruf7 7e4 g41 ,cf4 ,al-,buni's ,shems ul ,muarif1 ,a4 ,h4 #fbb74 ,al-,ghazali is said to have developed the formula1 under divine inspiration 7ilham71 from the combinations of letters which open ,suras xix4 and xlii4 of the ,koran1 and which by themselves are also used as talismans4#ee ,others trace the formula back to ,adam1 from whom it passed down to ,al-,ghazali4#ef ,for the popular mind ,buduh has become a ,jinn whose services can be secured by writing his name either in letters or numbers4 ,the uses of the word are most varied to invoke both good and bad fortune4 ,it is used against menorrhagia1 against pains in the stomach1 to render oneself invisible1 against temporary impotence1 etc4 ,lane's ,cairo magician also used it with his ink mirror 78,modern ,egyptians10 chap4 xii474 ,we find the same in magical treatises4 ,it is also engraved upon jewels and metal plates or rings which are carried as permanent talismans1 and it is inscribed at the beginning of books as a preservative4 ,but by far the most common use is to ensure the arrival of letters and packages4#eg ,no letter from one pious ,moslem to another is ever posted in the ,near ,east without putting the figure #hfdb in ,arabic on the outside of the envelope where it is sealed4 ,and one may see thousands of children in ,egypt who have never heard of ,al-,ghazali and cannot read the letters of his name wearing his magic square on lead or silver amulet to protect them from the hideous power of the ,child-,witch 7,um-as-,subyan74 ,in the ,azhar ,university men study his creed but in the villages they follow his credulity and to all the fellahin of ,egypt ,buduh has become a guardian ,angel6 --------- #d #i #b --------- #c #e #g --------- #h #a #f --------- ,each letter stands for the number as indicated4 --------- --------- --------- --------- ,,vi ,his ,writings 8,i saw the ,prophet in a dream1 and he was contending with ,moses and ,jesus regarding the superiority of excellence of the ,imam ,al-,ghazali1 and saying to them1 #8,have you had in your sects such a learned and righteous man8' alluding to ,al-,ghazali1 and they both replied1 #8,no4' ,the ,shaikh1 the ,imam1 one acquainted with ,god1 the ,master1 the support of religious law and truth1 ,abu'l-,abbas al-,mursi said1 when mention was made of ,al-,ghazali1 #8,testimony has been already borne to his great and extreme veracity1 and it is sufficient for you 7to know7 that it was he regarding whom the ,prophet contended with ,moses and ,jesus1 and to whose great and extreme veracity the most truthful have borne testimony4'0 --,ad-,damiri's ,hayat al-,hayawan4 8,verily ,i saw in the ,gospel of ,jesus 7on him be peace7 that he said3 ,from the moment the dead is placed on the bier until he rests on the edge of the open grave ,god ,most ,high asks of him forty questions40 --,al-,ghazali in ,risalat ,ayyuha 'l-walad 7sec4 #e74 ,,vi ,,his ,,writings ,more by far is known of ,al-,ghazali from his writings than from the records of his life4 ,the meagre facts of the biographers and even the spelling of his name1 as we have seen1 are disputed4 ,his pen1 however1 left so large a legacy that many of his works are still found only in rare manuscripts1 and have never been published4 ,moslem writers mention ninety-nine works1 and ,brockelmann in his 8,history of ,arabic ,literature0 catalogues sixty-nine which are still in existence4 ,they include systems of theology1 eschatology1 works on philosophy1 lectures on mysticism1 on ethics1 and on canon law4 ,many have assigned to ,al-,ghazali the highest position among all ,moslem writers4 ,ismael ,ibn ,mohammed ,al ,hadrami says3 8,mohammed the son of ,abdullah was the ,prince of all the ,prophets2 ,mohammed the son of ,idris ,al-,shafi was the ,prince of ,imams2 but ,mohammed the son of ,mohammed1 the son of ,mohammed ,al-,ghazali1 was the ,prince of ,writers40 ,we have interesting evidence of ,al-,ghazali's position as a writer even in his own day in the precious relic shown in our illustration4 ,in the ,arabic ,museum at ,cairo there is a maqlama or pen-case which once belonged to ,al-,ghazali4 ,it was presented to the ,museum by ,m4 ,kyticas and is made of brass overlaid with silver4 ,it bears the following inscription3 8,made for the library of our ,master1 the most great and noble ,imam1 our revered ,leader1 the ,mouthpiece of verity1 the greatest ,scholar of the world1 the ,king of wise men1 the ,stay of all living1 the ,treasury of truth1 the most illustrious among his contemporaries1 the ,restorer of religion1 an illegible word ,hujjat ul-,islam1 ,mohammed ,al-,ghazali40 ,illustration3 ,pen case of ,al ,ghazali1 made of brass inlaid with silver1 preserved in the ,arab ,museum1 ,cairo4 ,this bronze is the oldest piece of damascened metal work and the only example of that epoch with naskhi inscription in the possession of the ,museum4 ,that the case was not made at a later period and presented to ,al-,ghazali's library after his death is evident from the fact that it was the custom to present a book or celestial globe to a library1 but not a pen-case or even an inkstand4 ,then1 too1 the word 8al-marhum10 meaning 8deceased10 does not appear on it as it does on other objects which were offered in memory of a deceased person4 ,an objection to the authenticity of the bronze is the use of silver in a pen-case designed to be used by a ,sufi doctor pledged in some measure to an ascetic life4 ,but this objection may be answered by stating that the case was not made to the order of ,al-,ghazali personally1 but by his disciples in order to obtain his good-will and patronage4#eh ,we need not1 moreover1 be surprised at the apparent lack of modesty which the inscription on the pen-case indicates4 ,judging from other instances of this period1 ,al-,ghazali himself might well have written the inscription4 ,an almost complete list of ,al-,ghazali's writings as well as of the translations of his works into other languages1 especially ,hebrew1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,english1 is given in the appendix4#ei ,before we speak of some of his more important works a summary will interest the reader4 ,the ,jawahir al-,koran 7,jewels of the ,koran7 contains observations on some of the verses of the ,koran which have special value2 the ,aqida is a statement of the articles of the ,moslem faith1 and was published by ,pococke in his ,specimen2 the ,precious ,pearl 7,al-,durrat ,al-,fakhira7 is a treatise on the last judgment and the end of the world1 i4 e41 his eschatology--and has been translated and published by ,l4 ,gautier4 ,the morality and theology of the mystics are codified in the ,ihya ulum id-din 7,revivification of the ,religious ,sciences74 ,the ,mizan ,al-amal 7,the ,balance of ,works7 has been translated into ,hebrew by ,ibrahim bin ,hasdai of ,barcelona1 and published by ,goldenthal4 ,the ,kimiya as-saada 7,alchemy of ,happiness7 is a popular lecture founded on mysticism2 this work which was originally written in ,persian1 has been twice translated into ,english1 by ,h4 ,a4 ,homes in #ahgc and more recently by ,claud ,field4 ,ayyuha 'l-walad 7,o ,child67 is a celebrated moral treatise1 which has been translated into ,german and published by ,hammer-,purgstall4 ,among works on jurisprudence1 his treatises on ,shafiite law have earned great reputation in the ,moslem world2 his ,basit1 ,wasit1 and ,wajiz are all abridgments of them4 ,in the domain of philosophy1 the ,tahafut al-,falasifa 7,collapse of the ,philosophers7 is an attack on the adherents of the ,greek ,philosophy2 it has been edited by ,de,boer4 ,the ,maqasid al-,falasifa 7,aims of the ,philosophers7 is a sort of introduction to the above4 ,the text has been published by ,g4 ,beer1 and a ,latin translation by ,gondisalvi is in existence1 which was printed in ,venice in #aejf4 ,al-,munqidh min ad-,dalal 7,the ,deliverer from ,error71 written after the author commenced his life as a teacher at ,nishapur for the second time1 describes the development of his philosophy4 ,it was translated and published by ,schmolders in his 8,essay on the ,schools of ,philosophy ,among the ,arabs02 a second and greatly improved translation was published in the ,journal ,asiatique for #ahgg1 by the learned savant1 ,barbier de ,meynard4 ,more recently it appeared in ,english under the title 8,the ,confessions of ,al-,ghazali40 ,it is one of his shortest but most famous books and can be compared with the 8,confessions0 of ,st4 ,augustine1 or ,john ,bunyan's 8,grace ,abounding to the ,chief of ,sinners40 ,several of ,al-,ghazali's numerous works are very brief1 in the shape of epistles or tractates4 ,among his shorter works the following may be mentioned3 ,al-,adab fi ,din1 a short treatise on the ethics of politeness1 prepared for the use of his pupils4 ,it speaks of the ideal pupil1 the ideal teacher1 of the ethics of eating1 drinking1 marriage and the religious life4 ,a smaller work already mentioned is the ,risala ,ayyuh' ,al-,walad 78,o ,child6074 ,in it he defines faith and works and distinguishes between them4 ,a curious passage occurs in the introduction which reflects on ,al-,ghazali's accuracy of statement1 or at least raises the question as to which 8,gospel0 he refers to4 ,he says3 8,o my child1 live as you please for you are already dead2 love whom you wish1 for you are bound to be separated2 and do what you will1 for you are sure to be judged for it4 ,verily ,i saw in the ,gospel of ,jesus 7upon ,him be prayers and peace7 that ,he said1 #8,from the hour in which the dead is put upon the bier until the time when he rests on the edge of the grave ,god will ask him forty questions1 the first of which is1 ,o my servant1 you have purified yourself to appear before men many years and not for one hour have you purified yourself for my gates1 and every day a voice was sounded in your ears saying1 8,what you do for others why do you not do for me who surrounds you with my mercy60 but you were deaf and not willing to hear4'0 ,in his 8,alchemy of ,happiness0 there is a beautiful chapter on 8,know ,thyself40 ,the parable there used regarding man's soul and the enemies that lay siege against it reminds one very much of ,bunyan's 8,holy ,war40 ,the shortest of his works1 as far as ,i am aware1 is called ,al-,qawaid ,al-,ashara 7,the ,ten ,articles72 this has been frequently reprinted4 ,it consists of ten principles of faith and conduct1 and is scarcely longer than an ordinary letter4 ,of a similar character is ,risalat-ut-,tair the parable of the birds4 ,his most celebrated treatise on ethics and conduct is entitled ,mizan ul ,amal4 ,it might be compared to the book of ,ecclesiastes or the first chapters of the book of ,proverbs4 ,in the introduction ,al-,ghazali shows the folly of those who neglect to secure the happiness of their immortal souls as well as the peril of those who despise faith in the world to come4 ,the true way of happiness consists in knowing the right and doing it4 ,the soul is a unit and its various powers are knit together and are interdependent4 ,the path of the mystic unites true faith with true practice4 ,he also speaks of the possibility of change of character through religious devotion and mentions the virtues that are to be cultivated and the vices to be shunned on this pathway to ,god and to true happiness4 ,to emphasize the importance of life with its brevity and the supreme importance of eternity ,al-,ghazali says3 8,suppose we imagine that the whole world is filled with dust and that a little bird should come and snatch up one atom of dust every thousand years4 ,we know that there would be an end of its task1 but nothing would have been taken away from the everlasting character of that eternity which has no end40 ,although the moral teaching of this book is very noble1 it is after all based entirely on the principle of salvation by works4 ,there is no hint of the possibility of the transformation of character through regeneration of the heart1 nor is the way pointed to the victorious life by overcoming temptation through a power that is not our own4 ,of all his writings none is celebrated more justly than his greatest work 8,the ,revival of ,religious ,sciences0 7,ihya ulum id ,din74 ,it is a veritable encyclopdia of ,moslem teaching and ethics and covers the whole range of ,moslem thought4 ,many editions of this work have been printed and commentaries written on it1 the most celebrated of which is by ,mohammed-uz-,zubeidi ,al-,murtadha1 in ten large volumes4 ,the work itself consists of four volumes of ten books each and has a total of over one thousand closely printed pages4 ,although widely read in its original form1 popular demand has called forth several abbreviated compendia of the work4 ,one of them entitled 8,a ,homily for ,believers10 by ,mohammed ,jamal-ud-,din of ,damascus1 is used as a text-book on ,islam in the ,theological ,seminary of the ,american ,mission in ,cairo4 ,the first part of the original work is entitled 8,things that pertain to worship02 the second part1 8,things that pertain to practice02 the third part1 8,things that destroy the soul10 i4 e41 the vices2 the fourth part1 8,things that deliver the soul10 i4 e41 the virtues4 ,the contents are as follows3 8,,things ,,that ,,pertain ,,to ,,worship0 ,i4 ,the ,book of ,knowledge1 which has seven divisions3 #a4 ,the ,benefits of ,learning4 #b4 ,what ,kind of ,knowledge is ,forbidden and ,permitted4 #c4 ,theological ,learning and ,nomenclature4 #d4 ,conditions of ,debate and ,controversy4 #e4 ,the ,relation of ,teacher and ,pupil4 #f4 ,the ,dangers of ,learning4 #g4 ,the ,mind and its ,uses4 ,,ii4 ,the ,book of ,dogma1 which has four divisions3 #a4 ,the ,moslem ,creed4 #b4 ,degrees of ,faith4 #c4 ,god1 ,his ,being1 ,attributes1 ,work4 #d4 ,faith and ,islam4 ,,iii4 ,the ,book of the ,mysteries of ,purity1 which has three divisions3 #a4 ,purification from ,unclean ,objects4 #b4 ,purification from ,unclean ,states4 #c4 ,purification from ,unclean ,matters that cling to the ,body 7finger-nails1 ears1 etc474 ,,iv4 ,the ,book of the ,mysteries of ,prayer1 which has seven divisions3 #a4 ,the ,benefits of ,prayer4 #b4 ,outward ,observance of ,prayer4 #c4 ,conditions of ,prayer4 #d4 ,the ,imam4 #e4 ,friday ,prayers4 #f4 ,miscellaneous ,matters4 #g4 ,special ,prayers4 ,v4 ,the ,book of the ,mysteries of ,almsgiving1 which has four divisions3 #a4 ,kinds of ,alms4 #b4 ,conditions of ,giving4 #c4 ,to ,whom4 #d4 ,how they are ,observed4 ,,vi4 ,the ,book of the ,mysteries of ,fasting1 which has three divisions3 #a4 ,its ,necessity4 #b4 ,its ,mysteries4 #c4 ,obedience through ,fasting4 ,,vii4 ,the ,book of the ,mysteries of the ,pilgrimage1 which has three divisions3 #a4 ,its ,benefits and ,character4 #b4 ,the ,order of ,procedure4 #c4 ,its ,inward ,significance4 ,,viii4 ,the ,book of the ,perusal of the ,koran4 ,,ix4 ,the ,book of ,zikr and ,prayer4 ,x4 ,the ,book of the ,night ,meditation4 8,,things ,,that ,,pertain ,,to ,,practice0 ,i4 ,the ,ethics of ,eating and ,drinking4 ,,ii4 ,the ,ethics of ,marriage4 ,,iii4 ,the ,ethics of ,trade4 ,,iv4 ,things that are ,allowed and ,forbidden4 ,v4 ,ethics of ,friendship and ,conversation4 ,,vi4 ,the ,life of ,seclusion4 ,,vii4 ,the ,ethics of ,journeying4 ,,viii4 ,the ,ethics of ,music and ,poetry4 ,,ix4 ,on ,favours and ,offenses4 ,x4 ,the ,ethics of ,true ,living and the ,virtues of the ,prophet4 8,,things ,,that ,,destroy ,,the ,,soul0 ,i4 ,the ,wonders of the ,heart4 ,,ii4 ,the ,exercise of the ,soul4 ,,iii4 ,the ,dangers of the ,two ,desires1 namely1 of the ,appetite and of ,lust4 ,,iv4 ,the ,evils of the ,tongue4 ,v4 ,the ,evils of ,anger and ,envy4 ,,vi4 ,on ,despising the ,world4 ,,vii4 ,on ,despising ,property and ,greed4 ,,viii4 ,on ,despising the ,love of ,honour and ,hypocrisy4 ,,ix4 ,on ,despising ,vanities4 8,,things ,,that ,,deliver ,,the ,,soul0 ,i4 ,the ,book of ,repentance4 ,,ii4 ,the ,book of ,patience and ,thankfulness4 ,,iii4 ,the ,book of ,fear4 ,,iv4 ,the ,book of ,poverty and ,asceticism4 ,v4 ,the ,book of the ,unity of ,god4 ,,vi4 ,the ,book of ,love4 ,,vii4 ,the ,book of ,good ,intent and ,sincerity4 ,,viii4 ,the ,book of ,self-examination4 ,,ix4 ,the ,book of ,meditation4 ,x4 ,the ,book of the ,remembrance of ,death4 ,especially the third and fourth parts of his great work show us ,al-,ghazali as a mystic and a preacher of righteousness4 ,his ten books on 8,things that deliver the soul0 furnish material from which it would not be difficult to collect a beautiful anthology or a daily calendar of spiritual thoughts4 ,such a rosary of pearls from ,al-,ghazali's works might well be used for devotion by ,christians as well as by ,moslems4 ,illustration3 ,a facsimile page of the ,ihya 7,vol4 ,,ii1 page #ahj1 ,cairo ,ed474 ,it gives a diagram of the prayer kibla and the rules to be observed in facing it correctly4 ,another most interesting book is that on the names of ,god1 entitled ,al-,maksad ul-,asna ,sharh-,asma-,allah ul ,husna1 8,the ,highest ,aim3 the ,explanation of the ,beautiful ,names of ,god40 ,the book is divided into three parts of which the first deals philosophically with the meaning of the word 8name0 and its distinction from the naming of the thing and the thing named itself3 also how it is possible for ,god to have many names and yet to be one essence4 ,the second part of the book is the longest and treats of the ninety-nine names of ,god in order showing how they are comprehended in the seven attributes and the one essence4 ,the third part is brief and shows that there are really more than ninety-nine names1 but that this was the number fixed upon for good reasons4 ,and finally there is a section telling how ,god may and may not be described4 ,al-,ghazali teaches in this book that the imitation of ,god's attributes is the highest happiness for the believer4 ,there are three degrees in the knowledge of ,god1 and in this respect he says3 8,the virtues of the righteous are the faults of the ,saints02 by which he means that the nearer we approach to ,god the more perfect is our standard of character4 ,the three degrees of knowledge are 7#a7 intellectual1 7#b7 that of admiration and attempted imitation1 7#c7 that of actual acquirements of ,god's attributes such as the angels4 ,nearness to ,god is by rank and degree1 not in regard to position or place4 ,he quotes with approval the famous saying of ,junaid3 8,no one knows ,god save ,god ,himself ,most ,high1 and therefore even to the best of ,his creatures ,he has only revealed ,his names1 in which ,he hides ,himself40 ,he says that two statements are true in regard to ,god and the believer4 ,the true believer must say1 8,i know nothing but ,god10 and 8,i know nothing of ,god40 ,the last book ,al-,ghazali wrote was the ,minhaj al-,abidin or 8,guide of ,true ,worshippers40 ,it is said to have been written for those who could not understand the ,ihya and deals with the creed and ritual of ,islam from the standpoint of the mystic4 ,our illustration shows in facsimile the first page of this celebrated work from a recent ,cairo edition4 ,on the margin of the text we have the ,beginner's ,guide1 already spoken of4 ,these two works of ,al-,ghazali are very popular and have recently had an increasing circulation4 ,the ,minhaj shows that ,al-,ghazali at the close of his life had adopted the vocabulary of the mystics even for popular teaching4 ,the various chapters are called 8stages0 in the progress of the soul towards salvation and peace4 ,the first stage is that of knowledge1 then follows repentance1 a list of the hindrances on the road to ,god1 things that delay the soul in its onward progress1 such as the world and its allurements1 the flesh1 the devil1 the senses4 ,other hindrances are the cares of gaining a living1 the perplexities and troubles of life1 while the last stages in the road of the mystic are those of praise to ,god under all circumstances1 and earnest endeavour to attain to the reality of the experience of ,his presence4 ,so difficult is the road which ,al-,ghazali describes that he says3 8,some seekers can only finish these stages in seventy years1 some in twenty1 some in ten4 ,others there are1 however1 whose souls are so enlightened1 so free from the care and perplexity of the world1 that they finish the journey and arrive at the goal in a year1 a month1 what do ,i say1 in an hour2 so that they awaken like the ,companions of the ,cave1 and the change they see in themselves and those about them is to them as a dream40 ,his teaching on prayer as given in the ,ihya certainly rises very high above that of the ritualist who puts all his attention on the punctiliousness of outward observance4 8,prayers are of three degrees1 of which the first are those that are simply spoken with the lips4 ,prayers are of the second kind when with difficulty1 and only by a most resolute effort1 the soul is able to fix its thoughts on divine things without being disturbed by evil imaginations2 they are of the third kind when one finds it difficult to turn away the mind from dwelling on divine things4 ,but it is the very marrow of prayer when ,he who is invoked takes possession of the soul of the suppliant1 and the soul of him who prays is absorbed into ,god1 to whom he prays1 and1 his prayer ceasing1 all consciousness of self has departed1 and to such a degree that all thought whatsoever of the praying is felt as a veil between the soul and ,god4 ,this state is called by the ,sufis #8absorption1' for the reason that the man is so absorbed that he takes no thought of his body1 or of anything that happens externally1 or even of the movements of his own soul1 but is first engaged in going towards his ,lord1 and finally is wholly in his ,lord4 ,if even the thought occurs that he is absorbed in the ,absolute it is a blemish1 for that absorption only is worthy of the name1 though they will be called1 as ,i well know1 but foolish babbling by raw theologians1 are yet by no means without significance4 ,for consider3 ,the condition of which ,i speak resembles that of a person who loves any other object1 such as wealth1 honour1 or pleasure4 ,we see such persons so carried away with their love1 and others with their anger1 that they do not hear one who speaks to them1 nor see those passing before their eyes4 ,nay1 so absorbed are they in their passion that they do not perceive their absorption2 you necessarily turn it away from that which is the object of it40 ,elsewhere ,al-,ghazali says3 8,the commencement of this life is the going to ,god2 then follows the finding ,him1 when the absorption takes place4 ,this at first is momentary1 as the lightning swiftly glancing upon the eye1 but afterwards1 confirmed by use1 it introduces the soul into a higher world1 where1 the most pure essential essence meeting it1 fills the soul with the images of the spiritual world1 while the majesty of ,deity discovers itself40 ,the evident sincerity and the moral earnestness of ,al-,ghazali shown in his works and in the extracts which we have quoted1 surely explains in a large degree why his influence has been so deep and permanent1 far greater than that of the merely intellectual philosophers1 such as ,averroes4 ,while he discouraged scholastic philosophy1 he encouraged moral philosophy4 ,the reader will remember how he carried a book of ethics with him on his journeys4 ,after his death several famous ethical treatises were composed which derived much from him4 ,claud ,field says 8the most important of these is the #8,akhlaq-i-,jalali1' by ,jalaluddin ,asaad ,aldawani1 which has been ably translated into ,english by ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,thompson4 ,the #8,akhlaq-i-,jalali' itself is largely a translation into ,persian from the ,arabic1 the original of which appeared in the tenth century under the name of #8,kitab-ut-,taharat4' ,two centuries after it was translated into ,persian by ,abu ,nasr1 and named #8,akhlaq ,nasiri1' enriched with some important additions from ,avicenna4 ,in the fifteenth century it assumed a still further improved form under its present name1 the #8,akhlaq-i-,jalali4'0#fj ,that ,al-,ghazali was a careful student of nature is evident in all his writings4 ,those portions of the ,koran which deal with natural theology and the proof of ,god's existence from the starry heavens1 from the fertile ground1 the animal creation1 and the sea with its terrors1 especially seem to appeal to him4 ,one of his books is entitled ,al ,hikmat fi ,makhlukat ,allah 7,the ,wisdom of ,god ,shown in the ,marvels of ,creation74 ,it is one of his shorter writings but full of beautiful passages on the glory of the starry heavens1 the earth and the sea1 and the four primal