,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,north ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun1 ,,looking ,,west4 ,,survey ,,department1 ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,the ,,fayum ,,province ,,of ,,egypt ,,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,decoration ,,cairo ,,national ,,printing ,,department #aije4 ,,contents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction4 ,,pages4 ,surveying operations4 ,soil survey4 ,history of discovery of ,faym vertebrate fauna #i ,,part ,i4--,,topography ,,and ,,structural ,,geology4 ,,section ,i4--,,cultivated ,,land-- ,area4 ,composition and character of alluvial soil4 ,connection with ,nile ,valley4 ,bahr ,yusef and canal system4 ,ravines4 ,alluvial deposits of ,lake ,moeris and prehistoric lake4 ,increase of cultivated lands #aa ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun-- ,site1 depth and dimensions4 ,remnant of ,lake ,moeris4 ,continual shrinkage of lake4 ,deposition of sand in lake at present day4 ,salinity of lake4 ,possible underground outlets4 ,currents #ab ,,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,surrounding ,,desert ,,region-- ,area and limits of ,libyan ,desert described4 ,rocks forming the area4 ,importance of dip4 ,chief causes of origin of ,faym #ad ,,section ,,iv4--,,wadi ,,rayan ,,and ,,neighbourhood-- ,colonel ,western's survey4 ,sir ,william ,willcocks' report4 ,borings4 ,details of proposed reservoir4 ,schweinfurth's estimate of salt content4 ,willcocks' 8,assuan ,reservoir and ,lake ,moeris40 ,detailed geological examination not yet undertaken4 ,traverse from ,nile ,valley through ,wadi ,mula and ,rayan to ,gharaq4 ,warshat el ,melh and springs of ,wadi ,mula4 ,der el ,galamn4 ,pass from ,mula to ,rayan4 ,sand accumulations4 ,wadi ,korif4 ,springs of ,wadi ,rayan4 ,analyses and output of water4 ,geological succession in ,wadi ,rayan4 ,general geology of floor and bounding walls4 ,ridge separating ,rayan and ,gharaq4 ,apparent absence of ,nile deposit and freshwater shells in ,wadi ,rayan4 ,question of leakage through ridge4 ,permeability of ,rayan if used as a reservoir4 ,salinity of water #af ,,section ,v4--,,central ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,region-- ,area and features4 ,dip-slope of surface4 ,drainage basins of central plain4 ,pools formed by rainfall4 ,tamarisk growth4 ,the eastern area covered by alluvium4 ,the bounding plateau to the north4 ,ghart el ,khanashat dunes #bd ,,section ,,vi4--,,the ,,ridge ,,separating ,,the ,,nile ,,valley ,,and ,,fayum-- ,width and highest points4 ,strata forming ridge4 ,gravel terraces4 ,low points of ridge4 ,original access of ,nile waters to depression4 ,formation of lake and deposition of sediment in ,faym #be ,,section ,,vii4--,,the ,,northern ,,desert ,,region-- ,escarpments and plateaux4 ,extreme west and south-west limits of area4 ,ferruginous silicified puddingstone of ancient rivers4 ,jebel el ,qatrani4 ,widan el ,faras4 ,elwat ,hialla4 ,garat el ,gindi4 ,garat el ,faras #bf ,,part ,,ii4--,,tectonics4 ,,section ,,viii4--,,faulting ,,and ,,folding-- ,origin of depression4 ,evidence in drainage ravines ,el ,bats and ,el ,wadi4 ,deep boring at ,medinet el ,faym4 ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn's theory that depression owes its origin to extensive fault system4 ,fault theory disproved4 ,fault ,n4,n4,e4 of ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,numerous local strike faults of small throw4 ,occasional influence of fractures in determining escarpments #bi ,,part ,,iii4--,,geology4 ,,section ,,ix4--,,general ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,strata-- ,depression cut out in sedimentary rocks4 ,local lava flows4 ,dip4 ,oldest beds the ,nummulites gizehensis limestones of ,middle ,eocene4 ,fluviomarine series of ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene age4 ,absence of ,miocene strata4 ,pliocene1 ,pleistocene and ,recent4 ,table showing succession and classification of strata #cc ,,section ,x4--,,middle ,,eocene-- ,a4--,wadi ,rayan ,series4--,work of ,schweinfurth and ,mayer-,eymar4 ,section at entrance to ,wadi ,mula on ,nile ,valley side4 ,strata of cliffs near ,der el ,galamn4 ,detailed section measured at ,jebel ,rayan4 ,mayer ,eymar's section in ,wadi ,mula #ce ,b4--,ravine ,beds4--,in ravines of ,el ,bats and ,el ,wadi4 ,relation to underlying series seen at ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,section at ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,fauna of strata4 ,in ravines unconformably overlain by ,pleistocene1 etc4 ,form plain bordering cultivation on east side4 ,extension into ,nile ,valley4 ,occurrence at ,sersena and ,tamia4 ,forming base of ,geziret el ,qorn and lower part of northern escarpment of ,birket el ,qurn4 ,west end of lake4 ,hard siliceous bands give rise to horns or promontories of lake4 ,ravine ,beds in the ,medinet el ,faym boring4 ,thickness #cg ,c4--,birket el ,qurun ,series4--,homotaxial with quarried limestones of ,cairo4 ,foraminiferal beds4 ,extension of series4 ,section at ,ezba ,qalamsha4 ,section north of ,lahn pyramid4 ,east of ,sersena and north-east of ,rubiyat4 ,section #ag kilometres #bh ,n4 of ,e4 of ,tamia4 ,series characterized by large globular concretions4 ,development and fauna in ,geziret el ,qorn4 ,zeuglodon remains4 ,profile at ,geziret el ,qorn4 ,rich molluscan fauna4 ,section on mainland opposite ,geziret el ,qorn4 ,section at west end of ,birket el ,qurn4 ,formation of earth-pillars4 ,extension west of the lake4 ,development of the series in the ,zeuglodon ,valley4 ,abundance of skeletons of whales4 ,molluscan fauna4 ,pseudomorphs in celestine4 ,hill mass south of the ,zeuglodon ,valley4 ,junction of ,birket el ,qurn series with overlying stage #da ,d4--,qasr el ,sagha ,series4--,equivalent of the ,upper ,mokattam of ,cairo4 ,greater development in ,faym4 ,vertebrate fauna of series4 ,schweinfurth's original discovery of cetacean remains4 ,recent discovery of land and marine mammals4 ,extension of series generally4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,tamia4 ,at ,garat el ,faras4 ,in the cliffs north of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,detailed section near ruin of ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,at ,gar el ,gehannem and westwards4 ,land animals floated out from land by river currents4 ,the series a littoral deposit4 ,lignitic beds and thin seams of coal #di ,,section ,,xi4--,,upper ,,eocene -- ,,lower ,,oligocene-- ,e4--,fluvio-marine ,series4--,nature of sediments1 ,interbedded basalts in upper part4 ,character of its invertebrate fauna4 ,conditions of deposition of series4 ,continuance of similar conditions to ,miocene and even ,pliocene times4 ,bone-beds at base of series4 ,association of skeletons of animals and forest trees4 ,preservation of remains4 ,analysis of fossil bones4 ,relation of ,fluvio-marine series to underlying stage4 ,characteristics of the group4 ,its development in the field4 ,its slight development at ,elwat ,hialla4 ,section near ,elwat ,hialla4 ,constant northerly dip4 ,organic 7molluscan7 remains #i and #ad kilometres north of ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,detailed section from near ,qasr el ,sagha to ,widan el ,faras4 ,determinations of mollusca from the series4 ,tripartite character of the series west of ,widan el ,faras and ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,occurrence of calcite1 gypsum and chalcedony4 ,tabular chert and flint4 ,ancient workings4 ,extent of basalt4 ,silicified trees #ec ,f4--,age of the ,fluvio-,marine ,series4--,difficulty in the determination of age owing to paucity of fossils4 ,zittel's tabulation of 8,schichten von ,birket el ,qurn0 as ,oligocene4 ,mayer-,eymar's age determinations4 ,schweinfurth's comparison of the series with the ,scutella beds of ,der el ,beda near ,cairo4 ,blanckenhorn's determinations4 ,the stratigraphical position of the series and relationship to ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,stratigraphically lower than the ,lower ,miocene of ,mogara4 ,whole complex in all probability of ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene age1 the transition being at or near the basalt sheets #fc ,g4--,the ,position of the ,land ,mass from which the ,mammals were derived4--,proximity of continental land4 ,absence of branches on fossil trees4 ,massif of ,abu ,roash perhaps an island to the north4 ,extension of ,eocene sea4 ,continual retreat of the sea northwards4 ,rivers emerging from the land4 ,number and positions of such rivers doubtful4 ,evidence for river passing from the modern oasis of ,baharia through ,gar el ,hamra to the ,faym4 ,lacustrine and fluviatile deposits along the course4 ,huxley's theory of immigration and invasion of animals into ,africa4 ,faym animals belong to an extinct ,african fauna of ,tertiary times4 ,contains the earliest and most primitive forms of elephants and other groups4 ,emigration and immigration4 ,prof4 ,osborn's theory of the ,african continent as a centre of radiation4 ,confirmation by the ,faym mammal discoveries4 ,list of new species obtained from the ,faym #fe ,h4--,the ,absence of ,miocene deposits in the ,faym4--,the ,faym a land area in ,miocene times4 ,miocene deposits of ,mogara4 ,lithological similarity4 ,probable persistence of geographical conditions #ga ,,section ,,xii4--,,pliocene-- ,j4--,marine deposits3 ,middle ,pliocene4--,marine deposits of ,sidmant with typical ,middle ,pliocene mollusca4 ,relation of these deposits to the gravel terraces as yet unknown though important #ga ,k4--,borings on ,rock ,surfaces2 of doubtful age4--,apparently due to marine boring mollusca4 ,no exact evidence as to age4 77 ,low level borings from zero to #bj metres above sea-level4 77 ,high level borings at #aab metres above sea-level4 ,limited occurrences of borings #ga ,l4--,gravel ,terraces38 ,upper ,pliocene4--,well marked terraces of gravel up to #agj-ahj metres above sea-level4 ,east of ,sla4 ,character of deposit4 ,east of ,sersena and ,roda4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,tamia1 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,garat el ,faras1 east and north-east of ,garat el ,gindi4 ,relation to different series4 ,character of gravels at ,elwat ,hialla4 ,west of ,elwat ,hialla gravel terraces almost completely removed by denudation4 ,traces near ,widan el ,faras and near ,garat el ,esh4 ,height of terraces in latter locality determined as #agj metres above sea-level4 ,terrace marks shore line of great sheet of water1 whether freshwater or marine4 ,the great plains of the ,faym possibly in part plains of marine denudation #gc ,m4--,gypseous ,deposits3 probably dating from the close of the ,pliocene4--,extension in ,nile ,valley and ,faym4 ,section at ,medum4 ,on the east side of the ,faym4 ,gypsum cemented conglomerate4 ,close connection with upper part of gravel terraces #gg ,n4--,summary of ,pliocene ,period #gh ,,section ,,xiii4--,,pleistocene-- ,earliest existence of a freshwater lake4 ,probably not a remnant of the ,pliocene sea or lake in which gravel terraces were formed4 ,intermediate denudation of area4 ,date of earliest entry of ,nile waters doubtful4 ,freshwater lake of ,nile ,valley4 ,drainage down the ,nile ,valley and establishment of river4 ,breaking down of gravel ridge separating the valley and the ,faym4 ,entrance of flood waters4 ,formation of lake and deposition of sediment4 ,subsequent disconnection of ,nile ,valley and ,faym owing to erosion of river bed4 ,rise of ,nile in prehistoric and historic times4 ,reconnection4 ,geological evidence for the existence of great freshwater ,pleistocene lake4 ,position and dimensions4 ,fossil fauna of the lake1 and its difference from all other ,egyptian faunas4 ,blanckenhorn's conclusions #gi ,,section ,,xiv4--,,recent #ha ,o4--,prehistoric4--,abundance of worked flints4 ,shores of lake inhabited by ,neolithic and probably prehistoric man4 ,tamarisk remains4 ,probable age of flints anterior to ,egyptian historic period #hb ,p4--,historic4--,relations of the ,nile ,valley river system and the ,faym4 ,lake ,moeris a regulator of the ,nile floods4 ,brought under control in ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,early references to ,lake ,moeris4 ,its position disputed in modern times4 ,linant de ,bellefonds' assertion disproved by ,sir ,hanbury ,brown4 ,archological evidence for the site4 ,present day fauna of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,modern deposits4 ,blown sand4 ,erosion #hb ,,appendices #hg #a4 ,previous literature relating to the ,faym #hg #b4 ,faym lamellibranchs mentioned in ,oppenheim's 8,zur ,kenntnis alttertirer ,faunen in gypten40 #hi ,,index #ia ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photographs4 ,,plates4 ,,page4 ,i4 -- ,north side of the ,birket el ,qurn1 looking west ,frontispiece4 ,,ii4 -- ,bahr ,yusef at ,lahn before entering the ,faym to face #aa ,,iii4 -- ,el ,wadi1 ,ravine near ,qasr ,gebali #ai ,,iv4 -- ,western extremity of the ,birket el ,qurn #bi ,v4 -- ,alluvial deposits overlying marly limestones 7,ravine ,beds7 in ,el ,wadi1 ,ravine near ,qasr ,gebali #cg ,,vi4 -- ,escarpment of the ,birket el ,qurn series near the western end of the lake #da ,,vii4 -- ,weathered concretionary sandstone 7,birket el ,qurn series7 on north shore1 near ,geziret el ,qorn #de ,,viii4 -- ,middle ,eocene escarpment 7,qasr el ,sagha series7 #ab kilometres west of ,qasr el ,sagha #di ,,ix4 -- ,upper beds of ,fluvio-marine series with basalt cap1 looking west from the eastern extremity of ,jebel el ,qatrani #ec ,x4 -- ,el ,qatrani range from the south-east #eg ,,xi4 -- ,silicified trees of ,fluvio-marine series1 #d kilometres north of ,qasr el ,sagha #fc ,,xii4 -- ,raised ,beach unconformably overlying ,middle ,eocene limestones 7,birket el ,qurn series7 in the desert east of ,sersena #fi ,,xiii4 -- ,borings in false-bedded sandstone1 #b kilometres south of ,dim #gc ,,xiv4 -- ,pleistocene lacustrine clays with tamarisk stumps in situ at #ej metres above the present surface of the ,birket el ,qurn #gg ,,xv4 -- ,isolated sand-dune near ,gar el ,gehannem #ha ,,xvi4 -- ,the ,birket el ,qurn near the western end #he ,,plans4 ,,xvii4 -- ,general ,map of the ,faym depression1 with ,wadi ,rayan and ,wadi ,mula1 #a_/bejjjj end ,,xviii4 -- ,map of the area north-west of ,qasr el ,sagha1 showing principal bone-bearing localities1 #a_/ejjjj ,,sections4 ,,xix4 -- ,from the ,birket el ,qurn through ,dim and ,qasr el ,sagha to the summit of ,jebel el ,qatrani end ,,xx4 -- ,from ,wadi ,rayan to the summit of the escarpment north of ,gar el ,gehannem ,,xxi4 -- ,the ,desert ,ridge separating the ,nile ,valley and the ,faym ,,xxii4 -- ,from ,sidmant el ,jebel in the ,nile ,valley through ,medinet el ,faym to the summit of ,jebel el ,qatrani1 near ,widan el ,faras ,,xxiii4 -- ,middle ,eocene escarpment near ,qasr el ,sagha ,,xxiv4 -- ,from ,garat el ,esh to summit of ,jebel el ,qatrani ,,figures 7,,in ,,the ,,text47 #a4 -- ,fault near ,qasr el ,sagha #cb #b4 -- ,section at ,gar el ,gehannem1 showing the relation of the ,wadi ,rayan series to the ,ravine ,beds #ch #c4 -- ,sketch-section across ,el ,bats1 one kilometre west of ,sla #dj #d4 -- ,profile of beds of ,geziret el ,qorn #dd #e4 -- ,section of cliffs1 western end of the ,birket el-,qurn #dg #f4 -- ,probable course of chief river of ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene times #fg #g4 -- ,block of sandstone pierced by numerous borings #gb #h4 -- ,sketch showing relations of the ,eocene to ,pliocene gravel terraces on the east side of the ,faym #gd #i4 -- ,sketch-section through the summit of the ,faym escarpment at ,elwat ,hialla #gf #aj4 -- ,sketch-map showing approximately the site of ,lake ,mris #hc ,,introduction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the geological survey of the desert surrounding the ,faym was commenced in ,october #ahih4 ,at that time the area1 although so near to ,cairo1 was little known2 the ,rohlfs ,expedition maps marked the region as 8unexplored10 and in fact with the exception of a publication by ,schweinfurth1 who had traversed the region from north to south1 via ,qasr el ,sagha and ,gar el ,gehannem to ,rayan1 there was little information obtainable4 ,the area being of considerable size 7#ab1jjj sq4 kilom47 and almost unexplored1 both geologically and topographically1 the primary object was to construct as rapidly as possible a general map of the depression1 at the same time laying down in broad outline the chief geological formations and trusting to future opportunity to examine in more detail places of special interest4 ,commencing work at ,sla1 on the eastern side of the depression1 the survey was carried northwards along the east side of the cultivated lands and thence through the northern desert1 up to the summit of the depression4 ,after mapping westwards as far as the isolated hill-mass of ,gar el ,gehannem the work was temporarily suspended until1 in the spring1 the narrow defile of ,wadi ,mula1 and the ,wadi ,rayan1 forming the southern part of the ,faym depression1 were provisionally examined4 ,in ,january #aija1 samples of soil and water from the cultivated lands were collected as an experimental soil-survey1 and the results have been published4#a ,during the winter's work of #aijb-jc a traverse was carried from ,gar el ,gehannem in a south-west direction through a hitherto unexplored part of the depression4 ,on reaching a point midway between ,cairo and the oasis of ,baharia a connection was made eastwards to ,wadi ,rayan4 ,in the winter of #aijc-jd further exploration was carried out in the neighbourhood of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,it will be convenient here to briefly relate the history of the discovery of the remarkable series of new and extinct animal forms1 the recovery of which from the ,faym deposits has created such widespread interest in the zoological world4 ,when ,schweinfurth crossed the region in #ahgi he obtained fossil bones1 which were examined and determined by ,dames to be the remains of cetacea of the genus ,zeuglodon1 from certain beds of the escarpment west of ,qasr el ,sagha2 these1 it is believed1 were the earliest vertebrate remains obtained from the ,faym4 ,during the early part of the survey of the district1 remains of fish and crocodiles were frequently found in one of the beds of the ,middle ,eocene1 probably on the same horizon as that from which ,schweinfurth had collected4 ,fragments of bone were also commonly met with on a much higher horizon 7i4e41 near the base of the ,fluvio-marine series7 but nothing of particular interest was obtained1 as no detailed search could be made at that time4 ,in ,april #aija1 during the survey of the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn1 some of the localities found to be bone-bearing in #ahih were re-visited in company with ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,andrews1 who was in ,egypt at the time and had accompanied the survey in order to obtain specimens of jackals1 hares1 etc41 for the ,british ,museum1 in connection with the forthcoming work on ,egyptian mammals4 ,in one of these ,dr4 ,andrews picked up several vertebrae which turned out to belong to a new species of ,pterosphenus4 ,further north1 when descending the ,middle ,eocene escarpments at a place not previously examined1 we crossed the outcrop of the bone-beds at a point where a considerable number of mammalian and reptilian bones lay exposed on the surface1 many in an excellent state of preservation4 ,the importance of the find was evident1 and a short examination of the material on the spot enabled ,dr4 ,andrews to pronounce the discovery to be of the highest importance from a palaeontological point of view4 ,some three weeks' work in the immediate neighbourhood resulted in a very good collection of vertebrates from the ,middle ,eocene beds1 including several new genera afterwards described#b under the names of ,eosiren1 ,barytherium1 ,mritherium1 ,gigantophis1 etc4 ,moreover1 a fossil tooth brought in by one of the camelmen from a point several kilometres to the north led to a careful examination of the lower beds of the overlying ,upper ,eocene formation1 which resulted in obtaining well-preserved remains belonging to a new genus1 since described as ,palaeomastodon4 ,all the material so far obtained was taken home to be worked up and determined at the ,british ,museum and a preliminary description was published by ,dr4 ,andrews in the ,geological ,magazine4 ,in the winter of #aija-jb the survey of the ,faym was resumed with the special intention of following up the highest beds1 those in which ,palaeomastodon had been found4 ,continued search westwards eventually led to the discovery of the remains of a large and remarkable horned ungulate 7,arsinoitherium71 a preliminary notice#c of which was published in the spring of #aijb4 ,shortly after1 the remains of several new smaller mammals and reptiles 7,phiomia1 ,saghatherium71 including the shell of a large land tortoise 7,testudo ,ammon71 were obtained#d4 ,further work in the winters of #aijb-jc-jd led to a great deal more material being obtained#e1 mostly of course belonging to the same species1 but including some new genera ,geniohyus1 ,megalohyrax1 ,pterodon4 ,the amount of palaeontological material is now so large that the ,egyptian ,government has arranged with the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum for the publication of the whole in a monograph to be issued by the ,trustees4 ,the present report1 therefore1 deals only with the geology and topography of the district4 ,footnote #a3 ,a4 ,,lucas1 ,a preliminary investigation of the ,soil and ,water of the ,fayum ,province2 ,survey ,dep41 ,p4,w4,m4 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,footnote #b3 ,,andrews1 ,extinct ,vertebrates from ,egypt4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4 #h4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,sept4 and ,oct4 #aija1 pp4 #djj-dji and #dcf-ddd4 ,footnote #c3 ,,beadnell1 ,a ,preliminary ,note on ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli1 ,beadn4 ,survey ,dept4 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,see also ,a ,new ,egyptian ,mammal 7,arsinoitherium7 from the ,faym4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,x4 ,dec4 #aijc1 pp4 #ebi-ecb4 ,footnote #d3 ,,andrews and ,,beadnell1 ,a ,preliminary ,note on ,some ,new ,mammals from the ,upper ,eocene of ,egypt4 ,survey ,dept4 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,footnote #e3 ,,andrews1 ,notes on an ,expedition to the ,faym1 ,egypt1 with ,description of some ,new ,mammals4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,x4 ,aug4 #aijc1 pp4 #ccg-cdc4 ,also ,further ,notes on the ,mammals of the ,eocene of ,egypt 7,parts ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii74 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,v41 ,vol4 ,i4 ,march1 ,april1 ,may #aijd4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,bahr ,,yusuf ,,at ,,lahun ,,before ,,entering ,,the ,,fayum4 ,,part ,i4 ,,topography ,,and ,,structural ,,geology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,faym1 a large circular depression in the ,libyan ,desert1 is situated immediately west of that part of the ,nile ,valley lying between ,kafr el ,ayat and ,feshn 7,plate ,,xvii47 ,the depression1 which has an area1 roughly speaking1 of #ab1jjj square kilometres1 is primarily divisible into three distinct parts--cultivated land1 lake1 and desert4 ,,section ,i4--,,cultivated ,,land4 ,the cultivated land has an area of about #a1hjj square kilometres and1 with the exception of the lake and part of the ,wadi ,rayan1 occupies the lowest part of the depression4 ,cultivation is necessarily strictly limited to the area covered with alluvial soil4 ,the latter1 for the most part identical in origin and composition with the river-alluvium of the ,nile ,valley1 covers a leaf-shaped tract between the bounding desert on the east side and the lake 7the ,birket el ,qurn7 on the north-west4 ,the easterly and central part of the cultivated area forms a more or less level table-land1 from which the ground slopes gently away1 especially on the north side1 where the slope is towards the lake and very marked4 ,the cultivated land of the ,faym is directly connected with that of the ,nile ,valley by a narrow strip of low ground1 a natural passage through the desert separating the ,nile ,valley and the depression of the ,faym4 ,through this gap runs the natural canal known as the ,bahr ,yusef1 which is practically the sole source of water in the ,faym and irrigates the entire district4 ,the canal leaves the ,nile ,valley at ,lahn 7,plate ,,ii71 and follows a somewhat serpentine course through the desert for about #e kilometres1 irrigating a narrow strip of land on either side1 which at ,hawara rapidly broadens out into the wide cultivated area of the ,faym4 ,once within the latter1 the ,bahr ,yusef gives off numerous subsidiary canals which traverse the country in all directions1 constantly splitting up into smaller branches until the water-supply is divided throughout the whole area4 ,with the exception of the self-contained basin of ,gharaq1 on the south side of the ,faym1 the entire district drains into the ,birket el ,qurn1 which occupies the lowest part of the depression1 to the north of the cultivation4 ,the basin of ,gharaq is irrigated by the ,bahr el ,gharaq1 a canal which takes off from the ,bahr ,yusef soon after the latter enters the ,faym#f4 ,the cultivated land of the ,faym is traversed by two main ravines1 cut down in many places to the ,eocene limestone below the alluvium 7,plates ,,iii and ,v47 ,at the present time these ravines carry canals for irrigating the lower parts of the district1 and also act largely as drains to the higher lands4 ,they were probably initiated by the escape of water through breaches in the ,bahr ,yusef during flood time1 and have since been deepened to their present dimensions4 ,in addition to the main central cultivated area1 the soil of which1 as mentioned above1 is essentially identical with that of the ,nile ,valley1 large tracts of the surrounding country1 more especially on the north1 north-west1 and west sides1 are also covered with alluvial deposits4 ,these latter1 which include sands1 sandy clays1 and clays of a quite distinct type1 represent the slowly formed accumulations of the quieter and more remote parts of the ancient ,lake ,moeris 7and the earlier prehistoric lake74 ,the material was mostly derived from the ,eocene strata which formed the shores of the lake1 augmented no doubt by a certain amount of very fine sediment drifted from the ,bahr ,yusef1 and by sand blown in by wind4 ,it is noticeable that the thickest and most sandy deposits occur near the borders of the lake site2 when close under the ,eocene cliffs1 as along the north side above the ,birket el ,qurn1 the deposits closely resemble those of the latter4 ,the finer more calcareous beds occur further out and the true marls were accumulated only at some distance from the shores of the lake4 ,when in ,ptolemaic times the lake became reduced to a fraction of its former size1 large areas covered by these lacustrine clays were exposed and some portions were brought under cultivation4 ,subsequently1 however1 all these outlying districts were abandoned and became absorbed by the surrounding desert1 until in modern times the cultivation was restricted to the central portion of the old lake bed1 a portion almost identical with the area over which true 8,nile ,mud0 had been deposited4 ,the construction during recent years of extensive irrigation works in the ,nile ,valley has made it possible to largely augment the water-supply of the ,bahr ,yusef to the ,faym4 ,high level canals are being cut in various parts of the district and already large areas of desert covered by these lacustrine deposits have been brought under cultivation1 notably to the north of ,tamia and in the neighbourhood of ,qasr ,qurn4 ,the approximate area covered with lacustrine deposits can be seen on the map and with a sufficiency of water probably the greater part of this area could be utilized1 though the exact value of the soil compared with ,nile deposit remains to be determined4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun4 ,the lowest part of the depression1 lying immediately to the north-west of the cultivation1 is occupied by a sheet of water of considerable size1 known as the ,birket el ,qurn4#g ,the lake1 which has a length of #dj kilometres1 and a maximum breadth under ten1 covers at the present time an area of about #bbe square kilometres4 ,sir ,hanbury ,brown obtained no sounding exceeding #e metres in crossing the lake to ,dim1 but according to the fishermen the depth increases towards the south-west4 ,its long axis lies nearly east and west1 and while on the north it is entirely#h bordered by desert1 along a large part of the south side the cultivated land approaches its shore1 although even here a large area actually bordering the lake is waste salty land as yet unfit for cultivation4 ,as already mentioned1 with the exception of the ,gharaq basin1 the lake receives the whole drainage from the cultivated lands4 ,the ,birket el ,qurn is the existing remnant of the ancient prehistoric lake which covered a large part of the floor of the ,faym depression1 and which in historic times was converted into an artificially controlled sheet of water--the celebrated ,moeris--by ,amenemhat ,i and his successors in the ,,xii ,dynasty4 ,lake ,moeris1 being used as a regulator of excessively high and low ,nile floods1#i was of the greatest importance in connection with the irrigation of the ,nile ,valley4 ,in more recent times1 apparently under the ,persians or ,ptolemies according to ,flinders ,petrie1#aj ,lake ,moeris ceased to perform its function of regulator2 since that time all water1 except that required for irrigation of the reclaimed land1 being carefully excluded1 the surface of the lake has continually and gradually sunk to its modern dimensions4#aa ,lacustrine deposits1 showing approximately the actual limits of the ancient ,faym lake1 can be traced over wide areas of now barren desert2 these will be more fully dealt with later4 ,the present lake-level is still continually sinking owing to an improved system of irrigation1 by which a constantly decreasing amount of waste water drains into the lake4 ,its average annual fall has1 during the last decade1 been nearly half a metre1#ab and the slope of the land being very gradual1 large areas have been reclaimed during the last few years1 though whether the advantages derived from this constant lowering of the lake are not more than balanced by certain drawbacks is somewhat doubtful4#ac ,with the new areas now being brought under cultivation the amount of drainage water finding its way into the lake will increase and the fall be checked4 ,at the beginning of #aijd the level was markedly higher than in the previous winter1 and a difference of even half a metre alters the shore line to a considerable extent1 owing to the flatness of the land by which the lake is for the most part bounded4 ,although under the present desert conditions practically no material from the surrounding desert is washed into the lake1 doubtless a considerable amount of fine dust and sand is carried into it by the wind1 especially during the violent sandstorms which occur frequently in the locality4 ,the high cliffs which bound the northern shore of the lake throughout a portion of its length probably have the effect of checking the velocity of both north and south winds1 thus causing a considerable amount of sand1 which would otherwise be carried across1 to be dropped on its surface4 ,this material1 together with the fine mud brought down by the canals on the cultivation sides1 must have an appreciable effect in raising the level of the bed of the lake4 ,the phenomenon of the extraordinary freshness of the water of the ,birket el ,qurn has been commented on by ,schweinfurth1 who shows that the degree of concentration of salt in a lake whose volume has been continually reduced1 and to which salt has constantly been added1 should be many times greater than the actual existing amount4 ,an analysis#ad of the water at the west end of the lake 7where the concentration is greatest1 owing to the distance from the feeder canals7 showed that the total salts amounted to only #acd1 of which #jib was sodium chloride4 ,dr4 ,schweinfurth#ae concludes that the lake has a subterranean outlet1 which alone would enable it to maintain its comparative freshness4#af ,in this connection it is interesting to note the existence of distinct currents1 which may possibly be caused by such outlets1 in certain localities on the north side of the lake2 and it is just possible that a careful survey of the lake itself would not only prove the existence1 but show the exact position1 of such underground outlets4 ,most probably1 however1 the currents are simply local movements produced by temporary differences of level1 which might conceivably be caused in such a large and comparatively shallow sheet of water1 varying considerably in salinity in different localities1 by wind and evaporation4 ,the comparative freshness of the lake and the possible presence of underground outlets are of the highest importance in their bearing directly on two of the most important questions in connection with the proposed utilization of the ,wadi ,rayan as a reservoir1 i4e4 what the leakage from such a reservoir would be and to what degree of salinity its water would attain4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,surrounding ,,desert ,,region4 ,with the exception of the lake and the cultivated area the depression is practically entirely desert4 ,the southern and south-western parts include the wadies ,rayan and ,mula1 where freshwater springs occur1 surrounded by areas covered by a good deal of wild scrub4 ,apart from these1 however1 no springs occur outside the cultivated land4 ,the topography of the region is so intimately connected with its geological structure that an adequate description of the former is not possible without constant reference to the latter4 ,full geological details will1 however1 be reserved for later consideration4 ,sidenote3 ,area and ,limits4 ,the part of the ,libyan ,desert dealt with in this report has1 excluding the cultivated land and the lake1 an area of some ten thousand square kilometres4 ,while some portions have been examined and mapped in detail1 others are still very imperfectly known1 especially on the south and south-west sides4 ,the irregular cliff-line forming the southern boundary of ,rayan and the adjacent wadis may be taken as our limit in this direction1 beyond lying an almost unbroken limestone plateau rising gradually and continually to the south4 ,on the north and north-west the area under description is bounded by the southern limit of the great undulating high-lying gravelly desert-plateau which stretches with little change of character to the ,mediterranean4 ,on the east side the ,nile ,valley forms a convenient though not altogether natural boundary2 while to the south-west our limit practically coincides with the boundary of the depression1 where the floor of the latter insensibly merges into the general desert plateau4 ,sidenote3 ,rocks forming the ,area4 ,the rocks forming the area within the above limits are almost entirely of sedimentary origin1 the exception being a band of hard basalt intercalated at the very top of the series and exposed only on the extreme northernmost limit of the depression4 ,the total thickness of sediments1 from the lowest beds exposed in the bottom of the ,wadi ,rayan to the summit of the escarpments1 a day's march north of ,tamia1 is some #gjj metres4 ,these beds include every kind of sedimentary deposit--limestones1 marls1 clays1 sandstones1 sands and gravels1 forming an ever-changing succession of rocks1 varying considerably in hardness and capacity for withstanding the agents of denudation4 ,it is not too much to say that the coming into existence of the ,faym1 with its plains1 lowlying depressions1 precipitous cliffs and escarpments1 was largely dependent on the existence of this variable series of deposits4 ,apart from the presence of sediments varying greatly in hardness and durability1 the fact that the whole of the rocks have an almost constant northerly dip of two or three degrees is a point of prime importance4 ,so small a dip may be scarcely noticeable in any one place1 but over the large areas with which we have to deal its influence on the position and level of any individual bed is very marked and the