,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,in the plain text version ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,small ,caps are represented in ,,upper ,,case4 ,the text in bold is represented like this4 ,the musical files for the musical examples discussed in the book have been provided by ,jude ,eylander4 ,those examples can be heard by clicking on the ,listen tab4 ,this is only possible in the ,,html version of the book4 ,the scores that appear in the original book have been included as 8jpg0 images4 ,in some cases the scores that were used to generate the music files differ slightly from the original scores4 ,those differences are due to modifications that were made by the ,music ,transcriber during the process of creating the musical archives4 ,they were made to make the music play accurately on modern musical transcribing programs4 ,these scores are included as ,,png images1 and can be seen by clicking on the ,,png tag in the ,,html version of the book4 ,obvious punctuation and other printing errors have been corrected4 ,the cover art included with this e,book has been modified from the original by the ,transcriber and is granted to the public domain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,music ,the ,art of ,music ,a ,comprehensive ,library of ,information for ,music ,lovers and ,musicians ,editor-in-,chief ,,daniel ,,gregory ,,mason ,columbia ,university ,associate ,editors ,,edward ,b4 ,,hill ,,leland ,,hall ,harvard ,university ,past ,professor1 ,univ4 of ,wisconsin ,managing ,editor ,c,,sar ,,saerchinger ,modern ,music ,society of ,new ,york ,in ,fourteen ,volumes ,profusely ,illustrated ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,national ,,society ,,of ,,music ,illustration3 ,saint ,cecilia ,after the painting by ,rubens 7,kaiser-,friedrich ,museum1 ,berlin7 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,music3 ,,volume ,,five ,the ,voice and ,vocal ,music ,department ,editors3 ,,david ,c4 ,,taylor ,author of #8,the ,psychology of ,singing1' etc4 ,,and ,,hiram ,,kelly ,,moderwell ,musical ,correspondent1 ,boston ,evening ,transcript1 etc4 ,author of #8,the ,theatre of ,today1' etc4 ,introduction by ,,david ,,bispham1 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,national ,,society ,,of ,,music ,copyright1 #aiae1 by ,,the ,,national ,,society ,,of ,,music1 ,inc4 ,all ,rights ,reserved ,,the ,,voice ,,and ,,vocal ,,music ,,introduction ,all the ,arts1 being emanations from the superman1 are of the highest significance to the human race therapeutically--the word being used in its broadest possible significance4 ,they are curative1 they do us good4 ,there is happily no longer a ban put upon any one of them in the modern world1 except by an occasional religious sect1 and even those survivors of a prohibitory past are rapidly disappearing4 ,enough can scarcely be said of the value of the literature of song as it exists to-day4 ,whatever has been written or is yet to appear1 is a natural growth1 and should be recognized as welling up from the unsounded depths of the human mind1 as something to be used for the benefit1 here and now1 of young and old1 male and female1 rich and poor1 well and ill--as a fruit #8for the healing of the nations4' ,when performed under proper circumstances1 music--and particularly song1 because it is so individual--has a power for good that is amazing4 ,but this is not generally recognized2 only by poets and dreamers has it been stated4 ,the words of such are accepted by the world at large as beautiful generalizations1 having no immediate or personal significance1 applicable to some realm of fancy1 some ,celtic fairyland1 as impossible as an ,oriental heaven1 but not to the sombre facts of existence upon this earth--facts so discordant that none but a prophet could by any stretch of the imagination reconcile them with a life of harmony here4 ,personally ,i believe in the foresight of the prophets and poets1 and hope that ,science will ere long come forward to set the seal of authority upon their utterances4 ,when this is done1 song will be accorded the position that so justly belongs to it1 and its place will not be an inferior one in the scheme of man's development through savagery into civilization1 and beyond4 ,the seers spoke better than we know2 they saw1 and do see1 through the veil of the present into the beyond1 through the paradoxical ,paradise of parable into the theoretical perfection in which the effort to attain practical results will be one of the chiefest of joys4 ,is it not wonderful to realize that music and song are so prominent in the utterances of these hitherto misunderstood soothsayers8 ,truth-sayers are they in sooth6 ,there is a noble work to be done in the endeavor to bring about sensibly1 systematically and scientifically1 the realization of their visions as they pertain to music1 and a recognition of the value of song and singing and the application of this beautiful and all but universal gift to the betterment of conditions both personal and social4 ,to the musical enthusiast society seems to be divided into two classes3 those who are musical and those who are not4 ,the fact remains1 however1 that every normal person is musical to a certain degree1 though some may believe it of themselves more readily than others believe it of them4 ,to paraphrase ,shakespeare1 some are born musical1 some achieve music1 but all should have music thrust upon them4 ,in one way or another1 everyone should be educated in music1 to the degree at least of knowing from childhood about it and its makers1 being able to participate in musical performance1 or at least to appreciate the performance of others1 for the musical gift is a fundamental part of human nature2 but unfortunately the vast majority of people seem to be unaware of the importance and value of this precious possession1 which has indeed by too many come to be considered as a mere source of amusement1 and not as a thing to be taken seriously4 ,we have now reached a period when all music1 and particularly singing1 should receive most careful consideration4 ,the voice is so intimate a thing that no one can avoid it in himself or escape it in others1 and so great is its power when properly used1 whether in speech or song1 that it is amazing that its qualities are not more fully realized by all educators and treated accordingly4 ,but up to the present time it seems that those who have influence in educational matters have not had their eyes opened to the fact that every human being should be taught to speak properly and to sing as well as may be1 and that these things are perfectly easy of accomplishment1 if only correct models are put before children as they grow up4 ,languages1 the most difficult to acquire by adults1 are learned by children with perfect ease from those with whom they come into contact2 they will speak them well or ill1 according as they have heard others speak4 ,in short1 example is1 where voice is concerned1 better than precept2 and the ear1 so intimately associated with everything vocal1 should be given more to do than has hitherto been considered necessary either in schools or by private teachers4 ,while most young people do not begin to take singing lessons until their voices are reasonably settled and can bear the strain of study1 it does not seem incompatible with the dictates of common sense to say that the training of voices1 as of bodies and minds1 may be undertaken much earlier than has generally been thought advisable4 #8,the precious morning hours' of youth are too often shamefully wasted2 in them this natural and beautiful gift should be brought out4 ,vocal music should be learned by ear as well as by eye1 pieces suited to varying vocal capacities and wisely selected by those competent to choose should be taught1 while certain of the musical masterpieces should be made familiar to all4 ,this seems so obvious as to be hardly worth saying1 but as a matter of fact1 song is by too many looked upon merely as a luxury to be enjoyed by the few1 whereas it is in reality a necessity that should be used by all1 for all have not only a latent impulse toward vocal expression1 but much more of a natural gift than is usually granted4 ,persons selected for the purity of their enunciation and beauty of their voices should every day1 in all schools1 speak and sing to the pupils1 who in turn would unconsciously imitate what they heard2 and so there would grow a regard for purity and beauty of tone1 both in speech and in song1 which later would find expression in the study of the various branches of vocal music--from folk-song to the art-song1 from sacred music and oratorio to opera4 ,only those especially gifted should be permitted by their masters to take up the profession of singer or teacher of singing1 and thus there would be selected from the great field of those who know much the few specialists in this or that phase of the art who know more1 and who are by nature better fitted to exercise their talents in public4 ,so many people are able to sing after a fashion that sufficient care is not always taken to separate those who are entitled to enter with joy into the ranks of the interpreters of song from those who are fit only for the comparative outer darkness of the auditor4 ,but if that be darkness1 how great is the light of those who1 by common consent1 are adjudged competent to bear so glorious a lamp before the footsteps of the world6 ,the desire to sing is so universal that many enthusiasts overlook the fact that they have neglected to train their vocal apparatus until it is too late to make serious study worth while4 ,little can then be done beyond what will give pleasure to the individual himself4 ,but this universal desire to sing should be universally recognized4 ,when in future it shall be not only so recognized but sensibly and scientifically satisfied1 then it will no doubt be found that very great benefit will result to musical art and1 through it1 to the daily lives of well-nigh everyone on earth4 ,when the science of education shall have advanced further1 music1 and especially singing1 will hold a very important place in the scheme1 and the difference will become clearly apparent between the average normal being with the average vocal equipment and the artist to the manner born4 ,as with those whose trend toward mathematics or languages is unmistakable1 so the truly musical are to be distinguished with ease from their fellows2 but all such1 and especially singers1 should be educated with great care and in a broad and comprehensive manner4 ,great geniuses have written music to the words of great poets because they were compelled by the inmost needs of their natures to supplement the message of poetry by that of music4 ,what does the world at large care for these things8 ,only the educated in musical art know that they exist1 but the time is now at hand when the storehouses of music will be opened1 and their treasures disseminated among the general public through the schools4 ,instrumental music is so costly in comparison to vocal music that the obvious course to pursue is to train that wonderful instrument1 the voice1 which all carry about with them1 but the value of which is realized by only a few4 ,the many-sided occupation of the singer should be as carefully studied as that of the pianist1 the violinist1 or the organist4 ,the vocalist requires a technique comparable to that of any of these virtuosi1 a memory trained to answer the demands not only of music but of words1 a knowledge not merely of one's own but of several other languages1 a training in the manner of speaking and singing intelligibly in these tongues1 a mastery of the actor's art with all that it means in gesture1 deportment and expression1 and1 finally1 a comprehension of the whole of vocal literature4 ,would-be singers should be well educated men and women1 subjected to rigorous examination in all branches of their art at every stage of progress2 for only thus may vocal artists be prepared for their exacting and important career and be made worthy to tread in future our concert platforms and operatic stages4 ,for this way singing will become a dignified profession instead of a spurious and uncertain career1 at which the vast majority of those who follow it can expect to earn but a pittance4 ,the fact should be very clearly forced home upon students that voice alone does not make a public singer any more than the possession of a ,stradivarius makes a violinist1 but if either has a good instrument the possessor of so valuable a thing should train himself to play upon it with more than ordinary care1 and intelligently study not only the classics of his branch of the profession1 but1 in the case of a singer especially1 enlarge his knowledge of poetry1 literature1 the drama1 and the fine arts in general4 ,thus equipped he may with safety and with reasonable expectations of success take the hazardous path that leads to the supreme honor of lasting public esteem4 ,every student should recognize this necessity and work with this end in view4 ,the way is long and the task is hard1 but it is not impossible4 ,ignorance and daring have long gone hand in hand with an assurance which is at times amazing1 but the rising generation should be obliged to learn not only how to sing1 but what to sing--both equally important4 ,and then1 with intelligence awakened1 and the dawn of a new day breaking in through the windows of the mind1 we may look for the beginnings of an interest in the advancement of a vocal art that has too long been harnessed to the car of ,fashion1 and under the yoke of ,commercialism4 ,as before the ,renaissance of plastic art all had been said in painting and sculpture that could be said in the old formul1 so in music the few notes of the scale had in the hands of the older masters been worked to their ultimate possibilities of expression1 when lo6 a new light was shed upon the situation1 and presently the flood-gates of sound were opened1 and undreamed-of works appeared in rapid succession to amaze and affright the senses4 ,song reflects this1 and the limits of vocal capacity have seemingly been reached4 ,it is not to be believed1 however1 that1 to whatever lengths this new musical ,renaissance may go1 the appeal of simple melody will ever want for an audience4 ,the past has enough and to spare of song that we have not even tasted1 much less digested4 ,let us set ourselves to teach the multitudes of the uninitiated rising generation all the beauties of the classics of song4 ,they are as full as ever of worth and loveliness1 and must form a part of the heritage of the generations yet unborn4 ,the peasant from afar has in him the blood of the peoples from which sprang the great artists and musicians of the past1 and it is not for a moment to be supposed that under the freer circumstances of life in ,america works of originality and charm will soon be forthcoming4 ,this is no place nor time for the sadness of a conquered race that by the waters of another land hung up its harps1 and refused to sing the songs of home4 ,here1 on the contrary1 may all the accumulated wealth of the beauty of song be joyously revealed to the people by the people1 and for the people's good4 ,no words can describe music4 ,talk of it as we may1 only music can tell us of itself4 ,how profound its appeal to the very essence of human nature6 ,in the works that have been left to us we have a marvellous heritage4 ,let it not be neglected1 but preserved1 honored1 and taught to all1 from the least even unto the greatest2 for when sound has been wedded to words by one of the anointed hierarchy of the priests of music1 what a mystic union is there4 ,how potent the spell of a voice lifted in song informed by the spirit of poetry6 ,we have here at hand that which makes our ,paradise--the gift of song4 ,let us no longer disregard this fundamental possession1 but use it well1 and with it enter into the peace that song can give to all who have ears to hear its wondrous message4 ,it is the ,evangel that has for so long been knocking at our doors4 ,let us open wide and welcome this friend and comrade whose voice goes throbbing through the aisles of the vast ,temple of ,music--that structure not made with hands2 heard1 not seen1 present only to the spirit of mortals1 place of worship and refreshment for all generations4 ,,david ,,bispham4 ,august1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,,five ,,page ,,introduction ,,by ,,david ,,bispham vii ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,vocal ,,mechanism ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs1 ,,their ,,operation ,,and ,,hygiene #a ,the vocal instrument2 anatomy of the vocal organs2 the healthy mechanism--,the larynx2 the laryngoscope2 operations of the laryngeal muscles--,tone production2 the resonating cavities2 vowel formation2 articulation--,vocal hygiene2 incorrect tone production2 throat stiffness and its cure4 ,,ii4 ,,vocal ,,cultivation ,,and ,,the ,,old ,,italian ,,method #bd ,historical aspect of vocal cultivation--,the modern conception of voice culture2 the mechanical and psychological methods--,ancient systems--,medival ,europe--,the revival of solo singing2 the rise of coloratura--,the old ,italian method--,the bel canto teachers3 ,caccini2 ,tosi and ,mancini2 the ,conservatoire method2 the ,italian course of instruction2 theoretical basis of the ,italian method4 ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,scientific ,,methods ,,of ,,voice ,,culture #ee ,the transition from the old to the modern system2 historical review of scientific investigation2 ,manuel ,garca2 progress of the scientific idea2 ,helmholtz1 ,mandl1 and ,merkel--,diversity of practices in modern methods2 the scientific system2 breathing2 laryngeal action2 registers2 resonance2 emission of tone2 the singer's sensations2 correction of faults2 articulation--,general view of modern voice culture4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,song ,,iv4 ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,song #gj ,the origin of song--,the practical value of primitive song--,the cultural value of primitive song--,biography of primitive song--,the lyric impulse--,folk-song and art-song--,characteristics of the art-song2 style1 the singer and the song4 ,v4 ,,folk-,,songs #ajj ,the nature and value of folk-songs--,folk-songs of the ,british ,isles--,folk-song in the ,latin lands--,german and ,scandinavian folk-song--,hungarian folk-song--,folk-songs of the ,slavic countries2 folk-song in ,america4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,early ,,development ,,of ,,song #acj ,song in early ,christian times--,the age of chivalry--,the troubadours and trouvres--,the minnesingers--,the mastersingers2 the ,lutheran revival--,polyphonic eclipse of song4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,classic ,,song ,,and ,,the ,,aria #aea ,italy and the monodic style--,song in the seventeenth century2 ,germany2 ,france--,song in ,england--,the aria--,german song in the eighteenth century2 ,french song in the eighteenth century2 forerunners of ,schubert4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,the ,,romantic ,,song ,,viii4 ,,franz ,,schubert #ahf ,art-song and the romantic spirit--,precursors of ,schubert--,schubert's contribution to song2 ,schubert's poets--,classification of ,schubert's songs--,faults and virtues--,the songs in detail2 the cycles--,schubert's contemporaries4 ,,ix4 ,,robert ,,schumann #bca ,romantic music and romantic poetry--,schumann as a song-writer--,the earlier songs--,the #8,woman's ,life' cycle2 the #8,poet's ,love' cycle2 the later songs--,schumann's contemporaries4 ,x4 ,,the ,,contemporaries ,,of ,,schubert ,,and ,,schumann #beh ,the spirit of the #8thirties' in ,france2 the lyric poets of the ,french romantic period--,monpou and ,berlioz--,song-writers of ,italy2 ,english song-writers--,robert ,franz--,lwe and the art-ballad4 ,,xi4 ,,brahms1 ,,wagner ,,and ,,liszt #bgf ,brahms as a song-writer--,classification of ,brahms' songs2 the #8folk-songs'2 analysis of ,brahms' songs--,wagner's songs2 ,liszt as a song-writer4 ,,xii4 ,,late ,,romantics ,,in ,,germany ,,and ,,elsewhere #bif ,the dilution of the romantic spirit--,grieg and his songs--,minor romantic lyricists3 ,peter ,cornelius1 ,adolph ,jensen1 ,eduard ,lassen1 ,george ,henschel1 and ,halfdan ,kjerulf2 ,dvok's songs--,french song-writers3 ,gounod and others2 ,saint-,sans and ,massenet2 minor ,french lyricists--,edward ,mac,dowell as song-writer2 ,nevin and others--,rubinstein and ,tschaikowsky--,english song4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,modern ,,song ,,literature ,,xiii4 ,,hugo ,,wolf ,,and ,,after #ccj ,wolf and the poets of his time2 ,hugo ,wolfs songs2 ,gustav ,mahler2 ,richard ,strauss as song-writer2 ,max ,reger's songs--,schnberg and the modern radicals4 ,,xiv4 ,,modern ,,french ,,lyricism #cdf ,faur and the beginning of the new--,chabrier1 ,csar ,franck1 and others--,bruneau1 ,vidal1 and ,charpentier--,debussy and ,ravel4 ,,xv4 ,,modern ,,lyricists ,,outside ,,of ,,germany ,,and ,,france #cfd ,the new ,russian school3 ,balakireff1 etc42 ,moussorgsky and others--,the ,scandinavians and ,finns--,recent ,english song-writers4 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,french-,,canadian ,,folk-,,song #cge ,,index #chj ,,illustrations ,,in ,,volume ,,five #8,saint ,cecilia'2 painting by ,rubens ,frontispiece ,the ,larynx 7,line-cuts in text7 #f-ac ,,facing ,,page ,apotheosis to ,farinelli #dd ,manuel ,garca #eh ,illustration for the #8,roman de ,fauvel'2 fifteenth century print #gd ,famous ,singers of the ,past 7,malibran1 ,rubini1 ,lablache7 #ih ,famous ,singers of the ,past 7,jenny ,lind1 ,patti1 ,schroeder-,devrient1 ,viardot-,garca7 #aeb #8,das ,veilchen'2 ,fac-simile of ,mozart's manuscript #agh ,precursors of ,schubert 7,hiller1 ,reichardt1 ,zelter1 ,zumsteeg7 #aib ,poets of the ,romantic ,period 7,hugo1 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,heine7 #bjj ,robert and ,clara ,schumann #bch ,robert ,franz #bfh ,famous ,singers 7,lilli ,lehmann1 ,marcella ,sembrich1 ,melba1 ,schumann-,heink7 #bhf ,minor ,romanticists 7,lwe1 ,jensen1 ,lassen7 #cjf ,hugo ,wolf #ccb ,french and ,scandinavian ,song-,writers 7,faur1 ,piern1 ,sjgren1 ,sinding7 #cdf ,lieder ,singers of ,today 7,julia ,culp1 ,ludwig ,wllner1 ,david ,bispham1 ,elena ,gerhardt7 #cfd ,,the ,,voice ,,and ,,vocal ,,music ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs1 ,,their ,,operation ,,and ,,hygiene ,the vocal instrument2 anatomy of the vocal organs2 the healthy mechanism--,the larynx2 the laryngoscope2 operations of the laryngeal muscles--,tone production2 the resonating cavities2 vowel formation2 articulation--,vocal hygiene2 incorrect tone production2 throat stiffness and its cure4 ,an acquaintance with the anatomical structure of the vocal organs1 together with an understanding of the acoustic laws bearing on their operations1 is usually held necessary to a competent knowledge of the principles of voice culture4 ,a rather tedious course of study is indeed demanded for this purpose4 ,but it will be our aim to present this portion of our subject briefly1 touching only on those points which are essential to a practical grasp of vocal methods4 ,for a more extended treatment of the anatomy of the organs of voice and breathing any standard text-book of anatomy may be consulted4 ,it is1 however1 hoped that our outline of the subject will suffice for the purposes of the general reader4 ,as the subject of acoustics is dealt with in ,vol4 ,,xii1 the present chapter does not cover this topic4 ,a sufficient understanding of the laws of vibration and resonance is also assumed on the part of the reader4 ,no man-made musical instrument can compare with the human voice in complexity and delicacy of structure4 ,yet1 so far as the general principles of its construction are concerned1 it does not differ materially from the voices of air-breathing mammals and birds in general4 ,in each case the vocal organs form a complex wind instrument1 consisting of an air chamber 7the lungs71 a vibrating mechanism 7the vocal cords71 and a set of reinforcing resonance cavities4 ,the human voice differs from the voices of other air-breathing animals only in its vastly higher development and complexity4 ,the vocal organs of all the various species of animal life we are now considering were developed as a part of the respiratory system4 ,in the early stages of the evolution of air-breathing animal forms the lungs had only one function1 that of supplying air for the oxidizing of the red corpuscles of the blood4 ,no other use was made of the respiratory organs2 the breath served no purpose beyond that of furnishing oxygen for the needs of the circulatory system4 ,this was the condition of those forms which were the forerunners of present mammal and bird life4 ,in the course of evolution a gradual change took place in a part of the respiratory tract4 ,this modification was an example of what is called in evolutionary science #8adaptive change4' ,the organs of respiration were modified and developed in such a way that the pressure of the expired air could be utilized in the production of sound4 ,as evolution progressed the organs of voice which thus had their origin took on an ever-increasing complexity of structure4 ,this process of evolution has reached its highest development in man4 ,as a musical instrument the human vocal organs may fairly be said to have reached the point of perfection4 ,i ,from the anatomist's standpoint the vocal organs consist of four parts3 #a4 ,the lungs1 together with the bones by which they are inclosed and the muscles which fill and empty them4 #b4 ,the larynx and its appendages4 #c4 ,the resonating cavities--trachea1 pharynx1 mouth1 and the cavities of the nose and head4 #d4 ,the organs of articulation--the tongue1 lips1 teeth1 etc4 ,each of these organs performs a different function in the production of useful and beautiful sounds4 ,it is the generally accepted view among vocal scientists that each portion of the vocal mechanism has one and only one correct mode of operation4 ,many forms of incorrect action are also possible2 indeed1 the untrained voice is believed to be liable in almost every case to faulty operation in some respect4 ,scientific investigation of the voice has for its purpose the determining of the correct muscular actions of the various parts of the vocal mechanism1 and the formulation of exercises whereby the student is enabled to acquire command of these actions4 ,modern methods of voice culture embody the results of scientific study of the vocal mechanism4 ,it must be observed that not all investigators are agreed upon what constitutes the correct vocal action4 ,several conflicting theories have been urged concerning the proper movements of the breathing and laryngeal muscles and the operations of the resonating cavities4 ,an exhaustive treatment of these various theories is1 however1 not called for here4 ,some of them have been discarded1 others have but few followers4 ,the majority of authorities are in fair agreement concerning the theoretical basis of voice culture4 ,in the present chapter only the theoretical aspect of the subject will be considered2 the third chapter will be devoted to the practical methods which embody the doctrines of vocal science4 ,two opposed sets of muscles are concerned in the operations of breathing1 those which1 respectively1 fill and empty the lungs4 ,the action of inspiration consists of an expansion of the chest cavity1 which by increasing its cubical capacity draws in air from the outside to fill what would otherwise be a vacuum4 ,the chest cavity is conical in shape1 its base being formed by the diaphragm1 and its sides and apex by the ribs1 the breast-bone1 and the intercostal muscles4 ,broadly speaking1 there are two distinct forms of muscular action by which the chest cavity can be expanded in inspiration3 one is the sinking of the base of the chest cavity1 the other the broadening of the chest by raising the ribs4 ,either of these can with some little practice be performed independently of the other4 ,the sinking of the base of the cavity is accomplished by the contraction of the diaphragm4 ,this muscle is roughly circular in outline4 ,in its relaxed state it rises to a dome in the middle and might be compared in shape to an inverted bowl4 ,as it contracts the diaphragm flattens out and increases the length of the vertical axis of the chest cavity4 ,in its descent it pushes the viscera downward and forces the abdomen to protrude slightly4 ,this manner of breathing is commonly called abdominal1 although the muscles of the abdomen are not directly concerned in the filling of the lungs4 ,the expansion of the chest cavity may be accomplished by the raising of the ribs4 ,owing to their curved shape and sloping position1 a slight elevation of the ribs causes them to rotate outward from the central axis of the chest cavity4 ,this increases the horizontal diameter of the cavity in every direction--forward1 backward1 and sidewise4 ,in the judgment of the most competent investigators the best form of breathing combines the two muscular actions just described4 ,at the start of the inspiration the diaphragm descends1 but the protruding of the abdomen is checked almost instantly by a contraction of the abdominal muscles4 ,the inspiration is then completed by the lateral expansion of the chest4 ,in this manner the lungs are filled to their greatest capacity in the least possible time4 ,another great advantage of this type of breathing is that it imparts a peculiarly erect and graceful carriage1 a matter of much importance to the singer and public speaker4 ,in the action of expiration following the taking of a full breath in the manner just described two sets of muscles are involved4 ,these are3 first1 the abdominal muscles1 which push the diaphragm back to its original position2 second1 the muscles which lower the ribs 7the internal intercostals and some of the external abdominal muscles74 ,the actions of both these sets of muscles can easily be observed4 ,when correctly performed the two actions are simultaneous1 the whole chest cavity being gradually and uniformly contracted4 ,a highly important feature of correct breathing1 in the opinion of most authorities1 is the control of the expiration4 ,in the first place1 all the expired air must be converted into tone and none of it allowed to escape unused4 ,further1 the vocal cords must not be exposed to the full force of a powerful expiratory blast1 as they are too small and weak to withstand this pressure without strain and injury4 ,the air must be fed to the vocal cords in just sufficient quantity to serve the purposes of tone production4 ,it is generally held that this economy of breath can be secured1 without strain on the vocal cords1 only by opposing the action of the inspiratory muscles to the action of the muscles of expiration4 ,instead of allowing the inspiratory muscles to relax completely at the beginning of the expiration these muscles are to be held on tension throughout the expiration4 ,by this means both the force and the speed of the expiration can be regulated at will2 no undue pressure is exerted on the vocal cords1 and the tone is prolonged steadily and evenly so long as the expiration lasts4 ,,ii ,illustration3 ,,figure ,i ,the main passage from the lungs to the outer air is the trachea or windpipe1 a tube formed of from sixteen to twenty rings of cartilage1 united by tendons and muscular fibres1 and lined with mucous membrane4 ,at the top of the trachea is situated the larynx1 the organ of phonation1 strictly speaking4 ,the larynx is built up of two cartilages1 the thyroid and cricoid1 which represent developments of what once were the uppermost two rings of the trachea4 ,the cricoid cartilage1 forming the base of the larynx1 is shaped like a seal ring1 with the bezel to the back4 ,the thyroid cartilage1 just above the cricoid1 has the form of an open book1 ,v-shaped in horizontal section4 ,in the interior of the larynx are two tiny cartilages1 the right and left arytenoids4 ,these rest on top of the rear portion of the cricoid1 on which they rotate freely4 ,figure ,i shows two views1 front and rear1 of the cartilages of the trachea and larynx4 ,immediately above and connected with the thyroid cartilage is the hyoid bone1 which serves as the attachment of the base of the tongue4 ,it is shaped like a horseshoe1 the ends pointing to the rear4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,,ii ,figure ,,ii presents a section of the interior of the larynx1 all the muscular tissues having been removed4 ,in this cut the position of the arytenoid cartilages is plainly shown4 ,by feeling the outside of the throat with the thumb on one side and the forefinger on the other1 the hyoid bone and the thyroid and cricoid cartilages can easily be located4 ,the space between the two cartilages in front is covered by the crico-thyroid membrane4 ,the muscles of the larynx are considered in two groups1 the extrinsic1 those which connect the larynx with the other parts of the body1 and the intrinsic1 those which belong to the larynx strictly speaking4 ,by the extrinsic muscles the larynx is held in its place in the throat4 ,these muscles are usually held to have no direct office in phonation4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,,iii ,the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are nine in number1 as follows3 #b ,thyro-arytenoids1 right and left4 #b ,crico-thyroids1 right and left4 #b ,lateral crico-arytenoids1 right and left4 #b ,posterior crico-arytenoids1 right and left4 #a ,arytenoideus4 ,in ,figure ,,iii these muscles are plainly shown4 ,this cut presents a view of the interior of the left half of the larynx2 the right half of the thyroid cartilage has been removed1 together with the muscles which lie to the right of the middle line of the larynx4 ,we see the muscles of the left side of the interior of the larynx and also the right posterior crico-arytenoideus and the right crico-thyroid4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,,iv ,the thyro-arytenoideus muscles are attached in front to the interior angle of the thyroid cartilage1 and at the back to the arytenoid cartilages4 ,to their outer edges the vocal cords are attached and the space between them is called the glottis4 ,the crico-thyroids are attached to the outer surfaces of the cartilages4 ,the lateral and posterior crico-arytenoids have very complex attachments1 which can be seen in ,figure ,,iii4 ,the arytenoideus connects the rear surfaces of the two arytenoid cartilages4 ,in ,figure ,,iv a drawing of the larynx is presented1 looked at from above1 the surrounding parts having been dissected away to allow a clear view of the muscles just considered4 ,it is impossible to state with absolute certainty just what office the various intrinsic laryngeal muscles have in the production of tones of different pitches and qualities4 ,most of our information regarding this subject has been obtained by means of the laryngoscope4 ,people interested in singing are now very generally acquainted with this little instrument1 although it was invented by ,manuel ,garca so recently as #ahee4 ,while it is generally used only by physicians1 anyone who wishes to can easily procure one and by its means observe the actions of his own vocal cords4 ,the laryngoscope consists of a little mirror fitted to a handle at an angle of about #ajj degrees4 ,when used by a physician1 it is held in the back of the subject's throat1 the tongue being pulled forward and to one side4 ,a ray of strong light is reflected into it from another mirror1 which the observer straps to his forehead4 ,this ray of light is again reflected by the laryngeal mirror so as to illuminate the vocal cords4 ,at the same time the observer sees in the laryngeal mirror the image of the vocal cords and so studies their movements4 ,while laryngoscopic observation has thrown much valuable light on the operations of the laryngeal muscles1 it has not by any means cleared up all the mysteries pertaining to this peculiarly intricate subject4 ,all the muscles concerned are very small4 ,each one contains a vast and intricate number of tiny fibres1 extending in widely varying directions4 ,as each one of these sets of fibres can be contracted with a greater or less degree of strength than those most intimately connected with it1 the possibility of variety in the combined actions of the laryngeal musculature is seen to be almost unlimited4 ,many conflicting theories have been offered to explain the details of the laryngeal action1 but a comprehensive review of the subject is not called for here4 ,our purpose will be served by stating the most generally accepted theory1 without committing ourselves as to its accuracy or sufficiency4 ,this theory is as follows3 ,in quiet breathing all the laryngeal muscles are in a state of relaxation1 with the possible exception of the posterior crico-arytenoids4 ,these muscles draw the arytenoid cartilages apart1 and so open the glottis4 ,for the production of a tone the glottis is closed by the contraction of the arytenoideus1 which pulls the arytenoid cartilages together4 ,the tension of the vocal cords is regulated by two sets of muscles3 first1 the thyro-arytenoids1 to which the cords are directly attached2 second1 the lateral crico-arytenoids1 which rotate the arytenoid cartilages1 bringing their forward spurs together4 ,the pitch of the tone is determined in two ways3 first1 by the tension of the vocal cords2 second1 by their effective length4 ,in different parts of the vocal range the manner of adjustment for pitch varies4 ,for the lowest notes of the voice1 the chest register1 the cords vibrate in their full length4 ,as the pitch rises in singing an ascending scale passage in this part of the voice1 the tension of the vocal cords is gradually increased by a corresponding increase in the strength of the contraction of the thyro-arytenoids4 ,when the limit of the chest register has been reached1 a further ascent in pitch is brought about by the gradual shortening of the vocal cords4 ,this is effected by the contraction of the lateral crico-arytenoids1 which rotate the arytenoid cartilages inward1 as has just been described4 ,the forward spurs of these cartilages are slightly curved in shape1 so that1 as they continue to rotate1 their point of contact is gradually brought further and further forward4 ,as the vocal cords are held tightly together behind this point1 the portion of the cords left free to vibrate is shortened with each material increase in the tension of the lateral crico-arytenoids4 ,with each shortening of the vibrating parts of the cords the pitch is correspondingly raised4 ,the portion of the vocal range thus produced is called the medium register4 ,the highest note of the medium register is reached when the forward spurs of the arytenoid cartilages are in contact at their tips4 ,beyond this point there can be no further shortening of the vocal cords in this way4 ,the remaining notes of the compass1 known as the head register1 are secured through a shortening of the effective length of the vocal cords at their forward ends1 as well as by a further increase in their tension4 ,both these actions are accomplished by the contraction of the thyro-arytenoids4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,v ,figure ,v shows a laryngoscopic view of the larynx1 as it appears in quiet breathing4 ,it will be observed that the vocal cords are widely separated1 and the glottis is opened to its full extent4 ,a similar view of the larynx during the production of tone is given in ,figure ,,vi4 ,the vocal cords are closely approximated and the glottis is narrowed to a tiny slit-like opening4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,,vi ,,iii ,what was said about the uncertainty of our present knowledge concerning the laryngeal action applies with almost equal force to the other operations of tone production4 ,beyond the basic facts that the tones of the voice are produced by the vibration of the vocal cords and are reinforced and modified by the influence of the resonance cavities1 little can be stated with absolute certainty4 ,there is1 of course1 no question as to the definiteness of our knowledge of the anatomical structure of the parts involved4 ,but1 with regard to the muscular operations of the resonance cavities and the application of acoustic and mechanical principles in these operations1 the same uncertainty is encountered as in the laryngeal actions4 ,we shall continue therefore to outline the most widely accepted theories1 without entering into a discussion as to their soundness4 ,considered acoustically1 the voice is a wind instrument of the reed class4 ,it differs1 however1 from all other reed instruments in several particulars4 ,it is capable of producing a wide range of pitches1 covering more than three octaves in many cases1 by the operation of a single pair of reeds4 ,further1 it has command of an immense range of tone qualities1 through the combined action of its reed mechanism and its resonating cavities4 ,for the production of tone the vocal cords are brought together and held on tension with sufficient strength momentarily to close the glottis and check the outflow of the expired breath4 ,as a slight degree of condensation takes place in the air behind the cords1 they are forced apart and a tiny puff of air is allowed to escape4 ,immediately the cords spring back1 once more close the glottis1 and again check the outflow of the breath4 ,this is repeated a varying number of times per second1 the rate of rapidity of the succession of puffs being regulated by the degree of tension of the vocal cords1 and by their effective vibrating length4 ,the pitch of the tone thus produced is determined by the rate of the air puffs2 these range from #ge per second for the lowest usual bass note1 ,illustration3 ,music score to #a1dag per second for the highest usual soprano note1 ,illustration3 ,music score4 ,the tone produced by the vibration of the vocal cords is complex in its acoustic character1 containing the fundamental note and a large number of its overtones4 ,yet as it leaves the cords the tone is weak in power and of rather characterless quality4 ,in order to be of musical quality1 volume1 and carrying power1 the primary or vocal cord tone requires to be modified and reinforced by the resonance cavities4 ,the resonating cavities of the voice1 mastery of which is considered essential to the scientific management of the voice1 are the chest1 the mouth-pharynx1 the nasal passages1 and the sphenoid1 ethnoid1 and frontal sinuses4 ,each of these is adapted by its size and shape to reinforce either the fundamental note or certain of its overtones with especial prominence4 ,in order to produce a satisfactory tone each resonance cavity must exercise its particular influence in the proper way1 their combined effect being necessary to a correct use of the voice4 ,much importance is attached by most vocal authorities to the subject of chest resonance4 ,it is believed that the size of the chest cavity1#a much greater than that of the other resonating spaces1 adapts it especially to the reinforcement of the fundamental note and its lower overtones4#b ,the mouth-pharynx cavity is capable of extreme variability in both size and shape4 ,this mobility enables it to reinforce a wide variety of overtones1 and so to exercise a most important influence in determining the quality of the tone4 ,another function of this cavity is to increase the power of the primary or vocal cord tone4 ,to secure the effect of crescendo in a single tone1 the force of the expiratory blast is gradually increased4 ,in order that the tone may be of uniform musical quality as it swells from soft to loud1 a corresponding increase must take place in the size of the mouth-pharynx cavity4 ,this is effected by the gradual opening of the mouth by a lateral expansion of the pharynx and by a lowering of the base of the tongue4 ,a slight elevation of the soft palate may also contribute to the expansion of the cavity4 ,a highly important feature of mouth-pharynx resonance is the forming of the various vowel sounds4 ,each vowel is simply a distinct quality of sound1 caused by the special prominence of some one or two overtones4 ,helmholtz investigated this aspect of voice production exhaustively4 ,at first thought1 it seems strange that a tone on some one pitch gives the effect of a particular vowel4 ,yet we can readily hear this in the steam siren whistle commonly used for alarms of fire4 ,this produces a screaming sound1 caused by a gradual rise and fall of pitch through a range of several octaves4 ,its almost vocal effect of #8,ooh-oh-ah-eh-ee' gives us a clear idea of the manner in which these vowels are each the sound of a note somewhat higher than the one preceding4 ,helmholtz gives as the determining notes for certain of the ,german vowels the following table3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,for each vowel the mouth-pharynx must assume a shape and size adapted to reinforce with special prominence its particular note or notes4 ,anyone can readily observe for himself what the positions of the tongue and lips are for the various vowels4 ,for ee the tongue is arched high in the mouth and the lips are only slightly parted4 ,for ah the mouth is opened slightly wider1 while the tongue lies flat1 etc4 ,no variation can be made in the size or shape of the nasal and head cavities4 ,as these hollow spaces are small and very various in form1 they reinforce only the higher overtones4 ,special prominence given to the higher upper partials#c has the effect of making the tone brilliant and somewhat metallic in quality1 and it is here that the special function of nasal resonance is seen4 ,a certain degree of nasal resonance is therefore essential to the correctly used voice1 but this must be kept within well-defined bounds4 ,excessive prominence of this resonance is the cause of the unpleasantly nasal sound which is absolutely out of place in correct tone production4 ,there remains to be treated under this head the production of consonant sounds4 ,consonant sounds are of various acoustic characters and are formed in a variety of ways4 ,they may best be considered as of two classes3 those into which a tone produced by the vocal cords enters and those devoid of this element4 ,the other determining factor in consonant formation is the point at which an interruption takes place in the outflow of the breath4 ,there are a number of allied pairs of consonants1 one with and the other without an accompanying vocal sound4 ,these are3 v and f b and p z and s d and t j and ch th 7as in that7 and th 7as in think7 z 7as in azure7 and sh g and k ,in each of these pairs the interruption takes place at the same point--v and f between the lower lip and the upper teeth1 b and p at the lips1 etc4 ,another class of consonants are the so-called sonants or liquids1 l1 m1 n1 and ng4 ,in these the vocal tone may have appreciable duration2 we can hum a tune on any one of them2 m1 n1 and ng are emitted solely through the nostrils1 the orifice of the mouth being completely closed4 ,r may be pronounced in two ways1 the trilled or rolled r being best for the purposes of singing4 ,another form of this consonant1 made by the vibration of the uvula in contact with the back of the tongue1 is essential to a correct 7conversational7 pronunciation of both ,french and ,german1 although it has no place in ,english4 ,the rolled r1 however1 is generally used in singing by both the ,french and the ,germans4 ,,iv ,a highly beneficial form of physical exercise is found in the regular daily practice of singing4 ,all the muscles of the abdomen and thorax are strengthened by this exercise2 the lungs are developed to their greatest normal capacity1 and the habit is formed of breathing at all times in the most healthful manner4 ,both the circulation and the digestion share in the benefits derived from regular vocal practice1 and the general health inevitably reflects the advantages incident to a proper performance of these most important bodily functions4 ,an erect and graceful bearing1 with well poised head and shoulders and firm1 elastic step1 can be secured through the correct practice of singing more readily than in almost any other way4 ,yet the professional use of the voice imposes considerable restrictions on the singer's habits of daily life4 ,as ,sir ,morell ,mackenzie has said1 the singer is an athlete who must always be in training4 ,a perfect condition of the voice demands a perfect state of general health4 ,the singer must plan his whole life in conformity with the demands imposed on him by his art4 ,the slightest indisposition of any kind is almost invariably reflected in the voice4 ,under the conditions in which people in the usual walks of life are placed1 slight colds and trifling upset states of the digestive organs are a matter of almost no concern4 ,but with the professional singer conditions are entirely different4 ,so delicate and finely adjusted are the laryngeal muscles of the cultivated voice that their #8tone' may be upset by apparently insignificant causes4 ,the mucous membranes of the larynx and throat are also highly sensitive to severe and unfavorable conditions4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 for the singer to study himself1 to learn by experience what is good and what is bad for him4 ,this is a matter in which individual peculiarities play so great a part that only very general rules can safely be laid down4 ,singing within less than two hours after the eating of a hearty meal is almost certain to have an injurious effect on the voice4 ,exposure and over-fatigue must be carefully avoided4 ,stimulants1 especially alcohol and tobacco1 have a markedly bad influence on the mucous membranes of the throat4 ,but beyond general statements of this kind1 so obvious indeed that their truth is fairly well known1 little can with safety be said as to the regimen imposed on the singer4 ,that one man's meat is another man's poison is most strikingly true in its application to the voice4 ,many famous singers have been excessive smokers without seeming to suffer any ill results from the habit4 ,yet with most vocalists tobacco has a very irritating effect on the mucous membranes4 ,so1 also1 with regard to eating and drinking1 the widest differences of individual constitution are seen4 ,hot drinks are beneficial to some voices1 injurious to others2 cold drinks and ices are equally contradictory in their influence on the voice4 ,all these questions of daily habit must be decided by each singer for himself and experience is the only safe guide4 ,there is a class of dangers to which the voice is exposed1 entirely distinct from the influence of unfavorable conditions of the general health4 ,most of the throat troubles to which singers and public speakers are liable are directly traceable to a wrong use of the vocal organs4 ,one of the most striking facts regarding the voice is this3 ,if the voice is correctly produced it is benefited by exercise and improves steadily1 year after year1 in power1 beauty1 and facility of execution4 ,on the other hand1 when the voice is wrongly or imperfectly used exercise has exactly the opposite effect4 ,badly produced voices constantly deteriorate2 their use results in course of time in throat troubles1 of which the number and variety seem almost inconceivably great4 ,one general trouble lies at the bottom of all the throat ailments which follow on a wrong use of the vocal organs4 ,this is a state of muscular strain suffered by the delicate muscles of the larynx4 ,every incorrect manner of producing vocal tone imposes an excessive degree of effort on these muscles4 ,on the practical side the difference between the correct production of tone and any wrong use of the voice may be stated thus3 ,when the voice is correctly used each tiny muscle of the larynx exerts exactly the right degree of effort in its contraction4 ,to just this amount of exertion the muscles are fitted by ,nature and in it they find their normal and healthful exercise4 ,incorrect tone production1 on the other hand1 always involves an excessive expenditure of effort on the part of the laryngeal muscles4 ,the throat is in a state of muscular stiffness1 in which all the muscles are contracted with more than their normal and appropriate degree of effort4 ,muscular stiffness is indeed possible in any part of the body4 ,it can be well illustrated as follows3 ,take a pencil and a sheet of paper and copy a few lines of what you are reading2 grasp the pencil with all the strength of your fingers and exert all the power of your hand and arm in forming the letters4 ,you will find that your arm and hand tire after a few minutes of writing in this manner4 ,this follows from the expenditure of vastly more effort than is required for the purpose of writing4 ,all the muscles of the body are arranged in opposed pairs and groups4 ,as your hand rests on the table1 the contraction of one set of muscles brings the thumb and the first two fingers together so as to grasp the pencil4 ,an opposed set will1 by their contraction1 spread these fingers apart1 and the pencil will be released4 ,if1 now1 both these sets of muscles are contracted at the same time the pencil is held stiffly1 and the hand moves to form the letters only by the exertion of considerable effort4 ,the muscles themselves are stiffened by this simultaneous contraction of opposed pairs and groups4 ,throat stiffness1 the characteristic feature of all incorrect vocal actions1 is exactly similar in its nature to the stiffness of the hand and arm just considered4 ,the laryngeal muscles are also arranged in sets which oppose their action one to another4 ,one set 7the posterior crico-arytenoids7 opens the glottis1 another set 7the arytenoideus and the lateral crico-arytenoids7 closes the glottis and brings the vocal cords on tension4 ,now1 if the glottis opening muscles are contracted during tone production1 the opposed muscles must put forth enough strength to overcome the effects of this contraction in addition to that which they are normally called upon to exert4 ,this applies also to all the other sets of laryngeal muscles4 ,through this excessive tension the delicate laryngeal muscles are strained and weakened1 and in the course of time the voice is permanently injured4 ,this condition of throat stiffness is by no means uncommon1 a matter for which modern methods of voice culture are to a certain degree responsible4 ,the attempt to manage the vocal organs directly is very apt to lead to excessive tension of the muscles4 ,throat stiffness is very insidious in its workings4 ,it tends always to become more pronounced and to impose a constantly greater strain on the voice4 ,yet in its beginnings the singer may be completely unaware of any trouble4 ,the muscles of the larynx are very poorly supplied with sensory nerves1 so poorly1 indeed1 that under ordinary circumstances we are utterly unconscious of their movements4 ,owing to this fact1 a condition of strain may exist without making itself manifest by any painful sensation4 ,it thus comes about that a singer may suffer from the constantly progressing effects of throat stiffness before its results are so pronounced as to be painful4 ,yet there is one infallible way of determining whether a voice is correctly used1 or whether1 on the contrary1 its production is characterized by excessive muscular tension4 ,this is found in the sound of the tones4 ,any degree of throat stiffness is invariably reflected in the sound of the voice4 ,a throaty quality of tone always results from an incorrect manner of production1 and this quality can result in no other way4 ,while a keen and highly experienced ear is needed to detect a slight degree of throatiness1 any ordinary observer can hear this condition when it is very pronounced4 ,true1 it is very much easier to detect a throaty quality in the voice of some one else than in one's own voice4 ,the singer labors under this disadvantage1 that he can never hear his own voice as clearly and with the same discrimination as can the people who listen to him4 ,yet by practice and careful attention this difficulty can in great measure be overcome4 ,for the cure of throat stiffness and its attendant ills the physician can do but little4 ,even the diagnosis of the condition can hardly be said to lie within his province4 ,in very bad cases a swelling of the muscles inside the larynx can be detected1 as well as a sympathetic congestion of the mucous membranes4 ,the existence of nodes on the vocal cords1 rather a rare condition resulting from long-continued vocal strain1 can also be determined by laryngoscopic examination4 ,but in the case of the great majority of singers suffering from the effects of throat stiffness the only competent diagnosis is made by the vocal teacher1 whose ear is sufficiently trained and experienced to hear the exact nature of the trouble4 ,further1 it is the vocal teacher alone who can relieve and permanently cure the condition4 ,the physician can allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and can temporarily stimulate the vocal muscles4 ,but no lasting relief can be given in this way4 ,only one real cure is possible4 ,that is the abandonment of the incorrect habits of tone production and the adoption of the correct manner of using the voice4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,a certain allowance must be made for popular forms of speech in dealing with the subject of chest resonance4 ,it is plain that the air in the chest cavity could not possibly be thrown into regular vibrations4 ,in the acoustic sense the chest is not a hollow space1 but a solid body4 ,filled as it is with the spongy tissue of the lungs1 as well as the heart and the great blood vessels1 there is no room for the formation of air waves or the oscillation of air particles4 ,another form of resonance is involved here1 what is known in acoustics as sounding-board resonance4 ,the reinforcing vibrations of the chest are those of its bony structure1 which vibrates according to the same principle as the sounding-board of a piano4 #b ,overtones1 or harmonics1 are the tones produced by the vibrations of the individual parts of a resonating body1 into which it automatically divides itself4 ,see ,vol4 ,,xii4 #c ,overtones4 ,cf4 note above4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,vocal ,,cultivation ,,and ,,the ,,old ,,italian ,,method ,historical aspect of vocal cultivation--,the modern conception of voice culture2 the mechanical and psychological methods--,ancient systems--,medival ,europe--,the revival of solo singing2 the rise of coloratura--,the old ,italian method--,the bel canto teachers3 ,caccini2 ,tosi and ,mancini2 the ,conservatoire method2 the ,italian course of instruction2 theoretical basis of the ,italian method4 ,musical historians generally agree that the training of voices for the purposes of artistic singing had its beginnings about the year #afjj4 ,voice culture as a distinct department of musical education is held to date no further back than the time when solo singing first began to attract the attention of educated musicians4 ,this view1 however1 is altogether misleading4 ,from its very beginnings the art of music in ,europe was built upon the foundation of singing2 no other type of music was1 indeed1 recognized as a legitimate branch of the art until music had progressed through several centuries of development4 ,music was brought up to the beginning of its present stage of evolution through the working out of theories which were exemplified in practice only by the use of voices4 ,counterpoint1 the basis of musical composition until well along in the seventeenth century1 had its origin in vocal music2 throughout its entire history1 up to its highest expression in the music of ,palestrina and his school1 contrapuntal writing was applied only to works composed for voices4 ,even if no records were to be found of any means used for training the voice1 the conclusion would be inevitable that1 throughout all these centuries 7roughly speaking1 from the sixth to the seventeenth71 some attention must have been paid to vocal development and technique4 ,it is true that anyone endowed with a good voice can sing1 with some degree of facility1 any simple music which he has the ability to memorize4 ,no technical training of the voice is needed to enable one to sing simple songs4 ,folk-music was the possession of the great mass of the people to whom any ideas of vocal management were utterly unknown4 ,this was also true of the various classes of minstrels1 troubadours1 etc4 ,although theirs was purely a vocal art1 the only training their voices ever received was that incidental to the actual singing of their music4 ,but for the performance of the music incorporated in the ,roman ritual throughout all its history this untutored style of singing would not have sufficed4 ,a much better command of the voice was needed than can be acquired merely through the unguided singing of simple folk-songs and lays4 ,precision1 power1 and facility of voice were demanded in the music of the church and these could not have been hit upon by accident4 ,the chances are all against a voice falling into the correct manner of production if called upon to sing music of any difficulty without some definite instruction4 ,this will be made clearer by a consideration of the peculiar problem involved in any extended use of the voice4 ,i ,modern thought on the subject of vocal cultivation has crystallized along well-defined lines4 ,for one thing1 it has emphasized in a striking way the problem of the management of the vocal organs4 ,the fact is now clearly recognized that the voice has one correct mode of operating1 as well as an almost limitless possibility of wrong or incorrect forms of activity4 ,when the voice is correctly produced it can be used daily in large halls and churches without strain or undue fatigue4 ,by judicious exercise1 when rightly produced1 the voice is greatly increased in volume and power2 it acquires facility in the singing of difficult and elaborate music2 its compass is increased1 giving it command of a wider range of notes than is possessed by the untrained voice4 ,yet vocal cultivation demands the adoption of the correct management of the vocal organs4 ,when the voice is correctly produced nothing more than judicious exercise is needed to bring it to the condition of technical mastery4 ,but if the proper manner of producing tone is not acquired1 then the exercise of the voice is fraught with peril to the vocal organs4 ,instead of the voice being benefited by practice the contrary result is almost inevitable4 ,the use of a wrongly produced voice on an extended scale1 involving1 as it must1 the daily attempt to produce tones powerful enough to fill a large space1 strains and injures the vocal organs4 ,this results in a weakening of the voice1 in loss of control1 in discomfort and pain to the singer1 in a strained1 harsh quality of tone1 and finally1 if persisted in long enough1 in complete loss of voice4 ,the difference between the correct use of the voice and any incorrect manner of producing tone is inherent in the organ itself4 ,no one who wishes to sing can elude the problem which ,nature thus propounds4 ,on the contrary1 the problem of vocal management must be solved some time in the course of a singer's vocal studies or the technical command of the voice can never be attained4 ,vocal cultivation is that form of exercise of the voice which leads1 through the correct management of the organ1 to a command of all the voice's resources of beauty1 range1 power1 and flexibility4 ,even on the earliest singers of the church a solution of the vocal problem was imposed4 ,these singers had to perform daily in large cathedrals and churches2 they had to sing their music in time and in tune4 ,some measure of vocal cultivation was of necessity involved in their training4 ,we are1 fortunately1 not left in ignorance of the methods applied in vocal training in the centuries which preceded the rise of solo singing4 ,many references to this subject found in the writings of early musical historians have been gathered together by ,h4 ,f4 ,mannstein in his ,geschichte1 ,geist1 und ,ausbung des ,gesanges von ,gregor dem ,grossen bis auf unsere ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahde74 ,ftis also contains many passages which throw valuable light on the subject ,it is true that the subject has been considered rather obscure1 owing to the fact that students have looked for something not to be found1 that is1 for rules bearing on the mechanical management of the vocal organs4 ,in order to understand this subject fully the modern conception of voice culture must first be briefly considered4 ,modern methods of voice culture are based upon the doctrine that the vocal organs must be consciously guided by the singer in the correct performance of their functions4 ,the idea is that the voice must be led to adopt the correct manner of action by direct attention to its mechanical processes4 ,according to the present conception1 the singer must see to it that his vocal cords act in a certain way2 that his breath is controlled at the proper point2 that the tones have the correct origin and receive the influence of resonance in the correct manner4 ,even back of this conception lies a belief in the helplessness of the vocal organs to hit upon the proper mode of acting without the conscious direction of the singer4 ,the singer must impose a certain manner of operating on the voice and carefully supervise all the processes of tone production4 ,this is the scientific view of voice culture2 until quite recently it was almost universally held4 ,it is almost incredible that this view is thoroughly modern and that its origin cannot be traced further back than the invention of the laryngoscope in #ahee4 ,not until #ahhc did the scientific view of vocal cultivation find definite expression in the writings of any authority on the voice2 in that year ,browne and ,behnke1 in their book entitled #8,voice1 ,song1 and ,speech1' stated the scientific doctrine in plain terms1 and asserted that the voice cannot be controlled in any other way than by attention to the mechanical processes of the vocal organs4 ,for many years thereafter this doctrine went unchallenged1 and methods of voice culture treated as the most important materials of instruction the means they embodied for enabling students of singing to acquire direct conscious control over their vocal organs4 ,an entirely different conception of voice culture has recently been advanced and has indeed made great headway4 ,from the fact that the new doctrine found its first complete statement in the writer's #8,psychology of ,singing' 7,new ,york1 #aijh71 it has come to be known as the psychological theory1 in contradistinction to the mechanical theory embodied in the scientific system4 ,briefly stated1 the psychological theory of voice production is as follows3 ,to the vocal problem propounded by nature the solution has also been furnished by nature herself4 ,nature has endowed the voice with a sufficient guide and monitor--the sense of hearing4 ,there is a direct connection between the cerebral centres of hearing and the centres governing the muscles of the vocal organs4 ,the volitional impulse to produce a certain sound involves the hearing of the sound in imagination2 through the nerve fibres connecting the centres of hearing and of voice1 the nerve impulse is sent to the vocal organs which causes them to assume the positions and perform the muscular contractions necessary for the production of the desired tone4 ,thus the voice is controlled by the ear1 and it needs no other form of control than that furnished by the ear4 ,a correct management of the voice in singing results in the production of tones of a distinct characteristic sound1 while any incorrect use of the voice produces tones which differ from the correct type1 more or less1 according to the degree of faultiness in the vocal management4 ,the ear is the only reliable judge of the voice4 ,only by listening to the tones it produces can it be determined whether a voice is correctly used or not4 ,the object of vocal cultivation is first of all to enable the voice to produce the correct type of tone4 ,this is accomplished by practice1 which consists of repeated efforts to sing tones of the type recognized by the ear as correct4 ,if the ear has the right conception of pure tone1 the vocal organs gradually fall into the way of producing correct tones1 that is1 of operating in the correct manner4 ,in this the voice is guided by its own instincts1 which offer a safer and more efficient guidance than that provided by the conscious management of the vocal organs4 ,no attention whatever need be paid to the mechanical operations of tone production4 ,the vocal organs are informed by the mental ear what is expected of them1 and perform their functions instinctively without any help from the intellect4 ,one advantage of the psychological doctrine is that it at once dispels all the mystery which has seemed to surround the early history of the subject1 and which has extended even to the method of the ,italian teachers of bel canto4 ,little notice has indeed been taken of the systems of vocal cultivation which flourished before the rise of the ,italian school of vocal teachers4 ,but since the universal adoption of the scientific doctrine1 repeated efforts have been made to penetrate the secret of the old method4 ,these efforts have always resulted in failure1 for the reason already mentioned4 ,investigators have sought to re-discover the form of instruction used for the purpose of imparting a direct conscious control of the vocal organs2 their conviction that no other means of vocal command is possible has blinded students of the subject to the instinctive processes actually followed4 ,as our main purpose in the present chapter is to describe the system now known as the old ,italian method1 a fuller treatment of its records1 both literary and traditional1 will be reserved for a later section4 ,a review of the early history of voice culture will lead most readily to the consideration of the old ,italian method4 ,,ii ,ancient systems of vocal culture call for only passing mention4 ,in the early civilizations of ,egypt1 ,chaldea and ,assyria the art of singing was cultivated assiduously4 ,in the services of the temples this ancient art found its most serious and dignified employment4 ,each of the countries named possessed1 at the time of its highest civilization1 a highly elaborate ritual of worship1 in which singing played a most important part4 ,every temple had its corps of trained singers1 who were especially educated for this office4 ,the most important feature of the education of the temple singers was the memorizing of the musical settings to which the various poems and chronicles of the ritual were sung and chanted4 ,the course of instruction consisted of the actual singing of the music1 under the tuition of a master whose memory was stored with the entire devotional repertoire of the cult4 ,a proper performance of the music was the object sought1 and to this the most earnest attention was paid4 ,but incident to this was the production of the quality and type of tones which experience had shown to be best adapted to the use of the voice in the massive temples and in the open-air services4 ,the temple music schools were under the constant supervision of the priests and other officials in charge and the classes met regularly for instruction and practice4 ,very much the same system was followed in the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,of the musical system developed there we have a highly complete and satisfactory record4 ,here the art of singing was carried to a very high pitch of development4 ,at the time of ,solomon there were #d1jjj ,levites attached to the ,temple1 whose office it was to sing and intone the various services4 ,the elaborate ritual contained musical settings for the ,psalms and certain of the historical and prophetic books1 which demanded a high degree of vocal ability for their rendition4 ,both the priests and the ,levites received a lengthy training in the singing of the music allotted to them4 ,the music of the ,temple is especially interesting to the student of the history of singing1 for the reason that it included a remarkably developed system of vocal ornamentation4 ,it would have been impossible to sing this music without a thorough command of the voice1 and the education of the priests and ,levites therefore included a comprehensive system of vocal cultivation4 ,the experience of the early masters of the old ,italian school taught them that the best means for training the voice in facility and flexibility is the actual singing of ornamental florid music4 ,this was also the plan followed in the school attached to the ,temple4 ,a system of notation was in use1 somewhat similar to that of the neumes used in ,europe from the ninth to the thirteenth century4 ,every standard ornament and melodic phrase was represented by a letter1 according to a strictly arbitrary system4 ,a most important part of the ,temple method of musical instruction was the memorizing of the various phrases1 groups1 runs1 etc41 represented by the significant letters4 ,this was purely a matter of convention1 that is1 the meaning of the letters was recorded only in the memories of the instructors and the graduate students4 ,the instructor taught the phrase for which a letter stood by singing it for his students and having them sing it after him until they had committed it to memory and learned to associate it with the letter4 ,as the musical phrases were all melodious and in most cases ornamental1 the voice thus received an effective training4 ,one of the puzzling aspects of the first solo singing in ,european music is the difficulty found in tracing the origin of the vocal embellishments of which it so largely consisted4 ,a possible explanation of this mystery may be found in the music of the ,temple4 ,how the traditions so carefully treasured there could have found their way into ,italy after the lapse of nearly #b1jjj years will be considered in a later section of this chapter4 ,in classic ,athens the voice was trained for the purposes of both oratory and singing4 ,a specially recognized profession was that of the vocal trainer or phonascus1 whose duties embraced the vocal cultivation of both singers and public speakers4 ,a well-developed system of voice culture was followed by these teachers1 who superintended classes in the daily practice of systematic exercises4 ,for the training of the speaking voice a pupil began his daily practice by repeating detached sentences at short intervals4 ,from this he passed to the declamation of long phrases1 beginning on the lowest notes of the voice1 raising the pitch gradually until the highest notes were reached1 and then again descending to the lowest range4 ,the exercises in singing were very similar1 although greater attention was paid to the sustaining of high notes4 ,owing to the immense size of the ,greek open-air theatres1 and to the masks that were always worn by the actors1 volume and power of voice were of the utmost importance4 ,the actors might justly be described as singers1 as all their speeches were delivered in a style of vocal declamation not unlike our modern recitative4 ,very much the same methods of vocal cultivation were followed in ancient ,rome1 although much more attention was paid to oratory than to singing4 ,there is no reason to believe that voice culture in ,europe was influenced in any way by the classic systems of either ,greece or ,rome4 ,,iii ,vocal cultivation in ,europe had an independent beginning4 ,it may be that some of the musical traditions of the ,hebrew ,temple had been carried over into the earlier churches which were founded in ,italy1 as there is no doubt that the same traditions were adopted as the basis of the ,eastern church ritual at ,constantinople4 ,certain it is that prior to the reform of ,st4 ,ambrose much of the music of the early ,roman church was highly ornamental in character4 ,at any rate1 with the founding of the choir school attached to the ,pontifical chapel at ,rome in the year #eij voice culture made a new start2 it underwent a steady development1 and continued to progress without interruption until it reached its fullest fruition in the ,italian school of singing in the seventeenth century4 ,the choir school at ,rome was intended to serve as a model for the entire ,western church2 it supplied singers for the papal choir1 which was established to illustrate the proper rendition of ,gregorian music4 ,at the beginning the course of instruction followed in the ,roman choir school was extremely rudimentary1 and so it continued for several centuries4 ,the maestro di cappella had as part of his duties the training of the singers' voices4 ,this was accomplished according to the purely instinctive system followed in the similar schools of the ancient temples4 ,the students committed to memory the music as it was sung by the choir master2 in the course of their constant repetition of the various musical numbers their voices received the necessary training and development4 ,schools similar to that at ,rome were established at all the great cathedrals and the ,roman system of musical instruction was thus spread over the entire church4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages musical learning and culture--what little there was of them--were the exclusive property of the church1 and the only centres of musical instruction were the choir schools4 ,every advance which music made during these centuries involved an extension of the art of singing1 and this necessitated of course a corresponding progress of the art of vocal training4 ,progress was painfully slow2 indeed little can be pointed out as marking any distinct advance until the invention of the sol-fa system of instruction by ,guido d',arezzo about the year #aajj4d ,on the basis of this system an entirely new form of musical education was erected1 which continued to flourish until well along in the #agth century4 ,the new system of musical instruction consisted of what we should now call a training in sight singing4 ,the first method of vocal culture worthy the name was a natural outgrowth of the sol-fa system4 ,students were trained in a knowledge of the intervals by singing the ut1 re1 mi syllables in different combinations4 ,choir masters were not slow to observe that this form of study offered excellent means for acquiring a command of the voice4 ,with the exception of the first one1 ut1 all the sol-fa syllables are sonorous and easily sung4 ,the difficulty attached to the singing of ut was obviated by substituting for it the syllable do4 ,constant singing of the syllables was found to have an admirable effect on the voice1 and they were soon adopted as the basis of vocal instruction4 ,sol-fa practice was made to serve a double purpose2 both the ear and the voice received the due measure of attention4 ,vocal training was not at this time1 nor indeed for several centuries later1 thought to require any very close attention4 ,it was simply an incident in the general musical education4 ,the demands made on the voice were slight in comparison with the requirements of the music of a few centuries later4 ,music had long been strictly unisonic in character1 but about the time of ,guido the need of some addition to a single melody began to be noted4 ,a peculiarity of the single voice is the fact that while capable of singing melodies of an almost infinite variety it seems to the cultured ear to need support of some kind4 ,while untutored people are content to listen to the singing of a voice without any accompaniment1 a certain degree of culture brings with it a sense of bareness conveyed by a performance of this kind4 ,toward the close of the dark ages this feature of the voice attracted the attention of the church musicians4 ,they hit upon the device of having a second voice accompany the first1 singing another melody which should have a pleasing effect in conjunction with the original one4 ,this marked the beginning of counterpoint1 and it gave a direction to the art of music from which it did not depart for many centuries4 ,with the gradual extension of polyphonic writing the education of singers became constantly a more complex and exacting matter4 ,greater demands were made on both the voice and the musicianship of the choral singer4 ,no great modification was1 however1 made in the system of instruction2 this developed along the lines already marked out for it4 ,sight singing continued to be the basis of musical education4 ,as time went on it became necessary for the singers to master the system of musical notation1 and this was accomplished by a farther extension of the course in sight singing4 ,an understanding of the rules of counterpoint was not obligatory on the part of the choristers1 but many of them received sufficient instruction to fit them for both composition and teaching4 ,composers and teachers were without exception graduates of the choir schools2 a musical education could not be obtained elsewhere4 ,music study had indeed no other purpose than to train students in the music of the church4 ,instruction in counterpoint and composition was not undertaken until the students had mastered the rudiments of music and had also received their vocal training in the sight singing classes4 ,every musician was a singer as a matter of course4 ,musical culture gradually spread from the church and began to embrace a wider field4 ,during the #aeth and the #afth centuries there was a steady approximation of the two orders of music1 scholarly and popular4 ,every little royal and princely court had its retinue of musicians4 ,polyphonic music had reached a degree of development where its beauty brought it within the reach of the enjoyment of the great mass of the people4 ,composers had1 indeed1 begun to write secular #8art' music as early as the thirteenth century4 ,as civilization and culture advanced1 and secular music received a constantly greater measure of attention1 the demands made on lay musicians became more exacting4 ,the old fashion of singing and playing entirely by ear no longer sufficed for the requirements of cultured people4 ,musicians were obliged to fit themselves for their profession by obtaining a fair degree of technical knowledge4 ,many who had enjoyed the training of the choir schools forsook their employment in the church and devoted themselves to the practice of secular music4 ,the field of musical education also broadened4 ,people who looked forward to embracing the musical profession began to seek instruction from graduates of the choir schools4 ,but the idea of private instruction did not become popular for a long time4 ,music had always been taught in special schools1 and the need of such schools of a secular character soon became manifest4 ,the first institution of this type to attain any degree of prominence was that founded in ,bologna in #adhb by a ,spanish musician1 ,ramis di ,pareja4 ,it adopted the system of instruction followed in the choir schools4 ,the century following the establishment of the ,bologna school was one of great activity in secular musical instruction4 ,conservatories were founded in most of the great ,european cities1 although ,italy was the chief centre of education in music4 ,polyphonic music had been steadily progressing and1 at the period we have now reached 7the sixteenth century71 its proper performance called for singers of no mean ability4 ,the traditional system of musical education had steadily expanded and had without difficulty kept abreast of the demands made on it4 ,the strictly musical education of the singer required a longer and more exacting course of study1 and so also did the technical training of the voice4 ,composers of this period showed a marked fondness for florid counterpoint and voices had to be cultivated to a high point of flexibility to sing their works satisfactorily4 ,yet no sweeping alteration was made in the system of vocal cultivation4 ,flexibility of voice was acquired through practice in the singing of individual parts of contrapuntal works1 those being chosen which presented technical difficulties in a convenient form4 ,this advanced stage of vocal training was undertaken only after the rudimentary principles of singing had been mastered in the sight-singing classes4 ,in spite of the greater technical demands made on the voice1 the proper management of the vocal organs was not seen to involve a problem of any difficulty4 ,sight singing classes numbered sometimes as many as forty pupils4 ,the instructor in this primary grade was expected to see that the students sang clearly and in tune1 and that they avoided the faults of nasality and throatiness4 ,to the matter of tone production the teacher could of course pay very little attention1 as the rudiments of music were the main subject of study4 ,yet the few hints and corrections occasionally given by the sight-singing teacher were all the instruction that the students received in the management of the voice4 ,on the completion of the course in sight singing the students were expected to produce their voices properly1 as well as to sing difficult music at sight4 ,no pupil could be admitted to the classes for advanced instruction in singing whose voice was not properly controlled4 ,,iv ,up to the latter part of the sixteenth century there was nothing to give promise of a sudden development of solo singing4 ,popular music had as a matter of fact consisted from time immemorial largely of singing by a single voice4 ,the musical instincts of the great mass of the people had found expression in the folk-song1 while the semi-cultured classes had long cultivated the arts of the various orders of ,troubadours and ,minnesingers4 ,but these popular forms of music were looked upon by the trained musicians with a certain contempt4 ,music had to be sung in parts by several voices in order to be worthy of recognition as serious art4 ,polyphonic music utterly ignores the capabilities of beauty and expressiveness inherent in the single voice4 ,when several melodies are sung at once1 each one of equal importance with all the others1 it is impossible for one voice to receive more attention than another4 ,yet a time came when music was forced to break the bonds of polyphony and free itself from the restraints imposed upon it by multiple part-writing4 ,greater command of beauty and expressiveness was precisely the end sought by those composers1 notably ,palestrina1 whose work marks the culmination of the polyphonic school4 ,the spirit of the time was seeking for greater freedom in the expression of the musical instinct and singers and musicians alike were moved by this spirit4 ,solo singing was the inevitable result of a pressing demand4 ,two entirely distinct sets of influences were instrumental in leading musicians to experiment with the solo voice4 ,the first of these can be traced back to the practising of individual parts in choral works as a medium of vocal cultivation4 ,a singer practising a part of this kind by himself could not fail to notice that he used his voice with greater freedom and satisfaction than when obliged to consider only the effect of his voice in conjunction with other singers4 ,so also would the master who was instructing him in his part4 ,highly significant is the fact that this discovery was made in the singing of florid music4 ,rather elaborate passages of the florid type were selected for vocal practice and these would naturally be adapted for bringing out the purely sensuous beauty of the voice4 ,florid counterpoint thus contained within itself the germs of coloratura singing4 ,as singers began to recognize the beauties of their own individual voices1 the desire naturally arose to display these beauties to others4 ,opportunity for vocal display was1 however1 lacking1 as no music had ever been written for the solo voice4 ,this difficulty was finally overcome by a singer performing only one part of a contrapuntal work and having the other parts played as an accompaniment by instrumental performers4 ,the first solos sung in the history of ,european musical art were of this type4 ,as early as #aeci a four-part madrigal was produced in this manner1 the highest soprano part being sung as a solo4 ,the fashion spread rapidly and solo singing soon began to attract the serious attention of musicians4#e ,singers were of course anxious to exhibit their voices4 ,polyphonic music offered them little scope in this regard1 for florid writing was distributed among the various parts and it was impossible for the artists to find works which contained more than an occasional ornamental passage for any one voice4 ,they hit naturally upon the device of adding ornaments according to their own taste and fancy to the part selected for solo performance4 ,kiesewetter reproduces a madrigal sung in this manner by a noted soprano singer1 ,vittoria ,archilei1 in #aehi4 ,both the original soprano part and the same part as embellished by ,archilei are reproduced here4 ,illustration3 a4 ,simple melody of treble part ,dalle pi alte sfere dalle pi alte sfere di celesti ,sirene di celesti ,sirene ,illustration3 b4 ,melody as sung by ,vittoria ,archilei ,dalle pi alte sfere dalle pi alte sfere di celesti ,sirene di celesti ,sirene ,vocal ornamentation had by this time become a recognized fashion among the singers4 ,considerable mystery surrounds the origin of the various ornaments and fiorituri which were adopted by the singers at this early period in the history of solo singing4 ,a possible source from which they may have been drawn was mentioned in our remarks on the music of the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,much of this music was preserved by tradition and was incorporated1 with modifications of course1 in the ritual of the ,greek ,catholic church at ,constantinople4 ,highly ornamental in character1 it was performed regularly in the ,greek church for many centuries4 ,at the dispersal of the cultured ,greeks following the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks in #adeb1 many musicians trained in the music of the ,greek church found their way into ,italy4 ,this gradual exodus continued indeed for many years1 and it is probable that the traditions of ornamental music thus came to the knowledge of the ,italian singers4 ,certain it is that the early singers adopted the same type of ornamentation which had been perfected at ,jerusalem nearly #b1jjj years previously4 ,exactly the same variety of turns1 trills1 runs1 gruppetti1 etc41 are contained in the following examples of ,hebrew and ,greek music as were employed by the solo singers at the close of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,hebrew 7transcribed by ,ftis7 ,horuch attoh adono elohemi melech hoolom jozer or uvore choscheh sch scholom uvore es haccol or olom h'jotzer chajim oros meofel omar vajehi4 ,illustration3 ,byzantine 7transcribed by ,ftis7 ,erra nan myra mtadakry on ,epitomn masou ai gynaikes kai ,eplthe charas tostoma autou4 ,entolegein4 ,ansto kyrios4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to speculate on the causes which led the first solo singers to adorn their songs with fiorituri4 ,ornamental singing has always been a natural and instinctive form of expression4 ,the fondness of primitive peoples for vocal embellishments has been noted by many observers1 prominent among whom is ,frederick ,r4 ,burton 7#8,american ,primitive ,music1' ,new ,york1 #aiji74 ,in the ,orient singing of the florid type has always had its home4 ,returning ,crusaders brought back with them many songs and melodies from ,palestine1 all characterized by runs1 turns1 and other ornaments4 ,the fashion was taken up by the ,troubadours and ,trouvres1 who familiarized their hearers with the idea of melodic elaboration by means of florid passages4 ,even in the church the officiating priests for many centuries had a fondness for introducing ornaments in their singing of the masses4 ,ornamental singing seems to be prompted by some deep-seated instinct and its universal popular appeal must be attributed to the same instinct4 ,coloratura singing was thus the foundation of the new art of vocal solo performance4 ,musical historians generally attach more importance in this connection to the invention of dramatic recitative4 ,this is due in great measure to the fact that the records deal much more fully with the latter subject1 and also to the adoption of declamatory recitative as the basis of the art form of opera4#f ,solo singing owed its sudden and unprecedented bound into popularity to the delight which people took in vocal ornamentation4 ,even the opera itself was indebted for its rapid advance to the public demand for coloratura singing4 ,indeed it seems hardly too much to say that coloratura singing was the first type of art music to find its way to the affections of the general public4 ,up to about #afjj1 artistic music1 despite its rapid development in the hundred years preceding1 had been the possession only of the cultured and wealthy classes4 ,but with the opening of the opera houses the new art form was brought within the reach of the great body of the people4 ,that the public responded so enthusiastically to the new form of entertainment thus offered them was due