elements4 ,one long chapter is devoted to embryology and the physical wonders of the human frame4 ,another is on birds1 another on quadrupeds and on fishes4 ,the conclusion of the whole treatise is the argument from design1 for the goodness and greatness of the ,creator as shown in ,his works4 ,what he says in regard to the benefits to be obtained from gazing into the starry vault may be compared with ,david's words in the eighth and the nineteenth ,psalms4 ,says ,al-,ghazali3 8,to look up into the vault of heaven drives away anxiety1 removes the whisperings of ,satan1 takes away idle fear1 reminds us of ,god1 brings the heart to magnify ,him1 banishes evil thoughts1 cures pessimism1 comforts the passionate1 delights the lover1 and it is the best ,kibla for those who call to ,god in prayer40 ,al-,ghazali was also a dogmatic theologian and controversialist4 ,he wrote a commentary on the ,koran in forty volumes1 never printed2 and a dozen books against various heretics1 including one entitled3 8,the ,best ,reply to ,those ,who ,have ,tampered with the ,gospel40 ,al-,ghazali1 who was himself cursed for alleged heresy1 is memorable among the theologians of ,islam in that by his breadth of sympathy he forbade the cursing of ,yazid1 the notorious slayer of ,hussein1 ,mohammed's grandson1 and gave his opinion in these words3 8,it is forbidden to curse a ,moslem3 ,yazid was a ,moslem4 ,it is not certain that he slew ,al-,husain1 and it is forbidden to think ill of a ,moslem4 ,we cannot be certain that he ordered his death2 really we cannot be certain of the cause of the death of any great man1 especially at such a distance of time4 ,we have also to remember the party spirit and false statements in this particular case4 ,again1 if he did kill him1 he is not an unbeliever because of that2 he is only disobedient to ,god4 ,again1 he may have repented before he died4 ,further1 to abstain from cursing is no crime4 ,no one will be asked if he ever cursed ,satan2 if he has cursed him he may be asked1 ,why8 ,the only accursed ones of whom we know are those who die infidels40#fa ,among his books against the philosophers we must mention three which are closely related to one another4 ,they are the ,maqasid-ul-,falasifa1 a statement of the true teachings of the philosophers and a presentation of their views of the world2 the ,tahafut ul ,falasifa which overthrows their views and shows that they are untenable to those who would follow ,islam with heart and mind2 the ,qawaid1 which shows the truths that must be built up to take the place of the errors of the philosophers4 ,in the first-named book1 according to ,macdonald1 he 8smites the philosophers hip and thigh1 turns their own weapons against them and goes to the extreme of intellectual scepticism2 seven hundred years before ,hume he cuts the bond of causality with the edge of his dialectic and proclaims that we can know nothing of cause or effect1 but simply that one thing follows another40 ,al-,ghazali's great work 8,the ,revival of ,religious ,sciences10 caused great scandal in ,andalusia4 ,there the intolerance of the learned passed all bounds because of the narrowness of their views4 ,their theology was limited to minute knowledge of ,canon ,law4 ,they had no place for the religion which ,ghazali preached1 which was personal and passionate1 a religion of the heart4 ,when he attacked contemporary theologians busy with questions of legality and the externals of religion1 he touched these pharisees of the law at the quick and they not only squirmed but screamed loudly4 ,according to ,dozy1 8the ,kady of ,cordova1 ,ibn ,hamdin1 declared that any man who read ,al-,ghazali's book was an infidel ripe for damnation1 and he drew up a fatwa condemning all copies of the book to the flames4 ,this fatwa1 signed by the ,fakihs of ,cordova1 was formally approved by ,ali4 ,al-,ghazali's book was accordingly burnt in ,cordova and all the other cities of the ,empire1 and possession of a copy was interdicted on pain of death and confiscation of property40 ,but this opinion was not shared by ,moslems elsewhere4 ,in his lifetime and especially after his death his works against philosophy and his great exposition of ,islam found ever larger circles of readers and commentators4 ,he has been accused1 and not without good reason1 both by ,moslem writers and ,european critics1 of carelessness and inaccuracy in his quotations and references to other books4#fb ,one of the charges brought against him by his assailants is that he falsified ,tradition4 ,macdonald's judgment is very charitable when he says that 8he quoted from memory too freely1 because he was a man of too large a calibre to watch his quotations and they were loose to the end of his life40 ,as-,subqi in his ,tabakat-ash-,shafaiya al ,kubra devotes a special section to what is entitled 8,a ,list of all the ,traditions given by ,al-,ghazali in his ,ihya which have no isnad1 or pedigree1 i4 e41 ,traditions quoted by him as authoritative and yet which from the standpoint of ,moslem criticism are on this account absolutely worthless40 ,this section of the book referred to covers many pages and by actual count ,i found over six hundred ,traditions each catalogued by reference to the chapter in which they occur4 ,now we have no reason to doubt that ,as-,subqi 7d4 #gga ,a4 ,h47 was an admirer of ,al-,ghazali and esteemed his teaching1 yet what shall we say when in this collection of the lives of the saints so strong an indictment is made of ,al-,ghazali's inaccuracy by one of his own disciples8 ,when reading this collection of 8true sayings0 of the ,prophet 7which are after all often ascribed to him without any authority or foundation7 one is shocked both at the credulity and the lack of love for veracity in this greatest of all ,moslem apologists4 ,if even ,al-,ghazali handled ,tradition so carelessly as to ascribe to ,mohammed so much that is altogether puerile1 fabulous and often immoral1 what confidence can we put in other and later tradition-mongers and how can we clear ,al-,ghazali from the charge of using pious falsehood8 ,we add another fact of great interest in regard to his writings4 ,al-,ghazali exercised a commanding influence on ,jewish thought in the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the appendix is a list of some of the translations of his books made in ,hebrew4 ,jewish students of philosophy1 including ,maimonides1 drew many of their theories from the ,maqasid and his other works4 ,al-,ghazali's attacks on philosophy were imitated by ,judah ha-,levy in his ,cuzari2 but it was chiefly his ethical teaching rather than through his philosophy that ,al-,ghazali attracted the ,jewish thinkers4 ,broyde says1 8,he approached the ethical ideal of ,judaism to such an extent that some supposed him to be actually drifting in that direction1 and his works were eagerly studied and used by ,jewish writers4 ,abraham ibn ,ezra borrowed from ,al-,ghazali's ,mizan al ,amal his comparison between the limbs of the human body and the functionaries of a king1 and used it for the subject of his beautiful admonition ,yeshene ,leb2 ,abraham ibn ,dawud borrowed from the same work the parable used by ,al-,ghazali to prove the difference in value between various branches of science2 and ,simon ,duran cites in his ,keshet a passage from the ,mozene ha-,iyyunim1 which he calls ,mozene ha-,hokmah40#fc ,the translations of his works into ,hebrew were made as early as the thirteenth century4 ,not less than eleven ,hebrew commentaries are known on the ,maqasid4 8,johanan ,alemanno recommends ,ghazali's hermeneutic methods1 and compares the order and graduation of lights in ,ghazali's theory with those of the theory of the cabalists40 ,in regard to science1 ,al-,ghazali's views were naturally those of his contemporaries4 ,his world was built on the ,ptolemaic system4 ,there are four elements only4 ,existence has three modes3 the world of sense1 the world of ,god's eternal decree1 and the world of ideals or of ,god's power4 ,in dreams and visions we are in contact with the two other worlds4 ,al-,ghazali avoids the difficulties of concrete ,moslem teaching by this method4 ,there may be things which are real and actual and yet do not belong to the world of sense4#fd ,doctor ,macdonald admirably summarizes his influence on ,islam as four-fold4 8,first of all he led men back from mere scholastic dogma to a living contact with the ,koran and the ,traditions as the true source of ,islam4 ,he might be called a ,biblical theologian in our modern use of the word1 understanding by #8,bible' always the ,moslem bible1 namely the ,koran4 ,nearly every paragraph of his ,ihya begins with a ,koran quotation1 and his interpretation of the book is not a slavish following of the earlier commentators but a spiritual interpretation of the text40 8,in the second place he reintroduced into ,islam the element of fear4 ,in the earliest days1 as for example in the ,koran itself1 the terrors of the day of judgment and the horrors of hell operated in order to lead men to repentance4 ,al-,ghazali emphasized this part of the ,moslem teaching to the utmost1 witness his little book ,al-,durra al-,fakhira1 which has to this day great acceptance among pious ,moslems40 ,in the third place mysticism1 already existing in ,islam1 but looked upon in many quarters as heretical1 received its birthright through ,al-,ghazali's life and teachings1 and from his day on held an assured position in orthodox ,islam4 ,lastly1 he brought philosophy within the range of the ordinary mind1 warning the people against its dangers as well as showing them its fundamental principles and above all illustrating through his writings how true philosophy and true ,islam are not contradictory4 ,in this respect he resembles ,raymond ,lull who also desired to use philosophy as the handmaid of ,christianity4#fe ,macdonald thinks that of these four phases of his work and influence the first and the third were undoubtedly the most important4 ,these alone made him a reformer of the first rank in the history of ,islam4 ,,vii ,his ,ethics 8,the religion of ,christ contains whole fields of morality and whole realms of thought which are all but outside the religion of ,mohammed4 ,it opens humility1 purity of heart1 forgiveness of injuries1 sacrifice of self to man's moral nature2 it gives scope for toleration1 development1 boundless progress to his mind2 its motive power is stronger1 even as a friend is better than a king and love higher than obedience4 ,its realized ideals in the various paths of human greatness have been more commanding1 more many-sided1 more holy1 as ,averroes is below ,newton1 ,haroun below ,alfred1 and ,ali below ,st4 ,paul4 ,finally1 the ideal life of all is far more elevating1 far more majestic1 far more inspiring even as the life of the founder of ,mohammedanism is below the life of the ,founder of ,christianity40 --8,life of ,mohammed10 ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith4 ,,vii ,,his ,,ethics ,martensen defines ,christian ethics as 8the science of morals conditioned by ,christianity40 ,but the three fundamental concepts of ,christian ethics are all of them challenged by the teaching of ,islam4 ,the ,mohammedan idea of the ,highest ,good1 of ,virtue and of the ,moral ,law are not in accord with those of ,christianity4 ,this is evident both from the character of ,mohammed himself and from his recorded sayings4 ,ideal virtue is to be found through imitation of ,mohammed4 ,and the moral law is practically abrogated because of loose views as to its real character1 its teaching and finality4 8,the ethics of ,islam bear the character of an outwardly and crudely conceived doctrine of righteousness2 conscientiousness in the sphere of the social relations1 faithfulness to conviction and to one's word1 and the bringing of an action into relation to ,god1 are its bright points2 but there is a lack of heart-depth1 of a basing of the moral in love4 ,the highest good is the very outwardly and very sensuously conceived happiness of the individual40#ff ,this statement needs no proof to those who know ,islam from its original sources1 the ,koran and ,tradition4 ,professor ,margoliouth uses language which is strong but not unfair when he says in regard to the saints of the ,moslem calendar--that is the companions and followers of ,mohammed--8,those who recount the history of ,islam have to lay aside all ordinary canons of morality1 else the picture would have no lights2 they could not write at all if they let themselves be shocked by perfidy or bloodthirstiness1 by cruelty or lust1 yet both the ,koran and ,tradition forbid the first three1 and assign some limits to the fourth40 ,a stream cannot rise higher than its source2 a tower cannot be broader than its foundation4 ,the measure of the moral stature of ,mohammed is the source and foundation of all moral ideals in ,islam4 ,his conduct is the standard of character4 ,we need not be surprised1 therefore1 that the ethical standard is so low even in ,al-,ghazali1 although he ofttimes rises high above the ,koran and the ,prophet4 ,in nearly every one of his books on morals the ,prophet of ,arabia is held up as the highest ideal of character4 ,in his 8,precious ,pearl10 however1 there is a passage quoted from a tradition in which he pays this high tribute to ,jesus ,christ 7page #bd1 ,cairo ,edition71 8,go to ,jesus1 on ,him be peace1 for ,he is the truest of those who were sent as apostles1 and who knew most of ,god1 and the most ascetic in life of them all1 and the most eloquent of all in wisdom1 perchance ,he will intercede for you40 ,the quotation1 however1 refers to the day of resurrection when the various nations seek ,god's favour and forgiveness4 ,when we consider the age in which ,al-,ghazali lived and his ,moslem education in ethics1 ,macdonald says1#fg 8the position of ,al-,ghazali is a simple one4 ,all our laws and theories upon the subject1 the analysis of the qualities of the mind1 good and bad1 the tracing of hidden defects to their causes1 and the methods of combating these causes1--all these things ,al-,ghazali teaches we owe to the saints of ,god to whom ,god ,himself has revealed them4 ,of these there have been many at all times and in all countries1--,god has never left ,himself without a witness1--and without them and their labours and the light which ,god has vouchsafed to them we could never know ourselves4 ,here as everywhere1 comes out clearly ,al-,ghazali's fundamental position that the ultimate source of all knowledge is revelation from ,god4 ,it may be major revelation1 through accredited prophets who come forward as teachers1 divinely sent and supported by miracles and by the evident truth of their message appealing to the human heart2 or it may be minor revelation--subsidiary and explanatory--through the vast body of saints of different grades to whom ,god has granted immediate knowledge of ,himself4 ,where the saints leave off1 the prophets begin2 and1 apart from such teaching1 man1 even in physical science1 would be groping in the dark40 ,but we must add to this clear statement of ,al-,ghazali's theory of ethics1 lest it be wholly misunderstood1 that the revelation referred to is the ,koran and that 8the saints0 were the ,moslem saints of the early ,caliphate1 and their followers4 ,moslem doctors of jurisprudence1 including ,al-,ghazali1 define sin as 8a conscious act of a responsible being against known law40 ,therefore sins of ignorance and of childhood are not reckoned as real sin4 ,they divide sin into 8great0 and 8little0 sins4 ,some say there are seven great sins3 idolatry1 murder1 false charge of adultery1 wasting the substance of orphans1 taking interest on money1 desertion from ,jihad and disobedience to parents4 ,others say there are seventeen1 and include wine-drinking1 witchcraft and perjury among them4 ,the lack of all distinction between the ceremonial and the moral law is very evident in the traditional sayings of ,mohammed1 which are1 of course1 at the basis of ethics4 ,take one example3 8,the ,prophet1 upon him be prayers and peace1 said1 ,one dirhem of usury which a man takes knowing it to be so is more grievous than thirty-six fornications1 and whosoever has done so is worthy of hell-fire40 ,orthodox ,moslems divide sins into greater and lesser4 ,al-,ghazali quotes one who said1 8,there are no greater and lesser sins1 but everything which is contrary to ,god's will is a great sin10 but gives ,koran passages contradicting this and then escapes the moral difficulty by showing that the smaller sins may become great if we continue in them3 8like the dropping of water wearing away a stone02 and 8when the servant of ,god reckons his sin great1 ,god reckons it small1 and when he reckons it small1 then ,god reckons it great40 ,he divides the sins which overcome the heart into four classes3 egoistic1 satanic1 brutal and cruel4 ,under the first he puts pride1 conceit1 boasting1 selfishness1 etc42 envy1 hatred1 deceit1 malice1 corruption and unbelief1 belong to the second2 while greed1 gluttony1 lust1 adultery1 sodomy1 theft1 and the robbing of orphans are classed as brutal sins2 and anger1 passion1 abuse1 cursing1 murder1 robbery1 etc41 are cruel4 ,yet in all of ,al-,ghazali's works on ethics and many of his smaller treatises are on this subject1 there is no clear distinction made between the ritual and the moral law4 ,in fact one word used for ethics in ,arabic 7adab7 refers to propriety of conduct1 etiquette1 politeness1 and decency in outward behaviour1 reverence in the presence of superiors1 rather than to the keeping of the ten commandments or of the principles that are fundamental to noble character4 ,this becomes very clear when we study the contents1 for example1 of one of his shorter books entitled ,al-,adab fi ,din 7,ethics in ,religion74 ,the book begins by giving the basis of ethical teaching in these words3 8,praise be to ,god who created us and perfected our creation1 and taught us morals and beautified our morals1 and honoured us by sending ,his ,prophet ,mohammed 7upon whom may ,god's blessing rest71 and hath taught us how to honour him4 ,truly the most perfect element in character and the most elevated1 and the best of good works1 and the most glorious1 is correct behaviour as regards religion1 which teaches what a true believer should know of the work of the ,lord of the worlds and the ,creator of the prophets and apostles2 and ,god hath taught us and clearly enlightened us concerning this in the ,koran1 and hath given us the example of conduct in his ,prophet ,mohammed according to his ,traditions4 ,he is our example1 and likewise are his companions and immediate followers4 ,these have shown us what it is necessary for us to follow in their conduct1 which we have here recorded for all those who would follow40 ,the paragraphs or sections of this handbook are entitled3 ,ethics of the believer in the presence of ,god2 of the teacher2 of the pupil2 of those who hear the ,koran read2 of the reader2 of the school-teacher2 of those who seek to understand ,tradition2 of the scribe2 of the preacher2 of the ascetic2 of the nobleman2 ethics of sleeping2 of night-watching2 of fulfilling a call of nature2 of the bath2 of washing2 of entering the mosque2 of the call to prayer2 of prayer2 of intercession2 of the ,friday sermon2 of the feast-days2 of conduct during an eclipse2 of conduct during drought2 of sickness2 of funerals2 of almsgiving2 of the rich and the poor2 of fasting2 of pilgrimage2 of the merchant2 of the money-changer2 of eating and drinking2 of marriage 7this has several subdivisions72 of sitting by the wayside2 of the child with its parents2 of the parent with the child2 of brothers2 of neighbours2 of the master with the servant2 of the ,sultan with his subjects2 of the ,judge2 of the witness2 of the prisoner4 ,the final chapter of this interesting treatise deals with miscellaneous maxims on polite behaviour under all circumstances4 ,a translation of the section on eating1 which is about the same length as the other paragraphs1 will give a clear idea of the contents3 8,one should wash one's hands before partaking of food and after1 and pronounce the name of ,god before beginning to eat1 and eat with the right hand4 ,take small portions from the dish1 chew the food thoroughly1 and do not look into the faces of the other guests while you are eating2 nor should you recline nor eat to excess beyond the demands of hunger2 and you should ask to be excused as soon as you have had enough1 so that your guest may not be embarrassed or any one who has greater need4 ,and one should eat from the edge of the platter and not from the middle1 and wipe his fingers after the meal1 and return praise to ,god4 ,nor should one mention death at dinner for fear of bringing bad luck upon those who are present40 ,all this is interesting and important1 for the ,moslem child1 as table etiquette4 ,obedience1 humility in outward behaviour1 reverence in the mosque1 respect 8to those above us in age or station10 and many other social virtues are likewise commended4 ,but the omissions of the ,book surprise us4 ,there is nothing on truth1 heart-purity1 moral courage or the nobility of chivalry--the things that make a man4 ,one section of the ,ihya 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #if ff47 deals with the question as to when lies are justifiable1 and clearly shows that according to ,al-,ghazali1 in the realm of truth at least1 the end justifies the means4 8,know10 he says1 8that a lie is not haram 7wrong7 in itself1 but only because of the evil conclusions to which it leads the hearer1 making him believe something that is not really the case4 ,ignorance sometimes is an advantage1 and if a lie causes this kind of ignorance it may be allowed4 ,it is sometimes a duty to lie4 ,maimun ,ibn ,muhran said1 #8,a lie is sometimes better than truth3 for instance1 if you see a man seeking for another in order to kill him1 what do you reply to the question as to where he is8 ,of course you will reply thus1 for such a lie is lawful4 ,we say that the end justifies the means4' 8,if lying and truth both lead to a good result1 you must tell the truth1 for a lie is forbidden in this case4 ,if a lie is the only way to reach a good result1 it is allowable 7hallal74 ,a lie is lawful when it is the only path to duty4 ,for example1 if a ,moslem flees from an unjust one and you are asked about him1 you are obliged to lie in order to save him4 ,if the outcome of war1 reconciliation between two separated friends1 or the safety of an oppressed depends on a lie1 then a lie is allowed4 ,in all cases we must be careful not to lie when there is no necessity for it1 lest it be haram 7wrong74 ,if a wicked person asks a man about his wealth he has to deny having any2 and so if a sultan asks a man about a crime he has committed1 he has to deny it and say1 #8,i have not stolen1' when he did steal2 #8nor done any vice1' when he has done4 ,the ,prophet said1 #8,he who has done a shameful deed must conceal it1 for revealing one disgrace is another disgrace4' ,a person must deny the sins of others as well4 ,making peace between wives is a duty1 even by pretending to each of them that she is loved the most1 and by making promises to please her4 8,we must lie when truth leads to unpleasant results1 but tell the truth when it leads to good results4 ,lying for one's pleasure1 or for increase of wealth1 or for fame is forbidden4 ,one wife must not lie for her husband to tease another wife4 ,lying is allowed in persuading children to go to school2 also false promises and false threats40 ,we get another view of ,al-,ghazali's ethics in his teaching regarding education4 ,there is a special section in the ,ihya 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ec7 which deals with the education of boys and the improvement of their morals4 ,it is not surprising that nothing is said as regards the education of girls1 for even now many ,moslem authorities consider it inadvisable that they should be taught to read and write4 ,the chapter referred to begins as follows3 8,it is most important to know how to bring up a boy1 for a boy is a trust in the hands of his father1 and his pure heart is a precious jewel like a tablet without inscription4 ,it is therefore ready to receive whatever impression is applied4 ,if he learns to do good and is taught it1 he grows up accordingly1 and is happy in this world and the next and his parents and teachers will have the reward for their action4 ,but if he learns evil and grows up in neglect like the dumb cattle1 he will turn away from the truth and perish1 and his sin will be on