,exp]im5tal ,education ,s]ies ,,edit$ ,,by ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,%ea ,,special ,,tal5ts ,,& ,,defects ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,mm ,co4 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,bo/on ,,*icago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melb\rne ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,( ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,special ,,tal5ts ,,& ,,defects ,_! ,significance = ,education ,,by ,,leta ,s4 ,,holl+wor?1 ,,ph4,d4 ,associate ,pr(essor ( ,education ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aibc ,all rights res]v$ ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica ,,copyright1 #aibc ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,augu/1 #aibc4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cu%+ ,co4--,b]wick ,smi? ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,! ,,memory ,,( ,,ru? ,,el9or ,,/ett] ,a ,,good ,,tea*] ,,preface ,?is book has proce$$ halt+ly1 z mu/ be evid5t 9 _m places1 = x attempts to explore & describe a field t is n well illum9at$4 ,! actual exam9ation ( ^? m5tal functions :i* are relatively dissociat$ f g5]al intellig5ce has n be5 c>ri$ f> by exp]im5tali/s4 ,h[ev]1 ! problems h be5 suffici5tly =mulat$1 & en\gh evid5ce has be5 secur$1 to w>rant attempts at glean+ implications = education1 ev5 n[4 ,m9e is ! comp>atively humble task ( br++ toge!r 9 an ord]$ pres5tation ! works ( orig9al inve/igators1 9 su* a way t !y w be available = application4 ,! appeal ( ! data is above all to educators1 b also1 ( c\rse1 to ^? :o deal 9 any (fice ) human be+s4 ,! *ief difficulty 9 organiz+ ! subject has be5 to delimit x1 z reg>ds ! psy*ology ( ! elem5t>y s*ool subjects on ! "o h&1 & m5tal measurem5t on ! o!r4 ,x is n ! purpose to cov] ei!r ( ^! fields 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,yet s closely are !y relat$ to ! /udy ( special aptitudes 9 s*ool *ildr5 t x w be sc>cely possible to obta9 ! v cle>e/ view ( :at is "h writt5 )\t additional k ( ^! matt]s4 ,x w be obs]v$1 also1 t !re has be5 no attempt "h to tea* introductory psy*ology4 ,x is assum$ t read]s ( ?is volume w be acqua9t$ ) ! vocabul>y ( elem5t>y psy*ology4 ,! "t has def9itely pass$ :5 x 0 ei!r feasible or desirable to pres5t all topics 9 a s+le volume4 ,^? :o w\ld le>n :at mod]n educational psy*ology has to tea* n[ expect1 fir/ ( all1 to equip !mselves by /udy ( a g5]al introductory text4 ,! li/s ( ref]5ces are select$1 n complete4 ,to pres5t complete bibliographies ( all works be>+ imm$iately or remotely ^u e topic treat$ w\ld cumb] ! volume inexcusably4 ,ref]5ces h be5 select$ = ^! li/s because !y are hi/orically indisp5sable1 because !y conta9 in=mation ( fundam5tal importance1 or because !y summ>ize mu* previ\s "w4 ,i believe t ! selection is su* t f ! books & articles li/$ x w be possible = ! /ud5t :o wi%es to d s1 to con/ruct ! complete bibliography & hi/ory ( ea* topic1 up to ! pres5t "t4 ,! hundr$s ( tea*]s :o h sat 9 ! lecture room ( ,pr(essor ,e4 ,l4 ,?orndike w see h[ _m guid+ sugge/ions = ?is volume h come f t s\rce4 ,pr(essor ,w4 ,a4 ,mc,call has giv5 c\nsel on c]ta9 *apt]s4 ,_m inve/igators & publi%]s h ext5d$ c\rtesies1 :i* are ackn[l$g$ ?r\gh ! ref]5ces1 & to :i* att5tion is "h gratefully direct$4 ,i am indebt$ to ,dr4 ,john ,s4 ,ri*>ds1 ,m$ical ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,! ,*ildr5's ,hospital1 ,r&all's ,isl&1 ,new ,york1 & to ,mr4 ,l4 ,l4 ,kolburne1 /ud5t at ,tea*]s ,college1 = assi/ance 9 secur+ illu/rative mat]ial = ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,f9ally1 ,i h enjoy$ ! advantage ( editorial sup]vision by ,pr(essor ,m4 ,v4 ,o',%ea4 ,my *ief hope = ! volume is t x may contribute t[>d ! welf>e ( s*ool *ildr5 compell$ to att5d ^u prescrib$ education1 )\t due reg>d = _! idiosyncrasies ( orig9al end[m5t4 ,,leta ,s4 ,,holl+wor? ,,tea*]s ,,college ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,may1 #aibc ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,preface vii ,,editor',s ,,introduction xvii ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,discussion #a ,speculation ,conc]n+ ! ,nature ( ,ability4 ,results ( ,quantitative ,inve/igation4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,relation%ips ,,among ,,capacities #aa ,! ,coeffici5t ( ,correlation4 ,g5]al ,intellig5ce vs4 ,special ,aptitudes4 ,correlation ( ,abilities 9 ,v>i\s ,gr\ps4 ,/udies ( ,disorganiz+ ,m9ds4 ,is ,intellect ,inh]it$ z a ,unit8 ,c an ,intellect ,be ,tra9$ z a ,unit8 ,! ,hi]>*y ( ,abilities4 ,pres5t ,/atus ( ! ,problem4 ,measurem5t ( ,g5]al ,intellig5ce3 ,! ,,iq4 ,measurem5t ( ,special ,ability4 ,! ,psy*ographic ,picture ( ,individuality4 ,at ,:at ,age ,is ,m5tal ,end[m5t ,evid5t8 ,! ,frequ5cy ( ,m>k$ ,special ,tal5ts & ,defects4 ,possible ,orig9 ( ! ,dissociation ( ,c]ta9 ,capacities4 ,,iii4 ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,! ,,neural ,,basis #di ,! ,physiological ,me*anism ( ,m5tal ,life4 ,attempt$ ,localization ( ,m5tal ,functions4 ,!ory ( ,cong5ital ,lesion or ,atrophy ,criticiz$4 ,reg5]ation ( ,function )\t ,reg5]ation ( ,/ructure 9 ,injur$ ,bra9s4 ,attempts to ,e/abli% a ,neural ,basis = ! 8,two ,factor ,!ory0 & ! 8,two ,level ,!ory40 ,pres5t ,/atus ( ! ,problem4 ,,iv4 ,,read+ #eg ,relation betwe5 ,,iq & ,capacity = ,read+4 ,! ,me*anics ( ,read+4 ,compreh5sion 9 ,read+4 ,^w ,bl9dness4 ,psy*ological ,/udies ( ,special ,defect 9 ,read+4 ,n]v\s ,in/ability & ,special ,defect 9 ,read+4 ,a ,f\r-,ye> ,/udy ( a ,non-,read]4 ,summ>y ( ,/udies ( ,non-,read]s4 ,cases ( ,special ,ability 9 ,read+4 ,! ,significance ( ,lit]acy4 ,v4 ,,spell+ #ih ,coh]5ce among ,l+ui/ic ,functions4 ,analysis ( ,le>n+ to ,spell4 ,psy*ological ,exam9ation ( ,poor ,spell]s4 ,c ,special ,defect 9 ,spell+ ,be ,ov]come8 ,does ,read+ ,tea* ,spell+8 ,illu/rative ,cases4 ,,vi4 ,,ari?metic #aad ,relation betwe5 ,,iq & ,capacity = ,ari?metic4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,ari?metic & ,ma!matics4 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,ari?metical ,calculation4 ,! ,organization ( ,ari?metical ,abilities4 ,psy*ological ,/udies ( ,special ,defici5cy 9 ,ari?metic4 ,me?ods ( ,detect+ ,wrong or ,incomplete ,habits4 ,n]v\s ,in/ability & ,special ,defici5cy 9 ,ari?metic4 ,ari?metical ,prodigies4 ,ari?metical ,ability ( ,two ,*ildr5 ( ,,iq #ahd & ,,iq #ahg 7,/an=d-,b9et74 ,! ,inh]itance ( ,ari?metical ,abilities4 ,implications = ,education4 ,,vii4 ,,draw+ #ada ,! ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,draw+4 ,ramifications ( ,draw+ ?r\gh ! ,curriculum4 ,psy*ological ,analysis ( ,tal5t 9 ,draw+4 ,relation betwe5 ,aptitude 9 ,draw+ & ,g5]al ,intellig5ce4 ,! ,color-,bl9d4 ,illu/rative ,cases4 ,inh]itance ( ,tal5t 9 ,draw+4 ,g5]al ,summ>y4 ,,viii4 ,,music #afd ,:at ,is ,music8 ,! ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,music4 ,! ,analysis ( ,musical ,tal5t4 ,relation among ,v>i\s ,elem5ts ( ,musical ,tal5t4 ,relation betwe5 ,musical ,tal5t & ,g5]al ,intellig5ce4 ,absolute ,pit*4 ,tone ,deafness4 ,range ( ,individual ,diff]5ces4 ,c ,musical ,capacity ,be ,increas$ by ,education8 ,! ,inh]itance ( ,musical ,tal5t4 ,psy*ographic ,/udy ( ,individuals4 ,capacity to ,appreciate ,music4 ,,ix4 ,,miscellane\s #ahc ,special ,functions ,:i* ,h ,n ,be5 ,long ,/udi$4 ,left-,h&$ness4 ,mirror ,writ+4 ,me*anical ,ability4 ,ability to ,lead & ,h&le ,p4 ,x4 ,,individuality ,,& ,,education #aif ,! ,values ( ,individuality4 ,compulsory ,education4 ,! ,importance ( ,g5]al ,intellig5ce = ,s*ool ,progress4 ,special ,abilities & ,disabilities z ,det]m9ants ( ,s*ool ,progress4 ,exp]im5tal ,attempts to ,individualize ,education4 ,! ,co/ ( ,fo/]+ ,individuality4 ,! ,probable ,rew>ds ( ,individualiz+ ,education4 ,,table ,,( ,,figures ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,di/ribution ( ability to discrim9ate among int]vals ( "t1 ! subjects be+ adults4 7,f ,sea%ore's ,! ,psy*ology ( ,musical ,tal5t4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,silv]1 ,burdett & ,company1 & ( ! ,columbia ,graphophone ,company47 #h #b4 ,flight ( birds1 illu/rat+ di/ribution 9 ability to fly4 7,s*ematic47 #i #c4 ,! psy*ograph ( a s*oolboy1 %[+ 8 /&+ 9 v>i\s m5tal functions2 illu/rat+ use ( ! horizontal l9e to d5ote typical p]=mance4 7,f ,holl+wor?'s ,judg+ ,human ,"*4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,d4 ,appleton & ,company47 #ci #d4 ,! psy*ographs ( ?ree s*oolgirls1 %[+ _! /&+s 9 v>i\s m5tal functions1 measur$ to det]m9e ma!matical ability2 illu/rat+ use ( ! v]tical l9e to d5ote typical p]=mance4 7,f ,te/s ( ,ma!matical ,ability & ,_! ,progno/ic ,value4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,agnes ,l4 ,rog]s47 #dj #e4 ,! psy*ograph ( a s*oolboy1 %[+ 8 /&+ 9 v>i\s m5tal functions2 illu/rat+ use ( ! circle z a diagram1 ! m$ian circumf]5ce d5ot+ ! typical p]=mance ( 8 age #da #f4 ,%[+ h[ ,x improv$ z measur$ by ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 f ,feb41 #aiah1 to ,dec41 #aiba #gg-ha #g4 ,%[+ ,x's improvem5t 9 sil5t read+1 f ,april #ae1 #aiba1 to ,dec4 #b1 #aiba1 z measur$ by ,?orndike-,mc,call 8,read+ ,scale10 ,=m ,i #hb-hc #h4 ,%[+ ,x's ability to get mean+ f pr9t$ words1 9 ,may1 #aibb1 z te/$ by ,hagg]ty's 8,sigma #a10 = grades #a to #c #hd #i4 ,%[+ an acc\nt writt5 by ,x ( 8 week's read+ #hf #aj4 ,composition writt5 at s*ool by ,x 9 ,decemb]1 #aibj1 %[+ defici5cies 9 spell+ #ajg #aa4 ,lett] writt5 by ,x %[+ h[ he c\ld spell by use ( diction>y #ajh #ab4 ,%[+ ef=ts to spell ( a #ad-ye>-old s*oolboy1 ( ,,iq #ic1 aft] eight ye>s ( s*ool in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ extreme dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce #aaj #ac4 ,%[+ spell+ ( a #ab-ye>-old girl1 ( ,,iq #ei1 aft] six ye>s ( in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ extreme dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce #aaa #ad4 ,%[+ spell+ ( a *ild #i ye>s #aj mon?s old1 ) ,,iq #adc1 aft] ?ree ye>s ( in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce #aab #ae4 ,%[+ ,d's calculations on ,te/ #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #aj ye>s #aa mon?s1 five m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance #acb #af4 ,%[+ ,d's calculations on ,te/ #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #aj ye>s #aa mon?s1 ?ree m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance #acc #ag4 ,%[+ ,r's calculations on ,te/ #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #g ye>s #f mon?s1 five m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance #ace #ah4 ,%[+ ,r's calculations on ,te/ #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #g ye>s #f mon?s1 ?ree m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance #acf #ai4 ,%[+ ! psy*ograph ( a /upid *ild1 :o has a special ability 9 repres5tative draw+4 7,f ,manuel's ,a ,/udy ( ,tal5t 9 ,draw+4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,! ,public ,s*ool ,publi%+ ,company47 #aee #bj4 ,%[+ special ability 9 draw+ ( a #ad-ye>-old boy1 ( ,,iq ne> #gj #aef #ba4 ,%[+ special ability 9 draw+ ( a #ad-ye>-old boy1 ( ,,iq ne> #gj #aeg #bb4 ,%[+ ! special ability to cut silh\ettes1 ( a feeble-m9d$ man1 inmate ( an in/itution = m5tal defectives #aei #bc4 ,*>lie ,*apl9 pursu+ a g5tleman1 & pursu$ by a policeman4 ,%[+ ! special ability to draw1 ( a feeble-m9d$ man1 9 an in/itution = m5tal defectives #afj #bd4 ,%[+ attempts by two di/+ui%$ univ]sity pr(essors to cut silh\ettes ( an elephant #afa #be4 ,psy*ograph ( ,g1 %[+ special ability 9 music & draw+ comb9$ ) m$iocre intellig5ce #agg #bf4 ,psy*ograph ( ,m1 %[+ special defect 9 music comb9$ ) v sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce #agi #bg4 ,%[+ mirror writ+ by public s*ool pupils4 7,f ,beeley's ,an ,exp]im5tal ,/udy ( ,left-,h&$ness4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press47 #ahi ,,editor',s ,,introduction ,:5 ! writ] ( ?is introductory note began tea*+1 x 0 popul>ly believ$ t a pupil :o %[$ special excell5ce 9 intellectual "w or 9 "s p>ticul> /udy ow$ 8 sup]iority to a fai?ful & en]getic w :i* held him to 8 tasks until he _h ma/]$ !m ?or\ghly4 ,x 0 g5]ally believ$1 also1 t m>k$ defici5cy 9 s*ool "w z a :ole or 9 a special subject 0 due pr9cipally to a le?>gic or indiff]5t w :i* c\ld n resi/ di/ractions & temptations to self-indulg5ce4 ,9 ^? days1 pupils 7 upbraid$ & ev5 physically *a/is$ if !y fail$ to prep>e ! lessons :i* 7 prescrib$ = !m 9 any /udy4 ,! writ] has (t5 se5 pupils :ipp$ because !y fail$ 9 _! spell+1 ari?metic1 read+1 hi/ory1 or gramm>4 ,:5 puni%m5t 0 adm9i/]$ 9 ! s*ool x 0 frequ5tly repeat$ 9 ! home1 s9ce p>5ts q g5]ally ent]ta9$ ! view t failure to p]=m intellectual tasks satisfactorily 0 due to neglig5ce or laz9ess1 & x 0 ?\ght t ! be/ way to correct su* del9qu5cy 0 to ar\se ! w1 usually by means ( d]mal /imulation4 ,9 8 e>ly exp]i5ce z a tea*]1 ! writ] nev] he>d1 ei!r 9 tra9+ classes or 9 tea*]s' in/itutes1 t pupils possess$ special tal5ts or defects :i* 7 c]ta9 to be manife/$ 9 _! s*ool "w because !y 7 e/abli%$ by native end[m5t :i* c\ld n be modifi$ to any l>ge ext5t by rew>ds or p5alties4 ,b we are gradually ab&on+ ! view t ei!r brightness or dullness 9 g5]al or 9 special directions is due prim>ily to volitional control or ! abs5ce ( x4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 exp]im5tal /udies h impress$ ! pr9ciple t individuals diff] 9 _! inh]itance ( special capacities4 ,dr4 ,holl+wor? %[s 9 ?is volume h[ f> we h gone 9 ! detection ( special tal5ts & defects1 ) p>ticul> reg>d to ! "w ( ! s*ool4 ,%e %[s 9 prelim9>y discussion :at notions p h ent]ta9$ reg>d+ ! nature ( ability1 & !n %e discusses me?ods ( measur+ ability1 alike ( a g5]al & ( a special sort4 ,%e discusses ! bases = diff]5ces among individuals 9 ability 9 respect to v>i\s intellectual traits or functions4 ,!n %e pres5ts 9 detail :at is kn[n to-day reg>d+ special tal5ts & defects z reveal$ 9 ! m important subjects taught 9 ! s*ools4 ,we believe 9 ^! times t ! s*ool %\ld to ! fulle/ ext5t provide opportunities = ea* pupil to develop 8 tal5ts z completely & z rapidly z possible4 ,x is /ill requir$ 9 mo/ public s*ools1 ?\gh1 t pupils 9 any gr\p %\ld be kept q close toge!r 9 _! educational progress1 ev5 :5 !y %[ m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ability 9 p>ticul> subjects or 9 ! entire "w ( ! s*ool4 ,b ! pressure is becom+ con/antly great] to arrange s*ool programs s t pupils may g =w>d z rapidly z _! abilities1 ei!r g5]al or special1 w enable !m to d1 :ile ^? :o are defici5t may receive help accord+ to _! ne$s4 ,!re are already a numb] ( exp]im5tal s*ools & s*ool sy/ems 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( individual diff]5ces 9 ability is recogniz$ & appli$ to a great] or less ext5t4 ,"o may safely pr$ict t we %all f9d a way 9 "t s t ! pr9ciple may be recogniz$ & appli$ 9 all public s*ools4 ,dr4 ,holl+wor?'s book lays a s\nd f\ndation = ! diff]5tiation ( pupils 9 a s*ool or classroom accord+ to special abilities or defici5cies4 ,x c be read by tea*]s :o h n _h ext5sive /udy ( educational psy*ology or /ati/ical me?ods ( inve/igat+ su* problems z are treat$ 9 ?is volume4 ,! book is writt5 9 a graceful /yle1 & te*nical matt]s are discuss$ 9 an unusually cle>1 simple1 & attractive way4 ,x may be confid5tly ass]t$ t any tea*] :o has *>ge ( ?irty or =ty pupils--or a small] or l>g] numb]--w be help$ to und]/& individual traits ( excell5ce or defici5cy if %e w read :at ,dr4 ,holl+wor? has pres5t$ 9 ?is volume4 ,x may be safely /at$1 also1 t a tea*] w be m sympa!tic t[>d pupils :o exp]i5ce difficulty 9 ma/]+ special subjects ( /udy if %e w become famili> ) ! facts & conclusions :i* ?is book conta9s4 ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,%ea ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,wiscons9 ,may1 #aibc ,,special ,,tal5ts ,,& ,,defects ,,*apt] ,i ,,prelim9>y ,,discussion ,i4 ,,speculation ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,ability ,s9ce reflective m5 began to record _! speculations1 !ories h be5 express$ conc]n+ ! nature & relation%ips ( m5tal functions4 ,plato 9 ,! ,republic contemplat$ ! importance ( k 9 ?is field4 8,come n[ & we w ask y a "q3 :5 y spoke ( a nature gift$ or n gift$ 9 any respect1 did y mean to say t "o man w acquire a ?+ easily1 ano!r ) difficulty2 a little le>n+ w lead ! "o to discov] a great deal2 :]eas ! o!r1 aft] mu* /udy & application1 no soon] le>ns ?an he =gets2 or1 aga91 did y mean t ! "o has a body :i* is a good s]vant to 8 m9d1 :ile ! body ( ! o!r is a h9drance to him8 ,w\ld n ^! be ! sort ( diff]5ces :i* w\ld di/+ui% ! man gift$ by nature f ! "o :o is ungift$80 ,9 ,! ,republic ! use ( m5tal te/s to discov] ! calib] ( ! m9d is =etold4 8,we mu/ wat* !m f _! y\? upw>ds1 & make !m p]=m actions 9 :i* !y are mo/ likely to =get or to be deceiv$1 & he :o rememb]s & is n deceiv$ is to be select$1 & he :o fails 9 ! trial is to be reject$4 ,t w be ! way80 ,aside f ! speculations ( s*ol>s1 folk notions z express$ 9 prov]bs are int]e/+1 especially z %[+ :at m5 wi% 7 true conc]n+ human tal5ts & defects4 ,_m ( ^! prov]bs embody ! idea ( a comp5satory di/ribution ( abilities3 if ,i am weak 9 "o respect1 ,i am sure to be /rong 9 ano!r2 if ,i am a failure n[1 ,i %all probably be a success lat] on4 8,e dog has 8 day40 8,homely 9 ! cradle1 h&some at ! table40 8,sl[ b sure40 8,easy come1 easy g40 ,?is doctr9e ( comp5sation satisfies c]ta9 crav+s ( human nature1 & is !re=e likely to be held :]ev] p h n giv5 imp>tial att5tion to ! results ( exp]im5tal inve/igation4 ,folk-wisdom has also se5 m5 "u m5tal types4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( types1 ! human species is divid$ into sep>ate categories1 ) respect to m5tal con/itution4 ,!re w\ld ?us be ! musical & ! unmusical1 ! quick & ! sl[1 ! imag9ative & ! unimag9ative1 ! eye-m9d$ & ! e>-m9d$1 & s =?4 ,! obs]vable complexities ( behavior h fur!r l$ to ! description ( a giv5 p]son by a comb9ation ( type-t]ms1 z1 = example1 8quick-musical-imag9ative10 or 8ma!matical-accurate-unimag9ative40 ,p]sons ?us classifi$ by types1 are ?\ght to be ( 8diff]5t k9ds10 8equal0 b 8unlike40 ,two p]sons are ?us comp>$ z an apple is comp>$ to an orange4 ,bo? fruits are 8equal10 b ( 8diff]5t types40 ,p1 accord+ to ?is conception ( human nature1 are n ?\ght ( z diff]+ f ea* o!r simply 9 am\nt1 z an apple is comp>$ ) a l>g]1 a small]1 or a sweet] apple4 ,comp>ison 9 t]ms ( am\nt is disagreeable 9 "s respects1 s t uncontroll$ speculation w\ld surely t5d to favor ! !ory ( di/9ct types4 ,type-t]ms h also be5 inv5t$ = temp]am5t1--sangu9e1 *ol]ic1 melan*olic1 phlegmatic4 ,! idea und]ly+ ?is classification is t ev]yone belongs to "o or ano!r ( ^! di/9ct temp]am5tal types1 &1 fur!rmore1 t !re is a relation%ip among types :i* w>rants fix$ hyph5at$ categories4 ,! m5tal traits or 8faculties0 ?us classifi$ & hyph5at$ are conceiv$ z entities1 hav+ ea* its di/9ct exi/5ce 9 ! individual m9d1 & be+ susceptible to g5]al tra9+ & /r5g!n+1 by prescrib$ ex]cises4 ,?us x has be5 believ$ t 8! obs]vation0 may be develop$ by ex]cises ) p>ticul> mat]ials1 s t all mat]ials :atsoev] w be obs]v$ equally or approximately z well4 ,speculation has be5 mu* occupi$1 z ! hi/ory ( human ?\ght %[s1 ) ! problem ( ! orig9 ( individual end[m5t4 ,_m diff]5t possible explanations 7 propos$1 be=e ! day ( quantitative measurem5t 9 psy*ology4 ,x has be5 surmis$ t m5tal end[m5t is ! result ( pr5atal influ5ces1 ! wi%es & environm5t ( ! "m1 dur+ ! p]iod ( ge/ation2 or t x is ! result ( education2 or t x arises f ! physical accid5ts met ) by ! organism2 or t x may be inh]it$ f ance/ors1 z physical traits r obvi\sly are4 ,on ! :ole1 speculation has favor$ ! notion t m5tal end[m5t orig9ates 9 ! environm5t4 ,! idea t ability is h]$it>y1 det]m9$ = ea* by ! conditions ( ance/ry1 is repugnant4 ,man pref]s to consid] t he c himself det]m9e :at he w d & be4 ,?is doctr9e w n be t5able if x is admitt$ t tal5ts & defici5cies are det]m9$ 9 ! g]m-plasm1 f :i* ! organism spr+s2 t man c only use1 n *oose1 8 m5tal end[m5t4 ,,ii4 ,,results ,,( ,,quantitative ,,inve/igation ,_m ( ! *]i%$ hopes & desires ( mank9d conc]n+ itself are 9 "s "p violat$ by ! tea*+s ( sci5tific psy*ology4 ,exp]im5tal psy*ology is n yet half a c5tury old1 dat+ its beg9n+ z a te*nical sci5ce f ! f\nd+ ( ,wundt's laboratory at ,leipzig1 9 #ahgi4 ,!re=e1 x is cle> t ! /udy ( ^! problems by quantitative me?ods br+s u v close to ! pres5t day4 ,:5 ! problem ( measur+ m5tal capacity 0 fir/ tak5 into ! laboratory1 ! mod]n def9ition ( a m5tal function began to be =mulat$4 ,x became app>5t t a m9d mu/ be judg$ by its product4 ,! measurem5t ( p]=mance is ! only approa* !re is1 or probably ev] w be1 to ! measurem5t ( m9d4 ,on ?is basis x 0 f\nd impossible to id5tify or measure any su* function z 8! reason10 8! memory10 8! obs]vation10 8! imag9ation10 8! w10 & simil> suppos$ entities4 ,a m5tal function came to be def9$ z 8an actually or possibly obs]vable ev5t 9 behavior40 ,?us1 memoriz+ digits1 detect+ absurdities1 & read+ ,engli% pr9t are examples ( m5tal functions1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is us$ ?r\gh\t ! *apt]s ( ?is discussion4 ,o!r t]ms :i* are us$ to ref] to p]=mances or 8ev5ts 9 behavior10 are abilities & capacities4 ,a prolong$ discussion might be conduct$1 9 an attempt to assign diff]5t te*nical mean+s to ^! words1 & to br+ out f9e %ades ( di/9ction among !m4 ,= in/ance1 x might be claim$ t 8ability0 %\ld be res]v$ to signify capacity plus ! skill acquir$ by practice1 if any2 :ile 8capacity0 %\ld mean ! innate aptitude1 ap>t f all tra9+4 ,h[ev]1 s9ce capacity 9 ?is s5se c nev] be kn[n1 b c only be inf]r$ f ! degree ( actual p]=mance1 "u controll$ conditions1 x h>dly seems necess>y to ma9ta9 su* di/9ctions = our purpose4 ,ref9em5ts ( nom5clature w1 !re=e1 be avoid$1 & ! t]ms m5tal function1 capacity1 & ability w be us$ int]*angeably1 to d5ote p]=mance :i* dep5ds on ! inborn integrity & s5sitivity ( ! individual4 ,by way ( cl>ify+ ! def9ition ( a m5tal function z 8an actually or possibly obs]vable ev5t 9 behavior10 we may quote f ,spe>man's pres5tation ( ! di/9ction betwe5 8obs]vation0 z a m5tal function1 & 8obs]vation ( birds' ne/s40 ,spe>man says3 8,suppose1 = in/ance1 t a s*ool boy has surpass$ 8 fell[s 9 ! obs]vation ( birds' ne/s4 ,8 victory has1 no d\bt1 dep5d$ 9 "p on 8 capacity = ! g5]al =m ( activity kn[n z #8obs]vation4' ,b x has also dep5d$ on 8 be+ able to apply ?is =m ( activity to ! matt] ( birds' ne/s2 _h ! "q be5 ( t>ts 9 ! pa/ry cook's w9d[1 ! laurels might well h fall5 to ano!r boy4 ,a fur!r influ5ce mu/ h be5 ex]cis$ by ! accompany+ circum/ances2 to spy out ne/s z !y lie conceal$ 9 ! foliage is n ! same ?+ z to make obs]vations conc]n+ !m 9 ! op5 light ( a natural hi/ory museum4 ,aga91 to discov] ne/s at leisure is diff]5t f do+ s "u ! sev]e spe$ limits prescrib$ by ! risk ( an int]rupt+ gamekeep]4 ,! boy's rank may ev5 dep5d l>gely on ! mann] ( e/imat+ m]it4 ,m>ks may be giv5 ei!r = ! gross numb] or = ! r>ity ( ! ne/s obs]v$2 & he :o mo/ infallibly notes ! obvi\s con/ruction ( ! h\se-sp>r[ may n be ! be/ at detect+ ! elusive hole ( ! k+fi%]40 ,"o _c1 !re=e1 id5tify & measure 8obs]vation40 ,"o c only measure 8obs]v+ birds' ne/s1 ( all k9ds1 at leisure10 or 8obs]v+ r>e birds' ne/s1 "u /ress ( pursuit10 & s =?1 :i* are 8actual or possible ev5ts 9 behavior40 ,z "o may glean fur!r f ,spe>man's disc\rse1 x has be5 %[n t mo/ ( ! m5tal functions p]=m$ by m5 are n elem5t>y1 b consi/ ( ! cord9ation ( complex factors1 capable ( analysis4 ,read+ ! ,engli% ^w 8cat0 f a pr9t$ page is1 = in/ance1 a v complex function4 ,! application ( quantitative me?ods to ! /udy ( m5tal functions z ?us def9$1 quickly reveal$ ! fact t human be+s1 sampl$ at r&om1 9 l>ge numb]s1 d n fall into di/9ct types4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y yield "o unbrok5 curve ( di/ribution 9 ! function measur$1 clu/]+ ar\nd a s+le type 7or mode74 ,9 all m5tal functions :i* h be5 measur$1 !re has be5 f\nd b "o type--! av]age human type--f :i* ! individual memb]s ( ! species deviate 9 degree 7?\gh n 9 k9d74 ,! majority ( individuals deviate b slightly f ?is biologically e/abli%$ type or mode4 8,! typical0 9 ability is1 inde$1 by def9ition1 :at ! greate/ numb] ( p c d4 ,f ?is p]=mance ( ! av]age or typical p]son1 a few individuals deviate widely 9 ! direction ( sup]iority1 :ile a correspond+ few deviate widely 9 ! direction ( inf]iority4 ,no d\bt ! conspicu\sness1 because ( _! infrequ5cy1 ( extreme deviates 9 respect to any giv5 function 7or capacity7 has l$ to ! notion ( sep>ate types ( mank9d4 ,m5tal measurem5t %[s cle>ly t m5 clu/] closely ar\nd "o type 9 m5tal traits1 j z !y d 9 su* physical traits z height & weight4 ,all m5 c be no m divid$ into ! dull & ! bright1 ?an !y c be divid$ into ! tall & ! %ort4 ,! eye c see t mo/ p]sons are be/ describ$ z m$ium1 9 height4 ,?is pr9ciple ( "o type1 ) deviations 9 bo? directions f x1 9 a measur$ trait1 holds ?r\gh\t organic nature4 ,! /udy ( x 9 all its be>+s is call$ ! /udy ( individual diff]5ces4 ,:5 ! traits involv$ are m5tal1 we speak ( ! psy*ology ( individual diff]5ces4 ,x is "o ( ! m>vel\s facts ab\t human be+s t ( all ! millions born1 no two are j equal 9 possession ( a giv5 trait1 except by *ance2 & no two are id5tical 9 _! comb9ations ( traits1 = ! inf9ite possibilities ( p]mutation practically exclude id5tity by *ance4 ,^! comb9ations1 :i* g to make up p]sonality1 are comb9ations ( am\nts ( ! same traits4 ,?is mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood4 ,! m5tal classification ( m5 "u diff]5t 8k9ds0 is a my?4 ,all %[ ! same k9ds ( functions2 b !y %[ all degrees ( p]=mance 9 ^! functions1 )9 limits :i* are extremely wide1 ) multitud9\s possibilities ( comb9ations ( functions1 9 diff]5t am\nts ( ea*4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 n types4 ,!re is "o type--! typical or mo/ frequ5tly occurr+ am\nt ( p]=mance 9 a function--f :i* !re is div]g5ce among ! individuals born1 9 v>i\s degrees4 ,is x possible to con/ruct a picture ( ?is fact1 s t x may become concrete ?r\gh visual repres5tation8 ,psy*ologi/s h giv5 u _m su* pictures1 9 ! =ms ( curves platt$ f _! measurem5ts4 ,we may cite z an example1 ,sea%ore's curve ( di/ribution = ! ability to discrim9ate among int]vals ( "t1 :i* is "o elem5t 9 musical s5sitivity4 ,sea%ore measur$ a l>ge numb] ( adults 9 ?is respect1 ) ! result t is pictur$ 9 ,figure #a4 ,:]e ! curve rises to its greate/ height1 at its peak1 !re ! greate/ numb] ( ^? measur$ fall 9 respect to ?is function4 ,t is1 !re=e1 ! human type1 9 s5se ( "t4 ,! typical individual has t am\nt ( ?is trait4 ,on ea* side ( ! type fall deviat+ p]sons1 _! frequ5cy decreas+ rapidly z ! am\nt ( deviation becomes great]4 ,v few p]sons 9 t5 ?\s& h t am\nt ( s5sitivity to "t repres5t$ by #ie-ajj2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 v few are s inf]ior z to fall at ! l[e/ po9t measurable on ?is scale4 ,! typical p]son has t am\nt ( ! trait repres5t$ by #he-ge1 approximately4 ,di/9ct types1 su* z 8s5sitive0 & 8ins5sitive10 d n appe>1 z a result ( ma!matical di/ribution4 ,b a few extreme deviates f ! typical appe>1--! sup]ior 9 s5sitivity & ! inf]ior 9 s5sitivity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,di/ribution ( ability to discrim9ate among int]vals ( "t1 ! subjects be+ adults4 7,f ,sea%ore's ,! ,psy*ology ( ,musical ,tal5t4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,silv]1 ,burdett & ,company1 & ( ,! ,columbia ,graphophone ,company47 ,occasionally x is possible to illu/rate 9 nature1 to ! eye ( ! man untutor$ 9 ! d]ivation ( sci5tific laws1 ! =m ( ?is di/ribution4 ,?is happ5s1 = example1 :5 a v l>ge flock ( birds rises & passes ov]head1 dur+ migration4 ,be+ te/$ 9 flight1 ! birds w be se5 di/ribut$ some:at z sugge/$ 9 ,figure #b4 ,n all are equally swift & endur+1 b !y deviate f a s+le type or mode--! great m$ian mass ( birds1 :i* are typical ( ?is species1 9 respect to ! function ( flight4 ,! same ph5om5a ( di/ribution appe> if a ?\s& wild horses run a race1 or if a hundr$ unselect$ swimm]s swim 9 competition4 ,!y appe> :5ev] non-select organisms ( a s+le species are submitt$ to an adequate te/ or measure ( any function ( end[m5t4 ,! curve approximates t =m :i* ma!maticians tell u results :5 an inf9ite numb] ( factors act toge!r 9 an inf9ite numb] ( ways4 ,we h spok5 ?us f> ( ! di/ribution ( individuals 9 a s+le k9d ( p]=mance4 ,:at does quantitative psy*ology tea* ) respect to ! comb9ation ( p]=mances 9 a giv5 p]sonality8 ,is x true1 z folk-wi%es w\ld h x1 t abilities are di/ribut$ among u by a law ( comp5sation8 ,is ! sl[ man's sl[ness (fset by accuracy8 ,does ! quick le>n] lose 8 le>n+ m readily ?an ! sl[ le>n]8 ,is he :o excels 9 ari?metic likely to be surpass$ at spell+8 ,! g5]al consid]ation ( ^! que/ions1 :i* =m ! topics ( ?is volume1 w be f\nd 9 ! *apt] :i* foll[s4 ,x w be se5 t !re is no law ( comp5sation 9 human ability1 h[ev] mu* we may long to f9d x !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,flight ( birds1 illu/rat+ di/ribution 9 ability to fly4 7,s*ematic47 ,z = ! orig9 ( tal5ts & defects1 psy*ology tea*es t m5tal end[m5t 9 human be+s is condition$ by ance/ry1 j z o!r traits ( organisms are4 ,m5tal capacities are inh]it$ ?r\gh ! g]m-plasm4 ,a *ild is gift$ 7if he is s7 = ! same reason t he is an ,eskimo 7if he is "o7--because "s or all ( 8 ance/ors c>ri$ ^? traits 9 _! g]m-plasm1 & ! comb9ation ( !m 9 j t way 0 possible4 ,,ref]5ces ,,meumann1 ,e4--,vorlesung5 zur ,e9fhrung 9 die exp]im5telle ,pdagogik2 ,engelmann1 ,leipzig1 #aiad4 ,,sea%ore1 ,c4--,measures ( ,musical ,tal5t2 ,columbia ,graphophone ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,/]n1 ,w4--,die diff]5tielle ,psy*ologie2 ,b>?1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,educational ,psy*ology2 #c vols4 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiac4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,relation%ips ,,among ,,capacities ,i4 ,,! ,,coeffici5t ,,( ,,correlation ,! "q is3 ,h[ are m5tal capacities mutually relat$1 ) reg>d to am\nts ( ea* f\nd 9 giv5 individuals8 ,be=e v]ifiable facts c be e/abli%$ 9 a field ( k1 x is necess>y to introduce !re9 me?ods ( enum]ation & measurem5t4 ,! "q above prop\nd$ has wait$ long = answ]1 because ( ! great difficulty ( apply+ ma!matics to m5tal ph5om5a4 ,! answ] requir$ fir/ t s+le functions be accurately scor$1 & !n t a measurem5t be obta9$ ( ! relation%ip betwe5 & among ! s+le functions4 ,x seems well agre$ t ! quantitative det]m9ation ( ! relation%ip betwe5 & among m5tal *>act]i/ics began ) ,galton1 ab\t #ahhe4 ,v>i\s s*ol>s h pres5t$ discussions ( ! subject s9ce !n1 notably ,ba]wald 9 #ahif1 ,spe>man 9 #aijd1 ,/]n 9 #aiaa1 ,meumann 9 #aiac1 & ,?orndike 9 #aiac1 ea* ( :om summ>iz$ ! f9d+s up to ! "t ( writ+1 ) orig9al int]pretations4 ,! me?ods ( quantitative measurem5t us$ to /udy ! con/itution ( m5tal abilities1 or functions1 z relat$ to ea* o!r1 are *iefly ^? ( correlation--simple correlation1 multiple correlation1 & p>tial correlation4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t volume to give consid]ation to ^! me?ods z su*4 ,highly te*nical in/ruction 9 ! !ory & practice ( measurem5t is necess>y = complete und]/&+ ( !m4 ,! results may be compreh5d$ = our purposes1 )\t complete k ( ! me?ods4 ,mu* ( ! evid5ce we n[ h 9 ! matt] ( relation%ips among m5tal functions has be5 obta9$ by ! me?od ( simple correlation4 ,a brief exposition ( h[ a relation%ip is e/abli%$ betwe5 two v>iable functions )9 a gr\p1 by simple correlation1 w suffice to give a g5]al und]/&+ ( ! t]m coeffici5t ( correlation1 :i* is us$ "h1 & :i* frequ5tly appe>s 9 mod]n texts ( educational psy*ology4 ,! int]pretation ( coeffici5ts ( correlation %\ld n1 h[ev]1 be und]tak5 indep5d5tly )\t full k1 z compet5t int]pretation = practical purposes mu/ take into acc\nt all ! conditions "u :i* !y h be5 d]iv$4 ,bel[ are li/$ f\rte5 s*ool *ildr51 ea* ( :om has be5 measur$ 9 ea* ( two m5tal functions3 7#a7 m5tal age1 det]m9$ by a /&>d scale = measur+ g5]al intellig5ce 7,/an=d-,b9et71 & 7#b7 spell+ ability1 z measur$ by a /&>d spell+ scale 7,ayres' scale74 ,^! *ildr5 7 select$ = /udy1 because !y appe>$ to be *>act]iz$ by special discrepancy betwe5 ! two functions4 ,we wi% n[ to "k :e!r & to :at ext5t ! *ild :o falls high 9 ! di/ribution ( m5tal ages also falls high 9 ! di/ribution ( spell+ ability4 ,accord+ to ! =mula :i* is mo/ useful 9 ?is case1#a we arrange ^! pupils 9 _! ord] ( m]it = "o ( ! functions measur$1 e4g4 = m5tal age4 ,we !n f9d ! rank = ea*1 )9 ! gr\p1 9 ! second function1 :i* is "h spell+ ability4 ,! diff]5ce 9 rank betwe5 ! pair$ functions is !n f\nd = ea* pupil1 & ! correlation =mula is appli$4#b ,,table ,,f ,,holl+wor? ,%[+ rank 9 ea* ( two m5tal functions1 )9 a gr\p ( fif? grade *ildr51 select$ = special disability 9 spell+4 ,! coeffici5t ( correlation obta9$ is 4#jha4 ,,"n ,,m5tal ,,age ,,spell+ ,,ability ,,yrs4 ,,mos4 ,,p] ,,c5t ,,correct 7,,/an=d-,,b9et7 ,,li/s ,q ,,& ,r 7,,ayres7 ,,rl #ac #g #ij4a ,,jp #ab #e #ie4b ,,ha #ab #b #ha4g ,,mg #aa #f #ca4g ,,lk #aj #aj #hj4b ,s,sh #aj #aj #gg4i ,s,sc #aj #i #ha4h ,,ms #aj #i #cd4a ,,pj #aj #d #cb4f ,,hl #aj #a #eh4i ,,rh #i #h #ic4a ,,mu #i #h #eg4j ,,bn #i #f #ib4a ,,hr #h #c #ha4h ,if !re is 9 fact p]fect correspond5ce1 s t ea* pupil holds ! same rank on ! di/ribution 9 bo? functions1 a p]fect positive correlation is obta9$1 ! coeffici5t ( correlation be+ express$ z #a4jj4 ,if no relation%ip at all exi/s betwe5 ! two functions measur$1 s t no?+ :atev] c be pr$ict$ ( ei!r f kn[+ ab\t ! o!r1 ! coeffici5t ( correlation w be #j4jjc ,if !re exi/s a p]fect negative relation%ip1 s t ! p]son :o /&s highe/ 9 "o /&s l[e/ 9 ! o!r1 & s =? ?r\gh ! s]ies1 9 a p]fect inv]se /&+ ( all memb]s1 !n a coeffici5t ( correlation express$ by #a4jj is obta9$4 ,9 ! sample giv51 ! coeffici5t ( correlation obta9$ is 4#jha1 :i* n be+ reliably great] ?an z]o 7because ( possible error due to ! smallness ( ! gr\p & o!r conditions7 tells u t ! two functions are 9 ?is case relat$ to ea* o!r only v slightly1 if at all4 ,! *ild :o /&s above ! av]age ( ! gr\p 9 m5tal age1 may or may n /& above ! gr\p av]age 9 spell+4 ,) a relation%ip s f> f unity z is express$ by a coeffici5t ( 4#jha1 we may expect to f9d 9 ?is gr\p comp>atively intellig5t *ildr5 :o are v poor spell]s1 & good spell]s :o /& l[ 9 m5tal age4 ,among *ildr5 tak5 at r&om1 h[ev]1 a diff]5t relation%ip exi/s betwe5 spell+ ability & g5]al intellig5ce1 z repres5t$ by m5tal age4 ,! positive correlation is mu* high] among *ildr5 n select$1 z ^! 71 = an obs]v$ discrepancy4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! m elaborate me?ods ( p>tial correlation & multiple correlation are be+ appli$ to ! /udy ( relation%ips1 :]e m ?an two functions are involv$4 ,into ! intricacies ( ^! we %all n ent]1 except z conc]ns _! results4 ,,ii4 ,,g5]al ,,intellig5ce vs4 ,,special ,,aptitudes ,! orig9al attempts to apply ma!matical =mul to ! /udy ( relation%ip among m5tal traits ev5tuat$ 9 div]g5t hypo!ses4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,spe>man1 ) 8 /ud5ts & collaborators1 int]pret$ 8 rese>*es to mean t !re is 9 m5tal con/itution a 8g5]al factor10 :i* %[s itself 9 all ! p]=mances ( a giv5 individual4 ,?is w\ld r5d] relatively pr$ictable ! quality ( p]=mance 9 all functions1 f k ( p]=mance 9 "o function4 8,all bran*es ( intellectual activity h 9 common "o fundam5tal function 7or gr\p ( functions71 :]eas ! rema9+ or specific elem5ts ( ! activity seem 9 e case to be :olly diff]5t f t 9 all o!rs4444 ,! function almo/ entirely controls ! relative position ( *ildr5 at s*ool 7aft] mak+ due all[ance = diff]5ces ( age71 & is n9e p>ts out ( t5 responsible = success 9 su* a simple act z ,discrim9ation ( ,pit*4444 ,its relation to ! intellectual activity does n appe> to be ( any loosely connect$ or auxili>y "* 7su* z will+ness to make an ef=t1 read9ess 9 adaption to unfamili> te/s1 or dext]ity 9 ! fa%ion ( execut+ !m71 b r to be intimately b\nd up 9 ! v ess5ce ( ! process40 ,spe>man not$ t1 ?\gh all functions seem$ relat$ to ?is 8common factor10 !y 7 n all equally relat$ 9 8 results2 :]e=e he =mulat$ ! concept ( a hi]>*y ( relat$ness4 ,discussion z to ! ess5tial nature ( ! fundam5tal factor 0 res]v$1 b x 0 pr$ict$ f ! correlations made t 8g5]al intellig5ce0 c\ld & w\ld be measur$ = practical purposes4 ,?is int]pretation 0 bas$ ^u ! fact t among abilities :i* yield$ to 8 measurem5t1 ,spe>man c\ld f9d only positive coeffici5ts ( correlation1 :5 ! gr\ps 7 l>ge & ! human be+s non-select4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,?orndike & 8 collaborators 7 mo/ /ruck by ! fact t ! coeffici5ts obta9$ fell %ort1 9 _m cases f> %ort1 ( unity4 ,!y laid /ress ^u ! imp]fection ( ! relations reveal$1 & 7 able to %[ t betwe5 "s functions1 su* z discrim9at+ among ! l5g?s ( l9es1 & o!rs1 su* z nam+ ! opposites ( words1 ! correlation dropp$ 9 gr\ps inve/igat$ to approximately z]o4 ,z a result ( int]pretation f _! po9t ( view1 !y wrote z foll[s3 8,"o is almo/ tempt$ to replace ,spe>man's /atem5t by ! equally extravagant "o t !re is no?+ :atev] common to all m5tal functions1 or to any half ( !m40 ,!y ma9ta9$ t m5tal functions are specializ$1 & t :5 excell5ce 9 "o is correlat$ ) excell5ce 9 ano!r1 8?is is due *iefly to ! fact t ! two involve id5tical elem5ts 9 _! execution4 ,x is n due to "o & ! same #8faculty1' :i* presides ov] _! activities40 ,^! two div]g5t int]pretations ( ! same array ( data h be5 cit$1 because ! controv]sy involv$ is ( fir/ rate importance = m5tal measurem5t1 = ! und]/&+ ( individuals1 & = education4 ,! controv]sy n[ appe>s to h be5 "o ( emphasis4 ,to recapitulate1 ,spe>man /ress$ ! positive aspect ( ! coeffici5ts f\nd1 & decl>$ m5tal traits to be di/ribut$ s t /atus 9 "o is pr$ictable f /atus 9 ano!r4 ,?orndike emphasiz$ ! r$uction f unity ( ! coeffici5ts1 & =mulat$ ! hypo!sis t !re is no absolutely pr$ictable coh]5ce among m5tal functions1 t ea* is special to itself )9 an individual4 ,no laboratory sci5ti/ has ev] f\nd reason = add+ a ?ird side to ! controv]sy1 by advocat+ s]i\sly t m5tal traits are comp5satory 9 relation to ea* o!r4 ,negative coeffici5ts ( correlation h nev] be5 f\nd1 except occasionally by *ance or selection4#d ,all "k t ! correlations among am\nts ( traits are positive4 ,x is ! r$uction f unity :i* has caus$ ! disagreem5ts ( int]pretation4 ,dur+ ! tw5ty ye>s :i* h elaps$ s9ce ! fir/ int]pretations 7 set =? !re h be5 modifications ( ea* hypo!sis1 9 ! direction ( mutual reconciliation4 ,?is has come ab\t ?r\gh ext5d$ rese>*es by _m inquir]s1 furni%+ additional data4 ,,iii4 ,,correlation ,,( ,,abilities ,,9 ,,v>i\s ,,gr\ps ,"s ( ! significant /udies ( correlation made s9ce ,spe>man & ,?orndike propos$ _! conflict+ int]pretations1 h be5 cit$ 9 ! app5d$ li/ ( ref]5ces4 ,two samples ( ! results ( ^! /udies are h]e) pres5t$4 ,! fir/ is f ,simpson's /udy ( m5tal te/s giv5 to two gr\ps ( adults1 *os5 respectively f ! opposite extremes ( compet5cy1 z %[n by social-economic success4 ,"o gr\p 0 compos$ ( successful pr(essional educators4 ,! o!r 0 compos$ ( unskill$ labor]s & unemploy$ m54 ,! table on page #ah %[s h[ ! traits measur$ coh]e among ^! individuals4 ,! coeffici5ts are positive1 9 ! majority ( cases highly s4 ,! second sample is f ,wegle9's /udy ( /&+ 9 s*ool subjects1 among high s*ool pupils4 ,be>+ 9 m9d t1 if no mutual relation%ip exi/s among ! abilities consid]$1 coeffici5ts ( correlation w approa* z]o1 x is cle> t !re is decid$ positive1 b n p]fect1 correspond5ce4 ,! wid] ! range ( compet5ce te/$1 ! great] ! correspond5ce f\nd4 ,high s*ool pupils 7f among :om ^? hav+ v little ability = ! subject matt] taught h already be5 elim9at$7 %[ small] coeffici5ts ?an d ! p]sons measur$ by ,simpson4 ,if all adolesc5ts 9 exi/5ce 7 oblig$ to /udy ! subjects li/$ by ,wegle91 & if ! result+ grades 7 !n correlat$1 ! coeffici5ts w\ld be notably high] ?an ^? record$4 ,,table ,,f ,,simpson ,,pe>son ,,coeffici5ts ,,( ,,correlation 7,,correct$ ,,= ,,att5uation7 ,correlations ( abilities 9 two select$ gr\ps1 & 9 ! two treat$ z "o gr\p4 ,9 ! case ( ea* te/ ! heavy-face figure giv5 fir/ is = ! ,good & ,poor toge!r1 div]g5ces be+ measur$ f ! m$ian ( ! #cg individuals4 ,! second figure is = ! ,good gr\p1 div]g5ces be+ measur$ f its m$ian4 ,! ?ird figure is = ! ,poor gr\p4 ,,ebb+haus ,,h>d ,,memory ,,easy ,a ,,memory ,,add+ ,,te/ ,,opposites ,,( ,,opposites ,,te/ ,,( ,,words ,,passages #ib #ib #ge #fh #ia #ga ,ebb+haus #ff #fg #dh #jc #db #ee te/ #ij #gh #ij #gf #fa #fc #ib #ib #ha #gf #hf #gd ,h>d #ff #ge #ic #ae #de #gi ,opposites #ij #gg #gh #fe #fd #ea #ib #ib #fh #gj #hi #ef ,memory ( #fg #ge #eb #ac #da #bj ,words #gh #gg #gj #hh #ajj #bc #ge #ha #fh #ga #fi #gj ,easy #dh #ic #eb #je #je #de ,opposites #ij #gh #gj #ea #eh #ej #fh #gf #gj #ga #fj #fg ,a ,te/ #jc #ae #ac #je #ad #ei #gf #fe #hh #ea #dh #ci #ia #hf #hi #fi #fj #ff ,memory ( #db #de #da #je #ad #bj ,passages #fa #fd #ajj #eh #dh #ae #ga #gd #ef #gj #fg #ff ,add+ #ee #gi #bj #de #ei #bj #fc #ea #bc #ej #ci #ae #ed #fd #fg #ed #id #fj #dd ,geometrical #jj #jg #jf #ch #fh #cj #ac ,=ms #cf #cc #ef #cd #ia #da #ai #gb #gb #hb #dc #dd #fc #df ,le>n+ #bb #ad #ec #jd #af #bf #ab ,pairs #gc #ff #dd #fd #gb #bb #ea #ej #gj #ea #ej #hd #ch #gg ,complet+ #fg #ajj #ajj #ajj #jd #ce #hf ,words #ga #di #dc #di #hh #ac #gj #bf #be #jf #ec #bg #ab #bg ,draw+ #ag #aj #bc #jj #aj #bd #di ,l5g?s #bg #ac #ji #dc #jh #ji #je #eb #ee #ei #ef #eg #eh #ag ,e/imat+ #bh #jh #dd #jb #aa #cf #jd ,l5g?s #ja #jb #af #af #ac #ce #dj ,,geometrical ,,le>n+ ,,complet+ ,,draw+ ,,e/imat+ ,,=ms ,,pairs ,,words ,,l5g?s ,,l5g?s #ed #gb #ej #bf #eb ,ebb+haus #jj #bb #fg #ag #bh te/ #cf #gc #ga #bg #ja #fd #gb #gj #be #ee ,h>d #jg #ad #ajj #aj #jh ,opposites #cc #ff #di #ac #jb #fg #hb #ea #jf #ei ,memory ( #jf #ec #ajj #bc #dd ,words #ef #dd #dc #ji #af #ed #dc #ej #ec #ef ,easy #ch #jd #ajj #jj #jb ,opposites #cd #fd #di #dc #af #id #dd #hd #bg #eg ,a ,te/ #fh #af #jd #aj #aa #ia #gb #hh #jh #ac #fj #fc #ch #ab #eh ,memory ( #cj #bf #ce #bd #cf ,passages #da #bb #ac #ji #ce #dd #df #gg #bg #ag ,add+ #ac #ab #hf #di #jd #ai #ea #gj #je #dj #dj #fa #cj #ce ,geometrical #bc #jj #dj #ad ,=ms #ci #cb #ad #jg #dj #cd #jd #ed ,le>n+ #bc #gd #ch #fa ,pairs #ci #cd #bj #cf #fa #cd #ag #bb ,complet+ #jj #gd #jd #jf ,words #cb #cd #jj #bh #cj #jd #ag #ee ,draw+ #dj #ch #jd #da ,l5g?s #ad #bj #jj #cd #ce #ed #bb #ee ,e/imat+ #ad #fa #jf #da ,l5g?s #jg #cf #bh #cd ,,table ,,f ,,wegle9 ,coeffici5ts ( correlation betwe5 s*ool subjects 7tea*]s' m>ks7 9 ! case ( #ei high s*ool pupils4 ,,academic ,,gr\p ,,eng4 ,i ,,alg4 ,i ,,hi/4 ,i ,,lat9 ,i ,,draw+ ,engli% ,i 4#bb 4#bj 4#ai 4#cg ,algebra ,i 4#bb 4#db 4#fe 4#ji ,hi/ory ,i 4#bj 4#db 4#eg 4#ac ,lat9 ,i 4#ai 4#fe 4#eg 4#bb ,draw+ 4#cg 4#ji 4#ac 4#bb ,,comm]cial ,,gr\p ,,eng4 ,i ,,bkk4 ,,com4 ,,ari?4,,/5og4,,typewr4,,draw+ ,engli% ,i 4#fi 4#eb 4#ed 4#ej 4#ae ,bookkeep+ 4#fi 4#ff 4#dh 4#ej 4#ej ,com4 ,ari?metic 4#eb 4#ff 4#ch 4#eb 4#ec ,/5ography 4#ed 4#dh 4#ch 4#ea 4#ba ,typewrit+ 4#ej 4#ej 4#eb 4#ea 4#ca ,draw+ 4#ae 4#ej 4#ec 4#ba 4#ca ,^! are fair samples ( ! results ( /udies 9 correlation1 among m5tal functions1 9 gr\ps ( individuals m or less select4 ,ev5 physical traits1 l height & longevity1 h be5 f\nd to give slight positive correlation ) m5tal traits4 ,evid5tly !re is a g5]al organic quality1 :i* %[s itself to "s ext5t :]ev] ! individual is fairly te/$ or 8sampl$40 ,,iv4 ,,/udies ,,( ,,disorganiz+ ,,m9ds ,ano!r s]ies ( attempts at ! solution ( ?is problem has be5 made ?r\gh obs]vations ^u det]iorat+ m9ds4 ,! "q is1 ,d m5tal functions det]iorate toge!r or sep>ately 9 dem5ts8 ,:5 a p]son is 8los+ 8 m9d10 is ! impairm5t g5]al or selective 9 its progress8 ,! /udy ( dem5t$ p]sons _h be5 c>ri$ on by a few inve/igators 9 ! hope t ! decay ( capacities might ?r[ light ^u _! relation%ips4 ,! *ief ob/acle to /udy f ?is approa* has be5 t ! inve/igators h nev] be5 able to "k ! orig9al m5tality ( _! subjects4 ,!y h always be5 oblig$ to make assumptions4 ,x is difficult to see h[ ?is factor may be controll$1 %ort ( fil+ c>eful m5tal analyses ( great sections ( ! population 9 y\?4 ,! *ief conditions 9 :i* decay ( ability is mo/ probably pres5t1 z di/+ui%$ f decay ( ef=t & attitude1 are s5ile dem5tia1 dem5tia p>alytica1 & alcoholic psy*osis2 & x _c be kn[n be=eh& :i* p]sons are de/9$ to repres5t ^! conditions4 ,x _c be pr$ict$ :o w live long en\gh to become s5ile1 :o w contract syphilis1 ev5tuat+ 9 g5]al p>esis1 or :o w be a *ronic alcoholic4 ,x is true t orig9al m5tal /atus may be inf]r$ ) a mod]ate am\nt ( accuracy f s*ool /atus atta9$4 ,if ! dem5ts /udi$ _h all be5 high s*ool graduates1 = in/ance1 !n we c\ld be c]ta9 t ! p]=mances %[n 9 ! record$ /udies really repres5t det]ioration4 ,un=tunately1 ! subjects ( /udy h be51 ) r>e exceptions1 p]sons ( elem5t>y education & humble social /atus4 ,!y come f ^? sections ( ! education-occupation di/ributions1 :]e v limit$ capacity is f\nd4 ,!re=e1 we are r unc]ta9 z to h[ mu* det]ioration f orig9al /atus has really tak5 place4 ,s f> z actual figures g1 x is n %[n t !re has be5 decay ( intellect4 ,h[ev]1 assum+ t ^! segregat$ p]sons _h actually det]iorat$ 9 _! ability to p]=m tasks1 let u inquire :at ! rese>*es %[4 ,b9et & ,simon work$ ) =ty adults1 classifi$ z s5ile dem5ts or z victims ( dem5tia p>alytica4 ,!y conclude t 8,e dem5t has an intellectual level bel[ normal10 z measur$ by te/s ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! limitations ( dem5ts are1 nev]!less1 qualitatively diff]5t f ^? ( o!r incompet5ts 7*ildr5 & ! feeble-m9d$72 & ! reactions ( ! s5ile diff] f ^? ) dem5tia p>alytica4 ,( ! victim ( dem5tia p>alytica !y say1 8,he has n tumbl$ d[n ! ladd] ( developm5t1 rung by rung4 ,8 is a difficulty ( function+40 8,x is *>act]i/ic 9 ^! losses ( function+ t ! subject kn[s h[ to meet ! problem submitt$ to him2 he has ! k1 b f "t to "t ! p[] fails him40 ,?is in]tia ( compreh5sion is g5]al1 & has ! effect ( l[]+ ! total level ( p]=mance1 ?\gh ! p>ticul> items ( failure & success may v>y m>k$ly f occasion to occasion4 ,x is h>dly ! same ?+ z actual decay ( a /ructure4 ,?us "o _c pr$ict ! responses ( ^! dem5ts1 z "o c ^? ( o!r incompet5ts1 l *ildr5 & imbeciles1 because _! errors & failures h a rem>kable degree ( inconsi/5cy4 8,9 a g5]al way1 "o c h>dly =esee h[ su* a "o is go+ to conduct himself1 = special failures & successes are at su* v>iance ) ! g5]al level40 8,g5]al p>alytics are h>dly able to p]=m ! hundr$? "p ( :at !y "k40 ,s5ile dem5ts are diff]5t1 9 t !y actually no long] "k4 ,! /ructure itself has be5 demoli%$1 n m]ely has x be5 p>alyz$ z to function4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,b9et & ,simon ! abilities ( s5ile dem5ts z a gr\p are by no means equally impair$4 ,!y _c rememb] ev5ts nor le>n new ?+s1 yet !y reta9 ! p[] ( auto-criticism1 _m compla9+ t !y no long] 8"k any?+40 ,!y may be degrad$ to ! level ( e>ly *ildhood 9 ability to repeat digits1 yet reta9 use ( ! vocabul>y ( a sup]ior adult4 ,^! obs]vations are extremely sugge/ive1 b !y lack /ati/ical validity1 be+ limit$ to n>rative descriptions4 ,x is true t "o :o has work$ mu* among dem5ts 9 a practical way1 recognizes ! pictures drawn by ,b9et1 ( p]sons decay$ 9 "s functions1 yet 8surpris+ly pres]v$0 9 o!rs4 ,pro( ( ! ext5t to :i* ?is *>act]i/ically happ5s w\ld necess>ily be d]iv$ f te/s ( l>ge numb]s ( cases1 treat$ ma!matically1 & n by ! me?od ( n>rative4 ,h>t & ,spe>man m rec5tly pres5t$ a /udy ( sixty-"o insane p]sons1#e ask+ ! "q1 8,does an insane p]son pres5t1 z a rule1 mu* great] inequality ( p]=mance ?an a sane "o80 ,recogniz+ ! error f n kn[+ ! orig9al /atus ( ! presumably det]iorat$ m9ds1 9 all ! v>i\s functions to be te/$1 ! attempt 0 made to all[ = ?is by te/+ 9 ! same way ?irty-?ree sane p]sons1 select$ presumably to repres5t :at ! insane 7 l be=e !y became ali5at$4 ,n9ete5 m5tal functions 7 ?us te/$1 & ! results 7 !n treat$ by ! me?od ( correlation1 ! assumption be+ t if !re 7 great] inequality among m5tal functions 9 ! insane 7t is to say1 among det]iorat$ m9ds7 ?an among ! sane1 ?is w\ld %[ itself 9 dim9i%$ coeffici5ts ( correlation4 ,x is int]e/+ to consult ! orig9al tables ( data1 :i*1 h[ev]1 w n be pres5t$ "h4 ,! conclusion rea*$ is t 8,! inequality betwe5 ! p[]s ( ! same p]son = diff]5t k9ds ( p]=mances does n appe> to be appreciably great] 9 insanity ?an 9 heal?1 nor 9 "o ( ! =ms ( insanity te/$ ?an 9 ano!r4 ,?us1 9 ! ma91 ! m5tal injury appe>s to be ( a p]fectly diffuse "*1 or to con/itute a l[]+ ( ! :ole intellectual level4444 ,ov] & above ?is g5]al impairm5t1 elaborate me?ods c also detect c]ta9 damages *>act]i/ic ( p>ticul> maladies4 ,^! are v n>r[ & specific 9 k9d1 b probably may be correspond+ly grave 9 int5sity40 ,spe>man ?us aga9 ma9ta9s 8 8two factor0 !ory ( end[m5t--! 8g5]al factor0 condition+ p]=mance z a :ole1 & 8specific factors0 condition+ c]ta9 m5tal functions to a mu* great] ext5t ?an o!rs4 ,to det]m9e :at ^! special m5tal functions are1 ,spe>man leaves to fur!r rese>*4 ,?is c>eful inve/igation is nev]!less imp]fect = ! purpose1 :i* is to le>n :e!r !re is selective enfeeblem5t ( abilities4 ,x is really impossible to "k t det]ioration has occurr$1 unless !re h be5 measurem5ts made be=eh&4 ,sane p]sons1 select$ f ! same social /ratum1 are n entirely reliable z a control1 because ^? :o are ( ! psy*ic con/itution de/9$ = insanity und\bt$ly diff] orig9ally f ^? :o rema9 sane1 & ?is diff]5ce may involve a diff]5ce 9 m5tal abilities1 ei!r ( am\nt or ( relation%ip4 ,! degree ( det]ioration calculat$ by ,h>t & ,spe>man may be m]ely a matt] ( orig9al diff]5ces 9 c5tral t5d5cy betwe5 ! two gr\ps4 ,"h1 too1 x %\ld be not$ t ,h>t & ,spe>man mix$ a v>iety ( psy*oses 7ev5 includ+ an imbecile n det]iorat$ s f> z kn[n71 bo? ^? t d involve actual decay ( ability1 & ^? t involve only di/urbances ( g5]al auxili>y functions1 l attitude & ef=t4 ,j :at w\ld be ! effect ( ?is mix+ ^u ! correlations c\ld be told only if we knew h[ ea* =m ( disord] *>act]i/ically affects ! relation%ip among m5tal functions1 :i* is unkn[n4 ,if m5tal functions are diff]5tly select$ = impairm5t 9 ! diff]5t =ms ( psy*osis1 !n we %\ld expect dim9i%$ coeffici5ts ( correlation among ! insane1 because mix+ ! psy*oses w\ld produce inconsi/5cy ( rank )9 ! gr\p4 ,if1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 functions 7 det]iorat$ 9 all or ne>ly all ( ! insane1 o!rs rema9+ intact1 or relatively s1 ?is selective enfeeblem5t w\ld n appe> 9 correlation coeffici5ts4 ,facts l ^? obs]v$ by ,b9et & ,simon might be obscur$ by ! me?ods ( ,h>t & ,spe>man4 ,moore1 work+ subsequ5t to ,h>t & ,spe>man1 limit$ 8 inve/igation to ^? cases believ$ by psy*iatri/s to be *>act]iz$ by real loss ( abilities1 ! dem5tias3 dem5tia p>alytica1 s5ile dem5tia1 & alcoholic dem5tia4 ,he te/$ ?irty dem5ts1 labor]s & tradesm51 &1 z controls1 six "y m5 f ! same occupational gr\p1 9 ! foll[+ m5tal functions3 7#a7 p]ceiv+ eight ea* 79 a s]ies7 ( real objects1 pictures ( objects1 pr9t$ words1 & spok5 words1 ref]r+ to real objects ( ord9>y ev]yday exp]i5ce2 7#b7 repeat+ aft] "o exposure ( ! s]ies z mu* ( x z c\ld be rememb]$ )\t reg>d to sequ5ce2 7#c7 aft] a m9ute ( m5tal "w at calculation1 repeat+ aga9 :at c\ld !n be rememb]$ ( ! s]ies4 ,moore !n correlat$ p]=mance )9 ! gr\p 9 ea* ( ^! functions ) t 9 ea* ( ! o!rs4 ,! coeffici5ts ?us result+ are int]pret$ z foll[s3 8,! av]age ( all correlations ( p]ception ) ! v>i\s memories is 4#ech4444 ,t ! av]age correlation = memory & p]ception is z high z 4#ech %[s t !re mu/ be a common factor pres5t4 ,b its pres5ce does n exclude ! exi/5ce ( special =ms ( m5tal ability40 ,moore also correlat$ p]ceiv+ ) rememb]+ 9 ! functions sep>ately1 & rememb]+ imm$iately ) rememb]+ aft] a m9ute ( di/raction4 ,^! coeffici5ts are positive1 & mo/ly high1 b n p]fect4 ,! "w ( ,moore does n seem to g beyond k already obta9$ f /udy ( sane p]sons4 ,! coeffici5ts d n prove t ! am\nts ( det]ioration 9 ! functions _h be5 equal2 or ev5 t det]ioration _h tak5 place4 ,moore's six sane subjects 7 too few to con/itute a control1 & are n ref]r$ to z su* 9 treat+ results4 ,in/ead1 ,moore ref]s ! read] to ! records ( subjects 9 prec$+ monographs to %[ t 8! l[ values ( ^! subjects 7! insane7 are di/9ctly pa?ological40 ,?is comp>ison is se5 to be invalid1 = ! subjects ref]r$ to z e/abli%+ ! crit]ion ( intactness are pr(essors & univ]sity /ud5ts1 almo/ c]ta9ly mu* high] 9 ability by orig9al nature ?an ! insane gr\p4 ,assum+1 nev]!less1 "h also t ! subjects really _h det]iorat$1 ! me?od ( correlation mu/ aga9 be br\ght "u criticism z ill adapt$ to answ] que/ions conc]n+ selective enfeeblem5t4 ,a gr\p ( s5ile dem5ts1 all high s*ool graduates1 might1 = in/ance1 be n at all det]iorat$ f _! orig9al /atus 9 ! me*anics ( read+1 b greatly det]iorat$ 9 ! ability to tell :at has be5 read4 ,yet correlation might result 9 a positive coeffici5t z high z t f\nd among typical high s*ool graduates1 if ! decay 9 repeat+ matt] took place 9 proportion to ! degree ( ability orig9ally pres5t 9 ea* individual4 ,!re might be m>k$ selective impairm5t1 :i* w\ld be hidd5 9 coeffici5ts ( correlation4 ,! problem ( selective enfeeblem5t mu/ be inve/igat$ by comput+ deviation 9 v>i\s functions f a kn[n norm or /&>d 9 ea*2 & ! p]son's orig9al /atus 9 t function mu/ be kn[n4 ,= su* inve/igation s5ile dem5ts w\ld seem to be ! be/ subjects1 s9ce 9 !m !re is natural decay ( functions4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 difficult to f9d v ag$ det]iorat$ p]sons1 ^: orig9al /atus is kn[n 7kn[n1 at lea/1 to h be5 g5]ally high71 & :o h n "s s5sory or motor h&icap to complicate p]=mance1 su* z deafness1 fail+ vision1 or palsy4 ,! net result1 = our purposes1 ( /udies s f> made ( m5tal decay is n v helpful1 because 7#a7 ! orig9al /atus ( ! subjects is nev] kn[n1 7#b7 ! psy*oses h be5 mix$ 9 exp]im5t1 )\t prelim9>y te/-k ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ea*1 if any1 & 7#c7 ! me?od ( correlation1 :i* has be5 us$1 is n suit$ to %[ selective enfeeblem5t ( m5tal functions4 ,e /udy made has suff]$ f "o or m ( ^! h9drances to int]pretation4 ,! in=mation glean$ f !m is mu* ! same z t already glean$ f /udies ( ! undet]iorat$1 namely1 t among p 7:e!r sane or insane7 ^? :o hold a c]ta9 rank )9 a gr\p 9 "o function t5d also to hold a simil> rank )9 t gr\p 9 o!r functions4 ,! "q ( selective enfeeblem5t ( a function )9 a gr\p ( ! insane rema9s unansw]$4 ,! inve/igators ( ! dem5t$ h1 h[ev]1 made a p>ticul> contribution 9 po9t+ ! way to a new s\rce ( light4 ,= ! /udy ( m5tal decay1 :5 c>ri$ on by adequate me?ods1 extremely difficult ( atta9m5t1 is sure to ?r[ light on ! relation%ips among m5tal functions4 ,f x we %all le>n :e!r "s functions rema9 intact1 ) impairm5t ( o!r functions4 ,v4 ,,is ,,intellect ,,inh]it$ ,,z ,a ,,unit8 ,!re are /ill o!r approa*es to ! /udy ( ! con/itution ( intellect4 ,"o is ?r\gh ! inve/igation ( h]$ity4 ,! "q is :e!r intellect is inh]it$ z a unit1 or :e!r "s diff]5t =mula is indicat$4 ,if intellect is a unit "*1 subject to b "o det]m9] 9 ! g]m-plasm1 !n x %\ld act z an 8all or none0 capacity 9 its appe>ance among (fspr+ ( giv5 mat+s4 ,*ildr5 %\ld be sep>able into di/9ct gr\ps1 ea* hav+ a diff]5t m$ian ) respect to intellect1 i4e4 ^? :o h intellect & ^? :o lack x4 ,! me?ods ( m5tal measurem5t tea* u pla9ly t intellect is n inh]it$ 9 ?is way4 ,in/ead ( a brok5 curve1 indicat+ a division ( *ildr5 into ^? :o inh]it & ^? :o fail to inh]it a unit "*1 we obta9 ! curve already demon/rat$1 :i* is cont9u\s & symmetrical4 ,!re is b "o div]sifi$ gr\p ( *ildr51 ) respect to intellect--n di/9ct gr\ps4 ,! inh]itance ( intellect does n1 !re=e1 foll[ ! simple =mula ( unit *>act]s1 z does ! %ape ( peas1 ! color ( rabbits' coats1 or eye-color 9 man4 ,! trait we measure & "n z g5]al intellig5ce is a complex1 result+ f ! incid5ce ( a great numb] ( functions1 act+ toge!r 9 a great numb] ( ways1 yet coh]+ 9 respect to am\nts f\nd 9 giv5 individuals4 ,possibly ea* ( ! indef9itely num]\s functions1 :i* ?us appe> to act toge!r z man's intellect1 may be a unit "*1 inh]it$ accord+ to ,m5del's =mula4 ,su* a possibility is at pres5t purely speculative4 ,! puzzle is t a giv5 individual %\ld 8hit10 z x 71 at approximately ! same po9t 9 ! di/ribution ( ne>ly e function4 ,,vi4 ,,c ,,an ,,intellect ,,be ,,tra9$ ,,z ,a ,,unit8 ,/udies ( ! le>n+ process also give light ^u ! organization ( capacities4 ,! "q "h is z to :e!r tra9+ 9 "o function spreads equally to all o!r functions4 ,is x possible to 8tra9 ! m9d0 z a :ole8 ,w x raise ! pr(ici5cy ( all p]=mances fifty p] c5t1 if a fifty p] c5t ga9 is a*iev$ 9 ,lat9 composition8 ,num]\s attempts h be5 made to det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* skill acquir$ 9 "o p]=mance increases skill 9 o!r p]=mances4 ,! conclusion :i* em]ges f ^! /udies is t intellect _c be tra9$ z a unit4 ,transf] ( tra9+ f "o function to o!r functions is f> f complete4 ,app>5tly1 !re is spread ( improvem5t f practice 9 a function only to su* o!r functions z h elem5ts 9 common ) x4 ,if two p]=mances diff] 9 any way1 !re is some?+ 9 ! second t rema9s untra9$ by ! practice giv5 to ! fir/4 ,if two p]=mances diff] 9 all respects1 ! second seems n to d]ive any b5efit at all f tra9+ 9 ! fir/4 ,to a v highly intellig5t individual1 ne>ly all situations & p]=mances t5d to h "s id5tical elem5ts1 no d\bt4 ,to a v dull p]son1 relatively few situations or dem&s pres5t id5tical elem5ts1 = ! dull p]ceive only gross simil>ities & diff]5ces4 ,?us1 spread ( improvem5t is )\t d\bt greate/ = ! innately gift$1 & lea/ = ! innately inf]ior m9ds4 ,9 connection ) ! pres5t discussion1 h[ev]1 ! *ief po9t ( int]e/ is t no m9d1 ( :atev] degree ( innate integrity & s5sitivity1 c be tra9$ z a unit4 ,ea* function has elem5ts special to itself1 & "s functions are v highly specializ$1 z reg>ds ! am\nt ( transf] ( tra9+ f !m to o!rs1 or f o!rs to !m4 ,! evid5ce f le>n+1 !re=e1 sub/antiates ! evid5ce f h]$ity1 indicat+ t intellect is n a unit1 b a complex ( _m capacities1 co9cid+ my/]i\sly 9 am\nt to a v m>k$ ext5t 9 an individual4 ,,vii4 ,,! ,,hi]>*y ,,( ,,abilities ,x has be5 /at$ t ?\gh all1 or ne>ly all1 m5tal functions s f> measur$ & correlat$1 yield positive coeffici5ts1 all d n %[ an equal am\nt ( positive correlation4 ,c]ta9 m5tal functions1 = example1 are %[n to yield coeffici5ts ( z mu* z 4#hj1 = a total correlation ) o!rs ( a s]ies2 :ile "s yield coeffici5ts z l[ z 4#aj1 approa*+ abs5ce ( relation%ip4 ,to expla9 ^! facts1 ,spe>man =mulat$ ! concept ( a hi]>*y ( relat$ness to a 8g5]al factor40 ,^? abilities %[+ slight correlation ) o!rs 9 s]ies ( te/s1 7 ?\ght ( z b loosely relat$ to 8g5]al intellig5ce10 & z con/itut+ 8special abilities40 ,!y might be display$ by p]sons inf]ior 9 g5]al1 or might be lack+ 9 p]sons o!rwise sup]ior4 ,"h aga91 ! facts are n 9 "q4 ,x is admitt$ by all t functions %[ diff]5t am\nts ( positive correlation ) "o ano!r1 & ( total correlation ) memb]s ( a s]ies4 ,n all exp]ts agree1 h[ev]1 ) ,spe>man's !oretical explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,?omson has rec5tly %[n1 by toss+ dice ( v>i\s colors1 t 9 ?is game ( *ance 79 :i* !re is no 8g5]al factor10 b only _m indep5d5t factors71 hi]>*ical ord] ( correlation coeffici5ts is almo/ sure to be obta9$1 = comb9ations result+ f ?r[s4 ,?omson1 !re=e1 holds t ! !ory ( a 8g5]al factor10 p>ticipat+ 9 all ! sep>ate p]=mances ( an individual1 is n prov$ f ! facts ab\t correlation coeffici5ts4 ,he proposes ! foll[+1 reg>d$ by him z an alt]native3 8,! m9d1 9 c>ry+ out any activity su* z a m5tal te/1 has two levels at :i* x c op]ate4 ,! elem5ts ( activity at ! l[] level are entirely specific1 b ^? at ! high] level are su* t !y may come into play 9 diff]5t activities4 ,any activity is a sample ( ^! elem5ts4 ,! elem5ts are assum$ to be additive l dice1 & ea* to act on ! #8all or none' pr9ciple1 n be+ 9 fact fur!r divisible40 ,x is n q easy to see t ?is !ory1 f9ally propos$ by ,?omson1 :i* might be t]m$ ! 8two level0 !ory1 is v diff]5t f ,spe>man's 8two factor0 !ory1 nor :y ! t]ms 8high]0 & 8l[]0 %\ld be introduc$4 ,b demon/ration ( ! probability ( obta9+ a hi]>*y ( correlations simply f ! toss+ toge!r by *ance ( indep5d5t factors1 z ) dice1 adds new data = consid]ation4 ,x might be t non-biological pr9ciples ( probability are suffici5t to expla9 ! hi]>*ical ord] ( correlations1 among _m te/s adm9i/]$ to a giv5 gr\p1 j z !y are app>5tly suffici5t to acc\nt = ! p>ticul> =m 9 :i* ability 9 any s+le te/ is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! human species4 ,b if ?is is s1 h[ acc\nt = ! consi/5cy ) :i* c]ta9 abilities1 l ability to draw1 are repeat$ly %[n to correlate b slightly1 :ile o!rs1 l complet+ s5t5ces1 repeat$ly yield high total correlation8 ,h[ acc\nt = ! fact t !re is m>k$ coh]5ce among c]ta9 gr\ps ( te/s1 su* z 8te/s deal+ ) words only10 & 8te/s deal+ ) numb]s only10 z contra/$ ) ! relative lack ( coh]5ce among 8te/s1 "s deal+ ) numb]1 & "s ) words08 ,x w\ld seem t ^! ph5om5a mu/ be at bottom biological4 ,x _c1 = in/ance1 be demon/rat$ t yell[ dice & r$ dice ?r[n1 :]ev] & by :omev] ca/1 t5d always to correlate high1 :ile gre5 & m>oon dice t5d always to correlate l[ ) ea* o!r1 & ) yell[ & r$ dice4 ,nor c x be demon/rat$ t dice color$1 let u say1 f "o end ( ! spectrum t5d always to correlate high among !mselves1 b mu* l[] ) ! dice color$ f ! o!r end ( ! spectrum1 :]ev] & by :omev] ca/4 ,fur!rmore1 die-ca/+ w n give a relation%ip 9 :i* ?r[s result+ 9 l[ scores are pair$ ) l[ scores1 & s on1 f l[ ?r\gh high1 high scores be+ also pair$ ) high scores1 z :5 organisms are tri$4 ,! correlation among ?r[s ( dice arises f a diff]5t =m ( relation%ip1 9 :i* ! improbable ?r[s1 result+ 9 ei!r v high or v l[ scores1 are pair$ indiff]5tly1#f ?is indiff]5ce n be+ able1 h[ev]1 to produce z]o correlation1 because ( ! infrequ5cy ( extreme scores4 ,! frequ5tly occurr+1 m$iocre scores 9 bo? s]ies are1 h[ev]1 v simil>1 ! mo/ frequ5tly occurr+ score = bo? be+1 inde$1 ! same4 ,s9ce ! m$iocre scores t5d to occur bo? frequ5tly & toge!r1 because ( ! laws ( *ance1 !y produce positive correlations1 diff]+ 9 am\nt f s]ies to s]ies 7also because ( ! laws ( *ance74 ,b :5 organisms are te/$1 z has be5 repeat$ly demon/rat$1 ! s]ial relation%ip betwe5 two functions holds ?r\gh high & l[1 & ?is1 also1 mu/ be biological1 & n expla9able by laws ( *ance4 ,! demon/rations f die-ca/+ are extremely significant1 z w>n+ u n to dep5d :olly = our inf]5ces ^u ! am\nt ( positive coeffici5ts ( correlation1 nor ! possibility ( arrang+ !m 9 hi]>*ical ord]4 ,bo? ( ^! features ( app>5t relation%ip may come ( *ance1 )9 a s+le s]ies4 ,o!r features ( relation%ip mu/ be exam9$ 9 ! attempt to inf] biological law1 especially ! consi/5cy ) :i* giv5 traits correlate to a giv5 degree ) o!rs1 :5 inve/igat$ by diff]5t exam9]s1 9 v>i\s gr\ps2 & ! =m ( ! relation%ip1 :e!r all ! way f highe/ to l[e/1 or only 9 c5tral t5d5cy4 ,,viii4 ,,pres5t ,,/atus ,,( ,,! ,,problem ,:atev] may be ! ultimate cause ( ! manife/ations1 educators are practically conc]n$ ) ! facts4 ,! practical implications = education ( k glean$ up to ! pres5t "t1 conc]n+ ! coh]5ce among m5tal functions1 h be5 well /at$ by ,burt1 9 8 rec5t discussion ( ,m5tal & ,s*ola/ic ,te/s3 8,! exam9] %\ld always discrim9ate betwe5 *ildr5 :o are backw>d 9 mo/ subjects1 & *ildr5 :o are backw>d 9 "o subject1 or limit$ gr\p ( subjects1 alone4 ,a *ild1 = example1 :o suff]s m]ely f a specializ$ disability 9 read+ & spell+1 su* z s-call$ #8^w bl9dness1' is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f "o :o is 9 e respect m5tally defective4 8,z ,i h %[n 9 memor&a previ\sly publi%$1 educational atta9m5ts dep5d l>gely ^u capacities ( two k9ds3 fir/1 a common or g5]al capacity1 ent]+ into e subject 9 diff]5t degrees1 b be/ exhibit$ 9 ^? t ne$ ?\ght-processes ( a high] ord]1 su* z ! compreh5sion ( read+ matt] among "y *ildr51 &1 among old] *ildr51 problem ari?metic & lit]>y 7or r logical7 composition2 secondly1 specific capabilities--su* z ari?metical ability1 l+ui/ic ability1 manual ability1 & musical ability--ent]+ into a small gr\p ( subjects4 ,a *ild :o is defici5t 9 ! =m] w be backw>d 9 all subjects--mo/ backw>d 9 ^? subjects mo/ dep5d5t on ?is c5tral capacity 7su* z ! subjects fir/ nam$71 lea/ backw>d 9 ^? subjects lea/ dep5d5t on x 7su* z manual & musical subjects74 ,a *ild :o is defici5t 9 "o ( ! specific capacities alone w be backw>d 9 ! limit$ gr\p ( implicat$ subjects1 & 9 none b ^!40 ,mc,call writes z foll[s3 8,!re is an objectively & practically measurable some?+1 :i* con/itutes ! core ( mo/ aptitudes4 ,x is ov]laid ) v>i\s incid5tal abilities1 & fur!r$ or ret>d$ by emotional or physical *>act]i/ics ( ! individual4 ,?is some?+ is g5]al intellig5ce4 ,if an individual's intellig5ce is all t is kn[n1 "s mi/akes w be made 9 attempt+ vocational guidance1 b if only "o ?+ c be kn[n1 g5]al intellig5ce is p]haps mo/ important4444 ,a pupil's intellig5ce score is an approximate measure ( ! diamet] ( an approximate g5]al ability circle1 & is h5ce an approximate basis = vocational guidance4 8,b any individual :o assumes t all ! spokes 9 an ability-:eel are ( exactly equal l5g?1 or t in/ances ( m>k$ special aptitudes d n exi/1 or ev5 t mo/ individuals d n possess "s t5d5cy t[>d a special aptitude1 w\ld make z egregi\s an error z "o :o assum$ t all individuals are m>k$ly lopsid$40 ,^! two summ>ies ( ! pres5t /atus ( ?is problem f ! practical po9t ( view1 com+ z !y d1 ! "o f a /ud5t ( ! ,briti% s*ool1 ! o!r f a /ud5t ( ,?orndike1 %[ h[ ! two orig9ally conflict+ int]pretations h be5 approa*+ middle gr\nd4 ,!re is f\nd to be a quality ( ! individual1 :i* results 9 g5]ally sup]ior1 m$iocre1 or inf]ior p]=mances 9 8 case--a positive coh]5ce 9 ! am\nts ( all traits possess$1 ext5d+ ev5 to appreciable coh]5ce betwe5 m5tal & physical4 ,g5]al intellig5ce is n[ measur$1 = practical purposes1 z ,spe>man long ago pr$ict$4 ,nev]!less1 !re are1 z ,?orndike ma9ta9$ & ma9ta9s1 m5tal functions1 /&+ 9 :i* is h>dly pr$ictable f k ( o!r capacities4 ,9 r>e cases !re may be complete discrepancy 9 rank betwe5 p]=mance 9 "o task & p]=mance 9 o!r tasks1 ) equal tra9+4 ,^! are ! cases ( special tal5ts & defects1 to :i* ?is volume is devot$4 ,,ix4 ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,g5]al ,,intellig5ce3 ,,! ,,iq ,we n[ see t ! 8g5]al0 factor 9 intellig5ce may be def9$ simply z ! positive coh]5ce :i* exi/s among ! multitud9\s abilities ( an individual1 z respects _! am\nts4 ,! fir/ to obta9 a quantitative measure ( g5]al intellig5ce1 = ! practical purpose ( classify+ s*ool *ildr51 0 ,b9et4 ,b9et conclud$ f reflection on ! rese>* done1 t failure or success 9 "o m5tal function may be ( slight significance = ! classification ( an individual1 because correlation is imp]fect2 b t failure or success 9 a score ( diff]5t functions mu/ be ( v great significance1 because correlation among m5tal functions t5ds /rongly to be highly positive4 ,work+ on ?is basis1 he devis$ a l>ge numb] ( m5tal te/s1 int5d$ to sample ! individual's p]=mance 9 _m diff]5t functions4 ,a m5tal te/ may be def9$ z a /&>d /imulus1 :i* provokes a response capable ( quantitative int]pretation4 ,b9et devis$ num]\s /&>d /imuli1 & a me?od ( int]pret+ ! responses elicit$1 9 t]ms ( a context ( scores made by *ildr5 ( v>i\s ages1 ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( immaturity4 ,8 measurem5ts 7 ?us 9 t]ms ( 8m5tal age10 a phrase n[ some:at famili> 9 education4 ,! sci5ce ( m5tal measurem5t is rapidly progress+ to m exact usage4 ,! concept ( 8m5tal age0 :5 appli$ to p]sons :o v>y 9 bir?day age is 9 "s respects mislead+1 & 9 o!r respects q inapplicable 7z ) sup]ior adults74 ,g5]al intellig5ce is at pres5t usually scor$ 9 t]ms ( po9ts a*iev$1 p]c5tile atta9$ 9 total di/ribution1 or ( m5tal ratio4 ,! mo/ reliable scales n[ available = ! measurem5t ( g5]al intellig5ce 9 s*ool *ildr51 score 9 t]ms ( m5tal age & intellig5ce quoti5t 7,,iq74 ,?is measure 7,,iq7 signifies ! ratio borne by ! intellectual level atta9$ by a giv5 *ild 9 te/s1 to ! level atta9$ by ! typical *ild ( 8 bir?day age4 ,= in/ance1 a *ild #i ye>s #f mon?s old has an ,,iq ( #ajj1 if 8 score 9 te/s equals t made by ! av]age *ild ( #i ye>s #f mon?s4 ,if he is inf]ior to ! av]age *ild ( 8 age1 ! am\nt ( su* inf]iority w be express$ by a ratio less ?an #ajj4 ,?us1 if 8 p]=mance equals only t ( ! av]age *ild ( #e ye>s #b mon?s1 8 ,,iq w be #fb mon?s #aad mon?s1 or #ed 7dropp+ fractions less ?an 4#e74 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he is sup]ior to ! av]age1 atta9+1 let u say1 ! p]=mance ( ! av]age *ild ( #ad ye>s #j mon?s1 8 ,,iq w be #afh mon?s #aad mon?s1 or #adg4 ,an ,,iq ( #ajj may ?us be ?\ght ( z 8p>0 9 g5]al intellig5ce = a s*ool *ild1 :ile any?+ less may be ?\ght ( z 8bel[ p>0 to ! ext5t indicat$2 & any?+ great] ?an #ajj may be ?\ght ( z 8above p>40 ,! ,,iq %[s ! po9t ( focus1 = am\nts ( p]=mance 9 a v>iety ( m5tal functions4 ,x d]ives its value = educational proc$ure f ! positive correlation1 :i* has be5 demon/rat$ to exi/ among p]=mances 9 m5tal op]ations4 ,scales at pres5t available w measure g5]al intellig5ce1 9 t]ms ( ,,iq1 ab\t z l[ z ,,iq #aj1 & ab\t z high z ,,iq #aij1 at c]ta9 p]iods ( developm5t4 ,no d\bt human intellig5ce ranges some:at bel[ & above ^! limits1 b adequate me?ods ( e/abli%+ ! two extremes h n yet be5 devis$4 ,x is by no means usually realiz$ t ! range ( individual diff]5ces 9 g5]al ability is s wide t x is extremely difficult to inv5t me?ods ( discov]+ its full ext5t4 ,h[ev]1 = practical purposes1 available scales are adequate to cov] ! range = "y s*ool *ildr51 because intellig5ces t fall bel[ ,,iq #be or above ,,iq #age are s r>e z to be dealt ) v seldom4 ,)9 ! limitations nam$1 ! g5]al intellig5ce ( s*ool *ildr5 c n[ be det]m9$ by a compet5t exam9]1 ) a v small m>g9 ( error4 ,! av]age error made by su* an exam9] w n exce$ #e ,,iq4 ,n all scales = ! measurem5t ( g5]al intellig5ce are scorable 9 t]ms ( ,,iq4 ,"s h be5 /&>diz$ 9 t]ms ( 8raw0 po9ts a*iev$1 & "s 9 t]ms ( p]c5tile /atus4 ,!re is at pres5t mu* v>iety ( usage 9 scor+1 ! ideal be+ to f9d units ( measurem5t4 ,x does n lie )9 ! scope ( ?is volume to treat ! problem ( e/abli%+ units = ! measurem5t ( m5tal traits4 ,! g5]al intellig5ce ( ! *ildr5 to be discuss$ "h has usually be5 det]m9$ 9 t]ms ( ,,iq1 :i* w be compreh5d$ f ! brief description giv54 ,an ideal ( /ud5ts ( m5tal measurem5t is to devise a scale :i* w measure any intellig5ce1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/ exi/+1 aft] maturity1 9 units e "o ( :i* is equal to e o!r2 & to devise a scale fulfill+ ! same requirem5ts = ea* #ab-mon?s int]val ( ! p]iod ( immaturity4 ,?is ideal is f> f be+ realiz$ at ! pres5t "t1 b ! future w see x a*iev$4 ,9 ! meantime scales = ! measurem5t ( special tal5ts1 :i* are n measur$ by ! scales = measur+ g5]al ability1 are be+ work$ out4 ,:at ^! special tal5ts are we %all n[ consid]4 ,x4 ,,! ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,special ,,ability ,al?\gh mu* fur!r rese>* is requir$ be=e we c id5tify all ! m5tal functions :i* are incoh]5t ) g5]al intellig5ce1 we already h "s k ( ! matt]1 useful = ! welf>e ( s*ool *ildr54 ,c]ta9 abilities are %[n repeat$ly by diff]5t inve/igators to be relatively indep5d5t4 ,success 9 music & 9 repres5tative draw+ is v slightly correlat$ ) success 9 o!r s*ool subjects4 ,spell+ is f> f p]fectly pr$ictable f grades 9 s*ool+ g5]ally4 ,me*anics is relatively indep5d5t4 ,:]eas ability 9 read+ & 9 ari?metic is highly1 b n p]fectly1 correlat$ ) g5]al compet5ce4 ,^! facts mean t f k ( a pupil's g5]al intellig5ce we c make v reliable pr$ictions z to 8 capacity = read+ & = ari?metic1 some:at less reliable pr$ictions z to 8 aptitude = spell+ or me*anics1 & t our pr$ictions conc]n+ 8 ability to draw1 s+1 or play musical in/rum5ts %\ld be giv5 )\t confid5ce 9 _! reliability1 if giv5 at all4 ,o!r k9ds ( p]=mances1 l ! managem5t ( p1 appreciation ( a joke1 danc+1 ! managem5t ( wild or dome/ic animals1 h n be5 ?or\ghly /udi$ 9 _! relation to g5]al intellig5ce1 ?\gh ^! & scores ( o!rs :i* w occur to ! read]1 might be ( great significance = practical psy*ology1 if %[n to be some:at indep5d5t tal5ts4 ,z we h already said1 mo/ ( ! functions p]=m$ by human be+s are v complex1 & capable ( analysis4 ,to read1 und]/&1 & execute a page ( any musical composition is a v complicat$ p]=mance4 ,! attempt to measure special ability has be5 ! attempt fir/ to scale total p]=mance 9 ! function1 & second to scale p]=mance 9 ! v>i\s cord9at+ functions contribut+ to total result4 ,?us 9 ! case ( musical tal5t1 ,sea%ore has f\nd by analysis a l>ge numb] ( contribut+ factors1 & has actually devis$ scales ( measurem5t = five ( ^! subsidi>y functions4 ,measurem5t m or less adequate c n[ be made ( ability to read1 spell1 draw1 write1 put me*anical contrivances toge!r1 & calculate4 ,?is li/ does n by any means exhau/ ! possibilities ( measurem5t 9 p>ticul> functions at pres5t1 b exemplifies !m4 ,sl[ly we are approa*+ ! po9t ( be+ 9 position to tell n only h[ a *ild /&s 9 g5]al intellig5ce1 b also to indicate 8 /atus 9 reg>d to special abilities4 ,! 8picture0 ( ! total relation%ip among a p]son's abilities is call$ a psy*ograph4 ,,xi4 ,,! ,,psy*ographic ,,picture ,,( ,,individuality ,a psy*ograph may consi/ m]ely ( num]ical /atem5ts ( ! individual's /&+ 9 v>i\s m5tal capacities respectively2 or x may be pres5t$ 9 ! =m ( a graph drawn f ! figures4 ,no /&>d graph has be5 agre$ ^u4 ,sometimes ! me?od is to pres5t po9ts ( deviation f a horizontal l9e repres5t+ ! typical p]=mance2 sometimes to pres5t ! deviations f a v]tical l9e1 repres5t+ ! typical2 sometimes to pres5t deviations along ! spokes ( a 8:eel10 ! typical be+ tak5 z a circumf]5ce drawn midway betwe5 ! c5t] & ! p]imet] ( ! circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,! psy*ograph ( a s*ool boy1 %[+ 8 /&+ 9 v>i\s m5tal functions2 illu/rat+ use ( ! horizontal l9e to d5ote typical p]=mance4 ,! scores are 9 t]ms ( m5tal age4 7,f ,holl+wor?'s ,judg+ ,human ,"*4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,d4 ,appleton & ,company47 ,figure #c is an illu/ration ( ! fir/ m5tion$ mode ( pres5tation4 ,x %[s ! /atus ( a s*ool boy 9 v>i\s m5tal functions measur$4 ,?is boy is #ah ye>s old4 ,9 int]pret+ ! psy*ograph1 :i* is platt$ 9 t]ms ( m5tal age1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t _m ( ! capacities "h includ$ are matur$ by ! age ( #af ye>s4 ,! individual is n1 !re=e1 subnormal ) reg>d to !m4 ,?is case illu/rates "s ( ! difficulties ( treat+ adolesc5ts & adults 9 t]ms ( m5tal age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,! psy*ographs ( ?ree s*ool girls1 %[+ _! /&+s 9 v>i\s m5tal functions1 measur$ to det]m9e ma!matical ability2 illu/rat+ use ( ! v]tical l9e to d5ote typical p]=mance4 ,! scores are 9 t]ms ( weight$ deviations4 ,scores to ! "r are above1 & scores to ! left are bel[1 av]age4 7,f ,te/s ( ,ma!matical ,ability & ,_! ,progno/ic ,value4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,agnes ,l4 ,rog]s47 ,figure #d %[s ! use ( ! v]tical l9e z ! 8type0 or 8norm10 pictur+ ! ext5t to :i* ! individual measur$ dep>ts f or corresponds to ! typical1 9 ! functions te/$4 ,figure #e illu/rates ! use ( ! circle1 ) radii to %[ /&+ 9 ! v>i\s m5tal functions4 ,! adolesc5t pres5t$ is ne> ! typical 7! #ej p]c5tile7 9 ne>ly all functions measur$4 ,:i* ( ^! =ms ( graph is be/ adapt$ to its purpose has n be5 det]m9$4 ,all are simply diff]5t me?ods ( pictur+ ! same facts4 ,! *ief ob/acle to ! platt+ ( psy*ographs1 = su* capacities z are n[ measurable1 is t scales = measurem5t h be5 /&>diz$ 9 diff]5t t]ms4 ,to plat a lucid psy*ograph1 "s traits on :i* h be5 measur$ 9 ,p4,e41 "s 9 ,,iq1 "s 9 p]c5tiles1 "s 9 8raw0 po9ts1 "s 9 values ( a ,t ,scale1 "s 9 t]ms ( s*ool grade a*iev$#g is n[ impossible1 because ( ! difficulties ( equat+ all ^! 8/eps0 ( diff]5ce4 ,! psy*ographs "h pres5t$ w1 !re=e1 be und]/ood to be crude1 m]ely approximat+ ! lucidity ( ^? :i* w be made 9 future1 :5 ! sci5ce ( m5tal measurem5t has made great] progress4 ,ea* ( ! me?ods ( /&>dization has "s advantages & "s disadvantages1 z comp>$ ) ! o!rs4 ,only exp]i5ce & discussion c f9ally det]m9e :i* is be/4 ,x is desirable to a*ieve uni=mity z soon z possible1 9 ord] t ! psy*ographic /udy ( individuals may be facilitat$4 ,illu/ration3 #a4 ,g5]al ,intellig5ce 7,/an=d-,b9et7 #b4 ,completion ,te/ 7,trabue7 #c4 ,cancellation 7,p9t]7 #d4 ,digit ,symbol 7,p9t]7 #e4 ,opposites 7,p9t]7 #f4 ,me*anical ,ability 7,/5qui/7 #g4 ,tonal ,memory 7,sea%ore7 #h4 ,pit* 7,sea%ore7 #i4 ,"t 7,sea%ore7 #aj4 ,int5sity 7,sea%ore7 #aa4 ,pictoral ,completion 7,healy7 #ab4 ,grip 9 ,h& 7,sm$ley7 ,,fig4 #e4--,! psy*ograph ( a s*ool boy1 %[+ 8 /&+ 9 v>i\s m5tal functions2 illu/rat+ use ( ! circle z a diagram1 ! m$ian circumf]5ce d5ot+ ! p]=mance ( typical p]sons ( 8 age4 ,! scores are 9 t]ms ( p]c5tiles4 ,,xii4 ,,at ,,:at ,,age ,,is ,,m5tal ,,end[m5t ,,evid5t8 ,! "q arises z to :5 special tal5ts & defici5cies become evid5t 9 gr[+ individuals4 ,we "k almo/ beyond any d\bt t ! degree ( g5]al intellig5ce is manife/$ f ! beg9n+ ( life1 & c\ld be measur$ !n if our in/rum5ts ( precision 7 f9e en\gh4 ,) pres5t me?ods we _c und]take ) confid5ce ! measurem5t ( g5]al intellig5ce mu* be=e s*ool age4 ,extreme deviations may be reliably id5tifi$ z e>ly z #c ye>s ( age1 or e>li]1 b slight am\nts ( deviation _c be reliably det]m9$ by available me?ods be=e ! age ( #e or #f4 ,! inadequacy ( me?od ) v "y *ildr5 arises1 p>tly because x is s difficult to obta9 non-select *ildr5 "u s*ool age = purposes ( /&>dization1 p>tly because ( ! co>s5ess ( ! 8/eps0 at pres5t us$ to measure4 ,! mo/ ref9$ & reliable scales we h are ca/ 9 t]ms ( 8m5tal age10 & "s d n all[ = any diff]5ce ( less ?an 8#b mon?s ( m5tal age40 ,an error ( only two misscor+s 9 ! same direction w\ld !re=e result 9 a consid]able error 9 ! ,,iq ( a *ild #c ye>s old2 s9ce #d mon?s is a l>ge p]c5tage ( #cf mon?s4 ,z e>ly z #f ye>s1 h[ev]1 ev5 by pres5t me?ods1 we c det]m9e objectively ! individual's /atus 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! indications are t :5 ! measurem5t ( special tal5ts has made simil> progress1 we %all f9d t ^! become evid5t j z e>ly z g5]al ability does4 ,^! special tal5ts are gifts1 innate 9 ! organism1 & manife/$ no d\bt f ! beg9n+ ( life1 j z g5]al intellig5ce is4 ,9 ! discussion ( special gifts = music1 draw+1 & calculation we %all see t inve/igators h be5 p>ticul>ly /ruck by ! v e>ly age at :i* ^! 7 manife/$ 9 ! p]sons /udi$4 ,x is common = ^? :o lat] became hi/orical prodigies 9 ^! p]=mances to h %[n symptoms ( _! ability z e>ly z #c or #d ye>s ( age4 ,on ! o!r h&1 special defici5cies 9 ^! functions are n commonly not$ until aft] s*ool has be5 ent]$1 usually long aft]4 ,?is is inevitable1 because no "o is likely to suspect a *ild ( tone deafness1 = in/ance1 until 8 music tea*] has work$ ) him = "s "t4 ,b conspicu\s aptitude = melody & rhy?m is likely to be notic$4 ,! "q arises3 ,c ^! special tal5ts be acquir$1 or ! special defici5cies be ov]come1 by any c\rse ( tra9+8 ,sci5tific psy*ology t5ds m & m /rongly to ! conclusion t psy*ology & education c d no?+ to alt] ! am\nts or relation%ips ( innate m5tal end[m5t4 ,!y c b measure end[m5t & give x tra9+ suit$ to its requirem5ts4 ,! hi/ory ( ,segu9's =m-bo>d seems to illu/rate ! evolution ( ! po9t ( view on ?is "q4 ,ab\t sixty ye>s ago ?is =m-bo>d 0 hopefully us$ z a suppos$ means ( alt]+ orig9al end[m5t4 ,feeble-m9d$ *ildr5 7 giv5 ex]cises 9 plac+ & replac+ ! blocks 9 x1 9 ord] t !y might become m intellig5t4 ,to-day ?is =m-bo>d is us$ z a means ( gaug+ orig9al end[m5t4 ,psy*ology _c create end[m5t2 x c m]ely measure & describe x4 ,education _c be/[ m5tal gifts2 x c only utilize su* z are innately pres5t )9 ! organism4 ,tal5t & g5ius c be creat$ 9 *ildr5 only by ! procreation ( p>5ts1 :o are ! biological c>ri]s ( extraord9>y end[m5t4 ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,frequ5cy ,,( ,,m>k$ ,,special ,,tal5ts ,,& ,,defects ,no c5sus ( special tal5ts or defects ( giv5 degree has ev] be5 tak54 ,surveys h be5 made %[+ ! di/ribution ( musical s5sitivity1 ( ability 9 draw+1 spell+1 calculation1 & s =?4 ,^! di/ributions tell u ! frequ5cy ( extreme deviations 9 ^! functions1 b !y d n tell u to :at ext5t ! deviations are special4 ,f !m we _c le>n :e!r or n ! extremely =tunate deviations are id5tifi$ ) great g5]al sup]iority1 & :e!r ! un=tunate deviations repres5t ! "w ( g5]ally /upid *ildr54 ,:at we require is a survey ( *ildr5 ( uni=m age1 educational opportunity1 & ,,iq1 9 respect to music1 draw+1 spell+1 & s =?4 ,al?