in great measure to the delight people took in coloratura singing4 ,composers soon found that in order to please the public they must provide ornamental solos for the singers4 ,this was of course opposed to the views of the little group of ,florentine gentlemen who projected the first performances of opera2 they considered musical declamation to be sufficient for all the purposes of a truly dramatic art4 ,but the public thought otherwise and demanded to hear the singers in solos which displayed the full beauties of their voices4 ,monteverdi's ,orfeo1 produced in #afjg1 contains a number of elaborate coloratura songs4 ,a striking fact regarding the system of vocal instruction in vogue during the later decades of the sixteenth century is that it sufficed for the training of the first solo singers4 ,artists whose education had not been designed to fit them for the performance of solo music were yet able to take up this music and to sing it satisfactorily after they had left their teachers4 ,even though it was intended only for the performance of choral works1 the system of vocal training then in vogue enabled singers to master the new art of solo singing for themselves4 ,the advance of solo singing did not lead to the abandonment of the traditional course of instruction4 ,on the contrary1 the same system continued to be applied1 extended only to meet the new requirements imposed on it by the great elaboration of vocal technique4 ,by #afej coloratura singing was firmly established as the favorite branch of music1 and for more than #bjj years following it was one of the chief glories of the art4 ,an abundance of singers of a high degree of excellence were provided by the conservatories and by the many private teachers who practised their profession in the chief cities of ,italy4 ,the most famous musicians did not disdain to embrace the new profession of voice culture4 ,a sincere devotion to the art of bel canto was displayed by the teachers of the early part of the seventeenth century2 each one strove to advance the standards of singing1 to discover new possibilities of beauty1 range1 and flexibility in the voice1 to invent new and delightful ornaments4 ,the composers vied with the vocal teachers in seeking always for greater beauty and expressiveness4 ,how successful they were is proved by the rapid expansion of the opera4 ,a marked influence in the elevation of the standards of singing was exerted through the introduction of the male soprano voice4 ,whether the voices of the castrati possessed all the wonderful charm and beauty of quality attributed to them by musical writers of the time we cannot now determine4 ,but there is no question that voices of this type are specially favored in their ability to master the most astounding technical difficulties4 ,the castrati enjoyed an almost incredible popularity4 ,more has been written about ,farinelli and ,caffarelli than about any other artists of the old bel canto period4 ,historically considered1 the singers of this type are highly important because of the contribution they made to the elevation of the vocal art4 ,their achievements became the standard toward which all other artists were called upon to strive4 ,while we need have no regret over the disappearance of the male soprano1 his value in the development of bel canto cannot be ignored4 ,illustration3 ,apotheosis of ,farinelli ,from an engraving by ,wagner after the contemporaneous painting by ,amicorni4 ,a lineal succession of vocal teachers was well established by #afcj4 ,several masters of the art had acquired excellent reputations even so early as #afjj4 ,each famous teacher had many pupils who in their turn took up the profession of teaching and who almost invariably based their claims to recognition on the reputation of the master1 as well as on their own excellence as singers4 ,this maestral succession1 or rather many of them1 continued down to comparatively recent times4 ,the changed conditions which came about in the twenty years following the invention of the laryngoscope 7#ahee7 finally broke down the influence of the teachers who had inherited the old masters' system1 and the authority of the old method was for a time almost destroyed4 ,in recent years1 however1 there has been a great revival of interest in the methods of instruction followed by the old masters4 ,there is a growing feeling that scientific methods have not fulfilled their promise1 and vocalists look back upon the earlier centuries of voice culture as a golden age which has passed away4 ,v ,the old ,italian method is now considered to have possessed some merits which are not shared by modern scientific systems4 ,yet a certain degree of mystery still surrounds the old method4 ,welcome as its revival would be to many teachers and students1 great difficulty is met with in determining of just what it consisted4 ,many analyses and explanations of the old method have indeed been suggested4 ,but as these consist almost entirely of attempts to find in it some means for the direct conscious management of the vocal organs1 they have necessarily brought forth little that is of value4 ,all the mystery surrounding the old method is dispelled by the understanding that it did not treat the vocal problem as capable of solution by mechanical means4 ,the old ,italian method was simply an amplification of the system of vocal education which had been in course of development for nearly a thousand years4 ,it embodied no new conception of vocal management1 but continued to treat the control of the voice as a purely instinctive matter4 ,its chief contribution to the technical training of the voice was the adoption of vocalises and exercises specially designed for this purpose4 ,even that was a matter of rather slow development4 ,during the early decades of the seventeenth century vocal teachers continued to select passages from standard musical works which lent themselves readily to the technical exercise of the voice1 just as the teachers of the preceding century had done4 ,gradually it came to be seen that greater satisfaction could be obtained from the use of compositions arranged to bring in the various technical points and vocal embellishments one or two at a time4 ,thus the voice could be led by an easy gradation to the mastery of every technical difficulty and its training was rendered easier and more expeditious4 ,but the general scheme of instruction continued to be patterned after the traditional model4 ,a complete musical education1 not only the special cultivation of the voice1 was the goal4 ,the plan of combining the preliminary training in vocal management with instruction in the rudiments of music continued to be followed as late as #agej4 ,many famous masters employed assistant teachers to perform the drudgery of the initial stages of instruction1 considering that their own high degree of culture entitled them to deal only with advanced students4 ,this custom continued for at least one hundred years1 and ,tosi 7#agbc7 speaks of it as a system so well established as to need no comment4 ,it is sometimes said that a course of instruction in singing according to the old ,italian method required from five to seven years of study4 ,this is in one sense true4 ,yet it is by no means the case that so long a time was devoted to the technical training of the voice4 ,a thorough musical education was included in this course1 of which the first two or three years were spent entirely on the rudiments of music4 ,the course of instruction included also a complete training for the operatic stage1 as well as a repertoire of parts sufficient to enable the graduating student to secure an engagement at one of the opera houses4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century specialization in vocal education began to be the rule4 ,students whose parents foresaw for them the possibilities of a vocal career were prepared by a thorough musical education before being sent to a vocal teacher4 ,under these circumstances the technical training of the voice was frequently accomplished in less than two years4 ,,vi ,it is to be regretted that so little mention is made by musical historians of the methods of instruction followed by the old masters4 ,vocal teachers of the old school seem to have been so absorbed in their work that the idea of writing books seldom occurred to them4 ,a vast quantity of vocalises composed by teachers for their students has been preserved and many of these are incorporated in books of exercises now available4 ,a few masters were1 however1 thoughtful enough to provide posterity with some knowledge of their system of instruction4 ,the first of these was ,caccini1 whose importance as a vocal teacher should not be overlooked on account of his especial eminence as the first composer to write music for the solo voice4 ,in #afja ,caccini published a large number of his compositions for the solo voice under the title of ,le ,nuove ,musiche1 a book which is now of almost inestimable value4 ,it contains vocal pieces in both the styles then in vogue4 ,it is surprising to see from some of these florid songs the high degree of vocal virtuosity possessed by the singers of that early time4 ,in his preface ,caccini gives an outline of his system of vocal training4 ,this consists entirely of rules and directions for the execution of the various ornaments of singing4 ,here he shows himself to have possessed a pure and refined taste1 as well as a most profound love for the beauties of the voice4 ,yet he does not touch on the subject of vocal management1 proving that he had not had occasion to depart from the instinctive methods in which he himself had been trained4 ,illustration3 ,music score ,muove si dolce e si soave guerra lu singando i pensier bel t mortale1 ch'a volo un cor non spiegheria mai l'ale per sollevarsi peregrin da terra1 se non scendesse a risvegliarlo ,amore1 per sollevarsi pellegrin da terra se non scendesse a risvegliarlo ,amore4 ,two other interesting works by teachers of the old school are #8,observations on the ,florid ,song' 7#agbc71 by ,pietro ,francesco ,tosi1 and ,riflessioni ,pratiche sul ,canto ,figurato 7#aggf71 by ,giovanni ,battista ,mancini4 ,both these writers devote themselves mainly to a discussion of vocal embellishments and fiorituri1 just as did ,caccini so many years earlier4 ,what little they say about the management of the voice shows that the old idea of reliance on instinctive vocal guidance had not weakened in their day4 ,another highly valuable work1 the latest which can be considered of original value in throwing light on the old ,italian method1 is the ,mthode de ,chant du ,conservatoire de ,musique 7,paris1 #ahjc74 ,this method was drawn up by the most eminent musicians in ,paris at that time1 including even ,cherubini and ,mhul4 ,they and several others of almost equal rank were commissioned by the revolutionary government to devise an official system of vocal education4 ,yet there is nothing revolutionary about the method1 for it does not depart in any important particular from the system of instruction described by ,tosi and ,mancini4 ,particular interest attaches to the ,mthode because it was the first complete practical work on its subject ever published4 ,tosi and ,mancini did not include a single exercise or musical illustration in their books1 but contented themselves with verbal descriptions of the portamento1 messa di voce1 appoggiatura1 etc4 ,the ,mthode on the other hand consists almost entirely of a collection of exercises1 scales1 vocalises1 and arias1 carefully graded according to difficulty4 ,these were collected from many sources by the most celebrated vocal teacher in ,paris at that time1 ,bernardo ,mengozzi1 the head of the vocal department at the ,conservatoire4 ,everything necessary for the thorough cultivation of the voice according to ,mengozzi's conception of the subject was included in the ,mthode4 ,a student was expected to start with the first exercise and study each one consecutively1 the voice steadily progressing until technical perfection was assured with the mastery of the last aria4 ,no distinction was made between voices1 high and low1 male and female1 for all were put through the same course of study4 ,cherubini thought so highly of the ,mthode that he took a copy with him on his visit to ,vienna in #ahje for the purpose of himself presenting it to ,beethoven4 ,all that has come down to us of the oral traditions of the old school is summed up in a set of cogent phrases which are commonly known as the traditional precepts4 ,these are1 #8open the throat1' #8sing on the breath1' #8sing the tone forward1' and #8support the tone4' ,no literary authority can be given for the precepts1 as they are not mentioned in any works published earlier than about #ahcj4 ,it is possible that they do not date back much further than this4 ,perhaps they represent the first attempts made by vocal teachers to interpret their instruction according to the scientific ideas of vocal operation which were just beginning to become current about that time4 ,how this could have been the case is readily seen4 ,a perfect vocal tone sounds as though it floats on the breath4 ,the correct singer's throat seems to the hearer to be loose and open and the tone seems to be lodged in the front of the mouth4 ,when the attention of vocal teachers began to be turned to the mechanical operations of tone production they might naturally have been led to observe first those salient features of tone which seem to point to a definite vocal action4 ,yet it is more likely that the old masters actually used the precepts in instruction merely to point out to their pupils these striking peculiarities in the sound of the perfect vocal tone4 ,we know that they always held up before their students a high ideal of artistic singing4 ,a use of the precepts in this way would be of great service in helping the students to hear how perfect singing should sound4 ,to imitate successfully it is necessary in the first place to hear distinctly4 ,pointing out the marked characteristics of the perfect tone enables the ear to know what to listen for4 ,it must be borne in mind that the old ,italian method was never standardized4 ,no such thing as a school of recognized authority1 to whose principles all teachers were obliged to adhere1 was ever evolved4 ,each master taught according to his own ideas1 and no central authority or governing body ever undertook to lay out a standard method4 ,yet the old masters all followed the same general plan of instruction4 ,in some of its aspects this plan is thoroughly understood4 ,students were taught to sing correctly and artistically solely through the exercise of their voices in actual singing4 ,the materials used for vocal training were scales1 exercises1 and vocalises without and with words4 ,these were without exception melodious1 and the musical and artistic aspects of singing received attention from the beginning of instruction to the end4 ,singing was considered always on its musical side and its mechanical features were never touched upon4 ,the voice was led on by a gradual progression from the easy to the difficult4 ,during the seventeenth century it was the custom for the teachers to compose exercises and vocalises specially for each pupil1 suiting the technical and musical requirements to the pupil's stage of advancement4 ,as this custom died out1 teachers provided themselves with extensive and carefully graded lists of compositions in all the various styles suitable for instruction4 ,coming finally to the question1 what means the old masters utilized for imparting the correct management of the voice1 we find that in the sense in which this problem is understood in modern vocal science they had no method whatever4 ,it is difficult for one imbued with the idea of direct vocal management to believe that the voice can possibly be trained without the student knowing in the first place how to produce his tones correctly4 ,yet it would have been equally hard for a master of the old school to understand what we moderns mean by the conscious control of the vocal organs4 ,it never entered into the minds of the old masters that there could be any difficulty about the management of the voice4 #8,listen and imitate' summed up for them all that need be known1 indeed all that could be known on the subject4 ,they aimed directly at tonal perfection as a matter of sound and did not think of attempting to reach it by the roundabout course of vocal mechanics4 ,the early teachers of the old school were the direct inheritors of the traditions stored up as the result of the experiences of vocal instructors through a period of many centuries4 ,during all this time the voice had been allowed to operate according to its own instincts4 ,although in the last century of this period the rapid advance of the musical arts had imposed demands of constantly increasing difficulty on the voice1 it continued to fulfill these demands in its own instinctive way4 ,the ability of the voice to produce the tones exacted of it by the ear was never doubted4 ,there was no need for a vocal teacher of the old school to formulate or justify his belief in the voice's ability to follow the guidance of the ear4 ,no one at that time had ever thought of questioning this ability4 ,yet if one of these masters had been called upon to state in doctrinal form his theory of the vocal action1 it would probably have been something like this3 ,the correct use of the voice1 that manner of vocal emission which leads through practice to technical perfection1 is naturally acquired by exercise in the actual singing of correct tones4 ,provided the student have a clear mental conception of the type of vocal tone which results from a correct manner of tone production1 the voice will gradually adapt itself to the correct form of action1 through repeated efforts at imitating the correct tone as a matter of sound4 ,in order to practise singing effectively it is necessary only that the ear shall be acquainted with the sound of a properly produced tone and that it shall demand tones of this character from the voice4 ,faults of production1 whether throaty1 nasal1 or breathy tones be the result1 will gradually disappear as the student learns to hear his own voice with greater keenness and accuracy4 ,the correct use of the voice is gradually acquired and there is no time in the course of this progress at which any change takes place in the manner of directing and guiding the voice4 ,a high standard of musical beauty and vocal excellence was always kept prominently before the minds of the pupils4 ,the students were required to know how a correctly sung passage should sound1 and all their practice was aimed at the imitation of this sound4 ,the ear was expressly recognized as the sole judge of vocal correctness4 ,when a pupil sang incorrectly the master would imitate the faulty tones1 for the pupil to hear what was wrong in the sound4 ,then the master would sing the passage correctly1 that the pupil might hear the perfect tones and adopt them as a model for imitation4 ,so far as our present knowledge of the old method goes1 it embodied no definitely stated principles for the management of the voice4 ,although the problem of tone production is1 in present estimation1 the most important topic of voice culture1 the older system seems to have ignored this problem completely4 ,it simply took for granted that the voice will operate correctly if it is guided by a keen ear and directed by a fine musical and artistic sensibility4 ,no doubt it had its failures1 but we have a record only of its successes4 ,these were so many and so brilliant that we must accord to the old ,italian method the recognition due to a complete and satisfactory system of voice culture4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,cf4 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #afg-agb4 #e ,for a fuller treatment of this phase of musical history1 the rise of #8monody1' see ,vol4 ,i1 chapters ,,ix and ,,xi4 #f ,cf4 ,vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,modern ,,scientific ,,methods ,,of ,,voice ,,culture ,the transition from the old to the modern system2 historical review of scientific investigation2 ,manuel ,garca2 progress of the scientific idea2 ,helmholtz1 ,mandl1 and ,merkel--,diversity of practices in modern methods2 the scientific system2 breathing2 laryngeal action2 registers2 resonance2 emission of tone2 the singer's sensations2 correction of faults2 articulation--,general view of modern voice culture4 ,i ,students of the history of voice culture usually consider that the invention of the laryngoscope 7#ahee7 marks the beginning of the modern scientific system of training the voice4 ,it is of course convenient to have a precise date to which any important change in human beliefs can be referred4 ,yet in this matter it is hardly possible to fix upon any one event as the only influence which brought about the change4 ,as a matter of fact1 there was a gradual and for a time almost imperceptible transition from the so-called empirical methods of the old school to the modern methods4 ,scientific investigation of the vocal mechanism began1 so far as the record shows1 with ,hippocrates1 #dfj ,b4 ,c4 ,his work on anatomy contains references to the vocal organs1 showing that he had some ideas1 rather vague it is true1 about their structure4 ,aristotle 7#chd ,b4 ,c47 recognized the larynx as the point of production of the voice4 ,galen 7#acj ,a4 ,d47 wrote a valuable treatise on the anatomy of the throat4 ,he gave the name of glottis to the space between the vocal cords1 and his work was the standard authority on the subject for more than fifteen hundred years4 ,fabricius of ,aquapendente1 #aecg1 published a work embodying the results of his own dissections of the throat4 ,he added greatly to the materials of ,galen1 although his ideas of the operations of tone production were hardly so sound as those of his classic predecessor4 ,in #agda a ,french physician1 ,ferrein1 published a little treatise entitled ,de la ,formation de la ,voix de l',homme4 ,this marks the beginning of the modern interest in the subject of the vocal action1 as it was the first work on vocal physiology to receive any attention from those interested in singing4 ,among other things ,ferrein gave the name of vocal cords to the edges of the muscles inclosing the glottis4 ,dutrochet in #ahjf compared the action of the glottis to that of the lips in playing the horn4 ,he asserted that the sonorous vibrations of vocal sounds are generated by the muscles whose edges are formed by the vocal cords1 and not by the vocal cords alone4 ,liscovius1 in #ahad1 and ,savart1 in #ahbe1 also published treatises1 but their work served rather to foster the growing interest in the subject than to add anything of value to the general fund of knowledge4 ,johannes ,mller1 in #ahcg1 showed that a compass of two octaves can be obtained by forcing air through an exsected larynx and varying the tension of the vocal cords4 ,in the early years of the nineteenth century the results of scientific investigation of the voice began to attract the attention of the most enlightened vocal teachers4 ,there was indeed no dissatisfaction with the methods of instruction then in vogue4 ,yet a general feeling can be noted by a student of the literature of the subject as setting in about that time1 a feeling that systems of voice culture might be improved by applying to them the results of the most recent scientific discoveries4 ,two important works by vocal teachers may be cited in this connection1 ,die ,kunst des ,gesanges1 by ,adolph ,bernhard ,mark 7#ahbf71 and ,die grosse italienische ,gesangschule1 by ,heinrich ,f4 ,mannstein 7#ahcd74 ,in both of these books the point of view generally held at that time is clearly indicated4 ,while the old ,italian method was held to be thoroughly satisfactory in every respect1 there is a desire to explain this method and to place it on an assured basis of demonstrated scientific principles4 ,no thought of direct vocal management as a necessity1 or even as a possibility1 can be discovered in these two works4 ,manuel ,garca 7#ahje-aijf71 the vocal teacher who contributed most to the promulgation of the scientific idea1 had at the beginning of his career exactly the same plan as ,mannstein and ,mark4 ,his father1 ,manuel del ,popolo ,viscenti1 was one of the most eminent musicians of the time4 ,famous as singer1 teacher1 impresario1 and composer1 the older ,garca was in possession of all the traditions of the ,italian school4 ,from his father ,garca received the traditional method in its entirety4 ,retiring from the operatic stage in #ahcb1 ,garca took up actively the profession of voice culture4 ,even as early as this he had definitely formulated a plan for the improvement of vocal methods4 ,yet at that time he had in mind nothing of the nature of a sweeping change4 ,in the preface to his first important work1 cole de ,garca1 #ahdg1 he stated that his intention was #8to reproduce my father's method1 attempting only to give it a more theoretical form1 and to connect results with causes4' ,with this seemingly modest program ,garca could not rest content4 ,his ambition to penetrate all the mysteries of the voice led him to master the anatomy of the throat1 as well as what was then known of acoustics4 ,he was impatient to know what actually takes place in the larynx during the production of tone4 ,after several years of experimenting he finally succeeded in viewing his own vocal cords by means of a little mirror held in the back of the throat4 ,his announcement of his invention was published in the proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london in ,may1 #ahee4 ,by this time the idea of the improvement of voice culture was very generally held4 ,garca's invention was hailed as the beginning of a new era in vocal instruction4 ,it was coming also to be generally felt that the only way in which the scientific knowledge of the voice could be utilized in instruction would be by having the student of singing cause his vocal organs to operate in the manner that science had shown to be correct4 ,while no one at that time stated this principle in definite terms1 it was generally assumed as a matter of course4 ,within the twenty years following ,garca's invention the doctrine of the scientific management of the voice had been almost universally adopted4 ,against this tacit conviction in favor of the necessity of direct vocal management the instinctive methods of the old masters could make no stand4 ,the old method gradually disappeared and the doctrine implied in the empirical system--that the voice needs no guidance other than that furnished by the ear--found no defenders4 ,since #ahge the belief in the necessity of consciously governing the vocal organs has been the dominating idea of vocal students and teachers throughout the world4 ,illustration3 ,manuel ,garca ,from a sketch from life by ,pauline ,viardot4 ,of importance only second to ,garca's study of the vocal cord action was ,helmholtz's analysis of the acoustic laws of resonance1 especially as they apply to tone and vowel formation4 ,merkel's ,der ,kehlkopf 7#ahgc7 is the standard work on the operations of the larynx4 ,dr4 ,louis ,mandl1 in ,die ,gesundheitslehre der ,stimme 7#ahgf71 first announced the principle of breath control4 ,a vast number of other investigators have contributed to the subject and it is safe to say that the vocal action has been studied from every conceivable point of view4 ,it is1 however1 not necessary here to trace the development of vocal science and to record the work of each student who has made original contributions to the common fund of knowledge4 ,,ii ,in our first chapter the generally accepted theories regarding the operations of the vocal mechanism were outlined1 and the same plan will be followed in describing the scientific methods of instruction most widely adopted4 ,modern methods of voice culture have indeed never been standardized4 ,while teachers generally have adopted very nearly the same course1 there is a wide diversity of opinion and practice to be found concerning each one of the topics of vocal science4 ,almost every one of these topics has indeed been the subject of controversy4 ,yet within recent years the leading authorities have come into fair accord in their application of the various principles4 ,we shall therefore describe the method which has in its favor a consensus of opinion on the part of the best recognized teachers1 without offering any statement as to its soundness or adequacy4 ,first it will be necessary to point out the exact position which the scientific element occupies in the modern system of voice culture4 ,vocal science has never aimed at a complete revolution of the practices of instruction in singing4 ,its purpose is rather to divide this instruction into two stages and to take as its province only the first stage4 ,starting with the well known fact that the voice has only one correct mode of operating1 it seeks to impart this correct manner of tone production to the student as a preliminary to the technical training of the voice1 strictly speaking4 ,this is the only important point in which the modern system differs from the old ,italian method4 ,the initial work of imparting the correct vocal action is commonly called the #8placing of the voice4' ,to accomplish this is the sole purpose of vocal science1 and the scientific method of instruction is designed only to apply to this initial stage4 ,when the correct management of the voice has been acquired through a course of instruction according to scientific principles1 the student is held to be ready to undertake the technical and musical education of the singer4 ,this second stage of instruction is conducted almost exactly according to the system of the old masters4 ,four elements are included in the scientific system of vocal training4 ,these follow naturally the four distinct operations of singing--breathing1 laryngeal action1 resonance1 and articulation4 ,exercises designed to impart the correct manner of breathing are usually given first as toneless gymnastic drills4 ,the student is instructed to fill the lungs in a prescribed fashion 7generally that described in ,chapter ,i71 and to make sure that the expansion of abdomen and chest takes place exactly according to rule4 ,practice in the muscular control of the expiration is combined with these preliminary breathing exercises1 so soon as they can be performed with fair facility4 ,when the muscular movements of breathing have been mastered as a toneless exercise1 the practice is extended to exercises combined with tones1 on single notes and scale passages4 ,in these attention is paid to the proper attack and emission of the tone1 as well as to the correct management of the breath4 ,a great variety of breathing exercises have been formulated1 but as their basic principle is always the same they call for no extended description4 ,any one of an athletic turn who has himself mastered the correct manner of breathing would have no difficulty in devising exercises suitable for imparting this system to others4 ,to secure the proper action of the vocal cords and laryngeal muscles the entire throat must be held in a state of supple relaxation before attacking a tone or phrase4 ,in order to start a tone correctly a full inspiration is to be taken1 then the vocal cords are to be brought to the degree of tension necessary for the desired pitch at the precise instant the expiration starts4 ,the tone must be attacked squarely on the correct pitch and no breath allowed to escape before it starts4 ,the breath pressure is to be held evenly and correctly managed throughout the entire expiration4 ,to secure this proper action of the vocal cords the so-called #8stroke of the glottis' was advocated by ,garca4 ,the glottic stroke is an explosive sound1 formed when the vocal cords are forced apart suddenly by a rather powerful breath pressure4 ,its most frequent natural occurrence is in the action of coughing1 of which it is the most striking auditory characteristic4 ,although command of the glottic stroke can be acquired without difficulty1 it is utterly out of place in finished singing4 ,what ,garca had in mind in advocating the glottic stroke is declared by many of his graduate students to have been something entirely different from a violent explosion of the tone4 ,all he sought was the starting of the tone without any previous escape of the breath4 ,the stroke of the glottis1 strictly so called1 has been almost entirely abandoned by vocal teachers4 ,later authorities modified this instruction somewhat by teaching the #8slide of the glottis1' which brings about the same action without the explosive sound of the glottic stroke4 ,of recent years1 owing to the better understanding of the principles of breath control1 it has been found that neither the stroke nor the slide of the glottis is necessary4 ,the same result can be reached by bringing the vocal cords to the desired degree of tension at the instant the expiration starts4 ,much attention has been paid to the subject of registers1 more probably than to any other feature of the vocal action4 ,for a long time it was considered that each register of the voice must be trained separately and controlled in a special way4 ,various statements have been made by laryngoscopic observers as to the number of the registers and the actions of the vocal cords in each one4 ,at present the leading authorities recognize three registers1 chest1 medium1 and head1 corresponding to the lower1 middle1 and higher parts of the range of the voice4 ,individual voices vary in their possession of registers4 ,tenors usually have only the medium and head1 the falsetto 7confined generally to this voice7 being in most cases of too effeminate a quality for use in artistic singing4 ,baritones usually have all three registers1 basses only chest and medium4 ,sopranos may possess all three1 although the chest register is seldom well developed in this voice4 ,mezzos have the chest and medium1 and in the majority of cases the head register also4 ,contraltos possess the chest and medium1 but very rarely the head register4 ,teachers have in most cases discarded the plan of giving precise limits to the registers and training them separately4 ,it is considered the best practice to bring about the correct action of the medium part of the voice1 including command of the crescendo and diminuendo on the single tone1 before beginning to develop the higher and lower portions of the range4 ,the compass is then gradually extended upward and downward1 care being taken to avoid the breaks which almost always resulted from the older system of training the registers separately4 ,assistance is found in developing the low notes by the cultivation of chest resonance4 ,high notes are helped by the use of nasal resonance and also by practice in attacking tones with the liquid or sonant consonants4 ,both these topics will be considered later4 ,three resonance cavities have to be brought under control1 each of which acts independently of the others4 ,these are the chest1 the mouth-pharynx1 and the nasal cavities4 ,as a rule the influence of chest resonance is most marked in the lower part of the voice4 ,the mouth-pharynx 7in addition to its almost exclusive province of vowel and consonant formation7 reinforces the entire range1 and the nasal cavities contribute most to the high notes4 ,it must not be understood1 however1 that in artistic singing chest resonance is to be used only on low notes and nasal resonance on high notes4 ,the special function of nasal resonance is believed to be the imparting of brilliancy1 point1 and carrying power to the tones4 ,while its effect is more marked on the high notes1 it must always be present in some degree throughout the entire compass of the voice4 ,breadth and sonority of tone are supposed to be contributed by chest resonance1 and these must also be present on all loud tones1 whether high1 medium1 or low4 ,yet as brilliancy and point are more native to the high notes1 nasal resonance is always more marked in this part of the voice4 ,in the same way the qualities of tone due to chest resonance belong more properly to the lower and middle tones4 ,on the practical side this is of great importance4 ,it is vastly more easy to secure command of each form of resonance first in that part of the voice to which it is native4 ,when this has been done it is a comparatively simple matter to extend this command higher or lower as the case may be4 ,it is the usual practice to begin instruction in the management of resonance with the mouth-pharynx cavity4 ,for this purpose exercises on the vowel ah are generally first used4 ,the position assumed by the tongue for this vowel is peculiarly favorable for securing an expansion of the lower part of the mouth-pharynx cavity4 ,an increase in the size of this cavity is sought for the purpose of bringing about a corresponding increase in the volume and power of the tone4 ,while not directly a feature of mouth-pharynx resonance strictly speaking1 the emission of the tone is usually treated under this head4 ,after being generated by the vibration of the vocal cords1 the tone is to be directed to the front of the mouth1 in such manner that it impinges on the hard palate1 just above the upper front teeth4 ,this has for its purpose the freeing of the tone from the vocal cords and the bringing of it forward in the mouth1 so as to secure the effect of #8forward tone' advocated by the old masters4 ,for acquiring the effect of forward tone1 studies are also used on tones begun with certain labial and lingual consonants4 ,exercises are given on single tones on such syllables as bah1 bee1 boo--ma1 mee1 mo--la1 lee1 lo1 etc4 ,these are practised on notes covering a range of about one octave4 ,similar exercises are used for obtaining command of nasal resonance4 ,for this purpose the consonant n is especially favored and exercises are used on syllables such as na1 nee1 no1 etc4 ,another means of acquiring command of the several forms of resonance is found in certain characteristic sensations which the singer experiences in singing tones of the various types4 ,a tone strongly marked by nasal resonance awakens a sensation of tingling in the forehead and upper nose4 ,a pronounced feeling of vibration in the upper chest1 particularly in the region of the breast bone1 accompanies the right use of chest resonance4 ,the #8forward' tone is characterized by similar sensations in the front of the mouth4 ,when practising exercises for acquiring command of resonance the student is instructed to feel the appropriate sensations1 thus bringing the tone into the proper position4 ,each form of resonance is particularly favored by certain vowels4 ,oo and oh lend themselves most readily to the acquirement of chest resonance4 ,ee facilitates in bringing in nasal resonance1 while ah is the easiest vowel for obtaining command of the open throat and the forward tone1 the most important functions of mouth-pharynx resonance4 ,two marked forms of faulty tone production often call for special means of correction4 ,these are the throaty and the unpleasantly nasal tone4 ,for the cure of throaty production relaxing exercises are generally used4 ,sighing and yawning on the vowel ah with a free expiration furnish the basis of these exercises4 ,single tones and descending scale passages are practised in this manner1 the breath being allowed to rush out freely and without control4 ,other directions are frequently given for the correction of throatiness4 ,these include instruction in the support of the tone1 the throat being relieved of pressure by a steady and controlled expiration4 ,bringing the tone forward in the mouth in the manner already described assists in this operation4 ,an excessive or a faulty use of nasal resonance is looked upon as the cause of the unpleasantly nasal tone4 ,too great a degree of relaxation of the muscles of the soft palate may bring about this condition4 ,the means most favored for the correction of this fault are1 first1 muscular exercise in raising and lowering the soft palate1 which gives a better tonicity to these muscles2 and1 second1 the imparting of the correct idea of nasal resonance in the manner already described4 ,another frequent fault of production1 the tremolo1 may result from any one of several causes4 ,a lack of breath control may cause the expiratory pressure on the vocal cords to be unregulated and intermittent4 ,faulty methods of breathing1 particularly those in which the upper chest is allowed to collapse at the start of the expiration1 may lead to a flabby or #8wobbly' condition of the muscles which hold the larynx in place4 ,a lack of support for the tone may result from the column of vocalized breath being directed backward1 instead of toward its proper point of impact on the roof of the mouth4 ,for the cure of the tremolo the teacher must analyze in each individual case and locate the seat of the trouble4 ,when this has been pointed out the fault is eradicated by applying the appropriate instruction--controlling the breath properly1 placing the tone in the correct position in the mouth1 etc4 ,a clear enunciation of the text is indispensable in artistic singing4 ,this is in one sense not a feature of tone production strictly speaking4 ,it is possible to enunciate with perfect distinctness and yet to use the voice very badly1 as is seen in the case of many vaudeville singers4 ,on the other hand1 a correct production of tone may be exhibited by a singer whose enunciation is too indistinct to be understood4 ,yet it is the duty of the vocal teacher to train his pupils in the clear delivery of words1 as well as in the other elements of the art of singing4 ,special exercises and drills in the articulation of the various consonants are not widely used4 ,experience has shown that the same end can be attained1 with vastly less of drudgery for the student1 by paying attention to clearness of pronunciation in the singing of songs and exercises with words4 ,students sometimes have difficulty with some one or two vowels or consonants4 ,in cases of this kind the master instructs the pupil in the correct position of the tongue1 lips1 etc41 for the particular sound1 and if necessary arranges special exercises for the purpose4 ,,iii ,how long a time should be allotted to a course in tone production along the lines just described it is not easy to state definitely4 ,practices in this regard vary greatly among vocal teachers4 ,one reason for this is that tone production is seldom made the exclusive topic of study for any great length of time4 ,students of singing are generally eager to sing1 and teachers are therefore obliged to intersperse their instruction in voice placing with songs and melodious vocalises4 ,another reason is found in the fact that the musical education of the student frequently devolves in great measure upon the vocal teacher4 ,a knowledge of music1 sufficient at least to enable the student to memorize songs and arias and to sing them in time and in tune1 is absolutely necessary before the advanced education in the singer's art can be undertaken4 ,when teachers are called upon to impart instruction of this kind1 part of each lesson time must of course be used for the purpose4 ,while a strict application of the principles of vocal science would demand that the complete course in tone production be covered before even the simplest songs are attempted1 this system is almost never carried out logically4 ,the first few lessons are usually devoted to breathing and attack2 from then on about half of each lesson time is spent on voice placing and half on songs4 ,in the instruction given on the songs attention is paid to the more strictly musical elements of singing--style1 delivery1 interpretation1 etc41 as well as to the formation of the tones4 ,technical exercises of progressive difficulty are taken up about as soon as the student has acquired sufficient vocal control to perform them4 ,as a rule there is no precise stage at which voice placing work strictly speaking ceases and the technical training of the voice is begun4 ,it cannot be said that any one teacher or vocal expert has founded an authoritative school of vocal science4 ,there is not even anything in the nature of a distinctively national school4 ,closely resembling methods are followed in all ,european countries1 as well as in ,america4 ,every famous modern master has imparted his principles to many students who in their turn have become teachers4 ,yet it is rather rare for any one to take up the profession of voice culture without first receiving some instruction from several recognized masters4 ,this custom has resulted in a general levelling of systems1 each teacher selecting what he considers best from all the methods which he investigates4 ,meanwhile the old ,italian method is still recognized as possessing elements of great value1 even in the department of tone production1 in which its principles are so imperfectly understood by the scientifically disposed teacher4 ,the great majority of teachers seek to apply some of the principles of the old method1 notably its oral traditions1 which were discussed a few pages back1 in conjunction with the practices of vocal science4 ,modern voice culture cannot be believed to have reached its final development4 ,even the most conscientious advocates of the scientific doctrines feel that there is a certain lack of completeness in present methods4 ,investigations are still being carried on in the various topics of vocal science4 ,it is possible that the near future will see important discoveries in the means for control of laryngeal action and resonance4 ,some authorities1 on the other hand1 look altogether in the opposite direction4 ,an abandonment of the doctrines of vocal science and a return to the instinctive methods of the old masters is favored by these teachers4 ,so far as the course of future events can be foretold1 it seems probable that a combination of the two methods1 now seemingly opposed1 will eventually be brought about4 ,the scientific investigation of the voice has brought to light so much of valuable truth that it would be ridiculous to throw its results lightly aside4 ,at the same time the success of the old method proves that it contained a satisfactory solution of all vocal problems4 ,how the two methods will be fused into one it is not now possible to say4 ,but the only marked tendency is in that direction4 ,we are justified in the hope that its accomplishment will not be long postponed4 ,d4 ,c4 ,t4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,song ,the origin of song--,the practical value of primitive song--,the cultural value of primitive song--,biography of primitive song--,the lyric impulse--,folk-song and art-song--,characteristics of the art-song2 style1 the singer and the song4 ,i #8,in this or that ,sicilian hamlet1' says the ,countess ,martinengo-,csaresco in her #8,essays in the ,study of ,folk-,songs1' #8there is a man known by the name of 8the ,poet10 or perhaps 8the ,goldfinch40 ,he is completely illiterate and belongs to the poorest class2 he is a blacksmith1 a fisherman1 or a tiller of the soil4 ,if he has the gift of improvisation1 his fellow-villagers have the satisfaction of hearing him applauded by the ,great ,public--the dwellers in all the surrounding hamlets assembled at the fair on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,or it may be he is of a meditative turn of mind1 and makes his poetry leisurely as he lies full length under the lemon-trees taking his noontide rest4 ,should you pass by1 it is unlikely he will give himself the trouble of lifting his eyes4 ,he could not say the alphabet to save his life2 but the beautiful earth and skies and sea which he has looked on every day since he was born have taught him some things not learnt in school4 ,the little poem he has made in his head is indeed a humble sort of poetry1 but it is not unworthy of the praise it gets from the neighbors who come dropping into his cottage door1 uninvited1 but sure of a friendly welcome next ,sunday after mass1 their errand being to find out if the rumor is true that 8the ,goldfinch0 has invented a fresh canzuna8 ,such is the peasant poet of to-day2 such he was five hundred or a thousand years ago4' ,here is the original singer4 ,he has existed all over the world in every age1 probably1 since civilization began to dawn4 ,we are very wrong in thinking of songs as normally written by special composers and sung by special singers in concert halls4 ,such a situation is not the usual but the unusual one4 ,for1 generally speaking1 it is not special people who are singers but ordinary people4 ,artists have been in the habit of thinking that the world is divided into ordinary men and artists4 ,william ,morris startled them by declaring that ordinary men are artists--that to be artistic is the normal condition of ordinary men4 ,it is only our materialistic civilization1 he said1 that has made men inartistic4 ,and historically1 at least1 he is quite right4 ,it is only in recent times1 and in certain nations1 that it has come to be regarded as unusual that an ordinary man should be a singer4 ,in all other ages1 we may safely say1 and in nearly all nations1 it was regarded as unusual that an ordinary man should not be a singer4 ,singing has always been as natural to man as running1 or whistling1 or making love4 ,it is only in these latter times that a man who sings for the joy of it is thought #8queer4' ,the songs that have been written down on paper are of course only the smallest fraction of those that have been invented4 ,it is a very unusual adventure for a song to get written down on paper4 ,not one out of a thousand experiences it4 ,most songs are #8made up' by some ordinary person at work or at play1 remembered and repeated1 imitated by some one else and changed a little and passed on4 ,they live from mouth to mouth and in the hearts of people4 ,every nation1 until it became too lettered and too self-conscious1 had its songs of this kind1 many of them beautiful enough to be known by thousands of people1 some the property of only a few4 ,in ,italy investigators have recently noted down thousands of songs that never touched paper before1 but they were only a tiny part of the songs that were passing from mouth to mouth4 ,so it has been in every country4 ,greenland and ,iceland have their songs which originated no one knows where or when4 ,we possess folk-songs of ,china1 ,japan1 and ,india4 ,the phonograph has noted down hundreds of songs of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,and every country in ,europe has yielded songs innumerable4 ,we should be on our guard1 then1 against assuming that what we know as #8song literature'--the songs written by composers in their study and printed on paper before being sung--is any very considerable part of the song music of the world4 ,it is merely the music chiefly at the disposal of highly educated people--principally because it is printed4 ,and from a certain standpoint--that of the school-trained musician--it is perhaps the #8greatest' vocal music4 ,but remember that the standpoint of the school-trained musician is only one standpoint4 ,the conscious composer has chosen to look at his musical materials in a certain way and to judge the result accordingly4 ,but by another test his work is inferior2 in its power to move thousands of human hearts no song by ,schubert or ,schumann or ,brahms can begin to equal #8,auld ,lang ,syne' or #8,the ,marseillaise4' ,of necessity this book will be chiefly concerned with consciously composed #8art' music4 ,but we should always remember that this is only because art music represents the great majority of all the music that has been noted down--and of course in a measure art songs at their best contain in a sublimated form the elements of folk-song4 ,the less civilized and conscious people are1 the more readily they do their own singing4 ,there is little spontaneous song among us to-day and yet we can occasionally hear a workman humming an aimless tune under his breath4 ,this was probably the normal state of things when men were less educated4 ,everybody was a composer1 partly because it was easier to make up your own song than to remember somebody else's4 ,among the ,indians songs were regarded in some tribes as the personal property of the person who invented them and were not to be sung by any one else unless that second person had acquired the rights in it by gift or inheritance4 ,but generally1 as people became somewhat more advanced1 songs were freely appropriated from one singer to another4 ,and each singer who borrowed generally added something of his own to the song--something to express his sense of beauty or artistic fitness3 a more effective phrasing here1 or a simpler group of notes there4 ,sometimes the song was so popular that it passed from tribe to tribe1 or from nation to nation4 ,in this case each people gave its individuality to the song1 adding perhaps a little ornamentation if its nature was gay and volatile1 or making the melody more regular and balanced if its soul was earnest and contemplative4 ,everywhere the races1 the nations1 and the tribes have shown their souls to us in their songs4 ,we must not suppose that these songs1 which were so highly treasured1 were elaborate4 ,sometimes they were made of no more than two or three tones of the scale4 ,in thousands of songs there are no more than five tones and certain octave reduplications 7as1 for instance1 in #8,auld ,lang ,syne'74 ,in most cases the more primitive popular songs are too simple to make any impression upon us at all4 ,but often that is our fault and not theirs4 ,our taste has been somewhat spoiled by highly seasoned food4 ,after a little sympathetic study of primitive songs we find them full of eloquence and pathos4 ,,ii ,but whether or not the early songs would please us now1 they were of incalculable importance in the lives of early peoples4 ,we are inclined to regard singing as an amusement only4 ,we forget that it once had a practical importance that is hardly to be equalled by any single institution in modern life4 ,men were shut up within valleys1 or tied by their work to the fields4 ,it was by singing and poetry that they became citizens of the world4 ,for1 before the days of newspapers and postal service1 it was the wandering bards who took the news from city to city1 from court to court1 from nation to nation4 ,they served as historians1 recording in verse the great events of their own nation and others1 and passing the record down to succeeding generations4 ,they served as public libraries1 conserving the legend and sentiment of nations for the reference of others4 ,more1 they conserved the teaching of religious seers1 the great unwritten laws of the nation1 from fathers to children4 ,in short1 all that passed between nation and nation1 and between generation and generation1 was transmitted in song4 ,we wonder1 of course1 why these things happened in song1 rather than in plain prose4 ,but the answer is simple3 verse is easier to remember than prose4 ,all the stories1 all the laws1 all the culture of the nation had to be remembered4 ,people's memories served instead of libraries4 ,and with such a mass of matter to remember1 people developed memories which are almost unbelievable to-day4 ,to retain the equivalent of hundreds of pages of prose was of course impossible4 ,but once throw the matter into verse and the remembering of it1 to a primitive man1 became comparatively simple4 ,the whole of the ,iliad and ,odyssey were transmitted in this way through at least three centuries before they were committed to writing4 ,for verse somehow remembers itself2 the sound remains even after the sense is gone4 ,prof4 ,g4 ,l4 ,kittredge1 of ,harvard1 tells of some literary investigators in the ,orient1 who came upon a blind beggar4 ,they asked him to recite poetry1 and he started on a long epic of which he knew thousands of lines4 ,it was not in the language of the time1 but an old and strange tongue4 ,they asked him what the lines meant4 ,he did not know4 ,he had heard them from his father1 and had remembered them by the sound4 ,illustration3 ,illustration from the ,roman der ,fauvel 7#aeth ,cent47 ,it was1 then1 of the highest importance that all knowledge that was to be preserved be cast in metrical form4 ,a wandering minstrel was able to tell one country about the battles of another country by making a song about them4 ,the nature of the ,gods and the religious duties of men could be preserved for succeeding centuries because ,homer made a poem out of them4 ,and so poetry was a thing of incalculable value4 ,in these practical matters1 of course1 the music was not of the same importance as the words4 ,we do not know1 in fact1 to what extent music entered into the reciting of the old poems4 ,but it has been conjectured that even the longest poems1 like the ,iliad1 were usually intoned and rose into something like a set melody in the more impassioned parts4 ,certainly the shorter poems always tended to find a tune for themselves4 ,it is even quite likely that the bards invented words and tune at the same time4 ,the long ,robin ,hood poems of ,england were usually sung and not spoken and we possess some of the curious tunes with which they were traditionally associated4 ,among the earlier minstrels much of the music was improvised in the course of the recitation1 though as the poems became old and widely spread it is likely that they were associated with precise melodies or melodic motives4 ,on the whole1 it seems that little of the metrical literature antedating the art of writing was without music of one sort or another4 ,all early references1 however1 tend to regard the tune and the words as one and the same thing4 ,it seems to some1 therefore1 since melody is not mentioned by itself1 that music was of slight importance4 ,but the truth seems rather to be that the melody was inseparable from the words and not to be thought of apart from them4 ,and the music seems to have been of the highest importance in giving dignity and seriousness to the poem4 ,what the music of the earliest poems was like we have no exact means of guessing4 ,the writing of musical notes is of comparatively late invention and there was no way to preserve the old tunes through the changing centuries4 ,when the traditional poems were committed to writing the sacred marriage of verse and music usually ended in a divorce4 ,we have1 however1 a ,finnish melody of great age1 sung to an epic fragment1 which might be taken as typical4 ,it consists of few notes 7which can safely be said of nearly all primitive tunes71 but the stanza is long and the winding melodic line is highly expressive4 ,but in general we cannot hope to know the earliest melodies of the ,european nations4 ,we can fumble our way back about a thousand years and then we are met by the blackness of mystery4 ,but we know that the songs were there and that they gave to little lives the opportunity of being big4 ,we find it hard to realize how important they were1 now that telegraph wires have connected all parts of the world1 when a message can be sent from ,san ,francisco to ,moscow and back in a day1 when all that has happened the world over 7and much besides7 is spread out before us on paper at our breakfast tables the next morning1 when all knowledge is classified and published and can be found in any good public library4 ,imagine yourself living in a village or working on a farm without these things4 ,it is a day's walk to the next village4 ,the next country lies beyond the mountains and there are no passes over1 and besides there would be no way of living if you left your work1 unless you went as a pilgrim4 ,every year a few young men wander away seeking their fortunes and never come back4 ,every year a few men come seeking their fortunes and stay4 ,one or two men have wandered the world and come back home1 telling wonderful incoherent tales of what happens beyond the mountains4 ,but this is all the news you get beyond the gossip of your town and the country around--except that once in a while comes a wandering minstrel or juggler with tricks and songs4 ,he will tell you the political fortunes of the next kingdom and whether its king is likely to go to war with your king and whether you will thus be forced to serve in the army4 ,he will tell you the gossip and scandal of the courts4 ,he will tell you the customs of other people and will give you practical hints that may save you trouble in your work4 ,and1 best of all1 he will tell you new stories to vary the monotony of the village gossip4 ,so you will spend a wonderful afternoon listening to him in the village square1 and when he is gone you will have something to think and talk about for weeks to come4 ,thus the wandering singers served as newspapers4 ,and their best songs were remembered and repeated 7and improved upon7 to serve as history from that time on4 ,but history might also be made in another way4 ,the skalds of the northern races accompanied their chiefs on their battles in order to sing of them afterwards4 ,but they were there as historians1 not merely as poets4 #8,ye shall be here that ye may see with your own eyes what is achieved this day1' ,king ,olaf is recorded to have told his skalds on the eve of the battle of ,stiklastad 7#ajcj71 #8and have no occasion1 when ye shall afterward celebrate these actions in song1 to depend on the reports of others4' ,the skalds were there1 that is1 as true witnesses of the events1 as the specialized repositories of historical information4 ,we cannot suppose that their reports were altogether truthful4 ,they were doubtless expected to #8forget' many things that might seem inglorious4 ,but their songs often passed to the people4 ,and1 if the king or chief had made a bad record with them1 be sure the songs became changed in people's mouths to show him in his true character4 ,and very often the people1 or their own singers1 made the narrative songs themselves1 dealing out praise or blame by their own justice without fear or favor4 ,in religion song was a matter of the highest importance1 as it has always been4 ,a prophet might reveal the will of the gods1 but1 unless he were a poet or had a poet to help him1 he could not make people remember it4 ,and so in all primitive races the priests were poets and musicians4 ,by the beauty and impressiveness of their songs they proved their right to interpret the divine will4 ,and only in poems could they preserve their doctrine for their successors4 ,but in time the priests generally had to give up their prestige to those who were first of all poets and singers4 ,the gods of ,greece were interpreted and made known to the people by the poets4 ,the ,teutonic and ,norse gods were made known in the epics and sagas4 ,no one else spoke to the people with the same religious conviction as the poet4 ,and so the poets have always1 until the most recent times1 partaken of a certain religious sanctity4 ,dante and ,milton served as interpreters of religion to their fellow creatures--as beings set apart #8to justify the ways of ,god to men4' ,,iii ,thus song1 then1 was the chief agent of civilization to primitive man4 ,all that is supplied in our lives by railroads1 telegraph lines1 telephones1 newspapers1 books1 and libraries was supplied to primitive peoples by song4 ,but this still represents only half the value of song4 ,if it gave to primitive men all the practical service which specialized inventions are rendering to us1 it also gave them the romance and beauty which we have largely lost from our lives4 ,every simple1 primitive person1 we have said1 sings--either his own song or his neighbor's4 ,we have in great abundance the records of what their songs were about4 ,the subjects cover nearly the whole range capable of artistic treatment1 but chiefly the great human experiences--love1 pity1 nature1 death1 the supernatural4 ,slowly1 after much imitating and experimenting1 men learned to sing their feelings4 ,this achievement was so important that there is hardly another one to be compared with it4 ,for the growth of civilization has been simply the growth in men of consciousness--consciousness of themselves and their surroundings4 ,and every new song that men were able to make for themselves marked a new step in consciousness4 ,to us it seems quite obvious that a deer1 for instance1 has four legs4 ,but the fact is obvious only as everything else is obvious when it is really looked at4 ,the great difficulty is to get people to look at things4 ,and it was probably a real 7and most important7 discovery when the primitive huntsman realized that the deer he had been hunting had four legs1 and not three or five4 ,he simply hadn't thought about the matter before4 ,he hadn't observed clearly4 ,now he had added one more fact about life to his mental treasure house4 ,he had become one more degree clearly conscious4 ,now1 art has been the chief agent of this advancing consciousness through the centuries4 ,our huntsman perhaps never thought about the number of the deer's legs until he tried to draw the deer with a bone knife on the wall of his cave4 ,but when he had to create the deer in a work of art then he had to come to clear consciousness about the matter4 ,and the same is true of every song that simple people have made4 ,it necessitated true observation4 ,it forced its author to see4 ,it may seem childishly obvious to say in a song that the bluebells are blue1 but most people pay little attention to the question4 ,it is something to have thought the fact worth mentioning4 ,but it was much more4 ,it was not only an increase in consciousness4 ,it was an increase in experience4 ,by singing over his little song about the bluebell the peasant enjoyed the bluebell a second time in his imagination4 ,it is nothing against the song that the blueness of the bluebell is obvious4 ,most of the beautiful things in life are obvious but nevertheless go unrecognized4 ,the important thing about the song is that somebody enjoyed the blueness of the bluebell so much that he had to sing about it4 ,the great use of these personal songs to people was that it helped them to feel at home in the world4 #8,the first poet of human things1' says the ,countess ,martinengo-,csaresco1 #8was perhaps one who stood in the presence of death4 ,in the twilight that went before civilization the loves of men were prosaic and intellectual unrest was remote1 but there was already ,rachel weeping for her children and would not be comforted because they are not4' ,death as a mystery was a horror too great to be borne4 ,but death made into a song could be looked at and in some degree known4 ,the awful sense of helplessness as people stood beside a fresh grave was alleviated by their singing of their grief4 ,when the mystery had become incarnated in a work of art they could face it and know who their enemy was4 ,every man who feels emotions craves expression of them4 ,the ability to express is perhaps what separates man from the animals4 ,the man who cannot achieve the expression of what he feels sinks back into a spiritual numbness in which joy and sorrow are of less importance4 ,but the man who is able to see the things that are within him and about him--to see them clearly enough to express them in songs--is able to take his place in life and go on to more consciousness and more power4 ,something like this is the service songs have performed to men's souls4 ,but1 most of all1 of course1 songs have taught men how to love4 ,as men began to realize that love must be more than a mere blind craving they had to answer the question3 #8,how much do ,i love her8 ,how do ,i love her8' ,and the question had to be answered in some kind of concrete terms4 ,one old ,french lover says in his song that if ,king ,henry gave to him the town of ,paris on condition that he give up the love of his sweetheart1 he would reply to ,henry the ,king3 #8,take back your town of ,paris2 ,i love my sweetheart more1 heigh-ho1 ,i love my sweetheart more4' ,and when we read the fine straightforward old ,french in which the song is sung we know that he meant it4 ,it is evident that the whole estate of love and marriage has risen to a vastly higher level when the lover1 instead of saying1 #8,i want my sweetheart1' can sing1 #8,i want my sweetheart more than ,i want the town of ,paris4' ,so songs gave to life definite meanings and values4 ,,iv ,in the beginning1 as we have said1 it is probable that everybody made songs for himself4 ,helen ,vacaresco noted a long song improvised by a ,roumanian peasant woman who was going mad2 the woman was suffering under a great sorrow and was trying to express it4 ,being simple and without knowledge or fear of artistic forms and laws1 she was able to express it4 ,and each day she wandered in the fields singing the song she had composed1 changing it little by little4 ,it was not made for the sake of making a song1 but for the sake of expressing her sorrow4 ,it was1 of course1 only half a song and a half a mechanical repetition of her troubles4 ,but it had its beauty of word and something like a set melody2 it was an emotion objectified1 put into a work of art where it could be looked at and known4 ,here was song at its very earliest beginning4 ,it was spontaneous1 it was personal1 it was utterly sincere4 ,and1 because it sought some objective form1 it was a primitive work of art4 ,we may imagine the earliest songs starting in just this way4 ,perhaps this ,roumanian peasant woman had her counterpart thousands of years ago4 ,her song1 or part of it1 was heard and imitated by others who felt the same sorrow4 ,it was changed in passing from mouth to mouth4 ,needless words were dropped1 weak expressions were strengthened4 ,as men became able to look more clearly at their trouble the essential things in the song were emphasized or put in a more emphatic position4 ,everything was dropped from it that did not express the very heart of the emotion4 ,the lines perhaps became more rhythmical2 the verses began to balance and contrast with each other2 the metaphors became more brilliant or more precise4 ,soon all members of the tribe knew it1 and when the young men wandered away to other lands they took the song with them4 ,at the same time a similar perfecting process was going on in the music4 ,the original melody was perhaps little more than a chant of two or three notes1 the tune rising when the emotional pitch was raised and dropping when the movement became more calm4 ,the tune was at first not thought of as a thing in itself4 ,but gradually people became conscious of the two or three notes in their relation and succession4 ,and they began to make them more varied1 to express the changes of emotion more accurately4 ,the melody became divided into stanzas and lines corresponding with the words and showed in itself where the thought came to a partial stop and where it began again4 ,then people began to notice peculiar figures which they had unconsciously put into the melody4 ,they made use of these1 balancing or contrasting them to add beauty to the tune4 ,and gradually the melody came to have beauty and meaning of its own4 ,this series of changes perhaps occupied centuries1 for the artistic power of primitive men advances very slowly4 ,the singers had not yet thought of putting this song in rhythm2 and it was yet many centuries before they would feel anything like a musical scale4 ,rhythm had probably developed among people as a thing in itself1 not directly connected with musical tones4 ,rhythmic movement is common to all men--in walking1 in running1 and in the beating of the heart4 ,dancing must have arisen spontaneously from an excess of emotion4 ,such dancing was perhaps accompanied by the clapping of hands1 the beating of sticks1 or the pounding of some primitive drum4 ,then with the invention of some primitive musical instrument the tribal musician began to play a simple dance tune in rhythm1 a tune of two notes1 at first an aimless shifting from one note to another1 and later an organized melody with tonal figures and balances and contrasts4 ,it is probable that these two elements--rhythm and melody--were developed separately and were at first regarded as separate arts4 ,at least it seems certain that singing was at first without rhythm4 ,it must have been a wonderful day when somebody thought of combining the two--of singing the old song with metre and accents4 ,but this1 too1 must have developed very slowly1 being at first no more than an accenting of each alternative note4 ,at the same time the song had probably been divided into line divisions4 ,the singer then probably developed his rhythm from both ends1 so to speak1 building a more complex series of accents from the single group of two notes1 and at the same time subdividing the line into sections4 ,after several more centuries1 perhaps1 the tribe possessed a song that was fairly metrical and regular4 ,all this time the notion of a scale--a set succession of notes from which the notes of the tune were to be chosen--was entirely lacking4 ,it came comparatively late in musical development1 though it is the first incident in musical history4 ,at first each melody was its own scale4 ,then1 as people began to observe similarities in the tone relations between several melodies1 they began to have a conception of the regular succession of tones which was common to all of them4 ,such a succession1 a mode or primitive scale1 was of but three or four notes4 ,by arranging the semi-tones several new scales could be formed4 ,and by here and there adding a note above or below the scales could be enlarged4 ,with the enlargement of the scales melodies became enlarged in range4 ,more opportunities arose for the balancing and contrasting of melodic devices4 ,the tune became more complex1 more regular1 and more beautiful4 ,it was now several centuries since the song had first come into existence4 ,since that time it had undergone perhaps a dozen transformations1 each so unlike the other that nobody would have suspected they had any relation4 ,but they were different forms of one and the same song4 ,for songs have ancestors and descendants just as men do4 ,our song may have had a numerous progeny4 ,as it passed from one province to another certain phrases of the melody lingered in people's minds and found their way into other songs4 ,perhaps a line or two of its words became common property and were used as the refrain for a new song4 ,certainly as people made other songs they perforce made them somewhat in the image of the great ancestor4 ,thus for centuries--ten1 twenty1 or thirty1 likely as not--the song was growing and changing1 or at least giving birth to children before dying by the wayside4 ,and folk-songs are still alive1 growing and changing4 ,it seems possible that the years of their natural life may be numbered1 for it is becoming harder every year for them to live in their new environment4 ,but they are still in the land of the living and may continue for centuries to come1 and if so they are bound to continue to grow and change4 ,thirty centuries of growth have not taken place that songs may stop growing right here4 ,perhaps the songs of to-day may seem as crude to people five hundred years hence as the songs of five hundred years ago seem to us now4 ,v ,we must always remember that songs of every kind are primarily composed in the spirit of this typical folk-song4 ,even the most learned composer is spiritually a descendant of the crazy ,roumanian peasant woman1 and his songs1 if they are real songs at all1 are of the same spontaneous kind as hers4 ,however much he may be occupied with conscious scholastic principles1 if his music does not somehow sing in this natural1 artless vein it is but as sounding brass and tinkling cymbal4 ,the impulse to song is the soul of all true songs the world over4 ,what this impulse is has occupied the minds of theorists for many a year4 ,their explanations are perhaps not important1 since whatever their conclusions we still posses the wonderful song literature which is at our disposal4 ,but their theories are at least interesting1 if only to prove that song1 like love1 is one of those human things that can never be utterly explained4 ,primitive people almost invariably attribute music to divine agency4 ,we know the story of ,orpheus1 who moved the beasts and even the rocks and trees to tears by his sweet singing4 ,we know also the story of the competition of ,apollo the harp player and ,marsyas the flute player4 ,the ,chinese say that they obtained their musical scale from a miraculous bird4 ,the legend is interesting as showing how people tend to invent a supernatural explanation for the artificial laws which are felt to need some sort of superstitious bolstering up4 ,for it is recorded in ,chinese history that this scale has several times been changed by edict of the emperor1 who considers an orthodox scale a very important thing to insist upon and wishes to have his word accepted as divine law4 ,the ,japanese tradition is that the sun-goddess once retired into a cave and the gods devised music to lure her forth once more4 ,the story suggests the practice of certain primitive tribes who sing and dance during a solar eclipse1 either to scare away the evil spirits or to beg the sun-god back into their midst4 ,the ,nahua ,indians of ,north ,america say that the god ,tezcatlipoca sent for music from the sun and made a bridge of whales and turtles by which to convey it to the earth4 ,the ,abyssinians have a tale to the effect that ,yared transmitted music to men1 the holy spirit having appeared to him in the form of a pigeon4 ,but in the story of the ,javans there seems to be a kernel of scientific truth4 ,they say that the earliest music was suggested to them by the wind whistling through a bamboo tube which had been left hanging on a tree4 ,the theories of the earlier musical philosophers of the nineteenth century were not so unlike these legends as they seemed at the time4 ,these men had a limited historical outlook and were inclined to discredit1 when they did not ignore1 the music preceding that of ,palestrina1 just as the historians of painting before ,ruskin's time tended to regard all ,italian painting before ,raphael as mere experimental bungling4 ,to these earlier philosophers music was a thing discovered rather than a thing evolved4 ,in their view music had always existed in a sort of secret treasure house instituted by a beneficent creator for the edification of men4 ,all melodies and harmonies were piled in there awaiting the explorations of musicians4 ,the explorations were undertaken by the #8inspired' artists1 those who had been endowed with finer ears and more daring imaginations4 ,all musical history was a story of the development of music from its imperfect state among the primitives to its perfect state with ,beethoven4 ,this description may be exaggerated1 but it is certain that the earlier theorists considered music as a self-existent thing1 with its own laws and its own principles of beauty--laws and principles which must be discovered by the elect among artists instead of being evolved by the peoples4 ,as to the impulse to song and to artistic creation in general they laid it to that mysterious thing1 #8inspiration4' ,schopenhauer's theory has a modern ring and is excellent poetry even though it can hardly rank as science4 ,he says that while the other arts--painting1 sculpture1 and architecture--represent the ,idea1 which is the reflection of the ,will1 music represents the ,will itself4 ,it is pure energy1 the nearest thing that exists among men to the essence of reality4 ,with ,darwin all this kind of speculation changed and the theories of musical origins became more a matter of biology than of music4 ,darwin traced the impulse to song to the love-making of animals and primitive man4 ,he showed how in ,nature beauty is continually being made the adjunct and servant of love--how the bird sings or the insect dances to attract its mate4 ,many theorists have sought to explain the whole of art as originating in the sexual impulse4 ,but in this theory1 as in all1 there are data on both sides of the question and the explanation is interesting rather than valuable4 ,herbert ,spencer pursues the same biological line4 ,but he traces the impulse to song from the surplus of energy in living things4 ,nature1 as we know1 is prodigal1 producing thousands of eggs or seeds where she expects only scores of insects or plants to grow4 ,and so she gives to each living thing more energy than is needed to keep it alive and healthy--or at least more energy than is needed all the time4 ,with this surplus of energy something must be done4 ,and that something among men is art4 ,when a wild rose-bush is put in rich soil it grows a double rose and a larger one4 ,and so1 when a man has a little more than enough for his material needs1 he attempts to decorate and beautify his surroundings4 ,to ,spencer the typical example of nascent art is the child who dances out of pure joy of life4 ,but others object to this1 saying that this dancing of the child 7and all similarly spontaneous art7 is lacking in the very quality which makes art--namely1 discipline and control4 ,it is selection and control1 they say1 which makes any work of art more than a mere daub of color or conglomeration of sounds4 ,certainly the biological theories have not satisfactorily explained the second great element in artistic creation--the impulse to refinement4 ,we have seen that once our typical folk-song was invented by the ,roumanian peasant woman it could not stay as it was1 but had to take new forms1 changing continually1 and1 as we see it1 usually for the better4 ,what is it that makes men dissatisfied with a crude1 formless melody and desirous of making it regular and organic8 ,perhaps it is no more than the impulse to play which children show when they arrange pebbles in new and strange shapes on the sand or savages when they daub their faces with new colors of war-paint4 ,again the surplus of energy8 ,perhaps4 ,perhaps when people have become familiar with their primitive melody they notice a peculiar turn of the phrase and take pleasure in seeing what they can do with it in the way of repeating it and inventing contrasting phrases4 ,at any rate1 there it is1 this impulse to refinement1 more mystery for the theorist and more entertainment for the music lover4 ,on the whole1 these theories probably err in trying to simplify the case too much4 ,more likely music has not one simple cause1 but many interacting causes4 ,like every individual man whose ancestors are a multitude1 song must be the result of many1 many causes4 ,,vi ,we have been speaking chiefly of the folk-song1 the fountain of all vocal music4 ,but the art-song1 that is1 the song for a solo voice with instrumental accompaniment1 which is quantitively but a small part of vocal music1 is the special study of this book4 ,for convenience we date the beginning of this art-song from ,schubert1 regarding the song writers who preceded him as mere experimenters4 ,accordingly1 at the time of the writing of this book the art-song1 one of the four or five great divisions of modern music1 is hardly a century old4 ,it is1 of course1 a somewhat arbitrary division that separates the art-song from song as a whole4 ,the arbitrary division is justified by its convenience4 ,schubert may fairly be said to have infused a new spirit into song writing and most of the songs written by established composers since his time have been written in his spirit4 ,so we find an extensive and remarkably homogeneous song literature1 the product of the last hundred years1 which in its form and intent separates itself from the folk-song4 ,the songs on the boundary line are few4 ,the songs before ,schubert which give any evidence of this recent spirit are hardly to be found at all4 ,it is as though a new god had descended from the skies and taught a new kind of art to his creatures4 ,what is this distinction we draw between the folk-song and the art-song8 ,the superficial elements of contrast are apt to be misleading1 for1 while most folk-songs are simple1 many art-songs are simple1 too2 and1 while many art-songs are irregular and peculiar1 their irregularities are rarely so great as are to be found in the earlier folk-songs4 ,the distinction must be sought in the spirit of the songs4 ,it becomes more eloquent the more we study the two sorts4 ,it forces us continually to seek further back for the true character of each1 so that at last it seems as though we needed two different souls for the singing of them4 ,the folk-song speaks for man in the mass2 the art-song speaks for man the individual4 ,for the folk-song1 let us always remember1 was composed not by an individual1 but by a mass1 each member of which may have contributed one or more of its beauties4 ,if it had sung of a joy or sorrow which belonged exclusively to its original singer1 it would have held no interest for other people and would have died with its composer4 ,those folk-songs were1 of course1 most popular which spoke for the interests and emotions of the greatest number of men4 ,we can justly say that those folk-songs are greatest which sing of the things that are common to all men in such a way that they can be understood by all men4 ,but in the composition of the art-song precisely the opposite influences are dominant4 ,the composer1 if he is to make his mark in the art world1 must not write exactly like other composers1 but must distinguish his work in some way4 ,he must call attention to himself or his work by writing in a style that is not quite like anybody else's4 ,fashionable or critical audiences will pay little attention to the man who seems merely to be repeating what a greater man has written before him2 these audiences continually crave a novelty or a sensation4 ,everything forces the conscious composer in these days to be as personal as possible4 ,his song then expresses the feelings of one individual in one particular style4 ,it has always been a nice question of taste whether one prefers to observe the type or the individual4 ,would you have your love song one that could be sung by every lover1 high or low1 or one that would ring true for you alone8 ,if you are quite honest you will probably have to admit that you will swing from one to the other from time to time4 ,at times it will seem vulgar that you should be rejoicing in precisely the same sentiments as those which are sending the ,italian bootblack into a seventh heaven2 your delicacy1 your sense of dignity will demand that your love be your own1 like no one else's on earth4 ,and1 again1 the precious selfishness of cultivating your own soul with such conscious care when it is such a tiny part of humanity--such a reaction will make you praise heaven that you and the bootblack can sing the same love song and feel the same love4 ,however you feel about it the art-song has chosen to specialize on individuals4 ,not only on individual persons1 but on particular feelings of those persons4 ,the folk-song expresses the type emotion--love1 sorrow1 or patriotism2 the art-song expresses some particular shade or nuance of these emotions4 ,the ,scotch folk-tune which we sing with ,burns's stirring words1 #8,scots ,wha ,hae1' expresses magnificently the defiance of patriotic bravery4 ,it might be the song of anybody facing odds in defense of his beliefs4 ,schubert's song1 #8,courage1' has exactly the same note of defiance1 but1 so to speak1 only a particular section of the great general emotion4 ,his defiance is that of a man broken down with sorrow and misfortune1 who in one superb moment vows to conquer by pure force of will power--a vow which we know is impossible of fulfillment4 ,the modern ,french composers are especially apt at catching a particular delicate phase of a mood or emotion and rendering it so that it would never be mistaken for another phase1 however much the two resembled each other4 ,have you never caught yourself moodily looking at the last glow from a sunset and wondered whether you have ever had a moment just like that before--a moment which the slightest change in the things about you would have spoiled utterly8 ,such a moment it is the delight of the art-song to portray2 it is almost unknown to the folk-song4 ,the folk-song1 again1 presents an emotion in its sum total2 the art-song presents it in its component parts4 ,with their capacity and zest for exactitude song composers have continually1 since ,schubert's time1 given more and more attention to accuracy of detail4 ,in one of the earliest of ,schubert's songs1 #8,gretchen at the ,spinning-wheel1' the girl is musing of her lover while she is spinning4 ,the whirr of the spinning-wheel is in the accompaniment and enframes the whole song4 ,but when the girl sighs1 #8,and1 ah1 his kiss6' ,schubert felt that she would surely not continue her mechanical spinning4 ,so he makes the whirring stop in the accompaniment and in its place comes a lovely succession of chords--one would say like a blush4 ,now a folk-song would have paid no attention to such a detail4 ,it would have caught and probably caught with wonderful accuracy the spirit of the whole song4 ,but the variation of mood in the words would not have affected the music4 ,it could not1 because the folk-song1 unpublished and disseminated among many untrained persons1 must be easy to remember4 ,it is accordingly most often cast in a regular stanza form and the same melody is repeated for each verse of the words1 though the heroine change therein from the noon of joy to the midnight of sorrow4 ,the great majority of art-songs1 therefore1 are not written in stanza form1 but follow the words with specially adapted music from beginning to end4 7,this is the so-called durchkomponiertes ,lied47 ,the form of the art-song tends to be free in the extreme1 while that of the folk-song is usually strict and regular4 ,in the art-song the tendency toward exactitude of delineation sometimes goes to extremes4 ,the music tries to be just to each phrase1 or even to each word1 and the song as a whole is lost in the details4 ,but in general the good art-song shows not only the emotion as a whole1 by means of its formal or modal unity1 but also the component parts of the emotion placed side by side4 ,we might say that the art-song follows the impressionistic method of showing the component colors on the canvas and letting the eye blend them into the resultant1 while the folk-song follows the older method of mixing the components on the palette and showing only the blended result to the eye4 ,the highest glory of the folk-song is to express what unites men4 ,the highest glory of the art-song is to express what differentiates men4 ,the folk-song includes2 the art-song selects4 ,the folk-song is general2 the art-song precise4 ,the folk-song tells of life as man found it2 the art-song tells of life as man made it4 ,nearly everything that is distinctive of the art-song involves conscious planning4 ,however spontaneous and unrestrained a ,lieder singer may appear on the concert platform1 there is behind his or her interpretation a whole conscious network of selection and rejection4 ,a good folk-song1 as everyone has noticed1 asks for no intellectual comprehension--it #8sings itself4' ,but an art-song rarely #8sings itself4' ,it must be sung4 ,and this is precisely one of the beauties of the art-song--the feeling that it has been achieved by art1 that it is the working-out of somebody's intention1 that it has been personally propelled4 ,,vii ,a good ,lieder singer is like some weaver of a delicate design in silk4 ,every crossing is planned and the worker must not let a single thread slip through his fingers4 ,every detail of a song must be understood before it can be interpreted4 ,this does not mean that the singer must have a #8reason'--a logical argument in words--for everything done4 ,usually words and arguments about a song only befuddle the artistic sense4 ,the song must be understood in musical terms--by comparing each phrase with similar phrases in the song1 by trying different tempos1 different phrasings1 different qualities of voice4 ,to understand a song in the musical sense is to know when you sing it that you could have sung it in ten or in fifty other specific ways1 but that you chose to sing it exactly in this way4 ,it requires a great deal of attention to fix in your ear accurately all the little beauties and peculiarities of the melody1 the distinctions contained in tiny variations of tempo1 and so on4 ,the facts are all obvious in the song1 but they demand attention4 ,so the process is exactly that of the primitive folk-singer who noticed1 to his delight1 that bluebells were blue and that the deer had four legs4 ,and1 like the folk-singer1 when you have consciously noted a multitude of these obvious facts you feel more at home in the world--you have completed a step in your education4 ,if the singer is obliged carefully to select and reject1 he is only doing what the composer did before him4 ,for the song writer's task is one that will test the soundness of his musicianship and his art4 ,the song is short4 ,it will probably be sung among a number of other short songs4 ,it has every chance of being forgotten4 ,the composer can waste no time4 ,with little or no preluding he must strike a melodic phrase that in smallest compass is worth hearing and worth remembering4 ,he has none of the opportunities of the symphonist or the opera writer4 ,he cannot lead up to his chief theme with a long