,transcriber's ,note3 ,in ,memory of ,chris ,curnow 7#aicg-bjbc7 the ,project ,manager at ,distributed ,proofreaders who selected this book1 and more than #bbjj others1 to be preserved as free digital transcriptions 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,bridges ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,st4 ,b,n,,zet ,,over ,,the ,,rh,,ne ,,at ,,avignon1 ,,built ,,between ,,the ,,years #aagg ,,and #aahe ,a ,,book ,,of ,,bridges ,,by ,,frank ,,brangwyn1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,,and ,,walter ,,shaw ,,sparrow ,,london3 ,,john ,,lane ,,the ,,bodley ,,head ,,new ,,york3 ,,john ,,lane ,,company ,,mcmxv ,,william ,,brendon ,,and ,,son1 ,,ltd41 ,,printers1 ,,plymouth1 ,,england ,illustration3 ,,historic ,,vitry-,,le-,,fran,,ois1 ,,on ,,the ,,marne ,,prefatory ,,note ,literary projects may be put in two classes4 ,some are like steamers that go in a regulated course direct to their destinations1 while others tack here and there like sailing ships1 governed by a zigzag progress4 ,the subject of bridges belongs to this latter class4 ,for five-and-twenty years ,i have tried to order it into a methodised hobby4 ,as well try to teach a hive of honey-bees never to visit certain flowers in a garden1 and never to fly beyond certain pathways and hedges4 ,yet a writer cannot help rebelling when his chosen theme declines to play in the game of authorship1 and deviates from many careful plans which are made for its benefit4 ,every chapter in this book has been rewritten eight or ten times1 yet my sailing ship has not become an ,atlantic liner4 ,my wish for a long time was to show the evolution of bridges in about seven hundred photographic illustrations1 with eight lines of text under each print2 and in preparation for this work ,i collected materials1 and received invaluable help from other pontists1 particularly from ,mr4 ,frank ,brangwyn1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,t4 ,crofton1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,sargisson1 ,mr4 ,edgar ,wigram1 the ,rev4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson1 and the ,church ,missionary ,society4 ,pontist after pontist sent me notes1 photographs1 sketches2 and then ,frank ,brangwyn suggested that we should work in collaboration4 ,here was luck indeed6 ,his pictures and drawings would be the book of art2 and the rambling subject1 if it passed over mere technique into the human drama1 ought to interest the general reader who does generally read4 ,for bridges have represented types of society1 every change in their development having been brought about by changes in social needs4 ,one thing more than any other is attractive to a pontist3 it is the varied strife that bridges and roads have circulated1 not only in military campaigns1 but in the thronged struggle for existence--the one incessant war in the affairs of men4 ,a routine of idle sentiment prattles about an illusion named ,peace1 yet strife everywhere remains the historian of life1 every effort to do and to live claiming a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed4 ,even sleep1 the nearest kinswoman of peace1 is united to the law of battle by dreams that torture4 ,a pontist1 then1 when studying the strife that roads and bridges have distributed1 must clear from his mind the fanciful ideas that pacifism has invented2 he is an adventurer in history1 not an idler in a world of visions4 ,to-day1 above all1 he is called upon to see the truth1 because ,europe1 driven by the rival motive-powers of hostile ideals1 has passed from industrial strikes and contests into other phases of necessary warfare4 ,once more differing civilizations will have their worth tested to the full on stricken fields2 and once more roads and bridges will dominate the military tactics and strategy4 ,this great ,war broke out when my last chapter was nearly finished1 and its early events