,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,i4    ,,nor?     
,,side ,,( ,,! ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun1   
,,look+ ,,we/4                          
,,survey ,,dep>tm5t1                    
,,egypt4                                
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,! ,,topography ,,& ,,geology          
,,( ,,!                                 
,,fayum ,,prov9ce                       
,,( ,,egypt                             
,,by                    ,h4 ,j4 ,l4     
,,beadnell1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4     
,decoration                             
,,cairo                                 
,,national ,,pr9t+ ,,dep>tm5t           
#aije4                                  
,,cont5ts4                              
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,introduction4                         
,,pages4        ,survey+ op]ations4     
,soil survey4 ,hi/ory ( discov]y (      
,faym v]tebrate fauna                   
#i                   ,,"p               
,i4--,,topography ,,& ,,/ructural       
,,geology4      ,,section               

,i4--,,cultivat$ ,,l&--        ,area4   
,composition & "* ( alluvial soil4      
,connection      ) ,nile ,valley4 ,bahr 
,yusef & canal sy/em4 ,rav9es4          
,alluvial deposits ( ,lake ,mo]is &     
prehi/oric lake4      ,increase (       
cultivat$ l&s                           
#aa      ,,section ,,ii4--,,! ,,birket  
,,el ,,qurun--        ,site1 dep? &     
dim5sions4 ,remnant ( ,lake ,mo]is4     
,cont9ual      %r9kage ( lake4          
,deposition ( s& 9 lake at pres5t day4  
,sal9ity ( lake4 ,possible und]gr\nd    
outlets4 ,curr5ts          #ab          
,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,surr\nd+ ,,des]t
 ,,region--        ,area & limits (     
,libyan ,des]t describ$4 ,rocks =m+ !   
area4 ,importance ( dip4 ,*ief causes ( 
orig9 ( ,faym          #ad              
,,section ,,iv4--,,wadi ,,rayan ,,&     
,,neighb\rhood--        ,colonel        
,we/]n's survey4 ,sir ,william          
,willcocks' report4      ,bor+s4        
,details ( propos$ res]voir4            
,s*we9fur?'s      e/imate ( salt cont5t4

 ,willcocks' 8,assuan ,res]voir &       
,lake ,mo]is40 ,detail$ geological      
exam9ation n yet      und]tak54 ,trav]se
 f ,nile ,valley ?r\gh ,wadi ,mula &    
,rayan to ,gh>aq4 ,w>%at el ,melh &     
spr+s ( ,wadi ,mula4      ,d] el        
,galamn4 ,pass f ,mula to ,rayan4 ,s&   
accumulations4      ,wadi ,korif4 ,spr+s
 ( ,wadi ,rayan4 ,analyses & output (   
wat]4 ,geological succession 9 ,wadi    
,rayan4 ,g5]al geology (      floor &   
b\nd+ walls4 ,ridge sep>at+ ,rayan &    
,gh>aq4      ,app>5t abs5ce ( ,nile     
deposit & fre%wat] %ells 9 ,wadi        
,rayan4 ,"q ( leakage ?r\gh ridge4      
,p]meability ( ,rayan      if us$ z a   
res]voir4 ,sal9ity ( wat]               
#af      ,,section ,v4--,,c5tral ,,area 
,,( ,,! ,,region--        ,area &       
features4 ,dip-slope ( surface4 ,dra9age
 bas9s (      c5tral pla94 ,pools =m$ by
 ra9fall4 ,tam>isk gr[?4 ,!      ea/]n  
area cov]$ by alluvium4 ,! b\nd+ plateau
 to !      nor?4 ,gh>t el ,khana%at     
dunes                                   

#bd      ,,section ,,vi4--,,! ,,ridge   
,,sep>at+ ,,! ,,nile ,,valley ,,&       
,,fayum--        ,wid? & highe/ po9ts4  
,/rata =m+ ridge4 ,gravel      t]races4 
,l[ po9ts ( ridge4 ,orig9al access (    
,nile wat]s      to depression4 ,=mation
 ( lake & deposition ( s$im5t      9    
,faym                                   
#be      ,,section ,,vii4--,,! ,,nor!rn 
,,des]t ,,region--        ,esc>pm5ts &  
plateaux4 ,extreme we/ & s\?-we/ limits 
( area4 ,f]rug9\s silicifi$ pudd+/one ( 
anci5t riv]s4      ,jebel el ,qatrani4  
,widan el ,f>as4 ,elwat ,hialla4 ,g>at  
el ,g9di4      ,g>at el ,f>as           
#bf                                ,,"p 
,,ii4--,,tectonics4      ,,section      
,,viii4--,,fault+ ,,& ,,fold+--         
,orig9 ( depression4 ,evid5ce 9 dra9age 
rav9es ,el ,bats &      ,el ,wadi4 ,deep
 bor+ at ,m$9et el ,faym4 ,dr4          
,blanck5horn's      !ory t depression   
owes its orig9 to ext5sive fault        
sy/em4 ,fault !ory disprov$4 ,fault     
,n4,n4,e4 ( ,qasr el ,sagha4            

,num]\s local /rike faults ( small ?r[4 
,occasional      influ5ce ( fractures 9 
det]m9+ esc>pm5ts                 #bi   
,,"p ,,iii4--,,geology4      ,,section  
,,ix4--,,g5]al ,,& ,,classification ,,( 
,,/rata--        ,depression cut out 9  
s$im5t>y rocks4 ,local lava fl[s4       
,dip4 ,olde/ b$s ! ,nummulites gizeh5sis
 lime/ones (      ,middle ,eoc5e4       
,fluviom>9e s]ies ( ,upp] ,eoc5e &      
,oligoc5e age4 ,abs5ce ( ,mioc5e /rata4 
,plioc5e1      ,plei/oc5e & ,rec5t4     
,table %[+ succession &                 
classification ( /rata                  
#cc      ,,section ,x4--,,middle        
,,eoc5e--        ,a4--,wadi ,rayan      
,s]ies4--,"w ( ,s*we9fur? & ,may]-,eym>4
      ,section at entrance to ,wadi     
,mula on ,nile ,valley side4 ,/rata     
( cliffs ne> ,d] el ,galamn4 ,detail$   
section measur$ at      ,jebel ,rayan4  
,may] ,eym>'s section 9 ,wadi ,mula     
#ce        ,b4--,rav9e ,b$s4--,9 rav9es 
( ,el ,bats & ,el ,wadi4 ,relation      
to und]ly+ s]ies se5 at ,g> el          

,gehannem4 ,section at ,g>      el      
,gehannem4 ,fauna ( /rata4 ,9 rav9es    
uncon=mably      ov]la9 by ,plei/oc5e1  
etc4 ,=m pla9 bord]+ cultivation      on
 ea/ side4 ,ext5sion into ,nile ,valley4
 ,occurr5ce at ,s]s5a      & ,tamia4    
,=m+ base ( ,geziret el ,qorn & l[] "p (
      nor!rn esc>pm5t ( ,birket el      
,qurn4 ,we/ end ( lake4 ,h>d            
silice\s b&s give rise to horns or      
promontories ( lake4      ,rav9e ,b$s 9 
! ,m$9et el ,faym bor+4 ,?ickness       
#cg        ,c4--,birket el ,qurun       
,s]ies4--,homotaxial ) qu>ri$           
lime/ones ( ,cairo4 ,=am9if]al b$s4     
,ext5sion ( s]ies4      ,section at     
,ezba ,qalam%a4 ,section nor? ( ,lahn   
pyramid4 ,ea/      ( ,s]s5a & nor?-ea/ (
 ,rubiyat4 ,section #ag kilometres      
#bh ,n4 ( ,e4 ( ,tamia4 ,s]ies *>act]iz$
 by l>ge globul>      concretions4      
,developm5t & fauna 9 ,geziret el ,qorn4
      ,zeuglodon rema9s4 ,pr(ile at     
,geziret el ,qorn4 ,ri* molluscan       
fauna4 ,section on ma9l& opposite       

,geziret el ,qorn4 ,section at      we/ 
end ( ,birket el ,qurn4 ,=mation (      
e>?-pill>s4      ,ext5sion we/ ( ! lake4
 ,developm5t ( ! s]ies 9 !              
,zeuglodon ,valley4 ,abundance (        
skeletons ( :ales4 ,molluscan           
fauna4 ,pseudomorphs 9 cele/9e4 ,hill   
mass s\? ( !      ,zeuglodon ,valley4   
,junction ( ,birket el ,qurn s]ies )    
ov]ly+ /age                             
#da        ,d4--,qasr el ,sagha         
,s]ies4--,equival5t ( ! ,upp] ,mokattam 
( ,cairo4 ,great] developm5t 9 ,faym4   
,v]tebrate fauna (      s]ies4          
,s*we9fur?'s orig9al discov]y ( cetacean
 rema9s4      ,rec5t discov]y ( l& &    
m>9e mammals4 ,ext5sion (      s]ies    
g5]ally4 ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,tamia4 ,at ,g>at  
el ,f>as4 ,9 !      cliffs nor? ( !     
,birket el ,qurn4 ,detail$ section ne>  
ru9 ( ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,at ,g> el       
,gehannem & we/w>ds4 ,l&      animals   
float$ out f l& by riv] curr5ts4 ,!     
s]ies a      littoral deposit4 ,lignitic
 b$s & ?9 seams ( coal            #di   

,,section ,,xi4--,,upp] ,,eoc5e -- ,,l[]
 ,,oligoc5e--        ,e4--,fluvio-m>9e  
,s]ies4--,nature ( s$im5ts1 ,int]b$d$   
basalts 9 upp] "p4 ,"* ( its inv]tebrate
 fauna4      ,conditions ( deposition ( 
s]ies4 ,cont9uance ( simil>             
conditions to ,mioc5e & ev5 ,plioc5e    
times4 ,bone-b$s at      base ( s]ies4  
,association ( skeletons ( animals & =e/
      trees4 ,pres]vation ( rema9s4     
,analysis ( fossil bones4      ,relation
 ( ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies to und]ly+ /age4  
,*>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p4 ,its developm5t 9
 ! field4      ,its slight developm5t at
 ,elwat ,hialla4 ,section ne> ,elwat    
,hialla4 ,con/ant nor!rly dip4 ,organic 
7molluscan7 rema9s #i      & #ad        
kilometres nor? ( ,qasr el ,sagha4      
,detail$ section      f ne> ,qasr el    
,sagha to ,widan el ,f>as4 ,det]m9ations
 (      mollusca f ! s]ies4 ,trip>tite  
"* ( ! s]ies      we/ ( ,widan el ,f>as 
& ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,occurr5ce (         
calcite1 gypsum & *alc$ony4 ,tabul> *]t 
& fl9t4      ,anci5t work+s4 ,ext5t (   

basalt4 ,silicifi$ trees                
#ec        ,f4--,age ( ! ,fluvio-,m>9e  
,s]ies4--,difficulty 9 !                
det]m9ation ( age ow+ to paucity (      
fossils4 ,zittel's      tabulation (    
8,s*i*t5 von ,birket el ,qurn0 z        
,oligoc5e4      ,may]-,eym>'s age       
det]m9ations4 ,s*we9fur?'s comp>ison    
( ! s]ies ) ! ,scutella b$s ( ,d] el    
,b$a ne>      ,cairo4 ,blanck5horn's    
det]m9ations4 ,! /ratigraphical         
position ( ! s]ies & relation%ip to     
,qasr el ,sagha      s]ies4             
,/ratigraphically l[] ?an ! ,l[] ,mioc5e
 (      ,mog>a4 ,:ole complex 9 all     
probability ( ,upp] ,eoc5e &            
,oligoc5e age1 ! transition be+ at or   
ne> ! basalt      %eets                 
#fc        ,g4--,! ,position ( ! ,l&    
,mass f :i* ! ,mammals      7           
d]iv$4--,proximity ( cont95tal l&4      
,abs5ce (      bran*es on fossil trees4 
,massif ( ,abu ,roa% p]haps an      isl&
 to ! nor?4 ,ext5sion ( ,eoc5e sea4     
,cont9ual      retreat ( ! sea nor?w>ds4

 ,riv]s em]g+ f ! l&4      ,numb] &     
positions ( su* riv]s d\btful4 ,evid5ce 
=      riv] pass+ f ! mod]n oasis (     
,bah>ia ?r\gh ,g> el      ,hamra to !   
,faym4 ,lacu/r9e & fluviatile deposits  
along      ! c\rse4 ,huxley's !ory (    
immigration & invasion (      animals   
into ,africa4 ,faym animals belong to an
 ext9ct ,african      fauna ( ,t]ti>y   
times4 ,conta9s ! e>lie/ & mo/          
primitive =ms ( elephants & o!r gr\ps4  
,emigration &      immigration4 ,pr(4   
,osborn's !ory ( ! ,african cont95t z   
a c5tre ( radiation4 ,confirmation by ! 
,faym mammal      discov]ies4 ,li/ ( new
 species obta9$ f ! ,faym          #fe  
,h4--,! ,abs5ce ( ,mioc5e deposits 9 !  
,faym4--,! ,faym a      l& area 9       
,mioc5e times4 ,mioc5e deposits (       
,mog>a4      ,li?ological simil>ity4    
,probable p]si/5ce ( geographical       
conditions                              
#ga      ,,section ,,xii4--,,plioc5e--  
,j4--,m>9e deposits3 ,middle            
,plioc5e4--,m>9e deposits (             

,sidmant ) typical ,middle ,plioc5e     
mollusca4 ,relation (      ^! deposits  
to ! gravel t]races z yet unkn[n ?\gh   
important                               
#ga        ,k4--,bor+s on ,rock         
,surfaces2 ( d\btful age4--,app>5tly    
due to m>9e bor+ mollusca4 ,no exact    
evid5ce z to age4      77 ,l[ level     
bor+s f z]o to #bj metres above         
sea-level4      77 ,high level bor+s at 
#aab metres above sea-level4 ,limit$    
occurr5ces ( bor+s                      
#ga        ,l4--,gravel ,t]races38 ,upp]
 ,plioc5e4--,well m>k$ t]races      (   
gravel up to #agj-ahj metres above      
sea-level4 ,ea/ ( ,sla4      ,"* (      
deposit4 ,ea/ ( ,s]s5a & ,roda4         
,n4,n4,e4 (      ,tamia1 ,n4,n4,e4 (    
,g>at el ,f>as1 ea/ & nor?-ea/ ( ,g>at  
el ,g9di4 ,relation to diff]5t s]ies4   
,"* ( gravels      at ,elwat ,hialla4   
,we/ ( ,elwat ,hialla gravel t]races    
almo/      completely remov$ by         
d5udation4 ,traces ne> ,widan el ,f>as  
& ne> ,g>at el ,e%4 ,height ( t]races 9 

latt] locality      det]m9$ z #agj      
metres above sea-level4 ,t]race m>ks    
%ore      l9e ( great %eet ( wat]1 :e!r 
fre%wat] or m>9e4      ,! great pla9s ( 
! ,faym possibly 9 "p pla9s ( m>9e      
d5udation                               
#gc        ,m4--,gypse\s ,deposits3     
probably dat+ f ! close ( !             
,plioc5e4--,ext5sion 9 ,nile ,valley &  
,faym4 ,section at      ,m$um4 ,on ! ea/
 side ( ! ,faym4 ,gypsum cem5t$         
conglom]ate4 ,close connection ) upp] "p
 ( gravel      t]races                  
#gg        ,n4--,summ>y ( ,plioc5e      
,p]iod                                  
#gh      ,,section                      
,,xiii4--,,plei/oc5e--        ,e>lie/   
exi/5ce ( a fre%wat] lake4 ,probably n a
      remnant ( ! ,plioc5e sea or lake 9
 :i* gravel t]races      7 =m$4         
,int]m$iate d5udation ( area4 ,date (   
e>lie/      entry ( ,nile wat]s d\btful4
 ,fre%wat] lake ( ,nile ,valley4        
,dra9age d[n ! ,nile ,valley &          
e/abli%m5t ( riv]4      ,break+ d[n (   

gravel ridge sep>at+ ! valley & !       
,faym4 ,entrance ( flood wat]s4 ,=mation
 ( lake &      deposition ( s$im5t4     
,subsequ5t disconnection ( ,nile ,valley
      & ,faym ow+ to erosion ( riv] b$4 
,rise ( ,nile 9      prehi/oric &       
hi/oric times4 ,reconnection4           
,geological      evid5ce = ! exi/5ce (  
great fre%wat] ,plei/oc5e      lake4    
,position & dim5sions4 ,fossil fauna ( !
 lake1 &      its diff]5ce f all o!r    
,egyptian faunas4 ,blanck5horn's        
conclusions                             
#gi      ,,section ,,xiv4--,,rec5t      
#ha        ,o4--,prehi/oric4--,abundance
 ( work$ fl9ts4 ,%ores ( lake           
inhabit$ by ,neoli?ic & probably        
prehi/oric man4 ,tam>isk      rema9s4   
,probable age ( fl9ts ant]ior to        
,egyptian hi/oric      p]iod            
#hb        ,p4--,hi/oric4--,relations ( 
! ,nile ,valley riv] sy/em &      !     
,faym4 ,lake ,mo]is a regulator ( !     
,nile floods4 ,br\ght      "u control 9 
,x,i,ith dyna/y4 ,e>ly ref]5ces to ,lake

      ,mo]is4 ,its position disput$ 9   
mod]n times4 ,l9ant de      ,bellefonds'
 ass]tion disprov$ by ,sir ,hanbury     
,br[n4      ,ar*ological evid5ce = !    
site4 ,pres5t day fauna ( !      ,birket
 el ,qurn4 ,mod]n deposits4 ,bl[n s&4   
,erosion             #hb                
,,app5dices                             
#hg        #a4 ,previ\s lit]ature relat+
 to ! ,faym                      #hg    
#b4 ,faym lamellibran*s m5tion$ 9       
,opp5heim's 8,zur ,k5ntnis              
altt]tir] ,faun5 9 gypt540              
#hi      ,,index                        
#ia                                     
,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4               
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,photographs4      ,,plates4           
,,page4          ,i4 -- ,nor? side ( !  
,birket el ,qurn1             look+ we/ 
,frontispiece4         ,,ii4 -- ,bahr   
,yusef at ,lahn be=e ent]+             !
 ,faym                                  
to face       #aa        ,,iii4 -- ,el  
,wadi1 ,rav9e ne> ,qasr ,gebali         

#ai         ,,iv4 -- ,we/]n extremity ( 
! ,birket el ,qurn                  #bi 
,v4 -- ,alluvial deposits ov]ly+ m>ly   
lime/ones 7,rav9e ,b$s7 9 ,el ,wadi1    
,rav9e ne> ,qasr ,gebali                
#cg         ,,vi4 -- ,esc>pm5t ( !      
,birket el ,qurn s]ies             ne> !
 we/]n end ( ! lake                     
#da        ,,vii4 -- ,wea!r$            
concretion>y s&/one             7,birket
 el ,qurn s]ies7 on nor? %ore1          
ne> ,geziret el ,qorn                   
#de       ,,viii4 -- ,middle ,eoc5e     
esc>pm5t 7,qasr el ,sagha               
s]ies7 #ab kilometres we/ ( ,qasr el    
,sagha                                  
#di         ,,ix4 -- ,upp] b$s (        
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies )             basalt 
cap1 look+ we/ f !             ea/]n    
extremity ( ,jebel el ,qatrani          
#ec          ,x4 -- ,el ,qatrani range f
 ! s\?-ea/                      #eg     
,,xi4 -- ,silicifi$ trees ( ,fluvio-m>9e
             s]ies1 #d kilometres nor? (
 ,qasr el             ,sagha            

#fc        ,,xii4 -- ,rais$ ,bea*       
uncon=mably ov]ly+             ,middle  
,eoc5e lime/ones 7,birket el            
,qurn s]ies7 9 ! des]t ea/ (            
,s]s5a                                  
#fi       ,,xiii4 -- ,bor+s 9 false-b$d$
 s&/one1 #b             kilometres s\? (
 ,dim                                   
#gc        ,,xiv4 -- ,plei/oc5e lacu/r9e
 clays )             tam>isk /umps 9    
situ at #ej metres             above !  
pres5t surface ( ! ,birket              
el ,qurn                                
#gg         ,,xv4 -- ,isolat$ s&-dune   
ne> ,g> el ,gehannem                    
#ha        ,,xvi4 -- ,! ,birket el ,qurn
 ne> ! we/]n end                  #he   
,,plans4       ,,xvii4 -- ,g5]al ,map ( 
! ,faym depression1 ) ,wadi ,rayan      
& ,wadi ,mula1 #a_/bejjjj               
end      ,,xviii4 -- ,map ( ! area      
nor?-we/ ( ,qasr el ,sagha1 %[+         
pr9cipal bone-be>+ localities1 #a_/ejjjj
                                        
,,sections4        ,,xix4 -- ,f !       

,birket el ,qurn ?r\gh ,dim & ,qasr el  
,sagha to ! summit ( ,jebel el ,qatrani 
end         ,,xx4 -- ,f ,wadi ,rayan to 
! summit ( ! esc>pm5t             nor? (
 ,g> el ,gehannem                       
,,xxi4 -- ,! ,des]t ,ridge sep>at+ !    
,nile ,valley &             ! ,faym     
,,xxii4 -- ,f ,sidmant el ,jebel 9 !    
,nile ,valley ?r\gh             ,m$9et  
el ,faym to ! summit ( ,jebel el        
,qatrani1             ne> ,widan el     
,f>as                                   
,,xxiii4 -- ,middle ,eoc5e esc>pm5t ne> 
,qasr el ,sagha                         
,,xxiv4 -- ,f ,g>at el ,e% to summit (  
,jebel el ,qatrani                      
,,figures 7,,9 ,,! ,,text47          #a4
 -- ,fault ne> ,qasr el ,sagha          
#cb          #b4 -- ,section at ,g> el  
,gehannem1 %[+ ! relation (             
! ,wadi ,rayan s]ies to ! ,rav9e ,b$s   
#ch          #c4 -- ,sket*-section      
across ,el ,bats1 "o kilometre we/      
( ,sla                                  
#dj          #d4 -- ,pr(ile ( b$s (     

,geziret el ,qorn                       
#dd          #e4 -- ,section ( cliffs1  
we/]n end ( ! ,birket el-,qurn      #dg 
#f4 -- ,probable c\rse ( *ief riv] (    
,upp] ,eoc5e &             ,oligoc5e    
times                                   
#fg          #g4 -- ,block ( s&/one     
pi]c$ by num]\s bor+s             #gb   
#h4 -- ,sket* %[+ relations ( ! ,eoc5e  
to ,plioc5e             gravel t]races  
on ! ea/ side ( ! ,faym              #gd
          #i4 -- ,sket*-section ?r\gh ! 
summit ( ! ,faym             esc>pm5t at
 ,elwat ,hialla                         
#gf         #aj4 -- ,sket*-map %[+      
approximately ! site (             ,lake
 ,mris                                  
#hc                                     
,,introduction4                         
99 99 99 99 99      ,! geological survey
 ( ! des]t surr\nd+ ! ,faym 0  comm5c$ 9
 ,octob] #ahih4 ,at t "t ! area1 al?\gh 
s ne>  to ,cairo1 0 little kn[n2 !      
,rohlfs ,exp$ition maps m>k$ !  region z
 8unexplor$10 & 9 fact ) ! exception ( a

  publication by ,s*we9fur?1 :o _h      
trav]s$ ! region f nor?  to s\?1 via    
,qasr el ,sagha & ,g> el ,gehannem to   
,rayan1 !re 0  little in=mation         
obta9able4 ,! area be+ ( consid]able    
size  7#ab1jjj sq4 kilom47 & almo/      
unexplor$1 bo? geologically &           
topographically1 ! prim>y object 0 to   
con/ruct z rapidly z  possible a g5]al  
map ( ! depression1 at ! same "t lay+   
d[n  9 broad outl9e ! *ief geological   
=mations & tru/+ to future  opportunity 
to exam9e 9 m detail places ( special   
int]e/4    ,comm5c+ "w at ,sla1 on !    
ea/]n side ( ! depression1 !  survey 0  
c>ri$ nor?w>ds along ! ea/ side ( !     
cultivat$  l&s & !nce ?r\gh ! nor!rn    
des]t1 up to ! summit  ( ! depression4  
,aft] mapp+ we/w>ds z f> z ! isolat$    
hill-mass ( ,g> el ,gehannem ! "w 0     
tempor>ily susp5d$ until1  9 ! spr+1 !  
n>r[ defile ( ,wadi ,mula1 & ! ,wadi    
,rayan1  =m+ ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,faym       
depression1 7 provisionally  exam9$4    
,9 ,janu>y #aija1 samples ( soil & wat] 

f ! cultivat$ l&s  7 collect$ z an      
exp]im5tal soil-survey1 & ! results h   
be5 publi%$4#a    ,dur+ ! w9t]'s "w (   
#aijb-jc a trav]se 0 c>ri$ f ,g>  el    
,gehannem 9 a s\?-we/ direction ?r\gh a 
hi!rto unexplor$  "p ( ! depression4 ,on
 rea*+ a po9t midway betwe5 ,cairo  & ! 
oasis ( ,bah>ia a connection 0 made     
ea/w>ds to ,wadi  ,rayan4 ,9 ! w9t] (   
#aijc-jd fur!r exploration 0 c>ri$ out  
9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,g> el ,gehannem4    
,x w be conv5i5t "h to briefly relate ! 
hi/ory ( !  discov]y ( ! rem>kable s]ies
 ( new & ext9ct animal =ms1 !  recov]y (
 :i* f ! ,faym deposits has creat$ su*  
widespread  int]e/ 9 ! zoological _w4   
,:5 ,s*we9fur? cross$ ! region  9 #ahgi 
he obta9$ fossil bones1 :i* 7 exam9$ &  
det]m9$  by ,dames to be ! rema9s (     
cetacea ( ! g5us ,zeuglodon1  f c]ta9   
b$s ( ! esc>pm5t we/ ( ,qasr el ,sagha2 
^!1  x is believ$1 7 ! e>lie/ v]tebrate 
rema9s obta9$ f  ! ,faym4 ,dur+ ! e>ly  
"p ( ! survey ( ! di/rict1  rema9s ( fi%
 & crocodiles 7 frequ5tly f\nd 9 "o ( ! 

b$s ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e1 probably on !   
same horizon z t  f :i* ,s*we9fur? _h   
collect$4 ,fragm5ts ( bone 7 also       
commonly met ) on a mu* high] horizon   
7i4e41 ne> ! base  ( ! ,fluvio-m>9e     
s]ies7 b no?+ ( p>ticul> int]e/  0      
obta9$1 z no detail$ se>* c\ld be made  
at t "t4 ,9  ,april #aija1 dur+ ! survey
 ( ! we/]n end ( ! ,birket el  ,qurn1 "s
 ( ! localities f\nd to be bone-be>+ 9  
#ahih 7  re-visit$ 9 company ) ,dr4 ,c4 
,w4 ,&rews1 :o 0 9 ,egypt at !  "t & _h 
accompani$ ! survey 9 ord] to obta9     
specim5s (  jackals1 h>es1 etc41 = !    
,briti% ,museum1 9 connection ) !       
=?com+ "w on ,egyptian mammals4 ,9 "o ( 
^! ,dr4 ,&rews  pick$ up sev]al v]tebrae
 :i* turn$ out to belong to a new       
species ( ,pt]osph5us4    ,fur!r nor?1  
:5 desc5d+ ! ,middle ,eoc5e esc>pm5ts at
 a place  n previ\sly exam9$1 we cross$ 
! outcrop ( ! bone-b$s at a  po9t :]e a 
consid]able numb] ( mammalian &         
reptilian bones lay  expos$ on !        
surface1 _m 9 an excell5t /ate (        

pres]vation4 ,!  importance ( ! f9d 0   
evid5t1 & a %ort exam9ation ( !  mat]ial
 on ! spot enabl$ ,dr4 ,&rews to        
pron\nce ! discov]y  to be ( ! highe/   
importance f a palaeontological po9t (  
view4    ,"s ?ree weeks' "w 9 ! imm$iate
 neighb\rhood result$ 9  a v good       
collection ( v]tebrates f ! ,middle     
,eoc5e b$s1  includ+ sev]al new g5]a    
aft]w>ds describ$#b "u ! names (        
,eosir51 ,b>y!rium1 ,mri!rium1          
,gigantophis1 etc4 ,moreov]1  a fossil  
too? br\ght 9 by "o ( ! camelm5 f a po9t
 sev]al  kilometres to ! nor? l$ to a   
c>eful exam9ation ( ! l[] b$s  ( !      
ov]ly+ ,upp] ,eoc5e =mation1 :i* result$
 9 obta9+  well-pres]v$ rema9s belong+  
to a new g5us1 s9ce describ$ z          
,palaeoma/odon4 ,all ! mat]ial s f>     
obta9$ 0 tak5 home to  be work$ up &    
det]m9$ at ! ,briti% ,museum & a        
prelim9>y  description 0 publi%$ by ,dr4
 ,&rews 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e4    ,9 
! w9t] ( #aija-jb ! survey ( ! ,faym 0  
resum$  ) ! special int5tion ( foll[+ up

 ! highe/ b$s1  ^? 9 :i* ,palaeoma/odon 
_h be5 f\nd4 ,cont9u$ se>*  we/w>ds     
ev5tually l$ to ! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( 
a l>ge  & rem>kable horn$ ungulate      
7,ars9oi!rium71 a prelim9>y  notice#c ( 
:i* 0 publi%$ 9 ! spr+ ( #aijb4 ,%ortly 
aft]1  ! rema9s ( sev]al new small]     
mammals & reptiles 7,phiomia1           
,sagha!rium71 includ+ ! %ell ( a l>ge l&
 tortoise  7,te/udo ,ammon71 7 obta9$#d4
 ,fur!r "w 9 ! w9t]s  ( #aijb-jc-jd l$  
to a great deal m mat]ial be+ obta9$#e1 
mo/ly ( c\rse belong+ to ! same species1
 b includ+ "s  new g5]a ,g5iohyus1      
,megalohyrax1 ,pt]odon4    ,! am\nt (   
palaeontological mat]ial is n[ s l>ge t 
!  ,egyptian ,gov]nm5t has arrang$ ) !  
,tru/ees ( ! ,briti%  ,museum = !       
publication ( ! :ole 9 a monograph to be
 issu$  by ! ,tru/ees4 ,! pres5t report1
 !re=e1 deals only ) !  geology &       
topography ( ! di/rict4      ,footnote  
#a3 ,a4 ,,lucas1 ,a prelim9>y           
inve/igation ( ! ,soil &  ,wat] ( !     
,fayum ,prov9ce2 ,survey ,dep41         

,p4,w4,m4 ,cairo1 #aijb4    ,footnote   
#b3 ,,&rews1 ,ext9ct ,v]tebrates f      
,egypt4 ,p>ts ,i  & ,,ii4 ,geol4 ,mag4  
,n4 #h4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,sept4
 & ,oct4 #aija1  pp4 #djj-dji &         
#dcf-ddd4    ,footnote #c3 ,,beadnell1  
,a ,prelim9>y ,note on ,ars9oi!rium     
,zitteli1  ,beadn4 ,survey ,dept4       
,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,see also ,a  
,new ,egyptian  ,mammal 7,ars9oi!rium7 f
 ! ,faym4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4     
,,iv1  ,vol4 ,x4 ,dec4 #aijc1 pp4       
#ebi-ecb4    ,footnote #d3 ,,&rews &    
,,beadnell1 ,a ,prelim9>y ,note on ,"s  
,new  ,mammals f ! ,upp] ,eoc5e (       
,egypt4 ,survey ,dept4 ,p4,w4,m41       
,cairo1  #aijb4    ,footnote #e3        
,,&rews1 ,notes on an ,exp$ition to !   
,faym1 ,egypt1  ) ,description ( "s ,new
 ,mammals4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4    
,,iv1  ,vol4 ,x4 ,aug4 #aijc1 pp4       
#ccg-cdc4 ,also ,fur!r ,notes on !      
,mammals  ( ! ,eoc5e ( ,egypt 7,p>ts ,i1
 ,,ii1 ,,iii74 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4
 ,v41  ,vol4 ,i4 ,m>*1 ,april1 ,may     

#aijd4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4   
,,bahr ,,yusuf ,,at ,,lahun ,,be=e      
,,ent]+ ,,! ,,fayum4                    
,,"p ,i4                                
,,topography ,,& ,,/ructural ,,geology4 
99 99 99 99 99      ,! ,faym1 a l>ge    
circul> depression 9 ! ,libyan ,des]t1  
is  situat$ imm$iately we/ ( t "p ( !   
,nile ,valley ly+  betwe5 ,kafr el ,ayat
 & ,fe%n 7,plate ,,xvii47    ,!         
depression1 :i* has an area1 r\ghly     
speak+1 ( #ab1jjj  squ>e kilometres1 is 
prim>ily divisible into ?ree di/9ct     
p>ts--cultivat$ l&1 lake1 & des]t4      
,,section ,i4--,,cultivat$ ,,l&4      ,!
 cultivat$ l& has an area ( ab\t #a1hjj 
squ>e kilometres &1  ) ! exception ( !  
lake & "p ( ! ,wadi ,rayan1 occupies  ! 
l[e/ "p ( ! depression4 ,cultivation is 
necess>ily /rictly  limit$ to ! area    
cov]$ ) alluvial soil4 ,! latt]1 = !    
mo/ "p id5tical 9 orig9 & composition ) 
! riv]-alluvium  ( ! ,nile ,valley1     
cov]s a leaf-%ap$ tract betwe5 ! b\nd+  
des]t on ! ea/ side & ! lake 7! ,birket 

el ,qurn7 on  ! nor?-we/4 ,! ea/]ly &   
c5tral "p ( ! cultivat$  area =ms a m or
 less level table-l&1 f :i* ! gr\nd     
slopes g5tly away1 especially on ! nor? 
side1 :]e ! slope is  t[>ds ! lake & v  
m>k$4 ,! cultivat$ l& ( ! ,faym  is     
directly connect$ ) t ( ! ,nile ,valley 
by a n>r[ /rip  ( l[ gr\nd1 a natural   
passage ?r\gh ! des]t sep>at+ !  ,nile  
,valley & ! depression ( ! ,faym4 ,?r\gh
 ?is gap runs  ! natural canal kn[n z ! 
,bahr ,yusef1 :i* is practically !  sole
 s\rce ( wat] 9 ! ,faym & irrigates !   
entire di/rict4    ,! canal leaves !    
,nile ,valley at ,lahn 7,plate ,,ii71 & 
foll[s a  some:at s]p5t9e c\rse ?r\gh ! 
des]t = ab\t #e kilometres1  irrigat+ a 
n>r[ /rip ( l& on ei!r side1 :i* at     
,haw>a  rapidly broad5s out into ! wide 
cultivat$ area ( ! ,faym4 ,once  )9 !   
latt]1 ! ,bahr ,yusef gives (f num]\s   
subsidi>y canals  :i* trav]se ! c\ntry 9
 all directions1 con/antly splitt+ up   
into small] bran*es until ! wat]-supply 
is divid$ ?r\gh\t !  :ole area4 ,) !    

exception ( ! self-conta9$ bas9 (       
,gh>aq1  on ! s\? side ( ! ,faym1 !     
entire di/rict dra9s into !  ,birket el 
,qurn1 :i* occupies ! l[e/ "p ( !       
depression1  to ! nor? ( ! cultivation4 
,! bas9 ( ,gh>aq is irrigat$ by  ! ,bahr
 el ,gh>aq1 a canal :i* takes (f f !    
,bahr ,yusef soon  aft] ! latt] ent]s ! 
,faym#f4    ,! cultivat$ l& ( ! ,faym is
 trav]s$ by two ma9 rav9es1  cut d[n 9  
_m places to ! ,eoc5e lime/one bel[ !   
alluvium  7,plates ,,iii & ,v47 ,at !   
pres5t "t ^! rav9es c>ry canals  =      
irrigat+ ! l[] p>ts ( ! di/rict1 & also 
act l>gely  z dra9s to ! high] l&s4 ,!y 
7 probably initiat$ by !  escape ( wat] 
?r\gh brea*es 9 ! ,bahr ,yusef dur+     
flood "t1  & h s9ce be5 deep5$ to _!    
pres5t dim5sions4    ,9 addition to !   
ma9 c5tral cultivat$ area1 ! soil ( :i*1
  z m5tion$ above1 is ess5tially        
id5tical ) t ( ! ,nile  ,valley1 l>ge   
tracts ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 m especially
 on  ! nor?1 nor?-we/1 & we/ sides1 are 
also cov]$ ) alluvial  deposits4 ,^!    

latt]1 :i* include s&s1 s&y clays1 &    
clays  ( a q di/9ct type1 repres5t !    
sl[ly =m$ accumulations  ( ! quiet] & m 
remote p>ts ( ! anci5t ,lake ,mo]is 7&  
! e>li] prehi/oric lake74 ,! mat]ial 0  
mo/ly d]iv$ f  ! ,eoc5e /rata :i* =m$ ! 
%ores ( ! lake1 augm5t$ no  d\bt by a   
c]ta9 am\nt ( v f9e s$im5t drift$ f !   
,bahr  ,yusef1 & by s& bl[n 9 by w9d4   
,x is noticeable t ! ?icke/ & mo/ s&y   
deposits occur ne>  ! bord]s ( ! lake   
site2 :5 close "u ! ,eoc5e cliffs1  z   
along ! nor? side above ! ,birket el    
,qurn1 ! deposits  closely resemble ^? (
 ! latt]4 ,! f9] m calc>e\s b$s  occur  
fur!r out & ! true m>ls 7 accumulat$    
only at "s  di/ance f ! %ores ( ! lake4 
,:5 9 ,ptolemaic times ! lake became    
r$uc$ to a fraction (  its =m] size1    
l>ge areas cov]$ by ^! lacu/r9e clays 7 
expos$ & "s portions 7 br\ght "u        
cultivation4 ,subsequ5tly1  h[ev]1 all  
^! outly+ di/ricts 7 ab&on$ & became    
absorb$ by ! surr\nd+ des]t1 until 9    
mod]n times !  cultivation 0 re/rict$ to

 ! c5tral portion ( ! old lake  b$1 a   
portion almo/ id5tical ) ! area ov] :i* 
true 8,nile  ,mud0 _h be5 deposit$4     
,! con/ruction dur+ rec5t ye>s (        
ext5sive irrigation works  9 ! ,nile    
,valley has made x possible to l>gely   
augm5t !  wat]-supply ( ! ,bahr ,yusef  
to ! ,faym4 ,high level canals are  be+ 
cut 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! di/rict & already  
l>ge areas (  des]t cov]$ by ^! lacu/r9e
 deposits h be5 br\ght "u  cultivation1 
notably to ! nor? ( ,tamia & 9 !        
neighb\rhood  ( ,qasr ,qurn4 ,!         
approximate area cov]$ ) lacu/r9e       
deposits  c be se5 on ! map & ) a       
suffici5cy ( wat] probably !  great] "p 
( ?is area c\ld be utiliz$1 ?\gh ! exact
 value  ( ! soil comp>$ ) ,nile deposit 
rema9s to be det]m9$4                   
,,section ,,ii4--,,! ,,birket ,,el      
,,qurun4      ,! l[e/ "p ( ! depression1
 ly+ imm$iately to ! nor?-we/  ( !      
cultivation1 is occupi$ by a %eet ( wat]
 ( consid]able  size1 kn[n z ! ,birket  
el ,qurn4#g ,! lake1 :i* has a l5g? (   

#dj kilometres1 & a maximum bread? "u   
t51 cov]s at ! pres5t  "t an area ( ab\t
 #bbe squ>e kilometres4 ,sir ,hanbury   
,br[n obta9$  no s\nd+ exce$+ #e metres 
9 cross+ ! lake to ,dim1 b  accord+ to !
 fi%]m5 ! dep? increases t[>ds !        
s\?-we/4    ,its long axis lies ne>ly   
ea/ & we/1 & :ile on ! nor? x is        
entirely#h bord]$ by des]t1 along a l>ge
 "p ( ! s\? side  ! cultivat$ l&        
approa*es its %ore1 al?\gh ev5 "h a l>ge
  area actually bord]+ ! lake is wa/e   
salty l& z yet unfit =  cultivation4 ,z 
already m5tion$1 ) ! exception ( !      
,gh>aq  bas91 ! lake receives ! :ole    
dra9age f ! cultivat$ l&s4    ,! ,birket
 el ,qurn is ! exi/+ remnant ( ! anci5t 
prehi/oric  lake :i* cov]$ a l>ge "p ( !
 floor ( ! ,faym depression1  & :i* 9   
hi/oric times 0 conv]t$ into an         
artificially  controll$ %eet ( wat]--!  
celebrat$ ,mo]is--by ,am5emhat ,i  & 8  
successors 9 ! ,,xii ,dyna/y4    ,lake  
,mo]is1 be+ us$ z a regulator (         
excessively high & l[  ,nile floods1#i 0

 ( ! greate/ importance 9 connection )  
! irrigation ( ! ,nile ,valley4 ,9 m    
rec5t times1 app>5tly  "u ! ,p]sians or 
,ptolemies accord+ to ,fl9d]s           
,petrie1#aj  ,lake ,mo]is ceas$ to p]=m 
its function ( regulator2 s9ce t  "t all
 wat]1 except t requir$ = irrigation ( !
 reclaim$  l&1 be+ c>efully exclud$1 !  
surface ( ! lake has cont9ually  &      
gradually sunk to its mod]n             
dim5sions4#aa    ,lacu/r9e deposits1 %[+
 approximately ! actual limits ( !      
anci5t ,faym lake1 c be trac$ ov] wide  
areas ( n[ b>r5  des]t2 ^! w be m fully 
dealt ) lat]4 ,! pres5t  lake-level is  
/ill cont9ually s9k+ ow+ to an improv$  
sy/em  ( irrigation1 by :i* a con/antly 
decreas+ am\nt ( wa/e  wat] dra9s into !
 lake4 ,its av]age annual fall has1 dur+
 !  la/ decade1 be5 ne>ly half a        
metre1#ab & ! slope ( ! l&  be+ v       
gradual1 l>ge areas h be5 reclaim$ dur+ 
! la/  few ye>s1 ?\gh :e!r ! advantages 
d]iv$ f ?is con/ant  l[]+ ( ! lake are n
 m ?an balanc$ by c]ta9 drawbacks  is   

some:at d\btful4#ac    ,) ! new areas n[
 be+ br\ght "u cultivation ! am\nt  (   
dra9age wat] f9d+ its way into ! lake w 
increase &  ! fall be *eck$4 ,at !      
beg9n+ ( #aijd ! level 0 m>k$ly  high]  
?an 9 ! previ\s w9t]1 & a diff]5ce ( ev5
 half a  metre alt]s ! %ore l9e to a    
consid]able ext5t1 ow+ to !  flatness ( 
! l& by :i* ! lake is = ! mo/ "p b\nd$4 
,al?\gh "u ! pres5t des]t conditions    
practically no mat]ial  f ! surr\nd+    
des]t is wa%$ into ! lake1 d\btless a   
consid]able am\nt ( f9e du/ & s& is     
c>ri$ into x by !  w9d1 especially dur+ 
! viol5t s&/orms :i* occur frequ5tly  9 
! locality4 ,! high cliffs :i* b\nd !   
nor!rn %ore (  ! lake ?r\gh\t a portion 
( its l5g? probably h ! effect  ( *eck+ 
! velocity ( bo? nor? & s\? w9ds1 ?us   
caus+ a  consid]able am\nt ( s&1 :i*    
w\ld o!rwise be c>ri$ across1  to be    
dropp$ on its surface4 ,?is mat]ial1    
toge!r ) ! f9e  mud br\ght d[n by !     
canals on ! cultivation sides1 mu/ h  an
 appreciable effect 9 rais+ ! level ( ! 

b$ ( ! lake4    ,! ph5om5on ( !         
extraord9>y fre%ness ( ! wat] ( !       
,birket el ,qurn has be5 comm5t$ on by  
,s*we9fur?1 :o %[s  t ! degree (        
conc5tration ( salt 9 a lake ^: volume  
has be5 cont9ually r$uc$1 & to :i* salt 
has con/antly  be5 add$1 %\ld be _m     
times great] ?an ! actual exi/+  am\nt4 
,an analysis#ad ( ! wat] at ! we/ end ( 
! lake  7:]e ! conc5tration is greate/1 
ow+ to ! di/ance f !  fe$] canals7 %[$ t
 ! total salts am\nt$ to only #acd1  (  
:i* #jib 0 sodium *loride4 ,dr4         
,s*we9fur?#ae concludes  t ! lake has a 
subt]ranean outlet1 :i* alone w\ld      
enable  x to ma9ta9 its comp>ative      
fre%ness4#af ,9 ?is connection  x is    
int]e/+ to note ! exi/5ce ( di/9ct      
curr5ts1 :i*  may possibly be caus$ by  
su* outlets1 9 c]ta9 localities on !    
nor? side ( ! lake2 & x is j possible t 
a c>eful survey  ( ! lake itself w\ld n 
only prove ! exi/5ce1 b %[ !  exact     
position1 ( su* und]gr\nd outlets4      
,mo/ probably1 h[ev]1 ! curr5ts are     

simply local movem5ts  produc$ by       
tempor>y diff]5ces ( level1 :i* might   
conceivably  be caus$ 9 su* a l>ge &    
comp>atively %all[ %eet ( wat]1  v>y+   
consid]ably 9 sal9ity 9 diff]5t         
localities1 by w9d  & evaporation4    ,!
 comp>ative fre%ness ( ! lake & !       
possible pres5ce (  und]gr\nd outlets   
are ( ! highe/ importance 9 _! be>+     
directly on two ( ! mo/ important       
que/ions 9 connection ) !  propos$      
utilization ( ! ,wadi ,rayan z a        
res]voir1 i4e4 :at !  leakage f su* a   
res]voir w\ld be & to :at degree (      
sal9ity  its wat] w\ld atta94           
,,section ,,iii4--,,! ,,surr\nd+ ,,des]t
 ,,region4      ,) ! exception ( ! lake 
& ! cultivat$ area ! depression  is     
practically entirely des]t4 ,! s\!rn &  
s\?-we/]n p>ts  include ! wadies ,rayan 
& ,mula1 :]e fre%wat] spr+s occur1      
surr\nd$ by areas cov]$ by a good deal (
 wild scrub4 ,ap>t f  ^!1 h[ev]1 no     
spr+s occur outside ! cultivat$ l&4     
,! topography ( ! region is s intimately

 connect$ ) its  geological /ructure t  
an adequate description ( ! =m] is  n   
possible )\t con/ant ref]5ce to ! latt]4
 ,full geological  details w1 h[ev]1 be 
res]v$ = lat] consid]ation4    ,sid5ote3
 ,area & ,limits4    ,! "p ( ! ,libyan  
,des]t dealt ) 9 ?is report has1 exclud+
  ! cultivat$ l& & ! lake1 an area ( "s 
t5 ?\s& squ>e  kilometres4 ,:ile "s     
portions h be5 exam9$ & mapp$ 9  detail1
 o!rs are /ill v imp]fectly kn[n1       
especially on !  s\? & s\?-we/ sides4 ,!
 irregul> cliff-l9e =m+ !  s\!rn b\nd>y 
( ,rayan & ! adjac5t wadis may be tak5 z
 our  limit 9 ?is direction1 beyond ly+ 
an almo/ unbrok5 lime/one  plateau ris+ 
gradually & cont9ually to ! s\?4 ,on !  
nor?  & nor?-we/ ! area "u description  
is b\nd$ by ! s\!rn  limit ( ! great    
undulat+ high-ly+ gravelly des]t-plateau
 :i*  /ret*es ) little *ange ( "* to !  
,m$it]ranean4 ,on !  ea/ side ! ,nile   
,valley =ms a conv5i5t ?\gh n altoge!r  
natural b\nd>y2 :ile to ! s\?-we/ our   
limit practically  co9cides ) ! b\nd>y (

 ! depression1 :]e ! floor (  ! latt]   
ins5sibly m]ges into ! g5]al des]t      
plateau4    ,sid5ote3 ,rocks =m+ !      
,area4    ,! rocks =m+ ! area )9 ! above
 limits are almo/ entirely  ( s$im5t>y  
orig91 ! exception be+ a b& ( h>d basalt
  int]calat$ at ! v top ( ! s]ies &     
expos$ only on !  extreme nor!rnmo/     
limit ( ! depression4 ,! total ?ickness 
(  s$im5ts1 f ! l[e/ b$s expos$ 9 !     
bottom ( ! ,wadi ,rayan  to ! summit ( !
 esc>pm5ts1 a day's m>* nor? ( ,tamia1  
is "s #gjj metres4 ,^! b$s include e k9d
 ( s$im5t>y  deposit--lime/ones1 m>ls1  
clays1 s&/ones1 s&s & gravels1  =m+ an  
ev]-*ang+ succession ( rocks1 v>y+      
consid]ably 9  h>dness & capacity = )/&+
 ! ag5ts ( d5udation4 ,x is  n too mu*  
to say t ! com+ into exi/5ce ( ! ,faym1 
)  its pla9s1 l[ly+ depressions1        
precipit\s cliffs & esc>pm5ts1  0 l>gely
 dep5d5t on ! exi/5ce ( ?is v>iable     
s]ies (  deposits4    ,ap>t f ! pres5ce 
( s$im5ts v>y+ greatly 9 h>dness  &     
durability1 ! fact t ! :ole ( ! rocks h 

an almo/  con/ant nor!rly dip ( two or  
?ree degrees is a po9t ( prime          
importance4 ,s small a dip may be       
sc>cely noticeable 9 any "o place1  b   
ov] ! l>ge areas ) :i* we h to deal its 
influ5ce  on ! position & level ( any   
individual b$ is v m>k$ &  ! topography 
( ! region w\ld h be5 ess5tially diff]5t
  if ! /rata _h be5 q horizontal4       
,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ! ,faym4    ,! unique
 "* ( ! ,faym is alone suffici5t to %[  
t special causes h act$ 9 its           
production4 ,two ma9 causes  /&         
out3--7#a7 ! pres5ce ( ?ick b&s (       
comp>atively  s(t ar5ace\s & argillace\s
 /rata break+ up ! usually  cont9u\s h>d
 lime/one ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e2 7#b7 !    
effect (  ! ,nile ,valley fault 9 l[]+ !
 :ole ( ! we/]n des]t  7nor? ( ,assiut7 
relatively to ! ea/]n4 ,! =m] took place
  z ! result ( *ang$ geographical       
conditions on ! cont95t  to ! s\? at !  
"t 9 "q1 ) :i* h[ev] we ne$  n deal "h4 
,on a homog5e\s mass ( rock wea!r+ has  
little  p[] to =m depressions ( any     

magnitude1 & ?is is ! cause (  !        
cont9u\s unbrok5 plateau :i* /ret*es    
s\?w>ds f !  ,faym1 ! und]ly+ rocks be+ 
"o cont9u\s ?ick mass ( h>d  lime/one4  
,:]ev] s(t] int]calations are pres5t    
diff]5tial  wea!r+ takes place1 & all ! 
great depressions ( ! ,libyan  des]t owe
 _! orig9 to ! pres5ce ( s(t easily     
d5ud$ /rata2  if ! great homog5e\s mass 
( ,nile ,valley lime/one _h /ret*$      
un*ang$ we/w>ds1 ! oases ( ,f>afra &    
,bah>ia w\ld nev]  h exi/$4 ,!y owe _!  
orig9 entirely to ! pres5ce ( !  und]ly+
 saddle ( s(t] ,cretace\s rocks4        
,simil>ly if *ang$  conditions _h n l$  
to ! deposition ( s(t b$s ( clay1 m>l1  
& s&/one1 ! we/]n plateau w\ld h cont9u$
 unbrok5  nor?w>ds4    ,a comp>ison ( ! 
two sides ( ! ,nile ,valley betwe5      
,cairo &  ,assiut %[s t ! tectonic      
movem5ts1 :i* l>gely det]m9$ !  exi/5ce 
( ! valley itself1 result$ 9 a          
consid]able l[]+  ( ! rocks =m+ ! we/]n 
side4 ,?is 0 br\ght ab\t by  diff]5tial 
movem5ts along ! nor? & s\? l9e or l9es 