\gh we _c /ate ) precision ! frequ5cy ) :i* m>k$ special gifts occur among ! /upid1 or m>k$ special defici5cies occur among ! highly intellig5t1 we "k t su* cases are q r>e4 ,x is necess>y to rem9d ourselves con/antly ( ?is fact1 because x w\ld gratify ! dem& = ju/ice & fair play to f9d t special gifts are freely di/ribut$ among ! g5]ally inf]ior1 & special defects frequ5tly f\nd among ! sup]ior4 ,! tru? :i* satisfies our desires ne$ be /at$ b once1 to be appreh5d$ & rememb]$4 ,! tru? :i* (f5ds k9dl9ess1 self-int]e/1 or *]i%$ beliefs1 & is h5ce unsatisfy+1 requires emphasis4 ,!re=e we mu/ take p>ticul> c>e to be> 9 m9d ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( our discussion ( special tal5ts & defects1 t we are deal+ ) comp>atively r>e ph5om5a4 ,! di/ribution ( abilities1 z det]m9$ by biological law1 does n correspond to our concept ( fair play4 ,ne>ly all /upid p]sons are inf]ior 9 all capacities4 ,! great majority ( gift$ p]sons are sup]ior 9 ne>ly all _! abilities4 ,! majority ( human be+s are nei!r m>k$ly inf]ior nor m>k$ly sup]ior1 b are 8typical0 7n f> f ! m$ian or av]age7 9 all respects4 ,,xiv4 ,,possible ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,dissociation ,,( ,,c]ta9 ,,capacities ,:y %\ld c]ta9 capacities1 l musical s5sitivity & ability 9 repres5tative draw+1 be s loosely correlat$ ) g5]al ability1 ?r\gh\t ! species8 ,:y %\ld o!r capacities1 l ability to "n opposites & to complete s5t5ces1 give su* high & positive total correlation8 ,we d n "k ) assurance ! answ]s to ^! que/ions4 ,p]haps ! evolution>y explanation is adequate4 ,^? v>iants liv$ to transmit _! h]$it>y con/itution1 ^: functions 7 s correlat$ t life 0 well su/a9$4 ,p]haps functions are1 !re=e1 loosely correlat$1 :]e no?+ w\ld be add$ to ! probability ( survival by high correlation4 ,x makes little diff]5ce 9 a _w l ours :e!r an intellig5t man c or _c s+4 ,x is ( small mom5t :e!r "o :o c easily detect absurdities ( /atem5t c also produce f9e repres5tative draw+s4 ,x is v important = survival1 on ! o!r h&1 :e!r "o :o c detect simil>ities c also detect diff]5ces1 9 ! objects :i* surr\nd him1 & :e!r he c at ! same "t anticipate incomplete mean+s 9 ! s5t5ces & ge/ures ( ^? :om he meets4 ,! sugge/ion also arises z to :e!r ^? p]=mances :i* d n coh]e closely ) p]=mances 9 g5]al are su* z involve ! s5sori-motor app>atus to a special degree1 z di/+ui%$ f ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,^? functions :i* dep5d relatively little ^u equipm5t ( eye1 e>1 or h&1 b ess5tially ^u ! s5sitivity & integrity ( ! cortical neurones1 might be expect$ to coh]e closely1 con/itut+ :at we %\ld prop]ly call intellig5ce4 ,:]e p]=mance dep5ds l>gely on s5se organs & muscles1 ! correlation ) functions l>gely indep5d5t ( s5sori-motor app>atus might be expect$ to be only z great z ! t5d5cy to g5]al organic quality w\ld br+ ab\t4 ,c]ta9ly draw+1 music1 & me*anical ability1 = example1 involve eye1 e>1 & muscle to a mu* great] ext5t ?an does ! detection ( absurdities 9 life situations1 or ! le>n+ ( symbolic significances4 ,! me*anical te*nique ( read+ cle>ly involves ! s5sori-motor app>atus to a mu* great] ext5t ?an does ! compreh5sion ( :at is read4 ,x w\ld be valuable to det]m9e to :at ext5t a hi]>*y ( correlations w\ld be consi/5tly ma9ta9$ 9 ! use ( te/s1 select$ = graduat$ degrees ( involvem5t ( equipm5t accessory to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4#h ,,ref]5ces ,,ba]wald1 ,r4--,!orie d] ,begabung2 ,reisl&1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,,b9et1 ,a41 & ,,simon1 ,,?4--8,?orie n\velle de la dm5ce02 ,l'anne psy*ologique1 #aiji4 ,,br[n1 ,,wm4--8,"s ,exp]im5tal ,results 9 ! ,correlation ( ,m5tal ,abilities02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiji-aj4 ,,burt1 ,c4--8,exp]im5tal ,te/s ( ,g5]al ,intellig5ce02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiji-aj4 ,,burt1 ,c4--,m5tal & ,s*ola/ic ,te/s2 ,london ,c\nty ,c\ncil1 #aiba4 ,,h>t1 ,b41 & ,,spe>man1 ,c4--8,g5]al ,ability1 ,its ,exi/5ce & ,nature02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiab4 ,,h>t1 ,b41 & ,,spe>man1 ,c4--8,m5tal ,te/s ( ,dem5tia02 ,j\rnal ( ,abnormal ,psy*ology1 #aiae4 ,,holl+wor?1 ,h4 ,l4--,judg+ ,human ,"*2 ,d4 ,appleton & ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,,mccall1 ,w4 ,a4--,correlation ( ,"s ,psy*ological & ,educational ,measurem5ts2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiaf4 ,,mccall1 ,w4 ,a4--,h[ to ,measure 9 ,education2 ,! ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,,moore1 ,t4 ,v4--8,! ,correlation betwe5 ,memory & ,p]ception 9 ! ,pres5ce ( ,diffuse ,cortical ,deg5]ation02 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aiai4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,ueb] das frhzeitige ,auftret5 d] ,begabung02 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aiai4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4--,/ati/ical ,me?ods ,appli$ to ,education2 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co41 ,bo/on1 #aiag4 ,,simpson1 ,b4 ,r4--,correlations ( ,m5tal ,abilities2 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiab4 ,,spe>man1 ,c4--8,! ,pro( & ,measurem5t ( ,association betwe5 ,two ,?+s02 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aijd4 ,,spe>man1 ,c4--8,g5]al ,intellig5ce ,objectively ,det]m9$ & ,measur$02 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aijd4 ,,spe>man1 ,c41 & ,,krueg]1 ,f4--8,die ,korrelation zwis*5 v]s*i$55 gei/ig5 ,lei/ungsfhigkeit502 ,zeits*rift fr ,psy*ologie1 #aijf4 ,,t]man1 ,l4 ,m4--,! ,measurem5t ( ,intellig5ce2 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co41 ,bo/on1 #aiaf4 ,,?ompson1 ,j4 ,r4--8,! ,rle ( ,int]f]5ce ,factors 9 ,produc+ ,correlation02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiai4 ,,?omson1 ,g4--8,! ,pro( or ,dispro( ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,g5]al ,ability02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiai4 ,?omson1 ,g4--8,! ,hi]>*y ( ,abilities02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiai4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l41 & ,,aik5s1 ,h4 ,a4--8,correlation among ,p]ceptive & ,associative ,processes02 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aijb4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,h]$ity1 ,correlation1 & ,sex ,diff]5ces 9 ,s*ool ,abilities2 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aijc4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,on ! ,organization ( ,intellect02 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aiba4 ,,wegle91 ,d4 ,e4--,! ,correlation ( ,abilities ( ,high ,s*ool ,pupils2 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity1 #aiag4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,! ,,neural ,,basis ,i4 ,,! ,,physiological ,,me*anism ,,( ,,m5tal ,,life ,psy*ologi/s no long] "q t ! product ( m9d1 :i* we call behavior1 by :i* m9d is judg$1 is 9 "s way intimately connect$ ) ! s5sitivity & integrity ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! pro( ( ?is has (t5 be5 set =?1 & w m]ely be tak5 = grant$ "h4 ,any organ or sub/ance :i* reacts ^u ?is s5sitivity or integrity may !n indirectly influ5ce m5tal life 9 c]ta9 respects4 ,= in/ance1 ! gl&ul> sy/em ( ! body1 especially t "p ( x :i* comprises ! gl&s ( int]nal secretion1 may affect behavior by affect+ ! gr[? or function ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,drugs may influ5ce m5tal processes1 because !y act ^u ! neurones4 ,h[ev]1 all pres5t k po9ts to ! conclusion t if ! n]v\s tissue c\ld be isolat$ f su* influ5ces1 m5tal life w\ld be immune f _! effects4 ,m5tal life is b indirectly subject to su* influ5ces1 9 s f> z n]v\s tissue is affect$ 9 a p>ticul> mann] by !m4 ,,ii4 ,,attempt$ ,,localization ,,( ,,m5tal ,,functions ,:5 x 0 ?\ght t su* suppos$ entities z 8! reason10 8! w10 8! memory10 & 8! imag9ation0 w\ld be id5tifi$ z m5tal functions1 x 0 also suppos$ t a def9ite location = ea* might be f\nd 9 ! bra94 ,z inve/igators 7 compell$ to *ange _! concept ( a m5tal function1 & to def9e m5tal functions 9 t]ms ( obs]vable p]=mance1 !y /ill s\ght to discov] :e!r or n ea* p]=mance might be ref]r$ to a def9ite set ( neurones4 ,?is "q ( bra9 localization con/itutes a curr5t topic ( rese>*4 ,s little in=mation c be giv5 z yet ^u ! subject t x is1 p]haps1 unw>rant$ to consid] x at all 9 ?is volume1 :]e ! *ief int]e/ does n c5t] 9 ! controv]t$ !ories ( neurology4 ,mu* ( ! pro( = ! /atem5t fir/ made 9 ?is *apt]1 t ! n]v\s sy/em is ! physiological me*anism ( m5tal life1 has be5 adduc$ ?r\gh /udy ( neuropa?ology4 ,p]sons impair$ 9 a giv5 mann] 9 _! n]v\s tissue1 %[ behavior *>act]i/ically alt]$4 ,moreov]1 giv5 alt]ations 9 behavior c be produc$ exp]im5tally 9 animals1 by alt]+ ! connections 9 ! n]v\s sy/em1 & by no o!r means4 ,?r\gh ^! obs]vations x has be5 possible to assign c]ta9 functions to p>ts ( ! physiological me*anism4 ,9 ! case ( man1 bo? by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 8! n]v\s /ructure bel[ ! hemisph]es ( ! c]ebrum has be5 exclud$ f ! possibility ( act+ z ! imm$iate physical basis ( m5tal /ates40#i ,! high] m5tal processes1 :i* involve ! possibility ( speak+1 calculat+1 & respond+ by le>n$ reactions to complex situations1 h _! correlate 9 ! cortex 7! agglom]ation ( neurones 9 ! c]ebral hemisph]es74 ,physiological psy*ologi/s !re=e inve/igate ! cortex1 9 _! se>* = ! p>ticul> neurone-patt]ns or areas involv$ 9 p>ticul> intellectual p]=mances4 ,! problems ( bra9 localization h1 !re=e1 be5 approa*$ ?r\gh ! /udy ( ! alt]ations 9 p]=mance1 :i* accompany alt]ations 9 giv5 areas ( ! cortex4 ,alt]ations 9 re/rict$ areas ( bra9 tissue1 9 human be+s1 are br\ght ab\t *iefly by ob/ruction ( a blood vessel1 hemorrhage1 tumor1 & lac]ation or depression ?r\gh injury to ! skull4 ,"o ( ! e>ly obs]vations1 be>+ ^u topics consid]$ 9 ! subsequ5t *apt]s ( ?is volume1 0 t by ,broca4 ,broca describ$ two cases ( pa?ological impairm5t 9 a limit$ convolutional region ( ! left c]ebral hemisph]e1 9 :i* ! use ( words 0 lo/1 )\t loss ( intellig5ce z express$ 9 o!r ways4 ,broca !re=e sugge/$ 8articulate language0 to be a function connect$ ) ! "p ( ! bra9 to :i* ! impairm5t _h be5 re/rict$4 ,a l>ge numb] ( simil> obs]vations h be5 report$ s9ce ,broca's publication1 describ+ cases ( selective loss ( "s l+ui/ic function1 especially 9 connection ) p>alysis ( limbs4 ,! localization ( articulate language1 z a special ability1 9 ,broca's area1 is /ill1 h[ev]1 debat$ by ^? mo/ compet5t to discuss ! matt]1 & no positive /atem5t is at pres5t w>rant$4 ,head1 "o ( ! =emo/ among mod]n /ud5ts ( neurology1 has rec5tly advanc$ ! !ory t special di/urbances ( articulate language 7aphasia1 alexia1 agraphia1 aphemia7 are due to di/urbances ( ^? psy*ic processes :]eby symbolic association is accompli%$1--:]eby m5 le>n to imbue symbols ) mean+4 ,von ,monak[ int]pret$ ! array ( data exi/+ 9 #aiad to %[ t all gno/ic functions 7intellectual p]=mances7 p]ta9 to ! cortex z a :ole1 & n to any c5t] or c5t]s 9 ! bra94 ,he held t no case ( aphasia p]man5tly rema9s1 unless !re is at ! same "t diffuse cortical deg5]ation4 ,ladd & ,woodwor?1 writ+ 9 #aiaa1 conclud$ t 8!re is good evid5ce t ! ,broca region is ! mo/ vuln]able "p ( ! cortex1 z reg>ds ! motor cord9ation ( spee*10 b t 8! entire c]ebrum w\ld seem to be1 ( necessity1 involv$ 9 man's l+ui/ic atta9m5ts & uses40 ,,iii4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,cong5ital ,,lesion ,,or ,,atrophy ,,criticiz$ ,reason+ f analogy ) cases :]e a function ( language is lo/ selectively1 ?r\gh organic disease or impairm5t ( bra9 /ructure1 x 0 ?\ght by ^? :o fir/ describ$ innate special disabilities1 z 9 read+ or spell+1 t su* defects mu/ be due to cong5ital bra9 lesions or atrophies4 ,neurological rese>* has nev] v]ifi$ ?is supposition4 ,no cases %[+ innate disability to be correlat$ ) any peculi>ities ( re/rict$ areas 9 ! cortex h ev] be5 record$4 ,tilney & ,riley1 summ>iz+ critically ! data ( neurology 9 #aiba1 cite no cases consid]$ to af=d au!ntic evid5ce ( localiz$ lesions or defects1 z ! basis ( cong5ital difficulty 9 read+1 spell+1 music1 or o!r functions ) :i* ! pres5t treatise is conc]n$4 ,! !ory ( innate lesion or atrophy ( a cortical area1 to acc\nt = disability 9 a special m5tal function1 seems unsci5tific = o!r reasons1 aside f ! fact t x has nev] be5 objectively v]ifi$ by actual obs]vation ( a /ructural defect4 ,"o ( ^! reasons is t a !ory1 =mulat$ to take c>e ( ! neural basis ( specializ$ disabilities1 mu/ take c>e ( specializ$ gifts1 z well4 ,cases :]e a g5]ally /upid *ild is innately gift$ ) special ability to ma/] ! me*anics ( read+1 = example1 are no d\bt z frequ5t z cases :]e a g5]ally capable *ild le>ns !m ) difficulty4 ,! !ory ( specializ$ lesions or o!r faults ( /ructure might cov] disabilities1 b w\ld x cov] special tal5ts z well8 ,/ill ano!r consid]ation prev5ts u f reg>d+ ! !ory ( localiz$ bra9 defects z ma/]ly4 ,?is is ! fact ref]r$ to 9 our prelim9>y discussion1 t e s+le m5tal function1 :i* yields to measurem5t1 is f\nd to be di/ribut$ among human be+s accord+ to a probability curve4 7,see ,figure #a1 page #h47 ,! functions :i* we h]e9 consid] are n exceptions to ?is pr9ciple4 ,p]=mance 9 read+1 spell+1 ari?metic1 draw+1 music1 & s =?1 %[s *ildr5 or adults1 *os5 at r&om1 to be di/ribut$ 9 ! giv5 =m4 ,^? :o h exceptional tal5ts or defects 9 ! function fall )9 ! symmetrical surface ( ?is curve1 at its opposite extremes4 ,n[h]e is !re a po9t ( dem>kation1 d5ot+ absolute lack ( ! trait 9 a gr\p fall+ bel[ t po9t1 z !re w\ld be if a numb] ( individuals suff]+ f lesions 7 introduc$ into ! di/ribution4 ,we may fairly dem& ( a !ory :i* und]takes ! explanation ( ! mo/ extreme deviations1 ! explanation ( ! deviations ( less] magnitude1 z well4 ,! curve obta9$ by te/ approximates t =m :i* ma!maticians tell u appe>s :5 an inf9ite numb] ( factors act toge!r 9 an inf9ite numb] ( ways1 ! extreme deviations occurr+ inevitably1 by *ance4 ,a !ory introduc+ ! adv5titi\s circum/ance ( lesion or atrophy is ?us sup]flu\s to ! explanation ( ! extreme un=tunate deviations4 ,to admit x w\ld violate ! rule ( sci5tific me?od kn[n z ! law ( p>simony1 = we d n ne$ x 9 ord] to expla9 ! facts4 ,,iv4 ,,re/itution ,,( ,,function ,,)\t ,,reg5]ation ,,( ,,/ructure ,,9 ,,injur$ ,,bra9s ,fully z important z any ( ! facts m5tion$ above1 = criticism ( ! !ory t special defici5cies are due to localiz$ defects 9 bra9 /ructure1 are ! exp]im5ts ) reducation ( ^? :o h suff]$ loss ( an ability4 ,p]sons :o h lo/ ! p[] to read1 or write1 or speak aft] de/ruction ( bra9 tissue1 may le>n to p]=m ^! functions aga91 )\t reg5]ation ( ! area impair$4 ,if ! neurones de/roy$1 & no o!rs1 7 ! special me*anisms r5d]+ possible ! functions lo/1 h[ w\ld re/itution ( function be possible1 )\t repair ( ! de/roy$ tissues8 ,v4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,e/abli% ,a ,,neural ,,basis ,,= ,,! 8,,two ,,factor ,,!ory0 ,,& 8,,! ,,two ,,level ,,!ory0 ,9 prosecut+ _! rese>*es f ! psy*ological po9t ( view1 by ! me?od ( te/+ p]=mance1 ,spe>man1 ,moore1 ,?omson1 & o!r inve/igators ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 did n neglect ! attempt to reconcile _! f9d+s ) a possible neural basis4 ,spe>man wrote3 8,! !ory ( #8two factors' j del9eat$1 ?\gh prim>ily ( psy*ological orig91 has %[n itself capable ( translation into t]ms ( c]ebral physiology40 ,! 8specific factors0 ,spe>man w\ld id5tify ) "s 8p>ticul> cortical region1 or o!r neural *>act]i/ic1 cord9at$ to ! p>ticul> p]=mance 9 "q40 ,! 8g5]al factor0 is d]iv$ f ! fact t all neurones ( ! cortex arise f ! same h]$ity1 & mu/ resemble ea* o!r1 z 8! hair 9 "o region ( a p]son's scalp normally resembles t on ! o!r regions0 7a some:at prec>i\s analogy72 also1 f ! fact t all p>ts ( ! bra9 are n\ri%$ by ! same blood supply2 & f ! supposition t 8ea* mom5t>y focus ( cortical activity receives cont9ual support f en]gy lib]at$ by ! entire cortex 7or "s /ill wid] neural area740 ,?omson said3 8,let u suppose t ! m9d1 9 c>ry+ out any activity su* z a m5tal te/1 has two levels at :i* x c op]ate4 ,! elem5ts ( activity at ! l[] level are entirely specific2 b ^? at ! high] level are su* t !y may come into play 9 m ?an "o k9d ( activity1 9 m ?an "o m5tal te/4444 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! levels may be physiological1 z betwe5 cortex & sp9al cord1 or x may be ! diff]5ce betwe5 consci\s & non-consci\s1 or :at n4 ,! !ory may lat] be r$uc$ to a less h>% di*otomy & !re may be gradations f ! "o level to ! o!r40 ,^! attempts to f9d a neural basis = ! 8,two ,factor ,!ory0 & ! 8,two ,level ,!ory0 are obvi\sly n v complete4 ,,vi4 ,,pres5t ,,/atus ,,( ,,! ,,problem ,! conclusion is t at pres5t exp]im5tal neurology has no?+ secure to (f] by way ( e/abli%+ ! neural basis ( ! special tal5ts & defects1 :i* we wi% to consid]4 ,we mu/ suppose t 9 "s way unkn[n !y are connect$ ) neural activity1 b localization ( ea* function 9 a re/rict$ area ( ! bra9 /ructure has nev] be5 e/abli%$4 ,! deviations 9 p]=mance are almo/ c]ta9ly biological1 & n pa?ological4 ,ea* m5tal function is by orig9al nature possible 9 "s degree to e p]son1 ! degrees ( pot5tiality be+ ( enorm\s range1 & di/ribut$ among memb]s ( ! species accord+ to a frequ5cy curve4 ,! =m ( ?is curve indicates t ! det]m9ants ( aptitude are approximately inf9ite 9 possibility ( comb9ation4 ,! extremes ( deviation f ! typical result ( ^! det]m9ants act+ toge!r1 are1 z /at$1 v widely sep>at$1 z 9 any game ( *ance comb9+ _m factors1 b !y nev]!less h limits1 :i* are kn[able4 ,! det]m9ants exi/ *iefly 7p]haps exclusively7 9 ! g]m-plasm1 f :i* human organisms spr+1 & :i* c>ries inh]itance f c\ntless comb9ations ( ance/ry = p]sons n[ alive4 ,x is nei!r necess>y nor plausible to introduce a !ory ( bra9 lesion or atrophy to expla9 ! extreme m9us deviations1 leav+ ! equally extreme plus deviations ?us unexpla9$4 ,! sum total ( a *ild's /&+s on ^! curves1 9 ! multitude ( m5tal functions :i* are possible to human be+s1 con/itutes 8 psy*ograph or m5tality4 ,! physiological aspects ( ?is inh]itance may ultimately be f\nd 9 bra9 *emi/ry1 or 9 ! discov]y ( "s pr9ciple ( physics at pres5t unkn[n4 ,x may be an inh]itance ( function1 r ?an ( /ructure4 ,we d n "k4 ,! pres5t /atus ( ! problems indicat$ 9 ?is *apt] may be recapitulat$ 9 ! words ( ,ladd & ,woodwor?3 8,! analysis ( m5tal functions into _! elem5ts1 9 a mann] suitable = physiological use1 has sc>cely be5 begun40 ,,ref]5ces ,,broca1 ,p4 ,p4--,sur le sige de la facult du langage articul1 avec deux obs]vations d'aphmie2 ,v4 ,masson et ,fils1 ,p>is1 #ahfa4 ,,franz1 ,s4 ,i4--8,c]ebral-,m5tal ,relations02 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aiba4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,aphasia & ,k9dr$ ,disord]s ( ,spee*02 ,bra91 #aibj4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,release ( ,function 9 ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em02 ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society1 ,s]ies ,b1 #aiba4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,disord]s ( ,symbolic ,?9k+ ,due to ,local ,lesions ( ! ,bra902 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aiba4 ,,ladd1 ,g41 & ,,woodwor?1 ,r4 ,s4--,physiological ,psy*ology2 ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,la%ley1 ,k4 ,s4--8,/udies ( ,c]ebral ,functions 9 ,le>n+02 ,psy*o-,biology1 #aibj4 ,,monak[1 ,c4 ,,von--,die ,lokalisation im ,gros%irn2 ,b]gmann1 ,wiesbad51 #aiad4 ,,tilney1 ,f41 & ,,riley1 ,h4 ,a4--,! ,=m & ,functions ( ! ,c5tral ,n]v\s ,sy/em2 ,hoeb]1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,read+ ,i4 ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,iq ,,& ,,capacity ,,= ,,read+ ,x has be5 /at$ t mo/ ( ! m5tal functions1 :i* human be+s p]=m1 are n elem5t>y1 b are capable ( analysis into _m contribut+ factors4 ,read+ has be5 %[n by su* analysis to be a v complex function1 int]f]5ce 9 any "p ( :i* may result 9 disability4 ,! causes ( failure to le>n to read "u in/ruction1 !re=e1 diff] f *ild to *ild4 ,huey1 :o sp5t ye>s /udy+ ! psy*ology ( read+1 f9ally became s imbu$ ) ! wond] ( ! process1 t he felt t to "k x 9 all its aspects & ramifications w\ld be to "k all psy*ology4 ,correlations betwe5 ,,iq & read+ ability1 among *ildr5 ( ! same age1 9 bo? sil5t & oral read+1 are positive & v high4 ,?is is especially true ( read+ = ! und]/&+ ( s5t5ces4 ,correlation betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce1 z measur$ by a scale l ,/an=d-,b9et1 & read+ ability1 z measur$ by a scale l ,trabue's ,language ,completion1 or ,?orndike-,mc,call's scale = und]/&+ ( s5t5ces1 rea*es z high z 4#ij1 & h>dly ev] 9 any gr\p falls bel[ 4#fj4 ,^! correlations indicate t g5]al m5tal maturity is v closely relat$ to le>n+ to read4 ,! v intellig5t *ildr5 are ! be/ read]s 9 by f> ! majority ( cases1 :ile s*ool *ildr5 :o d n le>n to read "u ord9>y in/ruction1 are usually feeble-m9d$4 ,on ! basis ( exp]im5tation 9 ?is field1 ,rans*burg sugge/s t ev5 s me*anical an aspect ( read+ z ability to call correctly words expos$ 9 a ta*i/oscope1 may s]ve z a r\gh means ( sep>at+ feeble-m9d$ s*ool *ildr5 f ! o!rs4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 ) correlation coeffici5ts rea*+ z high z 4#ij1 !re may occur occasional cases ( v m>k$ discrepancy betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & ability to read4 ,v e>ly read+1 ) little or no =mal in/ruction1 is (t5 f\nd among *ildr5 ( v high ,,iq4 ,( f\r *ildr5 measur+ ov] #ahj ,,iq 7,/an=d-,b9et71 f\nd by ! pres5t writ] 9 ,new ,york ,city1 e "o le>n$ to read simple matt] flu5tly dur+ or be=e ! ?ird ye> ( life4 ,_! e>ly ma/]y ( read+ 0 b a symptom ( _! great g5]al capacity4 ,j :at degree ( intellectual developm5t is typically rea*$ be=e *ildr5 c be taught to read is n kn[n1 b x is probably n f> f a #f-ye> level4 ,t is1 *ildr5 ( ord9>y intellig5ce c le>n to read aft] !y h pass$ _! six? bir?day4 ,a *ild :o c read flu5tly at a m5tal age mu* bel[ ?is mu/ be consid]$ to %[ a special ability2 :ile "o :o _c beg9 to le>n at or above ?is g5]al level#aj is afflict$ ) a special defect1 9 "s ( ! functions :i* ent] into ! read+ process4 ,^! functions may be classifi$ z ^? :i* ent] into me*anics1 & ^? :i* ent] into compreh5sion1 ( read+4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,me*anics ,,( ,,read+ ,"u ! me*anics ( ! process fall ! s5sory1 motor1 & to a great ext5t ! p]ceptual1 elem5ts 9 read+4 ,! s5sory elem5ts include ! p>ticipation ( eye1 e>1 & muscles z s5se organs1 furni%+ respectively ! visual1 auditory1 & k9/hetic contributions to ! total function4 ,9 ! case ( ! bl9d1 tactual s5sations replace ! visual1 & 9 ! deaf1 ! visual replace ! auditory4 ,s5sory impairm5t1 t is1 impairm5t ( eye1 e>1 or muscle z an organ1 may prev5t an intellig5t *ild f le>n+ to read4 ,exam9ation ( ! special s5ses is ! fir/ /ep dictat$ by common s5se & sci5tific proc$ure1 :5 an intellig5t *ild does n le>n to read4 ,9 ?is way x has happ5$ hi/orically t ! fir/ cases ( special disability 9 read+ & spell+ among s*ool *ildr5 h be5 report$ by oph?almologi/s1 to :om !y 7 tak5 = exam9ation ( ! eyes4 ,p>5ts naturally s\ght ! exp]t :o kn[s eyes 9 su* cases1 = to "o :o has n /udi$ ! psy*ology ( read+1 x appe>s t a p]son 8reads ) 8 eyes0 only4 ,! visual defects :i* may mo/ commonly int]f]e ) ! ma/]y ( ! me*anics ( read+ are myopia1 hyp]opia1 a/igmatism1 cat>act1 muscle-weakness1 diplopia1 & anomalies ( ! ret9a4 ,surveys ( s*ool *ildr5 by compet5t oculi/s h %[n t consid]able numb]s suff] f eye-defects suffici5t to cause difficulty4 ,deafness obvi\sly may con/itute an int]f]5ce1 s9ce ! correct s\nd ( ! ^w is ess5tial to read+4 ,n s obvi\s is ! rle ( ! k9/hetic s5sations1 b we are l$ to believe t _! "p is important ?r\gh ! /udies ( ,f]nald1 lat] to be report$ "h4 ,"u ! motor elem5ts involv$1 we h to consid] articulation1 pronunciation1 eye-movem5ts1 & ! cord9ation ( arm1 h&1 & f+]s 9 writ+ words4 ,x is h>d = an exp]t read]1 l an educat$ adult1 to realize )\t fir/-h& /udy ( ! facts1 to :at ext5t ^! elem5ts orig9ally ent]$ into 8 le>n+4 ,! inexp]t read] t5ds to reta9 lip-movem5ts1 &1 inde$1 movem5ts ( ! :ole app>atus ( articulation1 9 sil5t read+4 ,p]ception ( a /imulus may be def9$ = our purposes z see+1 he>+1 or o!rwise int]pret+ x 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,p]ception is habit1 le>n$ j z o!r habits are le>n$4 ,we p]ceive ! spok5 words 8home aga90 z su*1 because we le>n$ to d s4 ,"o :o has n le>n$1 w n p]ceive two words1 b only a jumble ( articulate s\nd4 ,9 read+1 ! p]ceptual elem5ts include ! =mulation ( habits ( respond+ to p>ts1 & to gr\ps ( words1 z su*4 ,_m inve/igations h be5 made ( ! p]ceptual elem5ts 9 ! me*anics ( read+ )9 ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,x has be5 discov]$ t ! ^w may be le>n$ )\t fir/ le>n+ ! sep>ate lett]s :i* compose x4 ,spell+ & read+ are ?us psy*ologically f> f id5tical4 ,9 p]ceiv+ a ^w1 all p>ts are n equally /ress$4 ,! fir/ half & ! upp] half ( ! ^w h a great advantage ov] ! la/ & l[] halves4 ,9 flu5t read+1 ! eye moves by j]ks across ! l9e1 mak+ ?ree to five pauses 9 cross+ an ord9>y page ( pr9t$ matt]4 ,oral read+ requires ab\t #a4f m pauses p] l9e ?an sil5t read+1 & ! av]age duration ( ^! pauses is long]4 ,?us oral read+ requires #dd to #fd p] c5t m p]ception "t ?an does sil5t read+4 ,! unit ( p]ception 9 read+ may be ! lett]1 ! ^w1 ! phrase1 ! s5t5ce1 or ev5 ! p>agraph1 accord+ to ! tra9+ ( ! pupil1 ! degree ( skill atta9$1 & ! ext5t to :i* he 8skims40 ,! lett] or ! ^w z ! unit ( p]ception results 9 halt+ & expressionless oral read+1 & 9 ret>d$ sil5t read+4 ,^! are "s ( ! results ( fundam5tal /udies 9 ! psy*ology ( read+1 :i* help u to und]/& cases ( individual difficulty4 ,rec5tly ,gates has made int5sive /udy ( read+ & spell+ by ! me?ods ( correlation1 ) special ref]5ce to disability4 ,he f9ds t p>tial & multiple correlations reveal an ability or abilities common to all p]ceptual te/s involv+ words z mat]ials1 suffici5t to cause fairly high correlations betwe5 !m1 z comp>$ ) ! correlations betwe5 ^! te/s & te/s n involv+ words4 ,by hypo!sis1 ?is common factor is def9$ z an ability to p]ceive cle>ly ! significant details ( words4 ,! multiple correlations ( ^! te/s ) spell+ are high] ?an ) read+1 & x is sugge/$ t ^? :o h a v favorable =m ( ^w-p]ception are to "s ext5t le>n+ 7or rele>n+7 to spell dur+ ! c\rse ( ord9>y read+4 ,gates also po9ts out t poor read+ is n caus$ by bad habits ( eye-movem5t1 b on ! contr>y1 faulty eye-movem5ts are m]ely symptomatic ( ! fact t ! *ild _c read well4 ,n hav+ ma/]$ ! me*anics ( read+1 8 eyes move hi!r & yon at r&om1 seek+1 by trial & error me?ods1 to get at ! matt] be=e him4 ,wrong eye-movem5ts c be cur$ by tea*+ ! *ild h[ to read4 ,! *ild _c be taught to read by correct+ 8 eye-movem5ts4 ,x %\ld be add$1 f9ally1 t all ! functions ref]r$ to above1 & possibly o!rs t analysis has n yet made evid5t1 mu/ be syn!siz$ 9 an automatic set ( habits be=e ! *ild becomes pr(ici5t 9 ! me*anics ( read+4 ,,iii4 ,,compreh5sion ,,9 ,,read+ ,! elem5ts ( read+ ?us f> consid]$ are ^? t contribute to me*anics4 ,read+ to recognize =ms & to pron\nce words is to be di/+ui%$ psy*ologically & p$agogically f read+ = ! und]/&+ ( s5t5ces4 ,e tea*] ( mu* exp]i5ce 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool w be able to recall *ildr5 :o c\ld read flu5tly f ! pr9t$ page1 b c\ld n tell :at !y _h read1 nor answ] que/ions ab\t ! context4 ,9 read+ to grasp mean+1 additional processes1 m difficult to p]=m1 are involv$1 beyond ^? requir$ to 8see & say0 ! words4 ,z w\ld be expect$1 ! ability to ma/] ! me*anics ( read+ is m loosely correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce ?an is ability to compreh5d ! matt] read4 ,! compreh5sion ( mean+ is a v l>ge factor 9 intellig5ce4 ,x might almo/ be ma9ta9$ t intellig5ce is grasp ( mean+4 ,a *ild :o has p]fect$ ! me*anics ( read+1 und]/&s :at is read 9 accordance ) 8 g5]al intellig5ce1 z correlations prove4 ,gates has %[n t ev5 9 ! case ( *ildr5 :o are q defici5t 9 oral read+1 ! correspond5ce betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & compreh5sion ( ! context 9 sil5t read+1 z reveal$ 9 answ]s to que/ions ab\t ! mat]ial read1 is v mu* high] ?an w\ld be believ$ probable4 ,su* a *ild1 us+ 8 lame me*anics1 draws mean+ f fragm5ts1 9 accordance ) 8 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "y *ildr5 are sometimes f\nd1 :o h become v flu5t 9 me*anical read+1 :o c ?us read v ab/ruse matt]1 )\t gett+ any mean+ f :at !y read1 because ( ! limitations ( g5]al intellectual developm5t4 ,z a result ( 8 /udies ( 8,read+ z ,reason+10 ,?orndike obs]ves3 8,read+ may be wrong or inadequate 7#a7 because ( wrong connection ) words s+ly1 7#b7 because ( ov]-pot5cy or "u-pot5cy ( elem5ts1 7#c7 because ( failure to treat ! ideas produc$ by ! read+ z provisional & to inspect1 & welcome or reject !m40 ,?is ?ird cause ( inf]ior read+ is f\nd inv>iably 9 *ildr5 ( l[ ,,iq1 = to read 9 ?is way1 und]/&+ly1 involves ! weigh+ ( _m elem5ts 9 a s5t5ce1 _! organization 9 ! prop] relations to "o ano!r1 & ! selection & rejection ( connotations--all functions ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,x is by te/s ( su* functions t ,,iq is det]m9$4 ,!re=e1 x is n surpris+ t compreh5sion 9 read+ is s highly correlat$ ) ,,iq1 among s*ool *ildr5 ( ! same age4 ,x is betwe5 ,,iq & me*anical ability to read words1 t m>k$ discrepancies may occasionally exi/1 z illu/rative cases %[4 ,,iv4 ,,^w ,,bl9dness ,z has be5 /at$1 ! fir/ cases ( inf]iority 9 read+ 7 report$ by oph?almologi/s1 :o1 ^u discov]+ no?+ wrong ) ! visual app>atus ( ! *ild br\ght = exam9ation1 pron\nc$ ! difficulty to be ^w bl9dness or 8cong5ital alexia40 ,9 us+ ^! t]ms1 !y reason$ f analogy ) pa?ological cases ( selective loss ( function 9 adults1 ref]r$ to by u 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! fir/ cases report$ f ?is po9t ( view 71 s f> z ! pres5t writ] c det]m9e1 ^? ( ,k]r & ^? ( ,morgan1 bo? report+ 9 #ahif4 ,aft] ^!1 a numb] ( individual cases 7 report$ 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 ,g]many1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #aiae1 ,s*rck & ,cleme%a respectively summ>iz$ all lit]ature to t date1 ! =m] pres5t+ a bibliography ( ?irty-two titles4 ,! great drawback to cle> int]pretation ( ^! cases is t g5]al intellig5ce 0 n measur$4 ,"s1 at lea/1 ( ! *ildr5 7 feeble-m9d$1 = we f9d cit$ z evid5ce ( good g5]al end[m5t1 p]=mances :i* we n[ "k to be typical ( *ildr5 mu* y\ng] ?an ^? be+ describ$4 ,h9%elwood1 an oph?almologi/1 publi%$ 9 #aiag a g5]al discussion ( non-read]s1 f ! m$ical /&po9t4 ,accord+ to 8 treatm5t ( ! subject1 non-read]s con/itute a gr\p ap>t1 def9$ by "s cong5ital1 pa?ological defect 9 bra9 /ructure1 b = :i* !y w\ld h read normally4 ,?is concept is directly d]iv$ f analogy ) cases ( lo/ function 9 diseas$ p]sons4 8,by ! t]m cong5ital ^w bl9dness1 we mean a cong5ital defect occurr+ 9 *ildr5 ) o!rwise normal & undamag$ bra9s *>act]iz$ by a difficulty 9 le>n+ to read s great t x is manife/ly due to a pa?ological condition1 & :]e ! attempts to tea* ! *ild by ! ord9>y me?ods h completely fail$4444 ,! recognition ( ?is condition 0 ! direct outcome & result ( ! previ\sly acquir$ k ( ^? symptoms ( c]ebral disease1 :i* we h be5 /udy+4444 ,no d\bt x is a comp>atively common ?+ to f9d "s :o lag consid]ably beh9d _! fell[s1 because ( _! sl[ness & difficulty 9 acquir+ _! visual ^w memories1 b ,i reg>d ^! slight defects z only physiological v>iations1 & n to be reg>d$ z pa?ological conditions4 ,x becomes a s\rce ( confusion to apply to su* cases1 z has be5 done ( late1 ! t]m cong5ital ^w bl9dness1 :i* %\ld be res]v$ = ! really grave degrees ( ?is defect1 :i* manife/ly are ! result ( a pa?ological condition ( ! visual memory c5t]1 & :i* h prov$ refractory to all ! ord9>y me?ods ( s*ool in/ruction40 ,?is is ! supposition :i* 0 critically consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii1 & %[n to be irreconcilable ) facts kn[n to psy*ology4 ,h9%elwood did n make m5tal exam9ations ( ! cases :i* he describes1 by /&>d psy*ological me?ods4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 "w out by exp]i5ce a me?od ( tea*+1 :]eby all ! non-read+ *ildr5 describ$ le>n$ to read4 ,?is consi/s simply 9 return+ to ! primitive me?od ( in/ruction1 beg9n+ ) ! lett]s ( ! alphabet z units ( p]ception1 & proce$+ by tea*+ ! spell+ ( words4 ,! necessity ( individual tea*+ is insi/$ ^u4 ,aside f ! improbabilities ( neurological !ory1 ?is "w is a valuable contribution to ! /udy ( *ildr5 :o h special difficulty 9 read+4 ,x calls att5tion to ! ne$s ( su* *ildr51 & %[s t !y c be taught4 ,v4 ,,psy*ological ,,/udies ,,( ,,special ,,defect ,,9 ,,read+ ,9 #aiag ,bronn] publi%$ sev]al int]e/+ cases ( special backw>dness 9 read+1 /udi$ by ! me?ods ( psy*ological analysis4 ,bronn] /ates t defici5cy 9 read+1 9 *ildr5 ( normal s5sory capacity & intellig5ce1 sometimes is relat$ to special defici5cies 9 mak+ visual associations or auditory associations4 ,9 ! =m] case ! visual details ( ! ^w w\ld be elusive4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! phonetic elem5ts w\ld be inadequately he$$4 ,s9ce ord9>y success 9 read+ arises ?r\gh bo? ^! av5ues ( approa*1 defici5cy 9 ei!r might result 9 poor read+4 ,bronn] sugge/s t ! av5ue :i* is mo/ approa*able 9 ^! cases be specially utiliz$4 ,all *ildr5 _c easily le>n to read by ! me?od :i* s]ves ! majority4 ,bronn] does n give results ( exp]im5tal tea*+ 9 ! cases analyz$4 ,9 #aiah ,s*mitt report$ ?irte5 cases f ! ,*icago ,s*ools1 ) _m details ( m5tal & physical exam9ation4 ,un=tunately1 sy/ematic /&>d te/s ( g5]al intellig5ce 7 n giv51 :i* mu/ be consid]$ a defect 9 ! /udy1 s9ce exact comp>isons ( read+ defici5cy & m5tal age1 or ,,iq1 _c be made4 ,we h ! inve/igator's assurance t 8suffici5t te/s 7 giv5 to e/abli% normal intellig5ce40 ,! conclusion t special defici5cy 9 read+ ability 0 pres5t1 0 made ^u ! foll[+ crit]ia3 7#a7 regul> s*ool att5dance2 7#b7 reasonably good heal? & physical condition2 7#c7 no sign ( visual defect2 7#d7 p]si/+ sl[ness 9 le>n+ to read1 or total inability manife/$ ov] "o or m ye>s ( s*ool life2 7#e7 g5]al m5tal ability good or av]age2 7#f7 no o!r int]f]+ factor1 su* z =eign language 9 ! home1 dislike ( s*ool1 abnormal unresponsiv5ess to s*ool1 or o!r social situations4 ,:]e all ^! conditions 7 satisfactorily met1 c5tral defici5cy 9 capacity = le>n+ to read 0 assum$ to *>act]ize ! *ild4 ,x 0 !n f\nd t _m ( ! ?irte5 ?us select$ _h p>ticul> difficulty ) phonetics--c\ld n readily connect ! s\nds ( lett]s ) ! visual symbol4 ,!y c\ld all mat* words4 ,all c\ld po9t out ! diff]5ce 9 two words diff]+ 9 "o lett]4 ,^? :o 7 old en\gh to h le>n$ to write c\ld transpose a page ( pr9t into script4 ,^! facts are tak5 z evid5ce t ! difficulty mu/ be c5tral & n s5sory4 ,f\r ( ! *ildr5 7 foll[$ up ) tea*+ 9 a special class4 ,phonics 7 taught4 ,! easie/ lett]s--^? t c be prolong$--7 taught fir/ 7r1 f1 l1 m1 s74 ,9 ! ef=t to make ! "w int]e/+1 ! phonics 7 pres5t$ 9 a /ory1 associat+ ea* s\nd ) p>ts ( ! /ory4 ,z _m associations z possible 7 e/abli%$ to fix ! s\nd ( ! lett]4 ,all :o receiv$ ?is special tra9+ are report$ to h improv$ greatly1 9 a %ort "t4 ,s*mitt concludes t !re are a few *ildr5 :o are s con/itut$ t !y _c le>n readily by ! ^w & s5t5ce me?od4 8,e tea*] uses ?is 7! phonic me?od7 to "s ext5t1 b to a v slight ext5t4 ,! av]age *ild quickly le>ns to associate ! pr9t$ lett]s & words ) _! vocal prototypes1 )\t special emphasis on phonics1 or special att5tion to associations4 8,:atev] may be said = ! ^w & s5t5ce me?ods1 x is really by ! phonic me?od t ! *ild becomes indep5d5t ( ! tea*]40 ,9 #aibj & #aiba ,freeman & ,gray respectively pres5t$ well-/udi$ cases ( individual pupils4 ,freeman's case 0 t ( a girl #i ye>s & #f mon?s old1 9 ! f\r? grade ( ! ,univ]sity ,elem5t>y ,s*ool1 at ,*icago4 ,g5]al intellig5ce 0 8bett] ?an av]age10 ! exact ,,iq n be+ /at$4 ,! *ild's fa!r & pat]nal aunt _h also _h m>k$ difficulty 9 read+4 ,bo? p>5ts 7 above av]age 9 social-economic /atus1 & h5ce probably also 9 intellig5ce4 ,an oculi/ _h made a diagnosis ( ^w bl9dness1 ) a v disc\rag+ prognosis = le>n+ to read4 ,z a result ( c>eful psy*ological analysis1 x 0 decid$ t !re 0 no defici5cy ( g5]al intellig5ce1 & no disord] ( vision or ( visual p]ception4 ,!re 0 no motor defici5cy or g5]al language di/urbance4 8,! defect1 !re=e1 mu/ be a highly specializ$ "o10 app>5tly consi/+ 9 lack ( aptitude = associat+ visual symbols ) prescrib$ s\nds4 ,phonetic drill _h already be5 c>ri$ to excess 9 ef=ts to tea* ?is *ild4 ,%e c5t]$ all h] att5tion ^u 8s\nd+0 ! words z units1 ) no grasp ( ?\ght units4 ,devices to ext5d recognition 7 in/itut$4 ,passages 7 brok5 up into s5t5ces1 ! individual s5t5ces be+ typ$ sep>ately on slips ( pap]4 ,a c>d 0 plac$ ^u ! page & mov$ =w>d z fa/ z ! *ild c\ld read4 ,fla%-c>d "w 0 und]tak54 ,pr9t$ directions 7 giv51 :i* ! *ild foll[$ out by appropriate action4 ,practice 9 read+ ari?metical problems 0 prescrib$1 :]e x 0 necess>y to read exactly e item4 ,p>allel ) in/ruction 9 read+ !re 0 in/ruction 9 spell+ & writ+4 ,defici5cy 9 spell+ 0 extreme4 ,f e>ly 9 ,octob] to late 9 ,decemb]1 ^! drills 7 giv54 ,! improvem5t %[n on te/s ( read+ ability 0 v m>k$ aft] ?is brief int]val4 ,!re 0 no d\bt t ! *ild c\ld le>n to read1 & ! prospect ( return to ! grade normal = h] age seem$ v good4 ,gray's case 0 t ( a f\r? grade boy1 ag$ #aj ye>s & #d mon?s :5 ! /udy began4 ,?is boy _h be5 oblig$ to discont9ue "s ( 8 s*ool "w1 because ( inability to read flu5tly & effectively4 ,8 p>5ts 7 unusually intellig5t1 & 8 si/] read well & mu*4 ,! boy 0 normal physically1 active & robu/4 ,at ! age ( #d ye>s1 he began to we> glasses to correct a/igmatism & myopia1 & 0 con/antly "u ! advice ( an exp]t oculi/4 ,!re 0 a v irregul> s*ool hi/ory1 ) 8skipp+0 9 grades #a1 #b1 & #c4 ,g5]al intellig5ce 0 slightly bett] ?an av]age1 z tak5 by ! ,/an=d-,b9et4 ,ability 0 rat$ good 9 all phases ( s*ool "w n requir+ read+4 ,on all te/s ( read+ ability he made v l[ scores4 ,compreh5sion 0 good = mat]ial read to him4 ,x 0 se5 t he recogniz$ words individually1 t 8 eye-movem5ts 7 faulty1 & t ! me*anics ( read+ _h n be5 r5d]$ automatic4 ,special practice ex]cises 7 prescrib$ 9 recognition ( words1 9 control ( eye-movem5t1 & 9 gr\p+ words 9 ?\ght units4 ,v m>k$ improvem5t foll[$ ^u ?is individual in/ruction1 = "o h\r a day1 ov] a p]iod ( two mon?s4 ,a c>eful analysis1 foll[$ up by exp]im5tal tea*+1 has be5 publi%$ by ,f]nald & ,kell]4 ,sev5 non-read]s ( normal vision1 & ( ,,iq's rang+ f #id to #acj1 7 /udi$4 ,all le>n$ to read1 "u special in/ruction4 ,! me?od ( tea*+ /ress$ trac+1 writ+1 & pron\nc+ ! words4 ,t is1 ! k9/hetic elem5ts 9 read+ 7 emphasiz$4 ,f]nald & ,kell] believe t ^! *ildr5 _h n le>n$ read+1 because ord9>y me?ods ( tea*+ neglect ! 8k9/hetic l9ks40 ,/rong motor t5d5cies 7 se5 9 ! *ildr51 ev5 aft] !y _h le>n$ to read flu5tly4 ,x mu/ be said t ?is /udy is "o ( ! mo/ satisfactory s f> pres5t$1 because x gives precise quantitative measurem5ts1 & because ! psy*ological analyses 7 s well *eck$ up by exp]im5tal tea*+4 ,gates foll[$ up ! poore/ read]s1 all ( av]age or sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce1 9 ! ,sc>bor\gh ,s*ool1 ) special tra9+ 9 ! visual p]ception ( words1 ) good results 9 e case b "o4 ,comm5t ^u ! implication ( ^! /udies w be po/pon$ until we h consid]$ c]ta9 fur!r contributions to ! subject1 = example ,burt's obs]vations on neurotics4 ,,vi4 ,,n]v\s ,,in/ability ,,& ,,special ,,defect ,,9 ,,read+ ,burt has po9t$ out :at e psy*ologi/ :o exam9es s*ool *ildr5 c confirm1 t neurotic *ildr5 are (t5 defici5t 9 read+1 ?\gh !y may be intellig5t4 ,?is foll[s f ! psy*ology ( ! me*anics ( read+4 ,ma/]y ( ^! me*anics calls = an ord9>y degree ( cop]ation1 adh]5ce to def9ite directions1 p[] ( su/a9$ ef=t1 & fidelity to b>e facts4 ,neurotics are ^? :o are *>act]i/ically inf]ior 9 ^! ess5tial qualities1 among o!rs4 ,:]e impulsive response1 negativi/ic attitude1 flight9ess1 & illusion cause failure1 neurotic *ildr5 fail4 ,h5ce _m ( !m nev] le>n to read1 except by individual tea*+4 ,"u ?is category1 we may consid]1 also1 spee* defectives1 = spee* defects are (t5 symptomatic ( n]v\s in/ability4 ,*ildr5 :o /amm] or lisp may 8turn aga9/0 read+1 because ( ! ignom9y !y fe>1 9 oral read+ be=e _! mates4 ,a *ild :o displays a spee* defect 9 oral read+ %\ld1 = humane reasons1 be excus$ f su* read+ be=e ! class4 ,g5]al n]v\s in/ability naturally t5ds to failure 9 any s*ool subject1 :i* dem&s ! qualities ( "* m5tion$ above z ess5tial to ! ma/]y ( read+4 ,?us n]v\s1 b intellig5t1 *ildr5 may be defici5t 9 read+1 spell+1 & ari?metic1 8! tool subjects10 :ile mak+ satisfactory progress 9 8! subject matt] c\rses10 su* z hi/ory1 nature /udy1 or geography1 :]e precise connections 9 prescrib$ sequ5ces ( relation%ips ne$ n be =m$1 9 ord] to succe$4 ,n]v\s in/ability may be f\nd 9 comb9ation ) any degree ( ,,iq1 app>5tly1 f dulle/ to brighte/4 ,! relation betwe5 !m is n c]ta9ly kn[n1 ?\gh !re is n[ consid]able indication t ! correlation betwe5 /ability & intellect w be f\nd to be positive & high 7b n p]fect74 ,?is w\ld mean t !re are v probably m ill-balanc$ *ildr5 among ! /upid ?an else:]e 9 ! di/ribution ( ,,iq4 ,t organic quality1 :i* %[s itself 9 sup]ior intellig5ce1 robu/ness1 & longevity1 also %[s itself 9 n]v\s /ability1 m likely ?an n4 ,a n]v\s *ild1 :o is also v /upid1 w1 ( c\rse1 le>n "u individual in/ruction only :at 8 limit$ intellig5ce w p]mit4 ,! me?ods ( m5tal measurem5t enable u to diff]5tiate betwe5 ! n]v\s *ild :o c le>n mu*1 & ! n]v\s *ild :o c le>n v little1 "u individual tra9+4 ,,vii4 ,a ,,f\r-,,ye> ,,/udy ,,( ,a ,,non-,,read] ,f ,febru>y1 #aiah1 to ,may1 #aibb1 ! pres5t writ] /udi$ & taught a non-read]1 a s*oolboy4 ,x 0 br\ght to ! ,psy*ological ,laboratory at ,tea*]s ,college1 9 ,febru>y1 #aiah1 by 8 "m4 ,! compla9t 0 t ! *ild c\ld n le>n to read1 & on ?is acc\nt he _h be5 sugge/$ by 8 tea*]s = ! ungrad$ class1 9 :i* feeble-m9d$ *ildr5 are taught4 ,8 "m1 an intellig5t woman1 c\ld sc>cely believe ,x to be feeble-m9d$1 because he 8is v quick ab\t ?+s ar\nd home1 is ke5 & capable ab\t do+ err&s = money1 & ?\gh he _c read1 gets ar\nd ! city by himself40 ,%e felt1 h[ev]1 t a boy :o aft] ov] six ye>s ( in/ruction /ill rema9$ totally illit]ate mu/ require special advice ( "s k9d4 ,accord+ly1 :5 ! sugge/ion 9 ref]5ce to ! ungrad$ class 0 made1 ! "m took ,x to ! ,neurological ,in/itute1 :]e an exam9ation 0 made1 9 ! ,psy*ological ,laboratory4 ,! report 0 !n giv5 t ! *ild 0 n a prop] pupil = su* a class1 & ! matt] 0 ref]r$ to ,tea*]s ,college4 ,x 0 born on ,septemb] #bc1 #aijf4 ,he 0 !re=e #aa ye>s & #e mon?s old :5 he 0 fir/ se5 by ! pres5t writ]4 ,8 s*ool hi/ory %[$ t he />t$ to s*ool 9 k9d]g>t5 at ! age ( #e ye>s1 & w5t into ! fir/ grade at #f ye>s4 ,he _h be5 8left back0 9 ne>ly e class1 aft] ! /udy ( read+ began4 ,he sp5t ?ree t]ms 9 #a;,a2 "o t]m 9 #a;,b2 two t]ms 9 #b;,a2 two t]ms 9 #b;,b2 two t]ms 9 #c;,a2 & 01 :5 fir/ exam9$1 repeat+ #c;,b4 ,9 #c;,b he 0 report$ z 8defici5t 9 ev]y?+ except conduct40 ,9 conduct he 0 rat$ always z ,b or ,a4 ,! tea*]s said !y c\ld n tea* him4 ,:5 ,x 0 ab\t #g ye>s old1 ! matt] ( 8 difficulties 0 fir/ tak5 up1 ) ! family physician1 :o said he w\ld 8gr[ out ( x & be all "r40 ,z ye>s pass$1 & ! *ild cont9u$ to be untaught1 ! physician f9ally advis$ ! visit to ! ,neurological ,in/itute4 ,! tea*]'s op9ion 0 t ! boy mu/ be feeble-m9d$1 s9ce five diff]5t tea*]s _h tri$ to in/ruct him 9 read+ & spell+1 yet he _h fail$ to read or spell any ^w1 except 8 "n4 ,he c\ld recognize 8 "n among o!r words1 & c\ld draw x fairly well1 mu* z he w\ld draw a h\se or tree4 ,he c\ld n spell 8 "n4 ,vision & audition _h be5 te/$ at ! ,manhattan ,eye & ,e> ,infirm>y1 & ! report 0 t no significant defect ( eye or e> exi/$4 ,motor te/s %[$ ! boy to be "r-h&$1 s t int]f]5ce 9 ^w-managem5t1 possibly due to *ange 9 8h&$ness10 0 elim9at$4 ,! developm5tal hi/ory ( ,x z an organism reveals no?+ atypical1 except defects ( spee* & difficulty 9 read+4 ,he 0 born normally1 walk$ & talk$ be=e he 0 two ye>s old1 & 0 normal 9 d5tition4 ,b he did n talk pla9ly till he 0 ab\t #f ye>s old4 ,he _h a spee* defect1 /utt]$1 & c\ld n say 8l04 ,8 m$ical hi/ory %[s t he _h :oop+ c\gh z a baby2 t tonsils & ad5oids 7 remov$ at ! age ( #e ye>s2 t he _h an abscess 9 ! left e> at ! age ( #d ye>s1 :i* la/$ ab\t two weeks1 b did n impair he>+2 t he _h diph!ria at ! age ( #aa ye>s1 a bad case1 foll[$ by tempor>y p>alysis ( ! s(t palate2 t he _h nev] _h any convulsion or loss ( consci\sness2 t he _h nev] _h *orea1 or o!r disease ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,physically he 0 well develop$1 measurem5ts on ,febru>y #ad1 #aiah1 be+ z foll[s3 ,/&+ height1 #ei4h in*es2 sitt+ height1 #bi4f in*es2 weight 7) ord9>y clo?+ on71 #hf p\nds2 cranial circumf]5ce1 #ba4b in*es2 "r grip 7,sm$ley71 #bj ,kg42 left grip1 #ah ,kg42 lung capacity 7wet spiromet]71 #acj cubic in*es4 ,z = family hi/ory1 ,x is ! y\nge/ ( f\r sibl+s1 all o!rs ( :om le>n$ )\t difficulty to read & spell4 ,8 si/] graduat$ f high s*ool ) a /ate s*ol>%ip1 w5t ?r\gh college1 & is n[ a tea*] 9 a high s*ool4 ,an old] bro!r graduat$ f ! elem5t>y s*ool at #ad ye>s1 9 spite ( ! fact t he miss$ two seme/]s ?r\gh illness4 ,he also _h a spee* defect 8ab\t ! same z ,x10 b outgrew x4 ,ano!r bro!r _h rea*$ #h;,b by ! "t he 0 #ac ye>s old4 ,( ?irte5 c\s9s att5d+ s*ool1 only "o _h ev] be5 8left back40 ,! "m _h graduat$ at ! usual age f common s*ool4 ,! fa!r _h be5 tr\bl$ 9 boyhood by a spee* defect1 :i* disappe>$4 8,he c\ld n say c]ta9 words & lett]s40 ,on ?is acc\nt he did n l s*ool4 ,z an adult he reads ! newspap]s1 & 8c write a /raight lett]40 ,x _h nev] kn[n any language o!r ?an ,engli%1 s t int]f]5ce ( habit f o!r languages 0 rul$ out4 ,no attempt _h be5 made to tea* him read+ at home1 until aft] ! reports ( 8 disability began to be made f ! s*ool4 ,g5]al intellig5ce 0 measur$ by ! ,/an=d-,b9et ,scale1 ) a result+ score ( #i ye>s #i mon?s m5tal age1 & ,,iq #he4 ,x 0 ?us se5 t g5]al intellig5ce 0 q suffici5t = le>n+ to read4 ,f g5]al intellig5ce ( ?is degree1 9 a *ild "u ord9>y in/ruction = six ye>s1 "o w\ld usually be ju/ifi$ 9 pr$ict+ close to a f\r? grade score on te/s ( read+4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 scores ( z]o 7 yield$ on all te/s ( ability to read4 ,no ^w or lett] on any scale c\ld be read4 ,!re 01 !re=e1 no "q ( mak+ an analysis ( ! *ild's difficulty ?r\gh ! use ( su* te/s1 s9ce all scores 7 uni=mly z]o4 ,x 0 anxi\s to le>n1 & 0 becom+ self-consci\s because ( 8 failure to g ahead4 ,at ?is "t no spee* defect 0 not$ by ! exam9]1 & x 0 suppos$ to h be5 8outgr[n40 ,he c\ld copy writ+1 ) "s errors1 &1 z seem$ /range1 c\ld transpose pr9t into writ+1 ?\gh sl[ly & ) errors4 ,s9ce s5sory capacity 0 normal1 g5]al intellig5ce 0 develop$ well beyond ! m9imum at :i* read+ c be taught1 & "* traits1 su* z promptness1 reliability1 & fidelity to duty1 7 report$ to be bett] ?an av]age1 x 0 decid$ to und]take to tea* ! *ild to read4 ,^u be+ ask$ :e!r he c\ld travel alone f 8 s*ool 9 ,brooklyn to ! (fice at ,tea*]s ,college1 bo? he & 8 "m repli$ )\t hesitation 9 ! affirmative1 8= he has ways ( f9d+ out :]e he is1 )\t read+40 ,accord+ly1 f ,febru>y to ,june1 #aiah1 ,x came ?ree times a week to ,tea*]s ,college1 & receiv$ special in/ruction 9 read+ & spell+ f ,miss ,s>a ,fisk1 at t "t a graduate /ud5t 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,educational ,psy*ology4 ,aft] "s exp]im5tation ) ! attempt to tea* by ! ^w & s5t5ce z units1 ,miss ,fisk decid$ to beg9 by tea*+ fir/ ! alphabet1 & to proce$ ) ! lett] z ! unit4 ,x ?us le>n$ to read1 by spell+ out ! lett]s1 & 8s\nd+0 !m z he w5t4 ,9 ?is way1 by ! fir/ ( ,june1 #aiah1 he knew & c\ld s\nd & c\ld write e lett] ( ! alphabet1 b c\ld n write ! capitals2 & he _h a read+ vocabul>y ( eighty simple monosyllables4 ,he 0 advis$ to /udy ?r\gh ! summ] vacation1 if he c\ld4 ,9 ,octob]1 #aiah1 ,x return$ to ! ,college1 seek+ in/ruction1 b ,miss ,fisk _h discont9u$ h] /udies1 & no tea*] 0 available at ! mom5t4 ,9 ,m>*1 #aiai1 ,x's "m report$ t he _h 8done no?+0 9 read+ & spell+ at s*ool1 ?\gh he 0 n defici5t 9 geography or ari?metic1 & ask$ = assi/ance4 ,^u ?is report1 ,x 0 invit$ to come = fur!r in/ruction1 :i* 0 giv5 !reaft] by ! pres5t writ]4 ,! me?od previ\sly und]tak5 0 cont9u$4 ,! ,riv]side ,prim] 0 ma/]$1 betwe5 ,m>* & ,june ( #aiai4 ,ea* new ^w 0 le>n$ by spell+ al\d & s\nd+4 ,aft] sev]al repetitions ( ?is process1 a new ^w w\ld be assimilat$ into ! vocabul>y :i* c\ld be read at sight1 ) ! ^w z ! unit ( p]ception4 ,9 ,june ( #aiai1 ,x c\ld read any ^w 9 ! ,riv]side ,prim]1 ei!r at sight or by spell+1 & c\ld write )\t error e lett] ( ! alphabet1 bo? small lett]s & capitals4 ,he c\ld also read simple matt] :i* int]e/$ him 9 daily life1 su* z ! wea!r reports1 f newspap]s4 ,f ,octob]1 #aiai1 to ,june1 #aibj1 ,x came = "o h\r ea* week1 to be in/ruct$4 ,! ,riv]side ,fir/ ,read] 0 /udi$ ?r\gh4 ,he made /eady progress1 z may be/ be se5 f ! repeat$ measurem5ts on ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 :i* are illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #f 7page #gg74 ,9 ,septemb]1 #aibj1 ,x ent]$ grade #e;,b1 be+ #ad ye>s ( age1 ?ree ye>s ret>d$ 9 s*ool /atus1 by ! ,new ,york ,city age-grade norms4 ,8 spee* defect 0 aga9 noticeable4 ,all ?r\gh ?is ye>1 till ,june1 #aiba1 he came = "o h\r ea* week to take in/ruction 9 read+ & spell+4 ,! s]ies ( ,riv]side read]s 0 n[ ab&on$1 9 favor ( ! hi/ory & o!r books us$ regul>ly 9 grade #e;,b4 ,t[>d ! end ( t s*ool ye>1 "s read+ 0 also done f boys' /ories1 9 :i* ,x _h spontane\sly become int]e/$ dur+ ! summ] ( #aibj4 ,f ,octob]1 #aiba1 to ,may1 #aibb1 /ories writt5 = boys 7 us$ z mat]ial = ! read+ lesson4 ,x br\ght ) him :atev] book he happ5$ to be read+ at ! mom5t1 & ! lesson 0 tak5 f x4 ,by ?is "t ,x _h become s fond ( sil5t read+ z a pa/ime t sev]al difficulties 9 oral read+1 n previ\sly pres5t1 develop$4 ,"o ( ^! 0 ! t5d5cy to guess at new words1 )\t wait+ to p]ceive !m accurately1 9 ord] to get on ) ! /ory4 ,ano!r 0 ! t5d5cy to leave out all well kn[n & unimportant monosyllables1 su* z 8&10 8!10 8b10 8(10 8:o10 & s =?4 ,^! words he knew un]r+ly :5 he c\ld be induc$ to look at !m1 b 9 sil5t read+ he _h evid5tly =m$ ! habit ( neglect+ !m altoge!r4 ,^! faults 7 correct$ by practice 9 read+ backw>ds1 :i* (f]s no inc5tive to skip words4 ,samples ( ,x's te/s 9 read+ are reproduc$ 9 ,figures #f1 #g1 & #h1 9 ord] t an accurate idea may be convey$ ( 8 gr[? 9 p[] to ga9 mean+ f ! pr9t$ page4 ,x's acc\nt ( a week's read+1 reproduc$ 9 ,figure #i 7page #hf71 gives an idea ( ! am\nt ( outside read+ regul>ly done1 & at ! same "t an idea ( pr(ici5cy 9 writ+ & spell+ words1 atta9$ 9 ,janu>y1 #aibb4 ,a p>tial li/ ( books read = pleasure1 on 8 own initiative by ,x1 betwe5 ,decemb]1 #aiba1 & ,may1 #aibb1 gives an idea ( ! practice he _h 9 sil5t read+ outside ( =mal in/ruction4 ,?is is pres5t$ on page #he1 z foll[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f--,"p #a4 ,! five p>ts ( ,figure #f %[ h[ ,x improv$ z measur$ by ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 f ,feb41 #aiah1 to ,dec41 #aiba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f--,"p #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f--,"p #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f--,"p #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f--,"p #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g--,"p #a4 ,! two p>ts ( ,figure #g %[ ,x's improvem5t 9 sil5t read+1 f ,april #ae1 #aiba1 to ,dec4 #b1 #aiba1 z measur$ by ,?orndike-,mc,call 8,read+ ,scale10 ,=m #a4 7,on ! latt] date1 ,x answ]$ #bc que/ions correctly1 scor+ #eb po9ts1 :i* is ! norm = ! end ( grade #f;,b47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g--,"p #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,%[+ ,x's ability to get mean+ f pr9t$ words1 9 ,may1 #aibb1 z te/$ by ,hagg]ty's 8,sigma #a10 = grades #a to #c4 ,?is does n repres5t ,x's maximum ability1 b is pres5t$ z a sample ( 8 "w on ?is scale4 ,two ,"y ,patriots4 ,e4 ,t4 ,toml9son4 ,ralph on ! ,ov]l& ,express4 ,all5 ,*apman4 ,sc\ts ( ,/onewall4 ,j4 ,a4 ,alt%el]4 ,army ,boys on ! ,fir+ ,l9e4 ,hom] ,r&all4 ,among ! ,malays4 ,g4 ,a4 ,h5ty4 ,ralph 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,all5 ,*apman4 ,! ,outdoor ,*ums at ,cab9 ,po9t4 ,qu9cey ,all54 ,huckleb]ry ,f9n4 ,m>k ,twa94 ,&y at ,yale4 ,roy ,e4 ,/okes4 ,adv5tures ( ,%]lock ,holmes4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,repeat$ m5tal te/s ( ,x result$ z foll[s3 ,/an=d-,b9et,feb4 #ad1 #aiah4 ,m4 ,a4 #i-i4 ,,iq #he4aa ,dec4 #e1 #aiai4 ,m4 ,a4 #aa-c4 ,,iq #he4 ,jan4 #f1 #aibb4 ,m4 ,a4 #ab-g4 ,,iq #hb4 ,p9tn]'s 8,scale ( ,p]=mance ,te/s40 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,m$ian ,m4 ,a4 #aa-j4 ,healy's 8,pictorial ,completion ,no4 ,i40 #ddf po9ts4 7#aa-ye> p]=mance74 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,healy's 8,pictorial ,completion ,no4 ,,ii40 #ee po9ts4 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,/5qui/ 8,me*anical ,te/s10 ,s]ies ,i4 ,feb4 #c1 #aibb4 ,raw ,score1 #ed po9ts4 ,t score1 #fa4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note t a scale l ,/an=d-,b9et1 aga9/ :i* has be5 repeat$ly br\ght ! a priori objection t x dep5ds on v]bal acquirem5t1 is capable ( diff]5tiat+ a non-read] f ! feeble-m9d$4 ,x is also int]e/+ t ! ,p9tn] 8,scale ( ,p]=mance ,te/s10 :i* does n include ability to read at all1 gives almo/ exactly ! same result z ! ,/an=d-,b9et1 9 ?is case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,%[+ an acc\nt writt5 by ,x ( 8 week's read+4 ,x is a boy ( sup]ior "*4 ,he nev] miss$ an appo9tm5t ) 8 in/ructor1 & 0 nev] t>dy except once1 unavoidably4 ,he gave up pleasures1 su* z try+ out = baseball1 9 ord] to le>n read+4 ,:5 ask$ :y he did s1 he repli$ t 8,y mo/ probably c't get a liv+ play+ baseball1 b y c get a bett] liv+ if y c read40 ,^! qualities ( p]sev]ance & fidelity to duty 7 und\bt$ly v important factors 9 su* success z 0 a*iev$4 ,:y did ,x n le>n to read z *ildr5 ( 8 g5]al "* & end[m5t usually d1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( s*ool+8 ,aft] f\r ye>s ( /udy+ & tea*+ him1 ! pres5t writ] _c give a def9ite answ] to ?is "q4 ,he 0 f9ally taught to read by a me?od 9 :i* ! lett] is ! unit ( p]ception1 & 9 :i* words are read 9 ! fir/ place by spell+ !m al\d4 ,?is is n ! me?od us$ 9 ! s*ools :]e ,x att5d$1 nor 9 any mod]n s*ool4 ,/ill1 ! possibility ( tea*+ him by "s me?od o!r ?an t :i* succe$$1 has n be5 exclud$4 ,x is ev5 possible t he might h le>n$ to read by ! v me?od us$ 9 ! s*ools1 "u individual in/ruction1 :]e ea* habit c be scrut9iz$ z x is be+ =m$4 ,9 a class ( =ty or fifty *ildr51 ea* dem&+ att5tion1 a tea*] _c succe$ ) an individual pupil1 by any me?od1 z well z ) t pupil alone1 by t same me?od4 ,x 0 obs]v$ ?r\gh\t ! tea*+ ( ,x t he con/antly made appeal to 8 e>4 ,he c\ld always grasp a difficult ^w m easily by he>+ x spell$ al\d1 ?an he c\ld by see+ x4 ,9 ord] to obta9 "s quantitative /atem5t ( ! ext5t to :i* auditory p]ception %[$ an advantage ov] visual p]ception 9 8 case1 ! foll[+ exp]im5t 0 tri$4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #aibb1 on f\r successive weekly appo9tm5ts1 #bg p>agraphs1 compris+ #daca words1 7 read by ,x1 bo? 7#a7 ?r\gh ! e>1 ! tea*] spell+ ! words1 & ,x pron\nc+ !m )\t see+ !m1 & 7#b7 ?r\gh ! eye1 ,x see+ & say+ ! words1 9 ! usual way4 ,! ord] ( ^! proc$ures 0 rev]s$ = alt]nat+ p>agraphs1 s t no advantage to ei!r me?od ( p]ception w\ld accrue f practice4 ,errors are ( two k9ds--misread+s & omissions4 ,omissions 9 sight read+ 7 n c\nt$1 s9ce1 accord+ to ! me?od :]eby ! tea*] spell$ successive words to ,x1 no omissions 7 possible4 ,misread+s only 7 c\nt$4 ,9 read+ ^! p>agraphs1 ,x made #afb errors ?r\gh ! eye1 & b #eg errors ?r\gh ! e>1 9 p]ceiv+ ! same words4 ,?is great r$uction 9 error ?r\gh auditory *annels might1 h[ev]1 be due to ! fact t by t me?od only "o ^w 0 pres5t$ at a "t1 :]eas 9 ! ord9>y visual read+ ! :ole page ( words 0 pres5t$1 act+ z a di/raction4 ,9 ord] to *eck ?is possible error 9 int]pretation1 "o hundr$ isolat$ words 7 pres5t$ to ! eye & to ! e>1 rev]s+ ! proc$ure alt]nately = e t5 words4 ,! ratio ( error 0 ne>ly ! same z 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t4 ,x c n[1 9 fact1 pron\nce almo/ any puzzl+ ^w 9 ord9>y read+ matt]1 su* z is f\nd 9 newspap]s1 by spell+ x al\d4 ,x seems reasonable1 !re=e1 to inf] t !re are c]ta9 specific attributes ( ! auditory elem5ts 9 read+1 :i* 7 especially important = education1 9 ?is boy's case1 & :i* 7 n mu* utiliz$ by ! me?od ( tea*+ employ$4 ,by tea*+ him ! lett]1 ) its v>i\s possible s\nds1 z ! unit ( p]ception1 we suppli$ him ) a tool :i* enables him to con/ruct words = himself1 ?r\gh ! *annels :i* are easie/ = him4 ,?is has n r5d]$ him flu5t1 b x has r5d]$ him lit]ate4 ,altoge!r1 he _h f u ab\t a hundr$ & fifty h\rs ( special in/ruction4 ,! pres5t writ] believes t ) sev]al times z mu* practice z ,x has _h1 he w become a reasonably flu5t sight read]1 dropp+ out ! spell+ almo/ entirely4 ,?is case is v mu* l ^? ref]r$ to by ,h9%elwood1 & x is int]e/+ t ! tea*]s adopt$1 aft] trial & error1 ! same me?od adopt$ by ,h9%elwood1 )\t be+ famili> at t "t ) ,h9%elwood's contribution4 ,inasmu* z a c]ta9 practical int]e/ atta*es to ! f9al outcome ( educational adju/m5t 9 su* cases1 x may be /at$ t ,x at ! age ( sixte5 ye>s w leave ! elem5t>y s*ool1 hav+ complet$ grade #f;,b4 ,he w !n seek admission to a trade s*ool1 ma9ta9$ by "o ( ! great indu/ries4 ,,viii4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,/udies ,,( ,,non-,,read]s ,we see1 !re=e1 t non-read]s1 ( g5]al intellig5ce mu* above ! m9imum level requir$ = read+1 d le>n to read :5 special tra9+ is giv54 ,?is tra9+ may /ress phonics 7,s*mitt71 x may /ress ! motor & k9/hetic av5ues ( approa* 7,f]nald & ,kell]71 or x may /ress visual p]ception 7,gates74 ,x may or may n proce$ by use ( ! old 8alphabet0 me?od 7,h9%elwood74 ,:at is ! int]pretation ( ! facts report$8 ,does x n seem c]ta9 t g5]al intellig5ce is1 z indicat$ by ! high coeffici5ts ( correlation obta9$ betwe5 read+ & intellig5ce1 ! *ief consid]ation1 9 pr$ict+ :e!r or n a *ild w le>n to read8 ,w\ld x n appe> t *ildr5 ( adequate g5]al intellig5ce1 & ( normal s5sory capacity1 le>n to read :5 giv5 int5sive tra9+1 :atev] av5ue ( approa* may be p>ticul>ly /ress$8 ,x is n cr$ible t all ! non-read]s f\nd by ,s*mitt 9 ,*icago1 *anc$ to h a k9d ( disability approa*able by phonics1 & 9 no o!r way2 t ^? discov]$ by ,f]nald & ,kell] 9 ,cali=nia 7 s con/itut$ t !y c\ld be approa*$ ?r\gh motor ex]cises1 & n o!rwise2 t ,gates' cases 9 ! ,sc>bor\gh ,s*ool all happ5$ to be susceptible to tra9+ ?r\gh visual me?ods1 & ?r\gh no o!rs4 ,9 fact1 no inve/igator has e/abli%$ 8 or h] me?od z ! only me?od ( successful approa* to p>ticul> cases1 by exclud+ o!r me?ods ?r\gh exp]im5tal tea*+4 ,= non-read]s su* z h be5 describ$ "u ! crit]ia laid d[n by ! inve/igators quot$1 x seems highly probable t ! be/ me?od w\ld be t :]e9 all ! av5ues ( approa* are fully utiliz$4 ,su* a me?od w\ld comb9e all ! special ex]cises devis$ by ! v>i\s inve/igators1 9 a proportion & sequ5ce1 :i* %\ld be det]m9$ ^u z optimum by exp]im5tal tea*+4 ,su* a me?od1 :5 exp]im5tally e/abli%$1 w\ld be mo/ suitable = all *ildr5--n = ! extreme ( ! di/ribution exclusively4 ,"h1 z 9 s _m que/ions ( p$agogy1 all *ildr5 might pr(it f our /udy ( ! extreme cases1 :o diff] f ! typical 9 degree only4 ,*ildr5 ( normal s5sory capacity1 & ( ,,iq av]age or sup]ior1 typically le>n to read passably well1 )\t approa* ?r\gh all ! possible av5ues1 & )\t special att5tion on ! "p ( ! tea*] to all ! elem5ts involv$4 ,a few su* *ildr5 require int5sive tea*+ 9 ord] 8to pass0 9 read+1 because ( specific idiosyncrasies4 ,if ! me?ods t succe$ ) ! extreme cases 7 appli$ to ! typical class1 p]haps ! *ildr5 might le>n to read1 n 8passably10 b v well4 ,!re might be a rise ( t5 po9ts 9 norms = read+ ability ?r\gh\t ! grades4 ,su* p]fection ( me?od might or might n elim9ate entirely ! necessity = individual tea*+ ( special cases4 ,probably x w\ld n1 9 classes z l>ge z ^? se5 9 mo/ ( our public s*ools to-day4 ,,ix4 ,,cases ,,( ,,special ,,ability ,,9 ,,read+ ,x is *>act]i/ic ?r\gh\t ( educational psy*ology1 t mu* m is kn[n conc]n+ ! unable ?an is kn[n conc]n+ ! able4 ,! welf>e ( ! /rong is neglect$ by sci5ce & by education4 ,x foll[s t ! bibliographies deal+ ) ! defici5t1 ! sick1 & ! err+ are v long1 :ile ^? deal+ ) ! gift$1 ! extremely heal?y1 & ! unusually upright are v brief4 ,mod]n society gives a v disproportionate am\nt ( "t1 money1 & sympa?y to its lea/ pr(itable memb]s4 ,! few cases ( extreme special =w>dness 9 read+1 :i* are available = ref]5ce1 are ( *ildr5 :o 7 probably ( v high ,,iq4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 av[$ly s4 ,t]man has suppli$ num]\s in/ances ( *ildr5 :o le>n$ to read 9 ! ?ird or f\r? ye> ( life1 all ( !m ( m ?an #acj ,,iq4 ,francis ,galton1 :o c\ld read flu5tly :5 he 0 #d ye>s old1 0 probably ( ,,iq ne> #bjj1 z has be5 glean$ f o!r biographical evid5ce4 ,ability to read is 9 su* cases n special4 ,9 #aiaj1 ! case ( ,otto ,phl] 0 report$4 ,he 0 a *ild 9 ,brauns*weig1 :o c\ld read ,g]man & ,lat9 at ! age ( #a ye> & #i mon?s1 & also c\ld read ,g]man num]als4 ,! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ?is infant %[s t at ! age ( #ae ye>s1 he 0 an ,ob]sekund] 9 ! gymnasium1 & t at #ag1 he 0 )9 "o & a half ye>s ( ! ,univ]sity4 ,x is c]ta91 !re=e1 t g5]al intellig5ce 0 sup]ior1 b ! degree ( sup]iority _c be guess$1 except )9 wide limits4 ,x seems probable t ! ability to read 0 some:at special1 9 ! s5se t x exce$$ ! expectations f ,,iq4 ,9 ord] to read flu5tly be=e ! second bir?day1 a *ild's ,,iq w\ld h to approa* #cjj1 to co9cide ) expectations4 ,f :at we "k at pres5t ( ! limits ( ,,iq1 x w\ld be impossible = any *ild to /& at #cjj ,,iq4 ,! case ( ,otto ,phl] is1 !re=e1 probably "o ( especially great ability to read1 9 a *ild ( g5]ally sup]ior end[m5t4 ,a simil> case is t ( ,m>?a1 communicat$ anonym\sly by h] fa!r1 ?r\gh ,t]man4 ,m>?a 0 se5 by ,t]man at ! age ( #b ye>s1 :5 %e read flu5tly f an ord9>y prim]4 ,! me?od & am\nt ( in/ruction :i* l$ to ?is a/oni%+ result1 are set =? 9 ! acc\nt4 ,expectation f read+ ability alone w\ld place ,m>?a's ,,iq at some?+ ne> #cjj1 = %e read :at a typical *ild ( #f ye>s c read4 ,lat] ,t]man te/$ ! g5]al intellig5ce ( ?is *ild1 & obta9$ a rat+ ( #aej ,,iq4 ,?us ,m>?a's ph5om5al ability to read mu/ be consid]$ special1 9 ! s5se t ,,iq fell f> %ort ( expectation !refrom4 ,a ye> ago a *ild 0 br\ght to ! pres5t writ] = m5tal exam9ation1 because he c\ld read newspap]s flu5tly at ! age ( #d ye>s4 ,^u be+ measur$ = spe$ & accuracy 9 oral read+1 he fell at ! #aj-ye> norms 7fif? grade74 ,an ,,iq ( ov] #bjj w\ld be inf]r$ f ?is1 assum+ ! ability 9 me*anics ( read+ to be 9 no way special4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,,iq fell at #adb4 ,scores = compreh5sion ( read+ fell at #g ye>s 7second grade norms71 correspond+ ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,^u rete/s ?is ye>1 ! scores 7 z foll[s3 me*anics ( read+ ,engli% 7spe$ & accuracy71 fif? grade norm2 compreh5sion 9 read+1 high ?ird grade norm2 m5tal age1 #h ye>s #f mon?s2 ,,iq #adg4 ,?is *ild's ability to read is special1 ?\gh g5]al ability 9 m5tal "w is v sup]ior1 too4 ,^! are all cases ( g5]ally gift$ *ildr51 :]e ma/]y 9 ! me*anics ( read+ is1 h[ev]1 9 ea* case mu* beyond p]=mance 9 o!r respects4 ,cases :]e te/ scores h be5 pres5t$ to %[ special discrepancies 9 read+1 9 *ildr5 ( v inf]ior ,,iq1 h be5 report$ by ,:ite1 9 collaboration ) ,p\ll1 f ! psy*ological laboratory ( ! in/itution = feeble-m9d$ *ildr51 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,! *ildr5 9 ! s*ool :o c\ld read 7 canvass$1 & ^? :o c\ld n read 7 simil>ly canvass$1 until two gr\ps ( five ea* 7 select$1 all memb]s be+ above six ye>s m5tal age1 :]e read+ c typically be le>n$4 ,! two gr\ps comp>$ z foll[s 9 age1 g5]al ability1 & s*ool+4 ,m4 ,a4 ,,iq ,age ,ye>s at ,s*ool ,read+ ,gr\p #f--h #fi #i--h #b4b ,non-read+ #g--aj #fh #aa--h #d4h ,x is ?us se5 t ! non-read]s h e advantage1 be+ "o ye> high] 9 m5tal level1 hav+ _h a d\ble am\nt ( s*ool+1 & be+ ( ! same ,,iq#ab z ! read]s4 ,! inve/igators !n _h be=e !m two gr\ps ( g5]ally inf]ior *ildr51 ( :i* ! memb]s ( "o _h ability to le>n read+1 n possess$ by memb]s ( ! o!r4 ,te/s bas$ on inve/igations ( ! psy*ology ( read+ 7 !n giv54 ,^! 7 = auditory & visual acuity1 ability to p]ceive & reproduce articulate s\nds1 ability to cross out ,a's & to *eck numb]s1 to att5d to sev]al impressions in/antly1 & to associate numb]s & o!r symbols ?r\gh ! eye & ?r\gh ! e>4 ,no significant diff]5ces 9 gr\p scores 7 f\nd1 except 9 ! la/ te/s m5tion$--^? ( =m+ associations betwe5 symbols4 ,"h ! read]s made reliably high] scores ?an did ! non-read]s4 ,! inve/igators did n measure ! read+ ability ( _! subjects1 b select$ ! *ildr5 f ! s*ool reports1 z to 8read+0 & 8n read+40 ,! precise ext5t ( specializ$ discrepancy betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & read+ ability among ! *ildr5 _c1 !re=e1 be calculat$4 ,h[ev]1 x may be inf]r$ t two ( ^! *ildr5 _h "s degree ( special ability4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,,iq #fg1 m5tal age1 #f ye>s #g mon?s1 is describ$ z ! be/ read] 9 ! gr\p1 & x is said ( h] t %e 8reads well40 ,ano!r1 ,,iq #gi1 m5tal age1 #f ye>s #g mon?s1 is said to 8read v well10 be+ !n 9 ! second ye> ( att5dance on s*ool4 ,a few cases ( sup]ior ability to read1 occurr+ 9 comb9ation ) l[ ,,iq1 h also be5 report$ by ,bronn]4 ,x4 ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,lit]acy ,reflection w %[ at once ! great importance ( read+ = s*ool progress1 s9ce our s*ools are virtually read+ s*ools4 ,almo/ no subjects includ$ 9 ! curriculum c be le>n$ )\t ma/]y ( read+4 ,also ! importance ( lit]acy = life 9 mod]n times c sc>cely be ov]/at$4 ,^? :o le>n to read easily at an e>ly age ?us h a natural advantage2 :ile ^? ( good intellig5ce1 :o h difficulty1 %\ld be assi/$ 9 e way to le>n4 ,!re are c]ta9ly v few *ildr5 ( ,,iq ov] #ajj1 ) normal eyes & e>s1 :o d n le>n ) ease to read4 ,a c5sus w\ld d\btless %[ t mo/ cases ( special disability 9 ?is respect lie betwe5 #ej & #ajj ,,iq1 t is1 9 ! l[] half ( ! di/ribution = g5]al intellig5ce4 ,fildes1 :o measur$ ! g5]al intellig5ce ( tw5ty-six non-read]s1 :om %e /udi$1 f\nd !m di/ribut$ z foll[s1 ) respect to ,,iq 7,/an=d-,b9et73 ,,iq #aaa #a *ild ,,iq #hb-hh #d *ildr5 ,,iq #gj-gi #h *ildr5 ,,iq #ej-fi #ac *ildr5 ,x may be argu$ t *ildr5 :o _c read necess>ily t5d to fall l[ on ,/an=d-,b9et1 because ! te/s compos+ ! scale are weight$ aga9/ non-read]s4 ,! validity ( ?is argum5t is d\btful1 9 view ( ! fact t b f\r out ( sev5ty-f\r te/s 7n includ+ alt]nates1 ( :i* none require read+7 directly involve ability to read or spell4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,fildes f\nd no correlation among h] tw5ty-six subjects1 betwe5 ,,iq & ability to read1 z measur$ by read+ te/s4 8,two ( ! wor/ read]s 7 ! lea/ intellig5t & mo/ intellig5t boys4 ,! ?ree wor/ cases exam9$1 i4e41 cases ) no read+ p[] at all1 _h intellig5ce quoti5ts ( #fa1 #gi1 & #gh respectively4 ,_m defective boys ) su* high intellig5ce quoti5ts read q well40#ac ,non-read]s :o fall betwe5 #hj & #ajj ,,iq are especially wor?y ( att5tion1 s9ce !y h suffici5t g5]al intellig5ce to make consid]able use ( read+1 & to suff] a special h&icap f illit]acy4 ,x may be confid5tly /at$1 z a result ( ! rese>* ( ! pa/ five ye>s1 t all *ildr5 ( av]age or bett] ?an av]age g5]al intellig5ce are capable ( lit]acy2 & t v e>ly use ( & int]e/ 9 read+ are /rongly symptomatic ( g5]al sup]iority 9 selective ?9k+4 ,f ^! facts we may h>k back to ! conclusion ( ! physiological psy*ologi/s1 ,ladd & ,woodwor?3 8,inde$1 ! entire c]ebrum w\ld seem to be1 ( necessity1 involv$ 9 man's l+ui/ic atta9m5ts & uses40 ,ma/]y ( language is1 z ,b9et conclud$1 "o ( ! mo/ reliable indications ( compet5ce 9 g5]al4 ,,ref]5ces ,,&]son1 ,c4 ,i41 & ,,m]ton1 ,e4--8,rem$ial ,"w 9 ,sil5t ,read+02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aibj4 ,,&]son1 ,c4 ,i41 & ,,m]ton1 ,e4--8,rem$ial ,"w 9 ,read+02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aibj4 ,,b]kau1 ,o4--8,otto ,phl]1 das frhles5de ,brauns*weig] ,k9d02 ,zeits*rift fr ,k9d]=s*ung1 #aiaj4 ,,b]k[itz1 ,i4 ,h4--,! ,eyesight ( ,s*ool ,*ildr52 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education ,bullet91 #aiai1 ,no4 #fe4 ,,bronn]1 ,a4 ,f4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,special ,abilities & ,disabilities2 ,! ,bobbs-,m]rill ,co41 ,bo/on1 #aiag4 ,,burt1 ,c4--8,un/able ,*ildr502 ,*ild ,/udy1 #aiag4 ,,buswell1 ,g4 ,t4--8,an ,exp]im5tal ,/udy ( ! ,eye-,voice ,span 9 ,read+02 ,supplem5t>y ,educational ,monographs1 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 #aibj4 ,,cleme%a1 ,i4 ,c4--8,cong5ital ,^w ,bl9dness02 ,j\rnal ( ,oph?almology & ,otol>yngology1 #aiae4 ,,f]nald1 ,g4 ,m41 & ,,kell]1 ,h4--8,! ,effect ( ,k9/hetic ,factors 9 ! ,developm5t ( ,^w ,recognition 9 ! ,case ( ,non-,read]s02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,rese>*1 #aiba4 ,,fildes1 ,l4 ,g4--8,a ,psy*ological ,inquiry into ! ,nature ( ! ,condition ,kn[n z ,cong5ital ,^w ,bl9dness02 ,bra91 #aiba4 ,,freeman1 ,f4 ,n4--8,cl9ical ,/udy z a ,me?od 9 ,exp]im5tal ,education02 ,j\rnal ( ,appli$ ,psy*ology1 #aibj4 ,,gates1 ,a4 ,i4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,read+ & ,spell+1 ) ,special ,ref]5ce to ,disability2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aibb4 ,,gray1 ,w4 ,s4--8,! ,diagno/ic ,/udy ( an ,individual ,case 9 ,read+02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiba4 ,,gray1 ,w4 ,s4--8,rem$ial ,cases 9 ,read+3 ,_! ,diagnosis & ,treatm5t02 ,supplem5t>y ,educational ,monographs1 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 #aibb4 ,,h9%elwood1 ,j4--,cong5ital ,^w ,bl9dness2 ,lewis & ,co41 ,london1 #aiag4 ,,k+1 ,i4--8,a ,comp>ison ( ,sl[ & ,rapid ,read]s02 ,s*ool & ,society1 #aiaf4 ,,morgan1 ,w4 ,p4--8,cong5ital ,^w ,bl9dness02 ,briti% ,m$ical ,j\rnal1 #ahif4 ,o',,bri51 ,j4 ,a4--,sil5t ,read+4 ,! ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,rans*burg1 ,p4--,die ,leses*w*e 7,lega/h5ie7 d] ,s*ulk9d] im ,li*te des ,exp]im5ts2 ,julius ,spr+]1 ,b]l91 #aiaf4 ,,s*mitt1 ,c4--8,developm5tal ,alexia0 & 8,cong5ital ,^w ,bl9dness or ,inability to ,le>n to ,read02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiah4 ,,s*r,,ck1 ,g4--8b] kong5itale ,wortbl9dheit02 ,kl9is*e ,monatsbltt] fr ,aug5heilkunde1 #aiae4 ,,t]man1 ,l4 ,m4--8,an ,exp]im5t 9 ,infant ,education02 ,j\rnal ( ,appli$ ,psy*ology1 #aiai4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,! ,und]/&+ ( ,s5t5ces3 ,a ,/udy ( ,errors 9 ,read+02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiag4 ,,uhl1 ,w4 ,l4--8,! ,use ( ! ,results ( ,read+ ,te/s z ,bases = ,plann+ ,rem$ial ,"w02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiaf4 ,,:ite1 ,a41 & ,,p\ll1 ,l4 ,e4--,read+ ,ability & ,disability ( ,subnormal ,*ildr52 ,dep>tm5t ( ,public ,welf>e1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,spell+ ,i4 ,,coh]5ce ,,among ,,l+ui/ic ,,functions ,accord+ to ,meumann1 ! :ole field ( language is a unit1 psy*ologically consid]$4 ,read+1 spell+1 composition1 ! le>n+ ( =eign languages %\ld ?us be intimately int]connect$ = a giv5 individual4 ,he :o le>ns "o readily1 %\ld also readily le>n ! o!rs1 )\t notable exception4 ,?is view ( ! close coh]5ce among l+ui/ic functions is borne out1 also1 by ! "w ( ,gates1 already cit$1 9 :i* he f\nd high positive correlations among p]ceptual te/s :i* use words z mat]ials4 ,we mu/ notice1 nev]!less1 t ! correlations fall consid]ably %ort ( unity4 ,illu/rative cases %[ t occasionally *ildr5 are f\nd :o c read well1 b _c spell legibly1 ?\gh ! pres5t writ] has n se5 cases ( ! opposite condition1 & has n f\nd !m report$ 9 ! lit]ature4 ,special defect 9 spell+ w1 !re=e1 be giv5 sep>ate consid]ation1 ?\gh x mu/ be recogniz$ t abilities 9 spell+ & read+ are usually closely associat$4 ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,le>n+ ,,to ,,spell ,x is virtually impossible = an educat$ adult1 ^: spell+ habits h long ago become automatic1 to recon/ruct f introspection ! long1 difficult1 & complex processes ?r\gh :i* he pass$ 9 le>n+ to communicate by means ( correctly spell$ words4 ,su* an adult may ga9 "s idea ( :at is involv$ 9 ! spell+ process by confront+ himself ) ! task ( le>n+ to spell & write words upside d[n & backw>ds1 b ev5 s ! exp]i5ce ( ! *ild is n duplicat$4 ,analysis tea*es u t ?is aspect ( l+ui/ic atta9m5t ord9>ily involves ! =mation ( a s]ies ( connections approximately z foll[s3 7#a7 ,an object1 act1 quality1 or relation is 8b\nd0 to a c]ta9 s\nd1 :i* has (t5 be5 repeat$ :ile ! object is po9t$ at1 ! act p]=m$1 & s =?4 ,9 ord] t ! connection may become def9itely e/abli%$1 x is necess>y 7a7 t ! individual %\ld be able to id5tify = himself ! object1 act1 quality1 or relation1 & 7b7 t he %\ld be able to recollect ! p>ticul> vocal s\nds :i* h be5 associat$ !re)4 ,:5 ?is is accompli%$1 ! s\nd has become a ^w4 7#b7 ,! s\nd 7^w7 becomes 8b\nd0 ) p]=mance ( ! v complex muscul> act necess>y = articulat+ x4 7#c7 ,:5 s*ool age is rea*$1 c]ta9 pr9t$ & writt5 symbols1 arbitr>ily *os51 visually repres5t+ s\nds1 become 8b\nd0 7a7 ) ! recogniz$ objects1 acts1 & s =?1 & 7b7 ) _! vocal repres5tatives1 s t :5 ! symbols are pres5t$ to sight1 ! ^w c be utt]$ by ! p]ceiv+ individual4 ,?is is :at we %\ld call ability 8to read0 ! ^w4 7#d7 ,! sep>ate elem5ts ( ! symbols 7lett]s7 become associat$ ) ea* o!r 9 ! prop] sequ5ce1 & h ! effect ( call+ ea* o!r up to consci\sness 9 ! prescrib$ ord]4 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place we say t ! individual c spell orally4 7#e7 ,! *ild by a sl[1 volunt>y process 8b9ds0 ! visual p]ception ( ! sep>ate lett]s ) ! muscul> movem5ts ( arm1 h&1 & f+]s necess>y to copy ! ^w4 7#f7 ,! *ild 8b9ds0 ! repres5tatives 9 consci\sness ( ! visual symbols ) ! motor responses necess>y to produce ! writt5 ^w spontane\sly1 at pleasure4 ,?is analysis is probably n exhau/ive1 b x provides a f\ndation on :i* to con/ruct an und]/&+ ( poor spell]s4 ,obvi\sly1 poor spell+ may be due to "o or ano!r ( q diff]5t defects1 or to a comb9ation ( sev]al defects4 ,9 an ability s complex !re is opportunity = ! occurr5ce ( a great v>iety ( defici5cies4 ,9 any p>ticul> case ! und]ly+ cause c be discov]$ only by means ( a psy*ological exam9ation cov]+ ! v>i\s processes involv$4 ,,iii4 ,,psy*ological ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,poor ,,spell]s#ad ,poor spell+1 l poor read+1 may be due to s5sory defects1 ei!r ( ! e> or ( ! eye4 ,if s\nds are indi/9ct1 or if visual /imuli are vague or di/ort$1 ! prescrib$ connections involv+ ^! elem5ts w be difficult to =m4 ,?us te/s ( auditory & visual acuity mu/ be giv54 ,if any s5sory defect is reveal$1 x %\ld be correct$1 if x is corrigible4 ,! degree ( g5]al intellig5ce mu/ be det]m9$4 ,failure to le>n to spell is frequ5tly symptomatic ( g5]al incompet5ce1 ?\gh n s frequ5tly z 9 ! case ( read+4 ,! correlation coeffici5ts clu/] ar\nd 4#ej only1 9 ! case ( spell+ & g5]al intellig5ce4 ,q a numb] ( *ildr5 w be f\nd1 ^: a*ievem5t 9 spell+ %[s m>k$ discrepancy ) g5]al capacity4 ,spell+ is m me*anical ?an read+1 s t ! /upid may m easily ma/] x by tireless drill1 :ile ! intellig5t are n likely to d]ive s mu* pleasure f x or to practice x s mu*4 ,! connections :i* are describ$ 9 our analysis "u 7#b7 may be inadequately or incorrectly develop$4 ,?is w\ld be faulty pronunciation4 ,?is is und\bt$ly a v prolific cause ( poor spell+4 ,su* errors z 8a-f-t-e-r-w-o-o-d-s0 = 8aft]w>ds10 8w-h-e-n-t0 = 8w5t10 8p-r-e-h-a-p-s0 = 8p]haps10 w s]ve to illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,9 obs]vations on poor spell]s1 su* errors are f\nd by ! score1 & x is discov]$ t ! words are pron\nc$ z spell$4 ,?us ! poor spell] %\ld be te/$ = ! pronunciation ( ! words :i* he misspells4 ,x may be t drill 9 correct pronunciation is :at is ne$$1 9 ord] to improve 8 spell+4 ,faulty pronunciation may itself be due to v>i\s causes4 ,9 ! majority ( cases x d\btless arises f false auditory p]ception1 z 9 su* misspell+s z 8h>es brea?0 = 8hair's bread?10 & 8,mail ,bro!rs0 = 8,mayo ,bro!rs40 ,9 o!r cases x arises f inability to articulate prop]ly1 z ) *ildr5 :o /amm] or lisp1 or h nasal ob/ructions4 ,x may be t a pupil's weakness lies 9 ! =mation ( connections1 :i* we h not$ 9 our analysis "u 7#c74 ,! =mation ( ^! connections involves visual p]ception1 habits ( int]pretation ?r\gh ! eye1 :i* h be5 f\nd to be ( fir/ rate importance 9 spell+4 ,we may ref] back to ! discussion ( ! p]ceptual factors 9 read+4 ,9 spell+1 also1 x has be5 discov]$ t error is n di/ribut$ at r&om1 b foll[s c]ta9 laws4 ,= in/ance1 !re is a con/ant t5d5cy to %ort51 r ?an to l5g!n words 9 misspell+ !m4 ,! influ5ce ( any lett] ov] error v>ies greatly ) ! position ( ! lett] 9 ! ^w4 ,! la/ halves ( misspell$ words %[ _m m errors ?an are f\nd 9 fir/ halves4 ,f ^! & o!r facts x is app>5t t failures 9 visual p]ception contribute to ! difficulties ( poor spell]s4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r su* is ! case ) any p>ticul> *ild1 x w be necess>y to make an analysis ( 8 "w1 to see :e!r ! di/ribution ( 8 errors reveals su* p]ceptual weakness4 ,if a *ild c spell ! fir/ halves ( words correctly1 b does n spell ! la/ halves1 or if he le>ns to spell ! upp] halves ( words correctly1 b _c spell ! l[] halves ( !m1 ! rem$y is to br+ ab\t readju/m5ts ( att5tion1 :]eby he w look at ^? portions ( words1 :i* =m]ly he fail$1 unconsci\sly1 to see4 ,poor spell+ may be due to %e] failure to rememb]--failure to reta9 impressions :i* 7 orig9ally cle>ly & correctly p]ceiv$4 ,?is may mean simply t ! *ild requires unusually num]\s repetitions be=e he c =m ! connections describ$ "u 7#d7 9 our analysis2 or x may be t 8 memory span is abnormally brief1 & t he _c easily associate m ?an ?ree or f\r elem5ts toge!r z a unit>y sequ5ce4 ,te/s ( memory span = v>i\s k9ds ( mat]ials %\ld be in/itut$1 9 ord] to ga9 light on ?is po9t4 ,if x appe>s t 8 p]=mance is decid$ly bel[ ! normal = 8 age1 especially :5 ! mat]ial is lett]s1 x may be conclud$ t too brief memory span is probably play+ a "p 9 8 difficulties4 ,?is c\ld be *eck$ up fur!r by an analysis ( 8 spell+s1 to see to :at ext5t he spells %ort words correctly1 b misspells long] words4 ,emphasis ^u syllabication1 prefixes1 suffixes1 & o!r %ort units %\ld be helpful4 ,! *ild might be able to rememb] ?ree syllables ( ?ree lett]s ea*1 b unable to reta91 ) ! same am\nt ( practice1 "o ^w ( n9e lett]s4 ,psy*ologically1 ^! two tasks are diff]5t4 ,sm$ley sugge/$ ye>s ago t !re might be a 8rational elem5t0 9 spell+1 :]eby k ( ! mean+ ( words w\ld contribute to ! correct spell+ ( !m1 9 & ( itself4 ,connections involv+ mean+ are consid]$ 9 our analysis "u 7#a74 ,*ildr5 produce an especially great proportion ( error 9 spell+ words :i* h no mean+ = !m4 ,h5ce x is ( int]e/ to te/ ! *ild = k ( ! mean+ ( words :i* he misspells4 ,x is necess>y to f9d out :e!r ! words :i* confuse him are 9 8 vocabul>y4 ,motor awkw>dness & incord9ation may contribute to poor spell+4 ,"h are involv$ ! connections discuss$ by u "u 7#e7 & 7#f74 ,9 writt5 spell+ 7) :i* education is *iefly conc]n$71 x is necess>y n only to "k :at symbols are requir$1 b to execute !m successfully ) arm1 h&1 & f+]s4 ,"h we mu/ h rec\rse to motor te/s1 = /ead9ess1 cord9ation1 & spe$ ( volunt>y movem5t4 ,occasionally "o f9ds a *ild :o does mu* bett] at oral spell+ ?an he does at writt5 spell+4 ,9 su* cases1 improvem5t 9 h&writ+ is :at is ne$$1 ei!r 9 respect to rate or quality4 ,a sl[ writ] may misspell _m words if he attempts to hurry4 ,_m ( ! mi/akes ( poor spell]s are m]ely lapses4 ,^! are errors committ$ by *ildr5 :o 8"k bett]10 :o c correct ! mi/ake spontane\sly z soon z att5tion is call$ to x4 ,!re are wide individual diff]5ces 9 ! liability to lapse4 ,x is difficult to see :at rem$ial measures may be tak5 to improve ^? ^: disability is due l>gely to laps+1 s9ce lapses are n only involunt>y1 b = ! mo/ "p unconsci\s2 !re is no aw>5ess ( !m until "o p]ceives !m anew4 ,examples ( laps+ may be se5 9 8,complicat$ musi* :i* he he>d play$10 & 8,x mak make an impression10 = 8,x may make an impression40 ,"o might sugge/ t *ildr5 :o %[ ?is t5d5cy 9 m>k$ degree %\ld be tra9$ to lay aside = a few m9utes all writt5 communications2 !n to take up _! "w & look anew at ea* ^w1 9 ord] to correct all lapses4 ,x is n kn[n exp]im5tally h[ long an int]val mu/ elapse 9 ord] t writ+ may 8get cold10 s t lapses may be detect$ by ! au?or ( !m4 ,a few m9utes w probably suffice4 ,transf] ( habits previ\sly acquir$ is occasionally ! cause ( misspell+4 ,*ildr5 :o h le>n$ to read & spell a phonetic language1 l ,g]man1 or a language t proce$s f "r to left 9 spell+1 are prone to difficulty ) ,engli% spell+4 ,! possible exi/5ce ( su* an influ5ce is to be det]m9$ by tak+ ! s*ool hi/ory4 ,sometimes x happ5s t ! errors ( ! *ild are ( "o p>ticul> k9d4 ,su* idiosyncrasies may be exemplifi$ by ! case ( a *ild :o _h a /rong t5d5cy to add f9al 8e0 to all words2 & by ! case ( ano!r1 :o 0 addict$ to intrusive consonants1 especially 8m0 & 8n40 ,^! idiosyncrasies may d\btless be trac$ to _! s\rce 9 e case by a pati5t analysis ( ! *ild's m5tal cont5ts4 ,! *ild :o add$ f9al 8e0 may1 = in/ance1 h be5 told by a c>eless tea*] 8,don't leave (f y\r #8e's'40 ,! cause ( error w be diff]5t 9 e case4 ,x is impossible to g5]alize ab\t idiosyncrasies4 ,aft] all ( ! =ego+ factors h be5 consid]$1 !re /ill rema9s ! possibility t ! failure to le>n is due :olly or p>tially to temp]am5tal traits--in/ability1 indiff]5ce1 lack ( inc5tive1 di/a/e = intellectual drudg]y4 ,engli% spell+ calls l>gely = rote le>n+4 ,x c be acquir$ only by ! =mation ( ?