the neck of his guardian4 ,allah has said1 #8,o ye who believe1 guard yourselves and your family from the fire2 and even as the father would guard his son from the fire of this world1 by how much the more should he guard him from the fire of the world to come8 ,he will guard him from it by chastising him and educating him and teaching him the best virtues4 ,to this end he will only give his boy to be nursed by a good1 pious woman who eats the proper food1 for the milk from forbidden food has no blessing in it4'0 ,he then goes on to show that the education of a child consists in teaching him table manners1 the avoidance of unclean food1 gluttony and impoliteness4 ,he advises parents to dress their children simply and not in costly clothing4 ,to quote once more3 8,after teaching him these things it is wise to send him to school where he shall learn the ,koran and the pious traditions1 and the tales of the righteous and their lives1 in order that a love of the pious may be imprinted in his heart2 and he should be kept from reading erotic poetry and prevented from mixing with those people of education who think that this sort of reading is profitable and elevating1 because1 on the contrary1 it produces in the hearts of children the seeds of corruption4 ,whenever the boy shows a good character or an act which is praiseworthy1 he must be honoured for it and rewarded1 so that he will be happy2 and this should especially be done in the presence of others4 ,if1 on the contrary1 he should act otherwise once and again1 it is necessary to take no notice of it1 nor to lay bare his fault1 as though you imagine no one would dare to do such a thing1 especially if the boy himself conceals it1 and has determined to hide it2 for exposing would only make him more bold in the future4 ,if he should repeat the fault1 he can be punished in secret40 ,such is the strange ethical teaching--a mingling of good and bad advice--on the part of one who has always been considered as the pillar of orthodoxy and one of the great authorities on ,moslem morals4 ,the ethics of marriage holds a large place in ,moslem literature1 and also in the works of ,al-,ghazali4 ,marriage is enjoined upon every ,moslem1 and celibacy is discouraged4 8,marriage10 said ,mohammed the ,prophet1 8is my custom1 and he who dislikes it does not belong to my people40 ,and in another tradition3 8,marriage is one-half of true religion40 ,even the members of the ascetic orders in ,islam are generally married4 ,the vow of celibacy was therefore not known among the mystics4 ,marriage is defined by ,moslem jurists as 8a contract by which the husband obtains possession of the wife and is allowed to enjoy her1 if there be no legal impediment preventing the same40 8,marriage10 says ,al-,ghazali himself1 8is a kind of slavery1 for the wife becomes the slave of her husband and it is her duty to obey him absolutely in everything he requires of her1 except in what is contrary to the laws of ,islam40 ,in the selection of a wife1 ,al-,ghazali advises his disciples to look for the following qualifications3 7#a7 piety1 7#b7 good character1 7#c7 beauty1 7#d7 a moderate dowry1 7#e7 ability to bear children1 7#f7 that she be a virgin1 7#g7 of a good family1 7#h7 that she be not of near relation4 ,the duties of the husband to the wife and the duties of the wife to her husband are given in detail by ,al-,ghazali in his ,ihya and in some of his other works4 ,the husband1 according to this teaching1 ought to maintain a golden mean in dealing with his wife in twelve points1 that is1 he means that there should be no excess of kindness or excess of harshness in any of these particulars3 7#a7 the marriage feast2 7#b7 behaviour2 7#c7 playfulness or caressing2 7#d7 maintaining his dignity2 7#e7 jealousy2 7#f7 pecuniary allowance2 7#g7 teaching2 7#h7 granting every wife her rights 7in the ,moslem sense72 7#i7 chastisement2 7#aj7 the rules of cohabitation2 7#aa7 childbirth2 7#ab7 divorce4 ,in one place he says if the wife be disobedient and obstinate1 the husband has the right to punish her and force her to obey him1 but he must proceed gradually1 exhort1 admonish1 threaten1 abstain from intercourse with her for three days1 beat her so as to let her feel the pain1 but be careful not to wound her in the face1 make her blood flow abundantly or break a bone6 ,the teaching of ,al-,ghazali on divorce and slavery is so thoroughly ,moslem that much of it is untranslatable4 ,suffice it to say that he agrees with other doctors of ,moslem law in excusing onanism and other sins under certain circumstances1 and even indicates that it may become a duty if practiced in order to escape from greater sins4#fh ,in spite of his ,islamic conception of the sexual relation1 ,al-,ghazali certainly inspires our respect by what he says on the kindly treatment of the wife and the evil of divorce4 ,only one would like to know whether he himself had more than one wife and whether she was a worthy helpmeet to her husband and he to her4 ,his biographers are silent4 8,a man should remain on good terms with his wife4 ,this does not mean that he should never cause her pain1 but that he should bear any annoyance she causes him1 whether by her unreasonableness or ingratitude1 patiently4 ,woman is created weak1 and requiring concealment2 she should therefore be borne with patiently1 and kept secluded4 ,the ,prophet said1 #8,he who bears the ill-humour of his wife patiently will earn as much merit as ,job did by the patient endurance of his trials4' ,on his deathbed also he was heard to say1 #8,continue in prayer and treat your wives well1 for they are your prisoners4' 8,wise men have said1 #8,consult women1 and act the contrary to what they advise4' ,in truth there is something perverse in women1 and if they are allowed even a little license1 they get out of control altogether1 and it is difficult to reduce them to order again4 ,in dealing with them one should endeavour to use a mixture of severity and tenderness1 with a greater proportion of the latter4 ,the ,prophet said1 #8,woman was formed of a crooked rib2 if you try to bend her1 you will break her2 if you leave her alone1 she will grow more and more crooked2 therefore treat her tenderly4'#fi 8,the greatest care should be taken to avoid divorce1 for1 though divorce is permitted1 yet ,god disapproves of it1 because the very utterance of the word #8divorce' causes a woman pain1 and how can it be right to pain any one8 ,when divorce is absolutely necessary1 the formula for it should not be repeated thrice all at once1 but on three different occasions4 ,a woman should be divorced kindly1 not through anger and contempt1 and not without a reason4 ,after divorce a man should give his former wife a present1 and not tell others that she has been divorced for such and such a fault4 ,of a certain man who was instituting divorce proceedings against his wife it is related that people asked him1 #8,why are you divorcing her8' ,he answered1 #8,i do not reveal my wife's secrets4' ,when he had actually divorced her1 he was asked again1 and said1 #8,she is a stranger to me now2 ,i have nothing to do with her private affairs4'0 ,all the relations of life1 its pleasures and duties pass under review in books on ,adab4 ,every detail of outward conduct is regulated by what is said to have been the practice of the ,prophet4 ,how to eat a pomegranate correctly1 how to take a bath1 how to use the ,miswak1 or tooth-brush1 how to behave towards ,jews and ,christians1 and what ornaments are allowed--all this comes under the head of ,moslem ,ethics4 ,we give the reader one striking example4 ,in his work1 8,the ,alchemy of ,happiness10 there is a chapter concerning 8,music and ,dancing as ,aids to the ,religious ,life40 ,the question of musical instruments was discussed as earnestly in the days of ,al-,ghazali as it has been more recently among ,christians who dread the desecration of ,god's house by the 8cist of whistles40 ,there was much dispute among theologians as to the lawfulness of music and dancing as religious exercises4 ,the ,sufis had already introduced the practice4 ,the following paragraphs show ,al-,ghazali's common sense1 keen humour1 and at the same time his rather doubtful conclusion2 for he even justifies erotic poetry if sung for the glory of ,god3 8,the heart of man has been so constituted by the ,almighty that1 like a flint1 it contains a hidden fire which is evoked by music and harmony1 and renders man beside himself with ecstasy4 ,these harmonies are echoes of that higher world of beauty which we call the world of spirits2 they remind man of his relationship to that world1 and produce in him an emotion so deep and strange that he himself is powerless to explain it4 ,the effect of music and dancing is deeper in proportion as the nature on which they act are simple and prone to emotion2 they fan into a flame whatever love is already dormant in the heart1 whether it be earthly and sensual1 or divine and spiritual4444 8,passing over the cases where music and dancing rouse into a flame evil desires already dormant in the heart1 we come to those cases where they are quite lawful4 ,such are those of the pilgrims who celebrate the glories of the ,house of ,god at ,mecca in song1 and thus incite others to go on pilgrimage1 and of minstrels whose music and songs stir up martial ardour in the breasts of their auditors and incite them to fight against the infidels4 ,similarly1 mournful music which excites sorrow for sin and failure in the religious life is lawful2 of this nature was the music of ,david4 ,but dirges which increase sorrow for the dead are not lawful1 for it is written in the ,koran1 #8,despair not over what you have lost4' ,on the other hand1 joyful music at weddings and feasts and on such occasions as a circumcision or the return from a journey is lawful4444 8,the states of ecstasy into which the ,sufis fall vary according to the emotions which predominate in them--love1 fear1 desire1 repentance1 etc4 ,these states1 as we have mentioned above1 are often the result not only of hearing verses of the ,koran1 but erotic poetry4 ,some have objected to the reciting of poetry1 as well as of the ,koran1 on these occasions2 but it should be remembered that all the verses of the ,koran are not adapted to stir the emotions--such1 for instance1 as that which commands that a man should leave his mother the sixth part of his property and his sister the half1 or that which orders that a widow must wait four months after the death of her husband before becoming espoused to another man4 ,the natures which can be thrown into religious ecstasy by the recital of such verses are peculiarly sensitive and very rare40 ,they certainly are6 ,the inconsistencies and contradictions in ,al-,ghazali's theory of conduct surprise us when we peruse his works4 ,sometimes he leads us to high mountain ranges whose summits are gilded with the light of heaven1 the great truths of ,theism1 the ideals of eternity2 and again he plunges us into the sloughs of sensuous and worldly discussion--themes unworthy of his pen4 ,let us get back to the mountain tops where the air is healthier4 ,al-,ghazali1 whatever may have been his failure in other respects1 had high ideals for the attainment of morals from the ,moslem standpoint4 ,in his 8,the ,alchemy of ,happiness0 he says1 8,when in the crucible of abstinence the soul is purged from carnal passions it attains to the highest1 and in place of being a slave to lust and anger becomes endued with angelic qualities4 ,attaining that state1 man finds his heaven in the contemplation of ,eternal ,beauty1 and no longer in fleshly delights4 ,the spiritual alchemy which operates this change in him1 like that which transmutes base metals into gold1 is not easily discovered1 nor to be found in the house of every old woman40 ,and in the attainment of this ideal he is sure that there must be a fight for character4 ,the goal is not to be reached by easy stages4 ,the warfare against passion is real and costs sacrifice4 ,he gives us a picture of this ,holy ,war almost in the language of ,john ,bunyan4 8,for the carrying on of this spiritual warfare by which the knowledge of oneself and of ,god is to be obtained1 the body may be figured as a kingdom1 the soul as its king and the different senses and faculties as constituting an army4 ,reason may be called the vizier1 or prime minister1 passion the revenue-collector1 and anger the police-officer4 ,under the guise of collecting revenue1 passion is continually prone to plunder on its own account1 while resentment is always inclined to harshness and extreme severity4 ,both of these1 the revenue-collector and the police-officer1 have to be kept in due subordination to the king1 but not killed or expelled1 as they have their own proper functions to fulfil4 ,but if passion and resentment master reason1 the ruin of the soul infallibly ensues4 ,a soul which allows its lower faculties to dominate the higher is as one who should hand over an angel to the power of a dog or a ,mussalman to the tyranny of an unbeliever40 ,the struggle is1 therefore1 between the flesh and the spirit4 ,like ,st4 ,paul1 ,al-,ghazali must have experienced that which he describes3 8,the good that ,i would ,i do not1 and the evil that ,i would not1 that ,i do40 ,he is conscious of the inner struggle between the higher and the lower natures in man4 ,again and again he contrasts the body and the soul as to their eternal value in their struggle for supremacy4 ,both are of ,god1 ,his gift to us2 both show ,his wisdom and ,his power2 but there is no comparison when we try to estimate their real values4 8,the body1 so to speak1 is simply the riding animal of the soul1 and perishes while the soul endures4 ,the soul should take care of the body1 just as a pilgrim on his way to ,mecca takes care of his camel2 but if the pilgrim spends his whole time in feeding and adorning his camel1 the caravan will leave him behind1 and he will perish in the desert40#gj ,the four leading virtues--the mothers of all other good qualities--,al-,ghazali says are 8,wisdom1 temperance1 bravery1 and moderation 7or the golden mean of conduct740#ga ,this classification he has borrowed from ,plato with so much else on the theory of conduct4 ,he explains all these virtues in terms of the ,koran and illustrates them from the lives of ,mohammed and the early saints of ,islam as well as the later mystics4 ,he is at his best when he speaks of vices and their opposite virtues4 ,no one can read his chapter against pride and boasting without seeing that he gives us again a page from his own experience4 ,he begins by quoting the saying of the ,prophet1 8,no one shall enter paradise in whose heart there is the weight of a grain of mustard seed of pride40 ,and another saying1 8,said ,god ,most ,high1 #8,pride is my mantle and majesty is my cloak1 and whosoever takes away one of them from me ,i will cast him into hell1 and ,i care not4'0 ,another saying attributed to ,mohammed is evidently taken from the ,gospel1 8,whoso humbleth himself before ,god1 ,god will exalt him1 and whosoever is proud ,god will bring him low40 ,his definition of humility is beautiful3 8,true humility is to be subject to the truth and to be corrected by it even though thou shouldst hear it from a mere boy on the street40 ,in this connection he quotes also a saying of ,jesus3 8,said the ,messiah 7upon ,him be peace71 #8,blessed is he to whom ,god has taught ,his book4 ,he shall never die in his pride4'0 ,pride is shown in different ways4 ,al-,ghazali enumerates pride of knowledge1 of worship1 of race and blood1 of beauty and dress1 of wealth1 of bodily strength1 of leadership4 ,he quotes ,mohammed as an example of humility1 and also ,abi ,saeed el ,khudri1 who said1 8,oh1 my son1 eat unto ,god and drink unto ,god and dress unto ,god4 ,but whatsoever thou doest of all of these and there enters into them pride or hypocrisy it is disobedience4 ,whatever you do in your house do it yourself as did the ,apostle of ,god1 for he used to milk the goats and patch his sandals and sew his cloak and eat with the servants and buy in the bazaar1 nor did his pride forbid him carrying his own packages home2 and he was friendly to the rich and to the poor and he gave greetings himself first to every one whom he met1 etc40 ,it is noteworthy that when he rises to the highest ethical teaching he bases his remarks on the sayings 7mostly apocryphal7 of ,christ1 which we collate in our final chapter4 ,al-,ghazali tried hard but failed to find in ,mohammed the ideals of his own heart4 ,this is the tragedy of ,islam4 ,,viii ,al-,ghazali as a ,mystic 8,mysticism is religion1 and supplies a refuge for men of religious minds who find it no longer possible for them to rest on #8external authority'--as ,george ,tyrrell both expounded and illustrated for us4 ,once turn away from revelation and little choice remains to you but the choice between ,mysticism and ,rationalism4 ,there is not so much choice between these things1 it is true1 as enthusiasts on either side are apt to imagine4 ,the difference between them is very much a matter of temperament1 or perhaps we may even say of temperature4 ,the ,mystic blows hot1 the ,rationalist cold4 ,warm up a ,rationalist and you inevitably get a ,mystic2 chill down a ,mystic and you find yourself with a ,rationalist on your hands4 ,the history of thought illustrates repeatedly the easy passage from one to the other4 ,each centers himself in himself1 and the human self is not so big that it makes any large difference where within yourself you take your center4 ,nevertheless just because ,mysticism blows hot1 its #8eccentricity' is the more attractive to men of lively religious feeling40 --,benjamin ,b4 ,warfield1 in the 8,princeton ,theological ,review40 ,,viii ,,al-,,ghazali ,,as ,a ,,mystic ,one of the earliest mystics in ,islam was ,rabia1 who was buried in ,jerusalem4 ,she was a native of ,busrah and died at ,jerusalem as early as the second century of ,islam4 ,her tomb1 according to ,ibn ,khallikan1 was an object of pilgrimage in the ,middle ,ages1 and was probably visited by ,al-,ghazali4 ,the following verses are quoted from her in the ,ihya 7vol4 iv4 p4 #bih73 8,two ways ,i love ,thee3 selfishly1 ,and next1 as worthy is of ,thee4 ',tis selfish love that ,i do naught ,save think on ,thee with every thought3 ',tis purest love when ,thou dost raise ,the veil to my adoring gaze4 ,not mine the praise in that or this1 ,thine is the praise in both1 ,i wis40 ,the ,moslem mystics1 or ,sufis1 however1 received their name through ,abu ,khair1 who lived at the end of the second century of the ,hegira4 ,his disciples wore a woolen garment1 and from the word suf1 which means wool1 they obtained their name4 ,in the next century1 al-,junaid 7,a4 ,h4 #big71 one of ,al-,ghazali's favourite authorities1 was the great leader of the movement1 which spread throughout ,islam4 ,it was a reaction from the barren monotheism and the rigid ritualism of ,islam4 ,this kind of orthodoxy did not meet the needs of the more imaginative mind of the ,eastern races who accepted ,islam4 ,the preachers of the new doctrine travelled everywhere and mixed with men of all conditions4 ,in this way they adopted ideas from many sources1 although always professing to base their teaching on the ,koran and ,tradition4 ,according to ,nicholson1 the ,mystics of ,islam borrowed not only from ,christianity and ,neoplatonism1 but from ,gnosticism and ,buddhism4 ,many ,gospel texts and sayings of ,jesus1 most of them apocryphal1 are cited in the oldest ,sufi writings4 ,from ,christianity they took the use of the woollen dress1 the vows of silence1 the litanies 7,zikr71 and other ascetic practices4 ,their teaching also has many interesting parallels which ,nicholson summarizes as follows3 8,the same expressions are applied to the founder of ,islam which are used by ,st4 ,john1 ,st4 ,paul1 and later mystical theologians concerning ,christ4 ,thus1 ,mohammed is called the ,light of ,god1 he is said to have existed before the creation of the world1 he is adored as the source of all life1 actual and possible1 he is the ,perfect ,man in whom all the divine attributes are manifested1 and a ,sufi tradition ascribes to him the saying1 #8,he that hath seen me hath seen ,allah4' ,in the ,moslem scheme1 however1 the ,logos doctrine occupies a subordinate place1 as it obviously must when the whole duty of man is believed to consist in realizing the unity of ,god40#gb ,neoplatonism gave them the doctrine of emanation and ecstasy4 ,the following version of the doctrine of the seventy thousand veils1 as expounded to ,canon ,gairdner by a modern dervish1 shows clear traces of ,gnosticism4 8,seventy ,thousand ,veils separate ,allah1 the ,one reality1 from the world of matter and of sense4 ,and every soul passes before his birth through these seventy thousand4 ,the inner half of these are veils of light3 the outer half1 veils of darkness4 ,for every one of the veils of light passed through1 in this journey towards birth1 the soul puts off a divine quality2 and for every one of the dark veils1 it puts on an earthly quality4 ,thus the child is born weeping1 for the soul knows its separation from ,allah1 the one ,reality4 ,and when the child cries in its sleep1 it is because the soul remembers something of what it has lost4 ,otherwise1 the passage through the veils has brought with it forgetfulness 7nisyan73 and for this reason man is called insan4 ,he is now1 as it were1 in prison in his body1 separated by these thick curtains from ,allah4 ,but the whole purpose of ,sufism1 the ,way of the dervish1 is to give him an escape from this prison1 an apocalypse of the ,seventy ,thousand ,veils1 a recovery of the original unity with ,the ,one1 while still in this body40#gc ,in regard to ,buddhist influence1 ,professor ,goldziher has called attention to the fact that in the eleventh century the teaching of ,buddha exerted considerable influence in eastern ,persia1 especially at ,balkh1 a city famous for the number of ,sufis who dwelt in it4 ,from the ,buddhists came the use of the rosary 7afterwards adopted by ,christians in ,europe71 and perhaps also the doctrine of fana or absorption into ,god4 8,while fana10 says ,nicholson1 8in its pantheistic form is radically different from ,nirvana1 the terms coincide so closely in other ways that we cannot regard them as being altogether unconnected4 ,fana has an ethical aspect3 it involves the extinction of all passions and desires4 ,the passing away of evil qualities and of the evil actions which they produce is said to be brought about by the continuance of the corresponding good qualities and actions40#gd ,the cultivation of character by the contemplation of ,god in a mystical sense was the real goal4 ,to know ,god was to be like ,him and to be like ,him ended in absorption or ecstasy4#ge ,one of their favourite sayings was that attributed to ,god by the ,prophet1 8,i was a hidden treasure and ,i desired to be known1 so ,i created the creation in order that ,i might be known40 ,just as the universe is the mirror of ,god's being1 so the heart of man is to the ,sufi the mirror of the universe4 ,if he would know ,god or ,truth he must look into his own heart4 ,to quote ,al-,ghazali himself3 8,the aim which the ,sufis set before them is as follows3 ,to free the soul from the tyrannical yoke of the passions1 to deliver it from its wrong inclinations and evil instincts1 in order that in the purified heart there should only remain room for ,god and for the invocation of ,his holy name4 8,as it was more easy to learn their doctrine than to practise it1 ,i studied first of all those of their books which contain it3 ,the ,nourishment of ,hearts1 by ,abu ,talib of ,mecca1 the works of ,hareth el ,muhasibi1 and the fragments which still remain1 of ,junaid1 ,shibli1 ,abu ,yezid1 ,bustami and other leaders 7whose souls may ,god sanctify74 ,i acquired a thorough knowledge of their researches1 and ,i learned all that was possible to learn of their methods by study and oral teaching4 ,it became clear that the last stage could not be reached by mere instruction1 but only by transport1 ecstasy1 and the transformation of the moral being0 7p4 #da1 8,confessions074 8,among the teachings of the ,sufis was that of the prexistence of ,mohammed the ,prophet in the ,essence of ,light4 ,according to the ,traditions1 #8,i was a prophet while ,adam was yet between earth and clay1' and #8,there is no prophet after me1' ,sufis hold that ,mohammed was a prophet even before the creation and that he still holds office4 ,this identification of ,mohammed with the ,primal ,element