( fault1 & by ! pres5ce ( an ea/ to we/ 
monocl9al fold  :i* is especially well  
m>k$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,heluan4 ,!     
depressions ( ! ,faym w\ld d\btless h   
exi/$ irrespective (  ?is g5]al l[]+ ( !
 we/]n des]t relative to ! ea/1 b       
d5udation w\ld h requir$ an additional  
p]iod ( _m ?\s&s  ( ye>s be=e ! floor ( 
! depression 0 l[ en\gh to all[  ( its  
actual connection ) ! ,nile riv]4    ,z 
x has be5 ma9ta9$ t ! ,faym is an area  
let d[n &  enclos$ by faults1 x may be  
m5tion$ "h t all available  evid5ce     
po9ts 9 an opposite direction2 ?is "q ( 
faults  w h[ev] be dealt ) 9 detail     
lat]4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,nile  ,valley    
fault has be5 expla9$ above & x mu/ be  
rememb]$ x  is "o affect+ n ! ,faym     
alone b ! nor!rn "p ( !  we/]n des]t z a
 :ole4      ,= purposes ( description x 
w be conv5i5t to divide ! :ole  region  
into ?ree p>ts3 fir/1 ! s\!rn portion1  
includ+ !  wadis ,mula & ,rayan2        
secondly1 ! c5tral area1 compris+ !     
ext5sive pla9 =m+ ! floor ( ! depression

 z a :ole1 &  includ+ ! areas "u        
cultivation & ! ,birket el ,qurn1 z well
  z ! des]t sep>at+ ! ,faym f ! ,nile   
,valley4 ,?irdly1 !  nor!rn portion1    
embrac+ all ! ris+ gr\nd betwe5 ! floor 
&  ! nor!rn rim ( ! region4 ,^! areas w 
n[ be tak5 9 ord]4                      
,,section ,,iv4--,,wadi ,,rayan ,,&     
,,neighb\rhood4      ,?is "p ( ! ,faym  
is ( special int]e/ 9 consequ5ce (  its 
possible future z a res]voir4 ,al?\gh ! 
area has n yet  be5 exam9$ 9 detail by !
 ,geological ,survey x w be useful  to  
br+ toge!r all ! in=mation t is at      
pres5t available4    ,sid5ote3 ,colonel 
,we/]n's ,survey4    ,9 #ahhb1 z a      
c\nt]-project to o!r irrigation s*emes1 
,cope  ,:iteh\se sugge/$#ag utilis+ z a 
res]voir ! ,wadi ,rayan1  a depression  
:i* _h be5 ref]r$ to by ,l9ant de       
,bellefonds4#ah  ,at ! reque/ ( ,sir    
,col9 ,scott ,moncrieff ! ,gov]nm5t     
deput$  ,colonel ,we/]n to make plans ( 
! ,wadi ,rayan & surr\nd+ c\ntry  & to  
asc]ta9 ! capacity ( ! depression & its 

capability  ( be+ us$ z a res]voir4     
,li]nur ,bey "u 8 direction  prep>$ a   
cont\r$ map1 & ,colonel ,we/]n's report1
 plans1 &  e/imates 7 publi%$4#ai ,"s   
g5]al details ( ! wadi &  surr\nd+ hills
 are giv5 & ! detail$ survey %[$ t !    
#cj metre cont\r l9e 7above sea-level7  
enclos$ an area ( #gjf squ>e  kilometres
 7#agj1jjj f$dans74 ,! l[e/ po9ts ( !   
depression 7  f\nd at #db metres bel[   
sea-level4 ,! s&1 scrub & spr+s are     
briefly ref]r$ to & ! dis*>ge ( ! latt] 
is giv5 z equal  to t ( a v sl[-go+ f\r 
in* h& pipe1 ! wat] runn+  out at ab\t  
#bj m4 & disappe>+ 9 ! s&4 ,wadi ,mula 0
  f\nd to be sep>at$ f ! ,rayan         
depression by s&hills & rock  at a mean 
level (  #ej metres1 ! l[e/ po9t 9 ,mula
 be+ at   #be metres4 ,a l9e ( levels 0 
run f ,rayan ?r\gh ,mula to !  ,nile    
,valley1 ! highe/ po9t cross$ be+ at    
#aje metres2 =  fifte5 kilometres !     
level 0 n bel[  #ge metres4 ,9 ord] to  
f9d ! mo/ suitable passage = a canal to 
connect ! ,nile )  ! ,wadi ,rayan two   

l9es ( level 7 made aft] a              
reconnaissance (  ! hills ne> ,sidmant  
el ,jebel3 ! s\!rn1 f ,ezba ,m5esi ,ali1
  ne> ! ,gh>aq canal1 to ,mazana on !   
,bahr ,yusef1 be+ consid]$  ! be/4      
,along ?is l9e ! highe/ po9t 0 only at  
#ddg metres  & ! av]age  #ce metres     
along f\r kilometres4 ,bor+s 7 n  made  
"h b judg+ f ! surface excavation w\ld  
be mo/ly  9 s(t lime/one1 s&1 &         
conglom]ate4 ,a mu* %ort] r\te is  f    
,de%asleh on ! ,bahr ,yusef ov] ! hills 
ab\t #e kilometres  to ! s\? ( ,mazana  
or ,sidmant into ! ,wadi ,gh>aq1 a      
di/ance  ( #cj kilometres4 ,?is r\te 0 n
 h[ev] levell$ b is fairly  /raight &   
app>5tly n mu* high] ?an ! ,mazana      
passage4    ,! survey ( !  #cj metre    
cont\r l9e ( ! ,wadi ,rayan prov$  t !re
 7 only two outlets into ! ,faym1 bo? on
 ! nor!rn  side3 ^! two op5+s are only f
 #djj-ejj metres wide & _!  l[e/ po9ts  
are n bel[  #be or  #bf metres4         
,sid5ote3 ,lat] ,gov]nm5t ,publications 
by ,scott ,moncrieff &  ,willcocks4     

,9 #ahhi ,sir ,c4 ,scott ,moncrieff     
publi%$#bj a fur!r note1 9 :i*  he      
briefly discuss$ ! probable co/ &       
b5efits to be d]iv$  f ! sugge/$        
res]voir1 conclud+ t at lea/ ! project  
0 "o wor?y ( be+ ?or\ghly exam9$4    ,9 
#ahid ! plans & designs 9 connection ) !
 ,wadi ,rayan  7 publi%$#ba & !         
possibility ( utiliz+ ! ,wadi ,rayan  0 
exam9$ by ,sir ,william ,willcocks1 !n  
,director ,g5]al (  ,res]voirs1 f an    
eng9e]+ po9t ( view1 & ! que/ions (  its
 probable co/ & future utility 7        
discuss$4 ,9 ?is report  x is /at$ t !  
r\tes propos$ by ,colonel ,we/]n 9 #ahhh
 pass  ?r\gh salty m>ls & clays         
unsuitable = hold+ canals4 ,ano!r  r\te 
is sugge/$1 :i* aft] leav+ ! ,nile      
,valley crosses !  high des]t ridge 9 a 
/raight l9e1 pass+ ?r\gh ! s-call$      
,wadi ,li]nur 7,wadi ,lulu ( ,cope      
,:iteh\se72 ?is depression is #ab       
kilometres long & has its b$ "s #bd     
metres bel[ ! g5]al  level ( ! des]t4   
,plate #ae ( ! report %[s ! ,wadi       

,rayan1 !  des]ts betwe5 x & ! ,nile    
,valley & ! cultivat$ l&4 ,!  map 0     
begun by ,col4 ,we/]n & complet$ by     
,willcocks4 ,! l[e/  po9t ( ,wadi ,rayan
 is %[n z  #db metres & ! depression is 
sep>at$ f ! ,faym by a lime/one ridge   
g5]ally f  #cd to   #fj metres1 except  
at two places :]e x falls to  #bf metres
 above  sea level on a l5g? ( #fjj      
metres4 ,)9 !  #bg metre cont\r  l9e !  
wadi has an area ( #fgc squ>e kilometres
 & a capacity (  #ah1gdc1jjj1jjj cubic  
metres4 ,betwe5 x & ! ,nile ,valley lie 
#cj  kilometres ( des]t1 ( :i* #aa are  
occupi$ by a m>k$ depression  discov]$  
by ,li]nur ,bey 9 #ahhg4 ,at ! extreme  
we/]n edge ( !  ,nile ,valley 7"h #bj   
kilometres wide7 runs ! ,bahr ,yusef4   
,comp>+  ! propos$ ,wadi ,rayan res]voir
 & ! anci5t ,mris & all[+  = a diff]5ce 
( #de metres betwe5 ! levels ( ! ,nile  
,valley  9 ,b4,c4 #b1jjj & to-day1      
,willcocks assumes t ! high wat] m>k (  
,lake ,mris 0 at  #bbe metres & its area
 #b1ejj squ>e kilometres1  aga9/ #fgc   

squ>e kilometres ( ! ,wadi ,rayan at    
#bg metres4 ,x  is po9t$ out t ! anci5t 
lake _h ! great advantage t 9  ^? days !
 ,bahr ,yusef 0 an important bran* ( !  
,nile1 if n  ! ma9 riv] itself1 & !     
res]voir 0 connect$ ) ! ,nile  by a     
natural rav9e ( great l5g? & %ort       
bread?1 across :i*  a massive embankm5t 
0 ?r[n & de/roy$ annually1 ! surplus    
wat] ( high floods be+ /or$ = !         
defici5cy ( l[ floods4    ,! publi%$    
sections along ! l9es ( bor+s put d[n %[
 !  diff]5t /rata cut ?r\gh by ! propos$
 canal4 ,! ,nile ,valley1  along ! l9e (
 ! inlet canal1 consi/s ( h>d clay #f to
 #aj  metres ?ick1 ly+ on co>se s&4     
,along ! outlet canal s&y  clays & clays
 alt]nate to a dep? ( #aj metres4 ,on   
ent]+ !  des]t s&s & s&y conglom]ate1 ) 
gypsum & salt1 are met  ) bel[ !        
surface1 !n a yell[ m>l ) salts1 &      
f9ally a  pla/ic black clay ov]ly+ !    
,p>isian lime/one4 ,^! b$s are  mo/     
ext5sive 9 ! n>r[ neck ( l& betwe5 !    
,nile ,valley &  ! ,faym & to "s #aj    

kilometres to ! s\? ( x4 ,!y rise  to   
#gj metres4 ,!re are "s o!r m>ls inside 
! ,wadi ,rayan or  9 ! adjac5t          
depressions & z !y h to be trav]s$ by ! 
canals =m a s]i\s factor1 be+ easily    
dissolv$ 9 wat]2 9  consequ5ce          
,willcocks *ose ! alignm5t ( ! inlet    
canal along  ! ,bahr ,belama :]e ! ext5t
 ( ^! b$s w\ld only be #be  kilometres  
aga9/ #i kilometres on ! alt]native r\te
 m>k$ on  ! plan4 ,a n>r[ neck ( l&1 "s 
#ae kilometres 9 l5g?1 runs  betwe5 !   
,faym & ! depressions trav]s$ by !      
propos$  ,wadi ,rayan canal2 ?is neck is
 ! cont9uation ( ! salty m>ls  & clays1 
b ! lime/one is ne> ! surface & is      
ov]la9 by  a ?9 deposit ( s& & pebbles1 
) fre%wat] %ells on its  nor!rn slope at
  #bbej metres2 ! s\!rn slope is        
entirely  devoid ( !m4 ,willcocks po9ts 
out t x is evid5t ! anci5t  ,mris rose  
to  #bbej metres b its wat] nev]        
p5etrat$ into !  ,wadi ,rayan4 ,! report
 goes into details ( inlet & outlet     
canals1  dis*>ge1 necess>y masonry      

works1 co/1 & comp>es ! diff]5t         
res]voir s*emes4    ,aft] a c>eful      
review ( ! :ole "q1 ! s*eme1 :ile       
consid]$ p]fectly feasible z f> z       
available data w5t1 0  ab&on$ by ,sir   
,william ,g>/9#bb 9 fav\r ( ! less co/ly
  & m useful ,nubian res]voir4          
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii4    ,,el    
,,wadi1 ,,rav9e ,,ne> ,,qasr ,,gebali4  
,sid5ote3 ,s*we9fur?'s report on !      
probable salt-cont5t 9  ,wadi ,rayan    
,res]voir4    ,9 an app5dix#bc to !     
above report ,s*we9fur? discusses !  "q 
z to h[ salt ! wat] ( su* a res]voir    
w\ld become4 ,he  po9ts out t ! exact   
valuation ( ! salt :i* w\ld be  conta9$ 
9 ?is res]voir :5 ! wat] _h ris5 to  #bg
 metres  _c be accurately det]m9$1 ow+  
to ! abs5ce ( in=mation  on c]ta9 po9ts4
 ,! maximum quantity ( salt 9 ! des]t   
soil  is e/imat$ at #b & ?is figure is  
us$ 9 8 calculation1  :i* includes !    
am\nt ( salt :i* w\ld be br\ght into !  
res]voir1 7#a7 f ! ,nile dur+ fill+ & 9 
! extra wat]  ent]+ to replace t lo/ by 

evaporation 9 ! lake & canals2  7#b7 f !
 gr\nd =m+ ! b$ ( ! lake 7f> ! l>ge/    
item72  7#c7 f ! b$ & banks ( ! inlet   
canal1 bo? 9 ! des]t &  9 ! ,nile       
,valley2 & 7#d7 f infiltration4 ,!      
figure obta9$  is #g1ejj million        
kilogrammes1 equal to #jjd p] c5t1 or   
almo/ "o  tw5ty-fif? p] c5t ( salt4 ,?is
 am\nt is only equival5t to half  ! salt
 exi/+ 9 _m ( ! well wat]s us$ 9 !      
c\ntry =  irrigation4 ,z ,s*we9fur? is  
c>eful to po9t out 8 calculation  is    
bas$ on maximum & assum$ data4          
,sid5ote3 ,willcocks' 8,ass\an ,res]voir
 & ,lake ,mris04    ,! "q ( !           
utilisation ( ! ,wadi ,rayan z a        
res]voir has  rec5tly be5 aga9 br\ght to
 ! front1 notably by ,sir ,william      
,willcocks 9 a pap]#bd read be=e !      
,kh$ivial ,geographical  ,society1      
,cairo4 ,! au?or1 aft] po9t+ out ! value
 ( su* a  lake1 work+ 9 connection ) !  
,assuan res]voir1 discusses at  l5g? !  
position1 dim5sions1 & functions ( !    
anci5t ,lake  ,mo]is4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! 

ma9 canal %\ld be cut ?r\gh  ! des]t    
opposite ,mazana & cross+ ! s-call$     
wadis ,li]nur  & ,masaigega ent] ! ,wadi
 ,rayan at its ea/]nmo/ po9t4 ,^!  wadis
 w\ld 9 "t become cov]$ ) alluvium & be 
conv]t$  into valuable cultivat$ l&4    
,aft] exam9+ ! big rav9es (  ! ,faym1   
:]e simil> b$s are expos$1 ! au?or comes
 to !  conclusion t ! ma9t5ance ( canals
 9 ! salif]\s m>ls1  :i* =m "p ( ! des]t
 ?r\gh :i* ! inlet canal w\ld pass1     
w\ld (f] no p>ticul> difficulties4    ,)
 reg>d to ! que/ions ( leakage into !   
,faym & ( !  wat] ( ! lake ev5tually    
becom+ salt$1 ,sir ,william ,willcocks  
says1 8,:5 ! old ,lake ,mo]is1 or !     
pres5t ,faym1 0 full  ( wat] & #fc      
metres high] ?an ! bottom ( ! ,wadi     
,rayan &  rema9$ s = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 !re 0
 no "q ( ! wat]s  hav+ become salt$ or  
hav+ escap$ into ! ,wadi4 ,! ,wadi 0  z 
dry z x is to-day & ! great inl& sea 0  
always fre%40  ,z to ! "q ( leakage into
 ,gh>aq ! au?or consid]s t  if wat] f\nd
 its way into t depression x w\ld be a  

di/9ct  advantage1 z su* wat] c\ld be   
pump$ into ! ,nezleh canal &  utiliz$   
else:]e2 he ma9ta9s at ! same "t t no   
leakage  w take place4 ,incid5tally x is
 m5tion$ t ! ,wadi ,rayan is  sep>at$ f 
! ,faym by a lime/one ridge1 a /atem5t  
:i*1  z w be %[n lat]1 requires         
modification4    ,sid5ote3 ,wadi ,rayan 
n yet exam9$ 9 detail by ! ,geological  
,survey ( ,egypt4    ,until a detail$   
geological exam9ation ( ! ,wadi ,rayan &
  neighb\rhood has be5 c>ri$ out x w n  
be possible to =m  reliable op9ions on  
_m ( ! que/ions rais$ 9 connection )  ! 
prospective res]voir4 ,! writ]'s        
acqua9tance ) ! area  is limit$ to a    
trav]se 9 #ahii f ! ,nile ,valley ?r\gh 
,wadi  ,mula to ,rayan & !nce to ,gh>aq1
 & subsequ5tly to a /ay  ( a few days   
duration 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,rayan    
spr+s1  aft] mapp+ ! extreme s\?-we/ ( !
 ,faym depression4 ,:ile  ! accompany+  
maps may be tak5 z repres5t+ fairly     
accurately  ! bold] topography ( !      
region1 !y d n replace ! old]  cont\r$  

maps ( ! floor ( ! depression & ! c\ntry
 betwe5  x & ! ,nile ,valley to ! ea/1  
accompany+ ! report on  8,p]5nial       
,irrigation & ,flood ,protection 9      
,egypt40      ,! foll[+ description (   
?is "p ( ! di/rict is bas$ on a  trav]se
 f ! ,nile ,valley ?r\gh ! wadis ,mula &
 ,rayan to  ,gh>aq2 ! detail$ geological
 sections measur$ & exam9$ along  ! l9e 
( r\te w be giv5 lat]4    ,sid5ote3     
,trav]se f ,nile ,valley ?r\gh ,wadi    
,mula to ,rayan  & ,gh>aq4    ,sid5ote3 
,w>%at el ,melh 9 ,wadi ,mula4          
,betwe5 ! village ( ,el ,gayat & ! m\? (
 ! ,wadi ,mula  7#af kilometres to !    
nor?-we/7 /ret*es a gradually ris+      
undulat+ gypse\s pla91 sup]ficially     
cov]$ ) loose s& &  r\nd$ pebbles (     
qu>tz & fl9t4 ,9 occasional small hills 
!  :ite lime/one :i* =ms ! und]ly+ rock 
is visible4 ,ne>  ! entrance to ! wadi  
/&s a some:at prom95t conical hill      
compos$ ( h>d :iti% fossilif]\s lime/one
 pass+ d[n into  m s&y & clayey b$s4 ,! 
bottom ( ! wadi is cut out 9 s(t  gre5 &

 br[n clays1 its surface be+ cov]$ )    
bl[n s&1  fragm5ts ( lime/one1 fl9ts &  
gypsum4 ,f ! m\? ( ! wadi  ! ,nile      
,valley cliffs run nor? & s\? 9 a w9d+  
irregul>  mann]4 ,on ent]+ ! valley     
sev]al out/&+ flat-topp$  lime/one capp$
 hills are pass$ on ! "r h&2 !y are 9   
"p jo9$ to ! regul> b\nd+ cliff beyond2 
! ea/]n cliff  is /eep & well-m>k$1 :ile
 t on ! we/ only outcrops "h  & !re1    
buri$ z x is 9 imm5se accumulations (   
bl[n s&1  ris+ 9 places into def9ite    
dune-ridges4 ,wadi ,mula has a l5g?  (  
"s #ah kilometres & lies ne>ly ,n4,w4 & 
,s4,e4 ,! c5tral "p  ( its floor is a   
s&y scrub-cov]$ area1 ! l[e/ po9ts ly+  
at ab\t  #be metres2 j at ! s\!rn edge (
 ! scrub /&s  a small hill compos$ ( h>d
 %aly clays capp$ by :ite lime/one1     
surr\nd$ by a sal9e1 sup]ficially dry4  
,holes dug 9 ?is are  at once fill$ )   
excessively salt wat]1 & by evaporation 
(  ! br9e 9 %all[ tr\ghs supplies ( :ite
 fairly pure salt c  be obta9$4 ,! area 
is kn[n z ,w>%at el ,melh4 ,banks ( re$s

  7 f\nd gr[+ on ! nor? side ( ! sal9e1 
! surface (  ! latt] be+ "h compos$ ( a 
s(t br[n s&y salty deposit1  cak+ "h &  
!re into a h>d e>?y impure salt4    ,9 !
 l[e/ spots ! sal9e frequ5tly consi/s ( 
s(t wet sludge2  its area is ab\t half a
 squ>e kilometre b ! dep? ( ! deposit   
is unkn[n4 ,9 ! middle ( ! scrub-cov]$  
area to ! nor? lies  ,a9 ,w>%at el      
,melh1 a pool ( wat]1 fairly fre% &     
dr9kable1  al?\gh f]rug9\s1 measur+ #aj 
by #e metres 9 size & f #b  to #b metres
 deep4 ,! wat] evid5tly rises f a spr+  
on !  we/ side1 r\nd :i* are fifty squ>e
 metres ( gre5 ru%es1 )  "s l>g] bu%es4 
,! gr\nd ar\nd & above is v salif]\s2   
betwe5 ! spr+ & ! ru9s to ! nor? ! gr\nd
 is s&y1  ) _m bu%es & mu* scrub4 ,?is  
gr\nd ext5ds two kilometres  to ! we/1  
:5ce x gradually passes up into great   
masses ( drift  s&2 an occasional small 
outcrop ( ! top ( ! plateau above !  s& 
is all t s]ves to locate ! position ( ! 
buri$ cliff4 ,on  ! ea/ side ! s&y gr\nd
 ) scrub ext5ds ab\t a kilometre1       

beyond :i* ! pla9 gradually rises =     
ano!r kilometre to !  base ( ! cliff    
beyond1 :i* is fairly /eep & well-m>k$1 
?\gh ) an entire abs5ce ( ind5tations ( 
any k9d4    ,sid5ote3 ,d] el ,galamn4   
,close to ! nor? end ( ! valley1 & ab\t 
#cc kilometres f  ,el ,gayat1 lie ! ru9s
 kn[n z ,d] el ,galamn bil ,mula4 ,at  !
 "t ( our visit a new squ>e /one build+ 
0 9 c\rse (  erection & five or six     
p]sons 7 inhabit+ ! place4 ,!re are     
sev]al small palms scatt]$ ab\t to ! s\?
 ( ! mona/]y &  an excell5t runn+ spr+ (
 cle> wat] five hundr$ paces to !       
s\?-we/4 ,a new well is be+ sunk )9 !   
premises4 ,to ! nor?  ( ! mona/]y !     
ea/]n cliff takes a m>k$ tr5d to ! we/  
= "s ?ree kilometres1 :5ce x resumes a  
nor!rly direction1  always ma9ta9+ its  
"* ( a /eep well-m>k$ esc>pm5t  ris+ "s 
#ajj metres above ! floor ( ! wadi4 ,at 
! corn]  ( ! cliffs ! l[e/ b$ expos$ is 
a :ite lime/one2 ?is is  ov]la9 by      
gypse\s clays pass+ up into s&y b$s1 !  
latt]  be+ surm\nt$ by ! :ite lime/one  

capp+ ! esc>pm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,wadi    
,rayan4    ,we are "h on ! summit ( !   
divide betwe5 ,wadi ,mula & ,wadi       
,rayan1 ! height ( ! floor be+ ab\t     
#aje metres2 to ! nor?  /ret*es a       
gradually wid5+ bay desc5d+ to ! l[e/   
gr\nd  ( ! ,rayan depression4 ,imm5se   
accumulations ( s& almo/ block  ! defile
 & /ret* away to ! ea/1 & ! hi!rto      
well-m>k$  cliff on t side b5ds back &  
is lo/ to view4 ,on ! o!r side  h[ev]1 !
 b\nd+ wall gradually em]ges f ! dunes1 
gett+  m di/9ct z x is foll[$ nor?w>ds  
until x becomes q  cle> ( ! s&4 ,! fir/ 
glimpse ( ?is cliff is se5 a c\ple (    
kilometres we/ ( ! pass 9 an outcropp+  
headl&1 ! next po9t  visible be+ "s five
 kilometres fur!r we/4 ,betwe5 ^!       
portions  ( ! cliff are "o or two       
outli]s1 surr\nd$ by quantities ( bl[n  
s&4 ,a depression kn[n z ,wadi ,korif is
 report$ to lie to ! we/1  & mu* scrub &
 "s wat] is said to exi/ !re2 su* a wadi
 is  m>k$ on ,s*we9fur?'s map b app>5tly
 has n be5 exam9$4    ,cont9u+ 9 a      

,n4,n4,w4 direction high r /eep dunes   
occur  on ei!r flank1 runn+ ,n4,n4,w4 & 
,s4,s4,e4 ,betwe5 ! dunes is a  fairly  
h>d undulat+ s&-flat af=d+ an easy r\te2
 fur!r  on a n>r[ defile betwe5 ! dunes 
leads d[n to ! c5tre (  ! depression4 ,!
 ma9 areas occupi$ by bl[n s& are %[n 9 
! accompany+ maps4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ "p ( !
 depression  is ! bay ly+ to ! s\? ( !  
n>r[ well-m>k$ promontory  jutt+ out f !
 s\!rn plateau1 a huge po9t]1 z x 71  9 
! direction ( ,gh>aq2 ?is is ! ,cape    
,rayan ( ,s*we9fur?4    ,sid5ote3 ,spr+s
 9 ,wadi ,rayan4    ,! bay is on ?ree   
sides completely enclos$ by cliffs & its
  floor is ?ickly cov]$ by a luxuri\s   
gr[? ( wild scrub--*iefly  tam>isk &    
gh>dag2 num]\s isolat$ palm trees occur1
 especially 9  ! neighb\rhood ( ! wat]  
:i* exi/s at sev]al po9ts4 ,!re  are    
?ree p>ticul>ly good spr+s1#be !        
positions ( :i* are  %[n on ! accompany+
 maps4 ,accord+ to ,colonel ,we/]n's    
survey ! wat] em]ges at ab\t  #bj       
metres4 ,9 #ahii ! wat] (  ! nor!rn spr+

 0 f\nd to h a temp]ature ( #bf;,c4 ,on 
our  la/ visit we f\nd an artificially  
con/ruct$ pool ( two metres  diamet] & a
 dep? ( #cj c5timetres2 on ! we/ side ( 
?is  7 two spr+s1 m>k$ by ! motion ( !  
grey s& ris+ &  fall+ 9 ! v5ts1 d[n :i* 
a /ick c\ld be easily pu%$ to  a dep? ( 
two metres4 ,! output ( ^! spr+s toge!r 
am\nt$  to six litres a m9ute2 ! wat] 0 
q cle> & al?\gh s(t  & r f]rug9\s n by  
any means unpalatable 7see analyses     
bel[74 ,! pool lies on an op5 b>e s&y   
spot & is surr\nd$ by  scatt]$ bu%es1   
none ( :i* h[ev] are )9 fifte5 metres2  
a s& dune lies #aej metres to ! s\?-we/1
 ) bu%es &  sev5 or eight "y palms4 ,!  
s\!rly spr+ has an output (  #ba litres 
a m9ute1 & its wat] does n diff]        
ess5tially f  t ( ! nor!rn spr+4 ,ris+  
at ! foot ( a palm tree x  =ms pools on 
ei!r side2 !nce x fl[s a di/ance ( #bj  
metres  into an artificially con/ruct$  
%all[ bas9 #b to #c metres across1  f   
:i* x runs away d[n ! slope & disappe>s 
aft] five or  six metres4 ,! ea/ spr+1  

:i* is situat$ on ! ea/ side (  ! dunes 
b\nd+ ! m\? ( ! bay1 consi/s ( a small  
hole cut  out 9 s(t s&4 ,! wat] seem$   
good1 al?\gh analysis %[s !  salts      
cont5t to be high2 ?is spr+ does n run1 
b if empti$  ! hole soon refills4 ,!    
rema9s ( old build+s occur ne> !  well1 
9 ! %ape ( loose r\ghly squ>$ lime/one  
blocks1 brok5  pott]y1 & rema9s ( old   
walls2 ! latt] are ne>ly level )  !     
gr\nd & v ?ickly & solidly built4    ,to
 ! s\? ( ! promontory lies ! s-call$    
,little ,rayan4 ,"h  !re is a good deal 
( scrub1 & wat] c be obta9$ on ! l[e/   
gr\nd at a few metres dep?1 al?\gh !re d
 n appe> to be any  surface spr+s4      
,sid5ote3 ,geology ( ,wadi ,rayan 9     
broad outl9e4    ,! geological          
succession ( b$s expos$ 9 ! cliffs ( !  
promontory is giv5 lat]4 ,broadly speak+
 x consi/s ( two  ?irty-metre b&s ( h>d 
lime/one sep>at$ by #fh metres ( s(t]   
s&y & clayey b$s4 ,! l[] ( ! lime/one   
b&s 9 places  =ms ! floor ( ! depression
 b m frequ5tly ! latt]  is compos$ ( !  

ov]ly+ s&y or clayey b$s4 ,! depression 
is b\nd$ on ! nor? side by ! same       
succession1 &1 z f>  z c\ld be judg$ f  
obs]vations made on ! trav]se1 ! b$  (  
lime/one capp+ ! ridge1 & =m+ ! pla9    
/ret*+  away to ! ,birket el ,qurn & to 
,g> el ,gehannem1 is id5tical  ) t capp+
 ! cliffs to ! s\?1 i4e4 is ! upp]mo/ ( 
! two ?ick lime/one b&s4 ,at ! two po9ts
 m p>ticul>ly  notic$1 namely1 ! spurs  
project+ s\?w>ds into ! depression1  #bc
 kilometres we/ & #ah kilometres        
,w4,s4,w4 ( ,gh>aq bas91 !  sequ5ce     
seem$ to be ! same z 9 ! s\!rn cliffs1  
al?\gh1  ow+ to ! nor!rly dip1 ! upp] b$
 ( lime/one lies at a  mu* l[] level & !
 basal b$s are n expos$ at all4 ,9 bo?  
^! localities1 h[ev]1 "s ( ! und]ly+    
clays 7 expos$1  z well z on ! l[e/     
spots cross$ betwe5 ! mo/ ea/]ly spur   
7#ah kilom4 ,w4,s4,w4 ( ,gh>aq7 & !     
ext5sive dunes ly+ imm$iately  we/ (    
,gh>aq cultivation4 ,^! dunes1 ?\gh ( no
 height1 h  rem>kably /eep sides4 ,9    
cross+ ,gh>aq to ! ,faym cultivation    

occasional b$s ( yell[ s&y lime/one 7   
notic$1 b _!  horizon 0 n det]m9$4      
,num]\s bor$ blocks1 probably belong+   
to ! m>9e ,plioc5e1 7 obs]v$ scatt]$    
ab\t4 ,app>5tly  ! upp]mo/ ?irty-metre  
b& ( lime/one passes cont9u\sly         
nor?w>ds "u ! cultivat$ l&s ( ,gh>aq & !
 ,faym2  9 ! rav9es ( ! latt] ?is       
lime/one is n obs]v$1 !  s(t lime/ones  
expos$ bel[ ! alluvial deposits almo/   
c]ta9ly  belong+ to ! ov]ly+ ,rav9e b$s4
 ,! c\ntry to ! ea/ (  ,gh>aq has n be5 
geologically exam9$ & ! exact locality 9
  :i* ! ?ick b$ ( lime/one dips         
und]gr\nd & is ov]la9 by  ! succe$+ b$s 
is d\btful4 ,fur!r nor?1 9 ! des]t ridge
  ea/ ( ,qalam%a1 we h obs]v$ ! ,birket 
el ,qurn b$s & a  section measur$ at ?is
 po9t is giv5 lat]4    ,sid5ote3 ,"* (  
,ridge sep>at+ ,wadi ,rayan f ,gh>aq &  
! ,faym4    ,z x appe>s to h be5 freely 
assum$ t ! ridge sep>at+  ! ,rayan      
depression f ! cultivat$ l&s ( ,gh>aq & 
!  ,faym is =m$ ?r\gh\t ( solid         
lime/one1 x is important to  po9t out t1

 on our assumption ( ! id5tity ( ! b$s (
  lime/one capp+ ! cliffs to ! s\? & !  
pla9 to ! nor?  ( ! ,wadi ,rayan1 !     
divid+ ridge w\ld 9 "p be =m$ ( !       
und]ly+ ar5ace\s & argillace\s b$s4     
,sid5ote3 ,"q ( leakage ?r\gh divid+    
ridge4    ,! abs5ce ( ,nile deposit &   
fre%wat] %ells 9 ! ,wadi ,rayan  w1 :5  
confirm$ aft] a ?or\gh exam9ation ( !   
area1 af=d  ! /ronge/ evid5ce t !       
depression 0 nev] directly flood$  by   
,nile wat]4 ,! fact t ! divid+ ridge is 
probably ev]y:]e  above ! highe/ level  
atta9$ by ,lake ,mris1 & by ! /ill m    
anci5t prehi/oric lake1 is almo/        
suffici5t 9 itself z a pro( (  ?is4 ,x  
does n h[ev] foll[ t !re 0 n leakage    
?r\gh  ! ridge into ! ,rayan bas91 z su*
 leakage might conceivably  h tak5 place
 to a consid]able ext5t )\t ! wat] ev]  
hav+ collect$ 9 suffici5t quantities to 
=m ev5 mod]ate  siz$ pools )9 !         
depression4 ,! bottom ( ! depression is 
= ! mo/ "p cov]$ ) s(t por\s s&y        
deposits ov]ly+  ! ,eoc5e b$-rock bel[1 

& at ! pres5t "t ! wat] ( !  ,rayan     
spr+s1 ?\gh cont9ually runn+1 at once   
disappe>s f  sight1 dra9s d[n to ! l[e/ 
p>ts ( ! depression & is !n  gradually  
lo/ by evaporation or und]gr\nd leakage4
 ,9 ! l[e/  p>ts ( ! depression ?is wat]
 is1 z already m5tion$1 met )  on digg+ 
to a v mod]ate dep?4    ,a c>eful       
exam9ation ( ! flanks ( ! ridge sep>at+ 
! ,faym  & ,gh>aq cultivat$ areas f     
,rayan might prove if su* leakage  ev]  
took place4 ,if su* 0 ! case ! seepage 0
 probably  along ! l9e ( junction ( !   
lime/one & und]ly+ clayey  or s&y b$s4  
,ev5 if x 7 prov$ t !re nev] 0 leakage  
f ,lake ,mris into ,wadi ,rayan1 x w\ld 
n be safe to assume  t ! conv]se w\ld n 
happ51 z ! dip ( ! b$s is f  s\? to nor?
 & ?is fact is "o to be reckon$ )4      
,judg+ f  ! nature ( ! ,eoc5e b$s =m+ ! 
,wadi ,rayan1 my op9ion is  t leakage on
 a l>ge scale w\ld n take place1 & t ow+
  to ! nor!rly dip any wat] t escap$ f !
 res]voir w\ld  pass indef9itely        
nor?w>ds & w\ld n f9d its way ?r\gh !   

ov]ly+ lime/one to ! surface ei!r 9     
,gh>aq or ! ,faym  cultivation4 ,a      
detail$ exam9ation ( ! local geology    
w\ld1  h[ev]1 be necess>y to prove or   
disprove ?is4 ,z to ! "q  :e!r ! ,wadi  
,rayan z a :ole w\ld hold wat]1 z f> z  
is kn[n  !re are no faults or o!r       
fissures ( any magnitude ?r\gh :i*  !   
wat] c\ld escape4 ,no d\bt a good deal (
 wat] w\ld be lo/  be=e ! small] jo9ts &
 passages1 :i* exi/ 9 all rocks1  7     
silt$ up4 ,s*we9fur? supposes t !       
fre%ness ( !  ,birket el ,qurn is due to
 ! exi/5ce ( subt]ranean outlets1  & su*
 might also be f\nd to exi/ 9 ! ,wadi   
,rayan4 ,9 any case  ! argillace\s      
deposits f su* a lake w\ld v soon =m a  
b$ to all int5ts & purposes imp]meable4 
,sid5ote3 ,degree ( ,sal9ity4    ,)     
reg>d to ! ext5t ( sal9ity ( su* a lake 
,dr4 ,s*we9fur?'s  figures are (        
consid]able int]e/ & value1 al?\gh bas$ 
:olly  on assum$ data4 ,! great] "p ( ! 
salt w\ld be d]iv$ f  ! rocks & soil =m+
 ! b$ ( ! res]voir & only by  ext5sive  

sample collect+ & analysis c reliable   
figures be  obta9$4 ,we believe t 9 !   
l[e/ p>ts ( ! bas9 ! salt  cont5t ( !   
gr\nd w\ld be f\nd consid]ably 9 excess 
( ! two  p] c5t us$ by ,s*we9fur? 9 8   
calculation1 al?\gh 8 total  e/imate    
w\ld probably be f\nd well )9 ! m>k4    
,,section ,v4--,,c5tral ,,area ,,( ,,!  
,,region4      ,sid5ote3 ,c5tral ,pla9  
at ! ,faym ,depression4    ,! great     
c5tral pla91 =m+ ! floor ( ! depression 
z a  :ole1 is compos$ ( a h>d b$ (      
lime/one "s ?irty metres  ?ick4 ,?is    
lime/one1 =m+ ! upp]mo/ memb] ( ! ,rayan
  s]ies1 is1 z already m5tion$1 almo/   
c]ta9ly id5tical )  t capp+ ! cliffs to 
! s\? ( ! depression1 & 9 all           
probability 9 ! ea/]n ext5sion ( ! pla9 
"u description  und]lies ! :ole ( !     
cultivat$ l&s ( ,gh>aq & !  ,faym4 ,!   
feature ( ! pla9 z a :ole is its m>k$ & 
con/ant1 ?\gh l[1 dip to ! nor?2 s t its
 surface1 b>$  by d5udation ( ! ov]ly+  
s(t lime/ones ( ! ,rav9e s]ies1  ov] a  
di/ance ( "s tw5ty kilometres1 is a true

 dip-slope1  at ! base ( :i* lies a /rip
 ( l[-ly+ c\ntry ext5d+  f beyond ,g> el
 ,gehannem ?r\gh ! ,birket el ,qurn to !
 ,nile  ,valley ridge ea/ ( ,tamia4 ,!  
c5tral & l[e/ portion ( ?is  l[-ly+ area
 is occupi$ by ! ,birket el ,qurn1 ! b$ 
( :i*  lies fifty metres bel[ sea level 
& is ?us ! l[e/ kn[n spot 9  ! :ole ( ! 
,libyan des]t4 ,?irty kilometres s\?-we/
 ( !  we/]n end ( ! lake1 at ! base ( ! 
dip-slope ( ! c5tral  pla9 & imm$iately 
"u ! s\!rn sc>ps ( ! great outly+       
hill-mass we/ ( ,g> el ,gehannem1 lies  
ano!r l[ ly+ bas91 :i*  receives !      
dra9age f a consid]able area ( ! pla9 to
 !  s\?-we/4 ,! latt]1 consi/+ ( !      
lime/one above-m5tion$1  is "h          
sup]ficially cov]$ by gravel1 & its d>k 
undulat+  surface is scor$ by num]\s    
%all[ w9d+ wat]-c\rses m>k$  by an      
abundant gr[? ( scrubby vegetation2 "s (
 ! pr9cipal  ( ^! dra9 into ! bas9 j    
m5tion$ & aft] heavy ra9fall  ! wat]    
collects & =ms a pool #fjj metres 9 l5g?
 by #ajj to #aej  metres wide4 ,! base (

 ! bas91 at ab\t #hj metres above sea   
level1  is m>k$ by a level deposit (    
silt ( consid]able ?ickness1 !  ea/ end 
( ! site be+ surr\nd$ by great numb]s ( 
luxuriantly  gr[+ tam>isks4 ,o!r simil> 
bas9s exi/ on ! pla9 to !  s\?1 & "u an 
isolat$ hill five kilometres ,w4,s4,w4  
sev]al full  gr[n acacias 7 notic$4 ,on 
! l[ gr\nd to ! nor?-we/ (  ,g> el      
,gehannem1 & at sev]al po9ts betwe5 x & 
! head (  ! ,birket el ,qurn1 simil>    
silt cov]$ areas exi/1 "s be+  only f   
#cj to #dj metres above sea level4    ,9
 ! extreme s\?-we/ ( ! region ! lime/one
 =m+ !  c5tral pla9 is gradually ov]la9 
by ! succe$+ b$s1 s t !  gr\nd rises    
imp]ceptibly to ! level ( ! plateau     
sep>at+ !  depression f t ( ,bah>ia1    
di/ant "s two days m>*4 ,on !  ea/]n    
side1 if ! sup]ficial alluvial deposits 
c\ld be /ripp$  (f1 ! und]ly+ surface ( 
lime/one1 slop+ f s\? to nor?1  w\ld n  
diff] mat]ially f ! pla9 fur!r we/1     
except t  "h1 at any rate nor? ( ,gh>aq1
 ! ,rayan lime/one is ov]la9  by ! basal

 b$s ( ! ,rav9e s]ies4                  
,,section ,,vi4--,,ridge ,,sep>at+ ,,!  
,,nile ,,valley ,,& ,,! ,,fayum4      ,!
 des]t ridge sep>at+ ! ,nile ,valley f !
 ,faym has1 to  ! nor? ( ! ,bahr ,yusef1
 an av]age wid? ( "s t5 kilometres2     
fur!r s\? x n>r[s1 until due ea/ (      
,gh>aq ! ridge is b>ely  #b kilometres  
wide4 ,! highe/ po9ts are situat$ to !  
ea/ (  ,s]s5a & ,qalam%a respectively4  
,9 bo? ^! localities ! ,eoc5e rocks1    
consi/+ ( clays  alt]nat+ ) b$s (       
calc>e\s s&/one & s&y lime/one  7pp4    
#ci1 #dj7 are ov]la9 by ?ick deposits ( 
conglom]ate &  gravel1 atta9+ altitudes 
( ov] #ajj metres above ! cultivat$  l& 
bel[4 ,f ^! summits ! slope is usually v
 gradual on  ! ,nile ,valley side b mu* 
m rapid t[>ds ! ,faym4    ,! ridge is   
cut d[n1 h[ev]1 to a comp>atively l[    
level 9  f\r localities2 to ! nor?-ea/ (
 ,tamia2 to ! ea/ ( ,sla1  :]e ! railway
 crosses2 betwe5 ,lahn & ,haw>a1 :]e !  
,bahr  ,yusef canal ent]s2 & to ! s\? ( 
,qalam%a1 :]e along !  site ( ! propos$ 

,wadi ,rayan canal ! highe/ po9t is only
 "s  #dj metres above ! ,gh>aq bas9 &   
#bg metres above ! adjo9+  ,nile ,valley
 cultivation4    ,sid5ote3 ,outl9e (    
e>lie/ connection ( ,nile ) ,faym4      
,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ problems connect$ ) 
! ,faym may  be briefly allud$ to       
"h--,:5 did ! wat]s ( ! ,nile fir/      
obta9 access to ! depression8    ,z w be
 %[n lat] ! ,faym 0 occupi$ by ! sea 9  
,plioc5e  times1 :5 ! great gravel      
accumulations & gypse\s deposits 7  =m$4
 ,lat] ! area became dry & d5udation ( !
 l& surface  complet$ ! "w ( erosion    
already begun 9 e>li] times4    ,9      
,plei/oc5e times dra9age d[n ! ,nile    
,valley appe>s to h  become def9itely   
e/abli%$ & probably ! riv] 9 ! l[]  "p (
 its c\rse ev5tually wa%$ up aga9/ &    
broke d[n !  sep>at+ b>ri] ( gravel     
betwe5 ! ,faym & ! ,nile ,valley1  s t  
"p ( its wat]s obta9$ access to !       
depression1 =m$ a  lake on ! l[e/ "p1 & 
gradually rose until ! :ole bas91 up  to
 ! level ( ! *annel connect+ x ) ! ,nile

 ,valley1 became  fill$4 ,e ye> ?\s&s ( 
tons ( s$im5t 7 c>ri$ 9 by  ! floods &  
spread out on ! floor 9 ! %ape ( a fan4 
,probably  lat]1 z ! ,nile level fell1 !
 valley & ! depression aga9  became     
disconnect$1 until ! m mod]n riv]1 ) its
 gradually  ris+ b$1 aga9 atta9$ !      
requisite altitude4 ,9 e>ly hi/oric     
times ! alluvial deposits _h probably   
silt$ up ! lake 9 its  s\!rn c5tral "p1 
& :5 9 ! ,x,i,ith dyna/y ! di/rict  0   
fir/ tak5 9 h& by ,am5emhat ,i ?is "p ( 
x mu/ h  _h ! "* ( a huge m>%1 ne>ly    
surr\nd$ by op5 wat]1  rapidly deep5+   
t[>ds ! nor?4                           
,,section ,,vii4--,,! ,,nor!rn ,,des]t  
,,region4      ,sid5ote3 ,! ,plateau    
b\nd+ ! ,faym depression to ! nor?4     
,all along ! nor?-we/ & nor? sides !    
gr\nd rises rapidly f  ! base ( !       
dip-slope ( ! pla9 9 a s]ies ( esc>pm5ts
 to  ! summit ( ! rim ( ! depression1   
av]ag+ #cdj metres above sea  level4    
,nor?w>ds f ! summit /ret*es a roll+    
pebbly des]t1  ! prevail+ "* ( :i* is a 

d>k br[n1 reliev$ by light]  br[n grey &
 yell[ pat*es1 & especially fleck$ by ! 
light  s&y slopes ( ! undulations4      
,al?\gh ! latt] seldom rise to  any     
consid]able height above ! g5]al level (
 ! pla91 f !  top ( ! mo/ mode/ em95ce  
an imm5se view 9 e direction c          
frequ5tly be obta9$4 ,! monotony ( ?is  
des]t is only reliev$ by  ! occasional  
belts ( s&1 :i* al?\gh extremely n>r[ 9 
wid?1  run = imm5se di/ances 9 almo/    
absolutely /raight l9es1 & 9  a         
,n4,n4,w4--,s4,s4,e4 direction4 ,al?\gh 
none ( ^! dunes actually  rea* ! rim ( !
 esc>pm5t we may m5tion "h ! beautiful  
,gh>t el ,khana%at1 an almo/ /raight &  
app>5tly unbrok5 ridge  ( s&1 extremely 
n>r[ b ( great l5g?4 ,ne> its s\!rn     
extremity ! wid? does n exce$ #ajj      
metres2 ! slopes on bo?  sides are      
frequ5tly z mu* z #cj4 ,! comm5cem5t ( !
 ,gh>t  el ,khana%at 0 obs]v$ on a m>* f
 ,wadi ,natrn to ,mog>a2 x  lay "s way  
to ! s\? ( a l9e jo9+ ^? two localities 
b  c\ld n be accurately fix$ f ! l9e (  

r\te4 ,! belt dies out  #bd kilometres f
 ! rim ( ! ,faym depression1 its        
t]m9ation  be+ p>ticul>ly abrupt1 al?\gh
 ! height ( ! ridge dim9i%es  gradually 
?r\gh\t ! la/ kilometre or two4 ,! l9e (
 ! belt if  cont9u$ w\ld almo/ /rike !  
we/]n extremity ( ! ,birket el  ,qurn2  
ne> its t]m9ation ! des]t is almo/ flat1
 ! surface  be+ f9ely gravelly1 ) num]\s
 gr\ps ( silicifi$ trees2  tufts ( co>se
 grass gr[ 9 "s pr(usion on ! s&y gr\nd 
at  ! base ( ! ridge on ei!r side4 ,a   
fairly well-m>k$ road f  ! ,birket el   
,qurn to ! ,wadi ,natrn passes ! end ( !
 ridge  & cont9ues nor?w>ds at a di/ance
 ( #bjj metres f ! ea/  side ( ! dunes1 
al?\gh app>5tly gradually div]g+        
ea/w>ds4    ,except to ! nor? & nor?-we/
 ( ,tamia1 :]e a some:at ext5sive  &    
fairly level pla9 exi/s1 ! gr\nd1 z     
already m5tion$1 rises  f ! limits ( !  
c5tral pla9 9 a s]ies ( esc>pm5ts to !  
summit ( ! rim ( ! depression4 ,^! cliff
 l9es are broadly  speak+ ?ree 9 numb] &
 repres5t ! esc>pm5ts ( ! ?ree  great   

rock-/ages :i* build up ! nor!rn "p ( ! 
,faym1  i4e41 ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies1 
! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies1 & !            
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies4 ,x w\ld s]ve no     
useful purpose describ+  ^! diff]5t     
cliffs 9 detail2 _! positions & *>act]s 
are  app>5t on ! accompany+ maps4 ,!    
int]v5+ plateaux are =  ! mo/ "p        
dip-slope pla9s =m$ ( h>d b&s ( rock1   
:i*  resi/+ d5udation1 are left protect+
 ! und]ly+ /rata :ile  ! s(t] b$s above 
are cut back at a comp>atively rapid    
rate4    ,sid5ote3 ,des]t we/ & s\?-we/ 
( ,g> el ,gehannem4    ,9 ,decemb] #aijb
 & ,m>* #aijc a trav]se 0 made ?r\gh !  
unexplor$ c\ntry we/ & s\?-we/ ( ,g> el 
,gehannem1 f9ally  connect+ up ) ,wadi  
,rayan4 ,! highe/ esc>pm5t1 i4e4 t (  ! 
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 dies out ab\t #bj   
kilometres we/ ( ,g>  el ,gehannem1     
gradually m]g+ into ! undulat+          
gravel-cov]$  pla94 ,! l[] esc>pm5ts1 ^?
 ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha & ,birket el  ,qurn
 s]ies1 cont9ue to a consid]able di/ance
 9 a s\?-we/]ly  direction1 al?\gh      

gradually los+ ! *>act]s ( well-m>k$    
cliffs4 ,9 fact we/w>ds ( ?is !         
depression gradually %all[s1  until at a
 po9t "s #ej kilometres s\?-we/ ( ,g> el
 ,gehannem  ! floor has atta9$ ! level (
 ! ord9>y des]t plateau1  on :i* !      
outcrops ( ! b$s ( successive rock-/ages
 foll[  "o ano!r 9 regul> ord] f s\? to 
nor?1 b )\t =m+  well-m>k$ topographical
 features1 z 9 ! depression4    ,hills1 
capp$ ) d>k h>d f]rug9\s silicifi$ grits
 &  pudd+/one1 7 met ) 9 ! extreme      
s\?-we/ ext5sion ( !  depression2 ^!    
deposits1 :i* w be ref]r$ to m fully    
lat]1  consid]$ 9 conjunction ) ! simil>
 b$s occurr+ )9 !  oasis ( ,bah>ia1 & 9 
! hills ( ,g> el ,hamra1 on ! plateau   
imm$iately to ! nor?-ea/ ( t depression1
 are ( consid]able  int]e/ & importance1
 especially 9 connection ) ! "q  ( !    
position ( ! e>ly riv]s :i* 9 ,eoc5e &  
lat] times  br\ght d[n quantities (     
trees & animals1 ! rema9s ( :i*  are s  
abundant ?r\gh\t ! lat] ,faym deposits4 
,sid5ote3 ,jebel el ,qatrani & esc>pm5ts

 nor? ( ! ,birket  el ,qurn4    ,!      
bolde/ "p ( ! region is ! area ly+      
betwe5 ! ,birket el  ,qurn & ! summit ( 
! depression to ! nor?4 ,all ?ree l9es  
( cliff are "h high & precipit\s1 & !   
upp]mo/ esc>pm5t1  well kn[n by ! "n (  
,jebel el ,qatrani1 =m$ ( a highly      
col\r$  s]ies ( s&/ones & clays & capp$ 
= a di/ance ( _m  kilometres by a ?ick  
b$ ( h>d black basalt1 is ( a mo/ /rik+ 
"*4 ,! ea/]n extremity ( ,jebel el      
,qatrani is p]haps !  mo/ conspicu\s    
po9t 9 ! :ole region2 "h ! two conical  
black  basalt-capp$ cliff-outli]s1 kn[n 
z ,widan el ,f>as1 /& side by  side1 & f
 _! summits ! eye comm&s ! :ole region f
  ! pyramid ( ,lahn on ! "o side1 across
 ,rayan to ! s\?1 up  to ! extreme      
limits ( ! depression to ! s\?-we/4 ,!  
rim (  ,jebel el ,qatrani has a fairly  
con/ant level ( ab\t #cdj metres above  
! sea4 ,f ,widan el ,f>as ! esc>pm5t    
tr5ds nor?w>ds = a  few kilometres be=e 
aga9 resum+ an ea/]ly direction1 :i* is 
cont9u$ till ! well-m>k$ bluff ( ,elwat 

,hialla is rea*$4 ,f  ?is summit !      
pyramids ( ,da%r1 ,saqra & ,giza are    
visible to  ! nor?1 z well z ,cairo & ! 
,nile ,valley s\?w>ds1 back$  by !      
bluffs on ! ,ea/]n des]t lime/one       
plateau4    ,to ! s\? ! isolat$ peaks ( 
,g>at el ,g9di & ,g>at el  ,f>as =m     
conspicu\s l&m>ks on ! m or less op5    
pla9  :i* /ret*es to ,tamia & ! limits (
 ! ,faym cultivat$  l&s4 ,ea/w>ds !     
esc>pm5ts cont9ue 9 a brok5 irregul>    
mann]2 ! upp] ones are gradually lo/ 9  
an undulat+ pla91  :ile ! l[] ev5tually 
jo9 ^? =m+ ! nor!rn "p (  ! ridge       
sep>at+ ! ,faym f ! ,nile ,valley4      
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #f3 ,=    
full] details ( ! cultivat$ l&s1        
wat]-supply1  etc41 ( ! ,faym1 ! read]  
is ref]r$ to ! excell5t description  by 
,sir ,hanbury ,br[n 9 8 "w ,! ,fayum &  
,lake ,mo]is1 ,london1  #ahib4          
,footnote #g3 8,! ,lake ( ! ,horns10 s  
call$ f ! n>r[  horn-l promontories :i* 
jut out into ! lake on ! nor?  side4    
,views ( ! lake are %[n 9 ,plates ,i1   

,,iv1 ,,xvi4    ,footnote #h3 ,?is 0 !  
case until a ye> or two ago4 ,at !      
pres5t "t a limit$ am\nt ( fre%wat] f9ds
 its way to !  area imm$iately nor? ( ! 
ea/ end ( ! lake & small plots  are     
cultivat$ by ! arabs4    ,footnote #i3  
,h]odotus1 ,book ,,ii2 ,/rabo1 ,book    
,,xvii2 & ,diodorus  ,siculus1 ,book ,i1
 ,*ap4 ,,li4 7,see ,br[n op4 cit4 p4    
#ai-bb47    ,footnote #aj3 8,haw>a1     
,biahmu & ,ars910 #ahhi4    ,footnote   
#aa3 ,,br[n1 op4 cit4 p4 #ie4 ,z m5tion$
 above 9 "s areas  ! cultivat$ l& 0     
=m]ly ev5 m ext5sive ?an at pres5t1     
notably ne> ! mod]n villages ( ,roda1   
,tamia1 etc4    ,footnote #ab3 ,=       
details ( evaporation & level-records ( 
! lake1  see ,br[n1 op4 cit4 pp4 #f-i1 &
 ,p4,w4,m4 annual reports4    ,footnote 
#ac3 ,see ,,willcocks' ,egyptian        
,irrigation1 #bnd edition1  ,london1    
#ahii4    ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,a        
,prelim9>y ,inve/igation ( ! ,soil &    
,wat]  ( ! ,faym ,prov9ce1 by ,a4       
,,lucas1 ,survey ,dep>tm5t1 ,cairo1     

