,experimental ,education ,series ,,edited ,,by ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,shea ,,special ,,talents ,,and ,,defects ,illustration3 ,the ,,mm ,co4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,special ,,talents ,,and ,,defects ,their ,significance for ,education ,,by ,,leta ,s4 ,,hollingworth1 ,,ph4,d4 ,associate ,professor of ,education ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aibc ,all rights reserved ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,copyright1 #aibc ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,august1 #aibc4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,ruth ,,elinor ,,stetter ,a ,,good ,,teacher ,,preface ,this book has proceeded haltingly1 as must be evident in many places1 for it attempts to explore and describe a field that is not well illuminated4 ,the actual examination of those mental functions which are relatively dissociated from general intelligence has not been carried far by experimentalists4 ,however1 the problems have been sufficiently formulated1 and enough evidence has been secured1 to warrant attempts at gleaning implications for education1 even now4 ,mine is the comparatively humble task of bringing together in an ordered presentation the works of original investigators1 in such a way that they will be available for application4 ,the appeal of the data is above all to educators1 but also1 of course1 to those who deal in any office with human beings4 ,the chief difficulty in organizing the subject has been to delimit it1 as regards the psychology of the elementary school subjects on the one hand1 and mental measurement on the other4 ,it is not the purpose to cover either of these fields in the present volume4 ,yet so closely are they related to the study of special aptitudes in school children that it will be scarcely possible to obtain the very clearest view of what is here written without additional knowledge of these matters4 ,it will be observed1 also1 that there has been no attempt here to teach introductory psychology4 ,it is assumed that readers of this volume will be acquainted with the vocabulary of elementary psychology4 ,the time has definitely passed when it was either feasible or desirable to present all topics in a single volume4 ,those who would learn what modern educational psychology has to teach now expect1 first of all1 to equip themselves by study of a general introductory text4 ,the lists of references are selected1 not complete4 ,to present complete bibliographies of all works bearing immediately or remotely upon every topic treated would cumber the volume inexcusably4 ,references have been selected for these lists because they are historically indispensable1 because they contain information of fundamental importance1 or because they summarize much previous work4 ,i believe that the selection is such that from the books and articles listed it will be possible for the student who wishes to do so1 to construct the complete bibliography and history of each topic1 up to the present time4 ,the hundreds of teachers who have sat in the lecture room of ,professor ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike will see how many guiding suggestions for this volume have come from that source4 ,professor ,w4 ,a4 ,mc,call has given counsel on certain chapters4 ,many investigators and publishers have extended courtesies1 which are acknowledged through the references1 and to which attention is here gratefully directed4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,john ,s4 ,richards1 ,medical ,superintendent of ,the ,children's ,hospital1 ,randall's ,island1 ,new ,york1 and to ,mr4 ,l4 ,l4 ,kolburne1 student at ,teachers ,college1 for assistance in securing illustrative material for ,chapter ,,vii4 ,finally1 ,i have enjoyed the advantage of editorial supervision by ,professor ,m4 ,v4 ,o',shea4 ,my chief hope for the volume is that it may contribute toward the welfare of school children compelled to attend upon prescribed education1 without due regard for their idiosyncrasies of original endowment4 ,,leta ,s4 ,,hollingworth ,,teachers ,,college ,,columbia ,,university ,may1 #aibc ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,preface vii ,,editor',s ,,introduction xvii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,discussion #a ,speculation ,concerning the ,nature of ,ability4 ,results of ,quantitative ,investigation4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,relationships ,,among ,,capacities #aa ,the ,coefficient of ,correlation4 ,general ,intelligence vs4 ,special ,aptitudes4 ,correlation of ,abilities in ,various ,groups4 ,studies of ,disorganizing ,minds4 ,is ,intellect ,inherited as a ,unit8 ,can an ,intellect ,be ,trained as a ,unit8 ,the ,hierarchy of ,abilities4 ,present ,status of the ,problem4 ,measurement of ,general ,intelligence3 ,the ,,iq4 ,measurement of ,special ,ability4 ,the ,psychographic ,picture of ,individuality4 ,at ,what ,age ,is ,mental ,endowment ,evident8 ,the ,frequency of ,marked ,special ,talents and ,defects4 ,possible ,origin of the ,dissociation of ,certain ,capacities4 ,,iii4 ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,neural ,,basis #di ,the ,physiological ,mechanism of ,mental ,life4 ,attempted ,localization of ,mental ,functions4 ,theory of ,congenital ,lesion or ,atrophy ,criticized4 ,regeneration of ,function without ,regeneration of ,structure in ,injured ,brains4 ,attempts to ,establish a ,neural ,basis for the 8,two ,factor ,theory0 and the 8,two ,level ,theory40 ,present ,status of the ,problem4 ,,iv4 ,,reading #eg ,relation between ,,iq and ,capacity for ,reading4 ,the ,mechanics of ,reading4 ,comprehension in ,reading4 ,word ,blindness4 ,psychological ,studies of ,special ,defect in ,reading4 ,nervous ,instability and ,special ,defect in ,reading4 ,a ,four-,year ,study of a ,non-,reader4 ,summary of ,studies of ,non-,readers4 ,cases of ,special ,ability in ,reading4 ,the ,significance of ,literacy4 ,v4 ,,spelling #ih ,coherence among ,linguistic ,functions4 ,analysis of ,learning to ,spell4 ,psychological ,examination of ,poor ,spellers4 ,can ,special ,defect in ,spelling ,be ,overcome8 ,does ,reading ,teach ,spelling8 ,illustrative ,cases4 ,,vi4 ,,arithmetic #aad ,relation between ,,iq and ,capacity for ,arithmetic4 ,distinction between ,arithmetic and ,mathematics4 ,the ,psychology of ,arithmetical ,calculation4 ,the ,organization of ,arithmetical ,abilities4 ,psychological ,studies of ,special ,deficiency in ,arithmetic4 ,methods of ,detecting ,wrong or ,incomplete ,habits4 ,nervous ,instability and ,special ,deficiency in ,arithmetic4 ,arithmetical ,prodigies4 ,arithmetical ,ability of ,two ,children of ,,iq #ahd and ,,iq #ahg 7,stanford-,binet74 ,the ,inheritance of ,arithmetical ,abilities4 ,implications for ,education4 ,,vii4 ,,drawing #ada ,the ,various ,kinds of ,drawing4 ,ramifications of ,drawing through the ,curriculum4 ,psychological ,analysis of ,talent in ,drawing4 ,relation between ,aptitude in ,drawing and ,general ,intelligence4 ,the ,color-,blind4 ,illustrative ,cases4 ,inheritance of ,talent in ,drawing4 ,general ,summary4 ,,viii4 ,,music #afd ,what ,is ,music8 ,the ,various ,kinds of ,music4 ,the ,analysis of ,musical ,talent4 ,relation among ,various ,elements of ,musical ,talent4 ,relation between ,musical ,talent and ,general ,intelligence4 ,absolute ,pitch4 ,tone ,deafness4 ,range of ,individual ,differences4 ,can ,musical ,capacity ,be ,increased by ,education8 ,the ,inheritance of ,musical ,talent4 ,psychographic ,study of ,individuals4 ,capacity to ,appreciate ,music4 ,,ix4 ,,miscellaneous #ahc ,special ,functions ,which ,have ,not ,been ,long ,studied4 ,left-,handedness4 ,mirror ,writing4 ,mechanical ,ability4 ,ability to ,lead and ,handle ,people4 ,x4 ,,individuality ,,and ,,education #aif ,the ,values of ,individuality4 ,compulsory ,education4 ,the ,importance of ,general ,intelligence for ,school ,progress4 ,special ,abilities and ,disabilities as ,determinants of ,school ,progress4 ,experimental ,attempts to ,individualize ,education4 ,the ,cost of ,fostering ,individuality4 ,the ,probable ,rewards of ,individualizing ,education4 ,,table ,,of ,,figures ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,distribution of ability to discriminate among intervals of time1 the subjects being adults4 7,from ,seashore's ,the ,psychology of ,musical ,talent4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,silver1 ,burdett and ,company1 and of the ,columbia ,graphophone ,company47 #h #b4 ,flight of birds1 illustrating distribution in ability to fly4 7,schematic47 #i #c4 ,the psychograph of a schoolboy1 showing his standing in various mental functions2 illustrating use of the horizontal line to denote typical performance4 7,from ,hollingworth's ,judging ,human ,character4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,d4 ,appleton and ,company47 #ci #d4 ,the psychographs of three schoolgirls1 showing their standings in various mental functions1 measured to determine mathematical ability2 illustrating use of the vertical line to denote typical performance4 7,from ,tests of ,mathematical ,ability and ,their ,prognostic ,value4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,agnes ,l4 ,rogers47 #dj #e4 ,the psychograph of a schoolboy1 showing his standing in various mental functions2 illustrating use of the circle as a diagram1 the median circumference denoting the typical performance of his age #da #f4 ,showing how ,x improved as measured by ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 from ,feb41 #aiah1 to ,dec41 #aiba #gg-ha #g4 ,showing ,x's improvement in silent reading1 from ,april #ae1 #aiba1 to ,dec4 #b1 #aiba1 as measured by ,thorndike-,mc,call 8,reading ,scale10 ,form ,i #hb-hc #h4 ,showing ,x's ability to get meaning from printed words1 in ,may1 #aibb1 as tested by ,haggerty's 8,sigma #a10 for grades #a to #c #hd #i4 ,showing an account written by ,x of his week's reading #hf #aj4 ,composition written at school by ,x in ,december1 #aibj1 showing deficiencies in spelling #ajg #aa4 ,letter written by ,x showing how he could spell by use of dictionary #ajh #ab4 ,showing efforts to spell of a #ad-year-old schoolboy1 of ,,iq #ic1 after eight years of school instruction4 ,illustrating extreme dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence #aaj #ac4 ,showing spelling of a #ab-year-old girl1 of ,,iq #ei1 after six years of instruction4 ,illustrating extreme dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence #aaa #ad4 ,showing spelling of a child #i years #aj months old1 with ,,iq #adc1 after three years of instruction4 ,illustrating dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence #aab #ae4 ,showing ,d's calculations on ,test #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #aj years #aa months1 five minutes being allowed for the performance #acb #af4 ,showing ,d's calculations on ,test #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #aj years #aa months1 three minutes being allowed for the performance #acc #ag4 ,showing ,r's calculations on ,test #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #g years #f months1 five minutes being allowed for the performance #ace #ah4 ,showing ,r's calculations on ,test #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #g years #f months1 three minutes being allowed for the performance #acf #ai4 ,showing the psychograph of a stupid child1 who has a special ability in representative drawing4 7,from ,manuel's ,a ,study of ,talent in ,drawing4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,the ,public ,school ,publishing ,company47 #aee #bj4 ,showing special ability in drawing of a #ad-year-old boy1 of ,,iq near #gj #aef #ba4 ,showing special ability in drawing of a #ad-year-old boy1 of ,,iq near #gj #aeg #bb4 ,showing the special ability to cut silhouettes1 of a feeble-minded man1 inmate of an institution for mental defectives #aei #bc4 ,charlie ,chaplin pursuing a gentleman1 and pursued by a policeman4 ,showing the special ability to draw1 of a feeble-minded man1 in an institution for mental defectives #afj #bd4 ,showing attempts by two distinguished university professors to cut silhouettes of an elephant #afa #be4 ,psychograph of ,g1 showing special ability in music and drawing combined with mediocre intelligence #agg #bf4 ,psychograph of ,m1 showing special defect in music combined with very superior general intelligence #agi #bg4 ,showing mirror writing by public school pupils4 7,from ,beeley's ,an ,experimental ,study of ,left-,handedness4 ,reproduced by courtesy of the ,university of ,chicago ,press47 #ahi ,,editor',s ,,introduction ,when the writer of this introductory note began teaching1 it was popularly believed that a pupil who showed special excellence in intellectual work or in some particular study owed his superiority to a faithful and energetic will which held him to his tasks until he had mastered them thoroughly4 ,it was generally believed1 also1 that marked deficiency in school work as a whole or in a special subject was due principally to a lethargic or indifferent will which could not resist distractions and temptations to self-indulgence4 ,in those days1 pupils were upbraided and even physically chastised if they failed to prepare the lessons which were prescribed for them in any study4 ,the writer has often seen pupils whipped because they failed in their spelling1 arithmetic1 reading1 history1 or grammar4 ,when punishment was administered in the school it was frequently repeated in the home1 since parents quite generally entertained the view that failure to perform intellectual tasks satisfactorily was due to negligence or laziness1 and it was thought that the best way to correct such delinquency was to arouse the will1 usually by means of dermal stimulation4 ,in his early experience as a teacher1 the writer never heard1 either in training classes or in teachers' institutes1 that pupils possessed special talents or defects which were certain to be manifested in their school work because they were established by native endowment which could not be modified to any large extent by rewards or penalties4 ,but we are gradually abandoning the view that either brightness or dullness in general or in special directions is due primarily to volitional control or the absence of it4 ,during the last few years1 experimental studies have impressed the principle that individuals differ in their inheritance of special capacities4 ,dr4 ,hollingworth shows in this volume how far we have gone in the detection of special talents and defects1 with particular regard to the work of the school4 ,she shows in preliminary discussion what notions people have entertained regarding the nature of ability1 and then she discusses methods of measuring ability1 alike of a general and of a special sort4 ,she discusses the bases for differences among individuals in ability in respect to various intellectual traits or functions4 ,then she presents in detail what is known to-day regarding special talents and defects as revealed in the more important subjects taught in the schools4 ,we believe in these times that the school should to the fullest extent provide opportunities for each pupil to develop his talents as completely and as rapidly as possible4 ,it is still required in most public schools1 though1 that pupils in any group should be kept quite close together in their educational progress1 even when they show marked differences in ability in particular subjects or in the entire work of the school4 ,but the pressure is becoming constantly greater to arrange school programs so that pupils may go forward as rapidly as their abilities1 either general or special1 will enable them to do1 while those who are deficient may receive help according to their needs4 ,there are already a number of experimental schools and school systems in which the principle of individual differences in ability is recognized and applied to a greater or less extent4 ,one may safely predict that we shall find a way in time so that the principle may be recognized and applied in all public schools4 ,dr4 ,hollingworth's book lays a sound foundation for the differentiation of pupils in a school or classroom according to special abilities or deficiencies4 ,it can be read by teachers who have not had extensive study of educational psychology or statistical methods of investigating such problems as are treated in this volume4 ,the book is written in a graceful style1 and technical matters are discussed in an unusually clear1 simple1 and attractive way4 ,it may be confidently asserted that any teacher who has charge of thirty or forty pupils--or a smaller or larger number--will be helped to understand individual traits of excellence or deficiency if she will read what ,dr4 ,hollingworth has presented in this volume4 ,it may be safely stated1 also1 that a teacher will be more sympathetic toward pupils who experience difficulty in mastering special subjects of study if she will become familiar with the facts and conclusions which this book contains4 ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,shea ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin ,may1 #aibc ,,special ,,talents ,,and ,,defects ,,chapter ,i ,,preliminary ,,discussion ,i4 ,,speculation ,,concerning ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,ability ,since reflective men began to record their speculations1 theories have been expressed concerning the nature and relationships of mental functions4 ,plato in ,the ,republic contemplated the importance of knowledge in this field4 8,come now and we will ask you a question3 when you spoke of a nature gifted or not gifted in any respect1 did you mean to say that one man will acquire a thing easily1 another with difficulty2 a little learning will lead the one to discover a great deal2 whereas the other1 after much study and application1 no sooner learns than he forgets2 or1 again1 did you mean that the one has a body which is a good servant to his mind1 while the body of the other is a hindrance to him8 ,would not these be the sort of differences which would distinguish the man gifted by nature from the one who is ungifted80 ,in ,the ,republic the use of mental tests to discover the caliber of the mind is foretold4 8,we must watch them from their youth upwards1 and make them perform actions in which they are most likely to forget or to be deceived1 and he who remembers and is not deceived is to be selected1 and he who fails in the trial is to be rejected4 ,that will be the way80 ,aside from the speculations of scholars1 folk notions as expressed in proverbs are interesting1 especially as showing what men wish were true concerning human talents and defects4 ,many of these proverbs embody the idea of a compensatory distribution of abilities3 if ,i am weak in one respect1 ,i am sure to be strong in another2 if ,i am a failure now1 ,i shall probably be a success later on4 8,every dog has his day40 8,homely in the cradle1 handsome at the table40 8,slow but sure40 8,easy come1 easy go40 ,this doctrine of compensation satisfies certain cravings of human nature1 and is therefore likely to be held wherever people have not given impartial attention to the results of experimental investigation4 ,folk-wisdom has also seen men under mental types4 ,according to the theory of types1 the human species is divided into separate categories1 with respect to mental constitution4 ,there would thus be the musical and the unmusical1 the quick and the slow1 the imaginative and the unimaginative1 the eye-minded and the ear-minded1 and so forth4 ,the observable complexities of behavior have further led to the description of a given person by a combination of type-terms1 as1 for example1 8quick-musical-imaginative10 or 8mathematical-accurate-unimaginative40 ,persons thus classified by types1 are thought to be of 8different kinds10 8equal0 but 8unlike40 ,two persons are thus compared as an apple is compared to an orange4 ,both fruits are 8equal10 but of 8different types40 ,people1 according to this conception of human nature1 are not thought of as differing from each other simply in amount1 as an apple is compared with a larger1 a smaller1 or a sweeter apple4 ,comparison in terms of amount is disagreeable in some respects1 so that uncontrolled speculation would surely tend to favor the theory of distinct types4 ,type-terms have also been invented for temperament1--sanguine1 choleric1 melancholic1 phlegmatic4 ,the idea underlying this classification is that everyone belongs to one or another of these distinct temperamental types1 and1 furthermore1 that there is a relationship among types which warrants fixed hyphenated categories4 ,the mental traits or 8faculties0 thus classified and hyphenated are conceived as entities1 having each its distinct existence in the individual mind1 and being susceptible to general training and strengthening1 by prescribed exercises4 ,thus it has been believed that 8the observation0 may be developed by exercises with particular materials1 so that all materials whatsoever will be observed equally or approximately as well4 ,speculation has been much occupied1 as the history of human thought shows1 with the problem of the origin of individual endowment4 ,many different possible explanations were proposed1 before the day of quantitative measurement in psychology4 ,it has been surmised that mental endowment is the result of prenatal influences1 the wishes and environment of the mother1 during the period of gestation2 or that it is the result of education2 or that it arises from the physical accidents met with by the organism2 or that it may be inherited from ancestors1 as physical traits rather obviously are4 ,on the whole1 speculation has favored the notion that mental endowment originates in the environment4 ,the idea that ability is hereditary1 determined for each by the conditions of ancestry1 is repugnant4 ,man prefers to consider that he can himself determine what he will do and be4 ,this doctrine will not be tenable if it is admitted that talents and deficiencies are determined in the germ-plasm1 from which the organism springs2 that man can only use1 not choose1 his mental endowment4 ,,ii4 ,,results ,,of ,,quantitative ,,investigation ,many of the cherished hopes and desires of mankind concerning itself are in some part violated by the teachings of scientific psychology4 ,experimental psychology is not yet half a century old1 dating its beginning as a technical science from the founding of ,wundt's laboratory at ,leipzig1 in #ahgi4 ,therefore1 it is clear that the study of these problems by quantitative methods brings us very close to the present day4 ,when the problem of measuring mental capacity was first taken into the laboratory1 the modern definition of a mental function began to be formulated4 ,it became apparent that a mind must be judged by its product4 ,the measurement of performance is the only approach there is1 or probably ever will be1 to the measurement of mind4 ,on this basis it was found impossible to identify or measure any such function as 8the reason10 8the memory10 8the observation10 8the imagination10 8the will10 and similar supposed entities4 ,a mental function came to be defined as 8an actually or possibly observable event in behavior40 ,thus1 memorizing digits1 detecting absurdities1 and reading ,english print are examples of mental functions1 in the sense in which the term is used throughout the chapters of this discussion4 ,other terms which are used to refer to performances or 8events in behavior10 are abilities and capacities4 ,a prolonged discussion might be conducted1 in an attempt to assign different technical meanings to these words1 and to bring out fine shades of distinction among them4 ,for instance1 it might be claimed that 8ability0 should be reserved to signify capacity plus the skill acquired by practice1 if any2 while 8capacity0 should mean the innate aptitude1 apart from all training4 ,however1 since capacity in this sense can never be known1 but can only be inferred from the degree of actual performance1 under controlled conditions1 it hardly seems necessary to maintain such distinctions for our purpose4 ,refinements of nomenclature will1 therefore1 be avoided1 and the terms mental function1 capacity1 and ability will be used interchangeably1 to denote performance which depends on the inborn integrity and sensitivity of the individual4 ,by way of clarifying the definition of a mental function as 8an actually or possibly observable event in behavior10 we may quote from ,spearman's presentation of the distinction between 8observation0 as a mental function1 and 8observation of birds' nests40 ,spearman says3 8,suppose1 for instance1 that a school boy has surpassed his fellows in the observation of birds' nests4 ,his victory has1 no doubt1 depended in part on his capacity for the general form of activity known as #8observation4' ,but it has also depended on his being able to apply this form of activity to the matter of birds' nests2 had the question been of tarts in the pastry cook's window1 the laurels might well have fallen to another boy4 ,a further influence must have been exercised by the accompanying circumstances2 to spy out nests as they lie concealed in the foliage is not the same thing as to make observations concerning them in the open light of a natural history museum4 ,again1 to discover nests at leisure is different from doing so under the severe speed limits prescribed by the risk of an interrupting gamekeeper4 ,the boy's rank may even depend largely on the manner of estimating merit4 ,marks may be given either for the gross number or for the rarity of the nests observed2 and he who most infallibly notes the obvious construction of the house-sparrow may not be the best at detecting the elusive hole of the kingfisher40 ,one cannot1 therefore1 identify and measure 8observation40 ,one can only measure 8observing birds' nests1 of all kinds1 at leisure10 or 8observing rare birds' nests1 under stress of pursuit10 and so forth1 which are 8actual or possible events in behavior40 ,as one may glean further from ,spearman's discourse1 it has been shown that most of the mental functions performed by men are not elementary1 but consist of the cordination of complex factors1 capable of analysis4 ,reading the ,english word 8cat0 from a printed page is1 for instance1 a very complex function4 ,the application of quantitative methods to the study of mental functions as thus defined1 quickly revealed the fact that human beings1 sampled at random1 in large numbers1 do not fall into distinct types4 ,on the contrary1 they yield one unbroken curve of distribution in the function measured1 clustering around a single type 7or mode74 ,in all mental functions which have been measured1 there has been found but one type--the average human type--from which the individual members of the species deviate in degree 7though not in kind74 ,the majority of individuals deviate but slightly from this biologically established type or mode4 8,the typical0 in ability is1 indeed1 by definition1 what the greatest number of people can do4 ,from this performance of the average or typical person1 a few individuals deviate widely in the direction of superiority1 while a corresponding few deviate widely in the direction of inferiority4 ,no doubt the conspicuousness1 because of their infrequency1 of extreme deviates in respect to any given function 7or capacity7 has led to the notion of separate types of mankind4 ,mental measurement shows clearly that men cluster closely around one type in mental traits1 just as they do in such physical traits as height and weight4 ,all men can be no more divided into the dull and the bright1 than they can be divided into the tall and the short4 ,the eye can see that most persons are best described as medium1 in height4 ,this principle of one type1 with deviations in both directions from it1 in a measured trait1 holds throughout organic nature4 ,the study of it in all its bearings is called the study of individual differences4 ,when the traits involved are mental1 we speak of the psychology of individual differences4 ,it is one of the marvelous facts about human beings that of all the millions born1 no two are just equal in possession of a given trait1 except by chance2 and no two are identical in their combinations of traits1 for the infinite possibilities of permutation practically exclude identity by chance4 ,these combinations1 which go to make up personality1 are combinations of amounts of the same traits4 ,this must be clearly understood4 ,the mental classification of men under different 8kinds0 is a myth4 ,all show the same kinds of functions2 but they show all degrees of performance in these functions1 within limits which are extremely wide1 with multitudinous possibilities of combinations of functions1 in different amounts of each4 ,there are1 therefore1 not types4 ,there is one type--the typical or most frequently occurring amount of performance in a function--from which there is divergence among the individuals born1 in various degrees4 ,is it possible to construct a picture of this fact1 so that it may become concrete through visual representation8 ,psychologists have given us many such pictures1 in the forms of curves platted from their measurements4 ,we may cite as an example1 ,seashore's curve of distribution for the ability to discriminate among intervals of time1 which is one element in musical sensitivity4 ,seashore measured a large number of adults in this respect1 with the result that is pictured in ,figure #a4 ,where the curve rises to its greatest height1 at its peak1 there the greatest number of those measured fall in respect to this function4 ,that is1 therefore1 the human type1 in sense of time4 ,the typical individual has that amount of this trait4 ,on each side of the type fall deviating persons1 their frequency decreasing rapidly as the amount of deviation becomes greater4 ,very few persons in ten thousand have that amount of sensitivity to time represented by #ie-ajj2 and1 on the other hand1 very few are so inferior as to fall at the lowest point measurable on this scale4 ,the typical person has that amount of the trait represented by #he-ge1 approximately4 ,distinct types1 such as 8sensitive0 and 8insensitive10 do not appear1 as a result of mathematical distribution4 ,but a few extreme deviates from the typical appear1--the superior in sensitivity and the inferior in sensitivity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,distribution of ability to discriminate among intervals of time1 the subjects being adults4 7,from ,seashore's ,the ,psychology of ,musical ,talent4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,silver1 ,burdett and ,company1 and of ,the ,columbia ,graphophone ,company47 ,occasionally it is possible to illustrate in nature1 to the eye of the man untutored in the derivation of scientific laws1 the form of this distribution4 ,this happens1 for example1 when a very large flock of birds rises and passes overhead1 during migration4 ,being tested in flight1 the birds will be seen distributed somewhat as suggested in ,figure #b4 ,not all are equally swift and enduring1 but they deviate from a single type or mode--the great median mass of birds1 which are typical of this species1 in respect to the function of flight4 ,the same phenomena of distribution appear if a thousand wild horses run a race1 or if a hundred unselected swimmers swim in competition4 ,they appear whenever non-select organisms of a single species are submitted to an adequate test or measure of any function of endowment4 ,the curve approximates that form which mathematicians tell us results when an infinite number of factors act together in an infinite number of ways4 ,we have spoken thus far of the distribution of individuals in a single kind of performance4 ,what does quantitative psychology teach with respect to the combination of performances in a given personality8 ,is it true1 as folk-wishes would have it1 that abilities are distributed among us by a law of compensation8 ,is the slow man's slowness offset by accuracy8 ,does the quick learner lose his learning more readily than the slow learner8 ,is he who excels in arithmetic likely to be surpassed at spelling8 ,the general consideration of these questions1 which form the topics of this volume1 will be found in the chapter which follows4 ,it will be seen that there is no law of compensation in human ability1 however much we may long to find it there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,flight of birds1 illustrating distribution in ability to fly4 7,schematic47 ,as for the origin of talents and defects1 psychology teaches that mental endowment in human beings is conditioned by ancestry1 just as other traits of organisms are4 ,mental capacities are inherited through the germ-plasm4 ,a child is gifted 7if he is so7 for the same reason that he is an ,eskimo 7if he is one7--because some or all of his ancestors carried those traits in their germ-plasm1 and the combination of them in just that way was possible4 ,,references ,,meumann1 ,e4--,vorlesungen zur ,einfhrung in die experimentelle ,pdagogik2 ,engelmann1 ,leipzig1 #aiad4 ,,seashore1 ,c4--,measures of ,musical ,talent2 ,columbia ,graphophone ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,stern1 ,w4--,die differentielle ,psychologie2 ,barth1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,educational ,psychology2 #c vols4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiac4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,relationships ,,among ,,capacities ,i4 ,,the ,,coefficient ,,of ,,correlation ,the question is3 ,how are mental capacities mutually related1 with regard to amounts of each found in given individuals8 ,before verifiable facts can be established in a field of knowledge1 it is necessary to introduce therein methods of enumeration and measurement4 ,the question above propounded has waited long for answer1 because of the great difficulty of applying mathematics to mental phenomena4 ,the answer required first that single functions be accurately scored1 and then that a measurement be obtained of the relationship between and among the single functions4 ,it seems well agreed that the quantitative determination of the relationship between and among mental characteristics began with ,galton1 about #ahhe4 ,various scholars have presented discussions of the subject since then1 notably ,baerwald in #ahif1 ,spearman in #aijd1 ,stern in #aiaa1 ,meumann in #aiac1 and ,thorndike in #aiac1 each of whom summarized the findings up to the time of writing1 with original interpretations4 ,the methods of quantitative measurement used to study the constitution of mental abilities1 or functions1 as related to each other1 are chiefly those of correlation--simple correlation1 multiple correlation1 and partial correlation4 ,it is not within the scope of the present volume to give consideration to these methods as such4 ,highly technical instruction in the theory and practice of measurement is necessary for complete understanding of them4 ,the results may be comprehended for our purposes1 without complete knowledge of the methods4 ,much of the evidence we now have in the matter of relationships among mental functions has been obtained by the method of simple correlation4 ,a brief exposition of how a relationship is established between two variable functions within a group1 by simple correlation1 will suffice to give a general understanding of the term coefficient of correlation1 which is used here1 and which frequently appears in modern texts of educational psychology4 ,the interpretation of coefficients of correlation should not1 however1 be undertaken independently without full knowledge1 as competent interpretation for practical purposes must take into account all the conditions under which they have been derived4 ,below are listed fourteen school children1 each of whom has been measured in each of two mental functions3 7#a7 mental age1 determined by a standard scale for measuring general intelligence 7,stanford-,binet71 and 7#b7 spelling ability1 as measured by a standard spelling scale 7,ayres' scale74 ,these children were selected for study1 because they appeared to be characterized by special discrepancy between the two functions4 ,we wish now to know whether and to what extent the child who falls high in the distribution of mental ages also falls high in the distribution of spelling ability4 ,according to the formula which is most useful in this case1#a we arrange these pupils in their order of merit for one of the functions measured1 e4g4 for mental age4 ,we then find the rank for each1 within the group1 in the second function1 which is here spelling ability4 ,the difference in rank between the paired functions is then found for each pupil1 and the correlation formula is applied4#b ,,table ,,from ,,hollingworth ,showing rank in each of two mental functions1 within a group of fifth grade children1 selected for special disability in spelling4 ,the coefficient of correlation obtained is 4#jha4 ,,name ,,mental ,,age ,,spelling ,,ability ,,yrs4 ,,mos4 ,,per ,,cent ,,correct 7,,stanford-,,binet7 ,,lists ,q ,,and ,r 7,,ayres7 ,,rl #ac #g #ij4a ,,jp #ab #e #ie4b ,,ha #ab #b #ha4g ,,mg #aa #f #ca4g ,,lk #aj #aj #hj4b ,s,sh #aj #aj #gg4i ,s,sc #aj #i #ha4h ,,ms #aj #i #cd4a ,,pj #aj #d #cb4f ,,hl #aj #a #eh4i ,,rh #i #h #ic4a ,,mu #i #h #eg4j ,,bn #i #f #ib4a ,,hr #h #c #ha4h ,if there is in fact perfect correspondence1 so that each pupil holds the same rank on the distribution in both functions1 a perfect positive correlation is obtained1 the coefficient of correlation being expressed as #a4jj4 ,if no relationship at all exists between the two functions measured1 so that nothing whatever can be predicted of either from knowing about the other1 the coefficient of correlation will be #j4jjc ,if there exists a perfect negative relationship1 so that the person who stands highest in one stands lowest in the other1 and so forth through the series1 in a perfect inverse standing of all members1 then a coefficient of correlation expressed by #a4jj is obtained4 ,in the sample given1 the coefficient of correlation obtained is 4#jha1 which not being reliably greater than zero 7because of possible error due to the smallness of the group and other conditions7 tells us that the two functions are in this case related to each other only very slightly1 if at all4 ,the child who stands above the average of the group in mental age1 may or may not stand above the group average in spelling4 ,with a relationship so far from unity as is expressed by a coefficient of 4#jha1 we may expect to find in this group comparatively intelligent children who are very poor spellers1 and good spellers who stand low in mental age4 ,among children taken at random1 however1 a different relationship exists between spelling ability and general intelligence1 as represented by mental age4 ,the positive correlation is much higher among children not selected1 as these were1 for an observed discrepancy4 ,at the present time the more elaborate methods of partial correlation and multiple correlation are being applied to the study of relationships1 where more than two functions are involved4 ,into the intricacies of these we shall not enter1 except as concerns their results4 ,,ii4 ,,general ,,intelligence vs4 ,,special ,,aptitudes ,the original attempts to apply mathematical formul to the study of relationship among mental traits eventuated in divergent hypotheses4 ,in ,england1 ,spearman1 with his students and collaborators1 interpreted his researches to mean that there is in mental constitution a 8general factor10 which shows itself in all the performances of a given individual4 ,this would render relatively predictable the quality of performance in all functions1 from knowledge of performance in one function4 8,all branches of intellectual activity have in common one fundamental function 7or group of functions71 whereas the remaining or specific elements of the activity seem in every case to be wholly different from that in all others4444 ,the function almost entirely controls the relative position of children at school 7after making due allowance for differences of age71 and is nine parts out of ten responsible for success in such a simple act as ,discrimination of ,pitch4444 ,its relation to the intellectual activity does not appear to be of any loosely connected or auxiliary character 7such as willingness to make an effort1 readiness in adaption to unfamiliar tests1 or dexterity in the fashion of executing them71 but rather to be intimately bound up in the very essence of the process40 ,spearman noted that1 though all functions seemed related to this 8common factor10 they were not all equally related in his results2 wherefore he formulated the concept of a hierarchy of relatedness4 ,discussion as to the essential nature of the fundamental factor was reserved1 but it was predicted from the correlations made that 8general intelligence0 could and would be measured for practical purposes4 ,this interpretation was based upon the fact that among abilities which yielded to his measurement1 ,spearman could find only positive coefficients of correlation1 when the groups were large and the human beings non-select4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,thorndike and his collaborators were most struck by the fact that the coefficients obtained fell short1 in many cases far short1 of unity4 ,they laid stress upon the imperfection of the relations revealed1 and were able to show that between some functions1 such as discriminating among the lengths of lines1 and others1 such as naming the opposites of words1 the correlation dropped in groups investigated to approximately zero4 ,as a result of interpretation from their point of view1 they wrote as follows3 8,one is almost tempted to replace ,spearman's statement by the equally extravagant one that there is nothing whatever common to all mental functions1 or to any half of them40 ,they maintained that mental functions are specialized1 and that when excellence in one is correlated with excellence in another1 8this is due chiefly to the fact that the two involve identical elements in their execution4 ,it is not due to one and the same #8faculty1' which presides over their activities40 ,these two divergent interpretations of the same array of data have been cited1 because the controversy involved is of first rate importance for mental measurement1 for the understanding of individuals1 and for education4 ,the controversy now appears to have been one of emphasis4 ,to recapitulate1 ,spearman stressed the positive aspect of the coefficients found1 and declared mental traits to be distributed so that status in one is predictable from status in another4 ,thorndike emphasized the reduction from unity of the coefficients1 and formulated the hypothesis that there is no absolutely predictable coherence among mental functions1 that each is special to itself within an individual4 ,no laboratory scientist has ever found reason for adding a third side to the controversy1 by advocating seriously that mental traits are compensatory in relation to each other4 ,negative coefficients of correlation have never been found1 except occasionally by chance or selection4#d ,all know that the correlations among amounts of traits are positive4 ,it is the reduction from unity which has caused the disagreements of interpretation4 ,during the twenty years which have elapsed since the first interpretations were set forth there have been modifications of each hypothesis1 in the direction of mutual reconciliation4 ,this has come about through extended researches by many inquirers1 furnishing additional data4 ,,iii4 ,,correlation ,,of ,,abilities ,,in ,,various ,,groups ,some of the significant studies of correlation made since ,spearman and ,thorndike proposed their conflicting interpretations1 have been cited in the appended list of references4 ,two samples of the results of these studies are herewith presented4 ,the first is from ,simpson's study of mental tests given to two groups of adults1 chosen respectively from the opposite extremes of competency1 as shown by social-economic success4 ,one group was composed of successful professional educators4 ,the other was composed of unskilled laborers and unemployed men4 ,the table on page #ah shows how the traits measured cohere among these individuals4 ,the coefficients are positive1 in the majority of cases highly so4 ,the second sample is from ,weglein's study of standing in school subjects1 among high school pupils4 ,bearing in mind that1 if no mutual relationship exists among the abilities considered1 coefficients of correlation will approach zero1 it is clear that there is decided positive1 but not perfect1 correspondence4 ,the wider the range of competence tested1 the greater the correspondence found4 ,high school pupils 7from among whom those having very little ability for the subject matter taught have already been eliminated7 show smaller coefficients than do the persons measured by ,simpson4 ,if all adolescents in existence were obliged to study the subjects listed by ,weglein1 and if the resulting grades were then correlated1 the coefficients would be notably higher than those recorded4 ,,table ,,from ,,simpson ,,pearson ,,coefficients ,,of ,,correlation 7,,corrected ,,for ,,attenuation7 ,correlations of abilities in two selected groups1 and in the two treated as one group4 ,in the case of each test the heavy-face figure given first is for the ,good and ,poor together1 divergences being measured from the median of the #cg individuals4 ,the second figure is for the ,good group1 divergences being measured from its median4 ,the third figure is for the ,poor group4 ,,ebbinghaus ,,hard ,,memory ,,easy ,a ,,memory ,,adding ,,test ,,opposites ,,of ,,opposites ,,test ,,of ,,words ,,passages #ib #ib #ge #fh #ia #ga ,ebbinghaus #ff #fg #dh #jc #db #ee test #ij #gh #ij #gf #fa #fc #ib #ib #ha #gf #hf #gd ,hard #ff #ge #ic #ae #de #gi ,opposites #ij #gg #gh #fe #fd #ea #ib #ib #fh #gj #hi #ef ,memory of #fg #ge #eb #ac #da #bj ,words #gh #gg #gj #hh #ajj #bc #ge #ha #fh #ga #fi #gj ,easy #dh #ic #eb #je #je #de ,opposites #ij #gh #gj #ea #eh #ej #fh #gf #gj #ga #fj #fg ,a ,test #jc #ae #ac #je #ad #ei #gf #fe #hh #ea #dh #ci #ia #hf #hi #fi #fj #ff ,memory of #db #de #da #je #ad #bj ,passages #fa #fd #ajj #eh #dh #ae #ga #gd #ef #gj #fg #ff ,adding #ee #gi #bj #de #ei #bj #fc #ea #bc #ej #ci #ae #ed #fd #fg #ed #id #fj #dd ,geometrical #jj #jg #jf #ch #fh #cj #ac ,forms #cf #cc #ef #cd #ia #da #ai #gb #gb #hb #dc #dd #fc #df ,learning #bb #ad #ec #jd #af #bf #ab ,pairs #gc #ff #dd #fd #gb #bb #ea #ej #gj #ea #ej #hd #ch #gg ,completing #fg #ajj #ajj #ajj #jd #ce #hf ,words #ga #di #dc #di #hh #ac #gj #bf #be #jf #ec #bg #ab #bg ,drawing #ag #aj #bc #jj #aj #bd #di ,lengths #bg #ac #ji #dc #jh #ji #je #eb #ee #ei #ef #eg #eh #ag ,estimating #bh #jh #dd #jb #aa #cf #jd ,lengths #ja #jb #af #af #ac #ce #dj ,,geometrical ,,learning ,,completing ,,drawing ,,estimating ,,forms ,,pairs ,,words ,,lengths ,,lengths #ed #gb #ej #bf #eb ,ebbinghaus #jj #bb #fg #ag #bh test #cf #gc #ga #bg #ja #fd #gb #gj #be #ee ,hard #jg #ad #ajj #aj #jh ,opposites #cc #ff #di #ac #jb #fg #hb #ea #jf #ei ,memory of #jf #ec #ajj #bc #dd ,words #ef #dd #dc #ji #af #ed #dc #ej #ec #ef ,easy #ch #jd #ajj #jj #jb ,opposites #cd #fd #di #dc #af #id #dd #hd #bg #eg ,a ,test #fh #af #jd #aj #aa #ia #gb #hh #jh #ac #fj #fc #ch #ab #eh ,memory of #cj #bf #ce #bd #cf ,passages #da #bb #ac #ji #ce #dd #df #gg #bg #ag ,adding #ac #ab #hf #di #jd #ai #ea #gj #je #dj #dj #fa #cj #ce ,geometrical #bc #jj #dj #ad ,forms #ci #cb #ad #jg #dj #cd #jd #ed ,learning #bc #gd #ch #fa ,pairs #ci #cd #bj #cf #fa #cd #ag #bb ,completing #jj #gd #jd #jf ,words #cb #cd #jj #bh #cj #jd #ag #ee ,drawing #dj #ch #jd #da ,lengths #ad #bj #jj #cd #ce #ed #bb #ee ,estimating #ad #fa #jf #da ,lengths #jg #cf #bh #cd ,,table ,,from ,,weglein ,coefficients of correlation between school subjects 7teachers' marks7 in the case of #ei high school pupils4 ,,academic ,,group ,,eng4 ,i ,,alg4 ,i ,,hist4 ,i ,,latin ,i ,,drawing ,english ,i 4#bb 4#bj 4#ai 4#cg ,algebra ,i 4#bb 4#db 4#fe 4#ji ,history ,i 4#bj 4#db 4#eg 4#ac ,latin ,i 4#ai 4#fe 4#eg 4#bb ,drawing 4#cg 4#ji 4#ac 4#bb ,,commercial ,,group ,,eng4 ,i ,,bkk4 ,,com4 ,,arith4,,stenog4,,typewr4,,drawing ,english ,i 4#fi 4#eb 4#ed 4#ej 4#ae ,bookkeeping 4#fi 4#ff 4#dh 4#ej 4#ej ,com4 ,arithmetic 4#eb 4#ff 4#ch 4#eb 4#ec ,stenography 4#ed 4#dh 4#ch 4#ea 4#ba ,typewriting 4#ej 4#ej 4#eb 4#ea 4#ca ,drawing 4#ae 4#ej 4#ec 4#ba 4#ca ,these are fair samples of the results of studies in correlation1 among mental functions1 in groups of individuals more or less select4 ,even physical traits1 like height and longevity1 have been found to give slight positive correlation with mental traits4 ,evidently there is a general organic quality1 which shows itself to some extent wherever the individual is fairly tested or 8sampled40 ,,iv4 ,,studies ,,of ,,disorganizing ,,minds ,another series of attempts at the solution of this problem has been made through observations upon deteriorating minds4 ,the question is1 ,do mental functions deteriorate together or separately in dements8 ,when a person is 8losing his mind10 is the impairment general or selective in its progress8 ,the study of demented persons had been carried on by a few investigators in the hope that the decay of capacities might throw light upon their relationships4 ,the chief obstacle to study from this approach has been that the investigators have never been able to know the original mentality of their subjects4 ,they have always been obliged to make assumptions4 ,it is difficult to see how this factor may be controlled1 short of filing careful mental analyses of great sections of the population in youth4 ,the chief conditions in which decay of ability is most probably present1 as distinguished from decay of effort and attitude1 are senile dementia1 dementia paralytica1 and alcoholic psychosis2 and it cannot be known beforehand which persons are destined to represent these conditions4 ,it cannot be predicted who will live long enough to become senile1 who will contract syphilis1 eventuating in general paresis1 or who will be a chronic alcoholic4 ,it is true that original mental status may be inferred with a moderate amount of accuracy from school status attained4 ,if the dements studied had all been high school graduates1 for instance1 then we could be certain that the performances shown in the recorded studies really represent deterioration4 ,unfortunately1 the subjects of study have been1 with rare exceptions1 persons of elementary education and humble social status4 ,they come from those sections of the education-occupation distributions1 where very limited capacity is found4 ,therefore1 we are rather uncertain as to how much deterioration from original status has really taken place4 ,so far as actual figures go1 it is not shown that there has been decay of intellect4 ,however1 assuming that these segregated persons had actually deteriorated in their ability to perform tasks1 let us inquire what the researches show4 ,binet and ,simon worked with forty adults1 classified as senile dements or as victims of dementia paralytica4 ,they conclude that 8,every dement has an intellectual level below normal10 as measured by tests of general intelligence4 ,the limitations of dements are1 nevertheless1 qualitatively different from those of other incompetents 7children and the feeble-minded72 and the reactions of the senile differ from those with dementia paralytica4 ,of the victim of dementia paralytica they say1 8,he has not tumbled down the ladder of development1 rung by rung4 ,his is a difficulty of functioning40 8,it is characteristic in these losses of functioning that the subject knows how to meet the problem submitted to him2 he has the knowledge1 but from time to time the power fails him40 ,this inertia of comprehension is general1 and has the effect of lowering the total level of performance1 though the particular items of failure and success may vary markedly from occasion to occasion4 ,it is hardly the same thing as actual decay of a structure4 ,thus one cannot predict the responses of these dements1 as one can those of other incompetents1 like children and imbeciles1 because their errors and failures have a remarkable degree of inconsistency4 8,in a general way1 one can hardly foresee how such a one is going to conduct himself1 for special failures and successes are at such variance with the general level40 8,general paralytics are hardly able to perform the hundredth part of what they know40 ,senile dements are different1 in that they actually no longer know4 ,the structure itself has been demolished1 not merely has it been paralyzed as to function4 ,according to the observations of ,binet and ,simon the abilities of senile dements as a group are by no means equally impaired4 ,they cannot remember events nor learn new things1 yet they retain the power of auto-criticism1 many complaining that they no longer 8know anything40 ,they may be degraded to the level of early childhood in ability to repeat digits1 yet retain use of the vocabulary of a superior adult4 ,these observations are extremely suggestive1 but they lack statistical validity1 being limited to narrative descriptions4 ,it is true that one who has worked much among dements in a practical way1 recognizes the pictures drawn by ,binet1 of persons decayed in some functions1 yet 8surprisingly preserved0 in others4 ,proof of the extent to which this characteristically happens would necessarily be derived from tests of large numbers of cases1 treated mathematically1 and not by the method of narrative4 ,hart and ,spearman more recently presented a study of sixty-one insane persons1#e asking the question1 8,does an insane person present1 as a rule1 much greater inequality of performance than a sane one80 ,recognizing the error from not knowing the original status of the presumably deteriorated minds1 in all the various functions to be tested1 the attempt was made to allow for this by testing in the same way thirty-three sane persons1 selected presumably to represent what the insane were like before they became alienated4 ,nineteen mental functions were thus tested1 and the results were then treated by the method of correlation1 the assumption being that if there were greater inequality among mental functions in the insane 7that is to say1 among deteriorated minds7 than among the sane1 this would show itself in diminished coefficients of correlation4 ,it is interesting to consult the original tables of data1 which1 however1 will not be presented here4 ,the conclusion reached is that 8,the inequality between the powers of the same person for different kinds of performances does not appear to be appreciably greater in insanity than in health1 nor in one of the forms of insanity tested than in another4 ,thus1 in the main1 the mental injury appears to be of a perfectly diffuse character1 or to constitute a lowering of the whole intellectual level4444 ,over and above this general impairment1 elaborate methods can also detect certain damages characteristic of particular maladies4 ,these are very narrow and specific in kind1 but probably may be correspondingly grave in intensity40 ,spearman thus again maintains his 8two factor0 theory of endowment--the 8general factor0 conditioning performance as a whole1 and 8specific factors0 conditioning certain mental functions to a much greater extent than others4 ,to determine what these special mental functions are1 ,spearman leaves to further research4 ,this careful investigation is nevertheless imperfect for the purpose1 which is to learn whether there is selective enfeeblement of abilities4 ,it is really impossible to know that deterioration has occurred1 unless there have been measurements made beforehand4 ,sane persons1 selected from the same social stratum1 are not entirely reliable as a control1 because those who are of the psychic constitution destined for insanity undoubtedly differ originally from those who remain sane1 and this difference may involve a difference in mental abilities1 either of amount or of relationship4 ,the degree of deterioration calculated by ,hart and ,spearman may be merely a matter of original differences in central tendency between the two groups4 ,here1 too1 it should be noted that ,hart and ,spearman mixed a variety of psychoses 7even including an imbecile not deteriorated so far as known71 both those that do involve actual decay of ability1 and those that involve only disturbances of general auxiliary functions1 like attitude and effort4 ,just what would be the effect of this mixing upon the correlations could be told only if we knew how each form of disorder characteristically affects the relationship among mental functions1 which is unknown4 ,if mental functions are differently selected for impairment in the different forms of psychosis1 then we should expect diminished coefficients of correlation among the insane1 because mixing the psychoses would produce inconsistency of rank within the group4 ,if1 however1 certain functions were deteriorated in all or nearly all of the insane1 others remaining intact1 or relatively so1 this selective enfeeblement would not appear in correlation coefficients4 ,facts like those observed by ,binet and ,simon might be obscured by the methods of ,hart and ,spearman4 ,moore1 working subsequent to ,hart and ,spearman1 limited his investigation to those cases believed by psychiatrists to be characterized by real loss of abilities1 the dementias3 dementia paralytica1 senile dementia1 and alcoholic dementia4 ,he tested thirty dements1 laborers and tradesmen1 and1 as controls1 six young men from the same occupational group1 in the following mental functions3 7#a7 perceiving eight each 7in a series7 of real objects1 pictures of objects1 printed words1 and spoken words1 referring to real objects of ordinary everyday experience2 7#b7 repeating after one exposure of the series as much of it as could be remembered without regard to sequence2 7#c7 after a minute of mental work at calculation1 repeating again what could then be remembered of the series4 ,moore then correlated performance within the group in each of these functions with that in each of the others4 ,the coefficients thus resulting are interpreted as follows3 8,the average of all correlations of perception with the various memories is 4#ech4444 ,that the average correlation for memory and perception is as high as 4#ech shows that there must be a common factor present4 ,but its presence does not exclude the existence of special forms of mental ability40 ,moore also correlated perceiving with remembering in the functions separately1 and remembering immediately with remembering after a minute of distraction4 ,these coefficients are positive1 and mostly high1 but not perfect4 ,the work of ,moore does not seem to go beyond knowledge already obtained from study of sane persons4 ,the coefficients do not prove that the amounts of deterioration in the functions had been equal2 or even that deterioration had taken place4 ,moore's six sane subjects were too few to constitute a control1 and are not referred to as such in treating results4 ,instead1 ,moore refers the reader to the records of subjects in preceding monographs to show that 8the low values of these subjects 7the insane7 are distinctly pathological40 ,this comparison is seen to be invalid1 for the subjects referred to as establishing the criterion of intactness are professors and university students1 almost certainly much higher in ability by original nature than the insane group4 ,assuming1 nevertheless1 here also that the subjects really had deteriorated1 the method of correlation must again be brought under criticism as ill adapted to answer questions concerning selective enfeeblement4 ,a group of senile dements1 all high school graduates1 might1 for instance1 be not at all deteriorated from their original status in the mechanics of reading1 but greatly deteriorated in the ability to tell what has been read4 ,yet correlation might result in a positive coefficient as high as that found among typical high school graduates1 if the decay in repeating matter took place in proportion to the degree of ability originally present in each individual4 ,there might be marked selective impairment1 which would be hidden in coefficients of correlation4 ,the problem of selective enfeeblement must be investigated by computing deviation in various functions from a known norm or standard in each2 and the person's original status in that function must be known4 ,for such investigation senile dements would seem to be the best subjects1 since in them there is natural decay of functions4 ,it is1 however1 difficult to find very aged deteriorated persons1 whose original status is known 7known1 at least1 to have been generally high71 and who have not some sensory or motor handicap to complicate performance1 such as deafness1 failing vision1 or palsy4 ,the net result1 for our purposes1 of studies so far made of mental decay is not very helpful1 because 7#a7 the original status of the subjects is never known1 7#b7 the psychoses have been mixed in experiment1 without preliminary test-knowledge of the characteristics of each1 if any1 and 7#c7 the method of correlation1 which has been used1 is not suited to show selective enfeeblement of mental functions4 ,every study made has suffered from one or more of these hindrances to interpretation4 ,the information gleaned from them is much the same as that already gleaned from studies of the undeteriorated1 namely1 that among people 7whether sane or insane7 those who hold a certain rank within a group in one function tend also to hold a similar rank within that group in other functions4 ,the question of selective enfeeblement of a function within a group of the insane remains unanswered4 ,the investigators of the demented have1 however1 made a particular contribution in pointing the way to a new source of light4 ,for the study of mental decay1 when carried on by adequate methods1 extremely difficult of attainment1 is sure to throw light on the relationships among mental functions4 ,from it we shall learn whether some functions remain intact1 with impairment of other functions4 ,v4 ,,is ,,intellect ,,inherited ,,as ,a ,,unit8 ,there are still other approaches to the study of the constitution of intellect4 ,one is through the investigation of heredity4 ,the question is whether intellect is inherited as a unit1 or whether some different formula is indicated4 ,if intellect is a unit character1 subject to but one determiner in the germ-plasm1 then it should act as an 8all or none0 capacity in its appearance among offspring of given matings4 ,children should be separable into distinct groups1 each having a different median with respect to intellect1 i4e4 those who have intellect and those who lack it4 ,the methods of mental measurement teach us plainly that intellect is not inherited in this way4 ,instead of a broken curve1 indicating a division of children into those who inherit and those who fail to inherit a unit character1 we obtain the curve already demonstrated1 which is continuous and symmetrical4 ,there is but one diversified group of children1 with respect to intellect--not distinct groups4 ,the inheritance of intellect does not1 therefore1 follow the simple formula of unit characters1 as does the shape of peas1 the color of rabbits' coats1 or eye-color in man4 ,the trait we measure and name as general intelligence is a complex1 resulting from the incidence of a great number of functions1 acting together in a great number of ways1 yet cohering in respect to amounts found in given individuals4 ,possibly each of the indefinitely numerous functions1 which thus appear to act together as man's intellect1 may be a unit character1 inherited according to ,mendel's formula4 ,such a possibility is at present purely speculative4 ,the puzzle is that a given individual should 8hit10 as it were1 at approximately the same point in the distribution of nearly every function4 ,,vi4 ,,can ,,an ,,intellect ,,be ,,trained ,,as ,a ,,unit8 ,studies of the learning process also give light upon the organization of capacities4 ,the question here is as to whether training in one function spreads equally to all other functions4 ,is it possible to 8train the mind0 as a whole8 ,will it raise the proficiency of all performances fifty per cent1 if a fifty per cent gain is achieved in ,latin composition8 ,numerous attempts have been made to determine the extent to which skill acquired in one performance increases skill in other performances4 ,the conclusion which emerges from these studies is that intellect cannot be trained as a unit4 ,transfer of training from one function to other functions is far from complete4 ,apparently1 there is spread of improvement from practice in a function only to such other functions as have elements in common with it4 ,if two performances differ in any way1 there is something in the second that remains untrained by the practice given to the first4 ,if two performances differ in all respects1 the second seems not to derive any benefit at all from training in the first4 ,to a very highly intelligent individual1 nearly all situations and performances tend to have some identical elements1 no doubt4 ,to a very dull person1 relatively few situations or demands present identical elements1 for the dull perceive only gross similarities and differences4 ,thus1 spread of improvement is without doubt greatest for the innately gifted1 and least for the innately inferior minds4 ,in connection with the present discussion1 however1 the chief point of interest is that no mind1 of whatever degree of innate integrity and sensitivity1 can be trained as a unit4 ,each function has elements special to itself1 and some functions are very highly specialized1 as regards the amount of transfer of training from them to others1 or from others to them4 ,the evidence from learning1 therefore1 substantiates the evidence from heredity1 indicating that intellect is not a unit1 but a complex of many capacities1 coinciding mysteriously in amount to a very marked extent in an individual4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,hierarchy ,,of ,,abilities ,it has been stated that though all1 or nearly all1 mental functions so far measured and correlated1 yield positive coefficients1 all do not show an equal amount of positive correlation4 ,certain mental functions1 for example1 are shown to yield coefficients of as much as 4#hj1 for a total correlation with others of a series2 while some yield coefficients as low as 4#aj1 approaching absence of relationship4 ,to explain these facts1 ,spearman formulated the concept of a hierarchy of relatedness to a 8general factor40 ,those abilities showing slight correlation with others in series of tests1 were thought of as but loosely related to 8general intelligence10 and as constituting 8special abilities40 ,they might be displayed by persons inferior in general1 or might be lacking in persons otherwise superior4 ,here again1 the facts are not in question4 ,it is admitted by all that functions show different amounts of positive correlation with one another1 and of total correlation with members of a series4 ,not all experts agree1 however1 with ,spearman's theoretical explanation of the phenomena4 ,thomson has recently shown1 by tossing dice of various colors1 that in this game of chance 7in which there is no 8general factor10 but only many independent factors71 hierarchical order of correlation coefficients is almost sure to be obtained1 for combinations resulting from throws4 ,thomson1 therefore1 holds that the theory of a 8general factor10 participating in all the separate performances of an individual1 is not proved from the facts about correlation coefficients4 ,he proposes the following1 regarded by him as an alternative3 8,the mind1 in carrying out any activity such as a mental test1 has two levels at which it can operate4 ,the elements of activity at the lower level are entirely specific1 but those at the higher level are such that they may come into play in different activities4 ,any activity is a sample of these elements4 ,the elements are assumed to be additive like dice1 and each to act on the #8all or none' principle1 not being in fact further divisible40 ,it is not quite easy to see that this theory1 finally proposed by ,thomson1 which might be termed the 8two level0 theory1 is very different from ,spearman's 8two factor0 theory1 nor why the terms 8higher0 and 8lower0 should be introduced4 ,but demonstration of the probability of obtaining a hierarchy of correlations simply from the tossing together by chance of independent factors1 as with dice1 adds new data for consideration4 ,it might be that non-biological principles of probability are sufficient to explain the hierarchical order of correlations1 among many tests administered to a given group1 just as they are apparently sufficient to account for the particular form in which ability in any single test is distributed through the human species4 ,but if this is so1 how account for the consistency with which certain abilities1 like ability to draw1 are repeatedly shown to correlate but slightly1 while others1 like completing sentences1 repeatedly yield high total correlation8 ,how account for the fact that there is marked coherence among certain groups of tests1 such as 8tests dealing with words only10 and 8tests dealing with numbers only10 as contrasted with the relative lack of coherence among 8tests1 some dealing with number1 and some with words08 ,it would seem that these phenomena must be at bottom biological4 ,it cannot1 for instance1 be demonstrated that yellow dice and red dice thrown1 wherever and by whomever cast1 tend always to correlate high1 while green and maroon dice tend always to correlate low with each other1 and with yellow and red dice4 ,nor can it be demonstrated that dice colored1 let us say1 from one end of the spectrum tend always to correlate high among themselves1 but much lower with the dice colored from the other end of the spectrum1 wherever and by whomever cast4 ,furthermore1 die-casting will not give a relationship in which throws resulting in low scores are paired with low scores1 and so on1 from low through high1 high scores being also paired with high scores1 as when organisms are tried4 ,the correlation among throws of dice arises from a different form of relationship1 in which the improbable throws1 resulting in either very high or very low scores1 are paired indifferently1#f this indifference not being able1 however1 to produce zero correlation1 because of the infrequency of extreme scores4 ,the frequently occurring1 mediocre scores in both series are1 however1 very similar1 the most frequently occurring score for both being1 indeed1 the same4 ,since the mediocre scores tend to occur both frequently and together1 because of the laws of chance1 they produce positive correlations1 differing in amount from series to series 7also because of the laws of chance74 ,but when organisms are tested1 as has been repeatedly demonstrated1 the serial relationship between two functions holds through high and low1 and this1 also1 must be biological1 and not explainable by laws of chance4 ,the demonstrations from die-casting are extremely significant1 as warning us not to depend wholly for our inferences upon the amount of positive coefficients of correlation1 nor the possibility of arranging them in hierarchical order4 ,both of these features of apparent relationship may come of chance1 within a single series4 ,other features of relationship must be examined in the attempt to infer biological law1 especially the consistency with which given traits correlate to a given degree with others1 when investigated by different examiners1 in various groups2 and the form of the relationship1 whether all the way from highest to lowest1 or only in central tendency4 ,,viii4 ,,present ,,status ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,whatever may be the ultimate cause of the manifestations1 educators are practically concerned with the facts4 ,the practical implications for education of knowledge gleaned up to the present time1 concerning the coherence among mental functions1 have been well stated by ,burt1 in his recent discussion of ,mental and ,scholastic ,tests3 8,the examiner should always discriminate between children who are backward in most subjects1 and children who are backward in one subject1 or limited group of subjects1 alone4 ,a child1 for example1 who suffers merely from a specialized disability in reading and spelling1 such as so-called #8word blindness1' is to be carefully distinguished from one who is in every respect mentally defective4 8,as ,i have shown in memoranda previously published1 educational attainments depend largely upon capacities of two kinds3 first1 a common or general capacity1 entering into every subject in different degrees1 but best exhibited in those that need thought-processes of a higher order1 such as the comprehension of reading matter among young children1 and1 among older children1 problem arithmetic and literary 7or rather logical7 composition2 secondly1 specific capabilities--such as arithmetical ability1 linguistic ability1 manual ability1 and musical ability--entering into a small group of subjects4 ,a child who is deficient in the former will be backward in all subjects--most backward in those subjects most dependent on this central capacity 7such as the subjects first named71 least backward in those subjects least dependent on it 7such as manual and musical subjects74 ,a child who is deficient in one of the specific capacities alone will be backward in the limited group of implicated subjects1 and in none but these40 ,mc,call writes as follows3 8,there is an objectively and practically measurable something1 which constitutes the core of most aptitudes4 ,it is overlaid with various incidental abilities1 and furthered or retarded by emotional or physical characteristics of the individual4 ,this something is general intelligence4 ,if an individual's intelligence is all that is known1 some mistakes will be made in attempting vocational guidance1 but if only one thing can be known1 general intelligence is perhaps most important4444 ,a pupil's intelligence score is an approximate measure of the diameter of an approximate general ability circle1 and is hence an approximate basis for vocational guidance4 8,but any individual who assumes that all the spokes in an ability-wheel are of exactly equal length1 or that instances of marked special aptitudes do not exist1 or even that most individuals do not possess some tendency toward a special aptitude1 would make as egregious an error as one who assumed that all individuals are markedly lopsided40 ,these two summaries of the present status of this problem from the practical point of view1 coming as they do1 the one from a student of the ,british school1 the other from a student of ,thorndike1 show how the two originally conflicting interpretations have been approaching middle ground4 ,there is found to be a quality of the individual1 which results in generally superior1 mediocre1 or inferior performances in his case--a positive coherence in the amounts of all traits possessed1 extending even to appreciable coherence between mental and physical4 ,general intelligence is now measured1 for practical purposes1 as ,spearman long ago predicted4 ,nevertheless1 there are1 as ,thorndike maintained and maintains1 mental functions1 standing in which is hardly predictable from knowledge of other capacities4 ,in rare cases there may be complete discrepancy in rank between performance in one task and performance in other tasks1 with equal training4 ,these are the cases of special talents and defects1 to which this volume is devoted4 ,,ix4 ,,measurement ,,of ,,general ,,intelligence3 ,,the ,,iq ,we now see that the 8general0 factor in intelligence may be defined simply as the positive coherence which exists among the multitudinous abilities of an individual1 as respects their amounts4 ,the first to obtain a quantitative measure of general intelligence1 for the practical purpose of classifying school children1 was ,binet4 ,binet concluded from reflection on the research done1 that failure or success in one mental function may be of slight significance for the classification of an individual1 because correlation is imperfect2 but that failure or success in a score of different functions must be of very great significance1 because correlation among mental functions tends strongly to be highly positive4 ,working on this basis1 he devised a large number of mental tests1 intended to sample the individual's performance in many different functions4 ,a mental test may be defined as a standard stimulus1 which provokes a response capable of quantitative interpretation4 ,binet devised numerous standard stimuli1 and a method of interpreting the responses elicited1 in terms of a context of scores made by children of various ages1 throughout the period of immaturity4 ,his measurements were thus in terms of 8mental age10 a phrase now somewhat familiar in education4 ,the science of mental measurement is rapidly progressing to more exact usage4 ,the concept of 8mental age0 when applied to persons who vary in birthday age is in some respects misleading1 and in other respects quite inapplicable 7as with superior adults74 ,general intelligence is at present usually scored in terms of points achieved1 percentile attained in total distribution1 or of mental ratio4 ,the most reliable scales now available for the measurement of general intelligence in school children1 score in terms of mental age and intelligence quotient 7,,iq74 ,this measure 7,,iq7 signifies the ratio borne by the intellectual level attained by a given child in tests1 to the level attained by the typical child of his birthday age4 ,for instance1 a child #i years #f months old has an ,,iq of #ajj1 if his score in tests equals that made by the average child of #i years #f months4 ,if he is inferior to the average child of his age1 the amount of such inferiority will be expressed by a ratio less than #ajj4 ,thus1 if his performance equals only that of the average child of #e years #b months1 his ,,iq will be #fb months #aad months1 or #ed 7dropping fractions less than 4#e74 ,on the other hand1 if he is superior to the average1 attaining1 let us say1 the performance of the average child of #ad years #j months1 his ,,iq will be #afh months #aad months1 or #adg4 ,an ,,iq of #ajj may thus be thought of as 8par0 in general intelligence for a school child1 while anything less may be thought of as 8below par0 to the extent indicated2 and anything greater than #ajj may be thought of as 8above par40 ,the ,,iq shows the point of focus1 for amounts of performance in a variety of mental functions4 ,it derives its value for educational procedure from the positive correlation1 which has been demonstrated to exist among performances in mental operations4 ,scales at present available will measure general intelligence1 in terms of ,,iq1 about as low as ,,iq #aj1 and about as high as ,,iq #aij1 at certain periods of development4 ,no doubt human intelligence ranges somewhat below and above these limits1 but adequate methods of establishing the two extremes have not yet been devised4 ,it is by no means usually realized that the range of individual differences in general ability is so wide that it is extremely difficult to invent methods of discovering its full extent4 ,however1 for practical purposes1 available scales are adequate to cover the range for young school children1 because intelligences that fall below ,,iq #be or above ,,iq #age are so rare as to be dealt with very seldom4 ,within the limitations named1 the general intelligence of school children can now be determined by a competent examiner1 with a very small margin of error4 ,the average error made by such an examiner will not exceed #e ,,iq4 ,not all scales for the measurement of general intelligence are scorable in terms of ,,iq4 ,some have been standardized in terms of 8raw0 points achieved1 and some in terms of percentile status4 ,there is at present much variety of usage in scoring1 the ideal being to find units of measurement4 ,it does not lie within the scope of this volume to treat the problem of establishing units for the measurement of mental traits4 ,the general intelligence of the children to be discussed here has usually been determined in terms of ,,iq1 which will be comprehended from the brief description given4 ,an ideal of students of mental measurement is to devise a scale which will measure any intelligence1 from the lowest to the highest existing1 after maturity1 in units every one of which is equal to every other2 and to devise a scale fulfilling the same requirements for each #ab-months interval of the period of immaturity4 ,this ideal is far from being realized at the present time1 but the future will see it achieved4 ,in the meantime scales for the measurement of special talents1 which are not measured by the scales for measuring general ability1 are being worked out4 ,what these special talents are we shall now consider4 ,x4 ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,special ,,ability ,although much further research is required before we can identify all the mental functions which are incoherent with general intelligence1 we already have some knowledge of the matter1 useful for the welfare of school children4 ,certain abilities are shown repeatedly by different investigators to be relatively independent4 ,success in music and in representative drawing is very slightly correlated with success in other school subjects4 ,spelling is far from perfectly predictable from grades in schooling generally4 ,mechanics is relatively independent4 ,whereas ability in reading and in arithmetic is highly1 but not perfectly1 correlated with general competence4 ,these facts mean that from knowledge of a pupil's general intelligence we can make very reliable predictions as to his capacity for reading and for arithmetic1 somewhat less reliable predictions as to his aptitude for spelling or mechanics1 and that our predictions concerning his ability to draw1 sing1 or play musical instruments should be given without confidence in their reliability1 if given at all4 ,other kinds of performances1 like the management of people1 appreciation of a joke1 dancing1 the management of wild or domestic animals1 have not been thoroughly studied in their relation to general intelligence1 though these and scores of others which will occur to the reader1 might be of great significance for practical psychology1 if shown to be somewhat independent talents4 ,as we have already said1 most of the functions performed by human beings are very complex1 and capable of analysis4 ,to read1 understand1 and execute a page of any musical composition is a very complicated performance4 ,the attempt to measure special ability has been the attempt first to scale total performance in the function1 and second to scale performance in the various cordinating functions contributing to total result4 ,thus in the case of musical talent1 ,seashore has found by analysis a large number of contributing factors1 and has actually devised scales of measurement for five of these subsidiary functions4 ,measurement more or less adequate can now be made of ability to read1 spell1 draw1 write1 put mechanical contrivances together1 and calculate4 ,this list does not by any means exhaust the possibilities of measurement in particular functions at present1 but exemplifies them4 ,slowly we are approaching the point of being in position to tell not only how a child stands in general intelligence1 but also to indicate his status in regard to special abilities4 ,the 8picture0 of the total relationship among a person's abilities is called a psychograph4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,psychographic ,,picture ,,of ,,individuality ,a psychograph may consist merely of numerical statements of the individual's standing in various mental capacities respectively2 or it may be presented in the form of a graph drawn from the figures4 ,no standard graph has been agreed upon4 ,sometimes the method is to present points of deviation from a horizontal line representing the typical performance2 sometimes to present the deviations from a vertical line1 representing the typical2 sometimes to present deviations along the spokes of a 8wheel10 the typical being taken as a circumference drawn midway between the center and the perimeter of the circle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the psychograph of a school boy1 showing his standing in various mental functions2 illustrating use of the horizontal line to denote typical performance4 ,the scores are in terms of mental age4 7,from ,hollingworth's ,judging ,human ,character4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,d4 ,appleton and ,company47 ,figure #c is an illustration of the first mentioned mode of presentation4 ,it shows the status of a school boy in various mental functions measured4 ,this boy is #ah years old4 ,in interpreting the psychograph1 which is platted in terms of mental age1 it must be borne in mind that many of the capacities here included are matured by the age of #af years4 ,the individual is not1 therefore1 subnormal with regard to them4 ,this case illustrates some of the difficulties of treating adolescents and adults in terms of mental age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,the psychographs of three school girls1 showing their standings in various mental functions1 measured to determine mathematical ability2 illustrating use of the vertical line to denote typical performance4 ,the scores are in terms of weighted deviations4 ,scores to the right are above1 and scores to the left are below1 average4 7,from ,tests of ,mathematical ,ability and ,their ,prognostic ,value4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,agnes ,l4 ,rogers47 ,figure #d shows the use of the vertical line as the 8type0 or 8norm10 picturing the extent to which the individual measured departs from or corresponds to the typical1 in the functions tested4 ,figure #e illustrates the use of the circle1 with radii to show standing in the various mental functions4 ,the adolescent presented is near the typical 7the #ej percentile7 in nearly all functions measured4 ,which of these forms of graph is best adapted to its purpose has not been determined4 ,all are simply different methods of picturing the same facts4 ,the chief obstacle to the platting of psychographs1 for such capacities as are now measurable1 is that scales for measurement have been standardized in different terms4 ,to plat a lucid psychograph1 some traits on which have been measured in ,p4,e41 some in ,,iq1 some in percentiles1 some in 8raw0 points1 some in values of a ,t ,scale1 some in terms of school grade achieved#g is now impossible1 because of the difficulties of equating all these 8steps0 of difference4 ,the psychographs here presented will1 therefore1 be understood to be crude1 merely approximating the lucidity of those which will be made in future1 when the science of mental measurement has made greater progress4 ,each of the methods of standardization has some advantages and some disadvantages1 as compared with the others4 ,only experience and discussion can finally determine which is best4 ,it is desirable to achieve uniformity as soon as possible1 in order that the psychographic study of individuals may be facilitated4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,general ,intelligence 7,stanford-,binet7 #b4 ,completion ,test 7,trabue7 #c4 ,cancellation 7,pinter7 #d4 ,digit ,symbol 7,pinter7 #e4 ,opposites 7,pinter7 #f4 ,mechanical ,ability 7,stenquist7 #g4 ,tonal ,memory 7,seashore7 #h4 ,pitch 7,seashore7 #i4 ,time 7,seashore7 #aj4 ,intensity 7,seashore7 #aa4 ,pictoral ,completion 7,healy7 #ab4 ,grip in ,hand 7,smedley7 ,,fig4 #e4--,the psychograph of a school boy1 showing his standing in various mental functions2 illustrating use of the circle as a diagram1 the median circumference denoting the performance of typical persons of his age4 ,the scores are in terms of percentiles4 ,,xii4 ,,at ,,what ,,age ,,is ,,mental ,,endowment ,,evident8 ,the question arises as to when special talents and deficiencies become evident in growing individuals4 ,we know almost beyond any doubt that the degree of general intelligence is manifested from the beginning of life1 and could be measured then if our instruments of precision were fine enough4 ,with present methods we cannot undertake with confidence the measurement of general intelligence much before school age4 ,extreme deviations may be reliably identified as early as #c years of age1 or earlier1 but slight amounts of deviation cannot be reliably determined by available methods before the age of #e or #f4 ,the inadequacy of method with very young children arises1 partly because it is so difficult to obtain non-select children under school age for purposes of standardization1 partly because of the coarseness of the 8steps0 at present used to measure4 ,the most refined and reliable scales we have are cast in terms of 8mental age10 and some do not allow for any difference of less than 8#b months of mental age40 ,an error of only two misscorings in the same direction would therefore result in a considerable error in the ,,iq of a child #c years old2 since #d months is a large percentage of #cf months4 ,as early as #f years1 however1 even by present methods1 we can determine objectively the individual's status in general intelligence4 ,the indications are that when the measurement of special talents has made similar progress1 we shall find that these become evident just as early as general ability does4 ,these special talents are gifts1 innate in the organism1 and manifested no doubt from the beginning of life1 just as general intelligence is4 ,in the discussion of special gifts for music1 drawing1 and calculation we shall see that investigators have been particularly struck by the very early age at which these were manifested in the persons studied4 ,it is common for those who later became historical prodigies in these performances to have shown symptoms of their ability as early as #c or #d years of age4 ,on the other hand1 special deficiencies in these functions are not commonly noted until after school has been entered1 usually long after4 ,this is inevitable1 because no one is likely to suspect a child of tone deafness1 for instance1 until his music teacher has worked with him for some time4 ,but conspicuous aptitude for melody and rhythm is likely to be noticed4 ,the question arises3 ,can these special talents be acquired1 or the special deficiencies be overcome1 by any course of training8 ,scientific psychology tends more and more strongly to the conclusion that psychology and education can do nothing to alter the amounts or relationships of innate mental endowment4 ,they can but measure endowment and give it training suited to its requirements4 ,the history of ,seguin's form-board seems to illustrate the evolution of the point of view on this question4 ,about sixty years ago this form-board was hopefully used as a supposed means of altering original endowment4 ,feeble-minded children were given exercises in placing and replacing the blocks in it1 in order that they might become more intelligent4 ,to-day this form-board is used as a means of gauging original endowment4 ,psychology cannot create endowment2 it can merely measure and describe it4 ,education cannot bestow mental gifts2 it can only utilize such as are innately present within the organism4 ,talent and genius can be created in children only by the procreation of parents1 who are the biological carriers of extraordinary endowment4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,frequency ,,of ,,marked ,,special ,,talents ,,and ,,defects ,no census of special talents or defects of given degree has ever been taken4 ,surveys have been made showing the distribution of musical sensitivity1 of ability in drawing1 spelling1 calculation1 and so forth4 ,these distributions tell us the frequency of extreme deviations in these functions1 but they do not tell us to what extent the deviations are special4 ,from them we cannot learn whether or not the extremely fortunate deviations are identified with great general superiority1 and whether the unfortunate deviations represent the work of generally stupid children4 ,what we require is a survey of children of uniform age1 educational opportunity1 and ,,iq1 in respect to music1 drawing1 spelling1 and so forth4 ,although we cannot state with precision the frequency with which marked special gifts occur among the stupid1 or marked special deficiencies occur among the highly intelligent1 we know that such cases are quite rare4 ,it is necessary to remind ourselves constantly of this fact1 because it would gratify the demand for justice and fair play to find that special gifts are freely distributed among the generally inferior1 and special defects frequently found among the superior4 ,the truth which satisfies our desires need be stated but once1 to be apprehended and remembered4 ,the truth which offends kindliness1 self-interest1 or cherished beliefs1 and is hence unsatisfying1 requires emphasis4 ,therefore we must take particular care to bear in mind throughout the whole of our discussion of special talents and defects1 that we are dealing with comparatively rare phenomena4 ,the distribution of abilities1 as determined by biological law1 does not correspond to our concept of fair play4 ,nearly all stupid persons are inferior in all capacities4 ,the great majority of gifted persons are superior in nearly all their abilities4 ,the majority of human beings are neither markedly inferior nor markedly superior1 but are 8typical0 7not far from the median or average7 in all respects4 ,,xiv4 ,,possible ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,dissociation ,,of ,,certain ,,capacities ,why should certain capacities1 like musical sensitivity and ability in representative drawing1 be so loosely correlated with general ability1 throughout the species8 ,why should other capacities1 like ability to name opposites and to complete sentences1 give such high and positive total correlation8 ,we do not know with assurance the answers to these questions4 ,perhaps the evolutionary explanation is adequate4 ,those variants lived to transmit their hereditary constitution1 whose functions were so correlated that life was well sustained4 ,perhaps functions are1 therefore1 loosely correlated1 where nothing would be added to the probability of survival by high correlation4 ,it makes little difference in a world like ours whether an intelligent man can or cannot sing4 ,it is of small moment whether one who can easily detect absurdities of statement can also produce fine representative drawings4 ,it is very important for survival1 on the other hand1 whether one who can detect similarities can also detect differences1 in the objects which surround him1 and whether he can at the same time anticipate incomplete meanings in the sentences and gestures of those whom he meets4 ,the suggestion also arises as to whether those performances which do not cohere closely with performances in general are such as involve the sensori-motor apparatus to a special degree1 as distinguished from the central nervous system4 ,those functions which depend relatively little upon equipment of eye1 ear1 or hand1 but essentially upon the sensitivity and integrity of the cortical neurones1 might be expected to cohere closely1 constituting what we should properly call intelligence4 ,where performance depends largely on sense organs and muscles1 the correlation with functions largely independent of sensori-motor apparatus might be expected to be only as great as the tendency to general organic quality would bring about4 ,certainly drawing1 music1 and mechanical ability1 for example1 involve eye1 ear1 and muscle to a much greater extent than does the detection of absurdities in life situations1 or the learning of symbolic significances4 ,the mechanical technique of reading clearly involves the sensori-motor apparatus to a much greater extent than does the comprehension of what is read4 ,it would be valuable to determine to what extent a hierarchy of correlations would be consistently maintained in the use of tests1 selected for graduated degrees of involvement of equipment accessory to the central nervous system4#h ,,references ,,baerwald1 ,r4--,theorie der ,begabung2 ,reisland1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,,binet1 ,a41 and ,,simon1 ,,th4--8,thorie nouvelle de la dmence02 ,l'anne psychologique1 #aiji4 ,,brown1 ,,wm4--8,some ,experimental ,results in the ,correlation of ,mental ,abilities02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiji-aj4 ,,burt1 ,c4--8,experimental ,tests of ,general ,intelligence02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiji-aj4 ,,burt1 ,c4--,mental and ,scholastic ,tests2 ,london ,county ,council1 #aiba4 ,,hart1 ,b41 and ,,spearman1 ,c4--8,general ,ability1 ,its ,existence and ,nature02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiab4 ,,hart1 ,b41 and ,,spearman1 ,c4--8,mental ,tests of ,dementia02 ,journal of ,abnormal ,psychology1 #aiae4 ,,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l4--,judging ,human ,character2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,,mccall1 ,w4 ,a4--,correlation of ,some ,psychological and ,educational ,measurements2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiaf4 ,,mccall1 ,w4 ,a4--,how to ,measure in ,education2 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,,moore1 ,t4 ,v4--8,the ,correlation between ,memory and ,perception in the ,presence of ,diffuse ,cortical ,degeneration02 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aiai4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,ueber das frhzeitige ,auftreten der ,begabung02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aiai4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4--,statistical ,methods ,applied to ,education2 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 #aiag4 ,,simpson1 ,b4 ,r4--,correlations of ,mental ,abilities2 ,columbia ,university1 #aiab4 ,,spearman1 ,c4--8,the ,proof and ,measurement of ,association between ,two ,things02 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 #aijd4 ,,spearman1 ,c4--8,general ,intelligence ,objectively ,determined and ,measured02 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 #aijd4 ,,spearman1 ,c41 and ,,krueger1 ,f4--8,die ,korrelation zwischen verschiedenen geistigen ,leistungsfhigkeiten02 ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie1 #aijf4 ,,terman1 ,l4 ,m4--,the ,measurement of ,intelligence2 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 #aiaf4 ,,thompson1 ,j4 ,r4--8,the ,rle of ,interference ,factors in ,producing ,correlation02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiai4 ,,thomson1 ,g4--8,the ,proof or ,disproof of the ,existence of ,general ,ability02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiai4 ,thomson1 ,g4--8,the ,hierarchy of ,abilities02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiai4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 and ,,aikens1 ,h4 ,a4--8,correlation among ,perceptive and ,associative ,processes02 ,psychological ,review1 #aijb4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,heredity1 ,correlation1 and ,sex ,differences in ,school ,abilities2 ,columbia ,university1 #aijc4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,on the ,organization of ,intellect02 ,psychological ,review1 #aiba4 ,,weglein1 ,d4 ,e4--,the ,correlation of ,abilities of ,high ,school ,pupils2 ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 #aiag4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,neural ,,basis ,i4 ,,the ,,physiological ,,mechanism ,,of ,,mental ,,life ,psychologists no longer question that the product of mind1 which we call behavior1 by which mind is judged1 is in some way intimately connected with the sensitivity and integrity of the nervous system4 ,the proof of this has often been set forth1 and will merely be taken for granted here4 ,any organ or substance which reacts upon this sensitivity or integrity may then indirectly influence mental life in certain respects4 ,for instance1 the glandular system of the body1 especially that part of it which comprises the glands of internal secretion1 may affect behavior by affecting the growth or function of the nervous system4 ,drugs may influence mental processes1 because they act upon the neurones4 ,however1 all present knowledge points to the conclusion that if the nervous tissue could be isolated from such influences1 mental life would be immune from their effects4 ,mental life is but indirectly subject to such influences1 in so far as nervous tissue is affected in a particular manner by them4 ,,ii4 ,,attempted ,,localization ,,of ,,mental ,,functions ,when it was thought that such supposed entities as 8the reason10 8the will10 8the memory10 and 8the imagination0 would be identified as mental functions1 it was also supposed that a definite location for each might be found in the brain4 ,as investigators were compelled to change their concept of a mental function1 and to define mental functions in terms of observable performance1 they still sought to discover whether or not each performance might be referred to a definite set of neurones4 ,this question of brain localization constitutes a current topic of research4 ,so little information can be given as yet upon the subject that it is1 perhaps1 unwarranted to consider it at all in this volume1 where the chief interest does not center in the controverted theories of neurology4 ,much of the proof for the statement first made in this chapter1 that the nervous system is the physiological mechanism of mental life1 has been adduced through study of neuropathology4 ,persons impaired in a given manner in their nervous tissue1 show behavior characteristically altered4 ,moreover1 given alterations in behavior can be produced experimentally in animals1 by altering the connections in the nervous system1 and by no other means4 ,through these observations it has been possible to assign certain functions to parts of the physiological mechanism4 ,in the case of man1 both by observation and experiment1 8the nervous structure below the hemispheres of the cerebrum has been excluded from the possibility of acting as the immediate physical basis of mental states40#i ,the higher mental processes1 which involve the possibility of speaking1 calculating1 and responding by learned reactions to complex situations1 have their correlate in the cortex 7the agglomeration of neurones in the cerebral hemispheres74 ,physiological psychologists therefore investigate the cortex1 in their search for the particular neurone-patterns or areas involved in particular intellectual performances4 ,the problems of brain localization have1 therefore1 been approached through the study of the alterations in performance1 which accompany alterations in given areas of the cortex4 ,alterations in restricted areas of brain tissue1 in human beings1 are brought about chiefly by obstruction of a blood vessel1 hemorrhage1 tumor1 and laceration or depression through injury to the skull4 ,one of the early observations1 bearing upon topics considered in the subsequent chapters of this volume1 was that by ,broca4 ,broca described two cases of pathological impairment in a limited convolutional region of the left cerebral hemisphere1 in which the use of words was lost1 without loss of intelligence as expressed in other ways4 ,broca therefore suggested 8articulate language0 to be a function connected with the part of the brain to which the impairment had been restricted4 ,a large number of similar observations have been reported since ,broca's publication1 describing cases of selective loss of some linguistic function1 especially in connection with paralysis of limbs4 ,the localization of articulate language1 as a special ability1 in ,broca's area1 is still1 however1 debated by those most competent to discuss the matter1 and no positive statement is at present warranted4 ,head1 one of the foremost among modern students of neurology1 has recently advanced the theory that special disturbances of articulate language 7aphasia1 alexia1 agraphia1 aphemia7 are due to disturbances of those psychic processes whereby symbolic association is accomplished1--whereby men learn to imbue symbols with meaning4 ,von ,monakow interpreted the array of data existing in #aiad to show that all gnostic functions 7intellectual performances7 pertain to the cortex as a whole1 and not to any center or centers in the brain4 ,he held that no case of aphasia permanently remains1 unless there is at the same time diffuse cortical degeneration4 ,ladd and ,woodworth1 writing in #aiaa1 concluded that 8there is good evidence that the ,broca region is the most vulnerable part of the cortex1 as regards the motor cordination of speech10 but that 8the entire cerebrum would seem to be1 of necessity1 involved in man's linguistic attainments and uses40 ,,iii4 ,,theory ,,of ,,congenital ,,lesion ,,or ,,atrophy ,,criticized ,reasoning from analogy with cases where a function of language is lost selectively1 through organic disease or impairment of brain structure1 it was thought by those who first described innate special disabilities1 as in reading or spelling1 that such defects must be due to congenital brain lesions or atrophies4 ,neurological research has never verified this supposition4 ,no cases showing innate disability to be correlated with any peculiarities of restricted areas in the cortex have ever been recorded4 ,tilney and ,riley1 summarizing critically the data of neurology in #aiba1 cite no cases considered to afford authentic evidence of localized lesions or defects1 as the basis of congenital difficulty in reading1 spelling1 music1 or other functions with which the present treatise is concerned4 ,the theory of innate lesion or atrophy of a cortical area1 to account for disability in a special mental function1 seems unscientific for other reasons1 aside from the fact that it has never been objectively verified by actual observation of a structural defect4 ,one of these reasons is that a theory1 formulated to take care of the neural basis of specialized disabilities1 must take care of specialized gifts1 as well4 ,cases where a generally stupid child is innately gifted with special ability to master the mechanics of reading1 for example1 are no doubt as frequent as cases where a generally capable child learns them with difficulty4 ,the theory of specialized lesions or other faults of structure might cover disabilities1 but would it cover special talents as well8 ,still another consideration prevents us from regarding the theory of localized brain defects as masterly4 ,this is the fact referred to in our preliminary discussion1 that every single mental function1 which yields to measurement1 is found to be distributed among human beings according to a probability curve4 7,see ,figure #a1 page #h47 ,the functions which we herein consider are not exceptions to this principle4 ,performance in reading1 spelling1 arithmetic1 drawing1 music1 and so forth1 shows children or adults1 chosen at random1 to be distributed in the given form4 ,those who have exceptional talents or defects in the function fall within the symmetrical surface of this curve1 at its opposite extremes4 ,nowhere is there a point of demarkation1 denoting absolute lack of the trait in a group falling below that point1 as there would be if a number of individuals suffering from lesions were introduced into the distribution4 ,we may fairly demand of a theory which undertakes the explanation of the most extreme deviations1 the explanation of the deviations of lesser magnitude1 as well4 ,the curve obtained by test approximates that form which mathematicians tell us appears when an infinite number of factors act together in an infinite number of ways1 the extreme deviations occurring inevitably1 by chance4 ,a theory introducing the adventitious circumstance of lesion or atrophy is thus superfluous to the explanation of the extreme unfortunate deviations4 ,to admit it would violate the rule of scientific method known as the law of parsimony1 for we do not need it in order to explain the facts4 ,,iv4 ,,restitution ,,of ,,function ,,without ,,regeneration ,,of ,,structure ,,in ,,injured ,,brains ,fully as important as any of the facts mentioned above1 for criticism of the theory that special deficiencies are due to localized defects in brain structure1 are the experiments with reducation of those who have suffered loss of an ability4 ,persons who have lost the power to read1 or write1 or speak after destruction of brain tissue1 may learn to perform these functions again1 without regeneration of the area impaired4 ,if the neurones destroyed1 and no others1 were the special mechanisms rendering possible the functions lost1 how would restitution of function be possible1 without repair of the destroyed tissues8 ,v4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,establish ,a ,,neural ,,basis ,,for ,,the 8,,two ,,factor ,,theory0 ,,and 8,,the ,,two ,,level ,,theory0 ,in prosecuting their researches from the psychological point of view1 by the method of testing performance1 ,spearman1 ,moore1 ,thomson1 and other investigators referred to in the preceding chapter1 did not neglect the attempt to reconcile their findings with a possible neural basis4 ,spearman wrote3 8,the theory of #8two factors' just delineated1 though primarily of psychological origin1 has shown itself capable of translation into terms of cerebral physiology40 ,the 8specific factors0 ,spearman would identify with some 8particular cortical region1 or other neural characteristic1 cordinated to the particular performance in question40 ,the 8general factor0 is derived from the fact that all neurones of the cortex arise from the same heredity1 and must resemble each other1 as 8the hair in one region of a person's scalp normally resembles that on the other regions0 7a somewhat precarious analogy72 also1 from the fact that all parts of the brain are nourished by the same blood supply2 and from the supposition that 8each momentary focus of cortical activity receives continual support from energy liberated by the entire cortex 7or some still wider neural area740 ,thomson said3 8,let us suppose that the mind1 in carrying out any activity such as a mental test1 has two levels at which it can operate4 ,the elements of activity at the lower level are entirely specific2 but those at the higher level are such that they may come into play in more than one kind of activity1 in more than one mental test4444 ,the difference between the levels may be physiological1 as between cortex and spinal cord1 or it may be the difference between conscious and non-conscious1 or what not4 ,the theory may later be reduced to a less harsh dichotomy and there may be gradations from the one level to the other40 ,these attempts to find a neural basis for the 8,two ,factor ,theory0 and the 8,two ,level ,theory0 are obviously not very complete4 ,,vi4 ,,present ,,status ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,the conclusion is that at present experimental neurology has nothing secure to offer by way of establishing the neural basis of the special talents and defects1 which we wish to consider4 ,we must suppose that in some way unknown they are connected with neural activity1 but localization of each function in a restricted area of the brain structure has never been established4 ,the deviations in performance are almost certainly biological1 and not pathological4 ,each mental function is by original nature possible in some degree to every person1 the degrees of potentiality being of enormous range1 and distributed among members of the species according to a frequency curve4 ,the form of this curve indicates that the determinants of aptitude are approximately infinite in possibility of combination4 ,the extremes of deviation from the typical result of these determinants acting together1 are1 as stated1 very widely separated1 as in any game of chance combining many factors1 but they nevertheless have limits1 which are knowable4 ,the determinants exist chiefly 7perhaps exclusively7 in the germ-plasm1 from which human organisms spring1 and which carries inheritance from countless combinations of ancestry for persons now alive4 ,it is neither necessary nor plausible to introduce a theory of brain lesion or atrophy to explain the extreme minus deviations1 leaving the equally extreme plus deviations thus unexplained4 ,the sum total of a child's standings on these curves1 in the multitude of mental functions which are possible to human beings1 constitutes his psychograph or mentality4 ,the physiological aspects of this inheritance may ultimately be found in brain chemistry1 or in the discovery of some principle of physics at present unknown4 ,it may be an inheritance of function1 rather than of structure4 ,we do not know4 ,the present status of the problems indicated in this chapter may be recapitulated in the words of ,ladd and ,woodworth3 8,the analysis of mental functions into their elements1 in a manner suitable for physiological use1 has scarcely been begun40 ,,references ,,broca1 ,p4 ,p4--,sur le sige de la facult du langage articul1 avec deux observations d'aphmie2 ,v4 ,masson et ,fils1 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,,franz1 ,s4 ,i4--8,cerebral-,mental ,relations02 ,psychological ,review1 #aiba4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,aphasia and ,kindred ,disorders of ,speech02 ,brain1 #aibj4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,release of ,function in the ,nervous ,system02 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,series ,b1 #aiba4 ,,head1 ,h4--8,disorders of ,symbolic ,thinking ,due to ,local ,lesions of the ,brain02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aiba4 ,,ladd1 ,g41 and ,,woodworth1 ,r4 ,s4--,physiological ,psychology2 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,lashley1 ,k4 ,s4--8,studies of ,cerebral ,functions in ,learning02 ,psycho-,biology1 #aibj4 ,,monakow1 ,c4 ,,von--,die ,lokalisation im ,grosshirn2 ,bergmann1 ,wiesbaden1 #aiad4 ,,tilney1 ,f41 and ,,riley1 ,h4 ,a4--,the ,form and ,functions of the ,central ,nervous ,system2 ,hoeber1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,reading ,i4 ,,relation ,,between ,,iq ,,and ,,capacity ,,for ,,reading ,it has been stated that most of the mental functions1 which human beings perform1 are not elementary1 but are capable of analysis into many contributing factors4 ,reading has been shown by such analysis to be a very complex function1 interference in any part of which may result in disability4 ,the causes of failure to learn to read under instruction1 therefore1 differ from child to child4 ,huey1 who spent years studying the psychology of reading1 finally became so imbued with the wonder of the process1 that he felt that to know it in all its aspects and ramifications would be to know all psychology4 ,correlations between ,,iq and reading ability1 among children of the same age1 in both silent and oral reading1 are positive and very high4 ,this is especially true of reading for the understanding of sentences4 ,correlation between general intelligence1 as measured by a scale like ,stanford-,binet1 and reading ability1 as measured by a scale like ,trabue's ,language ,completion1 or ,thorndike-,mc,call's scale for understanding of sentences1 reaches as high as 4#ij1 and hardly ever in any group falls below 4#fj4 ,these correlations indicate that general mental maturity is very closely related to learning to read4 ,the very intelligent children are the best readers in by far the majority of cases1 while school children who do not learn to read under ordinary instruction1 are usually feeble-minded4 ,on the basis of experimentation in this field1 ,ranschburg suggests that even so mechanical an aspect of reading as ability to call correctly words exposed in a tachistoscope1 may serve as a rough means of separating feeble-minded school children from the others4 ,nevertheless1 even with correlation coefficients reaching as high as 4#ij1 there may occur occasional cases of very marked discrepancy between general intelligence and ability to read4 ,very early reading1 with little or no formal instruction1 is often found among children of very high ,,iq4 ,of four children measuring over #ahj ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet71 found by the present writer in ,new ,york ,city1 every one learned to read simple matter fluently during or before the third year of life4 ,their early mastery of reading was but a symptom of their great general capacity4 ,just what degree of intellectual development is typically reached before children can be taught to read is not known1 but it is probably not far from a #f-year level4 ,that is1 children of ordinary intelligence can learn to read after they have passed their sixth birthday4 ,a child who can read fluently at a mental age much below this must be considered to show a special ability2 while one who cannot begin to learn at or above this general level#aj is afflicted with a special defect1 in some of the functions which enter into the reading process4 ,these functions may be classified as those which enter into mechanics1 and those which enter into comprehension1 of reading4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,mechanics ,,of ,,reading ,under the mechanics of the process fall the sensory1 motor1 and to a great extent the perceptual1 elements in reading4 ,the sensory elements include the participation of eye1 ear1 and muscles as sense organs1 furnishing respectively the visual1 auditory1 and kinsthetic contributions to the total function4 ,in the case of the blind1 tactual sensations replace the visual1 and in the deaf1 the visual replace the auditory4 ,sensory impairment1 that is1 impairment of eye1 ear1 or muscle as an organ1 may prevent an intelligent child from learning to read4 ,examination of the special senses is the first step dictated by common sense and scientific procedure1 when an intelligent child does not learn to read4 ,in this way it has happened historically that the first cases of special disability in reading and spelling among school children have been reported by ophthalmologists1 to whom they were taken for examination of the eyes4 ,parents naturally sought the expert who knows eyes in such cases1 for to one who has not studied the psychology of reading1 it appears that a person 8reads with his eyes0 only4 ,the visual defects which may most commonly interfere with the mastery of the mechanics of reading are myopia1 hyperopia1 astigmatism1 cataract1 muscle-weakness1 diplopia1 and anomalies of the retina4 ,surveys of school children by competent oculists have shown that considerable numbers suffer from eye-defects sufficient to cause difficulty4 ,deafness obviously may constitute an interference1 since the correct sound of the word is essential to reading4 ,not so obvious is the rle of the kinsthetic sensations1 but we are led to believe that their part is important through the studies of ,fernald1 later to be reported here4 ,under the motor elements involved1 we have to consider articulation1 pronunciation1 eye-movements1 and the cordination of arm1 hand1 and fingers in writing words4 ,it is hard for an expert reader1 like an educated adult1 to realize without first-hand study of the facts1 to what extent these elements originally entered into his learning4 ,the inexpert reader tends to retain lip-movements1 and1 indeed1 movements of the whole apparatus of articulation1 in silent reading4 ,perception of a stimulus may be defined for our purposes as seeing1 hearing1 or otherwise interpreting it in a certain way4 ,perception is habit1 learned just as other habits are learned4 ,we perceive the spoken words 8home again0 as such1 because we learned to do so4 ,one who has not learned1 will not perceive two words1 but only a jumble of articulate sound4 ,in reading1 the perceptual elements include the formulation of habits of responding to parts1 and to groups of words1 as such4 ,many investigations have been made of the perceptual elements in the mechanics of reading within the past twenty years4 ,it has been discovered that the word may be learned without first learning the separate letters which compose it4 ,spelling and reading are thus psychologically far from identical4 ,in perceiving a word1 all parts are not equally stressed4 ,the first half and the upper half of the word have a great advantage over the last and lower halves4 ,in fluent reading1 the eye moves by jerks across the line1 making three to five pauses in crossing an ordinary page of printed matter4 ,oral reading requires about #a4f more pauses per line than silent reading1 and the average duration of these pauses is longer4 ,thus oral reading requires #dd to #fd per cent more perception time than does silent reading4 ,the unit of perception in reading may be the letter1 the word1 the phrase1 the sentence1 or even the paragraph1 according to the training of the pupil1 the degree of skill attained1 and the extent to which he 8skims40 ,the letter or the word as the unit of perception results in halting and expressionless oral reading1 and in retarded silent reading4 ,these are some of the results of fundamental studies in the psychology of reading1 which help us to understand cases of individual difficulty4 ,recently ,gates has made intensive study of reading and spelling by the methods of correlation1 with special reference to disability4 ,he finds that partial and multiple correlations reveal an ability or abilities common to all perceptual tests involving words as materials1 sufficient to cause fairly high correlations between them1 as compared with the correlations between these tests and tests not involving words4 ,by hypothesis1 this common factor is defined as an ability to perceive clearly the significant details of words4 ,the multiple correlations of these tests with spelling are higher than with reading1 and it is suggested that those who have a very favorable form of word-perception are to some extent learning 7or relearning7 to spell during the course of ordinary reading4 ,gates also points out that poor reading is not caused by bad habits of eye-movement1 but on the contrary1 faulty eye-movements are merely symptomatic of the fact that the child cannot read well4 ,not having mastered the mechanics of reading1 his eyes move hither and yon at random1 seeking1 by trial and error methods1 to get at the matter before him4 ,wrong eye-movements can be cured by teaching the child how to read4 ,the child cannot be taught to read by correcting his eye-movements4 ,it should be added1 finally1 that all the functions referred to above1 and possibly others that analysis has not yet made evident1 must be synthesized in an automatic set of habits before the child becomes proficient in the mechanics of reading4 ,,iii4 ,,comprehension ,,in ,,reading ,the elements of reading thus far considered are those that contribute to mechanics4 ,reading to recognize forms and to pronounce words is to be distinguished psychologically and pedagogically from reading for the understanding of sentences4 ,every teacher of much experience in the elementary school will be able to recall children who could read fluently from the printed page1 but could not tell what they had read1 nor answer questions about the context4 ,in reading to grasp meaning1 additional processes1 more difficult to perform1 are involved1 beyond those required to 8see and say0 the words4 ,as would be expected1 the ability to master the mechanics of reading is more loosely correlated with general intelligence than is ability to comprehend the matter read4 ,the comprehension of meaning is a very large factor in intelligence4 ,it might almost be maintained that intelligence is grasp of meaning4 ,a child who has perfected the mechanics of reading1 understands what is read in accordance with his general intelligence1 as correlations prove4 ,gates has shown that even in the case of children who are quite deficient in oral reading1 the correspondence between general intelligence and comprehension of the context in silent reading1 as revealed in answers to questions about the material read1 is very much higher than would be believed probable4 ,such a child1 using his lame mechanics1 draws meaning from fragments1 in accordance with his general intelligence4 ,on the other hand1 young children are sometimes found1 who have become very fluent in mechanical reading1 who can thus read very abstruse matter1 without getting any meaning from what they read1 because of the limitations of general intellectual development4 ,as a result of his studies of 8,reading as ,reasoning10 ,thorndike observes3 8,reading may be wrong or inadequate 7#a7 because of wrong connection with words singly1 7#b7 because of over-potency or under-potency of elements1 7#c7 because of failure to treat the ideas produced by the reading as provisional and to inspect1 and welcome or reject them40 ,this third cause of inferior reading is found invariably in children of low ,,iq1 for to read in this way1 understandingly1 involves the weighing of many elements in a sentence1 their organization in the proper relations to one another1 and the selection and rejection of connotations--all functions of general intelligence4 ,it is by tests of such functions that ,,iq is determined4 ,therefore1 it is not surprising that comprehension in reading is so highly correlated with ,,iq1 among school children of the same age4 ,it is between ,,iq and mechanical ability to read words1 that marked discrepancies may occasionally exist1 as illustrative cases show4 ,,iv4 ,,word ,,blindness ,as has been stated1 the first cases of inferiority in reading were reported by ophthalmologists1 who1 upon discovering nothing wrong with the visual apparatus of the child brought for examination1 pronounced the difficulty to be word blindness or 8congenital alexia40 ,in using these terms1 they reasoned from analogy with pathological cases of selective loss of function in adults1 referred to by us in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the first cases reported from this point of view were1 so far as the present writer can determine1 those of ,kerr and those of ,morgan1 both reporting in #ahif4 ,after these1 a number of individual cases were reported in ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states4 ,in #aiae1 ,schrck and ,clemesha respectively summarized all literature to that date1 the former presenting a bibliography of thirty-two titles4 ,the great drawback to clear interpretation of these cases is that general intelligence was not measured4 ,some1 at least1 of the children were feeble-minded1 for we find cited as evidence of good general endowment1 performances which we now know to be typical of children much younger than those being described4 ,hinshelwood1 an ophthalmologist1 published in #aiag a general discussion of non-readers1 from the medical standpoint4 ,according to his treatment of the subject1 non-readers constitute a group apart1 defined by some congenital1 pathological defect in brain structure1 but for which they would have read normally4 ,this concept is directly derived from analogy with cases of lost function in diseased persons4 8,by the term congenital word blindness1 we mean a congenital defect occurring in children with otherwise normal and undamaged brains characterized by a difficulty in learning to read so great that it is manifestly due to a pathological condition1 and where the attempts to teach the child by the ordinary methods have completely failed4444 ,the recognition of this condition was the direct outcome and result of the previously acquired knowledge of those symptoms of cerebral disease1 which we have been studying4444 ,no doubt it is a comparatively common thing to find some who lag considerably behind their fellows1 because of their slowness and difficulty in acquiring their visual word memories1 but ,i regard these slight defects as only physiological variations1 and not to be regarded as pathological conditions4 ,it becomes a source of confusion to apply to such cases1 as has been done of late1 the term congenital word blindness1 which should be reserved for the really grave degrees of this defect1 which manifestly are the result of a pathological condition of the visual memory center1 and which have proved refractory to all the ordinary methods of school instruction40 ,this is the supposition which was critically considered in ,chapter ,,iii1 and shown to be irreconcilable with facts known to psychology4 ,hinshelwood did not make mental examinations of the cases which he describes1 by standard psychological methods4 ,he did1 however1 work out by experience a method of teaching1 whereby all the non-reading children described learned to read4 ,this consists simply in returning to the primitive method of instruction1 beginning with the letters of the alphabet as units of perception1 and proceeding by teaching the spelling of words4 ,the necessity of individual teaching is insisted upon4 ,aside from the improbabilities of neurological theory1 this work is a valuable contribution to the study of children who have special difficulty in reading4 ,it calls attention to the needs of such children1 and shows that they can be taught4 ,v4 ,,psychological ,,studies ,,of ,,special ,,defect ,,in ,,reading ,in #aiag ,bronner published several interesting cases of special backwardness in reading1 studied by the methods of psychological analysis4 ,bronner states that deficiency in reading1 in children of normal sensory capacity and intelligence1 sometimes is related to special deficiencies in making visual associations or auditory associations4 ,in the former case the visual details of the word would be elusive4 ,in the latter case1 the phonetic elements would be inadequately heeded4 ,since ordinary success in reading arises through both these avenues of approach1 deficiency in either might result in poor reading4 ,bronner suggests that the avenue which is most approachable in these cases be specially utilized4 ,all children cannot easily learn to read by the method which serves the majority4 ,bronner does not give results of experimental teaching in the cases analyzed4 ,in #aiah ,schmitt reported thirteen cases from the ,chicago ,schools1 with many details of mental and physical examination4 ,unfortunately1 systematic standard tests of general intelligence were not given1 which must be considered a defect in the study1 since exact comparisons of reading deficiency and mental age1 or ,,iq1 cannot be made4 ,we have the investigator's assurance that 8sufficient tests were given to establish normal intelligence40 ,the conclusion that special deficiency in reading ability was present1 was made upon the following criteria3 7#a7 regular school attendance2 7#b7 reasonably good health and physical condition2 7#c7 no sign of visual defect2 7#d7 persisting slowness in learning to read1 or total inability manifested over one or more years of school life2 7#e7 general mental ability good or average2 7#f7 no other interfering factor1 such as foreign language in the home1 dislike of school1 abnormal unresponsiveness to school1 or other social situations4 ,where all these conditions were satisfactorily met1 central deficiency in capacity for learning to read was assumed to characterize the child4 ,it was then found that many of the thirteen thus selected had particular difficulty with phonetics--could not readily connect the sounds of letters with the visual symbol4 ,they could all match words4 ,all could point out the difference in two words differing in one letter4 ,those who were old enough to have learned to write could transpose a page of print into script4 ,these facts are taken as evidence that the difficulty must be central and not sensory4 ,four of the children were followed up with teaching in a special class4 ,phonics were taught4 ,the easiest letters--those that can be prolonged--were taught first 7r1 f1 l1 m1 s74 ,in the effort to make the work interesting1 the phonics were presented in a story1 associating each sound with parts of the story4 ,as many associations as possible were established to fix the sound of the letter4 ,all who received this special training are reported to have improved greatly1 in a short time4 ,schmitt concludes that there are a few children who are so constituted that they cannot learn readily by the word and sentence method4 8,every teacher uses this 7the phonic method7 to some extent1 but to a very slight extent4 ,the average child quickly learns to associate the printed letters and words with their vocal prototypes1 without special emphasis on phonics1 or special attention to associations4 8,whatever may be said for the word and sentence methods1 it is really by the phonic method that the child becomes independent of the teacher40 ,in #aibj and #aiba ,freeman and ,gray respectively presented well-studied cases of individual pupils4 ,freeman's case was that of a girl #i years and #f months old1 in the fourth grade of the ,university ,elementary ,school1 at ,chicago4 ,general intelligence was 8better than average10 the exact ,,iq not being stated4 ,the child's father and paternal aunt had also had marked difficulty in reading4 ,both parents were above average in social-economic status1 and hence probably also in intelligence4 ,an oculist had made a diagnosis of word blindness1 with a very discouraging prognosis for learning to read4 ,as a result of careful psychological analysis1 it was decided that there was no deficiency of general intelligence1 and no disorder of vision or of visual perception4 ,there was no motor deficiency or general language disturbance4 8,the defect1 therefore1 must be a highly specialized one10 apparently consisting in lack of aptitude for associating visual symbols with prescribed sounds4 ,phonetic drill had already been carried to excess in efforts to teach this child4 ,she centered all her attention upon 8sounding0 the words as units1 with no grasp of thought units4 ,devices to extend recognition were instituted4 ,passages were broken up into sentences1 the individual sentences being typed separately on slips of paper4 ,a card was placed upon the page and moved forward as fast as the child could read4 ,flash-card work was undertaken4 ,printed directions were given1 which the child followed out by appropriate action4 ,practice in reading arithmetical problems was prescribed1 where it was necessary to read exactly every item4 ,parallel with instruction in reading there was instruction in spelling and writing4 ,deficiency in spelling was extreme4 ,from early in ,october to late in ,december1 these drills were given4 ,the improvement shown on tests of reading ability was very marked after this brief interval4 ,there was no doubt that the child could learn to read1 and the prospect of return to the grade normal for her age seemed very good4 ,gray's case was that of a fourth grade boy1 aged #aj years and #d months when the study began4 ,this boy had been obliged to discontinue some of his school work1 because of inability to read fluently and effectively4 ,his parents were unusually intelligent1 and his sister read well and much4 ,the boy was normal physically1 active and robust4 ,at the age of #d years1 he began to wear glasses to correct astigmatism and myopia1 and was constantly under the advice of an expert oculist4 ,there was a very irregular school history1 with 8skipping0 in grades #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,general intelligence was slightly better than average1 as taken by the ,stanford-,binet4 ,ability was rated good in all phases of school work not requiring reading4 ,on all tests of reading ability he made very low scores4 ,comprehension was good for material read to him4 ,it was seen that he recognized words individually1 that his eye-movements were faulty1 and that the mechanics of reading had not been rendered automatic4 ,special practice exercises were prescribed in recognition of words1 in control of eye-movement1 and in grouping words in thought units4 ,very marked improvement followed upon this individual instruction1 for one hour a day1 over a period of two months4 ,a careful analysis1 followed up by experimental teaching1 has been published by ,fernald and ,keller4 ,seven non-readers of normal vision1 and of ,,iq's ranging from #id to #acj1 were studied4 ,all learned to read1 under special instruction4 ,the method of teaching stressed tracing1 writing1 and pronouncing the words4 ,that is1 the kinsthetic elements in reading were emphasized4 ,fernald and ,keller believe that these children had not learned reading1 because ordinary methods of teaching neglect the 8kinsthetic links40 ,strong motor tendencies were seen in the children1 even after they had learned to read fluently4 ,it must be said that this study is one of the most satisfactory so far presented1 because it gives precise quantitative measurements1 and because the psychological analyses were so well checked up by experimental teaching4 ,gates followed up the poorest readers1 all of average or superior general intelligence1 in the ,scarborough ,school1 with special training in the visual perception of words1 with good results in every case but one4 ,comment upon the implication of these studies will be postponed until we have considered certain further contributions to the subject1 for example ,burt's observations on neurotics4 ,,vi4 ,,nervous ,,instability ,,and ,,special ,,defect ,,in ,,reading ,burt has pointed out what every psychologist who examines school children can confirm1 that neurotic children are often deficient in reading1 though they may be intelligent4 ,this follows from the psychology of the mechanics of reading4 ,mastery of these mechanics calls for an ordinary degree of coperation1 adherence to definite directions1 power of sustained effort1 and fidelity to bare facts4 ,neurotics are those who are characteristically inferior in these essential qualities1 among others4 ,where impulsive response1 negativistic attitude1 flightiness1 and illusion cause failure1 neurotic children fail4 ,hence many of them never learn to read1 except by individual teaching4 ,under this category1 we may consider1 also1 speech defectives1 for speech defects are often symptomatic of nervous instability4 ,children who stammer or lisp may 8turn against0 reading1 because of the ignominy they fear1 in oral reading before their mates4 ,a child who displays a speech defect in oral reading should1 for humane reasons1 be excused from such reading before the class4 ,general nervous instability naturally tends to failure in any school subject1 which demands the qualities of character mentioned above as essential to the mastery of reading4 ,thus nervous1 but intelligent1 children may be deficient in reading1 spelling1 and arithmetic1 8the tool subjects10 while making satisfactory progress in 8the subject matter courses10 such as history1 nature study1 or geography1 where precise connections in prescribed sequences of relationships need not be formed1 in order to succeed4 ,nervous instability may be found in combination with any degree of ,,iq1 apparently1 from dullest to brightest4 ,the relation between them is not certainly known1 though there is now considerable indication that the correlation between stability and intellect will be found to be positive and high 7but not perfect74 ,this would mean that there are very probably more ill-balanced children among the stupid than elsewhere in the distribution of ,,iq4 ,that organic quality1 which shows itself in superior intelligence1 robustness1 and longevity1 also shows itself in nervous stability1 more likely than not4 ,a nervous child1 who is also very stupid1 will1 of course1 learn under individual instruction only what his limited intelligence will permit4 ,the methods of mental measurement enable us to differentiate between the nervous child who can learn much1 and the nervous child who can learn very little1 under individual training4 ,,vii4 ,a ,,four-,,year ,,study ,,of ,a ,,non-,,reader ,from ,february1 #aiah1 to ,may1 #aibb1 the present writer studied and taught a non-reader1 a schoolboy4 ,x was brought to the ,psychological ,laboratory at ,teachers ,college1 in ,february1 #aiah1 by his mother4 ,the complaint was that the child could not learn to read1 and on this account he had been suggested by his teachers for the ungraded class1 in which feeble-minded children are taught4 ,his mother1 an intelligent woman1 could scarcely believe ,x to be feeble-minded1 because he 8is very quick about things around home1 is keen and capable about doing errands for money1 and though he cannot read1 gets around the city by himself40 ,she felt1 however1 that a boy who after over six years of instruction still remained totally illiterate must require special advice of some kind4 ,accordingly1 when the suggestion in reference to the ungraded class was made1 the mother took ,x to the ,neurological ,institute1 where an examination was made1 in the ,psychological ,laboratory4 ,the report was then given that the child was not a proper pupil for such a class1 and the matter was referred to ,teachers ,college4 ,x was born on ,september #bc1 #aijf4 ,he was therefore #aa years and #e months old when he was first seen by the present writer4 ,his school history showed that he started to school in kindergarten at the age of #e years1 and went into the first grade at #f years4 ,he had been 8left back0 in nearly every class1 after the study of reading began4 ,he spent three terms in #a;,a2 one term in #a;,b2 two terms in #b;,a2 two terms in #b;,b2 two terms in #c;,a2 and was1 when first examined1 repeating #c;,b4 ,in #c;,b he was reported as 8deficient in everything except conduct40 ,in conduct he was rated always as ,b or ,a4 ,the teachers said they could not teach him4 ,when ,x was about #g years old1 the matter of his difficulties was first taken up1 with the family physician1 who said he would 8grow out of it and be all right40 ,as years passed1 and the child continued to be untaught1 the physician finally advised the visit to the ,neurological ,institute4 ,the teacher's opinion was that the boy must be feeble-minded1 since five different teachers had tried to instruct him in reading and spelling1 yet he had failed to read or spell any word1 except his name4 ,he could recognize his name among other words1 and could draw it fairly well1 much as he would draw a house or tree4 ,he could not spell his name4 ,vision and audition had been tested at the ,manhattan ,eye and ,ear ,infirmary1 and the report was that no significant defect of eye or ear existed4 ,motor tests showed the boy to be right-handed1 so that interference in word-management1 possibly due to change in 8handedness10 was eliminated4 ,the developmental history of ,x as an organism reveals nothing atypical1 except defects of speech and difficulty in reading4 ,he was born normally1 walked and talked before he was two years old1 and was normal in dentition4 ,but he did not talk plainly till he was about #f years old4 ,he had a speech defect1 stuttered1 and could not say 8l04 ,his medical history shows that he had whooping cough as a baby2 that tonsils and adenoids were removed at the age of #e years2 that he had an abscess in the left ear at the age of #d years1 which lasted about two weeks1 but did not impair hearing2 that he had diphtheria at the age of #aa years1 a bad case1 followed by temporary paralysis of the soft palate2 that he had never had any convulsion or loss of consciousness2 that he had never had chorea1 or other disease of the nervous system4 ,physically he was well developed1 measurements on ,february #ad1 #aiah1 being as follows3 ,standing height1 #ei4h inches2 sitting height1 #bi4f inches2 weight 7with ordinary clothing on71 #hf pounds2 cranial circumference1 #ba4b inches2 right grip 7,smedley71 #bj ,kg42 left grip1 #ah ,kg42 lung capacity 7wet spirometer71 #acj cubic inches4 ,as for family history1 ,x is the youngest of four siblings1 all others of whom learned without difficulty to read and spell4 ,his sister graduated from high school with a state scholarship1 went through college1 and is now a teacher in a high school4 ,an older brother graduated from the elementary school at #ad years1 in spite of the fact that he missed two semesters through illness4 ,he also had a speech defect 8about the same as ,x10 but outgrew it4 ,another brother had reached #h;,b by the time he was #ac years old4 ,of thirteen cousins attending school1 only one had ever been 8left back40 ,the mother had graduated at the usual age from common school4 ,the father had been troubled in boyhood by a speech defect1 which disappeared4 8,he could not say certain words and letters40 ,on this account he did not like school4 ,as an adult he reads the newspapers1 and 8can write a straight letter40 ,x had never known any language other than ,english1 so that interference of habit from other languages was ruled out4 ,no attempt had been made to teach him reading at home1 until after the reports of his disability began to be made from the school4 ,general intelligence was measured by the ,stanford-,binet ,scale1 with a resulting score of #i years #i months mental age1 and ,,iq #he4 ,it was thus seen that general intelligence was quite sufficient for learning to read4 ,from general intelligence of this degree1 in a child under ordinary instruction for six years1 one would usually be justified in predicting close to a fourth grade score on tests of reading4 ,in this case1 however1 scores of zero were yielded on all tests of ability to read4 ,no word or letter on any scale could be read4 ,there was1 therefore1 no question of making an analysis of the child's difficulty through the use of such tests1 since all scores were uniformly zero4 ,x was anxious to learn1 and was becoming self-conscious because of his failure to go ahead4 ,at this time no speech defect was noted by the examiner1 and it was supposed to have been 8outgrown40 ,he could copy writing1 with some errors1 and1 as seemed strange1 could transpose print into writing1 though slowly and with errors4 ,since sensory capacity was normal1 general intelligence was developed well beyond the minimum at which reading can be taught1 and character traits1 such as promptness1 reliability1 and fidelity to duty1 were reported to be better than average1 it was decided to undertake to teach the child to read4 ,upon being asked whether he could travel alone from his school in ,brooklyn to the office at ,teachers ,college1 both he and his mother replied without hesitation in the affirmative1 8for he has ways of finding out where he is1 without reading40 ,accordingly1 from ,february to ,june1 #aiah1 ,x came three times a week to ,teachers ,college1 and received special instruction in reading and spelling from ,miss ,sara ,fisk1 at that time a graduate student in the ,department of ,educational ,psychology4 ,after some experimentation with the attempt to teach by the word and sentence as units1 ,miss ,fisk decided to begin by teaching first the alphabet1 and to proceed with the letter as the unit4 ,x thus learned to read1 by spelling out the letters1 and 8sounding0 them as he went4 ,in this way1 by the first of ,june1 #aiah1 he knew and could sound and could write every letter of the alphabet1 but could not write the capitals2 and he had a reading vocabulary of eighty simple monosyllables4 ,he was advised to study through the summer vacation1 if he could4 ,in ,october1 #aiah1 ,x returned to the ,college1 seeking instruction1 but ,miss ,fisk had discontinued her studies1 and no teacher was available at the moment4 ,in ,march1 #aiai1 ,x's mother reported that he had 8done nothing0 in reading and spelling at school1 though he was not deficient in geography or arithmetic1 and asked for assistance4 ,upon this report1 ,x was invited to come for further instruction1 which was given thereafter by the present writer4 ,the method previously undertaken was continued4 ,the ,riverside ,primer was mastered1 between ,march and ,june of #aiai4 ,each new word was learned by spelling aloud and sounding4 ,after several repetitions of this process1 a new word would be assimilated into the vocabulary which could be read at sight1 with the word as the unit of perception4 ,in ,june of #aiai1 ,x could read any word in the ,riverside ,primer1 either at sight or by spelling1 and could write without error every letter of the alphabet1 both small letters and capitals4 ,he could also read simple matter which interested him in daily life1 such as the weather reports1 from newspapers4 ,from ,october1 #aiai1 to ,june1 #aibj1 ,x came for one hour each week1 to be instructed4 ,the ,riverside ,first ,reader was studied through4 ,he made steady progress1 as may best be seen from the repeated measurements on ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 which are illustrated in ,figure #f 7page #gg74 ,in ,september1 #aibj1 ,x entered grade #e;,b1 being #ad years of age1 three years retarded in school status1 by the ,new ,york ,city age-grade norms4 ,his speech defect was again noticeable4 ,all through this year1 till ,june1 #aiba1 he came for one hour each week to take instruction in reading and spelling4 ,the series of ,riverside readers was now abandoned1 in favor of the history and other books used regularly in grade #e;,b4 ,toward the end of that school year1 some reading was also done from boys' stories1 in which ,x had spontaneously become interested during the summer of #aibj4 ,from ,october1 #aiba1 to ,may1 #aibb1 stories written for boys were used as material for the reading lesson4 ,x brought with him whatever book he happened to be reading at the moment1 and the lesson was taken from it4 ,by this time ,x had become so fond of silent reading as a pastime that several difficulties in oral reading1 not previously present1 developed4 ,one of these was the tendency to guess at new words1 without waiting to perceive them accurately1 in order to get on with the story4 ,another was the tendency to leave out all well known and unimportant monosyllables1 such as 8and10 8the10 8but10 8of10 8who10 and so forth4 ,these words he knew unerringly when he could be induced to look at them1 but in silent reading he had evidently formed the habit of neglecting them altogether4 ,these faults were corrected by practice in reading backwards1 which offers no incentive to skip words4 ,samples of ,x's tests in reading are reproduced in ,figures #f1 #g1 and #h1 in order that an accurate idea may be conveyed of his growth in power to gain meaning from the printed page4 ,x's account of a week's reading1 reproduced in ,figure #i 7page #hf71 gives an idea of the amount of outside reading regularly done1 and at the same time an idea of proficiency in writing and spelling words1 attained in ,january1 #aibb4 ,a partial list of books read for pleasure1 on his own initiative by ,x1 between ,december1 #aiba1 and ,may1 #aibb1 gives an idea of the practice he had in silent reading outside of formal instruction4 ,this is presented on page #he1 as follows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,part #a4 ,the five parts of ,figure #f show how ,x improved as measured by ,trabue's 8,language ,scale ,a10 from ,feb41 #aiah1 to ,dec41 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,part #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,part #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,part #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,part #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g--,part #a4 ,the two parts of ,figure #g show ,x's improvement in silent reading1 from ,april #ae1 #aiba1 to ,dec4 #b1 #aiba1 as measured by ,thorndike-,mc,call 8,reading ,scale10 ,form #a4 7,on the latter date1 ,x answered #bc questions correctly1 scoring #eb points1 which is the norm for the end of grade #f;,b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g--,part #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,showing ,x's ability to get meaning from printed words1 in ,may1 #aibb1 as tested by ,haggerty's 8,sigma #a10 for grades #a to #c4 ,this does not represent ,x's maximum ability1 but is presented as a sample of his work on this scale4 ,two ,young ,patriots4 ,e4 ,t4 ,tomlinson4 ,ralph on the ,overland ,express4 ,allen ,chapman4 ,scouts of ,stonewall4 ,j4 ,a4 ,altsheler4 ,army ,boys on the ,firing ,line4 ,homer ,randall4 ,among the ,malays4 ,g4 ,a4 ,henty4 ,ralph in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,allen ,chapman4 ,the ,outdoor ,chums at ,cabin ,point4 ,quincey ,allen4 ,huckleberry ,finn4 ,mark ,twain4 ,andy at ,yale4 ,roy ,e4 ,stokes4 ,adventures of ,sherlock ,holmes4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,repeated mental tests of ,x resulted as follows3 ,stanford-,binet,feb4 #ad1 #aiah4 ,m4 ,a4 #i-i4 ,,iq #he4aa ,dec4 #e1 #aiai4 ,m4 ,a4 #aa-c4 ,,iq #he4 ,jan4 #f1 #aibb4 ,m4 ,a4 #ab-g4 ,,iq #hb4 ,pintner's 8,scale of ,performance ,tests40 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,median ,m4 ,a4 #aa-j4 ,healy's 8,pictorial ,completion ,no4 ,i40 #ddf points4 7#aa-year performance74 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,healy's 8,pictorial ,completion ,no4 ,,ii40 #ee points4 ,dec4 #bf1 #aiai4 ,stenquist 8,mechanical ,tests10 ,series ,i4 ,feb4 #c1 #aibb4 ,raw ,score1 #ed points4 ,t score1 #fa4 ,it is of interest to note that a scale like ,stanford-,binet1 against which has been repeatedly brought the a priori objection that it depends on verbal acquirement1 is capable of differentiating a non-reader from the feeble-minded4 ,it is also interesting that the ,pintner 8,scale of ,performance ,tests10 which does not include ability to read at all1 gives almost exactly the same result as the ,stanford-,binet1 in this case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,showing an account written by ,x of his week's reading4 ,x is a boy of superior character4 ,he never missed an appointment with his instructor1 and was never tardy except once1 unavoidably4 ,he gave up pleasures1 such as trying out for baseball1 in order to learn reading4 ,when asked why he did so1 he replied that 8,you most probably can't get a living playing baseball1 but you can get a better living if you can read40 ,these qualities of perseverance and fidelity to duty were undoubtedly very important factors in such success as was achieved4 ,why did ,x not learn to read as children of his general character and endowment usually do1 in the ordinary course of schooling8 ,after four years of studying and teaching him1 the present writer cannot give a definite answer to this question4 ,he was finally taught to read by a method in which the letter is the unit of perception1 and in which words are read in the first place by spelling them aloud4 ,this is not the method used in the schools where ,x attended1 nor in any modern school4 ,still1 the possibility of teaching him by some method other than that which succeeded1 has not been excluded4 ,it is even possible that he might have learned to read by the very method used in the schools1 under individual instruction1 where each habit can be scrutinized as it is being formed4 ,in a class of forty or fifty children1 each demanding attention1 a teacher cannot succeed with an individual pupil1 by any method1 as well as with that pupil alone1 by that same method4 ,it was observed throughout the teaching of ,x that he constantly made appeal to his ear4 ,he could always grasp a difficult word more easily by hearing it spelled aloud1 than he could by seeing it4 ,in order to obtain some quantitative statement of the extent to which auditory perception showed an advantage over visual perception in his case1 the following experiment was tried4 ,in the spring of #aibb1 on four successive weekly appointments1 #bg paragraphs1 comprising #daca words1 were read by ,x1 both 7#a7 through the ear1 the teacher spelling the words1 and ,x pronouncing them without seeing them1 and 7#b7 through the eye1 ,x seeing and saying the words1 in the usual way4 ,the order of these procedures was reversed for alternating paragraphs1 so that no advantage to either method of perception would accrue from practice4 ,errors are of two kinds--misreadings and omissions4 ,omissions in sight reading were not counted1 since1 according to the method whereby the teacher spelled successive words to ,x1 no omissions were possible4 ,misreadings only were counted4 ,in reading these paragraphs1 ,x made #afb errors through the eye1 and but #eg errors through the ear1 in perceiving the same words4 ,this great reduction in error through auditory channels might1 however1 be due to the fact that by that method only one word was presented at a time1 whereas in the ordinary visual reading the whole page of words was presented1 acting as a distraction4 ,in order to check this possible error in interpretation1 one hundred isolated words were presented to the eye and to the ear1 reversing the procedure alternately for every ten words4 ,the ratio of error was nearly the same as in the first experiment4 ,x can now1 in fact1 pronounce almost any puzzling word in ordinary reading matter1 such as is found in newspapers1 by spelling it aloud4 ,it seems reasonable1 therefore1 to infer that there are certain specific attributes of the auditory elements in reading1 which were especially important for education1 in this boy's case1 and which were not much utilized by the method of teaching employed4 ,by teaching him the letter1 with its various possible sounds1 as the unit of perception1 we supplied him with a tool which enables him to construct words for himself1 through the channels which are easiest for him4 ,this has not rendered him fluent1 but it has rendered him literate4 ,altogether1 he had from us about a hundred and fifty hours of special instruction4 ,the present writer believes that with several times as much practice as ,x has had1 he will become a reasonably fluent sight reader1 dropping out the spelling almost entirely4 ,this case is very much like those referred to by ,hinshelwood1 and it is interesting that the teachers adopted1 after trial and error1 the same method adopted by ,hinshelwood1 without being familiar at that time with ,hinshelwood's contribution4 ,inasmuch as a certain practical interest attaches to the final outcome of educational adjustment in such cases1 it may be stated that ,x at the age of sixteen years will leave the elementary school1 having completed grade #f;,b4 ,he will then seek admission to a trade school1 maintained by one of the great industries4 ,,viii4 ,,summary ,,of ,,studies ,,of ,,non-,,readers ,we see1 therefore1 that non-readers1 of general intelligence much above the minimum level required for reading1 do learn to read when special training is given4 ,this training may stress phonics 7,schmitt71 it may stress the motor and kinsthetic avenues of approach 7,fernald and ,keller71 or it may stress visual perception 7,gates74 ,it may or may not proceed by use of the old 8alphabet0 method 7,hinshelwood74 ,what is the interpretation of the facts reported8 ,does it not seem certain that general intelligence is1 as indicated by the high coefficients of correlation obtained between reading and intelligence1 the chief consideration1 in predicting whether or not a child will learn to read8 ,would it not appear that children of adequate general intelligence1 and of normal sensory capacity1 learn to read when given intensive training1 whatever avenue of approach may be particularly stressed8 ,it is not credible that all the non-readers found by ,schmitt in ,chicago1 chanced to have a kind of disability approachable by phonics1 and in no other way2 that those discovered by ,fernald and ,keller in ,california were so constituted that they could be approached through motor exercises1 and not otherwise2 that ,gates' cases in the ,scarborough ,school all happened to be susceptible to training through visual methods1 and through no others4 ,in fact1 no investigator has established his or her method as the only method of successful approach to particular cases1 by excluding other methods through experimental teaching4 ,for non-readers such as have been described under the criteria laid down by the investigators quoted1 it seems highly probable that the best method would be that wherein all the avenues of approach are fully utilized4 ,such a method would combine all the special exercises devised by the various investigators1 in a proportion and sequence1 which should be determined upon as optimum by experimental teaching4 ,such a method1 when experimentally established1 would be most suitable for all children--not for the extreme of the distribution exclusively4 ,here1 as in so many questions of pedagogy1 all children might profit from our study of the extreme cases1 who differ from the typical in degree only4 ,children of normal sensory capacity1 and of ,,iq average or superior1 typically learn to read passably well1 without approach through all the possible avenues1 and without special attention on the part of the teacher to all the elements involved4 ,a few such children require intensive teaching in order 8to pass0 in reading1 because of specific idiosyncrasies4 ,if the methods that succeed with the extreme cases were applied to the typical class1 perhaps the children might learn to read1 not 8passably10 but very well4 ,there might be a rise of ten points in norms for reading ability throughout the grades4 ,such perfection of method might or might not eliminate entirely the necessity for individual teaching of special cases4 ,probably it would not1 in classes as large as those seen in most of our public schools to-day4 ,,ix4 ,,cases ,,of ,,special ,,ability ,,in ,,reading ,it is characteristic throughout of educational psychology1 that much more is known concerning the unable than is known concerning the able4 ,the welfare of the strong is neglected by science and by education4 ,it follows that the bibliographies dealing with the deficient1 the sick1 and the erring are very long1 while those dealing with the gifted1 the extremely healthy1 and the unusually upright are very brief4 ,modern society gives a very disproportionate amount of time1 money1 and sympathy to its least profitable members4 ,the few cases of extreme special forwardness in reading1 which are available for reference1 are of children who were probably of very high ,,iq4 ,most of them were avowedly so4 ,terman has supplied numerous instances of children who learned to read in the third or fourth year of life1 all of them of more than #acj ,,iq4 ,francis ,galton1 who could read fluently when he was #d years old1 was probably of ,,iq near #bjj1 as has been gleaned from other biographical evidence4 ,ability to read is in such cases not special4 ,in #aiaj1 the case of ,otto ,phler was reported4 ,he was a child in ,braunschweig1 who could read ,german and ,latin at the age of #a year and #i months1 and also could read ,german numerals4 ,the subsequent history of this infant shows that at the age of #ae years1 he was an ,obersekunder in the gymnasium1 and that at #ag1 he was within one and a half years of the ,university4 ,it is certain1 therefore1 that general intelligence was superior1 but the degree of superiority cannot be guessed1 except within wide limits4 ,it seems probable that the ability to read was somewhat special1 in the sense that it exceeded the expectations from ,,iq4 ,in order to read fluently before the second birthday1 a child's ,,iq would have to approach #cjj1 to coincide with expectations4 ,from what we know at present of the limits of ,,iq1 it would be impossible for any child to stand at #cjj ,,iq4 ,the case of ,otto ,phler is1 therefore1 probably one of especially great ability to read1 in a child of generally superior endowment4 ,a similar case is that of ,martha1 communicated anonymously by her father1 through ,terman4 ,martha was seen by ,terman at the age of #b years1 when she read fluently from an ordinary primer4 ,the method and amount of instruction which led to this astonishing result1 are set forth in the account4 ,expectation from reading ability alone would place ,martha's ,,iq at something near #cjj1 for she read what a typical child of #f years can read4 ,later ,terman tested the general intelligence of this child1 and obtained a rating of #aej ,,iq4 ,thus ,martha's phenomenal ability to read must be considered special1 in the sense that ,,iq fell far short of expectation therefrom4 ,a year ago a child was brought to the present writer for mental examination1 because he could read newspapers fluently at the age of #d years4 ,upon being measured for speed and accuracy in oral reading1 he fell at the #aj-year norms 7fifth grade74 ,an ,,iq of over #bjj would be inferred from this1 assuming the ability in mechanics of reading to be in no way special4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,,iq fell at #adb4 ,scores for comprehension of reading fell at #g years 7second grade norms71 corresponding with general intelligence4 ,upon retests this year1 the scores were as follows3 mechanics of reading ,english 7speed and accuracy71 fifth grade norm2 comprehension in reading1 high third grade norm2 mental age1 #h years #f months2 ,,iq #adg4 ,this child's ability to read is special1 though general ability in mental work is very superior1 too4 ,these are all cases of generally gifted children1 where mastery in the mechanics of reading is1 however1 in each case much beyond performance in other respects4 ,cases where test scores have been presented to show special discrepancies in reading1 in children of very inferior ,,iq1 have been reported by ,white1 in collaboration with ,poull1 from the psychological laboratory of the institution for feeble-minded children1 in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the children in the school who could read were canvassed1 and those who could not read were similarly canvassed1 until two groups of five each were selected1 all members being above six years mental age1 where reading can typically be learned4 ,the two groups compared as follows in age1 general ability1 and schooling4 ,m4 ,a4 ,,iq ,age ,years at ,school ,reading ,group #f--h #fi #i--h #b4b ,non-reading #g--aj #fh #aa--h #d4h ,it is thus seen that the non-readers have every advantage1 being one year higher in mental level1 having had a double amount of schooling1 and being of the same ,,iq#ab as the readers4 ,the investigators then had before them two groups of generally inferior children1 of which the members of one had ability to learn reading1 not possessed by members of the other4 ,tests based on investigations of the psychology of reading were then given4 ,these were for auditory and visual acuity1 ability to perceive and reproduce articulate sounds1 ability to cross out ,a's and to check numbers1 to attend to several impressions instantly1 and to associate numbers and other symbols through the eye and through the ear4 ,no significant differences in group scores were found1 except in the last tests mentioned--those of forming associations between symbols4 ,here the readers made reliably higher scores than did the non-readers4 ,the investigators did not measure the reading ability of their subjects1 but selected the children from the school reports1 as to 8reading0 and 8not reading40 ,the precise extent of specialized discrepancy between general intelligence and reading ability among the children cannot1 therefore1 be calculated4 ,however1 it may be inferred that two of these children had some degree of special ability4 ,one of these1 ,,iq #fg1 mental age1 #f years #g months1 is described as the best reader in the group1 and it is said of her that she 8reads well40 ,another1 ,,iq #gi1 mental age1 #f years #g months1 is said to 8read very well10 being then in the second year of attendance on school4 ,a few cases of superior ability to read1 occurring in combination with low ,,iq1 have also been reported by ,bronner4 ,x4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,literacy ,reflection will show at once the great importance of reading for school progress1 since our schools are virtually reading schools4 ,almost no subjects included in the curriculum can be learned without mastery of reading4 ,also the importance of literacy for life in modern times can scarcely be overstated4 ,those who learn to read easily at an early age thus have a natural advantage2 while those of good intelligence1 who have difficulty1 should be assisted in every way to learn4 ,there are certainly very few children of ,,iq over #ajj1 with normal eyes and ears1 who do not learn with ease to read4 ,a census would doubtless show that most cases of special disability in this respect lie between #ej and #ajj ,,iq1 that is1 in the lower half of the distribution for general intelligence4 ,fildes1 who measured the general intelligence of twenty-six non-readers1 whom she studied1 found them distributed as follows1 with respect to ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet73 ,,iq #aaa #a child ,,iq #hb-hh #d children ,,iq #gj-gi #h children ,,iq #ej-fi #ac children ,it may be argued that children who cannot read necessarily tend to fall low on ,stanford-,binet1 because the tests composing the scale are weighted against non-readers4 ,the validity of this argument is doubtful1 in view of the fact that but four out of seventy-four tests 7not including alternates1 of which none require reading7 directly involve ability to read or spell4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,fildes found no correlation among her twenty-six subjects1 between ,,iq and ability to read1 as measured by reading tests4 8,two of the worst readers were the least intelligent and most intelligent boys4 ,the three worst cases examined1 i4e41 cases with no reading power at all1 had intelligence quotients of #fa1 #gi1 and #gh respectively4 ,many defective boys with such high intelligence quotients read quite well40#ac ,non-readers who fall between #hj and #ajj ,,iq are especially worthy of attention1 since they have sufficient general intelligence to make considerable use of reading1 and to suffer a special handicap from illiteracy4 ,it may be confidently stated1 as a result of the research of the past five years1 that all children of average or better than average general intelligence are capable of literacy2 and that very early use of and interest in reading are strongly symptomatic of general superiority in selective thinking4 ,from these facts we may hark back to the conclusion of the physiological psychologists1 ,ladd and ,woodworth3 8,indeed1 the entire cerebrum would seem to be1 of necessity1 involved in man's linguistic attainments and uses40 ,mastery of language is1 as ,binet concluded1 one of the most reliable indications of competence in general4 ,,references ,,anderson1 ,c4 ,i41 and ,,merton1 ,e4--8,remedial ,work in ,silent ,reading02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aibj4 ,,anderson1 ,c4 ,i41 and ,,merton1 ,e4--8,remedial ,work in ,reading02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aibj4 ,,berkau1 ,o4--8,otto ,phler1 das frhlesende ,braunschweiger ,kind02 ,zeitschrift fr ,kinderforschung1 #aiaj4 ,,berkowitz1 ,i4 ,h4--,the ,eyesight of ,school ,children2 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #fe4 ,,bronner1 ,a4 ,f4--,the ,psychology of ,special ,abilities and ,disabilities2 ,the ,bobbs-,merrill ,co41 ,boston1 #aiag4 ,,burt1 ,c4--8,unstable ,children02 ,child ,study1 #aiag4 ,,buswell1 ,g4 ,t4--8,an ,experimental ,study of the ,eye-,voice ,span in ,reading02 ,supplementary ,educational ,monographs1 ,university of ,chicago1 #aibj4 ,,clemesha1 ,i4 ,c4--8,congenital ,word ,blindness02 ,journal of ,ophthalmology and ,otolaryngology1 #aiae4 ,,fernald1 ,g4 ,m41 and ,,keller1 ,h4--8,the ,effect of ,kinsthetic ,factors in the ,development of ,word ,recognition in the ,case of ,non-,readers02 ,journal of ,educational ,research1 #aiba4 ,,fildes1 ,l4 ,g4--8,a ,psychological ,inquiry into the ,nature of the ,condition ,known as ,congenital ,word ,blindness02 ,brain1 #aiba4 ,,freeman1 ,f4 ,n4--8,clinical ,study as a ,method in ,experimental ,education02 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology1 #aibj4 ,,gates1 ,a4 ,i4--,the ,psychology of ,reading and ,spelling1 with ,special ,reference to ,disability2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aibb4 ,,gray1 ,w4 ,s4--8,the ,diagnostic ,study of an ,individual ,case in ,reading02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiba4 ,,gray1 ,w4 ,s4--8,remedial ,cases in ,reading3 ,their ,diagnosis and ,treatment02 ,supplementary ,educational ,monographs1 ,university of ,chicago1 #aibb4 ,,hinshelwood1 ,j4--,congenital ,word ,blindness2 ,lewis and ,co41 ,london1 #aiag4 ,,king1 ,i4--8,a ,comparison of ,slow and ,rapid ,readers02 ,school and ,society1 #aiaf4 ,,morgan1 ,w4 ,p4--8,congenital ,word ,blindness02 ,british ,medical ,journal1 #ahif4 ,o',,brien1 ,j4 ,a4--,silent ,reading4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,ranschburg1 ,p4--,die ,leseschwche 7,legasthenie7 der ,schulkinder im ,lichte des ,experiments2 ,julius ,springer1 ,berlin1 #aiaf4 ,,schmitt1 ,c4--8,developmental ,alexia0 and 8,congenital ,word ,blindness or ,inability to ,learn to ,read02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiah4 ,,schr,,ck1 ,g4--8ber kongenitale ,wortblindheit02 ,klinische ,monatsbltter fr ,augenheilkunde1 #aiae4 ,,terman1 ,l4 ,m4--8,an ,experiment in ,infant ,education02 ,journal of ,applied ,psychology1 #aiai4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,the ,understanding of ,sentences3 ,a ,study of ,errors in ,reading02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiag4 ,,uhl1 ,w4 ,l4--8,the ,use of the ,results of ,reading ,tests as ,bases for ,planning ,remedial ,work02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiaf4 ,,white1 ,a41 and ,,poull1 ,l4 ,e4--,reading ,ability and ,disability of ,subnormal ,children2 ,department of ,public ,welfare1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,chapter ,v ,,spelling ,i4 ,,coherence ,,among ,,linguistic ,,functions ,according to ,meumann1 the whole field of language is a unit1 psychologically considered4 ,reading1 spelling1 composition1 the learning of foreign languages should thus be intimately interconnected for a given individual4 ,he who learns one readily1 should also readily learn the others1 without notable exception4 ,this view of the close coherence among linguistic functions is borne out1 also1 by the work of ,gates1 already cited1 in which he found high positive correlations among perceptual tests which use words as materials4 ,we must notice1 nevertheless1 that the correlations fall considerably short of unity4 ,illustrative cases show that occasionally children are found who can read well1 but cannot spell legibly1 though the present writer has not seen cases of the opposite condition1 and has not found them reported in the literature4 ,special defect in spelling will1 therefore1 be given separate consideration1 though it must be recognized that abilities in spelling and reading are usually closely associated4 ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,learning ,,to ,,spell ,it is virtually impossible for an educated adult1 whose spelling habits have long ago become automatic1 to reconstruct from introspection the long1 difficult1 and complex processes through which he passed in learning to communicate by means of correctly spelled words4 ,such an adult may gain some idea of what is involved in the spelling process by confronting himself with the task of learning to spell and write words upside down and backwards1 but even so the experience of the child is not duplicated4 ,analysis teaches us that this aspect of linguistic attainment ordinarily involves the formation of a series of connections approximately as follows3 7#a7 ,an object1 act1 quality1 or relation is 8bound0 to a certain sound1 which has often been repeated while the object is pointed at1 the act performed1 and so forth4 ,in order that the connection may become definitely established1 it is necessary 7a7 that the individual should be able to identify for himself the object1 act1 quality1 or relation1 and 7b7 that he should be able to recollect the particular vocal sounds which have been associated therewith4 ,when this is accomplished1 the sound has become a word4 7#b7 ,the sound 7word7 becomes 8bound0 with performance of the very complex muscular act necessary for articulating it4 7#c7 ,when school age is reached1 certain printed and written symbols1 arbitrarily chosen1 visually representing sounds1 become 8bound0 7a7 with the recognized objects1 acts1 and so forth1 and 7b7 with their vocal representatives1 so that when the symbols are presented to sight1 the word can be uttered by the perceiving individual4 ,this is what we should call ability 8to read0 the word4 7#d7 ,the separate elements of the symbols 7letters7 become associated with each other in the proper sequence1 and have the effect of calling each other up to consciousness in the prescribed order4 ,when this has taken place we say that the individual can spell orally4 7#e7 ,the child by a slow1 voluntary process 8binds0 the visual perception of the separate letters with the muscular movements of arm1 hand1 and fingers necessary to copy the word4 7#f7 ,the child 8binds0 the representatives in consciousness of the visual symbols with the motor responses necessary to produce the written word spontaneously1 at pleasure4 ,this analysis is probably not exhaustive1 but it provides a foundation on which to construct an understanding of poor spellers4 ,obviously1 poor spelling may be due to one or another of quite different defects1 or to a combination of several defects4 ,in an ability so complex there is opportunity for the occurrence of a great variety of deficiencies4 ,in any particular case the underlying cause can be discovered only by means of a psychological examination covering the various processes involved4 ,,iii4 ,,psychological ,,examination ,,of ,,poor ,,spellers#ad ,poor spelling1 like poor reading1 may be due to sensory defects1 either of the ear or of the eye4 ,if sounds are indistinct1 or if visual stimuli are vague or distorted1 the prescribed connections involving these elements will be difficult to form4 ,thus tests of auditory and visual acuity must be given4 ,if any sensory defect is revealed1 it should be corrected1 if it is corrigible4 ,the degree of general intelligence must be determined4 ,failure to learn to spell is frequently symptomatic of general incompetence1 though not so frequently as in the case of reading4 ,the correlation coefficients cluster around 4#ej only1 in the case of spelling and general intelligence4 ,quite a number of children will be found1 whose achievement in spelling shows marked discrepancy with general capacity4 ,spelling is more mechanical than reading1 so that the stupid may more easily master it by tireless drill1 while the intelligent are not likely to derive so much pleasure from it or to practice it so much4 ,the connections which are described in our analysis under 7#b7 may be inadequately or incorrectly developed4 ,this would be faulty pronunciation4 ,this is undoubtedly a very prolific cause of poor spelling4 ,such errors as 8a-f-t-e-r-w-o-o-d-s0 for 8afterwards10 8w-h-e-n-t0 for 8went10 8p-r-e-h-a-p-s0 for 8perhaps10 will serve to illustrate this point4 ,in observations on poor spellers1 such errors are found by the score1 and it is discovered that the words are pronounced as spelled4 ,thus the poor speller should be tested for the pronunciation of the words which he misspells4 ,it may be that drill in correct pronunciation is what is needed1 in order to improve his spelling4 ,faulty pronunciation may itself be due to various causes4 ,in the majority of cases it doubtless arises from false auditory perception1 as in such misspellings as 8hares breath0 for 8hair's breadth10 and 8,mail ,brothers0 for 8,mayo ,brothers40 ,in other cases it arises from inability to articulate properly1 as with children who stammer or lisp1 or have nasal obstructions4 ,it may be that a pupil's weakness lies in the formation of connections1 which we have noted in our analysis under 7#c74 ,the formation of these connections involves visual perception1 habits of interpretation through the eye1 which have been found to be of first rate importance in spelling4 ,we may refer back to the discussion of the perceptual factors in reading4 ,in spelling1 also1 it has been discovered that error is not distributed at random1 but follows certain laws4 ,for instance1 there is a constant tendency to shorten1 rather than to lengthen words in misspelling them4 ,the influence of any letter over error varies greatly with the position of the letter in the word4 ,the last halves of misspelled words show many more errors than are found in first halves4 ,from these and other facts it is apparent that failures in visual perception contribute to the difficulties of poor spellers4 ,in order to determine whether such is the case with any particular child1 it will be necessary to make an analysis of his work1 to see whether the distribution of his errors reveals such perceptual weakness4 ,if a child can spell the first halves of words correctly1 but does not spell the last halves1 or if he learns to spell the upper halves of words correctly1 but cannot spell the lower halves of them1 the remedy is to bring about readjustments of attention1 whereby he will look at those portions of words1 which formerly he failed1 unconsciously1 to see4 ,poor spelling may be due to sheer failure to remember--failure to retain impressions which were originally clearly and correctly perceived4 ,this may mean simply that the child requires unusually numerous repetitions before he can form the connections described under 7#d7 in our analysis2 or it may be that his memory span is abnormally brief1 and that he cannot easily associate more than three or four elements together as a unitary sequence4 ,tests of memory span for various kinds of materials should be instituted1 in order to gain light on this point4 ,if it appears that his performance is decidedly below the normal for his age1 especially when the material is letters1 it may be concluded that too brief memory span is probably playing a part in his difficulties4 ,this could be checked up further by an analysis of his spellings1 to see to what extent he spells short words correctly1 but misspells longer words4 ,emphasis upon syllabication1 prefixes1 suffixes1 and other short units should be helpful4 ,the child might be able to remember three syllables of three letters each1 but unable to retain1 with the same amount of practice1 one word of nine letters4 ,psychologically1 these two tasks are different4 ,smedley suggested years ago that there might be a 8rational element0 in spelling1 whereby knowledge of the meaning of words would contribute to the correct spelling of them1 in and of itself4 ,connections involving meaning are considered in our analysis under 7#a74 ,children produce an especially great proportion of error in spelling words which have no meaning for them4 ,hence it is of interest to test the child for knowledge of the meaning of words which he misspells4 ,it is necessary to find out whether the words which confuse him are in his vocabulary4 ,motor awkwardness and incordination may contribute to poor spelling4 ,here are involved the connections discussed by us under 7#e7 and 7#f74 ,in written spelling 7with which education is chiefly concerned71 it is necessary not only to know what symbols are required1 but to execute them successfully with arm1 hand1 and fingers4 ,here we must have recourse to motor tests1 for steadiness1 cordination1 and speed of voluntary movement4 ,occasionally one finds a child who does much better at oral spelling than he does at written spelling4 ,in such cases1 improvement in handwriting is what is needed1 either in respect to rate or quality4 ,a slow writer may misspell many words if he attempts to hurry4 ,many of the mistakes of poor spellers are merely lapses4 ,these are errors committed by children who 8know better10 who can correct the mistake spontaneously as soon as attention is called to it4 ,there are wide individual differences in the liability to lapse4 ,it is difficult to see what remedial measures may be taken to improve those whose disability is due largely to lapsing1 since lapses are not only involuntary1 but for the most part unconscious2 there is no awareness of them until one perceives them anew4 ,examples of lapsing may be seen in 8,complicated musich which he heard played10 and 8,it mak make an impression10 for 8,it may make an impression40 ,one might suggest that children who show this tendency in marked degree should be trained to lay aside for a few minutes all written communications2 then to take up their work and look anew at each word1 in order to correct all lapses4 ,it is not known experimentally how long an interval must elapse in order that writing may 8get cold10 so that lapses may be detected by the author of them4 ,a few minutes will probably suffice4 ,transfer of habits previously acquired is occasionally the cause of misspelling4 ,children who have learned to read and spell a phonetic language1 like ,german1 or a language that proceeds from right to left in spelling1 are prone to difficulty with ,english spelling4 ,the possible existence of such an influence is to be determined by taking the school history4 ,sometimes it happens that the errors of the child are of one particular kind4 ,such idiosyncrasies may be exemplified by the case of a child who had a strong tendency to add final 8e0 to all words2 and by the case of another1 who was addicted to intrusive consonants1 especially 8m0 and 8n40 ,these idiosyncrasies may doubtless be traced to their source in every case by a patient analysis of the child's mental contents4 ,the child who added final 8e0 may1 for instance1 have been told by a careless teacher 8,don't leave off your #8e's'40 ,the cause of error will be different in every case4 ,it is impossible to generalize about idiosyncrasies4 ,after all of the foregoing factors have been considered1 there still remains the possibility that the failure to learn is due wholly or partially to temperamental traits--instability1 indifference1 lack of incentive1 distaste for intellectual drudgery4 ,english spelling calls largely for rote learning4 ,it can be acquired only by the formation of thousands of specific bonds1 arbitrarily prescribed4 ,its pursuit is almost inevitably tedious4 ,thus many children will be temperamentally ill adapted to become good spellers4 ,failure in spelling1 in an intelligent child1 may thus result from various kinds of interference with prescribed habit formation4 ,it is apparent that the psychological examination of a poor speller is neither a brief nor a simple task4 ,the direct examination of the individual should be supplemented by a family history1 a development history1 and a school history4 ,in some cases special deficiency in spelling seems to be hereditary4 ,earle has made a study of the inheritance of capacity for spelling1 from which he concludes that there is distinct fraternal resemblance in spelling4 ,stephenson has reported six cases of special inability to read and spell1 which occurred in three generations of one family4 ,,iv4 ,,can ,,special ,,defect ,,in ,,spelling ,,be ,,overcome8 ,spelling has received relatively little study as a process1 in comparison with the attention which has been given to reading and arithmetic4 ,we have no variety of experiments carried out to improve poor spellers1 as we have in the case of poor readers4 ,in #aiah the present writer reported1 with ,miss ,winford1 the results of studying and teaching a group of poor spellers1 from the fifth grade4 ,the experiment extended over two periods of ten weeks each1 but the time was largely devoted to observations of the errors made1 measurements of intelligence1 and inventions of incentives for arousing interest in spelling as a group project4 ,no child was taken individually1 and given intensive instruction1 as with the boy1 ,x1 in reading1 reported in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,during the period of class teaching1 all the poor spellers improved1 as measured by the ,ayres scale1 but the three very poorest still remained at the bottom of the class4 ,by intensive individual instruction any one of these three might have made much greater improvement4 ,we are1 therefore1 now in need of experiments carried out to improve poor spellers4 ,such experiments must include precise measurements of intelligence1 ability to spell1 ability to read1 and amount of time expended4 ,they must include a description of the sensory equipment of the spellers1 and information on all points listed under the suggested outline for the examination of poor spellers4 ,there must be an adequate account of method used1 and objective measurements of improvement must be presented4 ,from knowledge of spelling as a process of habit formation1 it would be predicted that any child of average intelligence1 and normal sensory capacity1 can learn to spell1 if sufficient drill be undergone4 ,english spelling is1 however1 relatively resistant to learning1 because of the specific character of the connections to be made4 ,very few generalizations are possible1 each word being to so great an extent a special matter4 ,for this reason it is very important to teach first the words most commonly used4 ,these have been ascertained by research in the ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,v4 ,,does ,,reading ,,teach ,,spelling8 ,in the ,atlantic ,monthly of ,october1 #aiba1 an enemy of simplified spelling writes as follows3 8,spelling is not a craft by itself3 it is a part of writing and reading1 training of eye and hand4 ,when a boy writes #8starboard martyr' for #8,stabat ,mater1' or #8forehead' for #8forward1' he writes what he hears2 the fault is not with his ear but with his visual image of the words4 ,it means that he is not a reader1 and is not accustomed to the appearance of the words4 ,to try to teach him the distinctions by lists of letters alone would be about as useless as to try to teach him to distinguish people he never saw by means of verbal descriptions40#ae ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,composition written at school by ,x in ,december1 #aibj4 ,x was then in grade #e;,b4 ,the facts are correctly understood1 but the spelling does not show great profit from previous reading of the text in history4 ,have psychologists produced any evidence to show whether the view is correct1 that reading will teach spelling8 ,the positive correlation between ability to read and ability to spell does not1 of course1 give light on this question4 ,neither does correlation between amount of reading done and ability to spell1 for the positive correlation1 which would undoubtedly appear1 might mean only that general intelligence determines both the amount of reading and accuracy of spelling1 to the extent of positive correlation found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,letter written by ,x showing how he could spell by use of dictionary4 ,the case of ,x1 described in ,chapter ,,iv1 is somewhat instructive in this connection4 ,the necessity to learn reading was so urgent that it was soon decided to give no time to spelling as such4 ,the special teaching did not1 therefore1 include formal instruction in written spelling4 ,the regular spelling lessons at school were1 of course1 taken by ,x1 as well as might be4 ,after ,x had learned the letters thoroughly1 so that he never erred in writing one1 he made great improvement in his grades on the regular spelling lessons given at school1 in which assigned words were learned by rote4 ,words not thus specifically learned were spelled 8by ear10 with the general result which is exemplified in ,figure #aj4 ,x was taught the use of the dictionary1 and by its aid he could spell as shown in ,figure #aa4 ,in ,german or ,italian1 the mutual helpfulness of reading and spelling would probably be much greater1 for words in these languages are not nearly so specific in character as ,english words are4 ,,vi4 ,,illustrative ,,cases ,two cases are herewith given1 to illustrate the marked discrepancies which may rarely be found between general intelligence and ability to spell4 ,the first is that of a schoolboy of average intelligence1 whose spelling is illegible4 ,the second is that of a feeble-minded schoolgirl1 whose spelling is very much above what would be predicted from mental age and ,,iq4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,showing efforts to spell1 of a #ad-year-old schoolboy1 of ,,iq #ic1 after eight years of school instruction4 ,illustrating extreme dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence4 ,compare with ,fig4 #ac4 ,this boy was #ad years #b months of age1 and had been in school since the age of #f years4 ,his ,,iq was #ic 7,stanford-,binet74 ,he was referred for mental examination1 because of failure to learn to read and spell4 ,figure #ab shows his attempts to spell the following words3 cannot1 ,september1 burned1 houses1 center1 thousand1 fifty1 families1 defends1 bravely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,showing spelling of a #ab-year-old girl1 of ,,iq #ei1 after six years of instruction4 ,illustrating extreme dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence4 ,compare with ,fig4 #ab4 ,the girl1 who shows the opposite discrepancy1 was in a school for the feeble-minded1 at the time of examination4 ,her age was #ab years #f months1 her mental age #g years #d months1 with an ,,iq of #ei 7,stanford-,binet74 ,she had attended school for #f years4 ,figure #ac shows her ability to spell the same words attempted by the boy referred to above4 ,on ,ayres' scale1 this feeble-minded girl scored at fifth grade ability1 at least three years beyond expectation from general intelligence4 ,the boy1 of average intelligence1 scored on the ,ayres scale below first grade ability--at least seven years below expectation from general intelligence4 ,the girl could not learn subject matter1 or manage her affairs any better than a #g-year-old child4 ,the boy could work for money1 was reliable and efficient in ordinary affairs1 could master subject matter read to him1 was expert in bird lore1 and showed the general competence of a typical #ad-year-old1 except in reading and spelling4 ,one judging these individuals for practical purposes1 on the basis of a test in spelling1 would be profoundly deceived4 ,figure #ad also exemplifies the spelling of a child whose general intelligence cannot be correctly inferred from performance in spelling4 ,this child was #i years #aj months old at the time this letter was written1 her mental age being #ad years #a month4 ,the child had been three years in school4 ,she learned reading very easily1 reading at this time with fluency and grace of inflection4 ,her case1 therefore1 illustrates discrepancy between reading and spelling1 as well as between spelling and general intelligence4 ,the inadequacies noted here were probably due to distaste for the drill which is required for mastery of spelling and punctuation4 ,for bright children1 reading is motivated by the fact that from it they gain ideas4 ,in presenting ideas1 it is not necessary to spell exactly1 but only approximately4 ,hence very young1 bright children may read accurately1 but spell poorly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,showing spelling of a child #i years #aj months old1 with ,,iq #adc1 after three years of instruction4 ,illustrating dissociation of spelling ability from general intelligence4 ,,references ,,carman1 ,e4 ,k4--8,the ,cause of ,chronic ,bad ,spelling02 ,journal of ,psychology1 #aijj4 ,,charters1 ,w4 ,w4--8,a ,spelling #8,hospital' in the ,high ,school02 ,school ,review1 #aiaj4 ,,earle1 ,e4 ,l4--,the ,inheritance of the ,ability to ,learn to ,spell2 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york1 #aijc4 ,,hollingworth1 ,l4 ,s4--,the ,psychology of ,special ,disability in ,spelling2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiah4 ,,hollingworth1 ,l4 ,s4--8,the ,psychological ,examination of ,poor ,spellers02 ,teachers ,college ,record1 #aiai4 ,,kallom1 ,a4 ,w4--8,some ,causes of ,misspellings02 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 #aiag4 ,,pryor1 ,h4 ,c41 and ,,pittman1 ,m4 ,s4--,a ,guide to the ,teaching of ,spelling2 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,weseen1 ,m4 ,h4--8,can ,spelling be ,taught80 ,american ,education1 #aiba4 ,,witmer1 ,l4--8,a ,case of ,chronic ,bad ,spelling02 ,psychological ,clinic1 #aijg4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,arithmetic ,i4 ,,relation ,,between ,,iq ,,and ,,capacity ,,for ,,arithmetic ,arithmetic as a psychological process has been studied analytically by psychologists more assiduously than any other of the school subjects1 except reading4 ,the psychology of arithmetic began to be investigated more than thirty years ago by laboratory workers1 but so complex are the functions involved that there still remains much to be known4 ,correlations show that capacity for arithmetic is closely connected with general intelligence4 ,most of the children who fail in the subject do so as a symptom of a general lack of competence in thinking4 ,the great majority of those who are notably excellent arithmeticians are also superior in other performances4 ,the four children of more than #ahj ,,iq1 mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv as having learned to read before or during the third year of life1 are also fine mathematicians1 excelling at lightning calculation and at thinking in terms of numerical relations4 ,here1 again1 their marvelous skill at numbers is but symptomatic of their rare general superiority4 ,although the correlation between general competence and capacity for arithmetic is high and positive1 it is reduced from perfection by the occurrence of discrepancies4 ,occasionally a very intelligent child is found1 who does not readily learn arithmetic1 and on the other hand there exist children whose ability at calculation far exceeds expectation from other performances4 ,,ii4 ,,distinction ,,between ,,arithmetic ,,and ,,mathematics ,psychologically as well as logically1 there is a distinction between arithmetic and mathematics4 ,in both respects the former is but one phase or branch of the latter4 ,by arithmetic is meant those functions of mathematicians which involve numerical calculation4 ,this includes the four fundamental processes1 with whole numbers and fractions1 enumeration1 and the solution of problems requiring choice of process to be employed4 ,mathematics includes arithmetic1 and also the relationships of space1 time1 proportion1 and probability1 as subsumed in algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 and calculus4 ,psychologists find a positive intercorrelation among abilities in these various branches of mathematics1 which is1 however1 not sufficiently close to unity so that the possibility of marked specialization in some cases is excluded4 ,judd has concluded that the abilities demanded by algebra1 geometry1 and arithmetic represent1 respectively1 elements not included in the others4 ,lightning calculators have been recorded1 who could accomplish nothing1 apparently1 in the derivation of formul1 or abstraction of principles4 ,rogers decided as a result of experimental tests of mathematical ability1 that 8a marked degree of the power to analyze a complex and abstract situation1 and to seize upon its implications1 is the most indispensable element in mathematical proficiency40 ,this is the power that makes for proficiency in all life's difficulties1 and he who has it has unusual general intelligence--not mathematical proficiency only4 ,there is certainly slight possibility that a generally stupid individual can ever deal with 8higher mathematics40 ,since the processes other than the arithmetical have been very little studied1 the discussion of special aptitude in mathematics will here be restricted largely to aptitude for arithmetic4 ,,iii4 ,,mental ,,functions ,,in ,,arithmetical ,,calculation ,in his recent presentation of the psychology of arithmetic1 ,thorndike writes as follows3 8,achievement in arithmetic depends upon a number of different abilities4 ,for example1 accuracy in copying numbers depends upon eyesight1 ability to perceive visual details1 and short-term memory for these4 ,long column addition depends chiefly upon great strength of the addition combinations1 especially in higher decades1 #8carrying1' and keeping one's place in the column4 ,the solution of problems framed in words requires understanding of language1 the analysis of the situation described into its elements1 the selection of the right elements for use at each step1 and their use in the right relations40 ,a great number of habits1 more or less specific1 must be automatized4 ,there are all the combinations used in addition and subtraction1 the multiplication tables1 the reading of large numbers1 the manipulation of fractions1 the placing of the decimal point1 and many others4 ,these habits are of very unequal difficulty4 ,ranschburg has shown1 for instance1 that #e #b is a much easier operation than is #b #e1 and that #e #e is easier than either4 ,the difficulty of a combination is augmented by increase in the second member4 ,the difficulty increases1 also1 as either or both of the members increase in value4 ,the addition of two identical numbers1 of whatever value1 seems always to follow a different course from that of two unlike numbers1 resembling multiplication in the time taken4 ,these are a few illustrations of the subtleties of habit formation in arithmetic1 which are revealed only by laboratory methods4 ,they suggest1 also1 the complexity and multiplicity of connections1 which enter into ordinary achievement in arithmetic4 ,since the functions are thus highly complex and specialized1 what are their interrelations8 ,how are they organized1 as regards the amounts of each found in given individuals8 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,arithmetical ,,abilities ,thorndike and his students have shown that in general the correlation between ability in any one important feature of computation and ability in any other important feature of computation is positive and high4 ,thorndike holds that if enough tests were made to measure each individual fully in subtraction1 multiplication with integers and decimals1 division with integers and decimals1 multiplication and division with common fractions1 and computing with per cents1 there would probably appear intercorrelations for a thousand #ad-year-olds of near 4#ij4 ,correlation between problem-solving and computation would doubtless be much less1 probably not over 4#fj4 ,thorndike expresses the following inferences1 based on interpretation of existing data4 8,it should be noted that even when the correlation is as high as 4#ij1 there will be some individuals very high in one ability and very low in the other4 ,such disparities are to some extent1 as ,courtis and ,cobb have argued1 due to inborn characteristics of the individual in question1 which predispose him to very special sorts of strength and weakness4 ,they are often due1 however1 to defects in his learning1 whereby he has acquired more ability than he needs in one line of work1 or has failed to acquire some needed ability1 which was well within his capacity4 8,in general1 all correlations between an individual's divergence from the common type or average of his age for one arithmetical function1 and his divergence from the average for any other arithmetical function1 are positive4 ,the correlation due to original capacity more than counterbalances the effects that robbing ,peter to pay ,paul may have40 ,in #aiaj1 ,brown undertook to determine whether there is a special capacity for mathematics1 and concluded from his correlations that there is an especially close relationship among tests involving mathematical performance4 ,ten years later1 ,collar made an effort to secure further data as to whether arithmetical ability1 as a unitary combination of capacities1 exists4 ,two hundred schoolboys were tested in the investigation4 ,results led to the conclusion that arithmetical ability tends to be represented in two main divisions3 7#a7 the power to compute with ease and readiness1 and 7#b7 the power to solve problems by arithmetic1 which involves the application of a higher degree of ability than is required in computation4 ,arithmetical tests of various kinds correlate more closely than do arithmetical tests with non-arithmetical tests4 8,hence we are compelled to interpret this relationship as evidence distinctly in favor of ,burt's suggestion1 that there is an essential unity in arithmetical ability40 ,all investigators have agreed in finding the correspondence between computation and problem-solving much less than that found among the various processes of computation alone4 ,the facts are here analogous to certain facts noted in the study of reading1 in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,there it was seen that between proficiency in the mechanics of reading and comprehension in reading there may occur marked disparity2 and that it is in mechanics that special discrepancies may be found between reading ability and general intelligence4 ,in arithmetic the same observation may be made4 ,marked special defects and talents are found in the mechanics of arithmetic1 that is1 in computation4 ,but problem-solving in arithmetic is closely correlated with general intelligence1 for it involves the capacities required for problem-solving anywhere1--response to many subtle elements1 the weighing of these one against another1 and choice of the procedure that will yield solution4 ,these are the same capacities that underlie comprehension in reading1 or grasp of any other situation offered by life4 ,they are all functions measured in tests of general intelligence4 ,in school1 arithmetical problems are usually presented as reading matter1 so that reading for the comprehension of sentences is in itself of first rate importance for achievement in problem-solving4 ,v4 ,,psychological ,,studies ,,of ,,special ,,deficiency ,,in ,,arithmetic ,studies of children especially backward in arithmetic1 with the accounts of the results of experimental teaching1 have been contributed by ,uhl1 ,smith1 ,schmitt1 and others4 ,bronner has also contributed accounts of the psychological examination of such children4 ,schmitt studied thirty-four pupils in the schools of ,chicago1 who were not feeble-minded1 but were extremely retarded in arithmetic4 ,the investigator states that tests of general intelligence were given1 but does not share with the reader the exact results of such tests1 saying only that the children 8were not mentally defective40 ,the result of tabulation of circumstances involved showed that ill-health and absence were closely related to special disability in arithmetic4 ,the inference is drawn that achievement in arithmetic calls for a hierarchy of habits1 which depend on each other in a sequence4 ,if a hiatus occurs at any essential point1 as through absence1 inattention1 or inadequate teaching1 confusion follows4 7,this inference seems very well justified1 also1 from the psychological analysis of the mental functions involved in arithmetic47 ,the problem of individual examination is to find out what habits have not been formed4 ,the problem of pedagogy is to teach those habits1 and to motivate the child4 ,bronner's conclusion that some children of good intelligence lack the power to form number concepts is criticized by ,schmitt4 ,when the gaps in habit formation have been located1 and the child has been motivated to form the missing habits1 special deficiency in arithmetic disappears4 ,this is1 on the whole1 the conclusion to be drawn from the few studies which have included experimental teaching4 ,uhl studied a boy who could not subtract1 according to standard tests4 ,analysis showed that he could subtract only by multiplying4 ,for example1 to subtract #i from #df1 he first set aside #a1 to get a multiple of #i4 ,then he disintegrated #de into #i's and dropped one of them4 ,after disposing of the #i in this devious fashion1 he picked up his #a again1 and finally arrived at a correct result4 ,it was thus found why he was so slow1 and where instruction must be applied1 in order to remedy the special deficiency which he showed in arithmetical calculation4 ,in difficult combinations1 pupils invent interesting evasions4 8,breaking up0 larger numbers is common1 so that #i #g #e becomes #i #b #b #b #a #b #b #a1 for instance4 ,failure to form correct habits of interpreting symbols1 or relations between symbols1 often explains deficiency4 ,this may be illustrated by the case of a girl who always read #dj 7 #agbh as 8#dj divided by #agbh40 ,her results were thus fantastic4 ,this error is analogous to that of writing 8three dollars0 as #c4 ,the remedy for these conditions is to show the child what he is doing1 and to give drill until the correct and rapid method is thoroughly mastered4 ,special deficiency in the mechanics of arithmetic is to be improved by drill1 after it has been found out where the drill is needed4 ,,vi4 ,,methods ,,of ,,detecting ,,wrong ,,or ,,incomplete ,,habits ,without systematic methods of testing1 it would be a very difficult task to discover just what connections might be wrongly or inadequately formed1 in the case of a given child4 ,the standardized measuring scales and practice exercises1 devised during the past fifteen years1 furnish a systematic means of exploration4 ,these are constantly being extended and improved1 to cover each and every kind of habit that a child must acquire1 for achievement in arithmetic4 ,the principle of these scales and tests is to establish by experiment the speed and accuracy of typical school children1 grade after grade1 in the performance of the various functions separately4 ,it thus becomes possible to discover in the case of a deficient pupil whether he needs correction and drill in every function1 or in only one function4 ,by means of the ,courtis tests1 for example1 it may be discovered whether a child's difficulty is in addition1 multiplication1 division1 in speed or accuracy1 or both speed and accuracy1 and so forth4 ,the use of existing scales and tests for diagnostic purposes has been described by ,courtis1 ,uhl1 ,anderson1 and others4 ,we may expect great improvement in these methods in the future4 ,at present the standardizations are in terms of school grade norms4 ,a better plan for diagnostic purposes would be to standardize in age norms1 giving a percentile distribution for each twelve-month interval of the period of immaturity4 ,,vii4 ,,nervous ,,instability ,,and ,,special ,,deficiency ,,in ,,arithmetic ,nervously unstable children are1 as ,burt has pointed out1 often deficient in arithmetic1 even when in general intelligence they are not deficient4 ,this follows from the same causes of failure as were set forth under discussion of nervous instability and special difficulty in reading4 ,to build up little by little the intricate hierarchy of arithmetical habits1 each habit in its essential sequence1 is a task uncongenial to the flighty1 uncontrolled1 or negativistic neurotic4 ,individual instruction is here1 again1 the solution of the problem4 ,the neurotic can learn arithmetic within the limits of his intelligence1 by means of patient individual instruction1 given preferably at rather brief sittings4 ,,viii4 ,,arithmetical ,,prodigies ,extremely great ability to perform feats of mental arithmetic excites popular wonder and admiration to a degree far beyond that excited by most other manifestations of mental gifts4 ,this may be due to the fact that in calculation each individual has a rather definite standard of performance1 namely his own ability to calculate4 ,when another goes far beyond him and his friends1 in so definite a performance1 he can see for himself that the typical has been phenomenally exceeded4 ,the gifted person who exceeds the typical to an equal extent in perception of the fine shades of meaning in words1 or in the detection of absurdities and contradictions in demagogy1 creates no sensation among his fellow townsmen2 for there is no way whereby the average man can 8check up0 in the performances1 to show himself how phenomenally he has been exceeded in capacity for them4 ,bidder1 the famous ,english calculator1 is recorded in history because he could perform mental arithmetic perhaps fifty times as well as typical persons4 ,the facts that he also became one of the most successful civil engineers of his time1 and made a large fortune1 are noted as of merely incidental interest1 and would not have given him a place in the history of unusual persons4 ,a man may make fifty times as much money as the average man does1 by meeting with fifty times as much acumen and energy the intricate1 subtle1 and difficult situations offered by modern economic life4 ,yet he is not so very likely to be regarded as prodigiously gifted4 ,his fellowmen can and will explain the difference between him and themselves as due to luck or circumstance4 ,but a gift for 8lightning calculation0 is obviously peculiar to the person1 and makes of him an object of wonder4 ,the same general considerations hold in the case of children4 ,many children of extraordinary intelligence are found1 because they have attracted attention to themselves by excellence in arithmetic2 and upon examination show themselves to be equally excellent at those tests which measure ,,iq1 excellence in which is not necessarily conspicuous except to the trained psychologist4 ,accounts of prodigious calculators go back to ancient ,greece1 in ,lucian's reference to ,nikomachos of ,gerase4 ,the word 8calculation0 means literally 8pebbling10 coming from the ,latin calculi1 pebbles4 ,records of lightning calculators have been collected by ,scripture and by ,mitchell4 ,jedediah ,buxton 7b4 #agjb7 appears to be the first calculator on record in modern accounts4 ,he lived at ,elmton1 ,england4 8,he labored hard with a spade to support a family1 but seems not to have shown even usual intelligence in regard to ordinary matters of life4444 ,in regard to matters outside of arithmetic he appeared stupid40 ,in #aged1 when he was taken to ,london to be tested by the ,royal ,society1 he went to see ,king ,richard ,,iii performed4 8,during the dance he fixed his attention upon the number of steps2 he attended to ,mr4 ,garrick only to count the words he uttered4 ,at the conclusion of the play1 they asked him how he liked it4444 ,he replied that such and such an actor went in and out so many times1 and spoke so many words2 another so many4444 ,he returned to his village1 and died poor and ignored40 ,it is said that he could give an itemized account of all the free beer he had had from the age of #ab years4 ,tom ,fuller1 8,the ,virginia ,calculator0 7b4 #agaj71 seems to be another case of highly specialized ability4 ,he came from ,africa as a slave when about #ad years old4 ,he is first heard of as a calculator at the age of #gj years1 when it is stated that he reduced a year and a half to seconds in about two minutes1 and #gj years1 #ag days1 #ab hours to seconds in about a minute and a half1 correcting the result of his examiner1 who had not taken leap years into the reckoning4 ,he also calculated mentally the sum of a simple geometric progression1 and multiplied mentally two numbers of nine figures each4 ,he was totally illiterate4 ,other prodigious calculators1 who are not known to have had superior general ability1 are ,zerah ,colburn 7b4 #ahjd71 ,henri ,mondeux 7b4 #ahbf71 ,jacques ,inaudi 7b4 #ahfg71 and ,ugo ,zaneboni 7b4 #ahfg74 ,none of these individuals achieved eminence in any other respect1 but this does not necessarily prove that they were not of superior intelligence4 ,it would have been impossible1 for instance1 for the slave1 ,tom ,fuller1 to achieve intellectual eminence in a profession4 ,none of them was studied psychologically except ,inaudi1 who was examined by ,binet4 ,inaudi was an ,italian by birth4 ,in childhood he tended sheep1 as did ,mondeux4 ,his passion for numbers began at the age of about #f years4 ,at #g years of age he could multiply five-place numbers by five-place numbers1 8in his head40 ,his memory span for digits given orally was #db4 ,he must hear them1 the span being considerably reduced if he only saw them4 ,he had little education1 and did not learn to read and write until he was #bj years old4 ,he lived by public exhibitions of his power to calculate4 ,binet concluded that he had no particular ability except the gift for calculation1 and was not generally superior4 ,none of these calculators showed any gift for mathematics beyond arithmetic4 ,many others are on record who are known to have had great all-round superiority1 and mathematical genius of the highest order1 as is proven by their achievements4 ,bidder 7b4 #ahjf71 ,bidder1 ,jr4 7b4 #ahcg71 ,safford 7b4 #ahcf71 ,gauss 7b4 #aggg71 ,ampre 7b4 #agge71 ,hamilton 7b4 #aghh71 and ,whatley 7b4 #aghg71 all were lightning calculators4 ,george ,parker ,bidder was the son of a stonemason1 of ,devonshire4 ,his family history is on record1 and is quite interesting in connection with his gifts4 ,his eldest brother1 a ,unitarian minister1 had an extraordinary memory for ,bible texts1 but took no special interest in arithmetic4 ,another brother was an excellent mathematician and insurance actuary4 ,still other members of the family were distinguished in non-mathematical pursuits4 ,bidder's ability was first noticed when he was #f years old4 ,in #ahbb1 at the age of #af years1 he took a prize in mathematics at the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,he became a distinguished engineer1 and accumulated wealth1 as before stated4 ,his son1 the younger ,bidder1 was wrangler at ,cambridge1 and became barrister and ,queen's counsel4 ,he could multiply fifteen-place numbers by fifteen-place numbers1 and could play two games of chess simultaneously1 blindfolded4 ,two of his daughters 8showed more than average ability in mental arithmetic40 ,truman ,henry ,safford was the son of a ,vermont farmer1 both parents having been school teachers4 ,his power in calculation was noticed when he was #c years old4 ,at about #g years of age1 he began to study algebra and geometry1 and soon thereafter1 astronomy4 ,in his tenth year he published an almanac1 computed entirely by himself4 ,his interests included chemistry1 botany1 philosophy1 geography1 and history in addition to astronomy and mathematics4 ,he took his degree at ,harvard in #ahed1 at the age of #ah years1 and became an astronomer4 ,he was professor of astronomy in ,williams ,college for many years1 until his death1 and made many important astronomical calculations and discoveries4 ,carl ,frederick ,gauss1 the great mathematician1 was a lightning calculator1 the marvels of his performance exceeding those of nearly all others4 ,gauss entered the gymnasium when he was #aa years old1 and in mathematics soon surpassed his teachers4 ,he began the study of higher analysis at #aj1 and at #ad could read ,newton with understanding4 ,at #bd he published ,disquisitiones ,arithmetic1 which is a fundamental contribution to mathematics4 ,he himself has related that he remembers having followed by mental arithmetic a calculation concerning the wages of his father's workmen1 and of having thus detected an error in the reckoning1 at the age of #c years4 ,he could use from memory the first decimals of logarithms1 and was especially ingenious at discovering new methods4 ,gauss was unquestionably a person of very extraordinary general intelligence4 ,as a child he mastered not only mathematics1 but also the classical languages with wonderful ease4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 that his gift for mathematics exceeded his general capacity in other respects4 ,the renown of ,andr ,ampre's achievements in science is commemorated in the ampre4 ,as a child1 he showed all-round ability1 and encyclopedic interests4 ,he learned counting at #c or #d years of age1 by means of pebbles1 8and was so fond of this diversion that he used for purposes of calculation pieces of a biscuit1 given him after three days' strict diet40 ,there is no question that ,ampre was a child of extremely high ,,iq1 the ability at calculation being but one manifestation of his great genius4 ,he was a chemist1 a metaphysician1 and a mathematician4 ,he became professor of mathematics1 and wrote on probabilities1 the unity of structure in organisms1 and electrodynamics4 ,in this last field he discovered fundamental truths1 and immortalized his name4 ,he was elected to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris1 and is recognized as one of the world's great thinkers1 not as a calculator merely4 ,richard ,whatley1 ,archbishop of ,dublin1 was a prodigious calculator as a child4 ,from #e to #i years of age he astonished onlookers by his feats4 ,he afterwards ceased to interest himself in calculation1 but used his intellectual capacity for achievement in other fields4 ,the greatest calculator on record1 according to the researches of ,scripture1 is ,johann ,dase1 born in ,hamburg1 in #ahbd4 ,he could count objects with extreme rapidity4 8,with a single glance he could give the number1 up to #cj and thereabouts1 of peas in a handful1 scattered on the table02 could give the number of sheep in a herd1 or books in a case so quickly that his record remains unequaled4 ,he could carry on enormous and protracted calculations1 without recording figures1 but seemed not to comprehend mathematical principles4 ,he attended school when #b to #c years old1 and began public exhibitions at #ae years of age4 ,from the records it is not possible to prove or disprove superior general intelligence4 ,there are on record but three calculators1 who were personally examined by psychologists1 so far as the present writer can learn4 ,inaudi1 already mentioned1 and ,pericles ,diamandi1 a ,greek grain merchant1 born in #ahfh1 were examined by ,binet4 ,arthur ,griffith1 son of a stonemason1 born in #ahhj1 was examined by ,lindley and ,bryan1 in the laboratory at the ,university of ,indiana1 in #ahii4 ,binet concluded that ,inaudi had no unusual ability except for mental calculation1 and that his auditory memory for digits was a special gift4 ,diamandi1 on the other hand1 in addition to his ability in calculation1 knew five languages1 was an incessant reader1 and wrote both novels and poetry4 ,he entered school at #g1 and remained until he was #af1 always heading his class in mathematics4 ,his methods in calculation were visual4 8,he has a number-form of a common variety1 running zigzag from left to right1 and giving most space to the smaller numbers4 ,this number-form he sees as localized within a peculiar grayish figure1 which also serves as a framework for any particular number or other object1 which he visualizes40 ,griffith had1 from the age of #c1 a passion for counting and made fair records in all studies4 ,he entered school at #aj1 and attended school seven years4 ,in scope and tenacity of memory1 and in rapidity at calculation1 he ranked with the best recorded cases1 according to the investigators who examined him4 ,memory was described as very systematic2 and rapidity was seen to depend on the great number of numerical relations committed to memory1 and upon reduction in number of operations through short-cut methods4 ,these three examinations were all conducted more than twenty years ago1 before standardized methods of measurement had been developed4 ,it is difficult to glean from them1 and from the biographical material compiled by ,scripture and by ,mitchell1 what the truth is1 as regards the extent to which this gift for calculation was special in these persons4 ,many of them1 as we have seen1 were certainly men of genius1 with general capacity for selective thinking4 ,several others probably were not of superior general intelligence1 but in no case can we be certain1 on the basis of anecdotal evidence alone4 ,some of them were peasants or slaves1 born to manual toil1 in the absence of free schools1 and in the presence of rigid class distinctions4 ,it is not inconceivable that a child of ,,iq over #agj1 condemned by unavoidable environment to herd sheep or pick cotton through his youth1 might find relief from the monotony of his work by calculating4 ,as ,mitchell1 himself a lightning calculator1 says1 8,given a knowledge of how to count1 and later a few definitions1 and any child of average ability can go on1 once his interest is accidentally aroused1 and construct1 unaided1 practically the whole science of arithmetic1 no matter how much or how little he knows of other things40 ,this statement is probably true1 if we change one word1 and substitute for 8child of average ability10 8child of great ability40 ,all who have examined lightning calculators1 or searched their biographical records1 are agreed that the secret of their power lies in highly developed mechanics4 ,special habits of combining and recognizing numbers are formed1 which differ from ordinary calculation comparatively in somewhat the same way as the method of the child who added #g #e by adding #g #b #b #a1 the latter being analogous to the usual method4 ,the lightning calculator memorizes combinations far beyond those ordinarily memorized1 so that he is1 for instance1 able to add #beha #agfc as quickly as an ordinary person can add #ae #h4 ,he learns multiplication tables up to #ajj #ajj1 whereas we learn only through #ab #ab4 ,he devises and uses many 8short cuts10 e4g4 multiplying by two easy numbers and taking the difference1 instead of multiplying by an awkward number4 ,multiplication is probably used as the fundamental operation4 ,this specialization in and perfection of arithmetical connections1 by a person of original aptitude for and interest in numbers1 results in the prodigious calculator4 ,as ,scripture concludes1 8,these persons had enormous ability to learn calculation1 not to calculate without learning40 ,the rle played by practice is seen in the fact that if interest in counting wanes1 and practice at calculation ceases1 the skill acquired deteriorates through disuse4 ,whatley1 and others1 who became distracted from calculation by other interests as they grew up1 lost the power they had possessed4 ,however1 by resuming practice1 the skill can be regained by those who have acquired it1 as is the case with skills in general4 ,satisfaction in mental activity for its own sake is expressed by those calculators who have given introspections4 ,after ,safford had lost the power of lightning calculation through disuse1 he continued to take pleasure in factoring large numbers1 or in satisfying himself that they were prime4 ,the younger ,bidder said1 8,with my father1 as with myself1 the handling of numbers or playing with figures afforded a positive pleasure1 and constant occupation of leisure moments4 ,even up to the last year of his life1#af my father took delight in working out long and difficult arithmetical and geometrical problems40 ,all who have studied material relating to prodigious calculators have especially stressed the very early age at which the gift has shown itself4 ,this is especially true of those who achieved greatness in science1 as adults4 ,gauss1 ,whatley1 and ,ampre were all first noted at the age of #c years1 and ,safford and ,bidder at the age of #f years4 ,it appears to the present writer to be probable that any child of ,,iq over #ahj could be taught to be a lightning calculator4 ,this inference comes from observing such children1 as they master numbers4 ,,ix4 ,,arithmetical ,,ability ,,of ,,two ,,children ,,of ,,iq #ahd ,,and ,,iq #ahg 7,,stanford-,,binet7 ,to illustrate mathematical aptitude in children of high ,,iq1 a brief account is herewith given of two boys1 both known professionally to the present writer since early childhood4 ,these children are both of a degree of general intelligence so rare as to be scarcely ever found1 and both are especially interested in mathematics4 ,the boy ,d1 of ,,iq #ahd1 was described first by ,terman1 in ,the ,intelligence of ,school ,children4 ,his achievements are most remarkable in every kind of intellectual activity1 including music and drawing4 ,among his favorite pastimes since infancy has been the manipulation of numbers4 ,his calculations1 dating from the time his hand could wield a pencil1 have covered hundreds of pages4 ,as a child of #g1 #h1 and #i years1 ,d found the keenest satisfaction in deriving formul to render himself unbeatable at family games based on number4 ,at the age of #ab years he has completed the mathematical curriculum of the elementary and secondary schools1 through arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 and trigonometry4 7,it should be added that he has also completed the curriculum of the elementary and secondary schools in all other respects1 and is ready at #ab years to enter college47 ,figure #ae shows ,d's calculations on ,test #b1 of ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 five minutes being allowed for the performance4 ,figure #af shows his calculations on ,test #f1 of the same form of ,alpha1 three minutes being allowed4 ,d was #aj years #aa months old on the date of these calculations4 ,he had never previously seen either of these tests4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,showing ,d's calculations on ,test #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #aj years #aa months1 five minutes being allowed for the performance4 ,the only figuring done on paper appears in the margin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,showing ,d's calculations on ,test #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #aj years #aa months1 three minutes being allowed for the performance4 ,the second child to whom we wish to refer briefly is ,r1 of ,,iq #ahg4 ,he1 too1 has delighted in number from about the third year of life4 ,when first seen by the present writer1 at the age of #f years #f months1 ,r's memory span for digits was at least eight 7beyond this he was not tested71 and he could easily reverse seven digits at least 7beyond this the test did not go74 ,he has been taught short cuts and other mechanics of lightning calculation till now1 at the age of #h1 he can with great speed calculate the answer to such a series as 8#b #b #b #b multiplied by twice the square of #b2 square it10 or 8#bbeeb #bbdeb40 ,in ,figure #ag is shown ,r's calculation on ,test #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 and in ,figure #ah1 his performance in ,test #f1 the time limits being the same as indicated for ,d4 ,r was #g years #f months old on the date of these performances4 ,the ordinary child of that age can1 of course1 make no score whatever4 ,r had never previously seen either of the tests4 ,r's teacher#ag writes of him1 8,his ability in academic work seems well distributed1 though strongest in mathematics4 ,for this grade he is remarkably low in art and industrial work1 but he would be average in the second grade1 where his age would usually place him4 ,his artistic feeling is all for music and literature4444 ,i think he is rather clumsy with his hands even for his age1 though not much below the average child4 ,with his mental ability he can learn to do anything in which his interest is aroused4444 ,as he goes on1 ,i hope that we can arrange for him to work with more advanced groups in mathematics and science1 though remaining in the present group for most of the day4444 ,in mathematics it is noticeable that although he can use short cuts which are ,greek to the class1 he is quite as apt to make an error in concrete problems as the other bright children4 ,this is not lack of attention or interest1 for he is always keenly alive in any lesson in mathematics4 ,for example1 in shop where he was making a table with a top #bd inches square1 he was shown the lumber 7#ab inches wide7 and asked how many pieces he must prepare for the table4 ,he replied #8three1' and it was some time before he was led to recognize his mistake40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,showing ,r's calculation on ,test #b1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #g years #f months1 five minutes being allowed for the performance4 ,note immature formation of the numerals4 ,the only part of the figuring done on paper appears in the margin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,showing ,r's calculation on ,test #f1 ,army ,alpha1 ,form #e1 at the age of #g years #f months1 three minutes being allowed for the performance4 ,note immature formation of the numerals4 ,with his love of mathematics1 ,r combines a passion for classifying4 ,as early as his first year of life1 he would classify his playing blocks according to the shape of the letters on them1--,o1 ,q1 ,p1 and the like together1 and ,a1 ,v1 ,w1 ,n1 ,m1 and the like in another group1 and so forth4 ,this delight in classifying is also one of ,d's most conspicuous characteristics4 ,x4 ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,arithmetical ,,abilities ,from his search through the literature pertaining to arithmetical prodigies1 ,mitchell concluded that he could not find sufficient data from which to generalize concerning heredity4 ,this conclusion is no doubt justified4 ,we must wait upon modern studies1 in order to gain knowledge of the extent to which such tendencies may be inherited4 ,we may note1 however1 that many relatives1 gifted in some way1 are reported among the lightning calculators of history4 ,diamandi's mother 8had an excellent memory for all sorts of things10 and a brother and a sister out of a family of fourteen siblings shared his aptitude for mental arithmetic2 the family history of the ,bidders has been referred to already2 ,safford's father and mother were both teachers2 ,gauss had a maternal uncle of known mechanical and mathematical talent2 ,mitchell's younger brother could play chess blindfolded4 ,of the two children1 ,d and ,r1 herein described1 both have many adult relatives who are or were writers1 money makers1 inventors1 or organizers4 ,of this generation1 ,d is an only child1 but he has several cousins4 ,of these1 three who have been measured show ,,iq's of #aej1 #aef1 and #aeg1 respectively4 ,r's only brother has an ,,iq of #aej1 and of his two cousins1 both girls1 the only one yet measured has an ,,iq of #agj4 ,these are suggestive fragments of facts concerning family resemblances4 ,cobb has made a quantitative study of resemblance between parents and children1 in the various fundamental processes1 using five of ,courtis' standard tests4 ,she finds that the coefficient of correlation between child and like parent is 4#fj1 between child and unlike parent1 4#ja1 between child and mid-parent1 4#di4 ,by 8mid-parent0 is meant the ability that falls midway between the abilities of the two parents4 ,twenty persons were studied in eight families4 ,no sex differences were noted4 ,a child of either sex may resemble either parent1 and not all children of the same family do resemble the same parent4 ,cobb concludes that the likeness found is due to heredity4 ,in the matter of sex differences1 it is notable that of all the lightning calculators recorded only one1 and she of minor importance1 was of the female sex4 ,it is possible that this difference may be due to native sex differences in the inheritance of endowment4 ,it is much more probably due1 however1 to those differential pressures--social1 educational1 and economic--which cast up to public notice more deviates of all kinds among the male sex4 ,during the periods from which the records of lightning calculators have been gathered1 this differential pressure was much more forceful than it is now4 ,because of the differential action upon the sexes of social pressures1 it is never possible to make valid comparisons of the sexes in respect to mental deviation1 unless the sampling has been rigidly made in some manner absolutely indifferent to selection1 and unless the measurements have been objectively taken4 ,,xi4 ,,implications ,,for ,,education ,studies thus far made would convince us that arithmetical skill consists in the automatization and integration of a hierarchy of habits1 which can be acquired to a passable degree by all children of average intelligence4 ,lightning calculation results from building up and rendering automatic still further habits1 and can be achieved by persons of great general intelligence4 ,it remains an open question whether a generally stupid person can ever become a prodigious calculator1 but it seems certain that interest in and aptitude for arithmetic may be especially marked in generally superior children4 ,arithmetical ability may develop1 without simultaneous development of ability in other branches of mathematics4 ,one may calculate prodigiously1 without comprehending algebraic and geometric principles1 or being interested in them4 ,also one may be more or less adept1 either by nature or by training1 in one kind of arithmetical function than in others4 ,drill is the means for improving arithmetical ability1 so far as speed and accuracy of calculation are concerned4 ,ability in problem solving can probably not be much affected by drill1 since 8a problem0 is1 by definition1 something that requires independent adjustment1 and not the response of automatic habit4 ,it therefore calls on general intelligence1 and cannot be improved after the mechanics of reading and calculating have been mastered up to the limits of capacity4 ,,references ,,anderson1 ,c4 ,i4--8,the ,use of the ,woody ,scale for ,diagnostic ,purposes02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiah4 ,,binet1 ,a4--,psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'checs2 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,brown1 ,w4--8,an ,objective ,study of ,mathematical ,intelligence02 ,biometrika1 #aiaj4 ,,cobb1 ,m4--8,the ,inheritance of ,arithmetical ,abilities02 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 #aiag4 ,,collar1 ,d4 ,j4--8,a ,statistical ,survey of ,arithmetical ,ability02 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 #aibj4 ,,gillingham1 ,a4--,one ,child's ,struggle in the ,preparation for ,life2 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 #aiac4 ,,lanterne1 ,s4--,psychologie du nombre et des oprations lmentaires de l'arithmtique2 ,paris1 #aijg4 ,,lazar1 ,e41 and ,,peters1 ,w4--8,rechenbegabung und ,rechendefekte bei abnormen ,kindern02 ,fortschritte der ,psychologie1 #aiae4 ,,lindley1 ,e4 ,h41 and ,,bryan1 ,w4 ,l4--8,an ,arithmetical ,prodigy02 ,psychological ,review1 #aijj4 ,m,,day1 ,h4 ,v4--8,die ,fhigkeit des ,rechnens beim ,menschen und beim ,tiere02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aiac4 ,,miller1 ,g4 ,a4--8,mathematical ,prodigies02 ,science1 #aijg4 ,,mitchell1 ,f4 ,b4--8,mathematical ,prodigies02 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 #aijg4 ,m,,bius1 ,p4 ,j4--,ueber die ,anlage zu ,mathematik1 #bnd edition2 ,barth1 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 ,,ranschburg1 ,p4--,die ,rechenschwche 7,arithmasthenie7 der ,schulkinder im ,lichte des ,experiments2 ,j4 ,springer1 ,berlin1 #aiaf4 ,,rogers1 ,a4 ,l4--,experimental ,tests of ,mathematical ,ability and ,their ,prognostic ,value2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiah4 ,,scripture1 ,e4 ,w4--8,arithmetical ,prodigies02 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 #ahia4 ,,schmitt1 ,c4--8,extreme ,retardation in ,arithmetic02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiba4 ,,smith1 ,j4 ,h4--8,individual ,variations in ,arithmetic02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiaf4 ,,terry1 ,p4 ,w4--8,the ,reading ,problem in ,arithmetic02 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 #aiba4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--,the ,psychology of ,arithmetic2 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,uhl1 ,w4 ,l4--8,the ,use of ,standardized ,material in ,arithmetic for ,diagnosing ,pupils' ,methods of ,work02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiag4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,drawing ,i4 ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,drawing ,manuel1 who has made a careful psychological study of talent in drawing1 defines drawing as follows3 8,the term drawing designates a process of causing1 by means of pencil1 pen1 brush1 or other instrument1 certain lines or areas1 or both1 to appear on a given surface40 ,this definition we may accept1 if we add that the lines and areas are intended or can be interpreted to signify something4 ,we should not agree1 for instance1 that the lines and areas which are caused to appear on the ground by the scratching of a fowl should be included within the definition4 ,having been thus defined1 drawings may be classified into many kinds1 in accordance with the technique employed and the meaning conveyed4 ,these kinds are 7#a7 copying1 7#b7 representative drawing1 7#c7 analytical or diagrammatic drawing1 7#d7 impressionistic drawing1 7#e7 symbolic drawing1 and 7#f7 caricature4 ,this classification is exclusive of other forms of graphic or representative expression1 such as painting1 sculpture1 and paper-cutting 7used in the art of cutting silhouettes74 ,these various kinds of presentations differ as to the psychophysical equipment constituting talent for them4 ,it is therefore impossible1 as psychological study has proved1 to discuss talent for drawing1 without specifying what kind of drawing is under consideration4 ,talent for painting1 sculpture1 and cutting silhouettes has been little studied1 so that we are not in position to discuss these at the present time1 either as processes in themselves or as related to drawing4 ,the term copying is self-explanatory4 ,by representative drawing is meant a drawing having visual realism1 which 8looks like0 that from which it is drawn4 ,analytical 7diagrammatic7 drawing is logical4 ,it may violate features essential to visual realism1 stressing only aspects from certain points of view1 or abstracting a general principle4 ,for instance1 the plan for the ground-floor of a house1 or a schema of arterial circulation1 would be analytical4 ,mechanical drawing comes under this category1 as does also1 in a sense1 conventionalized drawing1 for in conventionalized drawing some general principle or pattern is abstracted from concrete instances1 and is made the basis of the design4 ,a conventionalized bird does not look like any particular bird ever seen by anyone1 but1 on the other hand1 it looks like all birds4 ,it is a non-existent1 composite1 typical bird4 ,impressionistic drawing conveys an idea without much attention to visual realism4 ,a curve stands for a cloud1 two vertical lines suggest trees1 a few zigzag marks indicate grass and flowers4 ,in symbolic drawing one thing is drawn to represent another thing1 as a crown is drawn to represent royalty4 ,symbolic drawing does not1 perhaps1 deserve separate classification1 in a study of abilities1 but for the present it seems best to differentiate it4 ,to originate symbolic drawings may call for capacities not included in the other forms of graphic presentation4 ,finally1 caricature is drawing that catches and exaggerates individual peculiarities1 most often with a result which is humorous or satirical4 ,the art of cartooning depends very largely on caricature and symbolism for its effect4 ,cartoons interpret life4 ,the successful cartoonist1 therefore1 combines talent for drawing with a high degree of general intelligence4 ,,ii4 ,,ramifications ,,of ,,drawing ,,through ,,the ,,curriculum ,when we speak of drawing in the schools1 there is a tendency to think only of those performances which are taught and executed during the time set aside for instruction by the teacher of drawing4 ,but a little reflection will show us to what an extent drawing ramifies through the curriculum1 and forms an element in achievement4 ,in geography map-drawing is required4 ,in nature study1 notebooks with drawings of natural objects seen are frequently kept4 ,in sciences taught by the laboratory method drawing is an important element in success4 ,zology1 physiology1 and botany are especially taught through drawing4 ,in mechanics1 and in engineering1 drawing plays a prominent part4 ,thus it comes about that school marks in all these subjects depend to some extent on drawing of some kind4 ,if psychological study shows capacity for drawing to be largely or utterly dissociated from general intelligence1 the use of drawing to so great an extent1 as a method of recitation in the sciences especially1 may be undesirable4 ,the belief that drawing used in this way fails to meet the need of many pupils1 otherwise apt in science1 led ,ayer to undertake the interesting investigation to which it will be necessary to give our attention in detail1 throughout this chapter4 ,,iii4 ,,psychological ,,analysis ,,of ,,talent ,,in ,,drawing ,it is quite interesting to notice that the analysis of ability in reading1 spelling1 and arithmetic has been approached largely through studies of the particularly deficient1 while in the case of drawing and music the approach has been through study of the gifted1 to a greater extent4 ,the psychographic study of individual talent in drawing was preceded by many investigations of what children draw1 at what ages various details appear in drawings1 how the drawings of one group compare with those of another1 and what people say about the drawings they make4 ,these studies1 up to #aiae1 have been brought together by ,ayer1 and are so well summarized by him in relation to the study of aptitude1 that there is no need to summarize them again4 ,those who desire to become familiar with the whole literature of the psychology of drawing will do well to consult ,ayer's work4 ,several analyses of ability to draw have been undertaken1 some through study of the particularly deficient1 some through study of the conspicuously talented4 ,meumann thus states the causes of inefficiency in drawing3 7#a7 ,the will to analyze and to notice forms and colors has not been stimulated4 7#b7 ,the intention to analyze may be aroused1 and yet the individual may find the analysis too difficult4 ,this is a matter of innate talent4 7#c7 ,the memory of that to be represented may be deficient4 ,it may be incomplete or vague in form or in color4 ,the memory of spatial relations may be inadequate4 ,this1 too1 is a matter of innate talent4 7#d7 ,there may be lack of ability to hold the image during the act of drawing4 ,this capacity is innate4 7#e7 ,the memory image and the perceptual image may not be cordinated with the movements in drawing4 ,this capacity is innate4 7#f7 ,the sight of the drawing in its imperfection as compared with the memory image may disturb the image4 7#g7 ,the drawer may lack schemata on which to found his drawing4 7#h7 ,there may be failure to comprehend how one may project space in three dimensions upon a plane4 7#i7 ,manual skill may fail4 7#aj7 ,there may be no artistic sense4 7#aa7 ,inability to draw may arise from a combination of various of these deficiencies4 ,manuel has offered the following analysis1 after study of persons especially talented3 ,the following characteristics1 each an independent or partially independent variable1 seem closely related to ability in drawing3 7#a7 ,the ability mentally to note a visual form1 and1 by certain lines and areas1 to reproduce it or significant features of it4 7#b7 ,ability to observe4 7#c7 ,ability to select from a complex visual situation the most representative and the most beautiful aspects4 7#d7 ,memory for visual forms4 7#e7 ,ability mentally to manipulate visual forms4 7#f7 ,ability to control hand movements in accordance with visual percept or image4 7#g7 ,ability to invent1 to bring together into new artistic combinations the elements of different visual experiences4 7#h7 ,ability to judge the beautiful in line1 form1 color1 and composition4 7#i7 ,ability to discriminate differences in color4 7#aj7 ,ability to discriminate differences in visual magnitude4 7#aa7 ,acuity of vision4 7#ab7 ,interest in the act and products of drawing4 7#ac7 ,general intelligence4 ,these two analyses may serve as samples1 since they include practically all the elements suggested by any other investigators4 ,jones has recently furnished us with additional evidence that memory of objects visually perceived and perception of perspective are probably important contributors to drawing ability4 ,among #bfd school children in the seventh and eighth grades of the ,evanston public schools1 a correlation was found of 4#hc between visual memory and ability to draw4 ,perception of perspective and visual memory yielded a coefficient of 4#he4 ,as a result of administering more than twenty tests to #ai individuals gifted in drawing1 ,manuel concludes that1 8,persons talented in drawing exhibit great individual differences in their psychophysical characteristics40 ,nevertheless1 tests devised to measure status in the traits listed in the analyses which have been made1 would be expected to yield1 finally1 a psychograph of talent in each of the various kinds of drawing4 ,persons approximating these psychographs could then be identified as talented in drawing1 and those deviating widely from them could be classified as deficient in ability to draw4 ,the invention and standardization of such tests is a matter for further research4 ,at present we have no means of gauging talent in drawing except by grading a finished product on a scale of drawings1 like ,thorndike's 8,scale for ,measuring ,achievement in ,drawing40 ,such a means does not always adequately separate talent from training4 ,the hope that psychographs of ability to draw may be platted in future does not mean that psychologists expect to find complete similarity among those talented in drawing4 ,individuality is as intrinsic in drawing as it is in handwriting4 ,as a signature can be used for identification in the hands of experts1 so a picture bears the mark of the particular psychophysical constitution that produced it4 ,the ordinary reader of current fiction knows1 by inspection1 whether a given illustration has been made by ,may ,wilson ,preston or by ,tony ,sarg1 without seeing the signature4 ,the drawings of ,clarence ,day are inimitable4 ,,iv4 ,,relations ,,between ,,aptitude ,,in ,,drawing ,,and ,,general ,,intelligence ,as long ago as #aijc1 ,fischlovitz studied #cej high school freshmen1 to obtain the correlation between ability to draw and ability in other high school studies4 ,correlations were computed between grades in drawing and in other subjects4 ,the conclusion was that1 8,ability in drawing is correlated to a greater degree with some of the subjects than with others1 but in no case is the correlation very strong1 and that ability in drawing is more of a special ability40 ,some years later1 ,elderton obtained a correlation of 4#daf between grades in drawing and grades in classics1 for one class1 and of 4#cac between the grades in the same studies1 in another class4 ,the subjects were here #ai boys in each of two classes in an ,english public school4 ,ivanof found among ,swiss children a tendency for the able in drawing to include somewhat more good all-round pupils than were included among the pupils at large1 and an opposite tendency among those poor in drawing4 ,the figures show1 however1 many pupils strong in general work listed among those poor in drawing4 ,ayer obtained a correlation of 4#ff between grades in drawing and other subjects1 for #ada normal school students4 ,as ,ayer points out1 these methods are very crude as means of determining to what extent drawing is a special ability4 ,in the first place1 since drawing is used as a form of recitation in various school subjects1 we are obtaining to some extent a self-correlation in subjects like science and geography4 ,in the second place1 grades in drawing do not specify what kind of drawing is graded4 ,in the case of ,ayer's normal school students1 special inquiry showed that the grades in drawing were computed from heterogeneous factors1 including 7a7 ability in representative drawing1 7b7 ability in designing1 7c7 ability in artistic discrimination1 7d7 ability with color1 washes1 shading1 etc41 7e7 attendance1 7f7 discipline1 7g7 vocational interest4 ,school marks do not1 therefore1 isolate ability in any one kind of drawing1 from a medley of other relevant and irrelevant factors1 the mark being bestowed upon the total composite of factors4 ,much more reliable as a method of research is the method of tests4 ,in ,simpson's data1 already quoted1 it is seen that drawing lengths shows very slight coherence with other abilities4 ,other similar fragmentary suggestive facts may be found1 scattered through the literature4 ,in #aiaf ,ayer undertook a well-planned investigation to determine how two kinds of drawing1 7#a7 representative drawing and 7#b7 analytical drawing1 are related to 7a7 ability in verbal description and 7b7 achievement in school subjects on the whole4 ,a turkey feather was drawn representatively1 drawn analytically1 and described verbally by #ea high school pupils4 ,twenty-four hours after the analytical drawing1 the pupils were again required to make a diagram of the feather and to answer questions about its parts4 ,the results of these various efforts were then scored by ten competent judges independently1 to obtain a final score for each pupil in each test4 ,the table1 from ,ayer1 on page #adi1 shows the rank obtained by each pupil in each kind of performance4 ,the pupil who stands first in memory stands thirty-eighth in representative drawing1 and so forth down the series1 for each pupil4 ,in the following table1 from ,ayer1 we see the coefficients of correlation found between the various functions tested1 as computed from the ranks listed in the table on page #adi4 ,,table ,,from ,,ayer ,showing correlations in case of representative drawing1 retention1 diagramming 7analytical drawing71 and description4 ,,abilities ,,correlated ,,coefficient ,,of ,,correlation 7,,pearson7 ,representative drawing and description 4#jbc ,diagramming and representative drawing 4#jeb ,diagramming and description 4#bca ,representative drawing and retention 4#jbb ,description and retention 4#bcd ,analytical drawing and retention 4#dcc ,,table ,,from ,,ayer ,rank in retention1 representative drawing1 description1 and analytical drawing1 as tested in the case of #ea students in a first year high school class in general science4 ,,rank ,,in ,,memory ,,rank ,,in ,,drawing ,,rank ,,in ,,rank ,,in ,,diagram ,,description #a #ch #b #a #b #da #ad #e #c #cg #a #ad #d #bb #cj #da #e #g #df #d #f #ag #bj #aj #g #dh #bb #dc #h #bg #ai #f #i #db #f #bg #aj #ci #i #ca #aa #ca #dd #ai #ab #cf #aj #i #ac #ah #da #bf #ad #ba #bi #ab #ae #i #ch #bc #af #ce #ac #ce #ag #ea #cg #bd #ah #be #ce #ci #ai #aj #bd #cd #bj #bf #e #be #ba #ab #ag #cj #bb #bh #di #ea #bc #cd #be #ac #bd #c #ab #ae #be #de #de #c #bf #bd #g #b #bg #f #cb #dg #bh #af #cd #ah #bi #bj #ca #h #cj #d #ej #bb #ca #dd #ah #dj #cb #ai #d #ag #cc #ac #dh #de #cd #cc #af #cc #ce #aa #h #dd #cf #bc #dg #cf #cg #a #dc #ch #ch #dc #cc #bi #ci #h #cf #aa #dj #bi #db #ba #da #cj #c #df #db #b #bf #db #dc #dg #bh #bh #dd #cb #ba #g #de #ae #bg #bj #df #df #ci #dg #dg #di #aa #af #dh #ej #dj #ej #di #e #de #cj #ej #dj #bc #dh #ea #ad #ea #di ,the correlation between representative drawing and verbal description is practically zero4 ,from knowledge of ability in one of these functions1 among high school students1 no inference can be made concerning the other4 ,ability in diagramming 7a kind of analytical drawing7 is also not correlated with representative drawing4 ,on the other hand1 the processes of diagramming and description exhibit a slight tendency to positive coherence1 as do description and retention4 ,analytical drawing and retention have a decided tendency to cohere1 with a coefficient of 4#dcc4 ,in order to check his finding that school marks in drawing correlate well with school marks in other subjects1 ,ayer correlated the scores of these #ea high school pupils in representative drawing1 with their school marks and found an absence of relationship4 8,ability in representative drawing is not correlated with achievement in school subjects1 when it is isolated from the other factors of school drawing40 ,ayer concludes that different kinds of drawing are differently correlated with general intelligence1 and that it is necessary to isolate the various kinds in determining the relationship4 ,analytical drawing is a better indication of a pupil's general grasp of subject matter than is representative drawing4 ,he recommends 8that the device of representative drawing shall be supplanted in laboratory teaching10 since it appears to be a highly specialized function4 ,the question of the relationship between general intelligence and ability to draw has also been investigated by ,manuel1 who took the ,,iq of each of his talented subjects by means of ,stanford-,binet4 ,these were pupils in elementary school1 high school1 and college4 ,this means of measuring general intelligence was ill adapted to its purpose in the case of the college students and1 also1 probably in the case of many of the high school students among his subjects1 as the scale will not measure the intelligence of very superior adolescents and adults4 ,because of its limitations1 the most intelligent adult in the world cannot show an ,,iq of more than about #abj on it4 ,therefore some of ,manuel's older subjects may have been much more intelligent than appears on the record4 ,the range of intelligence among those talented in drawing may be even greater than the record shows4 ,the tests as they stand show that superior ability in drawing may accompany any degree of general intelligence from very superior to very inferior4 8,we conclude therefore that a certain elementary ability in graphic representation1 such as is required for success in elementary school drawing1 is independent1 or partially independent1 of general intelligence40 ,it should be stated that presence of talent in drawing in the case of these individuals was determined in part by testimony of teachers of art1 and in part by two tests1 7#a7 the drawing of a house from memory1 and 7#b7 the drawing of a wooden cart from the object4 ,both of these would be classified as representative drawings4 ,where representative drawing has been isolated for study in relation to general intelligence1 no results contradictory to the conclusions stated above have been reported4 ,earlier investigators had declared that great talent for graphic expression is closely connected with good intellectual endowment in children1 but that 8the reverse of this does not hold true40 ,this conclusion will probably be shown to be well founded in future researches carried out by modern test methods4 8,great talent0 includes much more than mere ability to 8see and make0 an object4 ,as ,manuel says1 8,before one gets very far in art expression1 a great number of supplementary factors must be brought to the support of the ability to represent graphically simple objects4 ,even the technique itself becomes progressively more difficult4444 ,general intelligence conditions the ability of drawers 7a7 to acquire the advanced technique into which conceptual factors enter1 and 7b7 to create original drawings of merit40 ,manuel also gave tests of linguistic ability in the course of his study and found no essential relationship between ability to draw and ability to manage words4 8,linguistic ability is no index of ability or lack of ability in graphic representation10 but linguistic ability correlates well with general intelligence 7as has been previously emphasized in this volume74 ,for purposes of educational and vocational guidance we now need especially studies of the relationship between general intelligence and kinds of drawing other than the representative4 ,we require studies of the extent to which copying1 analytical drawing1 symbolic drawing1 and caricature are correlated with general mental capacity4 ,it may be predicted with some confidence that research in unselected groups will finally show copying and representative drawing to be slightly correlated with general intelligence4 ,analytical and symbolic drawing are probably significantly correlated with general intelligence1 while caricature is doubtless very closely correlated with intellectual capacity4 ,we need also researches bearing upon the relationship between ability in painting1 sculpture1 and pattern-cutting1 and general intelligence4 ,to what extent are painters and sculptors of high repute also gifted with superior intellectual acumen8 ,popular opinion would have it that the 8artistic mind0 is antagonistic in its organization to the 8scientific mind40 ,probably here as elsewhere uncontrolled speculation leads to false conclusions4 ,probably those who achieve eminence in the arts are1 on the whole1 as highly endowed with general intelligence as are those who win eminence in other kinds of careers4 ,greatness in graphic portrayal almost certainly results only when there is a rare combination of highly specialized capacity for representative drawing1 and very high ,,iq1 in the same individual4 ,fortunately for all1 modern life calls for all forms of talent in drawing1 in all degrees of combination with general intelligence4 ,sign painters1 copyists1 designers1 draughtsmen1 architects1 illustrators1 and creative interpreters of human faces and of human life are all needed4 ,persons skilled in drawing are essential to mechanical and industrial development in society1 for everything made must first be drawn1 from the motor of an airplane to the fancy buttons on a child's coat4 ,v4 ,,the ,,color-,,blind ,between #c and #e per cent of boys1 and apparently fewer girls1 inherit a special defect of vision1 called 8color blindness40 ,a color-blind child may be gifted in drawing1 except in color drawing1 but he will be incompetent as a painter4 ,there are several forms of this special defect4 ,very rarely it may happen that no discrimination among colors is possible1 the world appearing1 as in a photograph1 to consist only of light and shade4 ,in the late evening1 or in any sufficient dimness1 color is not perceived by ordinary eyes4 ,those who are blind to all colors do not see color with the brightening of the light1 as ordinarily happens4 ,the most common form of color blindness is1 however1 that in which only red-green sensations are absent1 other colors being distinguishable4 ,there is no disease present in such cases4 ,the defect is hereditary1 and consists in deviation from the typical in structure of the retina4 ,the eyes of color-blind persons are as healthy and normal as those of others1 in respect to functions other than acting as receptors for certain waves of light4 ,a few cases of blue-yellow color blindness have been reported1 these resulting from pathological causes4 ,a color-blind child does not1 of course1 know from his own experience that he is so4 ,he supposes that everyone sees what he sees1 until informed by test or disaster of his deviation from the usual4 ,color blindness seems to bear no relation to intelligence1 so that in drawing where color is used teachers will find a certain percentage of generally very able children producing absurd results4 ,a color-blind child with a great gift for drawing1 may succeed in etching or in black and white work of various kinds1 as has been shown by the actual rise to eminence of etchers who are color-blind4 ,,vi4 ,,illustrative ,,cases ,the facts which have been set forth in regard to ability in drawing will be further illuminated by concrete cases4 ,in ,figure #ai we have reproduced the psychograph of a child in the elementary school1 ,e #a1 showing talent in representative drawing combined with very inferior intelligence4 ,e #a was a pupil in the sixth grade1 at the time when this psychograph was made4 ,she was nearly #ad years old1 and therefore distinctly retarded in school status4 ,in spite of her general incompetence1 her drawing teacher placed her near the top of her grade in native ability to draw4 ,the child is described as not original4 8,she can follow better than she can originate40 8,apparently her talent for drawing is inherited4 ,her father is a tailor4 ,he enjoys drawing and lettering4 ,her mother takes great interest in the children's drawings1 and an aunt has made paintings of some interest4 ,an older brother of ,e #a is reported as very good 7original and true7 in drawing4 ,she has also two younger sisters and a younger brother who are good in drawing40 ,figure #bj shows a copy of a man's portrait1 done by a #ad-year-old boy1 of ,,iq near #gj4 ,this boy was incapable of normal progress through the school curriculum4 ,being 8left back0 repeatedly1 he became a truant and otherwise delinquent4 ,his ability for and interest in drawing are highly specialized4 ,figure #ba shows drawings of movement 7not copied7 by the same boy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,showing the psychograph of a stupid child1 who has a special ability in representative drawing4 7,from ,manuel's ,a ,study of ,talent in ,drawing4 ,reproduced by courtesy of ,the ,public ,school ,publishing ,company47 ,the special ability in paper-cutting of a feeble-minded man1 8,dick10 is illustrated in ,figure #bb4 ,at the time these silhouettes were cut1 this man was #bh years old1 strong and healthy1 with a mental level of #f years #d months1 and ,,iq #ci 7,stanford-,binet74 ,he has been an inmate of an institution for mental defectives for seventeen years1 as his general intelligence is insufficient for any kind of unsupervised career4 ,he has never been able to learn to read or write4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,showing special ability in drawing1 of a #ad-year-old boy1 of ,,iq near #gj4 ,the portrait is a copy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,showing special ability in drawing of a #ad-year-old boy1 of ,,iq near #gj4 ,this man is greatly interested in animals1 and after being taken to the circus sometime ago1 became a nuisance in his preoccupation with what he had seen there4 ,in cutting the silhouettes1 he merely takes a sheet of paper in one hand1 a pair of scissors in the other1 and cuts absolutely 8free-hand10 without reference to any preliminary patterning or draughting1 either from memory or from a model4 ,the performance is accompanied by many navely vain remarks1 calling attention to his skill and the quality of the product4 ,he can also draw1 as is shown in ,figure #bc4 ,he has never had any special training so far as known4 ,for the sake of contrast1 we have presented1 in ,figure #bd1 the attempts of two university professors to cut an elephant from paper1 as did 8,dick0 in ,figure #bb4 ,these two professors are both doctors of philosophy1 distinguished in their respective fields for research4 ,yet they are greatly surpassed by 8,dick0 in ability to cut silhouettes4 ,,vii4 ,,inheritance ,,of ,,talent ,,in ,,drawing ,a comprehensive study of the inheritance of talent in drawing is yet to be made4 ,manuel took the family history of the pupils studied by him1 and found artistic ability of some kind among close relatives in almost all cases4 ,the gift showed itself in early childhood in these talented persons1 and there is every reason to believe that it was bestowed by the conditions of near ancestry4 ,,viii4 ,,general ,,summary ,it is clear that talent for representative drawing arises from a happy combination of a great many variable functions2 and that this combination may occur in persons of superior1 average1 or inferior intelligence4 ,likewise1 conspicuous lack of this talent is compatible with intelligence of almost any degree4 ,therefore1 many children considered by their teachers of drawing to be pupils of ability1 will be rated as but mediocre1 or as inferior1 by other teachers4 ,this will be true especially to the extent that drawing as a subject of instruction is limited to representative drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,showing the special ability to cut silhouettes1 of a feeble-minded man1 inmate of an institution for mental defectives4 ,see also ,figure #bc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,charlie ,chaplin pursuing a gentleman1 and pursued by a policeman4 ,showing the special ability to draw1 of a feeble-minded man1 in an institution for mental defectives4 ,see also ,figure #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,showing attempts by two distinguished university professors to cut silhouettes of an elephant4 ,compare with ,figure #bb4 ,since superior students of science may or may not have ability to draw1 it is probably undesirable that success in elementary courses should be made to depend largely on drawing4 ,distinguished achievement in analytical1 symbolic1 and interpretative art is probably as incompatible with native stupidity as is distinguished achievement in any other field of technical endeavor4 ,persons who can draw1 but are nevertheless generally dull1 should probably not be guided toward the career of designer1 architect1 cartoonist1 or portrait painter4 ,all persons possess in some amount each and every one of the capacities1 which in rare and happy combinations constitute talent in drawing4 ,the typical child possesses them in typical degrees1 so that the majority can draw moderately well4 ,since in after life most children will enjoy the drawings of others more frequently than they will themselves draw1 probably it would be of value to devote a relatively greater part of the curriculum in drawing to forming acquaintanceship with pictures4 ,interest in drawing1 painting1 or sculpture may be present without talent1 but probably keen interest and talent are most often combined4 ,at present educational psychologists have before them the task of extending research1 so that the word 8probably10 so often used in this discussion1 may be replaced by 8certainly40 ,the accomplishment of this task will call for the coperation of artists1 in particular4 ,,references ,,ayer1 ,f4 ,c4--,the ,psychology of ,drawing2 ,warwick and ,york1 ,baltimore1 #aiaf4 ,,binet1 ,a4--8,la psychologie artistique de ,tade ,styka02 ,l'anne psychologique1 #aijh4 ,,childs1 ,h4 ,g4--8,measurement of the ,drawing ,ability of ,two ,thousand ,one ,hundred and ,seventy-seven ,children in ,indiana ,school ,systems by a ,supplemented ,thorndike ,scale02 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 #aiae4 ,,elderton1 ,e4--8,on the ,association of ,drawing with ,other ,capacities in ,school ,children02 ,biometrika1 #aiaj4 ,,fischlovitz1 ,a4--,an ,inductive ,study of the ,abilities ,involved in ,drawing2 ,columbia ,university1 #aijc4 ,,jones1 ,e4 ,e4--8,the ,correlation of ,visual ,memory and ,perception of ,perspective with ,drawing ,ability02 ,school and ,society1 #aibb4 ,,ivanof1 ,e4--8,corrlation entre l'aptitude au dessin et les autres aptitudes02 ,archives de psychologie1 #aijh4 ,,kerschensteiner1 ,g4--,die ,entwicklung der zeichnerischen ,begabung2 ,gruber1 ,munich1 #aije4 ,,kik1 ,c4--8,die bernormale ,zeichenbegabung bei ,kindern02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aijh4 ,,manuel1 ,h4 ,t4--,a ,study of ,talent in ,drawing2 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,ill1 #aiai4 ,,meumann1 ,e4--8,ein ,programm zur psychologischen ,untersuchung des ,zeichnens02 ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 #aiab4 ,,pannenberg1 ,h4 ,j41 and ,w4 ,a4--8,die ,psychologie der ,zeichners und ,malers02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aiai4 ,,peter1 ,r4--8,beitrage zur ,analyse der zeichnerischen ,begabung02 ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 #aiad4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,the ,measurement of ,achievement in ,drawing02 ,teachers ,college ,record1 #aiac4 ,,tildesley1 ,m4 ,l4--8,preliminary ,note on the ,association of ,steadiness and ,rapidity of ,hand with ,artistic ,capacity02 ,biometrika1 #aiah4 ,,whitford1 ,w4 ,g4--8,empirical ,study of ,pupil ,ability in ,public ,school ,art ,courses02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiai4 ,,whitford1 ,w4 ,g4--8,curriculum ,building in ,art02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aibj4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,music ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,music8 ,among animals1 only birds and men can produce music4 ,possibly1 of these1 men only can appreciate it4 ,it is not agreed as to whether birds can appreciate music4 ,they respond to it1 and even imitate it1 as in the case of the mocking bird1 but we cannot be sure that their singing is for 8pure joy10 or for the love of the melody rendered4 ,with the majority of men we know that musical tones arranged in melody or harmony act as original satisfiers1 by and in themselves4 8,music hath power to soothe the savage breast40 ,the analysis of capacity for musical performance1 and the study of individual differences in this respect1 were preceded by monumental studies of tone-psychology1 rhythm1 pitch-discrimination1 and acoustics4 ,in these researches psychologists1 physiologists1 and physicists have joined efforts4 ,as ,mead says in discussing ,meyer's theory of melody1 8,the search for the basis of music is centuries old2 it antedates the search for the philosopher's stone1 the ,holy ,grail1 and the ,north ,pole40 ,nevertheless1 in spite of all their searching1 scientific men have not discovered the basic psychology of harmony and melody4 ,meyer1 a lifelong student of the problem1 concludes that1 8,where we hear a succession of different pitches1 we are affected in a certain way which cannot be described1 but has to be regarded as an elementary psychological fact40 ,the satisfaction experienced by the typical person upon hearing a harmony1 and the annoyance experienced by him upon hearing a discord1 remain among the mysteries1 perhaps unfathomable1 of human psychology4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,music ,there are many different kinds of music1 requiring certain differences in psychophysical equipment for their execution1 severally4 ,for instance1 singing requires certain equipment which may be lacking in a highly gifted organist4 ,an organist must have characteristics which are possibly dispensable to the harpist4 ,to sing1 to play the piano1 to play the violin1 to play the trombone1 to compose a symphony1 to write musical criticism--these are by no means all necessarily possible to the same person4 ,a complete inventory of musical talent will rest upon knowledge of how all the various kinds of music are related as regards the capacities required in each1 and of how the violinist may differ from the singer1 and the drummer from the conductor of an orchestra4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,musical ,,talent ,since about the year #aiae1 psychologists have turned somewhat from the study of the nature of music to the investigation of the musical person4 ,they have raised the questions3 ,in what way does the musician differ from others in his psychophysical equipment8 ,why are some persons unable to produce or appreciate music8 ,the pursuit of these questions led immediately to an analysis of musical talent1 for it was evident at once that a great variety of subsidiary functions contribute to any kind of musical performance4 ,these may first of all be classified under three general categories3 7#a7 the acoustic functions1 the abilities involved in perceiving musical sounds1 7#b7 the motor functions1 the abilities involved in executing musical sounds1 and 7#c7 the intellectual functions1 ability to interpret musical compositions1 and to originate new ideas4 ,it is in the ,united ,states and in ,germany that the significant studies of musical and unmusical persons have been made4 ,rupp1 ,bernfield1 the ,pannenbergs1 ,rvsz1 ,schussler1 and ,seashore and his students have all made contributions to the subject4 ,rvsz studied children who were extremely gifted in music1 and proposed that in analysing musical talent the following abilities must be considered3 7#a7 to compose1 7#b7 to reproduce1 7#c7 to hear1 7#d7 to remember musical elements1 7#e7 to transpose1 7#f7 to improvise1 7#g7 to modulate1 7#h7 to play at sight4 ,in addition ,rvsz stipulated that observations must be made with regard to intelligence1 interest1 and the 8artistic nature0 of the child4 ,later1 in #aibj1 ,rvsz proposed eight tests devised for the identification of the musical4 ,these were for 7#a7 the sense of rhythm1 7#b7 absolute pitch1 7#c7 octave recognition and transposition1 7#d7 relative pitch1 7#e7 harmony1 7#f7 memory of a melody1 and 7#g7 playing by ear4 ,the most complete inventory of musical talent that has been proposed is that of ,seashore1 who1 with his numerous students1 has made the most important contributions in this field4 ,seashore would include tests of all the following functions in the complete musical psychograph3 ,i4 ,musical ,sensitivity ,a4 ,basic ,capacities #a4 ,sense of pitch #b4 ,sense of intensity #c4 ,sense of time #d4 ,sense of extensity ,b4 ,complex ,capacities #a4 ,sense of timbre #b4 ,sense of rhythm #c4 ,sense of consonance #d4 ,sense of volume ,,ii4 ,musical ,action ,natural capacity for skill in accurate and musically expressive production of tones 7vocal or instrumental or both7 in #a4 ,control of pitch #b4 ,control of intensity #c4 ,control of time #d4 ,control of timbre #e4 ,control of rhythm #f4 ,control of volume ,,iii4 ,musical ,memory and ,imagination #a4 ,auditory imagery #b4 ,motor imagery #c4 ,creative imagination #d4 ,memory span #e4 ,learning power ,,iv4 ,musical ,intellect #a4 ,musical free association #b4 ,musical power of reflection #c4 ,general intelligence ,v4 ,musical ,feeling #a4 ,musical taste3 likes and dislikes #b4 ,emotional reaction to music #c4 ,emotional self-expression in music ,seashore has succeeded in devising1 standardizing1 and making available for practical purposes scales of measurement for five of the basic capacities of musical sensitivity4 ,these are for pitch1 intensity1 time1 consonance1 and tonal memory4 ,research is under way to bring the other elements of musical talent similarly within the province of mental measurement4 ,attempts to study movement as an element in musical talent are exemplified by the recent investigations of ,gatewood and of ,hansen4 ,gatewood studied finger-movement in a number of persons1 and found that there exist those who1 even with great amounts of practice1 do not approximate the speed and accuracy which others show on the first trial4 ,however1 the investigation of the motor elements in musical talent has not progressed as yet to a point that would enable us to make positive statements useful to educators2 but it is obvious that for guidance they are fully as important as the acoustic elements are4 ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,among ,,various ,,elements ,,of ,,musical ,,talent ,correlation has proved that sense of pitch and sense of time are largely independent of each other4 ,persons may stand high in one and low in the other4 ,we know even now1 therefore1 that the elements of talent are independent or partially independent variables1 and that excellence in one may be accompanied by inferiority in another4 ,the successful musician is he who combines the necessary elements in high degree4 ,most children combine the elements in moderate or typical degrees of each1 and are able to learn music and enjoy it in the ordinary manner4 ,only a few are capable of becoming professional performers4 ,schussler concluded that #e to #aj per cent of the pupils examined by him might be justly classified as unmusical4 ,a similar percentage would doubtless be classified as very musical1 of whom a small proportion would be capable of outstanding musical achievement4 ,v4 ,,relation ,,between ,,musical ,,talent ,,and ,,general ,,intelligence ,it is somewhat difficult to compare musical talent with general intelligence1 within a group of individuals1 by test1 because the tests which have been devised are to an extent dependent on intelligence for their execution4 ,in order to perform them1 it is necessary to follow somewhat complicated directions1 and to do this requires the exercise of intelligence4 ,seashore's tests cannot be reliably carried out with persons whose general intelligence level falls below about nine years4 ,within the range of intellect which is sufficient for understanding and carrying out the directions1 musical sensitivity as regards pitch1 intensity1 time1 and consonance shows no reliable correlation with general intelligence4 ,this is what we should expect from test results1 on the basis of the relationships shown previously between ability in music and ability in school work on the whole4 ,for instance1 ,schussler found that of pupils classified by his criterion 7grades received in singing7 as 8unmusical10 #da per cent reached the grade norms in school work4 ,of those classified as 8semi-musical10 #eg per cent reached the norms4 ,of the 8musical10 #gi per cent reached the normal status4 ,the average standing in marks of the 8musical0 fell #ae per cent above that of the 8unmusical10 while the 8semi-musical0 showed an average rating #f4f per cent higher than the 8unmusical40 ,when we consider that school marks in singing1 as in drawing1 are given not only for musical capacity1 but for a heterogeneity of factors1 including effort1 attendance1 ability to comprehend directions1 and so forth1 we should at once expect from these figures that by actual test1 musical ability would be likely to show marked independence of general intelligence4 ,nearly half of the distinctly 8unmusical0 children reached or exceeded the grade norms1 in general school work4 ,this is not far from what is true of children taken at random1 regardless of musical talent4 ,that a disproportionately large number of pupils who did very good work in music reached or exceeded the typical performance in school work on the whole1 might be expected from the extent to which school marks in music are probably given for general superiority of the organism1 as suggested above4 ,the present findings from actual tests of sensitivity1 above the minimum of intellect required for carrying out test directions1 are that correlations closely approach zero as regards musical sensitivity and general intelligence4 ,therefore1 educators may expect to find a number of pupils1 who fail in nothing but music1 and others who succeed in nothing but music4 ,as ,witmer has said1 in discussing the specialization of musical gifts1 8,were society so organized that success in life in every sphere of activity were dependent upon a good enough ear to turn a tune1 many persons who are now doing useful work in the world1 would have to be relegated to the class of imbeciles40 ,in view of the facts1 the wisdom seems doubtful of requiring all teachers in the elementary schools to qualify in singing before being certified1 as is now done in some places4 ,there will be a goodly number of students1 in the normal schools1 who are fitted by original endowment to become excellent teachers1 except that they will never be able to sing4 ,in the case of a gift so specialized1 it seems advisable to have a special teacher wherever possible1 rather than to disqualify from teaching persons who cannot sing1 but are otherwise well fitted to educate the young4 ,tests show that musical talent is specialized1 but this is not to say that eminence in music can be attained by the stupid4 ,the achievement of eminence in any endeavor calls for a grasp of life situations and a farsighted fidelity to sustained effort1 which are functions of general intelligence4 ,also1 for eminence in a musical career the intellectual functions which have to do with composition and interpretation are doubtless indispensable4 ,a survey of the general intelligence of eminent musicians would probably reveal a median well above the average2 and this would probably hold true even for singers4 ,,vi4 ,,absolute ,,pitch ,by absolute pitch is usually meant the power to recognize a single musical note when heard1 without comparison with any other tone1 either objective or subjective4 ,it seems to be an hereditary gift1 and probably cannot be acquired by training4 7,some doubt has1 however1 been recently cast upon the latter conclusion by the researches of ,gough1 who was apparently able to educate persons in this respect to a limited extent47 ,statements regarding the frequency of those who possess this idiosyncrasy vary1 from that of ,boggs1 who says that only a few persons have the gift1 to that of ,seashore1 who declares that 8the ability to name notes of a familiar keyed instrument on hearing a single tone is rather common among trained musicians1 and may show itself very early in childhood40 ,perhaps the discrepancies of statement arise through lack of complete agreement as to what should be meant by 8absolute pitch40 ,if the definition is insistently limited to that often given1 namely1 8the power to name a single musical note when heard1 without comparison with any other tone10 then no doubt the gift belongs to very few people1 even those otherwise musically well endowed4 ,seashore holds that in these cases1 it is probably not pitch as such which is recognized1 but rather the timbre of the note4 8,the timbre of the low notes is entirely different from that of the higher notes1 and the evidence seems to show that it is easier to remember a characteristic timbre than pure pitch in itself40 ,the gift of absolute pitch is a great advantage to a musician4 ,it is included as a valuable asset in the talent-inventory of ,rvsz4 ,,vii4 ,,tone ,,deafness ,certain anomalies of structure in the ear give rise to tonal 8gaps0 and 8islands40 ,the ear does not discriminate among pitches1 in certain segments of the scale for pitch4 ,such a condition may occur in but one ear of a given individual1 the other ear then hiding the defect4 ,the child who is extensively deaf to tones has1 of course1 no means1 save the testimony of others1 of knowing whether he is or is not singing properly 7unless he sees his singing on a tonoscope74 ,he cannot be taught to sing in key1 because the receptors which would enable him to profit by training are absent from the structure of the ear4 ,many a tone-deaf child has doubtless suffered much from persistent1 conscientious efforts to make him sing4 ,,viii4 ,,range ,,of ,,individual ,,differences ,in a previous chapter it has been pointed out that quantitative psychology is still struggling toward the invention of scales which shall measure mental traits in terms of units1 every one of which shall be equal to every other1 as every inch is equal to every other inch4 ,until this is achieved1 we cannot use 8times as0 comparisons in speaking of the relation of one individual to another1 in respect to a function4 ,we can now say that one person is three times as heavy as another person1 because we can measure them in pounds1 each one of which is equal to every other4 ,but we cannot yet say that one person is three times as intelligent as another1 because we have not captured the unit which would enable us to do so4 ,in some of the traits which go to make up musical talent1 it is possible to use the 8times as0 comparison1 because we have physical units whereby the differences may be gauged4 ,pitch1 for instance1 may be measured thus4 ,it depends physically upon the frequency of vibrations1 proceeding from a sounding stimulus1 and is measurable in terms of the constant number of double vibrations per second4 ,seashore has found variations in power of discrimination from one-fourth of a double vibration to fifty double vibrations per second4 ,this means that there exist individuals who are at least two hundred times as sensitive as others to pitch1 in terms of the physical unit4 ,other elements in musical sensitivity cannot be so readily measured in stimulus units1 so that the 8times as0 comparison cannot be made4 ,the great diversity of sensitivity to pitch may1 perhaps1 be regarded as a token of the range of individual differences in musical sensitivity1 especially since pitch is a fundamental capacity4 ,it is probably no exaggeration to say that1 in an ordinary class in the elementary school1 children are being taught together1 some of whom are at least a hundred times as musical as others4 ,if children of the same age differed as much from each other in height as they do in sense of pitch1 it would be impossible to teach them in unassorted groups1 for some would be two hundred times as tall as others4 ,the diversity in mental traits1 so much greater than in physical traits1 leaves us complacent1 for the eye cannot behold the incongruities1 as it can in physical matters4 ,the eye cannot see the waste of time1 effort1 and joy which follows from the attempt to train1 equally and together1 children of such widely differing capacities for learning4 ,,ix4 ,,can ,,musical ,,capacity ,,be ,,increased ,,by ,,education8 ,musical sensitivity is inborn1 and probably cannot be increased in any respect by training4 ,if the various elements are not present in amount and combination suitable for a given degree of achievement in music1 no course of training will supply the lack4 ,this is not to say that ultimate achievement1 for those who do possess capacity1 does not depend on training4 ,achievement depends upon both training and capacity1 but the latter cannot be supplied except by hereditary endowment4 ,the question of improvement through education becomes especially important in a case where the psychograph is excellent1 but for one element4 ,much depends1 of course1 upon what the inferior element is1 and the degree of the inferiority1 as to whether the person will be able to succeed in a given musical career4 ,inferiorities that appear in capacity for musical action are possibly much more susceptible to improvement by training than are inferiorities of sensitivity4 ,for example1 there are persons whose psychographs show excellent musical talent1 except that they falter from the pitch in singing4 ,the voice may be excellent in range1 quality1 and volume1 yet with a falter in control which leads to 8flatting0 or 8sharping40 ,this is a defect in musical action1 an inaccuracy of movement4 ,it has long been known that the control of movement is brought about not only through the kinsthetic sensations1 but through aid from the other special senses as well4 ,vision is a first rate aid to the acquisition of motor control4 ,it is a more efficient aid than hearing1 because much finer differences can be detected by vision4 ,the problem1 then1 in an endeavor to improve by training those who 8flat0 or 8sharp10 is to devise some method whereby visual aid may be administered to control4 ,such a method has been found in the tonoscope1 an instrument which registers visually every pitch movement of vocal chords1 or other sounding body4 ,practicing with the tonoscope1 the musician can see what his errors are1 and learn what motor reaction will bring correction4 ,the control of the eye is thus introduced into practice1 as it is in tennis1 writing1 or other form of precise motor learning4 ,singers of all degrees of talent show improvement in pitch after practice with this instrument1 and the improvement continues after the instrument has been laid aside4 ,the gain made with the help of the eye remains in motor control1 just as once having learned to write by aid of the eye1 we can easily write in the dark or with eyes closed4 ,the susceptibility to improvement in other forms of musical action has not been shown experimentally1 this whole field being practically unstudied as yet by experimental method4 ,x4 ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,musical ,,talent ,the inheritance of musical talent has been investigated by ,copp and by ,stanton4 ,the latter has made measurements of specific musical capacities in relatives of musicians1 using ,seashore's tests4 ,this is the beginning of adequate study of the inheritance of musical talent1 as the method1 though laborious1 is correct4 ,four of the ,seashore measures of musical talent were given to eighty-five members of six unrelated family groups1 starting in each group with a person conspicuously known as a musician4 ,these measurements were supplemented by a set questionnaire1 covering musical endowment1 musical education and training1 musical activity1 musical appreciation1 musical memory and imagination1 the questionnaire including a larger number of relatives4 ,from these data1 a study was made of the tendency of offspring to be musical or unmusical1 in accordance with parentage and more remote ancestry4 ,the results show that musical talent is inherited1 and the investigator believes it not improbable that the formula of inheritance may be ,mendelian4 ,much wider research would1 however1 be avowedly necessary1 in order to establish the formula4 ,it may or may not be ,mendelian4 ,the offspring of a mating of musical with unmusical1 of musical with musical1 or of unmusical with unmusical1 may thus inherit from either parent or from both parents1 and apparently without regard to sex4 ,sex differences do not appear1 either1 in any of the tests of musical sensitivity1 which have been standardized4 ,,xi4 ,,psychographic ,,study ,,of ,,individuals ,in order to illustrate concretely the way in which musical talent may or may not accompany other mental capacities1 a few psychographic studies of individuals are presented1 as follows4 ,the first is the psychograph of a girl1 whom we may call ,g1 aged #ad years4 ,it shows her status in percentile ratings1 on various mental and motor tests4 ,g is of average1 or typical1 general intelligence1 with superior rating in musical capacity1 and in drawing4 ,g was brought for mental tests because she did poorly in the school where she was attending1 receiving good marks in music and drawing only4 ,the difficulty in keeping up to grade in general was readily explained1 when the facts of school history were elicited4 ,g was in a very exclusive private school1 where the median ,,iq of the pupils is about #abj1 instead of #ajj as among unselected pupils4 ,this child1 on account of the social status and educational traditions of her father's family1 had been competing all her school life in a highly selected group of children1 and was now considered dull by teachers1 by parents1 and by herself4 ,all were astounded to learn of ,g's average intellectual capacity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,psychograph of ,g1 showing special ability in music and drawing4 7,percentile values for speed in tapping1 and strength of grip have been approximated by estimate47 ,it may be remarked in passing that this is the school history of many an average child1 born into a group where the family median is above the average4 ,the problems of the son of an eminent man1 who fails to inherit superior endowment and is but average in capacity1 are especially acute1 for he is usually expected to undertake tasks for which he is unqualified by original nature4 ,the miseries of a boy of average ability1 expected from babyhood to pass through ,harvard or ,yale1 the distresses of a girl of ordinary intelligence1 destined openly from childhood for a college of very high standards1 are peculiarly poignant to the person who sees human nature in the light of all the facts which we have been recounting4 ,the case of ,g1 and scores of others like it in this respect1 should lead parents to a policy of reticence concerning their expectations of their children1 until it is certain that these expectations have a chance of being realized4 ,fortunately1 the great majority of children of very successful parents never have a problem of this kind1 because of the tendency to selective mating and the laws of heredity4 ,most of the children of gifted parents are themselves sufficiently gifted to perform the expected tasks as a matter of course4 ,not all children of gifted fathers are1 however1 gifted1 because other ancestors1 some of whom may be but average persons1 are likely to contribute to the mental status of the child4 ,yet according to the customs of our country1 it is usually the ability of the father that determines the social milieu and the educational tradition to which the children are subject4 ,thus1 the son of a corporation lawyer1 who has inherited the intelligence of a stupid but handsome grandmother and the educational traditions of a brilliant father1 is in a sorry plight1 unless the facts of human nature are expertly and sympathetically understood in his family4 ,in the case of ,g1 the special talents in drawing and music1 combined with average intellectual ability1 made it possible to suggest very satisfactory adjustments4 ,the idea of college was abandoned1 and plans were made to pursue education in art and music1 which had already been undertaken in a limited way1 with excellent success4 ,from the point of view of heredity1 it is interesting to know that one of ,g's grandfathers1 a chemist by profession1 played a church organ every ,sabbath as a recreation1 and spent leisure hours making drawings1 many of which are still kept as ornaments4 ,the psychograph of ,m shows special defect in musical capacity1 combined with very superior general intelligence4 ,m1 a schoolboy1 was recently brought for mental tests at the age of #aj years1 because of disagreement among his teachers as to his mental ability4 ,the regular classroom teacher believed ,m should be given a double promotion because of his brilliant work in reading1 arithmetic1 and elementary science4 ,the teacher of music held that he should repeat the work of the grade in which he then was1 as an utter failure from her point of view4 ,the shop teacher took a midway position1 saying that his work seemed fair1 and warranted promotion1 but no more1 to the grade above1 in due order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,psychograph of ,m1 showing special defect in music1 combined with very superior general intelligence4 ,m's psychograph explains the differences of opinion thus expressed by teachers4 ,it is seen that in intellect he ranks well up in the top percentile of all children born1 while in musical capacities he ranks in the lower percentiles4 ,the difficulties in shop work arose from the fact that ,m is left-handed1 and was at that time being trained into right-handedness by the teachers4 ,this made him awkward in shop work1 which he cordially detested4 ,m's ,,iq is #aea1 which accounts for his superiority in reading1 science1 and arithmetic4 ,he will not be able to learn music1 or to appreciate it1 and to deprive him of his double promotion on this account seems contrary to his best interests4 ,,xii4 ,,capacity ,,to ,,appreciate ,,music ,though it is probably true that those who can produce good music usually appreciate music also1 the reverse need not be true4 ,there are many who are sensitive to music and are greatly satisfied by it1 who have not the ability to become musicians4 ,music as taught in the schools is concerned chiefly with learning to sing4 ,it would seem that some time might profitably be devoted to hearing good music1 and learning to form preferences4 ,the keen satisfaction which comes to the extremely sensitive has been expressed by some of them in words4 ,schumann said of another musician1 8,he who has once heard ,henselt can never forget his playing2 these pieces still haunt my memory like the recollection of a parterre of flowers40 ,and again1 8,the veiled enjoyment of music which one does not hear1 has something magical in it40 ,berlioz has given us this glimpse of his delight3 8,last night ,i dreamt of music1 this morning ,i recalled it all and fell into one of those supernal ecstasies4444 ,believe me1 dear friend1 the being who could write such miracles of transcendant melody would be more than mortal40 ,stanton questioned the talented and untalented relatives of musicians as to the rle played by music in their daily lives4 ,many showing superior talent reported that music in some form seemed vital to their program of living4 ,it was referred to by them as 8a daily relaxation from business10 8a great source of courage1 a spiritual tonic10 and as 8absolutely paramount40 ,one person used the word 8hunger10 in describing the longing which ensued upon being deprived of music4 ,there may be people capable of such satisfaction in music1 that they would choose between bread and music1 if hard put to it1 not without a struggle4 ,,references ,,agnew1 ,m4--8,the ,auditory ,imagery of ,great ,composers02 ,university of ,iowa ,studies1 #h4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,bernfield1 ,s4--8,zur ,psychologie der ,unmusikalischen02 ,archives fr das gesammte ,psychologie1 #aiae4 ,,boggs1 ,l4--8,studies in ,absolute ,pitch02 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 #aijg4 ,,copp1 ,e4 ,f4--8,musical ,ability02 ,journal of ,heredity1 #aiaf4 ,,edgren1 ,j4 ,g4--8,amusie 7,musikalische ,aphasie702 ,deutsche ,zeitschrift fr ,nervenheilkunde1 #ahid4 ,,gatewood1 ,e4 ,l4--8,individual ,differences in ,finger ,reaction02 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibj4 ,,gaw1 ,e4 ,a4--8,a ,survey of ,musical ,talent in a ,music ,school02 ,university of ,iowa ,studies1 #h4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,gaw1 ,e4 ,a4--8,some ,individual ,difficulties in the ,study of ,music02 ,journal of ,educational ,research1 #aibb4 ,,hansen1 ,c4 ,f4--8,serial ,action as a ,basic ,measure of ,motor ,capacity02 ,university of ,iowa ,studies1 #h4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,knock1 ,c4 ,j4--8,visual ,training of the ,pitch of the ,voice02 ,university of ,iowa ,studies1 #h4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,kries1 ,j4 ,,von--8,ueber das absolut ,gehr02 ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie1 #aijg4 ,,lee1 ,v4--8,varieties of ,musical ,experience02 ,north ,american ,review1 #aiah4 ,,pannenberg1 ,h4 ,j41 and ,w4 ,a4--8,die ,psychologie des ,musikers02 ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie1 #aiae4 ,,platt1 ,w4--,child ,music2 ,simpkins1 ,london1 #aije4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,prfung der ,musikalitt02 ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie1 #aibj4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--8,das musikalische ,wunderkind02 ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 #aiah4 ,r,v,,sz1 ,g4--,nyviegyhazi3 ,psychologische ,analyse eines musikalisch hervorragenden ,kindes2 ,veit u4 ,co41 ,leipzig1 #aiaf4 ,,richet1 ,c4--8,note sur un remarquable prcocit musicale02 ,congrs ,internationale de ,psychologie1 #aija4 ,,rupp1 ,h4--8,ueber die ,prfung musikalischer ,fhigkeiten02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aiad4 ,,schussler1 ,h4--8,das unmusikalische ,kind02 ,zeitschrift fr angewandte ,psychologie1 #aiaf4 ,,seashore1 ,c4 ,e4--,the ,psychology of ,musical ,talent2 ,silver1 ,burdett and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,stanton1 ,h4 ,m4--8,the ,inheritance of ,special ,musical ,capacities02 ,university of ,iowa ,studies1 #h4 ,psychological ,monographs1 #aibb4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,miscellaneous ,i4 ,,special ,,functions ,,which ,,have ,,not ,,been ,,long ,,studied ,there are various mental functions which are now thought to be largely special1 which have not yet been studied sufficiently to warrant extended discussion of each1 yet which merit notice as such if for no other reason than that attention should be directed to the desirability of studying their place in intellectual organization4 ,some of these1 like chess-playing1 will not be discussed here1 as they are at present but remotely connected with prescribed education4 ,we shall1 therefore1 comment upon but some of these1 giving such facts and theories as are available in the case of each4 ,,ii4 ,,left-,,handedness ,the hand is rated by students of the history of civilization as one of the most important determinants of man's rise from savagery4 ,the loss of even a finger is a handicap recognized in such times of stress1 as when men are drafted for war4 ,with the great majority of people1 the two hands are unequal in strength and accuracy1 the right being the major member4 ,with a small minority of children there is1 however1 a predisposition to use the left hand1 instead of the right hand1 as the major member4 ,this is a special condition which must be taken into account by educators4 ,according to different investigators1 the proportion of left-handed children ranges from #b to #f per cent4 ,the disagreements arise from the variety of criteria used and of populations sampled4 ,the median figure of #d per cent seems1 for several reasons most probable1 as the general proportion of left-handedness4 ,many theories as to the origin of handedness have been formulated4 ,it has been argued that handedness is not innate1 but acquired from the mother's habitual method of carrying the infant on one arm rather than on the other1 so that one of its arms is pinioned against the mother habitually1 and gets comparatively little exercise4 ,the theory has been advanced that since the heart is the most vital organ of the body1 and is located on the left side1 the shield to protect it was held by the left hand1 permitting the right hand to attain greater dexterity with the spear1 the advantage thus acquired being transmitted to offspring4 ,also1 it has been proposed that the center of gravity of the viscera1 the position of the subclavian arteries1 cerebral asymmetry1 and greater blood supply to one cerebral hemisphere may be1 respectively1 the origin of handedness4 ,all of these theories are unsatisfactory1 for reasons which have been well stated by the original investigators4 ,there remains to be considered the proposal that handedness is determined by ocular dominance4 ,the right eye is the better seeing eye in about #if per cent of people4 ,as vision develops long before muscular cordination in the infant1 the proposal is that the hand is brought to coperate with the dominant eye4 ,the disproof of this theory is that among the congenitally blind the proportion of right-handed to left-handed is not materially different from that among seeing persons4 ,the origin of handedness is1 therefore1 not understood1 and it is not known why about #d per cent of the population should show dominance of the left hand4 ,it must be considered that handedness is of many degrees1 from extreme right-handedness1 through ambidexterity1 to extreme left-handedness4 ,all right-handed persons are not equally right-handed1 and all left-handed persons are not equally left-handed4 ,trustworthy studies of the heredity of handedness indicate that it is inherited4 ,ramaley studied #faj parents and #aacj children1 and arrived at the conclusion that left-handedness is inherited 7as a ,mendelian recessive71 and is potential in about one-sixth of the population4 ,it is obvious that modern appliances are adapted to the right-handed1 and that right-handedness is regarded generally as 8the way to be40 ,teachers and parents feel it their duty to compel the child to use the right hand4 ,studies of left-handed children who have been 8changed over0 through education or accident to the right hand1 and of right-handed children changed over through accident to the left hand1 lead to the conclusion that among them there is more nervousness and a greater number of speech defects than would be allowed by the usual course of events4 ,stammering is evidently a complication in some cases of modified handedness4 ,the physiology of this connection is obscure4 ,in view of the fact that speech defects occur to so great an extent in 8changing over10 and that we do not know the physiology of handedness1 it seems by all means wisest not to try to modify handedness where it is very pronounced4 ,a very right-handed person1 fortunate in being with the majority1 may1 by using for a week his left hand instead of his right1 get an idea of what is suffered by a very left-handed child being compelled to use the right hand4 ,it has been reported that there is an undue proportion of left-handed persons among criminals1 mental defectives1 and the insane4 ,these reports require careful verification4 ,criminals1 mental defectives1 and the insane have been much more carefully scrutinized than have the superior in intellect and character1 or even than the average population4 ,the present writer has1 during recent surveys1 noticed left-handed performance repeatedly in very gifted children1 but has not computed the proportion4 ,until further scrutinies have been made1 it cannot be said positively that left-handedness is correlated with organic inferiority4 ,perfectly satisfactory tests of handedness have not yet been agreed upon4 ,jones proposed some years ago to measure congenital handedness by means of a brachiometer4 ,this is an instrument for measuring the bones of the forearm1 and by its use ,jones hoped to detect handedness 8at the moment of birth0 as well as on any subsequent day of life4 ,these hopes have not been realized in the findings of others who have given the method fair trial1 as ,beeley did4 ,tapping1 with the wrist movement1 tapping with fingers1 tracing1 spontaneous rubbing1 throwing and picking up1 winding1 and cutting with scissors are the most promising among tests so far tried out1 to discover whether a child is congenitally left-handed4 ,gripping1 as with the dynamometer1 does not seem to correlate so well with known facts1 as do the other tests of movement4 ,left-handedness as an element in individuality becomes conspicuous in school procedure especially in writing1 drawing1 shop work1 or any work where the hand is an important factor in the performance4 ,it may become conspicuous in vocational endeavor1 either as an asset or a handicap4 ,in a few kinds of performance1 such as baseball or tennis1 left-handedness gives an advantage1 all other things being equal4 ,in most professional pursuits 7with the possible exception of dentistry and surgery because of manufactured appliances7 left-handedness is a matter of indifference4 ,in work with machines left-handedness is likely to be a handicap1 because machines are 8right-handed40 ,even scissors1 eggbeaters1 typewriters1 and other common appliances of office and home are 8right-handed40 ,left-handedness as a handicap in the absence of rational consideration of it1 is illustrated in an extreme fashion by the case of a young pickpocket1 remanded for mental examination upon second offense4 ,this boy was of average general intelligence1 extremely left-handed1 and a stammerer4 ,he had left school as soon as the law allowed1 with a record of chronic truancy behind him4 ,he explained that he had always 8hated school10 because the teachers tried to make him right-handed1 and because he was so ashamed of his stammering4 ,obtaining his working papers1 he had first tried factory work1 but the machines were all right-handed4 ,he had then taken 8a job0 as an office boy1 but he had to abandon that because he could not adequately answer the telephone1 or converse with those who questioned him4 ,being 8fired10 he found a place as packer of china in a department store1 but had a fight with a fellow worker1 who mimicked him1 and was dismissed4 ,soon thereafter1 needing money1 he saw an opportunity to abstract a purse from a convenient pocket1 and did so4 ,the success of this venture led to others like it1 until he was apprehended and sent to the reformatory4 ,having served his time1 he came out with this record added to his original difficulties1 and drifted again into picking pockets4 ,the history of this boy shows the adaptation to social environment of an organism struggling by trial and error methods1 without rational guidance4 ,a left-handed man can pick pockets as well as anyone else 7perhaps better71 and speech defect is here no hindrance1 since perfect silence is observed in such pursuits4 ,this boy might have had a very different career if school and society had given a different kind of consideration to his individuality4 ,,iii4 ,,mirror ,,writing ,a certain number of children1 variously estimated1 write backwards1 beginning at the right of the page4 ,this is called 8mirror writing10 and is apparently a function of left-handedness4 ,baldwin's description is succinct4 8,mirror writing is the form of inscription which arises from tracing words with the left hand by an exact reduplication of the movements of the right hand1 in a symmetrical way from the central point in front of the body1 out toward the left4 ,it produces a form of reversed writing which cannot be read until it is seen in a mirror4 ,many left-handed children tend to write in this way4 ,some adults1 on taking a pen to write with the left hand1 find they can write only in this way4 ,even those1 like myself1 to whom the movements seem1 when thought of in visual terms1 quite confusing and impossible1 yet find when they try to write with both hands together1 in the air1 from a central point right and left1 that the left hand mirror writing movements are very natural and easy40 ,beeley conducted a survey1 by questionnaire addressed to teachers1 of the prevalence of mirror writers in the elementary schools of ,chicago4 ,he thus found one mirror writer to every #bejj children4 ,gordon by actual tests of writing found a larger proportion of mirror writers1 about one-half of one per cent4 ,among feeble-minded children in special schools the percentage appears to be much greater1 in fact1 about seventeen times as great1 according to ,gordon's findings4 ,all investigators agree that mirror writers are almost always left-handed by test1 though the writing may be done with the left hand1 or with the right4 ,as to the hand used in producing the writing there is disagreement among investigators4 ,gordon found that 8the mirror writers were nearly always left-handed children who wrote with the right hand40 ,beeley says3 8,all of the mirror writers write mirror-wise with the left hand4 ,the only instances of right-hand mirror writing found were a few upper-grade pupils who having seen this kind of writing naturally executed by mirror writers1 attempted to imitate the same40 ,the origin of mirror writing is not fully explained as yet4 ,it is probably the natural mode for left-handed persons1 as attempts to write with both hands indicate4 ,yet not all left-handed persons acquire this habit4 ,obviously the mirror writer is not corrected in his fault by notice of the discrepancies between the visual and the motor4 ,it may be that those left-handed children who become mirror writers are usually deficient in visual perception of letters or words1 or generally deficient4 ,that there are1 however1 bright children who form this habit is shown by the surveys made4 ,samples of mirror writing by school children are shown in ,figure #bg4 ,in order to correct the difficulty1 visual control of movement must be cultivated4 ,attempts to correct by changing over to the right hand are injudicious1 for the reasons cited under the discussion of left-handedness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,showing mirror writing by public school pupils4 7,from ,beeley's ,an ,experimental ,study of ,left-,handedness4 ,reproduced by courtesy of the ,university of ,chicago ,press47 ,in securing the control of visual perception and imagery1 it is well to have the child write slowly and carefully from a copy1 not being allowed for some time to write spontaneously4 ,at first1 particularly1 the teacher may guide the child's hands and urge him to notice in detail how another writes4 ,of course1 the best educational treatment is that which never permits the development of the habit in the first place4 ,this could be accomplished by careful watching of all left-handed children1 at the very beginning of their attempts to learn to write4 ,as each letter and figure is taught for the first time1 the child whose natural impulse is to reverse it could be made conscious of his error1 and could be drilled in the cordinations of hand and eye which produce the correct response4 ,in the very large beginners' classes which are customary in the public schools1 such careful attention to the needs of individuals is here1 as in other respects1 difficult to give4 ,,iv4 ,,mechanical ,,ability ,in #aiae ,stenquist1 ,thorndike1 and ,trabue1 working with dependent children in a county of ,new ,york ,state1 used tests of various mental functions1 including a test of ability to put simple mechanisms together4 ,these correlations showed that whereas tests of ability to handle language and tests of general intelligence 7,binet-,simon7 gave positive coefficients as high as 4#ij1 the test of mechanical ability yielded a coefficient much lower1 when correlated with these4 ,they therefore suggested that mechanical ingenuity might be a relatively specialized form of capacity1 not reliably predictable from knowledge of general intelligence4 ,subsequently1 one of these investigators1 ,stenquist1 made extended tests1 and standardized a measuring scale to gauge mechanical ability4 ,measuring individuals for general intelligence and for mechanical ability1 a positive coefficient of correlation amounting to about 4#dj is ordinarily obtained4 ,this relationship is obviously not close4 ,ability to put mechanisms together is not reliably predictable from status in general intelligence4 ,the chances are1 however1 that a pupil who is superior in general intelligence will score higher in mechanical ability1 than a generally stupid pupil will score4 ,there is no negative or compensatory relation between the two functions1 as is sometimes assumed4 ,wider studies1 including tests of learning mechanical processes1 will give further light upon the extent to which ability to deal with concrete mechanisms coheres with general intelligence1 and to what extent comprehension of mechanical principles is so correlated4 ,it may be that the correlation between performances in ,stenquist's tests and in tests like those used to measure general intelligence is reduced through factors like selective attention operating over a period of years4 ,it may be that the relatively unintelligent become relatively more proficient in concrete acts1 like assembling a bicycle bell or putting a lock together1 because they have not the degree of intelligence that would enable them to prefer reading as an activity4 ,thus when #dj fifteen-year-old boys1 #bj of whom have ,,iq's 7,stanford-,binet7 from #aej to #agj1 and #bj of whom have ,,iq's from #ij to #ajj1 are faced with a series of tasks similar to those mentioned above1 those of lower ,,iq might conceivably produce a record equal to or surpassing that of the first group1 because their ability had enabled them to practice only tasks at a comparatively low level of general capacity4 ,with an equal amount of attention to these matters1 not previously of much interest to them1 the boys of #aej to #agj ,,iq might surpass their competitors greatly4 ,in a test of cake-baking1 a hundred housewives1 selected at random on a given date1 will surpass the hundred most eminent men of science2 but not after both groups have attended to the matter for an equal length of time4 ,the tests of mechanical ability do not as yet eliminate the influence of mechanical interest upon the outcome of the test4 ,extremely high intelligence may well be relatively little interested in concrete materials and processes1 preferring to manipulate ideas4 ,thus on a given date lower intelligence1 long acting on that level1 may surpass4 ,yet the higher ,,iq may really be capable under incentive1 of surpassing in work with things as well as in work with ideas4 ,tests of learning mechanical processes would1 therefore1 be a most valuable supplement to what has already been done in this field4 ,great inventors of mechanical devices are probably1 as a group1 very far above the average in general intelligence4 ,this statement cannot be made with positive certainty1 as the general intelligence of a large number of inventors has never been measured4 ,it rests only on deduction from the fact that invention evidently calls for a high degree of selective thinking1 and of interest in problem situations4 ,even 8invention by accident0 which may occasionally occur1 calls for a high degree of ability to 8notice0 a new element in the familiar situation1 in relation to other elements4 ,v4 ,,ability ,,to ,,lead ,,and ,,handle ,,people ,it has been suggested that executive ability1 in the sense of ability to deal effectively with human relationships1 is specialized2 that it is not closely correlated with ,,iq4 ,very few quantitative studies of the matter have been undertaken1 largely because of the lack of means to gauge objectively 8ability to handle people40 ,it is true that there exist persons whose ability to deal effectively with human relationships has stood the test of life--executives in professional bodies1 in business1 and in government4 ,these persons have not1 however1 been subjected to mental examination4 ,their time is so valuable that investigators perhaps hesitate to encroach upon it4 ,even if this could be done1 we should nevertheless lack proper data for correlational study4 ,we should also need to know how many persons of an equal degree of intelligence had failed to succeed as executives4 ,this would be difficult to discover4 ,terman has given us a few facts1 from his studies of superior children1 which tend to indicate the relation between leadership and intelligence1 in childhood4 ,according to teachers' judgments of leadership1 children of over #abj ,,iq are much oftener leaders than children of less intelligence are1 and they are usually well liked by other children1 even when not designated as leaders4 ,very few children over #abj ,,iq are judged by teachers to be 8unpopular40 ,from observations of the frequency with which children of high ,,iq are leaders of other children1 the present writer suspects that there is an optimum range of ,,iq1 within which popular leadership is extremely frequent1 but above which it is very improbable4 ,the optimum range for leadership appears to fall between #aaj and #acj1 when the total group has a median ,,iq of #ajj4 ,children of ,,iq over #afj seem to have little chance of leading their fellow children1 when the median ,,iq of the group is #ajj4 ,children of ,,iq over #ahj have almost no chance1 in the observations of the present writer1 to be popular leaders4 ,of the four ,new ,york children1 previously mentioned in other chapters1 measuring over #ahj ,,iq 7,stanford-,binet71 only one is an organizer of fellow children1 being designated by her teachers as 8the most popular child in the school40 ,this child functions as leader of a group of highly selected children1 with a median ,,iq of near #abj4 ,in a group of unselected children she probably could not achieve leadership1 although highly endowed with physical and temperamental traits which favor leadership4 ,why should too much intelligence militate against the achievement of popular leadership8 ,it is clear that in order to organize and lead others1 the individual must comprehend and share the interests of those led1 and must in turn be understood by them4 ,he must not consider their pursuits to be fatuous and without substance4 ,they must not regard his interests as eccentric and unfathomable4 ,also1 he must not experience too keenly the impact of the conflicting conations of those about him4 ,to perceive and to experience too sharply the disappointments1 misdeeds1 punishments1 and aspirations of others tend to disqualify for executive leadership4 ,the child of ,,iq over #afj tends to fall above the optimum range for leadership1 for all of these reasons1 in groups of unselected children4 ,he is not interested in mumble-the-peg4 ,they are not interested in the solar system4 ,his interests are those of persons far beyond his age and size4 ,but they will not accept his leadership because he does not 8look like0 a fitting captain for them4 ,thus only in very highly selected groups can such a child achieve leadership1 that is1 in groups which approximate his own ,,iq4 ,too much intelligence thus tends to disqualify for executive leadership4 ,the most intelligent persons born will usually be found leading only highly selected groups4 ,too little intelligence also undoubtedly tends to disqualify4 ,it will be a nice problem to determine experimentally just what may be the optimum range of ,,iq for leadership of typical persons4 ,correlation is1 of course1 reduced by the various influences which we have been discussing4 8,social intelligence0 is in all probability not a specialized capacity1 but merely an optimum section of the general intelligence curve 7determined by ratio to the median intelligence of the led71 combined with certain amounts of physical and temperamental traits4 ,these temperamental and physical traits are extremely important4 ,the flighty1 the unenthusiastic1 the shy1 the overbearing1 the ungenerous1 the irritable are not well fitted to organize and lead1 even when their intelligence is optimum4 ,likewise1 the small1 the commonplace in coloring1 the undistinguished in features1 the ill-kempt1 the shrill of voice1 are handicapped by their physical characteristics4 ,the executive leader is he who combines optimum intelligence with enthusiasm1 generosity1 cheerfulness1 and other favorable temperamental traits in the optimum degree1 and who is large1 forceful in manner and voice1 and distinguished in contour and coloring4 ,facility in handling people and getting their allegiance1 is due1 therefore1 to total personality1 mental and physical1 of which intellect is but one determinant4 ,correlations between executive ability and general intelligence will thus be greatly reduced from unity1 because temperament and physique are far from perfectly correlated with general intelligence4 ,,references ,,beeley1 ,a4 ,l4--,an ,experimental ,study of ,left-,handedness2 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aiah4 ,,downey1 ,j4 ,e4--8,on the ,reading and ,writing of ,mirror ,script02 ,psychological ,review1 #aiad4 ,,gordon1 ,h4--8,left-,handedness and ,mirror ,writing1 ,especially among ,defective ,children02 ,brain1 #aiba4 ,,gowin1 ,e4 ,b4--,the ,executive and ,his ,control of ,men2 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,,stenquist1 ,j4 ,l4--,stenquist ,assembling ,tests of ,general ,mechanical ,ability2 ,board of ,education1 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,taussig1 ,f4 ,w4--,inventors and ,money ,makers2 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,intelligence and ,its ,uses02 ,harper's ,magazine1 #aibj4 ,,chapter ,x ,,individuality ,,and ,,education ,i4 ,,the ,,values ,,of ,,individuality ,if we try to imagine what the world would be like if there were absolute uniformity among human beings1 we realize anew the precious worth of individuality4 ,it is marvelous that each one of us is unique4 ,in all the generations there has never been another just like anyone1 and there will never be exactly his like again4 ,each is1 strictly speaking1 irreplaceable4 ,by this inexhaustible diversity of mind and body life is faceted1 and gives off sparkle instead of dullness4 ,so far from being irritated by the idiosyncracies of our fellows1 we ought to cherish their variety as a thing that makes life worth living4 ,instead of striving to force all children to learn the same things1 at the same time1 in the same way1 because that would be cheap and convenient1 we ought to foster individuality in its socially valuable aspects1 so that the charm of human contact may be increased4 ,to the connoisseur of human nature1 the suggestion that all children be reduced to similarity is as dreadful as the suggestion to the connoisseur of art that all pictures and intaglios be turned out identical1 by a uniform factory process4 ,nor is the value of individuality limited to the sthetics of personality1 and to social intercourse4 ,the economic peculiarities of the world1 as we have it1 permit the exercise of abilities in great variety4 ,organized society needs and will use capacity of all degrees1 from that of a man who can load sand on a carrier1 and be satisfied thereby1 to that of the man who can with satisfaction work out a new theory of inflammation1 or construct a drama to interpret existence anew4 ,failure to know the facts concerning the distribution of mental traits1 the organization of intellect1 and the laws of heredity and variation1 leads to much wasted effort on the part of all who deal by profession with people4 ,the most frequent error is that of demanding that others adopt one's own religious beliefs1 standard of living1 reaction time1 or politics--usually with the idea that they will be greatly benefited thereby4 ,another common error of theory is that general happiness would be increased if some force could be established great enough to hold all down to the same plane of work1 leisure1 and reward4 ,in education it has been assumed that justice would be well served by prescribing the same curriculum1 at the same rate1 at the same time1 for every child4 ,if the uniformity of thought and action1 to which these theories and practices tend1 could be secured1 the result would be deadening4 ,such uniformity cannot1 however1 be achieved1 because of the biological forces of heredity and variation4 ,the formul governing the interplay of these forces are little known1 and they therefore lie outside of human control4 ,many thinkers believe that nothing would be lost and much be gained for human welfare1 by cutting off the variants who fall low in intellect and stability1 and by increasing the number of those who fall highest1 on the curve of distribution4 ,however1 it is possible to take1 and perhaps to defend1 the view that this would be meddlesome rather than helpful4 ,civilization becomes complex through the discoveries and inventions of superior deviates4 ,it was they who invented wheel and lever1 clock and calendar1 court and statute book4 ,they discovered the use of electricity1 gravity1 and steam4 ,when moral life and industrial life become very complicated1 great numbers of men are unable to meet the situations devised1 and perish mentally1 morally1 and physically4 ,law may become so intricate that only the steadiest can suffer its restrictions4 ,mechanical and chemical contrivances may grow so numerous and complex that typical human nature cannot cope with them4 ,would it be better1 then1 to end invention at its source1 by eliminating superior deviates8 ,or would mankind thereby lose other gifts1 wholly benign for all1 which only the superior deviate can bestow8 ,in the absence of the highly endowed1 would there not be a return to barbarism8 ,and1 if so1 would the greatest good of the greatest number be thus promoted8 ,or should the welfare of the majority give way as a social ideal to the welfare of the best--the most capable1 the most upright1 the most enduring8 ,is it possible to evolve a social order in which the greatest good of all can be well served1 since biological inequalities are so very great8 ,these are questions for social and educational philosophy4 ,men of science labor to acquire the knowledge that would give power to alter1 at will1 the shape of the curve of distribution for mental capacities4 ,such knowledge might work more changes in the world than have been wrought by knowledge of chemical formul or of electricity1 but its right use would call for a wisdom and philosophical foresight which men at present probably do not have4 ,the conditions and the theories that confront us in education call on us at present1 as a matter of fact1 to provide for the whole enormous range of capacities1 general and special4 ,,ii4 ,,compulsory ,,education ,it is useful to recall that for centuries after mankind reached a point where prolonged formal education was available1 attendance upon instruction was voluntary4 ,those who wished to learn what could be taught of the arts and sciences1 hired tutors4 ,it is true that the public ceremonies may1 perhaps1 be considered to have represented compulsory education1 even in primitive times4 ,however1 education in the sense of several years of devotion to learning what men have previously done1 thought1 and devised1 was formerly a private matter4 ,the educated1 who could communicate by writing1 calculate in large numbers1 see the present to some extent in the light of the past1 and engage in even more complicated intellectual work1 formed a small and highly selected group4 ,they were individuals who loved learning1 and their median ,,iq was doubtless far above #ajj4 ,as the white peoples of the earth1 in parts of ,europe and ,america1 accumulated wealth1 and more and more of those who cared to do so could buy education1 political power began to be decentralized4 ,generous men of high intelligence conceived the idea that government should be representative4 ,political democracy with manhood suffrage was established in the ,united ,states4 ,it was then seen that political democracy cannot be sustained on the basis of private education1 and public money was appropriated to establish public schools4 ,merely to establish free schools did not1 however1 solve the problem of education for a democracy4 ,the leaders of thought and action found that not only must opportunity be provided1 but many must be forced to take advantage of it4 ,compulsory education laws were therefore passed in many of our states1 and they stand upon their statute books to-day4 ,truant officers became a part of the regular school staff1 their duty being to apprehend all children between statutory ages1 and bring them forcibly to school4 ,the ,city of ,new ,york1 for instance1 now supports #cjh truant officers1 who are constantly kept busy by future citizens who wish to avoid education4 ,why do they wish to avoid education8 ,the reasons are various4 ,some of them avoid school because they have not enough clothing to wear2 some because their parents need their earnings2 some because they are ill2 some because they are temperamentally unsuited to school discipline4 ,the most important single cause of truancy is1 however1 that the curriculum does not provide for individual differences4 ,the curriculum upon which all children are now required by law to attend1 is that which was formulated when only a few selected children were educated4 ,our schools are reading schools1 and they teach abstract subject matter to a very great extent1 much of which has no tangible relation to the life of many children4 ,children of ,,iq over #abj take pleasure in the abstract subject matter of grammar1 mathematics1 geography1 and history4 ,children of ,,iq under #hj are made miserable thereby4 ,not only is the curriculum not adapted to individual differences in general intelligence1 but it is far less adapted to individual differences in special defects and aptitudes4 ,the child who can never learn to sing is compelled nevertheless to pursue singing1 even after school hours4 ,the child who cannot learn reading by the method generally used is still treated by that method and no other4 ,the schools were established with an undifferentiated curriculum1 which they have tried to force upon intellects of an enormous range of diversity4 ,their purpose1 so benign1 has resulted in extraordinary cruelties and wastes4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,general ,,intelligence ,,for ,,school ,,progress ,if we examine mentally the large numbers of retardates in any public school where attendance is compulsory1 we find that by far the majority of them are inferior in general intelligence4 ,a child of superior general intelligence 7,,iq7 is seldom found among retardates4 ,of children of #abj ,,iq and over1 ,terman reports that they are almost invariably at least up to grade4 ,whatever the vicissitudes of fate--illness1 absence1 special disability--a child of superior general capacity manages to hold his own1 at least4 ,it is not true1 however1 that the superior child is allowed1 under the undifferentiated curriculum1 to make full use of his power4 ,he is compelled to slow down to the typical progress of his group1 and to use only a portion of his capacity for learning4 ,it is rare to find a superior child who is doing 8a full day's work0 in school1 because the tasks assigned do not call for maximum effort4 ,superior children could easily do much more than is allowed4 ,general intelligence is1 then1 the single most important factor for school progress4 ,the same may be said of progress in vocational careers4 ,the life success of a human being may be said to depend upon general intelligence1 character1 health1 and opportunity 7including the factor of sex74 ,if any of these factors is reduced to zero1 so that the individual is totally lacking in intelligence1 character1 health1 or opportunity there can be no achievement4 ,the order of importance of the various factors is probably that in which they have been mentioned1 with general intelligence certainly at the top of the list4 ,intelligence may create character1 opportunity1 and even health1 but none of these can create intelligence4 ,,iv4 ,,special ,,abilities ,,and ,,disabilities ,,as ,,determinants ,,of ,,school ,,progress ,as before stated in these pages1 no census has ever been taken of special aptitudes and defects1 in the functions which we have been discussing1 and which are important for progress through the elementary school4 ,no one can tell whether any have been advanced on the basis of a special gift4 ,no one can say how many children are retarded1 because of a specialized disability1 though we know from reports rendered1 that some pupils become retarded in school status through special failure in one or two respects4 ,the children described under the topics of special retardation in reading and in arithmetic1 in this volume1 are illustrative of the way in which specialized defect contributes to retardation in school status4 ,without passable mastery of these 8tool0 subjects a child cannot proceed through the elementary school4 ,his progress is halted1 much as it would be if he were deficient in general intelligence4 ,it is quite possible1 on the other hand1 that children may be occasionally overrated as to intellect by teachers1 who are deceived by conspicuous talent in a special function4 ,coy1 who studied for two years a class of highly intelligent children in ,columbus1 has given an account of a boy who was thus overrated4 ,when the children were being selected for the special class described1 this boy was sent by his teacher to join the group4 ,she considered that he must be 8very bright10 8since he could draw cartoons1 play the ukelele1 and sing40 ,he was said by the art teacher to have more ability than any other child in the building4 ,he was retained in the special class by the investigator1 but he was not able to do good work there4 ,his ,,iq on three annual testings stood as #aad1 #aai1 and #abj4 7,the other children in the group possessed general intelligence clustering about an ,,iq of approximately #ace47 ,this boy surpassed the others in music1 acting1 and drawing1 but 8his ability to reason was far below the class level10 and he could not compete successfully in general intellectual work4 ,his teachers had been misled by his special gifts to recommend him as a child of surpassing intellect4 ,v4 ,,experimental ,,attempts ,,to ,,individualize ,,education ,official administrative recognition of individual differences among public school pupils began with the extremely stupid1 whom we call feeble-minded4 ,this was natural1 because the feeble-minded are incapable of even approximately normal progress1 and this1 added to their tendency to become disciplinary problems1 renders them an intolerable burden to teachers in the regular grades4 ,as long ago as #ahgb we find that attention was called to the 8pedagogical misfits10 in proceedings at professional teachers' meetings in the ,united ,states4 ,by #ahij the city of ,cleveland had established two special classes for children presenting particular difficulties of discipline4 ,special classes for extremely dull children 7the feeble-minded7 have passed the stage of experiment4 ,they are now an accepted part of the school system of many cities in this country1 and a few state departments of education have undertaken to establish such special classes for districts not so favorably situated as cities are4 ,the relative money cost of thus educating the most stupid children produced in our population is great1 and the returns upon the investment are uncertain4 ,we need careful studies of the cost of educating the dull1 as compared with the cost of educating the superior1 in the light of the returns from education1 both to the public and to the individuals taught4 ,the complexity of such study calls for much patience and ingenuity4 ,special classes for children of very superior general intelligence1 who are as far above the average as the feeble-minded are below1 are at present much discussed by ,american educators4 ,such classes have actually been established in a few school systems4 ,these are still considered to be experimental1 but it surely will not be very long before official administrative recognition will be widely given to the needs of pupils whose natural rate of progress is over twice as rapid as that of the average child4 ,abroad1 ,germany has already undertaken education for gifted children as a special project of the public schools1 in recognition1 no doubt1 of the extent to which national rehabilitation will be dependent on the training of the able4 ,contrary to pre-war policy1 ,german educators are now seeking1 by the method of mental tests1 for superior mental endowment regardless of social-economic status1 and even to some extent regardless of sex4 ,in general it is true that the provisions in the ,united ,states are for deviates so extreme in all capacities that their maladjustment to typical procedure creates a troublesome school problem on the one hand1 and on the other a burden to the conscience of those who administer education4 ,classroom teachers demand that special attention be given to those who are chronically unpromotable and out of order1 while educational psychologists insist upon the waste of ability that ensues from allowing gifted children to idle through the curriculum4 ,for deviates of less degree there is not much provision4 ,a few cities1 of which ,oakland1 ,california1 may be mentioned as an outstanding example1 have adopted a three-rates-of-progress system1 in which the children of typical ability 7the great majority7 proceed at a median rate1 the lowest quartile 7exclusive of the very lowest percentile7 proceeding more slowly1 and the highest quartile more rapidly4 ,the system provides a flexibility far in advance of the ordinary one-rate-of-progress system1 allowing for individual differences in general intelligence4 ,little attention has been given as yet to the matter of individualizing public education for children who show special talents or defects4 ,some years ago the superintendent of schools in ,munich requested the teachers of certain grades throughout the city1 to ask each child to draw two sketches3 one from a model1 and the other a free sketch4 ,these were sorted for the purpose of finding exceptional talent in drawing4 ,a certain per cent of the children showing this special gift were sought out and encouraged4 ,particular attention was given to the development of their talents4 ,similar instances of official attempts to gauge and foster special talents are extremely rare4 ,the experiment at ,winnetka1 ,illinois1 is of this order4 ,in ,winnetka there is a flexible promotion system1 wherein pupils 8pass0 in a subject whenever they have completed the work therein4 ,a pupil may be in different grades in different subjects4 ,his whole school career need not be jeopardized by a single weakness1 and if he has a special strength he is permitted to develop it as original nature would dictate4 ,at first thought it might seem that a public school system would be thrown into confusion by such a scheme4 ,in ,winnetka there are thirty to thirty-five pupils in a classroom4 ,how can programs be arranged to suit the needs of deviating children1 without much extra equipment8 ,here it is necessary to recall that the majority of these children are typical4 ,the middle #ej per cent of all children born deviate but slightly from the type of the race1 in all their mental functions4 ,they do not call for special adjustments4 ,on either side of these1 deviating more widely toward less and greater1 run the remainder of the children1 in very rapidly decreasing frequencies4 ,those who need a very wide latitude in school organization constitute possibly #bj per cent of all1 the highest #aj per cent1 and the lowest #aj per cent1 in general or special capacity4 ,the problem does not seem so vast1 when we recall the shape of the curve of distribution2 and the comparative infrequency of extremely unusual children4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,fostering ,,individuality ,the cost of individualizing education acts as a deterrent1 even when the desirability is fully recognized4 ,compulsory education for all the children of all the people is expensive4 ,a nation must be wealthy in order to carry it through4 ,to maintain every child born into the social order for fourteen to sixteen years without earnings1 and to pay from public taxation for his education for eight to ten or more of those years1 is an enterprise upon which few societies of any time have ventured4 ,nevertheless1 if democracy is to survive1 and especially if it is to improve1 as a form of government1 universal education on a large scale is basic4 ,self-government1 in the highly complicated environment which has been evolved1 depends on literacy and other knowledge1 requiring long instruction1 even for youth of average ability4 ,what then of the great numbers of those who deviate in various degrees below the average in capacity for learning8 ,the social order needs and will utilize their services4 ,the economics of their presence in the republic is not a much more difficult problem than under other forms of government4 ,it is the politics of their presence that causes concern under a democracy2 for they are enfranchised1 yet without learning they are political dependents4 ,they stand at the mercy of any catch word tossed at them1 with results which have raised on every hand an earnest searching of democracy4 ,for example1 this question has been raised3 ,is it possible for education to prepare the lower half of the distribution curve for self-government8 ,considering recent discoveries as to the mental capacity which characterizes the lower half of the population when adult1 is it possible that education will ever be able to nullify the charlatan influence of demagogues1 whose appeal is to prejudice and cupidity8 ,these questions remain unanswered4 ,in the meantime the great experiment of compulsory education is under way4 ,the expense of it is kept down by teaching the children in large groups of thirty to fifty or over1 the same lessons1 in the same way1 at the same time4 ,what would be the actual money cost of providing for individual differences in capacities1 general and special8 ,few data to answer this question have been furnished4 ,in ,winnetka the cost of education is reported as not increased4 ,this condition is doubtless exceptional4 ,as previously stated1 the money cost of individualizing education for the feeble-minded has been considerable4 ,we have the figures from ,cincinnati1 and we derive from them that the cost of educating a feeble-minded child 7one falling into the lowest one or two per cent in the distribution of general intelligence7 in a special class1 is over twice as great per annum as is the cost of educating an average child in the regular grades4 ,for a feeble-minded child in a special class in ,cincinnati1 during the year #aiag to #aiah1 the money cost per annum was #hc1 while for a typical child in the regular grades it was #ce4 ,the increased cost results from the fact that when education is individualized1 the number of pupils occupying a room and taught by a teacher is about fifteen1 instead of the regular number of thirty to fifty4 ,if1 roughly1 #bj per cent of all pupils deviate from the typical so extremely as to require a considerable amount of individual instruction for their welfare1 it is difficult to see how they may be well served without a considerable increase in the money cost of education4 ,can the public afford to pay more than it now does8 ,investigations to answer this question are under way on a large scale4 ,we need to know what our country can now pay1 in order that we as educators may not commit the folly on the one hand of urging unwarrantable expenditure1 nor on the other hand of failing to ask the appropriation of all that can be spared for the development of individual capacity in the nation's children4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,probable ,,rewards ,,of ,,individualizing ,,education ,even the money returns from scientifically differentiated education would probably be great1 aside from the increase in children's happiness1 in teachers' enjoyment1 and in adults' satisfaction4 ,the tangible values of individualized training might be nearly as great as its intangible values4 ,when we reflect closely upon the source of wealth1 we see that it comes from the attack of intellect upon the environment4 ,apes have no wealth4 ,man has wealth only in so far as he acts upon selective thinking in regard to his environment4 ,a society gains wealth only in so far as it permits and encourages the use of innate capacities for attack upon the environment1 which lie unequally distributed throughout the juvenile population4 ,any theory of wealth that fails to ground itself upon this fact will but destroy those who seek to practice it4 ,no nation has ever yet shown what the full reward might be of adapting education to individual differences4 ,such a demonstration has been impossible hitherto1 if for no other reason than that there was no known method of gauging children's abilities scientifically4 ,in the older social orders1 where education was or is caste-bound1 it is highly probable that on the whole education was and is more fairly adapted to individual differences than it is with us4 ,those barbarians who had much capacity for abstract thinking achieved by trial and success high-caste status1 of which they ultimately became conscious4 ,the aristocracy of older countries was not established by forces outside of human nature4 ,the nobles were in the first place those who rose to power because they were stronger1 more enduring1 and more capable of thinking than average men4 ,caste grew out of human nature itself4 ,the majority of the nobles' children were capable by heredity of abstract thinking1 and of acquiring the education1 which came finally through centuries to be provided for them4 ,the majority of those who failed to achieve high-caste status before it became recognized as such were doubtless chiefly individuals who produced descendants1 on the average ill adapted to profit from the kind of education established for the children of the higher castes4 ,in ,great ,britain1 for example1 where social organization was and is frankly based in theory and practice on caste 7upper-caste status being1 however1 constantly kept open to adults of unusual achievement71 ,burt found that boys of upper-caste family1 attending an exclusive high-class school1 surpassed in all respects1 in mental tests1 sons of middle-class parents1 of equal age1 attending common schools4 ,it is necessary1 though outrageous to our prejudices1 to face the fact that1 in our own country 7where caste is despised in theory and to some extent in practice71 the median capacity of pupils in expensive private schools is well above the average of the juvenile population at large4 ,caste-bound education in older civilizations recognizes innate individual differences to a considerable extent4 ,its injustice is that it does not recognize them completely4 ,caste takes account of individual differences due to heredity1 but it does not regard those due to variation4 ,caste neglects to provide for the overlapping which occurs among the children of parents of different achievement levels4 ,in a society founded formally on caste1 there is no way provided for the appropriate education of gifted variants who occur in the lower castes1 and for those of inferior ability born into the higher castes4 ,artificial barriers to natural achievement have arisen1 because the consciousness of superior status was accompanied by jealousy of it as well4 ,revolt against this injustice to the minority 7not recognized1 however1 as minority by the rebels7 led to the opposite injustice1 which we see practiced in the schools of our own democracy4 ,in the ,united ,states the theory was adopted that all men are created equal4 ,all children must1 therefore1 be required to take the same education4 ,such a system violates individuality even more painfully and wastefully than the despised caste system of the older countries does4 ,as scientific psychology improves the methods of testing for individual differences in children1 it will become possible to educate each one according to his capacity for learning4 ,it will be possible to conserve and develop the special aptitudes of every child1 regardless of race1 sex1 or circumstance4 ,the humiliation and despair of chronic failure at prescribed tasks unsuited to capacity may be spared every child4 ,thus we come again to consider tests of innate educability in ,the ,republic3 8,we must watch them from their youth upwards1 and make them perform actions in which they are most likely to forget or to be deceived1 and he who remembers and is not deceived is to be selected40 ,that will be the way4 ,,references ,,cameron1 ,e4 ,h4--,psychology and the ,school2 ,the ,century ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 ,,clark1 ,e4--8,the ,growth of ,cities and ,their ,indebtedness for ,schools02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiah4 ,,elliott1 ,c4 ,h4--,variations in ,achievements of ,pupils2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiae4 ,,franzen1 ,r4--,the ,accomplishment ,ratio2 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 #aibb4 ,,judd1 ,c4 ,h4--8,analysis of ,learning ,processes and ,specific ,teaching02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiba4 ,,mayberry1 ,l4 ,w4--8,individualizing ,problems for ,pupils02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiag4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4--8,school ,costs and ,business ,management02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiag4 ,,spaulding4 ,f4 ,e4--8,a ,million a ,year02 ,monograph ,no4 #a1 ,board of ,education1 ,minneapolis1 #aiaf-ag4 ,,spaulding1 ,f4 ,e4--8,financing the ,minneapolis ,schools02 ,monograph ,no4 #b2 ,board of ,education1 ,minneapolis1 #aiaf-ag4 ,,terman1 ,l4 ,m4--,the ,intelligence of ,school ,children2 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 #aiai4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4--8,education for ,initiative and ,originality02 ,teachers ,college ,record1 #aiaf4 ,,washburn1 ,c4--8,the ,individual ,system in ,winnetka02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aibj4 ,,woolley1 ,h4 ,t4--,feeble-minded ,ex-,school ,children2 ,helen ,s4 ,trounstine ,foundation1 ,cincinnati1 #aiba4 ,,zirbes1 ,l4--8,diagnostic ,measurement as a ,basis for ,procedure02 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 #aiah4 ,,index ,ability1 definition of1 #d4 ,absolute pitch1 #aga4 ,agnew1 ,m41 #aha4 ,agraphia1 #ea4 ,aikens1 ,h4 ,a41 #dh4 ,alexia1 #ea2 8congenital10 #fc4 ,alcoholic psychosis1 #bj4 ,ambidexterity1 #ahe4 ,anderson1 ,c4 ,i41 #if1 #aba1 #aci4 ,aphasia1 #ea4 ,aphemia1 #ea4 ,arithmetic1 capacity for1 #aad2 defined1 #aae2 special defect in1 #aai f4 ,arithmetical abilities1 organization of1 #aag f42 of children over #ahj ,,iq1 #aca f42 inheritance of1 #acg f4 ,arithmetical prodigies1 #abb ff4 ,see also ,lightning calculators4 ,attendance1 effects of irregular1 #fh1 #abj4 ,ayer1 ,f4 ,c41 #adc1 #add1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #afc4 ,ayres' scale1 #ab1 #aje4 ,baerwald1 ,r41 #aa1 #df4 ,baldwin1 ,j4 ,m41 #ahh4 ,beeley1 ,a4 ,l41 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aie4 ,berkau1 ,o41 #if4 ,berkowitz1 ,i4 ,h41 #if4 ,bernfield1 ,s41 #aff1 #aha4 ,binet1 ,a41 #ba1 #bd1 #cd1 #ce1 #df1 #if1 #abh1 #aci1 #afc4 ,binet-,simon tests1 #aij4 ,boggs1 ,l41 #aga1 #aha4 ,brachiometer1 #ahf4 ,brain1 localization1 #di f42 injury to1 #ec f4 ,broca2 ,p4 ,p41 #ea4 ,broca's area1 #ea1 #ef4 ,bronner1 ,a4 ,f41 #fe1 #id1 #if1 #aai4 ,brown1 ,w41 #dg1 #aah1 #adj4 ,bryan1 ,w4 ,l41 #abh1 #adj4 ,burt1 ,c41 #cb1 #dg1 #fi1 #if1 #bji4 ,buswell1 ,g4 ,t41 #if4 ,cameron1 ,e4 ,h41 #baj4 ,capacities1 relationship among1 #aa2 decay of1 #bj4 ,capacity1 definition of1 #d4 ,carman1 ,e4 ,k41 #aac4 ,charters1 ,w4 ,w41 #aac4 ,childs1 ,h4 ,g41 #afc4 ,clark1 ,e41 #baj4 ,clemesha1 ,i4 ,c41 #fc1 #if4 ,cobb1 ,m4 ,v41 #aag1 #aba1 #ach1 #adj4 ,coefficient of correlation1 #aa2 interpretation of1 #ab2 negative1 #af2 derived from chance combination1 #bi ff42 derived from biological coherence1 #ca4 ,collar1 ,d4 ,j41 #aag1 #adj4 ,color blindness1 #aec4 ,common factor1 #ae4 ,compensatory distribution1 demand for1 #i2 not found1 #cd4 ,comprehension1 in reading1 #fa f4 ,copp1 ,e4 ,f41 #age1 #aha4 ,correlation1 coefficient of1 #aa2 between ability to spell and ,,iq1 #ac2 in various groups1 #ah2 of abilities of dements1 #ba ff42 between ability to read and ,,iq1 #eg2 between ability in arithmetic and ,,iq1 #aad2 between ability in drawing and ,,iq1 #adf f42 between ability in music and ,,iq1 #afh f42 between mechanical ability and ,,iq1 #aij4 ,cortex1 #ej f4 ,coy1 ,g41 #bja4 ,defects1 special4 ,see ,special defects4 ,dementia paralytica1 #bj f4 ,democracy1 human nature and1 #aii f41 #baj4 ,dice1 #bi ff4 ,disorganizing minds1 study of1 #ai ff4 ,distribution of ability1 #i4 ,downey1 ,j4 ,e41 #aie4 ,drawing1 various kinds of1 #ada f42 ramifications of1 #adc2 analysis of talent for1 #adc f4 ,earle1 ,e4 ,l41 #aje1 #aac4 ,edgren1 ,j4 ,g41 #aha4 ,elderton1 ,e41 #adg1 #afc4 ,elliott1 ,c4 ,h41 #baj4 ,evanston schools1 experimentation in1 #ade4 ,eye-movements1 in reading1 #fa4 ,eyes1 defects of1 #ei4 ,fernald1 ,g4 ,m41 #fi1 #ij1 #if4 ,fildes1 ,l4 ,g41 #ie1 #if4 ,fischlovitz1 ,a41 #adf1 #afc4 ,fisk1 ,s41 #gd4 ,franzen1 ,r41 #baj4 ,freeman1 ,f4 ,n41 #fg1 #if4 ,galton1 ,f41 #aa1 #ia4 ,gates1 ,a4 ,i41 #fa1 #fb1 #fi1 #if1 #ih4 ,gatewood1 ,e4 ,l41 #afg1 #aha4 ,gaw1 ,e4 ,a41 #aha4 ,general factor1 #ae4 ,general intelligence1 versus special aptitudes1 #ad2 measurement of1 #cd ff42 relation to reading1 #eg2 to spelling1 #ajj2 to arithmetic1 #aad2 to drawing1 #adf f42 to musical talent1 #afh f42 to mechanical ability1 #aij2 to leadership1 #aic2 to school progress1 #bjj4 ,gillingham1 ,a41 #adj4 ,gordon1 ,h41 #ahh1 #aie4 ,gowin1 ,e4 ,b41 #aie4 ,gray1 ,w4 ,s41 #fg1 #ij1 #if4 ,habits1 arithmetical1 #abj2 methods of detecting1 #aba4 ,haggerty's scale1 #hd4 ,hansen1 ,c4 ,f41 #afg1 #aha4 ,hart1 ,b41 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #dg4 ,head1 ,h41 #ea1 #ef4 ,heredity1 of mental endowment1 #c1 #aj2 of arithmetical abilities1 #acg f42 of talent in drawing1 #aeh2 of musical talent1 #age2 of left-handedness1 #ahe4 ,hierarchy1 of abilities1 #ae1 #bi2 derived by chance1 #bi ff42 of habits in arithmetic1 #abj4 ,hinshelwood1 ,j41 #fd1 #ig4 ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l41 #da1 #dg4 ,hollingworth1 ,l4 ,s41 #ac1 #aac4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b41 #eg4 ,illustrative cases1 of defect in reading1 #fe f41 #ga f42 of talent in reading1 #ia f42 of defect in spelling1 #aji f42 of special ability in spelling1 #aaa2 of special defect in arithmetic1 #aai ff42 of lightning calculators1 #abb ff42 of marked ability to calculate1 combined with high ,,iq1 #aca ff42 of special ability in drawing1 #aed ff42 of mirror writing1 #ahi4 ,individuality1 values of1 #aif f42 compulsory education and1 #aih2 cost of fostering1 #bjf2 rewards of fostering1 #bjh4 ,intellect1 organization of1 #aa f42 inheritance of1 #bg2 uses of1 #aig f4 ,,iq1 determination of1 #cd ff42 significance of1 #cf2 nervous stability and1 #gj4 ,see also ,general intelligence4 ,ivanof1 ,e41 #adg1 #afc4 ,jones1 ,e4 ,e41 #ade1 #afc4 ,jones1 ,f41 #ahf4 ,judd1 ,c4 ,h41 #aae1 #baj4 ,kallom1 ,a4 ,w41 #aac4 ,keller1 ,h41 #fi1 #ij1 #if4 ,kerschensteiner1 ,g41 #afc4 ,kik1 ,c41 #afc4 ,king1 ,i41 #ig4 ,knock1 ,c4 ,j41 #aha4 ,kreuger1 ,f41 #dg4 ,kries1 ,j4 ,von1 #aha4 ,ladd1 ,g41 #ea1 #ef1 #if4 ,lanterne1 ,s41 #adj4 ,lashley1 ,k4 ,s41 #ef4 ,lazar1 ,e41 #adj4 ,leadership1 #aib4 ,lee1 ,v41 #ahb4 ,left-handedness1 #ahc ff4 ,lightning calculators1 #aae ff4 ,lindley1 ,e4 ,h41 #abh1 #adj4 ,linguistic functions1 loss of1 #ea2 complexity of1 #eb2 coherence among1 #ih4 ,lip-movements1 #fj4 ,literacy1 #id4 ,mday1 ,h4 ,v41 #adj4 ,manuel1 ,h4 ,t41 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aej1 #aea1 #afc4 ,martha1 precocious reader1 #ib4 ,mathematical ability1 #aae1 #aah4 ,mayberry1 ,l4 ,w41 #baa4 ,mc,call1 ,w4 ,a41 #cc1 #dg4 ,mechanical ability1 #aij4 ,mechanical tests1 #he4 ,mechanics1 of reading1 #eh ff42 of arithmetic1 #abj4 ,mendel1 ,g41 #bg4 ,mendelian inheritance1 #bg1 #agf1 #ahe4 ,mental age1 #ce1 #ci4 ,mental endowment1 origin of1 #c2 when first evident1 #db4 ,mental functions1 speculation concerning1 #a2 definition of1 #d2 complexity of1 #f2 believed to have common factor1 #ae2 believed to be specialized1 #af2 selective enfeeblement of1 #ba ff42 attempted localization of1 #di ff4 ,mental measurement1 ideals of1 #cf2 present limitations of1 #cg4 ,mental tests1 foretold1 #a2 defined1 #cd2 present limitations of1 #cg f4 ,merton1 ,e41 #if4 ,meumann1 ,e41 #aj1 #aa1 #ih1 #add1 #afc4 ,meyer1 ,m41 #afd4 ,miller1 ,g4 ,a41 #adj4 ,mirror writing1 #ahh f4 ,mitchell1 ,f4 ,b41 #abc1 #abi1 #acg1 #adj4 ,mbius1 ,p4 ,j41 #adj4 ,monakow1 ,c4 ,von1 #ea1 #ef4 ,moore1 ,t4 ,v41 #bd1 #be1 #dg4 ,morgan1 ,w4 ,p41 #fc1 #if4 ,music1 nature of1 #afd2 various kinds of1 #afe2 appreciation of1 #ahj4 ,musical sensitivity1 #aff4 ,nervous instability1 and reading1 #fi2 and arithmetic1 #abb4 ,nervous system1 #di4 ,neurotic children1 #fi1 #abb4 ,non-reader1 four-year study of1 #ga f4 ,non-readers1 summary of studies of1 #hi f4 ,oakland schools1 organization of1 #bjd4 ,o',brien1 ,j4 ,a41 #ig4 ,ophthalmologists1 reports of1 #ei4 ,pannenberg1 ,h4 ,j41 #afc1 #aff1 #ahb4 ,pannenberg1 ,w4 ,a41 #afc1 #aff1 #ahb4 ,performance1 as criterion of ability1 #e4 ,performance tests1 ,pintner's1 #he4 ,peter1 ,r41 #afc4 ,peters1 ,w41 #adj4 ,phonics1 taught to non-readers1 #ff2 carried to excess1 #fg4 ,pictorial completion test1 ,healy's1 #he4 ,pittman1 ,m4 ,s41 #aac4 ,plato1 #a4 ,platt1 ,w41 #ahb4 ,phler1 ,otto1 #ia4 ,poull1 ,l4 ,e41 #ic1 #ig4 ,problem-solving1 #aai ,prodigies1 #abb f4 ,pryor1 ,h4 ,c41 #aac4 ,psychographs1 to picture individuality1 #ch ff42 of individuals1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #aee1 #agg1 #agi4 ,psychological analysis1 of reading1 #eh2 of spelling1 #ih2 of calculation1 #aaf2 of talent in drawing1 #adc2 of musical talent1 #afe2 of leadership1 #aib4 ,quantitative investigation1 results of1 #d f42 methods of1 #aa f4 ,ranschburg1 ,p41 #eh1 #ig1 #adj4 ,reading1 relation to ,,iq1 #eg2 very early1 #eh2 mental age necessary for1 #fa f42 oral1 #fj2 special defect in1 #fe ff42 special ability in1 #ia f42 effect on spelling1 #ajf4 ,rvsz1 ,g41 #dg1 #aff1 #aga1 #ahb4 ,richet1 ,c41 #ahb4 ,riley1 ,h4 ,a41 #eb1 #ef4 ,rogers1 ,a4 ,l41 #dj1 #aae1 #adj4 ,rugg1 ,h4 ,o41 #dg1 #baa4 ,rupp1 ,h41 #aff1 #ahb4 ,scarborough school1 experimentation in1 #ajf f4 ,schmitt1 ,c41 #fe1 #ij1 #ig1 #aai1 #adj4 ,schrck1 ,g41 #fc1 #if4 ,schussler1 ,h41 #aff1 #afh1 #afi1 #ahb4 ,scripture1 ,e4 ,w41 #abc1 #adj4 ,seashore1 ,c41 #g1 #aj1 #aff1 #afg1 #aga1 #ahb4 ,senile dements1 #bj f41 #bf4 ,simon1 ,th41 #ba1 #bd1 #df4 ,simpson1 ,b4 ,r41 #ah1 #dg1 #adg4 ,smith1 ,j4 ,h41 #aai1 #adj4 ,spaulding1 ,f4 ,e41 #baa4 ,spearman1 ,c41 #e1 #aa1 #ae1 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bi1 #cj1 #cd1 #dg1 #ed4 ,special abilities1 measurement of1 #cg ff42 detection of1 #cg ff42 origin of1 #dc1 #de2 frequency of1 #dd2 relation to school progress1 #bja f4 ,special defects1 and brain anatomy1 #eb2 detection of1 #cg ff42 origin of1 #dc1 #de2 frequency of1 #dd2 relation to school progress1 #bja f4 ,special senses1 in reading1 #ei4 ,speech defects1 #gj4 ,spellers1 psychological examination of1 #ajj f4 ,spelling1 correlation with ,,iq1 #ajj2 special defect in1 #ih ff42 analysis of1 #ih ff4 ,stanford-,binet1 #eg1 #eh1 #fh1 #he1 #ie1 #aji1 #aej1 #aia1 #aic4 ,stanton1 ,h4 ,m41 #age1 #ahb4 ,stenquist1 ,j4 ,l41 #aij1 #aie4 ,stern1 ,w41 #aj1 #aa4 ,tachistoscope1 #eh4 ,taussig1 ,f4 ,w41 #aie4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m41 #dg1 #ib1 #ig1 #aca1 #aic1 #bja1 #baa4 ,terry1 ,p4 ,w41 #adj4 ,thompson1 ,j4 ,r41 #dg4 ,thomson1 ,g41 #bi1 #cj1 #dg1 #ed4 ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 #aj1 #aa1 #ae1 #af1 #cc1 #cd1 #dg1 #fb1 #ig1 #aaf1 #aag1 #adj1 #adf1 #afc1 #aij1 #aie1 #baa4 ,thorndike-,mc,call scale1 #eg1 #hb1 #hc4 ,tildesley1 ,m4 ,l41 #afc4 ,tilney1 ,f41 #eb1 #ef4 ,tone deafness1 #agb4 ,tonoscope1 #agd4 ,trabue1 ,m4 ,r41 #aij4 ,trabue's scale1 #eg1 #gg ff4 ,transfer of training1 #bh1 #ajd4 ,truant officers1 #aii4 ,types1 folk notions concerning1 #b2 human beings not divided into1 #f4 ,uhl1 ,w4 ,l41 #ig1 #aai1 #aba1 #adj4 ,unmusical children1 #afi4 ,washburn1 ,c41 #baa4 ,weglein1 ,d4 ,e41 #ag1 #dh4 ,weseen1 ,m4 ,h41 #aac4 ,white1 ,a41 #ic1 #ig4 ,whitford1 ,w4 ,g41 #afc4 ,winford1 ,c4 ,a41 #aje4 ,winnetka schools1 organization of1 #bje1 #bjg4 ,witmer1 ,l41 #aac1 #agj4 ,woodworth1 ,r4 ,s41 #ea1 #ef1 #if4 ,woolley1 ,h4 ,t41 #baa4 ,word blindness1 #fc f4 ,wundt1 ,w41 laboratory of1 #d4 ,x1 instruction of1 in reading1 #ga ff4 ,zirbes1 ,l41 #baa4 ----- ,footnote #a3 #a #f;d#b_/n7n#b #a7 ,resemblance equals one minus six times the sum of the differences 7in rank7 squared1 over the number 7of cases7 times the number 7of cases7 squared1 minus one4 ,footnote #b3 #a #f;d#b_/n7n#b #a7 ,formula explained1 opposite page4 ,footnote #c3 ,thompson has recently shown that a coefficient of zero does not necessarily mean absence of relationship between two factors4 ,there might be a strong influence making for negative correlation1 and at the same time an equally strong influence making for positive correlation1 which might1 by just counterbalancing each other1 produce a spurious effect of no connection at all1 namely1 a coefficient of #j4jj4 ,footnote #d3 ,a curious case of negative correlation between cancellation and other tests has been reported by ,mc,call 7see references74 ,footnote #e3 8,insanity0 and 8dementia0 seem to be synonymous1 as used by ,hart and ,spearman4 ,but in ,american texts 8dementia0 is limited to mean intellectual deterioration4 ,footnote #f3 ,because of the probabilities in die-casting1 every single value for red would have the same median value among the throws of yellow1 which turn up in connection with it1 if enough throws are made4 ,this is not what happens in measuring mental traits4 ,for any single value1 high or low1 in one function1 the median of repeated measures in the other function is very different1 for most traits1 from the median for other values4 ,footnote #g3 ,for explanation of technical terms see ,mc,call's ,how to ,measure in ,education4 ,footnote #h3 ,this suggestion originated with a colleague of the present writer1 who is working upon allied problems4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,reference to ,ladd and ,woodworth4 ,footnote #aj3 ,it must be remembered that children and adults of almost any birthday age may be at this general intelligence level4 ,footnote #aa3 ,if alternates are counted instead of the four tests which directly involve reading or spelling1 these ,,iq's become #hh1 #he1 #hg1 respectively4 ,footnote #ab3 ,for all practical purposes1 ,,iq's differing from each other by not more than #e points are equal4 ,footnote #ac3 ,fildes' subjects ranged in birthday age from #i to #af years4 ,in criticism it should be stated that correlation between ,,iq and ability to read cannot be clearly interpreted unless an array of birthday ages is given in conjunction4 ,fildes does not give such an array4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the substance of discussion under this topic is reprinted by courtesy of the ,teachers ,college ,record1 from the issue of that journal for ,march1 #aiai4 ,footnote #ae3 ,quoted by permission of the ,atlantic ,monthly ,press4 ,footnote #af3 ,bidder died at #gb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the writer is indebted to ,miss ,mabel ,r4 ,goodlander1 ,r's teacher in the fourth grade1 for this report4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,page ,changed from ,changed to #ig ,schrck1 ,g4--8,uber kongenitale ,schrck1 ,g4--8ber kongenitale ,wortblindkeit02 ,klinische ,wortblindheit02 ,klinische ,monatsblatt ,monatsbltter #aii hired tutors4 ,it is true that hired tutors4 ,it is true that the pubic ceremonies may1 the public ceremonies may1 perhaps perhaps ,typos fixed2 non-standard spelling and dialect retained4 ,used numbers for footnotes1 placing them all at the end of the last chapter4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 ,enclosed bold or blackletter font in equals4 ,the caret 77 serves as a superscript indicator1 applicable to individual characters 7like #b;d74