explains the names sometimes given him1 such as ,universal ,reason1 the ,great ,spirit1 the ,truth of ,humanity1 the ,possessor of the ,ray of ,light--the ,nur-i-,muhammadi--from ,god's own splendour40#gf ,absorption in ,god1 therefore1 or union with ,him is the goal of all the ,sufi teachings and practices4 ,the entire negation of self clears the way for the apprehension of the ,truth4 ,this journey towards ,god has its stages which are generally given as eight in number3 service1 love1 abstraction1 knowledge1 ecstasy1 truth1 union1 extinction4 ,some of the ,sufis went so far as to set aside external religion1 and showed an utter indifference to the ritual as well as to the moral law4 ,al-,ghazali was not of their number4 ,he teaches1 however1 that the ordinary theologian cannot enter on the mystic path1 for he is still in bondage to dogma and wanders about in darkness4 ,prayer1 fasting1 pilgrimage in all their requirements and the details of their observations have1 therefore1 a twofold significance2 the outward and formal one which is understood by the common people1 and the spiritual1 real1 esoteric significance which is only grasped by those who give themselves entirely to ,god4 ,al-,ghazali was thoroughly aware of the dangers of ,sufism both in its creed by way of becoming pantheistic1 and in its antinomian practices4 ,he saw that divorce between religion and morals would be disastrous and must therefore have been shocked by such verses as those of ,omar ,khayyam3 8,khayyam6 why weep you that your life is bad2 ,what boots it thus to mourn8 ,rather be glad4 ,he that sins not can make no claim to mercy2 ,mercy was made for sinners--be not sad40 ,his teaching regarding sin and repentance was1 as we shall see later1 altogether more fundamental4 ,from the earliest times pantheistic ,sufism found a home in ,khorasan among the ,moslems4 ,the old idea of incarnation emerged when the ,shiah sect separated itself and paid such high veneration to ,ali4 ,the sect of the ,khattahiyah worshipped the ,imam ,jafar ,sadik as ,god4 ,others believed that the divine spirit had descended upon ,abdallah ,ibn ,amr4 ,in ,khorasan the opinion was widely spread that ,abu ,muslim1 the great general who overturned the dynasty of the ,ommeyads and set up that of the ,abbassides1 was an incarnation of the spirit of ,god4 ,in the same province under ,al ,mansur1 the second ,abbasside ,caliph1 a religious leader named ,ostasys professed to be an emanation of the ,godhead4 ,he collected thousands of followers1 and the movement was not suppressed without much fighting4 ,under the ,caliph ,mahdi a self-styled ,avatar named ,ata arose1 who on account of a golden mask which he continually wore was called ,mokanna1 or 8the veiled prophet40 ,he also had a numerous following1 and held the ,caliph's armies in check for several years1 till in ,a4 ,d4 #ggi1 being closely invested in his castle1 he1 with his whole harem and servants1 put an end to themselves4 ,what ,al-,ghazali himself thought of these speculations of the ,sufis and the danger of this kind of mysticism we learn from his book3 8,the speculations of the ,sufis may be divided into two classes3 to the first category belong all the phases about love to ,god and union with ,him1 which according to them compensate for all outward works4 ,many of them allege that they have attained to complete oneness with ,god2 that for them the veil has been lifted2 that they have not only seen the ,most ,high with their eyes1 but have spoken with ,him1 and so far as to say #8,the ,most ,high spoke thus and thus4' ,they wish to imitate ,hallaj1 who was crucified for using such expressions1 and justify themselves by quoting his saying1 #8,i am the ,truth4' ,they also refer to ,abu ,yazid ,bistami1 who is reported to have exclaimed1 #8,praise be to me6' instead of #8,praise be to ,god6' ,this kind of speculation is extremely dangerous for the common people1 and it is notorious that a number of craftsmen have left their occupation to make similar assertions4 ,such speeches are highly popular1 as they hold out to men the prospect of laying aside active work with the idea of purging the soul through mystical ecstasies and transports4 ,the common people are not slow to claim similar rights for themselves and to catch up wild and whirling expressions4 ,as regards the second class of ,sufi speculation1 it consists in the use of unintelligible phrases which by their outward apparent meaning and boldness attract attention1 but which on closer inspection prove to be devoid of any real sense40 ,not only did ,al-,ghazali realize the danger on the side of pantheism1 but he was aware that such religious enthusiasm often led to gross hypocrisy4 ,in his ,ihya he mentions 8that the prophet commanded that whoever did not feel moved to tears at the recitation of the ,koran should pretend to weep and to be deeply moved02 for1 adds ,al-,ghazali sagely1 8in these matters one begins by forcing oneself to do what afterwards comes spontaneously40 ,moreover1 the fact that religious excitement was looked upon as the mark of a fervent mind and devout intensity1 vastly increased the number of those who claimed mystic illumination4 ,he divides the ecstatic conditions which the hearing of poetical recitations produces into four classes4 ,the first1 which is the lowest1 is that of the simple sensuous delight in melody4 ,the second class is that of pleasure in the melody and of understanding the words in their apparent sense4 ,the third class consists of those who apply the meaning of the words to the relations between man and ,god4 ,to this class belongs the would-be initiate into ,sufism4 ,he goes on to say1 8,he has necessarily a goal marked out for him to aim at1 and this goal is the knowledge of ,god1 meeting ,him and union with ,him by the way of secret contemplation1 and the removal of the veil which conceals ,him4 ,in order to compass this aim the ,sufi has a special path to follow2 he must perform various ascetic practices and overcome certain spiritual obstacles in doing so4 ,now when1 during the recitation of poetry1 the ,sufi hears mention made of blame or praise1 of acceptance or refusal1 of union with the ,beloved or separation from ,him1 of lament over a departed joy or longing for a look1 as often occurs in ,arabic poetry1 one or the other of these accords with his spiritual state and acts upon him like a spark on tinder1 to set his heart aflame4 ,longing and love overpower him and unfold to him manifold vistas of spiritual experience4 8,the fourth and highest class is that of the fully initiated who have passed through the stages above mentioned1 and whose minds are closed to everything except ,god4 ,such an one is wholly denuded of self1 so that he no longer knows his own experiences and practices1 and1 as though with senses sealed1 sinks into the ocean of the contemplation of ,god4 ,this condition the ,sufis characterize as self-annihilation 7,fana740 78,the ,confessions407 ,elsewhere he compares this highest condition of ecstasy of the human soul to a clear mirror--of course he means the mirror of the ancients made of polished brass or bronze--which reflects the colours of anything towards which it is directed4 ,again and again he comes back to this metaphor in his books4 ,sin is like rust on the mirror of the soul4 ,light is reflected in it1 but the rays are no longer clear1 until by repentance the rust of guilt and passion are removed4 ,al-,ghazali's mysticism was always accompanied by orthodox insistence on the six articles of faith and the five pillars of practice1 through which alone the soul can receive its fundamental impulse towards ,god4 ,yet ,al-,ghazali's mysticism leads him to emphasize always the spiritual side of worship4 ,the mere form is nothing in itself4 ,the author of the ,masnavi had mastered ,al-,ghazali and absorbed his spirit when he wrote3 8,fools laud and magnify the mosque1 ,while they strive to oppress holy men of heart4 ,but the former is mere form1 the latter spirit and truth4 ,the only true mosque is that in the hearts of saints4 ,the mosque that is built in the heart of the saints ,is the place of worship of all1 for ,god dwells there40 ,what he says on the imitation of ,god is based almost literally on ,al-,ghazali's book describing ,god's attributes4 8,god calls ,himself #8,seeing1' to the end that ,his eye may every moment scare you from sinning4 ,god calls ,himself #8,hearing1' to the end that ,you may close your lips against foul discourse4 ,god calls ,himself #8,knowing1' to the end that ,you may be afraid to plot evil4 ,these names are not mere accidental names of ,god1 ,as a negro may be called ,kafur 7white72 ,they are names derived from ,god's essential attributes1 ,not mere vain titles of the ,first ,cause40 ,abu ,said bin ,abu 'l-,khair1 also of ,khorasan 7,a4 ,h4 #cif-ddj71 was one of ,al-,ghazali's teachers in the school of mysticism4 ,when he was asked what a ,sufi was he said3 8,whatever is in thy head1 forget it2 whatever is in thy hand1 give it away2 and whatever happens to thee1 disregard it40 ,in regard to the rise of ,sufic teaching1 its origin and character1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje remarks3 8,the lamp which ,allah had caused ,mohammed to hold up to guide mankind with its light1 was raised higher and higher after the ,prophet's death1 in order to shed its light over an ever increasing part of humanity4 ,this was not possible1 however1 without its reservoir being replenished with all the different kinds of oil that had from time immemorial given light to those different nations4 ,the oil of mysticism came from ,christian circles1 and its ,neoplatonic origin was quite unmistakable2 ,persia and ,india also contributed to it4 ,there were those who1 by asceticism1 by different methods of mortifying the flesh1 liberated the spirit that it might rise and become united with the origin of all being2 to such an extent that with some the profession of faith was reduced to the blasphemous exclamation3 #8,i am ,allah4'0 ,illustration3 ,facsimile title page of the last book ,ghazali wrote1 entitled 8,minhaj ,al-,abidin40 ,on the margin this ,cairo edition gives another of his celebrated works1 8,badayat-al-,hadaya40 ,but he goes on to say that although many went to such extremes and in their pantheistic ideas lost sight of the moral law and the restriction of conduct it was ,al-,ghazali who rescued ,islam to a large degree from this danger4 ,he recommended moral perfection of the soul by asceticism as the only way through which men could approach nearer to ,god4 8,his mysticism wished to avoid the danger of pantheism1 to which so many others were led by their contemplations1 and which so often engendered disregard of the revealed law1 or even of morality40 ,it is therefore from the days of ,al-,ghazali that ethical mysticism obtained its birthright in the world of ,islam together with law and dogma4 ,these now form the sacred trio of religious sciences1 and are taught in every great centre of ,moslem learning4 ,for dogma other writers are more authoritative4 ,for ,moslem law there is the study of the great writers of the four ,schools1 but in matters of ethics ,al-,ghazali still holds his own4 ,to quote once more from ,hurgronje3 8,the ethical mysticism of ,al-,ghazali is generally recognized as orthodox2 and the possibility of attaining to a higher spiritual sphere by means of methodic asceticism and contemplation is doubted by few4 ,the following opinion has come to prevail in wide circles3 the ,law offers the bread of life to all the faithful1 the dogmatics are the arsenal from which the weapons must be taken to defend the treasures of religion against unbelief and heresy1 but mysticism shows the earthly pilgrim the way to ,heaven40#gg ,in one particular1 however1 this ethical teaching is utterly disappointing4 ,al-,ghazali's mysticism is not for the multitude4 ,it is esoteric1 for a particular class who are filled with religious pride that they1 in this respect1 are not as other men4 ,even the noblest minds in ,islam restrict true religious life to an aristocratic minority1 and1 like the ,pharisees of old1 consider the ignorance of the multitude an evil that cannot be remedied4 ,the teaching of ,al-,ghazali was intended not for the masses but for the initiates4 ,it is remarkable that while he founded a cloister for ,sufis at ,tus and taught and governed there himself during the closing years of his life1 he left no established order behind him4 ,professor ,macdonald thinks that in his time the movement towards continuous corporations and brotherhoods had not yet begun4 ,but this is a mistake1 for in the ,kashf-al-,mahjub 7,a4 ,h4 #def7 we already find a list of the various schools of ,dervishes and their peculiar methods of devotion4 ,al-,ghazali's teaching1 however1 is popular among all the ,dervish orders of to-day4 ,a special study has been made of one of ,al-,ghazali's esoteric works on mysticism entitled ,mishkat al-,anwar1 by ,canon ,w4 ,h4 ,t4 ,gairdner1 in which he answers the critics of this work1 and shows conclusively that whatever may have been ,al-,ghazali's method he was sincere4 ,we borrow from this interesting and scholarly paper two paragraphs to illustrate the method of ,al-,ghazali3 8,in expounding the tradition of the ,seventy ,thousand ,veils with which ,allah had veiled ,himself from the vision of man1 ,ghazali finds opportunity to graduate various religions and sects according as they are more1 or less1 thickly veiled from the light2 i4 e41 according as they more or less nearly approximate to ,absolute ,truth 7al-,haqq--the ,real--,allah74 ,the veils which veil the various religions and sects from the ,divine ,light are conceived of as twofold in character1 light veils and dark veils1 and the principle of graduation is according as the followers of these religions and sects are veiled 7a7 by dark veils1 7b7 by dark and light mixed1 or 7c7 by light veils only4 ,the recital closes with a short passage which tells us that the ,attainers 7al-wasilun7 have had the ,sufi doctrine of kashf in its most explicit and striking form4 87a7 ,those veiled by pure darkness1 called here the mulhida1 are those who deny the existence of ,allah and of a ,last ,day4 ,they have two main divisions1 those who have inquired for a cause to account for the world and have made ,nature that cause2 and those who have made no such inquiry4 ,the former are clearly the ,naturists or dahriya who were the very abomination of desolation to ,ghazali4 ,it is curious that nothing further is said of their evil conduct1 and it is entirely characteristic of medival thought that the deepest damnation is thus reserved for false opinion1 rather than for evil life4 ,evil doers form the second division 7which1 however1 is not definitely said to be higher than the first71 composed of those who are too greedy and selfish so much as to look for a cause1 or in fact to think of anything except their vile selves4 ,these we might style the ,egotists2 they are ranged in ascending order into 7#a7 seekers of sensual pleasure1 7#b7 seekers of dominion1 7#c7 money-grubbers1 7#d7 lovers of vain-glory4 ,in the first he has the ordinary sensual herd in view1 as well as the philosophers of sensualism2 their veils are the veils of the bestial attributes1 while those of the second are the ferocious ones 7sabaiya74 ,the denotation of the latter class is quaintly given as ,arabs1 some ,kurds and very numerous ,fools4 ,the third and fourth subdivisions do not call for comment4 8,mounting from these regions of unmitigated darkness we come to 7b71 those veiled by light and darkness mixed4 ,ghazali's idea of the dark veils in general may be gathered from a comparison of this and the previous section4 ,in this section the dark veils are shown to be the false conceptions of deity1 which the human mind is deluded into making by the gross and limited elements in its own constitution1 namely 7in ascending order7 by the ,senses1 the ,phantasy or ,imagination and the ,discursive ,reason4 ,the dark veils of the previous section were the unmitigated egotism and materialism which employed these faculties for self and the world alone1 without a thought of deity4 ,the light veils1 accordingly1 are the true but partial intuitions whereby man rises to the idea of deity1 or to a something at least higher than himself4 ,these intuitions are no more than partial1 because they fix upon some one aspect or attribute of deity1--majesty1 beauty1 and so forth1--and believing it to be all in all proceed to deify all majestic1 beautiful1 etc41 things4 ,thus they half reveal1 half conceal1 ,allah1 and so are literally veils of light40#gh ,does not this remind us of ,st4 ,paul's words3 8,now we see through 7in7 a glass darkly but then face to face1 etc408 ,did ,al-,ghazali borrow from the ,gospel here also8 ,it has been pointed out by ,margoliouth and others that ,mohammedan ,sufism is largely based on ,christian teaching4 ,this is especially true in the case of ,abu ,talib1 ,al-,ghazali's favourite writer on this subject4 8,sometimes the matter is taken over bodily2 thus the ,parable of the ,sower is told by the earliest ,sufi writer4 ,abu ,talib takes over the dialogue in the ,gospel eschatology between the ,saviour and those who are taunted with having seen ,him hungry and refused ,him food2 only for the questioner he substitutes ,allah1 and for #8the least of these' his ,moslem brother4 ,not a few of the ,beatitudes are taken over sometimes with the name of their author4 ,commonplaces which are found in ,christian homiletic works reappear with little or no alteration in the ,sufi sermons4 ,in the ,acts of ,thomas1 the ,apostle1 when employed by a king to build a palace1 spends the money in charity to the poor4 ,presently the king's brother dies1 and finds that a wonderful palace has been built for the king in ,paradise with the ,alms which ,thomas bestowed in his name4 ,this story reappears in the doctrine of ,abu ,talib that when a poor man takes charity from the wealthy1 he is thereby building him a house in ,paradise40#gi ,not only in ,qut-ul-,qulub1 the famous book of ,abu ,talib1 but in all ,al-,ghazali's works we have numerous quotations and references to the ,gospels apocryphal or genuine1 as we shall see later4 ,al-,ghazali prescribed forms for morning and evening prayer which do not differ greatly from the prayers recommended in ,christian manuals of devotion4 ,his teaching on prayer is an effort to spiritualize the ceremony1 and in this he follows the teaching of the older ,sufis4 ,absorption in ,god during prayer was their ideal4 ,to avoid distraction men were advised to pray towards a blank wall1 lest any architectural ornament might distract their attention4 ,others boasted that they could attain to absorption under any circumstances4 8,there were saints who when they started their salat told their women-folk that they might chatter as much as they liked and even beat drums2 they were too much absorbed in prayer to hear1 however loud the noise4 ,when one of them was saying his salat in the ,mosque of ,basrah a column fell1 bringing down with it an erection of four storeys2 he continued praying1 and when after he had finished the people congratulated him on his escape1 he asked1 what from8 ,great names were quoted for the practice of praying hastily1 and so shortening the time taken by the devotion as to give ,satan no chance of distracting the thoughts40 ,al-,ghazali1 however1 believed in reverence and emphasized outward and inward preparation for this act of devotion4 8,prayer10 says he1 8is a nearness to ,god and a gift which we present to the ,king of kings even as one who comes from a distant village brings it before the ruler4 ,and your gift is accepted of ,god and will be returned to you on the great day of judgment1 so that you are responsible to present it as beautiful as possible40 ,he quotes with approval a saying of ,mohammed3 8,true prayer is to make one's self meek and humble10 and adds that the presence of the heart is the soul of true prayer and that absent-mindedness destroys all its value4 8,true prayer10 he continues1 8consists of six things3 the presence of the heart1 understanding1 magnifying ,god1 fear1 hope1 and a sense of shame40 ,he then treats successively these elements of true prayer1 showing in what they consist1 how they are occasioned and how they may be secured4 ,we secure the presence of our hearts by a deep sense of the eternal4 ,what he says in regard to ,god's greatness may well be compared with such passages as the eighth ,psalm1 8,what is man that ,thou art mindful of him80 ,our sense of shame is quickened1 he says1 by remembering our shortcomings in worship4 ,the only way we can secure the presence of the heart in prayer is by drawing our thoughts away from outward diversions and from those within4 ,we should not pray in the public streets1 for there our mind is diverted4 ,if we can pray towards a dead wall on which there is nothing to see it will be helpful4 ,but the inward withdrawal of the heart is still more important4 ,what he says about the true kibla is also worth quoting4 8,it is the turning away of your outward gaze from everything save the direction of the holy house of ,god4 ,do you not then think that the turning aside of your heart from all other things to the consideration of ,god ,most ,high is required of you8 ,it certainly is4 ,nothing else is required of you in prayer than this1 so that ,i would say the face of your heart must turn with the face of your body2 and even as no one is able to face the house of ,god save by turning away from every other direction1 so the heart does not truly turn towards ,god save by being separated from everything else than himself40 8,when you stand up to pray10 he says1 8remember the day when you must stand before ,god's throne and be judged4 ,be clear of hypocrisy in prayer4 ,do not follow those who profess to worship the face of ,god and at the same time seek the praise of men4444 ,flee from the devil1 for he is as a devouring lion4 ,how can any one who is pursued by a lion or an enemy who would devour him or kill him say1 #8,i take refuge with ,god from them in this castle or in this fort1' and still linger without entering the fort8 ,surely this will not profit him4 ,the only way to secure protection is to change his place4 ,in like manner whoever follows his lusts1 which are the lurking place of ,satan and the abomination of the ,merciful1 the mere saying1 #8,i take refuge in ,god' will not profit4 ,whosoever takes his passions for a ,god he is under the reign of the devil and not in the safe keeping of his ,lord40 ,he gives a long spiritual interpretation of the fatihah which is beautiful4 8,at the conclusion of your formal prayer10 he says1 8offer your humble petitions and thanksgivings and expect an answer and join in your petition your parents and the rest of true believers4 ,and when you give the final salaams remember the two angels who sit on your shoulders40 ,in the giving of alms he says seven things are required3 promptness1 secrecy1 example--7and in this connection he quotes a ,tradition ascribed to the ,prophet about the left hand not knowing what the right hand doeth7--absence of boasting or pride1 the gift must not be spoken of as great1 our best is demanded1 for ,god is supremely good and ,he will only take the best1 and we must give our alms to the right persons4 ,of these he mentions six classes3 the pious1 the learned1 the righteous1 the deserving poor1 those in need because of sickness or family distress1 and relatives4 ,with him1 charity ends at home4 ,illustration3 ,a ,mihrab or prayer-niche made of cedar wood and dating from the ,eleventh ,century4 7,cairo ,museum47 ,it is clear1 however1 from ,al-,ghazali's teaching that only ,moslems are intended in his classification of those who may receive the ,zakat4 ,there is no universal brotherhood in ,islam4 ,jews and ,christians are outside the pale1 save as they have 8the rights of neighbours40 ,christians might well regard ,al-,ghazali's mystical method of reading the ,koran in their perusal of the ,scriptures4 ,he tells us we must regard eight things3 the greatness of the revelation2 the majesty of the ,speaker2 the need of a prepared heart2 meditation2 understanding the content of the passage1 not twisting its meaning2 we are to make the application to ourselves2 and finally we must read it so that its effect may show in our lives4 ,by the word ,koran1 he says1 8we mean not the reading but the following of the teaching1 for the movement of the tongue in pronouncing the words is of little value4 ,the true reading is when the tongue and the mind and the heart are associated4 ,the part of the tongue is to pronounce the words clearly in chanting4 ,the part of the mind is to interpret the meaning4 ,the part of the heart is to translate it into life4 ,so that the tongue chants and the mind interprets and the heart is a preacher and a warner40 ,the greatest chapter of his opus magnum is undoubtedly that on ,repentance4 ,it may well be compared with the fifty-first ,psalm or the seventh chapter of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,that ,al-,ghazali himself had a deep sense of sin1 no one can doubt4 ,he was not a ,pharisee but an earnest seeker after ,god4 ,he teaches clearly that all the prophets1 including ,mohammed1 were sinners1 although he nowhere mentions any sinfulness in ,jesus ,christ4 ,one of the most important passages is that in which he speaks of the benefit of asking pardon4 ,it reads as follows3 8,said ,mohammed the ,prophet 7upon him be peace73 #8,verily1 ,i ask forgiveness of ,god and repent towards ,him every day seventy times4'0 ,he said this1 so says ,al-,ghazali1 although ,god had already testified1 8,we have forgiven thee1 thy former and thy latter sins40 8,said the ,prophet of ,god1 #8,truly a faintness comes over my heart until ,i ask ,god forgiveness every day one hundred times4' ,and said the ,prophet 7on him be peace71 #8,whosoever says when he goes to sleep1 8,i ask forgiveness of the ,great ,god1 than whom there is no other1 the living1 and ,i repent of my sins three times10 ,god will forgive him his sins even though they were as the foam of the seas or its sands piled up1 or as the numbers of the leaves on the trees or the days of the world4' ,and said the ,prophet of ,god 7upon him be peace71 #8,whosoever says that word ,i will forgive his sins though he deserts the army4'0 ,al-,ghazali relates a story of one ,hudhifa1 who said1 8,i was accustomed to speak sharply to my wife1 and ,i said1 #8,o1 ,apostle of ,god1 ,i am afraid lest my tongue should cause me to enter the fire1' and then the ,prophet of ,god 7upon whom be peace7 said1 #8,where art thou in asking for forgiveness compared with me1 for ,i ask forgiveness of ,god every day one hundred times4' ,and ,ayesha said 7may ,god give her ,his favour71 concerning the ,prophet1 #8,he said to me1 8,if you have committed a sin ask forgiveness of ,god and repent to ,him1 for true repentance for a sin is turning away from it and asking forgiveness40' ,and the ,apostle of ,god 7upon whom be peace7 was accustomed to say when he asked for forgiveness3 #8,o ,god1 forgive my sin and my ignorance and my excess in what ,i have done1 and what ,thou knowest better than ,i do4 ,o ,god1 forgive me my trifling and my earnestness1 my mistakes and my wrong intentions and all that ,i have done4 ,o ,god1 forgive me that which ,i have committed in the past and that which ,i will commit in the future1 and what ,i have hidden and what ,i have revealed and what ,thou knowest better than ,i do1 ,thou who art the first and the last and ,thou art the ,almighty4'0#hj ,how different all this is from the present day superficial teaching about the sinlessness of ,mohammed which is current in popular ,islam4 ,since ,al-,ghazali tells this about ,mohammed and his need for forgiveness1 he naturally deals with repentance in no superficial fashion but as one who has tasted the bitterness of remorse and has discovered his own inability to meet the demands of the ,moral ,law4 ,his book on repentance has the following sections3 7#a7 ,the reality of repentance4 7#b7 ,the necessity for repentance4 7#c7 ,true repentance expected by ,god4 7#d7 ,of what a man should repent1 namely1 the character of sin4 7#e7 ,how small sins become great4 7#f7 ,perfect repentance1 its conditions and its duration4 7#g7 ,the degree of repentance4 7#h7 ,how to become truly penitent4 ,one can only give a summary of his teaching4 ,he rises far above the ,koran4 ,in fact in some cases his proof texts1 when we consider the context1 are a terrible indictment of the ,prophet4#ha ,he says the necessity of repentance always and for all men is evident because no one of the human race is free from sin4 8,for even though in some cases he is free from outward sin of his bodily members1 he is not free from sin of the heart2 though free from passion he is not free from the whisperings of ,satan and forgetfulness of ,god1 or of coming short of the knowledge of ,god and ,his attributes and ,his works40 ,all this is a failure of attainment and has its reasons2 but if a man should forsake the causes of this forgetfulness and employ himself with the opposite virtues it would be a return to the right way2 and the significance of repentance is the return4 ,you cannot imagine that any one of us is free from this defect1 for we only differ in degrees1 but the root undoubtedly exists in us4 ,of course he ignores original sin1 being a ,moslem1 but he makes a great deal of the effect that unrepented sin causes2 but it enters deeper and deeper into the heart until the image of ,god on the mirror of the human soul is effaced4 ,another illustration he uses is that of the heart as a goodly garment which has been dragged through filth and needs to be washed again with soap and water4 8,using the heart in the exercise of our passions makes it filthy4 ,we must therefore wash it in the water of tears and by the rubbing of repentance4 ,it is for you to rub it clean and then ,god will accept it40 ,how near and yet how far from the teaching of ,david and ,isaiah and ,st4 ,paul6 ,did ,al-,ghazali ever hear some pious ,jew quote ,isaiah's statement that 8all our righteousnesses are as filthy rags08 ,true repentance has a twofold result according to this ,moslem theologian4 ,although he does not touch the deeper problem of how ,god can be just and justify the sinner1 he teaches that the result of the forgiveness of our sins is that 8we stand before ,god as though we had none10 and that 8we attain a higher degree of righteousness40 ,the cross of ,christ is the missing link in ,al-,ghazali's creed4 ,he comes very close to ,christianity and yet always misses the heart of its teaching4 ,he is groping towards the light but does not grasp the hand of a friend or find a ,redeemer4 ,it is all a righteousness by works and an attainment of the knowledge of ,god by meditation without justification through an atonement4 ,yet ,al-,ghazali's teaching on 8the ,practice of the ,presence of ,god0 is very much like that of ,brother ,lawrence in his celebrated ,essay4 ,in his 8,beginner's ,guide to ,religion and ,morals0 7,al ,badayet7 he writes3 8,know1 therefore1 that your companion who never deserts you at home or abroad1 when you are asleep or when you are awake1 whether you are dead or alive1 is your ,lord and ,master1 your ,creator and ,preserver1 and whensoever you remember ,him ,he is sitting beside you4 ,for ,god ,himself hath said1 #8,i am the close companion of those who remember me4' ,and whenever your heart is contrite with sorrow because of your neglect of religion ,he is your companion who keeps close to you1 for ,god hath said1 #8,i am with those who are broken-hearted on my account4' ,and if you only knew ,him as you ought to know ,him you would take ,him as a companion and forsake all men for ,his sake4 ,but as you are unable to do this at all times1 ,i warn you that you set aside a certain time by night and by day for communion with your ,creator that you may delight yourself in ,him and that ,he may deliver you from evil40#hb ,at times1 especially when he speaks of the veils that hide reality and ,god1 we are reminded of the lines of ,whitehead on 8the ,second ,day of ,creation03 8,i gaze aloof at the tissued roof ,where time and space are the warp and woof1 ,which the ,king of ,kings1 like a curtain flings1 ,o'er the dreadfulness of eternal things4 ,but if ,i could see1 as in truth they be1 ,the glories that encircle me1 ,i should lightly hold this tissued fold ,with its marvellous curtain of blue and gold2 ,for soon the whole1 like a parched scroll1 ,shall before my amazd eyes unroll1 ,and without a screen at one burst be seen ,the ,presence in which ,i have always been40 ,but ,al-,ghazali did not know ,god's nearness through the ,incarnation of ,christ4 ,the hoped-for ,vision of ,god was always full of fear and dread of judgment4 ,the fear of ,god was the beginning and end of wisdom4 ,what he understood by the fear of ,god is clear from the following passage taken from the 8,revival of ,religious ,sciences03 8,by the fear of ,god ,i do not mean a fear like that of women when their eyes swim and their hearts beat at hearing some eloquent religious discourse1 which they quickly forget and turn again to frivolity4 ,that is no real fear at all4 ,he who fears a thing flees from it1 and he who hopes for a thing strives for it1 and the only fear that will save thee is that fear that forbids sinning against ,god and instils obedience to ,him4 ,beware of the shallow fear of women and fools1 who1 when they hear of the terrors of the ,lord1 say lightly1 #8,we take refuge in ,god1' and at the same time continue in the very sins which will destroy them4 ,satan laughs at such pious ejaculations4 ,they are like a man who should meet a lion in a desert1 while there is a fortress at no great distance away1 and when he sees the ravenous beast1 should stand exclaiming1 #8,i take refuge in ,god4' ,god will not protect thee from the terrors of ,his judgment unless thou really take refuge in ,him40 ,included with his fear of ,god there was always a fear of death which can best be described as medival or early ,moslem4 ,towards the close of his life he composed a short work on eschatology called 8,the ,precious ,pearl40 ,it is no less lurid in its terrible pictures of death and the judgment than some of his older works4 ,in it he says3 8,when you watch a dead man and see that the saliva has run from his mouth1 that his lips are contracted1 his face black1 the whites of his eyes showing1 know that he is damned1 and that the fact of his damnation in the other world has just been revealed to him4 ,but if you see the dead with a smile on his lips1 a serene countenance1 his eyes half-closed1 know that he has just received the good news of the happiness which awaits him in the other world4444 8,on the day of ,judgment1 when all men are gathered before the throne of ,god1 their accounts are all cast up1 and their good and evil deeds weighed4 ,during all this time each man believes he is the only one with whom ,god is dealing4 ,though peradventure at the same moment ,god is taking account of countless multitudes whose number is known to ,him only4 ,men do not see each other or hear each other speak40 ,in summing up the character of the ,mystic ,claud ,field says3 8,as ,st4 ,augustine found deliverance from doubt and error in his inward experience of ,god1 and ,descartes in self-consciousness1 so ,ghazali1 unsatisfied with speculation and troubled by scepticism1 surrenders himself to the will of ,god4 ,leaving others to demonstrate the existence of ,god from the external world1 he finds ,god revealed in the depths of his own consciousness and the mystery of his own free will4444 ,he is a unique and lonely figure in ,islam1 and has to this day been only partially understood4 ,in the ,middle ,ages his fame was eclipsed by that of ,averroes1 whose commentary on ,aristotle is alluded to by ,dante1 and was studied by ,thomas ,aquinas and the schoolman4 ,averroes' system was rounded and complete1 but ,ghazali was one of those #8whose reach exceeds their grasp'2 he was always striking after something he had not attained1 and stands in many respects nearer to modern mind than ,averroes4 ,renan1 though far from sympathizing with his religious earnestness1 calls him #8the most original mind among ,arabian philosophers4'0 ,the disciple of ,al-,ghazali is perhaps of all ,moslems the nearest to the ,gospel1 and we may hope that when his works are carefully studied and compared with the teaching of ,christianity many may find in him a schoolmaster to lead them to ,christ4 ,educated ,moslems of to-day may well heed the warning with which ,al-,ghazali closes his 8,confessions03 8,the knowledge of which we speak is not derived from sources accessible to human diligence1 and that is why progress in mere worldly knowledge renders the sinner more hardened in his revolt against ,god4 ,true knowledge1 on the contrary1 inspires in him who is initiated in it more fear and more reverence1 and raises a barrier of defense between him and sin4 ,he may slip and stumble1 it is true1 as is inevitable with one encompassed by human infirmity1 but these slips and stumbles will not weaken his faith4 ,the true ,moslem succumbs occasionally to temptation but he repents and will not persevere obstinately in the path of error4 ,i pray ,god the ,omnipotent to place us in the ranks of ,his chosen1 among the number of those whom ,he directs in the path of safety1 in whom ,he inspires fervour lest they forget ,him2 whom ,he cleanses from all defilement1 that nothing may remain in them except ,himself2 yea of those whom ,he indwells completely1 that they may adore none beside ,him40 ,being a ,moslem1 ,al-,ghazali was either too proud to search for the true historical facts of the ,christian religion1 or perhaps it would be more charitable to say that he had no adequate opportunity1 in spite of his quotations and misquotations from the 8,gospels40 ,otherwise he could have found there what would have met his heart-hunger and satisfied his soul--the manifestation of ,god not in some intangible principle1 but in a living person1 in ,jesus ,christ1 who 8is the image of the invisible ,god1 the first born of every creature4 ,for by ,him were all things created that are in heaven1 and that are in earth1 visible and invisible1 whether they be thrones1 or dominions1 or principalities1 or powers2 in ,him are all things1 and by ,him all things consist40 7,colossians #a3 #ae-ag47 ,those who dwell in ,christ and in whom ,he dwells are a part of ,his spiritual body4 ,they are the branches of the living ,vine4 ,they are one in life and purpose1 although they remain conscious evermore of their own individual existence2 they are fitted progressively for a deeper communion with ,god4 ,to such a conception the ,sufi never attained4 ,al-,ghazali admits that no man has seen ,god at any time1 but he failed to realize that 8the ,only ,begotten1 ,who is in the bosom of the ,father1 hath declared ,him40 ,the artificial glory of ,mohammed in his case1 as for centuries afterwards1 hid the light of the knowledge of the glory of ,god in the face of ,jesus ,christ4 ,yet not altogether1 as the next chapter will make clear4 ,,ix ,jesus ,christ in ,al-,ghazali ,jesus1 the very thought of ,thee ,with sweetness fills my breast2 ,but sweeter far ,thy face to see1 ,and in ,thy presence rest4 ,nor voice can sing1 nor heart can frame1 ,nor can the memory find1 ,a sweeter sound than ,thy blest name1 ,o ,saviour of mankind6 ,o hope of every contrite heart6 ,o joy of all the meek6 ,to those who fall1 how kind ,thou art6 ,how good to those who seek6 ,but what to those who find8 ,ah6 this ,nor tongue nor pen can show3 ,the love of ,jesus--what it is ,none but ,his loved ones know4 --,bernard of ,clairvaux--almost a contemporary 7#ajia-aaeb74 ,,ix ,,jesus ,,christ ,,in ,,al-,,ghazali ,jesus ,christ is the ,touch-,stone of character1 the ,master of all spiritual leaders and the one supreme and infallible ,judge who can pronounce an unerring verdict concerning the truth of any religious system or teaching4 ,what place has ,jesus in the teaching of the greatest of all ,moslem theologians1 what place had ,he in the heart of this great mystic1 this seeker after ,god1 who1 whatever else he may have been1 was utterly sincere in his search8 ,al-,ghazali1 as a student of the ,koran1 must have noticed that in this book ,christ occupies a high place2 no fewer than three of the chapters of the ,koran1 namely1 that of ,amram's ,family 7,surah ,,iii71 that of ,the ,table 7,surah ,v71 and that of ,mary 7,surah ,,xix71 derive their names from references to ,jesus ,christ and ,his work4 ,the very fact that ,jesus ,christ has a place in the literature of ,islam1 and is acknowledged by all ,moslems as one of their greater prophets in itself therefore challenges comparison between ,him and ,mohammed4 ,did ,al-,ghazali ever meet this challenge and in how far did he compare ,mohammed with ,christ8 ,it is our purpose in this chapter to answer the question by collating all the important references in the ,ihya and his other works and then to draw some conclusions both as to his sources and his opinions4 ,the reader may judge for himself how far ,al-,ghazali is a schoolmaster to lead ,moslems to ,christ4 ,we search in vain among all his works for a sketch of the life of ,christ or of ,his teaching4 ,al-,ghazali doubtless had read and was probably well acquainted with the only popular work known which gives a connected account of the life of ,jesus ,christ according to ,moslem sources1 namely1 ,kitab qusus al ,anbiya by ,ibn ,ibrahim ,ath-,thalabi1 a doctor of theology of the ,shafi ,school1 who died in ,a4 ,h4 #dbg 7,a4 ,d4 #ajcf74 ,the fabulous character of this mass of traditions has been shown in a translation of the section which deals with ,jesus ,christ4#hc ,al-,ghazali does not give altogether the same stories as are given by ,ath-,thalabi but gives a great number of other incidents and reported sayings1 many of which resemble those found in the ,gospels and others which are wholly apocryphal4 ,the question again arises where did ,al-,ghazali gain this knowledge of the ,gospel8 ,did he have access to a ,persian or ,arabic translation2 or was all this material which we have collated1 the result of hearsay1 gathered from the lips of ,christian monks and ,jewish rabbis8 ,it is perfectly clear that he was acquainted with ,old ,testament tradition even more than with that of the ,new ,testament4 ,there are scores of passages in which he refers to the teachings of ,moses1 the ,psalms of ,david1 and the lives of the ,old ,testament ,prophets4 ,we have already referred to translations of the ,bible into ,arabic before the time of ,al-,ghazali in our first chapter4 ,there is a tradition that 8the ,people of the ,book used to read the ,torah in ,hebrew and interpret it in ,arabic to the followers of ,islam40 ,another tradition says that 8,kaab the ,rabbi brought a book to ,omar the ,caliph and said1 #8,here is the ,torah1 read it4'0#hd ,we learn from the ,jewish ,encyclopdia that 8,the fihrist of al-,nadim mentions an ,ahmed ibn ,abd ,allah ibn ,salam who translated the ,bible into ,arabic1 at the time of ,haroun ar-,rashd1 and that ,fahr ud-,din ar-,razi mentions a translation of ,habbakuk by the son of ,rabban ,at-,tabari4 ,many of the ,arabic ,historians as ,at-,tabari1 ,masudi1 ,hamza1 and ,biruni cite passages and recount the early history of the ,jews in a most circumstantial manner4 ,ibn ,kutaibah1 the historian 7d4 #hhi71 says that he read the ,bible2 and he even made a collection of ,biblical passages in a work which has been preserved by ,ibn ,jauzi of the twelfth century40 ,the first important ,arabic translation is that of ,saadia ,gaon 7#hib-idb74 ,the influence of this translation was in its way as great as that of ,gaon's philosophical work4 ,a version of the ,psalms was made by ,hafiz al-,quti in the tenth century and from internal evidence we know that the author had been ,christian4 ,another translation of the ,old ,testament in ,arabic was made by the ,jews in ,cairo in the middle of the eleventh century4 ,the translation of ,saadia had become a standard work in ,egypt1 ,palestine and ,syria1 by the end of the tenth century1 and it was revised about ,a4 ,d4 #ajgj4he ,as regards ,persian translations of the ,bible we learn from the ,jewish ,encyclopdia that according to ,maimonides1 the ,pentateuch was translated into ,persian many hundred years previous to ,mohammed4 ,but this statement cannot be further substantiated4 ,in regard to ,arabic versions of the ,gospels we have already given ,dr4 ,kilgour's statement4 ,is it not probable that one or other of these versions of the ,gospel was known to ,al-,ghazali8 ,does he not himself state3 8,i have read in the ,gospel08 ,not only does he reproduce the stories and sayings of ,christ from the ,gospels but in some cases1 as the reader will see1 the very words of the text4 ,it is true that there is much apocryphal matter also of which the canonical ,gospels know nothing4 ,we are in ignorance and we must remain in ignorance whence ,al-,ghazali derived this material2 or did he invent it even as the men of his day invented stories about ,mohammed8 ,in the ,ihya we find the following incidents1 real and apocryphal1 regarding the life of ,christ on earth as a prophet and saint4#hf ,we begin with ,al-,ghazali's witness to ,his sinlessness3 8,it is said that the devil 7may ,god curse him7 appeared to ,jesus and said1 #8,say there is no ,god but ,god4' ,he replied3 #8,the word is true but ,i will not repeat it after you4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bc47 ,again3 8,it is related that when ,jesus was born1 the devils came to ,satan and said3 #8,all the idols have fallen on their faces4' ,he said3 #8,this has happened on your account4' ,then he flew until he reached the regions of the earth2 there he found ,jesus had been born and the angels were protecting him4 ,so he returned to the devils and said to them3 #8,truly a ,prophet was born yesterday4 ,no woman has ever given birth before to a child when ,i was not present except in this case4' ,and that is why men now despair of worshipping idols40 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bf47 8,it is related that ,jesus one day was pillowing his head on a stone2 and the devil passed by and said3 #8,o ,jesus1 now you have shown your love for the world6' ,then ,jesus picked up the stone1 threw it at him and said3 #8,take it and the world4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bf47 ,we find this reference to the days of ,his youth in ,nazareth3 8,some one said to ,jesus3 #8,who gave you your education8' ,he replied3 #8,no one4 ,but ,i beheld the ignorance of the foolish despicable and so ,i departed from it4'0 8,jesus the ,prophet was of those who were especially favoured4 ,among the proofs of it is this that he called down peace upon himself1 for he said3 #8,peace be on me the day ,i was born and the day ,i shall die and the day ,i shall be raised up alive4' ,and this was because of his peace of mind and his loving kindness towards men4 ,but as for ,john the son of ,zachariah 7on him be peace71 he took the place of awe and fear towards ,god and did not utter these words until after they were repeated to him by his ,creator1 who said3 #8,peace be upon him the day he was born and the day he died and the day he was raised again4'0 ,this is an interesting critical comment on the two passages referred to1 which occur in the same chapter of the ,koran1 and ,i have never seen them used elsewhere as an argument for the superiority of ,christ to ,john4 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bde47 ,al-,ghazali gives ,jesus the usual titles given ,him in the ,koran1 namely1 ,son of ,mary1 ,spirit of ,god1 ,word of ,god1 ,prophet and ,apostle4 ,but these latter titles mean little because he endorses the strange ,moslem theory that there have been no less than #abd1jjj prophets since the world began4 ,in his book 8,al-,iqtasad0 he devotes a long argument to prove to the ,jews that ,jesus was indeed a prophet1 basing it upon his teaching and miracles 7pp4 #hc-hf74 ,in his ,jawahir ul-,koran he even classes ,mary the ,virgin with the prophets and gives the list of these worthies in the following curious order3 ,adam1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,aaron1 ,zachariah1 ,john1 ,jesus1 ,mary1 ,david1 ,solomon1 ,joshua1 ,lot1 ,idris1 ,khudra1 ,shuaib1 ,elijah1 and ,mohammed6 ,regarding the fasting of our ,lord1 ,al-,ghazali says3 8,it is related that ,jesus 7on him be peace7 remained for sixty days without eating1 engaged in prayer2 then he began to think of bread and behold a loaf of bread appeared between his hands2 then he sat weeping because he had forgotten his prayers4 ,and behold an old man came to him and ,jesus said3 #8,god bless you1 ,o servant of ,god4 ,call upon ,god ,most ,high1 for ,i too was in a sad condition and ,i thought of bread until my prayer departed4' ,then the old man prayed3 #8,o ,god1 if thou knowest any occasion when the thought