topography of the region would have been essentially different if the strata had been quite horizontal4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the ,faym4 ,the unique character of the ,faym is alone sufficient to show that special causes have acted in its production4 ,two main causes stand out3--7#a7 the presence of thick bands of comparatively soft arenaceous and argillaceous strata breaking up the usually continuous hard limestone of the ,middle ,eocene2 7#b7 the effect of the ,nile ,valley fault in lowering the whole of the western desert 7north of ,assiut7 relatively to the eastern4 ,the former took place as the result of changed geographical conditions on the continent to the south at the time in question1 with which however we need not deal here4 ,on a homogeneous mass of rock weathering has little power to form depressions of any magnitude1 and this is the cause of the continuous unbroken plateau which stretches southwards from the ,faym1 the underlying rocks being one continuous thick mass of hard limestone4 ,wherever softer intercalations are present differential weathering takes place1 and all the great depressions of the ,libyan desert owe their origin to the presence of soft easily denuded strata2 if the great homogeneous mass of ,nile ,valley limestone had stretched unchanged westwards1 the oases of ,farafra and ,baharia would never have existed4 ,they owe their origin entirely to the presence of the underlying saddle of softer ,cretaceous rocks4 ,similarly if changed conditions had not led to the deposition of soft beds of clay1 marl1 and sandstone1 the western plateau would have continued unbroken northwards4 ,a comparison of the two sides of the ,nile ,valley between ,cairo and ,assiut shows that the tectonic movements1 which largely determined the existence of the valley itself1 resulted in a considerable lowering of the rocks forming the western side4 ,this was brought about by differential movements along the north and south line or lines of fault1 and by the presence of an east to west monoclinal fold which is especially well marked in the neighbourhood of ,heluan4 ,the depressions of the ,faym would doubtless have existed irrespective of this general lowering of the western desert relative to the east1 but denudation would have required an additional period of many thousands of years before the floor of the depression was low enough to allow of its actual connection with the ,nile river4 ,as it has been maintained that the ,faym is an area let down and enclosed by faults1 it may be mentioned here that all available evidence points in an opposite direction2 this question of faults will however be dealt with in detail later4 ,the influence of the ,nile ,valley fault has been explained above and it must be remembered it is one affecting not the ,faym alone but the northern part of the western desert as a whole4 ,for purposes of description it will be convenient to divide the whole region into three parts3 first1 the southern portion1 including the wadis ,mula and ,rayan2 secondly1 the central area1 comprising the extensive plain forming the floor of the depression as a whole1 and including the areas under cultivation and the ,birket el ,qurn1 as well as the desert separating the ,faym from the ,nile ,valley4 ,thirdly1 the northern portion1 embracing all the rising ground between the floor and the northern rim of the region4 ,these areas will now be taken in order4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,wadi ,,rayan ,,and ,,neighbourhood4 ,this part of the ,faym is of special interest in consequence of its possible future as a reservoir4 ,although the area has not yet been examined in detail by the ,geological ,survey it will be useful to bring together all the information that is at present available4 ,sidenote3 ,colonel ,western's ,survey4 ,in #ahhb1 as a counter-project to other irrigation schemes1 ,cope ,whitehouse suggested#ag utilising as a reservoir the ,wadi ,rayan1 a depression which had been referred to by ,linant de ,bellefonds4#ah ,at the request of ,sir ,colin ,scott ,moncrieff the ,government deputed ,colonel ,western to make plans of the ,wadi ,rayan and surrounding country and to ascertain the capacity of the depression and its capability of being used as a reservoir4 ,liernur ,bey under his direction prepared a contoured map1 and ,colonel ,western's report1 plans1 and estimates were published4#ai ,some general details of the wadi and surrounding hills are given and the detailed survey showed that the #cj metre contour line 7above sea-level7 enclosed an area of #gjf square kilometres 7#agj1jjj feddans74 ,the lowest points of the depression were found at #db metres below sea-level4 ,the sand1 scrub and springs are briefly referred to and the discharge of the latter is given as equal to that of a very slow-going four inch hand pipe1 the water running out at about #bj m4 and disappearing in the sand4 ,wadi ,mula was found to be separated from the ,rayan depression by sandhills and rock at a mean level of #ej metres1 the lowest point in ,mula being at #be metres4 ,a line of levels was run from ,rayan through ,mula to the ,nile ,valley1 the highest point crossed being at #aje metres2 for fifteen kilometres the level was not below #ge metres4 ,in order to find the most suitable passage for a canal to connect the ,nile with the ,wadi ,rayan two lines of level were made after a reconnaissance of the hills near ,sidmant el ,jebel3 the southern1 from ,ezba ,menesi ,ali1 near the ,gharaq canal1 to ,mazana on the ,bahr ,yusef1 being considered the best4 ,along this line the highest point was only at #ddg metres and the average #ce metres along four kilometres4 ,borings were not made here but judging from the surface excavation would be mostly in soft limestone1 sand1 and conglomerate4 ,a much shorter route is from ,deshasleh on the ,bahr ,yusef over the hills about #e kilometres to the south of ,mazana or ,sidmant into the ,wadi ,gharaq1 a distance of #cj kilometres4 ,this route was not however levelled but is fairly straight and apparently not much higher than the ,mazana passage4 ,the survey of the #cj metre contour line of the ,wadi ,rayan proved that there were only two outlets into the ,faym1 both on the northern side3 these two openings are only from #djj-ejj metres wide and their lowest points are not below #be or #bf metres4 ,sidenote3 ,later ,government ,publications by ,scott ,moncrieff and ,willcocks4 ,in #ahhi ,sir ,c4 ,scott ,moncrieff published#bj a further note1 in which he briefly discussed the probable cost and benefits to be derived from the suggested reservoir1 concluding that at least the project was one worthy of being thoroughly examined4 ,in #ahid the plans and designs in connection with the ,wadi ,rayan were published#ba and the possibility of utilizing the ,wadi ,rayan was examined by ,sir ,william ,willcocks1 then ,director ,general of ,reservoirs1 from an engineering point of view1 and the questions of its probable cost and future utility were discussed4 ,in this report it is stated that the routes proposed by ,colonel ,western in #ahhh pass through salty marls and clays unsuitable for holding canals4 ,another route is suggested1 which after leaving the ,nile ,valley crosses the high desert ridge in a straight line1 passing through the so-called ,wadi ,liernur 7,wadi ,lulu of ,cope ,whitehouse72 this depression is #ab kilometres long and has its bed some #bd metres below the general level of the desert4 ,plate #ae of the report shows the ,wadi ,rayan1 the deserts between it and the ,nile ,valley and the cultivated land4 ,the map was begun by ,col4 ,western and completed by ,willcocks4 ,the lowest point of ,wadi ,rayan is shown as #db metres and the depression is separated from the ,faym by a limestone ridge generally from #cd to #fj metres1 except at two places where it falls to #bf metres above sea level on a length of #fjj metres4 ,within the #bg metre contour line the wadi has an area of #fgc square kilometres and a capacity of #ah1gdc1jjj1jjj cubic metres4 ,between it and the ,nile ,valley lie #cj kilometres of desert1 of which #aa are occupied by a marked depression discovered by ,liernur ,bey in #ahhg4 ,at the extreme western edge of the ,nile ,valley 7here #bj kilometres wide7 runs the ,bahr ,yusef4 ,comparing the proposed ,wadi ,rayan reservoir and the ancient ,mris and allowing for a difference of #de metres between the levels of the ,nile ,valley in ,b4,c4 #b1jjj and to-day1 ,willcocks assumes that the high water mark of ,lake ,mris was at #bbe metres and its area #b1ejj square kilometres1 against #fgc square kilometres of the ,wadi ,rayan at #bg metres4 ,it is pointed out that the ancient lake had the great advantage that in those days the ,bahr ,yusef was an important branch of the ,nile1 if not the main river itself1 and the reservoir was connected with the ,nile by a natural ravine of great length and short breadth1 across which a massive embankment was thrown and destroyed annually1 the surplus water of high floods being stored for the deficiency of low floods4 ,the published sections along the lines of borings put down show the different strata cut through by the proposed canal4 ,the ,nile ,valley1 along the line of the inlet canal1 consists of hard clay #f to #aj metres thick1 lying on coarse sand4 ,along the outlet canal sandy clays and clays alternate to a depth of #aj metres4 ,on entering the desert sands and sandy conglomerate1 with gypsum and salt1 are met with below the surface1 then a yellow marl with salts1 and finally a plastic black clay overlying the ,parisian limestone4 ,these beds are most extensive in the narrow neck of land between the ,nile ,valley and the ,faym and to some #aj kilometres to the south of it4 ,they rise to #gj metres4 ,there are some other marls inside the ,wadi ,rayan or in the adjacent depressions and as they have to be traversed by the canals form a serious factor1 being easily dissolved in water2 in consequence ,willcocks chose the alignment of the inlet canal along the ,bahr ,belama where the extent of these beds would only be #be kilometres against #i kilometres on the alternative route marked on the plan4 ,a narrow neck of land1 some #ae kilometres in length1 runs between the ,faym and the depressions traversed by the proposed ,wadi ,rayan canal2 this neck is the continuation of the salty marls and clays1 but the limestone is near the surface and is overlain by a thin deposit of sand and pebbles1 with freshwater shells on its northern slope at #bbej metres2 the southern slope is entirely devoid of them4 ,willcocks points out that it is evident the ancient ,mris rose to #bbej metres but its water never penetrated into the ,wadi ,rayan4 ,the report goes into details of inlet and outlet canals1 discharge1 necessary masonry works1 cost1 and compares the different reservoir schemes4 ,after a careful review of the whole question1 the scheme1 while considered perfectly feasible as far as available data went1 was abandoned by ,sir ,william ,garstin#bb in favour of the less costly and more useful ,nubian reservoir4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,el ,,wadi1 ,,ravine ,,near ,,qasr ,,gebali4 ,sidenote3 ,schweinfurth's report on the probable salt-content in ,wadi ,rayan ,reservoir4 ,in an appendix#bc to the above report ,schweinfurth discusses the question as to how salt the water of such a reservoir would become4 ,he points out that the exact valuation of the salt which would be contained in this reservoir when the water had risen to #bg metres cannot be accurately determined1 owing to the absence of information on certain points4 ,the maximum quantity of salt in the desert soil is estimated at #b and this figure is used in his calculation1 which includes the amount of salt which would be brought into the reservoir1 7#a7 from the ,nile during filling and in the extra water entering to replace that lost by evaporation in the lake and canals2 7#b7 from the ground forming the bed of the lake 7far the largest item72 7#c7 from the bed and banks of the inlet canal1 both in the desert and in the ,nile ,valley2 and 7#d7 from infiltration4 ,the figure obtained is #g1ejj million kilogrammes1 equal to #jjd per cent1 or almost one twenty-fifth per cent of salt4 ,this amount is only equivalent to half the salt existing in many of the well waters used in the country for irrigation4 ,as ,schweinfurth is careful to point out his calculation is based on maximum and assumed data4 ,sidenote3 ,willcocks' 8,assouan ,reservoir and ,lake ,mris04 ,the question of the utilisation of the ,wadi ,rayan as a reservoir has recently been again brought to the front1 notably by ,sir ,william ,willcocks in a paper#bd read before the ,khedivial ,geographical ,society1 ,cairo4 ,the author1 after pointing out the value of such a lake1 working in connection with the ,assuan reservoir1 discusses at length the position1 dimensions1 and functions of the ancient ,lake ,moeris4 ,it is suggested that the main canal should be cut through the desert opposite ,mazana and crossing the so-called wadis ,liernur and ,masaigega enter the ,wadi ,rayan at its easternmost point4 ,these wadis would in time become covered with alluvium and be converted into valuable cultivated land4 ,after examining the big ravines of the ,faym1 where similar beds are exposed1 the author comes to the conclusion that the maintenance of canals in the saliferous marls1 which form part of the desert through which the inlet canal would pass1 would offer no particular difficulties4 ,with regard to the questions of leakage into the ,faym and of the water of the lake eventually becoming salted1 ,sir ,william ,willcocks says1 8,when the old ,lake ,moeris1 or the present ,faym1 was full of water and #fc metres higher than the bottom of the ,wadi ,rayan and remained so for thousands of years1 there was no question of the waters having become salted or having escaped into the ,wadi4 ,the ,wadi was as dry as it is to-day and the great inland sea was always fresh40 ,as to the question of leakage into ,gharaq the author considers that if water found its way into that depression it would be a distinct advantage1 as such water could be pumped into the ,nezleh canal and utilized elsewhere2 he maintains at the same time that no leakage will take place4 ,incidentally it is mentioned that the ,wadi ,rayan is separated from the ,faym by a limestone ridge1 a statement which1 as will be shown later1 requires modification4 ,sidenote3 ,wadi ,rayan not yet examined in detail by the ,geological ,survey of ,egypt4 ,until a detailed geological examination of the ,wadi ,rayan and neighbourhood has been carried out it will not be possible to form reliable opinions on many of the questions raised in connection with the prospective reservoir4 ,the writer's acquaintance with the area is limited to a traverse in #ahii from the ,nile ,valley through ,wadi ,mula to ,rayan and thence to ,gharaq1 and subsequently to a stay of a few days duration in the neighbourhood of the ,rayan springs1 after mapping the extreme south-west of the ,faym depression4 ,while the accompanying maps may be taken as representing fairly accurately the bolder topography of the region1 they do not replace the older contoured maps of the floor of the depression and the country between it and the ,nile ,valley to the east1 accompanying the report on 8,perennial ,irrigation and ,flood ,protection in ,egypt40 ,the following description of this part of the district is based on a traverse from the ,nile ,valley through the wadis ,mula and ,rayan to ,gharaq2 the detailed geological sections measured and examined along the line of route will be given later4 ,sidenote3 ,traverse from ,nile ,valley through ,wadi ,mula to ,rayan and ,gharaq4 ,sidenote3 ,warshat el ,melh in ,wadi ,mula4 ,between the village of ,el ,gayat and the mouth of the ,wadi ,mula 7#af kilometres to the north-west7 stretches a gradually rising undulating gypseous plain1 superficially covered with loose sand and rounded pebbles of quartz and flint4 ,in occasional small hills the white limestone which forms the underlying rock is visible4 ,near the entrance to the wadi stands a somewhat prominent conical hill composed of hard whitish fossiliferous limestone passing down into more sandy and clayey beds4 ,the bottom of the wadi is cut out in soft green and brown clays1 its surface being covered with blown sand1 fragments of limestone1 flints and gypsum4 ,from the mouth of the wadi the ,nile ,valley cliffs run north and south in a winding irregular manner4 ,on entering the valley several outstanding flat-topped limestone capped hills are passed on the right hand2 they are in part joined to the regular bounding cliff beyond2 the eastern cliff is steep and well-marked1 while that on the west only outcrops here and there1 buried as it is in immense accumulations of blown sand1 rising in places into definite dune-ridges4 ,wadi ,mula has a length of some #ah kilometres and lies nearly ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e4 ,the central part of its floor is a sandy scrub-covered area1 the lowest points lying at about #be metres2 just at the southern edge of the scrub stands a small hill composed of hard shaly clays capped by white limestone1 surrounded by a saline1 superficially dry4 ,holes dug in this are at once filled with excessively salt water1 and by evaporation of the brine in shallow troughs supplies of white fairly pure salt can be obtained4 ,the area is known as ,warshat el ,melh4 ,banks of reeds were found growing on the north side of the saline1 the surface of the latter being here composed of a soft brown sandy salty deposit1 caking here and there into a hard earthy impure salt4 ,in the lowest spots the saline frequently consists of soft wet sludge2 its area is about half a square kilometre but the depth of the deposit is unknown4 ,in the middle of the scrub-covered area to the north lies ,ain ,warshat el ,melh1 a pool of water1 fairly fresh and drinkable1 although ferruginous1 measuring #aj by #e metres in size and from #b to #b metres deep4 ,the water evidently rises from a spring on the west side1 round which are fifty square metres of green rushes1 with some larger bushes4 ,the ground around and above is very saliferous2 between the spring and the ruins to the north the ground is sandy1 with many bushes and much scrub4 ,this ground extends two kilometres to the west1 whence it gradually passes up into great masses of drift sand2 an occasional small outcrop of the top of the plateau above the sand is all that serves to locate the position of the buried cliff4 ,on the east side the sandy ground with scrub extends about a kilometre1 beyond which the plain gradually rises for another kilometre to the base of the cliff beyond1 which is fairly steep and well-marked1 though with an entire absence of indentations of any kind4 ,sidenote3 ,der el ,galamn4 ,close to the north end of the valley1 and about #cc kilometres from ,el ,gayat1 lie the ruins known as ,der el ,galamn bil ,mula4 ,at the time of our visit a new square stone building was in course of erection and five or six persons were inhabiting the place4 ,there are several small palms scattered about to the south of the monastery and an excellent running spring of clear water five hundred paces to the south-west4 ,a new well is being sunk within the premises4 ,to the north of the monastery the eastern cliff takes a marked trend to the west for some three kilometres1 whence it resumes a northerly direction1 always maintaining its character of a steep well-marked escarpment rising some #ajj metres above the floor of the wadi4 ,at the corner of the cliffs the lowest bed exposed is a white limestone2 this is overlain by gypseous clays passing up into sandy beds1 the latter being surmounted by the white limestone capping the escarpment4 ,sidenote3 ,wadi ,rayan4 ,we are here on the summit of the divide between ,wadi ,mula and ,wadi ,rayan1 the height of the floor being about #aje metres2 to the north stretches a gradually widening bay descending to the lowest ground of the ,rayan depression4 ,immense accumulations of sand almost block the defile and stretch away to the east1 and the hitherto well-marked cliff on that side bends back and is lost to view4 ,on the other side however1 the bounding wall gradually emerges from the dunes1 getting more distinct as it is followed northwards until it becomes quite clear of the sand4 ,the first glimpse of this cliff is seen a couple of kilometres west of the pass in an outcropping headland1 the next point visible being some five kilometres further west4 ,between these portions of the cliff are one or two outliers1 surrounded by quantities of blown sand4 ,a depression known as ,wadi ,korif is reported to lie to the west1 and much scrub and some water is said to exist there2 such a wadi is marked on ,schweinfurth's map but apparently has not been examined4 ,continuing in a ,n4,n4,w4 direction high rather steep dunes occur on either flank1 running ,n4,n4,w4 and ,s4,s4,e4 ,between the dunes is a fairly hard undulating sand-flat affording an easy route2 further on a narrow defile between the dunes leads down to the centre of the depression4 ,the main areas occupied by blown sand are shown in the accompanying maps4 ,the most interesting part of the depression is the bay lying to the south of the narrow well-marked promontory jutting out from the southern plateau1 a huge pointer1 as it were1 in the direction of ,gharaq2 this is the ,cape ,rayan of ,schweinfurth4 ,sidenote3 ,springs in ,wadi ,rayan4 ,the bay is on three sides completely enclosed by cliffs and its floor is thickly covered by a luxurious growth of wild scrub--chiefly tamarisk and ghardag2 numerous isolated palm trees occur1 especially in the neighbourhood of the water which exists at several points4 ,there are three particularly good springs1#be the positions of which are shown on the accompanying maps4 ,according to ,colonel ,western's survey the water emerges at about #bj metres4 ,in #ahii the water of the northern spring was found to have a temperature of #bf;,c4 ,on our last visit we found an artificially constructed pool of two metres diameter and a depth of #cj centimetres2 on the west side of this were two springs1 marked by the motion of the grey sand rising and falling in the vents1 down which a stick could be easily pushed to a depth of two metres4 ,the output of these springs together amounted to six litres a minute2 the water was quite clear and although soft and rather ferruginous not by any means unpalatable 7see analyses below74 ,the pool lies on an open bare sandy spot and is surrounded by scattered bushes1 none of which however are within fifteen metres2 a sand dune lies #aej metres to the south-west1 with bushes and seven or eight young palms4 ,the southerly spring has an output of #ba litres a minute1 and its water does not differ essentially from that of the northern spring4 ,rising at the foot of a palm tree it forms pools on either side2 thence it flows a distance of #bj metres into an artificially constructed shallow basin #b to #c metres across1 from which it runs away down the slope and disappears after five or six metres4 ,the east spring1 which is situated on the east side of the dunes bounding the mouth of the bay1 consists of a small hole cut out in soft sand4 ,the water seemed good1 although analysis shows the salts content to be high2 this spring does not run1 but if emptied the hole soon refills4 ,the remains of old buildings occur near the well1 in the shape of loose roughly squared limestone blocks1 broken pottery1 and remains of old walls2 the latter are nearly level with the ground and very thickly and solidly built4 ,to the south of the promontory lies the so-called ,little ,rayan4 ,here there is a good deal of scrub1 and water can be obtained on the lowest ground at a few metres depth1 although there do not appear to be any surface springs4 ,sidenote3 ,geology of ,wadi ,rayan in broad outline4 ,the geological succession of beds exposed in the cliffs of the promontory is given later4 ,broadly speaking it consists of two thirty-metre bands of hard limestone separated by #fh metres of softer sandy and clayey beds4 ,the lower of the limestone bands in places forms the floor of the depression but more frequently the latter is composed of the overlying sandy or clayey beds4 ,the depression is bounded on the north side by the same succession1 and1 as far as could be judged from observations made on the traverse1 the bed of limestone capping the ridge1 and forming the plain stretching away to the ,birket el ,qurn and to ,gar el ,gehannem1 is identical with that capping the cliffs to the south1 i4e4 is the uppermost of the two thick limestone bands4 ,at the two points more particularly noticed1 namely1 the spurs projecting southwards into the depression1 #bc kilometres west and #ah kilometres ,w4,s4,w4 of ,gharaq basin1 the sequence seemed to be the same as in the southern cliffs1 although1 owing to the northerly dip1 the upper bed of limestone lies at a much lower level and the basal beds are not exposed at all4 ,in both these localities1 however1 some of the underlying clays were exposed1 as well as on the lowest spots crossed between the most easterly spur 7#ah kilom4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,gharaq7 and the extensive dunes lying immediately west of ,gharaq cultivation4 ,these dunes1 though of no height1 have remarkably steep sides4 ,in crossing ,gharaq to the ,faym cultivation occasional beds of yellow sandy limestone were noticed1 but their horizon was not determined4 ,numerous bored blocks1 probably belonging to the marine ,pliocene1 were observed scattered about4 ,apparently the uppermost thirty-metre band of limestone passes continuously northwards under the cultivated lands of ,gharaq and the ,faym2 in the ravines of the latter this limestone is not observed1 the soft limestones exposed below the alluvial deposits almost certainly belonging to the overlying ,ravine beds4 ,the country to the east of ,gharaq has not been geologically examined and the exact locality in which the thick bed of limestone dips underground and is overlain by the succeeding beds is doubtful4 ,further north1 in the desert ridge east of ,qalamsha1 we have observed the ,birket el ,qurn beds and a section measured at this point is given later4 ,sidenote3 ,character of ,ridge separating ,wadi ,rayan from ,gharaq and the ,faym4 ,as it appears to have been freely assumed that the ridge separating the ,rayan depression from the cultivated lands of ,gharaq and the ,faym is formed throughout of solid limestone1 it is important to point out that1 on our assumption of the identity of the beds of limestone capping the cliffs to the south and the plain to the north of the ,wadi ,rayan1 the dividing ridge would in part be formed of the underlying arenaceous and argillaceous beds4 ,sidenote3 ,question of leakage through dividing ridge4 ,the absence of ,nile deposit and freshwater shells in the ,wadi ,rayan will1 when confirmed after a thorough examination of the area1 afford the strongest evidence that the depression was never directly flooded by ,nile water4 ,the fact that the dividing ridge is probably everywhere above the highest level attained by ,lake ,mris1 and by the still more ancient prehistoric lake1 is almost sufficient in itself as a proof of this4 ,it does not however follow that there was not leakage through the ridge into the ,rayan basin1 as such leakage might conceivably have taken place to a considerable extent without the water ever having collected in sufficient quantities to form even moderate sized pools within the depression4 ,the bottom of the depression is for the most part covered with soft porous sandy deposits overlying the ,eocene bed-rock below1 and at the present time the water of the ,rayan springs1 though continually running1 at once disappears from sight1 drains down to the lowest parts of the depression and is then gradually lost by evaporation or underground leakage4 ,in the lowest parts of the depression this water is1 as already mentioned1 met with on digging to a very moderate depth4 ,a careful examination of the flanks of the ridge separating the ,faym and ,gharaq cultivated areas from ,rayan might prove if such leakage ever took place4 ,if such was the case the seepage was probably along the line of junction of the limestone and underlying clayey or sandy beds4 ,even if it were proved that there never was leakage from ,lake ,mris into ,wadi ,rayan1 it would not be safe to assume that the converse would not happen1 as the dip of the beds is from south to north and this fact is one to be reckoned with4 ,judging from the nature of the ,eocene beds forming the ,wadi ,rayan1 my opinion is that leakage on a large scale would not take place1 and that owing to the northerly dip any water that escaped from the reservoir would pass indefinitely northwards and would not find its way through the overlying limestone to the surface either in ,gharaq or the ,faym cultivation4 ,a detailed examination of the local geology would1 however1 be necessary to prove or disprove this4 ,as to the question whether the ,wadi ,rayan as a whole would hold water1 as far as is known there are no faults or other fissures of any magnitude through which the water could escape4 ,no doubt a good deal of water would be lost before the smaller joints and passages1 which exist in all rocks1 were silted up4 ,schweinfurth supposes that the freshness of the ,birket el ,qurn is due to the existence of subterranean outlets1 and such might also be found to exist in the ,wadi ,rayan4 ,in any case the argillaceous deposits from such a lake would very soon form a bed to all intents and purposes impermeable4 ,sidenote3 ,degree of ,salinity4 ,with regard to the extent of salinity of such a lake ,dr4 ,schweinfurth's figures are of considerable interest and value1 although based wholly on assumed data4 ,the greater part of the salt would be derived from the rocks and soil forming the bed of the reservoir and only by extensive sample collecting and analysis can reliable figures be obtained4 ,we believe that in the lowest parts of the basin the salt content of the ground would be found considerably in excess of the two per cent used by ,schweinfurth in his calculation1 although his total estimate would probably be found well within the mark4 ,,section ,v4--,,central ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,region4 ,sidenote3 ,central ,plain at the ,faym ,depression4 ,the great central plain1 forming the floor of the depression as a whole1 is composed of a hard bed of limestone some thirty metres thick4 ,this limestone1 forming the uppermost member of the ,rayan series1 is1 as already mentioned1 almost certainly identical with that capping the cliffs to the south of the depression1 and in all probability in the eastern extension of the plain under description underlies the whole of the cultivated lands of ,gharaq and the ,faym4 ,the feature of the plain as a whole is its marked and constant1 though low1 dip to the north2 so that its surface1 bared by denudation of the overlying soft limestones of the ,ravine series1 over a distance of some twenty kilometres1 is a true dip-slope1 at the base of which lies a strip of low-lying country extending from beyond ,gar el ,gehannem through the ,birket el ,qurn to the ,nile ,valley ridge east of ,tamia4 ,the central and lowest portion of this low-lying area is occupied by the ,birket el ,qurn1 the bed of which lies fifty metres below sea level and is thus the lowest known spot in the whole of the ,libyan desert4 ,thirty kilometres south-west of the western end of the lake1 at the base of the dip-slope of the central plain and immediately under the southern scarps of the great outlying hill-mass west of ,gar el ,gehannem1 lies another low lying basin1 which receives the drainage from a considerable area of the plain to the south-west4 ,the latter1 consisting of the limestone above-mentioned1 is here superficially covered by gravel1 and its dark undulating surface is scored by numerous shallow winding water-courses marked by an abundant growth of scrubby vegetation2 some of the principal of these drain into the basin just mentioned and after heavy rainfall the water collects and forms a pool #fjj metres in length by #ajj to #aej metres wide4 ,the base of the basin1 at about #hj metres above sea level1 is marked by a level deposit of silt of considerable thickness1 the east end of the site being surrounded by great numbers of luxuriantly growing tamarisks4 ,other similar basins exist on the plain to the south1 and under an isolated hill five kilometres ,w4,s4,w4 several full grown acacias were noticed4 ,on the low ground to the north-west of ,gar el ,gehannem1 and at several points between it and the head of the ,birket el ,qurn1 similar silt covered areas exist1 some being only from #cj to #dj metres above sea level4 ,in the extreme south-west of the region the limestone forming the central plain is gradually overlain by the succeeding beds1 so that the ground rises imperceptibly to the level of the plateau separating the depression from that of ,baharia1 distant some two days march4 ,on the eastern side1 if the superficial alluvial deposits could be stripped off1 the underlying surface of limestone1 sloping from south to north1 would not differ materially from the plain further west1 except that here1 at any rate north of ,gharaq1 the ,rayan limestone is overlain by the basal beds of the ,ravine series4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,ridge ,,separating ,,the ,,nile ,,valley ,,and ,,the ,,fayum4 ,the desert ridge separating the ,nile ,valley from the ,faym has1 to the north of the ,bahr ,yusef1 an average width of some ten kilometres2 further south it narrows1 until due east of ,gharaq the ridge is barely #b kilometres wide4 ,the highest points are situated to the east of ,sersena and ,qalamsha respectively4 ,in both these localities the ,eocene rocks1 consisting of clays alternating with beds of calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone 7pp4 #ci1 #dj7 are overlain by thick deposits of conglomerate and gravel1 attaining altitudes of over #ajj metres above the cultivated land below4 ,from these summits the slope is usually very gradual on the ,nile ,valley side but much more rapid towards the ,faym4 ,the ridge is cut down1 however1 to a comparatively low level in four localities2 to the north-east of ,tamia2 to the east of ,sla1 where the railway crosses2 between ,lahn and ,hawara1 where the ,bahr ,yusef canal enters2 and to the south of ,qalamsha1 where along the site of the proposed ,wadi ,rayan canal the highest point is only some #dj metres above the ,gharaq basin and #bg metres above the adjoining ,nile ,valley cultivation4 ,sidenote3 ,outline of earliest connection of ,nile with ,faym4 ,one of the most interesting problems connected with the ,faym may be briefly alluded to here--,when did the waters of the ,nile first obtain access to the depression8 ,as will be shown later the ,faym was occupied by the sea in ,pliocene times1 when the great gravel accumulations and gypseous deposits were formed4 ,later the area became dry and denudation of the land surface completed the work of erosion already begun in earlier times4 ,in ,pleistocene times drainage down the ,nile ,valley appears to have become definitely established and probably the river in the lower part of its course eventually washed up against and broke down the separating barrier of gravel between the ,faym and the ,nile ,valley1 so that part of its waters obtained access to the depression1 formed a lake on the lowest part1 and gradually rose until the whole basin1 up to the level of the channel connecting it with the ,nile ,valley1 became filled4 ,every year thousands of tons of sediment were carried in by the floods and spread out on the floor in the shape of a fan4 ,probably later1 as the ,nile level fell1 the valley and the depression again became disconnected1 until the more modern river1 with its gradually rising bed1 again attained the requisite altitude4 ,in early historic times the alluvial deposits had probably silted up the lake in its southern central part1 and when in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the district was first taken in hand by ,amenemhat ,i this part of it must have had the character of a huge marsh1 nearly surrounded by open water1 rapidly deepening towards the north4 ,,section ,,vii4--,,the ,,northern ,,desert ,,region4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,plateau bounding the ,faym depression to the north4 ,all along the north-west and north sides the ground rises rapidly from the base of the dip-slope of the