\s&s ( specific bonds1 arbitr>ily prescrib$4 ,its pursuit is almo/ inevitably t$i\s4 ,?us _m *ildr5 w be temp]am5tally ill adapt$ to become good spell]s4 ,failure 9 spell+1 9 an intellig5t *ild1 may ?us result f v>i\s k9ds ( int]f]5ce ) prescrib$ habit =mation4 ,x is app>5t t ! psy*ological exam9ation ( a poor spell] is nei!r a brief nor a simple task4 ,! direct exam9ation ( ! individual %\ld be supplem5t$ by a family hi/ory1 a developm5t hi/ory1 & a s*ool hi/ory4 ,9 "s cases special defici5cy 9 spell+ seems to be h]$it>y4 ,e>le has made a /udy ( ! inh]itance ( capacity = spell+1 f :i* he concludes t !re is di/9ct frat]nal resemblance 9 spell+4 ,/eph5son has report$ six cases ( special inability to read & spell1 :i* occurr$ 9 ?ree g5]ations ( "o family4 ,,iv4 ,,c ,,special ,,defect ,,9 ,,spell+ ,,be ,,ov]come8 ,spell+ has receiv$ relatively little /udy z a process1 9 comp>ison ) ! att5tion :i* has be5 giv5 to read+ & ari?metic4 ,we h no v>iety ( exp]im5ts c>ri$ out to improve poor spell]s1 z we h 9 ! case ( poor read]s4 ,9 #aiah ! pres5t writ] report$1 ) ,miss ,w9=d1 ! results ( /udy+ & tea*+ a gr\p ( poor spell]s1 f ! fif? grade4 ,! exp]im5t ext5d$ ov] two p]iods ( t5 weeks ea*1 b ! "t 0 l>gely devot$ to obs]vations ( ! errors made1 measurem5ts ( intellig5ce1 & inv5tions ( inc5tives = ar\s+ int]e/ 9 spell+ z a gr\p project4 ,no *ild 0 tak5 individually1 & giv5 int5sive in/ruction1 z ) ! boy1 ,x1 9 read+1 report$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( class tea*+1 all ! poor spell]s improv$1 z measur$ by ! ,ayres scale1 b ! ?ree v poore/ /ill rema9$ at ! bottom ( ! class4 ,by int5sive individual in/ruction any "o ( ^! ?ree might h made mu* great] improvem5t4 ,we are1 !re=e1 n[ 9 ne$ ( exp]im5ts c>ri$ out to improve poor spell]s4 ,su* exp]im5ts mu/ include precise measurem5ts ( intellig5ce1 ability to spell1 ability to read1 & am\nt ( "t exp5d$4 ,!y mu/ include a description ( ! s5sory equipm5t ( ! spell]s1 & in=mation on all po9ts li/$ "u ! sugge/$ outl9e = ! exam9ation ( poor spell]s4 ,!re mu/ be an adequate acc\nt ( me?od us$1 & objective measurem5ts ( improvem5t mu/ be pres5t$4 ,f k ( spell+ z a process ( habit =mation1 x w\ld be pr$ict$ t any *ild ( av]age intellig5ce1 & normal s5sory capacity1 c le>n to spell1 if suffici5t drill be und]gone4 ,engli% spell+ is1 h[ev]1 relatively resi/ant to le>n+1 because ( ! specific "* ( ! connections to be made4 ,v few g5]alizations are possible1 ea* ^w be+ to s great an ext5t a special matt]4 ,= ?is reason x is v important to tea* fir/ ! words mo/ commonly us$4 ,^! h be5 asc]ta9$ by rese>* 9 ! ,russell ,sage ,f\ndation4 ,v4 ,,does ,,read+ ,,tea* ,,spell+8 ,9 ! ,atlantic ,mon?ly ( ,octob]1 #aiba1 an enemy ( simplifi$ spell+ writes z foll[s3 8,spell+ is n a craft by itself3 x is a "p ( writ+ & read+1 tra9+ ( eye & h&4 ,:5 a boy writes #8/>bo>d m>tyr' = #8,/abat ,mat]1' or #8=ehead' = #8=w>d1' he writes :at he he>s2 ! fault is n ) 8 e> b ) 8 visual image ( ! words4 ,x means t he is n a read]1 & is n accu/om$ to ! appe>ance ( ! words4 ,to try to tea* him ! di/9ctions by li/s ( lett]s alone w\ld be ab\t z useless z to try to tea* him to di/+ui% p he nev] saw by means ( v]bal descriptions40#ae ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,composition writt5 at s*ool by ,x 9 ,decemb]1 #aibj4 ,x 0 !n 9 grade #e;,b4 ,! facts are correctly und]/ood1 b ! spell+ does n %[ great pr(it f previ\s read+ ( ! text 9 hi/ory4 ,h psy*ologi/s produc$ any evid5ce to %[ :e!r ! view is correct1 t read+ w tea* spell+8 ,! positive correlation betwe5 ability to read & ability to spell does n1 ( c\rse1 give light on ?is "q4 ,nei!r does correlation betwe5 am\nt ( read+ done & ability to spell1 = ! positive correlation1 :i* w\ld und\bt$ly appe>1 might mean only t g5]al intellig5ce det]m9es bo? ! am\nt ( read+ & accuracy ( spell+1 to ! ext5t ( positive correlation f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,lett] writt5 by ,x %[+ h[ he c\ld spell by use ( diction>y4 ,! case ( ,x1 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 is some:at in/ructive 9 ?is connection4 ,! necessity to le>n read+ 0 s urg5t t x 0 soon decid$ to give no "t to spell+ z su*4 ,! special tea*+ did n1 !re=e1 include =mal in/ruction 9 writt5 spell+4 ,! regul> spell+ lessons at s*ool 71 ( c\rse1 tak5 by ,x1 z well z might be4 ,aft] ,x _h le>n$ ! lett]s ?or\ghly1 s t he nev] err$ 9 writ+ "o1 he made great improvem5t 9 8 grades on ! regul> spell+ lessons giv5 at s*ool1 9 :i* assign$ words 7 le>n$ by rote4 ,words n ?us specifically le>n$ 7 spell$ 8by e>10 ) ! g5]al result :i* is exemplifi$ 9 ,figure #aj4 ,x 0 taught ! use ( ! diction>y1 & by its aid he c\ld spell z %[n 9 ,figure #aa4 ,9 ,g]man or ,italian1 ! mutual helpfulness ( read+ & spell+ w\ld probably be mu* great]1 = words 9 ^! languages are n ne>ly s specific 9 "* z ,engli% words are4 ,,vi4 ,,illu/rative ,,cases ,two cases are h]e) giv51 to illu/rate ! m>k$ discrepancies :i* may r>ely be f\nd betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & ability to spell4 ,! fir/ is t ( a s*oolboy ( av]age intellig5ce1 ^: spell+ is illegible4 ,! second is t ( a feeble-m9d$ s*oolgirl1 ^: spell+ is v mu* above :at w\ld be pr$ict$ f m5tal age & ,,iq4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,%[+ ef=ts to spell1 ( a #ad-ye>-old s*oolboy1 ( ,,iq #ic1 aft] eight ye>s ( s*ool in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ extreme dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #ac4 ,?is boy 0 #ad ye>s #b mon?s ( age1 & _h be5 9 s*ool s9ce ! age ( #f ye>s4 ,8 ,,iq 0 #ic 7,/an=d-,b9et74 ,he 0 ref]r$ = m5tal exam9ation1 because ( failure to le>n to read & spell4 ,figure #ab %[s 8 attempts to spell ! foll[+ words3 _c1 ,septemb]1 burn$1 h\ses1 c5t]1 ?\s&1 fifty1 families1 def5ds1 bravely4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,%[+ spell+ ( a #ab-ye>-old girl1 ( ,,iq #ei1 aft] six ye>s ( in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ extreme dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #ab4 ,! girl1 :o %[s ! opposite discrepancy1 0 9 a s*ool = ! feeble-m9d$1 at ! "t ( exam9ation4 ,h] age 0 #ab ye>s #f mon?s1 h] m5tal age #g ye>s #d mon?s1 ) an ,,iq ( #ei 7,/an=d-,b9et74 ,%e _h att5d$ s*ool = #f ye>s4 ,figure #ac %[s h] ability to spell ! same words attempt$ by ! boy ref]r$ to above4 ,on ,ayres' scale1 ?is feeble-m9d$ girl scor$ at fif? grade ability1 at lea/ ?ree ye>s beyond expectation f g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! boy1 ( av]age intellig5ce1 scor$ on ! ,ayres scale bel[ fir/ grade ability--at lea/ sev5 ye>s bel[ expectation f g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! girl c\ld n le>n subject matt]1 or manage h] affairs any bett] ?an a #g-ye>-old *ild4 ,! boy c\ld "w = money1 0 reliable & effici5t 9 ord9>y affairs1 c\ld ma/] subject matt] read to him1 0 exp]t 9 bird lore1 & %[$ ! g5]al compet5ce ( a typical #ad-ye>-old1 except 9 read+ & spell+4 ,"o judg+ ^! individuals = practical purposes1 on ! basis ( a te/ 9 spell+1 w\ld be pr(\ndly deceiv$4 ,figure #ad also exemplifies ! spell+ ( a *ild ^: g5]al intellig5ce _c be correctly inf]r$ f p]=mance 9 spell+4 ,?is *ild 0 #i ye>s #aj mon?s old at ! "t ?is lett] 0 writt51 h] m5tal age be+ #ad ye>s #a mon?4 ,! *ild _h be5 ?ree ye>s 9 s*ool4 ,%e le>n$ read+ v easily1 read+ at ?is "t ) flu5cy & grace ( inflection4 ,h] case1 !re=e1 illu/rates discrepancy betwe5 read+ & spell+1 z well z betwe5 spell+ & g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! inadequacies not$ "h 7 probably due to di/a/e = ! drill :i* is requir$ = ma/]y ( spell+ & punctuation4 ,= bright *ildr51 read+ is motivat$ by ! fact t f x !y ga9 ideas4 ,9 pres5t+ ideas1 x is n necess>y to spell exactly1 b only approximately4 ,h5ce v "y1 bright *ildr5 may read accurately1 b spell poorly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,%[+ spell+ ( a *ild #i ye>s #aj mon?s old1 ) ,,iq #adc1 aft] ?ree ye>s ( in/ruction4 ,illu/rat+ dissociation ( spell+ ability f g5]al intellig5ce4 ,,ref]5ces ,,c>man1 ,e4 ,k4--8,! ,cause ( ,*ronic ,bad ,spell+02 ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aijj4 ,,*>t]s1 ,w4 ,w4--8,a ,spell+ #8,hospital' 9 ! ,high ,s*ool02 ,s*ool ,review1 #aiaj4 ,,e>le1 ,e4 ,l4--,! ,inh]itance ( ! ,ability to ,le>n to ,spell2 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,new ,york1 #aijc4 ,,holl+wor?1 ,l4 ,s4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,special ,disability 9 ,spell+2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiah4 ,,holl+wor?1 ,l4 ,s4--8,! ,psy*ological ,exam9ation ( ,poor ,spell]s02 ,tea*]s ,college ,record1 #aiai4 ,,kallom1 ,a4 ,w4--8,"s ,causes ( ,misspell+s02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,psy*ology1 #aiag4 ,,pryor1 ,h4 ,c41 & ,,pittman1 ,m4 ,s4--,a ,guide to ! ,tea*+ ( ,spell+2 ,! ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,wese51 ,m4 ,h4--8,c ,spell+ be ,taught80 ,am]ican ,education1 #aiba4 ,,witm]1 ,l4--8,a ,case ( ,*ronic ,bad ,spell+02 ,psy*ological ,cl9ic1 #aijg4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,ari?metic ,i4 ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,iq ,,& ,,capacity ,,= ,,ari?metic ,ari?metic z a psy*ological process has be5 /udi$ analytically by psy*ologi/s m assidu\sly ?an any o!r ( ! s*ool subjects1 except read+4 ,! psy*ology ( ari?metic began to be inve/igat$ m ?an ?irty ye>s ago by laboratory work]s1 b s complex are ! functions involv$ t !re /ill rema9s mu* to be kn[n4 ,correlations %[ t capacity = ari?metic is closely connect$ ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,mo/ ( ! *ildr5 :o fail 9 ! subject d s z a symptom ( a g5]al lack ( compet5ce 9 ?9k+4 ,! great majority ( ^? :o are notably excell5t ari?meticians are also sup]ior 9 o!r p]=mances4 ,! f\r *ildr5 ( m ?an #ahj ,,iq1 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv z hav+ le>n$ to read be=e or dur+ ! ?ird ye> ( life1 are also f9e ma!maticians1 excell+ at lightn+ calculation & at ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( num]ical relations4 ,"h1 aga91 _! m>vel\s skill at numb]s is b symptomatic ( _! r>e g5]al sup]iority4 ,al?\gh ! correlation betwe5 g5]al compet5ce & capacity = ari?metic is high & positive1 x is r$uc$ f p]fection by ! occurr5ce ( discrepancies4 ,occasionally a v intellig5t *ild is f\nd1 :o does n readily le>n ari?metic1 & on ! o!r h& !re exi/ *ildr5 ^: ability at calculation f> exce$s expectation f o!r p]=mances4 ,,ii4 ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,ari?metic ,,& ,,ma!matics ,psy*ologically z well z logically1 !re is a di/9ction betwe5 ari?metic & ma!matics4 ,9 bo? respects ! =m] is b "o phase or bran* ( ! latt]4 ,by ari?metic is meant ^? functions ( ma!maticians :i* involve num]ical calculation4 ,?is includes ! f\r fundam5tal processes1 ) :ole numb]s & fractions1 enum]ation1 & ! solution ( problems requir+ *oice ( process to be employ$4 ,ma!matics includes ari?metic1 & also ! relation%ips ( space1 "t1 proportion1 & probability1 z subsum$ 9 algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 & calculus4 ,psy*ologi/s f9d a positive int]correlation among abilities 9 ^! v>i\s bran*es ( ma!matics1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 n suffici5tly close to unity s t ! possibility ( m>k$ specialization 9 "s cases is exclud$4 ,judd has conclud$ t ! abilities dem&$ by algebra1 geometry1 & ari?metic repres5t1 respectively1 elem5ts n includ$ 9 ! o!rs4 ,lightn+ calculators h be5 record$1 :o c\ld accompli% no?+1 app>5tly1 9 ! d]ivation ( =mul1 or ab/raction ( pr9ciples4 ,rog]s decid$ z a result ( exp]im5tal te/s ( ma!matical ability1 t 8a m>k$ degree ( ! p[] to analyze a complex & ab/ract situation1 & to seize ^u its implications1 is ! mo/ indisp5sable elem5t 9 ma!matical pr(ici5cy40 ,?is is ! p[] t makes = pr(ici5cy 9 all life's difficulties1 & he :o has x has unusual g5]al intellig5ce--n ma!matical pr(ici5cy only4 ,!re is c]ta9ly slight possibility t a g5]ally /upid individual c ev] deal ) 8high] ma!matics40 ,s9ce ! processes o!r ?an ! ari?metical h be5 v little /udi$1 ! discussion ( special aptitude 9 ma!matics w "h be re/rict$ l>gely to aptitude = ari?metic4 ,,iii4 ,,m5tal ,,functions ,,9 ,,ari?metical ,,calculation ,9 8 rec5t pres5tation ( ! psy*ology ( ari?metic1 ,?orndike writes z foll[s3 8,a*ievem5t 9 ari?metic dep5ds ^u a numb] ( diff]5t abilities4 ,= example1 accuracy 9 copy+ numb]s dep5ds ^u eyesight1 ability to p]ceive visual details1 & %ort-t]m memory = ^!4 ,long column addition dep5ds *iefly ^u great /r5g? ( ! addition comb9ations1 especially 9 high] decades1 #8c>ry+1' & keep+ "o's place 9 ! column4 ,! solution ( problems fram$ 9 words requires und]/&+ ( language1 ! analysis ( ! situation describ$ into its elem5ts1 ! selection ( ! "r elem5ts = use at ea* /ep1 & _! use 9 ! "r relations40 ,a great numb] ( habits1 m or less specific1 mu/ be automatiz$4 ,!re are all ! comb9ations us$ 9 addition & subtraction1 ! multiplication tables1 ! read+ ( l>ge numb]s1 ! manipulation ( fractions1 ! plac+ ( ! decimal po9t1 & _m o!rs4 ,^! habits are ( v unequal difficulty4 ,rans*burg has %[n1 = in/ance1 t #e #b is a mu* easi] op]ation ?an is #b #e1 & t #e #e is easi] ?an ei!r4 ,! difficulty ( a comb9ation is augm5t$ by increase 9 ! second memb]4 ,! difficulty increases1 also1 z ei!r or bo? ( ! memb]s increase 9 value4 ,! addition ( two id5tical numb]s1 ( :atev] value1 seems always to foll[ a diff]5t c\rse f t ( two unlike numb]s1 resembl+ multiplication 9 ! "t tak54 ,^! are a few illu/rations ( ! subtleties ( habit =mation 9 ari?metic1 :i* are reveal$ only by laboratory me?ods4 ,!y sugge/1 also1 ! complexity & multiplicity ( connections1 :i* ent] into ord9>y a*ievem5t 9 ari?metic4 ,s9ce ! functions are ?us highly complex & specializ$1 :at are _! int]relations8 ,h[ are !y organiz$1 z reg>ds ! am\nts ( ea* f\nd 9 giv5 individuals8 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,organization ,,( ,,ari?metical ,,abilities ,?orndike & 8 /ud5ts h %[n t 9 g5]al ! correlation betwe5 ability 9 any "o important feature ( computation & ability 9 any o!r important feature ( computation is positive & high4 ,?orndike holds t if en\gh te/s 7 made to measure ea* individual fully 9 subtraction1 multiplication ) integ]s & decimals1 division ) integ]s & decimals1 multiplication & division ) common fractions1 & comput+ ) p] c5ts1 !re w\ld probably appe> int]correlations = a ?\s& #ad-ye>-olds ( ne> 4#ij4 ,correlation betwe5 problem-solv+ & computation w\ld d\btless be mu* less1 probably n ov] 4#fj4 ,?orndike expresses ! foll[+ inf]5ces1 bas$ on int]pretation ( exi/+ data4 8,x %\ld be not$ t ev5 :5 ! correlation is z high z 4#ij1 !re w be "s individuals v high 9 "o ability & v l[ 9 ! o!r4 ,su* disp>ities are to "s ext5t1 z ,c\rtis & ,cobb h argu$1 due to inborn *>act]i/ics ( ! individual 9 "q1 :i* pr$ispose him to v special sorts ( /r5g? & weakness4 ,!y are (t5 due1 h[ev]1 to defects 9 8 le>n+1 :]eby he has acquir$ m ability ?an he ne$s 9 "o l9e ( "w1 or has fail$ to acquire "s ne$$ ability1 :i* 0 well )9 8 capacity4 8,9 g5]al1 all correlations betwe5 an individual's div]g5ce f ! common type or av]age ( 8 age = "o ari?metical function1 & 8 div]g5ce f ! av]age = any o!r ari?metical function1 are positive4 ,! correlation due to orig9al capacity m ?an c\nt]balances ! effects t robb+ ,pet] to pay ,paul may h40 ,9 #aiaj1 ,br[n und]took to det]m9e :e!r !re is a special capacity = ma!matics1 & conclud$ f 8 correlations t !re is an especially close relation%ip among te/s involv+ ma!matical p]=mance4 ,t5 ye>s lat]1 ,coll> made an ef=t to secure fur!r data z to :e!r ari?metical ability1 z a unit>y comb9ation ( capacities1 exi/s4 ,two hundr$ s*oolboys 7 te/$ 9 ! inve/igation4 ,results l$ to ! conclusion t ari?metical ability t5ds to be repres5t$ 9 two ma9 divisions3 7#a7 ! p[] to compute ) ease & read9ess1 & 7#b7 ! p[] to solve problems by ari?metic1 :i* involves ! application ( a high] degree ( ability ?an is requir$ 9 computation4 ,ari?metical te/s ( v>i\s k9ds correlate m closely ?an d ari?metical te/s ) non-ari?metical te/s4 8,h5ce we are compell$ to int]pret ?is relation%ip z evid5ce di/9ctly 9 favor ( ,burt's sugge/ion1 t !re is an ess5tial unity 9 ari?metical ability40 ,all inve/igators h agre$ 9 f9d+ ! correspond5ce betwe5 computation & problem-solv+ mu* less ?an t f\nd among ! v>i\s processes ( computation alone4 ,! facts are "h analog\s to c]ta9 facts not$ 9 ! /udy ( read+1 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,!re x 0 se5 t betwe5 pr(ici5cy 9 ! me*anics ( read+ & compreh5sion 9 read+ !re may occur m>k$ disp>ity2 & t x is 9 me*anics t special discrepancies may be f\nd betwe5 read+ ability & g5]al intellig5ce4 ,9 ari?metic ! same obs]vation may be made4 ,m>k$ special defects & tal5ts are f\nd 9 ! me*anics ( ari?metic1 t is1 9 computation4 ,b problem-solv+ 9 ari?metic is closely correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce1 = x involves ! capacities requir$ = problem-solv+ any:]e1--response to _m subtle elem5ts1 ! weigh+ ( ^! "o aga9/ ano!r1 & *oice ( ! proc$ure t w yield solution4 ,^! are ! same capacities t und]lie compreh5sion 9 read+1 or grasp ( any o!r situation (f]$ by life4 ,!y are all functions measur$ 9 te/s ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,9 s*ool1 ari?metical problems are usually pres5t$ z read+ matt]1 s t read+ = ! compreh5sion ( s5t5ces is 9 itself ( fir/ rate importance = a*ievem5t 9 problem-solv+4 ,v4 ,,psy*ological ,,/udies ,,( ,,special ,,defici5cy ,,9 ,,ari?metic ,/udies ( *ildr5 especially backw>d 9 ari?metic1 ) ! acc\nts ( ! results ( exp]im5tal tea*+1 h be5 contribut$ by ,uhl1 ,smi?1 ,s*mitt1 & o!rs4 ,bronn] has also contribut$ acc\nts ( ! psy*ological exam9ation ( su* *ildr54 ,s*mitt /udi$ ?irty-f\r pupils 9 ! s*ools ( ,*icago1 :o 7 n feeble-m9d$1 b 7 extremely ret>d$ 9 ari?metic4 ,! inve/igator /ates t te/s ( g5]al intellig5ce 7 giv51 b does n %>e ) ! read] ! exact results ( su* te/s1 say+ only t ! *ildr5 87 n m5tally defective40 ,! result ( tabulation ( circum/ances involv$ %[$ t ill-heal? & abs5ce 7 closely relat$ to special disability 9 ari?metic4 ,! inf]5ce is drawn t a*ievem5t 9 ari?metic calls = a hi]>*y ( habits1 :i* dep5d on ea* o!r 9 a sequ5ce4 ,if a hiatus occurs at any ess5tial po9t1 z ?r\gh abs5ce1 inatt5tion1 or inadequate tea*+1 confusion foll[s4 7,?is inf]5ce seems v well ju/ifi$1 also1 f ! psy*ological analysis ( ! m5tal functions involv$ 9 ari?metic47 ,! problem ( individual exam9ation is to f9d out :at habits h n be5 =m$4 ,! problem ( p$agogy is to tea* ^? habits1 & to motivate ! *ild4 ,bronn]'s conclusion t "s *ildr5 ( good intellig5ce lack ! p[] to =m numb] concepts is criticiz$ by ,s*mitt4 ,:5 ! gaps 9 habit =mation h be5 locat$1 & ! *ild has be5 motivat$ to =m ! miss+ habits1 special defici5cy 9 ari?metic disappe>s4 ,?is is1 on ! :ole1 ! conclusion to be drawn f ! few /udies :i* h includ$ exp]im5tal tea*+4 ,uhl /udi$ a boy :o c\ld n subtract1 accord+ to /&>d te/s4 ,analysis %[$ t he c\ld subtract only by multiply+4 ,= example1 to subtract #i f #df1 he fir/ set aside #a1 to get a multiple ( #i4 ,!n he dis9tegrat$ #de into #i's & dropp$ "o ( !m4 ,aft] dispos+ ( ! #i 9 ?is devi\s fa%ion1 he pick$ up 8 #a aga91 & f9ally arriv$ at a correct result4 ,x 0 ?us f\nd :y he 0 s sl[1 & :]e in/ruction mu/ be appli$1 9 ord] to rem$y ! special defici5cy :i* he %[$ 9 ari?metical calculation4 ,9 difficult comb9ations1 pupils inv5t int]e/+ evasions4 8,break+ up0 l>g] numb]s is common1 s t #i #g #e becomes #i #b #b #b #a #b #b #a1 = in/ance4 ,failure to =m correct habits ( int]pret+ symbols1 or relations betwe5 symbols1 (t5 expla9s defici5cy4 ,?is may be illu/rat$ by ! case ( a girl :o always read #dj 7 #agbh z 8#dj divid$ by #agbh40 ,h] results 7 ?us fanta/ic4 ,?is error is analog\s to t ( writ+ 8?ree doll>s0 z #c4 ,! rem$y = ^! conditions is to %[ ! *ild :at he is do+1 & to give drill until ! correct & rapid me?od is ?or\ghly ma/]$4 ,special defici5cy 9 ! me*anics ( ari?metic is to be improv$ by drill1 aft] x has be5 f\nd out :]e ! drill is ne$$4 ,,vi4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,detect+ ,,wrong ,,or ,,incomplete ,,habits ,)\t sy/ematic me?ods ( te/+1 x w\ld be a v difficult task to discov] j :at connections might be wrongly or inadequately =m$1 9 ! case ( a giv5 *ild4 ,! /&>diz$ measur+ scales & practice ex]cises1 devis$ dur+ ! pa/ fifte5 ye>s1 furni% a sy/ematic means ( exploration4 ,^! are con/antly be+ ext5d$ & improv$1 to cov] ea* & e k9d ( habit t a *ild mu/ acquire1 = a*ievem5t 9 ari?metic4 ,! pr9ciple ( ^! scales & te/s is to e/abli% by exp]im5t ! spe$ & accuracy ( typical s*ool *ildr51 grade aft] grade1 9 ! p]=mance ( ! v>i\s functions sep>ately4 ,x ?us becomes possible to discov] 9 ! case ( a defici5t pupil :e!r he ne$s correction & drill 9 e function1 or 9 only "o function4 ,by means ( ! ,c\rtis te/s1 = example1 x may be discov]$ :e!r a *ild's difficulty is 9 addition1 multiplication1 division1 9 spe$ or accuracy1 or bo? spe$ & accuracy1 & s =?4 ,! use ( exi/+ scales & te/s = diagno/ic purposes has be5 describ$ by ,c\rtis1 ,uhl1 ,&]son1 & o!rs4 ,we may expect great improvem5t 9 ^! me?ods 9 ! future4 ,at pres5t ! /&>dizations are 9 t]ms ( s*ool grade norms4 ,a bett] plan = diagno/ic purposes w\ld be to /&>dize 9 age norms1 giv+ a p]c5tile di/ribution = ea* twelve-mon? int]val ( ! p]iod ( immaturity4 ,,vii4 ,,n]v\s ,,in/ability ,,& ,,special ,,defici5cy ,,9 ,,ari?metic ,n]v\sly un/able *ildr5 are1 z ,burt has po9t$ out1 (t5 defici5t 9 ari?metic1 ev5 :5 9 g5]al intellig5ce !y are n defici5t4 ,?is foll[s f ! same causes ( failure z 7 set =? "u discussion ( n]v\s in/ability & special difficulty 9 read+4 ,to build up little by little ! intricate hi]>*y ( ari?metical habits1 ea* habit 9 its ess5tial sequ5ce1 is a task uncong5ial to ! flighty1 uncontroll$1 or negativi/ic neurotic4 ,individual in/ruction is "h1 aga91 ! solution ( ! problem4 ,! neurotic c le>n ari?metic )9 ! limits ( 8 intellig5ce1 by means ( pati5t individual in/ruction1 giv5 pref]ably at r brief sitt+s4 ,,viii4 ,,ari?metical ,,prodigies ,extremely great ability to p]=m feats ( m5tal ari?metic excites popul> wond] & admiration to a degree f> beyond t excit$ by mo/ o!r manife/ations ( m5tal gifts4 ,?is may be due to ! fact t 9 calculation ea* individual has a r def9ite /&>d ( p]=mance1 namely 8 own ability to calculate4 ,:5 ano!r goes f> beyond him & 8 fri5ds1 9 s def9ite a p]=mance1 he c see = himself t ! typical has be5 ph5om5ally exce$$4 ,! gift$ p]son :o exce$s ! typical to an equal ext5t 9 p]ception ( ! f9e %ades ( mean+ 9 words1 or 9 ! detection ( absurdities & contradictions 9 demagogy1 creates no s5sation among 8 fell[ t[nsm52 = !re is no way :]eby ! av]age man c 8*eck up0 9 ! p]=mances1 to %[ himself h[ ph5om5ally he has be5 exce$$ 9 capacity = !m4 ,bidd]1 ! fam\s ,engli% calculator1 is record$ 9 hi/ory because he c\ld p]=m m5tal ari?metic p]haps fifty times z well z typical p]sons4 ,! facts t he also became "o ( ! mo/ successful civil eng9e]s ( 8 "t1 & made a l>ge =tune1 are not$ z ( m]ely incid5tal int]e/1 & w\ld n h giv5 him a place 9 ! hi/ory ( unusual p]sons4 ,a man may make fifty times z mu* money z ! av]age man does1 by meet+ ) fifty times z mu* acum5 & en]gy ! intricate1 subtle1 & difficult situations (f]$ by mod]n economic life4 ,yet he is n s v likely to be reg>d$ z prodigi\sly gift$4 ,8 fell[m5 c & w expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 him & !mselves z due to luck or circum/ance4 ,b a gift = 8lightn+ calculation0 is obvi\sly peculi> to ! p]son1 & makes ( him an object ( wond]4 ,! same g5]al consid]ations hold 9 ! case ( *ildr54 ,_m *ildr5 ( extraord9>y intellig5ce are f\nd1 because !y h attract$ att5tion to !mselves by excell5ce 9 ari?metic2 & ^u exam9ation %[ !mselves to be equally excell5t at ^? te/s :i* measure ,,iq1 excell5ce 9 :i* is n necess>ily conspicu\s except to ! tra9$ psy*ologi/4 ,acc\nts ( prodigi\s calculators g back to anci5t ,greece1 9 ,lucian's ref]5ce to ,nikoma*os ( ,g]ase4 ,! ^w 8calculation0 means lit]ally 8pebbl+10 com+ f ! ,lat9 calculi1 pebbles4 ,records ( lightn+ calculators h be5 collect$ by ,scripture & by ,mit*ell4 ,j$$iah ,buxton 7b4 #agjb7 appe>s to be ! fir/ calculator on record 9 mod]n acc\nts4 ,he liv$ at ,elmton1 ,engl&4 8,he labor$ h>d ) a spade to support a family1 b seems n to h %[n ev5 usual intellig5ce 9 reg>d to ord9>y matt]s ( life4444 ,9 reg>d to matt]s outside ( ari?metic he appe>$ /upid40 ,9 #aged1 :5 he 0 tak5 to ,london to be te/$ by ! ,royal ,society1 he w5t to see ,k+ ,ri*>d ,,iii p]=m$4 8,dur+ ! dance he fix$ 8 att5tion ^u ! numb] ( /eps2 he att5d$ to ,mr4 ,g>rick only to c\nt ! words he utt]$4 ,at ! conclusion ( ! play1 !y ask$ him h[ he lik$ x4444 ,he repli$ t su* & su* an actor w5t 9 & out s _m times1 & spoke s _m words2 ano!r s _m4444 ,he return$ to 8 village1 & di$ poor & ignor$40 ,x is said t he c\ld give an itemiz$ acc\nt ( all ! free be] he _h _h f ! age ( #ab ye>s4 ,tom ,full]1 8,! ,virg9ia ,calculator0 7b4 #agaj71 seems to be ano!r case ( highly specializ$ ability4 ,he came f ,africa z a slave :5 ab\t #ad ye>s old4 ,he is fir/ he>d ( z a calculator at ! age ( #gj ye>s1 :5 x is /at$ t he r$uc$ a ye> & a half to seconds 9 ab\t two m9utes1 & #gj ye>s1 #ag days1 #ab h\rs to seconds 9 ab\t a m9ute & a half1 correct+ ! result ( 8 exam9]1 :o _h n tak5 leap ye>s into ! reckon+4 ,he also calculat$ m5tally ! sum ( a simple geometric progression1 & multipli$ m5tally two numb]s ( n9e figures ea*4 ,he 0 totally illit]ate4 ,o!r prodigi\s calculators1 :o are n kn[n to h _h sup]ior g5]al ability1 are ,z]ah ,colburn 7b4 #ahjd71 ,h5ri ,mondeux 7b4 #ahbf71 ,jacques ,inaudi 7b4 #ahfg71 & ,ugo ,zaneboni 7b4 #ahfg74 ,none ( ^! individuals a*iev$ em95ce 9 any o!r respect1 b ?is does n necess>ily prove t !y 7 n ( sup]ior intellig5ce4 ,x w\ld h be5 impossible1 = in/ance1 = ! slave1 ,tom ,full]1 to a*ieve intellectual em95ce 9 a pr(ession4 ,none ( !m 0 /udi$ psy*ologically except ,inaudi1 :o 0 exam9$ by ,b9et4 ,inaudi 0 an ,italian by bir?4 ,9 *ildhood he t5d$ %eep1 z did ,mondeux4 ,8 passion = numb]s began at ! age ( ab\t #f ye>s4 ,at #g ye>s ( age he c\ld multiply five-place numb]s by five-place numb]s1 89 8 head40 ,8 memory span = digits giv5 orally 0 #db4 ,he mu/ he> !m1 ! span be+ consid]ably r$uc$ if he only saw !m4 ,he _h little education1 & did n le>n to read & write until he 0 #bj ye>s old4 ,he liv$ by public exhibitions ( 8 p[] to calculate4 ,b9et conclud$ t he _h no p>ticul> ability except ! gift = calculation1 & 0 n g5]ally sup]ior4 ,none ( ^! calculators %[$ any gift = ma!matics beyond ari?metic4 ,_m o!rs are on record :o are kn[n to h _h great all-r\nd sup]iority1 & ma!matical g5ius ( ! highe/ ord]1 z is prov5 by _! a*ievem5ts4 ,bidd] 7b4 #ahjf71 ,bidd]1 ,jr4 7b4 #ahcg71 ,saf=d 7b4 #ahcf71 ,gauss 7b4 #aggg71 ,ampre 7b4 #agge71 ,hamilton 7b4 #aghh71 & ,:atley 7b4 #aghg71 all 7 lightn+ calculators4 ,george ,p>k] ,bidd] 0 ! son ( a /onemason1 ( ,devon%ire4 ,8 family hi/ory is on record1 & is q int]e/+ 9 connection ) 8 gifts4 ,8 elde/ bro!r1 a ,unit>ian m9i/]1 _h an extraord9>y memory = ,bible texts1 b took no special int]e/ 9 ari?metic4 ,ano!r bro!r 0 an excell5t ma!matician & insurance actu>y4 ,/ill o!r memb]s ( ! family 7 di/+ui%$ 9 non-ma!matical pursuits4 ,bidd]'s ability 0 fir/ notic$ :5 he 0 #f ye>s old4 ,9 #ahbb1 at ! age ( #af ye>s1 he took a prize 9 ma!matics at ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,he became a di/+ui%$ eng9e]1 & accumulat$ weal?1 z be=e /at$4 ,8 son1 ! y\ng] ,bidd]1 0 wrangl] at ,cambridge1 & became b>ri/] & ,que5's c\nsel4 ,he c\ld multiply fifte5-place numb]s by fifte5-place numb]s1 & c\ld play two games ( *ess simultane\sly1 bl9dfold$4 ,two ( 8 daught]s 8%[$ m ?an av]age ability 9 m5tal ari?metic40 ,truman ,h5ry ,saf=d 0 ! son ( a ,v]mont f>m]1 bo? p>5ts hav+ be5 s*ool tea*]s4 ,8 p[] 9 calculation 0 notic$ :5 he 0 #c ye>s old4 ,at ab\t #g ye>s ( age1 he began to /udy algebra & geometry1 & soon !reaft]1 a/ronomy4 ,9 8 t5? ye> he publi%$ an almanac1 comput$ entirely by himself4 ,8 int]e/s includ$ *emi/ry1 botany1 philosophy1 geography1 & hi/ory 9 addition to a/ronomy & ma!matics4 ,he took 8 degree at ,h>v>d 9 #ahed1 at ! age ( #ah ye>s1 & became an a/ronom]4 ,he 0 pr(essor ( a/ronomy 9 ,williams ,college = _m ye>s1 until 8 dea?1 & made _m important a/ronomical calculations & discov]ies4 ,c>l ,fr$]ick ,gauss1 ! great ma!matician1 0 a lightn+ calculator1 ! m>vels ( 8 p]=mance exce$+ ^? ( ne>ly all o!rs4 ,gauss ent]$ ! gymnasium :5 he 0 #aa ye>s old1 & 9 ma!matics soon surpass$ 8 tea*]s4 ,he began ! /udy ( high] analysis at #aj1 & at #ad c\ld read ,newton ) und]/&+4 ,at #bd he publi%$ ,disquisitiones ,ari?metic1 :i* is a fundam5tal contribution to ma!matics4 ,he himself has relat$ t he rememb]s hav+ foll[$ by m5tal ari?metic a calculation conc]n+ ! wages ( 8 fa!r's workm51 & ( hav+ ?us detect$ an error 9 ! reckon+1 at ! age ( #c ye>s4 ,he c\ld use f memory ! fir/ decimals ( log>i?ms1 & 0 especially +5i\s at discov]+ new me?ods4 ,gauss 0 unque/ionably a p]son ( v extraord9>y g5]al intellig5ce4 ,z a *ild he ma/]$ n only ma!matics1 b also ! classical languages ) wond]ful ease4 ,x is q possible1 h[ev]1 t 8 gift = ma!matics exce$$ 8 g5]al capacity 9 o!r respects4 ,! r5[n ( ,&r ,ampre's a*ievem5ts 9 sci5ce is commemorat$ 9 ! ampre4 ,z a *ild1 he %[$ all-r\nd ability1 & encyclop$ic int]e/s4 ,he le>n$ c\nt+ at #c or #d ye>s ( age1 by means ( pebbles1 8& 0 s fond ( ?is div]sion t he us$ = purposes ( calculation pieces ( a biscuit1 giv5 him aft] ?ree days' /rict diet40 ,!re is no "q t ,ampre 0 a *ild ( extremely high ,,iq1 ! ability at calculation be+ b "o manife/ation ( 8 great g5ius4 ,he 0 a *emi/1 a metaphysician1 & a ma!matician4 ,he became pr(essor ( ma!matics1 & wrote on probabilities1 ! unity ( /ructure 9 organisms1 & electrodynamics4 ,9 ?is la/ field he discov]$ fundam5tal tru?s1 & immortaliz$ 8 "n4 ,he 0 elect$ to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ,p>is1 & is recogniz$ z "o ( ! _w's great ?9k]s1 n z a calculator m]ely4 ,ri*>d ,:atley1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,dubl91 0 a prodigi\s calculator z a *ild4 ,f #e to #i ye>s ( age he a/oni%$ onlook]s by 8 feats4 ,he aft]w>ds ceas$ to int]e/ himself 9 calculation1 b us$ 8 intellectual capacity = a*ievem5t 9 o!r fields4 ,! greate/ calculator on record1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,scripture1 is ,johann ,dase1 born 9 ,hamburg1 9 #ahbd4 ,he c\ld c\nt objects ) extreme rapidity4 8,) a s+le glance he c\ld give ! numb]1 up to #cj & !reab\ts1 ( peas 9 a h&ful1 scatt]$ on ! table02 c\ld give ! numb] ( %eep 9 a h]d1 or books 9 a case s quickly t 8 record rema9s unequal$4 ,he c\ld c>ry on enorm\s & protract$ calculations1 )\t record+ figures1 b seem$ n to compreh5d ma!matical pr9ciples4 ,he att5d$ s*ool :5 #b to #c ye>s old1 & began public exhibitions at #ae ye>s ( age4 ,f ! records x is n possible to prove or disprove sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce4 ,!re are on record b ?ree calculators1 :o 7 p]sonally exam9$ by psy*ologi/s1 s f> z ! pres5t writ] c le>n4 ,inaudi1 already m5tion$1 & ,p]icles ,diam&i1 a ,greek gra9 m]*ant1 born 9 #ahfh1 7 exam9$ by ,b9et4 ,ar?ur ,griffi?1 son ( a /onemason1 born 9 #ahhj1 0 exam9$ by ,l9dley & ,bryan1 9 ! laboratory at ! ,univ]sity ( ,indiana1 9 #ahii4 ,b9et conclud$ t ,inaudi _h no unusual ability except = m5tal calculation1 & t 8 auditory memory = digits 0 a special gift4 ,diam&i1 on ! o!r h&1 9 addition to 8 ability 9 calculation1 knew five languages1 0 an incessant read]1 & wrote bo? novels & poetry4 ,he ent]$ s*ool at #g1 & rema9$ until he 0 #af1 always head+ 8 class 9 ma!matics4 ,8 me?ods 9 calculation 7 visual4 8,he has a numb]-=m ( a common v>iety1 runn+ zigzag f left to "r1 & giv+ mo/ space to ! small] numb]s4 ,?is numb]-=m he sees z localiz$ )9 a peculi> grayi% figure1 :i* also s]ves z a framework = any p>ticul> numb] or o!r object1 :i* he visualizes40 ,griffi? _h1 f ! age ( #c1 a passion = c\nt+ & made fair records 9 all /udies4 ,he ent]$ s*ool at #aj1 & att5d$ s*ool sev5 ye>s4 ,9 scope & t5acity ( memory1 & 9 rapidity at calculation1 he rank$ ) ! be/ record$ cases1 accord+ to ! inve/igators :o exam9$ him4 ,memory 0 describ$ z v sy/ematic2 & rapidity 0 se5 to dep5d on ! great numb] ( num]ical relations committ$ to memory1 & ^u r$uction 9 numb] ( op]ations ?r\gh %ort-cut me?ods4 ,^! ?ree exam9ations 7 all conduct$ m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago1 be=e /&>diz$ me?ods ( measurem5t _h be5 develop$4 ,x is difficult to glean f !m1 & f ! biographical mat]ial compil$ by ,scripture & by ,mit*ell1 :at ! tru? is1 z reg>ds ! ext5t to :i* ?is gift = calculation 0 special 9 ^! p]sons4 ,_m ( !m1 z we h se51 7 c]ta9ly m5 ( g5ius1 ) g5]al capacity = selective ?9k+4 ,sev]al o!rs probably 7 n ( sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce1 b 9 no case c we be c]ta91 on ! basis ( anecdotal evid5ce alone4 ,"s ( !m 7 peasants or slaves1 born to manual toil1 9 ! abs5ce ( free s*ools1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( rigid class di/9ctions4 ,x is n inconceivable t a *ild ( ,,iq ov] #agj1 condemn$ by unavoidable environm5t to h]d %eep or pick cotton ?r\gh 8 y\?1 might f9d relief f ! monotony ( 8 "w by calculat+4 ,z ,mit*ell1 himself a lightn+ calculator1 says1 8,giv5 a k ( h[ to c\nt1 & lat] a few def9itions1 & any *ild ( av]age ability c g on1 once 8 int]e/ is accid5tally ar\s$1 & con/ruct1 unaid$1 practically ! :ole sci5ce ( ari?metic1 no matt] h[ mu* or h[ little he kn[s ( o!r ?+s40 ,?is /atem5t is probably true1 if we *ange "o ^w1 & sub/itute = 8*ild ( av]age ability10 8*ild ( great ability40 ,all :o h exam9$ lightn+ calculators1 or se>*$ _! biographical records1 are agre$ t ! secret ( _! p[] lies 9 highly develop$ me*anics4 ,special habits ( comb9+ & recogniz+ numb]s are =m$1 :i* diff] f ord9>y calculation comp>atively 9 some:at ! same way z ! me?od ( ! *ild :o add$ #g #e by add+ #g #b #b #a1 ! latt] be+ analog\s to ! usual me?od4 ,! lightn+ calculator memorizes comb9ations f> beyond ^? ord9>ily memoriz$1 s t he is1 = in/ance1 able to add #beha #agfc z quickly z an ord9>y p]son c add #ae #h4 ,he le>ns multiplication tables up to #ajj #ajj1 :]eas we le>n only ?r\gh #ab #ab4 ,he devises & uses _m 8%ort cuts10 e4g4 multiply+ by two easy numb]s & tak+ ! diff]5ce1 in/ead ( multiply+ by an awkw>d numb]4 ,multiplication is probably us$ z ! fundam5tal op]ation4 ,?is specialization 9 & p]fection ( ari?metical connections1 by a p]son ( orig9al aptitude = & int]e/ 9 numb]s1 results 9 ! prodigi\s calculator4 ,z ,scripture concludes1 8,^! p]sons _h enorm\s ability to le>n calculation1 n to calculate )\t le>n+40 ,! rle play$ by practice is se5 9 ! fact t if int]e/ 9 c\nt+ wanes1 & practice at calculation ceases1 ! skill acquir$ det]iorates ?r\gh disuse4 ,:atley1 & o!rs1 :o became di/ract$ f calculation by o!r int]e/s z !y grew up1 lo/ ! p[] !y _h possess$4 ,h[ev]1 by resum+ practice1 ! skill c be rega9$ by ^? :o h acquir$ x1 z is ! case ) skills 9 g5]al4 ,satisfaction 9 m5tal activity = its own sake is express$ by ^? calculators :o h giv5 introspections4 ,aft] ,saf=d _h lo/ ! p[] ( lightn+ calculation ?r\gh disuse1 he cont9u$ to take pleasure 9 factor+ l>ge numb]s1 or 9 satisfy+ himself t !y 7 prime4 ,! y\ng] ,bidd] said1 8,) my fa!r1 z ) myself1 ! h&l+ ( numb]s or play+ ) figures af=d$ a positive pleasure1 & con/ant occupation ( leisure mom5ts4 ,ev5 up to ! la/ ye> ( 8 life1#af my fa!r took delight 9 work+ out long & difficult ari?metical & geometrical problems40 ,all :o h /udi$ mat]ial relat+ to prodigi\s calculators h especially /ress$ ! v e>ly age at :i* ! gift has %[n itself4 ,?is is especially true ( ^? :o a*iev$ greatness 9 sci5ce1 z adults4 ,gauss1 ,:atley1 & ,ampre 7 all fir/ not$ at ! age ( #c ye>s1 & ,saf=d & ,bidd] at ! age ( #f ye>s4 ,x appe>s to ! pres5t writ] to be probable t any *ild ( ,,iq ov] #ahj c\ld be taught to be a lightn+ calculator4 ,?is inf]5ce comes f obs]v+ su* *ildr51 z !y ma/] numb]s4 ,,ix4 ,,ari?metical ,,ability ,,( ,,two ,,*ildr5 ,,( ,,iq #ahd ,,& ,,iq #ahg 7,,/an=d-,,b9et7 ,to illu/rate ma!matical aptitude 9 *ildr5 ( high ,,iq1 a brief acc\nt is h]e) giv5 ( two boys1 bo? kn[n pr(essionally to ! pres5t writ] s9ce e>ly *ildhood4 ,^! *ildr5 are bo? ( a degree ( g5]al intellig5ce s r>e z to be sc>cely ev] f\nd1 & bo? are especially int]e/$ 9 ma!matics4 ,! boy ,d1 ( ,,iq #ahd1 0 describ$ fir/ by ,t]man1 9 ,! ,intellig5ce ( ,s*ool ,*ildr54 ,8 a*ievem5ts are mo/ rem>kable 9 e k9d ( intellectual activity1 includ+ music & draw+4 ,among 8 favorite pa/imes s9ce infancy has be5 ! manipulation ( numb]s4 ,8 calculations1 dat+ f ! "t 8 h& c\ld wield a p5cil1 h cov]$ hundr$s ( pages4 ,z a *ild ( #g1 #h1 & #i ye>s1 ,d f\nd ! ke5e/ satisfaction 9 d]iv+ =mul to r5d] himself unbeatable at family games bas$ on numb]4 ,at ! age ( #ab ye>s he has complet$ ! ma!matical curriculum ( ! elem5t>y & second>y s*ools1 ?r\gh ari?metic1 algebra1 geometry1 & trigonometry4 7,x %\ld be add$ t he has also complet$ ! curriculum ( ! elem5t>y & second>y s*ools 9 all o!r respects1 & is ready at #ab ye>s to ent] college47 ,figure #ae %[s ,d's calculations on ,te/ #b1 ( ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 five m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance4 ,figure #af %[s 8 calculations on ,te/ #f1 ( ! same =m ( ,alpha1 ?ree m9utes be+ all[$4 ,d 0 #aj ye>s #aa mon?s old on ! date ( ^! calculations4 ,he _h nev] previ\sly se5 ei!r ( ^! te/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,%[+ ,d's calculations on ,te/ #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #aj ye>s #aa mon?s1 five m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance4 ,! only figur+ done on pap] appe>s 9 ! m>g94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,%[+ ,d's calculations on ,te/ #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #aj ye>s #aa mon?s1 ?ree m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance4 ,! second *ild to :om we wi% to ref] briefly is ,r1 ( ,,iq #ahg4 ,he1 too1 has delight$ 9 numb] f ab\t ! ?ird ye> ( life4 ,:5 fir/ se5 by ! pres5t writ]1 at ! age ( #f ye>s #f mon?s1 ,r's memory span = digits 0 at lea/ eight 7beyond ?is he 0 n te/$71 & he c\ld easily rev]se sev5 digits at lea/ 7beyond ?is ! te/ did n g74 ,he has be5 taught %ort cuts & o!r me*anics ( lightn+ calculation till n[1 at ! age ( #h1 he c ) great spe$ calculate ! answ] to su* a s]ies z 8#b #b #b #b multipli$ by twice ! squ>e ( #b2 squ>e x10 or 8#bbeeb #bbdeb40 ,9 ,figure #ag is %[n ,r's calculation on ,te/ #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 & 9 ,figure #ah1 8 p]=mance 9 ,te/ #f1 ! "t limits be+ ! same z indicat$ = ,d4 ,r 0 #g ye>s #f mon?s old on ! date ( ^! p]=mances4 ,! ord9>y *ild ( t age c1 ( c\rse1 make no score :atev]4 ,r _h nev] previ\sly se5 ei!r ( ! te/s4 ,r's tea*]#ag writes ( him1 8,8 ability 9 academic "w seems well di/ribut$1 ?\gh /ronge/ 9 ma!matics4 ,= ?is grade he is rem>kably l[ 9 art & indu/rial "w1 b he w\ld be av]age 9 ! second grade1 :]e 8 age w\ld usually place him4 ,8 arti/ic feel+ is all = music & lit]ature4444 ,i ?9k he is r clumsy ) 8 h&s ev5 = 8 age1 ?\gh n mu* bel[ ! av]age *ild4 ,) 8 m5tal ability he c le>n to d any?+ 9 :i* 8 int]e/ is ar\s$4444 ,z he goes on1 ,i hope t we c arrange = him to "w ) m advanc$ gr\ps 9 ma!matics & sci5ce1 ?\gh rema9+ 9 ! pres5t gr\p = mo/ ( ! day4444 ,9 ma!matics x is noticeable t al?\gh he c use %ort cuts :i* are ,greek to ! class1 he is q z apt to make an error 9 concrete problems z ! o!r bright *ildr54 ,?is is n lack ( att5tion or int]e/1 = he is always ke5ly alive 9 any lesson 9 ma!matics4 ,= example1 9 %op :]e he 0 mak+ a table ) a top #bd in*es squ>e1 he 0 %[n ! lumb] 7#ab in*es wide7 & ask$ h[ _m pieces he mu/ prep>e = ! table4 ,he repli$ #8?ree1' & x 0 "s "t be=e he 0 l$ to recognize 8 mi/ake40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,%[+ ,r's calculation on ,te/ #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #g ye>s #f mon?s1 five m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance4 ,note immature =mation ( ! num]als4 ,! only "p ( ! figur+ done on pap] appe>s 9 ! m>g94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,%[+ ,r's calculation on ,te/ #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,=m #e1 at ! age ( #g ye>s #f mon?s1 ?ree m9utes be+ all[$ = ! p]=mance4 ,note immature =mation ( ! num]als4 ,) 8 love ( ma!matics1 ,r comb9es a passion = classify+4 ,z e>ly z 8 fir/ ye> ( life1 he w\ld classify 8 play+ blocks accord+ to ! %ape ( ! lett]s on !m1--,o1 ,q1 ,p1 & ! l toge!r1 & ,a1 ,v1 ,w1 ,n1 ,m1 & ! l 9 ano!r gr\p1 & s =?4 ,?is delight 9 classify+ is also "o ( ,d's mo/ conspicu\s *>act]i/ics4 ,x4 ,,! ,,inh]itance ,,( ,,ari?metical ,,abilities ,f 8 se>* ?r\gh ! lit]ature p]ta9+ to ari?metical prodigies1 ,mit*ell conclud$ t he c\ld n f9d suffici5t data f :i* to g5]alize conc]n+ h]$ity4 ,?is conclusion is no d\bt ju/ifi$4 ,we mu/ wait ^u mod]n /udies1 9 ord] to ga9 k ( ! ext5t to :i* su* t5d5cies may be inh]it$4 ,we may note1 h[ev]1 t _m relatives1 gift$ 9 "s way1 are report$ among ! lightn+ calculators ( hi/ory4 ,diam&i's "m 8_h an excell5t memory = all sorts ( ?+s10 & a bro!r & a si/] out ( a family ( f\rte5 sibl+s %>$ 8 aptitude = m5tal ari?metic2 ! family hi/ory ( ! ,bidd]s has be5 ref]r$ to already2 ,saf=d's fa!r & "m 7 bo? tea*]s2 ,gauss _h a mat]nal uncle ( kn[n me*anical & ma!matical tal5t2 ,mit*ell's y\ng] bro!r c\ld play *ess bl9dfold$4 ,( ! two *ildr51 ,d & ,r1 h]e9 describ$1 bo? h _m adult relatives :o are or 7 writ]s1 money mak]s1 inv5tors1 or organiz]s4 ,( ?is g5]ation1 ,d is an only *ild1 b he has sev]al c\s9s4 ,( ^!1 ?ree :o h be5 measur$ %[ ,,iq's ( #aej1 #aef1 & #aeg1 respectively4 ,r's only bro!r has an ,,iq ( #aej1 & ( 8 two c\s9s1 bo? girls1 ! only "o yet measur$ has an ,,iq ( #agj4 ,^! are sugge/ive fragm5ts ( facts conc]n+ family resemblances4 ,cobb has made a quantitative /udy ( resemblance betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr51 9 ! v>i\s fundam5tal processes1 us+ five ( ,c\rtis' /&>d te/s4 ,%e f9ds t ! coeffici5t ( correlation betwe5 *ild & l p>5t is 4#fj1 betwe5 *ild & unlike p>5t1 4#ja1 betwe5 *ild & mid-p>5t1 4#di4 ,by 8mid-p>5t0 is meant ! ability t falls midway betwe5 ! abilities ( ! two p>5ts4 ,tw5ty p]sons 7 /udi$ 9 eight families4 ,no sex diff]5ces 7 not$4 ,a *ild ( ei!r sex may resemble ei!r p>5t1 & n all *ildr5 ( ! same family d resemble ! same p>5t4 ,cobb concludes t ! lik5ess f\nd is due to h]$ity4 ,9 ! matt] ( sex diff]5ces1 x is notable t ( all ! lightn+ calculators record$ only "o1 & %e ( m9or importance1 0 ( ! female sex4 ,x is possible t ?is diff]5ce may be due to native sex diff]5ces 9 ! inh]itance ( end[m5t4 ,x is mu* m probably due1 h[ev]1 to ^? diff]5tial pressures--social1 educational1 & economic--:i* ca/ up to public notice m deviates ( all k9ds among ! male sex4 ,dur+ ! p]iods f :i* ! records ( lightn+ calculators h be5 ga!r$1 ?is diff]5tial pressure 0 mu* m =ceful ?an x is n[4 ,because ( ! diff]5tial action ^u ! sexes ( social pressures1 x is nev] possible to make valid comp>isons ( ! sexes 9 respect to m5tal deviation1 unless ! sampl+ has be5 rigidly made 9 "s mann] absolutely indiff]5t to selection1 & unless ! measurem5ts h be5 objectively tak54 ,,xi4 ,,implications ,,= ,,education ,/udies ?us f> made w\ld conv9ce u t ari?metical skill consi/s 9 ! automatization & integration ( a hi]>*y ( habits1 :i* c be acquir$ to a passable degree by all *ildr5 ( av]age intellig5ce4 ,lightn+ calculation results f build+ up & r5d]+ automatic /ill fur!r habits1 & c be a*iev$ by p]sons ( great g5]al intellig5ce4 ,x rema9s an op5 "q :e!r a g5]ally /upid p]son c ev] become a prodigi\s calculator1 b x seems c]ta9 t int]e/ 9 & aptitude = ari?metic may be especially m>k$ 9 g5]ally sup]ior *ildr54 ,ari?metical ability may develop1 )\t simultane\s developm5t ( ability 9 o!r bran*es ( ma!matics4 ,"o may calculate prodigi\sly1 )\t compreh5d+ algebraic & geometric pr9ciples1 or be+ int]e/$ 9 !m4 ,also "o may be m or less adept1 ei!r by nature or by tra9+1 9 "o k9d ( ari?metical function ?an 9 o!rs4 ,drill is ! means = improv+ ari?metical ability1 s f> z spe$ & accuracy ( calculation are conc]n$4 ,ability 9 problem solv+ c probably n be mu* affect$ by drill1 s9ce 8a problem0 is1 by def9ition1 some?+ t requires indep5d5t adju/m5t1 & n ! response ( automatic habit4 ,x !re=e calls on g5]al intellig5ce1 & _c be improv$ aft] ! me*anics ( read+ & calculat+ h be5 ma/]$ up to ! limits ( capacity4 ,,ref]5ces ,,&]son1 ,c4 ,i4--8,! ,use ( ! ,woody ,scale = ,diagno/ic ,purposes02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiah4 ,,b9et1 ,a4--,psy*ologie des gr&s calculateurs et j\eurs d'*ecs2 ,p>is1 #ahid4 ,,br[n1 ,w4--8,an ,objective ,/udy ( ,ma!matical ,intellig5ce02 ,biometrika1 #aiaj4 ,,cobb1 ,m4--8,! ,inh]itance ( ,ari?metical ,abilities02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,psy*ology1 #aiag4 ,,coll>1 ,d4 ,j4--8,a ,/ati/ical ,survey ( ,ari?metical ,ability02 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aibj4 ,,gill+ham1 ,a4--,"o ,*ild's ,/ruggle 9 ! ,prep>ation = ,life2 ,p$agogical ,sem9>y1 #aiac4 ,,lant]ne1 ,s4--,psy*ologie du nombre et des oprations lm5taires de l'ari?mtique2 ,p>is1 #aijg4 ,,laz>1 ,e41 & ,,pet]s1 ,w4--8,re*5begabung und ,re*5defekte bei abnorm5 ,k9d]n02 ,=ts*ritte d] ,psy*ologie1 #aiae4 ,,l9dley1 ,e4 ,h41 & ,,bryan1 ,w4 ,l4--8,an ,ari?metical ,prodigy02 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aijj4 ,m,,day1 ,h4 ,v4--8,die ,fhigkeit des ,re*n5s beim ,m5s*5 und beim ,ti]e02 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aiac4 ,,mill]1 ,g4 ,a4--8,ma!matical ,prodigies02 ,sci5ce1 #aijg4 ,,mit*ell1 ,f4 ,b4--8,ma!matical ,prodigies02 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aijg4 ,m,,bius1 ,p4 ,j4--,ueb] die ,anlage zu ,ma!matik1 #bnd edition2 ,b>?1 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 ,,rans*burg1 ,p4--,die ,re*5s*w*e 7,ari?ma/h5ie7 d] ,s*ulk9d] im ,li*te des ,exp]im5ts2 ,j4 ,spr+]1 ,b]l91 #aiaf4 ,,rog]s1 ,a4 ,l4--,exp]im5tal ,te/s ( ,ma!matical ,ability & ,_! ,progno/ic ,value2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiah4 ,,scripture1 ,e4 ,w4--8,ari?metical ,prodigies02 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #ahia4 ,,s*mitt1 ,c4--8,extreme ,ret>dation 9 ,ari?metic02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiba4 ,,smi?1 ,j4 ,h4--8,individual ,v>iations 9 ,ari?metic02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiaf4 ,,t]ry1 ,p4 ,w4--8,! ,read+ ,problem 9 ,ari?metic02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,psy*ology1 #aiba4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,ari?metic2 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,uhl1 ,w4 ,l4--8,! ,use ( ,/&>diz$ ,mat]ial 9 ,ari?metic = ,diagnos+ ,pupils' ,me?ods ( ,"w02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiag4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,draw+ ,i4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,k9ds ,,( ,,draw+ ,manuel1 :o has made a c>eful psy*ological /udy ( tal5t 9 draw+1 def9es draw+ z foll[s3 8,! t]m draw+ designates a process ( caus+1 by means ( p5cil1 p51 bru%1 or o!r in/rum5t1 c]ta9 l9es or areas1 or bo?1 to appe> on a giv5 surface40 ,?is def9ition we may accept1 if we add t ! l9es & areas are int5d$ or c be int]pret$ to signify some?+4 ,we %\ld n agree1 = in/ance1 t ! l9es & areas :i* are caus$ to appe> on ! gr\nd by ! scrat*+ ( a f[l %\ld be includ$ )9 ! def9ition4 ,hav+ be5 ?us def9$1 draw+s may be classifi$ into _m k9ds1 9 accordance ) ! te*nique employ$ & ! mean+ convey$4 ,^! k9ds are 7#a7 copy+1 7#b7 repres5tative draw+1 7#c7 analytical or diagrammatic draw+1 7#d7 impressioni/ic draw+1 7#e7 symbolic draw+1 & 7#f7 c>icature4 ,?is classification is exclusive ( o!r =ms ( graphic or repres5tative expression1 su* z pa9t+1 sculpture1 & pap]-cutt+ 7us$ 9 ! art ( cutt+ silh\ettes74 ,^! v>i\s k9ds ( pres5tations diff] z to ! psy*ophysical equipm5t con/itut+ tal5t = !m4 ,x is !re=e impossible1 z psy*ological /udy has prov$1 to discuss tal5t = draw+1 )\t specify+ :at k9d ( draw+ is "u consid]ation4 ,tal5t = pa9t+1 sculpture1 & cutt+ silh\ettes has be5 little /udi$1 s t we are n 9 position to discuss ^! at ! pres5t "t1 ei!r z processes 9 !mselves or z relat$ to draw+4 ,! t]m copy+ is self-explanatory4 ,by repres5tative draw+ is meant a draw+ hav+ visual realism1 :i* 8looks l0 t f :i* x is drawn4 ,analytical 7diagrammatic7 draw+ is logical4 ,x may violate features ess5tial to visual realism1 /ress+ only aspects f c]ta9 po9ts ( view1 or ab/ract+ a g5]al pr9ciple4 ,= in/ance1 ! plan = ! gr\nd-floor ( a h\se1 or a s*ema ( art]ial circulation1 w\ld be analytical4 ,me*anical draw+ comes "u ?is category1 z does also1 9 a s5se1 conv5tionaliz$ draw+1 = 9 conv5tionaliz$ draw+ "s g5]al pr9ciple or patt]n is ab/ract$ f concrete in/ances1 & is made ! basis ( ! design4 ,a conv5tionaliz$ bird does n look l any p>ticul> bird ev] se5 by anyone1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x looks l all birds4 ,x is a non-exi/5t1 composite1 typical bird4 ,impressioni/ic draw+ conveys an idea )\t mu* att5tion to visual realism4 ,a curve /&s = a cl\d1 two v]tical l9es sugge/ trees1 a few zigzag m>ks indicate grass & fl[]s4 ,9 symbolic draw+ "o ?+ is drawn to repres5t ano!r ?+1 z a cr[n is drawn to repres5t royalty4 ,symbolic draw+ does n1 p]haps1 des]ve sep>ate classification1 9 a /udy ( abilities1 b = ! pres5t x seems be/ to diff]5tiate x4 ,to orig9ate symbolic draw+s may call = capacities n includ$ 9 ! o!r =ms ( graphic pres5tation4 ,f9ally1 c>icature is draw+ t cat*es & exagg]ates individual peculi>ities1 mo/ (t5 ) a result :i* is humor\s or satirical4 ,! art ( c>toon+ dep5ds v l>gely on c>icature & symbolism = its effect4 ,c>toons int]pret life4 ,! successful c>tooni/1 !re=e1 comb9es tal5t = draw+ ) a high degree ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,,ii4 ,,ramifications ,,( ,,draw+ ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,curriculum ,:5 we speak ( draw+ 9 ! s*ools1 !re is a t5d5cy to ?9k only ( ^? p]=mances :i* are taught & execut$ dur+ ! "t set aside = in/ruction by ! tea*] ( draw+4 ,b a little reflection w %[ u to :at an ext5t draw+ ramifies ?r\gh ! curriculum1 & =ms an elem5t 9 a*ievem5t4 ,9 geography map-draw+ is requir$4 ,9 nature /udy1 notebooks ) draw+s ( natural objects se5 are frequ5tly kept4 ,9 sci5ces taught by ! laboratory me?od draw+ is an important elem5t 9 success4 ,zology1 physiology1 & botany are especially taught ?r\gh draw+4 ,9 me*anics1 & 9 eng9e]+1 draw+ plays a prom95t "p4 ,?us x comes ab\t t s*ool m>ks 9 all ^! subjects dep5d to "s ext5t on draw+ ( "s k9d4 ,if psy*ological /udy %[s capacity = draw+ to be l>gely or utt]ly dissociat$ f g5]al intellig5ce1 ! use ( draw+ to s great an ext5t1 z a me?od ( recitation 9 ! sci5ces especially1 may be undesirable4 ,! belief t draw+ us$ 9 ?is way fails to meet ! ne$ ( _m pupils1 o!rwise apt 9 sci5ce1 l$ ,ay] to und]take ! int]e/+ inve/igation to :i* x w be necess>y to give our att5tion 9 detail1 ?r\gh\t ?is *apt]4 ,,iii4 ,,psy*ological ,,analysis ,,( ,,tal5t ,,9 ,,draw+ ,x is q int]e/+ to notice t ! analysis ( ability 9 read+1 spell+1 & ari?metic has be5 approa*$ l>gely ?r\gh /udies ( ! p>ticul>ly defici5t1 :ile 9 ! case ( draw+ & music ! approa* has be5 ?r\gh /udy ( ! gift$1 to a great] ext5t4 ,! psy*ographic /udy ( individual tal5t 9 draw+ 0 prec$$ by _m inve/igations ( :at *ildr5 draw1 at :at ages v>i\s details appe> 9 draw+s1 h[ ! draw+s ( "o gr\p comp>e ) ^? ( ano!r1 & :at p say ab\t ! draw+s !y make4 ,^! /udies1 up to #aiae1 h be5 br\ght toge!r by ,ay]1 & are s well summ>iz$ by him 9 relation to ! /udy ( aptitude1 t !re is no ne$ to summ>ize !m aga94 ,^? :o desire to become famili> ) ! :ole lit]ature ( ! psy*ology ( draw+ w d well to consult ,ay]'s "w4 ,sev]al analyses ( ability to draw h be5 und]tak51 "s ?r\gh /udy ( ! p>ticul>ly defici5t1 "s ?r\gh /udy ( ! conspicu\sly tal5t$4 ,meumann ?us /ates ! causes ( ineffici5cy 9 draw+3 7#a7 ,! w to analyze & to notice =ms & colors has n be5 /imulat$4 7#b7 ,! int5tion to analyze may be ar\s$1 & yet ! individual may f9d ! analysis too difficult4 ,?is is a matt] ( innate tal5t4 7#c7 ,! memory ( t to be repres5t$ may be defici5t4 ,x may be incomplete or vague 9 =m or 9 color4 ,! memory ( spatial relations may be inadequate4 ,?is1 too1 is a matt] ( innate tal5t4 7#d7 ,!re may be lack ( ability to hold ! image dur+ ! act ( draw+4 ,?is capacity is innate4 7#e7 ,! memory image & ! p]ceptual image may n be cord9at$ ) ! movem5ts 9 draw+4 ,?is capacity is innate4 7#f7 ,! sight ( ! draw+ 9 its imp]fection z comp>$ ) ! memory image may di/urb ! image4 7#g7 ,! draw] may lack s*emata on :i* to f\nd 8 draw+4 7#h7 ,!re may be failure to compreh5d h[ "o may project space 9 ?ree dim5sions ^u a plane4 7#i7 ,manual skill may fail4 7#aj7 ,!re may be no arti/ic s5se4 7#aa7 ,inability to draw may arise f a comb9ation ( v>i\s ( ^! defici5cies4 ,manuel has (f]$ ! foll[+ analysis1 aft] /udy ( p]sons especially tal5t$3 ,! foll[+ *>act]i/ics1 ea* an indep5d5t or p>tially indep5d5t v>iable1 seem closely relat$ to ability 9 draw+3 7#a7 ,! ability m5tally to note a visual =m1 &1 by c]ta9 l9es & areas1 to reproduce x or significant features ( x4 7#b7 ,ability to obs]ve4 7#c7 ,ability to select f a complex visual situation ! mo/ repres5tative & ! mo/ beautiful aspects4 7#d7 ,memory = visual =ms4 7#e7 ,ability m5tally to manipulate visual =ms4 7#f7 ,ability to control h& movem5ts 9 accordance ) visual p]cept or image4 7#g7 ,ability to inv5t1 to br+ toge!r into new arti/ic comb9ations ! elem5ts ( diff]5t visual exp]i5ces4 7#h7 ,ability to judge ! beautiful 9 l9e1 =m1 color1 & composition4 7#i7 ,ability to discrim9ate diff]5ces 9 color4 7#aj7 ,ability to discrim9ate diff]5ces 9 visual magnitude4 7#aa7 ,acuity ( vision4 7#ab7 ,int]e/ 9 ! act & products ( draw+4 7#ac7 ,g5]al intellig5ce4 ,^! two analyses may s]ve z samples1 s9ce !y include practically all ! elem5ts sugge/$ by any o!r inve/igators4 ,jones has rec5tly furni%$ u ) additional evid5ce t memory ( objects visually p]ceiv$ & p]ception ( p]spective are probably important contributors to draw+ ability4 ,among #bfd s*ool *ildr5 9 ! sev5? & eigh? grades ( ! ,evan/on public s*ools1 a correlation 0 f\nd ( 4#hc betwe5 visual memory & ability to draw4 ,p]ception ( p]spective & visual memory yield$ a coeffici5t ( 4#he4 ,z a result ( adm9i/]+ m ?an tw5ty te/s to #ai individuals gift$ 9 draw+1 ,manuel concludes t1 8,p]sons tal5t$ 9 draw+ exhibit great individual diff]5ces 9 _! psy*ophysical *>act]i/ics40 ,nev]!less1 te/s devis$ to measure /atus 9 ! traits li/$ 9 ! analyses :i* h be5 made1 w\ld be expect$ to yield1 f9ally1 a psy*ograph ( tal5t 9 ea* ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( draw+4 ,p]sons approximat+ ^! psy*ographs c\ld !n be id5tifi$ z tal5t$ 9 draw+1 & ^? deviat+ widely f !m c\ld be classifi$ z defici5t 9 ability to draw4 ,! inv5tion & /&>dization ( su* te/s is a matt] = fur!r rese>*4 ,at pres5t we h no means ( gaug+ tal5t 9 draw+ except by grad+ a f9i%$ product on a scale ( draw+s1 l ,?orndike's 8,scale = ,measur+ ,a*ievem5t 9 ,draw+40 ,su* a means does n always adequately sep>ate tal5t f tra9+4 ,! hope t psy*ographs ( ability to draw may be platt$ 9 future does n mean t psy*ologi/s expect to f9d complete simil>ity among ^? tal5t$ 9 draw+4 ,individuality is z intr9sic 9 draw+ z x is 9 h&writ+4 ,z a signature c be us$ = id5tification 9 ! h&s ( exp]ts1 s a picture be>s ! m>k ( ! p>ticul> psy*ophysical con/itution t produc$ x4 ,! ord9>y read] ( curr5t fiction kn[s1 by inspection1 :e!r a giv5 illu/ration has be5 made by ,may ,wilson ,pre/on or by ,tony ,s>g1 )\t see+ ! signature4 ,! draw+s ( ,cl>5ce ,day are inimitable4 ,,iv4 ,,relations ,,betwe5 ,,aptitude ,,9 ,,draw+ ,,& ,,g5]al ,,intellig5ce ,z long ago z #aijc1 ,fis*lovitz /udi$ #cej high s*ool fre%m51 to obta9 ! correlation betwe5 ability to draw & ability 9 o!r high s*ool /udies4 ,correlations 7 comput$ betwe5 grades 9 draw+ & 9 o!r subjects4 ,! conclusion 0 t1 8,ability 9 draw+ is correlat$ to a great] degree ) "s ( ! subjects ?an ) o!rs1 b 9 no case is ! correlation v /rong1 & t ability 9 draw+ is m ( a special ability40 ,"s ye>s lat]1 ,eld]ton obta9$ a correlation ( 4#daf betwe5 grades 9 draw+ & grades 9 classics1 = "o class1 & ( 4#cac betwe5 ! grades 9 ! same /udies1 9 ano!r class4 ,! subjects 7 "h #ai boys 9 ea* ( two classes 9 an ,engli% public s*ool4 ,ivan( f\nd among ,swiss *ildr5 a t5d5cy = ! able 9 draw+ to include some:at m good all-r\nd pupils ?an 7 includ$ among ! pupils at l>ge1 & an opposite t5d5cy among ^? poor 9 draw+4 ,! figures %[1 h[ev]1 _m pupils /rong 9 g5]al "w li/$ among ^? poor 9 draw+4 ,ay] obta9$ a correlation ( 4#ff betwe5 grades 9 draw+ & o!r subjects1 = #ada normal s*ool /ud5ts4 ,z ,ay] po9ts out1 ^! me?ods are v crude z means ( det]m9+ to :at ext5t draw+ is a special ability4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 s9ce draw+ is us$ z a =m ( recitation 9 v>i\s s*ool subjects1 we are obta9+ to "s ext5t a self-correlation 9 subjects l sci5ce & geography4 ,9 ! second place1 grades 9 draw+ d n specify :at k9d ( draw+ is grad$4 ,9 ! case ( ,ay]'s normal s*ool /ud5ts1 special inquiry %[$ t ! grades 9 draw+ 7 comput$ f het]og5e\s factors1 includ+ 7a7 ability 9 repres5tative draw+1 7b7 ability 9 design+1 7c7 ability 9 arti/ic discrim9ation1 7d7 ability ) color1 wa%es1 %ad+1 etc41 7e7 att5dance1 7f7 discipl9e1 7g7 vocational int]e/4 ,s*ool m>ks d n1 !re=e1 isolate ability 9 any "o k9d ( draw+1 f a m$ley ( o!r relevant & irrelevant factors1 ! m>k be+ be/[$ ^u ! total composite ( factors4 ,mu* m reliable z a me?od ( rese>* is ! me?od ( te/s4 ,9 ,simpson's data1 already quot$1 x is se5 t draw+ l5g?s %[s v slight coh]5ce ) o!r abilities4 ,o!r simil> fragm5t>y sugge/ive facts may be f\nd1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! lit]ature4 ,9 #aiaf ,ay] und]took a well-plann$ inve/igation to det]m9e h[ two k9ds ( draw+1 7#a7 repres5tative draw+ & 7#b7 analytical draw+1 are relat$ to 7a7 ability 9 v]bal description & 7b7 a*ievem5t 9 s*ool subjects on ! :ole4 ,a turkey fea!r 0 drawn repres5tatively1 drawn analytically1 & describ$ v]bally by #ea high s*ool pupils4 ,tw5ty-f\r h\rs aft] ! analytical draw+1 ! pupils 7 aga9 requir$ to make a diagram ( ! fea!r & to answ] que/ions ab\t its p>ts4 ,! results ( ^! v>i\s ef=ts 7 !n scor$ by t5 compet5t judges indep5d5tly1 to obta9 a f9al score = ea* pupil 9 ea* te/4 ,! table1 f ,ay]1 on page #adi1 %[s ! rank obta9$ by ea* pupil 9 ea* k9d ( p]=mance4 ,! pupil :o /&s fir/ 9 memory /&s ?irty-eigh? 9 repres5tative draw+1 & s =? d[n ! s]ies1 = ea* pupil4 ,9 ! foll[+ table1 f ,ay]1 we see ! coeffici5ts ( correlation f\nd betwe5 ! v>i\s functions te/$1 z comput$ f ! ranks li/$ 9 ! table on page #adi4 ,,table ,,f ,,ay] ,%[+ correlations 9 case ( repres5tative draw+1 ret5tion1 diagramm+ 7analytical draw+71 & description4 ,,abilities ,,correlat$ ,,coeffici5t ,,( ,,correlation 7,,pe>son7 ,repres5tative draw+ & description 4#jbc ,diagramm+ & repres5tative draw+ 4#jeb ,diagramm+ & description 4#bca ,repres5tative draw+ & ret5tion 4#jbb ,description & ret5tion 4#bcd ,analytical draw+ & ret5tion 4#dcc ,,table ,,f ,,ay] ,rank 9 ret5tion1 repres5tative draw+1 description1 & analytical draw+1 z te/$ 9 ! case ( #ea /ud5ts 9 a fir/ ye> high s*ool class 9 g5]al sci5ce4 ,,rank ,,9 ,,memory ,,rank ,,9 ,,draw+ ,,rank ,,9 ,,rank ,,9 ,,diagram ,,description #a #ch #b #a #b #da #ad #e #c #cg #a #ad #d #bb #cj #da #e #g #df #d #f #ag #bj #aj #g #dh #bb #dc #h #bg #ai #f #i #db #f #bg #aj #ci #i #ca #aa #ca #dd #ai #ab #cf #aj #i #ac #ah #da #bf #ad #ba #bi #ab #ae #i #ch #bc #af #ce #ac #ce #ag #ea #cg #bd #ah #be #ce #ci #ai #aj #bd #cd #bj #bf #e #be #ba #ab #ag #cj #bb #bh #di #ea #bc #cd #be #ac #bd #c #ab #ae #be #de #de #c #bf #bd #g #b #bg #f #cb #dg #bh #af #cd #ah #bi #bj #ca #h #cj #d #ej #bb #ca #dd #ah #dj #cb #ai #d #ag #cc #ac #dh #de #cd #cc #af #cc #ce #aa #h #dd #cf #bc #dg #cf #cg #a #dc #ch #ch #dc #cc #bi #ci #h #cf #aa #dj #bi #db #ba #da #cj #c #df #db #b #bf #db #dc #dg #bh #bh #dd #cb #ba #g #de #ae #bg #bj #df #df #ci #dg #dg #di #aa #af #dh #ej #dj #ej #di #e #de #cj #ej #dj #bc #dh #ea #ad #ea #di ,! correlation betwe5 repres5tative draw+ & v]bal description is practically z]o4 ,f k ( ability 9 "o ( ^! functions1 among high s*ool /ud5ts1 no inf]5ce c be made conc]n+ ! o!r4 ,ability 9 diagramm+ 7a k9d ( analytical draw+7 is also n correlat$ ) repres5tative draw+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! processes ( diagramm+ & description exhibit a slight t5d5cy to positive coh]5ce1 z d description & ret5tion4 ,analytical draw+ & ret5tion h a decid$ t5d5cy to coh]e1 ) a coeffici5t ( 4#dcc4 ,9 ord] to *eck 8 f9d+ t s*ool m>ks 9 draw+ correlate well ) s*ool m>ks 9 o!r subjects1 ,ay] correlat$ ! scores ( ^! #ea high s*ool pupils 9 repres5tative draw+1 ) _! s*ool m>ks & f\nd an abs5ce ( relation%ip4 8,ability 9 repres5tative draw+ is n correlat$ ) a*ievem5t 9 s*ool subjects1 :5 x is isolat$ f ! o!r factors ( s*ool draw+40 ,ay] concludes t diff]5t k9ds ( draw+ are diff]5tly correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce1 & t x is necess>y to isolate ! v>i\s k9ds 9 det]m9+ ! relation%ip4 ,analytical draw+ is a bett] indication ( a pupil's g5]al grasp ( subject matt] ?an is repres5tative draw+4 ,he recomm5ds 8t ! device ( repres5tative draw+ %all be supplant$ 9 laboratory tea*+10 s9ce x appe>s to be a highly specializ$ function4 ,! "q ( ! relation%ip betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & ability to draw has also be5 inve/igat$ by ,manuel1 :o took ! ,,iq ( ea* ( 8 tal5t$ subjects by means ( ,/an=d-,b9et4 ,^! 7 pupils 9 elem5t>y s*ool1 high s*ool1 & college4 ,?is means ( measur+ g5]al intellig5ce 0 ill adapt$ to its purpose 9 ! case ( ! college /ud5ts &1 also1 probably 9 ! case ( _m ( ! high s*ool /ud5ts among 8 subjects1 z ! scale w n measure ! intellig5ce ( v sup]ior adolesc5ts & adults4 ,because ( its limitations1 ! mo/ intellig5t adult 9 ! _w _c %[ an ,,iq ( m ?an ab\t #abj on x4 ,!re=e "s ( ,manuel's old] subjects may h be5 mu* m intellig5t ?an appe>s on ! record4 ,! range ( intellig5ce among ^? tal5t$ 9 draw+ may be ev5 great] ?an ! record %[s4 ,! te/s z !y /& %[ t sup]ior ability 9 draw+ may accompany any degree ( g5]al intellig5ce f v sup]ior to v inf]ior4 8,we conclude !re=e t a c]ta9 elem5t>y ability 9 graphic repres5tation1 su* z is requir$ = success 9 elem5t>y s*ool draw+1 is indep5d5t1 or p>tially indep5d5t1 ( g5]al intellig5ce40 ,x %\ld be /at$ t pres5ce ( tal5t 9 draw+ 9 ! case ( ^! individuals 0 det]m9$ 9 "p by te/imony ( tea*]s ( art1 & 9 "p by two te/s1 7#a7 ! draw+ ( a h\se f memory1 & 7#b7 ! draw+ ( a wood5 c>t f ! object4 ,bo? ( ^! w\ld be classifi$ z repres5tative draw+s4 ,:]e repres5tative draw+ has be5 isolat$ = /udy 9 relation to g5]al intellig5ce1 no results contradictory to ! conclusions /at$ above h be5 report$4 ,e>li] inve/igators _h decl>$ t great tal5t = graphic expression is closely connect$ ) good intellectual end[m5t 9 *ildr51 b t 8! rev]se ( ?is does n hold true40 ,?is conclusion w probably be %[n to be well f\nd$ 9 future rese>*es c>ri$ out by mod]n te/ me?ods4 8,great tal5t0 includes mu* m ?an m]e ability to 8see & make0 an object4 ,z ,manuel says1 8,be=e "o gets v f> 9 art expression1 a great numb] ( supplem5t>y factors mu/ be br\ght to ! support ( ! ability to repres5t graphically simple objects4 ,ev5 ! te*nique itself becomes progressively m difficult4444 ,g5]al intellig5ce conditions ! ability ( draw]s 7a7 to acquire ! advanc$ te*nique into :i* conceptual factors ent]1 & 7b7 to create orig9al draw+s ( m]it40 ,manuel also gave te/s ( l+ui/ic ability 9 ! c\rse ( 8 /udy & f\nd no ess5tial relation%ip betwe5 ability to draw & ability to manage words4 8,l+ui/ic ability is no index ( ability or lack ( ability 9 graphic repres5tation10 b l+ui/ic ability correlates well ) g5]al intellig5ce 7z has be5 previ\sly emphasiz$ 9 ?is volume74 ,= purposes ( educational & vocational guidance we n[ ne$ especially /udies ( ! relation%ip betwe5 g5]al intellig5ce & k9ds ( draw+ o!r ?an ! repres5tative4 ,we require /udies ( ! ext5t to :i* copy+1 analytical draw+1 symbolic draw+1 & c>icature are correlat$ ) g5]al m5tal capacity4 ,x may be pr$ict$ ) "s confid5ce t rese>* 9 unselect$ gr\ps w f9ally %[ copy+ & repres5tative draw+ to be slightly correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,analytical & symbolic draw+ are probably significantly correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce1 :ile c>icature is d\btless v closely correlat$ ) intellectual capacity4 ,we ne$ also rese>*es be>+ ^u ! relation%ip betwe5 ability 9 pa9t+1 sculpture1 & patt]n-cutt+1 & g5]al intellig5ce4 ,to :at ext5t are pa9t]s & sculptors ( high repute also gift$ ) sup]ior intellectual acum58 ,popul> op9ion w\ld h x t ! 8arti/ic m9d0 is antagoni/ic 9 its organization to ! 8sci5tific m9d40 ,probably "h z else:]e uncontroll$ speculation leads to false conclusions4 ,probably ^? :o a*ieve em95ce 9 ! arts are1 on ! :ole1 z highly end[$ ) g5]al intellig5ce z are ^? :o w9 em95ce 9 o!r k9ds ( c>e]s4 ,greatness 9 graphic portrayal almo/ c]ta9ly results only :5 !re is a r>e comb9ation ( highly specializ$ capacity = repres5tative draw+1 & v high ,,iq1 9 ! same individual4 ,=tunately = all1 mod]n life calls = all =ms ( tal5t 9 draw+1 9 all degrees ( comb9ation ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,sign pa9t]s1 copyi/s1 design]s1 draughtsm51 ar*itects1 illu/rators1 & creative int]pret]s ( human faces & ( human life are all ne$$4 ,p]sons skill$ 9 draw+ are ess5tial to me*anical & indu/rial developm5t 9 society1 = ev]y?+ made mu/ fir/ be drawn1 f ! motor ( an airplane to ! fancy buttons on a *ild's coat4 ,v4 ,,! ,,color-,,bl9d ,betwe5 #c & #e p] c5t ( boys1 & app>5tly few] girls1 inh]it a special defect ( vision1 call$ 8color bl9dness40 ,a color-bl9d *ild may be gift$ 9 draw+1 except 9 color draw+1 b he w be incompet5t z a pa9t]4 ,!re are sev]al =ms ( ?is special defect4 ,v r>ely x may happ5 t no discrim9ation among colors is possible1 ! _w appe>+1 z 9 a photograph1 to consi/ only ( light & %ade4 ,9 ! late ev5+1 or 9 any suffici5t dimness1 color is n p]ceiv$ by ord9>y eyes4 ,^? :o are bl9d to all colors d n see color ) ! bright5+ ( ! light1 z ord9>ily happ5s4 ,! mo/ common =m ( color bl9dness is1 h[ev]1 t 9 :i* only r$-gre5 s5sations are abs5t1 o!r colors be+ di/+ui%able4 ,!re is no disease pres5t 9 su* cases4 ,! defect is h]$it>y1 & consi/s 9 deviation f ! typical 9 /ructure ( ! ret9a4 ,! eyes ( color-bl9d p]sons are z heal?y & normal z ^? ( o!rs1 9 respect to functions o!r ?an act+ z receptors = c]ta9 waves ( light4 ,a few cases ( blue-yell[ color bl9dness h be5 report$1 ^! result+ f pa?ological causes4 ,a color-bl9d *ild does n1 ( c\rse1 "k f 8 own exp]i5ce t he is s4 ,he supposes t ev]yone sees :at he sees1 until in=m$ by te/ or disa/] ( 8 deviation f ! usual4 ,color bl9dness seems to be> no relation to intellig5ce1 s t 9 draw+ :]e color is us$ tea*]s w f9d a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( g5]ally v able *ildr5 produc+ absurd results4 ,a color-bl9d *ild ) a great gift = draw+1 may succe$ 9 et*+ or 9 black & :ite "w ( v>i\s k9ds1 z has be5 %[n by ! actual rise to em95ce ( et*]s :o are color-bl9d4 ,,vi4 ,,illu/rative ,,cases ,! facts :i* h be5 set =? 9 reg>d to ability 9 draw+ w be fur!r illum9at$ by concrete cases4 ,9 ,figure #ai we h reproduc$ ! psy*ograph ( a *ild 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool1 ,e #a1 %[+ tal5t 9 repres5tative draw+ comb9$ ) v inf]ior intellig5ce4 ,e #a 0 a pupil 9 ! six? grade1 at ! "t :5 ?is psy*ograph 0 made4 ,%e 0 ne>ly #ad ye>s old1 & !re=e di/9ctly ret>d$ 9 s*ool /atus4 ,9 spite ( h] g5]al incompet5ce1 h] draw+ tea*] plac$ h] ne> ! top ( h] grade 9 native ability to draw4 ,! *ild is describ$ z n orig9al4 8,%e c foll[ bett] ?an %e c orig9ate40 8,app>5tly h] tal5t = draw+ is inh]it$4 ,h] fa!r is a tailor4 ,he enjoys draw+ & lett]+4 ,h] "m takes great int]e/ 9 ! *ildr5's draw+s1 & an aunt has made pa9t+s ( "s int]e/4 ,an old] bro!r ( ,e #a is report$ z v good 7orig9al & true7 9 draw+4 ,%e has also two y\ng] si/]s & a y\ng] bro!r :o are good 9 draw+40 ,figure #bj %[s a copy ( a man's portrait1 done by a #ad-ye>-old boy1 ( ,,iq ne> #gj4 ,?is boy 0 incapable ( normal progress ?r\gh ! s*ool curriculum4 ,be+ 8left back0 repeat$ly1 he became a truant & o!rwise del9qu5t4 ,8 ability = & int]e/ 9 draw+ are highly specializ$4 ,figure #ba %[s draw+s ( movem5t 7n copi$7 by ! same boy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,%[+ ! psy*ograph ( a /upid *ild1 :o has a special ability 9 repres5tative draw+4 7,f ,manuel's ,a ,/udy ( ,tal5t 9 ,draw+4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,! ,public ,s*ool ,publi%+ ,company47 ,! special ability 9 pap]-cutt+ ( a feeble-m9d$ man1 8,dick10 is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #bb4 ,at ! "t ^! silh\ettes 7 cut1 ?is man 0 #bh ye>s old1 /rong & heal?y1 ) a m5tal level ( #f ye>s #d mon?s1 & ,,iq #ci 7,/an=d-,b9et74 ,he has be5 an inmate ( an in/itution = m5tal defectives = sev5te5 ye>s1 z 8 g5]al intellig5ce is insuffici5t = any k9d ( unsup]vis$ c>e]4 ,he has nev] be5 able to le>n to read or write4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,%[+ special ability 9 draw+1 ( a #ad-ye>-old boy1 ( ,,iq ne> #gj4 ,! portrait is a copy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,%[+ special ability 9 draw+ ( a #ad-ye>-old boy1 ( ,,iq ne> #gj4 ,?is man is greatly int]e/$ 9 animals1 & aft] be+ tak5 to ! circus sometime ago1 became a nuisance 9 8 preoccupation ) :at he _h se5 !re4 ,9 cutt+ ! silh\ettes1 he m]ely takes a %eet ( pap] 9 "o h&1 a pair ( scissors 9 ! o!r1 & cuts absolutely 8free-h&10 )\t ref]5ce to any prelim9>y patt]n+ or draught+1 ei!r f memory or f a model4 ,! p]=mance is accompani$ by _m navely va9 rem>ks1 call+ att5tion to 8 skill & ! quality ( ! product4 ,he c also draw1 z is %[n 9 ,figure #bc4 ,he has nev] _h any special tra9+ s f> z kn[n4 ,= ! sake ( contra/1 we h pres5t$1 9 ,figure #bd1 ! attempts ( two univ]sity pr(essors to cut an elephant f pap]1 z did 8,dick0 9 ,figure #bb4 ,^! two pr(essors are bo? doctors ( philosophy1 di/+ui%$ 9 _! respective fields = rese>*4 ,yet !y are greatly surpass$ by 8,dick0 9 ability to cut silh\ettes4 ,,vii4 ,,inh]itance ,,( ,,tal5t ,,9 ,,draw+ ,a compreh5sive /udy ( ! inh]itance ( tal5t 9 draw+ is yet to be made4 ,manuel took ! family hi/ory ( ! pupils /udi$ by him1 & f\nd arti/ic ability ( "s k9d among close relatives 9 almo/ all cases4 ,! gift %[$ itself 9 e>ly *ildhood 9 ^! tal5t$ p]sons1 & !re is e reason to believe t x 0 be/[$ by ! conditions ( ne> ance/ry4 ,,viii4 ,,g5]al ,,summ>y ,x is cle> t tal5t = repres5tative draw+ arises f a happy comb9ation ( a great _m v>iable functions2 & t ?is comb9ation may occur 9 p]sons ( sup]ior1 av]age1 or inf]ior intellig5ce4 ,likewise1 conspicu\s lack ( ?is tal5t is compatible ) intellig5ce ( almo/ any degree4 ,!re=e1 _m *ildr5 consid]$ by _! tea*]s ( draw+ to be pupils ( ability1 w be rat$ z b m$iocre1 or z inf]ior1 by o!r tea*]s4 ,?is w be true especially to ! ext5t t draw+ z a subject ( in/ruction is limit$ to repres5tative draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,%[+ ! special ability to cut silh\ettes1 ( a feeble-m9d$ man1 inmate ( an in/itution = m5tal defectives4 ,see also ,figure #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,*>lie ,*apl9 pursu+ a g5tleman1 & pursu$ by a policeman4 ,%[+ ! special ability to draw1 ( a feeble-m9d$ man1 9 an in/itution = m5tal defectives4 ,see also ,figure #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,%[+ attempts by two di/+ui%$ univ]sity pr(essors to cut silh\ettes ( an elephant4 ,comp>e ) ,figure #bb4 ,s9ce sup]ior /ud5ts ( sci5ce may or may n h ability to draw1 x is probably undesirable t success 9 elem5t>y c\rses %\ld be made to dep5d l>gely on draw+4 ,di/+ui%$ a*ievem5t 9 analytical1 symbolic1 & int]pretative art is probably z incompatible ) native /upidity z is di/+ui%$ a*ievem5t 9 any o!r field ( te*nical endeavor4 ,p]sons :o c draw1 b are nev]!less g5]ally dull1 %\ld probably n be guid$ t[>d ! c>e] ( design]1 ar*itect1 c>tooni/1 or portrait pa9t]4 ,all p]sons possess 9 "s am\nt ea* & e "o ( ! capacities1 :i* 9 r>e & happy comb9ations con/itute tal5t 9 draw+4 ,! typical *ild possesses !m 9 typical degrees1 s t ! majority c draw mod]ately well4 ,s9ce 9 aft] life mo/ *ildr5 w enjoy ! draw+s ( o!rs m frequ5tly ?an !y w !mselves draw1 probably x w\ld be ( value to devote a relatively great] "p ( ! curriculum 9 draw+ to =m+ acqua9tance%ip ) pictures4 ,int]e/ 9 draw+1 pa9t+1 or sculpture may be pres5t )\t tal5t1 b probably ke5 int]e/ & tal5t are mo/ (t5 comb9$4 ,at pres5t educational psy*ologi/s h be=e !m ! task ( ext5d+ rese>*1 s t ! ^w 8probably10 s (t5 us$ 9 ?is discussion1 may be replac$ by 8c]ta9ly40 ,! accompli%m5t ( ?is task w call = ! cop]ation ( arti/s1 9 p>ticul>4 ,,ref]5ces ,,ay]1 ,f4 ,c4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,draw+2 ,w>wick & ,york1 ,baltimore1 #aiaf4 ,,b9et1 ,a4--8,la psy*ologie arti/ique de ,tade ,/yka02 ,l'anne psy*ologique1 #aijh4 ,,*ilds1 ,h4 ,g4--8,measurem5t ( ! ,draw+ ,ability ( ,two ,?\s& ,"o ,hundr$ & ,sev5ty-sev5 ,*ildr5 9 ,indiana ,s*ool ,sy/ems by a ,supplem5t$ ,?orndike ,scale02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,psy*ology1 #aiae4 ,,eld]ton1 ,e4--8,on ! ,association ( ,draw+ ) ,o!r ,capacities 9 ,s*ool ,*ildr502 ,biometrika1 #aiaj4 ,,fis*lovitz1 ,a4--,an ,inductive ,/udy ( ! ,abilities ,involv$ 9 ,draw+2 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aijc4 ,,jones1 ,e4 ,e4--8,! ,correlation ( ,visual ,memory & ,p]ception ( ,p]spective ) ,draw+ ,ability02 ,s*ool & ,society1 #aibb4 ,,ivan(1 ,e4--8,corrlation entre l'aptitude au dess9 et les autres aptitudes02 ,ar*ives de psy*ologie1 #aijh4 ,,k]s*5/e9]1 ,g4--,die ,entwicklung d] zei*n]is*5 ,begabung2 ,grub]1 ,muni*1 #aije4 ,,kik1 ,c4--8,die b]normale ,zei*5begabung bei ,k9d]n02 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aijh4 ,,manuel1 ,h4 ,t4--,a ,/udy ( ,tal5t 9 ,draw+2 ,public ,s*ool ,publi%+ ,company1 ,bloom+ton1 ,ill1 #aiai4 ,,meumann1 ,e4--8,e9 ,programm zur psy*ologis*5 ,unt]su*ung des ,zei*n5s02 ,zeits*rift fr pdagogis*e ,psy*ologie1 #aiab4 ,,pann5b]g1 ,h4 ,j41 & ,w4 ,a4--8,die ,psy*ologie d] ,zei*n]s und ,mal]s02 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aiai4 ,,pet]1 ,r4--8,beitrage zur ,analyse d] zei*n]is*5 ,begabung02 ,zeits*rift fr pdagogis*e ,psy*ologie1 #aiad4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,! ,measurem5t ( ,a*ievem5t 9 ,draw+02 ,tea*]s ,college ,record1 #aiac4 ,,tildesley1 ,m4 ,l4--8,prelim9>y ,note on ! ,association ( ,/ead9ess & ,rapidity ( ,h& ) ,arti/ic ,capacity02 ,biometrika1 #aiah4 ,,:it=d1 ,w4 ,g4--8,empirical ,/udy ( ,pupil ,ability 9 ,public ,s*ool ,art ,c\rses02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiai4 ,,:it=d1 ,w4 ,g4--8,curriculum ,build+ 9 ,art02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,music ,i4 ,,:at ,,is ,,music8 ,among animals1 only birds & m5 c produce music4 ,possibly1 ( ^!1 m5 only c appreciate x4 ,x is n agre$ z to :e!r birds c appreciate music4 ,!y respond to x1 & ev5 imitate x1 z 9 ! case ( ! mock+ bird1 b we _c be sure t _! s++ is = 8pure joy10 or = ! love ( ! melody r5d]$4 ,) ! majority ( m5 we "k t musical tones arrang$ 9 melody or h>mony act z orig9al satisfi]s1 by & 9 !mselves4 8,music ha? p[] to soo! ! savage brea/40 ,! analysis ( capacity = musical p]=mance1 & ! /udy ( individual diff]5ces 9 ?is respect1 7 prec$$ by monum5tal /udies ( tone-psy*ology1 rhy?m1 pit*-discrim9ation1 & ac\/ics4 ,9 ^! rese>*es psy*ologi/s1 physiologi/s1 & physici/s h jo9$ ef=ts4 ,z ,mead says 9 discuss+ ,mey]'s !ory ( melody1 8,! se>* = ! basis ( music is c5turies old2 x ant$ates ! se>* = ! philosoph]'s /one1 ! ,holy ,grail1 & ! ,nor? ,pole40 ,nev]!less1 9 spite ( all _! se>*+1 sci5tific m5 h n discov]$ ! basic psy*ology ( h>mony & melody4 ,mey]1 a lifelong /ud5t ( ! problem1 concludes t1 8,:]e we he> a succession ( diff]5t pit*es1 we are affect$ 9 a c]ta9 way :i* _c be describ$1 b has to be reg>d$ z an elem5t>y psy*ological fact40 ,! satisfaction exp]i5c$ by ! typical p]son ^u he>+ a h>mony1 & ! annoyance exp]i5c$ by him ^u he>+ a discord1 rema9 among ! my/]ies1 p]haps unfa?omable1 ( human psy*ology4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,k9ds ,,( ,,music ,!re are _m diff]5t k9ds ( music1 requir+ c]ta9 diff]5ces 9 psy*ophysical equipm5t = _! execution1 sev]ally4 ,= in/ance1 s++ requires c]ta9 equipm5t :i* may be lack+ 9 a highly gift$ organi/4 ,an organi/ mu/ h *>act]i/ics :i* are possibly disp5sable to ! h>pi/4 ,to s+1 to play ! piano1 to play ! viol91 to play ! trombone1 to compose a symphony1 to write musical criticism--^! are by no means all necess>ily possible to ! same p]son4 ,a complete inv5tory ( musical tal5t w re/ ^u k ( h[ all ! v>i\s k9ds ( music are relat$ z reg>ds ! capacities requir$ 9 ea*1 & ( h[ ! viol9i/ may diff] f ! s+]1 & ! drumm] f ! conductor ( an or*e/ra4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,musical ,,tal5t ,s9ce ab\t ! ye> #aiae1 psy*ologi/s h turn$ some:at f ! /udy ( ! nature ( music to ! inve/igation ( ! musical p]son4 ,!y h rais$ ! que/ions3 ,9 :at way does ! musician diff] f o!rs 9 8 psy*ophysical equipm5t8 ,:y are "s p]sons unable to produce or appreciate music8 ,! pursuit ( ^! que/ions l$ imm$iately to an analysis ( musical tal5t1 = x 0 evid5t at once t a great v>iety ( subsidi>y functions contribute to any k9d ( musical p]=mance4 ,^! may fir/ ( all be classifi$ "u ?ree g5]al categories3 7#a7 ! ac\/ic functions1 ! abilities involv$ 9 p]ceiv+ musical s\nds1 7#b7 ! motor functions1 ! abilities involv$ 9 execut+ musical s\nds1 & 7#c7 ! intellectual functions1 ability to int]pret musical compositions1 & to orig9ate new ideas4 ,x is 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,g]many t ! significant /udies ( musical & unmusical p]sons h be5 made4 ,rupp1 ,b]nfield1 ! ,pann5b]gs1 ,rvsz1 ,s*ussl]1 & ,sea%ore & 8 /ud5ts h all made contributions to ! subject4 ,rvsz /udi$ *ildr5 :o 7 extremely gift$ 9 music1 & propos$ t 9 analys+ musical tal5t ! foll[+ abilities mu/ be consid]$3 7#a7 to compose1 7#b7 to reproduce1 7#c7 to he>1 7#d7 to rememb] musical elem5ts1 7#e7 to transpose1 7#f7 to improvise1 7#g7 to modulate1 7#h7 to play at sight4 ,9 addition ,rvsz /ipulat$ t obs]vations mu/ be made ) reg>d to intellig5ce1 int]e/1 & ! 8arti/ic nature0 ( ! *ild4 ,lat]1 9 #aibj1 ,rvsz propos$ eight te/s devis$ = ! id5tification ( ! musical4 ,^! 7 = 7#a7 ! s5se ( rhy?m1 7#b7 absolute pit*1 7#c7 octave recognition & transposition1 7#d7 relative pit*1 7#e7 h>mony1 7#f7 memory ( a melody1 & 7#g7 play+ by e>4 ,! mo/ complete inv5tory ( musical tal5t t has be5 propos$ is t ( ,sea%ore1 :o1 ) 8 num]\s /ud5ts1 has made ! mo/ important contributions 9 ?is field4 ,sea%ore w\ld include te/s ( all ! foll[+ functions 9 ! complete musical psy*ograph3 ,i4 ,musical ,s5sitivity ,a4 ,basic ,capacities #a4 ,s5se ( pit* #b4 ,s5se ( int5sity #c4 ,s5se ( "t #d4 ,s5se ( ext5sity ,b4 ,complex ,capacities #a4 ,s5se ( timbre #b4 ,s5se ( rhy?m #c4 ,s5se ( consonance #d4 ,s5se ( volume ,,ii4 ,musical ,action ,natural capacity = skill 9 accurate & musically expressive production ( tones 7vocal or in/rum5tal or bo?7 9 #a4 ,control ( pit* #b4 ,control ( int5sity #c4 ,control ( "t #d4 ,control ( timbre #e4 ,control ( rhy?m #f4 ,control ( volume ,,iii4 ,musical ,memory & ,imag9ation #a4 ,auditory imag]y #b4 ,motor imag]y #c4 ,creative imag9ation #d4 ,memory span #e4 ,le>n+ p[] ,,iv4 ,musical ,intellect #a4 ,musical free association #b4 ,musical p[] ( reflection #c4 ,g5]al intellig5ce ,v4 ,musical ,feel+ #a4 ,musical ta/e3 likes & dislikes #b4 ,emotional reaction to music #c4 ,emotional self-expression 9 music ,sea%ore has succe$$ 9 devis+1 /&>diz+1 & mak+ available = practical purposes scales ( measurem5t = five ( ! basic capacities ( musical s5sitivity4 ,^! are = pit*1 int5sity1 "t1 consonance1 & tonal memory4 ,rese>* is "u way to br+ ! o!r elem5ts ( musical tal5t simil>ly )9 ! prov9ce ( m5tal measurem5t4 ,attempts to /udy movem5t z an elem5t 9 musical tal5t are exemplifi$ by ! rec5t inve/igations ( ,gatewood & ( ,hans54 ,gatewood /udi$ f+]-movem5t 9 a numb] ( p]sons1 & f\nd t !re exi/ ^? :o1 ev5 ) great am\nts ( practice1 d n approximate ! spe$ & accuracy :i* o!rs %[ on ! fir/ trial4 ,h[ev]1 ! inve/igation ( ! motor elem5ts 9 musical tal5t has n progress$ z yet to a po9t t w\ld enable u to make positive /atem5ts useful to educators2 b x is obvi\s t = guidance !y are fully z important z ! ac\/ic elem5ts are4 ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,among ,,v>i\s ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,musical ,,tal5t ,correlation has prov$ t s5se ( pit* & s5se ( "t are l>gely indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,p]sons may /& high 9 "o & l[ 9 ! o!r4 ,we "k ev5 n[1 !re=e1 t ! elem5ts ( tal5t are indep5d5t or p>tially indep5d5t v>iables1 & t excell5ce 9 "o may be accompani$ by inf]iority 9 ano!r4 ,! successful musician is he :o comb9es ! necess>y elem5ts 9 high degree4 ,mo/ *ildr5 comb9e ! elem5ts 9 mod]ate or typical degrees ( ea*1 & are able to le>n music & enjoy x 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 ,only a few are capable ( becom+ pr(essional p]=m]s4 ,s*ussl] conclud$ t #e to #aj p] c5t ( ! pupils exam9$ by him might be ju/ly classifi$ z unmusical4 ,a simil> p]c5tage w\ld d\btless be classifi$ z v musical1 ( :om a small proportion w\ld be capable ( out/&+ musical a*ievem5t4 ,v4 ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,musical ,,tal5t ,,& ,,g5]al ,,intellig5ce ,x is some:at difficult to comp>e musical tal5t ) g5]al intellig5ce1 )9 a gr\p ( individuals1 by te/1 because ! te/s :i* h be5 devis$ are to an ext5t dep5d5t on intellig5ce = _! execution4 ,9 ord] to p]=m !m1 x is necess>y to foll[ some:at complicat$ directions1 & to d ?is requires ! ex]cise ( intellig5ce4 ,sea%ore's te/s _c be reliably c>ri$ out ) p]sons ^: g5]al intellig5ce level falls bel[ ab\t n9e ye>s4 ,)9 ! range ( intellect :i* is suffici5t = und]/&+ & c>ry+ out ! directions1 musical s5sitivity z reg>ds pit*1 int5sity1 "t1 & consonance %[s no reliable correlation ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,?is is :at we %\ld expect f te/ results1 on ! basis ( ! relation%ips %[n previ\sly betwe5 ability 9 music & ability 9 s*ool "w on ! :ole4 ,= in/ance1 ,s*ussl] f\nd t ( pupils classifi$ by 8 crit]ion 7grades receiv$ 9 s++7 z 8unmusical10 #da p] c5t rea*$ ! grade norms 9 s*ool "w4 ,( ^? classifi$ z 8semi-musical10 #eg p] c5t rea*$ ! norms4 ,( ! 8musical10 #gi p] c5t rea*$ ! normal /atus4 ,! av]age /&+ 9 m>ks ( ! 8musical0 fell #ae p] c5t above t ( ! 8unmusical10 :ile ! 8semi-musical0 %[$ an av]age rat+ #f4f p] c5t high] ?an ! 8unmusical40 ,:5 we consid] t s*ool m>ks 9 s++1 z 9 draw+1 are giv5 n only = musical capacity1 b = a het]og5eity ( factors1 includ+ ef=t1 att5dance1 ability to compreh5d directions1 & s =?1 we %\ld at once expect f ^! figures t by actual te/1 musical ability w\ld be likely to %[ m>k$ indep5d5ce ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,ne>ly half ( ! di/9ctly 8unmusical0 *ildr5 rea*$ or exce$$ ! grade norms1 9 g5]al s*ool "w4 ,?is is n f> f :at is true ( *ildr5 tak5 at r&om1 reg>dless ( musical tal5t4 ,t a disproportionately l>ge numb] ( pupils :o did v good "w 9 music rea*$ or exce$$ ! typical p]=mance 9 s*ool "w on ! :ole1 might be expect$ f ! ext5t to :i* s*ool m>ks 9 music are probably giv5 = g5]al sup]iority ( ! organism1 z sugge/$ above4 ,! pres5t f9d+s f actual te/s ( s5sitivity1 above ! m9imum ( intellect requir$ = c>ry+ out te/ directions1 are t correlations closely approa* z]o z reg>ds musical s5sitivity & g5]al intellig5ce4 ,!re=e1 educators may expect to f9d a numb] ( pupils1 :o fail 9 no?+ b music1 & o!rs :o succe$ 9 no?+ b music4 ,z ,witm] has said1 9 discuss+ ! specialization ( musical gifts1 8,7 society s organiz$ t success 9 life 9 e sph]e ( activity 7 dep5d5t ^u a good en\gh e> to turn a tune1 _m p]sons :o are n[ do+ useful "w 9 ! _w1 w\ld h to be relegat$ to ! class ( imbeciles40 ,9 view ( ! facts1 ! wisdom seems d\btful ( requir+ all tea*]s 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools to qualify 9 s++ be=e be+ c]tifi$1 z is n[ done 9 "s places4 ,!re w be a goodly numb] ( /ud5ts1 9 ! normal s*ools1 :o are fitt$ by orig9al end[m5t to become excell5t tea*]s1 except t !y w nev] be able to s+4 ,9 ! case ( a gift s specializ$1 x seems advisable to h a special tea*] :]ev] possible1 r ?an to disqualify f tea*+ p]sons :o _c s+1 b are o!rwise well fitt$ to educate ! "y4 ,te/s %[ t musical tal5t is specializ$1 b ?is is n to say t em95ce 9 music c be atta9$ by ! /upid4 ,! a*ievem5t ( em95ce 9 any endeavor calls = a grasp ( life situations & a f>sight$ fidelity to su/a9$ ef=t1 :i* are functions ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,also1 = em95ce 9 a musical c>e] ! intellectual functions :i* h to d ) composition & int]pretation are d\btless indisp5sable4 ,a survey ( ! g5]al intellig5ce ( em95t musicians w\ld probably reveal a m$ian well above ! av]age2 & ?is w\ld probably hold true ev5 = s+]s4 ,,vi4 ,,absolute ,,pit* ,by absolute pit* is usually meant ! p[] to recognize a s+le musical note :5 he>d1 )\t comp>ison ) any o!r tone1 ei!r objective or subjective4 ,x seems to be an h]$it>y gift1 & probably _c be acquir$ by tra9+4 7,"s d\bt has1 h[ev]1 be5 rec5tly ca/ ^u ! latt] conclusion by ! rese>*es ( ,g\gh1 :o 0 app>5tly able to educate p]sons 9 ?is respect to a limit$ ext5t47 ,/atem5ts reg>d+ ! frequ5cy ( ^? :o possess ?is idiosyncrasy v>y1 f t ( ,boggs1 :o says t only a few p]sons h ! gift1 to t ( ,sea%ore1 :o decl>es t 8! ability to "n notes ( a famili> key$ in/rum5t on he>+ a s+le tone is r common among tra9$ musicians1 & may %[ itself v e>ly 9 *ildhood40 ,p]haps ! discrepancies ( /atem5t arise ?r\gh lack ( complete agreem5t z to :at %\ld be meant by 8absolute pit*40 ,if ! def9ition is insi/5tly limit$ to t (t5 giv51 namely1 8! p[] to "n a s+le musical note :5 he>d1 )\t comp>ison ) any o!r tone10 !n no d\bt ! gift belongs to v few p1 ev5 ^? o!rwise musically well end[$4 ,sea%ore holds t 9 ^! cases1 x is probably n pit* z su* :i* is recogniz$1 b r ! timbre ( ! note4 8,! timbre ( ! l[ notes is entirely diff]5t f t ( ! high] notes1 & ! evid5ce seems to %[ t x is easi] to rememb] a *>act]i/ic timbre ?an pure pit* 9 itself40 ,! gift ( absolute pit* is a great advantage to a musician4 ,x is includ$ z a valuable asset 9 ! tal5t-inv5tory ( ,rvsz4 ,,vii4 ,,tone ,,deafness ,c]ta9 anomalies ( /ructure 9 ! e> give rise to tonal 8gaps0 & 8isl&s40 ,! e> does n discrim9ate among pit*es1 9 c]ta9 segm5ts ( ! scale = pit*4 ,su* a condition may occur 9 b "o e> ( a giv5 individual1 ! o!r e> !n hid+ ! defect4 ,! *ild :o is ext5sively deaf to tones has1 ( c\rse1 no means1 save ! te/imony ( o!rs1 ( kn[+ :e!r he is or is n s++ prop]ly 7unless he sees 8 s++ on a tonoscope74 ,he _c be taught to s+ 9 key1 because ! receptors :i* w\ld enable him to pr(it by tra9+ are abs5t f ! /ructure ( ! e>4 ,_m a tone-deaf *ild has d\btless suff]$ mu* f p]si/5t1 consci5ti\s ef=ts to make him s+4 ,,viii4 ,,range ,,( ,,individual ,,diff]5ces ,9 a previ\s *apt] x has be5 po9t$ out t quantitative psy*ology is /ill /ruggl+ t[>d ! inv5tion ( scales :i* %all measure m5tal traits 9 t]ms ( units1 e "o ( :i* %all be equal to e o!r1 z e in* is equal to e o!r in*4 ,until ?is is a*iev$1 we _c use 8times z0 comp>isons 9 speak+ ( ! relation ( "o individual to ano!r1 9 respect to a function4 ,we c n[ say t "o p]son is ?ree times z heavy z ano!r p]son1 because we c measure !m 9 p\nds1 ea* "o ( :i* is equal to e o!r4 ,b we _c yet say t "o p]son is ?ree times z intellig5t z ano!r1 because we h n captur$ ! unit :i* w\ld enable u to d s4 ,9 "s ( ! traits :i* g to make up musical tal5t1 x is possible to use ! 8times z0 comp>ison1 because we h physical units :]eby ! diff]5ces may be gaug$4 ,pit*1 = in/ance1 may be measur$ ?us4 ,x dep5ds physically ^u ! frequ5cy ( vibrations1 proce$+ f a s\nd+ /imulus1 & is measurable 9 t]ms ( ! con/ant numb] ( d\ble vibrations p] second4 ,sea%ore has f\nd v>iations 9 p[] ( discrim9ation f "o-f\r? ( a d\ble vibration to fifty d\ble vibrations p] second4 ,?is means t !re exi/ individuals :o are at lea/ two hundr$ times z s5sitive z o!rs to pit*1 9 t]ms ( ! physical unit4 ,o!r elem5ts 9 musical s5sitivity _c be s readily measur$ 9 /imulus units1 s t ! 8times z0 comp>ison _c be made4 ,! great div]sity ( s5sitivity to pit* may1 p]haps1 be reg>d$ z a tok5 ( ! range ( individual diff]5ces 9 musical s5sitivity1 especially s9ce pit* is a fundam5tal capacity4 ,x is probably no exagg]ation to say t1 9 an ord9>y class 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool1 *ildr5 are be+ taught toge!r1 "s ( :om are at lea/ a hundr$ times z musical z o!rs4 ,if *ildr5 ( ! same age diff]$ z mu* f ea* o!r 9 height z !y d 9 s5se ( pit*1 x w\ld be impossible to tea* !m 9 unassort$ gr\ps1 = "s w\ld be two hundr$ times z tall z o!rs4 ,! div]sity 9 m5tal traits1 s mu* great] ?an 9 physical traits1 leaves u complac5t1 = ! eye _c behold ! incongruities1 z x c 9 physical matt]s4 ,! eye _c see ! wa/e ( "t1 ef=t1 & joy :i* foll[s f ! attempt to tra91 equally & toge!r1 *ildr5 ( su* widely diff]+ capacities = le>n+4 ,,ix4 ,,c ,,musical ,,capacity ,,be ,,increas$ ,,by ,,education8 ,musical s5sitivity is inborn1 & probably _c be increas$ 9 any respect by tra9+4 ,if ! v>i\s elem5ts are n pres5t 9 am\nt & comb9ation suitable = a giv5 degree ( a*ievem5t 9 music1 no c\rse ( tra9+ w supply ! lack4 ,?is is n to say t ultimate a*ievem5t1 = ^? :o d possess capacity1 does n dep5d on tra9+4 ,a*ievem5t dep5ds ^u bo? tra9+ & capacity1 b ! latt] _c be suppli$ except by h]$it>y end[m5t4 ,! "q ( improvem5t ?r\gh education becomes especially important 9 a case :]e ! psy*ograph is excell5t1 b = "o elem5t4 ,mu* dep5ds1 ( c\rse1 ^u :at ! inf]ior elem5t is1 & ! degree ( ! inf]iority1 z to :e!r ! p]son w be able to succe$ 9 a giv5 musical c>e]4 ,inf]iorities t appe> 9 capacity = musical action are possibly mu* m susceptible to improvem5t by tra9+ ?an are inf]iorities ( s5sitivity4 ,= example1 !re are p]sons ^: psy*ographs %[ excell5t musical tal5t1 except t !y falt] f ! pit* 9 s++4 ,! voice may be excell5t 9 range1 quality1 & volume1 yet ) a falt] 9 control :i* leads to 8flatt+0 or 8%>p+40 ,?is is a defect 9 musical action1 an inaccuracy ( movem5t4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t ! control ( movem5t is br\ght ab\t n only ?r\gh ! k9/hetic s5sations1 b ?r\gh aid f ! o!r special s5ses z well4 ,vision is a fir/ rate aid to ! acquisition ( motor control4 ,x is a m effici5t aid ?an he>+1 because mu* f9] diff]5ces c be detect$ by vision4 ,! problem1 !n1 9 an endeavor to improve by tra9+ ^? :o 8flat0 or 8%>p10 is to devise "s me?od :]eby visual aid may be adm9i/]$ to control4 ,su* a me?od has be5 f\nd 9 ! tonoscope1 an in/rum5t :i* regi/]s visually e pit* movem5t ( vocal *ords1 or o!r s\nd+ body4 ,practic+ ) ! tonoscope1 ! musician c see :at 8 errors are1 & le>n :at motor reaction w br+ correction4 ,! control ( ! eye is ?us introduc$ into practice1 z x is 9 t5nis1 writ+1 or o!r =m ( precise motor le>n+4 ,s+]s ( all degrees ( tal5t %[ improvem5t 9 pit* aft] practice ) ?is in/rum5t1 & ! improvem5t cont9ues aft] ! in/rum5t has be5 laid aside4 ,! ga9 made ) ! help ( ! eye rema9s 9 motor control1 j z once hav+ le>n$ to write by aid ( ! eye1 we c easily write 9 ! d>k or ) eyes clos$4 ,! susceptibility to improvem5t 9 o!r =ms ( musical action has n be5 %[n exp]im5tally1 ?is :ole field be+ practically un/udi$ z yet by exp]im5tal me?od4 ,x4 ,,! ,,inh]itance ,,( ,,musical ,,tal5t ,! inh]itance ( musical tal5t has be5 inve/igat$ by ,copp & by ,/anton4 ,! latt] has made measurem5ts ( specific musical capacities 9 relatives ( musicians1 us+ ,sea%ore's te/s4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( adequate /udy ( ! inh]itance ( musical tal5t1 z ! me?od1 ?\gh labori\s1 is correct4 ,f\r ( ! ,sea%ore measures ( musical tal5t 7 giv5 to eighty-five memb]s ( six unrelat$ family gr\ps1 />t+ 9 ea* gr\p ) a p]son conspicu\sly kn[n z a musician4 ,^! measurem5ts 7 supplem5t$ by a set que/ionnaire1 cov]+ musical end[m5t1 musical education & tra9+1 musical activity1 musical appreciation1 musical memory & imag9ation1 ! que/ionnaire includ+ a l>g] numb] ( relatives4 ,f ^! data1 a /udy 0 made ( ! t5d5cy ( (fspr+ to be musical or unmusical1 9 accordance ) p>5tage & m remote ance/ry4 ,! results %[ t musical tal5t is inh]it$1 & ! inve/igator believes x n improbable t ! =mula ( inh]itance may be ,m5delian4 ,mu* wid] rese>* w\ld1 h[ev]1 be av[$ly necess>y1 9 ord] to e/abli% ! =mula4 ,x may or may n be ,m5delian4 ,! (fspr+ ( a mat+ ( musical ) unmusical1 ( musical ) musical1 or ( unmusical ) unmusical1 may ?us inh]it f ei!r p>5t or f bo? p>5ts1 & app>5tly )\t reg>d to sex4 ,sex diff]5ces d n appe>1 ei!r1 9 any ( ! te/s ( musical s5sitivity1 :i* h be5 /&>diz$4 ,,xi4 ,,psy*ographic ,,/udy ,,( ,,individuals ,9 ord] to illu/rate concretely ! way 9 :i* musical tal5t may or may n accompany o!r m5tal capacities1 a few psy*ographic /udies ( individuals are pres5t$1 z foll[s4 ,! fir/ is ! psy*ograph ( a girl1 :om we may call ,g1 ag$ #ad ye>s4 ,x %[s h] /atus 9 p]c5tile rat+s1 on v>i\s m5tal & motor te/s4 ,g is ( av]age1 or typical1 g5]al intellig5ce1 ) sup]ior rat+ 9 musical capacity1 & 9 draw+4 ,g 0 br\ght = m5tal te/s because %e did poorly 9 ! s*ool :]e %e 0 att5d+1 receiv+ good m>ks 9 music & draw+ only4 ,! difficulty 9 keep+ up to grade 9 g5]al 0 readily expla9$1 :5 ! facts ( s*ool hi/ory 7 elicit$4 ,g 0 9 a v exclusive private s*ool1 :]e ! m$ian ,,iq ( ! pupils is ab\t #abj1 in/ead ( #ajj z among unselect$ pupils4 ,?is *ild1 on acc\nt ( ! social /atus & educational traditions ( h] fa!r's family1 _h be5 compet+ all h] s*ool life 9 a highly select$ gr\p ( *ildr51 & 0 n[ consid]$ dull by tea*]s1 by p>5ts1 & by h]self4 ,all 7 a/\nd$ to le>n ( ,g's av]age intellectual capacity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,psy*ograph ( ,g1 %[+ special ability 9 music & draw+4 7,p]c5tile values = spe$ 9 tapp+1 & /r5g? ( grip h be5 approximat$ by e/imate47 ,x may be rem>k$ 9 pass+ t ?is is ! s*ool hi/ory ( _m an av]age *ild1 born into a gr\p :]e ! family m$ian is above ! av]age4 ,! problems ( ! son ( an em95t man1 :o fails to inh]it sup]ior end[m5t & is b av]age 9 capacity1 are especially acute1 = he is usually expect$ to und]take tasks = :i* he is unqualifi$ by orig9al nature4 ,! mis]ies ( a boy ( av]age ability1 expect$ f babyhood to pass ?r\gh ,h>v>d or ,yale1 ! di/resses ( a girl ( ord9>y intellig5ce1 de/9$ op5ly f *ildhood = a college ( v high /&>ds1 are peculi>ly poignant to ! p]son :o sees human nature 9 ! light ( all ! facts :i* we h be5 rec\nt+4 ,! case ( ,g1 & scores ( o!rs l x 9 ?is respect1 %\ld lead p>5ts to a policy ( retic5ce conc]n+ _! expectations ( _! *ildr51 until x is c]ta9 t ^! expectations h a *ance ( be+ realiz$4 ,=tunately1 ! great majority ( *ildr5 ( v successful p>5ts nev] h a problem ( ?is k9d1 because ( ! t5d5cy to selective mat+ & ! laws ( h]$ity4 ,mo/ ( ! *ildr5 ( gift$ p>5ts are !mselves suffici5tly gift$ to p]=m ! expect$ tasks z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,n all *ildr5 ( gift$ fa!rs are1 h[ev]1 gift$1 because o!r ance/ors1 "s ( :om may be b av]age p]sons1 are likely to contribute to ! m5tal /atus ( ! *ild4 ,yet accord+ to ! cu/oms ( our c\ntry1 x is usually ! ability ( ! fa!r t det]m9es ! social milieu & ! educational tradition to :i* ! *ildr5 are subject4 ,?us1 ! son ( a corporation lawy]1 :o has inh]it$ ! intellig5ce ( a /upid b h&some gr&mo!r & ! educational traditions ( a brilliant fa!r1 is 9 a sorry plight1 unless ! facts ( human nature are exp]tly & sympa!tically und]/ood 9 8 family4 ,9 ! case ( ,g1 ! special tal5ts 9 draw+ & music1 comb9$ ) av]age intellectual ability1 made x possible to sugge/ v satisfactory adju/m5ts4 ,! idea ( college 0 ab&on$1 & plans 7 made to pursue education 9 art & music1 :i* _h already be5 und]tak5 9 a limit$ way1 ) excell5t success4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( h]$ity1 x is int]e/+ to "k t "o ( ,g's gr&fa!rs1 a *emi/ by pr(ession1 play$ a *ur* organ e ,sabba? z a recreation1 & sp5t leisure h\rs mak+ draw+s1 _m ( :i* are /ill kept z ornam5ts4 ,! psy*ograph ( ,m %[s special defect 9 musical capacity1 comb9$ ) v sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce4 ,m1 a s*oolboy1 0 rec5tly br\ght = m5tal te/s at ! age ( #aj ye>s1 because ( disagreem5t among 8 tea*]s z to 8 m5tal ability4 ,! regul> classroom tea*] believ$ ,m %\ld be giv5 a d\ble promotion because ( 8 brilliant "w 9 read+1 ari?metic1 & elem5t>y sci5ce4 ,! tea*] ( music held t he %\ld repeat ! "w ( ! grade 9 :i* he !n 01 z an utt] failure f h] po9t ( view4 ,! %op tea*] took a midway position1 say+ t 8 "w seem$ fair1 & w>rant$ promotion1 b no m1 to ! grade above1 9 due ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,psy*ograph ( ,m1 %[+ special defect 9 music1 comb9$ ) v sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce4 ,m's psy*ograph expla9s ! diff]5ces ( op9ion ?us express$ by tea*]s4 ,x is se5 t 9 intellect he ranks well up 9 ! top p]c5tile ( all *ildr5 born1 :ile 9 musical capacities he ranks 9 ! l[] p]c5tiles4 ,! difficulties 9 %op "w arose f ! fact t ,m is left-h&$1 & 0 at t "t be+ tra9$ into "r-h&$ness by ! tea*]s4 ,?is made him awkw>d 9 %op "w1 :i* he cordially dete/$4 ,m's ,,iq is #aea1 :i* acc\nts = 8 sup]iority 9 read+1 sci5ce1 & ari?metic4 ,he w n be able to le>n music1 or to appreciate x1 & to deprive him ( 8 d\ble promotion on ?is acc\nt seems contr>y to 8 be/ int]e/s4 ,,xii4 ,,capacity ,,to ,,appreciate ,,music ,?\gh x is probably true t ^? :o c produce good music usually appreciate music also1 ! rev]se ne$ n be true4 ,!re are _m :o are s5sitive to music & are greatly satisfi$ by x1 :o h n ! ability to become musicians4 ,music z taught 9 ! s*ools is conc]n$ *iefly ) le>n+ to s+4 ,x w\ld seem t "s "t might pr(itably be devot$ to he>+ good music1 & le>n+ to =m pref]5ces4 ,! ke5 satisfaction :i* comes to ! extremely s5sitive has be5 express$ by "s ( !m 9 words4 ,s*umann said ( ano!r musician1 8,he :o has once he>d ,h5selt c nev] =get 8 play+2 ^! pieces /ill haunt my memory l ! recollection ( a p>t]re ( fl[]s40 ,& aga91 8,! veil$ enjoym5t ( music :i* "o does n he>1 has some?+ magical 9 x40 ,b]lioz has giv5 u ?is glimpse ( 8 delight3 8,la/ night ,i dreamt ( music1 ?is morn+ ,i recall$ x all & fell into "o ( ^? sup]nal ec/asies4444 ,believe me1 de> fri5d1 ! be+ :o c\ld write su* miracles ( transc5dant melody w\ld be m ?an mortal40 ,/anton que/ion$ ! tal5t$ & untal5t$ relatives ( musicians z to ! rle play$ by music 9 _! daily lives4 ,_m %[+ sup]ior tal5t report$ t music 9 "s =m seem$ vital to _! program ( liv+4 ,x 0 ref]r$ to by !m z 8a daily relaxation f bus9ess10 8a great s\rce ( c\rage1 a spiritual tonic10 & z 8absolutely p>am\nt40 ,"o p]son us$ ! ^w 8hung]10 9 describ+ ! long+ :i* ensu$ ^u be+ depriv$ ( music4 ,!re may be p capable ( su* satisfaction 9 music1 t !y w\ld *oose betwe5 bread & music1 if h>d put to x1 n )\t a /ruggle4 ,,ref]5ces ,,agnew1 ,m4--8,! ,auditory ,imag]y ( ,great ,compos]s02 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,/udies1 #h4 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,b]nfield1 ,s4--8,zur ,psy*ologie d] ,unmusikalis*502 ,ar*ives fr das gesammte ,psy*ologie1 #aiae4 ,,boggs1 ,l4--8,/udies 9 ,absolute ,pit*02 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 #aijg4 ,,copp1 ,e4 ,f4--8,musical ,ability02 ,j\rnal ( ,h]$ity1 #aiaf4 ,,edgr51 ,j4 ,g4--8,amusie 7,musikalis*e ,aphasie702 ,deuts*e ,zeits*rift fr ,n]v5heilkunde1 #ahid4 ,,gatewood1 ,e4 ,l4--8,individual ,diff]5ces 9 ,f+] ,reaction02 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibj4 ,,gaw1 ,e4 ,a4--8,a ,survey ( ,musical ,tal5t 9 a ,music ,s*ool02 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,/udies1 #h4 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,gaw1 ,e4 ,a4--8,"s ,individual ,difficulties 9 ! ,/udy ( ,music02 ,j\rnal ( ,educational ,rese>*1 #aibb4 ,,hans51 ,c4 ,f4--8,s]ial ,action z a ,basic ,measure ( ,motor ,capacity02 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,/udies1 #h4 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,knock1 ,c4 ,j4--8,visual ,tra9+ ( ! ,pit* ( ! ,voice02 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,/udies1 #h4 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,kries1 ,j4 ,,von--8,ueb] das absolut ,gehr02 ,zeits*rift fr ,psy*ologie1 #aijg4 ,,lee1 ,v4--8,v>ieties ( ,musical ,exp]i5ce02 ,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 #aiah4 ,,pann5b]g1 ,h4 ,j41 & ,w4 ,a4--8,die ,psy*ologie des ,musik]s02 ,zeits*rift fr ,psy*ologie1 #aiae4 ,,platt1 ,w4--,*ild ,music2 ,simpk9s1 ,london1 #aije4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,prfung d] ,musikalitt02 ,zeits*rift fr ,psy*ologie1 #aibj4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,das musikalis*e ,wund]k9d02 ,zeits*rift fr pdagogis*e ,psy*ologie1 #aiah4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--,nyviegyhazi3 ,psy*ologis*e ,analyse e9es musikalis* h]vorrag5d5 ,k9des2 ,veit u4 ,co41 ,leipzig1 #aiaf4 ,,ri*et1 ,c4--8,note sur un rem>quable prcocit musicale02 ,congrs ,int]nationale de ,psy*ologie1 #aija4 ,,rupp1 ,h4--8,ueb] die ,prfung musikalis*] ,fhigkeit502 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aiad4 ,,s*ussl]1 ,h4--8,das unmusikalis*e ,k9d02 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,psy*ologie1 #aiaf4 ,,sea%ore1 ,c4 ,e4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,musical ,tal5t2 ,silv]1 ,burdett & ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,/anton1 ,h4 ,m4--8,! ,inh]itance ( ,special ,musical ,capacities02 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,/udies1 #h4 ,psy*ological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,miscellane\s ,i4 ,,special ,,functions ,,:i* ,,h ,,n ,,be5 ,,long ,,/udi$ ,!re are v>i\s m5tal functions :i* are n[ ?\ght to be l>gely special1 :i* h n yet be5 /udi$ suffici5tly to w>rant ext5d$ discussion ( ea*1 yet :i* m]it notice z su* if = no o!r reason ?an t att5tion %\ld be direct$ to ! desirability ( /udy+ _! place 9 intellectual organization4 ,"s ( ^!1 l *ess-play+1 w n be discuss$ "h1 z !y are at pres5t b remotely connect$ ) prescrib$ education4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 comm5t ^u b "s ( ^!1 giv+ su* facts & !ories z are available 9 ! case ( ea*4 ,,ii4 ,,left-,,h&$ness ,! h& is rat$ by /ud5ts ( ! hi/ory ( civilization z "o ( ! mo/ important det]m9ants ( man's rise f savag]y4 ,! loss ( ev5 a f+] is a h&icap recogniz$ 9 su* times ( /ress1 z :5 m5 are draft$ = w>4 ,) ! great majority ( p1 ! two h&s are unequal 9 /r5g? & accuracy1 ! "r be+ ! major memb]4 ,) a small m9ority ( *ildr5 !re is1 h[ev]1 a pr$isposition to use ! left h&1 in/ead ( ! "r h&1 z ! major memb]4 ,?is is a special condition :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt by educators4 ,accord+ to diff]5t inve/igators1 ! proportion ( left-h&$ *ildr5 ranges f #b to #f p] c5t4 ,! disagreem5ts arise f ! v>iety ( crit]ia us$ & ( populations sampl$4 ,! m$ian figure ( #d p] c5t seems1 = sev]al reasons mo/ probable1 z ! g5]al proportion ( left-h&$ness4 ,_m !ories z to ! orig9 ( h&$ness h be5 =mulat$4 ,x has be5 argu$ t h&$ness is n innate1 b acquir$ f ! "m's habitual me?od ( c>ry+ ! infant on "o arm r ?an on ! o!r1 s t "o ( its arms is p9ion$ aga9/ ! "m habitually1 & gets comp>atively little ex]cise4 ,! !ory has be5 advanc$ t s9ce ! he>t is ! mo/ vital organ ( ! body1 & is locat$ on ! left side1 ! %ield to protect x 0 held by ! left h&1 p]mitt+ ! "r h& to atta9 great] dext]ity ) ! spe>1 ! advantage ?us acquir$ be+ transmitt$ to (fspr+4 ,also1 x has be5 propos$ t ! c5t] ( gravity ( ! visc]a1 ! position ( ! subclavian art]ies1 c]ebral asymmetry1 & great] blood supply to "o c]ebral hemisph]e may be1 respectively1 ! orig9 ( h&$ness4 ,all ( ^! !ories are unsatisfactory1 = reasons :i* h be5 well /at$ by ! orig9al inve/igators4 ,!re rema9s to be consid]$ ! proposal t h&$ness is det]m9$ by ocul> dom9ance4 ,! "r eye is ! bett] see+ eye 9 ab\t #if p] c5t ( p4 ,z vision develops long be=e muscul> cord9ation 9 ! infant1 ! proposal is t ! h& is br\ght to cop]ate ) ! dom9ant eye4 ,! dispro( ( ?is !ory is t among ! cong5itally bl9d ! proportion ( "r-h&$ to left-h&$ is n mat]ially diff]5t f t among see+ p]sons4 ,! orig9 ( h&$ness is1 !re=e1 n und]/ood1 & x is n kn[n :y ab\t #d p] c5t ( ! population %\ld %[ dom9ance ( ! left h&4 ,x mu/ be consid]$ t h&$ness is ( _m degrees1 f extreme "r-h&$ness1 ?r\gh ambidext]ity1 to extreme left-h&$ness4 ,all "r-h&$ p]sons are n equally "r-h&$1 & all left-h&$ p]sons are n equally left-h&$4 ,tru/wor?y /udies ( ! h]$ity ( h&$ness indicate t x is inh]it$4 ,ramaley /udi$ #faj p>5ts & #aacj *ildr51 & arriv$ at ! conclusion t left-h&$ness is inh]it$ 7z a ,m5delian recessive71 & is pot5tial 9 ab\t "o-six? ( ! population4 ,x is obvi\s t mod]n appliances are adapt$ to ! "r-h&$1 & t "r-h&$ness is reg>d$ g5]ally z 8! way to be40 ,tea*]s & p>5ts feel x _! duty to compel ! *ild to use ! "r h&4 ,/udies ( left-h&$ *ildr5 :o h be5 8*ang$ ov]0 ?r\gh education or accid5t to ! "r h&1 & ( "r-h&$ *ildr5 *ang$ ov] ?r\gh accid5t to ! left h&1 lead to ! conclusion t among !m !re is m n]v\sness & a great] numb] ( spee* defects ?an w\ld be all[$ by ! usual c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,/amm]+ is evid5tly a complication 9 "s cases ( modifi$ h&$ness4 ,! physiology ( ?is connection is obscure4 ,9 view ( ! fact t spee* defects occur to s great an ext5t 9 8*ang+ ov]10 & t we d n "k ! physiology ( h&$ness1 x seems by all means wise/ n to try to modify h&$ness :]e x is v pron\nc$4 ,a v "r-h&$ p]son1 =tunate 9 be+ ) ! majority1 may1 by us+ = a week 8 left h& in/ead ( 8 "r1 get an idea ( :at is suff]$ by a v left-h&$ *ild be+ compell$ to use ! "r h&4 ,x has be5 report$ t !re is an undue proportion ( left-h&$ p]sons among crim9als1 m5tal defectives1 & ! insane4 ,^! reports require c>eful v]ification4 ,crim9als1 m5tal defectives1 & ! insane h be5 mu* m c>efully scrut9iz$ ?an h ! sup]ior 9 intellect & "*1 or ev5 ?an ! av]age population4 ,! pres5t writ] has1 dur+ rec5t surveys1 notic$ left-h&$ p]=mance repeat$ly 9 v gift$ *ildr51 b has n comput$ ! proportion4 ,until fur!r scrut9ies h be5 made1 x _c be said positively t left-h&$ness is correlat$ ) organic inf]iority4 ,p]fectly satisfactory te/s ( h&$ness h n yet be5 agre$ ^u4 ,jones propos$ "s ye>s ago to measure cong5ital h&$ness by means ( a bra*iomet]4 ,?is is an in/rum5t = measur+ ! bones ( ! =e>m1 & by its use ,jones hop$ to detect h&$ness 8at ! mom5t ( bir?0 z well z on any subsequ5t day ( life4 ,^! hopes h n be5 realiz$ 9 ! f9d+s ( o!rs :o h giv5 ! me?od fair trial1 z ,beeley did4 ,tapp+1 ) ! wri/ movem5t1 tapp+ ) f+]s1 trac+1 spontane\s rubb+1 ?r[+ & pick+ up1 w9d+1 & cutt+ ) scissors are ! mo/ promis+ among te/s s f> tri$ out1 to discov] :e!r a *ild is cong5itally left-h&$4 ,gripp+1 z ) ! dynamomet]1 does n seem to correlate s well ) kn[n facts1 z d ! o!r te/s ( movem5t4 ,left-h&$ness z an elem5t 9 individuality becomes conspicu\s 9 s*ool proc$ure especially 9 writ+1 draw+1 %op "w1 or any "w :]e ! h& is an important factor 9 ! p]=mance4 ,x may become conspicu\s 9 vocational endeavor1 ei!r z an asset or a h&icap4 ,9 a few k9ds ( p]=mance1 su* z baseball or t5nis1 left-h&$ness gives an advantage1 all o!r ?+s be+ equal4 ,9 mo/ pr(essional pursuits 7) ! possible exception ( d5ti/ry & surg]y because ( manufactur$ appliances7 left-h&$ness is a matt] ( indiff]5ce4 ,9 "w ) ma*9es left-h&$ness is likely to be a h&icap1 because ma*9es are 8"r-h&$40 ,ev5 scissors1 eggbeat]s1 typewrit]s1 & o!r common appliances ( (fice & home are 8"r-h&$40 ,left-h&$ness z a h&icap 9 ! abs5ce ( rational consid]ation ( x1 is illu/rat$ 9 an extreme fa%ion by ! case ( a "y pickpocket1 rem&$ = m5tal exam9ation ^u second (f5se4 ,?is boy 0 ( av]age g5]al intellig5ce1 extremely left-h&$1 & a /amm]]4 ,he _h left s*ool z soon z ! law all[$1 ) a record ( *ronic truancy beh9d him4 ,he expla9$ t he _h always 8hat$ s*ool10 because ! tea*]s tri$ to make him "r-h&$1 & because he 0 s a%am$ ( 8 /amm]+4 ,obta9+ 8 work+ pap]s1 he _h fir/ tri$ factory "w1 b ! ma*9es 7 all "r-h&$4 ,he _h !n tak5 8a job0 z an (fice boy1 b he _h to ab&on t because he c\ld n adequately answ] ! telephone1 or conv]se ) ^? :o que/ion$ him4 ,be+ 8fir$10 he f\nd a place z pack] ( *9a 9 a dep>tm5t /ore1 b _h a fight ) a fell[ work]1 :o mimick$ him1 & 0 dismiss$4 ,soon !reaft]1 ne$+ money1 he saw an opportunity to ab/ract a purse f a conv5i5t pocket1 & did s4 ,! success ( ?is v5ture l$ to o!rs l x1 until he 0 appreh5d$ & s5t to ! re=matory4 ,hav+ s]v$ 8 "t1 he came out ) ?is record add$ to 8 orig9al difficulties1 & drift$ aga9 into pick+ pockets4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is boy %[s ! adaptation to social environm5t ( an organism /ruggl+ by trial & error me?ods1 )\t rational guidance4 ,a left-h&$ man c pick pockets z well z anyone else 7p]haps bett]71 & spee* defect is "h no h9drance1 s9ce p]fect sil5ce is obs]v$ 9 su* pursuits4 ,?is boy might h _h a v diff]5t c>e] if s*ool & society _h giv5 a diff]5t k9d ( consid]ation to 8 individuality4 ,,iii4 ,,mirror ,,writ+ ,a c]ta9 numb] ( *ildr51 v>i\sly e/imat$1 write backw>ds1 beg9n+ at ! "r ( ! page4 ,?is is call$ 8mirror writ+10 & is app>5tly a function ( left-h&$ness4 ,baldw9's description is succ9ct4 8,mirror writ+ is ! =m ( inscription :i* arises f trac+ words ) ! left h& by an exact r$uplication ( ! movem5ts ( ! "r h&1 9 a symmetrical way f ! c5tral po9t 9 front ( ! body1 out t[>d ! left4 ,x produces a =m ( rev]s$ writ+ :i* _c be read until x is se5 9 a mirror4 ,_m left-h&$ *ildr5 t5d to write 9 ?is way4 ,"s adults1 on tak+ a p5 to write ) ! left h&1 f9d !y c write only 9 ?is way4 ,ev5 ^?1 l myself1 to :om ! movem5ts seem1 :5 ?\ght ( 9 visual t]ms1 q confus+ & impossible1 yet f9d :5 !y try to write ) bo? h&s toge!r1 9 ! air1 f a c5tral po9t "r & left1 t ! left h& mirror writ+ movem5ts are v natural & easy40 ,beeley conduct$ a survey1 by que/ionnaire address$ to tea*]s1 ( ! preval5ce ( mirror writ]s 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools ( ,*icago4 ,he ?us f\nd "o mirror writ] to e #bejj *ildr54 ,gordon by actual te/s ( writ+ f\nd a l>g] proportion ( mirror writ]s1 ab\t "o-half ( "o p] c5t4 ,among feeble-m9d$ *ildr5 9 special s*ools ! p]c5tage appe>s to be mu* great]1 9 fact1 ab\t sev5te5 times z great1 accord+ to ,gordon's f9d+s4 ,all inve/igators agree t mirror writ]s are almo/ always left-h&$ by te/1 ?\gh ! writ+ may be done ) ! left h&1 or ) ! "r4 ,z to ! h& us$ 9 produc+ ! writ+ !re is disagreem5t among inve/igators4 ,gordon f\nd t 8! mirror writ]s 7 ne>ly always left-h&$ *ildr5 :o wrote ) ! "r h&40 ,beeley says3 8,all ( ! mirror writ]s write mirror-wise ) ! left h&4 ,! only in/ances ( "r-h& mirror writ+ f\nd 7 a few upp]-grade pupils :o hav+ se5 ?is k9d ( writ+ naturally execut$ by mirror writ]s1 attempt$ to imitate ! same40 ,! orig9 ( mirror writ+ is n fully expla9$ z yet4 ,x is probably ! natural mode = left-h&$ p]sons1 z attempts to write ) bo? h&s indicate4 ,yet n all left-h&$ p]sons acquire ?is habit4 ,obvi\sly ! mirror writ] is n correct$ 9 8 fault by notice ( ! discrepancies betwe5 ! visual & ! motor4 ,x may be t ^? left-h&$ *ildr5 :o become mirror writ]s are usually defici5t 9 visual p]ception ( lett]s or words1 or g5]ally defici5t4 ,t !re are1 h[ev]1 bright *ildr5 :o =m ?is habit is %[n by ! surveys made4 ,samples ( mirror writ+ by s*ool *ildr5 are %[n 9 ,figure #bg4 ,9 ord] to correct ! difficulty1 visual control ( movem5t mu/ be cultivat$4 ,attempts to correct by *ang+ ov] to ! "r h& are injudici\s1 = ! reasons cit$ "u ! discussion ( left-h&$ness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,%[+ mirror writ+ by public s*ool pupils4 7,f ,beeley's ,an ,exp]im5tal ,/udy ( ,left-,h&$ness4 ,reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press47 ,9 secur+ ! control ( visual p]ception & imag]y1 x is well to h ! *ild write sl[ly & c>efully f a copy1 n be+ all[$ = "s "t to write spontane\sly4 ,at fir/1 p>ticul>ly1 ! tea*] may guide ! *ild's h&s & urge him to notice 9 detail h[ ano!r writes4 ,( c\rse1 ! be/ educational treatm5t is t :i* nev] p]mits ! developm5t ( ! habit 9 ! fir/ place4 ,?is c\ld be accompli%$ by c>eful wat*+ ( all left-h&$ *ildr51 at ! v beg9n+ ( _! attempts to le>n to write4 ,z ea* lett] & figure is taught = ! fir/ "t1 ! *ild ^: natural impulse is to rev]se x c\ld be made consci\s ( 8 error1 & c\ld be drill$ 9 ! cord9ations ( h& & eye :i* produce ! correct response4 ,9 ! v l>ge beg9n]s' classes :i* are cu/om>y 9 ! public s*ools1 su* c>eful att5tion to ! ne$s ( individuals is "h1 z 9 o!r respects1 difficult to give4 ,,iv4 ,,me*anical ,,ability ,9 #aiae ,/5qui/1 ,?orndike1 & ,trabue1 work+ ) dep5d5t *ildr5 9 a c\nty ( ,new ,york ,/ate1 us$ te/s ( v>i\s m5tal functions1 includ+ a te/ ( ability to put simple me*anisms toge!r4 ,^! correlations %[$ t :]eas te/s ( ability to h&le language & te/s ( g5]al intellig5ce 7,b9et-,simon7 gave positive coeffici5ts z high z 4#ij1 ! te/ ( me*anical ability yield$ a coeffici5t mu* l[]1 :5 correlat$ ) ^!4 ,!y !re=e sugge/$ t me*anical +5uity might be a relatively specializ$ =m ( capacity1 n reliably pr$ictable f k ( g5]al intellig5ce4 ,subsequ5tly1 "o ( ^! inve/igators1 ,/5qui/1 made ext5d$ te/s1 & /&>diz$ a measur+ scale to gauge me*anical ability4 ,measur+ individuals = g5]al intellig5ce & = me*anical ability1 a positive coeffici5t ( correlation am\nt+ to ab\t 4#dj is ord9>ily obta9$4 ,?is relation%ip is obvi\sly n close4 ,ability to put me*anisms toge!r is n reliably pr$ictable f /atus 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,! *ances are1 h[ev]1 t a pupil :o is sup]ior 9 g5]al intellig5ce w score high] 9 me*anical ability1 ?an a g5]ally /upid pupil w score4 ,!re is no negative or comp5satory relation betwe5 ! two functions1 z is sometimes assum$4 ,wid] /udies1 includ+ te/s ( le>n+ me*anical processes1 w give fur!r light ^u ! ext5t to :i* ability to deal ) concrete me*anisms coh]es ) g5]al intellig5ce1 & to :at ext5t compreh5sion ( me*anical pr9ciples is s correlat$4 ,x may be t ! correlation betwe5 p]=mances 9 ,/5qui/'s te/s & 9 te/s l ^? us$ to measure g5]al intellig5ce is r$uc$ ?r\gh factors l selective att5tion op]at+ ov] a p]iod ( ye>s4 ,x may be t ! relatively un9tellig5t become relatively m pr(ici5t 9 concrete acts1 l assembl+ a bicycle bell or putt+ a lock toge!r1 because !y h n ! degree ( intellig5ce t w\ld enable !m to pref] read+ z an activity4 ,?us :5 #dj fifte5-ye>-old boys1 #bj ( :om h ,,iq's 7,/an=d-,b9et7 f #aej to #agj1 & #bj ( :om h ,,iq's f #ij to #ajj1 are fac$ ) a s]ies ( tasks simil> to ^? m5tion$ above1 ^? ( l[] ,,iq might conceivably produce a record equal to or surpass+ t ( ! fir/ gr\p1 because _! ability _h enabl$ !m to practice only tasks at a comp>atively l[ level ( g5]al capacity4 ,) an equal am\nt ( att5tion to ^! matt]s1 n previ\sly ( mu* int]e/ to !m1 ! boys ( #aej to #agj ,,iq might surpass _! competitors greatly4 ,9 a te/ ( cake-bak+1 a hundr$ h\sewives1 select$ at r&om on a giv5 date1 w surpass ! hundr$ mo/ em95t m5 ( sci5ce2 b n aft] bo? gr\ps h att5d$ to ! matt] = an equal l5g? ( "t4 ,! te/s ( me*anical ability d n z yet elim9ate ! influ5ce ( me*anical int]e/ ^u ! outcome ( ! te/4 ,extremely high intellig5ce may well be relatively little int]e/$ 9 concrete mat]ials & processes1 pref]r+ to manipulate ideas4 ,?us on a giv5 date l[] intellig5ce1 long act+ on t level1 may surpass4 ,yet ! high] ,,iq may really be capable "u inc5tive1 ( surpass+ 9 "w ) ?+s z well z 9 "w ) ideas4 ,te/s ( le>n+ me*anical processes w\ld1 !re=e1 be a mo/ valuable supplem5t to :at has already be5 done 9 ?is field4 ,great inv5tors ( me*anical devices are probably1 z a gr\p1 v f> above ! av]age 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,?is /atem5t _c be made ) positive c]ta9ty1 z ! g5]al intellig5ce ( a l>ge numb] ( inv5tors has nev] be5 measur$4 ,x re/s only on d$uction f ! fact t inv5tion evid5tly calls = a high degree ( selective ?9k+1 & ( int]e/ 9 problem situations4 ,ev5 8inv5tion by accid5t0 :i* may occasionally occur1 calls = a high degree ( ability to 8notice0 a new elem5t 9 ! famili> situation1 9 relation to o!r elem5ts4 ,v4 ,,ability ,,to ,,lead ,,& ,,h&le ,,p ,x has be5 sugge/$ t executive ability1 9 ! s5se ( ability to deal effectively ) human relation%ips1 is specializ$2 t x is n closely correlat$ ) ,,iq4 ,v few quantitative /udies ( ! matt] h be5 und]tak51 l>gely because ( ! lack ( means to gauge objectively 8ability to h&le p40 ,x is true t !re exi/ p]sons ^: ability to deal effectively ) human relation%ips has /ood ! te/ ( life--executives 9 pr(essional bodies1 9 bus9ess1 & 9 gov]nm5t4 ,^! p]sons h n1 h[ev]1 be5 subject$ to m5tal exam9ation4 ,_! "t is s valuable t inve/igators p]haps hesitate to encroa* ^u x4 ,ev5 if ?is c\ld be done1 we %\ld nev]!less lack prop] data = correlational /udy4 ,we %\ld also ne$ to "k h[ _m p]sons ( an equal degree ( intellig5ce _h fail$ to succe$ z executives4 ,?is w\ld be difficult to discov]4 ,t]man has giv5 u a few facts1 f 8 /udies ( sup]ior *ildr51 :i* t5d to indicate ! relation betwe5 lead]%ip & intellig5ce1 9 *ildhood4 ,accord+ to tea*]s' judgm5ts ( lead]%ip1 *ildr5 ( ov] #abj ,,iq are mu* (t5] lead]s ?an *ildr5 ( less intellig5ce are1 & !y are usually well lik$ by o!r *ildr51 ev5 :5 n designat$ z lead]s4 ,v few *ildr5 ov] #abj ,,iq are judg$ by tea*]s to be 8unpopul>40 ,f obs]vations ( ! frequ5cy ) :i* *ildr5 ( high ,,iq are lead]s ( o!r *ildr51 ! pres5t writ] suspects t !re is an optimum range ( ,,iq1 )9 :i* popul> lead]%ip is extremely frequ5t1 b above :i* x is v improbable4 ,! optimum range = lead]%ip appe>s to fall betwe5 #aaj & #acj1 :5 ! total gr\p has a m$ian ,,iq ( #ajj4 ,*ildr5 ( ,,iq ov] #afj seem to h little *ance ( lead+ _! fell[ *ildr51 :5 ! m$ian ,,iq ( ! gr\p is #ajj4 ,*ildr5 ( ,,iq ov] #ahj h almo/ no *ance1 9 ! obs]vations ( ! pres5t writ]1 to be popul> lead]s4 ,( ! f\r ,new ,york *ildr51 previ\sly m5tion$ 9 o!r *apt]s1 measur+ ov] #ahj ,,iq 7,/an=d-,b9et71 only "o is an organiz] ( fell[ *ildr51 be+ designat$ by h] tea*]s z 8! mo/ popul> *ild 9 ! s*ool40 ,?is *ild functions z lead] ( a gr\p ( highly select$ *ildr51 ) a m$ian ,,iq ( ne> #abj4 ,9 a gr\p ( unselect$ *ildr5 %e probably c\ld n a*ieve lead]%ip1 al?\gh highly end[$ ) physical & temp]am5tal traits :i* favor lead]%ip4 ,:y %\ld too mu* intellig5ce militate aga9/ ! a*ievem5t ( popul> lead]%ip8 ,x is cle> t 9 ord] to organize & lead o!rs1 ! individual mu/ compreh5d & %>e ! int]e/s ( ^? l$1 & mu/ 9 turn be und]/ood by !m4 ,he mu/ n consid] _! pursuits to be fatu\s & )\t sub/ance4 ,!y mu/ n reg>d 8 int]e/s z ecc5tric & unfa?omable4 ,also1 he mu/ n exp]i5ce too ke5ly ! impact ( ! conflict+ conations ( ^? ab\t him4 ,to p]ceive & to exp]i5ce too %>ply ! disappo9tm5ts1 misde$s1 puni%m5ts1 & aspirations ( o!rs t5d to disqualify = executive lead]%ip4 ,! *ild ( ,,iq ov] #afj t5ds to fall above ! optimum range = lead]%ip1 = all ( ^! reasons1 9 gr\ps ( unselect$ *ildr54 ,he is n int]e/$ 9 mumble-!