#aijb4    ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,app5dix  
,,ii1 ,a ,note by ,dr4 ,s*we9fur? on !  
,salt 9 ! ,wadi ,rayan1 9 ,willcocks'   
,egyptian ,irrigation1  pp4 #dfj-dfe4   
,footnote #af3 ,! ^w 8fre%ness0 is us$  
comp>atively1 z  ! am\nt ( salt is      
suffici5t to make ! wat] unpalatable or 
unfit = dr9k+1 except ne> ! fe$] canals4
 ,x is1 h[ev]1  q good en\gh = mo/      
cul9>y purposes1 & camels w usually     
dr9k f x1 al?\gh x is n advisable to    
wat] ! latt] f  ! lake ei!r be=e or aft]
 a fatigu+ des]t m>*1 z 9 su*  cases !  
sal9ity ( ! wat] may h bad effects4     
,footnote #ag3 8,bull4 ( ! ,am]ican     
,geographical ,society1 #ahhb1  pp4 #bb 
& #bd40    ,footnote #ah3 ,mmoires sur  
les travaux publics en ,egypte1 ,p>is1  
#ahgc1 pp4 #ec1 #ed4    ,footnote #ai3  
,g4 ,a4 ,,li]nur1 ,,col4 ,,we/]n &      
,,col4 ,,sir ,c4 ,c4 ,,scott            
,,moncrieff1 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,notes on !   
,wadi ,rayan1 ,cairo1 #ahhh4            
,footnote #bj3 ,note on ! ,wadi ,rayan  
,project1 ,cairo1 #ahhi4    ,footnote   

#ba3 ,p]5nial ,irrigation & ,flood      
,protection 9 ,egypt1  by ,w4           
,,willcocks1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,dir4 ,g54 (  
,res]voirs1 ) ,a ,note by  ,w4 ,e4      
,,g>/91 ,"u ,secret>y ( ,/ate1          
,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #ahid4    ,footnote  
#bb3 ,! eng9e]+ details ( ! ,wadi ,rayan
 res]voir  project h s9ce be5 m fully   
discuss$ by ,sir ,william ,g>/9  9 8    
8,report on ! ,bas9 ( ! ,upp] ,nile0    
,cairo1 7pp4 #f-i  ,app5dix ,i74        
,footnote #bc3 ,a ,note by ,dr4         
,,s*we9fur? on ! ,salt 9 ! ,wadi ,rayan3
  an app5dix to ,p]5nial ,irrigation1   
etc4    ,footnote #bd3 ,! ,assuan       
,res]voir & ,lake ,mo]is1 ,london1      
#aijd4    ,footnote #be3 ,! foll[+      
analyses ( ! *ief spr+s 9 !  ,wadi      
,rayan1 made by ,mr4 ,lucas1 ,*emi/ to !
 ,survey ,dep>tm5t1  are ( int]e/3--    
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,nor? ,,spr+4 ,,s\? ,,spr+4 ,,ea/      
,,spr+4                                 
----------------------------------------

---------------------------    ,matt] ,9
 ,solution            #cihh             
#cejh         #haaf                     
,*lor9e calculat$ z                     
,sodium ,*loride               #bghd    
#bchb         #ehee                     
,sulphur ,trioxide                      
calculat$ z                             
,sodium ,sulphate                #fbi   
#eci         #abfb    ,! above figures  
are p>ts p] #ajj1jjj p>ts ( wat]4       
,al?\gh ! above analyses prove ! wat] to
 be ( a v poor  quality = dr9k+         
purposes1 comp>$ ) _m ( ! wells  & spr+s
 ( ! oases1 ! wat]1 :i* is q cle>1 seem$
  good4 ,except = its s(tness & some:at 
f]rug9\s ta/e1 x  is q palatable1 & on  
my la/ visit we us$ no o!r = five  days4
 ,! s\? spr+ 0 f\nd to yield #ba litres 
& ! nor? #f  litres p] m9ute4 ,! wat] ( 
! ?ird spr+ does n run4                 
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv4    ,,we/]n  
,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,birket ,,el       
,,qurun4                                
,,"p ,,ii4                              

,,tectonics4                            
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,section ,,viii4--,,fault+ ,,& ,,fold+4
      ,sid5ote3 ,! ,faym ,depression =m$
 by suba]ial ,erosion4    ,m ext5d$     
exam9ation ( ! ,faym region supports my 
orig9al  conclusion#bf t ! depression   
owes its orig9 to ! same causes  z h    
giv5 rise to ! o!r oases-depressions ( !
 ,libyan ,des]t1  namely ,bah>ia1       
,f>afra1 ,dakhla & ,kh>ga#bg4 ,no       
evid5ce has z yet  be5 met ) :i* w\ld   
sugge/ t e>?-movem5ts h play$  any      
important "p 9 ! =mation ( ! ,faym      
depression4 ,local  faults1 = ! mo/ "p (
 %ort l5g? & slight ?r[1 occur  at c]ta9
 po9ts1 b ! influ5ce ( ^! is /rictly    
limit$ to  _! imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,9 
fact1 an exam9ation ( ! des]t  m>g9 ( ! 
,faym conclusively proves t ! depression
 has be5  cut out ?r\gh ! action (      
ord9>y suba]ial d5ud+ ag5ts4 ,!  some:at
 preval5t idea t ! c5tral portion ( !   
depression1  t cov]$ by alluvial soil & 
! wat] ( ! lake1 is fault$  d[n1 also   

re/s on no f\ndation1 all available     
evid5ce po9t+  9 an opposite direction4 
,?r\gh\t ! m>g9 ( ! alluvial  cov]$ area
 ! ,eoc5e b$s =m+ ! surface ( ! des]t c 
be obs]v$ to pass regul>ly "u !         
cultivat$ l&s2 moreov]1  ! same /rata   
are frequ5tly expos$ 9 ! bottoms (      
canals1  dra9s1 etc41 f> )9 !           
cultivation4 ,! big dra9age rav9es  (   
,el ,bats & ,el ,wadi are1 ?r\gh a l>ge 
"p ( _! c\rses1  cut d[n to ! und]ly+   
,eoc5e rocks 7,rav9e b$s71 & 9 e        
locality exam9$ ! /rata 7 f\nd 9 !      
position !y w\ld  be expect$ to occupy  
if undi/urb$ by tectonic movem5ts4      
,sid5ote3 ,deep bor+ at ,m$9et el ,faym4
    ,! evid5ce yield$ by ! deep bor+ at 
,m$9et el ,faym is1  z f> z x goes1 to !
 same effect4 ,! gr\nd level at ! site  
0 at #bcdj metres above sea-level & !   
foll[+ b$s 7  pass$ ?r\gh#bh3--         
,metres4      ,alluvial clays1 clayey   
s&s & s&s1 ! latt] 9    "p co>se &      
pebbly                                  
#ahe      ,yell[1 br[n1 & grey m>ls &   

m>ly clays 7probably    belong+ = ! mo/ 
"p to ! ,rav9e b$s7                     
#aabe      ,cem5t col\r$ /one           
#dce                                    
,yell[i% /one                           
,probably ^!                  #fe       
lime/ones &    ,light br[n solid /one   
occasional m>ls               #aje      
& clays belong    ,cem5t col\r$ s(t clay
         to ! ,rayan s]ies4             
#ag                                     
,cem5t col\r$ /one                      
#abe                                    
-----                                   
#bjeg                                   
-----                            ,bottom
 ( bor+ #ahbc metres bel[ sea-level4    
,! me?od employ$ 9 ?is bor+ 0 su* z to  
br+ up !  mat]ial z a gr\nd-up pa/e1 an 
exam9ation ( :i* does n af=d  absolutely
 conclusive evid5ce z to ! age ( ! rock4
 ,! abs5ce1  aft] ! fir/ #ahe metres1 ( 
s& or pebbles1 common ?r\gh\t  !        
alluvial deposits ( ! ,faym1 sugge/s t !
 base ( ^!  b$s 0 rea*$ at t dep?1 b f  

?is evid5ce alone x w\ld  p]haps h>dly  
be satisfactory to conclude t ! und]ly+ 
#aabe  metres 7 entirely ,eoc5e4        
,consid]+1 h[ev] t 9 ! two deep  rav9es 
( ,el ,bats & ,el ,wadi ! und]ly+ ,eoc5e
 is v commonly  expos$ at an av]age dep?
 ( "s #ae metres bel[ cultivation level1
  x is highly improbable t 9 ! c5tre ( !
 area1 at ,m$9et el  ,faym1 ! alluvial  
deposits greatly exce$ ! same ?ickness4 
,to  classify ! #aabe metres ( m>ly     
clays z alluvium w\ld give  ! latt] a   
total ?ickness ( #aca metres & w\ld mean
 t ov]  an extremely re/rict$ area !    
,eoc5e rocks _h be5 d5ud$ to  su* an    
ext5t t ! floor ( ! depression lay #ajh 
metres bel[  sea-level4 ,! gr\nd-up     
samples ( rock closely resemble :at     
might  be expect$ f ! clays & m>ls =m+ !
 ,rav9e b$s &  9 all probability !      
great] "p ( ! #aabe metres belong to  t 
s]ies4 ,! h>d] /one met ) at #aca       
metres1 :i*1 )  ! exception ( a b& ( s(t
 clay1 cont9u$ d[n to ! bottom1  mu/ be 
reg>d$ z belong+ to ! und]ly+ ,rayan    

s]ies4    ,sid5ote3 ,dr4 ,blanck5horn's 
,fault !ory4    ,dr4 ,blanck5horn1 9 a  
pap] publi%$ 9 #aijabi deal+ )  !       
,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e ( ,egypt1         
describes ! ,faym z a  triangul>        
depression b\nd$ on all sides by faults4
 ,! position  ( ^! b\nd+ faults1 z well 
z ( num]\s o!rs m or less  p>allel to ! 
nor? %ore ( ! ,birket el ,qurn1 is %[n  
on an  accompany+ map#cj & 9 a section  
drawn f ,ab%awai to ! summit  ( !       
plateau nor? ( ! lake4#ca               
,/ratigraphical evid5ce1 bas$  on !     
suppos$ id5tity ( c]ta9 /rata 9 diff]5t 
localities1  is br\ght =w>d 9 support ( 
^! faults1 ! au?or f9ally  /at+ t !     
production ( ! ,faym is cle>ly &        
di/9ctly  to be ref]r$ to tectonic      
movem5ts4    ,our conclusion1 =m$ aft]  
an exam9ation ( ! region 9 "s  detail1  
is s diametrically oppos$ to ! above1 t 
x may be wor?  :ile to /ate "h ! evid5ce
 :i* we consid] suffici5t to refute  !  
exi/5ce ( ! p>ticul> faults describ$ by 
,blanck5horn4    ,blanck5horn's         

fault-l9es lie = ! mo/ "p )9 ! area     
cov]$ by ! alluvial deposits & ! wat] ( 
! lake1 s t =  want ( exposures x is 9  
mo/ cases impossible to directly        
disprove  _! exi/5ce1 al?\gh /rong      
presumptive evid5ce aga9/ !m c  be      
adduc$4 ,! fault along ! ea/ side1      
h[ev]1 is %[n z closely  foll[+ !       
junction l9e ( ! des]t & ! cultivat$ l&1
  b ev]y:]e along ?is l9e we f\nd ! m>ls
 & lime/ones  ( ! ,rav9e b$s pass+      
regul>ly f ! des]t "u !  cultivat$ l&s1 
)\t any sort ( break or dislocation4    
,moreov]1  an exam9ation ( ! des]t ridge
 to ! ea/ disprov$ ! exi/5ce  ( any     
fault+ on ! des]t side1 :ile ! appe>ance
 ( !  same b$s 9 ! rav9e ( ,el ,bats1 a 
few kilometres to ! we/1  prov$ !       
cont9uity ( ! b$s "u ! cultivat$        
alluvium 9  ?is direction4 ,c]ta9ly no  
fault exi/s along ?is side ( !  ,faym4  
,simil>ly ) reg>d to ! fault %[n z runn+
 f !  we/ end ( ! lake along ! we/ side 
( ! ,faym cultivation  into ! bas9 (    
,gh>aq2 al?\gh ! des]t m>g9 along ?is   

side  ( ! ,faym cultivation has n be5 s 
closely survey$ z t on  ! ea/ side1 no  
evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! exi/5ce ( faults 0  
met  ) 9 ! p>ticul> localities exam9$4  
,) reg>d to ! ?ird  ma9 b\nd+ fault1    
consid]$ by ,blanck5horn to run ?r\gh\t 
! l5g? ( ! ,birket el ,qurn & to be     
cont9u$ ea/w>ds1  possibly to ! ,nile   
,valley & at lea/ to jo9 ! fault on !   
ea/  side ( ! cultivation1 we ne$ only  
say t an exam9ation ( !  des]t ne>      
,tamia disproves its exi/5ce at t end2  
:ile x is  difficult to imag9e t a fault
 c\ld trav]se ! lake f end  to end )\t  
reveal+ its pres5ce 9 ! isl& ,geziret el
 ,qorn  or 9 "o or o!r ( ! promontories 
:i* jut out s f> into !  lake f its     
nor!rn %ore4 ,ev]y:]e ! /rata are       
undi/urb$  & occupy _! normal           
/ratigraphical level & position4    ,let
 u f9ally exam9e ! s]ies ( m or less    
p>allel faults  /at$ to exi/ betwe5 !   
isl& & ! nor!rn %ore ( ! lake1  & on !  
ma9l& to ! nor? & s\? ( ,dim4 ,dr4      
,blanck5horn  publi%es a detail$ section

 7op4 cit41 fig4 #b41 taf4 ,,xiv7 %[+  !
 positions ( ^! /ep faults & _! effect  
on ! v>i\s  /rata ?r\gh :i* !y cut4     
,=tunately1 9 ?is neighb\rhood !        
/ratigraphical succession is well expos$
 & ! pres5ce or abs5ce  ( faults become 
matt]s ( easy det]m9ation4 ,! sequ5ce ( 
b$s  f s\? to nor? is normal &          
un9t]rupt$ & our int]pretation  ( ! area
 is %[n 9 ! accompany+ sections 7,plates
 ,,xix1 ,,xxii1  & fig4 #d74 ,we h no   
hesitation 9 say+ t su* faults z  ^? %[n
 on ,blanck5horn's section d n exi/4 ,_!
 ins]tion  appe>s to be ! outcome ( an  
error 9 ! correlation ( /rata at  ! ?ree
 po9ts ,ab%awai1 ,geziret el ,qorn &    
,dim4 ,! b$ capp+  ! isl& is n id5tical 
) t =m+ ! pla9 to ! nor?  ( ,dim1 al?\gh
 %[n to be su* on ! section "u          
discussion4    ,9 a lat] publication#cb 
,blanck5horn admits be+ 9 error 9  8    
correlation ( ! diff]5t b$s 9 !         
localities 9 "q  & completely )draws 8  
=m] /atem5ts t ! depression  owes its   
exi/5ce to fracture & subsid5ce4 ,!     

faults %[n on  8 detail$ section f      
,ab%awai to ,qasr el ,sagha are admitt$ 
to  be non-exi/5t & 9 ?is retraction we 
may presumably include !  rema9d] ( !   
faults describ$ by ! same au?or1 z !    
evid5ce  = !m is ( a /ill less          
satisfactory nature4    ,9 a w9d-swept  
des]t area l ! ,faym ! slighte/         
dislocations  are z a rule m>k$ly       
obvi\s1 & faults ( any magnitude c\ld   
sc>cely escape detection4 ,ov] ! great] 
"p ( ! region  e b$ is laid b>e on !    
surface & c be m9utely exam9$2  :ile !  
m>k$ irregul>ity ( ! esc>pm5ts af=d     
sections cut  ?r\gh ! diff]5t s]ies 9 e 
direction4 ,"s areas1 h[ev]1  are cov]$ 
) sup]ficial deposits1 :i* m or less    
effectually  obscure ! und]ly+ rocks2 = 
in/ance1 on ! ea/ side a l>ge  "p ( !   
c5tral floor is hidd5 by ! cultivat$    
alluvium &  by ! wat] ( ! lake2 9 ! s\? 
a consid]able proportion (  ! floor (   
,wadi ,rayan is buri$ "u accumulations (
 bl[n s&2  & aga9 l>ge areas on ! nor?1 
we/1 & s\?-we/ sides are  obscur$ by a  

sup]ficial cov]+ ( loose gravel4 ,b z   
already  m5tion$1 !re is no reason to   
suppose t faults ( any importance  exi/ 
)9 ! areas ?us p>tly obscur$4 ,!        
cultivat$ l&s &  ! ,birket el ,qurn d n 
occupy l[ areas produc$ by fault+ b1  z 
%[n above1 owe _! positions entirely to 
! orig9al nor!rly  dip ( ! /rata & to   
subsequ5t erosion4    ,sid5ote3 ,num]\s 
small faults effects local4    ,we h    
already /at$ t small local faults occur 
9 v>i\s p>ts  ( ! ,faym & "s ( ^! may be
 specially m5tion$4 ,! mo/  important is
 ab\t #aj kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,qasr  
el ,sagha2 ! l9e  ( fault lies ne>ly    
nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/1 has a l5g? ( six  or
 sev5 kilometres1 & affects bo? middle &
 upp] ,eoc5e b$s2  at its nor!rn end !  
fault passes into a fold be=e f9ally dy+
  out4 ,"s ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e s&/ones are 
h>d5$ & silicifi$  & =m a succession (  
black knobs along ! l9e ( di/urbance4   
,to  ! s\? ( ^! ! axis ( dislocation    
b5ds slightly ea/w>ds &  takes ! =m ( a 
%>p fold2 fur!r s\? x aga9 becomes a    

true  fault1 flank$ by a l9e ( highly   
tilt$ b$s along its s\?-we/  side4 ,!   
effects ( ?is fault are v m>k$ locally b
 entirely  re/rict$ to a limit$ area4 ,!
 mo/ important is ! break+ (  !         
cont9uity ( ! esc>pm5t ( ! ,qasr el     
,sagha s]ies2 !  l9e ( cliffs =m$ by ^? 
b$s is a v m>k$ topographical  feature &
 ! fault 9 "q causes a lat]al           
displacem5t (  sev5 kilometres4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,fault ne>   
,qasr el ,sagha4    ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( 
,qasr el ,sagha & we/w>ds = a           
consid]able  di/ance1 small /rike-faults
 are ( common occurr5ce 9 ! b$s  ( !    
,qasr el ,sagha s]ies4 ,z a rule ^!     
faults d n ext5d  m ?an a few hundr$    
metres 9 l5g?1 :ile ! d[n-?r[ seldom    
exce$s two or ?ree metres & 9 almo/ e   
case obs]v$ is to !  nor?4 ,! hade may  
be #fe or m4 ,fig4 #a %[s an example ne>
 ,qasr  el ,sagha4 ,! mo/ m>k$ ( ^!     
/rike faults is se5 to ! ea/  ( ,g>at el
 ,e%2 comm5c+ a little to ! nor?-ea/ ( t
 hill  x runs 9 a ne>ly due ea/]ly      

direction till x cuts ! cliffs (  !     
,qasr el ,sagha s]ies aft] "s five      
kilometres4 ,its d[n-?r[  is to ! nor? &
 nev] exce$s a few metres2 ?is small ?r[
  is h[ev] suffici5t to cause a m>k$    
displacem5t ( ! highe/  b$ ( lime/one   
=m+ ! dip-slope surface ( ! plateau at !
  summit ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e b$s4    ,at 
fir/ sight x might be suspect$ t ! v    
irregul> tr5d  ( ! diff]5t esc>pm5ts    
?r\gh\t ! ,faym 0 det]m9$  or influ5c$  
by fault l9es2 an ext5d$ exam9ation ( ! 
cliffs  h[ev] gave negative results1 )  
"o exception2 ! long n>r[  hill-mass to 
! nor? ea/ ( ,g> el ,gahannem is b\nd$  
by faults  on bo? sides & t on ! we/ c  
be easily trac$ = sev5 or  eight        
kilometres nor?w>ds1 & ?r\gh\t its l5g? 
its influ5ce  on ! topography is v      
conspicu\s4      ,footnote #bf3         
,,beadnell4 ,! ,faym depression3 ,a     
,prelim9>y ,notice  ( ! ,geology ( a    
,di/rict 9 ,egypt conta9+ a new         
,palaeog5e  ,v]tebrate ,fauna4 ,geol4   
,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4    

#dej1 ,dec4 #aija1  p4 #edj4            
,footnote #bg3 ,see reports on ,kh>ga   
,oasis 7#aijj71 ,f>afra ,oasis  7#aija71
 ,dakhla ,oasis 7#aija71 & ,bah>ia      
,oasis 7#aijc71 issu$ by  ,survey ,dept4
 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo4    ,footnote #bh3   
,public ,works ,m9i/ry ,report4 ,cairo1 
#ahii4    ,footnote #bi3 ,,blanck5horn4 
,geologie ,aegypt5s1 ,b]l9 #aija1 ,pt4  
,,iv1  pp4 #cci-cdd4    ,footnote #cj3  
p4 #cda1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,skizze d]          
,/rukturl9i5 des  ,faym4    ,footnote   
#ca3  ,taf4 ,,xiv4 ,qu]pr(il dur* d5    
,faymgrab54    ,footnote #cb3           
,,blanck5horn1 ,neue                    
geologis*-/ratigraphis*e  ,beoba*tung5 9
 ,aegypt51 ,s4-,b]4 d4 ma?4-phys4       
,classe  d4 kgl4 bay]4 ,ac4 d4 ,wiss4   
,bd4 ,,xxxii #aijb1 ,heft ,,iii1 ,mn*5  
#aijb1  pp4 #dbh1 #dbi4                 
,,"p ,,iii4                             
,,geology4                              
99 99 99 99 99                 ,,section
 ,,ix4--,,g5]al ,,& ,,classification ,,(
 ,,/rata4      ,! geology ( ! area#cc "u

 consid]ation is almo/ entirely         
/ratigraphical1 ! only igne\s rocks be+ 
m or less local lava  fl[s4 ,! s$im5t>y 
rocks ( ! di/rict h yield$ an abundant  
fauna1 bo? inv]tebrate & v]tebrate2 !   
latt] is ( unique  int]e/1 includ+ z x  
does a numb] ( highly int]e/+ animal    
types q new to sci5ce4 ,an ext5d$       
exam9ation 9 ! field1  & comp>isons ) ! 
/ratigraphical succession 9 o!r p>ts (  
,egypt1 *eck$ by ! det]m9ations ( !     
fossil molluscan fauna1  make x possible
 to =m a v fair e/imate ( ! approximate 
age ( ! diff]5t rock-/ages1 al?\gh ?is  
may necess>ily  be subject to           
modification :5 ! specific det]m9ations 
( !  entire collection ( organic rema9s 
h be5 complet$1 & !  developm5t (       
v]tebrate life has be5 correlat$ &      
comp>$ )  t 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4    ,!    
depression is cut out 9 a great s]ies ( 
s$im5t>y rocks (  ,middle ,eoc5e1 ,upp] 
,eoc5e1 & ,oligoc5e age1 & "o ( !       
features  ( ! /ratigraphy ( ! region is 
! con/ancy ( _m b$s ov]  wide areas4 ,! 

dip ( ! b$s ?r\gh\t ! area is ne>ly due 
nor?  & at a v l[ angle1 av]ag+ #b or   
#c1 b v>y+ f #a to  #e2 ?is l[ dip is v 
con/antly ma9ta9$ except :5 locally     
affect$ by small faults4 ,! /ructural   
geology & tectonics h  already be5      
discuss$ at "s l5g? 9 ! previ\s         
sections4    ,! olde/ b$s f\nd 9 !      
depression are ! clays1 m>ls1 &         
lime/ones ) ,nummulites gizeh5sis1 (    
,middle ,eoc5e age4 ,^!  are succe$$ by 
a gr\p ( :ite m>ly lime/ones & gypse\s  
clays1  :i* l>gely und]lie ! cultivat$  
alluvium ( ! ,faym4 ,!y are  foll[$ by a
 s]ies consi/+ ( clays1 s&/ones1 &      
calc>e\s  grits1 "s b$s ( :i* are       
*>act]iz$ by ! abundance ( small        
nummulites & ,op]cul9a4 ,! latt] s]ies  
is foll[$ by !  upp]mo/ truly m>9e      
,eoc5e b$s1 a gr\p ( alt]nat+ clays1    
s&/ones & lime/ones1 ! 8,qasr el ,sagha 
,s]ies0 7or ,c>olia  b$s71 *>act]iz$ by 
an abundant inv]tebrate & v]tebrate     
fauna1  & equival5t to ! ,upp] ,mokattam
 b$s ( ,cairo4    ,above ! ,qasr el     

,sagha s]ies1 & well m>k$ (f f !m bo?   
li?ologically & palontologically1 is    
f\nd a great ?ickness (  v>iegat$ s&s1  
s&/ones1 clays & m>ls1 ! 8,fluvio-m>9e  
,s]ies0 7,jebel el ,qatrani b$s71 divid$
 ne> ! summit by  "o or m ?ick          
int]calat$ lava %eets1 ! latt] =m+ a    
conv5i5t junction l9e4 ,?is s]ies (     
v>iegat$ b$s is ( ,upp]  ,eoc5e--,l[]   
,oligoc5e age4    ,no ,mioc5e /rata h   
be5 recogniz$ )9 ! area1 b fur!r  nor?1 
z at ,mog>a1 ,l[] ,mioc5e deposits      
occur2#cd & x is  probable t !re is a   
cont9u\s s]ies ( li?ologically simil>   
b$s f ! summit ( ! ,faym esc>pm5ts 7,l[]
 ,oligoc5e7  to ! ,mog>a ,mioc5e4    ,! 
,plioc5e is probably repres5t$ by !     
great t]races (  gravel--rais$          
bea*es--:i* are su* a m>k$ feature 9 !  
geology ( ! di/rict4 ,fossilif]\s       
,plioc5e deposits h also  be5 record$ f 
! s\? "p ( ! area by ,s*we9fur?4#ce     
,plei/oc5e & ,rec5t are abundantly      
repres5t$ by lacu/r9e clays1  bo? anci5t
 & mod]n1 alluvial l& & bl[n s&1 !      

=mation  ( :i* deposits is cont9u+ at ! 
pres5t "t4    ,! foll[+ table w %[ !    
sequ5ce ( /rata & !  classification     
adopt$ 9 ! pres5t memoir3--      ,,table
 ,,%[+ ,,succession ,,& ,,classification
 ,,( ,,/rata ,,9 ,,! ,,fayum4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,approximate                            
av]age                                  
?ickness                                
9 metres1                               
nor? "p                                 
( ,fayum4                               
-----------                             
,alluvial soil1 clays1                  
s&s1 etc4      ,,rec5t                  
,,&                                     
,bl[n s&4    ,,plei/oc5e                
,lacu/r9e clays1                        
ext5d+ to ab\t #bc                      
metres above sea-level4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,gravel ,t]races 78                     

,plei/oc5e74                            
7,,middle87                             
,%ell-bor+s on rock     ,,plioc5e       
surfaces4                               
#ej      ,fossilif]\s deposits (        
,sidmant4                               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,fluvio-m>9e ,s]ies                     
7,jebel el ,qatrani b$s74               
,,l[]                         #cj       
,s&/ones &     ,,oligoc5e ,,tongrian    
s&/one-grits )                          
silicifi$ trees &                       
,basalt %eets1                          
int]b$d$ &                              
contemporane\s4                         
----------------------------------------
 - - - - - - - - - - - - -              
,v>iegat$ s&s1                          
s&/ones1 clays &                        
m>ls1 )                                 
lime/one-grits & ?9                     
b&s ( lime/one4 ,!                      
upp] b$s conta9 ,unio                   

sp41 ,lani/es                           
b>tonianus1 ,blanck41                   
,turritella ph>aonica1                  
,cossm41 ,potamides                     
scal>oides1 ,de%41 ,p4                  
tri/riatus1 ,lam41                      
,pleurotoma +5s1                        
,may4-,eym4 ,9 ! l[]                    
b$s are l>ge numb]s (                   
silicifi$ trees                         
associat$ )                             
v]tebrate rema9s                        
includ+ ,ars9oi!rium                    
,zitteli1 ,beadn41 ,a4                  
,&rewsii1 ,lanke/]1       ,,upp]        
,paloma/odon       ,,eoc5e  ,,b>tonian  
#bej      ,beadnelli1 ,&r41 ,p4         
m9or1 ,&r41                             
,mri!rium ,lyonsi1                      
,&r41 ,m4 trigodon1                     
,&r41 ,megalohyrax                      
eocnus1 ,&r41 ,m4                       
m9or ,&r41                              
,sagha!rium antiquum1                   
,&r4 & ,beadn41 ,s4                     

m9us1 ,&r4 & ,beadn41                   
,s4 magnum1 ,&r41                       
,ancodus ,gorr+ei1                      
,&r4 & ,beadn41                         
,g5iohyus mirus1 ,&r41                  
,g4 fayum5sis1 ,&r41                    
,g4 major1 ,&r41                        
,phiomia s]rid5s1                       
,&r4 & ,beadn41                         
,pt]odon africanus1                     
,&r41 ,p4 macrogna?us1                  
,&r41 ,eremopezus                       
libycus1 ,&r41 ,te/udo                  
,ammon1 ,&r41 &                         
frequ5t crocodilian &                   
*elonian rema9s4                        
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,qasr el ,sagha ,s]ies                  
7,c>olia b$s74                          
,alt]nat+ lime/ones1                    
m>ls1 clays &                           
s&/ones ) ,q]unia                       
7,hydract9ia7                           
cornuta1 ,may4-,eym41                   

,a/rohelia similis1                     
,felix41 ,e*9olampas                    
,cram]i1 ,loriol41                      
,o/rea ,reili1 ,fraas1                  
,o/rea elegans1 ,de%41                  
,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1               
,bell>di1 ,exogyra                      
,fraasi1 ,may4-,eym41                   
,c>olia placunoides1                    
,cantr41 ,c>dita                        
fajum5sis1 ,opp5h41                     
,,upp]               ,macrosol5         
,holl[aysi1                             
,,mokattam    #aee      ,s[]by1         
,turritella                             
ph>aonica1 ,cossm41 ,t4                 
c>9if]a1 ,de%41                         
,mesalia fasciata1 ,lam41               
,rimella rimosa1 ,sol4                  
,! v]tebrate rema9s                     
include ,mri!rium                       
,lyonsi1 ,&r41 ,m4                      
gracilis1 ,&r41                         
,b>y!rium grave1                        
,&r41 ,eosir5 libyca1                   

,&r41 ,zeuglodon                        
,osiris1 ,dames1                        
,gigantophis ,g>/9i1                    
,&r41 ,pt]osph5us                       
,s*we9fur?i1 ,&r41                      
,psephophorus eocnus1                   
,&r41 ,?allasso*elys                    
libyca1 ,&r41                           
,podocnemis antiqua1                    
,&r41 ,p4 ,/rom]i1 v4                   
,re941 ,/]eog5ys                        
,crom]i1 ,&r41 ,s4                      
podocnemioides1 v4                      
,re941 ,tomi/oma                        
africanum1 ,&r41 )                      
siluroids & ,propri/is       ,,middle   
,s*we9fur?i1 ,dames4       ,,eoc5e      
,,p>isian                               
----------------------------------------
------                                  
,birket el ,qurn ,s]ies                 
7,op]cul9a-,nummulite                   
b$s74                                   
,s&/ones & clays1                       
) s&y lime/ones1                        

& "o or m well                          
m>k$ concretion>y                       
s&/ones wea!r+                          
into l>ge globul>                       
masses4                                 
,nummulites ,fraasi1 de                 
la ,h>pe1 ,n4 ,beaumonti1               
#ej      ,op]cul9a discoidea1           
,s*wag41 ,q]unia                        
cornuta1 ,may4-,eym41                   
,plicatula polymorpha1                  
,bell41 ,pectunculus                    
pseudopulv9atus1 ,orb41                 
,c>dita ,viquesneli1                    
d',ar*41 ,c>dium                        
,s*we9fur?i1                            
,may4-,eym41 ,v5us                      
plicatella1 ,may4-,eym41                
,macrosol5 ,holl[aysi1                  
,s[41 ,luc9a ph>aonis1                  
,bell41 ,tell9a                         
scal>oides1 ,lam41                      
,clavelli!s longvus1                    
,sol41 ,voluta arabica1                 
,may4-,eym41 ,turritella                

ph>aonica1 ,cossm41 ,t4                 
c>9if]a1 ,de%41 )                       
,zeuglodon ,osiris1                     
,dames1 & ,z4 ,isis1                    
,beadn4                         ,,l[]   
--------------------------------------  
,,mokattam           ,rav9e ,b$s4       
#gj      ,:ite m>ls & m>ly              
lime/ones ) gypse\s                     
clays2 ,nucul>ia sp4                    
,l$a sp41 ,corbula                      
aff4 pixidicula1 ,de%41                 
,luc9a sp4 78                           
ph>aonis71 ,tell9a                      
t5ui/riata1 ,de%41                      
,zeuglodon ,isis1 ,beadn41              
& scales & tee? (                       
fi%4                                    
--------------------------------------  
,wadi ,rayan ,s]ies                     
7,nummulites gizeh5sis                  
b$s74                                   
#acj      ,lime/ones1 m>ls1 clays1      
etc41 ) ,nummulites                     
gizeh5sis1 ,ehrbg41 ,n4                 

curvispira1 ,c>olia                     
placunoides1 ,cantr4                    
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,,section ,x4--,,middle ,,eoc5e         
7,,p>isian74             ,a4--,wadi     
,rayan ,s]ies4--7,nummulites ,gizeh5sis 
,b$s74     7,a4,i4e4 ,s*we9fur?1 ,i4b4  
,may]-,eym>1#cf ,l[] ,mokattam (        
,cairo74      ,b$s ( ?is gr\p are *iefly
 f\nd 9 ! s\? ( !  depression4 ,! wadis 
,rayan & ,mula1 z already %[n by        
,s*we9fur? & ,may]-,eym>#cg1 are cut out
 9 clays & lime/ones  ( ,l[] ,mokattam  
age2 ! upp] b$s ( lime/one1 conta9+     
among o!r fossil#ch num]\s examples ( ! 
l>ge ,nummulites  gizeh5sis1 =m ! great]
 "p ( ! floor ( ! depression  we/ ( !   
,faym cultivation1 /ret*+ f ,jebel      
,rayan to !  foot ( ,g> el ,gehannem1#ci
 #bh kilometres we/ ( ! we/]n end  ( !  
,birket el ,qurn 7,section ,,xx74 ,ne> !
 latt] hill examples  ( ,n4 gizeh5sis ( 
inord9ately l>ge size occur4#dj    ,at !
 conical hill at ! s\!rn entrance to    

,wadi ,mula !  foll[+ b$s 7 notic$3--   
,top ( hill4      #a4 ,h>d :ite lime/one
 ) small nummulites1 ,luc9a1            
,callianassa1 & e*9ids4 ,salt occurs 9  
?9 deposits along       jo9t-planes4 ,! 
l[] "p ( ?is b$ is l>gely compos$ (     
small nummulites & bryozoa4 ,?is g5]ally
 :ite lime/one       passes d[n into    
#b4 ,br[n1 usually s&y1 lime/one ) oy/]s
 & small nummulites4       ,9 x are     
int]calat$ ?9 b$s ( gre5i% br[n s&/one &
       clayey s& ) impressions (        
bryozoa4 ,"s ( ! br[n s&y               
lime/ones are full ( small nummulites4  
,o/rea & ,c>olia       num]\s4 ,! b$s   
are n con/ant1 ! clayey s&/ones pass+   
ins5sibly into s&y lime/ones4      #c4  
,s(t] b$s ) l>ge nummulites1 corals1    
,o/rea1 ,nautilus4      #d4 ,s(t gre5 & 
br[n clays1 ) occasional oy/]-b$s4      
,at ! corn] ( ! cliff #g kilometres     
,n4,n4,w4 ( ! mona/]y (  ,d] el ,galamn1
 9 ,wadi ,mula1 occur ab\t #hj metres ( 
h>d :ite  nummulitic lime/ones1 ) b$s ( 
argillace\s s&/one & s&y  clays4        

,fossils are num]\s & include nummulites
 ( sev]al species  7,n4 gizeh5sis1      
etc471 ,c>olia placunoides1 diff]5t     
species  ( ,o/rea1 ) ga/ropods 7among   
o!rs ,t]ebellum sopitum71  bryozoa1 etc4
 ,x is v noticeable t ! nummulites1     
especially  ! small species1 occur 9    
rem>kable pr(usion n only 9 !  lime/ones
 b (t5 9 ! clays4    ,! foll[+ section w
 give a good idea ( ! g5]al alt]nations 
f\nd 9 ?is area2 x 0 measur$ at ,jebel  
,rayan1#da #bd kilometres  we/ ( ! we/]n
 end ( ! cultivation ( ,gh>aq bas94     
,top ( plateau4                         
,metres4      #a4 ,h>d sn[-:ite lime/one
 ) occasional nummulites       pass+ d[n
 into h>d highly nummulitic lime/one2   
,n4 gizeh5sis1 ,o/rea sp41 ,luc9a sp41  
,mitra sp41       & ,c>olia placunoides 
occur among o!rs                   #ca  
#b4 ,v]tical-fac$ b$ ( gre5i% clayey s&s
 & s&y       clays 7glauconitic7 )      
,c>olia1 ,o/rea &       ,nummulites4    
,ne> top ( b$ !re is mu* gypsum4 ,!     
nummulites 9 ?is b$ are (t5 collect$    

toge!r s z       to =m h>d concretion>y 
masses2 ^! masses1 by       becom+ m    
num]\s1 f9ally =m a h>d b$ (            
nummulitic lime/one int]calat$ 9 ! clays
 ne> !       top4 ,! junction ( ! clays 
) ! lime/one ( ,b$       ,no4 #a is v   
irregul>                                
#af      #c4 ,gre5i% %elly s&s & s&y    
clayey b&s1 int]b$d$       ) impure     
*alky nummulitic lime/ones ) ,n4        
gizeh5sis1 ,n4 curvispira1 & a ?ird     
small] species2       ,o/rea sp4 ,?is b$
 is mu* obscur$ by debris               
#aa      #d4 ,h>d slate-blue %ales1     
wea!r+ to pap]-%ales              #b    
#e4 ,br[ni% m>ls pass+ up into clays    
#b           ,lime/one b& l>gely made up
 ( small & l>ge         nummulites &    
e*9ids                                  
#a           ,glauconitic 787 & clayey  
s&s & s&y clays1         ) ,o/rea1      
,c>olia1 & nummulites1 wea!r+         ) 
a v]tical face4 ,9 "s b&s l>ge numb]s ( 
small & l>ge nummulites lie emb$d$ 9 e  
position1 z if toss$ ab\t by curr5ts    

dur+ !         process ( becom+ buri$ by
 s$im5t4 ,gypsum occurs         9 ?9    
ve9s & (t5 encloses ! nummulites        
#cf      #f4 ,h>d m>k$ly-:ite nummulitic
 lime/one full ( ,n4       gizeh5sis &  
o!r species 7,n4 curvispira1 etc472     
! rock usually has a d>k br[n col\r :5  
fre%ly       fractur$4 ,a %elly b& ri* 9
 corals occurs n9e       metres f ! top4
 ,! upp] "p is m m>ly &       less      
nummulitic ?an ! re/ ( ! b$4 ,base      
invisible       #cj                     
---               ,total ?ickness ( b$s 
9 ! above section          #abi         
---    ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,v4        
,,alluvial ,,deposits ,,ov]ly+ ,,m>ly   
,,lime/ones 7,,rav9e ,,b$s7 ,,9 ,,el    
,,wadi1  ,,rav9e ,,ne> ,,qasr ,,gebali4 
,! foll[+ is a section ( ! b$s expos$ 9 
,wadi ,mula compil$  f a pap] by        
,may]-,eym> on ?is oasis3--      ,top4  
,metres4                         ,:ite  
silice\s cav]n\s lime/one )             
,luc9a globulosa1 ,de%41 ,gisortia1     
,ro/ell>ia1 ,es*>a ,duvali1             

,mi*el941 7,probably  b$ ,no4 #a ( our  
,j4 ,rayan section7                     
#aj                                     
,greyi%-yell[ m>l1 ri* 9 places )       
,id4    ,o/rea ,gumbeli1 ,pect5         
mleh5sis1                               
,may4-,eym41 ,vulsella *ami=mis1        
,may4-,eym41 ,velates ,s*mi$eli1        
,*emnitz1                       ,c]i?ium
 fodicatum1 ,pleurotoma1                
,borsonia1 ,fusus1 ,ro/ell>ia1 etc4     
#f                                      
,yell[i% s&y m>l1 ) small               
nummulites4    ,,p>isian4               
,yell[i% m>ls1 divid$ by "o or two      
b&s ( r$ clay1 ) ,nummulites            
gizeh5sis                               
#g                                      
,ic4    ,h>d b$d$ clay                  
#a                                      
,v>i-col\r$ gypse\s m>ls                
#d                                      
7,probably  b$s #b1 #c1 #d at ,j4       
,rayan74                                
,v h>d1 ri* gre5i%-grey1 silice\s       

lime/one ) ,n4 gizeh5sis1 ,pect5        
corneus1 ,j4 ,s[41 & ,luc9a 7,l4        
,ib4    consobr9a1 ,de%41 & ,l4         
,defrancei1                             
,de%474                                 
#d to #e                                
7,probably  upp] "p ( b$ #e at ,j4      
,rayan47    ,!re is a consid]able       
diff]5ce 9 ?icknesses betwe5 ! above    
section & t ( ,jebel ,rayan4 ,our       
heights agree closely ) ^?  (           
,s*we9fur?1 s t x is probable t         
,may]-,eym> is 9 error1  not)/&+ 8      
*all5ge ( ,s*we9fur?'s figures 9 !  pap]
 m5tion$4                               
,b4--,rav9e ,b$s4      ,! b$s ( ?is     
s]ies1 consi/+ ( gypse\s clays1 clayey  
m>ls1  & :ite m>ly lime/ones1 are met ) 
bord]+ ! cultivation  on ! ea/1 we/ &   
nor? sides2 !y pass "u ! alluvial  soil 
( ! cultivat$ l& & are frequ5tly se5 9 !
 bottoms  ( canals1 & especially 9 !    
deep rav9es kn[n z ,el ,bats1  & ,el    
,wadi 7,plates ,,iii & ,v74 ,! relation 
( ^! b$s to !  ,rayan s]ies bel[ is well

 se5 at ! prom95t out/&+ hill  ,g> el   
,gehannem 7,fig4 #b72 "h ! pla9 to ! ea/
 & s\? is  =m$ ( ! upp]mo/ memb] ( !    
,wadi ,rayan s]ies1 a lime/one  full (  
,nummulites gizeh5sis4 ,9 ! hill itself 
! latt] is  directly ov]la9 by gypse\s &
 glauconitic s&y clays & m>ls1  ) h>d   
int]v5+ b$s ( yell[i%1 (t5 m>ly1        
lime/one4 ,!  upp] b$s consi/ ( alt]nat+
 clays1 s&y lime/one & s&/one1  at ! top
 be+ a ?ick b$ ( ! latt] pass+ up       
gradually into  ! s&/ones ( ! ,birket el
 ,qurn s]ies4 ,! foll[+ is !  detail$   
section3--      ,summit ( ,g> el        
,gehannem4                              
,?ickness 9 metres4      #a4 ,h>d yell[ 
& :ite lime/one cr[d$ )                 
%ells1 *iefly l>ge individuals ( ,c>olia
           placunoides & ,o/rea ,fraasi4
 ,num]\s              nummulites 9 upp] 
"p                                      
#be                                     
#b4 ,lime/one full ( ,turritella        
c>9if]a1              ,o/rea ,clot-,beyi
                                        

#a                                      
#c4 ,br[n clays                         
,l[]        #f                          
b$s (    #d4 ,%elly lime/one ) ,c>olia1 
,turritella1    ,qasr el       ,o/rea1  
,c>dita & ,q]unia                       
,sagha       7,hydract9ia7              
,s]ies       #a                         
7#de    #e4 ,gre5i% clays               
metres7      #f                         
#f4 ,nummulitic lime/one ) ,c>olia1     
,q]unia          & f\r species (        
,turritella                             
#a                                      
,light blue clays                       
#b                                      
#g4 ,light gre5 & br[n s&/one ) irregul>
          concretions                   
#b      #h4 ,br[n %elly lime/one full ( 
,c>olia                 placunoides1    
,o/rea ,reili1 ,o4 ,fraasi1             
,turritella1 ,balanus & nummulites      
#b                                      
#i4 ,yell[ s&/one ) b&s ( %elly         
lime/one cr[d$ ) nummulites1 oy/]s1     

,birket       etc4 ,ne> top ca/s (      
,c>dita1 ,c>olia2      el ,qurn         
also ,c]i?ium1 ,t]$o1 ,o/rea1           
,s]ies       ,pect51 ,p9na1 & e*9ids4   
,calc>e\s         7#ej       concretions
 ne> base                               
metres7     #ah                         
#aj4 ,clays ) mu* gypsum                
#f                                      
#aa4 ,yell[ s&/one ) ,balanus4 ,b&s     
cr[d$ ) two species ( nummulites &      
occasional oy/]s4 ,9 places !           
=am9if]al b&s become highly             
calc>e\s4 ,bel[ simil>1 ) h>d           
compact grey b&s & occasional fi%-sp9es 
& tee?                                  
#bd      #ab4 ,simil> to above1 ) num]\s
 ca/s (                ,c>dita1 etc41 & 
small ,o/rea                            
#bd                                     
,argillace\s s&/one ) ?ick /ockwork     
( gypsum & calc>e\s nodules             
#f                                      
#ac4 ,light yell[1 br[n1 & greyi%       
gypse\s clays                #c         

#ad4 ,yell[-br[n s&/ones & s&y          
lime/ones1           (t5 argillace\s4   
,fi%-scales4                            
,br[n clays                             
,yell[-:ite m>ls & m>ly lime/one        
,rav9e        #e                        
,b$s    #ae4 ,h>d light yell[ %elly     
lime/one1 9 "p       7#aj        m>ly1 9
 "p s&y                                 
metres7      #aj                        
#af4 ,o*re\s-yell[1 grey1 & :ite clays &
              m>ls ) gypsum             
#i                                      
#ag4 ,h>d yell[-:ite %aly m>l ) num]\s  
%ell-impressions2 mu* gypsum            
#c                                      
#ah4 ,yell[ m>ly clays2 s(t yell[ &     
grey-br[n          clays1 d>k s&y       
glauconitic1 yell[1 &                   
black1 clays4 ,zeuglodon rema9s fairly  
common4 ,%ell impressions4 ,mu* gypsum  
,fairly h>d yell[-:ite glauconitic m>l  
#aj      ,m>ly lime/one ) ,nummulites   
gizeh5sis =m+ top (    ,rayan b$s4      
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,section at   

,g> el ,gehannem1 %[+ !  relation ( !   
,wadi ,rayan ,s]ies to ! ,rav9e ,b$s4   
,! clays1 m>ls1 & lime/ones ( ! ,rav9e  
b$s are g5]ally f\nd  to conta9 fairly  
num]\s %ell-impressions1 includ+        
,nucul>ia  sp41 ,l$a sp41 ,c>dita sp41  
,corbula aff4 pixidicula1 ,luc9a  sp41  
,oud>dia ovalis1 ,de%41 ,tell9a         
t5ui/riata1#db num]\s  small fi%-scales1
 & occasional l>ge tee? ( %>ks2 :ile !  
skeletons ( ! too!d-:ale ,zeuglodon     
,isis are fairly common1  al?\gh usually
 9 poor pres]vation4    ,9 ! rav9e ( ,el
 ,bats1 ab\t "o kilometre we/ ( ,sla1 ^!
 b$s  7#e-f metres ?ick7 are se5        
uncon=mably ov]laid by #ab metres (     
false-b$d$ gypse\s s&s & clays pass+ up 
into ! sup]ficial  cultivat$ loam4 ,!   
junction ( ^! alluvial deposits & !     
und]ly+ ,eoc5e is di/9ctly uncon=mable &
 an int]v5+  pebble-b$ is occasionally  
pres5t 7,fig #c74    ,9 ! l>ge rav9e    
kn[n z ,el ,wadi1 :i* trav]ses ! we/    
side  ( ! cultivation ( ! ,faym1 ^! b$s 
are frequ5tly well  expos$2 _!          

li?ological *>act]s rema9 v con/ant4    
,"h1  z 9 ,el ,bats1 !y are uncon=mably 
ov]la9 by a v>y+ ?ickness  ( ,plei/oc5e 
& ,rec5t clays4 ,_! surface1 a pla9 (   
suba]ial  d5udation1 repres5ts ! orig9al
 floor ( ! depression be=e  ! entry ( ! 
s$im5t-c>ry+ wat] f ! ,nile ,valley     
?r\gh  ! ,lahn gap2 its irregul>ity is  
se5 9 ,plate ,v4    ,! pla9 bord]+ !    
cultivation to ! ea/ ( ,sla & ,rubiat   
likewise consi/s ( ^! same :ite m>ls )  
fi%-scales1  etc42 !y pass regul>ly "u !
 cultivat$ l&4 ,%aly m>ls1  gypse\s     
clays1 & *alky lime/ones ( ! same age   
are se5 91  & to ! s\? (1 ! railway     
cross+ ! des]t betwe5 ,sla  & ,m$um4    
,ea/w>ds !y /ret* into ! ,nile ,valley1 
be+ f\nd  expos$ along ! des]t-edge     
bord]+ ! cultivation at ,m$um1  ,nawamis
 & ,mas>et-,abusia4                     
#a4 ,m>% & poorly cultivat$ l&4         
,,rec5t          #a;a ,cultivat$ loam4  
,,&                    ,,plei/oc5e      
#b4 ,s&s & clays1 ) gravelly b&s2       
(t5 concretion>y & gypse\s b$s4         

#c4 ,pebble-b$ m>k+ uncon=mable         
junction4        ,,middle       ,,rav9e 
#d4 ,gypse\s salif]\s m>ly clays1 :ite  
,,eoc5e        ,,b$s   m>ls & lime/one )
 fi%scales &                            
,tell9a ,corbula1 etc4    ,,fig4        
#c4--,sket*-,section across ,el ,bats1  
#a kilometre ,we/ ( ,sla4    ,! same b$s
 are expos$ imm$iately to ! ea/ ( !     
village (  ,s]s5a1 midway betwe5 ,sla & 
,tamia4 ,!y are aga9 well se5  9 ! rav9e
 bel[ ! la/ nam$ village1 & =m+ ! n>r[  
/rip ( ! des]t project+ into !          
cultivation z f> z !  nor!rn end ( !    
,tamia lake2 !y also occur on ! %ore ( !
  latt] at ,el ,tuba1 ab\t #b kilometres
 s\? ( ! village4 ,at ,tamia  _!        
exposure measures #be metres 9 ?ickness4
    ,at v>i\s po9ts along ! nor? side ( 
! ,birket el ,qurn  exposures ( ?is     
s]ies occur1 ! b$s =m+ ! l[] slop+  "p (
 ! cliffs ov]look+ ! lake1 z well z !   
base ( !  isl& 8,geziret el ,qorn10     
al?\gh only ! upp] b$s are visible      
above ! wat] ( ! lake4 ,bo? "h & along !

 nor!rn %ore (  ! lake !y are = ! mo/ "p
 hidd5 by ! high level rec5t  lacu/r9e  
clays1 b :]e occasionally expos$ _!     
id5tity is  c]ta91 ! *>act]i/ic small   
br[n fi%-scales be+ abundant1  besides  
occasional tee?1 ) %ell-impressions ( ! 
diff]5t  g5]a enum]at$ above4           
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vi4             
,,esc>pm5t ,,( ,,! ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun
 ,,s]ies ,,ne> ,,! ,,we/]n ,,end ,,(    
,,! ,,lake4    ,at ! we/]n end ( ! lake 
! ,rav9e b$s =m ! l[] "p  ( ! cliff z   
well z ! pla9 to ! s\?2 ! und]ly+       
,nummulites gizeh5sis lime/one n be+    
expos$4 ,! s]ies  consi/s ( "s #de      
metres ( :ite & grey %aly m>ls ) h>d]   
b&s ( silice\s lime/one int]calat$      
?r\gh\t1 "o ( :i*  usually =ms ! upp]mo/
 b$4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! developm5t 9      
places ( "o or o!r ( ^! h>d b$s (       
lime/one ne> ! top  ( ! s]ies t gives   
rise to ! bold promontories1 or horns1  
:i* occur on ! nor? side ( ! ,birket el 
,qurn4    ,! great] "p ( ! m>ls & clays 
met ) f #ahe to #aabe  metres bel[ !    

surface 9 ! bor+ at ,m$9et el ,faym 9   
all  probability belong to ! ,rav9e b$s4
    ,! maximum ?ickness ( ?is s]ies is  
#gj metres1 measur$ at ,g>  el          
,gehannem4            ,c4--,birket el   
,qurun ,s]ies 7,op]cul9a-,nummulite     
,b$s74      ,! above designation is     
conv5i5t & applicable to ^! b$s1  :i* =m
 ! esc>pm5t imm$iately ov]look+ ! lake  
on !  nor? side ?r\gh\t its l5g?4    ,! 
gr\p includes all ! b$s betwe5 ^? la/   
describ$ &  ! well-m>k$ ,qasr el ,sagha 
s]ies1 homotaxial ) ! ,upp]  ,mokattam  
7! br[n b$s7 ( ,jebel ,mokattam1 ne>    
,cairo4 ,x ?us  appe>s to be ! equival5t
 ( ! upp] "p ( ! :ite  b$s 7qu>ri$      
lime/ones7 ( ! ,mokattam section1 al?\gh
  ! li?ological *>act]s are entirely    
diff]5t1 ! massive  lime/ones ( ,jebel  
,mokattam be+ repres5t$ 9 ! ,faym by an 
ar5ace\s & argillace\s s]ies1 deposit$  
probably 9 wat] (  f> less dep?4 ,:]e ! 
diff]5t memb]s ( ?is s]ies are well     
expos$ c]ta9 b$s are f\nd to be         
*>act]iz$ by ! abundance  ( two         