plain in a series of escarpments to the summit of the rim of the depression1 averaging #cdj metres above sea level4 ,northwards from the summit stretches a rolling pebbly desert1 the prevailing character of which is a dark brown1 relieved by lighter brown grey and yellow patches1 and especially flecked by the light sandy slopes of the undulations4 ,although the latter seldom rise to any considerable height above the general level of the plain1 from the top of the most modest eminence an immense view in every direction can frequently be obtained4 ,the monotony of this desert is only relieved by the occasional belts of sand1 which although extremely narrow in width1 run for immense distances in almost absolutely straight lines1 and in a ,n4,n4,w4--,s4,s4,e4 direction4 ,although none of these dunes actually reach the rim of the escarpment we may mention here the beautiful ,ghart el ,khanashat1 an almost straight and apparently unbroken ridge of sand1 extremely narrow but of great length4 ,near its southern extremity the width does not exceed #ajj metres2 the slopes on both sides are frequently as much as #cj4 ,the commencement of the ,ghart el ,khanashat was observed on a march from ,wadi ,natrn to ,mogara2 it lay some way to the south of a line joining those two localities but could not be accurately fixed from the line of route4 ,the belt dies out #bd kilometres from the rim of the ,faym depression1 its termination being particularly abrupt1 although the height of the ridge diminishes gradually throughout the last kilometre or two4 ,the line of the belt if continued would almost strike the western extremity of the ,birket el ,qurn2 near its termination the desert is almost flat1 the surface being finely gravelly1 with numerous groups of silicified trees2 tufts of coarse grass grow in some profusion on the sandy ground at the base of the ridge on either side4 ,a fairly well-marked road from the ,birket el ,qurn to the ,wadi ,natrn passes the end of the ridge and continues northwards at a distance of #bjj metres from the east side of the dunes1 although apparently gradually diverging eastwards4 ,except to the north and north-west of ,tamia1 where a somewhat extensive and fairly level plain exists1 the ground1 as already mentioned1 rises from the limits of the central plain in a series of escarpments to the summit of the rim of the depression4 ,these cliff lines are broadly speaking three in number and represent the escarpments of the three great rock-stages which build up the northern part of the ,faym1 i4e41 the ,birket el ,qurn series1 the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 and the ,fluvio-marine series4 ,it would serve no useful purpose describing these different cliffs in detail2 their positions and characters are apparent on the accompanying maps4 ,the intervening plateaux are for the most part dip-slope plains formed of hard bands of rock1 which resisting denudation1 are left protecting the underlying strata while the softer beds above are cut back at a comparatively rapid rate4 ,sidenote3 ,desert west and south-west of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,in ,december #aijb and ,march #aijc a traverse was made through the unexplored country west and south-west of ,gar el ,gehannem1 finally connecting up with ,wadi ,rayan4 ,the highest escarpment1 i4e4 that of the ,fluvio-marine series1 dies out about #bj kilometres west of ,gar el ,gehannem1 gradually merging into the undulating gravel-covered plain4 ,the lower escarpments1 those of the ,qasr el ,sagha and ,birket el ,qurn series1 continue to a considerable distance in a south-westerly direction1 although gradually losing the characters of well-marked cliffs4 ,in fact westwards of this the depression gradually shallows1 until at a point some #ej kilometres south-west of ,gar el ,gehannem the floor has attained the level of the ordinary desert plateau1 on which the outcrops of the beds of successive rock-stages follow one another in regular order from south to north1 but without forming well-marked topographical features1 as in the depression4 ,hills1 capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and puddingstone1 were met with in the extreme south-west extension of the depression2 these deposits1 which will be referred to more fully later1 considered in conjunction with the similar beds occurring within the oasis of ,baharia1 and in the hills of ,gar el ,hamra1 on the plateau immediately to the north-east of that depression1 are of considerable interest and importance1 especially in connection with the question of the position of the early rivers which in ,eocene and later times brought down quantities of trees and animals1 the remains of which are so abundant throughout the later ,faym deposits4 ,sidenote3 ,jebel el ,qatrani and escarpments north of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,the boldest part of the region is the area lying between the ,birket el ,qurn and the summit of the depression to the north4 ,all three lines of cliff are here high and precipitous1 and the uppermost escarpment1 well known by the name of ,jebel el ,qatrani1 formed of a highly coloured series of sandstones and clays and capped for a distance of many kilometres by a thick bed of hard black basalt1 is of a most striking character4 ,the eastern extremity of ,jebel el ,qatrani is perhaps the most conspicuous point in the whole region2 here the two conical black basalt-capped cliff-outliers1 known as ,widan el ,faras1 stand side by side1 and from their summits the eye commands the whole region from the pyramid of ,lahn on the one side1 across ,rayan to the south1 up to the extreme limits of the depression to the south-west4 ,the rim of ,jebel el ,qatrani has a fairly constant level of about #cdj metres above the sea4 ,from ,widan el ,faras the escarpment trends northwards for a few kilometres before again resuming an easterly direction1 which is continued till the well-marked bluff of ,elwat ,hialla is reached4 ,from this summit the pyramids of ,dashr1 ,saqra and ,giza are visible to the north1 as well as ,cairo and the ,nile ,valley southwards1 backed by the bluffs on the ,eastern desert limestone plateau4 ,to the south the isolated peaks of ,garat el ,gindi and ,garat el ,faras form conspicuous landmarks on the more or less open plain which stretches to ,tamia and the limits of the ,faym cultivated lands4 ,eastwards the escarpments continue in a broken irregular manner2 the upper ones are gradually lost in an undulating plain1 while the lower eventually join those forming the northern part of the ridge separating the ,faym from the ,nile ,valley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #f3 ,for fuller details of the cultivated lands1 water-supply1 etc41 of the ,faym1 the reader is referred to the excellent description by ,sir ,hanbury ,brown in his work ,the ,fayum and ,lake ,moeris1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,footnote #g3 8,the ,lake of the ,horns10 so called from the narrow horn-like promontories which jut out into the lake on the north side4 ,views of the lake are shown in ,plates ,i1 ,,iv1 ,,xvi4 ,footnote #h3 ,this was the case until a year or two ago4 ,at the present time a limited amount of freshwater finds its way to the area immediately north of the east end of the lake and small plots are cultivated by the arabs4 ,footnote #i3 ,herodotus1 ,book ,,ii2 ,strabo1 ,book ,,xvii2 and ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,book ,i1 ,chap4 ,,li4 7,see ,brown op4 cit4 p4 #ai-bb47 ,footnote #aj3 8,hawara1 ,biahmu and ,arsin10 #ahhi4 ,footnote #aa3 ,,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #ie4 ,as mentioned above in some areas the cultivated land was formerly even more extensive than at present1 notably near the modern villages of ,roda1 ,tamia1 etc4 ,footnote #ab3 ,for details of evaporation and level-records of the lake1 see ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #f-i1 and ,p4,w4,m4 annual reports4 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,,willcocks' ,egyptian ,irrigation1 #bnd edition1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,a ,preliminary ,investigation of the ,soil and ,water of the ,faym ,province1 by ,a4 ,,lucas1 ,survey ,department1 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,appendix ,,ii1 ,a ,note by ,dr4 ,schweinfurth on the ,salt in the ,wadi ,rayan1 in ,willcocks' ,egyptian ,irrigation1 pp4 #dfj-dfe4 ,footnote #af3 ,the word 8freshness0 is used comparatively1 as the amount of salt is sufficient to make the water unpalatable or unfit for drinking1 except near the feeder canals4 ,it is1 however1 quite good enough for most culinary purposes1 and camels will usually drink from it1 although it is not advisable to water the latter from the lake either before or after a fatiguing desert march1 as in such cases the salinity of the water may have bad effects4 ,footnote #ag3 8,bull4 of the ,american ,geographical ,society1 #ahhb1 pp4 #bb and #bd40 ,footnote #ah3 ,mmoires sur les travaux publics en ,egypte1 ,paris1 #ahgc1 pp4 #ec1 #ed4 ,footnote #ai3 ,g4 ,a4 ,,liernur1 ,,col4 ,,western and ,,col4 ,,sir ,c4 ,c4 ,,scott ,,moncrieff1 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,notes on the ,wadi ,rayan1 ,cairo1 #ahhh4 ,footnote #bj3 ,note on the ,wadi ,rayan ,project1 ,cairo1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #ba3 ,perennial ,irrigation and ,flood ,protection in ,egypt1 by ,w4 ,,willcocks1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,dir4 ,gen4 of ,reservoirs1 with ,a ,note by ,w4 ,e4 ,,garstin1 ,under ,secretary of ,state1 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #ahid4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the engineering details of the ,wadi ,rayan reservoir project have since been more fully discussed by ,sir ,william ,garstin in his 8,report on the ,basin of the ,upper ,nile0 ,cairo1 7pp4 #f-i ,appendix ,i74 ,footnote #bc3 ,a ,note by ,dr4 ,,schweinfurth on the ,salt in the ,wadi ,rayan3 an appendix to ,perennial ,irrigation1 etc4 ,footnote #bd3 ,the ,assuan ,reservoir and ,lake ,moeris1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,footnote #be3 ,the following analyses of the chief springs in the ,wadi ,rayan1 made by ,mr4 ,lucas1 ,chemist to the ,survey ,department1 are of interest3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,north ,,spring4 ,,south ,,spring4 ,,east ,,spring4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,matter ,in ,solution #cihh #cejh #haaf ,chlorine calculated as ,sodium ,chloride #bghd #bchb #ehee ,sulphur ,trioxide calculated as ,sodium ,sulphate #fbi #eci #abfb ,the above figures are parts per #ajj1jjj parts of water4 ,although the above analyses prove the water to be of a very poor quality for drinking purposes1 compared with many of the wells and springs of the oases1 the water1 which is quite clear1 seemed good4 ,except for its softness and somewhat ferruginous taste1 it is quite palatable1 and on my last visit we used no other for five days4 ,the south spring was found to yield #ba litres and the north #f litres per minute4 ,the water of the third spring does not run4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,western ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,tectonics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,section ,,viii4--,,faulting ,,and ,,folding4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,faym ,depression formed by subaerial ,erosion4 ,more extended examination of the ,faym region supports my original conclusion#bf that the depression owes its origin to the same causes as have given rise to the other oases-depressions of the ,libyan ,desert1 namely ,baharia1 ,farafra1 ,dakhla and ,kharga#bg4 ,no evidence has as yet been met with which would suggest that earth-movements have played any important part in the formation of the ,faym depression4 ,local faults1 for the most part of short length and slight throw1 occur at certain points1 but the influence of these is strictly limited to their immediate neighbourhood4 ,in fact1 an examination of the desert margin of the ,faym conclusively proves that the depression has been cut out through the action of ordinary subaerial denuding agents4 ,the somewhat prevalent idea that the central portion of the depression1 that covered by alluvial soil and the water of the lake1 is faulted down1 also rests on no foundation1 all available evidence pointing in an opposite direction4 ,throughout the margin of the alluvial covered area the ,eocene beds forming the surface of the desert can be observed to pass regularly under the cultivated lands2 moreover1 the same strata are frequently exposed in the bottoms of canals1 drains1 etc41 far within the cultivation4 ,the big drainage ravines of ,el ,bats and ,el ,wadi are1 through a large part of their courses1 cut down to the underlying ,eocene rocks 7,ravine beds71 and in every locality examined the strata were found in the position they would be expected to occupy if undisturbed by tectonic movements4 ,sidenote3 ,deep boring at ,medinet el ,faym4 ,the evidence yielded by the deep boring at ,medinet el ,faym is1 as far as it goes1 to the same effect4 ,the ground level at the site was at #bcdj metres above sea-level and the following beds were passed through#bh3-- ,metres4 ,alluvial clays1 clayey sands and sands1 the latter in part coarse and pebbly #ahe ,yellow1 brown1 and grey marls and marly clays 7probably belonging for the most part to the ,ravine beds7 #aabe ,cement coloured stone #dce ,yellowish stone ,probably these #fe limestones and ,light brown solid stone occasional marls #aje and clays belong ,cement coloured soft clay to the ,rayan series4 #ag ,cement coloured stone #abe ----- #bjeg ----- ,bottom of boring #ahbc metres below sea-level4 ,the method employed in this boring was such as to bring up the material as a ground-up paste1 an examination of which does not afford absolutely conclusive evidence as to the age of the rock4 ,the absence1 after the first #ahe metres1 of sand or pebbles1 common throughout the alluvial deposits of the ,faym1 suggests that the base of these beds was reached at that depth1 but from this evidence alone it would perhaps hardly be satisfactory to conclude that the underlying #aabe metres were entirely ,eocene4 ,considering1 however that in the two deep ravines of ,el ,bats and ,el ,wadi the underlying ,eocene is very commonly exposed at an average depth of some #ae metres below cultivation level1 it is highly improbable that in the centre of the area1 at ,medinet el ,faym1 the alluvial deposits greatly exceed the same thickness4 ,to classify the #aabe metres of marly clays as alluvium would give the latter a total thickness of #aca metres and would mean that over an extremely restricted area the ,eocene rocks had been denuded to such an extent that the floor of the depression lay #ajh metres below sea-level4 ,the ground-up samples of rock closely resemble what might be expected from the clays and marls forming the ,ravine beds and in all probability the greater part of the #aabe metres belong to that series4 ,the harder stone met with at #aca metres1 which1 with the exception of a band of soft clay1 continued down to the bottom1 must be regarded as belonging to the underlying ,rayan series4 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn's ,fault theory4 ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn1 in a paper published in #aijabi dealing with the ,pliocene and ,pleistocene of ,egypt1 describes the ,faym as a triangular depression bounded on all sides by faults4 ,the position of these bounding faults1 as well as of numerous others more or less parallel to the north shore of the ,birket el ,qurn1 is shown on an accompanying map#cj and in a section drawn from ,abshawai to the summit of the plateau north of the lake4#ca ,stratigraphical evidence1 based on the supposed identity of certain strata in different localities1 is brought forward in support of these faults1 the author finally stating that the production of the ,faym is clearly and distinctly to be referred to tectonic movements4 ,our conclusion1 formed after an examination of the region in some detail1 is so diametrically opposed to the above1 that it may be worth while to state here the evidence which we consider sufficient to refute the existence of the particular faults described by ,blanckenhorn4 ,blanckenhorn's fault-lines lie for the most part within the area covered by the alluvial deposits and the water of the lake1 so that for want of exposures it is in most cases impossible to directly disprove their existence1 although strong presumptive evidence against them can be adduced4 ,the fault along the east side1 however1 is shown as closely following the junction line of the desert and the cultivated land1 but everywhere along this line we found the marls and limestones of the ,ravine beds passing regularly from the desert under the cultivated lands1 without any sort of break or dislocation4 ,moreover1 an examination of the desert ridge to the east disproved the existence of any faulting on the desert side1 while the appearance of the same beds in the ravine of ,el ,bats1 a few kilometres to the west1 proved the continuity of the beds under the cultivated alluvium in this direction4 ,certainly no fault exists along this side of the ,faym4 ,similarly with regard to the fault shown as running from the west end of the lake along the west side of the ,faym cultivation into the basin of ,gharaq2 although the desert margin along this side of the ,faym cultivation has not been so closely surveyed as that on the east side1 no evidence in favour of the existence of faults was met with in the particular localities examined4 ,with regard to the third main bounding fault1 considered by ,blanckenhorn to run throughout the length of the ,birket el ,qurn and to be continued eastwards1 possibly to the ,nile ,valley and at least to join the fault on the east side of the cultivation1 we need only say that an examination of the desert near ,tamia disproves its existence at that end2 while it is difficult to imagine that a fault could traverse the lake from end to end without revealing its presence in the island ,geziret el ,qorn or in one or other of the promontories which jut out so far into the lake from its northern shore4 ,everywhere the strata are undisturbed and occupy their normal stratigraphical level and position4 ,let us finally examine the series of more or less parallel faults stated to exist between the island and the northern shore of the lake1 and on the mainland to the north and south of ,dim4 ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn publishes a detailed section 7op4 cit41 fig4 #b41 taf4 ,,xiv7 showing the positions of these step faults and their effect on the various strata through which they cut4 ,fortunately1 in this neighbourhood the stratigraphical succession is well exposed and the presence or absence of faults become matters of easy determination4 ,the sequence of beds from south to north is normal and uninterrupted and our interpretation of the area is shown in the accompanying sections 7,plates ,,xix1 ,,xxii1 and fig4 #d74 ,we have no hesitation in saying that such faults as those shown on ,blanckenhorn's section do not exist4 ,their insertion appears to be the outcome of an error in the correlation of strata at the three points ,abshawai1 ,geziret el ,qorn and ,dim4 ,the bed capping the island is not identical with that forming the plain to the north of ,dim1 although shown to be such on the section under discussion4 ,in a later publication#cb ,blanckenhorn admits being in error in his correlation of the different beds in the localities in question and completely withdraws his former statements that the depression owes its existence to fracture and subsidence4 ,the faults shown on his detailed section from ,abshawai to ,qasr el ,sagha are admitted to be non-existent and in this retraction we may presumably include the remainder of the faults described by the same author1 as the evidence for them is of a still less satisfactory nature4 ,in a wind-swept desert area like the ,faym the slightest dislocations are as a rule markedly obvious1 and faults of any magnitude could scarcely escape detection4 ,over the greater part of the region every bed is laid bare on the surface and can be minutely examined2 while the marked irregularity of the escarpments afford sections cut through the different series in every direction4 ,some areas1 however1 are covered with superficial deposits1 which more or less effectually obscure the underlying rocks2 for instance1 on the east side a large part of the central floor is hidden by the cultivated alluvium and by the water of the lake2 in the south a considerable proportion of the floor of ,wadi ,rayan is buried under accumulations of blown sand2 and again large areas on the north1 west1 and south-west sides are obscured by a superficial covering of loose gravel4 ,but as already mentioned1 there is no reason to suppose that faults of any importance exist within the areas thus partly obscured4 ,the cultivated lands and the ,birket el ,qurn do not occupy low areas produced by faulting but1 as shown above1 owe their positions entirely to the original northerly dip of the strata and to subsequent erosion4 ,sidenote3 ,numerous small faults effects local4 ,we have already stated that small local faults occur in various parts of the ,faym and some of these may be specially mentioned4 ,the most important is about #aj kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,qasr el ,sagha2 the line of fault lies nearly north-west and south-east1 has a length of six or seven kilometres1 and affects both middle and upper ,eocene beds2 at its northern end the fault passes into a fold before finally dying out4 ,some of the ,upper ,eocene sandstones are hardened and silicified and form a succession of black knobs along the line of disturbance4 ,to the south of these the axis of dislocation bends slightly eastwards and takes the form of a sharp fold2 further south it again becomes a true fault1 flanked by a line of highly tilted beds along its south-west side4 ,the effects of this fault are very marked locally but entirely restricted to a limited area4 ,the most important is the breaking of the continuity of the escarpment of the ,qasr el ,sagha series2 the line of cliffs formed by those beds is a very marked topographical feature and the fault in question causes a lateral displacement of seven kilometres4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,fault near ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,qasr el ,sagha and westwards for a considerable distance1 small strike-faults are of common occurrence in the beds of the ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,as a rule these faults do not extend more than a few hundred metres in length1 while the down-throw seldom exceeds two or three metres and in almost every case observed is to the north4 ,the hade may be #fe or more4 ,fig4 #a shows an example near ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,the most marked of these strike faults is seen to the east of ,garat el ,esh2 commencing a little to the north-east of that hill it runs in a nearly due easterly direction till it cuts the cliffs of the ,qasr el ,sagha series after some five kilometres4 ,its down-throw is to the north and never exceeds a few metres2 this small throw is however sufficient to cause a marked displacement of the highest bed of limestone forming the dip-slope surface of the plateau at the summit of the ,middle ,eocene beds4 ,at first sight it might be suspected that the very irregular trend of the different escarpments throughout the ,faym was determined or influenced by fault lines2 an extended examination of the cliffs however gave negative results1 with one exception2 the long narrow hill-mass to the north east of ,gar el ,gahannem is bounded by faults on both sides and that on the west can be easily traced for seven or eight kilometres northwards1 and throughout its length its influence on the topography is very conspicuous4 ,footnote #bf3 ,,beadnell4 ,the ,faym depression3 ,a ,preliminary ,notice of the ,geology of a ,district in ,egypt containing a new ,palaeogene ,vertebrate ,fauna4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #dej1 ,dec4 #aija1 p4 #edj4 ,footnote #bg3 ,see reports on ,kharga ,oasis 7#aijj71 ,farafra ,oasis 7#aija71 ,dakhla ,oasis 7#aija71 and ,baharia ,oasis 7#aijc71 issued by ,survey ,dept4 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo4 ,footnote #bh3 ,public ,works ,ministry ,report4 ,cairo1 #ahii4 ,footnote #bi3 ,,blanckenhorn4 ,geologie ,aegyptens1 ,berlin #aija1 ,pt4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cci-cdd4 ,footnote #cj3 p4 #cda1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,skizze der ,strukturlinien des ,faym4 ,footnote #ca3 ,taf4 ,,xiv4 ,querprofil durch den ,faymgraben4 ,footnote #cb3 ,,blanckenhorn1 ,neue geologisch-stratigraphische ,beobachtungen in ,aegypten1 ,s4-,ber4 d4 math4-phys4 ,classe d4 kgl4 bayer4 ,ac4 d4 ,wiss4 ,bd4 ,,xxxii #aijb1 ,heft ,,iii1 ,mnchen #aijb1 pp4 #dbh1 #dbi4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,geology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,section ,,ix4--,,general ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,strata4 ,the geology of the area#cc under consideration is almost entirely stratigraphical1 the only igneous rocks being more or less local lava flows4 ,the sedimentary rocks of the district have yielded an abundant fauna1 both invertebrate and vertebrate2 the latter is of unique interest1 including as it does a number of highly interesting animal types quite new to science4 ,an extended examination in the field1 and comparisons with the stratigraphical succession in other parts of ,egypt1 checked by the determinations of the fossil molluscan fauna1 make it possible to form a very fair estimate of the approximate age of the different rock-stages1 although this may necessarily be subject to modification when the specific determinations of the entire collection of organic remains have been completed1 and the development of vertebrate life has been correlated and compared with that in other parts of the world4 ,the depression is cut out in a great series of sedimentary rocks of ,middle ,eocene1 ,upper ,eocene1 and ,oligocene age1 and one of the features of the stratigraphy of the region is the constancy of many beds over wide areas4 ,the dip of the beds throughout the area is nearly due north and at a very low angle1 averaging #b or #c1 but varying from #a to #e2 this low dip is very constantly maintained except when locally affected by small faults4 ,the structural geology and tectonics have already been discussed at some length in the previous sections4 ,the oldest beds found in the depression are the clays1 marls1 and limestones with ,nummulites gizehensis1 of ,middle ,eocene age4 ,these are succeeded by a group of white marly limestones and gypseous clays1 which largely underlie the cultivated alluvium of the ,faym4 ,they are followed by a series consisting of clays1 sandstones1 and calcareous grits1 some beds of which are characterized by the abundance of small nummulites and ,operculina4 ,the latter series is followed by the uppermost truly marine ,eocene beds1 a group of alternating clays1 sandstones and limestones1 the 8,qasr el ,sagha ,series0 7or ,carolia beds71 characterized by an abundant invertebrate and vertebrate fauna1 and equivalent to the ,upper ,mokattam beds of ,cairo4 ,above the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 and well marked off from them both lithologically and palontologically1 is found a great thickness of variegated sands1 sandstones1 clays and marls1 the 8,fluvio-marine ,series0 7,jebel el ,qatrani beds71 divided near the summit by one or more thick intercalated lava sheets1 the latter forming a convenient junction line4 ,this series of variegated beds is of ,upper ,eocene--,lower ,oligocene age4 ,no ,miocene strata have been recognized within the area1 but further north1 as at ,mogara1 ,lower ,miocene deposits occur2#cd and it is probable that there is a continuous series of lithologically similar beds from the summit of the ,faym escarpments 7,lower ,oligocene7 to the ,mogara ,miocene4 ,the ,pliocene is probably represented by the great terraces of gravel--raised beaches--which are such a marked feature in the geology of the district4 ,fossiliferous ,pliocene deposits have also been recorded from the south part of the area by ,schweinfurth4#ce ,pleistocene and ,recent are abundantly represented by lacustrine clays1 both ancient and modern1 alluvial land and blown sand1 the formation of which deposits is continuing at the present time4 ,the following table will show the sequence of strata and the classification adopted in the present memoir3-- ,,table ,,showing ,,succession ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,strata ,,in ,,the ,,fayum4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,approximate average thickness in metres1 north part of ,fayum4 ----------- ,alluvial soil1 clays1 sands1 etc4 ,,recent ,,and ,blown sand4 ,,pleistocene ,lacustrine clays1 extending to about #bc metres above sea-level4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,gravel ,terraces 78 ,pleistocene74 7,,middle87 ,shell-borings on rock ,,pliocene surfaces4 #ej ,fossiliferous deposits of ,sidmant4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,fluvio-marine ,series 7,jebel el ,qatrani beds74 ,,lower #cj ,sandstones and ,,oligocene ,,tongrian sandstone-grits with silicified trees and ,basalt sheets1 interbedded and contemporaneous4 ---------------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,variegated sands1 sandstones1 clays and marls1 with limestone-grits and thin bands of limestone4 ,the upper beds contain ,unio sp41 ,lanistes bartonianus1 ,blanck41 ,turritella pharaonica1 ,cossm41 ,potamides scalaroides1 ,desh41 ,p4 tristriatus1 ,lam41 ,pleurotoma ingens1 ,may4-,eym4 ,in the lower beds are large numbers of silicified trees associated with vertebrate remains including ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli1 ,beadn41 ,a4 ,andrewsii1 ,lankester1 ,,upper ,palomastodon ,,eocene ,,bartonian #bej ,beadnelli1 ,andr41 ,p4 minor1 ,andr41 ,mritherium ,lyonsi1 ,andr41 ,m4 trigodon1 ,andr41 ,megalohyrax eocnus1 ,andr41 ,m4 minor ,andr41 ,saghatherium antiquum1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,s4 minus1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,s4 magnum1 ,andr41 ,ancodus ,gorringei1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,geniohyus mirus1 ,andr41 ,g4 fayumensis1 ,andr41 ,g4 major1 ,andr41 ,phiomia serridens1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,pterodon africanus1 ,andr41 ,p4 macrognathus1 ,andr41 ,eremopezus libycus1 ,andr41 ,testudo ,ammon1 ,andr41 and frequent crocodilian and chelonian remains4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,qasr el ,sagha ,series 7,carolia beds74 ,alternating limestones1 marls1 clays and sandstones with ,qerunia 7,hydractinia7 cornuta1 ,may4-,eym41 ,astrohelia similis1 ,felix41 ,echinolampas ,crameri1 ,loriol41 ,ostrea ,reili1 ,fraas1 ,ostrea elegans1 ,desh41 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,bellardi1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,may4-,eym41 ,carolia placunoides1 ,cantr41 ,cardita fajumensis1 ,oppenh41 ,,upper ,macrosolen ,hollowaysi1 ,,mokattam #aee ,sowerby1 ,turritella pharaonica1 ,cossm41 ,t4 carinifera1 ,desh41 ,mesalia fasciata1 ,lam41 ,rimella rimosa1 ,sol4 ,the vertebrate remains include ,mritherium ,lyonsi1 ,andr41 ,m4 gracilis1 ,andr41 ,barytherium grave1 ,andr41 ,eosiren libyca1 ,andr41 ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,dames1 ,gigantophis ,garstini1 ,andr41 ,pterosphenus ,schweinfurthi1 ,andr41 ,psephophorus eocnus1 ,andr41 ,thallassochelys libyca1 ,andr41 ,podocnemis antiqua1 ,andr41 ,p4 ,stromeri1 v4 ,rein41 ,stereogenys ,cromeri1 ,andr41 ,s4 podocnemioides1 v4 ,rein41 ,tomistoma africanum1 ,andr41 with siluroids and ,propristis ,,middle ,schweinfurthi1 ,dames4 ,,eocene ,,parisian ---------------------------------------- ------ ,birket el ,qurn ,series 7,operculina-,nummulite beds74 ,sandstones and clays1 with sandy limestones1 and one or more well marked concretionary sandstones weathering into large globular masses4 ,nummulites ,fraasi1 de la ,harpe1 ,n4 ,beaumonti1 #ej ,operculina discoidea1 ,schwag41 ,qerunia cornuta1 ,may4-,eym41 ,plicatula polymorpha1 ,bell41 ,pectunculus pseudopulvinatus1 ,orb41 ,cardita ,viquesneli1 d',arch41 ,cardium ,schweinfurthi1 ,may4-,eym41 ,venus plicatella1 ,may4-,eym41 ,macrosolen ,hollowaysi1 ,sow41 ,lucina pharaonis1 ,bell41 ,tellina scalaroides1 ,lam41 ,clavellithes longvus1 ,sol41 ,voluta arabica1 ,may4-,eym41 ,turritella pharaonica1 ,cossm41 ,t4 carinifera1 ,desh41 with ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,dames1 and ,z4 ,isis1 ,beadn4 ,,lower -------------------------------------- ,,mokattam ,ravine ,beds4 #gj ,white marls and marly limestones with gypseous clays2 ,nucularia sp4 ,leda sp41 ,corbula aff4 pixidicula1 ,desh41 ,lucina sp4 78 pharaonis71 ,tellina tenuistriata1 ,desh41 ,zeuglodon ,isis1 ,beadn41 and scales and teeth of fish4 -------------------------------------- ,wadi ,rayan ,series 7,nummulites gizehensis beds74 #acj ,limestones1 marls1 clays1 etc41 with ,nummulites gizehensis1 ,ehrbg41 ,n4 curvispira1 ,carolia placunoides1 ,cantr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,section ,x4--,,middle ,,eocene 7,,parisian74 ,a4--,wadi ,rayan ,series4--7,nummulites ,gizehensis ,beds74 7,a4,i4e4 ,schweinfurth1 ,i4b4 ,mayer-,eymar1#cf ,lower ,mokattam of ,cairo74 ,beds of this group are chiefly found in the south of the depression4 ,the wadis ,rayan and ,mula1 as already shown by ,schweinfurth and ,mayer-,eymar#cg1 are cut out in clays and limestones of ,lower ,mokattam age2 the upper beds of limestone1 containing among other fossil#ch numerous examples of the large ,nummulites gizehensis1 form the greater part of the floor of the depression west of the ,faym cultivation1 stretching from ,jebel ,rayan to the foot of ,gar el ,gehannem1#ci #bh kilometres west of the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn 7,section ,,xx74 ,near the latter hill examples of ,n4 gizehensis of inordinately large size occur4#dj ,at the conical hill at the southern entrance to ,wadi ,mula the following beds were noticed3-- ,top of hill4 #a4 ,hard white limestone with small nummulites1 ,lucina1 ,callianassa1 and echinids4 ,salt occurs in thin deposits along joint-planes4 ,the lower part of this bed is largely composed of small nummulites and bryozoa4 ,this generally white limestone passes down into #b4 ,brown1 usually sandy1 limestone with oysters and small nummulites4 ,in it are intercalated thin beds of greenish brown sandstone and clayey sand with impressions of bryozoa4 ,some of the brown sandy limestones are full of small nummulites4 ,ostrea and ,carolia numerous4 ,the beds are not constant1 the clayey sandstones passing insensibly into sandy limestones4 #c4 ,softer beds with large nummulites1 corals1 ,ostrea1 ,nautilus4 #d4 ,soft green and brown clays1 with occasional oyster-beds4 ,at the corner of the cliff #g kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of the monastery of ,der el ,galamn1 in ,wadi ,mula1 occur about #hj metres of hard white nummulitic limestones1 with beds of argillaceous sandstone and sandy clays4 ,fossils are numerous and include nummulites of several species 7,n4 gizehensis1 etc471 ,carolia placunoides1 different species of ,ostrea1 with gastropods 7among others ,terebellum sopitum71 bryozoa1 etc4 ,it is very noticeable that the nummulites1 especially the small species1 occur in remarkable profusion not only in the limestones but often in the clays4 ,the following section will give a good idea of the general alternations found in this area2 it was measured at ,jebel ,rayan1#da #bd kilometres west of the western end of the cultivation of ,gharaq basin4 ,top of plateau4 ,metres4 #a4 ,hard snow-white limestone with occasional nummulites passing down into hard highly nummulitic limestone2 ,n4 gizehensis1 ,ostrea sp41 ,lucina sp41 ,mitra sp41 and ,carolia placunoides occur among others #ca #b4 ,vertical-faced bed of greenish clayey sands and sandy clays 7glauconitic7 with ,carolia1 ,ostrea and ,nummulites4 ,near top of bed there is much gypsum4 ,the nummulites in this bed are often collected together so as to form hard concretionary masses2 these masses1 by becoming more numerous1 finally form a hard bed of nummulitic limestone intercalated in the clays near the top4 ,the junction of the clays with the limestone of ,bed ,no4 #a is very irregular #af #c4 ,greenish shelly sands and sandy clayey bands1 interbedded with impure chalky nummulitic limestones with ,n4 gizehensis1 ,n4 curvispira1 and a third smaller species2 ,ostrea sp4 ,this bed is much obscured by debris #aa #d4 ,hard slate-blue shales1 weathering to paper-shales #b #e4 ,brownish marls passing up into clays #b ,limestone band largely made up of small and large nummulites and echinids #a ,glauconitic 787 and clayey sands and sandy clays1 with ,ostrea1 ,carolia1 and nummulites1 weathering with a vertical face4 ,in some bands large numbers of small and large nummulites lie embedded in every position1 as if tossed about by currents during the process of becoming buried by sediment4 ,gypsum occurs in thin veins and often encloses the nummulites #cf #f4 ,hard markedly-white nummulitic limestone full of ,n4 gizehensis and other species 7,n4 curvispira1 etc472 the rock usually has a dark brown colour when freshly fractured4 ,a shelly band rich in corals occurs nine metres from the top4 ,the upper part is more marly and less nummulitic than the rest of the bed4 ,base invisible #cj --- ,total thickness of beds in the above section #abi --- ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,alluvial ,,deposits ,,overlying ,,marly ,,limestones 7,,ravine ,,beds7 ,,in ,,el ,,wadi1 ,,ravine ,,near ,,qasr ,,gebali4 ,the following is a section of the beds exposed in ,wadi ,mula compiled from a paper by ,mayer-,eymar on this oasis3-- ,top4 ,metres4 ,white siliceous cavernous limestone with ,lucina globulosa1 ,desh41 ,gisortia1 ,rostellaria1 ,eschara ,duvali1 ,michelin41 7,probably bed ,no4 #a of our ,j4 ,rayan section7 #aj ,greyish-yellow marl1 rich in places with ,id4 ,ostrea ,gumbeli1 ,pecten mlehensis1 ,may4-,eym41 ,vulsella chamiformis1 ,may4-,eym41 ,velates ,schmiedeli1 ,chemnitz1 ,cerithium fodicatum1 ,pleurotoma1 ,borsonia1 ,fusus1 ,rostellaria1 etc4 #f ,yellowish sandy marl1 with small nummulites4 ,,parisian4 ,yellowish marls1 divided by one or two bands of red clay1 with ,nummulites gizehensis #g ,ic4 ,hard bedded clay #a ,vari-coloured gypseous marls #d 7,probably beds #b1 #c1 #d at ,j4 ,rayan74 ,very hard1 rich greenish-grey1 siliceous limestone with ,n4 gizehensis1 ,pecten corneus1 ,j4 ,sow41 and ,lucina 7,l4 ,ib4 consobrina1 ,desh41 and ,l4 ,defrancei1 ,desh474 #d to #e 7,probably upper part of bed #e at ,j4 ,rayan47 ,there is a considerable difference in thicknesses between the above section and that of ,jebel ,rayan4 ,our heights agree closely with those of ,schweinfurth1 so that it is probable that ,mayer-,eymar is in error1 notwithstanding his challenge of ,schweinfurth's figures in the paper mentioned4 ,b4--,ravine ,beds4 ,the beds of this series1 consisting of gypseous clays1 clayey marls1 and white marly limestones1 are met with bordering the cultivation on the east1 west and north sides2 they pass under the alluvial soil of the cultivated land and are frequently seen in the bottoms of canals1 and especially in the deep ravines known as ,el ,bats1 and ,el ,wadi 7,plates ,,iii and ,v74 ,the relation of these beds to the ,rayan series below is well seen at the prominent outstanding hill ,gar el ,gehannem 7,fig4 #b72 here the plain to the east and south is formed of the uppermost member of the ,wadi ,rayan series1 a limestone full of ,nummulites gizehensis4 ,in the hill itself the latter is directly overlain by gypseous and glauconitic sandy clays and marls1 with hard intervening beds of yellowish1 often marly1 limestone4 ,the upper beds consist of alternating clays1 sandy limestone and sandstone1 at the top being a thick bed of the latter passing up gradually into the sandstones of the ,birket el ,qurn series4 ,the following is the detailed section3-- ,summit of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,thickness in metres4 #a4 ,hard yellow and white limestone crowded with shells1 chiefly large individuals of ,carolia placunoides and ,ostrea ,fraasi4 ,numerous nummulites in upper part #be #b4 ,limestone full of ,turritella carinifera1 ,ostrea ,clot-,beyi #a #c4 ,brown clays ,lower #f beds of #d4 ,shelly limestone with ,carolia1 ,turritella1 ,qasr el ,ostrea1 ,cardita and ,qerunia ,sagha 7,hydractinia7 ,series #a 7#de #e4 ,greenish clays metres7 #f #f4 ,nummulitic limestone with ,carolia1 ,qerunia and four species of ,turritella #a ,light blue clays #b #g4 ,light green and brown sandstone with irregular concretions #b #h4 ,brown shelly limestone full of ,carolia placunoides1 ,ostrea ,reili1 ,o4 ,fraasi1 ,turritella1 ,balanus and nummulites #b #i4 ,yellow sandstone with bands of shelly limestone crowded with nummulites1 oysters1 ,birket etc4 ,near top casts of ,cardita1 ,carolia2 el ,qurn also ,cerithium1 ,teredo1 ,ostrea1 ,series ,pecten1 ,pinna1 and echinids4 ,calcareous 7#ej concretions near base metres7 #ah #aj4 ,clays with much gypsum #f #aa4 ,yellow sandstone with ,balanus4 ,bands crowded with two species of nummulites and occasional oysters4 ,in places the foraminiferal bands become highly calcareous4 ,below similar1 with hard compact grey bands and occasional fish-spines and teeth #bd #ab4 ,similar to above1 with numerous casts of ,cardita1 etc41 and small ,ostrea #bd ,argillaceous sandstone with thick stockwork of gypsum and calcareous nodules #f #ac4 ,light yellow1 brown1 and greyish gypseous clays #c #ad4 ,yellow-brown sandstones and sandy limestones1 often argillaceous4 ,fish-scales4 ,brown clays ,yellow-white marls and marly limestone ,ravine #e ,beds #ae4 ,hard light yellow shelly limestone1 in part 7#aj marly1 in part sandy metres7 #aj #af4 ,ochreous-yellow1 grey1 and white clays and marls with gypsum #i #ag4 ,hard yellow-white shaly marl with numerous shell-impressions2 much gypsum #c #ah4 ,yellow marly clays2 soft yellow and grey-brown clays1 dark sandy glauconitic1 yellow1 and black1 clays4 ,zeuglodon remains fairly common4 ,shell impressions4 ,much gypsum ,fairly hard yellow-white glauconitic marl #aj ,marly limestone with ,nummulites gizehensis forming top of ,rayan beds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,section at ,gar el ,gehannem1 showing the relation of the ,wadi ,rayan ,series to the ,ravine ,beds4 ,the clays1 marls1 and limestones of the ,ravine beds are generally found to contain fairly numerous shell-impressions1 including ,nucularia sp41 ,leda sp41 ,cardita sp41 ,corbula aff4 pixidicula1 ,lucina sp41 ,oudardia ovalis1 ,desh41 ,tellina tenuistriata1#db numerous small fish-scales1 and occasional large teeth of sharks2 while the skeletons of the toothed-whale ,zeuglodon ,isis are fairly common1 although usually in poor preservation4 ,in the ravine of ,el ,bats1 about one kilometre west of ,sla1 these beds 7#e-f metres thick7 are seen unconformably overlaid by #ab metres of false-bedded gypseous sands and clays passing up into the superficial cultivated loam4 ,the junction of these alluvial deposits and the underlying ,eocene is distinctly unconformable and an intervening pebble-bed is occasionally present 7,fig #c74 ,in the large ravine known as ,el ,wadi1 which traverses the west side of the cultivation of the ,faym1 these beds are frequently well exposed2 their lithological characters remain very constant4 ,here1 as in ,el ,bats1 they are unconformably overlain by a varying thickness of ,pleistocene and ,recent clays4 ,their surface1 a plain of subaerial denudation1 represents the original floor of the depression before the entry of the sediment-carrying water from the ,nile ,valley through the ,lahn gap2 its irregularity is seen in ,plate ,v4 ,the plain bordering the cultivation to the east of ,sla and ,rubiat likewise consists of these same white marls with fish-scales1 etc42 they pass regularly under the cultivated land4 ,shaly marls1 gypseous clays1 and chalky limestones of the same age are seen in1 and to the south of1 the railway crossing the desert between ,sla and ,medum4 ,eastwards they stretch into the ,nile ,valley1 being found exposed along the desert-edge bordering the cultivation at ,medum1 ,nawamis and ,masaret-,abusia4 #a4 ,marsh and poorly cultivated land4 ,,recent #a;a ,cultivated loam4 ,,and ,,pleistocene #b4 ,sands and clays1 with gravelly bands2 often concretionary and gypseous beds4 #c4 ,pebble-bed marking unconformable junction4 ,,middle ,,ravine #d4 ,gypseous saliferous marly clays1 white ,,eocene ,,beds marls and limestone with fishscales and ,tellina ,corbula1 etc4 ,,fig4 #c4--,sketch-,section across ,el ,bats1 #a kilometre ,west of ,sla4 ,the same beds are exposed immediately to the east of the village of ,sersena1 midway between ,sla and ,tamia4 ,they are again well seen in the ravine below the last named village1 and forming the narrow strip of the desert projecting into the cultivation as far as the northern end of the ,tamia lake2 they also occur on the shore of the latter at ,el ,tuba1 about #b kilometres south of the village4 ,at ,tamia their exposure measures #be metres in thickness4 ,at various points along the north side of the ,birket el ,qurn exposures of this series occur1 the beds forming the lower sloping part of the cliffs overlooking the lake1 as well as the base of the island 8,geziret el ,qorn10 although only the upper beds are visible above the water of the lake4 ,both here and along the northern shore of the lake they are for the most part hidden by the high level recent lacustrine clays1 but where occasionally exposed their identity is certain1 the characteristic small brown fish-scales being abundant1 besides occasional teeth1 with shell-impressions of the different genera enumerated above4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,escarpment ,,of ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun ,,series ,,near ,,the ,,western ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,lake4 ,at the western end of the lake the ,ravine beds form the lower part of the cliff as well as the plain to the south2 the underlying ,nummulites gizehensis limestone not being exposed4 ,the series consists of some #de metres of white and grey shaly marls with harder bands of siliceous limestone intercalated throughout1 one of which usually forms the uppermost bed4 ,it is1 in fact1 the development in places of one or other of these hard beds of limestone near the top of the series that gives rise to the bold promontories1 or horns1 which occur on the north side of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,the greater part of the marls and clays met with from #ahe to #aabe metres below the surface in the boring at ,medinet el ,faym in all probability belong to the ,ravine beds4 ,the maximum thickness of this series is #gj metres1 measured at ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,c4--,birket el ,qurun ,series 7,operculina-,nummulite ,beds74 ,the above designation is convenient and applicable to these beds1 which form the escarpment immediately overlooking the lake on the north side throughout its length4 ,the group includes all the beds between those last described and the well-marked ,qasr el ,sagha series1 homotaxial with the ,upper ,mokattam 7the brown beds7 of ,jebel ,mokattam1 near ,cairo4 ,it thus appears to be the equivalent of the upper part of the white beds 7quarried limestones7 of the ,mokattam section1 although the lithological characters are entirely different1 the massive limestones of ,jebel ,mokattam being represented in the ,faym by an arenaceous and argillaceous series1 deposited probably in water of far less depth4 ,where the different members of this series are well exposed certain beds are found to be characterized by the abundance of two foraminifera1 the one a small thin-shelled ,operculina 7,o4 discoidea741 and the other a small thick nummulite4#dc ,the tests of these foraminifera sometimes make up entire bands of rock4 ,in addition1 the series includes certain beds which at times become very fossiliferous1 and contain a well-preserved molluscan fauna4 ,the series is well seen in the desert separating the ,faym from the ,nile ,valley2 on the south-east and east sides of the former2 along the northern boundary of the cultivation and the ,birket el ,qurn2 and westwards in the cliffs to beyond the outlying hill-mass of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,the following section was measured on the south-west of the ,faym1 from ,ezba ,qalamsha 7on the confine of the cultivation7 to the ridge summit #e kilometres to the south-east4 ,top4 ,metres4 ,summit of ridge #e kilometres south-east of ,ezba ,qalamsha4 ,pliocene ,raised ,beach with occasional ,ostrea cucullata1 ,born41 made up of gravels with blocks of limestone4 #a4 ,ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone crowded with foraminifera 7,nummulites ,fraasi1 etc471 ,ostrea1 etc4 #ch #b4 ,sandy limestone1 largely made up of foraminifera 7,operculina discoidea 87 #b #c4 ,sandy shale #b #d4 ,sandstone1 partly calcareous1 with much gypsum #c #e4 ,calcareous sandstone with concretionary ,,birket weathering #ag ,,el ,,qurun ,,series4 #f4 ,shale with gypsum #b #g4 ,calcareous sandstone #d #h4 ,shale with gypsum #b #i4 ,calcareous sandstone1 hard and yellowish #b #aj4 ,gypseous shale with numerous small shells 7,tellina sp47 passing down into sandy limestone4 7,this bed is the uppermost member of the ,ravine beds7 #f -- ,total thickness #gh -- ,base1 cultivation level4 ,to the north of the ,lahn pyramid the beds agree generally with the above4 ,the following are the chief divisions here3-- ,top of ,hills4 ,metres4 ,gravel ,terrace 7,pliocene7 #bb metres thick4 #a4 ,calcareous sandstone and sandy limestones full of nummulites2 also ,ostrea1 etc4 #ca #b4 ,ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone or sandy limestone1 often crowded with ,operculina discoidea and some ,nummulites ,fraasi1 etc4 #ab #c4 ,sandy limestone with small foraminifera at top and some shells4 ,the upper part of this bed has been quarried #bj #d4 ,shales and shaly limestone2 gypsum -- -- ,total thickness #fc -- ,the foraminiferal sandy limestones of this series are seen at points in the desert bounding the eastern margin of the cultivation1 notably east of ,sersena and at the top of the hill #ae kilometres north-east of ,rubiat4 ,the following section was measured at the prominent hills #ag kilometres #bh ,n4 of ,e4 7magn47 of ,tamia3-- ,metres4 #a4 ,greyish laminated sandy clays with gypsum2 ,ostrea band near top #g #b4 ,white sandy limestone with numerous badly preserved ,ostrea1 ,pecten1 and other lamellibranchs #a #c4 ,dark-brown clayey sands with gypsum and grey sandy clays with obscure plant-remains4 ,occasional ,ostrea #ad #d4 ,hard1 white1 sandy limestone with numerous ,ostrea at top2 soft clays with gypsum #a #e4 ,greenish and brownish sands and sandy clays with band of sandy limestone near top #ad #f4 ,greyish-brown1 impure1 sandy limestone weathering into large globular concretions4 ,shell impressions #g4 ,sandy clays and marls alternating with impure limestones2 much gypsum4 ,occasional fish-remains and small oysters #bb #h4 ,greenish sandy limestone with traces of shells #i4 ,finely laminated grey-brown clays with black carbonaceous matter and fish-remains2 saliferous #c #aj4 ,white sandy limestone #a #aa4 ,soft yellow sandstones1 etc4 #ab4 ,white marls with fish-scales1 etc42 base not seen4 #g 7,this bed1 and possibly also #i1 #aj1 #aa1 should be reckoned as belonging to the ,ravine beds7 -- ,total thickness #gj -- ,in the north of the ,faym the series is characterized by the presence of one or more very constant well-marked beds of hard calcareous sandstone1 which almost invariably weather into huge globular masses4 ,these masses should be regarded as huge weathered-out concretions1 rather than as water-rounded blocks1 although no doubt in many cases their roundness has been increased by the action of the waters of ,lake ,moeris as the level of the latter gradually fell1 and possibly still earlier during the invasion of the ,pliocene sea2 from the latter time also may date the millions of parallel vertical borings with which these and other exposed rocks are often perforated4 ,in the various places where one of these beds forms the present surface of the desert the concretions may be seen in different stages of exposure1 from the initial1 where only just the tops are laid bare1 to the final stage where the globes are left completely weathered out1 as seen in the illustration 7,plate ,,vii74 ,the appearance of the desert when covered for many square kilometres with thousands of these blocks is more easily imagined than described4 ,the lower beds of the ,birket el ,qurn series form the island ,geziret el ,qorn1 and consist of clays and sandstones containing a considerable number of organic remains4 ,these beds were collected from and examined by ,schweinfurth#dd in #ahgi1 the mollusca being subsequently described by ,mayer-,eymar1#de while the vertebrate remains1 which included cetacean bones and numerous fish-teeth1 were submitted to ,dames4 ,the following species were determined by ,mayer-,eymar1 who indicated that the fauna as a whole had a ,bartonian aspect#df3-- ,,upper ,,bed4 ,ostrea plicata1 ,defr4 ,arca ,edwardsi1 ,desh4 ,lucina pomum1 ,duj4#dg ,lucina cfr4 tabulata1 ,desh4 ,cardium ,schweinfurthi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,cytherea ,newboldi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,tellina pellucida1 ,desh4 ,mactra compressa1 ,desh4 ,corbula pyxidicula1 ,desh4 ,calyptra trochiformis1 ,lam4 ,turritella angulata1 ,sow4 ,ficula tricarinata1 ,lam4 ,,lower ,,bed4 ,astrohelia similis1 ,may4-,eym4 ,goniastra cocchii1 d',achiardi4 ,heliastra acervularia1 ,may4-,eym4 ,heliastra ,ellisi1 ,defr4 7,astra74 ,heliastra flattersi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,ostrea digitalina1 ,dubois4 ,ostrea gigantea1 ,sol4 ,ostrea longirostris1 ,lam4 ,ostrea producta1 ,delb4 et ,raul4 ,isocardia cyprinoides1 ,braun4 ,turritella carinifera1 ,desh4 ,turritella transitoria1 ,may4-,eym4 ,turritella turris1 ,bast4 ,turbo ,parkinsoni1 ,defr4 ,pleurotoma1 sp4 ,the cetacean remains1 belonging to the genus ,zeuglodon1 were described by ,w4 ,dames1#dh who compared them with the ,american species ,z4 macrospondylus and ,z4 brachyspondylus1 but did not then consider them to represent a new species2 in a later publication1#di however1 the same author described similar but more complete remains1 also collected by ,schweinfurth 7from beds belonging to our ,qasr el ,sagha series71 as a new species1 ,z4 ,osiris4 ,a considerable number of fish-remains from ,geziret el ,qorn are also described in the earlier publication4 ,although the difference in size of the bones of separate individuals was considered by ,dames to be sexual1 it seems probable that there are two distinct species of ,zeuglodon1 as the smaller type appears to have a much greater upward range than the larger#ej2 both species1 ,z4 ,osiris1 and ,z4 ,isis occur in the ,birket el ,qurn series1 and a very fine mandible of the larger was obtained from these beds in the cliffs near the west end of the lake4#ea ,more recently a third species has been discovered by ,stromer and described under the name of ,z4 ,zitteli4#eb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,profile of beds of ,geziret el ,qorn4 #a4 ,hard brown sand-rock with large concretions of weathered globular sandstone on the summit2 ferruginous nodular bands containing shell-casts occur near top4 #b4 ,soft gypseous clays with bands of sand-rock and sandstone with ,ostrea1 ,cardium ,schweinfurthi1 ,turritella1 corals1 ,zeuglodon1 chelonian and fish-remains4 #c4 ,brown sand-rock4 #d4 ,soft gypseous clays and harder brown sandstones4 #e4 ,white shaly marl with fish-scales2 hard band at top and soft sandy shaly clays below4 ,the surface-slope is much less than shown in sketch and is generally covered by a deposit of lacustrine clays containing freshwater shells and fish-bones4 ,the accompanying profile 7,fig4 #d71 measured during a hurried visit to the island for the purpose of correlating these beds with those of the mainland1 shows the character of the lower beds of the ,birket el ,qurn series at this point4#ec ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,weathered ,,concretionary ,,sandstone 7,,birket ,,el ,,qurun ,,series7 ,,on ,,north ,,shore ,,of ,,lake ,,near ,,geziret ,,el ,,qorn4 ,the upper beds of the ,birket el ,qurn series in this part of the ,faym are lithologically similar to those just described1 consisting of alternating clays and sandstones1 about #cg metres thick4 ,they are1 however1 generally much richer in fossil remains1 which are likewise usually better preserved than in the lower beds4 ,some of the brown sandstones of this series are literally crowded with perfect examples of many of the typical mollusca2 and further west1 near the end of the lake1 foraminiferal bands again become noticeable4 ,near ,dim the escarpment of these and the lower beds is gentle and inconspicuous1 but followed westwards it becomes a bold precipitous cliff1 increasing in height towards the western end of the lake1 where it is capped by the lower beds of the ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,the following section was measured on the mainland#ed opposite the island ,geziret el ,qorn4 ,top4 ,metres4 #a4 ,gypseous clays1 separated by a band of brown sandstone crowded with white well-preserved shells1 including numerous individuals of ,plicatula polymorpha1 ,ostrea1 ,turritella and ,lucina pharaonis4 ,large vertebrae of ,zeuglodon ,isis occur on this horizon further to the north-east #h #b4 ,sandstones and gypseous clays4 ,although here the sandstones are not hard or predominant1 this bed is equivalent to the hard sandstone full of borings capping the plain between the ruins of ,dim and the top of the escarpment overlooking the lake4 ,further north this bed often contains numerous ,carolia placunoides and ,ostrea #c #c4 ,gypseous clays #c #d4 ,clays1 brown sandstones1 and occasional beds of limestone1 often very fossiliferous1 containing ,ostrea ,reili1 ,carolia placunoides1 ,cardita ,viquesneli1 d',arch41 ,lucina sp41 ,turritella pharaonica1#ee ,clavelithes longvus1 ,qerunia cornuta1 etc41 etc4 #aj #e4 ,clays with fossils as in last bed1 capped by hard band of shelly sandstone #c #f4 ,alternating yellow-brown sandstones and gypseous clays #aj -- ,total thickness #cg -- ,bed with weathered-out sandstone concretions at top--upper bed of section at ,geziret el ,qorn4#ef ,at the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn the series is well marked1 the sandstone beds forming the steep face of the bold precipitous cliffs which are so marked a feature at this end of the lake4 ,the group has a thickness of some #ej metres and is overlain by the lower beds of the ,qasr el ,sagha series2 it is more convenient here to give the entire section of the cliffs down to the base of the series under discussion3-- ,top of ,cliffs4 ,metres4 #a4 ,hard grey sandstone and shelly limestone passing up into calcareous sandstone 7forming surface of plain dipping north74 #b4 ,impure sandstone with numerous fossils3-- ,qerunia cornuta1 corals1 ,ostrea ,reili1 ,o4 ,clot-,beyi1 ,carolia placunoides1 ,plicatula polymorpha1 ,cardita 78 fajumensis7 sp41 ,clavelithes longvus1 ,serpula1 etc4 #c1 #d4 ,clays with band of argillaceous ,lower part sandstone4 ,septaria bed near base4 7#db metres7 ,fish-remains4 of ,qasr el ,sagha #e4 ,earthy limestone crowded with ,ostrea ,series4 ,clot-,beyi1 ,o4 sp41 ,plicatula polymorpha1 ,pecten sp41 ,lucina sp41 ,cytherea sp41 ,turritella sp41 ,nonionina sp41 ,oliva sp41 ,pleurotoma sp41 ,vermetus sp41 ,nautilus sp4 #f4 ,thin-bedded clays1 grey with yellowish band1 sandy clays interbedded with soft whitish sandstones with small irregular concretions4 ,clays1 gypseous and sometimes carbonaceous4 #g4 ,shelly sandstone1 hard on upper surface and very fossiliferous 7forms similar to ,bed #i74 #h4 ,gypseous clays4 #i4 ,thin 7#be to #e metre7 hard dark reddish-brown1 very ferruginous1 concretionary-weathering sandstone with nummulites and ,operculina and well-preserved examples of ,qerunia cornuta1 ,pecten sp41 ,pectunculus sp41 ,venus sp41 ,cardita ,viquesneli1 ,astarte sp41 ,macrosolen ,hollowaysi1 ,lucina sp41 ,natica sp41 ,cerithium sp41 ,clavelithes longvus1 ,voluta sp41 ,dentalium sp4 #a #aj4 ,hard purplish clays #g #aa4 ,soft yellowish sandstone with ,ostrea sp41 ,cardita gyptiaca1 ,lucina sp41 ,turritella sp41 and sharks' teeth4 ,upper surface tends to become dark1 ferruginous1 and concretionary #a #ab4 ,purple clays1 with strings of gypsum #f #ac4 ,soft light-yellow sandstones with harder shelly bands and occasional concretionary beds1 forming vertical cliff-wall #ag #ad4 ,grey and brown clays #ah -- ,ravine ,beds4 ,total #ej -- ,in the cliffs west of the end of the lake the upper bed ,no4 #i continues highly fossiliferous and yields the most perfectly preserved molluscan remains to be found in the ,faym and probably in ,egypt4 ,a few kilometres east of the end of the lake a band of large globular concretions occurs in the thick brown sandstone forming the vertical face of the cliff4 ,in many places the effect of weathering of these rocks is of some interest1 numerous 8earth-pillars0 having been formed2 these are largely the result of the action of blown sand1 assisted by rain1 the concretions being left capping pillars of brown sandstone1 the sides of which are sculptured by the wearing action of sand4 ,the curious perforate or cellular appearance which the weathered surfaces of this sandstone assume after long exposure are particularly noticeable in this neighbourhood and in the ,zeuglodon ,valley further west4 ,in the well-marked hill distant #ag kilometres to the north-east of ,gar el ,gehannem1 the soft fossiliferous sandstones of this series are crowded with ,operculina1 ,nummulites1 and many species of mollusca beautifully preserved4 ,at ,gar el ,gehannem the series is seen 7,fig4 #b and detailed section page #cf7 forming part of the slope of the hill1 underlain by the ,ravine beds1 and capped by part of the ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,it here consists of yellow sandstones divided by a bed of clay2 the sandstones are often crowded with nummulites 7of two species72 also ,operculina 7discoidea871 echinids1 ,balanus sp41 ,ostrea ,reili1 ,o4 ,fraasi1 ,carolia placunoides1 and species of ,pecten1 ,pinna1 ,cardita1 ,teredo1 ,turritella1 and ,cerithium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,section of cliffs1 western end of the ,birket el ,qurun4 ,pleistocene4--7a7 ,lacustrine clays and sands with freshwater shells and fish-remains2 ,middle ,eocene1 #a4 #ad ,clays1 sandstones and impure limestones2 #ae ,white shaly clays and marly limestones4 ,in the ,zeuglodon ,valley1 #ab kilometres ,w4,s4,w4 of ,gar el ,gehannem1 the brown sandstones of the ,birket el ,qurn series are divided by a narrow band of fine-bedded grey clay4 ,most of the fantastically shaped hills on the south-west slope of the valley are carved out of the lower division of the sandstone4 ,the concretionary beds of the ,birket el-,qurn series are not developed in this neighbourhood4 ,remains of ,zeuglodon of both species 7,z4 ,osiris and ,z4 ,isis7 are remarkably abundant and the skeletons of these cetaceans may be found in every stage of weathering4 ,the larger species1 ,z4 ,isis1 is the more common1 and series of vertebrae1 twelve to fifteen in number1 can frequently be counted in situ4 ,the remains are most abundant enclosed in the hard brown nodular bands of the series but in such cases it is almost impossible to extract specimens of any value4 ,in one instance an almost complete skull of ,z4 ,isis1 measuring #aaf cm4 in length1 was found enclosed in a large block of the nodular rock4#eg ,bones are frequently to be observed protruding from the wind-worn sides of the small hills1 while those portions of the skeleton already weathered out litter the ground below4 ,exposed they break up with rapidity1 although where the enclosing rock is softer than the bone itself1 parts of the skeleton beautifully preserved and perfectly free from matrix may sometimes be obtained4 ,the molluscan fauna is represented by very large numbers of pseudomorphs in sulphate of strontium 7celestine7 of the genera ,lucina1 ,turritella1 ,fusus and ,nautilus1 the profusion of individuals of a species of the latter being very marked4 ,in the case of lamellibranchs the radiating bundles of crystals of celestine are seen to originate from a point placed centrally on one of the valves1 so that on this side 7of a slightly weathered example7 a radiating mass of crystals is seen1 while on the other appear numerous contiguous circular areas1 representing the terminal ends of the bundles of crystalline fibres or needles4 ,apart from the quantities of organic pseudomorphs1 masses of crystalline celestine occur in the sandstones throughout the valley1 and altogether the quantity of sulphate of strontium present must be very great4 ,the gigantic oysters and other fossils which occur in some of the overlying higher beds1 and the numerous individuals of nummulites in the sandstone itself1 never seem to be replaced by celestine4 ,nummulites of two species are very abundant in some bands and the presence in the ,zeuglodon ,valley of occasional individuals of the large ,n4 gizehensis shows that in favourable localities this species persisted throughout the time represented by the deposition of the ,ravine beds and ranged upward into the basal members of the ,birket el ,qurn series4 ,in the higher hills within the valley1 and in the hill-mass on the south side1 the yellow sandstones of the ,birket el ,qurn series pass up into the basal members of the ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,in their upper limits the sandstones become very nummulitic in places and at the top bands made up of ,carolia and ,ostrea occur4 ,above these1 in the basal members of the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 huge oysters and finely preserved specimens of ,qerunia cornuta are conspicuous4 ,the dip in the valley is #b north4 ,the southern face of the hill-mass lying immediately to the south of the ,zeuglodon ,valley is an almost sheer cliff of over #ajj metres1 descending to the silt covered basin below which has already been noticed 7page #bc74 ,on this escarpment the hard nodular marly limestones of the ,ravine beds are seen near the base1 overlain by a mass of grey shaly gypseous beds2 above1 forming as a rule a vertical wall of rock1 lies the hard massive brown sandstone of the ,birket el ,qurn series1 here undivided by clays2 at the top1 highly fossiliferous alternating clays and limestones are found forming the summit of the hills4 ,the exact junction between the ,birket el ,qurn series and the overlying ,qasr el ,sagha beds is naturally perfectly arbitrary1 many of the fossils being common to both groups4 ,carolia placunoides1 which is perhaps the most abundant fossil in the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 is sometimes very common in the upper beds of the underlying group1 and1 as shown before1 is common enough in the still lower ,nummulites gizehensis beds of ,wadi ,rayan4 ,so that1 though this fossil itself is no criterion1 its relative abundance in the upper series justifies those beds being called the 8,carolia beds10 the additional name of the ,qasr el ,sagha series being taken from the old ruin of that name where these beds are fully seen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,middle ,,eocene ,,escarpment 7,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha ,,series7 #ab ,,kilom4 ,,west ,,of ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4 ,d4--,qasr el ,sagha ,series 7,carolia ,beds74 ,this division is strikingly developed in the north of the ,faym1 where it forms a bold escarpment of great length1 consisting of an alternating series of very fossiliferous clays and limestones1 with sands and sandstone in the upper beds1 of a total thickness of #age metres4 ,this series is the equivalent of the well known ,upper ,mokattam beds of ,jebel ,mokattam1 immediately to the east of ,cairo4 ,the cliffs of this hill are among the best known in ,egypt and have been studied by many geologists1 including ,zittel1 ,schweinfurth1 ,mayer-,eymar1 etc42 these authors have classified the whole of the ,upper ,mokattam of ,cairo as equivalent to the ,upper ,parisian 7,middle ,eocene7 of ,western ,europe4 ,the series is far better developed in the ,faym than at ,jebel ,mokattam1 where the total thickness is only some #gj to #hj metres4 ,in consequence of the discovery in these beds of a highly interesting vertebrate fauna1 including land animals1 the series becomes of the greatest importance4 ,as already mentioned1 as long ago as #ahgi1 ,schweinfurth1 during a journey across the ,faym1 obtained remains of ,zeuglodon in the underlying series from the island in the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,subsequently#eh he obtained additional remains of the same cetacean in a violet marl belonging to the present series1 from a locality #ab kilometres west of ,qasr el ,sagha#ei2 these remains1 as already mentioned1 were described by ,dames as ,z4 ,osiris4 ,since then important finds of land and marine mammals and reptiles have been made in different beds of this series2 these will be referred to later4 ,the outcrop of the ,qasr el ,sagha series occupies a large part of the northern desert of the ,faym4 ,the beds are1 however1 best seen in the cliffs about #h kilometres north of the ,birket el ,qurn1 where they form a steep double escarpment1 running east and west1 nearly parallel to the northern shore of the lake4 ,the dip of the series being northward at a very low angle1 and the upward slope of the ground being in the same direction1 this cliff dies out a few kilometres north-east of ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,a little further north1 however1 a ,n4,w4-,s4,e4 fold and fault again exposes nearly the whole of the beds of the series1 forming prominent cliffs as before4 ,in the conspicuous hill #ag kilometres #bh ,n4 of ,e4 7magnetic7 of ,tamia the series consists of innumerable alternations of clays and sandy limestone4 ,the calcareous beds nearly always contain numerous examples of ,carolia placunoides1 ,ostrea and ,turritella of several species1 but other well-preserved fossils are rare4 ,the exposed beds here have a thickness of about #ee metres1 and are underlain by the ,birket el ,qurn beds with a well-marked band of concretionary sandstone1 the thickness of the two series together being #abg metres4 ,the upper beds of the former series are not here exposed1 the top of the hill being formed of well-rounded flint and quartz pebbles embedded in a base of finely crystalline gypsum 7#b metres thick71 a deposit of ,pleistocene times4 ,to the north of ,tamia a large area of desert is occupied by the beds of this series2 the district has the character of an undulating plain with occasional groups of hills and low irregular escarpments4 ,at the groups of hills #ab kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,tamia1 and just to the east of ,garat el ,faras1 the ,qasr el ,sagha beds are found to consist as usual of an alternating series of sands1 sandstones1 clays1 marls and limestones1 with numerous individuals of ,ostrea1 ,carolia and ,turritella1 besides vertebr1 teeth and spines of large fish4 ,we may pass now to the locality where this series shows its best development and exposure1 the beds being all concentrated in one bold escarpment1 generally divisible into an upper and a lower cliff4 ,these cliffs overlook the ,birket el ,qurn1 although distant usually about #h kilometres1 being separated from the lower escarpment of the ,birket el ,qurn series 7immediately above the lake shore7 by a broad plain1 the surface of which is usually the dip-slope of a hard bed of sandstone4 ,from ,qasr el ,sagha 7#f kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,dim7 these cliffs trend westward1 keeping approximately the same distance from the north shore of the lake2 they have been followed and mapped for a distance of #gj kilometres to a point #ac kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,gar el ,gehannem1 whence they could be seen still trending in a direction slightly south of west 7see ,plate ,,xvii74 ,small faults are of frequent occurrence along these escarpments1 but are not of other than local interest2 they almost invariably have their downthrow to the north1 and it seldom exceeds a few metres4 ,fig4 #e shows a section through one of these faults near ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,the following detailed section 7,plate ,,xxiii7 will show the character of the beds forming this division4 ,as might be expected in such