expressive orchestral crescendo4 ,he cannot introduce it at the moment when his audience is keyed up and receptive over a tense emotional story4 ,if the melody of the song is not worth the trouble1 no amount of decoration can make it so4 ,if one phrase out of four in the song is good and the rest mediocre1 the song is as much a failure as though it had no single bar of beauty4 ,when the composer has written his song1 he has committed himself4 ,he stands exposed to the universe without protection1 without excuse4 ,he has chosen the test with which genius is tested--to be great within narrow limits4 ,if his music speaks to the heart it speaks in words of one syllable4 ,if the basic materials of a song are so simple1 it is evident that the misplacing of a single note is a very serious error4 ,the expressive phrase might have stood in a dozen slightly different forms4 ,it was a delicate judgment and selection that chose exactly this one4 ,the phrase1 if it is to express something of importance1 must suggest a great deal more than it can say4 ,this is the problem of the lyric--the personal song of the emotions--whether in words or music4 ,if a poet is to express the whole tenderness and fury of love in eight1 twelve1 or sixteen lines he must select just the right details that will suggest the whole epic of love that he did not write4 ,the structure and the language may be simple in the extreme4 #8,my luv' is like a red1 red rose1' sings ,burns in one of the most beautiful love lyrics ever written4 ,the poem is only a succession of the simplest poetic figures1 similes2 impressive effects of rhyme and metre are not to be found4 ,but every one of the similes is a masterpiece1 suggesting in striking manner the variety and extravagance of the lover's feelings4 #8,my luv' is like a melody that's sweetly play'd in tune1' continues the poet4 #8,as fair art thou1 my bonnie lass1 so deep in luv' am ,i'--and from this point the imagery sweeps up and up with increasing majesty and frenzy--#8,and ,i will luv' thee still1 my dear1 till a' the seas gang dry4 ,till a' the seas gang dry1 my dear1 and the rocks melt wi' the sun2 ,oh6 ,i will luv' thee still1 my dear1 while the sands o' life shall run4' ,we can imagine ,milton building up a long and magnificent description1 in a whole blank verse canto1 of the rocks melting in the heat of the sun4 ,but ,burns dazzles our imagination by just mentioning the gorgeous picture and then pressing on to another4 ,the themes of a good song are like this4 ,they picture the heart of an emotion that might be made the subject of an opera2 they establish instantly a mood that might dominate a movement of a symphony4 ,they picture one detail of the building and let it imply the whole vast edifice4 ,schumann1 in the middle section of his song1 ,widmung1 has such a melody1 one which leads us straight to the centre of a mood as profound as one can find in many symphonies3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,du bust die ,ruh'1 du bist der ,frieden etc4 ,one can imagine ,beethoven building a long1 superb movement out of this theme2 the 'cellos would take it over rich bass harmony1 the counterpoint would grow deeper and more complex1 a grand crescendo of many measures would lead to a climax with the brass2 the whole body of violins would take up the theme in unison2 it would be exchanged between the wood-winds and strings2 and the movement would fade away on some magical effect with the theme in the high registers of the violins4 ,the theme is abundantly worth such extended and serious treatment4 ,schumann uses it for two lines and then returns to his original motive4 ,if his purpose had been to get the greatest possible effect out of given materials1 such a procedure would have been criminal wastefulness4 ,but his purpose was to express the spirit of the words4 ,so he used the theme as the expression demanded1 not begrudging a motive which would have served him for a whole symphony movement4 ,and1 thanks to this restraint1 he made a perfect song4 ,and the restraint which the composer showed in using themes in naked simplicity must be reflected in the delivery of the song by the singer4 ,conscious restraint is foreign to the spirit of the folk-song1 excepting for the universal rule that every work of art must show some reserve power4 ,but in the art-song1 artificed as it is with conscious pains1 reserve in the singer is a virtue in itself4 ,unless one feels that every detail of the delivery is firmly under control one has an uneasy sense that the singer may fly off the handle at any moment4 ,and this feeling robs us of any sense we might have that the singer has a message to give4 ,most concert-goers know only too well how little this principle is regarded among ,lieder singers4 ,is there one singer out of ten who does not try to transcend his or her song8 ,is there one singer out of ten who would not rather have his or her hearers at the end of a piece exclaim3 #8,a great singer6' rather than #8,a great song6' ,and to force their personalities to the foreground singers will abuse their songs from beginning to end4 ,often they do it intentionally1 sincerely believing that this is the only kind of singing that is effective4 ,but in a great number of cases1 without doubt1 it is done unconsciously1 as the natural and only way of singing4 ,a special coloring on one of the singer's pet tones1 a long pause on a high note1 an exaggerated retard in a sentimental passage--these sins against taste are being constantly committed by singers whose only interest in songs is to advance their personal reputations4 ,in a way they are not to be blamed1 for competition is keen2 a hundred fail where one succeeds1 and that one succeeds usually only by forcing his personality on the public2 and the public is inclined to be blas1 to demand picturesque personalities1 and to grumble if a singer is #8ordinary4' ,singers need intelligent audiences as much as audiences need intelligent singers4 ,but1 whatever may be the lamentable state of actual conditions1 a song1 if well sung1 is sung with intelligent restraint4 ,the ideal singer will give a song as he believes it should be given1 without concession to the prejudices of the audiences1 content to let the work of art speak for itself and to allow people to forget the workman in their joy at the work4 ,and as soon as the demand for restraint is met1 the singer discovers a new and kindred demand in the song1 one which is quite as inherent in the art-type4 ,this is the demand for style4 ,style1 as an artist uses it1 is a ticklish thing1 one which cannot quite be put into words4 ,but every working artist feels it as a value4 ,for1 if the singer is to pick and choose 7as the composer picked and chose previously7 in the singing of a song1 he must do so according to some principle4 ,this principle1 if it be genuine and not arbitrary1 will be the style of the song4 ,it will make the hearer feel that the interpretative details were not only chosen carefully1 but were chosen well4 ,it is that subtle thing that seems to make the song #8hang together4' ,style1 in short1 is one more of the typical characteristics of the good art-song4 ,the style of a song is unique4 ,no two songs1 thoroughly well sung1 have exactly the same style4 ,the style is developed out of the music itself2 it is implied in the notes as they rest on the printed page2 it has awaited the discerning eye of the interpretive artist4 ,and so when a song has been thoroughly understood and #8lived in' by the singer1 it will always have a personality or style of its own which will hover above the song and embrace every note4 ,an art-song which on hearing does not reveal a unique style is either a bad song or a good song badly sung4 ,illustration3 ,great ,singers of the ,past4 ,top3 ,luigi ,lablache and ,giovanni ,battista ,rubini ,bottom3 ,maria ,malibran and ,angelica ,catelani ,this type of art1 the most delicate1 the most personal1 the most self-contained1 is laid in bewildering abundance at our feet4 ,and some fairly general acquaintance with modern song literature is a necessity for the singer or the concert-goer4 ,a singer can no more understand the songs she sings without at the same time being familiar with others than a student can understand the history of his own country without knowing that of foreign lands4 ,for such a singer to appear in public as an interpreter is simply an insolence4 ,if he #8specializes' in modern ,french songs1 the more necessity for him to know old ,german4 ,you can never appreciate any quality without knowing something of its opposite4 ,and the same rule applies to audiences4 ,the first song one hears in life probably goes unnoticed4 ,the second gives the attention something on which to base a comparison4 ,and every new acquisition thereafter increases the opportunity for comparison--increases the hearer's pleasure4 ,how much more you have learned about ,debussy when you have heard a cycle of ,moussorgsky6 ,and if a comparison is necessary between art-songs of one and another lineage1 how much more necessary it is of art-songs and folk-songs4 ,it is important for singer and audience to know various types of art-songs4 ,it is much more important to know art-songs and folk-songs4 ,when he does1 all that is peculiar to the art-song becomes set off in relief1 and all that is common property becomes enhanced in value4 ,a knowledge of folk-songs is a knowledge of humanity in its simplest terms4 ,with it one can #8walk with kings nor lose the common touch4' ,,chapter ,v ,,folk-,,songs ,the nature and value of folk-songs--,folk-songs of the ,british ,isles--,folk-song in the ,latin lands--,german and ,scandinavian folk-song--,hungarian folk-song--,folk-songs of the ,slavic countries2 folk-song in ,america4 ,i ,the brothers ,grimm1 profound students of popular lore1 used to say that they had never found a single lie in folk-poetry4 ,this sounds strange as we think of the giants and fairies who appear in it1 along with historical events given a completely new twist for the sake of artistic attractiveness4 ,obviously the meaning of the brothers ,grimm was somewhat profound4 ,and so1 too1 is the truth in folk-poetry4 ,for the imagination of folk-poetry is not the promulgation of lies1 but the interpretation of facts4 ,the folk-poets meant something as they sang their songs1 though they may not have been entirely conscious about it4 ,why1 for instance1 is there never a good stepmother in folk-song8 ,there have been good stepmothers1 undoubtedly1 but the folk-poets knew that it is not in the nature of things that stepmothers will be as good to children as natural mothers4 ,or why does ,jack the ,giant ,killer not make a pact with the giant when he holds the tyrant finally at his mercy1 and live in luxury on a part of the spoils ever afterward8 ,it would be a realistic ending4 ,it would be true to modern politics and correct according to the latest canons of art4 ,but ,jack is a popular hero1 and a popular hero does not betray the people he fights for4 ,if you want to know some fact in the history of a people don't go to the official records2 they may be tainted by the vanity of the king or by the personal bias of the recorder4 ,but go to the people's folk-lore4 ,if the fact is there1 it is a truth as solid as the mountains4 ,the song may tell you that their good king had thirty-seven horses shot under him in one day1 that he fought and killed1 single-handed1 ten men at arms who surrounded him4 ,it may tell you this1 and you will perhaps suspect that the arithmetic is faulty1 but you will know that the essential statement--that of the heroism and the popularity of the king--is true4 ,the king's minstrel might have made a song making a coward and tyrant a hero and a popular leader2 but he could not have made people sing it4 #8,the ballad-maker only wields his power for as long as he is the true interpreter of the popular will4 ,laws may be imposed on the unwilling1 but not songs4'#g ,written histories may tell you that under such and such a king the people were happy--that the revolution which came afterward was a factitious or fomented one4 ,go to your folk-song4 ,bujor the ,red-,headed1 a ,moldavian brigand and a popular hero1 was #8pitiless toward officers of government and toward nobles2 he was1 on the contrary1 most gracious toward peasants and the unfortunate4' ,this is historical evidence more reliable than sealed parchment4 ,the government of that land was not good1 the nobles were not beneficent4 ,no written history of a people can be considered reliable as long as it conflicts with that people's folk-lore4 ,truthfulness to facts--this is what the brothers ,grimm claimed for folk-lore4 ,goethe ascribes to it truthfulness to art4 #8,the unsophisticated man1' he writes1 #8is more the master of direct1 effective expression in few words than he who has received a regular literary education4' ,the observation has been made hundreds of times by competent judges4 ,the simple mind has a wonderful power of seeing the essential in a thing and expressing it briefly and exactly4 ,to have command over expression in the simplest terms--is this not the beginning of art8 ,this power which is revealed by folk-poetry is also revealed by folk-music4 ,the people's melodies have the same #8direct1 effective expression' in a few notes that ,goethe noticed in their poetry4 ,as truly as the greatest composers1 folk-songs can say universal things in a few notes4 ,beethoven may have equalled1 but he never surpassed1 the #8direct1 effective expression' of #8,auld ,lang ,syne4' ,the majesty of this song can hardly be equalled in the whole of musical literature4 ,many people have noticed the peculiar effect of the refrain which makes it seem as though a mighty and harmonious orchestra of trumpets and trombones were joining in the chorus4 ,and this with a melody denuded of every merely decorative tone1 written in a scale of just five notes6 ,everywhere in folk-music we find this power of expressing the highest things in the fewest notes4 ,only the very greatest of conscious composers have been able to compete with the folk-song on its own terms1 within its rigid limitations4 ,art-songs have elaborated and refined4 ,but it seems as though the essence is always in the folk-tunes4 ,like the popular stories that furnished plots to the old dramatists1 these melodies have supplied the simple musical resources which conscious composers have developed4 ,every sort of emotion is expressed in the folk-songs1 every degree of passion1 every quality of mood--provided only it is human1 common to all men4 ,do not think that folk-songs are an affair of the past1 a subject for the archeologist4 ,one is inclined to think that it is so among ,anglo-,saxon people1 especially in ,america4 ,but folk-songs are not only sung this moment in many a land1 but are yet living and growing in more than one country4 ,the quantity of very recent ,italian folk-songs is enormous4 ,every year1 at the fair of ,piedegrotta1 near ,naples1 the popular singers of the city stand on a cart and sing the songs they have composed in the past months4 ,for hours these concerts continue1 the crowd moving from one singer to another4 ,the songs are caught up and sung by the listeners4 ,at the end of the festival no vote is taken1 but everyone knows which song has been the winner in the competition4 ,it is being sung from one end of the city to the other4 ,and the successful songs of the year's festival pass into folk-music of the people4 ,it is true of these songs 7as was not true of earlier folk-music7 that the composers are known and remembered4 ,indeed1 the songs are promptly printed and circulated4 ,but the composers are nevertheless true sons of the people4 ,they have little knowledge of letters and musical laws2 they compose from the heart and from the instinct for fitness4 ,the music of such composers can justly be classed as folk-music1 since it is utterly in the popular spirit and receives the vis of the masses4 ,it is more unfortunate that in ,naples a phonograph firm has undertaken to make commercial capital out of the ,fair of ,piedegrotta1 and every year takes records of the successful songs1 which it circulates all over ,europe4 ,under such conditions the composers must necessarily soon lose the celebrated #8folk simplicity1' if they have not lost it already4 ,it is fair to say that in ,italy folk-music is still very much alive4 ,all that is new in life is celebrated by these folk-poets4 ,the famous #8,funicula1' a modern ,italian folk-song par excellence1 was made to celebrate the funicular or inclined railroad in the days when this was a novelty4 ,there is a well-known ,neapolitan song in honor of the telephone1 and current events1 such as the ,turkish war1 receive generous attention4 ,in many other countries the growth of folk-song has all but ceased1 though the songs of former times are sung with almost as much zest as ever4 ,but these songs 7including most of those familiar to us7 are usually not of great age4 ,at least they have generally been remade in more up-to-date form and do not plainly show evidences of their age4 ,generally speaking1 we may be sure that any folk-song in the common major scale is to be dated within the last two hundred years4 ,it may have been founded on an older song1 but its modern changes have been such as to give it a totally new flavor4 ,this is not to say that all old songs which remain living in the hearts of the people become changed according to musical fashions4 ,those which have a strong enough traditional hold may keep their ancient form after ,debussy has been forgotten4 ,thus many an ,english folk-song1 startling and inspiriting in its originality1 is in a modal scale--with a minor that is not commonly in use to-day1 or else a shifting between one tonic and another which carries us clearly back into the days when tonality was not yet felt in scales4 ,yet these songs were not committed to paper in ,henry ,,viii's or ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 when they attained their present form4 ,they have mostly been discovered by earnest searching only within the last ten years4 ,they lived1 in unsophisticated1 out-of-the-way places1 in their ancient form4 ,in general1 of course1 the question of the age or authenticity of a folk-song is one for the musical archeologist1 rather than for the mere lover of music4 ,the folk-songs that are in the hands of the general public are in all stages of authenticity and purity4 ,there was a time when no publisher who knew his business would think of publishing a folk-song in its true form4 ,it was barbarous1 not fit for the graces of the drawing-room4 ,so some composer of the fashion 7or1 failing such1 some hack7 was hired to #8arrange' them and to supply an accompaniment in approved style4 ,and1 naturally1 under such a rgime it was not the most characteristic of a country's folk-songs that were chosen1 but those most similar to polite music--that is1 the least characteristic4 ,often the songs had been transcribed by little-trained listeners or else not transcribed at all1 but only imperfectly remembered4 ,there was little of the national essence left in such music4 ,and the composers of the day discovered the fact and turned it to their account4 ,why go to ,sicily to pick up folk-songs when ,sicilian folk-songs can be written without stirring out of your study in ,london8 ,and this is precisely what ,sir ,henry ,bishop1 for instance1 did4 ,and it is to such a hoax that we owe the tune of #8,home1 ,sweet ,home1' which was at first published in a book of alleged ,sicilian songs #8edited' by ,bishop1 few1 if any1 of which were genuine4 ,these days1 however1 are past4 ,the modern attitude toward folk-songs is one of respect1 almost of reverence4 ,the greatest of pains have been taken to preserve the songs as they were actually sung1 #8mistakes' and all4 ,no tune of two notes is too slight to be worth the trouble of accurate transcription4 ,especially since the invention of the phonograph the scientific study of folk-songs has prospered4 ,thousands upon thousands of songs have been taken down by the phonograph among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 the negroes of ,africa1 and the ,russians of the ,caucasus4 ,the results1 it is true1 are likely to be regarded as scientific--ethnological or psychological--data rather than as artistic entities4 ,but the tunes are accessible to musicians and often appear in the art music of the time--as we well know from ,russian symphonies or even from ,charles ,wakefield ,cadman's interesting arrangements of ,indian lyrics4 ,and the value of the accurate transcriptions as data for scientific sthetic theory cannot be overestimated4 ,however1 most of the folk-songs available to the music lover have not the stigma of #8science' attached to them4 ,nearly all that have been published in the last ten years show some care of editing1 some concern that the tunes1 if they be not exactly as they were in their habitat1 shall be true to the spirit of the original4 ,some editions give the original unaccompanied form of the tunes1 perhaps with interesting variants4 ,few1 in fact1 try to pull the wool over the reader's eyes4 ,scientific or not1 modern editions of folk-songs show a candor which the subject has long needed4 ,many folk-songs1 like the modern ,german1 approximate #8art' music in their musical basis and can be understood as they stand4 ,that is1 they have the prevailing scales and are sung with accompaniments in the accented harmony4 ,but most folk-songs are not sung with accompaniment4 ,and when the editors begin to supply accompaniments trouble ensues4 ,for the songs have their own style and will not coalesce with a type of accompaniment made for another style4 ,and editors1 trained in the schools1 cannot produce a new musical style at a moment's notice4 ,so the original melodies may be changed and adapted more nearly to a diatonic scale which will fit a ready-made accompaniment4 ,or the accompaniment may do its best to suit the modal or unusual style of the melodies4 ,or both sides may be forced to make concessions4 ,it would be most satisfactory1 if our ears could get used to it1 to sing these more unusual folk-songs without accompaniment and not try the barbarous experiment of making the right foot fit the left shoe4 ,but even when they are altered1 these melodies retain much of their beauty1 and one would much rather have them #8edited' than not have them at all4 ,we must also mention that great class of songs which are not strictly folk-songs at all1 but deserve to rank as folk-songs by every title except the technical one4 ,they are those songs written by conscious composers1 published and sold1 but intended for wide circulation and great popularity--those1 in short1 which by their simplicity and genuineness evoke a human response similar to that evoked by true folk-songs4 ,such are the immortal songs of ,stephen ,foster in ,america--#8,my ,old ,kentucky ,home1' #8,old ,black ,joe1' and the rest4 ,such is #8,annie ,laurie1' one of the most beautiful of melodies4 ,and such are the ,german songs of ,silcher--,die ,lorelei1 ,scheiden1 and many others4 ,nearly all these composers have been without aptitude in the larger musical forms--often persons of little education and culture4 ,very few great composers have succeeded in thus writing folk-songs4 ,weber1 of all of them1 is the nearest to the folk-spirit1 and the slow movement of ,agathe's aria1 ,leise1 leise1 from ,der ,freischtz1 is now a permanent folk-song with the best of them4 ,schubert's ,lindenbaum and ,heidenrslein have the same quality4 ,mendelssohn is a folk-composer by virtue of his song ,es ist bestimmt in ,gottes ,rath4 ,but in general it has seemed next to impossible for a conscious and highly trained composer to catch the spirit of the folk in simplest terms4 ,the most available folk-music for the average student is that which is freely arranged and edited by a man whose name is a guarantee of honest and musicianly work--such a man as ,weckerlin1 collector and editor of ,french songs from the earliest to the most recent2 or ,cecil ,sharp1 collector of forgotten songs in ,somersetshire1 ,england4 ,such an editor may keep the songs intact or may vary them1 may adopt some one else's accompaniment or write one of his own1 but he will always do it intelligently1 altering only what it is reasonably necessary to alter1 and keeping always true to the spirit1 if not to the letter1 of the original4 ,it should be borne in mind that the songs to be described in the following pages are1 many of them1 sung quite spontaneously and naturally to-day by the peasants and unsophisticated people of the various countries4 ,the writer1 while crossing the ocean1 once listened for hours to the ,dutch steerage passengers amusing themselves with songs and dances4 ,and he recognized among the songs the famous #8,william of ,nassau1' probably centuries old4 ,thus simple people in ,european countries are constantly singing enduring masterpieces of music along with much1 of course1 that is ephemeral4 ,in the very brief survey which we shall make of folk-songs as the student finds them to his hand to-day we shall be able to do no more than suggest the national characteristics of each group4 ,anything like a list of the fine songs of each nation1 or an adequate appreciation of its popular music1 would be impossible in less than a volume4 ,likewise1 all the interesting questions of racial characteristics as affecting art1 of technical development and international interchange1 of sthetic theory and melodic analysis1 must be left quite to one side until there shall be written the adequate book on folk-music which as yet does not exist in the ,english language4 ,the present chapter attempts only to suggest the contrasting characteristics of the different folk-song traditions and the amazing extent of the treasure which has until so recently remained for the most part unknown1 or known only to be snubbed4 ,,ii ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 now grouped together as the tiniest part only1 geographically speaking1 of the ,british ,empire1 were in early times as distinct and as antagonistic1 nationally1 as ,germany and ,france are to-day4 ,the lack of means of communication and social organization made it possible for very different social and artistic traditions to flourish independently within a few miles of each other4 ,thus there grew up in these countries highly distinct musical traditions which have preserved their individuality even through these days of printing presses and phonographs4 ,each of these musical traditions--the ,english1 the ,scotch1 and the ,irish--had its roots in the earliest times of which we have any record4 ,and it is evident that the musical life of these countries was vigorous in the extreme4 ,the beauty and individuality of the ,scotch and ,irish songs are familiar1 but it has been accepted as axiomatic until recently that ,england was an unmusical nation--that she had neither the geniuses to create nor the people to appreciate the finest and sincerest musical beauty4 ,especially it was supposed that she had no truly creative folk-song4 ,certainly it is true that ,england for centuries stifled her folk-song1 keeping it among the peasant classes1 dumb and suppressed1 where ,germany coaxed hers upward to illumine and inspire the whole nation to great deeds4 ,recent investigators1 notably ,mr4 ,cecil ,sharp1 have unearthed in ,somersetshire and elsewhere a great wealth of popular songs1 most of them never before set on paper1 but many of them showing great antiquity and distinctive beauty4 ,this folk-art existed for centuries among the almost unlettered classes without the nation as a whole being aware of the fact4 ,now that the songs have been noted down and published it can never again be said that ,england1 in the roots of her1 is unmusical or uncreative in popular song4 ,these songs1 which are all the more charming for never having felt the influence of learned music1 are almost as peculiar and inimitable as those of ,scotland or ,russia4 ,those of ancient origin--roughly speaking1 from ,elizabeth's time or previous--are modal in style4 ,but the modes are not the usual ones of the melodic minor or its most familiar variation1 the ,doric4 ,they are the queerest things imaginable to modern ears1 strange scales with raised sixths and lowered sevenths1 melting from minor into major and back again4 ,the feeling for the tonic is often very vague1 the chief note of the scale being sometimes the second or the fourth or the fifth4 ,these unquestionable evidences of antiquity lend a strange charm to the melodies4 ,and the charm is one that is distinct from that of every other national folk-music4 ,the earliest of the ,english songs1 barring a few questionable specimens1 probably date from the time of ,henry ,,viii 7#adia-aedg71 who was himself an accomplished musician and composer of several excellent songs4 ,among these are the ,boar's ,head ,carol1 antedating #aeba1 still sung at ,christmas gatherings2 and the traditional tune for ,shakespeare's lyric1 #8,oh1 ,mistress ,mine4' ,some of the simple airs to which the old ,robin ,hood ballads were sung also date from this period4 ,the traditional air for the ,chevy ,chase ballads dates from the time of ,charles ,i4 ,but from this time on what passed in ,england for folk-songs were usually nothing but popular songs of the moment1 published like any others and sung widely among the middle classes4 ,these songs will be treated in another chapter4 ,for our purpose here we must now skip more than three centuries and come down to the time when the interest in folk-song and folk-dancing began to revive in ,england4 ,for the recent crop of folk-songs we are indebted to the labors of investigators like ,mr4 ,sharp1 patient1 painstaking1 sympathetic1 and admirably equipped in point of musical technique4 ,these men combine the qualities of the artist and the scientist4 ,they have passed quite beyond the attitude of the eighteenth century collectors of folk-poetry--such distinguished men as ,bishop ,percy and ,sir ,walter ,scott--who did their work out of personal enthusiasm but felt obliged to apologize for the poems they found4 7,herder1 who worked in ,germany about the same time1 was the one man who took the modern attitude1 which is equally scholarly1 scientific1 and artistic47 ,the modern investigators feel their obligations to preserve the songs exactly as they come from the lips of the people4 ,when they publish collections of these songs for popular use they supply accompaniments which are sometimes sophisticated and1 in ,mr4 ,sharp's case1 scholarly and delightful4 ,but they seek always to preserve the letter and the spirit of the melodies in their arrangements4 ,such singers as the ,misses ,fuller1 and ,yvette ,gilbert and her pupil ,miss ,loraine ,wyman have spread the knowledge of the folk-songs of ,england and ,france and have demonstrated the great beauty of them to thousands who had never suspected it4 ,the ,english songs1 fine as they are from a technical standpoint1 have no very great emotional range4 ,a few1 like the famous #8,willow' song1 strike a deep note of sorrow1 but by far the greater portion are lively songs of the open-air or of festal gatherings4 ,they reveal a vigorous sense of touch1 a whole-hearted joy in the primitive feelings of the human body1 in the invigorating ,english out-of-doors4 ,they are clear-cut and literal--recalling the type of life and feeling which we associate with #8the roast beef of old ,england4' ,their navet is that of an exuberant joy in the commonplace joys of life4 ,we may mention such songs as #8,the ,wraggle ,taggle ,gipsies1 ,o6' and #8,the ,holly and the ,ivy' for their inspiriting physical vigor4 ,such songs as #8,god ,rest ,ye ,merry ,gentlemen' 7old tune71 the ,wassail song from ,sussex1 or the ,sheep-shearing ,song from ,somerset1 are worthy of much study as fine examples of the old ,english use of modal scales4 ,the ,scotch songs1 of all true folk-songs the world over1 have for many decades been the most familiar4 ,no nation1 except perhaps ,russia1 has been more vigorously creative in its folk-music than ,scotland4 ,many excellent judges regard the ,scotch folk-music as the finest in the world4 ,it is probably quite as ancient as any4 ,it entered into the lives of the ,scotch people from the earliest times1 when the ,highland bards sang their praises to little tribal chieftains or narrated in rude verse the battles between one clan and another4 ,there is a very old harper's tune in existence1 probably much modified in the course of the centuries but still eloquent of antiquity1 which suggests the majesty of the days gone by4 7,it may be found under its modern title1 #8,harp of the ,highlands4'7 ,a large proportion of these tunes have lost their original words and taken on new ones4 ,robert ,burns stimulated the process by writing words of his own 7among them some of the greatest of his poems7 for well-known melodies4 ,the loss of the old texts1 which were often crude or indecent1 is1 on the whole1 of little moment from the artistic standpoint1 especially since ,burns1 one of the finest folk-spirits of all ages1 wrote words which fit the mouths of the people like their own4 ,perhaps1 too1 his words1 as in the case of #8,scots ,wha ,hae1' helped to keep the old tunes alive and popular4 ,burns is one of the rare instances of a conscious artist who has been able to meddle with folk-art without making himself ridiculous4 ,a large number of the ,scotch songs are written in the pentatonic or five-note scale--our ordinary major with the fourth and seventh omitted4 ,whether this was due to some early form of the ,scotch bagpipe or to the genius of the people is still an open question4#h ,but it is certain that the ,scotch have given an individual flavor to their songs by means of this scale without betraying the least embarrassment over the absence of the two notes4 ,who imagines1 for instance1 until it is pointed out1 that the magnificent #8,auld ,lang ,syne' is wholly in the pentatonic8 ,the pentatonic feeling runs through nearly all the ,scotch songs and in a large proportion of them exists almost in full purity4 ,the occasional use of the fourth and seventh in the tunes of #8,scots ,wha ,hae' or #8,the ,campbells ,are ,coming' is unessential and probably a recent modification4 ,the range of feeling in the ,scotch songs is almost equal to that of music itself4 #8,scots ,wha ,hae' ranks with the three or four finest patriotic songs the world over4 ,no grander hymn than #8,auld ,lang ,syne' has ever been sung2 even ,adeste ,fideles1 that treasure of the modern hymnal1 seems to take on a certain triviality beside its irresistible rhythm4 ,and what dance tune can be found that contains such an inexhaustible supply of life as #8,the ,campbells ,are ,coming' or #8,a ,highland ,lad ,my ,love ,was ,born8' ,where can one match the pensive sadness of #8,loch ,lomond' or the sentimental tenderness of #8,will ,ye ,gang ,over the ,lee8' ,some of the ,jacobite songs--#8,charlie ,is ,my ,darling' or #8,the ,piper of ,dundee'--are inimitable for high spirits4 ,one who turns over the pages of a book of ,scotch folk-songs will find melodies of deep emotion unsurpassed in all song literature4 ,scotch song has also been materially enriched by conscious composers1 though never1 perhaps1 by eminent ones4 ,we need only mention the impressive #8,caller ,herrin'1' or #8,annie ,laurie1' one of the greatest folk-songs of all times4 ,a thorough knowledge of ,scotch folk-songs will acquaint the singer with almost every fundamental type of lyric utterance4 ,the ,irish folk-song1 likewise1 is very fine1 but it has1 on the whole1 neither the flexible range nor the supreme sense of artistic fitness possessed by the ,scotch4 ,the dominant moods are two3 one the lively dance spirit1 represented by the ,irish jigs and reels2 and the other the richly sentimental and even tragic tone of the love songs4 ,as it happens1 ,irish folk-song has undergone the same process as the ,scotch in having a native poet supply in great abundance new words to the old tunes4 ,the #8,irish ,melodies' of ,sir ,thomas ,moore are pretentious poems designed to supplant the homely words of the folk-poets4 ,but if ,burns escaped being ridiculous in his attempt to supply his native country with a new folk-art1 ,moore emphatically did not4 ,nothing could be more incongruous than his pompous poems with their dreary romantic paraphernalia of harps and fair ladies4 ,as poems his lyrics have only the virtues of the drawing-room1 a mellifluous flow of words and a certain sensuous grace4 ,as folk-art they are a painful absurdity4 ,they evoke abstractions and conventional poetic phrases where the popular genius goes unerringly to concrete fact4 ,they have the dreary sameness of the second-rate talent where the folk-poetry has all the variety of the commonplace things of this world and of the ordinary people in it4 ,yet ,moore's words are in many instances firmly wedded to the music in the popular mind1 and it is not likely that a divorce will ever be achieved4 ,this is doubtless because1 false as the poet was to the spirit of the music1 he caught and persuasively stated the romantic sentimentality of the ,celtic nature4 ,some of the older ,irish songs have an archaic flavor not less marked than the ,english4 ,the ,doric mode especially is used sometimes with savage vigor4 ,indeed1 the ,irish as the race of warriors are represented almost exclusively in the older songs--songs like #8,remember the ,glories of ,brian the ,brave' or #8,the ,sword ,shining ,brightly' 7,moore's words71 which in their crude martial frenzy can hardly be matched the world over4 ,the innumerable jigs and reels1 some of which are of the finest quality1 are often close to the ,scotch in physical energy1 but in nearly every case they preserve a certain note of sadness4 ,perhaps the best of all the ,irish songs are the sentimental ones4 ,the fine tunes to which ,moore set his words #8,the ,harp that ,once ,through ,tara's ,halls' and #8,when in ,death' strike a wonderfully deep chord of emotion4 ,it is hard to realize the great number of sentimental ,irish tunes which are of the highest beauty4 ,they suffer1 however1 too often from excess4 ,the long drawn cadences are hard to render honestly2 in their excess of feeling they are apt to sound insincere4 ,they lack the clear-cut statement which makes the ,scotch songs so unfailingly true to the highest demands of art4 ,yet the folk-song of ,ireland is a product of which any nation might be proud4 ,and1 on the whole1 the folk-music of the ,british ,isles is their worthiest contribution to musical literature4 ,in former ages these islands were not inferior to any country in ,europe in musical vigor4 ,as the centuries have passed and left ,england far behind in musical creation these songs have remained as a proof of the sound healthfulness and the exuberant creativeness of her popular genius4 ,,iii ,the ,french folk-song more than any other has contained from early times the spirit of its conscious art4 ,or perhaps ,france's conscious art has1 more than in most countries1 been true to the genius of its people as revealed in its folk-art4 ,its melodies are rarely rich and luscious--rarely even emotional in the more strenuous sense of the term4 ,often they seem1 at first hearing1 to be cold and thin4 ,but such a view is1 of course1 false4 ,the ,french melodies have both emotion and sensuous beauty4 ,but it is in the famous ,french #8taste' not to shout one's message to the heavens4 ,you do not appreciate the meaning of these melodies until you have come to know and love them1 just as you do not appreciate the meaning of a child until you have come to know and love him4 ,you must be on the alert1 sensitive to catch the meaning of a whisper or a gesture4 ,and1 in addition to the meaning1 you must learn to love the formal beauty of a ,french melody4 ,no nation has carried perfection of form1 even in the smallest things1 to such a pitch as the ,french4 ,the opening phrase of a ,french folk-tune may seem almost meaningless and pointless4 ,but somewhere in it there is a suggestion of something distinctive in it4 ,watch for this1 then follow it out in the other phrases--a gentle contrast1 a delicate indiscretion1 a comforting restatement4 ,in some moods we shall find this whispered statement more stimulating1 more thrilling than any burst of ,italian passion4 ,as early as the fifteenth century we have ,french songs which show these qualities of restraint and delicate design4 ,of such we may instance ,sy je perdoys mon amy and ,vray ,dieu d'amours4 ,as we come to later centuries we find a host of songs 7collected in great numbers by ,weckerlin7 which are scarcely to be distinguished from the simple songs of the great ,french composers4 ,the delightful chanson1 ,o1 ma tendre ,musette1 is accredited to ,monsigny1 but it is an open question whether the melody was not taken by him bodily from a folk-tune4 ,many are the villanelles and musettes which are of folk origin4 ,in no other country are the folk-music and the art-music less distinct4 ,a few ,french songs1 like ,le pauvre laboureur1 show the freedom and irregularity of phrase which betoken a development independent of art-music4 ,this particular song is almost unrhythmical1 probably a development from one or two stereotyped phrases1 like the street-cries of ,paris and of some of the ,italian cities4 ,but irregular songs are unusual4 ,the ,french popular genius seems to have the same sense for design that has made the great men of ,france distinguished1 and this sense is shown almost universally in its songs4 7,see ,appendix for ,french-,canadian ,folk-song47 ,there could hardly be a more violent contrast than between the folk-music of the two ,latin countries1 ,france and ,italy4 ,the ,italians are famous for their violent emotions1 and these are revealed in their folk-songs1 puffing like a steam engine4 ,the utmost of passionate expression1 by any means at hand--this seems to be the ideal of a goodly portion of the songs4 ,where the ,french songs are reserved the ,italian are frenzied2 where the ,french are delicate the ,italian are like a sledge-hammer2 where the ,french use a needle the ,italian use an ax4 ,this statement must be made with some exceptions1 notably the songs of ,venice and certain other northern localities4 ,the ,venetian songs are reserved and chiselled4 ,many of them might have been written by ,mozart4 ,they never go to excess of emotion4 ,they are often as formally perfect as the ,french4 ,the song known as #8,the ,fisher' 7which has practically become a folk-song in ,germany7 may be taken as a fair example of this graceful and discreet type of lyric4 ,as we go farther south the heat and sensuousness of the land show more and more in the music3 ,naples has a type of folk-song all her own4 ,it sometimes shows the grace of the ,venetian song1 but never its reserve4 ,the lighter songs all have an ardor of their own1 for the ,southern ,italian is never abstract4 ,but their lightness carries with it a certain fickleness1 as though the lover expected to serenade at least a dozen fair ladies before the night was done4 ,la ,vera ,sorrentina is one of the best of this type4 ,the ,neapolitan are perhaps the best known of all the ,italian songs1 and there are thousands of them that have been published4 ,a large proportion of these are not strictly folk-songs1 having been written by conscious composers 7who1 however1 were of the people and composed for the people74 ,for it seems that the folk-genius of the ,italians was almost dormant in music for several centuries4 ,but these semi-folk-songs are among the best4 ,the more modern ones nearly always betray a certain vulgarity1 a certain commonplaceness somewhere in their outline--a fault which is not often to be charged against the genuine folk-song4 ,but one is willing to forgive them this1 for the sake of the loveliness which is beneath it all4 ,the strains of ,oh1 sole mio have already gone round the world1 and ,oh1 ,maria is scarcely inferior4 ,and when the ,italian ,song 7especially the ,sicilian7 breaks out in full passion it is not to be matched for crude emotional power the world over4 ,any one of these songs1 as1 for instance1 the fine one known from its refrain as ,o1 ,mama mia1 shows the inspiration of the bloody ,italian operas of the 'nineties4 ,much of the ,italian folk-music is enlivened with the most powerful rhythm imaginable4 ,the dance is cultivated in ,italy as it is in scarcely any other country in the world4 ,many of the ,spanish rhythms are to be found in the ,italian songs1 a relic of the times when the ,spaniards held ,sicily and the southern parts of the peninsula4 ,we should not forget1 either1 the inimitable joke-songs of the ,italians1 the clear source of the opera buffa1 which has been cultivated successfully by no other people4 ,the love of the ,italians for a joke has been noted from the earliest medival times4 ,we need only listen to the ,italian fruit-merchant trying to convince the ward politician that ,columbus discovered ,ireland to know that the tempo allegro giocoso is as alive to-day in the southern ,latins as it ever was4 ,the innumerable joke songs of ,italy present a peculiar problem to the singer4 ,they must be sung with the most expert enunciation1 with a fine technique that conceals all art1 and with a spirit bursting with fun4 ,perhaps it would be truer to say that they are impossible to any but the ,italian born and bred4 ,their purely musical value1 it must be admitted1 is usually slight2 but they have none the less a high place in folk-song literature4 ,it is only fair to say that the musicianship of the ,italian songs is often careless and faulty4 ,especially is this likely to be true in the accompaniments1 which are always of the simplest possible description and frequently become monotonous with their limited supply of chords in regular succession4 ,yet this fault is only one more mark of the ,italian genius1 to which the melody--that is1 the voice part1 the human part--is all-important4 ,the ,spanish songs are much less known than they deserve4 ,of ,spain1 as of ,england1 it can be said that its folk-songs are its chief musical contribution4 ,the pure folk-song of ,spain1 given to the world chiefly through the researches of the composer ,albniz1 is highly sectional and local1 primitive1 almost untouched by the traditions of the great world of music4 ,just across this low range of mountains there may be another quite different type of song1 with different scales and different rhythms and a different type of emotional utterance corresponding to the sectional variation of temperament4 ,in addition to this pure folk-song there is an extensive ,spanish folk-music which is somewhat more sophisticated and much better known4 ,it is this class that chiefly contains the wonderful dance-tunes which we associate with ,spain--for here rhythm is cultivated as nowhere else in the world4 ,the chief rhythms--those of the ,habaera1 the ,seguidilla1 the ,bolero1 the ,fandango1 and the rest--have in the ,spanish songs a poignancy which it is impossible to analyze4 ,the melodies seem built on and for the rhythms4 ,both may seem simple and literal1 yet there is a peculiar fitness in this simplicity which is ever the mark of the folk-genius1 and which in this case gives the rhythms an unbelievable quantity of physical drive4 ,the chief geographical and political sections of ,spain have preserved their individuality in their folk-songs4 ,the ,castilian song is light and sparkling4 ,the ,catalonian is sombre and intense4 ,the ,andalusian is sensuous and passionate4 ,in the singing of all these songs there is scarcely a trace of the intellectual factor4 ,they are to be sung in a sort of divine frenzy4 ,it is not too much to say that they must be sung with the whole physical body4 ,for their powerful rhythm must be felt in every nerve and muscle1 else it cannot be expressed in the voice4 ,of all songs these of ,spain demand the most of the merely physical--of bone and nerves and muscles4 ,,iv ,the ,german folk-songs1 because they are the best known of all1 will here be treated briefly4 ,they have1 as we shall so often have occasion to point out1 that faculty of concentrating intense and elevated emotion in a simple phrase of a few notes4 ,the great progressions that ring in ,bach1 the great cadences which thunder forth in the ,lutheran chorale--these we feel in all ,german popular song4 ,the number of these songs is as the sands of the sea4 ,the emotional range is almost that of the human heart itself4 ,the melodic organization is much more complex than in the case of the ,italian songs4 ,sometimes it becomes even austere4 ,but1 on the whole1 no nation has songs which go so straight to the heart4 ,they are not remarkable for rhythm nor in general for the lighter qualities prized by the ,french and the north ,italians4 ,their character is1 rather1 homely and intimate4 ,some of them reflect the vigorous and rather rough spirits of ,german youth4 ,more reflect the exaggerated sentimentality of ,german middle age4 ,yet this sentimentality1 while it is introspective1 is never morbid4 ,it is founded deep in the heart of a magnificently healthy people and is no more than the honest expression of a passing mood4 ,from the time of the ,minnesingers and their charmingly graceful ditties the idealism of the ,german people has been revealed in their singing4 ,frequently this takes on a religious tinge1 so that the ,lutheran church could adopt true folk-tunes for its hymns without incongruity4 ,often the spirit of quite secular songs is essentially religious1 as in that magnificent song of ,silcher's-- #8,aennchen von ,tharau1 mein ,reichthum1 mein ,gut1 ,du bist mein ,leben1 mein ,fleisch und mein ,blut4' ,certainly these songs of ,germany can1 of all folk-songs1 least bear any insincerity or affectation4 ,they seem to be a touchstone for determining genuineness of soul--that quality which the ,germans call ,echtheit4 ,they1 above all other songs1 demand soundness of musicianship and honesty of method4 ,unwillingly leaving these songs with these few remarks1 we turn to the ,scandinavian countries1 which are closely allied to ,germany in their folk-music1 yet show a definite though subtle individuality4 ,the ,danish songs retain the sincerity of the ,german1 but add1 perhaps1 a little more lightness of touch1 a little more feeling for delicacy of design4 ,their relation with the songs of the northern ,scandinavian countries is tenuous but it can be noticed after a little study4 ,the songs of ,sweden are much more individual1 though they can hardly be said to surpass the ,german in any particular4 ,most popular among them are the famous #8,neck ,polka1' the spirited #8,marching ,song1' and the old ballad1 #8,little ,karen1' the last a melody wonderful in its combination of literal musical statement with subtle artistic grace4 ,norway1 most distant of the three countries1 has quite naturally shown itself most individual in its folk-music4 ,it is the individuality which many critics have found in the music of ,grieg4 ,it bears an air of mystery2 one hardly knows whether of the past or of the future4 ,it suggests at times the downrightness of the old ,vikings1 and at others the #8atmospheric' quality of the modern composers4 ,however one may feel about this1 it is certain that the spirit is healthy and stimulating4 ,for variety and interest the folk-music of ,norway can rank among the best4 ,v ,the folk-music of the ,hungarians has been made universally popular through the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies of ,liszt1 who was one of the first to perceive its high artistic possibilities4 ,it has been generally supposed that this folk-music was invented by the ,gypsies1 who have always been regarded as the ,hungarian musicians par excellence4 ,liszt regarded it so4 ,competent investigators agree that the melodies themselves are the product of the ,hungarian people and that the ornaments and stylistic qualities alone have been added by the ,gypsies1 who1 according to this view1 are incapable of true invention4 ,it is at least certain that the ,gypsies are the representative musicians of ,hungary to-day and have wholly stamped ,hungarian folk-music with their individuality4 ,it has been said that ,hungary has no vocal folk-music--no folk-song at all4 ,this1 of course1 is true only in a limited sense4 ,but it is certainly true that all the music has a predominantly instrumental character and that the greater portion of it is possible only on instruments4 ,the ,gypsies themselves1 though usually without formal musical education1 are frequently marvellous masters of the violin in their own way4 ,their love for long and meaningless decoration is famous4 ,no tune enters their keeping that does not emerge covered from beginning to end with trills1 shakes1 slides1 turns1 scales1 and cadenzas4 ,the rubato instinct among them is very strong4 ,at the same time the rhythmical and dance instinct is almost unsurpassed4 ,and1 as anyone familiar with the ,rhapsodies well knows1 these three qualities--namely the instrumental1 the decorative and the rhythmic--have stamped themselves indelibly on all ,hungarian folk-music4 ,the ,gypsies tend to mutilate a tune past recognition by their wanton decoration4 ,but when they are able to keep their instinct in control they leave the melody glittering with decorative richness but firm and vigorous in outline4 ,the chief external characteristic of the ,hungarian melodies1--their accented grace-note 7a feature scarcely to be found in any other folk-music the world over1 except to a smaller degree in the ,scotch7--is said to come from the character of the ,hungarian language1 which is inclined to heavily accented first syllables4 ,a more probable explanation would be that it comes from the nature of the violin1 on which most of these melodies were doubtless composed4 ,for in the case of a short grace-note1 the violinist's bow has hardly time to take a new stroke between the grace-note and the chief note2 hence both are taken on one stroke1 and as the beginning of the stroke is the natural place for the accent the grace-note1 however short1 tends to take on all the accent of a true first note of the rhythmic measure4 ,yet such abstract discussion is empty in the face of the melodies themselves4 ,many of these are songs and excellent ones--whether composed for the words originally or fitted out with words later makes little difference4 ,and many of them are distinctly singable1 though they demand a robust vocal mechanism such as few parlor-trained singers possess4 ,but whether sung or not they are all glorified dances4 ,the rubato may be elaborate1 but the feeling of rhythm is always present4 ,many of the songs preserve the form of the national dance1 the ,czardas1 beginning with a slow ,lassan and ending with the violent ,friska1 as in the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies4 ,there may be pauses and cadenzas between the two1 there may be pauses and long ritardandos in the body of the dance itself 7as frequently in the well-known ,brahms arrangements of ,hungarian dances71 but the firm rhythmic sense is always there4 ,the beauty of the ,hungarian melodies1 merely as melodies1 is unsurpassed4 ,the great melody which ,liszt used in the ,fourteenth ,hungarian ,rhapsody1 and which has since come to be used as the national song1 to the fine words which in the ,german version commence ,wenn dem ,ungarvolke ,gott viel ,leiden gab--this has become a true folk-song by adoption1 though it is not one in origin4 ,no country ever had a more glorious hymn for its national praise4 ,several dance-tunes given by ,reimann#i are of the highest quality--especially ,zigeunermusik1 ,der ,seele ,spiegel1 and ,drunten im ,tale1 and ,erwartung1 the last being a melody which served ,brahms for one of his #8,hungarian ,dances4' ,another matchless tune is one translated by ,reimann as ,in ,grosswardein4 ,here we see used to full value 7in a melody of great simplicity7 several of the most distinctive qualities of the ,hungarian music1 namely the accented grace note1 the peculiar minor scale having a flatted sixth and a raised seventh1 and always emphasizing the skip between1 and the conventional phrase structure1 which always repeats the first phrase1 note for note1 in the dominant4 ,indeed1 no songs are better worth study for their clear and solid architecture4 ,francis ,alexander ,korbay 7born1 ,pesth1 #ahdh2 died1 #aiad7 was one of the chief enthusiasts for the ,hungarian folk-song and has helped by his collections and editions to spread the love of them4 ,his arrangements are sometimes elaborate and often not true to the spirit of the original1 but they sufficiently preserve the national spirit to foreign ears4 ,and it has always been true that folk-music must first go through a stage of adaptation and arrangement before people are willing to listen to it in its purity4 ,of the ,korbay songs at least one fine example1 #8,had a ,horse1' has become familiar in ,american concert halls4 ,,vi ,the ,russian folk-songs1 as rich in variety and intensity as those of any country on earth1 present more preliminary difficulties to the foreign music-lover than any others4 ,as in most other countries1 the real appreciation of folk-music in ,russia is a matter of the last half century4 ,the ,russian songs which were best known before then bore the same relation to the genuine article that the popular ,english songs of the eighteenth century bore to the ,somerset songs of which we have spoken--that is1 they were rather civilized1 perhaps consciously composed1 and contained far more of the conventional than of the national4 ,such a song is #8,the ,red ,sarafan1' a fine melody1 but far removed from the genuine peasant folk-song4 ,glinka1 founder of the modern ,russian school of composition1 recognized the distinctive qualities of the ,russian popular music1 and introduced some of its effects very tentatively into his operas and songs4 ,rubinstein hazarded the statement that the ,russian folk-song was more varied and profound than that of any other land4 ,but ,rubinstein1 being all ,german in his training1 did not follow the obvious moral4 ,it remained for the great group of #8neo-,russian' composers1 under the inspiring leadership of ,balakireff1 to make the ,russian folk-song the source and standard of ,russian composition4 ,several of this group made researches among folk-songs or collections of them and studied them in what we have called the modern spirit1 which is equally scientific1 scholarly1 and artistic4 ,more recently the ,russian government has spent considerable sums on scientific investigation among the peasants1 and the results of these researches1 especially in the great work of ,mme4 ,lineva1 have served as a standard in folk-research the world over4 ,the earlier collections of ,balakireff1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 and others1 though as yet untranslated1 are sources of deep delight for the student who will take a little trouble among dusty libraries4 ,the great body of ,russian folk-songs is far nearer to the primitive than is the popular music of ,italy1 ,scotland1 and ,germany4 ,many of the loveliest tunes are mere snatches of melody4 ,the more highly organized tunes are frequently irregular and crude4 ,the scales are usually distinctive1 and the tonic is inclined to be very movable1 if not entirely absent4 ,the minor1 of course1 predominates1 as in all primitive music4 ,it is used with the utmost distinction1 showing how utterly ,russian life 7except in the highest classes7 has for centuries been isolated from the influence of ,western ,europe4 ,the common impression1 because of the predominance of this minor1 is that ,russian songs are all #8sad' or #8moody4' ,this is not just1 for the minor1 which is an expressive means with us1 is nothing more than a convention in ,russian folk-music4 ,it is the material out of which the music is made4 ,it can be manipulated to express almost any emotion which the singer can feel4 ,hence the notion that the range of ,russian folk-songs is narrow is quite false4 ,they have a remarkably wide range1 from the deepest gloom1 through the tenderest sentimentality1 to the fiercest exhilaration of physical life4 ,the irregularity of the melodies1 too1 is not necessarily a sign of crudeness1 but often an instrument of the highest expressive potency4 ,the brief studies which will be made later in this volume into ,russian art-song can have but little meaning1 except in relation to the folk-songs which are the source of it4 ,the irregularity of metre in ,moussorgsky's songs1 the barbarity of some of ,borodine's and ,rachmaninoff's1 are the direct outcome of these composers' studies in folk-song4 ,it is difficult to mention these songs by name1 since few of the texts have been translated into ,english4 ,yet it would be a pity if the student were altogether debarred from a knowledge of this wonderful literature on that account4 ,the standard collections of ,russian folk-music are available1 though somewhat difficult to obtain4 ,and though the words are printed in fearsome ,russian1 the music is in an international language4 ,and it is of course true that many of the ,russian songs are to be found in general folk-song collections and may be discovered with a little searching4 ,those who read ,french will find in ,mme4 ,lineva's work1 published in two languages by the ,russian government1 an admirable discourse on ,slavic song1 thoroughly scientific1 yet clear and without great technicality4 ,in this work the interested musical student will find one of the most fascinating subjects imaginable--the growth of independent polyphony and counterpoint spontaneously among the singers of the melodies1 a thing unthinkable to those of us who have learned counterpoint from dry text books4 ,bohemia and ,poland1 though ,slavic in blood1 are widely separated from ,russia in their art4 ,the latter has for many centuries been ,roman ,catholic in religion1 and had attained a high degree of ,western culture and refinement when ,muscovy was still semi-barbarian4 ,in fact the political rivalry between the eastern and western ,slavs1 intensified by the difference in religion1 led the ,poles to look to the west for their friends and their cultural models4 ,bohemia1 too1 as early as the thirteenth century1 was peculiarly western in its ideals4 ,it possessed the earliest real university1 and nurtured the non-secular attitude toward learning which later came to such glorious fruit in ,france and ,germany4 ,further1 the ,bohemians were the earliest ,protestants and free-thinkers1 and showed the most enlightened political aspirations in an age of darkness4 ,so1 in spite of blood and language1 these two nations show in their art a dominant kinship with ,germany4 ,one of the earliest ,bohemian folk-songs1 ,sirotek 7#8,the ,waif'71 might almost be taken for a ,german chorale of the sixteenth century4 ,other popular songs1 like ,wsak nam tak 7#8,the ,sweetheart'7 and ,dobromyslua husicka 7#8,the ,happy ,gosling'71 are almost ,tyrolese in their mellifluous facility4 ,still another fine song1 ,na tech ,kolodejskejch 7#8,vain ,regrets'71 might in parts be a ,german children's song4 ,again the song1 ,pod tim nasim okeneckem 7#8,under ,our ,cottage ,window'71 with its #8snaps' and sharp accents1 suggest the melodies of ,hungary4 ,thus ,bohemia1 in her folk-music1 shows the influence of her neighbors on all sides1 but scarcely a trace of the indigenous ,slavic stock4 ,many of the songs show a high degree of formal perfection1 and the sentiment1 especially in the tenderer moods1 is often deep and moving4 ,such a lyric as the lullaby1 ,hajej muj andilku1 may rank with the best of any land in sheer beauty4 ,if we look among the ,bohemian songs for the nationalism that reveals itself in strange scales and irregular rhythm we shall find scarcely a trace of it4 ,the metre and melodic line are always mature and polished4 ,but with our inner ear we may detect1 in the best songs1 an endearing quality1 a sweet lovableness1 which speaks with a distinct and national voice4 ,the qualities of ,polish national music have been made known most widely in the mazurkas of ,chopin4 ,these must not be taken as representing the real qualities of the ,polish folk-song1 but they offer an excellent point of departure4 ,in some ways the songs of ,poland show a racial relation with the ,russian4 ,the swift-moving energy1 the recurring and pervading melancholy1 find their parallels in the music of the eastern ,slavs4 ,but the scale is nearly always the familiar major1 or a slightly modified minor4 ,the western nations outgrew the uncertain tonality of the old modes much earlier than the east1 and ,poland1 with her eyes always toward the west1 doubtless adopted the technique of music as she found it4 ,thus such a song as the ,krakowiak 7an irresistible dance movement71 though it recalls in some vague way the spirit of ,little ,russian music1 lends itself perfectly to conventional ,german harmonization4 ,another song1 ,gdy wczystem polu 7#8,in ,summer'71 might have been thrown off in one of ,chopin's idle moments4 ,what these songs have1 above all other qualities1 is grace4 ,no nation1 in its folk-music1 has used rhythm with greater delicacy4 ,they recall to us a ,poland of the story-books1 a land of dilettantism and social graces4 ,more than any other folk-songs1 except the ,french1 they demand in their interpretation a subtle ear and a firm artistic control4 ,the ,united ,states of ,america has its own folk-music of a sort1 a part of it quite indigenous4 ,this part is the music of the ,north ,american ,indians1 which is more primitive than any other large body of folk-music in our possession4 ,there are1 also1 the songs of the western cowboys1 the #8,spirituals' and slave-songs of the southern negroes1 and the songs of ,stephen ,foster1 all of which are worthy to rank as folk-songs4 ,all these examples of ,american music have been exhaustively treated in ,volume ,,iv 7,chapter ,,xi74 ,,footnotes3 #g ,countess ,martinengo-,csareseo4 #h ,cf4 ,vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,vi4 #i ,heinrich ,reimann3 ,auslndische ,volkslieder4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,early ,,development ,,of ,,song ,song in early ,christian times--,the age of chivalry--,the troubadours and trouvres--,the minnesingers--,the mastersingers2 the ,lutheran revival--,polyphonic eclipse of song4 ,i ,we think of the first eight or ten centuries of the ,christian era as a chasm between the ancient and the modern4 ,but this is of course not strictly true1 least of all in folk-music4 ,in the church1 indeed1 music struggled slowly and painfully1 surrounded by doctrine and law4 ,but in the music1 as in the customs1 of the people1 there was no break4 ,the apostolic succession of song continued unbroken from the time of the ,greeks to the time of ,schubert4 ,through all the medival period folk-music was flourishing1 growing in richness and in influence steadily up to the time when it entered art music by the back door1 so to speak1 stealing into the ,catholic ritual4 ,for many centuries the songs of the old world continued in the new4 ,for the ,christian era did not come all at once4 ,it attained formal dominance when ,constantine adopted it as the official religion of ,rome4 ,but it needed many centuries more before it could attain complete sway over people's hearts4 ,pagan customs and pagan songs were still living and beautiful4 ,the ,christian missionaries gained their hold over the people by compromising with the past4 ,the old festivals were not rejected in favor of the new2 they were merged with the new4 ,thus ,christmas1 among the ,germanic nations1 was made to absorb an older festival of the turning of the sun1 and the mistletoe1 which had had a profound religious significance for the ,pagans became one of the minor symbols of the ,christian feast and continues to-day an essential part of the ,yuletide festivities1 as we know4 ,and thus it was with the people's songs4 ,men's beliefs were ,christianized1 but men's feelings remained ,pagan4 ,and the two existed side by side for centuries without trouble4 ,charlemagne ordered a collection to be made of ,german songs 7all of ,pagan origin7 and did not feel that there was anything impious in his action4 ,the ,pagan was honored along with the ,christian just as1 some five centuries later1 the ,classical was honored in the ,renaissance4 ,but the millennial year was approaching1 when men expected the world to end1 or ,christ to come and take personal charge of his ,kingdom4 ,and throughout all ,christendom there arose a desire in men to make themselves perfect for the second coming4 ,and so arose a mania for exterminating all that remained of the old world4 ,charlemagne's son1 ,ludwig the ,pious1 despised the ,german songs his father had collected4 ,and it was so all over ,europe4 ,in these years the last vestiges of ,paganism were stamped out1 except for the sweet souvenirs of it which the institution of the mistletoe and similar symbols have retained4 ,pagan songs of the early ,christian period were mostly in the hands of wandering minstrels and storytellers who roamed the world in great numbers4 ,these men1 like the songs they sang1 were direct descendants of the ,pagan world4 ,one well accredited theory says that the ,italian minstrels were the gladiators of ,roman times1 and their descendants4 ,the last of the ,roman gladiatorial shows was held about the beginning of the fifth century4 ,after that ,christian sentiment forbade these bloody entertainments1 and the gladiators1 the entertainers par excellence of ,roman times1 found themselves without a means of livelihood4 ,they wandered from town to town1 giving exhibitions of strength and agility in the market places1 just as the acrobats do to this day in ,european cities4 ,they became a separate caste1 almost a separate race4 ,inevitably they invented or appropriated songs with which to entertain their admirers between the acts4 ,some of them became itinerant merchants1 selling molasses or some other delicacy and attracting the crowds by their music4 ,sometimes they had dancing bears1 or camels1 or trick monkeys4 ,in the more serious northern countries--,germany and ,england--they were probably the remnants of the old priesthood4 ,religion has always needed music as a support1 and the old priests were themselves bards1 or had bards in their service to sing their doctrines4 ,as they fell into disrepute with the advance of ,christianity1 they had to seek their living as best they might1 and they became minstrels1 singing the old sagas and stories which people still loved4 ,often they became attached to the service of the courts4 ,the chronicler ,robert ,ware says that the battle of ,hastings1 in which ,william the ,conqueror subjected the ,saxons1 was opened by the minstrel or jongleur ,taillefer1 attached to the ,norman army1 who advanced singing of the fabulous exploits of some hero of the time and performing feats of agility with his lance and sword1 which struck terror into the ,saxons1 who thought his dexterity must be the effect of witchcraft4 ,but more often the minstrels were popular entertainers1 with a collection of tricks--hence the name of jongleur1 which means player or trickster1 and gives us our ,english word #8juggler4' ,their music had no very exalted status1 since it was only a #8side-line' to their merchandise or performance4 ,but to the people of the time it was as important as our orchestral concerts and operas are to us4 ,for it effected the interchange of art and ideas between province and province and between nation and nation4 ,the minstrels were rarely the inventors of the songs they sang4 ,the music of the time was genuine folk-music and the minstrels only learned and disseminated the popular songs4 ,but they represented the whole institution of secular music in the early ,christian age4 ,in their roving life1 the minstrels tended to become wretchedly immoral4 ,they sometimes formed themselves into bands for the acting of plays1 taking women along with them1 and these bands became the synonym for dissolute living4 ,sometimes they were beggars pure and simple1 willing to get money by any means except working1 and purchasable equally to spread a scandal or commit a murder4 ,they had no home and no citizenship4 ,in #eed ,a4 ,d4 ,childebert promulgated very stringent laws for the suppression of their licentiousness4 ,philip ,augustus1 ,king of ,france1 caused them to be expelled from his domains4 ,they were outside the law and its protection4 ,for centuries they were regarded as the evil children of another race4 ,a citizen might attack or insult a minstrel and the latter had no recourse in law1 except the privilege of striking his opponent's shadow4 ,this outlawing of musicians continued 7in the statute books1 at least7 for many years4 ,there are traces of it still in certain lands4 ,even ,new ,york state1 it is said1 has an unrepealed statute somewhere in its dusty books authorizing the arrest of #8common showmen4' ,this prejudice1 in the early years1 seems to have been generally justified4 ,the lives of the minstrels were certainly dissolute4 ,their personal characters had all the unattractive qualities of an inferior race--to dying for money or favor1 fickleness and vindictiveness4 ,they had to truckle to the great1 and flatter the prejudices of the masses4 ,they had1 moreover1 the means of making themselves feared by the knights and barons of whom they demanded money in return for their music4 ,for if they were allowed to leave the castle disgruntled1 nothing was easier for them than to spread abroad among the people scandals concerning the great men and ladies1 the tale that ,sir ,knight was a wife-beater and that his lady was having an affair with her page4 ,a certain jongleur1 ,colin ,muset1 who plied his trade in ,lorraine and ,champagne in the thirteenth century1 once had occasion to sing the following ditty to the noble of whom he had asked largess3 #8,lord ,count1 ,i have the viol played ,before yourself1 within your hall1 ,and you my service never paid ,nor gave me any wage at all2 ',twas villainy4' ,it is not difficult to catch the implied threat in these lines4 ,but the fickleness and flunkeyism of the minstrels served them well4 ,when they had been expelled from ,france because of their libellous tongues1 many of them were invited over to ,england by ,william de ,longchamps1 bishop of ,ely1 who governed the kingdom during the absence of ,richard the ,lionhearted1 and who1 anxious to blind the people to the vices of his rgime1 hired these singers to proclaim his virtues to the public4 ,thus art is continually being called to the glorification of vice and tyranny4 ,but for such services the minstrels had their reward4 ,so useful did they make themselves1 wherever they went1 that they received increasing marks of respect4 ,when the ,christian revival of the tenth and eleventh centuries came1 they made themselves its apostles1 singing the new songs in place of the old4 ,the acting troupes presented miracle plays on ,biblical or traditional religious subjects and were presently invited by the clergy to perform on the church steps or even within the church itself4 ,centuries later they had attained such dignity that they could organize themselves into guilds under the protection of the reigning prince4 ,they had their aristocratic and exclusive labor unions1 were employed to organize town bands1 and in many places formed the nuclei for court orchestras4 ,of the music of these minstrels in the early centuries we know next to nothing4 ,there existed nothing at the time that could be called musical notation1 and tradition1 if it has brought any of their songs down to us1 has changed them in the course of the centuries4 ,we have1 it is true1 a spirited song1 supposed to have been written on the death of ,charlemagne1 calling on ,franks and ,romans to lament and honor the lost sovereign4 ,but this was probably not purely popular in its origin1 else it would not have attained to writing4 ,the words of a few ditties have been preserved4 ,the celebrated #8,song of ,roland1' dating from ,charlemagne's time1 was supposed to have been sung as late as the battle of ,poitiers in #acef4 ,but what chiefly assures us of the vigor of the popular music of the time was the wide variety of types it contained--patriotic songs1 love songs1 songs satirical and historical1 and many others4 ,we know also that the music was original and alive1 quite in contrast to that of the church4 ,for when the popular tradition was taken up by the aristocratic ,troubadours and ,trouvres in the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 the melodies had an independent character that proves a vigorous antecedent development4 ,the old modes continued to dominate church music up to the fifteenth and even sixteenth centuries4 ,but the songs of the ,troubadours and ,trouvres are often written in the modern major scale4 ,the popular music of the ninth and tenth centuries had undergone the development that the church did not attain until five hundred years later4 ,we know rather more concerning the instruments used by the wandering minstrels4 ,they were of all the types which have since furnished out the modern orchestra4 ,the harp1 a remnant of the very earliest times1 was favored by the more aristocratic musicians and steadily became enlarged as the technique of music widened4 ,the lute 7much like the modern guitar71 most popular of amateur instruments in the time of the ,renaissance1 was widely used4 ,all kinds of pipes1 ancestors of the wood-wind instruments of our orchestras1 flourished in a great variety of styles4 ,and the incipient violin was represented by the rota1 rebek1 and vielle1 figuring under a multitude of different names4 ,like the ,saxon language during the ,norman domination in ,england1 popular music developed in the dark1 without official sanction1 finally coming forth1 strong and mature1 from its hiding and carrying everything before it4 ,,ii ,with the approach of the millennial year we find the beginnings of that institution which was to enframe all the life of the later middle ages--,chivalry4 ,the first military games and tourneys appear in the reign of ,charles the ,bald1 in the ninth century4 ,from that time on1 life became more pretentious1 more individual1 more refined4 ,the chivalric ideal was professedly ,christian4 ,it preached what the ,pagan could never have understood--reverence for womanhood and respect for the weak4 ,knights gained the church's special sanction when they devoted themselves to righting wrongs and rescuing women in distress4 ,the tender poetry which in early medival times became attached to the figure of the ,madonna1 was now extended to all women--at least to all women of social standing4 ,because a woman had been chosen as the ,mother of ,god all women were regarded as holy in her likeness4 ,with this changed attitude toward the weaker sex there came a multitude of delicate shades of sentiment and an exaggerated devotion that would have seemed childish to the ancient ,greeks4 ,it was common for the ,troubadours to profess the most ecstatic love for some woman of high rank1 who was hardly expected to do more than smile in return4 ,love1 in its more fanciful aspects1 became the mania of the age4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that the nobles of the time took up love1 one might almost say1 as an avocation4 ,they had nothing to do1 much of the time1 but cultivate the fine arts4 ,they caught the trick of making verses and melodies4 ,it was natural that love should be the chief theme of their songs4 ,and in ,provence1 the southeastern part of modern ,france1 there arose toward the end of the eleventh century1 the cult or institutions of the ,troubadours4 ,the ,troubadours were primarily nobles1 cultivating the arts as a pastime4 ,but many men of lower rank also took up the fashion1 winning their way through the beauty of their song4 ,all that we regard as most typical of ,french art was in their music and verses--delicacy of wit and fancy1 beauty of form1 purity of diction4 ,they represented the utmost refinement to which their age attained4 ,they did not1 like the jongleurs1 accept money for their singing1 though they were proud to receive gifts from lords and ladies whom they praised4 ,but they often retained the jongleurs in their service4 ,they seem to have had ambitions of spreading their reputations as composers and1 as it was unbecoming their rank to sing in the market-places1 they hired jongleurs1 as personal servants1 to do it for them4 ,thus the wandering minstrel of the ninth century1 while losing something of his artistic preminence1 gained no little in social dignity4 ,some gained high reputation4 ,we recall the story of ,blondel1 minstrel to ,richard the ,lionhearted1 who1 when his liege lord was a prisoner in ,germany on his return from the ,holy ,land1 sought him far and wide and made himself known by his singing outside the castle1 later bringing help and liberty to his king4 ,in the north of ,france flourished the ,trouvres1 similar to the ,troubadours of the south4 ,they were less delicate in touch1 less polished1 but far more serious1 frequently composing1 in their own fashion1 works of science and history1 theology and philosophy4 ,among the ,troubadours and ,trouvres were ,count ,guillaume of ,poitiers1 ,count ,thibaut of ,champagne1 ,king of ,navarre1 and ,adam de la ,halle4 ,the last named was not of noble blood1 but gained high standing as singer to the ,count of ,artois4 ,in ,spain1 as well as in ,france1 the institution of courtly song took root and the noble singers were known as ,trobadores4 ,in ,italy the singer was known as ,trovatore1 though the ,provenal song did not gain much vogue in the land which was being stirred by the awakening of the ,renaissance4 ,the ,trouvres1 through the ,norman court of ,london1 influenced the native minstrelsy of ,england1 thus spreading over half of ,europe the fame of the ,provenal song4 ,the variety of artistic forms cultivated by the ,troubadours and ,trouvres was great4 ,of them we can distinguish the dramatic works1 the romances1 the stories or fabliaux1 and the lyric works proper4 ,all of these1 excepting1 perhaps1 the dramatic works1 were at least in part sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument4 ,the romances sometimes approximated the length of epics1 extending to #bj1jjj lines or more4 ,of the romances there is one charming and widely known example in #8,aucassin and ,nicolette1' a long story of love and adventure1 frequently interrupted with a lovely song4 ,it is probable that these romances were recited in a somewhat formal manner through the more narrative parts1 perhaps chanted in the emotional sections1 leading up by means of a more and more musical delivery to the lyrics1 which undoubtedly had their set melodies4 ,the fabliaux were short and witty stories1 usually satirical when not actually indecent4 ,the lyrical poems were divided by their singers into many classes1 the distinctions being largely nominal or fanciful4 ,we can recall the canzonets1 or love-songs1 including the serenade 7the #8evening song'7 and the aubade 7#8morning song'74 ,the pastourelle1 or conventionalized song of shepherd life1 became the ,pastoral of the ,golden ,age of ,france1 one of the most typical art-forms of the pre-,revolutionary period4 ,there were further the sirvantes1 written to praise some beneficent prince2 the roundelays1 with a set refrain after each verse or stanza2 and the dance songs1 intended to be sung actually during dancing4 ,then there were the tenzone1 contentious songs1 usually in dialog1 often set debates on some nice point of love4 ,sometimes the tenzone were little masterpieces of satire4 ,one1 composed by a monk1 has been preserved to us4 ,it represents a debate or trial1 in which the monks accuse the women of having stolen the art of painting invented for ecclesiastical purposes and having applied it to their cheeks4 ,the women reply that the monks are no worse off because their sex is able to cover the wrinkles under their eyes4 ,finally ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,lawrence adjudge that the women shall be allowed from the ages of twenty to thirty-five to paint in4 ,but1 adds the poet1 #8the contract was soon broken by the women3 they lay on more red and white than was ever used for a votive painting and have in consequence raised the price of saffron and other dye-stuffs4' ,we should not leave the ,troubadours without referring to the ,cours d'amour1 or ,courts of ,love1 which were supposed to have been held1 in all solemnity1 during the middle ages4 ,this institution1 constituted like a court of law1 heard nice questions as to conduct in love1 and gave decisions for one or the other party1 decreeing how the lover and his lady should act in all conceivable situations4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is extremely doubtful whether such courts were actually held1 but they were at least a fanciful institution of the time and are represented in many of the songs4 ,it has been thought by some that the courts were actually convened and that noble ladies and their courtiers came from all over ,europe to submit the fruits of their experience and pass upon some such solemn question as3 #8,is it between lovers1 or between husband and wife1 that the greatest affection1 the liveliest attachment1 exist8' ,at all events1 the courts of love existed in the songs of the ,troubadours4 ,for instance1 one complainant brings the following question1 presented in the form of a song by a ,troubadour3 #8,a knight was in love with a lady who was already engaged1 but she promised him her favor in case she should ever happen to lose the love of him who was then her lover4 ,a short time subsequent to this the lady and her adorer were married4 ,the knight then laid claim to the love of the young bride1 who resisted the claim1 maintaining that she had not lost the love of him who had become her husband4' ,the judgment in this case was supposed to have been passed by ,queen ,eleanor of ,aquitaine1 who was later to become the wife of ,henry ,,ii of ,england4 ,she refers to a previous judgment1 which is regarded as having all the force of a precedent in law1 and says3 #8,we venture not to contradict the decree of the ,countess of ,champagne1 who1 by a solemn judgment1 has pronounced that true love cannot exist between a married couple4 ,we therefore approve that the lady in question bestow the love which she has promised4' ,,iii ,germany1 at this time1 was hardly behind ,france in civilization and refinement of manners4 ,it was natural1 then1 that the courtly song should find its way into ,germany4 ,in ,south ,germany--,bavaria and ,swabia--the indigenous folk-song continued to dominate4 ,but in the northern provinces the influence of the ,trouvres was strongly felt by way of ,flanders and the ,lower ,rhine4 ,the noble singers here called themselves ,minnesinger--or #8,singers of ,love4' ,their songs are almost as pure and refined in artistic structure as those of ,provence1 but their subject matter is more earnest and scholarly4 ,in place of the fanciful courtly compliments paid by the southern ,french singers to their ladies1 we find that deep and sincere reverence for womanhood which ,tacitus noted among the ,german barbarians and which continued through the centuries4 ,the lyrical songs of the ,minnesingers were divided into three classes3 the ,lied1 or song2 the ,lerch1 or lay2 and the ,spruch1 or proverb4 ,the difference1 musically1 was mainly a matter of form1 rigid laws governing the formation of the strophes4 ,the ,lied was the mostly purely lyrical of the three4 ,the ,lerch was more general in subject-matter1 partaking sometimes of the narrative4 ,the ,spruch was essentially one of the ,german proverbs which so richly fill the language even to this day1 but it was usually developed to make a somewhat lengthy stanza4 ,the central idea of the proverb1 its simile or its ethical substance1 would be repeated and enlarged upon1 becoming lyrical in character though retaining the idiomatic directness and simplicity of the original4 ,thus the ,minnesong tended to keep a homely character which the ,provenal lay never had4 ,among the famous ,minnesingers 7who were also poets in the modern sense7 were ,wolfram von ,eschenbach and ,walther von der ,vogelweide4 ,both are familiar to all lovers of ,wagner4 ,the former is one of the chief characters in the opera ,tannhuser4 ,he appears as the pure lover of ,elizabeth1 in contrast to ,tannhuser1 whose sensual and pagan character is shown by his affair with the unholy goddess ,venus4 ,in the second act of the opera is shown one of the tournaments of song which were characteristic of the age4 ,tannhuser1 ,wolfram1 and others1 sing the praises of love1 each revealing his personal character in the attitude he takes toward the great passion4 ,wolfram is the genuine ,minnesinger1 idealizing the object of his devotion1 insisting upon her divinity 7her likeness to the ,virgin ,mary71 and upon the fleshless1 unsensual nature of love in its true estate4 ,one gathers1 also1 from a hearing of the opera1 that he was a typical ,minnesinger in that his song was something of a bore4 ,certainly the ,minnesongs1 in their ambling lengthiness1 would bring sleepiness to a modern audience4 ,but ,wolfram1 we must remember1 was not only a courtly minstrel1 but a great epic poet1 one of the great figures in ,german literature4 ,walther von der ,vogelweide1 perhaps the most inspired lyricist of his time1 figures by name in ,die ,meistersinger4 ,walther1 the hero1 candidate for the degree of ,meistersinger1 is asked who taught him his art4 ,he replies that he learned it from ,walther von der ,vogelweide and from the birds4 ,this causes the ,mastersingers to shake their heads1 for inspiration has little part in their formal music4 ,the last of the ,minnesingers1 and one of the most famous1 was ,heinrich von ,meissen1 called ,frauenlob--#8,praiser of ,women4' ,his songs were so ardent in their idealization of womanhood that it is related how the women of ,mayence1 when the singer died1 bore him to his grave and poured over it1 mingled with their tears1 the richest of ,rhenish wines4 ,not a few of the songs of the ,troubadours1 ,trouvres1 and ,minnesingers have been preserved to us and have been deciphered with great care by students4 ,it seems certain that the decipherings are in the main correct4 ,the songs are well worthy of study4 ,naumann1 in his #8,history of ,music1' gives four harmonized according to modern principles4 ,unlike any of the church music of the time1 these songs are in the modern major scale4 ,they are1 probably1 the earliest melodies preserved to us which seem to have an affinity with modern music4 ,all music preceding them1 as all the church music following them for at least two centuries1 sounds strange to our ears2 we cannot grasp it1 much less enjoy it1 without making a conscious allowance for its seemingly outlandish construction4 ,but the songs of the courtly minstrels might almost have been written by ,schumann or ,brahms4 ,it is possible1 of course1 that they have been somewhat modernized in transcription4 ,but the fact remains that they are predominantly in the modern major scale and that their turns of phrase show a feeling for melody as such in a way never revealed by the church composers until after ,palestrina's time4 ,the loveliness of these songs grows on one4 ,we must1 perhaps1 make a preliminary allowance for the length of their lines and for a certain aimlessness which seems to reside in the melody4 ,the musicians of the time did not feel accent and metre so strongly as we do and the regular sing-song of contrasting lines 7which sometimes mars modern lyrics7 was hardly felt in their songs4 ,they flow lightly and smoothly2 their phrases are distinguished by a pause rather than by a system of balancing and contrasting4 ,they must be delivered with the utmost repose1 in transparent flowing tones that never betray the breath behind them4 ,there must be hardly any accentuation and very slight use of dynamics4 ,artistic construction1 in the more rigid modern sense1 is not to be found in them2 they have no #8climax point1' obviously prepared1 with passages leading #8up to' and #8down from' it4 ,they are rather like the softest breeze in the morning of a sunny summer day4 ,they breathe the spirit of the following lovely verses by ,walther von der ,vogelweide3 #8,love is neither man nor woman1 ,soul it hath not1 nor yet body1 ,and no earthly sign or token2 ,though the tongue of man hath named it1 ,never mortal eye hath seen it4 ,yet without it can no creature ,win ,heaven's pitying grace and favor2 ,nor where love is will there linger ,aught of fraud or baseness ever2 ,to the traitor1 the false-hearted1 ,love hath come not1 cometh never4' ,but a profound change was coming over society1 which wiped out all vestiges of chivalric song4 ,the complete failure of the ,crusades was one of the obvious blows dealt the institution of ,chivalry4 ,the religious upheavals against the dominance of the church of ,rome--those of the ,hussites in ,bohemia1 in the fifteenth century2 of the ,lutherans in ,germany and of the ,english under ,henry ,,viii in the sixteenth--these1 apart from their religious aspect1 denoted a spirited rising of the