of bread entered my head when ,i was praying do not forgive me6' ,then he said to ,jesus3 #8,when anything is brought to me to eat ,i eat it without even thinking what it is4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #fa47 ,the following story seems to be based on the injunction of the ,gospel 8to pluck out the eye0 that offends3 8,it is related of ,jesus 7on him be peace7 that he once went out to pray for rain and when the people gathered together ,jesus said to them1 #8,whosoever of you hath committed a sin let him turn back1' so they all turned away and there was no one left in the cave with him save one4 ,and ,jesus said unto him1 #8,have you any sin8' ,he replied3 #8,by ,god1 ,i do not know of any except that one day when ,i was praying a woman passed by me and ,i looked upon her with this eye and when she had passed ,i put my finger in my eye and plucked it out and followed her to ask her pardon4' ,then ,jesus said to him1 #8,call upon ,god that ,i may believe in your sincerity4' ,then the man prayed and the heavens were covered with clouds and the rain poured down40 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bag47 ,the following stories are related of the miracle-working ,christ3 8,said the disciples to ,jesus3 #8,what do you think of the dinar-piece 7money78' ,they said3 #8,we think it is good4' ,he said3 #8,but as for me ,i value it and ashes the same4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #afa47 8,it was said to the ,prophet that ,jesus 7upon him be peace7 used to walk upon the water4 ,he replied3 #8,had he still more striven after holiness1 he would have walked on the air4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ga47 8,it is related that a certain robber waylaid travellers among the children of ,israel for forty years4 ,jesus passed by that way and behind him walked a saint of the worshippers of the people of ,israel1 one of his disciples4 ,said the robber to himself3 #8,this is the ,prophet of ,god who passes by and with him one of his disciples4 ,if ,i should come down ,i would be the third4'0 ,he then goes on to say that the robber tried to show his humility by following not ,christ but his disciple4 ,jesus rebukes them both because of their sins4 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aaj47 8,it is related that ,jesus 7on him be peace7 passed by a blind man who was a leper and lame of both feet because of paralysis and his flesh was consumed by leprosy1 and he was saying3 #8,praise be to ,god who has kept me in good health and saved me from many things which have befallen others of his creatures4' ,then ,jesus said to him3 #8,o thou friend1 from what kind of affliction do ,i see that you are free8' and he replied3 #8,o ,spirit of ,god1 ,i am better than those in whose heart ,god has not put anything of his knowledge and his grace4' ,and ,jesus said3 #8,you have spoken truly4 ,stretch forth your hand1' and he stretched forth his hand and became of perfect health both as to his body and his appearance1 for ,god had taken away all his sickness4 ,so he accompanied ,jesus and worshipped with him40 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bej47 ,al-,ghazali often pictures the power of ,jesus to heal the sick1 for ,christ as the ,merciful ,one appeals to ,moslems always and everywhere4 ,we have for example in the ,masnavi-i-,maanavi this beautiful picture which can be found in prose1 section by section in ,al-,ghazali too4 8,the house of ,isa was the banquet of men of heart1 ,ho6 afflicted one1 quit not this door6 ,from all sides the people ever thronged1 ,many blind and lame1 and halt and afflicted1 ,to the door of the house of ,isa at dawn1 ,that with his breath he might heal their ailments4 ,as soon as he had finished his orisons1 ,that holy one would come forth at the third hour4 ,he viewed these impotent folk1 troop by troop1 ,sitting at his door in hope and expectation2 ,he spoke to them1 saying1 #8,o stricken ones6 ,the desires of all of you have been granted by ,god3 ,arise1 walk without pain or affliction4 ,acknowledge the mercy and beneficence of ,god6' ,then all1 as camels whose feet are shackled1 ,when you loose their feet in the road1 ,straightway rush in joy and delight to the halting-place ,so did they run upon their feet at his command40 ,many of the miracles1 however1 are puerile1 as in this story3 8,a certain man accompanied ,jesus the ,son of ,mary 7upon him be peace7 and said3 #8,i would like to be with you as your companion4' ,so they departed and arrived at the bank of a river and sat down and took their meal4 ,now they had three loaves1 so they ate two and one remained4 ,then ,jesus arose and went to the river to drink and returning did not find the remaining loaf4 ,he said to the man3 #8,who took the loaf8' ,he replied3 #8,i know not4' ,so he departed with his companion and saw a gazelle with her two young1 and ,jesus called one of them and it came to him and he killed it and prepared it and they ate together4 ,then he said to the young gazelle3 #8,get up by ,god's will1' and it arose and departed4 ,and he turned to the man and said3 #8,i ask you in the name of ,him who worked this miracle before your eyes1 who took the loaf8' ,he answered3 #8,i know not4' ,so they departed to a cave and ,jesus 7upon whom be peace7 began to collect the pebbles on the sand and said3 #8,become bread by ,god's permission6' and they became bread2 then he divided them into three parts and said3 #8,a third is for me1 a third is for you and a third is for the man who took the loaf1' and the man said3 #8,i am he who took the loaf4' ,jesus replied3 #8,take all of it and depart from me4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ahh47 ,this story is related by ,al-,ghazali in his chapter on greed and covetousness to show that he who loves this world cannot be a companion of the saints6 ,that ,jesus was gentle in word and conduct seems to be the lesson taught in the following two stories3 8,it is related of ,jesus that once a pig passed by him and he said to it3 #8,go in peace4' ,they said to him3 #8,o ,spirit of ,god1 why do you say this to a pig8' ,he replied3 #8,i dislike to accustom my tongue to use any evil words4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #hg47 8,it is related that ,jesus with his disciples once passed the carcase of a dog4 ,said the disciples3 #8,how noisome is the smell of this dog4' ,said ,jesus 7on him be peace73 #8,how beautiful is the shine of his white teeth1' as if he wanted to rebuke them for abusing the dog and to warn them not to mention anything of what ,god has created save at its best40 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aej47 ,this incident is given by ,jallal ud ,din in poetic form3 8,one evening ,jesus lingered in the market-place1 ,teaching the people parables of truth and grace1 ,when in the square remote a crowd was seen to rise ,and stop with loathing gestures and abhorring cries4 ,the ,master and ,his meek disciples went to see ,what cause for this commotion and disgust could be1 ,and found a poor dead dog beside the gutter laid3 ,revolting sight6 at which each face its hate betrayed4 ,one held his nose1 one shut his eyes1 one turned away1 ,and all among themselves began aloud to say1 #8,detested creature6 he pollutes the earth and air6' #8,his eyes are bleared6' #8,his ears are foul6' #8,his ribs are bare6' #8,in his torn hide there is not a decent shoe-string left6' #8,no doubt the execrable cur was hung for theft6' ,then ,jesus spake and dropped on him this saving breath3 #8,even pearls are dark before the whiteness of his teeth6'0 ,we add the following quotations which set forth the poverty1 humility and homelessness of the ,christ taken from ,al-,ghazali's 8,precious ,pearl03 8,consider ,jesus ,christ1 for it is related of him that he owned nothing save one garment of wool which he wore for twenty years and that he took nothing with him on all his wanderings save a cruse and a rosary and a comb4 ,one day he saw a man drinking from a stream with his hands1 so he cast away the cruse and did not use it again4 ,he saw another man combing his beard with his fingers so he threw away his comb and did not use it again4 ,and ,jesus was accustomed to say1 #8,my steed is my legs1 and my houses are the caves of the earth1 and my food are its vegetables1 and my drink is from its rivers1 and my dwelling-place among the sons of ,adam6'0 ,in another connection he writes3 8,it was said to ,jesus3 #8,if you would take possession of a house and live there it would be better for you1' and he said3 #8,where are the houses of those who lived before us8'0 7,ihya1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adj47 ,a story is related 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cbf7 to show that ,christ knew what was in the hearts of men and could change their purposes by prayer to ,god4 ,in this case ,he makes an old man cease from his work of cleaning the ground1 go to sleep and afterwards return to his work4 ,another story is as follows3 8,it is related that ,jesus 7upon him be peace7 in his wanderings passed by a man asleep1 wrapped up in his garment4 ,so he wakened him and said3 #8,o thou that sleepest6 arise and make mention of ,god4' ,he replied3 #8,what do you want from me8 ,i have forsaken the world to its own4' ,jesus replied3 #8,sleep on then my beloved4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #adj47 8,it is related concerning ,jesus that he sat in the shade of a wall of a certain man1 who saw him and made him get up1 but he replied3 #8,you have not made me arise but verily ,god made me arise4 ,he does not wish me to delight in the shade by day4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #afc47 ,the least of life's pleasures is not for the ascetic saint4 8,said ,john to ,jesus 7on them be peace73 #8,do not be angry4' ,jesus replied3 #8,i am not able to cease from anger altogether for ,i am human4' ,then said ,john3 #8,do not desire property4' ,jesus replied3 #8,that is possible4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aad47 ,he quotes the following prayer of ,jesus 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bbb73 8,jesus was accustomed to say to ,god1 #8,o ,god1 ,i have arisen from my sleep1 and am not able to ward off that which ,i hate and am not able to possess the benefit of that which ,i desire and the matter rests in hands other than mine4 ,and ,i have pledged myself to my work and there is no man so poor as ,i am4 ,o ,god1 let not mine enemies rejoice over me and let not my friends deal ill with me1 and let not my afflictions come to me in the matter of my religion4 ,and do not allow the world to occupy my care and do not allow the unmerciful to overcome me1 ,o ,thou ,eternal6'0 8,it is related concerning ,jesus 7on him be peace7 that ,god spoke to him saying3 #8,though you serve me with the worship of the people of heaven and earth and do not have love towards ,god in your heart but hatred toward ,him it will not enrich you at all4'0 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #baj47 8,god ,most ,high said to ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,verily when ,i look upon the secret thoughts of my servant and do not find in them love either for this world or the world to come ,i fill him with my own love and ,i put him in my safe-keeping4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #beh47 ,in the 8,alchemy of ,happiness0 we already found allusion to this subject3 8,jesus 7upon him be peace7 saw the world in the form of an ugly old hag4 ,he asked her how many husbands she had possessed2 she replied that they were countless4 ,he asked whether they had died or been divorced2 she said that she had slain them all4 #8,i marvel1' he said1 #8at the fools who see what you have done to others1 and still desire you4'0 8,jesus 7on him be peace7 said1 #8,the lover of the world is like a man drinking sea-water2 the more he drinks1 the more thirsty he gets1 till at last he perishes with thirst unquenched4'0 ,al-,ghazali1 however1 never seems to have drawn the conclusion from the life of ,christ which a careful study of the ,gospel would have made possible4 ,namely1 that a true renunciation of the world is only possible in the service of others and not by withdrawing from men4 ,mohammedan mysticism has always resulted in two evils1 as ,major ,durie ,osborn points out3 8,it has dug a deep gulf between those who can know ,god and those who must wander in darkness1 feeding upon the husks of rites and ceremonies4 ,it has affirmed with emphasis1 that only by a complete renunciation of the world is it possible to attain the true end of man's existence4 ,thus all the best and truest natures--the men who might have put a soul in the decaying ,church of ,islam--have been cut off from their proper task to wander about in deserts and solitary places1 or expend their lives in idle and profitless passivity disguised under the title of #8spiritual contemplation4' 7zikr7 ,but this has only been part of the evil4 ,the logical result of ,pantheism is the destruction of the moral law4 ,if ,god be all in all1 and man's apparent individuality a delusion of the perceptive faculty1 there exists no will which can act1 no conscience which can reprove and applaud4444 ,thousands of reckless and profligate spirits have entered the orders of the dervishes to enjoy the license thereby obtained4 ,their affectation of piety is simply a cloak for the practice of sensuality2 their emancipation from the ritual of ,islam involves a liberation also from its moral restraints4 ,and thus a movement1 animated at its outset by a high and lofty purpose1 has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill4 ,the stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilizing river1 has become a vast swamp1 exhaling vapours charged with disease and death40 ,regarding the teaching of ,jesus we find the following passages in the ,ihya4 ,i have indicated the parallel passages in the ,new ,testament where possible4 ,some of them are taken from the ,gospel according to ,matthew1 especially from the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,these are given first and then the apocryphal sayings1 for it is difficult to follow any logical order4 8,said ,jesus3 #8,if a man come to you when he is fasting let him anoint his head and wipe his lips that men may not say he is fasting2 and if he gives alms with his right hand let not his left hand know2 and if he prays let him put a curtain over his door1 for verily ,god divines his trouble even as ,he does our daily food4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bjc47hg 8,said ,jesus 7upon him be peace71 #8,whosoever shall do and teach shall be called great in the ,kingdom of ,heaven4'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #f2 cf4 ,matt4 #e3 #ai47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,do not hang pearls on the necks of swine2 for wisdom is better than pearls4'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dc2 cf4 ,matt4 #g3 #f47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,how long will ye describe the right road to those who are going astray and ye yourselves remain with those who are perplexed8'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dd2 cf4 ,matt4 #bc3 #ac47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,the teachers of evil are like a big stone which has fallen on the mouth of a well so that the water cannot reach the sown fields4'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #de2 cf4 ,matt4 #bc3 #ac47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,how can that man belong to the people of wisdom who from the beginning of his life until the end looks only after the things of the world8'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #df2 cf4 ,matt4 #f3 #cc47 ,again he makes ,god address ,jesus as follows3 #8,o ,son of ,mary1 preach to yourself for if you preach to yourself you will be able to preach to man and if not fear him4' 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dg47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,blessed are those who humble themselves in this world1 for they shall be the possessors of thrones on the day of judgment4 ,blessed are those who make peace between men in this world1 for they shall inherit ,paradise on the day of resurrection4 ,blessed are they who are poor in this world1 for they shall behold ,god ,most ,high on the day of resurrection4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bcg2 cf4 ,matt4 #e3 #c-i47 8,some one said to ,jesus3 #8,let me go with you on your wanderings4' ,he replied3 #8,dispose of all that you have and follow me4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agj2 cf4 ,luke #i3 #eg and ,matt4 #ai3 #ba47 ,here two passages are mixed4 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,it has been told of ancient times3 a tooth for a tooth and a nose for a nose2 but ,i say unto you1 do not return evil for evil1 but whosoever strikes you on the right cheek1 turn to him the left also2 and whosoever desireth you to go with him a mile go with him twain2 and whosoever taketh away your cloak give him your inner garment also4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #eb2 cf4 ,matt4 #e3 #cj-da47 ,these verses seem to be fairly accurate quotations1 though not without some confusion1 from some translation of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 8,said the disciples to ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,behold this mosque how beautiful it is4' ,he replied3 #8,o my nation6 ,o my nation6 ,in truth ,i say unto you1 ,god will not suffer a stone to remain upon a stone in it but he will destroy it because of the sins of its people4 ,truly ,god does not care for gold and silver nor does he care for these stones at which ye marvel2 but the things which ,god loves most are pure hearts1 with them ,god can build up the earth1 and if they are not good they are wasted4'0 78,ihya10 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bhh2 cf4 ,matt4 #bd3 #b47 8,said ,jesus3 #8,do not take the world for your master1 for she will make you her slave4 ,lay up your treasures with him who will not lose them4 ,for he who lays up treasure in the earth fears that which will destroy them2 but he who has treasures with ,god does not fear for anything that may injure them' 7,matt4 #f3 #i-ba74 ,and ,jesus said also3 #8,o company of the ,apostles1 behold ,i have poured out the world upon the ground1 therefore do not take hold of it again after me1 for the evil of this world is that men disobey ,god in it4 ,and the evil of the world also is that the other world cannot be obtained without abandoning the present4 ,therefore pass through the world but do not build in it4 ,know that the root of all sin is the love of the world and perchance the desire of an hour will cause those who follow it to lose the other world altogether4' ,he also said3 #8,i have cast the world before you and ye have sat upon its back1 do not therefore suffer kings or women to dispute its possession with you4 ,as for kings1 do not dispute with them for its possession1 for they will not give it back to you4 ,and as for women1 guard yourselves against them by prayer and fasting4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aci47 8,said ,jesus3 #8,the love of this world and of the world to come cannot abide in the same heart even as water and fire cannot abide in one vessel4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adj47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,o ye teachers of wickedness6 ,ye fast and pray and give alms and do not what ye command others and ye teach that which ye do not understand4 ,how evil is that which ye do4 ,ye repent only with words but your deeds are without value4 ,in vain do ye purify your skins while your hearts are covered with evil4 ,i say unto you1 be not as the sieve from which the good flour passes out and all that remains in it are the siftings4 ,thus ye make the truth to pass out of your mouths1 but deceit remains in your hearts1 ,o servants of the world6 ,how can any one understand the other world while his desires cling to this8 ,of a truth ,i say unto you that your hearts shall weep because of your deeds4 ,ye have put the world upon your tongues and trampled upon good deeds4 ,of a truth ,i say unto you1 ye have corrupted your future life1 for ye are more in love with the good things of this world than of the good things of the world to come4 ,which of the children suffers greater loss than ye do1 if only ye knew it6 ,woe be to you6 ,how long will ye describe the right way to those who are in darkness and ye yourselves remain in the place of doubt8 ,it is as if ye invite the children of the world to forsake its pleasure in order to leave it for yourselves a little while4 ,woe be to you6 ,what benefit is it to the darkened house if the candle be put on its roof while the rooms of the house remain in darkness8 ,in the same way ye will not be enriched if the light of knowledge is on your lips1 while your hearts remain in darkness4 ,o ye servants of the world6 what of your righteousness or your freedom8 ,perchance the world will pluck you up by the roots and cast you upon your faces and drag you in the dust4 ,it will expose your sins upon your foreheads1 then it will drive you before it until you are delivered up to the angel of judgment1 every one of you naked4 ,then shall you be punished by your evil deeds4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ahc2 cf4 ,matt4 #bc3 #a-bg47 8,do not be anxious about the food of to-morrow1 for perhaps to-morrow will be your time of death40 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ccj2 cf4 ,matt4 #f3 #cd47 8,behold the bird1 it does not sow nor reap nor lay up store and ,god ,most ,high provides for it40 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aij2 cf4 ,matt4 #f3 #bf47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,he is not wise who does not rejoice when he enters upon trials and sicknesses of the body and loss of his possessions2 for in it he may find atonement for his sins4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bje2 cf4 ,matt4 #e3 #aj47 8,it is related of ,jesus that he said3 #8,if you see a young man passionately fond of prayer to ,god you will know that he has escaped all temptations4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bba2 cf4 ,matt #bf3 #da47 ,the reference might be to ,christ's words in the ,garden of ,gethsemane4 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,serve ,god by hating the people who transgress1 and draw near to ,god by departing from them4 ,seek the good-will of ,god by hating them4' ,they said to him3 #8,o spirit of ,god1 with whom then shall we keep company8' ,he answered them3 #8,keep company with those who make you remember ,god and those whose words improve your conduct and those whose example makes you earnest for the world to come4'0 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aaj47 8,it is related of ,jesus 7on him be peace7 that he said to the children of ,israel3 #8,where does that which ye sow grow8' ,they replied3 #8,in the good ground1' and he said3 #8,verily ,i say unto you1 wisdom does not grow except in the heart which is good soil4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bef2 cf4 ,matt4 #ac3 #a-i47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,truly the harvest does not grow on the mountain but in the plain4 ,thus wisdom works in the heart of those that are humble and not in the heart of the proud4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bdj2 cf4 ,matt4 #ac3 #bc47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,fine garments make proud looks4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bdg47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,what ails you that ye come in the garments of monks and your hearts are the hearts of ravening wolves8 ,wear the garments of monks if you wish but humble your hearts with godly fear4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bdg2 cf4 ,matt4 #g3 #ae47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,o company of disciples1 call upon ,god ,most ,high that he may make light for you this terror1 namely1 death4 ,for ,i fear death in such a fashion that ,i stand afraid of the same4'0 ,is it possible that ,al-,ghazali here refers to the agony in ,gethsemane8 ,the chapter in which this passage occurs is entitled 8,the terrors of death40 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cbd2 cf4 ,matt4 #bf3 #ch47 ,we now give other 8sayings0 of ,jesus1 as ,al-,ghazali