,,gardening ,,for ,,ladies4 ,mrs4 ,,loudon's ,,gardening ,,for ,,ladies4 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street4 #ahdj4 ,,instructions ,,in ,,gardening ,,for ,,ladies4 ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,loudon1 ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,ladies' ,,flower ,,garden10 c4 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street4 #ahdj4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,stewart ,,and ,,murray1 ,,old ,,bailey4 ,,to ,j4 ,c4 ,,loudon1 ,,esq4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,h4,s4 ,z4,s41 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,to ,,whom ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,following ,,pages ,,owes ,,all ,,the ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,she ,,possesses1 ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,dedicated ,,by ,,his ,,affectionate ,,wife1 ,j4 ,w4 ,l4 ,,introduction4 ,when ,i married ,mr4 ,loudon1 it is scarcely possible to imagine any person more completely ignorant than ,i was1 of every thing relating to plants and gardening2 and1 as may be easily imagined1 ,i found every one about me so well acquainted with the subject1 that ,i was soon heartily ashamed of my ignorance4 ,my husband1 of course1 was quite as anxious to teach me as ,i was to learn1 and it is the result of his instructions1 that ,i now 7after ten years experience of their efficacy7 wish to make public for the benefit of others4 ,i do this1 because ,i think books intended for professional gardeners1 are seldom suitable to the wants of amateurs4 ,it is so very difficult for a person who has been acquainted with a subject all his life1 to imagine the state of ignorance in which a person is who knows nothing of it1 that adepts often find it impossible to communicate the knowledge they possess4 ,thus1 though it may at first sight appear presumptuous in me to attempt to teach an art of which for three fourths of my life ,i was perfectly ignorant1 it is in fact that very circumstance which is one of my chief qualifications for the task4 ,having been a full-grown pupil myself1 ,i know the wants of others in a similar situation2 and having never been satisfied without knowing the reason for every thing ,i was told to do1 ,i am able to impart these reasons to others4 ,thus my readers will be able to judge for themselves1 and to adapt their practice to the circumstances in which they may be placed4 ,such is the nature and purport of the present work1 and ,i have only to add that ,i have spared no pains to render it as perfect as ,i could make it4 ,the engravings have been made here from drawings of specimens previously prepared1 and ,i can therefore vouch for their accuracy4 ,j4 ,w4 ,l4 ,bayswater1 ,may #ba1 #ahdj4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,introduction v ,,chapter ,i4 ,stirring the soil #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,manuring the soil1 and making hotbeds #bc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,sowing seeds--planting bulbs and tubers--transplanting and watering #dc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,modes of propagation by division2 viz43 taking off suckers1 making layers and cuttings1 budding1 grafting1 and inarching #gj ,,chapter ,v4 ,pruning1 training1 protecting from frost1 and destroying insects #aaj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the kitchen-garden--the management of culinary vegetables #acd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the kitchen-garden continued--the management of fruit trees #aie ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the flower-garden1 and the culture of flowers #bdd ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,management of the lawn1 pleasure-grounds1 and shrubbery1 of a small villa #cja ,,chapter ,x4 ,rock-work1 moss-houses1 rustic baskets1 and fountains #cbi ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,window gardening1 and the management of plants in pots in small green-houses #cdg ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,calendar of operations #cgd ,,gardening ,,for ,,ladies4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,stirring ,,the ,,soil4 ,digging4--,every one knows that the first operation of the gardener1 whether a new garden is to be made1 or merely an old one re-planted1 is to dig the ground2 though but comparatively few persons are aware why this is so essentially necessary to be done4 ,when a piece of rough ground is to be taken into cultivation1 and a garden made where there was none before1 the use of digging is obvious enough2 as the ground requires to be levelled1 and divided by walks1 and thrown up into beds1 to give it the shape and appearance of a garden1 which could not be done without stirring the soil3 but why the beds in an old garden should be always dug or forked over1 before they are re-planted1 is quite another question1 and one that it requires some consideration to answer4 ,when any soil1 except sand or loose gravel1 remains unstirred for any length of time1 it becomes hard1 and its particles adhere so firmly together as not to be separated without manual force4 ,it is quite clear that when soil is in this state1 it is unfit for the reception of seeds2 as the tender roots of the young plants will not be able to penetrate it through without great difficulty1 and neither air nor water can reach them in sufficient quantities to make them thrive4 ,when a seed is put into the ground1 it is the warmth and moisture by which it is surrounded that make it vegetate4 ,it first swells1 and the skin with which it is covered cracks and peels off2 then two shoots issue from the vital knot1 7a point easily discoverable in large seeds17 one of which descends and is called the root1 while the other ascends to form the leaves1 stem1 flowers1 and fruit4 ,this is what is meant by the germination of the seed1 and this may be effected by the aid of heat and moisture alone1 as is done with mustard and cress1 when raised on wet flannel in a saucer4 ,but plants raised in this manner cannot be of long duration2 as1 though they will live for a short time on the albumen contained in the seed1 on which they feed1 as the chicken does on the nourishment contained in the egg1 this is soon exhausted1 and the plant will die if not supplied with fresh food1 which it can only obtain by means of the root4 ,thus1 the root is necessary1 not only to form a base to support the plant and to keep it upright1 but to supply it with food2 and nature has given it a tendency to bury itself in the ground1 not only to enable the plant to take a firm hold of the soil1 but to preserve the root in a fitting state for absorbing food1 which it can only do when it is kept warm1 moist1 and secluded from the light4 ,the manner in which the root is fitted for the purposes for which it was designed1 affords an admirable illustration of the care and wisdom displayed by the ,great ,creator in all his works4 ,in nature nothing is superfluous1 and yet everything has been provided for4 ,it has been already observed1 that the two principal uses of the root are to give the plant a firm hold of the ground1 and to supply it with food4 ,for the first purpose the root either spreads so widely through the surface soil as to form a sufficient base for the height of the plant1 or it descends a sufficient depth into the earth to steady the part above ground2 and in either case the growth of the plant is wisely and wonderfully proportioned to the strength of the support which the root affords it4 ,for the second purpose1 that of supplying the plant with nourishment1 the root divides at the extremity of each shoot into numerous fibres or fibrils1 each furnished at its extremity with a spongiole or spongy substance1 which affords the only means the plant possesses of absorbing the moisture necessary for its support4 ,it is thus quite clear1 that every thing that tends to nourish and increase the growth of the root1 must contribute to the health and vigour of the rest of the plant2 and that no plant can thrive1 the root of which is cramped in its growth1 or weakened for want of nourishment4 ,this being allowed1 it is evident that the first step towards promoting the growth of any plant is to provide a fitting receptacle for the root2 and this is done by pulverizing the ground in which the seed is to be sown so as to render it in a fit state for the roots to penetrate it easily4 ,thus they will neither be checked in their growth for want of room1 nor be obliged to waste their strength in overcoming unnecessary obstacles2 such as twining themselves round a stone1 or trying to force their way through a hard clod of earth4 ,the second point of affording the root abundance of nourishment may also be obtained by pulverizing the ground2 as pulverization1 by admitting the rain to percolate slowly through the soil1 enables it to absorb and retain sufficient moisture to afford a proper and equable supply of food to the spongioles1 without suffering the surplus water to remain so as to be in danger of rotting the main roots4 ,these then are the reasons why it may be laid down as a general rule1 that all ground should be stirred before seeds are sown in it2 but there are other reasons which operate only partially1 and are yet almost as necessary to be attended to4 ,when manure is applied1 the ground is generally well dug1 in order to mix the manure intimately with the soil2 and when the soil appears worn out1 or poisoned with excrementitious matter1 from the same kind of plants being too long grown in it1 it is trenched2 that is1 the upper or surface soil is taken off by spadefuls and laid on one side1 and the bottom or sub-soil is taken out to a certain depth previously agreed on1 and laid in another heap4 ,the surface soil is then thrown into the bottom of the trench1 and the sub-soil laid on the surface1 and thus a completely new and fresh soil is offered to the plants4 ,these partial uses of digging should1 however1 always be applied with great caution1 as in some cases manure does better laid on the surface1 so that its juices only may drain into the ground1 than when it is intimately mixed with the soil2 and there are cases when1 from the sub-soil being of an inferior quality1 trenching must be manifestly injurious4 ,reason and experience are1 in these cases1 as in most others1 the best guides4 ,the uses of digging having been thus explained1 it is now necessary to say something of its practice1 and particularly of its applicability to ladies4 ,it must be confessed that digging appears1 at first sight1 a very laborious employment1 and one peculiarly unfitted to small and delicately formed hands and feet2 but1 by a little attention to the principles of mechanics and the laws of motion1 the labour may be much simplified and rendered comparatively easy4 ,the operation of digging1 as performed by a gardener1 consists in thrusting the iron part of the spade1 which acts as a wedge1 perpendicularly into the ground by the application of the foot1 and then using the long handle as a lever1 to raise up the loosened earth and turn it over4 ,the quantity of earth thus raised is called a spitful1 and the gardener1 when he has turned it1 chops it to break the clods1 with the sharp edge of his spade1 and levels it with the back4 ,during the whole operation1 the gardener holds the cross part of the handle of the spade in his right-hand1 while he grasps the smooth round lower part of the handle in his left1 to assist him in raising the earth and turning it1 sliding his left hand backwards and forwards along the handle1 as he may find it necessary4 ,this is the common mode of digging1 and it certainly appears to require considerable strength in the foot to force the spade into the ground1--in the arms to raise it when loaded with the earth that is to be turned over1--and in the hands to grasp the handle4 ,but it must be remembered that all operations that are effected rapidly by the exertion of great power1 may be effected slowly by the exertion of very little power1 if that comparatively feeble power be applied for a much greater length of time4 ,for example1 if a line be drawn by a child in the earth with a light cane1 and the cane be drawn five or six times successively along the same line1 it will be found that a furrow has been made in the soil with scarcely any exertion by the child1 that the strongest man could not make by a single effort with all his force4 ,in the same way a lady1 with a small light spade may1 by taking time1 succeed in doing all the digging that can be required in a small garden1 the soil of which1 if it has been long in cultivation1 can never be very hard or difficult to penetrate1 and she will not only have the satisfaction of seeing the garden created1 as it were1 by the labour of her own hands1 but she will find her health and spirits wonderfully improved by the exercise1 and by the reviving smell of the fresh earth4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,lady',s ,,gauntlet4 ,the first point to be attended to1 in order to render the operation of digging less laborious1 is to provide a suitable spade2 that is1 one which shall be as light as is consistent with strength1 and which will penetrate the ground with the least possible trouble4 ,for this purpose1 the blade of what is called a lady's spade is made of not more than half the usual breadth1 say not wider than five inches or six inches1 and of smooth polished iron1 and it is surmounted1 at the part where it joins the handle1 by a piece of iron rather broader than itself1 which is called the tread1 to serve as a rest for the foot of the operator while digging4 ,the handle is about the usual length1 but quite smooth and sufficiently slender for a lady's hand to grasp it1 and it is made of willow1 a close1 smooth1 and elastic wood1 which is tough and tolerably strong1 though much lighter than ash1 the wood generally used for the handles to gardeners' spades4 ,the lady should also be provided with clogs1#a the soles of which are not jointed1 to put over her shoes1 or if she should dislike these and prefer strong shoes1 she should be provided with what gardeners call a tramp1 that is1 a small plate of iron to go under the sole of the shoe1 and which is fastened round the foot with a leathern strap and buckle4 ,she should also have a pair of stiff thick leathern gloves1 or gauntlets1 to protect her hands1 not only from the handle of the spade1 but from the stones1 weeds1 c41 which she may turn over with the earth1 and which ought to be picked out and thrown into a small1 light wheel-barrow1 which may easily be moved from place to place4 ,footnote #a3 ,perhaps the most useful covering for the feet is a kind of clog and gaiter combined2 which may be made of some soft elastic leather1 and rendered perfectly waterproof1 by the new preparation which is now employed instead of caoutchouc1 and is preferable to that gum1 as it does not impede perspiration4 ,a wheel-barrow is a lever of the second kind1 in which the weight is carried between the operator1 who is the moving power1 and the fulcrum1 which is represented by the lower part of the wheel4 ,if it be so contrived that the wheel may roll on a plank1 or on firm ground1 a very slight power is sufficient to move the load contained in the barrow2 particularly if the handles be long1 curved1 and thrown up as high as possible1 in order to let the weight rest principally upon the wheel1 without obliging the operator to bend forward4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the handles are short and straight1 the weight is thrown principally on the arms of the operator1 and much more strength is required to move the load1 besides the inconvenience of stooping4 ,all the necessary implements for digging being provided1 the next thing to be considered is the easiest manner of performing the operation4 ,the usual way is for the gardener to thrust his spade perpendicularly into the ground1 and then using the handle as a lever1 to draw it back so as to raise the whole mass of earth in front of the spade at once4 ,this requires great strength2 but by inserting the spade in a slanting direction1 and throwing the body slightly forward at the same time1 the mass of earth to be raised will not only be much less1 but the body of the operator will be in a much more convenient position for raising and turning it2 which may thus be done with perfect ease4 ,the time for digging should always be chosen1 if possible1 when the ground is tolerably dry2 not only on account of the danger of taking cold by standing on the damp earth1 but because the soil1 when damp1 adheres to the spade1 and is much more difficult to work 7as the gardeners call it17 than when it is dry4 ,the ground in fields1 c4 becomes very hard in dry weather2 but this is never the case in a garden1 the soil of which is well pulverized by the constant digging1 forking1 hoeing and raking it must undergo1 to keep the garden tolerably neat4 ,every lady should be careful1 when she has finished digging1 to have her spade dipped in water1 and then wiped dry2 after which it should be hung up in some warm dry shed1 or harness room1 to keep it free from rust2 as nothing lessens the labour of digging more than having a perfectly smooth and polished spade4 ,should the earth adhere to the spade while digging1 dipping the blade in water occasionally1 will be found to facilitate the operation4 ,the purposes for which digging is applied in gardening are3 simple digging for loosening the soil in order to prepare it for a crop2 pointing2 burying manure2 exposing the soil to the action of the weather2 trenching2 ridging2 forming pits for planting trees and shrubs1 or for filling with choice soil for sowing seeds2 and taking up plants when they are to be removed4 ,in simple digging1 as well as in most of the other kinds1 it is customary to divide the bed to be dug1 by a garden-line1 into two parts3 a trench1 or furrow as it is called1 is then opened across one of these divisions or half of the bed1 the earth out of which is thrown up into a heap4 ,the digging then commences by turning over a breadth of soil into the furrow thus made1 and thus forming a new furrow to be filled up by the soil turned over from the breadth beyond it2 and this is continued till the operator reaches the end of the first division1 where the furrow is to be filled with the earth taken from the first furrow of the second division2 after which the digging proceeds regularly as before1 till the operator reaches the last furrow1 which is filled with the ridge of earth thrown up when the first furrow was made4 ,as few ladies are strong enough to throw the earth from the heap where it was laid from the first furrow to fill the last1 the best way is to put it into a small wheel-barrow1 which may be wheeled to the place required1 and filled and emptied as often as may be found convenient2 or the ground may be divided into narrower strips4 ,it must also be observed1 that as a spitful of earth taken up obliquely will be seldom found enough to loosen the soil to a proper depth1 a second or even a third should be taken from the same place before the operator advances any further along the line4 ,or the whole of each furrow may first be made shallow1 and then deepened by successive diggings before proceeding to the next furrow4 ,it is obvious that the great art in this kind of digging is to keep the furrows straight1 and not to take up more earth in one place than in another1 so that the surface of the ground1 when finished1 may be perfectly even4 ,to keep the furrows straight1 the first ought to be worked out with the rod and line1 and every succeeding line should be frequently and carefully examined4 ,it is more difficult to keep these lines straight than can be at first sight imagined2 and in proportion as the furrow is allowed to become crooked it will become narrower1 and be in danger of being choked up2 or1 if kept as wide as before1 the surface of the ground will be rendered uneven1 and the last furrow left without earth enough to fill it up4 ,in digging each furrow also1 care must be taken to carry it quite up to the line of demarcation2 as1 otherwise1 what the gardeners call a baulk or piece of firm land would be left there1 and1 of course1 the bed would neither look well1 nor would the object for which it was dug be fully attained4 ,great care must also be taken to keep the surface of the bed even1 and this it is extremely difficult for a novice to do4 ,it is1 indeed1 very provoking1 after watching the ease with which a gardener digs a bed1 and looking at the perfectly smooth and even surface that he leaves1 to find how very hard it is to imitate him2 and yet it is essentially necessary to be done1 for if there are any irregularities in the surface1 the hollow places will collect the moisture1 and the plants in them will grow vigorously1 while those in the raised places will be speedily dried by the sun and wind1 and will look poor and withered4 ,practice is certainly required to render digging easy1 but1 as the principal points of keeping the furrows straight and the surface even1 depend on skill more than strength1 the art of digging well may be acquired by any one who thinks it worth while to take the trouble4 ,very little strength will1 indeed1 be necessary1 if the rule of thrusting in the spade obliquely1 and aiding it by the momentum of the body be always attended to4 ,pointing1 as it is called by gardeners1 is in fact shallow digging1 and it consists in merely turning over the ground to the depth of two or three inches4 ,in spring1 or in the beginning of summer1 when the sun has only warmed the soil to the depth of a few inches1 and when the seeds to be sown 7as of annual flowers for example7 are wanted to germinate as quickly as possible1 pointing is preferable to digging2 because the latter operation would bury the warm soil1 and bring that up to the surface which is still as cold as in winter4 ,pointing is also used in stirring the ground among trees and other plants1 in order that the spade may not go so deeply into the ground as to injure their roots4 ,burying manure4--,there are two ways of digging the ground for the purpose of burying manure3 according to the first method1 the manure is spread evenly over the whole bed1 and then the gardener proceeds to dig as though the manure were in fact a portion of the surface of the soil2 and according to the second method1 the manure having been first brought to the spot and thrown into a heap1 is deposited1 a small portion at a time1 at the bottom of each furrow as it is formed1 and the earth from the next furrow thrown over it4 ,in both cases1 the manure should be buried as speedily as possible2 as if left long exposed in small quantities to the air in hot dry weather1 it loses a great part of its nutritious qualities by evaporation4 ,digging for the purpose of exposing the soil to the action of the weather1 trenching1 and ridging on a large scale1 are operations too laborious to be performed by any one but a gardener's labourer4 ,to be done well1 the earth in all these cases should be mixed in large spitfuls at a time1 and turned over without breaking1 on which account they are best performed in moist weather1 when the earth is in an adhesive state4 ,ridging on a small scale may be useful in a flower garden1 when the soil is much infested with insects1 or where there are many weeds4 ,it is performed by opening a trench1 and throwing up the earth out of it in the form of a ridge2 and then opening another trench1 and forming another ridge in the same manner4 ,the whole garden is thus thrown into a series of ridges and trenches1 which should be suffered to remain all the winter1 and be levelled in spring4 ,it is obvious that this mode of ameliorating the soil can only be practised where the garden is not likely to be visited during winter1 as it destroys all beauty1 and has a peculiarly desolate and forlorn appearance4 ,it is indeed a remedy only to be resorted to in extreme cases1 but fortunately there are very few flower gardens in which the soil is in so bad a state as to require it4 ,the other kinds of digging1 are to form pits for receiving plants1 or for filling with choice soil1 and to remove plants4 ,in the first case1 a hole of sufficient size to receive the plant is dug1 and the earth thrown up beside it1 to be filled in round the roots of the plant2 and in the second case1 the common garden earth is thrown out of a pit a foot or eighteen inches deep1 and about the same in diameter1 and its place supplied by peat1 or whatever other kind of earth may be required4 ,in removing a young tree or shrub1 the ground is generally first dug out on one side1 so as to form a small trench1 and then the spade is driven perpendicularly into the ground1 below the depth to which the roots descend1 and the whole mass is raised like a spade full of earth4 ,small plants are raised by the spade at once without making any trench2 and large trees require all the skill of a professed gardener4 ,forking4--,a broad-pronged garden fork may be defined as an implement consisting of a number of small sharply pointed spades1 united by a shoulder or hilt1 to which is fixed the handle2 and forking differs from digging principally in its being used merely to stir the soil1 and not to turn it over4 ,in shrubberies1 and among perennial herbaceous plants1 which are not to be taken and replanted1 forking is very useful2 as it loosens the hard dry surface of the soil1 and admits the warm air and rain to the roots of the plants4 ,this is very necessary1 as the earth is a bad conductor of heat2 and where the surface of the soil is become so hard as to exclude the air from the roots of the plants1 the ground in which they grow will be nearly as cold in summer as in winter4 ,besides1 when the surface of the ground is hard1 the rain instead of soaking gradually into it1 runs off1 or evaporates1 without being of any service to the roots4 ,the operation of forking consists merely in thrusting the fork a little way into the ground by the application of the foot to the hilt1 and then raising the ground by pulling back the handle as in digging1 so as to loosen the earth without raising it4 ,the ground may thus be roughly pulverized to a considerable depth1 without dividing the roots of the plants2 which would have been inevitable if the operator had used a spade4 ,hoeing4--,there are several different kinds of hoes which are used for getting up weeds1 for loosening the soil1 for drawing it up round the stems of growing plants1 and for making a shallow furrow or drill for sowing seeds4 ,the different kinds all belong to two great divisions3 viz4 the draw hoe and the thrust hoe1 which may be seen at any ironmonger's shop4 ,either kind may be used for destroying weeds2 as the weeds may either be loosened and lifted out of the soil by the thrust hoe1 or torn out of it by the draw hoe4 ,both kinds may also be used for pulverizing the soil1 or a third kind with two prongs may be substituted4 ,in all these operations1 the thrust hoe is best adapted for a lady's use1 as requiring the least exertion of strength1 and being most easily managed2 but the draw hoe is best adapted for making a drill or furrow for the reception of seeds1 and also for the last and most important use of hoeing1 viz4 the drawing up of the earth round the stems of growing plants4 ,the operation of hoeing up1 though very commonly practised1 is only suitable to some kind of plants1 and it is intended to afford additional nourishment to those which have tap-roots1 by inducing them to throw out more lateral fibres4 ,the plants which will bear to be hoed or earthed up1 are those that throw out fibrous roots above the vital knot1 like the cabbage tribe1 c42 or that are annuals with long bushy stems1 and very weak and slender roots like the pea4 ,ligneous plants should never be earthed up1 to avoid injuring the vital knot1 which forms the point of separation between the main root and the stem1 and which gardeners call the collar1 crown1 neck or collet4 ,this part in trees and shrubs should never be buried1 as if it be injured by moisture so as to cause it to rot2 or if it be wounded in any way1 the plant will die4 ,a deciduous tree may be cut down close above the collar1 and it will throw up fresh shoots1 or the roots may all be cut off close below the collar1 and if that part be uninjured fresh roots will form2 but if a tree be cut through at this vital part it never can recover4 ,a trowel is another instrument used in stirring the soil1 but of course it can only be employed in boxes of earth in balconies1 c4 ,raking is useful in smoothing the soil after digging1 and in collecting weeds1 stones1 c41 and dragging them to one side1 where they may be easily removed4 ,an iron-toothed rake is generally used for the ground1 and a wooden one for collecting grass after mowing4 ,when it is wished that the teeth of the rake should enter the ground1 the handle should be held low2 but if the object be the collection of weeds1 c41 the handle should be held high4 ,dry weather is essential to raking the ground1 as the principal use of the operation is to break the clods left by the spade2 but raking together grass or weeds may be performed in wet weather4 ,the degree of strength required for raking depends partly upon the breadth of the head of the rake1 and the number of its teeth1 but principally upon the manner of holding it4 ,if the rake be held low1 it is obvious that greater strength will be required to drag it through the ground than if it is held high1 in which case very little labour will be required to overcome the resistance it will meet with4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,manuring ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,making ,,hotbeds4 ,most persons imagine that manure is all that is wanted to make a garden fruitful2 and thus1 if the fruit-trees do not bear1 and the flowers and vegetables do not thrive1 manure is considered the universal panacea4 ,now1 the fact is1 that so far from this being the case1 most small gardens have been manured a great deal too much2 and in many1 the surface soil1 instead of consisting of rich friable mould1 only presents a soft black shining substance1 which is the humic acid from the manure saturated with stagnant water4 ,no appearance is more common in the gardens of street-houses than this1 from these gardens being originally ill drained1 and yet continually watered2 and from their possessors loading them with manure1 in the hope of rendering them fertile4 ,as it is known to chemists that it is only the humic acid1 and carbonic acid gas1 contained in manure1 which make that substance nourishing to plants2 and as these acids must be dissolved in water before the roots can take them up1 it may seem strange that any solution of them in water1 however strong it may be1 should be injurious to vegetation4 ,the fact is1 however1 that it is the great quantity of food contained in the water that renders it unwholesome4 ,when the roots of a plant and their little sponge-like terminations1 are examined in a powerful microscope1 it will be clearly seen that no thick substance can pass through them4 ,thus water loaded with gross coarse matter1 as it is when saturated with humic acid1 must be more than the poor spongioles can swallow2 and yet1 as they are truly sponge-like1 their nature prompts them1 whenever they find moisture1 to attempt to take it up1 without having the power of discriminating between what is good for them1 and what will be injurious4 ,the spongioles thus imbibe the saturated liquid2 and1 loaded with this improper food1 the fibrous roots1 like an overgorged snake1 become distended1 the fine epidermis that covers them is torn asunder1 their power of capillary attraction is gone1 and they can neither force the food they have taken up1 into the main roots1 nor reject the excrementitious matter sent down to them from the leaves1 after the elaboration of the sap4 ,in this state of things1 from the usual circulation of the fluids being impeded1 it is not surprising that the plant should droop1 that its leaves should turn yellow1 that its flowers should not expand1 that its fruit should shrivel and drop off prematurely1 and that in the end it should die2 as1 in fact1 it may be said to expire of apoplexy1 brought on by indigestion4 ,all soil1 to be in a fit state for growing plants1 should be sufficiently loose and dry to allow of water passing through it intermixed with air2 as water1 when in this state is never more than slightly impregnated with the nutritious juices of the manure through which it has passed4 ,the spongioles are thus not supplied with more food at a time than they can properly take up and digest1 and a healthy circulation of the fluids is kept up through the whole plant4 ,but1 what1 it may be asked1 is to be done with a garden1 the soil of which has become black and slimy like half-rotten peat8 ,the quickest remedy is covering it with lime1 as that combines readily with the humic acid1 and reduces it to a state of comparative dryness3 or1 if the sub-soil be good1 the ground may be trenched1 and the surface-soil buried two spits deep2 in either case it will be necessary thoroughly to drain the garden to prevent a recurrence of the evil4 ,all the different kinds of soil found on level ground1 consist of two parts1 which are called the surface-soil and the sub-soil2 and as the sub-soil always consists of one of the three primitive earths1 so do these earths always enter1 more or less1 into the composition of every kind of surface-soil4 ,the primitive earths are--silex1 7which includes sand and gravel17 clay1 and lime1 which includes also chalk2 and most sub-soils consist of a solid bed or rock of one or other of these materials1 probably in nearly the same state as it was left by the deluge4 ,the surface-soils1 on the contrary1 are of comparatively recent date2 and they have been slowly formed by the gradual crumbling of the sub-soil1 and its inter-mixture with decayed animal and vegetable matter1 and with other soils which may have been accidentally washed down upon1 or purposely brought to it4 ,in fields1 and uncultivated places1 the surface-soil is almost as hard1 and as coarse in its texture1 as the sub-soil on which it rests2 but in gardens which have been long in cultivation1 the surface-soil becomes so thoroughly pulverized by frequent diggings1 and so mixed with the manure and decayed vegetables which have been added to it from time to time1 that it is changed into the soft1 light1 fine1 powdery substance1 called garden-mould4 ,if the sub-soil be naturally porous or well drained1 this mould1 however rich it may be made by the addition of decayed vegetable matter or animal manure1 will always continue friable2 and as long as it does so1 it will be fit for the growth of plants3 but if no vent be allowed for the escape of the water1 and it be continually enriched with manure1 it will be changed in time into the black slimy substance that has been already described4 ,surface-soil is called peat-earth when it is composed of decayed vegetable matter1 without any mixture of animal manure2 and1 as this excess of vegetable matter could neither be produced nor decayed1 without abundance of stagnant moisture1 this kind of earth is almost always found on a clayey sub-soil1 which prevents the water which falls upon it from escaping4 ,peat-earth has a spongy1 elastic feeling when trodden upon1 arising from the quantity of water that it holds1 and it can only be rendered fit for cultivation by draining4 ,in its elastic state it is what is called in ,scotland a moss1 and in ,england a peat-bog4 ,should the water1 instead of being afforded a vent by drainage1 be suffered to accumulate for many years1 till it completely saturates the peat1 the soil becomes what is called a morass1 or quagmire2 and it can no longer be trodden on1 as it will engulf any substance resting upon it4 ,a still further accumulation of water will1 in the course of years1 cause the bog to burst its bounds1 and overflow the surrounding country2 as the ,solway-moss did many years ago1 and as bogs in ,ireland have done frequently4 ,an excess of vegetable matter on a silicious sub-soil1 differs from the common black-peat in retaining less water2 and in being mixed with a portion of the primitive earth1 which1 from its loose texture1 becomes easily detached from the sub-soil4 ,peat in this state is called heath mould4 ,the most productive soils are those in which several ingredients are combined in proper proportions2 and if any one of the primitive earths preponderates1 the soil becomes comparatively unfertile4 ,thus the best soil for gardening purposes is generally allowed to be a calcareous loam on a chalky sub-soil2 and this sort of soil is composed of nearly equal parts of lime1 sand1 and clay1 enriched depositions of decayed animal and vegetable matter4 ,the next best soil is a sandy loam1 composed of clay and sand1 enriched by decayed animal and vegetable substances1 and resting on a sandy or gravelly sub-soil4 ,the worst soils are peat and sand4 ,a poor sandy soil is necessarily a nearly barren one2 because it will not retain either water1 or the nutritious juices from manure1 long enough to afford nourishment to the plants grown upon it2 and it is obvious that a soil of this kind can only be rendered fertile by mixing it with clay2 which would change it into a sandy loam4 ,a stiff clay is unfertile from its attracting moisture and retaining it round the roots of the plants till they become swollen and unhealthy4 ,it also retards the decomposition of manure1 and obstructs the progress of the roots1 which waste their strength in the efforts they make to penetrate1 or twine round1 its adhesive clods4 ,soils of this description are improved by a mixture of sand1 gravel1 road grit1 or any substance which tends to separate the particles of the clay1 and to render it light and friable4 ,chalky soils succeed better unmixed1 than any of the other kinds2 but chalk being a carbonate of lime1 can hardly be called a primitive soil4 ,the chalk1 however1 from its whiteness is colder than any other soil2 as it does not absorb1 but reflects back the rays of the sun4 ,rain also penetrates into it very slowly1 and not to any great depth4 ,chalk mixed with sand forms a kind of calcareous loam admirably adapted for growing vegetables2 and chalky soils are peculiarly susceptible of improvement from manure4 ,manures4--,the kinds of manure generally used in gardens are horse or cow dung1 and decayed vegetable matters2 the manure in both cases being suffered to lie in a heap to rot before it is spread on the ground1 in order that its component parts may be decomposed by fermentation1 and thus brought into a fit state to afford food to the plants4 ,old hot-beds or mushroom beds are thus well adapted for manuring a garden2 and when fresh stable-dung is employed for that purpose1 it is generally thrown into a heap1 and turned over several times till the fermentation has abated1 before it is dug into the ground4 ,as1 however1 a great quantity of carbonic acid gas is evolved and escapes during the process of fermentation1 and as it seems a great pity that so much of the nutritious properties of the manure should be lost1 it is now customary to cover the dunghill with earth1 into which the gases will rise during the process of fermentation1 and in which they will deposit the greater part of their nutritious properties4 ,a quantity of earth should also be laid round the dunghill to imbibe the liquid that runs from it1 and this earth1 part of which must be removed and fresh added every time the dunghill is turned over1 will be found very nearly as valuable for manuring the beds of a garden1 as the manure itself4 ,the modes of applying manure differ according to the difference of the soils4 ,for sandy loams1 thoroughly rotten dung1 either from an old hotbed1 or from a dunghill sufficiently decayed to be cut easily with the spade1 or the earth that has covered a dunghill during the process of fermentation1 should be laid on the surface of the soil1 and dug in4 ,in very poor sandy soils rotten manure1 or earth from a dunghill1 should be laid on the surface of the soil1 and not dug in3 being covered1 if hot dry weather be expected1 with leaves1 straw1 or the branches of trees cut off in pruning2 or occasionally sprinkled with water4 ,soils of this description1 and loose sands1 are frequently improved in the ,south of ,france and ,italy1 by sowing them with seeds of the common white lupine1 and then1 when the plants have come up and grown about a foot high1 ploughing or digging them into the soil4 ,the green succulent stems of the lupines1 when thus buried in the soil1 supply it with moisture during the process of their decay2 and thus nourishment is afforded to the corn1 which is immediately afterwards sown upon the soil for a crop4 ,clayey soils should have unfermented manure mixed with undecayed straw laid in the bottom of the furrows made in digging2 that the process of fermentation1 and the remains of the straw may operate in keeping the particles of the soil open1 or1 in other words1 in preventing their too close adhesion4 ,lime 7though when burnt it becomes violently caustic1 and will destroy and waste all the manure applied with it71 as carbonate of lime1 or chalk 7in which state only it can properly be called a soil71 retains the manure applied to it longer than any other soil4 ,rotten manure may thus be dug into chalk1 with the certainty that it will be preserved from farther decay for a very long time1 and that every shower will work a small portion of its fertilizing juices out of it1 and carry them into the soil1 where they will be thus presented to the plants in the best possible state for affording wholesome food4 ,peat soils may be improved by the addition of quick-lime as a manure1 which will absorb the superabundant moisture which they contain2 or they may be mixed with sand1 gravel1 or clay to give them firmness and tenacity1 and then with a small quantity of animal manure4 ,sandy peat or heath mould is very useful in gardens for growing heaths1 rhododendrons1 kalmias1 or any plants with fine hair-like roots2 and from the quantity of vegetable matter that it contains naturally1 it does not require any manure1 more than what is furnished by the decaying leaves of the plants grown in it4 ,nearly the same rules apply to decaying leaves and other substances used as manure1 as to stable-dung4 ,they may be buried in an undecayed state in clayey soil1 when it is the object to separate the adhesive particles of the clay by the process of fermentation2 but their component parts should be separated by fermentation before they are applied as a manure to growing plants4 ,vegetable mould 7that is1 leaves thoroughly decayed and mixed with a little rich loam7 is admirably adapted for manuring the finer kinds of flowers1 and plants in pots4 ,there are many other kinds of manure used in gardens occasionally2 such as the dung of pigs1 rabbits and poultry1 grass mown from lawns1 parings of leather1 horn shavings1 bones1 the sweeping of streets1 the emptying of privies1 cess-pools1 and sewers1 the clipping of hedges and pruning of trees1 weeds1 the refuse of vegetables1 pea halm1 c4 ,all these should be fermented1 and applied1 in the same manner as the common kinds of manure4 ,the following is a summary of the general rules to be observed in manuring and improving soils3--,never to use animal manure and quick-lime together1 as the one will destroy the other4 ,to use lime as a manure only in very sandy or peaty soils1 or in soils abounding with sulphate of iron4 ,to remember that rotten manure is considered to give solidity2 and that unfermented manure1 buried in trenching1 has a tendency to lighten the soil4 ,to dilute liquid manure from a dunghill with water1 before applying it to growing plants2 as otherwise1 from the quantity of ammonia that it contains it will be apt to burn them4 ,to cover and surround dunghills with earth during the process of fermentation1 to absorb the nutritious gases1 that would otherwise escape4 ,to remember that the manure of cows and all animals that chew the cud1 is cold and suited to a light soil2 and that the manure of horses1 pigs1 and poultry is hot and suited to a firm soil3 also that all manure1 when well rotten1 becomes cold in its nature1 and should be treated accordingly4 ,to remember that all mixed soils are more fertile than soils consisting only of one of the three primitive earths1 viz4 lime1 sand1 or clay2 and never to forget that too much manure is quite as injurious to plants as too little4 ,formation of hotbeds4--,though nearly all the kinds of manure which have been enumerated may be used occasionally for hotbeds1 the only materials in common use in gardens1 are stable manure1 dead leaves1 and tan4 ,the first of these1 which is by far the most general1 consists partly of horse-dung1 and partly of what gardeners call long litter1 that is1 straw moistened and discoloured1 but not decayed4 ,the manure is generally in this state1 when it is purchased1 or taken from the stable1 for the purpose of making a hot-bed4 ,the necessary quantity of manure is procured at the rate of one cart load1 or from twelve to fifteen large wheel-barrowfuls to every light1 as the gardeners call the sashes of the frames1 each light being about three feet wide2 and this manure is laid in a heap to ferment4 ,the heap should then be covered with earth to receive the gases evolved during fermentation1 and earth laid round it to absorb the liquid manure that may drain from it4 ,in about a week the earth may be removed1 and the manure turned over with a dung-fork1 and well shaken together2 this operation being repeated two or three or more times1 at intervals of two or three days1 till the whole mass is become of one colour1 and the straws are sufficiently decomposed to be torn to pieces with the fork4 ,the size of the hotbed must depend principally on the size of the frame which is to cover it2 observing that the bed must be from six inches to a foot wider than the frame every way4 ,the manure must then be spread in layers1 each layer being beaten down with the back of the fork1 till the bed is about three feet and a half high4 ,the surface of the ground on which the hotbed is built1 is generally raised about six inches above the general surface of the garden2 and it is advisable to lay some earth round the bottom of the bed1 nearly a foot wide1 that it may receive the juices of the manure that will drain from the bed4 ,as soon as the bed is made1 the frame is put on and the sashes kept quite close1 till a steam appears upon the glass1 when the bed is considered in a fit state to be covered three or four inches deep with mould2 observing1 if the bed has settled unequally1 to level the surface of the manure before covering it with earth4 ,the seeds to be raised may either be sown in this earth1 or in pots to be plunged in it4 ,the proper average heat for a hotbed intended to raise flower seeds1 or to grow cucumbers1 is #fj3 but melons require a heat of #fe to grow in1 and #ge to ripen their fruit4 ,this heat should be taken in a morning1 and does not include that of the sun in the middle of the day4 ,when the heat of the bed becomes so great as to be in danger of injuring the plants1 the obvious remedy is to give air by raising the glasses2 and if this be not sufficient1 the general heat of the bed must be lowered by making excavations in the dung from the sides1 so as to reach nearly to the middle of the bed1 and filling up these excavations with cold dung which has already undergone fermentation1 or with leaves1 turf1 or any other similar material which will receive heat1 but not increase it4 ,when the heat of the bed falls down to #dh or lower1 it should be raised1 by applying on the outside fresh coatings of dung1 grass1 or leaves1 which are called linings4 ,when hotbeds are made of spent tanner's bark or decayed leaves1 a kind of box or pit must be formed of bricks or boards1 or even of layers of turf1 or clay1 and the tan or leaves filled in so as to make a bed4 ,where neatness is an object1 this kind of bed is preferable to any other2 but a common hotbed of stable manure may be made to look neat by thatching the outside with straw1 or covering it with bast mats1 pegged down to keep them close to the bed4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sowing ,,seeds--,,planting ,,bulbs ,,and ,,tubers--,,transplanting ,,and ,,watering4 ,sowing ,seeds4--,the principal points to be attended to in sowing seeds are1 first1 to prepare the ground so that the young and tender roots thrown out by the seeds may easily penetrate into it2 secondly1 to fix the seeds firmly in the soil2 thirdly1 to cover them1 so as to exclude the light1 which impedes vegetation1 and to preserve a sufficiency of moisture round them to encourage it2 and1 fourthly1 not to bury them so deeply as either to deprive them of the beneficial influence of the air1 or to throw any unnecessary impediments in the way of their ascending shoots4 ,the preparation of the soil has been already described in the chapter on digging1 and the reasons why it is necessary have been there given2 but why seeds should be firmly embedded in it1 seems to require explanation4 ,it is well known that gardeners1 before they either sow a bed in the kitchen-garden1 or a patch of flower-seeds in the flower-garden1 generally 8firm the ground10 as they call it1 by beating it well with the back of the spade1 or pressing it with the saucer of a flower-pot2 and there can be no doubt that this is done in order that the seeds may be firmly imbedded in the soil4 ,when lawns are sown with grass-seeds also1 the seeds are frequently rolled in1 evidently for the same purpose4 ,the only question1 therefore1 is1 why is this necessary2 and the answer appears to be1 that a degree of permanence and stability is essential to enable nature to accommodate the plant to the situation in which it is placed4 ,when there is this degree of permanence and stability1 it is astonishing to observe the efforts that plants will make to provide for their wants2 but without it1 seeds will not even vegetate4 ,thus we often see large trees springing from crevices in apparently bare rocks2 while not even a blade of grass will grow among the moving sands of a desert4 ,the reasons for the second and third points of covering the seeds1 and yet not covering them too deeply1 appear more obvious2 and yet they also require a little explanation4 ,the seeds are covered to keep them in darkness1 and to retain round them a proper quantity of moisture2 not only to make them swell and begin to vegetate1 but to enable the roots to perform their proper functions2 since1 if exposed to the air1 they would become dry and withered1 and lose the power of contracting and dilating1 which is essential to enable them to imbibe and digest their food4 ,burying the seeds too deeply is obviously injurious in impeding the progress of the young shoot to the light2 and in placing it in an unnatural position4 ,when a seed vegetates too far below the surface1 a part of the stem of the plant must be buried2 and this part not being intended to remain under-ground1 is not protected from the dangers it is likely to meet with there4 ,it is thus peculiarly liable to be assailed by slugs and all kinds of insects1 and to become rotten by damp1 or withered by heat4 ,it is also very possible to bury a seed so deeply as to prevent it from vegetating at all4 ,the ground has more of both warmth and moisture near the surface than at a great depth1 as it is warmed by the rays of the sun1 and moistened by the rain2 but besides this1 seeds will not vegetate1 even when they are amply supplied with heat and moisture1 if they are excluded from the influence of the air4 ,every ripe seed in a dry state is a concentration of carbon1 which1 when dissolved by moisture1 and its particles set in motion by heat1 is in a fit state to combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere1 and thus to form the carbonic acid gas which is the nourishment of the expanding plant4 ,for this reason1 seeds1 and newly sprung-up plants do not want to be supplied with manure1 and air is much more essential to them3 they have enough carbon in their cotyledons or seed-leaves1 and they only want oxygen to combine with it1 to enable them to develope their other leaves2 and this is the reason why young plants1 raised on a hotbed1 are always given air1 or they become yellow and withered4 ,light absorbs the oxygen from plants1 and occasions a deposition of the carbon4 ,thus seeds and seedlings do not require much light2 it is indeed injurious to them1 as it undoes in some degree what the air has been doing for them3 but young plants1 when they have expanded two or three pairs of leaves1 and when the stock of carbon contained in their cotyledons1 or seed-leaves1 is exhausted1 require light to enable them to elaborate their sap1 without which the process of vegetation could not go on4 ,abundance of light also is favourable to the development of flowers1 and the ripening of seeds2 as it aids the concentration of carbon1 which they require to make them fertile4 ,the curious fact that seeds1 though abundantly supplied with warmth and moisture1 will not vegetate without the assistance of the air1 was lately verified in ,italy2 where the ,po1 having overflowed its banks near ,mantua1 deposited a great quantity of mud on some meadows2 and from this mud sprang up a plentiful crop of black poplars1 no doubt from seeds that had fallen into the river from a row of trees of that kind1 which had formerly grown on its banks1 but which had been cut down many years previously4 ,another instance occurred in the case of some raspberry seeds found in the body of an ancient ,briton discovered in a tumulus in ,dorsetshire4 ,some of these seeds were sown in the ,london ,horticultural ,society's ,garden at ,turnham ,green1 where they vegetated1 and the plants produced from them are still 7#ahci7 growing4 ,numerous other nearly similar instances1 will be found in ,jesse's ,gleanings1 ,hooker's ,botanical ,miscellany1 and numerous other works4 ,steeping seeds in oxalic acid1 c4 to make them vegetate1 is efficacious2 as there is a speedier combination between the carbon in the seeds1 and the oxygen in the acid1 than can be effected by the ordinary agency of the air in parting with its oxygen to them4 ,planting bulbs and tubers bears considerable analogy to sowing seeds4 ,the bulb or tuber may indeed be considered as only a seed of larger growth1 since it requires the combined influence of air1 warmth1 and moisture to make it vegetate1 and then it throws out a stem1 leaves1 and roots like a seed4 ,there is1 however1 one important difference between them2 the seed expends its accumulated stock of carbon in giving birth to the root1 stem1 and leaves1 after which it withers away and disappears2 while the bulb or tuber continues to exist during the whole life of the plant1 and appears to contain a reservoir of carbon1 which it only parts with slowly1 and as circumstances may require4 ,though bulbs and tubers have here been mentioned as almost synonymous1 modern botanists make several distinctions between them4 ,the tunicated bulbs1 such as those of the hyacinth and the onion1 and the squamose bulbs1 such as those of the lily1 they consider to be underground buds2 while tubers such as those of the dahlia1 and the potatoe1 and solid bulbs or corms1 such as those of the crocus1 they regard as underground stems4 ,these distinctions1 however1 though they may be interesting to the botanist and vegetable physiologist1 are of little or no use in practice2 the practical gardener treating bulbs and tubers exactly alike1 and planting them as he would sow a seed3 that is to say1 he fixes them firmly in the ground1 and covers them1 but not so deeply as to exclude the air4 ,in preparing a bed for hyacinths or other tunicated bulbs1 it is necessary to pulverize the soil to a much greater depth than for ordinary seeds2 as the fibrous roots of the hyacinth descend perpendicularly to a considerable depth1 as may be seen when these plants are grown in glasses4 ,the very circumstance of growing hyacinths in glasses1 where they vegetate and send down their roots exposed to the full influence of the light1 appears contrary to the usual effects of light on vegetation2 and indeed the plants are said generally to thrive best1 when the glasses are kept in the dark till the roots are half grown4 ,however this may be1 it is quite certain that hyacinths in glasses should never be kept in darkness when their leaves begin to expand2 as1 if there be not abundance of light to occasion rapid evaporation from the leaves1 the plants will soon become surcharged with moisture from the quantity constantly supplied to their roots2 and the leaves will turn yellow1 and look flaccid1 and unhealthy1 while the flowers will be stunted1 or will fall off without expanding4 ,transplanting4--,the points to be attended to in transplanting1 are--care in taking up1 to avoid injuring the spongioles of the roots2 planting firmly to enable the plant to take a secure hold of the soil2 shading to prevent the evaporation from the leaves from being greater than the plant in its enfeebled state can support2 and watering that it may be abundantly supplied with food in its new abode4 ,the first point is to avoid injuring the roots1 and it is only necessary to consider the construction and uses of these most important organs to perceive how impossible it is for the plant to thrive1 unless they are in a perfectly healthy state4 ,roots generally consist of two parts2 the main roots which are intended to act as grappling irons to enable the plants to take a firm hold of the ground1 and the fibrous roots which are intended to supply the plant with nourishment4 ,these fibrous roots are most liable to receive injury from transplanting1 as they are covered with a very fine cellular integument1 so delicate in its texture as to be very easily bruised2 and they each terminate in a number of small pores of extraordinary delicacy and susceptibility1 which act as little sponges to imbibe moisture for the use of the plant4 ,it is well known that these spongioles are the only means which the plant possesses of imbibing food1 and that if they should be all cut off1 the plant must provide itself with others1 or perish for want of nourishment4 ,these spongioles are exactly of the nature of a sponge2 they expand at the approach of moisture1 and when surcharged with it1 they contract1 and thus force it into the fibrous roots1 the cellular integument of which dilates to receive it2 hence the moisture is forced1 by capillary attraction1 as it is supposed1 into the main roots1 and thence into the stem and branches of the plant2 circulating like the blood1 and after it has been elaborated in the leaves1 as the blood is in the lungs1 dispensing nourishment to every part as it goes along4 ,the roots have no pores but those forming the spongioles2 and only the fibrous roots appear to possess the power of alternate dilation and contraction1 which power evidently depends on their cellular tissue being in an entire and healthy state4 ,thus1 it is quite evident that if the spongiole of any fibril be crushed1 or even the cellular tissue injured1 it can no longer act as a mouth and throat to convey food to the plant4 ,when this is the case1 the injured part should be instantly removed2 as its elasticity can never be restored1 and it is much better for the plant to be forced to throw out a new fibril1 than to be obliged to carry on its circulation weakly and imperfectly with a diseased one4 ,whenever a plant is taken up for transplanting1 its roots should therefore be carefully examined1 and all their injured parts cut off1 before it is replaced in the ground4 ,deciduous plants1 and particularly trees and shrubs1 are generally transplanted when they are without their leaves2 because at that season they are in no danger of suffering from the effects of evaporation4 ,shading is necessary after transplanting all plants that retain their leaves2 as the evaporation from the leaves1 if exposed to the full action of the light1 would be greater than the plant could support with a diminished number of spongioles4 ,if it were possible to transplant without injuring the fibrils1 and if the plant were immediately supplied with plenty of water1 shading would not be required2 and1 indeed1 when plants are turned out of a pot into the open garden without breaking the ball of earth round their roots1 they are never shaded4 ,the reason for this is1 that as long as a plant remains where it was first sown1 and under favourable circumstances1 the evaporation from its leaves is exactly adapted to its powers of absorbing moisture2 it is therefore evident1 that if1 by any chance1 the number of its mouths be diminished1 the evaporation from its leaves should be checked also1 till the means of supplying a more abundant evaporation are restored4 ,the use of watering a transplanted plant1 is as obvious as that of shading4 ,it is simply to supply the spongioles with an abundance of food1 that the increased quantity imbibed by each1 may1 in some degree1 supply their diminished number4 ,all plants will not bear transplanting1 and those that have tap-roots1 such as the carrot1 are peculiarly unfitted for it4 ,when plants having tap-roots are transplanted1 it should be into very light soil1 and what is called a puddle should be made to receive them4 ,to do this1 a hole or pit should be formed1 deeper than the root of the plant1 and into this pit water should be poured and earth thrown in and stirred so as to half-fill it with mud4 ,the tap-rooted plant should then be plunged into the mud1 shaking it a little so as to let the mud penetrate among its fibrous roots1 and the hole should be filled in with light soil4 ,the plant must afterwards be shaded longer than is usual with other plants2 and when water is given1 it should be poured down nearer to the main root than in other cases1 as the lateral fibrous roots never spread far from it4 ,plants with spreading roots1 when transplanted1 should have the pit intended to receive them made shallow1 but very wide in its diameter2 so that the roots may be spread out in it to their fullest extent1 except those that appear at all bruised or injured1 which1 as before directed1 should be cut off with a sharp knife4 ,it is a general rule1 in transplanting1 never to bury the collar of a plant2 though this rule has some exceptions in the case of annuals4 ,some of these1 such as balsams1 send out roots from the stem above the collar2 and these plants are always very much improved by transplanting4 ,others1 the fibrous roots of which are long and descending1 such as hyacinths1 bear transplanting very ill1 and when it is absolutely necessary to remove them1 it should be done with an instrument called a transplanter2 which may be purchased in any ironmonger's shop1 and the use of which is to take up a sufficient quantity of earth with the plant to remove it without disturbing the roots4 ,the uses of transplanting are various4 ,when seeds are sown1 and the young plants from them begin to make their appearance1 they will generally be found to be much too thick2 and they will require thinning1 either by drawing some of them out and throwing them away1 or by removing them to another bed by transplanting4 ,this1 in the case of annuals1 is called by the gardeners pricking out4 ,the young plants are taken up with a small trowel1 and replaced in a hole made for them1 and the earth pressed round them1 with the same trowel2 the only care necessary being to make them firm at the root1 and yet to avoid injuring the tender spongioles4 ,gardeners do this with a dibber1 which they hold in the right hand1 and after putting in the young plant with the left hand1 they press the earth round it with the dibber in a manner that ,i never could manage to imitate4 ,i have found the trowel1 however1 do equally well1 though it takes up rather more time4 ,another use of transplanting is to remove trees and shrubs from the nursery to where they are permanently to remain4 ,to enable this to be done with safety1 the trees and shrubs in commercial nurseries are prepared by being always removed every year1 or every other year1 whether they are sold or not4 ,the effect of these frequent removals is to keep the roots short1 and yet provided with numerous spongioles2 for as they are always pruned on every removal1 and as the effect of pruning is to induce the roots pruned to send out two short fibrous roots armed with spongioles1 in the place of every one cut off1 the roots1 though confined to a small space1 become abundant4 ,the reverse of this is the case1 when plants are left in a natural state4 ,it has been found1 from experience1 that plants imbibe more food than they absolutely require as nourishment from the soil1 and that they eject part of it2 also that their roots will not reimbibe this excrementitious matter1 but are continually in search of fresh soil4 ,to provide for this the fibrous roots are possessed of an extraordinary power of elongating themselves at their extremities2 and thus the roots of even a small plant1 left to nature1 will be found to extend to a great distance on every side4 ,it is obvious that this elongation of the roots must greatly increase the difficulties attending transplanting4 ,where the roots extend to a distance from the tree1 a greater extent of ground has to be disturbed1 both to take up the plant1 and to make a pit for replanting it2 the risk of injuring the fibrous roots is increased2 and1 as nearly all the spongioles will require to be cut off1 from the great length of the roots1 and consequent greater difficulty which will attend taking them up entire1 the plant will be nearly famished before new spongioles can be formed to supply it with food4 ,all these dangers are avoided by the nursery system of transplanting2 while the inconvenience of confining the roots to so small a space is obviated1 by placing the plant1 every time it is transplanted1 in fresh soil4 ,it is customary1 when trees or shrubs are transplanted to the places where they are permanently to remain1 either to make a puddle for them1 or to fix them1 as it is called1 with water2 the object1 in both cases1 being to supply the plant with abundance of food in its new situation4 ,care is taken1 also1 to make the roots firm in the soil1 and to let the earth penetrate through all their interstices4 ,to attain these ends1 one gardener generally holds the tree and gently shakes it1 while another is shovelling in the earth among its roots2 but this mode has the disadvantage of sometimes occasioning the roots to become matted4 ,when the tree is to be fixed with water1 after a little earth has been shovelled in over the roots1 water is applied by pouring it from a watering-pot1 held as high as a man can raise it2 the watering-pot used being large1 and with a wide spout1 the rose of which must be taken off4 ,more earth is then shovelled in1 and water applied again4 ,this mode of planting has the great advantage of rendering the tree firm1 without staking or treading the earth down round it1 as is usually done4 ,other gardeners spread the roots out carefully at the bottom of the hole or pit made to receive them1 and then fill in the earth4 ,in all cases1 the ground is either made firm with water1 or trodden down or beaten flat with the spade after planting1 so as to fix the roots firmly in the soil1 for the same reasons as nearly a similar plan is adopted in sowing seeds4 ,newly transplanted trees are frequently staked1 but this is not essential if the roots are made firm1 and indeed the tree is generally found to do best when the head is left at liberty to be gently agitated by the wind4 ,it is a great point1 in all cases of transplanting1 to preserve the epidermis or cellular integument of the fibrous roots and spongioles in a flexible state2 and for this reason1 the greatest care is taken to keep them moist4 ,this is the end in view in puddling or fixing by water in transplanting2 and many planters always dip the roots of trees and shrubs in water before replanting4 ,when a tree or shrub is taken up that is to be conveyed any distance1 the roots should be wrapped up as soon as it is taken out of the ground1 in wet moss1 and covered with bast matting2 and where moss cannot be procured1 they should be dipped in very wet mud1 and then matted up4 ,cabbage-plants are frequently preserved in this manner2 and are conveyed1 without any other covering to their roots than a cake of mud1 to a considerable distance4 ,in all cases where plants are taken up long before they are replanted1 their roots should be kept moist by opening a trench1 and laying the plants along it1 and then covering their roots with earth4 ,this1 gardeners call1 laying plants in by the heels4 ,where this cannot be done1 and the plants are kept long out of the ground1 their roots should be examined1 and moistened from time to time2 and before replanting they should be laid in water for some hours1 and afterwards carefully examined1 and the withered and decayed parts cut off4 ,in removing large trees1 care is taken to prepare the roots by cutting a trench round the tree for a year or two before removal1 and pruning off all the roots that project into it4 ,this is to answer the same purpose as transplanting young trees in a nursery2 while the bad effects of contracting the range of the roots is counteracted1 by filling the trench with rich fresh earth4 ,the removal is also conducted with much care2 and either a large ball of earth is removed with the tree1 or the roots are kept moist1 and spread out carefully1 at full length1 when the tree is replanted4 ,some planters1 before removing trees1 mark which side stood to the south1 in order to replant them with the same side turned towards the sun2 and this is sometimes done with young trees from a nursery4 ,the reason is1 that the tree having generally largest branches1 and being always most flourishing on the side exposed to the sun2 it is thought that its vegetation might be checked1 were a different side presented to that luminary1 by the efforts it must make to accommodate itself to its new situation4 ,on the other hand1 however1 it may be urged that changing the position of the plant1 particularly while it is young1 will be beneficial in preventing it from taking any particular bent1 and in promoting the equal distribution of sap through all the branches4 ,watering is a most essential branch of culture4 ,it has been already fully explained that the seed cannot vegetate1 and the plant cannot grow without water4 ,carbon1 and all the other substances that form the food of plants1 must be dissolved in water to enable the spongioles to take them up2 and the spongioles themselves1 unless they be kept moist1 will soon lose their power of absorption4 ,nothing indeed can be more evident1 even to a common observer1 than the necessity that plants feel for water2 if a mimulus or a pelargonium in a pot1 for example1 hang its head and droop its leaves1 what an extraordinary and rapid effect is produced by giving it water6 ,in an almost incredibly short time its leaves become firm1 and its stem erect2 and the plant is not only preserved from death1 but restored to full health and beauty4 ,watering appears an extremely simple operation1 yet nevertheless there are several points relating to it that it is necessary to attend to4 ,one of these is1 never to saturate the soil4 ,water1 to be in the best state for being taken up by the plants1 should be kept in detached globules by the admixture of air2 and it should be only slightly impregnated with nourishing matter from decaying animal or vegetable substances3 for1 as already observed1 when fully saturated with nourishment1 it becomes unfit for the food of plants4 ,nothing can be more admirably and wonderfully adapted for supplying plants properly with water than rain4 ,in falling through the atmosphere1 it is thoroughly mixed with the air2 and in sinking into the soil it becomes slightly impregnated with nutritious qualities1 which it is thus enabled to convey1 in the most beneficial manner1 to the plants4 ,it is a very common mistake1 in watering1 to pour the water down close to the stem of the plant4 ,this is injurious in every respect4 ,water1 when poured profusely on the collar of the plant1 which is the point of junction between the root and the stem1 is likely to rot1 or otherwise seriously injure that vital part2 while the spongioles1 which alone can absorb the water1 so as to benefit the plant1 being at the extremity of the roots1 are always as far removed from the stem as the nature of the plant will allow4 ,thus1 the distance from the stem at which water should be given varies in different plants4 ,in those that have tap-roots1 such as the carrot1 and many other culinary vegetables1 the lateral fibrous roots are short1 and the spongioles are comparatively near the stem2 but in trees1 and most plants having spreading roots1 the spongioles are generally as far distant from the stem as the extremity of the branches2 and the water1 to be efficacious1 should be given there4 ,the quantity of water to be given varies1 not only according to the nature of the plant1 but to the state of its growth4 ,in spring1 when the sap first begins to be in motion1 and the young plant is every day unfolding fresh leaves or blossoms1 it requires abundance of water2 as it does when in flower1 or when the fruit is swelling4 ,in autumn1 on the contrary1 when the fruit is ripening1 and in winter1 when the plant is in a state of perfect rest1 very little water is necessary1 and much is positively injurious1 as being likely either to excite a morbid and unnatural action in the vessels1 or even to bring on rottenness and decay4 ,water is necessary for seeds to induce them to germinate2 but much of it is very injurious to young plants when they first come up1 as it unsettles their roots1 and almost washes them away4 ,the roots1 also1 are at first too weak to imbibe water2 and the plants feed on the nourishment contained in the cotyledons of the seeds4 ,it is when the second pair of leaves has opened that water is required1 though it should at first be given sparingly4 ,when the plant begins to grow vigorously1 it requires more food2 and if it be then kept too short of nourishment1 it becomes stunted in its growth4 ,the quantity of water requisite also depends on the kind of leaves that the plant unfolds4 ,a plant with large broad leaves1 like the tobacco1 requires twice as much water as a plant with small pinnate leaves1 like an acacia4 ,plants exposed to a strong light1 also1 require more than plants grown in the shade4 ,the time for watering plants varies according to the season4 ,in spring and autumn it is best to water plants in the morning4 ,but in summer1 the usual time is the evening2 while in winter1 the very little that is required1 should be given in the middle of the day4 ,many persons object to watering their plants when the sun is upon them2 but this is not at all injurious1 so long as the water is not too cold1 and is only given to the roots4 ,watering the leaves when the sun is upon them will make them blister1 and become covered with pale brown spots wherever the water has fallen4 ,it is much better to water plants during sunshine1 than to suffer them to become too dry2 as when the spongioles are once withered1 no art can restore them4 ,when plants have been suffered to become too dry1 the ground should be loosened before watering it2 and water should be given a little at a time1 and frequently1 till the plant appears to have recovered its vigour4 ,a great deal of the good produced by watering depends on the state of the ground2 as when the ground is hard and compact1 it is very possible to throw a great quantity of water upon it without doing any service to the plants4 ,the kind of water used should also be considered4 ,the best is pond-water1 as it is always mixed with air1 and is1 moreover1 generally impregnated with decayed animal and vegetable matter2 and the worst is clear spring-water1 as it is always cold1 and is seldom impregnated with air1 or with anything but some mineral substance1 which1 so far from doing good1 is positively injurious to the plants4 ,rain-water collected in open cisterns1 and river-water1 are both very suitable2 and when only spring-water can be obtained1 it should be exposed for some time to the air before using it4 ,it is always advisable to have the water at least as warm as the plants to be watered2 and for this reason the water to be used in hot-houses and green-houses1 is generally kept in an open vessel in the house some hours before using4 ,watering with warm water is very efficacious in forwarding the flowering of plants4 ,this was one of the things that was most repugnant to my prejudices in the course of my instruction in the art of gardening2 and when ,mr4 ,loudon had some nearly boiling hot-water poured on some boxes of hyacinths that ,i was very anxious to have brought forward1 ,i could scarcely refrain from crying out when ,i saw the steam rising up from the earth4 ,the hyacinths1 however1 so far from being injured1 flowered splendidly2 though such is the force of prejudice1 that ,i could never see the little tin vessel containing the heated water carried out to them without a shudder4 ,the effect of hot-water1 not heated to above #bjj1 in forwarding bulbs is astonishing2 but it must be observed that it should never be poured on the bulbs1 or on the leaves1 but on the earth near the rim of the pot4 ,hot water is also very efficacious in softening seeds with hard coverings when soaked in it2 and some of the seeds of the ,new ,holland acacias will not vegetate in this country till they have been actually boiled4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,modes ,,of ,,propagation ,,by ,,division1 viz4 ,,taking ,,off ,,suckers1 ,,making ,,layers ,,and ,,cuttings1 ,,budding1 ,,grafting1 ,,and ,,inarching4 ,properly speaking1 there are only two modes of propagating plants1 viz43 by seed and by division4 ,the first raises a new individual1 resembling the plant that produced the seed1 as a child does its parent1 but not perpetuating any accidental peculiarity2 and the second method multiplies specimens of the individual itself4 ,species are propagated by seed1 and new varieties are raised2 but varieties are generally propagated by division1 as they do not always come true from seed4 ,propagation1 by division1 may be divided into two kinds3--those in which the young plants root in the ground1 such as suckers1 layers1 and cuttings2 and those in which they are made to root in another plant1 as in budding1 grafting1 and inarching4 ,suckers4--,sending up suckers1 forming offsets1 and throwing out runners1 are all natural ways of propagation that require very little aid from the hand of man2 and if all plants produced these1 nothing more would be required than to divide the offspring from the parent1 and replant it in any suitable soil4 ,but only certain plants throw up suckers1 such as the rose1 the raspberry1 the lilac1 the ,english elm1 c4 ,offsets are only formed on bulbs1 and runners are only thrown out by strawberries1 brambles1 and a few other plants2 and thus these modes of propagation are extremely limited in practice4 ,no plants produce suckers but those that send out strong horizontal roots2 and the sucker is in fact a bud from one of these roots which has pushed its way up through the soil1 and become a stem4 ,as this stem generally forms fibrous roots of its own1 above its point of junction with the parent root1 it may in most cases1 when it is thought necessary to remove it1 be slipped off the parent and planted like a rooted cutting4 ,as1 however1 the nourishment it can expect to derive from its own resources will be at first much less than what it obtained from its parent1 it is customary1 when a sucker is removed1 to cut in its head1 to prevent the evaporation from its leaves being greater than its roots can supply food for4 ,sometimes when the parent is strong1 part of the horizontal root to which the sucker was attached is cut off and planted with the young plant4 ,suckers of another kind spring up from the collar of the old plant1 and when removed are always slipped1 or cut off1 with the fibrous roots that they may have made1 attached4 ,offsets are young bulbs which form by the side of the old one1 and merely require breaking off1 and planting in rich light soil4 ,runners are shoots springing from the crown or collar of the plant1 which throw out roots at their joints2 and which only require dividing from the parent plant and replanting in good soil to make new plants4 ,layers4--,many plants1 when kept in a moist atmosphere1 having a tendency to throw out roots from their joints1 the idea of making layers must have very early occurred to gardeners4 ,where the roots are thrown out naturally1 wherever a joint of the shoot touches the moist earth1 7as is the case with some of the kinds of verbena1 which only require pegging down to make them form new plants17 layers differ very little from runners2 but layers1 properly so called1 are when the art of the gardener has been employed to make plants throw out roots when they would not have done so naturally4 ,the most common method of doing this is to cut half through1 and slit upwards1 a shoot from a growing plant1 putting a bit of twig or potsherd between the separated parts2 and then to peg down the shoot1 so as to bury the joint nearest to the wound in the earth2 when the returning sap1 being arrested in its progress to the main root1 will accumulate at the joint1 to which it will afford such abundance of nourishment1 as to induce it to throw out a mass of fibrous roots1 and to send up a leading shoot4 ,illustration3 ,a ,verbena layered4 ,the only art required in layering is to contrive the most effectual means of interrupting the returning sap1 so as to produce as great an accumulation of it as possible1 at the joint from which the roots are to be produced4 ,for this purpose1 sometimes1 instead of cutting the branch half through1 a ring of bark is taken off1 care being taken that the knife does not penetrate into the wood2 and at others a wire is twisted firmly round the shoot1 so as to pinch in the bark2 or a knife or any sharp instrument is passed through the branch several times in different directions3 in short1 any thing that wounds1 or injures the shoot1 so as to throw an impediment in the way of the returning sap1 and yet not to prevent the passage of the sap that is ascending1 will suffice4 ,layering is a very common mode of propagating plants3 and in nurseries often every shoot of a tree or shrub is thus wounded and pegged down4 ,in this case1 the central root is called a stool1 from the verb1 to stole1 which signifies the power most deciduous trees possess1 of sending up new stems from their roots when cut down4 ,the seasons for performing the operation of layering are during the months of ,february and ,march1 before the new sap begins to rise1 or in ,june or ,july after all the summer supply of ascending sap has risen2 as at these seasons there is no danger of injuring the tree by occasioning an overflow of the ascending sap1 which sometimes takes place when the tree is wounded while the sap is in active motion4 ,in most cases the layers are left on twelve months1 and in many two years1 before they are divided from the parent plant1 in order that they may be sufficiently supplied with roots4 ,in nurseries1 the ground is generally prepared round each stool by digging1 and sometimes by manuring2 and the gardener piques himself on laying down the branches neatly1 so as to form a radiated circle round the stool1 with the ends rising all round about the same height4 ,illustration ,chinese mode of layering4--,the ,chinese method of layering1 which consists in wounding a branch1 and then surrounding the place with moist earth contained either in a flower-pot or a basket1 is frequently adopted in the continental gardens2 and it has the very great advantage of producing a young tree which will flower and produce fruit while yet of very small size4 ,it is generally applied to camellias1 orange-trees1 and magnolias2 but it will do equally well for almost any other tree or shrub4 ,when a plant is to be layered in this manner1 a ring of bark is first taken off1 and then a flower-pot is procured1 open on one side1 so as to admit the branch2 and some moss being put at the bottom of the flower-pot1 it is filled up with earth1 and a piece of wood is placed inside the pot before the open part to prevent the earth from falling out4 ,it may be fastened in its place by wires hung over a branch1 or supported by four little sticks1 tied to the pot with string4 ,the earth should be very moist before it is put into the pot1 and if the season be dry1 it may be re-moistened from time to time4 ,when the layer is supposed to have rooted1 a cut or rather notch should be made in the branch below the pot1 and afterwards it may be cut off1 and the young plant transferred with its ball of earth entire to another pot or the open ground4 ,a simpler way of performing this operation is using a piece of lead instead of a flower-pot4 ,a modification of this plan was adopted by ,baron ,humboldt in ,south ,america4 ,he provided himself with strips of pitched cloth1 with which he bound moist earth round the branches of several of the rare and curious trees he met with1 after first taking off a ring of bark2 and when he returned to the same place some time after1 he found rooted plants which he brought to ,europe4 ,cuttings differ from layers in being removed without roots from the parent tree2 and as the current of the ascending sap is stopped at once by this separation1 they generally require shading1 which layers do not2 and also1 occasionally1 what gardeners call bottom heat1 to induce them to throw out roots4 ,the branches most suitable for making cuttings are those which grow nearest to the ground1 especially those which recline on it1 as they have always the greatest tendency to throw out roots2 and the side shoots are considered preferable to those which grow erect at the upper part of the plant4 ,the best season for making cuttings is summer1 when the sap is in full motion2 as the returning sap is then most likely to form the ring or mass of accumulated matter from which the new roots are to spring4 ,it has been already mentioned under the head of layers1 that it is from the joints only that roots can be expected to grow2 and1 accordingly1 in making cuttings1 the shoot is divided at a joint2 and it is reckoned best to choose the joint at the point of junction between the young wood and the wood of the previous season4 ,the cut should be quite smooth2 as if the shoot be bruised1 the returning sap will not be able to reach the joint in a sufficient quantity to effect the desired end4 ,some plants are much more difficult to strike as cuttings than others2 but some1 such as the willow1 the currant1 the vine1 c41 will throw out roots not only from the ring1 but from every part of the stem4 ,these plants do not require so much care as to cutting off at a joint2 and in fact1 will throw out roots from whatever part may be put into the ground1 but even they succeed best when properly prepared4 ,the cutting being taken off1 and the division at the joint being made perfectly smooth1 the greater part of the leaves should be cut off close to the stem1 with a sharp knife2 and a hole being made in the soil1 the cutting should be put in1 and the earth pressed close to its extremity1 or it will never strike out roots4 ,this necessity of the part which is to send out roots being fixed firmly in the soil1 has been already mentioned with regard to seeds1 transplanted trees1 and layers2 and this necessity exists with equal or greater force with regard to cuttings4 ,when these are made in a pot1 the cutting will much more readily strike 7as gardeners call its throwing out roots71 if it rest against the side of the pot1 or even against the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,a cutting of the ,,lemon-,,scented ,,verbena 7,aloysia citriodora71 prepared for putting into the ground4 ,cuttings may be struck in the open ground1 and in the common soil1 without any covering2 but these cuttings are only of those plants which strike readily4 ,when struck in pots1 it is customary to fill the pots half1 or entirely full of silver sand1 to prevent the stalk of the cutting from having too much moisture round it4 ,those cuttings which are most liable to be injured by moisture1 such as heaths1 c41 are struck in pots filled entirely with sand2 but as there is no nourishment to be derived from sand1 most cuttings do best with their lower end in earth1 and with only sand about an inch1 or two inches deep1 at the top of the pot1 to keep the stem dry1 and to prevent it from rotting4 ,the cutting1 when prepared1 should be buried to about the second joint1 and two or three joints with leaves should be left above the soil4 ,a few leaves to elaborate the sap in the case of herbaceous plants1 or evergreen trees and shrubs1 are essential2 for ,i have known very promising cuttings of petunias1 which had been some weeks in the ground1 and which had thrown out abundance of roots1 entirely destroyed by some snails having eaten all the leaves2 and ,i am told that the case is by no means an uncommon one4 ,cuttings of delicate plants are generally covered with a bulb-glass pressed closely on the earth1 to keep a regular degree of moisture round the plants1 and to prevent too rapid an evaporation2 but ,i have found cuttings thus treated very apt to damp off1 and have never succeeded in striking them1 unless ,i took off the glass to wipe it1 every day4 ,cuttings of greenhouse plants1 ,i have been told by practical gardeners1 strike best when put into the pots as thickly as possible2 and as they are generally well watered when first put in the ground1 if covered with a close glass1 they will frequently not require any watering afterwards4 ,as long as they continue looking fresh1 they are doing well2 and as soon as they begin to grow they should be transplanted into small thumb pots1 and supplied moderately1 but regularly1 with water2 changing the pots for larger ones as the plants increase in size1 and according to their nature4 ,sometimes the pots are sunk into a hot-bed1 to induce the cuttings to take root1 and this is called applying bottom heat2 and sometimes one flower-pot is placed within another a size or two larger1 and the outer one filled with water4 ,all these expedients are more or less efficacious2 and the great object with all of them1 is to excite and stimulate the plant4 ,illustration3 ,cuttings of the ,,common ,,horseshoe1 and ,,large ,,white ,,flowered ,,geraniums 7,pelargonium zonale and ,p4 macranthum7 prepared for putting into the ground4 ,illustration3 ,a cutting of the ,,china ,,rose 7,rosa indica7 prepared for putting into the ground4 ,slips4--,when cuttings are made of the shoots from the root or collar of the plant1 or of little branches stripped off with a small portion of the root or stem attached1 they are called slips2 and they require no other preparation than cutting off the portion of bark smooth and close to the shoot4 ,slips are generally taken off in ,march1 but they will also succeed if made in autumn4 ,cuttings of succulent plants1 such as of the different kinds of cacti1 require to be dried for some time after they are made1 by placing them on a shelf in the sun4 ,this is done to prevent a waste of the returning sap2 which1 in plants of this kind1 is very abundant1 and in a very liquid state4 ,illustration3 ,a piping of a ,carnation4 ,pipings are cuttings of pinks and carnations1 and indeed are applicable to all plants having jointed tubular stems4 ,they are prepared by taking a shoot that has nearly done growing1 and holding the root end of it in one hand1 below a pair of leaves1 and with the other pulling the top part above the pair of leaves1 so as to separate it from the root-part of the stem at the socket formed by the axils of the leaves1 leaving the part of the stem pulled off with a tubular or pipe-like termination4 ,hence the name of pipings2 and when thus separated1 they are inserted in finely sifted earth or sand1 and a hand-glass is fixed firmly over them4 ,most florists cut off the tips of the leaves of pipings1 but others plant them entire2 and the pipings grow apparently equally well under both modes of treatment4 ,the principal points to be attended to making cuttings are1 to cut off the shoot at a joint1 without bruising the stem2 to make the cutting at a time when the sap is in motion2 to fix the end which is to send out roots1 firmly in the soil2 to keep it in an equal temperature both as regards heat and moisture2 to cut off part of the leaves1 and to shade the whole1 so as to prevent too much evaporation1 without excluding the light1 which is wanted to stimulate the plant2 to keep the soil moist1 but not too damp2 and to pot off the young plants as soon as they begin to grow4 ,budding has been compared to sowing a seed2 but it may rather be considered as making a cutting with a single eye1 and inserting it in another tree1 called the stock1 instead of in the ground4 ,a young shoot of the current year's wood is cut off in the latter end of ,july or ,august1 or perhaps1 if the season should be very moist1 the first week in ,september2 and incisions are made longitudinally and across1 on each side1 above and below a bud1 so that the bud may be cut out1 attached to an oblong piece of wood and bark1 pointed at the lower end4 ,the leaf is then taken off1 but the footstalk is left on4 ,the next thing is to separate the bark with the bud attached from the wood2 and on the nicety of this operation much depends1 as if any wood be left in the bark the bud will not take2 generally1 however1 if the sap is in a proper state of movement1 the wood comes out easily1 without leaving the smallest particle behind4 ,the bud must be then examined below1 that is1 on the side that was next the wood2 and if it appears fresh and firm it is likely to take1 but if it looks shrunk and withered it had better be thrown away1 as it will never grow4 ,slits longitudinal and across are then made in a shoot of the stock1 generally near the fork of a branch2 and the bark is gently raised by the handle of the budding knife1 which is purposely made thin and flat1 while the piece of bark to which the bud is attached is slipped into the opening1 and the bark of the stock closed over it4 ,this is an operation that requires the greatest nicety and exactness2 as unless the inner bark of the bud fits quite closely to the soft wood of the stock1 it is in vain to hope that it will take4 ,the operation is then completed by binding the two parts together with a strand or strip of bast mat1 which in the case of rose trees is quite sufficient2 but buds on apple and pear trees are sometimes wrapped round with wet moss1 which is tied on by shreds of bast matting4 ,in all cases1 the strips of bast should be left long enough to be tied with bows and ends1 that the ligature may be loosened and tied again without deranging the position of the bud as soon as it begins to grow4 ,the first sign of the bud having taken1 as it is called1 is when the petiole of the leaf 7that was left on when the leaf itself was cut off17 drops1 on being very slightly touched with the finger2 but the ligature should not be loosened till the bud begins to throw out leaves2 and then it should be re-tied only a little slacker than before1 until the bud is firmly united with the stock4 ,illustration3 ,mode of budding a ,rose-tree4 ,budding1 though sometimes used for apples and pears1 when the spring grafts have failed1 is most commonly applied to roses3 it is1 however1 occasionally used for inserting eyes in the tubers of the dahlia4 ,it sometimes happens that a large portion of a dahlia-root is found to be entirely devoid of buds1 or as the gardeners call them1 eyes2 and when this is the case1 in whatever soil the root may be planted1 it will never send up a stem4 ,other dahlia tubers1 on the contrary1 may be found full of buds2 and when this is the case1 one of them is scooped out1 and a corresponding hole being made in the barren tuber to receive it1 the bud is fitted in1 and the point of junction covered with grafting wax4 ,the tuber must then be planted in a pot with the budded part above the soil2 and the pot plunged into a hot-bed till the bud begins to push1 when the tuber may be planted out into the open ground4 ,what is called flute-grafting1 is in fact1 a kind of budding2 as it consists in taking a ring of bark1 on which there is a bud1 off a shoot2 and then supplying its place with a ring of bark1 with a bud attached1 from another tree3 placing the suppositious bud as nearly as possible in the position of the true bud4 ,sometimes1 however1 this is not thought necessary2 and the ring of bark is taken from any part of the stock2 though it is always replaced by a ring of bark containing a bud from the scion4 ,there are many other kinds of budding1 but as the principles are the same in all1 it is not necessary to detail them here4 ,the blade of the budding knife should curve outwards1 to lessen the danger of wounding the wood when making the incisions4 ,illustration ,the principal points to be attended to in budding1 are2 to choose a fresh healthy bud2 to separate the bark to which it is attached without wounding it1 quite cleanly from the wood2 to make a clear incision through the bark of the stock1 and to raise it without wounding it from the wood2 to press the bark containing the bud1 closely to the wood of the stock so that no air can remain between them2 and to perform the operation in moist weather1 not earlier than the last week in ,july1 nor later than the first week in ,september4 ,of these points the most important are the joining closely the bark of the bud to the wood of the stock1 and the performing the operation in moist1 or at least in cloudy weather2 and if these are attended to there is little doubt of success4 ,when the young shoot begins to grow1 it is usual to shorten the branches of the stock1 so as to throw the whole vigour of the tree into the bud4 ,it is singular to observe that even when the operation is most successful1 no intimate union takes place between the bud and the stock3 they grow firmly together1 but they do not incorporate1 and the point of union may always be distinctly traced4 ,it must always be remembered that a plant can only be budded on another plant of the same nature as itself2 thus a peach may be budded on a plum1 as they are both stone fruits1 and both belong to the same section of the natural order ,rosace2 but a peach can neither be budded on a walnut1 which belongs to another natural order1 nor even on an apple or a pear1 both of which1 though belonging to the order ,rosace1 are kerneled fruits1 and are included in another section4 ,grafting differs from budding in its being the transfer of a shoot with several buds on it1 from one tree to another1 instead of only a single bud2 and as budding has been compared to sowing seeds1 so has grafting to making cuttings4 ,the art of grafting consists in bringing two portions of growing shoots together1 so that the liber1 or soft wood of two may unite and grow together2 and the same general principles apply to it as to budding4 ,there are above fifty modes of grafting described in books1 but only three or four are in common use4 ,in all kinds of grafting the shoot to be transferred is called the scion1 and the tree that is to receive it is called the stock2 and it is always desirable1 not only that the kinds to be united should be of the same genus1 or at least of the same natural family1 but that they should agree as closely as possible in their time of leafing1 in the duration of their leaves1 and in their habits of growth4 ,this is conformable to common sense2 as it is quite obvious that unless the root send up a supply of sap at the time the leaves want it1 and only then1 the graft must suffer either from famine or repletion4 ,for this reason1 a deciduous plant cannot be grafted on an evergreen1 and the reverse4 ,the necessity of a conformity in the habit of growth1 is strikingly displayed in ,mr4 ,loudon's ,arboretum ,britannicum1 in a flowering ash grafted on a common ash2 by which it is shown1 that an architectural column with its plinth and capital may be formed in a living tree1 where there is a decided difference in the growth of the stock and the scion4 ,these examples show that no intimate union takes place between the scion and the stock2 and the fact is1 that though they grow together and draw their nourishment from the same root1 they are in every other respect perfectly distinct4 ,the stock will bear its own leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1 on the part below the graft2 while the scion is bearing its leaves1 flowers1 and fruit which are widely different1 on the part above the graft4 ,nay1 five or six grafts of different species on the same tree1 will each bear a different kind of fruit at the same time4 ,this want of amalgamation between the scion and the stock is particularly visible in cases of severe frost1 when the former is more tender than the latter2 as the graft is frequently killed without the stock being injured4 ,it is also necessary when grafted trees are for any reason cut down1 to leave a portion above the graft for the new shoots to spring from2 as otherwise the proprietor will find his trees changed as if by magic1 and instead of choice kinds only the common sorts left4 ,a rather droll instance of this happened some years ago1 in the neighbourhood of ,london2 an ignorant gardener having a conservatory full of very choice ,camellias1 and wishing to reduce the plants to a more compact shape1 cut them down for that purpose2 when in due time he found1 to his great confusion and dismay1 that the choice ,camellias had all vanished1 and that he had nothing left but a number of plants of the common single red on which they had been grafted4 ,the proper season for grafting is in spring1 generally in ,march and ,april2 in order that the union between the scion and the stock may be effected when the sap is in full vigour4 ,at this season a stock is chosen of nearly the same diameter as the scion1 whether that stock be a young tree1 or merely a branch2 and they are both cut so as to fit each other4 ,one piece is then fitted on the other as exactly as possible2 and if practicable1 it is contrived that the different parts1 such as the bark1 soft wood1 and hard wood of the one1 may rest on the corresponding parts of the other2 and on the exactness with which this is done1 the neatness of appearance in the graft depends4 ,it is not1 however1 essential to the success of the operation that all the parts of the scion should fit exactly on the corresponding parts of the stock1 or even that the two trees should be of the same diameter1 for if the bark and the soft wood correspond in any one point so as to unite1 it is sufficient to make the graft take4 ,as soon as the scion and the stock are properly fitted to each other1 the parts are neatly bound together with a strand of bast mat steeped in water to make it flexible2 and the bast is covered with a composition called grafting clay1 which is put on to keep the absorbent vessels of the wounded parts moist1 and capable of the alternate contractions and dilations which will be necessary during the passage of the ascending and returning sap between the stock and the graft4 ,these directions apply alike to all kinds of grafting2 and the difference between the sorts refers principally to the manner in which the corresponding parts are cut to fit each other4 ,whip or ,tongue ,grafting is where both the stock and the scion are cut in a slanting direction so as to fit each other1 and a little slit is made in the stock into which a tongue or projecting part cut in the scion fits4 ,the head of the scion is then cut off in a slanting direction1 slanting upwards from the part cut to receive the scion1 and the two are bound closely together with a strand of bast mat1 or wrapped in moss1 and then covered with grafting clay4 ,the part left on the stock in a slanting direction above the graft withers1 and is cut off when the graft has taken4 ,this is the kind of grafting generally practised in nurseries1 and it is the most useful1 as it does not require the scion and the stock to be of the same size4 ,illustration3 ,the common mode of ,whip or ,tongue ,grafting4 ,peg ,grafting is an old method seldom practised now2 according to it1 the bark at the extremity of the scion is cut through1 and the central wood shaped like a peg2 a hole is then bored in the stock to receive the scion1 and when the one is inserted in the other1 the bark of the two is brought together1 so as to make but a very slight scar4 ,cleft ,grafting is where the scion is shaped at the extremity like a wedge1 and a cleft is made in the stock to receive it4 ,when this kind of grafting is practised with trees and shrubs1 the head of the stock is cut off2 but a modification of it is practised with succulent plants1 in which the end of the graft having been cut into the shape of a wedge1 is inserted into a cleft made in the side of the stock to receive it1 and the line of junction is covered with grafting wax4 ,the tubers of strong common dahlias may be grafted in the cleft manner with choice sorts1 as may the tubers of the herbaceous ponies with scions of the tree-pony4 ,this last is very useful1 as cuttings of the ,ponia ,moutan remain weak for several years1 while roots grafted in ,july or ,august will flower the following spring4 ,crown ,grafting resembles the last kind in requiring the head of the stock to be cut off1 but the scion is shaped at the extremity like a wedge flattened on one side1 and it is pushed in between the bark and wood of the stock1 with its flat side next the wood1 till it is stopped by a shoulder with which it is provided to prevent it going in too far4 ,in ,saddle ,grafting the head of the stock is cut off1 and the extremity of the trunk is shaped like a long wedge2 a long slit is then made in the scion1 and the divided parts are made to stand astride on the stock4 ,the bark is then pared off at the extremity1 so that the two parts may fit quite close2 and a firm ligature is applied4 ,herbaceous ,grafting is very badly named1 as it gives the idea of its being a kind of grafting applied to herbaceous plants2 whereas1 in fact1 it only means grafting with the brittle wood of the current year1 in opposition to common grafting1 which is always performed with firm wood1 frequently of several years' growth4 ,herbaceous grafting is now generally used for trees of the pine and fir tribe1 which1 only a few years ago1 it was thought impossible to graft at all4 ,the proper time for this kind of grafting is when the young pine-shoots have made about three parts of their growth1 and are still so herbaceous as to break readily between the fingers1 like a shoot of asparagus4 ,the shoot of the stock is then broken off about two inches below the point1 and all the leaves stripped off for nearly two inches more1 except two sheaths of leaves1 which are left1 one on each side1 close to the top4 ,the shoot is then split with a very thin knife between the sheaths of leaves left on1 and the scion1 having had its lower extremity prepared by stripping off the leaves1 and cutting it into the shape of a wedge1 is inserted as in cleft grafting1 and the parts are bound together with list1 or with a strip of thin woollen cloth4 ,a cone of paper is then put over the whole to protect it from the sun and rain1 and the graft is very seldom found to fail4 ,sometimes this kind of grafting is applied to annual plants4 ,the period chosen should be when the plant is in its greatest vigour1 and is just going into flower4 ,the flower stem is then cut off close to a leaf1 and a slit is made in the stem downwards4 ,the scion is then taken off near the root of the plant1 and the end being cut into a wedge-shape1 is inserted in