a series1 although the calcareous bands are fairly constant1 there is a continuous change of character among the sandy and clayey sediments from point to point2 the false-bedding is in places very striking4 ,the main part of the section was measured #c kilometres north-east of ,qasr el ,sagha1 but the lower beds not being exposed at that point1 they were added from the cliffs at the ruin itself4 ,the total thickness is #aed metres4 ,thickness ,top4 in metres4 #a4 ,hard1 white1 grey-weathering1 sandy limestone with numerous shell-casts3 ,echinolampas ,crameri1 ,loriol1 ,plicatula ,bellardi1 ,may4-,eym4 #b #b4 ,false-bedded sand and sand-rock with grey and green clays2 concretions and bands of ironstone4 ,hard1 dark-brown or purplish ferruginous sandstone band4 ,occasional vertebrae of ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,dames1 ,pterosphenus 7,mriophis7 ,schweinfurthi1 ,andr41 crocodilian and fish- remains2 coprolites #af #c4 ,hard1 calcareous1 ferruginous1 clayey sandstone with brown ironstone concretions4 ,occasional fish- spines4 ,clays with massive veins of gypsum forming a stock-work1 and left weathered out above surface4 ,cardium ,schweinfurthi1 ,may4-,eym41 ,cardita fajumensis1 ,oppenh41 7,cossmannella gyptiaca1 ,may4-,eym#fj71 ,crassatellithes sp4 #i #d4 ,hard1 yellow1 gypseous sandy limestone or calcareous sandstone #a #e4 ,sandy1 glauconitic clays with gypsum2 oyster-bed at base in places4 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,bellardi1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,may4-,eym4 #aj #bnd escarpment4 #f4 ,hard or friable limestone1 sometimes sandy1 full of ,carolia placunoides1 ,cantr41 and ,exogyra ,fraasi1 also ,ostrea aff4 heteroclyta1 ,defr41 ,ostrea ,reili1 ,fraas41 ,o4 elegans1 ,desh41 ,plicatula ,bellardi1 ,may4-,eym41 ,pectunculus 787 gyptiacus1 ,oppenh41 ,qerunia 7,hydractinia7 cornuta1 ,may4-,eym4 #b #g4 ,purplish clays interbedded and remarkably current- bedded with ash-grey sands1 with both ferruginous and highly carbonaceous bands with plant-remains1 lignite and natural charcoal4 ,vertebrate remains fairly common1 the mammalian including ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,eosiren libyca1 ,andr41 ,mritherium ,lyonsi1 ,barytherium8 ,andr42 the reptilian ,stereogenys ,cromeri1 ,andr41 and ,tomistoma africanum1 ,andr41 with numerous coprolites2 also frequent remains of siluroid and other fish4 ,masses of coral1 ,astrohelia similis1 ,felix1 in places #ab #h4 ,hard grey1 close-grained1 concretionary sandstone1 frequently weathering into huge elongated rounded masses2 ,turritella pharaonica1 ,cossm4 ,hard1 purplish clays with grey sandy clays1 sandrock1 etc4 ,occasional crocodile and fish- remains #d #i4 ,hard ripple-marked sandstone4 ,false-bedded sandstones with clay partings2 ferruginous and lignitic bands with lumps of lignite4 ,occasionally coprolites and remains of ,sirenia and ,crocodilia are numerous #g #aj4 ,hard or friable brown sandy limestone with shell- casts filled with scalenohedra of calcite4 ,carolia placunoides1 ,turritella sp4 #aa4 ,gypseous clays1 with red ferruginous band2 weathering to paper-shales below #d #ab4 ,light-yellow limestone and calcareous sandstone with sharks' teeth1 ,mesalia fasciata1 ,lam41 ,cassidaria sp41 ,rimella rimosa1 ,sol41 ,trachelochetus bituberculatus1 ,cossm41 ,turritella carinifera1 ,desh41 ,t4 ,lessepsi1 ,may4-,eym41 ,cardita fajumensis1 ,oppenh4 ,goniopora8 #a #ac4 ,slate-blue and brown gypseous clays with band containing ,mesalia sp41 ,cassidaria nilotica1 ,bell41 ,exogyra ,fraasi and ,goniara elegans #c #ad4 ,sandstone and sandrock1 light yellow #a #ae4 ,yellow sandy friable limestone with casts of shells and ,mesalia fasciata1 ,m4 oxycrepis1 ,may4-,eym41 ,turritella ,lessepsi1 ,t4 pharaonica1 ,cossm41 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,ostrea ,reili #af-ag4 ,sands1 sandy clays and clays with a double band of limestone containing ,ampullina hybrida1 ,lam41 ,melongena nilotica1 var4 bicarinata1 ,may4-,eym41 ,tudicla aff4 umbilicaris1 ,may4-,eym41 ,turritella ,lessepsi1 ,t4 parisiana1 ,may4-,eym41 ,solarium sp41 ,alectryonia ,clot- ,beyi1 ,plicatula polymorpha 7occasional71 ,lucina fortisiana1 ,defr41 ,l4 pharaonis1 ,bell41 ,mytilus affinis8 ,j4 and ,c4 ,sowerby1 ,astrohelia similis1 ,goniara elegans1 ,mich42 numerous vertebrate remains both above and between limestones including ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,eosiren libyca1 ,barytherium grave1 ,andr41 ,moeritherium ,lyonsi1 ,m4 gracile1 ,andr41 ,gigantophis ,garstini1 ,andr41 ,pterosphenus ,schweinfurthi and ,tomistoma africanum1 ,andr4 ,the remains of a siluroid fish are abundant2 also ,propristis ,schweinfurthi1 ,dames4 ,large numbers of coprolites4 ,silicified wood #ab #ah4 ,brown sandy limestone with casts of shells1 ,akera aff4 striatella1 ,lam41 ,ampullaria1 n4 sp41 ,gisortia gigantea1 ,munst41 ,lanistes antiquus1 ,blanck41 ,melongena nilotica1 var4 bicarinata1 ,mesalia sp41 ,cassidaria nilotica1 ,c4 aff4 nodosa1 ,solarium aff4 bistriatum1 ,desh41 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,cardium ,schweinfurthi1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,lucina pharaonis1 ,bell41 ,macrosolen ,hollowaysi1 ,j4 ,sowerby1 ,meretrix nitidula1 ,lam41 ,m4 parisiensis1 ,desh41 ,ostrea flabellula1 ,lam41 ,tellina sp41 overlying clays with gypsum #d #ai4 ,sandy limestone with numerous ,carolia placunoides and ,turritella imbricataria1 ,lam4 #a #bj4 ,greyish-blue and brown ferruginous1 sandy1 and other clays4 ,plant remains #ac #ba4 ,friable shelly limestone with occasional small calcite veins #bb4 ,clays #d #bc4 ,hard yellow sandy limestone with ,ostrea and ,anisaster 7,agassizia7 gibberulus #bd4 ,clays with thin bands of fibrous gypsum #f #be4 ,hard friable shelly limestone with numerous fossils1 including ,dictyopleurus ,haimi1 ,dunc4 and ,slad42 ,akera aff4 striatella1 ,turritella carinifera1 ,t4 imbricataria1 ,t4 pharaonica1 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi1 ,arca tethyis1 ,oppenh41 ,cardita aff4 carinata1 ,j4 ,sowerby1 ,c4 aff4 depressa1 ,locard41 ,c4 aff4 triparticostata1 ,cossm41 ,c4 cf4 gracilis and depressa1 ,locard41 ,cardita fajumensis1 ,cuculla aff4 crassatina1 ,lam41 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,glycimeris 7,pectunculus7 pulvinatus1 ,lam41 ,ostrea aff4 ,reili1 ,spondylus gyptiacus1 ,bull4 ,newt41 ,pecten solariolum1 ,may4-,eym41 ,p4 moelehensis1 ,may4-,eym41 ,qerunia cornuta1 ,euspatangus cairensis1 ,loriol1 ,linthia sp41 ,anisaster gibberulus1 ,schizaster aff4 africanus1 ,loriol2 bryozoa #bf4 ,sandy clays with gypsum #g #bg4 ,friable1 gypseous1 impure limestone with ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,carolia placunoides1 ,turritella sp41 ,qerunia cornuta1 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi #bh4 ,sandy gypseous clays #c #bi4 ,friable sandy limestone with ,carolia placunoides1 ,exogyra ,fraasi1 ,turritella sp4 7,the ruin of ,qasr el ,sagha is built on this bed7 #a #cj4 ,gypseous sandy clays with occasional oyster- limestone with ,qerunia cornuta2 ferruginous sandstone band1 etc4 #bg --- ,total #aed --- ,hard grey sandstone with ,zeuglodon and numerous ,carolia1 ,ostrea1 etc41 in places1 capping plain to south of ,qasr el ,sagha and forming the top of the 8,birket el ,qurun series40 ,the chief divisions of the series remain fairly constant and can be recognized and followed for many kilometres westwards4#fa ,the lower beds form the summits of ,gar el ,gehannem and the neighbouring hills 7see ,fig4 #b and section p4 #cf71 the upper beds of the series being exposed in the higher escarpments to the north4 ,although vertebrate remains are more common on some horizons#fb than on others1 they are occasionally met with in most of the beds4 ,the most prolific bone horizon is1 however1 about half-way down1 i4e41 those beds numbered #af and #ag in the above section2 bed #g also yielded a number of remains4 ,at the point where the upper part of the section was measured1 #c kilometres north-east of ,qasr el ,sagha1 the beds #af and #ag yielded a considerable number of land-animal remains1 all of which occurred within a fairly confined space1 suggesting that they had been carried out from the land to this point by a strong river-current and deposited when the latter became too feeble to carry them further out to sea4 ,the same beds were also examined in the faulted bay #h kilometres to the north1 but no bones1 or at most a very occasional fragment or two1 were obtained here4 ,this is easily explained by the greater distance of this locality from the land-mass to the south4 ,westwards the same beds were always found more or less bone-bearing1 isolated detached mandibles1 limb-bones and vertebr of ,mritherium1 being of frequent occurrence1 although no such complete remains were found as those from near ,qasr el ,sagha4 ,reptilian and fish bones are very widespread throughout the area4 ,an extensive and detailed examination of these beds over a large area can hardly fail to yield important results1 as other localities where skeleton-carrying currents came out from the land would very likely be discovered4 ,that the ,qasr el ,sagha series was deposited in fairly shallow water at no great distance from land seems certain1 not only from the general lithological character of the beds but from the number of land-animal remains and the frequency of river and shore-frequenting whales1 dugongs1 crocodiles and turtles4 ,the clays1 moreover1 are found to abound with impressions of plants1 and in some cases are highly lignitic1 being made up of compressed masses of vegetation including solid twigs1 now found in a state more resembling charcoal than ordinary dense lignites2 some bands approximate to an impure brown coal4 ,in certain beds of the series further to the west1 very thin seams of true coal occur2 they were1 however1 never seen to exceed one or two millimetres4 ,the intercalated bands of limestone are generally impure and do not indicate any great conditions of depth1 but only rather a temporary cessation in the supply of sand and clay4 ,corals1 moreover1 abound along many horizons4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,upper ,,beds ,,of ,,fluvio-,,marine ,,series ,,with ,,basalt ,,cap1 ,,looking ,,west ,,from ,,the ,,eastern ,,extremity ,,of ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4 ,,section ,,xi4--,,upper ,,eocene 7,,bartonian7--,,lower ,,oligocene4 ,e4--,fluvio-,marine ,series 7,jebel el ,qatrani ,beds74 ,throughout the north of the ,faym depression the ,qasr el ,sagha beds1 forming the uppermost ,middle ,eocene1 are followed by an unique series#fc of variegated#fd sands and sandstones1 with alternating beds of clay and clayey marl4 ,the ever-recurring bands of limestone1 so common to the underlying marine beds1 have now almost completely disappeared1 being represented by only an occasional bed of calcareous grit1 marl1 or thin band of limestone4 ,in the upper part of the series occurs a horizontal sheet of basalt1#fe in all probability contemporaneously interbedded2 this forms a convenient datum line and may perhaps be provisionally taken as an arbitrary junction between the ,eocene and ,oligocene4 ,although as a rule remarkably barren of organic remains1 certain bands1 especially in the upper part1 yield numerous individuals of a few species of mollusca1 including ,lucina1 ,arca1 ,mutela1 ,spatha1 ,unio1 ,lanistes1 ,turritella1 ,melania1 ,potamides1 ,cerithium and ,pleurotoma4 ,from such an assemblage we may without doubt conclude that the conditions under which the series was deposited were estuarine or fluvio-marine1 and this is further proved by the non-marine lithological character of the beds4 ,the enormous quantities of silicified wood which occur in certain beds1 in the shape of hundreds of trees of great length and girth1 together with the numerous remains of land-animals1 crocodiles1 tortoises and turtles1 indicate that rivers of considerable size emerged from the land to the south1 the coast-line of which was probably not far distant4 ,in fact the retreat of the sea1 which as already mentioned1 had probably already begun in ,middle ,eocene times1 was now still further continued1 although the cause of this was apparently not so much due to elevation of the land as to the continued deposition of sediment from south to north beyond the land-shore4 ,we may in fact regard the series as a huge delta deposit in an area of local depression1 in which the great accumulation of sediment brought down from the land continually caused the gradual retreat of the sea to the north4 ,the same conditions would even appear to have continued on to ,pliocene times1 as from the ,faym northwards stretches an immense plain of lithologically similar rocks1 evidently accumulated under similar conditions1 and which appear to contain newer and newer faunas from south to north4 ,thus1 while in the ,faym the remains are of ,middle and ,upper ,eocene and ,lower ,oligocene age1 when the latitude of ,mogara is reached1 some #gj kilometres further north1 a fauna distinctly ,lower ,miocene in aspect occurs2 further north again1 as at ,wadi ,natrn1 ,pliocene remains are abundant4 ,we may hope therefore that this otherwise barren desert1 when carefully and systematically explored1 will yield us a continuous record of the vertebrate life of the northern part of the ,african continent from ,eocene to ,pleistocene times4 ,in the ,faym1 over a length of #hj to #ij kilometres1 the basal beds of the ,fluvio-marine series1 at a height of only a few metres above the top of the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 are frequently found to contain the remains of land-animals1 often in sufficient quantities to form in places a true 8bone-bed40 ,besides land-mammals1 remains of large tortoises1 turtles and crocodiles1 are very common1 some of the latter being identical with those of the ,qasr el ,sagha series below4 ,chelonian and crocodilian remains are to be found on various horizons1 but so far none but fragmentary mammal remains have been observed in the higher parts of the series4 ,it is interesting to note that the bones in these beds appear to be most common near the accumulations of fossil trees1 thus suggesting that they were floated out from the land at the same time and by the same river-currents4 ,the porous character of the sands and sandstones of this group has resulted in the remains not being in nearly so hard or durable a condition1 except when coated with ferruginous sand1 as those in the series below1 although the actual state of preservation is even more perfect4 ,analysis shows that these bones1 with the exception of the loss of all organic matter1 have undergone very little change4 ,a sample examined by ,mr4 ,lucas was taken from a typically preserved pelvis of ,arsinoitherium and gave the following result3-- ,,determined4 ,,calculated4 ,silica #jeg ,silica #jeg ,oxide of ,iron #aih ,oxide of ,iron #aih ,lime #eadj ,calcium ,phosphate #gfaa ,magnesia trace ,magnesium ,phosphate trace ,phosphoric ,acid #cdhf ,calcium ,sulphate #dfd ,sulphuric ,acid #bgd ,calcium ,carbonate #adge ,loss on ignition1 ,organic ,matter nil being ,carbon dioxide #fac ,chlorine trace ,sodium ,chloride trace ,not determined #bcb ,not determined #aie ------ ------ #ajjjj #ajjjj ,the following composition of the bones of an ox1 from an analysis by ,berzelius1 is appended for comparison3-- ,phosphate and ,fluoride of ,calcium #egce ,carbonate of ,calcium #che ,phosphate of ,magnesium #bje ,soda and a little ,sodium ,chloride #cde ,organic ,matter #cccj ------ #ajjjj ------ ,it is curious that these ,eocene bones should have so completely preserved their original composition considering the almost universal silicification of the trees deposited in the same beds4 ,most frequently the vertebrate remains are found in an unconsolidated false-bedded clean quartz sand1 the grains of which are semi-rounded or angular2 in some layers the sand is very coarse and polished1 and mixed with fine gravel4 ,these deposits of sand1 apparently brought down by river floods1 are not continuous along any particular horizon1 but are intercalated here and there in the ordinary sandstones1 clays and marls of the series2 they occur chiefly1 however1 as local lenticular masses along a more or less constant horizon near the base of the series4 ,the bone-remains are not absolutely confined to these deposits of river-sand1 but like the silicified trees are far more common in them than elsewhere4 ,scattered mammal bones occur in the lower clays1 marls1 and hard concretionary sandstones1 while the remains of aquatic animals1 such as turtles and crocodiles1 may be found almost anywhere4 ,from an examination of the series in the field1 there is no doubt that1 in at least the centre of the area1 the deposition of the lowest beds was continuous with those of the ,qasr el ,sagha 7,middle ,eocene7 series below4 ,followed away from the centre 7i4e4 the district round ,widan el ,faras1 the eastern extremity of ,jebel el ,qatrani7 the series gradually thins out1 and eastwards1 at ,elwat ,hialla1 some #bc kilometres north of ,tamia1 has a thickness of only #dj metres1 the basal beds being apparently laid on to a bed of limestone of the ,qasr el ,sagha series about the horizon of ,bed #ab in ,section ,,xxiii4 ,the junction here is apparently one of perfect conformity as far as the individual beds go1 and the peculiar sequence does not seem to be due to ordinary overlap2 it appears as if the change from marine to estuarine conditions had set in earlier here than further to the west1 with the result that the upper ,qasr el ,sagha beds are wanting4 ,moreover1 the accumulation of estuarine beds went on so slowly in this locality that the series does not attain to nearly its normal thickness1 while further east it dies out altogether4 ,the slight dip to the north is identical in both series1 their lithological characters being1 however1 very different4 ,although the ,qasr el ,sagha series contains numerous bands of clay and sandstone1 the continual recurrence of thick beds of limestone at once gives it a distinguishing feature from the group under discussion2 the latter is in fact characterized by the highly-coloured sandy1 and to less extent clayey1 character of its beds4 ,while the ,middle ,eocene is essentially marine1 the succeeding formation marks the retreat of the sea and the incoming of estuarine and brackish water conditions4 ,before discussing the age of the ,fluvio-marine series it will be well to describe its development in the field4 ,the beds of the complex are throughout the district always found following on above the ,qasr el ,sagha beds1 although their thickness varies considerably1 as might be expected in a series of this nature4 ,the most easterly locality to which the formation was mapped is the scarp #bc kilometres due north of ,tamia1 known as ,elwat ,hialla4 ,here the beds form a separate escarpment1 consisting of only about #dj metres of sands and sandstone grit 7sometimes silicified7 with pieces of silicified wood3 some of the beds of sandstone have a concretionary stem-like weathering4 ,from this point these beds extend westwards far beyond the western end of the lake1 always forming the highest escarpments of the ,faym depression4 ,a kilometre or two from our most easterly point the first basalt sheets are seen1 and these1 preserving the same level as far as can be observed1 continue some #fj kilometres further west1 to a point nearly due north of the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,the series1 only #dj metres thick at the eastern end1 gradually thickens as it is followed westward1 until it reaches its maximum development in the cliffs of ,jebel el ,qatrani1 north-west of the temple of ,qasr el ,sagha1 where a thickness of some #baj metres is attained4 ,just #bi kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,tamia 7#f kilometres ,n4,w4 of the prominent western scarp of ,elwat ,hialla71 a long hill offers a good section of these beds1 which consist of a variegated group of green sands1 red clays1 coarse sandstones1 red and yellow sand and sandstone1 etc41 capped by a band of hard impure yellowish limestone with numerous enclosed sand-grains 7calcareous grit74 ,near the same place is an interbedded sheet of basalt1 which is sometimes followed by another band of impure limestone and the latter by false-bedded sandstone4 ,huge logs of weathered-out silicified trees are seen strewn about4 ,the following is a detailed section of the series1 measured from a point #c kilometres ,w4,n4,w4 of ,elwat ,hialla1 and about #bh kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,tamia1 to the top of the escarpment #d kilometres further north3-- ,undulating sandy1 gravel-covered desert#ff stretching northwards4 ,top of escarpment4 ,metres4 #a4 ,false-bedded sandstones #b4 ,band of impure limestone #h #c4 ,interbedded basalt sheet #d4 ,sandstone 7,section continued in hill kilometre further north-east74 #e4 ,hard yellow limestone with enclosed sand-grains2 cavities full of calcite #a #f4 ,greenish-white sand-rock #a #g4 ,hard reddish-brown stem-weathering sandstone #a #h4 ,greenish or white sand and sand-rock #c #i4 ,variegated sandy clays2 sand-rock with occasional fragments of bone #f #aj4 ,white sand-rock #a #aa4 ,rose-coloured sandstone #b #ab4 ,hard grey white marly clays #b #ac4 ,coarse yellow sandstone #e #ad4 ,reddish1 white1 and variegated sands and sand-rock #h #ae4 ,grey1 reddish and yellowish clays1 with bands full of plant-remains #c #af4 ,brown clayey1 sandstone #b #ag4 ,greenish sandstone #a #ah4 ,sandy grey clay #a #ai4 ,hard grey sandstone #bj4 ,greenish sand-rock and clayey sandstone #c #ba4 ,dark red clay #a #bb4 ,sands1 etc42 outcrop of bed covered with silicified trees of large dimensions1 #ab-ae metres long #aj #bc4 ,clays with hard grey false-bedded sandstone and showing fine mammilary weathering at top4 ,silicified logs on surface #h #bd4 ,red clays1 sandy clays and argillaceous sands #d #be4 ,reddish sand-rock #a #bf4 ,yellowish sand-rock1 in part false-bedded #b #bg4 ,red clays with thin sandy bands #a #bh4 ,coarse grey sandstone #b #bi4 ,red and green sandy clays with thin band of hard white sandstone at top #a #cj4 ,bright red clay #d #ca4 ,red clays with thin green sandy bands #c #cb4 ,greenish sand-rock with thin red clayey bands #a #cc4 ,reddish white mottled clayey sandstones passing up into red and white mottled clays and sandy clays #h #cd4 ,fine white sand #c #ce4 ,black ferruginous silicified sandstone -- ,total thickness #ij -- ,base4 ,junction with ,middle ,eocene 7,qasr el ,sagha series74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,el ,,qatrani ,,range ,,from ,,the ,,south-,,east4 ,a little further west1 at a point #be kilometres north of the eastern end of the ,birket el ,qurn1 thick beds of white coarse sandstone form the upper part of the escarpment4 ,below comes a bed of yellowish impure limestone and below this an interbedded sheet of basalt #ba metres thick1 underlaid by more white sandstone4 ,the series has almost always a constant dip of two or three degrees to the north4 ,silicified trees are very commonly found strewn over the surface both near the base and high up in the series4 ,at a point about #ad kilometres north of ,qasr el ,sagha definite organic remains other than bone-fragments were for the first time met with in the series4 ,here a fragment of ochreous-coloured grit containing numerous specimens of a small ,melania was picked up and similar rocks were afterwards found in situ4 ,calcareous grits and impure limestones occurred at the same spot1 and one of the harder more compact bands of limestone was found to contain casts of ,cerithium4 ,also at a point #i kilometres north of ,qasr el ,sagha hard grey limestones1 generally compact and cherty1 and sometimes semi-crystalline1 are present1 containing casts of ,melania1 frequently filled with calcite4 ,these overlie variegated sandstones1 and occur at about #dj metres below the basalt near the top of the escarpment4 ,blanckenhorn has determined my fossils from these localities as follows3-- ,melania nov4 sp41 allied to ,m4 ,nysti of the ,oligocene4 ,potamides scalaroides1 ,desh41 an important guiding form of the ,middle ,beauchamp ,sands of the ,paris ,basin1 and thus ,upper ,eocene4 ,potamides tristriatus1 ,lam41 of the ,parisian 7,cerithium crispum1 ,desh417 is nearly related to the frequent ,middle and ,upper ,eocene ,c4 perditum1 ,bay1 between which1 according to ,cossmann1 transitions exist4 ,cerithium tiarella1 ,desh41 of the ,middle and ,upper ,eocene1 but more especially in the latter4 ,blanckenhorn considers these determinations as certain1 and thus marking the complex as ,upper ,eocene1 on the level of the 8,beauchamp ,sands0 of the ,paris ,basin1 and consequently of the ,lower ,headon ,hill beds and ,barton ,clay of the ,south of ,england4 ,the following section was measured from the base of the series1 #b kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,qasr el ,sagha1 to the summit of the escarpments1 #b kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,widan el ,faras4 ,the series has its maximum thickness at this point4 ,summit of escarpment of ,faym depression1 #b kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,widan el ,faras4 ,top4 ,metres4 #a4 ,sandstones with band of coarse dark ferruginous grit2 silicified logs occur weathered-out of this bed #ah #b4 ,coarse sandstone-grit with yellowish calcareous base #a #c4 ,greyish clay1 possibly a product of decomposed basalt #d4 ,basalt sheet1 soft friable1 grey or bright green1 and decomposed at base #e #e4 ,hard yellow calcareous-grit with calcite-filled cavities1 passing into semi-compacted yellowish sand1 hardened at junction with basalt #a #f4 ,white and red sands #g4 ,greenish sandstones and yellow concretionary sands with #be cm4 layer of calcareous grit1 with gastropods #bg including large ,cerithium1 ,melania sp41 ,turritella pharaonica1 ,pleurotoma ingens1 ,may4-,eym41 occasional lamellibranchs and also ,callianassa #h4 ,white1 green and brown sands and sand-rock #ag #i4 ,hard yellow calcareous grit #aj4 ,red and white clayey sand and sandy clays2 some pebbly #aj bands2 ,lucina sp41 ,unio sp41#fg preserved in brown ironstone1 common in places on this horizon #aa4 ,coarse grey and white sand 7#b metres7 #ab4 ,red clayey sands 7#a metre7 #e #ac4 ,white and yellow sand and sand-rock #ad4 ,red clays #g #ae4 ,sandy ferruginous band with lamellibranchs and gastropods of genera ,unio1 ,pseudodon1 ,mutela1 ,spatha and ,lanistes1 indicating fluviatile or fresh water conditions of deposition #e #af4 ,green clay 7#a metre7 passing into a red variety #ag4 ,white sandy clay 7#b metres7 #ah4 ,red clays #f #ai4 ,white1 brown1 and red sands1 partly consolidated #bj4 ,bright red clay #ba4 ,hard coarse sandstone #c #bb4 ,hard compact light yellow limestone enclosing sand- grains 7 metre7 #bc4 ,white and yellow sands #e #bd4 ,greenish clays 7#a metre7 #be4 ,coarse white sands with ,unio and ,cardium-like lamellibranchs preserved in brown ironstone #bf4 ,grey clay #b #bg4 ,hard yellow impure limestone 7forms a small platform7 #b #bh4 ,grey clays #bi4 ,red and yellow sands with hard base of grey sandstone #ae #cj4 ,grey sandstones4 ,base of basalt-capped escarpment #g 7,section continued kilometre south-east74 #ca4 ,hard blue-grey compact cherty limestone 7 metre7 with casts of ,melania2 hollows often filled with calcite #ah #cb4 ,variegated 7red1 white and yellow7 sands1 sand-rock and sandy clays #cc4 ,hard compact close-grained limestone #ah #cd4 ,red and white variegated sands and sand-rock1 with some bands of red clay #ce4 ,hard yellow impure limestone 77 #cf4 ,grey clays #ad #cg4 ,coarse white sand #ch4 ,brown calcareous sandstones #ci4 ,greenish and grey sandy clays 7#c metres7 #h #dj4 ,alternating white and red sands #da4 ,coarse yellow calcareous grit 7 metre7 #db4 ,light green sandstone #b #dc4 ,reddish clays #dd4 ,white sand #b #de4 ,alternating white and bright red sands #ai #df4 ,grey sandstone with silicified wood2 occasional crocodilian and other bones #dg4 ,hard red clays #e #dh4 ,grey and brown clays1 sandy clays1 and thin beds of sandstone with some silicified wood #ai #di4 ,grey sandstones and loose false-bedded sandy clays with many silicified trees and remains#fh of ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli1 ,bead41 ,palomastodon ,beadnelli1 ,andr41 ,mritherium sp41 ,phiomia serridens1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,saghatherium antiquum1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,s4 minus1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,megalohyrax eocnus1 ,andr41 ,ancodus ,gorringei1 ,andr4 and ,beadn41 ,pterodon africanus1 ,andr41 ,crocodilus sp41 ,tomistoma africanum1 ,andr41 and large and numerous tortoises 7,testudo ,ammon1 ,andr47#fi and turtles#gj1 and very rarely fragmentary fish-remains #e #ej4 ,thin bands of limestone #ea4 ,yellow sand-rock #eb4 ,grey sandstone with fragments of bone 7 metre7 #be #ec4 ,brown calcareous-grit 7 metre7 #ed4 ,light green sand-rock and sandstone ,approximate total thickness in metres #bga ,the specimens collected from ,bed #ae1 on about the same horizon as the fossils mentioned from the locality #ad kilometres north of ,qasr el ,sagha1 were examined by ,blanckenhorn1 who has published the following notice of them3-- 8,i should first mention the fresh-water shells found by ,beadnell in brown sandstone #a kilometre north of ,camp #ai 7i4e4 at ,widan el ,faras71 which1 in the absence of special literature on the ,palaeogene fresh-water shells of ,north ,africa and nearer ,asia1 ,i have compared with the fauna of to-day1 in which ,i was most kindly helped by ,professor v4 ,martens1 ,director of the ,conchological ,collection of the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,the greater number of the forms have a distinctly tropical1 and more especially ,central ,african1 character4 ,unio sp41 small1 related to the recent ,u4 ,nyassnsis of ,lake ,nyassa4 ,unio1 related to ,u4 ,homsensis#ga ,lea1 from ,syria1 and ,u4 ,bonneaudi from ,cochin ,china1 with many radial folds behind the umbo which run obliquely from the blunt edge backwards towards the hinge-border4 ,unio1 related to ,u4 teretiusculus1 ,phil4 7,caillaudi1 ,fer41 lithophagus1 ,ziegli47 of the ,nile4 ,pseudodon8 sp4 ,mutela 7a genus of tropical ,africa7 sp41 long1 with a straight finely-toothed hinge-border which very much recalls that of ,barbatia 7a sub-genus of ,arca74 ,spatha sp4 related to ,s4 dahomeyensis and ,s4 ,droueti of ,assinia in ,west ,africa4 ,lanistes carinatus1#gb scarcely distinguishable from the ,nile form4 ,the ,melania occurring in mass in the uppermost calcareous bed appears to be a new species#gc whose nearest relation must in any case be ,m4 ,nysti of the ,oligocene1 not ,m4 muricata of the ,eocene1 amongst forms at present known4 ,turritella angulata1 ,sow4 ,a marine form1 occurring below the basalt and indubitably this species1 as it is well preserved and easily determined#gd2 ,t4 angulata ranges from the ,middle ,eocene to the ,lower ,oligocene of the ,east and occurs in the ,upper ,mokattam of ,syria40 ,from ,widan el ,faras the series continues westwards1 forming several escarpments1 the uppermost that of ,jebel el ,qatrani1 and maintaining the same general characters4 ,the tripartite character of the series1 already noticeable between ,qasr el ,sagha and ,widan el ,faras 7see foregoing section7 becomes still more marked4 ,the lowest division is very largely composed of fluviatile sands and sandstones1 frequently coarse-grained and usually markedly current-bedded1 divided by clays and containing an abundance of silicified trees and quantities of vertebrate remains4 ,these soft beds1 some #fj metres in thickness1 have as a rule an extensive outcrop1 forming an undulating plain averaging two or three kilometres in width4 ,they are overlaid by some #ag metres of harder dark red sandstones1 which invariably form a well-marked escarpment capped by a very constant two or three metres band of hard white or pinkish calcareous grit4 ,this grit varies in composition1 frequently passing into a marl2 and one of the characteristics of this and the underlying red beds is the abundance of nodular masses of calcite and gypsum4 ,in some localities1 as for instance #c kilometres ,w4,n4,w4 of ,qasr el ,sagha1 numerous spherical nodules of beekitic chalcedony occur in the beds of this division1 and some of these when broken are found to be geodes lined with beautiful crystals of quartz and calcite4 ,the next division consists of some #fj metres of alternating sandstones and clays with occasional thin calcareous bands in the upper part1 and capped by a well-marked hard cherty limestone1 frequently passing into a dense tabular chert or flint4 ,this exceptionally hard band generally forms a dip-slope plain of some width1 before the softer basal members of the third and highest division overlie it4 ,the siliceous bed caps many of the most notable hills in the district2 among others may be mentioned the big isolated hill #i kilometres north-west of ,garat el ,esh1 and the hills five kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of the same point4 ,this is the only horizon throughout the ,eocene succession of the ,faym on which an abundance of flint is met with2 that it was well known and exploited in early times is evident from the old pits met with on the summits of the hills overlooking the main bone-pits1 a few kilometres north of ,garat el ,esh4 ,as no worked flints were noticed round the workings it is probable that the material was excavated and carried away to the borders of the lake1 there to be fashioned into the harpoons1 saws and other implements which are so commonly found scattered at the present day near the margin of the old lake site4 ,the uppermost division of the ,fluvio-marine series consists of over #ajj metres of variegated sediments and forms the escarpment of ,jebel el ,qatrani itself1 capped by the conspicuous band of hard black basalt1 which is itself overlain by a further #bj metres of similar sediments4 ,the basalt has a thickness of over #bj metres in places1 though its average is considerably less2 at the base it is frequently decomposed1 soft1 and of a brown colour4 ,at a point due north of the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn the interbedded basalt sheet terminates1 and no further flows were seen as far as the point up to which the series was mapped1 nearly due north of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,as far as could be seen on a traverse through the ,zeuglodon ,valley to the south-western limits of the depression no further basalt flows occur4 ,section from the base of the ,fluvio-marine series1 #b kilometres north of ,garat el ,esh1 to the summit of ,jebel el ,qatrani #e kilometres north of the bone-pits4 7,see ,plates ,,xviii and ,,xxiv74 ,approximate thickness in ,summit of plateau4 metres #a4 ,coarse sandstones and grits #ac #b4 ,basalt #be #c4 ,yellow sands and sandstones1 capped by #c m4 of hard concretionary grey sandstone with occasional mammalian bones 7underlying basalt in scarp and capping outlying hill7 #ae #d4 ,hard sandstones with clayey bands #h #e4 ,sandy and clayey beds #e #f4 ,hard yellow calcareous grit #e #g4 ,clays and clayey marls #g #h4 ,sandy beds #ae #i4 ,hard sandstone 7forms connecting ridge between hill and escarpment7 #aj4 ,clays with thin sandstone bands #dj #aa4 ,variable sandy and marly red clays with a hard yellowish sandstone band ten metres from base ,base of isolated hill4 #ab4 ,soft sands with chelonian and crocodilian remains #d #ac4 ,sandy clays with chelonian and mammalian 7,arsinoitherium7 bones1 capped by coarse grit1 in part ferruginous silicified grit and quartzite #a #ad4 ,white calcareous grit and marly limestone4 ,band of flint in places ,summit of hill overlooking bone-pits4 #ad4 ,sandstone1 becoming calcareous and passing up #aj into #c m4 of hard white calcareous grit1 and yellowish white bedded marly limestone with calcite druses4 ,capped by m4 hard tabular chert and flint #ae4 ,finely laminated grey shaly clays1 sandy and marly clays1 capped by #b m4 of mottled yellow and red sandstone and sandstone-grit #aj #af4 ,hard red1 green1 and brown sandstone #ag4 ,variegated grey1 green and red clays1 marly clays and sandy beds1 with thin bands of sandstone4 ,more arenaceous towards top #ba #ah4 ,hard grey sandstone2 greenish sandy clays2 hard dark red marls and marly clays at top #f #ai4 ,thin band of hard yellow limestone1 capping salty red clays and sandy clays #f #bj4 ,soft greenish clayey sandstone capped by m4 of hard false-bedded concretionary