=am9if]a1 ! "o a small ?9-%ell$         
,op]cul9a  7,o4 discoidea741 & ! o!r a  
small ?ick nummulite4#dc ,!  te/s ( ^!  
=am9if]a sometimes make up entire b&s ( 
rock4 ,9  addition1 ! s]ies includes    
c]ta9 b$s :i* at times become v         
fossilif]\s1 & conta9 a well-pres]v$    
molluscan fauna4    ,! s]ies is well se5
 9 ! des]t sep>at+ ! ,faym f !  ,nile   
,valley2 on ! s\?-ea/ & ea/ sides ( !   
=m]2 along  ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( !         
cultivation & ! ,birket el ,qurn2  &    
we/w>ds 9 ! cliffs to beyond ! outly+   
hill-mass ( ,g>  el ,gehannem4    ,!    
foll[+ section 0 measur$ on ! s\?-we/ ( 
! ,faym1  f ,ezba ,qalam%a 7on ! conf9e 
( ! cultivation7 to ! ridge  summit #e  
kilometres to ! s\?-ea/4      ,top4     
,metres4                  ,summit (     
ridge #e kilometres s\?-ea/ ( ,ezba     
,qalam%a4                    ,plioc5e   
,rais$ ,bea* ) occasional ,o/rea        
cucullata1 ,born41 made up ( gravels )  
blocks ( lime/one4                  #a4 
,o*re-col\r$ calc>e\s s&/one & s&y      

lime/one cr[d$ ) =am9if]a               
7,nummulites ,fraasi1 etc471 ,o/rea1    
etc4       #ch                          
#b4 ,s&y lime/one1 l>gely made up (     
=am9if]a 7,op]cul9a discoidea 87        
#b                              #c4 ,s&y
 %ale                                   
#b                              #d4     
,s&/one1 p>tly calc>e\s1 ) mu*          
gypsum                                  
#c                              #e4     
,calc>e\s s&/one ) concretion>y         
,,birket        wea!r+                  
#ag    ,,el ,,qurun       ,,s]ies4      
#f4 ,%ale ) gypsum                      
#b                              #g4     
,calc>e\s s&/one                        
#d                              #h4     
,%ale ) gypsum                          
#b                              #i4     
,calc>e\s s&/one1 h>d & yell[i%         
#b                             #aj4     
,gypse\s %ale ) num]\s small %ells      
7,tell9a sp47 pass+ d[n into s&y        
lime/one4 7,?is b$ is ! upp]mo/ memb]   

( ! ,rav9e b$s7                         
#f                                      
--                                      
,total ?ickness        #gh              
--    ,base1 cultivation level4    ,to !
 nor? ( ! ,lahn pyramid ! b$s agree     
g5]ally ) !  above4 ,! foll[+ are ! *ief
 divisions "h3--      ,top ( ,hills4    
,metres4         ,gravel ,t]race        
7,plioc5e7 #bb metres ?ick4      #a4    
,calc>e\s s&/one & s&y lime/ones full ( 
nummulites2 also ,o/rea1 etc4           
#ca      #b4 ,o*re-col\r$ calc>e\s      
s&/one or s&y lime/one1       (t5 cr[d$ 
) ,op]cul9a discoidea & "s              
,nummulites ,fraasi1 etc4               
#ab      #c4 ,s&y lime/one ) small      
=am9if]a at top &       "s %ells4 ,!    
upp] "p ( ?is b$ has be5       qu>ri$   
#bj      #d4 ,%ales & %aly lime/one2    
gypsum                             --   
--                                      
,total ?ickness             #fc         
--    ,! =am9if]al s&y lime/ones ( ?is  
s]ies are se5 at po9ts  9 ! des]t b\nd+ 

! ea/]n m>g9 ( ! cultivation1 notably   
ea/ ( ,s]s5a & at ! top ( ! hill #ae    
kilometres nor?-ea/  ( ,rubiat4    ,!   
foll[+ section 0 measur$ at ! prom95t   
hills #ag kilometres  #bh ,n4 ( ,e4     
7magn47 ( ,tamia3--                     
,metres4       #a4 ,greyi% lam9at$ s&y  
clays ) gypsum2 ,o/rea        b& ne> top
                                        
#g       #b4 ,:ite s&y lime/one ) num]\s
 badly pres]v$        ,o/rea1 ,pect51 & 
o!r lamellibran*s                   #a  
#c4 ,d>k-br[n clayey s&s ) gypsum & grey
 s&y        clays ) obscure             
plant-rema9s4 ,occasional ,o/rea        
#ad       #d4 ,h>d1 :ite1 s&y lime/one )
 num]\s ,o/rea        at top2 s(t clays 
) gypsum                                
#a       #e4 ,gre5i% & br[ni% s&s & s&y 
clays )                b& ( s&y lime/one
 ne> top                                
#ad     #f4 ,greyi%-br[n1 impure1 s&y   
lime/one wea!r+               into l>ge 
globul> concretions4 ,%ell impressions  
#g4 ,s&y clays & m>ls alt]nat+ ) impure 

lime/ones2 mu* gypsum4 ,occasional      
fi%-rema9s &            small oy/]s     
#bb                                     
#h4 ,gre5i% s&y lime/one ) traces (     
%ells                 #i4 ,f9ely lam9at$
 grey-br[n clays ) black                
c>bonace\s matt] & fi%-rema9s2 salif]\s 
#c      #aj4 ,:ite s&y lime/one         
#a      #aa4 ,s(t yell[ s&/ones1 etc4   
#ab4 ,:ite m>ls ) fi%-scales1 etc42 base
 n se54            #g        7,?is b$1 &
 possibly also #i1 #aj1 #aa1 %\ld be    
reckon$ z belong+ to ! ,rav9e b$s7      
--                                      
,total ?ickness             #gj         
--    ,9 ! nor? ( ! ,faym ! s]ies is    
*>act]iz$ by !  pres5ce ( "o or m v     
con/ant well-m>k$ b$s ( h>d  calc>e\s   
s&/one1 :i* almo/ inv>iably wea!r into  
huge  globul> masses4 ,^! masses %\ld be
 reg>d$ z huge wea!r$-out  concretions1 
r ?an z wat]-r\nd$ blocks1 al?\gh no    
d\bt  9 _m cases _! r\ndness has be5    
increas$ by ! action ( !  wat]s ( ,lake 
,mo]is z ! level ( ! latt] gradually    

fell1 &  possibly /ill e>li] dur+ !     
invasion ( ! ,plioc5e sea2 f  ! latt] "t
 also may date ! millions ( p>allel     
v]tical bor+s  ) :i* ^! & o!r expos$    
rocks are (t5 p]=at$4 ,9  ! v>i\s places
 :]e "o ( ^! b$s =ms ! pres5t surface  (
 ! des]t ! concretions may be se5 9     
diff]5t /ages (  exposure1 f ! initial1 
:]e only j ! tops are laid b>e1  to !   
f9al /age :]e ! globes are left         
completely wea!r$ out1  z se5 9 !       
illu/ration 7,plate ,,vii74 ,! appe>ance
 ( ! des]t  :5 cov]$ = _m squ>e         
kilometres ) ?\s&s ( ^! blocks  is m    
easily imag9$ ?an describ$4    ,! l[]   
b$s ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies =m ! isl&
 ,geziret  el ,qorn1 & consi/ ( clays & 
s&/ones conta9+ a consid]able  numb] (  
organic rema9s4 ,^! b$s 7 collect$ f &  
exam9$  by ,s*we9fur?#dd 9 #ahgi1 !     
mollusca be+ subsequ5tly describ$  by   
,may]-,eym>1#de :ile ! v]tebrate rema9s1
 :i* includ$  cetacean bones & num]\s   
fi%-tee?1 7 submitt$ to ,dames4    ,!   
foll[+ species 7 det]m9$ by ,may]-,eym>1

 :o indicat$  t ! fauna z a :ole _h a   
,b>tonian aspect#df3--                  
,,upp] ,,b$4      ,o/rea plicata1 ,defr4
      ,arca ,edw>dsi1 ,de%4      ,luc9a 
pomum1 ,duj4#dg      ,luc9a cfr4        
tabulata1 ,de%4      ,c>dium            
,s*we9fur?i1 ,may4-,eym4      ,cy!rea   
,newboldi1 ,may4-,eym4      ,tell9a     
pellucida1 ,de%4      ,mactra compressa1
 ,de%4      ,corbula pyxidicula1 ,de%4  
,calyptra tro*i=mis1 ,lam4              
,turritella angulata1 ,s[4      ,ficula 
tric>9ata1 ,lam4                        
,,l[] ,,b$4      ,a/rohelia similis1    
,may4-,eym4      ,gonia/ra coc*ii1      
d',a*i>di4      ,helia/ra ac]vul>ia1    
,may4-,eym4      ,helia/ra ,ellisi1     
,defr4 7,a/ra74      ,helia/ra flatt]si1
 ,may4-,eym4      ,o/rea digital9a1     
,dubois4      ,o/rea gigantea1 ,sol4    
,o/rea longiro/ris1 ,lam4      ,o/rea   
producta1 ,delb4 et ,raul4              
,isoc>dia cypr9oides1 ,braun4           
,turritella c>9if]a1 ,de%4              
,turritella transitoria1 ,may4-,eym4    

,turritella turris1 ,ba/4      ,turbo   
,p>k9soni1 ,defr4      ,pleurotoma1 sp4 
,! cetacean rema9s1 belong+ to ! g5us   
,zeuglodon1 7  describ$ by ,w4          
,dames1#dh :o comp>$ !m ) ! ,am]ican    
species  ,z4 macrospondylus & ,z4       
bra*yspondylus1 b did n !n consid]  !m  
to repres5t a new species2 9 a lat]     
publication1#di h[ev]1  ! same au?or    
describ$ simil> b m complete rema9s1    
also  collect$ by ,s*we9fur? 7f b$s     
belong+ to our ,qasr el ,sagha  s]ies71 
z a new species1 ,z4 ,osiris4 ,a        
consid]able numb] (  fi%-rema9s f       
,geziret el ,qorn are also describ$ 9 ! 
e>li]  publication4 ,al?\gh ! diff]5ce 9
 size ( ! bones ( sep>ate  individuals 0
 consid]$ by ,dames to be sexual1 x     
seems probable  t !re are two di/9ct    
species ( ,zeuglodon1 z ! small]  type  
appe>s to h a mu* great] upw>d range ?an
 ! l>g]#ej2  bo? species1 ,z4 ,osiris1 &
 ,z4 ,isis occur 9 ! ,birket el ,qurn   
s]ies1 & a v f9e m&ible ( ! l>g] 0      
obta9$ f ^!  b$s 9 ! cliffs ne> ! we/   

end ( ! lake4#ea ,m rec5tly  a ?ird     
species has be5 discov]$ by ,/rom] &    
describ$ "u  ! "n ( ,z4 ,zitteli4#eb    
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,pr(ile ( b$s 
( ,geziret el ,qorn4    #a4 ,h>d br[n   
s&-rock ) l>ge concretions ( wea!r$     
globul>  s&/one on ! summit2 f]rug9\s   
nodul> b&s conta9+  %ell-ca/s occur ne> 
top4 #b4 ,s(t gypse\s clays ) b&s (     
s&-rock & s&/one ) ,o/rea1 ,c>dium      
,s*we9fur?i1  ,turritella1 corals1      
,zeuglodon1 *elonian & fi%-rema9s4 #c4  
,br[n  s&-rock4 #d4 ,s(t gypse\s clays &
 h>d] br[n s&/ones4 #e4 ,:ite  %aly m>l 
) fi%-scales2 h>d b& at top & s(t s&y   
%aly  clays bel[4    ,! surface-slope is
 mu* less ?an %[n 9 sket* & is g5]ally  
cov]$ by a deposit ( lacu/r9e clays     
conta9+ fre%wat] %ells  & fi%-bones4    
,! accompany+ pr(ile 7,fig4 #d71 measur$
 dur+ a hurri$ visit  to ! isl& = !     
purpose ( correlat+ ^! b$s ) ^?  ( !    
ma9l&1 %[s ! "* ( ! l[] b$s ( ! ,birket 
el ,qurn s]ies at ?is po9t4#ec          
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vii4    ,,wea!r$

 ,,concretion>y ,,s&/one 7,,birket ,,el 
,,qurun ,,s]ies7 ,,on ,,nor?  ,,%ore ,,(
 ,,lake ,,ne> ,,geziret ,,el ,,qorn4    
,! upp] b$s ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies 9
 ?is "p ( !  ,faym are li?ologically    
simil> to ^? j describ$1 consi/+  (     
alt]nat+ clays & s&/ones1 ab\t #cg      
metres ?ick4 ,!y are1  h[ev]1 g5]ally   
mu* ri*] 9 fossil rema9s1 :i* are       
likewise  usually bett] pres]v$ ?an 9 ! 
l[] b$s4 ,"s ( ! br[n  s&/ones ( ?is    
s]ies are lit]ally cr[d$ ) p]fect       
examples  ( _m ( ! typical mollusca2 &  
fur!r we/1 ne> ! end (  ! lake1         
=am9if]al b&s aga9 become noticeable4   
,ne> ,dim !  esc>pm5t ( ^! & ! l[] b$s  
is g5tle & inconspicu\s1  b foll[$      
we/w>ds x becomes a bold precipit\s     
cliff1 increas+  9 height t[>ds ! we/]n 
end ( ! lake1 :]e x is capp$ by  ! l[]  
b$s ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies4      ,!  
foll[+ section 0 measur$ on ! ma9l&#ed  
opposite !  isl& ,geziret el ,qorn4     
,top4                                   
,metres4      #a4 ,gypse\s clays1       

sep>at$ by a b& ( br[n s&/one           
cr[d$ ) :ite well-pres]v$ %ells1 includ+
       num]\s individuals ( ,plicatula  
polymorpha1 ,o/rea1       ,turritella & 
,luc9a ph>aonis4 ,l>ge v]tebrae (       
,zeuglodon ,isis occur on ?is horizon   
fur!r to !       nor?-ea/               
#h      #b4 ,s&/ones & gypse\s clays4   
,al?\gh "h !       s&/ones are n h>d or 
pr$om9ant1 ?is b$ is       equival5t to 
! h>d s&/one full ( bor+s capp+       ! 
pla9 betwe5 ! ru9s ( ,dim & ! top ( !   
esc>pm5t ov]look+ ! lake4 ,fur!r nor?   
?is b$       (t5 conta9s num]\s ,c>olia 
placunoides & ,o/rea     #c      #c4    
,gypse\s clays                          
#c      #d4 ,clays1 br[n s&/ones1 &     
occasional b$s ( lime/one1       (t5 v  
fossilif]\s1 conta9+ ,o/rea ,reili1     
,c>olia placunoides1 ,c>dita            
,viquesneli1 d',ar*41       ,luc9a sp41 
,turritella ph>aonica1#ee ,claveli!s    
longvus1 ,q]unia cornuta1 etc41 etc4    
#aj      #e4 ,clays ) fossils z 9 la/   
b$1 capp$ by h>d b& (       %elly s&/one

                                        
#c      #f4 ,alt]nat+ yell[-br[n s&/ones
 & gypse\s clays        #aj             
--                                      
,total ?ickness        #cg              
--    ,b$ ) wea!r$-out s&/one           
concretions at top--upp] b$ (    section
 at ,geziret el ,qorn4#ef    ,at ! we/]n
 end ( ! ,birket el ,qurn ! s]ies is    
well m>k$1  ! s&/one b$s =m+ ! /eep face
 ( ! bold precipit\s  cliffs :i* are s  
m>k$ a feature at ?is end ( ! lake4 ,!  
gr\p  has a ?ickness ( "s #ej metres &  
is ov]la9 by ! l[] b$s  ( ! ,qasr el    
,sagha s]ies2 x is m conv5i5t "h to give
 !  entire section ( ! cliffs d[n to !  
base ( ! s]ies "u  discussion3--        
,top ( ,cliffs4                         
,metres4       #a4 ,h>d grey s&/one &   
%elly lime/one             pass+ up into
 calc>e\s s&/one                 7=m+   
surface ( pla9 dipp+ nor?74             
#b4 ,impure s&/one ) num]\s fossils3--  
,q]unia cornuta1 corals1 ,o/rea ,reili1 
,o4 ,clot-,beyi1 ,c>olia placunoides1   

,plicatula polymorpha1 ,c>dita          
78 fajum5sis7 sp41 ,claveli!s           
longvus1 ,s]pula1 etc4                  
#c1 #d4 ,clays ) b& ( argillace\s       
,l[] "p        s&/one4 ,sept>ia b$ ne>  
base4           7#db metres7            
,fi%-rema9s4                            
( ,qasr                                 
el ,sagha     #e4 ,e>?y lime/one cr[d$ )
 ,o/rea          ,s]ies4                
,clot-,beyi1 ,o4 sp41 ,plicatula        
polymorpha1 ,pect5 sp41 ,luc9a sp41     
,cy!rea sp41 ,turritella sp41           
,nonion9a sp41 ,oliva sp41 ,pleurotoma  
sp41 ,v]metus sp41 ,nautilus sp4        
#f4 ,?9-b$d$ clays1 grey ) yell[i% b&1  
s&y clays int]b$d$ ) s(t :iti%          
s&/ones ) small irregul> concretions4   
,clays1 gypse\s & sometimes c>bonace\s4 
#g4 ,%elly s&/one1 h>d on upp] surface &
          v fossilif]\s 7=ms simil> to  
,b$ #i74                                
#h4 ,gypse\s clays4                     
#i4 ,?9 7#be to #e metre7 h>d d>k       
r$di%-br[n1 v f]rug9\s1                 

concretion>y-wea!r+ s&/one )            
nummulites & ,op]cul9a &                
well-pres]v$ examples ( ,q]unia         
cornuta1 ,pect5 sp41 ,pectunculus sp41  
,v5us sp41 ,c>dita ,viquesneli1 ,a/>te  
sp41 ,macrosol5 ,holl[aysi1 ,luc9a sp41 
,natica sp41 ,c]i?ium sp41 ,claveli!s   
longvus1 ,voluta sp41 ,d5talium sp4     
#a      #aj4 ,h>d purpli% clays         
#g      #aa4 ,s(t yell[i% s&/one )      
,o/rea        sp41 ,c>dita gyptiaca1    
,luc9a sp41        ,turritella sp41 &   
%>ks' tee?4 ,upp]        surface t5ds to
 become d>k1 f]rug9\s1        &         
concretion>y                            
#a      #ab4 ,purple clays1 ) /r+s (    
gypsum                           #f     
#ac4 ,s(t light-yell[ s&/ones ) h>d]    
%elly b&s & occasional concretion>y     
b$s1 =m+ v]tical cliff-wall             
#ag      #ad4 ,grey & br[n clays        
#ah                                     
--    ,rav9e ,b$s4                      
,total        #ej                       
--      ,9 ! cliffs we/ ( ! end ( ! lake

 ! upp] b$ ,no4 #i cont9ues  highly     
fossilif]\s & yields ! mo/ p]fectly     
pres]v$ molluscan  rema9s to be f\nd 9 !
 ,faym & probably 9 ,egypt4    ,a few   
kilometres ea/ ( ! end ( ! lake a b& (  
l>ge globul>  concretions occurs 9 !    
?ick br[n s&/one =m+ ! v]tical  face ( !
 cliff4 ,9 _m places ! effect ( wea!r+ (
 ^!  rocks is ( "s int]e/1 num]\s       
8e>?-pill>s0 hav+ be5  =m$2 ^! are      
l>gely ! result ( ! action ( bl[n s&1   
assi/$ by ra91 ! concretions be+ left   
capp+ pill>s (  br[n s&/one1 ! sides (  
:i* are sculptur$ by ! we>+  action (   
s&4 ,! curi\s p]=ate or cellul>         
appe>ance :i*  ! wea!r$ surfaces ( ?is  
s&/one assume aft] long exposure  are   
p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ?is neighb\rhood
 & 9 ! ,zeuglodon  ,valley fur!r we/4   
,9 ! well-m>k$ hill di/ant #ag          
kilometres to ! nor?-ea/ (  ,g> el      
,gehannem1 ! s(t fossilif]\s s&/ones (  
?is s]ies are  cr[d$ ) ,op]cul9a1       
,nummulites1 & _m species ( mollusca    
beautifully pres]v$4    ,at ,g> el      

,gehannem ! s]ies is se5 7,fig4 #b &    
detail$ section  page #cf7 =m+ "p ( !   
slope ( ! hill1 und]la9 by !  ,rav9e    
b$s1 & capp$ by "p ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha  
s]ies4 ,x "h  consi/s ( yell[ s&/ones   
divid$ by a b$ ( clay2 ! s&/ones  are   
(t5 cr[d$ ) nummulites 7( two species72 
also ,op]cul9a  7discoidea871 e*9ids1   
,balanus sp41 ,o/rea ,reili1 ,o4        
,fraasi1  ,c>olia placunoides1 & species
 ( ,pect51 ,p9na1 ,c>dita1  ,t]$o1      
,turritella1 & ,c]i?ium4                
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,section (    
cliffs1 we/]n end ( ! ,birket  el       
,qurun4    ,plei/oc5e4--7a7 ,lacu/r9e   
clays & s&s ) fre%wat] %ells  &         
fi%-rema9s2 ,middle ,eoc5e1 #a4 #ad     
,clays1 s&/ones & impure  lime/ones2 #ae
 ,:ite %aly clays & m>ly lime/ones4     
,9 ! ,zeuglodon ,valley1 #ab kilometres 
,w4,s4,w4 ( ,g> el ,gehannem1  ! br[n   
s&/ones ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies are  
divid$ by a  n>r[ b& ( f9e-b$d$ grey    
clay4 ,mo/ ( ! fanta/ically %ap$  hills 
on ! s\?-we/ slope ( ! valley are c>v$  

out ( !  l[] division ( ! s&/one4 ,!    
concretion>y b$s ( ! ,birket  el-,qurn  
s]ies are n develop$ 9 ?is neighb\rhood4
 ,rema9s (  ,zeuglodon ( bo? species    
7,z4 ,osiris & ,z4 ,isis7 are rem>kably 
abundant & ! skeletons ( ^! cetaceans   
may be f\nd 9 e  /age ( wea!r+4 ,! l>g] 
species1 ,z4 ,isis1 is ! m  common1 &   
s]ies ( v]tebrae1 twelve to fifte5 9    
numb]1 c  frequ5tly be c\nt$ 9 situ4 ,! 
rema9s are mo/ abundant enclos$  9 ! h>d
 br[n nodul> b&s ( ! s]ies b 9 su* cases
 x is  almo/ impossible to extract      
specim5s ( any value4 ,9 "o in/ance  an 
almo/ complete skull ( ,z4 ,isis1       
measur+ #aaf cm4 9 l5g?1  0 f\nd enclos$
 9 a l>ge block ( ! nodul> rock4#eg     
,bones are  frequ5tly to be obs]v$      
protrud+ f ! w9d-worn sides ( !  small  
hills1 :ile ^? portions ( ! skeleton    
already wea!r$  out litt] ! gr\nd bel[4 
,expos$ !y break up ) rapidity1  al?\gh 
:]e ! enclos+ rock is s(t] ?an ! bone   
itself1  p>ts ( ! skeleton beautifully  
pres]v$ & p]fectly free f  matrix may   

sometimes be obta9$4    ,! molluscan    
fauna is repres5t$ by v l>ge numb]s (   
pseudomorphs 9 sulphate ( /rontium      
7cele/9e7 ( ! g5]a  ,luc9a1 ,turritella1
 ,fusus & ,nautilus1 ! pr(usion (       
individuals ( a species ( ! latt] be+ v 
m>k$4 ,9 ! case  ( lamellibran*s !      
radiat+ bundles ( cry/als ( cele/9e are 
se5 to orig9ate f a po9t plac$ c5trally 
on "o ( ! valves1  s t on ?is side 7( a 
slightly wea!r$ example7 a radiat+ mass 
( cry/als is se51 :ile on ! o!r appe>   
num]\s contigu\s  circul> areas1        
repres5t+ ! t]m9al ends ( ! bundles (   
cry/all9e fibres or ne$les4 ,ap>t f !   
quantities ( organic  pseudomorphs1     
masses ( cry/all9e cele/9e occur 9 !    
s&/ones  ?r\gh\t ! valley1 & altoge!r ! 
quantity ( sulphate (  /rontium pres5t  
mu/ be v great4 ,! gigantic oy/]s & o!r 
fossils :i* occur 9 "s ( ! ov]ly+ high] 
b$s1 & !  num]\s individuals (          
nummulites 9 ! s&/one itself1 nev]  seem
 to be replac$ by cele/9e4              
,nummulites ( two species are v abundant

 9 "s b&s & !  pres5ce 9 ! ,zeuglodon   
,valley ( occasional individuals ( !    
l>ge ,n4 gizeh5sis %[s t 9 fav\rable    
localities ?is species  p]si/$ ?r\gh\t !
 "t repres5t$ by ! deposition ( !       
,rav9e b$s & rang$ upw>d into ! basal   
memb]s ( ! ,birket  el ,qurn s]ies4     
,9 ! high] hills )9 ! valley1 & 9 !     
hill-mass on !  s\? side1 ! yell[       
s&/ones ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies  pass
 up into ! basal memb]s ( ! ,qasr el    
,sagha s]ies4 ,9 _!  upp] limits !      
s&/ones become v nummulitic 9 places &  
at  ! top b&s made up ( ,c>olia & ,o/rea
 occur4 ,above ^!1  9 ! basal memb]s ( !
 ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies1 huge oy/]s &    
f9ely pres]v$ specim5s ( ,q]unia cornuta
 are conspicu\s4    ,! dip 9 ! valley is
 #b nor?4    ,! s\!rn face ( ! hill-mass
 ly+ imm$iately to ! s\? (  ! ,zeuglodon
 ,valley is an almo/ %e] cliff ( ov]    
#ajj metres1  desc5d+ to ! silt cov]$   
bas9 bel[ :i* has already be5  notic$   
7page #bc74 ,on ?is esc>pm5t ! h>d      
nodul> m>ly lime/ones  ( ! ,rav9e b$s   

are se5 ne> ! base1 ov]la9 by a mass (  
grey  %aly gypse\s b$s2 above1 =m+ z a  
rule a v]tical wall ( rock1  lies ! h>d 
massive br[n s&/one ( ! ,birket el ,qurn
 s]ies1  "h undivid$ by clays2 at ! top1
 highly fossilif]\s alt]nat+  clays &   
lime/ones are f\nd =m+ ! summit ( !     
hills4    ,! exact junction betwe5 !    
,birket el ,qurn s]ies & !  ov]ly+ ,qasr
 el ,sagha b$s is naturally p]fectly    
arbitr>y1 _m  ( ! fossils be+ common to 
bo? gr\ps4 ,c>olia placunoides1  :i* is 
p]haps ! mo/ abundant fossil 9 ! ,qasr  
el ,sagha s]ies1  is sometimes v common 
9 ! upp] b$s ( ! und]ly+ gr\p1  &1 z %[n
 be=e1 is common en\gh 9 ! /ill l[]     
,nummulites  gizeh5sis b$s ( ,wadi      
,rayan4 ,s t1 ?\gh ?is fossil itself is 
no crit]ion1 its relative abundance 9 ! 
upp] s]ies ju/ifies  ^? b$s be+ call$ ! 
8,c>olia b$s10 ! additional "n  ( !     
,qasr el ,sagha s]ies be+ tak5 f ! old  
ru9 ( t  "n :]e ^! b$s are fully se54   
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,viii4           
,,middle ,,eoc5e ,,esc>pm5t 7,,qasr ,,el

 ,,sagha ,,s]ies7 #ab ,,kilom4 ,,we/ ,,(
  ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4                  
,d4--,qasr el ,sagha ,s]ies 7,c>olia    
,b$s74      ,?is division is /rik+ly    
develop$ 9 ! nor? ( ! ,faym1  :]e x =ms 
a bold esc>pm5t ( great l5g?1 consi/+ ( 
an alt]nat+ s]ies ( v fossilif]\s clays 
& lime/ones1  ) s&s & s&/one 9 ! upp]   
b$s1 ( a total ?ickness (  #age metres4 
,?is s]ies is ! equival5t ( ! well kn[n 
,upp] ,mokattam b$s (  ,jebel ,mokattam1
 imm$iately to ! ea/ ( ,cairo4 ,! cliffs
 ( ?is  hill are among ! be/ kn[n 9     
,egypt & h be5 /udi$ by _m  geologi/s1  
includ+ ,zittel1 ,s*we9fur?1            
,may]-,eym>1 etc42 ^!  au?ors h         
classifi$ ! :ole ( ! ,upp] ,mokattam (  
,cairo z  equival5t to ! ,upp] ,p>isian 
7,middle ,eoc5e7 ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,!   
s]ies is f> bett] develop$ 9 ! ,faym ?an
 at ,jebel ,mokattam1  :]e ! total      
?ickness is only "s #gj to #hj metres4  
,9 consequ5ce ( ! discov]y 9 ^! b$s ( a 
highly int]e/+  v]tebrate fauna1 includ+
 l& animals1 ! s]ies becomes (  !       

greate/ importance4 ,z already m5tion$1 
z long ago z #ahgi1  ,s*we9fur?1 dur+ a 
j\rney across ! ,faym1 obta9$ rema9s (  
,zeuglodon 9 ! und]ly+ s]ies f ! isl& 9 
! ,birket  el ,qurn4 ,subsequ5tly#eh he 
obta9$ additional rema9s ( !  same      
cetacean 9 a violet m>l belong+ to !    
pres5t s]ies1 f  a locality #ab         
kilometres we/ ( ,qasr el ,sagha#ei2 ^! 
rema9s1  z already m5tion$1 7 describ$  
by ,dames z ,z4 ,osiris4 ,s9ce  !n      
important f9ds ( l& & m>9e mammals &    
reptiles h be5  made 9 diff]5t b$s ( ?is
 s]ies2 ^! w be ref]r$ to lat]4    ,!   
outcrop ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies       
occupies a l>ge "p (  ! nor!rn des]t ( !
 ,faym4 ,! b$s are1 h[ev]1 be/ se5  9 ! 
cliffs ab\t #h kilometres nor? ( !      
,birket el ,qurn1  :]e !y =m a /eep     
d\ble esc>pm5t1 runn+ ea/ & we/1  ne>ly 
p>allel to ! nor!rn %ore ( ! lake4 ,!   
dip ( !  s]ies be+ nor?w>d at a v l[    
angle1 & ! upw>d slope  ( ! gr\nd be+ 9 
! same direction1 ?is cliff dies out a  
few kilometres nor?-ea/ ( ,qasr el      

,sagha4 ,a little fur!r nor?1  h[ev]1 a 
,n4,w4-,s4,e4 fold & fault aga9 exposes 
ne>ly ! :ole  ( ! b$s ( ! s]ies1 =m+    
prom95t cliffs z be=e4    ,9 !          
conspicu\s hill #ag kilometres #bh ,n4 (
 ,e4 7magnetic7 (  ,tamia ! s]ies       
consi/s ( innum]able alt]nations ( clays
 &  s&y lime/one4 ,! calc>e\s b$s ne>ly 
always conta9 num]\s  examples ( ,c>olia
 placunoides1 ,o/rea & ,turritella (    
sev]al species1 b o!r well-pres]v$      
fossils are r>e4 ,!  expos$ b$s "h h a  
?ickness ( ab\t #ee metres1 & are       
und]la9 by ! ,birket el ,qurn b$s ) a   
well-m>k$ b& (  concretion>y s&/one1 !  
?ickness ( ! two s]ies toge!r  be+ #abg 
metres4 ,! upp] b$s ( ! =m] s]ies are n 
"h  expos$1 ! top ( ! hill be+ =m$ (    
well-r\nd$ fl9t  & qu>tz pebbles emb$d$ 
9 a base ( f9ely cry/all9e gypsum  7#b  
metres ?ick71 a deposit ( ,plei/oc5e    
times4    ,to ! nor? ( ,tamia a l>ge    
area ( des]t is occupi$ by ! b$s  ( ?is 
s]ies2 ! di/rict has ! "* ( an undulat+ 
pla9  ) occasional gr\ps ( hills & l[   

irregul> esc>pm5ts4 ,at  ! gr\ps ( hills
 #ab kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,tamia1 & j 
to !  ea/ ( ,g>at el ,f>as1 ! ,qasr el  
,sagha b$s are f\nd to consi/  z usual (
 an alt]nat+ s]ies ( s&s1 s&/ones1      
clays1 m>ls  & lime/ones1 ) num]\s      
individuals ( ,o/rea1 ,c>olia  &        
,turritella1 besides v]tebr1 tee? &     
sp9es ( l>ge fi%4    ,we may pass n[ to 
! locality :]e ?is s]ies %[s its be/    
developm5t & exposure1 ! b$s be+ all    
conc5trat$ 9 "o  bold esc>pm5t1 g5]ally 
divisible into an upp] & a l[]  cliff4  
,^! cliffs ov]look ! ,birket el ,qurn1  
al?\gh di/ant  usually ab\t #h          
kilometres1 be+ sep>at$ f ! l[] esc>pm5t
  ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies 7imm$iately
 above ! lake %ore7  by a broad pla91 ! 
surface ( :i* is usually ! dip-slope ( a
  h>d b$ ( s&/one4 ,f ,qasr el ,sagha   
7#f kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 (  ,dim7 ^!    
cliffs tr5d we/w>d1 keep+ approximately 
! same  di/ance f ! nor? %ore ( ! lake2 
!y h be5 foll[$  & mapp$ = a di/ance (  
#gj kilometres to a po9t #ac kilometres 

,n4,n4,w4 ( ,g> el ,gehannem1 :5ce !y   
c\ld be se5 /ill tr5d+  9 a direction   
slightly s\? ( we/ 7see ,plate ,,xvii74 
,small faults are ( frequ5t occurr5ce   
along ^! esc>pm5ts1 b  are n ( o!r ?an  
local int]e/2 !y almo/ inv>iably h _!   
d[n?r[ to ! nor?1 & x seldom exce$s a   
few metres4 ,fig4 #e  %[s a section     
?r\gh "o ( ^! faults ne> ,qasr el       
,sagha4    ,! foll[+ detail$ section    
7,plate ,,xxiii7 w %[ ! "*  ( ! b$s =m+ 
?is division4 ,z might be expect$ 9 su* 
a  s]ies1 al?\gh ! calc>e\s b&s are     
fairly con/ant1 !re is  a cont9u\s *ange
 ( "* among ! s&y & clayey s$im5ts  f   
po9t to po9t2 ! false-b$d+ is 9 places v
 /rik+4    ,! ma9 "p ( ! section 0      
measur$ #c kilometres nor?-ea/  ( ,qasr 
el ,sagha1 b ! l[] b$s n be+ expos$ at t
 po9t1  !y 7 add$ f ! cliffs at ! ru9   
itself4 ,! total ?ickness  is #aed      
metres4                                 
,?ickness    ,top4                      
9 metres4           #a4 ,h>d1 :ite1     
grey-wea!r+1 s&y lime/one )             

num]\s %ell-ca/s3 ,e*9olampas ,cram]i1  
,loriol1 ,plicatula ,bell>di1           
,may4-,eym4                 #b          
#b4 ,false-b$d$ s& & s&-rock ) grey &   
gre5 clays2 concretions & b&s (         
iron/one4              ,h>d1 d>k-br[n or
 purpli% f]rug9\s s&/one            b&4 
,occasional v]tebrae ( ,zeuglodon       
,osiris1            ,dames1 ,pt]osph5us 
7,mriophis7            ,s*we9fur?i1     
,&r41 crocodilian & fi%-                
rema9s2 coprolites                      
#af           #c4 ,h>d1 calc>e\s1       
f]rug9\s1 clayey s&/one            )    
br[n iron/one concretions4 ,occasional  
fi%-            sp9es4                  
,clays ) massive ve9s ( gypsum =m+ a    
/ock-"w1 & left wea!r$ out above        
surface4            ,c>dium ,s*we9fur?i1
 ,may4-,eym41 ,c>dita                   
fajum5sis1 ,opp5h41 7,cossmannella      
gyptiaca1            ,may4-,eym#fj71    
,crassatelli!s sp4                    #i
           #d4 ,h>d1 yell[1 gypse\s s&y 
lime/one or            calc>e\s s&/one  

#a           #e4 ,s&y1 glauconitic clays
 ) gypsum2 oy/]-b$            at base 9 
places4 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1       
,bell>di1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,may4-,eym4 
#aj      #bnd esc>pm5t4           #f4   
,h>d or friable lime/one1 sometimes s&y1
 full            ( ,c>olia placunoides1 
,cantr41 & ,exogyra            ,fraasi1 
also ,o/rea aff4 het]oclyta1 ,defr41    
,o/rea ,reili1 ,fraas41 ,o4 elegans1    
,de%41            ,plicatula ,bell>di1  
,may4-,eym41 ,pectunculus 787           
gyptiacus1 ,opp5h41 ,q]unia             
7,hydract9ia7            cornuta1       
,may4-,eym4                             
#b           #g4 ,purpli% clays int]b$d$
 & rem>kably curr5t-            b$d$ )  
a%-grey s&s1 ) bo? f]rug9\s            &
 highly c>bonace\s b&s ) plant-rema9s1  
lignite & natural *>coal4 ,v]tebrate    
rema9s            fairly common1 !      
mammalian includ+ ,zeuglodon            
,osiris1 ,eosir5 libyca1 ,&r41 ,mri!rium
            ,lyonsi1 ,b>y!rium8 ,&r42 ! 
reptilian            ,/]eog5ys ,crom]i1 

,&r41 & ,tomi/oma            africanum1 
,&r41 ) num]\s coprolites2 also         
frequ5t rema9s ( siluroid & o!r fi%4    
,masses ( coral1 ,a/rohelia similis1    
,felix1 9            places             
#ab           #h4 ,h>d grey1            
close-gra9$1 concretion>y s&/one1       
frequ5tly wea!r+ into huge elongat$     
r\nd$            masses2 ,turritella    
ph>aonica1 ,cossm4              ,h>d1   
purpli% clays ) grey s&y clays1         
s&rock1 etc4 ,occasional crocodile &    
fi%-            rema9s                  
#d           #i4 ,h>d ripple-m>k$       
s&/one4 ,false-b$d$            s&/ones )
 clay p>t+s2 f]rug9\s &                 
lignitic b&s ) lumps ( lignite4         
,occasionally            coprolites &   
rema9s ( ,sir5ia & ,crocodilia          
are num]\s                              
#g          #aj4 ,h>d or friable br[n   
s&y lime/one ) %ell-            ca/s    
fill$ ) scal5oh$ra ( calcite4           
,c>olia placunoides1 ,turritella sp4    
#aa4 ,gypse\s clays1 ) r$ f]rug9\s b&2  

wea!r+ to pap]-%ales bel[               
#d          #ab4 ,light-yell[ lime/one &
 calc>e\s s&/one            ) %>ks'     
tee?1 ,mesalia fasciata1 ,lam41         
,cassid>ia sp41 ,rimella rimosa1 ,sol41 
,tra*elo*etus bitub]culatus1 ,cossm41   
,turritella c>9if]a1 ,de%41 ,t4         
,lessepsi1            ,may4-,eym41      
,c>dita fajum5sis1 ,opp5h4              
,goniopora8                             
#a          #ac4 ,slate-blue & br[n     
gypse\s clays ) b&            conta9+   
,mesalia sp41 ,cassid>ia nilotica1      
,bell41 ,exogyra ,fraasi & ,goni>a      
elegans          #c          #ad4       
,s&/one & s&rock1 light yell[           
#a          #ae4 ,yell[ s&y friable     
lime/one ) ca/s (            %ells &    
,mesalia fasciata1 ,m4 oxycrepis1       
,may4-,eym41 ,turritella ,lessepsi1 ,t4 
ph>aonica1            ,cossm41          
,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,o/rea ,reili 
#af-ag4 ,s&s1 s&y clays & clays ) a     
d\ble b& (            lime/one conta9+  
,ampull9a hybrida1 ,lam41               

,melong5a nilotica1 v>4 bic>9ata1       
,may4-,eym41 ,tudicla aff4 umbilic>is1  
,may4-,eym41 ,turritella ,lessepsi1 ,t4 
p>isiana1            ,may4-,eym41       
,sol>ium sp41 ,alectryonia ,clot-       
,beyi1 ,plicatula polymorpha            
7occasional71            ,luc9a         
=tisiana1 ,defr41 ,l4 ph>aonis1 ,bell41 
,mytilus aff9is8 ,j4 & ,c4 ,s[]by1      
,a/rohelia            similis1 ,goni>a  
elegans1 ,mi*42 num]\s                  
v]tebrate rema9s bo? above & betwe5     
lime/ones includ+ ,zeuglodon ,osiris1   
,eosir5            libyca1 ,b>y!rium    
grave1 ,&r41 ,mo]i!rium                 
,lyonsi1 ,m4 gracile1 ,&r41 ,gigantophis
            ,g>/9i1 ,&r41 ,pt]osph5us   
,s*we9fur?i &            ,tomi/oma      
africanum1 ,&r4 ,! rema9s ( a           
siluroid fi% are abundant2 also         
,propri/is            ,s*we9fur?i1      
,dames4 ,l>ge numb]s (                  
coprolites4 ,silicifi$ wood             
#ab          #ah4 ,br[n s&y lime/one )  
ca/s ( %ells1            ,ak]a aff4     

/riatella1 ,lam41 ,ampull>ia1 n4        
sp41 ,gisortia gigantea1 ,mun/41        
,lani/es            antiquus1 ,blanck41 
,melong5a nilotica1 v>4                 
bic>9ata1 ,mesalia sp41 ,cassid>ia      
nilotica1 ,c4 aff4 nodosa1 ,sol>ium aff4
            bi/riatum1 ,de%41           
,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1               
,c>dium ,s*we9fur?i1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1  
,luc9a            ph>aonis1 ,bell41     
,macrosol5 ,holl[aysi1 ,j4              
,s[]by1 ,m]etrix nitidula1 ,lam41 ,m4   
p>isi5sis1 ,de%41 ,o/rea flabellula1    
,lam41            ,tell9a sp41 ov]ly+   
clays ) gypsum              #d          
#ai4 ,s&y lime/one ) num]\s ,c>olia     
placunoides & ,turritella imbricat>ia1  
,lam4        #a          #bj4           
,greyi%-blue & br[n f]rug9\s1 s&y1 &    
o!r clays4 ,plant rema9s                
#ac          #ba4 ,friable %elly        
lime/one ) occasional small             
calcite ve9s                            
#bb4 ,clays                             
#d          #bc4 ,h>d yell[ s&y lime/one

 ) ,o/rea &            ,anisa/]         
7,agassizia7 gibb]ulus                  
#bd4 ,clays ) ?9 b&s ( fibr\s gypsum    
#f          #be4 ,h>d friable %elly     
lime/one ) num]\s            fossils1   
includ+ ,dictyopleurus ,haimi1 ,dunc4   
& ,slad42 ,ak]a aff4 /riatella1         
,turritella            c>9if]a1 ,t4     
imbricat>ia1 ,t4 ph>aonica1             
,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,arca te?yis1 
,opp5h41            ,c>dita aff4 c>9ata1
 ,j4 ,s[]by1 ,c4 aff4                   
depressa1 ,loc>d41 ,c4 aff4             
trip>tico/ata1            ,cossm41 ,c4  
cf4 gracilis & depressa1                
,loc>d41 ,c>dita fajum5sis1 ,cuculla    
aff4            crassat9a1 ,lam41       
,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,glycim]is            
7,pectunculus7 pulv9atus1 ,lam41 ,o/rea 
aff4            ,reili1 ,spondylus      
gyptiacus1 ,bull4 ,newt41               
,pect5 sol>iolum1 ,may4-,eym41 ,p4      
moeleh5sis1            ,may4-,eym41     
,q]unia cornuta1 ,euspatangus           
cair5sis1 ,loriol1 ,l9?ia sp41 ,anisa/] 

gibb]ulus1 ,s*iza/] aff4 africanus1     
,loriol2 bryozoa                        
#bf4 ,s&y clays ) gypsum                
#g          #bg4 ,friable1 gypse\s1     
impure lime/one ) ,exogyra              
,fraasi1 ,c>olia placunoides1           
,turritella sp41            ,q]unia     
cornuta1 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi       
#bh4 ,s&y gypse\s clays                 
#c          #bi4 ,friable s&y lime/one )
 ,c>olia            placunoides1        
,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,turritella sp4       
7,! ru9 ( ,qasr el ,sagha is built on   
?is b$7        #a          #cj4 ,gypse\s
 s&y clays ) occasional oy/]-           
lime/one ) ,q]unia cornuta2 f]rug9\s    
s&/one b&1 etc4                         
#bg                                     
---                                     
,total          #aed                    
---        ,h>d grey s&/one ) ,zeuglodon
 & num]\s ,c>olia1        ,o/rea1 etc41 
9 places1 capp+ pla9 to s\? ( ,qasr el  
,sagha        & =m+ ! top ( ! 8,birket  
el ,qurun s]ies40    ,! *ief divisions (

 ! s]ies rema9 fairly con/ant & c be    
recogniz$ & foll[$ = _m kilometres      
we/w>ds4#fa ,! l[]  b$s =m ! summits (  
,g> el ,gehannem & ! neighb\r+ hills    
7see ,fig4 #b & section p4 #cf71 ! upp] 
b$s ( ! s]ies be+  expos$ 9 ! high]     
esc>pm5ts to ! nor?4    ,al?\gh         
v]tebrate rema9s are m common on "s     
horizons#fb ?an  on o!rs1 !y are        
occasionally met ) 9 mo/ ( ! b$s4 ,!    
mo/ prolific bone horizon is1 h[ev]1    
ab\t half-way d[n1 i4e41  ^? b$s numb]$ 
#af & #ag 9 ! above section2 b$ #g also 
yield$  a numb] ( rema9s4 ,at ! po9t :]e
 ! upp] "p ( ! section  0 measur$1 #c   
kilometres nor?-ea/ ( ,qasr el ,sagha1 !
 b$s  #af & #ag yield$ a consid]able    
numb] ( l&-animal rema9s1 all  ( :i*    
occurr$ )9 a fairly conf9$ space1       
sugge/+ t  !y _h be5 c>ri$ out f ! l& to
 ?is po9t by a /rong  riv]-curr5t &     
deposit$ :5 ! latt] became too feeble to
  c>ry !m fur!r out to sea4 ,! same b$s 
7 also exam9$ 9  ! fault$ bay #h        
kilometres to ! nor?1 b no bones1 or at 

mo/  a v occasional fragm5t or two1 7   
obta9$ "h4 ,?is is easily  expla9$ by ! 
great] di/ance ( ?is locality f !       
l&-mass  to ! s\?4 ,we/w>ds ! same b$s 7
 always f\nd m or less  bone-be>+1      
isolat$ deta*$ m&ibles1 limb-bones &    
v]tebr (  ,mri!rium1 be+ ( frequ5t      
occurr5ce1 al?\gh no su* complete       
rema9s 7 f\nd z ^? f ne> ,qasr el       
,sagha4 ,reptilian &  fi% bones are v   
widespread ?r\gh\t ! area4 ,an ext5sive 
&  detail$ exam9ation ( ^! b$s ov] a    
l>ge area c h>dly fail  to yield        
important results1 z o!r localities :]e 
skeleton-c>ry+  curr5ts came out f ! l& 
w\ld v likely be discov]$4    ,t ! ,qasr
 el ,sagha s]ies 0 deposit$ 9 fairly    
%all[ wat] at  no great di/ance f l&    
seems c]ta91 n only f ! g5]al           
li?ological "* ( ! b$s b f ! numb] (    
l&-animal  rema9s & ! frequ5cy ( riv] & 
%ore-frequ5t+ :ales1  dugongs1          
crocodiles & turtles4 ,! clays1 moreov]1
 are f\nd  to ab\nd ) impressions (     
plants1 & 9 "s cases are highly         

lignitic1 be+ made up ( compress$ masses
 ( vegetation includ+  solid twigs1 n[  
f\nd 9 a /ate m resembl+ *>coal ?an     
ord9>y d5se lignites2 "s b&s approximate
 to an impure br[n  coal4 ,9 c]ta9 b$s (
 ! s]ies fur!r to ! we/1 v ?9  seams (  
true coal occur2 !y 71 h[ev]1 nev] se5  
to exce$ "o  or two millimetres4 ,!     
int]calat$ b&s ( lime/one are g5]ally   
impure & d n indicate any great         
conditions ( dep?1 b only  r a tempor>y 
cessation 9 ! supply ( s& & clay4       
,corals1  moreov]1 ab\nd along _m       
horizons4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ix4
    ,,upp] ,,b$s ,,( ,,fluvio-,,m>9e    
,,s]ies ,,) ,,basalt ,,cap1 ,,look+     
,,we/ ,,f  ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,extremity ,,(  
,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4                 
,,section ,,xi4--,,upp] ,,eoc5e         
7,,b>tonian7--,,l[] ,,oligoc5e4         
,e4--,fluvio-,m>9e ,s]ies 7,jebel el    
,qatrani ,b$s74      ,?r\gh\t ! nor? ( !
 ,faym depression ! ,qasr el ,sagha     
b$s1 =m+ ! upp]mo/ ,middle ,eoc5e1 are  
foll[$ by an unique  s]ies#fc (         

v>iegat$#fd s&s & s&/ones1 ) alt]nat+   
b$s ( clay & clayey m>l4 ,! ev]-recurr+ 
b&s ( lime/one1  s common to ! und]ly+  
m>9e b$s1 h n[ almo/ completely         
disappe>$1 be+ repres5t$ by only an     
occasional b$ ( calc>e\s  grit1 m>l1 or 
?9 b& ( lime/one4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( !      
s]ies occurs a horizontal %eet (        
basalt1#fe 9 all probability            
contemporane\sly int]b$d$2 ?is =ms a    
conv5i5t datum l9e &  may p]haps be     
provisionally tak5 z an arbitr>y        
junction betwe5 !  ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e4  
,al?\gh z a rule rem>kably b>r5 (       
organic  rema9s1 c]ta9 b&s1 especially 9
 ! upp] "p1 yield num]\s  individuals ( 
a few species ( mollusca1 includ+       
,luc9a1 ,arca1  ,mutela1 ,spa?a1 ,unio1 
,lani/es1 ,turritella1 ,melania1        
,potamides1 ,c]i?ium & ,pleurotoma4 ,f  
su* an assemblage we  may )\t d\bt      
conclude t ! conditions "u :i* ! s]ies  
0 deposit$ 7 e/u>9e or fluvio-m>9e1 &   
?is is fur!r  prov$ by ! non-m>9e       
li?ological "* ( ! b$s4 ,!  enorm\s     

quantities ( silicifi$ wood :i* occur 9 
c]ta9 b$s1  9 ! %ape ( hundr$s ( trees (
 great l5g? & gir?1 toge!r  ) ! num]\s  
rema9s ( l&-animals1 crocodiles1        
tortoises  & turtles1 indicate t riv]s (
 consid]able size em]g$ f  ! l& to !    
s\?1 ! coa/-l9e ( :i* 0 probably n f>   
di/ant4 ,9 fact ! retreat ( ! sea1 :i* z
 already m5tion$1  _h probably already  
begun 9 ,middle ,eoc5e times1 0 n[ /ill 
fur!r cont9u$1 al?\gh ! cause ( ?is 0   
app>5tly n s  mu* due to elevation ( !  
l& z to ! cont9u$ deposition  ( s$im5t f
 s\? to nor? beyond ! l&-%ore4 ,we may 9
  fact reg>d ! s]ies z a huge delta     
deposit 9 an area ( local  depression1 9
 :i* ! great accumulation ( s$im5t      
br\ght d[n  f ! l& cont9ually caus$ !   
gradual retreat ( ! sea to  ! nor?4     
,! same conditions w\ld ev5 appe> to h  
cont9u$ on to  ,plioc5e times1 z f !    
,faym nor?w>ds /ret*es an imm5se  pla9 (
 li?ologically simil> rocks1 evid5tly   
accumulat$ "u  simil> conditions1 & :i* 
appe> to conta9 new] & new]  faunas f   

s\? to nor?4 ,?us1 :ile 9 ! ,faym !     
rema9s  are ( ,middle & ,upp] ,eoc5e &  
,l[] ,oligoc5e age1 :5 !  latitude (    
,mog>a is rea*$1 "s #gj kilometres fur!r
 nor?1  a fauna di/9ctly ,l[] ,mioc5e 9 
aspect occurs2 fur!r nor?  aga91 z at   
,wadi ,natrn1 ,plioc5e rema9s are       
abundant4 ,we may  hope !re=e t ?is     
o!rwise b>r5 des]t1 :5 c>efully &       
sy/ematically explor$1 w yield u a      
cont9u\s record ( !  v]tebrate life ( ! 
nor!rn "p ( ! ,african cont95t f  ,eoc5e
 to ,plei/oc5e times4    ,9 ! ,faym1 ov]
 a l5g? ( #hj to #ij kilometres1 ! basal
 b$s  ( ! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 at a      
height ( only a few metres above  ! top 
( ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies1 are frequ5tly
 f\nd to conta9  ! rema9s ( l&-animals1 
(t5 9 suffici5t quantities to =m  9     
places a true 8bone-b$40 ,besides       
l&-mammals1 rema9s (  l>ge tortoises1   
turtles & crocodiles1 are v common1 "s (
  ! latt] be+ id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,qasr el
 ,sagha s]ies  bel[4 ,*elonian &        
crocodilian rema9s are to be f\nd on    

v>i\s  horizons1 b s f> none b fragm5t>y
 mammal rema9s h be5  obs]v$ 9 ! high]  
p>ts ( ! s]ies4 ,x is int]e/+ to  note t
 ! bones 9 ^! b$s appe> to be mo/ common
 ne> !  accumulations ( fossil trees1   
?us sugge/+ t !y 7 float$  out f ! l& at
 ! same "t & by ! same riv]-curr5ts4 ,! 
por\s "* ( ! s&s & s&/ones ( ?is gr\p   
has result$  9 ! rema9s n be+ 9 ne>ly s 
h>d or durable a condition1  except :5  
coat$ ) f]rug9\s s&1 z ^? 9 ! s]ies     
bel[1  al?\gh ! actual /ate (           
pres]vation is ev5 m p]fect4            
,analysis %[s t ^! bones1 ) ! exception 
( ! loss  ( all organic matt]1 h        
und]gone v little *ange4 ,a sample      
exam9$ by ,mr4 ,lucas 0 tak5 f a        
typically pres]v$ pelvis (  ,ars9oi!rium
 & gave ! foll[+ result3--              
,,det]m9$4                              
,,calculat$4      ,silica               
#jeg     ,silica                  #jeg  
,oxide ( ,iron        #aih     ,oxide ( 
,iron           #aih      ,lime         
#eadj     ,calcium ,phosphate      #gfaa