illustrate and confirm the main arguments which ,i have tried to make as clear as possible1 so that no person may think of bridges apart from their historic service to mankind4 ,during many centuries1 for example1 all strategical bridges were fortified2 then a gradual decline began1 and it culminated in the defenceless modern bridge that sappers blow up in a few minutes4 ,bridge-builders everywhere have much good sense to regain from the science of national defence1 a very difficult science to-day1 for many of its methods are being rendered obsolete by airships and aeroplanes4 ,so a book on historic bridges could not be published at a time more opportune than the present moment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,several collectors have lent pictures1 and their kind aid is acknowledged in the table of illustrations4 ,w4 ,s4 ,s4 ,november #aath1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,the ,,first ,,page ,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,bridges ,,and ,,roads #a ,section ,i4 ,,general ,,views1 from p4 #c to p4 #ac4 ,section ,,ii4 ,,strife ,,and ,,historic ,,bridges1 from p4 #ad to p4 #eb4 ,section ,,iii4 ,,custom ,,and ,,convention1 from p4 #ec to p4 #hd4 ,section ,,iv4 ,,controversies1 from p4 #he to p4 #ajf4 ,,chapter ,,the ,,second ,,man ,,as ,,the ,,mimic ,,of ,,nature #ajg ,section ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations1 from p4 #aji to p4 #aab4 ,section ,,ii4 ,,among ,,the ,,heralds ,,of ,,man1 from p4 #aac to p4 #abd4 ,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,slab-,,bridge ,,with ,,stone ,,piers1 from p4 #abe to p4 #abh4 ,section ,,iv4 ,,tree-,,bridges ,,with ,,stone ,,piers1 from p4 #abi to p4 #acb4 ,section ,v4 ,,tree-,,bridges ,,with ,,timber ,,piles1 from p4 #acc to p4 #ace4 ,section ,,vi4 ,,some ,,typical ,,timber ,,bridges1 from p4 #acf to p4 #adc4 ,section ,,vii4 ,,primitive ,,suspension ,,bridges1 from p4 #add to p4 #adi4 ,section ,,viii4 ,,natural ,,arches--,,their ,,significance ,,and ,,their ,,influence1 from p4 #aej to p4 #afd4 ,,chapter ,,the ,,third ,a ,,few ,,words ,,on ,,the ,,roman ,,genius #afe ,,chapter ,,the ,,fourth ,,old ,,bridges1 ,,european1 ,,persian ,,and ,,chinese #bje ,,chapter ,,the ,,fifth ,,on ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,unfortified ,,bridges #cbi ,,appendix ,i ,,chinese ,,gabled ,,bridges #cfe ,,appendix ,,ii ,,steep ,,roman ,,bridges #cfg ,,index ,,and ,,glossary #cfi ,,list ,,of ,,colour ,,plates ,frontispiece4 ,,pont ,,st4 ,b,n,,zet ,,over ,,the ,,rh,,ne ,,at ,,avignon4 ,built between the years #aagg and #aahe4 ,national ,gallery of ,australia4 ,,to ,,face ,,page ,,railway ,,bridge ,,at ,,albi ,,in ,,france #h ,,pont ,,valentr ,,at ,,cahors ,,in ,,france3 ,,the ,,fortified ,,gates ,,and ,,towers4 ,thirteenth ,century4 ,see also the second picture of this ,bastille ,bridge #af ,,the ,,alc,,ntara ,,at ,,toledo4 ,mainly the work of ,archbishop ,tenorio1 ,a4,d4 #achj2 fortified by ,andres ,manrique1 ,a4,d4 #adhd4 ,collection of ,miss ,e4 ,c4 ,rossignol #cb ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,at ,,parthenay ,,in ,,france #cf ,,cannon ,,street ,,railway ,,bridge1 ,,london4 ,collection of the ,fine ,art ,society #dh ,,old ,,london ,,bridge4 ,begun by ,peter ,colechurch in #aagf1 and finished by a ,frenchman1 called ,isembert1 in the year #abji #eb ,,old ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,clain ,,near ,,poitiers #ef ,,at ,,albi ,,on ,,the ,,tarn ,,in ,,france4 ,showing on our right the ,old ,houses1 and beyond the ,bridge1 on our left1 the great ,old ,church1 famous for its fortifications #gb ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,,london4 ,collection of ,john ,lane1 ,esq4 #hj ,,famous ,,bridge ,,at ,,espalion ,,in ,,france4 ,said to date from the ,eighth ,century #hh ,,pont ,,du ,,tarn ,,at ,,albi ,,in ,,france4 ,said to date from about the years #ajce-dj #ib ,,pont ,,de ,,vernay ,,at ,,airvault1 ,,deux-,s,,vres4 ,famous bridge with ribbed arches1 ,french ,romanesque ,period1 ,twelfth ,century #if ,,old ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,aude ,,at ,,carcassonne ,,in ,,france4 ,twelfth ,century #ajd ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,at ,,villeneuve-,,sur-,,lot1 ,,france #abj ,,ponte ,,della ,,paglia ,,at ,,venice4 ,renaissance4 ,collection of ,r4 ,workman1 ,esq4 #aeb ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,segovia ,,in ,,spain #ahd ,,huge ,,defensive ,,bridge ,,at ,c,,rdova ,,in ,,spain4 ,originally ,roman1 but remodelled by the ,moors in the ,ninth ,century4 ,recently so much repaired that it looks almost new #ahh ,,old ,,bridge ,,with ,,houses ,,at ,,kreuznach ,,on ,,the ,,nahe1 ,,prussia #bjh ,,the ,,rialto ,,in ,,venice4 ,designed in #aehh by ,antonio da ,ponte4 ,collection of the ,fine ,art ,society #bab ,,new ,,london ,,bridge4 ,designed by ,george ,rennie1 and carried out by his brother1 ,sir ,john ,rennie4 ,opened to the public in #ahca4 ,collection of ,charles ,holme1 ,esq4 #bbj ,,three-,,arched ,,bridge ,,at ,,venice1 ,,over ,,the ,,canal ,,of ,,st4 ,,giobbe4 ,brick and stone4 ,renaissance4 ,collection of ,j4 ,heaton1 ,esq4 #bbd ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,at ,,barnard ,,castle1 ,,yorkshire #bcb ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,with ,,shrines ,,at ,,elche ,,in ,,spain #bcf ,,old ,,bridge ,,at ,,espaly1 ,,near ,,le ,,puy1 ,,in ,,france #bdj ,,pont ,,des ,,consuls ,,over ,,the ,,tarn ,,at ,,montauban ,,in ,,france4 ,fourteenth ,century #bef ,,pont ,,valentr ,,at ,,cahors-,,sur-,,lot4 ,thirteenth ,century4 ,see also the other picture of this ,bastille ,bridge #bfd ,,the ,,alc,,ntara ,,at ,,toledo4 ,showing the ,moorish ,gateway at the ,town end of the ,bridge4 ,see also the other picture #bhd ,,spanish ,,war-,,bridge--,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,st4 ,,martin ,,at ,,toledo4 ,its history seems to date from #abab1 but in the fourteenth century it was rebuilt by ,archbishop ,tenorio #bhh ,,ponte ,,nomentano ,,over ,,the ,,anio2 ,a ,,medi,,val ,,war-,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,campagna #bif ,,laroque ,,on ,,the ,,river ,,lot1 ,,near ,,cahors4 ,a sort of inland ,gibraltar2 a part of the village is built on bridges thrown across chasms in the rocks #cjj ,,pont ,,neuf ,,at ,,paris4 ,built in #afjd1 but much altered since the ,renaissance #cbj ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,,london4 ,albertina ,collection1 ,vienna4 ,see also the other drawing #cbh ,,pont ,,henri ,,iv ,,over ,,the ,,vienne ,,at ,,ch,,tellerault ,,in ,,france4 ,built by ,charles ,androuet du ,cerceau1 #aefd-afji #ccb ,,pont ,,de ,,tours1 ,,france4 ,famous ,bridge of the ,eighteenth ,century #cdd ,,on ,,the ,,tarn ,,at ,,millau ,,in ,,southern ,,france4 ,representing the broken end of an old bridge with a mill built on it2 behind is an arch of the new bridge #ceb ,,list ,,of ,,black ,,and ,,white ,,illustrations ,,page ,,historic ,,vitry-,,le-,,fran,,ois1 ,,on ,,the ,,marne v ,,bridge ,,of ,,boats ,,at ,,cologne #a ,,broken ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,xiii ,,century1 ,,at ,,narni ,,in ,,italy #ad ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,xiv ,,century ,,at ,,orthez ,,in ,,france #ah ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,roman ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,nera ,,at ,,narni1 ,,italy #bd ,,puente ,,de ,,san ,,juan ,,de ,,las ,,abadesas ,,at ,,gerona ,,in ,,spain #bi ,,the ,,old ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,stirling #de ,,pont ,,sidi ,,rached ,,at ,,constantine ,,in ,,algeria3 #aijh-aiab #ec ,,in ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,wycollar1 ,,lancashire3 ,,the ,,weavers' ,,bridge #fc ,,pont ,,du ,,diable1 ,,st4 ,,gotthard ,,pass #fg ,,old ,,town ,,bridge ,,in ,,perugia1 ,,italy #he ,,at ,,zutphen ,,in ,,holland #ajg ,,in ,,kashm,r3 ,,primitive ,,bridge ,,with ,,triangular ,,arches #afa ,,bridge ,,at ,,waltham ,,abbey ,,attributed ,,to ,,harold #afc ,,smyrna3 ,,roman ,,bridge ,,and ,,aqueduct #afe ,,the ,,pont ,,du ,,gard ,,from ,,above ,,the ,,first ,,tier #agb ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,loire ,,at ,,brives-,,charensac #ahj ,,the ,,bridge ,,at ,,zaragoza1 ,,partly ,,roman #ahg ,,ponte ,,rotto ,,at ,,rome1 ,,anciently ,,the ,,pons ,,palatinus ,,or ,,senatorius #aib ,,ponte ,,maggiore ,,over ,a ,,ravine ,,of ,,the ,,tronto ,,at ,,ascoli-,,piceno ,,in ,,italy3 ,,built ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,but ,,roman ,,in ,,style #bjj ,,the ,,pul-,i-,,kaisar ,,at ,,shushter ,,in ,,persia #bjc ,,durham #bje ,,the ,,pul-,i-,,khaju ,,over ,,the ,,zendeh ,,rud ,,at ,,isfahan ,,in ,,persia #bac ,,staircase ,,bridge ,,in ,,china #bdh ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,main ,,at ,w,,rzburg ,,in ,,bavaria 7#adgd-afjg7 #bei ,,bridge ,,of ,,ali ,,verdi ,,khan ,,over ,,the ,,zendeh ,,rud ,,at ,,isfahan #bfi ,,primitive ,,timber ,,bridge ,,in ,,bhutan1 ,,india #bgc ,,defensive ,,bridge ,,at ,,sospel #bgf ,,broken ,,war-,,bridge ,,at ,,narni ,,in ,,italy #bgg ,,war-,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,gav-,,de-,,pau ,,at ,,orthez ,,in ,,france #bgi ,,war-,,bridge ,,at ,,monmouth #bha ,,the ,,rabot ,,at ,,ghent3 ,a ,,fortified ,,lock #bhi ,,todentanzbrucke ,,at ,,lucerne ,,in ,,switzerland #bib ,,pont ,,saint-,,esprit #bic ,,canal ,,bridge ,,in ,,venice #cbi ,,rain #cfc ,a ,,book ,,of ,,bridges ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,of ,,boats ,,at ,,cologne ,,chapter ,,the ,,first ,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,bridges ,,and ,,roads ,i ,,general ,,views ,a pontist1 or devotee of bridges1 ought to be envied and pitied2 his work is marvellously attractive1 but he cannot hope to learn even a twentieth part of the discoverable history which has circulated along highways4 ,indeed1 the history goes back to a time that preceded the descent of man2 a primal time when every bridge was made by ,nature1 and when footpaths and tracks were the runs and spoor of wild animals1 many of which were huge enough to plough their way through deep jungles and to trample wide paths through the undergrowth of virgin forests4 ,there were eight or nine sorts of natural bridge 7p4 #aac71 and they were all useful to the many quadrupeds that travelled far in their search for prey and forage4 ,to meditate on this fact is to visualise many probable happenings2 vivid pictures live before the mind's eye1 and in one ,i see how a full-grown ,iguanodon1 after gorging all day in a ravaged weald1 was overcome by the sleep of glutted hunger as he tried to cross a big fallen tree that bridged a chasm near by his lair under a rock-shelter2 and a flock of little bright birds came and settled on the seventy feet of body and tail1 just to pick up vermin4 ,why not8 ,life everywhere has fed on lives2 something has died1 and suffered a resurrection of vitality1 whenever appeased hunger has renewed the health of an organism2 and this picture of an edacious ,iguanodon and his bird friends attracts me for two reasons3 it reminds me that bridges throughout their history have circulated strife1 and it represents the perpetual law of battle that rules creatively over all living creatures1 like foul manure over gardens and harvest fields4 ,a pontist1 then1 must try to see clearly1 under a form of visual conception1 what part his subject played in the earliest war of organic life1 when natural bridges aided the first animals not only to hunt over great territories1 but to migrate from their first homes into lands very far away4 ,in the second chapter we shall try to feel the inspiring pressure of events which must have acted during the descent of man on a brain remarkable for