-peg4 ,!y are n int]e/$ 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,8 int]e/s are ^? ( p]sons f> beyond 8 age & size4 ,b !y w n accept 8 lead]%ip because he does n 8look l0 a fitt+ capta9 = !m4 ,?us only 9 v highly select$ gr\ps c su* a *ild a*ieve lead]%ip1 t is1 9 gr\ps :i* approximate 8 own ,,iq4 ,too mu* intellig5ce ?us t5ds to disqualify = executive lead]%ip4 ,! mo/ intellig5t p]sons born w usually be f\nd lead+ only highly select$ gr\ps4 ,too little intellig5ce also und\bt$ly t5ds to disqualify4 ,x w be a nice problem to det]m9e exp]im5tally j :at may be ! optimum range ( ,,iq = lead]%ip ( typical p]sons4 ,correlation is1 ( c\rse1 r$uc$ by ! v>i\s influ5ces :i* we h be5 discuss+4 8,social intellig5ce0 is 9 all probability n a specializ$ capacity1 b m]ely an optimum section ( ! g5]al intellig5ce curve 7det]m9$ by ratio to ! m$ian intellig5ce ( ! l$71 comb9$ ) c]ta9 am\nts ( physical & temp]am5tal traits4 ,^! temp]am5tal & physical traits are extremely important4 ,! flighty1 ! un5?usia/ic1 ! %y1 ! ov]be>+1 ! ung5]\s1 ! irritable are n well fitt$ to organize & lead1 ev5 :5 _! intellig5ce is optimum4 ,likewise1 ! small1 ! commonplace 9 color+1 ! undi/+ui%$ 9 features1 ! ill-kempt1 ! %rill ( voice1 are h&icapp$ by _! physical *>act]i/ics4 ,! executive lead] is he :o comb9es optimum intellig5ce ) en?usiasm1 g5]osity1 *e]fulness1 & o!r favorable temp]am5tal traits 9 ! optimum degree1 & :o is l>ge1 =ceful 9 mann] & voice1 & di/+ui%$ 9 cont\r & color+4 ,facility 9 h&l+ p & gett+ _! allegiance1 is due1 !re=e1 to total p]sonality1 m5tal & physical1 ( :i* intellect is b "o det]m9ant4 ,correlations betwe5 executive ability & g5]al intellig5ce w ?us be greatly r$uc$ f unity1 because temp]am5t & physique are f> f p]fectly correlat$ ) g5]al intellig5ce4 ,,ref]5ces ,,beeley1 ,a4 ,l4--,an ,exp]im5tal ,/udy ( ,left-,h&$ness2 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press1 #aiah4 ,,d[ney1 ,j4 ,e4--8,on ! ,read+ & ,writ+ ( ,mirror ,script02 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aiad4 ,,gordon1 ,h4--8,left-,h&$ness & ,mirror ,writ+1 ,especially among ,defective ,*ildr502 ,bra91 #aiba4 ,,g[91 ,e4 ,b4--,! ,executive & ,8 ,control ( ,m52 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,,/5qui/1 ,j4 ,l4--,/5qui/ ,assembl+ ,te/s ( ,g5]al ,me*anical ,ability2 ,bo>d ( ,education1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,taussig1 ,f4 ,w4--,inv5tors & ,money ,mak]s2 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,intellig5ce & ,its ,uses02 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e1 #aibj4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,individuality ,,& ,,education ,i4 ,,! ,,values ,,( ,,individuality ,if we try to imag9e :at ! _w w\ld be l if !re 7 absolute uni=mity among human be+s1 we realize anew ! preci\s wor? ( individuality4 ,x is m>vel\s t ea* "o ( u is unique4 ,9 all ! g5]ations !re has nev] be5 ano!r j l anyone1 & !re w nev] be exactly 8 l aga94 ,ea* is1 /rictly speak+1 irreplaceable4 ,by ?is inexhau/ible div]sity ( m9d & body life is facet$1 & gives (f sp>kle in/ead ( dullness4 ,s f> f be+ irritat$ by ! idiosyncracies ( our fell[s1 we ought to *]i% _! v>iety z a ?+ t makes life wor? liv+4 ,in/ead ( /riv+ to =ce all *ildr5 to le>n ! same ?+s1 at ! same "t1 9 ! same way1 because t w\ld be *eap & conv5i5t1 we ought to fo/] individuality 9 its socially valuable aspects1 s t ! *>m ( human contact may be increas$4 ,to ! connoisseur ( human nature1 ! sugge/ion t all *ildr5 be r$uc$ to simil>ity is z dreadful z ! sugge/ion to ! connoisseur ( art t all pictures & intaglios be turn$ out id5tical1 by a uni=m factory process4 ,nor is ! value ( individuality limit$ to ! /hetics ( p]sonality1 & to social int]c\rse4 ,! economic peculi>ities ( ! _w1 z we h x1 p]mit ! ex]cise ( abilities 9 great v>iety4 ,organiz$ society ne$s & w use capacity ( all degrees1 f t ( a man :o c load s& on a c>ri]1 & be satisfi$ !reby1 to t ( ! man :o c ) satisfaction "w out a new !ory ( inflammation1 or con/ruct a drama to int]pret exi/5ce anew4 ,failure to "k ! facts conc]n+ ! di/ribution ( m5tal traits1 ! organization ( intellect1 & ! laws ( h]$ity & v>iation1 leads to mu* wa/$ ef=t on ! "p ( all :o deal by pr(ession ) p4 ,! mo/ frequ5t error is t ( dem&+ t o!rs adopt "o's own religi\s beliefs1 /&>d ( liv+1 reaction "t1 or politics--usually ) ! idea t !y w be greatly b5efit$ !reby4 ,ano!r common error ( !ory is t g5]al happ9ess w\ld be increas$ if "s =ce c\ld be e/abli%$ great en\gh to hold all d[n to ! same plane ( "w1 leisure1 & rew>d4 ,9 education x has be5 assum$ t ju/ice w\ld be well s]v$ by prescrib+ ! same curriculum1 at ! same rate1 at ! same "t1 = e *ild4 ,if ! uni=mity ( ?\ght & action1 to :i* ^! !ories & practices t5d1 c\ld be secur$1 ! result w\ld be dead5+4 ,su* uni=mity _c1 h[ev]1 be a*iev$1 because ( ! biological =ces ( h]$ity & v>iation4 ,! =mul gov]n+ ! int]play ( ^! =ces are little kn[n1 & !y !re=e lie outside ( human control4 ,_m ?9k]s believe t no?+ w\ld be lo/ & mu* be ga9$ = human welf>e1 by cutt+ (f ! v>iants :o fall l[ 9 intellect & /ability1 & by increas+ ! numb] ( ^? :o fall highe/1 on ! curve ( di/ribution4 ,h[ev]1 x is possible to take1 & p]haps to def5d1 ! view t ?is w\ld be m$dlesome r ?an helpful4 ,civilization becomes complex ?r\gh ! discov]ies & inv5tions ( sup]ior deviates4 ,x 0 !y :o inv5t$ :eel & lev]1 clock & cal5d>1 c\rt & /atute book4 ,!y discov]$ ! use ( electricity1 gravity1 & /eam4 ,:5 moral life & indu/rial life become v complicat$1 great numb]s ( m5 are unable to meet ! situations devis$1 & p]i% m5tally1 morally1 & physically4 ,law may become s intricate t only ! /eadie/ c suff] its re/rictions4 ,me*anical & *emical contrivances may gr[ s num]\s & complex t typical human nature _c cope ) !m4 ,w\ld x be bett]1 !n1 to end inv5tion at its s\rce1 by elim9at+ sup]ior deviates8 ,or w\ld mank9d !reby lose o!r gifts1 :olly b5ign = all1 :i* only ! sup]ior deviate c be/[8 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! highly end[$1 w\ld !re n be a return to b>b>ism8 ,&1 if s1 w\ld ! greate/ good ( ! greate/ numb] be ?us promot$8 ,or %\ld ! welf>e ( ! majority give way z a social ideal to ! welf>e ( ! be/--! mo/ capable1 ! mo/ upright1 ! mo/ endur+8 ,is x possible to evolve a social ord] 9 :i* ! greate/ good ( all c be well s]v$1 s9ce biological inequalities are s v great8 ,^! are que/ions = social & educational philosophy4 ,m5 ( sci5ce labor to acquire ! k t w\ld give p[] to alt]1 at w1 ! %ape ( ! curve ( di/ribution = m5tal capacities4 ,su* k might "w m *anges 9 ! _w ?an h be5 wr\ght by k ( *emical =mul or ( electricity1 b its "r use w\ld call = a wisdom & philosophical =esight :i* m5 at pres5t probably d n h4 ,! conditions & ! !ories t confront u 9 education call on u at pres5t1 z a matt] ( fact1 to provide = ! :ole enorm\s range ( capacities1 g5]al & special4 ,,ii4 ,,compulsory ,,education ,x is useful to recall t = c5turies aft] mank9d rea*$ a po9t :]e prolong$ =mal education 0 available1 att5dance ^u in/ruction 0 volunt>y4 ,^? :o wi%$ to le>n :at c\ld be taught ( ! arts & sci5ces1 hir$ tutors4 ,x is true t ! public c]emonies may1 p]haps1 be consid]$ to h repres5t$ compulsory education1 ev5 9 primitive times4 ,h[ev]1 education 9 ! s5se ( sev]al ye>s ( devotion to le>n+ :at m5 h previ\sly done1 ?\ght1 & devis$1 0 =m]ly a private matt]4 ,! educat$1 :o c\ld communicate by writ+1 calculate 9 l>ge numb]s1 see ! pres5t to "s ext5t 9 ! light ( ! pa/1 & engage 9 ev5 m complicat$ intellectual "w1 =m$ a small & highly select$ gr\p4 ,!y 7 individuals :o lov$ le>n+1 & _! m$ian ,,iq 0 d\btless f> above #ajj4 ,z ! :ite peoples ( ! e>?1 9 p>ts ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 accumulat$ weal?1 & m & m ( ^? :o c>$ to d s c\ld buy education1 political p[] began to be dec5traliz$4 ,g5]\s m5 ( high intellig5ce conceiv$ ! idea t gov]nm5t %\ld be repres5tative4 ,political democracy ) manhood suffrage 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x 0 !n se5 t political democracy _c be su/a9$ on ! basis ( private education1 & public money 0 appropriat$ to e/abli% public s*ools4 ,m]ely to e/abli% free s*ools did n1 h[ev]1 solve ! problem ( education = a democracy4 ,! lead]s ( ?\ght & action f\nd t n only mu/ opportunity be provid$1 b _m mu/ be =c$ to take advantage ( x4 ,compulsory education laws 7 !re=e pass$ 9 _m ( our /ates1 & !y /& ^u _! /atute books to-day4 ,truant (fic]s became a "p ( ! regul> s*ool /aff1 _! duty be+ to appreh5d all *ildr5 betwe5 /atutory ages1 & br+ !m =cibly to s*ool4 ,! ,city ( ,new ,york1 = in/ance1 n[ supports #cjh truant (fic]s1 :o are con/antly kept busy by future citiz5s :o wi% to avoid education4 ,:y d !y wi% to avoid education8 ,! reasons are v>i\s4 ,"s ( !m avoid s*ool because !y h n en\gh clo?+ to we>2 "s because _! p>5ts ne$ _! e>n+s2 "s because !y are ill2 "s because !y are temp]am5tally unsuit$ to s*ool discipl9e4 ,! mo/ important s+le cause ( truancy is1 h[ev]1 t ! curriculum does n provide = individual diff]5ces4 ,! curriculum ^u :i* all *ildr5 are n[ requir$ by law to att5d1 is t :i* 0 =mulat$ :5 only a few select$ *ildr5 7 educat$4 ,our s*ools are read+ s*ools1 & !y tea* ab/ract subject matt] to a v great ext5t1 mu* ( :i* has no tangible relation to ! life ( _m *ildr54 ,*ildr5 ( ,,iq ov] #abj take pleasure 9 ! ab/ract subject matt] ( gramm>1 ma!matics1 geography1 & hi/ory4 ,*ildr5 ( ,,iq "u #hj are made mis]able !reby4 ,n only is ! curriculum n adapt$ to individual diff]5ces 9 g5]al intellig5ce1 b x is f> less adapt$ to individual diff]5ces 9 special defects & aptitudes4 ,! *ild :o c nev] le>n to s+ is compell$ nev]!less to pursue s++1 ev5 aft] s*ool h\rs4 ,! *ild :o _c le>n read+ by ! me?od g5]ally us$ is /ill treat$ by t me?od & no o!r4 ,! s*ools 7 e/abli%$ ) an undiff]5tiat$ curriculum1 :i* !y h tri$ to =ce ^u intellects ( an enorm\s range ( div]sity4 ,_! purpose1 s b5ign1 has result$ 9 extraord9>y cruelties & wa/es4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,importance ,,( ,,g5]al ,,intellig5ce ,,= ,,s*ool ,,progress ,if we exam9e m5tally ! l>ge numb]s ( ret>dates 9 any public s*ool :]e att5dance is compulsory1 we f9d t by f> ! majority ( !m are inf]ior 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,a *ild ( sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce 7,,iq7 is seldom f\nd among ret>dates4 ,( *ildr5 ( #abj ,,iq & ov]1 ,t]man reports t !y are almo/ inv>iably at lea/ up to grade4 ,:atev] ! vicissitudes ( fate--illness1 abs5ce1 special disability--a *ild ( sup]ior g5]al capacity manages to hold 8 own1 at lea/4 ,x is n true1 h[ev]1 t ! sup]ior *ild is all[$1 "u ! undiff]5tiat$ curriculum1 to make full use ( 8 p[]4 ,he is compell$ to sl[ d[n to ! typical progress ( 8 gr\p1 & to use only a portion ( 8 capacity = le>n+4 ,x is r>e to f9d a sup]ior *ild :o is do+ 8a full day's "w0 9 s*ool1 because ! tasks assign$ d n call = maximum ef=t4 ,sup]ior *ildr5 c\ld easily d mu* m ?an is all[$4 ,g5]al intellig5ce is1 !n1 ! s+le mo/ important factor = s*ool progress4 ,! same may be said ( progress 9 vocational c>e]s4 ,! life success ( a human be+ may be said to dep5d ^u g5]al intellig5ce1 "*1 heal?1 & opportunity 7includ+ ! factor ( sex74 ,if any ( ^! factors is r$uc$ to z]o1 s t ! individual is totally lack+ 9 intellig5ce1 "*1 heal?1 or opportunity !re c be no a*ievem5t4 ,! ord] ( importance ( ! v>i\s factors is probably t 9 :i* !y h be5 m5tion$1 ) g5]al intellig5ce c]ta9ly at ! top ( ! li/4 ,intellig5ce may create "*1 opportunity1 & ev5 heal?1 b none ( ^! c create intellig5ce4 ,,iv4 ,,special ,,abilities ,,& ,,disabilities ,,z ,,det]m9ants ,,( ,,s*ool ,,progress ,z be=e /at$ 9 ^! pages1 no c5sus has ev] be5 tak5 ( special aptitudes & defects1 9 ! functions :i* we h be5 discuss+1 & :i* are important = progress ?r\gh ! elem5t>y s*ool4 ,no "o c tell :e!r any h be5 advanc$ on ! basis ( a special gift4 ,no "o c say h[ _m *ildr5 are ret>d$1 because ( a specializ$ disability1 ?\gh we "k f reports r5d]$1 t "s pupils become ret>d$ 9 s*ool /atus ?r\gh special failure 9 "o or two respects4 ,! *ildr5 describ$ "u ! topics ( special ret>dation 9 read+ & 9 ari?metic1 9 ?is volume1 are illu/rative ( ! way 9 :i* specializ$ defect contributes to ret>dation 9 s*ool /atus4 ,)\t passable ma/]y ( ^! 8tool0 subjects a *ild _c proce$ ?r\gh ! elem5t>y s*ool4 ,8 progress is halt$1 mu* z x w\ld be if he 7 defici5t 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,x is q possible1 on ! o!r h&1 t *ildr5 may be occasionally ov]rat$ z to intellect by tea*]s1 :o are deceiv$ by conspicu\s tal5t 9 a special function4 ,coy1 :o /udi$ = two ye>s a class ( highly intellig5t *ildr5 9 ,columbus1 has giv5 an acc\nt ( a boy :o 0 ?us ov]rat$4 ,:5 ! *ildr5 7 be+ select$ = ! special class describ$1 ?is boy 0 s5t by 8 tea*] to jo9 ! gr\p4 ,%e consid]$ t he mu/ be 8v bright10 8s9ce he c\ld draw c>toons1 play ! ukelele1 & s+40 ,he 0 said by ! art tea*] to h m ability ?an any o!r *ild 9 ! build+4 ,he 0 reta9$ 9 ! special class by ! inve/igator1 b he 0 n able to d good "w !re4 ,8 ,,iq on ?ree annual te/+s /ood z #aad1 #aai1 & #abj4 7,! o!r *ildr5 9 ! gr\p possess$ g5]al intellig5ce clu/]+ ab\t an ,,iq ( approximately #ace47 ,?is boy surpass$ ! o!rs 9 music1 act+1 & draw+1 b 88 ability to reason 0 f> bel[ ! class level10 & he c\ld n compete successfully 9 g5]al intellectual "w4 ,8 tea*]s _h be5 misl$ by 8 special gifts to recomm5d him z a *ild ( surpass+ intellect4 ,v4 ,,exp]im5tal ,,attempts ,,to ,,individualize ,,education ,(ficial adm9i/rative recognition ( individual diff]5ces among public s*ool pupils began ) ! extremely /upid1 :om we call feeble-m9d$4 ,?is 0 natural1 because ! feeble-m9d$ are incapable ( ev5 approximately normal progress1 & ?is1 add$ to _! t5d5cy to become discipl9>y problems1 r5d]s !m an intol]able burd5 to tea*]s 9 ! regul> grades4 ,z long ago z #ahgb we f9d t att5tion 0 call$ to ! 8p$agogical misfits10 9 proce$+s at pr(essional tea*]s' meet+s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,by #ahij ! city ( ,clevel& _h e/abli%$ two special classes = *ildr5 pres5t+ p>ticul> difficulties ( discipl9e4 ,special classes = extremely dull *ildr5 7! feeble-m9d$7 h pass$ ! /age ( exp]im5t4 ,!y are n[ an accept$ "p ( ! s*ool sy/em ( _m cities 9 ?is c\ntry1 & a few /ate dep>tm5ts ( education h und]tak5 to e/abli% su* special classes = di/ricts n s favorably situat$ z cities are4 ,! relative money co/ ( ?us educat+ ! mo/ /upid *ildr5 produc$ 9 our population is great1 & ! returns ^u ! inve/m5t are unc]ta94 ,we ne$ c>eful /udies ( ! co/ ( educat+ ! dull1 z comp>$ ) ! co/ ( educat+ ! sup]ior1 9 ! light ( ! returns f education1 bo? to ! public & to ! individuals taught4 ,! complexity ( su* /udy calls = mu* pati5ce & +5uity4 ,special classes = *ildr5 ( v sup]ior g5]al intellig5ce1 :o are z f> above ! av]age z ! feeble-m9d$ are bel[1 are at pres5t mu* discuss$ by ,am]ican educators4 ,su* classes h actually be5 e/abli%$ 9 a few s*ool sy/ems4 ,^! are /ill consid]$ to be exp]im5tal1 b x surely w n be v long be=e (ficial adm9i/rative recognition w be widely giv5 to ! ne$s ( pupils ^: natural rate ( progress is ov] twice z rapid z t ( ! av]age *ild4 ,abroad1 ,g]many has already und]tak5 education = gift$ *ildr5 z a special project ( ! public s*ools1 9 recognition1 no d\bt1 ( ! ext5t to :i* national rehabilitation w be dep5d5t on ! tra9+ ( ! able4 ,contr>y to pre-w> policy1 ,g]man educators are n[ seek+1 by ! me?od ( m5tal te/s1 = sup]ior m5tal end[m5t reg>dless ( social-economic /atus1 & ev5 to "s ext5t reg>dless ( sex4 ,9 g5]al x is true t ! provisions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are = deviates s extreme 9 all capacities t _! maladju/m5t to typical proc$ure creates a tr\blesome s*ool problem on ! "o h&1 & on ! o!r a burd5 to ! consci5ce ( ^? :o adm9i/] education4 ,classroom tea*]s dem& t special att5tion be giv5 to ^? :o are *ronically unpromotable & out ( ord]1 :ile educational psy*ologi/s insi/ ^u ! wa/e ( ability t ensues f all[+ gift$ *ildr5 to idle ?r\gh ! curriculum4 ,= deviates ( less degree !re is n mu* provision4 ,a few cities1 ( :i* ,oakl&1 ,cali=nia1 may be m5tion$ z an out/&+ example1 h adopt$ a ?ree-rates-(-progress sy/em1 9 :i* ! *ildr5 ( typical ability 7! great majority7 proce$ at a m$ian rate1 ! l[e/ qu>tile 7exclusive ( ! v l[e/ p]c5tile7 proce$+ m sl[ly1 & ! highe/ qu>tile m rapidly4 ,! sy/em provides a flexibility f> 9 advance ( ! ord9>y "o-rate-(-progress sy/em1 all[+ = individual diff]5ces 9 g5]al intellig5ce4 ,little att5tion has be5 giv5 z yet to ! matt] ( individualiz+ public education = *ildr5 :o %[ special tal5ts or defects4 ,"s ye>s ago ! sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools 9 ,muni* reque/$ ! tea*]s ( c]ta9 grades ?r\gh\t ! city1 to ask ea* *ild to draw two sket*es3 "o f a model1 & ! o!r a free sket*4 ,^! 7 sort$ = ! purpose ( f9d+ exceptional tal5t 9 draw+4 ,a c]ta9 p] c5t ( ! *ildr5 %[+ ?is special gift 7 s\ght out & enc\rag$4 ,p>ticul> att5tion 0 giv5 to ! developm5t ( _! tal5ts4 ,simil> in/ances ( (ficial attempts to gauge & fo/] special tal5ts are extremely r>e4 ,! exp]im5t at ,w9netka1 ,ill9ois1 is ( ?is ord]4 ,9 ,w9netka !re is a flexible promotion sy/em1 :]e9 pupils 8pass0 9 a subject :5ev] !y h complet$ ! "w !re94 ,a pupil may be 9 diff]5t grades 9 diff]5t subjects4 ,8 :ole s*ool c>e] ne$ n be jeop>diz$ by a s+le weakness1 & if he has a special /r5g? he is p]mitt$ to develop x z orig9al nature w\ld dictate4 ,at fir/ ?\ght x might seem t a public s*ool sy/em w\ld be ?r[n into confusion by su* a s*eme4 ,9 ,w9netka !re are ?irty to ?irty-five pupils 9 a classroom4 ,h[ c programs be arrang$ to suit ! ne$s ( deviat+ *ildr51 )\t mu* extra equipm5t8 ,"h x is necess>y to recall t ! majority ( ^! *ildr5 are typical4 ,! middle #ej p] c5t ( all *ildr5 born deviate b slightly f ! type ( ! race1 9 all _! m5tal functions4 ,!y d n call = special adju/m5ts4 ,on ei!r side ( ^!1 deviat+ m widely t[>d less & great]1 run ! rema9d] ( ! *ildr51 9 v rapidly decreas+ frequ5cies4 ,^? :o ne$ a v wide latitude 9 s*ool organization con/itute possibly #bj p] c5t ( all1 ! highe/ #aj p] c5t1 & ! l[e/ #aj p] c5t1 9 g5]al or special capacity4 ,! problem does n seem s va/1 :5 we recall ! %ape ( ! curve ( di/ribution2 & ! comp>ative infrequ5cy ( extremely unusual *ildr54 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,fo/]+ ,,individuality ,! co/ ( individualiz+ education acts z a det]r5t1 ev5 :5 ! desirability is fully recogniz$4 ,compulsory education = all ! *ildr5 ( all ! p is exp5sive4 ,a nation mu/ be weal?y 9 ord] to c>ry x ?r\gh4 ,to ma9ta9 e *ild born into ! social ord] = f\rte5 to sixte5 ye>s )\t e>n+s1 & to pay f public taxation = 8 education = eight to t5 or m ( ^? ye>s1 is an ent]prise ^u :i* few societies ( any "t h v5tur$4 ,nev]!less1 if democracy is to survive1 & especially if x is to improve1 z a =m ( gov]nm5t1 univ]sal education on a l>ge scale is basic4 ,self-gov]nm5t1 9 ! highly complicat$ environm5t :i* has be5 evolv$1 dep5ds on lit]acy & o!r k1 requir+ long in/ruction1 ev5 = y\? ( av]age ability4 ,:at !n ( ! great numb]s ( ^? :o deviate 9 v>i\s degrees bel[ ! av]age 9 capacity = le>n+8 ,! social ord] ne$s & w utilize _! s]vices4 ,! economics ( _! pres5ce 9 ! republic is n a mu* m difficult problem ?an "u o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,x is ! politics ( _! pres5ce t causes conc]n "u a democracy2 = !y are enfran*is$1 yet )\t le>n+ !y are political dep5d5ts4 ,!y /& at ! m]cy ( any cat* ^w toss$ at !m1 ) results :i* h rais$ on e h& an e>ne/ se>*+ ( democracy4 ,= example1 ?is "q has be5 rais$3 ,is x possible = education to prep>e ! l[] half ( ! di/ribution curve = self-gov]nm5t8 ,consid]+ rec5t discov]ies z to ! m5tal capacity :i* *>act]izes ! l[] half ( ! population :5 adult1 is x possible t education w ev] be able to nullify ! *>latan influ5ce ( demagogues1 ^: appeal is to prejudice & cupidity8 ,^! que/ions rema9 unansw]$4 ,9 ! meantime ! great exp]im5t ( compulsory education is "u way4 ,! exp5se ( x is kept d[n by tea*+ ! *ildr5 9 l>ge gr\ps ( ?irty to fifty or ov]1 ! same lessons1 9 ! same way1 at ! same "t4 ,:at w\ld be ! actual money co/ ( provid+ = individual diff]5ces 9 capacities1 g5]al & special8 ,few data to answ] ?is "q h be5 furni%$4 ,9 ,w9netka ! co/ ( education is report$ z n increas$4 ,?is condition is d\btless exceptional4 ,z previ\sly /at$1 ! money co/ ( individualiz+ education = ! feeble-m9d$ has be5 consid]able4 ,we h ! figures f ,c9c9nati1 & we d]ive f !m t ! co/ ( educat+ a feeble-m9d$ *ild 7"o fall+ into ! l[e/ "o or two p] c5t 9 ! di/ribution ( g5]al intellig5ce7 9 a special class1 is ov] twice z great p] annum z is ! co/ ( educat+ an av]age *ild 9 ! regul> grades4 ,= a feeble-m9d$ *ild 9 a special class 9 ,c9c9nati1 dur+ ! ye> #aiag to #aiah1 ! money co/ p] annum 0 #hc1 :ile = a typical *ild 9 ! regul> grades x 0 #ce4 ,! increas$ co/ results f ! fact t :5 education is individualiz$1 ! numb] ( pupils occupy+ a room & taught by a tea*] is ab\t fifte51 in/ead ( ! regul> numb] ( ?irty to fifty4 ,if1 r\ghly1 #bj p] c5t ( all pupils deviate f ! typical s extremely z to require a consid]able am\nt ( individual in/ruction = _! welf>e1 x is difficult to see h[ !y may be well s]v$ )\t a consid]able increase 9 ! money co/ ( education4 ,c ! public af=d to pay m ?an x n[ does8 ,inve/igations to answ] ?is "q are "u way on a l>ge scale4 ,we ne$ to "k :at our c\ntry c n[ pay1 9 ord] t we z educators may n commit ! folly on ! "o h& ( urg+ unw>rantable exp5diture1 nor on ! o!r h& ( fail+ to ask ! appropriation ( all t c be sp>$ = ! developm5t ( individual capacity 9 ! nation's *ildr54 ,,vii4 ,,! ,,probable ,,rew>ds ,,( ,,individualiz+ ,,education ,ev5 ! money returns f sci5tifically diff]5tiat$ education w\ld probably be great1 aside f ! increase 9 *ildr5's happ9ess1 9 tea*]s' enjoym5t1 & 9 adults' satisfaction4 ,! tangible values ( individualiz$ tra9+ might be ne>ly z great z its intangible values4 ,:5 we reflect closely ^u ! s\rce ( weal?1 we see t x comes f ! attack ( intellect ^u ! environm5t4 ,apes h no weal?4 ,man has weal? only 9 s f> z he acts ^u selective ?9k+ 9 reg>d to 8 environm5t4 ,a society ga9s weal? only 9 s f> z x p]mits & enc\rages ! use ( innate capacities = attack ^u ! environm5t1 :i* lie unequally di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! juv5ile population4 ,any !ory ( weal? t fails to gr\nd itself ^u ?is fact w b de/roy ^? :o seek to practice x4 ,no nation has ev] yet %[n :at ! full rew>d might be ( adapt+ education to individual diff]5ces4 ,su* a demon/ration has be5 impossible hi!rto1 if = no o!r reason ?an t !re 0 no kn[n me?od ( gaug+ *ildr5's abilities sci5tifically4 ,9 ! old] social ord]s1 :]e education 0 or is ca/e-b\nd1 x is highly probable t on ! :ole education 0 & is m fairly adapt$ to individual diff]5ces ?an x is ) u4 ,^? b>b>ians :o _h mu* capacity = ab/ract ?9k+ a*iev$ by trial & success high-ca/e /atus1 ( :i* !y ultimately became consci\s4 ,! ari/ocracy ( old] c\ntries 0 n e/abli%$ by =ces outside ( human nature4 ,! nobles 7 9 ! fir/ place ^? :o rose to p[] because !y 7 /rong]1 m endur+1 & m capable ( ?9k+ ?an av]age m54 ,ca/e grew out ( human nature itself4 ,! majority ( ! nobles' *ildr5 7 capable by h]$ity ( ab/ract ?9k+1 & ( acquir+ ! education1 :i* came f9ally ?r\gh c5turies to be provid$ = !m4 ,! majority ( ^? :o fail$ to a*ieve high-ca/e /atus be=e x became recogniz$ z su* 7 d\btless *iefly individuals :o produc$ desc5dants1 on ! av]age ill adapt$ to pr(it f ! k9d ( education e/abli%$ = ! *ildr5 ( ! high] ca/es4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 = example1 :]e social organization 0 & is frankly bas$ 9 !ory & practice on ca/e 7upp]-ca/e /atus be+1 h[ev]1 con/antly kept op5 to adults ( unusual a*ievem5t71 ,burt f\nd t boys ( upp]-ca/e family1 att5d+ an exclusive high-class s*ool1 surpass$ 9 all respects1 9 m5tal te/s1 sons ( middle-class p>5ts1 ( equal age1 att5d+ common s*ools4 ,x is necess>y1 ?\gh outrage\s to our prejudices1 to face ! fact t1 9 our own c\ntry 7:]e ca/e is despis$ 9 !ory & to "s ext5t 9 practice71 ! m$ian capacity ( pupils 9 exp5sive private s*ools is well above ! av]age ( ! juv5ile population at l>ge4 ,ca/e-b\nd education 9 old] civilizations recognizes innate individual diff]5ces to a consid]able ext5t4 ,its inju/ice is t x does n recognize !m completely4 ,ca/e takes acc\nt ( individual diff]5ces due to h]$ity1 b x does n reg>d ^? due to v>iation4 ,ca/e neglects to provide = ! ov]lapp+ :i* occurs among ! *ildr5 ( p>5ts ( diff]5t a*ievem5t levels4 ,9 a society f\nd$ =mally on ca/e1 !re is no way provid$ = ! appropriate education ( gift$ v>iants :o occur 9 ! l[] ca/es1 & = ^? ( inf]ior ability born into ! high] ca/es4 ,artificial b>ri]s to natural a*ievem5t h aris51 because ! consci\sness ( sup]ior /atus 0 accompani$ by jeal\sy ( x z well4 ,revolt aga9/ ?is inju/ice to ! m9ority 7n recogniz$1 h[ev]1 z m9ority by ! rebels7 l$ to ! opposite inju/ice1 :i* we see practic$ 9 ! s*ools ( our own democracy4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! !ory 0 adopt$ t all m5 are creat$ equal4 ,all *ildr5 mu/1 !re=e1 be requir$ to take ! same education4 ,su* a sy/em violates individuality ev5 m pa9fully & wa/efully ?an ! despis$ ca/e sy/em ( ! old] c\ntries does4 ,z sci5tific psy*ology improves ! me?ods ( te/+ = individual diff]5ces 9 *ildr51 x w become possible to educate ea* "o accord+ to 8 capacity = le>n+4 ,x w be possible to cons]ve & develop ! special aptitudes ( e *ild1 reg>dless ( race1 sex1 or circum/ance4 ,! humiliation & despair ( *ronic failure at prescrib$ tasks unsuit$ to capacity may be sp>$ e *ild4 ,?us we come aga9 to consid] te/s ( innate educability 9 ,! ,republic3 8,we mu/ wat* !m f _! y\? upw>ds1 & make !m p]=m actions 9 :i* !y are mo/ likely to =get or to be deceiv$1 & he :o rememb]s & is n deceiv$ is to be select$40 ,t w be ! way4 ,,ref]5ces ,,cam]on1 ,e4 ,h4--,psy*ology & ! ,s*ool2 ,! ,c5tury ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,cl>k1 ,e4--8,! ,gr[? ( ,cities & ,_! ,indebt$ness = ,s*ools02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiah4 ,,elliott1 ,c4 ,h4--,v>iations 9 ,a*ievem5ts ( ,pupils2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiae4 ,,franz51 ,r4--,! ,accompli%m5t ,ratio2 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aibb4 ,,judd1 ,c4 ,h4--8,analysis ( ,le>n+ ,processes & ,specific ,tea*+02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiba4 ,,mayb]ry1 ,l4 ,w4--8,individualiz+ ,problems = ,pupils02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiag4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4--8,s*ool ,co/s & ,bus9ess ,managem5t02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiag4 ,,spauld+4 ,f4 ,e4--8,a ,million a ,ye>02 ,monograph ,no4 #a1 ,bo>d ( ,education1 ,m9neapolis1 #aiaf-ag4 ,,spauld+1 ,f4 ,e4--8,f9anc+ ! ,m9neapolis ,s*ools02 ,monograph ,no4 #b2 ,bo>d ( ,education1 ,m9neapolis1 #aiaf-ag4 ,,t]man1 ,l4 ,m4--,! ,intellig5ce ( ,s*ool ,*ildr52 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co41 #aiai4 ,,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,education = ,initiative & ,orig9ality02 ,tea*]s ,college ,record1 #aiaf4 ,,wa%burn1 ,c4--8,! ,individual ,sy/em 9 ,w9netka02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aibj4 ,,woolley1 ,h4 ,t4--,feeble-m9d$ ,ex-,s*ool ,*ildr52 ,hel5 ,s4 ,tr\n/9e ,f\ndation1 ,c9c9nati1 #aiba4 ,,zirbes1 ,l4--8,diagno/ic ,measurem5t z a ,basis = ,proc$ure02 ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #aiah4 ,,index ,ability1 def9ition (1 #d4 ,absolute pit*1 #aga4 ,agnew1 ,m41 #aha4 ,agraphia1 #ea4 ,aik5s1 ,h4 ,a41 #dh4 ,alexia1 #ea2 8cong5ital10 #fc4 ,alcoholic psy*osis1 #bj4 ,ambidext]ity1 #ahe4 ,&]son1 ,c4 ,i41 #if1 #aba1 #aci4 ,aphasia1 #ea4 ,aphemia1 #ea4 ,ari?metic1 capacity =1 #aad2 def9$1 #aae2 special defect 91 #aai f4 ,ari?metical abilities1 organization (1 #aag f42 ( *ildr5 ov] #ahj ,,iq1 #aca f42 inh]itance (1 #acg f4 ,ari?metical prodigies1 #abb ff4 ,see also ,lightn+ calculators4 ,att5dance1 effects ( irregul>1 #fh1 #abj4 ,ay]1 ,f4 ,c41 #adc1 #add1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #afc4 ,ayres' scale1 #ab1 #aje4 ,ba]wald1 ,r41 #aa1 #df4 ,baldw91 ,j4 ,m41 #ahh4 ,beeley1 ,a4 ,l41 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aie4 ,b]kau1 ,o41 #if4 ,b]k[itz1 ,i4 ,h41 #if4 ,b]nfield1 ,s41 #aff1 #aha4 ,b9et1 ,a41 #ba1 #bd1 #cd1 #ce1 #df1 #if1 #abh1 #aci1 #afc4 ,b9et-,simon te/s1 #aij4 ,boggs1 ,l41 #aga1 #aha4 ,bra*iomet]1 #ahf4 ,bra91 localization1 #di f42 injury to1 #ec f4 ,broca2 ,p4 ,p41 #ea4 ,broca's area1 #ea1 #ef4 ,bronn]1 ,a4 ,f41 #fe1 #id1 #if1 #aai4 ,br[n1 ,w41 #dg1 #aah1 #adj4 ,bryan1 ,w4 ,l41 #abh1 #adj4 ,burt1 ,c41 #cb1 #dg1 #fi1 #if1 #bji4 ,buswell1 ,g4 ,t41 #if4 ,cam]on1 ,e4 ,h41 #baj4 ,capacities1 relation%ip among1 #aa2 decay (1 #bj4 ,capacity1 def9ition (1 #d4 ,c>man1 ,e4 ,k41 #aac4 ,*>t]s1 ,w4 ,w41 #aac4 ,*ilds1 ,h4 ,g41 #afc4 ,cl>k1 ,e41 #baj4 ,cleme%a1 ,i4 ,c41 #fc1 #if4 ,cobb1 ,m4 ,v41 #aag1 #aba1 #ach1 #adj4 ,coeffici5t ( correlation1 #aa2 int]pretation (1 #ab2 negative1 #af2 d]iv$ f *ance comb9ation1 #bi ff42 d]iv$ f biological coh]5ce1 #ca4 ,coll>1 ,d4 ,j41 #aag1 #adj4 ,color bl9dness1 #aec4 ,common factor1 #ae4 ,comp5satory di/ribution1 dem& =1 #i2 n f\nd1 #cd4 ,compreh5sion1 9 read+1 #fa f4 ,copp1 ,e4 ,f41 #age1 #aha4 ,correlation1 coeffici5t (1 #aa2 betwe5 ability to spell & ,,iq1 #ac2 9 v>i\s gr\ps1 #ah2 ( abilities ( dem5ts1 #ba ff42 betwe5 ability to read & ,,iq1 #eg2 betwe5 ability 9 ari?metic & ,,iq1 #aad2 betwe5 ability 9 draw+ & ,,iq1 #adf f42 betwe5 ability 9 music & ,,iq1 #afh f42 betwe5 me*anical ability & ,,iq1 #aij4 ,cortex1 #ej f4 ,coy1 ,g41 #bja4 ,defects1 special4 ,see ,special defects4 ,dem5tia p>alytica1 #bj f4 ,democracy1 human nature &1 #aii f41 #baj4 ,dice1 #bi ff4 ,disorganiz+ m9ds1 /udy (1 #ai ff4 ,di/ribution ( ability1 #i4 ,d[ney1 ,j4 ,e41 #aie4 ,draw+1 v>i\s k9ds (1 #ada f42 ramifications (1 #adc2 analysis ( tal5t =1 #adc f4 ,e>le1 ,e4 ,l41 #aje1 #aac4 ,edgr51 ,j4 ,g41 #aha4 ,eld]ton1 ,e41 #adg1 #afc4 ,elliott1 ,c4 ,h41 #baj4 ,evan/on s*ools1 exp]im5tation 91 #ade4 ,eye-movem5ts1 9 read+1 #fa4 ,eyes1 defects (1 #ei4 ,f]nald1 ,g4 ,m41 #fi1 #ij1 #if4 ,fildes1 ,l4 ,g41 #ie1 #if4 ,fis*lovitz1 ,a41 #adf1 #afc4 ,fisk1 ,s41 #gd4 ,franz51 ,r41 #baj4 ,freeman1 ,f4 ,n41 #fg1 #if4 ,galton1 ,f41 #aa1 #ia4 ,gates1 ,a4 ,i41 #fa1 #fb1 #fi1 #if1 #ih4 ,gatewood1 ,e4 ,l41 #afg1 #aha4 ,gaw1 ,e4 ,a41 #aha4 ,g5]al factor1 #ae4 ,g5]al intellig5ce1 v]sus special aptitudes1 #ad2 measurem5t (1 #cd ff42 relation to read+1 #eg2 to spell+1 #ajj2 to ari?metic1 #aad2 to draw+1 #adf f42 to musical tal5t1 #afh f42 to me*anical ability1 #aij2 to lead]%ip1 #aic2 to s*ool progress1 #bjj4 ,gill+ham1 ,a41 #adj4 ,gordon1 ,h41 #ahh1 #aie4 ,g[91 ,e4 ,b41 #aie4 ,gray1 ,w4 ,s41 #fg1 #ij1 #if4 ,habits1 ari?metical1 #abj2 me?ods ( detect+1 #aba4 ,hagg]ty's scale1 #hd4 ,hans51 ,c4 ,f41 #afg1 #aha4 ,h>t1 ,b41 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #dg4 ,head1 ,h41 #ea1 #ef4 ,h]$ity1 ( m5tal end[m5t1 #c1 #aj2 ( ari?metical abilities1 #acg f42 ( tal5t 9 draw+1 #aeh2 ( musical tal5t1 #age2 ( left-h&$ness1 #ahe4 ,hi]>*y1 ( abilities1 #ae1 #bi2 d]iv$ by *ance1 #bi ff42 ( habits 9 ari?metic1 #abj4 ,h9%elwood1 ,j41 #fd1 #ig4 ,holl+wor?1 ,h4 ,l41 #da1 #dg4 ,holl+wor?1 ,l4 ,s41 #ac1 #aac4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b41 #eg4 ,illu/rative cases1 ( defect 9 read+1 #fe f41 #ga f42 ( tal5t 9 read+1 #ia f42 ( defect 9 spell+1 #aji f42 ( special ability 9 spell+1 #aaa2 ( special defect 9 ari?metic1 #aai ff42 ( lightn+ calculators1 #abb ff42 ( m>k$ ability to calculate1 comb9$ ) high ,,iq1 #aca ff42 ( special ability 9 draw+1 #aed ff42 ( mirror writ+1 #ahi4 ,individuality1 values (1 #aif f42 compulsory education &1 #aih2 co/ ( fo/]+1 #bjf2 rew>ds ( fo/]+1 #bjh4 ,intellect1 organization (1 #aa f42 inh]itance (1 #bg2 uses (1 #aig f4 ,,iq1 det]m9ation (1 #cd ff42 significance (1 #cf2 n]v\s /ability &1 #gj4 ,see also ,g5]al intellig5ce4 ,ivan(1 ,e41 #adg1 #afc4 ,jones1 ,e4 ,e41 #ade1 #afc4 ,jones1 ,f41 #ahf4 ,judd1 ,c4 ,h41 #aae1 #baj4 ,kallom1 ,a4 ,w41 #aac4 ,kell]1 ,h41 #fi1 #ij1 #if4 ,k]s*5/e9]1 ,g41 #afc4 ,kik1 ,c41 #afc4 ,k+1 ,i41 #ig4 ,knock1 ,c4 ,j41 #aha4 ,kreug]1 ,f41 #dg4 ,kries1 ,j4 ,von1 #aha4 ,ladd1 ,g41 #ea1 #ef1 #if4 ,lant]ne1 ,s41 #adj4 ,la%ley1 ,k4 ,s41 #ef4 ,laz>1 ,e41 #adj4 ,lead]%ip1 #aib4 ,lee1 ,v41 #ahb4 ,left-h&$ness1 #ahc ff4 ,lightn+ calculators1 #aae ff4 ,l9dley1 ,e4 ,h41 #abh1 #adj4 ,l+ui/ic functions1 loss (1 #ea2 complexity (1 #eb2 coh]5ce among1 #ih4 ,lip-movem5ts1 #fj4 ,lit]acy1 #id4 ,mday1 ,h4 ,v41 #adj4 ,manuel1 ,h4 ,t41 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aej1 #aea1 #afc4 ,m>?a1 precoci\s read]1 #ib4 ,ma!matical ability1 #aae1 #aah4 ,mayb]ry1 ,l4 ,w41 #baa4 ,mc,call1 ,w4 ,a41 #cc1 #dg4 ,me*anical ability1 #aij4 ,me*anical te/s1 #he4 ,me*anics1 ( read+1 #eh ff42 ( ari?metic1 #abj4 ,m5del1 ,g41 #bg4 ,m5delian inh]itance1 #bg1 #agf1 #ahe4 ,m5tal age1 #ce1 #ci4 ,m5tal end[m5t1 orig9 (1 #c2 :5 fir/ evid5t1 #db4 ,m5tal functions1 speculation conc]n+1 #a2 def9ition (1 #d2 complexity (1 #f2 believ$ to h common factor1 #ae2 believ$ to be specializ$1 #af2 selective enfeeblem5t (1 #ba ff42 attempt$ localization (1 #di ff4 ,m5tal measurem5t1 ideals (1 #cf2 pres5t limitations (1 #cg4 ,m5tal te/s1 =etold1 #a2 def9$1 #cd2 pres5t limitations (1 #cg f4 ,m]ton1 ,e41 #if4 ,meumann1 ,e41 #aj1 #aa1 #ih1 #add1 #afc4 ,mey]1 ,m41 #afd4 ,mill]1 ,g4 ,a41 #adj4 ,mirror writ+1 #ahh f4 ,mit*ell1 ,f4 ,b41 #abc1 #abi1 #acg1 #adj4 ,mbius1 ,p4 ,j41 #adj4 ,monak[1 ,c4 ,von1 #ea1 #ef4 ,moore1 ,t4 ,v41 #bd1 #be1 #dg4 ,morgan1 ,w4 ,p41 #fc1 #if4 ,music1 nature (1 #afd2 v>i\s k9ds (1 #afe2 appreciation (1 #ahj4 ,musical s5sitivity1 #aff4 ,n]v\s in/ability1 & read+1 #fi2 & ari?metic1 #abb4 ,n]v\s sy/em1 #di4 ,neurotic *ildr51 #fi1 #abb4 ,non-read]1 f\r-ye> /udy (1 #ga f4 ,non-read]s1 summ>y ( /udies (1 #hi f4 ,oakl& s*ools1 organization (1 #bjd4 ,o',bri51 ,j4 ,a41 #ig4 ,oph?almologi/s1 reports (1 #ei4 ,pann5b]g1 ,h4 ,j41 #afc1 #aff1 #ahb4 ,pann5b]g1 ,w4 ,a41 #afc1 #aff1 #ahb4 ,p]=mance1 z crit]ion ( ability1 #e4 ,p]=mance te/s1 ,p9tn]'s1 #he4 ,pet]1 ,r41 #afc4 ,pet]s1 ,w41 #adj4 ,phonics1 taught to non-read]s1 #ff2 c>ri$ to excess1 #fg4 ,pictorial completion te/1 ,healy's1 #he4 ,pittman1 ,m4 ,s41 #aac4 ,plato1 #a4 ,platt1 ,w41 #ahb4 ,phl]1 ,otto1 #ia4 ,p\ll1 ,l4 ,e41 #ic1 #ig4 ,problem-solv+1 #aai ,prodigies1 #abb f4 ,pryor1 ,h4 ,c41 #aac4 ,psy*ographs1 to picture individuality1 #ch ff42 ( individuals1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #aee1 #agg1 #agi4 ,psy*ological analysis1 ( read+1 #eh2 ( spell+1 #ih2 ( calculation1 #aaf2 ( tal5t 9 draw+1 #adc2 ( musical tal5t1 #afe2 ( lead]%ip1 #aib4 ,quantitative inve/igation1 results (1 #d f42 me?ods (1 #aa f4 ,rans*burg1 ,p41 #eh1 #ig1 #adj4 ,read+1 relation to ,,iq1 #eg2 v e>ly1 #eh2 m5tal age necess>y =1 #fa f42 oral1 #fj2 special defect 91 #fe ff42 special ability 91 #ia f42 effect on spell+1 #ajf4 ,rvsz1 ,g41 #dg1 #aff1 #aga1 #ahb4 ,ri*et1 ,c41 #ahb4 ,riley1 ,h4 ,a41 #eb1 #ef4 ,rog]s1 ,a4 ,l41 #dj1 #aae1 #adj4 ,rugg1 ,h4 ,o41 #dg1 #baa4 ,rupp1 ,h41 #aff1 #ahb4 ,sc>bor\gh s*ool1 exp]im5tation 91 #ajf f4 ,s*mitt1 ,c41 #fe1 #ij1 #ig1 #aai1 #adj4 ,s*rck1 ,g41 #fc1 #if4 ,s*ussl]1 ,h41 #aff1 #afh1 #afi1 #ahb4 ,scripture1 ,e4 ,w41 #abc1 #adj4 ,sea%ore1 ,c41 #g1 #aj1 #aff1 #afg1 #aga1 #ahb4 ,s5ile dem5ts1 #bj f41 #bf4 ,simon1 ,?41 #ba1 #bd1 #df4 ,simpson1 ,b4 ,r41 #ah1 #dg1 #adg4 ,smi?1 ,j4 ,h41 #aai1 #adj4 ,spauld+1 ,f4 ,e41 #baa4 ,spe>man1 ,c41 #e1 #aa1 #ae1 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bi1 #cj1 #cd1 #dg1 #ed4 ,special abilities1 measurem5t (1 #cg ff42 detection (1 #cg ff42 orig9 (1 #dc1 #de2 frequ5cy (1 #dd2 relation to s*ool progress1 #bja f4 ,special defects1 & bra9 anatomy1 #eb2 detection (1 #cg ff42 orig9 (1 #dc1 #de2 frequ5cy (1 #dd2 relation to s*ool progress1 #bja f4 ,special s5ses1 9 read+1 #ei4 ,spee* defects1 #gj4 ,spell]s1 psy*ological exam9ation (1 #ajj f4 ,spell+1 correlation ) ,,iq1 #ajj2 special defect 91 #ih ff42 analysis (1 #ih ff4 ,/an=d-,b9et1 #eg1 #eh1 #fh1 #he1 #ie1 #aji1 #aej1 #aia1 #aic4 ,/anton1 ,h4 ,m41 #age1 #ahb4 ,/5qui/1 ,j4 ,l41 #aij1 #aie4 ,/]n1 ,w41 #aj1 #aa4 ,ta*i/oscope1 #eh4 ,taussig1 ,f4 ,w41 #aie4 ,t]man1 ,l4 ,m41 #dg1 #ib1 #ig1 #aca1 #aic1 #bja1 #baa4 ,t]ry1 ,p4 ,w41 #adj4 ,?ompson1 ,j4 ,r41 #dg4 ,?omson1 ,g41 #bi1 #cj1 #dg1 #ed4 ,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l41 #aj1 #aa1 #ae1 #af1 #cc1 #cd1 #dg1 #fb1 #ig1 #aaf1 #aag1 #adj1 #adf1 #afc1 #aij1 #aie1 #baa4 ,?orndike-,mc,call scale1 #eg1 #hb1 #hc4 ,tildesley1 ,m4 ,l41 #afc4 ,tilney1 ,f41 #eb1 #ef4 ,tone deafness1 #agb4 ,tonoscope1 #agd4 ,trabue1 ,m4 ,r41 #aij4 ,trabue's scale1 #eg1 #gg ff4 ,transf] ( tra9+1 #bh1 #ajd4 ,truant (fic]s1 #aii4 ,types1 folk notions conc]n+1 #b2 human be+s n divid$ into1 #f4 ,uhl1 ,w4 ,l41 #ig1 #aai1 #aba1 #adj4 ,unmusical *ildr51 #afi4 ,wa%burn1 ,c41 #baa4 ,wegle91 ,d4 ,e41 #ag1 #dh4 ,wese51 ,m4 ,h41 #aac4 ,:ite1 ,a41 #ic1 #ig4 ,:it=d1 ,w4 ,g41 #afc4 ,w9=d1 ,c4 ,a41 #aje4 ,w9netka s*ools1 organization (1 #bje1 #bjg4 ,witm]1 ,l41 #aac1 #agj4 ,woodwor?1 ,r4 ,s41 #ea1 #ef1 #if4 ,woolley1 ,h4 ,t41 #baa4 ,^w bl9dness1 #fc f4 ,wundt1 ,w41 laboratory (1 #d4 ,x1 in/ruction (1 9 read+1 #ga ff4 ,zirbes1 ,l41 #baa4 ----- ,footnote #a3 #a #f;d#b_/n7n#b #a7 ,resemblance equals "o m9us six times ! sum ( ! diff]5ces 79 rank7 squ>$1 ov] ! numb] 7( cases7 times ! numb] 7( cases7 squ>$1 m9us "o4 ,footnote #b3 #a #f;d#b_/n7n#b #a7 ,=mula expla9$1 opposite page4 ,footnote #c3 ,?ompson has rec5tly %[n t a coeffici5t ( z]o does n necess>ily mean abs5ce ( relation%ip betwe5 two factors4 ,!re might be a /rong influ5ce mak+ = negative correlation1 & at ! same "t an equally /rong influ5ce mak+ = positive correlation1 :i* might1 by j c\nt]balanc+ ea* o!r1 produce a spuri\s effect ( no connection at all1 namely1 a coeffici5t ( #j4jj4 ,footnote #d3 ,a curi\s case ( negative correlation betwe5 cancellation & o!r te/s has be5 report$ by ,mc,call 7see ref]5ces74 ,footnote #e3 8,insanity0 & 8dem5tia0 seem to be synonym\s1 z us$ by ,h>t & ,spe>man4 ,b 9 ,am]ican texts 8dem5tia0 is limit$ to mean intellectual det]ioration4 ,footnote #f3 ,because ( ! probabilities 9 die-ca/+1 e s+le value = r$ w\ld h ! same m$ian value among ! ?r[s ( yell[1 :i* turn up 9 connection ) x1 if en\gh ?r[s are made4 ,?is is n :at happ5s 9 measur+ m5tal traits4 ,= any s+le value1 high or l[1 9 "o function1 ! m$ian ( repeat$ measures 9 ! o!r function is v diff]5t1 = mo/ traits1 f ! m$ian = o!r values4 ,footnote #g3 ,= explanation ( te*nical t]ms see ,mc,call's ,h[ to ,measure 9 ,education4 ,footnote #h3 ,?is sugge/ion orig9at$ ) a colleague ( ! pres5t writ]1 :o is work+ ^u alli$ problems4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,ref]5ce to ,ladd & ,woodwor?4 ,footnote #aj3 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t *ildr5 & adults ( almo/ any bir?day age may be at ?is g5]al intellig5ce level4 ,footnote #aa3 ,if alt]nates are c\nt$ in/ead ( ! f\r te/s :i* directly involve read+ or spell+1 ^! ,,iq's become #hh1 #he1 #hg1 respectively4 ,footnote #ab3 ,= all practical purposes1 ,,iq's diff]+ f ea* o!r by n m ?an #e po9ts are equal4 ,footnote #ac3 ,fildes' subjects rang$ 9 bir?day age f #i to #af ye>s4 ,9 criticism x %\ld be /at$ t correlation betwe5 ,,iq & ability to read _c be cle>ly int]pret$ unless an array ( bir?day ages is giv5 9 conjunction4 ,fildes does n give su* an array4 ,footnote #ad3 ,! sub/ance ( discussion "u ?is topic is repr9t$ by c\rtesy ( ! ,tea*]s ,college ,record1 f ! issue ( t j\rnal = ,m>*1 #aiai4 ,footnote #ae3 ,quot$ by p]mission ( ! ,atlantic ,mon?ly ,press4 ,footnote #af3 ,bidd] di$ at #gb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,! writ] is indebt$ to ,miss ,mabel ,r4 ,goodl&]1 ,r's tea*] 9 ! f\r? grade1 = ?is report4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes ,page ,*ang$ f ,*ang$ to #ig ,s*rck1 ,g4--8,ub] kong5itale ,s*rck1 ,g4--8b] kong5itale ,wortbl9dkeit02 ,kl9is*e ,wortbl9dheit02 ,kl9is*e ,monatsblatt ,monatsbltt] #aii hir$ tutors4 ,x is true t hir$ tutors4 ,x is true t ! pubic c]emonies may1 ! public c]emonies may1 p]haps p]haps ,typos fix$2 non-/&>d spell+ & dialect reta9$4 ,us$ numb]s = footnotes1 plac+ !m all at ! end ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 ,enclos$ bold or blacklett] font 9 equals4 ,! c>et 77 s]ves z a sup]script indicator1 applicable to individual *>act]s 7l #b;d74