      ,magnesia            trace        
,magnesium ,phosphate    trace          
,phosphoric ,acid     #cdhf     ,calcium
 ,sulphate        #dfd      ,sulphuric  
,acid       #bgd     ,calcium ,c>bonate 
#adge      ,loss on ignition1           
,organic ,matt]           nil    be+    
,c>bon    dioxide              #fac     
,*lor9e            trace     ,sodium    
,*loride        trace      ,n det]m9$   
#bcb     ,n det]m9$          #aie       
------                           ------ 
#ajjjj                           #ajjjj 
,! foll[+ composition ( ! bones ( an ox1
 f an analysis by  ,b]zelius1 is        
app5d$ = comp>ison3--                   
,phosphate & ,fluoride ( ,calcium       
#egce      ,c>bonate ( ,calcium         
#che      ,phosphate ( ,magnesium       
#bje      ,soda & a little ,sodium      
,*loride           #cde      ,organic   
,matt]                             #cccj
                                        
------                                  
#ajjjj                                  

------    ,x is curi\s t ^! ,eoc5e bones
 %\ld h s completely  pres]v$ _! orig9al
 composition consid]+ ! almo/ univ]sal  
silicification ( ! trees deposit$ 9 !   
same b$s4    ,mo/ frequ5tly ! v]tebrate 
rema9s are f\nd 9 an unconsolidat$      
false-b$d$ clean qu>tz s&1 ! gra9s ( :i*
 are semi-r\nd$  or angul>2 9 "s lay]s !
 s& is v co>se & poli%$1 &  mix$ ) f9e  
gravel4 ,^! deposits ( s&1 app>5tly     
br\ght d[n  by riv] floods1 are n       
cont9u\s along any p>ticul> horizon1 b  
are int]calat$ "h & !re 9 ! ord9>y      
s&/ones1 clays &  m>ls ( ! s]ies2 !y    
occur *iefly1 h[ev]1 z local l5ticul>   
masses along a m or less con/ant horizon
 ne> ! base ( !  s]ies4 ,! bone-rema9s  
are n absolutely conf9$ to ^! deposits  
( riv]-s&1 b l ! silicifi$ trees are f> 
m common 9  !m ?an else:]e4 ,scatt]$    
mammal bones occur 9 ! l[] clays1  m>ls1
 & h>d concretion>y s&/ones1 :ile !     
rema9s ( aquatic  animals1 su* z turtles
 & crocodiles1 may be f\nd almo/ any:]e4
    ,f an exam9ation ( ! s]ies 9 !      

field1 !re is no d\bt t1  9 at lea/ !   
c5tre ( ! area1 ! deposition ( ! l[e/   
b$s  0 cont9u\s ) ^? ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha
 7,middle ,eoc5e7 s]ies  bel[4 ,foll[$  
away f ! c5tre 7i4e4 ! di/rict r\nd     
,widan el  ,f>as1 ! ea/]n extremity (   
,jebel el ,qatrani7 ! s]ies gradually   
?9s out1 & ea/w>ds1 at ,elwat ,hialla1  
"s #bc kilometres nor?  ( ,tamia1 has a 
?ickness ( only #dj metres1 ! basal b$s 
be+  app>5tly laid on to a b$ ( lime/one
 ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies  ab\t !      
horizon ( ,b$ #ab 9 ,section ,,xxiii4 ,!
 junction "h is  app>5tly "o ( p]fect   
con=mity z f> z ! individual b$s g1  & !
 peculi> sequ5ce does n seem to be due  
to ord9>y ov]lap2  x appe>s z if ! *ange
 f m>9e to e/u>9e conditions _h  set 9  
e>li] "h ?an fur!r to ! we/1 ) ! result 
t  ! upp] ,qasr el ,sagha b$s are want+4
 ,moreov]1 ! accumulation  ( e/u>9e b$s 
w5t on s sl[ly 9 ?is locality t ! s]ies 
does n atta9 to ne>ly its normal        
?ickness1 :ile fur!r ea/ x  dies out    
altoge!r4 ,! slight dip to ! nor? is    

id5tical 9 bo?  s]ies1 _! li?ological   
*>act]s be+1 h[ev]1 v diff]5t4          
,al?\gh ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies conta9s 
num]\s b&s ( clay &  s&/one1 ! cont9ual 
recurr5ce ( ?ick b$s ( lime/one at once 
gives x a di/+ui%+ feature f ! gr\p "u  
discussion2  ! latt] is 9 fact *>act]iz$
 by ! highly-col\r$ s&y1 &  to less     
ext5t clayey1 "* ( its b$s4 ,:ile !     
,middle ,eoc5e  is ess5tially m>9e1 !   
succe$+ =mation m>ks ! retreat (  ! sea 
& ! incom+ ( e/u>9e & bracki% wat]      
conditions4    ,be=e discuss+ ! age ( ! 
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies x w be well  to      
describe its developm5t 9 ! field4 ,!   
b$s ( ! complex are  ?r\gh\t ! di/rict  
always f\nd foll[+ on above ! ,qasr el  
,sagha b$s1 al?\gh _! ?ickness v>ies    
consid]ably1 z might  be expect$ 9 a    
s]ies ( ?is nature4 ,! mo/ ea/]ly       
locality  to :i* ! =mation 0 mapp$ is ! 
sc>p #bc kilometres due  nor? ( ,tamia1 
kn[n z ,elwat ,hialla4 ,"h ! b$s =m a   
sep>ate  esc>pm5t1 consi/+ ( only ab\t  
#dj metres ( s&s & s&/one  grit         

7sometimes silicifi$7 ) pieces (        
silicifi$ wood3 "s (  ! b$s ( s&/one h a
 concretion>y /em-l wea!r+4 ,f  ?is po9t
 ^! b$s ext5d we/w>ds f> beyond ! we/]n 
end  ( ! lake1 always =m+ ! highe/      
esc>pm5ts ( ! ,faym  depression4 ,a     
kilometre or two f our mo/ ea/]ly po9t !
 fir/  basalt %eets are se51 & ^!1      
pres]v+ ! same level z f>  z c be       
obs]v$1 cont9ue "s #fj kilometres fur!r 
we/1 to a  po9t ne>ly due nor? ( ! we/]n
 end ( ! ,birket el ,qurn4 ,!  s]ies1   
only #dj metres ?ick at ! ea/]n end1    
gradually ?ick5s  z x is foll[$ we/w>d1 
until x rea*es its maximum developm5t  9
 ! cliffs ( ,jebel el ,qatrani1 nor?-we/
 ( ! temple ( ,qasr  el ,sagha1 :]e a   
?ickness ( "s #baj metres is atta9$4    
,j #bi kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,tamia 7#f
 kilometres ,n4,w4 ( ! prom95t  we/]n   
sc>p ( ,elwat ,hialla71 a long hill (f]s
 a good section (  ^! b$s1 :i* consi/ ( 
a v>iegat$ gr\p ( gre5 s&s1 r$  clays1  
co>se s&/ones1 r$ & yell[ s& & s&/one1  
etc41  capp$ by a b& ( h>d impure       

yell[i% lime/one ) num]\s  enclos$      
s&-gra9s 7calc>e\s grit74 ,ne> ! same   
place is an  int]b$d$ %eet ( basalt1 :i*
 is sometimes foll[$ by ano!r  b& (     
impure lime/one & ! latt] by false-b$d$ 
s&/one4 ,huge  logs ( wea!r$-out        
silicifi$ trees are se5 /rewn ab\t4     
,! foll[+ is a detail$ section ( !      
s]ies1 measur$ f a  po9t #c kilometres  
,w4,n4,w4 ( ,elwat ,hialla1 & ab\t #bh  
kilometres  ,n4,n4,w4 ( ,tamia1 to ! top
 ( ! esc>pm5t #d kilometres fur!r       
nor?3--       ,undulat+ s&y1            
gravel-cov]$ des]t#ff /ret*+ nor?w>ds4  
,top ( esc>pm5t4                        
,metres4       #a4 ,false-b$d$ s&/ones  
#b4 ,b& ( impure lime/one               
#h     #c4 ,int]b$d$ basalt %eet        
#d4 ,s&/one                             
7,section cont9u$ 9 hill  kilometre     
fur!r nor?-ea/74       #e4 ,h>d yell[   
lime/one ) enclos$ s&-gra9s2 cavities   
full ( calcite                          
#a       #f4 ,gre5i%-:ite s&-rock       
#a       #g4 ,h>d r$di%-br[n /em-wea!r+ 

s&/one                 #a       #h4     
,gre5i% or :ite s& & s&-rock            
#c       #i4 ,v>iegat$ s&y clays2       
s&-rock ) occasional        fragm5ts (  
bone                                    
#f      #aj4 ,:ite s&-rock              
#a      #aa4 ,rose-col\r$ s&/one        
#b      #ab4 ,h>d grey :ite m>ly clays  
#b      #ac4 ,co>se yell[ s&/one        
#e      #ad4 ,r$di%1 :ite1 & v>iegat$   
s&s & s&-rock           #h      #ae4    
,grey1 r$di% & yell[i% clays1 ) b&s full
 (        plant-rema9s                  
#c      #af4 ,br[n clayey1 s&/one       
#b      #ag4 ,gre5i% s&/one             
#a      #ah4 ,s&y grey clay             
#a      #ai4 ,h>d grey s&/one           
#bj4 ,gre5i% s&-rock & clayey s&/one    
#c      #ba4 ,d>k r$ clay               
#a      #bb4 ,s&s1 etc42 outcrop ( b$   
cov]$ ) silicifi$ trees        ( l>ge   
dim5sions1 #ab-ae metres long           
#aj      #bc4 ,clays ) h>d grey         
false-b$d$ s&/one & %[+        f9e      
mammil>y wea!r+ at top4 ,silicifi$ logs 

on        surface                       
#h      #bd4 ,r$ clays1 s&y clays &     
argillace\s s&s                #d       
#be4 ,r$di% s&-rock                     
#a      #bf4 ,yell[i% s&-rock1 9 "p     
false-b$d$                    #b        
#bg4 ,r$ clays ) ?9 s&y b&s             
#a      #bh4 ,co>se grey s&/one         
#b      #bi4 ,r$ & gre5 s&y clays ) ?9  
b& ( h>d :ite        s&/one at top      
#a      #cj4 ,bright r$ clay            
#d      #ca4 ,r$ clays ) ?9 gre5 s&y b&s
                        #c      #cb4    
,gre5i% s&-rock ) ?9 r$ clayey b&s      
#a      #cc4 ,r$di% :ite mottl$ clayey  
s&/ones pass+ up into        r$ & :ite  
mottl$ clays & s&y clays                
#h      #cd4 ,f9e :ite s&               
#c    #ce4 ,black f]rug9\s silicifi$    
s&/one                                  
--        ,total ?ickness               
#ij                                     
--    ,base4      ,junction ) ,middle   
,eoc5e 7,qasr el ,sagha s]ies74         
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,x4    ,,el       

,,qatrani ,,range ,,f ,,! ,,s\?-,,ea/4  
,a little fur!r we/1 at a po9t #be      
kilometres nor? ( ! ea/]n  end ( !      
,birket el ,qurn1 ?ick b$s ( :ite co>se 
s&/one  =m ! upp] "p ( ! esc>pm5t4 ,bel[
 comes a b$ ( yell[i%  impure lime/one &
 bel[ ?is an int]b$d$ %eet ( basalt #ba 
metres ?ick1 und]laid by m :ite s&/one4 
,! s]ies has almo/ always a con/ant dip 
( two or ?ree degrees  to ! nor?4       
,silicifi$ trees are v commonly f\nd    
/rewn ov]  ! surface bo? ne> ! base &   
high up 9 ! s]ies4    ,at a po9t ab\t   
#ad kilometres nor? ( ,qasr el ,sagha   
def9ite organic  rema9s o!r ?an         
bone-fragm5ts 7 = ! fir/ "t met )  9 !  
s]ies4 ,"h a fragm5t ( o*re\s-col\r$    
grit conta9+  num]\s specim5s ( a small 
,melania 0 pick$ up & simil>  rocks 7   
aft]w>ds f\nd 9 situ4 ,calc>e\s grits & 
impure  lime/ones occurr$ at ! same     
spot1 & "o ( ! h>d] m  compact b&s (    
lime/one 0 f\nd to conta9 ca/s (        
,c]i?ium4    ,also at a po9t #i         
kilometres nor? ( ,qasr el ,sagha h>d   

grey lime/ones1 g5]ally compact & *]ty1 
& sometimes  semi-cry/all9e1 are pres5t1
 conta9+ ca/s ( ,melania1  frequ5tly    
fill$ ) calcite4 ,^! ov]lie v>iegat$    
s&/ones1  & occur at ab\t #dj metres    
bel[ ! basalt ne> ! top ( !  esc>pm5t4  
,blanck5horn has det]m9$ my fossils f ^!
 localities z  foll[s3--    ,melania    
nov4 sp41 alli$ to ,m4 ,ny/i ( !        
,oligoc5e4    ,potamides scal>oides1    
,de%41 an important guid+ =m ( !        
,middle ,beau*amp ,s&s ( ! ,p>is ,bas91 
& ?us ,upp] ,eoc5e4    ,potamides       
tri/riatus1 ,lam41 ( ! ,p>isian         
7,c]i?ium crispum1  ,de%417 is ne>ly    
relat$ to ! frequ5t ,middle & ,upp]     
,eoc5e  ,c4 p]ditum1 ,bay1 betwe5 :i*1  
accord+ to ,cossmann1 transitions  exi/4
    ,c]i?ium ti>ella1 ,de%41 ( ! ,middle
 & ,upp] ,eoc5e1 b m  especially 9 !    
latt]4    ,blanck5horn consid]s ^!      
det]m9ations z c]ta91 & ?us  m>k+ !     
complex z ,upp] ,eoc5e1 on ! level ( !  
8,beau*amp  ,s&s0 ( ! ,p>is ,bas91 &    
consequ5tly ( ! ,l[] ,headon  ,hill b$s 

& ,b>ton ,clay ( ! ,s\? ( ,engl&4    ,! 
foll[+ section 0 measur$ f ! base ( !   
s]ies1 #b  kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 ( ,qasr 
el ,sagha1 to ! summit ( ! esc>pm5ts1   
#b kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 ( ,widan el     
,f>as4 ,! s]ies has its maximum         
?ickness at ?is po9t4       ,summit (   
esc>pm5t ( ,faym depression1 #b         
kilometres     ,n4,n4,w4 ( ,widan el    
,f>as4      ,top4                       
,metres4       #a4 ,s&/ones ) b& ( co>se
 d>k f]rug9\s grit2        silicifi$    
logs occur wea!r$-out ( ?is b$          
#ah       #b4 ,co>se s&/one-grit )      
yell[i% calc>e\s base                   
#a                                      
#c4 ,greyi% clay1 possibly a product (  
decompos$ basalt          #d4 ,basalt   
%eet1 s(t friable1 grey or bright gre51 
&        decompos$ at base              
#e       #e4 ,h>d yell[ calc>e\s-grit ) 
calcite-fill$        cavities1 pass+    
into semi-compact$ yell[i% s&1          
h>d5$ at junction ) basalt              
#a       #f4 ,:ite & r$ s&s             

#g4 ,gre5i% s&/ones & yell[ concretion>y
 s&s              ) #be cm4 lay] (      
calc>e\s grit1 ) ga/ropods       #bg    
includ+ l>ge ,c]i?ium1 ,melania sp41    
,turritella ph>aonica1 ,pleurotoma +5s1 
,may4-,eym41 occasional lamellibran*s & 
also                   ,callianassa     
#h4 ,:ite1 gre5 & br[n s&s & s&-rock    
#ag       #i4 ,h>d yell[ calc>e\s grit  
#aj4 ,r$ & :ite clayey s& & s&y clays2  
"s pebbly       #aj        b&s2 ,luc9a  
sp41 ,unio sp41#fg pres]v$ 9            
br[n iron/one1 common 9 places on ?is   
horizon             #aa4 ,co>se grey &  
:ite s& 7#b metres7                     
#ab4 ,r$ clayey s&s 7#a metre7          
#e                                      
#ac4 ,:ite & yell[ s& & s&-rock         
#ad4 ,r$ clays                          
#g      #ae4 ,s&y f]rug9\s b& )         
lamellibran*s &        ga/ropods ( g5]a 
,unio1 ,pseudodon1 ,mutela1             
,spa?a & ,lani/es1 indicat+ fluviatile  
or        fre% wat] conditions (        
deposition                           #e 

#af4 ,gre5 clay 7#a metre7 pass+ into a 
r$ v>iety                               
#ag4 ,:ite s&y clay 7#b metres7         
#ah4 ,r$ clays                          
#f                                      
#ai4 ,:ite1 br[n1 & r$ s&s1 p>tly       
consolidat$                             
#bj4 ,bright r$ clay                    
#ba4 ,h>d co>se s&/one                  
#c      #bb4 ,h>d compact light yell[   
lime/one enclos+ s&-             gra9s 7
 metre7                                 
#bc4 ,:ite & yell[ s&s                  
#e    #bd4 ,gre5i% clays 7#a metre7     
#be4 ,co>se :ite s&s ) ,unio & ,c>dium-l
               lamellibran*s pres]v$ 9  
br[n iron/one                   #bf4    
,grey clay                              
#b      #bg4 ,h>d yell[ impure lime/one 
7=ms a small plat=m7                    
#b    #bh4 ,grey clays                  
#bi4 ,r$ & yell[ s&s ) h>d base ( grey  
s&/one         #ae      #cj4 ,grey      
s&/ones4 ,base ( basalt-capp$ esc>pm5t  
#g      7,section cont9u$  kilometre    

s\?-ea/74      #ca4 ,h>d blue-grey      
compact *]ty lime/one 7 metre7 )        
ca/s ( ,melania2 holl[s (t5 fill$ )     
calcite         #ah      #cb4 ,v>iegat$ 
7r$1 :ite & yell[7 s&s1 s&-rock         
& s&y clays                             
#cc4 ,h>d compact close-gra9$ lime/one  
#ah                                     
#cd4 ,r$ & :ite v>iegat$ s&s & s&-rock1 
)              "s b&s ( r$ clay         
#ce4 ,h>d yell[ impure lime/one 77      
#cf4 ,grey clays                        
#ad    #cg4 ,co>se :ite s&              
#ch4 ,br[n calc>e\s s&/ones             
#ci4 ,gre5i% & grey s&y clays 7#c       
metres7                                 
#h    #dj4 ,alt]nat+ :ite & r$ s&s      
#da4 ,co>se yell[ calc>e\s grit 7 metre7
                                        
#db4 ,light gre5 s&/one                 
#b                                      
#dc4 ,r$di% clays                       
#dd4 ,:ite s&                           
#b      #de4 ,alt]nat+ :ite & bright r$ 
s&s                                     

#ai    #df4 ,grey s&/one ) silicifi$    
wood2 occasional                        
crocodilian & o!r bones                 
#dg4 ,h>d r$ clays                      
#e      #dh4 ,grey & br[n clays1 s&y    
clays1 & ?9 b$s (        s&/one ) "s    
silicifi$ wood                          
#ai      #di4 ,grey s&/ones & loose     
false-b$d$ s&y clays        ) _m        
silicifi$ trees & rema9s#fh (           
,ars9oi!rium ,zitteli1 ,bead41          
,paloma/odon        ,beadnelli1 ,&r41   
,mri!rium sp41 ,phiomia        s]rid5s1 
,&r4 & ,beadn41 ,sagha!rium antiquum1   
,&r4 & ,beadn41 ,s4 m9us1 ,&r4 &        
,beadn41        ,megalohyrax eocnus1    
,&r41 ,ancodus ,gorr+ei1        ,&r4 &  
,beadn41 ,pt]odon africanus1 ,&r41      
,crocodilus sp41 ,tomi/oma africanum1   
,&r41 &        l>ge & num]\s tortoises  
7,te/udo ,ammon1        ,&r47#fi &      
turtles#gj1 & v r>ely        fragm5t>y  
fi%-rema9s                              
#e      #ej4 ,?9 b&s ( lime/one         
#ea4 ,yell[ s&-rock                     

#eb4 ,grey s&/one ) fragm5ts ( bone 7   
metre7              #be                 
#ec4 ,br[n calc>e\s-grit 7 metre7       
#ed4 ,light gre5 s&-rock & s&/one       
,approximate total ?ickness 9 metres    
#bga    ,! specim5s collect$ f ,b$ #ae1 
on ab\t ! same horizon z !  fossils     
m5tion$ f ! locality #ad kilometres nor?
 ( ,qasr el  ,sagha1 7 exam9$ by        
,blanck5horn1 :o has publi%$ ! foll[+   
notice ( !m3--    8,i %\ld fir/ m5tion !
 fre%-wat] %ells f\nd by ,beadnell  9   
br[n s&/one #a kilometre nor? ( ,camp   
#ai 7i4e4 at ,widan el  ,f>as71 :i*1 9 !
 abs5ce ( special lit]ature on !        
,palaeog5e  fre%-wat] %ells ( ,nor?     
,africa & ne>] ,asia1 ,i h comp>$  ) !  
fauna ( to-day1 9 :i* ,i 0 mo/ k9dly    
help$ by  ,pr(essor v4 ,m>t5s1 ,director
 ( ! ,con*ological ,collection (  !     
,natural ,hi/ory ,museum4 ,! great]     
numb] ( ! =ms h a  di/9ctly tropical1 & 
m especially ,c5tral ,african1 "*4      
,unio sp41 small1 relat$ to ! rec5t ,u4 
,nyassnsis ( ,lake  ,nyassa4    ,unio1  

relat$ to ,u4 ,homs5sis#ga ,lea1 f      
,syria1 &  ,u4 ,bonneaudi f ,co*9 ,*9a1 
) _m radial folds beh9d !  umbo :i* run 
obliquely f ! blunt edge backw>ds t[>ds 
!  h+e-bord]4    ,unio1 relat$ to ,u4   
t]etiusculus1 ,phil4 7,caillaudi1 ,f]41 
li?ophagus1 ,ziegli47 ( ! ,nile4        
,pseudodon8 sp4    ,mutela 7a g5us (    
tropical ,africa7 sp41 long1 ) a /raight
  f9ely-too!d h+e-bord] :i* v mu*       
recalls t ( ,b>batia  7a sub-g5us (     
,arca74    ,spa?a sp4 relat$ to ,s4     
dahomey5sis & ,s4 ,dr\eti ( ,ass9ia  9  
,we/ ,africa4    ,lani/es c>9atus1#gb   
sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! ,nile =m4    ,! 
,melania occurr+ 9 mass 9 ! upp]mo/     
calc>e\s b$  appe>s to be a new         
species#gc ^: ne>e/ relation mu/ 9 any  
case be ,m4 ,ny/i ( ! ,oligoc5e1 n ,m4  
muricata ( ! ,eoc5e1  among/ =ms at     
pres5t kn[n4    ,turritella angulata1   
,s[4 ,a m>9e =m1 occurr+ bel[ !  basalt 
& indubitably ?is species1 z x is well  
pres]v$ &  easily det]m9$#gd2 ,t4       
angulata ranges f ! ,middle ,eoc5e  to !

 ,l[] ,oligoc5e ( ! ,ea/ & occurs 9 !   
,upp] ,mokattam  ( ,syria40    ,f ,widan
 el ,f>as ! s]ies cont9ues we/w>ds1 =m+ 
sev]al  esc>pm5ts1 ! upp]mo/ t ( ,jebel 
el ,qatrani1 & ma9ta9+  ! same g5]al    
*>act]s4 ,! trip>tite "* ( ! s]ies1     
already noticeable betwe5 ,qasr el      
,sagha & ,widan el ,f>as 7see  =ego+    
section7 becomes /ill m m>k$4 ,! l[e/   
division is  v l>gely compos$ (         
fluviatile s&s & s&/ones1 frequ5tly     
co>se-gra9$ & usually m>k$ly            
curr5t-b$d$1 divid$ by clays  & conta9+ 
an abundance ( silicifi$ trees &        
quantities (  v]tebrate rema9s4 ,^! s(t 
b$s1 "s #fj metres 9 ?ickness1  h z a   
rule an ext5sive outcrop1 =m+ an        
undulat+ pla9  av]ag+ two or ?ree       
kilometres 9 wid?4 ,!y are ov]laid by   
"s #ag metres ( h>d] d>k r$ s&/ones1 :i*
 inv>iably =m  a well-m>k$ esc>pm5t     
capp$ by a v con/ant two or ?ree  metres
 b& ( h>d :ite or p9ki% calc>e\s grit4  
,?is grit  v>ies 9 composition1         
frequ5tly pass+ into a m>l2 & "o ( !    

*>act]i/ics ( ?is & ! und]ly+ r$ b$s is 
! abundance  ( nodul> masses ( calcite &
 gypsum4 ,9 "s localities1 z =  in/ance 
#c kilometres ,w4,n4,w4 ( ,qasr el      
,sagha1 num]\s sph]ical  nodules (      
beekitic *alc$ony occur 9 ! b$s ( ?is   
division1  & "s ( ^! :5 brok5 are f\nd  
to be geodes l9$ )  beautiful cry/als ( 
qu>tz & calcite4    ,! next division    
consi/s ( "s #fj metres ( alt]nat+      
s&/ones  & clays ) occasional ?9        
calc>e\s b&s 9 ! upp] "p1 &  capp$ by a 
well-m>k$ h>d *]ty lime/one1 frequ5tly  
pass+ into  a d5se tabul> *]t or fl9t4  
,?is exceptionally h>d b& g5]ally  =ms a
 dip-slope pla9 ( "s wid?1 be=e ! s(t]  
basal memb]s  ( ! ?ird & highe/ division
 ov]lie x4 ,! silice\s b$ caps  _m ( !  
mo/ notable hills 9 ! di/rict2 among    
o!rs may be  m5tion$ ! big isolat$ hill 
#i kilometres nor?-we/ ( ,g>at el  ,e%1 
& ! hills five kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ! 
same po9t4 ,?is  is ! only horizon      
?r\gh\t ! ,eoc5e succession ( ! ,faym   
on :i* an abundance ( fl9t is met )2 t x

 0 well kn[n  & exploit$ 9 e>ly times is
 evid5t f ! old pits met )  on ! summits
 ( ! hills ov]look+ ! ma9 bone-pits1 a  
few  kilometres nor? ( ,g>at el ,e%4 ,z 
no work$ fl9ts 7 notic$  r\nd ! work+s x
 is probable t ! mat]ial 0 excavat$ &   
c>ri$ away to ! bord]s ( ! lake1 !re to 
be fa%ion$ into  ! h>poons1 saws & o!r  
implem5ts :i* are s commonly f\nd       
scatt]$ at ! pres5t day ne> ! m>g9 ( !  
old lake site4    ,! upp]mo/ division ( 
! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies consi/s ( ov]  #ajj
 metres ( v>iegat$ s$im5ts & =ms !      
esc>pm5t ( ,jebel  el ,qatrani itself1  
capp$ by ! conspicu\s b& ( h>d black    
basalt1 :i* is itself ov]la9 by a fur!r 
#bj metres ( simil>  s$im5ts4 ,! basalt 
has a ?ickness ( ov] #bj metres 9       
places1  ?\gh its av]age is consid]ably 
less2 at ! base x is frequ5tly          
decompos$1 s(t1 & ( a br[n col\r4    ,at
 a po9t due nor? ( ! we/]n end ( !      
,birket el ,qurn !  int]b$d$ basalt %eet
 t]m9ates1 & no fur!r fl[s 7 se5 z  f> z
 ! po9t up to :i* ! s]ies 0 mapp$1 ne>ly

 due nor?  ( ,g> el ,gehannem4 ,z f> z  
c\ld be se5 on a trav]se ?r\gh  !       
,zeuglodon ,valley to ! s\?-we/]n limits
 ( ! depression  no fur!r basalt fl[s   
occur4      ,section f ! base ( !       
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 #b kilometres nor?  
( ,g>at el ,e%1 to ! summit ( ,jebel el 
,qatrani #e kilometres  nor? ( !        
bone-pits4 7,see ,plates ,,xviii &      
,,xxiv74                                
,approximate                            
?ickness 9    ,summit ( plateau4        
metres       #a4 ,co>se s&/ones & grits 
#ac       #b4 ,basalt                   
#be       #c4 ,yell[ s&s & s&/ones1     
capp$ by #c m4 (        h>d concretion>y
 grey s&/one ) occasional               
mammalian bones 7und]ly+ basalt 9 sc>p &
        capp+ outly+ hill7              
#ae       #d4 ,h>d s&/ones ) clayey b&s 
#h       #e4 ,s&y & clayey b$s          
#e       #f4 ,h>d yell[ calc>e\s grit   
#e       #g4 ,clays & clayey m>ls       
#g       #h4 ,s&y b$s                   
#ae       #i4 ,h>d s&/one 7=ms connect+ 

ridge betwe5                      hill &
 esc>pm5t7      #aj4 ,clays ) ?9 s&/one 
b&s                                     
#dj    #aa4 ,v>iable s&y & m>ly r$ clays
 ) a h>d             yell[i% s&/one b&  
t5 metres f base            ,base (     
isolat$ hill4      #ab4 ,s(t s&s )      
*elonian & crocodilian rema9s           
#d      #ac4 ,s&y clays ) *elonian &    
mammalian                               
7,ars9oi!rium7 bones1 capp$ by co>se    
grit1           9 "p f]rug9\s silicifi$ 
grit & qu>tzite          #a             
#ad4 ,:ite calc>e\s grit & m>ly         
lime/one4 ,b&            ( fl9t 9 places
      ,summit ( hill ov]look+ bone-pits4
      #ad4 ,s&/one1 becom+ calc>e\s &   
pass+ up              #aj        into #c
 m4 ( h>d :ite calc>e\s grit1 &         
yell[i% :ite b$d$ m>ly lime/one )       
calcite druses4 ,capp$ by  m4 h>d tabul>
 *]t        & fl9t      #ae4 ,f9ely     
lam9at$ grey %aly clays1 s&y &          
m>ly clays1 capp$ by #b m4 ( mottl$     
yell[ &          r$ s&/one & s&/one-grit

                          #aj           
#af4 ,h>d r$1 gre51 & br[n s&/one       
#ag4 ,v>iegat$ grey1 gre5 & r$ clays1   
m>ly clays        & s&y b$s1 ) ?9 b&s ( 
s&/one4        ,m ar5ace\s t[>ds top    
#ba      #ah4 ,h>d grey s&/one2 gre5i%  
s&y clays2 h>d        d>k r$ m>ls & m>ly
 clays at top                       #f  
#ai4 ,?9 b& ( h>d yell[ lime/one1 capp+ 
salty        r$ clays & s&y clays       
#f      #bj4 ,s(t gre5i% clayey s&/one  
capp$ by  m4 (        h>d false-b$d$    
concretion>y s&/one )        num]\s     
enclos$ coprolites                      
#c      ,base ( hill ov]look+ bone-pits4
      #ba4 ,p9k calc>e\s grit 7=m+      
summit ( l[e/        esc>pm5t71 ) small 
fl9t & qu>tz pebbles        9 "s lay]s4 
,an abundance ( calcite &        gypsum 
#c      #bb4 ,mottl$ r$ & gre5 clayey   
s&/one1 clays &        clayey m>ls4     
,pass+ up into a h>d s&y 7or            
clayey7 d>k r$ m>l ) gre5i% mottl+s     
#g      #bc4 ,light yell[ f9ely-lam9at$ 
s&rock pass+ up        into d>k r$      

s&rock4 ,"s clayey b&s                  
#aj      #bd4 ,co>se unconsolidat$      
false-b$d$ s&s1 )        occasional b&s 
( clay & consolidat$        s&/one b&s4 
,num]\s silicifi$ trees &               
abundant mammalian & reptilian rema9s4  
7,see        li/ 9 ,b$ #di ( ,widan el  
,f>as section74        ,bone-pits are 9 
?is b$                                  
#dj      #be4 ,?9 b& 7 m47 ( h>d s&/one 
) sometimes          impure calc>e\s    
grit                                    
#aj    #bf4 ,h>d light yell[ s&/one1 (t5
 v co>se1            & ) r$ b&s         
#bg4 ,s(t brick r$ & light yell[ s&s &  
s&/ones1 7se5 on pla9 & ov]ly+          
upp]mo/ lime/one ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e7    
#bj      ,base ( ,fluvio-m>9e ,s]ies4   
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xi4             
,,silicifi$ ,,trees ,,( ,,fluvio-,,m>9e 
,,s]ies1 #d ,,kilometres ,,nor? ,,(     
,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4    ,9 "s localities
 pebbly b&s occur 9 ! s&/one-grits1     
especially 9 "s ( ! b$s above ! basalt3 
! pebbles are mo/ly  qu>tz or fl9t1     

subangul> or r\nd$1 ! lay] av]ag+ p]haps
 two  cm4 9 diamet]1 al?\gh occasional  
specim5s ?ree or f\r times t  size are  
met )4 ,silicifi$ trees ( two di/9ct    
types#ge occur1  & !y are met ) *iefly  
on two horizons2 usually l>ge numb]s (  
trees occur toge!r1 completely cov]+ !  
surface 9 places2 !y  lie z a rule      
scatt]$ ab\t 9 e direction1 al?\gh      
occasionally  a l>ge proportion may %[  
consid]able p>allelism ( deposition1  z 
if arrang$ by ! direction ( ! curr5t :i*
 float$ !m to  ! spot4 ,!y always occur 
9 a horizontal position or p>allel to  !
 dip ( ! b$1 & x seems q c]ta9 t none ( 
!m ev]  grew ne> :]e !y are n[ f\nd4 ,! 
trees nev] be> atta*$  bran*es1 ! latt] 
hav+ always be5 brok5 (f at or ne> !    
po9t ( junction ) ! trunk1 :]e ! sc>s   
are (t5 pla9ly  se52 ?is po9ts to !     
trees hav+ be5 drift$ a consid]able     
di/ance4 ,_m trees ov] #be metres#gf 9  
l5g? h be5 met )1  b ?is by no means    
repres5ts ! orig9al height1 z ! trunks  
h lo/ consid]ably 9 l5g? dur+ transport 

to _! pres5t  localities4 ,al?\gh1 z a  
rule1 f\nd completely wea!r$-out &      
expos$ on ! surface1 9 num]\s localities
 ^! silicifi$ trees  are to be obs]v$   
firmly emb$d$ 9 ! s&/ones 9 :i* !y  7   
deposit$1 _m be+ met ) 9 our excavations
 = bones4    ,z ! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies is 
foll[$ we/w>ds f ! c5tral  "p ( ! area1 
! diff]5t divisions become m & m        
att5uat$ & ! outcrops m & m obscur$ by  
sup]ficial  gravel4 ,nor?-we/ ( !       
,zeuglodon ,valley an esc>pm5t capp$ by 
a  conspicu\s b$ ( :ite calc>e\s grit   
occurs & p]haps repres5ts  ! l[] b$s ( !
 s]ies4 ,! high] are lo/ on ! gravelly  
undulat+ plateau above4                 
,f4--,age ( ! 8,fluvio-,m>9e ,s]ies04   
,! b$s 9 "q be+ z a :ole rem>kably      
unfossilif]\s1  a det]m9ation ( _! exact
 age on palaeontological gr\nds is  an  
und]tak+ ( "s difficulty4 ,! s]ies1     
h[ev]1 9 c]ta9  b$s is v ri* 9 v]tebrate
 rema9s2 a consid]able numb] ( new  &   
important =ms h already be5 obta9$ &    
fur!r additions  are probable4 ,until ! 

survey ( ! area 9 #ahih x appe>s t  !   
only fossils obta9$ f ^! rocks 7 a few  
ca/s &  badly-pres]v$ specim5s (        
mollusca f ! highe/ b$s above  ! basalt1
 collect$ by "o or two obs]v]s f        
localities betwe5  ! summit ( ! ,faym   
esc>pm5ts & ! ,pyramids ( ,giza4    ,!  
,rohlfs ,exp$ition did n visit ?is "p ( 
,egypt1 & ,zittel#gg  tabulat$ ! b$s1   
:i* he call$ ! 8,s*i*t5 von ,birket el  
,qurn0 z d\btfully ,oligoc5e2 probably !
 b$s ref]r$ to are  ^? ( ! isl& ,geziret
 el ,qorn1 :i*1 z already m5tion$1      
belong to ! l[] division ( ! ,birket el 
,qurn s]ies1 & are  !re=e ( ,middle     
,eoc5e age4 ,may]-,eym>#gh /ates t he 0 
able to subdivide ! s]ies "u discussion 
into ,upp] & ,l[]  ,ligurian & ,l[]     
,tongrian4 ,s*we9fur?#gi consid]$ !     
s]ies  z ,mioc5e1 comp>+ !m ) !         
li?ologically simil> ,scutella  b$s (   
,d] el ,b$a to ! ea/ ( ,cairo4          
,blanck5horn1 on ! evid5ce  ( ! writ]'s 
fossil collections1 /ates1 z already    
m5tion$1  t ! upp] "p is c]ta9ly to be  

reg>d$ z ,l[] ,oligoc5e  & ! l[] "p z   
,upp] ,eoc5e4    ,fir/ z to !           
/ratigraphical position ( ! s]ies4 ,!re 
is no  d\bt t ! l[e/ b$s ( ! gr\p 7     
deposit$ 7at any rate  9 ! c5tral "p ( !
 area7 9 practical cont9uity ) !  ,qasr 
el ,sagha s]ies1 :i*1 z %[n1 is c]ta9ly 
( ,middle ,eoc5e  age4 ,a great *ange 9 
! li?ology ( ! b$s1 h[ev]1 makes !      
junction a p]fectly natural "o4 ,we pass
 f a truly m>9e s]ies  into an e/u>9e or
 fluvio-m>9e set ( b$s1 & su* a *ange   
ne> ! summit ( ! ,eoc5e is n an uncommon
 "o 9 "s p>ts (  ,europe4 ,!            
/ratigraphical position 9 ! field1      
!re=e1 fav\rs  an ,upp] ,eoc5e age = !  
l[] b$s4 ,! dip be+ nor?w>ds1  new] &   
new] b$s are met ) f s\? to nor? on !   
great  undulat+1 b m or less level1     
des]t nor? ( ! esc>pm5t  summit4 ,!     
occurr5ce ( ,l[] ,mioc5e b$s at ,mog>a1 
"s #ajj  kilometres nor? or nor?-we/1   
also po9ts to a some:at y\ng]1  or      
,oligoc5e1 age = ! und]ly+ b$s1 7i4e41  
^? betwe5 !  ,faym esc>pm5t & ,mog>a74  

,! actual relations1 h[ev]1 ( !  b$s 9 !
 two localities h n yet be5 det]m9$1 b x
 is  probable y\ng] b$s are cont9ually  
met ) f s\? to nor?4    ,until ! entire 
collection ( fossils has be5 exam9$ &   
det]m9$1 x is some:at premature to      
attempt to fix ! age  ( ! s]ies on      
palaeontological gr\nds4 ,up to ! pres5t
 !  =ego+ li/s %[ ! species :i* h be5   
provisionally or  f9ally det]m9$4 ,"s ( 
^! appe> to be id5tical ) species  :i* h
 be5 record$ f ,upp] ,eoc5e deposits (  
,europe1 su*  z ,potamides scal>oides1  
,p4 ti>ella1 :ile o!rs1 su* z  ,melania 
cf4 ,ny/i1 ,natica crassat9a 7f\nd bel[ 
! basalt 9  ! s-call$ ,s&b]g] ,hills    
nor?-ea/ ( ! ,faym esc>pm5t71  are      
typically ,l[] ,oligoc5e4 ,o!r =ms1 su* 
z ,turritella  angulata1 are common to  
bo? ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e else:]e4    ,if  
,blanck5horn's det]m9ations ( ^! =ms are
 confirm$1 we  may reg>d ! upp] b$s1    
i4e41 ^? imm$iately above ! basalt1  z  
und\bt$ly ( ,l[] ,oligoc5e age4 ,! b$s  
bel[ ! basalt  m>k ! transition f !     

,eoc5e to ,oligoc5e1 :ile ! base (  !   
s]ies1 s f> unfossilif]\s z f> z        
molluscan rema9s are  conc]n$1 mu/ be   
reg>d$ z ( ,upp] ,eoc5e 7,b>tonian7 age4
    ,we may hope t :5 ! important       
v]tebrate fauna occurr+ *iefly  9 !     
basal "p ( ! s]ies has be5 ?or\ghly     
exploit$1 &  ! rema9s sy/ematically     
det]m9$1 confirmatory evid5ce w  be     
obta9$4 ,at pres5t ! only =ms describ$ &
 det]m9$1  beyond po9t+ to a pre-,mioc5e
 age1 d n indicate any def9ite  horizon4
 ,probably mo/ ( ! animals w prove to be
 new1 &  al?\gh on t acc\nt m int]e/+ f 
"o po9t ( view1  w probably n assi/ u   
greatly 9 ! exact det]m9ation (  ! age (
 ! b$s 9 "q4         ,g4--,! ,position (
 ! ,l&-mass f :i* ! ,mammal ,rema9s     
7 ,d]iv$4      ,! exi/5ce ( rema9s ( l& 
animals ?r\gh\t ! l>g] "p (  ! ,qasr el 
,sagha s]ies & 9 /ill great] quantity 9 
! basal  b$s ( ! ov]ly+ ,fluvio-m>9e    
s]ies1 & occasionally 9 !  highe/ b$s   
also1 po9ts to ! pres5ce ( cont95tal l& 
)9 no  great di/ance ( ! area 9 :i* ^!  

deposits 7 laid d[n4 ,t  ! animal-rema9s
 7 c>ri$ out f ! l& by riv] curr5ts is  
almo/ c]ta91 & al?\gh 9 "s cases su*    
curr5ts are kn[n to  p]si/ to great     
di/ances f _! po9ts ( em]g5ce1 x seems  
probable f ! quantity & mode (          
di/ribution t ! ,faym  bones 7 deposit$ 
)9 a mod]ate di/ance ( l&4 ,moreov]1  ! 
silicifi$ trees1 by :i* ! bones are s   
(t5 accompani$1  occur toge!r 9 v great 
quantities1 & we %\ld imag9e t  !       
individual trees w\ld h be5 f> m scatt]$
 if !y _h  be5 float$ to consid]able    
di/ances f l&4 ,on ! o!r h&  ! fact t   
among ! hundr$s ( trees exam9$1 9 no    
s+le case  7 bran*es f\nd atta*$ to !   
trunk1 po9ts to ! conclusion  t ^! trees
 _h travell$ great di/ances2 probably ! 
bran*es  7 lo/ dur+ _! riv] j\rney1 f   
con/ant jamm+ toge!r  ( a great numb] 9 
a m or less con/rict$ space1 & n aft]   
!y _h left ! riv] m\?4    ,! exact      
position ( ?is l&-mass is a highly      
int]e/+ &  important "q4 ,!re is no     
reason to suppose t l& ( any  ext5t     

occurr$ to ! nor?1 except possibly an   
occasional isl&1  su* z t ( ! ,cretace\s
 massif ( ,abu ,roa%1#hj we/ ( ,cairo1  
:i* probably =m$ an isl& 9 ! sea at t   
"t2 )\t d\bt  ! great ,eoc5e sea :i*    
cov]$ ! area /ret*$ nor?w>ds1  & 0      
cont9u\s ) t 9 :i* ! s\!rn ,european    
deposits  ( ?is p]iod 7 laid d[n4 ,to ! 
we/ also !re 0 c]ta9ly  no l&-mass )9   
approximate di/ances4 ,ea/w>ds1 possibly
 "p (  ! ,r$ ,sea ,hills igne\s range   
may h =m$ a re/rict$ l&-area1  b ev5 ?is
 is n probable2 9 fact1 x seems c]ta9 t 
we mu/  look to ! s\? = ! ne>e/ l& ( any
 ext5t4 ,9 suppos+  ! l& lay 9 ?is      
direction we are confront$ at ! outset )
  ! fact t ! ,l[] ,eoc5e lime/ones /ret*
 s\?w>ds =  sev]al hundr$ kilometres4 ,9
 ,egypt ! ,l[] ,eoc5e consi/s (  a great
 mass ( nummulitic lime/ones1 "s        
#djj-ejj metres ?ick1  ) no int]calat$  
clays or s&/ones except at ! base1 & 0  
evid5tly =m$ 9 wat] ( consid]able dep?4 
,! ?ickness (1  & sup]ficial area cov]$ 
by1 ^! lime/ones %[ t !y  7 =m$ 9 a     

truly op5 sea1 9 contra-di/9ction to a  
littoral  area2 ! nummulitic sea 9 fact 
cov]$ an enorm\s "p ( ,europe1  ,nor?   
,africa & ,asia4 ,to ! s\? ( ?is sea lay
 ! ,african  cont95t1 a l&-mass dat+    
possibly f ,palozoic times4 ,s9ce1  &   
possibly p>tly dur+1 ! deposition ( !   
,l[] & ,middle  ,eoc5e =mations1 a      
gradual elevation ( ! l& or l[]+  ( !   
sea1 result+ 9 a retreat ( ! latt]1 took
 place2  ?is cont9ually br\ght !        
%ore-l9e fur!r nor?w>ds until1  dur+ !  
deposition ( ! b$s ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha  
s]ies ( !  ,middle ,eoc5e1 we may       
surmise t x 0 n v f> to ! s\?1  ?\gh !  
exact di/ance is extremely d\btful2 :ile
 9 ,upp] ,eoc5e  times x 0 /ill fur!r   
nor?4 ,we may assume !re=e t !  ,upp]   
,eoc5e bone-be>+ /rata ( ! ,faym        
repres5t s$im5ts  transport$ by riv]s & 
curr5ts f a fairly adjac5t cont95tal    
l&-mass to ! s\? & laid d[n z littoral &
 delta deposits  beyond ! m>g9 ( ! l&4  
,t at lea/ "o l>ge riv] em]g$  f ! l& 9 
! neighb\rhood ( ! ,faym is c]ta92      

dra9age  0 !n1 z n[1 f s\? to nor?1     
al?\gh n probably conf9$  to a s+le     
*annel l ! pres5t ,nile4    ,ap>t f     
broad] consid]ations a m9ute exam9ation 
( ! m  typically fluviatile b$s fav\rs !
 conclusion t ! curr5ts  7 f ! s\? or   
s\?-we/4 ,! g5]al dip ( ! /rata1        
probably ! natural incl9ation ( !       
s$im5ts at ! "t (  deposit1 is f s\? to 
nor?2 ! mo/ frequ5t lam9ation 9 !       
curr5t-b$d$ ar5ace\s deposits is also f 
s\? to nor?4 ,9 our  excavations =      
fossil bones x 0 not$ t ( sev5 tortoise 
%ells  expos$ at ! same "t 9 diff]5t    
p>ts ( ! pit1 six lay )  _! long axes   
simil>ly ori5tat$ & 7 di/9ctly tilt$ to 
!  nor?-ea/1 or exactly away f ! po9t ( 
! compass f :i*1  z w pres5tly be %[n1 !
 ma9 riv] probably came4 ,z a rule1     
h[ev]1 ! scatt]$ fossil bones & trees 9 
^! b$s give no  def9ite clue z to !     
direction f :i* !y 7 float$4 ,!  exi/5ce
 ( sep>ate accumulations ( fluviatile s&
 at diff]5t  horizons1 b ly+ "o above ! 
o!r 9 ! s]ies & along a  nor? & s\? l9e1

 is ( importance z indicat+ ! cont9u$   
appe>ance ( a riv] curr5t f ! same      
qu>t]4    ,blanck5horn has publi%$#ha   
diagrams %[+ :at he supposes  to h be5 !
 relative areas occupi$ by l& & sea 9   
,upp] ,mokattam1 ,l[] ,oligoc5e1 ,middle
 ,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e  times4 ,v>i\s   
l9es ( dra9age are %[n1 ! ma9 riv]1 :i* 
he  calls ! ,ur-,nil1 be+ plac$ "s #gj  
kilometres to ! we/ ( !  mod]n ,nile1   
al?\gh closely foll[+ ! tr5d ( ! latt]4 
,we  h be5 unable to asc]ta9 on :at     
evid5ce ,blanck5horn relies  = assum+   
riv]s 9 ,upp] ,mokattam & ,l[] ,oligoc5e
 times to  h occupi$ ! positions %[n on 
8 diagrams2 ! numb] &  positions ( su*  
riv]s mu/ rema9 m or less problematical4
 ,9  ?is connection h[ev] x is int]e/+  
to recall#hb ! lacu/r9e  f]rug9\s grits 
:i* 7 br\ght to notice by ! writ] 9     
#aijj  z hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 a lake1    
occupy+ 9 po/-,middle ,eoc5e  times a   
%all[ depression 9 t "p ( ! ,libyan     
des]t n[  occupi$ by ! oasis-depression 
( ,bah>ia4 ,simil> deposits 7  f\nd =m+ 

! hills ( ,g> el ,hamra a few kilometres
 ea/ ( !  extreme nor? end ( !          
depression4 ,f9ally1 dur+ a trav]se     
?r\gh  ! unexplor$ c\ntry s\?-we/ ( ,g> 
el ,gehannem 9 ! w9t] (  #aijb-aijc1    
hills capp$ ) d>k h>d f]rug9\s silicifi$
 grits  & pudd+/one 7 met ) 9 ! extreme 
s\?-we/ ( ! ,faym  depression at a po9t 
ne>ly midway1 & 9 ! direct l9e1 betwe5  
! hills ( ,g> el ,hamra & ! *ief        
bone-be>+ localities 9 !  nor? ( !      
,faym4 ,! deposits 9 "q--at ,bah>ia1 at 
,g> el  ,hamra & 9 ! hills to ! s\?-we/ 
( ! ,faym--are evid5tly  ( lacu/r9e &   
fluviatile orig92 & we may inf]1 ) "s   
degree ( probability1 t !y 7 laid d[n   
along ! c\rse ( a  riv] :i* fl[$ 9 a    
nor?-ea/]ly direction & =m$ ext5sive    
delta deposits 9 :at is n[ ! nor!rn "p (
 ! ,faym4 ,t  ?is riv] _h its orig9 9 ! 
int]ior ( a well-wood$ cont95t  hundr$s 
( miles to ! s\? ( ,bah>ia is n to be   
que/ion$2  its size1 l5g? & exact       
position mu/ rema9 matt]s ( d\bt1  b (  
its exi/5ce we c be z c]ta9 z if 9 times

 ( flood  we _h /ood on its banks &     
wat*$ ! passage nor?w>ds ( its  turbid  
swoll5 wat]s1 lad5 ) matt$ rafts ( =e/  
trees &  be>+ seaw>ds ! c>cases ( ^?    
curi\s ,eoc5e animals1 !  rema9s ( :i*  
are s abundant 9 ! ,faym ( to-day4      
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,probable     
,c\rse ( *ief riv] ( ,upp]  ,eoc5e &    
,oligoc5e times4    ,9 ! ,middle & ,upp]
 ,eoc5e b$s we fir/ obta9 an idea ( !   
animals :i* inhabit$ ,africa 9 ,t]ti>y  
times1 & ! collect+  & work+ out ( ?is  
fauna w ?r[ mu* light1 n only on our    
actual k ( ! ,african v]tebrata ( !     
,eoc5e p]iod1  :i* 0 practically nil    
until ! discov]y ( ! rema9s "h          
describ$1 b also on o!r wid] biological 
que/ions1 su* z !  orig9 ( c]ta9 gr\ps (
 animals1 "s ( :i* 7 evolv$ 9  ?is "p ( 
! _w4    ,z rec5tly po9t$ out by a writ]
 9 ! ,field 7,no4 #bfje1 ,nov4 #bi1     
#aijb7 _m ye>s ago ! late ,pr(4 ,huxley1
 to acc\nt = !  pres5t di/ribution ( !  
mammalian fauna ( ,africa & ,magadasc>1 
advanc$ ! !ory t 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ,t]ti>y

 p]iod  ,madagasc> 0 connect$ ) ,africa1
 & ,africa ) ,europe or ,asia1 a        
connection :i* all[$ ( ! immigration    
into ,africa & ,madagasc>  ( num]\s     
small types ( ,european & ,asian        
mammals4 ,madagasc>  lat] becom+ sep>at$
 f ! ma9l&1 its fauna1 undi/urb$ by  !  
l>g] c>nivora1 0 able to develop to its 
pres5t rem>kable  ext5t4 ,subsequ5tly to
 ! isolation ( ,madagasc> ! ance/ors (  
! mod]n fauna 7 presum$ to h invad$ !   
,african cont95t  f ! nor?4    ,! ext9ct
 fauna ( ! ,faym1 h[ev]1 %[s t 9 e>ly   
,t]ti>y times ,africa already _h its own
 mammalian fauna1 :i*1  besides conta9+ 
"s rem>kable l>ge types ( some:at       
d\btful  position1 su* z ,ars9oi!rium1  
,b>y!rium1 etc41 c]ta9ly  9 ,mri!rium & 
,paloma/odon includ$ ! e>lie/ kn[n      
elephants1 ! =be>s ( ! ,ma/odon & !     
mod]n elephants4 ,!re  is little d\bt   
!re=e t 9 ,upp] ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e times
  ^! e>ly memb]s ( ! elephant gr\p rang$
 nor?w>d &  ea/w>ds into ,asia & ,india1
 & s9ce 9 ! ,upp] ,t]ti>y deposits  (   