himself does1 in somewhat confused order4 ,although not quotations or even misquotations from the ,gospels1 they are of interest as completing the list and also because they show what ,al-,ghazali and other ,moslems thought was the teaching of ,jesus the ,prophet4 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,how many a sound body and beautiful face and eloquent tongue will to-morrow cry out in the fires of hell6'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #chc47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,which of you can build a house upon the waves of the sea8 ,such is the world2 therefore do not take it as an abiding place4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ada47 8,they said to ,jesus1 #8,teach us the secret of the love of ,god4' ,he replied3 #8,hate the world and ,god will love you4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ada2 cf4 ,james #d3 #d47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,o my disciples1 be satisfied with the least of the world as long as your religion is at peace even as the people of the world are satisfied with the least of religion and their possessions are at peace4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adb47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,o thou who seekest the world for the sake of pure gold1 the forsaking of the world is greater treasure4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adb47 8,they asked ,jesus 7on him be peace7 which is the best of good works4 ,he replied3 #8,to accept whatever ,god does with pleasure and to love him4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #beh47 8,said ,jesus the ,son of ,mary 7on him be peace71 #8,woe to the lover of this world how soon he shall die and leave it and all that is in it4 ,the world deceives him and he trusts it and has confidence in it1 etc4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ada2 cf4 ,luke #ab3 #ba47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,mortify then your bodies that your soul may see your ,lord4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ef2 cf4 ,rom4 #h3 #ac47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,the likeness of him who teaches good works and does not do them is that of a woman who commits adultery in secret and then the result of her crime becomes evident to all around her from her condition4'0 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dh47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,whosoever turns away a beggar from his house the angels will not visit that dwelling for seven days4'0 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #afb47 ,this saying is often quoted by ,moslems to-day4 ,they all believe ,jesus was the friend of the poor and needy4 8,said ,jesus 7upon him be peace71 #8,blessed is he to whom ,god has taught his book2 he will not die a proud oppressor4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bce47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,blessed is the eye which sleeps and does not regard transgression but is wide-awake for that which is not sinful4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bfj47 8,the disciples said to ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,what is the best of good works8' ,he replied3 #8,that which is done to ,god and in which you seek the praise of no one else4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bgc47 8,said the disciples of ,jesus the ,son of ,mary3 #8,o ,spirit of ,god6 ,is there any one on earth like thee8' ,he replied3 #8,yes4 ,for whosoever is girded with the remembrance of ,god and is silent because of this and who looks only for the favour of ,god1 he is like me4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cje47 8,said ,jesus1 #8,beware of the evil look1 for when it is in the heart it produces lust and evil desire4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #gd2 cf4 ,matt4 #e3 #bh47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,whosoever multiplies lies his beauty departs from him3 and whosoever increases care his body becomes ill2 and whosoever has a bad character punishes himself4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #he47 8,said ,jesus3 #8,the greatest sin with ,god is that his servant should say1 8,god ,knows10 concerning something which he knows is untrue1 or that he tell lies concerning what he has seen in his dreams4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ih47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace7 to his disciples3 #8,how would you act if you saw one of your brothers sleeping and the wind had taken off his garment8' ,they said3 #8,we would cover him4' ,said ,jesus3 #8,no1 but you would expose him4' ,they said3 #8,god forbid6 ,who would do such a thing6' ,he replied3 #8,when one of you hears a word against his brother he exaggerates it and spreads the report to others6'0 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #adb47 8,it is related that ,jesus 7upon him be peace7 said1 #8,o company of disciples1 ye are free of transgression1 but we the company of apostles are free of infidelity4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #abd47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,with difficulty will the rich man enter paradise4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #adj2 cf4 ,christ's saying1 ,matt4 #ai3 #bc47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,truly ,i do not love a fixed dwelling place and ,i dislike the pleasure of the world4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #adj47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,do not look upon the property of the people of this world for its glory is as nothing in the light of your faith4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #add47 8,it was said to ,jesus3 #8,if you will allow us we will build a house and worship ,god in it4' ,he replied3 #8,go and build a house upon the sea4' ,they said3 #8,how can we build upon such a foundation8' ,he replied3 #8,how can your worship exist together with your love of the world8'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aeh47 8,it is related that ,jesus said3 #8,four things do not come to us except with difficulty4 ,silence1 which is the first principle of worship1 humility1 the abundant remembrance of ,god and poverty in all things4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aei47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,verily ,i say unto you1 whosoever seeketh heaven let him eat barley-bread and sleep on the dunghill with the dogs4 ,this is enough for me4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #afd47 8,jesus was accustomed to say1 #8,o children of ,israel1 let the water of the brook suffice you and the vegetable of the field and the barley loaf2 and beware of the white loaf for it will keep you from worship4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #afd47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,my food is hunger2 all my thoughts are fear of ,god2 my dress is wool2 my warming-place in winter is the rays of the sun2 my candle is the moon2 my steed is my legs2 my food is fruit that springs from the ground2 ,i go to bed and have nothing and arise without anything2 and yet there is no one richer than ,i am4'0 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #adf47 8,said ,jesus 7upon him be peace71 #8,the world is a bridge2 therefore cross over it and do not build on it4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adi47 8,said ,jesus 7on him be peace71 #8,whosoever seeks the world is like him who drinks water from the salt sea4 ,the more he drinks the more he thirsts4'0 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #adi47 ,this occurs for the second time1 but ,al-,ghazali loves to repeat his own sayings as well1 often in the same book4 8,it is related in the gospels that whosoever shall ask for forgiveness of him who praises him1 has driven away the devil40 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #abg47 ,the following quotations or references to the ,gospel occur in some of his shorter works4 ,in the 8,alchemy of ,happiness10 there is this reference to the ,gospel3 8,whosoever sows reaps1 whosoever sets out arrives1 and whosoever seeks finds40 7,cf4 ,matt4 #g3 #g47 ,we have already quoted the words from his epistle1 8,o ,child03 8,verily ,i have seen in the ,gospels1 etc40 ,in the same epistle he refers to the parable of ,dives and ,lazarus3 8,when the people of hell will say to the people of the garden1 #8,give us a little water from that which ,god has granted you to cool our tongues4'0 ,he quotes ,jesus as saying3 8,i was not unable to raise the dead1 but ,i was unable to cure the folly of fools10 and quotes the ,golden ,rule in several places without acknowledging its source as being the ,gospel of ,jesus4 ,all this and what he says in his 8,alchemy of ,happiness0 about the love of ,god leaves no doubt in my mind that he had read the ,new ,testament4 ,it is a sort of ,moslem ,version of ,st4 ,john's ,epistles and ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,the great ,mystic gives seven signs of love to ,god4 ,the first is not to be afraid of death4 ,the second is to prefer the love of ,god to any worldly object4 ,the third sign of a man's love to ,god is that the remembrance of ,god is always fresh in his heart4 ,he never ceases to meditate upon ,god4 ,every man thinks and calls to mind an object in proportion to his love to it4 ,the fourth is love and respect for the ,koran4 ,the fifth1 secret prayer4 ,the sixth1 to find the worship of ,god delightful4 ,and the seventh sign of love to ,god is1 8,that a man loves the sincere friends and obedient servants of ,god1 and regards them all as his friends4 ,he regards all the enemies of ,god as his enemies and abhors them4 ,and ,god thus speaks in his eternal word3 #8,his companions are terrible towards the infidels1 and tender towards each other4' ,a ,sheikh was once asked1 #8,who are the friends of the exalted and blessed ,god8' ,he replied3 #8,the friends of ,god are those who are more compassionate to the friends of ,god themselves1 than a father or a mother to their children4'0#hh 7,compare ,psalm #ajc47 ,there seems a great difference between ,al-,ghazali as dogmatic theologian1 always compelled to agree with the ,koran1 and ,al-,ghazali as the ,mystic1 when he begins to speculate and lift the veil4 ,we are constantly reminded of the words of ,anselm in his great work on the existence of ,god3 8,i do not attempt1 ,o ,lord1 to penetrate ,thy depths1 for ,i by no means think my intellect equal to them2 but ,i long to understand in some degree ,thy truth1 which my heart believes and loves1 for ,i do not seek to understand that ,i may believe1 but ,i believe that ,i may understand40 ,whenever ,al-,ghazali speaks of ,god's nearness to us and of the soul's desire for human fellowship with the creator1 he comes very close to the ,christian idea of the ,incarnation1 and yet always stops short of it4 ,in his 8,alchemy of ,happiness10 for example1 he mentions as the fourth cause of love to ,god the affinity that exists between man and his ,maker1 referring to the saying of the ,prophet3 8,verily ,god created man in his own likeness40 ,immediately afterwards1 however1 he goes on to say3 8,this is a somewhat dangerous topic to dwell upon1 as it is beyond the understanding of common people1 and even intelligent men have stumbled in treating of it1 and come to believe in incarnation and union with ,god4 ,still the affinity which does exist between man and ,god disposes of the objection of those theologians mentioned above1 who maintain that man cannot love a ,being who is not of his own species4 ,however great a distance between them1 man can love ,god because of the affinity indicated in the saying1 #8,god created man in ,his own likeness4'0 ,al-,ghazali would doubtless have accepted the statement in the ,gospel1 8,no man hath seen ,god at any time10 but he omits 8the only ,begotten ,son who is in the bosom of the ,father1 ,he hath declared ,him40 ,in speaking of the vision of ,god he says1 8,all ,moslems profess to believe that the ,vision of ,god is the summit of human felicity because it is so stated in the ,law2 but with many this is a mere lip-profession which arouses no emotion in their hearts4 ,this is quite natural1 for how can a man long for a thing of which he has no knowledge8 ,we will endeavour to show briefly why the vision of ,god is the greatest happiness to which a man can attain4 8,in the first place1 every one of man's faculties has its appropriate function which it delights to fulfill4 ,this holds good of them all1 from the lowest bodily appetite to the highest form of intellectual apprehension4 ,but even a comparatively low form of mental exertion affords greater pleasure than the satisfaction of bodily appetites4 ,thus if a man happens to be absorbed in a game of chess1 he will not come to his meal though repeatedly summoned4 ,and the greater the subject-matter of our knowledge1 the greater is our delight in it2 for instance1 we would take more pleasure in knowing the secrets of a king than the secrets of a vizier4 ,seeing then that ,god is the highest possible object of knowledge1 the knowledge of ,him must afford more delight than any other4 ,he who knows ,god1 even in this world1 dwells1 as it were1 in a paradise1 #8the breadth of which is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth1' a paradise the fruits of which no envy can prevent him plucking1 and the extent of which is not narrowed by the multitude of those who occupy it40 7,see #a ,john #d3 #g-ba47 8,but the delight of knowledge still falls short of the delight of vision1 just as our pleasure in thinking of those we love is much less than the pleasure afforded by the actual sight of them4 ,our imprisonment in bodies of clay and water and entanglement in the things of sense constitute a veil which hides the vision of ,god from us1 although it does not prevent our attaining to some knowledge of ,him4 ,for this reason ,god said to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 #8,thou shalt not see ,me4'0 ,in this book also we are reminded of the statement that only 8the pure in heart0 can see ,god1 and it seems scarcely possible that what ,al-,ghazali here teaches is not based on a knowledge of the ,gospel4 ,he says3 8,he in whose heart the love of ,god has prevailed over all else will derive more joy from this vision than he in whose heart it has not so prevailed2 just as in the case of two men with equally powerful eyesight gazing on a beautiful face1 he who already loves the possessor of that face will rejoice in beholding it more than he who does not4 ,for perfect happiness1 mere knowledge is not enough unaccompanied by love1 and the love of ,god cannot take possession of a man's heart till it is purified from the love of the world1 which purification can only be effected by abstinence and austerity40 ,how close is this teaching to the words of ,christ1 8,blessed are the pure in heart1 for they shall see ,god06 ,it is the vision of ,god which ,al-,ghazali sought through all his religious experiences as the highest good in this world and in the next4 ,yet with all his efforts to explain the nature of the soul and of ,god1 he still finds himself before a blank wall4 ,he covets the vision of ,god but cannot shake himself free from the ,moslem conception that ,god is unknowable and that nothing in creation resembles the ,creator4 ,as ,muhammed ,iqbal says3 8,to this day it is difficult to define with accuracy ,al-,ghazali's view of the nature of ,god4 ,in him1 like ,borger and ,solger in ,germany1 ,sufi pantheism and the ,asharite dogma of personality appear to harmonize together1 a reconciliation which makes it difficult to say whether he was a ,pantheist1 or a ,personal ,pantheist of the type of ,lotze4 ,the soul1 according to ,al-,ghazali1 perceives things4 ,but perception as an attribute can exist only in a substance or essence which is absolutely free from all the attributes of body4 ,in his ,al-,madnun1 he explains why the prophet declined to reveal the nature of the soul4 ,there are1 he says1 two kinds of men3 ordinary men and thinkers4 ,the former who look upon materiality as a condition of existence1 cannot conceive an immaterial substance4 ,the latter are led1 by their logic1 to a conception of the soul which sweeps away all difference between ,god and the individual soul4 ,al-,ghazali1 therefore1 realized the ,pantheist drift of his own inquiry and preferred silence as to the ultimate nature of the soul40#hi ,we have seen what ,al-,ghazali teaches regarding the life and character of ,jesus and also of ,god's relation to us through the love of those who seek ,him with all their hearts4 ,are these only ,moslems1 or is there a wider love of ,god8 ,are all souls in ,his keeping8 ,what were ,al-,ghazali's ideas regarding the salvation of those not in the fold of ,islam8 ,we have two striking passages in this connection which seem to contradict each other4 ,they were probably written at different periods of his life4 ,the first passage which is remarkable indeed for his day and his place in ,islam occurs on page #bb of his book ,faisul ,al-,tafriqa ,bain al ,islam wa 'l ,zandiqa and reads as follows3 8,i here state that most ,christians of the ,greeks and of the ,turks in our day will be included in the mercy of ,god4 ,namely1 those who are on the confines of the empire and to whom the call to embrace ,islam has not come4 ,for they consist of three classes3 ,one class has never heard the name of ,mohammed 7upon whom be prayers and peace7 and they are excusable4 ,another class have heard of his name and title and the miracles which were wrought by him2 they who live as neighbours among ,moslems2 these are the true infidels and sceptics4 ,and the other class are between these two2 they have heard of the name of ,mohammed 7upon him be prayers and peace71 but have not heard of his title and character4 ,on the contrary they have heard from their youth up that he is a liar and deceiver called ,mohammed1 who pretended to have the gift of prophecy3 in the same way as our children have heard of a false prophet in ,khorasan called ,al-,mukaffa who pretended to be a prophet4 ,and these last1 in my opinion1 belong to the first class as to their hope for the future40 ,this account is the more remarkable because in this very chapter he says that ,god told ,adam1 according to ,tradition1 8that out of a thousand of his descendants nine-hundred-and-ninety-nine go to hell and one only will be saved40 ,on the last page of the ,ihya1 however1 ,al-,ghazali expresses the opinion that on the day of judgment not a single ,mohammedan1 whatever be his character1 will enter the fire6 ,he then quotes a tradition which says that for every ,moslem designed to go to hell ,god will at the last day substitute a ,jew or a ,christian1 evidently approving this substitution-doctrine as satisfactory to ,god's mercy towards all who confess ,mohammed and to ,his decree that hell shall be filled with its quota of unbelievers4 7,see ,surah #ej3 #bi47 ,the last page of the ,ihya1 alas1 again shows the ,moslem spirit of intolerance which prevails even to-day4 ,men do not remember the more liberal judgment in his other treatise4 ,al-,ghazali's attitude towards ,christianity and his quotations from the ,gospel narrative did much to leaven ,persian thought and gave ,jesus of ,nazareth a large place in later mysticism especially in the foremost mystical poet1 the immortal author of the ,masnavi1 ,jallal-ud-,din ,ar-,rumi4 ,he draws the great ,lesson from the life of ,christ which ,al-,ghazali only hints at in his quotations2 namely that ,jesus is the ,life-giver3 8,thyself reckon dead1 and then thou shalt fly ,free1 free1 from the prison of earth to the sky6 ,spring may come1 but on granite will grow no green thing3 ,it was barren in winter1 'tis barren in spring2 ,and granite man's heart is1 till grace intervene4 ,and1 crushing it1 clothe the long barren with green1 ,when the fresh breath of ,jesus shall touch the heart's core1 ,it will live1 it will breathe1 it will blossom once more40 ,the ,city of ,mashad1 close to the ruins of ,tus1 where ,al-,ghazali was born and where he died1 has been truly described as the ,mecca of the ,persian world4 ,its streets are crowded with a hundred thousand pilgrims every year4 ,the ,american ,presbyterian ,church has an important work there1 and the ,bible ,societies report thousands of copies of the ,bible sold there4 8,we have inundated the ,city of ,mashad with the ,word of ,god10 wrote the late ,mr4 ,esselstyn2 8in the bazaars ,i have repeatedly been warned some one will kill me if we do not stop selling the ,scriptures and preaching4 ,but #8,lo1 ,i am with you always' keeps ringing in my ears and we continue4 ,the ,scriptures that have been sold in and around ,mashad are sown seed and in due time we shall reap if we faint not40 ,to-day the black-browed ,afghan1 the ,uzbek ,tartar1 the dervish1 travel-stained and footsore1 nay the poorest lad of ,khorasan can buy the whole story of what ,jesus did and taught4 ,no ,moslem is now dependent on ,al-,ghazali's few quotations from the ,gospel4 ,a new day has dawned for ,persia and the ,near ,east4 ,everywhere the ,new ,testament is better known than any of the ninety-nine works of ,al-,ghazali1 and we may also say1 without exaggeration1 that the ,new ,testament finds a larger circle of readers4 ,the mystics in ,islam are near the ,kingdom of ,god and for them ,al-,ghazali may be used as a schoolmaster to lead men to ,christ4 ,did not the author of the ,gulshan-i-,raz 7the ,garden of ,mysteries7 write3 8,dost thou know what ,christianity is8 ,i shall tell it thee4 ,it digs up thine own ,ego1 and carries thee to ,god4 ,thy soul is a monastery wherein dwells oneness1 thou art ,jerusalem1 where the ,eternal is enthroned2 the ,holy ,spirit works this miracle1 for know that ,god's being rests in the ,holy ,spirit as in ,his ,own ,spirit40 ,and such seekers after ,god to-day will find those who will lead them to ,,christ4 ,for1 as ,dr4 ,j4 ,rendel ,harris expressed it3 8,all of us who love ,christ are beginning to realize that we live in the same street and are on the same telephone1 some of us that we are lodged next door to one another and can knock on the partitions1 a few that we are all under the same roof and all within arm's length and heart reach40 ,appendix ,a4 ,,bibliography ,abu ,nasir ,abd ul ,wahab ,taqi id ,din as ,subqi4--,tabaqat-ash-,shafaiya al ,kubra4 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #aja-ajb4 ,barbier de ,meynard1 ,m4 ,c4--,traduction nouvelle du traite de ,ghazzali intitule le ,prservatif de l'erreur et notices sur les extases 7des ,soufis74 7,journal ,asiatique1 ,paris1 #ahgg47 ,brockelmann1 ,carl--,geschichte der ,arabischen ,litteratur1 ,weimar1 #ahih1 #b vols4 ,chenery1 ,thomas--,the ,assemblies of ,al-,hariri1 ,london1 #ahgh1 ,trans4 ,clark1 ,edson ,l4--,the ,arabs and the ,turks1 ,boston1 #ahge4 ,de,boer1 ,t4 ,j4--,the ,history of ,philosophy in ,islam1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,dozy1 7,trans4 by ,francis ,griffin ,stokes7--,spanish ,islam1 ,london1 #aiac4 ,de ,vaun1 ,cara--,gazali 7,les ,grand ,philos4--,felix ,alcan71 ,paris1 #aiab4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,field1 ,claud--,the ,alchemy of ,happiness1 by ,ghazali 7from ,hindustani74 -- ,the ,confessions of ,al-,ghazali1 ,london1 #aiji1 ,trans4 -- ,mystics and ,saints of ,islam1 ,london1 #aiaj4 -- ,persian ,literature1 ,london 7undated74 ,fortescue1 ,adrian--,the ,lesser ,eastern ,churches1 ,london1 #aiac4 ,gairdner1 ,w4 ,h4 ,t4--,al-,ghazali's ,mishkat-ul-,anwar and the ,ghazali ,problem1 ,der ,islam1 ,bd4 ,v1 ,heft #b_/c4 ,gardner1 ,w4 ,r4 ,w4--,al-,ghazali4 ,in ,islam ,series1 ,christian ,literature ,society for ,india1 #aiai4 ,gautier1 ,lucien--,ad-,dourra al-fakhira3 ,la perle precieuse de ,ghazali4 ,traite d'eschatologie musulmane1 publie 444 avec une traduction francaise4 ,geneve1 #ahgh4 ,gosche1 von ,r4--ber ,ghazzali1 ,leben und ,werke1 ,berlin1 #ahei4 ,huart1 ,clement--,a ,history of ,arabic ,literature1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,hurgronje1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,snouck--,mekka1 ,haag1 #ahhf4 ,ibn ,khallikan4 ,jackson1 ,a4 ,v4 ,williams--8,from ,constantinople to the ,home of ,omar ,khayyam03 ,new ,york1 ,macmillan ,company1 #aiaa4 ,jayakar1 ,lt4 ,col4 ,a4 ,s4 ,g4--,ad-,damiri's ,hayat ,al-,hayawan 7under ,al-,hammam71 ,vol4 ,i1 ,london1 #aijf1 ,trans4 ,jewish ,encyclopdia1 ,the4 ,journal of ,the ,american ,oriental ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 pp4 #ga-acb4 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 #ahih4 ,lane-,poole1 ,stanley--,medival ,india under ,mohammedan ,rule1 in the ,story of the ,national ,series1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,mohammed ,iqbal--,the ,development of ,metaphysics in ,persia1 ,london1 #aijh4 ,miguel ,asin et ,palacios--,al ,gazel3 ,domatica1 moral1 ,ascetica4 7,zargoza4 ,spain1 #aija47 -- ,logia et ,agrapha ,domini ,jesu apud ,moslemicos ,scriptores1 etc4 7,latin and ,arabic7 ,firmin-,didot and ,co41 ,paris1 #aiag4 ,le ,strange1 ,g4--,baghdad during the ,abbasid ,caliphate1 ,oxford1 #aijj4 ,macdonald1 ,d4 ,b4--,aspects of ,islam1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 -- ,emotional religion in ,islam as affected by music and singing4 ,being a translation of a book of the ,ihya ,ulum ad-,din of ,al-,ghazzali with analysis1 annotation and appendices4 7,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,journal4 #aija47 -- ,encyclopdia of ,islam1 ,leyden--art41 8,ghazali40 -- ,the ,life of ,al-,ghazali with special reference to his religious experiences and opinions 7,journal ,american ,oriental ,society74 -- ,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theory4 #aijc4 -- ,the ,religious ,attitude and ,life in ,islam1 ,chicago1 #aiji4 ,murtadha--,introduction to the ,celebrated ,commentary of the ,ihya entitled ,ithaf ul ,saada4 ,cairo ,edition4 ,nicholson1 ,reynold ,a4--,kashf ,al-,mahjub1 the oldest ,persian ,treatise on ,sufism by ,al-,hujwiri1 ,london1 #aiaa4 -- ,literary ,history of the ,arabs1 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,nldeke1 ,theodore--,sketches from ,eastern ,history1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,osborn1 ,robert ,durie--,islam ,under the ,khalifs of ,baghdad1 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,saladin1 ,h4--,manuel d'art ,musulman1 ,paris1 #aijg1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,tyrwitt1 ,w4 ,s4 ,s4--,cairo1 ,jerusalem and ,damascus1 ,london1 #aijg4 ,b4 ,,translations ,,of ,,al-,,ghazali',s ,,works ,hebrew4 ,makasid al ,falasifah--,de'ot ha-,pilusufim--,isaac ,albalag1 #acth ,c4 -- ,kawwanot ha-,pilusufim--,judah ,nathan1 #adth ,c4 ,tahafut al-,falasifah--,happalat ha-,pilusufim--,zerahiah ha-,levy1 #adaa4 ,ma'amar bi-,teshubot ,she'elot ,nish'al ,mehem 7,answers to ,philanthropical ,questions7--,h4 ,malter1 ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 #ahig2 also called ,kawwanot ha-,kawwanot4 -- ,mozene ha-',iyyunin--,jacob ben ,makir 7d4 #acjh74 ,mizan al-,amal--,mozen ,zedek--,abraham ,ibn ,hazdai ben ,samuel ha-,levy of ,barcelona1 ed4 ,j4 ,goldenthal1 ,leipsic1 #ahci4 ,mishkat al-,anwar fi ,riyad al-,azhar bi-,taufik al-,anhar--,maskit ha-,orot be-,pardes ha-,nizzanim--,isaac ben ,joseph ,alfasi4 ,latin4 ,maqasid ,falasifa--,logica et ,philosophia--,dom4 ,gundisalvi1 ,veneti1 #aejf4 ,german4 ,kitab aiyuha 'l walad--,o ,kind6 ,die berhmte ethische ,abhandlung ,ghazali's arab4 u4 deutsch1 v4 ,hammer-,purgstall1 ,wien1 #ahch4 ,kitab ,tahafut al ,falasifa--,die ,widersprche der ,philosophie nach ,al-,ghazzali und ihr ,ausgleich durch ,ibn ,rushd1 ,strassburg1 #ahid4 ,antworten auf ,fragen1 die an ihn gerichtet wurden1 hebr4 u4 arab4 ,text mit deutschen bers4 ,erklarung und ,glossen v4 ,h4 ,malter1 ,frankfurt1 #ahif4 ,ihya ulum id ,din--,german translation in course of preparation by ,h4 ,bauer4 ,french4 ,ad durra al fakhira fi kasf ulum al akhira--,la ,perle precieuse de ,ghazali1 ed4 par ,l4 ,gautier1 ,geneve1 #ahgh4 ,al munqidh min ad dhalal--ed4 ,schmolders1 ,essai sur les ecoles philosophiques chez les ,arabes1 ,paris1 #ahdb4 ,translated by ,barbier de ,meynard1 #ahgg1 in ,journal ,asiatique1 vol4 ix4 ,english4 ,kimiya as-saada--,the ,alchemy of ,happiness--,h4 ,a4 ,homes1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahgc4 ,the ,alchemy of ,happiness--,claud ,field1 ,london1 #aijh4 ,the ,confessions of ,al-,ghazali--,claud ,field1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,turkish4 ,there are two manuscript translations of ,al-,ghazali's ,nasaih-ul-,muluk in ,turkish4 ,also an ,arabic version of the ,persian original4 7,see ,browne's ,handlist of ,cambridge ,university ,library ,arabic ,,mss4 ,nos4 #aahe and #bbj47 ,the ,alchemy of ,happiness is also widely known in a ,turkish version from which the earliest ,english version by ,homes was made4 ,c4 ,,list ,,of ,,al-,,ghazali',s ,,works ,in ,arabic alphabetical order according to ,as-,subqi1 ,al-,murtadha 7,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #da-hc71 and other sources4 #a4 ,ihya ,ulum id ,din--7,revival of the ,sciences of ,religion74 #b4 ,al ,imla ,ala ,mushkal al ,ihya--7supplement to above74 #c4 ,al,arban--7on the ,koran74 #d4 ,asma ,allah al ,husna--7on the names of ,god74 #e4 ,al-,iqtasad fi ,itiqad--7,speculative ,theology74 #f4 ,iljam al ,awam an ilm al ,kalam--7,warning against scholasticism74 #g4 ,asrar ,muamalat id ,din--7,mysticism74 #h4 ,asrar al anwar al ilahiya--7on the ,koran74 #i4 ,akhlaq al abrar wa najat min al ashrar--7,ethics74 #aj4 ,asrar itbaa as sunna--7,tradition74 #aa4 ,asrar al huruf wa 'l kalimat--7,koran ,mysteries74 #ab4 ,ayyuha 'l walad--7,o child6--written in ,persian originally--,ethics and ,manners74 #ac4 ,badayat al ,hadaya--7,beginner's book in religion74 #ad4 ,al ,basit fi furua al ,madhhab--7,jurisprudence74 #ae4 ,bayan al ,qaulain--7,creed74 #af4 ,bayan ,fadhaa al ,abahiya-- #ag4 ,badaa as ,saniya4 #ah4 ,tanbih al ,ghafaln4 #ai4 ,talbis ,iblis4 #bj4 ,at ,takbir fi ilm al taabir--7,interpretation74 #ba4 ,tahafut al filasafa--7,against ,philosophy74 #bb4 ,taliqa fi furua al ,madhhab--7,written at ,jurjan against the ,ismailite heresy74 #bc4 ,tahsin al ,maqsud-- #bd4 ,tahsin al ,adilla--7,sources of ,islam74 #be4 ,tafsir al ,quran al ,azim--7,brief ,koran ,commentary74 #bf4 ,al ,tafriqa bain al iman wa 'l zindiqa-- #bg4 ,jawahir al ,quran--7,beauties of the ,koran74 #bh4 ,hujjat al ,haqq-- #bi4 ,haqiqat al ,ruh--7,mysticism74 #cj4 ,haqiqat al ,qaulain--7on the ,creed74 #ca4 ,al ,durra al ,fakhira--7,the ,precious ,pearl74 #cb4 ,khulasat ar ,rasail--7,jurisprudence74 #cc4 ,khulasat al-tasanif fi l-tasawwuf4 #cd4 ,risalat al ,qudsiya4 #ce4 ,risalat al ,aqtab4 #cf4 ,al ,risalat al ,laduniya4 #cg4 ,risalat at ,tair--7,parable on the ,birds74 #ch4 ,sirr al ,masun--7on the magical use of the ,koran text74 #ci4 ,sirr al-alamain wa-kashf ma fi 'l-darain4 #dj4 ,sharh ,dairat ,ali ibn ,talib4 #da4 ,shifa al ,ghalil--7,on ,logic74 #db4 ,aqidat al ,misbah4 #dc4 ,ajaib ,sanaa ,allah4 #dd4 ,anqud al ,mukhtasar4 #de4 ,ghayat al ,ghur fi ,misail al daur--7,on ,divorce74 #df4 ,ghaur al ,daur--7also on ,divorce7 written in ,bagdad #dhd ,a4 ,h4 #dg4 ,al ,fatawa--7,one hundred and ninety questions answered74 #dh4 ,fatihat al ,ulum--7,encyclopdia of ,sciences74 #di4 ,al ,qanun al ,kulli4 #ej4 ,qanun ar ,rasul4 #ea4 ,al ,qurbat ila ,allah--7,on ,nearness to ,god74 #eb4 ,al ,qistas al ,mustaqim--7,sources of ,islam74 #ec4 ,al ,qaul al jamil fi radd ala man ghaiyar al ,injil--7,on the corrupting of the ,gospel text74 #ed4 ,kimiya as ,saada--7,the ,alchemy of ,happiness2 written in ,persian and afterwards translated74 #ee4 ,kashf ,ulum al ,akhira--7,eschatology74 #ef4 ,al ,kashf wa 'l tabyin fi ghurur al ,khalk ajmain--7,mysticism74 #eg4 ,kanz al ,idat4 #eh4 ,kitab al arbain4 #ei4 ,al ,lubab al ,muntaqal fi 'l ,jadal--7,on ,controversy74 #fj4 ,al ,mustasfa fi ,usul al ,fiqh--7,jurisprudence74 ,his most important and largest work on this subject2 several commentaries were written on it later4 #fa4 ,al ,manqul fi 'l ,usul4 #fb4 ,al ,maksud fi ,khilafiyat bain al ,hanifiya wa 'sh ,shafiya--7on these two schools of jurisprudence74 #fc4 ,al ,madadi wa 'l ,ghayat fi asrar al ,huruf al ,maknumat4 #fd4 ,al ,majalis al ,ghazaliya--7,collection of his ,bagdad sermons74 #fe4 ,maqasid al filasafa--7,philosophy74 #ff4 ,al ,munqidh min adh-,dhalal--7,his ,confessions1 ,autobiographical74 #fg4 ,miyar al ,ilm fi 'l ,mantiq--7,logic74 #fh4 ,miyar al ,nazir--7,logic74 #fi4 ,mahal al ,nazir-- #gj4 ,mishkat al anwar fi lataif al akhyar--7,ethics74 #ga4 ,al ,mustazhir fi radd ala 'l ,batiniya--7,controversial74 #gb4 ,al-,madnun bihi ala ghairi ahlihi--,book to be kept from those unfitted for it4 7,esoteric47 #gc4 ,al-,madnun al-saghir--,book to be kept from those unfitted for it4 7,esoteric47 #gd4 ,mishkat al-anwar--7,mysticism74 #ge4 ,mizan al ,amal--7,a compendium of ,ethics74 #gf4 ,mawahib al ,batiniya--7similar to ,no4 #ga1 but abbreviated74 #gg4 ,al ,minhaj al ,aali-- #gh4 ,miraj as ,salikn-- #gi4 ,mukashafat al qulub-- #hj4 ,mufasal al ,khilaf fi ,usul al ,qiyas-- #ha4 ,minhaj al ,abidin ila ,janat ,rab al ,alamn--7,his last work3 a popular epistle on the ,mystic way74 #hb4 ,nasikhat al ,muluk--7,written in ,persian and called in the ,arabic translation ,al ,tibr al ,masbuk2 a book of counsel for kings and princes74 #hc4 ,al ,wajiz--7,jurisprudence74 ,several commentaries were written on this work and it is much used4 #hd4 ,al ,wasit--7a celebrated book in ,jurisprudence74 ,several commentaries4 #he4 ,yaqut at ,tawil fi ,tafsir at ,tanzil--7,commentary on the ,koran in #dj vols474 ,d4 ,comparative ,table of ,events ,,north ,,africa ,,europe ,,and ,,spain ,,al-,,ghazali ,a4 ,d4 ,a4 ,h4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,germany-- ,kingdoms of ,castile,al-,ghazali born4 #ajeh #dej ,franconian and ,leon4 ,dynasty4 ,henry ,end of the ,,iii1 ,henry ,,iv4 ,ommiades1 #dai4 --------------------,the ,morabeths4 ,al-,ghazali goes ,struggle between ------------------- to ,bagdad4 #ajhg #dhj ,emperors and ,advance of the ,popes4 ,christians4 --------------------,the ,moslems divided ,italy--,lombard into small ,republics4 states4 ,conversion of ,gregory ,,vii4 ------------------- ,al-,ghazali4 #ajie #dhh --------------------,abdallah ben ,tasfin ,france--,reign of founds ,marakash4 ,feudalism4 ------------------- ,philip1 #ajfj4 ,toledo taken1 #ajhe4;,his return to --------------------,the ,almoravides4 active life4 #aajd #dih ,russia--,vladimir ,yusuf ibn ,tasfin the ,great adopts called to ,spain1 ,christianity4 #ajhf4 --------------------------------------- ,england--,conquest #ajhf1 ,battle of of ,william1 ,duke ,zalaca1 defeat of,his death4 #aaaa #eje of ,normandy1 ,moslems4 #ajff4 -------------------- ,abelard born1 #ajgi4 -------------------- ,first ,crusade1 #ajie4 ,anselm1 #ajic4 ,bernard1 #aaae4 ,a4 ,d4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,arabia ,,and ,,syria ,,persia--,,khorasan--,,india ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ajeh #dej ,el ,mostanser1 ,el ,kaim ,bamrillah #dbg-dhg ,a4 ,h4 invests ,tughril with ,proclaimed at ,bagdad1 temporal authority4 #dea ,a4 ,h4 ------------------------- ,tughril ,bey subjects #ajhg #dhj ,persia4 ,seditions in ,caliphate4 ------------------------- ------------------------,tughril ,bey invades ,india4 ,firdausi1 author of ,shah ,nameh4 ,death of ,tughril ,bey1 #ajie #dhh #ajfc4 ,decline of the ------------------------- ,fatimides4 ,,domination ,,of ,,the ,,seljuks #aajd #dih ,alp ,arslan4 ,conquest of ,asia ,minor4 ,jerusalem invaded by the------------------------- sons of ,ortok1 #ajgf4 ,malek ,shah4 ,his four sons #ajih1 ,siege of ,antioch4 divide his empire1 ,jerusalem captured by #ajgb4 #aaaa #eje the ,crusaders1 #ajii4 ------------------------- 7#dib ,a4 ,h47 ,the kingdom of ,gazna #aaji1 ,tripoli taken by overthrown by the the ,crusaders4 ,sultans ,gourides of ,delhi4 ,,footnotes #a 8,sketches from ,eastern ,history10 ,theodore ,nldeke4 ,london1 #ahib1 p4 #ih4 #b 8,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire40 #c 8,the ,assemblies of al-,hariri10 trans4 by ,thomas ,chenery4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,introduction1 p4 #e4 #d ,der ,islam1 ,band ,v1 ,heft #b_/c2 ,c4 ,h4 ,becker1 ,strassburg1 #aiad1 pp4 #bci1 #bia4 #e ,medival ,india1 in 8,the ,story of the ,nations ,series10 ,stanley ,lane-,poole1 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 p4 #cg4 #f 8,the ,caliphate1 its ,rise1 ,decline and ,fall10 #ahib1 p4 #egh4 #g ,that there was not only close social1 but religious and polemical contact between the learned men of ,christian sects and those of ,islam long before this period1 and especially during the life of ,al-,ghazali is well known4 ,see especially the life and writings of ,al-,kindi1 ,john of ,damascus1 and ,theodor ,abu ,qurra as given by ,a4 ,keller in 8,der ,geisteskampf des ,christentums gegen den ,islam bis zur ,zeit der ,kreuzzge0 7,leipzig1 #ahif7 and 8,christliches ,polemik und ,islamische ,dogmenbilding10 by ,c4 ,h4 ,becker 78,festschrift ,ignaz ,goldziher10 pp4 #age-aie74 ,the latter shows clearly that ,islam borrowed considerably from ,christianity1 through controversy1 both in its dogma and ritual even as late as the tenth century4 #h ,cf4 8,the ,lesser ,eastern ,churches10 ,adrian ,fortescue1 ,london1 #aiac4 #i ,cf4 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #che4 #aj ,see article on 8,the ,arabic ,bible0 in ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,october1 #aiaf4 #aa 8,missionary ,achievement30 ,a survey of world-wide ,evangelization1 ,london1 #aijg1 pp4 #bb1 #bf4 #ab 8,minhaj et ,talibin of ,an-,nawawi10 trans4 from the ,french of ,l4 ,w4 ,c4 ,van ,den ,berg by ,e4 ,c4 ,howard1 ,london1 #aiad1 pp4 #dfg and #dfi4 #ac ,these badges of servitude1 called ,ghayar1 are referred to as obligatory in ,al-,ghazali's 8,wajiz40 ,see the chapter on infidel-subjects4 #ad ,richard ,gottheil gives the contents of a fatwa on the appointment of ,dhimmis to office dated about ,a4 ,d4 #aabf and given by one ,ahmad ibn ,al ,husain4 8,to place an infidel in authority over a ,moslem would never enter the mind of one who had a sound heart4 ,he who does so must either be a godless fellow or be ignorant of ,moslem law and practice4 ,he attempts to prove that a ,dhimmi 7i4 e4 ,jew or ,christian7 is not even to be used as a scribe1 a money-changer1 or a butcher2 citing passages from the ,koran and the ,traditions0 78,festschrift ,ignaz ,goldziher von ,carl ,bezold10 ,strassburg1 #aiaa1 pp4 #bjc-bjh74 #ae 8,the ,early ,development of ,mohammedanism10 ,london1 #aiad1 p4 #aca4 #af ,milner1 8,the ,history of the ,church of ,christ10 ,london1 #ahcd1 p4 #eca1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #ag 8,the ,pulse of ,asia10 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijg1 p4 #cbe4 #ah ,see however ,gardner's ,al-,ghazali in the 8,islam ,series0 7pp4 #a-c7 where we have this note3 8,the district of ,tus contained four towns1 ,radkan1 ,tabaran1 ,bazdghur1 and ,nawqan1 7,yaqut gives the spelling as ,nuqan7 and more than #a1jjj villages40 7,see ,yaqut1 quoting ,misar bin ,mukhalhil1 vol4 vi1 p4 #g4 ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 i1 p4 #bi4 ,jackson1 ,from ,constantinople to the ,home of ,omar ,khayyam1 p4 #bfg1 #bhd ff47 ,of these four towns1 ,tabaran was the capital1 while ,nawqan was the most populous4 ,it was outside of ,nawqan that ,ali bin ,musa ar-,rida and ,haroun ,ar-,rashid were buried4 ,thus1 the present ,mashad represents the old ,nawqan1 and must cover some at least of the site of that city2 while the ruins now known as ,tus represent the old city of ,tabaran1 which1 having been the capital of the district1 was commonly called by the name of the district4 ,it was outside ,tabaran that ,al-,ghazali and ,firdausi were buried4 ,it is a mistake to regard ,tus as having been a metropolis containing four boroughs4 ,that there ever existed a city of ,tus stretching thirty-five miles1 from ,mashad to ,radkan1 is incredible4 ,as-,samani1 in the ,kitabu'l-,ansab1 says that ,tus contained two towns and over one thousand villages4 #ai 8,the ,glory of the ,shiah ,world10 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,in this book we have an interesting picture of ,mashad and ,tus as they are to-day4 #bj 8,kashf al-,mahjub10 pp4 #agc-agd4 #ba 8,hayat-ul-,hayawan10 by ,damiri4 #bb ,referred to in his 8,life of ,al-,ghazzali40 #bc ,ibn ,khallikan 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bi1 ,cairo1 #acaj7 leaves little doubt that ,samaani spells it with one 8z10 ,ghazali4 ,so also is the spelling of ,german ,orientalists including ,brockelmann4 ,he writes 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dai7 8,so1 als ,nisbe zu ,gazala1 einem kleinen ,orte bei ,tus1 nach dem ausdrcklichen ,zeugnis des ,samanis1 jenes ausgezeichneten ,kenners iranischer ,namen1 7s4 o4 p4 #ccj7 b4 j4 ,hall1 nr4 #cg2 die von ,gosche #a1 #a1 nr4 #c auf ,grund spter1 persischer ,quellen verteidigte ,schreibung #8,gazzali' verdankt offenbar einer ,volksetymologie ihr ,dasein in ,anlehnung an die nach al ,samani in ,hwarizm gebruchlichen ,nisben1 wie al ,qassari fr al ,qassar4 ,sujuti den ,gosche citiert besttigt keineswegs seine auffassung1 sondern gibt seine ,quelle als ,samani genau wieder40 ,clement ,huart 78,history of ,arabic ,literature10 p4 #bfe7 gives the preference to ,ghazali2 so do the ,french ,orientalists in the ,revue du ,monde ,mussulman1 ,goldziher in his latest work ,vorlesungen ber den ,islam 7#aiaj71 and the well-known ,dutch ,arabist1 ,snouck ,hurgronje4 ,yet in spite of all this those who prefer 8,ghazzali0 may appeal to the highest ,moslem authority1 namely1 ,mohammed the ,prophet who is said to have declared to some one in a dream that this was the correct spelling4 7,see 8,murtadha10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ah47 ,i have a fatwa from the ,sheikhs of ,al-,azhar1 ,cairo1 however1 stating that the true spelling is now agreed on by ,moslems as ,ghazali with one middle radical4 #bd ,macdonald4 #be ,from the ,biography given at the end of ,miskat-ul-,anwar1 ,cairo edition 7#acbb74 #bf 8,the ,confessions of ,al-,ghazali10 trans4 by ,claud ,field1 ,london1 #aiji4 #bg ,cf4 ,appendix ,,vii in ,macdonald's 8,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theology40 #bh ,i follow here the contents of ,ghazali's own ,wajiz4 #bi ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 8,life of ,al-,ghazzali10 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 p4 #gf4 #cj ,huart1 8,arabic ,literature40 #ca 8,lalla ,rookh40 #cb 8,baghdad under the ,abbasside ,caliphate10 ,g4 ,le ,strange1 ,oxford1 #aijj1 p4 #bih4 #cc ,several of these are given at length by ,murtadha4 #cd ,macdonald1 p4 #hh4 #ce ,macdonald1 p4 #ij1 and see ,bibliography4 #cf 8,the ,maqamat40 #cg 8,manuel d',art ,musulman10 ,vol4 ,i1 ,paris1 #aijg4 #ch ,compare on the chronology the first chapters of ,gardner's 8,al-,ghazali10 #aiai 7,christian ,lit4 ,soc4 for ,india74 #ci ,quoted in ,klein's 8,islam10 page #hg1 from the ,ihya1 ,,iv3 #cbj4 #dj ,for the significance of these terms consult ,hughes' 8,dictionary of ,islam40 #da ,that this method of seeking ,god is still a refuge for the most earnest and sincere among ,moslems is clear from such books as 8,the ,autobiography of ,imad-ud-,din the ,indian ,convert0 7,c4 ,m4 ,s41 ,london74 #db ,gardner finds evidence that the book mentioned was not written there4 #dc 8,the ,jewish ,encyclopdia10 article 8,machpelah40 #dd ,a recent traveller says3 8,there is a hole in the wall which is supposed to communicate with the cave below4 ,jews write letters to ,abraham and place them in this hole1 to tell him how badly they are being treated by the ,moslems4 ,but the ,moslem boys are said to know that the hole has no great depth1 and to collect these letters and burn them before ,abraham has seen them40 #de ,cf4 his 8,ihya0 and also his 8,al-,wajiz40 #df ,m4 ,j4 ,de ,goeje1 8,memoire sur les ,carmathes du ,bahrain et ,les ,fatimides10 7,leiden1 #ahhf7 pp4 #ajd-aad4 #dg ,in the ,ihya ,al-,ghazali gives the prayer to be offered when kissing the ,black ,stone4 #dh 8,mekka10 ,dr4 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,vol4 ,i1 den ,haag1 #ahhh4 #di ,burton's 8,pilgrimage10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,appendix1 pp4 #cbc-cbd4 #ej ,macdonald1 8,the ,life of ,al-,ghazzali10 pp4 #ig-ih4 #ea ,burton's 8,pilgrimage to ,al-,medinah and ,meccah10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ab4 #eb ,macdonald's 8,life of ,al-,ghazzali10 pp4 #aje1 #ajg-ajh1 quoted from ,murtadha4 #ec ,quoted in ,hayat-ul-,hayawan4 #ed ,an exposition of the ,creed of the ,people of the ,sunna on the two ,words of ,witnessing 7kalimatai 'sh-shahada7 which form one of the foundations of ,islam4 ,this creed is intended to be committed to memory by children4 ,it forms the first section of the second book of ,ghazali's ,ihya1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ag-db of edit4 of ,cairo with commentary of the ,sayyid ,murtadha4 ,we are indebted for the translation to ,professor ,macdonald 7,muslim ,theology and ,jurisprudence74 #ee ,for the process see pp4 #agj et seq4 of 8,mafatih ,al-,ghaib0 7,cairo1 #acbg7 by ,ahmed ,al-,zarkawi1 a contemporary ,egyptian magician1 and on the subject in general1 the sixth and seventh ,risalas in that volume4 #ef ,cf4 ,al-,faidh al ,mutawalli of ,ahmed ,damanhuri1 ,cairo1 #acca4 #eg 8,encyclopdia of ,islam10 article ,buduh4 #eh ,see a paper on this subject by ,ali ,bey ,bargat1 ,sur ,deux ,bronzes du ,muse ,arabe--8,bulletin de l',inst4 ,egypt410 ,,iv3 #g4 #ei ,for critical notes on his works see ,r4 ,gosche1 pp4 #bdi-cjj1 also ,gardner's remarks and list4 #fj 8,the ,mystics of ,islam40 #fa ,macdonald1 p4 #gb4 #fb ,compare the two statements facing this chapter2 also the references to 8,the ,gospel10 in ,chapter ,,ix4 #fc 8,jewish ,encyclopdia10 article 8,ghazali40 #fd ,macdonald4 #fe ,in regard to the influence of ,al-,ghazali's writings1 ,r4 ,gosche remarks3 8,it is characteristic how his influence has spread4 ,the later mystical portions of his ,ihya have especially influenced ,mohammedan circles in ,india4 ,his two works on philosophy exerted influence in ,spain and among later ,jewish writers1 for the best manuscripts of the ,tahafut are found in ,maghrabi character40 #ff ,adolf ,wuttke1 8,christian ,ethics10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #agb4 #fg ,macdonald1 pp4 #aah-aai4 #fh 8,ihya10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cb-cc1 8,mizan al ,amal10 pp4 #abf-abh1 etc4 #fi 8,alchemy of ,happiness10 pp4 #id-if4 #gj 8,alchemy of ,happiness40 #ga 8,mizan al ,amal40 #gb 8,the ,mystics of ,islam40 #gc 8,the ,way of a ,mystic10 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aga4 #gd 8,mystics of ,islam10 p4 #ah4 #ge ,yet strange to say there was often an utter divorce between these high ideals and practical morality4 ,a surprising statement is made by ,al-,ghazali regarding ,junaid in this connection4 8,ihya10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ai4 #gf 8,essays on ,islam10 by ,rev4 ,e4 ,sell1 ,madras1 #aija1 p4 #ac4 #gg 8,mohammedanism10 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,new ,york and ,london1 #aiaf4 #gh 8,der ,islam10 ,band ,v1 ,heft #b_/c article1 8,al-,ghazali's ,mishkat ,al-,anwar and the ,ghazali ,problem10 by ,canon ,w4 ,h4 ,t4 ,gairdner4 #gi 8,development of ,mohammedanism10 pp4 #adc-add4 #hj 8,ihya10 chapter on ,repentance4 #ha ,one of the texts he uses is 7,surah #b1 verse #bbb71 8,verily1 ,god loves those who repent and loves those who are purified40 ,the context is in relation to the infamous statement 8,your wives are your tillage1 etc410 which many ,moslem commentators interpret as a license for immorality4 ,no wonder that ,al-,ghazali was led in this connection to begin to speak on the text 8all have sinned0 although he does not quote ,st4 ,paul's first chapter to the ,romans4 #hb 8,al-,badajet10 ,cairo ,edition1 p4 #da4 #hc ,zwemer1 8,the ,moslem ,christ40 #hd ,goldziher1 in 8,z4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g410 ,,xxxii1 #cdd4 #he 8,jewish ,encyclopdia10 ,art4 ,bible ,versions4 #hf ,after completing this research ,i found a fuller account of all references to ,jesus ,christ in ,moslem ,literature1 especially the ,ihya as given by ,michal ,asin et ,palacios in ,logia et ,agrapha ,domini ,jesus apud ,moslemicos1 etc41 in ,patrologia ,orientalis1 ,tome ,,xiii fascicule #c4 ,paris #aiag4 #hg ,the story is repeated in ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bjf2 cf4 ,matt4 #f3 #af-ah4 #hh ,these last quotations are from the translation by ,homes which was from the ,turkish4 ,there seem to be several editions of the 8,alchemy of ,happiness0 and the text varies as well as the number of chapters4 #hi 8,the ,development of ,metaphysics in ,persia10 p4 #ge4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america