sandstone with numerous enclosed coprolites #c ,base of hill overlooking bone-pits4 #ba4 ,pink calcareous grit 7forming summit of lowest escarpment71 with small flint and quartz pebbles in some layers4 ,an abundance of calcite and gypsum #c #bb4 ,mottled red and green clayey sandstone1 clays and clayey marls4 ,passing up into a hard sandy 7or clayey7 dark red marl with greenish mottlings #g #bc4 ,light yellow finely-laminated sandrock passing up into dark red sandrock4 ,some clayey bands #aj #bd4 ,coarse unconsolidated false-bedded sands1 with occasional bands of clay and consolidated sandstone bands4 ,numerous silicified trees and abundant mammalian and reptilian remains4 7,see list in ,bed #di of ,widan el ,faras section74 ,bone-pits are in this bed #dj #be4 ,thin band 7 m47 of hard sandstone with sometimes impure calcareous grit #aj #bf4 ,hard light yellow sandstone1 often very coarse1 and with red bands #bg4 ,soft brick red and light yellow sands and sandstones1 7seen on plain and overlying uppermost limestone of the ,middle ,eocene7 #bj ,base of ,fluvio-marine ,series4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,silicified ,,trees ,,of ,,fluvio-,,marine ,,series1 #d ,,kilometres ,,north ,,of ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4 ,in some localities pebbly bands occur in the sandstone-grits1 especially in some of the beds above the basalt3 the pebbles are mostly quartz or flint1 subangular or rounded1 the layer averaging perhaps two cm4 in diameter1 although occasional specimens three or four times that size are met with4 ,silicified trees of two distinct types#ge occur1 and they are met with chiefly on two horizons2 usually large numbers of trees occur together1 completely covering the surface in places2 they lie as a rule scattered about in every direction1 although occasionally a large proportion may show considerable parallelism of deposition1 as if arranged by the direction of the current which floated them to the spot4 ,they always occur in a horizontal position or parallel to the dip of the bed1 and it seems quite certain that none of them ever grew near where they are now found4 ,the trees never bear attached branches1 the latter having always been broken off at or near the point of junction with the trunk1 where the scars are often plainly seen2 this points to the trees having been drifted a considerable distance4 ,many trees over #be metres#gf in length have been met with1 but this by no means represents the original height1 as the trunks have lost considerably in length during transport to their present localities4 ,although1 as a rule1 found completely weathered-out and exposed on the surface1 in numerous localities these silicified trees are to be observed firmly embedded in the sandstones in which they were deposited1 many being met with in our excavations for bones4 ,as the ,fluvio-marine series is followed westwards from the central part of the area1 the different divisions become more and more attenuated and the outcrops more and more obscured by superficial gravel4 ,north-west of the ,zeuglodon ,valley an escarpment capped by a conspicuous bed of white calcareous grit occurs and perhaps represents the lower beds of the series4 ,the higher are lost on the gravelly undulating plateau above4 ,f4--,age of the 8,fluvio-,marine ,series04 ,the beds in question being as a whole remarkably unfossiliferous1 a determination of their exact age on palaeontological grounds is an undertaking of some difficulty4 ,the series1 however1 in certain beds is very rich in vertebrate remains2 a considerable number of new and important forms have already been obtained and further additions are probable4 ,until the survey of the area in #ahih it appears that the only fossils obtained from these rocks were a few casts and badly-preserved specimens of mollusca from the highest beds above the basalt1 collected by one or two observers from localities between the summit of the ,faym escarpments and the ,pyramids of ,giza4 ,the ,rohlfs ,expedition did not visit this part of ,egypt1 and ,zittel#gg tabulated the beds1 which he called the 8,schichten von ,birket el ,qurn0 as doubtfully ,oligocene2 probably the beds referred to are those of the island ,geziret el ,qorn1 which1 as already mentioned1 belong to the lower division of the ,birket el ,qurn series1 and are therefore of ,middle ,eocene age4 ,mayer-,eymar#gh states that he was able to subdivide the series under discussion into ,upper and ,lower ,ligurian and ,lower ,tongrian4 ,schweinfurth#gi considered the series as ,miocene1 comparing them with the lithologically similar ,scutella beds of ,der el ,beda to the east of ,cairo4 ,blanckenhorn1 on the evidence of the writer's fossil collections1 states1 as already mentioned1 that the upper part is certainly to be regarded as ,lower ,oligocene and the lower part as ,upper ,eocene4 ,first as to the stratigraphical position of the series4 ,there is no doubt that the lowest beds of the group were deposited 7at any rate in the central part of the area7 in practical continuity with the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 which1 as shown1 is certainly of ,middle ,eocene age4 ,a great change in the lithology of the beds1 however1 makes the junction a perfectly natural one4 ,we pass from a truly marine series into an estuarine or fluvio-marine set of beds1 and such a change near the summit of the ,eocene is not an uncommon one in some parts of ,europe4 ,the stratigraphical position in the field1 therefore1 favours an ,upper ,eocene age for the lower beds4 ,the dip being northwards1 newer and newer beds are met with from south to north on the great undulating1 but more or less level1 desert north of the escarpment summit4 ,the occurrence of ,lower ,miocene beds at ,mogara1 some #ajj kilometres north or north-west1 also points to a somewhat younger1 or ,oligocene1 age for the underlying beds1 7i4e41 those between the ,faym escarpment and ,mogara74 ,the actual relations1 however1 of the beds in the two localities have not yet been determined1 but it is probable younger beds are continually met with from south to north4 ,until the entire collection of fossils has been examined and determined1 it is somewhat premature to attempt to fix the age of the series on palaeontological grounds4 ,up to the present the foregoing lists show the species which have been provisionally or finally determined4 ,some of these appear to be identical with species which have been recorded from ,upper ,eocene deposits of ,europe1 such as ,potamides scalaroides1 ,p4 tiarella1 while others1 such as ,melania cf4 ,nysti1 ,natica crassatina 7found below the basalt in the so-called ,sandberger ,hills north-east of the ,faym escarpment71 are typically ,lower ,oligocene4 ,other forms1 such as ,turritella angulata1 are common to both ,eocene and ,oligocene elsewhere4 ,if ,blanckenhorn's determinations of these forms are confirmed1 we may regard the upper beds1 i4e41 those immediately above the basalt1 as undoubtedly of ,lower ,oligocene age4 ,the beds below the basalt mark the transition from the ,eocene to ,oligocene1 while the base of the series1 so far unfossiliferous as far as molluscan remains are concerned1 must be regarded as of ,upper ,eocene 7,bartonian7 age4 ,we may hope that when the important vertebrate fauna occurring chiefly in the basal part of the series has been thoroughly exploited1 and the remains systematically determined1 confirmatory evidence will be obtained4 ,at present the only forms described and determined1 beyond pointing to a pre-,miocene age1 do not indicate any definite horizon4 ,probably most of the animals will prove to be new1 and although on that account more interesting from one point of view1 will probably not assist us greatly in the exact determination of the age of the beds in question4 ,g4--,the ,position of the ,land-mass from which the ,mammal ,remains were ,derived4 ,the existence of remains of land animals throughout the larger part of the ,qasr el ,sagha series and in still greater quantity in the basal beds of the overlying ,fluvio-marine series1 and occasionally in the highest beds also1 points to the presence of continental land within no great distance of the area in which these deposits were laid down4 ,that the animal-remains were carried out from the land by river currents is almost certain1 and although in some cases such currents are known to persist to great distances from their points of emergence1 it seems probable from the quantity and mode of distribution that the ,faym bones were deposited within a moderate distance of land4 ,moreover1 the silicified trees1 by which the bones are so often accompanied1 occur together in very great quantities1 and we should imagine that the individual trees would have been far more scattered if they had been floated to considerable distances from land4 ,on the other hand the fact that among the hundreds of trees examined1 in no single case were branches found attached to the trunk1 points to the conclusion that these trees had travelled great distances2 probably the branches were lost during their river journey1 from constant jamming together of a great number in a more or less constricted space1 and not after they had left the river mouth4 ,the exact position of this land-mass is a highly interesting and important question4 ,there is no reason to suppose that land of any extent occurred to the north1 except possibly an occasional island1 such as that of the ,cretaceous massif of ,abu ,roash1#hj west of ,cairo1 which probably formed an island in the sea at that time2 without doubt the great ,eocene sea which covered the area stretched northwards1 and was continuous with that in which the southern ,european deposits of this period were laid down4 ,to the west also there was certainly no land-mass within approximate distances4 ,eastwards1 possibly part of the ,red ,sea ,hills igneous range may have formed a restricted land-area1 but even this is not probable2 in fact1 it seems certain that we must look to the south for the nearest land of any extent4 ,in supposing the land lay in this direction we are confronted at the outset with the fact that the ,lower ,eocene limestones stretch southwards for several hundred kilometres4 ,in ,egypt the ,lower ,eocene consists of a great mass of nummulitic limestones1 some #djj-ejj metres thick1 with no intercalated clays or sandstones except at the base1 and was evidently formed in water of considerable depth4 ,the thickness of1 and superficial area covered by1 these limestones show that they were formed in a truly open sea1 in contra-distinction to a littoral area2 the nummulitic sea in fact covered an enormous part of ,europe1 ,north ,africa and ,asia4 ,to the south of this sea lay the ,african continent1 a land-mass dating possibly from ,palozoic times4 ,since1 and possibly partly during1 the deposition of the ,lower and ,middle ,eocene formations1 a gradual elevation of the land or lowering of the sea1 resulting in a retreat of the latter1 took place2 this continually brought the shore-line further northwards until1 during the deposition of the beds of the ,qasr el ,sagha series of the ,middle ,eocene1 we may surmise that it was not very far to the south1 though the exact distance is extremely doubtful2 while in ,upper ,eocene times it was still further north4 ,we may assume therefore that the ,upper ,eocene bone-bearing strata of the ,faym represent sediments transported by rivers and currents from a fairly adjacent continental land-mass to the south and laid down as littoral and delta deposits beyond the margin of the land4 ,that at least one large river emerged from the land in the neighbourhood of the ,faym is certain2 drainage was then1 as now1 from south to north1 although not probably confined to a single channel like the present ,nile4 ,apart from broader considerations a minute examination of the more typically fluviatile beds favours the conclusion that the currents were from the south or south-west4 ,the general dip of the strata1 probably the natural inclination of the sediments at the time of deposit1 is from south to north2 the most frequent lamination in the current-bedded arenaceous deposits is also from south to north4 ,in our excavations for fossil bones it was noted that of seven tortoise shells exposed at the same time in different parts of the pit1 six lay with their long axes similarly orientated and were distinctly tilted to the north-east1 or exactly away from the point of the compass from which1 as will presently be shown1 the main river probably came4 ,as a rule1 however1 the scattered fossil bones and trees in these beds give no definite clue as to the direction from which they were floated4 ,the existence of separate accumulations of fluviatile sand at different horizons1 but lying one above the other in the series and along a north and south line1 is of importance as indicating the continued appearance of a river current from the same quarter4 ,blanckenhorn has published#ha diagrams showing what he supposes to have been the relative areas occupied by land and sea in ,upper ,mokattam1 ,lower ,oligocene1 ,middle ,pliocene and ,pleistocene times4 ,various lines of drainage are shown1 the main river1 which he calls the ,ur-,nil1 being placed some #gj kilometres to the west of the modern ,nile1 although closely following the trend of the latter4 ,we have been unable to ascertain on what evidence ,blanckenhorn relies for assuming rivers in ,upper ,mokattam and ,lower ,oligocene times to have occupied the positions shown on his diagrams2 the number and positions of such rivers must remain more or less problematical4 ,in this connection however it is interesting to recall#hb the lacustrine ferruginous grits which were brought to notice by the writer in #aijj as having been deposited in a lake1 occupying in post-,middle ,eocene times a shallow depression in that part of the ,libyan desert now occupied by the oasis-depression of ,baharia4 ,similar deposits were found forming the hills of ,gar el ,hamra a few kilometres east of the extreme north end of the depression4 ,finally1 during a traverse through the unexplored country south-west of ,gar el ,gehannem in the winter of #aijb-aijc1 hills capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and puddingstone were met with in the extreme south-west of the ,faym depression at a point nearly midway1 and in the direct line1 between the hills of ,gar el ,hamra and the chief bone-bearing localities in the north of the ,faym4 ,the deposits in question--at ,baharia1 at ,gar el ,hamra and in the hills to the south-west of the ,faym--are evidently of lacustrine and fluviatile origin2 and we may infer1 with some degree of probability1 that they were laid down along the course of a river which flowed in a north-easterly direction and formed extensive delta deposits in what is now the northern part of the ,faym4 ,that this river had its origin in the interior of a well-wooded continent hundreds of miles to the south of ,baharia is not to be questioned2 its size1 length and exact position must remain matters of doubt1 but of its existence we can be as certain as if in times of flood we had stood on its banks and watched the passage northwards of its turbid swollen waters1 laden with matted rafts of forest trees and bearing seawards the carcases of those curious ,eocene animals1 the remains of which are so abundant in the ,faym of to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,probable ,course of chief river of ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene times4 ,in the ,middle and ,upper ,eocene beds we first obtain an idea of the animals which inhabited ,africa in ,tertiary times1 and the collecting and working out of this fauna will throw much light1 not only on our actual knowledge of the ,african vertebrata of the ,eocene period1 which was practically nil until the discovery of the remains here described1 but also on other wider biological questions1 such as the origin of certain groups of animals1 some of which were evolved in this part of the world4 ,as recently pointed out by a writer in the ,field 7,no4 #bfje1 ,nov4 #bi1 #aijb7 many years ago the late ,prof4 ,huxley1 to account for the present distribution of the mammalian fauna of ,africa and ,magadascar1 advanced the theory that in the early part of the ,tertiary period ,madagascar was connected with ,africa1 and ,africa with ,europe or ,asia1 a connection which allowed of the immigration into ,africa and ,madagascar of numerous small types of ,european and ,asian mammals4 ,madagascar later becoming separated from the mainland1 its fauna1 undisturbed by the larger carnivora1 was able to develop to its present remarkable extent4 ,subsequently to the isolation of ,madagascar the ancestors of the modern fauna were presumed to have invaded the ,african continent from the north4 ,the extinct fauna of the ,faym1 however1 shows that in early ,tertiary times ,africa already had its own mammalian fauna1 which1 besides containing some remarkable large types of somewhat doubtful position1 such as ,arsinoitherium1 ,barytherium1 etc41 certainly in ,mritherium and ,palomastodon included the earliest known elephants1 the forbears of the ,mastodon and the modern elephants4 ,there is little doubt therefore that in ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene times these early members of the elephant group ranged northward and eastwards into ,asia and ,india1 and since in the ,upper ,tertiary deposits of ,india and eastern ,asia the extinct transitional types between the mastodons and modern elephants appear to have been found1 it is not unlikely that during the later phases of the evolution of this group of animals the radiation was back towards ,africa1 so that the ,african elephant may be1 as it has usually been regarded1 an immigrant from the ,oriental region4 ,further research among the later deposits of the ,faym and the deserts to the north may1 however1 throw an entirely new light on the subject and it is somewhat premature to theorise at present4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,raised ,,beach ,,unconformably ,,overlying ,,middle ,,eocene ,,limestones 7,,birket ,,el ,,qurun ,,series7 ,,in ,,the ,,desert ,,east ,,of ,,sirsena4 ,in this connection it is interesting to notice the observation of so eminent a palontologist as ,prof4 ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn4 ,in two recent addresses#hc to the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences he pertinently points out his belief that the ,african continent has been a great centre of radiation of certain groups of the mammalia1 and especially mentions the ,proboscidea as likely to have been evolved in the ,ethiopian region4 ,our discoveries in the ,faym and ,andrews's determinations1 made subsequently to these addresses1 so completely confirm this view1 at any rate with regard to the elephants1 that it may not be out of place to give here a somewhat lengthy extract of his 8,theory of ,successive ,invasions of an ,african ,fauna into ,europe0 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ef-eh74 8,in ,europe there are in the ,upper ,eocene two classes of animals1 first those which have their ancestors in the older rocks2 second1 the class including certain highly specialized animals which have no ancestors in the older rocks1 among these1 perhaps1 are the peculiar flying rodents or ,anomalurid1 now confined to ,africa1 and secondly the highly specialized even-toed ruminant types the anoplotheres1 xiphodonts and others1 the discovery of which in the gypse near ,paris ,cuvier has made famous4 ,it is tempting to imagine that these animals did not evolve in ,europe but that they represent what may be called the first invasion of ,europe by ,african types from the ,ethiopian region4 8,it is a curious fact that the ,african continent as a great theater of adaptive radiation of ,mammalia has not been sufficiently considered4 ,it is true that it is the dark continent of palontology for it has no fossil mammal history2 but it by no means follows that the ,mammalia did not enjoy there an extensive evolution4#hd 8,although it is quite probable that this idea has been advanced before1 most writers speak mainly or exclusively of the invasion of ,africa by ,european types4 ,blanford and ,allen1 it is true1 have especially dwelt upon the likeness of the ,oriental and ,ethiopian fauna1 but not in connection with its antecedent cause4 ,this cause ,i believe to have been mainly an invasion from south to north1 correlated with the northern extension of ,ethiopian climate and flora during the ,middle ,tertiary4 ,it is in a less measure due to a migration from north to south4 ,let us therefore clearly set forth the hypothesis of the ,ethiopian region or ,south ,africa as a great center of independent evolution and as the source of successive northward migrations of animals1 some of which ultimately reached even the extremity of ,south ,america1 ,i refer to the ,mastodons4 ,this hypothesis is clearly implied if not stated by ,blanford in #ahgf in his paper upon the ,african element in the fauna of ,india4 8,the first of these migrations we may suppose brought in certain highly specialized ruminants of the ,upper ,eocene1 the anomalures or peculiar flying rodents of ,africa2 with this invasion may have come the pangolins and ard varks1 and possibly certain armadillos1 ,dasypodid1 if ,m4 ,filhol's identification of ,necrodasypus is correct4 ,a second invasion of great distinctness may be that which marks the beginning of the ,miocene when the mastodons and dinotheres first appear in ,europe1 also the earliest of the antelopes4 ,a third invasion may be represented in the base of the ,pliocene by the increasing number of antelopes1 the great giraffes of the gean plateau and in the upper ,pliocene by the hippopotami4 ,with these forms came the rhinoceroses with no incisor or cutting teeth1 similar to the smaller ,african rhinoceros1 ,r4 bicornis4 ,another recently discovered ,african immigrant upon the ,island of ,samos in the gean plateau is ,pliohyrax or ,leptodon1 a very large member of the ,hyracoidea1 probably aquatic in its habits1 indicating that this order enjoyed an extensive adaptive radiation in ,tertiary times4 8,it thus appears that the ,proboscidea1 ,hyracoidea1 certain edentata1 the antelopes1 the giraffes1 the hippopotami1 the most specialized ruminants1 and among the rodents1 the anomalures1 dormice and jerboas1 among monkeys the baboons1 may all have enjoyed their original adaptative radiation in ,africa2 that they survived after the glacial period1 only in the ,oriental or ,indo-,malayan region1 and that this accounts for the marked community of fauna between this region and the ,ethiopian as observed by ,blanford and ,allen4 8,against the prevalent theory of ,oriental origin of these animals are3 first1 the fact observed by ,blanford and ,lydekker in the ,bugti ,beds 7,sind7 that the ,oligocene or lower ,miocene fauna of the ,orient is markedly ,european in type2 second1 that if these animals had originated in ,asia some of them would have found their way to ,north ,america2 third1 the fact that all these animals appear suddenly and without any known ancestors in older geological formations4 ,these are the main facts in favor of the ,ethiopian migration hypothesis40 ,that ,professor ,osborn's main contention has already been partly proved by the ,faym mammal discoveries is apparent1 and how far his detailed remarks are confirmed will be seen when the new fauna has been more completely explored and examined4 ,the following is a list of the new species already obtained3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,upper ,,eocene4 ,,middle ,,eocene4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,mammalia ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli1 ,beadnell4,barytherium grave1 ,andr4 ,andrewsii1 ,lankester4 ,mritherium ,lyonsi41 ,andr4 ,palomastodon ,beadnelli1 ,andrews4 gracile1 minor1 sp41 ,mritherium ,lyonsi1 ,eosiren libyca1 trigodon1 ,zeuglodon ,osiris1 ,dames4 ,megalohyrax eocnus1 ,zitteli1 v4 ,stromer4 minor1 ,isis1 ,beadn4 7,m4,s474 ,saghatherium antiquum1 ,andr4 and ,beadn4 minus1 magnum1 ,andr4 ,ancodus ,gorringei1 ,andr4 and ,beadn4 ,geniohyus mirus1 ,andr4 fayumensis1 ,andr4 major1 ,phiomia serridens1 ,andr4 and ,beadn4 ,pterodon africanus1 ,andr4 macrognathus1 ,andr4 and another much smaller and imperfectly known creodont4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,birds4 ,eremopezus libycus1 ,andr4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,reptiles4 ,testudo ,ammon1 ,andr4 ,gigantophis ,garstini1 ,andr4 ,pelomedusa progaleata1 v4 ,pterosphenus 7,mriophis7 ,reinach4 ,schweinfurthi1 ,andr4 ,podocnemis fayumensis1 ,andr4 ,psephophorus eocnus1 ,andr4 ,blanckenhorni1 v4 ,reinach4 ,thalassochelys libyca1 ,andr4 var4 ovata1 v4 ,reinach4,podocnemis antiqua1 ,stereogenys libyca4 ,andr4 ,stromeri1 v4 ,reinach4 ,tomistoma sp4 var4 major1 v4 ,reinach4 ,crocodilus sp4 ,stereogenys ,cromeri1 ,andr4 podocnemioides1 v4 ,reinach4 ,tomistoma africanum1 ,andr4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,fish4 ,occasional fragments of ,propristis ,schweinfurthi1 ,dames4 siluroids and rays4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,h4--,the absence of ,miocene deposits in the ,faym4 ,no traces of deposits of this age having been met so far south as the ,faym we may presume that in ,miocene times the area had become land1 the sea margin having receded northwards4 ,the slight depression of ,mogara1 some #ajj kilometres further north-west1 is however cut out in ,lower ,miocene beds1 lithologically somewhat similar to the ,upper ,eocene and ,oligocene deposits of the ,faym4 ,probably similar conditions obtained throughout1 and the existence of vertebrate remains indicates the persistence of river-currents from the south4 ,the fauna of the ,mogara beds has only as yet been very incompletely examined1 the locality being rather inaccessible4#he ,,section ,,xii4--,,pliocene4 ,we have presumed that in ,miocene times the ,faym remained land1 no traces of deposits of that age having been recorded2 possibly the area underwent considerable denudation during the ,miocene and early ,pliocene periods1 but of this it is difficult to adduce definite evidence4 ,the records of ,pliocene times in the ,faym may be classed as follows3-- 7,j74 ,marine deposits of ,middle ,pliocene age4 7,k74 ,borings on rock surfaces1 exact age doubtful4 7,l74 ,gravel ,terraces1 probably late ,pliocene4 7or early ,pleistocene74 7,m74 ,gypseous ,deposits1 probably latest ,pliocene4 ,j4--,marine ,deposits3 ,middle ,pliocene4 ,in ,middle ,pliocene times the area1 which had probably undergone considerable denudation1 was again invaded by the sea1 and we find at ,sidmant el ,jebel1 on the south-east side1 definite evidence of deposits of this age in the shape of sands containing such well known forms as ,ostrea cucullata and ,pecten benedictus4 ,the beds in question reach an altitude of from #fj to #gj metres and were first brought to notice by ,schweinfurth4 ,although they are in reality on the ,nile ,valley side of the separating ridge or saddle1 there is little doubt that the same beds will1 when looked for1 be found within the ,faym depression in places where they have been preserved4 ,as has already been mentioned this south-eastern side of the ,faym yet remains to be examined and mapped in detail1 and the determination of the relation of these marine sands to the gravel terraces shortly to be described is a matter of primary importance for the proper interpretation of their relative ages4 ,k4--,borings on ,rock surfaces2 of doubtful age4 ,there are within the ,faym depression numerous rock-surfaces pierced by borings1 apparently the work of marine boring mollusca but naturally offering no exact evidence as to their age and origin4 ,these borings are found at two distinct levels1 approximately from zero to #bj metres above sea-level1 and at #aab metres above sea-level4 77 ,low level borings4 ,between ,tamia and ,dim1 near the eastern end of the ,birket el ,qurn1 the lowest ground1 consisting of poor sandy land with tamarisk scrub1 bordering the lake and cultivation1 is bounded by a low escarpment of beds of the ,birket el ,qurn series4 ,along certain horizons one or more beds of calcareous sandstone weather into large globular masses1 which as already pointed out are in reality huge concretions1 but which may have been further rounded by water-action4 ,the chief point is1 however1 the fact that these blocks are honey-combed in the most remarkable way by beautiful examples of borings2 their presence was first noticed by ,schweinfurth4 ,the globular masses of sandstone1 often several feet in diameter1 are worn on the surface into a number of parallel ledges1 each of which is perforated with countless numbers of vertical holes1 averaging #aj millimetres in diameter 7maximum #ae millimetres71 placed at right angles to the ledges2 these holes are not1 as a rule1 connected from one ledge to another4 ,they occur in every stage of perfection1 from hollows as small as the finger tips and only a few millimetres deep1 to long completed chambers which generally show considerable tapering1 and are often placed so close together that the dividing wall is pierced4 ,fig4 #g and ,plate ,,xiii show the appearance of these bored rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,block of sandstone pierced by numerous borings4 ,at ,el ,kensa1 a promontory jutting out into the lake1 sandstones showing shell-borings occur at a height of #ad metres above sea-level4 ,between ,dim and the lake a calcareous sandstone contains many borings1 #ff metres above the lake-level1 or about #bb metres above sea-level4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,borings ,,in ,,false-,,bedded ,,sandstone1 ,,two ,,kilometres ,,south ,,of ,,dim4 77 ,high level borings4 ,further west1 but at a considerably higher level1 borings are again met with4 ,in this case a hard compact limestone1 forming a dip-slope surface on the top of the lower cliff of the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 was found pierced with borings1 similar in character to those of the lower level4 ,the exact locality where these high level borings were observed is #ad kilometres west of the western end of the lake and #af kilometres north-east of the eastern extremity of ,gar el ,gehannem4 ,the height was determined as #aef metres above the ,birket el ,qurn1 or #aab metres above sea-level1 and we have every reason to believe these figures to be approximately correct4 ,up to the present time borings at this altitude have not been met with in any other locality4 ,at first sight it seems surprising that the occurrences should be so limited1 but it should be remembered that only in those cases where borings were made in the very hardest and most durable rocks could they have been preserved to the present time4 ,considering the amount of denudation which has taken place in the area since the ,pliocene period it is surprising that any of the rocks which formed the actual surface of the country at that date should still be preserved2 and in all probability the comparatively few records that exist to-day owe their preservation to the protection afforded by superficial deposits4 ,under the present rigorous desert conditions1 when the whole surface is subjected to continual and rapid changes of temperature1 and every exposed rock is being worn down by the natural sandblast1 it must be admitted that in a comparatively short time every trace of the borings now exposed will have been removed4 ,at the same time the denudation of superficial deposits will probably lay bare other bored rock-surfaces1 and the conserving nature of drift sand itself where accumulated to even a limited degree must not be forgotten4 ,l4--,gravel ,terraces3 8 ,upper ,pliocene4 ,on the north1 east1 and south-east sides of the ,faym1 well marked terraces of gravel are found at certain levels up to a maximum of about #agj-ahj metres above sea-level4 ,nine kilometres east of ,sla the summit of the ridge separating the ,faym and the ,nile ,valley is formed of thick deposits of gravel1 laid irregularly and unconformably on the top of limestones belonging to the ,birket el ,qurn series4 ,the lowest terrace occurs only #ae metres above the canal#hf running along the outside of the cultivation4 ,the main deposit of gravel is laid on the top of the limestones and marls at #gj metres above the canal2 it is some #ej metres thick 7summit #abj metres above canal7 and consists of a mass of well-rolled flint and quartz pebbles1 with blocks of limestone 7frequently full of well-known ,eocene fossils such as ,carolia placunoides74 ,large well rounded blocks of grey quartzite and pebbles of black quartzite also occur1 besides rounded blocks of silicified wood4 ,a certain amount of false-bedding occurs and false-bedded sand was noticed in places4 ,numerous derived rolled fossils are present1 but no contemporaneous remains were found4 ,on the summit of the ridge is situated the remnant of an old pyramid-like building4 ,fig4 #h shows the relation of these gravels to the underlying rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,sketch showing relations of ,middle ,eocene to ,pliocene ,gravel ,terraces on the east side of the ,faym4 ,birket el ,qurun series4--7a7 ,clays1 marls and limestone2 7b7 ,limestones with ,operculina 7,o4 discoidea874 ,pliocene 7to ,pleistocene72 7c7 ,coarse deposits of gravel1 etc41 with huge blocks of derived ,eocene limestone with ,carolia1 etc42 7d7 sands and sandrock with leaves of hard sandstone2 7e7 sand1 gravel and conglomerate4 ,at the spur of the cliff immediately to the east the terrace is laid on to limestones of the ,birket el ,qurn series at a height of #cb metres above the canal4 ,enormous blocks of ,carolia-limestone1 some exceeding #c #b #ae metres in measurement1 are included in this deposit2 such blocks cannot have been transported far1 and were doubtless derived from formerly-existing higher beds in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,the matrix of the deposit is usually crushed limestone with sand and gravel4 ,occasional fragments of silicified wood 7and further west large logs71 evidently derived from the ,fluvio-marine beds1 also occur4 ,in favoured localities the relation of the gravels to the ,eocene is still better seen2 the lower beds of the terrace here are sometimes formed of sands and sandy beds dipping #aj eastward4 ,at the little promontory #i kilometres east of ,sersena the same deposits reach an altitude of #aeg metres above the canal below4 ,further north another cake of gravel caps the summit1 attaining here #fj-gj metres above the canal-level4 ,probably these deposits were originally more or less connected and continuous1 but since their deposition denudation must have removed the greater part1 as they are now only found here and there capping the highest points of the escarpment along the east side of the ,faym4 ,such isolated gravel-capped hills occur notably #ab kilometres east of ,roda1 #af kilometres east and #ag kilometres north-east of ,tamia4 ,along the north side of the ,faym the same deposits are found1 in some cases covering large areas4 ,twenty-five kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,tamia the ,eocene beds1 here an alternating series of clays and limestones1 are capped by a deposit consisting of coarse rolled gravel1 with blocks of silicified wood enclosed in a sandy gypseous base1 some #aj metres thick4 ,a larger and similar deposit caps the next high ground four kilometres to the west1 and about #i kilometres ,n4,n4,e4 of ,garat el ,faras2 in this case it forms a round-topped gravelly hill-range1 attaining a height of about #afe metres above the canal to the south-east4 ,the loose gravel at many points passes into hard conglomerate1 notably in the hills #i kilometres east and #d kilometres north-east of ,garat el ,gindi4 ,at the former spot the conglomerate is composed of blocks of limestone1 with round pebbles of flint and quartz1 sandstone and quartzite1 and fragments of silicified wood1 cemented by sand and calcareous material4 ,blocks of silicified wood also occur strewn on the surface of these gravel deposits4 ,in the hills north-east of ,garat el ,gindi the gravel deposits do not occupy the summit of the escarpment but occur laid on to a platform of beds belonging to the ,qasr el ,sagha series4 ,behind1 another escarpment1 that of the ,fluvio-marine series1 rises to the plateau summit4 ,fig4 #i will show the general relation of the different formations in this part of the district4 ,near ,elwat ,hialla the deposits contain numerous blocks of basalt in addition