,india & ea/]n ,asia ! ext9ct           
transitional types betwe5 !  ma/odons & 
mod]n elephants appe> to h be5 f\nd1 x  
is n  unlikely t dur+ ! lat] phases ( ! 
evolution ( ?is gr\p  ( animals !       
radiation 0 back t[>ds ,africa1 s t !   
,african  elephant may be1 z x has      
usually be5 reg>d$1 an immigrant f  !   
,ori5tal region4 ,fur!r rese>* among !  
lat] deposits ( !  ,faym & ! des]ts to !
 nor? may1 h[ev]1 ?r[ an entirely  new  
light on ! subject & x is some:at       
premature to !orise  at pres5t4         
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xii4    ,,rais$ 
,,bea* ,,uncon=mably ,,ov]ly+ ,,middle  
,,eoc5e ,,lime/ones 7,,birket  ,,el     
,,qurun ,,s]ies7 ,,9 ,,! ,,des]t ,,ea/  
,,( ,,sirs5a4    ,9 ?is connection x is 
int]e/+ to notice ! obs]vation (  s     
em95t a palontologi/ z ,pr(4 ,h4 ,f4    
,osborn4 ,9 two rec5t  addresses#hc to !
 ,new ,york ,academy ( ,sci5ces he      
p]t95tly  po9ts out 8 belief t !        
,african cont95t has be5 a great  c5tre 
( radiation ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( ! mammalia1 

& especially  m5tions ! ,proboscidea z  
likely to h be5 evolv$ 9 !  ,e?iopian   
region4 ,our discov]ies 9 ! ,faym &     
,&rews's  det]m9ations1 made subsequ5tly
 to ^! addresses1 s completely  confirm 
?is view1 at any rate ) reg>d to !      
elephants1 t x  may n be out ( place to 
give "h a some:at l5g?y extract ( 8     
8,!ory ( ,successive ,invasions ( an    
,african ,fauna into ,europe0  7op4 cit4
 pp4 #ef-eh74 8,9 ,europe !re are 9 !   
,upp] ,eoc5e two  classes ( animals1    
fir/ ^? :i* h _! ance/ors 9 ! old]      
rocks2 second1 ! class includ+ c]ta9    
highly specializ$ animals  :i* h no     
ance/ors 9 ! old] rocks1 among ^!1      
p]haps1  are ! peculi> fly+ rod5ts or   
,anomalurid1 n[ conf9$ to  ,africa1 &   
secondly ! highly specializ$ ev5-to$    
rum9ant types  ! anoplo!res1 xiphodonts 
& o!rs1 ! discov]y ( :i* 9 !  gypse ne> 
,p>is ,cuvi] has made fam\s4 ,x is      
tempt+ to imag9e  t ^! animals did n    
evolve 9 ,europe b t !y repres5t  :at   
may be call$ ! fir/ invasion ( ,europe  

by ,african types f  ! ,e?iopian region4
    8,x is a curi\s fact t ! ,african   
cont95t z a great  !at] ( adaptive      
radiation ( ,mammalia has n be5         
suffici5tly  consid]$4 ,x is true t x is
 ! d>k cont95t ( palontology  = x has no
 fossil mammal hi/ory2 b x by no means  
foll[s t  ! ,mammalia did n enjoy !re an
 ext5sive evolution4#hd    8,al?\gh x is
 q probable t ?is idea has be5 advanc$  
be=e1 mo/ writ]s speak ma9ly or         
exclusively ( ! invasion  ( ,africa by  
,european types4 ,blan=d & ,all51 x is  
true1 h  especially dwelt ^u ! lik5ess (
 ! ,ori5tal & ,e?iopian  fauna1 b n 9   
connection ) its antec$5t cause4 ,?is   
cause  ,i believe to h be5 ma9ly an     
invasion f s\? to nor?1  correlat$ ) !  
nor!rn ext5sion ( ,e?iopian climate &   
flora dur+ ! ,middle ,t]ti>y4 ,x is 9 a 
less measure due to a  migration f nor? 
to s\?4 ,let u !re=e cle>ly set =?  !   
hypo!sis ( ! ,e?iopian region or ,s\?   
,africa z a great  c5t] ( indep5d5t     
evolution & z ! s\rce ( successive      

nor?w>d migrations ( animals1 "s ( :i*  
ultimately rea*$  ev5 ! extremity ( ,s\?
 ,am]ica1 ,i ref] to ! ,ma/odons4 ,?is  
hypo!sis is cle>ly impli$ if n /at$ by  
,blan=d 9 #ahgf 9  8 pap] ^u ! ,african 
elem5t 9 ! fauna ( ,india4    8,! fir/ (
 ^! migrations we may suppose br\ght 9  
c]ta9  highly specializ$ rum9ants ( !   
,upp] ,eoc5e1 ! anomalures  or peculi>  
fly+ rod5ts ( ,africa2 ) ?is invasion   
may h  come ! pangol9s & ard v>ks1 &    
possibly c]ta9 armadillos1  ,dasypodid1 
if ,m4 ,filhol's id5tification (        
,necrodasypus is  correct4 ,a second    
invasion ( great di/9ctness may be t :i*
  m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! ,mioc5e :5 !        
ma/odons & d9o!res  fir/ appe> 9        
,europe1 also ! e>lie/ ( ! antelopes4 ,a
  ?ird invasion may be repres5t$ 9 !    
base ( ! ,plioc5e by  ! increas+ numb] (
 antelopes1 ! great giraffes ( ! gean   
plateau & 9 ! upp] ,plioc5e by !        
hippopotami4 ,) ^! =ms  came !          
rh9oc]oses ) no incisor or cutt+ tee?1  
simil> to !  small] ,african rh9oc]os1  

,r4 bicornis4 ,ano!r rec5tly discov]$   
,african immigrant ^u ! ,isl& ( ,samos 9
 ! gean plateau is  ,pliohyrax or       
,leptodon1 a v l>ge memb] ( !           
,hyracoidea1  probably aquatic 9 its    
habits1 indicat+ t ?is ord] enjoy$  an  
ext5sive adaptive radiation 9 ,t]ti>y   
times4    8,x ?us appe>s t !            
,proboscidea1 ,hyracoidea1 c]ta9        
ed5tata1  ! antelopes1 ! giraffes1 !    
hippopotami1 ! mo/ specializ$  rum9ants1
 & among ! rod5ts1 ! anomalures1 dormice
 & j]boas1  among monkeys ! baboons1 may
 all h enjoy$ _! orig9al  adaptative    
radiation 9 ,africa2 t !y surviv$ aft] !
 glacial  p]iod1 only 9 ! ,ori5tal or   
,indo-,malayan region1 & t ?is  acc\nts 
= ! m>k$ community ( fauna betwe5 ?is   
region &  ! ,e?iopian z obs]v$ by       
,blan=d & ,all54    8,aga9/ ! preval5t  
!ory ( ,ori5tal orig9 ( ^! animals  are3
 fir/1 ! fact obs]v$ by ,blan=d &       
,lydekk] 9 ! ,bugti  ,b$s 7,s9d7 t !    
,oligoc5e or l[] ,mioc5e fauna ( !      
,ori5t is  m>k$ly ,european 9 type2     

second1 t if ^! animals _h orig9at$  9  
,asia "s ( !m w\ld h f\nd _! way to     
,nor? ,am]ica2  ?ird1 ! fact t all ^!   
animals appe> sudd5ly & )\t  any kn[n   
ance/ors 9 old] geological =mations4 ,^!
 are !  ma9 facts 9 favor ( ! ,e?iopian 
migration hypo!sis40    ,t ,pr(essor    
,osborn's ma9 cont5tion has already be5 
p>tly  prov$ by ! ,faym mammal          
discov]ies is app>5t1 & h[ f> 8  detail$
 rem>ks are confirm$ w be se5 :5 ! new  
fauna has  be5 m completely explor$ &   
exam9$4    ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( ! new   
species already obta9$3--               
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,,upp] ,,eoc5e4                         
,,middle ,,eoc5e4                       
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,mammalia       ,ars9oi!rium ,zitteli1  
,beadnell4,b>y!rium grave1 ,&r4         
,&rewsii1 ,lanke/]4      ,mri!rium      
,lyonsi41 ,&r4                          
,paloma/odon ,beadnelli1 ,&rews4        

gracile1                                
m9or1                         sp41      
,mri!rium ,lyonsi1             ,eosir5  
libyca1                                 
trigodon1                 ,zeuglodon    
,osiris1 ,dames4                        
,megalohyrax eocnus1                    
,zitteli1 v4 ,/rom]4                    
m9or1                         ,isis1    
,beadn4 7,m4,s474                       
,sagha!rium antiquum1 ,&r4 &            
,beadn4                                 
m9us1                                   
magnum1 ,&r4                            
,ancodus ,gorr+ei1 ,&r4 &               
,beadn4                                 
,g5iohyus mirus1 ,&r4                   
fayum5sis1 ,&r4                         
major1                                  
,phiomia s]rid5s1 ,&r4 &                
,beadn4                                 
,pt]odon africanus1 ,&r4                
macrogna?us1 ,&r4 &         ano!r mu*   
small] &              imp]fectly kn[n   
creodont4                               

----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,birds4       ,eremopezus libycus1 ,&r4 
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,reptiles4       ,te/udo ,ammon1 ,&r4   
,gigantophis ,g>/9i1 ,&r4               
,pelom$usa progaleata1 v4               
,pt]osph5us 7,mriophis7     ,re9a*4     
,s*we9fur?i1 ,&r4                       
,podocnemis fayum5sis1 ,&r4             
,psephophorus eocnus1 ,&r4              
,blanck5horni1 v4 ,re9a*4 ,?alasso*elys 
libyca1 ,&r4                            
v>4 ovata1 v4 ,re9a*4,podocnemis        
antiqua1                                
,/]eog5ys libyca4 ,&r4                  
,/rom]i1 v4 ,re9a*4                     
,tomi/oma sp4                           
v>4 major1 v4 ,re9a*4                   
,crocodilus sp4                         
,/]eog5ys ,crom]i1 ,&r4                 
podocnemioides1 v4 ,re9a*4              
,tomi/oma africanum1 ,&r4               
----------------------------------------

----------------------------            
,fi%4       ,occasional fragm5ts (      
,propri/is ,s*we9fur?i1 ,dames4         
siluroids & rays4                       
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,h4--,! abs5ce ( ,mioc5e deposits 9 !   
,faym4      ,no traces ( deposits ( ?is 
age hav+ be5 met s f> s\? z  ! ,faym we 
may presume t 9 ,mioc5e times ! area _h 
become  l&1 ! sea m>g9 hav+ rec$$       
nor?w>ds4 ,! slight depression  (       
,mog>a1 "s #ajj kilometres fur!r        
nor?-we/1 is h[ev] cut  out 9 ,l[]      
,mioc5e b$s1 li?ologically some:at      
simil> to !  ,upp] ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e   
deposits ( ! ,faym4 ,probably simil>    
conditions obta9$ ?r\gh\t1 & ! exi/5ce (
 v]tebrate rema9s  indicates ! p]si/5ce 
( riv]-curr5ts f ! s\?4 ,! fauna  ( !   
,mog>a b$s has only z yet be5 v         
incompletely exam9$1  ! locality be+ r  
inaccessible4#he                        
,,section ,,xii4--,,plioc5e4      ,we h 
presum$ t 9 ,mioc5e times ! ,faym rema9$

 l&1 no  traces ( deposits ( t age hav+ 
be5 record$2 possibly ! area  und]w5t   
consid]able d5udation dur+ ! ,mioc5e &  
e>ly ,plioc5e  p]iods1 b ( ?is x is     
difficult to adduce def9ite evid5ce4 ,! 
records ( ,plioc5e times 9 ! ,faym may  
be class$ z foll[s3--      7,j74 ,m>9e  
deposits ( ,middle ,plioc5e age4        
7,k74 ,bor+s on rock surfaces1 exact age
 d\btful4      7,l74 ,gravel ,t]races1  
probably late ,plioc5e4        7or e>ly 
,plei/oc5e74    7,m74 ,gypse\s          
,deposits1 probably late/ ,plioc5e4     
,j4--,m>9e ,deposits3 ,middle ,plioc5e4 
,9 ,middle ,plioc5e times ! area1 :i* _h
 probably und]gone  consid]able         
d5udation1 0 aga9 invad$ by ! sea1 & we 
f9d  at ,sidmant el ,jebel1 on ! s\?-ea/
 side1 def9ite evid5ce (  deposits ( ?is
 age 9 ! %ape ( s&s conta9+ su* well    
kn[n  =ms z ,o/rea cucullata & ,pect5   
b5$ictus4    ,! b$s 9 "q rea* an        
altitude ( f #fj to #gj metres &  7 fir/
 br\ght to notice by ,s*we9fur?4 ,al?\gh
 !y are 9  reality on ! ,nile ,valley   

side ( ! sep>at+ ridge or saddle1  !re  
is little d\bt t ! same b$s w1 :5 look$ 
=1 be  f\nd )9 ! ,faym depression 9     
places :]e !y h be5  pres]v$4 ,z has    
already be5 m5tion$ ?is s\?-ea/]n side (
  ! ,faym yet rema9s to be exam9$ &     
mapp$ 9 detail1 & !  det]m9ation ( !    
relation ( ^! m>9e s&s to ! gravel      
t]races %ortly to be describ$ is a matt]
 ( prim>y importance  = ! prop]         
int]pretation ( _! relative ages4       
,k4--,bor+s on ,rock surfaces2 ( d\btful
 age4      ,!re are )9 ! ,faym          
depression num]\s rock-surfaces pi]c$   
by bor+s1 app>5tly ! "w ( m>9e bor+     
mollusca b naturally  (f]+ no exact     
evid5ce z to _! age & orig94 ,^! bor+s  
are f\nd at two di/9ct levels1          
approximately f z]o to #bj metres  above
 sea-level1 & at #aab metres above      
sea-level4                              
77 ,l[ level bor+s4    ,betwe5 ,tamia & 
,dim1 ne> ! ea/]n end ( ! ,birket el    
,qurn1  ! l[e/ gr\nd1 consi/+ ( poor s&y
 l& ) tam>isk scrub1  bord]+ ! lake &   

cultivation1 is b\nd$ by a l[ esc>pm5t  
( b$s ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies4 ,along
 c]ta9 horizons "o  or m b$s ( calc>e\s 
s&/one wea!r into l>ge globul>  masses1 
:i* z already po9t$ out are 9 reality   
huge concretions1  b :i* may h be5 fur!r
 r\nd$ by wat]-action4 ,! *ief  po9t is1
 h[ev]1 ! fact t ^! blocks are          
honey-comb$ 9 !  mo/ rem>kable way by   
beautiful examples ( bor+s2 _! pres5ce  
0 fir/ notic$ by ,s*we9fur?4 ,! globul> 
masses ( s&/one1  (t5 sev]al feet 9     
diamet]1 are worn on ! surface into a   
numb]  ( p>allel l$ges1 ea* ( :i* is    
p]=at$ ) c\ntless numb]s  ( v]tical     
holes1 av]ag+ #aj millimetres 9 diamet] 
7maximum #ae  millimetres71 plac$ at "r 
angles to ! l$ges2 ^! holes are  n1 z a 
rule1 connect$ f "o l$ge to ano!r4 ,!y  
occur 9  e /age ( p]fection1 f holl[s z 
small z ! f+] tips  & only a few        
millimetres deep1 to long complet$      
*amb]s :i*  g5]ally %[ consid]able      
tap]+1 & are (t5 plac$ s close  toge!r t
 ! divid+ wall is pi]c$4    ,fig4 #g &  

,plate ,,xiii %[ ! appe>ance ( ^! bor$  
rocks4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#g4--;,block ( s&/one pi]c$ by num]\s   
bor+s4    ,at ,el ,k5sa1 a promontory   
jutt+ out into ! lake1 s&/ones  %[+     
%ell-bor+s occur at a height ( #ad      
metres above  sea-level4 ,betwe5 ,dim & 
! lake a calc>e\s s&/one conta9s  _m    
bor+s1 #ff metres above ! lake-level1 or
 ab\t #bb metres  above sea-level4      
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4    ,,bor+s
 ,,9 ,,false-,,b$d$ ,,s&/one1 ,,two     
,,kilometres ,,s\? ,,( ,,dim4           
77 ,high level bor+s4    ,fur!r we/1 b  
at a consid]ably high] level1 bor+s are 
aga9  met )4 ,9 ?is case a h>d compact  
lime/one1 =m+ a dip-slope  surface on ! 
top ( ! l[] cliff ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha   
s]ies1  0 f\nd pi]c$ ) bor+s1 simil> 9  
"* to ^? ( !  l[] level4 ,! exact       
locality :]e ^! high level bor+s 7      
obs]v$ is #ad kilometres we/ ( ! we/]n  
end ( ! lake & #af  kilometres nor?-ea/ 
( ! ea/]n extremity ( ,g> el ,gehannem4 
,!  height 0 det]m9$ z #aef metres above

 ! ,birket el ,qurn1  or #aab metres    
above sea-level1 & we h e reason to     
believe  ^! figures to be approximately 
correct4 ,up to ! pres5t "t  bor+s at   
?is altitude h n be5 met ) 9 any o!r    
locality4    ,at fir/ sight x seems     
surpris+ t ! occurr5ces %\ld be s       
limit$1 b x %\ld be rememb]$ t only 9 ^?
 cases :]e  bor+s 7 made 9 ! v h>de/ &  
mo/ durable rocks c\ld  !y h be5 pres]v$
 to ! pres5t "t4 ,consid]+ ! am\nt  (   
d5udation :i* has tak5 place 9 ! area   
s9ce ! ,plioc5e  p]iod x is surpris+ t  
any ( ! rocks :i* =m$ ! actual  surface 
( ! c\ntry at t date %\ld /ill be       
pres]v$2 &  9 all probability !         
comp>atively few records t exi/ to-day  
owe _! pres]vation to ! protection af=d$
 by sup]ficial  deposits4 ,"u ! pres5t  
rigor\s des]t conditions1 :5 ! :ole     
surface is subject$ to cont9ual & rapid 
*anges ( temp]ature1  & e expos$ rock is
 be+ worn d[n by ! natural s&bla/1  x   
mu/ be admitt$ t 9 a comp>atively %ort  
"t e trace  ( ! bor+s n[ expos$ w h be5 

remov$4 ,at ! same "t  ! d5udation (    
sup]ficial deposits w probably lay b>e  
o!r  bor$ rock-surfaces1 & ! cons]v+    
nature ( drift s& itself  :]e accumulat$
 to ev5 a limit$ degree mu/ n be =gott54
                     ,l4--,gravel       
,t]races3 8 ,upp] ,plioc5e4      ,on !  
nor?1 ea/1 & s\?-ea/ sides ( ! ,faym1   
well m>k$  t]races ( gravel are f\nd at 
c]ta9 levels up to a maximum (  ab\t    
#agj-ahj metres above sea-level4 ,n9e   
kilometres ea/ ( ,sla  ! summit ( !     
ridge sep>at+ ! ,faym & ! ,nile ,valley 
is  =m$ ( ?ick deposits ( gravel1 laid  
irregul>ly & uncon=mably  on ! top (    
lime/ones belong+ to ! ,birket el ,qurn 
s]ies4 ,!  l[e/ t]race occurs only #ae  
metres above ! canal#hf runn+  along !  
outside ( ! cultivation4 ,! ma9 deposit 
( gravel is  laid on ! top ( ! lime/ones
 & m>ls at #gj metres above !  canal2 x 
is "s #ej metres ?ick 7summit #abj      
metres above canal7  & consi/s ( a mass 
( well-roll$ fl9t & qu>tz pebbles1 )    
blocks ( lime/one 7frequ5tly full (     

well-kn[n ,eoc5e fossils  su* z ,c>olia 
placunoides74 ,l>ge well r\nd$ blocks ( 
grey  qu>tzite & pebbles ( black        
qu>tzite also occur1 besides r\nd$      
blocks ( silicifi$ wood4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt 
( false-b$d+ occurs  & false-b$d$ s& 0  
notic$ 9 places4 ,num]\s d]iv$ roll$    
fossils are pres5t1 b no contemporane\s 
rema9s 7 f\nd4 ,on  ! summit ( ! ridge  
is situat$ ! remnant ( an old pyramid-l 
build+4    ,fig4 #h %[s ! relation ( ^! 
gravels to ! und]ly+ rocks4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,sket* %[+    
relations ( ,middle ,eoc5e  to ,plioc5e 
,gravel ,t]races on ! ea/ side ( !      
,faym4    ,birket el ,qurun s]ies4--7a7 
,clays1 m>ls & lime/one2  7b7 ,lime/ones
 ) ,op]cul9a 7,o4 discoidea874 ,plioc5e 
7to ,plei/oc5e72 7c7 ,co>se deposits (  
gravel1 etc41 ) huge  blocks ( d]iv$    
,eoc5e lime/one ) ,c>olia1 etc42 7d7 s&s
  & s&rock ) leaves ( h>d s&/one2 7e7   
s&1 gravel &  conglom]ate4    ,at ! spur
 ( ! cliff imm$iately to ! ea/ ! t]race 
is  laid on to lime/ones ( ! ,birket el 

,qurn s]ies at a height (  #cb metres   
above ! canal4 ,enorm\s blocks (        
,c>olia-lime/one1  "s exce$+ #c  #b  #ae
 metres 9 measurem5t1 are includ$ 9  ?is
 deposit2 su* blocks _c h be5 transport$
 f>1 & 7  d\btless d]iv$ f =m]ly-exi/+  
high] b$s 9 ! imm$iate  neighb\rhood4 ,!
 matrix ( ! deposit is usually cru%$    
lime/one  ) s& & gravel4 ,occasional    
fragm5ts ( silicifi$ wood 7&  fur!r we/ 
l>ge logs71 evid5tly d]iv$ f !          
,fluvio-m>9e  b$s1 also occur4    ,9    
fav\r$ localities ! relation ( ! gravels
 to ! ,eoc5e is  /ill bett] se52 ! l[]  
b$s ( ! t]race "h are sometimes  =m$ (  
s&s & s&y b$s dipp+ #aj ea/w>d4    ,at !
 little promontory #i kilometres ea/ (  
,s]s5a ! same deposits  rea* an altitude
 ( #aeg metres above ! canal bel[4      
,fur!r nor? ano!r cake ( gravel caps !  
summit1 atta9+  "h #fj-gj metres above !
 canal-level4 ,probably ^! deposits  7  
orig9ally m or less connect$ & cont9u\s1
 b s9ce  _! deposition d5udation mu/ h  
remov$ ! great] "p1 z  !y are n[ only   

f\nd "h & !re capp+ ! highe/ po9ts  ( ! 
esc>pm5t along ! ea/ side ( ! ,faym4    
,su* isolat$  gravel-capp$ hills occur  
notably #ab kilometres ea/ ( ,roda1 #af 
kilometres ea/ & #ag kilometres nor?-ea/
 ( ,tamia4    ,along ! nor? side ( !    
,faym ! same deposits are f\nd1  9 "s   
cases cov]+ l>ge areas4    ,tw5ty-five  
kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,tamia ! ,eoc5e  
b$s1 "h an  alt]nat+ s]ies ( clays &    
lime/ones1 are capp$ by a deposit       
consi/+ ( co>se roll$ gravel1 ) blocks (
 silicifi$ wood  enclos$ 9 a s&y gypse\s
 base1 "s #aj metres ?ick4 ,a l>g]  &   
simil> deposit caps ! next high gr\nd   
f\r kilometres to !  we/1 & ab\t #i     
kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,g>at el ,f>as2 9
 ?is case  x =ms a r\nd-topp$ gravelly  
hill-range1 atta9+ a height (  ab\t #afe
 metres above ! canal to ! s\?-ea/4 ,!  
loose gravel  at _m po9ts passes into   
h>d conglom]ate1 notably 9 ! hills  #i  
kilometres ea/ & #d kilometres nor?-ea/ 
( ,g>at el ,g9di4 ,at  ! =m] spot !     
conglom]ate is compos$ ( blocks (       

lime/one1  ) r\nd pebbles ( fl9t &      
qu>tz1 s&/one & qu>tzite1  & fragm5ts ( 
silicifi$ wood1 cem5t$ by s& & calc>e\s 
mat]ial4 ,blocks ( silicifi$ wood also  
occur /rewn on ! surface  ( ^! gravel   
deposits4    ,9 ! hills nor?-ea/ ( ,g>at
 el ,g9di ! gravel deposits d n  occupy 
! summit ( ! esc>pm5t b occur laid on to
 a plat=m (  b$s belong+ to ! ,qasr el  
,sagha s]ies4 ,beh9d1 ano!r esc>pm5t1  t
 ( ! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 rises to !     
plateau summit4    ,fig4 #i w %[ ! g5]al
 relation ( ! diff]5t =mations 9  ?is "p
 ( ! di/rict4    ,ne> ,elwat ,hialla !  
deposits conta9 num]\s blocks ( basalt  
9 addition to ! usual con/itu5ts4 ,!    
basalt is d]iv$ f  ! %eets int]b$d$ at !
 base ( ! ,oligoc5e a little to !  nor?4
 ,z ^! gravels are "h close to t        
=mation1 blocks (  s&/one1 basalt1 &    
silicifi$ wood n[ =m a l>ge proportion  
( ! con/itu5ts4    ,along ! nor? side ( 
! ,faym depression1 to ! we/ ( ,elwat   
,hialla1 ! gravel t]races are almo/     
abs5t1 hav+ be5 remov$  ne>ly completely

 by d5udation4 ,t ! t]races once exi/$  
?r\gh\t ?is region is h[ev] %[n by !    
small pat*es met )  to ! nor?-ea/ (     
,widan el ,f>as1 ! ea/]n extremity (    
,jebel  el ,qatrani1 & at sev]al po9ts  
high up on ! esc>pm5ts z f>  we/ z !    
we/]n end ( ! lake4 ,beyond ! latt] po9t
 ^!  t]race gravels h n be5 notic$2 !   
slopes ( ! depression  become m & m     
obscur$ by loose sup]ficial fl9ts wa%$  
d[n  f ! plateau1 & ! exi/5ce ( und]ly+ 
t]race gravels  c\ld only be %[n by     
detail$ mapp+4    ,illu/ration3         
,,plioc5e 7,,to ,,plei/oc5e7 --#a4      
,t]race ( gravel & conglom]ate4         
,,upp] ,,eoc5e-,,oligoc5e    --#b4 ,s&s 
& s&/ones4      ,,middle ,,eoc5e        
--#c4 ,clays1 m>ls & lime/ones ( !      
,upp] ,mokattam4    ,,fig4              
#i4--,sket*-,section ?r\gh summit (     
,faym ,esc>pm5t at  ,elwat ,hialla4     
,ne> ,widan el ,f>as ! t]race occurs at 
a level ( ab\t #bbj  metres above !     
,birket el ,qurn1 or #age metres above  
sea-level1  & consi/s ( a #aj-metre     

?ickness ( a semi-consolidat$ mass (    
b\ld]s & pebbles ( s&/one1 lime/one1 &  
basalt1 ) f9e  gravel & s&1 uncon=mably 
laid on to ! v>iegat$ s&/ones  ( !      
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies4    ,9 ! neighb\rhood
 ( ! ,survey's ma9 excavations = fossil 
bones1 to ! nor? ( ,g>at el ,e%1 sev]al 
local remnants ( !  =m]ly m or less     
cont9u\s gravel t]race 7 detect$#hg4 ,! 
height 0 probably m accurately det]m9$  
"h ?an else:]e  & ! upp] limit ( !      
deposits 0 f\nd to lie at approximately 
#agj metres above sea-level2 ?is figure 
may inde$ be tak5 z !  av]age height ( !
 ,plioc5e t]races ?r\gh\t ! ,faym4      
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4            
,,plei/oc5e ,,lacu/r9e ,,clays ,,)      
,,tam>isk ,,/umps ,,9 ,,situ ,,at #ej   
,,metres  ,,above ,,pres5t ,,surface ,,(
 ,,! ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun4    ,briefly 
!n we h %[n ! exi/5ce ( ! well m>k$     
rema9s  ( a gravel t]race #agj-ahj      
metres above sea-level1 ?r\gh\t !       
s\?-ea/1 ea/1 & nor? sides ( ! ,faym    
depression1 & !  fir/ "q t sugge/s      

itself ) reg>d to ^! deposits  is1 :e!r 
!y are ( m>9e or ( fre%wat] orig98 ,f _!
  position 9 "p capp+ & 9 "p p]*$ on !  
flanks ( !  esc>pm5ts1 x is evid5t t !  
depression ( ! ,faym mu/  h be5 p>tly   
=m$ be=e _! deposition2 probably x _h   
approximately obta9$ to its pres5t =m & 
dim5sions1 except z  to dep?4 ,! t]race 
c]ta9ly m>ks ! %orel9e ( ! %eet (  wat] 
9 :i* its con/itu5ts 7 deposit$1 & !    
surface ( ?is  wat] mu/ h atta9$ a      
height ( ne>ly #bjj metres above pres5t 
sea-level4 ,x is n unlikely t "s ( !    
ext5sive pla9s ( !  ,faym may owe _!    
exi/5ce 9 "p to ! pres5ce 9 ,plioc5e    
times ( ! sea or ( a l>ge inl& lake1 t  
!y may 9 fact  be pla9s ( d5udation4 ,! 
pla9 above ! esc>pm5t ( ! ,qasr  el     
,sagha s]ies1 ly+ betwe5 #aej & #bjj    
metres above sea-level1  & /ret*+       
?r\gh\t a l>ge "p ( ! nor? ( ! ,faym1   
has *>act]s :i* t5d to support ?is idea4
    ,un=tunately ! gravels are entirely 
b>r5 ( contemporane\s  organic rema9s1 )
 "o exception2 ne> ,ez4 ,qalam%a "s     

examples  ( ,o/rea cucullata 7 discov]$1
 & ^! we believe to  h truly belong$ to 
! l[] b$s ( ! t]races & n to  h be5     
d]iv$ f ! und\bt$ m>9e ,middle ,plioc5e 
b$s  ( ,sidmant4 ,if ! exi/5ce ( ,o4    
cucullata 9 ^! t]races  c\ld be confirm$
 we %\ld und\bt$ly class !m z m>9e & (  
,middle ,plioc5e age4 ,b ! s+le evid5ce 
( ! ,qalam%a %ells  is n suffici5t1 &   
confirmatory occurr5ces mu/ be obta9$ &1
  if possible1 ! relation ( ! t]races to
 ,s*we9fur?'s m>9e  ,sidmant b$s        
det]m9$1 :i* has n be5 yet done4        
,m4--,gypse\s deposits1 probably dat+ f 
! close ( !                             
,plioc5e ,p]iod4      ,( di/9ctly lat]  
date ?an ! gravel-t]races are ! widely  
di/ribut$ gypse\s deposits ( ! ,faym &  
,nile ,valley4 ,^!  deposits are f\nd   
cov]+ ! pla9 :i* sep>ates ! ,nile       
,valley  cultivation f ! ,faym          
depression1 gradually ris+ f !  level ( 
! =m] until !y ov]lie ! gravels capp+ ! 
summit  ov]look+ ! ,faym 7,section      
,,xxi74    ,ne> ! ,pyramid ( ,m$um !    

foll[+ b$s are se5 at ! edge (  ! des]t 
pla93--      ,top4                      
,metres4           ,pure1 gravelly1 or  
m>ly gypsum                             
#a-b           ,clayey %ales ) gypsum & 
salt                          #a-a      
,:ite m>ly lime/one ) mu* salt          
probable               & fi%-rema9s     
7fi%-scales1 etc47     "p (          #b 
,rav9e b$s4           ,yell[ s&/one )   
fi%-scales1 etc4                   #c   
,! gravel deposits along ! ea/ side ( ! 
,faym are always capp$  by a gypse\s b$4
 ,! latt] is (t5 #b metres ?ick &       
frequ5tly  occurs z solid & almo/ pure  
:ite cry/all9e gypsum2 sometimes  x is  
calc>e\s & is frequ5tly deposit$ 9 a    
tuface\s mann]1  especially resembl+ a  
tufa on ! wea!r$ surface4 ,at o!r times 
x passes into a yell[i% compact mass &  
may be v salif]\s4    ,frequ5tly !      
deposit is full ( r\nd$ pebbles1 ! latt]
  be+ (t5 9 ! great] proportion & =m+ a 
sort (  gypsum-cem5t$ conglom]ate4 ,n   
unfrequ5tly x is impossible to  draw any

 divisional l9e betwe5 ! t]race gravels 
& ! gypse\s  gravels above4 ,probably !y
 are bo? closely connect$ & ( ,upp]     
,plioc5e age4                           
,n4--,summ>y ( ! ,plioc5e ,p]iod4       
,f ! above descriptions x is probable t 
! ,plioc5e p]iod  is repres5t$ 9 ! ,faym
 by ! foll[+3--    7#a7 ,m>9e b$s (     
,sidmant1 und\bt$ly ( ,middle ,plioc5e  
age &  rea*+ a level ( f #fj to #gj     
metres above pres5t sea-level4    7#b7  
,bor+s on expos$ rock-surfaces at two   
di/9ct levels1 !  l[] #j-bj metres1 !   
high] "s #aab metres1 above sea-level4  
,^!  bor+s appe> to be ! "w ( m>9e bor+ 
mollusca1 & al?\gh  ^? on ! l[] level   
may p]haps be ( ,middle ,plioc5e age )  
! ,sidmant b$s1 ! simil> examples       
discov]$ at a mu* high]  altitude 7#aab 
metres71 po9t to ! sea hav+ atta9$ a mu*
 high]  level 9 lat]1 p]haps ,upp]      
,plioc5e1 times4    7#c7 ,an ext5sive   
bea* or t]race ( gravel on ! s\?-ea/1   
ea/1  & nor? sides ( ! ,faym1 atta9+ a  
maximum level ( ab\t  #agj to #ahj      

metres above sea-level4    ,all ! kn[n  
facts seem to be satisfi$ if we imag9e t
 9  ! ,middle ,plioc5e ! sea occupi$ !  
area1 depression probably  cont9u+ until
 ! #aab metre level ) ! highe/ bor+s 0  
rea*$4 ,p]haps ! l[e/ "p ( ! t]races 0  
=m$ dur+  ?is "t4 ,9 ! lat] ,plioc5e    
times we may inf] t ! area  0 occupi$1  
up to #ahj metres above pres5t          
sea-level1 by a va/  inl& lake1 p]haps (
 bracki% wat]1 connect$ ) ! sea on  ! "o
 h& & ! fiord or lakes ( ! ,nile ,valley
 on ! o!r1  ! deposits ( :i* h be5      
describ$ else:]e#hh4    ,along ! m>g9s (
 ?is gigantic lake1 ^! great            
accumulations  ( gravel might well h be5
 =m$1 *iefly ( mat]ial d]iv$  f !       
imm$iate %ores1 augm5t$ p]haps by a     
c]ta9 am\nt (  s$im5t br\ght by         
riv]-curr5ts f ! s\?4    ,f9ally1 f !   
way 9 :i* ! gypsum & gypse\s deposits   
are  laid on ! t]race gravels1 & f _!   
ext5sion & ?ickness1  we may presume t  
!y 7 deposit$ on ! bottom ( j su*  a    
lake on evaporation ( its wat]1 :5 !    

sulphate ( lime 9  solution1 becom+ m & 
m conc5trat$1 may h be5 f9ally          
precipitat$4#hi                         
,,section ,,xiii4--,,plei/oc5e4      ,! 
c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ,plei/oc5e times is at  
pres5t obscure4 ,z  f> z c be judg$ x 0 
dur+ ?is p]iod t a fre%wat]  lake1 !    
precursor ( ! great ,mris1 came into    
exi/5ce4 ,x  might be ?\ght t ! e>ly    
,plei/oc5e prehi/oric lake 0 a  relic ( 
! /ill old] body ( wat] ( ,plioc5e      
times1 9 :i*  ! gravel t]races & gypse\s
 deposits 7 laid d[n4 ,b su*  a remnant 
w\ld h be5 ( a high degree ( sal9ity &  
c\ld n  h giv5 rise to ! fre% wat]      
,mris4 ,mo/ probably at ! close  ( !    
,plioc5e p]iod1 aft] ! =mation ( !      
gypse\s deposits1  ! area became elevat$
 & cut (f f ! sea & f ! ,nile  ,valley  
m>9e fiord2 probably an ext5sive body ( 
wat] rema9$ z  an isolat$ lake1 b ?is1  
cut (f f ext]nal supply1 w\ld h         
gradually evaporat$1 its salt be+ left z
 a sup]ficial deposit on  ! dri$ up b$4 
,9 e>ly ,plei/oc5e times we may presume 

! area  became dry & 0 gradually erod$  
to its pres5t %ape & dep?4 ,!           
sup]ficial deposits ( salt & gypsum 7 = 
! mo/ "p remov$  z ! depression 0       
deep5$1 :ile ! cont9u\s t]race ( gravel 
laid r\nd ! great] "p ( ! rim 0 brok5   
?r\gh1 except  :]e protect$ 9 fav\rable 
localities1 ! con/itu5ts be+  wa%$ d[n &
 spread out ov] ! l[] gr\nd4 ,9 c\rse ( 
"t  ! region 0 m\ld$ to its pres5t =m & 
dim5sions1 or r to  :at x w\ld be if !  
local alluvial deposits 7 /ripp$ (f &  !
 wat] ( ! lake bal$ out4 ,! area 0 an   
inl& depression1  probably sp>sely      
vegetat$ l ! re/ ( ! high] c\ntry &     
sep>at$ f ! ,nile ,valley by a l[ rocky 
ridge surm\nt$ by a  m ( less cont9u\s  
t]race ( gravel ( consid]able height &  
?ickness4 ,9 our op9ion des]t conditions
 _h already set 9 be=e  ! e>ly ,nile    
broke d[n ! ridge & =m$ a lake 9 !      
,faym2  ! date :5 ?is important ev5t    
fir/ took place is a matt] (            
consid]able d\bt1 z has already be5     
m5tion$ 7pp4 #bd1 #be74 ,we  "k t at !  

close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod ! ,nile ,valley
 0  a m>9e fiord 7connect$ ) ! ,faym & !
 ,m$it]ranean7  :i* 0 replac$ 9         
,plei/oc5e times1 probably 9 consequ5ce 
(  slight elevation1 by a s]ies ( fre%  
wat] lakes ?r\gh\t !  valley4 ,^! lakes 
7 probably two or ?ree 9 numb] & dra9$  
"o into ! o!r2 ! exact position ( !     
b>ri]s is z yet a  matt] ( conjecture4  
,)9 ^! lakes ?ick lacu/r9e deposits  7  
accumulat$1 s t ! bas9s ev5tually became
 to a great  ext5t silt$ up4 ,9 lat]    
,plei/oc5e times dra9age d[n ! ,nile    
,valley appe>s to h become m pron\nc$1 !
 b>ri]s betwe5  ! lakes 7 brok5 d[n & ! 
riv] cut = itself a *annel  ?r\gh !     
lacu/r9e b$s1 fill+ up ! old lake bas9s4
 ,f  ?is "t onw>ds to e>ly prehi/oric   
times ! b$ ( ! riv]  w\ld appe> to h    
/eadily fall51 z x erod$ its *annel     
deep]  & deep]4 ,t ?is e>ly ,nile 0 a   
riv] ( consid]able size is  evid5t f !  
am\nt ( erosion x accompli%$ 9 ! tr\gh (
 !  valley1 :5ce ! old] lacu/r9e b$s h  
be5 almo/ completely  remov$4 ,probably 

9 ! l[] "p ( its c\rse x swept aga9/  ! 
base ( ! divid+ ridge betwe5 ! ,nile    
,valley & ! ,faym  depression4 ,if1 z we
 imag9e1 ! riv] 0 at t "t fl[+  "s #bj  
metres high] ?an at pres5t its curr5ts  
w\ld h met  ) little resi/ance f !      
loosely cem5t$ t]race ( gravel  :i* =m$ 
! upp] "p ( ! divid+ ridge4 ,once ?is 0 
brok5 d[n ! wat]s mu/ h p\r$ into !     
depression beh9d1  until a lake (       
consid]able size 0 =m$4 ,! s$im5t spread
 out  ov] ! floor 9 ! %ape ( a fan1 :ile
 at ! same "t deposits  ( s&s & f9e     
clays1 bl[n & wa%$ into ! wat]s f !     
surr\nd+ %ores1 7 be+ sl[ly accumulat$ 9
 ! quiet] &  m remote p>ts ( ! lake4    
,= "s "t subsequ5t to ! fir/ connection 
betwe5 ! ,faym  depression & ! ,nile1 ! 
latt] cont9u$ to fall 9 level ow+ to    
cont9u$ erosion along its c\rse1        
possibly ! ,faym aga9 became  completely
 isolat$ = a "t4 ,subsequ5tly 9 ! e>lie/
 hi/oric  times "u *ang$ conditions !   
riv] comm5c$ to c>ry & lay  d[n ! mod]n 
alluvial deposit ( 8,nile mud01 & f ?is 

"t  to ! pres5t day its b$ has gradually
 ris54 ,?is is %[n by !  high ,nile     
flood-read+s on ! e>ly gauges ( ! ,nile 
,valley2 !  nilomet] at ,roda %[s a     
diff]5ce ( #abb metres 9 #ajbf ye>s1 or 
an annual rise ( #jab c5timetre1 :i* is 
equival5t to #ab metres  9 #aj1jjj      
ye>s#ij4 ,:e!r !re 0 ev] complete       
disconnection  betwe5 ! ,nile & !       
orig9ally =m$ lake 9 ,plei/oc5e times   
is unc]ta91 b ev5 s x 0 probably only   
dur+ a comp>atively  %ort p]iod3 9 e>ly 
hi/oric times ! rise ( ! ,nile b$ mu/  h
 br\ght ab\t a reconnection4    ,!      
geological evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( a great
 fre%wat] lake  9 ,plei/oc5e &          
prehi/oric times is af=d$ by ! well-m>k$
  lacu/r9e clays & s&s :i* are f\nd ov] 
su* a l>ge area (  ! nor!rn & we/]n     
des]ts ( ! ,faym2 ! great ext5t (  ?is  
lake w be se5 by an exam9ation ( !      
accompany+ maps4 ,its  area mu/ h be5   
ab\t #bbej squ>e kilometres or ab\t t5  
times  ! size ( ! mod]n ,birket el      
,qurn4 ,! we/]n limit may ev5  h be5    

fur!r we/ ?an %[n on fig4 #aj41ia z "s (
 !  des]t 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,g> el     
,gehannem is v l[-ly+2  or !re may h    
exi/$ subsidi>y lakes 9 t direction4 ,! 
upp] limit ( ^! anci5t lacu/r9e clays is
 betwe5 #bb & #bc  metres above         
sea-level1 :i* exactly agrees ) ! figure
 adduc$  by ,sir ,hanbury ,br[n z !     
height ( ! m mod]n ,lake ,mo]is  f !    
evid5ce ( levels4 ,t ,lake ,mo]is 0     
simply ! old]  prehi/oric lake plac$ "u 
artificial control admits ( no d\bt2  ! 
difficult "q be+ z to :5 ! lake fir/    
came into  exi/5ce 9 prehi/oric times4  
,! clays ab\nd 9 fre%wat] %ells &       
semi-fossil fi%-bones (  exactly ! same 
species ( fi% 7siluroid1 etc7 z /ill    
inhabit !  ,birket el ,qurn2 probably "s
 are ev5 h>dly diff]5t specifically  f !
 ,middle ,eoc5e =ms ( ! di/rict4 ,9     
addition rema9s  ( l>ge animals are     
common1 & include ,hippopotamus1        
,elephas1  ,bubalis1 %eep or goat1 &    
,canis1 ) crocodiles & turtles1  etc4#ib
    ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xv4         

,,isolat$ ,,s&-,,dune ,,ne> ,,g> ,,el   
,,gehannem4    ,m>t5s#ic has describ$ ! 
foll[+ species ( mollusca f             
,s*we9fur?'s collections3--      ,unio  
abyss9icus1 ,m>t4      ,u4 ,s*we9fur?i1 
,m>t4      ,corbicula flum9alis1 v>4    
consobr9a ,caill4      ,n]it9a nilotica1
 ,reev4      ,valvata nilotica1 ,jick4  
,cleopatra piro?i1 ,jick4      ,c4      
piro?i1 v>41 unic>9ata1 ,m>t4           
,bi?ynia aff4 ,boissi]i1 ,*>p4          
,melania tub]culata1 ,mll4      ,limnaea
 natal5sis1 ,krauss4      ,l4 mris1     
,m>t4      ,l4 palu/ris1 ,mll4          
,planorbis subangulata1 ,phil4          
,blanck5horn has po9t$ out#id t ?is     
fauna is ( special  int]e/ & diff]s f   
all fossil & liv+ faunas 9 ,egypt4 ,x   
might be comp>$ ) ! ,melanopsis-fauna ( 
! ,nile ,valley if !  exceptional       
,limnaea 7 replac$ by ,melanopsis or    
,palud9a4 ,its  ,unio ,s*we9fur?i       
recalls ! y\nge/ alluvial deposits ( !  
,nile ,valley1 #bnd ,cat>act1 ,kom ,ombo
 & ,silsila2 at ^! places1  h[ev]1 ! b$s

 conta9+ ! species 9 "q are at lea/ #bj 
metres above mean wat] level ( ! pres5t 
day4    ,! sub-fossil fauna ( ! ,faym   
alluvium1 9 addition to ^? =ms  ev]y:]e 
met ) 9 ! ,nile ,valley1 includes       
,n]it9a nilotica  & ,melania tub]culata1
 :i* are common =ms ( ! ,melanopsis     
/age1 z well z ,unio abyss9icus &       
,valvata nilotica4 ,9  common ) ! pres5t
 fauna ( ! ,birket el ,qurn x has ! five
  =ms belong+ to ! g5]a ,corbicula1     
,n]it9a1 ,valvata1  ,melania1 &         
,planorbis4 ,! sub-fossil fauna1 :i*    
passes into  ! mod]n fauna ( ! ,birket  
el ,qurn1 %[s connection ) !            
,m$it]ranean & ,blue ,nile1 b has a     
total abs5ce ( ,:ite ,nile  =ms su* z   
,ampull>ia1 ,lani/es1 ,cleopatra        
bulimoides1  ,spa?a & ,ae!ria4 ,moreov] 
,limna palu/ris1 al?\gh  id5tical ) ! =m
 f\nd on o!r ,m$it]ranean coa/s1 is z   
yet entirely unkn[n f ! ,nile ,valley4  
,blanck5horn concludes t  ! diluvial    
subfossil deposits ( ! ,faym 7 produc$  
:5 !  climate ( ,egypt 0 damp] & m      

,europan1 ! ,nile c>ry+  m ar5ace\s     
s$im5t 9 place ( ! mud ( to-day & runn+ 
at high] level1 z x did :5 ! %ells (    
,unio ,s*we9fur?i  7 enclos$ 9 !        
deposits ( ,jebel ,silsila4 ,blanck5horn
 ?9ks  ! ,nile obta9$ access to !       
depression dur+ ! la/ ,european  ice    
p]iod4 ,?is la/ supposition1 c\pl$ ) !  
above comp>ison  ( ! ,faym fre%-wat]    
fauna ) ! ,melanopsis /age ( ! ,nile    
,valley ,plei/oc5e s]ies1 %[s t 9 reg>d+
 ! e>ly ,faym  lake z dat+ f prehi/oric 
times ,blanck5horn & ! writ]  are 9     
agreem5t4                               
,,section ,,xiv4--,,rec5t4      ,we may 
divide ! ,rec5t p]iod into two epo*s1   
,prehi/oric &  ,hi/oric1 always rememb]+
 t ! l9e ( dem>cation is n mu*  m di/9ct
 ?an t betwe5 ,rec5t & ,plei/oc5e4      
,o4--,prehi/oric4      ,! abundance (   
work$ fl9ts on ! des]t j )9 & ar\nd !   
site occupi$ by ! ,faym lake 9 late     
,plei/oc5e & prehi/oric  times1 %[s t ! 
%ores 7 ev5tually inhabit$ by p  :o made
 & us$ ^! primitive tools4 ,t ! edge ( !

 lake  0 abundantly wood$ is %[n by !   
?\s&s ( well pres]v$  tam>isk /umps met 
) at ! pres5t day 9 situ 7,plate ,,xiv7 
9 ! clays ?r\gh\t ! =m] m>g9 ( ! lake4  
,! implem5ts occur *iefly along ! m>g9 (
 ! highe/ level  ( ! old lake1 & h      
probably 9 _m cases be5 buri$ 9 !  lake 
clays until ! pres5t "t1 :i* w\ld acc\nt
 = _!  beautiful /ate ( pres]vation4 ,we
 h n1 h[ev]1 yet actually  detect$ !m   
enclos$ )9 ! clays1 al?\gh commonly f\nd
 ly+  on ! clean w9d-worn surface4 ,f ! 
f9e degree ( workman%ip  we may         
und\bt$ly ref] ^! fl9t implem5ts to !   
,neoli?ic or  lat] /one-age1 al?\gh !   
exact date is d\btful4 ,t !y 7  made &  
us$ :ile ! lake /ill /ood at its highe/ 
level seems  c]ta91 b z we h %[n above1 
! lake1 z a %eet ( wat]  up to #bc      
metres above sea-level or !reab\ts1     
probably exi/$ f>  ant]ior to !         
,egyptian hi/oric p]iod4 ,!y might1 on !
 o!r  h&1 z f> z ! evid5ce f ! position 
( ! lake goes1  h be5 us$ by !          
inhabitants ( ! lake-m>g9 d[n to !      

great reclamation :i* took place 9      
,ptolemaic times4 ,z x seems  impossible
 to date !m by comp>ison ) fl9ts ( kn[n 
age f  any ,egyptian p]iod1 we may      
p]haps conclude t !y are at lea/  ( old]
 date ?an ! e>lie/ ,egyptian records4#ie
                                        
,p4--,hi/oric4      ,9 hi/orical times1 
"u conditions almo/ id5tical ) ^? (  !  
,nile ( to-day1 !re w\ld h be5 an annual
 infl[ dur+  ! flood & outfl[ back to ! 
,nile :5 ! latt] subsid$2  dur+ ! infl[ 
a con/ant supply ( ,nile mud 0 br\ght   
into !  lake & deposit$ on ! surface ( !
 e>li] alluvium1 cont9ually  augm5t+ !  
?ickness ( ! latt] & rais+ its surface1 
until  9 ! c5tral area m>%y l& began to 
appe>4 ,9 ! ,,xii ,dyna/y  ?is natural  
backwat] ( ! ,nile1 :i* act$ z a m or   
less  effici5t regulator ( high & l[    
floods1 0 br\ght "u human  control by   
,am5emhat ,i1 & a consid]able area ( l& 
reclaim$ f  ! %all[e/ "p ( ! lake1 or t 
"p ( ! c\ntry n[ ly+  ne> ,edwa1 ,m$9et 
el ,faym1 etc4 ,! new artificially      

controll$  lake 0 call$ ,mo]is1 & its   
wond]s are m5tion$ by ,h]odotus1        
,diodorus ,siculus1 ,/rabo & ,pl9y4     
,! actual position ( ,lake ,mo]is has   
be5 ! subject ( mu*  discussion1 ! late 
,l9ant de ,bellefonds#if hav+ ass]t$ t  
x 0 a high-level lake1 q di/9ct f !     
,birket el ,qurn1  occupy+ ! gap 9 !    
hills by :i* ! ,bahr ,yusef ent]s !     
,faym1 its encircl+ bank comm5c+ at     
,edwa & pass+ ?r\gh  ,biahmu1 ,m$9et1   
etc4 ,sir ,hanbury ,br[n has1#ig h[ev]1 
completely  demoli%$ ,l9ant's !ory1 :i* 
is %[n to be absolutely  unt5able2 & has
 prov$ conclusively t ! anci5t ,mris    
occupi$ ! great] "p ( :at is n[ !       
cultivat$ l&1 z  well z ! area cov]$ by 
! pres5t lake & a consid]able "p  ( !   
surr\nd+ des]t1 ! reclaim$ l& be+ 9 fact
 "p (  ! v di/rict ,l9ant suppos$ ! lake
 to h occupi$4 ,s9ce  ! publication (   
,br[n's "w complete corroborative       
evid5ce  has be5 =?com+ f two di/9ct    
s\rces1 "o ar*ological1  ! o!r          
geological4 ,! latt] has already be5    

m5tion$4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#aj4--,sket* ,map %[+ approximately !   
site  ( ,lake ,mo]is4    ,x 0 cle> f !  
map ( ,claudius ,ptolemy t ! r\te ?r\gh 
! ,faym to ! ,oasis ,p>va left ,bac*ias 
ne> ! nor? end ( !  lake1 & pass+ betwe5
 ,ars9 & ,lake ,mris1 rea*$ ,dionysias  
ne> ! o!r end4 ,! ar*ological rese>*es (
 ,messrs4 ,gr5fell  & ,hunt#ih h %[n t  
,bac*ias occupi$ ! site ( !  mod]n ,um  
el ,atl close to "o end ( ! ,birket el  
,qurn1 :ile  ,dionysias 0 probably 9 !  
neighb\rhood ( ,qasr el ,banat or ,qasr 
el ,qurn4 ,?us ! ,ptolemaic ,lake ,mris 
0 almo/ id5tical )  ! mod]n ,birket el  
,qurn4 ,nei!r did ! sites excavat$ yield
 a  trace ( any?+ old] ?an ! ?ird c5tury
 ,b4,c4 ,!adelphia &  ,philot]is 7 f\nd$
 9 ! reign ( ! second ,ptolemy1 :5 a    
great reclamation ( ! l& f ! lake took  
place1 & probably  ,euhem]ia1           
,dionysias1 ,k>anis & ,bac*ias date f ! 
same reign4    ,! ar*ological evid5ce is
 ?us briefly summ$ up by ,gr5fell &     
,hunt3 8,orig9ally ! lake fill$ ! :ole  

bas9 ( ! ,faym1  ! fir/ reclamation be+ 
c>ri$ out by ,am5emhat ,i1 :o built !   
great dam at ,el ,lahn1 :]e ! ,bahr     
,yusef ent]s ! prov9ce1  & recov]$ !    
high gr\nd ne> ! entrance z f> z        
,biahmu1  & a po9t betwe5 ,ab%awai &    
,agami94 ,?is rema9$ ! ,ph>aonic        
prov9ce until ! "t ( ,h]odotus1 :5 !    
wat] /ill came up  to ! colossi at      
,biahmu4 ,subsequ5tly all ! l& n[       
cultivat$  bel[ ! level ( ! ,ph>aonic   
prov9ce 0 reclaim$1 *iefly 9  ! reign ( 
,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 :5 ,lake ,mris 0
 r$uc$ ne>ly  to ! size ( its mod]n     
repres5tative1 ! ,birket el ,qurn04     
,sid5ote3 ,pres5t day ,fauna ( ! ,birket
 el ,qurn4    ,z m5tion$ above1 !       
,plei/oc5e fauna ( ! ,faym diff]s 9 "o  
or two p>ticul>s f ! fauna ( ! pres5t   
day4 ,! commone/  liv+ molluscan =ms    
include ! foll[+3--      ,corbicula     
flum9alis4      ,n]it9a nilotica4       
,cleopatra bulimoides4      ,hydrobia   
/agnalis4      ,valvata nilotica4       
,melania tub]culata4      ,planorbis    