the slit4 ,the wound is then bound up with strips of cloth spread with grafting wax1 and the leaf taken great care of4 ,when the graft begins to grow1 this leaf and all the shoots below it are removed4 ,in this manner artichokes have been grafted on cardoons1 and cauliflowers on cabbages with great success4 ,tomatoes have also been grafted on potatoes in this manner1 the potatoes perfecting their tubers1 and the tomatoes their fruit1 at the same time2 and it is said that the ripening of the latter was much accelerated4 ,this mode of grafting was invented by the ,baron ,tschoudy1 a gentleman residing at ,metz1 and the principal point in it which requires attention1 is the preserving a leaf1 or two leaves1 at the extremity of the stock1 to serve as nurses to the graft4 ,illustration3 ,stock and ,scion prepared for ,inarching4 ,inarching1 or ,grafting by ,approach4--,though ,i have left this till last1 it is in fact the most simple of all ways of grafting1 and it is certainly the only one practised by nature4 ,in a natural forest1 two branches rub against each other in windy weather1 till the bark of both becomes wounded2 a calm ensues1 and1 while it lasts1 the wounded branches lying across each other adhere and grow together4 ,of this1 which is called inosculation1 examples in the beech1 the hornbeam1 and the oak1 are given in ,mr4 ,loudon's ,arb4 ,brit42 and it is probable that mankind derived the first idea of grafting from observing instances of this kind4 ,inarching1 as practised in nurseries1 closely resembles layering4 ,a branch is bent and partly cut through1 and the heel thus formed is slipped into a slit made downwards in the stock to receive it4 ,the parts are then made to meet as exactly as possible1 and are bound together with bast mat1 and covered with grafting clay1 as in common grafting4 ,in five or six months the union will be complete2 and the inarched plant will be ready to be separated from the parent1 which is done with a very sharp knife1 so as to leave a clean cut1 and not a bruised one4 ,the head of the stock1 if it was left on when the plant was inarched1 is then cut away1 and the plant is ready for removal4 ,it is1 however1 customary to keep on the grafting clay and ligature for a few weeks1 till the plant is firmly established4 ,this mode of propagation is very commonly practised with ,camellias and ,magnolias2 and it is usual in nurseries to see a fine new kind of ,camellia surrounded by a sort of frame1 on which are several pots of stocks of the single red1 placed at different heights for the convenience of attaching to them different branches of the choice kind1 to undergo the process of inarching4 ,in most of these cases the head of the stock is retained1 and the scion introduced at the side2 but as soon as the graft has taken1 and has thrown out a sufficient number of leaves to carry on the elaboration of the sap1 all the branches of the original plant above the graft are cut away to strengthen the inarched one4 ,illustration3 ,mode of inarching the ,camellia4 ,grafting clay and grafting wax have been so frequently mentioned in the various operations of grafting and budding1 that it seems necessary to say a few words on their composition4 ,common grafting clay is made with any kind of stiff clay mixed with a fourth part of fresh horse-dung free from litter1 and a portion of cut hay2 a little water is sprinkled on the mass1 and the whole is beaten several times a day for a week together1 till the ingredients are thoroughly amalgamated4 ,the common ,french grafting clay1 or ,onguent de ,ste ,fiacre1 is composed of equal parts of stiff clay and cow-dung2 but a superior kind1 recommended by ,m4 ,de ,candolle1 is composed of one pound of cow-dung1 half a pound of pitch1 and half a pound of yellow wax4 ,grafting wax is generally made of equal parts of turpentine1 bees'-wax1 and resin1 with a little tallow1 melted together1 and thoroughly incorporated4 ,this is thinly spread on cotton cloth1 and used in strips like cerecloth4 ,in grafting trees with soft and delicate bark1 fine moss and cotton wool tied on with ligatures of bast mat1 are better than anything else1 and they are quite sufficient for every purpose for which grafting clay can be required for ladies4 ,a new composition has been lately invented1 made with caoutchouc1 which is said to be very efficacious1 but ,i have never seen it tried4 ,the essential points to be attended to in grafting are choosing a stock and a scion that correspond in nature and in habits of growth2 cutting the parts to be united so as to fit exactly and leave no vacuity between2 taking care that the soft wood of the scion shall always rest on the soft wood of the stock1 as it is between these parts that the union is to be effected2 binding the parts closely together1 and covering them so as to prevent them from becoming so dry as to shrink apart1 in which case the vessels would wither and become incapable of uniting4 ,uses of ,grafting and ,budding4 ,the obvious use of grafting is to propagate varieties that cannot so easily be continued by seed1 and that will not strike by cuttings4 ,there is1 however1 another use nearly as important2 and this is to make plants flower and fruit sooner than they would otherwise do4 ,there are many plants that only flower at the extremity of their shoots2 and these plants1 when tender1 would require enormous plant-houses before they would be thrown into flower or fruit4 ,to remedy this inconvenience1 a method has been devised of cutting off the tips of the shoots and grafting them2 and then1 after they have grown for some time1 cutting off the tips again and regrafting them1 by means of which flowers are at length produced on plants of quite a small size4 ,the same method is applied in ,paris to rare fruit-trees to throw them into fruit2 and it has been tried with success with the rose-apple 7,eugenia ,jambos71 the mango1 c4 ,in common nurseries1 the fruit of new seedling apples is obtained much sooner by grafting than by leaving the plant to nature2 and this plan is also practised at ,brussels by ,prof4 ,van ,mons1 to test his seedling-pears4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,pruning1 ,,training1 ,,protecting ,,from ,,frost1 ,,and ,,destroying ,,insects4 ,pruning appears1 at first sight1 a most laborious and unfeminine occupation2 and yet perhaps there is no operation of gardening which a lady may more easily accomplish4 ,with the aid of a small1 and almost elegant pair of pruning shears1 which ,i procured from ,mr4 ,forrest1 of ,kensington ,nursery1 ,i have myself 7though few women have less strength of wrist7 divided branches that a strong man could scarcely cut through with a knife4 ,the only thing to be attended to is to choose a pair of pruning shears with a sliding joint1 so as to make what is called a draw-cut2 in order that the branch may be divided by a clean cut1 and not bruised on the side next the plant1 and also to leave a somewhat sloping section4 ,when a branch is pruned1 it should also be cut as near to a bud as can be done without injuring the bud itself2 or1 to speak more definitely1 not more in length than the branch is thick should be left beyond the bud4 ,the cut should slope downwards from the bud to prevent the water lodging in the angle2 and also that the sun and air may have their full influence in exciting the bark to cover the wound4 ,when a long piece of branch1 or what gardeners call a snag1 is left beyond the bud1 it withers1 from there being no leaves beyond it to carry on the circulation of the sap2 and it thus not only becomes a deformity1 but very often seriously injures the tree by rotting1 and infecting the fruit-bearing branch to which it is attached4 ,illustration ,according to the usual method of pruning with a knife1 the gardener holds the branch in his left hand1 below the part that is to be removed2 and then1 holding the knife firmly with the thumb at the back of the blade1 he makes a strong cut upwards1 and from him1 so as to remove the branch with a single stroke1 and to leave a slanting section4 ,this operation1 however1 requiring strength as well as skill1 it will generally be safer for a lady to keep to her pruning shears1 a pair of which may be bought for #gs4 #f;d41 and which will be sufficient to cut through the largest branch that a lady would be able to remove2 or to use a pair of garden scissors fixed to a pole which may be lengthened or taken to pieces like a fishing-rod4 ,the scissors are strong and sharp1 and are made to act by means of a long cord1 which passes through rings down the side of the pole4 ,the principal use of these scissors is to remove dead roses1 c41 but they will also cut off a branch of dead wood1 c4 ,when a gardener wishes to remove a large branch1 he first cuts a notch out of it on each side1 and then with his pruning knife1 or a small saw1 he divides the diminished space4 ,in all cases1 the great art of pruning consists in making a clean sharp cut1 so as to leave the bark in a healthy state to make an effort to cover over the wound1 and in pruning sufficiently near a bud not to leave any dead wood4 ,the time for pruning is either early in spring1 after all danger is over from frost1 but before the sap has begun to move2 or in winter1 after the movement of the sap for the summer has ceased4 ,summer pruning is also necessary with some trees2 but1 generally speaking1 it should be confined to rubbing off all buds which would produce unnecessary shoots1 as soon as they appear4 ,this operation is called disbudding1 and it is highly efficacious in sparing the strength of the tree4 ,the points of those shoots which appear to be running too much to wood1 should also be pinched off2 or every leaf may be taken off them as it appears1 which will exhaust the superfluous strength of the tree2 and the shoots which will produce no buds for want of leaves1 may be removed in the winter pruning4 ,the vine is very apt to bleed when pruning has been delayed too late2 and in very strong vigorous plants1 the ascending sap sometimes drops from the branches like rain4 ,the ,french very poetically call these drops the tears of the vine4 ,the uses to which pruning is applied are various2 but most commonly it is intended either to improve the form of the tree1 or to make it bear more flowers and fruit than it otherwise would do3 it is also used for removing diseased or broken branches2 and1 in cases of transplanting1 for proportioning the head to the roots4 ,pruning to improve the form of a tree in pleasure-grounds1 is only required in those cases where trees have grown under unfavourable circumstances1 and where they have been too much drawn up1 or distorted in any manner3 but in useful plantations it is necessary to prepare trees for the purposes for which they are intended4 ,thus1 for example1 a tree intended for timber1 should have its side-branches taken off while they are quite young1 in order that the wounds may soon heal over1 and not leave loose knots to weaken or disfigure the wood2 while a tree intended for a screen should be allowed ample space for its branches to spread from the ground upwards1 and then they should only be shortened at their extremities1 to make them throw out short branches near the tree4 ,in pleasure-grounds the principal object is generally either to preserve the shape of the tree or shrub1 so that it may form an agreeable object on a lawn2 or to let it combine in a group with others1 either for ornament1 or to serve as a screen or shelter4 ,in the first case1 it is obvious that no pruning is requisite1 but to remove dead1 diseased1 or unsightly branches2 and in the second1 the pruning must depend upon the shape the tree is required to take to group well with the others planted near it4 ,pruning to produce flowers or fruit has in view two objects3 first1 to cut off all superfluous wood1 so as to throw the strength of the tree into the fruit-bearing branches2 and secondly1 to admit the sun and air into the interior of the tree to ripen and strengthen the wood4 ,in both cases the attention of the pruner must be directed to thinning out weak and crowded shoots2 and to keeping both the sides of the tree well balanced1 in order that the circulation of the sap may be equal throughout4 ,this will preserve the general health of the tree1 at the same time that it throws the sap into the proper channels2 and the fruit will be produced in as much abundance as can be done without injuring the tree4 ,it should never be forgotten1 that to effect permanent improvements1 nature should be aided1 not over-strained2 and that all extraordinary exertions are succeeded by a period of feebleness and languor2 or1 if the exertion be continued too long1 by death4 ,thus1 all cases of pruning and training to produce fruit1 should never be pushed too far3 as though1 by occasioning an extraordinary deposit of the returning sap in some particular part1 that part may be forced into fruit1 the unnatural deposit cannot fail in the end to engender disease4 ,sometimes a tree1 from being supplied with more food than it can digest1 or from some other cause1 has a tendency to produce what the ,english gardeners call water-shoots1 and which the ,french call gourmands4 ,these are strong1 vigorous-growing branches1 which are sent up from the main trunk of the tree1 but which do not produce either flowers or fruit2 and which1 consequently1 if the tree be full of wood1 should be removed as soon as their true character is discovered4 ,if1 however1 the tree have too little wood in the centre1 or if it appear exhausted by too much bearing1 these branches should be spared1 as they will serve admirably both to fill up any blanks that may have been left in the training1 and to strengthen the trunks and roots by the quantity of rich returning sap1 which they will send down from their numerous leaves4 ,a certain quantity of leaves and barren branches are essential to the health of every tree2 and the fruit-grower who consults his own interest1 should cherish them instead of grudging the sap required for their support4 ,whenever there is not a sufficient quantity of leaves to elaborate the sap1 the fruit that ought to have been nourished by its rich juices1 becomes flaccid and insipid2 its skin grows tough instead of crisp2 and if the deprivation of leaves has been carried to excess1 the fruit never ripens1 but withers prematurely1 and falls off4 ,pruning1 at the best1 is a violent remedy2 and1 like all other violent remedies1 if carried further than is absolutely necessary1 it generally ends by destroying4 ,training is intimately connected with pruning1 and like it should always be used with caution4 ,a trained tree is a most unnatural object2 and whatever care may be taken of it1 there can be no doubt that training shortens its life by many years4 ,the principal object of training is to produce from a certain number of branches a greater quantity of fruit or flowers than would grow on them if the plant were left in a natural state2 and this is effected by spreading and bending the branches1 so as to form numerous depositions of the returning sap1 aided1 where the plant is trained against the wall1 by the shelter and reflected heat which the wall affords4 ,thus the points to be attended to by the gardener in training are the covering of the wall1 so that no part of it may be lost2 the bending of the branches backwards and forwards1 so that they may form numerous deposits of the returning sap2 and the full exposure of the fruit-bearing branches to the sun and air4 ,for these purposes the gardener shortens the long shoots1 to make them throw out side-branches1 with which he covers his walls1 never suffering them to cross each other1 but letting each be as much exposed to the influence of the air and light as is consistent with a necessary quantity of leaves2 and he bends them in different directions to throw them into fruit4 ,these general principles are common to all fruit-trees1 but of course they must be modified to suit the habits of the different kinds4 ,thus1 for example1 some trees1 such as the fig and the pomegranate1 only bear on the extremities of their shoots2 and1 consequently1 if their shoots were continually shortened1 these trees would never bear at all2 other trees1 such as the apple and the pear1 bear their fruit on short projecting branches1 called spurs2 and others at intervals on nearly all the branches1 and close to the wall4 ,all these habits should be known to the gardener1 and the modes of training adopted which will be suitable to each4 ,training flowers should also be regulated by a knowledge of the habits of the plants2 but it consists principally in checking their over-luxuriance of growth1 and tying them to stakes or wooden frames4 ,in all kinds of training1 neatness is essentially requisite1 and any departure from it is exceedingly offensive4 ,where the hand of art is so evident as it is in training1 we require excessive neatness to make us amends for the loss of the graceful luxuriance of nature4 ,the operation of training against a wall is performed by the aid of nails and shreds2 the shreds being narrow oblong pieces of list or cloth1 put round the branches1 and attached to the wall by nails driven in with a hammer4 ,care should be taken that the pieces of list are long enough to allow of the free passage of the sap1 and yet not so long as to permit the branch to be so agitated by the wind as to bruise itself against the wall4 ,the nails should also never be driven in so as to wound or corrode the bark2 and when driving in the nails1 the gardener should be very careful not to bruise the branch with his hammer4 ,the shreds should be broad enough not to cut the bark1 and yet not so broad as to cover the buds2 and they should1 as much as possible1 be of some uniform and dark colour4 ,as few shreds should be used as are sufficient to attain the end in view2 but these should be very firmly attached1 as nothing gives a more gloomy picture of misery and desolation in a garden1 than trees that once were trained1 having become detached1 and hanging drooping from the wall4 ,sometimes wires are fastened to walls1 to which the plants are tied with strands of bast mat2 the strand1 after it is put round the branch1 and the wire being gently twisted between the finger and thumb1 in order that it may make a firm knot without tearing or weakening the ligament4 ,climbing shrubs are tied to the pillars of a verandah1 or to trellis work1 in the same manner2 as are also flowers to sticks1 or slight wooden or wire frames1 with the exception that1 in their case1 the bast does not require twisting4 ,protecting from frost is an essential part of culture to a lady gardener1 particularly in so uncertain a climate as that of ,england4 ,not only the blossoms of peaches and nectarines1 and those of other early flowering fruit-trees1 are liable to be injured by the spring frosts2 but those of the tree pony1 and other beautiful shrubs1 are frequently destroyed by them2 and1 unfortunately1 many of the modes of protection1 by knocking off and bruising the blossoms1 are almost as injurious as the frosts that they are intended to guard against4 ,twisting a straw-rope round the trunk of the tree1 and putting its ends into a bucket of water1 is certainly a simple method1 and it has been recommended as a very efficacious one4 ,when a mat is used to protect wall trees1 it does perhaps least injury to the blossoms1 when curtain rings are sewed to its upper end1 and it is hung by these on hold-fasts1 or large hooks1 driven into the upper part of the wall4 ,to make it more secure1 particularly in windy weather1 it may be tied on the sides with bast to nails driven into the wall2 and a broad moveable wooden coping should rest on the hold-fasts1 and cover the space between the mat and the wall1 to prevent injury from what are called perpendicular frosts4 ,camellias and many half-hardy shrubs may be protected by laying straw or litter round the roots2 as the severest frosts seldom penetrate more than a few inches into the ground4 ,even in the severe winter of #ahcg-h1 the ground was not frozen at the depth of ten inches4 ,tree ponies1 and other tender shrubs1 that are in a growing state1 very early in the spring1 may be protected by coverings of basket work1 which are sufficiently large and light to be lifted off in fine days4 ,hand and bell glasses1 sea-kale pots1 and wooden frames covered with oiled paper are all useful for protecting small plants4 ,insects1 and ,snails and ,slugs are the terror of all gardeners2 and the destruction they effect in some seasons in small gardens is almost beyond the bounds of credibility4 ,birds do comparatively little injury1 and indeed all the soft-billed kinds 7which fortunately include most of the sweetest songsters7 do good4 ,the willow and common wrens1 the blackcap1 the nightingale1 the redstart1 all the warblers and fly-catchers1 the swallows and martins1 the wagtails1 the wryneck1 the tomtit1 the fern owl or night jar1 and many others1 live almost entirely on insects1 and destroy great numbers every year3 while the blackbird and the thrush1 the robin and the sparrows1 though they devour a portion of the fruit1 destroy insects also4 ,all birds may indeed be safely encouraged in small gardens near towns1 as they will do much more good than injury2 and a few cherries and currants are a cheap price to pay for their delightful songs4 ,as it is the larv only of insects1 with very few exceptions1 that do injury to vegetation1 many persons never think of destroying them in any other state2 forgetting that every butterfly that we see fluttering about may lay thousands of eggs1 and that if we wait till these eggs have become caterpillars1 irreparable mischief will be done to our plants before they can possibly be destroyed4 ,whenever a butterfly is seen quietly sitting on the branch of a tree1 in the daytime1 it will generally be found to be a female1 that either just has laid1 or what is more probable1 is just about to lay her eggs4 ,as soon as the eggs are laid1 the butterfly generally dies2 and where dead butterflies are found1 search should always be made for their eggs4 ,in summer1 a little oblong chrysalis1 the colour of which is yellow1 with black bands1 will frequently be found hanging from the gooseberry-bushes2 and whenever it is seen it should be destroyed4 ,this chrysalis is the pupa of the magpie moth1 the caterpillar of which frequently strips the gooseberry-bushes of all their leaves in spring1 and thus renders their fruit worthless in summer4 ,the lackey caterpillar is another very destructive insect4 ,these creatures1 which are curiously striped1 like the tags on a footman's shoulder1 7whence their name17 assemble together in great numbers1 and covering themselves with a web1 completely devour the epidermis and parenchyma of the leaf on which they have fixed themselves2 they then draw another leaf to them1 which they also devour1 and then another1 till the greater part of the leaves of the tree they have attacked1 present a fine lace-like appearance1 as though they had been macerated4 ,did all these insects live to become moths1 they would completely destroy not only our gardens1 but our forests1 as they feed on almost every different kind of tree2 but with that beautiful arrangement by which all the works of our ,great ,creator are balanced equally with each other1 and none allowed to predominate1 these insects are such favourite food for birds1 that not a hundredth part of them are suffered to reach maturity4 ,the eggs of the lackey moth are often found fixed on a naked twig1 in winter1 looking like a bracelet of hard beads1 and adhering so firmly together1 that the whole bracelet may be slipped off entire4 ,the cabbage butterflies are also very destructive in the larva state4 ,the caterpillars are soft1 of a pale whitish green1 and very active1 leaping about in the hand when taken2 and the chrysalis1 which is also green1 looks as if it were swathed up like a mummy4 ,the caterpillar of the beautiful little ermine moth is a gregarious feeder1 like the lackey caterpillar1 and is nearly as destructive2 and it is the more necessary to mention this1 because the moth itself is so small1 so delicate1 and so quiet1 that no one unacquainted with its habits would think of killing it as an injurious insect4 ,illustration3 ,patent ,blower and ,fumigator4 ,the leaf-rollers1 the saw-flies1 and the gnats which occasion the oak-galls1 are all very destructive4 ,the leaves of the rose-tree are often found marked1 in summer1 with pale-brown zigzag lines1 with a narrow black line running down the middle of each4 ,these lines are the work of a very small orange-coloured caterpillar1 not more than two lines long1 that lives on the parenchyma of the leaf2 and the pale-brown mark is occasioned by the epidermis drying where the pulp beneath it has been removed4 ,the moth is called the red-headed pigmy1 and it is so small as not to measure more than two lines and a half broad1 when its wings are fully expanded4 ,the 8worm i' th' bud0 of the rose1 is the maggot or grub of one of the kinds of saw-fly2 a beautiful transparent-winged little creature that no one would suspect of springing from such a frightful-looking maggot4 ,but of all the insects that infest the rose1 the most destructive are the aphides4 ,these little green flies cover the tender leaves and buds of the young shoots in myriads1 and are extremely difficult to destroy1 without spoiling the appearance of the shoots that have been attacked by them4 ,tobacco-water is an excellent remedy1 if not too strong4 ,it should be made by steeping half-a-pound of the best tobacco in a gallon of hot water2 and as soon as the infusion has become cold1 the young shoots should be dipped in it1 and suffered to remain a few seconds1 after which they should be immediately washed in clean water before they are suffered to dry4 ,if this be done carefully1 the insects will be destroyed1 and yet the shoots will remain uninjured4 ,limewater may also be tried1 if no more lime be used than the water will hold in solution2 as unless the water be quite clear in appearance when applied1 the plant will be very much disfigured with the white stains of the lime4 ,another means of getting rid of all noxious insects1 is to fumigate them with tobacco2 and the best way of doing this is by a small brass fumigator1 which costs four shillings1 applied to one of ,clark's patent blowers4 ,the fumigator is filled with loose tobacco1 which is lighted1 and the brass tube is then screwed on the blower1 and the fume gently spread through the green-house1 or among the plants4 ,by putting a little of the moxa or ,spanish tinder among the tobacco1 or using it alone1 caterpillars1 butterflies1 snails1 c41 may be stupified1 when they will fall from the branches1 and may be gathered up and destroyed4 ,an excellent preventive remedy is to wash the stems and branches of deciduous rose-trees1 in winter1 with water heated to #bjj1 or with a mixture of strong tobacco-water and soft-soap2 cleaning the branches well at the same time with a soft brush4 ,the ,american blight which infests apple-trees is another species of aphis1 and may be destroyed in the same manner4 ,besides the insects already enumerated1 there are several kinds of beetles1 which devour plants both in the larva and perfect state4 ,of these1 the cockchafer remains in the larva state four years1 and is one of the most destructive insects known2 the rose beetle1 or rose chaffer 7,cetonia aurata7 is extremely beautiful1 from its splendid wing cases of burnished green and gold4 ,these beetles1 notwithstanding their shape1 which looks too heavy and clumsy for flying1 may frequently1 in hot summer weather1 be seen upon the wing1 making a loud buzzing noise4 ,when taken up in the hand1 they draw up their feet1 and appear to be dead2 but1 after having been handled1 and even tossed about for some time1 they will1 if a favourable opportunity appears to offer1 suddenly spread out their wings and buzz away1 leaving their captor too much astonished to be able to make any effort to retain them4 ,several of these insects may often be found in one rose2 but they are supposed to be only engaged in sucking the honey from the flower1 and not injuring it4 ,they undergo their transformations under ground1 and the grubs are supposed to live entirely on little bits of rotten wood4 ,besides the insects already mentioned1 the various kinds of weevils1 the wire-worm1 the thrips1 the red spider1 or rather mite 7,acarus telarius71 various kinds of tipula1 or ,gaffer long-legs1 wood lice1 and earth-worms1 are all found on plants1 and are all more or less injurious to them4 ,in the general destruction of insects1 the ,lady-bird should always be spared1 as1 both in its larva and its perfect state1 it lives on the larv of the green fly1 or aphis4 ,snails and ,slugs are more destructive to vegetation than any kind of insect2 and they are still more difficult to get rid of4 ,there is a very small gray slug1 that is peculiarly injurious to plants in pots2 the large grey is also very destructive1 and the common garden snail4 ,the beautifully banded snail 7,helix nemoralis7 is1 however1 supposed to live partly on earth-worms1 and the shell slug 7,testacella scutella7 lives entirely on them4 ,the usual modes of entrapping snails1 slugs1 and wood-lice1 are laying down slices of raw potatoes or cabbage-leaves at night1 and examining them before the dew is off the plants in the morning4 ,as1 however1 this requires very early rising1 a more convenient method is to lay a few flower pots upon their sides1 where the snails have committed their ravages2 and the snails1 which can neither move nor feed unless the ground be wet with dew or rain1 will generally be found to take refuge in the flower pots from the heat of the sun4 ,they are likewise often found in the middle of the day1 sticking against walls1 under ivy1 or box edgings4 ,in gardens very much infested with snails1 search should be made in winter among all the ivy and box in the garden2 and all the snails found in a torpid state should be destroyed4 ,this1 though some may escape1 will effectually prevent them from becoming numerous2 and1 as the eggs are not laid till ,april or ,may1 care should be taken1 before that season1 to destroy all the snails that can be found4 ,the eggs are round1 almost transparent1 and of a bluish white2 and they are always found in small clusters1 buried in the ground4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,kitchen-,,garden--,,the ,,management ,,of ,,culinary ,,vegetables4 ,in almost all gardens1 it is customary to set apart a portion of the ground for the culture of culinary vegetables2 and1 in villas and country seats1 this portion is quite detached from the pleasure-ground1 and is called the kitchen-garden4 ,when this is the case1 it usually consists of a square or oblong piece of ground1 varying from one to five acres in extent1 according to the size of the establishment1 and enclosed by a wall ten or twelve feet high4 ,if a greater extent of ground than two or three acres be required1 it is generally laid out in two or more gardens1 communicating with each other1 so as to afford an extent of wall proportionate to that of the ground4 ,in front of the wall is a border for the roots of the fruit trees1 ten or twelve feet wide1 and beyond that a walk usually four feet wide1 leaving a plot of ground in the centre for the culture of culinary vegetables and espalier fruit-trees4 ,the central plat is usually divided by a main walk up the centre1 five or six feet wide1 and two or four side-walks1 three or four feet wide2 the smaller plots enclosed between these walks being again divided into oblong compartments1 or beds4 ,the general form and arrangement of all large kitchen-gardens being alike1 it is obvious that they must have been determined by some general principle2 and this principle appears to be utility4 ,the walks are made straight1 that the heavy loads wheeled along them may not be in danger of overturning1 which they would if the walks took a serpentine direction2 while the compartments are divided into oblong beds1 for the convenience of digging and cropping2 it being found most convenient to sow vegetables in straight lines1 to allow of weeding and hoeing between them1 earthing up1 c4 ,for these reasons1 all pieces of ground in small gardens appropriated to the culture of kitchen vegetables should be made to approximate1 as closely as possible1 in form and general arrangement1 to regular kitchen gardens2 and1 where there is any portion of the ground that cannot be brought into a rectangular shape1 it should be set aside for tart-rhubarb1 artichokes1 or some other permanent crop2 and a square or oblong plot in the centre be reserved for peas and beans1 and other annual vegetables4 ,the best soil for a kitchen garden is a sandy loam1 and the surface soil should be from two feet to three feet deep4 ,if it is on a clayey sub-soil1 every part of the garden should be well drained2 as from the quantity of manure required for cultivating culinary vegetables1 if any water should be suffered to remain in a stagnant state in the soil1 it would be particularly injurious4 ,the ground1 if possible1 should slope to the south or south-east2 and it should1 at any rate1 be sheltered from the prevailing winds of the locality4 ,when there is only one detached kitchen garden1 it is usual to surround it entirely1 or on three sides1 with a piece of ground called a slip1 consisting of a fruit-tree border1 and a walk with perhaps a narrow bed beyond it1 bounded by a low hedge4 ,this is done in order that fruit-trees may be grown on both sides of the wall4 ,the vinery and forcing houses are generally placed facing the main walk of the garden2 and what is called the melon-ground1 which forms a small walled garden1 is often placed behind them4 ,this1 however1 is not essential2 but the melon-ground should always be as near as possible to the stable-offices1 for the convenience of carting manure2 and both it and the kitchen garden should be near the house1 and have a convenient road to it concealed from the pleasure-ground4 ,in small suburban gardens there should always be a convenient1 and1 if possible1 partially concealed1 road for servants to bring in vegetables2 and there should be a little plot of ground for thyme1 mint1 sage1 parsley1 c41 very near the kitchen door4 ,walks4--,the obvious use of walks in a garden constructed on a general principle of utility1 is to enable the gardener and others to reach every part of the garden as speedily as possible1 without treading on the beds2 and for this reason1 though the walks are made to intersect each other at right angles1 it is customary in many gardens to round the central beds adjoining them at the corners4 ,paths two feet wide are also made between the beds into which the compartments are divided2 and the beds themselves are never wider than a man can conveniently reach across to the middle to rake or hoe4 ,these paths1 however1 as they vary according to the nature of the crop1 are never made of any permanent materials2 and the whole compartment is generally dug over when necessary1 without paying any regard to them1 and re-divided into fresh beds every season4 ,the walks1 on the contrary1 being intended to be permanent1 are of a very different nature2 and1 in addition to their obvious uses1 it is essentially requisite that they should be hard and firm4 ,this is necessary1 as the manure1 c4 wanted in a kitchen garden1 is generally distributed through the garden in a wheelbarrow2 and the weight in the act of wheeling is principally thrown upon a very narrow wheel1 which1 on soft walks1 literally ploughs its way through the gravel1 leaving an uneven furrow1 extremely offensive to the eye4 ,to avoid this inconvenience1 the walks in kitchen gardens1 where expense is not an object1 are frequently made of cement or asphalt1 or laid with bricks or flag-stones2 but as all these materials give the idea of a court-yard1 rather than a garden1 most persons prefer gravel walks4 ,where gravel is to be employed1 the intended walks are marked out with two garden lines2 the space between is then dug out1 generally in the form of an inverted arch1 from one foot to two feet deep in the centre1 according to the nature of the soil1 and the expense it may be thought advisable to incur2 and the excavation is filled to within six inches of the top with brick-bats1 stones1 or any other hard rubbish that can be procured4 ,if the excavation be made in the shape of an inverted arch1 in filling it up the extreme point of the arch should be left hollow to serve as a drain2 and if it be made rectangular1 a drain is generally left on each side4 ,in filling in the rubbish the largest pieces are thrown in first1 then smaller ones1 and lastly pieces broken very small1 which are rammed down1 or rolled1 so as to form a smooth surface immediately under the gravel4 ,this is done both to give solidity to the walk1 and to prevent the gravel from being wasted by trickling down between the interstices of the stones4 ,as walks can never be firm unless they are kept quite dry1 in all cases there should be at least one drain to each walk4 ,the gravel before laying down should be sifted1 and all stones1 larger than a moderate-sized gooseberry1 should be thrown out or broken2 and as soon as it is laid down and evenly spread1 it should be well rolled1 previously to which1 if it should be very dry1 it ought to be sprinkled with water4 ,if the gravel be at all loose1 it should be mixed with equal parts of brick-dust and ,roman cement before laying it down2 or the gravel should be mixed with burnt clay powdered1 in the proportion of one wheelbarrow full of clay1 to a two-horse cartload of gravel2 or if the gravel be already laid1 and it is wished to render the walk more firm1 powdered burnt clay may be strewn over it1 and raked in4 ,in all these cases1 the walks must be immediately well watered1 and afterwards heavily rolled4 ,sometimes the clay is mixed with water before applying it to the gravel4 ,tolerably firm walks may be made of sea gravel1 or powdered sandstone1 where good gravel cannot be procured1 or even of sand by this treatment4 ,the clay may be burnt by making it into a heap1 intermixed and surrounded with faggot wood2 or1 as a substitute for burning1 it may be dried by spreading it on the top of the furnace or boiler employed to heat the hothouses4 ,gravel walks are generally slightly raised in the middle1 to throw off the water to the sides2 and they are very frequently supplied with gratings1 to prevent large stones1 or any kind of rubbish1 from being washed down by the rain into the drains so as to choke them up4 ,when the walks in a kitchen garden are formed of flag stones1 artificial stone1 or brick1 the material used is laid on brick arches or piers2 and when grass walks are employed1 they require no other preparation than marking them out on the ground1 consolidating it by pressure1 and then laying them with turf4 ,grass walks were formerly common in kitchen-gardens1 but they are manifestly unsuitable1 being more injured than any others by the wheelbarrow1 and unfit to walk on in wet weather4 ,when gravel walks want renovating1 the gravel should be loosened with a pick1 turned over1 raked1 and firmly rolled1 adding a coating of fresh gravel wherever it may be found necessary4 ,weeds may be prevented from growing on gravel walks by watering the walks with salt and water4 ,the salt will also kill the weeds already there1 and1 if these are large1 they should1 of course1 be hoed up and raked off4 ,box edgings are better than any others for gravel walks4 ,they are generally planted in ,march or ,april4 ,a garden line being first drawn tightly along the earth bordering the walk2 a shallow trench is then opened close to the gravel1 and the earth from it thrown on the bed4 ,the box is pulled into separate plants1 and the branches and roots of each trimmed till all the plants are very nearly of the same size4 ,the plants are then put into the trench1 with no earth between them and the gravel2 and the trench is filled up by drawing the earth into it1 and pressing it close to the roots1 so as to make the plants quite firm4 ,nothing else is requisite but a few waterings1 till the box begins to grow2 and the only difficulty is to keep the plants in a straight line1 with the points of their shoots at an equal distance above the soil4 ,when box edgings are pruned1 they should always be cut in with a knife1 and never clipped with shears4 ,they should also never be suffered to grow too high without pruning2 and they should be occasionally taken up and replanted wider apart1 when their stems appear to be becoming naked below4 ,cropping4--,the crops grown in the open air in a kitchen-garden are of two kinds1--those produced by the fruit trees1 and those of the herbaceous vegetables2 and the latter are again divided into the permanent crops1 and the temporary ones4 ,the permanent crops are those which remain for a number of years in one place1 producing a crop1 year after year1 from the same roots2 such as asparagus1 artichokes1 rhubarb1 c43 while the temporary crops are those that require sowing or fresh planting every year1 and these should never be sown for two years in succession on the same ground4 ,,permanent ,,crops4--,in regular kitchen gardens1 it is of very little consequence where the permanent crops are placed1 as every part of the ground is generally alike accessible from the walks1 and alike suitable for cultivation4 ,but in small gardens the case is different2 and there are generally some awkward corners1 which are best set apart for the lasting crops4 ,the part to be sown annually should be always divided into compartments1 in order to manage properly the rotation of crops4 ,asparagus ,beds4--,of all the permanent crops grown in a garden1 the one which requires most preparation is asparagus4 ,it is not perhaps generally known that this plant is a native of ,britain2 but the fact is1 that it grows wild in several places both in ,england and ,scotland4 ,the cultivated plant is1 however1 of course1 very different from the wild one2 for1 while the latter is meagre1 insipid1 and very tough1 the former is not only succulent and finely flavoured1 but grows to an enormous size4 ,there are three sorts of asparagus grown for the ,london market3 the ,battersea1 which has a thick whitish stalk1 only just tipped with a pinkish head2 the ,gravesend1 which is much more slender1 and has both the stalk and head green2 and the ,giant1 which is an enormous variety of the first4 ,asparagus is always raised from seed2 but1 as the stalks are not fit to cut till the roots are two or three years old1 persons wishing to plant an asparagus bed generally purchase one-year or two-years' old plants from a nurseryman4 ,asparagus plants require a light1 rich1 sandy loam1 and the ground in which they are to be planted is always first trenched from three to four feet deep1 or even more1 and plenty of stable dung is buried at the bottom of the trench2 the beds are then marked out four feet wide1 with paths two feet wide left between1 and the plants are planted in rows about six inches deep 7the crown of the root being left about two inches below the surface71 and nine inches apart4 ,the beds are generally covered during winter with rotten manure1 which is forked in1 and the beds raked in spring2 and this treatment should be repeated every year1 or every two or three years at farthest1 the beds being slightly covered1 in the intermediate years1 with litter1 leaves1 c41 which may be raked off in spring4 ,the stalks should not be cut till the third year after planting2 but1 after that1 the roots will continue to produce freely for twelve or fourteen years4 ,asparagus is cut generally a little below the surface1 with a sharp knife1 slanting upwards2 and the market-gardeners cut all the shoots produced for two months1--say from ,april till ,midsummer1--but suffer all the shoots that push up after that period to expand their leaves1 in order that they may elaborate their sap1 and thus strengthen the roots4 ,whole fields of this plant are cultivated by the market-gardeners near ,london1 to the extent1 as it is said1 of from eighty to a hundred acres1 chiefly near ,mortlake1 ,battersea1 and ,deptford4 ,during the last four or five years1 these fields1 and many private gardens near ,london1 have been infested with a most beautiful little beetle1 striped with red1 black1 and blue1 which eats through the shoots close to the ground almost as soon as they appear4 ,asparagus is generally forced by covering the beds with manure1 and by deepening the alleys between the beds1 and filling them with manure also4 ,sea-,kale4--,about seventy years ago1 ,dr4 ,lettsom1 a celebrated physician and botanist of that day1 happened to be travelling near ,southampton1 when he observed some plants pushing their way up through the sea-sand4 ,finding the shoots of these plants quite succulent1 he enquired of some person in the neighbourhood if they were ever eaten1 and was answered1 that the country people had been in the habit of boiling these shoots and eating them as a vegetable from time immemorial4 ,the doctor tasted them1 and found them so good1 that he took some seed to his friend ,mr4 ,curtis1 the originator of the 8,botanical ,magazine10 who had then a nursery in ,lambeth ,marsh4 ,mr4 ,curtis wrote a book about the plant which brought it into notice1 and he sold the seed in small packets at a high price3 and thus1 this long neglected ,british plant1 which for so many years was only eaten by the poorest fishermen1 became our highly prized and much esteemed sea-kale1 which is now so great a favourite at the tables of the rich4 ,sea-kale is raised either from seeds or cuttings of the roots4 ,in either case1 when the plants are a year old1 they are put into a bed thoroughly prepared as if for asparagus1 and planted in the same manner4 ,the first year the plants will require little care1 except cutting down the flower-stems wherever they appear2 but the second year they will be ready for forcing4 ,this is performed by covering the plants first with river-sand2 then turning what are called sea-kale pots over them1 and lastly1 covering the pots to the depth of fifteen or twenty inches with fresh stable dung1 the heat from which will draw the shoots up1 and make them succulent and fit to eat4 ,artichokes are another kind of permanent crop1 but they are not suitable for growing in a small garden4 ,the artichoke is a native of ,italy1 said to have been introduced in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,it is propagated by division1 and requires a light1 rich1 and rather moist soil4 ,manure should be laid between the rows every autumn1 and the plants covered with straw in severe weather in winter4 ,artichoke-plants do not continue to produce good heads longer than six or seven years2 but young plants come into bearing the second year after transplanting4 ,strawberries4--,though strawberries should be properly included in the list of fruits1 they are generally classed by gardeners among the permanent herbaceous crops in a kitchen-garden4 ,there are a great variety of named sorts grown in gardens2 but they are mostly varieties or sub-varieties of three species1 viz43 the ,pine 7,fragaria grandiflora71 which is supposed to be originally from ,surinam2 the ,chili 7,f4 ,chilensis71 and the ,scarlet 7,f4 ,virginiana74 ,of these the pine-strawberries are large1 pale in colour1 but with scarlet flesh1 and of a very fine and delicate flavour4 ,the best strawberries are ,keen's seedling1 and the old pine2 the ,chili strawberries 7one of which is ,wilmot's ,superb7 have very large fruit1 with white flesh1 but possess very little flavour2 and the scarlet-strawberries have small1 bright-red1 slightly acid fruit1 which is principally used for ice-creams and preserving4 ,to these may be added the ,hautbois 7,f4 elatior71 which1 though so often mentioned by the street vendors1 is in reality very seldom grown1 from the fruit1 which is small and blackish1 being rarely produced in any quantity2 the ,green strawberries 7,f4 collina and ,f4 virides72 the ,alpine strawberries 7,f4 semperflorens72 and the common wild ,wood strawberry 7,f4 vesca74 ,strawberries should be grown on rich loamy soil1 and they are generally planted in beds three feet wide1 three rows in a bed4 ,every year1 the strongest of the runners should be taken off1 and planted to form a succession crop1 as the beds seldom remain good more than three or four years4 ,when the old beds are suffered to remain1 they should be covered with manure in winter to be forked in in spring4 ,when strawberries are wanted for forcing1 pots are placed near the beds1 and the runners are placed over them1 and kept down with a stone1 or hooked down with pegs to root4 ,tart ,rhubarb4--,the part of the rhubarb used for making pies and puddings is the footstalk of the leaf2 and the kinds usually grown in gardens for this purpose are ,rheum ,rhaponticum1 a native of ,asia introduced in #aegc1 and ,rheum ,undulatum1 a native of ,china introduced in #agcd4 ,rheum ,palmatum1 the leaves of which are very deeply cut with pointed segments1 is generally supposed to be the kind1 the root of which is used in medicine1 under the name of ,turkey ,rhubarb4 ,buck's ,elford1 or ,scarlet ,rhubarb1 has slender stalks1 but is valuable for its beautiful colour2 and the ,tobolsk1 the ,giant1 and the ,victoria ,rhubarb1 are remarkable for the enormous size of their stalks4 ,rheum ,australe1 which is by some said to be the medicinal kind1 and which is only lately introduced1 has also enormous leaves1 and very long thick stalks1 the skin of which is rough1 while the pulp tastes like that of apples4 ,rhubarb is either raised from seed1 or propagated by offsets1 or dividing the crown of the root4 ,the seed is sown in ,april1 in light rich soil1 and the plants are pricked out in autumn into a bed of rich sandy loam which has been dug over1 or trenched to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet4 ,the plants require no other care than an occasional autumn or spring coating of manure to be slightly forked in1 this dressing to be only applied1 when1 from the leaves and stalks produced being smaller than usual1 the roots appear to want nourishment2 and if they seem crowded1 they may be occasionally taken up and replanted further apart4 ,rhubarb may be forced by covering it with pots and manure1 like sea-kale2 or the roots may be planted in a box1 and kept in the house on a stove1 or near the fire in the kitchen1 covering the box with a bast mat to keep the plant in darkness and free from the dust1 and watering it frequently4 ,horse radish grows best in rich alluvial soil2 and it is propagated by cuttings of the crowns of the roots1 each about two inches long4 ,the ground is then prepared by trenching at least two feet deep1 and the cuttings or sets are planted in a kind of furrow about fifteen inches deep1 with their crowns upwards4 ,the second year the roots may be taken up1 and the crowns cut off and replanted4 ,as the sets are planted in ,march1 and the leaves seldom begin to appear till the following ,june or ,july1 it is customary to sow a light crop1 of lettuce for example1 or spinage1 on the surface of the ground over the horse radish sets2 which crop is cleared off in time to make way for the leaves of the true crop4 ,when the sticks of horse-radish are taken up1 they may be kept in sand in a cellar or out-house till wanted for use4 ,,temporary ,,crops1 ,,and ,,their ,,rotation4--,it has been already observed1 that temporary crops should never be grown two years in succession on the same ground2 and the reason for this has been already alluded to under the head of transplanting4 ,it is1 that the roots of plants every year throw out a quantity of excrementitious matter that they either will not reimbibe1 or that is injurious to them2 and that thus1 the ground in which they have been grown one year1 becomes unfit for them to grow in the next4 ,this danger is obviated in the case of perennial plants1 and trees and shrubs1 by the constant elongation of the roots1 which spread farther and farther every year1 beyond the influence of the unwholesome soil4 ,this1 however1 is not the case with annuals1 as the roots of the plants of one year are no longer than those were of the plants of the preceding year2 and consequently as every year's plants occupy exactly the same ground1 when annuals are sown for several years in the same soil they must degenerate2 or1 in other words1 become weak and small1 from not having enough of wholesome food1 or from being forced to take food unwholesome for them4 ,now it has been found1 that excrementitious matter1 though poisonous to the plant that exudes it1 is extremely nourishing to other plants1 completely differing from the first in nature2 and what is meant by the rotation of crops1 is the art of making plants of opposite natures succeed each other1 till the ground shall be so completely cleared of the excrementitious matter exuded by the first crop1 as to be ready to receive it again4 ,it is true that the same ground may occasionally be made to bear the same crops for several successive years1 by copious manuring1 or by trenching2 but in both cases the evil is overcome by supplying the plant with abundance of nourishment1 and thus preventing it from being driven to the necessity of taking unwholesome food4 ,in fixing the rotation of crops1 plants differing as much as possible in their habits should be chosen to succeed each other2 as1 for example1 onions may be succeeded by lettuces2 carrots by peas2 potatoes by cabbage2 turnips by spinach1 c4 ,the ,cabbage ,tribe4--,few persons unacquainted with botany will be able to believe that brocoli1 cauliflowers1 cabbages1 ,scotch or ,german ,greens1 ,brussels sprouts and savoys1 not only all belong to one genus1 but are actually varieties of one species of a genus1 viz4 ,brassica oleracea2 and that the turnip1 the ,swedish turnip1 and the rape 7the seed of which is used for oil71 belong to other species of the same genus4 ,the cabbage1 in its wild state1 is a biennial