to the usual constituents4 ,the basalt is derived from the sheets interbedded at the base of the ,oligocene a little to the north4 ,as these gravels are here close to that formation1 blocks of sandstone1 basalt1 and silicified wood now form a large proportion of the constituents4 ,along the north side of the ,faym depression1 to the west of ,elwat ,hialla1 the gravel terraces are almost absent1 having been removed nearly completely by denudation4 ,that the terraces once existed throughout this region is however shown by the small patches met with to the north-east of ,widan el ,faras1 the eastern extremity of ,jebel el ,qatrani1 and at several points high up on the escarpments as far west as the western end of the lake4 ,beyond the latter point these terrace gravels have not been noticed2 the slopes of the depression become more and more obscured by loose superficial flints washed down from the plateau1 and the existence of underlying terrace gravels could only be shown by detailed mapping4 ,illustration3 ,,pliocene 7,,to ,,pleistocene7 --#a4 ,terrace of gravel and conglomerate4 ,,upper ,,eocene-,,oligocene --#b4 ,sands and sandstones4 ,,middle ,,eocene --#c4 ,clays1 marls and limestones of the ,upper ,mokattam4 ,,fig4 #i4--,sketch-,section through summit of ,faym ,escarpment at ,elwat ,hialla4 ,near ,widan el ,faras the terrace occurs at a level of about #bbj metres above the ,birket el ,qurn1 or #age metres above sea-level1 and consists of a #aj-metre thickness of a semi-consolidated mass of boulders and pebbles of sandstone1 limestone1 and basalt1 with fine gravel and sand1 unconformably laid on to the variegated sandstones of the ,fluvio-marine series4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,survey's main excavations for fossil bones1 to the north of ,garat el ,esh1 several local remnants of the formerly more or less continuous gravel terrace were detected#hg4 ,the height was probably more accurately determined here than elsewhere and the upper limit of the deposits was found to lie at approximately #agj metres above sea-level2 this figure may indeed be taken as the average height of the ,pliocene terraces throughout the ,faym4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,pleistocene ,,lacustrine ,,clays ,,with ,,tamarisk ,,stumps ,,in ,,situ ,,at #ej ,,metres ,,above ,,present ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun4 ,briefly then we have shown the existence of the well marked remains of a gravel terrace #agj-ahj metres above sea-level1 throughout the south-east1 east1 and north sides of the ,faym depression1 and the first question that suggests itself with regard to these deposits is1 whether they are of marine or of freshwater origin8 ,from their position in part capping and in part perched on the flanks of the escarpments1 it is evident that the depression of the ,faym must have been partly formed before their deposition2 probably it had approximately obtained to its present form and dimensions1 except as to depth4 ,the terrace certainly marks the shoreline of the sheet of water in which its constituents were deposited1 and the surface of this water must have attained a height of nearly #bjj metres above present sea-level4 ,it is not unlikely that some of the extensive plains of the ,faym may owe their existence in part to the presence in ,pliocene times of the sea or of a large inland lake1 that they may in fact be plains of denudation4 ,the plain above the escarpment of the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 lying between #aej and #bjj metres above sea-level1 and stretching throughout a large part of the north of the ,faym1 has characters which tend to support this idea4 ,unfortunately the gravels are entirely barren of contemporaneous organic remains1 with one exception2 near ,ez4 ,qalamsha some examples of ,ostrea cucullata were discovered1 and these we believe to have truly belonged to the lower beds of the terraces and not to have been derived from the undoubted marine ,middle ,pliocene beds of ,sidmant4 ,if the existence of ,o4 cucullata in these terraces could be confirmed we should undoubtedly class them as marine and of ,middle ,pliocene age4 ,but the single evidence of the ,qalamsha shells is not sufficient1 and confirmatory occurrences must be obtained and1 if possible1 the relation of the terraces to ,schweinfurth's marine ,sidmant beds determined1 which has not been yet done4 ,m4--,gypseous deposits1 probably dating from the close of the ,pliocene ,period4 ,of distinctly later date than the gravel-terraces are the widely distributed gypseous deposits of the ,faym and ,nile ,valley4 ,these deposits are found covering the plain which separates the ,nile ,valley cultivation from the ,faym depression1 gradually rising from the level of the former until they overlie the gravels capping the summit overlooking the ,faym 7,section ,,xxi74 ,near the ,pyramid of ,medum the following beds are seen at the edge of the desert plain3-- ,top4 ,metres4 ,pure1 gravelly1 or marly gypsum #a-b ,clayey shales with gypsum and salt #a-a ,white marly limestone with much salt probable and fish-remains 7fish-scales1 etc47 part of #b ,ravine beds4 ,yellow sandstone with fish-scales1 etc4 #c ,the gravel deposits along the east side of the ,faym are always capped by a gypseous bed4 ,the latter is often #b metres thick and frequently occurs as solid and almost pure white crystalline gypsum2 sometimes it is calcareous and is frequently deposited in a tufaceous manner1 especially resembling a tufa on the weathered surface4 ,at other times it passes into a yellowish compact mass and may be very saliferous4 ,frequently the deposit is full of rounded pebbles1 the latter being often in the greater proportion and forming a sort of gypsum-cemented conglomerate4 ,not unfrequently it is impossible to draw any divisional line between the terrace gravels and the gypseous gravels above4 ,probably they are both closely connected and of ,upper ,pliocene age4 ,n4--,summary of the ,pliocene ,period4 ,from the above descriptions it is probable that the ,pliocene period is represented in the ,faym by the following3-- 7#a7 ,marine beds of ,sidmant1 undoubtedly of ,middle ,pliocene age and reaching a level of from #fj to #gj metres above present sea-level4 7#b7 ,borings on exposed rock-surfaces at two distinct levels1 the lower #j-bj metres1 the higher some #aab metres1 above sea-level4 ,these borings appear to be the work of marine boring mollusca1 and although those on the lower level may perhaps be of ,middle ,pliocene age with the ,sidmant beds1 the similar examples discovered at a much higher altitude 7#aab metres71 point to the sea having attained a much higher level in later1 perhaps ,upper ,pliocene1 times4 7#c7 ,an extensive beach or terrace of gravel on the south-east1 east1 and north sides of the ,faym1 attaining a maximum level of about #agj to #ahj metres above sea-level4 ,all the known facts seem to be satisfied if we imagine that in the ,middle ,pliocene the sea occupied the area1 depression probably continuing until the #aab metre level with the highest borings was reached4 ,perhaps the lowest part of the terraces was formed during this time4 ,in the later ,pliocene times we may infer that the area was occupied1 up to #ahj metres above present sea-level1 by a vast inland lake1 perhaps of brackish water1 connected with the sea on the one hand and the fiord or lakes of the ,nile ,valley on the other1 the deposits of which have been described elsewhere#hh4 ,along the margins of this gigantic lake1 these great accumulations of gravel might well have been formed1 chiefly of material derived from the immediate shores1 augmented perhaps by a certain amount of sediment brought by river-currents from the south4 ,finally1 from the way in which the gypsum and gypseous deposits are laid on the terrace gravels1 and from their extension and thickness1 we may presume that they were deposited on the bottom of just such a lake on evaporation of its water1 when the sulphate of lime in solution1 becoming more and more concentrated1 may have been finally precipitated4#hi ,,section ,,xiii4--,,pleistocene4 ,the course of events in ,pleistocene times is at present obscure4 ,as far as can be judged it was during this period that a freshwater lake1 the precursor of the great ,mris1 came into existence4 ,it might be thought that the early ,pleistocene prehistoric lake was a relic of the still older body of water of ,pliocene times1 in which the gravel terraces and gypseous deposits were laid down4 ,but such a remnant would have been of a high degree of salinity and could not have given rise to the fresh water ,mris4 ,most probably at the close of the ,pliocene period1 after the formation of the gypseous deposits1 the area became elevated and cut off from the sea and from the ,nile ,valley marine fiord2 probably an extensive body of water remained as an isolated lake1 but this1 cut off from external supply1 would have gradually evaporated1 its salt being left as a superficial deposit on the dried up bed4 ,in early ,pleistocene times we may presume the area became dry and was gradually eroded to its present shape and depth4 ,the superficial deposits of salt and gypsum were for the most part removed as the depression was deepened1 while the continuous terrace of gravel laid round the greater part of the rim was broken through1 except where protected in favourable localities1 the constituents being washed down and spread out over the lower ground4 ,in course of time the region was moulded to its present form and dimensions1 or rather to what it would be if the local alluvial deposits were stripped off and the water of the lake baled out4 ,the area was an inland depression1 probably sparsely vegetated like the rest of the higher country and separated from the ,nile ,valley by a low rocky ridge surmounted by a more of less continuous terrace of gravel of considerable height and thickness4 ,in our opinion desert conditions had already set in before the early ,nile broke down the ridge and formed a lake in the ,faym2 the date when this important event first took place is a matter of considerable doubt1 as has already been mentioned 7pp4 #bd1 #be74 ,we know that at the close of the ,pliocene period the ,nile ,valley was a marine fiord 7connected with the ,faym and the ,mediterranean7 which was replaced in ,pleistocene times1 probably in consequence of slight elevation1 by a series of fresh water lakes throughout the valley4 ,these lakes were probably two or three in number and drained one into the other2 the exact position of the barriers is as yet a matter of conjecture4 ,within these lakes thick lacustrine deposits were accumulated1 so that the basins eventually became to a great extent silted up4 ,in later ,pleistocene times drainage down the ,nile ,valley appears to have become more pronounced1 the barriers between the lakes were broken down and the river cut for itself a channel through the lacustrine beds1 filling up the old lake basins4 ,from this time onwards to early prehistoric times the bed of the river would appear to have steadily fallen1 as it eroded its channel deeper and deeper4 ,that this early ,nile was a river of considerable size is evident from the amount of erosion it accomplished in the trough of the valley1 whence the older lacustrine beds have been almost completely removed4 ,probably in the lower part of its course it swept against the base of the dividing ridge between the ,nile ,valley and the ,faym depression4 ,if1 as we imagine1 the river was at that time flowing some #bj metres higher than at present its currents would have met with little resistance from the loosely cemented terrace of gravel which formed the upper part of the dividing ridge4 ,once this was broken down the waters must have poured into the depression behind1 until a lake of considerable size was formed4 ,the sediment spread out over the floor in the shape of a fan1 while at the same time deposits of sands and fine clays1 blown and washed into the waters from the surrounding shores1 were being slowly accumulated in the quieter and more remote parts of the lake4 ,for some time subsequent to the first connection between the ,faym depression and the ,nile1 the latter continued to fall in level owing to continued erosion along its course1 possibly the ,faym again became completely isolated for a time4 ,subsequently in the earliest historic times under changed conditions the river commenced to carry and lay down the modern alluvial deposit of 8,nile mud01 and from this time to the present day its bed has gradually risen4 ,this is shown by the high ,nile flood-readings on the early gauges of the ,nile ,valley2 the nilometer at ,roda shows a difference of #abb metres in #ajbf years1 or an annual rise of #jab centimetre1 which is equivalent to #ab metres in #aj1jjj years#ij4 ,whether there was ever complete disconnection between the ,nile and the originally formed lake in ,pleistocene times is uncertain1 but even so it was probably only during a comparatively short period3 in early historic times the rise of the ,nile bed must have brought about a reconnection4 ,the geological evidence for the existence of a great freshwater lake in ,pleistocene and prehistoric times is afforded by the well-marked lacustrine clays and sands which are found over such a large area of the northern and western deserts of the ,faym2 the great extent of this lake will be seen by an examination of the accompanying maps4 ,its area must have been about #bbej square kilometres or about ten times the size of the modern ,birket el ,qurn4 ,the western limit may even have been further west than shown on fig4 #aj41ia as some of the desert in the neighbourhood of ,gar el ,gehannem is very low-lying2 or there may have existed subsidiary lakes in that direction4 ,the upper limit of these ancient lacustrine clays is between #bb and #bc metres above sea-level1 which exactly agrees with the figure adduced by ,sir ,hanbury ,brown as the height of the more modern ,lake ,moeris from the evidence of levels4 ,that ,lake ,moeris was simply the older prehistoric lake placed under artificial control admits of no doubt2 the difficult question being as to when the lake first came into existence in prehistoric times4 ,the clays abound in freshwater shells and semi-fossil fish-bones of exactly the same species of fish 7siluroid1 etc7 as still inhabit the ,birket el ,qurn2 probably some are even hardly different specifically from the ,middle ,eocene forms of the district4 ,in addition remains of large animals are common1 and include ,hippopotamus1 ,elephas1 ,bubalis1 sheep or goat1 and ,canis1 with crocodiles and turtles1 etc4#ib ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,isolated ,,sand-,,dune ,,near ,,gar ,,el ,,gehannem4 ,martens#ic has described the following species of mollusca from ,schweinfurth's collections3-- ,unio abyssinicus1 ,mart4 ,u4 ,schweinfurthi1 ,mart4 ,corbicula fluminalis1 var4 consobrina ,caill4 ,neritina nilotica1 ,reev4 ,valvata nilotica1 ,jick4 ,cleopatra pirothi1 ,jick4 ,c4 pirothi1 var41 unicarinata1 ,mart4 ,bithynia aff4 ,boissieri1 ,charp4 ,melania tuberculata1 ,mll4 ,limnaea natalensis1 ,krauss4 ,l4 mris1 ,mart4 ,l4 palustris1 ,mll4 ,planorbis subangulata1 ,phil4 ,blanckenhorn has pointed out#id that this fauna is of special interest and differs from all fossil and living faunas in ,egypt4 ,it might be compared with the ,melanopsis-fauna of the ,nile ,valley if the exceptional ,limnaea were replaced by ,melanopsis or ,paludina4 ,its ,unio ,schweinfurthi recalls the youngest alluvial deposits of the ,nile ,valley1 #bnd ,cataract1 ,kom ,ombo and ,silsila2 at these places1 however1 the beds containing the species in question are at least #bj metres above mean water level of the present day4 ,the sub-fossil fauna of the ,faym alluvium1 in addition to those forms everywhere met with in the ,nile ,valley1 includes ,neritina nilotica and ,melania tuberculata1 which are common forms of the ,melanopsis stage1 as well as ,unio abyssinicus and ,valvata nilotica4 ,in common with the present fauna of the ,birket el ,qurn it has the five forms belonging to the genera ,corbicula1 ,neritina1 ,valvata1 ,melania1 and ,planorbis4 ,the sub-fossil fauna1 which passes into the modern fauna of the ,birket el ,qurn1 shows connection with the ,mediterranean and ,blue ,nile1 but has a total absence of ,white ,nile forms such as ,ampullaria1 ,lanistes1 ,cleopatra bulimoides1 ,spatha and ,aetheria4 ,moreover ,limna palustris1 although identical with the form found on other ,mediterranean coasts1 is as yet entirely unknown from the ,nile ,valley4 ,blanckenhorn concludes that the diluvial subfossil deposits of the ,faym were produced when the climate of ,egypt was damper and more ,europan1 the ,nile carrying more arenaceous sediment in place of the mud of to-day and running at higher level1 as it did when the shells of ,unio ,schweinfurthi were enclosed in the deposits of ,jebel ,silsila4 ,blanckenhorn thinks the ,nile obtained access to the depression during the last ,european ice period4 ,this last supposition1 coupled with the above comparison of the ,faym fresh-water fauna with the ,melanopsis stage of the ,nile ,valley ,pleistocene series1 shows that in regarding the early ,faym lake as dating from prehistoric times ,blanckenhorn and the writer are in agreement4 ,,section ,,xiv4--,,recent4 ,we may divide the ,recent period into two epochs1 ,prehistoric and ,historic1 always remembering that the line of demarcation is not much more distinct than that between ,recent and ,pleistocene4 ,o4--,prehistoric4 ,the abundance of worked flints on the desert just within and around the site occupied by the ,faym lake in late ,pleistocene and prehistoric times1 shows that the shores were eventually inhabited by people who made and used these primitive tools4 ,that the edge of the lake was abundantly wooded is shown by the thousands of well preserved tamarisk stumps met with at the present day in situ 7,plate ,,xiv7 in the clays throughout the former margin of the lake4 ,the implements occur chiefly along the margin of the highest level of the old lake1 and have probably in many cases been buried in the lake clays until the present time1 which would account for their beautiful state of preservation4 ,we have not1 however1 yet actually detected them enclosed within the clays1 although commonly found lying on the clean wind-worn surface4 ,from the fine degree of workmanship we may undoubtedly refer these flint implements to the ,neolithic or later stone-age1 although the exact date is doubtful4 ,that they were made and used while the lake still stood at its highest level seems certain1 but as we have shown above1 the lake1 as a sheet of water up to #bc metres above sea-level or thereabouts1 probably existed far anterior to the ,egyptian historic period4 ,they might1 on the other hand1 as far as the evidence from the position of the lake goes1 have been used by the inhabitants of the lake-margin down to the great reclamation which took place in ,ptolemaic times4 ,as it seems impossible to date them by comparison with flints of known age from any ,egyptian period1 we may perhaps conclude that they are at least of older date than the earliest ,egyptian records4#ie ,p4--,historic4 ,in historical times1 under conditions almost identical with those of the ,nile of to-day1 there would have been an annual inflow during the flood and outflow back to the ,nile when the latter subsided2 during the inflow a constant supply of ,nile mud was brought into the lake and deposited on the surface of the earlier alluvium1 continually augmenting the thickness of the latter and raising its surface1 until in the central area marshy land began to appear4 ,in the ,,xii ,dynasty this natural backwater of the ,nile1 which acted as a more or less efficient regulator of high and low floods1 was brought under human control by ,amenemhat ,i1 and a considerable area of land reclaimed from the shallowest part of the lake1 or that part of the country now lying near ,edwa1 ,medinet el ,faym1 etc4 ,the new artificially controlled lake was called ,moeris1 and its wonders are mentioned by ,herodotus1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,strabo and ,pliny4 ,the actual position of ,lake ,moeris has been the subject of much discussion1 the late ,linant de ,bellefonds#if having asserted that it was a high-level lake1 quite distinct from the ,birket el ,qurn1 occupying the gap in the hills by which the ,bahr ,yusef enters the ,faym1 its encircling bank commencing at ,edwa and passing through ,biahmu1 ,medinet1 etc4 ,sir ,hanbury ,brown has1#ig however1 completely demolished ,linant's theory1 which is shown to be absolutely untenable2 and has proved conclusively that the ancient ,mris occupied the greater part of what is now the cultivated land1 as well as the area covered by the present lake and a considerable part of the surrounding desert1 the reclaimed land being in fact part of the very district ,linant supposed the lake to have occupied4 ,since the publication of ,brown's work complete corroborative evidence has been forthcoming from two distinct sources1 one archological1 the other geological4 ,the latter has already been mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,sketch ,map showing approximately the site of ,lake ,moeris4 ,it was clear from the map of ,claudius ,ptolemy that the route through the ,faym to the ,oasis ,parva left ,bacchias near the north end of the lake1 and passing between ,arsin and ,lake ,mris1 reached ,dionysias near the other end4 ,the archological researches of ,messrs4 ,grenfell and ,hunt#ih have shown that ,bacchias occupied the site of the modern ,um el ,atl close to one end of the ,birket el ,qurn1 while ,dionysias was probably in the neighbourhood of ,qasr el ,banat or ,qasr el ,qurn4 ,thus the ,ptolemaic ,lake ,mris was almost identical with the modern ,birket el ,qurn4 ,neither did the sites excavated yield a trace of anything older than the third century ,b4,c4 ,theadelphia and ,philoteris were founded in the reign of the second ,ptolemy1 when a great reclamation of the land from the lake took place1 and probably ,euhemeria1 ,dionysias1 ,karanis and ,bacchias date from the same reign4 ,the archological evidence is thus briefly summed up by ,grenfell and ,hunt3 8,originally the lake filled the whole basin of the ,faym1 the first reclamation being carried out by ,amenemhat ,i1 who built the great dam at ,el ,lahn1 where the ,bahr ,yusef enters the province1 and recovered the high ground near the entrance as far as ,biahmu1 and a point between ,abshawai and ,agamiin4 ,this remained the ,pharaonic province until the time of ,herodotus1 when the water still came up to the colossi at ,biahmu4 ,subsequently all the land now cultivated below the level of the ,pharaonic province was reclaimed1 chiefly in the reign of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 when ,lake ,mris was reduced nearly to the size of its modern representative1 the ,birket el ,qurn04 ,sidenote3 ,present day ,fauna of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,as mentioned above1 the ,pleistocene fauna of the ,faym differs in one or two particulars from the fauna of the present day4 ,the commonest living molluscan forms include the following3-- ,corbicula fluminalis4 ,neritina nilotica4 ,cleopatra bulimoides4 ,hydrobia stagnalis4 ,valvata nilotica4 ,melania tuberculata4 ,planorbis ,ehrenbergi4 ,p4 marginatus var4 subangulata4 ,blanckenhorn#ii has pointed out that in this fauna ,hydrobia stagnalis1 as a typical brackish water form is of special interest4 ,the species appears to have established itself in the ,birket el ,qurn in modern times1 as it has not been found in the youngest alluvium of the lake1 nor is it known in the modern ,nile fauna4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ,deposits3 ,blown ,sand and ,erosion4 ,except for the gradual accumulation of silt over the bed of the ,birket el ,qurn--sand and clay carried in by the wind and the fine sediment borne by the feeder canals--the only modern deposits of any importance are those of blown sand4 ,the extensive arenaceous deposits of younger ,tertiary age1 forming the greater part of the continent from the latitude of the ,faym to the ,mediterranean shores1 yield as a result of the action of denudation a constant and abundant supply of the raw material4 ,the sand carried southwards by the prevailing winds accumulates as dunes in the lowest parts of the depressions1 on the slopes of cliffs1 and in all the less exposed localities4 ,wind swept areas remain free or are only gradually encroached on by slowly growing linear dunes originating in the wind-shadow of some protecting hill or ridge4 ,an unique example of such a dune is to be seen at the south end of the well-marked ridge a few kilometres east of ,gar el ,gehannem 7,plate ,,xv74 ,the main accumulations of blown sand are in the southern part of the ,faym2 large areas of the floors of ,wadis ,rayan and ,mola are covered with dunes1 while in their immediate neighbourhood the material has accumulated to such an extent as to blot out entire cliffs and valleys2 immediately to the west of ,gharaq a considerable area is covered with small but steep dunes2 and finally must be mentioned the great linear belt of sand1 known as the ,ghart el ,khanashat1 which starting from a point about midway between the ,wadi ,natrn and ,mogara comes to an abrupt termination some #bd kilometres before gaining the northern escarpment of the ,faym depression 7see page #bc74 ,as might be expected in an area like the ,faym1 where sedimentary rocks of every type are met with1 and where the wind never wants for a sufficient supply of the necessary sand1 superficial erosion is everywhere well marked4 ,we do not propose to study here the action of wind-borne sand and it will be sufficient to mention two localities where the effects are best seen2 one is in the neighbourhood of ,garat el ,esh1 where the most remarkable scoring and grooving is to be seen on the two beds of limestone capping the upper and lower cliffs of the ,middle ,eocene2 the other is the ,zeuglodon ,valley1 and here the sculpturing of the sandstone of the ,birket el ,qurn series is of the finest and most unique description4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qurun ,,near ,,the ,,western ,,end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #cc3 ,,beadnell1 ,the ,faym ,depression2 a ,preliminary ,notice of the ,geology of a district in ,egypt containing a new ,palogene ,vertebrate ,fauna4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #dej1 ,dec4 #aija1 pp4 #edj-edf4 ,footnote #cd3 ,,andrews1 ,fossil ,mammalia from ,egypt1 ,geol4 ,mag4 #ahii1 ,no4 #dbe1 pp4 #dha1 #dhb2 and ,,blanckenhorn1 ,neues zur ,geologie und ,paleontologie gyptens1 ,,iii1 8,das ,miocn10 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 geol4 ,gesellschaft4 ,jahrg4 #aija1 pp4 #ih-aja4 ,footnote #ce3 ,,schweinfurth1 ,reise in das ,depressionsgebiet im ,umkreise des ,fayum1 ,zeitschr41 ,ges4 f4 ,erdkunde1 ,berlin1 ,no4 #abb1 #ahhf1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #cf3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ajh-aaj4 ,footnote #cg3 ,l',oasis de ,moleh1 ,bull4 de l',institut gypt41 ,fasc4 #c1 ,ap4 #ahib4 ,footnote #ch3 ,the following may be mentioned2 ,euspatangus 7formosus8 and ,blanckenhorni71 ,schizaster1 ,lobocarcinus 78 ,paulino ,wurtembergicus71 ,nautilus sp4 etc4 ,footnote #ci3 ,el ,haram el ,bahrl of ,schweinfurth4 ,footnote #dj3 ,individuals of #fj mm4 diameter are not uncommon4 ,footnote #da3 ,cape ,rayan of ,schweinfurth4 ,footnote #db3 ,,blanckenhorn1 ,neues zur ,geologie und ,palntologie gyptens 7,,ii4 ,das ,palogen7 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,geolog4 ,gesellschaft1 ,jahrg4 #aijj1 p4 #ddf1 has determined this as ,t4 tenuistriata4 ,he refers to these beds as corresponding to the ,tafla of ,jebel ,mokattam1 but ,i regard them as probably representing a considerably lower horizon4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the nummulites from the ,birket el ,qurn series have not yet been critically examined4 ,there appear to be several species present1 including ,n4 ,beaumonti1 ,n4 ,sub-,beaumonti1 ,n4 ,fraasi and ,n4 ,schweinfurthi4 ,in the ,zeuglodon ,valley1 #ab kilom4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,gar el ,gehannem1 occasional individuals of ,n4 gizehensis occur in the basal beds4 ,as there appears to be some doubt whether the four smaller nummulites mentioned above are specifically distinct we shall not attempt to discriminate too closely in the present report4 ,footnote #dd3 ,,schweinfurth1 op4 cit4 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #de3 ,,zittel1 ,palontographica ,n4,f4,x4 #c 7,,xxx7 ,die ,versteinerungen der tertire ,schichten von der westlichen ,insel im ,birket el ,qurun ,see1 von ,prof4 ,karl ,mayer-,eymar4 ,footnote #df3 ,it must be mentioned here1 however1 that more recently ,mayer-,eymar speaks 7,nouvelles ,recherches sur le ,ligurien et le ,tongrien d'gypte1 ,bull4 ,inst4 gypt41 ,april1 #ahid1 p4 #baf7 of the ,mokattam beds above ,qasr el ,sagha1 some #ajj metres higher in the series1 as ,parisian1 but does not explain these two conflicting determinations4 ,it seems quite certain1 however1 that these island beds are of ,parisian age1 and not ,bartonian as stated by him4 ,footnote #dg3 ,lucina pharaonis1 ,bell41 7,l4 pomum1 ,may4 ,eym4 not ,dujardin7 see ,oppenheim1 ,zur ,kenntnis alttertirer ,faunen in gypten1 ,palaeontographica1 ,bd4 ,,xxx1 ,,iii1 p4 #abd4 ,footnote #dh3 ,,dames1 ,uber eine ,tertire ,wirbelthier ,fauna von der westlichen ,insel des ,birket el ,qurun in ,fayum 7gypten71 ,sitzungsber4 ,akad4 ,wissensch41 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #di3 ,uber ,zeuglodonten aus gypten und die ,beziehungen der ,archoceten zu den brigen ,cetacean1 ,palontologische ,abhandlungen von ,w4 ,dames und ,kayser1 ,i4 ,v4 #e1 ,jena1 #ahid4 ,footnote #ej3 ,we propose to refer to this species as ,z4 ,isis4 ,see ,geol4 ,mag4 ,no4 #dgi1 ,dec4 ,v1 ,vol ,i1 ,no4 ,v1 ,may #aijd1 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #ea3 ,see also1 ,stromer von ,reichenbach1 ,zeuglodonten-,reste aus dem oberen ,mitteleocn des ,fayum1 ,bayer ,akad4 ,wissensch4 ,bd4 ,,xxxii1 #aijb1 pp4 #cda-ceb4 ,footnote #eb3 ,,ernest ,,von ,,stromer4 ,zeuglodon-reste aus dem oberen ,mitteleocn des ,fayum1 ,beitrge zur ,palontologie und ,geologie ,osterreich-,ungarns und des ,orients4 ,band ,,xv4 ,heft ,,ii and ,,iii1 p4 #hb4 ,also ,einiges ber ,bau und ,stellung der ,zeuglodonten1 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 geolog4 ,gesellsch4 ,jahr4 #aijc4 ,compare ,fraas ,neue ,zeuglodonten aus dem ,unteren ,mitteleocn vom ,mokattam bei ,cairo1 ,geol4 u4 ,palont4 ,abhand4 ,neue ,folge ,band ,,vi ,heft #c4 ,jena #aijd4 ,footnote #ec3 ,as the fossils occurring in these beds had been collected and described by ,schweinfurth1 ,dames1 and ,mayer-,eymar1 the writer did not spend further time on the island than was necessary for correlating the beds with his classification4 ,footnote #ed3 ,cossmann has recently described some ,middle ,eocene shells collected from the same locality1 near ,dim1 in a publication entitled ,additions la ,faune ,nummulitique d'gypte1 le ,caire1 #aija4 ,footnote #ee3 ,t4 pharaonica1 ,cossmann4 ,a new species2 apparently this is the form quoted by ,blanckenhorn and ,mayer-,eymar as ,t4 angulata4 ,according to ,cossmann1 however1 ,t4 pharaonica differs from ,t4 angulata in several particulars1 especially in being more thickset4 ,footnote #ef3 ,blanckenhorn1 thinking that the bed capping the island of ,geziret el ,qorn is identical with that forming the plain around and to the north of ,dim1 has1 in a section recently published 7,neues zur ,geol4 u4 ,palnt4 gyptens1 ,,iv4 ,das ,pliocn1 etc41 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 geol4 ,gesellsch41 ,jahrg4 #aija1 ,taf4 ,,xiv1 fig4 #b71 inserted a number of faults letting the beds down continually to the south4 ,the beds however are not identical1 and no faults occur4 ,footnote #eg3 ,this block was far too large to transport by camel1 but it may be feasible to effect its removal to ,cairo by cart when opportunity offers4 ,footnote #eh3 ,,schweinfurth1 op4 cit4 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #ei3 ,a ruin discovered by ,schweinfurth in #ahhf and hence often spoken of as 8,schweinfurth's ,temple40 ,nothing certain is known as to its age or former use1 but we may infer from its situation just beyond the limits of the high-level lacustrine clays1 that it was built and inhabited only while ,lake ,mris stood at its highest level4 ,footnote #fj3 ,see ,,oppenheim1 op4 cit4 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #fa3 ,details of a section of the lower beds of this group near the end of the lake have already been given on p4 #dd4 ,footnote #fb3 ,as might be expected1 vertebrate remains occur chiefly in the sandy and clayey beds4 ,skeletons of marine animals such as ,zeuglodon and ,eosiren may1 however1 be frequently observed embedded in the hard intercalated limestones4 ,limestone cranial-casts of these animals are thus sometimes found1 and one of these has already been figured and described 7,elliot ,smith1 ,the ,brain of the ,archoceti1 ,proceedings ,royal ,society1 ,vol4 #ga1 pp4 #cbb-cca4 ,some most beautifully formed casts from one of the limestone beds were eventually determined by ,andrews to be casts of the air passages of crocodile skulls4 ,footnote #fc3 ,schweinfurth appears to have been the first to examine these beds4 ,footnote #fd3 ,one would imagine that there must have been a considerable amount of ferruginous matter in the water at the time of deposition of the ,fluvio-marine series1 the prevailing colours of the deposits being red and yellow4 ,footnote #fe3 ,mayer-,eymar appears to believe the depression of the ,faym is the result of the volcanic activity which produced these basalt flows4 ,he says 7op4 cit4 ,nouvelles recherches1 etc41 p4 #bah47 8,or1 de cette extension extraordinaire du phnomne volcanique dans l'ouest du grand dsert1 il est1 en premier lieu1 permis de conclure que c'est par suite de son action excavante qu'a eu lieu l'effondrement rempli de nos jours1 en partie par le lac de ,fayum40 ,personally1 we cannot see the slightest evidence in support of this4 ,where the basalt occurs as a hard band it usually causes steep cliffs as at ,widan el ,faras1 owing to its protecting the underlying beds from denudation4 ,to the west1 in ,jebel el ,qatrani1 its thickness and hardness determine the character and steepness of the escarpment below4 ,footnote #ff3 ,pebble bands are occasionally met with in the coarser sandstones of the ,fluvio-marine series1 and it would seem that from them are derived the pebbles of quartz and flint which so invariably strew the desert-surface to the north to beyond the latitude of ,cairo4 ,those flints on the surface are largely broken up and flaked by changes of temperature1 but show comparatively little shaping by blown sand2 the white quartz pebbles on the other hand1 while seldom or never broken or flaked1 are invariably more or less facetted1 frequently into typical 8dreikanter0 or pyramid-pebbles2 below the surface both varieties are perfectly water-rounded4 ,footnote #fg3 ,many of the fossils mentioned in this profile were only discovered after long search1 and had to be inserted in the measured section afterwards4 ,their position therefore is only approximate1 as individual beds could not always be correlated at the different points where fossils were collected4 ,footnote #fh3 ,it is not intended to convey the impression that remains of all these vertebrates were found at the point where the actual line of section runs4 ,as a matter of fact at that particular point only ,palomastodon remains were observed1 while most of the others were obtained some distance further west4 ,remains of ,mritherium1 probably identical with ,m4 ,lyonsi1 of the ,qasr el ,sagha series1 in the shape of a beautifully-preserved and almost complete skull1 associated with ,palomastodon and ,arsinoitherium in these same beds1 ,i only discovered in ,january #aijc1 at a point nearly due north of the western end of the ,birket el ,qurn4 ,a preliminary description of this skull has been published by ,andrews1 ,further ,notes on the ,mammals of the ,eocene of ,egypt2 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,v4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no ,,iii4 ,march #aijd1 pp4 #aji-aae4 ,footnote #fi3 ,,andrews and ,,beadnell1 ,a preliminary notice of a ,land ,tortoise from the ,upper ,eocene of the ,faym1 ,egypt1 ,p4,w4,m4 report1 ,cairo1 #aijc4 ,footnote #gj3 ,in