populace to self-consciousness and concerted action4 ,the spread of knowledge and intellectual curiosity established lines of communication all over ,europe and diminished the importance of the courts as centres of culture4 ,with this came a growth of manufacture and commerce which raised to importance people very different from the gentle ,minnesingers4 ,in the ,germany of the sixteenth century the mercantile middle class came to be of social importance1 and around them grew up a new art of song4 ,,iv ,the era of the middle-class or ,burgher dominance in the ,german cities is represented1 in music1 by the institution of the ,meistersang 7master song74 ,the ,meistersang was the middle-class replica of the ,minnesang4 ,it arose shortly after the natural death of the ,minnesang1 early in the fourteenth century1 originating1 strangely enough1 at ,mayence1 where ,heinrich ,frauenlob1 the last of the great ,minnesingers1 died4 ,the ,minnesang1 in fact1 provided most of the forms and ideals for the ,mastersong--at least in the beginning4 ,but the era of isolated castles and wandering minstrels was not that of mercantile ,germany1 with strongly walled and independent cities1 serving as stopping places for immense caravans coming from ,italy and the far east4 ,for these cities the merchant and artisan class held the purse-strings4 ,they were the urban aristocrats4 ,the ,muses had perforce to eat from their hands4 ,the ,burghers1 being not only shrewd and practical1 but prevented by business reasons from wandering the earth in search of fair ladies1 organized their music in very formal fashion4 ,they held regular singing contests at which aspiring musicians were heard and criticized4 ,when these aspirants had proved their ability both to compose and to sing to the satisfaction of their elders they were admitted as ,mastersingers4 ,but the examination was rigid and the organization or guild of the ,mastersingers was jealous4 ,inasmuch as it controlled the acceptance or rejection of candidates1 it could set the rules4 ,and1 being thus constantly called upon to exercise its superiority1 it tended to solidify its artistic principles into set rules of the most rigid character4 ,the verses of each type of song must be organized in a set way4 ,the music had to be made in accordance with the accepted practice4 ,certain transitions and ornaments were prohibited--not only regarded as less desirable than others1 but ruled out under all circumstances4 ,at the trials1 which were usually held in the churches1 the candidate's song was judged by from one to four judges1 called ,markers1 who were concealed from his view by a curtain4 ,the judgment was delivered not according to the beauty of the song1 but strictly according to the number of mistakes the singer had made1 with reference to the rules of the guild4 ,it is hardly to be wondered at1 then1 that the songs of the ,meistersingers were dry and uninspired4 ,to musical learning they may have contributed something4 ,but to the art of music1 on its poetical side1 they gave next to nothing4 ,they show1 however1 a certain clumsy fancy1 as in the titles of the following songs3 #8,maidenly ,grace1' #8,the ,nightingale1' #8,the ,glutton1' #8,a ,monkey ,tune1' and #8,the ,pointed ,arrow4' ,the institution of the ,mastersong1 beginning in ,mayence in the fourteenth century1 spread over the greater part of ,germany1 as far as the ,baltic ,sea1 and flourished for nearly four centuries4 ,one guild was in existence at ,ulm as late as #ahci4 ,the most famous of all the guilds is of course that of ,nuremberg1 one of the richest ,german cities of late medival times4 ,and the most famous of the ,mastersingers is the ,nuremberg poet1 ,hans ,sachs1 #8,schumacher und ,poet dazu4' ,sachs1 like ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 is a landmark in ,german literature4 ,his output of vigorous homely poems was enormous1 and the support he gave to the ,lutheran ,reformation in its early days contributed in no small measure to its propagation among the simple people4 ,but though the mastersong was musically sterile1 the ,german folk-song1 which had been vigorously developing through the centuries1 now came to brilliant flower4 ,the ,lutheran ,reformation was1 as we have said1 a popular movement4 ,without the hearty support and understanding of the masses it could never have succeeded4 ,and ,luther1 understanding this1 sought to draw the congregation as closely as possible into the church service4 ,his chief means were the reading of the ,bible and the liturgy in the native tongue instead of ,latin1 and the congregational singing of chorales4 ,hymns1 as they are sung now in ,protestant churches1 were almost unknown in the ,roman church4 ,their introduction was a complete innovation of the ,lutheran movement4 ,but ,luther understood that congregational hymns could not be imported from another country and engrafted on his people4 ,so he took the folk-songs that were actually being sung by the people and wrote devotional words to fit them4 ,he caused many other tunes to be written in the folk-manner and in all probability wrote some himself 7including the famous #8,luther's ,hymn1' #8,a ,mighty ,fortress is our ,god'74 ,these hymns spoke with a familiar voice of the people and were one of the powerful sources of strength to the church in its early days of persecution4 ,the purely musical results of this introduction of folk-song into the church service were very great4 ,from ,luther's time onward the chorale--profound1 dignified1 and solemn--was the spiritual basis of ,german music4 ,by it ,german music became emancipated from the ,italian4 ,the ,german church mothered its own musicians1 greatest of whom was ,johann ,sebastian ,bach4 ,and the ,german chorale was one of the two great influences on later ,german song4 ,from the #8,spiritual ,songs' of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach1 which are nothing more than solo chorales1 through the songs of the same name composed by his son1 ,carl ,philipp ,emanuel1 to the direct precursors of ,schubert1 we see a direct line of succession4 ,if the ,german music preceding ,schubert was serious1 closely knit1 firmly based1 we must lay it in large part to the influence of the ,german folk-song which had the same ,german qualities--and especially those of simplicity and honesty4 ,it was not solely in ,german ,protestant music1 however1 that popular song became merged4 ,much earlier than this time it had exerted its influence on the music of the ,roman church4 ,as early as the fourteenth century it had become the fashion among church composers to use popular tunes for their masses4 ,it is hardly probable that the motive was to draw the people closer into the church service by giving them a tune they were familiar with4 ,in fact1 the church had several times been obliged to rule that the people should not sing in the service1 except on certain days1 before and after the ritual4 ,but the church composers of the thirteenth century and after were in the habit of writing florid counterpoint around a set melody1 called the cantus firmus1 and it became the fashion not to invent the cantus firmus for one's self but to borrow it from any source at hand4 ,in the course of time composers hit upon the scheme of borrowing secular tunes4 ,dufay1 at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 used one of the tunes of the people1 ,l'homme arm1 which has been called #8the most popular tune of the ,middle ,ages4' ,such a universal favorite did it become that it was used in masses by nearly every church composer from ,josquin de ,prs to ,orlando di ,lasso4 ,v ,it is quite possible that the presence of popular tunes in church music did something to aid the approach of the modern major modes 7which had already been widely used by the ,troubadours and ,minnesingers74 ,but their influence was at first disguised1 for the cantus firmus was usually sung very slowly1 in order to allow the florid counterpoint to grow around it1 and hence usually became indistinguishable to the hearer4 ,certainly here the popular art had no such direct and inspiring effect as in the ,lutheran revival4 ,forces were working slowly toward a great change in men's art1 as in men's life and thoughts4 ,popular art underwent an eclipse for a time1 to emerge later in a new world1 dominant and victorious4 ,the eclipse came on slowly1--a general twilight all along the line of battle4 ,beginning with the twelfth 7even the eleventh7 century1 men had been experimenting with counterpoint and polyphony1 working out ,chinese puzzles in the combination of two and more voices4 ,gradually they learned how to make these puzzles beautiful as well as ingenious4 ,then came the age of the great ,catholic church composers1 of whom ,orlando di ,lasso and ,palestrina are the most famous4 ,with them melody no longer had its former place4 ,there was much more to think of than the beauty of a single voice4 ,the whole art was more austere and more ethereal than popular songs had been4 ,and the polyphonic art began to dominate secular music4 ,in place of the fluent melody of the ,minnesinger came the part-song and madrigal4 ,this was built on the same principles as the sacred mass1 but its character was naturally lighter and more lively in movement4 ,the part-song was the #8catch' of ,shakespeare's time and its popularity is shown by the frequent reference to it in ,shakespeare's plays4 ,in #8,twelfth ,night' ,sir ,andrew1 ,sir ,toby1 and the fool commence a catch 7doubtless known to the audience73 #8,hold thy ,peace1 ,thou ,knave1' ,sir ,andrew expostulating1 #8,how can ,i begin if ,i hold my peace8' ,the madrigals were not always of so sportive a character4 ,sometimes they were love-songs or songs of nature1 showing keen poetic feeling4 ,often they were masterpieces of polyphony and canon4 ,but though much learning went into their construction1 their spirit was that of the popular song4 ,the most interesting of early part-songs is one known as #8,sumer is icumen in1' a ,northumbrian canon for six voices1 which has been proved to have been composed not later than #abbh4 ,it is a delightfully melodious piece1 written in fairly good harmony1 in the major mode1 typical of the freedom and gracefulness of popular music of the time in contrast to the rigor of the ecclesiastical works4 ,from the early part of the thirteenth century to the middle of the seventeenth madrigals were written and were the principal form of secular vocal music4 ,during this time1 of course1 folk-song continued4 ,but it was1 as it had been several centuries earlier1 but a poor relation of music1 dwelling among the despised and rejected of men4 ,it was doubtless during this period that the earlier specimens of the folk-songs now preserved to us assumed something like their present form4 ,but so far as outward history is concerned secular song is contained in the madrigal 7which is not #8song' in our sense71 and in the mastersong of ,germany1 which was almost wholly lacking in inspiration4 ,when the homophonic song once more awoke to its place1 the world had experienced the profound changes of the ,renaissance and the ,reformation4 ,secular life had outstripped the religious in variety and intellectual interest4 ,the church was powerful still1 but it was no longer the centre of gravity for all men's activity4 ,so song found itself drawn into the vortex and forced to serve men's pleasures and vanities in innumerable forms4 ,what these forms were and how they tended to the ,song proper we shall see in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,classic ,,song ,,and ,,the ,,aria ,italy and the monodic style--,song in the seventeenth century2 ,germany2 ,france--,song in ,england--,the aria--,german song in the eighteenth century2 ,french song in the eighteenth century2 forerunners of ,schubert4 ,i ,the last half of the fifteenth century was a period of unrest and profound change in music4 ,as we have seen1#aj it was in this period that the old pure style of church music reached its highest perfection under ,palestrina1 and1 because the resources of the style had been exhausted1 began to give place to the style which we know as modern4 ,out of this change grew directly most of the modern musical forms--the opera1 the oratorio1 the independent orchestral piece with its searching out of instrumental resources1 and--the ,art-,song4 ,it is one of the vagaries of history that the ,art-,song1 though it commenced with definite consciousness about the year #afjj1 did not become a firmly established art form for full two centuries4 ,by all the signs of the times it seems as though it should quickly have risen to maturity4 ,the humanistic enthusiasm of the ,renaissance had sensitized people to individual emotions and moods--the very material of the art-song4 ,singing was universal and had attained a high degree of technical excellence4 ,and the earliest composers of opera of the time had hit upon the very principles which ,schubert exemplified two centuries later--the accurate following of the words by expressive music1 independent of #8pattern' form4 ,but for various reasons1 which we shall examine presently1 the art-song became side-tracked4 ,within twenty years of its birth it had been exiled to a dark cellar of history and its feeble attempts at growth had been smothered by an institution which presently captured the whole civilized world--the opera4 ,so the history of song from #afjj to #ahjj is not unlike that of the five centuries preceding--a delving into the out-of-the-way places where there is to be found much that is charming and interesting1 but little with broad and conscious artistic drive4 ,nevertheless1 song in this period does show organic development4 ,the outcast infant in the cellar does grow and become beautiful4 ,but its growth is that of music in general4 ,as technical materials and artistic consciousness develop1 song partakes of the common benefits1 but only secondarily1 here and there1 as the servant picks crumbs from the master's table4 ,first of all1 in common with music in general1 song partook of the change from the old modes to the major and minor scales4 ,and here1 indeed1 it was a leader rather than a follower4 ,we have seen in the previous chapter how the folk-songs of ,provence and of the ,rhine blossomed into a gentle and flowing major mode centuries before the ecclesiastical music had achieved anything like a feeling for the tonic4 ,and it was perhaps partly because of the introduction of folk-tunes into church music that the latter presently began to show evidences of the change4 ,in all countries we can see how the folk-song1 increasing its hold over conscious composers1 began to set the spirit for all secular music4 ,illustration3 ,great ,singers of the ,past4 ,top3 ,pauline ,viardot-,garca and ,wilhelmine ,schrder-,devrient ,bottom3 ,adelina ,patti and ,jenny ,lind ,in ,italy1 where the change from the old style to the new was most marked and dramatic1 the art-song grew gradually out of the madrigal and part-song4 ,while we have no traces of the folk-song of the sixteenth century1 we know that composers began to write their part-songs in the folk-spirit4 ,this meant1 besides the predominance of the major mode and the tonic feeling1 a stressing of the upper or #8melody' voice1 whereas in the older contrapuntal music it was the tenor which carried the chief tune4 ,the frottolle of the time were ballads popular both in words and melody2 the villanelle1 or #8village songs1' sought to preserve an artless and rustic flavor2 and the villotte1 or drinking songs1 were filled with the high spirits for which the ,italians are famous4 ,all these were essentially folk-like melodies treated contrapuntally4 ,gradually the counterpoint became simpler1 reflecting perhaps the growing simplification of church music1 and with ,perissone ,cambio1 in #aedg1 the part-songs assumed the nature of melodies harmonized in four parts with a free use of passing notes--much as in the four-part chorales of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach4 ,the simplification continued1 and with ,giacomo ,gastoldi1 in #aeia1 we have true #8chord-for-note' harmonizations of melodies in the modern style4 ,with this1 the song element has been liberated4 ,the melody has gained complete mastery1 and the harmony is used simply to enrich and support the upper part4 ,and as we have seen in another chapter#aa singers quickly seized the import of the new developments4 ,as early as #aeci ,sileno is recorded to have sung the upper part of a madrigal1 with wind instruments for the lower voices4 ,of course these madrigals were still essentially polyphonic1 but the composers of the time steadily continued to stress the upper voice for its melodic value and to simplify and suppress the inner voices until they became a mere harmonic support4 ,it was this #8one-voiced madrigal' which became the parent of the airs du cour and the simple solo songs and romances of seventeenth century ,france4 ,but the abortive development of the art-song was an entirely different matter4 ,it had little or nothing to do with the tendency to stress a madrigal melody1 or with the liberation of the seventeenth-century romance4 ,the style called monody1 or the stile rappresentativo1 which might have produced a true art-song in the seventeenth century1 was invented or revived quite in opposition to the madrigal and its spirit4 ,the one thing it had in common with the new madrigal was the #8chord-for-note' harmonic style4 ,this1 thanks to the popularity of the new madrigal1 had become common property4 ,when the ,florentine innovators began their experiments1 they found it ready to hand4 ,but the true monodic style was1 so far as song is concerned1 a wholly abortive affair4 ,its history has been traced elsewhere4#ab ,we know of the painful efforts toward monody for nearly two centuries previous to the ,florentine experiments2 we know of the solo songs of ,vincenzo ,galilei in the last decade of the sixteenth century1 and of the songs in ,giulio ,caccini's ,nuovo ,musiche1 published in #afjj4 ,we dimly feel that a musical style devoted to the conscientious reproduction of the spirit of the words1 detail for detail1 should have resulted in a vigorous tradition of art-song4 ,and yet we see the whole force of monody veering into the opera1 quickly being caught up in the da capo aria form1 and in an unbelievably short time forgetting all about its early ideals of textual fidelity and serving only as an exposition gallery for vocal virtuosity4 ,within a quarter of a century monody had forsaken one ideal for its polar opposite4 ,the true #8representative style' had been left high and dry4 ,it remained neglected and forgotten until ,beethoven wrote ,an die ferne ,geliebte1 or ,schubert his ,gretchen am ,spinnenrad4 ,why was this8 ,how could an art-form1 which had caught the very essence of the modern song1 thus sell its birthright for a mess of pottage8 ,reason enough4 ,the mess of pottage was very attractive4 ,for the monodic experiments of the ,florentines were the play-things of a set of dilettantes4 ,they were artificial and exotic4 ,they had consciously no use for the true musical tradition1 the folk-song1 which was living and throbbing among the people4 ,the body was there but the soul was missing4 ,the ,florentines were chiefly interested in decorating the lives of the aristocracy1 in arranging court masques and private theatricals4 ,aristocracy is always weak when it exists in opposition to and at the expense of the life of the people1 as it did in the decadence of ,renaissance ,italy4 ,the art which such an aristocracy produces may be brilliant1 but it is empty4 ,it tinkles and it clatters1 but it does not resound4 ,for the isolated aristocrat is not interested in humanity1 but in his own glorification4 ,the joys and sorrows of the people are repulsive to him3 he seeks to escape sorrows1 and he longs for some more highly colored joys4 ,he floats on the surface of life as he floats on the surface of society4 ,his art tends to become the maximum of show and the minimum of meaning4 ,so when the aristocracy of the time discovered the new monodic style1 it sought to make use of it for theatrical entertainment1 neglecting the more human and personal song4 ,vocal coloratura provided aristocracy with precisely the thing it had unconsciously been seeking--the maximum of show and the minimum of meaning4 ,the skilled singers of the time caught the trick of introducing impromptu embellishments on the simple monodic recitative4 ,monteverdi hit upon the device which would give such coloratura singing a centre of gravity--the da capo form4 ,monody as heightened speech was wholly forgotten1 except for the debased recitativo secco1 which bridged the gaps between arias1 and tinsel opera became the furore of the leisured class4 ,the middle class of ,italy1 becoming prosperous in business and always anxious to ape its betters1 flocked to these entertainments as soon as large opera houses began to spring up1 and opera as an institution overshadowed all other musical forms4 ,the oratorio1 presumably devotional in spirit1 became no less debased in its display4 ,song1 as a great art-form1 was strangled for another century or two1 receiving no new ideals and serving as a mere diversion for composer and singer4 ,thus does the easy convenience of abstract form often stifle poetic expression4 ,we have spoken of the da capo form and its unfortunate influence on the monodic style4 ,strictly speaking1 the term da capo was not used until ,tenaglia used it in his opera ,cleano1 in #affa4 ,but the ordinary statement that the da capo was invented by ,tenaglia 7or by ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 as is more frequently said7 is quite misleading4 ,tenaglia's da capo aria is of little historical importance4 ,the composer used the term probably not out of a sense of form1 but out of pure laziness1 preferring not to copy out the opening section a second time4 ,the real da capo1 which in its more developed state becomes the sonata form1 can be traced back vaguely into primitive music1 and exists in miniature perfection in many folk-songs4 ,it becomes a recognized mold for musical composition about the time of ,monteverdi4 ,with the later opera and oratorio composers we find it in a debased state1 where it exists not as an artistic form but as a mere stenographic convenience4 ,this debasement is typical of the cheapening of opera which continued pretty steadily up to the time of ,gluck4 ,the coloratura aria obscured to all minds the expressive possibilities of the stile rappresentativo1 and left to song nothing but the old madrigal tradition fused with certain elements of popular feeling4 ,the many arias1 ariettas1 canzoni1 cantate1 and even one-voiced madrigals1 which were published by the fashionable composers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed little regard for dramatic or precise emotional expression1 but continued to sing with the placid lyrical feeling of the great madrigal age4 ,they were only obliged1 with the growth of solo singing1 to become clearer as to form1 more regular in metre and line4 ,for their ability to achieve this they had the popular song almost wholly to thank4 ,scarlatti's beautiful canzonetta1 ,o cessate di piagarmi1 with its simple guitar accompaniment1 might pass for a ,neapolitan folk-song of to-day4 ,yet1 on the whole1 the solo songs of this period failed to fulfill the high artistic promise of the early seventeenth century4 ,there was a great quantity of these lyrical pieces1 however1 and they gained a high popularity4 ,for the most part they remain to-day in their original state1 published with the curious notation and the archaic clefs of the time1 unknown except to the savants4 ,but certain anthologies have presented a few of the songs to the general public1 and these have astonished hearers with their strange placid beauty4 ,in some ways it is the best genius of the time which we find in these songs4 ,in them the lyric impulse of the ,italians came out in its purest form4 ,the flashy ideals of the opera house were far removed from their tender strains4 ,their beauty is like the sunlight of an early spring morning1 which illumines all things and exaggerates none4 ,the words1 though nave and somewhat conventional in their continual playing with sentimental love1 are not without their grace and beauty4 ,and the music is remarkably varied4 ,among these songs we find lullabies1 fanciful dialogues1 dance songs1 gentle laments1 and delightful musical jokes4 ,there is among them much less of pure convention than in the operas of the period1 and at times there is a sensuous or emotional quality which seems to look forward many decades4 ,to the singer these songs are especially valuable1 since they represent at its purest the old ,italian ideal of bel canto1 free from either declamatory or coloratura influence4 ,there can be no better school for the formation of purity of tone and fluency of phrasing than these early canzoni4 ,their general character1 as contrasted with that of modern music1 is strikingly illustrated in ,strauss's opera ,der ,rosenkavalier4 ,in the first act of this work the court musician sings a few strophes of a song which is supposed to be of the period of the opera1 and the composer has deftly imitated the music of the time4 ,the song shows no touch of emotional agitation or harshness4 ,it has no climaxes1 scarcely any variations of tonal power4 ,it is merely a lovely melody1 sung purely and smoothly1 somewhat aimless in melodic formation1 in long fluent phrases and gentle melancholy cadences4 ,to hear this canzone1 contrasted with the agitated modern music which surrounds it in the opera1 will demonstrate most eloquently the spiritual difference between the music of the seventeenth and that of the twentieth century4 ,the song composers of this period are those whose names we meet in the history of opera and oratorio1 for it continued to be the part of every popular composer in the larger forms to maintain and broaden his reputation by means of small and popular pieces4 ,further1 some of the best of the songs are taken from the larger works4 ,not all the arias were of the coloratura type4 ,often1 especially in the seventeenth century1 charming canzoni and ariosos found their way into a long choral or stage work4 ,the harmonic support 7in many cases supplied by the modern editors from the original figured bass7 is at the beginning simple and somewhat angular4 ,but as the seventeenth century wears on we find ,monteverdi's great discovery of the unprepared dissonance working more freely into the texture of the accompaniment4 ,the lower voices of the accompaniment become more connected and song-like as the rappresentativo feeling gives way to the lyrical4 ,and long before the end of the century the simpler vocal numbers begin to look very much like those of the early ,handel operas4 ,with ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 working at the end of the century1 the change from the madrigal style of ,palestrina's time is complete4 ,in place of pure1 motionless triads and solid1 block-like architecture1 we have the movement and flow of song in all the parts4 ,music becomes sharply differentiated in character by the nature of the emotion or feeling it is intended to express4 ,what we miss1 judging by modern standards1 is a definite rise and fall of the feeling4 ,the phrases seem too long1 too little differentiated4 ,there is no definite climax-point in the whole4 ,there is too much linked sweetness4 ,but this is precisely the virtue of the songs4 ,they are the canonization of bel canto4 ,they seek before all else perfect purity of tone and style4 ,from the ,monteverdi operas1 much talked-of but little known1 we should mention the famous arioso from ,arianna1 the so-called #8,ariadne's ,lament4' ,in all the ,italian music of the time no more poignant emotional utterance can be found4 ,in its freedom and directness1 it seems to be a foreshadowing of the opera of the late nineteenth century4 ,but as the line of opera composers continues the pure bel canto ideal gains the upper hand4 ,this we find represented in the one-voiced madrigals of ,monteverdi's contemporaries1 as1 for example1 in the charming ,amarilli of ,caccini4 ,cavalli1 who continued the operatic tradition of ,monteverdi and gave greater freedom to the aria1 gives us a type of song which contains many elements of the popular4 ,carissimi1 first writer of oratorios and founder of the great ,italian coloratura tradition1 writes more brilliantly4 ,one of the best known songs of the time is his ,vittoria1#ac which has an irresistible verve and energy4 ,marco ,antonio ,cesti1 follower and disciple of ,carissimi1 was by nature more of a lyricist4 ,his style is wonderfully suave and melodious1 often appealing in a striking way to the sentiments and the senses4 ,though he was primarily a religious composer1 his many madrigals and secular ariettas bring to us the sunny sensuousness of the south4 ,many more of the popular composers of the time are all but unknown to us4 ,antonio ,caldara 7#afga-agfc71 a maestro di capella in ,mantua and ,vienna1 wrote secular songs1 of which one1 ,come raggio di sol1#ad has preserved his fame4 ,this1 with its fine sostenuto melody over a throbbing accompaniment of repeated chords1 carries eloquently a delicate rise and fall of feeling which seems to be of the age of ,schubert4 ,a certain ,g4 ,b4 ,fasolo1 whose dates are not even known1 has left us a charming song of sentiment1 ,cangia1 cangia tue voglie1 which in its delicacy of workmanship suggests the ,french songs of the eighteenth century4 ,giovanni ,battista ,bassani 7#afeg-agaf71 maestro di cappella at ,bologna and ,ferrara1 left a number of love-songs of exquisite grace and tenderness1 of which the lullaby1 ,posate1 dormite1 will serve as an example4 ,other song-writers1 most of them more or less known for their work in the larger forms1 were ,antonio ,vivaldi1 ,alessandro ,stradella1 ,francesco ,p4 ,sacrati1 ,paolo ,magni1 ,jacopo ,perti1 ,antonio ,lotti1 ,niccola ,jomelli1 ,domenico ,sarri1 ,raffaello ,rontani1 ,benedetto ,marcello1 ,pier ,domenico ,paradies1 ,francesco ,gasparini1 ,andrea ,falconiere1 ,francesco ,durante1 ,g4 ,b4 ,bononcini1 ,arcangelo del ,leuto1 and ,s4 de ,luca4 ,some of these men are no more than names in musical history1 who are known at all only because some dusty manuscript preserved their fame4 ,for some the primary biographical facts are missing4 ,others1 of course1 were men of wide influence1 who have made a place for themselves in musical history4 ,but the excellence of the work of the obscure men reveals to us how widespread was the art of musical composition at the time1 how excellent the tradition that was rooted in the whole nation4 ,easily the greatest song-writer of the period was the distinguished opera composer1 ,alessandro ,scarlatti4 ,he was a notable innovator in many forms1 and this power of origination is shown in the poetic variety he has given to his songs4 ,we have already mentioned his folk-like song1 ,o cessate di piagarmi1 which combines with the grace of the dance the sweetness which invites to tears4 ,in a quite different vein nothing could be finer than ,su1 venite a consiglio1 in which the author holds a dialogue with his ,fancies--a smoothly-moving allegro of the utmost delicacy4 ,scarlatti's emotional style is represented in the arietta1 ,sento nel core1 and as a pupil of the worldly ,carissimi he can1 of course1 show numberless arias in the brilliant bravura style which was so popular at the time4 ,pergolesi1 the brilliant composer of opera buffa1 whose early death robbed music of one of its most promising votaries1 is known to singers everywhere by his song ,tre giorni4 ,the purest ,italian lyricism also flows in his andantino song1 ,se tu m'ami1 se sospiri4 ,coming down to a later date we find the extremely popular song-writer and composer of opera buffa1 ,giovanni ,paesiello 7#agda-ahaf71 whose arietta1 ,caro mio ben1 is one of the purest examples of cantilena in all music4 ,we may also notice the delicate gypsy song1 ,chi vuol la ,zingarella4 ,in ,paesiello we find all the traditional ,italian virtues in the highest degree--simplicity1 grace1 expressiveness--together with a sympathetic understanding of the voice which has rarely been surpassed in ,italian song-writing4 ,,ii ,one thing1 however1 the #8representative style' had contributed to song1 in common with all other forms of seventeenth century music4 ,this was the unprepared dissonance in harmonic writing4 ,the dissonance1 which gave immensely greater freedom to the leading of voices1 provided especially a means of poignant emotional expression1 wholly lacking in the old church music4 ,and such art-songs as were written in the seventeenth century made a limited use of the dissonance1 particularly the dominant seventh1 which enabled it to keep mildly abreast of musical progress4 ,in ,germany1 in the early part of this century1 ,hans ,leo ,hassler 7#aefd-afab7 was the chief exponent of song4 ,hassler had studied in ,italy and brought back to his native land something of the ,latin lightness of touch1 as well as the technical innovations which he had seen in process of development during his student days4 ,at his hands the heavy and earnest ,german folk-song became lighter and the melody more prominent1 especially in his dance songs4 ,about this time many song collections made their appearance1 testifying to the growing popularity of solo song4 ,but it was ,heinrich ,albert 7#afjd-afea7 who gave the true national touch to ,german song and justified the title which later generations have given him1 #8,father of the ,german ,lied4' ,germany1 in the early part of the seventeenth century1 was suffering from the effects of severe religious wars and was in one of its periodic states of national and cultural depression4 ,placed as it was in the centre of enemies1 disrupted in political adherence and torn by fratricidal quarrels1 it was peculiarly liable to lose its indigenous culture and to adopt its manners and art from surrounding nations4 ,this was its estate in the first half of the seventeenth century1 when the #8poet patriots' sought to revive national spirit in poetry4 ,the group had much in common with that of more than a century later#ae which sought the same renaissance of ,german national life1 but the time was not yet ripe for their full success4 ,germany was disrupted spiritually as well as politically and for still another century ,french letters and art dominated the upper classes4 ,but beneath the superficial culture of the aristocracy there was the true national life of the common people1 the force which has kept ,germany one through darkest days and nights and has in the last fifty years brought to fruition such a glorious era of national culture4 ,and it was to the folk-element in ,german culture that the #8poet patriots' were forced to appeal4 ,heinrich ,albert1 in setting to music the poems of this group1 chose the ,german folk-song style1 rather than that of the ,italian aria4 ,by this choice he made his work count for something in history4 ,he may be called 7at least so far as ,germany is concerned7 the creator of the volkstmliches ,lied4 ,this is the song which we meet with continually in the next century and a half--the song which is composed consciously and with a definite artistic effect in mind1 but with the materials which are common to the people and capable of being understood by all4 ,the #8folk-like' song1 in fact1 becomes a goodly share of the folk-song treasury of the succeeding generation4 ,at its best it is little below true folk-song in quality4 ,often it fills a whole gap in the life of the people which true folk-song had neglected to fill4 ,we may get a very fair estimate of the place of ,heinrich ,albert's volkstmliches ,lied in the life of the people if we recall the work of ,stephen ,foster in ,america1--a work which is now the common property of people from one end of the land to the other4 ,but1 as we have said1 ,german national life was not vigorous in the seventeenth century1 and the work of the #8poet patriots' passed into comparative oblivion4 ,italian opera quickly became established in all the court centres of ,germany1 and its ideals1 nurtured especially by ,reinhard ,keiser in ,hamburg1 dominated the conscious musical life of the nation4 ,french refinement entered in1 to the detriment of indigenous art4 ,the songs of the time1 written by ,j4 ,g4 ,graun 7#afih-agga71 ,g4 ,p4 ,telemann 7#afha-agfg71 ,agricola1 and others1 were called odes and arias1 imitating the ,french and ,italian names as they imitated the ,french and ,italian forms1 and the volkstmliches ,lied as well as the true art-song was again in disrepute4 ,we should mention1 however1 the few secular songs of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach1 which reveal1 in spite of their lack of originality in form1 a delicate poetic sense1 especially in the little love-song1 ,bist du bei mir4 ,for the true art-song ,germany had to wait until it had achieved some amalgamation of the social and cultural life of the nation4 ,much the most grateful song literature of the long transition period is to be found in ,france4 ,there1 ,gallic taste restrained opera from the worst excesses of the ,italian school1 while the ,french sense of grace and proportion produced a multitude of trifles which have by no means lost their charm to this day4 ,moreover1 as the eighteenth century wore to a close there arose a wonderful tradition of patriotic and idealistic songs which outshone the similar songs of ,germany in brilliance if not1 on the whole1 in stark emotional power4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century the folk-songs of ,france1 like those of ,england1 were still largely in the modal scales4 ,but this was not in imitation of ecclesiastical music4 ,folk-songs have borrowed very little from church music1 in any age1 while the debt on the other side is enormous4 ,the modal character of the early folk-songs is proper to them and extends back far into the early morning of music4 ,if church and folk-music were similar in their scales1 it is rather because they arose from a common stock4 ,certainly the songs of early ,france were thoroughly of their own and not of any borrowed character4 ,but the universal trend toward a standard major scale and a tonic centre was felt in ,france as in other countries1 and by the end of the sixteenth century was well developed4 ,the folk-tunes of the time were vigorous in the extreme1 probably as little like the dainty and restrained songs of modern ,france as the stolid songs of nineteenth century ,england were like the ,elizabethan songs1 with their abounding energy4 ,the ,lutheran movement in music1 which adapted folk-tunes as settings to devotional hymns1 found an exact parallel in ,france as early as #aeci1 when ,marot translated the psalms into metrical form in the vulgar tongue and set them to the songs of the street4 ,the settings instantly became popular4 ,it is said that the court1 being fascinated with the freshness of the songs1 became thereby more familiar with scripture than it had been for many a year4 ,the strict church party violently disapproved of the practice and issued its own set of rival songs to stem the tide of popularity1 but even these1 which were obliged to be popular in character1 only added to the vogue of the street-tune settings4 ,in the following century the same thing happened in the political field4 ,the ,cardinal ,mazarin1 who was immensely unpopular among the people1 was made the butt of endless satires in verse set to tunes which everybody knew4 ,no fewer than four thousand of these #8,mazarinades' were later collected and published4 ,the songs of the late sixteenth century1 apart from folk-songs1 were largely dance tunes set to lively words and supported with a polyphonic accompaniment4 ,but slowly the polyphony became more simple and in the beginning of the seventeenth century the #8chord-fornote' accompaniment was adopted from ,italy and came to most charming flower4 ,with the ,french sense of grace and fitness the ,french composers made their airs du cour1 or #8court tunes1' lyric and flowing1 keeping the accompaniment in its proper place as a mere support to the melody and rounding off the pieces by means of a subtle and satisfying architecture4 ,the many names under which the ,french aristocratic songs went are hardly to be distinguished with definiteness4 ,the term airs du cour covered almost any songs of a restrained1 polished character4 ,the chanson was nearer the people1 sometimes a ballad1 very often a dance tune1 and not infrequently a gross or indecent piece of little artistic value4 ,the romance1 which dates from the ,troubadours1 was touching and graceful1 almost wholly confined to the tender sentiments4 ,the brunette was a simple love song1 not very distinct in genre1 the very name being a matter of doubt4 ,the bergerette1 in which class belong some of the most delightful of ,french songs1 was a lyric of pretended pastoral nature1 in which lovers carried on their romances in the guise of shepherds and shepherdesses4 ,the musette was written in supposed imitation of a street organ1 invariably over a #8drone bass1' usually in fifths4 ,the vaudeville1 less distinguished in character than any of the others1 was a mere adaptation of current street tunes 7whence the name1 voix de ville74 ,these types of song found their way in great abundance into later ,french opera1 especially that admirable achievement of the ,french1 the opra comique1 and many of the best ,french songs of the eighteenth century are to be found in opera scores4 ,but in the operas of ,lully1 the chief ,french dramatic composer of the seventeenth century1 the lightness of touch which distinguishes the ,french had not yet come into its own and the somewhat ponderous classic tradition still dominated4 ,songs during this period were usually written independently1 but they grew in popularity so steadily that the composers of light opera in the following century were forced to include one or more romances1 brunettes1 or bergerettes in their works to insure their popularity4 ,,iii ,in ,elizabethan ,england in the sixteenth century the strolling minstrels and ballad singers had already largely adopted the ,ionian or major mode for their songs4 ,this mode was in high disfavor among the educated musicians of the time1 who called it il modo lascivio1 the #8lascivious mode4' ,it is interesting to recall that the ,greeks1 including ,plato1 brought the same charge against their ,lydian mode1 which was the one of the four original modes which was most predominantly major in its feeling4 ,in the ,england of ,elizabeth and ,james the madrigal had nearly as much vogue as in ,italy and the madrigal writers1 chief among whom was ,orlando ,gibbons 7#aehc-afbe71 were highly regarded4 ,not a few of the solo songs from this period have continued in favor to this day1 but the more familiar ones were in most cases the work of educated composers writing in the popular style4 ,in fact1 the pure ,english folk-song was so inhospitably received among its own folk during the ,commonwealth and after1 that1 until recently1 it was popularly supposed that ,england had no folk-song of consequence4 ,but the folk-songs were there and have continued from generation to generation through the centuries1 to be discovered of late years by conscientious investigators4 ,though they are dying out in modern industrial ,england1 they still exist in such numbers and of such distinctive beauty that they prove1 more than all records can1 the genuine musical quality of the ,england that existed before the great ,rebellion4 ,from among the #8folk-like' songs of this period we have1 preserved in full popularity1 a number1 notably the #8,carman's ,whistle1' #8,the ,british ,grenadiers1' #8,the ,bailiff's ,daughter of ,islington1' the #8,willow' song which ,shakespeare introduced into #8,othello1' and #8,the ,friar of ,orders ,gray4' ,during the ,commonwealth secular music flourished1 but chiefly on the ,royalist side1 since the ,puritans1 in their idle moments1 were largely engaged in singing hymn tunes4 ,from this period we have the stirring song #8,when the ,king ,enjoys ,his ,own ,again4' ,with the return of the ,stuarts and the reign of ,charles ,,ii the influence of ,france1 where ,charles had spent his years of exile1 became dominant4 ,the dance1 not the dance of the people but the stately dance of the court1 asserted its sway over song1 and the flesh and blood1 which had throbbed so richly in ,elizabethan ,england1 all but dropped out of the later ,english product4 ,the songs which are preserved from the period occurred chiefly in the masques which were performed at court1 which were ,french to the core4 ,the chief song writer of the time1 and of that just preceding1 was ,henry ,lawes 7#aeie-affb71 who wrote the music to ,milton's immortal masque of #8,comus4' ,lawes was a true musician1 though not a great one1 and he did much for ,english song in making the music respect the poetry4 ,he loosened formal bonds and introduced something of the ,italian recitative style4 ,along with the ,restoration we have semi-folk-songs of a light character1 though without the freshness of preceding decades4 ,we may mention two of the most popular1 #8,come1 ,lasses and ,lads1' and #8,barbara ,allen4' ,pelham ,humphrey 7#afdg-gd71 whom ,charles ,,ii sent to ,france to study under ,lully1 brought back to ,england with him the ,french grace and refinement and helped to set the keynote for ,english song for the next half century4 ,this much the returned ,stuart dynasty did for ,english music1 in bringing ,french traditions across the ,channel1 but the more stolid ,english disposition of the time never hospitably absorbed the new influence4 ,and in #afhh the ,stuarts were ushered out to the strains of a most remarkable tune1 #8,lilliburlero4' ,of this song it has truly been said that it #8drove ,king ,james ,,ii out of ,england4' ,it was not a patriotic or warlike song1 however1 but merely a satire4 ,the ribald words may seem the worst of doggerel to us now1 but their rough satire awakened all ,england when the impudence of the ,stuarts had become unbearable and the energetic melody carried them in a flash from one end of the country to the other4 ,the upheaval of #afhh was the #8bloodless revolution4' ,king ,james succumbed to laughter4 ,and1 curiously enough1 this loose and somewhat commonplace tune introduces us to the greatest and most sincere of all ,english musicians 7unless recent years have produced his peer7 and to the song writer of whom1 above all others1 ,england has a right to be proud4 ,this man was ,henry ,purcell4 ,the tune of #8,lilliburlero' was written as an innocent dance in a book of virginal pieces and thence was brought into the open air to support the high spirits of the satiric verses4 ,it is quite certain that ,purcell never intended himself to be made immortal when he wrote it1 or to be an instrument in the downfall of ,king ,james1 to whom he wrote one of his many #8odes4' ,but into some of his other songs he put the best he had4 ,they are graceful in the extreme1 often decorated with the vocal turns and embellishments which were the fashion of the day1 but never lacking in the musician's touch4 ,their melodic facility is charming2 their appropriateness to the spirit of the words is convincing2 and their delicate architecture makes them1 apart from their vocal quality1 polished works of art4 ,purcell still frequently 7and justly7 appears on song programs4 ,among his many lyrics which are worth knowing we may mention #8,full ,fathom ,five' and #8,come ,unto ,these ,yellow ,sands1' to ,shakespeare's words1 and #8,i ,attempt from ,love's ,sickness to ,fly4' ,but after ,purcell ,english music showed a falling off in originality and spontaneous quality which has astonished and mystified historians4 ,and ,english song suffered the same fate along with the rest of ,english music4 ,vigorous semi-folk-songs date from the early eighteenth century--notably #8,down ,among the ,dead ,men1' #8,the ,vicar of ,bray1' and #8,pretty ,polly ,oliver'--but as the century progressed the song output became more and more vapid and superficial in spirit4 ,this was doubtless in part due to the vogue of ,italian opera which held fashionable ,england fascinated and smothered the creative work of native composers4 ,and as people became disgusted with the fad they turned to the next best thing at hand1 the #8ballad opera4' ,this was not a very exalted form of art1 but it was at least fresher and more musical than the exaggerated vocal virtuosity of opera1 with its conventionalized arias and its #8castrati1' or male sopranos4 ,the ballad opera came into fashion in #agbg1 with the enormous success of #8,the ,beggar's ,opera1' a success comparable to that of #8,pinafore' a century and a half later4 ,the ballad opera was strictly not opera at all1 but only a lively and merry farce 7often suggesting the operetta librettos of ,sir ,william ,gilbert7 interspersed with songs and duets4 ,these songs were at first but popular melodies of the street or countryside1 adapted to new words1 assuring the popularity of the opera because the tunes were favorites4 ,as the number of native tunes seemed insufficient to supply the enormous number of ballad operas1 the writers engaged well-known musicians to write original tunes in the same manner--sometimes as many as eight or ten composers for one work4 ,the songs never appeared as organic parts of the action and hence offer no analogy to the arias of true opera1 but they were usually made vaguely appropriate to the dramatic situation and were introduced in such a way as not to seem out of place4 ,among the host of these melodies which have come down to us there are indeed many which are fresh and attractive4 ,but the great majority have the cheapness of the street without its abundant life4 ,and they nearly always have a strain of the extreme sentimentality which has remained a blot on ,english song literature until recent times4 ,on the whole1 if the ballad operas delivered ,england from the pompous inanities of the ,italian craze1 they also seduced ,english taste from the exquisite manner of ,purcell4 ,the better part of musical ,england turned to the noble oratorios of ,handel and against his thundering chords all minor lyric strains were fruitless4 ,the song writers of eighteenth-century ,england are a depressing crew4 ,henry ,carey 7#afhe-agdc71 to whom the melody of #8,god ,save the ,king' has been attributed1 was a fruitful writer of ballad operas1 though he is nowadays best known by #8,sally in ,our ,alley1' a tune which is the essence of awkwardness--a tune1 in short1 which could have happened nowhere but in eighteenth-century ,england4 ,thomas ,arne 7#agaj-gh7 was much more of a musician and a scholar1 but also much of a pedant4 ,even such a dainty song as #8,where the ,bee ,sucks' is marred by its awkward overlaying of fiorituri4 ,the song by which ,arne is best known1 #8,rule ,britannia1' is indeed a stirring melody2 but the fact that a man of ,arne's standing could write such a tune to the given words and that ,england could accept the two as belonging together proves to what a depth the country had sunk in musical matters4 ,we need only quote the first line3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,when ,britain first at ,heav'n's command ,wagner said that this phrase contained the whole spirit of the ,english people4 ,but what about the words and that ridiculous #8fir-r-r-r-rst8' ,samuel ,arnold 7#agdj-ahjb71 ,charles ,dibdin 7#agde-ahad71 ,james ,hook 7#agdf-ahbg71 and ,john ,davy 7#agfd-ahbd7 need only be mentioned and forgotten4 ,henry ,bishop 7#aghh-ahee7 was a man of more artistic sense and a composer of graceful and emotional melody1 but without his operas he would scarcely be remembered4 ,the tradition of awkward and sentimental melody which these men established or maintained continued to disgrace ,english song until the close of the nineteenth century and even to-day in the half-conscious ,english popular ballad we seem to hear the debased strains of the ballad opera4 ,,iv ,during all this period song1 as we have tried to show1 was under a cloud4 ,it was the aria1 illegitimate child of the stile rappresentativo and dearest daughter of sunny ,italy1 that held sway over the nations4 ,vocal music was commonly thought in terms of the aria4 ,all else was little better than a diversion for an idle moment--understood1 of course1 that we are speaking of polite culture4 ,what aria meant to the seventeenth and especially to the early eighteenth century was chiefly vocal display of one sort or another4 ,but formally we may distinguish it by the da capo form4 ,da capo1 meaning #8from the beginning1' was the open sesame into the mazes of vocalization4 ,monteverdi must get the credit for it4 ,he lit the fire4 ,numerous rubbish piled on by other hands furnished the smoke4 ,for ,monteverdi was1 above and beyond the innovator in him1 a skilled and sensitive musician4 ,he felt1 and felt truly1 that the stile rappresentativo made his beloved music decidedly a second best4 ,very well to reveal the emotional qualities of the text6 ,but if the music cannot itself hang together there is something wrong4 ,and it was with one of those very keen and very simple devices that ,monteverdi righted matters4 #8,represent' your text to your heart's content1 he said1 but before you have done go back and sing a little of the beginning over again4 ,thus you give the musician a chance2 for you mark off the music as something having its own architecture4 ,and1 moreover1 you #8represent' all the more truly1 for you mark off at the same time the lyrical emotion and make a musical unit of what is properly also a unit of drama4 ,this ,monteverdi did in simplest terms in the first of arias--#8,ariadne's ,lament1' in his opera ,arianna1 and this same ,lament1 it is recorded1 very properly moved the audience to tears4 ,the aria is beautiful still4 ,monteverdi's dissonances have not lost their emotional expressive value4 ,and the da capo repetition1 which enters so unobtrusively1 underscores the emotion as nothing else could4 ,but ,monteverdi was not the inventor of this form4 ,needless to say the folk-song had been there before him4 ,and1 as always happens1 when the art of the people had been commandeered for a single well-chosen one of its treasures1 it gave gold where silver had been asked4 ,nevertheless gold can be put to base uses4 ,scarcely had dilettantes discovered that the da capo form could be used to give unity to some vocalist's singing than they used it to give form to all sorts of formless things4 ,we cannot at this distance imagine the vapidity of endless runs and roulades which passed in the seventeenth century for vocal music4 ,or at least we cannot until we see the actual fact on a cold printed page4 ,and then1 to do the seventeenth century justice1 we cannot imagine the brilliancy of these same runs and roulades when brilliantly sung with the incomparable ,italian vocal art of the time4 ,brilliancy of a kind6 ,let us call it brilliancy merely1 and not plague it with the name of music4 ,however that may be1 we certainly cannot imagine the hold this institution of the aria had over the imaginations of the people of the time4 ,to them it must have seemed the ,muses on wings as compared with the ,muses on foot4 ,aria became a science4 ,more1 it became a code of honor4 ,its nuances and conventions were tabulated as nicely as those of fencing or love making4 ,a sin against the code was the unforgivable sin4 ,there were1 scientifically accredited1 certain classes of arias with certain subdivisions thereunto appertaining4 ,an opera must contain so many of each sort4 ,each major singer must have so many1 no two alike and all equitably distributed4 ,no aria must fall in the same class as that just preceding4 ,there were many rules such as these1 and more of the same sort which are well buried in dusty dictionaries4 ,and if there were any to protest against such a condition they were promptly silenced by the statement that the arrangement was excellent for the singers4 ,those who studied this deep subject most profoundly at the time agreed that the aria was to be divided into some five classes1 to wit3 aria bravura--brilliant1 rapid1 difficult2 aria cantabile--smooth1 long drawn out1 designed to exhibit purity of tone and manipulation of the breath2 aria buffa--humorous2 aria di portamento--simple in outline1 playing with the singer's trick of swelling out on long-sustained tones2 and aria parlante--simulating rapid spoken speech1 a type peculiarly grateful to the ,italian language4 ,these classes had their subdivisions1 as1 for instance1 the aria parlante1 which might be agitata1 or infuriata1 or fugata1 or what not4 ,the lore of aria was endless4 ,except that the form continued into ,italian opera of the middle nineteenth century it would scarcely be worth recalling4 ,but the greatest of the arias 7with considerable musical value added7 are among the latest4 ,the #8,factotum' aria which opens ,rossini's #8,barber of ,seville' is a perfect example of the buffa and might also come under the head of the parlante2 and ,leonora's first aria in ,il ,trovatore is in the true manner of the bravura4 ,in addition to the arias proper we should mention the cavatina and the arioso2 the former a short aria1 rather more musical and graceful than was considered necessary in the longer forms2 and the latter a brief lyrical strain1 free as to form1 planned truly to express an emotion in its momentary passing4 ,all these forms have little more than an archeological interest to us now 7though the da capo idea remains one of the most fruitful in all music71 except for the purposes of vocal study4 ,but this exception is considerable4 ,the arias were designed to exhibit the utmost of vocal virtuosity4 ,they serve to-day to develop and exercise the same1 so far as modern music and musical taste demand it1 for the rather more artistic purposes of the twentieth century4 ,v ,the #8odes' and #8arias1' which in early eighteenth-century ,germany stood in the place of songs1 began to give place toward the middle of the century to music of a more national character4 ,the work of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach1 though not widely recognized at the time1 spoke for a solid tradition of native ,german singing4 ,and the wars of ,frederick the ,great1 who reigned from #agdj to #aghf1 did much to arouse patriotism in outward life4 ,any vigorous cultural life in ,germany during these wearing conflicts was1 of course1 impossible1 but after the close of the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-fc7 ,prussia and ,saxony began to revive1 and with them revived a consciousness of ,german nationality and ,german identity4 ,the courts were1 of course1 thoroughly ,parisian1 but the middle class was more than ever national in feeling4 ,and among this class in the last third of the century arose a type of dramatic entertainment which corresponded to the opra comique in ,france and was quite as national--the ,singspiel4 ,the founder of this type was ,johann ,adam ,hiller 7#agbh-ahjd71 first director of the famous ,leipzig ,gewandhaus orchestra and one of the most noted musicians of his day4 ,the ,singspiel was not greatly unlike the ,english ballad opera in form1 though much more sincere in spirit4 ,it was a simple play1 usually light in character1 with frequent interspersing of songs and choruses4 ,the plot was usually drawn from ,german village life and the characters were all familiar types4 ,these were1 on the whole1 so truly observed that the ,singspiel became a truly national art4 ,moreover1 its artistic value was often high2 the songs and choruses were usually organic parts of the action1 and the best musicianship frequently went into their composition4 ,the ,singspiel was the direct parent of ,german opera1 as has been narrated in another place4#af ,but its value to the art of song was even more important4 ,for1 while in the ,singspiel the nobles and aristocratic characters sang arias modelled on the ,french style1 the peasants and middle class people sang true songs in the spirit of folk-music4 ,accordingly the ,singspiel1 with its immense popularity1 spread abroad the knowledge and love of the ,german volkstmliches ,lied4 ,it was for more than a quarter of a century the direct continuer of the tradition of ,german song4 ,but ,hiller's place in the history of song is even more distinctive than this4 ,for he is generally conceded to have been the first composer of the durchkomponiertes ,lied4 ,durchkomponiert1 which literally means #8composed all the way through1' is used to describe that type of song which does not follow any abstract formal scheme but fits the words in all their variations of meaning1 leaving each song to find its own form according to its own requirements4 ,thus the aria form which would require the repetition of the first section at the close of the song would be wholly unsuitable for a poem which showed an emotional development from joy to sorrow1 or from sorrow to joy4 ,in the same way the strophic form1 which sets each verse of the poem to the same tune1 would be unsuitable for a poem expressing contrasting emotions in its verses4 ,a true regard for the spirit of the words required that the song composer should be free to write expressive music according to the requirements of each line of the poem4 ,this was first done1 tentatively enough1 it is true1 by ,hiller4 ,from that time on ,german song writers showed a certain amount of freedom in their song forms4 ,it must be admitted that they did not make much use of their freedom1 since they did the greater part and the best part of their work in the strophic form4 ,but ,hiller has the credit of originating a type of procedure which was further developed by ,beethoven and brought to glorious fruition by ,schubert4 ,gluck1 with his unfailing artistic sense1 has supplied a bit of the literature of song development in his letter1 written in #aggg to ,la ,harpe1 accompanying his settings of some of ,klopstock's poems1 in which he said that #8the union between air and words should be so close that the poem should seem made for the music no less than the music for the poem4' ,unfortunately1 however1 these #8odes1' the only true songs ,gluck wrote1 are dry and pedantic4 ,joseph ,haydn1 though he contributed nothing to the development of the art-song1 has left a few lyric settings that are known and loved to-day4 ,his earlier sets of songs 7one group of twelve in #agha and another in #aghd7 were so popular in ,england that he was besieged by the publishers with requests to write more4 ,the result was the twelve famous #8canzonets1' of which the best known are the #8,mermaid's ,song' and #8,my ,mother ,bids ,me ,bind ,my ,hair4'#ag ,the latter1 though still undimmed in musical beauty1 is by no means a step in a forward direction4 ,it is written in true aria style and the melody1 while appropriate to the spirit of the words1 is almost instrumental rather than vocal4 ,the song might1 in fact1 have served as the allegretto to a symphony4 ,the other supreme ,german composer of the time1 however1 saw to the heart of the durchkomponiertes ,lied and produced at least one song that wholly anticipated ,schubert4 ,mozart published in all thirty-four songs that can justly be distinguished from arias4 ,most of them1 like #8,the ,song of ,freedom1' are little different from the ordinary strophic songs of the day4 ,but ,mozart's setting of ,goethe's poem1 #8,the ,violet1' is a miniature masterpiece of the art-song4#ah ,retaining the delicate sense of architecture which ,mozart's work never lost1 it still follows the import of the words with faithful accuracy4 ,the violet loved a maiden who came daily to walk in the meadow4 ,it hoped that she would notice it4 ,she never did4 ,but one day she stepped on it and crushed it4 ,and the violet was happy to meet its death through its loved one4 ,the short1 gasping phrases on the words es sank1 es starb 7#8it sank1 it died'7 are imitated in the accompaniment so suggestively that one might almost call it realism4 ,on the words1 #8und sterb ich denn' 7#8and though ,i die'7 the music becomes quicker with the growing emotion of the dying flower4 ,so sterb ich doch durch sie6 continues the flower in ecstasy1 and on the beloved word1 sie1 the voice attains its highest note and its emotional climax4 ,,vi ,the last half of the eighteenth century in ,france gave the world some of the loveliest songs of the age4 ,the types continued for a time to be those mentioned above1 but the gain in grace and fluency over the preceding century was enormous4 ,opra comique was filled with romances and brunettes and bergerettes4 ,not a few songs1 also1 were composed independently4 ,among the latter class we should mention those of ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau 7#agab-gh71 literary adventurer and musical dilettante1 who entwined himself so strangely into the whole cultural life of ,france4 ,rousseau never had an adequate musical education4 ,he had served as tutor in music in ,switzerland and did not improve himself much with his desultory self-education after he came to ,paris4 ,but he was a true journalist1 and no inadequacy of preparation could daunt him4 ,he had that rare journalistic gift of knowing what people wanted ten years before they themselves knew it4 ,his opra comique1 ,le devin du village 7#ageb71 still occasionally played1 was the lightest of theatrical entertainments1 but continued in unabating popularity for sixty years4 ,its success played no small part in setting or maintaining the tone of opra comique for the next half century4 ,its songs were chiefly the romances which were popular in ,paris2 they showed1 perhaps1 no great creative ability1 but were extraordinary1 like all ,rousseau's work1 in catching a certain popular quality which escapes analysis4 ,the composer's activity as essayist and novelist1 which places him as one of the greatest social forces of modern times1 prevented his ever doing much work in music and the world is perhaps not much the loser4 ,but in his musical activity he was at least important as a fashion-follower and a fashion-setter4 ,in #agha1 after his death1 there were published the hundred romances and duets which he called ,les ,consolations des misres de ma vie1 containing some of his most typical melodies4 ,among them is the famous romance on three notes--,que le jour--which does not1 indeed1 escape a sense of melodic poverty from its limited compass1 but reveals a delicate grace which makes it worth remembering apart from its interest as an experiment4 ,illustration3 ,mozart's ,manuscript of the first page of his setting of ,goethe's #8,das ,veilchen' ,but far greater than ,rousseau in actual musical value are1 of course1 the great ,french writers of opra comique1 ,monsigny 7#agbi-ahag71 ,philidor 7#agbf-ie71 ,dalayrac 7#agec-ahji71 and ,grtry 7#agda-ahac74 ,in technical learning these men1 especially ,grtry1 were all deficient4 ,but in a certain subtle melodic grace their romances and bergerettes have never been surpassed the world over4 ,at first singing they may seem trivial or meaningless or dry4 ,they always lack that rich strain of human genuineness which characterizes the ,german ,lied4 ,without doubt they are artificial1 not spontaneous in the more human meaning of the word4 ,but if they are artificial it is in the best sense4 ,they represent the most delicate conscious artistry1 the nicest adjustment of the means to the end1 the more expertly for being achieved with the simplest materials4 ,the singer needs a quite special faculty to understand them4 ,the joy of them is that of perfection in limited space1 of work well done4 ,the singer must have a complete command over detail1 must be conscious of the relations of each note he is singing4 ,the beauty of these songs is that of perfect good taste4 ,they do not obtrude themselves1 they do not assume a higher value than they possess1 they do not seek undue praise4 ,they are restrained as a well-mannered hostess is restrained in talking of politics or religion to her guests4 ,it is not that she is insincere1 only that she feels it is not the time for unrestrained sincerity4 ,like a true gentleman of the world1 these songs hate the too obvious4 ,like a true aristocrat1 they refrain from laying bare their souls2 they value themselves too highly to exhibit their own virtues4 ,they seek to be elegant and suave and courteous4 ,in short1 they seek to be #8good form4' ,but a very different ideal from that of good form was about to burst upon ,french national life4 ,rousseau's highly colored writings had carried with them the germs of the great ,revolution4 ,a few of the best observers were able to see that conditions could not stay as they were1 that human emotions1 long inarticulate1 must soon spring to violent expression4 ,the lovely romance1 ,plaisir d'amour 7#aghe71 mingling with such an innocent military song as ,malbrouk's s'en va-t-en guerre1 could show no hint of the completely changed state of the public emotions five years later4 ,in #aghi the storm broke4 ,europe realized that the people had entered the institution of government4 ,and soon1 too1 in their crude way1 the people had begun to enter the institution of ,french musical art4 ,a certain fiddler-beggar1 playing daily for sous on the ,pont ,neuf1 one ,ladr by name1 picked up a lively dance tune1 heaven knows where1 which he played daily on his fiddle and presently published under the name1 ,carillon national4 ,and some one1 even more obscure to history1 set words to it1 beginning with the immortal phrase which ,benjamin ,franklin had repeated continually in ,france in reference to the ,american ,revolution--a ira6 7#8,it is coming6'74 ,these words shall not here be called poetry4 ,yet they had certain of the supreme virtues of poetry1 namely1 simplicity of language and utter sincerity of statement4 #8,ah1 a ira1 a ira1 a ira6' sang the mob as it led its captives to their death4 #8,les aristocrats la lanterne' 7#8,hang the aristocrats6'74 ,such sentiments were not exalted4 ,their statement was far from delicate4 ,similar sentiments toward the peasants had many a time been expressed with infinite grace and good taste in the court of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,but when the mob had achieved the ability to think #8,hang the aristocrats' and to make a song of it and to sing that song aloud on the streets a new force had entered into the life of men4 ,and1 what is more to our purpose1 a new force had entered into the art of song4 ,never before had emotion been expressed so directly or so violently4 ,the tune is something like our #8,dixie1' though without its joyousness4 ,it is a fiddler's tune1 distinctly unsingable1 especially since it was ignorantly arranged so as to lie in places far above the compass of the untrained voice4 ,but its spirit was that of flowing blood and clattering iron4 ,to this day a ira produces an effect of emotional savageness which can hardly be duplicated in all song literature4 ,and ,paris presently gained1 from some unknown source1 another tune1 almost equally effective and with words equally to the point4 ,it was the ,carmagnole1 with its grim refrain1 ,vive le son du canon 7#8,long live the sound of the cannon'74 ,this was sung daily in what is now the beautiful ,place de la ,concorde1 where1 during the #8,reign of ,terror1' scores of aristocrats and political suspects were executed daily4 ,the mob liked to see the blood flow and1 joining hands in a great circle1 would bellow this very singable tune and its sentiments to the just ,heavens4 ,but this song was overshadowed in popularity by another--the famous ,marseillaise1 which has been called1 perhaps justly1 the greatest of all songs4 ,rouget de ,lisle1 a military engineer and dilettante musician1 wrote the poem and the melody one night in ,strassburg1 early in #agib1 for the troops to sing at the review the next day4 ,he called it ,chant de ,guerre4 ,the song made its way to ,marseilles and was taken up by the body of ,republican volunteers on their forced march to ,paris in ,july1 #agib4 ,it instantly spread in the capital1 being known as le ,chant des ,marseillais4 ,the ,marseillians1 with this song on their lips1 were among the foremost in the storming of the ,tuileries a few days later1 when the king finally became the helpless prisoner of the people4 ,thenceforth it accompanied the ,republican armies on their victorious marches through ,europe4 ,it is part of the irony of such things that de ,lisle1 who wrote the great ,republican song of the ,revolution1 was born a royalist and remained one till his death4 ,patriotic songs1 during the revolutionary period1 appeared in great abundance1 but the great majority of them1 as always at such times1 were vapid and artistically insignificant4 ,from among them1 however1 have remained two or three of exceptional quality4 ,one is ,gossec's #8,hymn to the ,supreme ,being1' designed as a religious song which an anti-ecclesiastical government could use without inconsistency1 and ,mhul's noble ,chant du dpart1 written to be sung at the departure of the armies1 and still so used4 ,this song1 which was ,napoleon's favorite 7he forbade the ,marseillaise as too violent71 represented the pure ,republican element of the ,revolution1 as opposed to the more violent communistic elements4 ,in its elevation of style1 in its perfect fitness of words and music1 it remains one of the greatest patriotic hymns of the world4 ,,vii ,leading up to and even post-dating ,schubert's time we find two names which must enter into every history of song4 ,the first is that of ,ludwig ,spohr 7#aghd-ahei74 ,spohr presents a peculiar problem4 ,one of the most eminent musicians of his day and a man known before all else as an innovator1 he has come to be the merest dead wood of musical history1 a part of the gigantic tree1 but a part which has become useless while other parts are still flourishing4 ,spohr felt1 as ,beethoven felt1 that the old harmonic order had reached its zenith and that the time was ripe for freer and more daring expression4 ,he was constantly straining to achieve this1 but he lacked sufficient genius and his effort remains--only straining4 ,he was always searching for expressive nuance1 but his stock of tricks was limited and his emotional range slight4 ,his many songs have completely dropped out of sight4 ,in them detail is elaborated until one loses all sense of form and outline4 ,the other song writer who must be mentioned here is1 of course1 ,beethoven4 ,beethoven's songs do not often find a place in song recitals nowadays1 but they are an organic link in the great ,german hierarchy from ,heinrich ,albert to ,schubert4 ,in addition to three songs of finest inherent quality we must credit him with the practical invention of the song cycle and the cultivation of free form and expressive detail in a way that clearly foreshadows ,schubert4 ,the three great songs mentioned are3 #8,the ,glory of ,god1'#ai ,in questa tomba1 and the ,busslied4 ,the first is as noble a strain as anything in the great symphonies1 a finer product because a simpler one than ,schubert's ,die ,allmacht in the same spirit4 ,the ,busslied has a long1 half declamatory introduction following the words with faithful accuracy1 presently1 as the lyric element becomes more marked1 settling into a measured song1 over an impressive bass which is instinct with religious dignity4 ,the second1 ,in questa tomba1 concentrates in a few lines of music the grim seriousness of the words4 ,an die ferne ,geliebte 7#8,to the ,far-off ,loved ,one'7 is a true cycle1 as ,schumann later understood the form4 ,the songs are connected by modulating intermezzos on the piano and the last song is followed by a piano postlude which introduces the melody of the first4 ,the songs themselves are not of first quality1 but the form and intent of the cycle are yet another proof of ,beethoven's astonishingly progressive genius4 ,this cycle seems to look forward to ,schumann rather than to ,schubert4 ,it uses1 in fact not a few of ,schumann's own tricks--especially the deceptive cadence--to lend an #8atmospheric' quality to the music1 or to prevent too great a finality in a musical phrase which accompanies an unfinished thought4 ,the piano part shows a conscious effort to make the separate details expressive in their own right4 ,beethoven1 in this cycle1 was emphatically writing in the new and not in the old style4 ,the singer should be familiar with this remarkable group if he is to appreciate the later work of ,schumann4 7,the final song1 ,nimm sie hin denn1 diese ,lieder1 is well worth knowing for its own sake47 ,though ,beethoven is not one of the great names in song literature1 these pieces show eloquently that the great symphonist touched no form that he did not enrich4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,vol4 ,i1 ,chapter ,,ix 7p4 #beh ff74 #aa ,chapter ,,ii 7,sec4 ,,iv74 #ab ,vol4 ,i1 ,chapter ,,ix4 #ac ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ad ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ae ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,vi4 #af ,cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,x4 #ag ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ah ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ai ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,franz ,,schubert ,art-song and the romantic spirit--,precursors of ,schubert--,schubert's contribution to song2 ,schubert's poets--,classification of ,schubert's songs--,faults and virtues--,the songs in detail2 the cycles--,schubert's contemporaries4 ,if the art-song begins with ,franz ,schubert there are two reasons for it4 ,the first is the comparatively accidental one that ,schubert was the greatest of lyric geniuses--the song writer par excellence4 ,the second is that just as he arrived upon the scene the romantic element in music began to gain the upper hand4 ,for modern song is nine-tenths a romantic product4 ,there might be such a thing as a classic art-song1 but its existence is hardly more than hypothetical4 ,almost by definition the art-song is opposed to what we call the #8classic' spirit in music4 ,for the art-song1 let us recall1 is1 above all1 a personal1 detailed expression4 ,it is intimate1 subjective1 predominantly emotional4 ,the classic spirit 7in music as well as in the other arts7 avoids the emotion that is too personal and too subjective as something immodest--much as a young girl would avoid telling the details of her love affairs to strangers4 ,the classic is always inclined to stress the formal elements4 ,but the very definition of the durchkomponiertes ,lied 7which is almost synonymous with the term #8art-song'7 is that it does not adhere to a common form1 being free to formulate itself according to the requirements of the text4 ,it must be more than a coincidence1 then1 that ,schubert1 the master song-writer1 came at a time when music was bursting forth into romantic expression4 ,romantic song could not have been born much earlier4 ,for music1 as an instrument of emotional expression1 did not come to maturity much earlier4 ,emotion we do find expressed in ,haydn and ,mozart certainly1 but it is subordinate1 restrained1 and not very precise4 ,it rarely seems to be the prime object of the music4 ,the prime object seems rather to be the giving of pleasure through the beauty of musical patterns4 ,the music must not be obviously inappropriate to the words of an aria1 but it is not thought of as expressing their sense in itself4 ,the movements of a ,mozart symphony may have for us some mild emotional connotation2 but in the composer's mind1 in all probability1 it was not the emotion which germinated the music1 but the music which germinated the emotion4 ,the music of the long period before ,schubert was predominantly formal4 ,it became increasingly complex and refined4 ,it greatly enlarged musical technique and the means of expression4 ,from the emotional point of view the eighteenth century was storing up the technical materials which the nineteenth was destined to use up4 ,it was ,beethoven who developed the expressive power of music to its grandest proportions4 ,never has emotion been shown more powerful1 beauty more dignified1 than in his symphonies4 ,the art of music1 as it passed from his hands into those of younger men1 was a grand and universal instrument1 equal to any emotional demand men might want to make upon it4 ,but1 if ,beethoven had developed all these capacities in music1 he had by no means used them all4 ,emotion in his music is that of the epic poet1 broad and grand1 rather than that of the lyricist1 personal and subtle4 ,he had developed his instrument to marvellous perfection4 ,he had played upon it only a few of its tunes4 ,the greatest of the classicists1 he was the man who taught the romanticists their trade4 ,he indicated how music could be used primarily for emotional expression4 ,but the doing of it he necessarily left largely to those who came after4 ,among the first and the greatest of these was ,schubert4 ,he was born to sing4 ,he loved a beautiful melody beyond anything else4 ,in some ways he was like a woman1 responding with infinite tenderness and delicacy to the impressions that came to him from without1 divining shades of feeling which a man can rarely catch4 ,and1 just when this man came1 burning to write personal and emotional songs1 ,beethoven had forged the finished instrument for the purpose4 ,by this time all the conceptions of rhythm and design had been agreed upon among musicians4 ,the scales and the modes had been adopted1 the sense of the tonic deeply inculcated in every hearer1 the independence of all the keys had been established and their relation agreed upon4 ,all the ordinary positions of chords had been tested1 and all the normal progressions agreed upon4 ,composers had experimented with many forms and had worked out the capacities of each4 ,in short1 men had come to an almost complete agreement concerning the conventions of musical technique4 ,if this had not been so1 it would not yet have been time for romantic song4 ,for1 just as a poem can have no precise meaning until all matters of words and syntax have been agreed upon1 so music cannot become accurately expressive while people are vague in their minds about the identity of this or that chord4 ,in the same way freedom of form could have no meaning for people until the laws of form were wholly understood4 ,the subtleties of emotion could not be expressed until people generally had begun to feel in music the emotions to be subdivided4 ,the things that ,schubert did with music in #ahae were hardly dreamt of twenty years before4 ,there were occasional foreshadowings1 nothing else4 ,mozart1 always technically flawless1 did not approach his full creative maturity until toward his death1 when he gave evidence of becoming one of the greatest of innovators4 ,and it is ,mozart1 whose music ,schubert knew well and admired beyond measure1 who chiefly foreshadowed romantic song before ,beethoven's great period4 ,in the famous #8,statue' scenes of ,don ,giovanni ,mozart seems suddenly to have peeped into a whole new world of music--the world of primary emotional expression4 ,the same sense of half-discovered expressive possibilities we catch in some of his later symphonies4 ,and in his last opera1 #8,the ,magic ,flute1' there are songs preserving the emotional richness of the best ,german folk-songs4 ,such arias as ,in diesen heil'gen ,hallen or ,isis und ,osiris are the last word in song before ,schubert broke through the bonds of form and established the durchkomponiertes ,lied4 ,i ,but song proper before ,schubert is largely in the hands of men who by no means hold a primary place in musical history4 ,of course1 it can nowhere be said to have a beginning4 ,but we can sense the feeling for romantic song as far back as the ,geistliche ,lieder of ,philipp ,emanuel ,bach1 published in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,the preface to these songs is a remarkable document4 ,bach says that he has tried to set fitting melodies to the words2 that where the various stanzas of a song were so different in spirit that a single melody could not express both with equal faithfulness he has tried to strike an average between all the stanzas and to compose the tune which will be most appropriate to all2 that he considers it unjust to the poem to compose a tune which is suitable only to the first stanza1 as is the usual practice2 and1 finally1 that he realizes that ,gellert's poems1 being didactic1 are not of the sort best suited for musical settings1 yet the high earnestness of the poet's work justifies musical treatment4 ,these remarks foreshadow the romantic spirit in more than one respect4 ,first1 ,bach recognizes the importance and integrity of the text3 the music exists in order to enhance the poem1 not the poem in order to sing the music4 ,next1 ,bach feels the power and the obligation to express the spirit of the words in detail4 ,further1 he clearly feels the contradiction inherent in the strophic form--making one tune do service for various dissimilar stanzas4 ,finally1 he feels that song is at its best when it is emotional4 ,in all this he is entirely at one with the romantic song writers1 from ,schubert on4 ,in his criticism of the strophic form he has put his finger on the central problem of the art-song4 ,it is true1 his solution of the difficulty was different from that of the romanticists1 as was inevitable with a composer who came half a century before the problem was ripe4 ,but he shows in his preface that he regards his solution as no more than tentative4 ,the songs themselves are not remarkable4 ,they are much like the ,geistliche ,lieder of the composer's great father1 except that a subtle and almost indefinable change has come over them in the direction of the #8intimate4' ,they are short melodies1 much like a ,german chorale1 except that they have a gentler1 smoother movement4 ,the strophes are sometimes in one of the recognized melodic forms and sometimes comparatively free4 ,when closely compared they reveal not a little individuality 7which is undoubtedly what the composer was aiming at71 but1 taken as a whole1 they seem too much like short cantata arias to suggest expressive song4 ,the real spirit of song was preserved in the ,german singspiele4 ,these were lively dramatic entertainments1 interspersed with songs1 like the ,english ballad operas1 except that the music was usually composed especially for the piece4 ,the singspiele were not taken seriously by the educated classes1 hence the lightest kind of joyousness reigned in them1 and the music was that which would appeal most quickly to the hearts of the people4 ,the tunes were1 in fact1 generally as much like true folk-songs as their composers could make them4 ,singspiele were written and performed by the hundreds during the eighteenth century4 ,many of the more popular songs were remembered and sung by the people as half-naturalized folk-songs1 and the successful composers were usually fertile producers of songs independent of the singspiele4 ,this was the true song-tradition of ,germany before ,schubert's time4 ,it grew out of the art of the people and spoke familiarly to all4 ,it was a dignified and firmly established art institution1 though it was given hardly more recognition by the great musicians of the time than the symphony composers of to-day give to operetta4 ,the singspiel folk-song type1 moreover1 was the type which was called into service for the setting of the works of the standard poets of the time4 ,zelter's settings of ,goethe's poems were scarcely to be distinguished1 in point of form1 from the songs that were sung in the cheap theatres4 ,among the best of the singspiel composers was ,johann ,adam ,hiller 7#agbh-ahjd71 also distinguished as the first director of the famous ,gewandhaus concerts in ,leipzig and as perhaps the first writer of true durchkomponierte ,lieder4 ,his songs kept the popular flavor1 but strove for vigorous expression of the text and1 in doing this1 broke out of the simple strophe or stanza form4 ,the spirited character of ,hiller's singspiele is suggested by the names of some of them--#8,the ,devil is ,loose1' #8,the ,hunt1' and #8,the ,village ,barber4' ,johann ,andr 7d4 #agii71 fertile composer of singspiele1 has a place alongside of ,hiller as a pioneer in that he was probably the first to adapt the durchkomponiert style to the ballad1 setting ,brger's famous #8,lenore' soon after it appeared in #agge4 ,the true ballad style1 however1 was more freely cultivated by ,johann ,rudolph ,zumsteeg 7d4 #ahjb71 commonly known as the inventor of the ballad form4 ,he composed settings for several poems to which ,schubert and ,lwe later set their hands1 notably ,schiller's #8,ode to ,joy1' ,des ,pfarrer's ,tochter1 and ,ritter ,toggenburg4 ,johann ,schulz1 who was another prolific singspiel writer1 is chiefly famous for his beautiful #8,songs in the ,folk-,manner1' which appeared between #aghb and #agij1 when ,herder's pioneer collection of ,volkslieder 7words only7 had just commenced to create an interest in the subject of popular song4 ,but the most famous singspiel composer of the time1 and one of the most interesting personalities among the lesser musicians1 was ,johann ,friedrich ,reichardt 7#ageb-ahad74 ,unlike most musicians of the age1 ,reichardt was a man of wide interests and excellent education4 ,at the age of twenty-three he became royal choirmaster under ,frederick the ,great at ,berlin4 ,but he was a radical by temperament and seems to have caused the head that wore the crown to lie uneasy4 ,his visits to ,paris gave him such a sympathy with the approaching ,french revolution that he later lost his position in ,berlin on account of his radical politics4 ,for a time he was choirmaster at ,cassel to ,jerme ,bonaparte1 ,napoleon's brother1 who was anxious to pose as a patron of art4 ,reichardt caught the #8folk-manner' in his singspiele1 but he was not a nave musician in the technical sense of the word4 ,his choruses and concerted pieces sometimes show a grace and artistry which suggests ,mozart1 and his songs are always organically and artistically conceived4 ,he set in the simple strophe style some sixty of ,goethe's songs and ,goethe's delightful singspiel1 ,erwin und ,elmire 7as did also ,andr74 ,we must give ,reichardt praise for working in musicianly style1 with a fresh vein of melody and a graceful sense in the organizing of it4 ,but we should make a mistake if we gave him a very high place in the history of the development of song1 for ,schubert's earliest efforts tower far above his and they surely owe but little to them4 ,illustration3 ,precursors of ,schubert4 ,top3 ,johann ,zumsteeg and ,johann ,adam ,hiller ,bottom3 ,johann ,friedrich ,reichardt and ,carl ,friedrich ,zelter ,schubert's admiration for ,zumsteeg and for his use of the ballad form 7to which we doubtless owe #8,the ,erl ,king'7 was extended to another song writer of the time1 ,karl ,friedrich ,zelter 7#ageh-ahcb74 ,this composer1 who did a notable service as director at the ,berlin ,singakademie1 was a personal friend of ,goethe and had an extensive correspondence with him1 which has been preserved and published4 ,he set a great number of ,goethe's songs in the simple and unpretentious style of ,reichardt4 ,this much pleased the poet1 who was professedly not much of a musician4 ,in fact1 it seems likely that ,zelter frankly directed the great man's musical tastes4 ,zelter's songs1 some of which are still sung by ,german singing societies1 are spirited and musicianly4 ,in their manly and straightforward way they compel one's liking4 ,if they do not figure as an element in musical history it is because their simple form offered little that was of service to the genius of ,schubert4 ,,ii ,this genius was1 along with that of ,mozart1 the most spontaneous the world of music had ever seen4 ,it seemed to work by a sort of divination4 ,whereas ,beethoven's musical ideas developed slowly and under great mental pressure from themes of little value1 ,schubert's songs often came into his mind almost in an instant complete from beginning to end4 ,from the age of thirteen 7and probably earlier7 he was continually writing songs4 ,often he would compose as many as three or four in a single morning1 especially when he was unusually pressed for money4 ,most of the time he did but little revising4 ,if the musical idea as it came was not of fine quality1 then it could go to the scrap-basket or to anybody who cared for it2 there were plenty more good tunes where that came from4 ,schubert's supply of beautiful melodies was inexhaustible4 ,he never had to nurse and pet a tune in order to get the maximum of musical service out of it4 ,more than any other song-writer ,schubert #8sings himself4' ,and his songs1 for the most part1 #8wrote themselves4' ,the poet would pick up a book on a friend's table and1 discovering therein some lovely poems1 would be seized by musical settings for them4 ,sometimes he wrote as though in a trance4 ,the music seemed to come from some anterior source1 and1 passing through his brain on its way to the paper1 to make him intoxicated4 ,when he died at the age of thirty he left behind him some eleven hundred musical works1 of which more than six hundred were songs of all