its imitative faculties4 ,perhaps we can get into imaginative touch with our earliest ancestors2 perhaps we can find in ourselves a vestige of their aboriginal nature2 and then we shall know1 by a sympathy which we shall not question1 how each natural bridge helped them in their wanderings1 and became a model to be copied1 and adapted1 and improved4 ,such is the beginning of our enviable studies1 but their end is never reached4 ,not even the long days and years of ,hilpa and ,shalum1 in ,addison1 where antediluvian seconds endure about as long as our trivial minutes1 would be enough for a complete study of bridges and roads1 viewed as inestimable servants to the commonweal of mankind4 ,a complete study would follow their evolution through eight world-wide subjects3 architecture1 civil engineering1 antiquarian research1 the development of trade and commerce from primitive barter1 social wayfaring1 war and its red tragedies1 the longevity of barbaric customs1 usages1 traditions1 and the ups and downs of fortune in the slow fever called progress1 whose clinical thermometer has been tribal and national enterprise1 and whose gradual effects on the temperature of bodies civil have produced many withering crises fatal to civilizations4 ,these eight subjects are vastly intricate as well as world-wide4 ,in scope they are infinite1 if we compare their magnitude with the brief seasons of our perishable days4 ,let us then ask ourselves a question3 ,how much may we expect to learn about bridges and roads1 the distributive agents of all human aims and ambitions8 ,suppose we live to be threescore years and ten1 and suppose we work gladly for eight hours a day from the age of fifteen to that of seventy2 encouraged by perfect health1 and so delighted with our work that we rescue ,sunday from a sabbatarian inertia1 and lose no time at all by being drudges to the holiday mania4 ,for a pontist never need be idle2 not only has he a thousand problems to reconsider1 but in all his walks and rides he is a wayfarer with his hobby4 ,when he feels cocksure he can visit a detestable railway bridge and drink the wormwood of pessimism2 and when for a whole week he has tried in vain to follow a devious fact through all its golf-ball antics from bunker to bunker1 let him go to a classic bridge such as the ,puente ,trajan over the ,tagus at ,alcntara2 or let him be as a delighted pupil to ,turner's ,walton ,bridges or to ,brangwyn's magnificent vision of the ,pont ,st4 ,bnezt at ,avignon4 ,from time to time1 also1 after paying his rates and taxes1 a pontist should recall to memory the rare great 8finds0 which his long research has unburied4 ,to enjoy a 8find0 properly is to feel sure that one has made a gallant entry into ,el ,dorado4 ,never shall ,i forget the elation that came to me when at the same moment ,i came upon two wondrous facts3 first1 that ,nature had created lofty arched bridges1 like the ,rock ,bridge in ,virginia and the ,pont d',arc over the ,ardche#a in ,france2 next1 that the earliest archways in handicraft were copied from ,nature's models1 and copied with a plodding mimicry1 for they were built not with converging archstones1 but with courses of stone laid horizontally1 just as ,nature in stratified rocks had put one flat layer upon another 7p4 #aee74 ,to discover facts of this kind is a joy that keeps the heart youthful4 ,study is not a friend to the ,income ,tax1 but it puts trouble out of mind1 a true ,nepenthe4 ,even aged scientists at the ,pasteur ,institute grow young and merry when they isolate a virulent microbe which for a long time has baffled their curiosity4 ,yes1 research ought to be very popular2 in its companionship any person of sense may learn gladly as an 8old boy0 from his fifteenth year to the seventieth1 working daily for eight thorough hours4 ,how many hours in all would be given to study and thought8 ,in fifty-five years there are twenty thousand