,ehr5b]gi4      ,p4 m>g9atus v>4        
subangulata4    ,blanck5horn#ii has     
po9t$ out t 9 ?is fauna ,hydrobia       
/agnalis1 z a typical bracki% wat] =m is
 ( special  int]e/4 ,! species appe>s to
 h e/abli%$ itself 9 ! ,birket  el ,qurn
 9 mod]n times1 z x has n be5 f\nd 9 !  
y\nge/  alluvium ( ! lake1 nor is x kn[n
 9 ! mod]n ,nile fauna4    ,sid5ote3    
,mod]n ,deposits3 ,bl[n ,s& & ,erosion4 
,except = ! gradual accumulation ( silt 
ov] ! b$ ( !  ,birket el ,qurn--s& &    
clay c>ri$ 9 by ! w9d & ! f9e  s$im5t   
borne by ! fe$] canals--! only mod]n    
deposits ( any  importance are ^? ( bl[n
 s&4 ,! ext5sive ar5ace\s deposits  (   
y\ng] ,t]ti>y age1 =m+ ! great] "p ( !  
cont95t  f ! latitude ( ! ,faym to !    
,m$it]ranean %ores1 yield z  a result ( 
! action ( d5udation a con/ant &        
abundant supply  ( ! raw mat]ial4 ,! s& 
c>ri$ s\?w>ds by ! prevail+  w9ds       
accumulates z dunes 9 ! l[e/ p>ts ( !   
depressions1  on ! slopes ( cliffs1 & 9 
all ! less expos$ localities4 ,w9d      

swept areas rema9 free or are only      
gradually encroa*$ on by sl[ly  gr[+    
l9e> dunes orig9at+ 9 ! w9d-%ad[ ( "s   
protect+  hill or ridge4 ,an unique     
example ( su* a dune is to be se5 at !  
s\? end ( ! well-m>k$ ridge a few       
kilometres ea/ ( ,g> el  ,gehannem      
7,plate ,,xv74    ,! ma9 accumulations (
 bl[n s& are 9 ! s\!rn "p ( !  ,faym2   
l>ge areas ( ! floors ( ,wadis ,rayan & 
,mola are cov]$  ) dunes1 :ile 9 _!     
imm$iate neighb\rhood ! mat]ial has     
accumulat$ to su* an ext5t z to blot out
 entire cliffs & valleys2  imm$iately to
 ! we/ ( ,gh>aq a consid]able area is   
cov]$ )  small b /eep dunes2 & f9ally   
mu/ be m5tion$ ! great l9e>  belt ( s&1 
kn[n z ! ,gh>t el ,khana%at1 :i* />t+ f 
a  po9t ab\t midway betwe5 ! ,wadi      
,natrn & ,mog>a comes to an  abrupt     
t]m9ation "s #bd kilometres be=e ga9+ ! 
nor!rn  esc>pm5t ( ! ,faym depression   
7see page #bc74    ,z might be expect$ 9
 an area l ! ,faym1 :]e s$im5t>y  rocks 
( e type are met )1 & :]e ! w9d nev]    

wants =  a suffici5t supply ( ! necess>y
 s&1 sup]ficial erosion is  ev]y:]e well
 m>k$4 ,we d n propose to /udy "h !     
action (  w9d-borne s& & x w be         
suffici5t to m5tion two localities  :]e 
! effects are be/ se52 "o is 9 !        
neighb\rhood ( ,g>at  el ,e%1 :]e ! mo/ 
rem>kable scor+ & groov+ is to be se5   
on ! two b$s ( lime/one capp+ ! upp] &  
l[] cliffs (  ! ,middle ,eoc5e2 ! o!r is
 ! ,zeuglodon ,valley1 & "h !  sculptur+
 ( ! s&/one ( ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies  
is (  ! f9e/ & mo/ unique description4  
,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4    ,,!     
,,birket ,,el ,,qurun ,,ne> ,,! ,,we/]n 
,,end4                                  
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #cc3      
,,beadnell1 ,! ,faym ,depression2 a     
,prelim9>y ,notice  ( ! ,geology ( a    
di/rict 9 ,egypt conta9+ a new ,palog5e 
,v]tebrate ,fauna4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4   
,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #dej1 ,dec4    
#aija1  pp4 #edj-edf4    ,footnote #cd3 
,,&rews1 ,fossil ,mammalia f ,egypt1    
,geol4 ,mag4 #ahii1  ,no4 #dbe1 pp4     

#dha1 #dhb2 & ,,blanck5horn1 ,neues zur 
,geologie und  ,paleontologie gypt5s1   
,,iii1 8,das ,miocn10 ,zeits*r4 d4      
,deuts*4  geol4 ,gesells*aft4 ,jahrg4   
#aija1 pp4 #ih-aja4    ,footnote #ce3   
,,s*we9fur?1 ,reise 9 das               
,depressionsgebiet im  ,umkreise des    
,fayum1 ,zeits*r41 ,ges4 f4 ,erdkunde1  
,b]l91 ,no4 #abb1  #ahhf1 p4 #ajj4      
,footnote #cf3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ajh-aaj4  
,footnote #cg3 ,l',oasis de ,moleh1     
,bull4 de l',in/itut gypt41  ,fasc4 #c1 
,ap4 #ahib4    ,footnote #ch3 ,! foll[+ 
may be m5tion$2 ,euspatangus  7=mosus8 &
 ,blanck5horni71 ,s*iza/]1 ,loboc>c9us  
78 ,paul9o ,wurtemb]gicus71 ,nautilus   
sp4 etc4    ,footnote #ci3 ,el ,h>am el 
,bahrl ( ,s*we9fur?4    ,footnote #dj3  
,individuals ( #fj mm4 diamet] are n    
uncommon4    ,footnote #da3 ,cape ,rayan
 ( ,s*we9fur?4    ,footnote #db3        
,,blanck5horn1 ,neues zur ,geologie und 
,palntologie  gypt5s 7,,ii4 ,das        
,palog57 ,zeits*r4 d4 ,deuts*4 ,geolog4 
,gesells*aft1 ,jahrg4 #aijj1 p4 #ddf1   

has det]m9$ ?is z ,t4  t5ui/riata4 ,he  
ref]s to ^! b$s z correspond+ to !      
,tafla  ( ,jebel ,mokattam1 b ,i reg>d  
!m z probably repres5t+ a  consid]ably  
l[] horizon4    ,footnote #dc3 ,!       
nummulites f ! ,birket el ,qurn s]ies h 
n yet be5 critically exam9$4 ,!re appe> 
to be sev]al species  pres5t1 includ+   
,n4 ,beaumonti1 ,n4 ,sub-,beaumonti1 ,n4
 ,fraasi  & ,n4 ,s*we9fur?i4 ,9 !       
,zeuglodon ,valley1 #ab kilom4 ,w4,s4,w4
 (  ,g> el ,gehannem1 occasional        
individuals ( ,n4 gizeh5sis occur 9  !  
basal b$s4 ,z !re appe>s to be "s d\bt  
:e!r ! f\r  small] nummulites m5tion$   
above are specifically di/9ct we %all  n
 attempt to discrim9ate too closely 9 ! 
pres5t report4    ,footnote #dd3        
,,s*we9fur?1 op4 cit4 p4 #aci4          
,footnote #de3 ,,zittel1                
,palontographica ,n4,f4,x4 #c 7,,xxx7   
,die  ,v]/e9]ung5 d] t]tire ,s*i*t5 von 
d] we/li*5 ,insel im  ,birket el ,qurun 
,see1 von ,pr(4 ,k>l ,may]-,eym>4       
,footnote #df3 ,x mu/ be m5tion$ "h1    

h[ev]1 t m rec5tly  ,may]-,eym> speaks  
7,n\velles ,re*]*es sur le ,liguri5 et  
le  ,tongri5 d'gypte1 ,bull4 ,in/4      
gypt41 ,april1 #ahid1 p4 #baf7  ( !     
,mokattam b$s above ,qasr el ,sagha1 "s 
#ajj metres high] 9  ! s]ies1 z         
,p>isian1 b does n expla9 ^! two        
conflict+  det]m9ations4 ,x seems q     
c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ^! isl&  b$s are (      
,p>isian age1 & n ,b>tonian z /at$ by   
him4    ,footnote #dg3 ,luc9a ph>aonis1 
,bell41 7,l4 pomum1 ,may4 ,eym4 n       
,duj>d97 see ,opp5heim1 ,zur ,k5ntnis   
altt]tir] ,faun5 9  gypt51              
,palaeontographica1 ,bd4 ,,xxx1 ,,iii1  
p4 #abd4    ,footnote #dh3 ,,dames1 ,ub]
 e9e ,t]tire ,wirbel?i] ,fauna von  d]  
we/li*5 ,insel des ,birket el ,qurun 9  
,fayum 7gypt571  ,sitzungsb]4 ,akad4    
,wiss5s*41 ,b]l91 #ahhc4    ,footnote   
#di3 ,ub] ,zeuglodont5 aus gypt5 und die
 ,beziehung5 d]  ,ar*ocet5 zu d5 brig5  
,cetacean1 ,palontologis*e ,abh&lung5   
von ,w4 ,dames und ,kays]1 ,i4 ,v4 #e1  
,j5a1 #ahid4    ,footnote #ej3 ,we      

propose to ref] to ?is species z ,z4    
,isis4 ,see  ,geol4 ,mag4 ,no4 #dgi1    
,dec4 ,v1 ,vol ,i1 ,no4 ,v1 ,may #aijd1 
p4 #bad4    ,footnote #ea3 ,see also1   
,/rom] von ,rei*5ba*1 ,zeuglodont5-,re/e
  aus dem ob]5 ,mitteleocn des ,fayum1  
,bay] ,akad4 ,wiss5s*4 ,bd4  ,,xxxii1   
#aijb1 pp4 #cda-ceb4    ,footnote #eb3  
,,erne/ ,,von ,,/rom]4 ,zeuglodon-re/e  
aus dem ob]5  ,mitteleocn des ,fayum1   
,beitrge zur ,palontologie und ,geologie
  ,o/]rei*-,ung>ns und des ,ori5ts4 ,b& 
,,xv4 ,heft ,,ii & ,,iii1 p4 #hb4       
,also ,e9iges b] ,bau und ,/ellung d]   
,zeuglodont51 ,zeits*r4 d4  ,deuts*4    
geolog4 ,gesells*4 ,jahr4 #aijc4        
,comp>e ,fraas ,neue ,zeuglodont5 aus   
dem ,unt]5 ,mitteleocn vom  ,mokattam   
bei ,cairo1 ,geol4 u4 ,palont4 ,abh&4   
,neue ,folge ,b& ,,vi  ,heft #c4 ,j5a   
#aijd4    ,footnote #ec3 ,z ! fossils   
occurr+ 9 ^! b$s _h be5 collect$  &     
describ$ by ,s*we9fur?1 ,dames1 &       
,may]-,eym>1 ! writ]  did n sp5d fur!r  
"t on ! isl& ?an 0 necess>y =  correlat+

 ! b$s ) 8 classification4    ,footnote 
#ed3 ,cossmann has rec5tly describ$ "s  
,middle ,eoc5e %ells  collect$ f ! same 
locality1 ne> ,dim1 9 a publication     
entitl$  ,additions  la ,faune          
,nummulitique d'gypte1 le ,caire1 #aija4
    ,footnote #ee3 ,t4 ph>aonica1       
,cossmann4 ,a new species2 app>5tly  ?is
 is ! =m quot$ by ,blanck5horn &        
,may]-,eym> z  ,t4 angulata4 ,accord+ to
 ,cossmann1 h[ev]1 ,t4 ph>aonica  diff]s
 f ,t4 angulata 9 sev]al p>ticul>s1     
especially 9  be+ m ?ickset4            
,footnote #ef3 ,blanck5horn1 ?9k+ t ! b$
 capp+ ! isl&  ( ,geziret el ,qorn is   
id5tical ) t =m+ ! pla9 ar\nd  & to !   
nor? ( ,dim1 has1 9 a section rec5tly   
publi%$  7,neues zur ,geol4 u4 ,palnt4  
gypt5s1 ,,iv4 ,das ,pliocn1 etc41       
,zeits*r4 d4 ,deuts*4 geol4 ,gesells*41 
,jahrg4 #aija1 ,taf4 ,,xiv1 fig4 #b71   
ins]t$ a numb] ( faults lett+ ! b$s d[n 
cont9ually to !  s\?4 ,! b$s h[ev] are n
 id5tical1 & no faults occur4           
,footnote #eg3 ,?is block 0 f> too l>ge 

to transport by camel1  b x may be      
feasible to effect its removal to ,cairo
 by c>t :5  opportunity (f]s4           
,footnote #eh3 ,,s*we9fur?1 op4 cit4 p4 
#aci4    ,footnote #ei3 ,a ru9 discov]$ 
by ,s*we9fur? 9 #ahhf & h5ce  (t5 spok5 
( z 8,s*we9fur?'s ,temple40 ,no?+ c]ta9 
is  kn[n z to its age or =m] use1 b we  
may inf] f its situation  j beyond !    
limits ( ! high-level lacu/r9e clays1 t 
x 0  built & inhabit$ only :ile ,lake   
,mris /ood at its highe/ level4         
,footnote #fj3 ,see ,,opp5heim1 op4 cit4
 p4 #aje4    ,footnote #fa3 ,details ( a
 section ( ! l[] b$s ( ?is gr\p  ne> !  
end ( ! lake h already be5 giv5 on p4   
#dd4    ,footnote #fb3 ,z might be      
expect$1 v]tebrate rema9s occur *iefly  
9 ! s&y & clayey b$s4 ,skeletons ( m>9e 
animals su* z  ,zeuglodon & ,eosir5 may1
 h[ev]1 be frequ5tly obs]v$ emb$d$  9 ! 
h>d int]calat$ lime/ones4 ,lime/one     
cranial-ca/s ( ^!  animals are ?us      
sometimes f\nd1 & "o ( ^! has already   
be5  figur$ & describ$ 7,elliot ,smi?1  

,! ,bra9 ( ! ,ar*oceti1  ,proce$+s      
,royal ,society1 ,vol4 #ga1 pp4         
#cbb-cca4 ,"s mo/ beautifully  =m$ ca/s 
f "o ( ! lime/one b$s 7 ev5tually       
det]m9$  by ,&rews to be ca/s ( ! air   
passages ( crocodile skulls4            
,footnote #fc3 ,s*we9fur? appe>s to h   
be5 ! fir/ to exam9e  ^! b$s4           
,footnote #fd3 ,"o w\ld imag9e t !re mu/
 h be5 a  consid]able am\nt ( f]rug9\s  
matt] 9 ! wat] at ! "t  ( deposition ( !
 ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 ! prevail+ col\rs (
  ! deposits be+ r$ & yell[4            
,footnote #fe3 ,may]-,eym> appe>s to    
believe ! depression (  ! ,faym is !    
result ( ! volcanic activity :i* produc$
  ^! basalt fl[s4 ,he says 7op4 cit4    
,n\velles re*]*es1 etc41  p4 #bah47     
8,or1 de cette ext5sion extraord9aire du
 phnomne  volcanique dans l'oue/ du gr& 
ds]t1 il e/1 en premi] lieu1  p]mis de  
conclure que c'e/ p> suite de son action
 excavante  qu'a eu lieu l'effondrem5t  
rempli de nos j\rs1 en p>tie p>  le lac 
de ,fayum40    ,p]sonally1 we _c see !  

slighte/ evid5ce 9 support (  ?is4 ,:]e 
! basalt occurs z a h>d b& x usually    
causes /eep  cliffs z at ,widan el      
,f>as1 ow+ to its protect+ ! und]ly+    
b$s f d5udation4 ,to ! we/1 9 ,jebel el 
,qatrani1 its ?ickness  & h>dness       
det]m9e ! "* & /eepness ( ! esc>pm5t    
bel[4    ,footnote #ff3 ,pebble b&s are 
occasionally met ) 9 ! co>s]  s&/ones ( 
! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies1 & x w\ld seem t f 
!m are d]iv$ ! pebbles ( qu>tz & fl9t   
:i* s inv>iably  /rew ! des]t-surface to
 ! nor? to beyond ! latitude (  ,cairo4 
,^? fl9ts on ! surface are l>gely brok5 
up & flak$  by *anges ( temp]ature1 b %[
 comp>atively little %ap+ by  bl[n s&2 !
 :ite qu>tz pebbles on ! o!r h&1 :ile   
seldom  or nev] brok5 or flak$1 are     
inv>iably m or less facett$1  frequ5tly 
into typical 8dreikant]0 or             
pyramid-pebbles2 bel[  ! surface bo?    
v>ieties are p]fectly wat]-r\nd$4       
,footnote #fg3 ,_m ( ! fossils m5tion$ 9
 ?is pr(ile 7 only  discov]$ aft] long  
se>*1 & _h to be ins]t$ 9 ! measur$     

section aft]w>ds4 ,_! position !re=e is 
only approximate1  z individual b$s c\ld
 n always be correlat$ at ! diff]5t     
po9ts :]e fossils 7 collect$4           
,footnote #fh3 ,x is n int5d$ to convey 
! impression t rema9s  ( all ^!         
v]tebrates 7 f\nd at ! po9t :]e ! actual
  l9e ( section runs4 ,z a matt] ( fact 
at t p>ticul> po9t  only ,paloma/odon   
rema9s 7 obs]v$1 :ile mo/ ( ! o!rs  7   
obta9$ "s di/ance fur!r we/4 ,rema9s (  
,mri!rium1  probably id5tical ) ,m4     
,lyonsi1 ( ! ,qasr el ,sagha s]ies1  9 !
 %ape ( a beautifully-pres]v$ & almo/   
complete skull1  associat$ )            
,paloma/odon & ,ars9oi!rium 9 ^! same   
b$s1 ,i only discov]$ 9 ,janu>y #aijc1  
at a po9t ne>ly due nor? (  ! we/]n end 
( ! ,birket el ,qurn4 ,a prelim9>y      
description (  ?is skull has be5 publi%$
 by ,&rews1 ,fur!r ,notes on ! ,mammals 
( ! ,eoc5e ( ,egypt2 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 
,v4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no ,,iii4 ,m>* #aijd1    
pp4 #aji-aae4    ,footnote #fi3 ,,&rews 
& ,,beadnell1 ,a prelim9>y notice ( a   

,l&  ,tortoise f ! ,upp] ,eoc5e ( !     
,faym1 ,egypt1 ,p4,w4,m4 report1        
,cairo1 #aijc4    ,footnote #gj3 ,9     
addition to ^? describ$ f ! ,survey &   
,briti% ,museum collections1 "s         
additional species are describ$  by von 
,re9a* f von ,/rom]'s collection3       
,s*ildkrt5re/e  aus dem gyptis*5 ,t]tir2
 ,sond]abdruck aus d5 ,abh&lung5  d]    
,s5de5b]gis*5 natur=s*5d5 ,gesells*aft1 
,b& ,,xxix1  ,heft ,i4 ,frankfurt #aijc4
    ,footnote #ga3 ,op4 cit41 p4        
#dee-def4 ,vide ,blanck5horn1 ,zur      
,k5tniss  d] ,ssswass]ablag4 u4         
,mollusk5 ,syri5s4 ,palaeontographica   
,,xliv1  #ahig1 ,s4 #ig1 t4 #h1 f4 #b4  
,footnote #gb3 ,m rec5tly ,blanck5horn 9
 a pap] entitl$  ,na*trge zur ,k5tniss  
des ,palaeog5s 9 gypt51 7,c5tralbl4 f4  
,m9]alogie *4 #aija1 ,no4 #i1 p4 #bgb7  
has nam$ ?is species ,lani/es           
b>tonianus 7spell$ b>ton9us 9 same      
pap]74    ,footnote #gc3 ,x has #d-e    
flat spiral r[s1 ! upp]mo/ ( :i* on  !  
la/ :orls is (t5 m /rongly develop$ b n 

keel-%ap$  z 9 ,m4 muricata4 ,!re are   
longitud9al ribs to ! numb] (  #h-ab ov]
 ! :orls2 ! l>ge/ example 0 #i          
millimetres long &  _h #h :orls4        
,footnote #gd3 ,see ,note #b1 p4 #dc4   
,footnote #ge3 ,! majority belong to !  
g5us ,nicolia1 b m  r>ely specim5s1     
app>5tly ref]able to a species ( conif]1
  are met )4    ,footnote #gf3 ,! l>ge/ 
trunk notic$ _h a l5g? ( #bh metres4    
,footnote #gg3 ,,zittel1 ,beitr4 z4     
,geol4 u4 ,palaeont4 d4 ,libys*4  ,w/e1 
,i ,?4 7,palaeontographica1 ,vol4 ,,xxx7
 p4 ,,xciii4    ,footnote #gh3          
,,may]-,,eym>1 ,quelques mots sur les   
n\velles  re*]*es relatives au ,liguri5 
et au ,tongri5 d',egypte4 ,bull4 de     
l',in/4 ,egypt4 7#c7 ,n4 #d1 #ahid4     
,may]-,eym>'s division ( ! l[]  b$s into
 ,liguri5 infrieur & ,liguri5 suprieur  
is h>dly  conv9c+1 especially z no      
fossils 7 f\nd by t obs]v]4 ,!          
correlation ( /rata 9 widely sep>ate    
areas by _! li?ological  simil>ity is at
 lea/ op5 to "q1 especially ) b$s (  ?is

 type1 :i* c inde$ be exactly mat*$ aga9
 & aga9 at  _m levels 9 ! same v]tical  
succession4 ,8 diagnosis ( !  b$s       
imm$iately bel[ ! basalt z ,tongri5     
infrieur1 re/s1  h[ev]1 on firm] gr\nds1
 z ?is basalt %eet c be trac$ across  ! 
des]t to beyond ! latitude ( ,cairo1 &  
is probably ev]y:]e  ( approximately !  
same age4    ,footnote #gi3 ,,s*we9fur?1
 op4 cit41 ,reise 9 das ,depression     
,gebiet1  etc47 p4 #da4    ,footnote    
#hj3 ,,beadnell1 ,! ,cretace\s ,region (
 ,abu ,roa%1 ne> !  ,pyramids ( ,giza4  
,geol4 ,survey1 ,egypt1 ,report #aijj1  
,pt4 ,,ii4 #aijb1  p4 #dd4    ,footnote 
#ha3 ,zur ,geologie ,aegypt51 ,pt4 ,,ii1
 p4 #deh2 ,die  ,ges*i*te des           
,nil-,/roms 9 d] ,t]tir und             
,qu>trp]iode1 etc41  ,z4 d4 ,ges4 f4    
,erdk4 ,z4 ,b]l91 #aijb1 ,tafel #aj4    
,footnote #hb3 ,,beadnell1 ,dc\v]tes    
,gologiques ,rc5tes  dans la ,valle du  
,nil et le ,ds]t ,liby51 ,compte r5du4  
,v,i,i,ie  ,congr4 ,gol4 ,int]nat4      
#aijj1 ,p>is1 #aija1 p4 ,blank2 also    

,,ball  & ,,beadnell1 ,bah>ia ,oasis3   
,its ,topography & ,geology2 ,survey    
,dep>t4 ,p4,w4,m4 report4 ,cairo4 #aijc1
 pp4 #fa-fb4    ,footnote #hc3          
,correlations betwe5 ,t]ti>y ,mammal    
,horizons ( ,europe  & ,am]ica1 ,annals 
,n4,y4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 ,no4 
#a1 ,july #ba1  #aijj1 pp4 #a-gb4       
,footnote #hd3 ,comp>e ,afrika als      
,ent/ehungsz5trum fr ,sugeti]e1  ,/rom]1
 ,zeits*r4 d4 ,deuts*4 ,geolog4         
,gesells*4 ,jahr #aijc4 ,also           
,betra*tung5 b] die ,geologis*e ges*i*te
 ,ae?iopi5s1  d4 d41 #aija4    ,footnote
 #he3 ,! locality has be5 briefly exam9$
 by ,dr4  ,blanck5horn & m rec5tly by   
,mr4 ,t4 ,b>ron1 :o 0 accompani$  by    
,dr4 ,&rews2 ! writ] sp5t a few days    
collect+ 9 !  neighb\rhood 9 ,april1    
#aijc4    ,footnote #hf3 ,approximately 
#aj metres above sea-level4    ,footnote
 #hg3 ,x is wor? record+ "h t a s+le    
worn specim5  ( ,*icoreus angulif]us1   
,lam41 0 f\nd on ! des]t surface  9 !   
neighb\rhood ( ! bone-pits & at ab\t !  

level ( !  highe/ gravel t]race4 ,?is   
det]m9ation 0 made by ,bull5 ,newton1   
:o in=ms me ! species occurs 9 ! m>9e   
,plei/oc5e bea*  deposits ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 
,footnote #hh3 ,,beadnell1 ,dc\v]tes    
,gologiques ,rc5tes  dans la ,valle du  
,nil et le ,ds]t ,liby51 ,v,i,i,ie      
,congrs  ,gol4 ,int]n4 #aijj4 ,p>is     
#aija1 pp4 #be-bg4    ,footnote #hi3    
,d\bt has rec5tly be5 ?r[n by ,am]ican  
writ]s on  ! possibility ( l>ge or ?ick 
deposits ( gypsum be+ =m$ by            
precipitation4 ,see ,r4 ,s4 ,,%]w94     
,notes on ! !ories ( orig9 (  gypsum    
deposits1 ,kansas ,acad4 ,sci4 ,trans4  
,vol4 #ah4 #aijc1 pp4 #he-hh4           
,footnote #ij3 ,egyptian ,irrigation    
7#ahii71 p4 #cb4    ,footnote #ia3 ,!   
s\!rn limits ( ! site 7brok5 l9e7 are   
tak5  f ! maps ( ,br[n & ,willcocks4    
,footnote #ib3 ,! mammalian rema9s      
collect$ f ^! lacu/r9e  clays h n yet   
be5 sy/ematically exam9$4 ,dr4 ,&rews   
has  h[ev] det]m9$ "s ( ! g5]a pres5t3  
see1 8,notes on an  ,exp$ition to !     

,fayum1 ,egypt01 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,no4 #dgj 
,aug4 #aijc1  pp4 #ccg-cdc4    ,footnote
 #ic3 ,,m>t5s ,subfossile               
,ssswass]-,con*yli5 aus dem  ,fajum1    
,sitz4 ,b]4 ,gesell4 natur=s*4 ,freunde1
 ,b]l9 ,july1 #ahgi1  ,s4 #ajj u4 ,oct4 
#ahhf1 ,s4 #abf4    ,footnote #id3      
,geologie gypt5s1 pp4 #ddd-ddf4         
,footnote #ie3 ,= figures & details ( ^!
 fl9ts see a pap] by  ! writ]1 ,neoli?ic
 ,fl9t ,implem5ts f ! ,nor!rn ,des]t ( !
  ,faym1 ,egypt1 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4    
,,iv41 ,vol4 ,x41 pp4 #ec-ei1 ,febr4    
#aijc4    ,footnote #if3 ,mmoires sur   
les pr9cipaux travaux d'utilit  publique
 excuts en ,egypte depuis la plus haute 
antiquit  jusqu' nos j\rs4 #ahgb-ahgc1  
,*ap4 ,,ii4    ,footnote #ig3 ,op4 cit4 
pp4 #bh-dj4    ,footnote #ih3 8,!       
disposition ( ! ,lake ,mris10 9 !       
,ar*ological ,report ( ! ,egypt ,explor4
 ,fund #ahih-ahii1 ,pt4 ,i4 ,d41  pp4   
#ac-ae4    ,footnote #ii3 ,,blanck5horn1
 op4 cit4 p4 #dfc4                      
,,app5dix ,i4                  ,,previ\s

 ,,lit]ature ,,relat+ ,,to ,,! ,,fayum4 
99 99 99 99 99        ,,&rews ,c4       
,w4--,ext9ct ,v]tebrates f ,egypt4 ,p>ts
 ,i1 ,,ii1    ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 
,,iv4 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,sept4 & ,oct1      
#aija4        ,notes on an ,exp$ition to
 ! ,faym1 ,egypt1 ) description      (  
"s new ,mammals1 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4    
,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,aug4 #aijc4      
,fur!r ,notes on ! ,mammals ( ! ,eoc5e (
 ,egypt1 7,pts ,i1      ,,ii1 ,,iii71   
,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,v4 ,vol4 ,i4 
,m>*1 ,april1 ,may1 #aijd4        ,a    
note on ! occurr5ce ( a ,ratite ,bird 9 
! ,upp] ,eoc5e      b$s ( ! ,faym1      
,egypt4 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 ,london1    
#aijd1 ,vol4 ,i4      ,,&rews1 ,c4 ,w4  
,,& ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4--,a         
prelim9>y note    on ,"s ,new ,mammals f
 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,egypt1 ,survey       
,dept41    ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4    
,a prelim9>y ,notice ( a ,l& ,tortoise f
 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e      ( ! ,faym1 ,egypt4 
,survey ,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1      
#aijc4      ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4         

,l4--,dc\v]tes ,gologiques    ,rc5tes   
dans la ,valle du ,nil et le ,ds]t      
,liby51    ,,viii4 ,congr4 ,gol4 ,int]n4
 #aijj4 ,p>is1 #aija4        ,! ,faym   
,depression2 a ,prelim9>y ,notice ( !   
,geology      ( a di/rict 9 ,egypt      
conta9+ a new ,palaeog5e ,v]tebrate     
,fauna4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4  
,,viii ,no4 #dej1 ,dec4 #aija4        ,a
 prelim9>y note on ,ars9oi!rium         
,zitteli1 ,beadn41      ,survey ,dept41 
,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4               
,neoli?ic ,fl9t ,implem5ts f ! ,nor!rn  
,des]t ( !      ,faym1 ,egypt4 ,geol4   
,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,febr4      
#aijc4      ,,blanck5horn1              
,m4--,geologie gypt5s 7,pts ,i-,,iv7    
,zeits*4 ,deuts*4 ,geol4 ,gesell4 ,b]l91
 #aija4        ,neue                    
geologis*-/ratigraphis*e ,beoba*tung5 9 
gypt51      ,s4-,b]4 d4 ma?4-phys4      
,classe d4 ,kgl4 bay]4 ,ac4 d4 ,wiss4   
,bd4      ,,xxxii1 #aijb1 ,heft ,,iii1  
,mn*51 #aijb4        ,die ,ges*i*te des 
,nil-,/roms 9 d] ,t]tir-      und ,qu>tr

 p]iode1 s[ie des ,palaeoli?is*5 ,m5s*5 
9      gypt54 ,z4 d4 ,ges4 f4 ,erdk4 ,z4
 ,b]l91 #aijb4        ,na*trge zur      
,k5ntniss des ,palaeog5s 9 gypt51       
,c5tralb4 f4 ,m9]al4 ,no4 #i4 #aijc4    
,,br[n1 ,,sir ,,hanbury4--,! ,faym &    
,lake ,mris1 ,london1 #ahib4            
,,cossmann1 ,m4--,additions a la ,faune 
,nummulitique d',egypte1    ,cairo1     
#aija4      ,,dames1 ,w4--,ub] e9e      
,t]tire ,wirbel?i] ,fauna    von d]     
we/li*5 ,insel des ,birket-el-,qurn 9   
,faym    7gypt574 ,sitzungsb]4 ,akad4   
,wiss5s*41 ,b]l91 #ahhc4      ,,dames1  
,w4 ,,& ,,kays]4--,ub] ,zeuglodont5 aus 
gypt5    und die ,beziehung5 d]         
,ar*ocet5 zu d5 brig5    ,cetacean4     
,palaeont4 ,abh&4 ,i4 ,v4 #e1 ,j5a1     
#ahid4      ,,editor ,,geological       
,,magaz9e4--,a ,new ,egyptian ,mammal   
7,ars9oi!rium7 f ! ,faym4 ,geol4 ,mag4  
,n4,s41 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,x1    ,dec4  
#aijc4      ,,elliot ,,smi?1 ,g4--,!    
,bra9 ( ! ,ar*aeoceti1    ,proc4 ,roy4  
,soc4 ,vol4 #ga4      ,,fl9d]s          

,,petrie4--,haw>a1 ,biahmu & ,ars91     
,egypt4 ,explor4 ,fund ,reports1 #ahhi4 
,,g>/91 ,,sir ,,william4--,report ^u !  
,bas9 ( ! ,upp] ,nile1    ,cairo1 #aijd4
      ,,gr5fell ,,& ,,hunt4--,!         
disposition ( ! ,lake ,mris1            
,ar*aeol4 ,rep4 ,egypt4 ,exploration    
,fund4 #ahih-ii4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,d4           
,,li]nur1 ,,we/]n ,,& ,,scott           
,,moncrieff1 ,,sir ,,col94--,notes on ! 
,wadi ,rayan1 ,cairo1 #ahhh4            
,,l9ant ,,de ,,bellefonds4--,mmoires sur
 les travaux publics en    ,egypte1     
,p>is1 #ahgc4        ,mmoires sur les   
pr9cipaux travaux d'utilit publique     
excuts en ,egypte depuis la plus haute  
antiquit jusqu' nos      j\rs1          
#ahgb-ahgc4      ,,lucas1 ,a4--,a       
prelim9>y ,inve/igation ( ! ,soil &     
,wat]    ( ! ,faym ,prov9ce1 ,survey    
,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4       
,,m>t5s4 ,e4 ,v4--,subfossile           
,ssswass]-,con*yli5 aus dem    ,fajum4  
,sitz4 ,b]4 ,gesell4 naturf4 ,freunde1  
,b]l91 #ahgi4                           

,,may]-,,eym>1--,l'oasis de ,moleh1     
,bull4 de l',in/4 ,egypt41    ,april1   
#ahib4        ,n\velles ,re*]*es sur le 
,liguri5 et le ,tongri5      d',egypte1 
,bull4 de l',in/it4 ,egypt41 ,april1    
#ahid4        ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 d] t]tir5
 ,s*i*t5 von d]      we/li*5 ,insel im  
,birket-el-,qurn ,see1 ,paleontogr4     
,n4,f4,x41 #c1      7,,xxx74            
,,opp5heim1 ,p4--,zur ,k5ntnis altt]tir]
 ,faun5 9 ,aegypt51    7,i74            
,palaeontographica1 ,dreif4 ,b&4 ,,iii1 
,public ,works ,m9i/ry    reports1      
#ahhi-aijd4 ,abt4 ,er/4 ,lief4 ,/uttg>t1
 #aijc4      ,,re9a*1                   
,v4--,s*ildkrt5re/e aus dem gyptis*5    
,t]tir4    ,sond]abd4 aus d4 ,abh&4 d4  
,s5ck5b4 natur4 ,gesells*4 ,,xxix1 ,i4  
,frankfurt1 #aijc4      ,,s*we9fur?1    
,g4--,reise 9 das ,depressionsgebiet im 
,umkreise    des ,fajm1 ,zeits*r4 ,ges4 
,f4 ,erdkunde1 ,b]l91 #ahhf4        ,a  
note on ! ,salt 9 ! ,wadi ,rayan1       
,app5dix ,,ii1 ,egyptian                
,irrigation 7,willcocks71 ,london1      

#ahii4      ,,scott ,,moncrieff1 ,,sir  
,,col9--,note on ! ,wadi ,raian         
,project1    ,cairo1 #ahhi4             
,,/rom]1 ,e4--,zeuglodont5-,re/e aus dem
 ob]5 ,mitteleocn    des ,faym1 ,bay]4  
,akad4 ,wiss5s*41 ,bd4 ,,xxxii1 #aijb4  
,e9iges b] ,bau und ,/ellung d]         
,zeuglodont51      ,zeits*r4 d4 ,deuts*4
 ,geolog4 ,gesells*4 #aijc4 ,see also   
,beitrge      zur ,palont4 u4 ,geol4    
,o/]r4-,ung>9s u4 des ,ori5ts4 ,b& ,,xv4
      ,heft ,,ii & ,,iii4        ,afrika
 als ,ent/ehungsz5trum fr ,sugeti]e1    
,zeits*r4 d4 ,deuts*4 ,geolog4          
,gesells*4 #aijc4      ,,:iteh\se1      
,,cope4--,bull4 ( ! ,am]ican            
,geographical ,society1    #ahhb4       
,,willcocks1 ,,sir ,,william4--,p]5nial 
,irrigation & ,flood    ,protection 9   
,egypt1 ,p4,w4,m4 ,report1 ,cairo1      
#ahid4        ,egyptian ,irrigation1    
#bnd ,edit4 ,london1 #ahii4        ,!   
,assuan ,res]voir & ,lake ,mris1        
,london1 #aijd4      ,,zittel1 ,k4      
,v4--,geologie u4 ,palaeontologie d]    

,libys*5 ,w/e1    ,cassel1 #ahhc4       
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,app5dix ,,ii4                         
99 99 99 99 99      ,paul ,opp5heim has 
rec5tly publi%$#ajj a description ( a   
l>ge  collection ( ,egyptian            
lamellibran*s2 ! foll[+ is a li/ ( !    
species ( :i* examples h be5 collect$ 9 
! ,faym 7includ+  ,rayan & ,mola74      
,figur$ species are m>k$ by an a/]isk4  
99,gryphaea ph>aonum1 ,opp5h            
,l[] ,mokattam4      99,o/rea           
7,gryphaea7 ,:iteh\sei1 ,may4-,eym4     
99,o4               ,edmond/onei1       
,may-,eym4               99,o4          
hi/ris1 ,may4-,eym4                     
99,gryphaea 787 arabica1 ,may4-,eym4    
99,o4 elegans1 ,de%4                    
,upp] 7& int]m$iate7                    
,mokattam4      99,o4 ,fraasi1          
,may4-,eym4                        ,l[] 
& ,upp] ,mokattam4      99,o4 ,/anleyi1 
,may4-,eym4                             
99,o4 ,cailliaudi1 ,may4-,eym4          
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,o4 ramosa1     

,may4-,eym4                        ,l[] 
,mokattam4      99,o4 plicata1 ,sol4    
,mokattam ,s]ies4       ,o4 paucico/ata1
 ,opp5h4                    ,l[]        
,mokattam4       ,o4 ,reili1 ,fraas4    
,l[] & ,upp] ,mokattam4       ,o4       
,s*we9fur?i1 ,may4-,eym4                
,upp] ,mokattam4       ,o4 ,sick5b]g]i1 
,may4-,eym4                             
99,o4 ,hessi1 ,may4-,eym4               
,l[] & ,upp] ,mokattam4      99,o4      
q]uniana1 ,may4-,eym4                   
,mokattam ,s]ies4       ,o4 gigantica1  
,sol4                          ,upp] 7& 
int]m$iate7                             
,mokattam4      99,o4 7,alectryonia7    
,clot-,beyi1 ,bell4           ,l[] &    
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,o4 7          7
 ,bell>di1 ,may4-,eym4        ,l[]      
,mokattam4       ,o4 7          7       
semipect9ata1 ,s*afh4                   
99,o4 7          7 ,mehemeti1           
,may4-,eym4                    ,c>olia  
placunoides1 ,cantra9e              ,l[]
 & ,upp] ,mokattam4      99,pect5       

moleh5sis1 ,may4-,eym4                  
,l[] ,mokattam4      99,p4 ,cailliaudi1 
,opp5h4                      ,l[] &     
,upp] ,mokattam4       ,plicatula       
pyramid>um1 ,fraas                ,upp] 
,mokattam4       ,p4 ,bell>di1          
,may4-,eym4                             
,mokattam ,s]ies4       ,p4 indig5a1    
,may4-,eym4                             
99,p4 ,s*we9fur?i1 ,opp5h4              
,l[] ,mokattam4      99,spondylus       
gyptiacus1 ,newton                      
,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,s4 ,r\aulti1  
d',ar*4                        ,l[] &   
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,s4 p]horridus1 
,opp5h4                     ,l[]        
,mokattam4      99,vulsella crispata1   
,fis*]                  ,l[] & ,upp]    
,mokattam4      99,v4 lign>ia1 ,opp5h4  
,l[] ,mokattam4      99,v4 moleh5sis1   
,opp5h4                                 
99,v4 *ami=mis1 ,may4-,eym4             
99,nucula ,mridis1 ,opp5h4              
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,cucullaea      
dimeh5sis1 ,opp5h4                      

99,arca subplanico/ata1 ,opp5h4         
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,a4 ,te?yis1    
,opp5h4                                 
,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,a4 uni=mis1   
,opp5h4                       ,upp]     
,mokattam4      99,a4 t5uifilosa1       
,cossm4                      ,mokattam  
,s]ies4      99,pectunculus             
juxtad5tatus1 ,cossm4           ,upp]   
,mokattam4      99,p4 aegyptiacus1      
,opp5h4                                 
99,c>dita ,viquesneli1 d',ar*4          
,l[] & ,upp] ,mokattam4       ,c4       
acutico/ata1 ,lk4                       
99,c4 mokattam5sis1 ,opp5h4             
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,c4 fayum5sis1  
,opp5h4                                 
99,c4 fidelis1 ,may4-,eym4              
99,c4 ,mosis1 ,opp5h4                   
,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,crassatella   
fajum5sis1 ,opp5h4             ,upp]    
,mokattam4       ,c4 ,junk]i1           
,may4-,eym4                             
,c4 puellula1 ,may4-,eym4               
99,c4 trigonata1 ,lk4                   

,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,luc9a         
ph>aonis1 ,bell4                        
,l[] & ,upp] ,mokattam4      99,l4 ,rai1
 ,opp5h4                                
,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,l4 poly!le1   
,opp5h4                                 
99,l4 calli/e1 ,opp5h4                  
99,l4 gibbosula1 ,lk4                   
,upp] ,mokattam4      99,l4 fajum5sis1  
,opp5h4                                 
99,l4 s9uosa1 ,bell4                    
99,diplodonta cycloidea1 ,bell4         
,mokattam ,s]ies4      99,d4 inflata1   
,bell4                                  
99,luc9a 7,diplodonta7 corpusculum1     
,opp5h4               99,c>dium         
des]torum1 ,opp5h4                 ,upp]
 ,mokattam4      99,c4 ,s*we9fur?i1     
,may4-,eym4                             
99,cyr5a 7,corbicula7 ,blanck5horni1    
,opp5h4              99,cypr9a          
aegyptiaca1 ,opp5h4                     
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #ajj3 ,zur
 ,k5ntnis altt]tir] ,faun5 9 gypt54 ,pt4
 ,i4  ,d] ,bivalv51 er/] ,teil4         

,palaeontographica ,bd4 ,,xxx1 ,,iii4   
,,index                                 
99 99 99 99 99                          
,a      ,ab%awai--#cj-ca1 #hd4      ,abu
 ,roa% z an isl&--#fe4                  
,acacias--#be4      ,adaptive radiation 
( ,hyracoidea1 c4--#fi4      ,aegean    
plateau1 ,giraffes1 c4 (--#fi4          
,ae!ria--#ha4      ,africa ) ,europe or 
,asia1 ,connection (--#fh4      ,africa 
z c5tre ( mammalian radiation--#fh1 #hh4
      ,agami9--#hd4      ,agassizia     
gibb]ulus--#eb4      ,a9 ,w>%at el      
,melh--#bj4      ,air passages (        
crocodile skulls1 z ca/s--#eb4          
,ak]a aff4 /riatella--#ea-eb4           
,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi--#ce1 #ej-eb4  
,all5--#fi4      ,alluvial              
deposits--#bc1 #be-bf1 #bi1 #ci1 #gi-ha4
      ,alluvial soil1 ,composition      
(--#aa-ab4      ,alluvium cov]+ ea/]n   
area--#be1 #cj4      ,am5emhat ,i--#ac1 
#bf1 #hb1 #hd4      ,ampull9a           
hybrida--#ea4      ,ampull>ia--#ea1 #ha4
      ,analyses ( wat]--#ac1 #bb4       

,analysis ( fossil bones--#ed4          
,analysis ( ox bone--#ee4      ,ancodus 
,gorr+ei--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4      ,&rews1   
,dr4 ,c4 ,w4--#aj1 #cd1 #eb1 #ei1 #fh1  
#ga1 #hj1 #hg4      ,anisa/]            
gibb]ulus--#eb4                         
,anomaluridae--#fh-fi4                  
,anoplo!res--#fi4      ,antelopes--#fi4 
,aquatic animals--#ee4      ,aquatic    
hyracoid--#fi4      ,arca--#ec1 #fj4    
,arca ,edw>dsi--#dc4      ,arca         
subplanico/ata--#ij4      ,arca         
t5uifilosa--#ij4      ,arca te?yis--#eb1
 #ij4      ,arca uni=mis--#ij4          
,ar*oceti--#dd1 #eb1 #hg4      ,ard     
v>ks--#fi4      ,area ( ,birket el      
,qurn--#ac4      ,area ( cultivat$      
l&--#aa4      ,area ( des]t 9           
depression--#ae4      ,area ( ,faym     
depression--#i-aa4      ,area ( ,faym   
fre%wat] lake--#hj4      ,ar5ace\s      
deposits--#hd4      ,ar5ace\s s$im5ts ( 
,nile--#ha4      ,argillace\s           
s&/one--#cf1 #ci1 #df4      ,argillace\s
 s&s--#eg4      ,armadillos--#fi4       

,ars9--#ac1 #hc1 #hg4                   
,ars9oi!rium--#aj1 #ed1 #ei1 #fb1       
#fh-hg4      ,ars9oi!rium ,&rewsii--#cd1
 #gj4      ,ars9oi!rium ,zitteli--#aj1  
#cd1 #ei1 #gj1 #hg4      ,assuan        
,res]voir--#hh4      ,a/>te--#df4       
,a/rohelia similis--#ce1 #dc1 #ea4      
,b      ,baboons--#fi4                  
,bac*ias--#hc-hd4      ,bah>ia          
,oasis--#i1 #be1 #bg1 #bi1 #ff1 #fg4    
,bahr ,belama--#ah4      ,bahr          
,yusef--#aa-ab1 #ag-ah1 #be-bf1 #hc-hd4 
,balanus--#ci1 #dg4      ,ball1 ,dr4    
,j4--#ff4      ,b>batia--#fj4           
,b>ri]s betwe5 ,nile lakes--#gi4        
,b>ron1 ,t4--#ga4      ,b>ton           
,clay--#eh4      ,b>tonian b$s--#dc1    
#ec-gj4      ,b>y!rium--#aj1 #ea1 #fh4  
,b>y!rium grave--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4         
,basalt %eet--#ae1 #bh1 #cd1 #ec1       
#ef-fd1 #ge-gf 7d]iv$74      ,bas9s     
receiv+ dra9age--#be1 #gi4      ,bats1  
,rav9e ( ,el--#bi-cj1 #cg1 #ci-dj4      
,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4--#aj1 #cc1       
#ei-fj1 #fe-ff1 #gh1 #hg4      ,beau*amp

 s&s--#eh4      ,beekite--#fa4          
,biahmu--#ac1 #hc-hd1 #hg4      ,birds1 
,fossil--#gj-hg4      ,birket el        
,qurn--#aa1 #ab-ad1 #af1 #bc-be1 #bg-bh1
 #cj-cb1 #cf1 #dj-da1    #dc-dg1 #di-ej1
 #ef1 #fa1 #gb-gc1 #hj-ha1 #hc-hd1      
#hg-hh4      ,birket el ,qurun          
,s*i*t5--#fc4      ,birket el ,qurn     
,s]ies--#bc1 #bg1 #ce1 #da-ej1 #eb1 #fd1
 #gb-gd4      ,bi?ynia aff4             
,boissi]i--#ha4      ,blan=d--#fi-gj4   
,blanck5horn1 ,dr4 ,m4--#cj-ca1 #cd1    
#ci1 #de1 #eh1 #fj1 #fd1 #ff1 #ga1 #ha1 
#hg4      ,blue ,nile fauna--#ha4       
,bone horizons  pits--#eb1 #ed1 #fb1    
#gf4      ,bor+s1 ,artesian--#ah4       
,bor+s at ,m$9et el ,faym--#bi-cj1 #da4 
,bor+s by molluscs--#bc1 #cd1 #dc1      
#ga-gc1 #gh4      ,bor+s by %ells at two
 levels--#gb-gc4      ,borsonia--#cg4   
,b\ld]s 9 gravel t]races--#gf4          
,bracki%-wat] %ells--#hd4      ,bra9 (  
ar*oceti--#eb1 #hg4      ,bran*es want+ 
on fossil trees--#fd-fe4      ,briti%   
,museum collections--#ei4      ,br[n    

coal--#ec4      ,br[n1 ,sir             
,hanbury--#aa1 #ac1 #hj1 #hc1 #hg4      
,bryozoa--#cf1 #eb4      ,bubalis--#hj4 
,bugti b$s 7,s9d7--#gj4      ,bull5     
,newton1 ,r4--#gf4                      
,c      ,cairo--#i1 #af1 #bh1 #di1 #ef1 
#fd1 #fe4      ,calc>e\s b$s 9          
lake--#ab4      ,calc>e\s grits--#cc1   
#ec1 #ef-fc4      ,calc>e\s s&/one--#be1
 #db-dc1 #de1 #ej-ea1 #ei1 #gb4         
,calcite--#ea1 #eh-ei1 #fa-fb4          
,callianassa--#cf1 #eh4      ,calyptra  
tro*i=mis--#dc4      ,canals--#aa-ab1   
#ah-ai1 #bi1 #gc4      ,canals1 ,mud    
br\ght to lake by--#ad4                 
,canis--#hj4      ,cape ,rayan--#ba1    
#cf4      ,c>bonace\s clays--#df4       
,c>bonace\s matt]--#db1 #ea4            
,c>dita--#ch-ci1 #dg4      ,c>dita      
acutico/ata--#ij4      ,c>dita aff4     
c>9ata--#eb4      ,c>dita aff4          
depressa--#eb4      ,c>dita             
gyptiaca--#df4      ,c>dita             
fidelis--#ij4      ,c>dita              
fajum5sis--#ce1 #df1 #ej-eb1 #ij4       

,c>dita cf4 gracilis & depressa--#eb4   
,c>dita mokattam5sis--#ij4      ,c>dita 
,mosis--#ij4      ,c>dita aff4          
trip>tico/ata--#eb4      ,c>dita        
,viquesneli--#ce1 #de-df1 #ij4          
,c>dium--#ei4      ,c>dium              
des]torum--#ij4      ,c>dium            
,s*we9fur?i--#ce1 #dc-dd1 #ej-ea1 #ij4  
,c>olia--#cf-ci1 #dh1 #ej1 #eb4         
,c>olia ,b$s--#cc1 #dh-ec1 #gd 7roll$   
blocks74      ,c>olia                   
placunoides--#ce-cf1 #ch-ci1 #de-di1    
#ea-eb1 #gc1 #hi4      ,cassid>ia--#ea4 
,cassid>ia nilotica--#ea4               
,cassid>ia aff4 nodosa--#ea4      ,ca/s 
( crocodilian skull air passages--#eb4  
,ca/s ( %ells--#ci1 #dd1 #ea1 #ei1 #fc4 
,cav]n\s lime/one--#cg4                 
,cele/9e--#dh4      ,cellul> wea!r+ (   
s&/one--#df4      ,c5tral ,african "* ( 
,faym %ells--#fj4      ,c5tral ,area (  
,faym--#bd-be4      ,c5tres ( indep5d5t 
evolution--#fi4      ,c]i?ium--#ci1     
#df-dg1 #ec1 #eg-eh4      ,c]i?ium      
crispum--#eh4      ,c]i?ium             

fodicatum--#cg4      ,c]i?ium           
p]ditum--#eh4      ,c]i?ium             
ti>ella--#eh4      ,cetacea--#i1 #dc-dd1
 #dg1 #di1 #hg4      ,*alc$ony--#fa4    
,*alky lime/ones--#dj4      ,*>coal1    
,natural--#ea1 #ec4                     
,*elonians--#cd1 #dd1 #ed1 #fb4         
,*]t1 ,tabul>--#fa-fb4      ,*]ty       
lime/ones--#eg1 #ei1 #fa4      ,*icoreus
 angulif]us--#gf4      ,claudius        
,ptolemy--#hc4      ,clavelli!s         
longvus--#ce1 #de-df4      ,clays--#ab1 
#ae1 #ah1 #bj1 #bb-be1 #bh-cj1 #cc-ec1  
#ee-ei1 #fa-fb1 #gd-gf1    #hj1 #hb4    
,clays1 ,v>iegat$--#fb4      ,clayey    
m>ls--#cg1 #ec1 #fb4      ,clayey       
s&s--#bi1 #cf-cg1 #db1 #eh4      ,clayey
 s&/ones--#cf1 #ej1 #eg1 #fb4           
,clayey %ales--#gg4      ,cleopatra     
piro?i--#ha4      ,cleopatra piro?i v>4 
unic>9ata--#ha4      ,cleopatra         
bulimoides--#ha1 #hd4      ,cliffs--#ab1
 #ad-ae1 #bj-bd1 #bg1 #cb1 #cf1 #dj-da1 
#de-df1 #dh-ej1 #ec1    #ef1 #gc-gd1    
#hd-he4      ,climate1 ,v>iations 9     