which grows naturally on the sea-coast in different parts of ,england1 and is a tall straggling plant with loose leaves1 and a rather pretty yellow cruciferous flower4 ,the borecole or kale is the first improvement effected by cultivation2 and the cauliflower the last4 ,indeed it is impossible to imagine a greater difference between any species and variety1 than exists between the cauliflower and the original wild cabbage plant4 ,all the varieties of the cabbage tribe require a soil which has been enriched with abundance of animal manure2 and when decaying1 they have all a peculiarly offensive smell like that of putrid meat1 from the large quantity of azote that they contain4 ,the ,cabbage4--,the word 8cabbage10 in its original signification1 means a firm head or ball of leaves folded closely over each other2 and thus1 there is a cabbage lettuce1 and a cabbage rose4 ,the cabbages grown in gardens are usually sown at three different times2 for the spring1 summer1 and autumn crop4 ,the spring cabbages are sown in summer generally about the first week in ,august1 in an open airy situation1 and in light soil4 ,when they come up1 they are thinned2 and in ,october or ,november they are ready for planting out in rows1 twelve or eighteen inches apart1 into the beds where they are to cabbage4 ,in small gardens1 cabbages are seldom raised from seed2 but the plants are purchased when ready for planting out4 ,the summer crop is sown in ,february1 and planted out in rows eighteen inches or two feet apart2 and the autumn crop is sown in ,may1 and planted out in ,july1 generally eighteen inches apart every way4 ,all cabbages require a rich soil1 and frequent hoeing up2 and in dry weather they should be watered to make them succulent4 ,the stalks of the spring cabbages are generally pulled up and carried to the refuse heap as soon as the cabbages are cut2 but the stalks of the summer and autumn kinds are left standing1 that they may throw out what are called sprouts4 ,the culture of the red cabbage is exactly the same2 except that there is no spring crop1 and the stalks are never left standing for sprouts4 ,some gardeners sow only one crop of green cabbages1 and leave the stalks standing to produce sprouts all the rest of the year4 ,when the cabbage stalk is left for sprouts1 it is customary1 after cutting the cabbage1 to give the stalk two cuts across1 so as to divide the top into four2 as when this is done1 it is thought to produce sprouts with more certainty4 ,coleworts are young cabbages gathered before they form a head2 and they are generally sown in ,june or ,july for an autumn1 winter1 or early spring crop4 ,as they are always eaten young1 they need not be planted more than ten or twelve inches apart every way2 and when they are gathered the stalks are always pulled up and thrown away4 ,savoys and ,brussels sprouts4--,savoys are large cabbages with wrinkled leaves1 the seed of which is sown about the end of ,march1 in order that the crop may be ready for the table in ,november4 ,the culture is the same as that of cabbages1 except that as the savoys are large1 they should be planted out in the bed where they are to cabbage1 two feet apart every way4 ,brussels sprouts are a variety of the savoy cabbage2 the plants first produce a small savoy on an elongated stalk1 and when this is cut off1 the long stalk throws out a number of little cabbages from its sides1 which are the ,brussels sprouts4 ,the culture is the same as for the ,savoys1 except that the plants1 as they do not spread1 need not be more than a foot or eighteen inches apart every way2 and that the seed is generally procured from ,brussels1 as that ripened in ,england is said to produce inferior plants4 ,both savoys and ,brussels sprouts are much better if not cut till there has been some frost upon them2 and they are consequently of great value as winter vegetables4 ,brocoli and ,cauliflower4--,the cauliflower 7the name of which is supposed to be derived from caulis1 a stalk1 and florens1 flowering17 is a native of ,cyprus1 introduced in #afid2 and no one unacquainted with the details of its culture1 and who has seen the immense quantities brought to the ,london market1 could credit the extraordinary care bestowed on each plant to bring it to perfection4 ,cauliflowers take nearly a year from their first sowing to bring them into a state fit for the table2 and as the plants are too tender to bear an ,english winter without protection1 they require to be grown in frames1 or sheltered by hand glasses during frosty weather4 ,the seed is sown in ,august1 in a bed of rich light earth1 and the ground is occasionally watered till the plants appear4 ,they are then shaded with mats during the heat of the day1 and thinned out1 so as to leave the plants a little distance apart4 ,in ,september they are pricked out into beds of rich earth1 and watered and shaded2 and about the end of ,october1 or beginning of ,november1 they are transplanted into frames1 or into beds1 richly manured with rotten dung1 spread over the ground three or four inches thick1 and trenched in1 a spade deep2 after which1 they are watered and covered with hand-glasses4 ,during the whole winter they require constant attention1 slightly watering them1 and raising the glasses to give them air in fine weather2 and covering up the glasses closely with mats or straw in severe frosts1 and during the continuance of sharp winds4 ,they must also be frequently looked at1 to pick off decayed leaves1 c41 which might rot the stem2 and the ground in which they grow must be strewed with a mixture of lime and soot1 to protect them from the attacks of caterpillars and slugs4 ,care must also be taken by giving air1 c41 to prevent them from being drawn up1 or running to flower too soon4 ,at length spring arrives1 and the plants which have safely survived the winter must be looked over1 and thinned out so that only one or two may be left to each glass2 the earth is then loosened1 the plants regularly watered1 and the glasses taken off in the middle of the day1 but carefully replaced at night4 ,at last1 towards the end of ,april1 the glasses are removed altogether1 and in ,may some of the plants will begin to make heads2 but even then the care bestowed on them must not cease4 ,the plants must be examined daily1 and some of the leaves turned down over the flowers1 to preserve them from the rays of the sun1 which would turn them brown1 and from the rain which would rot them4 ,at length1 about the end of ,may1 or in ,june and ,july1 the cauliflowers are ready for the market2 and little do the purchasers of them think of the labour and unremitting attention which1 for so many months1 have been required to rear them4 ,a second crop1 sown in ,february and planted out in ,april1 will be ready in ,august2 and a third crop1 sown in ,may and planted out in ,july1 will be in perfection about ,michaelmas or ,october1 and may be preserved in mild weather till near ,christmas4 ,brocoli is generally supposed to be a variety of the cauliflower2 but it differs essentially1 both in being much hardier1 and in being very apt to vary4 ,thus1 while only two kinds of cauliflower are known1 the early and the late1 and even these can hardly be distinguished from each other1--there are ten or twelve distinct sorts of brocoli1 and more are being raised every day4 ,all these kinds1 however1 appear to have sprung from two1 the purple and the green1 which are said to have been brought from ,italy4 ,brocoli is grown for the table in autumn1 winter1 and early spring2 but there is no summer crop4 ,the principal seasons for sowing are ,february and ,april for the autumn and winter crops1 and ,june for the spring crop2 and the plants succeed best in fresh loamy soil1 or1 if this cannot be procured1 in ground that has been deeply trenched and well manured4 ,the culture is like that of cabbages1 except that1 in very severe winters1 the plants require a little protection4 ,the ,borecole is generally known in ,england by the name of ,scotch kale1 and in ,scotland by that of ,german greens4 ,there are many different sub-varieties1 fourteen of which are enumerated in the ,ency4 of ,gard42 but all the kinds agree in being generally sown in ,april1 and transplanted in ,june4 ,they require no other culture1 except hoeing and earthing up2 and1 as they are exceedingly hardy1 they are very valuable vegetables for winter use4 ,the ,leguminous tribe4--,vegetables belonging to this tribe generally occupy the ground but a few months in the summer1 and are thus very suitable1 in the rotation of crops1 to precede or follow those of the cabbage tribe1 which occupy the ground the greater part of a year4 ,peas4--,the list of peas is almost interminable1 and it is continually changing2 so that what may be considered the fashionable peas of one season are generally superseded the next by some others1 to which every possible merit is attributed4 ,there are1 however1 some very distinct kinds1 the principal of which are--the dwarf early kinds1 which are dry and mealy when full-grown1 and become whitish when they are old2 the ,prussian and marrow-fat peas1 which are soft and juicy1 with a rich marrowy flavour1 and which remain green even when quite ripe2 and the sugar peas1 which are boiled1 like kidney beans1 in their pods4 ,the soil for peas should be a light1 dry1 sandy loam1 tolerably rich1 but not freshly-manured2 and1 for this reason1 they are particularly well adapted to succeed any of the cabbage-tribe1 for which a great deal of manure is required4 ,they should generally have an open sunny situation2 and the early crops should be sheltered from the prevailing winds of the district4 ,if peas are sown in freshly-manured1 very moist1 or clayey soil1 they will run to haulm1 that is1 they will produce more leaves and stalks than peas3 and1 if grown in calcareous soil1 they will boil hard and tough1 even when young1 and when old will never become floury4 ,the early peas are small1 and few in each pod1 and with so little flavour1 that we never have them sown in our little garden1 but have the green ,prussians sown early for a first crop1 and again1 a little later1 for a second4 ,the early dwarf peas are1 indeed1 of little use1 except for forcing4 ,they are1 however1 frequently sown in ,november and ,december1 to stand the winter in the open border1 in order that they may produce a crop the following ,may or ,june4 ,when forced1 they are sown in pots plunged in a hotbed1 and transplanted into the open border in ,march2 turning them out of the pots into holes made to receive them1 without breaking the balls of earth round the roots4 ,in some cases1 they are fruited in pots placed in a greenhouse1 or even stove2 by which means1 when it is thought worth while to incur the expense1 fresh green peas may be had at ,christmas4 ,the main crop of early peas is1 however1 sown in ,february4 ,a pint of small early peas will sow twenty yards of drills2 each drill being one inch and a half deep1 and the drills two or three feet asunder4 ,the drills are marked out by stretching a garden-line lengthways along the bed1 and then making a drill or furrow along it with a dibber2 the earth is pressed firm at the bottom of the drill by the very act of making it1 and the peas are then distributed along it1 two or three to every inch1 or wider apart1 according to their size1 and covered with soil1 which is generally trodden down or rolled4 ,when attacks are apprehended from mice1 dried furze is generally strewed over the peas as soon as they are put into the ground1 and before they are covered with earth2 and this is efficacious1 not only in protecting the peas from their enemies1 but in keeping enough air about them to allow them to vegetate4 ,they should then be well watered1 and will require no further care till they come up4 ,when they are two or three inches high1 they should be hoed2 that is1 the weeds which may have sprung up between the rows should be hoed up1 and the earth drawn up to the roots of the peas4 ,when about six inches high1 they should be staked1 with two rows of sticks to each row of peas2 the sticks being about a foot higher than the average height of the peas1 and care being taken never to let them cross at top4 ,late peas only differ in their culture from the early crops in having their drills farther apart1 and in being placed farther apart in the drills4 ,a pint of these peas is calculated to sow thirty-three yards of rows1 and the peas of the larger kinds should be from one inch to two inches1 or even more apart in the drills4 ,dwarf ,marrowfats and ,blue ,prussians are1 however1 frequently sown about three in two inches4 ,the time of sowing usually varies from ,april to ,july2 but where no early peas are grown1 even the late kinds may be sown as early as ,february or ,march4 ,the tall-growing kinds should1 however1 never be suffered to stand the winter2 and they should not be sown before ,march1 unless the weather appear likely to be open1 on account of the greater difficulties attending tall-growing plants4 ,it may indeed be here observed1 though the fact is obvious1 that all dwarf-growing plants are much better adapted for forcing1 than the tall-growing kinds2 from their being much more easily sheltered and protected4 ,peas should always be eaten when freshly gathered1 as they are perhaps more injured by keeping than any other vegetable4 ,the pea is a native of the south of ,europe1 and it is supposed to have been introduced in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,beans1 though belonging to the same natural order as peas1 and generally classed with them by persons speaking of garden products1 yet differ in several very important particulars3 for instance1 they will grow in much stronger soil2 they do not require sticks2 and they are generally topped1 that is1 the leading shoot of each plant is cut off1 an operation that would be fatal to peas4 ,there are many different kinds of beans1 though not so many as of peas2 and the different varieties may be divided into the early and the late4 ,the early beans may be sown in drills in ,november or ,december1 to stand the winter2 but the main crop is generally sown in ,january or ,february4 ,the late beans are sown in ,march and ,april1 and some even so late as ,june2 and instead of drills1 a hole is made for each bean separately with a dibber4 ,both sorts are covered with earth1 which is pressed down and then watered2 and they require no further care till the beans are three or four inches high1 when they should be hoed and earthed up4 ,as soon as the plants come into blossom1 the tops are cut off2 and this is said not only to increase the crop1 but to prevent the plants from being attacked with the insect called the black blight4 ,the crop should be gathered when the beans are about half ripe4 ,the bean is said to be a native of ,egypt2 and it is supposed to have been brought to ,england by the ,romans4 ,kidney-,beans differ from the other leguminous vegetables1 in their pods being eaten4 ,there are two distinct kinds1 the ,dwarf ,kidney-,beans1 and the ,scarlet-,runners2 and these are again divided into numerous subdivisions4 ,the soil for the dwarf kinds should be similar to that for peas3 viz41 rich1 light1 and dry1 but not newly manured2 and it should have been well pulverized to the depth of a foot or eighteen inches4 ,the drills are generally made about two inches deep2 and two feet or two feet and a half apart4 ,the seeds are sown the first or second week in ,may4 ,as the plants grow1 they may be earthed up2 and if the plants are very vigorous1 and appear disposed to run to haulm1 a few of the leading shoots may have their tops pinched off2 but this should be done carefully1 and the operation confined to a few of the strongest growing plants4 ,the scarlet-runners require nearly the same culture1 except that the seeds should be sown two or three inches asunder1 and only lightly covered2 and that the rows should be at least three feet apart4 ,the seeds are covered lightly1 as abundance of both air and moisture are required to make seeds enveloped in so thick a skin germinate2 and the rows must be wide apart on account of their height1 as otherwise the crop would not get enough sun and air4 ,the scarlet-runner is properly a perennial1 and if the plants are cut down to the ground after producing their crop1 and their roots are covered with dry litter1 they will produce an early and abundant crop the following summer4 ,kidney-beans are very frequently forced nearly in the same manner as peas2 viz41 by sowing them in pots plunged in a hot-bed1 and then removing them to a hot-house or green-house 7according to the season7 to fruit4 ,sometimes they are sown in the earth of the hot-bed1 and fruited there like cucumbers4 ,the dwarf kidney-bean is a native of ,india1 and was introduced before the time of ,gerard2 but the scarlet-runner is a native of ,south ,america1 and was not introduced till #afcc1 when it was at first only cultivated in the flower-garden as an ornamental plant1 and it is treated as such by all the early writers on flowers4 ,the ,potatoe is a native of ,south ,america1 but it was first brought to ,england by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 from ,virginia4 ,it was hence called the ,potatoe of ,virginia2 and it was at its first introduction thought very inferior to the ,convolvulus ,batatus1 which was called the ,spanish ,potatoe1 and to the ,jerusalem ,artichoke1 which was called the ,potatoe of ,canada1 from its having been first taken from ,south ,america to ,canada1 before it was brought to ,england4 ,about twenty or thirty sorts of the common potatoe are now cultivated for the table2 but so large a quantity is wanted in almost every family1 that few persons attempt to grow their main crop in a garden4 ,a few early potatoes are1 however1 grown frequently2 and the best of these is decidedly the ash-leaved kidney4 ,the soil for potatoes should be a light1 fresh1 unmanured loam1 and when manure is applied1 it should be mellow dung1 or well-rotted leaves4 ,potatoes are generally planted by dividing the root into what are called sets1 with an eye in each2 but sometimes the tubers are planted whole4 ,seeds are never used1 except where it is wished to raise new sorts4 ,potatoes are seldom good forced2 but an early crop may be raised by planting the sets in ,october4 ,the principal early crop is1 however1 planted early in ,march2 and the principal late crop in ,may or ,june4 ,when the potatoes are to be planted1 the ground should be first well pulverized1 and then1 the garden-line being stretched across the beds1 holes should be made along it with the dibber from two to four or five inches deep1 and about a foot apart4 ,the sets should then be put one in each hole1 with the eye upwards1 and the earth pressed firmly down on each4 ,when the potatoes come up1 they should be hoed1 and again in about a fortnight or three weeks2 and when the plants are eight or ten inches high1 they should be carefully earthed up4 ,as soon as the plants go into blossom1 some cultivators cut off the tops1 to prevent the roots from being exhausted by the formation of the potatoe apples1 or fruit4 ,when the tubers are ripe1 the stalks begin to wither1 and may be taken up2 but most persons have not patience to wait so long1 and they begin to take up their early potatoes before the tubers are half-grown4 ,the ,jerusalem ,artichoke is a tuberous-rooted sun-flower1 a native of ,brazil2 the epithet ,jerusalem being a corruption of the ,italian word #8girasole1' signifying to turn to the sun1 from the supposed habit of the flower4 ,the ,jerusalem artichoke is planted in ,february or ,march1 by sets1 like the potatoe2 and the tubers will be ready for use in ,september or ,october4 ,it was introduced in #agaf4 ,the ,turnip succeeds best in a dry1 sandy1 or gravelly soil1 which has been well manured1 and dug to a considerable depth4 ,the beds should be four or five feet wide1 and the seeds having been strewed very thinly over them1 the surface should be raked smooth1 and then slightly beaten with the back of the spade4 ,the first sowing is generally made in ,march1 or the first week in ,april2 and as soon as the young plants shew their rough leaves1 they should be hoed up separately4 ,they will then seldom want any other culture till the end of ,may1 when1 if the weather has been favourable1 they will be ready for use4 ,a second sowing is generally made about the middle of ,may2 and a third1 for the main crop1 towards the end of ,june4 ,besides the turnips usually sold in seed shops1 the ,teltow1 or small yellow ,german turnip1 the ,french long white1 and the ,scotch yellow1 are well deserving of cultivation for their excellence4 ,the common turnip1 the carrot1 and the parsnip1 are natives of ,england4 ,carrots are of two kinds--the long carrots1 the root of which tapers gradually from the crown to the point1 and the horn carrots1 the root of which continues of nearly the same thickness for three-fourths of its length1 and then abruptly diminishes to a very slender tap root4 ,there are numerous sub-varieties of both kinds4 ,the goodness of the carrot depending entirely on the ease with which the root can penetrate the soil1 it is obvious that the soil1 in which these roots are grown1 must not be of a very adhesive nature2 and thus the best carrots are grown in pure sand1 or peat4 ,when soils of this nature cannot be procured1 the ground should be trenched two spades deep1 and a very little thoroughly rotten dung1 or vegetable mould1 should be well mixed with the earth in digging the lower spadeful4 ,if manure1 in a fresh state1 be laid on a carrot-bed1 or if the soil be not thoroughly pulverized1 the roots will become forked1 fibrous1 and worm-eaten4 ,the seeds of the carrot being each furnished with a pappus1 or feathery wing1 are apt to become entangled with each other1 and can only be separated by rubbing them between the hands1 and mixing them with sand4 ,they are then to be sown very thinly1 the ground slightly raked over to cover them1 and then beaten flat with the back of the spade4 ,when the young plants are up1 the ground should be occasionally loosened1 from time to time1 with a small hoe1 round each4 ,when the leaves begin to change colour1 the roots should be taken up1 dry weather being chosen for that purpose2 and the tops being cut off1 the carrots should be carried into a cellar1 or outhouse1 and there buried in sand4 ,early carrots are generally sown in ,february1 and the principal crop about the middle of ,march4 ,the ,parsnip requires the same culture as the carrot1 except that there is no early crop4 ,the seed is sown in ,february or ,march1 and the roots are ready for use about the latter end of ,september1 or beginning of ,october4 ,the ,red ,beet is a native of the sea-coast on the south of ,europe1 and was introduced in #afef4 ,the seed should not be sown till the last week in ,march1 or the beginning of ,april4 ,the ground should previously be dug to the depth of a foot or eighteen inches1 and mixed with a little sea or river sand1 and vegetable mould1 or rotten dung4 ,the roots will be ready for the table in ,september or ,october4 ,in taking them up1 and boiling them1 great care must be taken not to wound the outer skin2 as1 if they are scraped or broken1 all the colouring liquid will escape1 and the root will become of a dull1 dingy1 whitish pink1 instead of its usual brilliant red4 ,the ,skirret1 the ,scorzonera1 and the ,salsify1 are all tap-rooted plants1 which require the same culture as the carrot4 ,the ,radish is a native of ,china1 and was introduced into ,england before #aehd4 ,there are numerous varieties2 but they may be all divided into three or four kinds3--the spring radishes1 which are sub-divided into the spindle-rooted1 and the turnip-rooted2 the autumn kinds1 which are frequently oval1 or turnip-rooted2 and the winter kinds1 which are oblong and dark-coloured4 ,the seed may be sown at any season when the ground is open2 but the very early spring kinds are generally sown in ,october or ,november to stand the winter1 and be ready to draw in ,february and ,march4 ,spinach4--,the round-leaved variety is generally sown for a summer crop1 on rich moist soil1 in ,january or ,february1 if the ground be open2 and the triangular-leaved kinds1 of which the ,flanders is the best1 are sown for the winter crops in ,august4 ,the summer crop1 when gathered1 may be pulled up by the root2 but the winter crop should only have the outer leaves gathered1 and it will thus continue producing fresh leaves for many months4 ,sorrel is generally propagated by offsets in spring or autumn2 or1 if by seed1 it is sown in ,march4 ,it is1 however1 seldom grown in ,english gardens4 ,the ,onion tribe4--,very few onions1 except for salads1 are generally grown in small gardens4 ,where they are grown the soil should be a rich loam1 well manured with very rotten dung2 and though the beds need not be dug more than a spade deep1 the soil to that depth should be well pulverized4 ,the seed is sown broad-cast in ,march1 on beds about four feet wide1 and after it is raked in1 the surface of the bed is rolled or beaten flat with the spade4 ,in about three weeks the beds should be hoed1 and thinned1 as the young onions will be then ready for salads2 and the beds should be again hoed and thinned out1 from time to time1 as the onions may be wanted4 ,when the onions are from three to six inches apart1 they are generally left to swell for the main crop1 and they will be ready to draw in ,august or ,september4 ,many persons1 about a month or six weeks before the onions are ready to take up1 bend the stalks down flat on the bed1 to throw all the strength of the plant into the bulb1 and to prevent its thickening at the neck4 ,onions for pickling are generally sown in ,april2 and onions for salads may be sown at intervals all the year4 ,when onions are wanted of a very large size1 they are sown in drills1 and regularly earthed up2 and the ,portugal onions are generally transplanted4 ,in ,portugal it is said that the alleys between the beds are filled with manure1 which is kept constantly watered1 and the water directed over the beds4 ,onions of enormous size have been grown in ,england by raising them on a slight hotbed in ,november or ,december1 and transplanting them in ,april or ,may4 ,when they are transplanted it is into very rich soil1 three-fourths of which is rotten manure1 and only the fibrous roots are buried in the soil1 the bulb being left above ground4 ,the plants are placed from nine inches to a foot apart every way1 and regularly watered4 ,onions thus grown are not only of enormous size1 but of very delicate flavour4 ,neither the native country of the common onion1 nor the date of its introduction into ,england1 is known4 ,leeks may be treated like onions1 and may be grown to an enormous size by transplanting into a hole about twice their own diameter1 at the bottom of which their fibrous roots are spread out and covered with soil1 while the bulb is left untouched by the soil1 standing in a kind of hollow cup4 ,the plant is then well supplied with water1 and will soon swell to fill the cavity4 ,the leek is a native of ,switzerland1 and it was introduced before the time of ,elizabeth4 ,the ,chive is a perennial plant1 a native of ,britain1 and it is propagated by dividing the roots in spring or autumn4 ,garlic is propagated by dividing the bulb into what are called cloves1 and planting them in ,february or ,march4 ,they are generally planted in drills1 and earthed up as they begin to grow4 ,when the leaves turn yellow1 which they will do about ,august1 the bulbs should be taken up1 and what may not be wanted for use1 should be reserved for planting the following spring4 ,garlic is a native of the south of ,europe1 and was introduced before the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the shallot is a native of ,palestine1 and it has been in cultivation in ,british gardens at least as long as the garlic4 ,it is very difficult to grow1 as it is apt to be attacked by a kind of maggot2 but it has been found to succeed planted in cup-shaped hollows like the leek4 ,all the onion tribe require a light1 rich1 well-drained soil2 and they always succeed best where there is a gravelly subsoil4 ,salad plants4--,these are very numerous1 and include lettuces1 endive1 small salads1 celery1 c4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that nearly all these were known to our ancestors1 and were in common use at ,british tables dressed much as we dress them now1 while the potatoe was yet unknown1 or only eaten as a sweetmeat stewed with sack and sugar4 ,the lettuce is said to have been introduced in #aefb1 but from what country is unknown4 ,there are numerous varieties1 but they may be all referred to two kinds2 the cabbage lettuces which grow flat and spreading1 and the cos lettuces which grow compact and upright4 ,lettuces are generally sown broad-cast1 like turnips or spinach1 on beds of rich mellow soil1 at any season from ,january to ,october2 and the cabbage kinds require no after care1 but weeding and thinning out4 ,the cos lettuces are1 however1 generally blanched by bending down the tips of the leaves over the heart1 and tying them together with bast mat4 ,lettuces are also sown by the ,french to cut for salads when quite young1 as we grow mustard and cress4 ,endive is a native of ,china and ,japan1 introduced before #aedh4 ,it is generally sown in large gardens at three seasons1 viz41 ,april1 ,june1 and ,august2 but in small gardens one sowing is generally thought sufficient1 and that is made in ,may4 ,the seeds are sown very thinly in beds of rich mellow earth2 and when they are from four to six inches high1 they are transplanted into beds of rich light earth1 where they are planted in drills about a foot apart in the line2 and as they grow1 are occasionally earthed up4 ,when the plants are about three parts grown1 the outer leaves are tied over the hearts to blanch them1 with strands of bast mat1 or osier twigs2 a dry day being chosen for the operation4 ,only a few plants should be tied up at a time2 and they should be seldom allowed to stand more than a fortnight or three weeks after the operation2 as1 if they remain longer1 particularly if the weather be wet1 they begin to rot4 ,in wet or cold seasons endive is best blanched by turning a sea-kale pot over each root1 instead of tying down the outer leaves4 ,there are two distinct kinds3 the broad leaved or ,batavia endive1 and the curled leaved1 which is the most common1 and to which the ,french give the name of chicore4 ,the true ,chiccory or ,succory is sometimes called wild endive2 but the ,french name for it is barbe de capucin4 ,it is common in calcareous and sandy soils in different parts of ,england1 where it is conspicuous from its bright blue flowers4 ,its culture is the same as that of endive2 but it may also be treated as a winter salad1 by being taken up in ,october or ,november1 and stacked in cellars in alternate layers of sand1 so that the crowns of the plants may just appear along the ridge4 ,here1 if the frost be excluded1 the roots will soon send out a profusion of tender succulent leaves2 which1 if kept from the light1 will also be quite blanched4 ,mustard and ,cress4--,mustard is the native white mustard eaten in its seed leaves2 and cress is an annual cruciferous plant1 introduced before #aedh1 but from what country is unknown4 ,they are both of the easiest culture1 and will not only grow in any soil or situation1 but may even be raised for the table by spreading the seed in a saucer on wet flannel4 ,the flour of mustard is made from the ground seeds of the black mustard1 which is cultivated extensively in some parts of ,england for that purpose4 ,corn ,salad or ,lamb ,lettuce1 ,winter ,cress1 ,burnet1 ,tansey1 and many other plants are occasionally used in salads1 particularly on the ,continent1 but they are seldom grown for that purpose in ,england4 ,celery is frequently used in salads2 and it is interesting1 as being so greatly improved by cultivation as scarcely to be recognized2 for in its wild state it is a ,british plant called smallage1 which grows in ditches1 and is scarcely eatable4 ,in gardens1 celery requires more manure than any other vegetable1 except the cabbage tribe4 ,the seed for the principal crop of celery is generally sown in ,march or ,april1 and the seed-bed should be formed of equal parts of fresh dark loamy soil1 and old rotten dung4 ,when the plants are about two or three inches high1 they are pricked out into another bed made of very rich soil1 six or seven inches deep1 on a hard bottom2 and when they are about a foot high1 they are transplanted into trenches for blanching4 ,the trenches are made four feet apart1 eighteen inches wide1 and twelve deep2 and they are filled nine inches high with a rich compost of strong fresh soil and rotten dung4 ,the plants are taken up with as much earth as will adhere to the roots1 and the side-shoots or offsets are removed from the central stems2 they are then set by the hand1 nine or ten inches apart1 in the centre of each trench1 and well watered4 ,as the plants in the trenches grow1 the earth is gradually drawn up to them1 a little at a time1 taking care never to let the earth rise above the heart of the plant2 and this earthing up is repeated five or six times1 at intervals of about ten days or a fortnight1 till the plants are ready for use4 ,thus treated1 a single plant of celery of the solid kind has been known to weigh nine pounds1 and to measure four feet in length4 ,water cress is generally gathered wild1 but it may be cultivated in gardens where there is a clear running stream1 on a sandy or gravelly bottom4 ,the plants are disposed in rows parallel with the stream1 about eighteen inches apart1 in shallow water2 but four or five feet apart if the water be very deep1 as if nearer together they will check the stream4 ,thus treated1 the plants may be cut at least once a week during the whole summer4 ,the beds must1 however1 be cleared out and replanted twice a-year2 and when this is done1 all the plants are taken up1 divided and planted again in the gravelly bed of the stream1 a stone being laid on each to keep it in its place4 ,pot ,herbs4--,of these parsley is a hardy biennial1 a native of ,sardinia1 introduced before #aedh4 ,it is generally sown in a drill in ,february or ,march1 and this will supply leaves all the summer4 ,the plants do not seed till they are two years old4 ,the curled variety is preferred for garnishing4 ,tarragon is a strong-smelling perennial from ,siberia1 introduced before #aedh4 ,it is principally used for making ,tarragon vinegar4 ,fennel is a perennial1 which1 when once introduced1 spreads every where1 and can scarcely be eradicated4 ,chervil is an annual used for garnishing1 and sometimes in salads1 and the common ,marigold is an annual1 a native of the ,south of ,europe1 introduced before #aegc1 but now seldom grown except in cottage gardens4 ,sweet ,herbs4--,these plants1 though called in gardening-books sweet herbs1 are mostly aromatic shrubs2 such as thyme1 sage1 c4 ,thyme4--,there are two kinds of this delicate little shrub cultivated in gardens2 the common and the lemon3 both are natives of the south of ,europe1 and were introduced before #aedh4 ,young plants are generally raised by division of the root1 or from offsets slipped off the branching roots in spring or autumn2 they grow best in poor dry soil1 or lime rubbish4 ,sage is a much taller-growing shrub than thyme4 ,it is a native of the south of ,europe1 and was introduced before #aeig4 ,it is propagated by slips1 or by cuttings of the young shoots taken off in ,may or ,june2 but as the plant is very long-lived it seldom wants renewing4 ,it requires the same kind of soil as thyme4 ,mint4--,there are three kinds grown in gardens3 the common1 or spear mint1 which is the kind boiled with peas1 and used for mint-sauce1 c42 the peppermint1 comparatively little cultivated1 and only used for distilling2 and the penny-royal4 ,they are all ,british perennials1 and are propagated by dividing the root1 making cuttings1 or taking off offsets4 ,all require rather a moist and strong soil4 ,marjoram4--,there are four kinds in cultivation3 the pot marjoram1 which is a low shrub1 a native of ,sicily1 introduced in #agei1 and propagated by slips2 the sweet1 or knotted marjoram1 a hardy biennial1 a native of ,portugal1 introduced in #aegc1 and sown every year from seed generally ripened in ,france2 the winter marjoram1 a hardy perennial1 a native of ,greece1 introduced before #afdj1 and propagated by cuttings or slips2 and the common marjoram1 a perennial1 and a native of ,britain4 ,the first three kinds require a light dry soil1 and the last a calcareous soil1 and sheltered situation4 ,savoury and ,basil4--,winter savoury is a hardy under-shrub1 and summer savoury an annual--both natives of the south of ,europe1 and cultivated in ,england since about #afej4 ,basil is an annual1 a native of the ,east ,indies1 introduced about #aedh4 ,all these aromatic herbs may be purchased1 admirably dried1 in small cases1 at ,mrs4 ,johnson's1 in ,covent ,garden market4 ,cucumbers require a hotbed to grow them to perfection2 but the smaller kinds for pickling are sometimes planted in the open ground4 ,the seed should be from two to four years old1 and it should be sown in pots plunged in a hotbed1 not below #eh at night1 nor above #fe in the day4 ,when the plants come up1 they should be pricked out into pots1 three in each pot1 and watered1 the earth in the pots and the water being both previously kept under the glass for some time1 that they may be both of the same heat as the plants4 ,when the plants are about five weeks old1 they are generally removed to a larger hotbed1 with a two or three-light frame4 ,in this bed1 a little ridge of earth is made under each light2 and1 in each of these1 the contents of a pot is planted1 without breaking the ball of earth round the roots of the plants4 ,the heat of this bed is generally a little higher than that of the seed-bed4 ,water should be given every day1 warmed to the heat of the bed4 ,if the plants are wanted to fruit early1 the ends of the shoots may be pinched off as soon as the plants have made two rough leaves1 and this is called stopping the runners at the first joint2 this stopping is repeated wherever the runners show a disposition to extend themselves without producing fruit4 ,as plants raised under glass have not the benefit either of currents of air or insects1 to convey the pollen of the barren plants to the stigma of the fertile ones1 the latter must either be dusted with pollen by the gardener1 or the plants should be exposed as much to the air as possible1 in the middle of the day1 when it is warm enough1 during the time that they are in flower4 ,seeds for the first crop of cucumbers are generally sown in ,december or ,january2 but1 as extra heat and care are required at this early season1 the crop for a small garden may be sown about ,march4 ,the great art is to grow the cucumbers long and straight1 and to keep them green1 with a beautiful bloom4 ,for the first purpose1 many cultivators place a brick under the young fruit2 and for the latter they leave on the plant abundance of leaves1 and keep the ground moist1 as the plant appears to thrive best when it has abundance of heat and moisture1 and is kept in the shade4 ,a dry heat1 and especially exposure to the burning rays of the sun1 will make cucumbers flaccid and yellow4 ,pickling ,cucumbers are generally sown in patches of ten or twelve seeds in each1 in the open air2 and when they come up1 they are thinned out to four or five in each patch4 ,they are sown in rich ground1 and well watered2 and as they grow1 they are occasionally earthed up4 ,melons4--,the culture of the melon is the same as that of the cucumber1 except that the lowest heat of the seed-bed should not be less than #fe1 and that of the fruiting bed #ge4 ,to grow the finer kinds of melons well1 however1 requires the attention of a regular gardener2 and as this is the case also with pine-apples 7the plants of which are too expensive to be trifled with71 no directions are here given respecting them4 ,gourds4--,the two kinds of vegetable-marrow--the ,american butter-squash1 and the mammoth-gourd1 are excellent for the table1 either in soup1 or boiled1 or fried4 ,the plants of all these kinds should be raised in a hotbed1 the seeds being sown in ,march or ,april1 three in a pot1 and covered nearly an inch deep4 ,in ,may1 the young plants should be removed to the open ground1 where they should be planted in rich soil1 and sheltered for a night or two1 till they have become inured to the change4 ,they should be frequently watered in dry weather1 as the fruit will not swell without abundance of moisture4 ,tomatoes4--,the tomato or love-apple is a tender annual1 a native of ,south ,america1 introduced before #aeif4 ,the seeds should be sown in a hot-bed in ,march1 and as soon as they come up pricked out into pots2 they should be transplanted into a warm border in front of a south wall in ,may2 where they should be trained against the wall1 or pegged down over a warm bank of earth sloping to the sun4 ,they require abundance of water while the fruit is swelling2 and as much heat as possible while it is ripening4 ,mushrooms4--,the spawn is generally procured from a nurseryman2 and the beds are made of fresh horse-dung thrown together in a heap under cover1 and turned over many times in the course of a fortnight or three weeks1 till every part has thoroughly fermented4 ,when the dung is thought to be in a proper state1 a trench is marked out twelve or fourteen feet long and five broad1 and about six inches deep2 the mould taken out in forming it being laid on one side till wanted4 ,in the bottom of the trench there should be a layer of long fresh stable manure about four inches thick2 and on this1 successive layers of the prepared dung1 each beaten flat with the fork1 till the bed is about five feet high1 and narrow at the top like the ridge of a house4 ,in this state it may remain about a fortnight2 and then if the bed be found1 on trying it by plunging a stick in1 to be not too hot1 the bricks of spawn should be broken into pieces about an inch and a half or two inches square1 and strewed regularly over the bed1 each piece of spawn being buried by raising up a little of the dung and inserting it4 ,after this the surface of the bed is beaten flat with a spade1 and the whole is covered with mould1 that of a loamy nature being preferred4 ,the whole is then beaten quite smooth1 and covered about a foot thick with oat straw1 on which are laid mats4 ,in about a month or six weeks the mushrooms will be ready for the table2 and when gathered they should be gently twisted up by the roots1 and not cut off1 as the root1 if left in the ground1 will decay1 and be injurious to the young plants4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,kitchen-,,garden ,,continued--,,the ,,management ,,of ,,fruit ,,trees4 ,the fruit trees in a kitchen garden are of three kinds3 the wall trees1 the espaliers1 and the standards4 ,to these may be added the fruit shrubs1 and the vines2 which last are generally grown under glass4 ,the ,wall-,fruit ,tree4--,there are two things on which the welfare of wall-fruit trees materially depends1 viz4 the construction of the wall1 and that of the border4 ,the walls of kitchen gardens are very generally made too high3 a serious fault in many respects1 but particularly in impeding the free passage of the sun and air to the fruit4 ,it has indeed been found1 by experience1 that walls about eight feet high1 will produce better fruit than walls of ten feet or twelve feet1 which is the general height2 and besides they have the advantage of not throwing so deep a shadow over the garden4 ,of whatever height the walls may be1 they should always be in straight lines2 as the various expedients which have been from time to time adopted1 of curved or zigzag lines1 have been found not to answer in practice1 but to produce eddies and currents of wind exceedingly injurious to the fruit4 ,the garden wall should have a slight stone coping2 and where the trees are likely to want protection1 strong hooks1 or holdfasts1 projecting from the wall1 should be built in at regular distances for the convenience of suspending the mats or bunting that may be employed2 or supporting a deep wooden coping4 ,hot or flued walls are not desirable1 as they are very expensive and troublesome1 and of very little use4 ,the walls should be built on good1 sound1 and deep foundations1 but on no account on arches2 as it is of importance to the gardener to confine the roots to the border in front of the wall1 which is under his control1 instead of suffering them to spread through the arches to the other sides1 where they are entirely removed from him4 ,the essential point to be attended to in the construction of a fruit border is that the soil shall not be more than eighteen inches deep on a hard bottom4 ,if the subsoil be hard gravel or rock1 covered with mould to the depth mentioned1 nothing more can be desired2 but if the subsoil be wet clay1 or sand over gravel1 or in short anything that will allow of roots penetrating into it1 artificial means should be resorted to1 to keep the roots near the surface of the ground4 ,the most common method of forming a border is to excavate the ground to the depth required1 and to pave the bottom of the excavation with large stones or pebbles2 but bricks1 cement1 asphalt1 or in short any other substance may be employed which appears likely to attain the end in view--taking care1 however1 to provide effectual drainage1 as otherwise the chamber1 as it is called1 would become a reservoir of stagnant water1 exceedingly injurious to the plants4 ,the chamber having been formed1 it should be covered with good rich garden mould to the requisite depth1 varying in some instances according to the kind of tree to be grown in it2 but in all cases thoroughly pulverized1 so as to offer no obstruction to the passage of the roots4 ,when the trees are planted care should be taken to raise each on a little hillock1 at the point of junction between the trunk and the root1 to allow for the sinking of the ground4 ,the collar of a ligneous plant should never be buried2 as any moisture collected round this tender and indeed vital part1 brings on canker1 and innumerable other diseases4 ,all fruit-trees thus treated produce cankered and deformed fruit1 and die in a few years of premature old age4 ,it can never be repeated too often that the essential point in growing fruit-trees is to keep their roots as near to the surface as possible1 and never to suffer them to descend so deep as to be out of the influence of the sun and air4 ,many persons unacquainted with vegetable physiology1 have an idea that when a fruit-tree1 which has been productive1 suddenly ceases to bear1 it is because its roots have reached the gravel1 or in other words1 the subsoil4 ,this is1 however1 false reasoning on true premises4 ,it is quite true that the tree has ceased to bear in consequence of the descent of its roots2 but the reason this descent is injurious is1 that the ground far below the surface is cold1 and frequently impregnated with stagnant water2 and either that the roots thus become swollen and unable to perform their proper functions1 in which case the leaves turn yellow1 and the tree appears to wither1 or that they supply the tree with an abundance of poor thin watery sap quite unsuitable for the production of fruit4 ,on the contrary1 when the roots are kept near the surface1 though they have no air-vessels except in the spongioles1 these spongioles imbibe air and carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere with all the moisture they take up2 and thus the vessels are not only kept in a healthy state by not being overcharged with water without air1 but the sap is so thickened and enriched with the carbonic acid gas1 that it is brought into a proper state for forming those deposits which lead to the production of fruit4 ,the use of walls is to afford tender plants the heat necessary to mature their fruit1 by reflecting the sun's rays back upon it2 and by giving out to the fruit during the night the heat they have absorbed during the day4 ,they are also useful in sheltering the plant from cold winds2 and in preventing the branches from bruising each other in violent storms4 ,this being the use of walls1 it is evident that only those trees should be trained against them that require protection2 and the south and south-east walls being warmer than the others1 it is equally evident that only those trees should be trained against these walls1 that require a great deal of heat to mature their fruits4 ,there are some fruits1 such as the apple1 which too much heat renders mealy and insipid2 and these would obviously be injured instead of improved by a south1 or south-east wall2 while other fruits1 such as the peach1 could not produce good fruit in our climate without one4 ,before planting trees against the walls of a garden1 it will thus be necessary to select the trees proper for each wall2 and as some of the finer kinds will be several years before they attain a sufficient size to fill up the places assigned to them1 trees of inferior kinds may be planted between them1 so that no part of the wall may be lost--the inferior trees being cut in as the others grow1 and being finally removed4 ,this is accomplished by planting alternately dwarf trees of the kind which is to remain1 and trees grafted standard high1 which are called riders1 of the kinds which are to be removed4 ,the distance at which the permanent trees ought to be planted depends upon the nature of the tree4 ,there is1 however1 one objection to a south or south-east wall for tender plants which should be carefully guarded against4 ,this is the danger from spring frosts1 to which the blossoms are exposed during the night1 from being brought prematurely forward during the day4 ,to guard against this1 the south wall should have a deep wooden coping1 supported by holdfasts1 projecting about a foot from the wall2 and under this coping there should be a row of hooks1 on which should be hung a kind of curtain of bunting1 which should be kept on day and night in frosty weather1 while the blossoms are expanded4 ,this is not only to protect the blossoms from the frost1 but to save them from the withering effect of the sun1 which is as injurious to them after a frosty night as the frost itself4 ,in fact1 when tender trees are covered with hoar-frost1 they may sometimes be saved if shaded till they have thawed2 but they are always killed if exposed1 while the frost is on them1 to the sun4 ,bunting is preferable to matting or canvass2 because it is thinner and does not entirely exclude the light and air1 because it is more easily put up and taken down1 and takes up less room when stowed away1 and because it is cheaper1 four square yards costing only two shillings at ,edgington's1 the marquee-maker4 ,kinds of ,wall-,fruit ,trees1 c4--,the principal fruits grown against a wall in ,england are those containing stones2 and of these the most valuable are the peach1 the nectarine1 and the apricot4 ,the other stone fruits1 such as the plum and the cherry1 are frequently grown against a wall1 but they are grown also as standards3 as are the kernel fruits1 such as the apple and pear2 the apple being very rarely grown against a wall in ,england4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,london1 figs and grapes are grown against walls in the open ground1 and in some parts of ,devonshire the orange tribe4 ,stone ,fruits4--,all kinds of stone fruits are more or less delicate at the time of forming their stones1 or 8stoning0 as it is called2 and the fruit requires thinning at that period to prevent the greater part of it being dropped4 ,they all blossom early1 and are delicate while their flowers are expanded4 ,for these reasons their crops are more uncertain in a variable climate like that of ,england1 than crops of the kernel fruits1 and require more care and attention to bring them to perfection4 ,peaches and ,nectarines4--,the peach and the nectarine are only varieties of one species of almond2 and instances have been known of peaches and nectarines growing on the same tree without grafting4 ,both peaches and nectarines are divided into two kinds2 the free stones1 the flesh of which parts readily from the stone--and the cling stones1 the flesh of which adheres to the stone4 ,some of the best peaches for a small garden are the ,grosse mignonne1 ,bellegarde1 and ,barrington4 ,the earliest peach is the red nutmeg1 which ripens in ,july2 and one of the latest1 the ,catherine1 which does not ripen till ,october4 ,the best nectarines are the ,elruge and the ,violette hative1 with the new white nectarine1 for a variety in colour4 ,both peaches and nectarines are budded on plum stocks1 or on seedling peaches1 or almonds1 the latter being greatly preferred by the ,french nurserymen4 ,the best soil for peaches is about three parts of fresh clayey loam1 taken from some field1 and one part of drift sand4 ,this soil should be moderately enriched with vegetable mould composed of decayed leaves1 and it should be laid on the prepared chamber to the depth of about eighteen inches1 rather less than more4 ,peaches require rather an adhesive soil1 not too rich2 as in a rich loose soil they will produce wood rather than fruit4 ,peach trees are seldom planted against the wall where they are to remain1 till they have been two1 three1 or four years trained2 and they are generally removed at the latter end of ,october1 or beginning of ,november1 just as the leaf begins to fall4 ,they are best trained in the fan manner2 and as they always bear their fruit on shoots of a year old1 these shoots must always be left on in pruning1 and the old wood cut out4 ,pruning should be performed at two seasons1 viz4 winter and summer3 the winter pruning is performed at the fall of the leaf1 or in the beginning of ,february1 and consists of cutting out or shortening the old wood or barren branches2 and summer pruning1 which consists chiefly of what is called disbudding1 7that is1 rubbing off the buds as soon as they appear17 should be applied to the removal of all shoots growing right out from the wall1 7and which1 consequently1 could not be well trained17 or which appear otherwise to be improperly placed4 ,experienced gardeners also look over the blossom buds1 as soon as they show themselves1 and thin them out1 without allowing the tree to waste its strength in forming fruit which it can never ripen1 and which is of no use in its green state4 ,the disbudding is easily performed2 and watching the trees to find when it will be necessary1 affords a constant source of interest4 ,thinning the blossoms is rather more difficult2 but with a little practice1 a lady could do it much better than a gardener1 as it is an operation that depends principally on delicacy of touch4 ,when a peach tree is trained in the fan manner1 the first year the little side shoots are left for producing the fruit1 and none of these should be more than a year old4 ,the next year these shoots must be cut out1 7as the same shoot never bears two years in succession17 and others which have been produced while they were bearing1 must be trained in their stead4 ,the borders should never be cropped on account of not disturbing the roots1 which should be encouraged to rise up to the surface of the ground by what is called mulching1 that is1 covering the ground with straw1 dead leaves1 or litter2 and when this is objected to on account of its untidy appearance1 the borders should be left bare1 and only raked occasionally to prevent the surface from caking over1 and becoming impervious to air and moisture4 ,no stable dung should be given to peaches1 and when the trees seem exhausted they should be taken up and replanted in fresh soil2 or they should be removed1 and trees of quite a different kind1 such as pears for example1 planted instead of them in the same soil4 ,when the borders cannot be spared to be left entirely bare1 a light crop1 such as of spinach1 lettuces1 mustard and cress1 or parsley1 should be sown on them1 and the remains of this crop1 when done with1 should be raked off2 but fruit borders should never on any account be touched with a spade1 and even a fork should be used very seldom and very sparingly2 never1 indeed1 unless the ground has become too hard and compact to admit the rain1 the sun1 and the air4 ,it must never be forgotten1 that unless the spongioles of the roots are permitted to imbibe the carbonic acid gas always floating in the atmosphere1 with the moisture they take up1 the sap of the tree will never be rich enough to produce fruit4 ,the fruit and seeds of every plant are in fact concentrations of carbon1 precipitated by the action of light2 and where any plant is deficient in carbon1 or deprived of light1 it cannot produce much fruit4 ,the culture of the nectarine is exactly the same as that of the peach4 ,in both1 when the season is cold and wet1 with but little sun1 some cultivators remove a few of the leaves to admit more air and light to the fruit2 but this should be done very sparingly1 as unless a sufficient quantity of leaves are left to carry on the proper circulation of the sap1 the skin of the fruit will become tough and withered1 and the flesh insipid4 ,when the fruit is ripe1 it is customary1 in large gardens1 to suspend a net under the branches to catch any fruit that may fall1 and thus to save it from being bruised4 ,the peach is supposed to be a native of ,persia1 and to have been introduced into ,england about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,peaches and nectarines on a wall ten or twelve feet high1 should be planted about twenty feet apart2 with riders of some kind of plum1 or peach1 till the permanent trees spread4 ,the ,apricot is a native of ,armenia1 introduced about #aefb4 ,the culture is the same as that of the peach1 excepting that it is not trained quite so much in the fan manner1 but somewhat horizontally4 ,it also bears1 not only on the side-shoots of the last year1 but on close spurs formed on the two-years' old wood4 ,the whole of the fruit is also generally suffered to form1 and is thinned out while it is green1 in ,may or the beginning of ,june1 as green apricots are generally thought delicious in tarts4 ,the best apricots are the ,moorpark for the table1 and the ,breda for preserving4 ,this last is frequently grown as a standard4 ,large branches1 or rather arms of apricot-trees1 particularly of the ,moorpark1 are very apt to die off without any apparent cause4 ,the finest apricots ,i ever saw were grown on a tree trained against a cottage1 the owner of which was an old woman1 who took in washing1 and who was in the habit1 nearly every day1 of pouring down about the roots of the tree a quantity of soap-suds4 ,apricot-trees should be twenty-five feet apart1 as the tree spreads rapidly1 and does not bear cutting in4 ,the ,plum4--,no plum-tree1 except perhaps the green-gage1 should be planted on a south wall2 and1 as a north wall is too cold for the finer kinds1 they do best planted against a wall facing to the east or west4 ,any common garden soil will suit plum-trees2 and when the soil appears exhausted1 it may be renovated by a little rotten dung laid on the surface1 and frequently watered to wash its juices into the soil1 without disturbing the roots4 ,plum-trees bear on what are called spurs1 which are short rugged-looking little branches1 jutting out from the shoots of two or three years' growth4 ,the same spurs bear more than once1 and often continue fruitful several years4 ,plum-trees are generally trained horizontally4 ,the kinds are very numerous1 but the ,green-gage and ,orleans are1 perhaps1 the most popular4 ,plum-trees should be twenty feet apart1 if all dwarfs2 but dwarfs and riders alternately may be only fifteen feet apart4 ,the ,cherry4--,only the finer kinds of cherries are grown against walls2 and the tree1 in its native localities1 delights in a dry sandy soil1 and elevated airy situation4 ,when cultivated1 it will thrive in any common garden soil which is tolerably open2 and it is not injured by manure applied moderately1 and in a perfectly rotten state4 ,the cherry is trained horizontally1 and bears on spurs springing from both the old and the new wood4 ,as the branches are continually throwing out fresh spurs from their extremities1 it is a maxim with gardeners never to shorten the bearing branches of a cherry-tree4 ,the morello is1 however1 an exception to this rule1 as its mode of bearing resembles that of the peach2 and it is always pruned and trained like that tree4 ,the cherry-trees grown against walls are the different varieties of ,may ,duke1 ,circassian1 the large black ,tartarian1 the ,morello1 and the ,bigarreau4 ,cherries need not be more than fifteen feet apart for the common kinds1 and twenty feet for the morello4 ,fig-trees grow and bear quite well in the neighbourhood of ,london1 and they even thrive and bear in many street-gardens in the ,city4 ,the fig requires less care in training and pruning than any other tree2 it should indeed rarely be touched with the knife1 and only the ill placed shoots removed by disbudding4 ,the fruit is produced on the young wood at the extremity of the branches1 but it does not ripen till the wood on which it grows is a year old4 ,the best soil for figs is a light fresh loam not above a foot or fifteen inches deep1 on a hard1 well-drained bottom4 ,this is essential2 as the fig will not grow with any stagnant water about its roots1 though it requires to be constantly and abundantly supplied with moisture4 ,many country persons throw soap-suds on the roots of their fig-trees with very great success4 ,the tree may be trained in any shape2 and the long branches should be bent backwards and forwards1 not only to make them throw out side-shoots1 but to cover the wall4 ,the best figs for general bearing are the black and brown ,ischias and the large blue or purple fig4 ,a tree of the last kind1 which is trained against our house at ,bayswater1 under the glass veranda1 has never failed1 during the last ten years1 to produce a good crop every summer4 ,fig-trees should be thirty feet apart if the branches are trained horizontally2 but they may be placed rather nearer1 if the branches are bent backwards and forwards to cover the wall4 ,,espaliers4--,espaliers1 though they are nearly as troublesome to train as wall-trees1 have none of their advantages4 ,they are indeed only superior to standards in taking up less room1 in having a neater appearance1 in their fruit being more easily gathered1 and in their roots being more under the control of the gardener4 ,the latter is an important advantage1 and one of which every gardener should avail himself4 ,it has been already observed1 when speaking of the laying out of a kitchen garden1 that beyond the fruit-border there is generally a walk1 enclosing the compartments devoted to culinary vegetables in the centre4 ,now where espaliers are grown1 there should be a second chambered border1 exactly like the fruit border under the wall1 which should be shut out from the culinary compartments by a low wall under ground1 or flat stones placed edgeways1 or boards1 or1 in fact1 any thing to prevent the roots of the espaliers from spreading into the ground devoted to the culinary crops4 ,when due precautions have been taken1 the espaliers should be planted near the boundary1 and their roots carefully spread out over the chambered border1 those parts being cut off which cannot be brought to lie flat in the proper direction4 ,the ground is then pressed firmly upon the roots1 and espalier rails1 either of iron or wood1 are fixed near the trees to tie them to4 ,espalier trees are seldom suffered to grow higher than five feet or six feet1 on account of the trouble of training them when they are of a greater height2 but to make amends for this loss of space1 their branches are allowed to spread as widely as possible1 according to the nature of the trees4 ,thus apples should be planted thirty feet apart1 and cherries about the same distance2 pears thirty-five feet1 and plums twenty-five feet4 ,the finer kinds of fruits are seldom planted as espaliers2 and apples and pears are more commonly thus treated than cherries and plums4 ,the continual cutting necessary to keep the trees in a proper shape for training1 and the unnatural position of the roots1 are indeed very unsuitable to trees so apt to gum and canker as the cherry and the plum4 ,the width of the border destined for the roots of the espaliers is generally five feet2 and it should only be cropped with a few herbaceous or annual flowers1 that will not require the ground to be deeper stirred than can be done with a rake4 ,some persons suffer the roots of their espalier trees to extend under the gravel walks1 which are purposely left hollow2 but this defeats the purpose for which they are to be attracted to the surface1 for the spongioles will be as effectually excluded from the air under a compact coating of gravel1 as if they were buried many feet deep in the soil4 ,if an underground wall is built along the inner side of the espalier border to confine the roots of the trees1 stones should be fixed in it at intervals1 with holes made in them for the reception of the espalier rails1 which should be run in with pitch4 ,these rails should be about nine inches asunder1 and they may be kept together at the top with a transverse rail1 to which they should be nailed4 ,the inconveniences of espaliers are the very great trouble of training them and keeping them within bounds2 the rough and untidy appearance which their spurs assume when the trees begin to get old2 and the numerous diseases to which the trees are liable1 from their unnatural position and constant cutting in1 and which always render espalier trees short-lived4 ,,standard ,,fruit-,,trees4--,tall standard trees should never1 on any account1 be planted in a kitchen-garden2 as from their drip and shade it is impossible to grow good culinary vegetables under them2 while1 on the other hand1 the constant digging and trenching necessary to cultivate culinary vegetables1 force the roots of the trees to descend so far that it is impossible for them to produce good fruit4 ,dwarf standards are1 however1 by many preferred to espaliers2 as they are susceptible of all the advantages1 without any of the disadvantages attendant on that mode of training4 ,a chambered border may be prepared for the dwarf standards in the same manner as for the espaliers2 and they may be placed in the centre of it1 instead of on one side4 ,the dwarf standards are generally grafted very near the collar of the plant1 and are trained to form bushes rather than trees1 but in various manners4 ,some are trained round a hoop placed inside1 and others have their branches trained upwards for a few feet1 and then bent downwards like an umbrella2 some are trained en quenouille1 with a single stem2 others en pyramide2 and others have their branches spread out horizontally1 and supported by stakes placed at a regular distance in a circle round the tree4 ,in short1 there are no limits to fancy in this respect4 ,the trees generally grown in gardens as dwarf standards are apples1 pears1 and morello cherries4 ,the other kinds of cherries may also be grown in this manner2 but they are generally grown as tall standards in a detached orchard near the kitchen-garden1 or adjoining the pleasure-grounds4 ,the common kinds of plums and damsons are also grown as tall trees in the same manner1 as are the kitchen and keeping apples4 ,mulberry-trees are generally planted on the lawn1 as well for the picturesque form of the tree1 as for the convenience of the fruit1 which drops as soon as it is ripe1 and is spoiled if it falls on dry earth or gravel4 ,sweet chesnuts are grown in the park or pleasure-grounds among other trees2 and walnuts in similar situations1 or in a back-court1 or stable-yard1 for the convenience of their shade4 ,filberts and hazels are generally planted on each side of a walk in the garden or pleasure-ground1 which they are trained over2 and barberries and elderberries in the shrubberies2 the last four being the only kinds of trees which should ever be planted as standards in the slips to the kitchen-garden4 ,,kernel ,,fruits4--,the principal of these are apples and pears1 but the division also includes the medlar1 the quince1 and the true service4 ,the apple is universally allowed to be the most useful of all fruits2 and it is certain that there is no fruit more extensively cultivated4 ,the list of apples is as numerous as that of peas2 and it is almost as difficult to make a selection from4 ,apples are1 however1 generally divided into three kinds2 the dessert or eating apples1 the kitchen or baking apples1 and the cider apples4 ,the last are good for nothing but to make cider1 and can never be mistaken2 the line of demarcation between the first two is1 however1 not so strongly marked1 as many of the kinds will serve both purposes4 ,many dessert apples1 for example1 possess the chief merit of a good kitchen apple1 viz4 that of falling well1 or in plainer terms1 of becoming quite soft when baked or boiled2 and many of the baking apples are very good to eat raw4 ,the ,ribstone pippen1 one of the best of all apples1 but rather a shy bearer1 and the hawthorn dean1 a most abundant bearer1 but an apple that does not keep well1 are both alike excellent for the kitchen and the dessert4 ,the best keeping apple is the ,french crab1 of which some specimens have been preserved quite fresh and plump for more than three years4 ,the most common way of propagating apple-trees is by grafting the best kinds on crab-stocks1 either standard high1 that is1 on stocks suffered to grow to the height of about six feet2 or as dwarfs1 that is1 about six inches or eight inches from the collar of the stock4 ,sometimes trees intended to be grown as dwarf standards in a kitchen-garden are grafted what is called half standard high2 that is1 about two or three feet from the collar4 ,when apple-trees are planted in the kitchen-garden where they are to remain1 each tree should always be placed on a little hillock2 as no tree is more liable to become cankered from having its collar buried4 ,the tree succeeds best in a deep strong loam1 provided it be well drained1 and rich rather than poor2 and when the soil appears exhausted1 it may be renovated by laying on it what the farmers call a top-dressing of manure1 taking care not to bury or even to touch the collar of the tree4 ,apple-trees will1 however1 flourish in any soil except sand or gravel4 ,they are very apt to become cankered1 and to be attacked by the woolly aphis1 sometimes called the ,american blight4 ,canker is generally caused by some defect in the drainage or the soil1 and of course no remedy can be efficacious till the cause of the disease is removed2 when1 however1 the soil has been renovated or drained1 the effects of the disease may be obviated by heading down the tree1 when it will produce new and healthy branches2 or cutting out the cankered part1 if they should be so low as to make it inconvenient to cut off the trunk of the tree below them4 ,the ,american blight is best cured by brushing the parts affected all over with soft soap and water2 and repeating the operation whenever any fresh insects appear4 ,the ,pear4--,the culture of the pear as a standard differs very little from that of the apple2 and though it is naturally rather a deeper-rooted plant1 it requires its fibrous roots to be kept near the surface4 ,there is a general complaint in gardens against pear-trees as bad bearers1 and very healthy-looking trees have been known to exist twenty years in a garden without ever even showing any blossoms4 ,various causes have a tendency to produce this effect4 ,the pear being naturally inclined to send down its roots1 will do so1 unless effectually prevented by a chambered border1 or a hard rocky sub-soil2 and if the spongioles of the roots are allowed to descend out of the reach of the air1 the stagnant moisture of the sub-soil will produce the same effect on them as on those of the apple4 ,planting pear-trees in a very rich stiff soil has a similar effect4 ,injudicious pruning1 particularly in summer1 is another cause2 as cutting in young shoots1 while the sap is in motion1 has a tendency to make the tree throw out two new shoots in the room of every one removed1 and thus to exhaust itself in producing branches4 ,summer shoots should either be checked by disbudding as soon as they appear1 or suffered to remain till winter1 when they may be cut in1 without exciting the tree to fresh efforts to replace them4 ,much of the fertility of pear-trees also depends on the habit of the stock being similar to that of the graft2 and much also on a judicious manner of training4 ,as a wall-tree1 the pear is always trained horizontally1 and spurs are left on all the branches for producing fruit4 ,these spurs used formerly to be left large1 and standing out a foot or eighteen inches from the wall2 but they are now found to bear best when kept short4 ,according to this plan1 every spur is allowed to bear only once1 viz4--in its third year2 and after this1 it is cut out to give place to another spur1 which has been trained to succeed it4 ,by this mode of treatment1 a constant succession of young spurs is kept up1 and fruit is produced all over the tree2 whereas1 by the old method of pruning and training1 in the course of a few years1 the projecting spurs became barren1 and fruit was produced only at the extremity of the branches4 ,pears are frequently grafted standard high1 when intended for training against a wall1 in order that they may be used as riders between dwarf plums or peaches4 ,pear-trees generally bear better as espaliers1 or dwarf standards than against a wall1 and this has been attributed to rather a curious reason4 ,the stamens of the pear have naturally very little farina2 and where the blossoms are exposed to great heat1 and have little air circulating round them1 as is the case with wall-trees1 the pollen is very apt to dry up without fertilizing the stigma4 ,the blossoms of espaliers and dwarf standards are exposed to less heat and more air than those of wall-trees2 and thus their pollen is more likely to perform its natural functions4 ,the truth of this observation has been proved by shading the blossoms of a wall pear-tree during the whole period of their expansion1 and fanning them with an artificial current of air by means of bellows1 when it was found that more than twice the usual quantity of fruit was produced4 ,espalier pear-trees have generally a very rough appearance1 from their rugged projecting spurs2 but dwarf standards both look and bear well4 ,it has1 however1 been asserted by some gardeners1 that riders on the walls1 and tall standards in the orchard1 come into bearing earlier than dwarf standards1 unless the branches of the dwarfs are suffered to grow very long1 and are curiously bent and twisted to produce depositions of sap4 ,probably1 however1 the true cause of the dwarf standards not bearing is1 that1 in some cases1 they have been planted in the deep rich soil of the kitchen-garden1 intended for culinary vegetables2 while the trees in the orchard1 compared with them1 were in poor light soil1 and those against the wall in a prepared border4 ,there is perhaps no fruit that has been so much improved by cultivation as the pear2 and this extraordinary improvement has been principally effected by the exertions of ,professor ,van ,mons of ,louvain1 near ,brussels4 ,this gentleman1 towards the latter end of the last century1 having turned his attention to the culture of fruit-trees1 conceived the idea that new varieties of pears might be raised scientifically2 and the result of his first experiment was that he obtained four pears very superior to the kinds previously known3 these kinds were the ,passe ,colmar1 the ,beurr ,spence1 the ,beurr de ,ranz 7commonly called the ,beurr ,rance71 and the ,beurr d'hiver4 ,encouraged by this success1 the ,baron ,van ,mons repeated his experiments every year1 and thus raised above a hundred thousand new kinds of pears2 and though by far the greater part of these proved in the end not worth growing1 many very valuable pears have been obtained4 ,van ,mons's theory is to sow the most perfect seed of the best pear of any given sort that he can procure2 then to force the seedling as soon as possible into fruit1 and to sow the best seed it produces1 and thus to proceed till the fifth or sixth1 or tenth or twelfth generation4 ,in this manner coarse but highly-flavoured fruits were softened down1 and produced some of exquisite flavour2 and among others1 the well-known ,marie ,louise is said to have been the descendant1 in the fifteenth generation1 of a very coarse and harsh-flavoured parent4 ,the ,glout morceau1 one of the very best of the ,flemish pears1 if kept till it is quite ripe1 is another variety1 said to be similarly descended2 and the ,duchesse d',angoulme a third4 ,the goodness of all these pears1 however1 depends a great deal on the stocks upon which they are grafted2 and thus the fruit produced does not always answer the expectations of its growers4 ,another point to be attended to is the thinning out of the fruit1 that more may not set than the tree seems able to ripen1 as1 if the tree is suffered to bear too large a crop1 the fruit will be small1 hard1 and without flavour4 ,the ,quince is a low tree which thrives best near water4 ,it is always grown as a standard2 and the fruit1 which is very ornamental when ripe1 is never eaten raw4 ,it requires no particular care1 except that of planting it in a moist soft soil2 and1 if possible1 where its roots can have access to water4 ,there are four or five kinds grown in nurseries1 but they differ very little from each other4 ,,miscellaneous ,,fruit ,,trees4--,under this head ,i shall include all those trees usually grown as standards in pleasure grounds or orchards2 but which1 as their fruit is eaten1 appear properly to belong to the department of the kitchen-garden4 ,the ,medlar4--,there are three or four kinds of medlars1 one of which is much larger than the others4 ,the medlar will thrive in any soil or situation not too dry2 but1 like the quince1 does best within the reach of water4 ,the fruit1 which is never eaten till it is in a state of decay1 is not of much value1 but the flowers are very large and rather handsome4 ,the ,mulberry4--,there are three distinct species of mulberry1 besides innumerable varieties4 ,the distinct species are the white1 only used for feeding silk-worms with its leaves2 the black1 which is generally grown in gardens for its fruit2 and the red1 or ,american mulberry4 ,many persons are not aware of the difference between the black and the white mulberries1 and they think that if they have a mulberry tree in their garden1 they cannot do better than feed their silk-worms with its leaves2 though the fact is that the white mulberry is scarcely ever grown in ,england1 and the leaves of the black mulberry are positively injurious to the worms4 ,lettuce leaves are indeed better than any other food for silk-worms reared in ,england4 ,the fruit of the red mulberry is eatable1 but not very good2 and its leaves are injurious to silkworms4 ,the black mulberry is said to be a native of ,persia2 but if so it must have been brought to ,europe at a very early period1 as it was common in ,italy when ancient ,rome was at her zenith4 ,it appears to have been introduced into ,england long before #aegc1 as some old trees1 still in existence1 are said to have been of considerable size in that year4 ,the mulberry has several peculiarities in its habits1 which distinguish it from most other trees4 ,the most striking of these is that it may be propagated by truncheons3 that is1 if a large limb of a tree1 as thick as a man's arm or thicker1 be cut off1 and stuck into the ground1 it will grow without any further trouble being taken with it2 and probably the next year1 or the year after1 it will bear abundance of fruit4 ,this ,i believe is the case with no other tree except the olive4 ,the mulberry also is later than any other tree in coming into leaf2 but when it does begin to open its buds1 its leaves are expanded1 and its young fruit formed1 in an incredibly short time4 ,another peculiarity is that old trees frequently split into five or six different parts1 each of which in time becomes surrounded with bark1 so that a very old and thick trunk appears changed into five or six slender new ones3 the branches also1 if they lie along the ground1 take root and become trees2 and if an old mulberry tree be blown down1 every branch sends down roots into the ground1 and in a very short time becomes a tree4 ,when apparently dead1 a mulberry may in most cases be resuscitated by cutting it down to just above the collar1 when it will send up a number of young stems1 which will very soon be covered with fruit4 ,the mulberry1 in other respects1 needs very little care from the gardener2 it requires no pruning2 and even the fruit does not require gathering1 as it drops as soon as it is ripe4 ,the ,elder is rather a shrub than a tree2 and from its very disagreeable smell1 and straggling habit of growth1 it is rarely planted except in cottage gardens4 ,there are several kinds1 one with white berries1 another with green1 and a third1 which is very ornamental1 with scarlet berries4 ,there is also a very handsome kind with cut leaves3 a ptisan made of the flowers is reckoned excellent in ,france for producing perspiration in cases of colds and fevers2 and the fruit of the blackberried kind is used for making wine1 and also a kind of jam4 ,the ,pomegranate4--,if the elder be considered a plebeian fruit1 the pomegranate may be called an aristocratic one1 as it is rarely seen in ,england except in the gardens of persons of rank and wealth4 ,notwithstanding this1 it requires but little care from the gardener1 and it is only necessary for him to spare the knife2 since it is on the points of the shoots1 and on short slender twigs projecting from the branches1 which are exactly what a gardener1 whose only care was to make his tree look neat1 would think it advisable to cut off1 that flowers are produced4 ,pomegranates require very rich and well pulverised soil1 and to be trained against a wall with a south1 or south-east aspect4 ,when it is wished to throw them into fruit1 their blossoms should be shaded during the whole time of their expansion4 ,nut ,trees4--,the principal kinds of nut trees cultivated in ,british gardens are1 the walnut1 the sweet chestnut1 and the filbert4 ,the ,american hickories and the black walnut are sometimes grown1 though but rarely2 as are the ,colurna and other nuts4 ,the almond also1 as it is grown only for the kernel of its stones1 may be classed among the nuts1 though it is1 properly speaking1 a kind of peach4 ,the ,walnut can hardly be mentioned without bringing with it a host of classical recollections4 ,the ,greeks dedicated this tree to ,diana1 and held ftes under its shade2 and the ,romans called its fruit the nut of ,jove4 ,in modern times its wood has obtained rather an unpleasant kind of celebrity1 as being generally used for making the stocks of muskets4 ,in villages and country places1 however1 the walnut recals more agreeable associations2 as its noble leaves and spreading branches render it a delightful tree for shade2 and formerly it used to be frequently found at the doors of cottages and farm houses4 ,there are several kinds of walnut-trees cultivated for their fruit2 all varieties of one species1 and differing principally in the hardness or comparative softness of their shells4 ,walnut-trees are generally propagated by sowing the nuts2 and if the young trees are planted in a light1 sandy1 and well-drained soil1 they will grow rapidly1 and bear at an early age4 ,the custom which prevails among the country people in some parts of ,england and ,france1 of beating a barren walnut-tree to make it bear1 is efficacious1 as the beating breaks off the points of the too luxuriant shoots1 and makes them send out those short spurs which alone produce fruit2 though the end would be attained with more certainty by pruning4 ,a decoction of walnut-leaves and husks is said to be very efficacious in protecting plants against insects1 if sprinkled on the leaves4 ,the nut of the black walnut 7,juglans nigra7 is so hard as to be of little use for the table2 and only two or three of those of the hickories can be considered as fruit4 ,the best of these is the peccane nut 7,carya oliv formis71 of which ,washington is said to have been so fond that he was rarely without some in his pocket1 which he used to be continually eating during his campaigns4 ,the white hiccory 7,carya sulcata71 the outer rind of which is very thick1 is also good to eat4 ,the sweet chestnut is frequently called the ,spanish chestnut1 because the best sweet chestnuts were formerly brought to the ,london markets from ,spain4 ,the tree can1 indeed1 scarcely be considered as an ,english fruit-tree2 though some of the chestnuts sold for the table are grown in ,devonshire4 ,in ,france1 chestnut-trees are more common2 and they are divided there into two kinds3 the chataigniers and the marroniers2 the former bearing about the same relation to the latter as the crab does to the apple4 ,the best chestnuts in ,france are those called les marrons de ,lyons4 ,the sweet chestnut is a native of ,asia2 but it has also been found in the north of ,africa and ,north ,america4 ,it is always propagated by seeds1 and thrives best in a deep sandy loam2 it will grow in even the poorest gravel1 but it never does well in either a calcareous soil1 or a stiff clay4 ,there are several celebrated chestnut-trees of enormous size and great age2 the most remarkable of which are the ,castagna di ,cento ,cavalli on ,mount ,etna1 and the ,tortworth chestnut in ,england4 ,till within the last eight or ten years it was believed that the wood of the chestnut was good timber2 but it has lately been discovered that it is absolutely worthless1 except while quite young3 the wood that was supposed to be chestnut1 having been proved to be that of the ,english chestnut oak 7,quercus sessiliflora74 ,the wood of the chestnut1 when the tree attains a large size1 becomes what the ,english timber-merchants call shaky1 and what the ,french call dialled2 that is1 instead of forming a solid log of timber1 the trunk when cut down is found to fly off in splinters1 or to divide into a number of angular pieces1 as if shivered by a blow from the centre4 ,the filbert is only a variety of the common hazel2 and it is supposed to derive its name from the words 8full beard10 in allusion to the length of its husk4 ,the varieties of the hazel are indeed divided into two classes3 those with long husks which are called the filberts2 and those with short husks which are called the nuts4 ,all the varieties grow best in calcareous soils1 like those of ,kent2 in which county the best nuts grown in ,england are raised4 ,when either filberts or nuts are grown in gardens they are generally planted in rows from five feet to ten feet apart from each other in the row1 according as they are wanted to grow high1 or to spread4 ,filberts are generally propagated by sowing the seeds1 and nuts by suckers1 which the trees throw up in abundance4 8,the principal art in the culture of the filbert as a fruit-tree10 says ,mr4 ,loudon in his ,arboretum ,britannicum1 8consists in training and pruning it properly1 as the blossom is produced upon the sides and extremities of the upper young branches1 and from small young shoots which proceed from the bases of side branches1 cut off the preceding year4 ,the tree requires to be kept remarkably open1 in order that the main branches may produce young wood throughout the whole of their length4 ,in the filbert orchards about ,maidstone1 the trees are trained with short stems like gooseberry-bushes1 and are formed into the shape of a punch-bowl1 exceedingly thin of wood40 ,when the trees are pruned1 care is taken to eradicate all the suckers4 ,filberts are always kept in their husks1 and if they lose their colour and appear black or mouldy1 their appearance is renovated by the dealers1 by putting them into iron trays pierced with holes1 and gently shaking them over a chafing-dish full of charcoal1 on which a little powdered sulphur has been thrown while the charcoal was red-hot4 ,the ,constantinople nut1 or ,colurna hazel1 is a large handsome tree1 and the ,american hazels are shrubs grown occasionally in plantations1 but not cultivated in ,england for their fruit4 ,the almond is in fact a peach-tree1 with a fruit having a leathery pericardium instead of a fleshy one2 and what are called almonds are the kernels of the stones of this fruit4 ,the bitter and sweet almonds are varieties of the same species2 and there are several other varieties differing principally in the degree of hardness of the stone4 ,the other part of the fruit is in all the varieties quite worthless2 except for the prussic acid it contains4 ,the prussic acid used in medicine is1 however1 made principally from the kernel of the bitter almond1 though it does not exist in that of the sweet variety4 ,almond-trees are propagated by grafting either on almond or plum-stocks2 they are frequently planted for the beauty of their flowers1 which appear before the leaves1 but they are seldom grown in ,england for their fruit2 most of the almonds sold in ,london being imported from ,italy or ,spain4 ,the ,jordan almonds1 which are considered the best1 are brought from ,malaga4 ,the almond requires a dry soil1 either sandy or calcareous2 and the situation should be sheltered1 as the branches are brittle and apt to be broken off by high winds4 ,when the stones are sown1 care should be taken to press the sharp ends downwards4 ,the young plants will not bear transplanting1 as they will send down tap-roots two feet long the first season4 ,,fruit-,,shrubs4--,the principal fruit-shrubs grown in gardens are gooseberries1 currants1 and raspberries2 to which may be added barberries and cranberries4 ,the gooseberry4--,the number of varieties of this useful fruit almost exceeds belief1 and fresh kinds are originated every year4 ,the principal reason of the great number of gooseberries thus raised may be traced to the gooseberry shows now so prevalent in different parts of the kingdom4 ,at these shows the largest and heaviest berries gain the prize2 and it thus becomes an object with the exhibitors to grow berries that shall be as large and as heavy as possible4 ,for this purpose they raise a great many new kinds2 and when they have obtained one likely to suit their purpose1 they plant it in very rich soil1 water it well1 and picking off all the berries except three or four1 they nourish these by putting saucers filled with water under each4 ,by these cares gooseberries have been produced weighing above an ounce and a half each2 and one weighing very nearly two ounces2 though gooseberries generally1 even of large size1 seldom weigh above half an ounce4 ,gooseberries may be propagated either by seeds or cuttings2 and they will thrive in any good garden soil1 if it be well drained1 well manured1 and not under the drip of trees4 ,when gooseberries are wanted large1 the ground between the rows should have a coating of rotten manure laid on it every third year4 ,gooseberry-bushes are generally planted in rows1 the rows eight or ten feet apart1 and the bushes six feet from each other in the rows4 ,they are pruned twice a-year3 in winter to remove the branches not likely to produce fruit2 and in summer to clear away the cross shoots which shade the fruit from the sun1 and prevent the access of air to every part of the tree4 ,it is a very good plan to thin the fruit2 which is easily done when gathering green gooseberries for pies and puddings1 by taking a few from every branch and never gathering from the same tree twice4 ,the gooseberry bush produces fruit both on the old and young wood2 but in the summer pruning all the long slender shoots which the tree sends out beyond the part which produces fruit should be cut off1 to prevent the plant from wasting its strength4 ,the best red gooseberries for general use are perhaps the following3 the ,warrington1 which is a great bearer1 and retains its fruit a long time on the tree2 the ,champagne1 an early gooseberry of very fine flavour2 the early ,rough-,red1 small1 but remarkable for its sweetness2 the ,roaring-,lion1 the largest gooseberry grown1 a good bearer1 the berries of which are oblong1 and have a smooth skin2 the ,ironmonger1 the fruit of which is almost black2 the ,crown-,bob1 a very large gooseberry1 equally good for using green or ripe2 and the ,top-,sawyer1 a large1 round and rough gooseberry1 with a very thin skin1 and agreeable flavour4 ,the best white gooseberries1 are the ,white ,dutch1 the ,whitesmith1 ,wellington's ,glory1 and the ,cheshire ,lass1 the last two being of very large size2 the best yellow are ,rumbullion1 and ,rockwood1 the first of which is reckoned the best of all gooseberries for preserving2 and the best green are ,ocean1 a large early gooseberry1 and the ,pitmaston ,greengage1 a late variety1 remarkable for its extraordinary sweetness1 and for its hanging on the tree till killed by frost4 ,currants are very seldom raised from seed2 as there is no particular desire for the production of new sorts4 ,the usual mode of propagation is by cuttings1 which are taken off the strongest shoots in autumn or early in spring1 and planted in rich soil4 ,the cuttings are generally about a foot long2 and all the buds are taken off except five or six at the top3 the cutting is then firmly inserted in the soil about six inches deep4 ,no other care is required but pruning the young trees every year4 ,the currant bears on spurs of the old and new wood2 and as currant-trees1 when pruned1 are generally cut into these spurs1 a currant-bush after its winter pruning looks like a worthless stump1 fit only for the fire4 ,the currant is very hardy1 and will grow in any soil or situation1 even under the drip of trees4 ,in open situations and rich soils1 currants have been grown to a very large size2 but not proportionately large to gooseberries4 ,the red1 white1 and striped currants are varieties of the same species2 but the black is another species4 ,all belong to the same genus as the gooseberry4 ,raspberries are1 what are called1 travelling plants2 that is to say1 if left to themselves1 they would1 by the old plants dying off1 and being succeeded by suckers every year1 soon travel over a considerable extent of ground4 ,the raspberry thrives best in a light1 free loam1 moderately rich2 and in an open situation4 ,it always bears on the young shoots1 so that the principal art required in pruning it consists in cutting out the old wood1 and shortening the young4 ,the height at which the bearing shoots should be left is three feet1 or four feet4 ,the best raspberries are the red and yellow ,antwerp4 ,raspberries are propagated by suckers1 which are produced in great abundance every year4 ,the raspberry belongs to the same genus as the bramble1 or blackberry4 ,barberries4--,no fruit-tree or shrub requires less care in its culture than the barberry1 or1 as it is more properly called1 the berberry4 ,the sorts usually grown for their fruit are all varieties of the common sort3 they are the common red1 the stoneless1 and the sweet4 ,several varieties of the ,mahonia or ,ash berberry bear excellent fruit1 but the trees are at present too rare1 and of too high a price1 to be cultivated for that purpose4 ,the berberry will grow in any soil and situation1 and it does not require any pruning4 ,the ,cranberry will only grow in moist soil1 or peat earth4 ,it succeeds very well on the muddy margin of a pond2 particularly if a row of stakes be driven into the water two or three feet from the edge1 and lined with stones1 on which is laid a quantity of bog earth4 ,in this earth the cranberries are planted1 and they will require no after-care except the occasional trimming into shape of their long runners4 ,the common cranberry is a native of ,england1 ,scotland1 and indeed of all the north of ,europe2 but its fruit is much smaller than that of the ,american cranberry1 which has also a more delicate flavour4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,flower-,,garden1 ,,and ,,the ,,culture ,,of ,,flowers4 ,whatever doubts may be entertained as to the practicability of a lady attending to the culture of culinary vegetables and fruit-trees1 none can exist respecting her management of the flower-garden1 as that is pre-eminently a woman's department4 ,the culture of flowers implies the lightest possible kind of garden labour2 only1 indeed1 enough to give an interest in its effects4 ,this light labour is1 in fact1 one of the reasons that the culture of flowers is so generally a favourite occupation2 as1 though it is one of the conditions of our nature that we shall never enjoy what is too easily obtained1 it is equally true that we cannot associate the ideas of pleasure with anything that gives us very much trouble4 ,the culture of flowers is exactly in the happy medium between what is too hard and what is too easy4 ,there are difficulties in it1 but they are such as may be readily surmounted2 and the result at once gratifies our own sense of what is beautiful1 and our pride at being the means of presenting1 so much that is worthy to be admired1 to others4 ,laying out a ,flower-,garden4--,very little need be said of the aspect of the flower-garden1 as1 in most cases1 it depends on circumstances quite beyond the control of the cultivator of flowers3 when1 however1 a situation can be chosen1 the best is one open to the south or south-east1 and sheltered on the north4 ,it must be observed1 however1 in all situations1 that flowers never do well under the shade of trees4 ,where no ground can be spared for a flower-garden but a spot surrounded by tall trees1 it is better to give up at once the idea of growing flowers in it in beds1 and to ornament it with rock-work1 fountains1 vases1 statues1 c41 interspersed with a few flowering trees and shrubs1 so arranged1 that though their flowers1 if produced1 would augment the beauty of the scene1 the want of them may not destroy it1 if they should fail4 ,flower-gardens are of two kinds1--those that are called natural1 and which are planted without any regard to regularity1 and those that are called geometrical1 and which consist of beds forming some definite figure4 ,the natural1 or ,english style1 as it is called abroad1 however beautiful it may be in pleasure-grounds1 is very ill adapted to a flower-garden1 which is essentially artificial4 ,the principal beauty of a flower-garden consists1 indeed1 in the elegance with which it has been arranged1 and the neatness with which it is kept2 or1 in other words1 in the evidence it affords of the art that has been employed in forming it4 ,this being the case1 it is quite clear that an artificial mode of arrangement is more suitable to it than any other1 as it is best adapted for keeping up the harmony of the whole4 ,in all cases1 therefore1 where the garden is large enough to show a formal figure to advantage1 the artificial mode of arrangement should be adopted2 and wherever it is adopted1 the beds should be planted so as to form masses of different-coloured flowers4 ,where1 however1 the garden is very small1 and no part of it can be set entirely apart for flowers1 no attempt should be made to produce masses of colour in regular forms2 but the plants should be arranged along the borders singly1 or in patches1 as may be best adapted to display the individual beauties of each4 ,in some cases1 flowers may be planted in borders1 so as to form a miniature representation of the natural system3 as1 for instance1 first there may be planted anemones and ranunculuses1 interspersed with patches of ,flos ,adonis1 larkspurs1 c4 to come into flower when the anemones and ranunculuses have done flowering2 next should be some poppies and fumitories2 and next1 stocks and wall-flowers4 ,in this manner1 the beds might be arranged1 by mixing perennials and annuals1 so as to form an ornamental botanic garden during the whole of the flowering season2 and the flower-garden would thus become not merely a source of elegant amusement1 but also actually of scientific knowledge1 without any appearance of formal arrangement4 ,when the flower-garden is to be a geometrical one1 the best way of designing it is to draw a figure on paper consisting of angular1 circular1 or serpentine forms1 to represent beds1 and arranging them so as to form a whole4 ,this may appear easy at first1 but to do it well1 requires a great deal of both taste and ingenuity2 as each form should not only harmonize well with the others1 but be handsome in itself4 ,where the space to be laid out is small1 the figure may be more complex1 and the separate beds more grotesque in their shapes1 than where the garden is large3 but where a large space is devoted to flowers1 only simply formed beds should be adopted4 ,the reason for this is1 that where the beds are of bizarre shapes1 they require to be seen at one coup-d'il to have a good effect2 whereas simple and uniform shapes may be seen either together or alone1 without producing any disagreeable impression on the mind4 ,thus1 in large flower-gardens1 a succession of circles or ovals at regular distances1 so as to form continually changing vistas to the spectator who walks through them1 will have a much better effect than any geometric figure1 the parts composing which appear ridiculous when disjointed4 ,whatever figures may be adopted1 as soon as they have been sketched on paper1 each bed should be coloured2 to try what arrangement of colours will be best suited to the form of the beds1 c4 ,the colours1 of course1 should be those usually found in flowers3 for example1 yellow1 scarlet1 blue1 pink1 orange1 and purple2 and they should be arranged1 not only with a view to effect1 but with regard to the practicability of filling the beds with suitable flowers4 ,the colours above mentioned may1 however1 generally be procured1 and a bed of white flowers may be added at pleasure wherever it may appear necessary4 ,the forms of the beds having been decided on1 the next step is to mark them on the ground1 and this is done in several different ways4 ,one is by covering the figure with squares1 and then forming much larger squares with pack-thread over the ground2 that part of the outline of the figure contained in each of the small squares is then to be transferred to the corresponding large square1 by tracing it on the ground with the point of a stick4 ,when the pattern is regular1 it is sometimes marked on the ground by stretching a garden-line from one point to another by means of pegs4 ,when this line is so arranged as to form the proper figure1 it is chalked1 and made to thrill between the pegs1 so as to transfer the chalk in the proper lines to the ground4 ,when circles are to be traced1 it is done by first fixing a stake in the centre1 and then forming a loop at the end of a cord1 and putting it over the stake4 ,one end of the cord being thus fastened to the stake1 the other end should be stretched out to the extremity of the radius or half-diameter of the circle1 and a short pointed stick should be tied to it1 with which1 the circle may be traced all round4 ,an oval is made by tracing two circles1 the outer edge of one of which just touches the centre of the other2 a short line is then drawn at the top1 and another at the bottom1 and this1 when the central lines are obliterated1 forms the oval4 ,many other ways will suggest themselves1 and may be adopted3 the essential points in all being to have the ground first dug1 and made perfectly smooth and level2 and then to have the figure clearly and accurately traced out and tested by measurement1 before any of the beds are formed1 or the turf or gravel laid down4 ,planting the beds and forming the walks require nearly as much care as tracing out the figure4 ,many persons1 however1 are not aware of this3 they think1 if the figure be good and accurately traced on the ground1 that nothing more will be required2 or1 if any thing more be necessary1 it is only to indicate the proper colours of the beds to the gardener4 ,this1 however1 is not enough2 low plants producing abundance of flowers must be chosen1 and these must be carefully trained1 or pegged down1 so as to cover the beds entirely1 or the effect will be destroyed4 ,if1 for example1 a bed of scarlet be wanted1 a lady would probably think that her gardener would have no trouble in finding abundance of scarlet flowers2 and having told him the colour1 she would give herself no further trouble4 ,now the kind of scarlet flower to be used1 depends entirely on the position of the bed1 and the kinds of flowers used in the other beds4 ,if these flowers have been dwarfs1 and trained so as entirely to cover the ground1 the scarlet flower used1 should be the verbena melindres1 7or chamdrifolia as it is now called17 or some of its varieties1 and each stem should be pegged down close to the ground4 ,thus treated1 and supplied with abundance of water1 being grown in rich light soil1 on a porous subsoil or well drained1 the verbena will soon become a splendid mass of scarlet1 almost too dazzling for the eye to bear1 unless it be relieved by grass walks between the beds4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the bed in question had been planted with one of the scarlet lobelias1 or even scarlet geraniums1 the effect would have been quite different1 from the taller growth of the plants1 and the greater proportion of leaves to their flowers4 ,where geraniums are grown to produce an effect in beds1 the plants should be kept bushy while in the green-house or frame1 by continually shifting them into larger pots1 or frequently taking off the points of their shoots2 and when planted out1 they should be at least a foot or eighteen inches asunder1 increasing the distance1 if the plants are very large4 ,the kind should be the ,frogmore or ,dropmore varieties2 and the plants should be well watered1 and frequently pruned wherever they throw up long shoots4 ,other plants should be treated in a similar manner2 and great care should be taken to keep all the plants in the beds which are to combine to form a figure1 of the same height1 and equally covered with flowers4 ,the centre bed alone may have taller plants4 ,where the walks are of gravel1 a greater proportion of leaves may be allowed to the flowers2 but a geometrical flower-garden never looks half so well on gravel as on grass4 ,the walks of a geometrical flower-garden1 if of grass1 may be laid down with turf1 or sown with grass seeds2 and in either case they should never be pared 7as that would enlarge the beds1 and destroy their proportion to the walks71 unless some part should accidentally project into the bed1 when it should be removed1 and the turf pressed down so as to form the same gradual slope from the bed to the walk as in the other part4 ,where the walks are of gravel1 the beds should have a neat edging of box1 or any other plant that may be preferred1 kept quite low and narrow1 by frequent pruning1 but which should never be clipped4 ,the ,culture of ,flowers4--,the ornamental flowers grown in gardens may be all arranged under the heads of annuals1 biennials1 perennials1 bulbs1 tubers1 corms1 flowering dwarf shrubs1 climbers1 twiners1 trailers1 and rock plants2 and as the culture of the plants in each division is nearly the same1 ,i shall say a few words on each1 particularizing those plants which require a different treatment from the ordinary routine of their kind4 ,annuals4--,most of the hardy annual flowers should be sown in ,march1 ,april1 or ,may1 in the open border where they are intended to remain4 ,the usual method of sowing in the borders1 is1 first to loosen the ground with a fork1 and to break it very fine2 after which it should be made perfectly level1 and raked4 ,a circle is then made by pressing the bottom of a flower-pot saucer1 three or four inches in diameter1 on the ground2 and six or eight seeds are spread over the level surface thus formed3 a little soil is then sprinkled over them1 and the surface slightly pressed again with the saucer4 ,if the weather1 or the soil be dry1 a slight watering should be given to the seeds after sowing1 with a watering-pot having a very fine rose2 but this must be done carefully1 as too much water would wash the seeds out of their place4 ,it is usual1 after sowing1 to stick a flat stick into the ground in the centre of the patch with the name of the flower upon it2 and it is better to write these names very plainly1 with a rather soft black-lead pencil than with ink1 as the ink is very apt to run1 and to render the words indistinct4 ,very neat little tallies1 called monogrammes1 made of very smooth wood1 and prepared for writing on1 are sold at the principal seed shops4 ,it is customary with many gardeners1 after sowing flower seeds1 to turn a flower-pot over them2 and this practice is useful in keeping the seeds moist by preventing evaporation1 while the hole in the bottom of the pot admits enough light and air for germination4 ,the flower-pot should1 however1 be removed as soon as the young plants appear above ground2 as if kept on longer1 the plants would be drawn up1 and their stems would become so elongated1 and consequently so weak1 that they would never recover their strength or beauty4 ,flowering plants should always be kept dwarf and compact2 not only on account of the superior neatness of their appearance1 but because tall1 ill-grown plants never produce fine flowers4 ,for this reason1 as soon as annuals attain their second pair of leaves they should be thinned out2 and again1 when about a foot high1 if necessary4 ,as the plants grow they should be watered occasionally2 and when of a proper height1 staked and tied up1 if of a kind to require support4 ,as soon as the flowers fade they should be cut off2 unless1 as is sometimes the case1 the plant has very ornamental seed pods1 in which case they may be left on4 ,it is seldom worth while for any lady to save her own seed2 but when she does so1 the plants for that purpose should be grown in a back garden or reserve-ground1 as they greatly disfigure a flower-garden4 ,all annuals1 indeed1 should be taken up1 and carried to the refuse heap as soon as they cease to be ornamental2 as in their withered state1 they only call up unpleasant images in the mind4 ,tender annuals are raised on a hot-bed1 and though generally sown in ,february1 are not planted in the open ground till ,may4 ,when they have been raised in pots1 the contents of each pot should be carefully turned out1 and put into a hole made to receive them without breaking the ball of earth that has formed round the roots of the plants4 ,as some plants1 as for example stocks1 and all the crucifer1 require a rich soil1 a hole may be dug in the border a foot or eighteen inches in diameter1 and about the same depth1 and filled with a rich compost of equal parts of garden mould1 decayed leaves1 and well rotted manure1 or what is much better1 with either the remains of the trenches in which celery was grown the preceding summer1 or the earth used in covering1 or that laid round1 manure while fermenting for a hot-bed4 ,the hole should be filled with this compost1 so as to raise it about six inches higher than the rest of the border1 to allow for the new earth sinking1 and the annuals should be planted in the centre1 and carefully shaded for a few days by a flower-pot being turned over them4 ,the mode of making and managing a hot-bed has been already given in the second chapter of this work2 but the readiest way for the inhabitants of a suburban villa to obtain half-hardy annuals1 is to purchase them from some nurseryman when ready for transplanting4 ,the usual price is from two-pence to four-pence for a dozen plants2 and thus1 for a couple of shillings1 a sufficient number of plants may be procured to make a splendid display for a whole summer4 ,no one should1 indeed1 attempt to manage a hot-bed1 who has not some person to pay constant attention to it2 as one day's neglect respecting giving air1 watering1 c4 will often destroy the hopes of a whole season4 ,the ,californian annuals require peculiar treatment4 ,these plants are very hardy1 and though many of them are of short duration in flower1 they may1 by proper management1 be contrived to produce a brilliant effect during the whole summer4 ,for this purpose a well-trodden path1 or a piece of very hard ground1 should be covered about an inch thick with very light rich soil2 and the seeds of any of the ,californian annuals should be sown in it4 ,these will stand the winter1 and in ,february or ,march1 when the flower-beds have been dug over1 and made quite smooth1 the annuals should be taken up with the spade in patches and laid on the bed2 the spaces between the patches being filled up with soil1 and the whole made quite firm and compact1 by beating each patch down with the back of the spade4 ,as soon as the patches have been removed1 fresh earth should be spread on the hard ground1 and fresh seeds sown in it1 the plants springing from which will be ready to transfer to the beds as soon as the first series have done flowering2 and in this way a succession of flowers may be kept up nearly all the year1 observing to dig over the bed in the flower-garden to which the flowers are to be transplanted1 and to rake it smooth every time the old flowers are removed1 in order to prepare it for the new ones4 ,biennials are plants which do not flower till the second year4 ,they are generally sown in ,march1 ,april1 or ,may1 and are transplanted in ,september1 to the situations where they are to flower the following year4 ,the best known of these flowers are the different kinds of hollyhock1 snapdragon1 ,canterbury bells1 wallflowers1 sweet-williams1 notheras1 and ,brompton stocks2 but there are many others extremely beautiful and equally well deserving of cultivation4 ,most of the biennials may be propagated by layers or cuttings1 and thus treated1 they will last four or five years4 ,perennial herbaceous plants are so numerous1 that few general directions can be given for their culture1 and it will be necessary to treat of the principal families separately4 ,perennial flowers are generally propagated by layers1 cuttings1 offsets1 suckers1 and division of the root2 for when raised from seed1 many of the kinds do not blossom for several years4 ,when propagated by layers1 the earth which is pressed over the pegged-down shoot1 should not be kept too moist2 as layers of herbaceous plants1 particularly where the stem has been partly slit through1 are very apt to rot4 ,the same remark holds good as to cuttings2 and they should generally have fewer leaves left on1 than cuttings of trees and shrubs4 ,many plants produce offsets1 such as the potentilla1 the wild geranium1 c41 and these only require separating from the parent1 and planting in spring2 all the flower-buds should1 however1 be pinched off the first year1 to strengthen the plant1 and to encourage it to send down roots4 ,suckers are treated in exactly the same manner as offsets4 ,division of the roots is1 however1 the most common way of propagating perennials4 ,to do this the plant is generally taken up1 and the roots pulled asunder if dry1 or cut into pieces if fleshy1 and replanted2 care being taken to cut off any part of the fibrous roots that may have been wounded1 or broken1 by the removal4 ,the plant itself is also generally pruned or cut in1 and some of its leaves are taken off before replanting1 and carefully shaded and watered till it has recovered from the effects of its removal4 ,all perennial plants should be occasionally taken up1 thinned1 and replanted with the same precautions3 and the ground dug over1 and renovated1 before they are replaced4 ,the most remarkable kinds of herbaceous plants are those called florists' flowers4 ,this name indicates plants grown principally for the purpose of exhibiting at some show to gain a prize1 and on the culture of which an extraordinary degree of care has been bestowed4 ,most of these are either bulbs or tubers1 but some few come under the present head2 and of these the most remarkable are the auricula1 the polyanthus1 the carnation1 the pink1 the heartsease1 and the chrysanthemum4 ,auriculas are well-known and favourite flowers2 the wild plant is a native of ,switzerland1 but it is almost as different from the cultivated kinds1 as the wild cabbage is from brocoli or cauliflower4 ,the garden auriculas have almost innumerable names1 but they are all divided into four kinds1 very distinct from each other4 ,these kinds are the green-edged1 the grey-edged1 the white-edged1 and the selfs4 ,the beauty of the flowers depends upon their size1 the clearness of their colours1 and their roundness and flatness2 these last qualities being often assisted by art3 the anthers of the stamens should also rise above the pistil2 as when the pistil is seen above the anthers1 the flower is called pin-eyed1 and is esteemed of little value by florists4 ,the culture of the auricula1 when it is to be grown as a prize-flower1 demands a degree of care and attention that no one but a professed florist would think it worth his while to bestow4 ,the great points appear to be to make the soil as rich as possible1 only1 however1 using the cold manures1 such as cow-dung1 c42 to let the pots be very well drained1 by placing about an inch and a half deep of broken pot-shreds in each pot2 and to keep the plants well and regularly watered4 ,when the flowers expand1 they are generally shaded with square pieces of board1 tin1 or paste-board1 supported by a stick just over the flower1 so as to shelter it from the direct influence of the sun1 but to admit a free current of air1 and sufficient light4 ,this precaution is said to improve the clearness and intensity of the colours1 which otherwise are apt to become dull and clouded4 ,those persons who grow auriculas for sale1 generally show them on what is called a blooming-stage1 and shade them with an awning like that used for a tulip-bed4 ,the plants are propagated by offsets1 or dividing the root2 and new varieties are continually being raised from seed4 ,auriculas are occasionally double or semi-double1 but these varieties are considered by florists very far inferior to the single kinds4 ,the ,polyanthus is of the same genus as the auricula1 and of the same species as the primrose4 ,it is1 however1 a very distinct variety of the last2 and it is said to take its name of polyanthus1 which signifies many-flowered1 from its producing its flowers in trusses like the auricula1 while the flowers of the primrose are produced singly1 each on a separate stalk rising from the root4 ,the qualities of the polyanthus resemble those of the auricula as to form and shape1 but there is not the same variety as to colour1 as the polyanthus is always of a very dark brownish red and golden yellow4 ,the best flowers have generally a narrow edging of a bright golden colour1 and as clear and distinct as possible1 round the margin of each petal2 and no flower is at all esteemed that has what is called a pin-eye2 that is1 as before mentioned with regard to the auricula1 when the pistil projects beyond the anthers of the stamens4 ,the polyanthus is propagated by slips1 and division of the root1 and new varieties are raised from seed4 ,the ,primrose differs essentially from the polyanthus and the auricula1 in being only esteemed when double1 while they are not considered to rank as florists' flowers unless they are single4 ,the primrose1 indeed1 is not a florist's flower2 and its pretty double pale yellow1 dark scarlet1 lilac1 and white varieties are only grown as common border flowers4 ,they like a rich loamy soil1 rather moist than otherwise1 and a shady situation2 and they are propagated by division of the roots4 ,the ,carnation has long been a favourite florists' flower2 and1 as it is not quite so difficult to grow to a considerable degree of perfection as the auricula1 it is also a favourite border flower4 ,the florists' carnations are of three kinds1 viz4--the flakes1 which are striped with broad bands of two colours2 the bizarres1 which are striped or streaked with three colours2 and the picottees1 which are much the hardiest1 and are only bordered with a narrow margin of some dark colour1 or dotted with very small and almost imperceptible spots4 ,the carnation1 in its wild state1 is a native of ,england1 and is generally found on the walls of some old castle1 or other ruin1 or growing in very poor1 gravelly1 or calcareous soil4 ,the cultivated plant1 of course1 requires different treatment2 and the following directions have been kindly given to us by one of the first growers of carnations in ,france1 ,m4 ,triquet de ,blanc1 ,rue de la ,madelaine1 ,paris3--8,the compost should be a fresh mellow loam1 mixed with an equal quantity of what the ,french call terre de taupinire1 and we1 casts from mole-hills2 to this mixture should be added a fifth of well-rotten cow-dung1 so thoroughly decayed as to have become quite black4 ,the soil thus prepared should be pressed firmly into the pots1 more so1 indeed1 than for any other plant3 thus there should be twice as much earth as usual in pots for carnations4 ,the pots are placed in the sun till the #aeth or #bjth of ,november1 and watered a little at a time1 but often4 ,after the #bjth of ,november1 at latest1 the plants should be kept entirely in the shade1 so that they may not be exposed to the sun at any time during the day2 and it is also absolutely necessary that they should be kept under a roof where they may be sheltered from the rain and snow2 but they must not be put in a hot-house1 as a cold situation suits them much better4 ,during frosty weather1 they should be very little watered1 in order that the soil in which they grow may not freeze very hard4 ,they are thus left in the shade till the end of ,april1 when1 there being no longer white hoar frosts to fear1 they may be exposed to the east1 so that the sun may shine upon them from its rising to the middle of the day1 but no longer4 ,thus treated1 they will grow luxuriantly1 and produce a magnificent show of flowers40 ,the best places for carnations in ,london1 are1 ,groom's1 ,walworth2 and ,hogg's1 ,paddington ,green4 ,carnations are propagated by layers and cuttings which1 as we have before mentioned1 are called pipings4 ,the layers are made when the flowers are in full blossom1 and several are made at once1 as the operation frequently kills the old plant1 and consequently cannot be practised with advantage unless a great many plants are ready to take its place4 ,the layers are cut half through as usual2 and covered half an inch deep with mould4 ,as the stalks are very brittle1 when they are wet and succulent1 it is customary to place the plant in the sun for about half an hour1 or an hour1 to render it flaccid before the layers are made4 ,the layers will generally be well rooted in a month or six weeks1 and will then be ready to be separated from the parent plant4 ,the mode of treating pipings has been already described4 ,when the buds begin to form they are frequently tied round with a strand of bast mat1 to prevent them from bursting2 and just as they are opening1 a bit of paste-board curiously cut is slipped under the flower to keep the petals in their proper place4 ,each flower is also furnished with a paper or tin cap to shade it from the sun1 and a stake to tie it to1 in order to keep the stalk erect4 ,clove-carnations bear the same relation to florists' carnations1 as unbroken tulips1 or self-coloured auriculas do to the finer flowers4 ,the tree-carnation is a half-shrubby variety of the same species1 and the mule pink is a hybrid between the carnation 7,dianthus caryophyllus7 and the sweet-william 7,dianthus barbatus47 ,all these may be treated as common perennial border flowers4 ,the ,pink4--,it is remarkable that though the pink is a commoner and hardier flower than the carnation1 it is not known in a wild state1 and it does not appear to have been much cultivated till the latter half of the last century1 though it is said to have been introduced in #afbi4 ,its origin is indeed very uncertain2 some botanists considering it as a variety of the carnation1 and others making it a distinct species1 under the name of ,dianthus plumarius4 ,there are now many named sorts1 and the best laced pinks rank as florists' flowers2 their culture being the same as that of the carnation4 ,the other kinds are considered inferior1 and are grown like common herbaceous plants in the open borders4 ,the ,heartsease has only within the last few years ranked as a florist's flower4 ,it had long been a favourite in gardens as its innumerable popular names may testify2 but it was reserved for a young lady1 aided by an industrious and intelligent gardener1 to show the world the extraordinary variations of which the flower is susceptible4 ,about the year #ahaj or #ahab1 the present lady ,monck1 then ,lady ,mary ,bennet1 had a small flower-garden entirely planted with heartseases in the garden of her father1 the late ,earl of ,tankerville1 at ,walton-upon-,thames4 ,the young lady naturally wished to get as many different sorts into her garden as possible2 and at her desire1 the gardener1 ,mr4 ,richardson1 raised as many new kinds as he could from seed4 ,from this small beginning the present passion for heartseases took its rise4 ,mr4 ,richardson1 astonished at the great variety and beauty of his seedlings1 showed them to ,mr4 ,lee1 of the ,hammersmith ,nursery4 ,mr4 ,lee instantly saw the advantages to be derived from the culture of the plant2 other nurserymen followed his example1 and in a few years the heartsease took its place as a florists' flower4 ,the heartsease mania was at its height from #ahce to #ahch2 but during the last year1 it has appeared somewhat on the decline4 ,the most splendid flowers grown for exhibition are generally hybrids1 which possess1 in a great degree1 the qualities of both parents4 ,thus1 though almost every heartsease has sprung partly from the wild kind1 7,viola tricolor17 its other parent may be traced by its general appearance4 ,the very large dark purple and yellow flowers are descended from ,viola grandiflora1 a species with large yellowish flowers2 other large flowers1 with dark purple upper petals1 and the lower ones of a bluish tinge1 are descended from ,v4 amna2 and the offspring of ,v4 lutea are nearly all yellow1 strongly marked with very dark branched lines4 ,the hybrids raised partly from ,v4 altaica are of a very pale yellow1 and the petals have an undulated margin2 those from ,v4 ,rothomogensis1 or ,v4 hispida1 are of a pale blue2 and those from ,v4 bicolor are white1 slightly veined with purple1 and tinged with yellow at the base4 ,all these vary exceedingly by continual crossings1 but some of the characteristics of the parents always remain4 ,the culture of the heartsease requires much attention4 ,it is the habit of the plant to ripen a succession of seed during the whole of its flowering season3 thus it bears flowers and ripe seeds at the same time during the whole summer4 ,the seeds should be sown in a bed of rich garden mould1 at least eighteen inches deep1 and highly manured1 and the young plants should be suffered to remain till they have flowered1 when all the plants should be taken up1 the best replanted eighteen inches apart if in a bed1 or in pots or boxes1 and the inferior ones thrown away4 ,the best soil for replanting the heartsease1 particularly if they are in pots or boxes1 is rich loam1 mixed with one-sixth of sand and one-sixth of vegetable mould2 and in large towns1 all these soils may be purchased in small quantities from the nurserymen4 ,the pots and boxes should also be well drained2 for it must be remembered1 that though the heartsease is very liable to be scorched by the excessive heat of the sun1 and will require constant watering in hot weather2 it is also very liable to be damped off by cold and wet in winter4 ,the best varieties are propagated by cuttings1 taken off in spring1 which grow rapidly so as to flower the same summer or autumn4 ,these cuttings should be taken from the points of the shoots1 cutting them off immediately below a joint2 and they should be struck in pure white sand1 as when the cutting is put into earth it is very apt to damp off4 ,the cuttings when made should not be watered1 but should be covered with a bell glass1 and shaded for several days1 on account of the succulent nature of the stems1 and great evaporation from the leaves4 ,heartseases are sometimes propagated by layers1 in which case the branch should be only pegged down at a joint1 and not slit1 on account of its tendency to damp off4 ,chrysanthemums are principally winter flowers1 and they are valuable for affording a brilliant show at a season when there are few other flowers to be seen4 ,in ,november and ,december1 when no other flowers are in blossom1 these flowers are in full beauty2 and ,mr4 ,loudon tells me that he has seen the walls of two small street-gardens1 one belonging to ,mr4 ,ingpen at ,chelsea1 and the other to ,mr4 ,allen1 ,chapel ,street1 ,edgware-,road1 so completely covered with them as to present a most brilliant and dazzling appearance4 ,chrysanthemums may therefore be safely recommended as most valuable flowers for both town and country2 and their great number and beauty make them particularly interesting4 ,there are1 indeed1 numerous varieties of every possible shade of yellow1 brown1 orange1 buff1 pink1 reddish-purple1 lilac1 and white1 but not blue4 ,all the different varieties of chrysanthemums1 and there are nearly a hundred named sorts1 may be referred to six distinct tribes2 and these are the following3 #a4 ,ranunculus-flowered2 #b4 ,incurved2 #c4 ,china-aster1 or ,daisy-flowered2 #d4 ,marigold-flowered2 #e4 ,tassel-flowered1 or ,quilled2 and #f4 ,half-double ,tassel-flowered4 ,the ranunculus-flowered have generally small flowers1 in clusters1 like little roses2 but the rest have large1 handsome flowers1 particularly the tasselled kinds1 the quilled petals of which are very long1 and hang down like tassels4 ,the culture of the chrysanthemum differs according to the use which it is proposed to make of it4 ,when it is to be flowered in pots1 cuttings are taken from the tops of the shoots in ,april2 and as soon as they have taken root they are transplanted into very small pots1 where they are planted in a compost formed of equal parts of sand1 loam1 and peat4 ,as soon as they begin to grow1 and send out plenty of roots1 they are removed into other1 rather larger1 pots2 and this shifting is repeated eight or nine1 and sometimes ten or twelve times4 ,this constant shifting will keep the plants bushy1 without the cultivator being under the necessity of pinching off the ends of the shoots2 a practice which1 though it answers the desired end of keeping the plants of a compact habit of growth1 has yet the inconvenience of making them throw out so many shoots and leaves as to weaken the flowers4 ,when the chrysanthemums are to be planted in the open border against a wall1 their roots should be parted in autumn or early spring1 and planted in very rich and highly manured1 but light soil1 at the foot of a south or west wall1 against which they should be trained like a peach-tree1 and all the superfluous shoots cut off4 ,when planted1 they should be carefully watered1 not only at their roots1 but all over their leaves1 with a fine-rosed watering-pot1 or garden-engine4 ,they should afterwards be watered three times a-day1 and occasionally with soap-suds1 or manured water1 that is1 water in which manure has been steeped4 ,thus treated1 the plants will grow six or eight feet high1 and their flowers will not only be produced in great abundance1 but they will be of enormous size1 and very brilliant in their colours4 ,the best chrysanthemums in ,london are at ,chandler's nursery1 ,vauxhall4 ,bulbs and ,tubers4--,the most interesting bulbs in a flower-garden are the tulip1 the hyacinth1 and the crocus2 and the most interesting tubers are the ranunculus1 the anemone1 and the dahlia4 ,there are1 however1 many other flowers of both kinds highly deserving of cultivation4 ,the culture of all the bulbs is nearly the same2 but that of the tuberous-rooted flowers differs in different plants4 ,bulbs are generally planted in autumn to flower in spring2 and are taken up when their leaves begin to wither1 to be kept out of the ground a month or two in complete repose before they are replanted4 ,they are generally propagated by offsets1 which are produced by the side of the old bulb2 or rather1 by the side of the new bulb1 which is formed every year to supply the place of the old one1 which wastes away4 ,the new bulb sometimes forms beside the old one2 and sometimes below it or above it2 and this is one of the principal reasons why bulbs should be taken up and replanted every year2 as1 when this is not attended to1 those bulbs that form every year below the old bulb1 sink so low in the course of a few years1 that they become too far removed from the air to vegetate2 while those that form above the old bulb are pushed so high out of the ground that they are often killed by frost or drought4 ,in this way1 valuable plants often disappear from gardens1 without their owners having the slightest suspicion of the cause4 ,it is1 however1 rarely worth while to take up the common garden bulbs3 such as the snow-drop1 the crown-imperial1 c41 every year2 particularly as they generally form their new bulbs at the side of the old bulb3 but even these kinds should be taken up every two or three years4 ,when raised from seed1 bulbs are generally from three to five years before they produce flowers2 and they are never propagated by layers or cuttings4 ,tulips4--,experienced florists raise tulips from seed to obtain new varieties2 but as the young bulbs are frequently from five to seven years before they flower1 this mode of propagating tulips does not suit amateurs4 ,even when seedling tulips do flower1 they produce only self-coloured flowers1 for the first two or three years1 and in this state they are called breeders4 ,to make them break1 that is1 produce the brilliant and distinct colours which constitute the beauty of a florist's tulip1 they are subjected to the most sudden and violent changes of soil1 climate1 and management4 ,at one time1 they are grown in poor soil1 and only allowed enough water to keep them living2 and then they are suddenly transported to the richest soil1 abounding with food and moisture4 ,sometimes1 to change the climate effectually1 florists send their tulips to be grown for a year or two twenty miles or more from the place where they were raised2 and then they are brought back to their native air4 ,this laborious and unscientific mode of proceeding is1 however1 now rapidly giving place to a proper method of hybridizing2 after which the young bulbs are brought forward by means of bottom-heat1 water1 and frequent shiftings1 so as to flower and break the second or third season4 ,florists' tulips are generally divided into four tribes1 viz4--#a4 ,bizarres1 which have yellow grounds shaded with dark red or purple1 and which are sub-divided into flamed1 in which the red or purple is in a broad stripe or band1 rising from the bottom of the petal1--and feathered1 in which the dark colour forms a marginal edging to the petals1 descending into them in various little delicate feathery veins4 #b4 ,byblmens1 having white grounds shaded with violet or dark purple1 and also sub-divided into flamed and feathered4 #c4 ,roses1 having white grounds shaded with rose-colour or cherry-red1 and divided into flamed and feathered2 and1 #d4 ,selfs1 being either a pure white or yellow4 ,in addition to these1 the ,french have ,baguettes1 very tall-stemmed tulips1 the flowers of which are white1 striped with dark brownish red2 ,baguettes ,rigauts1 which resemble the former1 but have shorter stems and longer flowers2 and ,flamands1 which are the same as ,byblmens4 ,the ,dutch have also a kind they call ,incomparable ,verport1 a very finely-shaped flower1 white1 and feathered with bright shining brown4 ,all these kinds are said to be varieties of one species1 ,tulipa ,gesneriana1 a native of ,italy2 and they all ought to have round1 cup-shaped flowers1 clean at the base1 and with all the marks and different colours quite clear and distinct4 ,besides these florists' tulips1 several other species are occasionally grown in gardens3 the most common of which are the little ,van ,thol tulips1 which were named after the ,duke ,van ,thol1 and which are scarlet1 edged with yellow2 the wild ,french tulip1 which is a pure yellow1 and very fragrant2 and the ,parrot tulip1 which appears to be a variety of the last1 and the petals of which are yellow1 irregularly striped or spotted with green1 scarlet1 and blue1 and fringed at the margin4 ,the culture of the tulip1 as a florist's flower1 requires unremitting attention and care2 but for common garden purposes1 the tulip will be found hardier1 and less liable to injury from insects1 c41 than most other flowers4 ,where tulips are grown in a regular bed1 the ground should be dug out to the depth of twenty inches1 or two feet4 ,a stratum of fresh earth is laid at the bottom of the pit thus formed1 on that a stratum of rotten cow-dung1 and on this a stratum of loam mixed with sand4 ,the bed should be three or four feet wide1 and its surface should be slightly raised in the middle4 ,a fresh bed should be made every year1 or rather the same bed should be filled with fresh soil every season2 as the exudations from the tulips will soon poison the ground for plants of the same kind1 though it will be very suitable for the growth of other bulbs1 and tubers4 ,the proper distance at which the tulips should be planted in the bed is seven inches apart1 every way2 and their colours and kinds may be arranged according to the fancy of the planter4 ,it is customary1 where the tulips differ a good deal in height1 to place the tallest in the middle1 and the lower ones on the sides2 and when this is the case1 the centre of the surface of the bed need not be raised4 ,the bed is protected by hoops and mats1 which are contrived to open to admit light1 air1 and rain at pleasure4 ,when the plants are near flowering1 a path is made round the bed2 and over the whole is stretched a canvass covering1 supported on a wooden frame1 and so contrived as to open at the sides or the top1 as may be required4 ,the bulbs are planted about two or three inches deep1 and are never watered1 except occasionally by admitting a gentle rain1 till they are in flower4 ,when they have done flowering1 the leaves are suffered to remain till they begin to turn brown1 when the bulbs are taken up1 and laid with the lower part upwards on shelves to dry4 ,when this is the case1 the dry leaves and the fibrous roots are pulled or rubbed off2 and the bulbs are put into drawers or boxes1 divided into compartments so as to keep the named sorts apart1 till the season arrives for replanting1 which is the last week of ,october or the first of ,november4 ,mr4 ,groom1 of ,walworth1 is the principal tulip-grower in the neighbourhood of ,london1 and he has an exhibition of them of extraordinary brilliancy and beauty every ,may4 ,hyacinths are perhaps the most beautiful of all flowers1 and when grown in a bed like tulips1 they are almost equally brilliant in effect4 ,mr4 ,corsten1 a ,dutch florist1 residing at a place he has called ,hyacinth ,villa1 at ,shepherd's ,bush1 has an exhibition of this kind every ,april1 and ,i have seldom seen any thing more striking4 ,under a tent nearly two hundred feet long1 and thirty feet wide1 are two beds each about one hundred and fifty feet long1 divided by a walk covered with matting in the centre1 and surrounded by a similar walk1 with seats at each end of the tent4 ,in these beds are above three thousand hyacinths1 the colours arranged so as to form diagonal lines1 and the whole presenting a perfect blaze of beauty4 ,hyacinths are as numerous in their named varieties as tulips1 but they are not divided into any distinct tribes1 except as regards their colours4 ,the principal distinctions are the white1 the pink1 and the blue2 but these admit of various modifications1 and there are some of a pale yellow1 or rather lemon colour1 and some of so dark a purple as to be almost black4 ,the culture of the hyacinth somewhat resembles that of the tulip2 but it is more difficult1 from the great length to which the roots of the hyacinth descend perpendicularly1 and the necessity which consequently exists for preparing the ground for them to a very great depth4 ,there is also another peculiarity in hyacinth culture which is rather difficult of attainment2 namely1 that the roots require a great deal of moisture1 though the bulbs should be kept quite dry4 ,the roots also require the soil to be very rich1 but that the manure used should be of the kind called cold4 ,it will easily be seen from this enumeration of the essentials for hyacinth culture1 why ,holland is so pre-eminently the country for hyacinths4 ,the dry sandy soil1 raised on the numerous dykes and embankments1 by means of which ,holland has been rescued from the sea1 affords at once a proper bed for the bulbs1 and a soil easily penetrable by the roots2 while the constant evaporation rising from the water which is every where found below the dykes1 is just what is required for the roots4 ,even the manure most easily obtained in ,holland is precisely that best adapted for hyacinths1 as it is cow-dung unmixed with straw2 and which thus contains nothing to induce fermentation and consequent heat4 ,it is impossible in ,england to obtain the advantages so easily attainable by the ,dutch1 without incurring a very considerable expence4 ,our soil is generally so adhesive that it requires to be pulverized to a very great depth to admit of the descent of the roots2 and even when the soil is sandy it is very different from the beautiful silvery sea-sand1 called ,dnensande by the ,dutch4 ,the only way in which we can imitate this sand is by mixing nearly in equal parts what we call silver-sand and peat1 or by growing the plants in silver-sand1 with a very slight admixture of fine vegetable mould4 ,whatever the soil may be1 it can hardly be too light1 as the ,dutch say that the hyacinth will never thrive unless in sand so fine as to be blown away in separate particles by a high wind4 ,when hyacinths are to be grown to the greatest perfection in ,england1 a bed1 or rather pit1 should be dug three feet or four feet wide1 and six feet deep1 the length depending on the situation1 and on the quantity of flowers to be grown4 ,a layer of stale cow-dung1 without any mixture of straw or litter1 should be laid at the bottom of this pit at least a foot deep1 and the pit should then be filled up to within three inches of the top1 with equal parts of peat and silver-sand1 or with a mixture of three parts of silver-sand to one of light vegetable mould perfectly fine and without any stones4 ,about three inches from the top should be spread a layer of pure sand in which the bulbs are placed at regular distances1 and each with the pointed end1 which the ,dutch call the nose1 upwards2 and the bed is then filled up with the same mixture as the lower part1 and a layer about three inches deep of pure peat is laid over the whole1 to form a relief to the flowers4 ,dry weather should always be chosen for the planting2 and when planted1 the bulbs should be entirely covered with the sand1 and should be about six inches below the surface of the bed1 which should be raised at least three inches higher than the surrounding garden1 to allow for its sinking4 ,the layer of pure peat on the surface is only to afford a dark background to the flowers when they expand1 and may be omitted if thought unnecessary for this purpose4 ,the bulbs are planted the last week in ,october1 or the first or second week in ,november1 and they are placed about four inches apart every way4 ,after they are planted1 a mixture of cow-dung and water is generally thrown with a scoop over the bed1 so as to form a thin coating over the soil1 but not to penetrate into it4 ,when the weather becomes frosty1 a covering of dry litter1 reeds1 or tan is put over the beds2 or hoops may be fixed over them on which bast mats are stretched4 ,in ,march the covering is removed and the beds are cleared of weeds1 and covered with a fresh coating of cow-dung and water4 ,in ,april1 an awning of thin canvass1 is erected over each bed1 under which the plants are to flower2 and by the middle of this month they will be in all their beauty4 ,as soon as the flowers begin to fade the flower-stalks should be cut off and instantly removed4 ,they should never be suffered to lie on the bed1 and should not even be put where by any chance they can mix with the earth intended for a hyacinth bed in another year1 as the exudations proceeding from them in their decay would cause the bulbs to rot4 ,this is not only because the exudations from the hyacinths are of course poisonous to other bulbs of the same genus2 but because the flower-stalks appear to contain a kind of corrosive juice1 as the labourers employed in ,holland to cut them off the bulbs1 frequently find their hands and bodies become red and inflamed1 and sometimes so painful as to prevent them from sleeping4 ,when the leaves turn brown at the points1 which is generally about the middle of ,june1 the bulbs should be taken up4 ,when this is to be done the leaves are first pulled off1 or if they will not come off readily by pulling1 they are cut off close to the bulb4 ,the bulbs are then taken out of the ground1 and laid on the footpath in rows1 so as to keep the different kinds distinct4 ,the bed is afterwards raked smooth all over1 and a strip about a foot and a half broad is made flat and firm1 in the middle of the bed1 by being pressed with a plank1 or beaten with the back of the spade1 and on this the hyacinth-roots are laid1 still in distinct rows3 earth is then drawn over them two or three inches thick1 and they are left for two or three weeks4 ,this the ,dutch call lying in the ,kuil1 and the time of remaining in it varies according to the size of the bulb and the weather1 the largest bulbs being removed soonest4 ,when taken from the ,kuil1 the bulbs are placed on shelves or wooden trays to dry1 with the root end of the bulb inclining towards the south4 ,where it is not thought advisable to sink the bed so deep as six feet1 it may be made four feet deep1 and the layer of cow-dung at the bottom mixed with soil a foot deep1 leaving only about three feet to be filled with a mixture of peat and river sand1 with about the proportion of a third to the whole of vegetable mould4 ,the other treatment is the same as that detailed above4 ,in all cases the soil should be very light and fine1 and only cow-dung should be used as a manure4 ,the roots should also always be watered very sparingly1 and with a mixture of cow dung and water1 though not so thick as that used for coating the bed4 ,when the bulbs are planted1 and again when they are taken up1 they should be carefully examined1 and all that are at all specked or mouldy1 should be laid on one side1 as they would infect the others4 ,when the infected part is large1 the bulb should be thrown away1 or burnt with the stalks2 but where the speck is small it should be cut out with a sharp knife1 and the bulb planted1 in not more than four-and-twenty hours after the piece has been cut out4 ,hyacinths are propagated by offsets1 by dividing the bulb1 and by seed1 in which last case they are five years before they flower4 ,when planted in pots or boxes1 the pot or box should be half filled with broken potsherds1 or some other material to ensure perfect drainage1 and the bulbs should be planted in a compost of peat1 sand1 and very rotten cow-dung4 ,the bulbs should only be about half covered with soil2 and if in boxes they should be kept1 if practicable1 in a greenhouse1 till they are ready to flower4 ,if in pots1 they should be plunged into a hotbed1 or into a tan-stove2 or where this cannot be done they should be buried in the garden1 so that the point of the bulb should be at least four inches below the surface4 ,here they should remain till about six weeks before flowering1 when the pots should be taken out1 and placed where they are to flower2 the sides of the pots being kept warm with moss1 and the flowers brought forward by daily waterings4 ,all hyacinths grown in pots and boxes will require abundance of water to make amends for the unnatural situation in which their roots are placed4 ,after hyacinths have flowered in pots or boxes1 or in water glasses1 the bulbs are generally planted in the open ground1 and being covered with about an inch of soil they are left to take their chance4 ,thus treated1 the finer kinds generally perish1 but the hardier ones will live and flower for many years1 if allowed every autumn to retain their leaves1 till their new bulbs are matured4 ,hyacinths that have been flowered in glasses1 or pots1 seldom however flower so well afterwards1 at least not for several years1 as they scarcely ever quite recover the shock they have sustained from the unnatural position of their roots2 whereas the ,dutch florists1 by allowing the roots of their hyacinths plenty of room to descend perpendicularly1 and taking up the bulbs every autumn1 have been known to keep bulbs of their finest flowers twelve or even twenty years1 and to have them produce splendid flowers every year4 ,it must be observed that the exudations of hyacinths are very abundant1 and very injurious to other plants of their own genus4 ,for this reason1 the ,dutch never grow their hyacinths in the same bed two years consecutively4 ,the usual rotation is1 first year1 hyacinths2 second1 tulips2 third1 polyanthus-narcissus2 fourth1 crocuses2 and fifth1 hyacinths again4 ,the ,guernsey lily1 the bulbs of which are generally thrown away in ,england as soon as they have flowered1 will live many years if treated like the hyacinth4 ,crocuses may be grown in the open ground1 and they do not require taking up every year like hyacinths or tulips4 ,if they are taken up and replanted every third or fourth year1 it will be sufficient4 ,there are above a hundred named varieties1 and they will produce a very good effect if planted so as to form figures with their various colours4 ,when this is the case1 however1 the corms should be taken up and replanted every year2 to prevent the figure from becoming confused by the spreading of the offsets4 ,crocuses may be grown in glasses1 or in pots or boxes1 with very little injury1 if planted in the open ground as soon as they have done flowering1 and suffered to mature their leaves4 ,in all cases the leaves of the crocus should be suffered to remain till they wither1 and not cut off2 though many gardeners1 from a mistaken desire for neatness1 cut the leaves off as soon as the flowers have faded1 and thus seriously injure the corms4 ,all the kinds of gladiolus or corn flag1 the ,irises1 the ,ixias1 and1 in short all the ,cape bulbs1 are corms1 and require the same treatment as the crocus4 ,charlwood's1 ,covent-garden1 and ,carter's1 ,holborn1 are the best places in ,london for procuring all kinds of bulbs and corms4 ,the ,ranunculus4--,m4 ,triquet de ,blanc1 who had the kindness to send me directions for the culture of the carnation1 has given me the following directions for the culture of the ranunculus3--8,in ,november spread well-rotten cow-dung1 or thoroughly-decayed leaves1 four or five inches thick over the beds which are to be devoted to the ranunculus1 and dig it into the ground about four inches deep1 digging the bed over several times1 so as to mix it well with the soil4 ,the surface of the bed is then raked smooth1 and lines1 or rather drills1 an inch and a half deep1 are traced on it so as to form squares1 four inches on the side every way4 ,the ground is then left till the beginning of ,february1 when the ranunculuses are planted four inches apart1 just at the point of intersection of the lines1 and they are covered about an inch and a half deep 7rather less than more7 with the compost described above1 or with fine garden mould4 ,the advantages gained by digging the earth in ,november1 though the roots are not planted till ,february1 are--that the ranunculuses are thus planted on a hard bottom1 which suits them particularly2 and that the gardener is not obliged to dig the earth to mix the cow-dung with it in ,february1 when the ground is generally sloppy1 and in a very unfit state for being worked40--,when the plants are about to flower1 an awning may be erected over the bed to protect them from the effects of the sun1 which is apt to destroy the brilliancy of their colours4 ,in frosty weather1 they should be protected by a mat1 day and night1 as the sun will do them a serious injury1 if they have been at all affected by the frost4 ,the plants may be watered with a weak solution of cow-dung in water1 and they should be constantly watered in dry weather4 ,the tubers should be taken up as soon as the leaves begin to turn brown1 which will generally be in ,july4 ,groom1 of ,walworth1 is considered to keep the best ranunculuses4 ,the ,anemones of florists are of two kinds3 those descended from the garden or star anemone 7,a4 hortense71 and those descended from the poppy anemone 7,a4 coronaria74 ,the poppy anemones1 which are generally single1 are planted in ,september or ,october1 and under shelter are frequently in flower all winter3 the splendid ,dutch anemones1 and all the varieties of ,a4 coronaria1 on the contrary1 are not planted till ,february or ,march2 the latter month1 or even the beginning of ,april1 being preferred for the ,dutch anemones1 which are apt to rot if planted too early4 ,anemones should be planted three inches deep1 and five inches apart every way1 in a fresh1 sound1 yellow loam1 without any manure4 ,care should be taken to keep the frost from them2 but they will not need any other attention till the leaves turn brown1 when the tubers should be taken up1 and treated like those of the ranunculus and tulip4 ,old varieties are propagated by offsets1 and new kinds are raised from seed4 ,dahlias are either raised from seed1 or propagated by slips or cuttings1 or dividing the tubers4 ,the seed is sown in pots in a slight hotbed in ,february1 and the young plants are transplanted into the open air in ,june1 where they are suffered to remain till they flower4 ,in ,october1 those which are thought worth preserving are marked1 and the others taken up and thrown away4 ,when the stalks are killed by frost1 the tubers are taken up1 and kept in some dry place till the season of planting the following year4 ,the slips are taken from the collar of the root in spring1 and the cuttings from the tops of the young shoots early in summer4 ,both are planted in very small pots1 in light1 rich1 sandy loam1 and placed in a hotbed frame1 and shaded4 ,in a fortnight they will have struck root2 but they should be shifted into larger pots1 and placed for a short time in a greenhouse1 before they are turned out into the open ground4 ,dahlias have large tuberous roots1 but stems will only spring from the eyes or buds in the crown of the root4 ,if these eyes should have been destroyed1 or be wanting1 the root is said to be blind2 and though it will live for several years in the ground1 it will not send up a single stem4 ,for this reason1 before dividing the root1 it should be planted in a gentle hotbed to develope or start the buds or eyes2 and when it is divided1 care should be taken that each piece includes a portion of the crown1 which has an eye in it4 ,sometimes eyes are grafted in the herbaceous manner on blind tubers4 ,the best soil for dahlias is a sandy loam1 not too rich1 as1 in rich or moist soils1 the plant will produce more stalks and leaves than flowers4 ,where the soil of the garden in which dahlias are to be planted is rich1 or heavy1 a quantity of sand or gravel should be mixed with it4 ,striped or variegated flowers will soon lose their markings if grown in rich soil4 ,the tubers of the early kinds are planted in ,april1 to flower in ,june2 but those of the finer kinds are not planted till ,may and ,june4 ,when they begin to grow1 the side-shoots are removed from one foot to three feet from the ground2 the principal stem is then either tied to a stake driven deeply and firmly into the ground1 or the whole plant is drawn through a set of dahlia rings4 ,dwarf plants are frequently suffered to trail on the ground1 and are pegged down1 so as to cover the whole of the bed1 with which treatment they look extremely well4 ,in dry weather1 the plants should be regularly watered1 but not too abundantly4 ,when the leaves and stalks are killed by the frost1 they should be directly cut down2 but the tubers may be left in the ground a little longer1 as1 if taken up too soon1 they will shrivel1 and often become rotten4 ,when taken up1 they should be kept in a dry place1 and covered with a mat to exclude the frost4 ,all the dahlias now in our gardens1 numerous as they are1 have sprung from two kinds1 both natives of ,mexico1 viz4--,d4 pinnata1 or variabilis1 all the varieties of which are purple1 crimson1 rose-coloured1 lilac1 or white2 and ,d4 coccinea1 the varieties of which are scarlet1 orange1 or yellow4 ,it is remarkable1 that notwithstanding the numerous varieties that have been raised of these two species1 there have never been any hybrids raised between them4 ,many attempts have been made1 but all the plants raised have partaken exclusively of the qualities of one or the other of the parents1 and none have partaken equally of both1 as is the case with true hybrids4 ,there are many other kinds mentioned in books1 the most remarkable of which is the tree dahlia1 ,d4 excelsa1 a specimen of which1 in the ,liverpool ,botanic ,garden1 is now above twenty feet high4 ,all the varieties grown in ,british gardens as florists' flowers1 may be divided into four kinds1 viz4--,dwarfs1 ,anemone-flowered1 ,ranunculus-flowered1 and ,globe-flowered4 ,the dahlia was first discovered in ,mexico by ,baron ,humboldt1 in #aghi1 and it was sent by him to ,cavaniles1 at ,madrid1 who named it in honour of ,professor ,dahl1 a ,swedish botanist4 ,this name was afterwards changed to ,georgina1 in honour of a ,german botanist named ,georgi1 who resided many years in ,st4 ,petersburg1 in consequence of the genus ,dalea having been previously established by ,thunberg4 ,as1 however1 this name is neither spelt nor pronounced the same as ,dahlia2 and as the name of ,dahlia was given long before that of ,georgina1 the plant is now restored to its original appellation4 ,the dahlia was introduced into ,england in #ahjd1 but it did not become a florists' flower till about #ahae4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,lawn1 ,,pleasure-,,grounds1 ,,and ,,shrubbery1 ,,of ,a ,,small ,,villa4 ,the word ,lawn may probably conjure up ideas of too large an extent of ground to be managed by a lady2 but when ,i use the term1 ,i do not mean an extensive park-like surface of level turf1 but one of those beautiful verdant glades that produce so delightful an effect even in the smallest gardens4 ,in places where the whole extent of garden-ground does not perhaps exceed an acre1 every one must have felt the relief afforded to the eye by a broad strip of lawn1 bordered by trees and shrubs1 not in a formal line on each side1 but running into numerous projections and recesses1 and resting their lower branches1 frequently covered with flowers1 on a rich smooth velvet-looking carpet of grass4 ,every one possessing a lawn of this description must be aware that its chief beauty consists in its smoothness1 and in the firmness and closeness of its grasses4 ,i say grasses1 because strange as it may sound to unbotanical ears1 from twenty to thirty different kinds of grasses sometimes enter into the composition of a square foot of fine turf4 ,some of these grasses are coarse and grow high1 and widely apart2 and others are very fine and slender1 and grow closely together4 ,this being the case1 it is obvious that when a fine smooth turf is required1 the finer kinds of grasses should be chosen1 and the coarser ones not only rejected among the grass-seeds sown1 but1 if possible1 destroyed whenever they appear1 if they should chance to come up accidentally4 ,botanists have distinguished and arranged nearly fifteen hundred different species of grasses2 and of these probably more than three hundred kinds are now cultivated in ,england4 ,of these1 some are1 of course1 better adapted to certain soils than others2 and to ascertain which grass was best suited to each soil1 the late ,duke of ,bedford1 whose loss the horticultural and agricultural world has recently had to deplore1 instituted a series of experiments at ,woburn under the superintendence of his gardener1 the late ,mr4 ,sinclair1 who was a very intelligent man1 and the result of which was published in the ,hortus ,gramineus ,woburnensis4 ,from these experiments1 it was found that what are called hungry sandy soils1 were the worst1 and rich alluvial soils the best for the production of grasses2 but that sandy loams produced the most equal and most permanent crops4 ,to apply this to practice in the production of proper lawn grasses1 it is evident that as a sandy loam appears to be the best for them1 a sandy soil would be improved by the addition of clay1 and a clayey one by the addition of sand1 both these mixtures constituting what is called a sandy loam3 and it may be added1 that where the soil is calcareous1 it may generally be left without any alteration1 when it is to be covered with grass4 ,the next thing to be considered is the kind of grasses most suitable for sowing on a lawn2 and to ascertain this1 it must be remembered that the proprietor of a lawn does not want a crop of hay1 but a fine smooth level turf1 the grass in which shall entirely conceal the earth4 ,for this purpose1 it is evident that slow growing grasses1 the roots of which will retain permanent possession of the soil1 and which are sufficiently succulent not to be burnt up when closely mown in hot weather1 are preferable to those which grow rapidly and produce an abundant crop of herbage1 particularly as the roots of the last kind are generally easily withered up in dry weather4 ,very fast-growing grasses are indeed exceedingly annoying to the possessor of a small lawn1 as they require constant mowing and are thus a constant source of expence4 ,some philosophers assert that the chief thing that hinders the attainment of our desires1 is that very few of us know exactly what we want2 and it is to save my readers from being in this unpleasant predicament with regard to lawns1 that ,i have been thus particular in describing what qualities are requisite in grasses to make them suitable for producing soft turf4 ,the next thing is to tell them as well as ,i can1 what kind of grasses appear most likely to answer the end in view4 ,of all these1 one of the most permanent appears to be the fox-tail meadow-grass 7,alopecurus pratensis72 it is one of the principal grasses in rich natural pastures1 and it should always form one-fourth part of the seeds used for laying down a lawn4 ,the sweet-scented spring grass 7,anthoxanthum odoratum7 grows best in deep moist soil2 but it is worth sowing in every situation for its fineness1 its dwarf growth1 and for its habit of continuing to vegetate1 and to throw up fresh stalks nearly all the year4 ,it is this grass which gives so delightful a fragrance to new hay4 ,the common meadow-grass 7,poa pratensis7 is also suitable for lawns2 as1 though of slow growth1 it has creeping permanent roots3 and the short blue meadow-grass 7,poa crulea7 may be added1 for its deep blue tint1 which gives a richness to the general colour of the grass1 and because it sustains no injury from dry weather4 ,the crested dog's-tail grass 7,cynosurus cristatus7 is1 however1 the best for sustaining drought and heat1 as its roots penetrate so deeply into the ground1 as to keep its blades green1 while all the grasses around it are quite brown from being burnt up4 ,the hard fescue grass 7,festuca duriuscula7 is another kind which will stand the effects of dry weather2 it is also a very fine dwarf grass1 and springs early4 ,many other grasses might be named1 but these will suffice4 ,the proportion in which they ought to be mixed1 is another1 and an essential point2 but at the same time it is one rather difficult to ascertain1 as the seeds of the finer kinds of grasses are very often abortive1 and do not germinate2 and thus a larger quantity must be sown of them1 than of those kinds1 all the seeds of which are generally good4 ,the seed of the meadow fox-tail grass 7,alopecurus pratensis7 is very often so bad1 that not above one seed in three will germinate1 consequently a much larger proportion of seed of this grass must be sown than of any of the others4 ,this seed is very light1 and consequently a pound of it1 if bought by weight1 will appear a great deal more than a pound of the crested dog's-tail grass 7,cynosurus cristatus71 the seed of which is very heavy2 and yet as the latter seed is generally all good1 it will cover more ground with grass than the other4 ,the best way is to write down the botanic names of the grasses1 and to send them to a respectable seedsman1 with directions to return enough of the seed of each1 to produce an equal quantity of grass of each respective species on the lawn4 ,the whole quantity required of the mixed grasses is generally not more than four bushels and a half per acre2 but if an immediate effect be wanted1 about a bushel and a half of the common white clover may be added4 ,this quantity of seed will be sufficient to sow the ground very thickly1 as when ground has been dug over and rendered perfectly smooth the seeds will go further1 and cover it more completely than when the surface is uneven2 and if the seeds are sown in dry weather1 then rolled in and afterwards watered1 the ground will be as green and covered with as fine a sward the first season1 as though it had been laid down with turf4 ,the plants will1 however1 probably be too thick2 and as1 when this is the case many of them die1 the ground may require a partial re-sowing the following spring4 ,it is therefore safer under ordinary circumstances not to sow more than four bushels and a half an acre1 as if that quantity be equally distributed1 the plants will not be too thick4 ,when the ground which is to form the lawn has been marked out1 the soil1 if it wants amelioration1 should be spread over with the earth required to make it approach as near as possible to the great desideratum1 a sandy loam1 and it should be then dug about a foot deep4 ,care should be taken to do this in dry weather2 as the two soils to be mixed1 should be both in a state of dryness4 ,no manure should be dug in unless the soil happen to be very poor indeed2 as manure will tend to produce a larger and taller growing crop of grass1 which1 of course1 will increase the trouble and expence of mowing1 without being of any use4 ,the ground being dug1 and raked to remove all the large stones1 the surface should be rolled1 and then the seeds sown2 after which it should be rolled again and watered by a garden-engine having a very fine rose4 ,this watering may be repeated occasionally if the weather should be very dry2 and if any mole-hills or worm-casts appear1 they should be levelled1 and the rolling repeated4 ,when the ground is to be covered with turf1 instead of being sown with grass seeds1 the turf should1 if possible1 be procured from some meadow or downs where sheep have been fed2 as these animals bite close to the roots1 and this kills the coarser grasses which have generally weak fibrous roots1 while the finer grasses1 which have deep roots1 remain uninjured4 ,the turf is then cut with a turf spade1 and rolled up for removal4 ,when it is to be laid down1 and the ground is ready to receive it1 it is spread out1 and the different rolls carefully joined to each other3 little bits being cut off or pushed in where the pieces do not exactly fit4 ,it is then watered and rolled1 and will require no other care4 ,with regard to after management1 a lawn can never be kept neat without frequent mowing1 and this is an operation which a lady cannot very well perform for herself3 unless1 indeed1 she have strength enough to use one of ,budding's mowing machines4 ,in whatever way1 however1 the operation may be performed1 it should be repeated very frequently4 ,in large establishments1 the lawn is always mown every week during summer2 and even in the smallest gardens the grass should never be suffered to remain more than a fortnight during summer without mowing4 ,the roots will thus become weakened1 and will not be able to send up any but dwarf and fine blades of grass1 which will form in a few years that beautifully smooth and soft velvet-like turf1 which it is the principal beauty of a lawn to possess4 8,it is a great mistake10 says ,mr4 ,loudon1 in his ,suburban ,gardener1 8to suppose that anything is gained in the way of economy by suffering the grass of lawns to grow long before mowing1 in order to save the expense of once or twice mowing during the season2 for1 in proportion as the grass is allowed to grow long before mowing1 in the same proportion are the roots strengthened and enabled to send up still longer leaves and stems2 whereas if a lawn were kept short by frequent mowing for two or three years in succession1 the plants of grass would at last become so weak that not one-half the mowing usually required for even slovenly-kept lawns would be necessary1 and the turf would be much finer1 and neater in appearance40 ,the best manure for a lawn is soot4 ,i have dwelt longer than ,i otherwise should have done on the management of lawns1 not only because ,i am a great admirer of a smooth green turf1 but because ,i believe it is a subject not generally understood4 ,most persons imagine that if they lay down turf1 or sow grass seeds1 they have done all that is requisite2 and my object is simply to impress upon the minds of my readers1 that this is not enough3 for as there are different kinds of turf and grasses1 it is as necessary to choose which to take1 as to select flowers for the flower-garden4 ,i have only to add that the brownish hue sometimes observed on the brows of hills in pleasure grounds is produced by holcus lanatus1 a kind of couch-grass1 that wastes all its strength on its fleshy roots1 and produces only a thin and wiry herbage4 ,this species1 the different kinds of agrostis or bent-grass1 the brome grasses1 particularly ,bromus arvensis1 and the cock's-foot grass1 ,dactylus glomerata1 should never be sown in lawns4 ,grass seeds should be sown either in spring or autumn2 and ,may1 and ,august or ,september are considered the best months4 ,in very old lawns1 moss is apt to predominate1 and when it is wished to destroy this1 the surface of the lawn is dressed1 as it is called1 in ,may with lime4 ,dressing with lime will also destroy the worms which are often very troublesome in lawns 7particularly where the ground has been manured with dung71 in throwing up casts1 which make the ground uneven1 and very difficult to mow4 ,the ,walks in pleasure-grounds should be hard and dry2 and they should also be sufficiently wide to admit of three persons to walk abreast occasionally2 as nothing can be more disagreeable than the situation of the third person1 whom the narrowness of the walk obliges to walk before or behind his companions2 and who is obliged either to remain silent or to carry on a most uncomfortable and disjointed kind of conversation4 ,the minor evils of clothes being caught by branches1 and leaves discharging on the pedestrians the remains of a recent shower1 would likewise be avoided by broader walks4 ,the laying out of pleasure grounds embraces a wide field2 and when they are extensive they require the eye of a painter1 as well as the taste and skill of a landscape gardener4 ,even in small places1 so much depends on situation 7particularly as regards the house1 and whether there may or may not be any distant prospects72 on the taste of the occupier2 and on the expense to be incurred1 not only in laying out and planting1 but in after keeping1 that few directions can be given that would be generally applicable4 ,it may1 however1 be observed that in all places whether large or small1 the walks should be so contrived1 that no person passing along one1 should see the persons walking on another4 ,indeed1 if more than one walk be ever seen at a time1 it gives an idea of want of space and confinement2 and this idea is one which the landscape gardener always endeavours as much as possible to avoid4 ,for the same reason the boundary fence should never be seen1 if it can possibly be disguised4 ,even in a small street-garden1 with three low walls on three of the sides1 and the house on the fourth1 a very pleasing effect may be produced by effectually concealing the boundary walls with ivy2 and thus permitting the imagination to fix the boundary where it will4 ,another general rule in laying out pleasure-grounds is to avoid monotony or sameness as much as possible4 ,nothing is more wearying to the eye than a place1 every part of which is alike1 and which leaves nothing to the imagination4 ,a place regularly dotted over with trees at equal distances is quite featureless2 has nothing to attract the eye1 and nothing to interest the mind4 ,but if the same trees are planted on the same ground in masses1 with a broad expanse of lawn between2 the trees sometimes projecting1 and sometimes showing a smooth glade of grass1 running in among them1 the end of which the eye cannot reach1 the imagination becomes excited1 and a degree of interest is instantly created4 ,where the lawn is large1 a few single trees may be introduced2 but few things in landscape gardening require more taste4 ,indeed1 in laying out pleasure-grounds1 however small they may be1 it is generally the best1 and indeed the most economical way1 to have the advice of a professional landscape gardener at first2 instead of groping on in the dark1 from a mistaken idea of economy1 till at last it is discovered that all is wrong1 and must be done over again4 ,thus in the end1 the work is generally found to have cost twice as much as would have been expended if it had been begun properly at first2 besides the loss of time1 and the annoyance always occasioned by having anything to undo4 ,the ,trees and ,shrubs4--,in all places sufficiently small to be managed by a lady1 without the aid of a regular gardener1 the trees and shrubs should be of the choicest kinds4 ,it is quite the fashion of the present day to plant arboretums2 and though a place of the kind ,i mention would not admit of a complete one1 a lady might take some genus1 or some small natural order to illustrate1 7as for example the genus ,ribes1 or the order ,berberide17 and fill up the rest of her grounds with hollies or other evergreens1 so as to form a back ground to the ornamental trees4 ,the genera ,magnolia and ,liriodendron form the hardy trees of another small order1 which it would be easy to cultivate1 taking care to plant ,m4 conspicua1 and any other that produces its flowers before it does its leaves1 with a rich background of evergreens4 ,the almond1 which flowers in the same manner1 should be placed in a similar situation2 and standard roses may also be so placed as to have the unsightliness of their long naked stems greatly lessened by a mass of evergreens behind4 ,another very interesting mode of arrangement1 where the ground will admit of it1 is to plant particular situations with certain trees which are not to be found in any other part of the grounds2 and thus to form what the landscape gardeners call scenes4 ,thus1 for instance1 there might be an ,american ground1 formed in some shaded hollow1 and planted with rhododendrons1 azaleas1 and kalmias4 ,all these plants require a light peaty soil1 and a shady and somewhat moist situation4 ,in another part of the pleasure-grounds there might be some alpine scenery1 with pines and firs1 and particularly larches1 interspersed with a few birch-trees1 planted in dry sandy soil on hilly ground4 ,the deciduous cypress and weeping willow should be near water1 as should the common willow1 nearly all the poplars1 and the alders4 ,in another place might be a thicket of the different varieties of hawthorn1 with a few of the fine large-fruited foreign thorns planted in striking situations4 ,in short there are no limits to the numerous and beautiful scenes that might be laid out by a woman of cultivated mind1 who possessed fancy and taste1 combined with a very slight knowledge of trees2 and ,i think ,i may safely add1 that ,i do not know a more delightful occupation than this kind of landscape gardening4 ,it is landscape painting1 but on the noblest and boldest scale3 and it is a source of constant enjoyment1 from the daily improvement that it displays4 ,what a difference it makes in the pleasure we have in returning home1 if we have something to visit1 that we know has been improving in our absence4 ,we regard the trees and shrubs we have planted1 and the scenes we have laid out with almost a parental fondness2 and a new and daily increasing interest is given to life4 ,i would1 therefore1 most earnestly entreat my readers to study trees and shrubs2 and ,i do assure them that they will find themselves amply repaid1 not only by the pleasure they will have in landscape gardening1 but in the additional enjoyment their accession of knowledge will give to every country walk and ride that they take4 ,there is1 however1 one great drawback to the pleasure that may be anticipated from planting an arboretum1 or even an illustration of any particular order or genus2 and this is the very great difficulty that exists in procuring plants true to their names4 ,nurserymen put down a great many more names in their catalogues1 than they have different kinds of plants2 and thus the same plants1 like the actors in a country theatre1 are often made to perform under a great many different names in the same piece4 ,i have heard of instances where twelve or fourteen species were named in a catalogue1 though the nurseryman only possessed three or four1 which1 when wanted1 were made to do duty under all these different names4 ,almost all nurserymen are alike in this respect1 and the only real cure will be an increased knowledge of trees and shrubs on the part of the purchasers1 which will render it impossible to impose false kinds upon them4 ,in the mean time ,i may mention that ,mr4 ,loudon has found the trees and shrubs in the nursery of ,messrs4 ,whitley and ,osborn1 at ,fulham1 more correctly named than in most others4 ,in planting masses of trees and shrubs1 great care should be taken to hide the dug ground around them1 which always forms a scar in the landscape4 ,the best way of doing this is to cover all the space between the shrubs with grass1 and to tie down the branches of the trees to pegs or stakes fixed in the earth1 so as to make the trees feather down to the ground4 ,where this cannot be accomplished1 on account of the expense of clipping the grass1 for it cannot be mown among the trees1 ivy may be pegged down over the dug ground1 or evergreen trailing roses1 of which there are many kinds especially adapted for this purpose4 ,there is one general rule relating to the planting of trees and shrubs1 which can never be too often repeated1 or too strongly enforced1--it is1 never to suffer them to be planted too thickly4 ,this may appear a very simple rule1 but it is one which it is very difficult to put in practice1 as all the persons employed in planting are generally opposed to it4 ,the nurseryman of course wishes to dispose of his plants1 and the gardener to produce a good effect as soon as possible1 nay1 even the proprietor cannot help feeling the bare and desolate appearance of a new plantation where the shrubs are placed at proper distances4 ,there are but two remedies for this3 either planting so as to produce an effect at first1 and then thinning out half the plants1 beginning the second or third year2 or planting the shrubs at the proper distances1 and covering the ground between them with some trailing plant pegged down4 ,nothing can look worse than a row of tall trees which were evidently planted for a screen2 but which1 so far from answering the intended purpose1 admit the light between their slender naked stems1 which afford no more concealment than the open rails of a paling4 ,mr4 ,loudon observes1 in one of the numbers of the ,gardener's ,magazine1 that the quickest way of thickening a plantation in this state is1 if the trees are deciduous1 to cut every alternate tree down1 in order that the stools of the fallen trees may send up young shoots2 but if any of them have branches within six or eight feet of the ground1 by taking off the tops of the trees1 and tying down these branches1 the plantation may be thickened1 without cutting any trees down4 ,a weeping ash is a very ornamental tree on a lawn1 but unless it is well trained it loses its effect4 ,when trained to a wooden frame1 the hoops and rods of which it is composed are seldom strong enough to sustain the weight of snow which falls on the summit of the tree in severe winters1 and if they give way in any place1 the boughs are frequently broken4 ,in the arboretum which ,joseph ,strutt1 ,esq41 is now having laid out at ,derby1 and which1 when finished1 he is most liberally about to present to that town as a public promenade1 there is a very fine weeping ash1 for which ,mr4 ,strutt has had an iron frame-work made4 ,the iron rods are light and elegant1 and yet so strong that they are in no danger of giving way under any weight of snow that is ever likely to fall on the tree4 ,the iron frame work has been coated over with gas tar to preserve it from rust1 and it now looks exceedingly well4 ,roses4--,these beautiful shrubs are so generally admired1 and they are grown so universally in all gardens1 that ,i think ,i ought to give some especial directions for their culture4 ,in the first place1 roses are said to require removing every third year2 as their roots exude a great deal of matter unfit for them to reabsorb1 and as their fibrous roots are few1 small1 and not widely extended from the hole of the plant4 ,it is not perhaps necessary to take this rule strictly au pied de la lettre1 but it is as well to keep it in view1 and to remember that when rose trees look sickly1 or fail to produce a due proportion of flowers1 removing them to a fresh soil will generally restore their vigour4 ,it is not perhaps generally known that there are nearly two thousand species and varieties of roses4 ,among such a chaos it would be almost impossible to choose1 had not florists arranged them in about twenty general divisions4 ,one of the principal of these contains the cabbage-roses and their beautiful descendants1 the moss-roses1 of which last there are more than twenty kinds1 some of which are very striking1 and particularly the dark crimson moss-rose1 generally called the ,rouge de ,luxembourg1 and the white moss1 though the latter is rather too delicate for a town garden4 ,the crested moss is also a curious variety1 and it is said to have been found growing out of an old wall in ,switzerland4 ,all the kinds of moss-roses should be planted in warm dry situations1 and in ,march a little manure should be laid on the surface of the soil round their roots4 ,should the season prove dry1 the plants should be frequently watered1 and the result will be a brilliant display of flowers4 ,there are twenty-five or thirty other kinds of cabbage or ,provence roses1 all of which are very fragrant1 and indeed they are the kinds used for making rose-water1 c42 they are all quite hardy1 and require no particular culture4 ,the autumn-flowering or perpetual roses are also remarkable both for their beauty and their fragrance4 ,there are more than fifty sorts2 one of the most beautiful of which is ,lee's perpetual1 the ,rose du ,roi of the ,french4 ,the ,pstum roses1 mentioned by ,pliny1 are supposed to belong to this family2 as does also the well known ,rose des ,quatre ,saisons4 ,all these roses should be pruned twice a-year1 in ,november and in ,june2 and after pruning1 the ground about their roots should be loosened with a fork1 and then covered two or three inches deep with manure1 the manure being covered over with some fresh green moss1 to prevent it from having an unpleasant appearance4 ,the roses of all the perpetual kinds frequently fade without losing their petals2 and when this is the case the faded flowers should be instantly removed4 ,they are all propagated by grafting on the common dog-rose1 as they do not readily take root from layering4 ,these roses are particularly valuable1 as with a little management they may be kept in flower eight months in every year4 ,the ,french1 or ,provins ,roses1 are generally widely opened flowers like the rose in architecture4 ,the striped and marbled roses belong to this division4 ,these roses have scarcely any fragrance2 but they have generally showy flowers1 and they are very hardy4 ,the druggists use them for making conserve of roses2 and for this purpose they are grown in great quantities near the little town of ,provins in ,france1 whence their name1 which is often confounded with that of the ,provence ,roses from the south of ,france4 ,the white roses are hardy1 and bloom abundantly with very little care4 ,the ,scotch roses are also remarkable for their hardiness1 for their blooming generally a fortnight earlier than any others1 and for their ripening abundance of seed1 from which new varieties may continually be raised4 ,the yellow ,scotch rose is very beautiful4 ,williams's double yellow sweetbriar1 and the ,austrian yellow or copper-coloured rose are also well worth cultivating4 ,the latter is yellow on the outside of the petal and red within4 ,this rose will not succeed well in a smoky atmosphere1 but it flowers beautifully in ,mrs4 ,marryatt's flower-garden at ,wimbledon1 and in that of ,r4 ,h4 ,jenkinson1 ,esq41 at ,norbiton ,house1 near ,kingston4 ,the common double yellow ,rose1 which seldom flowers well1 should be grown in a rich soil and warm situation1 and it requires abundance of air4 ,of the climbing roses1 the ,ayrshire roses1 particularly the beautiful white flower called the ,queen of the ,belgians1 and ,rosa ruga1 a very handsome and fragrant variety1 are perhaps the best for training upon frames to form what are called pillars and pyramids of roses1 as they are quite hardy4 ,for sheltered situations ,rosa multiflora1 and its near ally the ,seven ,sisters' rose may be chosen2 as they grow very fast and very high1 and produce myriads of flowers1 though they are easily killed by frost4 ,the most valuable climbing roses are1 however1 the descendants of ,rosa sempervirens1 the evergreen roses2 and these are the only kinds that should be used for pegging down over the dug ground of a shrubbery4 ,they are of the easiest culture1 as they will grow under the drip of trees1 and they ought never to be pruned4 ,before planting them the ground should be dug1 and well cleared from the roots of weeds1 c4 ,it should then be manured with part of an old hot-bed1 and the roses should be planted about five feet apart4 ,the following autumn a good coating of manure should be laid on the surface of the ground2 and the plants will require no after culture but pegging down the shoots to prevent them from leaving any part of the ground bare4 ,the ,triomphe de ,bollwiller is one of the best of roses for this purpose4 ,the ,boursault division1 one of the best of which is the ,rose de ,lisle1 may be treated in the same manner4 ,the noisette roses are known by the great clusters of flowers which they bear at the extremities of their shoots4 ,their branches should not be shortened1 but the dead flowers should be removed as soon as they fade4 ,the ,banksia roses1 the tea-scented kinds1 the ,macartney and musk roses1 are too tender for any situation but a south wall4 ,the best roses in the neighbourhood of ,london are to be found at ,lee's1 ,hammersmith1 and ,loddige's1 ,hackney4 ,there are also very fine collections at ,rivers's1 ,sawbridgeworth2 at ,wood's1 ,maresfield1 and ,hooker's1 ,brenchley1 both near ,tunbridge ,wells2 and more especially at ,lane's1 ,berkhampstead1--the latter nurseryman contriving1 by means of forcing1 to have roses beautifully in flower from the latter end of ,january to the middle of ,november every year4 ,roses are generally propagated by grafting or budding1 and also by making layers and cuttings4 ,in the latter case1 the point of the shoot should be taken off1 and the greater part of the leaves1 to prevent an access of evaporation4 7,for ,illustration1 see p4 #hd47 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,rock-,,work1 ,,moss-,,houses1 ,,rustic ,,baskets1 ,,and ,,fountains4 ,rock-work1 though composed of somewhat ponderous materials1 is very frequently arranged according to female taste2 and one of the most remarkable examples in ,england 7that at the ,hoole1 near ,chester17 was designed by a lady1 and executed entirely under her direction4 ,there are many kinds of rock-work2 but they may be all described as collections of fragments of rocks1 stones1 flints1 vitrified bricks1 scori1 and similar materials1 so arranged as to afford a striking object in the landscape2 and1 at the same time1 so as to form a number of little nests or crevices for the reception of alpine plants4 ,the mode of arranging these materials depends entirely upon taste2 and of course varies widely4 ,the most natural kind of rockwork1 is like that at ,redleaf1 near ,tunbridge ,wells2 where ,mr4 ,wells1 the proprietor1 taking1 what ,mr4 ,loudon calls the key-note1 from the natural scenery of the neighbourhood1 has made his rocks appear 8to crop out0 of the soil1 as though naturally1 in such situations as to give the best effect to the scenery4 ,the plants deposited in the hollows of these rocks1 are so admirably placed1 and the art with which they are cultivated1 is so skilfully concealed1 that no illusion can be more complete2 and we may fancy ourselves in a scene of nature1 but of nature in her greatest beauty and highest luxuriance4 ,very different is the rock-garden of the late ,duke of ,marlborough1 in his private gardens at ,blenheim4 ,it is perhaps more beautiful than the rocks at ,redleaf2 but no one could possibly mistake it for anything but a work of art1 and it owes its chief beauty to the plants grown in it4 ,it is formed on a scar in the natural rock1 which is hewn into zigzag paths2 on one side of each of which are numerous niches to receive the plants4 ,these plants are planted and kept with great care2 and they grow so luxuriously1 as almost to hide the paths1 and to make the rock look at a little distance like a bank of flowers4 ,mosses of different colours are interspersed1 and the whole has a peculiarly rich and sparkling effect4 ,the rock-work at ,syon has been compared to the scenery of a highland glen2 but ,i must confess there does not appear to me the slightest resemblance4 ,in fact1 the ,syon rock-work is so overpowered by the magnificent conservatory in front1 with its splendid terrace1 and the geometric flower-garden at its base1 with its myriads of beautiful flowers1 c4 that it becomes quite a secondary object1 and its real beauties are very apt to pass unnoticed4 ,it consists of masses of granite1 intermixed with broken capitals of columns1 c4 thrown together in a natural manner1 and planted with ornamental flowering plants1 principally exotic4 ,the rock-work at ,norbiton ,hall1 is disposed in the same manner as that at ,syon2 but it is on a smaller scale2 and its principal use is to keep moisture round the roots of the plants1 which are planted among it4 ,many other specimens of rock-work might be mentioned1 particularly that of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,clowes at ,lower ,boughton ,hall1 near ,manchester1 that of ,mrs4 ,lawrence at ,drayton1 that of the late ,duke of ,bedford at ,woburn1 and that of ,thomas ,millie1 ,esq4 at ,st4 ,clair ,town1 in ,perthshire2 but the most remarkable of all is that of ,lady ,boughton1 at the ,hoole1 near ,chester1 which1 indeed1 stands quite alone1 the only one of its kind4 ,the design for this rock-work was taken from a small model1 representing the mountains of ,savoy1 with the valley of ,chamouni2 and the rocks are made sufficiently large to give a person walking among them1 an idea of their reality4 ,the labour of forming this rock-work was very great2 not only from the large size of the stones to be removed1 but from the difficulty of getting them of the proper colours and shapes4 ,besides this1 it was very difficult to make it stand against the weather4 8,rain washed away the soil1 and frost swelled the stones3 and several times the main wall failed from the weight put upon it4 ,the walls and foundations are built of the red sandstone of the country2 and the other materials have been collected from various quarters1 chiefly from ,wales40 ,the part that represents the outer circle of rocks1 is principally composed of the red sandstone of the neighbourhood1 in which little niches have been made for plants1 and filled with exactly the kind of soil in which alpine plants grow naturally2 viz41 broken fragments of stones1 clean-washed river gravel1 and the debris of decaying moss1 and other plants1 crumbling rocks1 c4 ,the plants are all strictly alpine--the only liberty taken1 being the mingling of the alpine plants of hot and cold countries1 or rather of different elevations1 together2 and this is contrived very ingeniously1 by placing fragments of dark-stone to absorb the heat1 round those that require most warmth1 and fragments of white stone to reflect the heat1 round those that require to be kept cool4 ,in all the trees and shrubs planted among the rocks1 the same care is taken to keep up the illusion3 they are all alpine plants2 and dwarf species1 or those of very slow growth1 are generally chosen1 to prevent them from becoming too large for the rocks4 ,the part which represents the 8,mer de ,glace10 is 8worked with grey limestone1 quartz1 and spar4 ,it has no cells for plants2 but the spaces are filled up with broken fragments of white marble1 to look like snow2 and the spar is to imitate the glaciers40 ,i have already mentioned that ,lady ,boughton was her own artist2 and1 ,i may add1 that the rock-work was six or eight years in progress1 before it was completed4 ,whatever kind of rock-work may be erected1 the first thing to be done is to make a secure foundation2 as1 unless this is effected1 the stones will gradually sink into the earth by their own weight2 and thus1 in a few years1 the mass will either have become half buried1 or tottering and insecure4 ,it is therefore most prudent1 unless the rock-work be actually erected on a solid rock1 to prepare a foundation for it of brick-work2 not suffering1 however1 any of the wall to appear above the surface of the ground4 ,to prevent the possibility of this foundation wall being seen1 it will be best not to carry it higher than to within six or eight inches of the surface4 ,all being prepared1 the stones may be arranged1 the largest at the base2 and the upper ones diversified according to the taste of the designer4 ,the following general rules will apply to all the different kinds of rock-work3--never to let the stones rest against any kind of building2 as1 when so disposed1 they give ideas of disorder and insecurity4 ,never to mix up decaying materials1 such as roots of trees1 c4 with durable materials1 such as rocks and stones2 or things evidently natural1 with those evidently formed by art4 ,never to let the rock-work rise abruptly out of the turf1 like a great mass of stones discharged from a cart2 but gradually to prepare the way for it1 by sinking some fragments of stone half-way in the ground1 and letting them become larger and more numerous1 till the spectator at last arrives at the principal mass4 ,never to begin to work without having some fixed design1 whether avowedly artificial or apparently natural2 and where the design is to make what may be called a natural rock-garden1 like that of the ,duke of ,marlborough at ,blenheim1 always to take care that the stones are very large1 and piled upon one another1 so as to imitate the stratification of a rocky country4 8,in general10 says ,mr4 ,loudon1 in his ,suburban ,gardener1 8rock-work1 to be truly natural1 can only show the rock on one side1 or at most on two sides2 as scars1 cliffs1 and precipices are seen in rocky districts40 ,this abrupt side or face of the rock should be represented as projecting into ledges or shelves1 to imitate the terminations of the different strata2 and the flowering plants should be introduced1 in what may be supposed to be the clefts and fissures of the natural rock4 ,the summit of the rock and the sloping side should be covered with turf1 and may be planted with trees1 some of which may hang over the rock2 or the line of junction between the stones and the turf may be concealed1 by the luxuriance of the alpine plants1 planted in the fissures1 and suffered to climb over the top4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that in granite or basalt rocks1 the lines of stratification are generally vertical2 and consequently very ill adapted for forming ledges for plants4 ,the best materials for a natural rock-garden in ledges are therefore sandstone and limestone1 the lines of stratification in which are chiefly horizontal1 with occasional dips4 ,it will be evident1 from what has been said1 that to make good rock-work1 requires the eye of an artist2 and it may be added1 that rock-work should never be attempted without first making a coloured drawing of it on paper1 or a small model1 with a child's box of bricks1 or some similar materials1 to try the effect4 ,moss-houses are interesting as garden buildings1 because they afford great scope to the exercise of the fancy2 not only in the design for the entire building1 but for the arrangement of the moss in different patterns4 ,the first thing to be considered in carrying the design into execution1 is the foundation2 and this1 if the soil be damp1 should be dug out two feet deep1 and nearly filled with concrete4 ,in this must be fixed the rustic pillars which are to support the roof2 and these are generally composed of the trunks of young larches or spruce-firs with their bark on1 which should be chosen as nearly as possible of the same size4 ,the number of pillars and the manner in which they are to be arranged depends1 of course1 on the design2 but the general number is from eight to twelve4 ,great care must be taken to drive the posts firmly into the ground1 and all to the same depth4 ,the rafters for the roof are then fixed on1 and narrow laths1 or hazel rods1 nailed between them1 and also between the uprights4 ,between these laths or rods the moss is pushed with a wedge-shaped piece of wood2 the pattern having been first rudely traced with chalk on the outside of the rods4 ,the moss to be used should be first collected and sorted1 all of the same kind being put together2 and when it is used the root end should always be the part pushed in between the rods4 ,the principal mosses fit for this purpose are the reindeer moss1 ,cenomyce rangifera1 and its allies1 many of which are found in abundance on ,bagshot ,heath1 and other commons near ,london1 and nearly all of which are white3 the different kinds of ,bryum1 all of which are very neat and compact growing mosses1 sending up long stalks bearing their seedpods2 of these1 ,bryum roseum is pink1 ,b4 hornum yellowish green1 and ,b4 cuspidatum light green3 ,dicranum glaucum nearly yellow1 and ,d4 scoparium a very dark green3 ,sphagnum1 one kind pink1 and another nearly white2 and ,hypnum1 several species1 varying in different shades of green4 ,all these are abundant in the commons about ,london4 ,farther north1 more brilliant colours are found1 some very dark brown1 some of a rich brownish purple1 some of a very bluish green1 and some so white as to look like snow4 ,wherever there is a common or very old turf1 it will be an amusement to explore it in search of the different kinds of mosses2 and when the prevailing mosses of the district have been discovered1 the pattern and colours for the moss-house can be arranged accordingly4 ,a very rich1 and at the same time original effect1 might be produced in a moss-house1 by arranging the moss in an arabesque pattern1 with different colours combined something like those of a ,turkey carpet2 and instead of paving the floor it might be formed in the same manner as the walls4 ,or1 the walls might be of some plain colour with only the crest of the family1 or the initials of the designer's name in white or colours1 and the ceiling and floor in arabesque4 ,in all cases the outside of the roof is thatched or covered with shingles2 and the outside of the walls is either boarded or covered with a thick coating of moss4 ,where the house is large1 or if there are glass windows1 it is best to have the frame-work made by a regular carpenter2 but where the moss-house is small1 and open in front1 it may be put up by the gardener1 or any intelligent servant4 ,in many cases1 the roof is finished with a circle of pine-cones fixed round it as a cornice2 and the floor is either laid with other pine-cones1 or with small pebbles1 some of which are white and are arranged in a kind of pattern2 the windows are frequently of coloured glass2 and a curious effect might be produced by having those in the back of the building purple1 which would make the ground and every object seen through them look as if covered with snow2 and those in front of the building filled with yellow glass1 which gives every object the rich glow of summer4 ,the seats in a garden or pleasure-ground are generally purchased ready made2 but an agreeable variety may be occasionally produced1 by having the stump of an old tree formed into a seat1 and twining ivy1 and creeping flowering shrubs1 round it4 ,where it is an object to save trouble1 a plant of the ,virginian creeper may be planted with one of the giant ivy2 and if both are left to nature1 the effect will be very good1 as the brilliant deep red of the ,virginian creeper in autumn will be relieved by the dark green of the ivy4 ,a few moveable seats--one to wheel about from one part of the garden to another1 and another of the new folding kind1 imported from ,norway by ,charlwood1 and sold at #cs4 #f;d4 each1 are very convenient4 ,where there is a terrace1 a seat may be erected at each end of wood1 but of a somewhat massive design1 and painted white1 being strewed while the paint is wet with very fine sand1 which will make it a good imitation of stone4 ,seats may also be decorated by nailing on a wooden frame-work hazel rods with the bark on1 which have been stained of different colours1 and then varnished4 ,these rods are arranged in a pattern1 and ,i have seen the effect of a landscape produced2 but it appears a kind of decoration that is in very doubtful taste1 or at least one that it requires great judgment to manage properly4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,rustic ,,box4 ,rustic ,baskets4--,there are perhaps few things over which the alchemy of taste has more power than the apparently worthless materials of which these elegant ornaments are constructed1 ,an old cask1 a few pine-cones1 and a few pieces of rope1 combined by skilful hands1 will produce an almost magical effect4 ,the baskets at ,dropmore were all constructed in this manner from designs by ,lady ,grenville4 ,as an example of what may be done with the commonest materials in this way1 ,fig4 #a4 is an old ,chinese tea-chest1 with part of a tree sawn through as a pedestal1 and some pieces of rope nailed on as decorations4 ,fig4 #b4 is an old basket with all its interstices stuffed with moss4 ,many other articles might be devised1 which any person of taste and invention would find it an agreeable occupation to design1 and to superintend the execution of4 ,in addition to these rustic baskets1 a few wirework frames might be designed of much more elegant forms than those commonly sold1 which an intelligent gardener might be easily instructed to make at his leisure hours2 and indeed a lady with two pair of small pincers would find no great difficulty in twisting the wire herself4 ,the great point is to exercise our own skill and ingenuity2 for we all feel so much more interested in what we do ourselves than in what is done for us1 that no lady is likely to become fond of gardening1 who does not do a great deal with her own hands4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,moss ,,basket4 ,fountains4--,though fountains are more suitable to a hot country than to a weeping climate like that of ,england1 yet it must be confessed they are generally a great improvement to garden scenery4 ,the first thing to be considered before erecting one1 is where to make the reservoir2 as on the elevation which that is above the garden1 depends the height to which the water of the fountain will ascend4 ,the length of time which the fountain will play depends on the quantity of water contained in the reservoir1 but this has nothing to do with the height to which the water will rise4 ,if a cistern be formed on the top of a summer-house1 ten feet and a half high1 and a pipe from that be carried down a sufficient depth into the ground to secure it from frost1 and thence horizontally to the orifice which is to form the fountain1 that orifice1 if it be only half an inch in diameter1 will throw up a jet of water ten feet high1 and will continue playing till all the water in the cistern is exhausted4 ,the conducting pipe for such a fountain should be two inches and a quarter in diameter1 and it should be furnished with a valve or stop-cock1 which may be turned at pleasure1 and by which the water may be either suffered to ascend through the orifice1 or retained in the conducting pipe4 ,the reservoir cistern must be kept full by a forcing pump1 or hydraulic ram2 or1 in the neighbourhood of ,london1 by high service from the water company which supplies the dwelling4 ,any cistern1 sufficiently high above the garden1 will do4 ,where a cistern in the roof is supplied with a high service pipe1 a fountain with a jet thirty or forty feet high1 according to the height of the house1 might be had in the garden at no other expence than that of fixing descending1 and horizontal conducting pipes4 ,the water in a fountain may be thrown up in various designs1 which are formed by little tubes of brass1 called adjutages1 which are screwed on the orifice of the conducting pipe4 ,some of these designs imitate a convolvulus1 some a wheat-sheaf1 some a basket1 and some a globe4 ,in short1 they are very numerous1 and after exhausting the fancy of the ,english plumbers1 a variety of different and very elegant designs may be obtained from ,paris4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,window ,,gardening1 ,,and ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,plants ,,in ,,pots ,,in ,,small ,,green-,,houses4 ,the management of plants in rooms is extremely difficult1 from the want of proper light and pure air3 though this latter want may1 in some measure1 be obviated1 by opening the window in front of which the plants stand1 whenever circumstances will permit4 ,it should never be forgotten that fresh air is almost as essential to plants as water2 and that they are seriously injured by being forced to inspire air at their breathing pores that is in an unfit state for them4 ,i have often observed the healthy appearance of plants belonging to cottagers2 and ,i believe it arises principally from the habit that most poor people have1 of setting their plants out in the rain whenever there is a shower4 ,this not only clears the leaves of dust1 and opens the stomata or breathing pores1 but gives the plant abundance of fresh air4 ,without a sufficiency of air and light1 plants will soon become weak and sickly1 and their leaves will turn yellow2 but if a little fresh air be given to them every day when the temperature is not too cold1 they will grow quite as well in a room as in a green-house4 ,another reason why plants kept in rooms are generally unhealthy1 is1 that they are watered in a very irregular manner4 ,sometimes they are suffered to become so dry that the mould in which they grow will crumble under the pressure of the finger1 and the spongioles of the roots are quite withered2 and then a profusion of water is given to them1 quite cold from the pump1 though they have probably been standing in a temperature of from #fj to #gj4 ,as a climax1 part of this water is suffered to remain in the saucer for a day or two1 till even the healthy part of the roots is thoroughly chilled1 and the plant1 if of a delicate nature1 is destroyed4 ,the reverse of all this should be the case4 ,the plant should never be suffered to become so dry as to have the mould in a crumbling state2 but if such a circumstance has been suffered to occur1 it should be well watered with warm water of at least the temperature of the room1 and better if rather warmer4 ,enough of this water should be given to fill the saucer2 in order that every part of the mould and of the roots may imbibe some benefit from the moisture2 but as soon as this has been done1 the pot should be lifted out of the saucer1 and the water thrown away1 as nothing can be more injurious to the roots of most plants1 than to have the pot they grow in1 kept standing in water4 ,there are1 however1 some exceptions to this rule1 such as all the kinds of ,mimulus1 the ,hydrangea1 ,calla ethiopica1 and some kinds of ,calceolaria4 ,all these1 and all marsh plants1 require abundance of water1 and will not flower well unless the saucer be kept half full1 though the water should be changed every day4 ,it is also a common fault to put plants kept in rooms1 into too large pots2 or1 as the gardeners express it1 to over-pot them4 ,this has always a bad effect4 ,if the soil be good1 and not over-watered1 the plants will indeed grow rapidly2 but it will be to produce leaves and branches instead of flowers3 and if the soil be over-watered1 the mass of soddened soil round the roots has the same effect upon them as stagnant water in the saucer4 ,the soil should always be in such a state as to admit air with the water to the roots2 and this it cannot do when it becomes a blackened paste by being saturated with water4 ,at the same time frequent repotting is often absolutely necessary to keep the plants in a dwarf compact habit of growth1 and to prevent them from being drawn up4 ,the way in which gardeners ascertain when repotting is necessary1 is by turning the plant out of its pot with the ball of earth attached2 and if they find the roots look white round the outside of the mould1 then the plant should be transferred to a larger pot2 but only one size larger3 afterwards it may be repotted again if necessary1 but always to a pot only a little larger than the one it was taken from4 ,by persevering in this mode of treatment for some time1 and never advancing more than one size at a time1 a plant may be grown to a large size1 and made to produce abundance of flowers2 while by the contrary treatment1 that is1 suffering it to remain in a very small pot1 or shifting it suddenly into a very large one1 the stem will become weakened and elongated1 and the flowers will be few and very poor4 ,in short1 on the skilful management of repotting1 or shifting1 as the gardeners call it1 a great deal of the art of growing plants in pots depends4 ,the best soil for plants in pots is generally peat mixed with vegetable mould and sand2 and the pots should be filled nearly a quarter of their depth with little bits of broken pots1 called potshreds1 so as to ensure complete drainage4 ,when plants are shifted1 they are turned out of their old pots with their balls of earth entire2 the roots are then examined1 and if any are wounded or decayed they should be cut off4 ,the new pot has then a layer of potshreds placed at the bottom with a little earth1 and the plant is placed in the centre1 so that the bole or collar may be just above the level of the rim4 ,the new earth is then put in1 and the pot shaken to make it settle4 ,the plant is then slightly watered1 and set aside in the shade for the rest of the day4 ,plants should never be repotted when in flower2 the best time is indeed when they are growing1 till their flower buds begin to swell1 when they should be allowed to remain undisturbed till the flowering season is completely over4 ,sometimes the soil in a pot looks black1 and covered with moss4 ,when this is the case1 the plant should be turned out of the pot1 and the black sodden earth partly shaken off the roots1 which should be pruned1 and should have all their decayed parts cut off4 ,the plant should then be repotted in another pot of the same1 or nearly the same1 size as the one it was taken from1 which should be well drained1 and filled up with a compost of vegetable mould1 sand1 and peat4 ,thus treated1 and only moderately but regularly watered with warm water1 which should never be allowed to stand in the saucer1 the plant will soon recover2 and if judiciously pruned in1 if it has become elongated1 it will become handsome1 and what gardeners call well grown4 ,another objection to growing plants in rooms is the great difficulty that exists in keeping them clear of insects2 particularly the ,aphis or green fly1 and the kind of mite1 7,acarus tellarius7 commonly called the red spider4 ,these are generally destroyed by fumigation2 and the best mode of fumigating them is by ,clark's ,patent ,blower1 with the fumigator attached1 which has been already described4 ,washing with a syringe and abundance of water is1 however1 probably a better mode2 as it has been often observed that neither the green fly nor the red spider will ever infest a plant1 that is frequently syringed4 ,the management of plants in a small green-house differs very little from that of plants in rooms4 ,whenever the weather will permit1 air should be given if only for half an hour in the middle of the day4 ,the house should be kept clean1 and free from dead leaves2 and the plants should not be too much crowded4 ,nothing can look worse than pale sickly green-house plants1 drawn up to an unnatural length1 and so weak that their stems will not stand upright without the aid of a stick4 ,when green-houses are crowded with plants1 some of which are too far from the light1 this must be the case2 and when it is1 it is quite hopeless to expect either healthy plants or fine flowers4 ,though it is adviseable to have saucers to the pots of plants kept in rooms1 for the sake of cleanliness1 it is much better for those kept in the green-house to be without them4 ,as different green-house plants require a somewhat different treatment1 the following directions for the management of a few of the most popular may be useful to my readers4 ,camellias4--,the ,camellia is a plant which requires abundance of water1 and is yet soon killed by suffering stagnant moisture to remain about the roots4 ,when grown in pots there should be abundant drainage2 that is1 the pots should be more than a quarter filled with potshreds4 ,the soil should be peat earth1 mixed earth1 and sand2 and the plants should be potted high1 so as to let the collar of the plant be quite above the rim of the pot4 ,the pots should not have saucers1 or if they have for the sake of cleanliness1 the water should be carefully poured out of them immediately after the plants have been watered4 ,the plants should be watered abundantly every day while their flower-buds are swelling1 as if this be neglected1 the buds are very apt to drop off4 ,when the flowers begin to expand1 the watering is not of so much consequence1 though it should be continued in moderate quantities2 and abundance should be again given when the plants are making their young shoots4 ,after they have done growing1 watering once or twice a week will be sufficient till the flower-buds again begin to swell4 ,during the