,transcriber's ,notes ,this e-text is based on the three-volume book #8,shipbuilding from ,its ,beginnings1' from #ahie4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been retained2 punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected4 ,the side notes refer to the corresponding illustrations in volumes ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of the respective section4 ,two numerical values are obviously missing in the text2 they could not be retrieved from other sources4 ,the missing numbers have been highlighted by triple underscores 774 ,specific font styles have been marked by using the following special characters3 italics3 underscores spaced3 plus signs small caps3 tildes ,,permanent ,,international ,,association ,,of ,navigation ,congresses #ch1 ,rue de ,louvain1 #ch ,,brussels ,illustration3 ,,shipbuilding ,,from ,,its ,,beginnings ,,vol4 ,i ,illustration3 ,,navigare ,,necesse ,,shipbuilding ,,from ,,its ,,beginnings ,illustration ,,shipbuilding ,,from ,,its ,,beginnings ,,by ,e4 ,,van ,,konijnenburg1 ,c4,e41 ,,engineer ,,of ,,the ,,rijkswaterstaat ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands #ahie-aije ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,permanent ,,international ,,association ,,of ,,congresses ,,of ,,navigation ,,executive ,,committee--,,office ,,of ,,the ,,secretary ,,general #ch1 ,,rue ,,de ,,louvain1 #ch ,,brussels ,,vol4 ,i ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,page ,,preface #aa ,division of ,europe according to the shape of vessels3 ,northern centre--,baltic ,sea--,southern centre--,mediterranean ,sea4 ,,southern ,,centre4 ,chapter ,i #ac ,the ,egyptians #ac ,the ,phnicians #ag ,the ,greeks and ,romans #ai ,the ,mediterranean in the ,middle ,ages #bc ,galleys #bc ,types of ships in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century #bh ,,northern ,,centre4 ,chapter ,,ii #cc ,vikings' vessel #cd ,the ,cog #cf ,influence of the ,crusades #ch ,use of the rudder #ch ,the galley in the ,netherlands #ci ,use of ,artillery #dj ,baertzen #dj ,krayers and ,hulken #da ,use of carvel laid planking #da ,the ship in the ,x,v,ith century #dd ,use of the square-stern ship #dd ,use of the ports #de ,the ,flyboat #de ,the ,pinnace #df ,the square-stern ship #dg ,the ,flute--the ,kuff--the ,smack #dg ,transition of the ship of the ,x,v,ith century to that of the ,x,v,i,ith century #di ,the war ship 7first war navy7 #di ,france #eb ,england #ec ,the ,netherlands #ed ,merchant marine of the ,netherlands #eg ,use of the frigate #eh ,fireships #eh ,chapter ,,iii #fa ,classification of vessels #fe ,i4--,war ships #fe ,,ii4--,merchant for over seas navigation #ff vessels for the coasting trade #ff ,,iii4--,ferries #fg ,,iv4--,vessels for sundry uses #fg ,v4--,boats intended for the upper rivers 7,bovenlanders7 #fh ,,vi4--,fishing vessels #gj ,chapter ,,iv #ga ,description of the types of vessels #ga ,the ,pinnace #ga ,the ,flyboat #ga ,the ,katship #gb ,ship of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company #gb ,the ,boeier #gb ,the ,howker #gb ,the ,bush #gb ,the ,hekboot #gb ,the ,straetsvaerder #gc ,the ,stokker #gc ,the ,frigate #gc ,the ,galliot #gc ,the ,galeas #gd ,the ,koff #gd ,the ,smak #ge ,the ,smalschip and the ,wijdschip #ge ,the ,damlooper #ge ,the ,tjalk #gf ,the ,schuit and the ,poon #gf ,the ,kaag #gf ,the ,steigerschuit #gg ,the ,yacht #gg ,the ,boeierschuit #gg ,the ,pleit #gg ,the ,otter #gg ,the ,mot #gh ,the ,spitsche ,mot #gh ,the ,ever #gh ,the ,bremerkahn #gh ,the ,potten and the ,pujen #gh ,the ,snijboon and the ,somp or ,pegge #gi ,the ,hoogeveensche ,praam #gi ,the ,praam 7pram7 #gi ,the ,koftjalk #ha ,the ,kraak #hb ,the ,skiff #hb ,the ,ponton #hb ,the ,halve ,pont or ,pijper #hc ,the ,gierpont #hc ,the ,kabelveerpont #hc ,the ,bok #hd ,the ,snik #hd ,the ,westlander #he ,the ,kaag #he ,the ,utrecht ,pram #he ,the ,schouw #hf ,the ,trekschuit #hf ,the ,yacht #hf ,the ,baggeraak #hf ,the ,bagger- or ,moddermolen #hg ,the ,tjotter #hh ,the ,laadbak and the ,zolderschuit #hh ,the ,onderlegger #hh ,,the ,,bovenlanders #hi ,the ,rhine #hi ,the ,dorstensche ,aak #hi ,the ,stevenschip #ij ,the ,turfijker and the ,hagenaar #ij ,the ,keen #ij ,the ,keenaak #ij ,the ,lahnaak and the ,slof #ia ,the ,meuse #ia ,the ,whalemajol1 etc4 #ia ,chapter ,v #ic ,fishing boats #ic ,the ,egmonder ,pink #ic ,the ,bush #ic ,the ,kwee and the ,hoekerbuis #if ,the ,hoeker 7howker7 #if ,the ,haringjager and the ,buisconvoyer #if ,the ,sloep 7sloop7 #if ,the ,logger 7lugger7 #ig ,the ,bom #ig ,the ,garnalenschuit #ig ,the ,scholschuit or ,bazaanschuit #ig ,the ,zwartewaalsche ,gaffelaar #ig ,the ,schokker #ih ,the ,haringschuit #ii ,the ,punter and the ,gondel #ii ,the ,hoogaars #ii ,the ,steekschuit #ajj ,the ,hengst #ajj ,the ,botter #ajj ,the ,blazer #ajj ,the ,lemmeraak #ajj ,the ,bolle and the ,knots #ajj ,the ,jol #aja ,use of fishing boats on the ,zuiderzee #aja ,the ,waterschip #ajb ,chapter ,,vi #ajc ,belgian craft #ajc ,the ,tournaisien #ajc ,the ,chaland #ajc ,the ,blandre #ajc ,the ,pointu #ajd ,the ,prij #ajd ,chapter ,,vii #aje ,development of the types of vessels in the ,north-,east of ,europe in relation to the first inhabitants of the ,netherlands #aje ,illustration3 ,,preface ,de scheeps- en sterke bouw 't heeft ons 't gebruik geleert1 ,dees gaf ons wet en reght ,hoe men de landen heert4#a 7,nic4 ,witsen47 ,holland's struggle for life has been a constant battle against the invasion of water4 ,if this has been1 on the one hand1 an enemy to be feared1 it has been1 on the other1 the natural line of communication above all others which has made our ancestors1 since time immemorial1 a nation of seamen4 ,the boat was a necessity as indispensable as the house4 ,it is impossible to say who invented the boat2 every one has contributed his mite to its building and this has given rise to its gradual development4 ,the discovery that wood would float was due1 evidently1 to chance4 ,use must have been made first of the trunk of a single tree1 and afterwards several must have been joined together to make a raft4 ,then came the hollowed trunk which was followed1 in its turn1 by a boat with a framework covered with skins from which the finished boat was born4 ,between the floating trunk of a tree and the most complete ship1 there have come into existence all sorts of intermediate forms1 of which most are still to be found even in our day4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #a ,noah1 according to the writers of antiquity1 must have been the first shipwright4 ,the old authors enter into circumstantial details on this subject and give various drawings of ,noah's 8ark04 ,several of these drawings are reproduced in the atlas of this work4 ,the only value of these reproductions of the ark lies in the fact that they probably represent a ship of the time of their author4 ,it must also be noted that the first shipbuilder is as entirely unknown as the first inventor of the boat4 ,that which is beyond any doubt is2 that the mutual influences of various nations have been important factors in the evolution of the ship4 ,this latter1 on its side1 served to bring into contact nations widely separated by water and to open up countries as yet unexplored4 ,hence shipbuilding must first have shone forth1 under these conditions1 among the most civilized races4 ,mexico and ,peru excepted1 it may be said that civilization was developed first among the ,chinese in the valley of the ,hoang-,ho1 then among the ,babylonians in the valley of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 and among the ,egyptians in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the question of knowing whether the ,babylonians learned shipbuilding from the ,chinese1 or the reverse1 is one of minor importance4 ,it is certain however that reciprocal influences were at work among the races of ,asia ,minor and there is no doubt that the ,babylonians influenced the ,phnicians1 the pioneer shipwrights of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,egyptians1 who were not a seafaring people do not here enter into consideration4 ,as the ,netherlands lay under the action exercised in ,europe1 where the development of naval architecture went on about two independent centres1 that of the ,baltic and that of the ,mediterranean1 ,asia may be set aside in so far as its parts not bordering on the ,mediterranean are concerned4 ,after the ,baltic1 which will be called the northern centre1 had introduced shipbuilding among us1 this centre1 in so far as over seas navigation is concerned1 came into contact with the ,mediterranean1 which will be called the southern centre1 through the movements of commerce and navigation1 and finally the two became fused with each other4 ,it is easy to see that the influence of the northern centre was preponderant on our naval architecture1 hence its importance is capital for us4 ,the few vessels of ancient times which have been found show us what a high degree of perfection shipbuilding had already reached in almost prehistoric times2 the finish of these vessels and the care given to their ornamentation might also be noticed4 ,these observations are not extraordinary1 when the large part played by the ship in the existence of nations is borne in mind2 the contrary would rather have caused surprise4 ,nor is it astonishing that the chances of the sea should have been faced with small boats4 ,for are not the valiant fishermen of to-day seen facing the waves of the sea1 in still smaller boats than those of the ancients1 to ply their rude and perilous trade1 and that too during the entire year8 ,for let it not be forgotten indeed1 that ocean navigation during the ,middle ,ages was1 as a matter of fact1 carried on only in ,summer4 ,nic4 ,witsen wrote in #afga1 p4 #aie of his book1 on this subject3 8dat men oulinckx in deze landen nimmer 't zee ging als naer besloten boeken1 besproken uiterste wille en met ,god zich te hebben verzoent3 wanneer men het gevaar meer ontzag als heden nu dorst men althans zee kiezen zonder aanzien van tijdt of weer van outs wiert de zee gesloten in de quaetste tijden van het jaar60#b ,to know what we can do1 to know of what we are capable1 and1 above all1 to know what there is still to be learned and even what has to be imitated1 are the most important demands of all individual education as they are the fundamental requirements of a race which1 after all1 is but an unit in the series of the nations4 ,may this book add its mite to a knowledge of the gradual evolution of shipbuilding2 may it also cause to disappear this ridiculous way in which ancient ships used to be represented and1 most of all1 may it awaken the love for the building of ships4 ,i am1 in this connection1 fully of the opinion expressed by ,witsen as follows3 8,zoo groot dunkt mij de waerdigheidt dezer wetenschap te zijn dat niemant derzelve hier ten lande1 daar de zeevaert de sterkste zenuwe van den staet is1 behoorde onkundig te zijn40#c ,,footnotes3 #a ,necessity has taught us naval architecture and the art of war1 which give the means by which to dominate the nations4 #b ,that1 in this country1 in former times1 when greater fear was felt of the dangers of the sea than is now the case when they are faced in all kinds of weather1 people never put off from shore without first having settled their accounts1 made their wills and partaken of the ,holy ,communion4 ,in the old days1 the sea was closed during the bad season4 #c ,the value of this science seems to me so great that none of my fellow countrymen can afford not to be acquainted with it1 as navigation is the nerve and sinew of the nation4 ,illustration3 #a ,the ,egyptians were not a nation of mariners4 ,their navigation1 at the beginning1 was limited to the ,nile alone2 it was only later that they ventured out to sea1 preceded and assisted by the ,phnicians4 ,their vessels were and continued to be river boats4 ,the question of knowing whether the ,egyptians borrowed the art of building them from the ,babylonians1 or whether their art was developed independently of any other is of little importance here and1 furthermore1 it cannot be solved by the nautical knowledge which we possess4 7,ermann1 p4 #fgi4--;,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 pp4 #be-cc47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #a ,that which is certain is that the ,babylonians and the ,egyptians had their vessels already in the most remote antiquity2 this follows 7,l',anthropologie1 #ahii1 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #eag1 and ,holmes1 #aijj1 p4 #i7 from the decorations on ancient vases which are supposed to date from #fjjj to #djjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #b ,doubts have arisen at times--but wrongly in my opinion--as to the question of knowing whether the decorations in question really do represent vessels4 ,although the drawings are too primitive to furnish any data relating to the form of the boats1 it can surely be said1 however1 that only vessels propelled by oars are there shown and that sailing vessels were probably still unknown at this time4 ,the lines at the bottom of the boats1 considered sometimes1 but wrongly1 as indicating fishing apparatus 7,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 ,de ,morgan1 pp4 #ia and #ib71 represent the propelling oars1 and the long strokes at the stern of the boat1 the steering oars4 ,the boats were not moved forward by oars but by paddles1 which is the oldest mode of the propulsion used1 as can still be seen by the interrupted line of rowers found again1 still later1 among the ,egyptians4 ,the reasons for the almost exclusive use of the oar or the paddle for propelling boats are to be sought in the mobility of the bottom and hence in variations of the navigable passages of the ,nile4 ,to these should also be added the great changes in the height of the water and the sudden dead calms4 ,sails were used later1 it is true1 but rowing and towing still continued to be employed along with the sails4 ,the shape of the vessel depended upon the use for which it was intended1 so that there can be distinguished among the ,egyptians3 boats for transportation1 boats for towing and boats for fishing4 ,it is not known whether they had any war vessels4 ,pleasure boats and boats used for travelling by persons of rank formed a large flotilla4 7,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #be1 and ,aegypten by ,adolphe ,ermann1 p4 #fci47 ,the ,egyptian boats were flat1 as a rule1 with the bow and stern rising with a slight slope above the water1 the stern generally higher than the bow in order1 so it seems1 to give the steersmen a better purchase4 7,aegypten1 ,adolphe ,ermann1 p4 #fcg47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #b ,sidenote3 ,,ii #c ,sidenote3 ,,ii #d ,sidenote3 ,,ii #e ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ac ,under the ancient ,empire1 about #ejjj to #cbjj ,b4 ,c41 boats were moved by paddles1 the boatmen facing the bow4 ,still1 even in these distant times1 oars were already employed and1 toward the end of this period1 they were in general use4 ,this is shown clearly by figures on the monuments of this age1 where the rowers no longer face the bow but are turned toward the stern4 7,holmes1 p4 #ac2 ,ermann1 p4 #fdj2 ,ancient ,ships by ,cecil ,tor1 #ahid47 ,paddling was kept in use only for boats made of papyrus4 ,when the boats were driven by oars1 the latter passed through the side of the vessel or through rings arranged for this purpose4 ,each oar was worked by a single oarsman4 ,the boat was steered by means of oars1 rather larger than the others1 and handled also each by a single man4 ,the number of steering oars1 as well as the number of steersmen1 depended on the number of oarsmen 7,ermann1 p4 #fda47 ,for example3 for eight oarsmen there were at least two steersmen2 for fourteen there were three steersmen1 and four for twenty-one oarsmen1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ac ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ad ,already1 under the ancient ,empire1 the sail is shown alongside of the oar4 ,the mast1 placed in the middle of the boat1 was composed of two posts placed crossways and fastened together at the top2 this form of procedure is characteristic of the time of the old ,empire4 ,the rigging1 set in the longitudinal axis of the vessel1 was composed of a heavy rope leading forward and of several lighter ones1 generally from six to twelve1 leading aft4 ,the sail1 which was rectangular in shape1 was always attached between two yards1 one of which held the head1 the other the foot of the sail1 a system followed exclusively in ,egypt4 ,two ropes led aft from the upper yard1 which was fastened to the top of the mast1 so as to give the means to turn the sail to the wind4 ,here are a few figures which will give some idea of the dimensions which were in use4 ,a relatively large boat1 #af metres long1 had ordinary oars #c metres long1 steering oars of #f metres1 a mast #aj metres high with a yard of #f metres4 ,the area of the sail was about #fj to #gj square metres1 hence it was higher than it was wide4 7,ermann1 p4 #fci47 ,in calm weather1 which was not infrequent1 the vessel was driven by oars or else was towed4 ,the mast was then lowered and wrapped in the sail4 ,in order to attach the rope which connected the vessel with the towing boat1 there was used generally a piece of wood set either in the bow alone1 or in the bow and the stern3 this was the arrangement especially for freight boats4 ,these latter had no rigging1 as a rule2 they could scarcely make room for a few oarsmen1 because the greater part of the boat was occupied by the cabin4 ,as a general rule1 small rowboats were used for towing4 ,the art of shipbuilding made a great advance under the middle ,empire 7,b4 ,c4 #cbjj-bajj74 ,except for the small papyrus boat1 vessels were all propelled by oars and no longer by paddles4 ,the steering oars1 which were difficult to handle1 were replaced by a single large rudder which could be worked by one man4 ,the rigging was also changed4 ,the upper yard no longer rested on the mast2 it was attached thereto in such a way that it could be removed4 ,the sail was less high1 its width was increased and the mast became relatively shorter2 finally1 the double mast1 which was so characteristic of the ancient ,empire1 was replaced by a single mast4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #h ,under the new ,empire1 7inclusive of the interregnum of the ,hyksos ,b4 ,c4 #bajj to #afjj7 ,b4 ,c4 #afjj to #gcj1 the art of shipbuilding made no advance4 ,luxury only increased1 especially for the cabins which had already appeared during the time of the middle ,empire4 ,the special feature of this period was the increasing width of the sail4 ,this width was so great that the yards had to be made of two pieces joined near the mast4 ,the following figures give an idea of this constant increase of the sail4 7,ermann1 pp4 #fdc et suiv47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ah etc4 ,under the ancient ,empire1 the mast was #aj metres long and the yard was #f metres4 ,under the middle ,empire1 these lengths were1 respectively1 #e and #f metres1 and under the new ,empire they were #e and #aj metres4 ,as the result of this constant increase of the width of the sail1 the rigging became more complicated and a top was placed at the head of the mast in order to handle the lines from there4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #d ,the scarceness of wood in ,egypt was the cause1 from the most distant times1 of recourse being had to other materials for the construction of vessels4 ,papyrus answered this purpose very well4 ,this aquatic plant when cut1 dried and made up in bundles1 formed the material of which the boats were made4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #e ,the papyri were laid side by side and a whole was made of them by ties placed at close intervals4 7,ermann1 p4 #eic2 ,nicolas ,witsen1 p4 #f2 ,archologie navale1 by ,a4 ,jal1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ia47 ,several drawings found on old monuments show us the ,egyptians engaged in this work4 ,the papyrus barks formed a sort of rafts of reeds1 judging by these drawings which represent the oarsmen standing upright on the boats4 ,these latter were small2 attempts made later to build them of larger size appear to have failed4 ,as a general rule1 the wood intended for the construction of the larger vessels had to be imported4 ,the many pictures on monuments and the large number of models found1 enable a very fair idea of the shape of the ancient ,egyptian ship to be formed1 and it can be seen at the same time that these shapes were little changed4 ,before describing these models1 it will be rather interesting to note that1 as a general rule1 the oldest ones are not reproduced in accordance with the proportions adopted in practice2 they are too high and too broad for the length4 ,taken by themselves1 the stem and the sternpost are well shown1 but the intermediate body is too short4 ,the cause of this must be sought in the fact that these models are made from nature and not by taking the dimensions of the boats from carefully prepared drawings4 ,proceeding in this way1 it is very difficult to give exactly the relative dimensions of the boats1 especially in the relations between length and breadth4 ,this is why the vessels are drawn so often with too little length4 ,so1 many old models must be accepted with the necessary reserves4 ,the vessels shown in mural paintings are generally much better proportioned than those represented by models4 ,in the mural paintings1 when the boat is shown in profile1 there was no reason to consider the beam2 all the same1 the figures are often too large4 ,according to ,belger 78,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache und ,altertumskunde01 ,,xxxiii1 p4 #bd71 the models which have been found should be placed in two classes3 a7 solid models made from a massive piece of wood1 and b7 hollow models which are1 evidently1 a more faithful reproduction of the ship4 ,belger also shows that1 in group a1 the parts painted white must be considered as not existing1 while those painted brown really do exist4 ,it appears1 generally1 from the examination of these models that the ,egyptian boats were not of deep draught2 they had1 necessarily1 to draw but little water on account of the small depth and the frequent changes in the navigable portions of the river4 ,the mural paintings1 on their side1 show that the bottom length was one-third of the total length4 7,ermann1 p4 #fcg2 ,belger1 p4 #be1 ,,xxxiii-#ahie1 et id4 p4 #bf47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #h ,the boats were flat-bottomed with very low sides1 so that1 in order to prevent the water from coming in1 movable upper sides were often used4 ,the outside planking was smooth 7all the models are worked in this way7 and the boats were finished with neither stem nor sternpost4 ,the keel1 in like manner1 was not shown on the models1 but this would not allow us to say1 however1 that it never really existed4 ,how then could the vessel have sufficient strength under these conditions8 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aj ,this explanation is given by the representation of an ancient boat1 exhumed about eleven years ago1 shown in 8,wassersport0 of ,january #d1 #aijf1 7,no #a74 ,the form of this boat shows that there were neither frames nor keel2 but1 on the other hand1 the planking is very thick 7#cf millimetres7 and is formed of joists close laid and dovetailed together2 the middle joist which takes the place of the keel is1 besides1 thicker than the others but it does not project below the hull of the boat4 ,the latter is therefore perfectly smooth on the outside4 ,the keelson forms a whole with the floor and follows up to the very ends of the bow and stern4 ,the benches for the rowers served as braces for the sides of the vessel2 and when this was quite large1 the sides1 by reason of their greater length1 were supported near the middle by a timber laid in the longitudinal axis of the vessel4 ,at the point where the mast was put up1 this timber was made double and embraced the foot of the mast to which it gave the required support4 ,in smaller boats1 where this beam is not met with1 the support for the mast was formed by a special arrangement which is found in the models4 ,the bow and stern are always shown to be solid 7painted brown71 which allows it to be supposed that there were decks at the two ends4 ,the benches for the rowers passed through the planking and gave greater stiffness to the boats2 these benches are indicated on most of the reliefs by small squares on the sides of the vessel4 ,the steering oar was supported1 on the other hand1 by a beam which passed across the boat and which is shown by a small rectangle4 ,it has been sometimes believed1 but wrongly1 in my opinion1 that these rectangles were windows in the cabin4 7,see ,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #bb47 ,a very nearly identical method of proceeding can be noted in the barks formerly used by the ,arabs of the ,black ,sea1 and reproduced in ,paris's work1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no #ei 7see also the models from the ,dutch ,east ,indies which appear in the collection of the ,technical ,university at ,delft74 ,this wholly original mode of construction1 which was never in use in the ,north of ,europe1 bears witness to the fact that the art of shipbuilding in ,egypt was more closely related to that of ,asia 7,india and ,china7 than to that of ,northern ,europe4 ,but this should not be a matter of astonishment4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aa ,the proof that these little rectangles1 just mentioned1 do not represent windows is given by a figure1 found in the temple of ,ds-el-,bahari 7,ancient and ,modern ,ships1 ,holmes1 p4 #bj71 which reproduces a boat carrying an obelisk4 ,in the side of this vessel1 there are not one1 but three superposed rows of these little rectangles4 ,this ship was made exceptionally strong1 in proportion to the loads which it had to carry4 ,it would be hard to admit that the side would have been pierced by three superposed rows of windows4 ,an endeavor rather has been made to put in a suitable cross bracing4 ,in the boat which tows the larger vessel1 furthermore1 there is but one row of rectangles1 and these are placed below the gunwale1 at the points where the rowers sit4 ,here it has been considered enough to let the benches of the oarsmen pass through4 ,boats intended for carrying freight were a little shorter and more round than the others and were towed1 as a rule4 ,they had generally a towing bitt at the top of the bow and sometimes even a second one at the top of the stern4 ,a few had sails and rigging1 but generally they could also be propelled by oars4 ,the free space on deck was occupied ordinarily by a cabin 7made of laths and covered with cloth74 ,rather flat at the bow1 these boats rose sensibly toward the stern4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bj ,as has been said already1 it is not known whether the ,egyptians had any vessels built exclusively for military purposes4 ,it would seem not1 if it be remembered that most of the actions between vessels had no other scene than the river4 ,furthermore1 only one single representation of a naval fight at sea is found1 it having taken place under ,ramses ,,iii 7,b4 ,c4 #aahj-aaej74 ,here is another proof that the ,egyptians were not a race of seamen1 and this is all the more marked as the war ships seen are not of pure ,egyptian type4 ,the subject will be taken up again4 ,jal gives in his celebrated work1 ,archologie navale1 p4 #fh1 a few figures about the size of ,egyptian boats4 ,according to this author1 the largest boats were not more than #ci4jj m4 long nor more than #e4ai m41 or say #e4bj m4 wide4 ,the width was to the length1 therefore1 as #a to #g4e1 a proportion which was maintained for vessels with oars up to the middle ages4 ,in the matter of the speed of ships1 the same author puts it at about #i kilometres an hour 7p4 #aaj74 ,in order to reduce the speed at the rapids of the rivers1 there was attached to the boat a rope of which the free end was made fast to a block of stone4 ,this stone slid along the bed of the river and offered a sufficient resistance2 although the anchor was not known to the ,egyptians1 they were1 as a matter of fact1 its inventors4 7,jal1 ,archologie navale1 p4 #ajc47 ,before ending this chapter1 a few more remarks will be made which are applicable to nearly all ,egyptian vessels4 ,the benches for the oarsmen were always perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the boat1 this being necessary in view of the special construction of the vessels4 ,under the ,middle ,empire1 small extra elevations supplied with a hand rail were erected on the forecastle and poop decks4 ,they were1 respectively1 the posts of the captain and helmsman4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bj ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bj ,the mast1 erected near the middle of the ship1 was movable on all vessels4 ,the double mast under the ,old ,empire rested in two shoes set on either side of the longitudinal axis4 ,the single mast 7under the ,middle and ,new ,empires7 went down to the bottom of the hold and rested against the beams which held up the rowers' benches2 it was also fixed by ropes 7this appears clearly on several reliefs71 either directly or by means of a step1 as is shown on the model at ,berlin4 7,see ,belger1 pp4 #bg-bi47 ,in this latter case1 the mast was fastened to the step itself1 a manner of consolidating which is still applied even now4 ,in this respect1 a relief coming from a mortuary chamber and now at the museum of ,gizeh offers a great deal of interest4 ,this relief shows a mast being let down1 and ,belger1 the author already quoted1 calls attention1 in this connection1 to the fact that the sculptor let the extreme part of the mast fall behind the coat of the man who is occupied with the task1 probably because he did not know what to do with it4 ,then too only two of the five oarsmen of this style of boat appear in this reproduction1 whereas1 if the drawing were well made1 it would follow therefrom that the brackets shown on sundry models abaft of the benches of the rowers1 were only to serve as a support to the backs of these last4 ,the great length of the boats and their relatively small immersed length1 required special precautions against the hogging of the ship4 ,a rope was stretched from bow to stern along the longitudinal axis of the vessel4 ,this rope was supported on forks and was fastened bow and stern to a cable which ran around the boat4 7,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #cb47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ab ,the operation of putting up some of these forks is seen in a number of the pictures4 ,ermann calls attention to the fact1 but wrongly in my opinion1 that in one of these figures1 the crew is occupied in stretching the rope in order to give to the boat the desired curve4 7,ermann1 p4 #fjd47 ,that this is not so comes out clearly1 for me1 first from the fact that the boat is already shored and hence has already received its final shape4 ,in the second place1 the shores would not be kept in position if the form of the ship were being modified2 hence1 they would not have been drawn4 ,finally1 it is hard to admit that some of the hands should continue to work quietly on the ship1 as shown in the picture1 while others are1 so to speak1 in the act of strengthening its curve2 because the sides must have spread1 necessarily1 during this latter operation4 ,consequently the men are employed merely in setting up the fork which is to carry the rope4 ,it is easy to understand1 besides1 that this should be done before the shores are removed because after they are taken away the rope would have become properly taut at the least bending of the ship4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ag ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ai ,it follows1 from what precedes1 that the ,egyptian boat was not a sea craft4 ,even the boats which went as far as ,phnicia1 situated on the ,red ,sea1 and must have been real sea vessels1 are represented in the figures in absolutely the same way as are the ordinary river craft4 ,when ,king ,necho 7,b4 ,c4 #fab to #eif71 who encouraged commerce1 felt the need for possessing a fleet1 he applied to some ,greeks for the construction of sea-going ships1 and ,phnicians1 not ,egyptians1 were employed for great maritime expeditions4 7,ermann1 p4 #fdf2 ,holmes1 p4 #bf2 ,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann p4 #ci2 ,g4 ,masporo1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples d',orient1 #ahic1 pp4 #ecf and #ecg47 ,it was the ,phnicians1 and not the ,egyptians1 who thus became the pioneers of shipbuilding in the ,mediterranean4 ,it is a general phenomenon to see nations1 who enter into reciprocal relations1 copy very quickly1 from each other whatever pertains to the art of shipbuilding4 ,and1 could it be otherwise8 ,the struggle for life produces this phenomenon in a perfectly natural way both in military and commercial affairs4 ,when a fleet was not able to stand up against that of the enemy1 vessels similar to those of the adversary or even stronger were built4 ,so it was formerly1 so it is to-day4 ,but the special features which in the past characterized the ships of the different peoples have passed away1 and at the present time the nationality of vessels can no longer be recognized save by the flags which they fly4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the different nations1 which used to dwell on the shores of the ,mediterranean and which reached their prime almost simultaneously1 or shortly after one other1 did not each have a type of boat belonging especially to its own country4 ,alas6 little remains of the vessels of antiquity and most of the pictures which have been found1 are much less clear than are those of the ,egyptians4 ,the sculptors devoted their attention more to the beautiful lines of the ship than to the necessity of giving an exact idea of its construction4 ,writers1 on the other hand are distinguished by exaggeration and emphasis when it is a question of the size of vessels4 ,there is nothing certain known in regard to dimensions1 to the form of ships or to the number of oars4 ,it is not likely that ships of extraordinary dimensions existed4 ,jal expresses this so well1 when he says in his work already mentioned the 8,archologie navale03 8,i do not believe any more in the quadraginta ordinum galley1 #adc4dc m4 long1 #ae4bg m4 wide and #bc4ch m4 high above the water than ,i believe in the long horse which carried the four sons of ,aymon0 7p4 #aag47 7,see also ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 part #cf1 p4 #bd2 ,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #fb2 ,jal1 ,archologie ,navale1 #ahdj1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aaj47 ,the art of shipbuilding was developed in the beginning among the ,phnicians and allied peoples1 but it is not possible to say exactly which of these nations was its true promoter4 ,the most primitive forms were found at that time side by side with more perfect models4 ,so it is that ,herodotus tells us that the peoples of ,asia ,minor 7,armenians7 came down the river toward ,babylon in small boats having a hull made of linden branches covered with skins4 7,see ,witsen1 pp4 #i and #af2 ,livre d',hrodote1 ,i1 #aid2 ,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #bg2 ,a4 ,jal1 p4 #hh47 ,straw was laid on the bottom of the boat and one or two asses were carried in addition to the cargo4 ,arrived at ,babylon1 the boatmen sold their cargo1 as well as the straw and the timbers of their boat1 and1 with the skins loaded on the backs of the asses1 made their way back home4 ,the current of the river was too strong to allow taking the boats up stream4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ba ,at this same time more perfect boats were navigating the ,mediterranean4 ,the oldest picture of boats of a certain tonnage dates from ,b4 ,c4 #aaej and shows the sea fight between the ,egyptians and the ,barbarians to which allusion has already been made4 7,see1 ,rossellini2 ,jal1 ,archologie navale1 #ahde1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fe2 ,jahrbuch des ,kaiserlichen ,deutschen ,archologischen ,instituts1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 #ahib1 p4 #dd47 ,so far as the shape of the boats is concerned1 this picture tells little4 ,it merely lets us see that the vessels of the belligerents differed from each other4 ,moreover1 it is seen at once that the ,egyptian ships were propelled by oars and that the others were not4 ,certain authors have deduced from this fact that the vessels of the ,barbarians were sailing ships1 which1 from my view1 is not evident4 ,the ,egyptians are1 in fact1 armed with bows and arrows1 and the ,barbarians with swords4 ,if the former sought their might in quick movements1 the latter could only do battle by boarding2 under these conditions1 the oarsmen could only have been in the way and this explains their absence1 or else they also swung the sword2 whereas1 among the ,egyptians1 the vanquished had1 probably to act as oarsmen and remained at their oars4 7,see ,jal1 ,archologie navale1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eb et seq47 ,it is probable that the sculptor wished to show that the ,egyptians fought differently from the other nations4 ,finally1 the ,egyptian vessels in question differed sensibly from those described at the beginning of this work4 ,it is more than likely that these vessels were not ,egyptian ships of war1 but ships built by more northern nations like the ,phnicians or copied from their models4 ,the rigging is not ,egyptian2 the sail has but one yard4 ,let it be mentioned here that there is in the ,british ,museum at ,london an amphora coming from the ,polledrara 7the tomb of ,vulci71 which ,munay 7,journal of ,hell4 ,stud41 #ahhi1 p4 #bdg7 causes to date from the second half of the ,v,i,ith century ,b4 ,c41 and on which is a drawing of a ,greek ship with ,egyptian rigging2 the sail is fastened to two yards1 a custom which is characteristic of ,egypt4 7,jahrbuch des ,kaiserlichen ,deutschen ,archeologischen ,instituts1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 #ahib1 p4 #db47 ,the ,phnicians had several kinds of boats and appear to have had more pronounced ships of war4 ,these latter were long and narrow for quick movements2 the others1 on the contrary1 were short and broad for large cargo capacity4 7,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann-,holmes1 p4 #bf47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bc ,there are few data about the primitive ,phnician ships4 ,the oldest reproduction is the one given in ,layard's work4 ,it is a drawing made from a bas-relief preserved in the palace of ,sennacherib 7about ,b4 ,c4 #gjj74 ,but this drawing is rudimentary and the dimensions are out of proportion1 the drawing is exaggerated4 ,it also contains some apocryphal additions4 ,consequently1 but little importance can be attached to it4 ,this reproduction is remarkable under only two respects3 in the first place1 because it represents biremes1 although it may be doubted whether the two banks of oars were used at the same time2 secondly1 the ships have rams4 ,this peculiarity differentiates the ,phnician ships sensibly from those of the ,egyptians4 7,dictionnaire des ,antiquit grecques et romaines1 p4 #be2 ,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #cj47 ,it is the oldest reproduction known of boats having rams4 ,the ,phnicians1 by their expeditions along the shores of the ,mediterranean1 toward ,greece1 ,italy1 ,africa and even as far as ,england1 according to some authors1 while others take them even to the ,baltic ,sea1 exerted a great influence on the art of shipbuilding as it was practised on the ,mediterranean4 ,this influence must have made itself felt in the colonies which they founded1 and among which ,carthage was the most important4 ,there is no doubt that the naval architecture of the ,phnicians differed little from that of the ,greeks and from that of the ,romans4 ,let it be remembered1 in this connection1 that the old models of ships in the ,netherlands1 for example1 remained unchanged for many centuries and that the same fact has been found everywhere else4 ,it is permissible1 then1 to assume that the types of boats which existed in the ,mediterranean in the ,middle ,ages do not depart greatly from those which date from the time of the ,romans4 ,if the progressive development of the ship through the ages be considered1 it is unlikely that the ancients built ships of fabulous dimensions2 on the contrary1 their vessels must have been rather small4 ,the first important changes effected in ships were the consequence of the invention of gunpowder1 and are not directly related to the evolution of nations4 ,the new direction given to the art of shipbuilding does not coincide therefore with the end of ,ancient ,history and the beginning of the ,history of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it seems1 then1 inexact1 under these conditions1 to speak of the art of the ancients as of something which forms an isolated whole4 ,if1 judging by the models exhumed1 the ,egyptian ship had already reached a high degree of perfection1 the ,egyptians were still having recourse to the lights of the ,phnicians1 it is evident that the ,phnician ship must have been the better4 ,therefore1 all the old reproductions1 without distinction1 leave much to be desired1 the result1 doubtless1 of the incapacity of the sculptor or the painter1 which still happens very often in our own time4 ,layard's reproduction shows that biremes have existed since the earliest times4 ,it must not be forgotten1 in this connection1 to invite attention to the ,greek 8,dipylon0 vases on which two banks of superposed oarsmen are shown4 ,these reproductions are1 however1 so primitive that it seems to me hazardous to deduce any conclusions from them4 ,as a matter of fact1 it may be assumed up to a certain point that the upper bank of oarsmen represents the after bank and that1 instead of being superposed1 one set of oarsmen followed after the other4 ,the oars of the upper bank are not drawn in full1 which shows that the rowers followed one another and were not placed the ones above the others4 ,it is deduced from this that all these drawings should be accepted with the greatest circumspection4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 there were several oarsmen to an oar2 more reliance was placed on a more rapid movement of the oars than on the increase of their numbers1 to obtain a greater speed4 ,it cannot be said exactly when the transition was brought about4 ,but the oldest method of propulsion is1 in any case1 the one in which each oar was worked by a single man for a single oar2 it was taken1 so it would seem1 from the boats using paddles1 each paddle being handled by one man4 ,the relative positions1 which might be taken by the rowers who worked superposed banks of oars1 have given rise to many suppositions which it is superfluous to examine in detail4 ,nothing more will be done than to recall the trials of propulsion by oars1 undertaken on the initiative of the ,emperor ,napoleon ,,iii1 on a galley built especially for these experiments4 ,it was shown that the trireme was a possible thing but1 that a boat of this sort was so encumbered by rowers that no space was left for the cargo4 7,see the work ,le ,muse du ,louvre1 8,constructions navales dans l',antiquit407 ,the result of the researches made may be stated as follows3 ,all the ideas put forth in regard to the number of banks of oars and to the respective places occupied by the oarsmen rest only on hypotheses4 ,there have been more than one bank of rowers1 but it is probable1 however1 that it was exceptional when there were more than two4 ,each oar at the beginning was handled by a single man4 7,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith ,edition1 p4 #hjf2 ,holmes1 p4 #dd2 ,torr1 p4 #ah2 ,witsen1 p4 #ac47 ,as a general rule1 vessels moved by oars underwent little change after the invention of gunpowder4 ,the propelling force could not be developed because it was not possible to increase the number of oars without trouble 7,archologie ,navale1 ,a4 ,jal1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ej2 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 p4 #dj2 idem p4 #cj74 ,so1 ,jal1 in the 8,archologie ,navale01 refuses to admit that there were ships as large as the 8,great ,eastern0 in the times of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,according to the monument of ,prora of ,samothrace1 thole pins may already have been known to the ancients4 ,dr4 ,assmann gives much information on this point 7,baumeister ,denkmlen ,seewesen1 p4 #afcb1 fig4 #afic74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bd ,the habit1 not yet wholly given up1 of painting an eye at the bow1 on each side of the stem1 proves how long old customs may last4 ,it was already a habit of the ,phnicians1 the ,greeks and the ,romans1 and it is still found on a few ,italian and ,portuguese vessels 7,see3 ,das ,seewesen1 der ,griechen und ,rmer by ,dr4 ,emil ,lbeck1 #ahij1 p4 #dc2 ,assmann1 ,seewesen1 p4 #aeig2 ,jahrbuch des ,deutsch4 ,archeol4 ,instituts1 #ahhi1 p4 #ii2 ,archologie ,navale1 ,jal1 p4 #aje2 ,ancient ,ships by ,torr1 p4 #fi74 ,these eyes were a symbol3 they were intended to show that the ship was seeking its own path1 they have been considered sometimes1 but wrongly1 to be hawse holes4 ,old forms have also been long preserved1 and among these the ram is the most remarkable4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ed ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ei ,in this order of ideas1 the ,speronara of ,malta1 which appears in ,paris's work1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 n #bjc 7n #afd1 etc47 is the most interesting example of the ,mediterranean4 ,the stem of this boat rises vertically from the water and is provided with a ram2 even the eyes too are there4 ,maltese boats without a ram are to be seen in the same figure1 but these vessels differ little from the ,speronara4 ,by bringing ,layard's drawing above mentioned close to this one1 there will be seen in each some boats having a ram and a mast while others have none1 but have stems which rise vertically above the water4 ,it can be concluded from this that1 as far back as the times of the ,phnicians1 ships already presented these same differences4 ,hence there is no doubt that the ,speronara represents a ,phnician type of boat1 in which the steering oar is replaced by a rudder4 ,there is no entire agreement as to the place occupied by the ram4 ,some persons place it above1 others below the load-water line4 ,be this as it may1 it is found on all the ancient models and1 in most cases1 the bottom line of the ship is prolonged in a straight or a slightly curved line as far as the ram4 ,the constant presence of this latter element in the reproductions1 allows the conclusion that it was placed not below but above the water4 ,if the contrary had been the case1 the ram could not have made so great an impression on the painters and sculptors4 ,as for the rest1 all the ancient types1 on which traces of a ram are found1 carry this element above the water line4 ,the fact that the bottom line ended in the ram1 does not prove that this latter was below the water1 for this line was invisible1 and the draughtsmen1 who were uninitiated in the art of shipbuilding1 not knowing any other means for representing it1 cut the ship off at the water line2 but as the drawing then appeared rather strange1 they added a curved line joining the ram to the sternpost4 ,if several of the old pictures be considered from this standpoint and if the curious bottom lines drawn by the draughtsmen be covered by better lines borrowed from the ,speronara or from ancient galleys1 these reproductions acquire a wholly different meaning4 ,if little be known about the ancient ,phnician boat1 a more thorough knowledge of the ,greek or ,roman ship has been reached1 through researches1 especially in the matter of dimensions4 ,it is settled that the ,ancients had dock yards containing sheds for the shelter of vessels from which the running rigging had been removed while the standing parts were left4 7,see3 ,das ,seewezen der ,gr4 und ,r4 by ,dr4 ,em4 ,lbeck1 #ahij1 p4 #b47 ,these sheds give an idea of the sizes of their ships4 ,the excavations made by ,lieutenant von ,alten 7,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r41 p4 #e71 attached to the ,imperial ,german ,archeological ,institute 7#ahgf-ahgg71 have shown that the figures given by ,graser are inaccurate4 ,the dimensions of eight docks could be measured at ,munichia1 and these structures were #f4be m4 wide by #ba4bj m4 long4 ,later excavations brought to light at ,zoa some docks #e4ej m4 wide and about #dj metres long1 measured along the bank4 7,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r41 idem p4 #f47 ,the dimensions of the ships must1 therefore1 have been relatively small4 ,it is generally granted that the beam of the ,greek ship propelled by oars is less than that of the galleys of the ,middle ,ages4 ,according to ,jal 7,archologie ,navale71 the ratio of the beam to the length1 in the middle ages1 was for war vessels3 #a3h2 for merchant ships it was #a3g4 ,graser found that among the ,greeks this ratio was #a3h1 and according to ,serre 7,la ,marine de guerre de l',antiquit1 p4 #cc7 and ,lematre 7,revue archologique #ahcc1 ,vol4 #h1 pp4 #adi et seq47 its value was #a3i4 ,hence the vessels were narrow as compared with their length1 which increased their degree of mobility4 ,besides1 the depth of the docks discovered shows that the boats drew but little and1 consequently1 that the ships slid along in a way1 on the water4 ,in this respect too1 the ancient boats did not differ much from those of the ,middle ,ages4 ,neglecting this detail1 among others1 ,graser reaches a type of ship having far too great a draught4 ,alongside of the war vessels1 naves long1 there were the merchant vessels1 naves onerari4 ,it was natural that great mobility should be sought for the former2 it is this which explains the lengthened shape of these boats1 whereas the merchant ships were shorter and had more beam4 ,later1 but still several centuries ,b4 ,c41 when the power of ,rome was developed1 when its population increased and when the importation of wheat and other provisions became more and more important and had to be made more and more quickly1 the ship with oars was used as a merchant vessel in addition to the short1 wide boat4 ,the ,roman freight galleys seem1 further on1 to have been made broader1 like those of the ,middle ,ages1 with a view to increasing their capacity4 ,but no new type followed from this2 it was merely a new application of existing types4 ,it can be certified that no new type of boat was created later all at once1 and that this change was due not to the shifting of lines of trade or to the construction of new ports4 ,this latter condition could1 at most1 have modified the accepted dimensions4 ,the different types of antiquity remained in use for centuries and are still to be found to a great extent4 ,nothing more will be done than to attract attention to certain ancient pictures where are seen ships having rounded stems4 ,a short time ago1 this peculiarity was still to be found in 8la ,muleta0 a boat of the ,tagus1 now disappeared4 7,compare ,paris1 ,vol4 ,v1 fig4 #bfh2 and ,jahrbuch der ,deutsch4 ,archeol4 ,inst41 #ahhi1 p4 #ia47 ,the size of boats changed little4 ,in order to develope more force1 the number of rowers was increased and1 as the length of the ship was reduced1 the rowers had forcedly to be placed in banks1 one above another4 ,jal considers that a triple bank of oars must have been an exception1 and that the lowest bank must have been separated from the other two by a deck4 ,the celebrated trireme1 built at ,asnires in #ahfj1 under orders from ,napoleon ,,iii1 was carried out in accordance with this conception2 but1 as has been said1 the experiment tried with this boat did not give satisfactory results4 7,see1 ,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r41 ,dr4 ,lbeck1 p4 #di47 ,if1 however1 the experiment did not solve the question of the position of the rowers1 it showed sufficiently that1 in the trireme1 the ship was filled up with rowers4 ,the ancient vessel had little space for provisions4 ,care was taken consequently so to arrange matters as to be able to land every evening1 and it can be understood from this that most naval battles were fought close to the shore4 ,but1 in order to land everywhere1 a small draught of water was necessary4 ,this1 according to ,assmann and ,lematre1 must have been about one metre4 7,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r41 ,dr4 ,emil ,lbeck1 p4 #aj1 note #e47 ,the disposable space on board was so restricted that1 when it was not possible to go ashore at night1 the oarsmen could only sleep in gangs4 ,while the boat was in motion they had1 in order not to interfere with each other1 to make their movements absolutely together1 and even when coming on board a certain order of succession had to be observed4 7,das ,seewesen1 idem p4 #aj47 ,it is not known exactly when the old method of propulsion1 each oar handled by a single man1 gave place to the new in which heavy oars were worked by several men4 ,it appears however that the ,liburnians already had heavy oars of which the use seems to have been a consequence of the battle of ,actium1 fought ,b4 ,c4 #ca4 7,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r41 ,dr4 ,em4 ,lbeck1 p4 #ba47 ,as has been seen1 there were1 alongside of the ships of war or naves long1 merchant ships or freight vessels1 naves onerari4 ,the dimensions of these latter were also rather small2 as can be judged by their capacity4 ,their cargo1 as shown by ancient documents1 was stated in ,greek talents or in ,roman amphora 7#a amphora #bf4ej m471 and later also in midimnes of ,attica 7#a midimne #db4ej m474 7,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 mid ,r41 ,dr4 ,em4 ,lbeck1 p4 #bb47 ,according to an arrangement regulating the size of merchant vessels1 made in the year ,b4 ,c4 #bah1 the boats which brought goods from the senatorial possessions in ,sicily and ,sardinia to ,rome1 had a cargo space of only #ghf cubic feet4 ,it is true that descriptions of much larger vessels are found4 ,these ships1 from calculations made by ,assmann and other authors1 must have had a capacity of #bf1jjj to #bjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,graser even goes so far as to say1 from the quantity of freight carried1 that the ship 8,alexandreia0 belonging to ,hiero of ,syracuse must have had a capacity of #bdj1jjj cubic feet4 ,mention is even made of one ship having a length of #abj ells1 while for another a depth of #bi ells is given4 ,all these dimensions are not to be despised even now1 but1 considering the small size of the ports and navigable highways of those days as well as their lack of depth1 they must have been an impossibility4 ,furthermore1 all these numerical data rest only on hypotheses1 and cannot be exact4 ,the short1 bluff merchant ship of the ,ancients was certainly not longer than the vessel with oars and its average size does not seem to have exceeded that of a 8tialque04 ,the progress of shipbuilding was gradual throughout ,western ,europe1 and as the same may be said of the ,mediterranean1 since the ,middle ,ages1 what reason is there1 then1 for supposing that the vessels of ,antiquity were of extraordinary dimensions8 ,in this order of ideas1 the ,prora of ,samothrace1 discovered in #ahfc and dating from ,b4 ,c4 #cjf1 gives an exact idea of the war ship of the ,ancients and proves that this vessel differed little in shape and size from the ships of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the bottom was slightly curved near the middle and the hull was made slender toward the ends4 ,the mean draught of water was one metre1 while that of the largest vessels scarcely exceeded #a4ej m4 7,assmann1 ,seewesen1 p4 #aeig1 etc47 ,the stem and the sternpost were ornamented with signs which are unimportant for this study4 ,ships with oars of which the stern was rounded at the level of the water line1 carried at the bow a ram1 which was used to sink the enemy's ships and to smash their oars4 ,a heavy block of wood1 ornamented with the head of a ram1 prevented the ram from penetrating too far into the side of the ship which it attacked4 ,the arrangements of the ram varied a good deal as is shown by the figures1 but the form of the vessel itself was not influenced thereby4 ,this element was the emblem of power and was meant to inspire terror4 ,there is nothing astonishing then that1 in most of the old drawings1 the draughtsman should have dwelt rather on this detail than on the ship itself1 thus causing the shape of this latter to become an accessory4 ,the ram1 which was already in use among the ,phnicians1 did not appear among the ,greeks until ,b4 ,c4 #ecf4 7,dr4 ,em4 ,lbeck1 p4 #ac47 ,whence it follows1 and it cannot be repeated too often1 that the art of shipbuilding had reached a higher degree of perfection with the ,phnicians than among the ,greeks and that the former exercised a preponderating influence over the peoples dwelling along the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,hence1 the thesis of uniformity of the boats of the ,mediterranean could be sustained1 but this would not imply that each people had known but one type of vessel4 ,boats of sundry types existed at the same time2 there were the short bluff merchant ships side by side with the long vessels driven by oars1 and perfected types were crowded against the primitive4 ,history tells us1 that ,csar put to sea with a fleet thirty days after the cutting of the wood to be used in its construction4 7,nicolas ,witsen1 p4 #ab1 col4 #a47 ,it would be hard to grant that the boats which composed this fleet were well finished ships moved by oars4 ,they were1 doubtless flat bottomed vessels1 of the type which is still found in the ,adriatic and which is so well reproduced in the 8,rascona04 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 and ,das ,seewesen der ,gr4 und ,r4 by ,dr4 ,em4 ,lbeck1 p4 #ci47 ,the rapid construction of the fleet in question furnishes one proof more in favor of the point raised regarding the small size of ships4 ,in order to show more clearly what is meant by uniformity in the shape of vessels1 attention will be called to the 8tialque0 type of the ,netherlands1 which is found1 with slight changes and under other names1 from ,denmark to ,belgium4 ,all the boats of this type have a common fundamental character2 but with the tialque are met still other types which are also found elsewhere4 ,so1 from ,denmark to ,belgium1 there is a series of well defined fundamental types and hence we can speak of common forms4 ,this remark applies also to the ,mediterranean 7,dictionnaire des ,antiquits grecques et romaines1 #cfth part1 p4 #bd2 ,navis71 where these fundamentals have been preserved for centuries3 the old types of wooden vessels to be met with at the present time still give an exact idea of them1 save in what relates to the rudder and rig4 ,sundry types have evidently been set aside or have undergone changes demanded by local conditions1 so that1 in order to find among them the fundamental characters belonging to a given country1 it is often necessary to seek elsewhere4 ,so1 for example1 there are found in ,holland1 at 's ,gravenmoer 7,north ,brabant71 an old ,rhenish type2 in ,portugal1 small fishing boats which resemble greatly the ancient ,egyptian vessels and1 in the ,arabian ,sea1 a ship which1 aside from the rudder and rigging1 resembles1 to an astonishing degree1 the primitive ,roman vessel4 ,and the ,arabs claim that they have the oldest and best ships 7compare ,paris1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 n #ace1 with the relief of the 8port of the ,tiber0 which appears in ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des ,klassischen ,altertums1 fig4 #afhh74 ,if vessels moved by oars underwent no changes as the result of the invention of gunpowder1 the cause must be sought in the slenderness of their construction required by the small motive power which they could put forth4 ,the number of oarsmen was limited and very soon a maximum was reached which could not be exceeded4 ,in view of the fact that a practical vessel having more than three banks of rowers could not be constructed1 and that the old reproductions which are known never show more than three1 it seems permissible to conclude that the ancient writers who speak of four banks of oars and more1 have allowed their imaginations to run away with them or1 which appears more exact1 that they had a way of counting other than the one adopted in our time8 ,doubtless1 it was desired to designate the number of oars which passed in banks through the side of the ship4 ,huys's drawing1 according to ,breugel 7dating from the middle of the ,x,v,ith century71 shows oars grouped thus in sets of threes1 and the same process is found in other old pictures2 if these pictures show triremes1 the question would be simple to explain4 ,a reproduction of the trireme1 often referred to1 is that of the bas-relief of the ,acropolis at ,athens4 7,baumeister ,denkmler des klassischen ,altertums1 fig4 #afhi47 ,copies of it are found in all the works1 but they do not always agree and hence can offer nothing certain4 7,dr4 ,moritz ,rhlmann1 p4 #fb47 ,let a few more words be said now about merchantmen4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bf ,for these1 the most beautiful drawing known is certainly the aforementioned relief of the port of the ,tiber1 preserved in the ,torlonia ,museum4 ,in this is seen a large merchant ship with inclined stem and rounded stern4 ,at about two-thirds of the length of the ship from the bow1 the gunwale projects so as to give a support to the steering oar4 ,this mode of construction is still found on several ,indian boats1 etc4 ,the ordinary mast1 set up near the middle of the vessel and provided with a stay1 is secured by strong ropes4 ,the square sail can be lowered by means of ropes running through rings fastened thereto4 ,then the mast carries but a single yard2 a jib is attached to its upper end4 ,a mast called 8dolon0 stands forward2 it was used1 in the beginning1 to hoist in a small life boat4 ,it is still called the 8boat mast0 probably for this reason4 ,the cabin occupies all the available space aft of the mast4 ,the sails were generally square2 they were sometimes of rectangular shape on the ,alexandria freight ships4 ,war ships1 like important freight vessels1 always had two masts4 7,dr4 ,breusing1 ,die ,nautik der ,alten1 p4 #ef47 ,in action1 the sails were furled and the masts lowered1 in order to save them from being reached by the ram of the enemy's ships4 7,dr4 ,breusing1 p4 #ga47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ca ,attention should not bear alone on large ships1 but also on the small merchant vessels4 ,the most beautiful picture of this sort of boat is1 unquestionably1 the old relief of the ,cathedral at ,salerno4 7,jahrbuch des ,kaiserlichen ,deutschen ,archeol4 ,instituts1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ajc1 fig4 #a;c47 ,aside from the question of the rudder1 the vessel there shown would easily pass for a modern craft4 ,this boat is in course of being discharged2 the bridge is lowered and the forward panel is raised4 ,the mast which is down had to be taken from its step for this purpose2 this method was still much in use in our country in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,the steering oars hang alongside of the vessel1 resting against the projecting side4 ,the boat itself is completed by a stem and a sternpost4 ,the step of the mast is about one-third of the length of the boat from the bow1 and abaft this is seen the hold4 ,this last1 as in our present river boats1 is closed by means of panels4 ,even the grooves 7half-rounds71 into which the panels are set1 can be made out and1 in these grooves1 even the openings to let the water run off 7shown by little marks7 are to be seen4 ,the panels are on a slope1 as shown by the upper lines4 ,the meaning of these little half-circles was not understood by the author of the ,jahrbuch afore-named4 7,jahrbuch des ,kais4 ,deutsch4 ,arch4 ,instituts1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 #ahhi1 p4 #ajc47 ,two mooring bitts are seen near the bow and four near the stern2 their special form allows it to be assumed that they were to be used as a support for oars1 which gave the means for going ahead in a calm4 ,the mast1 which is short and thick1 is provided with cleats throughout its entire height1 hence it may be supposed that these pieces of wood were placed there for climbing the mast4 ,hence it is probable that this boat did not have rigging sufficiently strong for this purpose4 ,it is true that no ropes are seen in the figure in question1 but it cannot be concluded1 however1 that the vessel had none4 ,it is my opinion that this boat could not have been larger than a small 8tialque04 ,here is another proof in support of the argument that1 in the course of ages1 boats have been but little changed and that their construction soon reached a high degree of perfection4 ,there is nothing surprising to be found in this assertion1 if the masterpieces bequeathed to us by the ,greeks and ,romans be considered4 ,it is matter of regret that no positive data exist in regard to the position of the oarsmen among the ,ancients1 because it is just on this point that vessels propelled by oars were modified in the ,middle ,ages4 ,it was at this period that the oars handled by one man1 according to the primitive fashion1 gave place to a single bank of heavy oars each of which was worked by several rowers4 ,this transition was not concident with the fall of the ,western ,roman ,empire 7#dgf74 ,in fact1 the ,emperor ,leo 7#hhf to #iaa7 advised the construction of 8dromon0 biremes 7,la ,croix1 p4 #ge71 and even in the ,x,ith century1 a writer is seen to speak of a chlandre or slandre1 to which he attributes a very high speed and which had two banks of oars superposed4 7,la ,croix1 pp4 #ge and #gi47 ,the change came about gradually1 in all probability4 ,in the ,x,i,i,ith century1 only vessels with one bank of oars1 galleys1 are mentioned4 7,see1 for banks1 van ,yk1 p4 #aa2 ,torr1 ,ancient ,ships1 pp4 #ai et seq47 ,meanwhile1 the rudder arose and its appearance brought about changes in the stern of the vessel4 ,as a general rule1 little is known about the condition of the art of shipbuilding at the beginning of the ,middle ,ages4 ,all the same1 however1 this period must have seen an important marine on the ,mediterranean and1 consequently1 the art of shipbuilding must have been flourishing4 ,there is no doubt that the ,crusades 7#ajif-abia7 had a great influence on the old state of affairs4 ,venice became the centre of progress and ,genoa followed closely4 ,the importance of the navy at this time is attested by the famous navy yards at ,venice and by a great number of edicts which relate to the construction of ships4 ,thus1 there is found in the ,x,i,i,ith century an edict which determines the water line for the vessel loaded and for the vessel empty4 7,jal1 p4 #bfg1 article #d47 ,in regard to the construction of ships with oars1 it is only necessary to refer to the edicts of the ,emperor ,leo which were observed1 even to the ,xth century4 ,this ,emperor ordered that the galleys should be sufficiently strong and swift1 involving thus great length and little beam1 but the latter was to be1 however1 proportioned to the length4 ,these edicts were simple1 but categorical4 ,later on1 people were no longer free to build as they pleased4 ,they had to follow the rules laid down regarding the form of the ships which bore a certain relation to the capacity and to the trips to be made4 ,the length of the boats was not extraordinary3 ,jal gives1 for example1 a length of about #dd metres for vessels propelled by oars4 ,this figure1 as one can see1 differs little from that of the vessels of antiquity1 and was little exceeded later on4 ,just as in the times of the ,greeks and the ,romans1 the ,middle ,ages had their galleys1 and their merchant vessels of more rounded form4 ,thus1 for example1 the city of ,genoa sent to ,pisa1 in #abhd1 a fleet of eight galleys and caravels4 7,jal1 p4 #bej47 ,the galleys1 however1 were not used exclusively as vessels of war2 they also served generally1 in the ,x,i,vth century1 as merchantmen4 7,jal1 p4 #bej47 ,we have from the ,middle ,ages no drawings or pictures which give the means of deducing with any certainty the shape of the ships4 ,the oldest picture comes to us from ,pietro ,laurentini1 an artist of the ,x,i,vth century2 then there exists another by the hand of ,raphal 7#adhc-aebj71 and dating from the beginning of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,these two reproductions appear in ,jal's work 7,archologie navale71 but their small scale almost destroys their value4 ,they are remarkable however from this that the first shows the double mast of the ,ancients and the cabin on the after deck1 while ,raphal's carries a castle at the bow and stern1 as well as the vessel's rudder4 ,it follows from a comparative examination of old coins that the rudder had come generally into use in the ,x,i,i,ith century4 ,it is superfluous1 however1 to recall that1 nevertheless1 the steering oar was still used on many vessels as a rudder4 ,the invention of gunpowder1 near the middle of the ,x,i,vth century1 made no changes in the structure of the galleys1 because the propelling force was still limited to the strength of the rowers1 which made a slender shape a prime necessity for the boat and prevented the mounting of any large number of guns on board4 ,the galleys reached their apogee in #afjj4 ,shortly afterward1 they began to lose their value as war ships by reason of the increasing power of the big1 rounded sea-going vessels4 ,a striking example of the fighting inferiority of the galleys is found in the naval action between the ,french ship 8,le ,bon0 and #cf galleys1 on ,july #aj1 #afhd4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 no4 #abf47 ,this vessel was only #da4da m4 long from bow to stern1 with a total width of #aa4jd m4 and a depth of #e4jc m42 the keel was #cg4jc long4 ,the galleys1 on the other hand1 were #dh4gg m4 long over all1 #ba4bj m4 on the keel1 with a breadth of #e4ij m4 on the deck 7#h4dg m4 between the apostis72 the oars were #b4e metres long4 ,the higher position of the artillery on 8,le ,bon01 as well as its more solid frame and thicker planking1 allowed this ship to hold the enemy at bay and to escape when the wind rose4 ,if the strength of the crews be examined1 the fighting inferiority of the galleys stands out still more clearly2 while the ,french ship carried only #fjj to #hjj men1 the galleys had on board from #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj all told4 ,consequently1 from as far back as the ,x,v,i,ith century1 the galleys were used in ,france almost exclusively for towing4 ,thus we read that in #afhh1 the wind having fallen1 ,duquesne had his ships brought by galleys under the walls of ,algiers in order to bombard that city4 ,the galleys continued to appear nevertheless in the ,french navy until #aggc4 ,it was at the battle of ,zierikzee1 in #acjb1 where the ,flemings fought against the ,french1 the ,dutch and the ,genoese1 that1 according to the old ,florentine historian ,villani1 the superiority of the broad-beamed vessels of the ,north ,sea1 over the galleys1 was first felt4 ,the ,count of ,flanders had fitted out1 for this battle1 eighty ships or 8coques01 built in accordance with the maritime demands of the place4 7,villani says3 ottantia navi1 overo cahi1 al medo di quello mare47 ,according to this historian it was also the first time that vessels of this kind had to be fought4 ,the battle of ,zierikzee was the cause1 from this time on1 of giving more and more attention1 in the ,mediterranean1 to the building of broad-beamed ships4 ,besides1 necessity forced it4 ,the ,crusades brought about more frequent relations with the peoples of the ,north against whom defense must needs be had4 ,in the beginning1 the people from the ,north called upon the ,genoese and others along the shores of the ,mediterranean to transport the ,crusaders to ,palestine4 ,the route by the ,mediterranean became thus known to them2 but they very soon undertook to build ships themselves so as to escape from the exorbitant transportation charges of the ,italians4 ,nevertheless1 ,venice1 ,genoa1 etc4 remained the principal warehouses2 and many ships were still built there1 especially for ,france4 ,philip the ,handsome1 in his struggle against ,edward ,i of ,england1 in #abie1 and ,philip of ,valois1 in his war against ,edward ,,iii1 in #accg1 both made use of ,genoese vessels4 7,la ,croix1 p4 #ib47 ,furthermore1 as ,jal has written 7,archologie ,navale1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceb71 it can be granted with certainty that the vessels built in the ,french ports of the ,mediterranean1 were identical with those used in ,italy4 ,the mutual relations between maritime peoples and their common interests inevitably brought about these imitations4 ,venice yielded nothing to ,genoa2 ,genoa was close on the heels of ,pisa and1 in the improvements made in shipbuilding1 this last city did not allow herself to be out-done by ,barcelona1 ,marseilles or ,constantinople4 ,under these circumstances1 the writer just quoted was right1 then1 in saying3 8,the basin of the ,mediterranean had1 therefore1 but one navy1 at least so far as the principal vessels were concerned2 it is so to-day and it was certainly so in ancient times40 ,i add also for my part that the characteristic differences offered by types of vessels among themselves1 have undergone no change in the course of ages and this applies not only to the basin of the ,mediterranean1 but to shipbuilding in general4 ,these old types1 however1 are not to be sought among the large vessels1 but rather among the small ones and1 particularly1 among fishing smacks4 ,among all nations1 even among all seafaring people1 fishermen have most preserved their ancient character and modified their manners and customs least4 ,the exercise of their hard calling on the sea has made them hostile to any innovation coming from the shore and has been unable1 except in passing over their bodies1 to make them give up the old types of ships1 the issue of tradition and usage4 ,hence1 fishermen have kept longest the antique forms and it is to them that we must go to find them4 ,thus there are seen in ,norway fishing boats which1 aside from the rudder1 reproduce almost completely the ancient 8,viking ship04 ,the ,dutch 8,bom0 is1 in like manner1 a remnant of the 8cog01 and ,portugal offers barks which call to mind the old mural paintings discovered in ,italy4 ,naturally many types have disappeared already1 and their number is constantly increasing through the use of steel in shipbuilding4 ,thus it is that there now no longer exist any but a few rare specimens of the galleys and they are used merely for festive occasions 7examples3 the galley utilized for the naval review of the ,hollandsche-,diep1 and that used in ,portugal on certain holidays74 ,the oldest work which treats of galleys is called3 8,fabbrica di galere04 7,jal1 ,archologie ,navale1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #f et seq47 ,the first complete information about them dates from the time of ,louis ,,xiv and is given by the ,chevalier ,barras de la ,penne 7#afih74 ,nor should the work of ,frstenbach1 dating from #afbc1 be passed by in silence4 7,witsen1 p4 #ahf47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ch ,sidenote3 ,,ii #df ,sidenote3 ,,ii #dg ,although the galleys are sufficiently known1 a few more words may still be said about them4 ,these boats were long and narrow and rose but little above the water4 ,their beam was generally one-seventh or one-eighth of their length and the part out of water rose to only #a m4 to #a4ej m4 in height4 ,a galley #dj4fj m4 long1 for example1 had a beam of only #e4bg m4 ,the total length of the stem was #c4bh m4 and of the sternpost it was #c4fb m4 ,the main frame was placed at three-sevenths of the length of the vessel and was flattened on the under side4 ,the vessel narrowed forward and aft and the deck covered its entire length4 ,near the middle was built the corsia 7guard bridge7 into which were let the benches of the rowers4 ,on each side1 close by the planking and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the vessel1 were the apostis1 heavy timbers into which were let the thole pins4 ,the oars1 arranged in a single bank1 were each worked by four or five men who rose from their bench as they pushed forward on the loom of the oar1 to prepare for a stroke1 and fell back on it as the stroke was completed4 ,the oarsmen were stark naked at this work4 ,a man of average strength could stand it1 as a rule1 for an hour1 and yet this work had sometimes to go on for twelve consecutive hours in time of war4 ,what a painful situation1 when it is considered that these men were exposed to the inclemencies of the air and to the fire of the enemy6 ,in order to strengthen the rowers at their work1 bread steeped in wine was put into their mouths4 ,if they fell exhausted1 they were mercilessly flogged by the boatswain who walked up and down the bridge1 and if they did not rise1 death awaited them3 they were thrown overboard4 ,if it be borne in mind1 furthermore1 that the rowers were rivetted to the ship by irons which were rarely removed2 that they generally lived and died on their benches1 it will be understood that the galleys were a terror and a shame for the seafaring peoples4 ,it was rare to meet with volunteers for this trade which included1 for the matter of that1 only slaves and prisoners of war4 ,still1 the rowers were not all equal2 they were divided into three distinct classes3 #a those condemned to the galleys1 their hair and beard being shaved2 #b the slaves1 among whom were ,turks1 ,moors and ,negroes1 these last considered to be the best rowers1 their distinctive mark was a tuft of hair on the head2 #c the 8benevoglie0 or volunteers among whom were men who had served their time and been liberated1 but who were not able to find a place and so sought a refuge on the galleys1 as well as bandits and others who no longer had anything on which to live4 ,the clothing of the rowers was very simple3 they received every year two shirts1 two pairs of breeches1 a red cloth jacket a sou'wester for winter1 a red cap and two blankets per bench of oarsmen4 ,rations were issued to them1 but they could buy more if the food supplied were not enough4 ,the part of the hold not occupied by ammunition was reserved for provisions2 it also included a bit of a cabin for the captain and officers4 ,when the galley stopped1 a large sail was stretched above and across the ship1 one side being raised so as to let the air enter4 ,their slender build did not give the galleys sufficient stability at sea1 consequently the rowers were often very much tried by the waves4 ,the armament was simple3 three guns were placed at the bow1 the principal one of which was in the middle 7set in the longitudinal axis of the ship72 on the large galleys1 there were found1 as a rule #ah1 #dh and #ab pounders and1 on the small ships1 there were one #ab-1 one #bd-;and one #h-pdr4 ,the fighting value was measured by the amount of iron which could be thrown at once and per man4 ,take1 for example1 a galley throwing #dd kilogrammes of iron at once and carrying a crew of about #djj men4 ,there would be hurled1 then1 #j4aaj m4 per man4 ,a galley cost #djj1jjj francs1 or #ijij francs per kilogramme of iron4 ,compare this galley with an ordinary war ship1 carrying #ee pieces of artillery with a crew of #aajj men and able to throw #ajjj kilogrammes at once 7or #j4iaj m4 per man71 and assume its cost to be #cjjj francs per kg4 ,the lower fighting efficiency1 of the galleys and their much greater relative cost can be clearly seen4 ,this ordinary war ship throws at once nine times more iron per man while its cost is less than that of the galley considered4 ,in conclusion1 it will be stated that the speed of the galleys was #b4ej m4 per second or #e4f miles per hour1 and that sails were available in addition to the oars4 ,they carried two masts1 one at the bow and the other about midship1 both provided with lateen sails 7,jal1 ,clos4 nautique1 p4 #gdi71 which were furled while the vessel was in action4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #dc ,no further demonstration is necessary to show that the galley was not suited to take the ,ocean1 which was more and more frequented4 ,the invention of gunpowder soon brought out this vessel's inferiority for fighting4 ,hence endeavors were made to improve it4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #de ,thus there is seen to arise in the ,x,v,ith century a ship1 the 8galliass01 of which the bow and stern recall the boats of broad beam1 and of which the intermediate part brings the galleys to mind4 ,this ship had more beam than the galleys2 its breadth being to its length as #a to #e4 ,with a length of #ej4ja m41 the galliass had a beam of #i4ja m4 and drew #c4ce m42 its greatest depth was #f4eb m4 ,there were #be oars on each side and the benches of the rowers were #a4cj m4 apart4 ,the oars were handled at times by #g or #h men and as the sides were higher above the water than those of the galleys1 the rowers were better protected against waves4 ,the galliass carried generally from #gjj to #ajjj men4 ,fifty guns were mounted in the towers and between the benches of the rowers4 ,the galliass was more stable on the water than the galley1 protected the rowers better and carried more guns2 but1 just on account of these advantages1 it was less agile as its propelling force was limited by the restricted number of rowers4 ,the galliass1 like the galleys carried three masts furnished with lateen sails4 ,these were very hard to work1 so that in violent winds the large sails were replaced by others of smaller size4 ,it is not astonishing that even the galliass should have been inferior to the broad-beamed ships4 ,furthermore1 they were never numerous2 at the end of the ,x,v,ith century1 in the naval battle of the allied powers against the ,turks at ,lepanto1 only six of them could be assembled4 7,jal1 ,archologie ,navale1 p4 #cid47 ,it is therefore very doubtful whether the invincible 8,armada01 the famous fleet of #aehh1 included a division of twenty-two galliass2 the greater part of these vessels were undoubtedly galleys4 ,in the same way1 there existed among the ,ancients1 beside the naves long1 broad beamed ships which were used in the beginning solely for commerce and transportation4 ,the invention of gunpowder1 and still more the closing by the ,turks of the old route to the ,indies1 at the end of the ,x,vth century1 made a change in this situation4 ,from this time1 trade moves toward the ocean2 a new route to the ,indies is sought and the ,new ,world is discovered4 ,then too1 the nations of the ,north greedy for riches and no longer content with the ,baltic ,sea1 take their chances toward the ,south4 ,all these circumstances brought in a turning point for the history of the naval architecture of the ,mediterranean4 ,in spite of the efforts made to preserve the supremacy of the old types of ships1 by building larger vessels with oars1 such as the galliass etc41 it was necessary to retreat1 not only in ,italy but also in ,spain and ,portugal before the more powerful fleets of the peoples of the ,north4 ,hence it can be said1 in the order of the ideas already expressed in speaking of the battle of ,zierikzee1 which occurred in #acjb1 that the ,x,i,vth and ,x,vth centuries saw the naval architecture of the ,ocean make its way into the ,mediterranean4 ,on the other hand1 the art of the ,mediterranean was not without its influence on the former4 ,it is not easy to reconstitute the types of ships inherent to the ,mediterranean2 indeed1 but few data remain concerning these vessels4 ,all that can be done is to refer to the contracts above mentioned of ,louis ,,ix4 ,the first reliable information dates from a period subsequent to the middle ages1 and notably from the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,all the old drawings known at present leave something to be desired and are always out of proportion4 ,the only conclusion to be drawn from them is that there were several kinds of boats4 ,it is really to be regretted1 as ,jal says1 that we have no more exact information4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that1 even in the middle ages1 there were good broad-beamed ships 7,jal1 ,clos4 naut41 p4 #ajeg2 ,la ,croix1 p4 #hf2 idem1 p4 #if7 which allowed at least five hundred fighting men to be carried4 7,jal1 ,archologie ,navale1 p4 #chj1 #b;d part1 note47 ,even horses were loaded on board4 7,jal1 ,archologie ,navale1 p4 #chf1 etc4 ,holmes1 p4 #fh47 ,in order to reconstitute the types inherent to the ,mediterranean1 it is necessary to find out1 first of all1 what models were still existing at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 at the time when wooden vessels exclusively were used4 ,it will be remarked1 before beginning this examination1 that boats were constantly beached when not under way2 let it also be noted that the waters of the ,mediterranean were calm1 when compared with those of the ,ocean4 ,this latter point especially explains why vessels with oars were there so long in use4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bjf47 ,in order to ground the boats1 the bottom of the hull had to be flat and1 as a matter of fact1 the centre body of the vessels under consideration is wide and flat1 wider even than that of the vessels from the ,north4 ,the beam of these latter was to the length as #a3d1 while in most of the ,mediterranean vessels this proportion varies between #a3b and #a3c 7generally1 #a3c74 ,the ,mediterranean boats are pointed toward the stem and the sternpost1 which is the contrary of what exists for the ,northern vessels and this shape gives the former an appearance all their own4 ,furthermore1 the sides of these ships do not come at all together toward the top2 at most1 they are vertical2 in other words3 the greatest width is at the top4 ,among the old models1 some are found which have3 #a a straight sloping stem2 #b a straight vertical stem1 and #c a curved stem which is convex or concave at the top4 ,alongside of the broad-beamed vessels1 there are a few longer ones1 of which the beam is to the length as #a to #e4 ,intentionally1 no mention has been made of the sternpost as this has been modified in most cases by the adoption of the rudder4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #dh ,besides1 many boats have a flat projection at the stern furnished with a balustrade1--a detail which is found also on the ,greek and ,roman vessels4 ,this position was originally reserved for the helmsmen who operated the steering oars4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #di ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ej ,among the more important types must be counted the ,xebecs1 with three masts furnished at the beginning with lateen sails4 ,these latter were replaced later on by square sails4 ,the ship thus modified was then called a mystic ,xebec or a polacca ,xebec4 ,the ,polacca also existed at this time4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ec ,the length of these vessels--about #ae metres--was to the beam as #c to #a4 ,the stem1 sensibly straight at the top1 becomes curved at the foot and is provided with a ram similar to that of a 8,galleon04 ,the sternpost is straight but it leans back and the after deck projects4 ,this type of vessel can be compared to a broad-beamed galley1 ,astern1 the ,polacca more nearly resembles ocean vessels4 ,all these vessels are originally from the ,west of the ,mediterranean4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 n #gh and #ij2 idem1 ,vol4 ,i1 n #be47 ,the ,genoese 8pink0 can be placed in the same category4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 no4 #aai47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ce ,sidenote3 ,,ii #cg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #dj ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ci ,there is still found in ,tunisia the 8,carbe01 from #ab to #ae metres long with a beam of one-third of this length4 ,this boat seems to have a double stem 7the plank sheer reenters74 ,let this type be compared with the reproduction which appears on the tower of ,pisa1 etc4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 n #bja71 which also shows a boat with a double stem4 ,alongside of the 8,carbe01 are the ,arabian 8,sandales01 #ab metres long1 #b4he m4 wide and #a4cj m4 deep4 ,jal considers this kind of boat as one of the oldest types4 ,the ,arabian 8,sandale0 is a very slender vessel1 narrower amidships than most of the others4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ed ,sidenote3 ,,ii #fj ,the ,maltese boats1 the 8,speronare01 are still more singular2 they are #ae metres long1 #d4dj m4 beam1 #a4bj m4 draught with a capacity of about #ag tonnes4 ,the stem and the sternpost are vertical4 ,these boats have sometimes at the stern a flat projection and at the bow a truncated ram4 ,the same type1 #e4cj m4 long1 #a4ie m4 beam and #a metre deep1 becomes a 8,tarella04 ,this boat has no ram4 ,there is no doubt that these are very ancient forms4 7,compare1 for example1 the 8,speronara0 with ,layard's reproduction47 ,the 8,schifarro0 and 8,laoutello0 of ,sicily1 with their curved stem and sternpost1 are not less remarkable4 ,these vessels also recall reproductions of the middle ages which present the same characteristics4 ,on the ,east coast of ,italy are found the 8,tartana01 #ag4ij m4 long1 #d4ij m4 beam1 and drawing #j4hj m4 of water and the 8,braca da ,pasca01 #ab4bj m4 long1 #b4cj m4 beam and #a4fj m4 deep2 both of them flat-bottomed and solidly built4 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pl4 #he1 #hf and #hg47 ,it should be noted that still other types of flat-bottomed boats are met with on the ,adriatic1 among them are the 8,rascona01 a very narrow vessel for its length 7#a to #e71 and the 8,topo04 ,the former is also steered with the oar4 ,greece and ,turkey have between them many points of contact4 ,two types are found there3 one with a straight sloping stem1 the other with a curved stem3 the 8,scaph0 and the 8,sacobeva04 7,paris1 #c1 n #ia1 #hi and #hh47 ,the ,arabian ,sea1 to go no further1 gives the 8,baggala0 and the 8,dungiyah02 the latter has probably now disappeared4 ,these are very old types with a strongly sloping stem4 ,allusion has been made above to ,greek figures in which the analogy with these vessels is complete4 ,some types have shifted their ground4 ,the best proof of this is the 8,balancella0 of ,spain which came originally in all probability from ,naples 7,paris1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 n #fa7 and which resembles greatly the 8,trabocola04 ,all these boats1 and only the principal ones have been mentioned1 allow the reconstitution of a few fundamental types which are still to be found now and which were in existence several centuries ago4 ,the development of trade1 expeditions to points further and further away1 which had to be undertaken1 have caused the old types to be replaced long since by others intended for navigation beyond the seas4 ,this explains why the primitive types no longer exist except in vessels of small importance4 ,for these latter1 it was not necessary to seek new forms1 because the small builders continued to follow traditions and to work from models4 ,steel has gained ground very slowly among them1 and insensibly and only as the new generations come to replace the old1 will the types of the primitive boats disappear4 ,although several types exist1 it follows from what precedes that the ,mediterranean types are broad in comparison to their length1 and flat amidships2 besides1 they are pointed at bow and stern4 ,with these data1 ,frstenbach's work1 which dates from #afbi1 acquires more value in our eyes1 because it contains reproductions of a ,dutch ship and a few ,mediterranean vessels1 in which can be discovered many known types1 although they are called by separate names4 ,the difference of form between the types of the ,north and those of the ,south1 already pointed out before1 is shown there clearly2 it appears in all its force when the midship frames of the two boats are brought together4 7,compare 8die ,mittlere ,stamenale01 fig4 ,,ii1 with 8die ,stamenale0 of fig4 #af1 as well as the plans of the ships47 ,the difference in the height of the stem and sternpost is not less noticeable1 and indeed1 the ,mediterranean ships really appear higher than ours4 ,it will be seen further on that1 under the influence of the ,south 7i4 e4 of the ,mediterranean7 the people of our country began to make their vessels higher4 ,it was the ,south which inaugurated the system of castles which were built on the ships in the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is to be noticed that already1 in the ,xth century1 the ,emperor ,leo laid down rules concerning their construction4 7,la ,croix1 p4 #f47 ,some castles are found even on old ,roman engravings4 ,hence1 there is every authority for supposing that these castles rose progressively4 ,the improvements of the means of defense1 and hence the changes in military tactics1 after the invention of gunpowder1 contributed a great deal toward enhancing the importance given to these castles4 ,it was known in ,holland that the ,mediterranean vessels were more pointed than ours1 and a proof of it is found in the passage 7p4 #cee7 from van ,yk's well known work1 where this author tells us that the special qualities of our ships as sailers was attributed to the greatly curved stern and hence to the full bow4 ,and it is surely not uninteresting1 then1 to read further on 7p4 #he;,a7 that the father of the author of the work1 accompanied by his three sons1 went to ,genoa to build vessels able to advance even against the wind1 something unknown until then in that city4 ,hence the art of tacking was not known at ,genoa at that period1 a manuvre1 furthermore1 which the lateen sails did not allow4 ,it was not until later that these sails were replaced by square sails4 ,hence it was not at all strange that ships with oars remained so long in use on the ,mediterranean4 ,on the other hand1 it may be considered as proved that1 from the earliest times1 there existed broad vessels alongside of the long craft fitted with oars4 7,jal1 ,glossaire nautique1 p4 #ajdi47 ,still1 the few ancient boats which have been exhumed1 seem to have reached such a high degree of perfection1 that naval architecture must have attained a wonderful development even in the most distant ages4 ,this should not surprise us1 however1 when we see the masterpieces left by the ,mediterranean races1 masterpieces which bear witness to their esthetic and practical sense4 ,as the progressive developments of the ship in the middle ages are studied and as the dimensions of docks and other installations among the ,greeks and ,romans are considered1 it can be stated positively that giant ships were unknown to ,antiquity and that the descriptions given thereof should be examined in the light of the conditions which dictated them to the author4 ,just1 for example1 as the importance of the city of ,babylon1 and the excavations made there show1 it was singularly exaggerated by the ancient writers4 ,besides1 do we not daily read communications about the extraordinary sizes of ships and engines1 sizes which1 after a little while1 are surpassed by others still more extraordinary8 ,and so will it ever be4 ,in conclusion1 let it be said that the ancient models are still to be found in small wooden vessels and in fishing smacks4 ,these models have come down through the course of the centuries without other changes than those wrought by the rudder and by decoration4 ,if then an exact idea of the types of the ships of the ,ancients be desired1 thorough investigations should be started so soon as possible in order to find them1 to measure them and to make of them drawings with dimensions1 as has been done for the ,netherlands4 ,this rapid comparative study allows the mutual relations which exist between the nations to be established and to show that the ancient types special to ,southern ,france1 to ,spain and to ,portugal all belong to the ,mediterranean family1 that is to say3 to the ,southern centre4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 #b ,het varen met weynig volk1 het nauw en zober behelpen in leeftocht en ons ingeboren zindelijkheid1 die de schepen langdurend macht1 doet den ,nederlantschen scheepvaart bloeyen1 en niet het scheepsfatzoen4 ,nicolas ,witsen1 #afga4d ,these remarkable words are characteristic and show that something else than the determined forms of ships is necessary to make a people prosperous and great4 ,if this were not so1 our types of vessels1 says ,witsen1 would have been copied immediately by other nations4 ,sobriety and cleanliness are two capital virtues of the ,dutch race1 but1 beside these virtues1 our ancestors possessed one other important quality3 they were builders of economical ships and our present builders have preserved this quality4 ,let us hope1 with full confidence1 that this will always be so in the future4 ,witsen maintained--and this fact acquires a certain significance if it be compared with what goes before--that foreigners who have come to ,holland to learn our art of shipbuilding1 could not after returning home1 imitate our processes4 ,i am not surprised1 therefore1 to see these foreigners write that they could not use our architecture or our measures4 ,many a ship1 says the author mentioned1 has been analyzed and measured abroad1 but never has it been imitated2 nor have our builders ever harvested any praise for their work4 ,what ,witsen then says about the ,english is quite characteristic3 8,in deze braveeren zy 7de ,engelschen7 opentlyk allen ,landaert en wanen niemant huns gelyk in deze konst te hebben0#e4 ,he imputes this unfavorable judgment on the ,dutch to the fact1 that nothing relating to naval architecture has ever been published in the ,netherlands4 ,it will be seen1 further on1 that1 as a matter of fact1 people abroad hold another opinion4 ,data1 which may not be doubted1 teach us that1 even in the highest antiquity1 the peoples living on the shores of the ,mediterranean were acquainted with navigation4 ,again1 at the present time1 the most savage1 the least civilized nations1 settled by the banks of rivers1 had their boats1 however primitive their forms may have been4 ,several ancient ships were exhumed in ,northern ,europe during the second half of the last century4 ,it may be concluded from this that the people who lived near the water were familiar with navigation from the earliest times4 ,moreover1 it is evident that the long1 narrow 8canoe0 obtained from the hollowed out trunk of a tree was the oldest form of boat4 ,the pole1 which was the primitive mode of propulsion1 was soon replaced by the paddle and the oar4 ,man1 by nature1 seeks his ease2 hence there is no cause for astonishment that he should from the beginning have called the wind to assist him in moving over the water4 ,this accessory means soon became the principal agent of propulsion4 ,the oldest inhabitants of the ,netherlands were acquainted with navigation1 long before the ,roman domination1 and it is to be supposed that they could only have reached the various points of their territory by water4 ,csar tells us 7,holmes1 p4 #eb7 that the ,britains used very light vessels composed of a frame of linden branches covered with skins4 ,on the other hand1 ,pope ,marcellinus 7,a4 ,d4 #bic-cjd7 relates to what an extent the ,saxons were to be feared because of their agility and adds that their boats were made of buffalo skins stretched tight over flexible wood4 ,by the side of the long vessels with oars1 there must have existed very soon broader and less swift boats4 ,these boats were propelled by sails and finally they wholly displaced the ships with oars4 ,nothing concerning these primitive boats has been preserved4 ,it is well known that the oldest inhabitants of our country came from the ,east4 ,they1 doubtless1 were acquainted with the art of shipbuilding and they must have adapted their types to the necessities forced upon them by the state of the navigable highways of our low-lying lands4 ,it can be assumed that the cradle of the naval architecture of the ,netherlands was in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,so1 let us turn our eyes first in that direction where1 from the most distant times1 the art of shipbuilding must have reached a high degree of perfection4 ,this follows not only from the vessels of the time of the ,vikings which have been found1 but also from the researches made in late years4 ,these researches have authorized the conclusion that1 even in ancient times1 the peoples of the ,north seem to have crossed the ,north ,sea4 ,the ,swedish archeologist ,montelius even assumes that there were already continuous relations between the ,west coast of ,sweden and the ,east coast of ,england at the close of the age of stone4 ,long before the expeditions1 properly so called1 made toward the ,south by the ,vikings1 the latter crossed the sea1 and it is settled beyond question that they were given to navigation at the beginning of our era4 ,tacitus speaks of the powerful fleets of the ,swedes which1 in his time1 did not use sails but only oars4 ,the author of the work ,vesterlandenes indflyelse poa ,nordboenes og saerlig ,nordmaennenes ydze kulture leveesat og simfundfs ,jorhold i ,vickingetiden af ,alexander ,bugge#f #aije1 seems authorized1 under these conditions1 in saying that the navigation of the ,north owes its origin to the ,suevi and the ,goths settled on the shores of the ,baltic1 whence it passed later to the ,norsemen and the ,danes4 ,it may also be added1 we believe1 that the same was the case with regard to the ,netherlands1 ,great ,britain1 ,belgium and a part of the ,north of ,france4 ,the celebrated ,german philologist and archeologist1 ,professor ,h4 ,zimmer1 supposes that the ,norsemen visited the ,shetland ,islands between the years #eij and #fdd4 ,this supposition has been confirmed by the researches of ,dr4 ,jacob ,jacobsen1 who lived for a long time in these islands in order to study there the ,norse names of the villages and to pick up still other traces of the ,norse language4 ,this savant also concluded that the ,norsemen must have already visited the ,shetland ,islands about the year #gjj4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ge ,if these facts be compared with what used to be done on the ,mediterranean1 where the endeavor was always made to land at night1 it is impossible to repress a sentiment of admiration for the ,norsemen who crossed the sea fearlessly as far as ,iceland and ,greenland4 ,their naval architecture must even then have reached an extraordinary degree of perfection1 full proof of which is found in the construction of the superb ships 8,oxberg0 and 8,gokstad01 found in the neighborhood of ,sandefijord 7,christiania ,museum of ,antiquities74 ,hence it is scarcely probable that the peoples of the ,north should have learned anything at all about shipbuilding during their expeditions across ,western ,europe4 ,on the contrary1 this part of ,europe1 including the ,netherlands1 must have borrowed the art of shipbuilding from them4 ,it was also only very much later that a navy and fleet were spoken of in ,england4 7,see ,holmes1 ,ancient and ,modern ,ships1 #aijj47 ,afterwards1 the ,norsemen extended their excursions more and more toward the ,south2 they settled in ,normandy and took possession of ,england4 ,it was in the course of these expeditions that they became acquainted with the naval architecture of the ,mediterranean4 ,it is needless to say that they must then have appreciated the perfection which the latter had reached4 ,furthermore their interest demanded it4 ,they borrowed1 in particular from the nations of ,southern ,europe the anchor which these1 in their turn1 had learned from the ,greeks4 ,the ,norse word 8akkeri01 which means anchor1 seems to be borrowed from the ,anglo-,saxon 8ancor0 which owes its origin to the ,latin word 8ancora04 ,the word 8forkr01 meaning a boathook1 is also of foreign origin2 it comes from the ,anglo-,saxon 8forca0 and from the ,latin 8furca04 ,the types of the ,norse vessels have1 however1 not been changed as the result of contact with the ,south4 ,the extraordinary life of the ,vikings and their continual piracies justify the conclusion that the merchant ship was not improved among them1 but rather among the peoples engaged in a more regular trade4 ,there is really1 in my opinion1 no cause for astonishment that this development should have taken place in the ,north-,western part of ,europe4 ,there are some even who claim that the vessel 8busse01 generally in use during the ,middle ,ages1 came to us from ,normandy and dates from the beginning of the ,x,ith century4 ,in order to support this claim1 they take their stand on the fact that the word 8busse0 appears first at about this time in the ,chronicles4 ,j4 ,steenslup has called attention to a people of seamen called the 8,butsecarlas0 7mentioned in the old ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicles of the year #ajff and in the book of ,florent ,wigorniensis1 dating from #ajeb71 who occupied the coasts of ,hasting and ,yorkshire4 ,this writer also calls attention to the second part of the word1 which belongs to the ,norse tongue1 while the word 8buza0 occurs frequently in the ,old ,norse and the ,old ,swedish1 near the ,x,i,i,ith century1 and means a boat of sharply curved form4 ,this word1 however1 is of ,romana origin3 it corresponds1 so it said1 to the ,old ,french buse or buce 7dating from about #ajhj72 hence it is considered that the vessel 8buce0 is originally from ,normandy4 ,this1 however1 does not seem to be so sure4 ,it has been shown1 as a matter of fact1 that the same shapes of ships have been preserved for ages even though under other names4 ,the fact that the word buse is used for the first time about the year #ajej is1 therefore1 no proof that the type of vessel in question only appeared at this time4 ,i am rather inclined to think that the type under consideration was already in existence1 but that it was named buse or buze in ,normandy only toward #ajej and1 probably1 after having undergone a few unimportant changes4 ,shipbuilding was imported from the ,baltic into the ,netherlands by the most ancient inhabitants of this country1 the ,frisians and the ,saxons1 who then developed it aside from any foreign influence4 ,in this respect1 the quotation from ,witsen1 which appears on page #dg of his well known work1 becomes really important3 ,de ,vriezen komt de lof toe van de herstelde scheepsbouw in ,nederland1 zoo de meeste schryvers willen#g4 ,the question is1 indeed1 that of a development of its own in the ,north-,western part of ,europe2 the special and identical forms1 still found to-day1 to a great extent1 from ,denmark to ,belgium1 are sufficient proof of the fact4 ,this is why the ,baltic may be spoken of broadly as the ,northern centre1 in opposition to the ,mediterranean ,sea as the ,southern centre4 ,the development of shipbuilding had this ,northern centre as its starting point and finally reached its highest mark in the ,netherlands4 ,france and ,england came later4 ,the art of shipbuilding spread gradually through the ,netherlands1 which continued to go forward until the time when ,france dominated all by the continental blockade4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #gb ,let us return now to the types of ships4 ,it has been said1 that several boats of the ,vikings have been found4 ,one1 especially1 was discovered at ,haugen in #ahfg1 and another at ,gokstad in #ahhj4 ,before that1 in #ahfe1 three had already been found in ,jutland three specimens which seemed to date from the ,vth century4 ,the largest of these was #gj feet long4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #gd ,a ,viking vessel was also discovered at ,charbuw1 near ,pommeren4 ,the last discovery was made in the suburbs of ,oxenberg1 near ,christianiafjord1 ,norway1 in #aijd4 ,all these boats are for oars2 still sails could be used1 they being attached to the mast put up in the centre of the vessel4 ,considering their beam1 these ships are not so long as the vessels for oars of the ,mediterranean2 in fact1 their breadth is to their length as #a3e4 ,they are full near the middle and become narrower at the bow and stern4 ,the stem and the sternpost1 which are both curved1 rise very high above the water4 ,an oar attached to the stern was used as a rudder4 ,their construction differed also from that of the ,mediterranean vessels2 here1 only ships having smooth sides are met with1 whereas the ,viking boats are clinker built4 ,the 8,gokstad0 is one of the most beautiful specimens of this type4 ,holmes has described it in detail1 in his fine work ,ancient and ,modern ,ships1 pp4 #ee et seq4 ,this vessel is #gg feet and #aa inches long1 #af feet and #g inches broad and #e feet and #i inches deep2 it is also clinker built and rivetted4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #gf ,sidenote3 ,,ii #hj ,turning now toward ,norway1 let the fishing boats still in use there to-day be considered2 the resemblance of these boats to the ,viking ship will be found striking both in shape and structure4 ,it is this which makes ,holmes say 7p4 #fj73 8,such an instance of persistency in type is without parallel in the history of shipbuilding04 ,it has been seen that this fact occurs not only in ,norway but among all nations4 ,there is nothing to cause astonishment in again finding the most ancient models in fishing boats4 ,no class is more conservative than are fishermen1 who build their barks as their forefathers did and on whom necessity alone can force new forms4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ajc ,aside from the specimens discovered in the ,north1 little is left of the oldest types of ships4 ,there is nothing left of them save a few vague descriptions and imperfect reproductions4 ,in this order of ideas1 the coat of arms of the city of ,amsterdam is the best known document which the ,netherlands supplies4 ,witsen's work contains1 on page #cfb1 several reproductions of these arms dating from different epochs4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aab ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aje ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aaj ,holmes reproduces1 besides1 the ships which figure on an old ,bayeux tapestry 7#ajff71 as well as the 8,sandwich ,seal0 of #abch1 the 8,dover ,seal0 of #abhd and the 8,pool ,seal0 of #acbe 7pp4 #fg and #fh74 ,these three seals agree with the oldest of the arms of ,amsterdam and the ship which they carry is1 in every respect1 similar to that of the said city4 ,too much importance cannot be attached1 however1 to this detail1 because1 just as the lion of heraldry is very little like a real lion1 it is to be supposed that the heraldic ship is not a faithful reproduction of the real type4 ,the old illustrated ,bible of #abjj-abbj1 preserved in the ,royal ,library of ,the ,hague1 and which seems to have come from ,northern ,france1 contains also a remarkable reproduction2 the type of boat which it gives is also like the preceding ones4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aab ,the identity of all these figures allows it to be supposed that a single type of ship ruled in ,western ,europe2 while the clearly pointed out timbers of the planking shows clinker built work4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #gh ,the reproduction of the ,bayeux tapestry shows1 besides1 that the sail was very early in use2 the pilot of one of the ships shown there holds the sheet in his hand4 ,besides--and this fact is worthy of notice--these vessels all have sensibly vertical stems and sternposts1 just as they are still found in our times on a few ,norwegian fishing boats4 ,the 8cog01 the vessel in the arms of ,amsterdam1 is a very well known medival type1 of which the importance becomes marked in ,western and ,central ,europe from and after the ,x,i,i,ith century1 when the ,hanse towns and the ,frisians improved it greatly4 ,this ship1 which was very broad for its length1 was hard to board1 whence its usefulness in time of war4 ,the 8cog0 seems to date back further than the institution of the ,hanseatic league 7#abej7 judging by the fact that its name was known well before this date4 ,thus1 the inhabitants of the ,netherlands had to equip several cogs wherewith to fight the invasions of the ,norsemen 7#haj-ajaj74 ,it was the application of the feudal system to navigation4 7,see ,la ,croix1 p4 #hh47 ,it is known that this policy was finally established under ,charlemagne who subjugated the ,frisians in #ghe and the ,saxons in #hjd4 7,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 de ,jonge1 ,history of the ,navy of the ,netherlands1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #f47 ,it is needless to say that everything was soon put to work to escape it4 ,a charter of the ,roman ,king ,otho ,i 7#icf-igc7 calls for a tenth of a 8cog0 7,kogschult7 of which the product came to the bishop of ,utrecht4 ,it was the commutation for the obligation to serve the prince with cogs4 ,this obligation seems1 in principle1 to have struck more especially the countries lying along the present ,zuyder ,zee4 7,mr4 de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #g47 ,the 8cog0 only appears for the first time in ,germany in #abaa1 when the ,emperor ,otho ,,iv allowed the inhabitants of ,wismar to maintain two 8cogs0 7,cogken71 and as many small vessels as they desired4 ,there are some who claim that the word cog1 8,kuggr0 in old ,norse1 comes from the ,italian 8cocca01 the ,spanish 8coca0 or the old ,french 8coche0 and1 consequently1 they believe that the word is of ,romance origin4 ,this does not seem likely2 the 8cog0 is a type of vessel copied from the old ,viking boat and adapted to the special conditions of the navigable highways in the low lands of the ,north-,west of ,europe4 ,hence it was robust and full to facilitate grounding4 ,in reality1 the 8cog0 was unknown in the ,mediterranean2 this follows from what the ,florentine historian ,villani relates in connection with the battle of ,zierikzee4 ,if this vessel had been a ,mediterranean type1 the author would not have directed especial attention to this form of ship4 ,hence the 8cog0 really belongs to ,northern ,europe and owes its perfecting to the ,frisians and most of all to the ,flemings4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ajc ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ig ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ih ,the 8cog0 was generally in use in the ,x,i,i,ith century and it may be assumed that the ,norsemen already knew it in the time of the ,vikings4 ,unfortunately1 very little concerning it has come down to us4 ,the oldest reproductions which we possess are those of the seals of ,amsterdam and ,harderwijk4 ,but the ship which figures in the arms of the former city has undergone many changes in the course of the ages4 ,witsen says that it is an ill drawn figure and he imputes this defective work to the ignorance of the engravers4 7,witsen1 p4 #cfc47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ajh ,the arms of ,harderwijk agree with those of ,damme 7,jal1 ,gloss4 nautique1 p4 #ajea72 there is no doubt that the two seals show the same ship 7the only difference being that the ,damme boat carries two towers74 ,if then the ,harderwijk ship represents a 8cog01 as is claimed by ,witsen 7p4 #cfd1 #b;d column71 the same must be the case with the one of ,damme4 ,in so far as the ,amsterdam seals are concerned1 ,witsen further remarks1 that the oldest could not date before the year #abjj1 as ,amsterdam did not rank as a city before that time4 ,he adds that it is clearly seen from these arms 8hoe het met de bouwery der ,kogschepen oulinx heeft gestaen en hoe haer gestalte steeds is veranderd met den tyt1 gelyck men ook hedens-daegs 7dus ten tyde van dien schryver7 de gestalten der schepen steeds verandern ziet0 7bl4 #cfd47h4 ,the cogs were clinker built4 ,most of the reproductions show only a rounded bow4 ,it can therefore be deduced that the boat which appears in the arms of ,harderwijk is a variation of the ordinary 8cog04 ,it should be noticed that all the old types of ,dutch ships show1 like the 8cog01 a slightly rounded bow with no beak4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #abd etc4 ,although the old ,flemish engravings of the ,x,vth century show different types of ships1 it is to be remarked that none of these latter is called a 8cog04 ,still all these engravings show thick-set boats1 with a rounded bow1 which must certainly have been derived from the 8cogs0 which have been scarcely changed4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aij ,there is even a reproduction which dates from the beginning of the ,x,v,ith century and which shows a ,zeeland 8cog04 ,the bow and stern seem there to be identical in shape2 it is to be assumed however1 judging by the position of the mast which is at about one-third the length of the ship abaft the stem1 that the bow was fuller than the stern4 ,the stem is curved as is also the sternpost2 the tiller passes through a statie#i4 ,the mast rakes a great deal1 as was required by the use of the old sprits2 the vessel is also provided with lee-boards4 ,the reproduction does not show clearly whether the hull is clinker built4 ,it is very possible that the sides were carvel built1 because this style of work was already in use at that time4 ,the boat has no 8arcasse0#aj2 the hold is covered with convex hatch covers4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aae ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aaf ,this ,zeeland 8cog0 is derived1 doubtless1 from the primitive 8cog04 ,let us suppose this vessel as having a little fuller ends2 as having the mast in the middle2 as having a steering oar instead of a rudder2 the lee-boards suppressed and a clinker-built hull2 we shall have an idea of the 8cog04 ,this being so1 the cause of the existence of our 8bom0 becomes more important2 this latter boat1 as is well known1 has been greatly enlarged during the past century and has gained fullness at the ends so as to increase its capacity4 ,this is noticeable when the bow of a 8bom0 is compared with that of the boat used for catching shrimps4 ,this latter has still the old rounded forms and is not so wide in proportion to its length4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aab ,let us suppose then that the 8bom0 is less square at its ends1 higher at bow and stern1 that is to say3 having a little more sheer1 like the boats of former times2 there will be had a vessel which1 with its clinker built sides1 will differ little from the old 8cog01 still met with as a rarity in our fleet of fishing boats4 ,changed in this way1 the 8bom0 no longer differs so much from the 8,egmonderpink0 reproduced and described by ,witsen 7p4 #afh72 it might even be concluded that it descends therefrom4 ,it can be understood from this how it is1 even in our days1 that the 8bommen0 are often called 8pinken04 ,thus a picture1 in the town ,museum of ,the ,hague1 shows the beach at ,schevening covered1 not with 8bommen0 but with 8,egmonderpinken04 ,this subject will be taken up again in speaking of fishing boats4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdc ,the shrimp fishing boats have been less changed2 consequently1 aside from the counter which was added later1 they differed less from the 8,egmonderpink0 which1 finally1 are found again almost complete in the ,ostend fishing boats1 as ,lelong has pointed out in his ,encyclopedia of ,naval ,architecture1 p4 #ag4 ,the 8bommen0 were still able in the ,x,i,xth century to render good service as coast guards4 ,there is nothing to prove that they existed in ,witsen's time2 the contrary is more likely1 as this author does not mention them4 ,he merely says that1 beside the 8,egmonderpinken01 other and much smaller fishing boats were seen on the beach and that they carried only fore and aft sails4 ,if these boats had differed much in shape from the 8pinken01 it is to be believed that mention of the fact would have been made4 7,see ,witsen1 p4 #afh1 #b;d column47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahg ,the artist who reproduced the ,zeeland 8cog0 has left also the drawing of a 8,doghboot0 which also came from ,zeeland 7,witsen1 p4 #agj1 #b;d col47 and which resembled very much this 8cog04 ,the stem is a little longer1 the 8statie0 is not closed and the vessel has no convex hatch covers4 ,the rig only differs entirely from that of the 8pink0 and everything leads to the belief that this kind of boat came from the ,south4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahi ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahh ,the same artist gives a figure of a 8,heude0 or 8,heu0 from ,brabant1 which might be called a small ,zeeland 8cog04 ,still1 there appear to have been larger 8,heudes01 judging by the ,brussels 8,heu0 which was a vessel carrying two pieces of artillery1 but of which the reproduction does not give the means for determining the shape of the ship4 ,it will be well to note here that great circumspection should be used in the matter of these different names adopted to designate such or such vessel4 ,these names have been the cause of much confusion1 an example of which is offered by the famous discussion which took place at ,groningen1 in #aijb-aijc1 as to the question of knowing what a 8pram0 was4 ,the crusades1 which began in #ajif1 contributed largely toward perfecting the ship4 ,it was the same with the invention of the compass in the first half of the ,x,i,i,ith century 7,holmes1 p4 #ff74 ,commerce and navigation rose higher and higher4 ,already in the course of the ,x,i,i,ith century1 ,damme became the ware house of ,northern ,europe4 ,italy1 ,spain and ,france brought their products there4 ,the old maritime customs of ,damme served later as the basis of maritime law in ,holland1 ,northern ,germany 7,m4 ,koenen1 p4 #ej71 ,sweden and ,denmark4 ,the ,x,i,i,ith century saw commercial treaties concluded with the ,hanseatic cities and1 in #abeb1 tariffs were fixed 7,m4 ,koenen74 8,losbogen1 scharpoise1 eenvaren0 7boats with high sides7 and 8hekbooten0 are in question in these tariffs2 and these names are also found in an act made between the ,lords of ,kuyck and of ,dordrecht to settle a difficulty concerning the city duties at the former of these towns4 ,among the 8losbogen01 are found the boats which were unloaded at the bow or 8booge01 as is still done with vessels which carry wood4 ,the boats used on the ,scarp1 a tributary of the ,scheldt1 are placed among the 8scharpoises or exarpoises04 ,the 8eenvaren0 were boats handled by a single boatman1 and the 8hekbooten0 were boats which had a square stern4 ,these few denominations suffice to prove that1 even at so early a period1 there were different kinds of boats and that alongside of the 8cog0 there were other vessels of smaller size4 ,in the beginning1 the 8cog0 was guided by oars1 as were other ships2 this method was abandoned gradually in the ,x,i,i,ith century and the steering oar gave place to the rudder4 ,it is not possible to determine1 for ,holland1 the time when this change occurred2 the various coats of arms of ,amsterdam can throw no light on this subject4 ,the ship1 on many of them1 has no rudder1 symbolical1 doubtless of the fact that people could sail for all parts of the globe 7,witsen1 p4 #fcd71 and that vessels started from ,amsterdam bound to all the countries upon earth4 ,it is to be assumed1 nevertheless1 that it was also in the ,x,i,i,ith century that the rudder was introduced into ,holland4 ,some persons have tried to make out that there was a certain connection between the adoption of the compass and that of the rudder2 this latter became forced1 they say1 when1 thanks to the compass1 more and more distant expeditions could be undertaken4 ,for my part1 ,i do not think that there can be the slightest connection between the two events2 the ,norsemen1 in fact1 crossed the ,north ,sea before the rudder was known4 ,the oldest reproductions of the 8cog01 however primitive they may be1 have a mast with the sails and rigging of the boat at the centre4 ,i know of no reproduction showing oars4 ,hence it can be deduced that the sails and rigging formed the main outfit and that the oars1 of which the number1 even on the largest 8cogs01 was limited to a maximum of #cb1 or #af on each side1 were used only in calm weather4 ,this is what is done at the present time for vessels of less importance1 such as the 8hoys04 ,hence the oars were only an accessory1 the reverse of what was seen for the galleys1 where the oars were the main feature and the sails and rigging were secondary4 ,that is why1 contrary to what is seen for the 8cog01 no reproduction of a galley without oars has been met with4 ,it is therefore wrong that the name of galleys should be given sometimes to 8cogs04 ,the former were never implanted in the ,netherlands1 ,mr4 de ,jonge has already pointed out the inaccuracy of the passage of the ,annexes of ,wagenaar1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ej1 where that author relates that the eleven hundred ships sent against ,antwerp by ,count ,william ,,iii were almost exclusively galleys4 ,however1 there is a question of galleys in the history of the ,netherlands2 but it is not a question of the ,mediterranean type4 ,their number was limited and they were used only on rivers4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ade ,an engraving which dates from about the year #afjj1 and shows the ,scheldt in front of ,antwerp1 as well as a view of ,gouda1 shows boats of this kind4 ,these galleys were only large rowboats1 a little longer than the ordinary ones 7de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #hj7 and carried only #cb oars at the most4 ,the largest ,netherlands galley belonged to the guard of ,amsterdam and was called the ,terror of the ,zuyder zee4 ,those which were used in naval battles come from the ,south4 ,any one who knows the national character of the ,dutch will not be astonished at seeing that the galley had no success in ,holland4 ,the trade of the galley slave was considered too vile and no volunteer rowers were to be found2 furthermore slavery did not exist and serfdom had been early suppressed4 7,witsen1 p4 #aid1 col4 #a47 ,however1 the cogs did not confine themselves to the simple forms which have been sketched4 ,the constant wars1 which brought out the fortified castles of the ,middle ,ages1 soon led to the construction on the sea of structures of the same sort1 and gradually there were seen to develope among us also the towers which arose at the bow and stern of the ships4 ,the seals of ,amsterdam give a striking illustration of this4 ,military tactics were not without their influence on this way of building vessels4 ,the crusades and the subsequent relations with the peoples of the ,mediterranean1 among whom the practice of castles was known1 made us familiar with these superelevated constructions4 ,if1 in a first encounter1 the enemy's vessel could not be sunk1 it was boarded so as to bring about a hand to hand fight4 ,the conqueror was then he who had at hand the most robust ships and who could place himself sufficiently high up to let fly his arrows at the enemy4 ,nothing was more natural1 then1 than to imitate on ships the fortified castles with their crenelated towers4 ,if the enemy succeeded in boarding the ship1 the defense withdrew to the castles4 ,there should be no cause for astonishment therefore at finding the old tops on the masts and at learning that even the boats were hoisted there in order more surely to crush the adversary under a shower of arrows and stones 7,mr4 de ,jonge1 p4 #bj74 ,it can be conceived that the movable castles should not have answered to expectations and1 therefore1 that an arrangement was soon reached to make but a single body of the castle and the ship1 and thence to raise the bow and the stern4 ,portugal and ,spain1 imitating the ,mediterranean1 had the start of us in constructing castles4 ,thus the vessel of the ,x,v,ith century is seen to develope gradually and we can understand how the intermediate low part between the forward and after castles should persist4 ,in the beginning1 the deck did not exist in the central part4 ,then1 in order to protect this last against stones and other projectiles1 it was covered with a wooden lattice 7,see1 among others1 ,witsen1 p4 #ea1 col4 #b71 while its sides were furnished with loopholes covered with pewter1 to make it more difficult to scale in case of boarding4 ,the ,english seals1 more finely and more artistically engraved than ours1 give an excellent idea of the progressive development of the castles4 ,five of them show the sides of the ships as clinker built1 while the seal of the city of ,poole makes the rivets really visible4 ,the castles are so clearly shown in their successive phases of development1 that any explanation is unnecessary4 ,the steering oar1 which is seen on the oldest seal1 is replaced by a rudder on the others4 ,the ,boston seal shows a well turned out three-masted vessel with smooth sides4 ,all the seals1 save this last1 show the forms of 8cogs01 which proves once more the identity of the types of ships of the ,north-,west of ,europe4 7,holmes states1 on page #gj of his work1 that the ,poole seal gives the oldest ,english reproduction of a ship with a rudder1 #acbe47 ,as has been said already1 the adoption of the compass was the signal for cutting loose from the coast and for undertaking more distant voyages4 ,we learn1 especially in the ,reygersbergh ,chronijk van ,zeelant 7published by ,boschhorn7 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bab1 that about #addj1 when the use of the compass had scarcely become general1 the ,zeelanders worked more and more toward the ,south1 making toward ,portugal and ,spain4 ,before then1 these countries seemed so far away that1 when starting on a voyage thither1 the seamen went to confession and the ,holy ,sacraments were received4 ,at the same time with the invention of the compass1 another event came to produce a great influence on shipbuilding2 it was the invention of gunpowder1 with the consequent adoption of artillery4 ,the history of the ,netherlands speaks for the first time of the use of artillery in connection with the expedition of ,duke ,albert against the ,frisians in #acif4 ,it seems1 however1 to have been used at the siege of the castle of ,rozenburg-lez-,voorschoten1 in #acea 7,m4 de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bh74 ,cannon were not used either at the battle of the ,sluis or in the maritime expeditions of ,king ,richard ,,iii4 ,but they were in general use on board ship in the ,x,i,vth century4 7,holmes1 p4 #ga47 ,the ,genoese and the ,venetians in the ,south1 and the ,hanseatic cities in the ,north1 who were the masters of all peoples in commerce and navigation1 were the first to adopt them4 7,m4 de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bi47 ,it was natural that artillery should modify war tactics and it can be said that the military value of ships depended on the number of guns which they carried4 ,finally1 ships were built exclusively for war1 and the practice of the ,middle ,ages1 which was to utilize merchantmen for this purpose1 must needs be abandoned4 ,the ,united ,provinces did not decide at once to build special ships4 ,hence the dimensions of existing types had to be increased1 in order that a larger number of guns could be mounted4 ,the difference between sea-going ships and inland vessels became more and more marked4 ,the war ship was evidently the one which departed the most from the old forms1 for the reason that it had to undergo every change which had been advantageously adopted by the enemy4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ade ,the earliest guns were not greatly to be feared4 ,the proof of this is found in the fact that the coverings of staterooms and castles were sloped1 like roofs1 so as to make the bombs thrown by the foe roll off more easily4 ,the name of cog disappears as ships increase in size4 ,the vessels met with are generally called 8,hulken0 and 8,baertzen0 toward the end of the ,x,i,vth and during the ,x,vth centuries2 and1 after all1 says ,witsen1 they are only types of ships formerly in use in our country4 ,the 8,hulk01 he adds1 the larger of the two1 used to sail for distant lands2 its capacity was as great1 sometimes1 as #bjj lasts4 7,witsen1 p4 #did1 col4 #b47 ,the 8,baertze0 was a ship equipped as much for coast defense as for war at sea4 ,in #aeah1 there were built a very large number of them which ran under sail1 but which could be moved by oars in calm weather4 7,witsen1 p4 #dhc1 col4 #a47 ,hence these two types were merchantmen1 the 8,baertze0 especially being used for war4 ,their equipment included oars too1 which were used when the wind failed4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #abd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aca ,nor did the ,x,vth century1 itself1 see any ships built exclusively for war4 ,this century has left us some very beautiful reproductions of ,flemish origin 7,see1 ,der ,meister ,w4 ,a4 of ,max ,lehr1 #ahie1 p4 #a71 on three of which appear the names of 8,baertze01 8,barge0 and 8,kraeck04 ,the ships shown there have the same characteristics and differ from each other only in their rig4 ,it is seen that they are bluff-bowed and that their bow is rounded as is also their stern4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #abg ,aside from the 8,kraeck0 none of these vessels carries artillery3 all have1 however1 a castle1 still of quite simple construction1 at bow and stern4 ,the 8,kraeck0 alone was supplied later with windows in the stern above the gallery4 ,then too1 in these reproductions1 all the castles1 except those of the 8,kraeck01 have no roof4 ,this last vessel is the largest1 beyond doubt2 its very name brings at once to mind a type of ship of which the size and the strong construction seem to find their origin in the ,spanish 8,carack01 whence the name of 8,kraeck04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #fd ,the form of this vessel scarcely differs1 however1 from that of the others2 the bow especially approaches rather the ,dutch type than the type of the ,spanish carack or of the galleon 7compare the figure reproduced in ,van ,yk's work1 p4 #i74 ,hence it may be supposed that the 8,kraeck0 should have differed from other vessels only by larger castles1 stronger rig and increased size4 ,the 8,barge0 and the 8,baertze0 give1 with vessels shown on other reproductions1 an idea of the ,dutch ship of the ,x,vth century4 ,no 8,hulken0 are met with among these vessels2 they were clinker built 7,witsen1 p4 #dif1 col4 #a1 ,caravelle71 while all the reproductions under consideration show only ships with smooth sides4 ,besides the 8,hulken01 there were 8,razeilers0 and 8,krayers0 which had also clinker built sides4 ,here1 then1 is found the old way of building 8cogs01 and it may be stated that we are in the presence of vessels which owe their origin to this type of ship1 and only have a different name because of certain changes of detail in the matter of their rig or the construction of their castles4 ,a ,flemish miniature of the ,x,vth century gives a very remarkable reproduction of a vessel of the time4 ,a 8cog0 with overlapping planks is seen here4 ,in accordance with the custom of the ,middle ,ages1 this ship has three masts with tops1 a castle at bow and stern1 and guns2 there are no gun-ports4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aah ,the 8cogs0 which were in use in the ,x,i,i,ith century1 were replaced in the ,x,i,vth by the 8,krayers0 and 8,hulken0 which had to give way1 in their turn in the ,x,vth century1 to the 8,barges01 8,baertzen0 etc4 ,the clinker built sides of large ships only disappeared in this last century1 to give room to the smooth sides1 a mode of construction which took root with us as the result of our relations with the peoples of the ,mediterranean4 ,an old ,record of ,hoorn1 written by ,d4 ,velius1 relates that the carvel built side was first applied by 8,juliaan0 at ,zierikzee1 and adopted at ,hoorn in #adfj4 ,the ships built in this way were called 8,karviel01 8,kraweel0 or 8,karveel0 7,witsen1 p4 #dif1 col4 #a7 and their type1 according to this author1 would seem to have been copied from the ,latin vessel 8,carabus04 ,m4 de ,jonge1 on his side 7vol4 ,i1 p4 #gi1 note7 remarks that 8,juliaan0 might well have been an ,italian4 ,witsen gives of these 8,karviel0 a description which is well worthy of attention3 these vessels were rather narrow at the bow1 broader at the stern1 thus having the shape of a chisel4 ,in other words1 their lines were finer1 wherein they differed from the types of ships used in ,holland4 ,hence we seem to have before us not only a given mode of construction1 but also a well determined type which has come from the ,mediterranean4 ,jal1 in his ,glossaire ,nautique1 pp4 #dai-dbj1 tells us1 as to that1 that caravels were already to be found on the ,mediterranean in #acjg2 their dimensions were1 however1 smaller than those of the ships used by ,vasco da ,gama and ,columbus4 ,here is what this author says about this style of vessel3 8,the caravel was a small ship of the family of round-stern vessels but with finer lines than the nefs of its time and more slender forward4 ,it was also faster1 more handy and better fitted for all expeditions where speed in going ahead and great quickness in coming about were required40 ,these caravels dit not remain in use to act as 8,kraecks02 but with this vessel we reach the time when the reciprocal influence of the two centres begins to be felt4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aai ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aag ,two existing ,flemish miniatures show clearly the difference which existed between the ,dutch type and the foreign type2 they date from #adhb and #adhh respectively4 ,the first is the picture of the true type of the ,dutch vessel2 the second shows a foreign ship4 ,on the first1 the vessel is represented with smooth sides2 therefore this system of construction was adopted among us in the ,x,vth century4 ,the vessels are not yet made with a square stern1 however2 their stern being still round in accordance with the ancient way4 ,as a general rule1 they were of small size1 and our present sea 8hoys0 could have been compared with them in this respect4 ,they had a capacity of #afj1 #ahj and #bjj tonnes1 or #hj1 #ij and #ajj 8lasts04 ,nevertheless1 there were also some of #bbj1 #bcj and #bdj tonnes1 or1 #aaj1 #aae and #abj lasts4 7,m4 de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #hj47 ,the 8,karvielen0 and the 8,kraecken0 disappear in the ,x,v,i,ith century and1 at this time1 no more types which differ from the ordinary ,holland type are met with4 ,hence it can be maintained that the 8,karvielen0 and 8,kraecken0 did not succeed in taking root with us4 ,it will be seen1 on the contrary that the full-bowed vessels came more and more into use4 ,the name of 8cog0 was1 therefore1 no longer in use in the ,x,vth century4 ,nevertheless this type of vessel continued to exist4 ,the 8cog0 gave birth to the 8,hulken0 and these latter to the 8,baertzen04 ,although modified1 the first form1 that of the full-bowed ship1 remained in use4 ,one single characteristic disappeared3 that of the slender bows and sterns of the old 8,viking0 boat which are found in all the reproductions known in the ,north-,west of ,europe1 from ,denmark to and including ,england and the ,north of ,france4 ,the rigging developed in its turn3 the single mast was replaced by three pole masts1 each having a top and a single large sail4 ,the ropes were made stronger and channels appeared near the end of the ,x,vth century4 ,the steering oar of the old 8cog0 had long since given place to the rudder4 ,it would be incorrect to call 8cogs0 the vessels represented by ,master ,w4 ,a41 as ,arenhold has done in his work3 ,die allmhl4 ,entwickelung des ,segelschiffes von der ,rmerzeit bis zur ,zeit der ,dampfer1 p4 #fej--7;,jahrbuch der ,schiffbautechnischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijf74 ,they are1 however1 forms which issue from the 8cog0 but not new forms developed alongside of ancient forms4 ,if history be consulted1 there will be no cause for surprise at seeing the effects of the contact of the two ,centres appear exactly in the ,x,vth century4 ,the ,crusades 7#ajif-abia71 which brought the nations very much together1 had come to an end4 ,the alliance of the ,hanseatic cities1 concluded in #abej1 had caused a prodigious growth of our trade in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the ,frisians1 especially1 had devoted themselves to the art of shipbuilding1 but the ,flemings would not let themselves be distanced4 ,in #acci1 there broke out between ,france and ,england the ,hundred ,years' war1 which led the latter to take up shipbuilding much more actively than in the past4 ,one of the most famous actions of this period was the battle of the ,sluis 7#acdj71 at which the ,english fleet of two hundred ships1 under the command of ,king ,edward ,,iii1 completely defeated the ,franco-,genoese fleet4 ,this latter1 #aij vessels strong1 was composed of bluff-bowed vessels1 galleys1 barges and a large number of small vessels4 ,certain chroniclers claim that it included four hundred units4 7,holmes1 p4 #ga47 ,the ,english lost four thousand men in this battle1 and the ,french and ,genoese twenty-five thousand1 which leads to the assumption that the latter had a large number of galleys at their disposal4 ,in #acde1 ,edward ,,iii came again to ,france at the head of a fleet of #ajjj to #aajj ships and1 in #acdg1 a third expedition1 having to do with the siege of ,calais1 was sent against this country4 ,holmes relates 7p4 #gb7 that1 for this expedition1 the greater part of the fleet1 which counted #gde units and #ae1hie men1 came from ,england2 the other vessels were furnished by the ,flanders and ,spain4 ,the size of the crews1 which reduces to #ba men per vessel shows sufficiently that the boats of the fleet were relatively small4 ,under these conditions1 a pretty exact idea can be had of this fleet by giving a glance at old engravings which show a flotilla of fishing boats1 including some busses and a few 8,noordvaarders01 putting out to sea4 ,the castles which ships carried at this time were small and not set up as a permanence4 ,the medal struck as a commemoration of the battle of the ,sluis also shows a 8,cog01 or at least a vessel which is exactly like it by its clinker built sides4 ,it may be supposed that the type of vessel shown in this reproduction was the one most widely used at this period2 so1 once more is shown the great affinity which existed among the northern nations4 ,military tactics had forced the peoples of the ,mediterranean and1 later1 ,spain and ,portugal1 their imitators1 to increase the height of their ships4 ,this is confirmed by ,holmes in the following quotation relating to the battle fought by ,edward ,,iii1 near ,winchelsea1 against forty ,spanish ships3 8,the tactics of the ,english consisted chiefly of boarding1 while the ,spaniards1 whose vessels were much the higher1 attacked with crossbows and heavy stones2 the latter they hurled from their fighting tops into their adversaries' ships04 ,the history of the ,netherlands also mentions this fact4 ,england first made use of artillery at sea in #acgb2 the ,mediterranean saw it used by the ,genoese in #acgg4 ,shipbuilding was only developed much later in ,france4 ,nevertheless1 there is proof that ships were already built there in the ,x,i,vth century and it appears that they had cannons on board even in #acci4 ,still1 it was only on the shores of the ,mediterranean that shipbuilding was regularly carried on1 under the impulse1 it appears1 of ,jean de ,vienne1 who was made admiral in #acgc4 7,le ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre47 ,it was under the rule of ,henri the ,navigator 7#adag7 that shipbuilding reached its height in ,portugal1 a country which was entirely under the influence of the ,mediterranean4 ,meanwhile1 the relations of the ,netherlands with the southern countries had developed rapidly4 ,the closing of the old route to the ,indies1 which led through the ,mediterranean and ,asia ,minor1 brought about a complete upsetting of the commerce of the world4 ,new explorations must needs be undertaken and it is thus that we read in history that after having pushed as far as ,guinea with six caravels1 in #addf1 the ,cape ,verde ,islands were reached soon afterwards4 ,in #addi1 it was the turn of the ,azore ,islands and1 in #adhf1 ,bartholomeo ,diaz reached the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,eleven years later1 this navigator turned the ,cape and landed at the ,indies with three vessels1 the ,san ,gabriel1 the ,san ,raphael and the ,bonio4 ,according to existing data1 the first of these ships must have had a capacity of #djj tons or #bej to #cjj registered tons4 7,holmes1 p4 #hf47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #fa ,it is useless to dwell longer on these episodes of which the history is sufficiently well known and of which the last act was the discovery of ,america by ,christopher ,columbus in #adib4 ,this latter had at his disposal but three small ships1 although ,spain was already using1 at this time1 larger vessels4 ,the best known and the largest of the three was the 8,santa-,maria04 ,this ship had a length of keel of #fj4fh feet and a length over all of #abh4be feet with a total breadth of #be4ga feet4 ,the ,chicago ,exposition of #ahic exhibited a model of this vessel of which ,holmes's work gives a reproduction on p4 #he4 ,the discovery of ,america gave rise to the thirst for gold1 drove the nations of ,north-,western ,europe to venture on the high seas and obliged them to go actively into shipbuilding4 ,the rise of the ,netherlands then was important2 the size of their ships grew greatly1 and as far back as the ,x,v,ith century1 vessels of #cjj1 #djj1 #ejj and #fjj tons were found4 ,however1 smaller vessels continued to be used1 in preference1 for war because they were more easily handled4 7,see1 among others1 de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ha47 ,after #aejj1 our shipbuilding became so developed that our country was called the shipyard of ,europe4 ,different from ,portugal1 where nothing has been preserved1 the ,netherlands possess a whole series of drawings of the ,x,v,ith1 ,x,v,i,ith and ,x,v,i,i,ith centuries1 which enable us to form a very exact idea of the progressive development of the ship4 ,in the old reproductions aforementioned of ,matre ,w4 ,a41 as well as in the ,flemish miniatures at hand1 the forward castle projected beyond the bow1 but it already forms1 however1 a component part of the ship and is fastened to a beam let into the stem and resting on a bracket fastened thereto4 ,this construction gives to the stem the appearance of starting upward and then of falling back in the shape of an ,s4 ,this is evidently only an illusion4 ,the vessels after #aejj become larger and the castles gain in importance4 ,the projection of the forward castle1 however1 diminishes gradually and this castle reached only as far as the stem1 by the middle of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ach ,witsen1 in the appendix of his remarkable work 7pp4 #h and #aj71 gives a fine model of a ship at the end of the ,x,vth century4 ,it is a question of the reproduction of a vessel which1 in his time1 decorated the arch of the church at ,diemer-lez-,amsterdam1 built in the year #aejj4 ,the rigging of this vessel1 as well as the pole mast supplied with tops and carrying large square sails1 brings us back to the ,middle ,ages4 ,the forward castle1 which projects beyond the stem1 and the after castle are higher than usual4 ,these are no bends such as were used later2 several heavy pieces of wood supported on brackets take their place4 ,the sides are evidently smooth and1 according to the constant practice of the period1 the ship carried on the bow and on the sides pieces of wood for protection4 ,the stern alone is not clearly shown2 there is no rudder to be seen1 and this gives the impression that the drawing is at fault4 ,this vessel had no upper stern1 in all probability1 for our ships did not yet know this addition4 ,there is a proof of it in the ,noah's ,ark1 reproduced in the ,nrenberger ,chronik1 folio ,,xi1 of #adid1 as well as in that of the ship which appears in the ,ecclesiastical ,painting of the ,middle ,ages in ,holland1 #aeah-aebe1 n #ad1 and which shows ,jonah in the water4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #acf ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aai ,this last picture especially gives a magnificent type of boat of the beginning of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,it is not so old as the ship of the ,church at ,diemer1 as to which the rig furnishes proof3 the pole of the mast passes through the top and1 another characteristic1 the forward castle does not project beyond the stem4 ,the ram has been broken off near the frame4 ,besides1 the human figures1 as compared with the ship1 are exaggerated4 ,the sides of the vessel are smooth4 ,it brings admirably to mind the ,flemish miniature of #adhb4 ,these reproductions are most interesting in view of the development of the ship2 we see in them the forms of the castle become more precise1 the rigging improve and increase and the vessel itself gain in size4 ,attention is called to the fact that the ships in all these drawings carry a bowsprit which was used at first only to hoist the anchor1 as is the practice still on the large river lakes4 ,let us now turn our eyes to ,breugel's pictures of which ,f4 ,huis has left some superb engravings4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #acb ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ace ,sidenote3 ,,ii #fd ,a close examination of these reproductions brings out different types of ships4 ,several of them show us important vessels which1 by their great rams1 their high castles and their broad sterns1 differ notably from the old ,holland ship4 ,van ,yk's work also shows1 on page #i1 a reproduction of those big vessels which the author calls ,spanish 8,caracks0 or galleons1 two types of ships which arose under the influence of the ,mediterranean4 ,but1 alongside of these 8caracks0 are also found smaller ,dutch vessels4 ,an engraving of #aefd1 of a ,breugel picture1 shows particularly an ,amsterdam merchantman4 ,it has a round stern4 ,it can be compared advantageously with an old ,flemish engraving1 dating from #adhj or #adij1 which shows a 8,kraeck0 without escutcheon1 and of which the castles differ completely in form and size from those carried by the ships seen in the engravings of ,matre ,w4 ,a4 ,these castles agree with the ,mediterranean types4 ,the boat with the square stern had been adopted in ,holland1 therefore1 as far back as the end of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,square sterns remained in use there1 for large vessels up to the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century2 at that time a return was made to the old structure1 in imitation of ,england which used the square stern for only a short time1 seeing that ,william ,pitt 7,holmes1 p4 #dj7 introduced the rounded forms there in the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,hence ,mr4 de ,jonge is in error when he says in his work that the vessel with the square stern only appeared in ,holland in #afea4 ,the adoption of the square stern1 nevertheless1 did not cause the old round-stern1 full-bow vessel to disappear2 this is an established fact4 ,another word about ports4 ,the old reproductions of the ,x,v,ith century show ports2 some are even found on a miniature of #adbh4 ,in any event1 their general use dates back to the end of the ,x,vth century2 they seem to have been invented by a ,frenchman from ,brest1 named ,descharges4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #he47 ,the masts and rigging also underwent important changes4 ,at the beginning of the ,eighty ,years ,war 7#aeij71 an inhabitant of ,enkhuizen1 8,kryn ,wouterez0 by name1 according to ,brandt 7,history of ,enkhuizen1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aci71 invented a process for making masts in several sections 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cij74 ,the masts1 made first of two pieces1 were1 by means of this new invention1 soon made in three parts each carrying a square sail4 ,from this time1 the old medieval rig of one large sail begins to disappear4 ,in order to facilitate the evolutions of the ship1 a square sail was placed on the bowsprit4 ,finally1 the guns are placed more rationally and1 imitating the practice on the ,spanish caracks1 some were located in the forward and after castles so as to command the deck4 ,this arrangement recalls the practice of the ,middle ,ages1 in accordance with which1 in case of boarding1 the crew retired into the castles whence a charge was made on the invaders4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adc ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ada ,the vessel represented on the engraving of #aeid1 therefore1 arose gradually from the old forms1 but not without having felt the influence of the ,mediterranean2 this evolution leads us to the 8,pinnace0 of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,the ship was then richly ornamented and bedecked1 and its sails1 in accordance with use1 carried handsome paintings4 ,this custom disappeared insensibly during the century named1 but the custom of decorating ships continued1 none the less1 for still a long time afterwards4 ,according to ,witsen1 fixed rules governed the construction of vessels from the ,x,v,ith century on4 ,one strict rule1 among others1 did not allow the stem to project more than 1 or less than of its height1 nor could the sternpost project more than a fifth or a fourth of its height4 ,the author mentioned pretends that the stem was made with a marked slope1 for the reason that it was believed that1 under such conditions1 the ships would glide more easily over the water 7p4 #dg1 column #b at the end74 ,at about one-third of the length of the keel from the stem1 were placed from one to four main frames2 the ship narrowed aft to such a degree that the wing transom was equal in length to half the greatest beam of the ship4 ,the bow was full1 which allowed the water to be thrown more easily aside4 7,witsen1 pp4 #di and #ej47 ,the seams were calked and1 in accordance with an old custom1 covered with lead plates4 ,the forward castle had been reduced in height while the after castle1 on the contrary1 had been raised4 ,a fourth mast was placed in the stern to facilitate the manuvring of the ship2 this mast disappeared later on1 when the bowsprit was adopted in the course of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 7,witsen1 p4 #aci1 #b;d column47 ,the ,x,v,ith century was a memorable period for the ,netherlands2 it was during this century that was laid the foundation of that navy to which1 as says ,mr4 ,de ,jonge1 ,holland was to owe later her liberty1 her greatness and her prosperity4 ,this navy united within itself everything which could concur to bring forth a force able to defend the country1 to protect commerce1 navigation and the fisheries and to bring to ,holland glory and power4 ,our marine1 in general1 and our shipbuilding1 in particular1 then developed steadily4 ,a long period of struggles began and many battles were fought both before and after the ,eighty ,years ,war 7#aefh-afdh74 ,according to the old custom1 the ships which took part in actions were only merchantmen fitted out for the purpose4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahj47 ,these vessels1 which were called 8,vliebooten0 or 8,vlietbooten0 7flyboats71 had a small capacity varying from #dj to #adj tons and carried six1 eight1 ten or twenty guns4 ,the size of the crew was proportioned generally to capacity2 a vessel of #ej tons carried #ej men4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aja47 ,the 8,heuden01 already mentioned above1 as well as 8,boeiers0 7tenders71 also called 8,kromstevens01 and other flat-bottomed craft were used on the rivers4 ,the navy of ,zeeland included1 in addition to a number of small boats1 a few vessels of more respectable size4 8,hulken0 were used at the siege of ,middleburg2 one of them1 called the big 8,hulk01 must have had a capacity of #fjj lasts1 or #abjj tons1 and a crew of at least #ejj to #fjj men4 7,van ,meteren1 fol4 #ha and #ajb47 ,as a general rule1 the vessels of ,north ,holland were larger than those of ,zeeland4 ,their capacity was #ej to #abe last1 or #ajj to #bej tons and a crew of #ej to #aej sailors and soldiers4 ,the largest vessels carried thirty-two guns4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahg47 ,bor relates 7,guerres de ,hollande1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fej7 that thirteen vessels of this latter category were fitted out in #aege1 and that this fleet was filled out by 8,kraveelschepen01 8,yachten01 8,waterschepen0 and 8,booten01 while according to ,de ,jonge 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahg71 a few galleys were still in service on the ,zuyder ,zee4 ,in order to be able to form a more exact idea of the importance of our naval power at this time1 the following table1 of which the original is preserved in the ,archives of the ,state 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ehf71 has been inserted here to show the navy of the province of ,holland in #aehg4 ,,number ,,of ,,lasts ,,guns ,,crew ,,remarks ,,vessels ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a #ajj #af #ie #a ,last #b tons4 #a -- #ad #gj #a #bg #ad #cb ,small calibre4 #aj #cj-ij #ab #de-gf #ce #ag-gj #h-aa #bi-ge the largest3 #ej to #fj men4 #d ,y -- -- #cf-ej ,y stands for ,yachts4 #be #h-dj #d-g #aa-gj the largest3 #cj to #dj men4 #f -- #a-b #g-aa #a ,g -- #a #af ,g stands for galley4 ,in addition to the 8,vliebooten01 there were vessels of less importance called 8,kromstevens01 8,kraveelen01 8,heuden0 or freight vessels1 8,krapschuiten01 8,potten01 8,yachten01 8,boeiers04 ,the largest vessels were still1 however1 only of modest dimensions4 ,according to the decisions of the ,government1 dated ,june #a1 #aehh1 three of the largest vessels were to be equipped for war and it was stipulated that their capacity was to be #bjj lasts4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bja1 note47 ,there are some who claim that only small boats were used at the beginning of our war for independence1 because the battles were fought only on rivers and because1 furthermore1 the financial situation was very bad4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bjc-bjd47 ,i consider1 for my part1 that the latter reason was the main one4 ,later on1 complaints were again made about the unsatisfactory state of the fleet by reason of lack of funds4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #h ,sidenote3 ,,iii #i ,returning new to the shapes of the ships4 ,the 8,hulk0 has been seen to appear after the 8,cog01 only to be replaced1 itself1 by the 8,baertze04 ,the 8,kraeck0 arose alongside of this last type which was followed finally by the 8,spiegelschip0 under the form of a pinnace and a war vessel4 ,the full bow lasted1 however1 in boats of little importance and so the 8,vlieboot0 or 8,vlietboot0 was seen to follow the 8,baertze04 ,it is the old type of the 8,baertze0 of which the topsides tumbled in appreciably4 ,hence no new type of boat was characterized by this new denomination which was given in the second half of the ,x,v,ith century2 it is the old form which1 slightly modified1 appears under another name4 ,this is a fact which will be met with more than once further on4 ,a comparison between the 8,vlieboot01 7flyboat71 the 8,baertze01 etc41 brings out the analogy between these vessels2 the same holds good for the 8,buss04 ,all these forms are derived from the 8,cog04 ,the 8,flyboat0 originated on the ,zuider ,zee4 ,its name seems to have come from the 8,vlie0 which was frequented by boats of this kind4 ,these latter1 as has been said1 had reentering topsides1 that is1 convex in shape1 hence it was more difficult to board them under these conditions and1 consequently1 their defense needed but a limited number of men2 this was a matter of importance for merchant vessels4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adh ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ai ,besides having a respectable cargo capacity1 the 8,flyboats0 were also very handy4 ,there is no doubt that they were the forerunners of the flutes1 the merchant vessels par excellence of the ,x,v,i,ith and ,x,v,i,i,ith centuries1 which ,england and ,france borrowed from us4 ,there is in existence a beautiful reproduction of the 8,flyboat0 dating from #afdg4 ,it shows a relatively large vessel2 judging by the beakhead shown which was not carried by our small merchant vessels4 ,the beak had been adopted first in the ,mediterranean2 it is not1 therefore1 of ,dutch origin4 ,none of the old ,dutch types had it1 whereas those of the ,mediterranean and1 even those of the times of the ,phnicians already had them4 7,see1 among others1 ,van ,yk1 p4 #ajc47 ,toward the end of the ,x,v,ith century the name of 8,baertze0 gave way to that of 8,vlieboot0 7flyboat71 and at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 arose the vessels called 8,galioot0 7galliot71 8,noordvaerder01 8,kof0 7kuff71 8,smakschip0 7smack71 8,boeier0 7tender71 together with the flutes and square stern vessels4 ,still--and this cannot be too often repeated--the primitive forms do not disappear under these different names4 ,the forms have been enlarged and a few exterior characteristics1 as well as the rigging1 have been modified4 ,the different types just mentioned above have1 therefore1 as their main and fundamental character the old rounded bow4 ,the vessels of the period under consideration could be divided into three principal groups3 a7 the square-stern ships2 b7 the flutes in the broadest acceptation of the word2 and c7 the 8,kof en ,smakschepen0 7kuffs and smacks74 ,it is unnecessary to add that the vessels of groups b and c were round at the stern4 ,hence1 the purest old ,dutch types will be found in these two groups4 ,the ,x,v,i,ith century is now reached1 that century of glory and prosperity for our country1 especially from the point of view of shipbuilding4 ,however1 before beginning on this period1 let us look a little into what was the situation of shipbuilding abroad4 ,let us begin with ,spain1 which was mixed up in our war for independence4 ,the ,spanish naval architecture1 which flourished after that of ,portugal1 felt undoubtedly and intensely the influence of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,spanish galleons and caracks recall the ,genoese 8nefs0 and caracks1 of which only a few old reproductions have been preserved1 and which came up under the influence of relations with ,northern nations4 ,in addition to the galleons1 the galleys and the galliasses held an important place in the ,spanish navy4 ,the frequent use of vessels with oars made hand to hand fights quite rare and led to less frequent boarding among the nations of the ,south1 this being the reverse of the practise among the ,northern races4 ,the pictures of the ,mediterranean vessels can be consulted to advantage in order to obtain an idea of the ,spanish ships4 ,the sea power of ,spain disappeared1 as is known1 with the ,invincible ,armada1 in #aehh4 ,a summary description of this fleet will give an idea of the importance of the ships which composed it4 ,it was made up of one-hundred-and-thirty-two vessels1 of which 7,holmes1 p4 #ib7 four were galleys1 four galliasses1 thirty vessels of less than #ajj tons and ninety-four ships of #acj to #aeej tons4 ,the round-stern ships had a total capacity of #ei1abj tons4 ,there were #bgfa pieces of artillery and the ships companies contained #ghfb seamen and #bj1fga soldiers4 ,the ,english fleet had one-hundred-and-ninety-seven vessels1 of which only thirty-four belonged to the royal navy1 all the rest were merchantmen hastily equipped for war4 ,the largest ,english ship was the ,triumph1 built in #aefa1 of #ajjj to #aajj tons burden and carrying three hundred sailors1 forty gunners and one-hundred-and-sixty soldiers4 ,it mounted forty-six guns4 ,besides the 8,triumph01 the ,english fleet had but seven vessels of #fjj to #ajjj tons whereas the ,spanish fleet had forty-five vessels of this size4 ,the total of all hands of the ,english fleet amounted to #ae1eea souls4 ,in this struggle ,holland was with ,england2 it was she that kept the ,duke of ,parma shut up at ,dunkerque4 ,the largest vessels of the ,netherlands fleet were of #djj tons4 ,both in ,england and with us1 merchant ships1 which did duty temporarily as men of war1 were leased for the war4 ,this old custom of the ,middle ,ages still survived4 ,besides1 it was all the simpler1 at this latter period1 to equip merchantmen for war1 as artillery was still in its infancy or even unknown4 ,the following figures 7,holmes1 p4 #ie7 show how much larger the vessels of the ,southern ,states were than ours1 as a rule4 ,in #aeib1 the ,english captured a ,portuguese carack of #afjj tons1 #afe feet between perpendiculars and showing seven decks4 ,in #aeid1 it was the turn of a ,spanish carack with #aajj men on board4 ,when ,cadiz was taken in #aeif1 two ,spanish galliasses fell into the enemy's hands2 they were vessels of #abjj tons2 the flagship 8,san-,felipo01 which was blown up measured #aejj tons4 ,a ,portuguese carack of #afjj tons1 called the ,san-,valentino1 valued with her guns at a million ducats1 was captured at ,cezimbra in #afjb4 ,following our example1 it is said1 and as the result of 8,kryn ,wouterszoon's0 invention1 the movable top-mast was adopted by the ,english during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth 7#aehh-afjc74 7,holmes1 p4 #hf74 ,up to this point1 the ports were not only irregularly arranged1 but the lower row was generally so low that those in this tier had to be kept closed if the sea were at all rough4 ,in ,england1 however1 the tendency was to raise the lowest tier 7,holmes1 p4 #if7 and this example was soon generally followed4 ,france1 whose ships so far had not yet appeared on the ,mediterranean1 began in the ,x,v,i,ith century1 under ,richelieu 7#afbd-afib71 to develope her navy4 ,colbert continued this work with ardor4 ,it has been stated already1 in speaking of the ,mediterranean1 that the older ,french ships were1 in principle just like those of ,genoa2 until about #afej1 galleys were more numerous than other vessels4 ,the ,north of ,france and ,normandy belonged only--and the old pictures show it--to the ,northern ,centre4 ,this is by no means surprising1 if the ,norse invasion be remembered4 ,even now1 boats resembling those of ,flanders and of our own country are still found in the ,north of ,france4 ,let us return now to the ,netherlands4 ,after the discovery by ,vasco da ,gama1 in #adih1 of the route to the ,indies and when ,portugal had secured for herself the monopoly of trade in those lands1 ,lisbon became the centre of traffic of the world4 ,in those days1 the ,dutch sought in ,portuguese ports the products of the ,indies2 but1 in #aehj1 the ,duke of ,alba took possession of ,portugal and annexed it to ,spain4 ,nevertheless1 we were allowed to continue our commerce with the former of these countries until #aehe1 when all our ships were confiscated4 ,hence ,holland was reduced to finding for herself a route to the ,indies1 and it was believed at first that this result could be found by way of the ,north4 ,four ships were fitted out for this purpose in #aeid1 two by ,holland and two by ,amsterdam4 ,this undertaking failed as did also that of #aeie which was followed by the famous expedition of ,heemskerk1 ,barends and van ,rijp1 which latter was also fruitless4 ,meanwhile a route was sought by way of the ,south and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,a fleet of four ships1 under the command of ,keijzers and ,houtman started in #aeie and was gone for two years and a half4 ,after a voyage of #ddf days1 the ships reached ,bantam and visited ,bali4 ,the return required #afh days4 ,this fleet carried a crew of #bdh men4 ,the results of this expedition1 while not brilliant1 had1 nevertheless1 as a consequence1 the formation1 in #afjb1 of the ,east ,india ,company which played such an important part in our history4 ,it is useless to add that these events had a decisive influence on the development of our naval architecture4 ,up to the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 there was as yet no question of a war fleet properly so-called4 ,merchant ships were still hired and converted into men-of-war to meet contingencies4 ,our fleet was made up at that time of all kinds of types of vessels4 ,among them the square sterned vessels1 called pinnaces1 the 8,vliebooten0 or flyboats and the flutes were the most important4 ,there were also some 8,hekkebooten0 and small 8smaks04 ,so the three kinds of vessels already mentioned above are again found3 viz3 the square-stern ships1 the flyboats and the smacks4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adi ,the old ,zierikzee model gives an exact idea of the transition from the square-stern ship of the ,x,v,ith century to the one of the ,x,v,i,ith4 ,although erring1 like all the old reproductions1 in regard to proportions1 this model cannot fail to attract our attention to the marked slope of the stem4 ,it was generally admitted at this time that the ship should draw the least water possible and have the stem strongly sloping1 with an overhanging bow1 so as to displace the water more easily or1 as it was then said1 to carry the water underneath and not around the hull4 ,it was believed that the water was drawn under the sides 7,van ,yk1 p4 #cec7 and that the strongly raking stem allowed the boat to slide more easily over the water4 7,witsen1 p4 #dg1 column #b in fine47 ,later1 opinion changed and then it was seen that the stem was brought more and more nearly upright until the ,x,i,xth century2 the vessel thus gains in fullness4 ,frtenbach reproduces for us a ,dutch vessel of the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century2 the counter1 probably to avoid difficulties of drawing1 is only sketched in by a few lines4 ,it is seen that the after castle has increased in proportions1 and that the part which separates the forward and after castles still remains uncovered4 ,this kind of construction1 due to the progressive development of the castles of the ,middle ,ages1 only disappears at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 when vessels with two and three decks come on the scene4 ,the forward and after castles1 in these last ships1 are of the same height2 in a word1 they are strongly connected to each other and are formed of several superposed decks4 ,the rigging1 too1 has undergone new changes1 by reason1 no doubt1 of the raising of the stern4 ,the fourth small mast put up at this point gives way1 especially1 to a mast carrying a square sail and fixed at the end of the bowsprit4 ,this mast was used only for steering the ship4 ,the vessels gained in size and the armament was improved by a more rational distribution of the guns4 ,the following figures give the proof of this4 ,in #aeif1 a #bjj-last ship carried only #bd guns2 one of #aej lasts carried #ag and one of #ajj lasts had only #af on board4 ,in #afaf1 #cf guns were mounted on a ship of #bjj lasts2 #bh on a ship of #abj lasts1 then1 in #afbh1 mention is made of a ship of #bjj lasts armed with #ci cannon4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cif47 ,aside from the better arrangement for the guns1 the increase of the artillery itself necessitated arming the forecastle and the poop4 ,about #afci1 the iron guns were replaced1 to a great extent1 by others of bronze1 which allowed a greater number of pieces to be taken on board 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #djj71 but these pieces were lacking in unity of calibre and volume4 ,the later adoption of guns of more nearly equal calibre greatly increased the fighting value of the ships4 ,however great the progress made by our fleet may have been1 it was still always inferior to the part imposed on it by a naval war4 ,hence it became finally a necessity to build war vessels properly so called and to give up fitting out merchant ships4 ,sixty new war ships were laid down in #afec4 ,this first war fleet constructed in our country set sail in #afeh4 ,so the old medival custom1 which consisted in appropriating merchant vessels to make them serve as men of war1 became a thing of the past4 ,but this fleet was not sufficient by itself1 and merchantmen had to do duty as transports4 ,this is why these latter kept guns on board for their own defence4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adf ,the war ships mentioned above were called pinnaces and were made with a square stern as well as a large beakhead4 ,tromp's flagship1 the ,aemelia was a pinnace model4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #h ,sidenote3 ,,iii #i ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aej ,the fleet was increased in a very short time1 in #affd1 by sixty new square-stern vessels4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #be47 ,the main point in view in building these ships 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bg7 was to provide our navy with vessels which1 so far as our passes and ports would allow1 should be at least as large and as powerful as those of the enemy4 ,by reason of the depth of water in the passes1 the number of their guns was placed at #fj to #hj4 ,among these vessels1 which were launched in #affe1 was ,van ,ruyter's well known ship ,de ,zeven ,provincin4 ,for economical reasons1 most of the ships carried iron as well as bronze guns2 but ,van ,ruyter's flagship had all bronze guns4 ,the following figures will give some idea of the increasing dimensions of ships4 ,in #afed1 the largest ship measured #aej feet in length1 #ch feet beam and #ae feet depth2 it carried #eh guns4 ,the next in size was #adf feet long1 #bf feet beam and #ad feet deep2 it carried #fj guns4 ,at the beginning of the second war with ,england1 the two largest ships were #afi to #aga feet long4 ,de ,zeven ,provincin #afc feet long1 #dc feet broad and #ae feet deep4 ,the next in size was #aej to #afj feet in length1 #dj to #db feet in breadth and #ae feet in depth1 etc4 ,so the length and breadth increased but the greatest depth of #ae feet did not change1 as the depth of our passes was against any increase of the draft4 ,when later1 the direction toward larger sizes was continued abroad1 and the necessity of following this example was felt among us1 the question of the draught of water became a problem which1 more and more1 called for the attention of our shipbuilders4 ,the larger the ship became and the greater its capacity had to be1 the draught of water being limited1 put us in a position of inferiority in regard to the vessels of foreign countries which ran more easily under sail4 ,no account had to be taken of shallow passes in those countries1 consequently ships of finer form could be built there4 7,van ,yk1 #afig1 p4 #cec47 ,when in #afhb the vessels which composed our fleet were divided into classes or 8charters01 a depth of #af to #ag feet only is given as the first 8charter04 ,the first three-deck ships built in our country belonged later to this last class4 ,hence it is not a matter of astonishment that1 in the long run1 our war vessels had to yield before those of other nations which were steadily becoming larger4 ,this state of affairs did not arise from any inferiority on the part of our shipbuilders but had its causes solely in the condition of our passes4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ac ,the difference of draught of water appears clearly if the dimensions of the largest ,french and ,english ships be compared with those of our largest vessel at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith and beginning of the ,x,v,i,i,ith centuries4 ,their dimensions were as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,length ,,breadth ,,depth ---------------------------------------- ----- m m m for the ,dutch ship #di4bh #ab4hh #d4hf ,english #di4da #ad4cc #e4fd ,french #ei4ia #ad4bi #f4fa ,by depth was understood the inside height of the ship measured up to the load-water line4 7,witsen1 p4 #gd1 sub #i47 7,see also ,fig4 ,,xxxii1 p4 #ef of the same work1 etc47 ,a ship having a depth of #d m4 #hf required1 with the height of the keel etc4 included1 a depth of water of at least #e metres4 ,now1 it is known that the depth of water over the 8,pampus01 near ,amsterdam1 had already become sensibly less at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,large ships only succeeded in reaching that city at the cost of serious difficulties4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bch ,it was under these circumstances that a certain ,meeuwis ,meindertz ,bakker1 a native of ,amsterdam1 invented the 8sea camels0 in #afia1 and by them vessels could be raised from #e to #f feet 7,van ,yk1 p4 #cfj47 ,these 8camels0 were straight up and down on one side1 the other being fitted to the shape of the ship4 ,placed on each side of the vessel they inclosed it and formed a sort of floating dock4 ,held between two camels which were securely fastened together1 the ship was raised as they were emptied of the water which they contained4 ,these camels are very well shown in ,van ,yk's work1 folio #cfj1 as well as in 8,figures de navires et embarcations01 #ahca1 pl4 #ce1 by ,p4 ,le ,comte4 ,small boats towed the vessel thus raised across the ,pampus4 ,as to the depth of water which existed at this place1 ,le ,comte says1 p4 #ch1 that1 at high tide there were #aj feet 7#b4ig ells of the ,netherlands7 on the ,pampus or 8,muiderzand0 and #i feet 7#b4ee ells7 at low tide4 ,it was only at extraordinary high tide that a depth of #ac feet 7#c4fh ells7 was to be had4 ,later1 ships drawing #ai feet 7#e m4 #ch7 could be brought to ,amsterdam by means of camels4 ,but the situation was no better at ,rotterdam4 ,here1 indeed1 is what is related by the builder ,van ,yk1 in his work of #afig1 p4 #ad3 8,en waarlyk de wytheid der schepen is wel het voornaamste en beste middel om het ondiepgaan derselve te bevorderen1 een saak die wy hier te ,lande wegens de droogte of ondieptheid onzer zeegaten1 ten hoogste dienen te betrachten2 want 7volgens 't getuigenis van ervaarne en de diepte dezer zeegaten zeer wel bepeild hebbende loodsen7 soo konnen met een gemeen geleide uit het ,goereesche gat niet meer dan #bj1 uit ,texel1 omtrent ook soo veel en uit de ,maas niet meer als #ac voeten diepgaande schepen worden uitgelootst4 ,waarom dan ook somtyds wel is komen te gebeuren1 dat eenige1 van 's ,lands oorlogs-schepen1 soo nauw gemaakt en om zeilvoerens wil soo diep geballast zynde1 met een dood getyde en ,wind1 tot ,staats groot nadeel1 niet konden 't zee geraken1 of daar al in synde1 haar onderste geschut1 omdat te naby 't water lag1 niet bruikbaar werd bevonden0#aa4 ,and further on1 at page #cfj1 the same author says also3 8,want soo heeft men al voor veele jaren1 om onze groote en diepgaande schepen in zee te brengen1 wegens de ondiepheid onzer rivieren en zeegaten1 getragt1 waar 't mogelyk1 door ledig vatwerk1 so pypen1 als voedervaten1 op te ligten en te doen ryzen4 ,dog was dit werk1 om het byeen schikken der vaten1 een ellendige talmerij en veel arbeids onderworpen04#ab ,according to the ,reports of ,proceedings of the ,batavian ,association at ,rotterdam1 #ahej1 pp4 #id et seq41 the ,briel pass was practicable only for vessels drawing from #c metres to #c m4 #ej and larger ships had to go by the 8,goereesche ,gat0 to reach ,rotterdam1 using successively the 8,hollandsche ,diep0 and the 8,dortsche ,kil04 ,there was at these places1 even at high tide1 only a depth sufficient for a maximum draught of #e m4 #gj4 7,see ,dr4 ,blink1 8,nederland en zijne ,bewoners01 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ddg47 ,navigation along this route1 furthermore1 was difficult on account of the narrowness of the channel4 ,it was this condition which made necessary the digging of the canal by way of ,voorne 7#ahbg-ahbi74 ,but in spite of this new navigable highway1 the maximum draught of water continued to depend1 none the less1 on the depths to be found1 at ordinary high tide in the 8,goereesche ,gat0 and the 8,stellegat04 ,these depths were respectively #e m4 #gj and #e m4 #bj 7,w4 ,f4 ,leemans3 8,de ,nieuwe ,waterweg01 etc4 ,gedenkboek ,k4 ,inst4 ,ing4 p4 #ac and p4 #acj47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ad ,the situation became more critical for the ,netherlands navy as ships abroad increased their size1 and meanwhile1 foreign activity was redoubled6 ,england gave to her navy four-fifths of the revenues of the ,crown in #afef-afeg1 two thirds in #afeg-afeh1 and nearly three-fifths in #afeh-afei4 7,holmes1 p4 #ajh47 ,four of the the largest vessels built during this period had a capacity greater than one thousand tons4 ,in #afgc1 was launched ,the ,royal ,charles1 a ship well known to us1 which was taken later by the ,dutch4 ,the largest number of ,english war ships still belonged1 at this period1 to the third class4 ,the classification was stated as follows in #afff3 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,class ,,length ,,beam ,,depth ,,tonnage ,,guns ,,of ,,keel ---------------------------------------- -------------- #a #abh-adf #dj-dh #ag4i-ai4h #aajj-agdj #ij-ajj #b #aba-adc #cg-de #ag-ai4h #ajjj-aejj #hb-ij #c #aae-adj #cd-dj #ad4b-ah4c #gej-aagd #fj-gd #d #hh-ajh #bg-cd #aa4b-ae4f #ab4h-ag4h #cb-ed #e #gb-ha #bc4f-bg #i4i-aa #aa4f-ac4b #bf-cb ----------------,v----------------_/ ,dimensions are in ,english feet4 #a foot #j m4 #cjdh ,the year #afdf saw the first frigate built in ,england and in #afgi the bomb-ketch1 built according to the model invented by the ,french builder ,bernard ,renan1 was adopted4 ,after #agjj1 ,english naval architecture fell completely under the influence of that of ,france4 8,it may truly be said01 writes ,holmes 7p4 #aad7 8that during the whole of the eighteenth century1 the majority of the improvements introduced in the forms and proportions of vessels of the ,royal ,navy1 were copied from ,french prizes04 ,scarcely was a ,french vessel taken ere it was copied1 but generally on a larger scale 7,holmes1 p4 #aad74 ,shipbuilding1 in the mean time1 had become wonderfully perfected1 especially under the ,ministry of ,colbert 7#affa71 after the first foundations had been laid by ,cardinal ,richelieu in #afcj4 ,save for a few changes in detail1 the rules laid down by ,colbert were followed until the ,x,i,xth century4 ,in #affh1 the ,french fleet numbered already #agf vessels1 of which one of the most beautiful and famous specimens was the ,soleil ,royal4 ,this fleet was organized on the same footing as that of ,holland 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 part ,i1 p4 #aad74 ,besides1 there existed at this time but little difference between the ,french and ,dutch types4 ,dimensions increased greatly at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 under the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,this can be seen in the following table1 prepared by ,barras de la ,penne 7#afih74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,rank ,number ,,calibre ,,number ,,and of ,,and ,,material ,,length ,,beam ,,depth ,,of ,,order ,guns ,,of ,,the ,,guns ,,batteries ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,ships of the line4 #ast battery1 #h of #dh ,m4 ,m4 ,m4 ,three covered #ast rank1 the rest1 #cf #ef4ja batteries1 #ast order#aab #b;d battery1 #bd;between #ae4fd #g4fdpoop1 and ,soleil #c;d battery1 #ahperpen- forward ,royal poop and topgallant diculars castle4 forecastle1 #ab and #ah #ea4ed ,three covered #ast rank1#gj to bronze guns #ea4ia #ad4bi #f4fa;batteries1 #b;d order #ajj castle1 forward and aft4 #b;d rank1#fj to bronze guns #dh4gb #ac4dg #f4ag idem4 #ast order #gj #c;d rank1#ef to bronze #dg4dg #ab4cd #e4fh,two covered #ast order #ff iron decks1 poop1 and forward castle4 #c;d rank1#dj to bronze #cd4bb #ab4ja #e4da idem4 #b;d order #ej iron ,do not come into line4 #cj bronze #dth rank to iron #ch4ih #aj4ee #d4ga idem4 #dj #ah bronze ,two small #eth rank to iron #ce4gc #h4ff #d4ee;castles or #cj only one aft4 #h ,frigates to -- -- -- -- -- #af ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aff ,sidenote3 ,,ii #afi ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ae ,the progress made in naval architecture under the reign of ,louis ,,xiv is noted as follows in the work3 ,le ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre4 8,the rake of the bow is less exaggerated1 the after castle is lowered1 the artillery is well distributed2 the masts are better proportioned and the spread of canvas is much greater1 as well as more handy1 making the motion more rapid and the manuvres more easy4 ,the profusion and elegance of the ornaments have reached their highest point2 they had the kind of poetry of the old chivalry4 ,everything in this navy already caused the perfection1 which the ship reached quickly under the next two reigns1 to be anticipated40 ,naval architecture took a great start4 ,many works were published1 of which those of ,bernouilli 7#agch7 and of ,euler 7#agdi71 treating of the stability of ships1 are the best known4 ,the dimensions of vessels continue steadily to increase4 ,ships mounting #gj guns which1 in #agae1 were rated in the first class were passed to the sixth class in #agfe4 ,the ,french fleet in #agej1 according to the ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre1 was composed as follows3 ,,number,length ,beam ,moulded ,calibres ,,of between at main depth ,,batteries ,crew of guns ,,guns perpen- frame diculars ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,three ,,deckers ,m4 ,m4 ,m4 ,men #cj pdrs in lower tier #abj #ef4hd #ad4fa #g4dg #ajjj #ah to #fj4dbto #af4bd to #h4ab #c covered to #abjj middle #aaj7a7ed4eg #ad4id #g4ca batteries #ajjj #ab to #eg4hbto #ae4ei to #g4hj to #aajj upper with #ajj #ec4bg #ad4fa #g4dg #ijj #f to #eg4dito #ae4bf to #g4fc;forcastles to #ajjjon forecastle #ij #ea4ig #ad4bi #f4ha and poops #hej #d to #ee4bbto #ad4id to #g4df to #ijj on poop deck ,,double ,,deckers #hj #ej4fg #ac4if #f4ff #b covered #gej #cf pdrs to #ed4egto #ad4fa to #f4ih batteries to #hjj in lower tier with #ah forecastle upper and poop #h on forecastle #d on poop #gd #dh4gb #ac4fd #f4ej #b covered #fej #cf or #bd pdrs to #ec4bgto #ac4if to #f4ih batteries to #gjj in lower tier with #h pdrs forecastle in upper tier and poop #h or #f pdrs on forecastle #d pdrs on poop #fd7b7df4jd #ab4ff #f4jj #b batteries #dej #ah or #ab pdrs to #dh4gbto #ab4ii to #f4ej and to #ejj in lower tier forecastle #bd or #ah pdrs in upper tier #f pdrs on forecastle #ab or #h pdrs in lower tier #ej #dc4hd to#aa4cf to #e4ej to#b batteries #cjj #ah or #ab pdrs #de4ag #ab4ja #e4he and to #ccj in upper tier forecastle #f or #d pdrs on forecastle4 ,,frigates #dj #ch4ih to#aj4ga to #e4ai to,single #db4bb #aa4jd #e4ec battery #bhj to #db4bb #aa4jd #e4ec with #cjj #db4bb #aa4jd #e4ec forecastle #ab pdrs #cj #ce4jg to #i4gd to #d4ee to do4 #bjj to in battery #ch4ih #aj4ci #e4bj #bcj #f or #d pdrs on forecastle4 #bj #cc4ac to #h4gg to #d4bb to do4 #acj to #ce4gc #i4aj #d4ee #aej ,,corvettes #ab #ai4di to #g4he to #b4ib to,single #gj to #d pdrs in #bb4gd #h4ej #c4be battery #hj barbette without battery4 forecastle 7#a7 ,there were a few intermediate types classified with those of this list which they approached nearest4 7#b7 ,this ship was the smallest of those which could enter the line of battle4 ,france also exercised a great influence on the design of ships4 7,holmes1 p4 #aad1 ab initio47 ,the most beautiful vessel of this time was the ,sans ,pareil4 ,the work mentioned above1 ,le ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre1 contains a passage relating to the time of ,louis ,,xvi 7#agdd-agic7 which is well worthy of our attention 7,chapter ,,vii73 8,it was the moment when the science of shipbuilding1 born in ,holland1 really passed into ,france04 ,this does not alter the fact that1 even at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 people still went to ,holland to study this art1 in spite of the high degree of perfection which it had reached in ,france4 ,here indeed is what the above mentioned work says3 8,people went at the end of the last 7,x,v,i,i,ith7 century to take lessons in ,holland and1 on this subject1 the library at ,brest has a manuscript of one of the celebrated engineers1 ,olivier1 who had been sent there1 about #aghj1 to study construction40 ,hence the shipbuilding of the ,netherlands was still highly appreciated at that time4 ,the increase in dimensions of the ,french fleet found its echo in the ,english fleet2 the following are the characteristics of the latter fleet in #agjf3 ,,number ,,of ,,guns #ij #hj #gj #fj #ej #dj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ft4 in4ft4 in4ft4 in4ft4 in4ft4 in4ft4 in4 ,length of gundeck#aib -- #aef -- #aej -- #add -- #acj -- #aah -- ,breadth at midship frame #dg -- #dc -- #da -- #ch -- #ce -- #cb -- ,depth of hold #ah #f #ag #h #ag #d #ae #h #ad -- #ac #f ,tonnage #aeeb #abhc #ajfi #iad #gje #ecb ,here is what ,holmes writes1 p4 #aae3 8,the subject of the superiority in size of the ,french ships was constantly coming to the front and1 in #agai1 a new establishment was made for the dimensions of ships in our ,royal ,navy1 according to the following scale3 ,,number ,,of ,,guns #ij #hj #gj #fj #ej #dj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,increase of3 ,length #b ft4 #b ft4 #a ft4 #j #d ft4 #f ft4 ,breadth #b in4 #a ft4 #f in4 #a ft4 #a ft4 #a ft4 #b in4 ,tonnage #ae #fg #ei #cg #ea #fc ,in #agfe1 vessels were already met with carrying #ajj guns1 measuring #bjdg tons and having already #ba ft4 #f in4 depth of hold4 ,holmes writes on this subject 7pp4 #abd-abh73 8,during the whole of our naval history down to comparatively recent times1 improvements in the dimensions and forms of our ships were only carried out after they had been originally adopted by the ,french1 or ,spaniards1 or more recently by the people of the ,united ,states of ,america40 ,in #agai1 the process which consisted of heating timbers at an open fire in order to bend them was adopted in ,england and1 in #agcf1 they were smoked4 7,holmes1 p4 #aae47 ,ventilation was improved in #agec 7,holmes1 p4 #aag7 and1 in #agfa 7,holmes1 p4 #aba71 followed the invention of the process which consisted in covering ships with copper plates4 ,before this period1 lead was used exceptionally for this purpose4 ,nearly one hundred years earlier1 several vessels in ,holland were covered in part or wholly with copper plates1 as is shown by a passage from ,van ,yk's work1 ,de ,nederlandsche ,scheepsbouwkunst opengesteld1 in which he says1 p4 #aba3 8,dat het schip on de zuid of west bestieren sal1 heeft zy om den houtknagenden worm daarvan te keeren1 stevenswaarts met koper doen bekleeden0#ac4 ,everything which precedes shows sufficiently how far superior the ,french and ,english fleets were to our own1 about the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 in the size of their ships4 ,but experience had demonstrated that the power of a fleet did not lie in numbers alone1 but also in the intrinsic value of each ship 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #hf71 just as ,martin ,harpertszoon ,tromp had also1 himself1 declared some time before4 ,in order to give an idea of the extraordinary energy displayed by the ,united ,provinces1 it will be mentioned that from #afhb to #agjj1 hence in eighteen years1 there were built #ae three-deckers of #ij to #if guns each1 #b of #hj to #hf1 #b of #gj to #gd1 #bi of #fj to #fh1 and #bf of #ej to #ef pieces of artillery1 together with #b frigates of #bb guns1 #c fire ships and #i ketches1 in all #ajg vessels4 ,of this number1 seven only were built outside of the provinces of ,holland and ,zeeland4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gb to #ge47 ,outside of this fleet of which the cost was defrayed by means of extraordinary credits1 there were built during the same period1 with ordinary credits1 #fe other vessels1 of which #g were of #ej to #eb guns1 #ah of #dj to #df1 #ag of #cj to #ch1 #ac of #bj to #bf1 and #aj of #af guns at least4 ,or1 for a period of eighteen years1 a total of #ajg #fe #agb new ships4 ,this increase of the fleet was an absolute necessity4 ,it was necessary1 in fact1 to make up the losses caused by storms and other misfortunes1 and amounting1 during the years #afhh-afih1 to #c units of #gj1 #e of #fj1 #f of #ej1 #h of #dj to #df guns1 in addition to a few vessels of #cj guns and less1 #cf ships in all4 ,all these works evidently cost large sums4 ,during the period #afhb-agjb1 the expenditures for new ships were about #ha1aig1jjj florins and about #fi1ied1hjj florins for equipment4 ,maintenance1 equipment1 etc4 came to about #e1hbi1jjj florins1 and in #afig1 the costs rose to #g1gcb1jjj florins4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #hj and #ha47 ,in order to form any exact idea of the importance of this sum1 it must be remembered that1 at the time under consideration1 salaries1 etc4 were far lower than those of our day4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #hj1 note47 ,besides the war ships just mentioned1 a large number of merchant ships1 vessels of less importance for inland service1 and fishing boats were built1 so that1 if the old writers are to be believed1 8there were places where there were counted more boats than houses04 ,at the time when ,hugo de ,groot lived1 two thousand vessels were built annually4 7,koenen1 ,geschiedenis van ,scheepbouw en ,zeevaart1 p4 #hg47 ,no ,hollanders were met with who did not possess a certain amount of knowledge relating to shipbuilding4 7,idem1 p4 #he47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aed ,in order to display such a large amount of energy1 shipbuilding must have developed with us in an extraordinary way4 ,the proof of this is found in the works of ,nicolas ,witsen 7#afga7 and of ,van ,yk 7#afig74 ,hence our naval architecture enjoyed an unheard of prosperity at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aee ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aef ,in order to form an idea of the perfection of design which our naval architecture had reached toward the middle of the same century1 it is enough to consult1 in our album1 the photographic reproductions of a few drawings made by ,m4 ,van ,gent in #agej1 #agea1 #ageb1 the originals of which belong to the remarkable collection of engravings of ,m4 ,s4 ,van ,gyn1 at ,dordrecht1 as well as the copy of a war ship of #aggj which appears in the collection of colored drawings4 ,these documents reproduce faithfully the ships with their water lines4 ,but what attracts attention most particularly is the following inscription which is very legible in the drawing of the war ship of #agej3 ,property of ,admiral ,schryver4 ,this admiral is the one who wrote in #agec that the shipbuilders1 and especially those who built the ships of war of the ,state during the period extending from #afhc to #agec1 were scarcely more than ordinary ship carpenters2 that they had no theoretical knowledge1 were guided only by experience and1 in certain respects1 were on the same level as the master carpenters of ,zaandam who1 in the face of a failure1 had offered as an excuse that 8the boat had not let itself be shaped otherwise with an axe04 ,admiral ,schryver refers1 in support of what he says1 to various war vessels which were less successful1 and among them he mentions1 in the first place1 five three-deck ships built between #afhc and #afhi1 the first1 it should be said1 which our builders had turned out4 ,no one can be surprised that these vessels did come fully up to what was expected6 ,and if later1 better ones were built1 it merely proves that our builders had succeeded in solving the great problem of turning out strong ships of which the draught had to be limited1 on account of the depth in our passes and rivers4 ,still later1 imperfections had to be noted2 but that does not show1 by any means1 incapacity on the part of our builders4 ,it happens even in these times1 both at home and abroad1 that the best yards launch vessels which are not up to their best work or which may need changes4 ,admiral ,schryver's complaint 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #aaf7 denouncing the incapacity of our constructors seems to be neither founded nor deserved4 ,it is a question here of a headstrong naval officer1 imbued with his own ideas and holding only contempt for those of others 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #aaf71 rather than a man thoroughly conversant with our naval architecture4 ,still1 as it has been shown further back1 it was not alone during the time of the ,grand ,pensionary ,jean ,de ,witt1 and of the illustrious ,colbert1 as ,de ,jonge tells us 7,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #abj71 that foreigners came to learn shipbuilding from us2 much later still1 in #aghj1 ,france sent her sons to our yards and it is assumed that it was only under the reign of ,louis ,,xvi 7#aggd-agic71 that the ,french navy could throw off ,dutch influence entirely4 ,our country followed attentively1 however1 the progress made in ,france and ,england in the art of naval construction1 as is testified to by the translation of ,du ,hamel du ,monceau's work 7appeared in #ageg71 and the passage therein contained announcing1 for later on1 a translation of the work of ,mungo ,murray1 the famous builder of the shipyard at ,deptford4 ,it is not known whether this latter translation ever saw the light1 all the same1 it is clear to my mind1 from what precedes1 that works appearing abroad were read by us4 ,it has been shown that drawing was used in connection with shipbuilding at the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,hence shipbuilders had broken with the old ,dutch method of being guided by lines drawn by ribbands4 ,the lowest gun ports of ships were placed too near the water2 complaint was first made against this by us4 ,the same complaint was soon heard in ,england where the situation was not remedied1 however1 until the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 when the ,french builders were copied4 7,holmes1 p4 #abf74 ,a certain amount of time went by before ,great ,britain adopted the improvements made in shipbuilding by the ,french4 ,mr4 de ,jonge1 relying on foreign quotations1 states that the ,czar ,peter-the-,great seems to have learned shipbuilding1 properly so called1 in ,england4 ,fincham1 the historian1 even relates 7,history of naval architecture1 p4 #fi7 that the ,czar ,peter preferred ,english to ,dutch construction4 ,mr4 ,koenen remarks1 in regard to this1 that this preference could1 at most1 only have had to do with war ships4 ,be this as it may1 it is settled that ,peter-the-,great resorted1 all the same1 to ,dutch vessels1 builders and seamen to form his fleet which1 three years before his death1 included #da men-of-war carrying #bajf guns and #ad1ijj men1 which made the ,swedes say 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,,ii1 p4 #aeb1 and ,m4 ,koenen1 pp4 #ic-ie73 8,we see nothing ,muscovitish about the ,muscovite fleet unless it be the flag4 ,we have to fight a ,dutch fleet1 commanded by ,dutchmen1 manned by ,dutch seamen and spitting out ,dutch powder from ,dutch guns04 ,it may be asked then whether the ,peter-the-,great would really have called on the ,dutch builders if he had been able to find better among the ,english4 ,what explanation is to be made as to why our shipbuilders were abandoned about the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century8 ,the size of ships was constantly increasing in ,england and in ,france2 and the fleets of foreign powers were ever becoming stronger1 while in our country1 the shallowness of passes1 rivers and ports1 prevented the construction of ships which1 by their size1 could vie with those of other lands4 7,van ,yk1 p4 #ad74 ,all the writers of the period point out this situation of which the realness has been shown by means of a few figures4 ,the disadvantage resulting from the relative shallowness of the ,dutch passes was felt as far back as the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 and this disadvantage could only become more marked as time went on4 ,meanwhile1 the necessity of building more powerful ships1 carrying as many as #ij to #ie guns1 became a matter of serious importance4 ,in order to avoid drawing too much water1 it became necessary to make the ships fuller1 but this also made them heavier and poorer sailers1 consequently they were but poor fighting instruments in the hands of our brave admirals4 ,is it then to be wondered at that the latter complained about them bitterly8 ,in spite of all our courage1 the shallowness of our approaches to the sea1 to say nothing of the financial situation1 made us yield before the foreigner4 ,this inferiority is wrongly blamed on the ,dutch shipbuilders of the day4 ,naturally1 many of them held on for a long time to the old ways1 as is shown by ,du ,hamel du ,monceau1 in the following terms at page #bhg of his work3 8,the habit of copying mechanically and servilely what was done in the past1 has produced all these rules of proportions observed in determining the main frame1 the description of models and their designs40 ,and this author adds this interesting detail3 8,every ship-carpenter kept these rules as a family secret04 ,the ,dutch builders had no affection for the pen2 ,witsen himself has already called attention to this2 they were afraid of publishing their secrets1 lest they might see their work carried off by others4 ,it was only a few years ago that an engineer engaged in shipbuilding refused to let me see the drawings of one of his ships2 he too feared lest his models should be imitated4 ,how1 then1 could it be expected that ships should already be built according to scientific rules1 at the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 when in ,france1 which was ahead of all other nations in the matter1 these rules were not taken up until #agdj8 ,le ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre says in speaking of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century3 8,it 7the vessel7 is built in accordance with scientific principles which began to become known in #afig1 but which scarcely date from before #agdj and which bring about a great resemblance among the ships of all countries so soon as they are intended for navigating the high seas1 as originality no longer exists except for coasting vessels attached to their own shores40 7,see1 among others1 ,m4 ,bongeur1 #agdf1 ,,xxiii47 ,it was not1 then1 attachment to tradition1 but the natural condition of our passes which kept us from building vessels of war as good as those built abroad4 ,this is what ,mr4 ,de ,jonge forgets1 while at the same time he attaches too little weight to practice1 which still enjoys1 even in our time1 a great authority even in the matter of shipbuilding4 ,so this honorable writer arrives necessarily at forming1 in regard to our builders of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 an unfavorable and undeserved judgment4 ,the decline of shipbuilding along the 8,zaan01 for example1 was not the consequence of the ignorance of our builders2 this cause must be attributed above all to the silting up of the river and of the mouth of the ,,ij4 ,this occurrence no longer allowed ships of any importance to be taken to sea except at great cost and trouble4 7,loosjes1 ,de ,zaandamsche dorpen1 p4 #aid4--,m4 ,koenen1 p4 #ie47 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ae ,in order to bring out the difference existing between the ,french and ,english styles and the ,dutch style1 ,i have placed on one plate of my album the various main frames4 ,this drawing is sufficiently eloquent by itself1 still1 ,i must once more call attention1 in passing1 to the differences which distinguish these various styles4 ,these differences existed at first in the shape and composition of the main frames2 then1 the ,english vessels had less sheer1 were less high and were not square at the stern4 7,van ,yk1 p4 #ag47 ,the ,english seem also to have used crossed riders1 instead of stanchions with vertical faces1 to save working2 but this process was considered less practical from the point of view of stowage4 7,van ,yk1 p4 #ag and figure ,a1 p4 #ah47 ,they gave their ships loof 7,witsen1 p4 #abf7 and broad sides 78dick in den buik01 as ,witsen says on p4 #bjg71 the reverse of what was done for the ,dutch vessels4 8,the ,dutch ships01 says ,holmes 7p4 #aaj71 8excelled all others in one respect3 that they were the first in which the absurd practice of an exaggerated tumble home or contraction of the upper deck was abandoned4 ,this fashion01 he said further on1 8was still carried out to a very great extent by the ,english and to a less extent by the ,french and ,spaniards04 ,holmes speaks also of the light draught of our vessels4 ,he expresses himself on this subject as follows on page #aaa of his work3 8,in consequence of the shallowness of the ,dutch harbours1 the draught of their ships was also considerably less than that of the ,english vessels of corresponding force04 ,the ,english had at their disposal docks for the construction of their ships 7,witsen1 p4 #bjf1 column ,i472 they used neither ribands nor shores4 ,before laying down their ships1 says ,van ,yk 7p4 #ai71 they so prepared the models as to give them the shape desired4 ,for this purpose1 and before starting construction1 they laid out the frames at full size on a floor4 ,this process was1 therefore1 born in ,england4 ,the laying out of the full scale drawings was only adopted with us at the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,before this time1 only models and ribands were used in our country1 as is still the present practice for building the smaller wooden vessels and many fishing boats4 ,this new method1 however1 was not introduced without trouble2 and the more so as there was doubt of success in applying it to the ,dutch ships1 which1 as ,van ,yk says 7p4 #ai71 8had rounded sides1 to allow them to glide over the water1 and sharper angles than the ,english ships0 which had a more regular contour4 ,the ,swedes and ,danes followed the ,dutch method in the main4 7,van ,yk1 p4 #bj47 ,their navy was copied after ours 7,de ,jonge71 but their ships were not so full and drew more4 ,the honor of having endowed the shipbuilding art with scientific principles belongs wholly to the ,french4 ,all the nations1 even the ,dutch and the ,english borrowed these principles from them about the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,it was however only at the end of this century that the ,french method for calculating and designing ships forced its way everywhere4 ,the ,netherlands1 in addition to their war fleet proper1 had a very large merchant marine4 7,koenen1 p4 #ij47 ,this latter it is said1 included1 at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 #bj1jjj vessels which had all been built in ,holland and1 flying the ,dutch colors1 furrowed the seas in all directions4 ,at the end of this century1 when we must have already lost many of our over-seas possessions1 the total tonnage of the ,english merchant marine amounted to #ejj1jjj tons2 that of our country was #ijj1jjj tons1 and all other nations together had #b1jjj1jjj tons4 7,groen van ,pinsteren1 ,handboek1 #cjc4--,koenen1 p4 #afj47 ,our merchantmen obtained quickly a great perfection4 ,full proof of this can be found in the observations made by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh 7#aeeb-afah7 about the ,dutch ships1 in which1 as he remarks1 a large amount of freight could be stowed while1 at the same time1 they required a smaller crew than that found necessary for the ,english ships4 7,koenen1 p4 #hf47 ,our merchant vessels1 among which especially 8flutes0 were met with1 were copied by the ,english and ,french4 ,flutes were used preferentially as freight carriers4 ,the following1 for example1 is found in ,le ,muse de ,marine du ,louvre3 8,the navy has always had transports for supplying squadrons2 they were called at first flutes or transports and later were known as corvettes de charge04 ,in order to give an idea of the number of vessels in use at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 ,i have given below a few figures taken from ,mr ,koenen's work1 p4 #afj1 which he1 in his turn1 has borrowed from 8,van ,hoogendorp4--,bijdragen tot de huishouding van den ,staat04 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahc47 ,in #aghc1 there were in the provinces of ,north ,holland and ,friesland3 #ej flutes of #djj1 #dej and #ejj lasts 7#a last #b tons7 sailing to ,norway and the ,baltic ,sea1 as well as for ,france and ,spain2 #cj flutes of #bej to #bhj lasts2 #ah flutes of #afj to #ahj lasts frequenting the port of ,archangel1 the ,mediterranean and the ,west ,indies and having served originally for the ,greenland fisheries2 then #af craft of #afj to #ahj lasts and #hj howkers or galliots1 of which #ac were of #cjj to #cej lasts1 #ah from #bdj to #bhj1 #ab from #bjj to #bbj1 #ag from #afj to #ahj and #bj from to #aej1 which sailed to ,archangel1 the ,baltic1 the ,mediterranean and the ,west ,indies4 ,there were also1 #fj frigates 8snauwen0 and brigantines1 of which #aj of #aej to #bjj lasts2 #cj from #ajj to #adj and #bj from #gj to #ij lasts2 #e 8hekbootschepen0 of #bjj to #cjj lasts and #adj vessels including howkers1 frigates 8snauwen0 and brigantines varying from #fj to #cjj lasts4 ,finally there were still #cf vessels frequenting the ,east and ,west ,indies1 #aej 8kuffs0 and smacks of #ej to #gj lasts1 #ij 8kuffs0 and galliots of #gj to #ajj lasts and1 at the end1 #abj galliots1 7howkers7 and 8kuffs0 of #ajj to #aej lasts2 in all1 #hai vessels4 ,there should be added to this number1 for ,leeuwarden3 #bj 8kuffs0 and 8smacks0 varying from #ej to #ajj lasts and over2 for ,groningen1 #cj vessels of #ej to #gj lasts2 for ,harlingen1 #i vessels of #ajj to #aej lasts1 #a of #ahj1 and #c from #bjj to #cjj lasts2 for ,makkum1 #ad ships of #fj to #ajj lasts and over2 for ,workum1 #b of #fj to #gj1 #bd of #hj to #ajj and #bc of #ajj lasts and more4 ,bolsward1 ,woudsend1 ,drylst1 ,dokkum1 ,sneek1 ,grouwsloten1 etc41 counted together #cj ships of #ej to #gj lasts2 #dj of #gj to #ajj and #ej of #ajj lasts and above4 ,finally1 ,lemmer had #dj vessels of #ej to #ajj lasts and upward4 ,there were also a large number of vessels of less importance1 such as hoys1 etc4 having a carrying capacity of #bj to #cj lasts1 and a not smaller quantity of fishing boats1 which were not included in the above figures4 ,there is found thus a total of about #aaje vessels exclusive of small boats4 ,but it was not the mere number of ships which was large2 there existed at the same time1 as could be seen by the different denominations1 a great variety of types of ships4 ,merchant vessels1 in particular1 will be taken up in the next chapter4 ,but1 before leaving the ships of war1 let it be once more remarked that1 from the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 our country had its frigates4 ,this type of ship was unknown among us before this time1 but circumstances had forced its use in the end4 ,the inhabitants of ,dunkirk had caused us heavy losses2 from #afca to #afcg1 they had captured at ,maassluis more than two-hundred fishing vessels valued at over a million florins4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cgc47 ,in order to carry on their piracies with greater impunity1 they had obtained from the ,mediterranean a ship of fine lines which1 although not large 7it carried only #f to #ab guns71 was none the less a fine sailer2 it was the frigate4 ,in order to struggle more effectively against the inhabitants of ,dunkirk1 we too began to build the vessel in question and their number increased rapidly under the urgent advice of our great ,admiral ,tromp4 7,de ,jonge1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #chh and #chi47 ,later on they were built of larger size4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ah ,as has just been said the frigate was imported into ,france by the inhabitants of ,dunkirk2 thence it passed into ,england1 in #agda1 7,holmes1 p4 #aba72 all the same1 this latter country had already had some of smaller size in #afdf4 ,the frigates played an important part in the ,anglo-,american war4 ,fire was one of the greatest enemies of wooden ships4 ,hence recourse was had to this element from the earliest times1 in order to destroy an enemy's fleet4 ,it was not enough to throw burning pitch2 more effective means were invented and the ,ancients were already using fireboats to set fire to the hostile fleet4 ,time will not be wasted in conjectures about the fireships of the ,ancients1 which could only have been ordinary vessels4 ,a summary description will rather be given of those used in the ,x,v,i,ith century they being the only ones mentioned in ,witsen's well known work1 pp4 #aff and #afg4 ,vessels of rather small size acted as fireboats1 preferentially flutes or pinnaces4 ,later1 8spiegelschepen0 of #gj or #hj lasts were used4 ,these vessels had a smooth continuous deck in which were made holes having an area of about #a4e square feet4 ,a trough starting from the poop ran forward for the entire length of the vessel1 with side troughs leading athwartships1 in a word1 a train was formed which would let the fire run easily and quickly throughout the ship4 ,for this purpose1 the troughs were filled with a mixture composed half of gunpowder by volume1 quarter of saltpetre and the remaining quarter made up of equal parts of resin and sulphur1 the whole mixed with a little linseed oil4 ,the troughs thus filled were covered with shavings which1 in their turn1 disappeared under faggots of light branches soaked in a mixture of resin1 cod-liver oil1 powder and saltpetre4 ,in addition to this1 the vessel was filled with other inflammable materials2 the deck and the inside walls were smeared with grease and covered with a layer of finely powdered resin4 ,sometimes the fireships were loaded with open barrels filled with shavings soaked in tar4 ,special care was also taken that all ports and hatches should be left open so as to give plenty of draught4 ,in order more surely to have the fireship catch the enemy's vessel1 strong grapnels were attached to the end of the bowsprit and to the ends of the yards2 these grapnels could be detached by means of ropes laid along the ship4 ,in order to deceive the enemy and to save appearances1 quaker guns were stationed in the ports4 ,two iron guns only were placed aft for defence against attacks4 ,a large trap was made in the poop to allow the crew to quit the vessel1 after having lighted the fire and let go the grapnels1 and to get away in a launch attached to the fireship underneath the trap4 ,the service with fireships was naturally a perilous task1 so only the bravest men were selected for this duty and they1 on account of the great danger incurred1 received double pay4 ,in case of need1 the fireships were started straight at the enemy1 so that the latter's ship was taken face on and not by the side4 ,under these conditions1 the rigging of the two vessels became entangled at once and it became impossible then to separate them4 ,the fireships were only old ships as a rule1 yet new vessels were sometimes employed1 for the construction of which1 as ,witsen says1 8a very ordinary1 very light and very inflammable wood was used40 ,externally the fireships did not differ from ordinary vessels2 anything else would not have been practical1 because the enemy would have recognized them at once under these conditions4 ,their crew was as few in numbers as possible and every precaution was taken to allow it to leave the vessel as soon as the latter was well on fire and had reached the desired point4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aeh ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aja ,the changes made in our war ships during the ,x,i,xth century are sufficiently well known2 consequently it will not be necessary to dwell on them4 ,nothing more will be said than this3 that the sheer of these vessels became less1 that the stem and the sternpost approached more nearly the vertical and that the old ornaments disappeared almost entirely4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #afe ,toward the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 the rounded shape of the stern was adopted1 according to the ,english fashion4 ,it was the death blow to the old square stern ship1 but already1 long before that1 it had been called ship of war4 ,this new denomination changed nothing in its construction4 ,our shipbuilding had gone to pieces under the ,french occupation1 and the continental blockade completed the ruin4 ,still1 toward the end of the first half of the ,x,i,xth century it succeeded in reviving4 ,it is true that in #ahbd only three ships1 measuring in all #addj tons1 were built2 but1 in #ahbg1 this number had already gone up to #ei vessels with a total tonnage of #ai1geh tons4 ,these data relate only to vessels of more than #ajj tons4 7,koenen1 p4 #aja47 ,in #ahec1 says ,m4 ,koenen1 there were in the province of ,groningen #hi shipyards for both inland and ocean navigation4 ,in ,friesland1 there were large yards at ,harlingen and at ,lemmen devoted exclusively to the construction of sea-going vessels4 ,in ,north ,holland1 ocean shipping was under construction at ,amsterdam1 ,medenblik1 ,monnickendam1 ,muiden and ,nieuwendam4 ,shipbuilding was flourishing at ,rotterdam1 ,schiedam1 ,alblasserdam and ,dordrecht4 ,in this same year1 #ahec1 adds the author above named1 #abe ships built in our country were registered1 and our merchant marine included #aiga vessels with a total tonnage of #bbd1dcb lasts 7 #ddh1hfd tons74 ,steam1 too1 had appeared among us during the first half of the ,x,i,xth century and sailing vessels for this reason were relegated to the background4 ,the adoption of iron for the frames of ships also brought about great changes2 but the importance of this new material was not everywhere sufficiently taken into account1 and many shipyards which continued to hold to building in wood underwent a rapid decline4 ,others1 on the contrary1 which had taken up iron construction from the moment of its appearance1 became largely prosperous and contributed greatly toward maintaining the ancient fame of our naval architecture4 ,the first iron ship turned out in the ,netherlands was built by ,fop ,smit1 who appears also to have been the inventor of iron masts4 ,the first ,dutch steamboats were built at ,feyenoord 7#ahcd-ahce7 in the yard which now belongs to the ,society of ,naval and ,mechanical ,constructions4 7,see ,gedenkboek ,kon1 ,instituut van ,ingenieurs1 p4 #bji1 etc47 ,the revolution wrought by the introduction of steel in the construction of war ships is sufficiently well known2 but these vessels have lost all character of their own and they can no longer be recognized except by the flag which they fly4 ,such is the present situation for ocean navigation1 and such will also be the situation for inland navigation4 ,here too steel has been adopted for the construction of the frames of vessels1 and the old forms are passing away to give place to types which will soon be in general use4 ,but1 when that time comes1 river boats will also have lost all national character and search will be made in vain to know what were the characteristics of the past4 ,and yet1 in spite of the uniformity which even now exists1 the vessels which ,holland has turned out can still always be recognized by their solid and elegant forms4 ,and may it thus ever be2 may our builders ever carry higher the fair fame of ,dutch naval construction2 and may ,dutch capital also continue to second them and to understand that the strength of our land lies in a flourishing marine4 ,but the latter needs in its turn excellent lines of communication2 the ,x,i,xth century1 as we all know1 has seen the rise of new communications by water and the improvement of the old lines2 the obstacles1 arising from insufficient depth in the channels leading to our commercial centres1 have disappeared1 and it has become possible for us to compete with foreign nations in the arena of the construction of large ships4 ,illustration ,,footnotes3 #d ,the ,dutch marine owes its prosperity not to the beauty of form of its ships1 but to the value of its limited personnel1 to the sobriety of its seamen and to the innate cleanliness of the ,dutch people4 #e ,on this point1 they 7the ,english7 openly defy all other nations and believe themselves to be unequaled on the ground of shipbuilding4 #f ,western ,influence on the ,cultivation1 ,mode of living and ,agriculture of the ,children of the ,north 7,norwegians and other ,scandinavians7 in the ,time of the 8,vikings01 by ,alexander ,bugge4 #g ,it is the opinion of most authors that the ,frisians have the honor of having made shipbuilding flourish again in the ,netherlands4 #h 8,how cogs were built in the past1 and how much they have changed with the passage of time1 just as in our day 7the time of the writer7 furthermore1 the shape of ships is seen to be undergoing constant modifications40 7,p4 #cfd47 #i ,the statie was a sort of secondary bulwark at the stern1 rising quite high above the rail4 ,the tiller swung from side to side in an opening made in the bottom plank of the statie and above the rail at the stern4 #aj ,the 8arcasse0 includes the sternpost and the transoms4 ,it belongs to square-sterned vessels only4 #aa ,the best and surest means of avoiding a too great draught of water consists in widening the ships4 ,an endeavor should be made to realize this programme1 seeing how shallow our passes are4 ,according to the opinion of experienced pilots who have sounded the passes conscientiously1 it is not possible to bring ships drawing more than #bj feet through the 8,goeree0 pass1 or ships drawing about an equal amount through the ,texel1 or more than #ac feet through the ,meuse4 ,this is why it has happened more than once that war vessels of the ,state1 of fine lines and deeply ballasted so as to facilitate manuvering under sail1 could not gain the open sea at low tide or in calm weather1 to the great detriment of the country1 while outside1 the lowest tier of guns could not be used because it was too near the water4 #ab ,several years ago1 by reason of the shallowness of our rivers and passes1 an attempt was made1 so far as it was possible1 to raise our large1 deep draught ships by means of empty casks1 so that they could reach the open sea4 ,but this process required an infinite time and great labor just to put the casks into place4 #ac 8,the vessel which sails to the ,west or the ,south shall have the bow covered with copper to protect it against the teredo04 ,illustration3 #c ,it was seen in the preceding chapter that it was not until the second half of the ,x,v,i,ith century that the construction of vessels of war1 as such1 was begun in ,holland4 ,up to that moment merchant ships were equipped and used for military purposes4 ,in proportion as commerce developed and as dangers from enemies at sea increased1 the armament of merchant ships became more and more important4 ,so1 personal interest was the cause of partially equipping merchantmen as men of war4 ,it was for this reason that the ,east ,india ,company built ships which may be considered as types of the kind4 ,consequently it was just the largest merchant vessels which were most changed as time rolled by4 ,the old types are1 therefore1 no longer found in this category of vessels2 it is among the small craft that they are best preserved4 ,the oldest type of ,dutch ship is the 8,koggeschip0 7,cog7 from which are descended the 8,krayers0 and 8,hulken04 ,these vessels are all clinker built4 ,the 8,barges01 8,baertsen01 etc4 appeared in the ,x,vth century4 ,their planking was smooth4 ,they gradually drove out the 8,krayers0 and 8,hulken01 from which they really differed little in form4 ,at the end of the ,x,vth century are found the 8,kraak0 7carack or galleon7 which came to us from the nations of the ,south1 just as we took from them the 8,spiegelschip0 7a square-sterned vessel7 at the close of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,the names of 8,barges01 etc4 now give place to the 8,koffen0 7koffs7 and 8,smakken0 7smacks72 but the old forms do not disappear by reason of this fact2 the same types of vessels merely change their name as the result of a few changes in details4 ,it is thus that of the 8,tjalken0 7tialks71 which are not mentioned by ,witsen although they existed in his day and were then called 8,smalschepen0 or 8,wijdschepen04 ,several other examples of this sort could be given4 ,the likeness of form is even so striking that1 at the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century1 our fleet still showed perfectly the types of ,witsen's time4 ,the changes introduced were merely those of detail4 ,in examining the old types1 which are now still in use1 it is well not to lose sight of the fact that our ships have1 during the ,x,i,xth century1 increased greatly their length and beam and proportionally also their draught as the result of the improvements of our navigable highways and the digging of new channels4 ,the result of this has been the falling off of certain types1 to which the appearance of iron in shipbuilding has also largely contributed4 ,for other types1 the improvement of the navigable highways and the creation of ports have brought about their complete disappearance4 ,thus the construction of the 8,bommenhaven0 will soon have1 as its consequence1 the total disappearance of the old 8,bommen0 of which more will be said further on 7fishing boats74 ,the smaller boats will give1 under these conditions1 the best idea of the old forms1 and1 as has been seen in what precedes1 the most beautiful specimens will be found among the fishing boats4 ,the fishing vessels best reveal the origin of the forms of our ships1 so a special chapter will be devoted to this kind of craft4 ,it has been seen that the essential difference between merchant ships and men-of-war was marked by the narrow deck of the former which allowed the size of the crew to be reduced 7,witsen1 pp4 #ed1 #bfc1 #bff71 and it has been told that the ,dutch were always quoted as examples in this matter4 ,it is thus that the 8,vliebooten0 7flyboats7 appeared1 the precursors of the 8,fluiten0 7flutes71 which are known in ,england by the name of the 8,dutch ,flight04 ,trips both to northern and southern countries give rise to changes from which are developed a great number of types of boats all of which are derived1 however1 from a same fundamental type4 ,witsen writes on this subject 7page #ec74 8,noortsche deelhaelders laeden het meest wanneer na den vierkante hellen1 kooren schepen en die op stukgoederen aenleggen1 als ze rondtachtig zijn en veel springen4 ,oost en ,noortsvaerders die grove waeren laeden zijn grooter in 't gemeen als die stukgoederen wijnen en diergelijke laeden gelijk ook de zouthaelders0#ad4 ,these are all variations of a same type of vessel4 ,when the size of ships increased1 it was necessary to make them still more bulging on account of the limited depth of the arms of the sea1 and this brought about the disappearance of differences in the fundamental forms4 ,thus we read in ,van ,yk 7page #cdh74 8,maar als men hiertegen aanmerkt dat wegens de doorgaans ondiepe gronden en lastvoerens wil alle schepen van tijd tot tijd vierkanter werden gebouwd sulks dat heden desen aangaande niet so veel onderscheid tusschen d'een en d'andere soort van schepen als wel voor dezen gevonden werd4 ,want een hedendaags welgebouwde kaag sal in ,lasten te voeren 't ,smalschip dat in ,lengte1 ,wijdte en ,holte daaraan gelijk is1 weinig wijken willen4 ,en de ,damschuit die wel gemaakt is sal den ,damlooper bijna ook evenaren konnen40#ae ,the narrow deck of merchant vessels had still another origin which referred to the way of gauging vessels and gave rise to the construction of strongly bulging ships4 ,witsen says 7p4 #afj7 on this point3 8,het uitbreecken deser schepen 7,noortsvaerders7 voor en achter bracht hier in den schipper profijt aan dat ze vele goederen meer stouden als de maat der schepen hielt40#af ,this applies especially to boats going to load wood or grain at the ,baltic ports1 on account of the tolls which had to be paid to the ,king of ,denmark1 tolls of which the amount was determined by the treaty of #afdg1 by calculating the capacity of the vessel in terms of the length1 the beam on deck and the depth of hold4 ,but1 when this treaty was modified in #afff1 this unsightly way of building and this exaggerated bulging gradually disappeared 7werd dit mismaekt bouwen en geweldigh uitspringen achterwege gelaten74 7,witsen1 p4 #afj47 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #af ,nevertheless1 the construction of large numbers of merchant ships with narrow decks was still persisted in and1 even at the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century1 8,fluitschepen0 7flutes7 are still met with4 ,a beautiful model of one of these 8,dutch ,flights0 exists at the museum of antiquities at ,dordrecht4 ,the greater bulging of merchant vessels kept pace with the straightening of the sternpost and stem4 ,on another side1 the idea that the volume of the submerged part of a vessel should be reduced to a minimum1 was abandoned toward the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adi ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aec ,the straightening of the sternpost brought about the shortening of the beakhead which1 at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 measured one-fifth of the total length of the vessel and only one-eighth of this length at its end4 ,this difference is clearly seen by comparing the ,zierikzee model with that of the 8,bleijswijk04 ,the beakhead1 which had come down to us from ancient times 7,van ,yk1 p4 #ajc71 was used only 8als ,heimelijke gevoeg-plaatsen0 7as a ,w4 ,c47 for the crew1 and those who had been guilty of some unimportant misdemeanor were also shut up there1 as ,van ,yk says 7p4 #ajd71 8des devotie des overspelenden zeewaters0 7at the mercy of the waves74 ,fire was the great enemy of our merchant ships4 ,the stoppage of leaks was also more difficult for these vessels than for men-of-war because it was impossible1 as a rule1 on the former to reach the leak from the inside and through the cargo4 ,water tight bulkheads did not exist1 but1 for all that1 the stoppage of the leak was none the less indispensable4 ,witsen tells us how it was all handled 7p4 #bgf71 and1 after explaining how a fire was put out1 he continues thus3 8,wanneer een geschoten gat onder water van binnen niet gestopt kan worden1 hetzij den last in den weg is of anderzins1 wordt een man buiten boord met een prop in de hant op een plankje gezet1 daar een dreg aan vast is1 die hem onder water haalt4 ,en aldus stopt of dekt hij de opening4 ,men geeft hem een geoliede lap in den mont on het water uit het lichaem te weeren0#ag4 ,before going on to the classification1 properly so called1 of the principal categories of vessels which have just been sketched out1 a few more remarks1 about the ship in general and a few details in particular1 should be made4 ,the old builders of wooden vessels determined the ship's length by the work for which it was intended4 ,this length was measured from the forward side of the stem to the after side of the sternpost4 ,the beam and the depth were deduced from the length2 the beam being taken equal to one-fourth of the length1 and for the depth1 one foot was taken for each #aj feet of length1 at the point where the vessel's height was least4 ,it was only for esthetic reasons that the sternpost was made higher than the stem4 ,when the keel was laid down1 the sternpost and the stem put up1 the wing transom was made fast to the fashion timbers1 then the main frame and the frame at the junction of the stem were reared4 ,another frame was raised between the main frame and the sternpost4 8,centen0 7thin flexible boards1 called ribands in ,english7 were then made fast to these frames so as to determine in this way the shape of the ship and to deduce therefrom the other frames4 ,according to ,van ,yk 7p4 #gg71 these boards are not called 8centen01 but 8certen01 because the form of the vessel is fixed by means of these boards and made 8certain04 ,other authors pretend that the word comes from 8,kanten0 or 8,kenten0 from the word 8bekendheid0 7knowledge74 ,the shape of the ship was thus determined by trial after having settled1 in the first place1 on the main frame and the length4 ,the smaller the vessel1 the more sheer it had and the more ribands were required exactly to determine its shape4 ,on the other hand it was customary to give the ship some sheer 7zeegte71 that is3 to make it higher at the ends than at the middle4 ,this sheer was obtained1 after setting the ribands1 by means of sheerstrakes of which the fastening was begun at the lowest point of the height of the ship4 ,these sheerstrakes rose forward at the rate of #a inch for every #f feet of length1 and aft at the rate of #e inches for every #f feet4 ,the wales which served to protect the ship were laid according to the sheerstrakes4 ,the sheer in large vessels 7spiegelschepen7 was gradually reduced and the effort was made insensibly to build ships with a flat deck in imitation of ,england and later of ,america4 ,the sheer still exists in boats for inland waters1 like the 8,tjalken01 8,poonen01 etc4 ,only one wale or bend is used for small vessels1 the larger ones1 such as the 8,tjalken0 and 8,smakken0 require three bends superposed4 ,it is noticed1 as a rule1 that the bends became lighter in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 just as did the sternpost and the stem4 ,the engravings which show boats prior to #aejj1 show also several equidistant bends1 and it was only at the end of the ,x,v,ith century that the single bends of later days are seen to appear4 ,moreover1 it is certain that the improvement of the navigable highways was one of the causes of the lighter construction of ships4 ,these old engravings show that the planking is in very short pieces so as to avoid marked curves2 but1 in order to give1 all the same1 sufficient stiffness to the vessel1 many bends became necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ach ,in the old shipbuilding1 where the pieces of the planking nailed together clinker ways make the construction more solid1 the bends were exceptional4 ,the old 8,koggeschepen0 7,cogs71 for example1 had none1 but the reproduction of a small boat preserved at the church at ,diemer shows them4 ,these wales are then supported by round wooden brackets which are still found in a few old 8,poonen04 ,in the matter of the wales1 the rule was that when the vessel was seen from in front they seemed to be convex1 with the convexity on top1 whereas1 seen from the side1 they look concave1 that is1 with the convexity underneath4 ,it has been said in what precedes that the method of ribands 78centen07 was abandoned for large ships1 about the middle of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 and that1 after that time1 work was done from sketches in putting up the frames and in building the ship4 ,the rudder was handled by means of a tiller1 and on large vessels this is often held up by a piece of wood 7luierwagen7 which is still seen on many small inland vessels4 ,in order readily to work the tiller of large vessels1 a hole was cut in the poop deck immediately over the free end of the tiller in its middle position4 ,a lever passed upward through this hole and was hung on a pivot of which the axis lay fore and aft4 ,the lower end of the lever was attached to the free end of the tiller while the upper end was loose4 ,by swinging the top of the lever to one side or the other of the ship1 a corresponding motion was given to the tiller and so to the rudder4 ,this manuvre was1 naturally1 not easy in heavy weather and required assistance4 ,a pulley1 around which ran a rope or steering line having one end made fast to the tiller1 was set in the deck so as better to operate the rudder4 7,witsen1 p4 #bgd1 #b;d column47 ,this rope1 which was served by two men1 formed with the pulley the precursor of the steering wheel which appeared on the continent in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 after having been already in use in ,england1 as certain authors try to make out4 ,it is claimed sometimes that the rudder could only swing a little to either side4 ,this1 however1 is a mistake4 ,witsen says1 as a matter of fact1 p4 #eh3 8,the greater the swing of the rudder1 the harder is the manuvre04 ,it is evident that ,witsen would have said nothing about the swing if it had been small4 ,it follows clearly from the quotation from ,van ,yk 7p4 #aba7 in regard to the 8luierwagens0 that the helmsman must have put forth a great deal of strength3 8,hij 7de luierwagen7 diend om de ,roerpen1 aan 't vooreinde t' ondersteunen nademaal deze1 wegens deszelfs langte1 om sig selven te dragen immers om 't geweld dat de man te ,roer daaraan verrichten moet1 uit te staan2 al te zwak soude wezen0#ah4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,bouguer 7#agdf7 says in his work1 p4 #hc1 8that the rudder should make with the prolongation of the keel an angle of about #ee #dd1 etc404 ,hence it is incorrect to say that the swing of the rudder could only reach a few degrees4 7,paris1 vol4 #d1 p4 #bba47 ,furthermore1 vessels should be able to come about more quickly in our rivers1 with their narrow channels and small depth of water1 hence the rudder should be able to swing more than a few degrees4 ,on small inland boats1 the rudder is frequently lengthened on reaching shallow water4 ,this elongation was made by means of an isolated board or a movable part 7,van ,yk1 p4 #bba71 a thing which happens still very often at the present time4 ,if the tiller can be turned entirely above the bulwarks1 which is called in ,dutch 8geen statie voeren0 7without statie71 the vessel is said to have a draai over boord in contradistinction to vessels with 8statie04 ,the 8statie0 means the part of the bulwarks which rises above the tiller#ai4 ,the tiller passes in this case through an opening in the 8statie01 which prevents the rudder being brought hard over4 ,the length of the lee-boards is taken at twice the depth of the hold4 ,as many rivers and lakes are lacking in depth1 the length of the lee-boards is reduced for inland vessels1 in order to prevent them from touching bottom1 consequently their width was increased4 ,the lee-boards for the ocean and for the rivers of ,zealand are long and narrow4 ,new modifications were made in the rigging of vessels toward the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,the small bowsprit disappeared in order to make place for the fore-masts which have remained in use since that time4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ade etc4 ,the rigging of the large vessels is sufficiently well known4 ,it is desired merely to dwell on the fact that fore-masts have been placed wrongly on various models of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,a vessel of which the planking is rabbetted into the stem is called a 8vaartuig04 ,the 8,aak0 7ake7 is a boat without a stem and its planking forms a plane up to the bow4 ,the planking ends then at the plane in front4 ,if this occurs for a 8,tjalk01 there is obtained what is known as an 8,aak ,tjalk04 ,when the after deck is raised so as to come up to the level of the main rail1 the vessel is said to be supplied with a 8paviljoen04 ,thus1 for example1 a 8,statiepaviljoenpoon01 is a 8poon0 with a raised deck4 ,if the after deck be not raised1 the vessel is simply a 8,statiepoon04 ,vessels can be grouped1 then1 in the following way3 ,,classification ,,of ,,ships ,i4 ,,war ,,vessels4 ,,ii4 ,,merchantmen4 ,a7 ,for over seas trade2 ,b7 ,for coasting trade and tidal streams4 ,,iii4 ,,ferries4 ,,iv4 ,,boats ,,for ,,sundry ,,uses ,,and ,,not ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,preceding ,,groups4 ,v4 ,,boats ,,frequenting ,,the ,,upper ,,parts ,,of ,,rivers 7,,bovenlanders74 ,a7 ,for the ,rhine2 ,b7 ,for the ,meuse2 ,c7 ,for the ,upper ,rhine and the basin included between the ,rhine and the ,meuse4 ,,vi4 ,,fishing ,,vessels4 ,a7 ,for deep sea fishing2 ,b7 ,for the coasting and river fisheries4 ,i4 ,,war ,,vessels4 ,in the matter of the evolution of the war ship1 properly so-called1 the reader needs merely to be referred to the preceding chapters4 ,before about #afge1 there were1 as a first war ship proper3 the ,pinasschip 7,pinace7 and later the ,spiegelschip 7a square stern ship74 ,the square sterned ,spiegel disappeared and then round sterns were again taken up1 whence resulted the war ship called ,schip van oorlog4 ,at the beginning1 this class of vessels was made up exclusively of ships with two decks4 ,at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 however1 a few types with three decks were built in the ,netherlands4 ,use was often made of the 8,fluitschip0 7flute or transport71 of ships of the ,east ,india ,company 78,oost-,indische ,compagnie schip071 of 8yachts0 78,jachten07 and of various sorts of vessels of less importance1 as auxiliary war ships1 and of tenders 78,boeier071 galliots 78,galjoot071 galeas 78,galeas071 8,bommen01 kuffs 78,koffs07 and smacks 78,smaks07 as coast defence vessels4 ,all these vessels belong rather to the category of merchant ships and will be described in the next chapter4 ,among the types imitated from abroad there may be mentioned the ,fregat 7frigate71 and later the ,brik 7brig71 the ,schooner and the ,bark4 ,,ii4 ,,merchant ,,vessels4 ,a7 ,for over seas navigation4 ,the oldest merchant ship was the cog 8,koggeschip01 from which are descended the 8,hulken0 and 8,krayers04 ,the planking of these ships is clinker laid4 ,then vessels were built with more nearly rounded bottoms and the carvel-built side appeared in the second half of the ,x,vth century4 ,the resulting type was the ,barge or 8,baertze04 ,meanwhile1 the construction of castles was begun on these ships1 just as on the old cogs4 ,these castles became gradually more important1 imitating what had been done on the ,spanish1 ,portuguese and ,genoese ships4 ,a type of vessel which1 in accordance with the ,spanish model1 carried large castles was the ,carack or ,galleon 78,kraak07 ,this vessel disappeared from our country in the course of the ,x,v,ith century1 at the end of which appeared the flyboats 78,vlie or ,vlietbooten07 called later ,flutes 78fluiten074 ,these vessels departed from the preceding types by having a marked tumble in of the topsides4 ,hence the hull was full and the deck was narrow4 ,the flutes were the merchantmen 8par excellence0 up to the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century4 ,the 8,spiegelschip0 also appeared toward the end of the ,x,v,ith century2 it acted as a merchantman in the same way as the similar vessel of the ,mediterranean4 ,this vessel was called1 at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 ,pinnace 78,pinasschip074 ,the ,pinnace became more rounded in the second half of the ,x,v,i,ith century2 it carried also a more nearly vertical stern and a smaller beakhead4 ,from it came the ,east ,india ,company's ship 78,oost-,indisch ,compagnie ,schip074 ,the flutes continued to hold their own alongside of the various types of vessels1 but changes were made to adapt them better to the use for which they were intended1 and so it was that the ,noordvaerder or ,walvischvaerder 7whaling ship7 and ,oostvaerder 7vessel of the ,baltic ,sea7 made their appearance4 ,small 8,spiegelschepen01 having a lighter rig than the others1 appeared elsewhere in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century under the name of ,rinds 78,snauschepen074 ,two other types of large fishing vessels for the open sea were built1 viz3 the howker or hoy 78,hoeker07 and the bush 78,buys07 which will be found under the chapter of fishing vessels4 ,still another ship comes to us from abroad as a merchantman3 the ,frigate1 while the ,tenders 78,boeiers0 or 8,kromstevens07 had been imitated already from models of the ,french navy4 ,these vessels appeared in the ,x,v,i,ith century as the result of the traffic with the city of ,rouen 7,witsen1 p4 #afd1 #b col474 ,from combinations of these types of vessels among each other or with smaller types have arisen certain kinds of boats called by the following names3 the 8,boot01 which was nothing but a small flute having a 8draai-over-boord0 stern2 the 8,hekboot01 derived from the pinnace and the ,galliot2 the 8,katschip0 7cat-boat71 from the tender and flute2 and finally the 8,stokker01 which had the bow of a 8,spiegelship0 with the stern of a howker4 ,let it be remarked in passing that it is hard to separate clearly navigation over seas from navigation along shore1 for even small kuffs 78koffen07 have been chartered for the ,indies in many cases4 ,the distinction made here between navigation over seas and navigation along shore bears especially on the original destination of the vessels4 ,b7 ,for navigation along shore4 ,the largest types of vessels for navigation along shore were represented by the galliot 78,galjoot07 and the galeas 78,galeas072 then by the kuff 78,kof07 and the smack 78,smak074 ,the 8,damloopers01 the 8,smalschepen0 and the ,wijdschepen as well as the 8,friesche turfschepen0 7the peat boats of ,frisia7 belonged to the family of the smacks4 ,these boats all came from a single type and differed only in some detail1 of which local needs forced the adoption4 ,the family of the smacks gave rise to the hoys 78,tjalken074 ,the hoys were found especially in ,friesland and in ,groningen4 ,in the province of ,holland1 where they underwent a few slight changes1 they were called ,schuiten4 ,in ,zealand1 their deck was narrower and they were called 8,poonen04 ,in ,north ,holland they were designated as 8,jacht0 7,yachts74 ,contrary to what was done for the 8,poon01 the bottoms of these boats were not so wide as those of the hoys4 ,on the ,belgian ,scheldt1 they were rather finer and known by the name of 8,pleiten01 or of 8,otters0 for the smallest ones4 ,eastern ,frisia had similar vessels2 they were called 8,motten0 and bore some resemblance to the 8,kuffs04 ,there is still to be found a very old type of merchant vessel1 descended from the old fishing boats and called 8,ever0 or 8,bremerkahn04 ,independently of the family of the hoys1 there has existed from the most distant times1 in ,overyssel1 a distinct type of vessel which in the ,x,v,i,ith century1 and in ,witsen's time1 included the 8,potten0 and 8,pujen04 ,changes were made later in these vessels and they are still met with at the present time under the name of ,snijboon 7literally3 ,french or string bean7 from which is descended the pram 78,praam074 ,the same shape1 but with reduced dimensions1 is also found in the 8,somp0 and the 8,pegge04 ,the type of these vessels is distinguished from that of the smacks by the shape of the bow and stern which are tapering while these parts are rounded in the smacks4 ,many combinations have also been made in this class of vessels2 they have given birth amongst others to the 8,koftjalks01 the 8,praamaaks0 and the 8,aaktjalks04 ,the ,tenders 78,boeiers07 should also be mentioned1 but these vessels had scarce any resemblance to the old 8,kromstevens04 ,finally1 let the 8,kraken0 be again mentioned1 from which all characteristics common to the ,spanish caracks had disappeared4 ,they were very strong hoys with quite straight lines1 which gave them less sheer4 ,,iii4 ,,ferries4 ,the ferries properly so-called included the ,pontoons1 among which may be mentioned3 the ,gierpont1 the ,kabelveerpont1 the ,jaagpont 7for ferrying horses71 the ,halve ,pont 7pontoon using a sail72 the ,pijper 7small pontoon7 and the ,overhaalpontje 7skiff74 ,other kinds of boats were used as ferries1 such as the ,veerhengsten1 which belonged to the family of the 8,hoogaarsen0 7see fishing boats71 the hoys1 the 8,schuiten0 and the 8,poonen01 all of them types of vessels already met in what precedes4 ,,iv4 ,,boats ,,for ,,various ,,uses ,,but ,,not ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,preceding ,,groups4 ,it is needless to say that the groups of boats ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii specified above include also a large number of small craft1 intended for local use1 which all come down from the same fundamental group2 their destination only varies4 ,among the more important of these are the 8,bokken0 found as much in ,holland#bj as in ,frisia4 ,to this family also belong the ,groningeraardappelpramen 7prams used in ,groningen for carrying potatoes71 the ,frisian ,snikken1 with a raking stem and similar in this respect to the ,haarlemmermeerplompertjes 7small boats on ,haarlem ,lake74 ,when the sternpost has a good deal of a rake the boat is called a ,westlander and when vessels of this class have a strake less1 like the dredging boats of the ,hague1 they form the 8,bokken01 which must not be confounded with those which have been already mentioned4 ,near ,vollenhove1 to the north of ,overijssel1 there is still to be met a well known small boat1 the ,punter1 descended probably from the ,haaringschuitje 7a small boat used for the herring fishery7 of the ,zuiderzee4 ,the ,groenteschuitje from ,hoorn 7for transporting vegetables7 is exactly like it4 ,these vessels are narrow and have a great deal of rake in the stem and the sternpost4 ,the same origin must be attributed to the ,utrecht pram and to the ,kromme ,rijnaak1 but the length of these boats is proportionately greater when compared with the beam4 ,outside of the preceding types1 there are still found the 8,snik0 or the ,gondel of ,north ,holland1 which very much resembles the 8,oude ,kinderdijksche ,hoogars01 as well as the 8,oude ,vischschuit van ,aalsmeer0 7very old fishing boat from ,aalsmeer74 ,setting aside a very considerable number of small ,schouwen which are nothing but covered and flat ferry boats1 which already appear in the old engravings1 there are still to be met in ,holland the 8,schiedamsche schouwen0 or the 8,melk en ,spoelingschuiten0 7boats used to carry milk and the residuum of fruits from which the juice has been pressed out74 ,they are long flat-bottomed boats with flat bow and stern4 ,a special family of boats is made up of the 8,barges0 and 8,trekschuitjen0 7literally 8boats hauled from the shore07 which exist all through the ,netherlands4 ,almost all these boats are alike2 they came originally from ,holland and spread all through the rest of the country as fast as the canals were built4 ,the 8,trekschuiten0 are still particularly in vogue in the province of ,drenthe1 but the construction of railways and tram lines is slowly driving them out4 ,there are still other vessels1 the ,baggeraken 7dredging lighters7 which are very common in the ,netherlands4 ,the special conformation of our rivers and arms of the sea required constant dredging to maintain the depth of the ports and navigable passes2 but they were far from possessing such perfected machinery as have the modern dredges3 the 8,hand-0 or 8,hijschbeugel0 7hand dredge7 was the only apparatus used for dredging in former times4 ,the boats used for this purpose went under the general name of 8,baggeraken04 ,the best known type was the flat 78,vlet071 or the 8,baggeraak0 still called the ,sliedrechtsche ,aak4 ,even now1 the 8,boeieraken0 are still often used for dredging4 ,these vessels belong to the type of round bottomed craft4 ,other boats of a special kind used at ,dordrecht for the same purpose were known by the names of3 ,vreeswijksche ,zandlichter and ,dortsche ,zandschuit 7boats used for dredging sand and having a great analogy with each other74 ,they were used almost exclusively for dredging the ballast used by ships starting for sea4 ,they have now almost wholly disappeared4 ,bokken are used almost exclusively for dredging and for taking out sand from the downs in the ,west of the country and in the region of the ,rhine4 ,their shape is almost identical with that of the 8,westlanders0 but there is no planking above the planksheer4 ,in the province of ,utrecht1 the ,slijkpramen are used for the same purpose4 ,they correspond to the 8,kromme ,rijnaak01 the general type of the ,utrecht boat4 ,in the province of ,groningen1 mud is carried by the 8,groninger ,slijkpraam01 or 8,vlotpraam01 a narrow boat with a rounded bottom which has nothing in common with the 8,overijselsche praam0 and which does not resemble it in any way4 ,the forerunner of our dredges is the old ,moddermolen 7literally1 mud mill7 or ,moddermolenschip used at ,amsterdam since #aege4 ,the ,zolderschuiten and the ,schouwen1 now called 8,bakken01 may be mentioned as very old boats4 ,vessels of this sort were supplied1 in #ahbi1 with trap doors in the bottom1 whence come ,klepschouwen or ,onderlossers 7literally3 boats discharging through the bottom74 ,finally1 it is proper to mention also1 in the class of vessels under consideration1 the pleasure boats1 or sailing ,yachts1 for which the ,boeierjacht 7in ,south ,holland7 and the ,tjotter 7in ,friesland7 are used as ,dutch types4 ,it is important to note here that pleasure boats are most generally called 8,yachts01 even though these vessels have frequently no resemblance to the ,yacht properly so called4 ,hence the name does not always mark the type4 ,v4 ,,vessels ,,frequenting ,,the ,,upper ,,parts ,,of ,,rivers 7,,bovenlanders74 ,all vessels which frequent the upper rivers are called generally 8,bovenlanders0 be their shape what it may4 ,these vessels1 in spite of the interest which they offer1 have rarely aroused attention2 ,witsen devotes only a few words to them and calls them simply 8,aaken0 or 8,samoreuzen0 7p4 #agj1 col4 #b71 and ,van ,yk also gives them this latter name 7p4 #cah74 ,a7 ,boats of the ,lower ,rhine4 ,the ,rhenish boats are of no uniform type4 ,those which frequent the lower part of the river 7below ,bonn7 differ from those which circulate on the ,upper ,rhine and its tributaries1 save for a small craft found on the ,neckar which corresponds with the type below4 ,the fundamental type of the downstream section is represented by the ,dorstensche ,aak1 and this latter has produced the ,stevenschip4 ,these types1 originating in the part of ,western ,germany of which ,dorst is the centre1 were imported into our country and have existed there for a very long time4 ,this is why the 8,geldersche ,samoreuzen0 are already mentioned in the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,although badly shown1 they are to be seen also on old engravings4 ,they are seen circulating on the ,lower ,rhine and the ,waal where they are called ,hollandsche ,aaken and ,stevenschepen2 even now1 they are still built in ,north ,brabant where they have been in existence for a very long time4 ,these types of vessels came from the ,west of ,germany 7,westphalia7 and entered the ,netherlands by way of the ,lower ,rhine and the ,waal1 and through the ,north-,west of ,north ,brabant4 ,they are not met with on the ,meuse1 or on the ,lower ,waal below ,tiel4 ,aaken have been built on a small scale along the ,merwede1 and at other points of ,holland1 where this same type was again found in the old clinker-built 8,turfeiker0 which seems now to have disappeared entirely4 ,the hulls of all these craft were made in the beginning by overlapping planks1 hence it was the old mode of construction used on the ,baltic ,sea4 ,these vessels were all long1 narrow and flat-bottomed1 like the 8,bovenlanders04 ,b7 ,boats of the ,meuse4 ,the ,meuse boats1 also long and narrow1 form a special class of which the type differs completely from that of the ,rhenish craft just mentioned4 ,the ,whalemajol1 the ,whalepont and the ,maaspont1 as well as the smaller ,spitsbek and the ,herna1 may be mentioned as fundamental types4 ,all these types are found on the ,belgian ,meuse and in our country as far down as ,roermond4 ,small vessels called ,bovenmaasche ,aaken or ,hedelsche ,aaken1 frequently used as dredging flats1 are frequently found on the ,lower ,meuse in the ,netherlands4 ,the shape of these craft is different from that of the ,meuse boats just mentioned from which1 however1 they are descended1 but their rudder corresponds rather with that of the ,rhenish craft which circulate above ,bonn4 ,c7 ,boats of the ,upper ,rhine 7above ,bonn and inclusive of the regions ,west of the ,rhine and ,east of the ,meuse74 ,the fundamental type is here the ,keen1 and with it are found the ,keenaak and a boat of more recent date1 the ,slof4 ,one of these types of boats was introduced at 's ,gravenmoer1 in the ,x,i,xth century1 because it appeared suitable for exploiting the osier beds at ,biesbosch1 but since then many changes have been made in the stern and the rudder4 ,none of these types has its origin in the ,netherlands4 ,the 8,hagenaar01 like the 8,turfeiker01 corresponds to the 8,dorstensche ,aak04 ,there is also found on the ,upper ,rhine1 as well as on the ,meuse1 a boat called the ,bunder which dates only from the ,x,i,xth century4 ,aside from the 8,bunder01 the hulls of the types of craft which have just been mentioned are clinker built4 ,the vessels mentioned under letter ,b above must also have been clinker built formerly1 judging by what old boatmen say and by what is seen on an old engraving of a ,whalemajol1 belonging to the collection of ,mr4 ,van ,gijn1 as well as by what is shown on a stone1 which dates from the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 placed in the front of a house in ,sint-,pieterstraat at ,maastricht and representing a ,herna4 ,it is impossible to say whether carvel-built or clinker-built hulls existed at the same time1 or whether the former are of more recent date4 ,it may be assumed1 however1 that clinker-built hulls are older than the others4 ,it is interesting to note that a type which closely resembles the ,herna is still to be found on the ,adriatic sea1 especially the ,rascona already described and represented in ,paris's well known work 7vol4 ,,ii1 n #hf72 this vessel is still steered by means of the old 8,slurriem0 7steering oar74 ,,vi4 ,,fishing ,,boats4 ,a7 ,for deep sea fishing4 ,the ,buys 7bush7 and the ,hoeker 7howker71 together with the ,scholschuit1 the ,basanschuit and the ,zwartewaalsche ,gaffelaar should be mentioned as old types of ,dutch boats intended for deep sea fishing4 ,the ,hoekerbuis and the ,kwee are descendants from the first two4 ,the 8,sloep0 7sloop71 the 8,logger0 7,lugger7 and the 8,kotter0 7cutter7 come to us from ,france4 ,it is important also to mention in connection with deep sea fishing the whale boats for which the ,noortsvaerders were formerly used2 these latter belong to the type of the 8,fluitschepen0 7flutes7 already mentioned among the merchantmen4 ,the oldest vessel of the ,noortsvaerders class is the ,egmonder ,pink1 which gave birth to the ,bom and to the smaller ,garnalen ,schuit 7shrimp boat74 ,these boats were so built that they could be grounded on the beach4 ,after the fishing port of ,scheveningen was finished1 there appeared a new type of vessel descended from the 8,logger0 and the 8,bom0 and known by the name of 8,loggerbom0 or sometimes 8,lelybom04 ,b7 ,near shore and river fishing4 ,the great majority of fishing vessels is devoted to ordinary or near shore fishing4 ,the dimensions of these craft were formerly much smaller than those of the vessels of the preceding group 7at the present time1 aside from the 8,garnaalschuitjes01 some are built even larger74 ,their names are innumerable and so different that they give no idea either of their form or kind4 ,the fundamental types of the group include3 a7 ,the ,schokkers1 built on the model of the ordinary 8,schokkers04 ,to them also belong the 8,wierschuitje01 the 8,steeckschuit01 the 8,henget0 and the 8,hoogaars04 ,the 8,akes01 which are met with in most of the types of boats 7the 8,aaktjalk01 for example7 are also found1 under the name of ,tholensche ,schouwen1 in the class of vessels considered4 ,these craft are much like the ,beyerlandsche ,schuitjes and form1 in a way1 a sort of transition to the ,vischboeicraakjes4 b7 ,the ,botters as well as the ,vollendammer ,kwakken1 the ,ronsen1 the ,pluten and the ,platjes van ,maassluis4 ,a third group is formed by short round-bottomed little boats of which c7 ,the ,knotsen of ,antwerp are the prototypes4 ,the 8,bollen01 and the 8,lemmerjachten0 or 8,lemmeraaken0 belong to the same group4 ,finally1 a fourth group is formed of vessels having a greatly raking stern and sternpost1 called d7 ,haaringschuiten to which the widely scattered ,punters also belong4 ,in conclusion1 there may also be mentioned several types of small fishing boats1 which frequent exclusively our inland rivers and canals1 and present very often more or less marked resemblances to the types given under the letters a to d4 ,they are the following3 ,the ,visscherschuitje van ,aalsmeer2 the ,gondel2 the ,vischboeiertje2 the ,woudrichemsch ,vischschuitje2 the ,prikschuit2 the ,steekschuit van de ,biesbosch and the ,strooperschuitje4 ,many rowboats of the most varied types1 as well as old 8botters0 no longer fit for sea1 and 8schokkers0 from the ,zuiderzee1 serve also for fishing on the inland navigable highways4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,vessels bringing wood from the ,north take on larger cargoes as they approach more nearly the rectangular form2 those carrying grain and crops when they are rounded4 ,vessels from the ,north and the ,indies carrying heavy freights are generally larger than those which carry crops1 wines1 etc41 as are also the boats which carry salt4 #ae ,but if it be remembered that1 by reason of deep holds and better loading1 all boats tend more and more toward the rectangular shape1 it is seen that now there are no longer found as many differences in the various forms of vessels as used formerly to exist4 ,for a well built modern hull will be1 so far as cargo capacity is concerned1 but little inferior to the ,smalschip which resembles it in length1 beam and draught of water4 ,and the well built 8,damschuit0 will also be able to hold its own against the 8,damlooper0 up to a certain point4 #af ,the rounding of these boats forward and aft was of advantage to the boatman as they could take on a much larger load than that given by their gauge4 #ag ,when a hole1 caused by a cannon ball below the water line1 cannot be stopped from the inside1 because the cargo1 for example1 interferes with the operation1 a man is placed outside the boat on a plank to which is secured a step which lets him go under water to close the hole4 ,he takes an oiled rag in his mouth to prevent the water from getting inside of his body4 #ah ,it 7de luierwagen7 serves to support the forward end of the tiller and also to resist the force exerted by the helmsman on the tiller of the rudder4 #ai ,a long opening worked in the bulwarks at the stern of the vessel1 allowed the tiller to swing well from side to side4 ,draai over boord means simply that the tiller can swing entirely clear above the rail4 #bj ,holland means here the two provinces of the ,netherlands called ,north and ,south ,holland4 ,illustration3 #d ,,descriptions ,,of ,,types ,,of ,,vessels4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #c ,sidenote3 ,,iii #f ,a few sketches1 taken from old engravings and descriptions1 have been added to the plates of this work4 ,they give an idea of the development of the ship from #abjj to #afjj inclusive4 ,reference is made1 for more details in regard to them to the preceding chapters4 ,as the drawings refer to the period subsequent to #afjj1 they are all made in accordance with the working drawings4 ,as has been repeated many times over1 the old forms will have to be sought in the small types of vessels4 ,ships of war will1 therefore1 be set aside1 while large merchant men will receive only a passing mention4 ,,the ,,pinnace4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #h ,sidenote3 ,,iii #i ,the ,pinasschip 7pinnace7 is the oldest vessel of which we have any exact description extant4 ,it dates from the first half of the ,x,v,i,ith century and disappears at its close4 ,this ship had a raking stem1 a much developed beakhead and a square stern4 ,the square stern and the beakhead come from the ,south2 furthermore1 this vessel is descended from the one of the ,x,v,ith century2 its size however was greater and it carried cannons4 ,,the ,,flyboat4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #adh ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ai ,the ,vlieboot 7flyboat71 which is found as far back as #afjj1 is very bulging and has a narrowed deck4 ,from this type is derived the 8,fluit0 7flute7 which bulges still more in order to profit by the way in which boats used to be gauged in ,denmark4 ,an ordinary 8flute0 was #acj feet long1 #bf feet beam and #ac feet #e inches deep4 ,it had no beakhead at first1 but the larger flutes1 built later on1 had one in imitation of the square sterned ships4 ,these vessels were used for various purposes and underwent many changes on this account4 ,it is for this reason that the 8,east ,indian flute0 was more strongly built than the one which traded in the ports of the ,baltic ,sea4 ,let it be said1 among other things1 that the iron futtocks of the channels are doubled in order to reinforce the rigging1 while their projections aft are made larger so as to obtain more spacious staterooms4 ,in the matter of this enlargement1 they were strengthened from the inside by means of iron ribs and bands 7,witsen1 p4 #aei74 ,in the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century and until #afdj1 these vessels and generally all ,east ,indian ships were built open forward and without quarters for the crew1 whose bunks and hammocks were placed on either side of the ship4 ,the flutes were known as good sailers4 ,their slender construction gave little hold for the wind2 they carried three masts and the well known rigging of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,those which went for grain in the ,baltic ,sea1 were rather smaller than the others2 they were called 8,oostvaerders0 or 8,oostervaerder04 ,their dimensions were3 length1 #abe feet2 beam1 #be feet2 depth1 #ab feet2 or else3 #aae1 #bc and #aa feet2 or again #ajj1 #bb and #aa feet2 and carried cargoes respectively of #bjj1 #aej or #ajj 8lasts40 7#a last #b metric tons74 ,most of them had no beakhead4 ,some idea of the importance of our traffic with the ,baltic ,sea can be formed when it is stated that1 in #afjd1 #djj 8,oostvaerders0 were lying at the same time in front of ,amsterdam4 ,in less than a fortnight they were unloaded1 reloaded and ready to retake the sea4 7,witsen1 p4 #ddh47 ,the 8,noordvaerders0 or 8,noortsvaerders0 were also flutes1 but two feet deeper than the 8,oostvaerders01 because more space was needed for loading the wood 7,witsen1 p4 #afj7 which they had gone to seek in ,norway4 ,their beam was1 as a rule1 one-fifth of their length4 ,they were massive and solid like the 8,oostvaerders04 7,witsen1 p4 #ec47 but had no beakhead4 ,when the continual wars are considered1 the vessels trading with the ,baltic ,sea had smaller crews than those trading with the ,west4 7,witsen1 p4 #afj47 ,,the ,,katschip4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bag ,the 8,katschepen0 are descended from the 8boeier0 and the 8fluit04 ,they are therefore vessels of marked curves4 ,as they were often used in shoal water the bottom was very flat and1 furthermore1 it was very angular all around the edge4 ,they were known as poor sailers1 but they carried a large cargo4 ,witsen says 7p4 #afc7 that their slowness earned for them the name of 8asses0 rather than that of 8kats04 ,it had no beakhead2 there were a forecastle1 and a cabin4 ,the tiller1 which was manuvred underneath the cabin1 had no extension bar4 ,these vessels were built most generally of pitch-pine4 ,all the types mentioned above have the stern of a flute1 that is to say3 they are square sterned1 which is characteristic of the old ,dutch naval construction4 ,,the ,,oost-,,indisch ,,compagnieschip4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aea ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aa ,the pinnace gave the 8,oost-,indisch ,compagnieschip0 7ship of the ,east ,india ,company74 ,its stern was rounded4 ,as a merchant ship1 it was heavily armed and was often used as a man-of-war in case of need4 ,the plate of our album showing this vessel gives a good idea of the form and construction1 hence1 more detailed explanations are superfluous4 ,let it be mentioned only that the stern is very much ornamented1 that there is a beakhead and that the length of the deck is greater than that of the 8flutes40 ,it carried three masts and the ordinary sails and rigging4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aei ,the vessel of the same kind1 but smaller in size and with two masts only1 was called 8,snauwschip0 7rind74 ,it is met with frequently in ,flanders4 ,witsen counts the rinds as among inland vessels 7p4 #agj74 ,,the ,,boeier4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aia ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aid ,the 8,boeier0 belongs to an isolated type of boats carrying on their traffic especially with ,rouen4 ,it was a flat-bottomed vessel with keel and lee-boards1 as it frequented shallow rivers as much as the sea4 ,the lee-boards reached two feet below the keel4 ,the stem was much curved1 whence their name of 8,kromsteven04 ,judging by the old engravings1 the boats of this class had a very high 8statie01 which recalls rather the construction of the ,mediterranean than that of ,holland4 ,besides1 the 8,boyer0 is not a purely ,dutch type1 and it is probably descended from a ,mediterranean type1 modified to suit the needs of our country4 ,boeiers were built at ,rotterdam as 8draai-over-boord0 with doubtless a raised deck astern1 for ,witsen says that they had a small lodgment under the rudder 7p4 #afd47 ,this author speaks wrongly of a 8boeier0 or of a 8galliot01 for this latter is an entirely different kind of vessel4 ,the 8boeiers0 were about #hf feet long1 #bj feet beam and #i feet depth of hold4 ,,the ,,hoeker 7hoy74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbh ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bcj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ba ,the 8,hoeker0 7hoy71 originally a fishing boat1 was already a great deal used toward the middle of ,x,v,i,ith century1 as a merchant ship with one1 two or three masts4 ,it was a sea-going vessel1 built very solidly1 and later equipped for the ,east ,indies1 in spite of its relatively small size4 ,it was #hj feet long4 ,the large hoys had a cabin on deck4 ,,the ,,buis 7,bush74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bba ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aac ,the 8,buis0 7bush7 was also used as a merchant vessel1 which sometimes carried three masts1 although originally it was only a fishing boat4 ,the 8hoy0 and the 8bush0 will be spoken of again among the fishing vessels4 ,it will be superfluous to say that neither 8boeiers01 8hoys0 nor 8bushes0 carried a beakhead4 ,there should be mentioned also the following three types of vessels which are descendants of those which precede3 ,,the ,,hekboot4 ,the lower part of this vessel is that of a 8flute0 and the upper part that of a 8pinnace01 that is to say3 a vessel having a broad deck which increases its capacity4 ,,the ,,straetsvaerder4 ,this vessel is a rather large 8flute0 which carries a beakhead 7,witsen1 p4 #afh74 7,a large number of names referring to a same type of vessel arise in this way74 ,,the ,,stokker4 ,the ,stokker is a massive ship with two decks4 ,it has the bow of a 8,spiegelschip0 and the stern of a 8hoy04 ,we have received from abroad3 ,,the ,,frigate4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ah ,the frigate occupies an important place especially at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith and beginning of the ,x,i,xth centuries4 ,it has been seen in the preceding chapter how it came to us4 ,this vessel1 rigged in different ways1 bore various names1 such as3 8,gaffelschoener01 8,brigantijn01 8,schoenerbrik01 8,brik01 8,bark04 ,reference is made in this connection to the various plates of the collection relating to rig4 ,,the ,,galliot4 ,when one reads that the ,king of ,denmark stopped1 in #aehg1 more than #fjj ,dutch ships in the ,sound1 ships which had all left the ,vlie in a day as related by ,hendrik ,rantzon2 see ,witsen1 7p4 #cf71 it must not be imagined that they were all large vessels4 ,it is very probable1 on the contrary1 that most of them were no larger than the kuffs and hoys of the present time4 ,it is easy to form an idea of the characteristic appearance of the ,zuyder ,zee1 at this period1 where the many fishing vessels then in use swarmed about all these ships4 ,the ,zuiderzee is well and rightly named therefore the cradle of our shipbuilding art4 ,the little coast towns of the ,zuiderzee1 with their glorious past1 are its witnesses4 ,hence1 there will be no cause for astonishment that1 in the course of the many wars waged between ,holland and ,friesland and ,gelderland1 innumerable battles should have been fought on the ,zuiderzee4 ,thus1 for example1 a naval battle was fought in #aejd between ,holland and ,gelderland1 which was described by ,wilhelm ,hermszoon1 an ,augustine monk 7,witsen1 appendix1 p4 #ai74 ,this author relates that the ,gelderlanders came down the ,zwarte ,water with a large number of 8,kochevers0 to surprise the ,hollanders1 who had seven armed boats4 ,he adds that the ,hollanders understood war better than the ,gelderlanders1 for the latter used only the bow1 the cross bow and the sling1 and that finally1 the largest of the ,holland ships having grounded1 the ,hollanders succeeded in frightening the ,gelderlanders so much by firing their arquebusses1 that they made them give up the fight4 ,the same author relates1 at another place1 that1 on the advice of the ,spanish merchants1 the inhabitants of ,amsterdam caused a ship called 8,galeoot0 to be laid down and that a year was required to build it4 ,this ship could be propelled by sail or with oars4 ,it was handled by #cb rowers4 ,it was called the 8,terror of the ,zuiderzee04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bda ,sidenote3 ,,iii #eh ,these narratives are interesting in this that1 in telling about the battle of the ,zuiderzee1 a 8,kochever0 is spoken of1 which proves that the 8,koch0 or 8,kogge0 and the 8,ever0 are closely related4 ,they also show that the 8,galliot0 came to us from abroad4 ,the 8,galliot01 like the 8,ever01 is still met with to-day2 but it is no longer handled by oars4 ,our ships of the ,x,v,ith century were much smaller also than those of the states to the ,south2 our navigation toward the ,baltic was almost exclusively coasting and required smaller vessels4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbe ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bj ,the 8,galjoot0 7galliot7 of the ,x,v,ith century was built still later in large numbers1 and1 besides1 it is mentioned at all subsequent times4 ,it is probable however that the 8galliots0 were built later with a more rounded hull like all our ships1 for that matter4 ,it is to be noticed1 in any event1 that the 8galliot0 of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century displays great analogy with the ordinary 8,koftjalk04 ,the side of the galliot is more nearly straight and the castles fore and aft are higher4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #ah74 ,the vessel is #he feet long1 #ba feet beam and #aa feet deep4 ,the stern and the bow are more rounded than they are in the boeier 7,witsen1 p4 #afe74 ,the vessel therefore1 is one which may not be classed among the ,dutch types4 ,the main mast1 in one-and two-masted galliots1 was placed at one-third the length of the ship from the stem4 ,the ship is a 8draai-over-boord04 ,it had at times the stern of a 8flute01 in which case it was called a 8,bootschip0 or simply a 8,boot04 ,at other times1 the upper part was that of a pinnace with a converso#ba so as to increase its cargo capacity4 ,again it can be noted how most boats can be brought back to a fundamental type4 ,it is in this way that 8advies ,jachten0 are often spoken of in history4 ,this was merely a generic name for all kinds of vessels employed for the same purpose and including1 especially1 the 8galliots04 7,witsen1 p4 #afe47 ,these vessels were then built with finer lines and greater sail power so as to be able to move more quickly4 ,the 8galliots0 had generally two masts of different heights and1 exceptionally1 they had three4 ,they had no beakhead4 ,they carried lee-boards at the beginning4 ,their capacity varied from #afj to #cjj tons4 ,there are still a few left1 trading on the ,baltic ,sea1 but they are smaller1 having an average length of #ai metres1 a mean width of #d4ej m41 and a depth of #b4bj m4 ,they too will soon disappear and give way to the steel 8,kofs0 and 8,hoys04 7,le ,comte1 p4 #bb47 ,the name 8,galliot0 is probably of ,italian origin4 7,koenen1 p4 #adj47 ,,the ,,galeas4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bci ,the 8,galeas0 like the 8galliot01 belonged to the largest types of vessels used for navigation near shore4 ,the name alone indicates a foreign origin for this kind of vessel1 although they were frequently found in ,holland4 ,their mode of construction also shows the same origin4 ,most of them were built at ,knigsberg1 ,stettin1 ,stralsund1 etc4 ,they gauged up to #ajj and even #bfj tons4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #ce47 ,the galeas traded especially between ,holland1 ,england and ,france4 ,they drew from #h to #ad feet 7#b4bf to #c4if m47 ,like the 8galliots01 they had two masts1 as a rule4 ,their build was very much like that of the 8,kotter0 7cutter7 and the 8,sloep0 7sloop74 ,hence it was an exotic type of which1 a few specimens are still met with on the ,baltic ,sea1 and which made its appearance later1 probably under the influence of the naval construction of the peoples of the ,south4 7,in the ,mediterranean3 the names of ,galeazza1 ,galeona1 ,galeota1 are still found74 ,,the ,,koff4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bah ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bb ,the 8,koff0 7kuf7 is a purely ,dutch type mentioned neither by ,witsen nor ,van ,yk4 ,it seems to date from the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century and later it replaced1 in many cases1 the 8flutes0 and the 8cat-boats04 7,le ,comte1 p4 #aj47 ,the forms of the kuffs are very much rounded and show in this way their affinity to the 8smacks0 and the 8hoys04 ,they are flat-bottomed with a square bow or1 as ,van ,loon says 7p4 #fd71 8stomp rond0 7round and bluff74 ,later1 some were built with finer lines4 ,they are solid ships and withstand storms very well1 whence the saying3 8,koffen en ,smakken zijn waterbakken0 7,kufs and ,smacks are reservoirs of water74 ,i cannot partake of the opinion of ,mr4 ,koenen1 who claims that 8,kof0 is descended from 8,kog0 because the 8,kofs0 made their appearance much later than the ,kogs and are descendants from small inland boats4 ,they are1 as a rule1 vessels of light draught1 #gb feet long1 #ag feet wide and #h feet1 #c inches deep4 ,their capacity varied from #ajj to #cjj tons4 ,they have ordinarily two masts1 the larger being at one-third the length of the vessel from the bow4 ,they are provided with a slightly raised deck aft without 8statie04 ,the small 8,kofs0 have lee-boards1 the large ones1 none4 ,making the bow of these vessels finer was begun in the ,x,i,xth century 7,van ,loon1 p4 #fe71 and this caused their old characteristics to disappear4 ,it was desired to give to them1 in this way1 greater steadiness in steering4 ,these vessels are still built in the province of ,groningen1 where they originated4 ,now1 they are made1 however1 as are the 8hoys01 with a more rounded bow4 ,formerly they were also met frequently in the province of ,holland2 they ran not only to the ,baltic ,sea1 but also to ,norway1 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,france1 ,portugal and the ,mediterranean and even to ,rio de ,janeiro4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #aa47 ,,the ,,smak4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #baf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bc ,the 8,smak0 7smack7 is as interesting a vessel as the 8,kof0 which it resembles a great deal4 ,it is a pure ,holland type1 bluff and flat and very stable on the water4 ,le ,comte calls it the sister of the 8,kof04 ,the shape of the 8hoy0 is found clearly again in this type4 ,they are not fine either at bow or stern1 and resemble exactly the old engravings of the 8,smalschepen0 and 8,wijdschepen0 and the 8,turfschepen06 ,furthermore1 they belong to the same family with these last1 but they are rather more strongly built as they are intended to make longer voyages4 ,the 8smack0 is the type of ,frisian vessels4 ,it carries a 8statie0 and lee-boards4 ,the main mast is at one-third of the boat's length from the bow and it carries also a small mast at the stern in the 8statie04 ,these vessels are generally #hj feet long1 #bb feet wide and #i feet deep4 ,their capacity varies from #gj to #adj tons4 ,they traded with ,france1 ,england1 even with ,lisbon1 to say nothing of their traffic with the ,baltic ,sea4 ,they were1 however1 especially built1 as ,le ,comte says 7p4 #ab71 to sail across the 8,wadden0 to ,groningen1 ,friesland and ,east ,friesland4 ,witsen does not mention the 8smack04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #baj ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bji ,if the design of the 8smack0 be compared with that of the 8,wijdschip0 mentioned by ,witsen 7p4 #aga71 it is seen at once that it is a question here of a mere change of name4 ,nor is there at bottom any essential difference between the 8,smalschip0 and the 8,wijdschip04 ,van ,yk says 7p4 #cjh7 that the only difference between the two types was this3 the 8,smalschip0 was so narrow that it could go through the city of ,gouda1 while the 8,wijdschip0 had to go around4 ,hence they are two like vessels which differ only in dimensions4 ,if now1 the designs of these boats be compared with those of the 8,turfschepen01 a perfect resemblance is again to be noted4 ,it is at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century that the generic name of 8hoy0 is given to all these vessels1 thus imitating what was done in ,friesland4 ,,the ,,smalschip ,,and ,,the ,,wijdschip4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #baj ,the 8,smalschip0 had the following dimensions3 length1 #fj feet2 beam1 #af feet2 depth1 #ad feet3 those of the 8,wijdschip0 were respectively3 #gj feet1 #bj feet and #h feet #b inches4 ,these vessels carried a 8statie04 ,,the ,,damlooper4 ,the 8,damlooper0 was a vessel of the same type as the preceding but so built that it could pass through the lock of the 8,leidschen ,dam04 ,van ,yk gives its dimensions as follows 7p4 #cab73 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bab 8',t ,schip 7de ,damlooper7 zal lang zijn #ef voeten1 wijd dat de zwaarden afhangen1 het rakende en echter gemaklijk door de ,duikers van den ,leidsen dam kan gebragt werde1 zo sal dat schip op de bovebuitekant van de ,kimmegang of wentelstrook1 so wijd als op 't ,barkhout wesen moeten en ten minsten van binnen tegen de zetwegers gemeeten zijnde elf voeten en een duym wijdte hebben40#bb ,the capacity of the vessel is given further on as #ah last 7 #cf tonnes74 ,the lock of the 8,leidschen ,dam01 which is in question here1 was built under authority of the provincial ,act of #afag and reconstructed in #afdh4 ,this lock1 like the one of the ,gouwe1 dating from the ,x,i,vth century#bc1 was only replaced in #ahhe1 by a new lock of #g metres clear width and with a depth of #b4bj m4 on the mitre sills4 ,the provincial ,states of ,south ,holland had the following inscription placed on a stone in the lock keeper's dwelling of the 8,leidschen ,dam0 in order to commemorate the event4 8,in #ahhe is de verbetering der vaart tusschen ,rijn en ,schie door de ,staten van ,holland ondernomen4 ,hier waar de naijver der steden tot #afdh slechts een overtoom en daarna een verlaat van #c4hj m4 wijdte en doorvaarthoogte van #b4bj m4 gedoogde1 hebben zij deze sluis wijd #g meter met beweegbare bruggen bevolen0#bd4 ,hence1 the existing obstacles were only removed in #ahhe4 ,it was therefore up to this time that the 8,smalschepen0 and 8,wijdschepen0 and the 8,damloopers0 had any reason to exist4 ,they are no longer mentioned1 however1 in the ,x,i,xth century1 the 8hoys0 being then almost exclusively spoken of4 ,hence1 it is here again merely a change of name without any change of form in the vessels4 ,all the same1 the inland boats underwent an important modification in the course of the ,x,i,xth century4 ,indeed1 ,van ,loon tells us 7p4 #fi73 8,the angular forms of the bow and stern gave way to the more rounded forms of these parts of the vessel and of the hull in general04 ,this gave the boat a generally regular and smooth shape4 ,these angular shapes are no longer found save in a few old 8,poonen0 and 8,schuiten04 ,the old engravings give a good idea of this angular construction which1 on some of them1 is so deep that it would be believed that the planking outside was clinker laid4 ,hence it is seen that1 in the ,x,i,xth century1 a certain number of vessels1 which had been known previously by different names1 were all included under the generic name of 8hoy04 ,,the ,,tjalk4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bi ,the 8,tjalk0 or 8hoy0 properly so called1 is a native of ,friesland and of the province of ,groningen4 ,its capacity varies between #cj and #hj tons1 but sea-going hoys1 measuring up to #bjj tons1 are built1 however1 in the province of ,groningen4 ,the essential difference between a ,groningen and a ,friesland hoy is this3 the former has a 8draai-over-boord0 and the second a 8statie04 ,the ,friesland vessel is sometimes called 8,friesche ,praam0 if its lines be a little more nearly straight4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #ag74 ,furthermore1 the stem of the ,frisian hoy has a greater rake4 ,like our inland boats1 the 8,tjalken0 were rigged formerly with sprit sails which1 during the ,x,i,xth century1 were replaced nearly everywhere by the ordinary fore and aft rig4 ,they generally carry a single mast1 but some large 8hoys0 have1 at times1 a second small mast on the 8statie04 ,,the ,,schuit ,,and ,,the ,,poon4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #beb ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bed ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bcf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #dj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #dc ,sidenote3 ,,ii #baa ,the 8,schuit0 is for ,south ,holland what the 8hoy0 is for ,friesland and the province of ,groningen1 and the ,poon for ,zeeland and the island of ,south ,holland4 ,there is very little difference between the 8,poon0 and the 8,schuit02 each of them recalls the ,dutch type of the 8smack0 of which the lower part is rather fuller4 ,hence the deck is rather less wide than the bottom1 and the 8,poon0 has a greater sheer than the 8,schuit01 of which the deck is more nearly flat4 ,both of these vessels have a 8statie0 but the 8,poon0 has often a 8draai-over-boord0 and a slightly raised deck in the stern4 ,these characteristics are rarely found in the 8,schuit04 ,they are very strong vessels and1 above all1 very steady in heavy weather4 ,one peculiarity of these vessels lies in the fine point which terminates the stern4 ,this point is thrown back a little and should point toward the hounds of the mast 7upper part where the standing rigging is fastened to the mast74 ,this same point is found among the boats which frequent the ,belgian ,scheldt1 with the exception of the hoys4 ,,the ,,kaag4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bd ,alongside of the ,schuit1 there is found in ,north and ,south ,holland1 especially about ,amsterdam1 the ,kaag which resembles the 8,poon0 closely4 ,the hull of the kaag has sides which do not fall in as much as do those of the 8,poon0 and therefore1 it forms a sort of transition between the hoy and the 8,poon04 ,this vessel is much used as a light boat and is rigged with a sprit4 ,some are met with1 however1 carrying gaff sails2 they are then called ,gaffelkaag or ,gaffelschip4 ,the kaag is of about the same size as the 8,poon0 and the hoy4 ,the 8,schuit01 the 8,poon0 and the 8,kaag0 kept their angular shapes until the end4 ,it is useless to dwell on the fact that the kaag also carries a 8statie04 ,the last three types of boats also kept longest the round hatchways which were formerly in general use4 ,,the ,,steigerschuit4 ,the ,steigerschuit 7literally3 landing boat7 was often met with in the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,the boats of this category were small ,schuiten1 ,poonen or ,kaag1 used in ports and along rivers to carry passengers and freight back and forth between the landings on shore and the large vessels4 ,the name shows the use and the type of boat4 ,,the ,,yacht4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #dd ,sidenote3 ,,iii #de ,if boats with a narrow deck were built in ,south ,holland and ,zeeland1 narrow bottoms were preferred1 on the contrary1 in ,north ,holland4 ,this boat was then called 8,yacht0 a ,noord ,hollandsche ,yacht4 ,it is generally about the size of a small hoy4 ,in order to classify the preceding vessels in accordance with their bottom width1 it would be necessary to begin with the 8,yacht01 then to take the hoy and1 finally1 the 8,poon04 ,its more narrow bottom and its more converging sides make the ,yacht look more slender and more swift than the 8,poon04 ,the bends of the ,yacht show a great deal of sheer with a straight element at the middle4 ,the ,yacht has a 8draai-over-boord0 with a slightly raised deck at the stern4 ,,the ,,boeierschuit4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #df ,the ,boeierschuit belongs to the family of the 8,boeiers0 or 8,kromstevens0 above mentioned1 but it is smaller and also somewhat like the ordinary 8,schuiten01 whence comes probably the name of 8,boeierschuiten0 given to these vessels4 ,the stern carries a 8draai-over-boord01 often with a poop deck4 ,the ,boeierschuiten have one characteristic and that is a sort of cockpit where the helmsman stands in order to handle easily the tiller4 ,this cockpit is often met with among the ,boeieraken4 ,the 8,boeierschuiten0 are found in ,south ,holland1 ,zeeland and ,flanders4 ,shipbuilding was also early developed in ,flanders4 ,let us mention only ancient ,damme and ,antwerp1 and we shall not be surprised that the types of vessels found there resembled those of our country4 ,let us mention1 in the first place1 among them1 ,the ,pleiten and the ,otterschepen which are also to be found in the ,north-,west of ,northern ,brabant4 ,,the ,,pleit4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ea ,the 8,pleit0 is a very old boat1 often spoken of in history4 ,it was seen trading with ,england4 ,it had about the same capacity as our 8hoy01 of which it had the shape except that the length was proportionally a little greater as compared with the breadth4 ,hence this vessel appeared longer than the 8hoy04 ,its lines also were graceful4 ,its dimensions were3 length1 #bc to #bg metres2 breadth1 #d4hj m4 to #e4jj m42 maximum draught of water1 #a4ij m41 capacity from #abe to #ahj tons4 ,these vessels are now built larger2 their length reaches #ce m42 their beam1 #e4jj m42 their draught #j4dj m4 light and #b4jj m4 loaded2 they carry #bgj tons4 ,these boats are wrongly called ,blandres ,hollandais in ,belgium1 from the newer inland boats called 8blandres0 of which more will be said later4 ,these latter have no affinity with the 8,pleit40 7,see ,dehem1 ,annales des ,travaux ,publics1 ,august #aija1 p4 #ejh74 ,the 8,pleit0 has a 8statie04 ,it is curious to observe that the 8,pleiten0 of to-day are rigged very lightly considering their length4 ,formerly they had two masts4 ,,the ,,otter4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bec ,sidenote3 ,,iii #eb ,the ,otter a small1 narrowed 8,pleit01 from #af to #cj metres long 7see ,dehem1 p4 #ejg72 #d metres beam2 draught of water loaded from #a4gj m4 to #b4bj m42 generally1 #a4hj m4 ,its capacity varied from #gj to #ahj tons4 ,the 8,otter0 had a 8statie0 and carried the ordinary fore and aft rig mast1 and a small jigger mast set in the 8statie0 often completed the outfit4 8,schuiten0 which correspond to the ,dutch 8,schuiten0 are still met with on the ,scheldt alongside of the 8,pleiten0 and the 8,otter04 ,this type of vessels is just as different from the 8,otter0 as our 8,schuit0 is from the 8,hoy04 ,dehem is1 therefore1 mistaken when he says1 in his work mentioned above 7p4 #ejg73 8,the ,schuit is an ,otter of smaller size44440 ,the 8,pleiten0 like the 8,otters0 are often met with in the ,netherlands4 ,if the boats of the ,west of ,belgium thus show the same characteristics as those of our own country1 it will be the same for those of ,east ,friesland4 ,,the ,,mot4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ec ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ed ,the 8,motten0 replace the 8,hoys0 in ,east ,friesland4 ,they are divided into3 ,buiten ,motten1 ,binnen ,motten and ,spitsche ,motten4 ,these boats have the same shape as those of the last two categories considered2 they differ only in size4 ,they correspond to the hoys of ,groningen1 even in what concerns the shape of the bends and the rudder4 ,hence they belong to the family of the 8,hoys04 ,,the ,,spitsche ,,mot4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ee ,the 8,spitsche ,mot0 is a small boat which differs in shape from the ordinary boats of this class4 ,it is sharper1 less heavily built1 and is #ad4ej m4 long2 #c4ij m4 wide1 and #a4fj m4 deep4 ,the difference between a 8,spitsche ,mot0 and a 8,binnen ,mot0 is the same as that between an 8,overijsselsche ,praam0 and a 8,hoy04 ,,the ,,ever4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bda ,sidenote3 ,,iii #eh ,the 8,ever0 and the 8,bremerkahn0 are met with all along ,east ,friesland coasts as far as ,denmark4 ,they have kept some very old forms which recall the ancient 8cogs04 ,they were built1 especially1 near ,hamburg and were used originally as fishing boats4 ,the same thing has happened here as in our country where the 8,howker0 and the 8,bush01 which were fishing boats at first1 became merchant vessels later4 ,the 8,ever0 will be treated of again among the fishing craft4 ,,the ,,bremerkahn4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #eg ,the 8,bremerkahn0 is a narrow 8,ever04 ,both have the square stern which came to them from the ,south4 ,these last two boats have smooth hulls2 formerly they were clinker built4 ,the 8,kahn01 straighter and flatter than the 8,ever01 has a less sloping stem4 ,they are fore and aft rigged and have often a small additional mast at the stern4 ,their capacity is very much the same as our 8,hoys04 ,the ,hamburg 8,ever0 is #ag metres long2 #f4dj m4 beam and draws #j4gj m4 of water when empty and #a4ej m4 when loaded4 ,the dimensions of the 8,bremerkahn0 are respectively3 #ae4ej2 #d4hj2 #j4gj and #a4ej4 ,save the ,galliot and the ,galeas1 all the vessels belonging to group ,,ii-,b1 are found all the way from ,denmark along ,east ,friesland1 ,groningen1 ,friesland1 ,north and ,south ,holland1 ,zeeland1 the ,west of ,north ,brabant1 ,flanders1 the ,west of ,utrecht and also a very small part 7,west7 of the ,betuwe2 in short1 all along the coast and on our lower tidal rivers4 ,so soon as the ,meuse1 the ,waal and the ,lek are reached1 the character changes4 ,this applies also to the province of ,overijssel and to a part of ,drenthe4 ,the greater part of the province of ,drenthe only became accessible to navigation after the opening of the canals built in the ,x,i,xth century4 ,the southern part of this province formed early1 however1 one with ,overijssel1 from the shipbuilding point of view1 and the types now in use were developed in both at the same time4 ,,the ,,potten ,,and ,,the ,,pujen4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bja ,the oldest vessels known in ,overijssel are the ,potten and the ,pujen 7,witsen1 p4 #agj71 of which few engravings are extant4 ,the names are now no longer met with2 the primitive 8,potten0 and 8,pujen0 have1 however1 not entirely disappeared there4 ,the old forms have been preserved there as everywhere else and1 aside from a few changes1 these vessels have merely changed their names4 ,clinker built hulls gave way first to those carvel built1 and later the forms of the boats became less angular4 ,the old rig has changed and the old round hatchways have made place for more simple flat hatches4 ,by these transformations1 these vessels change their appearance somewhat although the hull remains the same1 but the names of 8,potten0 and 8,pujen0 have given place to those of 8,sompen01 8,peggen0 and 8,snijboonen01 more generally met with to-day4 ,already1 ,witsen and other authors have noted that the 8,potten0 and 8,pujen0 are distinguished from the 8,smalschepen0 and 8,wijdschepen0 by their finer bow and stern2 the same difference as is now found between the ,hoys on the one side and the 8,snijboonen0 and 8,sompen0 on the other4 ,besides1 the name 8,snijboon0 7string bean7 shows that it is a question of a long and fine boat1 that is3 a flat bottomed boat with lengthened bow and stern4 ,,the ,,snijboon ,,and ,,the ,,somp ,,or ,,pegge4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #cd ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ca-cc ,the 8,snijboon0 and the 8,somp0 have the same shape4 ,both have a 8draai-over-boord0 and generally a poop deck4 ,their characteristics are the fine bow and stern1 the sudden fall of the bends near the sternpost and the stem2 these bends being almost horizontal for the remainder of the length of the vessel2 the sternpost and the stem are nearly vertical4 ,these characteristics distinguish them almost immediately from the boats of the other provinces4 ,the 8,somp0 is #ae4ej m4 long1 #c4gj m4 beam and #a4hj m4 deep4 ,when the 8,somp0 is smaller and draws less water it is called a 8,pegge01 of which the dimensions are respectively #ab4jj m41 #b4fe m4 and #a4de m4 ,the dimensions of the 8,snijboon0 are #ag4ej m41 #c4ij m4 and #a4ej m4 ,,the ,,hoogeveensche ,,praam4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ec ,the ,hoogeveensche ,praam is an open vessel1 of relatively recent date1 descended from the ,somp but having a fuller bow and stern4 ,,the ,,praam 7,pram74 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ce ,the tendency1 already noticed in the ,x,v,i,ith and at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 to build larger and fuller vessels 7,van ,yk1 p #cdh71 became still more marked in the ,x,i,xth century4 ,it is thus that the 8,snijboonen0 and 8,sompen0 are seen to increase in size and that birth is given to the ,praam of which the size and load can be compared with those of the ,hoy4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #cf ,the 8,pram0 has retained1 however1 the slender bow and stern as also the characteristic line of the bends4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #bc47 ,all of these vessels have the 8draai-over-boord0 often accompanied with a poop deck4 ,hence these 8,pramen0 are totally separated from the vessels of the 8,semaque0 7hoy7 group met with in ,friesland and ,groningen4 ,they have nothing to do with the ,groninger ,aardappelpraam or with the ,groninger ,slijkpraam1 or with the ,friesche ,praam which belong to the 8,hoy0 group4 ,the name of ,praam which is met with in ,overijssel only at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith or beginning of the ,x,i,xth century is not purely ,dutch4 ,the ,marquis de ,tolin says1 for example 7p4 #age71 that ,napoleon caused to be built for his ,boulogne fleet a few 8prams01 flat bottomed vessels1 #cg m4 long1 #h m4 wide and drawing about #b4ej m4 ,they were rigged with three masts and were armed with cannon4 7,de ,bonnefoux and ,paris2 ,dictionnaire de ,marine ,voiles1 anno #ahdg1 p4 #ei47 ,twenty 8,prams0 of this kind are said to have been built4 ,they had nothing in common1 however1 with our 8,pramen0 unless it were that both vessels were flat bottomed4 ,the ,marquis de ,tolin describes the ,dutch 8,praam0 in his book 7p4 #add72 but this description lacks precision1 because the 8,overijsselsche0 and 8,friesche ,pramen0 are grouped together4 ,the 8,friesche praam0 7pram of ,friesland7 is merely a small hoy with rather slight sheer and provided with a 8statie02 while the other is a flat bottomed vessel with 8draai-over-boord0 and never with a 8statie04 ,le ,comte 7p4 #bi7 says that the first of these vessels were built only in the province of ,drenthe1 at ,meppel and ,hoogeveen1 and he too groups the hoy with the 8,friesche pram04 ,so he writes 7p4 #ad71 for example1 that the 8hoys0 sometimes have movable washboards when they load above the gunwales1 whereas this is especially characteristic of the 8,friesche pramen04 ,meanwhile1 the ,pram is often spoken of in ,holland1 although no vessel bearing that name1 or one resembling the ,overijsselsche ,praam1 is found there4 ,this name is used then to designate vessels in general4 ,the big 8,overijsselsche ,praam01 as it is known to-day1 dates only from the second half of the ,x,i,xth century and its increase in size is due solely to the improvement of existing canals and to the opening to traffic of new navigable highways1 nearly all dating from the same period4 ,in this way1 the 8,drentsche ,hoofdvaart0 was only connected with ,groningen by the construction of the ,noord ,willemsvaart in #aheh-ahfb2 7see ,gedenkboek ,koninklijk ,instituut van ,ingenieurs1 p4 #ca74 ,the ,hoogeveensche vaart1 dug in #afbc as an 8,echtens nieuwe grift01 was only extended eastward and improved between #ahej and #ahfj and the ,meppelerdiep was improved only in #ahfj and #ahhb4 ,the final junction of ,friesland and ,groningen by water is also of recent date2 communication was had formerly only by sea4 ,the inland communication between these provinces was still very primitive until the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century4 ,it was only after #ahea that improvement was spoken of1 and in #ahfd1 the ,gaarkeuken lock was rebuilt1 at the boundary between the two provinces1 with a width1 of #f metres and a neat length of #bf metres4 ,the ,stadskanaal1 started in #agff or #agfg was only finished in #aheh4 ,it was also only in the ,x,i,xth century that the improvement of the junction between ,overijssel and ,friesland1 accomplished by the removal of the high peat bogs1 was begun1 and the junction of the northern with the southern provinces of the ,netherlands was brought about in #ahbj by the opening of the 8,willemsvaart0 7which connects the ,yssel with the ,zwartewater74 ,a water supply canal had really been built from ,zwolle toward ,yssel as far back as the ,x,i,vth century1 and improvement of this canal1 so as to make it navigable had really been begun in #adhj1 but the reciprocal jealousy of the cities of ,yssel stopped these works4 7,dr4 ,h4 ,blink1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhb47 ,up to the first half of the ,x,i,xth century1 water communications between the northern provinces were had under these conditions1 by way of the ,zuyder ,zee1 communications for which vessels of the hoy group were1 at first used exclusively4 ,the 8,potten0 and the 8,pujen01 like the 8,sompen0 and 8,peggen01 were unable to stand the high seas 7,witsen1 p4 #agj47 and only the 8,prams01 which appeared later1 were able by reason of their size and strength to take the open sea1 and soon to spread over all our country4 ,it is interesting to inquire however1 how the name 8,praams0 came to be admitted into a country where there existed so many other and more appropriate names4 ,there is no doubt that the influence of the province of ,groningen brought about this adoption4 ,in fact1 the city of ,groningen decided1 by the 8,convenant van #ahag0 7treaty of #ahag1 a time when the big ,pramen of ,overijssel were not yet built7 that people coming to the market must pay1 like every one else1 the ordinary tolls at bridges1 locks and gates of existing canals4 ,there was to be paid for the canals to be built thirty cents at each lock for a 8schip0 7boat7 and ten cents for a 8pram04 ,the same distinction between boat and 8pram0 was already found in the old tariffs4 ,for example3 the 8,stadsordonnantie0 of ,january #bh1 #aggc1 lays down that a boat shall pay #ae sous at the locks of the city and a 8pram0 only #d sous4 ,it appears from all this that a distinction was made at ,groningen between the 8boat0 and the 8pram0 and from the great difference in price it is clear that a 8pram0 was a small boat4 ,this is so evident that more ample explanations in regard to the nature of the 8pram0 have not been sought1 and it is clear that the well known 8,slijkpramen0 of the province of ,groningen are meant1 the 8,slijkpramen0 being used just as well in the ,dollard as in the peat bogs4 ,they are small narrow boats1 open above1 with a straight longitudinal section1 full bow and stern 7like the hoys of ,groningen74 ,they are found also1 with a few changes1 under the name of 8,vlotpramen04 ,when1 after the completion of the ,noord ,willemsvaart in #ahfb1 the direct connection between ,overijssel and ,groningen was accomplished and this latter province could be reached by the large ,overijssel boats1 which had also sides with no sheer1 it was found evidently advantageous to call these vessels simply 8,prams04 ,in this way1 advantage was taken of the lower rate and1 considering the resulting profits1 good care was taken not to change the name 8,pram0 to that of 8,schip04 ,it was only in #aijc that a judgment of the justice of the peace of ,groningen decided that the vessels in question must be considered as 8,schepen0 and not as 8,pramen01 considered by the above mentioned covenant4 7,provinciale ,groninger ,courant1 ,dinsdag1 #bd ,februari #aijc1 ,n #df47 ,this judgment1 which put an end to the advantages mentioned above1 was given as the result of a report of experts dated ,december #bd1 #aijb4 ,among the preambles of this report is pointed out the ,french translation of an article of the tariff sheet appended to the convenant of #ahag1 where the word 8,praam0 was translated officially by 8bateau dit vlotpraam01 meaning by that1 and rightly1 the small open 8praam0 of ,groningen4 ,the experts were mistaken1 however1 in saying that the present large 8prams0 were descended from the 8vlotpraam0 of ,groningen4 ,these prams are exactly like the ,overijssel boats1 but their dimensions are larger4 ,furthermore1 they never belonged to the ,groningen class of vessels4 ,their fine bow and stern are the most striking proof of this4 ,in order to settle the type of the 8prams01 search should not have been made alone in ,groningen1 as was done by the experts1 but a comparison should have been made between the types of this province and those of ,overijssel4 ,to refer1 as in the report of the experts1 to a few earlier judgments where it is a question of 8,praamschip0 proves just as little1 because there is no sense in considering the name of a boat1 the type is what is required4 ,the conclusion of the report is still more absurd1 seeing that it says that the 8praam0 is a 8boat0 7schip71 because the owner is called a 8boatman0 7schipper76 ,the covenant of #ahag was not applicable to the 8,overijsselsche pramen0 because these did not exist when the agreement was concluded4 ,what precedes shows plainly that it is important to classify boats clearly and to determine beyond doubt the country to which the types belong4 ,it is perfectly natural that ,overijssel should have found itself under the influence of the other provinces4 ,so1 the 8,hoy0 is found along the ,zuyder-,zee and1 in the ,x,v,i,ith century1 the 8,i,jzeren ,verken0 7anglice3 iron hog7 is a boat which should also be classed among the hoys and which ,witsen calls a solid boat from ,overijssel 7p4 #agj74 ,in the same way1 the 8statie0 from ,friesland is taken up in ,overijssel1 it being originally from the former province4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #cg ,it will be useless to note that 8,praamaken0 and 8,aaktjalken0 are met with1 that is to say a few boats having the shape of the 8,praam0 and of the ,hoy1 but without a stem4 ,the bottom ends in the nose and the planking is assembled on this front face4 ,many 8hoys0 and 8prams0 have been built of iron during recent years4 ,they still show characteristic differences among themselves1 but it is to be expected that finally the forms will be confounded1 when the 8prams0 will have taken fuller forms and the sheer of the hoys will have been reduced4 ,,the ,,koftjalk4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #be ,finally1 the 8,koftjalk0 must be mentioned again2 it being a boat which is intermediate between the 8,kof0 and the 8,hoy04 ,this kind of boat is originally from ,groningen and resembles strongly the 8,buitenmotten0 of ,east ,friesland4 ,the 8,koftjalk0 is the precursor of the 8,koffs0 which later on replaced the 8,cats and the ,flutes04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #bb ,the 8,koffs0 therefore are not a spontaneous production1 but were developed gradually as trade and industry extended or as navigable highways reached further and became improved4 ,thus the dimensions of the 8,koffs0 increased at the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century as the result of the creation of the ,damsterdiep in #agia4 ,if ,hogendorp 7,bijdrage tot de huishouding van den ,staat1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahc71 still speaks1 at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 of 8,koffs0 of #gj to #ajj lasts1 on the other hand1 ,le ,comte 7p4 #af7 mentions1 at the beginning of the ,x,i,xth1 8,koffs0 of #ajj to #aej 8lasts04 ,the name of 8,koftjalk0 shows1 on the other hand1 that there is only a slight difference existing between the 8,koff0 and the 8,hoy04 ,,the ,,kraak4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #dg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #agf ,sidenote3 ,,ii #agh ,the 8,kraak0 is a strongly built boat1 with no sheer1 with full and rounded bow and stern1 belonging to the smack group4 ,this vessel1 of the size of a small 8hoy01 belongs to the region limited by the broken line ,amsterdam1 ,naarden1 ,nigtevecht1 ,haarlem1 ,zaandam and ,amsterdam1 this last city being considered as its place of origin4 ,this very old type of boat is already to be seen in the engravings of the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 but there they are called 8,lichter04 ,it is for this reason that ,witsen speaks of the 8,amsterdamsche binnenlichters01 as being 8een plomb gebouwd zonder zeil of mast overdekt met hooge ronde luiken0 7a heavily built boat1 without masts or sails1 covered by high round hatches74 ,they were generally poled and had no masts2 and carried a small deckhouse aft4 ,an engraving of a 8lichter0 of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 also bears this distich3 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #agg 8,te lichten menich schip bequaem0 8,daar af voert dit schip zijnen naem04 7,the name of this boat comes to it because it is able to raise many another74 ,later1 larger 8,lichters0 were built1 known as 8,lichter0 of ,nigtevecht1 ,brouwershaven1 ,wieringen1 etc4 ,all have the same massive form raised a little forward and aft4 ,a few carry a 8statie04 ,the waist of the boat is always straight4 ,the larger size involved the necessity of a rig1 and the 8,lichters0 