descriptions4 ,this was the product of scarcely more than fifteen years of activity4 ,it is obvious there could not have been much revision4 ,but this is hardly evidence that ,schubert was incapable of self-criticism4 ,he had his favorites among his songs and doubtless realized that many were as worthless as later generations have found them4 ,and he did1 in certain cases1 spend considerable effort in revision2 there exist1 for instance1 several different versions of #8,the ,erl ,king' in ,schubert's handwriting4 ,but his lack of revision was a result of his overpowering fertility rather than of carelessness4 ,if he kept on writing new songs he might strike a masterpiece any time4 ,why waste his time polishing second-rate pieces8 ,briefly stated1 what ,schubert did for song was to establish it as one of the great departments of music4 ,we know what it was before his time--an unpretentious amusement1 considered appropriate chiefly for the vaudeville theatres and the banquet tables of roistering students4 ,among the educated classes song was loved1 but hardly respected4 ,the great composers wrote songs only as bagatelles for their amusement or for a special occasion4 ,it was hardly realized that the song form1 so slight and so modest1 could receive the burden of great ideas and radical innovation4 ,schubert1 by force of genius1 proved that the song could be as great intensively as an opera or oratorio could be extensively2 that to write a perfect song was as difficult and worthy a task for a great artist as to write an oratorio4 ,to prove this he showered all the riches of his artistic equipment on the song4 ,first of all1 he gave to it great melodies4 ,the melodies of the best art-songs before his time could not be compared with the great melodies which musicians had put into symphonies and operas4 ,musicians had felt that songs were not worthy of their best melodies1 but only of their second and third best4 ,schubert gave to song his very best4 ,next1 ,schubert chose 7among his many texts7 some of the greatest short poems in ,german literature4 ,musicians previously had generally considered the words a very unimportant part of vocal music4 ,true1 the music of the eighteenth century 7especially in ,germany7 is full of exceptions to this rule1 but the exceptions occur as if by accident and prove that composers either didn't care or didn't know which texts were better and which were worse4 ,it is true1 also1 that ,reichardt ,zelter1 and others set the poems of ,goethe to music1 but their settings were unpretentious and hardly aspired to be in themselves adequate to express ,goethe's thoughts4 ,with ,schubert1 for the first time1 we find the greatest poetry married to the greatest music4 ,it must be admitted1 also1 that ,schubert's taste was not highly critical in the matter of poetry4 ,among his six hundred songs are a great many with insipid or pompous words4 ,but some of these texts were written by ,schubert's personal friends 7such as his room-mate ,mayrhofer7 and were set as a personal compliment4 ,further1 ,schubert1 who worked daily1 did not always find the best of poems at hand1 and was obliged to take what he could get1 though he probably knew which were better and which were worse4 ,and1 finally1 he was generally best inspired by the best poems1 which should be a proof of his sensitiveness to poetic excellence4 ,at any rate1 one finds the texts of ,schubert's songs almost an anthology of the best ,german lyrical poems written in the century before his death4 ,and with some of the verses is music that seems to have been made by one and the same master artist to fit for all time4 ,on the whole1 though ,schubert was not a man educated in belles lettres1 he showed a vivid appreciation of poetic excellence which has been a mark of great song writers ever since4 ,next1 ,schubert showed a marvellous sense of poetry in music4 ,the music before him had been1 as we have said1 predominantly formal4 ,with ,beethoven it had reached its most perfect formal development and with the symphony and sonatas of ,beethoven's later years broke through formal bonds in its search after more intense expression4 ,the violent conflict between form and expression is the glory 7and to some minds the defect7 of ,beethoven's later work4 ,but ,schubert in his songs seems to feel nothing of this struggle4 ,it is as though he had been born on the other side2 as though ,beethoven had done the fighting for him4 ,or it is as though a mountain stream had struggled through rocks and over a precipice to reach the quiet level of the plains below4 ,with ,schubert we feel only joyous spontaneous expression of the words4 ,the expressive resources of music which his forerunners had prepared are laid at his feet1 and from them he chooses with wonderful acuteness the details and devices he needs4 ,this sense of poetry could hardly be found in the songs of ,reichardt and ,zelter4 ,sung with the words their music would doubtless seem appropriate4 ,but played without the words to point the meaning they would seem pleasing but colorless4 ,on the other hand1 if you play the songs of ,schubert on the piano you will get1 to a surprising degree1 the feelings conveyed by the words4 ,it is not too much to say that before ,schubert song music was appropriate only2 with ,schubert song became expressive4 ,finally1 ,schubert gave to the art-song that freedom of form which has been a characteristic of it ever since4 ,not that he was the first to write the durchkomponierte song or any of the other freer forms1 but he was the first with the genius necessary to establish such forms 7or formlessness7 for all time4 ,schubert's predecessors had not been pedants4 ,within their limited capacities some of them had been genuine poets of sentiment4 ,but form had nevertheless retained its hold on the spirit of their song writing4 ,the regular recurrence of measured lines1 or the building up of the song according to a scheme of regular repetitions or alterations1 had been to them a matter of second nature 7except when a ,hiller or a ,zumsteeg tentatively broke through for experiment's sake74 ,such a song as ,schubert's ,aufenthalt or the early #8,gretchen at the ,spinning ,wheel1' in which there is no discoverable scheme yet a most cogent unity1 would have been hardly conceivable to these early pioneers4 ,schubert1 then1 with a marvellous fund of melody1 a sense of poetic values in words and music1 and a free instinct for expressive form1 did for the song what ,haydn had done for the symphony--put it on the musical map4 ,he was able to do this not alone because he was a great musician1 but because there were great poets in ,germany whose lyrics he could set4 ,let us see who and of what character these poets were4 ,the poets whom ,schubert set to music 7over #ajj in all7 represent several stages of a tremendous upheaval in ,german life and literature--roughly1 the period of the ,french ,revolution and the ,napoleonic wars4 ,for convenience we may divide them into three classes--the #8,storm and ,stress' poets1 the ,romantic poets1 and the #8young-,german' poets4 ,the ,sturm und ,drang1 or #8,storm and ,stress1' tendency was the ,german equivalent of the pre-revolutionary upheaval among the educated classes of ,france4 ,its ideal was that of the highest perfection for the individual--personal rights rather than social duties4 ,the so-called ,romantic movement 7in the narrower meaning of the term7 was at its height during ,napoleon's period of power4 ,it was double4 ,on the one hand1 it was ,sturm und ,drang1 individualism carried to its extreme1 with a high premium set on the imagination and a morbid interest in what we should to-day call #8psychology4' ,on the other hand1 it was the growth of the social and national spirit which aroused a sense of nationalism in ,germany under ,napoleon's tyranny and enabled the ,germans gloriously to shake off the ,french yoke4 ,the third period1 in which ,schubert did most of his actual work1 was that of disillusionment1 when the liberal dreams of the ,german enthusiasts had been met by the stupid reactionism of the ,german princes and the ,congress of ,vienna4 ,the ,german uprising against ,napoleon had been synonymous in the minds of most with a movement toward liberal institutions and political freedom4 ,under the royal houses of ,germany the people were forced back1 at the point of the sword1 to a state little better than medivalism4 ,the poets of the #8young-,german' movement saw that the dreams of the previous generation had been made a fiasco and turned to cynicism1 with just a shadow of a bitter dream of vengeance stored up for the future4 ,the great poets of the ,sturm und ,drang movement were1 of course1 ,goethe and ,schiller4 ,goethe1 one of the most universal minds the world has ever known1 was able to enter into a situation or a human emotion so intensely that he was an ideal lyric poet4 ,his command over the music of the ,german language was complete4 ,all ,germany was dazzled by the wealth of color and nuance which he found in life and reflected in his poetry4 ,schiller was in every way his inferior4 ,his inflated rhetoric always stole the lyric quality from his poems1 which never pictured truth1 either outer or inner4 ,but by the sheer energy of his spirit ,schiller was a man of the time4 ,it is worth noting that though ,schubert set nearly fifty of his texts1 not a single masterpiece resulted4 ,for there is in ,schiller1 properly considered1 little or nothing to inspire a genuinely lyric poet4 ,and1 as is often the case in lyric poetry1 the minor men do some of the best work4 ,some of ,schubert's best texts are supplied by ,claudius1 ,schubart1 ,stollberg1 and ,hlty1 minor members of the fraternity which stirred up all ,germany to the expectation of a profound revolution4 ,these men were crying out against the vices of the aristocracy1 or praising the simple life of the peasants1 as ,herder had taught them4 ,their songs were a glorification of the individual1 proclaiming the intensity and beauty of his spontaneous feelings--ideal lyric material4 ,the era of the ,napoleonic wars brought a new generation of poets to ,germany4 ,it was the period when the vision of great deeds was stirring every one to demonstrate his own power4 ,this side of the movement1 represented in ,schubert's songs by the brothers ,schlegel1 was decidedly morbid4 ,but there was another side4 ,for ,napoleonic oppression had aroused a new sense of dignity and national solidarity in ,german hearts1 and there arose a group of poets to sing of it4 ,most typical is ,krner1 author of the famous sword song1 who volunteered for the army1 saying to his father3 #8,germany is rising2 my art sighs for her fatherland'--and died in battle4 ,this adoption by art of a new fatherland was signalized by a new return of poetry to all that was popular and traditional in ,german life and history4 ,it is to this inspiration that we owe poems by ,uhland and ,mller1 which ,schubert set to music4 ,the third era was that of disillusionment1 when ,platen could write #8444 man kann hienieden ,nichts ,schlech'res als ein ,deutscher sein4' ,the lyric poetry of the time became either a cynical grasping of selfish interests1 as often in ,heine1 or a renunciation of the outer word1 a peace which is to be found in contemplation and humble love1 as in ,rckert4 ,in translation1 also1 ,schubert was familiar with the work of certain foreign poets1 notably ,shakespeare and ,walter ,scott4 ,to the inspiration of the former we owe at least two masterpieces1 #8,who ,is ,sylvia8' and #8,hark1 ,hark1 the ,lark6' ,from the latter we have the wonderful #8,ave ,maria4' ,we should not forget1 also1 the songs of ,ossian1 now almost forgotten4 ,these were forgeries 7in all probability7 by a ,scotch schoolmaster1 purporting to be translations from the ,gaelic of the songs of the minstrel ,ossian1 who had been no more than a tradition for centuries4 ,the literary world took them in earnest1 and such men as ,goethe became enthusiastic over their wild and rugged imagery4 ,but to us they seem rhetorical and far removed from the simplicity of genuine folk-poetry4 ,and ,schubert seems to have felt this1 for1 though he set eight of the long ,ossian songs1 not one of his settings is memorable4 ,again the absence of the true lyric spark had left him cold4 ,illustration3 ,poets of the ,romantic ,period4 ,top3 ,goethe and ,hugo ,bottom3 ,schiller and ,heine ,,iii ,among ,schubert's songs we find an extraordinarily wide range of form and subject-matter--so wide that all song writers since his time have not been able much to enlarge it4 ,we have said that he was the first to apply musical genius to the durchkomponiertes ,lied4 ,but he was not a specialist in this form4 ,he seems to have had no especial preferences1 but to have been guided by the nature of his poem4 ,a number of his songs are in the strophe form--simply contrasting phrases of the music forming the tune1 which is repeated without change for each stanza of the words1 as in the simple folk-tune type4 ,of this class are some of ,schubert's best songs1 such as #8,the ,heather ,rose1' #8,the ,fisher1' #8,praise of ,tears1' #8,wandering1' #8,the ,brook's ,lullaby1' #8,hark1 ,hark1 the ,lark6'#bj and many others4 ,next we find what we might call the #8developed strophe' form1 in which the simple stanza organization is preserved in spirit1 but some change enters into the make-up of the whole song in accordance with the demands of the text4 ,examples of this are the famous ,du bist die ,ruh1 in which the final strophe is much altered to express the intenser feelings of the poet2 or the ,gute ,nacht1 from the ,winterreise series1 in which the melody of one stanza is sung in the major to convey the contrasting effect of calmness2 or the #8,serenade1' in which the repeated strophe is followed by a free coda necessary to give completeness to the idea4 ,in the class of the #8developed strophe' form we might group such pieces as #8,her ,portrait1' which repeats the main strophe after a contrasting middle section4 ,or there are such songs as #8,by the ,sea1'#a which are almost in the strict strophe form1 but varied here and there in some minor detail1 proving that however much ,schubert felt the beauty of form he did not feel its dogma4 ,finally1 there is the quite free or durchkomponierte form4 ,the examples of this are innumerable in ,schubert's works3 we recall easily the famous ,aufenthalt 7#8,abode'7 and ,doppelgnger 7#8,the ,double'71#ba ,der ,wanderer1 and ,das ,wirtshaus4 ,in these songs there is every variation from a deceptive strophic form to the utmost dissimilarity1 and yet there remains always a sense of unity which is the work of a master4 ,besides the pure lyrics ,schubert wrote ballads and scenas4 ,the former are simply stories told in verse4 ,unlike the lyric1 the ballad is highly objective1 seeing the characters as things apart and as acting for themselves2 yet like the lyric it is highly sympathetic with emotions1 and sometimes identifies itself alternately with one character and another as completely as though it were a lyric4 ,this is because of the dramatic quality implicit in every story1--a quality which is particularly attractive to the primitive imagination4 ,the ballad1 in short1 is a miniature drama1 in which the characters speak in their own words with each other1 and in which rapid and vigorous action is abundant4 ,examples of this form in ,schubert's songs are ,schiller's #8,the ,diver1' and of course #8,the ,erl ,king4' ,we should also distinguish a third class of songs--the scena4 ,this is a combination of the lyric and the ballad2 it is essentially an emotional utterance1 but it usually pictures the characters and the scene1 and often involves some sort of dramatic action4 ,the ,ossian ,songs partake of the nature of the scena1 but the best example is ,schiller's ,erwartung1 in which the singer is waiting for his sweetheart to come to him1 and is beguiled by various noises of the night into thinking it is she4 ,the scenas and the ballads involve not a little of the declamatory style1 which is quite unlyrical4 ,declamation in song is familiar to us in the recitatives of the older operas1 but declamation in the true sense is more melodious than dry recitative4 ,it is1 in fact1 genuine melody1 with all elements of melodic beauty1 except that it is independent of strict measure and rhythm1 receiving all its accents from the words which it follows with greatest nicety4 ,the possibilities of this style of music have only begun to be developed in the last two or three decades4 ,in ,schubert declamation is usually on the right track1 but is pretty likely to be uninteresting4 ,we must make an exception1 however1 of such masterly bits of declamation as the last line of #8,the ,erl ,king1' in which the half-spoken announcement1 #8,lo1 in his arms the child was dead1' closes the ballad abruptly and seems to frame it off from the workaday world2 or the last line of #8,the ,wanderer1' in which ,schubert's poetic sense reinforced the emphatic word with an emphatic melodic note3 ,dort1 wo du nicht bist1 dort ist das ,glck4 ,but on the whole we must admit that the whole body of ,schubert's declamatory and dramatic songs is hardly worth the trouble of study1 except for the purpose of enlarging one's knowledge of the composer4 ,if it were not for the wonderful #8,erl ,king1' greatest of ballads1 people would doubtless be saying that ,schubert was a lyric song-writer only1 and had no feeling for the ballad form4 ,,iv ,of ,schubert's six hundred songs1 as we have said1 many are of little or no musical value4 ,sometimes the melody seems too facile2 it expresses nothing2 it is like every other ordinary tune4 ,and sometimes1 especially in the longer ballads and scenas1 there is a lack of any musical character2 commonplace chords and scraps of indifferent melody succeed each other to fatigue4 ,the length is sometimes enormous4 #8,the ,diver' occupies nearly forty printed pages1 and many others between fifteen and twenty4 ,it is more regrettable that some of the songs should be sad mixtures of greatness and triviality4 #8,death-,music' is such a song4 ,the opening bars have a deep solemnity1 which is almost equal to the dignity of the theme1 but seems just a little too thin or facile4 ,then on the words ,hebe aus dem ird'schen ,ringen comes a passage which is one of ,schubert's great moments1 and this is repeated in finer development on the words3 ,alles grosses werd' ich sehen1 until one can almost feel one's self carried into the mysteries of death4 ,but then follow three pages of melody which are irritating1 for they have much beauty and expressiveness1 but seem aimless and disorganized4 ,in #8,viola1' which is a matter of twenty-one pages1 there are one or two of the most gracious melodies ,schubert ever wrote1 but the song as a whole1 what with length and formlessness1 is hopeless4 ,flle der ,liebe1 again1 is both beautiful and expressive1 altogether a distinguished piece of work1 except that its movement soon becomes so monotonous that it is unendurable4 ,so ,schubert is often betraying the rapidity with which he worked4 ,but he has left us at least one hundred songs which are immortal4 ,first of all1 they are worth knowing for their wonderful stock of melodies1 as pure and rich as any composer in the world has ever given us4 ,the enchantment can hardly wear off with such melodies as those of #8,praise of ,tears1' #8,the ,trout1' ,du bist die ,ruh1 #8,the ,linden ,tree1' #8,the ,inn1' #8,to ,sylvia1' #8,litany1' and #8,the ,serenade4' ,it is by no means the melody of the drawing-room4 ,the dainty1 snobbish grace of the ,french bergerette is foreign to ,schubert4 ,he seems anxious to sing with everybody4 ,it is recorded that one of his favorite pastimes was walking out with a friend on a ,sunday afternoon to one of the villages in the neighborhood of ,vienna1 and watching the peasants dance and hearing them sing their songs4 ,this popular sense persists in all ,schubert's music1 however delicate may be his delineation of mood4 ,he had nothing of the aristocrat in him4 ,the son of a schoolmaster1 accustomed to poverty1 and accustomed to teach in an almost menial capacity in the house of ,count ,esterhazy1 he acquired none of the tastes of the aristocrat and was content to take his pleasures as other people did4 ,besides1 the whole tradition of ,german music has been remarkably close to the people4 ,even ,mozart1 the most polished of composers1 wrote in #8,the ,magic ,flute' music that would have delighted any peasant4 ,so we are not surprised to find in ,schubert's lyrics a strain of folk-song1 especially in the cadences and progressions which the ,germans love so well4 ,take1 for instance1 the continually recurring cadence of the song ,sei mir gegrsst1 or that of #8,praise of ,tears4' ,it sets the spirit for the whole of the song4 ,and it is taken from the very bone and sinew of ,german music4 ,or take the short middle section of #8,the ,wanderer1'--in which the ,wanderer cries out1 #8,where art thou1 ,where art thou1 ,my beloved land6'--or the first of the ,erl ,king's songs in the ballad #8,the ,erl ,king'2 or the whole strophic tune of #8,the ,fisher4' ,hum these over two or three times4 ,then take at random two or three ,german folk-songs--,ach du lieber ,augustin and ,immer langsam voran1 or what not1 and hum these4 ,and then two or three ,french bergerettes4 ,the relationship of ,schubert will then be quite clear4 ,these matters of musical analogy are subtle and slippery4 ,they cannot be established by analysis4 ,but they can always be proved or disproved by the sympathetic ear4 ,but ,schubert was writing art-songs1 not folk-songs4 ,accordingly he was obliged to give more precise meanings to his melodies than folk-songs choose to give4 ,he must not sing only of love or sorrow1 but of a certain mood of love or sorrow4 ,this is what we mean by the refinement of melody4 ,not that the unrefined melody is less worthy or less beautiful1 only that it is less precise4 ,in refining his tunes ,schubert's delicate artistic sense stood him in glorious stead4 ,the ,ave ,maria is first of all a beautiful ,german melody4 ,but it is also a delicate1 sensitive melody1 which might have been sung by the essentially aristocratic ,ellen4 ,or notice the delicacy of mood implied in ,heine's poem ,ihr ,bild4 ,it is essentially a civilized mood1 one which comes over a person inside of a house with the lights turned low1 a mood which a folk-song would never be called upon to express4 ,schubert catches it in a few simple notes4 ,he does not strain his melody in order to make it express an unusual mood4 ,he selects his notes--that is1 refines the melody--until its expression has become specific and accurate instead of broad and general4 ,this matter of melodic refinement 7which must be divined by a sort of sixth sense7 leads us to one of the essential characteristics of ,schubert's songs 7and of art-songs in general7--namely1 detailed expression4 ,here we can be more specific4 ,compared to later song-writers1 ,schubert makes very little effort to emphasize details in his texts4 ,he is never willing in his lyrical pieces to distort or disturb the flow of the melody or the design of the whole1 in order to illustrate a detail4 ,but a slight study of his songs will show that he is never overlooking these details4 ,and when it seems to him proper to give them precise expression1 the device is always at his finger-tips4 ,take one of the loveliest of all his songs1 ,das ,wirthshaus--#8,the ,inn'--from the cycle ,winterreise4 ,the whole song should be played through first to get the mood of weariness1 of spiritual hunger and thirst1 that pervades it4 ,then on the words die mden ,wandrer--#8tired wanderers1' comes this progression3 ,illustration3 ,music score die mden ,wandrer laden ins khle ,wirtshaus ein ,notice the wonderful ,d flat of the accompaniment4 ,and notice too with what magic the simple chords of the next measure seem to fit the word khle ,wirtshaus1--the #8cool tavern4' ,a little later1 on the words3 bin matt zum ,niedersinken--#8tired to exhaustion'--is the following passage3 ,illustration3 ,music score bin matt zum ,niedersinken und ttlich schwer verletzt ,notice the ,g flat of the accompaniment1 how it creeps into the harmonic framework and gives poignancy to the expression4 ,and then four measures further on1 on the words3 doch weisest du mich ab8--#8and do you turn me away8'--there is this very simple musical passage3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,doch weisest du mich ab ,only one altered chord1 that containing the ,b natural1 but what pathos lies in it6 ,an even finer instance of musical delineation is the song ,der ,doppelgnger1 the last but one that ,schubert ever wrote4 ,mr4 ,henderson1 in his #8,songs and ,song ,writers1' justly says that this wonderful song anticipates ,wagner's theories and methods4 ,here we have the continuous melody1 the leit-motif 7the first four measures of the accompaniment71 the declamatory voice part1 and the #8orchestral comment' which we associate with the ,wagnerian music-dramas4 ,we cannot fail to notice in this song the ghostly effect of the thick chords kept in the bass section of the pianoforte's range1 nor the uncanny effect of the short1 almost gasping1 phrases for the voice1 nor the fierce picturing of terror on the words meine eigne ,gestalt4 ,what couldn't ,schubert have been in the history of music1 asks ,mr4 ,henderson1 if he had lived6 ,schubert's command over modulation is facile and abundant4 ,sometimes there is no rest in the matter of modulation4 ,yet the changes of key and mode never seem strange4 ,tonalities melt into one another1 and voices lead as naturally as they do in the simple key-schemes of ,haydn4 ,the best of examples is the wonderful song1 ,die ,allmacht4 ,nominally in the key of ,c major1 it remains actually in this key for only about a fifth of its length4 ,the astonishing simplicity and inevitableness of ,schubert's modulations are well exemplified by the change from ,f major to ,g flat major on the words ,gross ist ,jehovah der ,herr 7at their next to last appearance74 ,wagner used precisely this modulation about ten years later for the climax to the great prayer in the opera ,rienzi4 ,but we find it no uncommon thing to discover that strokes of genius in other composers have been anticipated in ,schubert4 ,but the richness and smoothness of ,schubert's modulations1 which are everywhere to be discovered in his songs1 are not the most important qualities from the artistic standpoint4 ,the important thing is the marvellous deftness with which the composer uses his modulation for expressive purposes4 ,let us return to ,das ,wirtshaus1 a thorough knowledge of which is a liberal education in ,schubert's art4 ,modulation here is like flowing water4 ,but notice especially the last 7repeated7 line of the poem3 ,nun weiter denn1 nun weiter1 mein treuer ,wanderstab--#8then on again1 my faithful wanderer's staff4' ,the first half of the line is in ,c minor4 ,then on the words mein treuer ,wanderstab it goes again into its original ,f major4 ,the effect is past all analysis4 ,we feel the tragic vista of life ahead of the man1 the eternal trudging along white dusty roads4 ,the human pathos of the modulation is intense4 ,it is interesting to notice1 in passing1 that ,schubert gets his most tragic and pathetic effects out of the major mode rather than out of the minor4 ,besides the example just quoted one recalls the entrance of the major in ,ihr ,bild1--an effort of most delicate pathos2 and the ending of #8,death and the ,maiden1' in which the coming of the minor brings with it the feeling of deep human tragedy as contrasted with the somewhat spooky tragedy of the preceding minor4 ,schubert's effects1 though usually very simple1 rarely come from a reliance on conventional means4 ,another of ,schubert's expressive devices is famous4 ,it is the dissonance of ,d flat against ,d against ,c 7or a corresponding combination71 recurring in #8,the ,erl ,king' when the boy shrieks in terror at the sight of the evil ghost4 ,it was strenuously objected to by certain ones who heard it in ,schubert's time1 and it is recorded that one of the objectors withdrew his criticism because the compound dissonance resolved so smoothly4 ,the justification1 if justification is needed1 is something other than this4 ,it is that the device is tremendously expressive4 ,in #8,the ,erl ,king' we cannot fail to notice how the triplet motive in the accompaniment binds the song closely together4 ,in nearly every case ,schubert finds some means of accomplishing this end1 when the free form of the song might threaten to distract one's attention4 ,in a number of the ,mllerlieder1 in which the brook figures constantly1 the rippling water is suggested 7not imitated7 in the accompaniment4 ,the devices by which the suggestion is accomplished seem nave to us to-day1 but it is perhaps more artistic than an attempt at imitation would be4 ,suggestive devices are innumerable4 ,note the movement of the breeze in #8,suleika's ,second ,song'2 the opening chords1 suggestive of deepening night over the sea1 in ,am ,meer2 the delicate will-o'-the-wisp figure in ,irrlicht2 the bass figure that suggests huge weight in ,atlas2 the leaping triplet figure in #8,the ,trout'2 the tragic snatches of melody in the bass of ,aufenthalt1 and so on without limit4 ,it must be remembered that such details as these were much more of a novelty in ,schubert's time than now4 ,a century ago the use of music for detailed expression was comparatively strange4 ,we should bear in mind1 also1 how slightly this attention to detail in ,schubert affects the external unity of the song4 ,schubert's method 7except in the long declamatory pieces7 was essentially lyrical4 ,he wanted to write a piece of music which1 while truly expressive of the words1 would be a beautiful piece of music even without them4 ,he kept the organization and proportion of his music1 as such1 always in view4 ,the whole course of song after him illustrates the conflict 7which was the origin of the art-song in the first place7 between this formal design and accuracy of expression4 ,a simple strophic song can1 as we know1 be quite perfect in design4 ,but only rarely can it also be quite accurate in the expression of the words4 ,the musical realist will seek to make the music detailed and expressive at all costs4 ,the many to whom beauty comes first1 on the other hand1 will admit the realistic detail only when it accords with the beauty of the pattern4 ,it is instructive to note how ,schubert solves the problem4 ,while he was never a formalist in the stricter sense of the word1 his sense of pattern beauty was such as would be pained at a realistic detail that was detrimental to form4 ,judged by modern standards he was conservative in his procedure4 ,but considering his conservatism he managed to get a wonderful amount of detailed expression into his songs4 ,no song-writer has ever had a more delicate and accurate feeling for these details of human realism4 ,v ,schubert's genius will never be known to people who imagine they know it from the half dozen hackneyed songs that are most famous--the #8,serenade1' #8,hark1 ,hark the ,lark6' #8,who ,is ,sylvia8' and one or two others4 ,there is a little group of ,schubert songs which are rarely heard and almost forgotten1 which are of great beauty1 such as the ,wiegenlied1 ,an die ,sonne1 ,gretchen's ,gebet1 and ,clrchen's ,lied4 ,and there are scores of others1 which are known in a vague way1 but not well known to many a singer4 ,no singer should attempt to sing one of ,schubert's songs in public without being familiar with most of these other lyrics4 ,schubert reveals the folk genius in being able to achieve the highest beauty within the smallest compass4 ,such a snatch of melody as the first line of the #8,litany' is a work of pure genius4 ,they say that the test of a picture is its ability to be #8lived with4' ,the same is true of a melody4 ,the first line of the #8,litany1' as well as the whole of it1 can be sung each day and never lose its charm4 ,it has all the suave grace of a tune out of ,italian opera4 ,it might become cloying and sentimental4 ,but it does not4 ,it remains dignified and sincere4 ,it reveals ever new beauties and adorable traits of character which could not be suspected at first glance4 ,this kind of genius is beyond the analytical powers of the musical theorist to explain4 ,the greatness of large forms--for instance1 a symphony by ,beethoven--can in part be explained1 just as a very correct symphony can be written by a man without talent4 ,but to write greatly within half a dozen bars--this is a miracle4 ,only the folk-composer and the highest conscious genius can achieve it4 ,we see the same genius in the final measures of #8,death and the ,maiden4' ,the ,maiden sees ,death approaching1 and begs him to pass by4 ,he replies that he has not come to cause her pain4 ,he is a friend and will give her peace and joy4 ,and the music1 a succession of the simplest chords1 glides gradually into a major that seems to wring the tears by main force from the eyes4 ,every now and then ,schubert introduces unexpectedly such a musical phrase1 which seems to concentrate into half a dozen notes all the sincerity of the ,german genius4 ,we find it in the #8,second ,harper's ,song' of the ,mignon series1 on the words3 ,ihr lsst den ,armen schuldig werden3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,ihr lsst ,armen schulig werden or in the #8,praise of ,tears'3 ,illustration3 ,music score aler lenza und ,jugendlust or in ,der ,lindenbaum3 ,illustration3 ,music score so manches liebe ,wort ,of the songs that #8sing themselves1' ,schubert has written many4 ,we must mention #8,the ,fisher1' which is unusual in song literature as being a true ballad in strophe form2 the #8,heather ,rose1' which retains the quality of ,goethe's words in that it must be intimately known to be appreciated2 ,wohin1 from the ,mllerlieder1 in which the tune seems to flow as inevitably as the brook which is the motive of it2 #8,the ,trout1' the melody of which ,schubert used as the theme of the last movement of his famous string quartet2 and the #8,lullaby1' mentioned above4 ,the flowing quality of these songs is due to the fact that they are closely in accord with the felt traditions of ,german music1 containing a maximum of the usual and a minimum of the unusual1 while remaining unique and creative as a whole4 ,in other words1 they have an abundance of the expected and nothing of the commonplace4 ,and this is why it is of such extreme value for every musician to be familiar with a quantity of songs4 ,simple songs which are great in their human appeal have concentrated within themselves all that people throughout the centuries have agreed upon as beautiful4 ,they contain in the simplest form the elements of all great complex music4 ,the singer who can appreciate and love the simple song is not likely to go astray in singing the works of ,strauss and ,reger4 ,but ,schubert's particular historic claim to greatness is his introduction of precise musical expression into the ,song4 ,this takes all forms--a variety as broad as his wonderful genius4 ,in #8,sea ,calm' it is a succession of quiet and slow chords1 which preserve the evenness of the calm sea without its monotony4 ,in #8,the ,wanderer1' it is a succession of slightly different emotions1 each lyrically expressed1 culminating in the impressive recitative4 ,first the ,wanderer announces that he has come from the mountains1 ever searching for something4 ,then the lovely melody which ,schubert later used in one of his quartets--the motive of unsatisfied wandering4 ,then1 with a change of sentiment1 comes the cause of the unrest--#8,where art thou1 ,my ,native ,land8'--a mere snatch of rich song4 ,then a quick movement as the ,wanderer sees in his mind's eye the fresh greenness of his native hills4 ,then the moody wanderer's motive once more4 ,and finally the two lines of recitative--with all the beauty of poetry and all the force of prose--#8,there1 where thou art not1 there is happiness4' #8,the ,young ,nun1' though it has perhaps been overrated1 shows a powerful dramatic expression of the singer's feeling as interpreted by surrounding nature 7a favorite device of the ,romantic poets74 ,the song rises into religious exaltation1 with the thunderstorm outside1 as the nun returns resignedly to the praise of her religious contemplation4 ,die ,allmacht is a song in the most exalted style of ,beethoven1 but executed with a technique which is utterly of the romantic school4 ,god is praised by all his works1 by the storm no less than by the devout heart in prayer4 ,each is expressed by ,schubert in a musical passage of great beauty4 ,yet each section is but an inextricable part of the symphonic movement--for religious adoration is not a collection of separate feelings1 but a great emotional synthesis4 ,the music for ,goethe's wonderful #8,wanderer's ,evensong' is no less remarkable for the musical blending of shades of emotion4 ,but it is something more1 something which is in the highest degree typical of the art-song4 ,for it follows the words1 not only in expression but in accent1 so that not a syllable is falsified4 ,no recitative could be more just to the spoken value of the words4 ,in fact1 this song can be read as a pure recitative1 in which the words1 spoken sincerely and unaffectedly1 correspond exactly with the music4 ,and yet1 looked at from the other side1 it is a perfect melody4 ,this blending of the declamatory and lyrical elements in a perfect synthesis is true to the spirit of the art-song4 ,for no art-song is good that does any sort of violence to the text1 as it would be spoken4 ,and yet no art-song is a song if it has not a musical beauty of its own4 ,and it is one of the highest tests of the trained singer to give full value to both these elements1 without letting either crowd out the other4 #8,gretchen's ,prayer' is another fine example of this1 less simple but no less perfect4 ,here1 as the supplication rises into emotional entreaty1 the music becomes more independently lyrical1 floating in air as though to bear the petition to a higher sphere4 ,schubert is the great exemplar of a form which has been cultivated by almost every composer since his time--the song-cycle4 ,he was not the originator of the form1 for ,beethoven 7in addition to others7 had written a true song-cycle in ,an die ,ferne ,geliebte4 ,but ,schubert was the first to show the full possibilities of the song-cycle4 ,he has left us three such works--the ,mllerlieder1 of twenty songs2 the ,winterreise1 of twenty-four2 and the ,schwanengesang1 of fourteen4 ,the last was not planned by the composer as a cycle1 but was issued as such by his publisher just after his death1 when 7as has so often been the case7 the ,germans had waked up partially to the genius they had lost4 ,and for once the commercial publisher was justified4 ,for the songs were actually ,schubert's swansong1 being written in the last few weeks of his life 7the final one of the series was the very last of his compositions74 ,moreover1 they are of a pessimistic character which is rarely betrayed in ,schubert's earlier works4 ,the ,mllerlieder1 or #8,miller's ,songs1' were composed by ,schubert in his first enthusiasm over ,wilhelm ,mller's poems4 ,it is related that he went to call upon a friend one evening1 found the friend out but discovered the book lying upon his table1 became immersed in it while waiting1 and finally walked away with it in his pocket4 ,the next day he apologized for the borrowing1 pleading that the poems had inspired some beautiful melodies1 and he felt he had to write the music for them all4 ,the friend forgave him1 as have all who have since learned to know the songs he wrote to those words4 ,the ,miller ,songs tell a connected story1 after the manner of ,tennyson's #8,maud1' by making each one of the poems the lyrical expression of the hero in his successive moods4 ,the hero of ,mller's cycle is a typical figure of the ,german romanticism4 ,he is a wanderer on the face of the earth1 a sensitive1 introspective man1 a friend of sorrow and in love with unhappiness4 ,to us he seems a rather ridiculous figure4 ,but he was taken seriously enough by the ,germans of the time1 who had good cause to be pessimistic over the disorganized state of their country and their national life4 ,this miller hero is suffering from unrequited love1 which was a favorite theme of the romanticists4 ,but1 above all1 in the spirit of the time1 he is a lover of nature4 ,he sees in nature a reflection of his own moods and sorrows4 ,nature seems to us to be one of the staples of lyric poems--worn to the bone4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 nature is a rather recent invention of civilized man's4 ,the ,alps were #8discovered' by the poets no earlier than the eighteenth century4 ,certain early poems1 notably the ,iliad1 show a feeling for natural beauty4 ,but the study of nature as a cult1 the conscious effort to find moods and meanings in her1 is hardly more than a century and a half old4 ,folk poetry contains very little of it1 and then usually only in sentimental connotations4 ,in ,schubert's time nature was still a recent discovery and a thrilling one4 ,so ,schubert's contemporaries1 apart from their pessimism1 were able to immerse themselves in such poetry as that of the ,mllerlieder and the ,winterreise without feeling the strained preciosity which we inevitably feel in it in our realistic age4 ,as they stood and in their time the ,mllerlieder were admirably suited to romantic musical treatment by ,schubert4 ,in the first song1 #8,wandering1' the hero is happy enough in his simple melodic tramping about the countryside4 ,knowing ,schubert's own predilections in that direction1 we feel that he must have put some of his own enthusiasm into the song4 ,in the second song of the series1 #8,whither8' he meets a rippling brook1 and is filled with romantic wonderings and presentiments concerning its destination4 ,can we doubt that it leads him to his future beloved8 ,he follows it and comes upon a lovely mill1 whose wheel is propelled by the brook1 simple1 of beneficent and sympathetic nature4 ,the wanderer applies to the miller for work and is taken on4 ,thereupon1 in a beautiful song1 he pays his thanks--to the brook4 ,in the fifth song1 ,feierabend1 he has become as one of the miller's family4 ,he loves1 like a true apprentice out of ,wagner's ,meistersinger1 to hear the master1 at the close of a day's work1 say #8,well done6' ,but most of all he is happy because he has met the miller's daughter4 ,in the sixth song1 #8,curiosity1' he is in perplexity1 and turns1 as every romantic youth of the time did1 to nature for help4 #8,does she love me8' he is persistently asking1 and he addresses his question to the brook4 ,in the next song1 #8,impatience1' his attraction for the girl has become a full-fledged passion4 #8,dein ist mein ,herz6' he cries ecstatically4 ,in #8,morning ,greeting' he addresses some pretty stanzas and compliments to the miller's daughter4 ,the tenth song is an excellent example1 in simple form1 of the delicate mood which1 as we have said1 it is the special province of the art-song to express4 ,the young miller and the girl are sitting together--beside the brook1 of course4 ,she gets up and goes into the house1 and the tears come to his eyes4 ,in the next song the miller's daughter has accepted and returned his love1 and in the following one he is at joyful peace with nature1 and is praising the green ribbon which his loved one wears4 ,but then enters the tragic complication4 ,for we hear a hunter's horn1 and the handsome young hunter descends upon the peaceful mill4 ,the miller previsages the meaning of this4 ,in the fifteenth song he is struggling between pride and jealousy4 ,then he is once more praising the dear color--green1 which his sweetheart loves because it is like the fresh green of nature4 ,and in the next song he is cursing the hateful color 7the same green7 because its wearer is no longer true to him4 ,in the eighteenth song the miller's daughter has given her love to the huntsman1 and the young miller has lost hope4 ,the dead flowers 7for fall has come7 express the state of his heart4 ,these flowers must lie upon his grave4 ,but--when the loved one passes by the grave let the flowers burst once more into fresh bloom4 ,in the nineteenth song the miller holds a conversation with his beloved brook1 which suggests to him the sweet suicide which was ultra-fashionable in all romantic literature of the time4 ,and in the beautiful last song of the cycle the brook sings to sleep the dead man by its side4 ,the poems are all truly lyrical1 and invite musical setting4 ,they rise to no marked poetic heights1 but are thoroughly poetic and emotional in feeling4 ,though ,schubert did not achieve a uniform standard of excellence throughout the series1 the general average is high4 ,the first song1 #8,wandering1' has a memorable melody of a simple sort1 and the second1 which we have mentioned above1 is one of his masterpieces4 #8,impatience1' though formal and strophic in structure1 has an unrestrained sweep of feeling which is rare in ,schubert and looks forward to the later romanticists of music4 ,the #8,morning ,greeting' is a simple ,italianate melody of great beauty1 one which is likely to lead astray the singer who tries to give it overmuch #8expression4' #8,the ,hunter' is spirited1 but has no great musical value4 #8,jealousy and ,pride1' though not very attractive musically1 is interesting as an example of ,schubert's discriminating use of the simplest kind of accompaniment for precise emotional expression4 ,die liebe ,farbe1 however1 is one of the masterpieces4 ,it is almost ,french in its thread-like delicacy1 but this will prove a pitfall for the singer who has not attained full control of the niceties of vocal expression4 ,the formal daintiness of the song is like the allegretto of some toy symphony4 ,and at the same time it is neatly expressive of the playful mood of the words4 ,the contrast of the companion song1 ,die bse ,farbe1 of course offers a problem to the interpretive singer4 ,but perhaps the most masterful song of the cycle is the eighteenth1 #8,dead ,flowers4' ,this1 in moderate two-four time1 is strikingly like the allegretto movement of ,schubert's ,c major symphony1 one of the loveliest of all his orchestral pieces4 ,the entrancing modulation from an undecided minor to a spirited major on the words #8,der ,mai ist gekommen1 der ,winter ist aus1' is a touch which any lover of ,schubert would recognize as his unmistakably at the first hearing4 ,but don't miss the finer art of this lovely passage1 for the joyousness of the major is deceptive2 the miller is black at heart over his failure in love1 and is only beguiling himself in a passing moment4 ,notice1 therefore1 the plaintiveness of the accompaniment on this passage4 #8,the ,miller and the ,brook' is an interesting example of the half lyrical1 half declamatory style which ,schubert sometimes adopts1 as we have seen4 ,but the last piece of the cycle is pure song4 ,it is hard to analyze the plaintive character of this melody1 and hard especially to understand how the augmented fourth1 traditionally considered a harsh interval1 becomes at ,schubert's hands an instrument of deep emotional expression4 ,it has often been pointed out that the motive of the brook gives a subtle unity to this song cycle1 and that the motive is preserved in ,schubert's music4 ,from the rippling triplets of the accompaniment of #8,whither1' the first song in which the brook enters1 to the cradling motion of the accompaniment to the last1 the brook is almost continuously in the piano part4 ,but1 though ,schubert's feeling here is extremely delicate1 his technical means are of the simplest4 ,if it is realism1 it is realism of the most primitive sort4 ,we should not be misled by the praise of the #8brook music' in this cycle4 ,true descriptive music1 whether for good or for bad1 did not enter song until after ,schubert4 ,and we should further remember that1 although ,schubert was indeed the first great composer of the song-cycle1 he never gave the form the unity and inner meaning which was imparted to it by ,schumann1 and which is typical of it to our minds4 ,the ,mllerlieder reveal admirably the tender interpretation of sentiment of which ,schubert was such a master4 ,but they are by no means songs of a greatness equal to that of his next cycle1 the ,winterreise4 ,the #8winter journey' taken by the hero 7,mller again is the poet7 is a pilgrimage in search of forgetfulness after an unhappy love affair4 ,even more than the ,mllerlieder1 it is an essay in the interpretation of nature in terms of human sentiments4 ,the songs1 indeed1 are little more than a series of parallels drawn between the scene of the winter landscape and the feelings of the hero4 ,they are a personalizing of the weather1 a dramatization of the thermometer4 ,in the first song the hero tells of his lost sweetheart1 and sings to the memory of her a touching #8,good-night' lullaby4 ,the second hears the wind playing about the roof of the house1 and suggests that even so circumstances play with man's heart4 ,in the third he finds the cold air freezing his tears--thus his very sorrow has become fixed and rigid4 ,the fourth is a vision of the world paralyzed in the cold of winter3 his heart is frozen and her picture is blotted out of it4 ,in the fifth he remembers the linden tree under which they spent their happiest hours4 ,so the songs go1 one after another4 ,the ninth is the #8,will-o'-the-wisp' song2 he will not be misled by these false lights1 for his heart has been misled by such beacons before4 ,in the next1 #8,rest1' the hero tells how he is so occupied by the pain of his travelling and the pain of his sorrow that only when he lays his body down to rest at night does he realize how tired he is4 ,from this point on the great songs of the cycle are numerous4 ,the thirteenth1 #8,the ,post1' pictures the galloping of the approaching mail coach1 with the blowing of its horn4 ,is there a letter for him8 ,no1 for he is alone in the wide world4 ,the post departs--in a minor key4 ,in the fourteenth song1 ,der greise ,kopf1 he notices that the frost has made his hair white1 and he thinks of himself as an old man1 and wishes he could be many years removed from his sorrow4 ,in the long and somewhat descriptive song1 ,im ,dorfe1 he enters a village and the dogs bark at the lonely wanderer2 even so the world is strange and hostile to him4 ,in ,tuschung 7#8,illusion'7 he sees a light in the distance1 and hopes it comes from a hospitable farmhouse4 ,but1 alas6 the light was an illusion1 like the rest of the things we hope for in life4 ,then come five final songs--every one a masterpiece of the first order4 ,the ,wegweiser tells of the sign-post the hero sees on the road4 ,but there is another sign-post which is also directing him on his longer road and it points relentlessly the way to ,death4 ,yet1 in the next song1 ,das ,wirtshaus1 when he approaches a graveyard1 he finds no welcome awaiting3 the rooms of this tavern are all occupied4 ,death itself will not soothe his loneliness4 ,in the next song1 #8,courage1' he makes a final despairing effort to free himself from his misery by pure force of will-power4 ,if the snow flies in his face1 he will dash it aside4 ,he will laugh loud and merrily4 ,if life is an illusion1 he will make it worth while4 ,if there are no gods on earth1 we ourselves shall be gods4 ,but this mood cannot last4 ,he sees two false suns in the heavens1 in addition to the one that has always been there4 ,but they vanish1 like the two suns of earlier years--the eyes of his beloved4 ,only one more sun need vanish and blessed night will come for him4 ,we are spared the suicide which we might expect in the final song of the cycle4 ,the wanderer comes upon an old man playing the grind-organ4 ,he grinds out what music he can1 but his little money-box remains ever empty4 ,the wanderer feels the brotherhood between himself and the old man4 #8,play my songs on your grind-organ1' he asks4 ,people have suggested that this bit of verse must have come very close to ,schubert's heart2 for he1 too1 had made what music he could1 he too was alone in the world1 and he too found his little money-box always empty4 ,of the songs of this cycle at least a third rank with ,schubert's best4 #8,the ,lindentree1' with its simple strophic melody1 is almost a folk-song among the ,german people4 ,die ,post is justly admired because of the way it blends a mild realism with high melodic and interpretative beauty4 ,der greise ,kopf is especially interesting as pointing forward to the more complex and delineative style of several of ,schubert's later songs1 with its melodic peculiarity of outline and the extreme importance given the accompaniment4 ,in superficial texture it much resembles ,die ,stadt 7#8,the ,town'7 from his last song group4 #8,the ,signpost' however1 is more truly representative of ,schubert's genius4 ,the movement of the song is symphonic1 much like that of the #8,dead ,flowers' in the ,mllerlieder4 ,its steady pulse of rhythm avoids monotony by the most delicate of harmonic movement in the inner parts4 ,as the tragedy deepens toward the end of the song the steady beat of the melody continues for whole measures on a single tone4 ,and in half notes a bass and an alto voice move chromatically toward each other through the best part of an octave4 ,the device would be a trick in the hands of a lesser genius2 with ,schubert it becomes poetic interpretation4 ,this wonderful song is abundantly worth careful study2 in particular1 the harmonic freedom1 combined with liquid smoothness of voice progression1 reveals the romantic strain in the composer's equipment and something of his peculiar contribution to the development of music's expressive resources4 ,of #8,the ,inn' we have already spoken4 ,the deep and tragic sweetness of it grows on one1 impressive as it is at first hearing4 ,this particular mood of tragic sweetness is a pitfall for composers4 ,with any but the genius it is sure to become maudlin4 ,with ,schubert it became heartrending4 ,such a song as #8,courage' cannot be overpraised4 ,the compressed energy of its movement is not that of animal life1 but of moral effort4 ,human will-power is felt throughout it4 ,the change from minor to major 7,schubert to the bone7 in the last lines makes the hearer's blood surge to dizziness4 ,it is one of the most difficult songs to sing4 ,for its energy may so easily be taken for animal spirits4 ,it is just the song to #8run away' with the singer4 ,and when once the singer has lost mental control of it1 it becomes pitiless toward him4 ,the tonic arpeggio of the last line requires ultimate exactness of vocal control4 ,and from beginning to end the least inaccuracy of intonation or accent will be evident to the audience like a black streak on a white shirt-front4 ,nebensonnen 7#8,satellites'7 is of utmost simplicity4 ,it is so unassuming that for a moment it seems all but trivial4 ,yet this is the tender modesty of great lyric expression4 ,the song is a test of the singer's taste4 ,the least over-sentimentalization of it will make the judicious grieve4 ,a thousand times better to make it too simple and too prosaic than too emotional4 ,the last song1 #8,the ,organ ,grinder1' is written over a monotonous #8drone bass1' imitative of a primitive grind-organ4 ,the melody is apparently as crude as the instrument that is supposed to have played it4 ,but somewhere in it one hears--one knows not how--the deep strain of pathos which is one of ,schubert's miracles4 ,the third cycle1 #8,swan ,songs1' is matter for amazement to every student of ,schubert4 ,for its composer1 in the space of fifteen years since he first began writing in earnest1 seems to have become a totally new man with a totally new musical technique4 ,it is traditionally hard for a musician to change his technique once it is firmly ingrown4 ,the greatest musicians only--,beethoven1 ,wagner1 and a few others--have been able to do it4 ,that ,schubert could do it--in addition to the fact that he was thus willing further to endanger his chances of material success--proves the marvellous richness of his natural endowment4 ,when one considers that these songs were written by a man who had just passed his thirtieth year one is #8teased out of thought' with the curiosity as to what he would have become in music had he lived4 ,some have answered--#8the greatest composer of all time4' ,the speculation is fascinating1 and it makes us love our ,schubert the better4 ,the fourteen #8,swan ,songs' are written to seven texts by ,rellstab1 one by ,j4 ,g4 ,seydl1 and six by ,heine4 ,the last fact makes us pause4 ,rarely has there been so rich a lyric poet as ,heine1 probably never one who could so inspire song writers4 ,his first book of lyrics had been published only shortly before ,schubert's death1 and the composer had set six of them before his final illness4 ,of these six1 five are enduring masterpieces4 ,if only ,schubert's genius could have been mated to ,heine's through the succeeding ten years6 ,the seven ,rellstab songs include the universally known #8,serenade1' the beauty of which is too obvious and too familiar to need further comment4 ,another and greater song of the list is ,aufenthalt4 ,the speaker's #8abode' is among the rugged cliffs1 and he reflects that his sorrow is as unshakable as the eternal rocks4 ,the furious sweep of the song's movement is breathless4 ,beneath and above the triplets of the accompaniment is always a passionate and despairing melody4 ,when the voice rests for a moment the piano1 in marvellous imitation1 takes up the strain4 ,the climax1 on the words #8starrender ,fels1' is terrific4 ,the final half-declaimed phrase is almost ,greek in its severe nobility4 ,of the ,heine songs the best known is ,am ,meer 7#8,by the ,sea'74 ,the introductory chords scored in the bass express the impenetrable mystery of the sea4 ,the very simple melody is the essence of moody retrospection4 ,such a work as this is as supreme among songs as the second movement of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony is in orchestral music4 ,die ,stadt and ,der ,atlas show the great importance which ,schubert accorded to the accompaniment and the freedom with which he had come to handle it4 ,in ,ihr ,bild 7#8,her ,picture'7 we have another of ,schubert's very simple melodies--and how impressive in its simplicity6 ,perhaps ,heine was never more perfectly set to music than in this instance4 ,the wonderful ,doppelgnger1 unique among ,schubert's works1 has already been mentioned4 ,mr4 ,henderson is right in his judgment of this piece4 ,it is ,wagnerism before ,wagner's time4 ,it is the technique of the latter half of the nineteenth century previsaged by the genius of a poor and shy school-teacher living in a cheap ,vienna lodging4 ,it is a vision and a prophecy4 ,of the ballads we need say little4 ,strangely enough not one of them is of the finest quality1 or truly representative of ,schubert1 except that one which was the first of his songs to be published1 and one of the half dozen to be most widely known--the #8,erl ,king4' ,it is strange1 and disappointing1 when we consider the perfection of this early attempt1 that ,schubert left the ballad1 one of the most attractive of song forms1 to his contemporary1 ,lwe1 a man who had not a tenth part of his talent4 #8,the ,king of ,thule' is one of the best of the remainder1 but it is immensely surpassed by ,liszt's setting4 ,the #8,fisher ,boy' is charming1 but being in the strophic form1 is no contribution to the development of the form4 #8,the ,young ,nun1' fine as it is1 is too rhetorical to satisfy a true lover of ,schubert4 ,in his more declamatory style ,schubert often fails even to be interesting4 #8,the ,singer1' to words by ,goethe1 is workmanly declamation such as any man of talent might have written4 ,the ,ossian songs1 of which #8,kolma's ,complaint' is the best1 reflect the somewhat strained verbosity of the words1 and fail to convince with their beauty4 ,the same is true of ,schubert's setting to ,klopstock's scena1 #8,hermann and ,thusnelda4' ,pomp and circumstance drown out the music4 ,for the true ,schubert we must leave the larger forms and return to the shorter lyrics1 which reveal the composer's highest glory--the greatest beauty in the simplest terms4 ,,vi ,the writing of songs during ,schubert's time1 and immediately before1 was carried on on an amazing scale4 ,it is not unusual to find composers of the time writing thousands of them4 ,these songs have practically vanished from modern song-programs4 ,but many of them were extremely popular at the time1 and remain staples in the repertories of singing societies4 ,not a few of them have become folk-songs second to none in popularity4 ,the simple form of most of these little lyrics almost precludes their having any importance in the history of song development1 but it would be a pity if they were lost altogether to the student of singing4 ,the age in which they were written was1 as we have seen1 the great age of ,german national feeling4 ,the intense sincerity and manliness of a ,krner or an ,arndt filled the whole nation with generous sentiments1 contrasting with the delicate refinement of the ,french culture on the one hand1 and the morbid introspection of the ,german romanticists on the other4 ,patriotic and military songs abounded4 ,it was also the age of the formation of the male singing-societies which have since become such a typical feature of ,german life1 and composers wrote freely for the four-part male chorus1 or for the male solo voice4 ,it was also the age of the awakening interest in folk-literature1 and ,german history or legend furnished many a tale for men to sing around the festive board1 or for nurses to sing to the children at night4 ,finally1 it was the age of republican sentiment in ,germany1 the age when an idealistic and nave nation was still expecting the reigning house to give constitutional government once the people had freed themselves from ,french rule4 ,it was a ,germany very different from the ,germany we have seen since the ,franco-,prussian war--a ,germany that was less practical1 less commercial1 less ambitious1 but infinitely more simple and lyric4 ,hence the output of fine songs was enormous4 ,never was the ,german genius more spontaneous2 never was it more truly ,german4 ,the songs of the time1 which repose by the thousands in old ,kommersbcher1 and have sifted by scores into modern song collections1 are the very breath of fresh air and generous spirits4 ,at the period of ,schubert's early activity ,weber was the great national composer of the ,germans4 ,we have seen elsewhere#bb how ,german national sentiment centred around his music when the ,german kings turned traitor and sought to force the people back into an age of eighteenth-century reactionism4 ,his opera1 ,der ,freischtz1 was a sort of ,marseillaise in time of exile for the lovers of ,german liberty and union4 ,but earlier than this ,weber had made himself the chief national musical figure in ,germany4 ,his settings of ,krner's fiery ,leyer und ,schwert songs had raised him from a hardworking kapellmeister into a household name4 ,the newly formed singing societies took up the songs1 and at least one1 the #8,sword ,song1' has lived to this day4 ,but in addition to these purely national and military songs1 ,weber wrote a great number of others1 all in simple form and in the direct folk-spirit which he mastered as no other composer mastered it before or since4 ,many of them are sung still4 ,but the great majority have by this time become quite outdated4 ,we need only refer to one--the charming lullaby ,schlaf1 ,herzensshnchen1 mein ,liebling bist du4 ,three composers preminently continued ,weber's work as composer of ,german opera--,conradin ,kreutzer 7#aghj-ahdi71 ,albert ,lortzing 7#ahja-ahea71 and ,heinrich ,marschner 7#agie-ahfa74 ,of these1 ,kreutzer was peculiarly close to the ,german popular genius4 ,his settings of ,uhland's ,wanderlieder are very fine1 ,in die ,ferne being particularly worthy of study4 ,kreutzer1 too1 was one of the most successful composers of male choruses2 his elaborate chorale1 ,das ist der ,tag des ,herrn1 will probably be remembered as long as ,german music exists4 ,lortzing and ,marschner freely introduced simple strophic songs into their operas1 and by these are chiefly known4 ,their style was as simple as ,weber's and the historical development of song at their hands 7slight in any case7 is in a different direction from that which ,schubert took4 ,their melodies are not inappropriate1 but we look in vain in them for any of the close emotional interpretation which we find so abundantly in ,schubert4 ,but the finest songs of this semi-popular style 7volkstmliche ,lieder7 were written by men who have no other claim to greatness4 ,we may mention ,f4 ,h4 ,himmel 7#agfe-ahad71 ,methfessel 7#aghe-ahfi71 ,ngeli 7#aggc-ahcf71 ,lindpainter 7#agia-ahfa71 and ,silcher 7#aghi-ahfj74 ,these are the true writers of modern ,german folk-songs4 ,the energy of their music is of an elementary sort which the more highly trained composer rarely equals4 ,they live to-day in every gathering of ,german students1 in every ,mnnerchor1 in every nursery4 ,ten people are familiar with their songs to one who knows who the composers were4 ,but the gifts these composers have left to their people are co-extensive with ,german culture4 ,methfessel is direct and virile1 the singer of battles and of the manly virtues of the great ancestors4 ,how compelling is the vigor of #8,stimmt an1 mit hellem ,klang'6 ,and what a boiling of the blood is in his fiery setting of ,arndt's #8,the ,god ,who ,made the ,iron ,grow6' ,ngeli is softer and more sentimental4 ,we remember him chiefly by ,freut euch des ,lebens and the charming #8,good-,night4' ,lindpainter was less talented1 and his songs1 which partook of a romantic nature1 have almost disappeared4 ,but ,himmel is among the greatest4 ,his setting of ,krner's #8,prayer on the ,eve of ,battle' 7vastly superior to ,schubert's7 is one of the deepest expressions of religious faith in all song literature4 ,his #8,ballad of the ,three ,tailors1' from ,des ,knaben ,wunderhorn1 is a delightful example of the typical ,studentenlied4 ,and one should not overlook his four songs from ,alexis und ,ida1 in which he shows a delicacy of sentiment approaching that of ,schubert though he wrote them some years before the composition of the #8,erl ,king4' ,finally1 there is ,silcher1 who is to ,germany exactly what ,stephen ,foster is to ,america4 ,his songs are innumerable1 and the number of great folk-songs among them is astonishing4 ,the very heart of ,german music pulses in ,silcher4 ,the famous #8,loreley' melody is his1 and also ,zu ,strassburg auf der ,schanz and the wonderful ,lebewohl4 ,he is one of the three or four composers in the world who could with any considerable frequency equal the beauty and directness of folk-songs4 ,he is a text for this chapter4 ,only the student who knows and loves ,silcher can truly know and love ,schubert4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ba ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #bb ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bcj ff4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,robert ,,schumann ,romantic music and romantic poetry--,schumann as a song-writer--,the earlier songs--,the #8,woman's ,life' cycle2 the #8,poet's ,love' cycle2 the later songs--,schumann's contemporaries4 ,schubert died just before the great artistic outburst which we know as the romantic period4 ,we have seen elsewhere#bc how this force grew and achieved expression in ,paris1 and thanks partly to political conditions spread to all parts of ,europe4 ,schumann1 though not at all interested in politics1 felt this force in its artistic aspect1 as did all other sensitive men of the time4 ,after ,schubert1 he was the one man preminently to express the new feeling in terms of song4 ,much had happened between #ahbh1 when ,schubert died1 and #ahdj1 when ,schumann wrote his first songs4 ,to put the case briefly1 the romantic movement in music had got under way4 ,people had begun to know ,schubert's songs and the later symphonies of ,beethoven4 ,the pianoforte had grown to perfection and had come to have a technique and literature of its own4 ,the technique of harmony and polyphony had undergone 7partly at ,schumann's own hands7 striking changes in the direction of freedom and expressiveness4 ,the short piece in free form had become a recognized part of musical literature4 ,the national movement in ,germany1 with its extensive use of the folk-song1 had been universally accepted4 ,the travelling virtuoso had become a fixed part of musical life1 and the musical centre of gravity had shifted from the nobles to the masses4 ,in short1 people had come to look for intimate emotional expression in music1 and music had developed the means of supplying the demand4 ,since ,schubert's time1 the text of a song had become a factor of growing importance4 ,musicians began to recognize that it should be regarded as equal in value to the music4 ,and along with this recognition arose a remarkable group of poets1 as we have seen in the last chapter--a group which have supplied ,german poetry with one of its most brilliant periods4 ,this group we have described as representing the period of disillusionment following the shattering of the dreams of ,german unity4 ,for a time the hopes of the people had been directed toward the political and social field2 what the best literature had expressed was the feelings and aspirations which were common to men4 ,now that all the fair dreams had been shattered by the selfishness of the courts and the bickerings of politicians1 men asked1 #8,what is the use8' ,turning inward to examine their own souls1 they produced a delicate lyric poetry which contained just what the art-song of the time needed--the intimate and personal4 ,no grand emotions ring in this period4 ,in the whole list of ,schumann's songs there is hardly one whose words could be put into the mouth of a hero4 ,by far the greater portion are pessimistic4 ,what the poet remembers is a beguiling hour in the shade of a tree4 ,what he looks forward to is a smile from his sweetheart4 ,every man tries to snatch his own small portion of happiness from this life--and generally makes a poor job of it4 ,nevertheless1 a man usually tells more of the truth about himself when he is discouraged than when he is self-satisfied4 ,and in the lyric poetry of the time we get charming and truthful analyses of human emotions and moods4 ,the literary standard is perhaps higher than at any previous period 7excepting1 of course1 the work of the giants like ,goethe and ,schiller74 ,versification is smoother1 form is more pleasing1 and words are used with more regard for their suggestive connotations4 ,in short1 men are looking at details in this romantic poetry1 even as in romantic music4 ,high above all poets of the time stood ,heine4 ,no ,german poet1 except possibly ,goethe1 ever produced such a quantity of short poems which have become the property of every ,german child4 ,the whole literature of lyric poetry can show only three or four men who can equal him in brief and direct expression4 ,it was ,heine who brought ,german literature down from the mountain tops and made it inhabit the homes of men4 ,his poetry was no #8mighty line1' with inverted phrasings and high astounding polysyllables4 ,he never spoke the speech of the gods1 as did ,schiller4 ,he had no use for the paraphernalia of ,greek mythology that had been popular in the ,sturm und ,drang period4 ,he spoke a ,german that easily fits into men's mouths as they converse with their neighbors4 ,out of this he fashioned poetry4 ,his syntax is as simple as that of the ,king ,james ,bible 7a rare thing in ,german literature74 ,each statement is a unit4 ,and so with each of his thoughts and observations4 ,each comes to us in its simplest terms4 ,heine's vocabulary 7in his poems7 is that of a child4 ,his thoughts are those of any callow love-sick youth4 ,his statement is so literal that it seems always to be on the verge of foolishness4 ,he even seems careless in literary art2 his lines are uneven1 his rhymes the simplest imaginable1 his rhythm disordered4 ,yet beneath and beyond this simplicity is the art of a careful workman1 and the charm of a sensitive observer of men4 ,heine's poems have the true lyric quality in that their real charm can never be finally analyzed4 ,we can only say that beneath those childlike statements of the obvious was the genius of a poet4 ,heine's genius1 like that of ,rckert1 ,platen1 ,chamisso1 ,kerner1 ,eichendorff1 and other contemporaries mentioned in the preceding chapter1 always tended a bit toward the morbid4 ,these poets partook of the common malady of over-individualism4 #8,it is not good for man to be alone4' ,the commonest and truest of truths is that man is a social animal4 ,it is impossible for him to conduct his life except in company with others4 ,the stories of hermits who have gone mad with loneliness have an excellent foundation in fact4 ,and just as man seems meant to act socially1 so he seems obliged to feel socially4 ,it is a spiritual necessity to think a good deal of others4 #8,whoso saveth his soul shall lose it4' ,the man who seeks to discover all the treasures within him usually ends by finding nothing there4 ,and when it is the literary fashion 7as it was in ,schumann's time7 to look exclusively within one's own soul1 the age ends in helplessness with a moan of despair4 ,this condition is implicit in the poetry of ,heine4 ,it is1 as we have said1 never the poetry of a hero4 ,it can console us in our leisure2 it can never inspire us in our labor4 ,yet the fault is not so serious as it may sound4 ,few people have contracted serious spiritual diseases from ,heine's poetry4 ,the very simplicity and brevity of it prevent the reader from taking it too seriously4 ,read before the fire in the still hours of the evening ,heine cannot harm the tenderest soul of a child of twelve4 ,he was too genuine a humanist1 as well as too excellent a literary man1 to be utterly removed from health4 ,he is a far more harmless amusement than ,byron1 for instance1 just as he was a far greater poet than ,byron4 ,he was1 of course1 taken much more seriously in his day than we can take him in ours4 ,schumann in particular shows that he regarded his poet as a text for the highest tragedy and passion of which he as musician was capable4 ,yet even in his own time ,heine's influence must have been essentially healthy4 ,for he had in abundance two qualities that always tend to keep men in the path of health1 simplicity and humor4 ,the mind that can think simply is not wholly diseased4 ,and we need never fear the pessimist who can laugh at his own despair4 ,i ,two things preminently ,schumann brought to his songs beyond what any composer had brought previously4 ,first there was an accurate regard for the text4 ,it is not to belittle ,schubert to say that he did not show ,schumann's accurate regard for the words4 ,schubert's regard for the text was conscientious and faithful2 his melodies are marvellously faithful to the spirit and his musical prosody never does violence to the metre and accent4 ,but ,schubert was working under a somewhat different tradition from ,schumann4 ,he is more the melodist1 pure and simple4 ,his attitude toward musical prosody was somewhat negative2 he demanded of his melody only that it should not do violence to the metre2 beyond that it could follow its own musical course4 ,hence1 we not infrequently in his songs have such passages as this1 from ,die ,allmacht3 ,illustration3 ,music score verknden seine ,macht ,this1 of course1 is in no way reprehensible or violent to the canons of art4 ,but it differs from ,schumann's method in that it puts a higher value on pure song--on the mere joyous exercise of the vocal organs4 ,schumann's attitude toward musical prosody was more positive2 he demanded of his melody not only that it should do no obvious violence to the metre1 but that it should take pains accurately to fit the minor accents and quantities4 ,he tried to make the text as sung not very different from the text as declaimed4 ,true1 he sometimes wrote mere lyric passages of melody on an open vowel1 like that in the above example from ,schubert4 ,but such passages in ,schumann are far more rare4 ,and the whole body of his songs shows that he took the text more as his collaborator in matters of detail4 ,his songs are not valuable primarily because of their melody4 ,he has written many lovely melodies1 but a large proportion of his songs would be of comparatively little musical value 7at least in the voice part7 without the words4 ,and his melodic invention1 taking his songs as a whole1 is far below the exalted work of ,schubert4 ,besides1 ,schubert's texts1 though not generally chosen without discrimination1 do not show the same careful selection as those of ,schumann4 ,the poems of the latter are carefully selected for the purpose of specific musical treatment1 and in consequence seem to have a higher literary value1 whether they have or not4 ,finally1 ,schumann had the immense advantage of possessing nearly all of ,heine's wonderful lyrics to choose from1 a fact that in many an instance gave him the opportunity of writing immortal music #8married to immortal verse4' ,the second all-important factor which ,schumann1 over and above ,schubert1 brought to his song-writing was a matured harmonic and pianistic technique for the accompaniments4 ,however truly ,schubert divined the possibilities of the modern pianoforte1 just nearing perfection in his day1 he never wrote thoroughly in the new style4 ,his chords in the bass were apt to be heavy and thick1 his accompaniment is not spread as widely as it might advantageously be1 and his inner voices never show the free and sprightly polyphony which is peculiarly adapted to the piano4 ,had he lived he would doubtless have become one of the greatest masters of the new pianoforte style4 ,but it was left for ,schumann consciously and reverently to take up the work4 ,schumann did not write a single song1 for publication at least1 until he had been working for full ten years for the piano4 ,his first enthusiasm was for the piano4 ,the shattering of his hopes to become a virtuoso forced him to turn his enthusiasm toward piano composition4 ,and in his early years of creative activity he developed the possibilities of the new instrument with all the enthusiasm of his youthful nature4 ,his first twenty-three works1 written between the years #ahcj and #ahdj1 were almost exclusively for the piano4 ,in them he developed a pianoforte idiom which was unique in its day4 ,with this new and mature technique he approached his song writing4 ,inevitably he looked as lovingly toward the accompaniment as toward the voice part--some critics say even more so4 ,he had learned how to make the most of the mechanical peculiarity of the piano--its struck strings which are incapable of a true sustained legato2 he treated the piano1 in other words1 essentially as a hammer instrument and not as a wind instrument1 like the organ4 ,he developed a surprising adeptness at enharmonic modulation1 for which the complete piano keyboard is so peculiarly adapted4 ,he learned the full use of the damper pedal--not so much for sustaining chords as for permitting a wide separation of notes4 ,he learned how to make his inner voices pianistic instead of vocal1 making them depend wholly on their contour and position 7as opposed to tone quality7 for their independence4 ,finally1 he had learned how to give each composition a style of its own--a peculiarity of pianistic manner over and above its individuality of musical content4 ,all these qualities of ,schumann's piano technique should be kept in mind in studying his accompaniments4 ,they represent a good half of the musical value of ,schumann's songs4 ,if the vocal parts of the ,dichterliebe cycle had never been written the accompaniments would still have a high value as proof of ,schumann's mastery over pianistic writing4 ,without an appreciation of the pianistic side of ,schumann's vocal work no singer can begin to appreciate the songs2 he cannot even satisfactorily sing his part of them4 ,a large share of ,schubert's accompaniments can be played satisfactorily by a pianist of slight ability1 if only he have the knack of following the singer4 ,but scarcely any of ,schumann's accompaniments can be played satisfactorily except by a performer who is an artist at his instrument4 ,,ii ,schumann's songs can be easily divided into two groups4 ,the first1 comprising about a hundred1 was composed in #ahdj1 the year of the composer's marriage1 and of his most fertile and romantic productivity4 ,after writing these1 he professed himself satisfied with what he had done 7well he might be7 and doubted whether he should ever write songs again4 ,his most fervent admirers cannot help wishing that he had kept to his purpose4 ,a dozen or so indifferent songs were produced in the next ten years1 and then1 from #ahej to #aheb1 when his mental powers had begun seriously to fail1 he turned out more than a hundred4 ,the contrast between the two groups is striking4 ,the first is nearly all genius2 the second nearly all mediocrity4 ,at best1 two or three songs from this whole later period are worth knowing4 ,of the first group there is scarcely one which does not show high creative excellence and there are at least fifty of the finest quality or close to it4 ,by far the greater part of the songs of the earlier period are grouped in cycles4 ,of these1 however1 there is only one which contains that most distinctive quality of the cycle1 a unified narrative--as in ,schubert's ,mllerlieder4 ,this is the immortal ,frauenliebe und ,leben4 ,another1 the ,dichterliebe1 is closely bound together and primarily intended to be sung as a unit4 ,illustration3 ,robert and ,clara ,schumann ,after a daguerreotype from life4 ,three more cycles1 while looser than the one just mentioned1 are like it in being set solely to the words of one author4 ,and another1 ,myrthen1 has little beyond a common title for unification4 ,a few other songs have no grouping except that of an opus number4 ,the first of the songs form a ,liederkreis 7song-cycle71 opus #bd1 words selected from ,heine4 ,this is obviously an experimental work1 though it contains several fine numbers4 ,ich wandelte unter den ,bumen delicately maintains its mood4 ,number #e1 ,schne ,wiege meiner ,leiden1 is pure melody with a simple accompaniment in ,schubert's style1 one of the most affecting of all ,schumann's songs4 ,sung with a constant and rich legato1 and with well-chosen modulations of tone quality1 it is immediately effective4 ,number #i1 ,mit ,myrthen und ,rosen1 is much admired by musicians2 it is unlike most of ,schumann in giving an unusual lyric freedom to the voice part1 but the accompaniment1 with its delicate inner voices1 suggests what was to come later4 ,the ,myrthen of opus #be include some of ,schumann's finest4 ,the very first1 ,widmung 7#8,dedication'71#bd is one of the great songs of all time4 ,such passionate ardor a composer has seldom been able to compress into a few notes4 ,the fine legato contrasting melody1 introduced by an impressive enharmonic change1 is the purest of ,german lyricism4 ,the accompaniment1 while conventional enough in its relation to the voice part1 shows the freedom1 and especially the wide separation of notes1 which was to flower so magnificently in the ,dichterliebe4 ,the great danger in singing this song is that of making it sound hurried or #8choppy4' ,here1 as so often in song singing1 the correct tempo is half the battle4 ,let the singer aim to avoid #8choppiness1' on the one hand1 and dragging1 on the other1 and the correct tempo will come almost automatically1 though1 of course1 no tempo can hold a song together if there is not a firm legato behind it4 ,der ,nussbaum 7#8,the ,almond ,tree'7 is another immortal melody4 ,in this song the accompaniment enters as a lyric element1 as it rarely does in ,schubert except in interludes4 ,the half-phrase of the voice with its answering phrase from the piano--this is an effect of striking charm4 ,the supporting part of the accompaniment shows the principle of the simple broken 7or #8harp'7 chord used more freely than had been the common custom4 ,in ,die ,lotusblume 7#8,the ,lotus ,flower'7 the novelty in the accompaniment is very different--a slow and impressive melody arising out of the lowest bass notes of the harmonic support4 ,in these songs we see the piano beginning to sing with the voice on terms of equality4 ,in number #ae1 one of the #8,hebrew ,melodies' of ,byron1 we see the formal accompaniment very highly developed4 ,it has become quite pianistic1 with much figuration1 and a profusion of chromatic passings which remind us of ,schumann piano pieces4 ,yet this is a true accompaniment in the old-fashioned sense1 and not1 as in some of the later songs1 an independent piano composition4 ,lass mich ihm am ,busen hngen and ,du bist wie eine ,blume are charming examples of ,schumann at his simplest4 ,we cannot point out the precise elements of beauty1 yet we feel that the music subtly matches the simplicity of the words4 ,in other terms1 we see in these two songs that ultimate test of artistic mastery--the command over style4 ,and in these instances the style subsists quite as much in the voice as in the piano part4 ,the great piano stylist of the preceding decade has begun to turn his peculiar gifts to pure vocal music4 ,the grandiose ,talismane 7#8,talismans'7 is perhaps not of high value musically1 but it shows the engaging freshness of ,schumann's romantic invention4 ,the three ,burns songs--#8,somebody1' #8,the ,highlander's ,farewell1' and #8,the ,highland ,cradle ,song'--are simply melodies of great beauty and are to be sung as such4 ,the last-named offers a problem to the singer in the need of combining the somewhat jerky1 rocking motion of the cradle with the calm monotony which overspreads the whole4 ,the five songs1 opus #bg1 need not detain us4 ,of the three songs from ,emmanuel ,geibel the last1 ,der ,hidalgo 7#8,the ,hidalgo'71 is particularly interesting4 ,as an attempt at local color 7which was never ,schumann's forte7 it has no special value4 ,but the vigor of the accompaniment1 with its varied bolero rhythm1 and the quiet passages on the words #8,die ,schnen von ,sevilla1' suggest once more some of the wonderful piano passages of the ,dichterliebe4 ,of the three songs1 opus #ca1 we must note ,die ,lwenbraut 7#8,the ,lion's ,bride'7 as a fine example of the larger ballad form4 ,this form ,schubert frequently attempted without ever achieving better than mediocrity4 ,and ,schumann himself failed miserably at it in his later years4 ,but in the present instance he gave us a model4 ,the declamatory voice part agrees accurately with the prosody of the text without ever quite losing a melodic value4 ,the accompaniment of the first section consists only of occasional supporting chords4 ,it is recitative1 but1 unlike the recitativo secco of ,italian opera1 it is recitative raised to the status of music4 ,the singer should be careful never to lose the musical beauty of the voice part and at the same time not try to force it into a formal melody4 ,the middle section illustrates admirably a device which ,schumann used better than any other of his time4 ,this is the development of a long passage of vocal music from a single phrase4 ,the vocal part in this middle section is scarcely more than the repetition1 in many forms and keys1 of one short and very lovely phrase4 ,this device is peculiarly suited to the ballad1 which1 being in constant forward motion1 is liable to lose coherence if the music does not offer some basis of unification4 ,schumann used the same device later in his ballad1 ,blondels ,lied 7#8,blondel's ,song'71 and here with even more poetic fitness2 for the phrase on which the piece is built up is that accompanying the constantly recurring refrain of the text and as it develops seems to infuse the whole work with this single burning message4 ,one more of ,schumann's ballads should be mentioned in this place--the universally known ,die beiden ,grenadiere 7#8,the ,two ,grenadiers'74 ,technically the song offers little of interest beyond the composer's clever and appropriate abbreviation of the ,marseillaise at the end4 ,the overwhelming gusto of the ballad is too obvious to demand more than passing mention4 ,,iii ,the twelve songs to words by ,kerner1 opus #ce1 include several of especial interest4 ,in this group we see ,schumann's development of the piano part well under way4 ,each song offers an accompaniment which is a study in pianistic style4 ,number #b1 ,stirb1 ,lieb' und ,freund1 has an austere polyphonic support1 in the style of ,bach1 suggesting the majesty of some old cathedral4 ,number #c1 ,wanderlust1 is a buoyant and youthful melody1 and number #f1 ,an das ,trinkglass1 a fine romantic chorale4 ,numbers #f and #h1 ,stille ,liebe and ,stille ,thrnen1 are intimate psychological studies4 ,in the former the sustained bass melody beneath the hesitating treble of the accompaniment suggests the apprehension of the lover who is obliged to wait in silence4 ,the latter obtains a charming effect with the soft repeated chords of the piano part and offers a typical ,schumann ending in the intermingling melodies of the close4 ,the six songs opus #cf contain one which has become a ,german folk-song--,an den ,sonnenschein1 a melody which concentrates the spirit of dignity and sincerity of ,german popular music4 ,in the ,eichendorff ,liederkreis1 opus #ci1 there are four songs of the very highest rank4 ,number #b1 ,intermezzo1 with its soft syncopation in the accompaniment1 offers a suggestive contrast with the songs of ,schubert and shows how far musical technique had moved in ten or fifteen years4 ,it is the simplest of melodies1 but one with a certain atmospheric indecision1 strongly contrasting with the downrightness and clearness of outline which ,schubert best loved4 ,number #c in this group1 ,waldesgesprch1 is as lovely a melody as ,schumann ever wrote4 ,it might be called a ballad1 with its story of the knight who wandered into the forest at night1 finding there a lady in distress1 attempting to help her1 and discovering that he was in the power of the witch1 the ,lorelei1 who lies in wait for strong men4 ,the lovely thirds of the accompaniment seem to spread the mystery of evening over the song1 and when the witch announces her identity the music takes on a momentary grandeur that suggests the old tales of gods and heroes4 ,the song is full of fine and expressive effects4 ,but these do not exist in detail2 they rather spring unconsciously out of the musical design4 ,the singer who attempts to make the song too expressive is sure to go astray4 ,if it is sung primarily for its musical beauty it becomes of itself a masterpiece of expressive story-telling4 ,above all1 as so often in great songs1 a good legato is the first and chiefest of the virtues4 ,number #ab of the ,eichendorff series is the ,frhlingsnacht 7#8,spring ,night'71 with its magical triplet accompaniment4 ,number #e is the famous ,mondnacht 7#8,moonlight ,night'74 ,here again we have a song that quite defies analysis4 ,the voice part consists solely of a two-line phrase several times repeated4 ,the first three times it closes on the dominant1 the last time on the tonic1 with a deep and satisfying sense of repose4 ,in any but a master hand this form would become monotonous4 ,but with ,schumann's mysterious accompaniment it is all magic4 ,the close is peculiarly characteristic4 ,the voice part comes1 as we have said1 to a tonic close1 but the accompaniment makes a false cadence of it and the piano part continues to its own logical ending4 ,the piano part has become utterly organic and independent4 ,played by itself1 it would offer no clew as to where the voice part ended4 ,that deceptive cadence is ,schumann's ultimatum to the singer4 #8,the song is not ended1' he seems to say1 #8merely because you have finished singing4 ,the song is the voice part and the piano part one and indivisible4 ,if you hurry through the postlude1 or belittle it1 or treat it as a useless appendage to the voice part1 you are no artist4 ,if you consider the voice part more important than the piano part1 or yourself more important than the song you are singing1 go and give your feeble talents to vaudeville songs4' ,and for audiences1 too1 this song has a message3 the listener who begins to applaud before the piano part is finished 7and there are few even to-day who do not7 is no true listener4 ,let him go and listen to a brass band2 he has no business with the art-song4 ,the five children's songs1 opus #dj1 offer little of interest4 ,but the cycle1 ,frauenliebe und ,leben 7#8,woman's ,life and ,love'71 is undoubtedly the most famous and possibly the greatest song cycle in all musical literature4 ,the poet1 ,adalbert von ,chamisso1 selects eight crucial moments in woman's life and puts into her mouth for each of the eight an exquisite lyric1 expressing with wonderful delicacy her emotions and moods4 ,the poems are perhaps a trifle exaggerated in the romantic fashion of the time and certainly do not altogether tally with the emotions of the modern woman4 ,but the groundwork of typical psychology is expressed with such persuasive eloquence and such literary charm that no one can read the poems without feeling that he has lived through1 in some measure1 the experience of which they tell4 ,in the first song1 ,seit ich ihn gesehen1 the young girl has just seen her hero2 in a moment1 almost1 she has cast her young girlhood behind her2 she feels strange presentiments2 she no longer cares for the games of her sisters2 she wishes to be alone2 the personality of her hero seems to be ever present4 ,in the second song she has come to know him4 ,she makes no secret of her love2 she sings it openly2 she is proud of it before the world4 ,in the next song she has heard his proposal4 #8,ich kann's nicht fassen1 nicht glauben' 7#8,i cannot grasp it1 ,i cannot believe it'71 she says1 torn between joy and terror4 ,but in the next song1 ,du ,ring an meinem ,finger1 she is apostrophizing her engagement ring and looking at the long vista of life ahead4 ,number #e1 ,helft mir1 ihr ,schwestern1 is sung on the bridal day4 ,next1 she is in her own home1 in the arms of her husband1 vainly attempting to make him understand why she weeps when she is happiest4 ,in number #g she is singing a lively but tender lullaby to her newborn child4 ,in the last song she is singing her grief at the death of her husband4 #8,this is your first cruel act toward me1' she says to the dead body4 ,she sees before her a life of voluntary loneliness1 assuaged by memories of her former happiness4 ,the music with which ,schumann interprets these songs may justly be called psychological4 ,the term #8psychological' is applied freely and indiscriminately to music and usually without justice4 ,properly1 music is far too abstract an art to carry any precise meanings4 ,yet with the gradual and persistent process of six centuries1 whereby certain musical styles and progressions have come to be associated with definite moods1 there has grown up a technique which1 with a properly sympathetic audience1 may be manipulated to express states of soul4 ,whatever this technique is worth1 ,schumann1 in his ,frauenliebe und ,leben1 has used it with masterly power4 ,in the first song he writes a simple1 timid melody1 the rhythmic flow interrupted as though by the hesitation of a fluttering heart4 #8,since my eyes first beheld him ,i seem to have been blind4' ,the emotion rises4 #8,i care no more for the games of my sisters4 ,i had rather weep4' ,then comes a lovely phrase of tender sweetness4 ,weeping for love is a precious delight4 ,the broken melody continues4 ,not until the last bar does the hearer become conscious of its full charm and formal beauty4 ,the second song1 #8,he1 the ,noblest of ,all1' is in a very different mood--proud and exuberant expression4 ,it has a grand lyric sweep which only a fine artistic taste can restrain from a somewhat cheap pompousness4 ,the middle section returns for a moment to the girl's feelings of timidity4 #8,turn from me before it is too late1' she says2 #8,i am not worthy of you4' ,schumann has chosen not to interrupt the flow of his song here4 ,to express the more timid mood he employs dissonance and chromatic progression1 which finally resolves into the original clear-cut strain4 ,throughout the symphonic unity of the song is preserved4 ,the third song1 #8,i cannot grasp it1' returns to the spirit of the first4 ,it is an agitated allegretto movement4 ,the voice part follows the words with utmost faithfulness2 it is almost a free recitative1 interrupted only by one gentle lyric phrase on the words1 #8,i am thine forever4' ,yet here1 again1 there is a true melody throughout1 and a charming one1 but it seems only to peep out from behind the detached notes4 ,the fourth song1 #8,thou1 ,ring upon ,my ,finger1' has much the design and movement of the second1 though quieter4 ,in the fifth1 too1 melody is dominant4 ,in the sixth the composer returns to the declamatory style4 ,here the delineative music lies chiefly in the accompaniment1 with lovely modulations and snatches of melody suggesting the timid wonder of the wife in her happiness4 ,the voice part hardly comes to an end at all1 but fades away on the words #8,thy picture1' while the piano takes up the tale4 ,the next song1 the lullaby1 musically the least important of the eight1 is a simple strophic melody with a broken chord accompaniment4 ,the last is recitative pure and simple4 ,the rests between phrases seem broken with sobs1 out of which there rises the heroism of a determination to face life alone and without complaint4 ,the emotional power of those few notes of recitative is beyond description4 ,the stark tragedy of the opening lines becomes clouded over1 as it were1 with tears1 and the music melts into calm grayness as the woman sings1 #8,the veil falls2 ,i withdraw into myself1 where ,i have thee and my lost happiness4' ,and then1 as the great quiet of loneliness settles down1 the piano sings softly the whole of the first song1 the early glow of delicate color when the girl first beheld her hero4 ,and we seem to see ahead the years of loneliness softened only by sweet memory4 ,no group of songs has ever more perfectly achieved the union of words and music4 ,the faults of this cycle on the artistic side are the faults of the generation4 ,people's views of life have changed much since ,chamisso set maiden hearts a-fluttering4 ,the notion of the wife as the bounden slave of her husband--a notion only a step or two removed from the theory of the harem--has given place to the healthier view of the wife as one of two high contracting parties4 ,one cannot help noticing in ,chamisso's poems how small a part the child plays in the woman's life4 ,and the idea that upon the death of the husband the woman's thoughts should be solely of her own past rather than of her child's future is little short of repulsive4 ,these are the faults of an individualistic1 a pessimistic1 an over-sentimental age4 ,they are reflected in the spirit of the music4 ,since then our art1 if it has become more sensuous1 has also become more vigorous4 ,schumann's work was for an age rather than for all time4 ,in the singing of these songs the singer must avoid stressing too much the declamatory character of the three slow ones as well as the melodic exuberance of the others4 ,the songs seem on paper to be detached and broken4 ,all the more they must be sung smoothly1 discreetly1 without undue emphasis4 ,the singer will not go far wrong in following the notes and the time signatures quite literally4 ,many a singer has been astonished by that old miracle of art--that if the notes are sung as written they will work their own magic4 ,the composer has seen to that4 ,if a song relies wholly on a #8singer's personality1' the composer has failed4 ,so in these songs pure intonation1 just rhythm1 and careful diction will interpret the poet truly4 ,if the singer finds that with the observance of these values the songs do not express what they should1 let him put them aside for a while4 ,as his technical artistic powers grow he will find that the songs have grown along with them4 ,if he is much concerned about bolstering up the song by giving it #8expression1' he is sure to be on the wrong track4 ,of the #8,romances and ,ballads1' opus #de1 we need only notice the spirited ,es zogen zwei rst'ge ,gesellen4 ,opus #dh1 however1 is the immortal ,dichterliebe series1 probably the most individual of all ,schumann's song works4 ,here1 again1 we find ,schumann suffering somewhat from the faults of romanticism4 ,to put the case briefly1 he took ,heine seriously4 ,heine himself1 we cannot but feel1 was not so taken in by his own poetry4 ,in addition to the ever-present grin which is in almost every one of his lyrics there is a certain playful quality1 as though he were only teasing the sentimentalism of the human heart4 ,if ,heine suffered only a hundredth part of the pangs described in his mass of short poems he must have had more love affairs than any one man could attend to in three lifetimes4 ,the truth is1 ,heine was dealing with moods1 and ,schumann supposed he was dealing with emotions4 ,we see the contradiction to an almost grotesque degree in the song ,ich grolle nicht 7#8,i do not complain'74 ,here the poet tells his love that he will not complain of his unhappiness because1 though she goes about in diamonds1 he has seen in a dream that she1 too1 is unhappy4 ,this is pretty sentiment and charming playful heroics4 ,tragedy it is not4 ,but ,schumann's music is tragedy of the noblest strain4 ,it strikes an emotional depth which the composer rarely equalled4 ,to such music the ,puritans of ,cromwell's time might have left their wives and children to go out and fight on the side of the ,lord4 ,we have said that ,heine has nowhere in his poems written words that might be put into the mouth of a hero4 ,but in this case ,schumann wrote music that a hero might have sung4 ,perhaps if ,schumann's sense of humor had been a little more human and a little less literary he might have seen the incongruity4 ,but it would have been an unfortunate event1 for it would have cost the world the wonderful music of this song4 ,indeed1 many of the greatest works of art would never have been created if their authors had possessed a keen sense of humor4 ,generally1 however1 ,schumann did not make this mistake4 ,in nearly every other one of the ,dichterliebe songs he found music which was as gossamer1 as little fundamental1 as ,heine's words4 ,to some students they may seem at first cold and pedantic4 ,certainly they do not draw their greatness from melodic charm4 ,merely as melodies1 few of these songs would have lived to this day4 ,undoubtedly their first appeal is a technical one--to the musical theorist and the pianist as well as to the singer4 ,but this is by no means to say that they lack poetry4 ,it is merely that their poetry is concealed and reveals itself only to him who has mastered and understood their finer technical appeal4 ,take1 for instance1 the ninth song1 ,das ist ein ,flten und ,geigen 7#8,i hear the flutes and violins'74 ,the rejected lover hears from a distance the orchestra playing for dancing at the wedding of his beloved4 ,the accompaniment is a waltz rhythm1 with repeated notes deftly inserted to suggest perhaps the trumpets of the band4 ,the waltz is steady and continuous4 ,it has none of the sensuous softness1 none of the simplicity and balance of phrase which we are accustomed to in popular waltzes4 ,it tinkles on continuously1 without an opportunity to draw a breath--and hence seems at first glance aimless4 ,instead of the engaging warmth we expect from waltzes1 it gives a chilling effect4 ,and that1 of course1 is exactly the effect it had on the rejected lover4 ,it is a tinkly1 monotonous waltz1 perhaps heard through the winter air4 ,the voice has a little half melodic1 half declamatory complaint1 but it seems almost independent of the piano part4 ,when the voice rests that waltz is still going on1 throbbing1 monotonous4 ,now1 any indifferent pianist will make a sorry affair of this accompaniment4 ,it demands the most delicate and exact finger work1 the nicest regard for rhythm1 the most delicate modulating of tone power4 ,it must be played almost without pedal1 and it reveals instantly any slip in the pianist's technique4 ,it might almost be published independently as a piano tude4 ,the singer must deliver his part with great delicacy of diction and achieve expression on the most limited scale4 ,the piece has no contrasts4 ,it is so closely bound together that a single omission of a note will spoil the whole design4 ,decidedly this is not an interesting song to a bad musician4 ,every detail is a difficulty4 ,if he cannot master it1 it remains to him cold and austere4 ,but to him who can master it1 it becomes a rare delight4 ,each technical difficulty becomes an expressive quality2 the austerity becomes only poetry more delicately refined4 ,the whole is a challenge to the taste of the singer and the accompanist4 ,the song1 within its limits1 is without a flaw4 ,much the same can be said of every one of the ,dichterliebe songs4 ,there is no superficial similarity between any two4 ,each one uses technical means which are employed in no other4 ,in each the technical means are nicely adapted to the character of the music4 ,each one of the accompaniments calls upon a different department of the pianist's art4 ,each is developed1 technically1 in its own manner and in the manner of no other one of ,schumann's songs4 ,in other words1 each of these remarkable songs has that thing known as style4 ,each has a personality as distinct as the personality of one interesting man is distinct from that of another4 ,the accompaniments might be published alone as ,essays in ,style4 ,such an achievement marks a development of detailed technical resource hitherto unheard of4 ,from it all later ,german and ,french song writers directly derive4 ,nor must it be assumed that the voice parts are uninteresting or unvocal4 ,quite the contrary4 ,only in these songs1 as in none that had preceded them1 the voice parts are not the songs1 nor a small part of the songs2 the songs are inconceivable1 are non-existent1 except as voice and piano parts intimately combined4 ,songs #a and #b1 #8,in the ,wondrous ,lovely ,month of ,may' and #8,from ,out ,my ,tears1' are simple melodies1 charming1 but little self-conscious1 demanding something of the singer's art and learning if they are not to sound trivial4 ,the third song1 #8,the ,rose1 the ,lily1 the ,dove1 the ,sun1' is a technical tour de force1 an extremely brief and rapid little piece1 demanding the utmost delicacy of intonation and enunciation1 which might almost be sung in a single breath4 ,the fourth song1 #8,when ,i ,look ,into ,thine ,eyes1' is a sort of duet between the voice and the piano4 ,each phrase from the singer is tenderly echoed in the accompaniment4 ,the whole melody has a touching simplicity4 ,number #f looks austere4 ,here ,schumann's effort to maintain a single style 7both technically and poetically7 throughout has perhaps led him to dispense with detailed expression4 #8,in the ,rhine1 the ,holy ,river1' runs the first line1 and the accompaniment depicts the ,rhine flowing1 ever so slowly and majestically1 past the ,cathedral of ,cologne4 ,and1 since he is particularly interested in these songs in homogeneity of style1 he makes the whole song flow along to this type of accompaniment4 ,if the singer is chiefly interested in exhibiting his voice1 he will leave this song in disgust as cold and unpoetic4 ,but let him beware that his real motive be not the difficulty he experiences in singing it well4 ,the following song is the famous ,ich grolle nicht#be 7#8,i do not complain'71 which is easily one of the great songs of the world4 ,accepting the words as real tragedy1 we must pronounce the music one of the noblest expressions of emotion in all song literature4 ,the quiet and dignified melodic line of the voice part seems to suggest the hero's stoic acceptance of his fate4 ,the repeated chords of the accompaniment1 moving in solemn progression1 reflect the calm of a great soul4 ,and the marvellous bass part1 moving deeper and deeper down the scale1 calling forth from the modern grand piano its most terrible and wonderful tones1 till the very soul seems to quiver in response--this furnishes a foundation of grandeur which might have served for a tragedy of schylus4 ,but ,schumann rarely repeated this achievement4 ,he was a gentle poet or an ardent technician1 or1 in his later years1 a verbose bore1 but only rarely1 as in this instance1 a tragedian4 ,the eleventh song of the cycle1 #8,a ,young ,man ,loved a ,maiden1' has a simple melody suited to the spirit of the words1 supported by a lilting accompaniment admirably unified in style4 ,the next song1 #8,on the ,bright ,summer ,morning1' is dignified by the device of the continued downward arpeggio in the accompaniment4 ,the thirteenth song1 #8,i ,wept in ,my ,dreams1' is especially interesting4 ,the voice part is almost a recitative1 and the accompaniment a sort of orchestral commentary4 ,sometimes deep chords form the only support for the singer1 sometimes little rhythmical phrases tell their message4 ,the whole suggests admirably the effort of the speaker to disentangle his dreams from the mental mist that surrounds them4 ,the fourteenth song1 #8,each ,night in ,dreams1' is one of the most appealing melodies ,schumann ever wrote4 ,the last of the series1 ,die alten1 bsen ,lieder 7#8,the ,old and ,evil ,songs'71 is a magnificent example of ,schumann's power to put subtle moods into his accompaniment4 ,the mocking spirit of the words1 the grandiose strutting of little emotions1 the legendary paraphernalia which is invoked by the poet--these seem to be embalmed in this tricky but brilliant accompaniment4 ,the postlude to the cycle is the melody of song number #ab1 freely developed4 ,the later songs of ,schumann can be summed up in a few lines4 ,there were a few written in the #ahdj period1 apparently cast aside as unworthy and inadvisedly published later when ,schumann's matchless faculty of self-criticism had become weak and dim4 ,opus #ea contains a delightful folk-like song1 #8,when ,i into the ,garden ,go4' ,opus #ec contains the fine ballad1 ,blondel's ,lied1 already described4 ,opus #gi is a book of songs for children1 containing two or three1 notably ,kuzlein1 ,sandmann1 and ,marienwrmchen1 which bring back a breath of the youthful romantic ,schumann4 ,but nothing could be more pitiful than the settings which ,schumann about this time gave to some of ,goethe's finest poems--especially the ,wilhelm ,meister and the #8,western ,divan' songs4 ,the settings of ,queen ,mary ,stuart's poems1 published in #aheb1 are perhaps better than the other pieces of the period1 especially the prayer1 which has an appealing melody and much harmonic freedom in the accompaniment4 ,but the ballads of this later period--including ,schiller's #8,the ,glove1' ,hebbel's #8,fair ,hedwig1' and others--are mere collections of musical bombast4 ,let us draw the veil4 ,for soon ,schumann was to throw himself into the ,rhine in attempted suicide1 a martyr to the vigorous activity of fifteen years--years1 one of which produced the remarkable songs which we have just been studying1 by which alone his name need be known in song literature4 ,,iv ,among ,schumann's contemporaries in song literature we may mention his wife ,clara1 his friend and rival ,mendelssohn1 together with several lesser known composers--,reinecke1 ,volkmann1 and ,jadassohn--and1 finally1 two important men1 ,chopin and ,glinka4 ,clara ,schumann 7born #ahai1 ,clara ,josephine ,wieck1 died #ahif7 was a talented composer and a virtuoso pianist who worked throughout her married life in closest sympathy with her husband4 ,three of her songs appear in ,schumann's opus #cg--namely1 numbers #b1 #d1 and #aa1 ,er ist gekommen1 ,liebst du um ,schnheit1 and ,warum willst du and're fragen8 ,these songs must be ranked high1 for their scholarly command of style and their general finish1 though they are obviously not works of special inspiration4 ,the best of the three is probably the second1 in which the composer makes extensive use of one of her husband's devices1 that of repeating a single phrase in various forms and building up the song as out of a single shape of stone4 ,the last named of the three songs also has a good melody to its credit4 ,mendelssohn wrote many songs during his short lifetime and was probably the best known of all song-writers of the forties4 ,but his work in this department has all but passed into oblivion4 ,they are not ambitious efforts4 ,they make no attempt to strike out new paths2 they have no interest in sounding depths of emotion2 they are content with the old forms and the old formulas of accompaniment4 ,the best that can usually be said of them is that they are pleasing in melody and faultlessly graceful according to canons of correctness4 ,on the whole1 the ones best worth singing are those which are consciously volkstmlich4 ,among these we may name the very beautiful ,es ist bestimmt in ,gottes ,rath1 opus #dg1 ,no4 #g2 ,o ,jugend1 ,o schne ,rosenzeit1 opus #eg1 number #d2 ,an die ,entfernte1 opus #ga1 number #c2 and ,das ,lieblingspltzchen1 opus #ii1 number #c1 words from ,des ,knaben ,wunderhorn4 #8,italy1' in opus #h1 and ,im ,herbst1 in opus #i1 have a very real charm4 ,neue ,liebe1 in opus #ai1 suggesting the elf riding through the forest1 is about as near as ,mendelssohn ever got to descriptive music in his accompaniments4 ,the ,frhlingslied in opus #ga is by all means one of the best of his songs1 showing contrast and depth of mood and rising to a thrilling climax on the words ,bist nicht allein4 ,another song writer of peculiarly ,germanic cast was ,karl ,reinecke 7born #ahba71 friend of ,schumann and ,mendelssohn and protg of the latter1 who was for thirty-five years director of the ,gewandhaus concerts at ,leipzig4 ,reinecke's songs cannot be called great1 but they have to a remarkable degree insinuated themselves into the affections of the ,german people4 ,they are at their best when they are nearest to the ,volkslied1 showing the ,german genius of achieving deep and noble expression in the simplest forms4 ,we may mention especially the ,children's ,songs1 opus #cg1 of which the best are the lilting lullaby1 ,wenn die ,kinder schlafen ein1 and the moving ,gebet zur ,nacht4 ,the essential wholesomeness of his talent is shown in the ,singspiel1 ,ein ,abenteuer ,hndels 7#8,an ,adventure of ,handel's71 of which the very simple song1 ,lied so treu und herzlich1 is typical4 ,his song cycle1 ,schneewittchen 7for soprano and contralto with chorus of women's voices71 is excellent in its way4 ,the simple prologue is a thing of great beauty1 and ,schneewittchen's song1 ,in seiner ,kammer1 has a charming archaic style1 recalling the long and flowing lines of the ,minnesong4 ,salomon ,jadassohn 7#ahca-aija7 and ,robert ,volkmann 7#ahae-ahhc7 were likewise successful song writers whose lyric work has largely passed into obscurity4 ,carl ,friedrich ,curschmann 7#ahje-ahda71 a pupil of ,spohr1 was a prolific and extremely popular writer of songs in a sentimental and popular vein1 marked by the sensuous quality which ,franz ,abt used so richly4 ,an artist of more varied talents was ,karl ,gottfried ,wilhelm ,taubert 7#ahaa-ahia71 who held important official positions in ,berlin1 chiefly in the ,royal ,opera1 and composed numerous songs4 ,the best of these are the ,kinderlieder1 of which the charming #8,lullaby' is still popular4 ,chopin's ,polish ,songs1 opus #gd1 are his only vocal works4 ,they purport to be arrangements of ,polish folk-songs1 but it is to be doubted whether they are to any great extent popular melodies4 ,probably ,chopin drew freely on ,polish motives and rearranged them to suit himself4 ,however that may be1 some of them are masterpieces4 #8,the ,maiden's ,wish' is well known to concert audiences through ,liszt's arrangement of it for piano4 ,the ,bacchanal is a glorious piece1 admirable for an encore number1 the simplest of quatrain tunes1 but overpowering in its frenzied energy4 #8,the ,spring' is a charming thing1 undoubtedly of folk origin1 a tender alternation of major and minor which would become monotonous except for its ineffable beauty4 #8,melancholy1' a folk-like tune with a genuine ,slavic touch1 is likewise among the best1 and #8,my ,sweetheart1' which recalls the ,tyrolese folk-songs1 is well worth knowing4 ,these songs are of the simplest character4 ,the last two of the collection1 the #8,lithuanian ,song' and #8,poland's ,funeral ,song1' are more pretentious--rather like scenas than ,lieder--and in spite of certain beauties are overweighted with pretense4 ,another song writer who does not usually find his way into song lists should be mentioned here4 ,this is ,michail ,ivanovitch ,glinka 7#ahjd-aheg71 founder of the national school of ,russian music4 ,glinka was a man of remarkable talent1 one who was able to fuse ,italian grace1 ,french subtlety1 and ,german solidity into an individual style of his own1 and to develop out of it an original native touch which had never appeared before in ,russian music4 ,of his eighty-five or more songs 7exclusive of those in his operas7 a great number are in the thin and pretentious style of the day4 ,but from a few of them there speaks real genius--the forerunner of the wonderful ,russian song literature of recent times4 ,the grand ,hebrew ,song from the incidental music to #8,prince ,kholmsky' is the work of a man in whom much learning could not stifle the personal message4 ,another song1 #8,our ,rose1' is in a mixed rhythm which foreshadows the wonderful songs of ,moussorgsky1 and yet another1 a #8,traveller's ,song1' makes use of the lively two-four rhythm which has since come to be associated with the ,russian ,cossacks4 ,the lyric known as #8,ilia's ,song' and that entitled #8,deserted ,land' both show the personal genius of the composer4 ,we should also mention #8,doubt1' ,meine ,ruh' ist hin1 and #8,the ,lark' as among his best4 ,it is not likely that singers will dig up these old songs for study1 but ,glinka's distinguished name should not be forgotten in the examination of the wonderful ,russian song literature which took its rise from him4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,vi4 #bd ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #be ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,contemporaries ,,of ,,schubert ,,and ,,schumann ,the spirit of the #8thirties' in ,france2 the lyric poets of the ,french romantic period--,monpou and ,berlioz--,song-writers of ,italy2 ,english song-writers--,robert ,frans--,lwe and the art-ballad4 ,in another volume#bf we have seen what a remarkable wave of literary romanticism swept over ,france in the late twenties and early thirties of the nineteenth century4 ,there has rarely been an age of more pronounced lyricism1 rarely an age which created in a short time so many excellent lyrics4 ,there were a number of fine talents working at this time4 ,the purely literary virtuosity was remarkable4 ,the radicalism of their method was marked1 and the strangeness of their product revealed a movement in all the vigor of its early youth4 ,in their insistence on the sensuous quality of words the romanticists of the thirties looked forward to the ,france of the early twentieth century1 with its hazy1 indefinite outlines4 ,the early romanticists reduced the sound of words to a fine art4 ,the later impressionists reduced it almost to an exact science4 ,the central tenet of the romanticists was freedom--freedom from the old classic forms1 freedom from a host of conventions which governed the ,french language in poetry1 and freedom especially from the severity and reserve of the classic ideal4 ,to the poet of the ,napoleonic age any violence of manner was an error in taste4 ,he shunned it as he would have shunned the smell of garlic on a peasant's breath4 ,to the poet of the age of ,louis ,philippe any conscious reserve of manner was a coldness1 a lack of genuine human feeling1 an artistic lie4 ,the emotions as well as the artistic sense must be stirred4 ,and they must be stirred both by the picturing of emotion and by the beauty of lovely sounds4 ,we have occasion to notice throughout the art of the nineteenth century an increasing insistence on the sensuous 7it cannot be too often repeated74 ,it shows in every department of artistic life4 ,in poetry it is shown in a development of the mellifluousness of rhythm and suggestiveness of word4 ,the ,french romanticists did for ,french poetry what ,shelley did for ,english and what ,poe did for ,american4 ,these three qualities--freedom1 emotionalism1 and sensuousness--we may accept as the dominant notes of ,french romantic poetry4 ,high above all literary men of the time towered ,victor ,hugo4 ,this man1 along with ,shakespeare1 ,dante1 and ,goethe1 was one of the greatest virtuosos of language the world has ever seen4 ,pity only that he had not the genius of the other three6 ,to his time he seemed supreme4 ,but since his death his reputation has been steadily declining4 ,we have come to see how much of his work was only--language4 ,he attained his emotional effects through emotional words rather than through emotional interpretation4 ,he was incurably melodramatic and only his power of language saves a large share of his work from falling to the level of any yellow-back novel or the cheap theatre romance4 ,he attempted to cover the whole of life--to interpret the criminal1 the hero1 and the child1 as well as woman in every one of her moods and states4 ,but through all the work1 even the magnificent scenes of ,les ,misrables1 the true human touch is somehow lacking4 ,everything is sacrificed to the great god ,effect1 to whom alone ,hugo offered his most precious burnt offerings4 ,much of his work was in the form of short lyrics1 but it is in this department that his reputation has suffered most in the half century just past4 ,the lyric demands a navet which ,hugo1 already famous at the age of seventeen1 never had4 ,his lyric poems are always overweighted with their language1 always too foreign to the spirit of the folk-poem1 which is at the foundation of all lyric expression4 ,they were1 however1 freely set to music1 as was inevitable1 and furnish a goodly share of the texts for the song literature of the time4 ,lamartine in his lyric work suffered considerably from the disease of the time--over-emphasis4 ,he ranked as a philosopher in his day--much the sort of philosopher which ,maeterlinck pretends to be to-day4 ,he had a goodly share of the didactic in his makeup1 as ,hugo never had 7except toward the end of his life1 when didacticism became the fashion74 ,as a result we can hardly place ,lamartine any higher than ,hugo as a lyric poet4 ,but his ardent religious sense1 combined with his fine power over eloquent language1 made him greatly loved in his day and as a result his texts enter largely into the song literature of the time4 ,branger had much more of the true lyric in him4 ,his language was simple1 his message popular4 ,he was always more at home in the streets than in the drawing room4 ,in some ways he might be called the ,kipling of his time4 ,he appealed to the ,french sense of national pride1 dwelling upon the glorious history of the past and the nobility of the ,french character with all the paraphernalia of the jingo poet4 ,in particular he resuscitated1 or rather created1 the ,napoleonic myth4 ,the age in which he wrote was a new one1 containing few of the immediate conditions of ,napoleon's time4 ,a new generation had sprung up1 a generation which had not experienced the heartaches and miseries of the ,napoleonic wars1 or else had forgotten them1 and thought of the time only as the age in which ,france single-handed had defeated the whole of ,europe4 ,napoleon was no longer the epileptic and egomaniac who had shattered the fine ideals of the ,french ,revolution and for his own ambition brought ,france almost to the verge of ruin4 ,he was now le petit caporal who had fought with his men on the bridge at ,arcola1 had eaten the same food and slept on the same hard ground with his army4 ,the myth was tremendously attractive1 and made it possible some twenty years later for a shallow adventurer to become ,emperor of ,france 7merely because he happened to be the nephew of the great ,bonaparte7 and bring ,france once more to the verge of ruin to please personal and dynastic ambition4 ,in the creation of this myth ,branger's sense of the picturesque and popular served him well4 ,as a lyric poet1 apart from the peculiar nature of his subject matter1 he would hardly be remembered4 ,the most genuine and most refined of the literary men of the time was ,musset1 for many years the lover of ,georges ,sand and ,chopin's successor in her affections4 ,his work partook far less of the spectacular than that of his contemporaries4 ,he was interested in interpreting the human soul and he did his work with the most delicate literary art4 ,his inspiration was fresh and creative2 his workmanship was finished to the last degree4 ,it is a great pity that he had no ,schubert to set his poems to music4 ,a musician of the stature of ,musset might have created a distinctive and great ,french song literature fifty years earlier than it came4 ,i ,if the right composer had been at hand ,french song literature in the nineteenth century might have equalled the ,german1 for the conditions seemed to be ripe4 ,but the ,french musical tradition for many decades was extraordinarily emasculated1 and in no department of musical activity did this show so plainly as in the songs4 ,with a few exceptions the ,french songs from #ahcj to #ahij show very few qualities of creative vigor4 ,the ideal was suavity and facility4 ,doubtless there was beneath the smooth melodies a subtlety of suggestion that gave them a certain artistic value1 but this quality is peculiarly ,french1 and without other elements of interest the ,french songs could hardly attain any great international vogue4 ,it is astonishing--the sameness of these songs which appear in volumes1 with eternal repetition and rigid convention4 ,the sentimentalism of the period dominates the whole song output4 ,the composers were extraordinarily timid2 the melodies followed the same suave line1 and the harmonies were the same eternal succession4 ,the tradition of good taste became little better than a worship of the accredited and commonplace4 ,the one composer who was markedly free of this fault was1 of course1 ,hector ,berlioz1 one of the most powerful geniuses in all ,french music4 ,there is little to connect his work with that of other ,french composers3 in many ways he was their polar opposite4 ,a certain love for graceful and somewhat cold melody 7a quality he derived from ,gluck and not from his contemporaries71 a certain clinging to established forms 7with very revolutionary content71 and here ends the list of similarities4 ,for the rest he carried into his vocal music the qualities which made his symphonies seem so wild and so anarchic to his countrymen4 ,his harmonies were daring in the extreme4 ,his vocal parts were irregular1 without balanced phrases1 without regular succession and contrast of similar sections1 without any of the clearness of outline which is almost the sole virtue in most of his contemporaries4 ,he modulated through any number of keys1 introduced dissonance in unheard of quantity1 and filled his accompaniment with rich detail to an extent which to the taste of his time was nothing short of vulgar4 ,throughout his work he followed his own whim where other men would have followed iron convention4 ,but1 though his songs are few in number and though they contain peculiar difficulties which have prevented their extensive use in concert programs1 they have held their place in the estimation of musicians far better than any other ,french songs of the period4 ,there are no waste places in these songs4 ,throughout it is the creative musician who is speaking4 ,the conventional melodic phrases and harmonic sequences1 when they are used1 have a fine sincerity4 ,when the music is unconventional it is stimulating and suggestive4 ,the impression one gets is that of a vigorous1 even violent1 brain ceaselessly creating1 willing to experiment1 willing to make mistakes1 but always writing what he believes to be his best4 ,his artistic sincerity is shown by the several versions which exist of some of his songs2 his richness of invention by the variants in these versions4 ,most of the songs are highly elaborate and dramatic4 ,sometimes1 as often happened with ,berlioz1 they tend to the pretentious and pompous4 ,they are never easy to grasp4 ,but each and every one of them is worth a musician's study and the student of singing in particular cannot well afford to let ,berlioz remain a closed book to him4 ,the earlier songs1 written before #ahcj1 are in general simple and conventional4 ,at times we feel the young man who has not yet realized his creative powers4 ,but even these early songs have a high standard compared to the sort of thing that was being produced at the time4 ,before #ahcj ,berlioz was still under the spell of ,gluck 7if1 indeed1 he ever emerged from it7 and his conventionality is that of the great master of opera rather than that of the familiar ,french chanson4 #8,the ,dead ,shepherdess1' dating from #ahbg1 is remarkable for its classic dignity and beauty4 ,the ,irish ,songs1 in #ahbi and #ahcj1 composed to words by ,thomas ,moore1 show the surging up of the revolutionary fervor which took hold of him about this time and came to fruit in the ,symphonie ,fantastique that so startled and shocked ,parisian audiences4 ,the songs are in the strophic form1 as were most of ,berlioz's songs1 but otherwise they are unusual enough to prove a problem for the singer4 ,they are by no means steady in quality1 and doubtless there is evidenced a failure on the structural side1 an inability to keep genius within firmly controlled limits4 #8,at ,sunset' is typical4 ,it is irregular and so filled with detail that it tends to become #8spotty4' ,it is obviously an attempt at atmosphere--at the same atmosphere upon which the recent ,french song-writers have built their reputation4 ,the singer's problem lies in keeping these details from protruding from the general design and still giving them their individual value4 ,the task of selecting the essential in the song and keeping this to the fore is truly a task for the singer's intellect1 that intellect which is called on so little in the mass of ,french songs4 #8,rich and ,rare' has much sensuous beauty and is a real problem in expressive singing4 #8,farewell ,bessy' is altogether lovely4 ,but the finest of the songs is the last1 the #8,elegy4' ,here ,berlioz reaches a height of tragic impressiveness which he never equalled in his songs and equalled only rarely in his symphonic music4 ,the effect of this song in concert is tremendous4 ,the song called #8,the ,captive' 7three versions of it exist7 is one of the best known and one of the simplest4 ,here ,berlioz has been content with a conventional accompaniment and has spent his effort on the melody--an irregular and somewhat arbitrary melody1 but one with a certain aristocratic charm which the singer must find for himself4 ,the #8,villanelle' is perhaps the best of all4 ,here the originality of ,berlioz's genius finds expression within very narrow limits4 ,the simple old form is combined with a harmonic energy that is admirable4 #8,in the ,graveyard' is a study in the tragic mood1 unconventional1 needless to say1 and thoroughly successful4 ,other songs which deserve mention are3 #8,i ,believe in ,thee1' a sentimental love song2 #8,on the ,lagoon1' a slow barcarolle in six-eight time2 and #8,zade1' a bolero that is highly effective for concert use4 ,franois ,louis ,hippolyte ,monpou 7born #ahjd2 died #ahda7 was the recognized song-writer of the romantic movement4 ,he is now little more than a historical fact4 ,in his early years he was an organist and conductor of church music1 but his ability was not marked and he drifted looking for something to do4 ,he gained some local fame in #ahbh from his three-part setting of ,branger's ,si j'tais petit oiseau and was taken up in the drawing rooms as a representative of the romantic school4 ,he took the drawing room verdict seriously and turned out a number of songs to the words of ,hugo1 ,musset1 ,branger1 and others4 ,his songs had a certain popular quality and an effect of boldness which suited the fancy of the romantic school4 ,but his musicianship was faulty and his harmony and rhythm were awkward and unresourceful4 ,after he became established as a song-writer he took to doing operas1 some of which are melodically effective and dramatically vigorous4 ,,ii ,italy has for three centuries been deficient in art-songs1 but she has produced a certain amount of lyric music which the student will discover and sing gladly from time to time1 and a few of her song-writers should be mentioned here4 ,giuseppe ,mercadante 7#agie-ahgj7 was primarily an opera composer1 but1 unlike most of the ,italian opera writers1 produced a goodly number of songs4 ,these are simple and florid1 possessed of a certain ,italian charm1 but on the one hand too thin to rank as true interpretative music1 and on the other somewhat too operatic to convey a simple lyrical sentiment4 ,however1 his vogue was great and he may be considered the originator of the modern ,italian song tradition4 ,the continuer of the tradition was ,luigi ,gordigiani 7#ahjf-ahfj71 a peasant boy who showed marked talent for music and carried into his work a feeling for folk-song which was new to ,italian music at the time4 ,he was one of the first native collectors of folk-music and one of the first to appreciate it4 ,he is known almost solely as a song-writer1 and so popular have his songs become and so firmly have they remained in people's hearts that he has with some justice been called #8the ,italian ,schubert4' ,however1 we must not be from this led to suppose that he had anything like ,schubert's richness of melodic inspiration1 musical resource1 or genuine dramatic power4 ,his songs are in every case supplied with the simplest accompaniment and in form do not go much beyond the folk-songs which are their model4 ,they have a certain freedom1 a development which is typical of the art-song rather than the folk-song4 ,but their materials are of the simplest1 and with their technical sameness and their general melancholy tinge they tend toward monotony4 ,among the loveliest of his songs is ,la ,bianchina1 a melody of much sweetness cast in the strophic form4 ,il ,tempo ,passato shows more energy and passion than is usual in ,gordigiani4 ,some of his religious songs are effective1 especially ,o ,sanctissima ,vergine ,maria1 which is said to have been admired by ,chopin4 ,we should mention also ,gordigiani's waltz songs1 which are brilliant and effective without becoming cheap4 ,another ,italian song writer1 and one better known in foreign lands than ,gordigiani1 is ,ciro ,pinsuti 7#ahbi-ahhh71 whose output was immense4 ,he exemplifies ,italian grace and suavity and imparted to his part-songs in particular a beauty which has carried them to singing societies the world over4 ,in ,england in the first part of the nineteenth century song writing1 as we have seen in another chapter1#bg was at a very low ebb4 ,the chief output of songs was in the street ballad class and in the slightly superior opera ballad4 ,the ballad opera of the nineteenth century was not that of the previous century1 of which #8,the ,beggar's ,opera' was a type4 ,the newer ballad opera was usually romantic1 somewhat elaborate1 and composed by one musician instead of ten4 ,of this opera #8,the ,bohemian ,girl' by ,michael ,balfe 7#ahjh-ahgj7 is an excellent example4 ,three of its #8ballads'--#8,i ,dreamt ,i ,dwelt in ,marble ,halls1' #8,the ,heart ,bowed ,down1' and #8,when ,other ,lips'--are among the best known of household songs4 ,and if we except the omnipresent street ballad and #8occasional' song 7such as cheap pans of triumph over ,napoleon7 such lyrics were the chief item in ,english song4 ,their beauty is obvious to everybody4 ,they deserve their long life and popularity4 ,but it cannot be said that they are an interpretation of their text1 as is the case in a song by ,schubert4 ,in addition to his opera ballads ,balfe has at least one thoroughly fine song to his credit--#8,killarney1' said to have been written on his deathbed4 ,rarely has a conscious composer caught the true ,irish idiom and flavor as ,balfe did here4 ,balfe's once popular setting of ,longfellow's #8,the ,day ,is ,done' is admirably expressive4 ,sir ,henry ,bishop 7#aghf-ahee7 and ,julius ,benedict 7#ahjd-ahhe7 were popular composers of the time1 known rather by their operas than by their songs4 ,but of the group only ,william ,vincent ,wallace 7#ahad-ahfe71 in addition to ,balfe1 can be said to have lived4 ,his #8,maritana' is still occasionally performed1 and the song1 #8,scenes ,that ,are ,brightest1' from that work1 has a popularity analogous to that of #8,the ,heart ,bowed ,down4' ,but whatever occasional beauties may have lived from the ,england of the early nineteenth century1 we must feel how dead the period was productively4 ,much of the ,english music of the time is gauche in the extreme1 and none of it shows any of the creative vigor which goes to make history4 ,,iii ,it is hard to say anything about ,robert ,franz 7#ahae-ahib74 ,all that there is to be said about him he has said in his songs4 ,he lived the most quiet of lives1 hindered in his work by ill health throughout most of his maturity4 ,his musical output1 if we except a few pieces of church music1 consists almost wholly of songs4 7,he composed #bgi in all47 ,he was not ambitious2 his only desire in life seems to have been to do his work well4 ,he had no qualities of self-advertisement4 ,his fame came very slowly and for a long time he was known only among the elect4 ,he was through most of his life miserably poor and the greater part of his energy went to work which was not much better than that of a hack4 ,but he has by this time attained a rank among the greatest song writers of all time4 ,in some respects he is supreme4 ,probably no other song writer1 not even ,brahms1 produced such a high proportion of great songs or such an even standard of excellence in his whole output4 ,he shows little variation or development4 ,his first songs are as good as his last4 ,all were the best he could do4 ,schumann1 who discovered and #8announced' ,franz1 as he had so many other notable composers1 wrote of his opus #a in the ,neue ,zeitschrift fr ,musik3 #8,were ,i to dwell on all the exquisite details ,i should never come to an end4' ,it was through ,schumann's influence that the unknown and modest musician had his first work published4 ,illustration3 ,robert ,franz ,after a photograph from life4 ,when we come to examine ,franz's songs in detail we discover an astonishing subtlety and variety of method and expression within the superficially narrow limits he allowed himself4 ,probably no other song composer save ,hugo ,wolf has made each one of his songs so perfectly individual4 ,we find this individuality first in the outline and superficial character of the melody2 next we discover it in the technical methods and devices used in development and elaboration2 finally1 we trace it in all the niceties of ornament and prove the absolute fitness down to the last note4 ,franz's peculiar success in all this is due1 of course1 first of all to selection of themes which are very accurately adjusted to the end in view4 ,a poetic melody1 an accompanying figure which provides just the right suggestion1 and we have the materials for a fine song4 ,in a majority of cases we have the whole thematic material for the song in the first three or four measures4 ,the simple germ is developed without the introduction of extraneous matter1 yet without a suggestion of vain repetition4 ,when we consider that the majority of the songs are in the strophic form 7and the strophe is usually very brief7 we may realize the artistry which achieved utter individuality within the space of a few bars4 ,in other words1 the perfection of ,franz's songs comes not from elaboration but from selection--the test1 as we have so often pointed out1 of the true lyric composer4 ,franz's melody is likely to veil itself against the first glance4 ,it is always beautiful and well proportioned1 but it so persistently avoids striking effects that it is apt to seem colorless4 ,but if we listen with our inner ears we shall find it eloquent4 ,avoiding the striking1 ,franz's melody also avoids the obvious and at first hearing we are apt to find it a trifle aimless and meandering4 ,but its continuous subtle deviations from the expected are never without purpose1 and never1 if we know how to listen1 without meaning4 ,usually1 too1 there is little or no obvious design1 no striking climax point1 no resounding cadence4 ,but here again we need only look beneath the surface to discover the most restful and satisfying architecture4 ,though the emotional color may be almost unvarying from beginning to end1 though the final note of the voice may not be on the tonic and may glide in the piano postlude1 yet we discover that if any note had been changed the whole would have been less perfect4 ,these qualities we find in their simplest form in such masterpieces as ,widmung and ,bitte1 songs simple as any folk-song yet rich with conscious artistry4 ,franz's harmony is not radical or striking4 ,it contains practically nothing which could not be found in ,schumann before him2 we might almost say that it contains nothing that could not be found in the ,beethoven sonatas4 ,he is fluent though not frequent with modulation2 his greatest radicalism is a stimulating use of altered chords and passing notes4 ,in fact1 his harmony is in every way more conservative than that of ,schumann2 for1 whereas ,schumann was professedly an innovator1 ,franz loved best the old ,german tradition--that of the ,bach fugues and the ,lutheran chorale4 ,franz's treatment of the words is individual4 ,few song writers have ever set their texts with more conscientious regard for the niceties of metre and accent4 ,yet it is musical design and not verbal peculiarities which determines his melodic line4 ,the melody is always and beyond all a melody4 ,the perfect marriage of words and music in ,franz comes from his selection of melodies which would nicely fit the words in hand4 ,neither is strained2 neither is sacrificed to the other4 ,in this respect ,franz is surpassed by no song writer who ever lived4 ,now and then the melody is so handled as to seem like very reserved declamation1 but even these instances are rare4 ,franz was not a purist in the setting of his texts2 he did hold strictly to the #8one syllable one note' principle4 ,not infrequently he uses the slurred phrase on a single vowel4 ,but we can never feel that this was done out of a careless disregard for the integrity of the text4 ,in his accompaniment ,franz is even greater than in his treatment of the voice4 ,it is here that his extreme artistry becomes most evident4 ,the accompaniment is always rich1 always a thing of value in itself4 ,usually it would make a perfectly satisfactory musical composition alone4 ,it is so well filled with musical beauties that with a little more emphasis it might overpower the voice part4 ,but always it is kept nicely in its proper function4 ,in no other song writer are the voice and piano parts so perfectly fused4 ,in ,franz's accompaniments is shown his great musical resourcefulness4 ,no two are alike4 ,nearly all the recognized means are used--solid chords1 broken chords1 melodic figurations over a spread bass1 four-part chorales with free passing notes1 contrapuntal melodies against the voice1 suggestive devices innumerable4 ,but in every case the germ principle is simple and is strictly adhered to throughout4 ,franz's accompaniments are1 as a whole1 more polyphonic than those of any other song writer4 ,in the greater part of his songs the inner notes do not serve merely for harmonic filling-in2 they are parts of individual voices which are preserved in their integrity4 ,in all these songs there is nothing ambitious or spectacular4 ,but so deeply based is his musicianship that we may say that anyone who knows the ,franz songs accurately knows in epitome the whole development of ,german classical music4 ,moreover1 they are the finest of cultural exercises4 ,for one who has learned to love the ,franz songs has learned one of the most precious things music has to give--the art of listening4 ,the germ figures which ,franz uses in his accompaniments are almost endless in their variety4 ,sometimes they are1 in a restrained way1 highly picturesque4 ,we may point out the triplets in ,was pocht mein ,herz so sehr81 the suggestion of ripples in ,auf dem ,meere1 the broken accompaniment in ,es treibt mich hin1 the delicate trill which persists through ,ach1 wenn ich doch ein ,immchen wr1 the long rolling diatonic figure in ,meeresstille1 and so on through innumerable instances4 ,the attainment of the most exquisite beauty within the smallest limits may be studied in ,widmung1 ,deine weissen ,lilienfinger1 ,leise zieht durch mein ,gemth1 and ,treibt der ,sommer seinen ,rosen1 the last a remarkable example of a song built up out of the repetition of the briefest of units1 yet without monotony4 ,franz's range of expression is usually limited to the tender and graceful4 ,he has not succeeded in the mood of tragedy or deep emotion4 ,but several of his songs are powerfully energetic1 witness ,frhlingsfeier and ,das ist ein ,brausen und ,heulen4 ,the dramatic element1 too1 is almost entirely absent1 though in such a song as ,childe ,harold we have something approaching it4 ,the influence of the chorale1 of which traces are to be found in nearly every one of the songs1 is predominant in such ones as ,gute ,nacht1 ,wenn sich zwei ,herzen ,scheiden1 ,habt ihr sie schn gesehen1 ,stille ,liebe1 ,in der ,fremde1 ,der ,schmetterling ist in die ,rose verliebt1 and ,frhling1 as well as others already mentioned4 ,to name all the ,franz songs which are distinguished in musical beauty and workmanship would be to name the best portion of his life work4 ,but we may point out as of especial beauty 7in addition to those already named7 ,auf geheimen ,waldespfade1 ,auf dem ,teich1 ,der ,sommer ist schn1 ,die ,welt ist so d1 ,im ,friedhof1 ,im ,walde1 ,fr ,musik1 ,im ,mai1 ,ich hab' in deinen ,augen1 ,der junge ,tag erwacht1 and ,er ist gekommen4 ,,iv ,we have seen in a previous chapter how ,schubert1 having created one supremely great ballad1 failed ever to write another4 ,so the task of creating the art-ballad fell not upon his shoulders but upon those of another1 ,johann ,carl ,gottfried ,lwe1 who was born in ,north ,germany in #agif1 almost at the same time as ,schubert1 and long outlived the gentle ,viennese composer4 ,lwe wrote a quantity of choral and church music1 but he is chiefly known for his numerous ballads1 which he made known throughout ,europe in his own concert tours and which have pretty well held their own to this day1 in spite of serious drawbacks4 ,lwe's songs were almost solely in the ballad form4 ,to this he gave his best talents1 which were marked though uneven4 ,undoubtedly he was an artist1 working with sincerity and reserve in a form which1 more than most forms1 would tempt a composer to artistic excess4 ,add to this the fact that ,lwe was not endowed with a rich fund of musical ideas 7at least from the standpoint of pure beauty7 and we must pay considerable respect to the man who stuck to his guns as he did and produced such a sincere and admirable body of work as he did4 ,lwe's ballads are descriptive in the highest degree4 ,every resource that the composer has at his command he calls upon to make the scene pictorial and vivid4 ,in his search for effects he stumbled upon many musical devices which must have proved valuable to later composers4 ,his harmony1 considering the time in which he worked1 is free and daring4 ,his modulation goes by direct chromatic progression to the most remote keys4 ,dissonance he uses freely for poignant effect4 ,but the great fault is that he was not a melodist4 ,melody is1 of course1 not needed in the ballad as it is in the lyric1 but none the less the composer who cannot call forth a beautiful melody when he needs it must jog along as a second-rate artist4 ,it is the lack of melody which we miss most in ,lwe's ballads4 ,melody is obviously absent because the composer could not command it1 not because he chose not to use it4 ,time and again he writes what is meant to be1 and perhaps was believed to be1 a pleasing tune4 ,but too often it is only empty and angular4 ,it was in developing the form and technique of the art-ballad that ,lwe performed his chief service to music4 ,apart from this failing in point of melody many of ,lwe's ballads are altogether admirable4 ,he caught the spirit of the ballad as few others have1 that spirit expressed so well in ,goethe's words3 #8,the ballad requires a mystical touch1 by which the mind of the reader is brought into that frame of undefined sympathy and awe which men unavoidably feel when face to face with the miraculous or with the mighty forces of nature4' ,lwe's resource in the invention of picturesque musical formulas is very great4 ,with his fine sense of drama he managed to make his best ballads impressive and moving4 ,in the ,erlking or #8,sir ,oluf' we feel 7if they are well sung7 that we are living through a great life experience with the characters represented4 ,his ,erlking is not comparable with ,schubert's in loveliness4 ,but it emphasizes the dramatic elements of the poems as ,schubert did not try to and probably could not have done if he had tried4 ,the galloping of the horse is represented graphically in the accompaniment4 ,the three characters speak in three different kinds of voice--the father's is quiet and low1 the son's high and excited1 the ,erlking's eerie and unsubstantial4 ,the ,erlking's speeches are all in ,g major and on the notes of the tonic chord4 ,for the effective delivery of the song there are demanded not only dramatic fire and intensity of emotional expression1 but the careful differentiation of the three qualities of voice4 ,one of the finest of the ballads is #8,sir ,oluf1' in which there are four speaking characters and an abundance of picturesque stage machinery4 ,sir ,oluf1 riding through the forest on his way to his wedding1 is accosted by the elves and invited to dance1 with the fatal consequences usual in ballads4 ,oluf's ride is described in a stirring allegro vivace in the introduction1 and the dance of the elves is pictured in a charming passage4 ,another of the great ballads1 perhaps the best known of all1 is #8,edward1' the text being that of the famous ,scotch folk-ballad of the same name4 7,brahms wrote a piano piece on the subject1 and also set the words as a duet47 ,the dramatic power is gained from the repetition many times over of an incisive emotional phrase4 ,the whole effect is broad and tragic4 ,among the many others of ,lwe's ballads which are worthy of study and of frequent inclusion in concert programmes we may mention #8,henry the ,fowler1' #8,the ,moorish ,prince1' and #8,odin's ,ride ,over the ,sea4' ,few composers have given their best to the ballad form4 ,this is a pity1 because no single form of poetry has such a universal and direct appeal as the condensed dramatic story in verse4 ,no type of poetry is more difficult to write with sincerity and human truthfulness4 ,the ballad has remained almost as it was in the beginning1 the peculiar property of folk-art4 ,it is1 on the other hand1 the easiest form for a musician to abuse1 the one which tempts most to cheap and clumsy effects4 ,lwe is one of the few composers who has given his best to the ballad form and1 while that best is far inferior to what a first-rate genius would have done1 it is too stimulating and suggestive to be absent from any singer's cultural equipment4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,vol4 ,,ii1 chapter ,,vi4 #bg ,chapter ,,vii4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,brahms1 ,,wagner1 ,,and ,,liszt ,brahms as a song-writer--,classification of ,brahms' songs2 the #8folk-songs'2 analysis of ,brahms' songs--,wagner's songs2 ,liszt as a song-writer4 ,i ,when we come to ,brahms we find perhaps the only song-writer besides ,schubert whose truly memorable songs number more than fifty4 ,brahms' song product is amazing in its richness1 its creativeness1 its high average of excellence4 ,a modern taste1 often misled by mere obvious effectiveness1 has pronounced these songs dull4 ,this notion prevails almost universally among the superficial1 and many an appreciative critic has joined in the chorus with grudging reservations4 ,the student in particular is likely to be frightened away from the ,brahms songs by this bogey of #8dullness' as well as by the very considerable difficulty which they offer to the singer who is inadequately prepared4 ,but in most cases those who accept this opinion have never studied the ,brahms songs and have not allowed themselves to become familiar with their beauties4 ,certainly1 even though certain temperaments may admit the charge of #8dullness' against much of the ,brahms symphonic and chamber music1 the charge will hold least of all against the songs4 ,here we find ,brahms the romanticist1 the composer who was master of the art of obtaining sensuous beauty of melody and richly colored harmony4 ,we must never forget that ,brahms was hailed by ,schumann as the great continuer of the romantic tradition for which he himself had fought so hard and so well4 ,if1 in his maturity1 ,brahms came to regard form and artistic control at a higher value than his contemporaries did1 it was not because his romantic invention became exhausted4 ,from the beginning of his life to the end he was possessed of a rich fund of lovely musical ideas1 and his last works 7vide the later ,rhapsodies and the ,gypsy ,songs7 are even more romantic than the first4 ,brahms was a #8classic' solely because he chose to be4 ,it would perhaps be truest to say that he was romanticist in his musical ideas and classicist in his treatment of them4 ,however1 such bandying of terms only tends to obscure the facts4 ,let us get to the songs4 ,because ,brahms worked with more care and reserve than most of his contemporaries1 he must be approached with some care by the student4 ,doubtless1 if one unfamiliar with his work turned over his songs at random the result would be somewhat discouraging4 ,there is so much more there than meets the eye that much of his work is certainly uninteresting to the superficial glance4 ,but there are many songs which must make an instant appeal by their sheer loveliness4 ,let the student who sincerely wishes to appreciate ,brahms begin with these songs4 ,let us make out a provisional list of them4 ,it would include3 #8,in ,strange ,lands1' opus #c2 #8,rest1 ,my ,love1' opus #cc2 the #8,folksong' in opus #g2 #8,the ,sorrowful ,one1' the #8,serenade1' and #8,longing1' from opus #ad2 #8,hey1 ,bow and ,arrow1' opus #cc2 #8,sunday1' opus #dg2 the famous ,cradle ,song1 opus #di2 #8,remembrance1' opus #fc2 #8,the ,lover's ,oath1' opus #fi2 #8,vain ,serenade1' opus #hd2 #8,the ,virgin's ,lullaby1' opus #ia2 the ,sapphic ,ode1 opus #id2 and every one of the ,gypsy ,songs1 opus #ajc4 ,to call any of these songs #8dull' is rank foolishness4 ,their beauty appeals instantly even to a listener who is in no wise a technical musician4 ,sentiment1 passion1 military frenzy and simple high spirits are expressed in these songs4 ,they are in some cases as simple as anything by ,schubert1 as popular in character as any folk-song4 ,let the student learn to know and love some of these and he will have little difficulty with the more elaborate songs later on4 ,the first quality that appeals straight to the heart in many of the ,brahms songs is their large element of the folk-song4 ,many of the lyrics bear the title ,volkslied1 being musical settings of popular poems1 treated in the popular vein4 ,brahms was devoted to folk-music and understood the value of the musical units it contains in such profusion4 ,a large proportion of his music1 if analyzed to its essentials1 will show the folk-song as its base4 ,his elaborate songs1 however abstruse and self-conscious1 may be called only a development of the folk-song4 ,the development is managed with the consummate art of the trained musician2 but the stuff of the song is in almost every case a musical unit which makes an instant appeal4 ,the student is very foolish if he sees only the development and not the beautiful music beneath it4 ,in a large proportion of his songs ,brahms has given the best of his profound musical learning--always in due proportion and without obtrusion of detail4 ,his management of polyphonic parts1 in the bass or in the inner voices1 is unequalled by any song-writer--save1 perhaps1 ,franz--and his range of expression is vastly wider than that of ,franz4 ,his complication and intertwining of rhythms is highly developed1 as in his symphonic music4 ,his harmony is often bold1 though never at the expense of cogency4 ,whether he is simple or complex his musicianship is working every moment4 ,it is this1 in the last analysis1 which we mean by technical mastery4 ,the real test of technical excellence is not the applying of rules out of the harmony book4 ,the real test is a human one4 ,read or play a number of songs by some second-rate composer--,gounod1 for instance4 ,then take up ,brahms' songs4 ,by the time you have done thirty or forty by ,gounod you are deathly sick of the same harmonies1 the same melodic phrases1 the same way of placing the parts4 ,in ,brahms' songs you will never be allowed to sleep2 you are never sure that the conventional thing is coming next4 ,your interest is not allowed to flag4 ,brahms is almost never commonplace4 ,but this does not mean that he obviously avoids the obvious1 as is the fashion among lesser composers of modern times4 ,it means that his musicianship is so rich and resourceful that he can always find some fitting thing to do that a minor composer would not have thought of4 ,test out this statement with some concrete instance4 ,take one of the simplest of ,brahms' melodies--the famous cradle song1 opus #di4 ,no tune could be simpler4 ,any second-rate composer would have supplied it with a conventional accompaniment of bass and treble chords4 ,most composers would have regarded such a song as a trifle to be tossed off before breakfast4 ,but it is evident that ,brahms bestows as much care upon this as upon his most elaborate lyric4 ,there is not a single unusual or strained chord in the accompaniment4 ,yet there is not a measure without its elements of variety and interest4 ,the gentle syncopation1 as of the rocking of the cradle1 is always present2 always shows some motion and variety4 ,yet the whole song is managed without any straining for effect1 without letting the varied accompaniment overshadow the simple melody4 ,brahms has carried into his romantic song-writing a classic regard for form4 ,in the more general sense this means that he always observed artistic proportion1 giving unity and body to his melodies1 and curbing the exuberant imagination which in so many song-writers makes the parts attempt to be more important than the whole4 ,concretely considered1 we find that ,brahms nearly always held to the strophic form1 seeing his poems as stanzas which could be set to the same melody4 ,in some cases1 as in his first song1 #8,faithfulness1' he treated the last strophe somewhat differently from the others4 ,a few of his songs are durchkomponiert1 after the manner of ,schubert4 ,but in general he felt his songs to be far more musical architecture and less mere running comment on the words4 ,certainly every one of his songs would be a satisfactory piece of pure music1 apart from the text and apart from the special meaning conveyed4 ,his regard for form makes this possible4 ,sometimes the form is hard to analyze1 not coinciding with any set formula1 but the sense of form1 of architecture1 of proportion1 of restraint is always there4 ,some have said that ,brahms' songs are mere instrumental compositions with words added4 ,as a final criticism this is certainly unjust4 ,but it has a certain superficial justification1 for ,brahms certainly had less regard for the words themselves than any other great song-writer4 ,he is not unwilling to force the text into the form necessary to fit the music4 ,sometimes he consistently and deliberately misplaces accents1 as in the first line of the song1 ,wie bist du1 meine ,knigin1 which with ,brahms' music reads1 #8,wie bist du1 meine ,knigin4' ,he is very free with slurred notes and shows not the slightest hesitation in putting two notes to one syllable in measure after measure4 ,the music has its own architecture1 derived from formal or melodic considerations and not from considerations of the text4 ,of course1 this is not the result of carelessness on ,brahms' part1 nor a belittling of the importance of the words4 ,it was merely that ,brahms regarded his songs as interpretive music1 and not as #8heightened speech4' ,in this he differed from nearly every great song-writer1 and put himself in opposition to the taste of the time4 ,for those who feel ,schumann's scrupulous regard for the text this will rank as a fault1 a blot on the beauty of ,brahms' songs4 ,the student should decide the matter for himself4 ,at any rate1 the fact points to the peculiar interpretation which ,brahms' songs demand--an interpretation which involves firm1 reserved1 controlled modelling rather than minute emphasis on the parts4 ,out of this regard for the design as a whole rather than from the direct meaning of the details will come the interpretive truth of the song4 ,because ,brahms' songs represent the purely musical and formal1 as well as the interpretive1 they are one of the most valuable of studies for the advanced pupil4 ,a singer's art cannot be complete as long as the effective interpretation of ,brahms' songs remains a mystery to him4 ,not to attempt to understand and love them1 because of the myth of dullness1 is a sin against artistic open-mindedness which no music-lover should be guilty of4 ,indeed1 if we can manage to escape for a time in our souls from the trend of the time toward the spectacular1 the sensuous and the sensual1 the easy and effective1 we shall find in ,brahms a song-writer like no other who ever lived1 save only ,schubert4 ,brahms has treated almost every kind of sentiment and emotion successfully4 ,his melodies are lovely in the extreme1 his accompaniments are an endless delight to the careful pianist2 his musical procedure is never conventional yet always appropriate2 his music has a wholesomeness and dignity unsurpassed in all song literature4 ,other song-writers surpass ,brahms in certain qualities4 ,but it is doubtful if any1 except ,schubert1 can be regarded as his equal in the combining of such a large number of first-rate qualities and in the quantity of first-rate songs produced4 ,,ii ,we may conveniently divide the ,brahms songs into two classes--the #8folk-songs1' written usually to anonymous popular poems and preserving the simplicity and directness of the true folk-song2 and the art-songs which make use of all the resources of elaboration and organization at the command of that master craftsman4 ,some of the opus numbers contain #8folk-songs' entirely or in large proportion4 7,brahms wrote but one cycle in the strict sense1 and usually followed no scheme of grouping47 ,but a folk-like song may appear anywhere in his song output4 ,the type of folk-feeling in ,brahms is almost exclusively ,german4 ,there is scarcely the slightest attempt at #8local color' in the whole of ,brahms' music4 ,even the ,gypsy songs1 though they somehow attain an exotic flavor1 make use of none of the conventional musical formulas of ,hungarian music4 ,moreover1 while the #8folk-songs' are distinctly ,german1 they are also distinctly ,brahms4 ,the composer never lost his individuality in any single work4 ,the accompaniments to these songs are usually simple1 but they are never merely conventional4 ,they show a nice adaptation of the style of the piano part to the character of the melody and of the song as a whole1 and continually present unobtrusive elements of interest in detail4 ,these #8folk-songs' are numerous4 ,from opus #g we may select two very beautiful songs for special mention--namely1 the ,volkslied and #8,the ,mournful ,one1' the latter one of ,brahms' finest expressive melodies4 ,opus #ad is a treasure4 #8,before the ,window' is a thing of great beauty4 #8,going to ,my ,sweetheart' has a humorous touch1 which ,brahms could get inimitably4 ,but it is very restrained2 the melody is so very simple that for a moment it seems almost trivial4 ,the #8,serenade' and #8,longing' from the same group are delightful4 ,from opus #dg we should mention #8,sunday' and from opus #dh #8,joy ,hath ,left ,me1' a fine song in the style of an old ,german chorale4 ,in opus #fi are an exquisite #8,lament' and the delicious song1 #8,the ,lover's ,oath4' #8,the ,maiden1' in opus #ie1 is a dialogue between the girl and the reflection of her face in the water4 ,the words are a ,servian popular poem and the music is in an irregular metre which is peculiar to the ,slavic races4 ,brahms' last group of lyrics1 the ,gypsy ,songs1 opus #ajc1 are beyond all praise4 ,these eight songs1 written when the composer was past middle age1 have all the fire and ardor of early youth just awakened to its powers4 ,there is in them a frenzy of animal spirits which befits their ,gypsy words4 ,in them we seem to hear the message of that fine ,hungarian song3 #8,brechen muss das ,herz vor freude oder ,leid2 ,das allein heisst bei den ,ungarn ,frhlichkeit4' ,the ,gypsy ,songs1 all in strophic form1 are very short4 ,into a few seconds of melody ,brahms injects his musical message4 ,not a note is wasted4 ,the mood is carried over with perfect accuracy and conviction4 ,the songs are all nicely contrasted4 ,each might be a tiny movement from a symphony1 multum in parvo4 ,there is an allegro agitato1 an allegretto1 an allegro giocoso1 a vivace grazioso1 an andantino grazioso1 and so on4 ,each song has a very distinct #8style1' as modern critics would say4 ,the mood is established at the first note and maintained until the last4 ,the melodies themselves are altogether charming4 ,but a mere knowledge of the melodies will not suggest the thrilling effect which these songs make when well sung in a large hall4 ,the startling effectiveness of many of the ,brahms songs is the best answer to the charge that ,brahms is academic and pedantic4 ,it is hard to select any best out of these eight songs4 #8,the ,nut ,brown ,lad' is perhaps the most popular of them1 but the charm of each is so distinct that a comparison is difficult4 #8,three ,roses in a ,row' is a delicate melody of great beauty4 ,the vigorous #8,hey1 ,ye ,gypsies6' and the furious #8,red ,evening ,clouds' which closes the series1 are overflowing with animal spirits4 ,of the pieces which are more specifically art-songs we must admit a gradual change in character corresponding to the general change in ,brahms' music from the #8romantic' to the #8classic4' ,of course1 this change has been overemphasized in superficial ,brahms criticism4 ,it was not so much ,brahms who changed2 it was the lay of the land4 ,music became much more sensuous and free and formless4 ,brahms became still more himself4 ,the revolutionary ,brahms of #ahej was a conservative ,brahms in #ahhj4 ,but1 undoubtedly1 where ,schumann expected him to look forward1 ,brahms chose in many things to look backward--or1 rather1 perhaps1 to look inward4 ,and so we feel in ,brahms' music as a whole that it becomes stranger and more reserved as the man matures4 ,he became more interested in the things that had ceased to interest the rabble1 and less interested in the things which scores of new and radical composers were beginning to do very well4 ,and we can feel this change in his songs4 ,the earliest ones--in opus #c--;are filled with the joy of spontaneous creation4 ,the so-called #8classic' virtues seemed the last things the composer was thinking about4 ,but the songs were in a pretty strict strophic form and their intelligence was at least equal to their exuberance4 ,and it was these formal and intellectual qualities1 and not the others1 which were to receive the chief emphasis and intensification as the composer matured4 ,to ,schumann1 ,brahms was the continuer of ,schumann4 ,to the world he became the continuer of ,beethoven4 ,the songs of opus #c are filled with physical energy4 #8,fidelity1' the first of them1 with its accompaniment of throbbing triplets1 seems to tap some hidden source of power like a huge dynamo4 ,we cannot see the source but we know there is much more where that came from4 #8,love and ,spring' suggests certain of the later ,brahms qualities and the song from #8,ivan' seems like a shooting arrow in the vigor and directness of its expression4 ,the same physical energy is shown in the #8,spanish ,song1' in bolero tempo1 in opus #f2 and the peculiarly rich ,brahms modulation is again revealed in #8,as the ,clouds4' ,the #8,nightingale' song from the same group is the first to foreshadow the increased technical elaboration which ,brahms was later to give his accompaniments4 ,here the fluttering triplets in the piano are meant to suggest the winging of the birds1 but it is easy to see that the purely technical problem which they created had fascinated the composer4 ,and1 except for this technical care1 such an accompaniment would have overbalanced the melody4 ,the ,anklnge of opus #g has an elaborate syncopated accompaniment which shows the continuation of the technical concern2 #8,the ,return1' from the same series1 is another example of ,brahms' unsurpassed power to pour great energy into small compass4 ,in opus #ai there are two more songs of the highest quality4 ,one is #8,the ,smith1' to ,uhland's words1 perhaps the shortest of all ,brahms' songs and certainly one of the most overwhelmingly effective4 ,the maiden who speaks in ,uhland's delicious poem tells admiringly of her lover1 who is a smith and who works all day amid the grime and the sparks4 ,the melody1 with that strange and very ,brahmsian avoidance of the regular balancing of phrases which seems physically to condense great energy in a small compass1 seems a succession of hammer blows4 ,each note has a ponderous weight of its own1 but a weight which is followed by a fine rebound4 ,the accompaniment1 which is obviously intended to suggest flying sparks1 is magically adapted to the peculiarities of the pianoforte4 ,the short postlude1 and1 indeed1 the whole of the accompaniment1 is strikingly ,wagnerian1 recalling very closely the ,valkyrie's cry in ,die ,walkre4 ,such a detail is only one more proof of the foolishness of the artificial rivalry which stupid critics set up between ,wagner and ,brahms4 ,the two men were great artists working in very different lines4 ,as for their musical ideas1 they could almost1 at times1 have been interchanged4 ,the second remarkable song of opus #ai is the #8olian ,harp1' one of the three or four most admired of all ,brahms' lyrics4 ,this is one of the few that are in quite free form4 ,it is almost a scena rather than a song1 since it opens with a recitative and is interrupted in the middle with free declamation4 ,the olian harp sings in the west wind the lament of a ,greek boy who had been taken to a distant land4 ,here ,brahms' marvellously colored harmonies have created a peculiar beauty which quite escapes analysis4 ,as we come to the more mature work we find the mere animal spirits less frequently in the foreground4 ,we feel more and more the qualities of control and dominant intellectuality4 ,not that these songs are better than their predecessors1 for some of the earliest ones are finished masterpieces which could hardly be improved4 ,nor 7let it be repeated7 does ,brahms' fund of musical ideas become less fresh or less charming4 ,but the composer had begun to show at their best the qualities which have chiefly given him a place in modern music4 ,the second song of opus #cb is a triumphant justification of this mature ,brahms4 ,the song is entitled only with a number1 but it can be known by its first line1 ,nicht mehr zu dir zu gehen6 ,here is intellectuality in song writing at its best4 ,brahms never wrote a finer song2 few composers1 if any1 have done so4 ,its popularity may always be limited1 but it is surely one of the great songs of musical literature4 ,here1 as nowhere else1 ,brahms has observed the rhythmic and quantitative values of his text to the last letter4 ,the words1 which are in a moody1 reflective vein1 are treated almost in declamatory fashion4 ,every rise or fall of the voice finds its expression in the melodic line of the voice part4 ,the tempo is a slow #c_/b1 and through this winds the melody1 now breaking off suddenly1 as though gasping for breath1 now rising sharply1 as though choked with pain4 ,if it were pure declamation1 it could not be more faithful to the words2 if it were pure melody1 it could not be more faithful to the spirit4 ,the accompaniment1 answering the voice part simply but intensely1 and providing a noble bass for the musical texture to be woven upon1 shows ,brahms' finest qualities of restraint and perfect fitness4 ,here is a song which is never exhausted4 ,let the student play and sing it every day1 it will still have something to teach him4 ,hardly less noble is another song in the same group1 ,so steh'n wir1 ich und meine ,weide4 ,its theme has all the dignity of a great andante fugue subject by ,bach4 ,the treatment of the piano part1 with its definite melody in the bass forming an answer and a sort of canon with the voice1 is superb4 ,we may also mention in this opus number the much overrated song1 ,wie bist du meine ,knigin1 a piece which has doubtless gained its popularity by its passionate fervor1 but which in musical beauty and artistic fitness is far inferior to ,brahms' best work4 ,illustration3 ,famous ,modern ,singers4 ,top3 ,nellie ,melba and ,marcella ,sembrich ,bottom3 ,lilli ,lehmann and ,ernestine ,schumann-,heink ,opus #cc comprises a large number of romances from ,l4 ,tieck's ,magelone4 ,these songs1 which incline to be long and somewhat pretentious1 do not maintain the high standard usual with ,brahms4 ,there are here rather too much sound and fury4 ,we may1 however1 mention three which are very fine3 #8,hey1 ,bow and ,arrow1' a song made of fire and steel2 #8,is ,it ,sorrow8' deeply emotional2 and the lovely #8,rest1 ,sweet ,love4' ,from now on we have merely a steady stream of songs with words garnered from here and there1 the music of a very high standard of workmanship and the interest often hidden to the superficial glance4 ,each song has its individuality which must be sought out by the student4 ,a commentary on all the songs would fill many pages4 ,in opus #dc we find the fine song1 #8,with ,eternal ,love1' and the barbaric ballad1 #8,the ,song of ,herr von ,falkenstein4' ,such intentional crudity as ,brahms puts into this latter song should redeem him from any suspicion of pedantry4 ,the #8,magyar ,love ,song' of opus #df treats the words with unusual freedom even for ,brahms4 ,the same can be said for #8,gold ,outweighs ,love1' in opus #dh4 ,opus #di offers us an interesting song1 #8,on ,sunday ,morning1' and the famous ,lullaby4 ,in opus #eg we have #8,motionless ,air1' and in opus #eh #8,oh1 ,come1 ,holy ,summer ,night1' both fine enough to be the masterpieces of another man's output1 though they are ,brahms' second best4 #8,twilight ,falls1' of opus #ei1 is a deeply tragic piece in the folk-mood4 ,in opus #fc we have one song which shows us ,brahms as the most thorough technician4 ,the #8,consolation of ,spring' makes the most elaborate use of syncopation and mixed rhythms1 accompanying the #f_/d voice part with a piano part practically in #c_/b4 #8,remembrance1' from the same group1 is worth knowing1 and #8,o1 ,would ,i ,knew the ,returning ,road' is one of the sweetest of ,brahms' songs4 ,in opus #ff is one of the daintiest and most humorous of the songs1 a duet to folk-words1 which might be sung as a solo--#8,have a ,care4' #8,i ,call from the ,bank1' in opus #fi1 is ,brahms once more in the generous world of romance4 #8,the ,maiden's ,curse1' in the same group1 is a fine tragic song set to a ,servian folk-poem4 ,it is an interesting question here whether ,brahms did not fail entirely to catch the spirit of the words4 ,the maiden1 in a dialogue with her mother1 curses her lover1 who has prevented her from finishing the washing4 ,she hopes he may be hanged 7upon her white breast71 chained 7in her white arms71 drowned 7in her love71 and so on4 ,the point of the song is the double meaning of the curses4 ,brahms has treated the words as the passionate rhetoric of love4 ,but it is probable that the poem1 in its true spirit1 is a comic song4 ,the second part of each curse should probably be delivered sotto voce1 so that the mother shall not hear4 ,in such a reading there would be a delightful comic contrast between the coarse hussy which the girl pretends to be and the sentimental love-sick maiden that she is4 ,brahms makes no sort of distinction between the two parts of the curses and the song in his hands attains a certain tragic intensity by virtue of the girl's defiance of her mother4 ,in opus #ga are #8,to the ,moon' and the ,minnelied1 one of the most admired of ,brahms' songs4 ,in sheer beauty1 however1 this is inferior to the lovely lyric in opus #gb1 ,o1 khler ,wald4 ,opus #hd contains ,brahms' most spirited comic song1 the delightful #8,vain ,serenade1' the high spirits of which make it an irresistible concert number4 ,two fine folk-songs are to be found in opus #he1 a ,servian #8,maiden's song1' and ,ade1 from the ,bohemian4 ,opus #id contains the famous #8,sapphic ,ode4'#bh ,here we find1 in the simple melody 7as apart from the song as a whole71 ,brahms' intellectuality and sensuous beauty fused into a perfect whole4 ,over it all is that fine artistic reserve which ,brahms was so master of and which makes the music so fitting an expression of ,greek verse4 ,among others of the later songs we should mention two ,heine songs1 #8,death ,is the ,cool ,night' and the #8,sea ,journey4' ,brahms' songs are as permanent a part of concert programs as those of ,schubert or ,franz4 ,if they are not as popular in the looser sense of the word1 it is because concert audiences are not yet as a whole willing to give the necessary attention to them4 ,for1 while the ,brahms songs are emphatically not dull1 they do demand careful listening4 ,without doubt their popularity will grow steadily4 ,and this will be the best of events both for audiences and for singers4 ,he who has learned to listen to ,brahms' songs will never again be quite so indulgent with what is cheap and facile4 ,and the singer who has learned how to make effective the striking qualities hidden in a ,brahms song will find himself equipped with a power and dignity in his work which he could hardly get in any other way4 ,,iii ,wagner's songs are few4 ,they comprise only those written during his early years in ,paris1 when for a time he hoped to make himself a fashion in ,parisian drawing rooms1 and those written under the influence of ,mathilde ,wesendonck in the late fifties1 when he was planning #8,tristan4' ,the former group1 being composed at the time when he was writing #8,the ,flying ,dutchman' and being1 moreover1 designed for a debased public taste1 can by no means be ranked with his typical work4 ,the songs it contains are not great4 ,but ,wagner's genius was too imperative to blot itself out at any time and these early lyrics show evidences of the artistic energy which was later to flower in #8,the ,ring4' ,the earliest known of ,wagner's songs is #8,the ,fir ,tree1' written in #ahch in ,knigsberg4 ,it has little more than historic interest4 ,in ,paris he wrote the #8,three ,melodies1' which are still occasionally sung and will repay a little study4 ,the lullaby1 ,dors1 mon enfant1 is marked with a suavity in the melody and a variety in the accompaniment which betray with certainty the touch of the true musician4 ,the second #8melody1' called #8,the ,rose1' is rather too sweet but is saved by its interesting accompaniment4 #8,waiting' is vigorous in conception and execution4 ,but the best of ,wagner's ,parisian songs is #8,the ,two ,grenadiers1' composed to a ,french version of ,heine's famous poem1 to which ,schumann wrote his popular setting4 ,wagner's method is more dramatic than ,schumann's4 ,it gives a much more important function to the accompaniment1 which is something approaching the #8orchestral comment' of his later theories4 ,at times the voice part is freely declamatory4 ,throughout it is kept remarkably free from the running comment of the piano4 ,the long crescendo up to the final lines is managed with skill4 ,for these lines the ,marseillaise is used1 as in ,schumann's setting1 but only in the accompaniment1 the voice singing an independent part4 ,here we have something approaching a true leit motif used in a way foreshadowing the later revolutionary music dramas4 ,the introduction of the ,marseillaise by both ,schumann and ,wagner must be regarded purely as a coincidence1 since the songs1 as it happens1 were written in the same year4 ,the #8,five ,poems1' to words by ,mathilde ,wesendonck1 are1 with one exception1 songs of the first rank4 ,this exception is the #8,sorrows1' which is a bit pompous and rings insincere4 #8,the ,angel' is a simple melody with a soft1 flowing accompaniment much in the style of the #8,lohengrin' music4 #8,stand ,still' is a vigorous and dramatic song1 combining both the lyrical and the declamatory elements4 ,the two remaining songs will always be masterpieces of the first order4 ,they are regarded as #8studies' for the ,tristan music and both contain motives from #8,tristan' or harmonic peculiarities which mark them out unmistakably4 ,trume 7#8,dreams'71 the better known of the two1 weaves a wonderful sensuous spell about the listener4 ,its melody is constructed in a peculiar manner which we sometimes meet in ,brahms--a sort of telescoping of successive phrases1 so as to bind the parts more cogently and increase the emphasis of the whole4 ,the harmony is a wonderful series of melting chords1 culminating in ecstatic chromatic modulations on the words3 #8,sanft an deiner ,brust verglhen ,und dann sinken in die ,gruft4' ,the other #8,tristan' song is ,im ,treibhaus 7#8,in the ,hothouse'74 ,it contains two of the #8,tristan' motives1 slightly altered1 those of the wounded ,tristan and ,tristan's longing4 ,the harmony in this song is exceedingly delicate and chromatic--revolutionary for its time4 ,here the chromatic development toward which composers had half consciously striven for two centuries at last attained a complete development4 ,the lyric must rank as one of the wonders of modern song literature4 ,liszt's songs also we may roughly divide into two classes--those of the ,paris period and those of the ,weimar period4 ,more than ,wagner1 ,liszt wrote his ,french songs in the taste of the time and the nation4 ,as one of the pets of the capital he was sure to be heard gladly by the ,parisians and his wonderful instinct for pleasing made him write naturally in a style which we cannot usually differentiate from the style of native song writers4 ,comment6 for instance1 is as ,french a song as though its composer had never travelled beyond the ,parisian fortifications4 ,its sensitive feeling for the words1 its delicate use of the accompaniment in the thin ,french style1 mark it as utterly un-,german4 ,the most striking of the ,parisian songs is ,enfant1 so j'tais roi1 to words by ,victor ,hugo4 ,it is elaborate and pretentious1 but it has a good deal of real power4 ,on the whole1 however1 ,liszt's ,french songs are without the very qualities which make the later ,german songs so valuable--chiefly the dramatic and the declamatory values4 ,not all these ,german songs are of high rank1 though we may select a dozen or so which are the work of genius4 ,the cheapness which so often entered into the rest of ,liszt's work1 finds its way now and then into the songs1 but on the whole this department of his creative activity maintains a higher average than any other4 ,cheapness enters somewhat into two of the earlier ,german songs1 #8,the ,fisher ,boy' and #8,the ,shepherd1' both to words by ,schiller4 ,the accompaniments are graphically descriptive4 ,caring little for the formal unity of the songs1 ,liszt introduced the description suggested by the words whenever the suggestion came4 ,in fact1 the songs are really declamations for the voice with a running comment in the piano4 ,they are far superior to the longer declamatory songs of ,schubert1 which were little more than pretentious recitatives2 they raise the declamation into real melody and the descriptive comment into real music4 ,but these songs are far surpassed by some of the ,weimar period4 #8,the ,loreley1' to ,heine's words1 is one of the most elaborate descriptive songs ever written4 ,the opening lines are freely declaimed to a suggestive accompaniment4 ,when the description of the ,rhine enters--die ,luft ist khl und es dunkelt--we hear a lovely #i_/h motive set over an arpeggio accompaniment which strikingly suggests the calm flowing river4 ,the music becomes deeper and richer as the ,loreley enters the action4 ,the passage where the fisher is dragged into the depths of the water is treated with free and impressive dramatic power4 ,then the ,rhine once more flows quietly over the place where the man was drowned and the lovely river theme returns once more1 deepening into silence as the darkness falls4 ,this song illustrates almost at its best the principle of the descriptive song1 the principle held by many that the effect of the whole is to be gained by treating each part with fidelity4 ,it is interesting to compare this setting with the simple folk-like setting provided by ,silcher and universally sung4 ,the latter makes a very regular strophic melody serve for all the stanzas4 ,the two settings are both wonderful and in very different ways4 ,a choice between the two must be a matter of individual taste4 ,it will be a nice exercise for the student to study the two and choose1 on personal grounds1 between them4 ,fine as #8,the ,loreley' is1 ,liszt has written two ballads which are finer4 ,his setting of #8,the ,king of ,thule1' from ,goethe's #8,faust1' is almost beyond praise4 ,in this he uses a brief suggestive phrase in the accompaniment which becomes the germ of the whole ballad1 being repeated in many connotations and moods4 #8,the ,ancestral ,tomb1' to ,uhland's words1 perhaps suffers just a trifle from the pompous1 but is nevertheless one of the best ballads 7or1 more properly1 romances7 that we have4 ,the old warrior1 the last of his race1 goes to his ancestral tomb1 in which one stone vault is still empty4 ,he hears the voices of his fathers singing an impressive and mysterious song of family pride4 ,the voices cease and he lays himself in the empty vault and dies4 ,suggestions of unguessed mystery and grandeur hang over the ballad4 ,in addition to these larger compositions1 ,liszt achieved what might reasonably have been considered an impossibility for him--the pure lyric4 ,some of his settings are almost flawless4 ,heine's ,du bist wie eine ,blume has never received such fine music at the hands of another composer4 ,the opening and typical phrase seems to contain the essence of the religious sentimentalism of ,heine's words4 #8,mignon's ,song' commences with a phrase1 set over an altered chord1 which has become famous for its accurate delineation of a mood in a few notes4 ,perhaps the most impressive of his brief lyrics is ,der du von dem ,himmel bist4 ,liszt's simple setting of this poem is finer1 if possible1 than ,schubert's4 ,ein ,fichtenbaum steht einsam and ,im ,rhein1 im schnen ,strome present many elements of beauty and interest4 ,but the most typical and possibly the finest of all ,liszt's songs is #8,the ,three ,gypsies1' to ,lehnau's words4 ,in the poem the speaker tells of having passed along a country road and having seen three gypsies1 one smoking1 one fiddling1 and one sleeping4 ,in the music each of the gypsies is carefully differentiated4 ,the characterization in this song is beyond all praise4 ,the voice part is an eloquent declamation1 rising here and there into inspired melody4 ,for the basic theme1 the theme of the joy of life1 ,liszt has a magnificent ,hungarian melody1 surely one of the finest he ever used4 ,the song is one of the most effective of concert pieces4 ,in spite of his comparatively small output1 ,liszt's songs are of great importance in the history of song writing4 ,he1 better than any other1 fused the declamatory and the lyrical--truth to the words and truth to the emotions4 ,he several times struck the grand note as few purely lyrical composers 7not even ,schubert7 have been able to do4 ,in the development of the piano part along the purely descriptive side no composer has gone beyond ,liszt4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,late ,,romantics ,,in ,,germany ,,and ,,elsewhere ,the dilution of the romantic spirit--,grieg and his songs--,minor romantic lyricists2 ,peter ,cornelius1 ,adolph ,jensen1 ,eduard ,lassen1 ,georg ,henschel1 and ,halfdan ,kjerulf2 ,dvok's songs--,french song-writers3 ,gounod and others2 ,saint-,sans and ,massenet2 minor ,french lyricists--,edward ,mac,dowell as song-writer2 ,nevin and others--,rubinstein and ,tschaikowsky--,english song4 ,i ,every great burst of genius in any department of art is followed by widespread imitation4 ,the genius 7the seer1 as ,carlyle calls him7 sees his way to new objects and achievements which lesser men are blind to4 ,before the genius has done the thing1 the thing seems impossible2 after he has done it1 it seems divinely simple4 ,the genius seems to have taught people how4 ,every second-rate talent can now follow the formula and produce the same results4 ,of course1 the second-rate talent cannot produce quite the same results1 easy as it may seem4 ,but the first-rate talent 7and geniuses following7 can produce fine results and can even produce results that are more thorough and more refined1 because they are building upon the work of genius4 ,so the impulse spreads4 ,many men take up the work that had formerly been the unique property of one4 ,the genius has done the pioneer work4 ,the new department of art is advertised by him1 made popular1 even made profitable4 ,lesser men can get something like the same results with less sacrifice1 less effort4 ,the imitators1 in turn1 have their imitators4 ,the great initial impulse1 as it spreads1 also weakens4 ,fine strokes of genius are imitated until they become only formulas4 ,people are familiar with the style and are satisfied with less convincing results than formerly4 ,the art-form may even become so codified and formulated that first-rate men will become disgusted and refuse to give their serious efforts to it4 ,then the small fry are left in full possession of the field4 ,something like this happened to song literature after ,schubert4 ,fortunately1 song writing has continually1 since ,schubert1 attracted enough first-rate men to prevent it from falling into a depraved state in all countries at once4 ,but the general course of song literature since ,schubert's death has been that of diffusion and dilution up nearly to the end of the century1 when the well-developed harmonic systems of the younger composers poured new energy into the form4 ,throughout the greater part of this time there were first-rate men working--,schumann1 ,franz1 ,brahms1 and others4 ,but there was also an increasingly great number of second-rate men who wrote charming and artistic songs--songs which we could by no means overlook4 ,and there was also an increasing number of inferior men who gained great popularity on very slender artistic resources4 ,many of these showed marked individuality1 exquisite finish of workmanship1 and fine inspiring ideas4 ,they are by no means to be omitted from any history of song4 ,they cannot and should not be excluded from concert programs4 ,in some respects certain of them have surpassed the great masters4 ,it is also true that excellent work1 even first-class work1 may be produced in small quantities by men who have scarcely any claim on fame4 ,so any attempt1 like the attempt in this chapter1 to list and describe the work of a number of less important composers must exclude certain workers in the field whose songs are of high excellence4 ,in such a chapter as this the warning must always be given that the list is not all-inclusive4 ,a man who is quite unknown may produce work equal almost to the best4 ,the student should1 while keeping high standards of judgment1 regard any song as innocent until it has proved itself guilty4 ,he should always be willing to recognize excellence2 he should always be honestly willing to express his liking for a particular song1 be it unknown or despised4 ,such a chapter as this1 we have said1 is necessarily incomplete4 ,the student must1 in the course of his study1 complete it for himself4 ,after the death of ,schumann we see the art of song-writing spreading to every ,european country which cultivated music at all4 ,germany1 in addition to ,brahms1 ,wagner1 and ,liszt1 can show ,cornelius1 ,jensen1 and ,lassen among the most prominent4 ,scandinavia is represented by ,kjerulf and ,grieg4 ,the ,french have a long line of well-known song writers1 many of them scarcely above the level of mediocrity and not one showing any touch of first-rate talent4 ,in ,italy we see a slender interest in song writing1 which1 however1 produced a rather large number of songs1 some of much beauty4 ,russia1 in addition to the truly national composers 7who will be treated in another chapter71 had distinguished song writers in ,rubinstein and ,tschaikowsky4 ,england1 still in a dry formalistic period1 produced one true romanticist of great talent--,arthur ,goring-,thomas--and several popular writers whose work shows less distinction4 ,and ,america 7if we extend the period slightly for the sake of convenience7 shows one song writer--,edward ,mac,dowell--who ranks almost among the greatest4 ,many of these composers rank now much lower than they did in their lifetime4 ,others will likely drop more and more out of sight as more recent work becomes known4 ,tschaikowsky and ,gounod1 for instance1 have been much overrated in the past4 ,a few others1 like ,cornelius1 are not so well known as they deserve to be1 and as they presently will be if heaven showers discrimination upon singers and concert audiences4 ,in any case1 the values represented in this chapter are largely values in transition4 ,even among these composers1 most of whom are dead1 there are still reputations to be made and lost4 ,,ii ,edvard ,grieg 7#ahdc-aijg7 was essentially a writer in the small forms4 ,his ill health and also probably the cast of his genius prevented him from undertaking labors that called for great concentration and endurance4 ,but in the small forms he is one of the most delightful of the romanticists of the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,he used harmonic color with telling results4 ,he was a master of rhythmic effects4 ,in particular he introduced into his music something of the peculiar folk-idiom of his country 7whether he did it in conscious imitation of the folk-songs does not matter74 ,he was one of the first of the distinctly national composers to become universally known and popular4 ,his melody is always engaging2 the national peculiarities of it are not so obtrusive or so unusual as to alienate the ordinary listener4 ,he is distinctly easy to enjoy4 ,he was highly successful in the creation of poetic effect1 in which he was helped by the provocative unusualness of his idiom4 ,in the musical painting of pictures1 in the suggestion of moods that have a sensuous tinge1 there were few of his contemporaries who can equal him4 ,it is evident that such a man would be successful with songs4 ,and ,grieg's songs 7there are only #adf of them7 are among the most delightful we have4 ,some critics are glad to place him just below ,schubert and ,brahms4 ,certainly he shows in his songs a spontaneity1 an lan1 that is one of the prime qualities of the lyrical spirit4 ,like ,franz1 he makes his songs brief and to the point4 ,unlike ,franz1 he takes considerable freedom of form and outline and makes an easy appeal to an unsophisticated public4 ,as an interpreter of moods he is admirable4 ,but his songs have made their popularity probably more on their sheer beauty than on any interpretative quality4 ,in several of his ballads ,grieg has caught a suggestion of the archaic--a certain angularity of melody which is crude yet beautiful4 ,this is typified in #8,the ,princess1' words by the ,norwegian poet ,bjrnsen2 and #8,the ,old ,song1' words by ,heine4 ,but in general ,grieg shows that he has little to add to the ballad or the longer vocal forms4 ,he is at his most typical1 and possibly at his best1 in #8,the ,swan1'#bi words by the dramatist ,ibsen4 ,here he is using harmonic color for all it will yield4 ,in style the song is as far as possible removed from the work of ,franz1 for it consists simply of a melody with chords for accompaniment4 ,there is scarcely a suggestion of the polyphonic style4 ,the chords1 generally in a slightly unusual or altered form1 are simply juxtaposed4 ,from their contrast comes the color which is so marked in this song4 ,no other composer1 before ,grieg1 had done this particular thing so well and in point of originality the song can justly be included among the great ones of the world4 ,in ,ich liebe dich1 which is far better known1 he is in a vein that is much less fine4 ,here there is nothing of the national idiom4 ,the song is indeed remarkable for the manner in which it creates emotional excitement in a mere four lines4 ,but through it all there is something of the vulgar4 ,it is not a song apart1 like #8,the ,swan1' but one of the horde4 ,we must grant it as one of ,grieg's distinctions that his songs have a marked individuality and distinction1 one from the other1 even though this distinction is more superficial than essential4 ,in general scheme1 no two of his best songs are much alike4 ,each has a virtue which is peculiar to it4 ,in #8,solvejg's ,song' he writes in a modal folk-style1 charming1 yet a little more sophisticated than a folk-song would be4 #8,autumn ,storm' is a good piece of emotional expression1 though uneven4 #8,the ,minstrel's ,song' shows dramatic power in a compressed phrase4 #8,the ,youth' is admirable in its management of a declamation which is still melody4 ,more items of technical interest appear in #8,the ,berry1' #8,a ,fair ,vision1' and #8,my ,goal4' ,these1 especially the last1 are all songs of a high order4 ,in #8,my ,goal' we should notice the vigor which is injected into the whole piece by the composer's harmonic freedom4 ,the handling of the piano part on the fff climax is especially typical of ,grieg4 ,in #8,the ,berry' the accompaniment contains a certain sort of free counterpoint1 which becomes very effective in the composer's chromatic method of handling it4 #8,a ,fair ,vision' 7,was sah ich7 makes much use of picture drawing in the accompaniment1 with its glittering introduction and its delicious descending chromatic voice in the bass4 ,the chords of the middle section1 very ,grieg-like in style1 are particularly charming4 ,in #8,friendship' the composer uses unusual chords1 again1 to express the feeling or the idea of unfaithfulness4 ,the listener will be struck by the likeness of this song to ,schubert's ,doppelgnger4 #8,the ,old ,mother' is a simple and very beautiful song1 more folk-like even than is usual with ,grieg4 ,one of the most exquisite of ,grieg's songs1 from the standpoint of artistry and taste1 is #8,hidden ,love1' a model of sensitive writing1 in which every note can be heard and every note is in place4 ,the deeply tragic note is not often sounded by ,grieg1 but in #8,by the ,bier of a ,young ,wife' he has achieved it superbly4 ,this song is especially worth study for the extreme freedom of its modulation4 ,the harmonic movement is so constant that there is scarcely any feeling of a change from key to key1 but rather a sense of moving about in a musical world that is without tonality4 ,the student should also notice the extremely effective use of dissonance4 ,among the shorter songs we should also notice #8,solvejg's ,cradle ,song' and the #8,folk-song from ,langeland4' ,in the long song entitled #8,from ,mount ,pincio' ,grieg the picture-painter is at his best4 ,the poet stands on the mount and sees ,italy spread out before him4 ,nature is in a mysterious and lovely mood4 ,the peasants1 with their dancing1 lend animation to the peaceful scene4 ,and the ancient ,italy1 the ,italy of ,rome1 rises to his mind4 ,one feels that ,liszt should have composed this song1 even though he might have made it over-pompous4 ,grieg has chosen to ignore the suggestion of ancient ,italy in his music1 using his old musical material to express the new idea4 ,yet this conservatism undoubtedly has the virtue of lending unity to the song1 which otherwise is flawless in point of taste4 ,the mood of mysterious nature ,grieg has described best of all in his cycle1 #8,from ,mountain and ,fjord4' ,the prologue and epilogue of this group have a heroic grandeur and yet a sympathetic intimacy which we feel in great vistas of landscape4 ,in the last number in particular the flashes of grandeur seem at times supernatural4 ,in both these songs the declamatory style is masterfully handled4 ,the songs within this impressive frame are short and folk-like and markedly in the ,grieg idiom4 ,indeed1 the composer1 among his unpretentious songs1 has written nothing more charming than #8,ragnhild' and #8,ingebjorg4' ,,iii ,of the various song writers whom1 for convenience1 we are here calling #8minor1' there is one who should not be given the epithet without reservation4 ,this is ,peter ,cornelius 7#ahbd-ahgd71 friend and disciple of ,liszt and partisan of ,wagner4 ,the work of ,cornelius has something of the great strain in it4 ,the man had a fine and daring talent1 if not positive genius4 ,his work seems somehow unfinished1 without quite enough authority to place him among the masters4 ,it is as though he were making sketches for ,parnassus1 but had died before attempting the giant canvas4 ,perhaps he took up music too late4 ,he was a mature man with a profession before he felt the influence of ,liszt and devoted himself wholly to composition4 ,though he was by no means deficient in technical ability1 one somehow feels that fate had got a head-start of him--that the truly great composer must become such in his cradle4 ,but those who will take the trouble to know him will find him one of the most satisfactory of the less known ,german composers4 ,he responded to ,liszt's intense and generous interest in music4 ,he had the enthusiasm of the amateur and the energy and thoroughness of the ,german professional man4 ,he was blessed with the open mind which enabled him to fight for ,wagner when the latter was known in ,germany only to be despised4 ,he had a keen artistic sense1 together with a vigorous and critical mentality which enabled him to use it with much force4 ,and he had what so few composers possess1 the breadth of culture and interest which comes from knowing other subjects besides music intimately and well4 ,from his songs one gets the impression that nearly all show originality and creative power1 though not many have the final stamp of authority to raise them into a class with the great4 ,from the creative standpoint ,cornelius's songs are far superior to ,jensen's4 ,but1 because he was unable to give his work the same finish of style that ,jensen gave to his1 he is not1 like ,jensen1 a name known to every singer of songs4 ,let us go to ,cornelius chiefly for stimulation1 leaving in the background for the time our sense of form and finish4 ,many of ,cornelius's published songs are mainly experimental4 ,he seems to have written what he wrote with much difficulty4 ,it is doubtful if he was often altogether satisfied with the work that left his composing desk4 ,the songs of the #8,lord's ,prayer' cycle1 for instance1 are extremely interesting and impressive in conception1 but they nearly always fail in execution4 ,out of the group only the ninth1 #8,and ,deliver ,us from ,evil1' is quite satisfactory4 ,but the man's imagination is shown in what he evidently attempted to do in the sixth1 #8,and ,forgive ,us ,our ,debts1' which has a fine fugal bass4 ,the third song of the series1 #8,thy ,kingdom ,come1' is probably next in interest4 ,of the other early songs we may mention the #8,shepherd's ,night-,song1' #8,in the ,moonlight' 7a charming scherzo71 the #8,slumber ,song1' and #8,think'st ,thou of ,me8' ,of much beauty is #8,come1 ,let ,us ,wander1' which obtains a gently colored #8atmosphere' with the simplest of means4 ,and among the later songs there are three fine ones which should be mentioned--#8,on ,molly's ,death1' to one of ,brger's famous poems2 ,auftrag and ,abendgefhl1 the last probably ,cornelius's best song4 ,a good part of his work is contained in song cycles1 namely3 #8,sorrow and ,consolation1' the #8,rhine ,songs1' the #8,christmas ,songs1' and the #8,bridal ,songs4' ,in the first of these1 for which the composer wrote his own words 7he was a poet of much ability71 we find three songs which must rank high4 ,these are3 #8,from the ,quiet ,spot1' #8,dreaming1' and #8,a ,tone4' ,the second would answer anyone's doubts as to whether ,cornelius had the lyric gift4 ,for he has given us here a song which in its few measures can throw magic over our souls4 ,the best known of all his songs is #8,a ,tone1' in which the voice part is carried entirely on one note1 while the accompaniment weaves lovely fabrics of melody around it4 ,this1 the only song of its kind which the writer is able to call to mind1 might have been a mere trick4 ,we can imagine such a song being written on a bet4 ,but a few measures of #8,a ,tone' will dispel any such notion4 ,for the lyric is a work of art throughout4 ,the water-mark of the second-rate song writer is not to be found in a single measure4 ,of the #8,rhine ,songs' the best is the fourth1 #8,fancies4' ,the ,christmas ,songs are interesting for the composer's attempt to adapt them to children4 ,the melodies1 of the utmost simplicity1 have an ecclesiastical ring which lends color to the sentiment4 ,of the six songs the best is #8,three ,kings1' but the whole group is worth knowing for the peculiar vitality of their modal style4 ,the finest and most beautiful of the song cycles1 however1 is the group known as #8,bridal ,songs4' ,these ,brautlieder1 the words written by the composer1 seek to interpret six various sentiments of a young girl at the season of her marriage4 ,they are wonderfully delicate in sentiment and finished in execution4 ,the opening song1 #8,a ,myrtle ,spray1' is tender and appealing2 the third1 ,vorabend1 is in ,cornelius's fine half declamatory style2 and the fourth1 the #8,morning ,prayer1' is a deep and noble expression of religious sentiment1 one of the finest things the composer has achieved4 ,in these songs we can scarcely complain of lack of finish and authority4 ,these qualities they have1 together with inherent beauty and originality4 ,if ,cornelius could have written a greater number of songs like the ,brautlieder1 the ,auftrag1 and the ,abendgefhl we should surely be obliged to rank him among the #8great' song writers4 ,as it is1 his work deserves far more general recognition than it has received and we have reason to expect that his fame will spread4 ,adolph ,jensen 7#ahcg-ahgi7 was a much more finished song-writer than ,cornelius and a much less vital one4 ,his songs have gained much popularity among singers because of their perfect taste1 their fine sense of fitness and perfection of form1 and their #8singability4' ,sometimes he attains sheer beauty of no mean order4 ,but in the actual business of expression ,jensen's songs do not often ring true4 ,the composer is chiefly at home with the lighter sentiments or with nature in her gentler moods4 ,pierce much beneath the surface and the expression is insincere4 ,undoubtedly there was in ,jensen a sensitive and genuine artistic nature4 ,but it had neither the robustness nor the spontaneity necessary for the creation of a lyric literature4 ,jensen's contribution1 if he has contributed anything1 is a certain refinement of outline4 ,his songs sound much like other good ,german songs1 only rather more timid4 ,his very first published song1 ,lehn' deine ,wang an meine ,wang1 is known wherever there are students of singing4 ,it has been universally admired for its simplicity and touching sentiment4 ,it has been highly praised for its delicacy of workmanship4 ,but1 granted that it was a masterpiece according to the standards of its day1 its day is past4 ,nowadays we are demanding a more positive assertion1 a more creative musicianship4 ,jensen did far better than this in later songs4 ,some of his vigorous lyrics are admirable1 notably the ,bolero1 #8,in the ,shadow1' #8,on the ,bank of the ,river1' and #8,old ,heidelberg1' the last an excellent essay in popular counterpoint4 ,the formal often attains charming results in ,jensen's songs1 witness1 #8,mother1 ,i ,have ,two ,little ,eyes1' which is a miniature symphony allegretto4 ,but on the whole it is in his nature-songs that he is most at ease4 ,the list of superior ones is rather long--#8,murmuring ,breezes1' #8,spring ,night1' and #8,evening ,air' are representative4 ,the ,waldesgesprch depends more on pure melody in the voice than does ,schumann's setting of the same words1 and is in every way an inferior song4 ,the ,scotch songs have their charm1 but are so empty of feeling compared with the fine tunes to which the words are set in their native country that their composition seems a sin4 ,but #8,sleep'st ,thou1 ,my ,maiden8' in which the folk-spirit is purely ,german1 is a charming song4 ,the best of all1 however1 is probably #8,margarete at the ,door4' ,illustration3 ,minor ,romanticists4 ,top3 ,carl ,lwe and ,peter ,cornelius ,bottom3 ,eduard ,lassen and ,adolf ,jensen ,eduard ,lassen 7#ahcj-aijd7 was even less pretentious than ,jensen in his songs1 but rather more genuine and satisfactory4 ,possibly we cannot call him a true interpreter of emotion1 but we must credit him with the composition of many a lovely melody4 ,lassen was ,liszt's successor in the directorship at ,weimar and thus lived in a stimulating atmosphere4 ,his songs1 which were probably the outcome of moments of play1 rather than serious efforts1 show both more buoyancy and more elasticity than do those of ,jensen4 ,with them we are again breathing the fresh air1 albeit a peaceful air4 ,many of his songs content themselves with being simple strophic melodies1 interpretive only in general mood and not in detail4 ,the best loved of his songs1 #8,thine ,eyes ,so ,blue and ,tender1' is fairly typical of the simpler ones4 ,lassen's setting of ,heine's #8,it ,was a ,dream' is more truly an art-song1 though its appeal is gained by the simplest of means4 #8,whither' has an arpeggio accompaniment which adds admirably to the simple freshness of the song4 #8,spring' is furnished forth with interesting modulations1 managed with unfailing taste4 ,in #8,thou ,fairest ,vision' ,lassen becomes vigorous and passionate2 in #8,the ,sun's ,bright ,beams' he attains dignity and breadth within brief space4 ,in considering ,lassen's lyrical and melodic style it should be interesting for the reader to compare his settings of ,heine with ,schumann's--as1 for instance1 in #8,it was a ,dream1' ,ein ,fichtenbaum steht einsam1 and ,ich hab' im ,traum geweinet4 ,on the whole1 though ,lassen struck out no new path in song writing1 though he enlarged no boundaries and tapped no new fields of expression1 he kept his songs on a high plane of artistic genuineness4 ,among the song composers of the last half of the century who expressed themselves chiefly by means of melody1 ,lassen is one of the most notable4 ,georg ,henschel 7born ,breslau #ahej7 is a song writer whose present reputation is very far from equalling the high standard of his work4 ,this is perhaps because his songs as a whole show no striking element of novelty4 ,but it is none the less regrettable4 ,for in point of pure merit ,henschel must be ranked among the finest song writers of his time4 ,born and educated in ,germany1 he has spent most of the working years of his life in ,america and ,england1 where he has made a notable reputation as singer and conductor4 ,his musicianship is solid and deep1 his inspiration fresh and unhackneyed1 his method honest and straightforward4 ,he is purely ,german4 ,in his songs we feel the best traditions of the best song writers1 concentrated and amalgamated1 but without any element of crass imitation4 ,his songs have the artistic finish which is necessary to give conviction to any lyric work4 ,in mood they vary greatly from that of natural grandeur and religious dignity all the way to the most delicate sentiment and humor4 ,each of the songs is nicely individualized1 both in the musical themes and in the manner of treatment4 ,in them one is often reminded of ,schumann1 but the solid musicianship of ,brahms is equally evident4 ,there are no slipshod songs in his list and few which do not stand on a high artistic level4 ,the accompaniment is rich1 but on the whole conservative1 acting essentially as a support to the voice1 however richly decorated it may be4 ,the general method is strictly lyrical and melodic4 ,pure declamation enters seldom4 ,the dramatic and the picturesque elements are present1 but subordinated to the lyrical4 ,schumann's influence is continually evident1 but ,brahms1 too1 is there with his solid and careful musicianship4 ,further1 we must place ,henschel as one of the great masters of the folk-spirit in art-song4 ,his navet is not studied2 it springs from a human sympathy with the fundamental things in music4 ,we have repeatedly mentioned in this book the great test of the song writer1 namely that he shall be able to express emotional states in a few notes2 by this test ,henschel is among the most genuine of lyricists4 ,henschel's songs have been published in small groups throughout his period of activity4 ,many of the groups are in the nature of suites1 or at least have some element of unity4 ,we may mention the #8,forest ,flowers of ,thuringia1' opera #bb and #bd2 the six songs1 ,im ,volkston1 opus #bi2 the ,serbisches ,liederspiel1 opus #cb1 comprising ten songs in a close cycle2 the four songs to poems by ,hafiz1 opus #cd2 and the three songs from ,kingsley's #8,water ,babies1' opus #cf4 ,opera #bb1 #bd1 #bi1 and #cb are all largely in the folk-manner and comprise some of ,henschel's best4 ,in addition to these and numerous independent songs there are a number of ballads1 some of them furnished with orchestral accompaniment which are among the best examples of this difficult modern form4 ,the various songs in folk-manner offer a fine study in musical taste and understanding4 ,in the best of them the peculiarities of each text have been caught with such accuracy that any other musical interpretation seems impossible4 ,examine1 for instance1 the two #8,love ,laments of a ,maiden'--the long1 crawling1 saga-like melodic line of the first1 the dignified chorale form of the second4 ,both are impeccable in point of metre and word-accent4 ,but the utter contrast in musical style shows ,henschel's fine discrimination in his treatments of his texts4 ,he catches not merely the external characteristics1 but the innermost meaning of each of his poems4 ,thus when he sets that tiny folk-masterpiece1 ,wenn du bei meinem ,schtzel kommst1 he suggests in his music the varying mood of the lines1 but he keeps the song far away from the delineative1 showing in his folk-like treatment of it that he regarded the poem primarily as a unit--as a single play of wit4 ,songs like ,verstohlen geht der ,mond auf and #8,ladybird' seem quite perfect examples of delicate and graceful song writing4 ,mei ,schtzerl is a humorous song which is hardly surpassed by ,brahms or ,wolf4 ,another song that is in every way a masterpiece is #8,the ,miller's ,farewell1' a melody purely in the folk-character1 with a subtle pathos verging on tragedy4 ,der ,holdseligen1 one of the best of all his songs1 is of a different sort4 ,it is essentially an art-song1 though at first glance it seems to bear the cachet of the folk4 ,it is not a whit more difficult or complicated than any of the folk-songs1 but there is in it somewhere that element of conscious design that makes the difference4 ,a study of this song and one or two of ,henschel's pure folk-songs1 such as ,mund und ,auge1 will reveal much concerning the sensitive deftness of his art4 ,in the more pretentious art-song ,henschel is just as much the master4 ,his #8,morning ,hymn1' perhaps his best known song1 is of a grandeur rarely to be met with outside of ,hugo ,wolf4 ,indeed1 in the deeper emotions ,henschel is seldom found wanting4 ,his themes are truthful and convincing2 his development clear and strong2 his musicianship fertile and resourceful4 ,among the minor ,german song writers ,alexander von ,fielitz 7born #ahfj7 has achieved unusual popularity4 ,he is best known by his cycle1 ,eliland1 which is1 by all odds1 his best work4 ,the story of the monk's hopeless love is in itself a groundwork of extraordinary sentimental appeal4 ,von ,fielitz has thrown himself into his task with great sympathy4 ,all the songs are of marked musical value4 ,when sung together1 they reveal many lights and shades of rare poetical charm4 ,here von ,fielitz is a convincing interpreter of the emotions4 ,in his other songs he rarely strikes the same level4 ,his themes frequently have no marked character and his technique is lacking in resource4 ,often a mannerism of another composer--,schumann or ,wagner--is introduced in a rather obvious way4 ,in short1 von ,fielitz has hurt his reputation by writing too much and repeating himself too often4 ,in ,das grne1 lustige ,waldgezelt he is fresh and spirited and uses with effect his somewhat manneristic contrasting voices in the accompaniment4 ,the ,mdchenlieder1 to words by ,geibel1 are delicate and very singable4 ,the ,jester ,songs1 to words by ,otto ,julius ,bierbaum1 are fairly interesting2 the best being #8,the ,melancholy ,fool4' ,among the best of his songs are ,nachruf1 with its stimulating inner voices1 and ,wehmuth1 which is an excellent study in emotional climax4 ,his settings of the ,tuscan ,popular ,poems by ,gregorovius and of the ,modern ,greek ,folk-songs by ,geibel often show marked grace and charm4 ,but on the whole we search in vain in his songs for the genius-touch that proclaims the master4 ,an early song writer of ,norway1 who1 because of the character of his work1 can properly be named here1 is ,halfdan ,kjerulf 7#ahah-ahfh74 ,he was not of the line of ,schubert4 ,his songs1 which are very numerous1 content themselves with a vague sentimental charm4 ,but though he did nothing to advance the art-song1 the man was an artist4 ,his melodies have had great popularity and are perhaps known better to the man in the street than to the professional singer4 ,his #8,last ,night' has become a folk-song the world over4 ,from the artistic point of view the #8,love ,sermon' is perhaps the best4 #8,synnve's ,song' and #8,little ,uenevil' have all the genuineness of the folk-song and all the sureness of the art-song1 a combination which many a composer might envy4 #8,the ,mother at the ,cradle' is a touching melody1 with a delicate second melody in the accompaniment4 #8,i ,journeyed over the ,sea' is a fine ballad1 simple and genuine1 and ,abendstimmung and #8,god ,knows where ,he ,wanders' are songs well worth knowing4 ,in some of these lyrics ,kjerulf is no more an art-song composer than ,stephen ,foster4 ,but throughout he shows that he is a musician and a man of fine taste1 and within its narrow limits much of his work is admirable4 ,anton ,dvok 7#ahda-aijd71 the greatest of the ,bohemian composers1 was known to the world chiefly through his orchestral1 operatic1 and choral works4 ,he1 however1 published a few groups of songs which reveal his individual qualities--rich and somewhat ,slavic melody1 sound musicianship1 and captivating resourcefulness in many-colored modulation4 ,the songs have not proved sufficiently numerous or sufficiently strong to hold a permanent place on concert programs4 ,there are1 however1 a number of charming ones among them1 especially the #8,gypsy ,songs1' which have the dash of the ,brahms ,zigeunerlieder1 and in addition more emotional color and more national characteristics4 ,we should also mention in ,germany ,eric ,meyer-,helmund 7born #ahfa71 represented by #8,a ,maiden's ,wish'2 ,joachim ,raff 7#ahbb-ahhb7 with his charming #8,serenade'2 and ,gustav ,graben-,hoffmann 7#ahbj-aijj7 with #8,five ,hundred ,thousand ,devils4' ,worthy of somewhat more detailed notice is ,august ,bungert 7born #ahdf71 who has recently become more generally known1 in ,germany at least1 for works of larger calibre1 but whose rather over-pretentious ambition in attempting to out-do ,wagner in a musico-dramatic tetralogy1 ,homerische ,welt1 has made him appear somewhat ridiculous4 ,many of his songs1 which show the hand of the technically proficient musician1 are set to words by ,carmen ,sylva 7#8,songs of a ,queen1' etc474 ,perhaps his best vein is shown in the simple1 folk-like setting of ,ich hab'ein kleines ,lied erdacht1 which combines a genuine nave feeling with fine workmanship and spontaneous lyric charm4 ,,iv ,in ,france1 we have said1 a multitude of songs were produced after ,schubert had set the fashion4 ,they began1 as we have seen1 with ,monpou and ,berlioz4 ,but with the exception of the latter we have not a single original and authoritative voice in ,french song writing until the time of ,faur1 ,debussy1 and the later ,csar ,franck4 ,the ,french song tradition1 derived from the ,french aria1 was indeed distinctive4 ,but it was badly fitted for intimate interpretation1 being cold in spirit and thin in workmanship4 ,the best that can be said about this tradition is that it observed a fine economy of means1 never using a note that could not be heard and that did not make its effect4 ,but in the truer sense the tradition was not economical1 for it failed to get out of its potential resources one tenth of the expressive service it might have had4 ,the ,french composers were too much occupied with the beauty of their melodic line1 which is so all-important that the accompaniment is very frequently no more than a re-duplication of the voice part in the treble1 with a few thin and misplaced chords added4 ,nor has this over-shadowing melody any of the warmth of an ,italian tune2 on the contrary it is so cold and self-conscious that it seems to have been put down note by note after a consultation with a book of rules4 ,anything like fertility of polyphonic invention in the accompaniment is not to be found in the works of this tradition4 ,all the art is to be expended on the singer's part4 ,undoubtedly this offers considerable exercise to the singer's intelligence1 for due proportion of outline and of nuance must be preserved4 ,but the songs from this period which offer any possibilities to the finer interpretive ability of the artist can be numbered on the fingers of one hand4 ,charles ,gounod 7#ahah-ahic7 was unquestionably a man of great talent4 ,but he abused it miserably4 ,the composer of #8,faust' should have left his mark deeply on ,french art4 ,he only added one or two successful operas to it4 ,his songs show his talent in its picturesqueness and variety4 ,but they also show with terrible plainness its abuse4 ,it seems safe to say that there are not half a dozen of them which a self-respecting singer can study4 ,on the whole1 ,gounod is best in his songs where he is least pretentious--namely1 in the little serenade1 #8,sing1 ,laugh1 ,sleep1' which without grudging we may call utterly charming4 ,the ,barcarolle1 ,ou voulez-vous aller1 may also be included among the excellent ones4 ,then comes a large collection of sentimental or emotional songs which seem beneath a musician's notice--songs such as ,a la ,brise1 ,mignon1 or the well known #8,oh1 ,that ,we ,two ,were ,maying4' ,the last is in a screaming sentimental style which has fortunately died1 except in the vaudeville houses of ,england4 ,some of the concert pieces--like the ,arabian song #8,medje1' or the waltz1 ,o legre hirondelle--are frankly cheap and undeniably effective4 ,another class of songs on which ,gounod made a glittering reputation was the religious4 ,one of them1 which is quite the best1 set a whole fashion for grandiose lyrics exploiting what might be called #8popular religion4' ,this song1 #8,nazareth1' has its marked beauties and doubtless should not be held responsible for the fruits it produced1 especially in ,england4 ,yet even apart from the consideration of ultimate results we cannot help feeling that this beautiful song represents a rather theatrical type of religion4 ,and the other songs are consistently worse4 ,l'ange ,gardien and ,la salutation anglique have their beauties1 but smell much of the theatre4 ,others of the religious songs1 like #8,there ,is a ,green ,hill ,far ,away' and ,temple1 ouvre-toi1 are execrable4 ,two other opera composers who failed to gain ,gounod's reputation as a song-writer worked with more consistent artistic conscience4 ,ambroise ,thomas 7#ahaa-ahif71 composer of #8,mignon1' published a number of songs1 notably the six ,italian songs written during his residence as a ,prix de ,rome scholar in ,italy4 ,his part-songs for men's voices also gained great popularity because of their spirited treatment4 ,georges ,bizet 7#ahch-ahge7 was a man of far finer mettle than either of the two we have named4 ,his numerous songs show as high a standard of excellence and almost as high an average of creativeness as the work of any song writer between ,berlioz and ,faur4 ,the best and most popular of them is the ,pastorale4 ,another excellent lyric is ,aprs l'hiver4 ,in the ,srnade and ,ouvre ton cur we find a suggestion of the exotic color which was popular in ,paris at the time4 ,je n'en dirai rien illustrates ,bizet's aptitude at the imitation of the antique1 and ,qui donc t'aimera mieux is an interesting and altogether charming trick song for an agile soprano4 ,among the other songs which are well worth knowing are ,rve de la bien-aime1 ,ma vie a son secret1 ,douce mer1 and ,n'oublions pas6 ,flicien ,david 7#ahaj-ahgf71 who initiated in ,paris the vogue of the exotic1 maintained the fashion as best he could in his songs1 which show a talent for the picturesque and striking and no small amount of musicianship4 ,the best of his songs is doubtless ,les ,hirondelles1 which adds to a charming simple melody an accompaniment full of picturesque ornamentation4 ,camille ,saint-,sans 7born #ahce71 an admirably solid force in ,french musical life on the whole1 has in his songs added nothing of importance to the literature of his time4 ,it is regrettable that he could not here have shown his acquaintance with the great ,german masters as he did in chamber and orchestral music4 ,ten songs or so will suggest the character of his work4 ,we find1 in addition to the #8cold melodic line' of which we have spoken1 a growing use of dissonance in the later songs1 for emotional or #8psychological' effect4 ,if this tendency had been in any way original to ,saint-,sans and his fellows1 or if it had been developed in a distinctive fashion1 it would have constituted a real claim to fame1 for this is precisely the most marked characteristic of the fine modern ,french song literature4 ,as it is1 in such a song as ,tristesse we must regard the use of dissonance as a #8looking forward' to modern times1 but in scarcely more than an accidental way4 ,undoubtedly ,saint-,sans used his dissonance deliberately and not accidentally1 but the entrance of this feature into ,french song as a whole was scarcely more than accidental4 ,suzette et ,suzon is an example of what the ,french are likely to do very well--the imitation of the antique4 ,this song has a marked charm and there are many more like it in the literature of the time4 ,le ,sommeil des ,fleurs may stand as an example of the ,french emphasis on melody 7at the time7 and the effect which they could derive from it4 ,in ,la ,cloche we see an effort after color and picture painting1 though it is but weak and conventional4 ,le ,pas d'armes du ,roi ,jeanito1 to ,hugo's words1 is a ballad of some spirit and attempted color4 ,all these songs are filled with banalities and carelessness of writing4 ,much more carefully and creatively written is ,clair de ,lune1 which tries an interesting experiment with accents4 ,the accents of the voice part all seem to be misplaced1 since they do not coincide with those of the accompaniment4 ,in reality both parts receive equal emphasis in the accents1 or rather there are no accents at all4 ,the composer's way of writing the song merely emphasises one more interesting point in ,french song which1 more than any other1 determined the character of its music throughout the century--namely1 the liquid quality of its verse4 ,we may also mention among ,saint-,sans' songs the ,barcarolle1 the ,dsir de l',orient1 an effective concert piece1 and ,au ,cimetire1 which is one of the most popular4 ,jules ,massenet 7#ahdb-aiab71 tireless composer of operas1 wrote many songs which stand fairly high among ,french lyrics of their class4 ,they have a certain facility and geniality to commend them1 and in particular a voluptuous sinuous contour4 ,massenet's use of the slow #ab_/h or #i_/h tempo was one of his chief stocks-in-trade4 ,but1 except as pleasing and unpretentious parlor songs1 we cannot regard them very seriously4 ,though his lifetime overlapped the #8new school' by more than two decades1 he is distinctly of the old school4 ,his harmony is quite old-fashioned and he shows but few traces of the ,french search for atmosphere4 ,his one personal quality is an increased sensuousness of melody1 achieved without special aid from the accompaniment4 ,the best of his songs is among the earliest1 the #8,elegy1' adapted from an orchestral intermezzo which formed part of the incidental music for ,les ,erinnyes4 ,in ,a ,colombine he has created a charming genre piece4 ,in the ,nuit d',espagne1 a gentle and reserved song of exotic tendencies1 in the ,chant ,provenal1 a typical #ab_/h melody1 luscious yet #8chaste1' over the barest of chord accompaniments4 ,in the sprightly ,srnade du passant he is altogether delightful1 especially in insinuating into the melody more meaning than meets the ear4 ,on the other hand1 he has written any number of sentimental songs which1 like #8,open ,thy ,blue ,eyes1' are rubbish4 ,in the same general school are a number of composers 7some of them ,massenet's pupils7 who have written songs in quantity1 some with occasionally charming results4 ,one of the most fertile and popular was ,benjamin ,godard 7#ahdi-ahie74 ,his work was marred by the rapidity with which it was written1 necessitating an uncritical attitude on the composer's part which is fatal to the general body of a man's work4 ,several felicitous examples of ,godard's work1 however1 well deserve their popularity1 especially the ,berceuse from ,jocelyn1 the delicate #8,florian's ,song1' and the spirited ,barcarolle1 ,embarquez-vous4 ,l',amour may be taken as an example of the great majority of his songs--conventional but pleasing4 ,of even greater popularity and possibly more originality is the work of ,ccile ,chaminade 7born #ahfa71 whose songs occasionally approach a high degree of artistic finish4 ,in her genre songs ,mme4 ,chaminade is especially felicitous4 ,several random examples are the ,chanson ,slave and the ,chanson ,espagnole1 among the pseudo-national lyrics2 the ,mandoline and ,madrigal and ,voisinage1 each in a special and easily appreciated style4 ,in her dainty imitations of the antique the composer shows her ,french training and zest--notably in ,auprs de ma mie1 ,nol des oiseaux1 and ,ronde d'amour4 ,in her emotional songs1 such as ,chanson triste and ,amoroso1 she is less distinguished4 ,and in the religious or grandiose songs1 such as ,immortalit and l',idal1 she is pompous1 noisy1 and uninspired4 ,her creative impulse is not great4 ,her ideas are most charming when they are most modest ,but when she is working with material that is to her taste she can manipulate it with a deftness that many a first-rate composer might be proud of4 ,a further group of ,french song writers may be mentioned because their work contains some elements of distinction4 ,gabriel ,piern 7born #ahfc71 a musician of fine endowments and a force in ,parisian musical life1 works with deftness and excellent taste1 chiefly in the smaller forms and the more modest ideas4 ,j4 ,guy ,ropartz 7born #ahfd71 a pupil of ,csar ,franck1 has kept himself clear of the modern radical tendencies in ,paris and has continued to produce songs in the old manner1 but considerably more vigorous and creative in content than was once the fashion4 ,xavier ,lroux 7born #ahfc71 with at least one fine song1 #8,the ,nile1' should be named1 and also ,augusta ,mary ,anne ,holms 7#ahdg-aijc71 an ,irish woman who lived and worked in ,paris and wrote songs of large and pretentious outline1 best of which1 perhaps1 is #8,an ,irish ,nol4' ,reynaldo ,hahn 7born #ahgd71 one of the weaker pupils of ,massenet1 followed his master's method to considerable popularity but to little artistic purpose4 ,other song-writers who may profitably be mentioned are ,arthur ,coquard 7born #ahdf7 and ,george ,adolphe ,hu 7born #ahea74 ,v ,the position of ,edward ,mac,dowell 7#ahfa-aiaa7 as a lyricist is still disputed4 ,mr4 ,finck ranks him among the four greatest song-writers of the world4 ,in point of sincerity and individuality he was surpassed by few of his contemporaries4 ,from the beginning of his maturity on he wrote scarcely a note that did not bear his personal signature4 ,in two or three of his songs he is certainly hobnobbing among the great4 ,but though nearly all his work is charmingly individual1 one may doubt whether he has written a sufficient quantity of superior songs to entitle him to the rank to which ,mr4 ,finck assigns him4 ,but the songs are there1 independently of what rank this or that writer chooses to give him4 ,he is unsurpassed in giving his music certain special qualities or moods1 distinct1 yet not got by strained means--moods such as banter1 sentimental tenderness1 playfulness1 and the like4 ,the achieving of such results is one of the ultimate things in song writing from the technical point of view1 and many first rank composers have been unequal to it4 ,to achieve it is a special mark of genius for the art-song4 ,again1 we find that ,mac,dowell's songs have a remarkable amount of distinction and individuality2 though the personality of the composer is over all1 each of the songs has its own personality1 too4 ,the range is considerable2 from playfulness1 through sensuous emotion1 to deepest tragedy1 and each type1 at ,mac,dowell's hands1 is equally individual and almost equally successful4 ,the ,mac,dowell idiom1 derived in part from ,grieg1 is used flexibly for many things and is usually a fine instrument of emotional expression4 ,we should not1 however1 leave this listing of the qualities of ,mac,dowell's songs without mentioning their frequent tendency to the banal1 a tendency which is never marked or long sustained1 but which appears in unexpected places to rob the songs of their final touch of aristocratic distinction4 ,the earliest of the ,mac,dowell songs is a group of ,scotch melodies1 an endeavor to imitate the ,scotch style1 yet not so closely as to do away with individuality4 #8,deserted1' to the old words #8,ye ,banks and ,braes of ,bonny ,doon1'#cj is appealing and tragic1 altogether a fine piece of work4 ,but the ,scotch songs of opus #cd are more beautiful and more personal4 ,both #8,menie' and #8,my ,jean' 7words by ,burns7 deal in the ,scotch cadences and phrases1 but they might also stand as a study for the great songs of opus #dg4 ,the songs of opus #bf1 entitled #8,from an ,old ,garden1' show ,mac,dowell at his best in his lighter moods4 #8,the ,blue ,bell1' which maintains a mood half of banter and half of pathos1 is admirable1 and #8,the ,myrtle1' with its harmonic freedom yet cogent expression1 is of decided technical interest4 ,leaving to the last the two greatest of ,mac,dowell's song groups1 let us make mention in passing of opus #ef1 two excellent songs1 #8,the ,swan ,bent ,low to the ,lily' and #8,a ,maid ,sings ,high and a ,maid ,sings ,low1' which are as personal as anything the composer has done2 of opus #eh with the pleasing #8,merry ,maids1' and of opus #fj1 with #8,tyrant ,love1' another very personal song1 and #8,fair ,springtide1' original and invigorating4 ,the two great opus numbers referred to are #dj and #dg4 ,the #8,six ,love ,songs' of opus #dj include one which is perhaps the best known of all ,mac,dowell's vocal work--#8,thy ,beaming ,eyes4' ,in this song we must admire the strenuousness of the hot emotion which the composer is able to conjure up1 but we cannot help wishing that he had chosen a medium a little less vulgar4 ,this song contains much of ,mac,dowells ability1 but of ,mac,dowell's artistic message it contains less than almost any other4 ,the second song of the group1 #8,sweetheart1 ,tell ,me1' is delicate and perfect as a cut gem4 ,but by all means ,mac,dowell's greatest song-group is opus #dg1 #8,eight ,songs4' ,the first of the group is the second of the composer's songs in popularity--#8,the ,robin ,sings in the ,apple ,tree4' ,nowhere has ,mac,dowell been more felicitous in the delineation of mood in tiny details2 the number of treasures in this short song is truly surprising4 ,the #8,midsummer ,lullaby' is a masterpiece4 ,again it is the accuracy of mood-painting that strikes us1 this time the hot laziness of the full summer day4 ,the third piece1 the #8,folksong1' is in ,mac,dowell's most vigorous and admirable style4 #8,the ,west ,wind ,croons in the ,cedar ,trees1' #8,in the ,woods1' and #8,through the ,meadow' are nature songs of much distinction1 showing grace1 buoyancy1 or sentiment1 as the case may be4 ,but the finest song of the group1 and the finest of all ,mac,dowell's songs1 is #8,the ,sea1' to ,william ,dean ,howells's words4 ,here we have in full strength the mood of tragic grandeur which has been struck seldom in modern art-songs4 ,this song1 at least1 has not a touch of banality1 not a note of mannerism1 not a phrase which is not at once great music and genuine poetry4 ,many of ,mac,dowell's songs are perhaps too personal to be generally appreciated4 ,here is one song which is utterly the product of his individual genius1 but at the same time a universal art-work4 ,beyond ,mac,dowell it is not easy to name a single ,american song-writer who has any claim to a position among the song-writers of the world4 ,a few1 especially in very recent years1 have shown a marked talent which may be expected to develop into something unusual4 ,but1 on the whole1 the ,american song output1 though enormous1 has been consistently and painfully second-rate in character4 ,this is not to belittle the excellent work which certain ,americans have accomplished in this field2 but their interest must necessarily be local4 ,the ,american song-writers are treated in detail in another volume1#ca so we need here only mention them and the occasional treasures hidden in a mass of work too facile and imitative4 ,we should name1 however1 one of their number who1 with rather limited talents1 has nevertheless made a place for himself in the hearts of people in ,europe as well as in this country4 ,this is ,ethelbert ,nevin 7#ahfb-aija71 chiefly known among pianists for his charming suites of short pieces4 ,nevin's reputation as a song-writer rests chiefly on one lyric1 #8,the ,rosary1' which has had a remarkable vogue1 well deserved4 ,it is difficult to find any other of his songs which approaches this in emotional breadth4 ,but out of his numerous list there are a few which are well worth knowing4 #8,sleep1 ,little ,tulip' is a bit of a lullaby with a charming swing and a delicate sentiment1 given an additional interest by the lilt of the accompaniment1 which is managed with much skill4 #8,a ,song of ,love' is above the average in musical vigor and #8,orsola's ,song1' to the ,french words of ,jean ,richepin1 imitates with success the ,gallic method4 ,in der ,nacht1 to ,german words1 is unusual for breadth and genuineness4 ,nevin is too often a mere sentimentalist1 too often imitative1 too often dependent on mannerisms and formulas4 ,some of these mannerisms1 however1 are effective1 especially that of writing a contrapuntal melody in the accompaniments1 as in the second half of #8,the ,rosary4' ,though his invention was facile rather than profound1 and his musicianship slight1 we cannot deny him praise for a certain delicacy of touch1 a certain artistic sense of fitness1 which were too often lacking in his ,american contemporaries4 ,it may not be out of place here to mention two song writers of modern ,italy who have shown individuality and attained wide popularity4 ,francesco ,paolo ,tosti 7born #ahdf71 one time teacher of singing to the court of ,england1 has written a number of songs of varying quality4 ,his #8,goodbye ,forever' is none the worse for having been played on all the hurdy-gurdies of ,london for twenty years past4 ,the piece is as moving as any folk-song and as delicate as a lyric by ,jensen4 ,in his later songs1 of which we may mention the well known #8,serenade1' he shows more care than in the earlier ones and the result has been some exquisite works1 combining ,italian grace and ,italian fervor in equal proportions4 #8,at ,vespers1' ,amore1 and ,mattinata are among his best4 ,luigi ,denza 7born #ahdf7 has attracted a unique position for himself in that one of his lyrics1 the famous #8,funicula1' has been circulated more widely than any other piece of music of which there is record1 having reached a sale of some #ejj1jjj copies4 ,his songs1 which are all simple and addressed to the common people1 are very numerous and include not a few of great charm and artistic grace4 ,,vi ,in a later chapter we shall briefly study the wonderful song literature which has been created by the ,russian composers in the last half century4 ,from this list1 however1 we shall exclude two ,russians who were extremely productive song writers and are still the best known of their land4 ,for ,rubinstein and ,tschaikowsky1 though they were born in ,russia1 were ,germans in their musical education and would have little to do with the #8neo-,russian' group which created the national art-song4 ,they frequently attempt ,russian #8local color' or oriental exoticism1 but in nearly every case their attempt is mannered and self-conscious4 ,both suffered from over-production4 ,to be quite plain1 they seem to lack artistic conscience4 ,rubinstein1 in particular1 wrote a great quantity of songs1 chiefly to ,german and ,russian texts1 which no sincere artist should have dared to sign4 ,they were addressed to the drawing rooms and the tinsel concert halls of the time4 ,perhaps they were actually the pot-boilers with which he sought to eke out his income4 ,most of them should be passed over in charitable silence4 ,tschaikowsky shows a somewhat higher level of artistic effort1 but too often he writes much noise and little music4 ,his most pretentious efforts are often built upon themes that would hardly fill a penny whistle4 ,however1 he errs not so much through the cheapness of his melodies1 as does ,rubinstein1 as through lack of artistic taste and control4 ,anton ,rubinstein 7#ahcj-ahid71 a concert pianist second only to ,liszt1 perhaps suffered from being a public pet4 ,usually his songs are insufferably sentimental1 with a banality in almost every line which counteracts the charm latent in the idea4 ,his accompaniments are usually thin and conventional4 ,his romanticism is of the rag and tatter type1 which calls upon the stock modulations and phrases in a routine way4 ,one feels that the composer never saw into his songs1 that he wrote three-fourths of his notes with his eyes shut4 ,however1 he has done a few thoroughly fine songs4 #8,the ,asra1' to ,heine's words1 is highly emotional and picturesque4 ,rubinstein's setting of ,du bist wie eine ,blume1 with its delicate piano background1 may perhaps be ranked second to ,liszt's4 ,there is a fine luxuriance about the song #8,golden ,rolls the ,kura ,beneath ,me1' while ,es blinkt der ,tau and ,die ,waldhexe can command the respect of musicians4 #8,not with ,angels' is another song well worth knowing4 ,perhaps the lyrics which show ,rubinstein the musician in the best light are the #8,persian ,songs1' which combine exotic coloring and great expressive beauty4 ,here1 probably1 the list ends4 ,the remainder of ,rubinstein's large output suffers continually from thinness and banality4 ,the #8,modern ,greek ,love ,song' is a touching melody of the simplest type and manages to escape the commonplaceness which seems always about to engulf it4 #8,be ,not so ,coy' is graceful and musicianly1 and #8,the ,ravens' contains considerable vitality4 ,but it would be useless to enlarge a list of songs1 none of which can be praised without some reservation4 ,rubinstein is one of the composers whose reputation is fast on the wane4 ,we can part with him with light hearts1 for what has replaced him is hardly second to anything in all song literature4 ,nor in ,tschaikowsky's case need we name the long list of songs that are only somewhat good4 ,he has a few that are thoroughly fine4 ,the children's song entitled #8,legend' makes effective use of modal harmony and remains a most touching and impressive lyric4 #8,at the ,ball' is a melody such as ,tschaikowsky could create on occasion1 utterly aristocratic and artistic4 ,over this1 as over few of his others1 the conventional has not cast its spell4 #8,the ,canary' is an elaborate effort at oriental color and is completely successful1 the piano part being especially fine4 ,the piece is most effective in the concert hall4 ,perhaps the best known of the ,tschaikowsky songs is the setting of ,goethe's famous lyric1 ,nur wer die ,sehnsucht kennt4 ,it may be taken as a type of ,tschaikowsky's average4 ,there is in it a certain intensity of feeling1 but it is all strained1 over orchestrated1 as it were1 and every now and then--banal4 ,the long list of ,tschaikowsky songs includes a number which attempt to be impressively dramatic4 ,they usually make their effect at first hearing1 but they fall to pieces beneath scrutiny4 ,they suggest too much brass and percussion and too little--music4 ,another ,slav whose songs are mainly ,german is ,moritz ,moszkowski 7born #ahea74 ,he wrote with less ambitious intent than ,tschaikowsky and achieved some charming results1 as in his well known #8,slumber ,song4' ,but the conventional hangs over his work1 and his is one of the reputations which is fast dying4 ,,vii ,the ,england of the last half of the nineteenth century has left us little that we can treasure in song music4 ,easily the most popular composer of the time was ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan 7#ahdb-aijj71 who wrote the music of the inimitable ,gilbert and ,sullivan operettas1 which are quite as perfect in their way as ,mozart's operas4 ,if we were to include in this list the songs from these pieces we should have a song literature altogether remarkable and charming4 ,but outside of his stage works ,sullivan was surprisingly cheap in his vocal music4 ,it is hard to explain the quantity of songs he put out which would hardly have been a credit to a low-class music hall4 ,they are for the most part unbelievably sentimental and commonplace4 ,a few of his less popular songs1 however 7for example1 the #8,arabian ,love ,song' and #8,o ,fair ,dove1 ,o ,fond ,dove'71 showed an effort at artistic creation1 and among the popular ones we may find a handful1 such as #8,sweethearts1' which are tolerable4 ,but in this description we have omitted one song which is of quite a special calibre4 ,this is the universally known #8,lost ,chord4' ,perhaps the piece is unduly sentimental2 perhaps the religious sentiment of it is somewhat theatrical4 ,but on the whole it is certainly a fine and noble inspiration4 ,it is not a bit the worse for its huge popularity4 ,the musical material is impressive in the extreme and the handling is admirable4 ,frederick ,cowen 7born #aheb7 was a prolific composer of songs 7his output numbers nearly #cjj7 and1 next to ,sullivan1 was the most popular song-writer of his time4 ,his talent was limited1 being wholly satisfactory only in work of a light and fanciful character4 ,in this field he well deserves his reputation4 ,but his sentimental songs are in the worst tradition of the time4 ,his influence in this sort of music has been huge1 and he may almost be called the father1 for ,england and ,america1 of the brood of sentimental pieces that pose as art-songs4 ,he has been a potent factor in the debasing of the taste of concert audiences1 and singers should know him chiefly as an admirable example of what to avoid4 ,why the songs of this class are bad might perhaps be told on paper4 ,but a far better answer would be a comparison between them and a few first-rate songs1 say by ,franz or ,brahms4 ,a little familiarity with songs of the ,cowen type will show how utterly they fail to ring true to healthy sentiment4 ,another popular song writer of ,sullivan's time was ,stephen ,adams 7#ahdd-aiaa71 whose real name was ,michael ,maybrick4 ,the great popularity of his songs of the sea1 such as #8,nancy ,lee' and #8,the ,midshipmite1' or of his romantic songs1 such as #8,in ,days of ,old1' is quite justified4 ,they do not parade as art-songs 7rather they might be justly called folk-songs71 but in their vigor and straightforwardness they might serve as a model to many a precious song-writer with more sentimentality than talent4 ,a more recent song from this composer1 #8,the ,holy ,city1' combines to a remarkable degree the popular quality with real musicianship4 ,the most genuine song-writer of this period was ,arthur ,goring-,thomas 7#ahea-ahib71 a man of delicate instincts and fine artistic sense whose work has never received the recognition it deserves4 ,his field of expression was not wide1 but within it he worked with a wealth of imagination and refined sense of fitness which ,england at the time could not match4 ,he was the one true romanticist of his land4 ,his product is perhaps a trifle morbid1 but1 such as it is1 it is free from tricks and cheapness and is absolutely sincere4 ,as a sentimentalist1 pure and simple1 he is among the best4 ,he was1 indeed1 one of the few sentimentalists who could approach the tragic mood without losing in his music the ring of sincerity4 ,and as an artist of the voice ,england for two centuries was not able to show his fellow4 ,some of his most perfect work as a lyricist is shown in his cantata1 #8,the ,swan and the ,skylark1' and in his operas4 ,his solo songs and duets show the refinement and polish which is not that of formal learning1 but represents the loving care of an intense artistic nature4 ,among the best may be mentioned #8,wind in the ,trees1' #8,barbarine's ,song1' #8,one ,morning1 ,oh1 so ,early1' and the #8,night ,hymn at ,sea4' ,before closing this chapter we should mention the romantic and colorful work of ,liza ,lehman 7born #ahfb74 ,her song cycles1 especially those from ,omar ,khayym and ,robert ,louis ,stevenson1 are well known4 ,the former1 #8,a ,persian ,garden1' offers points of remarkable interest to the musician4 ,the music1 which covers a considerable emotional range1 is equally felicitous in a number of various moods4 ,the exotic color of the cycle is managed with rare taste and effectiveness4 ,the accompaniment is a model of richness and appropriateness4 ,we can safely say that this writer is the only woman composer who has ever succeeded signally in the tragic mood4 ,but her peculiar contribution 7for it can almost be called a contribution7 is the fine artistry with which she concentrates great emotional feeling into the briefest time4 7,it is interesting to note that she does it almost entirely by the use of the da capo or #8,a-,b-,a' form47 ,in the variety of styles at her command and in the sureness of her artistic touch she is quite alone among woman composers of the present day4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #cj ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 #ca ,vol4 ,,iv1 chapters ,,xii-,,xiv4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,hugo ,,wolf ,,and ,,after ,wolf and the poets of his time2 ,hugo ,wolf's songs2 ,gustav ,mahler2 ,richard ,strauss as song-writer2 ,max ,reger's songs--,schnberg and the modern radicals4 ,i ,german song since ,schubert has known nothing like a fallow period4 ,in no single decade has the song product been markedly inferior to any other4 ,after ,schubert and ,schumann there came ,liszt1 ,franz1 and ,brahms2 and after ,brahms there came ,wolf1 ,strauss1 and ,reger4 ,the ,germany of these latter men was1 of course1 a very different ,germany from that which preceded the ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,it was a united ,germany1 an increasingly centralized ,germany1 a more prosperous ,germany4 ,in many ways it seems to be a more ,philistine ,germany4 ,but1 though the political and social conditions changed after #ahgj1 this change was not expressed in the national literature for a number of years4 ,and in the lyric poetry it was chiefly the poets of the old rgime who held sway toward the end of the century4 ,these poets had come in on the reaction that followed the failure of the liberal political movement of #ahdh4 ,when men found their political strivings frustrated they once more turned their attention to their souls4 ,chief representative of #8art for art's sake' was ,emmanuel ,geibel 7#ahae-ahhe71 an extremely talented literary man who cultivated the pure lyric with great success4 ,geibel was not a man of great originality4 ,he clung to the old poetic motives and to the old ideas concerning the relations of man4 ,but his versification was very engaging1 being gentler and smoother than is usual in ,german poetry1 and his manipulation of ideas and images was extremely deft4 ,next to him in popular esteem was ,eduard ,mricke 7#ahjd-ahge71 a ,swabian pastor who took to writing verse as an amusement4 ,in addition to an insinuating use of image and word music he had that rare quality in a lyric poet--a sense of humor4 ,his touches of fun are always wholesome and delightful4 ,paul ,heyse 7#ahcj-aiaa7 was best known as a novelist and short-story writer1 but his lyric gift was marked and his translations from the ,spanish and ,italian attained great popularity4 ,detlev von ,liliencron 7#ahdd-aiji7 was another of the foremost lyricists of the time4 ,in a later generation ,otto ,julius ,bierbaum 7#ahfe-aiji7 and ,richard ,dehmel 7born #ahfc7 were influential4 ,they rank with ,hugo von ,hoffmannsthal 7born #ahgd7 as the foremost lyricists of present-day ,germany4 ,these men are not great4 ,they by no means express ,germany as ,tennyson1 for instance1 expressed mid-,victorian ,england4 ,but1 taken together1 they supply the growing demand for sensuous1 subjective poetry and they execute their task with a fine command over the lyrical qualities of the ,german language4 ,we have not yet finished with the process of #8placing' ,wolf 7#ahfj-aijc7 as a song writer1 but there are competent critics who would rank him above ,schubert 7that is1 as the greatest in musical history7 and any number who would rank him just below4 ,certainly his work is free from any of the careless or conventional writing which disfigures so much of ,schubert's work4 ,the standard which ,wolf set for himself in his song-writing is perhaps more exacting than that set by any other composer4 ,his songs measure up to more separate tests than do those of any other one man4 ,it is evident1 then1 that his musicianship must have been of the highest order4 ,he had the benefit of the great generation of musicians who had followed ,schubert and brought to maturity the work which he had only begun4 ,schubert was too often content with a type accompaniment1 a conventional turn of phrase which only serves to fill up a measure and 7what is worse7 with an indifferent bit of music when something first-rate didn't enter his head4 ,moreover1 his technique1 from the point of view of accurate emotional expression1 was necessarily limited1 since his task was a comparatively new one4 ,wolf had this one immense external advantage--that he began his work after #8,tristan' had been written4 ,he was able to write his songs with an accurate acquaintance with the most powerful emotional idiom the world has ever seen4 ,whether or not ,wolf was the superior of ,schubert in absolute genius is another matter4 ,but undoubtedly1 taken all in all1 his songs must satisfy modern ears and modern demands better than those of ,schubert4 ,when we mention ,wolf's debt to ,wagner1 when we mention the ,wagnerian influence in his songs1 we do not mean that he has been an imitator4 ,the principles which ,wagner exemplified in the opera could have but a slight application to the art of song writing4 ,further1 ,wolf was far too individual to carry over ,wagner's precise methods and mannerisms into his work4 ,when we speak of the ,wagnerian influence on ,wolf we mean merely the influence which a supreme master in any art must exert on all who have studied his work4 ,wagner had opened the eyes of men to a musical world almost undreamed of before--a world of chromatic harmony and free modulation which had been no more than vaguely implied in the music preceding him4 ,he had shown men1 by one or two masterful examples1 that the thing could be done2 the others then set about to do it in their own ways4 ,among these others was ,wolf1 as a young man an adorer of ,wagner and constant student of his scores1 a finely balanced musical nature which could understand and synthesize the work of great men and recreate out of this understanding an art that was his own4 ,accordingly we find ,wolf far more chromatic in his procedure than any song writer before him1 far more concerned with his accompaniments1 freer and more accurate in his treatment of the voice--yet not a whit less lyrical than any other song writer who had ever lived4 ,wolf's songs are not ,wagnerian operas4 ,his great emphasis upon the accompaniment as an instrument of expression is not an imitation of the ,wagnerian orchestra with its function as #8soul of the drama4' ,his use of the germ-motive is not an imitation of the ,wagnerian leit-motif1 standing for a single character or idea4 ,wolf could not have imitated ,wagner without making his songs operatic and unlyrical4 ,what he did was to write songs absolutely in the fine old ,german song tradition after he had fertilized his mind and invention with an accurate knowledge of the works of the greatest modern ,german musician4 ,illustration3 ,hugo ,wolf ,after a photograph from life4 ,wolf's two predominant technical qualities were truly in line with the development of ,german song1 apart from any extraneous influence4 ,these two influences were the significance given to the piano part and the closest accuracy in the treatment of the words4 ,wolf's procedure with the words--his rigid adherence to the #8one-syllable1 one-note' principle1 his insistence that the voice part should agree with the special accents of meaning as well as with the ordinary accents of prosody--this might have been merely a meticulous fad with another composer4 ,but with ,wolf it truly represented his attitude toward the art-song1 an attitude strongly contrasted with1 say1 that of ,brahms4 ,he carried it out not as a rule to be observed 7he occasionally broke it himself71 but as an expression of his artistic feeling4 ,his melody1 of course1 is somewhat free1 but its musical integrity is never disfigured to meet the demands of the text4 ,it is genuinely lyrical1 but so managed as to give more regard to details than in most composers' songs4 ,wolf's piano parts are an unending delight to the musical student4 ,they are more ambitious1 more complex1 more exuberant than those of ,franz1 but no less perfect from the point of view of workmanship4 ,unlike ,franz1 again1 they are very highly colored and filled with details which interpret particular nuances in the text4 ,especially are they interesting for doing in an emotional and dramatic way what ,franz so often did in an intellectual way--developing his piano part from a simple musical germ4 ,franz's accompaniments are charming in the highest degree1 but rarely emotionally moving4 ,wolf's speak with an emotional voice not surpassed in any songs of the nineteenth century4 ,ernest ,newman points out as ,wolfs highest glory the immense variety and distinctness of the characters he has interpreted in his songs4 ,heroes1 lovers1 fools1 warriors1 drunkards--these and a host of others he has put into his music with almost unvarying success4 ,newman compares him in this respect with ,shakespeare4 ,certainly1 many of the greatest masters have shown marked limitations in this respect4 ,wolf's interpretative ability seems almost unlimited4 ,he felt his poems as few other composers have done4 ,he worked much as ,schubert worked--in a sort of trance1 dreaming over his poems1 living and sleeping with his characters1 composing his music in a kind of hypnotic state and writing down his music with such inspired insight that the first draft was nearly always the last4 ,as a result we feel that his interpretation is the ultimate and perfect interpretation4 ,he seems to have had no technique1 in the sense of a musical system which dictates notes of itself4 ,wolf's notes were dictated by direct inspiration as with few other song-writers in musical history4 ,the songs are as individual as the songs of ,franz and far more dissimilar in the external plan and contour4 ,there is such a thing as a ,franz style4 ,there is no such thing as a ,wolf style2 each song stands utterly by itself4 ,the numerous songs written by ,wolf before #ahhh are not to be counted in this general summary of his work4 ,they are experimental and youthful1 showing a progress toward the masterful maturity of his great period4 ,but they comprise several which can rank with his best4 ,of these we may mention #8,the ,mouse ,trap1' an exquisitely humorous thing1 and #8,to ,rest1' which is very tender and moving4 #8,biterolf1' composed in #ahhf1 is a warrior's song1 striking the great vein of heroism4 ,the #8,serenade' of #ahhh is one of the best known of the ,wolf songs1 a piece in which the piano and voice sing together as if they were parts of one complex instrument4 ,the fifty-three ,mricke songs of the year #ahhh include such a number of masterpieces that it may well be called the most remarkable single group of songs ever written4 ,the variety and perfection of these songs would lead one to believe that they were the selected work of many years of labor4 ,we cannot sufficiently praise the variety of expression--the human types of ,das verlassene ,mgdlein1 ,agnes1 ,der ,jger1 ,erstes ,liebeslied1 and the ,lied eines ,verliebten2 the religious emotion of ,auf ein altes ,bild1 ,schlafendes ,jesuskind1 ,zum neuen ,jahr1 and the ,gebet2 the poetry and fantasy of the ,elfenlied1 ,um ,mitternacht1 ,nixe ,binsefuss1 and others2 the deep and varied emotion of ,der ,genesene and ,die ,hoffnung1 ,er ist's1 ,nimmersatte ,liebe1 ,an eine ,aeolsharfe1 ,verborgenheit1 ,lebewohl1 and the ,gesang ,weylas1 the lively humor of ,der ,tambour1 ,auftrag1 and ,abschied4 ,humor is also present in the group of thirteen ,eichendorf songs1 as in the delightful ,der ,scholar4 ,the passionate note is finely struck in ,liebesglck and ,seemann's ,abschied2 and the ,nachtzauber and #8,serenade' show a masterful power of poetic suggestion4 ,the ,goethe songs are generally regarded as1 on the whole1 a retrogression after the magnificent ,mrike group4 ,they are slightly less spontaneous1 somewhat too loaded down with detail4 ,but nothing could be finer as an expression of passion than ,hochbeglckt in deiner ,liebe and ,komm ,liebchen1 komm4 ,in the grand manner are ,grenzen der ,menschheit and ,prometheus1 the latter one of the most magnificent songs ever written4 ,a certain inimitable dithyrambic humor sings in the ,drinking ,songs--,so lang man nchtern ist1 ,was in der ,schencke waren heute1 and ,trunken mssen wir alle sein4 ,far removed from the ,teutonic nobleness of ,goethe are the ,spanish and ,italian songs1 to words by ,geibel and ,heyse4 ,their average is very high and it is almost at random that we select the following for mention3 ,nun bin ich dein2 ,geh1 geliebter2 ,ich fhr ber ,meer2 ,komm1 o ,tod von ,nacht umgeben1 ,tief im ,herzen1 ,in dem ,schatten meiner ,locken1 ,auf deinem grnen ,balkon1 ,der ,mond hat eine schwere ,klag erhoben1 ,was fr ein ,lied1 ,und willst du deinen ,liebsten sterben sehen1 and ,sterb' ich1 so hllt in ,blumen meine ,glieder4 ,finally1 we should mention the fine settings to three sonnets of ,michael ,angelo1 the last things ,wolf wrote before going to the madhouse1 hopelessly insane4 ,wohl denk' ich oft1 ,fhlt meine ,seele1 and ,alles endet was entstehet are deeply sincere expressions of the pessimism which comes at times over the greatest of souls4 ,,ii ,gustav ,mahler 7#ahfj-aiaj7 has received little recognition as a song-writer outside of ,germany4 ,the great effort of his life was expended on his symphonies1 which are planned on a scale larger than man had ever thought of before4 ,in many ways ,mahler was a very great master4 ,as an artist he was unimpeachable4 ,as a writer for the orchestra he was original and forceful4 ,as a developer of the new radical technique he holds a high place in the history of ,german music4 ,it may be doubted whether his musical ideas and his power of musical architecture were equal to the execution of his stupendous plans4 ,but these faults1 if they exist1 do not enter greatly into his songs--at least into the most typical of them4 ,for ,mahler had one quality which always stood by him when others failed4 ,this was his intimate feeling for the folk-song4 ,a peasant by birth1 he retained a certain simplicity of soul in his attitude toward music which seems contradicted by his great technical complexity4 ,he can reproduce not only the simple form of the folk-song1 but also its spirit1 its nave literal quality1 which takes joy in what a sophisticated person would find common4 ,this quality we find very frequently in his songs4 ,the greatest of these is the group entitled ,kindertotenlieder1 which are loved in ,germany 7and especially in ,vienna7 almost beyond any other4 ,these dirges for children have hardly any parallel in music4 ,they combine an intense pathos with something of the nave simplicity of the child4 ,they are not mere dirges4 ,they are dirges for those #8the doubly dead in that they died so young4' ,the congenital faults of ,mahler are not to be found here4 ,the songs are almost above criticism from the musical standpoint4 ,but ,mahler the peasant is to be seen especially in the songs from ,des ,knaben ,wunderhorn1 that wonderful collection of ,german folk-poetry which has been such a storehouse for the nation in the last century4 ,while these have not the spiritual elevation or the consistently high musicianship of the ,kindertotenlieder1 they preserve an unconventional freshness of spirit which is hardly less remarkable4 ,richard ,strauss is generally regarded as the great continuer of the ,german song tradition4 ,that he is a true continuer is perfectly correct4 ,whether his music1 absolutely considered1 is as #8great' as people once thought is still undecided by the public4 ,some profess to discover liberal injections of the charlatan in ,strauss's work4 ,whether he sometimes gets his effects by cheap means which the artist in him would despise is a question to be argued elsewhere4 ,we must1 however1 grant him two great faculties--the faculty of beautiful melody and that of musical ability4 ,in sheer beauty of theme 7and this is especially true in some of his songs7 he is worthy to be regarded as of the line of ,schubert and ,brahms4 ,in musical learning there are probably not half a dozen men in the world to-day to equal him and there was a time1 ten or more years ago1 when he seemed to stand almost alone4 ,while for some years past his symphonic poems and operas have overshadowed his smaller work1 he has been known from the beginning as a brilliant writer of songs1 and has not ceased to give some of his best energies to song composition4 ,the result is a truly brilliant list of lyrics4 ,we can no more deny the able musicianship of the later ones than we can deny the impressive beauty of the earlier4 ,they are far from being repetitions of each other4 ,this great variety1 both in mood and in technical style1 proves what a rich fund of ideas and artistic power the composer had to draw from4 ,the technique of the later ones is about that familiar to us in the ,strauss operas1 a brilliant use of dissonance and rapid modulation combined with an extremely bold polyphony4 ,at the basis of this style is always a theme or a group of themes as simple1 as conventional in conception as anything in ,schubert4 ,it is as though ,strauss were afraid of losing utterly the interest of the average man and gave him every now and then a simple tune that he would be sure to enjoy4 ,but it is more than this4 ,for ,strauss is a ,german of the ,germans4 ,his whole musical culture is truly built on the great ,german tradition of ,bach-,beethoven-,brahms4 ,his complexity is only a development of the noble simplicity of all fine ,german music4 ,it is right and proper that his themes should be simple and understandable4 ,but it is possible1 and probably perfectly just1 to argue that he has failed to make the one part of his music seem a development of the other4 ,we feel here that the new style and the old are both present1 that they are juxtaposed1 that they have not been fused or synthesized4 ,and this duality1 which we feel in some of the operas and in the later orchestral works1 also appears in his songs4 ,it makes these later songs less admirable1 from the technical standpoint1 than those of ,ravel1 who has organized his materials into an almost homogeneous technique4 ,however the case may stand in this matter ,strauss's early songs will remain as worthy of a place in the great ,german hierarchy4 ,opus #aj contains a number of masterpieces4 ,zueignung is1 in sheer beauty1 almost equal to ,schumann at his best4 #8,the ,night' is a simple song of great loveliness and #8,patience' is a superbly eloquent piece of emotional writing based on an accompaniment of simple repeated chords4 ,it is in work like this that a great composer tests himself out4 ,this power to achieve great beauty within narrow limitations is1 as we have so often pointed out in the course of this book1 the proof that genuine creative power is there4 ,these songs which we have just mentioned are among the very best in the ,strauss list4 ,others of the first rank are3 #8,i ,love ,thee1' opus #cg1 a powerful example of emotional lyricism2 ,ich trage meine ,minne1 opus #cb1 a simple piece of marvellous beauty and grace2 and #8,with ,thy ,blue ,eyes1' opus #ef1 a song of unusually tender and appealing quality4 ,among the earlier songs we should mention the charming ,morgen2 ,wozu1 ,mdchen1 soll es frommen1 opus #ai2 ,nachtgang1 opus #bi2 and ,traum durch die ,dmmerung1 the last one of the most admired4 #8,rest ,my ,soul' and the #8,nuptial ,song'--the former very simple and the latter highly organized--are stimulating examples of ,strauss's art4 ,of the later songs 7which seem to show a falling off in artistic sincerity7 we may mention #8,the ,three ,holy ,kings1' opus #ef1 which is a sort of miniature opera1 with an abundance of incidental music in the form of a stately march4 #8,the ,lonely ,one' of opus #ea contains a bass part very effectively used and #8,the ,valley' is musical description of a high order4 ,max ,reger 7born #ahgc7 is a sharp contrast to ,strauss4 ,people have seen fit to describe him as a schoolmaster4 ,this is justified in that ,reger is one of the most eminent technical musicians in ,germany and a master of strict fugue and counterpoint in the modern idiom equalled by no one else in the world4 ,his cast of mind seems to be all with the classics1 though he is radical enough in his musical style when he chooses to be4 ,he writes largely in the #8absolute' forms and seeks none of the means for effect that are so generally cultivated nowadays4 ,in these respects he may be a #8schoolmaster4' ,but beneath the austerity of his style there is a wonderful fund of ideas and along with it a deftness in using them that makes his technique available for many very different sorts of music4 ,in his songs ,reger shows a wide variety4 ,the fact which proves that he is musician and not schoolmaster is that the songs requiring fancy1 deftness1 sense of style are quite as fine as the others4 ,he always considers well what he writes4 ,by some his songs may not be considered lyrical as ,schubert's are1 but his vocal music is truly music that can be sung and its effectiveness on the platform is likely to outstrip expectations4 ,the songs have much beauty of melody1 much suavity and charm1 and especially a nice adaptation to the spirit of the text4 ,they contain in rich quantity the gift of humor4 ,in downright lively fun ,reger reminds one of ,chabrier4 ,the songs are all very human4 ,the first feeling one has in studying them is respect for the man's musicianship4 ,but his technical learning is so unfailing that this quality becomes a bore and one becomes conscious of the genuineness of the feeling and the accuracy of expression4 ,reger's superb technique has not used him2 he has used it4 ,we may consider it likely that ,reger's reputation will grow considerably in years to come4 ,the songs in particular should be more widely known and loved4 ,they will not tickle lazy ears1 but they will give a rare delight to discriminating ones4 ,certainly there are few men working now who are on the whole more admirable in their songs than ,reger4 ,reger's technical style marks most of his songs4 ,but underneath they have a distinct individuality4 ,the ,folk-,song in opus #cg is managed with great simplicity and taste4 #8,the ,dying ,child1' from opus #bc1 exemplifies ,reger's free but well considered harmonic method4 #8,of ,kissing1' from the same group1 shows us another ,reger1 as dainty and popular as ,brahms in lighter mood4 ,traum durch die ,dmmerung1 from opus #ce1 has a wonderful accompaniment of half-suggested interweaving voices and is considered superior to ,strauss's setting of the same poem4 ,the long-drawn melodies 7in both the piano and the voice part7 of #8,love-,longings' show us still another ,reger1 a master of restrained sensuous effect4 ,the ,lullaby of opus #dc is fitted out with a very complex accompaniment but retains a luscious and quiet effect from sheer power of musicianship4 ,two of ,reger's best songs are #8,i ,believe1 ,dear ,love' and the #8,prayer1' from opus #fb4 ,the former is a charming scherzo movement and the latter illustrates the tendency1 increasing in song accompaniments for half a century1 to spread the piano part over an extremely wide range of notes4 #8,the ,willow ,tree' of opus #dh is a study in a style common to the ,french song writers1 that of gaining emotional effect from the mere juxtaposition of chords4 ,the ,schlichte ,weisen of opus #gf are perhaps ,reger's most typical and most highly developed product in this field4 ,these #8simple tunes' are not at all simple in point of technique1 making use of all the virtuosity and finesse of his wonderful musical equipment4 ,the songs are nearly all in lighter vein and most of them are brightened with a delicious humor4 ,they alone would place ,reger among the most notable of musical humorists4 ,none but the trained musician can appreciate all the technical genius that went into the writing of these songs4 ,but any music-lover1 any concert audience1 in fact1 can appreciate their beauty and sprightly charm4 ,the thirty-six songs maintain a remarkably high level of creative musicianship1 and in point of variety and taste they are almost unsurpassed4 ,nearly all of them are worth knowing1 but we may mention a few among the best4 #8,in a ,little ,rose ,garden' is written in imitation of the old ,german ,lied4 #8,the ,child's ,prayer' is utterly delightful in its simplicity4 ,the #8,dialogue' is inimitable in humorous description4 ,in #8,the ,oath' and #8,concerning ,love' the humor is irresistible1 and in #8,god's ,blessing' musical learning has been put to the service of delicate delineation of mood4 ,,iii ,arnold ,schnberg 7born #ahgd7 has gained a place for himself in ,vienna as the foremost spokesman of the ultra-radical school of ,german music4 ,at the present time he is gradually coming to similar recognition in other countries4 ,his musical manner is so utterly foreign to anything else we are familiar with that men believed for a long time 7and quite excusably7 that he was a mere charlatan1 one who1 failing to gain recognition by legitimate means1 had resorted to the methods of the sideshow4 ,that such a view is not tenable is shown by the recent course of events4 ,in his earlier music he showed a fairly conservative style1 based chiefly on ,strauss1 and used in a manner nothing short of masterful4 ,much of this early music has not been heard until recently1 because of its astounding proportions4 ,but it was ambition and not incompetence that kept ,schnberg from prompt recognition4 ,his development into the new style was steady4 ,it could not possibly have been achieved without a very large fund of musical learning4 ,the later scores show a contrapuntal ability which is astounding4 ,the style1 in the later works1 is quite without parallel4 ,harmony is dropped altogether4 ,next to nothing remains of the system of ,bach and ,beethoven4 ,on the other hand1 the complexity of the contrapuntal web surpasses anything we have ever seen4 ,the man's whole effort seems to be toward exuberant1 overpowering counterpoint1 a mass of separate voices mingled in delirious profusion1 with inversions and augmentations and diminutions that make the brain dizzy4 ,judged by ears that have anything of the old-fashioned left in them this music cannot be beautiful4 ,but ,schnberg's appeal is to a different faculty1 and only time can determine whether the appeal is justified4 ,schnberg explains that he is not trying to write emotional music1 or descriptive music1 or music with any sort of a meaning--but just pure music4 ,if this be music1 there are some definitions yet to be altered4 ,his songs1 however1 so far as they are yet catalogued1 do not belong to this last period4 ,the numerous songs of opera #a1 #b1 and #c are of the first period1 in which the style of ,strauss was pretty closely adhered to4 ,the #8,eight ,songs' of opus #f and the #8,six ,orchestral ,songs' of opus #h are the