growing season the plants should be set out and syringed all over the leaves once or twice a week2 but care should be taken not to do this when the sun shines1 or at any rate not to set the plants in the sun while they are wet1 as the heat of the sun acting on the water1 will scald the leaves1 and make them appear blotched1 and partially withered4 ,the roots of ,camellias are seldom very strong1 and they are very easily injured4 ,great care should1 therefore1 be taken when the plants are repotted not to bruise the roots1 or to cut off all that are at all injured4 ,if on turning out the plants previous to repotting1 the ball of earth has no white roots appearing on the outside1 the earth and decayed roots should be shaken or cleared away1 till good roots are seen2 and these should be carefully examined1 and all the bad parts cut away4 ,the plants should then be repotted in a pot not more than an inch in diameter more than the diameter of the ball of earth left round the sound roots2 and it should be well drained at the bottom with very small potshreds1 or clean gravel4 ,small ,camellias should not be shifted oftener than once in two years2 and large ones1 that is1 those above five feet high1 not oftener than once in three or four years2 but if the earth in the pot appears to have sunk1 a little vegetable mould may be laid on the surface4 ,the usual time for shifting ,camellias is just when they have done flowering1 before they are beginning to send out their young shoots4 ,when planted in the free ground in a conservatory1 they will require no other care than regular watering1 and syringing the leaves once or twice a week4 ,when planted in the open air1 the roots should be carefully protected by straw during frosty weather4 ,there are some ,camellias in the ,vauxhall ,nursery1 7,messrs4 ,chandler's17 which have been treated in this manner1 and have stood out for several years4 ,the hardiest kinds and the most suitable for planting in the open air1 are the single red1 the double red1 and the double white4 ,the magnificent ,camellia reticulata is also said to be tolerably hardy4 ,the tenderest of the common kinds are the beautiful apple-flowered variety of ,c4 ,sasanqua1 and the single variety of this species1 the flower of which resembles that of the tea-plant4 ,these plants are both of low growth1 and ought always to be kept in pots4 ,geraniums or ,pelargoniums4--,the beautiful green-house shrubs which we are accustomed to call ,geraniums1 have1 in fact1 been long separated from that genus1 and formed into a new one called ,pelargonium4 ,the difference is in the shape of the seed vessel2 that of the ,pelargonium being like a stork's bill1 and that of the ,geranium like a crane's bill4 ,both are nearly allied to the ,touch-me-not2 and when the seed is ripe1 the valves of the seed pod burst asunder and curl up4 ,there are almost innumerable species1 hybrids1 and varieties of ,pelargoniums grown in our green-houses1 so mixed up together by hybridizing1 that it is very difficult even to class them4 ,one of the hardiest kinds1 which has numerous descendants1 is the ,horse-shoe ,geranium1 ,pelargonium zonale2 and another1 ,p4 inquinans1 is the common scarlet4 ,the rose-scented ,geranium1 ,p4 graveolens1 and oak-leaved1 ,p4 quercifolium1 with their numerous descendants1 the flowers of which are all crimson1 striped with brown so very dark that it looks almost black1 are also tolerably hardy4 ,all the shrubby kinds which are generally kept in green-houses1 require a rich loamy soil1 that is1 about half very rotten dung1 and half sandy loam1 to make them produce fine flowers4 ,when the flowering season is over1 the plants are cut down1 and cuttings made from them4 7,see page #hb47 ,when these have struck1 they are potted in a compost of vegetable mould and sand1 and continue in this soil till ,february or ,march1 when they are repotted in rich soil for flowering4 ,some gardeners throw away the old plants as soon as they have made the cuttings2 but others take the old plants out of their pots1 and shaking the earth from them1 prune the roots1 and repot the plants in smaller pots4 ,pelargoniums require a great deal of air2 and when about to flower they should have a great deal of water1 but at other seasons very little4 ,they are killed with the slightest frost2 and are very liable to damp off1 if watered too much1 and not allowed sufficient air in winter4 ,air is1 indeed1 quite essential to them4 ,heaths4--,the kinds grown in green-houses are all natives of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and they are very numerous2 but they may be classed under six heads1 which are named from the shape of their flowers4 ,these divisions are tubular-shaped1 ventricose1 spreading or salver shaped1 with an inflated calyx1 globular1 and ovate4 ,they all require to be potted high1 and to be grown in three parts of peat earth to one of fine white sand1 or in what is emphatically called heath mould4 ,the fine hair-like roots of heaths cannot penetrate a stiff loamy soil1 and manure would be too gross for their spongioles to take up4 ,the collar of the plant should always be above the soil1 as it is very easily rotted by moisture4 ,heaths require good drainage1 and frequent waterings2 and though the water should never be allowed to stand in the saucer1 the roots should also never be allowed to become quite dry1 as when once withered1 they are not easily recovered4 ,heaths also require abundance of free air1 and no plants are more injured by being kept in rooms4 ,they should not be shifted oftener than once in three or four years4 ,they are propagated by cuttings taken from the tips of the shoots1 and then struck in pure white sand4 ,the pots containing the cuttings should be plunged up to the rim in a hot-bed1 and each should be covered with a bell glass4 ,heaths are easily killed by frost1 which acts upon them by splitting1 or rather shivering their stems4 ,verbenas4--,no family of plants better rewards the care of the cultivator1 and none can be more beautiful than the ,verbenas4 ,the old scarlet ,verbena melindres1 or1 as it is frequently called1 ,v4 chamdrifolia1 is the most brilliant of all the kinds1 though it is one of the most tender3 it is a prostrate plant1 and when pegged down1 it is well adapted for covering a bed in a geometric flower garden2 or it may be planted in a vase1 or rustic flower-basket to hang down over the sides4 ,verbena ,tweediana is an upright growing plant1 and though the flowers1 which are crimson1 are not half so brilliant as those of ,v4 melindres1 the plant has the great advantage of being one of the hardiest of all the kinds4 ,v4 melindres latifolia1 and ,v4 mel4 splendens are both hardier than their parent1 and they unite its brilliant colour1 with the upright habit of ,tweediana4 ,v4 incisa has pale pink flowers1 and an upright habit of growth4 ,it is tolerably hardy1 and grows freely1 but its flowers have a faded look4 ,v4 ,arraniana has an upright habit of growth1 and purple flowers1 with very dark bluish-green leaves4 ,it is very tender1 and very apt to be attacked by a kind of aphis1 and other insects4 ,v4 ,aubletia1 ,v4 ,lambertii1 and ,v4 ,sabinii are prostrate tufted half herbaceous kinds1 all hardy4 ,v4 ,neillii has lilac flowers1 and rather an upright habit of growth2 and ,v4 teucroides is a coarse-growing plant1 with a long spike of white flowers1 which turn pink in dying off1 which has been much more praised than it deserves4 ,there is also a yellowish kind1 ,v4 sulphurea2 ,v4 venosa1 a very strong-growing species1 with purple flowers1 and many other species1 hybrids1 and varieties4 ,all the ,verbenas require to be grown in sand and peat1 or heath-mould1 and to be kept moderately watered3 they all strike readily from cuttings or layers2 and1 indeed1 when pegged down without any slitting or twisting1 most of the shrubby kinds will throw out roots at every joint4 ,when worm casts are observed on the surface of the pot1 as will very often be the case1 the plant1 with its ball of earth entire1 may be turned out of the pot1 and the worms1 which will always be found on the outside of the ball may be picked off4 ,worms do considerable injury to plants1 especially such as are in pots1 by rupturing the fibres and impeding the free percolation of the water1 besides giving the surface of the earth in the pot1 a very unpleasant appearance4 ,the flowers of the ,verbenas should always be cut off as soon as they wither4 ,the ,lemon plant1 ,verbena triphylla1 now called ,aloysia citriodora1 is remarkable for the sweetness of the odour of its leaves4 ,it is tolerably hardy2 but requires great care in watering2 as the leaves will soon curl up and wither if it has too little1 and they will drop off if it has too much4 ,the flower has no beauty2 and the only recommendation of the plant is the delightful fragrance of its leaves4 ,petunias may be raised1 either from seed or cuttings1 as they seed freely1 and strike readily4 ,the first kind introduced was the white-flowered kind1 ,petunia nyctaginiflora1 which is an abundant flowerer1 and very fragrant4 ,petunia phnicea1 or violacea1 is another original species1 and from these nearly all the myriads of hybrids and varieties have arisen4 ,these ,petunias hybridize freely with each other1 and most of the kinds produce abundance of seed4 ,p4 bicolor is a different species1 and does not either mix well with the others1 or seed freely4 ,petunias may be treated as annuals1 and raised on a slight hot-bed every year from seed2 and thus treated1 they will do very well in the open ground4 ,in warm dry situations1 they may even be suffered to sow themselves in the open ground1 and will come up and flower abundantly4 ,treated as green-house plants1 they are1 however1 all shrubby1 and will last several years4 ,when intended to be kept in pots1 the seed should be sown on a slight hot-bed in ,february1 and the young plants pricked out into very small thumb pots1 as they are called1 while in the seed leaf4 ,in these pots they should remain either in the frame of the hot-bed1 or in a room1 or green-house1 for about a week or ten days1 and they should be then shifted into somewhat larger pots4 ,these shiftings1 always into somewhat larger pots1 should be repeated six1 eight1 or ten times1 if the plants are wanted to be bushy2 and not more than four1 if the plants are wished to grow tall4 ,the bushy plants will flower abundantly1 without any support2 but the tall-growing plants1 which are suffered to flower in comparatively small pots1 must be trained to some kind of frame4 ,when the tall plants appear growing too straggling1 the extremities of the shoots should be taken off and made into cuttings4 ,petunias may be grown in any good garden soil2 and require no particular attention as to watering1 c4 ,in fact1 they are1 perhaps1 the best of all plants for a lady to cultivate2 as they will afford a great deal of interest and amusement1 with the least possible amount of trouble4 ,fuchsias are another family of plants that may be cultivated with very little trouble4 ,fuchsia globosa is at once the hardiest and the handsomest kind4 ,f4 virgata is also tolerably hardy4 ,all the ,fuchsias require a light1 rich soil1 or a mixture of rich sandy loam and peat2 and regular watering1 as when the outer roots are once withered1 either by want of moisture1 or by exposure of the pot to the direct rays of the sun1 the plant generally dies4 ,for this reason the ,fuchsia is not so well adapted for a window plant1 as many others4 ,fuchsia fulgens differs considerably from the other species1 and will not flower well unless in the open ground1 and with a sunny exposure4 ,it is also tuberous rooted1 though woody in its stem4 ,it is easily propagated2 and even a leaf taken off without injuring the part of the petiole which was attached to the stem1 has been known to grow and form a plant4 ,several handsome hybrids have been produced1 by applying the pollen of ,f4 fulgens to the stigma of ,f4 globosa1 ,f4 conica1 and ,f4 gracilis4 ,it may here be mentioned1 that whenever hybrids are to be raised1 by fertilizing one plant with the pollen of another1 the anthers of the flower that is to produce the seed1 should be removed with a pair of scissors1 before they burst4 ,the pollen from the other flower which is to form the hybrid1 should be afterwards applied with a camel-hair pencil to the stigma of the flower1 which is to produce the seed2 and a bit of thread should be tied round the flower-stalk1 in order that the seed-pod may be saved1 and set apart4 ,all hybrids may be made in the same manner2 but it must always be remembered that flowers will not hybridize properly1 unless they are naturally nearly allied4 ,calceolarias4--,perhaps no plants have ever been hybridized more extensively than these4 ,the principal parents of the numerous and splendid plants that we are continually seeing produced1 are ,c4 corymbosa1 and ,c4 arachnoidea1 the one a yellow1 and the other a purple flower2 but there are many other species that have been crossed and re-crossed with these1 so as to form a very great variety4 ,c4 bicolor has a very large pale yellow-and-white flower2 and it has been the parent of some very fine hybrids and varieties4 ,all the calceolarias require rather a rich soil2 and the usual compost is two parts of thoroughly rotten dung1 one part of leaf mould1 or old turf1 and one part of white sand4 ,the ingredients of this compost should be well mixed together1 and broken fine1 but not sifted4 ,all the ,calceolarias require plenty of water1 and abundance of light and air2 and they will all flower best when planted in the open ground4 ,they are1 however1 very subject to be attacked by a kind of aphis2 and when kept in pots1 they should be frequently syringed4 ,myrtles should be grown in a soil composed of peat and loam1 in which the former predominates2 they should be regularly watered1 and frequently syringed4 ,some persons nip off the tips of the young shoots1 to make the plants grow bushy2 and though it has this effect1 it is a bad practice with the flowering kinds1 as it prevents them from flowering4 ,a better plan is to make cuttings1 and first to plant them in very small pots1 gradually changing them into larger ones1 till the plants have acquired a bushy habit of growth4 ,mimulus4--,some of the kinds of plants of this genus are very handsome1 particularly the hybrids raised by the nurserymen from ,m4 cardinalis1 ,m4 roseus1 ,m4 luteus1 and ,m4 guttatus4 ,these species are all herbaceous1 and all natives of ,south ,america1 ,mexico1 and ,california4 ,they are all nearly hardy1 and though generally grown in a green-house1 they will stand quite well in the open air1 dying down to the ground in winter1 but sending up fresh and very vigorous shoots in spring4 ,when these plants are grown in the open ground it should be in a shady moist situation2 and when they are kept in pots1 they should always stand in saucers half full of water4 ,this water should1 however1 be changed every day1 and when given to the plants it should always be as nearly as possible1 of the same temperature as themselves4 ,the little musk plant1 ,mimulus moschata1 requires the same treatment as its more showy brethren4 ,as all the species of ,mimulus have been found in their native habitats growing in coarse sand or gravel on the brink of a river1 this kind of soil should be chosen for them in pots2 and the soil in which they are grown can hardly be too poor1 provided they have abundance of water4 ,in ,chili1 the inhabitants eat the leaves as a kind of vegetable4 ,the shrubby kinds of ,mimulus2 viz41 the common monkey plant1 ,m4 luteus1 and the scarlet-flowered species1 ,m4 puniceus1 are now considered to belong to a new genus called ,diplacus4 ,they are both natives of ,california2 and in their treatment they should be considered as green-house plants1 and have rather a better soil1 and less water than the true kinds of ,mimulus4 ,hydrangea ,hortensia is another plant1 that when grown in a pot1 requires to have the saucer kept half full of water4 ,there are several species1 most of which are hardy shrubs1 but ,hydrangea ,hortensia1 the kind usually called the ,hydrangea1 is a native of ,china1 and only half hardy1 though it will live in the open air in sheltered situations1 or with a very slight protection4 ,this plant was named ,hortensia by the botanist ,commerson in compliment to ,madame ,hortense ,lapeaute1 the wife of a ,french watchmaker4 ,the ,hydrangea1 when the colour of its flower is to be pink1 should be grown in a rich loamy soil2 but when the colour of the flower is wished to be blue it should be grown in peat4 ,in both cases the plant should be pruned every year1 and the old wood cut out2 so that the wood which is to produce the flowering shoots should never be more than two or at most three years old4 ,cuttings strike readily at any season when the plant is in a growing state2 if put into a rich soil and kept moist they will root in a fortnight1 and flower in a month4 ,succulent plants4--,there are very few things in gardening respecting which gardeners appear more to disagree than in the treatment of succulent plants4 ,nearly all these plants are natives of the sandy plains in the neighbourhood of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where they are subjected to alternate seasons of extreme wet and extreme dryness4 ,cultivators attempting to imitate this1 have grown their plants in poor sandy soil1 and kept them entirely without water at one season1 while they have been inundated with it at another4 ,the fact is1 that when we attempt to imitate nature1 we should remember that the attempt is useless unless we can do so in every particular2 and also that the plants we have to cultivate1 have been nursed up into so very artificial a state1 that if they were transplanted to their native plains they would probably perish1 like a poor ,canary bird1 which a mistake of philanthropy has turned out of the cage in which it has long lived4 ,for this reason1 we must adopt the mode of treating succulents1 which the best gardeners find most successful1 without troubling ourselves to discover why it is so different from the natural habit of the plants4 ,this mode of treatment is1 then1 to grow the plants in a rich loamy soil1 kept open1 as it is called1 by the addition of lime rubbish2 and to give the plants water all the year1 but more moderately when they are in a dormant1 than when they are in a growing state4 ,they should also have as much air and light as possible4 ,the water should never be suffered to stand in the saucer of any succulent plant2 but it should be given regularly1 diminishing the quantity a little every day as the season for rest approaches4 ,if the water be suddenly stopped the leaves of the plants will shrink and become flaccid1 and when this is the case1 the plant generally dies4 ,a deficiency of air on the other hand will cause the plant to damp off4 ,all succulent plants are very soon affected by frost4 ,the ,australian plants1 of which so many beautiful kinds have been introduced within the last few years1 should nearly all be grown in a mixture of sand and peat2 and they should have their pots filled one-third with potshreds4 ,they all require abundance of water1 but they will all perish if water is retained about their roots4 ,most of the ,australian plants are very tenacious of life1 and if cut down when they appear dead1 they will generally spring up again from the collar or the roots4 ,the principal climbing plants grown in pots are the ,maurandyas1 the ,lophospermums1 the ,passion-flowers1 the ,rhodochiton1 the ,eccremocarpus1 the ,ipomas1 and the ,coba4 ,there are1 however1 several others1 all of which are very handsome4 ,the greater part of these require a rich light soil to make them grow rapidly1 and to be kept in small pots to throw them into flower4 ,the ,bignonias or ,tecomas should be grown in equal parts of loam and peat2 and this compost will suit the ,polygalas1 and other showy climbers4 ,the ,sollyas and ,billiardieras should be grown in peat1 and frequently syringed to keep off the green fly4 ,the ,thunbergias are very liable to be attacked by the red spider4 ,many of the shrubby climbers may be treated as annuals1 and raised from seed every year in ,january1 and planted out in ,june2 but they do still better treated as biennials1 and sown one year to flower the next4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,calendar ,,of ,,operations4 ,january4 ,january may be called the digging month1 as almost the only gardening operation that can be performed in it is digging1 or rather trenching the ground2 and even this cannot be done unless the weather be open and the ground free from frost4 ,nothing can be imagined more desolate than the appearance of the flower-garden in this month4 ,perhaps the ,christmas rose may be in flower1 and a few lingering blossoms may remain on the ,pyrus or ,cydonia japonica2 but this is generally all1 except a few red berries that the birds may have left on the holly or the pyracantha4 ,january1 however1 is an excellent month for the destruction of snails and insects4 ,the snails will be found in their winter quarters1 sticking to the trunk of some ivy-clad tree1 or hidden beneath the coping of some wall4 ,they are quite in a torpid state and appear dead1 but might soon be revived by bringing them into a warm room1 and sprinkling them with water4 ,of course1 however1 if they are to be destroyed1 it should be without rousing them from their stupor4 ,the eggs of insects should also be sought for and destroyed4 ,those of the lackey moth will be found on twigs1 fixed firmly round them like bracelets of small beads4 ,these should be burnt1 as they are too hard to be crushed4 ,the eggs of the vapourer moth will be found on the outside of the cocoon1 looking like a bag of spider's eggs4 ,a very small scale-like insect will also sometimes be found on the branches of the rose-trees1 which should be carefully removed4 ,indeed1 as a precautionary measure1 it is well to brush the branches of all the rose-trees in this month with soft soap and water1 to destroy any eggs that may be adhering to them4 ,sometimes trees and shrubs are planted in ,january if the weather be favourable1 but this it very seldom is1 as if not frosty it is generally very wet4 ,in the kitchen-garden the fruit-trees and shrubs1 particularly the gooseberries1 should be carefully examined for eggs of insects2 and the trunk and branches of all suspected trees and shrubs should be brushed with soft soap and hot water4 ,february4 ,in this month1 if the weather be favourable1 the gardeners 8dress0 their beds2 that is1 they dig and rake them1 manuring them if necessary4 ,in the flower-garden the ,californian annuals that had stood the winter in some waste part of the garden are now brought forward by spadefuls1 and laid over the beds intended for them4 ,the early bulbs1 such as the snow-drop and the ,scotch crocus begin to appear1 and here and there a splendid cloth of gold glitters among them in its rich yellow and brown4 ,the winter aconite and the beautiful hepaticus are now in full glory2 and in short all nature appears awakening from the sleep of winter4 ,this is pre-eminently the season for spring planting2 and all the trees and shrubs1 and even herbaceous plants that are to be removed are put into the ground4 ,the garden rose-trees and other hardy flowering shrubs are pruned1 care being taken always to cut them in a slanting direction1 and to a bud4 ,when the rose-bushes have sent up long untidy shoots1 every alternate shoot may be cut down to within a few inches of the ground4 ,thus treated1 the shoots that are left will flower1 and those that were cut down will send up strong and vigorous shoots for flowering the succeeding year1 when the present flowering stems may be cut in4 ,the bushes will thus be kept of moderate size1 and of a compact habit of growth1 without the flowering being materially checked4 ,in ,february the ranunculus roots are planted that are to flower in the following ,may1 and a hot-bed is made for the tender annuals4 ,in short1 the business of the gardener's year has commenced4 ,in the kitchen-garden1 if the weather be open1 the gooseberries and currants should be pruned1 and also such of the fruit-trees as have been left for spring pruning4 ,if the winter has been very hard1 the gooseberries and currants are left as long as possible unpruned1 because the birds1 when driven to distress for want of food1 very often pick off the buds1 and should the number of buds have been previously diminished by pruning1 the hopes of the season for a good crop of fruit are generally destroyed4 ,radishes and lettuce should be sown in ,february1 and spinage2 also the first crop of peas and beans4 ,the strawberry-beds are pruned and dressed1 and the raspberry shoots shortened and cut in4 ,march4 ,this is the sowing month4 ,in the flower-garden the seeds of hardy annuals are sown in the open border4 ,turf is laid down where wanted1 and grass-seeds are sown4 ,rose-trees are sometimes planted in this month1 and the climbing kinds are pruned and trained4 ,the best sorts for training as pyramids of roses are the ,noisette and ,boursault kinds1 and some of the hybrid ,china4 ,the box edgings are taken up and replanted1 and the gravel walks are raked or turned over1 and new gravel added if requisite4 ,this is in fact the first month that displays the cheerfulness and brilliancy of spring1 for the flower-garden is gay with crocuses1 and the bees are buzzing about them1 while the birds are singing on every tree4 ,the weather is often very fine and warm in ,march2 but there are frequently frosty nights1 during which the tree-peonies and other half-hardy early-flowering shrubs should be protected by a kind of beehive-like covering1 made sufficiently large to put on and take off without injuring the plants4 ,in the country1 these coverings may be made of platted rushes sewed together1 and the gathering and platting them will afford employment to poor old women and children in winter4 ,biennials1 such as hollyhocks1 ,brompton stocks1 c41 are generally transplanted in this month4 ,in the kitchen-garden the principal crops of all the culinary vegetables are sown1 and potatoe sets are planted4 ,the spring pruning and planting are also finished4 ,forest-trees are planted in the parks and pleasure-grounds1 and trees are cut down4 ,in short1 in large places ,march and ,april probably form the most laborious period of the gardener's year4 ,april4 ,in the first week of this month many gardeners transplant their biennials1 instead of putting them into the ground in ,march4 ,the hollyhocks should have a hole dug for each plant two feet deep1 at the bottom of which should be thrown three or four spadefuls of strong stable manure4 ,many gardeners also plant their dahlia-roots in this month1 though others delay this operation till ,may1 or even ,june4 ,however this may be1 the tubers of the dwarf kinds should be planted at about three feet apart1 but the larger sorts should be four feet or five feet from each other every way4 ,the soil should be in a sandy loam1 not too rich1 lest the plants should produce more leaves than flowers1 and not too poor1 lest the flowers should be poor also4 ,in planting the tubers1 care should be taken to arrange them in such a manner that the colours of the flowers they produce shall have a harmonious effect4 ,in this month the auriculases generally begin to come into flower in pots1 and the polyanthuses and primroses in the open ground4 ,tuberoses1 the different kinds of gladiolus1 the ,guernsey lily1 and other shewy autumn-flowering bulbs may be planted towards the end of ,april1 or the first week in ,may4 ,a bed should be prepared for their reception1 by digging the ground about a foot deep1 and taking out about half the soil1 which is to be replaced by equal parts of vegetable-mould and well-rotted dung4 ,when this is well dug over and mixed1 drills should be drawn in it1 about three or four inches deep and eighteen inches apart1 in which the bulbs 7after first taking off their offsets7 are to be placed about nine inches apart4 ,the bulbs should be made quite firm in the soil1 and then covered with mould an inch or an inch and a half deep4 ,they will not require any water till a week or ten days after planting1 when the roots have begun to grow1 but after that they should be watered regularly4 ,heartseases for autumn flowering may be sown this month1 or cuttings may be made of favourite kinds4 ,the heartsease requires a shady situation1 and a rich loamy soil1 plentifully supplied with water4 ,the box edgings may be pruned in this month1 but they should never be clipped4 ,a garden-line should be stretched along the edging1 at the proper height1 generally about four inches from the ground1 above which the highest point of the box should not reach2 and the box should be cut down to this line1 every shoot being cut in a slanting direction to a bud1 and only every alternate shoot suffered to reach the line4 ,hardy annuals also may be sown in this month1 if the sowing of them was neglected in ,march4 ,the ornamental kinds of ,ribes and ,berberis will begin to come into flower with ,magnolia conspicua1 and the common almond4 ,in the kitchen-garden1 ,april may be called the grafting month1 though many gardeners begin to perform that operation in ,march4 ,in the culinary department1 those vegetables that require transplanting1 such as celery1 sea-kale1 cauliflower1 c41 are generally planted out in ,april4 ,the peas and beans are hoed up1 as are the potatoes2 the asparagus and artichoke beds are dressed2 and the onions1 turnips1 c41 are thinned4 ,if potatoes for the main crop were not planted in ,march1 they should be now4 ,the peas should be staked when they are hoed up2 and this is the best season for dividing roots of thyme and other aromatic herbs4 ,may4 ,in the flower-garden1 this is the month for planting out the tender annuals which have been raised on a hotbed4 ,the seeds of hardy annuals may still be sown1 and also those of biennials for planting out the following spring4 ,in this month1 ornamental perennial plants may be propagated by slips and cuttings2 and if any were made in ,april for striking in a hotbed1 they may be transplanted4 ,the leaves of the rose-trees should be examined for a little brown grub1 which infests them at this season1 and which should be picked off and destroyed4 ,the flower-garden will now be in all its splendour4 ,the hyacinths will be in full bloom1 as will also the different kinds of ,ribes1 ,berberis1 and ,mahonia1 among the shrubs2 and several kinds of ,magnolia1 the ,judas tree1 ,edwardsia1 c41 among the trees4 ,the ,ponia ,moutan will likewise expand its magnificent blossoms2 and the spring heartsease will be coming into flower1 as will the ,nemophilla insignis1 and several of the other ,californian annuals4 ,in the kitchen-garden1 the operations continue nearly the same as the last month4 ,peas and beans may be sown for the late crops1 and spinach1 c4 ,this is the proper season for sowing kidney-beans4 ,if the first crop of peas has not been staked1 it should now be done1 and the tops should be taken off the common beans2 both may also be hoed up4 ,the blossoms of the fruit-trees should be examined1 and those attacked by insects should be instantly removed1 and the insects they contain destroyed4 ,all leaves that are found rolled up should be taken off1 and destroyed4 ,in the park and pleasure-grounds1 oak-trees are generally felled in ,may1 because the movement of the sap at this season makes the bark separate more easily from the wood4 ,june4 ,in the flower-garden1 this is the month for piping and layering pinks and carnations1 and for making cuttings of the tenderer kinds of roses4 ,the hardy roses will be probably much infested with the green fly1 or aphis1 which should be destroyed with tobacco-water4 ,great care should1 however1 be taken in using it1 or the tobacco-water will disfigure the plants more than even the aphis itself4 ,half-a-pound of the best shag tobacco should be put into a gallon of hot water1 and the decoction suffered to stand till it is quite cold4 ,the infested shoots should then be dipped in the tobacco-water1 and suffered to remain in it about a minute1 and then immediately washed in clean water4 ,two persons should perform this operation1 one carrying a saucer with the tobacco-water1 and the other a jug of clean water and a saucer1 to wash the shoots immediately4 ,in the kitchen-garden1 there is very little to do1 except to sow what are called succession crops of culinary vegetables1 and to continue the operations of the last month where necessary4 ,june is1 indeed1 rather a month of enjoyment in a garden1 than one of labour4 ,the fruit-trees1 however1 may be pruned or disbudded of their summer shoots2 and towards the end of the month1 budding commences4 ,july4 ,the bulbs of hyacinths and tulips are generally taken up in this month1 and put in to a proper place to dry2 as are the tubers of ranunculuses and anemones4 ,the stalks of those herbaceous plants that have done flowering should be cut down1 that they may send up fresh shoots1 and produce a second set of flowers4 ,the dead roses1 c41 should be cut away as soon as they fade1 as nothing more completely destroys the beauty of a flower-garden than a number of dead flowers mingled with the newly-expanded ones4 ,cuttings of verbenas1 and other greenhouse1 or window plants may be made this month2 and those that were made early in spring1 may be planted in the beds to supply the place of the bulbs1 and other plants that have quite done flowering4 ,roses1 pinks1 and carnations are in their greatest splendour in ,june and ,july4 ,roses are generally budded in this month2 though1 if the weather be moist1 any time will do from ,june to ,september4 ,the essential point is to have the weather sufficiently moist and warm to stimulate the dormant action of the bud4 ,in the kitchen-garden the shallots should be taken up2 but in other respects there is nothing particular to do--except the routine culture of keeping the garden neat1 and sowing the seeds of culinary vegetables for succession4 ,august4 ,the box edgings are again pruned in this month as they were in spring4 ,the pinks and carnations having now done flowering1 should have the layers which were made in ,june cut away if they have rooted2 and some ,german stocks1 and other plants which have been purposely raised in pots1 should be planted amongst the carnations1 to prevent the beds from looking bare of flowers4 ,the seeds of most of the annual flowers are now ripe1 and should be gathered4 ,the evergreens and other plants in the shrubberies should be pruned1 and their summer shoots cut in1 if they have been too luxuriant4 ,the bulbs of crown imperials1 lilies1 and all the scaly kinds1 which generally remain several years in the ground without taking them up1 should be planted in this month4 ,they will grow under the shade of trees1 and in any situation not too dry4 ,if too much exposed to the sun1 the flowers will fade almost as soon as they expand4 ,scaly bulbs that have been long planted1 may also be taken up1 their offsets taken off1 and the bulb removed to a new situation2 but no scaly bulb should be kept long out of the ground4 ,in the kitchen-garden this is the gathering month1 as most of the fruits and vegetables are now ripe4 ,september4 ,the dahlias are now the principal ornament of the flower garden2 and they should be kept neatly tied up1 and all the dead flowers removed as soon as they fade4 ,the autumn flowering bulbs are now in full blossom2 and all the greenhouse and frame plants that were turned out are also in flower4 ,the beds for hyacinths and other spring bulbs should be dug over and manured4 ,in the kitchen-garden1 spinach may be sown for use in spring2 and the potatoes and other roots should be taken up4 ,this is considered the best month for planting strawberries4 ,the wall-fruit will require protection from birds1 wasps1 and flies4 ,some worsted twined backwards and forwards from projecting nails1 is said to be the best protection from birds2 and bottles of sugar and water hung from the twigs will attract the wasps and flies from the fruit4 ,after the fruit of the wall-trees is gathered1 the borders are usually lightly forked over1 and what is called a top-dressing of fresh compost is spread over them4 ,october4 ,in the flower-garden the tender greenhouse plants should be taken up4 ,seeds of the hardy annuals that will stand the winter should be sown1 particularly those of the heartsease1 rocket-larkspur1 coreopsis1 ,eschscholtzia1 and all the californian annuals4 ,the best way of managing these is to choose a portion of hard ground on which a little light earth1 six or eight inches deep1 has been laid2 in this the seeds should be sown1 and the young plants will be ready to remove by spadefuls to the beds prepared for them in spring4 ,this is the best season for planting hyacinths1 tulips1 crocuses1 and other bulbs and corms1 and the different varieties of ,anemone hortensis2 taking care when planting the latter to keep the eye of the tuber uppermost4 ,all the kinds of ,ponies1 as well the ,ponia ,moutan as the herbaceous species1 should be planted in this month4 ,the leaves that fall in great abundance in ,october and ,november should be regularly swept up1 and carried to a rotting heap1 that they may decay1 and make the earth so valuable to florists1 which is generally called vegetable mould4 ,in the kitchen-garden the remaining fruit should be gathered4 ,towards the end of the month some fruit-trees may be planted if their leaves have dropped2 and the autumnal pruning may begin1 unless the trees should be still in a growing state4 ,november4 ,in the beginning of this month the appearance of the flower-garden is extremely desolate4 ,the dahlias have generally been seriously injured by the frost1 but not quite so much so as to warrant their removal2 and a few lingering flowers of other kinds recal melancholy ideas of what has been1 but is passed4 ,a mild ,november is indeed the old age of the floral year2 and a sharp frost that kills all the remaining flowers is felt positively as a relief4 ,the tubers of the dahlias should be taken up as soon as the frost has changed their flowers4 ,the names should be attached to the roots by string1 or the ,chester metallic wire2 and they should be laid on dry boards in a cellar1 and covered with sand1 or in some dry place1 not too warm1 in a green-house4 ,the temperature at which they should be kept1 should be between #ce and #de4 ,the autumn-flowering bulbs should be taken up in the same manner1 and kept in dry sand or moss4 ,all the plants that require protection1 should be carefully covered or matted up4 ,in the kitchen-garden the beds should be cleared of all haulm1 c41 and dug over and dressed2 and the trees which were not before planted should be put into the ground4 ,december4 ,this month is a perfect blank both for the flower and the fruit garden2 except for collecting soils1 making composts1 preparing labels for names or numbers1 sticks or stakes for tying up plants1 nails and list for fastening them2 and in mild weather1 for pruning the larger and more hardy deciduous trees and shrubs1 c4 ,,index4 ,a ,acacia seeds1 way to make them vegetate1 #fi ,acarus telarius1 or the red spider1 #cec ,adjutages for fountains1 #cdf ,almond trees1 kinds and culture1 #bcf ,aloysia citriodora1 culture of1 #cfc ,american blight1 mode of removing1 #bbj ,anemones1 culture of1 #bif different kinds of1 #bie ,annual flowers1 culture of1 #bed ,aphis1 or green fly1 mode of destroying1 #cec season for destroying1 #che ,apples1 kinds and culture of1 #bah ,apricots1 best kinds and culture1 #bjh ,april1 operations in1 #chj ,arboretums1 #cae ,artichokes1 #adi ,asparagus beds1 #add different kinds of1 #ade insects on1 #adg soil for1 #ade ,august1 operations in1 #chg ,auriculas1 #bfb ,australian plants1 #cgb ,ayrshire roses1 #cbf ,b ,barberries1 #bdb ,baulk in dug ground1 what it is1 #af ,beans1 kinds and culture of1 #afg ,bed for bulbs1 mode of preparing1 #cha ,beet1 red1 #agf ,biennial flowers1 culture of1 #bfj time for transplanting1 #cgi ,birds1 those which do most injury to gardens1 #abc ,black earth1 cause of its infertility1 #be remedy for1 #bh ,blenheim1 rock work at1 #ccj ,blotches on leaves1 cause of1 #cee ,boiling seeds1 #fi ,borecole1 #afb ,box edgings1 mode of clipping1 #chb to plant1 #adb season for planting1 #cgh summer pruning of1 #chg ,brocoli1 #afa ,brussels' sprouts1 #aeh ,budding knife1 #ib ,budding1 mode of performing1 #hh points to be attended to1 #ib time for performing on rose-trees1 #chg ,bulbs1 #bgg analogy between them and seeds1 #dh different kinds of1 #di mode of planting1 #dg1 #di time for taking up1 #chf tunicated1 bed for1 #ej ,burying manure1 #ag ,c ,cabbage tribe1 #aee ,cacti1 cuttings of1 #hf ,calcareous loam1 #cc ,calceolarias1 culture of1 #cfg kinds of1 #cfg ,californian annuals1 kinds of1 #beh treatment of1 #cgf1 #cij ,camellias1 choice1 changed to single red1 #if culture of1 #ced hardiest kinds of1 #ceg ,canker in apple-trees1 cause of1 #bai1 #bbj ,carnations1 cultivation of1 #bfe ,carrots1 kinds and culture of1 #agd ,cauliflower1 culture of1 #aei ,celery1 culture of1 #ahd ,chalk1 its defects and merits as a soil1 #cb ,cherries1 #baj ,chestnuts1 #bcc ,chiccory1 #ahc ,chives1 #ahj ,chrysanthemums1 #bgc ,clay1 its nature1 and mode of improving1 #cb ,cleft grafting1 #ajj ,climbing plants1 #cgc roses1 #cbf ,cold manures1 #ch ,coleworts1 #aeg ,collar1 or collet of a plant1 #bc ,colurna hazel1 #bcf ,compost for carnations1 #bff ,constantinople nut1 #bcf ,corms1 what they are1 and mode of treating1 #bic ,cranberries1 #bdc ,crocuses1 culture of1 #bic when they first appear1 #cgf ,cropping1 #adc ,crops1 permanent1 #add temporary1 rotation of1 #aec ,crown grafting1 #ajj ,crown imperial1 time for planting1 #chh ,crown of a plant1 #bc ,cucumbers1 culture of1 #ahi for pickling1 #aia ,cutting down plants below the graft1 #if ,cuttings1 mode of making1 #gi principal points to be attended to in making1 #hg ,currants1 #bdj season for pruning1 #cgg ,d ,dahlias1 culture of1 #bif different kinds of1 #bii mode of budding1 #ia modes of training1 #bih soil for1 #bih tubers of1 to keep1 #cia when to plant1 #chj ,dead flowers1 to be removed1 #chf leaves1 use of1 #cij ,december1 operations in1 #cib ,deciduous trees1 time for transplanting1 #ec ,delicate plants1 cuttings of1 to strike1 #hc ,derby arboretum1 #cba ,digging beds1 mode of performing1 #ad mode of performing by a gardener1 #g1 #ab by a lady1 #i1 #ab purposes used for1 #ac season for1 #ac1 #cgd uses of1 #a1 #f ,disbudding1 #aac season for1 #chf ,dug ground in shrubberies1 to conceal1 #cai ,dwarf fruit-trees1 #bja ,e ,earthing up1 in what cases it may be applied1 #bc ,earths1 the three primitive1 #bh ,eggs of insects1 when to destroy1 #cge ,elder1 #bbi ,endive1 #ahb ,espaliers1 training of1 #bab ,evenness of surface1 necessity of attending to in digging1 #af ,evergreen roses1 #cbf ,excrementitious matter1 #aec ,f ,february1 operations in1 #cgf ,felling trees1 season for1 #chd ,fibrous roots1 #ea ,fig-trees1 #baa ,filbert1 #bcd ,fixing by water1 #ei ,florists' flowers1 #bfb ,flower garden1 #bdd ,flowers1 culture of1 #bed ,flute grafting1 #ia ,forking1 uses of1 #bj ,fountains1 mode of constructing1 #cdd ,french1 or ,provins roses1 #cbe ,fruit border1 construction of1 #aig ,fruit shrubs1 #bcg ,fruit-trees1 mode of planting1 #aih ,fuchsias1 culture of1 #cfe hardiest kinds1 #cfe ,fumigator1 #abh ,furrows formed in digging1 #af ,g ,garden walls1 mode of forming1 #aif use of1 #aii ,garlic1 mode of growing1 #ahj ,gathering month1 #chh ,gauntlet for a lady to save her hands1 #aj ,geraniums1 or pelargoniums1 cuttings of1 #hb kinds of1 #ceg ,gooseberries1 #bch season for pruning1 #cgg ,gourds1 #aib ,grafting clay and grafting wax1 #ajg ,grafting month1 #chb ,grafting1 modes of performing1 #ig nature of1 #id points to be attended to in performing1 #ajh season for1 #if uses of1 #aji ,grasses1 different kinds of1 #cjb kinds to be avoided in sowing lawns1 #caa quantity necessary per acre for sowing a lawn1 #cjg soil for1 #cjc suitable for lawns1 #cjd ,grass seeds1 time for sowing1 #cab ,gravel walks1 to make1 #aci when to renovate1 #cgh ,green fly1 #cec mode of destroying1 #che ,greenhouse1 management of plants in1 #cec ,grubs on rose-trees1 when to look for1 #chc ,guernsey lily1 treatment of1 #bib when to plant1 #cha ,h ,heartseases1 #bgj for autumn flowering1 #cha ,heath mould1 imitation of1 #cei nature of1 #ca ,heaths1 culture of1 #cfj cuttings of1 #cfj different kinds of1 #cei mode of potting1 #cfj shifting1 when necessary1 #cfj ,heat1 average degree of1 for different kinds of hotbeds1 #da ,herbaceous grafting1 #aja ,hiccories1 different kinds of1 #bcc ,hoeing1 different kinds of1 #ba uses of1 #ba ,hollyhocks1 treatment of1 #chj ,hoole near ,chester1 rockwork at1 #cbi1 #ccb ,horse-radish1 #aeb ,hotbeds for tender annuals1 when to make1 #cgg of stable dung1 mode of making1 #ci1 #dj of tan or decayed leaves1 #da to make look neat1 #db ,hot manures1 #ch ,hot water for plants1 #fi ,humboldt's method of obtaining layers1 #gh ,hyacinths1 culture of1 #bhd ,dutch mode of treating1 #bhi exhibition of1 at ,shepherd's ,bush1 #bhc forming a bed for1 #ej growing in glasses1 #ej manure for1 #bia planting in pots and boxes1 #bia propagation of1 #bij rotation of1 with other bulbs1 #bib time for taking up the bulbs1 #chf ,hybridizing1 mode of performing1 #cff ,hydrangea1 culture of1 #cfi origin of the specific name1 #cgj ,i ,implements for digging1 #aj ,inarching1 or grafting by approach1 #ajc ,insects1 eggs of1 when to search for1 #cge larva of1 #abd on plants in pots1 #cec ,ivy1 training over the ground1 #cai ,j ,january1 operations in1 #cgd ,jerusalem artichoke1 #agc ,june1 operations in1 #che ,july1 operations in1 #chf ,k ,kale1 #afb ,kernel fruits1 #bah ,kidney beans1 culture of1 #afi time for sowing1 #chd ,kitchen garden1 form and arrangement of1 #ace soil for1 #acf walks in1 #acg ,l ,lady's gauntlet1 #aj spade1 #i mode of keeping in a proper state for use1 #ac ,lady's wheelbarrow1 #aa ,landscape scenes in pleasure grounds1 #caf ,lawns1 management of1 #cja manure for1 #caa mowing of1 #caj ,layers1 ,chinese1 #gf modes of making1 #gc time for separating from the parent plant1 #chg ,laying out a flower garden1 #bde pleasure grounds1 #cac ,laying plants in by the heels1 #fa ,leaves1 dead1 use of sweeping up1 #cij ,leeks1 mode of growing1 #agi ,leguminous tribe1 #afc ,lemon scented verbena1 #cfc ,lettuces1 #aha ,light1 effect of1 on plants1 #dg ,lime1 how changed into chalk1 #cb ,lime water1 #abi ,liquid manure1 #ch ,long litter1 what it consists of1 #ci ,m ,marjoram1 #ahh ,manures1 different kinds of1 #cc1 #cg mode of preparing for use1 #cc modes of applying1 #cd suitable to different soils1 #ce ,march1 operations in1 #cgh ,may1 operations in1 #chc ,medlar1 #bbg ,melons1 #aia ,mimulus1 culture of1 #cfi different kinds of1 #cfh ,mint1 #ahh ,moss houses1 mode of constructing1 #ccg mosses suitable for1 #cch ,moss-roses1 culture of1 #cbc ,moss1 to destroy on lawns1 #cab ,mowing of lawns1 #caj ,mulberry1 #bbg ,mushrooms1 #aic ,mustard and cress1 #ahc ,myrtles1 cultivation of1 #cfg ,n ,nailing against a wall1 #abj ,neck of a plant1 #bc ,nectarines1 best kinds and culture1 #bjc ,norbiton ,hall1 rock work1 #cca ,november1 operations in1 #cia ,o ,october1 operations in1 #chi ,offsets1 plants that produce them1 #ga1 #gb ,onguent de ,ste4 ,fiacre1 #ajg ,onions1 #agh ,p ,ponia ,moutan1 the tree ,pony1 time for planting1 #cij ,parsnips1 #agf ,peaches1 best kinds1 and culture1 #bjc ,pear trees1 #bbj cause of their not bearing1 #bba mode of pruning1 #bbc ,peas1 kinds and culture of1 #afc time for sowing1 #cgh1 #chd ,peat-bog or moss1 difference between it and a quagmire1 and between it and heath mould1 #cj ,peat earth1 its nature1 and how formed1 #cj soils1 mode of improving1 #cf ,peccane nut1 #bcb ,pelargoniums1 cuttings of1 #hb different kinds of1 #ceh ,perennial flowers1 mode of propagating1 #bfj ,permanent cropping1 #add ,perpetual roses1 culture of1 #cbd ,petunias1 culture of1 #cfd kinds of1 #cfc ,pillars of roses1 #cbf ,pinks1 #bfi ,pipings of pinks and carnations1 #hf seasons for making1 #che ,pits for choice plants1 mode of preparing1 #ai ,plantations1 mode of thickening1 #cbd ,planting bulbs and tubers1 #dh fruit trees1 #aih in pleasure grounds1 #cad shrubs too thickly1 evils of1 #cbj ,plants that are unfit for transplanting1 #ee that will bear earthing up1 #bb which can be budded on each other1 #ic ,plants in pots1 management of1 #cdg soil for1 #cea watering of1 #cdh ,pleasure grounds1 to lay out1 #cac ,plums1 #bji ,pointing1 or shallow digging1 uses of1 #ag ,polyanthus1 #bfd ,pomegranates1 mode of throwing them into fruit1 #bcj ,potatoes1 #aga when to plant1 #cgi ,pot herbs1 #ahf ,pots1 double for cuttings1 #he when too large1 injurious1 #cej ,potshreds1 what they are1 and use of1 #cea ,potting plants1 mode of performing1 #cea ,primrose1 #bfe ,propagating plants1 modes of1 #gj ,protecting1 #bja from frost1 #aba ,protection1 coverings for1 mode of making1 #cgi ,pruning1 best mode of performing the operation1 #aaa gooseberries and currants1 #cgg season for generally1 #aac to improve the form of a tree1 #aad to produce flowers or fruit1 #aae use of generally1 #aad scissors1 #aab shears1 #aaj ,puddling transplanted trees1 #ei ,pyramids of roses1 #cbf kinds for1 #cgh ,q ,quince1 best situation for1 #bbf ,r ,radishes1 #agg when to sow1 #cgh ,rakes1 different kinds of1 #bc ,raking1 mode of performing1 #bd uses of1 #bc ,ranunculus1 culture of1 #bid when to plant1 #cgg ,raspberries1 #bda ,redleaf1 rock work at1 #ccj ,red spider1 #cec ,removing large trees1 #fc ,renovating street gardens1 #be ,repotting camellias1 #cef plants1 mode of doing1 #cea ,rhubarb1 kinds of1 and culture1 #aea ,riders1 kinds of trees so called1 #bja ,ridging1 uses of1 #ai ,rock work1 different kinds of1 #cbi mode of constructing1 #ccd rules respecting1 #cce ,roots1 nature of1 #c1 #d slips from1 #gb treatment of in transplanting1 #ec1 #eh1 #fj uses of1 #c1 #ea ,roses1 cuttings of1 #hd time for making cuttings1 #che culture of1 #cbb1 #cbh different kinds of1 #cbc mode of budding1 #ij ,rose trees1 time for pruning1 #cgg ,rotation of crops1 #aec ,rules for transplanting1 #ef ,rules to be observed in manuring1 #cg ,runners1 #gb ,rustic baskets1 #cdb ,s ,sage1 #ahg ,salad plants1 #aha1 #ahd ,salsify1 #agf ,sand1 use of for cuttings1 #ha ,sandy soils1 mode of improving1 #ca ,saucers1 plants generally better without1 #ced when to be kept full of water1 #cdi ,savoury and basil1 #ahi ,savoys1 #aeh ,scaly bulbs1 treatment of1 #chh ,scorzonera1 #agf ,scotch roses1 #cbe ,sea kale1 #adg ,seats in a garden1 or pleasure ground1 #cda ,seeds1 danger of burying them too deeply1 #de germination of1 #b points to be attended to in sowing1 #dc time for gathering1 #chg what is necessary to make them vegetate1 #df ,september1 operations in1 #chh ,shading1 use of after transplanting1 #ec ,shallots1 difficulty of growing1 #ahj time for taking up1 #chg ,shifting or repotting plants1 mode of performing1 #cea time for1 #ceb use of1 #cej ,shrubs1 ornamental1 #cae ,silex1 its nature1 #bh ,simple digging1 mode of performing1 #ad ,skirret1 #agf ,slips1 #he ,slugs1 #aca ,snails and slugs1 #aca when to search for1 #cge ,soil fit for plants1 #bg different kinds of1 #bh for choice plants1 how to introduce1 #bj for plants in pots1 #cea most productive1 #ca mode of mixing1 #cjh weather to be done in1 #cjh ,sorrel1 #agg ,sowing month1 #cgh seeds1 principal points to be attended to respecting1 #dc ,spade1 kind of1 suitable for a lady1 #i ,spinach1 #agg ,spitful1 meaning of the term1 #g ,spongioles1 #d1 #eb ,spring planting1 #cgg pruning1 #cgg ,standard fruit trees1 #bae ,stirring the soil1 uses of1 #b1 #f ,stone fruits1 #bjc ,stools1 #ge ,strawberries1 kinds of1 #adi soil for1 #aej time for planting1 #chi ,street gardens1 mode of improving1 #be ,subsoil1 what composed of1 #bh ,succory1 #ahc ,succulent plants1 #cgj ,suckers1 plants that produce them1 #ga ,summer pruning1 #aac1 #chf ,surface soil1 nature of1 #bh ,sweet herbs1 #ahg ,william1 #bfi ,syon1 rock work at1 #cca ,t ,tap-rooted plants1 mode of treating1 when transplanted1 #ee ,tart rhubarb1 #aea ,tears of the vine1 #aad ,temporary crops1 #aec ,tender annuals1 #beg time for planting out1 #chc ,tender roses1 #cbg ,thyme1 #ahg when to divide the roots1 #chc ,tobacco water1 how to make1 and mode of applying1 #che ,tomatoes1 #aib grafted on potatoes1 #ajc ,training1 #aah ,transplanting1 principal points to be attended to1 #ea what plants will bear it1 #ed uses of1 #eg ,trees1 ornamental1 #cae removing large ones1 #fb ,trenching too labourious for ladies1 #ah ,trowel1 when useful1 #bc ,tuberoses1 when to plant1 #cha ,tubers1 mode of planting1 #dg1 #di time for taking up1 #chf1 #cia ,tulips1 culture of1 #bha kinds of1 #bgi ,turf1 mode of laying down1 #cji when to lay down1 #cgh ,turnips1 kinds and culture of1 #agc ,u ,uses of transplanting1 #ef ,v ,van ,mons1 theory of1 as regards pear-trees1 #bbe ,vegetable mould1 #cg1 #cij ,verbena1 lemon scented1 cuttings of1 #hj scarlet1 layers of1 #gd triphylla1 #cfc ,verbenas1 culture of1 #cfb kinds of1 #cfa time for making cuttings1 #chg ,w ,walks in pleasure grounds1 #cab to make1 #aci to renovate1 #adb ,wall fruit trees1 #aih kinds of1 #bjb modes of protecting1 #bja1 #chi ,walls1 construction of1 #aie use of in gardens1 #afi ,walnut1 #bca ,water cress1 mode of cultivating1 #ahe ,watering plants when the sun shines1 effect of1 #fg manner of applying to different plants1 #fd quantity to be given at different times1 #ff time for1 #fg use of1 #fc use of after transplanting1 #ed ,water1 the best kind of for plants1 #fh ,weeds1 destroying by hoeing1 #bb ,weeping ash1 mode of training1 #cba ,wheelbarrow for a lady1 #aa ,whip grafting1 #ii ,window gardening1 #cdg ,wire frames1 #cdd ,worm casts1 bad effects of1 #cfb ,worms1 to destroy1 on lawns1 #cab ,y ,yellow rose1 culture of1 #cbf ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,perceived typographical errors have been changed4