addition to those described from the ,survey and ,british ,museum collections1 some additional species are described by von ,reinach from von ,stromer's collection3 ,schildkrtenreste aus dem gyptischen ,tertir2 ,sonderabdruck aus den ,abhandlungen der ,sendeenbergischen naturforschenden ,gesellschaft1 ,band ,,xxix1 ,heft ,i4 ,frankfurt #aijc4 ,footnote #ga3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #dee-def4 ,vide ,blanckenhorn1 ,zur ,kentniss der ,ssswasserablag4 u4 ,mollusken ,syriens4 ,palaeontographica ,,xliv1 #ahig1 ,s4 #ig1 t4 #h1 f4 #b4 ,footnote #gb3 ,more recently ,blanckenhorn in a paper entitled ,nachtrge zur ,kentniss des ,palaeogens in gypten1 7,centralbl4 f4 ,mineralogie ch4 #aija1 ,no4 #i1 p4 #bgb7 has named this species ,lanistes bartonianus 7spelled bartoninus in same paper74 ,footnote #gc3 ,it has #d-e flat spiral rows1 the uppermost of which on the last whorls is often more strongly developed but not keel-shaped as in ,m4 muricata4 ,there are longitudinal ribs to the number of #h-ab over the whorls2 the largest example was #i millimetres long and had #h whorls4 ,footnote #gd3 ,see ,note #b1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #ge3 ,the majority belong to the genus ,nicolia1 but more rarely specimens1 apparently referable to a species of conifer1 are met with4 ,footnote #gf3 ,the largest trunk noticed had a length of #bh metres4 ,footnote #gg3 ,,zittel1 ,beitr4 z4 ,geol4 u4 ,palaeont4 d4 ,libysch4 ,wste1 ,i ,th4 7,palaeontographica1 ,vol4 ,,xxx7 p4 ,,xciii4 ,footnote #gh3 ,,mayer-,,eymar1 ,quelques mots sur les nouvelles recherches relatives au ,ligurien et au ,tongrien d',egypte4 ,bull4 de l',inst4 ,egypt4 7#c7 ,n4 #d1 #ahid4 ,mayer-,eymar's division of the lower beds into ,ligurien infrieur and ,ligurien suprieur is hardly convincing1 especially as no fossils were found by that observer4 ,the correlation of strata in widely separate areas by their lithological similarity is at least open to question1 especially with beds of this type1 which can indeed be exactly matched again and again at many levels in the same vertical succession4 ,his diagnosis of the beds immediately below the basalt as ,tongrien infrieur1 rests1 however1 on firmer grounds1 as this basalt sheet can be traced across the desert to beyond the latitude of ,cairo1 and is probably everywhere of approximately the same age4 ,footnote #gi3 ,,schweinfurth1 op4 cit41 ,reise in das ,depression ,gebiet1 etc47 p4 #da4 ,footnote #hj3 ,,beadnell1 ,the ,cretaceous ,region of ,abu ,roash1 near the ,pyramids of ,giza4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,egypt1 ,report #aijj1 ,pt4 ,,ii4 #aijb1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #ha3 ,zur ,geologie ,aegypten1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 p4 #deh2 ,die ,geschichte des ,nil-,stroms in der ,tertir und ,quartrperiode1 etc41 ,z4 d4 ,ges4 f4 ,erdk4 ,z4 ,berlin1 #aijb1 ,tafel #aj4 ,footnote #hb3 ,,beadnell1 ,dcouvertes ,gologiques ,rcentes dans la ,valle du ,nil et le ,dsert ,libyen1 ,compte rendu4 ,v,i,i,ie ,congr4 ,gol4 ,internat4 #aijj1 ,paris1 #aija1 p4 ,blank2 also ,,ball and ,,beadnell1 ,baharia ,oasis3 ,its ,topography and ,geology2 ,survey ,depart4 ,p4,w4,m4 report4 ,cairo4 #aijc1 pp4 #fa-fb4 ,footnote #hc3 ,correlations between ,tertiary ,mammal ,horizons of ,europe and ,america1 ,annals ,n4,y4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 ,no4 #a1 ,july #ba1 #aijj1 pp4 #a-gb4 ,footnote #hd3 ,compare ,afrika als ,entstehungszentrum fr ,sugetiere1 ,stromer1 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,geolog4 ,gesellsch4 ,jahr #aijc4 ,also ,betrachtungen ber die ,geologische geschichte ,aethiopiens1 do4 do41 #aija4 ,footnote #he3 ,the locality has been briefly examined by ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn and more recently by ,mr4 ,t4 ,barron1 who was accompanied by ,dr4 ,andrews2 the writer spent a few days collecting in the neighbourhood in ,april1 #aijc4 ,footnote #hf3 ,approximately #aj metres above sea-level4 ,footnote #hg3 ,it is worth recording here that a single worn specimen of ,chicoreus anguliferus1 ,lam41 was found on the desert surface in the neighbourhood of the bone-pits and at about the level of the highest gravel terrace4 ,this determination was made by ,bullen ,newton1 who informs me the species occurs in the marine ,pleistocene beach deposits of the ,red ,sea4 ,footnote #hh3 ,,beadnell1 ,dcouvertes ,gologiques ,rcentes dans la ,valle du ,nil et le ,dsert ,libyen1 ,v,i,i,ie ,congrs ,gol4 ,intern4 #aijj4 ,paris #aija1 pp4 #be-bg4 ,footnote #hi3 ,doubt has recently been thrown by ,american writers on the possibility of large or thick deposits of gypsum being formed by precipitation4 ,see ,r4 ,s4 ,,sherwin4 ,notes on the theories of origin of gypsum deposits1 ,kansas ,acad4 ,sci4 ,trans4 ,vol4 #ah4 #aijc1 pp4 #he-hh4 ,footnote #ij3 ,egyptian ,irrigation 7#ahii71 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #ia3 ,the southern limits of the site 7broken line7 are taken from the maps of ,brown and ,willcocks4 ,footnote #ib3 ,the mammalian remains collected from these lacustrine clays have not yet been systematically examined4 ,dr4 ,andrews has however determined some of the genera present3 see1 8,notes on an ,expedition to the ,fayum1 ,egypt01 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,no4 #dgj ,aug4 #aijc1 pp4 #ccg-cdc4 ,footnote #ic3 ,,martens ,subfossile ,ssswasser-,conchylien aus dem ,fajum1 ,sitz4 ,ber4 ,gesell4 naturforsch4 ,freunde1 ,berlin ,july1 #ahgi1 ,s4 #ajj u4 ,oct4 #ahhf1 ,s4 #abf4 ,footnote #id3 ,geologie gyptens1 pp4 #ddd-ddf4 ,footnote #ie3 ,for figures and details of these flints see a paper by the writer1 ,neolithic ,flint ,implements from the ,northern ,desert of the ,faym1 ,egypt1 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iv41 ,vol4 ,x41 pp4 #ec-ei1 ,febr4 #aijc4 ,footnote #if3 ,mmoires sur les principaux travaux d'utilit publique excuts en ,egypte depuis la plus haute antiquit jusqu' nos jours4 #ahgb-ahgc1 ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #ig3 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #bh-dj4 ,footnote #ih3 8,the disposition of the ,lake ,mris10 in the ,archological ,report of the ,egypt ,explor4 ,fund #ahih-ahii1 ,pt4 ,i4 ,d41 pp4 #ac-ae4 ,footnote #ii3 ,,blanckenhorn1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfc4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,previous ,,literature ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,fayum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,andrews ,c4 ,w4--,extinct ,vertebrates from ,egypt4 ,parts ,i1 ,,ii1 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,sept4 and ,oct1 #aija4 ,notes on an ,expedition to the ,faym1 ,egypt1 with description of some new ,mammals1 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,aug4 #aijc4 ,further ,notes on the ,mammals of the ,eocene of ,egypt1 7,pts ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii71 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 ,dec4 ,v4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,a note on the occurrence of a ,ratite ,bird in the ,upper ,eocene beds of the ,faym1 ,egypt4 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 ,london1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,andrews1 ,c4 ,w4 ,,and ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4--,a preliminary note on ,some ,new ,mammals from the ,upper ,eocene of ,egypt1 ,survey ,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,a preliminary ,notice of a ,land ,tortoise from the ,upper ,eocene of the ,faym1 ,egypt4 ,survey ,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijc4 ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4--,dcouvertes ,gologiques ,rcentes dans la ,valle du ,nil et le ,dsert ,libyen1 ,,viii4 ,congr4 ,gol4 ,intern4 #aijj4 ,paris1 #aija4 ,the ,faym ,depression2 a ,preliminary ,notice of the ,geology of a district in ,egypt containing a new ,palaeogene ,vertebrate ,fauna4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,,viii ,no4 #dej1 ,dec4 #aija4 ,a preliminary note on ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli1 ,beadn41 ,survey ,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,neolithic ,flint ,implements from the ,northern ,desert of the ,faym1 ,egypt4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,febr4 #aijc4 ,,blanckenhorn1 ,m4--,geologie gyptens 7,pts ,i-,,iv7 ,zeitsch4 ,deutsch4 ,geol4 ,gesell4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,neue geologisch-stratigraphische ,beobachtungen in gypten1 ,s4-,ber4 d4 math4-phys4 ,classe d4 ,kgl4 bayer4 ,ac4 d4 ,wiss4 ,bd4 ,,xxxii1 #aijb1 ,heft ,,iii1 ,mnchen1 #aijb4 ,die ,geschichte des ,nil-,stroms in der ,tertir- und ,quartr periode1 sowie des ,palaeolithischen ,menschen in gypten4 ,z4 d4 ,ges4 f4 ,erdk4 ,z4 ,berlin1 #aijb4 ,nachtrge zur ,kenntniss des ,palaeogens in gypten1 ,centralb4 f4 ,mineral4 ,no4 #i4 #aijc4 ,,brown1 ,,sir ,,hanbury4--,the ,faym and ,lake ,mris1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,,cossmann1 ,m4--,additions a la ,faune ,nummulitique d',egypte1 ,cairo1 #aija4 ,,dames1 ,w4--,uber eine ,tertire ,wirbelthier ,fauna von der westlichen ,insel des ,birket-el-,qurn in ,faym 7gypten74 ,sitzungsber4 ,akad4 ,wissensch41 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,,dames1 ,w4 ,,and ,,kayser4--,uber ,zeuglodonten aus gypten und die ,beziehungen der ,archoceten zu den brigen ,cetacean4 ,palaeont4 ,abhand4 ,i4 ,v4 #e1 ,jena1 #ahid4 ,,editor ,,geological ,,magazine4--,a ,new ,egyptian ,mammal 7,arsinoitherium7 from the ,faym4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,n4,s41 ,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,x1 ,dec4 #aijc4 ,,elliot ,,smith1 ,g4--,the ,brain of the ,archaeoceti1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vol4 #ga4 ,,flinders ,,petrie4--,hawara1 ,biahmu and ,arsin1 ,egypt4 ,explor4 ,fund ,reports1 #ahhi4 ,,garstin1 ,,sir ,,william4--,report upon the ,basin of the ,upper ,nile1 ,cairo1 #aijd4 ,,grenfell ,,and ,,hunt4--,the disposition of the ,lake ,mris1 ,archaeol4 ,rep4 ,egypt4 ,exploration ,fund4 #ahih-ii4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,d4 ,,liernur1 ,,western ,,and ,,scott ,,moncrieff1 ,,sir ,,colin4--,notes on the ,wadi ,rayan1 ,cairo1 #ahhh4 ,,linant ,,de ,,bellefonds4--,mmoires sur les travaux publics en ,egypte1 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,mmoires sur les principaux travaux d'utilit publique excuts en ,egypte depuis la plus haute antiquit jusqu' nos jours1 #ahgb-ahgc4 ,,lucas1 ,a4--,a preliminary ,investigation of the ,soil and ,water of the ,faym ,province1 ,survey ,dept41 ,p4,w4,m41 ,cairo1 #aijb4 ,,martens4 ,e4 ,v4--,subfossile ,ssswasser-,conchylien aus dem ,fajum4 ,sitz4 ,ber4 ,gesell4 naturf4 ,freunde1 ,berlin1 #ahgi4 ,,mayer-,,eymar1--,l'oasis de ,moleh1 ,bull4 de l',inst4 ,egypt41 ,april1 #ahib4 ,nouvelles ,recherches sur le ,ligurien et le ,tongrien d',egypte1 ,bull4 de l',instit4 ,egypt41 ,april1 #ahid4 ,die ,versteinerungen der tertiren ,schichten von der westlichen ,insel im ,birket-el-,qurn ,see1 ,paleontogr4 ,n4,f4,x41 #c1 7,,xxx74 ,,oppenheim1 ,p4--,zur ,kenntnis alttertirer ,faunen in ,aegypten1 7,i74 ,palaeontographica1 ,dreif4 ,band4 ,,iii1 ,public ,works ,ministry reports1 #ahhi-aijd4 ,abt4 ,erst4 ,lief4 ,stuttgart1 #aijc4 ,,reinach1 ,v4--,schildkrtenreste aus dem gyptischen ,tertir4 ,sonderabd4 aus d4 ,abhand4 d4 ,senckenb4 natur4 ,gesellsch4 ,,xxix1 ,i4 ,frankfurt1 #aijc4 ,,schweinfurth1 ,g4--,reise in das ,depressionsgebiet im ,umkreise des ,fajm1 ,zeitschr4 ,ges4 ,f4 ,erdkunde1 ,berlin1 #ahhf4 ,a note on the ,salt in the ,wadi ,rayan1 ,appendix ,,ii1 ,egyptian ,irrigation 7,willcocks71 ,london1 #ahii4 ,,scott ,,moncrieff1 ,,sir ,,colin--,note on the ,wadi ,raian ,project1 ,cairo1 #ahhi4 ,,stromer1 ,e4--,zeuglodonten-,reste aus dem oberen ,mitteleocn des ,faym1 ,bayer4 ,akad4 ,wissensch41 ,bd4 ,,xxxii1 #aijb4 ,einiges ber ,bau und ,stellung der ,zeuglodonten1 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,geolog4 ,gesellsch4 #aijc4 ,see also ,beitrge zur ,palont4 u4 ,geol4 ,osterr4-,ungarins u4 des ,orients4 ,band ,,xv4 ,heft ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,afrika als ,entstehungszentrum fr ,sugetiere1 ,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,geolog4 ,gesellsch4 #aijc4 ,,whitehouse1 ,,cope4--,bull4 of the ,american ,geographical ,society1 #ahhb4 ,,willcocks1 ,,sir ,,william4--,perennial ,irrigation and ,flood ,protection in ,egypt1 ,p4,w4,m4 ,report1 ,cairo1 #ahid4 ,egyptian ,irrigation1 #bnd ,edit4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,the ,assuan ,reservoir and ,lake ,mris1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,,zittel1 ,k4 ,v4--,geologie u4 ,palaeontologie der ,libyschen ,wste1 ,cassel1 #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,appendix ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,paul ,oppenheim has recently published#ajj a description of a large collection of ,egyptian lamellibranchs2 the following is a list of the species of which examples have been collected in the ,faym 7including ,rayan and ,mola74 ,figured species are marked by an asterisk4 99,gryphaea pharaonum1 ,oppenh ,lower ,mokattam4 99,ostrea 7,gryphaea7 ,whitehousei1 ,may4-,eym4 99,o4 ,edmondstonei1 ,may-,eym4 99,o4 histris1 ,may4-,eym4 99,gryphaea 787 arabica1 ,may4-,eym4 99,o4 elegans1 ,desh4 ,upper 7and intermediate7 ,mokattam4 99,o4 ,fraasi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,o4 ,stanleyi1 ,may4-,eym4 99,o4 ,cailliaudi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,o4 ramosa1 ,may4-,eym4 ,lower ,mokattam4 99,o4 plicata1 ,sol4 ,mokattam ,series4 ,o4 paucicostata1 ,oppenh4 ,lower ,mokattam4 ,o4 ,reili1 ,fraas4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 ,o4 ,schweinfurthi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,upper ,mokattam4 ,o4 ,sickenbergeri1 ,may4-,eym4 99,o4 ,hessi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,o4 qeruniana1 ,may4-,eym4 ,mokattam ,series4 ,o4 gigantica1 ,sol4 ,upper 7and intermediate7 ,mokattam4 99,o4 7,alectryonia7 ,clot-,beyi1 ,bell4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,o4 7 7 ,bellardi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,lower ,mokattam4 ,o4 7 7 semipectinata1 ,schafh4 99,o4 7 7 ,mehemeti1 ,may4-,eym4 ,carolia placunoides1 ,cantraine ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,pecten molehensis1 ,may4-,eym4 ,lower ,mokattam4 99,p4 ,cailliaudi1 ,oppenh4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 ,plicatula pyramidarum1 ,fraas ,upper ,mokattam4 ,p4 ,bellardi1 ,may4-,eym4 ,mokattam ,series4 ,p4 indigena1 ,may4-,eym4 99,p4 ,schweinfurthi1 ,oppenh4 ,lower ,mokattam4 99,spondylus gyptiacus1 ,newton ,mokattam ,series4 99,s4 ,rouaulti1 d',arch4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,s4 perhorridus1 ,oppenh4 ,lower ,mokattam4 99,vulsella crispata1 ,fischer ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,v4 lignaria1 ,oppenh4 ,lower ,mokattam4 99,v4 molehensis1 ,oppenh4 99,v4 chamiformis1 ,may4-,eym4 99,nucula ,mridis1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,cucullaea dimehensis1 ,oppenh4 99,arca subplanicostata1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,a4 ,tethyis1 ,oppenh4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,a4 uniformis1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,a4 tenuifilosa1 ,cossm4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,pectunculus juxtadentatus1 ,cossm4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,p4 aegyptiacus1 ,oppenh4 99,cardita ,viquesneli1 d',arch4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 ,c4 acuticostata1 ,lk4 99,c4 mokattamensis1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,c4 fayumensis1 ,oppenh4 99,c4 fidelis1 ,may4-,eym4 99,c4 ,mosis1 ,oppenh4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,crassatella fajumensis1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 ,c4 ,junkeri1 ,may4-,eym4 ,c4 puellula1 ,may4-,eym4 99,c4 trigonata1 ,lk4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,lucina pharaonis1 ,bell4 ,lower and ,upper ,mokattam4 99,l4 ,rai1 ,oppenh4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,l4 polythele1 ,oppenh4 99,l4 calliste1 ,oppenh4 99,l4 gibbosula1 ,lk4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,l4 fajumensis1 ,oppenh4 99,l4 sinuosa1 ,bell4 99,diplodonta cycloidea1 ,bell4 ,mokattam ,series4 99,d4 inflata1 ,bell4 99,lucina 7,diplodonta7 corpusculum1 ,oppenh4 99,cardium desertorum1 ,oppenh4 ,upper ,mokattam4 99,c4 ,schweinfurthi1 ,may4-,eym4 99,cyrena 7,corbicula7 ,blanckenhorni1 ,oppenh4 99,cyprina aegyptiaca1 ,oppenh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #ajj3 ,zur ,kenntnis alttertirer ,faunen in gypten4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,der ,bivalven1 erster ,teil4 ,palaeontographica ,bd4 ,,xxx1 ,,iii4 ,,index 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,abshawai--#cj-ca1 #hd4 ,abu ,roash as an island--#fe4 ,acacias--#be4 ,adaptive radiation of ,hyracoidea1 c4--#fi4 ,aegean plateau1 ,giraffes1 c4 of--#fi4 ,aetheria--#ha4 ,africa with ,europe or ,asia1 ,connection of--#fh4 ,africa as centre of mammalian radiation--#fh1 #hh4 ,agamiin--#hd4 ,agassizia gibberulus--#eb4 ,ain ,warshat el ,melh--#bj4 ,air passages of crocodile skulls1 as casts--#eb4 ,akera aff4 striatella--#ea-eb4 ,alectryonia ,clot-,beyi--#ce1 #ej-eb4 ,allen--#fi4 ,alluvial deposits--#bc1 #be-bf1 #bi1 #ci1 #gi-ha4 ,alluvial soil1 ,composition of--#aa-ab4 ,alluvium covering eastern area--#be1 #cj4 ,amenemhat ,i--#ac1 #bf1 #hb1 #hd4 ,ampullina hybrida--#ea4 ,ampullaria--#ea1 #ha4 ,analyses of water--#ac1 #bb4 ,analysis of fossil bones--#ed4 ,analysis of ox bone--#ee4 ,ancodus ,gorringei--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,andrews1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4--#aj1 #cd1 #eb1 #ei1 #fh1 #ga1 #hj1 #hg4 ,anisaster gibberulus--#eb4 ,anomaluridae--#fh-fi4 ,anoplotheres--#fi4 ,antelopes--#fi4 ,aquatic animals--#ee4 ,aquatic hyracoid--#fi4 ,arca--#ec1 #fj4 ,arca ,edwardsi--#dc4 ,arca subplanicostata--#ij4 ,arca tenuifilosa--#ij4 ,arca tethyis--#eb1 #ij4 ,arca uniformis--#ij4 ,archoceti--#dd1 #eb1 #hg4 ,ard varks--#fi4 ,area of ,birket el ,qurn--#ac4 ,area of cultivated land--#aa4 ,area of desert in depression--#ae4 ,area of ,faym depression--#i-aa4 ,area of ,faym freshwater lake--#hj4 ,arenaceous deposits--#hd4 ,arenaceous sediments of ,nile--#ha4 ,argillaceous sandstone--#cf1 #ci1 #df4 ,argillaceous sands--#eg4 ,armadillos--#fi4 ,arsin--#ac1 #hc1 #hg4 ,arsinoitherium--#aj1 #ed1 #ei1 #fb1 #fh-hg4 ,arsinoitherium ,andrewsii--#cd1 #gj4 ,arsinoitherium ,zitteli--#aj1 #cd1 #ei1 #gj1 #hg4 ,assuan ,reservoir--#hh4 ,astarte--#df4 ,astrohelia similis--#ce1 #dc1 #ea4 ,b ,baboons--#fi4 ,bacchias--#hc-hd4 ,baharia ,oasis--#i1 #be1 #bg1 #bi1 #ff1 #fg4 ,bahr ,belama--#ah4 ,bahr ,yusef--#aa-ab1 #ag-ah1 #be-bf1 #hc-hd4 ,balanus--#ci1 #dg4 ,ball1 ,dr4 ,j4--#ff4 ,barbatia--#fj4 ,barriers between ,nile lakes--#gi4 ,barron1 ,t4--#ga4 ,barton ,clay--#eh4 ,bartonian beds--#dc1 #ec-gj4 ,barytherium--#aj1 #ea1 #fh4 ,barytherium grave--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4 ,basalt sheet--#ae1 #bh1 #cd1 #ec1 #ef-fd1 #ge-gf 7derived74 ,basins receiving drainage--#be1 #gi4 ,bats1 ,ravine of ,el--#bi-cj1 #cg1 #ci-dj4 ,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l4--#aj1 #cc1 #ei-fj1 #fe-ff1 #gh1 #hg4 ,beauchamp sands--#eh4 ,beekite--#fa4 ,biahmu--#ac1 #hc-hd1 #hg4 ,birds1 ,fossil--#gj-hg4 ,birket el ,qurn--#aa1 #ab-ad1 #af1 #bc-be1 #bg-bh1 #cj-cb1 #cf1 #dj-da1 #dc-dg1 #di-ej1 #ef1 #fa1 #gb-gc1 #hj-ha1 #hc-hd1 #hg-hh4 ,birket el ,qurun ,schichten--#fc4 ,birket el ,qurn ,series--#bc1 #bg1 #ce1 #da-ej1 #eb1 #fd1 #gb-gd4 ,bithynia aff4 ,boissieri--#ha4 ,blanford--#fi-gj4 ,blanckenhorn1 ,dr4 ,m4--#cj-ca1 #cd1 #ci1 #de1 #eh1 #fj1 #fd1 #ff1 #ga1 #ha1 #hg4 ,blue ,nile fauna--#ha4 ,bone horizons pits--#eb1 #ed1 #fb1 #gf4 ,borings1 ,artesian--#ah4 ,borings at ,medinet el ,faym--#bi-cj1 #da4 ,borings by molluscs--#bc1 #cd1 #dc1 #ga-gc1 #gh4 ,borings by shells at two levels--#gb-gc4 ,borsonia--#cg4 ,boulders in gravel terraces--#gf4 ,brackish-water shells--#hd4 ,brain of archoceti--#eb1 #hg4 ,branches wanting on fossil trees--#fd-fe4 ,british ,museum collections--#ei4 ,brown coal--#ec4 ,brown1 ,sir ,hanbury--#aa1 #ac1 #hj1 #hc1 #hg4 ,bryozoa--#cf1 #eb4 ,bubalis--#hj4 ,bugti beds 7,sind7--#gj4 ,bullen ,newton1 ,r4--#gf4 ,c ,cairo--#i1 #af1 #bh1 #di1 #ef1 #fd1 #fe4 ,calcareous beds in lake--#ab4 ,calcareous grits--#cc1 #ec1 #ef-fc4 ,calcareous sandstone--#be1 #db-dc1 #de1 #ej-ea1 #ei1 #gb4 ,calcite--#ea1 #eh-ei1 #fa-fb4 ,callianassa--#cf1 #eh4 ,calyptra trochiformis--#dc4 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,connection with--#aa1 #ac1 #ag-ah1 #gi-hb4 ,nile ,valley1 ,history of--#gi1 #hg4 ,nile waters enter depression--#bf1 #gi-hj1 #hb4 ,nilometer--#hj4 ,nodular bands--#dd1 #dg4 ,nodular limestones--#dh4 ,nodules1 ,calcareous--#ci1 #fa4 ,nonionina--#df4 ,northern ,desert ,region--#i1 #bf-bh1 #hg4 ,nucula ,mridis--#hi4 ,nucularia--#ce1 #ci4 ,nummulites--#cc1 #cf1 #ci1 #da1 #df-dh4 ,nummulites ,beaumonti--#ce1 #da4 ,nummulites curvispira--#ce-cg4 ,nummulites ,fraasi--#ce1 #da-db4 ,nummulites gizehensis--#cc1 #ce-cg1 #ci1 #da1 #dh4 ,nummulites gizehensis limestones--#cc1 #ce-cg1 #ci1 #da1 #dh4 ,nummulites ,schweinfurthi--#da4 ,nummulites sub-,beaumonti--#da4 ,nummulitic limestones--#cf-ci1 #fe4 ,o ,oases depressions--#fg4 ,oases1 ,origin of--#bi4 ,oasis1 ,parva--#hc4 ,oldest beds in ,faym--#cc4 ,oligocene beds--#cd1 #ec1 #gj4 ,oligocene of ,orient ,european in type--#gj4 ,oliva--#df4 ,operculina--#cc1 #df1 #gd4 ,operculina discoidea--#ce1 #da-db1 #dg1 #gd4 ,operculina-,nummulite ,beds--#ce1 #da-dh1 #gd4 ,oppenheim1 ,dr4 ,p4--#dc1 #ej1 #hh-hi4 ,oriental faunal region--#fi4 ,origin of ,faym1 ,causes of--#ae4 ,original floor of depression--#ci4 ,osborn1 ,prof4 ,h4 ,f4--#fh1 #gj4 ,ostrea--#cf-ci1 #db1 #dd-df1 #dh-ej1 #eb4 ,ostrea ,bellardi--#hi4 ,ostrea ,caillaudi--#hi4 ,ostrea ,clot-,beyi--#ch1 #df1 #hi4 ,ostrea cucullata--#da1 #ga1 #gg4 ,ostrea digitalina--#dc4 ,ostrea ,edmonstonei--#hi4 ,ostrea elegans--#ce1 #ea1 #hi4 ,ostrea flabellula--#ea4 ,ostrea ,fraasi--#ch-ci1 #dg1 #hi4 ,ostrea gigantea--#dc4 ,ostrea gigantica--#hi4 ,ostrea ,gumbeli--#cg4 ,ostrea ,hessi--#hi4 ,ostrea aff4 heteroclyta--#ea4 ,ostrea histris--#hi4 ,ostrea longirostris--#dc4 ,ostrea ,mehemeti--#hi4 ,ostrea paucicostata--#hi4 ,ostrea plicata--#dc1 #hi4 ,ostrea producta--#dc4 ,ostrea qeruniana--#hi4 ,ostrea ramosa--#hi4 ,ostrea ,reili--#ce1 #ci1 #de-dg1 #ea-eb1 #hi4 ,ostrea ,schweinfurthi--#hi4 ,ostrea semipectinata--#hi4 ,ostrea ,sickenbergeri--#hi4 ,ostrea ,stanleyi--#hi4 ,ostrea ,whitehousei--#hi4 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,perforate weathering of sandstone--#df4 ,permeability of ,wadi ,rayan--#bd4 ,perennial irrigation in ,egypt--#hh4 ,pharaonic province--#hd4 ,philotera--#hd4 ,phiomia--#aj4 ,phiomia serridens--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,pinna--#ci1 #dg4 ,plains--#ej1 #eb1 #ed1 #gg4 ,plain of subaerial denudation--#ci4 ,planorbis ,ehrenbergi--#hd4 ,planorbis marginatus var4 subangulata--#hd4 ,planorbis subangulata--#ha4 ,plant-remains--#db1 #ej-ea1 #ec1 #eg4 ,plateau bounding ,faym to north--#bf4 ,plateaux--#ae1 #ba1 #be1 #bg-bh1 #cb1 #fb4 ,pleistocene ,beds--#cj1 #cd1 #dg1 #ej1 #ed1 #ga1 #gi-ha1 #hd4 ,pleurotoma--#cg1 #dc1 #df1 #ec1 #eh4 ,pleurotoma ingens--#cd1 #eh4 ,plicatula ,bellardi--#ej-ea1 #hi4 ,plicatula indigena--#hi4 ,plicatula polymorpha--#ce1 #de-df1 #ea4 ,plicatula pyramidarum--#hi4 ,plicatula ,schweinfurthi--#hi4 ,pliny--#hb4 ,pliocene ,beds--#cj1 #cd1 #da-db1 #ed1 #fi1 #ga-gh4 ,pliocene sea1 ,invasion of--#dc1 #ga1 #gh4 ,pliohyrax--#fi4 ,podocnemis antiqua--#cg1 #gj4 ,podocnemis ,blanckenhorni--#gj4 ,podocnemis ,blanckenhorni var4 ovata--#gj4 ,podocnemis fajumensis--#gj4 ,podocnemis ,stromeri--#ce1 #gj4 ,podocnemis ,stromeri var4 major--#gj4 ,pools formed by rainfall--#be4 ,pools produced by springs--#bj1 #bb4 ,potamides--#ec4 ,potamides scalaroides--#cd1 #eh1 #fd4 ,potamides tiarella--#fd4 ,potamides tristriatus--#cd4 ,prehistoric epoch--#ha-hb4 ,prehistoric lake--#bc1 #gi-hb4 ,preservation of fossil remains--#ee4 ,proboscidea--#fh-fi4 ,promontories of ,birket el ,qurn1 ,origin of--#da4 ,propristis ,schweinfurthi--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4 ,psephophorus eocnus--#ce1 #gj4 ,pseudodon--#eh1 #fj4 ,pterodon--#aj4 ,pterodon africanus--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,pterodon macrognathus--#cd1 #gj4 ,pterosphenus--#aj4 ,pterosphenus ,schweinfurthi--#ce1 #ej-ea1 #gj4 ,ptolemaic lake--#hd4 ,ptolemaic period--#hb4 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus--#hd4 ,ptolemy the second--#hd4 ,puddingstone of ancient rivers--#bf1 #fg4 ,pyramid-like building--#gd4 ,pyramid pebbles--#ef4 ,q ,qalamsha1 ,ezba--#bc1 #be-bf1 #da-db1 #gg4 ,qasr el ,banat--#hd4 ,qasr el ,qurn--#hd4 ,qasr el ,sagha--#i1 #ca-cb1 #dc1 #di1 #eb1 #ef-eh1 #fj-fa4 ,qasr el ,sagha ,series--#bg1 #cb-cc1 #ce1 #ch1 #da1 #dd-eg1 #fd-ff1 #ge1 #gg4 ,qatrani1 ,jebel ,el--#bh1 #ee1 #fa1 #ge4 ,qatrani beds--#cd1 #ec-gj4 ,qerunia--#ch4 ,qerunia cornuta--#ce1 #de-df1 #dh1 #ea-eb4 ,quartz pebbles--#bj1 #ej1 #ef1 #fb-fc1 #gc1 #ge4 ,quartz sand--#ee4 ,quartzite--#fb1 #gc-ge4 ,r ,radiation of ,mammalia from ,africa--#fi4 ,railway to ,faym--#dj4 ,raised beaches--#cd1 #da4 ,ratite bird--#hg4 ,ravine ,beds--#bc1 #be1 #bi-cj1 #ce1 #cg-db1 #df1 #gg4 ,ravines--#ab1 #ai1 #bi1 #cg1 #ci-dj4 ,rayan1 ,jebel--#cf-cg4 ,rayan1 ,geology of ,wadi--#bb-bc4 ,rayan1 ,little--#bb4 ,rayan ,series--#bd1 #be1 #cj1 #cc1 #ce-ci1 #da4 ,rayan1 ,wadi--#i1 #aa1 #ad-bd1 #bg-bh1 #ca1 #he1 #hg-hi4 ,rays--#gj4 ,recent ,beds--#cd1 #ha-he4 ,reclamation of ,faym lake--#hb-hd4 ,reconnection of ,nile ,valley and ,faym--#hj4 ,reeds--#bj4 ,regulator of floods1 ,faym as--#hb4 ,reinach1 ,von--#ei1 #hh4 ,reptiles1 ,fossil--#gj4 ,reservoir at ,assuan--#hh4 ,reservoir proposed in ,wadi ,rayan--#af-ai4 ,retreat of ,eocene sea--#ed1 #ee1 #ff4 ,rhinoceros bicornis--#fi4 ,ridge separating ,nile ,valley and ,faym--#be-bf1 #ga1 #gc-gd1 #gi-hj4 ,ridge separating ,rayan and ,gharaq--#bc4 ,rimella rimosa--#ce1 #ea4 ,ripple-marked sandstone--#ea4 ,rise of ,nile bed--#hj4 ,river1 ,ancient--#bg1 #eb-ee1 #ff-fg1 #gi4 ,river-currents--#fe1 #ga1 #gh4 ,river-sand--#ee4 ,roads in desert--#bg4 ,rocks forming ,libyan ,desert--#ae4 ,roda--#ac1 #ge1 #hj4 ,rodents1 ,flying--#fh-fi4 ,rohlfs' ,expedition--#i1 #fc4 ,rolled fossils--#gc4 ,rostellaria--#cg4 ,round-topped hill-ranges--#ge4 ,rubiat--#ci-db4 ,ruins--#bj-bb1 #dh-ej1 #eb4 ,ruminants1 ,even-toed--#fh-fi4 ,rushes--#bj4 ,s ,saghatherium--#aj4 ,saghatherium antiquum--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,saghatherium magnum--#cd1 #gj4 ,saghatherium minus--#cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,salines--#bj4 ,salinity of lake--#ad4 ,salinity of water in ,wadi ,rayan--#bd4 ,salt--#ah1 #cf1 #gg1 #gi4 ,salt in ,wadis ,rayan ,mula--#ai1 #bj1 #hh4 ,samos1 ,island of--#fi4 ,sands--#ae1 #ah1 #ba1 #bi1 #cc-cd1 #dj1 #db1 #dg1 #ej1 #ec1 #ee-ei1 #fa-fb1 #ga1 #gd-gf1 #hj4 ,sand accumulations1 ,wind-blown--#ab1 #bj-ba1 #cb1 #cd1 #gc1 #hd-he4 ,sand1 c41 deposited in ,birket el ,qurn--#ac1 #hj1 #hd4 ,sandberger ,hills--#fb4 ,sandblast action--#gc4 ,sand-rock--#dd1 #ej-ea1 #ef-fj1 #fb1 #gd4 ,sands1 ,variegated--#cd1 #ec1 #eg1 #ei4 ,sandstones--#ae1 #bh1 #cb-cf1 #ch-ci1 #db-fc1 #gb1 #gd-gg4 ,sandstone1 ,concretionary--#ce1 #ch4 ,sandstone-grit--#ef1 #eh1 #fb-fc4 ,sandstones1 ,mottled--#fb4 ,sandstones1 ,variegated--#gf4 ,sandy clays--#ab1 #ah1 #cf-cg1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #ej-eb1 #ef-ei1 #fb4 ,sandy conglomerate--#ah4 ,sandy limestones--#be1 #ce-cf1 #ch-ci1 #db1 #di-eb4 ,sandy marl--#cg1 #db1 #fb4 ,sandy shale--#db4 ,saqra1 ,pyramid of--#bh4 ,saws1 ,flint--#fa4 ,scalenohedra of calcite--#ea4 ,schizaster--#cf4 ,schizaster aff4 africanus--#eb4 ,schweinfurth1 ,dr4--#i1 #ad1 #ai1 #bd1 #cd-cg1 #dc-dd1 #di1 #fd1 #ga-gb1 #gg-hj1 #hh4 ,schweinfurth's ,temple--#di4 ,scoring due to blown sand--#he4 ,scott ,moncrieff1 ,sir ,c4--#hh4 ,sculpturing of sandstone--#he4 ,scutella beds--#fd4 ,second ,cataract--#ha4 ,sections1 ,geological--#cf-db1 #dd-dg1 #ej-eb1 #ef1 #eh-fb4 ,sediment deposited in ,faym--#bf1 #ed4 ,sla--#i1 #bf1 #ci-dj1 #gc4 ,septaria--#df4 ,serpula--#df4 ,sersena--#be1 #db1 #ge4 ,shales--#cf1 #db1 #dh4 ,shaly ,clays--#dd1 #dg1 #fb1 #gg4 ,shaly marl--#ci-da1 #dd4 ,sharks--#ci4 ,sharks' teeth--#df1 #ea4 ,sheep remains--#hj4 ,shell-borings--#gb4 ,shell-impressions--#ci-dj1 #db1 #dd1 #ej4 ,shelly limestone--#ch-ci1 #df1 #ea-eb4 ,shelly sands--#cf4 ,shelly sandstone--#df1 #ea4 ,sherwin1 ,r4 ,s4--#gh4 ,shore-line1 ,ancient--#gg4 ,shore-line1 ,movements of--#fe4 ,shrinkage of ,birket el ,qurn--#ac4 ,sidmant el ,jebel--#ag1 #cd1 #ga1 #gg4 ,siliceous bands1 ,horns of ,birket el ,qurn due to--#da4 ,siliceous beds capping hills--#fa4 ,siliceous limestone--#cg1 #da4 ,silicified grits--#bg1 #fb1 #fg4 ,silicified sandstones--#cb1 #eg4 ,silicified trees--#bg1 #cd1 #ea1 #ec1 #ee-ei1 #fa1 #fc1 #fe1 #gc-ge4 ,silicified trees1 ,size of--#ec1 #fc4 ,silsila--#ha4 ,siluroid fish--#ce1 #ea1 #gj1 #hj4 ,sirenia--#ea4 ,sites1 ,excavated--#hd4 ,skeleton-carrying currents--#ec4 ,soil1 ,character of--#aa-ab1 #hh4 ,soil survey--#i4 ,solarium--#ea4 ,solarium aff4 bistriatum--#ea4 ,south ,africa as centre of evolution--#fi4 ,south ,america1 ,migrations to--#fi4 ,spatha--#ec1 #eh1 #fj1 #ha4 ,spatha dahomeyensis--#fj4 ,spatha ,droueti--#fj4 ,spondylus gyptiacus--#eb1 #hi4 ,spondylus perhorridus--#hi4 ,spondylus ,ruaulti--#hi4 ,springs in ,wadi ,mula--#bj4 ,springs of ,wadi ,rayan--#bb4 ,stem-weathering in sandstone--#ef4 ,step-faults--#ca4 ,stereogenys ,cromeri--#ce1 #ea1 #gj4 ,stereogenys libyca--#gj4 ,stereogenys podocnemioides--#ce1 #gj4 ,stock-work--#ej4 ,stone ,age1 ,neolithic--#hb4 ,strabo--#ac1 #hb4 ,strata1 ,classification of--#cd4 ,strike faults--#cb4 ,stromer von ,reichenbach1 ,e4--#dd1 #ei1 #fi1 #hh4 ,strontium sulphate pseudomorphs--#dh4 ,subaerial denudation--#ci4 ,sub-fossil fauna of ,faym--#ha4 ,successive faunal invasions1 ,theory of--#fh4 ,sulphate of lime--#gh4 ,sulphate of strontium pseudomorphs--#dh4 ,survey collections--#ei4 ,surveying operations--#i4 ,surveying by ,colonel ,western--#ag4 ,t ,table-land of cultivated area--#aa4 ,tafla beds--#ci4 ,tamarisk growth--#bb1 #be1 #gb1 #hb4 ,tamia--#ab-ac1 #ae1 #be1 #bg-bh1 #ca1 #dj1 #db1 #di-ej1 #ee-ef1 #gb1 #ge4 ,tamia lake--#dj4 ,tectonics--#af1 #bi-cb4 ,tellina--#dj1 #db1 #ea4 ,tellina pellucida--#dc4 ,tellina scalaroides--#ce4 ,tellina tenuistriata--#ce1 #ci4 ,temperature changes in desert--#gc4 ,temperature effects on pebbles--#ef4 ,temperature of springs in ,wadi ,rayan--#bb4 ,temple of ,qasr el ,sagha--#di1 #ef4 ,terebellum sopitum--#cf4 ,teredo--#ci1 #dg4 ,testudo ,ammon--#aj1 #cd1 #ei1 #gj4 ,thallassochelys libyca--#ce1 #gj4 ,theadelphia--#hd4 ,thickness of beds in section--#cg-bi1 #db1 #de-df1 #di-eb1 #ef-fj1 #fe1 #gf-gg4 ,thickness of sediments in ,faym--#ae4 ,thinning of ,fluvio-marine series--#ee4 ,tomistoma--#gj4 ,tomistoma africanum--#ce1 #ea1 #ei1 #gj4 ,tongrian beds--#ac1 #fd1 #hh4 ,toothed whales--#ci4 ,topography and structural geology--#aa-bh4 ,tortoises1 ,large--#aj1 #ec-ed1 #ei1 #ff1 #hg4 ,trachelochetus bituberculatus--#ea4 ,tropical shells in ,faym--#fj4 ,tuba1 ,el--#dj4 ,tudicla aff4 umbilicaris--#ea4 ,tufaceous gypsum--#gg4 ,turbo ,parkinsoni--#dc4 ,turritella--#ch-ci1 #dd-ec4 ,turritella angulata--#dc1 #de1 #fj1 #fd4 ,turritella carinifera--#ce1 #ch1 #dc1 #ea-eb4 ,turritella imbricataria--#ea-eb4 ,turritella ,lessepsi--#ea4 ,turritella parisiana--#ea4 ,turritella pharaonica--#cd-ce1 #de1 #ea-eb1 #eh4 ,turritella transitoria--#dc4 ,turritella turris--#dc4 ,turtles--#ec-ee1 #ei1 #fj4 ,twelfth ,dynasty--#bf1 #hb4 ,twigs preserved in clays--#ec4 ,u ,um el ,atl--#hd4 ,unconformable junctions--#ci-dj1 #gc1 #gf4 ,underground outlets of ,birket el ,qurn--#ad4 ,ungulate1 ,horned--#aj4 ,unio--#cd1 #ec1 #eh-fj4 ,unio abyssinicus--#ha4 ,unio ,bonneaudi--#fj4 ,unio ,caillaudi--#fj4 ,unio ,homsensis--#fj4 ,unio lithophagus--#fj4 ,unio ,nyassnsis--#fj4 ,unio ,schweinfurthi--#ha4 ,unio teretiusculus--#fj4 ,upper ,eocene--#aj1 #cb-cd1 #ec-gj1 #gf4 ,upper ,mokattam beds--#cc4 ,upper ,nile basin--#hg4 ,ur-,nil--#ff4 ,v ,valvata nilotica--#hj1 #hd4 ,vegetation in water-courses--#be4 ,velates ,schmiedeli--#cg4 ,venus--#df4 ,venus plicatella--#ce4 ,vermetus--#df4 ,vertebrae of ,mritherium--#eb4 ,vertebrae of ,zeuglodon--#de1 #dg1 #ej4 ,vertebrate fauna1 ,discovery of--#i4 ,vertebrates1 ,extinct--#aj1 #cd-ce1 #dc1 #di1 #ea-eb1 #ee1 #fa1 #fc1 #fe1 #fg1 #gj1 #hg4 ,voluta--#df4 ,voluta arabica--#ce4 ,vulsella chamiformis--#cg1 #hi4 ,vulsella crispata--#hi4 ,vulsella lignaria--#hi4 ,vulsella molehensis--#hi4 ,w ,wadi1 ,ravine of ,el--#bi-cj1 #cg1 #ci4 ,wadi ,rayan1 ,mula1 etc4 7see under ,rayan1 ,mula74 ,wadi ,rayan series--#ce-cg4 ,warshat el ,melh--#bj4 ,water analyses--#bb4 ,water-courses--#be4 ,water-rounded pebbles--#ef1 #gb4 ,water-supply of ,faym--#aa1 #hh4 ,weathering--#eg4 ,wells--#ba4 ,western1 ,colonel--#af-ah1 #bb1 #hg4 ,whales1 ,frequency of river and shore-frequenting--#ec4 ,whales1 ,toothed--#ci4 ,whitehouse1 ,cope--#hh4 ,white ,nile fauna1 ,absence of--#ha4 ,widan el ,faras--#bh1 #ee1 #eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #ge-gf4 ,willcocks1 ,sir ,william--#ac-ad1 #ag-ai1 #hj-hh4 ,wind-shadow--#hd4 ,x ,xiphodonts--#bi4 ,z ,zeuglodon--#i1 #ci1 #dd1 #di1 #eb1 #hg-hh4 ,zeuglodon brachyspondylus--#dd4 ,zeuglodon ,isis--#ce1 #dd-de1 #dg1 #gj4 ,zeuglodon macrospondylus--#dd4 ,zeuglodon ,osiris--#ce1 #dd1 #dg1 #di-ea1 #gj4 ,zeuglodon ,zitteli--#dd1 #gj4 ,zeuglodon ,valley--#da1 #df-di1 #fa1 #fc1 #he4 ,zittel1 ,prof4 ,k4--#dc1 #di1 #fb1 #hi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xvii4 ,,geological ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,fayum ,,depression ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,xviii4 ,,map ,,showing ,,principal ,,bone-,,bearing ,,localities ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix4 ,,section ,,from ,,the ,,birket ,,el ,,qur,n ,,through ,,dim ,,and ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4 ,,section ,,from ,,wadi ,,rayan ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,escarpment ,,north ,,of ,,gar ,,el ,,gehannem4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,desert ,,ridge ,,separating ,,the ,,nile ,,valley ,,and ,,the ,,fay,m4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,,section ,,from ,,sidmant ,,el ,,jebel ,,in ,,the ,,nile ,,valley ,,through ,,medinet ,,el ,,fay,m ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani1 ,,near ,,widan ,,el ,,faras4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,middle ,,eocene ,,escarpment ,,near ,,qasr ,,el ,,sagha4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,,from ,,garat ,,el ,,esh ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,jebel ,,el ,,qatrani4 ,transcriber's note3 pg #d ,changed3 ,homotoxial with quarried to3 ,homotaxial pg #f ,changed3 ,m4--,gyseous ,deposits to3 ,gypseous pg #cj ,absent references to footnotes #cj and #ca added after an accompanying map and plateau north of the lake4 respectively4 pg #ca1 footnote #cb ,changed3 ,bd4 ,,xxx ,i #aijb to3 ,bd4 ,,xxxii #aijb pg #cd1 footnote #cd ,changed3 ,,iii1 ,das ,miocn10 to3 ,,iii1 8,das ,miocn10 pg #eh ,changed3 ,potamides tristiatus to3 tristriatus pg #ff1 footnote #hb ,some missing text has been indicated as ,blank4 pg #fi1 footnote #hd ,changed3 fr ,sagetiere to3 ,sugetiere pg #gi ,changed3 matter or considerable doubt to3 of pg #hj ,changed3 with little resistence to3 resistance pg #hg ,changed3 ,eocene beds of the ,faym1 ,egypi to3 ,egypt pg #hh ,changed3 ,versteinerungen der tertiren to3 tertiren pg #hh ,changed3 fr ,saugetiere to3 ,sugetiere pg #hh ,changed3 der ,libyschen ,wste to3 ,wste pg #hi ,changed3 ,nacula ,mridis to3 ,nucula pg #ia ,changed3 ,arca tethyis--#eb-ij4 to3 #eb1 #ij4 pg #ig ,changed3 ,mula1 ,wadi-- 4 4 4 #ba-ba1 to3 #bj-ba1 pg #ig ,changed3 ,mytilus affinus to3 affinis pg #ih ,changed3 ,perrenial irrigation to3 ,perennial pg #ih ,changed3 ,plonorbis subangulata to3 ,planorbis pg #ih ,changed3 ,pectunculus pseudopulvinatus-- to3 ,pectunculus pseudopulvinatus--#ce4 pg #ii ,changed3 ,rohlfs' ,expedition--#i-fc4 to3 #i1 #fc4 pg #ajj ,changed3 ,thickness of beds in section--#cg-bi to3 #cg-ci ,minor changes in punctuation have been done silently4 ,typographical errors changing for and vice versa have been fixed silently4 ,placenames commonly spelled with diacritics 7,faym1 ,qurn1 ,lahn1 etc47 were also accented elsewhere except illustration captions1 headers and titles of cited works4 ,other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged4