,,yoga ,,as ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religions ,,by ,,surendranath ,,dasgupta ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d47,,cal471 ,,ph4,d47,,cantab47 ,,author ,,of 8,a ,,history ,,of ,,indian ,,philosophy01 ,,etc4 ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,presidency ,college1 ,calcutta ,late ,professor of ,sanskrit1 ,chittagong ,college ,late ,lecturer in the ,university of ,cambridge ,,london3 ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1 ,,trubner ,,co41 ,,ltd ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 #aibd ,,yoga ,,as ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion ,printed in ,great ,britain at ,the ,mayflower ,press1 ,plymouth1 ,william ,brendon ,son1 ,ltd4 ,,as ,a ,,humble ,,token ,,of ,,deepest ,,regard ,,and ,,gratefulness ,,to ,,the ,,maharaja ,,sir ,,manindrachandra ,,nundy ,k4,c4,i4,e ,,whose ,,noble ,,character ,,and ,,self-,,denying ,,charities ,,have ,,endeared ,,him ,,to ,,the ,,people ,,of ,,bengal ,,and ,,who ,,so ,,kindly ,,offered ,,me ,,his ,,whole-,,hearted ,,patronage ,,in ,,encouraging ,,my ,,zeal ,,for ,,learning ,,at ,a ,,time ,,when ,i ,,was ,,in ,,so ,,great ,a ,,need ,,of ,,it ,,preface ,this little volume is an attempt at a brief exposition of the philosophical and religious doctrines found in ,patajali's ,yoga-stra as explained by its successive commentaries of ,vysa1 ,vcaspati1 ,vijna ,bhikshu1 and others4 ,the exact date of ,patajali cannot be definitely ascertained1 but if his identity with the other ,patajali1 the author of the ,great ,commentary 7,mahbhshya7 on ,pini's grammar1 could be conclusively established1 there would be some evidence in our hands that he lived in #aej ,b4,c4 ,i have already discussed this subject in the first volume of my ,a ,history of ,indian ,philosophy1 where the conclusion to which ,i arrived was that1 while there was some evidence in favour of their identity1 there was nothing which could be considered as being conclusively against it4 ,the term ,yoga1 according to ,patajali's definition1 means the final annihilation 7nirodha7 of all the mental states 7cittavtti7 involving the preparatory stages in which the mind has to be habituated to being steadied into particular types of graduated mental states4 ,this was actually practised in ,india for a long time before ,patajali lived2 and it is very probable that certain philosophical1 psychological1 and practical doctrines associated with it were also current long before ,patajali4 ,patajali's work is1 however1 the earliest systematic compilation on the subject that is known to us4 ,it is impossible1 at this distance of time1 to determine the extent to which ,patajali may claim originality4 ,had it not been for the labours of the later commentators1 much of what is found in ,patajali's aphorisms would have remained extremely obscure and doubtful1 at least to all those who were not associated with such ascetics as practised them1 and who derived the theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject from their preceptors in an upward succession of generations leading up to the age of ,patajali1 or even before him4 ,it is well to bear in mind that ,yoga is even now practised in ,india1 and the continuity of traditional instruction handed down from teacher to pupil is not yet completely broken4 ,if anyone wishes methodically to pursue a course which may lead him ultimately to the goal aimed at by ,yoga1 he must devote his entire life to it under the strict practical guidance of an advanced teacher4 ,the present work can in no sense be considered as a practical guide for such purposes4 ,but it is also erroneous to think--as many uninformed people do--that the only interest of ,yoga lies in its practical side4 ,the philosophical1 psychological1 cosmological1 ethical1 and religious doctrines1 as well as its doctrines regarding matter and change1 are extremely interesting in themselves1 and have a definitely assured place in the history of the progress of human thought2 and1 for a right understanding of the essential features of the higher thoughts of ,india1 as well as of the practical side of ,yoga1 their knowledge is indispensable4 ,the ,yoga doctrines taught by ,patajali are regarded as the highest of all ,yogas 7,rjayoga71 as distinguished from other types of ,yoga practices1 such as ,hahayoga or ,mantrayoga4 ,of these ,hahayoga consists largely of a system of bodily exercises for warding off diseases1 and making the body fit for calmly bearing all sorts of physical privations and physical strains4 ,mantrayoga is a course of meditation on certain mystical syllables which leads to the audition of certain mystical sounds4 ,this book does not deal with any of these mystical practices nor does it lay any stress on the performance of any of those miracles described by ,patajali4 ,the scope of this work is limited to a brief exposition of the intellectual foundation--or the theoretical side--of the ,yoga practices1 consisting of the philosophical1 psychological1 cosmological1 ethical1 religious1 and other doctrines which underlie these practices4 ,the affinity of the system of ,skhya thought1 generally ascribed to a mythical sage1 ,kapila1 to that of ,yoga of ,patajali is so great on most important points of theoretical interest that they may both be regarded as two different modifications of one common system of ideas4 ,i have1 therefore1 often taken the liberty of explaining ,yoga ideas by a reference to kindred ideas in ,skhya4 ,but the doctrines of ,yoga could very well have been compared or contrasted with great profit with the doctrines of other systems of ,indian thought4 ,this has purposely been omitted here as it has already been done by me in my ,yoga ,philosophy in relation to other ,systems of ,indian ,thought1 the publication of which has for long been unavoidably delayed4 ,all that may be expected from the present volume is that it will convey to the reader the essential features of the ,yoga system of thought4 ,how far this expectation will be realized from this book it will be for my readers to judge4 ,it is hoped that the chapter on 8,kapila and ,ptajala ,school of ,skhya0 in my ,a ,history of ,indian ,philosophy 7,vol4 ,i4 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aibb7 will also prove helpful for the purpose4 ,i am deeply indebted to my friend ,mr4 ,douglas ,ainslie for the numerous corrections and suggestions regarding the ,english style that he was pleased to make throughout the body of the manuscript and the very warm encouragement that he gave me for the publication of this work4 ,in this connection ,i also beg to offer my best thanks for the valuable suggestions which ,i received from the reviser of the press4 ,had it not been for these1 the imperfections of the book would have been still greater4 ,the quaintness and inelegance of some of my expressions would1 however1 be explained if it were borne in mind that here1 as well as in my ,a ,history of ,indian ,philosophy1 ,i have tried to resist the temptation of making the ,english happy at the risk of sacrificing the approach to exactness of the philosophical sense2 and many ideas of ,indian philosophy are such that an exact ,english rendering of them often becomes hopelessly difficult4 ,i am grateful to my friend and colleague1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,k4 ,sen1 ,m4,a41 for the kind assistance that he rendered in helping me to prepare the index4 ,last of all1 ,i must express my deep sense of gratefulness to ,sir ,ashutosh ,mookerjee1 ,kt41 ,c4,s4,i41 etc4 etc41 and the ,university of ,calcutta1 for kindly permitting me to utilize my ,a ,study of ,patajli1 which is a ,calcutta ,university publication1 for the present work4 ,s4 ,n4 ,,dasgupta4 ,,presidency ,,college1 ,,calcutta1 ,april1 #aibd4 ,,contents ,,book ,i4 ,,yoga ,,metaphysics3 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,prak,,ti #a ,,ii4 ,,purusha #ac ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reality ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,world #ca ,,iv4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,evolution #dj ,v4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,categories #dh ,,vi4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,change ,,of ,,qualities #fd ,,vii4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,god #hd ,,book ,,ii4 ,,yoga ,,ethics ,,and ,,practice3 ,,viii4 ,,mind ,,and ,,moral ,,states #ib ,,ix4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,karma #ajb ,x4 ,,the ,,ethical ,,problem #aad ,,xi4 ,,yoga ,,practice #abd ,,xii4 ,,the ,,yog,,gas #acb ,,xiii4 ,,stages ,,of ,,samadhi #aej ,,xiv4 ,,god ,,in ,,yoga #aei ,,xv4 ,,matter ,,and ,,mind #aff ,,appendix #agi ,,index #ahh ,,yoga ,,as ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion ,,book ,i4 ,,yoga ,,metaphysics ,,chapter ,i ,,prakrti ,however dogmatic a system of philosophical enquiry may appear to us1 it must have been preceded by a criticism of the observed facts of experience4 ,the details of the criticism and the processes of self-argumentation by which the thinker arrived at his theory of the ,universe might indeed be suppressed1 as being relatively unimportant1 but a thoughtful reader would detect them as lying in the background behind the shadow of the general speculations1 but at the same time setting them off before our view4 ,an ,aristotle or a ,patajali may not make any direct mention of the arguments which led him to a dogmatic assertion of his theories1 but for a reader who intends to understand them thoroughly it is absolutely necessary that he should read them in the light as far as possible of the inferred presuppositions and inner arguments of their minds2 it is in this way alone that he can put himself in the same line of thinking with the thinker whom he is willing to follow1 and can grasp him to the fullest extent4 ,in offering this short study of the ,ptajala metaphysics1 ,i shall therefore try to supplement it with such of my inferences of the presuppositions of ,patajali's mind1 which ,i think will add to the clearness of the exposition of his views1 though ,i am fully alive to the difficulties of making such inferences about a philosopher whose psychological1 social1 religious and moral environments differed so widely from ours4 ,an enquiry into the relations of the mental phenomena to the physical has sometimes given the first start to philosophy4 ,the relation of mind to matter is such an important problem of philosophy that the existing philosophical systems may roughly be classified according to the relative importance that has been attached to mind or to matter4 ,there have been chemical1 mechanical and biological conceptions which have ignored mind as a separate entity and have dogmatically affirmed it to be the product of matter only4#a ,there have been theories of the other extreme1 which have dispensed with matter altogether and have boldly affirmed that matter as such has no reality at all1 and that thought is the only thing which can be called ,real in the highest sense4 ,all matter as such is non-,being or ,my or ,avidy4 ,there have been ,nihilists like the nyavdi ,buddhists who have gone so far as to assert that neither matter nor mind exists4 ,some have asserted that matter is only thought externalized1 some have regarded the principle of matter as the unknowable ,thing-in-itself1 some have regarded them as separate independent entities held within a higher reality called ,god1 or as two of his attributes only1 and some have regarded their difference as being only one of grades of intelligence1 one merging slowly and imperceptibly into the other and held together in concord with each other by pre-established harmony4 ,underlying the metaphysics of the ,yoga system of thought as taught by ,patajali and as elaborated by his commentators we find an acute analysis of matter and thought4 ,matter on the one hand1 mind1 the senses1 and the ego on the other are regarded as nothing more than two different kinds of modifications of one primal cause1 the ,prakti4 ,but the self-intelligent principle called ,purusha 7spirit7 is distinguished from them4 ,matter consists only of three primal qualities or rather substantive entities1 which he calls the ,sattva or intelligence-stuff1 ,rajas or energy1 and ,tamas--the factor of obstruction or mass or inertia4 ,it is extremely difficult truly to conceive of the nature of these three kinds of entities or ,guas1 as he calls them1 when we consider that these three elements alone are regarded as composing all phenomena1 mental and physical4 ,in order to comprehend them rightly it will be necessary to grasp thoroughly the exact relation between the mental and the physical4 ,what are the real points of agreement between the two8 ,how can the same elements be said to behave in one case as the conceiver and in the other case as the conceived8 ,thus ,vcaspati says3-- 8,the reals 7guas7 have two forms1 viz4 the determiner or the perceiver1 and the perceived or the determined4 ,in the aspect of the determined or the perceived1 the guas evolve themselves as the five infra-atomic potentials1 the five gross elements and their compounds4 ,in the aspect of perceiver or determiner1 they form the modifications of the ego together with the senses40#b ,it is interesting to notice here the two words used by ,vcaspati in characterising the twofold aspect of the gua viz4 vyavasytmakatva1 their nature as the determiner or perceiver1 and vyavaseytmakatva1 their nature as determined or perceived4 ,the elements which compose the phenomena of the objects of perception are the same as those which form the phenomena of the perceiving2 their only distinction is that one is the determined and the other is the determiner4 ,what we call the psychosis involving intellection1 sensing and the ego1 and what may be called the infra-atoms1 atoms and their combinations1 are but two different types of modifications of the same stuff of reals4 ,there is no intrinsic difference in nature between the mental and the physical4 ,the mode of causal transformation is explained by ,vijna ,bhikshu in his commentary on the system of ,skhya as if its functions consisted only in making manifest what was already there in an unmanifested form4 ,thus he says1 8just as the image already existing in the stone is only manifested by the activity of the statuary1 so the causal activity also generates only that activity by which an effect is manifested as if it happened or came into being at the present moment40#c ,the effects are all always existent1 but some of them are sometimes in an unmanifested state4 ,what the causal operation1 viz4 the energy of the agent and the suitable collocating instruments and conditions1 does is to set up an activity by which the effect may be manifested at the present moment4 ,with ,skhya-,yoga1 sattva1 rajas and tamas are substantive entities which compose the reality of the mental and the physical4#d ,the mental and the physical represent two different orders of modifications1 and one is not in any way superior to the other4 ,as the guas conjointly form the manifold without1 by their varying combinations1 as well as all the diverse internal functions1 faculties and phenomena1 they are in themselves the absolute potentiality of all things1 mental and physical4 ,thus ,vysa in describing the nature of the knowable1 writes3 8,the nature of the knowable is now described3--,the knowable1 consisting of the objects of enjoyment and liberation1 as the gross elements and the perceptive senses1 is characterised by three essential traits--illumination1 energy and inertia4 ,the sattva is of the nature of illumination4 ,rajas is of the nature of energy4 ,inertia 7tamas7 is of the nature of inactivity4 ,the gua entities with the above characteristics are capable of being modified by mutual influence on one another1 by their proximity4 ,they are evolving4 ,they have the characteristics of conjunction and separation4 ,they manifest forms by one lending support to the others by proximity4 ,none of these loses its distinct power into those of the others1 even though any one of them may exist as the principal factor of a phenomenon with the others as subsidiary thereto4 ,the guas forming the three classes of substantive entities manifest themselves as such by their similar kinds of power4 ,when any one of them plays the rle of the principal factor of any phenomenon1 the others also show their presence in close contact4 ,their existence as subsidiary energies of the principal factor is inferred by their distinct and independent functioning1 even though it be as subsidiary qualities40#e ,the ,yoga theory does not acknowledge qualities as being different from substances4 ,the ultimate substantive entities are called guas1 which as we have seen are of three kinds4 ,the gua entities are infinite in number2 each has an individual existence1 but is always acting in co-operation with others4 ,they may be divided into three classes in accordance with their similarities of behaviour 7la74 ,those which behave in the way of intellection are called sattva1 those which behave in the way of producing effort of movement are called rajas1 and those which behave differently from these and obstruct their process are called tamas4 ,we have spoken above of a primal cause prakti4 ,but that is not a separate category independent of the guas4 ,prakti is but a name for the gua entities when they exist in a state of equilibrium4 ,all that exists excepting the purushas are but the gua entities in different kinds of combination amongst themselves4 ,the effects they produce are not different from them but it is they themselves which are regarded as causes in one state and effects in another4 ,the difference of combination consists in this1 that in some combinations there are more of sattva entities than rajas or tamas1 and in others more of rajas or more of tamas4 ,these entities are continually uniting and separating4 ,but though they are thus continually dividing and uniting in new combinations the special behaviour or feature of each class of entities remains ever the same4 ,whatever may be the nature of any particular combination the sattva entities participating in it will retain their intellective functions1 rajas their energy functions1 and tamas the obstructing ones4 ,but though they retain their special features in spite of their mutual difference they hold fast to one another in any particular combination 7tulyajtytulyajtyaaktibhednuptina1 which ,bhikshu explains as aviesheopashambhakasvabhv74 ,in any particular combination it is the special features of those entities which predominate that manifest themselves1 while the other two classes lend their force in drawing the minds of perceivers to it as an object as a magnet draws a piece of iron4 ,their functionings at this time are undoubtedly feeble 7skshmavttimanta7 but still they do exist4#f ,in the three guas1 none of them can be held as the goal of the others4 ,all of them are equally important1 and the very varied nature of the manifold represents only the different combinations of these guas as substantive entities4 ,in any combination one of the guas may be more predominant than the others1 but the other guas are also present there and perform their functions in their own way4 ,no one of them is more important than the other1 but they serve conjointly one common purpose1 viz4 the experiences and the liberation of the purusha1 or spirit4 ,they are always uniting1 separating and re-uniting again and there is neither beginning nor end of this 7anyonyamithun sarvve naishmdisamprayogo viprayogo v upalabhyate74 ,they have no purpose of their own to serve1 but they all are always evolving1 as ,dr4 ,seal says1 8ever from a relatively less differentiated1 less determinate1 less coherent whole1 to a relatively more differentiated1 more determinate1 more coherent whole0#g for the experiences and liberation of purusha1 or spirit4 ,when in a state of equilibrium they cannot serve the purpose of the purusha1 so that state of the guas is not for the sake of the purusha2 it is its own independent eternal state4 ,all the other three stages of evolution1 viz4 the liga 7sign71 aviesha 7unspecialised7 and viesha 7specialised7 have been caused for the sake of the purusha4#h ,thus ,vysa writes3--#i 8,the objects of the purusha are no cause of the original state 7aliga74 ,that is to say1 the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not the cause which brings about the manifestation of the original state of prakti in the beginning4 ,the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the reason of the existence of that ultimate state4 ,since it is not brought into existence by the need of the fulfilment of the purusha's objects it is said to be eternal4 ,as to the three specialised states1 the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha becomes the cause of their manifestation in the beginning4 ,the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha is not therefore the reason for the existence of the cause4 ,since it is not brought into existence by the purusha's objects it is said to be eternal4 ,as to the three specialised states1 the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha being the cause of their manifestation in the beginning1 they are said to be non-eternal40 ,vcaspati again says3--8,the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha could be said to be the cause of the original state1 if that state could bring about the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha1 such as the enjoyment of sound1 etc41 or manifest the discrimination of the distinction between true self and other phenomena4 ,if however it did that1 it could not be a state of equilibrium10 7yadyaligvasth abddyupabhogam v sattvapurushnyatkhytim v purushrtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na smyavasth syt74 ,this state is called the prakti4 ,it is the beginning1 indeterminate1 unmediated and undetermined4 ,it neither exists nor does it not exist1 but is the principium of almost all existence4 ,thus ,vysa describes it as 8the state which neither is nor is not2 that which exists and yet does not2 that in which there is no non-existence2 the unmanifested1 the noumenon 7lit4 without any manifested indication71 the background of all0 7nisattsattam nisadasat nirasat avyaktam aligam pradhnam74#aj ,vcaspati explains it as follows3--8,existence consists in possessing the capacity of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha4 ,non-existence means a mere imaginary trifle 7e4g4 the horn of a hare740 ,it is described as being beyond both these states of existence and non-existence4 ,the state of the equipoise of the three guas of intelligence-stuff1 inertia and energy1 is nowhere of use in fulfilling the objects of the purusha4 ,it therefore does not exist as such4 ,on the other hand1 it does not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an imaginary lotus of the sky4 ,it is therefore not non-existent4 ,but even allowing the force of the above arguments about the want of phenomenal existence of prakti on the ground that it cannot serve the objects of the purusha1 the difficulty arises that the principles of ,mahat1 etc41 exist in the state of the unmanifested also1 because nothing that exists can be destroyed2 and if it is destroyed1 it cannot be born again1 because nothing that does not exist can be born2 it follows therefore that since the principles of mahat1 etc41 exist in the state of the unmanifested1 that state can also affect the fulfilment of the objects of the purusha4 ,how then can it be said that the unmanifested is not possessed of existence8 ,for this reason1 he describes it as that in which it exists and does not exist4 ,this means that the cause exists in that state in a potential form but not in the form of the effect4 ,although the effect exists in the cause as mere potential power1 yet it is incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects of the purusha2 it is therefore said to be non-existent as such4 ,further he says that this cause is not such1 that its effect is of the nature of hare's horn4 ,it is beyond the state of non-existence1 that is1 of the existence of the effect as mere nothing4 ,if it were like that1 then it would be like the lotus of the sky and no effect would follow4#aa ,but as ,bhikshu points out 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah7 this prakti is not simple substance1 for it is but the gua reals4 ,it is simple only in the sense that no complex qualities are manifested in it4 ,it is the name of the totality of the gua reals existing in a state of equilibrium through their mutual counter opposition4 ,it is a hypothetical state of the guas preceding the states in which they work in mutual co-operation for the creation of the cosmos for giving the purushas a chance for ultimate release attained through a full enjoyment of experiences4 ,some ,european scholars have often asked me whether the prakti were real or whether the guas were real4 ,this question1 in my opinion1 can only arise as a result of confusion and misapprehension1 for it is the guas in a state of equilibrium that are called prakti4 ,apart from guas there is no prakti 7gu eva praktiabdavcy na tu tadatirikt praktirasti4 ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah74 ,in this state1 the different guas only annul themselves and no change takes place1 though it must be acknowledged that the state of equipoise is also one of tension and action1 which1 however1 being perfectly balanced does not produce any change4 ,this is what is meant by evolution of similars 7adaparima74 ,prakti as the equilibrium of the three guas is the absolute ground of all the mental and phenomenal modifications--pure potentiality4 ,vekaa1 a later ,vaishava writer1 describes prakti as one ubiquitous1 homogeneous matter which evolves itself into all material productions by condensation and rarefaction4 ,in this view the guas would have to be translated as three different classes of qualities or characters1 which are found in the evolutionary products of the prakti4 ,this will of course be an altogether different view of the prakti from that which is described in the ,vysa-bhshya1 and the guas could not be considered as reals or as substantive entities in such an interpretation4 ,a question arises1 then1 as to which of these two praktis is the earlier conception4 ,i confess that it is difficult to answer it4 ,for though the ,vaishava view is elaborated in later times1 it can by no means be asserted that it had not quite as early a beginning as #bnd or #crd century ,b4,c4 ,if ,ahirbudhnyasamhit is to be trusted then the ,shashitantrastra which is regarded as an authoritative ,skhya work is really a ,vaishava work4 ,nothing can be definitely stated about the nature of prakti in ,skhya from the meagre statement of the ,krik4 ,the statement in the ,vysa-bhshya is1 however1 definitely in favour of the interpretation that we have adopted1 and so also the ,skhya-stra1 which is most probably a later work4 ,caraka's account of prakti does not seem to be the prakti of ,vysa-bhshya for here the guas are not regarded as reals or substantive entities1 but as characters1 and prakti is regarded as containing its evolutes1 mahat1 etc41 as its elements 7dhtu74 ,if ,caraka's treatment is the earliest view of ,skhya that is available to us1 then it has to be admitted that the earliest ,skhya view did not accept prakti as a state of the guas1 or guas as substantive entities4 ,but the ,yoga-stra1 ,,ii4 #ai1 and the ,vysa-bhshya support the interpretation that ,i have adopted here1 and it is very curious that if the ,skhya view was known at the time to be so different from it1 no reference to it should have been made4 ,but whatever may be the original ,skhya view1 both the ,yoga view and the later ,skhya view are quite in consonance with my interpretation4 ,in later ,indian thinkers there had been a tendency to make a compromise between the ,vednta and ,skhya doctrines and to identify prakti with the avidy of the ,vedntists4 ,thus ,lokcryya writes3--8,it is called prakti since it is the source of all change1 it is called avidy since it is opposed to knowledge1 it is called my since it is the cause of diversion creation 7praktirityucyate vikrotpdakatvt avidy jnavirodhitvt my vicitrasshikaratvt740#ab ,but this is distinctly opposed to the ,vysa-bhshya which defines avidy as vidyviparta jnntara avidy1 i4e4 avidy is that other knowledge which is opposed to right knowledge4 ,in some of the ,upanishads1 ,svetvatara for example1 we find that my and prakti are identified and the great god is said to preside over them 7my tu prakti vidyt myina tumahevara74 ,there is a description also in the gveda1 ,x4 #ib1 where it is said that 7nsadst na sadst tadn71 in the beginning there was neither the 8,is0 nor the 8,is not10 which reminds one of the description of prakti 7nisattsatta as that in which there is no existence or non-existence74 ,in this way it may be shown from ,gt and other ,sanskrit texts that an undifferentiated1 unindividuated cosmic matter as the first principle1 was often thought of and discussed from the earliest times4 ,later on this idea was utilised with modifications by the different schools of ,vedntists1 the ,skhyists and those who sought to make a reconciliation between them under the different names of prakti1 avidy and my4 ,what avidy really means according to the ,ptajala system we shall see later on2 but here we see that whatever it might mean it does not mean prakti according to the ,ptajala system4 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #ac1 makes mention of my also in a couplet from ,shashitantrastra2 gun parama rpa na dshipathamcchati yattu dshipatha prpta tanmyeva sutucch aka4 ,the real appearance of the guas does not come within the line of our vision4 ,that1 however1 which comes within the line of vision is but paltry delusion and ,vcaspati ,mira explains it as follows3--,prakti is like the my but it is not my4 ,it is trifling 7sutucchaka7 in the sense that it is changing4 ,just as my constantly changes1 so the transformations of prakti are every moment appearing and vanishing and thus suffering momentary changes4 ,prakti being eternal is real and thus different from my4 ,this explanation of ,vcaspati's makes it clear that the word my is used here only in the sense of illusion1 and without reference to the celebrated my of the ,vedntists2 and ,vcaspati clearly says that prakti can in no sense be called my1 since it is real4#ac ,,chapter ,,ii ,,purusha ,we shall get a more definite notion of prakti as we advance further into the details of the later transformations of the prakti in connection with the purushas4 ,the most difficult point is to understand the nature of its connection with the purushas4 ,prakti is a material1 non-intelligent1 independent principle1 and the souls or spirits are isolated1 neutral1 intelligent and inactive4 ,then how can the one come into connection with the other8 ,in most systems of philosophy the same trouble has arisen and has caused the same difficulty in comprehending it rightly4 ,plato fights the difficulty of solving the unification of the idea and the non-being and offers his participation theory2 even in ,aristotle's attempt to avoid the difficulty by his theory of form and matter1 we are not fully satisfied1 though he has shown much ingenuity and subtlety of thought in devising the 8expedient in the single conception of development40 ,the universe is but a gradation between the two extremes of potentiality and actuality1 matter and form4 ,but all students of ,aristotle know that it is very difficult to understand the true relation between form and matter1 and the particular nature of their interaction with each other1 and this has created a great divergence of opinion among his commentators4 ,it was probably to avoid this difficulty that the dualistic appearance of the philosophy of ,descartes had to be reconstructed in the pantheism of ,spinoza4 ,again we find also how ,kant failed to bring about the relation between noumenon and phenomenon1 and created two worlds absolutely unrelated to each other4 ,he tried to reconcile the schism that he effected in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason by his ,critique of ,practical ,reason1 and again supplemented it with his ,critique of ,judgment1 but met only with dubious success4 ,in ,india also this question has always been a little puzzling1 and before trying to explain the ,yoga point of view1 ,i shall first give some of the other expedients devised for the purpose1 by the different schools of ,advaita 7monistic7 ,vedntism4 ,i4 ,the reflection theory of the ,vednta holds that the my is without beginning1 unspeakable1 mother of gross matter1 which comes in connection with intelligence1 so that by its reflection in the former we have vara4 ,the illustrations that are given to explain it both in ,siddhntalea#ad and in ,advaita-,brahmasiddhi are only cases of physical reflection1 viz4 the reflection of the sun in water1 or of the sky in water4 ,,ii4 ,the limitation theory of the ,vednta holds that the all-pervading intelligence must necessarily be limited by mind1 etc41 so of necessity it follows that 8the soul0 is its limitation4 ,this theory is illustrated by giving those common examples in which the ka 7space7 though unbounded in itself is often spoken of as belonging to a jug or limited by the jug and as such appears to fit itself to the shape and form of the jug and is thus called ghavacchinna ka1 i4e4 space as within the jug4 ,then we have a third school of ,vedntists1 which seeks to explain it in another way3--,the soul is neither a reflection nor a limitation1 but just as the son of ,kunt was known as the son of ,rdh1 so the pure ,brahman by his nescience is known as the jva1 and like the prince who was brought up in the family of a low caste1 it is the pure ,brahman who by his own nescience undergoes birth and death1 and by his own nescience is again released4#ae ,the ,skhya-stra also avails itself of the same story in ,,iv4 #a1 8rjaputtravattattvopadet10 which ,vijna ,bhikshu explains as follows3--,a certain king's son in consequence of his being born under the star ,gaa having been expelled from his city and reared by a certain forester remains under the idea3 8,i am a forester40 ,having learnt that he is alive1 a certain minister informs him4 8,thou art not a forester1 thou art a king's son40 ,as he1 immediately having abandoned the idea of being an outcast1 betakes himself to his true royal state1 saying1 8,i am a king10 so too the soul realises its purity in consequence of instruction by some good tutor1 to the effect--8,thou1 who didst originate from the first soul1 which manifests itself merely as pure thought1 art a portion thereof40 ,in another place there are two stras3--7#a7 nisage'pi upargo vivekt4 7#b7 japsphaikayoriva noparga kintvabhimna4 7#a7 ,though it be associated still there is a tingeing through non-discrimination4 7#b7 ,as in the case of the hibiscus and the crystal1 there is not a tinge1 but a fancy4 ,now it will be seen that all these theories only show that the transcendent nature of the union of the principle of pure intelligence is very difficult to comprehend4 ,neither the reflection nor the limitation theory can clear the situation from vagueness and incomprehensibility1 which is rather increased by their physical illustrations1 for the cit or pure intelligence cannot undergo reflection like a physical thing1 nor can it be obstructed or limited by it4 ,the reflection theory adduced by the ,skhya-stra1 8japsphiikayoriva noparga kintvabhimna10 is not an adequate explanation4 ,for here the reflection produces only a seeming redness of the colourless crystal1 which was not what was meant by the ,vedntists of the reflection school4 ,but here1 though the metaphor is more suitable to express the relation of purusha with the prakti1 the exact nature of the relation is more lost sight of than comprehended4 ,let us now see how ,patajali and ,vysa seek to explain it4 ,let me quote a few stras of ,patajali and some of the most important extracts from the ,bhshya and try1 as far as possible1 to get the correct view3-- 7#a7 dgdaranaaktyorektmateva asmit ,,ii4 #f4 7#b7 drash dimtra uddho'pi pratyaynupaya ,,ii4 #bj4 7#c7 tadartha eva dryasya tm ,,ii4 #ba4 7#d7 ktrtha prati nashamapyanasha tadanyasdhraatvt ,,ii4 #bb4 7#e7 ,svasvmiaktyo svarpopalabdhihetu sayogah ,,ii4 #bb4 7#f7 tadabhvt sayogbhvo hna tadde kaivalya ,,ii4 #be4 7#g7 sattvapurushayo uddhismye kaivalya ,,iii4 #be4 7#h7 citerapratisakramystadkrpattau svabuddhisavedana ,,iv4 #bb4 7#i7 sattvapurushayoratyantsakrayo pratyayvesho bhoga parrthatvt svrthasayamt purushajnam ,,iii4 #ce4 7#a7 ,the ,ego-sense is the illusory appearance of the identity of the power as perceiver and the power as perceived4 7#b7 ,the seer though pure as mere 8seeing0 yet perceives the forms assumed by the psychosis 7buddhi74 7#c7 ,it is for the sake of the purusha that the being of the knowable exists4 7#d7 ,for the emancipated person the world-phenomena cease to exist1 yet they are not annihilated since they form a common field of experience for other individuals4 7#e7 ,the cause of the realisation of the natures of the knowable and purusha in consciousness is their mutual contact4 7#f7 ,cessation is the want of mutual contact arising from the destruction of ignorance and this is called the state of oneness4 7#g7 ,this state of oneness arises out of the equality in purity of the purusha and buddhi or sattva4 7#h7 ,personal consciousness arises when the purusha1 though in its nature unchangeable1 is cast into the mould of the psychosis4 7#i7 ,since the mind-objects exist only for the purusha1 experience consists in the non-differentiation of these two which in their natures are absolutely distinct2 the knowledge of self arises out of concentration on its nature4 ,thus in ,yoga-stra1 ,,ii4 #f1 dik or purusha the seer is spoken of as akti or power as much as the prakti itself1 and we see that their identity is only apparent4 ,vysa in his ,bhshya explains ektmat 7unity of nature or identity7 as avibhgaprptviva1 8as if there is no difference40 ,and ,pacaikha1 as quoted in ,vysa-bhshya1 writes3 8not knowing the purusha beyond the mind to be different therefrom1 in nature1 character and knowledge1 etc41 a man has the notion of self1 in the mind through delusion40 ,thus we see that when the mind and purusha are known to be separated1 the real nature of purusha is realised4 ,this seeming identity is again described as that which perceives the particular form of the mind and thereby appears1 as identical with it though it is not so 7pratyaynupaya--pratyayni bauddhamanupayati tamanupayannatadtmpi tadtmaka iva pratibhti1 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #bj74 ,the purusha thus we see1 cognises the phenomena of consciousness after they have been formed1 and though its nature is different from conscious states yet it appears to be the same4 ,vysa in explaining this stra says that purusha is neither quite similar to the mind nor altogether different from it4 ,for the mind 7buddhi7 is always changeful1 according to the change of the objects that are offered to it2 so that it may be said to be changeful according as it knows or does not know objects2 but the purusha is not such1 for it always appears as the self1 being reflected through the mind by which it is thus connected with the phenomenal form of knowledge4 ,the notion of self that appears connected with all our mental phenomena and which always illumines them is only duo to this reflection of purusha in the mind4 ,all phenomenal knowledge which has the form of the object can only be transformed into conscious knowledge as 8,i know this10 when it becomes connected with the self or purusha4 ,so the purusha may in a way be said to see again what was perceived by the mind and thus to impart consciousness by transferring its illumination into the mind4 ,the mind suffers changes according to the form of the object of cognition1 and thus results a state of conscious cognition in the shape of 8,i know it10 when the mind1 having assumed the shape of an object1 becomes connected with the constant factor purusha1 through the transcendent reflection or identification of purusha in the mind4 ,this is what is meant by pratyaynupaya reperception of the mind-transformations by purusha1 whereby the mind which has assumed the shape of any object of consciousness becomes intelligent4 ,even when the mind is without any objective form1 it is always being seen by purusha4 ,the exact nature of this reflection is indeed very hard to comprehend2 no physical illustrations can really serve to make it clear4 ,and we see that neither the ,vysa-bhshya nor the stras offer any such illustrations as ,skhya did4 ,but the ,bhshya proceeds to show the points in which the mind may be said to differ from purusha1 as well as those in which it agrees with it4 ,so that though we cannot express it anyhow1 we may at least make some advance towards conceiving the situation4 ,thus the ,bhshya says that the main difference between the mind and purusha is that the mind is constantly undergoing modifications1 as it grasps its objects one by one2 for the grasping of an object1 the act of having a percept is nothing but its own undergoing of different modifications1 and thus1 since an object sometimes comes within the grasp of the mind and again disappears in the subconscious as a saskra 7potency7 and again comes into the field of the understanding as smti 7memory71 we see that it is parimi or changing4 ,but purusha is the constant seer of the mind when it has an object1 as in ordinary forms of phenomenal knowledge1 or when it has no object as in the state of nirodha or cessation4 ,purusha is unchanging4 ,it is the light which remains unchanged amidst all the changing modifications of the mind1 so that we cannot distinguish purusha separately from the mind4 ,this is what is meant by saying buddhe pratisaved purusha1 i4e4 purusha reflects or turns into its own light the concepts of mind and thus is said to know it4 ,its knowing is manifested in our consciousness as the ever-persistent notion of the self1 which is always a constant factor in all the phenomena of consciousness4 ,thus purusha always appears in our consciousness as the knowing agent4 ,truly speaking1 however1 purusha only sees himself2 he is not in any way in touch with the mind4 ,he is absolutely free from all bondage1 absolutely unconnected with prakti4 ,from the side of appearance he seems only to be the intelligent seer imparting consciousness to our conscious-like conception1 though in reality he remains the seer of himself all the while4 ,the difference between purusha and prakti will be clear when we see that purusha is altogether independent1 existing in and for himself1 free from any bondage whatsoever2 but buddhi exists on the other hand for the enjoyment and release of purusha4 ,that which exists in and for itself1 must ever be the selfsame1 unchangeable entity1 suffering no transformations or modifications1 for it has no other end owing to which it will be liable to change4 ,it is the self-centred1 self-satisfied light1 which never seeks any other end and never leaves itself4 ,but prakti is not such2 it is always undergoing endless1 complex modifications and as such does not exist for itself but for purusha1 and is dependent upon him4 ,the mind is unconscious1 while purusha is the pure light of intelligence1 for the three guas are all non-intelligent1 and the mind is nothing but a modification of these three guas which are all non-intelligent4 ,but looked at from another point of view1 prakti is not altogether different from purusha2 for had it been so how could purusha1 which is absolutely pure1 reperceive the mind-modifications8 ,thus the ,bhshya 7,,ii4 #bj7 writes3-- 8,well then let him be dissimilar4 ,to meet this he says3 ,he is not quite dissimilar4 ,why8 ,although pure1 he sees the ideas after they have come into the mind4 ,inasmuch as purusha cognises the ideas in the form of mind-modification1 he appears to be1 by the act of cognition1 the very self of the mind although in reality he is not40 ,as has been said1 the power of the enjoyer1 purusha 7dkakti71 is certainly unchangeable and it does not run after every object4 ,in connection with a changeful object it appears forever as if it were being transferred to every object and as if it were assimilating its modifications4 ,and when the modifications of the mind assume the form of the consciousness by which it is coloured1 they imitate it and look as if they were manifestations of purusha's consciousness unqualified by the modifications of the non-intelligent mind4 ,all our states of consciousness are analysed into two parts--a permanent and a changing part4 ,the changing part is the form of our consciousness1 which is constantly varying according to the constant change of its contents4 ,the permanent part is that pure light of intelligence1 by virtue of which we have the notion of self reflected in our consciousness4 ,now1 as this self persists through all the varying changes of the objects of consciousness1 it is inferred that the light which thus shines in our consciousness is unchangeable4 ,our mind is constantly suffering a thousand modifications1 but the notion of self is the only thing permanent amidst all this change4 ,it is this self that imports consciousness to the material parts of our knowledge4 ,all our concepts originated from our perception of external material objects4 ,therefore the forms of our concepts which could exactly and clearly represent these material objects in their own terms1 must be made of a stuff which in essence is not different from them4 ,but with the reflection of purusha1 the soul1 the notion of self comes within the content of our consciousness1 spiritualising1 as it were1 all our concepts and making them conscious and intelligent4 ,thus this seeming identity of purusha and the mind1 by which purusha may be spoken of as the seer of the concept1 appears to the self1 which is manifested in consciousness by virtue of the seeming reflection4 ,for this is that self1 or personality1 which remains unchanged all through our consciousness4 ,thus our phenomenal intelligent self is partially a material reality arising out of the seeming interaction of the spirit and the mind4 ,this interaction is the only way by which matter releases spirit from its seeming bondage4 ,but the question arises1 how is it that there can even be a seeming reflection of purusha in the mind which is altogether non-intelligent8 ,how is it possible for the mind to catch a glimpse of purusha1 which illuminates all the concepts of consciousness1 the expression 8anupaya0 meaning that he perceives by imitation 7anukrea payati78 ,how can purusha1 which is altogether formless1 allow any reflection of itself to imitate the form of buddhi1 by virtue of which it appears as the self--the supreme possessor and knower of all our mental conceptions8 ,there must be at least some resemblance between the mind and the purusha1 to justify in some sense this seeming reflection4 ,and we find that the last stra of the ,vibhtipda says3 sattvapurushayo uddhismye kaivalya--which means that when the sattva or the preponderating mind-stuff becomes as pure as purusha1 kaivalya or oneness is attained4 ,this shows that the pure nature of sattva has a great resemblance to the pure nature of purusha4 ,so much so1 that the last stage preceding the state of kaivalya1 is almost the same as kaivalya itself1 when purusha is in himself and there are no thoughts to reflect4 ,in this state1 we see that the mind can be so pure as to reflect exactly the nature of purusha1 as he is in himself4 ,this state in which the mind becomes as pure as purusha and reflects him in his purity1 does not materially differ from the state of kaivalya1 in which purusha is in himself--the only difference being that the mind1 when it becomes so pure as this1 becomes gradually lost in prakti and cannot again serve to bind purusha4 ,i cannot refrain here from the temptation of referring to a beautiful illustration from ,vysa1 to explain the way in which the mind serves the purposes of purusha4 ,cittamayaskntamaikalpa sannidhimtropakri dyatvena sva bhavati purushasya svmina 7,i4 #d71 which is explained in ,yoga-vrttika as follows3 ,tathyaskntamai svasminneva ayasannidhkaraamtrt alyarishkarshakhyam upakram kurvat purushasya svmina svam bhvati bhogasdhanatvt1 i4e4 just as a magnet draws iron towards it1 though it remains unmoved itself1 so the mind-modifications become drawn towards purusha1 and thereby become visible to purusha and serve his purpose4 ,to summarise3 ,we have seen that something like a union takes place between the mind and purusha1 i4e4 there is a seeming reflection of purusha in the mind1 simultaneously with its being determined conceptually1 as a result whereof this reflection of purusha in the mind1 which is known as the self1 becomes united with these conceptual determinations of the mind and the former is said to be the perceiver of all these determinations4 ,our conscious personality or self is thus the seeming unity of the knowable as the mind in the shape of conceptual or judgmental representations with the reflections of purusha in the mind4 ,thus1 in the single act of cognition1 we have the notion of our own personality and the particular conceptual or perceptual representation with which this ego identifies itself4 ,the true seer1 the pure intelligence1 the free1 the eternal1 remains all the while beyond any touch of impurity from the mind1 though it must be remembered that it is its own seeming reflection in the mind that appears as the ego1 the cogniser of all our states1 pleasures and sorrows of the mind and one who is the apperceiver of this unity of the seeming reflection--of purusha and the determinations of the mind4 ,in all our conscious states1 there is such a synthetic unity between the determinations of our mind and the self1 that they cannot be distinguished one from the other--a fact which is exemplified in all our cognitions1 which are the union of the knower and the known4 ,the nature of this reflection is a transcendent one and can never be explained by any physical illustration4 ,purusha is altogether different from the mind1 inasmuch as he is the pure intelligence and is absolutely free1 while the latter is non-intelligent and dependent on purusha's enjoyment and release1 which are the sole causes of its movement4 ,but there is some similarity between the two1 for how could the mind otherwise catch a seeming glimpse of him8 ,it is also said that the pure mind can adapt itself to the pure form of purusha2 this is followed by the state of kaivalya4 ,we have discussed the nature of purusha and its general relations with the mind4 ,we must now give a few more illustrations4 ,the chief point in which purusha of the ,skhya-,ptajala differs from the similar spiritual principle of ,vednta is1 that it regards its soul1 not as one1 but as many4 ,let us try to discuss this point1 in connection with the arguments of the ,skhya-,ptajala doctrine in favour of a separate principle of purusha4 ,thus the ,krik says3 saghtaparrthatvt trigudiviparyyaydadhishthnt purusho'sti bhoktbhvt kaivalyrtha pravtteca1#af 8,because an assemblage of things is for the sake of another2 because there must be an entity different from the three guas and the rest 7their modifications72 because there must be a superintending power2 because there must be someone who enjoys2 and because of 7the existence of7 active exertion for the sake of abstraction or isolation 7from the contact with prakti7 therefore the soul exists40 ,the first argument is from design or teleology by which it is inferred that there must be some other simple entity for which these complex collocations of things are intended4 ,thus ,gauapda says3 8,in such manner as a bed1 which is an assemblage of bedding1 props1 cotton1 coverlet and pillows1 is for another's use1 not for its own1 and its several component parts render no mutual service1 and it is concluded that there is a man who sleeps upon the bed and for whose sake it was made2 so this world1 which is an assemblage of the five elements1 is for use and there is a soul1 for whose enjoyment this body1 another's consisting of intellect and the rest1 has been produced40#ag ,the second argument is that all the knowable is composed of just three elements3 first1 the element of sattva1 or intelligence-stuff1 causing all manifestations2 second1 the element of rajas or energy1 which is ever causing transformations2 and third1 tamas1 or the mass1 which enables rajas to actualise4 ,now such a prakti1 composed of these three elements1 cannot itself be a seer4 ,for the seer must be always the same unchangeable1 actionless entity1 the ever present1 ever constant factor in all stages of our consciousness4 ,third argument3 ,there must be a supreme background of pure consciousness1 all our co-ordinated basis of experience4 ,this background is the pure actionless purusha1 reflected in which all our mental states become conscious4 ,davies explains this a little differently1 in accordance with a simile in the ,tattva-,kaumud1 yath rathdi yantrdibhi1 thus3 8,this idea of ,kapila seems to be that the power of self-control cannot be predicted of matter1 which must be directed or controlled for the accomplishment of any purpose1 and this controlling power must be something external to matter and diverse from it4 ,the soul1 however1 never acts4 ,it only seems to act2 and it is difficult to reconcile this part of the system with that which gives to the soul a controlling force4 ,if the soul is a charioteer1 it must be an active force40 ,but ,davies here commits the mistake of carrying the simile too far4 ,the comparison of the charioteer and the chariot holds good1 to the extent that the chariot can take a particular course only when there is a particular purpose for the charioteer to perform4 ,the motion of the chariot is fulfilled only when it is connected with the living person of the charioteer1 whose purpose it must fulfil4 ,fourth argument3 ,since prakti is non-intelligent1 there must be one who enjoys its pains and pleasures4 ,the emotional and conceptual determinations of such feelings are aroused in consciousness by the seeming reflection of the light of purusha4 ,fifth argument3 ,there is a tendency in all persons to move towards the oneness of purusha1 to be achieved by liberation2 there must be one for whose sake the modifications of buddhi are gradually withheld1 and a reverse process set up1 by which they return to their original cause prakti and thus liberate purusha4 ,it is on account of this reverse tendency of prakti to release purusha that a man feels prompted to achieve his liberation as the highest consummation of his moral ideal4 ,thus having proved the existence of purusha1 the ,krik proceeds to prove his plurality3 8janmamaraakaran pratiniyamdayugapat pravtteca purushabahutva siddha traiguyaviparyyaycca40 8,from the individual allotment of birth1 death and the organs2 from diversity of occupations and from the different conditions of the three guas1 it is proved that there is a plurality of souls40 ,in other words1 since with the birth of one individual1 all are not born2 since with the death of one1 all do not die2 and since each individual has separate sense organs for himself2 and since all beings do not work at the same time in the same manner2 and since the qualities of the different guas are possessed differently by different individuals1 purushas are many4 ,patajali1 though he does not infer the plurality of purushas in this way1 yet holds the view of the stra1 ktrtha prati nashamapyanasha tadanyasdhraatvt4 8,although destroyed in relation to him whose objects have been achieved1 it is not destroyed1 being common to others40 ,davies1 in explaining the former ,krik1 says3 8,there is1 however1 the difficulty that the soul is not affected by the three guas4 ,how can their various modifications prove the individuality of souls in opposition to the ,vedntist doctrine1 that all souls are only portions of the one1 an infinitely extended monad80 ,this question is the most puzzling in the ,skhya doctrine4 ,but careful penetration of the principles of ,skhya-,yoga would make clear to us that this is a necessary and consistent outcome of the ,skhya view of a dualistic universe4 ,for if it is said that purusha is one and we have the notion of different selves by his reflection into different minds1 it follows that such notions as self1 or personality1 are false4 ,for the only true being is the one1 purusha4 ,so the knower being false1 the known also becomes false2 the knower and the known having vanished1 everything is reduced to that which we can in no way conceive4 ,it may be argued that according to the ,skhya philosophy also1 the knower is false1 for the pure purusha as such is not in any way connected with prakti4 ,but even then it must be observed that the ,skhya-,yoga view does not hold that the knower is false but analyses the nature of the ego and says that it is due to the seeming unity of the mind and purusha1 both of which are reals in the strictest sense of the term4 ,purusha is there justly called the knower4 ,he sees and simultaneously with this1 there is a modification of buddhi 7mind72 this seeing becomes joined with this modification of buddhi and thus arises the ego1 who perceives that particular form of the modification of buddhi4 ,purusha always remains the knower4 ,buddhi suffers modifications and at the same time catches a glimpse of the light of purusha1 so that contact 7sayoga7 of purusha and prakti occurs at one and the same point of time1 in which there is unity of the reflection of purusha and the particular transformation of buddhi4 ,the knower1 the ego and the knowable1 are none of them false in the ,skhya-,yoga system at the stage preceding kaivalya1 when buddhi becomes as pure as purusha2 its modification resembles the exact form of purusha and then purusha knows himself in his true nature in buddhi2 after which buddhi vanishes4 ,the ,vednta has to admit the modifications of my1 but must at the same time hold it to be unreal4 ,the ,vednta says that my is as beginningless as prakti yet has an ending with reference to the released person as the buddhi of the ,skhyists4 ,but according to the ,vednta philosophy1 knowledge of ego is only false knowledge--an illusion as many imposed upon the formless ,brahman4 ,my1 according to the ,vedntist1 can neither be said to exist nor to non-exist4 ,it is anirvcy1 i4e4 can never be described or defined4 ,such an unknown and unknowable my causes the ,many of the world by reflection upon the ,brahman4 ,but according to the ,skhya doctrine1 prakti is as real as purusha himself4 ,prakti and purusha are two irreducible metaphysical remainders whose connection is beginningless 7andisayoga74 ,but this connection is not unreal in the ,vednta sense of the term4 ,we see that according to the ,vednta system1 all notions of ego or personality are false and are originated by the illusive action of the my1 so that when they ultimately vanish there are no other remainders4 ,but this is not the case with ,skhya1 for as purusha is the real seer1 his cognitions cannot be dismissed as unreal1 and so purushas or knowers as they appear to us to be1 must be held real4 ,as prakti is not the my of the ,vedntist 7the nature of whose influence over the spiritual principle cannot be determined7 we cannot account for the plurality of purushas by supposing that one purusha is being reflected into many minds and generating the many egos4 ,for in that case it will be difficult to explain the plurality of their appearances in the minds 7buddhis74 ,for if there be one spiritual principle1 how should we account for the supposed plurality of the buddhis8 ,for we should rather expect to find one buddhi and not many to serve the supposed one purusha1 and this will only mean that there can be only one ego1 his enjoyment and release4 ,supposing for argument's sake that there are many buddhis and one purusha1 which reflected in them1 is the cause of the plurality of selves1 then we cannot see how prakti is moving for the enjoyment and release of one purusha2 it would rather appear to be moved for the sake of the enjoyment and release of the reflected or unreal self4 ,for purusha is not finally released with the release of any number of particular individual selves4 ,for it may be released with reference to one individual but remain bound to others4 ,so prakti would not really be moved in this hypothetical case for the sake of purusha1 but for the sake of the reflected selves only4 ,if we wish to avoid the said difficulties1 then with the release of one purusha1 all purushas will have to be released4 ,for in the supposed theory there would not really be many different purushas1 but the one purusha appearing as many1 so that with his release all the other so-called purushas must be released4 ,we see that if it is the enjoyment 7bhoga7 and salvation 7apavarga7 of one purusha which appear as so many different series of enjoyments and emancipations1 then with his experiences all should have the same experiences4 ,with his birth and death1 all should be born or all should die at once4 ,for1 indeed1 it is the experiences of one purusha which appear in all the seeming different purushas4 ,and in the other suppositions there is neither emancipation nor enjoyment by purusha at all4 ,for there1 it is only the illusory self that enjoys or releases himself4 ,by his release no purusha is really released at all4 ,so the fundamental conception of prakti as moving for the sake of the enjoyment and release of purusha has to be abandoned4 ,so we see that from the position in which ,skhya and ,yoga stood1 this plurality of the purushas was the most consistent thing that they could think of4 ,any compromise with the ,vednta doctrine here would have greatly changed the philosophical aspect and value of the ,skhya philosophy4 ,as the purushas are nothing but pure intelligences they can as well be all-pervading though many4 ,but there is another objection that1 since number is a conception of the phenomenal mind1 how then can it be applied to the purushas which are said to be many8#ah ,but that difficulty remains unaltered even if we regard the purusha as one4 ,when we go into the domain of metaphysics and try to represent ,reality with the symbols of our phenomenal conceptions we have really to commit almost a violence towards it4 ,but we must perforce do this in all our attempts to express in our own terms that pure1 inexpressible1 free illumination which exists in and for itself beyond the range of any mediation by the concepts or images of our mind4 ,so we see that ,skhya was not inconsistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the purushas4 ,patajali does not say anything about it1 since he is more anxious to discuss other things connected with the presupposition of the plurality of purusha4 ,thus he speaks of it only in one place as quoted above and says that though for a released person this world disappears altogether1 still it remains unchanged in respect to all the other purushas4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,reality ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,world ,we may now come to the attempt of ,yoga to prove the reality of an external world as against the idealistic ,buddhists4 ,in stra #ab of the chapter on kaivalya we find3 8,the past and the future exist in reality1 since all qualities of things manifest themselves in these three different ways4 ,the future is the manifestation which is to be4 ,the past is the appearance which has been experienced4 ,the present is that which is in active operation4 ,it is this threefold substance which is the object of knowledge4 ,if it did not exist in reality1 there would not exist a knowledge thereof4 ,how could there be knowledge in the absence of anything knowable8 ,for this reason the past and present in reality exist40#ai ,so we see that the present holding within itself the past and the future exists in reality4 ,for the past though it has been negated has really been preserved and kept in the present1 and the future also though it has not made its appearance yet exists potentially in the present4 ,so1 as we know the past and the future worlds in the present1 they both exist and subsist in the present4 ,that which once existed cannot die1 and that which never existed cannot come to be 7nstyasata sabhava na csti sato vins1 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,v4 #ab74 ,so the past has not been destroyed but has rather shifted its position and hidden itself in the body of the present1 and the future that has not made its appearance exists in the present only in a potential form4 ,it cannot be argued1 as ,vcaspati says1 that because the past and the future are not present therefore they do not exist1 for if the past and future do not exist how can there be a present also1 since its existence also is only relative8 ,so all the three exist as truly as any one of them1 and the only difference among them is the different way or mode of their existence4 ,he next proceeds to refute the arguments of those idealists who hold that since the external knowables never exist independently of our knowledge of them1 their separate external existence as such may be denied4 ,since it is by knowledge alone that the external knowables can present themselves to us we may infer that there is really no knowable external reality apart from knowledge of it1 just as we see that in dream-states knowledge can exist apart from the reality of any external world4 ,so it may be argued that there is1 indeed1 no external reality as it appears to us4 ,the ,buddhists1 for example1 hold that a blue thing and knowledge of it as blue are identical owing to the maxim that things which are invariably perceived together are one 7sahopalambhaniyamdabhedo nlataddhiyo74 ,so they say that external reality is not different from our idea of it4 ,to this it may be replied that if1 as you say1 external reality is identical with my ideas and there is no other external reality existing as such outside my ideas1 why then does it appear as existing apart1 outside and independent of my ideas8 ,the idealists have no basis for the denial of external reality1 and for their assertion that it is only the creation of our imagination like experiences in dreams4 ,even our ideas carry with them the notion that reality exists outside our mental experiences4 ,if all our percepts and notions as this and that arise only by virtue of the influence of the external world1 how can they deny the existence of the external world as such8 ,the objective world is present by its own power4 ,how then can this objective world be given up on the strength of mere logical or speculative abstraction8 ,thus the ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #ad1 says3 8,there is no object without the knowledge of it1 but there is knowledge as imagined in dreams without any corresponding object2 thus the reality of external things is like that of dream-objects1 mere imagination of the subject and unreal4 ,how can they who say so be believed8 ,since they first suppose that the things which present themselves to us by their own force do so only on account of the invalid and delusive imagination of the intellect1 and then deny the reality of the external world on the strength of such an imaginary supposition of their own40 ,the external world has generated knowledge of itself by its own presentative power 7arthena svakyaygrhyaakty vijnamajani71 and has thus caused itself to be represented in our ideas1 and we have no right to deny it4#bj ,commenting on the ,bhshya ,,iv4 #ad1 ,vcaspati says that the method of agreement applied by the ,buddhists by their sahopalambhaniyama 7maxim of simultaneous revelation7 may possibly be confuted by an application of the method of difference4 ,the method of agreement applied by the idealists when put in proper form reads thus3 8,wherever there is knowledge there is external reality1 or rather every case of knowledge agrees with or is the same as every case of the presence of external reality1 so knowledge is the cause of the presence of the external reality1 i4e4 the external world depends for its reality on our knowledge or ideas and owes its origin or appearance as such to them40 ,but ,vcaspati says that this application of the method of agreement is not certain1 for it cannot be corroborated by the method of difference4 ,for the statement that every case of absence of knowledge is also a case of absence of external reality cannot be proved1 i4e4 we cannot prove that the external reality does not exist when we have no knowledge of it 7sahopalambhaniyamaca vedyatvaca het sandigdhavyatirekataynaikntikau7 ,,iv4 #ad4 ,describing the nature of grossness and externality1 the attributes of the external world1 he says that grossness means the pervading of more portions of space than one1 i4e4 grossness means extension1 and externality means being related to separate space1 i4e4 co-existence in space4 ,thus we see that extension and co-existence in space are the two fundamental qualities of the gross external world4 ,now an idea can never be said to possess them1 for it cannot be said that an idea has extended into more spaces than one and yet co-existed separately in separate places4 ,an idea cannot be said to exist with other ideas in space and to extend in many points of space at one and the same time4 ,to avoid this it cannot be said that there may be plurality of ideas so that some may co-exist and others may extend in space4 ,for co-existence and extension can never be asserted of our ideas1 since hey are very fine and subtle1 and can be known only at the time of their individual operation1 at which time1 however1 other ideas may be quite latent and unknown4 ,imagination has no power to negate their reality1 for the sphere of imagination is quite distinct from the sphere of external reality1 and it can never be applied to an external reality to negate it4 ,imagination is a mental function1 and as such has no touch with the reality outside1 which it can by no means negate4 ,further it cannot be said that1 because grossness and externality can abide neither in the external world nor in our ideas1 they are therefore false4 ,for this falsity cannot be thought as separable from our ideas1 for in that case our ideas would be as false as the false itself4 ,the notion of externality and grossness pervades all our ideas1 and if they are held to be false1 no true thing can be known by our ideas and they therefore become equally false4 ,again1 knowledge and the external world can never be said to be identical because they happen to be presented together4 ,for the method of agreement cannot by itself prove identity4 ,knowledge and the knowable external world may be independently co-existing things like the notions of existence and non-existence4 ,both co-exist independently of one another4 ,it is therefore clear enough1 says ,vcaspati1 that the certainty arrived at by perception1 which gives us a direct knowledge of things1 can never be rejected on the strength of mere logical abstraction or hair-splitting discussion4 ,we further see1 says ,patajali1 that the thing remains the same though the ideas and feelings of different men may change differently about it4#ba ,thus ,a1 ,b1 ,c may perceive the same identical woman and may feel pleasure1 pain or hatred4 ,we see that the same common thing generates different feelings and ideas in different persons2 external reality cannot be said to owe its origin to the idea or imagination of any one man1 but exists independently of any person's imagination in and for itself4 ,for if it be due to the imagination of any particular man1 it is his own idea which as such cannot generate the same ideas in another man4 ,so it must be said that the external reality is what we perceive it outside4 ,there are1 again1 others who say that just as pleasure and pain arise along with our ideas and must be said to be due to them so the objective world also must be said to have come into existence along with our ideas4 ,the objective world therefore according to these philosophers has no external existence either in the past or in the future1 but has only a momentary existence in the present due to our ideas about it4 ,that much existence only are they ready to attribute to external objects which can be measured by the idea of the moment4 ,the moment ,i have an idea of a thing1 the thing rises into existence and may be said to exist only for that moment and as soon as the idea disappears the object also vanishes1 for when it cannot be presented to me in the form of ideas it can be said to exist in no sense4 ,but this argument cannot hold good1 for if the objective reality should really depend upon the idea of any individual man1 then the objective reality corresponding to an idea of his ought to cease to exist either with the change of his idea1 or when he directs attention to some other thing1 or when he restrains his mind from all objects of thought4 ,now1 then1 if it thus ceases to exist1 how can it again spring into existence when the attention of the individual is again directed towards it8 ,again1 all parts of an object can never be seen all at once4 ,thus supposing that the front side of a thing is visible1 then the back side which cannot be seen at the time must not be said to exist at all4 ,so if the back side does not exist1 the front side also can as well be said not to exist 7ye csynupasthit bhgaste csya na syureva nsti pshhamiti udaramapi na ghyeta4 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #af74 ,therefore it must be said that there is an independent external reality which is the common field of observation for all souls in general2 and there are also separate 8,cittas0 for separate individual souls 7tasmt svatantro'rtha sarvapurusasdhdraa svatantri ca cittni pratipurusha1 pravarttante1 ibid474 ,and all the experiences of the purusha result from the connection of this 8,citta0 7mind7 with the external world4 ,now from this view of the reality of the external world we are confronted with another question--what is the ground which underlies the manifold appearance of this external world which has been proved to be real8 ,what is that something which is thought as the vehicle of such qualities as produce in us the ideas8 ,what is that self-subsistent substratum which is the basis of so many changes1 actions and reactions that we always meet in the external world8 ,locke called this substratum substance and regarded it as unknown1 but said that though it did not follow that it was a product of our own subjective thought yet it did not at the same time exist without us4 ,hume1 however1 tried to explain everything from the standpoint of association of ideas and denied all notions of substantiality4 ,we know that ,kant1 who was much influenced by ,hume1 agreed to the existence of some such unknown reality which he called the ,thing-in-itself1 the nature of which1 however1 was absolutely unknowable1 but whose influence was a great factor in all our experiences4 ,but the ,bhshya tries to penetrate deeper into the nature of this substratum or substance and says3 dharmisvarpamtro hi dharma1 dharmivikriy eva esh dharmadvr prapacyate1 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #ac4 ,the characteristic qualities form the very being itself of the characterised1 and it is the change of the characterised alone that is detailed by means of the characteristic4 ,to understand thoroughly the exact significance of this statement it will be necessary to take a more detailed review of what has already been said about the guas4 ,we know that all things mental or physical are formed by the different collocations of sattva of the nature of illumination 7praka71 rajas--the energy or mutative principle of the nature of action 7kriy7--and tamas--the obstructive principle of the nature of inertia 7sthiti7 which in their original and primordial state are too fine to be apprehended 7gunnparama rpa na dshipathamcchati1 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #ac74 ,these different guas combine in various proportions to form the manifold universe of the knowable1 and thus are made the objects of our cognition4 ,through combining in different proportions they become1 in the words of ,dr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,seal1 8more and more differentiated1 determinate and coherent10 and thus make themselves cognisable1 yet they never forsake their own true nature as the guas4 ,so we see that they have thus got two natures1 one in which they remain quite unchanged as guas1 and another in which they collocate and combine themselves in various ways and thus appear under the veil of a multitude of qualities and states of the manifold knowable 7te vyaktaskshm gutmna ,,iv4 #ac 444 sarvamida gun sanniveavieshamtramiti paramrthato gutmna1 ,bhshya1 ibid474 ,now these guas take three different courses of development from the ego or ahakra according to which the ego or ahakra may be said to be sttvika1 rjasa and tmasa4 ,thus from the sttvika side of the ego by a preponderance of sattva the five knowledge-giving senses1 e4g4 hearing1 sight1 touch1 taste and smell are derived4 ,from the rajas side of ego by a preponderance of rajas the five active senses of speech1 etc41 are derived4 ,from the tamas side of ego or ahakra by a preponderance of tamas are derived the five tanmtras4 ,from which again by a preponderance of tamas the atoms of the five gross elements--earth1 water1 fire1 air and ether are derived4 ,in the derivation of these it must be remembered that all the three guas are conjointly responsible4 ,in the derivation of a particular product one of the guas may indeed be predominant1 and thus may bestow the prominent characteristic of that product1 but the other two guas are also present there and perform their functions equally well4 ,their opposition does not withhold the progress of evolution but rather helps it4 ,all the three combine together in varying degrees of mutual preponderance and thus together help the process of evolution to produce a single product4 ,thus we see that though the guas are three1 they combine to produce on the side of perception1 the senses1 such as those of hearing1 sight1 etc42 and on the side of the knowable1 the individual tanmtras of gandha1 rasa1 rpa1 spara and abda4 ,the guas composing each tanmtra again harmoniously combine with each other with a preponderance of tamas to produce the atoms of each gross element4 ,thus in each combination one class of guas remains prominent1 while the others remain dependent upon it but help it indirectly in the evolution of that particular product4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,evolution ,the evolution which we have spoken of above may be characterised in two ways3 7#a7 ,that arising from modifications or products of some other cause which are themselves capable of originating other products like themselves2 7#b7 ,that arising from causes which1 though themselves derived1 yet cannot themselves be the cause of the origination of other existences like themselves4 ,the former may be said to be slightly specialised 7aviesha7 and the latter thoroughly specialised 7viesha74 ,thus we see that from prakti comes mahat1 from mahat comes ahakra1 and from ahakra1 as we have seen above1 the evolution takes three different courses according to the preponderance of sattva1 rajas and tamas originating the cognitive and conative senses and manas1 the superintendent of them both on one side and the tanmtras on the other4 ,these tanmtras again produce the five gross elements4 ,now when ahakra produces the tanmtras or the senses1 or when the tanmtras produce the five gross elements1 or when ahakra itself is produced from buddhi or mahat1 it is called tattvntara-parima1 i4e4 the production of a different tattva or substance4 ,thus in the case of tattvntara-parima 7as for example when the tanmtras are produced from ahakra71 it must be carefully noticed that the state of being involved in the tanmtras is altogether different from the state of being of ahakra2 it is not a mere change of quality but a change of existence or state of being4#bb ,thus though the tanmtras are derived from ahakra the traces of ahakra cannot be easily followed in them4 ,this derivation is not such that the ahakra remains principally unchanged and there is only a change of quality in it1 but it is a different existence altogether1 having properties which differ widely from those of ahakra4 ,so it is called tattvntara-parima1 i4e4 evolution of different categories of existence4 ,now the evolution that the senses and the five gross elements can undergo can never be of this nature1 for they are vieshas1 or substances which have been too much specialised to allow the evolution of any other substance of a different grade of existence from themselves4 ,with them there is an end of all emanation4 ,so we see that the avieshas or slightly specialised emanations are those which being themselves but emanations can yet yield other emanations from themselves4 ,thus we see that mahat1 ahakra and the five tanmtras are themselves emanations1 as well as the source of other emanations4 ,mahat1 however1 though it is undoubtedly an aviesha or slightly specialised emanation1 is called by another technical name liga or sign1 for from the state of mahat1 the prakti from which it must have emanated may be inferred4 ,prakti1 however1 from which no other primal state is inferable1 is called the aliga or that which is not a sign for the existence of any other primal and more unspecialised state4 ,in one sense all the emanations can be with justice called the ligas or states of existence standing as the sign by which the causes from which they have emanated can be directly inferred4 ,thus in this sense the five gross elements maybe called the liga of the tanmtras1 and they again of the ego1 and that again of the mahat1 for the unspecialised ones are inferred from their specialised modifications or emanations4 ,but this technical name liga is reserved for the mahat from which the aliga or prakti can be inferred4 ,this prakti1 however1 is the eternal state which is not an emanation itself but the basis and source of all other emanations4 ,the liga and the aliga have thus been compared in the ,krik3 8hetumadanityamavypi sakriyamanekrita liga svayavam paratantra vyakta vipartamavyakta40 ,the liga has a cause1 it is neither eternal nor universal1 but mobile1 multiform1 dependent1 determinate1 and possesses parts1 whereas the aliga is the reverse4 ,the aliga or prakti1 however1 being the cause has some characteristics in common with its ligas as distinguished from the purushas1 which are altogether different from it4 ,thus the ,krik says3 8triguamaviveki vishaya smnyamacetana prasavadharmi vyakta tath pradhna tadvipartastath pumn40 ,the manifested and the unmanifested pradhna or prakti are both composed of the three guas1 non-intelligent1 objective1 universal1 unconscious and productive4 ,soul in these respects is the reverse4 ,we have seen above that prakti is the state of equilibrium of the guas1 which can in no way be of any use to the purushas1 and is thus held to be eternal1 though all other states are held to be non-eternal as they are produced for the sake of the purushas4 ,the state of prakti is that in which the guas completely overpower each other and the characteristics 7dharma7 and the characterised 7dharm7 are one and the same4 ,evolution is thus nothing but the manifestation of change1 mutation1 by the energy of rajas4 ,the rajas is the one mediating activity that breaks up all compounds1 builds up new ones and initiates original modifications4 ,whenever in any particular combination the proportion of sattva1 rajas or tamas alters1 as a condition of this alteration1 there is the dominating activity of rajas by which the old equilibrium is destroyed and another equilibrium established2 this in its turn is again disturbed and again another equilibrium is restored4 ,now the manifestation of this latent activity of rajas is what is called change or evolution4 ,in the external world the time that is taken by a paramu or atom to move from its place is identical with a unit of change4#bc ,now an atom will be that quantum which is smaller or finer than that point or limit at which it can in any way be perceived by the senses4 ,atoms are therefore mere points without magnitude or dimension1 and the unit of time or moment 7kshaa7 that is taken up in changing the position of these atoms is identical with one unit of change or evolution4 ,the change or evolution in the external world must therefore be measured by these units of spatial motion of the atoms2 i4e4 an atom changing its own unit of space is the measure of all physical change or evolution4 ,each unit of time 7kshaa7 corresponding to this change of an atom of its own unit of space is the unit-measure of change4 ,this instantaneous succession of time as discrete moments one following the other is the notion of the series of moments or pure and simple succession4 ,now the notion of these discrete moments is the notion of time4 ,even the notion of succession is one that does not really exist but is imagined1 for a moment comes into being just when the moment just before had passed so that they have never taken place together4 ,thus ,vysa in ,,iii4 #eb1 says3 8kshaatatkramayornsti vastusamhra iti buddhisamhra muhrtthortrtrdaya40 ,sa tvaya kla vastunyo'pi buddhinirma4 ,the moments and their succession do not belong to the category of actual things2 the hour1 the day and night1 are all aggregates of mental conceptions4 ,this time which is not a substantive reality in itself1 but is only a mental concept1 represented to us through linguistic usage1 appears to ordinary minds as if it were an objective reality4 ,so the conception of time as discrete moments is the real one1 whereas the conception of time as successive or as continuous is unreal1 being only due to the imagination of our empirical and relative consciousness4 ,thus ,vcaspati further explains it4 ,a moment is real 7vastupatita7 and is the essential element of the notion of succession4 ,succession involves the notion of change of moments1 and the moment is called time by those sages who know what time is4 ,two moments cannot happen together4 ,there cannot be any succession of two simultaneous things4 ,succession means the notion of change involving a preceding and a succeeding moment4 ,thus there is only the present moment and there are no preceding and later moments4 ,therefore there cannot be any union of these moments4 ,the past and the future moments may be said to exist only if we speak of past and future as identical with the changes that have become latent and others that exist potentially but are not manifested4 ,thus in one moment1 the whole world suffers changes4 ,all these characteristics are associated with the thing as connected with one particular moment4#bd ,so we find here that time is essentially discrete1 being only the moments of our cognitive life4 ,as two moments never co-exist1 there is no succession or continuous time4 ,they exist therefore only in our empirical consciousness which cannot take the real moments in their discrete nature but connects the one with the other and thereby imagines either succession or continuous time4 ,now we have said before1 that each unit of change or evolution is measured by this unit of time kshaa or moment2 or rather the units of change are expressed in terms of these moments or kshaas4 ,of course in our ordinary consciousness these moments of change cannot be grasped1 but they can be reasonably inferred4 ,for at the end of a certain period we observe a change in a thing2 now this change1 though it becomes appreciable to us after a long while1 was still going on every moment1 so1 in this way1 the succession of evolution or change cannot be distinguished from the moments coming one after another4 ,thus the ,yoga-stra says in ,,iv4 #cc3 8,succession involving a course of changes is associated with the moments40 ,succession as change of moments is grasped only by a course of changes4 ,a cloth which has not passed through a course of changes through a series of moments cannot be found old all at once at any time4 ,even a new cloth kept with good care becomes old after a time4 ,this is what is called the termination of a course of changes and by it the succession of a course of changes can be grasped4 ,even before a thing is old there can be inferred a sequence of the subtlest1 subtler1 subtle1 grossest1 grosser and gross changes 7,tattvavairad1 ,,iv4 #cc74be ,now as we have seen that the unit of time is indistinguishable from the unit of change or evolution1 and as these moments are not co-existing but one follows the other1 we see that there is no past or future existing as a continuous before or past1 and after or future4 ,it is the present that really exists as the manifested moment2 the past has been conserved as sublatent and the future as the latent4 ,so the past and future exist in the present1 the former as one which has already had its manifestation and is thus conserved in the fact of the manifestation of the present4 ,for the manifestation of the present as such could not have taken place until the past had already been manifested2 so the manifestation of the present is a concrete product involving within itself the manifestation of the past2 in a similar way it may be said that the manifestation of the present contains within itself the seed or the unmanifested state of the future1 for if this had not been the case1 the future never could have happened4 ,so we see that the whole world undergoes a change at one unit point of time1 and not only that but it conserves within itself all the past and future history of cosmic evolution4 ,we have pointed out before that the manifestation of the rajas or energy as action is what is called change4 ,now this manifestation of action can only take place when equilibrium of a particular collocation of guas is disturbed and the rajas arranges or collocates with itself the sattva and tamas1 the whole group being made intelligible by the inherent sattva4 ,so the cosmic history is only the history of the different collocations of the guas4 ,now1 therefore1 if it is possible for a seer to see in one vision the possible number of combinations that the rajas will have with sattva and tamas1 he can in one moment perceive the past1 present or future of this cosmic evolutionary process2 for with such minds all past and future are concentrated at one point of vision which to a person of ordinary empirical consciousness appears only in the series4 ,for the empirical consciousness1 impure as it is1 it is impossible that all the powers and potencies of sattva and rajas should become manifested at one point of time2 it has to take things only through its senses and can thus take the changes only as the senses are affected by them2 whereas1 on the other hand1 if its power of knowing was not restricted to the limited scope of the senses1 it could have grasped all the possible collocations or changes all at once4 ,such a perceiving mind whose power of knowing is not narrowed by the senses can perceive all the finest modifications or changes that are going on in the body of a substance 7see ,yoga-stra1 ,,iii4 #ec74 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,categories ,the ,yoga analysis points to the fact that all our cognitive states are distinguished from their objects by the fact of their being intelligent4 ,this intelligence is the constant factor which persists amidst all changes of our cognitive states4 ,we are passing continually from one state to another without any rest1 but in this varying change of these states we are never divested of intelligence4 ,this fact of intelligence is therefore neither the particular possession of any one of these states nor that of the sum of these states2 for if it is not the possession of any one of these states it cannot be the possession of the sum of these states4 ,in the case of the released person again there is no mental state1 but the self-shining intelligence4 ,so ,yoga regarded this intelligence as quite distinct from the so-called mental states which became intelligent by coming in connection with this intelligence4 ,the actionless1 absolutely pure and simple intelligence it called the purusha4 ,yoga tacitly assumed a certain kind of analysis of the nature of these mental states which sought to find out1 if possible1 the nature of their constituent elements or moments of existence4 ,now in analysing the different states of our mind we find that a particular content of thought is illuminated and then passed over4 ,the ideas rise1 are illuminated and pass away4 ,thus they found that 8movement0 was one of the principal elements that constituted the substance of our thoughts4 ,thought as such is always moving4 ,this principle of movement1 mutation or change1 this energy1 they called rajas4 ,now apart from this rajas1 thought when seen as divested of its sensuous contents seems to exhibit one universal mould or form of knowledge which assumes the form of all the sensuous contents that are presented to it4 ,it is the one universal of all our particular concepts or ideas--the basis or substratum of all the different shapes imposed upon itself1 the pure and simple4 ,sattva in which there is no particularity is that element of our thought which1 resembling purusha most1 can attain its reflection within itself and thus makes the unconscious mental states intelligible4 ,all the contents of our thought are but modes and limitations of this universal form and are thus made intelligible4 ,it is the one principle of intelligibility of all our conscious states4 ,now our intellectual life consists in a series of shining ideas or concepts2 concepts after concepts shine forth in the light of the pure intelligence and pass away4 ,but each concept is but a limitation of the pure shining universal of our knowledge which underlies all its changing modes or modifications of concepts or judgments4 ,this is what is called pure knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the known4 ,this pure object--subjectless knowledge differs from the pure intelligence or purusha only in this that later on it is liable to suffer various modifications1 as the ego1 the senses1 and the infinite percepts and concepts1 etc41 connected therewith1 whereas the pure intelligence remains ever pure and changeless and is never the substratum of any change4 ,at this stage sattva1 the intelligence-stuff1 is prominent and rajas and tamas are altogether suppressed4 ,it is for this reason that the buddhi or mind is often spoken of as the sattva4 ,being an absolute preponderance of sattva it has nothing else to manifest1 but it is its pure-shining self4 ,both tamas and rajas being mostly suppressed they cannot in any way affect the effulgent nature of this pure shining of contentless knowledge in which there is neither the knower nor the known4 ,but it must be remembered that it is holding suspended as it were within itself the elements of rajas and tamas which cannot manifest themselves owing to the preponderance of the sattva4 ,this notion of pure contentless consciousness is immediate and abstract and as such is at once mediated by other necessary phases4 ,thus we see that this pure contentless universal consciousness is the same as the ego-universal 7asmitmtra74 ,for this contentless universal consciousness is only another name for the contentless unlimited1 infinite of the ego-universal4 ,a quotation from ,fichte may here be useful as a comparison4 ,thus he says in the introduction to his ,science of ,ethics3 8,how an object can ever become a subject1 or how a being can ever become an object of representation3 this curious change will never be explained by anyone who does not find a point where the objective and subjective are not distinguished at all1 but are altogether one4 ,now such a point is established by1 and made the starting point of our system4 ,this point is the ,egohood1 the ,intelligence1 ,reason1 or whatever it may be named40#bf ,the ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ai1 describes it as ligamtram mahattatva sattmtre mahati tmani1 and again in ,i4 #cf we find it described as the waveless ocean1 peaceful infinite pure egohood4 ,this obscure egohood is known merely as being4 ,this mahat has also been spoken of by ,vijna ,bhikshu as the manas1 or mind1 as it has the function of assimilation 7nicaya74 ,now what we have already said about mahat will1 we hope1 make it clear that this mahat is the last limit at which the subject and the object can be considered as one indistinguishable point which is neither the one nor the other1 but the source of both4 ,this buddhi is thus variously called mahat1 asmitmtra1 manas1 sattva1 buddhi and liga1 according to the aspects from which this state is observed4 ,this state is called mahat as it is the most universal thing conceivable and the one common source from which all other things originate4 ,now this phase of sattva or pure shining naturally passes into the other phase1 that of the ,ego as knower or ,ego as subject4 ,the first phase as mahat or asmitmtra was the state in which the sattva was predominant and the rajas and tamas were in a suppressed condition4 ,the next moment is that in which the rajas comes uppermost1 and thus the ego as the subject of all cognition--the subject ,i--the knower of all the mental states--is derived4 ,the contentless subject-objectless 8,i0 is the passive sattva aspect of the buddhi catching the reflection of the spirit of purusha4 ,in its active aspect1 however1 it feels itself one with the spirit and appears as the ego or subject which knows1 feels and wills4 ,thus ,patajali says1 in ,,ii4 #f3 dgdaranaaktyorektmateva asmit1 i4e4 the seeming identity of the seer and the perceiving capacity is called asmit-ego4 ,again in ,bhshya1 ,i4 #ag1 we have ektmik savidasmit 7knowledge as one identical is asmit7 which ,vcaspati explains as s ca tman grahtr saha buddhirektmik savid1 i4e4 it is the feeling of identity of the buddhi 7mind7 with the self1 the perceiver4 ,thus we find that the mind is affected by its own rajas or activity and posits itself as the ego or subject as activity4 ,by reason of this position of the 8,i0 as active it perceives itself in the objective1 in all its conative and cognitive senses in its thoughts and feelings and also in the external world of extension and co-existence2 in the words of ,pacaikha 7,,ii4 #e7 thinking the animate and inanimate beings to be the self1 man regards their prosperity as his own and becomes glad1 and regards their adversity as his own and is sorry4 ,here the 8,i0 is posited as the active entity which becomes conscious of itself1 or in other words the 8,i0 becomes self-conscious4 ,in analysing this notion of self-consciousness we find that here the rajas or element of activity or mobility has become predominant and this predominance of rajas has been manifested by the inherent sattva4 ,thus we find that the rajas side or 8,i as active0 has become manifested or known as such1 i4e4 8,i0 becomes conscious of itself as active4 ,and this is just what is meant by self-consciousness4 ,this ego or self-consciousness then appears as the modification of the contentless pure consciousness of the mind 7buddhi72 it is for this reason that we see that this self-consciousness is but a modification of the universal mind4 ,the absolute identity of subject and object as the egohood is not ,a part of our natural consciousness1 for in all stages of our actual consciousness1 even in that of self-consciousness1 there is an element of the preponderance of rajas or activity which directs this unity as the knower and the known and then unites them as it were4 ,only so far as ,i distinguish myself as the conscious1 from myself as the object of consciousness1 am ,i at all conscious of myself4 ,when we see that the buddhi transforms itself into the ego1 the subject1 or the knower1 at this its first phase there is no other content which it can know1 it therefore knows itself in a very abstract way as the 8,i10 or in other words1 the ego becomes self-conscious2 but at this moment the ego has no content2 the tamas being quite under suppression1 it is evolved by a preponderance of the rajas2 and thus its nature as rajas is manifested by the sattva and thus the ego now essentially knows itself to be active1 and holds itself as the permanent energising activity which connects with itself all the phenomena of our life4 ,but now when the ego first directs itself towards itself and becomes conscious of itself1 one question which naturally comes to our mind is1 8,can the ego direct itself towards itself and thus divide itself into a part that sees and one that is seen80 ,to meet this question it is assumed that the guas contain within themselves the germs of both subjectivity and objectivity 7gun hi dvairpya vyavasytmkatvam vyavaseytmakatva ca4 ,tattvavairad1 ,,iii4 #dg72 the guas have two forms1 the perceiver and the perceived4 ,thus we find that in the ego the quality of the guas as the perceiver comes to be first manifested and the ego turns back upon itself and makes itself its own object4 ,it is at this stage that we are reminded of the twofold nature of the guas4 ,it is by virtue of this twofold nature that the subject can make itself its own object2 but as these two sides have not yet developed they are still only abstract and exist but in an implicit way in this state of the ego 7ahakra74 ,enquiring further into the nature of the relation of this ego and the buddhi1 we find that the ego is only another phase or modification of the buddhi2 however different it might appear from buddhi it is only an appearance or phase of it2 its reality is the reality of the buddhi4 ,thus we see that when the knower is affected in his different modes of concepts and judgments1 this too is to be ascribed to the buddhi4 ,thus ,vysa writes 7,,ii4 #ah7 that perception1 memory1 differentiation1 reasoning1 right knowledge1 decision belong properly to mind 7buddhi7 and are only illusorily imposed on the purusha 7grahaadhraohpohatattvajnbhinive buddhau varttamn purushe adhyropitasadbhv74 ,now from this ego we find that three developments take place in three distinct directions according to the preponderance of sattva1 rajas or tamas4 ,by the preponderance of rajas1 the ego develops itself into the five conative senses1 vk 7speech71 pi 7hands71 pda 7feet71 pyu 7organ of passing the excreta7 and upastha 7generative organ74 ,by the preponderance of sattva1 the ego develops itself into the five cognitive senses--hearing1 touch1 sight1 taste and smell2 and by a preponderance of tamas it stands as the bhtdi and produces the five tanmtras1 and these again by further preponderance of tamas develops into the particles of the five gross elements of earth1 water1 light1 heat1 air and ether4 ,now it is clear that when the self becomes conscious of itself as object we see that there are three phases in it3 7i7 that in which the self becomes an object to itself2 7ii7 when it directs itself or turns as the subject upon itself as the object1 this moment of activity which can effect an aspect of change in itself2 7iii7 the aspect of the consciousness of the self1 the moment in which it perceives itself in its object1 the moment of the union of itself as the subject and itself as the object in one luminosity of self-consciousness4 ,now that phase of self in which it is merely an object to itself is the phase of its union with prakti which further develops the prakti in moments of materiality by a preponderance of the inert tamas of the bhtdi into tanmtras and these again into the five grosser elements which are then called the grhya or perceptible4 ,the sattva side of this ego or self-consciousness which was hitherto undifferentiated becomes further differentiated1 specialised and modified into the five cognitive senses with their respective functions of hearing1 touch1 sight1 taste and smell1 synchronising with the evolution of the prakti on the tanmtric side of evolution4 ,these again individually suffer infinite modifications themselves and thus cause an infinite variety of sensations in their respective spheres in our conscious life4 ,the rajas side of the ego becomes specialised as the active faculties of the five different conative organs4 ,there is another specialisation of the ego as the manas which is its direct instrument for connecting itself with the five cognitive and conative senses4 ,what is perceived as mere sensations by the senses is connected and generalised and formed into concepts by the manas2 it is therefore spoken of as partaking of both the conative and the cognitive aspects in the ,skhya-krik1 #bg4 ,now though the modifications of the ego are formed successively by the preponderance of sattva1 rajas and tamas1 yet the rajas is always the accessory cause 7sahakri7 of all these varied collocations of the guas2 it is the supreme principle of energy and supplies even intelligence with the energy which it requires for its own conscious activity4 ,thus ,lokcryya says in his ,tattvatraya3 8the tmasa ego developing into the material world and the sttvika ego developing into the eleven senses1 both require the help of the rjasa ego for the production of this development0 7anybhy ahakrbhym svakryyopajanane rjashakra sahakr bhavati72 and ,barabara in his ,bhshya writes3 8just as a seed-sprout requires for its growth the help of water as instrumental cause1 so the rjasa ahakra 7ego7 works as the accessory cause 7sahakri7 for the transformations of sttvika and tmasa ahakra into their evolutionary products40 ,the mode of working of this instrumental cause is described as 8rajas is the mover40 ,the rjasa ego thus moves the sattva part to generate the senses2 the tamas part generating the gross and subtle matter is also moved by the rajas1 agent of movement4 ,the rjasa ego is thus called the common cause of the movement of the sttvika and the tmasa ego4 ,vcaspati also says3 8though rajas has no separate work by itself yet since sattva and tamas 7which though capable of undergoing modification1 do not do their work7 are actionless in themselves1 the agency of rajas lies in this that it moves them both for the production of the effect40#bg ,and according as the modifications are sttvika1 tmasa or rjasika1 the ego which is the cause of these different modifications is also called vaikrika1 bhtdi and taijasa4 ,the mahat also as the source of the vaikrika1 taijasa and bhtdi ego may be said to have three aspects4 ,now speaking of the relation of the sense faculties with the sense organs1 we see that the latter1 which are made up of the grosser elements are the vehicle of the former1 for if the latter are injured in any way1 the former are also necessarily affected4#bh ,to take for example the specific case of the faculty of hearing and its organ1 we see that the faculty of hearing is seated in the ether 7ka7 within our ear-hole4 ,it is here that the power of hearing is located4 ,when soundness or defect is noticed therein1 soundness or defect is noticed in the power of hearing also4 ,when the sounds of solids1 etc41 are heard1 then the power of hearing located in the hollow of the ear stands in need of the resonance produced in the ka of the ear4 ,this sense of hearing1 then1 having its origin in the principle of ahakra1 behaves like iron1 and is drawn by the sounds originated and located in the mouth of the speaker acting as loadstone1 and transforms them into its own successive modifications 7vtti7 and thus senses the sounds of the speaker4 ,and it is for this reason that for every living creature1 the perception of sound in external space in the absence of defects is never void of authority4 ,thus ,pancasikha also says1 as quoted in ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #da3 8,to all those whose organs of hearing are situated in the same place 7at different times7 the ka sustaining the sense of hearing is the same40 ,the ka1 again1 in which the power of hearing is seated1 is born out of the soniferous tanmtra1 and has therefore the quality of sound inherent in itself4 ,it is by this sound acting in unison that it takes the sounds of external solids1 etc4 ,this then proves that the ka is the substratum of the power of hearing1 and also possesses the quality of sound4 ,and this sameness of the situation of sound is an indication of the existence of ka as that which is the substratum of the auditory power 7ruti7 which manifests the sounds of the same class in ka4 ,such a manifestation of sound cannot be without such an auditory sense-power4 ,nor is such an auditory power a quality of pthiv 7earth71 etc41 because it cannot be in its own self both the manifestor and the manifested 7vyahgya and vyajaka71 ,tattvavairad1 ,,iii4 #da4 ,it is the auditory power which manifests all sounds with the help of the ka of the sense organ4 ,the theory of the guas was accepted by many others outside the ,skhya-,yoga circle and they also offered their opinions on the nature of the categories4 ,there are thus other views prevalent about the genesis of the senses1 to which it may be worth our while to pay some attention as we pass by4 ,the sttvika ego in generating the cognitive senses with limited powers for certain specified objects of sense only accounted for their developments from itself in accompaniment with the specific tanmtras4 ,thus sttvika ego sound potential 7abda-tanmtra7 sense of hearing4 sttvika ego touch potential 7par-tanmtra7 sense of touch4 sttvika ego sight potential 7rpa-tanmtra7 sense of vision4 sttvika ego taste potential 7vasa-tanmtra7 sense of taste4 sttvika ego smell potential 7gandha-tanmtra7 sense of smell4 ,the conative sense of speech is developed in association with the sense of hearing2 that of hand in association with the sense of touch2 that of feet in association with the sense of vision2 that of upastha in association with the sense of taste2 that of pyu in association with the sense of smell4 ,last of all1 the manas is developed from the ego without any co-operating or accompanying cause4 ,the ,naiyyikas1 however1 think that the senses are generated by the gross elements1 the ear for example by ka1 the touch by air and so forth4 ,but ,lokcryya in his ,tattvatraya holds that the senses are not generated by gross matter but are rather sustained and strengthened by it4 ,there are others who think that the ego is the instrumental and that the gross elements are the material causes in the production of the senses4 ,the view of the ,vysa-bhshya is1 ,i believe1 now quite clear since we see that the mahat through the asmit generates from the latter 7as differentiations from it1 though it itself exists as integrated in the mahat71 the senses1 and their corresponding gross elements4 ,before proceeding further to trace the development of the bhtdi on the tanmtric side1 ,i think it is best to refer to the views about the supposed difference between the ,yoga and the views of the ,skhya works about the evolution of the categories4 ,now according to the ,yoga view two parallel lines of evolution start from mahat1 one of which develops into the ego1 manas1 the five cognitive and the five conative senses1 while on the other side it develops into the five grosser elements through the five tanmtras which are directly produced from mahat through the medium ahakra4 ,thus the view as found in the ,yoga works may be tabulated thus3-- ,prakti ,mahat or ,asmitmtra ------------------- ,asmit ,tanmtras--#e ------ ----------------- #aa senses #e gross elements ,the view of the akhya works may be tabulated thus3-- ,prakti ,mahat ,ego ------------------- #aa senses #e ,tanmtras #e gross elements ,the place in the ,vysa-bhshya which refers to this genesis is that under vieshvieshaligamtrligni guaparvi1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,there it says that the four bhtas are ether1 air1 fire1 water and earth4 ,these are the vieshas 7specialised modifications7 of the unspecialised modifications the tanmtras of sound1 touch1 colour1 taste and smell4 ,so also are the cognitive senses of hearing1 touch1 eye1 tongue1 and nose and the conative senses of speech1 hand1 feet1 anus and the generative organ4 ,the eleventh one manas 7the co-ordinating organ7 has for its object the objects of all the above ten senses4 ,so these are the specialised modifications 7vieshas7 of the unspecialised 7aviesha7 asmit4 ,the guas have these sixteen kinds of specialised modifications 7vieshaparima74 ,the six unspecialised modifications are the sound tanmtra1 touch tanmtra1 colour tanmtra1 taste tanmtra and smell tanmtra4 ,these tanmtras respectively contain one1 two1 three1 four1 and five special characteristics4 ,the sixth unspecialised modification is asmitmtra4 ,these are the six aviesha evolutions of the pure being1 the mahat4 ,the category of mahat is merely a sign beyond the avieshas and it is there that these exist and develop4 ,in this ,vysa-bhshya the fully specialised ones1 vieshas1 the grosser elements are said to have been derived from the tanmtras and the senses and manas1 the faculty of reflection are said to have been specialised from the ego or asmit4 ,the tanmtras1 however1 have not been derived from the ego or asmit here4 ,but they together with asmit are spoken of as the six slightly specialised ones1 the five being the five tanmtras and the sixth one being the ego4 ,these six avieshas are the specialisations of the mahat1 the great egohood of pure ,be-ness4 ,it therefore appears that the six avieshas are directly derived from the mahat1 after which the ego develops into the eleven senses and the tanmtras into the five gross elements in three different lines4 ,but let us see how ,yoga-vrttika explains the point here3-- 8,but like the senses the tanmtras are also special modifications of the ahakra having specially modified characteristics such as sound1 touch1 etc41 why1 therefore1 are they not mentioned as special modifications 7vieshas78 ,the answer is that those only are mentioned as special modification which are ultimate special modifications4 ,the tanmtras are indeed the special modifications of the ego1 but they themselves produce further special modifications1 the bhtas4 ,the avieshas are explained as the six avieshas4 ,the tanmtras are generated from the tmasa ahakra gradually through sound1 etc4 ,the category of mahat which is the ground of all modifications1 called also the buddhi1 has six evolutionary products called the avieshas4 ,though the mahat and the prakti may also be regarded as the root-causes out of which the tanmtras have evolved1 yet the word aviesha is used as a technical term having a special application to the six avieshas only40 ,the modifications of these are from the buddhi through the intermediate stage of the ahakra1 as has been explained in the ,bhshya1 ,i4 #de4 ,thus we see that the ,yoga-vrttika says that the ,bhshya is here describing the modifications of buddhi in two distinct classes1 the avieshas and the vieshas2 and that the mahat has been spoken of as the source of all the avieshas1 the five tanmtras and the ego2 strictly speaking1 however1 the genesis of the tanmtras from mahat takes place through the ego and in association with the ego1 for it has been so described in the ,bhshya1 ,i4 #de4 ,ngea in explaining this ,bhshya only repeats the view of ,yoga-vrttika4 ,now let us refer to the ,bhshya of ,i4 #de1 alluded to by the ,yoga-vrttika3 8,the gradual series of subtler causes proceeds up to the aliga or the prakti4 ,the earth atom has the smell tanmtra as its subtle cause2 the water atom has the taste tanmtra2 the air atom the touch tanmtra2 the ka atom the sound tanmtra2 and of these ahakra is the subtle cause2 and of this the mahat is the subtle cause40 ,here by subtle cause 7skshma7 it is updnakraa or material cause which is meant2 so the ,bhshya further says3 8,it is true that purusha is the subtlest of all4 ,but yet as prakti is subtler than the mahat1 it is not in that sense that purusha is subtler than prakti for purusha is only an instrumental cause of the evolution of mahat1 but not its material cause40 ,i believe it is quite clear that ahakra is spoken of here as the skshma anvayikrana of the tanmtras4 ,this anvayikraa is the same as updna 7material cause7 as ,vcaspati calls it4 ,now again in the ,bhshya of the same stra ,,ii4 #ai later on we see the liga or the mahat is the stage next to prakti1 it is differentiated from it though still remaining integrated in the regular order of evolution4 ,the six avieshas are again differentiated while still remaining integrated in the mahat in the order of evolution 7parimakramaniyama74 ,the mahat tattva 7liga7 is associated with the prakti 7aliga74 ,its development is thus to be considered as the production of a differentiation as integrated within the prakti4 ,the six avieshas are also to be considered as the production of successive differentiations as integrated within the mahat4 ,the words sassha vivicyante are the most important here for they show us the real nature of the transformations4 8,sassht0 means integrated and 8vivicyante0 means differentiated4 ,this shows that the order of evolution as found in the ,skhya works 7viz4 mahat from prakti1 ahakra from mahat and the eleven senses and the tanmtras from ahakra7 is true only in this sense that these modifications of ahakra take place directly as differentiations of characters in the body of mahat4 ,as these differentiations take place through ahakra as the first moment in the series of transformations it is said that the transformations take place directly from ahakra2 whereas when stress is laid on the other aspect it appears that the transformations are but differentiations as integrated in the body of the mahat1 and thus it is also said that from mahat the six avieshas--namely1 ahakra and the five tanmtras--come out4 ,this conception of evolution as differentiation within integration bridges the gulf between the views of ,yoga and the ,sakhya works4 ,we know that the tanmtras are produced from the tmasa ahakra4 ,this ahakra is nothing but the tmasa side of mahat roused into creative activity by rajas4 ,the sttvika ahakra is given as a separate category producing the senses1 whereas the tamas as bhtdi produces the tanmtras from its disturbance while held up within the mahat4#bi ,ngea in the ,chy-vykhy of ,,ii4 #ai1 however1 follows the ,skhya explanation4 ,he says3 8,the five tanmtras having in order one1 two1 three1 four and five characteristics are such that the preceding ones are the causes of the succeeding ones4 ,the abdatanmtra has only the characteristic of sound1 the sparatanmtra of sound and touch and so on4444 ,all these tanmtras are produced from the tmasa ahakra in the order of abda1 spara1 etc40 ,this ignores the interpretation of the ,vys-bhshya that the tanmtras are differentiations within the integrated whole of mahat through the intermediary stage of the tmasa ahakra4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,evolution ,,and ,,change ,,of ,,qualities ,the order of the evolution of the tanmtras as here referred to is as follows3-- ,bhtdi 7tmasa ahakra7 abdatanmtra ,sparatanmtra ,rpatanmtra ,rasatanmtra ,gandhatanmtra ,the evolution of the tanmtras has been variously described in the ,puras and the ,smti literature4 ,these divergent views can briefly be brought under two headings3 those which derive the tanmtras from the bhtas and those which derive them from the ahakra and the bhtas from them4 ,some of these schools have been spoken of in the ,barabara ,muni's commentary on the ,tattvatraya--a treatise on the ,rmnuja ,philosophy--and have been already explained in a systematic way by ,dr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,seal4 ,i therefore refrain from repeating them needlessly4 ,about the derivation of the tanmtras all the other ,skhya treatises1 the ,krik1 the ,kaumud1 the ,tattvavairad1 the ,stra and ,pravacana-bhshya1 the ,siddhntacandrik1 ,strrthabodhin1 the ,rajamrtaa and the ,maiprabh seem to be silent4 ,further speaking of the tanmtras1 ,vijna ,bhikshu says that the tanmtras exist only in unspecialised forms2 they therefore can be neither felt nor perceived in any way by the senses of ordinary men4 ,this is that indeterminate state of matter in which they can never be distinguished one from the other1 and they cannot be perceived to be possessed of different qualities or specialised in any way4 ,it is for this that they are called tanmtras1 i4e4 their only specialization is a mere thatness4 ,the ,yogins alone perceive them4 ,now turning towards the further evolution of the grosser elements from the tanmtras1 we see that there are great divergences of view here also1 some of which are shown below4 ,thus ,vcaspati says3 8,the earth atom is produced from the five tanmtras with a predominance of the smell tanmtra1 the water atom from the four tanmtras excepting the smell tanmtra with a preponderance of the taste tanmtra1 and so on0 7,i4 #dd74 ,thus here we find that the ka atom 7au7 has been generated simply by the ka tanmtra2 the vyu atom has been generated by two tanmtras1 abda and spara1 of which the spara appears there as the chief4 ,the tejas atom has been developed from the abda1 spara and rpa tanmtras1 though the rpa is predominant in the group4 ,the ap atom has been developed from the four tanmtras1 abda1 spara1 rpa and rasa1 though rasa is predominant in the group1 and the earth or kshiti atom has been developed from the five tanmtras1 though the gandha tanmtra is predominant in the group4 ,now the ,yoga-vrttika agrees with ,vcaspati in all these details1 but differs from him only in maintaining that the ka atom has been generated from the abda tanmtra with an accretion from bhtdi1 whereas ,vcaspati says that the ka atom is generated simply by the ka tanmtra4#cj ,ngea1 however1 takes a slightly different view and says that to produce the gross atoms from the tanmtras1 an accretion of bhtdi as an accompanying agent is necessary at every step2 so that we see that the vyu atom is produced from these three3 abda spara accretion from bhtdi4 ,tejas atom abda para rpa accretion from bhtdi4 ,ap atom abda para rpa rasa accretion from bhtdi4 ,kshiti atom abda para rpa rasa gandha accretion from bhtdi4 ,i refrain from giving the ,vishu ,pura view which has also been quoted in the ,yoga-vrttika1 and the view of a certain school of ,vedntists mentioned in the ,tattva-nirpaa and referred to and described in the ,tattvatraya1 as ,dr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,seal has already described them in his article4 ,we see thus that from bhtdi come the five tanmtras which can be compared to the ,vaieshika atoms as they have no parts and neither grossness nor visible differentiation4#ca ,some differentiation has of course already begun in the tanmtras1 as they are called abda1 para1 rpa1 rasa and gandha1 which therefore may be said to belong to a class akin to the grosser elements of ka1 vyu1 tejas1 ap and kshiti4#cb ,the next one1 the paramu 7atom71 which is gross in its nature and is generated from the tanmtras which exist in it as parts 7tanmtrvayava7 may be compared with the trasareu of the ,vaieshikas4 ,thus the ,yoga-vrttika says3 8this is called paramu by the ,vaieshikas4 ,we however call the subtlest part of the visible earth1 earth atoms0 7,,iv4 #ad74 ,the doctrine of atoms is recognised both in the ,yoga-strs 7,i4 #df7 and the ,bhshya 7,,iii4 #eb1 ,,iv4 #ad1 etc474 ,whether ,skhya admitted the paramus 7atoms7 or not cannot be definitely settled4 ,the ,skhya-krik does not mention the paramus1 but ,vijna ,bhikshu thinks that the word 8skshma0 in ,krik1 #ci1 means paramus 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iv4 #ad74 ,though the word paramu is not mentioned in the ,krik1 ,i can hardly suppose that ,skhya did not admit it in the sense in which ,yoga did4 ,for it does not seem probable that ,skhya should think that by the combination of the subtle tanmtras we could all at once have the bigger lumps of bhta without there being any particles4 ,moreover1 since the ,yoga paramus are the finest visible particles of matter it could not have been denied by ,skhya4 ,the supposition of some ,german scholars that ,skhya did not admit the paramus does not seem very plausible4 ,bhikshu in ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iii4 #eb1 says that the guas are in reality ,vaieshika atoms4 ,the third form is gross air1 fire1 water1 etc41 which is said to belong to the mahat 7gross7 class4 ,i cannot express it better than by quoting a passage from ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iv4 #d3 8,the ,bhshya holds that in the tanmtras there exists the specific differentiation that constitutes the five tanmtras1 the kshiti atom is generated and by the conglomeration of these gross atoms gross earth is formed4 ,so again by the combination of the four tanmtras the water atom is formed and the conglomeration of these water atoms makes gross water40 8,it should be noted here3 since the ,bhshya holds that the tanmtras of sound1 etc41 are of the same class as the corresponding gross elements it may be assumed that the combining tanmtras possess the class characteristics which are made manifest in gross elements by hardness1 smoothness1 etc40 ,bhikshu holds that since ,skhya and ,yoga are similar 7samnatantra7 this is to be regarded as being also the ,skhya view4 ,there is1 however1 another measure which is called the measure of parama mahat1 which belongs to ka for example4 ,now these paramus or atoms are not merely atoms of matter but they contain within themselves those particular qualities by virtue of which they appear1 as pleasant1 unpleasant or passive to us4 ,if we have expressed ourselves clearly1 ,i believe it has been shown that when the inner and the outer proceed from one source1 the ego and the external world do not altogether differ in nature from the inner2 both have been formed by the collocation of the guas 7sarvamida gun sanniveaviseshamtram74 ,the same book which in the inner microcosm is written in the language of ideas has been in the external world written in the language of matter4 ,so in the external world we have all the grounds of our inner experience1 cognitive as well as emotional1 pleasurable as well as painful4 ,the modifications of the external world are only translated into ideas and feelings2 therefore these paramus are spoken of as endowed with feelings4 ,there is another difference between the tanmtras and the paramus4 ,the former cannot be perceived to be endowed with the feeling elements as the latter4 ,some say1 however1 that it is not true that the tanmtras are not endowed with the feeling elements1 but they cannot be perceived by any save the ,yogins2 thus it is said3 tanmtrmapi parasparavyvttasvabhvatvamastyeva tacca yogimtragamyam4 ,the tanmtras also possess differentiated characters1 but they can be perceived only by the ,yogins2 but this is not universally admitted4 ,now these paramus cannot further be evolved into any other different kind of existence or tattvntara4#cc ,we see that the paramus though they have been formed from the tanmtras resemble them only in a very remote way and are therefore placed in a separate stage of evolution4 ,with the bhtas we have the last stage of evolution of the guas4 ,the course of evolution1 however1 does not cease here1 but continues ceaselessly1 though by its process no new stage of existence is generated1 but the product of the evolution is such that in it the properties of the gross elements which compose its constitution can be found directly4 ,this is what is called dharmaparima1 as distinguished from the tattvntara-parima spoken above4 ,the evolution of the vieshas from the avieshas is always styled tattvntara-parima1 as opposed to the evolution that takes place among the vieshas themselves1 which is called dharmaparima or evolution by change of qualities4 ,now these atoms or paramus of kshiti1 ap1 tejas1 marut or ka conglomerate together and form all sentient or non-sentient bodies in the world4 ,the different atoms of earth1 air1 fire1 water1 etc41 conglomerate together and form the different animate bodies such as cow1 etc41 or inanimate bodies such as jug1 etc41 and vegetables like the tree1 etc4 ,these bodies are built up by the conglomerated units of the atoms in such a way that they are almost in a state of combination which has been styled ayutasiddhvayava4 ,in such a combination the parts do not stand independently1 but only hide themselves as it were in order to manifest the whole body1 so that by the conglomeration of the particles we have what may be called a body1 which is regarded as quite a different thing from the atoms of which it is composed4 ,these bodies change with the different sorts of change or arrangement of the particles1 according to which the body may be spoken of as 8one10 8large10 8small10 8tangible0 or 8possessing0 the quality of action4 ,some philosophers hold the view that a body is really nothing but the conglomeration of the atoms2 but they must be altogether wrong here since they have no right to ignore the 8body10 which appears before them with all its specific qualities and attributes2 moreover1 if they ignore the body they have to ignore almost everything1 for the atoms themselves are not visible4 ,again1 these atoms1 though so much unlike the ,vaieshika atoms since they contain tanmtras of a different nature as their constituents and thus differ from the simpler atoms of the ,vaieshikas1 compose the constituents of all inorganic1 organic or animal bodies in such a way that there is no break of harmony--no opposition between them2--but1 on the contrary1 when any one of the guas existing in the atoms and their conglomerations becomes prominent1 the other guas though their functions are different from it1 yet do not run counter to the prominent guas1 but conjointly with them1 help to form the specific modification for the experiences of the purusha4 ,in the production of a thing1 the different guas do not choose different independent courses for their evolution1 but join together and effectuate themselves in the evolution of a single product4 ,thus we see also that when the atoms of different gross elements possessing different properties and attributes coalesce1 their difference of attributes does not produce confusion1 but they unite in the production of the particular substances by a common teleological purpose 7see ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #ad74 ,we thus see that the bodies or things composed by the collocation of the atoms in one sense differ from the atoms themselves and in another are identical with the atoms themselves4 ,we see therefore that the appearance of the atoms as bodies or things differs with the change of position of the atoms amongst themselves4 ,so we can say that the change of the appearance of things and bodies only shows the change of the collocation of the atoms1 there being always a change of appearance in the bodies consequent on every change in the position of the atoms4 ,the former therefore is only an explicit appearance of the change that takes place in the substance itself2 for the appearance of a thing is only an explicit aspect of the very selfsame thing--the atoms2 thus the ,bhshya says3 dharmisvarpamtro hi dharma1 dharmivrikriy eva esh dharmadvr prapacyate1 i4e4 a dharma 7quality7 is merely the nature of the dharmin 7substance71 and it is the changes of the dharmin that are made explicit by the dharmas4#cd ,often it happens that the change of appearance of a thing or a body1 a tree or a piece of cloth1 for example1 can be marked only after a long interval4 ,this1 however1 only shows that the atoms of the body had been continually changing and consequently the appearance of the body or the thing also had been continually changing2 for otherwise we can in no way account for the sudden change of appearance4 ,all bodies are continually changing the constituent collocation of atoms and their appearances4 ,in the smallest particle of time or kshaa the whole universe undergoes a change4 ,each moment or the smallest particle of time is only the manifestation of that particular change4 ,time therefore has not a separate existence in this philosophy as in the ,vaieshika1 but it is only identical with the smallest amount of change--viz4 that of an atom of its own amount of space4 ,now here the appearance is called the dharma1 and that particular arrangement of atoms or guas which is the basis of the particular appearance is called the dharmin4 ,the change of appearance is therefore called the dharma-parima4#ce ,again this change of appearance can be looked at from two other aspects which though not intrinsically different from the change of appearance have their own special points of view which make them remarkable4 ,these are lakshaa-parima and avasth-parima4 ,taking the particular collocation of atoms in a body for review1 we see that all the subsequent changes that take place in it exist in it only in a latent way in it which will be manifested in future4 ,all the previous changes of the collocating atoms are not also lost but exist only in a sublatent way in the particular collocation of atoms present before us4 ,for the past changes are by no means destroyed but are preserved in the peculiar and particular collocation of atoms of the present moment4 ,for had not the past changes taken place1 the present could not appear4 ,the present had held itself hidden in the past just as the future is hidden within the present4 ,it therefore only comes into being with the unfolding of the past1 which therefore exists only in a sublatent form in it4 ,it is on account of this that we see that a body comes into being and dies away4 ,though this birth or death is really subsumed the change of appearance yet it has its own special aspect1 on account of which it has been given a separate name as lakshaa-parima4 ,it considers the three stages of an appearance--the unmanifested when it exists in the future1 the manifested moment of the present1 and the past when it has been manifested--lost to view but preserved and retained in all the onward stages of the evolution4 ,thus when we say that a thing has not yet come into being1 that it has just come into being1 and that it is no longer1 we refer to this lakshaa-parima which records the history of the thing in future1 present and past1 which are only the three different moments of the same thing according to its different characters1 as unmanifested1 manifested and manifested in the past but conserved4 ,now it often happens that though the appearance of a thing is constantly changing owing to the continual change of the atoms that compose it1 yet the changes are so fine and infinitesimal that they cannot be marked by anyone except the ,yogins2 for though structural changes may be going on tending towards the final passing away of that structure and body into another structure and body1 which greatly differs from it1 yet they may not be noticed by us1 who can take note of the bigger changes alone4 ,taking therefore two remarkable stages of things1 the difference between which may be so notable as to justify us in calling the later the dissolution or destruction of the former1 we assert that the thing has suffered growth and decay in the interval1 during which the actual was passing into the sublatent and the potential was tending towards actualization4 ,this is what is called the avasth-parima1 or change of condition1 which1 however1 does not materially differ from the lakshaa-parima and can thus be held to be a mode of it4 ,it is on account of this that a substance is called new or old1 grown or decayed4 ,thus in explaining the illustration given in the ,bhshya1 ,,iii4 #ac3 8there is avasth-parima4 ,at the moments of cessation the potencies of cessation become stronger and those of ordinary experience weaker40 ,the ,yoga-vrttika says3 8,the strength and weakness of the two potencies is like the newness or oldness of a jug2 growth and decay being the same as origination and decease1 there is no difference here from lakshaa-parima40 ,it is now time for us to examine once more the relation of dharmin1 substance1 and dharma1 its quality or appearance4 ,dharmin1 or substance1 is that which remains common to the latent 7as having passed over or nta71 the rising 7the present or udita7 and the unpredicable 7future or avyapadeya7 characteristic qualities of the substance4 ,substance 7take for example1 earth7 has the power of existing in the form of particles of dust1 a lump or a jug by which water may be carried4 ,now taking the stage of lump for examination we may think of its previous stage1 that of particles of dust1 as being latent1 and its future stage as jug as the unpredicable4 ,the earth we see here to be common to all these three stages which have come into being by its own activity and consequent changes4 ,earth here is the common quality which remains unchanged in all these stages1 and so relatively constant among its changes as particles1 lump and jug4 ,this earth therefore is regarded as the dharmin1 characterised one1 the substance2 and its stages as its dharma or qualities4 ,when this dharmin1 or substance1 undergoes a change from a stage of lump to a stage of jug1 it undergoes what is called dharma-parima or change of quality4 ,but its dharma1 as the shape of the jug may be thought to have itself undergone a change--inasmuch as it has now come into being1 from a state of relative non-being1 latency or unpredicability4 ,this is called the lakshaa-parima of the dharma or qualities as constituting a jug4 ,this jug is again suffering another change as new or old according as it is just produced or is gradually running towards its dissolution1 and this is called the avasth-parima or change of condition4 ,these three1 however1 are not separate from the dharma-parima1 but are only aspects of it2 so it may be said that the dharmin or substance directly suffers the dharma-parima and indirectly the lakshaa and the avasth-parima4 ,the dharma1 however1 changes and the lakshaa-parima can be looked at from another point of view1 that of change of state1 viz4 growth and decay4 ,thus we see that though the atoms of kshiti1 ap1 etc41 remain unchanged1 they are constantly suffering changes from the inorganic to plants and animals1 and from thence again back to the inorganic4 ,there is thus a constant circulation of changes in which the different atoms of kshiti1 ap1 tejas1 vyu and ka remaining themselves unchanged are suffering dharma-parima as they are changed from the inorganic to plants and animals and back again to the inorganic4 ,these different states or dharmas 7as inorganic1 etc471 again1 according as they are not yet1 now1 or no longer or passed over1 are suffering the lakshaa-parima4 ,there is also the avasth-parima of these states according as any one of them 7the plant state for example7 is growing or suffering decay towards its dissolution4 ,this circulation of cosmic matter in general applies also to all particular things1 such as the jug1 the cloth1 etc42 the order of evolution here will be that of powdered particles of earth1 lump of earth1 the earthen jug1 the broken halves of the jug1 and again the powdered earth4 ,as the whole substance has only one identical evolution1 these different states only happen in order of succession1 the occurrence of one characteristic being displaced by another characteristic which comes after it immediately4 ,we thus see that one substance may undergo endless changes of characteristic in order of succession2 and along with the change of characteristic or dharma we have the lakshaa-parima and the avasth-parima as old or new1 which is evidently one of infinitesimal changes of growth and decay4 ,thus ,vcaspati gives the following beautiful example3 8,even the most carefully preserved rice in the granary becomes after long years so brittle that it crumbles into atoms4 ,this change cannot happen to new rice all on a sudden4 ,therefore we have to admit an order of successive changes0 7,tattvavaivrad1 ,,iii4 #ae74 ,we now see that substance has neither past nor future2 appearances or qualities only are manifested in time1 by virtue of which substance is also spoken of as varying and changing temporally1 just as a line remains unchanged in itself but acquires different significances according as one or two zeros are placed on its right side4 ,substance--the atoms of kshiti1 ap1 tejas1 marut1 vyoman1 etc41 by various changes of quality appear as the manifold varieties of cosmical existence4 ,there is no intrinsic difference between one thing and another1 but only changes of character of one and the same thing2 thus the gross elemental atoms like water and earth particles acquire various qualities and appear as the various juices of all fruits and herbs4 ,now in analogy with the arguments stated above1 it will seem that even a qualified thing or appearance may be relatively regarded as substance1 when it is seen to remain common to various other modifications of that appearance itself4 ,thus a jug1 which may remain common in all its modifications of colour1 may be regarded relatively as the dharmin or substance of all these special appearances or modifications of the same appearance4 ,we remember that the guas1 which are the final substratum of all the grosser particles1 are always in a state of commotion and always evolving in the manner previously stated1 for the sake of the experience and final realisation of the parusha1 the only object or end of the prakti4 ,thus the ,bhshya1 ,,iii4 #ac1 says3 8,so it is the nature of the guas that there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary changes of dharma1 lakshaa and avasth2 movement is the characteristic of the guas4 ,the nature of the guas is the cause of their constant movement40 ,although the pioneers of modern scientific evolution have tried to observe scientifically some of the stages of the growth of the inorganic and of the animal worlds into the man1 yet they do not give any reason for it4 ,theirs is more an experimental assertion of facts than a metaphysical account of evolution4 ,according to ,darwin the general form of the evolutionary process is that which is accomplished by 8very slight variations which are accumulated by the effect of natural selection40 ,and according to a later theory1 we see that a new species is constituted all at once by the simultaneous appearance of several new characteristics very different from the old4 ,but why this accidental variation1 this seeming departure from the causal chain1 comes into being1 the evolutionists cannot explain4 ,but the ,skhya-,ptajala doctrine explains it from the standpoint of teleology or the final goal inherent in all matter1 so that it may be serviceable to the purusha4 ,to be serviceable to the purusha is the one moral purpose in all prakti and its manifestations in the whole material world1 which guide the course and direction of the smallest particle of matter4 ,from the scientific point of view1 the ,skhya-,ptajala doctrine is very much in the same position as modern science1 for it does not explain the cause of the accidental variation noticed in all the stages of evolutionary process from any physical point of view based on the observation of facts4 ,but it does much credit to the ,ptajala doctrines that they explain this accidental variation1 this avyapadeyatva or unpredicability of the onward course of evolution from a moral point of view1 that of teleology1 the serviceability of the purusha4 ,they found1 however1 that this teleology should not be used to usurp the whole nature and function of matter4 ,we find that the atoms are always moving by virtue of the rajas or energy1 and it is to this movement of the atoms in space that all the products of evolution are due4 ,we have found that the difference between the juices of ,coco-nut1 ,palm1 ,bel1 ,tinduka 7,diospyros ,embryopteries71 malaka 7,emblic ,myrobalan7 can be accounted for by the particular and peculiar arrangement of the atoms of earth and water alone1 by their stress and strain2 and we see also that the evolution of the organic from the inorganic is due to this change of position of the atoms themselves2 for the unit of change is the change in an atom of its own dimension of spatial position4 ,there is always the transformation of energy from the inorganic to the organic and back again from the organic4 ,thus the differences among things are solely due to the different stages which they occupy in the scale of evolution1 as different expressions of the transformation of energy2 but virtually there is no intrinsic difference among things sarva sarvtmaka2 the change of the collocation of atoms only changes potentiality into actuality1 for there is potentiality of everything for every thing everywhere throughout this changing world4 ,thus ,vcaspati writes3 8,the water possessing taste1 colour1 touch and sound and the earth possessing smell1 taste1 colour1 touch1 and sound suffer an infinite variety of changes as roots1 flowers1 fruits1 leaves and their specific tastes and other qualities4 ,the water and the earth which do not possess these qualities cannot have them1 for we have proved that what is non-existent cannot come into being4 ,the trees and plants produce the varied tastes and colours in animals1 for it is by eating these that they acquire such richness of colour1 etc4 ,animal products can again produce changes in plant bodies4 ,by sprinkling blood on it a pomegranate may be made as big as a palm0 7,tattvavaiarad1 ,,iii4 #ad74 ,looked at from the point of view of the guas1 there is no intrinsic difference between things1 though there are a thousand manifestations of differences1 according to time1 place1 form and causality4 ,the expressions of the guas1 and the manifestations of the transformations of energy differ according to time1 place1 shape1 or causality--these are the determining circumstances and environments which determine the modes of the evolutionary process2 surrounding environments are also involved in determining this change1 and it is said that two malaka fruits placed in two different places undergo two different sorts of changes in connection with the particular spots in which they are placed1 and that if anybody interchanges them a ,yogin can recognise and distinguish the one from the other by seeing the changes that the fruits have undergone in connection with their particular points of space4 ,thus the ,bhshya says3 8,two malaka fruits having the same characteristic genus and species1 their situation in two different points of space contributes to their specific distinction of development1 so that they may be identified as this and that4 ,when an malaka is brought from a distance to a man previously inattentive to it1 he naturally cannot distinguish this malaka as being the distant one which has been brought before him without his knowledge4 ,but right knowledge should be competent to discern the distinction2 and the stra says that the place associated with one malaka fruit is different from the place associated with another malaka at another point of space2 and the ,yogin can perceive the difference of their specific evolution in association with their points of space2 similarly the atoms also suffer different modifications at different points of space which can be perceived by vara and the ,yogins0 7,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #ec74 ,vcaspati again says3 8,though all cause is essentially all effects yet a particular cause takes effect in a particular place1 thus though the cause is the same1 yet saffron grows in ,kmra and not in ,pcla4 ,so1 the rains do not come in summer1 the vicious do not enjoy happiness4 ,thus in accordance with the obstructions of place1 time1 animal form1 and instrumental accessories1 the same cause does not produce the same effect4 ,though as cause everything is essentially everything else1 yet there is a particular country for a particular effect1 such as ,kmra is for saffron4 ,even though the causes may be in other countries such as ,pcla1 yet the effect will not happen there1 and for this reason saffron does not manifest itself in ,pcla4 ,so in summer there are no rains and so no paddy grows then0 7,tattvavairad1 ,,iii4 #ad74 ,we see therefore that time1 space1 etc41 are the limitations which regulate1 modify and determine to a certain extent the varying transformations and changes and the seeming differences of things1 though in reality they are all ultimately reducible to the three guas2 thus ,kmra being the country of saffron1 it will not grow in the ,pcla country1 even though the other causes of its growth should all be present there2--here the operation of cause is limited by space4 ,after considering the inorganic1 vegetable and animal kingdoms as three stages in the evolutionary process1 our attention is at once drawn to their conception of the nature of relation of plant life to animal life4 ,though ,i do not find any special reference in the ,bhshya to this point1 yet ,i am reminded of a few passages in the ,mahbhrata1 which ,i think may be added as a supplement to the general doctrine of evolution according to the ,skhya-,ptajala philosophy as stated here4 ,thus the ,mahbhrata says3 8,even the solid trees have ether 7ka7 in them which justifies the regular appearance of flowers and fruits4 ,by heat the leaves1 the bark1 flowers and fruits become withered1 and since there is withering and decay in them1 there is in them the sensation of touch4 ,since by the sound of air1 fire and thunder the fruits and flowers fall away1 there must be the sense of hearing in them4 ,the creepers encircle the trees and they go in all directions1 and since without sight there could not be any choice of direction1 the trees have the power of vision4 ,by various holy and unholy smells and incenses of various kinds the trees are cured of their diseases and blossom forth1 therefore the trees can smell4 ,since they drink by their roots1 and since they get diseases1 and since their diseases can be cured1 there is the sense of taste in the trees4 ,since they enjoy pleasure and suffer pain1 and since their parts which are cut grow1 ,i see life everywhere in trees and not want of life0 7,sntiparva1 #ahd74 ,nlakaha in his commentary goes still further and says that a hard substance called vajramai also may be called living4 ,here we see that the ancients had to a certain extent forestalled the discovery of ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,bose that the life functions differed only in degree between the three classes1 the inorganic1 plants and animals4 ,these are all1 however1 only illustrations of dharma-parima1 for here there is no radical change in the elements themselves1 the appearance of qualities being due only to the different arrangement of the atoms of the five gross elements4 ,this change applies to the vieshas only--the five gross elements externally and the eleven senses internally4 ,how the inner microcosm1 the manas and the senses are affected by dharma-parima we shall see hereafter1 when we deal with the psychology of the ,skhya-,ptajala doctrine4 ,for the present it will suffice to say that the citta or mind also suffers this change and is modified in a twofold mode2 the patent in the form of the ideas and the latent1 as the substance itself1 in the form of saskras of subconscious impressions4 ,thus the ,bhshya says3 8,the mind has two kinds of characteristics1 perceived and unperceived4 ,those of the nature of ideas are perceived and those inherent in the integral nature of it are unperceived4 ,the latter are of seven kinds and may be ascertained by inference4 ,these are cessation of mental states by samdhi1 virtue and vice1 subconscious impressions1 change1 life-functioning1 power of movement1 and energy0 7,,iii4 #ae74 ,this dharma-parima as we have shown it1 is essentially different from the satkraavda of the avieshas described above4 ,we cannot close this discussion about evolution without noticing the ,skhya view of causation4 ,we have seen that the ,skhya-,ptajala view holds that the effect is already existent in the cause1 but only in a potential form4 8,the grouping or collocation alone changes1 and this brings out the manifestation of the latent powers of the guas1 but without creation of anything absolutely new or non-existent40 ,this is the true satkryyavda theory as distinguished from the so-called satkryyavda theory of the ,vedntists1 which ought more properly to be called the satkraavda theory1 for with them the cause alone is true1 and all effects are illusory1 being only impositions on the cause4 ,for with them the material cause alone is true1 whilst all its forms and shapes are merely illusory1 whereas according to the ,skhya-,ptajala doctrine all the appearances or effects are true and are due to the power which the substance has of transforming itself into those various appearances and effects yogyatvacchinn dharmia aktireva dharma 7,,iii4 #ad74 ,the operation of the concomitant condition or efficient cause serves only to effect the passage of a thing from potency to actualisation4 ,everything in the phenomenal world is but a special collocation of the guas2 so that the change of collocation explains the diversity of things4 ,considered from the point of view of the guas1 things are all the same1 so excluding that1 the cause of the diversity in things is the power which the guas have of changing their particular collocations and thus assuming various shapes4 ,we have seen that the prakti unfolds itself through various stages--the mahat called the great being--the ahakra1 the tanmtras called the avieshas4 ,now the liga at once resolves itself into the ahakra and through it again into the tanmtras4 ,the ahakra and the tanmtras again resolve themselves into the senses and the gross elements1 and these again are constantly suffering thousands of modifications called the dharma1 lakshaa1 and avasth-parima according to the definite law of evolution 7parimakramaniyama74 ,now according to the ,sakhya-,ptajala doctrine1 the akti--power1 force--and the aktimn--the possessor of power or force--are not different but identical4 ,so the prakti and all its emanations and modifications are of the nature of substantive entities as well as power or force4 ,their appearances as substantive entities and as power or force are but two aspects1 and so it will be erroneous to make any such distinction as the substantive entity and its power or force4 ,that which is the substantive entity is the force1 and that which is the force is the substantive entity4 ,of course for all practical purposes we can indeed make some distinction1 but that distinction is only relatively true4 ,thus when we say that earth is the substantive entity and the power which it has of transforming itself into the produced form1 lump1 or jug as its attribute1 we see on the one hand that no distinction is really made between the appearance of the earth as jug and its power of transforming itself into the jug4 ,as this power of transforming itself into lump or jug1 etc41 always abides in the earth we say that the jug1 etc41 are also abiding in the earth2 when the power is in the potential state1 we say that the jug is in the potential state1 and when it is actualised1 we say that the jug has been actualised4 ,looked at from the tanmtric side1 the earth and all the other gross elements must be said to be mere modifications1 and as such identical with the power which the tanmtras have of changing themselves into them4 ,the potentiality or actuality of any state is the mere potentiality or actuality of the power which its antecedent cause has of transforming itself into it4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,evolution ,,and ,,change ,,of ,,qualities ,prakti1 though a substantive entity is yet a potential power1 being actualised as its various modifications1 the avieshas and the vieshas4 ,being of the nature of power1 the movement by which it actualises itself is immanent within itself and not caused from without4 ,the operation of the concomitant conditions is only manifested in the removal of the negative barriers by which the power was stopped or prevented from actualising itself4 ,being of the nature of power1 its potentiality means that it is kept in equilibrium by virtue of the opposing tendencies inherent within it1 which serve to obstruct one another and are therefore called the varaa akti4 ,of course it is evident that there is no real or absolute distinction between the opposing force 7varaa akti7 and the energising force 7kryyakar akti72 they may be called so only relatively1 for the same tendency which may appear as the varaa akti of some tendencies may appear as the kryyakar akti elsewhere4 ,the example chosen to explain the nature of prakti and its modifications conceived as power tending towards actuality from potentiality in the ,vysa-bhshya is that of a sheet of water enclosed by temporary walls within a field1 but always tending to run out of it4 ,as soon as the temporary wall is broken in some direction1 the water rushes out of itself1 and what one has to do is to break the wall at a particular place4 ,prakti is also the potential for all the infinite diversity of things in the phenomenal world1 but the potential tendency of all these mutually opposed and diverse things cannot be actualised together4 ,owing to the concomitant conditions when the barrier of a certain tendency is removed1 it at once actualises itself in its effect and so on4 ,we can only expect to get any effect from any cause if the necessary barriers can be removed1 for everything is everything potentially and it is only necessary to remove the particular barrier which is obstructing the power from actualising itself in that particular effect towards which it is always potentially tending4 ,thus ,nand who was a man is at once turned into a god for his particular merit1 which served to break all the barriers of the potential tendency of his body towards becoming divine1 so that the barriers being removed the potential power of the prakti of his body at once actualises itself in the divine body4 ,the ,vysa-bhshya 7,,iii4 #ad7 mentions four sorts of concomitant conditions which can serve to break the barrier in a particular way and thus determine the mode or form of the actualisations of the potential4 ,these are 7#a7 kra1 form and constitution of a thing2 dea1 place1 7#c7 kla1 time2 thus from a piece of stone1 the shoot of a plant cannot proceed1 for the arrangement of the particles in stone is such that it will oppose and stand as a bar to its potential tendencies to develop into the shoot of a plant2 of course if these barriers could be removed1 say by the will of ,god1 as ,vijna ,bhikshu says1 then it is not impossible that the shoot of a plant might grow from a stone4 ,by the will of ,god poison may be turned into nectar and nectar into poison1 and there is no absolute certainty of the course of the evolutionary process1 for ,god's will can make any change in the direction of its process 7avyavasthitkhilaparimo bhavatyeva1 ,,iii4 #ad74 ,according to the ,skhya-,ptajala theory dharma1 merit1 can only be said to accrue from those actions which lead to a man's salvation1 and adharma from just the opposite course of conduct4 ,when it is said that these can remove the barriers of the prakti and thus determine its modifications1 it amounts almost to saying that the modifications of the prakti are being regulated by the moral conditions of man4 ,according to the different stages of man's moral evolution1 different kinds of merit1 dharma or adharma1 accrue1 and these again regulate the various physical and mental phenomena according to which a man may be affected either pleasurably or painfully4 ,it must1 however1 be always remembered that the dharma and adharma are also the productions of prakti1 and as such cannot affect it except by behaving as the cause for the removal of the opposite obstructions--the dharma for removing the obstructions of adharma and adharma for those of dharma4 ,vijna ,bhikshu and ,ngea agree here in saying that the modifications due to dharma and adharma are those which affect the bodies and senses4 ,what they mean is possibly this1 that it is dharma or adharma alone which guides the transformations of the bodies and senses of all living beings in general and the ,yogins4 ,the body of a person and his senses are continually decaying and being reconstructed by refilling from the gross elements and from ahakra respectively4 ,these refillings proceed automatically and naturally2 but they follow the teleological purpose as chalked out by the law of karma in accordance with the virtues or vices of a man4 ,thus the gross insult to which the sages were subjected by ,nahusha#cf was so effective a sin that by its influence the refilling of ,nahusha's body and the senses was stopped and the body and senses of a snake were directly produced by a process of refilling from the gross elements and ahakra1 for providing him with a body in which he could undergo the sufferings which were his due owing to the enormity of his vice4 ,thus by his vicious action the whole machinery of prakti was set in operation so that he at once died and was immediately reborn as a snake4 ,in another place ,vcaspati 8the virtuous enjoys happiness0 as an illustration of the cause of dharma and adharma as controlling the course of the development of prakti4 ,we therefore see that the sphere of merit and demerit lies in the helping of the formation of the particular bodies and senses 7from the gross elements and ahakra respectively7 suited to all living beings according to their stages of evolution and their growth1 decay1 or other sorts of their modifications as pleasure1 pain1 and also as illness or health4 ,thus it is by his particular merit that the ,yogin can get his special body or men or animals can get their new bodies after leaving the old ones at death4 ,thus ,yoga-vrttika says3 8,merit by removing the obstructions of demerit causes the development of the body and the senses40 ,as for vara ,i do not remember that the ,bhshya or the stras ever mention ,him as having anything to do with the controlling of the modifications of the prakti by removing the barriers1 but all the later commentators agree in holding him responsible for the removal of all barriers in the way of praktis development4 ,so that vara is the root cause of all the removal of barriers1 including those that are affected by merit and demerit4 ,thus ,vcaspati says 7,,iv4 #c73 varasypi dharmdhishhnrtha pratibandhpanaya eva vypro1 i4e4 ,god stands as the cause of the removal of such obstacles in the prakti as may lead to the fruition of merit or demerit4 ,yoga-vrttika and ,ngea agree in holding vara responsible for the removal of all obstacles in the way of the evolution of prakti4 ,thus ,bhikshu says that ,god rouses prakti by breaking the opposing forces of the state of equilibrium and also of the course of evolution 7,,iv4 #c74 ,it is on account of ,god that we can do good or bad actions and thus acquire merit or demerit4 ,of course ,god is not active and cannot cause any motion in prakti4 ,but ,he by ,his very presence causes the obstacles1 as the barriers in the way of prakti's development1 to be removed1 in such a way that ,he stands ultimately responsible for the removal of all obstacles in the way of prakti's development and thus also of all obstacles in the way of men's performance of good or bad deeds4 ,man's good or bad deeds 8puyakarma10 apuyakarma1 dharma or adharma serve to remove the obstacles of prakti in such a way as to result in pleasurable or painful effects2 but it is by ,god's help that the barriers of prakti are removed and it yields itself in such a way that a man may perform good or bad deeds according to his desire4 ,nlakaha1 however1 by his quotations in explanation of #cjj_/b1 ntiparva1 leads us to suppose that he regards ,god's will as wholly responsible for the performance of our good or bad actions4 ,for if we lay stress on his quotation 8,he makes him do good deeds whom ,he wants to raise1 and ,he makes him commit bad deeds whom ,he wants to throw down10 it appears that he whom ,god wants to raise is made to perform good actions and he whom ,god wants to throw downwards is made to commit bad actions4 ,but this seems to be a very bold idea1 as it will altogether nullify the least vestige of freedom in and responsibility for our actions and is unsupported by the evidence of other commentators4 ,vijna ,bhikshu also says with reference to this ruti in his ,vijnamta-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #cc3 8,as there is an infinite regressus between the causal connection of seed and shoot1 so one karma is being determined by the previous karma and so on2 there is no beginning to this chain40 ,so we take the superintendence of merits and demerits 7dharmdhisphnat7 by vara to mean only in a general way the help that is offered by ,him in removing the obstructions of the external world in such a manner that it may be possible for a man to perform practically meritorious acts in the external world4 ,nlakaha commenting on the ,yoga view says that 8like a piece of magnet1 ,god though inactive1 may by ,his very presence stir up prakti and help ,his devotees4 ,so the ,yoga holds that for the granting of emancipation ,god has to be admitted0 7ntiparva1 #cjj_/b74 ,in support of our view we also find that it is by ,god's influence that the unalterable nature of the external world is held fast and a limit imposed on the powers of man in producing changes in the external world4 ,thus ,vcaspati in explaining the ,bhshya 7,,iii4 #de7 says3 8,though capable of doing it1 yet he does not change the order of things1 because another earlier omnipotent being had wished the things to be such as they were4 ,they would not disobey the orders of the omnipotent ,god40 ,men may indeed acquire unlimited powers of producing any changes they like1 for the powers of objects as they change according to the difference of class1 space1 time and condition1 are not permanent1 and so it is proper that they should act in accordance with the desire of the ,yogin2 but there is a limit to men's will by the command of ,god--thus far and no further4 ,another point in our favour is that the ,yoga philosophy differs from the ,skhya mainly in this that the purushrtha or serviceability to the purusha is only the aim or end of the evolution of prakti and not actually the agent which removes the obstacles of the prakti in such a way as to determine its course as this cosmical process of evolution4 ,purushrtha is indeed the aim for which the process of evolution exists2 for this manifold evolution in its entirety affects the interests of the purusha alone2 but that does not prove that its teleology can really guide the evolution on its particular lines so as to ensure the best possible mode of serving all the interests of the purusha1 for this teleology being immanent in the prakti is essentially non-intelligent4 ,thus ,vcaspati says3 8,the fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha is not also the prime mover4 ,god has the fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha as ,his own purpose1 for which ,he behaves as the prime mover4 ,the fulfilment of the purpose of the purusha may be regarded as cause only in the sense that it is the object in view of ,god1 the prime mover40#cg ,the ,skhya1 however1 hopes that this immanent purpose in prakti acts like a blind instinct and is able to guide the course of its evolution in all its manifold lines in accordance with the best possible service of the purusha4 ,the ,ptajala view1 as we have seen1 maintains that vara removes all obstacles of prakti in such a way that this purpose may find scope for its realisation4 ,thus ,strrthabodhin1 ,,iv4 #c1 of ,nryaa ,trtha says3 8,according to atheistic ,skhya the future serviceability of purusha alone is the mover of prakti4 ,but with us theists the serviceability of purusha is the object for which prakti moves4 ,it is merely as an object that the serviceability of the purusha may be said to be the mover of the prakti40 ,as regards the connection of prakti and purusha1 however1 both ,skhya and ,ptajala agree according to ,vijna ,bhikshu in denying the interference of vara2 it is the movement of prakti by virtue of immanent purpose that connects itself naturally with the purusha4 ,vijna ,bhikshu's own view1 however1 is that this union is brought about by ,god 7,vijnmta-bhshya1 p4 #cd74 ,to recapitulate1 we see that there is an immanent purpose in prakti which connects it with the purushas4 ,this purpose is1 however1 blind and cannot choose the suitable lines of development and cause the movement of ,prakti along them for its fullest realisation4 ,prakti itself1 though a substantial entity1 is also essentially of the nature of conserved energy existing in the potential form but always ready to flow out and actualise itself1 if only its own immanent obstructions are removed4 ,its teleological purpose is powerless to remove its own obstruction4 ,god by ,his very presence removes the obstacles1 by which1 prakti of itself moves in the evolutionary process1 and thus the purpose is realised2 for the removal of obstacles by the influence of ,god takes place in such a way that the purpose may realise its fullest scope4 ,realisation of the teleology means that the interests of purusha are seemingly affected and purusha appears to see and feel in a manifold way1 and after a long series of such experiences it comes to understand itself in its own nature1 and this being the last and final realisation of the purpose of prakti with reference to that purusha all connections of prakti with such a purusha at once cease2 the purusha is then said to be liberated and the world ceases for him to exist1 though it exists for the other unliberated purushas1 the purpose of the prakti with reference to whom has not been realised4 ,so the world is both eternal and non-eternal1 i4e4 its eternality is only relative and not absolute4 ,thus the ,bhshya says the question 8whether the world will have an end or not cannot be directly answered4 ,the world-process gradually ceases for the wise and not for others1 so no one-sided decision can be true0 7,,iv4 #cc74 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,ethics ,,and ,,practice ,,chapter ,,viii ,,mind ,,and ,,moral ,,states ,the ,yoga philosophy has essentially a practical tone and its object consists mainly in demonstrating the means of attaining salvation1 oneness1 the liberation of the purusha4 ,the metaphysical theory which we have discussed at some length1 though it is the basis which justifies its ethical goal1 is not itself the principal subject of ,yoga discussion1 and is only dealt with to the extent that it can aid in demonstrating the ethical view4 ,we must now direct our attention to these ethical theories4 ,citta or mind always exists in the form of its states which are called vttis4#ch ,these comprehend all the manifold states of consciousness of our phenomenal existence4 ,we cannot distinguish states of consciousness from consciousness itself1 for the consciousness is not something separate from its states2 it exists in them1 passes away with their passing and submerges when they are submerged4 ,it differs from the senses in this1 that they represent the functions and faculties1 whereas citta stands as the entity containing the conscious states with which we are directly concerned4 ,but the citta which we have thus described as existing only in its states is called the kryyacitta or citta as effect as distinguished from the kraacitta or citta as cause4 ,these kraacittas or cittas as cause are all-pervading like the ka and are infinite in number1 each being connected with each of the numberless purushas or souls 7,chyvykhy1 ,,iv4 #aj74 ,the reason assigned for acknowledging such a kraacitta which must be all-pervading1 as is evident from the quotation1 is that the ,yogin may have knowledge of all things at once4 ,vcaspati says that this citta being essentially of the nature of ahakra is as all-pervading as the ego itself 7,,iv4 #aj74 ,this kraacitta contracts or expands and appears as our individual cittas in our various bodies at successive rebirths4 ,the kraacitta is always connected with the purusha and appears contracted when the purusha presides over animal bodies1 and as relatively expanded when he presides over human bodies1 and more expanded when he presides over the bodies of gods1 etc4 ,this contracted or expanded citta appears as our kryyacitta which always manifests itself as our states of consciousness4 ,after death the kraacitta1 which is always connected with the purusha1 manifests itself in the new body which is formed by the pra 7filling in of prakti on account of effective merit or demerit that the purusha had apparently acquired74 ,the formation of the body as well as the contraction or expansion of the kraacitta as the corresponding kryyacitta to suit it is due to this pra4 ,the ,yoga does not hold that the citta has got a separate fine astral body within which it may remain encased and be transferred along with it to another body on rebirth4 ,the citta being all-pervading1 it appears both to contract or expand to suit the particular body destined for it owing to its merit or demerit1 but there is no separate astral body 7,tattvavairad1 ,,iv4 #aj74 ,in reality the karaacitta as such always remains vibhu or all-pervading2 it is only its kryyacitta or vtti that appears in a contracted or expanded form1 according to the particular body which it may be said to occupy4 ,the ,skhya view1 however1 does not regard the citta to be essentially all-pervading1 but small or great according as the body it has to occupy4 ,thus ,bhikshu and ,ngea in explaining the ,bhshya1 8others think that the citta expands or contracts according as it is in a bigger or smaller body1 just as light rays do according as they are placed in the jug or in a room10 attributes this view to the ,skhya 7,vysabhshya1 ,,iv4 #aj1 and the commentaries by ,bhikshu and ,ngea on it74#ci ,it is this citta which appears as the particular states of consciousness in which both the knower and the known are reflected1 and it comprehends them both in one state of consciousness4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that this citta is essentially a modification of prakti1 and as such is non-intelligent2 but by the seeming reflection of the purusha it appears as the knower knowing a certain object1 and we therefore see that in the states themselves are comprehended both the knower and the known4 ,this citta is not1 however1 a separate tattva1 but is the sum or unity of the eleven senses and the ego and also of the five pras or biomotor forces 7,ngea1 ,,iv4 #aj74 ,it thus stands for all that is psychical in man3 his states of consciousness including the living principle in man represented by the activity of the five pras4 ,it is the object of ,yoga gradually to restrain the citta from its various states and thus cause it to turn back to its original cause1 the kraacitta1 which is all-pervading4 ,the modifications of the kraacitta into such states as the kryyacitta is due to its being overcome by its inherent tamas and rajas2 so when the transformations of the citta into the passing states are arrested by concentration1 there takes place a backward movement and the all-pervading state of the citta being restored to itself and all tamas being overcome1 the ,yogin acquires omniscience1 and finally when this citta becomes as pure as the form of purusha itself1 the purusha becomes conscious of himself and is liberated from the bonds of prakti4 ,the ,yoga philosophy in the first chapter describes the ,yoga for him whose mind is inclined towards trance-cognition4 ,in the second chapter is described the means by which one with an ordinary worldly mind 7vyutthna citta7 may also acquire ,yoga4 ,in the third chapter are described those phenomena which strengthen the faith of the ,yogin on the means of attaining ,yoga described in the second chapter4 ,in the fourth chapter is described kaivalya1 absolute independence or oneness1 which is the end of all the ,yoga practices4 ,the ,bhshya describes the five classes of cittas and comments upon their fitness for the ,yoga leading to kaivalya4 ,those are ,i4 kshipta 7wandering71 ,,ii4 mha 7forgetful71 ,,iii4 vikshipta 7occasionally steady71 ,,iv4 ekgra 7one-pointed71 niruddha 7restrained74 ,i4 ,the kshiptacitta is characterised as wandering1 because it is being always moved by the rajas4 ,this is that citta which is always moved to and fro by the rise of passions1 the excess of which may indeed for the time overpower the mind and thus generate a temporary concentration1 but it has nothing to do with the contemplative concentration required for attaining absolute independence4 ,the man moved by rajas1 far from attaining any mastery of himself1 is rather a slave to his own passions and is always being moved to and fro and shaken by them 7see ,siddhnta-candrik1 ,i4 #b1 ,bhojavtti1 ,i4 #b74 ,,ii4 ,the mhacitta is that which is overpowered by tamas1 or passions1 like that of anger1 etc41 by which it loses its senses and always chooses the wrong course4 ,svmin ,hariharraya suggests a beautiful example of such concentration as similar to that of certain snakes which become completely absorbed in the prey upon which they are about to pounce4 ,,iii4 ,the vikshiptacitta1 or distracted or occasionally steady citta1 is that mind which rationally avoids the painful actions and chooses the pleasurable ones4 ,now none of these three kinds of mind can hope to attain that contemplative concentration called ,yoga4 ,this last type of mind represents ordinary people1 who sometimes tend towards good but relapse back to evil4 ,,iv4 ,the one-pointed 7ekgra7 is that kind of mind in which true knowledge of the nature of reality is present and the afflictions due to nescience or false knowledge are thus attenuated and the mind better adapted to attain the nirodha or restrained state4 ,all these come under the saprajta 7concentration on an object of knowledge7 type4 ,v4 ,the nirodha or restrained mind is that in which all mental states are arrested4 ,this leads to kaivalya4 ,ordinarily our minds are engaged only in perception1 inference1 etc4--those mental states which we all naturally possess4 ,these ordinary mental states are full of rajas and tamas4 ,when these are arrested1 the mind flows with an abundance of sattva in the saprajta samdhi2 lastly when even the saprajta state is arrested1 all possible states become arrested4 ,another important fact which must be noted is the relation of the actual states of mind called the vttis with the latent states called the saskras--the potency4 ,when a particular mental state passes away into another1 it is not altogether lost1 but is preserved in the mind in a latent form as a saskra1 which is always trying to manifest itself in actuality4 ,the vttis or actual states are thus both generating the saskras and are also always tending to manifest themselves and actually generating similar vttis or actual states4 ,there is a circulation from vttis to saskras and from them again to vttis 7saskr vttibhi kriyante1 saskraica vttaya eva vttisaskracakramaniamvarttate74 ,so the formation of saskras and their conservation are gradually being strengthened by the habit of similar vttis or actual states1 and their continuity is again guaranteed by the strength and continuity of these saskras4 ,the saskras are like roots striking deep into the soil and growing with the growth of the plant above1 but even when the plant above the soil is destroyed1 the roots remain undisturbed and may again shoot forth as plants whenever they obtain a favourable season4 ,thus it is not enough for a ,yogin to arrest any particular class of mental states2 he must attain such a habit of restraint that the saskra thus generated is able to overcome1 weaken and destroy the saskra of those actual states which he has arrested by his contemplation4 ,unless restrained by such a habit1 the saskra of cessation 7nirodhaja saskra7 which is opposed to the previously acquired mental states become powerful and destroy the latter1 these are sure to shoot forth again in favourable season into their corresponding actual states4 ,the conception of avidy or nescience is here not negative but has a definite positive aspect4 ,it means that kind of knowledge which is opposed to true knowledge 7vidyviparta jnntaramavidy74 ,this is of four kinds3 7#a7 ,the thinking of the non-eternal world1 which is merely an effect1 as eternal4 7#b7 ,the thinking of the impure as the pure1 as for example the attraction that a woman's body may have for a man leading him to think the impure body pure4 7#c7 ,the thinking of vice as virtue1 of the undesirable as the desirable1 of pain as pleasure4 ,we know that for a ,yogin every phenomenal state of existence is painful 7,,ii4 #ae74 ,a ,yogin knows that attachment 7rga7 to sensual and other objects can only give temporary pleasure1 for it is sure to be soon turned into pain4 ,enjoyment can never bring satisfaction1 but only involves a man further and further in sorrows4 7#d7 ,considering the non-self1 e4g4 the body as the self4 ,this causes a feeling of being injured on the injury of the body4 ,at the moment of enjoyment there is always present suffering from pain in the form of aversion to pain2 for the tendency to aversion from pain can only result from the incipient memory of previous sufferings4 ,of course this is also a case of pleasure turned into pain 7parimadukhat71 but it differs from it in this that in the case of parimadukha pleasure is turned into pain as a result of change or parima in the future1 whereas in this case the anxiety as to pain is a thing of the present1 happening at one and the same time that a man is enjoying pleasure4 ,enjoyment of pleasure or suffering from pain causes those impressions called saskra or potencies1 and these again when aided by association naturally create their memory and thence comes attachment or aversion1 then again action1 and again pleasure and pain and hence impressions1 memory1 attachment or aversion1 and again action and so forth4 ,all states are modifications of the three guas2 in each one of them the functions of all the three guas are seen1 contrary to one another4 ,these contraries are observable in their developed forms1 for the guas are seen to abide in various proportions and compose all our mental states4 ,thus a ,yogin who wishes to be released from pain once for all is very sensitive and anxious to avoid even our so-called pleasures4 ,the wise are like the eye-ball4 ,as a thread of wool thrown into the eye pains by merely touching it1 but not when it comes into contact with any other organ1 so the ,yogin is as tender as the eye-ball1 when others are insensible of pain4 ,ordinary persons1 however1 who have again and again suffered pains as the consequence of their own karma1 and who again seek them after having given them up1 are all round pierced through as it were by nescience1 their minds become full of afflictions1 variegated by the eternal residua of the passions4 ,they follow in the wake of the 8,i0 and the 8,mine0 in relation to things that should be left apart1 pursuing threefold pain in repeated births1 due to external and internal causes4 ,the ,yogin seeing himself and the world of living beings surrounded by the eternal flow of pain1 turns for refuge to right knowledge1 cause of the destruction of all pains 7,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ae74 ,thinking of the mind and body and the objects of the external world as the true self and feeling affected by their change is avidy 7false knowledge74 ,the modifications that this avidy suffers may be summarised under four heads4 ,i4 ,the ego1 which1 as described above1 springs from the identification of the buddhi with the purusha4 ,,ii4 ,from this ego springs attachment 7rga7 which is the inclination towards pleasure and consequently towards the means necessary for attaining it in a person who has previously experienced pleasures and remembers them4 ,,ii4 ,repulsion from pain also springs from the ego and is of the nature of anxiety for its removal2 anger at pain and the means which produces pain1 remains in the mind in consequence of the feeling of pain1 in the case of him who has felt and remembers pain4 ,,iv4 ,love of life also springs from the ego4 ,this feeling exists in all persons and appears in a positive aspect in the form 8would that ,i were never to cease40 ,this is due to the painful experience of death in some previous existence1 which abides in us as a residual potency 7vsan7 and causes the instincts of self-preservation1 fear of death and love of life4 ,these modifications including avidy are called the five kleas or afflictions4 ,we are now in a position to see the far-reaching effects of the identification of the purusha with the buddhi4 ,we have already seen how it has generated the macrocosm or external world on the one hand1 and manas and the senses on the other4 ,now we see that from it also spring attachment to pleasure1 aversion from pain and love of life1 motives observable in most of our states of consciousness1 which are therefore called the klisha vtti or afflicted states4 ,the five afflictions 7false knowledge and its four modifications spoken above7 just mentioned are all comprehended in avidy1 since avidy or false knowledge is at the root of all worldly experiences4 ,the sphere of avidy is all false knowledge generally1 and that of asmit is also inseparably connected with all our experiences which consist in the identification of the intelligent self with the sensual objects of the world1 the attainment of which seems to please us and the loss of which is so painful to us4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that these five afflictions are only different aspects of avidy and cannot be conceived separately from avidy4 ,these always lead us into the meshes of the world1 far from our final goal--the realisation of our own self--emancipation of the purusha4 ,opposed to it are the vttis or states which are called unafflicted1 aklisha1 the habit of steadiness 7abhysa7 and non-attachment to pleasures 7vairgya7 which being antagonistic to the afflicted states1 are helpful towards achieving true knowledge4 ,these represent such thoughts as tend towards emancipation and are produced from our attempts to conceive rationally our final state of emancipation1 or to adopt suitable means for this4 ,they must not1 however1 be confused with puyakarma 7virtuous action71 for both puya and ppa karma are said to have sprung from the kleas4 ,there is no hard and fast rule with regard to the appearance of these klisha and aklisha states1 so that in the stream of the klisha states or in the intervals thereof1 aklisha states may also appear--as practice and desirelessness born from the study of the ,veda-reasoning and precepts--and remain quite distinct in itself1 unmixed with the klisha states4 ,a ,brahman being in a village which is full of the ,kirtas1 does not himself become a ,kirta 7a forest tribe7 for that reason4 ,each aklisha state produces its own potency or saskra1 and with the frequency of the states their saskra is strengthened which in due course suppresses the aklisha states4 ,these klisha and aklisha modifications are of five descriptions3 prama 7real cognition71 viparyyaya 7unreal cognition71 vikalpa 7logical abstraction and imagination71 nidr 7sleep71 smti 7memory74 ,these vttis or states1 however1 must be distinguished from the six kinds of mental activity mentioned in ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ah3 grahaa 7reception or presentative ideation71 dhraa 7retention71 ha 7assimilation71 apoha 7differentiation71 tattvajna 7right knowledge71 abhinivea 7decision and determination71 of which these states are the products4 ,we have seen that from avidy spring all the kleas or afflictions1 which are therefore seen to be the source of the klisha vttis as well4 ,abhysa and vairgya--the aklisha vttis1 which spring from precepts1 etc41 lead to right knowledge1 and as such are antagonistic to the modification of the guas on the avidy side4 ,we know also that both these sets of vttis--the klisha and the aklisha--produce their own kinds of saskras1 the klisha saskra and the aklisha or praj saskra4 ,all these modifications of citta as vtti and saskra are the dharmas of citta1 considered as the dharmin or substance4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,karma ,the vttis are called the mnasa karmas 7mental work7 as different from the bhya karmas 7external work7 achieved in the exterior world by the five motor or active senses4 ,these may be divided into four classes3 7#a7 ksha 7black71 7#b7 ukla 7white71 7#c7 uklaksha 7white and black71 7#d7 auklksha 7neither white nor black74 7#a7 ,the ksha karmas are those committed by the wicked and1 as such1 are wicked actions called also adharma 7demerit74 ,these are of two kinds1 viz4 bhya and mnasa1 the former being of the nature of speaking ill of others1 stealing others' property1 etc41 and the latter of the nature of such states as are opposed to raddh1 vrya1 etc41 which are called the ukla karma4 7#b7 ,the ukla karmas are virtuous or meritorious deeds4 ,these can only occur in the form of mental states1 and as such can take place only in the mnasa karma4 ,these are raddh 7faith71 vrya 7strength71 smti 7meditation71 samdhi 7absorption71 and praj 7wisdom71 which are infinitely superior to actions achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses4 ,the ukla karma belongs to those who resort to study and meditation4 7#c7 ,the uklaksha karma are the actions achieved in the external world by the motor or active senses4 ,these are called white and black1 because actions achieved in the external world1 however good 7ukla7 they might be1 cannot be altogether devoid of wickedness 7ksha71 since all external actions entail some harm to other living beings4 ,even the ,vedic duties1 though meritorious1 are associated with sins1 for they entail the sacrificing of animals4#dj ,the white side of these actions1 viz43 that of helping others and doing good is therefore called dharma1 as it is the cause of the enjoyment of pleasure and happiness for the doer4 ,the ksha or black side of these actions1 viz4 that of doing injury to others is called adharma1 as it is the cause of the suffering of pain to the doer4 ,in all our ordinary states of existence we are always under the influence of dharma and adharma1 which are therefore called vehicles of actions 7erate ssrik purush asmin niti aya74 ,that in which some thing lives is its vehicle4 ,here the purushas in evolution are to be understood as living in the sheath of actions 7which is for that reason called a vehicle or aya74 ,merit or virtue1 and sin or demerit are the vehicles of actions4 ,all ukla karma1 therefore1 either mental or external1 is called merit or virtue and is productive of happiness2 all ksha karma1 either mental or external1 is called demerit1 sin or vice and is productive of pain4 7#d7 ,the karma called auklaksha 7neither black nor white7 is of those who have renounced everything1 whose afflictions have been destroyed and whose present body is the last one they will have4 ,those who have renounced actions1 the karma-sannysis 7and not those who belong to the sannysrama merely71 are nowhere found performing actions which depend upon external means4 ,they have not got the black vehicle of actions1 because they do not perform such actions4 ,nor do they possess the white vehicle of actions1 because they dedicate to vara the fruits of all vehicles of action1 brought about by the practice of ,yoga4 ,returning to the question of karmaya again for review1 we see that being produced from desire 7kma71 avarice 7lobha71 ignorance 7moha71 and anger 7krodha7 it has really got at its root the kleas 7afflictions7 such as avidy 7ignorance71 asmit 7egoism71 rga 7attachment71 dvesha 7antipathy71 abhinivea 7love of life74 ,it will be easily seen that the passions named above1 desire1 lust1 etc41 are not in any way different from the kleas or afflictions previously mentioned2 and as all actions1 virtuous or sinful1 have their springs in the said sentiments of desire1 anger1 covetousness1 and infatuation1 it is quite enough that all these virtuous or sinful actions spring from the kleas4 ,now this karmaya ripens into life-state1 life-experience and life-time1 if the roots--the afflictions--exist4 ,not only is it true that when the afflictions are rooted out1 no karmaya can accumulate1 but even when many karmayas of many lives are accumulated1 they are rooted out when the afflictions are destroyed4 ,otherwise1 it is difficult to conceive that the karmaya accumulated for an infinite number of years1 whose time of ripeness is uncertain1 will be rooted out6 ,so even if there be no fresh karmaya after the rise of true knowledge1 the purusha cannot be liberated but will be required to suffer an endless cycle of births and rebirths to exhaust the already accumulated karmayas of endless lives4 ,for this reason1 the mental plane becomes a field for the production of the fruits of action only1 when it is watered by the stream of afflictions4 ,hence the afflictions help the vehicle of actions 7karmaya7 in the production of their fruits also4 ,it is for this reason that when the afflictions are destroyed the power which helps to bring about the manifestation also disappears2 and on that account the vehicles of actions although existing in innumerable quantities have no time for their fruition and do not possess the power of producing fruit1 because their seed-powers are destroyed by intellection4 ,karmaya is of two kinds4 7#a7 ,ripening in the same life dshajanmavedanya4 7#b7 ,ripening in another unknown life4 ,that puya karmaya1 which is generated by intense purificatory action1 trance and repetition of mantras1 and that ppa karmaya1 which is generated by repeated evil done either to men who are suffering the extreme misery of fear1 disease and helplessness1 or to those who place confidence in them or to those who are high-minded and perform tapas1 ripen into fruit in the very same life1 whereas other kinds of karmayas ripen in some unknown life4 ,living beings in hell have no dshajanma karmaya1 for this life is intended for suffering only and their bodies are called the bhoga-arras intended for suffering alone and not for the accumulation of any karmaya which could take effect in that very life4 ,there are others whose afflictions have been spent and exhausted and thus they have no such karmaya1 the effect of which they will have to reap in some other life4 ,they are thus said to have no adsha-janmavedanya karma4 ,the karmaya of both kinds described above ripens into life-state1 life-time and life-experience4 ,these are called the three ripenings or vipkas of the karmaya2 and they are conducive to pleasure or pain1 according as they are products of puyakarmaya 7virtue7 or ppa karmaya 7vice or demerit74 ,many karmayas combine to produce one life-state2 for it is not possible that each karma should produce one or many life-states1 for then there would be no possibility of experiencing the effects of the karmas1 because if for each one of the karmas we had one or more lives1 karmas1 being endless1 space for obtaining lives in which to experience effects would not be available1 for it would take endless time to exhaust the karmas already accumulated4 ,it is therefore held that many karmas unite to produce one life-state or birth 7jti7 and to determine also its particular duration 7yush7 and experience 7bhoga74 ,the virtuous and sinful karmayas accumulated in one life1 in order to produce their effects1 cause the death of the individual and manifest themselves in producing his rebirth1 his duration of life and particular experiences1 pleasurable or painful4 ,the order of undergoing the experiences is the order in which the karmas manifest themselves as effects1 the principal ones being manifested earlier in life4 ,the principal karmas here refer to those which are quite ready to generate their effects4 ,thus it is said that those karmas which produce their effects immediately are called primary1 whereas those which produce effects after some delay are called secondary4 ,thus we see that there is continuity of existence throughout2 when the karmas of this life ripen jointly they tend to fructify by causing another birth as a means to which death is caused1 and along with it life is manifested in another body 7according to the dharma and adharma of the karmaya7 formed by the praktypra 7cf4 the citta theory described above72 and the same karmaya regulates the life-period and experiences of that life1 the karmayas of which again take a similar course and manifest themselves in the production of another life and so on4 ,we have seen that the karmaya has three fructifications1 viz4 jti1 yush and bhoga4 ,now generally the karmaya is regarded as ekabhavika or unigenital1 i4e4 it accumulates in one life4 ,ekabhava means one life and ekabhavika means the product of one life1 or accumulated in one life4 ,regarded from this point of view1 it may be contrasted with the vsans which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives since eternity1 the mind1 being pervaded all over with them1 as a fishing-net is covered all over with knots4 ,this vsan results from memory of the experiences of a life generated by the fructification of the karmaya and kept in the citta in the form of potency or impressions 7saskra74 ,now we have previously seen that the citta remains constant in all the births and rebirths that an individual has undergone from eternity2 it therefore keeps the memory of those various experiences of thousands of lives in the form of saskra or potency and is therefore compared with a fishing-net pervaded all over with knots4 ,the vsans therefore are not the results of the accumulation of experiences or their memory in one life but in many lives1 and are therefore called anekabhavika as contrasted with the karmaya representing virtuous and vicious actions which are accumulated in one life and which produce another life1 its experiences and its life-duration as a result of fructification 7vipka74 ,this vsan is the cause of the instinctive tendencies1 or habits of deriving pleasures and pains peculiar to different animal lives4 ,thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar modes of taking its experiences and of deriving pleasures and pains are very different in nature from those of a man-life2 they must therefore be explained on the basis of an incipient memory in the form of potency1 or impressions 7saskra7 of the experiences that an individual must have undergone in a previous dog-life4 ,now when by the fructification of the karmaya a dog-life is settled for a person1 his corresponding vsans of a previous dog-life are at once revived and he begins to take interest in his dog-life in the manner of a dog2 the same principle applies to the virtue of individuals as men or as gods 7,,iv4 #h74 ,if there was not this law of vsans1 then any vsan would be revived in any life1 and with the manifestation of the vsan of animal life a man would take interest in eating grass and derive pleasure from it4 ,thus ,ngea says3 8,now if those karmas which produce a man-life should manifest the vsans of animal lives1 then one might be inclined to eat grass as a man1 and it is therefore said that only the vsans corresponding to the karmas are revived40 ,now as the vsans are of the nature of saskras or impressions1 they lie ingrained in the citta and nothing can prevent their being revived4 ,the intervention of other births has no effect4 ,for this reason1 the vsans of a dog-life are at once revived in another dog-life1 though between the first dog-life and the second dog-life1 the individual may have passed through many other lives1 as a man1 a bull1 etc41 though the second dog-life may take place many hundreds of years after the first dog-life and in quite different countries4 ,the difference between saskras1 impressions1 and smti or memory is simply this that the former is the latent state whereas the latter is the manifested state2 so we see that the memory and the impressions are identical in nature1 so that whenever a saskra is revived1 it means nothing but the manifestation of the memory of the same experiences conserved in the saskra in a latent state4 ,experiences1 when they take place1 keep their impressions in the mind1 though thousands of other experiences1 lapse of time1 etc41 may intervene4 ,they are revived in one moment with the proper cause of their revival1 and the other intervening experiences can in no way hinder this revival4 ,so it is with the vsans1 which are revived at once according to the particular fructification of the karmaya1 in the form of a particular life1 as a man1 a dog1 or anything else4 ,it is now clear that the karmaya tending towards fructification is the cause of the manifestation of the vsans already existing in the mind in a latent form4 ,thus the ,stra says3--8,when two similar lives are separated by many births1 long lapses of time and remoteness of space1 even then for the purpose of the revival of the vsans1 they may be regarded as immediately following each other1 for the memories and impressions are the same0 7,yoga-stra1 ,,iv4 #i74 ,the ,bhshya says3 8the vsan is like the memory 7smti71 and so there can be memory from the impressions of past lives separated by many lives and by remote tracts of country4 ,from these memories the impressions 7saskras7 are derived1 and the memories are revived by manifestation of the karmayas1 and though memories from past impressions may have many lives intervening1 these interventions do not destroy the causal antecedence of those past lives0 7,,iv4 #i74 ,these vsans are1 however1 beginningless1 for a baby just after birth is seen to feel the fear of death instinctively1 and it could not have derived it from its experience in this life4 ,again1 if a small baby is thrown upwards1 it is seen to shake and cry like a grown-up man1 and from this it may be inferred that it is afraid of falling down on the ground and is therefore shaking through fear4 ,now this baby has never learnt in this life from experience that a fall on the ground will cause pain1 for it has never fallen on the ground and suffered pain therefrom2 so the cause of this fear cannot be sought in the experiences of this life1 but in the memory of past experiences of fall and pain arising therefrom1 which is innate in this life as vsan and causes this instinctive fear4 ,so this innate memory which causes instinctive fear of death from the very time of birth1 has not its origin in this life but is the memory of the experience of some previous life1 and in that life1 too1 it existed as innate memory of some other previous life1 and in that again as the innate memory of some other life and so on to beginningless time4 ,this goes to show that the vsans are without beginning4 ,we come now to the question of unigenitality--ekabhavikatva--of the karmaya and its exceptions4 ,we find that great confusion has occurred among the commentators about the following passage in the ,bhshya which refers to this subject3 ,the ,bhshya according to ,vcaspati in ,,ii4 #ac reads3 tatra dshajanmavedanyasya niyatavipkasya1 etc4 ,here ,bhikshu and ,ngea read tatrdshajanmavedanyasya niyatavipkasya1 etc4 ,there is thus a divergence of meaning on this point between ,yoga-vrttika and his follower ,ngea1 on one side1 and ,vcaspati on the other4 ,vcaspati says that the dshajanmavedanya 7to be fructified in the same visible life7 karma is the only true karma where the karmaya is ekabhavika1 unigenital1 for here these effects are positively not due to the karma of any other previous lives1 but to the karma of that very life4 ,thus these are the only true causes of ekabhavika karmaya4 ,thus according to ,vcaspati we see that the adshajanmavedanya karma 7to be fructified in another life7 of unappointed fruition is never an ideal of ekabhavikatva or unigenital character2 for it may have three different courses3 7#a7 ,it may be destroyed without fruition4 7#b7 ,it may become merged in the ruling action4 7#c7 ,it may exist for a long time overpowered by the ruling action whose fruition has been appointed4 ,vijna ,bhikshu and his follower ,ngea1 however1 say that the dshajanmavedanya karma 7to be fructified in the same visible life7 can never be ekabhavika or unigenital for there is no bhava1 or previous birth there1 whose product is being fructified in that life1 for this karma is of that same visible life and not of some other previous bhava or life2 and they agree in holding that it is for that reason that the ,bhshya makes no mention of this dshajanmavedanya karma2 it is clear that the karmaya in no other bhava is being fructified here4 ,thus we see that about dshajanmavedanya karma1 ,vcaspati holds that it is the typical case of ekabhavika karma 7karma of the same birth71 whereas ,vijna ,bhikshu holds just the opposite view1 viz4 that the dhajanmavedanya karma should by no means be considered as ekabhavika since there is here no bhava or birth1 it being fructified in the same life4 ,the adshajanmavedanya karma 7works to be fructified in another life7 of unfixed fruition has three different courses3 7,i7 ,as we have observed before1 by the rise of auklksha 7neither black nor white7 karma1 the other karmas--ukla 7black71 ksha 7white7 and uklaksha 7both black and white7--are rooted out4 ,the ukla karmaya again arising from study and asceticism destroys the ksha karmas without their being able to generate their effects4 ,these therefore can never be styled ekabhavika1 since they are destroyed without producing any effect4 7,,ii7 ,when the effects of minor actions are merged in the effects of the major and ruling action4 ,the sins originating from the sacrifice of animals at a holy sacrifice are sure to produce bad effects1 though they may be minor and small in comparison with the good effects arising from the performance of the sacrifice in which they are merged4 ,thus it is said that the experts being immersed in floods of happiness brought about by their sacrifices bear gladly particles of the fire of sorrow brought about by the sin of killing animals at sacrifice4 ,so we see that here also the minor actions having been performed with the major do not produce their effects independently1 and so all their effects are not fully manifested1 and hence these secondary karmayas cannot be regarded as ekabhavika4 7,,iii7 ,again the adshajanmavedanya karma 7to be fructified in another life7 of unfixed fruition 7aniyata vipka7 remains overcome for a long time by another adshajanmavedanya karma of fixed fruition4 ,a man may for example do some good actions and some extremely vicious ones1 so that at the time of death1 the karmaya of those vicious actions becoming ripe and fit for appointed fruition1 generates an animal life4 ,his good action1 whose benefits are such as may be reaped only in a man-life1 will remain overcome until the man is born again as a man3 so this also cannot be said to be ekabhavika 7to be reaped in one life74 ,we may summarise the classification of karmas according to ,vcaspati in a table as follows3-- ,karmaya --------------------------------------- ,ekabhavika ,anekabhavika ,niyata ,vipka ,aniyatavipka 7of fixed fruition74 ,adshajanmavedanya -------------------------- ,dshajanmavedanya ,adshajanmavedanya ------------------------------- 7,destruction7 7,merged in the 7,to remain effect of the overcome by major action47 the influence of some other action47 ,thus the karmaya may be viewed from two sides1 one being that of fixed fruition and the other unfixed fruition1 and the other that of dshajanmavedanya and adshajanmavedanya4 ,now the theory is that the niyatavipka 7of fixed fruition7 karmaya is always ekabhavika1 i4e4 it does not remain separated by other lives1 but directly produces its effects in the succeeding life4 ,ekabhavika means that which is produced from the accumulation of karmas in one life in the life which succeeds it4 ,vcaspati1 however1 takes it also to mean that action which attains fruition in the same life in which it is performed1 whereas what ,vijna ,bhikshu understands by ekabhavika is that action alone which is produced in the life immediately succeeding the life in which it was accumulated4 ,so according to ,vijna ,bhikshu1 the niyata vipka 7of fixed fruition7 dshajanmavedanya 7to be fructified in the same life7 action is not ekabhavika1 since it has no bhava1 i4e4 it is not the production of a preceding life4 ,neither can it be anekabhavika2 thus this niyatavipkadshajanmavedanya action is neither ekabhavika nor anekbhavika4 ,whereas ,vcaspati is inclined to call this also ekabhavika4 ,about the niyatavipka-adshajanmavedanya action being called ekabhavika 7unigenital7 there seems to be no dispute4 ,the aniyatavipka-adshajanmavedanya action cannot be called ekabhavika as it undergoes three different courses described above4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,ethical ,,problem ,we have described avidy and its special forms as the kleas1 from which also proceed the actions virtuous and vicious1 which in their turn again produce as a result of their fruition1 birth1 life and experiences of pleasure and pain and the vsans or residues of the memory of these experiences4 ,again every new life or birth is produced from the fructification of actions of a previous life2 a man is made to perform actions good or bad by the kleas which are rooted in him1 and these actions1 as a result of their fructification1 produce another life and its experiences1 in which life again new actions are earned by virtue of the kleas1 and thus the cycle is continued4 ,when there is pralaya or involution of the cosmical world-process the individual cittas of the separate purushas return back to the prakti and lie within it1 together with their own avidys1 and at the time of each new creation or evolution these are created anew with such changes as are due according to their individual avidys1 with which they had to return back to their original cause1 the prakti1 and spend an indivisible inseparable existence with it4 ,the avidys of some other creation1 being merged in the prakti along with the cittas1 remain in the prakti as vsans1 and prakti being under the influence of these avidys as vsans creates as modifications of itself the corresponding minds for the individual purushas1 connected with them before the last pralaya dissolution4 ,so we see that though the cittas had returned to their original causes with their individual nescience 7avidy71 the avidy was not lost but was revived at the time of the new creation and created such minds as should be suitable receptacles for it4 ,these minds 7buddhi7 are found to be modified further into their specific cittas or mental planes by the same avidy which is manifested in them as the kleas1 and these again in the karmaya1 jti1 yush and bhoga1 and so on2 the individual1 however1 is just in the same position as he was or would have been before the involution of pralaya4 ,the avidys of the cittas which had returned to the prakti at the time of the creation being revived1 create their own buddhis of the previous creation1 and by their connection with the individual purushas are the causes of the sasra or cosmic evolution--the evolution of the microcosm1 the cittas1 and the macrocosm or the exterior world4 ,in this new creation1 the creative agencies of ,god and avidy are thus distinguished in that the latter represents the end or purpose of the prakti--the ever-evolving energy transforming itself into its modifications as the mental and the material world2 whereas the former represents that intelligent power which abides outside the pale of prakti1 but removes obstructions offered by the prakti4 ,though unintelligent and not knowing how and where to yield so as to form the actual modifications necessary for the realisation of the particular and specific objects of the numberless purushas1 these avidys hold within themselves the serviceability of the purushas1 and are the cause of the connection of the purusha and the prakti1 so that when these avidys are rooted out it is said that the purushrthat or serviceability of the purusha is at an end and the purusha becomes liberated from the bonds of prakti1 and this is called the final goal of the purusha4 ,the ethical problem of the ,ptajala philosophy is the uprooting of this avidy by the attainment of true knowledge of the nature of the purusha1 which will be succeeded by the liberation of the purusha and his absolute freedom or independence--kaivalya--the last realisation of the purusha--the ultimate goal of all the movements of the prakti4 ,this final uprooting of the avidy with its vsans directly follows the attainment of true knowledge called praj1 in which state the seed of false knowledge is altogether burnt and cannot be revived again4 ,before this state1 the discriminative knowledge which arises as the recognition of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi remains shaky2 but when by continual practice this discriminative knowledge becomes strengthened in the mind1 its potency gradually grows stronger and stronger1 and roots out the potency of the ordinary states of mental activity1 and thus the seed of false knowledge becomes burnt up and incapable of fruition1 and the impurity of the energy of rajas being removed1 the sattva as the manifesting entity becomes of the highest purity1 and in that state flows on the stream of the notion of discrimination--the recognition of the distinct natures of purusha and buddhi--free from impurity4 ,thus when the state of buddhi becomes almost as pure as the purusha itself1 all self-enquiry subsides1 the vision of the real form of the purusha arises1 and false knowledge1 together with the kleas and the consequent fruition of actions1 ceases once for all4 ,this is that state of citta which1 far from tending towards the objective world1 tends towards the kaivalya of the purusha4 ,in the first stages1 when the mind attains discriminative knowledge1 the praj is not deeply seated1 and occasionally phenomenal states of consciousness are seen to intervene in the form of 8,i am10 8,mine10 8,i know10 8,i do not know10 because the old potencies1 though becoming weaker and weaker are not finally destroyed1 and consequently occasionally produce their corresponding conscious manifestation as states which impede the flow of discriminative knowledge4 ,but constant practice in rooting out the potency of this state destroys the potencies of the outgoing activity1 and finally no intervention occurs in the flow of the stream of praj through the destructive influence of phenomenal states of consciousness4 ,in this higher state when the mind is in its natural1 passive1 and objectless stream of flowing praj1 it is called the dharmamegha-sadhi4 ,when nothing is desired even from dhyna arises the true knowledge which distinguishes prakti from purusha and is called the dharmamegha-samdhi 7,yoga-stra1 ,,iv4 #bi74 ,the potency1 however1 of this state of consciousness lasts until the purusha is finally liberated from the bonds of prakti and is absolutely free 7keval74 ,now this is the state when the citta becomes infinite1 and all its tamas being finally overcome1 it shines forth like the sun1 which can reflect all1 and in comparison to which the crippled insignificant light of objective knowledge shrinks altogether1 and thus an infinitude is acquired1 which has absorbed within itself all finitude1 which cannot have any separate existence or manifestation through this infinite knowledge4 ,all finite states of knowledge are only a limitation of true infinite knowledge1 in which there is no limitation of this and that4 ,it absorbs within itself all these limitations4 ,the purusha in this state may be called the emancipated being1 jvanmukta4 ,ngea in explaining ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #ca1 describing the emancipated life says3 8,in this jvanmukta stage1 being freed from all impure afflictions and karmas1 the consciousness shines in its infirmity4 ,the infiniteness of consciousness is different from the infiniteness of materiality veiled by tamas4 ,in those stages there could be consciousness only with reference to certain things with reference to which the veil of tamas was raised by rajas4 ,when all veils and impurities are removed1 then little is left which is not known4 ,if there were other categories besides the #be categories1 these also would then have been known0 7,chyvykhy1 ,,iv4 #ca74 ,now with the rise of such dharmamegha the succession of the changes of the qualities is over1 inasmuch as they have fulfilled their object by having achieved experience and emancipation1 and their succession having ended1 they cannot stay even for a moment4 ,and now comes absolute freedom1 when the guas return back to the pradhna their primal cause1 after performing their service for the purusha by providing his experience and his salvation1 so that they lose all their hold on purusha and purusha remains as he is in himself1 and never again has any connection with the buddhi4 ,the purusha remains always in himself in absolute freedom4 ,the order of the return of the guas for a keval purusha is described below in the words of ,vcaspati3 ,the guas as cause and effect involving ordinary experiences samdhi and nirodha1 become submerged in the manas2 the manas becomes submerged in the asmit1 the asmit in the liga1 and the liga in the aliga4 ,this state of kaivalya must be distinguished from the state of mahpralaya in which also the guas return back to prakti1 for that state is again succeeded by later connections of prakti with purushas through the buddhis1 but the state of kaivalya is an eternal state which is never again disturbed by any connection with prakti1 for now the separation of prakti from purusha is eternal1 whereas that in the mahpralaya state was only temporary4 ,we shall conclude this section by noting two kinds of eternity of purusha and of prakti1 and by offering a criticism of the praj state4 ,the former is said to be perfectly and unchangeably eternal 7kastha nitya71 and the latter is only eternal in an evolutionary form4 ,the permanent or eternal reality is that which remains unchanged amid its changing appearances2 and from this point of view both purusha and prakti are eternal4 ,it is indeed true1 as we have seen just now1 that the succession of changes of qualities with regard to buddhi1 etc41 comes to an end when kaivalya is attained1 but this is with reference to purusha1 for the changes of qualities in the guas themselves never come to an end4 ,so the guas in themselves are eternal in their changing or evolutionary character1 and are therefore said to possess evolutionary eternity 7pariminityat74 ,our phenomenal conception cannot be free from change1 and therefore it is that in our conception of the released purushas we affirm their existence1 as for example when we say that the released purushas exist eternally4 ,but it must be carefully noted that this is due to the limited character of our thoughts and expressions1 not to the real nature of the released purushas1 which remain for ever unqualified by any changes or modifications1 pure and colourless as the very self of shining intelligence 7see ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iv4 #cc74 ,we shall conclude this section by giving a short analysis of the praj state from its first appearance to the final release of purusha from the bondage of prakti4 ,patajali says that this praj state being final in each stage is sevenfold4 ,of these the first four stages are due to our conscious endeavour1 and when these conscious states of praj 7supernatural wisdom7 flow in a stream and are not hindered or interfered with in any way by other phenomenal conscious states of pratyayas the purusha becomes finally liberated through the natural backward movement of the citta to its own primal cause1 and this backward movement is represented by the other three stages4 ,the seven praj stages may be thus enumerated3-- ,i4 ,the pain to be removed is known4 ,nothing further remains to be known of it4 ,this is the first aspect of the praj1 in which the person willing to be released knows that he has exhausted all that is knowable of the pains4 ,,ii4 ,the cause of the pains has been removed and nothing further remains to be removed of it4 ,this is the second stage or aspect of the rise of praj4 ,,iii4 ,the nature of the extinction of pain has already been perceived by me in the state of samdhi1 so that ,i have come to learn that the final extinction of my pain will be something like it4 ,,iv4 ,the final discrimination of prakti and purusha1 the true and immediate means of the extinction of pain1 has been realised4 ,after this stage1 nothing remains to be done by the purusha himself4 ,for this is the attainment of final true knowledge4 ,it is also called the para vairgya4 ,it is the highest consummation1 in which the purusha has no further duties to perform4 ,this is therefore called the krya vimukti 7or salvation depending on the endeavour of the purusha7 or jvanmukti4 ,after this follows the citta vimukti or the process of release of the purusha from the citta1 in three stages4 ,v4 ,the aspect of the buddhi1 which has finally finished its services to purusha by providing scope for purusha's experiences and release2 so that it has nothing else to perform for purusha4 ,this is the first stage of the retirement of the citta4 ,,vi4 ,as soon as this state is attained1 like the falling of stones thrown from the summit of a hill1 the guas cannot remain even for a moment to bind the purusha1 but at once return back to their primal cause1 the prakti2 for the avidy being rooted out1 there is no tie or bond which can keep it connected with purusha and make it suffer changes for the service of purusha4 ,all the purushrthat being ended1 the guas disappear of themselves4 ,,vii4 ,the seventh and last aspect of the guas is that they never return back to bind purusha again1 their teleological purpose being fulfilled or realised4 ,it is of course easy to see that1 in these last three stages1 purusha has nothing to do2 but the guas of their own nature suffer these backward modifications and return back to their own primal cause and leave the purusha keval 7for ever solitary74 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ae4 ,vysa says that as the science of medicine has four divisions3 7#a7 disease1 7#b7 the cause of disease1 7#c7 recovery1 7#d7 medicines2 so this ,yoga philosophy has also four divisions1 viz43 7,i7 ,sasra 7the evolution of the prakti in connection with the purusha74 7,,ii7 ,the cause of sasra4 7,,iii7 ,release4 7,,iv7 ,the means of release4 ,of these the first three have been described at some length above4 ,we now direct our attention to the fourth4 ,we have shown above that the ethical goal1 the ideal to be realised1 is absolute freedom or kaivalya1 and we shall now consider the line of action that must be adopted to attain this goal--the summum bonum4 ,all actions which tend towards the approximate realisation of this goal for man are called kuala1 and the man who achieves this goal is called kual4 ,it is in the inherent purpose of prakti that man should undergo pains which include all phenomenal experiences of pleasures as well1 and ultimately adopt such a course of conduct as to avoid them altogether and finally achieve the true goal1 the realisation of which will extinguish all pains for him for ever4 ,the motive therefore which prompts a person towards this ethico-metaphysical goal is the avoidance of pain4 ,an ordinary man feels pain only in actual pain1 but a ,yogin who is as highly sensitive as the eye-ball1 feels pain in pleasure as well1 and therefore is determined to avoid all experiences1 painful or so-called pleasurable4 ,the extinguishing of all experiences1 however1 is not the true ethical goal1 being only a means to the realisation of kaivalya or the true self and nature of the purusha4 ,but this means represents the highest end of a person1 the goal beyond which all his duties cease2 for after this comes kaivalya which naturally manifests itself on the necessary retirement of the prakti4 ,purusha has nothing to do in effectuating this state1 which comes of itself4 ,the duties of the purusha cease with the thorough extinguishing of all his experiences4 ,this therefore is the means of extinguishing all his pains1 which are the highest end of all his duties2 but the complete extinguishing of all pains is identical with the extinguishing of all experiences1 the states or vttis of consciousness1 and this again is identical with the rise of praj or true discriminative knowledge of the difference in nature of prakti and its effects from the purusha--the unchangeable4 ,these three sides are only the three aspects of the same state which immediately precede kaivalya4 ,the praj aspect is the aspect of the highest knowledge1 the suppression of the states of consciousness or experiences1 and it is the aspect of the cessation of all conscious activity and of painlessness or the extinguishing of all pains as the feeling aspect of the same nirvja--samdhi state4 ,but when the student directs his attention to this goal in his ordinary states of experience1 he looks at it from the side of the feeling aspect1 viz4 that of acquiring a state of painlessness1 and as a means thereto he tries to purify the mind and be moral in all his actions1 and begins to restrain and suppress his mental states1 in order to acquire this nirvja or seedless state4 ,this is the sphere of conduct which is called ,yogga4 ,of course there is a division of duties according to the advancement of the individual1 as we shall have occasion to show hereafter4 ,this suppression of mental states which has been described as the means of attaining final release1 the ultimate ethical goal of life1 is called ,yoga4 ,we have said before that of the five kinds of mind--kshipta1 mha1 vikshipta1 ekgra1 niruddha--only the last two are fit for the process of ,yoga and ultimately acquire absolute freedom4 ,in the other three1 though concentration may occasionally happen1 yet there is no extrication of the mind from the afflictions of avidy and consequently there is no final release4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,yoga ,,practice ,the ,yoga which1 after weakening the hold of the afflictions and causing the real truth to dawn upon our mental vision1 gradually leads us towards the attainment of our final goal1 is only possible for the last two kinds of minds and is of two kinds3 7#a7 samprajta 7cognitive7 and 7#b7 asamprajta 7ultra-cognitive74 ,the samprajta ,yoga is that in which the mind is concentrated upon some object1 external or internal1 in such a way that it does not oscillate or move from one object to another1 but remains fixed and settled in the object that it holds before itself4 ,at first1 the ,yogin holds a gross material object before his view1 but when he can make himself steady in doing this1 he tries with the subtle tanmtras1 the five causes of the grosser elements1 and when he is successful in this he takes his internal senses as his object and last of all1 when he has fully succeeded in these attempts1 he takes the great egohood as his object1 in which stage his object gradually loses all its determinate character and he is said to be in a state of suppression in himself1 although devoid of any object4 ,this state1 like the other previous states of the samprajta type1 is a positive state of the mind and not a mere state of vacuity of objects or negativity4 ,in this state1 all determinate character of the states disappears and their potencies only remain alive4 ,in the first stages of a ,yogin practising samdhi conscious states of the lower stages often intervene1 but gradually1 as the mind becomes fixed1 the potencies of the lower stages are overcome by the potencies of this stage1 so that the mind flows in a calm current and at last the higher praj dawns1 whereupon the potencies of this state also are burnt and extinguished1 the citta returns back to its own primal cause1 prakti1 and purusha attains absolute freedom4 ,the first four stages of the samprajta state are called madhumat1 madhupratka1 vioka and the saskraesha and also vitarknugata1 vicrnugata1 nandnugata and asmitnugata4 ,true knowledge begins to dawn from the first stage of this samprajta state1 and when the ,yogin reaches the last stage the knowledge reaches its culminating point1 but still so long as the potencies of the lower stages of relative knowledge remain1 the knowledge cannot obtain absolute certainty and permanency1 as it will always be threatened with a possible encroachment by the other states of the past phenomenal activity now existing as the subconscious4 ,but the last stage of asamprajta samdhi represents the stage in which the ordinary consciousness has been altogether surpassed and the mind is in its own true infinite aspect1 and the potencies of the stages in which the mind was full of finite knowledge are also burnt1 so that with the return of the citta to its primal cause1 final emancipation is effected4 ,the last state of samprajta samdhi is called saskraesha1 only because here the residua of the potencies of subconscious thought only remain and the actual states of consciousness become all extinct4 ,it is now easy to see that no mind which is not in the ekgra or one-pointed state can be fit for the asamprajta samdhi in which it has to settle itself on one object and that alone4 ,so also no mind which has not risen to the state of highest suppression is fit for the asamprajta or nirvja state4 ,it is now necessary to come down to a lower level and examine the obstructions1 on account of which a mind cannot easily become one-pointed or ekgra4 ,these1 nine in number1 are the following3-- ,disease1 languor1 indecision1 want of the mental requirements necessary for samdhi1 idleness of body and mind1 attachment to objects of sense1 false and illusory knowledge1 non-attainment of the state of concentrated contemplation1 unsteadiness and unstability of the mind in a samdhi state even if it can somehow attain it4 ,these are again seen to be accompanied with pain and despair owing to the non-fulfilment of desire1 physical shakiness or unsteadiness of the limbs1 taking in of breath and giving out of it1 which are seen to follow the nine distractions of a distracted mind described above4 ,to prevent these distractions and their accompaniments it is necessary that we should practise concentration on one truth4 ,vcaspati says that this one truth on which the mind should be settled and fixed is vara1 and ,rmnanda ,sarasvat and ,nryaa ,trtha agree with him4 ,vijna ,bhikshu1 however1 says that one truth means any object1 gross or fine1 and ,bhoja supports ,vijna ,bhikshu1 staying that here 8one truth0 might mean any desirable object4 ,abhysa means the steadiness of the mind in one state and not complete absence of any state2 for the ,bhshyakra himself has said in the sampattistra1 that samprajta trance comes after this steadiness4 ,as we shall see later1 it means nothing but the application of the five means1 raddh1 vrya1 smti1 samdhi and praj2 it is an endeavour to settle the mind on one state1 and as such does not differ from the application of the five means of ,yoga with a view to settle and steady the mind 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,i4 #ac74 ,this effort becomes firmly rooted1 being well attended to for a long time without interruption and with devotion4 ,now it does not matter very much whether this one truth is vara or any other object2 for the true principle of ,yoga is the setting of the mind on one truth1 principle or object4 ,but for an ordinary man this is no easy matter2 for in order to be successful the mind must be equipped with raddh or faith--the firm conviction of the ,yogin in the course that he adopts4 ,this keeps the mind steady1 pleased1 calm and free from doubts of any kind1 so that the ,yogin may proceed to the realisation of his object without any vacillation4 ,unless a man has a firm hold on the course that he pursues1 all the steadiness that he may acquire will constantly be threatened with the danger of a sudden collapse4 ,it will be seen that vairgya or desirelessness is only the negative aspect of this raddh4 ,for by it the mind is restrained from the objects of sense1 with an aversion or dislike towards the objects of sensual pleasure and worldly desires2 this aversion towards worldly joys is only the other aspect of the faith of the mind and the calmness of its currents 7cittaprasda7 towards right knowledge and absolute freedom4 ,so it is said that the vairgya is the effect of raddh and its product 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,i4 #bj74 ,in order to make a person suitable for ,yoga1 vairgya represents the cessation of the mind from the objects of sense and their so-called pleasures1 and raddh means the positive faith of the mind in the path of ,yoga that one adopts1 and the right aspiration towards attaining the highest goal of absolute freedom4 ,in its negative aspect1 vairgya is of two kinds1 apara and para4 ,the apara is that of a mind free from attachment to worldly enjoyments1 such as women1 food1 drinks and power1 as also from thirst for heavenly pleasures attainable by practising the vedic rituals and sacrifices4 ,those who are actuated by apara vairgya do not desire to remain in a bodiless state 7videha7 merged in the senses or merged in the prakti 7praktilna74 ,it is a state in which the mind is indifferent to all kinds of pleasures and pains4 ,this vairgya may be said to have four stages3 7#a7 ,yatamna--in which sensual objects are discovered to be defective and the mind recoils from them4 7#b7 ,vyatireka--in which the senses to be conquered are noted4 7#c7 ,ekendriya--in which attachment towards internal pleasures and aversion towards external pains1 being removed1 the mind sets before it the task of removing attachment and aversion towards mental passions for obtaining honour or avoiding dishonour1 etc4 7#d7 ,the fourth and last stage of vairgya called vakra is that in which the mind has perceived the futility of all attractions towards external objects of sense and towards the pleasures of heaven1 and having suppressed them altogether feels no attachment1 even should it come into connection with them4 ,with the consummation of this last stage of apara vairgya1 comes the para vairgya which is identical with the rise of the final praj leading to absolute independence4 ,this vairgya1 raddh and the abhysa represent the unafflicted states 7aklishavtti7 which suppress gradually the klisha or afflicted mental states4 ,these lead the ,yogin from one stage to another1 and thus he proceeds higher and higher until the final state is attained4 ,as vairgya advances1 raddh also advances2 from raddh comes vrya1 energy1 or power of concentration 7dhra72 and from it again springs smti--or continuity of one object of thought2 and from it comes samdhi or cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance2 after which follows praj1 cognitive and ultra-cognitive trance2 after which follows praj and final release4 ,thus by the inclusion of raddh within vairgya1 its effect1 and the other products of raddh with abhysa1 we see that the abhysa and vairgya are the two internal means for achieving the final goal of the ,yogin1 the supreme suppression and extinction of all states of consciousness1 of all afflictions and the avidy--the last state of supreme knowledge or praj4 ,as raddh1 vrya1 smti1 samdhi which are not different from vairgya and abhysa 7they being only their other aspects or simultaneous products71 are the means of attaining ,yoga1 it is possible to make a classification of the ,yogins according to the strength of these with each1 and the strength of the quickness 7savega7 with which they may be applied towards attaining the goal of the ,yogin4 ,thus ,yogins are of nine kinds3-- 7#a7 mildly energetic1 7#b7 of medium energy1 7#c7 of intense energy4 ,each of these may vary in a threefold way according to the mildness1 medium state1 or intensity of quickness or readiness with which the ,yogin may apply the means of attaining ,yoga4 ,there are nine kinds of ,yogins4 ,of these the best is he whose mind is most intensely engaged and whose practice is also the strongest4 ,there is a difference of opinion here about the meaning of the word savega1 between ,vcaspati and ,vijna ,bhikshu4 ,the former says that savega means vairgya here1 but the latter holds that savega cannot mean vairgya1 and vairgya being the effect of raddh cannot be taken separately from it4 8,savega0 means quickness in the performance of the means of attaining ,yoga2 some say that it means 8vairgya40 ,but that is not true1 for if vairgya is an effect of the due performance of the means of ,yoga1 there cannot be the separate ninefold classification of ,yoga apart from the various degrees of intensity of the means of ,yoga practice4 ,further1 the word 8savega0 does not mean 8vairgya0 etymologically 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,i4 #bj74 ,we have just seen that raddh1 etc41 are the means of attaining ,yoga1 but we have not discussed what purificatory actions an ordinary man must perform in order to attain raddh1 from which the other requisites are derived4 ,of course these purificatory actions are not the same for all1 since they must necessarily depend upon the conditions of purity or impurity of each mind2 thus a person already in an advanced state1 may not need to perform those purificatory actions necessary for a man in a lower state4 ,we have just said that ,yogins are of nine kinds1 according to the strength of their mental acquirements--raddh1 etc4--the requisite means of ,yoga and the degree of rapidity with which they may be applied4 ,neglecting division by strength or quickness of application along with these mental requirements1 we may again divide ,yogins again into three kinds3 7#a7 ,those who have the best mental equipment4 7#b7 ,those who are mediocres4 7#c7 ,those who have low mental equipment4 ,in the first chapter of ,yoga aphorisms1 it has been stated that abhysa1 the application of the mental acquirements of raddh1 etc41 and vairgya1 the consequent cessation of the mind from objects of distraction1 lead to the extinction of all our mental states and to final release4 ,when a man is well developed1 he may rest content with his mental actions alone1 in his abhysa and vairgya1 in his dhra 7concentration71 dhyna 7meditation71 and samdhi 7trance71 which may be called the jnayoga4 ,but it is easy to see that this jnayoga requires very high mental powers and thus is not within easy reach of ordinary persons4 ,ordinary persons whose minds are full of impurities1 must pass through a certain course of purificatory actions before they can hope to obtain those mental acquirements by which they can hope to follow the course of jnayoga with facility4 ,these actions1 which remove the impurities of the mind1 and thus gradually increase the lustre of knowledge1 until the final state of supreme knowledge is acquired1 are called kriyyoga4 ,they are also called yoggas1 as they help the maturity of the ,yoga process by gradually increasing the lustre of knowledge4 ,they represent the means by which even an ordinary mind 7vikshiptacitta7 may gradually purify itself and become fit for the highest ideals of ,yoga4 ,thus the ,bhshya says3 8,by the sustained practice of these yoggas or accessories of ,yoga is destroyed the fivefold unreal cognition 7avidy71 which is of the nature of impurity40 ,destruction means here disappearance2 thus when that is destroyed1 real knowledge is manifested4 ,as the means of achievement are practised more and more1 so is the impurity more and more attenuated4 ,and as more and more of it is destroyed1 so does the light of wisdom go on increasing more and more4 ,this process reaches its culmination in discriminative knowledge1 which is knowledge of the nature of purusha and the guas4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,yog,,gas ,now the assertion that these actions are the causes of the attainment of salvation brings up the question of the exact natures of their operation with regard to this supreme attainment4 ,bhshyakara says with respect to this that they are the causes of the separation of the impurities of the mind just as an axe is the cause of the splitting of a piece of wood2 and again they are the causes of the attainment of the supreme knowledge just as dhama is the cause of happiness4 ,it must be remembered that according to the ,yoga theory causation is viewed as mere transformation of energy2 the operation of concomitant causes only removes obstacles impeding the progress of these transformations in a particular direction2 no cause can of itself produce any effect1 and the only way in which it can help the production of an effect into which the causal state passes out of its own immanent energy by the principles of conservation and transformation of energy1 is by removing the intervening obstacles4 ,thus just as the passage of citta into a happy state is helped by dharma removing the intervening obstacles1 so also the passage of the citta into the state of attainment of true knowledge is helped by the removal of obstructions due to the performance of the yoggas2 the necessary obstructions being removed1 the citta passes naturally of itself into this infinite state of attainment of true knowledge1 in which all finitude is merged4 ,in connection with this1 ,vysa mentions nine kinds of operation of causes3 7#a7 cause of birth2 7#b7 of preservation2 7#c7 of manifestation2 7#d7 of modification2 7#e7 knowledge of a premise leading to a deduction2 7#f7 of otherness2 7#g7 of separation2 7#h7 of attainment2 7#i7 of upholding 7,vysabhshya1 ,,ii4 #bh47 ,the principle of conservation of energy and transformation of energy being the root idea of causation in this system1 these different aspects represent the different points of view in which the word causation is generally used4 ,thus1 the first aspect as the cause of birth or production is seen when knowledge springs from manas which renders indefinite cognition definite so that mind is called the cause of the birth of knowledge4 ,here mind is the material cause 7updna kraa7 of the production of knowledge1 for knowledge is nothing but manas with its particular modifications as states 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah74 ,the difference of these positive cause from ptikraa1 which operates only in a negative way and helps production1 in an indirect way by the removal of obstacles1 is quite manifest4 ,the sthitikraa or cause through which things are preserved as they are1 is the end they serve2 thus the serviceability of purusha is the cause of the existence and preservation of the mind as it is1 and not only of mind but of all our phenomenal experiences4 ,the third cause of the abhivyaktikraa or manifestation which is compared to a lamp which manifests things before our view is an epistemological cause1 and as such includes all sense activity in connection with material objects which produce cognition4 ,then come the fourth and the fifth causes1 vikra 7change7 and pratyaya 7inseparable connection72 thus the cause of change 7vikra7 is exemplified as that which causes a change2 thus the manas suffers a change by the objects presented to it1 just as bile changes and digests the food that is eaten2 the cause of pratyaya#da is that in which from inseparable connection1 with the knowledge of the premise 7e4g4 there is smoke in the hill7 we can also have inferential knowledge of the other 7e4g4 there is fire in the hill74 ,the sixth cause as otherness 7anyatva7 is that which effects changes of form as that brought about by a goldsmith in gold when he makes a bangle from it1 and then again a necklace1 is regarded as differing from the change spoken of as vikra4 ,now the difference between the gold being turned into bangles or necklaces and the raw rice being turned into soft rice is this1 that in the former case when bangles are made out of gold1 the gold remains the same in each case1 whereas in the case of the production of cooked rice from raw by fire1 the case is different1 for heat changes paddy in a far more definite way2 goldsmith and heat are both indeed efficient causes1 but the former only effects mechanical changes of shape and form1 whereas the latter is the cause of structural and chemical changes4 ,of course these are only examples from the physical world1 their causal operations in the mental sphere varying in a corresponding manner2 thus the change produced in the mind by the presentation of different objects1 follows a law which is the same as is found in the physical world1 when the same object causes different kinds of feelings in different persons2 when ignorance causes forgetfulness in a thing1 anger makes it painful and desire makes it pleasurable1 but knowledge of its true reality produces indifference2 there is thus the same kind of causal change as is found in the external world4 ,next for consideration is the cause of separation 7viyoga7 which is only a negative aspect of the positive side of the causes of transformations1 as in the gradual extinction of impurities1 consequent upon the transformation of the citta towards the attainment of the supreme state of absolute independence through discriminative knowledge4 ,the last cause for consideration is that of upholding 7dhti72 thus the body upholds the senses and supports them for the actualisation of their activities in the body1 just as the five gross elements are the upholding causes of organic bodies2 the bodies of animals1 men1 etc41 also employ one another for mutual support4 ,thus the human body lives by eating the bodies of many animals2 the bodies of tigers1 etc41 live on the bodies of men and other animals2 many animals live on the bodies of plants1 etc4 7,tattvavairad1 ,,ii4 #bh74 ,the four kinds of causes mentioned in akara's works and grammatical commentaries like that of ,sushea1 viz43 utpdya1 vikryya1 pya and saskryya1 are all included within the nine causes contained mentioned by ,vysa4 ,the yoggas not only remove the impurities of the mind but help it further by removing obstacles in the way of attaining the highest perfection of discriminative knowledge4 ,thus they are the causes in a double sense 7#a7 of the dissociation of impurities 7viyogakraa72 7#b7 of removing obstacles which impede the course of the mind in attaining the highest development 7ptikraa74 ,coming now to the yoggas1 we enumerate them thus3--restraint1 observance1 posture1 regulation of breath1 abstraction1 concentration1 meditation and trance3 these are the eight accessories of ,yoga4 ,it must be remembered that abhysa and vairgya and also the five means of attaining ,yoga1 viz43 raddh1 vryya1 etc41 which are not different from abhysa and vairgya1 are by their very nature included within the yoggas mentioned above1 and are not to be considered as independent means different from them4 ,the parikarmas or embellishments of the mind spoken of in the first chapter1 with which we shall deal later on1 are also included under the three yoggas dhra1 dhyna and samdhi4 ,the five means raddh1 vryya1 smti1 samdhi and praj are said to be included under asceticism 7tapa7 studies 7svdhyya7 and devotion to ,god of the niyamas and vairgya in contentment4 ,in order to understand these better1 we will first give the definitions of the yoggas and then discuss them and ascertain their relative values for a man striving to attain the highest perfection of ,yoga4 ,i4 ,yama 7restraint74 ,these yama restraints are3 abstinence from injury 7ahis72 veracity2 abstinence from theft2 continence2 abstinence from avarice4 ,,ii4 ,niyama 7observances74 ,these observances are cleanliness1 contentment1 purificatory action1 study and the making of ,god the motive of all action4 ,,iii4 sanas 7posture74 ,steady posture and easy position are regarded as an aid to breath control4 ,,iv4 ,regulation of breath 7pryma7 is the stoppage of the inspiratory and expiratory movements 7of breath7 which may be practised when steadiness of posture has been secured4 ,v4 ,pratyhra 7abstraction74 ,with the control of the mind all the senses become controlled and the senses imitate as it were the vacant state of the mind4 ,abstraction is that by which the senses do not come in contact with their objects and follow as it were the nature of the mind4 ,,vi4 ,dhra 7concentration74 ,concentration is the steadfastness of the mind applied to a particular object4 ,,vii4 ,dhyna 7mediation74 ,the continuation there of the mental effort by continually repeating the object is meditation 7dhyna74 ,,viii4 ,samdhi 7trance contemplation74 ,the same as above when shining with the light of the object alone1 and devoid as it were of itself1 is trance4 ,in this state the mind becomes one with its object and there is no difference between the knower and the known4 ,these are the eight yoggas which a ,yogin must adopt for his higher realisation4 ,of these again we see that some have the mental side more predominant1 while others are mostly to be actualised in exterior action4 ,dhra1 dhyna and samdhi1 which are purely of the samprajta type1 and also the pryma and pratyhra1 which are accessories to them1 serve to cleanse the mind of impurities and make it steady1 and can therefore be assimilated with the parikarmas mentioned in ,book ,i4 ,stras #cd-ci4 ,these samdhis of the samprajta type1 of course1 only serve to steady the mind and to assist attaining discriminative knowledge4 ,in this connection1 it will be well to mention the remaining aids for cleansing the mind as mentioned in ,yoga-stra ,i41 viz4 the cultivation of the habits of friendliness1 compassion1 complacency and indifference towards happiness1 misery1 virtue and vice4 ,this means that we are to cultivate the habit of friendliness towards those who are happy1 which will remove all jealous feelings and purify the mind4 ,we must cultivate the habit of compassion towards those who are suffering pain2 when the mind shows compassion 7which means that it wishes to remove the miseries of others as if they were his own7 it becomes cleansed of the stain of desire to do injury to others1 for compassion is only another name for sympathy which naturally identifies the compassionate one with the objects of his sympathy4 ,next comes the habit of complacency1 which one should diligently cultivate1 for it leads to pleasure in virtuous deeds4 ,this removes the stain of envy from the mind4 ,next comes the habit of indifference1 which we should acquire towards vice in vicious persons4 ,we should acquire the habit of remaining indifferent where we cannot sympathise2 we should not on any account get angry with the wicked or with those with whom sympathy is not possible4 ,this will remove the stain of anger4 ,it will be clearly seen here that matr1 karu1 mudit and upeksh are only different aspects of universal sympathy1 which should remove all perversities in our nature and unite us with our fellow-beings4 ,this is the positive aspect of the mind with reference to abstinence from injuring ahis 7mentioned under yamas71 which will cleanse the mind and make it fit for the application of means of raddh1 etc4 ,for unless the mind is pure1 there is no scope for the application of the means of making it steady4 ,these are the mental endeavours to cleanse the mind and to make it fit for the proper manifestation of raddh1 etc41 and for steadying it with a view to attaining true discriminative knowledge4 ,again of the parikarmas by dhra1 dhyna1 and saprajta samdhi and the habit of sympathy as manifested in maitr1 karu1 etc41 the former is a more advanced state of the extinction of impurities than the latter4 ,but it is easy to see that ordinary minds can never commence with these practices4 ,they are naturally so impure that the positive universal sympathy as manifested in maitr1 etc41 by which turbidity of mind is removed1 is too difficult4 ,it is also difficult for them to keep the mind steady on an object as in dhra1 dhyna1 and samdhi1 for only those in advanced stages can succeed in this4 ,for ordinary people1 therefore1 some course of conduct must be discovered by which they can purify their minds and elevate them to such an extent that they may be in a position to avail themselves of the mental parikarmas or purifications just mentioned4 ,our minds become steady in proportion as their impurities are cleansed4 ,the cleansing of impurities only represents the negative aspect of the positive side of making the mind steady4 ,the grosser impurities being removed1 finer ones remain1 and these are removed by the mental parikarmas1 supplemented by abhysa or by raddh1 etc4 ,as the impurities are gradually more and more attenuated1 the last germs of impurity are destroyed by the force of dhyna or the habit of nirodha samdhi1 and kaivalya is attained4 ,we now deal with yamas1 by which the gross impurities of ordinary minds are removed4 ,they are1 as we have said before1 non-injury1 truthfulness1 non-stealing1 continence1 and non-covetousness2 of these non-injury is given such a high place that it is regarded as the root of the other yamas2 truthfulness1 non-stealing1 continence1 non-covetousness and the other niyamas mentioned previously only serve to make the non-injury perfect4 ,we have seen before that maitr1 karua1 mudit and upeksh serve to strengthen the non-injury since they are only its positive aspects1 but we see now that not only they but other yamas and also the other niyamas1 purity1 contentment1 asceticism1 studies and devotion to ,god1 only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect4 ,this non-injury when it is performed without being limited or restricted in any way by caste1 country1 time and circumstances1 and is always adhered to1 is called mahvrata or the great duty of abstinence from injury4 ,it is sometimes limited to castes1 as for example injury inflicted by a fisherman1 and in this case it is called anuvrata or restricted ahis of ordinary men as opposed to universal ahis of the ,yogins called mahvrata2 the same non-injury is limited by locality1 as in the case of a man who says to himself1 8,i shall not cause injury at a sacred place02 or by time1 when a person says to himself1 8,i shall not cause injury on the sacred day of ,caturda02 or by circumstances1 as when a man says to himself1 8,i shall cause injury for the sake of gods and ,brahmans only02 or when injury is caused by warriors in the battle-field alone and nowhere else4 ,this restricted ahis is only for ordinary men who cannot follow the ,yogin's universal law of ahis4 ,ahis is a great universal duty which a man should impose on himself in all conditions of life1 everywhere1 and at all times without restricting or qualifying it with any limitation whatsoever4 ,in ,mahbhrata ,mokshadharmdhyya it is said that the ,skhya lays stress upon non-injury1 whereas the ,yoga lays stress upon samdhi2 but here we see that ,yoga also holds that ahis should be the greatest ethical motive for all our conduct4 ,it is by ahis alone that we can make ourselves fit for the higher type of samdhi4 ,all other virtues of truthfulness1 non-stealing only serve to make non-injury more and more perfect4 ,it is not1 however1 easy to say whether the ,skhyists attached so much importance to non-injury that they believed it to lead to samdhi directly without the intermediate stages of samdhi4 ,we see1 however1 that the ,yoga also attaches great importance to it and holds that a man should refrain from all external acts2 for however good they may be they cannot be such as not to lead to some kind of injury or his towards beings1 for external actions can never be performed without doing some harm to others4 ,we have seen that from this point of view ,yoga holds that the only pure works 7uklakarma7 are those mental works of good thoughts in which perfection of ahis is attained4 ,with the growth of good works 7uklakarma7 and the perfect realisation of non-injury the mind naturally passes into the state in which its actions are neither good 7ukla7 nor bad 7aukla72 and this state is immediately followed by that of kaivalya4 ,veracity consists in word and thought being in accordance with facts4 ,speech and mind correspond to what has been seen1 heard and inferred4 ,speech is for the purpose of transferring knowledge to another4 ,it is always to be employed for the good of others and not for their injury2 for it should not be defective as in the case of ,yudhishhira1 where his motive was bad4#db ,if it prove to be injurious to living beings1 even though uttered as truth1 it is not truth2 it is sin only4 ,though outwardly such a truthful course may be considered virtuous1 yet since by his truth he has caused injury to another person1 he has in reality violated the true standard of non-injury 7ahis74 ,therefore let everyone first examine well and then utter truth for the benefit of all living beings4 ,all truths should be tested by the canon of non-injury 7ahis74 ,asteya is the virtue of abstaining from stealing4 ,theft is making one's own unlawfully things that belong to others4 ,abstinence from theft consists in the absence of the desire thereof4 ,brahmacaryya 7continence7 is the restraint of the generative organ and the thorough control of sexual tendencies4 ,aparigraha is want of avariciousness1 the non-appropriation of things not one's own2 this is attained on seeing the defects of attachment and of the injury caused by the obtaining1 preservation and destruction of objects of sense4 ,if1 in performing the great duty of non-injury and the other virtues auxiliary to it1 a man be troubled by thoughts of sin1 he should try to remove sinful ideas by habituating himself to those which are contrary to them4 ,thus if the old habit of sins opposed to virtues tend to drive him along the wrong path1 he should in order to banish them entertain ideas such as the following3--8,being burnt up as ,i am in the fires of the world1 ,i have taken refuge in the practice of ,yoga which gives protection to all living beings4 ,were ,i to resume the sins which ,i have abandoned1 ,i should certainly be behaving like a dog1 which eats its own vomit4 ,as the dog takes up his own vomit1 so should ,i be acting if ,i were to take up again what ,i have once given up40 ,this is called the practice of pratipaksha bhvn1 meditating on the opposites of the temptations4 ,a classification of sins of non-injury1 etc41 may be made according as they are actually done1 or caused to be done1 or permitted to be done2 and these again may be further divided according as they are preceded by desire1 anger or ignorance2 these are again mild1 middling or intense4 ,thus we see that there may be twenty-seven kinds of such sins4 ,mild1 middling and intense are each again threefold1 mild-mild1 mild-middling and mild-intense2 middling-mild1 middling-middling and middling-intense2 also intense-mild1 intense-middling and intense-intense4 ,thus there are eighty-one kinds of sins4 ,but they become infinite on account of rules of restriction1 option and conjunction4 ,the contrary tendency consists in the notion that these immoral tendencies cause an infinity of pains and untrue knowledge4 ,pain and unwisdom are the unending fruits of these immoral tendencies1 and in this idea lies the power which produces the habit of giving a contrary trend to our thoughts4 ,these yamas1 together with the niyamas about to be described1 are called kriyyoga1 by the performance of which men become fit to rise gradually to the state of jnayoga by samdhi and to attain kaivalya4 ,this course thus represents the first stage with which ordinary people should begin their ,yoga work4 ,those more advanced1 who naturally possess the virtues mentioned in ,yama1 have no need of beginning here4 ,thus it is said that some may begin with the niyamas1 asceticism1 svdhyya and devotion to ,god2 it is for this reason that1 though mentioned under the niyamas1 they are also specially selected and spoken of as the kriyyoga in the very first rule of the second ,book4 ,asceticism means the strength of remaining unchanged in changes like that of heat and cold1 hunger and thirst1 standing and sitting1 absence of speech and absence of all indications by gesture1 etc4 ,svdhyya means the study of philosophy and repetition of the syllable 8,aum40 ,this varapraidhna 7devotion to ,god7 is different from the varapraidhna mentioned in ,yoga-stra1 ,i4 #bc1 where it meant love1 homage and adoration of ,god1 by virtue of which ,god by ,his grace makes samdhi easy for the ,yogin4 ,here it is a kind of kriyyoga1 and hence it means the bestowal of all our actions upon the ,great ,teacher1 ,god1 i4e4 to work1 not for one's own self but for ,god1 so that a man desists from all desires for fruit therefrom4 ,when these are duly performed1 the afflictions become gradually attenuated and trance is brought about4 ,the afflictions thus attenuated become characterised by unproductiveness1 and when their seed-power has1 as it were1 been burnt up by the fire of high intellection and the mind untouched by afflictions realises the distinct natures of purusha and sattva1 it naturally returns to its own primal cause prakti and kaivalya is attained4 ,those who are already far advanced do not require even this kriyyoga1 as their afflictions are already in an attenuated state and their minds in a fit condition to adapt themselves to samdhi2 they can therefore begin at once with jnayoga4 ,so in the first chapter it is with respect to these advanced men that it is said that kaivalya can be attained by abhysa and vairgya1 without adopting the kriyyoga 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #b7 kriyyogas4 ,only auca and santosha now remain to be spoken of4 auca means cleanliness of body and mind4 ,cleanliness of body is brought about by water1 cleanliness of mind by removal of the mental impurities of pride1 jealousy and vanity4 ,santosha 7contentment7 is the absence of desire to possess more than is necessary for the preservation of one's life4 ,it should be added that this is the natural result of ceasing to desire to appropriate the property of others4 ,at the close of this section on the yamas and niyamas1 it is best to note their difference1 which lies principally in this that the former are the negative virtues1 whereas the latter are positive4 ,the former can1 and therefore must1 be practised at all stages of ,yoga1 whereas the latter being positive are attainable only by distinct growth of mind through ,yoga4 ,the virtues of non-injury1 truthfulness1 sex restraint1 etc41 should be adhered to at all stages of the ,yoga practice4 ,they are indispensable for steadying the mind4 ,it is said that in the presence of a person who has acquired steadiness in ahis all animals give up their habits of enmity2 when a person becomes steady in truthfulness1 whatever he says becomes fulfilled4 ,when a person becomes steady in asteya 7absence of theft7 all jewels from all quarters approach him4 ,continence being confirmed1 vigour is obtained4 ,non-covetousness being confirmed1 knowledge of the causes of births is attained4 ,by steadiness of cleanliness1 disinclination to this body and cessation of desire for other bodies is obtained4 ,when the mind attains internal auca1 or cleanliness of mind1 his sattva becomes pure1 and he acquires highmindedness1 one-pointedness1 control of the senses and fitness for the knowledge of self4 ,by the steadiness of contentment comes the acquisition of extreme happiness4 ,by steadiness of asceticism the impurities of this body are removed1 and from that come miraculous powers of endurance of the body and also miraculous powers of the sense1 viz4 clairaudience and thought-reading from a distance4 ,by steadiness of studies the gods1 the shis and the siddhas become visible4 ,when vara is made the motive of all actions1 trance is attained4 ,by this the ,yogin knows all that he wants to know1 just as it is in reality1 whether in another place1 another body or another time4 ,his intellect knows everything as it is4 ,it should not1 however1 be said1 says ,vcaspati1 that inasmuch as the saprajta is attained by making vara the motive of all actions1 the remaining seven yoggas are useless4 ,for the yoggas are useful in the attainment of that mental mood which devotes all actions to the purposes of vara4 ,they are also useful in the attainment of saprajta samdhi by separate kinds of collocations1 and samdhi also leads to the fruition of saprajta1 but though this meditation on vara is itself a species of varapraidhna1 saprajta ,yoga is a yet more direct means4 ,as to the relation of varapraidhna with the other agas of ,yoga1 ,bhikshu writes3--,it cannot be asked what is the use of the other disciplinary practices of the ,yoga since ,yoga can be attained by meditation on vara1 for meditation on vara only removes ignorance4 ,the other accessories bring about samdhi by their own specific modes of operation4 ,moreover1 it is by help of meditation on vara that one succeeds in bringing about samdhi1 through the performance of all the accessories of ,yoga2 so the accessories of ,yoga cannot be regarded as unnecessary2 for it is the accessories which produce dhraa1 dhyna and samdhi1 through meditation on ,god1 and thereby salvation2 devotion to ,god brings in ,his grace and through it the yoggas can be duly performed4 ,so though devotion to ,god may be considered as the direct cause1 it cannot be denied that the due performance of the yoggas is to be considered as the indirect cause4 sanas are secured when the natural involuntary movements cease1 and this may be effected by concentrating the mind on the mythological snake which quietly bears the burden of the earth on its head4 ,thus posture becomes perfect and effort to that end ceases1 so that there is no movement of the body2 or the mind is transformed into the infinite1 which makes the idea of infinity its own and then brings about the perfection of posture4 ,when posture has once been mastered there is no disturbance through the contraries of heat and cold1 etc4 ,after having secured stability in the sanas the prymas should be attempted4 ,the pause that comes after a deep inhalation and that after a deep exhalation are each called a pryma2 the first is external1 the second internal4 ,there is1 however1 a third mode1 by means of which1 since the lungs are neither too much dilated nor too much contracted1 total restraint is obtained2 cessation of both these motions takes place by a single effort1 just as water thrown on a heated stone shrivels up on all sides4 ,these can be regulated by calculating the strength of inhalation and exhalation through space1 time or number4 ,thus as the breathing becomes slower1 the space that it occupies also becomes smaller and smaller4 ,space again is of two kinds1 internal and external4 ,at the time of inhalation1 the breath occupies internal space1 which can be felt even in the soles of hand and feet1 like the slight touch of an ant4 ,to try to feel this touch along with deep inhalation serves to lengthen the period of cessation of breathing4 ,external space is the distance from the tip of the nose to the remotest point at which breath when inhaled can be felt1 by the palm of the hand1 or by the movement of any light substance like cotton1 etc41 placed there4 ,just as the breathing becomes slower and slower1 the distances traversed by it also becomes smaller and smaller4 ,regulations by time is seen when the attention is fixed upon the time taken up in breathing by moments1 a moment 7kshaa7 is the fourth part of the twinkling of the eye4 ,regulation by time thus means the fact of our calculating the strength of the pryma the moments or kshaas spent in the acts of inspiration1 pause and respiration4 ,these prymas can also be measured by the number of moments in the normal duration of breaths4 ,the time taken by the respiration and expiration of a healthy man is the same as that measured by snapping the fingers after turning the hand thrice over the knee and is the measure of duration of normal breath2 the first attempt or udghta called mild is measured by thirty-six such mtrs or measures2 when doubled it is the second udghta called middling2 when trebled it is the third udghta called intense4 ,gradually the ,yogin acquires the practice of pryma of long duration1 by daily practice increasing in succession from a day1 a fortnight1 a month1 etc4 ,of course he proceeds first by mastering the first udghta1 then the second1 and so on until the duration increases up to a day1 a fortnight1 a month as stated4 ,there is also a fourth kind of pryma transcending all these stages of unsteady practice1 when the ,yogin is steady in his cessation of breath4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that while the prymas are being practised1 the mind must be fixed by dhyna and dhra to some object external or internal1 without which these will be of no avail for the true object of ,yoga4 ,by the practice of pryma1 mind becomes fit for concentration as described in the stra ,i4 #cd1 where it is said that steadiness is acquired by pryma in the same way as concentration1 as we also find in the stra ,,ii4 #ec4 ,when the senses are restrained from their external objects by pratyhra we have what is called pratyhra1 by which the mind remains as if in its own nature1 being altogether identified with the object of inner concentration or contemplation2 and thus when the citta is again suppressed1 the senses1 which have already ceased coming into contact with other objects and become submerged in the citta1 also cease along with it4 ,dharaa is the concentration of citta on a particular place1 which is so very necessary at the time of prymas mentioned before4 ,the mind may thus be held steadfast in such places as the sphere of the navel1 the lotus of the heart1 the light in the brain1 the forepart of the nose1 the forepart of the tongue1 and such like parts of the body4 ,dhyna is the continuance or changing flow of the mental effort in the object of dharaa unmediated by any other break of conscious states4 ,samdhi1 or trance contemplation1 results when by deep concentration mind becomes transformed into the shape of the object of contemplation4 ,by pratyhra or power of abstraction1 mind desists from all other objects1 except the one on which it is intended that it should be centred2 the ,yogin1 as he thus abstracts his mind1 should also try to fix it upon some internal or external object1 which is called dhra2 it must also be noticed that to acquire the habit of dhra and in order to inhibit the abstraction arising from shakiness and unsteadiness of the body1 it is necessary to practise steadfast posture and to cultivate the pryma4 ,so too for the purpose of inhibiting distractions arising from breathing4 ,again1 before a man can hope to attain steadfastness in these1 he must desist from any conduct opposed to the yamas1 and also acquire the mental virtues stated in the niyamas1 and thus secure himself against any intrusion of distractions arising from his mental passions4 ,these are the indirect and remote conditions which qualify a person for attaining dhra1 dhyna1 and samdhi4 ,a man who through his good deeds or by the grace of ,god is already so much advanced that he is naturally above all such distractions1 for the removal of which it is necessary to practise the yamas1 the niyamas1 the sanas1 the pryma and pratyhara1 may at once begin with dhra2 dhra we have seen means concentration1 with the advancement of which the mind becomes steady in repeating the object of its concentration1 i4e4 thinking of that thing alone and no other thing2 thus we see that with the practice of this state called dhyna1 or meditation1 in which the mind flows steadily in that one state without any interruption1 gradually even the conscious flow of this activity ceases and the mind1 transformed into the shape of the object under concentration1 becomes steady therein4 ,we see therefore that samdhi is the consummation of that process which begins in dhra or concentration4 ,these three1 dhra1 dhyna and samdhi1 represent the three stages of the same process of which the last one is the perfection2 and these three are together technically called sayama1 which directly leads to and is immediately followed by the samprajta state1 whereas the other five yoggas are only its indirect or remote causes4 ,these three are1 however1 not essential for the asamprajta state1 for a person who is very far advanced1 or one who is the special object of ,god's grace1 may pass at once by intense vairgya and abhysa into the nirodha state or state of suppression4 ,as the knowledge of samdhi gradually dawns through the possession of sayama1 so is the sayama gradually strengthened4 ,for this sayama also rises higher and higher with the dawning of prajloka or light of samdhi knowledge4 ,this is the beginning1 for here the mind can hold sayama or concentrate and become one with a gross object together with its name1 etc41 which is called the savitarka state2 the next plane or stage of sayama is that where the mind becomes one with the object of its meditation1 without any consciousness of its name1 etc4 ,next come the other two stages called savicra and nirvicra when the mind is fixed on subtle substances1 as we shall see later on4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,stages ,,of ,,sam,,dhi ,saprajta samdhi 7absorptive concentration in an object7 may be divided into four classes1 savitarka1 nirvitarka1 savicra and nirvicra4 ,to comprehend its scope we must first of all understand the relation between a thing1 its concept1 and the particular name with which the concept or thing is associated4 ,it is easy to see that the thing 7artha71 the concept 7jna71 and the name 7abda7 are quite distinct4 ,but still1 by force of association1 the word or name stands both for the thing and its concept2 the function of mind1 by virtue of which despite this unreality or want of their having any real identity of connection they seem to be so much associated that the name cannot be differentiated from the thing or its idea1 is called vikalpa4 ,now that state of samdhi in which the mind seems to become one with the thing1 together with its name and concept1 is the lowest stage of samdhi called savitarka2 it is the lowest stage1 because here the gross object does not appear to the mind in its true reality1 but only in the false illusory way in which it appears associated with the concept and the name in ordinary life4 ,this state does not differ from ordinary conceptual states1 in which the particular thing is not only associated with the concepts and their names1 but also with other concepts and their various relations2 thus a cow will not only appear before the mind with its concept and name1 but also along with other relations and thoughts associated with cows1 as for example--8,this is a cow1 it belongs to so and so1 it has so many hairs on its body1 and so forth40 ,this state is therefore the first stage of samdhi1 in which the mind has not become steady and is not as yet beyond the range of our ordinary consciousness4 ,the nirvitarka stage arises from this when the mind by its steadiness can become one with its object1 divested of all other associations of name and concept1 so that it is in direct touch with the reality of the thing1 uncontaminated by associations4 ,the thing in this state does not appear to be an object of my consciousness1 but my consciousness becoming divested of all 8,i0 or 8mine10 becomes one with the object itself2 so that there is no such notion here as 8,i know this10 but the mind becomes one with the thing1 so that the notion of subject and object drops off and the result is the one steady transformation of the mind into the object of its contemplation4 ,this state brings home to us real knowledge of the thing1 divested from other false and illusory associations1 which far from explaining the real nature of the object1 serves only to hide it4 ,this samdhi knowledge or praj is called nirvitarka4 ,the objects of this state may be the gross material objects and the senses4 ,now this state is followed by the state of savicr praj1 which dawns when the mind neglecting the grossness of the object sinks deeper and deeper into its finer constituents2 the appearance of the thing in its grosser aspects drops off and the mind having sunk deep1 centres in and identifies itself with the subtle tanmtras1 which are the constituents of the atoms1 as a conglomeration of which the object appeared before our eyes in the nirvitarka state4 ,thus when the mind1 after identifying itself with the sun in its true aspect as pure light1 tends to settle on a still finer state of it1 either by making the senses so steady that the outward appearance vanishes1 or by seeking finer and finer stages than the grosser manifestation of light as such1 it apprehends the tanmtric state of the light and knows it as such1 and we have what is called the savicra stage4 ,it has great similarities with the savitarka stage1 while its differences from that stage spring from the fact that here the object is the tanmtra and not the gross bhta4 ,the mind in this stage holding communion with the rpa tanmtra1 for example1 is not coloured variously as red1 blue1 etc41 as in the savitarka communion with gross light1 for the tanmtric light or light potential has no such varieties as different kinds of colour1 etc41 so that there are also no such different kinds of feeling of pleasure or pain as arise from the manifold varieties of ordinary light4 ,this is a state of feelingless representation of one uniform tanmtric state1 when the object appears as a conglomeration of tanmtras of rpa1 rasa or gandha1 as the case might be4 ,this state1 however1 is not indeterminate1 as the nirvitarka stage1 for this tanmtric conception is associated with the notions of time1 space and causality1 for the mind here feels that it sees those tanmtras which are in such a subtle state that they are not associated with pleasures and pains4 ,they are also endowed with causality in such a way that from them and their particular collocations originate the atoms4 ,it must be noted here that the subtle objects of concentration in this stage are not the tanmtras alone1 but also other subtle substances including the ego1 the buddhi and the prakti4 ,but when the mind acquires the complete habit of this state in which it becomes identified with these fine objects--the tanmtras--etc41 then all conceptual notions of the associations of time1 space1 causality1 etc41 spoken of in the savicra and the savitarka state vanish away and it becomes one with the fine object of its communion4 ,these two kinds of praj1 savicra and nirvicra1 arising from communion with the fine tanmtras1 have been collocated under one name as vicrnugata4 ,but when the object of communion is the senses1 the samdhi is called nandnugata1 and when the object of communion is the subtle cause the ego 7asmit71 the samdhi is known as asmitnugata4 ,there is a difference of opinion regarding the object of the last two varieties of samdhi1 viz4 nandnugata and asmitnugata1 and also about the general scheme of division of the samdhis4 ,vcaspati thinks that ,yoga-stra ,i4 #da suggests the interpretation that the saprajta samdhis may be divided into three different classes according as their objects of concentration belong to one or other of the three different planes of grhya 7external objects71 grahaa 7the senses7 and graht 7the ego74 ,so he refers vitarka and vicra to the plane of grhya 7physical objects and tanmtras71 nandnugata to the plane of grahaa 7the senses7 and asmitnugata to the plane of graht4 ,bhikshu1 however1 disapproves of such an interpretation4 ,he holds that in nandnugata the object of concentration is bliss 7nanda7 and not the senses4 ,when the ,yogin rises to the vicrnugata stage there is a great flow of sattva which produces bliss1 and at this the mind becomes one with this nanda or bliss1 and this samdhi is therefore called nandnugata4 ,bhikshu does not think that in asmitnugata samdhi the object of concentration is the ego4 ,he thinks that in this stage the object of concentration is the concept of self 7kevalapurushkr savit7 which has only the form of ego or 8,i0 7asmtyetvanmtrkratvdasmit74 ,again according to ,vcaspati in addition to the four varieties of savitarka1 nirvitarka1 savicra and nirvicra there are two varieties of nandanugata as snanda and nirnanda and two varieties of asmitnugata as ssmita and nirasmita4 ,this gives us eight different kinds of samdhi4 ,with ,bhikshu there are only six kinds of samdhi1 for he admits only one variety as nandnugata and one variety as asmitnugata4 ,bhikshu's classification of samdhis is given below in a tabular form 7see ,vcaspati's ,tattvavairad and ,yoga-vrttika1 ,i4 #ag1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd74 samprajta samdhi ---------------------------------------- --- sthlavishayaka skshma vishayaka 7vitarknugata7 samdhi --------------------------- ------------------- nanda asmit #a4 savitarka #b4 nirvitarka or purusha 7with associations 7without association of name and concept of name7 #e4 7nandnugata7 #f4 7asmitnugata7 of the object7 tanmtra vicrnugata samdhi ----------------------------- #c4 savicra #d4 nirvicra 7with association of 7without association name and concept of name1 etc4 7 of the tanmtras7 ,through the nirvicra state our minds become altogether purified and there springs the praj or knowledge called tambhar or true2 this true knowledge is altogether different from the knowledge which is derived from the ,vedas or from inferences or from ordinary perceptions2 for the knowledge that it can give of ,reality can never be had by any other means1 by perception1 inference or testimony1 for their communication is only by the conceptual process of generalisations and abstractions and these can never help us to affirm anything about things as they are in themselves1 which are altogether different from their illusory demonstrations in conceptual terms which only prevent us from knowing the true reality4 ,the potency of this praj arrests the potency of ordinary states of consciousness and thus attains stability4 ,when1 however1 this praj is also suppressed1 we have what is called the state of nirvja samdhi1 at the end of which comes final praj leading to the dissolution of the citta and the absolute freedom of the purusha4 ,samdhi we have seen is the mind's becoming one with an object by a process of acute concentration upon it and a continuous repetition of it with the exclusion of all other thoughts of all kinds4 ,we have indeed described the principal stages of the advancement of samprajta ,yoga1 but it is impossible to give an exact picture of it with the symbolical expressions of our concepts2 for the stages only become clear to the mental vision of the ,yogin as he gradually acquires firmness in his practice4 ,the ,yogin who is practising at once comes to know them as the higher stages gradually dawn in his mind and he distinguishes them from each other2 it is thus a matter of personal experience1 so that no teacher can tell him whether a certain stage which follows is higher or lower1 for ,yoga itself is its own teacher4 ,even when the mind is in the samprajta state it is said to be in vyutthna 7phenomenal7 in comparison with the nirodha state1 just as the ordinary conscious states are called vyutthna in comparison with the samprajta state2 the potencies of the samprajta state become weaker and weaker1 while the potencies of the nirodha state become stronger and stronger until finally the mind comes to the nirodha state and becomes stable therein2 of course this contains within itself a long mental history1 for the potency of the nirodha state can become stronger only when the mind practises it and remains in this suppressed condition for long intervals of time4 ,this shows that the mind1 being made up of the three guas1 is always suffering transformations and changes4 ,thus from the ordinary state of phenomenal consciousness it gradually becomes one-pointed and then gradually becomes transformed into the state of an object 7internal or external71 when it is said to be undergoing the samdhi parima or samdhi change of the samprajta type2 next comes the change1 when the mind passes from the samprajta stage to the state of suppression 7nirodha74 ,here also1 therefore1 we see that the same dharma1 laksha1 avasthparima which we have already described at some length with regard to sensible objects apply also to the mental states4 ,thus the change from the vyutthna 7ordinary experience7 to the nirodha state is the dharmaparima1 the change as manifested in time1 so that we can say that the change of vyutthna into nirodha has not yet come1 or has just come1 or that the vyutthna state 7ordinary experience7 exists no longer1 the mind having transformed itself into the nirodha state4 ,there is also here the third change of condition1 when we see that the potencies of the samprajta state become weaker and weaker1 while that of the nirodha state becomes stronger and stronger4 ,these are the three kinds of change which the mind undergoes called the dharma1 lakshaa and avasth change4 ,but there is one difference between this change thus described from the changes observed in sensible objects that here the changes are not visible but are only to be inferred by the passage of the mind from one state to another4 ,it has been said that there are two different kinds of qualities of the mind1 visible and invisible4 ,the visible qualities whose changes can be noticed are conscious states1 or thought-products1 or percepts1 etc4 ,the invisible ones are seven in number and cannot be directly seen1 but their existence and changes or modifications may be established by inference4 ,these are suppression1 characterisation1 subconscious maintenance of experience1 constant change1 life1 movement and power or energy4 ,in connection with samprajta samdhi some miraculous attainments are described1 which are said to strengthen the faith or belief of the ,yogin in the processes of ,yoga as the path of salvation4 ,these are like the products or the mental experiments in the ,yoga method1 by which people may become convinced of the method of ,yoga as being the true one4 ,no reasons are offered as to the reason for these attainments1 but they are said to happen as a result of mental union with different objects4 ,it is best to note them here in a tabular form4 ,object of ,sayama4 ,sayama4 ,attainment4 7#a7 ,threefold change of things ,sayama4 as dharma1 lakshaa and avasthparima4 7#b7 ,the distinctions of name1 ,knowledge of the sounds of external object and the all living beings4 concept which ordinarily appears united as one4 7#c7 ,residual potencies saskra ,knowledge of previous life4 of the nature of dharma and adharma4 7#d7 ,concepts alone 7separated ,knowledge of other minds4 from the objects74 7#e7 ,over the form of body4 ,disappearance 7by virtue of perceptibility being checked74 7#f7 ,karma of fast or slow ,knowledge of death4 fruition4 7#g7 ,friendliness1 sympathy1 and ,power4 compassion4 7#h7 ,powers of elephant4 ,power of elephant4 7#i7 ,sun4 ,knowledge of the world 7the geographical position of countries1 etc474 7#aj7 ,heavens4 ,knowledge of the heavenly systems4 7#aa7 ,pole star4 ,knowledge of its movements4 7#ab7 ,plenus of the navel4 ,knowledge of the system of the body4 7#ac7 ,base of the throat4 ,subdual of hunger and thirst4 7#ad7 ,tortoise tube4 ,sayama4,steadiness4 7#ae7 ,coronal light4 ,vision of the perfected ones--the knowledge of the seer1 or all knowledge by prescience4 7#af7 ,heat4 ,knowledge of the mind4 7#ag7 ,purusha4 ,knowledge of purusha4 7#ah7 ,gross nature subtle ,control over the element pervasiveness and from which follows purposefulness4 attenuation1 perfection of the body and non-resistance by their characteristics4 7#ai7 ,act1 substantive appearance1 ,mastery over the senses2 egoism1 pervasiveness and thence quickness of mind1 purposefulness of unaided mental perception sensation4 and mastery over the pradhna4 ,these vibhtis1 as they rise with the performance of the processes of ,yoga1 gradually deepen the faith raddha of the ,yogin in the performance of his deeds and thus help towards his main goal or ideal by always pushing or drawing him forward towards it by the greater and greater strengthening of his faith4 ,divested from the ideal1 they have no value4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,god ,,in ,,yoga ,after describing the nature of karmayoga1 and the way in which it leads to jnayoga1 we must now describe the third and easiest means of attaining salvation1 the bhaktiyoga and the position of vara in the ,yoga system1 with reference to a person who seeks deliverance from the bonds and shackles of avidy4 vara in the ,yoga system is that purusha who is distinguished from all others by the fact of his being untouched by the afflictions or the fruits of karma4 ,other purushas are also in reality untouched by the afflictions1 but they1 seemingly at least1 have to undergo the afflictions and consequently birth and rebirth1 etc41 until they are again finally released2 but vara1 though he is a purusha1 yet does not suffer in any way any sort of bondage4 ,he is always free and ever the ,lord4 ,he never had nor will have any relation to these bonds4 ,he is also the teacher of the ancient teachers beyond the range of conditioning time4 ,this nature of vara has been affirmed in the scriptures and is therefore taken as true on their authority4 ,the authority of the scriptures is again acknowledged only because they have proceeded from ,god or vara4 ,the objection that this is an argument in a circle has no place here1 since the connection of the scriptures with vara is beginningless4 ,there is no other divinity equal to vara1 because in the case of such equality there might be opposition between rival varas1 which might result in the lowering in degree of any of them4 ,he is omniscient in the highest degree1 for in him is the furthest limit of omniscience1 beyond which there is nothing4 ,this vara is all-merciful1 and though he has no desires to satisfy1 yet for the sake of his devotees he dictates the ,vedas at each evolution of the world after dissolution4 ,but he does not release all persons1 because he helps only so far as each deserves2 he does not nullify the law of karma1 just as a king1 though quite free to act in any way he likes1 punishes or rewards people as they deserve4 ,at the end of each kalpa1 he adopts pure body from his sattva1 which is devoid of any karmaya1 and thus communicates through it to all his devotees and dictates the ,vedas4 ,again at the time of dissolution this body of pure sattva becomes submerged in prakti2 and at the time of its submersion1 vara wishes that it might come forth again at the beginning of the new creation2 thus for ever at each new creation the pure sattva body springs forth and is submerged again into prakti at the time of the dissolution of the universe4 ,in accepting this body he has no personal desires to satisfy1 as we have said before4 ,he adopts it only for the purpose of saving mankind by instructing them as to knowledge and piety1 which is not possible without a pure sattvamaya body2 so he adopts it1 but is not affected in any way by it4 ,one who is under the control of nescience cannot distinguish his real nature from nescience1 and thus is always led by it1 but such is not the case with vara1 for he is not in any way under its control1 but only adopts it as a means of communicating knowledge to mankind4 ,a ,yogin also who has attained absolute independence may similarly accept one or more pure sattvamaya nirma cittas from asmitmtra and may produce one citta as the superintendent of all these4 ,such a citta adopted by a true ,yogin by the force of his meditation is not under the control of the vehicles of action as is the case with the other four kinds of citta from birth1 oshadhi1 mantra and tapas4 ,the praava or okra is his name2 though at the time of dissolution1 the word of praava together with its denotative power becomes submerged in the prakti1 to reappear with the new creation1 just as roots shoot forth from the ground in the rainy season4 ,this praava is also called svdhyya4 ,by concentration of this svdhyya or praava1 the mind becomes one-pointed and fit for ,yoga4 ,now one of the means of attaining ,yoga is varapraidhna1 or worship of ,god4 ,this word1 according to the commentators1 is used in two senses in the first and the second books of the ,ptajala ,yoga aphorisms4 ,in the first book it means love or devotion to ,god as the one centre of meditation1 in the second it is used to mean the abnegation of all desires of the fruits of action to vara1 and thus varapraidhna in this sense is included under kriyyoga4 ,this dedication of all fruits of action to vara1 purifies the mind and makes it fit for ,yoga and is distinguished from the varapraidhna of the first book as the bhvan of praava and vara in this that it is connected with actions and the abnegation of their fruits1 whereas the latter consists only in keeping the mind in a worshipful state towards vara and his word or name praava4 ,by devotion 7bhakti7 vara is drawn towards the devotee through his nirma citta of pure sattva and by his grace he removes all obstructions of illness1 etc41 described in ,i4 #cj1 #ca1 and at once prepares his mind for the highest realisation of his own absolute independence4 ,so for a person who can love and adore vara1 this is the easiest course of attaining samdhi4 ,we can make our minds pure most easily by abandoning all our actions to vara and attaining salvation by firm and steady devotion to ,him4 ,this is the sphere of bhaktiyoga by which the tedious complexity of the ,yoga process may be avoided and salvation speedily acquired by the supreme grace of vara4 ,this means is not1 however1 distinct from the general means of ,yoga1 viz4 abhysa and vairgya1 which applies to all stages4 ,for here also abhysa applies to the devotion of vara as one supreme truth and vairgya is necessarily associated with all true devotion and adoration of vara4 ,this conception of vara differs from the conception of vara in the ,rmnuja system in this that there prakti and purusha1 acit and cit1 form the body of vara1 whereas here vara is considered as being only a special purusha with the aforesaid powers4 ,in this system vara is not the superintendent of prakti in the sense of the latter's remaining in him in an undifferentiated way1 but is regarded as the superintendent of dharma and adharma1 and his agency is active only in the removal of obstacles1 thereby helping the evolutionary process of prakti4 ,thus vara is distinguished from the vara of ,sakara ,vednta in this that there true existence is ascribed only to vara1 whereas all other forms and modes of ,being are only regarded as illusory4 ,from what we have seen above it is clear that the main stress of the ,yoga philosophy is on the method of samdhi4 ,the knowledge that can be acquired by it differs from all other kinds of knowledge1 ordinary perception1 inference1 etc41 in this that it alone can bring objects before our mental eye with the clearest and most unerring light of comprehensibility in which the true nature of the thing is at once observed4 ,inferences and the words of scriptures are based on concepts or general notions of things4 ,for the teaching of the ,vedas is manifested in words2 and words are but names1 terms or concepts formed by noting the general similarities of certain things and binding them down by a symbol4 ,all deductive inferences are also based upon major propositions arrived at by inductive generalisations2 so it is easy to see that all knowledge that can be acquired by them is only generalised conceptions4 ,their process only represents the method by which the mind can pass from one generalised conception to another2 so the mind can in no way attain the knowledge of real things1 absolute species1 which are not the genus of any other thing2 so inference and scripture can only communicate to us the nature of the agreement or similarity of things and not the real things as they are4 ,ordinary perception also is not of much avail here1 since it cannot bring within its scope subtle and fine things and things that are obstructed from the view of the senses4 ,but samdhi has no such limitations and the knowledge that can be attained by it is absolutely unobstructed1 true and real in the strictest sense of the terms4 ,of all the points of difference between ,yoga and ,skhya the admission of vara by the former and the emphasis given by it to the ,yoga practice are the most important in distinguishing it from the latter4 ,it seems probable that vara was traditionally believed in the ,yoga school to be a protector of the ,yogins proceeding in their arduous course of complete self-control and absorptive concentration4 ,the chances of a person adopting the course of ,yoga practice for the attainment of success in this field does not depend only on the exertions of the ,yogin1 but upon the concurrence of many convenient circumstances such as physical fitness1 freedom from illnesses and other obstacles4 ,faith in the patronage of ,god in favour of honest workers and believers served to pacify their minds and fill them with the cheerful hope and confidence which were so necessary for the success of ,yoga practice4 ,the metaphysical functions which are ascribed to vara seem to be later additions for the sake of rendering his position more in harmony with the system4 ,mere faith in vara for the practical benefit of the ,yogins is thus interpreted by a reference to his superintendence of the development of cosmic evolution4 ,skhya relied largely on philosophical thinking leading to proper discrimination as to the difference between prakrti and purusha which is the stage immediately antecedent to emancipation4 ,there being thus no practical need for the admission of vara1 the theoretical need was also ignored and it was held that the inherent teleological purpose 7purushrthat7 of prakti was sufficient to explain all the stages of cosmic evolution as well as its final separation from the purushas4 ,we have just seen that ,skhya does not admit the existence of ,god1 and considers that salvation can be obtained only by a steady perseverance in philosophical thinking1 and does not put emphasis on the practical exercises which are regarded as essential by the ,yoga4 ,one other point of difference ought to be noted with regard to the conception of avidy4 ,according to ,yoga1 avidy1 as we have already explained it1 means positive untrue beliefs such as believing the impure1 uneternal1 sorrow1 and non-self to be the pure eternal1 pleasure and the self respectively4 ,with ,skhya1 however1 avidy is only the non-distinction of the difference between prakti and purusha4 ,both ,skhya and ,yoga admit that our bondage to prakti is due to an illusion or ignorance 7avidy71 but ,skhya holds the akhyti theory which regards non-distinction of the difference as the cause of illusion whereas the ,yoga holds the anyathkhyti theory which regards positive misapprehension of the one as the other to be the cause of illusion4 ,we have already referred to the difference in the course of the evolution of the categories as held by ,skhya and ,yoga4 ,this also accounts for the difference between the technical terms of prakti1 vikti and prakti-vikti of ,skhya and the viesha and aviesha of the ,yoga4 ,the doctrine of dharma1 lakshaa and avasthparima1 though not in any way antagonistic to ,skhya1 is not so definitely described as in the ,yoga4 ,some scholars think that ,skhya did not believe in atoms as ,yoga did4 ,but though the word paramu has not been mentioned in the ,krik1 it does not seem that ,skhya did not believe in atoms2 and we have already noticed that ,bhikshu considers the word skshma in ,krik #ci as referring to the atoms4 ,there are also slight differences with regard to the process involved in perception and this has been dealt with in my ,yoga philosophy in relation to other ,indian systems of thought4#dc ,on almost all other fundamental points ,skhya and ,yoga are in complete agreement4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,matter ,,and ,,mind ,in conclusion it may be worth while saying a few words as to theories of the physical world supplementary to the views that have already been stated above4 ,gross matter1 as the possibility of sensation1 has been divided into five classes1 according to their relative grossness1 corresponding to the relative grossness of the senses4 ,some modern investigators have tried to understand the five bhtas1 viz4 ka1 marut1 tejas1 ap and kshiti as ether1 gaseous heat and light1 liquids and solids4 ,but ,i cannot venture to agree when ,i reflect that solidity1 liquidity and gaseousness represent only an impermanent aspect of matter4 ,the division of matter from the standpoint of the possibility of our sensations1 has a firm root in our nature as cognising beings and has therefore a better rational footing than the modern chemical division into elements and compounds1 which are being daily threatened by the gradual advance of scientific culture4 ,this carries with it no fixed and consistent rational conception as do the definitions of the ancients1 but is a mere makeshift for understanding or representing certain chemical changes of matter and has therefore a merely relative value4 ,there are five aspects from which gross matter can be viewed4 ,these are 7#a7 sthla 7gross71 7#b7 svarpa 7substantive71 7#c7 skshma 7subtle71 7#d7 anvaya 7conjunction71 7#e7 arthavattva 7purpose for use74 ,the sthla or gross physical characteristics of the bhtas are described as follows3-- ,qualities of ,earth--,form1 heaviness1 roughness1 obstruction1 stability1 manifestation 7vtti71 difference1 support1 turbidity1 hardness and enjoyability4 ,ap--,smoothness1 subtlety1 clearness1 whiteness1 softness1 heaviness1 coolness1 conservation1 purity1 cementation4 ,tejas--,going upwards1 cooking1 burning1 light1 shining1 dissipating1 energising4 ,vyu--,transverse motion1 purity1 throwing1 pushing1 strength1 movability1 want of shadow4 ka--,motion in all directions1 non-agglomeration1 non-obstruction4 ,these physical characteristics are distinguished from the aspects by which they appeal to the senses1 which are called their svarpas4 ,earth is characterised by gandha or smell1 ap by rasa or taste1 tejas by rpa1 etc4 ,looked at from this point of view1 we see that smell arises by the contact of the nasal organ with the hard particles of matter2 so this hardness or solidity which can so generate the sensibility of gandha1 is said to be the svarpa of kshiti4 ,taste can originate only in connection with liquidity1 so this liquidity or sneha is the svarpa or nature of ap4 ,light--the quality of visibility--manifests itself in connection with heat1 so heat is the svarpa of fire4 ,the sensibility of touch is generated in connection with the vibration of air on the epidermal surface2 so this vibratory nature is the svarpa of air4 ,the sensibility to sound proceeds from the nature of obstructionlessness1 which belongs to ka1 so this obstructionlessness is the svarpa of ka4 ,the third aspect is the aspect of tanmtras1 which are the causes of the atoms or paramus4 ,their fourth aspect is their aspect of guas or qualities of illumination1 action1 inertia4 ,their fifth aspect is that by which they are serviceable to purusha1 by causing his pleasurable or painful experiences and finally his liberation4 ,speaking of aggregation with regard to the structure of matter1 we see that this is of two kinds 7#a7 when the parts are in intimate union and fusion1 e4g4 any vegetable or animal body1 the parts of which can never be considered separately4 7#b7 ,when there are such mechanical aggregates or collocations of distinct and independent parts yutasiddhvayava as the trees in a forest4 ,a dravya or substance is an aggregate of the former type1 and is the grouping of generic or specific qualities and is not a separate entity--the abode of generic and specific qualities like the dravya of the ,vaieshika conception4 ,the aspect of an unification of generic and specific qualities seen in parts united in intimate union and fusion is called the dravya aspect4 ,the aggregation of parts is the structural aspect of which the side of appearance is the unification of generic and specific qualities called the dravya4 ,the other aggregation of yutasiddhvayava1 i4e4 the collocation of the distinct and independent parts1 is again of two kinds1 7#a7 in which stress may be laid on the distinction of parts1 and 7#b7 that in which stress is laid on their unity rather than on their distinctness4 ,thus in the expression mango-grove1 we see that many mangoes make a grove1 but the mangoes are not different from the grove4 ,here stress is laid on the aspect that mangoes are the same as the grove1 which1 however1 is not the case when we say that here is a grove of mangoes1 for the expression 8grove of mangoes0 clearly brings home to our minds the side of the distinct mango-trees which form a grove4 ,of the gross elements1 ka seems especially to require a word of explanation4 ,there are according to ,vijna ,bhikshu and ,ngea two kinds of ka--kraa 7or primal7 and krya 7atomic74 ,the first or original is the undifferentiated formless tamas1 for in that stage it has not the quality of manifesting itself in sounds4 ,this kraa later on develops into the atomic ka1 which has the property of sound4 ,according to the conception of the puras1 this karyka evolves from the ego as the first envelope of vyu or air4 ,the kraaka or non-atomic ka should not be considered as a mere vacuum1 but must be conceived as a positive1 all-pervasive entity1 something like the ether of modern physicists4 ,from this ka springs the atomic ka or kryka1 which is the cause of the manifestation of sound4 ,all powers of hearing1 even though they have their origin in the principle of egoism1 reside in the ka placed in the hollow of the ear4 ,when soundness or defect is noticed therein1 soundness or defect is also noticed in the power of hearing4 ,further1 when of the sounds working in unison with the power of hearing1 the sounds of solids1 etc41 are to be apprehended1 then the power of hearing located in the hollow of the ear requires the capacity of resonance residing in the substratum of the ka of the ear4 ,this sense of hearing1 then1 operates when it is attracted by the sound originated and located in the mouth of the speaker1 which acts as a loadstone4 ,it is this ka which gives penetrability to all bodies2 in the absence of this1 all bodies would be so compact that it would be difficult to pierce them even with a needle4 ,in the ,skhya-stra ,,ii4 #ab1 it is said that eternal time and space are of the nature of ka4 ,so this so-called eternal time and space do not differ from the one undifferentiated formless tamas of which we have just spoken4 ,relative and infinite time arise from the motion of atoms in space--the cause of all change and transformation2 and space as relative position cannot be better expressed than in the words of ,dr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,seal1 as 8totality of positions as an order of co-existent points1 and as such it is wholly relative to the understanding like order in time1 being constructed on the basis of relations of position intuited by our empirical or relative consciousness4 ,but there is this difference between space order and time order3--there is no unit of space as position 7dik7 though we may conceive time1 as the moment 7kshaa7 regarded as the unit of change in the causal series4 ,spatial position 7dik7 results only from the different relations in which the all-pervasive ka stands to the various finite objects4 ,on the other hand1 space as extension or locus of a finite body1 or dea1 has an ultimate unit1 being analysable into the infinitesimal extension quality inherent in the guas of prakti40#dd ,citta or mind has two degrees3 7#a7 the form of states such as real cognition1 including perception1 inference1 competent evidence1 unreal cognition1 imagination1 sleep and memory4 7#b7 ,in the form in which all those states are suppressed4 ,between the stage of complete outgoing activity of ordinary experience 7vyutthna7 and complete suppression of all states1 there are thousands of states of infinite variety1 through which a man's experiences have to pass1 from the vyutthna state to the nirodha4 ,in addition to the five states spoken of above1 there is another kind of real knowledge and intuition1 called praj1 which dawns when by concentration the citta is fixed upon any one state and that alone4 ,this praj is superior to all other means of knowledge1 whether perception1 inference or competent evidence of the ,vedas1 in this1 that it is altogether unerring1 unrestricted and unlimited in its scope4 ,prama1 we have seen1 includes perception1 inference and competent evidence4 ,perception originates when the mind or citta1 through the senses 7ear1 skin1 eye1 taste and nose7 is modified by external objects and passes to them1 generating a kind of knowledge about them in which their specific characters become more predominant4 ,mind is all-pervasive and can come in touch with the external world1 by which we have the perception of the thing4 ,like light1 which emits rays and pervades all1 though it remains in one place1 the citta by its vttis comes in contact with the external world1 is changed into the form of the object of perception and thus becomes the cause of perception2 as the citta has to pass through the senses1 it becomes coloured by them1 which explains the fact that perception is impossible without the help of the senses4 ,as it has to pass through the senses1 it undergoes the limitations of the senses1 which it can avoid1 if it can directly concentrate itself upon any object without the help of the senses2 from this originates the praj1 through which dawns absolute real knowledge of the thing2 unhampered by the limitations of the senses which can act only within a certain area or distance and cannot cognize subtler objects4 ,we see that in ordinary perception our minds are drawn towards the object1 as iron is attracted by magnets4 ,thus ,bhikshu says in explaining ,vysa-bhshya ,,iv4 #ag3-- 8,the objects of knowledge1 though inactive in themselves1 may yet draw the everchanging cittas towards them like a magnet and change them in accordance with their own forms1 just as a piece of cloth is turned red by coming into contact with red lac40 ,so it is that the cittas attain the form of anything with which they come in touch and there is then the perception that that thing is known4 ,perception 7pratyaksha7 is distinguished from inference1 etc41 in this1 that here the knowledge arrived at is predominantly of the specific and special characters 7viesha7 of the thing and not of its generic qualities us in inference1 etc4 ,inference proceeds from inference1 and depends upon the fact that certain common qualities are found in all the members of a class1 as distinguished from the members of a different class4 ,thus the qualities affirmed of a class will be found to exist in all the individual members of that class2 this attribution of the generic characters of a class to the individual members that come under it is the essence of inference4 ,an object perceived or inferred by a competent man is described by him in words with the intention of transferring his knowledge to another2 and the mental modification1 which has for its sphere the meaning of such words1 is the verbal cognition of the hearer4 ,when the speaker has neither perceived nor inferred the object1 and speaks of things which cannot be believed1 the authority of verbal cognition fails4 ,but it does not fail in the original speaker1 ,god or vara1 and his dictates the stras with reference either to the object of perception or of inference4 ,viparyyaya or unreal cognition is the knowledge of the unreal as in doubt--a knowledge which possesses a form that does not tally with the real nature of the thing either as doubt or as false knowledge4 ,doubt may be illustrated by taking the case of a man who sees something in dim light and doubts its nature4 8,is it a wooden post or a man80 ,in nature there is either the wooden post or the man1 but there is no such fact or entity which corresponds with doubt3 8,is it a wooden post or a man80 ,knowledge as doubt is not cognition of a fact or entity4 ,the illusion of seeing all things yellow through a defect of the eye 7as in jaundice7 can only be corrected when the objects are seen in their true colours4 ,in doubt1 however1 their defective nature is at once manifest4 ,thus when we cannot be sure whether a certain thing is a post or a man1 we know that our knowledge is not definite4 ,so we have not to wait till the illusoriness of the previous knowledge is demonstrated by the advent of right knowledge4 ,the evil nature of viparyyaya is exemplified in avidy nescience1 asmit1 rga1 etc4#de ,viparyyaya is distinguished from vikalpa--imagination--in this1 that though the latter is also unreal knowledge its nature as such is not demonstrated by any knowledge that follows1 but is on the contrary admitted on all sides by the common consent of mankind4 ,but it is only the learned who can demonstrate by arguments the illusoriness of vikalpa or imagination4 ,all class notions and concepts are formed by taking note only of the general characters of things and associating them with a symbol called 8name40 ,things themselves1 however1 do not exist in the nature of these symbols or names or concepts2 it is only an aspect of them that is diagrammatically represented by the intellect in the form of concepts4 ,when concepts are united or separated in our thought and language1 they consequently represent only an imaginary plane of knowledge1 for the things are not as the concepts represent them4 ,thus when we say 8,caitra's cow10 it is only an imaginary relation for1 strictly speaking1 no such thing exists as the cow of ,caitra4 ,caitra has no connection in reality with the cow4 ,when we say purusha is of the nature of consciousness1 there is the same illusory relation4 ,now what is here predicated of what8 ,purusha is consciousness itself1 but in predication there must always be a statement of the relation of one to another4 ,thus it sometimes breaks a concept into two parts and predicates the one of the other1 and sometimes predicates the unity of two concepts which are different4 ,thus its sphere has a wide latitude in all thought-process conducted through language and involves an element of abstraction and construction which is called vikalpa4 ,this represents the faculty by which our concepts are arranged in an analytical or synthetical proposition4 ,it is said to be abdajnnupti vastunyo vikalpa1 i4e4 the knowledge that springs from relating concepts or names1 which relating does not actually exist in the objective world as it is represented in propositional forms4 ,sleep is that mental state which has for its objective substratum the feeling of emptiness4 ,it is called a state or notion of mind1 for it is called back on awakening2 when we feel that we have slept well our minds are clear1 when we have slept badly our minds are listless1 wandering and unsteady4 ,for a person who seeks to attain communion or samdhi1 these desires of sleep are to be suppressed1 like all other desires4 ,memory is the retaining in the mind of objects perceived when perception occurs by the union of the cittas with external objects1 according to the forms of which the cittas are transformed2 it retains these perceptions1 as impressions or saskras by means of its inherent tamas4 ,these saskras generate memory1 when such events occur as can manifest them by virtue of associations4 ,thus memory comes when the percepts already known and acquired are kept in the mind in the form of impressions and are manifested by the udbodhakas or associative manifestors4 ,it differs from perceptions in this that the latter are of the nature of perceiving the unknown and unperceived1 whereas the former serves to bring before the mind percepts that have already been acquired4 ,memory is therefore of percepts already acquired by real cognition1 unreal cognition1 imagination1 sleep and memory4 ,it manifests itself in dreams as well as in waking states4 ,the relation between these states of mind and the saskras is this that their frequency and repetition strengthens the saskras and thus ensures the revival of these states4 ,they are all endowed with sukha 7pleasure71 dukha 7pain7 and moha 7ignorance74 ,these feelings cannot be treated separately from the states themselves1 for their manifestations are not different from the manifestation of the states themselves4 ,knowledge and feeling are but two different aspects of the modifications of cittas derived from prakti2 hence neither can be thought separately from the other4 ,the fusion of feeling with knowledge is therefore here more fundamental than in the modern tripartite division of mind4 ,in connection with this we are to consider the senses whose action on the external world is known as 8perceiving10 8grahaa10 which is distinguished from 8pratyaksha10 which means the effect of 8perceiving10 viz4 perception4 ,each sense has got its special sphere of work1 e4g4 sight is of the eye1 and this is called their second aspect1 viz4 svarpa4 ,their third aspect is of 8asmit0 or ego1 which manifests itself through the senses4 ,their fourth aspect is their characteristic of guas1 viz4 that of manifestation 7praka71 action 7kriy7 and retention 7sthiti74 ,their fifth aspect is that they are set in motion for purusha1 his experiences and liberation4 ,it is indeed difficult to find the relation of manas with the senses and the cittas4 ,in more than one place manas is identified with cittas1 and1 on the other hand1 it is described as a sense organ4 ,there is another aspect in which manas is said to be the king of the cognitive and motor senses4 ,looked at in this aspect1 manas is possibly the directive side of the ego by which it guides the cognitive and conative senses in the external world and is the cause of their harmonious activity for the experience of purusha4 ,as a necessary attribute of this directive character of manas1 the power of concentration1 which is developed by pryma1 is said to belong to manas4 ,this is the rajas side of manas4 ,there is another aspect of manas which is called the anuvyavasya or reflection1 by which the sensations 7locana7 are associated1 differentiated1 integrated1 assimilated into percepts and concepts4 ,this is possibly the sttvika side of manas4 ,there is another aspect by which the percepts and concepts are retained 7dhraa7 in the mind as saskras1 to be repeated or revealed again in the mind as actual states4 ,this is the tamas side of manas4 ,in connection with this we may mention ha 7positive argumentation71 apoha 7negative argumentation7 and tattvajna 7logical conclusion7 which are the modes of different anuvyavasyas of the manas4 ,will1 etc41 are to be included with these 7,yoga-varttik1 ,,ii4 #ah74 ,looked at from the point of view of cittas1 these may equally be regarded as the modifications of cittas4 ,the motives which sustain this process of outgoing activity are false knowledge1 and such other emotional elements as egoism1 attachment1 aversion1 and love of life4 ,these emotional elements remain in the mind in the germinal state as power alone2 or they exist in a fully operative state when a man is under the influence of any one of them2 or they alternate with others1 such as attachment or aversion2 or they may become attenuated by meditation upon opposites4 ,accordingly they are called respectively prasupta1 udra1 vicchinna or tanu4 ,man's minds or cittas may follow these outgoing states or experiences1 or gradually remove those emotions which are commonly called afflictions1 thus narrowing their sphere and proceeding towards final release4 ,all the psychic states described above1 viz4 prama1 viparyyaya1 etc41 are called either afflicted or unafflicted according as they are moved towards outgoing activity or are actuated by the higher motive of emancipation by narrowing the field of experiences gradually to a smaller and smaller sphere and afterwards to suppress them altogether4 ,these two kinds of motives1 one of afflictions that lead towards external objects of attachment and aversion or love of life1 and the other which leads to striving for kaivalya1 are the sole motives which guide all human actions and psychic states4 ,they influence us whenever suitable opportunities occur1 so that by the study of the ,vedas1 self-criticism or right argumentation1 or from the instruction of good men1 abhysa and vairgya may be roused by vidy4 ,right knowledge and a tendency towards kaivalya may appear in the mind even when a man is immersed in the afflicted states of outgoing activity4 ,so also afflicted states may appear when a man is bent upon or far advanced in those actions which are roused by vidy or the tendency towards kaivalya4 ,it seems that the ,yoga view of actions1 or karma1 does not deprive man of his freedom of will4 ,the habit of performing particular types of action only strengthens the corresponding subconscious impressions or saskras of those actual states1 and thus makes it more and more difficult to overcome their propensity to generate their corresponding actual states1 and thus obstructs the adoption of an unhampered and free course of action4 ,the other limitation to the scope of the activity of his free will is the vsan aspect of the saskras by which he naturally feels himself attached by pleasurable ties to certain experiences and by painful ones to others4 ,but these only represent the difficulties and impediments which come to a man1 when he has to adopt the ,yoga course of life1 the contrary of which he might have been practising for a very long period1 extending over many life-states4 ,the free will is not curbed in any way1 for it follows directly from the teleological purpose of prakti1 which moves for the experience and liberation of purusha4 ,so this motive of liberation1 which is the basis of all good conduct1 can never be subordinated to the other impulse1 which goads man towards outgoing experiences4 ,but1 on the other hand1 this original impulse which attracts man towards these ordinary experiences1 as it is due to the false knowledge which identifies prakti with purusha1 becomes itself subordinate and loses its influence and power1 when such events occur1 which nullify false knowledge by tending to produce a vision of the true knowledge of the relation of prakti with purusha4 ,thus1 for example1 if by the grace of ,god false knowledge 7avidy7 is removed1 true knowledge at once dawns upon the mind and all the afflictions lose their power4 ,free will and responsibility for action cease in those life-states which are intended for suffering from actions only1 e4g4 life-states of insects1 etc4 ,,appendix ,,spho,,av,,da ,another point to be noted in connection with the main metaphysical theories of ,patajali is the ,sphoa theory which considers the relation of words with their ideas and the things which they signify4 ,generally these three are not differentiated one from the other1 and we are not accustomed to distinguish them from one another4 ,though distinct yet they are often identified or taken in one act of thought1 by a sort of illusion4 ,the nature of this illusory process comes to our view when we consider the process of auditory perception of words4 ,thus if we follow the ,bhshya as explained by ,vijna ,bhikshu we find that by an effect of our organs of speech1 the letters are pronounced4 ,this vocal sound is produced in the mouth of the speaker from which place the sound moves in aerial waves until it reaches the ear drum of the hearer1 by coming in contact with which it produces the audible sound called dhvani 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iii4 #ag74 ,the special modifications of this dhvani are seen to be generated in the form of letters 7vara7 and the general name for these modifications is nda4 ,this sound as it exists in the stage of varas or letters is also called vara4 ,if we apply the word abda or sound in the most general sense1 then we can say that this is the second stage of sound moving towards word-cognition1 the first stage being that of its utterance in the mouth of the speaker4 ,the third stage of abda is that in which the letters1 for example1 g1 au1 and 1 of the word 8gau0 are taken together and the complete word-form 8gau0 comes before our view4 ,the comprehension of this complete word-form is an attribute of the mind and not of the sense of hearing4 ,for the sense of hearing senses the letter-forms of the sound one by one as the particular letters are pronounced by the speaker and as they approach the ear one by one in air-waves4 ,but each letter-form sound vanishes as it is generated1 for the sense of hearing has no power to hold them together and comprehend the letter-forms as forming a complete word-form4 ,the ideation of this complete word-form in the mind is called sphoa4 ,it differs from the letter-form in this that it is a complete1 inseparable1 and unified whole1 devoid of any past1 and thus is quite unlike the letter-forms which die the next moment after they originate4 ,according to the system of ,patajali as explained by the commentators1 all significance belongs to this sphoa-form and never to the letters pronounced or heard4 ,letters when they are pronounced and heard in a particular order serve to give rise to such complete ideational word-images which possess some denotation and connotation of meaning and are thus called 8sphoas10 or that which illuminates4 ,these are essentially different in nature from the sounds in letter-forms generated in the senses of hearing which are momentary and evanescent and can never be brought together to form one whole1 have no meaning1 and have the sense of hearing as their seat4 ,the ,vaieshika view4--,sakara ,mira1 however1 holds that this 8sphoa0 theory is absolutely unnecessary1 for even the supporters of sphoa agree that the sphoa stands conventionally for the thing that it signifies2 now if that be the case what is the good of admitting sphoa at all8 ,it is better to say that the conventionality of names belongs to the letters themselves1 which by virtue of that can conjointly signify a thing2 and it is when you look at the letters from this aspect--their unity with reference to their denotation of one thing--that you call them a pada or name 7,upaskra1 ,,ii4 #b1 #ba74 ,so according to this view we find that there is no existence of a different entity called 8name0 or 8sphoa0 which can be distinguished from the letters coming in a definite order within the range of the sense of hearing4 ,the letters pronounced and heard in a definite order are jointly called a name when they denote a particular meaning or object4 ,kumrila's view3--,kumrila1 the celebrated scholar of the ,mmsa school1 also denies the sphoa theory and asserts like the ,vaieshika that the significance belongs to the letters themselves and not to any special sphoa or name4 ,to prove this he first proves that the letter-forms are stable and eternal and suffer no change on account of the differences in their modes of accent and pronunciation4 ,he then goes on to show that the sphoa view only serves to increase the complexity without any attendant advantage4 ,thus the objection that applies to the so-called defect of the letter-denotation theory that the letters cannot together denote a thing since they do not do it individually1 applies to the name-denotation of the sphoa theory1 since there also it is said that though there is no sphoa or name corresponding to each letter yet the letters conjointly give rise to a sphoa or complete name 7lokavrttika1 ,sphoavda1 l4 #ia-ic74 ,the letters1 however1 are helped by their potencies 7saskras7 in denoting the object1 or the meaning4 ,the sphoa theory has1 according to ,kumrila and ,prthasrathi1 also to admit this saskra of the letters in the manifestation of the name or the abda-sphoa1 whereas they only admit it as the operating power of the letters in denoting the object or the thing signified4 ,saskras according to ,kumrila are thus admitted both by the sphoa theorists and the ,kumrila school of ,mmsa1 only with this difference that the latter with its help can directly denote the object of the signified1 whereas the former have only to go a step backwards in thinking their saskra to give rise to the name or the abda-sphoa alone 7,nyyaratnkara1 ,sphoavda1 l4 #ajd74 ,kumrila says that he takes great pains to prove the nullity of the sphoa theory only because if the sphoa view be accepted then it comes to the same thing as saying that words and letters have no validity1 so that all actions depending on them also come to lose their validity 7lokavrttika1 ,sphoavda1 l4 #acg74 ,prabhkara4--,prabhkara also holds the same view2 for according to him also the letters are pronounced in a definite order2 though when individually considered they are momentary and evanescent1 yet they maintain themselves by their potency in the form of a pda or name1 and thus signify an object4 ,thus likntha ,mira says in his ,prakaraa ,pacik1 p4 #hi3 8,it is reasonable to suppose that since the later letters in a word are dependent upon the perception of a preceding one some special change is wrought in the letters themselves which leads to the comprehension of the meaning of a word4444 ,it cannot be proved either by perception or by inference that there is any word apart from the letters2 the word has thus for its constituents the letters40 abara4--,the views of ,kamrila and ,prahhkara thus explicated are but elaborate explanations of the view of abara who states the whole theory in a single line--prvavarajanitasaskrasahito'ntyo vara pratyyaka4 8,the last letter together with the potency generated by the preceding letters is the cause of significance40 ,mahbhshya and ,kaiyaa4--,after describing the view of those who are antagonistic to the sphoa theory it is necessary to mention the ,vaikaraa school which is in favour of it2 thus we find that in explaining the following passage of ,mahbhshya1 8,what is then a word8 ,it is that which being pronounced one can understand specific objects such as those 7cows7 which have tail1 hoofs1 horns1 etc40 ,kaiyata says3 8,the grammarians think that denotation belongs to words1 as distinct from letters which are pronounced1 for if each of the letters should denote the object1 there would be no need of pronouncing the succeeding letters44440 ,the vaiyakaraas admit the significant force of names as distinguished from letters4 ,for if the significant force be attributed to letters individually1 then the first letter being quite sufficient to signify the object1 the utterance of other letters becomes unnecessary2 and according to this view if it is held that each letter has the generating power1 then also they cannot do it simultaneously1 since they are uttered one after another4 ,on the view of manifestation1 also1 since the letters are manifested one after another1 they cannot be collected together in due order2 if their existence in memory is sufficient1 then we should expect no difference of signification or meaning by the change of order in the utterance of the letters2 that is 8sara0 ought to have the same meaning as 8rasa40 ,so it must be admitted that the power of signification belongs to the sphoa as manifested by the ndas as has been described in detail in ,vkyapadya4 ,as the relation between the perceiving capacity and the object of perception is a constant one so also is the relation between the sphoa and the nda as the manifested and the manifestor 7,vkyapadya #ih74 ,just as the image varies corresponding to the variation of the reflector1 as oil1 water1 etc41 so also the reflected or manifested image differs according to the difference of the manifestor 7,vk4 #ajj74 ,though the manifestation of letters1 propositions and names occurs at one and the same time yet there seems to be a 8before and after0 according to the 8before and after0 of the nda utterances 7,vk4 #ajb74 ,that which is produced through the union and disunion 7of ndas or dhvanis7 is called sphoa1 whereas other sound-perceptions arising from sounds are called dhvanis 7,vk4 #ajc74 ,as by the movement of water the image of a thing situated elsewhere also appears to adopt the movement of the water and thus seems to move1 so also the sphoa1 though unchanging in itself1 yet appears to suffer change in accordance with the change of nda which manifests it 7,vk4 #di74 ,as there are no parts of the letters themselves so the letters also do not exist as parts of the name4 ,there is again no ultimate or real difference between names and propositions 7,vk4 #gc74 ,it is only in popular usage that they are regarded as different4 ,that which others regard as the most important thing is regarded as false here1 for propositions only are here regarded as valid 7,vk4 #gd74 ,though the letters which manifest names and propositions are altogether different from them1 yet their powers often appear as quite undifferentiated from them 7,vk4 #hi74 ,thus when propositions are manifested by the cause of the manifestation of propositions they appear to consist of parts when they first appear before the mind4 ,thus1 though the pada-sphoa or the vkya-sphoa does not really consist of parts1 yet1 as the powers of letters cannot often be differentiated from them1 they also appear frequently to be made up of parts 7,vk4 #ia74 ,the ,yoga ,view4--,as to the relation of the letters to the sphoa1 ,vcaspati says1 in explaining the ,bhshya1 that each of the letters has the potentiality of manifesting endless meanings1 but none of them can do so individually2 it is only when the letter-form sounds are pronounced in succession by one effort of speech that the individual letters by their own particular contiguity or distance from one another can manifest a complete word called the sphoa4 ,thus owing to the variation of contiguity of distance by intervention from other letter-form sounds any letter-form sound may manifest any meaning or word2 for the particular order and the association of letter-form sounds depend upon the particular output of energy required in uttering them4 ,the sphoa is thus a particular modification of buddhi1 whereas the letter-form sounds have their origin in the organ of speech when they are uttered1 and the sense of hearing when they are heard4 ,it is well to note here that the theory that the letters themselves have endless potentiality and can manifest any word-sphoas1 according to their particular combinations and recombinations1 is quite in keeping with the main metaphysical doctrine of the ,ptajala theory4 ,vkya-sphoa4--,what is said here of the letter-form sounds and the abda-sphoas also applies to the relation that the abda-sphoas bear to propositions or sentences4 ,a word or name does not stand alone2 it always exists as combined with other words in the form of a proposition4 ,thus the word 8tree0 whenever it is pronounced carries with it the notion of a verb 8asti0 or 8exists10 and thereby demonstrates its meaning4 ,the single word 8tree0 without any reference to any other word which can give it a propositional form has no meaning4 ,knowledge of words always comes in propositional forms2 just as different letter-form sounds demonstrate by their mutual collocation a single word or abda-sphoa1 so the words also by their mutual combination or collocation demonstrate judgmental or propositional significance or meaning4 ,as the letters themselves have no meaning so the words themselves have also no meaning2 it is only by placing them side by side in a particular order that a meaning dawns in the mind4 ,when single words are pronounced they associate other words with themselves and thus appear to signify a meaning4 ,but though a single word is sufficient by association with other words to carry a meaning1 yet sentences or propositions should not be deemed unnecessary for they serve to specialise that meaning 7niyamrthe anuvda74 ,thus 8cooks0 means that any subject makes something the object of his cooking4 ,the mention of the subject 8,devadatta0 and the object 8rice0 only specialises the subject and the object4 ,though the analysis of a sentence into the words of which it is constituted is as imaginary as the analysis of a word into the letter-form sounds1 it is generally done in order to get an analytical view of the meaning of a sentence--an imaginary division of it as into cases1 verbs1 etc4 ,abhihitnvayavada and ,anvitbhidhnavda4--,this reminds us of the two very famous theories about the relation of sentences to words1 viz4 the 8,abhihitnvayavda0 and the 8,anvitbhidhnavda40 ,the former means that words themselves can express their separate meanings by the function abhidh or denotation2 these are subsequently combined into a sentence expressing one connected idea4 ,the latter means that words only express a meaning as parts of a sentence1 and as grammatically connected with each other2 they only express an action or something connected with action2 in 8smnaya01 8bring the cow0--8gm0 does not properly mean 8gotva0 but 8nayannvitagotva10 that is1 the bovine genus as connected with bringing4 ,we cannot have a case of a noun without some governing verb and vice versa--7,sarvadarana-sagraha1 ,cowell74 ,the ,yoga point of view4--,it will be seen that strictly speaking the ,yoga view does not agree with any one of these views though it approaches nearer to the ,anvitbhidhna view than to the ,abhihitnvaya view4 ,for according to the ,yoga view the idea of the sentence is the only true thing2 words only serve to manifest this idea but have themselves no meaning4 ,the division of a sentence into the component word-conceptions is only an imaginary analysis--an afterthought4 ,confusion the cause of verbal cognition4--,according to ,patajali's view verbal cognition proceeds only from a confusion of the letter-form sounds 7which are perceived in the sense of hearing71 the abda-sphoa which is manifested in the buddhi1 and the object which exists in the external world4 ,these three though altogether distinct from one another yet appear to be unified on account of the saketa or sign1 so that the letter-form sounds1 the abda-sphoa1 and the thing1 can never be distinguished from one another4 ,of course knowledge can arise even in those cases where there is no actual external object1 simply by virtue of the manifesting power of the letter-form sounds4 ,this saketa is again defined as the confusion of words and their meanings through memory1 so that it appears that what a word is1 so is its denoted object1 and what a denoted word is1 so is its object4 ,convention is a manifestation of memory of the nature of mutual confusion of words and their meanings4 ,this object is the same as this word1 and this word is the same as this object4 ,thus there is no actual unity of words and their objects3 such unity is imaginary and due to beginningless tradition4 ,this view may well be contrasted with ,nyya1 according to which the convention of works as signifying objects is due to the will of ,god4 ,,index abhihitnvayavda1 #ahf abhinivea1 #aja1 #ajd abhivyaktikraa1 #acc abhysa1 #ajj1 #aja1 #abf1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #ach1 #adc1 #adi1 #afb1 #agg ,absorption1 #ajb ,abstraction1 #ace1 #acf1 #adh1 #aed1 #agd ,accessories1 #ace1 #acg1 #ade ,accidental variation1 #gg acit1 #afb ,actual1 #gc ,actuality1 #hc adharma1 #he1 #hf1 #hh1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #afb adhikrin1 #abc adshajanmavedanya1 #aab adsha-janmavedanya karma1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aaa advaita1 #ad ,advaita-,brahmasiddhi1 #ad ,afflictions1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #abc1 #abd1 #abh1 #adc1 #agc n41 #agf1 #agg1 #agh ,agent1 #d ,aggregation1 #afh ,agreement1 #cc ahakra1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #ec1 #ef1 #eh1 #fa1 #hb1 #hf1 #hg1 #ic ahakra-sttvika1 rjasa1 tmasa1 #ee ahis1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #add ,ahirbudhnyasahit1 #aj akhyti1 #afd aklisha1 #aja aklishavtti1 #abh aliga1 #g1 #da1 #db1 #fb1 #aah andisayoga1 #bh anrita1 #bi n4 anekabhavika1 #ajg1 #aab1 #aac ,anger1 #ada anirvcy1 #bh aniyatavipka1 #aab aniyatavipka-adshajanmavedanya1 #aac antakaraa1 #dc n4 anukrea payati1 #ba anupaya1 #ba anuvrata1 #aci anuvyavasya1 #agf anvaya1 #aff1 #afg anvayikraa1 #fa anvitbhidhnavda1 #ahf anvitbhidhnavda1 ,yoga view1 near to1 #ahf anybhy ahakrbhym svakryyopajanane rjashakra sahakrbhavati1 #ee anyathkhyti1 #afd1 #agc n4 anyatvakraa1 #acd anyonyamithun sarvve naishmdisamprayogo viprayogo v palabhyate1 #g aga1 #ade au1 #dc n41 #fe ap1 #gd1 #ge1 #aff1 #afg ap atom1 #fe1 #ff apara vairgya1 #abg1 #abh aparigraha1 #ada apavarga1 #bi apoha1 #aja1 #agf ,appearance1 #cf apuya karma1 #hh ,aristotle1 #a1 #ac artha1 #aej arthavattva1 #aff1 #afg arthena svakyay grhyaakty vijnamajani1 #cc asamprajta1 #abd1 #adi asamprajta samdhi1 #abe ,asceticism1 #acf1 #aci1 #adb1 #add asmit1 #ea1 #ei1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #aah1 #aec1 #aed1 #agb1 #age asmit-ego1 #ea asmitmtra1 #ej1 #ea1 #ei1 #afj asmitnugata1 #abe1 #aec1 #aed asmtyetvanmtrkratvdasmit1 #aec ,assimilation1 #aja ,association of ideas1 #cg asteya1 #ada1 #add ,astral body1 #ic aukla1 #adj auklksha1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaa ,atheistic1 #ij ,atomic change as unit of time1 #dc ,atoms1 #d1 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #fe1 #gb1 #gd1 #gg1 #ha1 #aeb1 #afg2 continual change1 #ga ,attachment1 #ii1 #ajj1 #agf1 #agg ,avariciousness1 #acf1 #ada avasth1 #gf avasthparima1 #ga1 #gc1 #hb1 #aef1 #afe ,aversion1 #ih1 #agf1 #agg avibhgaprptviva1 #ag avidy1 #b1 #aa1 #ab1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abj1 #abc1 #abh1 #aca1 #aei1 #agb1 #agc n41 #agh2 its definition1 #aa2 uprooting of1 #aae1 #aaf avidy of yoga and ,skhya1 #afd aviesha1 #g1 #g n41 #dj1 #da1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #afe aviesheopashambhakasvabhv1 #f aviveka1 #agc n4 avyapadeyatva1 #gg avyavasthitkhilapariamo bhavatyeva1 #he ayutasiddhvayava1 #fi disamprayoga1 #g kra1 #he ka1 #ad1 #dc n41 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #fh1 #hj1 #ic1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj ka1 two kinds of1 #afh ka atom1 #fe1 #ff2 ,bhikshu and ,vcaspati on1 #fe ka tanmtra1 #ff locana1 #agf malaka1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi nanda1 #aec1aed nandnugata1 #abe1 #aec1 #aed ptikraa1 #acc1 #ace pra1 #ic pyakraa1 #ace sana1 #acf1 #ade aya1 #ajc erate ssrik purush asminniti aya1 #ajc varaa akti1 #hd yush1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aae ,barabara muni1 #fd bhya karma1 #ajb ,beginningless1 #bh ,behaviour1 #f ,bel1 #gg ,benares1 #aa n4 bhakti1 #afa bhaktiyoga1 #aei1 #afa bhava1 #aaj bhavishyadvyaktikamangataanudbhtavyaktik amattam svavyproprha varttamna traya caitadvastu jnasya jeyam yadi caitat svarpato nbhavishyanneda nirvishaya jnamudapatsyata tasmdattamangata svarpato'stti1 #ca n4 ,bhshya1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #cc1 #fa1 #fb1 #fg1 #ga1 #gf1 #gh1 #hj1 #ia1 #ie1 #ii1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aca bhvan1 #afa ,bhikshu1 #f1 #i1 #ab n41 #dc n41 #de n41 #df n41 #ej1 #fe1 #fg1 #he1 #hf1 #hh1 #ij1 #id1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aab1 #abf1 #abi1 #ade1 #aec1 #afh bhoga1 #bi1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aae bhoga-arra1 #aje ,bhoja1 #abf ,bhojavtti1 #ie bhrama1 #agc n4 bhta1 #fj1 #fi1 #aff bhtdi1 #ed1 #ef1 #eh1 #fc1 #fd2 accretion from1 #fe1 #ff ,biological1 #b ,birth1 #acc1 #afa ,body1 sattvamaya1 #afj ,bondage1 #ai ,brahmacaryya1 #ada ,brahman1 #bg1 #bh1 #aci ,breath1 #adf1 #adg ,breath regulation1 #ace1 #acf buddhe pratisavedi purusha1 #ai buddhi1 #af1 #ah1 #ba1 #bg1 #bh1 #dj1 #ea1 #eb1 #fa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aeb1 #agc n4 ,buddhist1 #cc1 #de n4 ,buddhists1 their theory of sahopalambhaniyama refuted1 #cc ,caitra1 #agc ,caraka1 #aa ,caste1 #aci ,categories of existence1 #da ,category1 #f1 #aag ,caturda1 #aci ,causal activity1 #d ,causal operation1 #d ,causal transformation1 #d ,causality1 #aeb ,causation1 #acb1 #acc2 ,skhya view of1 #ha ,cause1 #gi1 #ha1 #he1 #acc1 #acd2 nine kinds of1 #acc ,cessation1 #ai ,change1 #dc1 #dd2 ,buddhist and ,yoga idea contrasted1 #de n42 units of1 #de1 #df ,changeful1 #ah ,characterised1 #cg ,characteristic1 #cg ,chy-vykhy1 #fc1 #ic ,chemical1 #b ,chowkhamba1 #aa n4 ,circumstance1 #aci cit1 #ae1 #afb citta1 #cf1 #ha1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #aja1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aai1 #abe1 #acb1 #adg1 #aed1 #afa1 #age2 different forms of1 #ib1 #ic2 different states of1 #agj2 its nature1 #id cittamayaskntamaikalpa sannidhimtropakri dyatvena sva bhavati purushasya svmina1 #bb cittaprasda1 #abg ,clairaudience1 #add ,class-characteristics1 #d n4 ,cleanliness1 #acf1 #adc1 #add ,coco-nut1 #gg ,co-existence1 #cd ,cognitive states1 #dh ,coherent1 #g1 #cg ,collocation1 #cg ,commentary1 #d ,compassion1 #acg ,complacency1 #acg ,compounds1 #c1 #aff ,conceived1 #c ,conceiver1 #c ,concentration1 #ag1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #abc1 #abf1 #abh1 #ace1 #acf1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee1 #afc1 #agj ,concept1 #aej1 #afb1 #agc ,conceptual1 #bc1 #be ,concomitant causes1 #he ,condensation1 #aj ,conscious-like1 #ai ,consciousness1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 #de1 #ib1 #ic1 #abb1 #adi1 #aea1 #aed1 #agc ,consciousness contentless1 #ej ,conscious states1 #ag ,conservation1 #acb1 #acc ,contact1 #bg1 #bi n4 ,contemplation1 #ig ,contentment1 #acf1 #aci1 #add ,continence1 #acf1 #aci1 #ada1 #add ,contrary1 #ada ,co-operation1 #e ,cosmic evolution1 #dg ,cosmic matter1 #gd ,country1 #aci ,creation1 #aad1 #aae1 #afj1 #afa ,critique of ,judgment1 #ad ,critique of ,practical ,reason1 #ad ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 #ad ,davies1 #be ,decision1 #ec ,demerit1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ic1 #ajb1 #ajc ,denotation1 #g n4 dea1 #he1 #agj ,descartes1 #ac ,desire1 #ada ,determinate1 #g ,determined1 #c1 #cg ,determiner1 #c ,devotion1 #aci1 #adb1 #ade1 #afa dhra1 #aja1 #abh1 #acj1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #agf dharma1 #db1 #ga1 #hb1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #aja1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #afb dharmamegha-samdhi1 #aag dharmaparima1 #fi1 #ga1 #gd1 #hj1 #ha1 #aef1 #afe dharmin1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf dharmisvarpamtro hi dharma1 dharmivikriy eva esh dharmadvr propacyate1 #cg1 #ga dharm1 #db dhtu1 #aa dhtikraa1 #ace dhyna1 #aag1 #acj1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh ,difference1 #cc ,differentiated1 #g1 #cg1 #fb ,differentiation1 #ec1 #ff1 #aja dik1 #agj ,discrimination1 #h1 #aaf1 #abj1 #afd ,distractions1 #abf1 #adh ,doubt1 #agb drash ditra uddho'pi pratyaynupaya1 #af dravya1 #d n41 #bi n41 #afh ,droa1 #adj n4 dgdaranaaktyorektmateva asmit1 #af1 #ea dk1 #ag dkakti1 #bj dshajanma karmaya1 #aje dshajanmavedanya1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aab dukha1 #age dvesha1 #ajd ,earth1 #afg ,effect1 #ha1 #hb1 #he1 #acb ,efficient cause1 #hb ,ego1 #c1 #d1 #bg1 #bh1 #ch1 #db1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #fj1 #fa1 #ii1 #aeb1 #aec1 #age2 a modification of buddhi1 #ec2 evolution in three lines from1 #ed2 three kinds of1 #ee ,egohood1 #ej1 #abd ,ego-universal1 #ej ekabhavika1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab ekabhavikatva1 #aji ekgra1 #ie1 #if1 #abc1 #abf ektmat1 #ag ektmik savidasmit1 #ea ekendriya1 #abh ,elements1 #c1 #aff ,emancipation1 #afd ,energy1 #c1 #e1 #h1 #acb ,enjoyment1 #bh1 #bi ,equilibrium1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #db1 #dc1 #hg ,error1 #agc n4 ,eternal1 #h1 #ia ,eternity1 two kinds of1 #aah ,ethics1 #ib ,european1 #aj ,evolutes1 #aa ,evolution1 #g1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #fb1 #fe1 #fi1 #gb1 #gf1 #ha1 #hd1 #hg1 #hi1 #aad2 as change1 #dc2 as change of qualities and as derivation of categories1 #fi2 definite law of1 #hb2 its limitations by time and space1 #gi2 measured by units of spatial motion1 #dd2 of manas1 #ee2 of the senses1 #ed2 of categories1 difference between ,skhya and ,yoga view1 #eh-fb2 of similars1 #aj ,evolutionary process1 #gg1 #he1 #ia ,exhalation1 #adf ,existence as capacity of effecting1 #h ,expiratory1 #acf ,extension1 #cd ,externality1 #cd ,external reality1 #cd2 ,buddhist objection to1 #cb2 has more than a momentary existence1 #cf2 its ground1 #cf2 not due to imagination1 #ce2 not identical with our ideas1 #ce ,external world1 #ca2 refutation of ,buddhist objections1 #cc ,faith1 #ajb ,fichte1 #ej ,fisherman1 #aci ,force1 #hb ,freedom1 #abc1 #abe1 #abg2 of will1 #agg ,friendliness1 #acg ,future1 #ca1 #cb1 #df1 #gb ,gaa1 #ae gandha1 #ch1 #aeb1 #afg gandha-tanmtra1 #eh1 #fd ,gauapda1 #bd ,generalisation1 #aed ,generic1 #afh ghavacchinna ka1 #ad ,gt1 #ab ,gtbhshya1 #d n4 ,goal1 #aae1 #aba1 #abd1 #abg1 #abi ,god1 #b1 #he1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #aae1 #acf1 #aci1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #adh1 #adi1 #afa1 #afc1 #afd1 #agb1 #agh1 #ahg ,gold1 #acd grahaa1 #aja1 #aec1 #age grahaadhraohpohatattvajnbhinive buddhau varttamn purushe adhyropitasadbhv1 #ec graht1 #aec grhya1 #ed1 #aec ,gross elements1 derivation of1 #fe et seq4 ,grossness1 #cd gu eva praktiabdavcy na tu tadatirikt praktirasti1 #aj gun hi dvairpya vyavasytmkatvam vyavaseytmakatvaca1 #ec gun parama rpa na dshipathamcchati1 yattu drshipatha prptam tanmyeva sutucchaka1 #ab1 #cg guas1 #c1 #d n41 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #aj1 #aa1 #bd1 #bf1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #db1 #ec1 #gf1 #gh1 #ha1 #hb1 #ih1 #aja1 #aah1 #abj1 #aba1 #aca1 #aee1 #afg1 #agj guas1 three classes1 #e2 as causal effect1 #f2 evolution of the cognitive and conative senses and tanmtras1 #ch2 identity of qualities and substances1 #e2 relative preponderance of1 #g2 special affinity of each class1 #f2 special behaviour of each class of1 #f2 their atomic qualities consistent with their all-pervasiveness1 #dc n42 their common purpose1 #g2 their co-operation1 #ch2 their mode of combination1 #f2 their mode of mutual operation1 #e2 their mode of evolution1 #g2 their nature as feelings1 #fh2 their twofold nature1 #ec2 their threefold course of development1 #ch2 their want of purpose in the state of equilibrium1 #g2 two classes of their evolution1 aviesha and viesha1 #dj ,hariharraya1 #if ,heaven1 #hf n4 hetumadanityamavypi sakriyamanekrita liga svayavamparatantra vyakta vipartamavyakta1 #db ,hibiscus1 #ae n4 his1 #adj1 #ada ,history of ,hindu ,chemistry1 #g n41 #fc n41 #agj n4 ,horn of a hare1 #h ,hume1 #cg ,idealistic ,buddhists1 #ca ,ignorance1 #ada1 #ade ,illumination1 #e ,illusion1 #agc n42 of ,yoga and ,skhya1 #afd ,illusive1 #bh ,imagination1 #cd ,immanent purpose1 #ij ,independence1 #ie1 #abh1 #acd ,indeterminate1 #h ,india1 #ad ,indra1 #hf n4 ,inertia1 #c1 #e1 #h1 #cg1 #afg ,inference1 #a1 #b1 #ha1 #if1 #aed1 #aef1 #afb1 #afc1 #agj1 #aga ,infra-atomic1 #c ,infra-atoms1 #d ,inhalation1 #adf ,injury1 #aci ,inorganic1 #gd ,inspiratory1 #acf ,intellection1 #f ,intelligence1 #b1 #dh ,intelligence-stuff1 #c1 #h1 #di ,iron1 #f vara1 #ad1 #gi1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajc1 #abf1 #add1 #ade1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #agb2 removal of barriers1 #hg varaksha1 #g n4 varapraidhna1 #adb1 #ade1 #afa varasypi dharmdhishnrtha pratibandhpanaya eva vypro1 #hg janmamaraakaran pratiniyamdayugapat pravtteca purushabahutvam siddha traiguyaviparyyaycca1 #bf japsphaikayoriva noparga kintvabhimna1 #ae jti1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aae ,jealousy1 #adc jva1 #ad jvanmukta1 #aag jvanmukti1 #abj jna1 #aej jnayoga1 #acj1 #adb1 #adc1 #aei ,judgmental1 #bc kaivalya1 #bb1 #bc1 #bg1 #ca1 #ie1 #if1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb1 #aci1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #agg kalpa1 #afj ,kant1 #ad1 #cg ,kapila1 #be karma1 #hf1 #ih1 #aag1 #aei1 #afj1 #agg2 its classification and divergence of views1 #aji-aac karma-sannysin1 #ajc karmaya1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #afj karmayoga1 #aei karu1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci ,kaumud1 #fd kla1 #he kma1 #ajd kraa1 #afh kraacitta1 #ic krik1 #g n41 #aa1 #bd1 #bf1 #db1 #fd1 #afe ,krya1 #afh krya vimukti1 #abj kryya citta1 #ib kryyakar akti1 #hd ,kmra1 #gi kevalapurushkr savit1 #aec keval1 #aag1 #aah kirt1 #aja klea1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #aad klisha1 #abh klishavtti1 #ajj ,knowable1 #e1 #bg1 #cb1 #ch ,knower1 #bg1 #ej ,knowledge1 different kinds of1 differentiated1 #afc ,known1 #bg kriy1 #cg1 #age kriyyoga1 #abi1 #acj1 #adb1 #adc1 #afa krodha1 #ajd ksha1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaa ksha karma1 #ajc1 #aaa ktrtha prati nashamapyanasha tadanyasdhraatvt1 #bf kshaa1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df n41 #adf1 #agj kshaabhaguram1 #ab n4 kshaapracayraya1 #df n4 kshaapratiyogi1 #df n4 kshaatatkramayornsti vastusamhra iti buddhisamhra muhrtthortrtrdaya4 sa tvaya kla vastunyo'pi buddhinirmah1 #dd kshipta1 #ie1 #abb kshiti1 #gd1 #ge1 #aff kshiti atom1 #ff kunt1 #ad1 #ae n4 kuala1 #aba kual1 #aba kastha nitya1 #aah lakshaa1 #gf1 #hb lakshaa-parima1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #aef1 #afe ,latent1 #df1 #gc1 #ha1 #if1 #ajh laukikamyeva1 #ab n4 liberation1 #g1 #be1 #afg1 #age1 #agg ,light1 #afg ,limitation theory1 #ad1 #ae liga1 #g1 #da1 #db1 #ea1 #fb1 #aah ligamtram mahattatva sattmtre mahati tmani1 #ej lobha1 #ajd ,locke1 #cg ,lokcryya1 #aa1 #ee1 #eh ,lotus1 #i madhumat1 #abe madhupratka1 #abe ,magnet1 #f1 #hi1 #aga mahat1 #i1 #aa1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #ea1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei1 #fa1 #hb2 its potential existence in prakti1 #i ,mahbhrata1 #ae n41 #hj1 #adj mahpralaya1 #aah mahvrata1 #aci maitr1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci manas1 #dj1 #ea1 #ee1 #fj1 #ha1 #ajj1 #aah1 #acc1 #age1 #agf ,manifested1 #gb mantra1 #afa ,many1 #bg1 #bh ,maiprabh1 #fe marut1 #ge1 #aff ,mass1 #c ,material cause1 #fa1 #ha ,matter1 #b1 #c1 #aff mnasa karma1 #ajb mtr1 #adf my1 #b1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #bg1 #bh my tu prakti vidyt myina tu mahevara1 #aa myeva1 #ab n4 ,mechanical1 #b ,meditation1 #ajb1 #ace1 #acf1 #ade1 #adh1 #adi1 #afa1 #agf ,memory1 #ec1 #ih ,mental1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #aj1 #cg1 #dh ,mental states1 analysis of1 #dh ,merit1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ic1 #ajc ,metaphysics1 #cj ,method of agreement1 #cc1 #ce2 of difference1 #cc ,mind1 #b1 #c1 #ah1 #ai1 #ha2 its seven qualities1 #aef ,mind-modification1 #bj1 #bb2 -transformations1 #ah moha1 #ajd1 #age ,mokshadharmdhyya1 #adj ,moment1 #dd1 #de ,momentary1 #ab1 #ce ,moral1 #b ,moral ideal1 #bf ,movement1 #dh mudit1 #acg1 #aci mha1 #ie1 #abb ,nahusha1 #hf ,naiyyika1 #eh ,name1 #aej1 #agc2 and thing1 #agc ,nand1 #he na tu kshatirikta kshaika padrtha kacidishyate taistu kshaamtrasthyyeva padrtha ishyate1 #de n4 ,naturalism and agnosticism1 #b n4 ,natural selection1 #gf ,ngea1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff1 #hf1 #hg1 #id1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aag1 #afh ,nryaa ,trtha1 #ij1 #abf nsadst na sadst tadnm1 #ab nstyasata sabhava na csti sato vin1 #ca ,nectar1 #he ,nescience1 #ad1 #ae1 #ig1 #ii2 its different forms1 #agb n4 nidr1 #aja ,nihilists1 #b nisage'pi upargo vivekt1 #ae nisattsattam nisadasat nirasat avyaktam aligam pradhnam1 #h nisattsatta1 #ab nirasmit1 #aec nirma citta1 #afj1 #afa nirnanda1 #aec nirodha1 #ai1 #if1 #aah1 #adi1 #aee1 #aef1 #agj nirodhaja saskra1 #ig nirodha samdhi1 #aci niruddha1 #ie1 #abc nirvicra1 #adi1 #aec1 #aed nirvja1 #abb1 #abe nirvja samdhi1 #aed nirvitarka1 #aej1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed nicaya1 #ej niyama1 #acf1 #aci1 #adb1 #adc1 #adh niyata vipka1 #aab niyatavipkadshajanmavedanya1 #aac ,nlakaha1 #hj1 #hh1 #hi ,non-being1 #b ,non-covetousness1 #aci1 #add ,non-discrimination1 #ae ,non-distinction1 #agc n4 ,non-existence1 #h1 #ab ,non-injury1 #aci1 #adj1 #add2 its classification1 #ada ,non-stealing1 #aci ,noumenon1 #h1 #ad ,observance1 #ace1 #acf okra1 #afa ,omniscience1 #ie oshadhi1 #afa ,pain1 #ih1 #aba1 #abb1 #abf1 #acg1 #adb ,palm1 #gg ,pantheism1 #ac ,pacaikha1 #ag1 #eb1 #ajc n4 parama mahat1 #fh paramu in ,skhya and ,yoga1 #dc n41 #ff1 #fg1 #afe1 #afg para vairgya1 #abj1 #abg1 #abh parikarma1 #abi1 #acj1 #ace1 #acg parima1 #ih parimadukhat1 #ih parimakramaniyama1 #fb1 #hb parimi1 #ai pariminityat1 #aai ,past1 #ca1 #cb1 #df1 #gb ,patajali1 #a1 #b1 #e n41 #af1 #bf1 #cj1 #ce1 #ea1 #aai ,patent1 #ha pda1 #ed ,pcla1 #gi pi1 #ed ppa karma1 #ajj ppakarmaya1 #aje ,ptajala1 #a1 #ab1 #ij1 #aae pyu1 #ed1 #eh ,perceived1 #c ,perceiver1 #c ,percept1 #ai ,perception1 #c1 #ec1 #if1 #aed1 #afb1 #agj1 #aga1 #age ,permanent1 #ba ,phenomena1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #ie ,phenomenal1 #bi1 #hd1 #abe1 #aee ,philosopher1 #b ,philosophical1 #b ,physical1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #cg1 #aff ,physical1 ,chemical and ,mechanical ,theories of the ,ancient ,hindus1 #fc n4 ,plant3 its possession of life and senses1 #hj ,plato1 #ac ,pleasure1 #ih ,plurality1 #bf-bi1 #cj ,poison1 #he ,posture1 #ace1 #acf1 #ade ,potency1 #ai1 #hb1 #if1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #abd1 #abe1 #aed1 #aee2 destroying other potencies1 #aag ,potential1 #i1 #cb1 #gc1 #gg1 #hc1 #hd1 #he ,potentiality1 #e1 #hc1 #hd ,potentials1 #c ,power1 #hb pradhna1 #aah praj1 #ajb1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abj1 #abb1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #acf1 #aea1 #aed1 #agj1 #aga2 its seven stages1 #aai-abj prajsaskra1 #aja prajloka1 #adi praka1 #cg1 #age prakti1 #a1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #bb1 #be1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #ed1 #ei1 #fb1 #gg1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #aah1 #abj1 #abb1 #abe1 #adc1 #aeb1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #afe1 #agj1 #agc n41 #age1 #agg1 #agh2 as undifferentiated cosmic matter1 #ab2 as equilibrium of dharma and dharm1 #db2 avidy and vsan lie merged in it1 #aad2 different views of1 #aj1 #aa2 different from avidy1 #ab2 evolution of the second category of asmit1 #ea2 its difference from my1 #ab2 its difference from purusha1 #bj2 its first evolutionary product1 mahat1 #ej1 #ea2 its goal1 #aaf2 its identity with gua reals1 #i2 its relation with guas1 #f2 its similarity with purusha1 #bj2 ,lokcryya's view of1 #aa2 nature in the state of equilibrium1 #h2 refilling from1 #hf2 roused by ,god1 #hg2 ,venkaa's view of1 #aj praktilna1 #abg praktivikti1 #g n4 praktiityucyate vikrotpdakatvt avidy jnavirodhitvt my vicitrasshikaratvt1 #aa praktypra1 #ajf pralaya1 #aad prama1 #aja1 #agj1 #agf praava1 #afa pryma1 #acf1 #acg1 #ade1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #age prasupta1 #agf pratipaksha bhvan1 #ada pratisambandh1 #df n4 pratiyog1 #df n4 pratyhra1 #acf1 #acg1 #adg1 #adh pratyaksha1 #aga1 #age pratyaya1 #aai1 #acd pratyayakraa1 #acc pratyaya bauddhamanupayati tamanupayannatadtmpi tadtmaka iva pratibhti1 #ag pratyaynupaya1 #ag1 #ah ,pravacana-bhshya1 #fd prmyanicaya1 #acd n4 ,pre-established harmony1 #b ,present1 #ca1 #cb1 #df1 #gb ,presentative ideation1 #aja ,presentative power1 #cc ,pride1 #adc ,primal1 #c ,primal cause1 #c1 #f pthiv1 #eg ,psychological1 #b ,psychology1 #ha ,psychosis1 #c1 #af puya1 #ajj puya karma1 #hh1 #ajj puya karmaya1 #aje ,pura1 #fd ,purification1 #ach ,purificatory1 #abi1 #acj1 #acf ,purity1 #aci purusha1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #ai1 #bc1 #bh1 #bi1 #db1 #dh1 #ec1 #fa1 #gf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #aba1 #abb1 #abe1 #aca1 #acc1 #adc1 #aed1 #aei1 #afb1 #afd1 #agc1 #agc n41 #age1 #agg1 #agh2 arguments in favour of its separate existence1 #bd2 contrast with vedantic ,brahman1 #bf2 different from the mental states1 #ag2 fulfilment of its objects1 #g1 #h2 its connection with prakti real1 #bh2 its final separation from prakti1 #aah2 its permanence1 #ba2 its plurality1 #bf-cj2 its reflection in the mind1 #ah2 its relation with concepts and ideas1 #di2 its similarity with sattva1 #di2 meaning determined from the stras1 #af1 #ag2 nature of its reflection in buddhi1 #ba1 #bb purushrtha1 #hi purushrthat1 #abj1 #afd2 its relation with avidy1 #aae prvadea1 #dc n4 rajas1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #bd1 #cg1 #dj1 #dc1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ed1 #ee1 #fb1 #ie1 #if1 #aaf1 #age ,rarefaction1 #aj rasa1 #ch1 #aeb rasa-tanmtra1 #eh1 #fd ,ray1 ,p4 ,c41 #g n41 #fc n41 #agj n4 ,rdh1 #ad1 #ae n4 rga1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajd1 #agb ,rjamrtada1 #fe rjaputtravattattvopadet1 #ae rjasa1 #ch ,rmnuja1 #fd1 #afb ,realisation1 #acg ,reality1 #b1 #d1 #cj1 #aah1 #aed ,reals1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #aj1 #aa1 #bh ,reason1 #ej ,reasoning1 #ec ,rebirth1 #ic1 #ajg ,reflection1 #ah1 #bh ,reflection theory1 #ad1 #ae ,release1 #bh1 #bi1 #abc1 #abh ,religious1 #b ,reperception1 #ah ,restraint1 #ace1 #acf ,retention1 #aja ,right knowledge1 #ec rpa1 #ch1 #fe1 #aeb1 #afg rpa tanmtra1 #eg1 #fd gveda1 #aa shi1 #add tambhar1 #aed sadaparim1 #aj sahakri1 #ee sahopalambhaniyama1 #cc sahopalambhaniyama ca vedyatvaca het sandigdhavyatirekataynaikntikau1 #cd sahopalambhaniyamdabhedo nilataddhiyo1 #cb ,salvation1 #ade1 #aei1 #afb samdhi1 #ha1 #if1 #ajb1 #aah1 #abb1 #abd1 #abf1 #abh1 #acj1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea1 #aec1 #aee1 #afa1 #afb2 classification of1 #aec1 #aed samdhiparima1 #aee samna tantra1 #fg samprajta1 #if1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #acg1 #add1 #adi1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef samprajta samdhi1 #ach1 #ade1 #aej1 #aed sampratyaya1 #acd n4 saghtaparrthatvt trigudiviparyyaydadhishhnt purusho'sti bhoktbhvt kaivalyrtha pravtteca1 #bd sasra1 #aae1 #aba saskra1 #ai1 #ha1 #if1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajh1 #aji1 #abe1 #agd1 #agf1 #agg saskr vttibhi kriyante saskraica vttaya eva vttisaskracakram aniamvarttate1 #ig saskraesha1 #abe saskryyakraa1 #ace sassh vivicyante1 #fb savega1 #abi sayama1 #adi1 #aeg sayoga1 #bg1 #bi n4 sannysrama1 #ajc santosha1 #adc saketa1 #ahg ,sarasvat ,rmnanda1 #abf sarva sarvtmaka1 #gg satkraavda1 #ha satkryyavda1 #ha sattva1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #bb1 #bd1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef1 #if1 #aaf1 #adc1 #add1 #aec1 #afj1 #afa sattvapurushayo uddhismye kaivalya1 #af1 #bb sattvapurushayoratyantsakrayo pratyayviesho bhoga parrthatvt svrthasamyamt purushaj1 nam1 #af savicra1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed2 praj1 #aea savitarka1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed s ca tman grahtr saha buddhirektmik savid1 #ea smnya gua1 #bi n4 ,skhya1 #d1 #g n41 #aj1 #aa1 #ah1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #bi n41 #cj1 #eh1 #fb1 #fg1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #adj1 #afd1 #afe2 ,jaina influence on1 #id n4 ,skhya-krik1 #ee1 #ef n41 #fg ,skhya-,ptajala1 #bd1 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #he ,skhya philosophy1 #d n4 ,skhyapravacanabhshya1 #d n4 ,skhya-stra1 #aa1 #ae1 #afi ,skhya-,yoga1 #d1 #bf1 #bg1 #ej n41 #eg ,skhyists1 #ab snanda1 #aec sttvika1 #ch1 #ef sttvikaahakra1 #fc ,science of ,ethics1 #ej ,seal1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,n41 #g1 #cg1 #fc n41 #ff-afi ,seeming reflection1 #bb1 #bc ,seer1 #ag1 #ai1 #bc1 #bd1 #bh1 #dg1 #ea ,self1 #h1 #ah1 #ba1 #bf1 #di1 #ea1 #ed ,self-consciousness1 #eb1 #ed ,self-control1 #bd ,self-intelligent1 #c ,self-subsistent1 #cf ,sensation1 #aff ,sense1 #ada ,sense faculties1 #ef ,sense organs1 #ef ,senses1 #c1 #dj1 #da1 #dg1 #ed1 #fj1 #hf1 #hg1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ace1 #adg1 #afg1 #aga2 divergent views about their evolution1 #eg ,separation1 #bi n4 ,sex restraint1 #add ,shashitantrastra1 #aj1 #ab siddha1 #add ,siddhnta-candrik1 #fe1 #ie ,siddhntalea1 #ad ,sign1 #g1 #da ,simultaneous revelation1 #cc ,sins1 #ajc ,sleep1 #agd smti1 #ai1 #fd1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajh1 #abf1 #abh1 #acf ,social1 #b ,soul1 #ac1 #ad1 #bd1 #be ,sound1 #afi ,space1 #gi1 #adf1 #aeb2 as relative position1 #afi ,space order1 #agj spara1 #ch1 #fe spartanmtra1 #eg1 #fd ,specialised1 #g1 #h ,specific1 #afh sphoavda1 #agh-ahg2 ,kumril's view1 #aha2 ,mahbhshya and ,kaiyaa1 #ahb2 ,prabhkara1 #ahb2 abara's view1 #ahb2 ,vaieshika view1 #ahj2 ,vkya-sphoa1 #ahe2 ,yoga view1 #ahd ,spinoza1 #ac ,spirits1 #g1 #ac ,spiritual principle1 #bd1 #bh sthiti1 #cg1 #age sthitikraa1 #acc sthla1 #aff sthlavishayaka1 #aed ,strength1 #ajb ,studies1 #acf1 #aci ,subconscious1 #ha ,sub-latent1 #df1 #gc ,substance1 #d n41 #bi n41 #dj1 #dg1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf1 #ha1 #afh2 its nature1 #cg ,substantive entities1 #c1 #d1 #g1 #aj1 #aa1 #hb1 #hd ,substratum1 #cf1 #cg1 #di ,succession1 #dd1 #de summum bonum1 #aba ,sushea1 #ace sutucchaka1 #ab skshma1 #fa1 #fg1 #aff1 #afg skshmavishayaka1 #aed skshmavttimanta1 #f ,stra1 #ae1 #ag1 #bb1 #bf1 #ca1 #fb1 #fd1 #ajh1 #acg1 #adg ,strrthabodhin1 #fe1 #ij svarpa1 #aff1 #afg1 #age svdhyya1 #acf1 #adb1 #afa ,svetvatara1 #aa ,sympathy1 #acg1 #ach abda1 #ch1 #fe1 #aej abdajnnupt vastunyo vikalpa1 #agd abda-tanmtra1 #eg1 #fd abddnm mrttisamnajtynm1 #ff n4 akti1 #ag1 #hb1 #hc aktimn1 #hb1 #hc akara1 #d n41 #ace1 #afb nta1 #gc ,snti-parva1 #hj1 #hh1 #hi stra1 #agb auca1 #adc1 #add la1 #f raddh1 #ajb1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #ace1 #ach1 #aeh ruti1 #eg ukla1 #ajb1 #aaa1 #adj1 #age ukla karma1 #ajc1 #adj ukla karmaya1 #aaa uklaksha1 #ajb1 #aaa nyavdi ,buddhists1 #b svalpasakara saparihra sapratyavamarsha1 #ajc n4 svasvmiaktyo svarpopalabdhihetu sayoga1 #af tadartha eva dryasya tm1 #af tadabhvt sayogbhvo hna tadde kaivalya1 #af taijasa1 #ef tamas1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc1 #dg1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef1 #id1 #ie1 #aag1 #afi1 #agf tanmtra1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #ed1 #ei1 #fa1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #hb1 #hc1 #abd1 #aea1 #afg tanmtras1 evolution of grosser elements from1 #fe2 their difference from paramnus1 #fh2 their evolution1 et seq41 #fd2 their relation to ahakra1 #dj1 #da tanmtrvayava1 #ff tanmtrmapi parasparavyrvttasvabhvatvamastyeva tacca yogimtragamyam1 #fh tanu1 #agf tapa1 #acf tapas1 #afa tasmt svatantro'rtha sarvapurushasdhraa svatantri ca cittni pratipurusha1 pravarttante1 #cf ,taste1 #afg tatradshajanmavedanyasya niyatavipkasya1 #aji tattva1 #dj1 #id tattvajna1 #aja1 #agf ,tattva-kaumud1 #be1 #ef n41 #ajc n4 ,tattva-nirpaa1 #ff ,tattvatraya1 #aa n41 #ee1 #eh1 #fd1 #ff ,tattvavairad1 #c n41 #e n41 #i n41 #cc n41 #df1 #ec1 #ef n41 #fd1 #ge1 #gh1 #gi1 #ic1 #ace1 #aed tattvntara1 #fh tattvntara-parima1 #dj1 #da1 #fi tmasa1 #ch1 #ef tmasa ahakra1 #fj1 #fb te vyaktaskshm gutmna 444 sarvamida gun ,sanniveavieshamtramiti paramrthato gutmna1 #ch tejas1 #fe1 #ge1 #aff1 #afg tejas atom1 #ff ,teleological1 #hf1 #aba ,teleology1 #bd1 #gf1 #gg1 #hi ,temptation1 #ada ,theft1 #acf1 #ada ,theists1 #ij ,theories1 #b ,thing1 #aej ,thing-in-itself1 #b1 #cg ,thought1 #b ,time1 #gi1 #aci1 #aeb1 #afi2 as discrete moments1 #dd2 as unit of change1 #dc2 element of imagination in1 #dd2 unit of1 #df2 order1 #agj ,tinduka1 #gg ,trance1 #ace1 #acf1 #adc2 ,trance-cognition1 #ie ,transcendent1 #ah ,transformations1 #bj1 #bd trasareu1 #ff triguamaviveki vishaya smnyamacetana prasavadharmi vyakta tath pradhna1 tadvipartastath pumn1 #db ,truth1 #ada ,truthfulness1 #aci1 #adj1 #add ,tulyajtytulyajtyaaktibhednuptina1 #f udra1 #agf udbodhaka1 #agd udghta1 #adf1 #adg udita1 #gc ,ultimate state1 #g ,unafflicted1 #agf ,understanding1 #ai ,undetermined1 #h ,undifferentiated1 #ab1 #afb ,unindividuated1 #ab ,universe1 #a1 #ac2 a product of gua combinations1 #cg ,unknowable1 #b1 #cg ,unmanifested1 #d1 #h1 #gb ,unmediated1 #h ,unpredicable1 #gc ,unreal1 #bh ,unspecialised1 #g ,unwisdom1 #adb ,upanishads1 #aa upastha1 #ed1 #eh updna1 #fa updna kraa1 #fa1 #acc upeksh1 #acg1 #aci utpdyakraa1 #ace uttaradea1 #dc n4 ha1 #aja1 #agf vaikrika1 #ef vairgya1 #ajj1 #aja1 #abg1 #abi1 #acj1 #ace1 #acf1 #adc1 #adi1 #afb1 #agg ,vaieshika1 #dc n41 #ga1 #afh ,vaieshika atoms1 #gj vaishava1 #aj ,vanity1 #adc vakra1 #abh vastupatita1 #dd vastusmye cittabhedt tayor vibhakta panth1 #ce n4 ,vcaspati1 #c1 #e n41 #h1 #ab1 #cb1 #cc1 #ce1 #dd1 #df n41 #ea1 #ee1 #fb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #ge1 #gh1 #hg1 #hi1 #ic1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aah1 #abf1 #abi1 #add1 #aec1 #aed vk1 #ed ,vkyapadya1 #ahc vsan1 #ii1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aad1 #aaf1 #agg2 contrasted with karmaya1 #ajg ,vyu1 #afg ,vyu atom1 #fe ,vedas1 #aed1 #afj1 #afb1 #agj1 #agg ,vednta1 #aa1 #ad1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #afb ,vedntism1 #ad ,vedntists1 #ab1 #bf1 #ff1 #ha ,vedic1 #ajc ,vehicles of actions1 #ajc ,venkaa1 #aj ,veracity1 #acf1 #adj ,verbal cognition1 cause of1 #ahf2 view of ,nyya1 #ahg vibhu1 #dc n4 vibhu parima1 #bi n4 vibhti1 #aeh ,vibhtipda1 #bb vicra1 #aec vicrnugata1 #abe1 #aec vicchinna1 #agf ,vice1 #hf1 #hg videha1 #abg vidy1 #agg vidyvipartam jnntara avidy1 #aa1 #ig ,vijanmta-bhshya1 #hh1 #ij ,vijna ,bhikshu1 #d1 #ae vikalpa1 #aja1 #aej1 #agc1 #agd vikrakraa1 #acc vikryyakraa1 #ace vikti1 #g n41 #afe vikshipta1 #ie1 #abc vikshiptacitta1 #if1 #acj vipka1 #aje1 #ajg viparyyaya1 #aja1 #agb1 #agc1 #agf viprayoga1 #g ,virtue1 #hf ,vishu ,pura1 #ff viesha1 #g1 #g n41 #dj1 #ei1 #ha1 #hd1 #afe1 #aga vieshaparima1 #fj vieshvieshaligamtrligniguaparvi1 #ei visok1 #abe vitarka1 #aec vitarknugata1 #abe1 #aed viyoga1 #bi n4 viyogakraa1 #acd1 #ace vryya1 #ajb1 #abf1 #abh1 #ace1 #acf ,vomit1 #ada ,vtti1 #ef1 #ib1 #if1 #ig1 #aja1 #ajb1 #abb1 #aga vyagya1 #eg vyajaka1 #eg vyatireka1 #abh vyavasytmakatva1 #c vyavaseytmakatva1 #c ,vysa1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #h n41 #bb1 #ec1 #aba1 #acc1 #ace ,vysa-bhshya1 #c n41 #e n41 #g n41 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #dc n41 #ej1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #ff n41 #fh n41 #gj1 #ga n41 #gi1 #hd1 #he1 #id1 #ii1 #aja1 #aag1 #aai1 #aba1 #acc1 #aga vyoman1 #ge vyutthna1 #aee1 #aef1 #agj vyutthna citta1 #ie ,ward1 #b n4 ,wicked1 #ajb ,world-phenomena1 #af ,world-process1 #ia yadyaligvasth abddyupabhoga v sattvapurushnyatkhytim v purushrtham nirvarttayet tannrvarttane hi na smyvasth syt1 #h ,yama1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adb1 #adc1 #adh ,yatamna1 #abg yath rathdi yantradibhi1 #be yathyaskntamai svasminneva ayasannidhkaraamtrt alyanishkarshakhyam upakram kurvat purushasya svmina svam bhavati bhogasdhanatvt1 #bb ye csynupasthit bhgaste csya na syureva nsti pshhamiti udaramapi na ghyeta1 #cf ,yoga1 #ad1 #bi1 #dh1 #fb1 #hi1 #if1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #adj1 #add1 #adg1 #aee1 #afb1 #agg2 its points of difference with ,skhya1 #afc-afe ,yoga metaphysics1 #a ,yoga philosophy in relation to other ,indian systems of thought1 #afe ,yoga system1 #b ,yoga theory1 #e yogga1 #abb1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #ace1 #acf1 #add1 #ade1 #adi ,yoga-stra1 #e n41 #aa1 #ag1 #ce n41 #dc n41 #de1 #dg1 #ajh1 #aag1 #adb1 #aec ,yoga-vrttika1 #d n41 #f n41 #i1 #aj1 #ab n41 #bb1 #bi n41 #dc n41 #de n41 #fj1 #fa1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #hg1 #aaj1 #abf1 #abg1 #abi1 #acd n41 #adc1 #aed1 #agf ,yogins1 #gi1 #hg1 #ie1 #ig1 #ih1 #aba1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acf1 #aci1 #adc1 #adg1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj2 nine kinds of1 #abi yogyatvacchinn dharmia aktireva dharma1 #hb ,yudhishhira1 #adj yutasiddhvayaba1 #afh ----- ,footnote #a3 ,see ,ward's ,naturalism and ,agnosticism4 ,footnote #b3 ,vcaspati's ,tattvavairad on the ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #dg4 ,footnote #c3 ,skhyapravacanabhshya1 ,i4 #abj4 ,footnote #d3 ,it is indeed difficult to say what was the earliest conception of the guas4 ,but there is reason to believe1 as ,i have said elsewhere1 that gua in its earliest acceptance meant qualities4 ,it is very probable that as the ,skhya philosophy became more and more systematised it was realised that there was no ultimate distinction between substance and qualities4 ,in consequence of such a view the guas which were originally regarded as qualities began to be regarded as substantive entities and no contradiction was felt4 ,bhikshu in many places describes the guas as substantive entities 7dravya7 and their division into three classes as being due to the presence of three kinds of class-characteristics4 ,this would naturally mean that within the same class there were many other differences which have not been taken into account 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah74 ,but it cannot be said that the view that the guas are substantive entities and that there is no difference between qualities and substances is regarded as a genuine ,skhya view even as early as akara4 ,see ,ghbhshya1 ,,xiv4 #e4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,vysa-bhshya on ,patajali's ,yoga-stras1 ,,ii4 #ah1 and ,vcaspati's ,tattvavairad on it4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,bhikshu's ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah4 ,footnote #g3 ,history of ,hindu ,chemistry1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 by ,p4 ,c4 ,ray1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #h3 ,the usual ,skhya terms as found in ,ivaraksha's ,krik1 having the same denotation as aviesha and viesha1 are praktivikti and vikti4 ,footnote #i3 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,footnote #aj3 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,footnote #aa3 ,tattvavairad1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,footnote #ab3 ,tattvatraya1 p4 #dh 7,chowkhamba edition71 ,benares4 ,footnote #ac3 ,bhikshu in his ,yoga-vrttika explains 8myeva0 as 8laukikamyeva kshaabhaguram0 evanescent like the illusions of worldly experience4 ,footnote #ad3 ,siddhntallea 7,jvevara nirpaia74 ,footnote #ae3 ,princess ,kunt of the ,mahbhrata had a son born to her by means of a charm when she was still a virgin4 ,being afraid of a public scandal she floated the child in a stream2 the child was picked up by the wife of a carpenter 7,rdh74 ,the boy grew up to be the great hero ,kara and he thought that he was the son of a carpenter until the fact of his royal lineage was disclosed to him later in life4 ,footnote #af3 ,krik #ag4 ,footnote #ag3 ,gauapda's commentary on ,krik #ag4 ,footnote #ah3 ,purusha is a substance 7dravya7 because it has independent existence 7anrita7 and has a measure 7vibhu parima7 of its own4 ,so it always possesses the common characteristics 7smnya gua7 of substances1 contact 7sayoga71 separation 7viyoga7 and number 7sakhy74 ,purusha cannot be considered to be suffering change or impure on account of the possession of the above common characteristics of all substances4 ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #ag4 ,footnote #ai3 ,thus the ,bhshya says3 bhavishyadvyaktikamangataanudbhtavyaktik amatta svavyproprha varttamna traya1 caitadvastu jnasya jeya yadi caitat svarpato nbhavishyanneda nirvishaya jnamudapatsyata tasmdattamangata svarpato' stti4 ,footnote #bj3 ,tattvavairad1 ,,iv4 #ad4 ,footnote #ba3 ,vastusmye cittabhedt tayor vibhakta panth4 ,yoga-stra1 ,,iv4 #ae4 ,footnote #bb3 8,tattvntara-parima0 means the evolution of a wholly new category of existence4 ,thus the tanmtras are wholly different from the ego from which they are produced4 ,so the atoms are wholly different from the tanmtras from which they are produced1 for the latter1 unlike the former1 have no sense-properties4 ,in all combinations of atoms1 there would arise thousands of new qualities1 but none of the products of the combination of atoms can be called a tattvntara1 or a new category of existence since all these qualities are the direct manifestations of the specific properties of the atoms4 ,footnote #bc3 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #eb1 says that the smallest indivisible part of a thing is called a paramu4 ,vijna ,bhikshu in explaining it says that paramu here means gua1 for if a thing say a stone is divided1 then the furthest limit of division is reached when we come to the indivisible guas4 ,but if the prakti is all-pervading 7vibhu7 how can the guas be atomic8 ,bhikshu says 7,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iii4 #eb7 in reply that there are some classes of guas 7e4g4 those which produce mind antakaraa and ka7 which are all-pervading1 while the others are all atomic4 ,in ,bhikshu's interpretation a moment is to be defined as the time which a gua entity takes to change its own unit of space4 ,guas are thus equivalent to the ,vaieshika paramus4 ,bhikshu1 however1 does not deny that there are no atoms of earth1 water1 etc41 but he says that where reference is not made to these atoms but to gua atoms for the partless units of time can only be compared with the partless guas4 ,but ,vcaspati does not make any comment here to indicate that the smallest indivisible unit of matter should mean guas4 ,moreover1 ,yoga-stra1 ,i4 #dj1 and ,vysa-bhshya1 ,i4 #de1 speak of paramu and au in the sense of earth-atoms1 etc4 ,even ,bhikshu does not maintain that paramu is used there in the sense of atomic gua entities4 ,i could not therefore accept ,bhikshu's interpretation that paramu here refers to gua4 ,paramu may here be taken in the sense of material atoms of earth1 water1 etc4 ,the atoms 7paramu7 here cannot be absolutely partless1 for it has two sides1 prior 7prvadea7 and posterior 7uttaradea74 ,footnote #bd3 ,bhikshu regards the movement of a gua of its own unit of space as the ultimate unit of time 7kshaa74 ,the whole world is nothing else but a series of kshaas4 ,this view differs from the ,buddhist view that everything is momentary in this that it does not admit of any other thing but the kshaas 7na tu kskatirikta kshaika padrtha kacidishyate taistu kskaamtrasthyyeva padrtha ishyate4 ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iii4 #eb74 ,footnote #be3 ,there is a difference of opinion as regards the meaning of the word 8kshaapratiyogi0 in ,,iv4 #cc4 ,vcaspati says that it means the growth associated with a particular kshaa or moment 7kshaapracayraya74 ,the word pratiyog is interpreted by ,vcaspati as related 7pratisambandh74 ,bhikshu1 however1 gives a quite different meaning4 ,he interprets kshaa as 8interval0 and pratiyog as 8opposite of0 7virodh74 ,so 8kshaapratiyog0 means with him 8without any interval0 or 8continuous40 ,he holds that the stra means that all change is continuous and not in succession4 ,there is according to his interpretation no interval between the cessation of a previous character and the rise of a new one4 ,footnote #bf3 ,nothing more than a superficial comparison with ,fichte is here intended4 ,a large majority of the texts and the commentary literature would oppose the attempts of all those who would like to interpret ,skhya-yoga on ,fichtean lines4 ,footnote #bg3 ,tattvakaumud on ,skhya-krik1 #be4 ,footnote #bh3 ,tattvavairad1 ,,iii4 #da4 ,footnote #bi3 ,this was first pointed out by ,dr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,seal in his ,physical1 ,chemical and ,mechanical ,theories of the ,ancient ,hindus in ,dr4 ,p4 ,c4 ,ray's ,hindu ,chemistry1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #cj3 ,yoga-vrttika1 ,i4 #de4 ,footnote #ca3 ,i have already said before that ,bhikshu thinks that the guas 7except the all-pervading ones7 may be compared to the ,vaieshika atoms4 ,see ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,iii4 #eb4 ,footnote #cb3 ,cf4 ,vysa-bhshya--8sabddn mrttisamnajtyn10 ,,iv4 #ad4 ,footnote #cc3 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,ii4 #ai4 ,footnote #cd3 ,vysa-bhshya1 ,,iii4 #ac4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #cf3 ,nahusha an earthly king became ,indra the king of the gods by the fruition of his virtues1 but on account of gross misdeeds fell from ,heaven and was turned into a snake4 ,footnote #cg3 ,tattravairad1 ,,iv1 #c4 ,footnote #ch3 ,i have translated both citta and buddhi as mind4 ,the word buddhi is used when emphasis is laid on the intellective and cosmical functions of the mind4 ,the word citta is used when emphasis is laid on the conservative side of mind as the repository of all experiences1 memory1 etc4 ,footnote #ci3 ,if this is a ,skhya doctrine1 it seems clearly to be a case of ,jaina influence4 ,footnote #dj3 ,compare ,pacaikha1 svalpasakara saparihra sapratyavamarsha1 ,tattvakaumud1 #b4 ,footnote #da3 ,pratyaya is explained in ,yoga-vrttika1 ,,ii4 #bh1 as sampratyaya or prmyanicaya4 ,footnote #db3 ,yudhishhira led falsely ,droa to believe that the latter's son was dead by inaudibly muttering that it was only an elephant having the same name as that of his son that had died4 ,footnote #dc3 ,this book has1 however1 not yet been published4 ,footnote #dd3 ,dr4 ,ray's ,hindu ,chemistry1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #de3 ,avidy manifests itself in different forms3 7#a7 as the afflictions 7klea7 of asmit 7egoism71 rga 7attachment71 dvesha 7antipathy7 and abhinivea 7self-love72 7#b7 as doubt and intellectual error2 7#c7 as error of sense4 ,all these manifestations of avidy are also the different forms of viparyyaya or bhrama 7error1 illusion1 mistake74 ,this bhrama in ,yoga is the thinking of something as that which it is not 7anyathkhyti74 ,thus we think the miserable worldly existence as pleasurable and attribute the characteristics of prakti to purusha and vice versa4 ,all afflictions are due to this confusion and misjudgment1 the roots of which stay in the buddhis in all their transmigrations from one life to another4 ,skhya1 however1 differs from ,yoga and thinks that all error 7avidy or bhrama7 is due only to non-distinction between the true and the untrue4 ,thus non-distinction 7aviveka7 between prakti and purusha is the cause of all our miserable mundane existence4 ,avidy and aviveka are thus synonymous with ,skhya4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,typos fixed2 non-standard spelling and dialect retained4 ,used numbers for footnotes1 placing them all at the end of the last chapter4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4