,egyptian--#ha4      ,coal1 ,?9 seam    
(--#ec4      ,coa/-l9e ( old            
cont95t--#ed4      ,colossi at          
,biahmu--#hd4      ,concretions--#ce-cf1
 #ch-dj1 #db-df1 #ej1 #gb4              
,concretion>y s&s--#eh4                 
,concretion>y s&/ones--#ce1 #df1 #di1   
#ea1 #ee-ef1 #fb4      ,concretion>y    
wea!r+--#db1 #df4                       
,conglom]ate--#be1 #gd-gf1 #gh4         
,conical hill ne> ,wadi ,mula--#cf4     
,conif]\s fossil trees--#fc4            
,con/ancy ( b$s ov] wide areas--#cc4    
,cont95tal l& 9 ,oligoc5e times--#fd4   
,cont9uance ( ,oligoc5e cont95tal       
conditions--#ed4      ,cope             
,:iteh\se--#af-ag4                      
,coprolites--#ej-ea1 #fb4               
,corals--#cf-cg1 #dd1 #df1 #ea1 #ec4    
,corbicula ,blanck5horni--#ij4          
,corbicula flum9alis1 v>4               
consobr9a--#ha1 #hd4      ,corbula--#dj4
      ,corbula aff4 pixidicula--#ce1    
#ci1 #dc4      ,cossmann1 ,m4--#de1 #eh1
 #hg4      ,cossmannella gyptiaca--#ej4 

,cranial ca/s 9 lime/one--#eb4          
,crassatella fajum5sis--#ij4            
,crassatella ,junk]i--#ij4              
,crassatella puellula--#ij4             
,crassatella trigonata--#ij4            
,crassatelli!s--#ej4                    
,creodonts--#gj4      ,crocodiles--#i1  
#cd1 #ea-ee1 #ei1 #fb1 #hj4             
,crocodilus--#ei1 #gj4      ,cry/als (  
qu>tz1 calcite c4--#fa4      ,cuculla   
aff4 crassat9a--#eb4      ,cuculla      
dimeh5sis--#hi4      ,cultivat$ l&s--#i1
 #aa-ad1 #ci-db1 #gc1 #hc-hd4           
,curr5ts 9 ,birket el ,qurn--#ad4       
,curr5ts 9 anci5t riv]--#eb1 #ed1       
#fe-ff1 #ga-gh1 #hj4      ,curr5t-b$d$  
clays1 s&s1 c4--#ea1 #ef4               
,cuvi]--#fi4      ,cypr9a gyptiaca--#ij4
      ,cyr5a ,blanck5horni--#ij4        
,cy!rea--#df4      ,cy!rea              
,newboldi--#dc4                         
,d      ,dakhla ,oasis--#bi4      ,dam  
at ,el ,lahn--#hd4      ,dames--#i1     
#dc-dd1 #di1 #hg4      ,damp climate    
=m]ly 9 ,egypt--#ha4      ,da%r1        

,pyramids (--#bh4                       
,dasypodidae--#fi4      ,defile ( ,wadi 
,mula--#i1 #ba4      ,delta1            
,anci5t--#ed1 #ff-fg4                   
,d5talium--#df4      ,d5udation1        
,effects (--#ci1 #gc1 #ge1 #gg1 #hd4    
,deposition ( s$im5ts 9 ,eoc5e          
times--#ed4      ,depression1 ,orig9 (  
,faym--#ae1 #bi1 #cc1 #gi4              
,depression cut out 9 s$im5t>y          
rocks--#cc4      ,depression1 ,faym--#i1
 #aa-af1 #bj1 #bd1 #bf-cj1 #cc-cf1 #ci1 
#ec1 #fa1    #fd1 #fg1 #ga1 #ge1 #gg-ha1
 #hd-he1 #hg-hh4      ,depression1      
,mog>a--#ga4      ,depression1 ,wadi    
,rayan c4--#ag-ai1 #ba-bd4              
,depressions ( ,libyan ,des]t--#af1 #bi1
 #fg4      ,dep? ( ,birket et           
,qurn--#ac4      ,d] el ,b$a--#fd4      
,d] el ,galamn--#ba1 #cf4      ,des]t   
conditions--#gc1 #gi4      ,des]t       
region--#aa1 #ad1 #af1 #bf-bh4          
,de%asleh--#ag4      ,dictyopleurus     
,haimi--#eb4      ,diluvial             
deposits--#ha4      ,dim--#ac1 #ca1 #de1

 #ej1 #gb4      ,d9o!res--#fi4          
,diodorus ,siculus--#ac1 #hb4           
,dionysias--#hc-hd4      ,dip1          
,importance & nature (--#ae1 #cc1       
#dh-di1 #ee1 #eg1 #fd4      ,diplodonta 
corpusculum--#ij4      ,diplodonta      
cycloidea--#ij4      ,diplodonta        
inflata--#ij4      ,dip-slopes ( c5tral 
area c41 ( ,faym--#bd1 #be1 #bg1 #ej4   
,disconnection ( ,nile ,valley &        
,faym--#hj4      ,dormice--#fi4         
,d[n?r[ ( faults--#cb1 #ej4             
,dra9age bas9s--#aa1 #ac1 #bc1 #be4     
,dra9s--#ab4      ,dreikant]--#ef4      
,druses ( calcite--#fb4                 
,dugongs--#ec4      ,dunes--#ag1 #ba-bc1
 #bf-bg1 #hd-he4      ,dunes1 ,slope    
(--#bf4      ,dunes1 ,/raight-l9$ "*    
(--#bf1 #he4                            
,e      ,e>?-pill>s--#df4      ,e>?y    
lime/one--#df4      ,e*9ids--#cf-cg1    
#ci4      ,e*9olampas ,cram]i--#ce1 #ej4
      ,ed5tata--#fi4      ,edwa--#hb-hc4
      ,egyptian irrigation--#hh4        
,elephants1 ,e>ly--#fh4                 

,elephas--#hj4      ,el-,gayat1         
village--#bj4      ,elliot ,smi?1       
,dr4--#eb1 #hg4      ,elwat             
,hialla--#bh1 #ee-ef1 #ge-gf4           
,emigration ( ,african animals--#fh4    
,eoc5e sea1 ,ext5sion (--#ff4           
,eosir5--#aj1 #eb4      ,eosir5         
libyca--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4      ,eremopezus 
libycus--#cd1 #gj4      ,erosion by     
,nile--#gi1 #hj4      ,erosion1         
,sup]ficial--#he4      ,esc>pm5ts--#ae1 
#ba1 #bf-bh1 #ca-cb1 #de1 #di1 #eb1     
#ef-eh1 #fj-fa1 #ge-gg4      ,esc>pm5ts 
det]m9$ by fractures--#cb4      ,es*>a  
,duvali--#cg4      ,e/u>9e conditions ( 
upp] b$s--#ec1 #ee4      ,e?iopian      
faunal region--#fh-fi4      ,e?iopian   
region c5tre ( indep5d5t                
evolution--#fi-gj4      ,euhem]ia--#hd4 
,euspatangus ,blanck5horni--#cf4        
,euspatangus cair5sis--#eb4             
,euspatangus =mosus--#cf4               
,evaporation ( late ,plioc5e            
lake--#gh-gi4      ,ev5-to$             
rum9ants--#fh4      ,exogyra            

,fraasi--#ce1 #ej-eb4                   
,f      ,facett$ qu>tz pebbles--#ef4    
,false-b$d+--#ej-ea1 #ee-eg1 #fb1 #gc4  
,f>afra ,oasis--#bi4      ,fault+ &     
fold+--#af1 #bi-cb1 #di-ej4      ,fault 
ne> ,qasr el ,sagha--#cb4      ,fault1  
,nile ,valley--#ae4      ,faym b$s      
%all[] wat] ?an ^? ( ,mokattam--#da4    
,faym1 ,causes ( orig9 (--#ae1 #bi1 #cc4
      ,f]rug9\s b&s--#ea-eb1 #eh4       
,f]rug9\s clays--#ea4      ,f]rug9\s    
grits--#bg1 #eh1 #fb1 #ff-fg4           
,f]rug9\s s&--#ed4      ,f]rug9\s       
s&/one--#df1 #ej1 #eb1 #eg4             
,fe%n--#aa4      ,fibr\s gypsum--#eb4   
,ficula tric>9ata--#dc4      ,filhol1   
,m4--#fi4      ,fiord1 ,nile            
,valley--#gh-gi4      ,fi% rema9s--#i1  
#ce1 #ci-dj1 #db-dd1 #df-dg1 #ej-eb1    
#ei1 #gj1 #gg1 #gj4                     
,fi%-scales--#ci-dj1 #db1 #dd1 #gg4     
,fi%-sp9es--#ci1 #ej4                   
,fi%-tee?--#ci1 #dc1 #ej4               
,fi%-v]tebrae--#ej4      ,flat-topp$    
hills--#bj4      ,fl9d]s1 ,petrie--#ac1 

#hg4      ,fl9t implem5ts--#fa1 #hb4    
,fl9t pebbles--#bj1 #ej1 #ef1 #fb-fc1   
#gc1 #ge-gf4      ,fl9t1                
,tabul>--#fa-fb4      ,floods--#bf1 #ed1
 #fg1 #hb4      ,flood protection--#hh4 
,flood-read+s--#hj4      ,floor (       
depression--#ci4      ,fluviatile       
conditions ( deposition--#eh4           
,fluviatile s&s1 etc4--#fj1 #ff-fg4     
,fluviom>9e conditions (                
deposition--#cc4      ,fluviom>9e       
,s]ies--#i1 #bg1 #cd1 #ec-fe1 #gd-gf4   
,fly+ rod5ts--#fh-fi4      ,fold ne>    
,qasr el ,sagha--#cb1 #di4              
,=am9if]al b$s--#cc1 #ce-ci1 #da-db1    
#de-dh1 #gd4      ,=mation ( ,faym      
lake--#bf1 #gh-hj1 #hb-hd4              
,fractures det]m9+ esc>pm5ts--#cb4      
,fre%ness ( ,birket el ,qurn--#ad1 #bd4 
,fre%wat] conditions ( deposition--#eh4 
,fre%wat] lake be=e ,mris--#gi-hj4      
,fre%wat] lakes ( ,nile ,valley--#gi4   
,fre%wat] %ells--#ah1 #dd1 #dg1 #fj1    
#hj-ha1 #hh4      ,fre%wat] %ells abs5t 
9 ,wadi ,rayan--#bc4      ,fusus--#cg1  

#dh4                                    
,g      ,g> el ,gehannem--#i1 #bc1 #be1 
#bg1 #cb1 #cf-ci1 #da1 #df-dg1 #ej1 #eb1
 #fa1    #fg1 #gc1 #hj1 #he4      ,g> el
 ,hamra--#bg1 #fg4      ,g>at el        
,e%--#cb1 #fa1 #gf1 #he4      ,g>at el  
,f>as--#bh1 #ej1 #ge4      ,g>at el     
,g9di--#bh1 #ge4      ,g>/91 ,sir       
,w4--#ah1 #hg4      ,ga/]opods--#cf1    
#eh4      ,g5iohyus--#aj4      ,g5iohyus
 fayum5sis--#cd1 #gj4      ,g5iohyus    
major--#cd1 #gj4      ,g5iohyus         
mirus--#cd1 #gj4      ,geodes--#fa4     
,geological ,succession 9 ,wadi         
,rayan--#bb4      ,geological           
,magaz9e--#aj1 #hg4      ,geology (     
,faym--#cc1 #ij4      ,geziret el       
,qorn--#ca1 #dj1 #dc-de1 #fc4           
,gh>aq1 ,bahr el--#aa1 #ag4      ,gh>aq 
,bas9--#aa1 #ac1 #ai-bj1 #bc-bf1 #ca1   
#cf1 #he4      ,gh>aq1 ,wadi--#ag4      
,gh>dag bu%es--#bb4      ,gh>t el       
,khana%at--#bf-bg1 #he4                 
,gigantophis--#aj4      ,gigantophis    
,g>/9i--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4                  

,giraffes--#fi4      ,gisortia--#cg4    
,gisortia gigantea--#ea4      ,giza1    
,pyramids (--#bh1 #fc4      ,glacial    
p]iod--#fi1 #ha4      ,glauconitic      
clays--#cf1 #ci1 #ej4      ,glauconitic 
m>l--#ci4      ,glauconitic s&s--#cg4   
,globul> concretions--#ce1 #db-df1 #gb4 
,glycim]is pulv9atus--#eb4      ,goat   
rema9s--#hj4      ,gonia/ra coc*ii--#dc4
      ,goni>a elegans--#ea4             
,goniopora--#ea4      ,grass 9          
des]t--#bg4      ,gravels--#ae1 #be-bg1 
#cb1 #cd1 #dj-db1 #gc-gh4               
,gravel-capp$ hills--#ge4      ,gravel  
t]races--#be1 #cd1 #db1 #ga1 #gc-hj4    
,gravelly gypsum--#gg4      ,gr5fell1   
,mr4--#hc-hd1 #hg4      ,grits--#bg1    
#cc-cd1 #eg-fc1 #ff4      ,groov+ due to
 bl[n s&--#he4      ,grypha             
arabica--#hi4      ,grypha              
,edmon/onei--#hi4      ,grypha          
hi/ris--#hi4      ,grypha ph>aonum--#hi4
      ,grypha ,:iteh\sei--#hi4          
,gauges1 ,nile--#hj4      ,gypse\s      
clays--#cc1 #ce1 #cg-dj1 #dd-df1 #ea-eb4

      ,gypse\s deposits--#ga1 #ge1 #gg1 
#gi4      ,gypse\s lime/one--#ej1 #eb4  
,gypse\s m>ls--#cg-ci4      ,gypse\s    
pla9--#bj-ba4      ,gypse\s s&s--#ci4   
,gypse\s %ale--#db1 #dh4                
,gypsum--#ah1 #bj1 #cf-cg1 #ci1 #db1    
#ej-eb1 #fa-fb1 #gg-gi4      ,gypsum (  
,p>is1 ,animals 9--#fi4                 
,h      ,hade ( fault--#cb4      ,h>am  
el ,bahrl1 ,el--#cf4      ,h>poons1     
,fl9t--#fa4      ,haw>a--#aa1 #ac1 #bf1 
#hg4      ,headon ,hill b$s--#eh4       
,height ( ,plioc5e t]races--#gf4        
,helia/ra ac]vul>ia--#dc4      ,helia/ra
 ,ellisi--#ac4      ,helia/ra           
flatt]si--#dc4      ,heluan--#af4       
,h]odotus--#ac1 #hb1 #hd4               
,high-level lake--#hc4                  
,hippopotamus--#fi1 #hj4      ,hi/oric  
epo*--#ha-he4      ,horns ( ,birket el  
,qurn due to silice\s b&s--#da4         
,hunt1 ,mr4--#hc-hd1 #hg4      ,huxley1 
,pr(4--#fh4      ,hydract9ia--#ch4      
,hydract9ia cornuta--#ce4      ,hydrobia
 /agnalis--#hd4      ,hyracoidea--#fi4  

,i      ,ice p]iods--#fi1 #ha4          
,immigration ( animals into             
,africa--#fh4      ,implem5ts1          
,fl9t--#fa4      ,india1 ,fauna (--#fi4 
,indo-,malayan faunal region--#fi4      
,invasion ( ,africa by ,european        
animals--#fi4      ,invasion ( ,europe  
by ,african animals--#fi4               
,iron/one--#ej1 #eh-ei4      ,irrigation
 works1 ,result (--#ab1 #hh4            
,isoc>dia cypr9oides--#dc4              
,j      ,j]boas--#fi4                   
,jo9t-planes--#cf4                      
,k      ,kafr el ,ayat--#aa4            
,k>anis--#hd4      ,kays]--#hg4         
,k5sa1 ,el--#gb4      ,kh>ga            
,oasis--#bi4      ,knobs along l9e (    
fault--#cb4      ,kom ,ombo--#ha4       
,korif1 ,wadi--#ba4                     
,l      ,lacu/r9e deposits--#ab-ac1 #cd1
 #dj1 #dd1 #dg1 #di1 #ff-fg1 #gi-hj1    
#hb4      ,lahn--#aa1 #bf1 #ci1 #hd4    
,lahn ,pyramid--#bh1 #db4      ,lake    
deposits--#fg1 #gi4      ,lake 9        
,faym--#aa-ad1 #gh-hj4      ,lake       

,mris--#ab-ac1 #ah-ai1 #bc-bd1 #dc1 #di1
 #gi-hj1 #hb-hd1 #hg-hh4      ,lake1    
,nile ,valley--#gh-gi4      ,lake ( !   
,horns--#ab4      ,lamellibran*s--#ab1  
#eh-ei1 #hi4      ,lam9ation ( ar5ace\s 
deposits--#ff4      ,l&-animal          
rema9s--#eb-ed4      ,l&-areas1         
,anci5t--#fe-fg1 #ga4                   
,lani/es--#ec1 #eh1 #ha4      ,lani/es  
antiquus--#ea4      ,lani/es            
b>tonianus--#cd1 #fj4      ,lani/es     
c>9atus--#fj4      ,lava ,fl[s--#ae1    
#cc-cd1 #ec1 #ef-eh1 #fa-fb1 #ge4       
,leakage ?r\gh ridge ( ,wadi            
,rayan--#bc4      ,l$a--#ce1 #ci4       
,l5ticul> s&-b$s--#ee4                  
,leptodon--#fi4      ,levels made f     
,rayan to ,nile ,valley--#ag4           
,libyan ,des]t1 ,area1 etc41 (--#ae1    
#hh4      ,li]nur ,bey--#ag-ah1 #hg4    
,li]nur1 ,wadi--#ag1 #ai4               
,lignite--#ea1 #ec4      ,ligurian      
b$s--#dc1 #fd1 #hh4      ,limb-bones (  
v]tebrates--#eb4      ,lime/ones--#ab1  
#ae-af1 #bj-be1 #bi1 #cc-db1 #de-ec1    

#ef-eg1 #ei-fb1    #fe-ff1 #gc-gg4      
,limna mris--#ha4      ,limna           
natal5sis--#ha4      ,limna             
palu/ris--#ha4      ,l9ant de           
,bellefonds--#af1 #hc1 #hh4             
,l9?ia--#eb4      ,little ,rayan--#bb4  
,littoral deposits--#ff4                
,loam--#ci4      ,loboc>c9us            
,paul9o-,wurtemb]gicus--#cf4      ,l[]  
,headon ,hill b$s--#eh4      ,l[]       
,oligoc5e--#ec-gj4      ,lucas1 ,a4--#i1
 #ad1 #bb1 #ed1 #hh4      ,luc9a--#cf1  
#ci1 #de-df1 #dh1 #ec1 #eh4      ,luc9a 
calli/e--#ij4      ,luc9a               
consobr9a--#cg4      ,luc9a             
,defrancei--#cg4      ,luc9a            
fajum5sis--#ij4      ,luc9a             
=tisiana--#ea4      ,luc9a              
gibbosula--#ij4      ,luc9a             
globulosa--#cg4      ,luc9a             
ph>aonis--#ce1 #dc1 #de1 #ea1 #ij4      
,luc9a poly!le--#ij4      ,luc9a        
pomum--#dc4      ,luc9a ,rai--#ij4      
,luc9a s9uosa--#ij4      ,luc9a cf4     
tabulata--#dc4      ,lulu1 ,wadi--#ag4  

,lydekk]1 ,r4--#gj4                     
,m      ,macrosol5 ,holl[aysi--#ce1 #df1
 #ea4      ,mactra compressa--#dc4      
,madagasc> & ,africa1 ,connection       
(--#fh4      ,mammalia1 ,fossil--#cd-ce1
 #ee1 #fb1 #ch-gj1 #hj1 #hg4            
,mammill>y wea!r+--#eg4      ,m&ibles ( 
v]tebrates--#eb4      ,m>ls--#ah1       
#bi-cj1 #cc-ce1 #cg1 #ci-db1 #di-ej1    
#ec1 #ee1 #fa-fb1 #gc-gd1 #gf4          
,m>ls 9 lake--#ab4      ,m>ls1          
,salif]\s--#ai4      ,m>ly              
clays--#bi-cj1 #eg1 #fb4      ,m>ly     
gypsum--#gg4      ,m>ly lime/ones--#cc1 
#ce1 #cg-ci1 #dg-dh1 #fb1 #gg4      ,m>%
 l&--#bf1 #dj1 #hb4      ,m>t5s1 ,pr(4  
von4--#fj1 #ha1 #hh4      ,masaigega1   
,wadi--#ai4      ,mas>et-,abusia--#dj4  
,ma/odons--#fh-fi4      ,may]-,eym>1    
,k4--#cg1 #dc1 #di1 #ec1 #fd1 #hh4      
,mazana--#ag1 #ai4      ,m$9et el       
,faym--#bi-cj1 #da1 #hb-hc4             
,m$it]ranean fauna--#ha4                
,m$um--#dj1 #gg 7pyramid74              
,megalohyrax--#aj4      ,megalohyrax    

eocnus--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4      ,megalohyrax
 m9or--#cd1 #gj4      ,melania--#ec1    
#eg-fj4      ,melania muricata--#fj4    
,melania cf4 ,ny/i--#fj1 #fd4           
,melania tub]culata--#ha1 #hd4          
,melanopsis--#ha4      ,melanopsis      
fauna--#ha4      ,melong5a nilotica1 v>4
 bic>9ata--#ea4      ,m5esi ,ali1       
,ezba--#ag4      ,m]etrix nitidula--#ea4
      ,m]etrix p>isi5sis--#ea4          
,mesalia--#ea4      ,mesalia            
fasciata--#ce1 #ea4      ,mesalia       
oxycrepis--#ea4      ,middle            
,eoc5e--#i-aj1 #ae1 #cb-cc1 #ce-ec1     
#ed-ee1 #eg-eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd1          
#ff-fg1 #gj1 #hj4      ,migrations (    
mammalia--#fi-gj4      ,mioc5e b$s      
sugge/$--#fd4      ,mioc5e1 ,l[]--#cd1  
#ed1 #gj4      ,mioc5e1 ,l[]1 ( ,ori5t  
,european 9 type--#gj4      ,mioc5e     
/rata1 ,abs5ce (--#cd1 #ga4             
,mitra--#cf4      ,mriophis             
,s*we9fur?i--#ej1 #gj4      ,mris 7see  
,lake ,mris74      ,mri!rium--#aj1 #eb1 
#ei1 #fh1 #gj4      ,mri!rium           

gracilis--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4      ,mri!rium 
,lyonsi--#cd1 #ce1 #ea1 #ei1 #gj4       
,mri!rium trigodon--#cd-gj4             
,mog>a--#cd1 #ed1 #ga1 #he4             
,mokattam b$s1 ,l[]--#ce1 #hi-ij4       
,mokattam b$s1 ,upp]--#cc1 #da1 #di1    
#hi-ij4      ,mokattam b$s deep] wat]   
?an ,faym b$s--#da4      ,mokattam1     
,jebel--#ci1 #da1 #di4      ,mona/]y 9  
,wadi ,mula--#ba4      ,moncrieff1 ,sir 
,c4 ,s4--#af-ag1 #hg4                   
,monkeys--#fi4      ,monocl9al          
fold--#af4      ,monograph ( ,faym      
v]tebrates--#aj4      ,monotony (       
des]t--#bf4      ,mula1 ,wadi--#i1 #ad1 
#af-ag1 #bj-ba1 #ce-cg1 #hh-hi4         
,mutela--#ec1 #fj4      ,mytilus        
aff9is--#ea4                            
,n      ,natica--#df4      ,natica      
crassat9a--#fd4      ,natrn1 ,wadi--#bf1
 #bg1 #ed1 #he4      ,nautilus--#cf1    
#df1 #dh4      ,nawamis--#dj4           
,necrodasypus--#fi4      ,neoli?ic      
implem5ts--#hb1 #hg4      ,n]it9a       
nilotica--#ha1 #hd4      ,nezleh        

,canal--#ai4      ,nicolia--#fc4        
,nile deposit abs5t 9 ,wadi ,rayan--#bc4
      ,nile mud--#hj-hb4      ,nile     
,valley1 ,connection )--#aa1 #ac1       
#ag-ah1 #gi-hb4      ,nile ,valley1     
,hi/ory (--#gi1 #hg4      ,nile wat]s   
ent] depression--#bf1 #gi-hj1 #hb4      
,nilomet]--#hj4      ,nodul> b&s--#dd1  
#dg4      ,nodul> lime/ones--#dh4       
,nodules1 ,calc>e\s--#ci1 #fa4          
,nonion9a--#df4      ,nor!rn ,des]t     
,region--#i1 #bf-bh1 #hg4      ,nucula  
,mridis--#hi4      ,nucul>ia--#ce1 #ci4 
,nummulites--#cc1 #cf1 #ci1 #da1 #df-dh4
      ,nummulites ,beaumonti--#ce1 #da4 
,nummulites curvispira--#ce-cg4         
,nummulites ,fraasi--#ce1 #da-db4       
,nummulites gizeh5sis--#cc1 #ce-cg1 #ci1
 #da1 #dh4      ,nummulites gizeh5sis   
lime/ones--#cc1 #ce-cg1 #ci1 #da1 #dh4  
,nummulites ,s*we9fur?i--#da4           
,nummulites sub-,beaumonti--#da4        
,nummulitic lime/ones--#cf-ci1 #fe4     
,o      ,oases depressions--#fg4        
,oases1 ,orig9 (--#bi4      ,oasis1     

,p>va--#hc4      ,olde/ b$s 9           
,faym--#cc4      ,oligoc5e b$s--#cd1    
#ec1 #gj4      ,oligoc5e ( ,ori5t       
,european 9 type--#gj4      ,oliva--#df4
      ,op]cul9a--#cc1 #df1 #gd4         
,op]cul9a discoidea--#ce1 #da-db1 #dg1  
#gd4      ,op]cul9a-,nummulite          
,b$s--#ce1 #da-dh1 #gd4      ,opp5heim1 
,dr4 ,p4--#dc1 #ej1 #hh-hi4             
,ori5tal faunal region--#fi4      ,orig9
 ( ,faym1 ,causes (--#ae4      ,orig9al 
floor ( depression--#ci4      ,osborn1  
,pr(4 ,h4 ,f4--#fh1 #gj4                
,o/rea--#cf-ci1 #db1 #dd-df1 #dh-ej1    
#eb4      ,o/rea ,bell>di--#hi4         
,o/rea ,caillaudi--#hi4      ,o/rea     
,clot-,beyi--#ch1 #df1 #hi4      ,o/rea 
cucullata--#da1 #ga1 #gg4      ,o/rea   
digital9a--#dc4      ,o/rea             
,edmon/onei--#hi4      ,o/rea           
elegans--#ce1 #ea1 #hi4      ,o/rea     
flabellula--#ea4      ,o/rea            
,fraasi--#ch-ci1 #dg1 #hi4      ,o/rea  
gigantea--#dc4      ,o/rea              
gigantica--#hi4      ,o/rea             

,gumbeli--#cg4      ,o/rea ,hessi--#hi4 
,o/rea aff4 het]oclyta--#ea4      ,o/rea
 hi/ris--#hi4      ,o/rea               
longiro/ris--#dc4      ,o/rea           
,mehemeti--#hi4      ,o/rea             
paucico/ata--#hi4      ,o/rea           
plicata--#dc1 #hi4      ,o/rea          
producta--#dc4      ,o/rea              
q]uniana--#hi4      ,o/rea ramosa--#hi4 
,o/rea ,reili--#ce1 #ci1 #de-dg1 #ea-eb1
 #hi4      ,o/rea ,s*we9fur?i--#hi4     
,o/rea semipect9ata--#hi4      ,o/rea   
,sick5b]g]i--#hi4      ,o/rea           
,/anleyi--#hi4      ,o/rea              
,:iteh\sei--#hi4      ,oud>dia          
ovalis--#ci4      ,outlets1             
,subt]ranean1 to lake--#ad1 #bd4        
,outli]s--#ba1 #bh4      ,output ( wat] 
f spr+s--#bb4      ,oy/]s--#cf1 #ci1    
#db1 #dh4      ,oy/]-b$s--#cf1 #ej4     
,oy/]-lime/one--#eb4                    
,p      ,palog5e fre%wat] %ells--#fj4   
,palog5e v]tebrate fauna--#hg4          
,palontographica--#dc1 #fc1 #hh4        
,paloma/odon--#aj1 #ei1 #fh4            

,paloma/odon ,beadnelli--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 
,paloma/odon m9or--#cd1 #gj4            
,palms--#ba-bb4      ,palud9a--#ha4     
,pangol9s--#fi4      ,pap]-%ales--#cf1  
#ea4      ,p>is bas9--#eh4      ,p>isian
 b$s--#ah1 #ce-ec4      ,pass f ,mula to
 ,rayan--#ba4      ,pebble              
deposits--#ah1 #cj1 #ci-dj1 #ef1 #eh1   
#gf1 #gh4      ,pect5--#ci1 #db1 #df-dg4
      ,pect5 b5$ictus--#ga4      ,pect5 
,caillaudi--#hi4      ,pect5            
corneus--#cg4      ,pect5               
moleh5sis--#cg1 #eb1 #ei4      ,pect5   
sol>iolum--#eb4      ,pectunculus--#df4 
,pectunculus juxtad5tatus--#ij4         
,pectunculus gyptiacus--#ea1 #ij4       
,pectunculus pseudopulv9atus--#ce4      
,pectunculus pulv9atus--#eb4            
,pelom$usa progaleata--#gj4      ,pelvis
 ( ,ars9oi!rium--#ed4      ,p]=ate      
wea!r+ ( s&/one--#df4      ,p]meability 
( ,wadi ,rayan--#bd4      ,p]5nial      
irrigation 9 ,egypt--#hh4      ,ph>aonic
 prov9ce--#hd4      ,philot]a--#hd4     
,phiomia--#aj4      ,phiomia            

s]rid5s--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4      ,p9na--#ci1
 #dg4      ,pla9s--#ej1 #eb1 #ed1 #gg4  
,pla9 ( suba]ial d5udation--#ci4        
,planorbis ,ehr5b]gi--#hd4              
,planorbis m>g9atus v>4                 
subangulata--#hd4      ,planorbis       
subangulata--#ha4                       
,plant-rema9s--#db1 #ej-ea1 #ec1 #eg4   
,plateau b\nd+ ,faym to nor?--#bf4      
,plateaux--#ae1 #ba1 #be1 #bg-bh1 #cb1  
#fb4      ,plei/oc5e ,b$s--#cj1 #cd1    
#dg1 #ej1 #ed1 #ga1 #gi-ha1 #hd4        
,pleurotoma--#cg1 #dc1 #df1 #ec1 #eh4   
,pleurotoma +5s--#cd1 #eh4              
,plicatula ,bell>di--#ej-ea1 #hi4       
,plicatula indig5a--#hi4      ,plicatula
 polymorpha--#ce1 #de-df1 #ea4          
,plicatula pyramid>um--#hi4             
,plicatula ,s*we9fur?i--#hi4            
,pl9y--#hb4      ,plioc5e ,b$s--#cj1    
#cd1 #da-db1 #ed1 #fi1 #ga-gh4          
,plioc5e sea1 ,invasion (--#dc1 #ga1    
#gh4      ,pliohyrax--#fi4              
,podocnemis antiqua--#cg1 #gj4          
,podocnemis ,blanck5horni--#gj4         

,podocnemis ,blanck5horni v>4           
ovata--#gj4      ,podocnemis            
fajum5sis--#gj4      ,podocnemis        
,/rom]i--#ce1 #gj4      ,podocnemis     
,/rom]i v>4 major--#gj4      ,pools =m$ 
by ra9fall--#be4      ,pools produc$ by 
spr+s--#bj1 #bb4      ,potamides--#ec4  
,potamides scal>oides--#cd1 #eh1 #fd4   
,potamides ti>ella--#fd4      ,potamides
 tri/riatus--#cd4      ,prehi/oric      
epo*--#ha-hb4      ,prehi/oric          
lake--#bc1 #gi-hb4      ,pres]vation (  
fossil rema9s--#ee4                     
,proboscidea--#fh-fi4      ,promontories
 ( ,birket el ,qurn1 ,orig9 (--#da4     
,propri/is ,s*we9fur?i--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4  
,psephophorus eocnus--#ce1 #gj4         
,pseudodon--#eh1 #fj4                   
,pt]odon--#aj4      ,pt]odon            
africanus--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4      ,pt]odon 
macrogna?us--#cd1 #gj4                  
,pt]osph5us--#aj4      ,pt]osph5us      
,s*we9fur?i--#ce1 #ej-ea1 #gj4          
,ptolemaic lake--#hd4      ,ptolemaic   
p]iod--#hb4      ,ptolemy               

,philadelphus--#hd4      ,ptolemy !     
second--#hd4      ,pudd+/one ( anci5t   
riv]s--#bf1 #fg4      ,pyramid-l        
build+--#gd4      ,pyramid pebbles--#ef4
                                        
,q      ,qalam%a1 ,ezba--#bc1 #be-bf1   
#da-db1 #gg4      ,qasr el ,banat--#hd4 
,qasr el ,qurn--#hd4      ,qasr el      
,sagha--#i1 #ca-cb1 #dc1 #di1 #eb1      
#ef-eh1 #fj-fa4      ,qasr el ,sagha    
,s]ies--#bg1 #cb-cc1 #ce1 #ch1 #da1     
#dd-eg1 #fd-ff1 #ge1 #gg4      ,qatrani1
 ,jebel ,el--#bh1 #ee1 #fa1 #ge4        
,qatrani b$s--#cd1 #ec-gj4              
,q]unia--#ch4      ,q]unia cornuta--#ce1
 #de-df1 #dh1 #ea-eb4      ,qu>tz       
pebbles--#bj1 #ej1 #ef1 #fb-fc1 #gc1    
#ge4      ,qu>tz s&--#ee4               
,qu>tzite--#fb1 #gc-ge4                 
,r      ,radiation ( ,mammalia f        
,africa--#fi4      ,railway to          
,faym--#dj4      ,rais$ bea*es--#cd1    
#da4      ,ratite bird--#hg4      ,rav9e
 ,b$s--#bc1 #be1 #bi-cj1 #ce1 #cg-db1   
#df1 #gg4      ,rav9es--#ab1 #ai1 #bi1  

#cg1 #ci-dj4      ,rayan1               
,jebel--#cf-cg4      ,rayan1 ,geology ( 
,wadi--#bb-bc4      ,rayan1             
,little--#bb4      ,rayan ,s]ies--#bd1  
#be1 #cj1 #cc1 #ce-ci1 #da4      ,rayan1
 ,wadi--#i1 #aa1 #ad-bd1 #bg-bh1 #ca1   
#he1 #hg-hi4      ,rays--#gj4           
,rec5t ,b$s--#cd1 #ha-he4               
,reclamation ( ,faym lake--#hb-hd4      
,reconnection ( ,nile ,valley &         
,faym--#hj4      ,re$s--#bj4            
,regulator ( floods1 ,faym z--#hb4      
,re9a*1 ,von--#ei1 #hh4      ,reptiles1 
,fossil--#gj4      ,res]voir at         
,assuan--#hh4      ,res]voir propos$ 9  
,wadi ,rayan--#af-ai4      ,retreat (   
,eoc5e sea--#ed1 #ee1 #ff4              
,rh9oc]os bicornis--#fi4      ,ridge    
sep>at+ ,nile ,valley & ,faym--#be-bf1  
#ga1 #gc-gd1 #gi-hj4      ,ridge sep>at+
 ,rayan & ,gh>aq--#bc4      ,rimella    
rimosa--#ce1 #ea4      ,ripple-m>k$     
s&/one--#ea4      ,rise ( ,nile b$--#hj4
      ,riv]1 ,anci5t--#bg1 #eb-ee1      
#ff-fg1 #gi4      ,riv]-curr5ts--#fe1   

#ga1 #gh4      ,riv]-s&--#ee4           
,roads 9 des]t--#bg4      ,rocks =m+    
,libyan ,des]t--#ae4      ,roda--#ac1   
#ge1 #hj4      ,rod5ts1 ,fly+--#fh-fi4  
,rohlfs' ,exp$ition--#i1 #fc4           
,roll$ fossils--#gc4                    
,ro/ell>ia--#cg4      ,r\nd-topp$       
hill-ranges--#ge4      ,rubiat--#ci-db4 
,ru9s--#bj-bb1 #dh-ej1 #eb4             
,rum9ants1 ,ev5-to$--#fh-fi4            
,ru%es--#bj4                            
,s      ,sagha!rium--#aj4               
,sagha!rium antiquum--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4    
,sagha!rium magnum--#cd1 #gj4           
,sagha!rium m9us--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4        
,sal9es--#bj4      ,sal9ity ( lake--#ad4
      ,sal9ity ( wat] 9 ,wadi           
,rayan--#bd4      ,salt--#ah1 #cf1 #gg1 
#gi4      ,salt 9 ,wadis ,rayan         
,mula--#ai1 #bj1 #hh4      ,samos1 ,isl&
 (--#fi4      ,s&s--#ae1 #ah1 #ba1 #bi1 
#cc-cd1 #dj1 #db1 #dg1 #ej1 #ec1 #ee-ei1
 #fa-fb1    #ga1 #gd-gf1 #hj4      ,s&  
accumulations1 ,w9d-bl[n--#ab1 #bj-ba1  
#cb1 #cd1 #gc1 #hd-he4      ,s&1 c41    

deposit$ 9 ,birket el ,qurn--#ac1 #hj1  
#hd4      ,s&b]g] ,hills--#fb4          
,s&bla/ action--#gc4      ,s&-rock--#dd1
 #ej-ea1 #ef-fj1 #fb1 #gd4      ,s&s1   
,v>iegat$--#cd1 #ec1 #eg1 #ei4          
,s&/ones--#ae1 #bh1 #cb-cf1 #ch-ci1     
#db-fc1 #gb1 #gd-gg4      ,s&/one1      
,concretion>y--#ce1 #ch4                
,s&/one-grit--#ef1 #eh1 #fb-fc4         
,s&/ones1 ,mottl$--#fb4      ,s&/ones1  
,v>iegat$--#gf4      ,s&y clays--#ab1   
#ah1 #cf-cg1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #ej-eb1     
#ef-ei1 #fb4      ,s&y conglom]ate--#ah4
      ,s&y lime/ones--#be1 #ce-cf1      
#ch-ci1 #db1 #di-eb4      ,s&y m>l--#cg1
 #db1 #fb4      ,s&y %ale--#db4         
,saqra1 ,pyramid (--#bh4      ,saws1    
,fl9t--#fa4      ,scal5oh$ra (          
calcite--#ea4      ,s*iza/]--#cf4       
,s*iza/] aff4 africanus--#eb4           
,s*we9fur?1 ,dr4--#i1 #ad1 #ai1 #bd1    
#cd-cg1 #dc-dd1 #di1 #fd1 #ga-gb1       
#gg-hj1 #hh4      ,s*we9fur?'s          
,temple--#di4      ,scor+ due to bl[n   
s&--#he4      ,scott ,moncrieff1 ,sir   

,c4--#hh4      ,sculptur+ ( s&/one--#he4
      ,scutella b$s--#fd4      ,second  
,cat>act--#ha4      ,sections1          
,geological--#cf-db1 #dd-dg1 #ej-eb1    
#ef1 #eh-fb4      ,s$im5t deposit$ 9    
,faym--#bf1 #ed4      ,sla--#i1 #bf1    
#ci-dj1 #gc4      ,sept>ia--#df4        
,s]pula--#df4      ,s]s5a--#be1 #db1    
#ge4      ,%ales--#cf1 #db1 #dh4        
,%aly ,clays--#dd1 #dg1 #fb1 #gg4       
,%aly m>l--#ci-da1 #dd4      ,%>ks--#ci4
      ,%>ks' tee?--#df1 #ea4      ,%eep 
rema9s--#hj4      ,%ell-bor+s--#gb4     
,%ell-impressions--#ci-dj1 #db1 #dd1    
#ej4      ,%elly lime/one--#ch-ci1 #df1 
#ea-eb4      ,%elly s&s--#cf4           
,%elly s&/one--#df1 #ea4      ,%]w91 ,r4
 ,s4--#gh4      ,%ore-l9e1 ,anci5t--#gg4
      ,%ore-l9e1 ,movem5ts (--#fe4      
,%r9kage ( ,birket el ,qurn--#ac4       
,sidmant el ,jebel--#ag1 #cd1 #ga1 #gg4 
,silice\s b&s1 ,horns ( ,birket el ,qurn
 due to--#da4      ,silice\s b$s capp+  
hills--#fa4      ,silice\s              
lime/one--#cg1 #da4      ,silicifi$     

grits--#bg1 #fb1 #fg4      ,silicifi$   
s&/ones--#cb1 #eg4      ,silicifi$      
trees--#bg1 #cd1 #ea1 #ec1 #ee-ei1 #fa1 
#fc1 #fe1 #gc-ge4      ,silicifi$ trees1
 ,size (--#ec1 #fc4      ,silsila--#ha4 
,siluroid fi%--#ce1 #ea1 #gj1 #hj4      
,sir5ia--#ea4      ,sites1              
,excavat$--#hd4      ,skeleton-c>ry+    
curr5ts--#ec4      ,soil1 ,"* (--#aa-ab1
 #hh4      ,soil survey--#i4            
,sol>ium--#ea4      ,sol>ium aff4       
bi/riatum--#ea4      ,s\? ,africa z     
c5tre ( evolution--#fi4      ,s\?       
,am]ica1 ,migrations to--#fi4           
,spa?a--#ec1 #eh1 #fj1 #ha4      ,spa?a 
dahomey5sis--#fj4      ,spa?a           
,dr\eti--#fj4      ,spondylus           
gyptiacus--#eb1 #hi4      ,spondylus    
p]horridus--#hi4      ,spondylus        
,ruaulti--#hi4      ,spr+s 9 ,wadi      
,mula--#bj4      ,spr+s ( ,wadi         
,rayan--#bb4      ,/em-wea!r+ 9         
s&/one--#ef4      ,/ep-faults--#ca4     
,/]eog5ys ,crom]i--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4       
,/]eog5ys libyca--#gj4      ,/]eog5ys   

podocnemioides--#ce1 #gj4               
,/ock-"w--#ej4      ,/one ,age1         
,neoli?ic--#hb4      ,/rabo--#ac1 #hb4  
,/rata1 ,classification (--#cd4         
,/rike faults--#cb4      ,/rom] von     
,rei*5ba*1 ,e4--#dd1 #ei1 #fi1 #hh4     
,/rontium sulphate pseudomorphs--#dh4   
,suba]ial d5udation--#ci4               
,sub-fossil fauna ( ,faym--#ha4         
,successive faunal invasions1 ,!ory     
(--#fh4      ,sulphate ( lime--#gh4     
,sulphate ( /rontium pseudomorphs--#dh4 
,survey collections--#ei4      ,survey+ 
op]ations--#i4      ,survey+ by ,colonel
 ,we/]n--#ag4                           
,t      ,table-l& ( cultivat$ area--#aa4
      ,tafla b$s--#ci4      ,tam>isk    
gr[?--#bb1 #be1 #gb1 #hb4               
,tamia--#ab-ac1 #ae1 #be1 #bg-bh1 #ca1  
#dj1 #db1 #di-ej1 #ee-ef1 #gb1 #ge4     
,tamia lake--#dj4      ,tectonics--#af1 
#bi-cb4      ,tell9a--#dj1 #db1 #ea4    
,tell9a pellucida--#dc4      ,tell9a    
scal>oides--#ce4      ,tell9a           
t5ui/riata--#ce1 #ci4      ,temp]ature  

*anges 9 des]t--#gc4      ,temp]ature   
effects on pebbles--#ef4                
,temp]ature ( spr+s 9 ,wadi ,rayan--#bb4
      ,temple ( ,qasr el ,sagha--#di1   
#ef4      ,t]ebellum sopitum--#cf4      
,t]$o--#ci1 #dg4      ,te/udo           
,ammon--#aj1 #cd1 #ei1 #gj4             
,?allasso*elys libyca--#ce1 #gj4        
,!adelphia--#hd4      ,?ickness ( b$s 9 
section--#cg-bi1 #db1 #de-df1 #di-eb1   
#ef-fj1    #fe1 #gf-gg4      ,?ickness (
 s$im5ts 9 ,faym--#ae4      ,?9n+ (     
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies--#ee4                
,tomi/oma--#gj4      ,tomi/oma          
africanum--#ce1 #ea1 #ei1 #gj4          
,tongrian b$s--#ac1 #fd1 #hh4           
,too!d :ales--#ci4      ,topography &   
/ructural geology--#aa-bh4              
,tortoises1 ,l>ge--#aj1 #ec-ed1 #ei1    
#ff1 #hg4      ,tra*elo*etus            
bitub]culatus--#ea4      ,tropical %ells
 9 ,faym--#fj4      ,tuba1 ,el--#dj4    
,tudicla aff4 umbilic>is--#ea4          
,tuface\s gypsum--#gg4      ,turbo      
,p>k9soni--#dc4                         

,turritella--#ch-ci1 #dd-ec4            
,turritella angulata--#dc1 #de1 #fj1    
#fd4      ,turritella c>9if]a--#ce1 #ch1
 #dc1 #ea-eb4      ,turritella          
imbricat>ia--#ea-eb4      ,turritella   
,lessepsi--#ea4      ,turritella        
p>isiana--#ea4      ,turritella         
ph>aonica--#cd-ce1 #de1 #ea-eb1 #eh4    
,turritella transitoria--#dc4           
,turritella turris--#dc4                
,turtles--#ec-ee1 #ei1 #fj4      ,twelf?
 ,dyna/y--#bf1 #hb4      ,twigs pres]v$ 
9 clays--#ec4                           
,u      ,um el ,atl--#hd4               
,uncon=mable junctions--#ci-dj1 #gc1    
#gf4      ,und]gr\nd outlets ( ,birket  
el ,qurn--#ad4      ,ungulate1          
,horn$--#aj4      ,unio--#cd1 #ec1      
#eh-fj4      ,unio abyss9icus--#ha4     
,unio ,bonneaudi--#fj4      ,unio       
,caillaudi--#fj4      ,unio             
,homs5sis--#fj4      ,unio              
li?ophagus--#fj4      ,unio             
,nyassnsis--#fj4      ,unio             
,s*we9fur?i--#ha4      ,unio            

t]etiusculus--#fj4      ,upp]           
,eoc5e--#aj1 #cb-cd1 #ec-gj1 #gf4       
,upp] ,mokattam b$s--#cc4      ,upp]    
,nile bas9--#hg4      ,ur-,nil--#ff4    
,v      ,valvata nilotica--#hj1 #hd4    
,vegetation 9 wat]-c\rses--#be4         
,velates ,s*mi$eli--#cg4                
,v5us--#df4      ,v5us plicatella--#ce4 
,v]metus--#df4      ,v]tebrae (         
,mri!rium--#eb4      ,v]tebrae (        
,zeuglodon--#de1 #dg1 #ej4              
,v]tebrate fauna1 ,discov]y (--#i4      
,v]tebrates1 ,ext9ct--#aj1 #cd-ce1 #dc1 
#di1 #ea-eb1 #ee1 #fa1 #fc1 #fe1    #fg1
 #gj1 #hg4      ,voluta--#df4           
,voluta arabica--#ce4      ,vulsella    
*ami=mis--#cg1 #hi4      ,vulsella      
crispata--#hi4      ,vulsella           
lign>ia--#hi4      ,vulsella            
moleh5sis--#hi4                         
,w      ,wadi1 ,rav9e ( ,el--#bi-cj1    
#cg1 #ci4      ,wadi ,rayan1 ,mula1 etc4
 7see "u ,rayan1 ,mula74      ,wadi     
,rayan s]ies--#ce-cg4      ,w>%at el    
,melh--#bj4      ,wat] analyses--#bb4   

,wat]-c\rses--#be4      ,wat]-r\nd$     
pebbles--#ef1 #gb4      ,wat]-supply (  
,faym--#aa1 #hh4      ,wea!r+--#eg4     
,wells--#ba4      ,we/]n1               
,colonel--#af-ah1 #bb1 #hg4      ,:ales1
 ,frequ5cy ( riv] & %ore-frequ5t+--#ec4 
,:ales1 ,too!d--#ci4      ,:iteh\se1    
,cope--#hh4      ,:ite ,nile fauna1     
,abs5ce (--#ha4      ,widan el          
,f>as--#bh1 #ee1 #eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #ge-gf4 
,willcocks1 ,sir ,william--#ac-ad1      
#ag-ai1 #hj-hh4      ,w9d-%ad[--#hd4    
,x      ,xiphodonts--#bi4               
,z      ,zeuglodon--#i1 #ci1 #dd1 #di1  
#eb1 #hg-hh4      ,zeuglodon            
bra*yspondylus--#dd4      ,zeuglodon    
,isis--#ce1 #dd-de1 #dg1 #gj4           
,zeuglodon macrospondylus--#dd4         
,zeuglodon ,osiris--#ce1 #dd1 #dg1      
#di-ea1 #gj4      ,zeuglodon            
,zitteli--#dd1 #gj4      ,zeuglodon     
,valley--#da1 #df-di1 #fa1 #fc1 #he4    
,zittel1 ,pr(4 ,k4--#dc1 #di1 #fb1 #hi4 
99 99 99 99 99      ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 
,,xvii4    ,,geological ,,map ,,( ,,!   

,,fayum ,,depression    ,survey ,dept4  
,cairo4    ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,xviii4 
,,map ,,%[+ ,,pr9cipal ,,bone-,,be>+    
,,localities    ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo4  
,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xix4    ,,section
 ,,f ,,! ,,birket ,,el ,,qur,n ,,?r\gh  
,,dim ,,& ,,qasr ,,el  ,,sagha ,,to ,,! 
,,summit ,,( ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4    
,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xx4    ,,section 
,,f ,,wadi ,,rayan ,,to ,,! ,,summit ,,(
 ,,! ,,esc>pm5t ,,nor? ,,( ,,g>  ,,el   
,,gehannem4    ,illu/ration3 ,plate     
,,xxi4    ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,des]t     
,,ridge ,,sep>at+ ,,! ,,nile ,,valley   
,,& ,,! ,,fay,m4    ,illu/ration3 ,plate
 ,,xxii4    ,,section ,,f ,,sidmant ,,el
 ,,jebel ,,9 ,,! ,,nile ,,valley ,,?r\gh
 ,,m$9et  ,,el ,,fay,m ,,to ,,! ,,summit
 ,,( ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani1 ,,ne>      
,,widan ,,el ,,f>as4    ,illu/ration3   
,plate ,,xxiii4    ,,middle ,,eoc5e     
,,esc>pm5t ,,ne> ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4   
,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4    ,,f     
,,g>at ,,el ,,e% ,,to ,,! ,,summit ,,(  
,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4                 

,transcrib]'s note3        pg #d ,*ang$3
 ,homotoxial ) qu>ri$ to3 ,homotaxial   
pg #f ,*ang$3 ,m4--,gyse\s ,deposits to3
 ,gypse\s      pg #cj ,abs5t ref]5ces to
 footnotes #cj & #ca add$ aft]    an    
accompany+ map & plateau nor? ( ! lake4 
respectively4      pg #ca1 footnote #cb 
,*ang$3 ,bd4 ,,xxx ,i #aijb to3 ,bd4    
,,xxxii #aijb      pg #cd1 footnote #cd 
,*ang$3 ,,iii1 ,das ,miocn10 to3        
,,iii1 8,das ,miocn10      pg #eh       
,*ang$3 ,potamides tri/iatus to3        
tri/riatus      pg #ff1 footnote #hb ,"s
 miss+ text has be5 indicat$ z ,blank4  
pg #fi1 footnote #hd ,*ang$3 fr         
,sageti]e to3 ,sugeti]e      pg #gi     
,*ang$3 matt] or consid]able d\bt to3 ( 
pg #hj ,*ang$3 ) little resi/5ce to3    
resi/ance      pg #hg ,*ang$3 ,eoc5e b$s
 ( ! ,faym1 ,egypi to3 ,egypt      pg   
#hh ,*ang$3 ,v]/e9]ung5 d] t]tir5 to3   
t]tir5      pg #hh ,*ang$3 fr ,saugeti]e
 to3 ,sugeti]e      pg #hh ,*ang$3 d]   
,libys*5 ,w/e to3 ,w/e      pg #hi      
,*ang$3 ,nacula ,mridis to3 ,nucula     

pg #ia ,*ang$3 ,arca te?yis--#eb-ij4 to3
 #eb1 #ij4      pg #ig ,*ang$3 ,mula1   
,wadi-- 4 4 4 #ba-ba1 to3 #bj-ba1       
pg #ig ,*ang$3 ,mytilus aff9us to3      
aff9is      pg #ih ,*ang$3 ,p]r5ial     
irrigation to3 ,p]5nial      pg #ih     
,*ang$3 ,plonorbis subangulata to3      
,planorbis      pg #ih ,*ang$3          
,pectunculus pseudopulv9atus-- to3      
,pectunculus pseudopulv9atus--#ce4      
pg #ii ,*ang$3 ,rohlfs'                 
,exp$ition--#i-fc4 to3 #i1 #fc4      pg 
#ajj ,*ang$3 ,?ickness ( b$s 9          
section--#cg-bi to3 #cg-ci      ,m9or   
*anges 9 punctuation h be5 done sil5tly4
      ,typographical errors *ang+  =  & 
vice v]sa h be5    fix$ sil5tly4        
,plac5ames commonly spell$ ) diacritics 
7,faym1 ,qurn1 ,lahn1    etc47 7 also   
acc5t$ else:]e except illu/ration       
captions1    head]s & titles ( cit$     
works4      ,o!r spell+ inconsi/5cies h 
be5 left un*ang$4