so rigged were called 8,kraken01 a name which has nothing in common with that of the ,spanish caracks4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #dh ,an engraving which shows a ferry-boat running between ,amsterdam and ,haarlem1 gives an idea of the precursor of the 8,kraak04 ,there must also be counted among the 8,kraken01 the 8,i,jker01 with a smooth hull1 of which the more recent name undoubtedly designates the same kind of vessel4 ,it is well again to remark that the old 8,turfijker0 has nothing to do with this 8,i,jker01 with a smooth hull1 which it resembles only in name4 ,at ,haarlem1 the 8,kraak0 is called 8,haarlemmerpont04 ,this vessel is a little less bluff and the stern is less full4 ,the ,netherlands1 cut up by innumerable rivers and streams in every direction1 have been1 from the most distant times1 the country 8par excellence0 of ferries and other vessels for carrying man and beast to and fro4 ,,the 8,,overhaalpontje0 ,,skiff4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ei ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fa ,the simplest form of these ferries is shown by the rectangular scow made to run back and forth by hauling on one or two ropes4 ,boats of this kind are very well known by the name of 8,overhaalpontjes0 7skiffs71 of which large numbers exist still in ,holland1 especially in the neighborhoods of ,the ,hague1 ,amsterdam and ,utrecht4 ,,the ,,ponton4 ,the 8,ponton0 is another kind of ferry boat4 ,the larger sized craft are raised forward and aft to facilitate the passage4 ,the bow and stern1 which are broad and flat1 carry a movable part called the 8,koebrug0 7cow bridge7 to facilitate taking horses1 cattle and carts on board4 ,these movable outside bridges are lowered and raised by two balanced levers1 one on each side4 ,by bearing down on them1 the fore bridge is raised a little above the horizontal4 ,the lever is then made fast4 ,after crossing the river1 the bridge is dropped and rests on the approach4 ,the slope of the bridge must not be too great1 nor should the movable part be too long1 otherwise it would be unmanageable4 ,it follows from what precedes1 that there exists1 for a good approach1 a certain relation between the slope of the ramp1 the length of the movable bridge and the draught of the ferry-boat4 ,as a general rule and for ordinary pontoons1 the most favorable slope for the ramp is #a in #h4 ,an easier slope makes too sharp an inclination for the movable bridge2 a steeper slope1 which would make the bridge more nearly horizontal1 would make1 on the other hand1 too difficult an approach for wheeled vehicles4 ,,the 8,,halve ,,pont0 ,,or 8,,pijper04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fj-fd ,in order to send the pontoon across1 oars or a sprit sail can be used4 ,the boat is then steered with an oar4 ,instead of using a pontoon with a movable bridge at each end1 a 8,halve ,pont0 7half pontoon7 is the more generally in service4 ,this is a boat with the bow of an ake and the stern of a pontoon4 ,sometimes this half pontoon is called a 8,pijper04 ,vehicles come an board the ferry over the stern and must leave in the same way4 ,the vehicles must go ashore backward as they cannot turn end for end on the boat itself4 ,if the current of the river be strong enough1 it is utilized to carry the ferry back und forth by means of a cable4 ,it is needless to say that large pontoons with a movable part at each end are used for the purpose4 ,,the 8,,gierpont04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fc ,the 8,gierpont0 7flying bridge7 allows a stream to be crossed as follows3 ,the operating cable is attached at one end to an anchor put down upstream near the middle of the river and at the other end to the middle of the upstream side of the boat4 ,the two ends of the pontoon are then fastened by special lines to the swinging cable4 ,the pontoon can1 in this way1 be made to lie at an angle to the current4 ,the component of the current normal to the side of the boat causes it to cross in describing an arc of a circle around the anchor as a centre and with the length of the cable as a radius4 ,the speed is regulated by changing the angle which the axis of the pontoon makes with the direction of the current4 ,in order to assist the action of the current on the pontoon1 two or four lee-boards are fastened to the upstream side1 that is3 the side next to the cable1 one or two of them serving to cross the stream to the right bank1 the other one or two1 to the left bank4 ,in order to diminish the resistance of the cable in the water1 it is supported by a few small boats called 8onderlegaakjes04 ,a 8,gierpont0 of this kind works1 among others on the ,meuse1 at the ,gravenbicht-,rothem 7,limbourg7 and ,grave crossings4 ,,the ,,kabelveerpont4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fb ,the 8,kabelveerpont0 is another kind of boat for crossing streams4 ,the swinging cable is here replaced by one which crosses the stream1 on the bottom of which it lies under the action of its own weight4 ,the middle of the upstream side of the boat is attached to this cable1 which passes over a sheave4 ,in order to cross the stream1 the boat is pushed off into the current1 after having raised the movable bridges1 then the cable is drawn up on the end of the boat pointing across the river and made to pass over a sheave placed1 temporarily and for the crossing1 at the middle of the bridge4 ,the pontoon then occupies a position oblique to the cable and1 as in the preceding case1 at an angle to the direction of the current which causes the boat to move4 ,the cable1 which runs from one bank to the other1 rests on the bed of the river from which only the part on the boat is raised4 ,the pontoons serving the crossings at ,kessenich-,stevensweert and at ,elsloo-,boorsheim 7,limburg-an-,meuse7 may be mentioned as examples of this kind of ferries4 ,the cable is not always raised1 however1 on the boat because when so raised it may interfere with navigation4 ,sometimes the cable is allowed to remain on the bed of the river and the ferry is attached to a rope which is connected with the cable by means of a roller4 ,this rope1 which is then stretched in the direction of the current1 is fastened to the middle of the upstream side of the boat4 ,if now the latter be inclined by means of a special cable1 as explained in the case of the 8,gierpont01 it crosses the river1 the roller running on the cable which lies on the bottom4 ,an example of such a boat is to be found at the crossing at ,zalt-,bommel in ,gelderland4 ,the trouble with these cables and of all transverse cables in general is that they are often displaced by the anchors of vessels which foul them in passing4 ,abroad1 especially in ,belgium1 the cables for trail bridges 7as they are called in the ,united ,states7 are stretched above the river so that vessels can pass underneath4 ,but this arrangement does not seem to be applicable to heavy boats and to the great widths of the crossings found in ,holland without using expensive means for supporting the cable4 ,in ,limburg1 where the character of the ,meuse is torrential1 and where the steep slope of the bed causes much more violent currents than in the rest of our country1 the barges have no lee boards4 ,a very wide approach ramp is necessary for all these ferries in general and for the 8,kabelveerponten0 in particular4 ,a width of #af metres at the level of mean low water and lessening upward has been found necessary1 because of the slack of the cable which varies with the strength of the current and the force of the wind4 ,the more violent the current1 the easier it is to go safely on the boat1 and this allows the width of the approach ramp to be reduced near the top1 because this upper part is only utilized during high water4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #agd ,sidenote3 ,,iii #age ,sidenote3 ,,iii #agh ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aha ,it is needless to say that not only pontoons1 but also every kind of boats1 such as the 8hoys0 and 8poonen0 already mentioned1 can be also utilized for crossing4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fe ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fg ,use is also frequently made of the 8,hengsten0 7anglice3 stallions1 used here to designate strength7 and of the 8,veerhengsten0 which belong to the type of the 8,hoogaarsen01 which they resemble greatly4 ,the 8,hoorgaarsen0 are described among the fishing boats4 ,for ferrying pedestrians1 rowboats and 8vletten0 are very frequently used4 ,one remark may still be added to what precedes3 ,two cables are needed for tidal rivers1 one above and one below1 so as to be able to work during both the ebb and flood tides4 ,the manuvres then become difficult at times1 because when the tide is at a stand there is no current or it is so weak that the crossing is not always possible4 ,in these cases the cables are used merely as guides for the boats4 ,the latter are run across by hand or by a motor which works a special cable for crossing4 ,a system of this sort is located on the ,bergsche ,meuse1 below ,heusden4 ,if the current becomes too strong at high water1 so that there is danger of breaking the cables1 the pontoon way be attached to a swinging cable which would then take up the greater part of the tension4 ,this cable should be very long3 #a so that the pull on the anchor way be as nearly horizontal as possible and #b so that the arc described by the ferry boat may be as flat as possible4 ,the small inland boats are not less important than those just considered4 ,their size has gone on increasing as the navigable highways are improved and the clinker-built hulls give way to the carvel built4 ,they differ1 in the matter of form1 from the types mentioned above1 by their relatively small beam as compared with their length1 as much as by their very much inclined bow and stern4 ,if1 as a general rule1 the ratio between length and breadth which lay generally between #c4e and #d4f now reaches often #e for the inland boats4 ,evidently1 they are all flat-bottomed and1 of late years1 they have been built with a more rounded bilge4 ,,the ,,bok4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hd ,the ,bok is one of the largest vessels of this group4 ,it is met with in ,friesland1 in the ,north-,west of the province of ,utrecht1 below ,ankeveen and 's ,graveland1 and in the ,north-,east of ,south ,holland to the ,north of the ,old ,rhine4 ,it is a long1 narrow boat1 #af metres long1 only #c4ce m4 beam and #a4ge m4 depth4 ,it narrows sharply toward the bottom and has a very strong sternpost and stem4 ,the sternpost is straight and leaning2 the stern also slopes and is slightly curved4 ,the bow of the boat is square which gives it a characteristic appearance4 ,,the ,,snik4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #he ,along with the 8,bok0 there is found in ,friesland1 the ,snik1 which is a 8,bok0 of less square build with a more sloping sternpost and stem4 ,in the province of ,holland1 the same difference from the 8,bok0 is noted in the 8,harlemmermeerlompertje0 which is smaller than the 8,frisian ,snik04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hf ,neither the name of 8,snik0 nor that of 8,bok0 is known in ,groningen1 but there is in this region a boat of the same kind1 with its bow and stern a little fuller than those of the 8,bok04 ,it is the ,groningen aardappelpraam 7,groningen potato pram7 already met with4 ,like the three preceding boats1 its bends have a slight sheer4 ,its full bow and stern differentiate it from the 8,overijsselsche pramen04 ,if we leave the ,haarlem lake1 passing by ,leiden1 that is to say3 if we cross the country of the downs going toward the ,west1 we meet everywhere a type of boat which1 while smaller1 is still shaped like the 8bokken04 ,this type as the 8,westlander0 7boat of the ,west7 is its representative4 ,,the 8,,westlander04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hj ,this boat has a sharply raking and slightly curved stem4 ,it rises but little above the water so as to be able to pass under the bridges4 ,it can use sails but1 most of the time1 it is moved ahead by means of a boathook4 ,the boat is decked over with flat and horizontal hatch covers4 ,considering the relatively low position of the tiller1 these boats1 like the preceding1 have a 8stuurbak0 7a cockpit in the deck where the helmsman stands74 ,the top plank is strengthened so as to act as a bend4 ,if this element be lacking1 which is frequently the case with the small boats of this class1 they are also called 8,bok01 but this must not be confounded with the big ,frisian 8,bok0 mentioned above4 8,westlanders0 are often used for levelling off the downs2 they are well known at the ,hague4 ,,the ,,kaag4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahb ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahe ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ga ,in the ,x,v,i,ith century1 there was met with1 to the ,north of ,leyden1 along the ,haarlem lake and in that part of ,north ,holland lying ,north of the line ,aalsmeer-,muiden1 a boat then currently called 8,kaag0 7,kage or ,kaghe71 of which ,witsen gives a good reproduction in his work 7p4 #agd74 ,this boat differed from the preceding types by the greater elevation of the bow and by the drawing together of the upper planking1 which make it resemble the fishing boat1 called the 8,hoogaars04 ,like this last1 it had a broad bow1 but the stern1 on the other hand1 is more narrowed4 ,the stem was straight but with a marked rake4 ,the mast is at one-third the length from the bow2 it is rigged with a sprit sail4 ,this boat no longer exists now1 but1 on the other hand1 a boat with a smooth hull is met with which resembles it and is now called the 8,snik0 or 8,gondel04 ,it is1 however1 less angular and has a square stern1 which1 as every where else1 appeared later4 ,it is probable that it is the old 8,kaag0 which is again found in this class of boats and which is often used to-day4 ,the ratio of length to beam is the same for both vessels4 ,on the tidal rivers of ,holland1 there is found1 as a small boat1 the ,kinderdijksche ,hoogaars which resembles the old kaag perfectly4 ,then1 there is met with among the islands of ,south ,holland1 a boat with a smooth hull1 the 8,beyerlandsche ,schuitje0 which is an 8ake0 if its bottom which rises right up to the extreme point of the bow be considered2 it is probably not a very old type4 ,its affiliation with the preceding boats can still be easily observed4 ,this boat is #i m4 long1 #b4ge m4 beam and #a4cj m4 deep4 ,the mast is from a quarter to a third of the length from the bow4 ,the 8,beyerlandsche ,schuit0 corresponds fully to the fishing boat called the 8,tholensche ,schouw04 ,,the ,,utrecht ,,pram4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hh ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hg ,there is met with in the province of ,utrecht another kind of boat which1 while resembling the 8,westlander0 somewhat differs from it by its finer lines and more slender construction4 ,the sternpost1 like the stem1 is straight and rakes a great deal1 which makes these boats very pointed4 ,they are ,utrechtsche ,pramen 7,utrecht ,pram7 and when they are entirely open they are called ,kromme ,rijnaak although they do not show the characteristic flat bottom rising toward the bow4 ,they correspond to the 8,vlotschuit0 mentioned by ,witsen 7p4 #aga1 ,no4 #c7 even though this latter boat is broader in proportion to its length4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hi ,the 8,utrecht pram0 sails along the 8,kromme ,rijn0 and in the country still further ,north1 along the ,vecht4 ,it greatly resembles a 8punter0 of the ,north of ,overijssel 7near ,vollenhove1 etc47 but it is longer and narrower4 ,this class of boat is also met with in ,north ,holland3 the ,groenteschuitje van ,hoorn1 called by ,witsen 7p4 #aga-c7 ,weyschuitje is an example4 ,,the 8,,schouw04 ,the ,schouw is a flat1 open tub met everywhere4 ,it is a very simple and very primitive boat which is seen already in the oldest engravings both in the countries along the ,mediterranean and in the countries of the ,north of ,europe4 ,the 8,schouwen0 are very much used in our country of canals and rivers4 ,these more or less large tubs have gradually developed into the form of boats4 ,nearly all are pulled or pushed with a pole4 ,the largest are the 8,melkschouwen0 of which large numbers can be seen every day at ,rotterdam4 ,the hull of the 8,schouwen0 narrows a little forward and aft1 while the bottom rises there regularly4 ,these boats are entirely open as a rule4 ,when they have a hold covered with hatch covers and when they are a little higher and carry a cuddy forward and aft they are called ,schiedamsche ,schouwen1 better known still by the name of ,spoelingschuiten 7small boats for carrying the refuse of fruit74 ,,the 8,,trekschuit04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbg ,it is hard for the present generation to imagine that1 #fj years ago1 the 8,trekschuit0 was still the only means of locomotion of the period4 ,who would now think of going in a 8,trekschuit0 from the ,hague to ,schevening or back where so many electric trams cross each other everywhere8 ,and yet1 the 8,trekschuiten0 have played an important part in our 8country of water0 and there are still some regions where these boats are in use4 ,the 8,trekschuiten01 properly so called1 could be divided into two classes1 those with a sloping but straight stem and those with a curved stem4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gg ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gi ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hj ,the first1 which are almost entirely like the ,westlanders1 while being of a little more massive construction1 are found particularly in ,north and ,south ,holland and to the ,west of ,utrecht4 ,the old engravings show that these boats have changed little in the course of the centuries2 the water tight cabin being the only serious modification which they have undergone4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gh ,they are still frequently met with as 8,pakschuiten01 of which the vivid colors 7green1 white1 red7 immediately attract the eyes4 ,the second class of these boats1 which have curved stems1 are of more elegant shape4 ,they are known by the name of 8,barges0 or 8,trekjachten01 and are found especially in the ,north of our country1 in ,north ,holland1 ,groningen1 ,friesland4 ,their bows and sterns are quite full 7like the 8hoys07 and make one think rather of the old yachts1 fined down a little1 from which they are certainly descended4 ,,the 8,,yacht04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aef ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bce ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahe ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ij ,the old 8,yacht0 was one of the most beautiful boats in use4 ,at first a small reproduction of the pinnace1 it was afterwards built of larger dimensions while offering1 by reason of its lack of depth1 78,vlotgaanswille01 as it used to be said71 pretty full forms4 ,the decoration of the cabin and of the stern was particularly carefully wrought out4 ,the 8,yachts0 carried sprit sails and had no lee boards4 ,it is to be regretted that sundry pictures showing yachts should not have been preserved2 in the second half of the ,x,i,xth century some of them were destroyed as firewood4 ,a few superb photographs of 8,yachts01 taken from drawings in the collection of ,mr4 van ,gijn1 of ,dordrecht1 accompany the collection and it will be seen how suggestive they are4 ,,the 8,,baggeraak04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #fh ,the 8,baggeraak0 7dredging ake7 forms a special group4 ,as has been said already1 they can be classified in three groups4 ,to the first group1 belongs the 8,vlet0 7flat7 or 8,baggeraak0 which is met with in ,southern ,holland1 the ,west of the ,betuwe1 the ,west of ,northern ,brabant 7the ,biesbosch and ,donge7 and also in ,zeeland1 in a word1 on all our tidal rivers4 ,the 8,flette0 or 8,baggeraak0 7called also 8,sliedrechtsche aak07 was a small stout boat which1 save for a small cuddy in the bow1 was wholly open4 ,its rig was the 8,spritsail01 it was provided with lee boards and movable wash boards so as to facilitate the casting of hand dredges4 ,these wash boards were placed only when the boat was partially loaded1 that is when it was appreciably down in the water4 ,the mast was set at one-fifth to one-fourth of the length of the vessel from the bow4 ,the ratio of beam to length was as #a3d4 ,the planking was continuous to the nose against which a false stem was fitted4 ,in ,zeeland1 a great many 8,hoogaarsen0 are used for dredging1 and 8,boeieraakjes0 are employed in ,brabant and ,holland1 as at the ,biesbosch and on the ,amer and the ,donge4 ,they are also used a great deal on the ,meuse1 although there1 as on other upper rivers1 the 8,bovenlandsche ,baggeraakjes0 were formerly employed4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gj ,there belong to the ,bovenlandsche baggeraakjes those vessels of the ,meuse which stand midway between the 8,keen0 and the 8,whalemajol04 ,they have a little sprit sail rig and a 8,klaphekken0 7a special kind of rudder74 ,the largest1 known especially by the name of 8,hedelsche ,aken0 and which carry lee-boards1 are used for all sorts of purposes4 ,these boats belong neither to the true ,meuse type nor to the ,rhenish type above ,bonn 7,the ,keen1 etc474 ,they form an isolated group1 descended probably from the two types in question4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gb ,the ,vreeswijksche zandschuit 7sand boat of ,vreeswijck7 alone remains of the ,rhine boats4 ,it has the bow of a 8,dorstensche ,aak0 and the stern resembles that of the 8,dortsche ,zandschuit0 7sand boat of ,dordrecht74 ,this 8,dortsche ,zandschuit0 is alike at bow and stern and the hull is smooth4 ,although it is more pointed1 this boat resembles the 8,westerling0 a little1 the latter being known as a very old boat of the lepper ,scheldt 7see ,dehem1 p4 #eje74 ,the old 8,dortsche ,zandschuit0 was especially used for dredging ballast intended for sea-going vessels4 ,a large number of 8,bokken01 already mentioned among the 8,westlanders01 are used for levelling down the dunes in the ,west and in the ,rhine country4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #hg ,the 8,slijkpraam01 which resembles the 8,kromme ,rijnaak0 already mentioned1 is used in the province of ,utrecht1 while finally1 the 8,vlotpraam0 or 8,slijkpraam0 is still met with in ,groningen4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdf ,from a certain standpoint1 the 8,hoogeveensche ,pramen01 mentioned above1 which are used in the peat bottoms1 should be classified in this group4 ,,the 8,,bagger-,,or ,,moddermolen0 7,the ,dredge74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bgd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bgg ,the 8,moddermolen0 7mud mill7 or 8,moddermolenschip0 was already found in the first half of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 as the forerunner of the 8,baggermolen0 7bucket or ladder dredge74 ,this dredge was worked by hand at first2 later on horses were used for this purpose4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #f1 and ,witsen47 ,a horsepower and a stable were built on the deck4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 says ,le ,comte1 the old 8,moddermolen0 was already so perfected that it was imagined that there was nothing more to improve4 ,navigation1 however1 kept calling for greater and greater depths1 so that the ,kater ,brothers1 dredge builders at ,monnikendam1 were led to build1 in #ahbi1 a boat which dredged down to a depth of #g metres4 ,from three to six horses were used1 according to the depth and compactness of the materials to be dredged4 ,these same builders1 says ,le ,comte at another place1 were the inventors of the 8,klepschouwen01 for which they asked the concession on ,may #a1 #ahcj4 ,le ,comte gives an engraving of these dredges in plate #ab of his work4 ,j4 ,c4 ,kerkmeijer relates1 in an article of the ,eigenhaard ,review 7#aijf71 entitled 8,de ,diep-of ,baggermolen1 een merkwaardige ontdekking01 that he had found the model of the dredge built by its inventor in #afcb1 a model which is mentioned by ,c4 ,a4 ,abbing1 in his continuation of the ,chronicle of ,hoorn1 by ,veluis 7#ahda1 p4 #ab71 wherein it is stated3 8,about this time 7#afcb7 ,jan ,jantz ,nieng1 a native-born citizen of this town 7,hoorn71 invented the diepmolens4 ,the first model1 made by him1 was #b feet #f inches long1 #i inches broad and #f inches high2 the measurements being taken over all40 ,this model was still to be seen at the city shops at ,hoorn a few years ago4 ,the model found by ,mr4 ,kerkmeijer was carefully repaired by him and it is preserved at the city hall of the town4 ,thanks to the kind assistance of this author1 a few details can still be given in regard to the 8,moddermolen0 of ,middelbourg1 called 8,dieplust04 ,these details were received from the chief of the ,kool ship yard of this town4 ,the 8,dieplust0 extracted the mud by means of a trough with low straight sides1 lined at its lower end with iron4 ,when the boat was moved1 by means of a cable attached to an anchor1 the lower end of the trough entered into the mud as far as it could4 ,the ladder of the dredge was suspended inside of the trough and to its endless chain were fastened pieces of plank of about the same width as that of the trough4 ,these pieces of plank tumbling around a hexagonal or octagonal drum at the lower end worked down into the mud of which they brought up a certain quantity and discharged it through a hole at the top of the trough4 ,there was no question yet of buckets to bring up the dredged materials1 these having only made their appearance with steam dredges4 ,the trough1 with the ladder1 could be lowered or raised by means of a windlass2 it passed through an opening which was not in the axis of the boat4 ,in the larger half of the vessel was placed the shaft which1 by means of gearings1 transmitted to the ladder the movement produced by the horses4 ,these gearings were similar to those of the old wind mills4 ,a horse power and a stable were constructed on the deck of the boat4 ,the ,ghent paper ,het ,volksbelang published the ,eigenhaard article in its issue of ,june #i1 #aijf4 ,some doubts are emitted1 however1 about #afcb being the authentic year of the invention1 because the following annotation is found in the ,resolutie boek van de ,staten van ,vlaanderen of #afbh-afcj1 ,f #af 7,archives of the ,state1 at ,ghent4--,n #eec73 8,actum den ,,xxii ,may #afbh wierd den ,ingeniaris ,adam ,clippens1 ghemaackt hebbende den slijckmeulen1 gelicentieert en de gheordonneert hem te geven ordonnantie van betalijnghe den dach van merghen mitghaders hondert guldenen voor eene vereeringhe zoo ghedaen is geweest0#be4 ,from which it would appear that a mechanical dredge must have been built in ,flanders in #afbh4 ,hence the year given by ,abbing cannot be correct1 or else the same machine might have been invented at two different places at about the same period4 ,the question is not yet settled1 but1 be that as it may1 it must be granted that the first mechanical dredge was at work in the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,,the 8,,tjotter04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ia ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdh ,pleasure boats or ,yachts have been described so often and so many different types have been used as such that they could be passed by in silence4 ,let it suffice to mention the ,tjotter1 which is spread throughout ,friesland1 and the ,friesch ,bootje4 ,the 8,tjotter0 is a full1 short and broad craft of elegant lines and steady on the water4 ,it has a great deal of sheer1 is fore-and-aft rigged 7bazaantuig7 and is generally very well finished4 ,,the 8,,laadbak0 ,,and ,,the 8,,zolderschuit04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #gd-gf ,the ,laadbak and the ,zolderschuit are so well known that nothing more will be done than to refer to the drawings given of these two vessels4 ,,the 8,,onderlegger04 ,it is worth while to point out still another very serviceable boat which has always been much in use4 ,it is the ,onderlegger of which an engraving is given by ,witsen 7p4 #age7 and which was used for heaving vessels down for repairs1 for pulling piles out of the ground1 for hoisting in masts1 etc4 ,it was #fj feet long1 #af feet broad1 and #f feet deep and carried two capstans4 ,,the 8,,bovenlanders04 ,the craft frequenting our upper rivers are called ,bovenlanders4 ,they are totally different from the types met with so far4 ,they are all relatively long and narrow1 flat-bottomed and draw but little water4 ,it may be said1 as a general rule1 that the 8,bovenlanders0 appear where the tidal rivers end4 ,they have been in existence since the most distant times although they are rarely ever seen in the engravings4 ,if they were not often mentioned1 it was doubtless because they were not considered as being worth a description1 or1 perhaps again1 because they were not sufficiently known4 ,witsen mentions only the following vessels 7p4 #agj-aga7 of which he says textually3 8,a7 ,the ,overlanders1 which come to us from the ,upper ,rhine1 are vessels with high sides1 heavy and rather unfinished4 ,whole families live on them4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bac ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bad 8,b7 ,the ,samoreuzen are very long flat boats which bring wood down the ,rhine4 ,they carry a very high mast1 made in two parts1 and fastened by lines to the ends and sides of the boat4 8,c7 ,the ,aeken1 which bring wine from ,cologne1 are long1 high and very full4 ,their rudder is very wide4 8,d7 ,the ,dortsche ,koolhaelders are very long1 open boats1 flat-bottomed1 so as to be better able to cross the shoals of the river4 ,they have near the middle a square deck house which serves as a dwelling for the boatmen4 ,they are square at the corners and the rudder is long and broad4 ,the sail is square and is hoisted on a short mast1 near the deck house1 by means of a curved yard40 ,van ,yk speaks of 8,geldersche ,samoreusen0 7p4 #cdh7 and ,le ,comte1 of a 8,samoreus0 or 8,keulenaer0 7p4 #dd7 which are to be seen on the ,groenewegen engraving4 7,series ,f1 ,no #c47 ,the 8,overlanders0 mean the 8,bovenlanders01 and the 8,samoreuzen0 mean the boats coming from above ,cologne1 while the 8,aeken0 are probably big 8,keenaken04 ,finally1 the 8,dortsche ,koolhaelders0 are undoubtedly the 8,dorstensche ,aken04 ,neither engravings nor description give any exact idea4 ,but the types of these craft have been very well preserved on the ,rhine until the introduction of iron2 the clinker built hulls have even remained intact1 and this enables us to appreciate even now what these boats of by-gone days were and whence they came4 ,,the ,,rhine4 ,as was seen in the general classification1 the ,rhenisch boats may be divided into two groups3 a7 ,those navigating the ,rhine below ,bonn2 b7 ,those navigating the ,rhine1 above ,bonn1 and its tributaries1 with the exception of the ,neckar1 where is found a boat belonging to group a4 ,group a includes3 #a4--,the ,dorstensche ,aak1 so called from the town of ,dorsten where these boats were frequently built4 ,it is a long and narrow 8ake0 of which the bottom was continued all the way to the tip of the bow2 the length was #f to #g times the beam and the hull was clinker built4 ,the bow was full1 the stern slender at the water line4 ,the after deck included a poop deck1 with a much curved tiller resting on a solid 8luierwagen0 7prop74 ,the rudder was large and heavy4 ,these boats had two masts4 ,the cabin on the small boats was by the after mast2 on the larger1 there was a free space between the cabin and the mast4 ,a dwelling was placed aft of the main mast and in the bow was a cabin for the servant4 ,the hold was decked over with plane inclined hatch covers1 which1 formerly1 were round4 ,the 8,dorstensche ,aak0 with round hatch covers was a 8,samoreus04 ,alongside of these latter there used to be akes with open holds called 8,dorstsche ,koolhaelders04 ,although these boats were no fuller than the other akes they appeared1 like all clinker built boats1 more massive4 ,they generally carried square sails on the main mast and fore-and-aft sails on the smaller4 ,as a general rule1 these boats reached us unfinished and it was only when the cargo 7pots and other household utensils7 was sold1 that they were finished in our country4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #id #b4--,the ,neckaraak 7ake from the ,neckar7 was a small 8,dorstenche ,aak0 of which the length was about #f times the breadth4 ,these vessels were long and narrow and worked well4 ,they had a characteristic cabin which1 compared with the height of the boat1 rose a great deal above the deck4 ,they had1 in addition to a main mast1 a small one near the rudder4 ,they carried no lee boards1 but their rudder was like that of 8,dorstensche ,aak04 ,,the 8,,stevenschip04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ie ,the ,stevenschip resembled the 8,dorstensche ,aak04 ,like this latter1 it was clinker built1 carried the same rig and was built in the same way4 ,it differed from it only in this that the planking did not end at the nose1 but1 on the contrary1 was rabbetted into a strong and somewhat curved stem4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #if ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ih ,the preceding types were met with also in our country both clinker and carvel built4 ,they were then called ,hollandsche ,aaken 7,dutch akes7 and ,stevenschepen1 whereas alongside of the latter there were found formerly a large number of smaller akes along the ,rhine1 the ,waal and the ,lek as far as the point where the tidal regimen begins1 and along the ,yssel and its tributaries4 ,these 8akes0 were exact copies of the large akes but at the same time they had more elegant lines by reason of their less length4 ,those which are seen in our album are made from some old specimens which date1 probably1 from the ,x,v,i,i,ith century4 ,the bow of the 8,hollandsche aak0 is rather flatter than that of the 8,dorstensche aak04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajj ,the 8,bovenlanders0 took on also rather fuller forms1 as can be seen by comparing the drawing of a 8,dorstensche aak0 with that of a 8,samoreus04 ,a few small ,dutch akes carry a discontinuous false stem1 whence their name of 8,hollandsche ,schechtaak04 ,a few of the 8,aakjes0 7small akes7 are met with also along the ,merwede and the ,yssel4 ,,the 8,,turfijker0 ,,and ,,the 8,,hagenaar04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aja ,in the region to the ,east of the line from ,leiden to ,delft1 ,north of ,rotterdam1 ,south of the ,old ,rhine and ,west of ,utrecht1 there used to exist a very curious type of clinker-built boat of small dimensions1 constructed in the ,german way1 called the ,turfijker1 which has disappeared but of which the characteristics are found in the 8,hagenaar04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ii ,the 8,hagenaar0 is a flat boat without sheer1 which rises very little above water on account of the small clear height of the bridges at ,the ,hague1 whence its name of 8,hagenaar0 7,boat of the ,hague74 ,here then is found in the very heart of the province of ,holland1 a type of 8,bovenlander04 ,it is curious to note that the same large ,dutch 8aaken0 7,dorsten type7 are still to be met with in the ,north-,west of ,north ,brabant 7,langstraat7 where they are still built while this kind of construction has been abandoned on the ,meuse and the ,lower ,waal4 ,the second group of boats under consideration and which circulate above ,bonn is easily distinguished from the first by the long rudder1 attached to the main-piece which traverses the stern4 ,from the end of the rudder1 called 8klaphekken01 starts above the main piece1 a strong piece of timber solidly fastened to the tiller4 ,this rudder is called the ,klaphekken4 ,all the boats belonging to this group carry this characteristic rudder2 they are1 moreover1 flatter than those of the first group4 ,they are clinker built although many are now met with which are carvel built4 ,,the 8,,keen04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aje ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajf ,the ,keen may be considered as the fundamental type of this second group4 ,it was rigged formerly like the 8,dorstensche ,aak0 but it now carries1 like all the boats1 a fore and aft sail4 ,the bottom rises both forward and aft to the level of the nose4 ,hence the 8,keen0 is an 8ake04 ,the planking is assembled on the bottom very nearly along a right line4 ,the stern carries1 as a rule1 a poop deck4 ,,the 8,,keenaak04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajg ,the ,keenaak is broader as compared with its length and it is generally a little larger1 it stands higher out of water1 its ends are fuller and the side planking ends in a point at the nose4 ,,the 8,,lahnaak0 ,,and ,,the 8,,slof04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajh ,the 8,keen0 when entirely open is called a ,lahnaak 7ake of the ,lahn72 its size has been increased of late years4 ,when vessels of this kind have nearly vertical sides1 blunt bow and stern1 and smooth planking they are known as a ,slof4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aji ,one of the characteristics of the 8,sloffen0 is that they always carry at the bow a narrow cabin which rises a little above the deck of the boat4 ,the 8,sloffen0 have been closed in of late years with hatch covers1 and then they are called simply 8,akes04 ,the boatmen even call the 8,slof0 sometimes the 8,mulmsche ,aak04 7,mlheim ake74 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aaj ,a very strongly built boat1 which dates only from the second half of the ,x,i,xth century1 must also be mentioned as belonging to the first group3 the ,bunder4 ,this boat is shaped like a 8,dorstensche ,aak01 but it is carvel built and is covered in with hatch covers4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajb ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajd ,finally1 these must still be mentioned among the boats of our country the 8's ,gravenmoersche ,aak0 which made its appearance at 's ,gravenmoer in the ,x,i,xth century and which came from the ,upper ,rhine to be used at the ,biesbosch4 ,boats of this category were provided originally with 8,klaphekken01 a special rudder which later has been sometimes done away with1 either because it was too long or because it was not sufficiently strong1 and which has been replaced by an ordinary rudder4 ,they resemble the 8,lahnaak0 and are used especially for carrying hay4 ,the coming of iron and steel will cause these boats1 like so many others to disappear4 ,in order to avoid confusion1 it is necessary to dwell upon the fact that some ,dutch ,akes have been provided later with false stems1 which gives them the appearance of 8,stevenschepen0 but which1 does not make them so4 ,,the ,,meuse4 ,the long1 narrow1 light draught boats which frequent the ,upper ,meuse and its tributaries have an entirely different appearance from those which have just been considered4 ,in the first place1 their rudder differs entirely from that of the preceding types4 ,it is true that the long rudder attached to the stock has been kept1 but the piece of bent wood has given place to a curved balance beam in two parts of which the after ends are fastened to the after upper corner of the rudder1 one on each side4 ,the two parts of the balance beam are made fast near their middle and by means of a chain to the head of the stock of the rudder4 ,the forward end of the balance beam is connected with the end of the tiller by a rope drawn up taut so as to make the whole very solid4 ,the balance beam is composed of two twin pieces4 ,the rudder stock comes up through the stern1 but the latter1 instead of rising gently and regularly aft1 bends sharply inboard4 ,,the ,,whalemajol4 ,originally1 the bow of the ,meuse boats had another form2 of late years1 these craft have been made fuller1 and their bow has been bent back to reduce the length of the boat and increase its capacity4 ,the oldest type of this category is the ,whalemajol 7or ,mijole74 ,its bow and stern are pointed and its main frame is a trapezoid on which the three upper tiers of planking are clinker laid and the hull below is carvel built4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ajh ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aaa ,the ,herna is of the same size as the preceding1 is wider at bow and stern1 and ends with a horizontal timber4 ,its main frame1 formerly trapezoidal1 as in the preceding case1 is now rectangular like that of the ,rhenish 8,sloffen04 ,the ,spitsbek is a small 8,herna0 7old form7 entirely covered over4 ,it is made of all sizes and is called 8,spitsbek0 7pointed beak7 on account of its slender shape4 ,the 8,klaphekken0 seems now to be preferred to the old rudder of the 8,whalemajols0 and it is gradually being adopted4 ,a 8,whalemajol with a klaphekken0 is called a 8,whalepont0 or a 8,maaspont04 ,boats of this kind are also found in the southern part of the ,limbourg ,meuse4 ,further down stream they are1 however1 the 8,hedelsche ,aken01 which come between the 8,keen0 and the 8,majols01 which latter are the more numerous4 ,these craft carry a 8,klaphekken0 and sometimes they also carry now an ordinary rudder4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,a part of the deck where people gathered to talk4 #bb ,the ship will be #ef feet long and its width at the lee boards will be such that it can pass the lock of the ,leidschen ,dam1 which gives #aa feet and #a inch as the maximum breadth4 #bc ,see the ,gedenkboek van het ,koninklijk ,instituut van ,ingenieurs1 p4 #ea1 ,van der ,vegt1 p4 ,de ,binnenscheepvaart in ,zuid-,holland4 #bd ,the ,holland ,states undertook1 in #ahhe1 the improvement of the navigable highway between the ,rhine and the ,schie4 ,whereas1 up to #afdh1 the rivalry of the cities tolerated navigation above the dam only1 and later allowed at this point a lock only #c4hj m4 wide and #b4bj m4 depth of water1 they caused this lock to be built at the same place with a breadth of #g metres which is spanned by movable bridges4 #be ,by act of ,may #bb1 #afbh1 it is ordered that there be paid to ,adam ,clippens1 ,engineer1 who built the mud mill1 a sum of #ajj florins for the bid which he presented4 ,illustration ,illustration3 #e ,,fishing ,,boats ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aab ,man has been given to fishing from the most remote times1 even though in primitive ways4 ,hence fishing boats will also be seen to have existed from the earliest times2 furthermore1 as man thinks of his own maintenance first before dreaming of trade1 fishing boats are older than merchant ships and it is perfectly natural to conclude that the latter issue from the former4 ,so1 the 8,koggenschip0 7cog7 is nothing but a transformation of what will be called later an 8,egmonder ,pink0 or better1 a 8,pink0 of large size4 ,as fish were taken at the beginning only for local needs1 the fishing boats were small4 ,distant expeditions were not undertaken1 the preservation of fish being unknown in those days4 ,some old writers even maintain that the herring fishery only appeared at ,zierikzee in the ,x,i,ith century 7in #aafc according to ,witsen1 p4 #dca74 ,hence it may be said that the beginnings of our ocean fisheries date only from the century mentioned4 ,no great revolution took place until #achd1 when ,willem ,beukelsz of ,biervliet invented the salting and barrelling of herrings4 ,this invention caused such a stir that1 a hundred years after the death of ,willem ,beukelszoon1 the ,emperor ,charles ,v still visited his tomb at ,biervliet 7#aeef74 ,distant voyages became possible from this moment because the herring could be preserved4 ,the first great herring net was made at ,hoorn in #adaf1 and smooth planking for the boats made its appearance at ,zierikzee1 the centre of the herring fishery4 ,a relation certainly exists between these two events4 ,the packing of herring gave fishing such a start that a new commerce was the result which1 in its turn1 brought forth more and more numerous demands requiring a perpected plant4 ,,the 8,,egmonder ,,pink04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bdc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aab ,the old clinker built 8,egmonder ,pink01 formerly the largest fishing boat 7#ce feet long1 #ab feet wide and #c feet deep7 became too small1 just as soon as herring nets1 constantly increasing in size and weight1 began to come into use4 ,,the ,,buis 7,bush74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aig ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbc ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbd ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bca ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aac ,a new boat became necessary4 ,it was built larger and with a smooth hull1 thus giving the 8,buis0 7bush71 #eb feet long1 #ac feet wide and #h feet deep4 ,this boat had a much greater tonnage than did the 8,pink04 7,witsen1 p4 #afg47 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aie ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aif ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aih ,at the end of the ,x,vth century1 there were already at ,enkhuizen #djj to #ejj 8,haringbuizen01 and there were also #dj of the so called ,grootschippers 7large fishing boats71 which could carry from #bj to #abj lasts4 7,koenen1 p4 #gh47 ,in #aeij1 #cej 8bushes0 started for the herring fishery1 and1 at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 #afji1 #cjjj ,dutch bushes were fishing in the ,north ,sea1 whereas in #afja their number did not exceed #aejj4 7,groen van ,prinsterer ,handboek1 #ajj1 ,koenen1 p4 #aef47 ,these #cjjj boats1 said ,koenen1 have a total of #ej1jjj men in their crews1 and this fleet requires in its turn #ijjj larger boats and #aej1jjj men on land and at sea to pack and transport the fish4 ,it is estimated that #bj 8,haringbuizen0 give employment to #hjjj persons4 ,a fleet of #aejj bushes passed three times through the ,texel passes at the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith century4 ,hence it is not astonishing that the departure of this fleet should produce a great impression4 ,even in our day1 the well known 8,buisjesdag0 7day of the bushes7 is still spoken of4 ,when1 at the time of the second war with ,england1 the herring fishery was stopped on the ,north ,sea and the fishermen continued their work on the 8,zuyderzee01 some of them still succeeded in taking1 in a month1 #hjj last 7#afjj tonnes7 of herrings valued at #ae1fbj florins4 ,a large number of decrees appear in reference to fishing 7#afaa1 #afab1 #afbj and #afbi74 ,for example3 8,niemand vermag zijn roer onklaer houden zoodat daer netten aen zoude kunnen hechten40 7,no one may so hold his rudder as to foul any nets47 8,die niet en vischt vermag niet onder de visschers te drijven04 7,he who is not fishing may not sail among the fishers47 ,while it is laid down1 at the same time1 that every one should place his name on his nets so that they can be recognized4 ,the size of the crew and the armament were also the object of regulation1 which was all the more necessary in those times of war4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #aif ,a 8,noortsvaerder0 of #gj to #hj lasts1 and a 8bush0 of more than #bd lasts1 ought to carry at least two 8gotelingen0 7small cannon74 ,these guns are still to be seen in many old engravings4 ,nor was bravery lacking among the fishermen4 ,m4 ,de ,jonge 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahb7 gives an example of this in relating the meeting of an ,english craft with fishermen from ,vlieland between the ,skagerrack and the ,doggersbank3 ,scarcely had they come near each other when the ,english began throwing stones1 for lack of other weapons4 ,the ,dutch answered by throwing fire wood1 but this innocent fighting became a bore to the ,hollanders4 8,they grappled the enemy's boat1 jumped on board of it1 carry their knives in their mouths and1 headed by their valiant steersman1 ,jonge ,kees1 drove the ,english down into the hold1 which they nailed up1 and returned triumphantly with their little boat to ,amsterdam where a gold medal was offered to the brave leader and where the crew received the captured boat and other rewards04 ,our fishing fleet went very much to pieces toward the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith and the beginning of the ,x,i,xth centuries4 ,matters became still worse toward the middle of the latter4 ,if in #ahdc there were still #abf fishing boats in existence1 this number fell to #ic in #aheb4 7,koenen1 p4 #aef47 ,but a revival took place toward the end of the ,x,i,xth century and in #aije there were again #gbd vessels in our fleet4 ,the upward start began in #ahia1 as shown in the table given further on4 ,the great improvement in means of communication increased the demand for fish as a popular article of food1 7,see the ,inaugural ,address of ,professor ,e4 ,vosnack at ,delft2 ,nieuwe ,rotterdamsche ,courant4 ,october #aa1 #aijf1 first sheet1 ,a47 while more careful packing in ice now allows fish to be carried to much more distant points4 ,this is why the cod and haddock fisheries have been taken up here with renewed ardor 7,a4 ,hoogendijk1 de ,grootvisscherij1 #ahie1 p4 #dg7 and the trade has become more lucrative by combining it with the herring fishery4 ,the herring fishery requires rather a small boat1 as the latter should not pull too hard on the nets4 ,winter fishing requires1 on the other hand1 a strong fast boat1 as it has to be on duty in all weathers4 ,hence it follows that1 in order to combine both1 a new type of boat1 able to satisfy these discordant conditions1 has become a necessity and the old types in use are doomed1 naturally1 to disappear4 ,the faster the boat1 the greater the number of trips and the fresher the fish brought back4 ,countries which are rich in fish can be visited with fast vessels and it is not to be wondered at that steamboats should be put into use in our country1 just as in ,england1 after the 8loggers0 7luggers71 8,kotters0 7cutters7 and 8sloepen0 7sloops7 which had preceded them4 ,the first steam fishing craft appeared in #ahig1 and since then the number of these vessels has steadily increased4 ,the ,english fishing fleet has now not less than #afjj steamboats for deep sea fishing4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,composition of the ,dutch fishing ,fleet1 exclusive of the ,bommen1 from #ahfg to #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,logger ,,cutters ,,years,,howkers,,sloops,,steam,,motor ,,and ,,total ,,remarks ,,boats,,boats,,logger- ,,bommen ---------------------------------------- ----------------- _/----v---- #ahfg #he - - #d #hi ,the first ,french #ahfh #hj - - #aa #ia lugger was put #ahfi #gi - - #bh #ajg into service in #ahgj #fi - - #ea #abj #ahfg4 --------_/ #ahga #de #ac - - #fd #abb #ahgb #cj #ad - - #fd #ajh #ahgc #bc #aa - - #fh #ajb #ahgd #bj #aa - - #hc #aad #ahge #ad #aa - - #ij #aae #ahgf #f #aa - - #ib #aji #ahgg #h #aa - - #id #aac #ahgh #g #aa - - #aji #abg #ahgi #d #aj - - #aad #abh #ahhj #c #i - - #aba #acc #ahha #b #i - - #abg #ach #ahhb #b #h - - #ace #ade #ahhc #b #h - - #add #aed #ahhd #b #h - - #aei #afi #ahhe #b #h - - #agd #ahd #ahhf #a #h - - #aha #aij #ahhg - #g - - #ahi #aif #ahhh - #h - - #ahf #aid #ahhi - #h - - #ahf #aid #ahij - #g - - #ahi #aif #ahia - #g - - #aii #bjf #ahib - #i - - #bab #bba #ahic - #aa - - #bac #bbd #ahid - #ac - - #bad #bbg #ahie - #ag - - #baf #bcc #ahif - #bd - - #bde #bfi #ahig - #cj #a - #beb #bhc ,the first #ahih - #cf #a - #beh #bie steamboat was put #ahii - #dj #b - #bfi #caa into service in #aijj - #df #c - #bge #cbd #ahig4 #aija - #dg #g #a #cjj #cee #aijb - #eb #be #a #cbg #dje #aijc - #eh #dd #a #daj #eac #aijd - #eh #dd #a #dcb #ece #aije - #dh #ch #a #dbe #eab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,summary of the different types of boats in use for the herring fishery from #ahif to #aije ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,years,,luggers,,steam-,,motor,,logger- ,,bommen,,total ,,remarks ,,cutters,,boats ,,boats,,bommen ,,sloops ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ahif #bfi - - - #cbd #eic ,see report on #ahig #bhb #a - - #cbe #fjh maritime #ahih #bid #a - - #cbj #fae fisheries #ahii #cji #b - - #cjc #fad #aije 7p4#adi7 #aijj #cbj #c - #a #bhi #fac #aija #cdf #g #a #a #bgi #fcd #aijb #cgg #be #a #b #bga #fgf #aijc #dfc #dd #a #e #bfh #gha #aijd #dhd #dd #a #f #bci #ggd #aije #dfg #ch #a #f #bab #gbd ,let the 8,bush0 be taken up again for a few moments before beginning on the description of the modern types of fishing boats4 ,the 8,bush01 which appeared in the ,x,vth century1 remained the boat for the herring fishery until the middle of the ,x,i,xth century1 when it disappeared entirely4 ,if1 in #ahcb1 there were still #abj 8,buizen0 7#gh at ,vlaardingen1 #ah at ,maassluis1 #a at ,delfshaven1 #c at ,zwastewaal1 #e at ,enkhuizen1 #e at ,de ,rijp and #aj at ,amsterdam1 see ,le ,comte1 p4 #df71 they were1 on the other hand1 no longer mentioned in #ahfg1 the year when the ,french lugger was brought into service4 ,the bush was used exclusively in fishing for herring4 ,when this latter failed1 the vessels were stripped and laid up4 ,although their forms were full1 they had a keel and sought safety in the different ports4 ,these boats could not be grounded4 ,toward the last they were about #bb metres long1 #f metres wide and #c metres deep4 ,the dimensions of these boats had also increased gradually4 7,van ,yk gives1 p4 #caj1 #g ,rhine feet as their depth47 ,the 8,bushes0 carried originally three masts1 of which two could be lowered and each of which carried a large sail4 ,later1 at the end of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 the rig was changed and made like that of the 8,howkers04 ,this change is shown on the old engravings4 ,the 8,bushes0 carried a 8statie04 ,,the 8,,kwee0 ,,and ,,the 8,,hoekerbuis04 ,the dimensions of the 8bushes0 must have increased most at the end of the ,x,v,i,i,ith or beginning of the ,x,i,xth century2 the 8statie0 was then suppressed and the fish tank appeared4 ,the boats supplied with this tank were called ,kwee according to ,hoogendijk 7p4 #ei74 ,the 8bush0 proper which was used exclusively for the herring fishery1 had no fish tank4 ,the 8bush0 which had a howker rig was also called a ,hoekerbuis4 ,what ,hoogendijk tells about the origin of the howker1 in his interesting book on the 8,grootvisscherij01 does not seem to be wholly exact4 ,according to him 7p4 #ei7 the 8howker0 is said to be descended from the 8,hoekerbuis0 by the suppression of the 8statie04 ,but1 according to ,witsen and ,van ,yk1 the howkers have existed from the earliest times and1 hence1 long before the appearance of the 8,hoekerbuis04 ,the 8howker0 is met with as a contemporary of the 8bush0 from which it differs quite a good deal in shape2 the placing of the 8howker0 rig on the 8bush0 proves that the former vessel was already in existence in the time of the latter4 ,,the 8,,hoeker0 7,,howker74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbh ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbi ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bcd ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aad ,the 8,hoeker0 7howker7 is a boat strongly rounded at the stern1 showing a great deal of sheer and carrying a tank for fish4 ,the name comes very probably from 8hoek0 an iron 7hook7 used in fishing for cod and haddock1 but as the 8bush0 is spoken of before any mention is made of the 8howker01 it must be concluded that the latter came later into use1 that is to say1 that cod fishing on a large scale was a much later occupation4 ,the date of adoption of the fish tanks is not known4 ,it is probable that this arrangement is very old1 but it is possible that it was only applied much later to deep sea fishing4 ,,the 8,,haringjager0 ,,and ,,the 8,,buisconvoyer04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbb ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bcb ,the 8howker0 was used not only as a fishing boat but also as a ,haringjager 7herring hunter71 a boat which is sent to get the first catch of the fleet4 ,the 8howker0 was also used as a ,buisconvoyer 7convoy for bushes72 it was then armed with several guns and intended to defend the 8bushes0 against the enemy4 ,various circumstances contributed to the complete disappearance of the 8bushes0 and the 8howkers02 these are the more and more severe demands laid on this traffic1 the combination of herring fishing with that for cod and haddock on one and the same boat1 the use of cotton nets which are much lighter than the old ones so that casting the nets is less important on the boat itself4 ,all these causes brought about the creation of boats with fine lines1 so that there existed1 in #ahhf1 but one howker for #h sloops and #aha luggers4 ,the sloop and the lugger1 which followed it came to us from ,france4 ,,the 8,,sloep0 7,,sloop74 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aai ,the 8sloop01 having at first one mast with a large boom sail and square stern 7,hoogendijk1 p4 #fa71 was put into use at ,middelharnis1 ,zwarte ,waal and ,pernis and hence is known generally as a ,pernissersloep4 ,the heavy and unhandy rigging of the single mast was soon replaced by the 8lugger0 rig1 while the square stern disappeared from among the more recent sloops1 thus doing away with the principal difference between the two types of vessels4 ,the sloop has a fish tank and is used for carrying live fish1 but it can also be employed for the herring fishery if it has a fore-mast which can be unshipped4 ,the new types of sloops were not favorably received by the public1 says ,hoogendijk 7p4 #ee71 especially in regard to the deep sea herring fishery4 ,their enormous tonnage gave rise to the fear that they would be too heavy for this kind of work4 ,this loading capacity reached #dj lasts while the ordinary load for a herring boat was but #be to #cj lasts1 to say nothing of the many boats which carried scarcely more than #af to #bj lasts4 ,this fear1 however1 was found to be groundless4 ,the more slender shape of the boat gave less hold for the wind than did the old types and so made it superior for purposes of navigation4 ,no one would think now of preferring the old 8bushes0 and 8howkers0 to the modern 8lugger0 and 8sloop04 ,,the ,,logger 7,,lugger74 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bfi ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bgj ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aah ,the 8lugger0 is also a boat of slender form and of ,french origin4 ,the construction of the boat1 which has no fish tank1 is made sufficiently clear by the drawings4 ,the rigging includes two masts4 ,the main-mast1 at one-third of the length from the bow1 can be lowered4 ,the nets are cast from the bow and are taken in over the side4 ,,the 8,,bom04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bgj ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bga ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aae ,the vessels mentioned above are not1 however1 the only ones used for the herring fisheries4 ,another very remarkable type still in use is the 8,bom01 a descendant of the 8,egmonder ,pink04 ,the 8,bom01 built so that it can be allowed to ground1 has1 like the 8,pink01 a very strong bottom and clinker built sides4 ,its length is double its beam4 ,it carries two masts 7a large and a small72 the rig is fore and aft and long1 narrow lee boards 7about as long as the vessel74 ,the high tide lands the 8,bommen0 on the beach whence1 after they had been raised by jacks and wooden rollers had been placed under them1 horses drew them up on a wooden floor laid on the strand4 ,the creation of the 8,bommenhaven0 7harbor for 8,bommen07 at ,scheveningen makes grounding these craft unnecessary and1 consequently1 will cause them to disappear1 because it is more advantageous to use 8luggers04 ,there will be1 therefore1 no further reason for the existence of the 8,bommen0 and the port built for their use will cause their extinction4 ,this port has also led1 already1 to the construction of a few 8,bommen0 with keels1 called ,loggerbommen or ,lelybommen which are intermediate between the 8lugger0 and the 8,bom04 ,the first of these 8,bommen0 was launched in #aijj1 but it has not been imitated often as it is scarcely better than a 8lugger04 ,it is clinker built and has the bow of the 8,bom0 with the stern of the 8lugger04 ,the old and interesting 8,bom0 is no longer built2 it will belong soon to history1 like the 8bush0 and the 8howker01 and with it will disappear the last vestige of the 8cog04 ,since #ahif1 the number of these vessels has been already reduced from #cbd to #bab4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,strength of the 8,bomschuiten0 ,fleet1 #ahii to #aije4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ahii #aijj #aija #aijb #aijc #aijd #aije -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,scheveningen #bag #bje #aid #ahi #ahc #aeh #adj ,katwijk #fg #fh #fi #ga #gd #gj #ff ,noordwijk #ae #ae #ae #aj #aj #aj #e ,egmond #c -- -- -- -- -- -- ,haarlem 7,ymuiden7 #a #a #a #a #a #a -- ,maassluis -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,report on ocean fishing1 #aije #cjc #bhi #bgi #bga #bfh #bci #baa 7p4 #adi74 ,,the 8,,garnalenschuit04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aaf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aag ,the ,garnalenschuit 7a boat used for shrimp fishing7 resembles somewhat the original 8,bom0 and its resemblance to the old 8,egmonder ,pink0 is most striking4 ,,the 8,,scholschuit0 ,,or 8,,bazaanschuit0 ,,the ,,zwartewaalsche ,,gaffelaar4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bai ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bbj ,there was met with formerly1 alongside of the 8bushes0 and 8howkers01 a fishing boat belonging to the 8smack0 group3 the ,scholschuiten 7boats used for the sole fishery7 also called ,bazaanschuit4 ,at ,zwartewaal1 these vessels carried gaff sails 7gaffeltuig7 whence their name of ,zwarlewaalsche ,gaffelaar4 ,the ,scholschuiten were shorter than the 8howkers02 but fairly broad and with a strong frame4 ,they resembled greatly the 8,visscherssnikken0 of ,paessens and ,wierum 7not to be confused with the 8,binnensnikken07 and the 8,palingschuiten0 of ,heeg and ,gastneer which used to carry eels to ,london4 ,the 8,scholschuit01 met with at ,pernis1 ,middelharnis and ,zwartewaal1 was replaced later by the 8sloop04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bjb ,the whale fishery1 formerly so flourishing1 had disappeared completely in the ,x,i,xth century4 ,there were #ahf boats still following this industry in #agef2 but this number had fallen to #ff in #aghe1 this change being brought about especially by the large premiums granted by ,england4 ,as this industry gradually died away in our country1 it became more flourishing1 on the contrary1 in ,england4 ,in this latter country1 only #bf whaling vessels were to be found in #agej2 this number increased to #aeb in #aghe4 ,premiums of #cjjj to #hjjj florins1 given in that country according to the size of the vessels brought about the result of causing our whaling ships to disappear and only two vessels put out to sea in #ahed4 7,koenen1 p4 #afd74 8,noortsvaerders0 as well as the 8,fluitschepen0 already described1 were used for this fishery4 ,the land of the 8bushes0 was at ,vlaardingen and ,enkhuizen2 a few are found also at ,maassluis and ,delfshaven1 that is3 along the ,meuse and in the ,north-,west part of the ,zuiderzee4 ,the country of the 8,bom0 was ,scheveningen1 ,katwijk and ,noordwijk1 along the flat beach of the ,north ,sea4 ,that of the 8sloop0 is ,middelharnis1 ,zwartewaal and ,pernis1 while the 8lugger0 is met everywhere4 ,the old 8howker0 was found particularly at ,maassluis and the 8,loggerbom0 or 8,lelybom0 at ,scheveningen4 ,an erroneous idea of the ,netherlands fishing fleet would be formed by supposing that only the #gbd fishing vessels given in the above list belonged to it4 ,alongside of these boats1 are still found many smaller boats used exclusively for this industry4 ,if a glance be cast over the ,report on the ,netherlands ,ocean ,fishery for #aije1 it will be seen that1 in this year 7p4 #cdb71 the fleet contained in all #eccd vessels with a total tonnage of #bcd1gff tons and a total of #bj1ada men in the crews4 ,these figures for #ahia were1 respectively3 #ddbg1 #afd1ceg and #ae1dhb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,situation of the ,netherlands ,fishing ,fleet and of its ,crews4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,year ,,number ,,of ,,vessels ,,total ,,tonnage ,,crews -- -- -- -- #aije #eccd #bcdgff #bjada #aijd #egha #baehgc #babbh #aijc #eibb #bahbdi #badfg #aijb #eich #baeffj #babbe #aija #ehea #aiibdh #bjafd #aijj #egai #aieiej #aidih #ahii #effa #aiaecj #aibcb #ahih #eche #ahfeed #ahgji #ahig #ecah #ahdegf #ahchg #ahif #ebaa #ahaiec #aghie #ahie #eahi #agighb #agfdc #ahid #eaea #agffdi #agbhf #ahic #dijb #agbfjc #afgjj #ahib #dfdg #afgedi #afadb #ahia #ddbg #afdceg #aedhb ,the small fishing boats work on the ,north ,sea1 along the shores of ,friesland and ,groningen1 on the maritime rivers of ,zeeland and of the province of ,holland as well as on the ,zuiderzee4 ,all sorts of names of fishing boats are found among them1 so that it is very difficult to determine from this point the places whence they come4 ,then too1 these boats have become so numerous in our country during the last fifty years1 that the presence of a given type at any place is no proof at all that it had its origin at that place4 ,thus1 for example1 8,schokkers0 and 8,botters0 are now to be found on the ,upper ,meuse where not one of them was ever built4 ,just so soon as fishing becomes flourishing1 there are brought into use all sorts of boats which were never intended originally for any such purpose4 ,in order to form an exact idea of fishing boats and their evolution1 only such vessels as were built especially for this use should be considered4 ,as was said in the general classification1 these boats can be divided into principal orders as follows3 a7 the group of the 8,schokkers02 b7 that of the 8,botters02 c7 bluff bowed boats 78,knots01 8,akes01 etc74 ,,the 8,,schokker04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abj ,this boat has a long1 fine bow2 the stern1 on the other hand1 is narrow4 ,the hull above the bends falls in sharply4 ,the stem is straight and very much inclined4 ,at the square upper end of the stem is a sheave1 one side of which rests on the stem and the other side on a bracket 7the 8snoes07 which is made firm to the stem4 ,the boat carries a fish tank and has near the bow a cuddy which serves as a lodging4 ,although the 8,schokkers0 were originally open at the middle1 some are to be found at the present time of larger size and closed4 ,the 8,schokker0 has at the bow a small deck1 called 8kootje04 ,the 8,schokker0 carries lee boards and a mast placed at four fifths of the length of the vessel1 at the position of the main frame4 ,it is #bf4aj m4 long1 #d4dh m4 beam and draws #j4ih m4 ,it is fore and aft rigged 78bazaantuig07 with a short1 curved boom and a large fore staysail which is attached to the side abaft the mast1 consequently without any travelling bar4 ,this latter is sometimes to be found1 however1 in these latter times4 ,a jib may be set on the bowsprit4 ,the hull was clinker built formerly1 now it is frequently carvel built4 ,it is a very old type of vessel1 but the large models only date2 however1 from the ,x,i,xth century4 ,neither ,witsen nor ,van ,yk speaks of them1 although they were already in existence in their time1 for drawings of them appear on the stretchers of the reformed church at ,workum which dates from about #afjj4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bjc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abe ,the 8,schokker0 comes originally from the ,zuyderzee and especially from the shores of ,overijssel 7,vollenhoven71 of ,schokland 7probably of ,urk also7 and of ,enkhuizen4 ,according to common report1 the island of ,schokland is said to have obtained its name from that of the 8,schokkers04 ,its straight1 inclined stem separates this boat from the type of the other fishing vessels of the ,zuyderzee1 with the exception of the 8,haringschuit04 ,,the 8,,haringschuit04 ,the ,haringschuit 7boat used in the herring fishery7 may be considered a large 8,punter0 or a small 8,schokker0 with less freeboard4 ,hence there is no doubt that the old 8,schokker01 the 8,haringschuit0 and the 8,punter0 belong to the same family4 ,the 8,schokker0 is distinguished from the others by its higher and more bluff bow1 given to it by reason of the more distant trips on the ,zuyderzee and the ,north ,sea for which it was intended4 ,,the 8,,punter0 ,,and ,,the 8,,gondel04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ada ,the ,punter is met with in the ,north of ,overijssel as an inland boat4 ,when of large size1 it is used as a fishing boat4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahc ,sidenote3 ,,ii #ahe ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acg ,the 8,haringschuit0 is also met with along the shores of ,gelderland1 but on the coasts of ,north ,holland is frequently found a small boat1 the 8,vischschuit van ,aalsmeer0 7fishing boat from ,aalsmeer7 which resembles the 8,punter0 and sails alongside of the ,snik or the ,gondel 7the old cog7 of more massive form1 just as solid 8,schokkers0 are found elsewhere alongside of the 8,punter04 ,the 8,gondel01 which carries a fish tank1 is used however as an inland craft1 on the lakes2 it ventures very rarely out to sea4 ,all the same1 the stem which has a slight rake rises quite high4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acj ,the same characteristics appear in the 8,wierschuitje0 of ,wieringen where the 8,haringschuit0 is also met with4 ,,the 8,,hoogaars04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bgc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acb ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acc ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acd ,the same type is seen in the old 8,kinderdijksche ,hoogaars0 of ,south ,holland1 in the 8,steegschuit0 of the ,biesbosch and in the 8,steegschuit0 and 8,hoogaars0 of ,zeeland1 while the 8,hengst0 and 8,veerhengst01 met with in the same neighbourhoods1 are also 8,hoogaars0 which have undergone slight changes4 ,there is also the 8,tholensche ,schouw0 which is just like the 8,beyerlandsche ,schuitje0 used among the islands of ,south ,holland4 ,both these latter vessels have a high1 broad bow2 they have no stem1 the planking ending on the apron4 ,hence they are 8,akes04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aca ,the ,hoogaars has1 therefore1 a straight stem with a slight rake1 which is much smaller than that of the 8,schokker04 ,the sides which were formerly clinker built are now carvel built4 ,the bow is rather finer than that of the 8,schokker01 the stern is rather fuller4 ,the bow is covered while the waist is open and there is a raised deckhouse astern4 ,the 8,hoogaarsen0 carry a narrow rudder and a lee board on either side2 they are fore and aft rigged and show a fore staysail and jib4 ,this vessel is flat-bottomed1 like the 8schokkers0 and other boats already mentioned1 but it has no fish tank4 ,the new 8,hoogaarsen0 of large size have a fuller stern1 after the manner of the 8,boeiers01 and this gave rise in the second half of the ,x,i,xth century to the 8,hoogaars-,boeier0 type4 ,the tendency to make the stern fuller is found now in all fishing vessels and this is causing the characteristic differences between the various types to disappear4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #acf ,the ordinary 8,hoogaars0 is #ae metres long and #d4ej m4 beam4 ,the 8,hoogaars0 of ,arnemuide is somewhat smaller1 entirely open1 has a small raised deckhouse in the stern and is rigged with spritsails4 ,,the 8,,steekschuit04 ,the ,steekschuit1 constructed like a 8,hoogaars01 is rather heavier in build and the bow falls in less4 ,the sternpost is rounded at the upper end4 ,,the 8,,hengst04 ,the 8,hengst0 differs very little from the 8,hoogaars04 ,it is used a great deal on the 8,hollandsche ,diep0 7,willemstad47 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aci ,all the types before described carry long narrow lee boards1 with the exception of the 8,tolensche ,schouw0 and the 8,kinderijksche ,hoogaars0 of which the lee boards are wider4 ,fishing for oysters and mussels now employ a great many 8,boeieraakjes04 ,,the 8,,botter04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #aba ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bjj ,sidenote3 ,,ii #abc ,instead of types with a straight stem1 there are types now to be found1 to the ,west of the ,zuiderzee and the island of ,urk1 which have a curved stem4 ,they bear a large number of names by reason of slight differences among themselves1 but they all belong to the same family1 that of the ,botters1 of which the old 8,tochtschuiten0 and 8,kubbooten0 were the forerunners4 ,aside from the stem1 every thing that has been said in regard to the 8,schokkers0 is applicable here4 ,they are met with at ,urk and along the ,north ,holland shore of the ,zuiderzee1 ,south of ,medemblik1 as well as in the provinces of ,utrecht and of ,gelderland as far as ,harderwijk4 ,their names vary4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abf ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abb ,the oldest form is the 8,kubboot01 which is met with under the names of 8,vollendammer ,kwakken01 8,bonse01 8,plte01 and at ,maassluis under that of 8,platje van ,maassluis04 ,,the 8,,blazer04 ,since the end of the ,x,i,xth century1 the 8,botters0 have been built bigger and more bluff1 the result being the ,blazer type1 of which the curved stem falls in less and of which the stern is fuller than that of the 8,botter04 ,this kind of boat is used for fishing in the ,north ,sea and is found all along our shores4 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abd 8,blazers0 are now built with a 8,boeier0 stern1 giving a mixed type3 the ,blazerboeier4 ,this boat1 by reason of its great stability1 will soon take the place of the 8,schokkers0 and the 8,botters04 ,,the 8,,lemmeraak04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abh 8,akes0 are more and more used for fishing in the ,zuyderzee4 ,these vessels come from ,friesland where they are called ,lemmeraak or 8,lemmerjacht04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abi ,they are passably short but robust and bluff1 thoroughly suited for running in shallow water4 ,,the 8,,bolle0 ,,and ,,the 8,,knots04 ,sidenote3 ,,iii #abi ,sidenote3 ,,iii #ace ,the preceding type of boat is found at ,urk under the name of ,bolle van ,urk1 or else of 8,bolletje van ,urk04 ,it is derived from the 8smack0 group4 ,it is curious to note that boats of the same kind have long frequented the port of ,antwerp under the name of ,knots van ,antwerpen4 78,knots of ,antwerp074 ,,the 8,,jol0 ,at ,stavoren1 there still exists the ,stavorensche ,jol 7,stavoren ,yawl71 a small1 short1 bluff boat with a keel2 it is exceedingly steady on the water4 ,it is also met with now at ,enkhuizen and at ,medenblik4 ,it is a clinker built boat 7sometimes carvel built at the present time7 which is often compared to a 8sabot0 on account of its rounded forms4 ,it carries a fish tank and1 as it has a keel1 the lee boards are lacking4 ,it is spritsail rigged1 and its tonnage is from #d to #f tons4 ,at the ,helder1 at ,enkhuizen and at ,medenblik a great deal of use is made of flats1 of which the length may be as much as #aj metres4 ,the stern has a sternframe2 the quite long bow1 on the contrary1 rises high with a slight rake4 ,the vessel is clinker built and carries two bilge keels and a bit of a false keel at the after end of the main keel4 ,it gauges generally from #b to #e tons4 ,as a rule1 the tonnage of the 8,botters0 and 8,schokkers0 varies from #bj to #cj tons4 ,the smaller types met with at ,huizen run from #af to #bj tons1 and at ,harderwijck and ,elburg1 from #ac to #ah tons4 ,the variations between the fundamental groups may be attributed to the different ideas of builders1 just as there are differences in the costumes of various countries4 ,but the difference between the types of a same group is1 on the contrary1 the result of the use made of the boat and hence of the fishing apparatus employed on board4 ,in order to make this more easily understood1 it will be well to give a short description of the fishing apparatus used on the ,zuiderzee1 this description being taken from the report published by the ,zuiderzeevereeniging 7#aije1 pp4 #ce et seq71 as well from the annual reports on deep sea fishing4 ,the fishing outfit can be divided into movable apparatus and fixed apparatus1 the latter being the less important for our study4 ,belonging to the former1 there are3 a7 ,the ,wonderkuil 7anglic3 miraculous pocket7 which1 like the ,kwakkuil and the ,dwarskuil1 is composed of a net1 in the shape of a pocket which has its mouth kept open by a square frame 7made of four pieces of wood called 8juffers-oorstokken074 ,the net is moved ahead while holding the frame vertical1 all the apparatus touching the bottom4 ,the fish enters at the mouth and is captured in a convergent bag4 ,the movement through the water distends the net4 ,the 8,wonderkuil0 is hung between two 8,botters01 which go ahead at the greatest possible speed so as to entrap the quick swimming fish1 such as the herring4 ,the large 8,botters01 being good sailers1 are very well suited to this work4 ,the 8,wonderkuil0 scarcely touches the bottom on account of the great speed1 but every fish which comes in front of the opening is taken1 necessarily4 ,the narrowing of the meshes1 caused by the great speed1 prevents any from escaping4 b7 ,the ,kwakkuil1 used at ,vollendam1 is a small 8,wonderkuil0 drawn by one boat which is generally a 8,vollendammer ,kwak04 ,the pocket is then attached to two beams fastened together crosswise at the stern of the boat4 ,as the speed is less than that attained with the 8,wonderkuil01 the net drags along the bottom which enables eels1 plaice and sole to be taken4 c7 ,the ,dwarskuil 7transverse pocket71 smaller than the 8,kwakkuil0 but of the same shape1 is fastened to the side of the boat by lines which lead to the bow and stern4 ,in order to work it1 the boat must move crossways and1 naturally1 its change of position is slow4 ,the boat should not be flat bottomed1 and while fishing is going on the lee boards should be raised4 ,the 8,wonderkuil0 is used in deep water and on hard sandy bottoms2 in shoaler water and on soft bottoms the 8,kwakkuil0 is brought into play1 and in the shallow waters of ,utrecht and ,gelderland it is the 8,dwarskuilen0 which is employed4 ,the many complaints about the destruction of fish by the 8,wonderkuil0 were not born of yesterday2 for already1 in #aeei1 an ordinance fixed the size of the meshes of the 8,aetkens of ,steerten0 7of the tails of the nets74 ,there should certainly be mentioned as part of the movable outfit1 the drag nets used for catching herring1 anchovy1 sole and smelt4 ,they are used in all the large fishing ports of the ,zuiderzee4 ,these nets are dragged between any two boats whatever4 ,along the ,frisian coast1 fishing is carried on mainly with fixed apparatus2 this is particularly the case to the ,north of ,makkum4 ,this way of fishing requires only small boats 7#bd to #cj traps per boat74 ,eel and herring traps are used for this purpose4 ,it is probable also that the old ,kubboot owes its name to a fishing instrument called 8,kub01 a wicker basket shaped like a funnel1 nearly closed at the lower end where1 however1 a small opening is left4 ,following this opening is a small silk net in which an opening allows the eels to pass which are piled up in the basket4 ,fishing in the ,zuiderzee is of a special sort because a large number of ,zuiderzee fishermen frequent the ,north ,sea while others devote themselves to fishing in the rivers2 those who spend the entire year on the ,zuiderzee itself1 are the fewest in number4 ,the first use large 8,blazers01 8,schokkers0 and 8,botters02 the second take the 8,gondels01 8,lemmeraken01 8,punters01 etc41 and the last use 8,kwakken01 8,kubbooten0 and 8,haringschuiten04 ,besides those just mentioned1 there are a whole series of chance fishermen using all sorts of boats4 ,hence it is very difficult to give the exact number of boats in use for fishing and the figures in the above tables are only round totals in so far1 at least1 as they relate to the ,zuiderzee4 ,,the 8,,waterschip04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bch ,the vessel called 8,waterschip01 used for towing the ,zeekameelen 7a sort of floating dock7 through the ,pampus1 has long been known4 ,the 8,waterschip0 was1 at the beginning1 a simple ,marken 8,botter04 ,as has been seen already1 the 8,zeekameelen0 date from #afia4 ,they were built later with a stronger stem and sternpost and with a deckhouse abaft the mast4 ,these vessels become thus still more separated from the old 8,botters04 ,the towing of the ships of the ,east ,india ,company1 which belonged at first to two private societies 7the ,big and the ,little ,societies71 was granted by contract1 subsequently to #agda1 to the more important society which gave to its 8,waterscheepjes01 as a distinguishing mark1 a plate of tin fastened to the stem4 ,this measure did not suffice1 however1 to keep off the competitors4 ,it was ordered1 in #aghc1 that the ,admiralty arms should be painted on the sails of the accepted vessels1 just as letters are painted on the sails of fishing boats at the present time4 ,under the ,french domination1 when navigation was reduced to a forced suspension1 the 8,waterschepen0 went so to pieces that1 in #ahbd1 of the #ah which were still in existence1 #f were broken up4 ,the remainder were sold in #ahbg1 after the opening of the ,north ,holland ,canal4 7,le ,comte1 p4 #ch47 ,these 8,waterschepen0 must not be confounded with those used for carrying sea water and of which a few engravings are reproduced in the collection4 ,these boats1 with scarcely an exception1 belong to the group of 8smacks04 ,illustration3 #f ,the number of the ,annales de ,travaux ,publics of ,belgium for ,august #aija contains a detailed study of the ,inland ,navigation floating stock circulating in ,belgium4 ,this study is the work of ,mr4 ,dehem1 ,principal ,engineer of the ,ponts et ,chausses4 ,it contains a description of the types of boats in use on the ,french and ,belgian canals4 ,these types of boats1 built especially for these canals1 are of no historic value4 ,as they are seen frequently1 however1 on the ,zuid-,willemsvaart 7the canal from ,maastricht to ,bois-le-,duc71 a brief description of these boats1 called 8,ballanten0 in ,holland1 will not be out of place4 ,they can be classified1 as a rule1 as follows#bf3 ,a7 ,baquets of ,charleroi2 ,b7 ,walloon boats or 8pniches04 ,sidenote3 ,,ii #beg ,sidenote3 ,,ii #bfe ,the boat of group ,a1 called 8,bak0 in ,flemish1 is a parallelopipedon in shape4 ,its average length is #ai4ej m42 its breadth1 #b4fj to #b4fe m42 it draws from #j4ce m4 to #j4dj m4 when light and #a4hj m4 when fully laden4 ,with the latter draught its tonnage oscillates between #fg and #ga tons4 ,this type of boat was introduced particularly for navigation on the ,charleroi canal1 of which the old small locks have a neat length of #ai metres and a breadth of #b4gj m4 ,the clear height of the permanent bridges on this navigable highway varies from #b4fe m4 to #c metres4 ,these boats cost from #dejj to #gejj francs4 ,the boat of group ,b1 called 8,waal0 in ,flemish1 is also a box having the shape of a parallelopipedon with a flat bottom and nearly plane sides4 ,according to the differences in shape of the bow and stern1 these boats are known by different names1 such as3 #a ,tournai boat2 #b chaland2 #c blandre2 #d pointu4 ,it should be said1 however1 that the last two names should be assigned rather to old types and that the first two should be reserved for the large canal boats 7pniches7 generally built at present4 ,the ,tournai boat has the forward and after faces rounded and a quite marked curve in the vertical plane1 so that the boat shows a curved stem called the nose4 ,the forward face carries a bend called the moustache and has on top a wooden rail to support the tow line which is made fast to the towing bitt back of the nose4 ,in the chaland1 called also 8,ballant01 the forward and after faces are nearly plane1 the nose and moustache are slightly marked and the towing bitt is placed at the extreme forward end of the boat4 ,as a rule1 these boats are not very strongly built and their planking suffers a good deal through the sharp curves at bow and stern4 ,their shape is so determined that they shall exactly fill the locks and that they shall then have a maximum loading capacity1 although it is altogether incomprehensible that1 just in order to get a few more tons on board1 the whole question of facility of towing should be entirely neglected4 ,what is gained then in one way is doubly lost in another in high charges for towing4 ,the only explanation which can be given for this manner of building is1 that most boatmen have their own tow horses1 for which a stable is placed at the centre of the boat1 so that they do not notice the additional costs of towing which they have to pay4 ,the dimensions of ,tournai boats and of the chalands are the same2 their length varies from #cg4ej m4 to #ci metres1 not counting the rudder1 and their breadth goes from #e4jj m4 to #e4je m42 they draw empty1 on an average1 #j4bh m41 and when loaded from #a4hj m4 to #b4cj m41 with a tonnage of #cjj to #cgj tons4 ,by comparing the blandres and pointus with these boats1 it can be seen that the latter can carry less than the former on account of their finer bow1 whence their name of ,pointu or ,spits4 ,the essential difference between the 8blandre01 called in ,flemish ,bijlander1 and the 8pointu0 lies in this1 that the bottom of the former connects with the forward face by means of a curved surface1 whereas the bottom of the latter remains flat up to the nose4 ,the two types differ little in other respects4 ,they are rarely built now4 ,it is true that new 8pointus0 are still met with1 but they should be considered rather as bastard 8pniches04 ,here again is seen a fusion of different forms accompanying an increase in the size of the boats4 ,the 8blandres0 are #bh to #cd metres long1 #d4fj m4 to #e metres broad and draw #j4cj m4 to #j4dj m4 light and up to #b metres loaded4 ,the 8pointu0 is #bj to #cj metres long and generally #c4ej m4 broad 7never reaching #e metres72 it draws light1 on an average1 #j4ce m41 and #a4hj m4 when loaded4 ,its tonnage is from #ajj to #bjj tons4 ,the largest pointus measure #cb metres in length and #d4ij m4 in breadth2 they gauge at most #bej tons on a draught of #b4ae m4 ,many of the types just mentioned are now often built of steel4 ,the 8,prij0 should also be mentioned in the chapter relating to these boats2 it is a 8spits0 made in two distinct parts1 each of which can be loaded separately4 ,illustration ,,footnotes3 #bf ,as the names of the boats which follow are almost strictly local1 no attempt has been made to translate them4 ,pniche1 however1 is the general name in ,france and ,belgium for the standard canal boat of about #cjj tons4 ,illustration3 #g ,shipbuilding in ,europe developed around two centres which came into contact in the neighborhood of #acjj4 ,the fusion of the two zones took place only between #adej and #aejj4 ,the ,northern centre1 that of the ,baltic ,sea1 which had its origin in ,sweden and ,norway1 only reached its full expansion in the time of the ,vikings4 ,the types of boats of the various nations along the shores of the seas of the ,north of ,europe show undeniable analogies both in form and in mode of construction4 ,going further into the continent1 the same striking analogies still appear1 so that the likeness of forms is further strengthened along the ,east-,west line4 ,map ,no #a herewith shows in green the sphere of the ,northern centre2 the probable direction of the movement of the rounded ,frisian types being given by a full line1 the direction of the finer types by a dotted line and that of the types of the ,lower ,rhine by a broken and dotted line4 ,the ,southern centre1 situated in the ,mediterranean1 and originally from ,phnicia1 is marked in red4 ,there too1 shipbuilding developed along an ,east-,west line4 ,although it may not be certified1 from the nautical standpoint or with the data at hand1 that the ,southern centre was under the influence of ,asia1 it can be observed1 however1 that many forms and processes of construction noted in old engravings are still found in the ,arab1 ,indian and ,chinese vessels4 ,hence it follows that it is all the more necessary to carry on our investigations in that direction because the old methods of propulsion and of steering have been relatively well preserved in ,asia rather than in ,europe4 ,there is no doubt that relations in connection with this subject will be found between the ,southern centre and a part of ,asia4 ,shipbuilding1 which came to us from the ,baltic ,sea1 was first put to use for fishing1 that undoubted cradle of every great maritime race4 ,the gradual growth of this industry widened the field of action and favored trade as it did in the ,flanders4 ,hence1 there will be no cause for astonishment in finding that the oldest memories of ,holland in reference to shipbuilding are those of the herring fishery4 ,the birth of the cog1 for example1 is due to the rise of this kind of fishing2 then this type of vessel led to that of the 8,egmonderpink01 and afterward to that of the 8,bom01 which will very soon have disappeared and of which it may be said that it will have formed the last vestige of the 8,cog04 ,the whole evolution of the ship is founded1 furthermore1 on tradition4 ,this1 however1 did not lie alone in servile imitation of all that our ancestors had turned out1 but in yielding to new demands which the special conditions of the period brought with them4 ,the evolution of the ship1 like that of its size1 has been gradual4 ,so the ships of antiquity were smaller than those of the ,middle ,ages1 and these in their turn were smaller than the vessels of modern times4 ,neither the compass1 the adoption of the rudder nor even the invention of gunpowder were able to bring about sudden changes in naval architecture4 ,it was only gradually1 and through improvements in artillery1 that ships became heavier2 so that at the beginning of our war for independence the distinction had begun to be made between war vessels and merchantmen1 which until then had both been equally used for military purposes4 ,it was after the discovery of ,america and of the route to the ,east ,indies1 two events of the greatest importance for the evolution of the peoples of ,europe1 that the commerce of the world left the ,mediterranean and moved toward the ,north ,sea4 ,then it was that our country woke up and soon surpassed all others in shipbuilding4 ,the ,netherlands then carried naval construction back toward the ,baltic4 ,france also borrowed from us the elements of shipbuilding4 ,the province of ,holland was at the head of this branch of construction from #aejj to #agjj2 ,france then took ,holland's place and1 from the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith century1 had its own separate construction4 ,it was the keen ,french mind which guided all countries in the systematic construction of ships4 ,england1 always practical1 has ever done her best to keep up with the country which turned out the largest ships4 ,holmes's work shows this tendency clearly4 ,after #ahjj1 ,england outstripped her rivals and set the pace for naval architecture4 ,numerous improvements were carried out under the influence of that country4 ,the continental blockade dealt our shipbuilding a mortal blow4 ,it was only through the initiative and the energetic backing of ,king ,william ,i that the industry revived in the first half of the ,x,i,xth century and reached1 in the second half1 a new period of prosperity4 ,japan's first modern war vessels were built in ,holland4 ,the coming of steel opened a new era for our naval architecture and our worthy shipbuilders have been able to do honor to the traditions of our race by proving themselves now1 as formerly1 economical architects with the ability to give a pleasing appearance and an irreproachable finish to a solid construction4 ,the distribution of the groups of the various types of boats is shown on map #c1 while map #d gives the subdivision of these groups in the ,netherlands4 ,the ,frisian types appear on both these maps in blue2 the types of the ,lower ,rhine1 which penetrated into the ,north-,west of ,brabant and into the heart of ,south ,holland1 are given in brown2 the types of the ,upper ,rhine are in violet1 those of the ,lower ,meuse in red and those of the ,upper ,meuse in green4 ,the types with finer lines of ,overijssel1 surrounded by those from ,friesland and the ,lower ,rhine1 and which are also met with on the ,ems1 the ,weser1 the ,elbe1 the ,havel and the ,spree are shown with a paler shade4 ,chart ,no4 #d shows the zone of the fishing boats which frequent the ,north ,sea4 ,these last1 except the 8,lugger0 and the 8,sloop01 belong to the ,friesland type4 ,it is curious to bring the boundaries of charts #e1 #f and #g together1 containing1 as they do1 the results of the patient researches of the late ,professor ,dr4 ,galle1 so well known and esteemed for his vast learning as well as for his great kindness1 when1 some time ago1 he was so good as to place copies of these charts at the author's disposal4 ,a mere glance is sufficient to show that the limits of costumes have been most changed2 but1 on the contrary1 there is a striking resemblance from the point of view of the distribution of languages and1 especially1 from that of the kind of dwellings4 ,the ,frisian and ,saxon influences agree on the different charts1 while the types of the ,upper ,meuse are found everywhere that the architecture of the ,roman villas has been preserved4 ,hence it is not astonishing that these types of the ,meuse resemble those found in the valley of the ,po and on the ,adriatic ,sea4 ,these observations agree with the historical researches which1 have established the fact that the countries bordering on the ,north ,sea were inhabited by the ,celts who came from the ,east to ,central and ,western ,europe several centuries before our era4 ,the ,celts drove out the ,mongols1 who were already settled there2 but they1 in their turn1 were driven from the ,west by the ,germans4 ,this is what caused the ,romans to say that1 north of the ,rhine1 the ,celts had already been driven out everywhere by the ,germans4 ,the ,rhine was at that time the general boundary line between the two peoples4 ,south of this river there only a few ,german out-lying positions1 like those of the ,eburones at ,maestricht and ,roermond1 and of the ,condrosii near ,lige4 ,the ,germans and ,celts are confounded along the ,meuse4 ,the ,celts in ,north ,brabant had already become very much germanized1 while the ,menapii1 the ,morini and the ,nervii of ,flanders and ,zeeland also felt this influence4 ,all these germanized ,celts were called ,gauls by the ,romans4 ,the ,germans penetrated several times into ,gaul1 they even came as far as the ,menapian country in the valley of the ,scheldt2 but ,csar succeeded in driving them back1 in the year #ee ,b4 ,c4 ,after the latter's conquests1 the ,rhine became the frontier of ,roman domination and so remained until about the ,i,xth century4 ,the ,gauls quickly became latinized4 ,north of the ,rhine1 the ,roman influence made itself felt on the ,batavi1 the ,chamavi and the ,frisians4 ,still1 this influence was not very strong1 especially on the last-named tribe4 ,from the moment that the ,roman power began to weaken1 the ,germans reappeared1 and it was especially the ,franks who proved to be the stronger4 ,these latter1 who inhabited the region of the ,lippe1 the ,ruhr and the ,upper ,ems1 were probably being pushed out already at this time by the ,saxons4 ,the ,franks were again driven beyond the ,rhine by the ,emperor ,probus1 in #bhj1 but they advanced again toward the ,south after the death of ,constantine the ,great 7#ccg74 ,cologne fell into their hands and they appeared in front of ,treves4 ,julian prevented1 however1 their entering ,taxandria1 the present ,north ,brabant4 ,the ,salians1 the strongest of the ,franks1 remained in the country of the ,batavi while the ,chamavi1 another of their tribes1 settled on the ,north of the ,rhine4 ,the ,salians and ,batavi soon consolidated into a single tribe4 ,then when the ,romans retired in #djb1 during the reign of the ,emperor ,honorius1 the ,francs started again on their route toward the ,south and invaded ,north ,brabant4 ,the ,saxons who1 as already mentioned1 had probably started the ,franks1 inhabited the country lying between the ,ems and the ,elbe1 consequently the ,north of ,germany4 ,they settled in the ,east of our country and1 later1 extended their influence northwardly4 ,the ,frisians1 who are generally spoken of in connection with the ,saxons1 were able to hold their ground between the ,weser and the ,zwin 7,zeelandisch ,flanders74 ,their ,king1 ,radbout1 carried their domination to the ,south of the ,rhine and pushed on even so far as ,cologne where he was defeated by ,charles ,martel4 ,if ,holland was called ,frisia 7or ,friesland7 in the ,middle ,ages1 only as far as the mouth of the ,meuse1 it is related1 on the other hand1 that ,saint ,amand preached the ,gospel to the ,frisians of ,zeeland4 ,this tradition is confirmed by ,prof4 ,fockema ,andrea1 who has shown that the ,frisian law of #hjj was applied from the ,weser to the ,zwin and the ,frank law as far as the ,ems1 that is to say3 the ,chamavi inhabited the ,veluwe to the ,east of this river2 consequently ,utrecht belonged to ,frisia4 ,it is also said1 in connection with the struggle of the ,frisians against the ,franks1 that ,utrecht was situated on the frontier of ,frisia4 ,in a word1 the ,netherlands were inhabited originally by ,celts whom the ,germans drove toward the ,south4 ,later1 they were able1 with the assistance of the ,romans1 to hold their ground to the ,south of the big rivers of the country4 ,the first ,germans in ,holland were the ,frisians4 ,they occupied the coast from the ,weser to the ,zwin and1 at a few points1 established themselves among the ,celts4 ,thus it is that ,frisian types of vessels are found from ,denmark to ,flanders and that they penetrated as far as ,utrecht and along the tidal rivers4 ,the ,chamavi1 the first ,franks1 very probably occupied the ,veluwe and the ,betuwe as for as the ,singe and the ,ems4 ,later1 the ,franks1 settled ,north ,brabant and penetrated into ,zeeland1 ,utrecht and ,south ,holland4 ,as a matter of fact1 we have already been impressed at meeting1 in our country1 with types of boats of the ,lower ,rhine not only along the ,rhine and its tributaries1 but even in the heart of ,south ,holland and in the ,north-,west of ,north-,brabant4 ,the ,saxons1 who were the last to arrive1 settled in the ,east of the country and spread gradually into ,groningen and ,friesland4 ,it is there that the slender ,overijssel or ,saxon types are met with4 ,types of vessels1 just like the styles of dwellings1 languages and costumes1 have certain relationships with the first inhabitants of countries4 ,this explains why types of different boats are found along the same river and the same country4 ,so1 old forms and old customs last through the ages and our country can pride itself not only on a glorious past but also on its ability to maintain so enviable a place in the domain of naval architecture1 for the words that ,witsen wrote in #afga3 8,in 't overleg van een zuinig meester bestaet al 't geheim van goedkoop bouwen40#bg can always be applied to our able builders of ships4 ,,footnotes3 #bg ,the entire secret of economical construction lies in the reasoning of a careful builder4 ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #a ,tafel ,n #a--;,carte ,n #a ,plate ,n #a ,,op ,,welke ,,wijze ,,de ,,scheepsbouw ,,zich ,,heeft ,,verplaatst ,,voor #aejj 7#a7 7#a7 ,wie sich der ,schiffbau vor #aejj bewegt hat4 ,evolution de l'architecture navale avant #aejj4 ,way in which shipbuilding moved before #aejj4 7#b7 ,sdlicher ,mittelpunkt4 ,centre mridional4 ,southern ,centre4 7#c7 ,nrdlicher ,mittelpunkt4 ,centre septentrional4 ,northern ,centre4 7#d7 ,erste ,berhrung zwischen dem sdlichen und nrdlichen ,mittelpunkt4 ,premier contact entre le centre mridional et le centre septentrional4 ,first contact between the ,southern centre and the ,northern centre4 7#e7 ,erster ,einfluss des sdlichen auf den nordlichen ,mittelpunkt4 ,premire influence du centre mridional sur le centre septentrional4 ,first influence of the ,southern centre on the ,northern centre4 ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #b ,tafel ,n #b -- ,carte ,n #b ,plate ,n #b ,,op ,,welke ,,wijze ,,de ,,scheepsbouw ,,zich ,,heeft ,,verplaatst ,,na #aejj 7#a7 7#a7 ,wie sich der ,schiffbau nach #aejj bewegt hat4 volution de l'architecture navale aprs #aejj4 ,way in which shipbuilding moved after #aejj4 7#b7 #aejj-agjj4 ,niederlande4 #aejj-agjj4 ,pays-,bas4 #aejj-agjj4 ,netherlands4 7#c7 ,stadte des ,hansabundes4 ,villes de la ligue hansatique4 ,cities of the ,hanseatic ,league4 7#d7 #agjj-ahjj4 ,frankreich4 ,der theoretische ,schiffbau4 #agjj-ahjj4 ,la ,france4 ,l'architecture navale thorique4 #agjj-ahjj4 ,france4 ,theoretical shipbuilding4 7#e7 ,die franzsische ,bauweise trennt sich von der der ,niederlande4 ,l'architecture navale franaise se spare de celle des ,pays-,bas4 ,french shipbuilding withdraws from that of the ,netherlands4 7#f7 ,nach #ahjj4 ,england4 ,aprs #ahjj4 l',angleterre4 ,after #ahjj4 ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #c ,tafel ,n #c -- ,carte ,n #c ,plate ,n #c ,,kaart ,,der ,,scheepsmodellen ,tafel der ,schiffstype4 ,carte des types navires4 ,plate showing types of vessels4 ,i ,friesche ,friesische ,type4 ,types ,frisons4 ,frisian types4 modellen4 7,smacken1 7,semaque1 etc47 7,smack1 etc47 7,smak1 enz47 u4 s4 w47 ,,ii ,overijselsche ,type von ,types de ,overysel types4 modellen4 ,overysel4 l',overysel4 7,somp4 pegge1 7,somp4 ,pegge1 7,somp4 pegge1 7,somp4 pegge1 enz47 u4 s4 w47 etc47 etc47 ,,iii ,b,rijn der ,rhein ,le ,rhin ,b,the ,rhine o7,dorstensche 7,aak ,b7l',aque de o7,ake from v aak74 ,o von ,dorsten74 o ,dorsten74 v ,dorsten74 e b v e ,,iv n,maas edie ,maas e,la ,meuse n,the ,meuse d7,hedelsche r7,aak von n7l',aque de d7,ake from l aak74 l ,hedel74 d ,hedel74 l ,hedel74 a l a ,v n,maas ndie ,maas a,la ,meuse n,the ,meuse d7,whale majol74d7,whale majol74 n7le ,whale d7,the ,whale e e dmajol74 e majol74 r r e r ,,vi s,boven der ,oberrhein r,le ,rhin s,the ,upper ,rijn 7der ,keen74 ssuprieur ,rhine 7,keen74 7der ,keen74 7le ,keen74 7,keen74 ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,,der ,,scheepsmodellen 7#a7 ,,kaart ,n #d ,tafel ,n #d--;,carte ,n #d ,plate ,n #d 7#a7 ,,tafel ,,der ,,schiffstype ,,carte ,,des ,,types ,,de ,,navires ,,plate ,,showing ,,types ,,of ,,vessels ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #e ,tafel ,n #e--;,carte ,n #e ,plate ,n #e ,,kaart ,,der ,,dialecten ,,nederland4 ,dialecttafel4 ,niederlande4 ,carte des dialects4 ,pays-,bas4 ,dialect ,chart4 ,netherlands4 ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #f ,tafel ,n #f--;,carte ,n #f ,plate ,n #f ,,volkskleederdrachten ,tafel der ,volkstrachten ,carte des costumes nationaux ,plate of national costumes ,illustration3 ,,kaart ,n #g ,tafel ,n #g--;,carte ,n #g ,plate ,n #g ,,kaart ,,der ,,boerenwoningen ,tafel der lndlichen ,wohnhuser4 ,carte des habitations rurales4 ,country homes4