product of the second period1 the transition time in which the new ,schnberg style was fairly well developed1 but was used with frequent admixtures of the old4 ,in the work of this period the hearer has a breathing space and can feel at first hearing that the music has something in it after all4 ,however1 second period or not1 the two groups of songs we have mentioned will be quite mystifying to the average student4 ,they are all very long and extremely difficult to sing4 ,for that reason they are by no means available for ordinary concert use4 ,they can be sung only by the highly capable singer and listened to only by an audience with highly trained ears4 ,perhaps1 even under these conditions the listener will conclude they are not worth the trouble4 ,but the one virtue which we can predicate of ,schnberg without fear of contradiction is ability1 and this virtue stands out strongly in the songs4 ,we may mention from opus #f the #8,maiden's ,songs1' which attains a sense of immense physical violence4 #8,forsaken' maintains its mood by a remarkably powerful use of a constantly repeated chromatic figure in the bass4 ,but the best of these songs1 and probably the greatest ,schnberg has written1 is #8,the ,wanderer1' words by ,nietzsche4 ,the other songs may be chaotic1 but this has a cogent form4 ,moreover1 it has definite melody and an accompaniment manipulated with a strong sense of design4 ,the song as a whole is eloquent and impressive4 ,the ,six ,orchestral ,songs are also arranged for piano accompaniment and may be sung in concert4 ,they are rather scenes than songs1 being very long and composite and generally descriptive or dramatic1 rather than lyrical4 ,in them the technical element is all powerful4 ,voll jener ,ssse1 words from ,petrarch1 is a masterful study in the free movement of contrapuntal voices treated as in close harmony4 ,das ,wappenschild is a magnificent song of action4 ,the basic theme is stirring1 the melody is marked and impressive1 and the general structure is clear and cogent4 ,the song exemplifies ,schnberg's genius for making his counterpoint seem to express tremendous power of will4 ,sehnsucht is a comparatively simple song1 the best of the six for the student to begin on4 ,nie ward ich1 ,herrin1 md is a magnificent study in powerful counterpoint4 ,the tempo is slow1 the themes are drawn out and sustained as though played slowly by a 'cello4 ,the piece is extremely difficult to sustain at this slow tempo and is a tax on the listener's attention beyond anything of the sort that can be called to mind1 but if one can feel its beauty at all one must be impressed by the majesty of the thing4 ,another modern song writer whose work centres chiefly in ,vienna is ,joseph ,marx1 who has been prolific and successful4 ,his style has many elements of the modern1 but on the whole it is clear and intelligible and does not require a new set of ears for its appreciation4 ,marx's songs are often fresh and spontaneous and his sense of proportion is keen4 ,another of ,schnberg's contemporaries is ,franz ,schrecker1 whose work is likewise representative of the most advanced tendencies of the new ,viennese school4 ,this school is rather left behind by one of ,schnberg's pupils1 ,anton von ,webern1 whose strange song1 #8,over the ,borders of the ,all1' is incapable of description in any terms hitherto used in connection with music4 ,which men of such a group will prove valuable to posterity is not to be decided at first investigation4 ,but it will be well worth anyone's while to maintain an open mind and regard an innovator as innocent until he has proved himself guilty4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,modern ,,french ,,lyricism ,faur and the beginning of the new--,chabrier1 ,csar ,franck1 and others--,bruneau1 ,vidal1 and ,charpentier--,debussy and ,ravel4 ,i ,in a previous chapter we have mentioned the work of a generation of ,french song writers who represent the old and conservative school4 ,in the present chapter we are concerned solely with the new and much more admirable ,french school of lyricism4 ,but the distinction between the #8old' and the #8new' generations is not1 of course1 a distinction of time4 ,some of the old generation are now living and writing in the second decade of the twentieth century1 while some of the originators of the new had begun their innovations as far back as the late seventies4 ,this overlapping of individuals is inevitable where one school supplants another4 ,for that reason we are here dealing with composers who1 judged solely by dates1 should have been treated as belonging to the last third of the nineteenth century4 ,it is well to keep in mind this overlapping4 ,it will help us to see how fashions change in the world of art4 ,the whole story of the transition from the old to the new in ,french music is of extraordinary interest4 ,the change seemed to come at a bound1 with ,debussy's first tone poems and piano pieces4 ,but as a matter of fact no great change comes about in this way4 ,it germinates and nourishes itself for a long time unseen before it is ready to strike out as an independent force4 ,illustration3 ,scandinavian and ,french ,song-,writers4 ,top3 ,emil ,sjgren and ,christian ,sinding ,bottom3 ,gabriel ,piern and ,gabriel ,faur ,the change is gradual1 usually not more than half conscious4 ,it would hardly be wrong to say that the whole change1 up to a certain point1 is accidental4 ,but it is often difficult to study such a transition in its early stages4 ,and the peculiar interest of ,faur's songs consists in the fact that they enable us to study the whole preliminary transition from the old to the new in ,french music1 in simple terms and in steady development4 ,faur was in a sense the laboratory for the new ,french impressionistic school4 ,his experiments suggested dimly what could be done4 ,his groping achievements showed how one might set about to do it4 ,in his songs1 from the earliest to the latest we see in successive stages of development the harmonic procedure of the new school4 ,what was this change8 ,what distinguished the old school from the new8 ,it is worth while to answer this question briefly before touching ,faur's work in order to have some touchstone to hold up to the songs when we come to look at them4 ,in general terms the change from the old to the new in ,french music was a change from the conscious1 the deliberate1 the intelligent to the subconscious1 the subjective1 the sensuous4 ,the older composers sought always to appeal in some degree to the hearer's judgment1 to please his sense of design1 to speak with chastened clearness4 ,we have often1 in the course of this book1 had occasion to mention the coldness and conventionality of the ,french music of the nineteenth century4 ,now the newer composers reacted against all this and set out to change it4 ,in place of judgment they would have feeling2 in place of the brain they would have the nerves4 ,what matter about the sense of design if the effect was beautiful8 ,what matter whether or not you adjudge it to be good1 so long as you feel it to be good8 ,in the new ,french music the intelligence can usually go to sleep4 ,intelligence is in the music 7or rather it was in the making of the music7 but it keeps out of sight4 ,all the hearer needs is to surrender himself to the sensations4 ,he needs delicate ears and responsive nerves4 ,if he has these he will get poetry and pictures out of the music in plenty4 ,in other words1 it is our old conflict between knowledge and experience1 between judging and feeling1 between the brain and the senses4 ,considered concretely1 the change from the old to the new was a change which broke down completely all the old rules of musical harmony4 ,the old harmony is represented at its purest in the chorales of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach4 ,it was a system of harmony based on pure 7triad7 chords1 with dissonances properly prepared and resolved4 ,in the old harmony each chord was like a chiselled block of stone1 sharply differentiated from every other2 the stones must fit well together1 but they must always be distinct4 ,the new system of harmony was founded upon the dissonance used for the sake of its effect on the ear4 ,queer mixtures of dissonance were used freely to produce an unusual impression on the ear1 an impression which soon took on the name #8color4' ,chords were now merged and confused1 instead of being kept distinct4 ,tonalities and musical #8keys' were now becoming meaningless in a system whose notes rarely agreed with any tonality4 ,the whole effect was that of being in a world of pure sensation1 a world that seemed to be without reason and was therefore the better adapted to being felt4 ,along with the tendency toward vagueness in harmony came a tendency toward vagueness in melody4 ,various notes of the ordinary major scale would be altered at the whim of the composer and the surprises resulting were a fruitful source of sensuous effects4 ,this freedom in the use of scales tended toward the now famous #8whole-toned' scale--a thing popularly supposed to have been invented by ,wagner1 but used1 in reality1 in the early days of ,wagner by the ,russian ,dargomijsky4 ,the whole-toned scale makes every interval a whole step1 thus robbing the scale of all internal variety and of any tonic or central #8pivotal' point4 ,this would seem to rob the scale of its possibilities for color4 ,but curiously enough1 it actually increased them4 ,for as long as the scale is strange1 our ears will inevitably compare it with the scale with which we are familiar4 ,the result is a constant succession of surprises to our ears and senses--in short an increase in the sensuous element4 ,the newer school also uses the chromatic element to a great extent4 ,in this it was only continuing the work of ,wagner in his #8,tristan4' ,but there was this difference3 that whereas in ,wagner's procedure the chromatic element was chiefly in the movement of the individual voices1 the chords being constituted much as before1 in the new ,french school both the voice leading and the chord building make free use of the semitone4 ,to sum up1 the new tendency is characterized concretely by vagueness of chord and of scale 7with a continual tendency toward the whole-toned scale72 by a free use of unprepared dissonance chosen chiefly for its sensuous effect2 and by its constant effort to rid itself of the domination of a set key4 ,gabriel ,faur 7born #ahde7 started exactly on a par with the other ,french song writers of the seventies4 ,his melody was tenuous and colorless2 his harmony was thin and regular4 ,very gradually and very steadily he developed his colorful and unconventional harmony and a type of melody which1 without being declamatory1 was irregular and intimately fused with the accompaniment4 ,besides this cautious radical development1 ,faur had a fairly generous fund of musical ideas and a sense of form and design superior to that of most of his contemporaries4 ,it is doubtful if any one of his songs could be called first-class in absolute musical value4 ,but his general standard was unusually high and steady4 ,in nearly every case his songs are finished works of art4 ,his faculty of self-criticism was keen and his attitude toward his art sincere4 ,though never a man of power1 he possessed a lively intelligence which served to make him one of the most important figures in the ,french musical transition4 ,he was not a pioneer in the more strenuous sense of the word4 ,but he was truly a forerunner4 ,his earliest songs show little that is distinctive beyond a sensitive feeling for design and proportion4 ,the best of them are #8,may1' #8,in the ,ruins of an ,abbey1' and #8,alone4' ,in the #8,tuscan ,serenade' we catch perhaps the first definite note of a change4 ,it is a very slight indication1 but it is truly a foreshadowing of the development which was destined to be shown in his songs and in all modern ,french music4 ,the indication we are referring to is in the following phrase3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,the unconventional note is the ,g flat4 ,a composer of the previous musical generation would certainly have written ,g natural4 ,the reason is that a long succession of whole steps is contrary to the spirit of the diatonic scale1 upon which the classical musical system is based4 ,the diatonic scale contains two half steps within the octave1 thus giving to the succession of notes variety and to the scale itself individuality4 ,the four notes which ,faur here uses are the only four adjacent notes in the scale which do not contain a half step4 ,even such a sequence without a half step was too long to suit the older composers4 ,this sequence was to them the awkward place in the scale4 ,it was within the letter of the scale but contrary to its spirit4 ,so the older composer would have changed the ,g flat to ,g natural and would have felt a distinct gain in grace and fluency4 ,perhaps ,faur used the ,g flat only because it was different4 ,he may have started his experiments purely in a search for variety4 ,but he soon saw its possibilities4 ,for this increased use of whole tones develops logically into the whole-toned scale 7without any semi-tones and hence without any existence as a tonality74 ,and this whole-toned scale is one of the chief features of the modern ,french music4 ,but in addition to its melodic significance this bit of unconventionality on ,faur's part had deep harmonic significance4 ,for if the identity of the diatonic scale is destroyed the whole system of classical harmony falls down4 ,without a definite scale you have no tonic for your harmony to centre around4 ,and your harmonic scheme loses all its value as a system and reduces to a use of chords for themselves 7that is1 their sensuous value7 or for their relation one with another4 ,when you have done this your whole musical basis has changed and a new musical world has come into being4 ,this first timid attempt on ,faur's part was rapidly followed by other experiments1 still cautious but logical and continuous in their direction4 ,in the song entitled #8,lydia' we have the following opening phrase3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,lydia sur tes roses joues ,et sur ton col frais ,here the tonality is disturbed not only in the melody but in the harmony also4 ,without preparation or warning ,faur disregards the half-step 7,b flat7 which would have kept his music true to the diatonic1 plunges apparently into a new key4 ,but the change is not truly a modulation2 the new key is really not a key4 ,for the persistence of the ,f in the bass is a foreign element and shows that ,faur was not aiming at modulation at all4 ,what he was aiming at was color4 ,it is significant that the #8color' accompanies the words roses joues4 ,this gentle dislocation of our conventional harmonic sounds like a blush translated into tones4 ,faur had discovered modern #8atmosphere4' ,from now on ,faur's experiments in this sort of thing become more frequent and more radical4 ,in #8,the ,absent ,one' he uses ordinary suspensions for their atmospheric effect4 ,other songs of the same period--among which #8,silvie1' #8,after a ,dream1' #8,barcarolle1' and #8,over ,there' are the best--show traces of the development4 #8,nell1' in opus #ah1 shows an increasingly delicate feeling for the inner voices in the accompaniment2 the broken chords that support this melody are not a mere harmonic support but a delicate weaving of suggested voices4 ,the #8,traveller' shows increased power and vigor4 ,the #8,lullaby1' in opus #bc 7one of his best songs71 shows an attempt to get color by means of regular suspensions and dissonances1 secondary seventh chords1 and the like1 all permitted in the old system but employed here with a special emphasis which is unescapable4 #8,the ,secret1' in the same group1 shows a similar attempt4 ,the ,chanson d'amour in opus #bg should be mentioned in passing4 ,in opus #ci we find the beautiful song1 #8,the ,roses of ,ispahan4' ,here ,faur uses exactly the same harmonic device that we have pointed out in #8,lydia1' but this time with more confidence3 ,illustration3 ,music score ,ont un parfum moins frais ont une odeur moins douce ,the awkwardness and uncertainty in the former passage is not to be found here4 ,faur has discovered his medium4 ,henceforth he will use it with increasing boldness and success4 ,the #8,nocturne' of opus #dc and ,les prsents of opus #df show still more freedom in the use of constantly changing tonality4 #8,tears' in opus #ea uses the chromatic shift of key almost continuously4 ,but the trick has ceased to be a technical experiment4 ,it has become a means of artistic expression4 ,for this song1 along with #8,in the ,cemetery1' shows tragic energy and a moving personal appeal which1 as we have seen1 had been all but absent from ,french song for half a century4 ,mandoline and ,en ,sourdine in opus #eh are songs of consummate artistry and #8,the ,prison' of opus #gd reaches a very high emotional standard4 ,the later songs show ,faur using generously the technical freedom which he so laboriously attained4 ,but the songs are now less interesting4 ,they are too likely to be abstruse without being inspired4 ,technically they are of extreme interest1 but they suggest that ,faur had been left behind by the modern musical movement and was rather breathlessly trying to catch up4 ,though ,faur's songs do not speak with the authority of genius they are extraordinarily fine in their deftness of handling1 in their delicacy1 in their unfailing sense of artistic fitness4 ,faur1 among the first of his generation1 treated the accompaniment with respect4 ,his piano parts are filled with interesting voices and gently stimulating movement4 ,each song has its individuality and style4 ,the melody is sometimes truly eloquent1 but too often partakes of the colorless nature of contemporary music4 ,in the later songs the voice part is apt to be without much charm or even existence of its own1 being only accommodated to the accompaniment4 ,on the whole1 though the absolute value of his songs would not justify the relative space we have here devoted to them1 they reveal a sensitive and thorough craftsmanship which ,french music had too long been without4 ,,ii ,emmanuel ,chabrier 7#ahda-ahid7 was1 with ,faur1 one of the great forerunners of the modern ,french tendency4 ,his service was chiefly performed in the field of orchestral coloring1 but his songs show the influences of the new technique and are of much value in themselves4 ,chabrier was a more vital man than ,faur4 ,his abundant animal spirits can be felt in all his music4 ,his musical ideas were not always of much value1 but the creative energy of the man is felt always4 ,he was a great practical joker and has written some of the most delightful humorous songs we have4 ,three of his animal songs in particular are worth study4 #8,the ,grasshoppers' makes continual use of the interval of the diminished second1 lightly played in arpeggio chords on the piano1 to suggest the chirping and rattling which we hear on a summer night4 ,the melody1 too1 is extremely graceful4 #8,the ,pigs' ,pastoral' suggests the animals' grunts and offers even more dignified points of technical interest4 ,the #8,villanelle of the ,little ,ducks' is a masterpiece4 ,the charming words by ,rosemonde ,grard 7later the wife of the poet ,rostand7 are caught with absolute fidelity by the composer4 ,the dignity1 the absolute soldier-like seriousness of the little birds is inimitably suggested and the clear and richly varied accompaniment shows a musicianship of a high order4 ,the simple #8,romance of the ,star' reveals the genuine lyric ability of the composer and his colorful romanticism is shown in the #8,song for ,jeanne' and #8,the ,happy ,island4' ,chabrier's songs show admirable energy and resourcefulness4 ,as a practical joker the man can hardly be surpassed4 ,among the pioneers of modern ,french music ,csar ,franck 7#ahbc-ahij7 holds the highest place of all4 ,his profound musicianship1 his open-mindedness1 his strain of religious mysticism in the service of his high personal integrity1 produced results than which ,french music can show nothing more admirable4 ,a large number of the most eminent modern ,french composers were his pupils and their daring 7though various7 individualities show that his teaching was really a stimulation and nourishment of artistic power1 not an imparting of rules4 ,his songs 7at least the later ones1 which are all that interest us here7 are few1 but among them are several which are artistically flawless4 ,the melody of #8,the ,marriage of the ,roses'#cb has a grace and a cogency which utterly charm the hearer4 #8,the ,bells of ,evening' and #8,the ,procession' have become classics in modern song literature4 ,technically these songs are not radical4 ,but they make effective use of the new harmonic method1 in ,franck's own peculiar and convincing manner4 ,four of ,franck's pupils have done fine service in the cause of modern ,french song4 ,guillaume ,lekeu 7#ahgj-ahid7 was an extremely talented man who would certainly have been one of the greatest of ,french composers had he lived to artistic maturity4 ,his fine song1 #8,on a ,tomb1' proves his creative power and his technical control4 ,henri ,duparc 7born #ahdh7 was by birth one of the older generation and his use of the modern harmonies is conservative4 ,of his numerous songs some are marked by much grace and sensuous beauty1 notably #8,invitation to the ,journey1' the ,chanson triste1 and #8,ecstasy1' the last one of the finest songs of the period4 ,ernest ,chausson 7#ahee-ahid7 showed remarkable talents--energy1 individuality1 command over romantic expression4 ,in his incomplete career he produced many songs1 some of rare charm4 ,but most important of the ,franck pupils is ,vincent d',indy1 probably the most vigorous creative power in modern ,french music4 ,in him the intellectual quality dominates all the others4 ,to many his music quite lacks charm4 ,the gentler qualities are absent4 ,there is no obvious appeal to the senses4 ,but his music is extremely stimulating to the musician and if well presented can plead for itself to the general public4 ,his songs are few1 but are evidently worked out with great care4 ,best known is the #8,sea ,song1' which has a large rhythmic sweep admirably suggesting the swell of the ocean4 ,his arrangements entitled ,chansons ,populaires du ,vivarais1 though applied to the simplest of musical materials1 reveal his intellectual quality of musicianship4 ,a list of his other songs 7nearly complete7 includes3 #8,thecla's ,complaint1' #8,madrigal1' ,l',amour de la crane1 #8,the ,first ,tooth1' #8,mirage1' and #8,the ,eyes of the ,beloved ,one4' ,all these songs are fine and musicianly4 ,but their appeal is limited1 for many will find them lacking charm and sensuous beauty4 ,,iii ,at the present time it is difficult to regard ,alfred ,bruneau 7born #aheg7 as a pioneer4 ,his style is extremely thin and his melody seems at first glance to be cut from the same piece as ,massenet's4 ,but it is as an innovator that ,bruneau is chiefly valued in ,france4 ,in the early nineties1 when ,debussy was still an unknown experimenter 7a #8crazy man1' like all radical innovators in their early years71 he was thrilling ,paris with his strange1 new expressive harmonies1 accurately delineating moods and suggesting colors4 ,his operas1 to librettos or adaptations from ,zola1 were a new thing in ,france4 ,he experimented largely with unconventional harmonies and phrases for the voice which fell into no known category4 ,paris was at first puzzled1 but quickly caught the idea4 ,this was because1 while ,bruneau's music was truly an innovation and absolutely in line with the work of the new ,french school1 it was based on an idiom that ,france knew well and was managed so cautiously that the novelties were clear to the audience without being painful4 ,by this time ,bruneau seems little more than a composer of a past generation4 ,yet we must give him full credit for courage1 for artistic feeling1 and for considerable musical creativeness4 ,his songs are not many4 ,the ,lieds de ,france 7words by ,catulle ,mends7 are simple lyrics somewhat in the older traditional style of ,french songs1 executed with a wealth of the most delicate suggestion of color4 #8,the ,gay ,vagabond' is in ,bruneau's most typical style--a clear-cut and flowing melody over the simplest of chords1 with the unusual features so discreetly written that at first hearing they hardly seem to be there at all4 ,paul ,vidal 7born #ahfc7 is only by courtesy included in the present chapter4 ,he has escaped the curse of the old ,french school but his talent lies not at all in the field of innovation4 ,he is a born lyricist1 spontaneous1 fresh1 graceful4 ,he is master of more than one style1 as his settings of ,shakespeare's lyrics prove4 ,the #8,winter ,song1' from #8,love's ,labor ,lost1' preserves a certain archaic flavor that is charming4 ,the ,psaume nuptial is grandiose but not pompous1 an invigorating piece of honest music4 ,in the children's song1 #8,the ,play ,leader1' ,vidal attempts the descriptive1 with a liberal use of dissonance and modern harmony1 but it is evident that he has no natural turn toward the new style4 ,yet the song is dainty and picturesque4 ,the ,ariette #8,were ,i a ,sunbeam' and the #8,address to the ,well ,beloved1' as well as a more recent song1 #8,loving1' are well worth knowing for their simple musicianly beauty1 and ,madame la fe is a model of delicate lyricism4 ,in his more ambitious mood ,vidal is represented by #8,thine ,eyes4' ,but he is a composer to whom we turn not for stimulation in technical matters1 but for simple beauty4 ,his songs are in that class which can hardly enter into a history at all1 but are delightful byways to turn to for mere pleasure4 ,gustave ,charpentier 7born #ahfj71 composer of the world-famous opera #8,louise1' has written a handful of songs1 some of superior quality4 ,the ,chansons danser are written in imitation of the old ,french dances1 the spirit and the form being caught with keen insight4 ,the best of the group is the #8,sarabande4' ,in the ,fleurs du mal he is working in more familiar vein--that spirit of intense and somewhat chaotic emotionalism that distinguishes his operas4 ,when we list the fifteen ,pomes chants we have named all his songs4 ,charpentier's style is modern and genuinely ,french1 but it is sharply distinguished from that of ,debussy and ,ravel4 ,it is a development of that of ,massenet 7whose pupil ,charpentier was71 but it is developed an immense distance beyond #8,thas4' ,it contains more of the flesh 7and more of the open air7 than ,debussy ever shows4 #8,atmosphere' for its own sake enters into his work not at all4 ,everything is expressive and nearly everything expressive of human emotions4 ,the musical style is admirably adapted to the purpose1 choosing from the modern ,french technique just those elements which it can use4 ,it makes constant use of detached or irregular phrases of melody and these it interweaves in great abundance into the harmonic texture4 ,charpentier strikes an admirable middle path in modern ,french music1 being neither too intellectual1 like d'lndy1 nor too technical1 like ,ravel4 ,,iv ,concerning ,claude ,debussy 7born #ahfb7 the world is not yet decided4 ,at one time he seemed the supreme innovator and the master tone-poet of modern times4 ,nothing so utterly new had ever come to people's ears since #8,tristan1' or probably since the later symphonies of ,beethoven4 ,he was for a number of years the chief spokesman for the ultra-modern to the whole world4 ,for fully ten years he worked away1 striving for the vision he had before him1 until recognition finally came4 ,from this very fact we may assume that he is an entirely sincere artist and not a charlatan as he was once considered4 ,and1 because he could work so consistently in his own style1 he seemed to the world supremely creative4 ,possibly sober opinion has modified somewhat the opinion of ten years ago1 when ,pellas et ,mlisande was a startling novelty4 ,the technical power with which he presented an absolutely new case remains as admirable as ever4 ,but opinion of the absolute musical value of his work is somewhat diminishing1 now that we are accustomed to the idiom4 ,in plain words1 it is beginning to be understood that ,debussy repeats himself more than do most great composers1 certainly more than a composer of the first rank would do4 ,moreover1 his music does not hold a place in people's hearts4 ,it is truly expressive of delicate moods 7moods in which the nerves and senses are chiefly involved72 but it does not express the things that are nearest to human beings4 ,at bottom1 the variety possible to ,debussy's style is slight4 ,he has painted many pictures1 bearing many different titles1 but all are mere rearrangements of the same figures and setting4 ,we find1 to a greater extent than with most composers1 that his whole art is fairly represented in his songs4 ,they are numerous4 ,and they are of a very high order of musicianship4 ,it is evident ,debussy put the best he had into these songs4 ,they are luxuriant with the finest inventions of his remarkable technique4 ,not one is carelessly executed4 ,not one but is in some degree truly creative4 ,whether simple or abstruse1 they make no concessions to popular effect4 ,some are valuable chiefly in their parts2 as a whole they are not firmly bound4 ,but others are admirable in design and proportion4 ,in most of them the accompaniment is so luxuriant that set form goes by the board2 the song consists of its various parts4 ,but in the accumulation of these various sensuous effects we get a new kind of unity4 ,it is the unity of the impressionist painters--a synthesis performed in the observer or listener instead of being performed in the work itself4 ,to speak concretely1 the various parts reveal sometimes little to connect them with each other2 they seem little amenable to any formal scheme4 ,but when the listener simply listens1 without trying to apply mental standards1 he finds that he has lived through a single and definite experience4 ,it is hard to speak in detail of ,debussy's songs4 ,they present so many individual elements of interest that1 if they are to be studied at all1 they must be studied in the concrete4 ,any attempt to describe or characterize them at a distance must be vague and colorless4 ,we can only point out a few of the songs that stand out from the others by reason of great technical originality or impressionistic power4 ,debussy gained the grand ,prix de ,rome in #ahhd and spent the next three years in ,italy4 ,his prize cantata1 #8,the ,prodigal ,son1' shows evidences of the impressionistic style1 but1 being offered to please a conservative committee1 was kept in reserve4 ,but ,debussy knew what he wanted to do and promptly sent back from the ,villa ,medici a work which the committee could not accept because of its daring style4 ,even then he was approaching maturity in the manner which made him famous4 ,the first of the well known songs were published in #ahij and were probably written in the course of the five years just preceding4 ,they are not so involved as the later songs1 but they cannot be called experimental works4 ,the ,mandoline1 a masterly little genre song1 has attained great popularity1 and #8,the ,fountain' shows the composer working on a most elaborate scale with a fully developed technical method4 ,we should also mention in this place the famous aria1 #8,azal1' from #8,the ,prodigal ,son4' ,the most strongly creative of ,debussy's works 7exclusive of the opera7 seem to centre around the year #aijd4 ,and here we find some of the best songs4 ,we may instance the five fine #8,poems' from ,baudelaire4 ,in these ,debussy is putting forth his very best4 ,the ,harmonies du soir may be taken as an epitome of his whole harmonic method4 #8,the ,balcony' is very long and rich in descriptive imagination4 ,the ,jet d'eau and #8,the ,death of ,lovers' should also be mentioned from this group4 #8,the ,faun' and #8,the ,grotto1' from the same period1 show ,debussy at his best4 ,the former in particular reveals him admirably as a painter of pictures in tones4 ,among the fairly simple songs 7always the best for the student who is approaching a new style7 we may mention ,beau soir and the ,romance4 ,the ,proses lyriques are very ambitious1 very long1 and very difficult4 ,even the most capable singer will find it hard to hold them unified when they are sung4 ,the voice part is free1 not exactly declamatory1 but fragmentary and merged with the symphonic comment which is the accompaniment4 ,of the four ,les ,fleurs is perhaps the best1 while the last1 ,le soir1 is the simplest and the most approachable4 ,the ,chansons de ,bilitis are more emotional and not so good4 ,but the three #8,ballads of ,franois ,villon1' published in #aiaj1 are masterpieces4 ,the ,prayer to the ,virgin ,mary is admirably pathetic1 and the third1 #8,the ,ladies of ,paris1' shows ,debussy in his sprightly vein1 which he manages with capital humor and verve4 ,the ,ftes galantes 7words by ,verlaine7 include two very typical songs1 ,en ,sourdine and ,clair de lune2 the second extremely successful in the creating of #8atmosphere' and the first unusually appealing in melody4 ,finally we may mention the ,ariettes oublies1 published in #aiac1 which include one admirable song1 the #8,belgian ,landscape1' which is clear and picturesque4 ,maurice ,ravel 7born #ahge7 has a more vital talent than ,debussy4 ,though the idiom he uses is remarkably similar1 he manipulates it with greater incisiveness of effect and hence can make it expressive of emotion and physical energy to a greater extent4 ,where ,debussy avoids the harsh and crude1 ,ravel often delights in it4 ,moreover1 of late years1 he has shown a marked change in his style 7which cannot be said of ,debussy74 ,for1 while the radical ,french music of the nineties was preminently harmonic 7insisting on the absolute effect of strange chords for its effect71 ,ravel has made his increasingly polyphonic4 ,this he seems to have got from the ,russian1 ,stravinsky4 ,undoubtedly this is a more vigorous method and especially one which is capable of a longer life and more variety of expression4 ,and with it ,ravel has accomplished fine things4 ,the new ,french school1 which with ,debussy seemed in danger of degenerating into meticulous preciosity1 will surely not see its energy exhausted at ,ravel's hands4 ,perhaps most typical of ,ravel's songs1 and admirably representative of his earlier technique1 are the five descriptive songs grouped under the title ,histoires naturelles4 ,the animals here described with inimitable humor are respectively the peacock1 the cricket1 the swan1 the king-fisher1 and the guinea fowl4 ,it is evident that these offer a wide variety of effect4 ,in each case ,ravel has seized the opportunity in masterly fashion4 ,the accompaniment to #8,the ,peacock' fairly shimmers with gorgeous coloring4 #8,the ,cricket' is strident and mechanical1 #8,the ,swan' slow and sensuous1 and so on4 ,perhaps the student may not find such subjects proper for song treatment4 ,but if descriptive music is admitted at all in song writing1 one must admit the fine and supple technique displayed in these extraordinarily successful songs4 ,the group entitled #8,scheherezade' is no less masterful in its description of scenery and moods4 ,the first1 called #8,asia1' is unbelievably rich in this respect4 ,finally we may mention the three poems from ,mallarm1 published in #aiad4 ,these are the most elaborate and difficult1 the most remote from conventional expression of anything ,ravel has done4 ,they are more solid and stimulating in their musicianship than anything he had done before4 ,the irregular melodic line of ,placet futile is luxuriant in the extreme4 ,all three show a gain toward freedom in the management of the voice1 a gain which means a great increase in absolute musical value for the voice part4 ,he seems here even to be creating a new sort of melody1 one which has few elements of formal regularity but is rich in sensuous loveliness4 ,the accompaniments for these songs are elaborate in the extreme4 ,what the ultimate artistic value of them will be can not be told until they have been generously tried out by experienced singers4 ,but they certainly give the musician pause4 ,they1 along with certain recent orchestral works1 prove that ,ravel is a man of immense energy1 of an artistic genius that cannot be curbed1 altogether one of the important men in modern music4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,see ,musical ,examples 7,vol4 ,,xiii74 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,modern ,,lyricists ,,outside ,,of ,,germany ,,and ,,france ,the new ,russian school3 ,balakireff1 etc42 ,moussorgsky and others--,the ,scandinavians and ,finns--,recent ,english song-writers4 ,i ,we have referred in another chapter to the neo-,russian school of composers1 who worked under the influence of ,mily ,balakireff and based their composition largely upon the native folk-songs4 ,it is this group that has created ,russia's musical art4 ,tschaikowsky and ,rubinstein are1 in the ,russian view1 out of the direct line of succession4 ,in the direct line1 which commences with ,glinka1 we find a distinguished company of geniuses4 ,after ,glinka comes ,alexander ,dargomijsky 7#ahac-ahfi71 one of the earliest converts to ,wagnerian principles outside of ,germany and a radical innovator in dramatic and harmonic method4 ,his opera1 #8,the ,stone ,guest1' looks forward a quarter of a century to modern harmonic effects1 whole-toned scale and all4 ,but1 in consideration of the time he was working1 it is not to be expected that his songs are of a radical cast4 ,they1 however1 show the innovating genius of the man and his full-blooded artistic life4 ,some ninety in all1 they are extraordinarily varied in style and contents1 some graceful and elegaic1 some exotic1 and some humorous4 ,dargomijsky took the traditional mantle of ,russian genius upon his shoulders in satirizing the bureaucracy and wrote some of his finest humorous songs on the subject4 ,among the best of his songs we may mention #8,an ,eastern ,song1' #8,i ,think that ,thou ,wert ,born for ,this1' and #8,o ,maid1 ,my ,rose4' ,his dramatic ballads1 of which #8,the ,knight ,errant' and #8,the ,old ,corporal' are the finest1 are marked by directness and simplicity which give them a rare laconic force4 ,illustration3 ,famous ,song ,interpreters4 ,top3 ,julia ,culp and ,elena ,gerhardt ,bottom3 ,ludwig ,wllner and ,david ,bispham ,dargomijsky was one of the older generation1 a sort of father confessor to the neo-,russian group4 ,this group worked under the inspiration of ,mily ,balakireff 7#ahcg-aiaj71 a young enthusiast with fine visions and a considerable knowledge of music1 mostly self-learned4 ,it was he who first of all gave the great emphasis to the use of folk-songs in ,russian composition and this he made the cornerstone of the new school4 ,as members of his little group he was lucky enough to have two geniuses of very nearly the first order1 one ,modest ,moussorgsky 7#ahce-ahha7 and the other ,nicholas ,rimsky-,korsakoff 7#ahdd-aijh74 ,balakireff's own songs show artistic qualities of a high order2 they are marked by unfailing taste and proportion and range over a broad field of expression1 nearly everywhere successfully4 ,but1 though his artistic and critical sense was superb1 he had not the creativeness of most of the group4 ,one man who has done much finer work in song than he is ,alexander ,borodine 7#ahcd-ahhg74 ,borodine entered the neo-,russian group as a mere amateur1 but he became filled with the new enthusiasms and set himself to work in earnest4 ,the high and consistent creative level of his work1 considering his short and interrupted study and the smallness of his output1 is amazing4 ,he wrote some twelve songs in his lifetime and fully half of them are masterpieces4 ,borodine was courageous in his attitude toward new musical principles and extremely happy in his use of the new materials4 ,expressive dissonance1 in particular1 he uses with rare effectiveness4 ,the ballad or romance entitled #8,the ,sleeping ,princess' is surely one of the finest things of its kind in existence4 ,the spell of the enchanted forest1 the calm beauty of the sleeping princess1 are suggested in a succession of major second dissonances which weave a web over the mysterious melodies of the accompaniment4 ,the same power of creating #8atmosphere' with simple means is shown in #8,the ,sea-,queen1' which is an exquisite inspiration4 ,the romance1 #8,a ,dissonance1' is a gem of concentrated lyricism4 ,but the most original of ,borodine's songs1 one of the most memorable of the whole ,russian product1 is #8,the ,song of the ,dark ,forest4'#cc ,this is written purely in the ,russian idiom1 with a great and savage melody which is irresistible in its vigor4 ,the accompaniment only duplicates the voice part1 with the addition of dissonances that sound forth like trumpet blasts4 ,with his handful of songs and his definite quantity of genius ,borodine has made a place for himself in the history of lyric music4 ,csar ,cui 7born #ahce71 who was in early years the press agent of the neo-,russian group1 need be mentioned here only to be passed over4 ,his song output is generous and nearly always marked with much grace and good taste4 ,but ,cui took less stock in the adoration of the folk-song than the other members of the group and his art product is in every way weaker4 ,rimsky-,korsakoff combined an intense feeling for the native ,russian idiom with an exhaustive knowledge of the technique of music and produced a large number of works which1 while being truly ,russian1 seem not unnatural to western ears4 ,he is shown in romantic vein in two early songs1 #8,on the ,georgian ,hills' and #8,a ,southern ,night4' ,his oriental songs are perhaps the best known of his lyric works4 ,in these the greatest modern master of musical exoticism has brought vividly to our ears not only the phrases1 but the very spirit of the east4 ,the #8,hebrew ,love ,song' may be taken as one of the best of the group4 ,but the greatest of the neo-,russian group1 the greatest ,russian composer hitherto1 and one of the great composers of all musical history1 was ,moussorgsky4 ,this man was utterly absorbed in the ,russian folk-song and based his style on nothing else4 ,he had the faculty of genius which goes straight to the heart of something new and produces his result without seeming effort4 ,few musicians of the nineteenth century have spoken with so individual a voice4 ,the world is only beginning to appreciate the greatness of his operas4 ,as for his songs1 they have made their way even more slowly1 but where they are once known they are never forgotten4 ,moussorgsky's many remarkable qualities are not to be set down in a single paragraph like the present4 ,suffice it to point out his harmonic originality1 which made use of atmospheric chords1 unusual scale combinations1 and powerful modulation long before ,debussy's time 7,debussy1 in fact1 confesses to have learned much from ,moussorgsky72 his freshness of inspiration1 which has produced some of the most glorious of melodies2 and his unsurpassed ability in the delineation of character and mood4 ,his songs are not a great many1 but there are few of them that are not masterpieces4 ,his pictures of peasant life are marvellous in their persuasive picturesqueness4 ,as an example we may quote the #8,peasant ,cradle ,song1' one of the greatest of songs anywhere4 ,the ineffable pathos of the beginning1 the strange ethereal light of the end1 are hardly to be paralleled in the whole range of song4 ,but it is more than a mere lullaby2 it is a peasant's lullaby and the music almost makes us see the poor hut in which the mother croons her song4 ,another lullaby1 the #8,cradle ,song of the ,poor1' is hardly less appealing1 but is totally different in design4 ,another song showing ,moussorgsky's highest genius is the ,hopak1 a long piece with admirable picturing of various phases of ,russian character4 ,the song is tremendously effective in concert4 ,moussorgsky's three song groups are all of the highest rank4 ,in the ,nursery ,songs he has done what no other composer has ever done better1 and not more than two or three have done so well4 ,he has depicted the events and emotions of a child with the simplicity of spirit of a child4 ,the songs1 however1 are not simple technically--so much the contrary that1 composed in #ahfh to #ahgj1 they are prophetic of future musical procedure4 ,this freedom and delicacy of delineation had never been seen in songs before4 ,the four #8,death ,dances' are tremendous songs of grim tragedy2 in #8,death and the ,peasant' the accompaniment depicts the indifference of nature at the fate of the peasant who is dying in the snow after a debauch4 ,the most amazing product of ,moussorgsky's lyrical genius1 however1 is his last group of six songs--#8,where ,no ,sun ,shines4' ,these1 written in the later years of his life1 under the influence of the deepest pessimism1 are perhaps the most intense expression of spiritual despair in all song literature4 ,the extraordinary technical method of these pieces1 hardly less than that of the remarkable children's songs1 was ,debussy's chief guiding light in the early years of the development of his style4 ,in absolute musical value these six last songs stand very high and #8,by the ,water' has few parallels in song literature4 ,the remaining ,russian song writers can be summed up briefly4 ,antony ,arensky 7born #ahfa7 is the composer of many songs1 graceful and pleasing but not highly original in style4 ,sergius ,taneiev 7born #ahef7 inclines to the conservative and classical1 but is an able musician and capable song-writer4 ,alexander ,glazounoff 7born #ahfe7 has worked with most success in the smaller forms and in his graceful songs has put much that is charming1 though little that is genuinely inspiring4 ,his work is marked by its extraordinary suavity and taste4 ,michael ,ippolitoff-,ivanoff 7born #ahei7 has composed some ninety songs1 distinguished by a straightforward honesty of method and healthfulness of feeling4 ,sergei ,rachmaninoff 7born #ahgc7 is a much greater man than those we have just named and a masterful song-writer4 ,he is not always1 however1 writing in the strenuous eastern idiom4 #8,before ,my ,garden' and #8,lilacs' are excellent in the conventional way4 ,but he has written at least one truly great song of genuine ,russian inspiration4 ,this is #8,oh1 ,thou ,billowy ,harvest ,fields1' which deserves to rank with ,borodine's #8,song of the ,black ,forest' in daring and stark power4 ,,ii ,since the time of ,grieg1 song writing in ,scandinavia has flourished4 ,the chief ,norwegian exponent of the art is ,christian ,sinding 7born #ahef71 a hardworking and sincere artist1 with occasional flashes of something near genius4 ,his many songs include settings and adaptations of ,norwegian folk-songs1 which he has handled with rare taste4 ,he has put something of their directness into his own art1 for he is one of the best of the modern song-writers in his power of getting the nub of an emotion in a few notes4 ,his song product is uneven1 for much of his work has been hurried and routine in quality4 ,but there are many pieces of superior character and these reveal a quality which is above all things lyrical4 ,emil ,sjgren 7born #ahec7 is probably the foremost song writer of ,sweden4 ,he is not a man of power4 ,his range of expression is limited to the graceful and tender4 ,much of his work is of the second order4 ,but very often he produces lyrics of quite original beauty4 ,among these we may mention ,du schaust mich an1 ,jahrlang mcht' ich1 and ,ich mchte schweben4 ,the second1 in particular1 should prove highly effective in concert4 ,of recent years ,sjgren has cultivated the new harmonic style with much industry and acquisitive talent4 ,he has1 in fact1 changed his style completely4 ,it is doubtful if he can be said to be wholly successful in his metamorphosis4 ,he seems over-concerned with details and fails to attain cogency of form4 ,jean ,sibelius 7born #ahfe7 is the greatest of ,finnish composers and is rapidly coming to be recognized as one of the greatest in the world4 ,we must remember that the ,finns are dominantly ,teutonic1 and that culture has been ,teutonic in the past and not ,russian or ,mongolian as is sometimes supposed4 ,but ,sibelius has developed a marvellous individuality of expression which is at once expressive of him and of his nation4 ,some of his songs are epoch-making in their form and method4 ,in the more graceful lyrical mood ,sibelius is often charming4 ,we may mention #8,idle ,wishes' and #8,oh1 ,wert ,thou ,here' as of this class4 ,in the simple folk-style ,sibelius is even more individual4 #8,a ,little ,flower ,stood on the ,wayside' is a thing of remarkable tenderness and beauty4 ,but it is when ,sibelius strikes his national idiom that he is at his greatest4 ,this idiom is characterized by long1 slowly-moving1 angular phrases1 with frequent repetitions of the same note4 ,the style is admirably presented in the long song #8,to ,frigge4' ,the accompaniment is scarcely less simple than the voice part1 yet it is truly delineative4 ,the song is a model of pure genius creating something quite new and very beautiful out of materials so simple that they have been left by the wayside as useless4 ,des ,fahrmanns ,brute is a very long ballad of great strength4 ,but ,sibelius is at his greatest and most original in the #8,autumn ,evening1' a song which has no fellow anywhere4 ,sibelius's method here is unique4 ,the song is almost recitative1 but the various irregular phrases of the voice have an incisive quality which makes them rank as descriptive4 ,the accompaniment is little more than a chord support at most points1 but now and then rises into great delineative power4 ,the method is one of selection until only the essentials remain4 ,each unit of expression which ,sibelius has here used is ideally fitted for its purpose4 ,moreover1 the song1 though free in the extreme1 has a close structure which is entirely convincing4 ,the originality of this song should ultimately make a deep impression on current song-writing4 ,,iii ,in latter-day ,england song-writing has risen to a dignity and importance which it had not possessed since the time of ,purcell4 ,with ,arthur ,goring-,thomas1 whom we have already mentioned1 a new note of artistic sincerity entered the art4 ,this was continued by an unusually talented man1 ,arthur ,somervell 7born #ahfc71 who has composed some of the best song cycles of recent times4 ,somervell is by no means a radical in his method4 ,but his lyric sense is keen and his invention fertile4 ,his cycle from ,tennyson's #8,maud' attains rare fidelity and tragic intensity4 ,among his other numerous songs are the two cycles1 #8,a ,shropshire ,lad' and #8,james ,lee's ,wife1' the latter scored for orchestral accompaniment4 ,these both show his happy invention and his high musicianship4 ,a song-writer who has gained a much more glittering reputation less deservedly is ,edward ,elgar1 whom people regard for some reason as the chief representative of modern ,english song4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,elgar's song output has been slight and has not pretended to show the best he was capable of 7as ,reger did attempt to show in his songs74 ,there is little of ,elgar's forceful musicianship which comes across to us in these songs4 ,the #8,sea ,pictures' have made their effect chiefly through the effective orchestration which their composer provided for them4 ,considered as independent music1 they are inferior and somewhat conventional4 ,the best is probably #8,where ,coral ,lies4' #8,the ,swimmer' will serve to suggest ,elgar's descriptive style4 ,the conventional1 in fact1 hangs over most of ,elgar's songs4 ,the one which notably escapes it is the beautiful lyric1 #8,my ,love ,lives in a ,northern ,land1' which is worthy to be signed by a first-class musician4 ,of the others we may mention #8,queen ,mary's ,song1' which1 with its accompaniment in imitation of a lute1 is effective in concert2 #8,through the ,long ,days1' ,the ,shepherd's ,song1' and ,the ,pipes of ,pan4' ,granville ,bantock 7born #ahfh7 may justly be called a radical modern composer1 whereas ,elgar has much of the classical reserve about him4 ,bantock's very great ability and learning sometimes produce rather chaotic results1 the more so because his output is unusually great4 ,but frequently it produces results that are altogether admirable4 ,to singers he is known chiefly through his #8,songs of the ,east4' ,these are published as cycles1 as follows3 ,songs of ,egypt1 ,songs of ,india1 ,songs of ,persia1 ,songs of the ,seraglio1 ,five #8,ghazels of ,hafiz1' lyrics from #8,ferishtah's ,fancies1' ,songs of ,china1 and ,songs of ,japan4 ,the exoticism of these many songs is rarely genuine and ,bantock's facile technique extends over them all to make them seem rather too much alike for the good of his reputation4 ,but the effect of exoticism is frequently attained with rare skill and the musical standard is kept far higher than is usual in this class of music4 ,bantock's powerful technique1 which is obviously influenced by ,richard ,strauss1 is to be studied to advantage in many of these songs1 especially the more pretentious ones4 ,from the ,songs of ,egypt we should mention the majestic #8,invocation to the ,nile1' the mystical song #8,the ,unutterable'2 and the poignant #8,lament of ,isis4' ,of the ,hindoo songs that of the ,nautch girl is ever memorable for its effect of fierce physical motion4 ,the songs from ,persia include two of high quality1 the #8,drinking ,song' and the #8,hymn of the ,ghebers4' ,let us further pick out1 as among the best1 the ,persian ,love ,song from the #8,songs of the ,seraglio'2 and the #8,shah ,abbas' and #8,mahirab ,shah' from #8,ferishtah's ,fancies1' the last remarkable for its expression of physical pain4 ,the songs of ,china and ,japan are in no way unusual4 ,nor are the six ,jester ,songs1 though they sometimes catch the joy of life in engaging fashion4 ,but ,bantock has one very ambitious work1 the cycle of fragments from ,sappho1 which is sufficient to put him in the front rank4 ,it is hard to describe the richness of the technique he has lavished on this work4 ,we should find it difficult to name anything similar to it in its peculiar emotional intensity4 ,the best that ,bantock has to show of his art 7his instrumentation aside7 is all to be found in this remarkable group of songs4 ,every one of them is admirable1 as is also the very long introduction4 ,but one remembers especially the opening number1 the #8,hymn to ,aphrodite1' dramatic and passionate2 the painfully beautiful song1 #8,the ,moon ,has ,set'2 the masterful description of #8,peer of the ,gods'2 and the profuse musical richness of #8,in a ,dream ,i ,spake4' ,possibly these songs will in later years be judged too pretentious4 ,but while the judgment is still unmade we must regard with the highest respect the musician who has done this thing in the musical conditions that have prevailed in ,england4 ,it only remains to speak of the most radical of the young ,english composers1 ,cyril ,scott 7born #ahgd74 ,he broke away completely from the traditional ,english style1 founded on conventional church music1 and embraced the #8atmospheric' manner of the modern ,frenchmen4 ,in this style he has displayed great energy and no small amount of inventiveness4 ,it remains to be seen whether he can make his influence permanently felt in music4 ,his songs well exemplify the general style of his music4 ,the best are #8,lovely ,kind and ,kindly ,loving' and #8,why so ,pale and ,wan1' both from opus #ee4 ,others which should be mentioned are #8,my ,captain' 7to ,walt ,whitman's words71 #8,a ,reflection1' and #8,afterday4' ,the song writing of the modern ,english school has not yet gathered body4 ,it is only beginning to make itself felt beyond the seas4 ,but it has already shown so much vigor and independence that we may justly look for abundant and fine results from it4 ,,footnotes3 #cc ,see ,musical examples1 ,volume ,,xiv4 ,,appendix ,,the ,,french-,,canadian ,,folk-,,song ,the songs of the ,french ,canadians1 which show considerable originality1 are in part transplanted from ,france1 modified and localized in the natural course of popular music4 ,but a considerable part are indigenous1 with a history dating back1 possibly1 more than two centuries4 ,they are all1 of course1 made in imitation of the parent stock1 but in many instances they have taken on a new character1 befitting the wild and uncouth environment in which they were composed4 ,in some instances they show model characteristics1 as in the ,mon ,cri ,cra1 ,tir' la ,liretta1 sung by the boatmen on the ,red ,river4 ,this old song shows scarcely any traces of the omnipresent influence of the court of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,other songs bear the marks of the ,french priests1 through whose hands they passed on their way to the ,canadian natives1 ,indians or ,frenchmen4 ,such a song is ,jesos ,ahatonhia1 the music of which was evidently an ecclesiastical melody with a strong modal character indicating its great age4 ,but on the whole the refined and graceful influence of ,french civilization is strongly marked in the ,canadian songs1 even when these songs originated in the ,new ,world4 ,the one department in which they are supreme is that of playful humor--not the humor of the old ,english songs1 which is somewhat bumptious and muscular1 but a more delicate humor1 into which the singer enters from pure effervescence of human sympathy and childlike playfulness4 ,we must range a long way through folk-song literature before we find a song of this sort to equal #8,the ,white ,duck1' or #8,i ,hear a ,mill ,go ,tick-,tack4' ,a provocative playfulness sings in the words of #8,my ,faithful ,bottle1' #8,the ,lost ,chance1' and the inimitable #8,when ,returning from ,varennes1' with its continuous refrain1 ,cach'ton joli bas de laine4 ,the spirit of ,gascony1 famous home of the practical joke1 is in the #8,song of ,lies1' in which the singer turns the world topsy-turvy and hopes to be hung if a single word he says is true4 ,the sentimental note is not so often struck1 but we find it charmingly in such occasional songs as #8,the ,traveller's ,return1' and #8,from ,yonder on the ,mountains4' ,gagnon's collection1 made in #ahfe 7the earliest of all71 contains a number of gentle and lovely airs1 such as ,c'est la belle franaise4 ,we may also notice in this book a number which have been transported from ,france and forgotten in the home country while they lived and flourished under their foster mother4 ,such a song is ,dans les ,prisons de ,nantes4 ,mon ,per' n'avait fille que moi is one of the most interesting examples of the old modal style4 ,the ,canadian songs are peculiarly addicted to the use of the refrain4 ,this device1 which is always a mark of unsophisticated playfulness1 is relied upon to such an extent that one would call it excessive if the high spirits of the music and words did not carry the little game through to complete success4 ,as so often happens1 the refrain frequently has nothing whatever to do with the sense of the text4 ,the primitive innocence of the mind is absolutely demanded of any singer who attempts1 for instance1 #8,the ,white ,duck4' ,on the whole1 the ,canadian songs1 though very limited in range1 can show a few types of folk-expression managed with such consummate art that they deserve a place in the folk-literature of the world4 ,,literature ,,for ,,volume ,v 7,in ,english7 ,a4 ,b4 ,,bach3 ,the ,principles of ,singing 7,london1 #ahig74 ,j4 ,,frank ,,botume3 ,modern ,singing ,methods 7,london1 #ahhe74 ,,lennox ,,browne and ,,emil ,,behnker3 ,voice1 ,song and ,speech 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahhd74 ,,anna ,,chapin3 ,makers of ,song 7,new ,york1 #aijd74 ,,william ,,chappell3 ,old ,english ,popular ,music1 #b vols4 7,london1 #ahic74 ,h4 ,,holbrook ,,curtis1 ,m4 ,d43 ,voice ,building and ,tone ,placing 7,new ,york1 #ahif74 ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck3 ,songs and ,song ,writers 7,new ,york1 #aiaj74 ,,ffrangcon-,,davies3 ,the ,singing of the ,future 7,london1 #aijd74 ,folk-,songs from ,somerset1 #e vols4 7,london1 #aijd-h74 ,,harry ,,plunkett ,,greene3 ,interpretation in ,song 7,new ,york1 #aiab74 ,,max ,,heinrich3 ,correct ,principles of ,classical ,singing 7,boston1 #aiaj74 ,h4 ,l4 ,f4 ,,helmholtz3 ,the ,study of ,sensations of ,tone 7,trans4 by ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 #ahge74 ,w4 ,j4 ,,henderson3 ,the ,art of ,singing 7,new ,york1 #aijf74 ,,gordon ,,holmes3 ,a ,treatise on ,vocal ,physiology and ,hygiene 7#ahgi74 ,,john ,,howard3 ,the ,physiology of ,artistic ,singing 7#ahhf74 ,,dora ,,jones3 ,lyric ,diction 7,new ,york1 #aiac74 ,,kickson ,,and ,,neal3 ,english ,folk-song and ,dance 7,cambridge1 ,eng41 #aije74 ,h4 ,e4 ,,krehbiel3 ,afro-,american ,folk-song 7,new ,york1 #aiad74 ,,louis ,,lablache3 ,complete ,method of ,singing4 ,,francesco ,,lamperti3 ,a ,treatise on the ,art of ,singing 7,trans4 by ,j4 ,c4 ,griffiths1 #ahgf74 ,,lilli ,,lehmann3 ,how to ,sing 7,new ,york1 #aiab74 ,,eugenie ,,lineva3 ,peasant ,songs of ,great ,russia 7,engl4 and ,russian text1 ,imperial ,academy of ,science1 ,st4 ,petersburg74 ,,sir ,,morell ,,mackenzie3 ,the ,hygiene of the ,vocal ,organs 7,london1 #ahij74 ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,mancini3 ,practical ,reflections on ,figured ,song 7,engl4 transl4 by ,pietro ,buzzi1 ,boston1 #aiac74 ,,matilda ,,marchesi3 ,ten ,singing ,lessons 7,london1 #aija74 ,,wesley ,,mills1 ,m4 ,d43 ,voice ,production in ,singing and ,speaking 7#aijf74 ,,sir ,c4 ,,hubert ,h4 ,,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music 7#ahii74 ,c4 ,k4 ,,rogers3 ,my ,voice and ,i 7,chicago1 #aiaj74 ,e4 ,w4 ,,scripture3 ,the ,elements of ,experimental ,phonetics 7#aijb74 ,,william ,,shakespeare3 ,the ,art of ,singing1 #c parts 7,london1 #ahih74 ,w4 ,,warren ,,shaw3 ,the ,lost ,vocal ,art 7,phila41 #aiad74 ,,shays3 ,english ,folk-,carols 7,london1 #aiaa74 ,,shays3 ,english ,folk-,chanteys 7,london1 #aiad74 ,,shays3 ,english ,folk-,songs2 ,some ,conclusions 7,london1 #aijg74 ,,david ,c4 ,,taylor3 ,the ,psychology of ,singing 7,new ,york1 #aijh74 ,,pietro ,,francesco ,,tosi3 ,observations on the ,florid ,song 7#agbc74 7,reprint by ,william ,reeves1 ,london1 #aije47 ,,george ,p4 ,,upton3 ,the ,song 7,chicago1 #aiae74 ,in ,german ,,erk ,,und ,b,,hme3 ,deutscher ,liederhort1 #c vols4 7,leipzig1 #ahic74 ,,max ,,friedl,,nder3 ,das deutsche ,lied im #ah4 ,jahrhundert1 #b vols4 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aijb74 ,h4 ,l4 ,f4 ,,helmholtz3 ,die ,lehre der ,tonempfindungen4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,kiesewetter3 ,schicksale und ,beschaffenheit des weltlichen ,gesanges1 etc4 7#ahda74 ,,dr4 ,l4 ,,mandl3 ,die ,gesundheitslehre der ,stimme 7#ahgf74 ,,carl ,,ludwig ,,merkl3 ,der ,kehlkopf 7#ahgc74 ,in ,french ,f4 ,j4 ,f,,tis3 ,histoire gnrale de la musique 7#ahfi74 ,mthode de chant du ,conservatoire de ,musique 7,paris1 #ahjc74 ,,julien ,,tiersot3 ,histoire de la chanson populaire en ,france 7,paris1 #ahhi74 ,j4 ,b4 ,,weckerlin3 ,chansons populaires du pays de ,france1 #b vols4 7,paris1 #aijc74 ,in ,italian ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,mancini3 ,reflessioni pratiche sul canto figurato 7#aggg74 ,,giulio ,,caccini3 ,le nouve musiche 7,florence1 #afjj74 ,,index ,,of ,,volume ,v ,n4 ,b4--,figures in ,italics indicate major references4 ,a ,a ,highland ,lad ,my ,love was ,born 7,scotch folk-song71 #aac4 ,abdominal breathing1 #d;f4 ,abyssinians1 #hf4 ,acoustics 7rel4 to human voice71 #ac4 ,adam de la ,halle1 #ach4 ,adams1 ,stephen1 #cbg4 ,adaptive change1 #b4 ,adeste ,fideles1 #aac4 ,african folk-songs1 #aje4 ,agricola1 ,martin1 #afd4 ,airs du cour1 #aff4 ,albniz1 ,isaac1 #abj4 ,albert1 ,heinrich1 #afb;f4 ,america1 7folk-music7 #abi2 7song-writers71 #bih1 #cai;ff1 #cbb;f4 ,anatomy of the vocal organs1 #a-bc4 ,ancient methods of vocal culture1 #cj;ff4 ,an die ferne ,geliebte 7,beethoven71 #aed;f4 ,andr1 ,johann1 #aia;f4 #8,annie ,laurie1' #ajg1 #aac4 ,archilei1 ,vittoria1 #dj4 ,arensky1 ,antony1 #cfh4 ,aria1 7da capo form71 #aed;ff2 7development71 #agb;ff2 7,german71 #age4 ,arioso1 #age4 ,aristotle1 #ee4 ,arne1 ,dr4 ,thomas1 #aga4 ,arnold1 ,samuel1 #agb4 ,art-ballad 7,german71 #bgb;ff4 ,art-song1 7compared with folk-song7 #gb1 #hi;ff2 7early rise and decline71 #aea;ff2 7in #agth cent471 #afb;ff2 7rise of modern71 #ahf;ff4 ,articulation1 #c1 #af;ff1 #fc;ff4 ,artificial soprano1 #dd4 ,athens1 early vocal culture in1 #cb;f4 ,assyria1 vocal culture in1 #cj4 ,auld ,lang ,syne1 #gb;f1 #ajb1 #aab;f4 ,b ,bach1 ,johann ,sebastian1 7spiritual songs71 #adg2 7secular songs71 #afd2 7in rel4 to ,german song71 #age4 ,bach1 ,carl ,philipp ,emanuel 7,geistliche ,lieder71 #ahi;f4 ,balakireff1 ,mily1 #abg1 #cfe4 ,balfe1 ,michael1 #bfg4 ,ballad form1 7compared to lyric form71 #bjb2 7,schubert71 #bbe;f2 7,lwe71 #bgb;ff4 ,ballad opera1 7#ahth cent471 #agj;ff2 7#aith cent471 #bfg4 ,bantock1 ,granville1 #cgb;f4 ,baritone voice1 #fb4 ,bass voice1 #ad4 ,bassani1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #afj4 ,beethoven1 #if1 #agg1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #aic1 #aif4 ,an die ferne ,geliebte1 #aed;f4 ,in questa tomba1 #ahd4 ,busslied1 #ahd4 #8,beggar's ,opera1' #agj;f4 ,behnke1 #bh4 ,bel canto1 #af1 #bi1 #dd1 #aeh;f4 ,benedict1 ,julius1 #bfg4 ,branger1 #bfj;f4 ,bergerette1 #aff;f1 #agi;f1 #bjd4 ,berlioz1 ,hector1 #bfb;ff4 ,bierbaum1 ,otto ,julius1 #cca4 ,bishop1 ,sir ,henry1 #aje1 #agb1 #bfg4 ,bizet1 ,georges1 #cae4 ,blondel 7minstrel71 #acg;f4 ,bohemian folk-songs1 #abg;f4 ,bologna 7early music school in71 #cg4 ,borodine1 ,alexander1 #abh1 #cfe;f4 ,brahms1 ,johannes1 #abe1 #bgf-bij4 olian ,harp1 #bhf4 ,anklnge1 #bhe4 ,as the ,clouds1 #bhe4 ,before the ,window1 #bhb4 ,consolation of ,spring1 #bhh4 ,fidelity1 #bhd4 ,going to ,my ,sweetheart1 #bhb4 ,gold ,outweighs ,love1 #bhh4 ,gypsy ,songs1 #bgg;f1 #bhb;f4 ,have a ,care1 #bhh4 ,hey1 ,bow and ,arrow1 #bhg4 ,hey1 ,ye ,gypsies1 #bhc4 ,i ,call from the ,bank1 #bhh4 ,is it ,sorrow1 #bhg4 ,joy ,hath ,left ,me1 #bhb4 ,lament1 #bhb4 ,longing1 #bhb4 ,love and ,spring1 #bhd4 ,the ,lover's ,oath1 #bhb4 ,magyar ,love ,song1 #bhh4 ,the ,maiden1 #bhb;f4 ,the ,maiden's ,curse1 #bhh;f4 ,minnelied1 #bhi4 ,motionless ,air1 #bhh4 ,the ,mournful ,one1 #bhb4 ,nicht mehr zu dir zu gehen1 #bhf4 ,nightingale1 #bhe4 ,the ,nut ,brown ,lad1 #bhc4 ,oh1 ,come1 ,holy ,summer ,night1 #bhh4 ,oh1 khler ,wald1 #bhi4 ,oh1 ,would ,i ,knew the ,returning ,road1 #bhh4 ,on ,sunday ,morning1 #bhh4 ,red ,evening ,clouds1 #bhc4 ,remembrance1 #bhh4 ,rest1 ,sweet ,love1 #bhg4 ,the ,return1 #bhe4 ,sapphic ,ode1 #bhi4 ,serenade1 #bhb4 ,the ,smith1 #bhe4 ,so steh'n wir1 ich and meine ,weide1 #bhg4 ,the ,song of ,herr von ,falkenstein1 #bhg;f4 ,spanish ,song1 #bhe4 ,three ,roses in a ,row1 #bhc4 ,twilight ,falls1 #bhh4 ,vain ,serenade1 #bhi4 ,volkslied1 #bhb4 ,wie bist du1 meine ,knigin1 #bhg4 ,with1 ,eternal ,love1 #bhg4 ,breath control1 #eh4 ,breathing1 #a;ff2 7faulty methods7 #fe4 ,breathing exercises1 #fj;f4 ,browne and ,behnke 7#8,voice1 ,song and ,speech'71 #bh4 ,bruneau1 ,alfred1 #cef;f4 ,the ,brunette1 #aff4 ,bungert1 ,august1 #cab4 ,burns1 ,robert1 #ia1 #ie;f1 #aac;f4 ,burton1 ,frederick ,r41 #db4 ,c ,caccini1 ,giulio1 #dg;ff1 #aed4 ,amarilla1 #aei4 ,cadman1 ,charles ,wakefield1 #aje4 ,caffarelli1 #dd4 ,caldara1 ,antonio1 #afj4 ,caller ,herrin 7,scotch song71 #aac4 ,cambio1 ,perrisone1 #aec4 ,the ,campbells are ,coming1 #aab;f4 ,canadian folk-songs1 #cge;ff4 ,cantus firmus1 #adh;f4 ,carey1 ,henry1 #aga4 ,carissimi1 ,giacomo1 #afj4 ,catholic ,church4 ,see ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,cavalli1 ,francesco1 #aei;f4 ,cavatina1 #age4 ,chabrier1 ,emmanuel1 #ced4 ,chaldea 7ancient71 vocal culture in1 #cj4 ,chaminade1 ,ccile1 #cah4 ,chanson1 #aff4 ,charlemagne1 #aca4 ,charlie is ,my ,darling 7,scotch folk-song71 #aac4 ,charpentier1 ,gustave1 #ceh4 ,chausson1 ,ernest1 #cee4 ,cherubini1 ,luigi1 #di;f4 ,chest cavity1 #d;f4 ,chest register1 #aa;f4 ,chest resonance1 #ad;f1 #fb;ff4 ,chinese scale1 #hf4 ,chivalry 7influence of1 on song71 #acf;ff4 ,choir master1 in early ,roman church1 #cc;ff4 ,choir schools1 #cc;ff4 ,chopin1 ,frdric1 #bef4 ,chorale1 #adg4 ,church1 ,roman1 7early vocal culture in71 #cc;ff2 7early music of71 #acj;f2 7use of popular music in71 #adh4 ,see also ,greek ,catholic ,church2 ,lutheran ,church4 ,classic song 7,the71 #aea-ahe4 ,coloratura1 #ci;ff1 #aee;ff1 #afj4 ,comic opera 7,french71 #aff1 #agi4 ,conservatoire method of singing1 #di;f4 ,consonants1 #ag;f1 #fd1 #ff4 ,coquard1 ,arthur1 #cai4 ,cornelius1 ,peter1 #bih1 #cjb;ff4 ,counterpoint1 #bd1 #ce;ff1 #abi1 #adi1 #aec2 7modern71 #cdc1 #cde4 ,courts of ,love1 #aci;f4 ,cowen1 ,frederick1 #cbg4 ,crescendo 7vocal71 #ae4 ,cricoid cartilage1 #f;ff4 ,cui1 ,csar1 #cff4 ,curschmann1 ,karl ,friedrich1 #bef4 ,d ,da capo form1 #aed;ff1 #agb1 #age4 ,dalayrac1 ,nicolas1 #ahj4 ,dance1 7primitive71 #hc2 7popularity of1 in ,italy71 #abj4 ,danish folk-songs1 #abc4 ,dargomijsky1 ,alexander1 #cdi1 #cfd;f1 #cfe4 ,darwin1 ,charles 7theory of origin of song71 #hg4 ,david1 ,flicien1 #cae4 ,davy1 ,john1 #agb4 ,debussy1 ,claude1 #cdf1 #cef2 7compared with ,charpentier71 #ceh2 7his songs71 #ceh;ff2 7compared with ,m4 ,ravel71 #cfb2 7influenced by ,moussorgsky71 #cfg4 ,declamation1 art of 7in ancient ,athens71 #cb2 7compared with recitative71 #bjb;f4 ,dehmel1 ,richard1 #cca4 ,delivery1 in singing1 #ig4 ,denmark1 folk-songs of1 #abc4 ,denza1 ,luigi1 #cbc4 ,der du von dem ,himmel bist 7settings of ,liszt and ,schubert compared71 #bid4 ,descriptive music1 #bai;f4 ,diaphragm1 #d;f4 ,dibdin1 ,charles1 #agb4 ,dissonance1 unprepared1 #aei1 #afb4 ,doric mode1 in ,irish folk-song1 #aad4 ,dramatic recitative1 influence of1 on solo singing1 #db4 ,drinking1 effect of1 on singer's organism1 #ai4 ,du bist wie eine ,blume 7,schumann71 #bdj2 7,liszt71 #bid2 7,rubinstein71 #cbd4 ,dufay1 ,guillaume1 #adh4 ,duparc1 ,henri1 #cee4 ,durchkomponiertes ,lied1 #agf;f4 ,dutch folk-song1 #ajh4 ,dutrochet1 cited1 #ef4 ,dvok1 ,anton1 #cab4 ,e ,ear control of voice1 #bh;f1 #eb;f4 ,eating1 effect of1 on singer's organism1 #ai4 ,ecclesiastical modes4 ,see ,modes4 ,education1 musical1 viii-ff4 ,edward 7settings of ,lwe and ,brahms71 #bge4 ,egypt1 vocal culture in1 #cj4 ,ein ,fichtenbaum steht einsam 7settings of ,schumann and ,lassen71 #cjg4 ,eleanor of ,aquitaine1 #adj4 ,elgar1 ,edward1 #cga;f4 ,england1 7folk-song71 #ajd1 #ajh;ff2 7medival minstrels71 #cd1 #ch1 #acb2 7classic song71 #afg;ff2 7songs of early #aith cent471 #bff1 #bfg;f2 7late romantics71 #bih1 #cbf;ff2 7modern lyricists71 #cga;ff4 ,english ballad-opera1 #agj;ff1 #bfg4 ,english folk-song1 #afg;ff4 ,enunciation1 #ff4 ,erlking1 7,schubert71 #aic;f1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bji1 #bbe2 7,lwe71 #bgd4 ,es ist bestimmt 7,mendelssohn71 #ajg4 ,ethmoid sinus1 #ae4 ,expiration1 in correct breathing1 #e4 ,expressive style4 ,see ,representative style4 ,f ,fabricius of ,aquapendente1 #ee;f4 ,falsetto1 #fb4 ,farinelli1 #dd4 ,fasolo1 ,g4 ,b41 #afj4 ,faur1 ,gabriel1 #cdg1 #cdi;ff4 ,ferrein 7anatomist71 #ef4 ,ftis1 ,f4 ,j41 cited1 #bg4 ,fielitz1 ,alexander von1 #caj;f4 ,finck1 ,henry ,t41 cited1 #cai4 ,finland1 modern1 #cgj;f4 ,fiorituri1 #da4 ,the ,fisher 7folk-song71 #aai2 7,schubert71 #bab4 ,the ,fisher ,boy1 7,schubert71 #bbf2 7,liszt71 #bib;f4 ,florid song4 ,see ,coloratura1 ,ornamentation4 ,folk-song1 #be1 #gj-ii1 #ajj;ff1 #adg;f1 #aej1 #cjh;ff1 #ccg2 7,english71 #aaj;f1 #afg;ff2 7,scotch71 #aaa;ff2 7,irish71 #aac;f2 7,french71 #aae;f1 #afd;f2 7,italian71 #aaf;ff1 #aec1 #bff;ff2 7,spanish71 #aai;f1 #cfd;ff2 7,german71 #abj;f1 #afb;f1 #aia;f1 #bbi;f2 7,scandinavian71 #aba1 #bii1 #cja;f2 7,hungarian71 #abb;ff2 7,russian71 #abe;ff2 7,norwegian71 #aba1 #cfi2 7,bohemian71 #abg;f2 7,polish71 #abh2 7influence on art-song71 #aeb;ff2 7compared to early church song71 #afd;f2 7influence on ,schubert71 #bje4 ,see also ,songs in the folk-manner4 #8,forward tone1' #fd;f4 ,foster1 ,stephen ,c41 #ajg1 #abi1 #afc;f4 ,france1 7medival minstrels71 #acc;f2 7,troubadours71 #acf;ff2 7classic song71 #afd;ff1 #agh;ff2 7romantic period71 #beh;ff2 7late romantics71 #bih1 #cac;ff4 ,franck1 ,csar1 #ced;f4 ,franz1 ,robert1 #bfh;ff2 7compared with ,brahms71 #bgh2 7compared with ,grieg71 #bii;f2 7compared with ,hugo ,wolf71 #ccd;f4 ,french folk-song1 #aae;ff2 7in #afth cent471 #afd;f4 ,french-,canadian folk-songs1 #cge;f4 ,french comic opera1 #agi4 ,french influence1 7on early ,german song71 #afd2 7on early ,english song71 #afh;f4 ,french lyricism1 modern1 #cdf-cfc4 ,frottola1 #aec4 ,funicula1 7,italian folk-song71 #ajc2 7,denza71 #cbc4 ,g ,gagnon 7collector of ,french-,canadian songs71 #aah4 ,galen 7anatomist71 #ee4 ,galilei1 ,vincenzo1 #aed4 ,garca1 ,manuel1 #aj1 #eg;f4 ,gastoldi1 ,giacomo1 #aec4 ,geibel1 ,emmanuel1 #ccj;f4 ,german folk-song1 #ajf;f1 #aai1 #abj;ff2 7in rel4 to the singspiel71 #aia;f4 ,german opera1 #agf1 #bbh4 ,german vowels1 #af4 ,germany 7attitude of1 toward folk-songs1 compared with ,england's71 #aji2 7medival minstrels71 #acb1 #ada;ff2 7,meistersinger71 #add;ff2 7,reformation71 #adg;f1 #aej2 7classical song71 #afb;ff2 7song in #ahth cent471 #age;ff2 7time of ,schubert71 #aig1 #aih;ff1 #bbg;f2 7,schumann71 #bca;ff2 7romantics after ,schumann71 #bih1 #cjb;ff2 7since ,franco-,prussian ,war71 #ccj;ff4 ,see also ,german folk-song4 ,gibbons1 ,orlando1 #afg4 ,glazounoff1 ,alexander1 #cfh4 ,glinka1 ,michail ,ivanovitch1 #abg1 #beg4 ,glottis1 #ab;f1 #ba1 #ee;f2 7correct management of71 #fa4 ,gluck1 ,christoph ,willibald1 #agg2 influence on ,berlioz1 #bfc4 ,god ,save the ,king1 #aga4 ,godard1 ,benjamin1 #cag;f4 ,goethe1 #aic1 #aih;f2 7quoted on the ballad form71 #bgd4 ,gordigiani1 ,luigi1 #bff4 ,goring-,thomas1 ,arthur1 #bih1 #cbg;f1 #cga4 ,gossec1 ,franois ,joseph1 #ahc4 ,gounod1 ,charles ,franois1 #bgh;f1 #bih1 #cac;f4 ,graben-,hoffmann1 ,gustav1 #cab4 ,graun1 ,johann ,gottlieb1 #afd4 ,great ,britain1 folk-songs of1 #ajh;ff4 ,see also ,england4 ,greece1 #afg4 ,greek ,catholic ,church1 #dj;f4 ,grtry1 ,andr ,erneste ,modeste1 #ahj4 ,grieg1 ,edvard1 #bii;ff4 ,the ,swan1 #cjj4 ,guido d',arezzo1 #cd4 ,guilbert1 ,yvette1 #aaa4 ,gypsies1 #abc;f4 ,gypsy songs4 ,see ,brahms4 ,h ,hahn1 ,reynaldo1 #cai4 ,handel1 ,george ,frederick1 #aga4 ,harmonics1 vocal1 #ae4 ,harmony1 7in early ,italian part-songs71 #aec;f2 7in #agth cent4 ,french song71 #aff2 7,wagner71 #bia;f2 7,arnold ,schnberg71 #cdc2 7modern ,french school71 #cdh;ff2 7,alfred ,bruneau71 #cef2 7,dargomijsky71 #cfd4 ,harp1 medival1 #acf4 ,the ,harp ,that ,once ,through ,tara's ,halls 7,irish folk-song71 #aad4 ,hassler1 ,hans ,leo1 #afb4 ,haydn1 ,joseph1 #agg;f1 #ahg4 ,head cavities1 #af;f4 ,head register1 #ab4 ,health1 influence of1 on singing1 #ah4 ,hebrews1 early vocal culture of1 #cj;ff1 #dj;f4 ,heidenrslein 7,schubert71 #ajg4 ,heine1 ,heinrich1 #bbd;f1 #bcc;ff1 #bdh;f4 ,helmholtz1 ,hermann ,ludwig ,ferdinand von 7quoted71 #af1 #eh4 ,henderson1 ,w4 ,j4 7cited71 #bjg;f4 ,henry ,,viii1 ,king of ,england1 #aaj4 ,henschel1 ,georg1 #cjh;ff4 ,herder1 ,johann ,gottfried1 #aaj4 ,heyse1 ,paul1 #cca4 ,hiller1 ,johann ,adam1 #agf;f1 #aia1 #aig4 ,himmel1 ,friedrich ,heinrich1 #bbi4 ,hippocrates1 #ee4 ,hoffmannsthal1 ,hugo von1 #cca4 ,holland1 folk-songs of1 #ajh4 ,holms1 ,augusta ,mary ,anne1 #cai4 ,home1 ,sweet ,home1 #aje4 ,hook1 ,james1 #agb4 ,hu1 ,george ,adolphe1 #cai4 ,hugo1 ,victor1 #bei;f4 ,humfrey1 ,pelham1 #afh;f4 ,hungarian folk-songs1 #abb;ff4 ,hygiene of the voice1 #a-bc4 ,hymns1 in ,lutheran ,church1 #adg4 ,i ,i ,hear a ,mill ,go ,tick-,tack 7,french folk-song71 #aag4 ,ich hab' im ,traum geweinet 7settings of ,schumann and ,lassen71 #cjg4 ,impressionistic school1 #cdf-cfc4 ,indians 7,american71 folk-songs of1 #gb;f1 #aje1 #abi4 d',indy1 ,vincent1 #cee;f1 #ceh4 ,inspiration 7physical action71 #c;ff4 ,instruments of medival minstrels1 #acf4 ,ionian mode1 #afg4 ,ippolitoff-,ivanoff1 ,michael1 #cfh4 ,ireland1 folk-songs of1 #ajh;f1 #aac;ff4 ,it was a ,dream 7settings of ,schumann and ,lassen71 #cjg4 ,italian folk-songs1 #aaf;f1 #aec1 #bff4 ,italian influence on ,german music1 #afd4 ,italian method of vocal culture1 #bd-ed1 #fh;f4 ,italian opera1 7rise of71 #aea;f1 #aee;ff2 7influence of1 in ,germany71 #afd2 7in ,england71 #agj;f2 7and the aria71 #agb;ff4 ,italy1 7,trovatori71 #ach2 7classical song71 #aea;ff2 7#ahth-#aith cent471 #bfe;f2 7late romantics in71 #bih1 #cbc4 ,see also ,italian folk-songs4 ,j ,jadassohn1 ,salomon1 #bef4 ,james ,,ii1 ,king of ,england1 #afi4 ,japan1 primitive song of1 #hf4 ,java1 primitive music of1 #hf4 ,jensen1 ,adolf1 #cjc1 #cje;ff4 ,jerusalem 7ancient71 vocal culture in1 #ca;f1 #dj;f4 ,jesos ,ahatonhia 7old ,french song71 #aag4 ,joke-songs1 ,italian1 #abj4 ,jongleurs1 7origin of the name71 #acb2 7music of71 #acb;ff4 ,jugglers1 #acb;ff4 ,k ,kehlkopf4 ,see ,larynx4 ,keiser1 ,reinhard1 #afd4 ,kiesewetter1 ,raphael ,georg1 #dj4 ,the ,king of ,thule 7settings of ,schubert and ,liszt71 #bbf2 7,liszt71 #bic;f4 ,kittredge1 ,g4 ,l4 7cited71 #ge4 ,kjerulf1 ,halfdan1 #caa;f4 ,korbay1 ,francis ,alexander1 #abf4 ,kreutzer1 ,conrad1 #bbh4 ,l ,ladr1 #aha4 ,lamartine1 #bfj4 ,laryngeal action1 #fj;f4 ,laryngoscope1 #aj1 #ab;f2 7influence of on modern voice culture71 #de1 #ee1 #eg;f4 ,larynx1 #f;ff4 ,lassen1 ,eduard1 #cjg;f4 ,lawes1 ,henry1 #afh4 ,lehman1 ,liza1 #cbh;f4 ,leise1 leise 7,weber71 #ajg4 ,lekeu1 ,guillaume1 #cee4 ,lroux1 ,xavier1 #cah;f4 ,lied4 ,see ,germany 7classic song1 etc474 ,lieder-singer1 art of the1 #ic;f1 #ig4 ,liliencron1 ,detlev von1 #cca4 ,lindpainter1 ,peter ,joseph von1 #bbi4 ,lineva 7,mme471 #abe;ff4 ,lips 7in singing71 #c4 ,liscovius1 #ef4 ,lisle1 ,rouget de1 #ahb4 ,liszt1 ,franz1 7,hungarian ,rhapsodies71 #abc1 #abe2 7,king of ,thule71 #bbf2 7songs71 #bib;ff4 ,loch ,lomond1 #aac4 ,die ,loreley1 7,silcher71 #bcj2 7settings by ,liszt and ,silcher compared71 #bic4 ,lortzing1 ,albert1 #bbh4 ,love1 influence of1 on early song1 #acg1 #aci;f4 ,love-songs1 primitive1 #ha4 ,loewe1 ,johann ,carl ,gottfried1 #bbf1 #bgb;ff4 ,ludwig the ,pious1 #aca4 ,lungs 7in singing71 #a1 #b;ff4 ,lute1 #acf4 ,luther1 ,martin1 #adg4 ,lutheran ,church1 #abb1 #adg4 ,lydian mode1 #afg4 ,lyric form1 compared to ballad form1 #bjb4 ,lyric impulse1 #he;ff4 ,m ,mac,dowell1 ,edward1 #bih1 #cai;ff4 ,mackenzie1 ,sir ,morell1 cited1 #ah4 ,madrigal1 #adi;f1 #aec;f1 #aeg2 7,english71 #afg4 ,mahler1 ,gustav1 #ccf;ff4 ,major mode1 #adh;f1 #afg4 ,see also ,scales4 ,male soprano1 #dd4 ,mancini1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #di4 ,mandl1 ,louis1 #eh4 ,mannstein1 ,heinrich ,f41 #bg1 #ef;f4 ,mark1 ,adolph ,bernhard1 #ef;f4 ,marot1 ,clment1 #afe4 ,marschner1 ,heinrich1 #bbh4 ,marseillaise1 #gb1 #ahb;f4 ,martinengo-,csaresco1 ,countess1 #gj;f1 #hj4 ,marx1 ,joseph1 #cde4 ,massenet1 ,jules1 #cag1 #ceh4 ,mastersingers1 rise of1 #add;ff1 #aej4 ,maybrick1 ,m4 ,see ,adams1 ,stephen4 ,mazarin1 ,cardinal1 #afe4 #8,mazarinades1' #afe4 ,mhul1 tienne ,nicolas1 #di1 #ahc4 ,meistersinger 7rise of71 #add;ff1 #aej4 ,die ,meistersinger 7,wagner71 #adb4 ,melody 7in primitive song71 #gf1 #hc;f2 7in early folk-song71 #aec;f2 7modern ,french school71 #cdh;ff1 #cfc4 ,mendelssohn-,bartholdy1 ,felix1 #ajg1 #bed;f4 ,mengozzi1 ,bernardo1 #di;f4 ,mercadante1 ,giuseppe1 #bfe;f4 ,merkel1 ,karl ,ludwig1 #eh4 ,methfessel1 ,albert ,gottlieb1 #bbi4 ,mthode de ,chant du ,conservatoire de ,musique1 #di;f4 ,methods 7vocal71 standardization of1 #ei4 ,meyer-,helmund1 ,eric1 #cab4 ,mezzo-soprano1 #fb4 ,minnesingers1 7rise of71 #ada;ff2 7nature and value of their songs71 #adc;f4 ,minor mode1 in ,russian folk-song1 #abg;f4 ,minstrels1 #be1 #ge1 #gg1 #aca;ff4 ,modern scientific methods1 of vocal culture1 #ee-fi4 ,modes4 ,see ,major mode1 ,minor mode2 ,ionian mode2 ,lydian mode4 ,modes1 ecclesiastical1 #ace1 #ade1 #aeb4 ,modulation 7,schubert71 #bjh;f4 ,mon ,cri ,cra1 ,tir' la ,liretta 7,french-,canadian folk-song71 #cge4 ,monodic style1 #ci1 #aec;ff1 #afb1 #agb;f4 ,monpou1 ,franois ,louis ,hippolyte1 #bfe4 ,monsigny1 ,pierre ,alexandre1 #aaf1 #ahj4 ,monteverdi1 ,claudio1 #dc1 #aee1 #aei1 #agb;f4 ,moore1 ,sir ,thomas1 #aac;f4 ,mricke1 ,eduard1 #cca4 ,moszkowski1 ,moritz1 #cbf4 ,moussorgsky1 ,modeste1 #abh1 #cfe1 #cfg;f4 ,mouth 7in singing71 #c4 ,mouth-pharynx1 #ad;ff2 7resonance71 #fc;ff4 ,mozart1 ,wolfgang ,amadeus1 #agh1 #ahg;ff1 #bje4 ,the ,violet1 #agh4 ,mller1 ,johannes1 #ef4 ,muset1 ,colin1 jongleur1 #acd4 ,musette1 #aff4 ,musical education1 viii-ff4 ,musset1 ,alfred de1 #bfa4 ,n ,ngeli1 ,hans ,georg1 #bbi4 ,nahua ,indians1 #hf4 ,naples1 folk-songs of1 #aai4 ,see also ,italian folk-songs4 ,napoleon ,i1 #ahc1 #bfj;f4 ,nasal resonance1 #ad;ff1 #fb;ff4 ,naumann1 ,karl ,ernst1 #adc4 ,neapolitan folk-songs1 #aai4 ,see also ,italian folk-songs4 ,nevin1 ,ethelbert1 #cbb;f4 ,newman1 ,ernest 7cited71 #ccd4 ,norway 7folk-songs71 #abc2 7modern song-writers71 #cfi4 ,see also ,scandinavia4 ,norwegian folk-songs1 #cfi4 ,nose 7in singing71 #c4 ,le ,nuove ,musiche 7,caccini71 #dg;ff4 ,o ,o1 ,mama mia 7,italian folk-song71 #aai4 ,o1 ma tendre ,musette 7,french folk-song71 #aaf4 #8,observations on the ,florid ,song' 7,tosi71 #di4 #8,ode to ,joy' 7,schiller71 #aib4 ,odes1 ,german1 #age4 ,old ,italian ,method1 #bd-be1 #fh;f4 ,opera 7rise of71 #aea;f1 #aee;ff2 7in ,england71 #agj;ff2 7,german71 #agf1 #bbh2 7,italian71 #afd1 #agb;ff4 ,opra comique1 #aff1 #agi4 ,oratorio1 #aea1 #aef4 ,orient1 music of1 #db4 ,ornamentation1 #ca;f1 #ci;ff1 #abd;f4 ,overtones1 vocal1 #ae4 ,p ,paesiello1 ,giovanni1 #afa;f4 ,pagan song1 #acj;ff4 ,palate 7in singing71 #ae4 ,palestrina1 ,giovanni ,pierluigi1 #ch4 ,paris ,conservatory1 vocal method of1 #di;f4 ,part-song1 #adi;f1 #aec4 ,le ,pauvre laboureur 7,french folk-song71 #aaf4 ,pentatonic scale1 in ,scotch folk-songs1 #aab4 ,pergolesi1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #afa4 #8,persian ,songs' 7,rubinstein71 #cbe4 ,pharynx1 #c4 ,philidor1 ,franois-,andr-,danican1 #ahj4 ,philip ,augustus1 ,king of ,france1 #acc4 ,pianoforte1 #bca4 ,pianoforte style1 #bcf;ff1 #bdj1 #bie4 ,piern1 ,gabriel1 #cah4 ,pinsuti1 ,caro1 #bff4 ,piper of ,dundee 7,scotch song71 #aac4 ,pitch1 determination of 7vocal71 #aa;f4 ,placing of the voice4 ,see ,voice placing4 ,plato1 #afg4 ,poetry1 ancient1 in relation to song1 #ge;ff4 ,polish folk-songs1 #abh;f4 ,polyphonic style1 influence of1 on vocal culture1 #ce;ff4 ,polyphony1 #adi1 #aec1 #aff2 7modern71 #cfb4 ,primitive song4 ,see ,folk-song4 ,protestant ,church4 ,see ,lutheran ,church4 ,provenal song4 ,see ,troubadours and ,trouvres4 ,psychological theory of tone production1 #bh;f4 ,psychology 7in relation to music71 #bde;f4 #8,psychology of ,singing' 7,taylor71 #bh4 ,purcell1 ,henry1 #afi;f4 ,r ,rachmaninoff1 ,sergei1 #abh1 #cfi4 ,raff1 ,joachim1 #cab4 ,ramis de ,pareja1 #cg4 ,range of human voice1 #ad4 ,ravel1 ,maurice1 #ceh1 #cfb;f4 ,realism1 in songs of ,schubert1 #baj;f4 ,recitative1 7influence of1 on solo singing71 #db2 7compared with declamation71 #bjb;f2 7in songs of ,schubert71 #bda4 ,recitativo secco1 #aef4 ,the ,red ,sarafan 7,russian folk-song71 #abg4 ,reformation1 #adg1 #aej4 ,reger1 ,max1 #cdj;ff1 #cga4 ,registers1 vocal1 #aa;ff1 #fa;f4 ,reichardt1 ,johann ,friedrich1 #aib;f1 #aie4 ,reimann1 ,heinrich 7cited71 #abe;f4 ,reinecke1 ,karl1 #bee;f4 ,religion1 influence of1 on primitive song1 #gh4 ,remember the ,glories of ,brian the ,brave 7,irish folk-song71 #aad4 ,renaissance1 #aej4 ,representative style1 #afb4 ,see also ,monodic style4 ,resonance1 laws of1 #eh4 ,resonance cavities1 #a1 #b;f1 #ac;ff2 7control of71 #fb;ff4 ,respiratory system1 #b;ff4 ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 ,nicholas1 #cfe;f4 ,rhythm1 7in primitive song71 #hc2 7in ,italian folk-songs71 #abj2 7in ,spanish song71 #aba;f2 7in ,hungarian music71 #abd;f4 ,roman church 7early vocal culture in71 #cc;ff2 7introduction of popular music71 #adh4 ,romance1 7,french71 #aff2 7in ,french opera71 #agi;f4 ,romantic poetry1 #bca;ff4 ,romantic song1 #bca;ff2 7in ,france71 #beh;ff2 7after ,schumann71 #bif;ff2 7in ,russia1 ,scandinavia and ,england71 #cfd;ff4 ,romanticism1 7,schubert71 #ahf;f2 7,schumann71 #bdh;f4 ,ropartz1 ,j4 ,guy1 #cah4 ,rousseau1 ,jean ,jacques1 #agi;f4 ,rubinstein1 ,anton1 #abg1 #cbc;ff1 #cfd4 ,rule ,britannia1 #aga;f4 ,russia1 7,glinka71 #beg2 7late romantics71 #bih1 #cbc;ff2 7modern lyricists71 #cfd;ff4 ,russian folk-songs1 #aje1 #abe;ff1 #cfd;ff4 ,s ,sachs1 ,hans1 #adf4 ,saint-,sans1 ,camille1 #cae;ff4 ,sally in ,our ,alley 7,carey71 #aga4 ,savart1 ,flix1 #ef4 ,scales1 #hd1 #hf2 7modern71 #aeb;f2 7major71 #afe4 ,see also ,whole-tone scale4 ,scandinavia 7modern71 #cfi;f4 ,scandinavian folk-songs1 #abc1 #bii1 #cja;f4 ,scarlatti1 ,alessandro1 #aef;f1 #aei1 #afa4 ,o cessate di piagarmi1 #aeg4 ,scena1 #bjb4 ,schiller1 #aii4 ,schnberg1 ,arnold1 #cdb;ff4 ,schopenhauer 7cited71 #hg4 ,schrecker1 ,franz1 #cde4 ,schubert1 ,franz1 #hi;f1 #ia;f1 #ajg1 #agg1 #ahf-bcj1 #bca2 7compared with ,schumann71 #bce;f1 #bch2 7compared with ,liszt71 #bic;f2 7compared with ,hugo ,wolf71 #cca;f1 #ccd4 ,die ,allmacht1 #bjh1 #bad4 ,am ,meer1 #baj1 #bbe4 ,aufenthalt1 #baj1 #bbe4 ,ave ,maria1 #bjf4 ,courage1 #bba;ff4 ,dead ,flowers1 #bai4 ,death and the ,maiden1 #bji1 #bab4 ,death ,music1 #bjd4 ,der du von dem ,himmel bist1 #bid4 ,der ,doppelgnger1 #bjg1 #bbe4 ,the ,erl ,king1 #aic;f1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bji1 #bbe4 ,the ,fisher1 #bab4 ,the ,fisher ,boy1 #bbf4 ,flle der ,liebe1 #bjd4 ,der greise ,kopf1 #bba4 ,gretchen am ,spinnrad1 #aee4 ,gretchen's ,prayer1 #bad4 ,harper's ,song1 #bab4 ,heather ,rose1 #bab4 ,hermann and ,thusnelda1 #bbf4 ,ihr ,bild1 #bjf1 #bbe4 ,im ,dorfe1 #bba4 ,the ,inn1 #bba1 #bbc4 ,the ,king of ,thule1 #bbf4 ,kolma's ,complaint1 #bbf4 ,die liebe ,farbe1 #bah;f4 ,der ,lindenbaum1 #ajg1 #bab1 #bbb4 ,litany1 #baa4 ,morning ,greeting1 #bag4 ,mllerlieder 7song cycle71 #bji1 #bab1 #bae;ff4 ,nebensonnen1 #bbc4 ,the ,organ ,grinder1 #bbc;f4 ,the ,post1 #bba4 ,praise of ,tears1 #bab4 ,rest1 #bba4 ,schwanengesang 7song cycle71 #bae4 ,sea ,calm1 #bac4 ,serenade1 #bbd4 ,the ,signpost1 #bbb4 ,the ,singer1 #bbf4 ,suleika's ,second ,song1 #baj4 ,swan ,songs1 #bbd;f4 ,tuschung1 #bba4 ,the ,trout1 #baj1 #bab;f4 ,viola1 #bjd4 ,the ,wanderer1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bac4 ,wandering1 #baf1 #bah4 ,wanderer's ,evensong1 #bad4 ,der ,wegweiser1 #bba4 ,whither1 #baf;f1 #bai;f4 ,will-o'-the-,wisp1 #bbj4 ,winterreise 7song cycle71 #bja1 #bjf1 #bbj;ff4 ,das ,wirtshaus4 ,see ,the ,inn4 ,the ,young ,nun1 #bad1 #baf4 ,schola cantorum4 ,see choir schools4 ,schulz1 ,johann1 #aib4 ,schumann1 ,clara1 #bed4 ,schumann1 ,robert1 #ahd1 #bca-beg2 7and ,robert ,franz71 #bfh1 #bgj2 7his setting of ,two ,grenadiers compared with ,wagner's71 #bij;f2 7his settings of ,heine poems compared with ,lassen's71 #cjg4 ,a ,young ,man ,loved a ,maiden1 #beb4 ,die alten1 bsen ,lieder 7,the ,old and ,evil ,songs71 #bec4 ,an den ,sonnenschein1 #bdb;f4 ,an das ,trinkglass1 #bdb4 ,die beiden ,grenadiere 7,the ,two ,grenadiers71 #bdb4 ,blondels ,lied1 #bdb4 ,das ist ein ,flten und ,geigen1 #bej4 ,dichterliebe 7cycle71 #bch1 #bdh;ff4 ,du bist wie eine ,blume1 #bdj4 ,du ,ring an meinem ,finger1 #bde;f4 ,each ,night in ,dreams1 #bec4 ,fair ,hedwig1 #bed4 ,frauenliebe und ,leben 7song cycle71 #bch1 #bdd;ff4 ,from ,out ,my ,tears1 #bea4 ,frhlingsnacht 7,spring ,night71 #bdc4 ,the ,glove1 #bed4 ,he1 the ,noblest of ,all1 #bdf4 ,helft mir1 ihr ,schwestern1 #bde4 ,der ,hidalgo1 #bda4 ,the ,highland ,cradle ,song1 #bd,of4 ,the ,highlander's ,farewell1 #bdj;f4 ,i ,wept in ,my ,dreams1 #bec4 ,i cannot grasp it1 ,i cannot believe it1 #bde;f4 ,ich grolle nicht1 #bdi1 #beb4 ,in the ,wondrous ,lovely ,month of ,may1 #bea4 ,intermezzo1 #bdc4 ,lass mich ihm am ,busen hngen1 #bdj4 ,liederkreis 7song cycle71 #bdc4 ,the ,lion's ,bride1 #bda4 ,die ,lotusblume1 #bdj4 ,mondnacht1 #bdc;f4 ,mit ,myrthen und ,rosen 7cycle71 #bci4 ,myrthen1 #bci4 ,der ,nussbaum1 #bdj4 ,on the ,bright ,summer ,morning1 #beb;f4 ,poet's ,love 7cycle71 #bch1 #bdh;ff4 ,romances and ,ballades1 #bdh4 ,the ,rose1 the ,lily1 the ,dove1 the ,sun1 #bea4 ,schne ,wiege meiner ,leiden1 #bci4 ,seit ich ihn gesehen1 #bde4 ,somebody1 #bdj;f4 ,stille ,liebe1 #bdb4 ,stille ,thrnen1 #bdb4 ,stirb1 ,lieb und ,freund1 #bdb4 ,talismane1 #bdj4 ,waldesgesprch1 #bdc1 #cjf4 ,wanderlust1 #bdb4 ,western ,divan1 #bec4 ,when ,i ,into the ,garden ,go1 #bec4 ,when ,i ,look ,into ,thine ,eyes1 #bea4 ,widmung1 #if;f1 #bci4 ,wilhelm ,meister songs1 #bec4 ,woman's ,life and ,love 7cycle71 #bch1 #bdd;ff4 ,scientific methods of vocal culture1 #ee-fi4 ,scotch folk-songs1 #ajh;f1 #aaa;ff2 7compared with ,irish71 #aad;f4 ,scotch songs 7,edward ,mac,dowell71 #cbj4 ,scots ,wha ,hae1 #ia1 #aab;f4 ,scott1 ,cyril1 #cgc;f4 ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 #aaj4 ,shakespeare1 #adi1 #afh4 ,sharp1 ,cecil1 #ajg1 #aji;ff4 ,sibelius1 ,jean1 #cgj;f4 ,sicilian folk-song1 #aai4 ,sight-singing1 #cd;ff4 ,silcher1 ,friedrich1 #ajg1 #bbi;f1 #bic4 ,sinding1 ,christian1 #cfi4 ,singing1 7as physical exercise71 #ah2 7#8style' in71 #ig;f2 7technique of71 see ,vocal culture1 ,tone production4 ,singspiel1 #age;f1 #aij;ff4 ,sjgren1 ,emil1 #cfi;f4 ,slavic folk-songs1 #abe;ff4 #8,slide of the glottis1' #fa4 ,sol-fa system1 #cd4 ,solo singing1 #bd2 7florid style71 #cb2 7before #agth cent471 #ch;ff4 ,somervell1 ,arthur1 #cga4 ,song1 value of1 vii2 7nature and origin of71 #gj-ii2 7early development71 #acj-aej4 ,see also ,classic song2 ,folk-song2 ,romantic song4 ,song-cycle1 #bae1 #bbj4 ,song of ,roland1 #ace4 ,songs in the folk-manner1 #ajf;f1 #bbi;f2 7,brahms71 #bgh1 #bha;ff1 #bhi2 7,henschel71 #cjh;ff2 7,mahler71 #ccg4 ,soprano1 #ad1 #fb4 ,see also ,artificial soprano4 ,spain 7,trobadores71 #ach4 ,spanish folk-songs1 #aai;f4 ,spencer1 ,herbert 7theory of origin of song71 #hh4 ,sinuses1 #ae4 ,spohr1 ,ludwig1 #ahc4 ,stile rappresentativo4 ,see ,representative style2 also ,monody4 ,stimulants1 effect of1 on singer's organism1 #ai4 ,strauss1 ,richard1 #cch;ff4 ,stravinsky1 ,igor1 #cfb4 #8,stroke of the glottis1' #fa4 ,style1 in singing1 #ih;f4 ,sullivan1 ,sir ,arthur1 #cbf;f4 ,sumer is icumen in1 #aej4 ,sweden 7modern71 #cfi;f4 ,swedish folk-songs1 #abc4 ,the ,sword ,shining ,brightly 7,irish folk-song71 #aad4 ,t ,taneieff1 ,sergius1 #cfh4 ,tannhuser1 #adb4 ,taubert1 ,karl ,gottfried ,wilhelm1 #bef4 ,technique4 ,see also ,vocal ,culture4 ,teeth 7in singing71 #c4 ,telemann1 ,georg ,philipp1 #afd4 ,temples 7ancient71 vocal culture in1 #cj;ff1 #dj;f4 ,tenaglia1 #aef4 ,tenor voice1 #fb4 ,thomas1 ,ambroise1 #cae4 ,thomas1 ,arthur ,goring1 #bih1 #cbg;f1 #cga4 ,throat 7ailments71 #bj;ff2 7relaxation of71 #fj;f4 ,throaty production1 #fe4 ,thyroid cartilage1 #f;ff4 ,tobacco1 effect of1 on singer's organism1 #ai4 ,tonality1 vagueness of1 in modern music1 #cdh;ff4 ,tone emission1 #fd;ff4 ,tone production1 7vocal71 #aa;ff2 7effect of incorrect methods71 #bj2 7as taught in early music schools71 #cg;f2 7old ,italian method71 #ec;f2 7modern methods71 #ei;ff4 ,tongue 7in singing71 #c1 #ae4 ,tosi1 ,pietro ,francesco1 #df1 #di4 ,tosti1 ,francesco ,paolo1 #cbc4 ,trachea1 #c1 #f4 ,traum durch die ,dmmerung 7,strauss71 #cdj1 7,reger71 #cda4 ,tre giorni 7,pergolesi71 #afa4 ,tremolo 7vocal71 #fe;f4 ,trobadores 7rise of71 #ach4 ,troubadours1 #be1 #db1 #ace2 7rise of71 #acg;ff2 7nature and value of their songs71 #adc;f4 ,trouvres1 7rise of71 #ach;f2 7influence in ,germany71 #ada4 ,see also ,troubadours4 ,trovatori 7rise of71 #ach4 ,tschaikowsky1 ,peter ,ilyitch1 #bih1 #cbc;ff1 #cfd4 ,the ,two ,grenadiers 7,schumann71 #bdb2 7settings of ,wagner and ,schumann71 #bij;f4 ,u ,united ,states1 folk-music of1 #abi4 ,unprepared dissonance1 #aei1 #afb4 ,v ,vacaresco1 ,helen1 #ha4 ,vaudeville 7,french song form71 #aff4 ,venice1 folk-songs of1 #aah;f4 ,vidal1 ,paul1 #ceg;f4 ,villanette1 #aec4 ,villette1 #aec4 ,the ,violet 7,mozart71 #agh4 ,vocal cords1 #b1 #i;ff1 #fj;f4 ,vocal culture 7old ,italian method71 #bd-ed2 7modern scientific methods of71 #ee-fi4 ,vocal hygiene1 #a-bc4 ,vocal methods1 standardization of1 #ei4 ,vocal organs1 structure and hygiene of1 #a-bc2 7scientific investigation of71 #ee;ff4 ,vowel sounds 7how formed71 #af4 ,vowels1 use of1 in exercises1 #fd;f4 ,voice placing1 #ei;ff4 ,volkmann1 ,robert1 #bef4 ,volkstmliches ,lied1 #afc1 #agf2 7,silcher71 #bbi;f2 7,henschel71 #cjh;ff2 7,mahler71 #ccg4 ,see also ,songs in the folk-manner4 ,w ,wagner1 ,richard1 #adb1 #agb1 #bhe1 #bij;ff1 #cdh2 7and ,peter ,cornelius71 #cjc2 7and ,hugo ,wolf71 #ccb;f4 ,waldesgesprch 7settings by ,schumann and ,jensen71 #cjf4 ,wallace1 ,william ,vincent1 #bfg4 ,walther von der ,vogelweide1 #dd1 #adb4 ,weber1 ,carl ,maria von1 #ajg1 #bbg;f4 ,webern1 ,anton von1 #cde4 ,weckerlin1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #ajg4 ,when in ,death 7,irish folk-song71 #aad4 ,the ,white ,duck 7,french-,canadian folk-song71 #cgf4 ,whole-tone scale1 #cdh;ff1 #cfd4 ,widmung 7,schumann71 #if;f1 #bci2 7,franz71 #bgj1 #bgb4 ,william de ,longchamps1 ,bishop of ,ely1 #acd4 ,william of ,nassau 7,dutch folk-song71 #ajh4 ,will ,ye ,gang ,over the ,lea8 7,scotch folk-song71 #aac4 ,windpipe1 #f4 ,wolf1 ,hugo1 #cca;ff4 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 #adb4 ,wyman1 ,loraine1 #aaa4 ,z ,zelter1 ,karl ,friedrich1 #aia1 #aic1 #aie4 ,zumsteeg1 ,johann ,rudolph1 #aib;f1 #aig4