and seventy-five days2 these we multiply by eight and behold6 we have been sedulously youthful for #afj1fjj hours4 ,here is a record of industry2 it may be unexampled until centenarians become as frequent as ,m4 ,metchnikoff wants them to be2 and yet1 after all1 is it a great record8 ,great it may be in its relation to human weakness1 but it means only a trivial apprenticeship to any vocation that lures the mind with illimitable open fields4 ,our happy toil is nothing more than a gleaner1 but it should keep us from being prigs--little students overfed on a little knowledge and too foolish to feel ignorant4 ,what ,sir ,clifford ,allbutt has told the public about the immaturity of modern science is true also of the study of bridges and roads2 here1 too1 knowledge is often hollow while ignorance has a solid weight1 even among men who are not content with current formulas4 8,in every direction we seem to travel but a very short way before we are brought to a stop2 our eyes are opened to see that our path is beset with doubts1 and that even our best-made knowledge comes but too soon to an end4 ,in every chapter arises problem after problem to beckon us on to farther investigation2 yet this way and that we are so baffled by darkness and ignorance that to choose one of these problems for attack1 one which is likely to repay his labour1 is often beyond the scope of a junior candidate40#b ,not that a young man should be very humble in his choice of a problem1 for it is with students as with empire makers1 who would do very little if a bold indiscretion were unfruitful4 ,let us have faith in the sunburnt cockiness of extreme youth4 ,when it hunts the far horizon as if mirages of self-deception were the butterflies of ambition1 easy to catch and easy to preserve1 it is guided by the genius of research2 and certainly it has done far more for the world than will ever be done by a reasoning caution that looks too far ahead4 ,illustration3 ,,railway ,,bridge ,,at ,,albi ,,in ,,france ,about five-and-twenty years ago1 when ,i began in my leisure time to be a pontist1 a good old slippered antiquary gave me some hints on what he called 8a discreet fervour in the study of bridges40 ,i was to choose an ,english county1 perhaps ,derbyshire1 and for eight or nine years ,i was to live all day long with the bridges1 getting them photographed from many points of view1 and recovering bits of their stories from dusty old records and forgotten muniment chests4 ,then a clay-cold book in two volumes was to be written1 with a frigid zeal for the accuracy of minute data1 and with enough glacial footnotes on every page to strike terror into that general reader who does generally read4 ,no thought at all was to be given to the public1 whose vulgar mind had neglected the many antiquaries who had told the historic truth unflinchingly1 with a desperate effort to be impartial1 unemotional1 and yet effective also1 like icebergs4 ,i told my adviser that his ideals were those of a studious millionaire4 ,he could afford to write without heart and to be pleased with a bad circulation2 could afford also to forget that old ,english bridges1 though at times as charmingly rustic as the ,robin ,hood ,ballads1 were not great masterpieces of art1 like a good many old bridges on the ,continent4 ,if ,i invited readers to dine with me on ,brazil nuts1 unaided by nutcrackers1 how in the world could ,i expect to receive company8 ,but argument was useless4 ,the antiquary had two homes--himself and the past1 and in both he lived as a rapt dreamer4 ,i see him still1 a lean and dusty figure1 unkempt1 unwashed1 for he 8hated immersion0 like ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,his favourite aim--and he never realised it--was to put a spade tenderly against a human skull buried in ,pliocene deposits4 8,i would sooner do that10 he declared one evening1 8than be married to all the prettiest women in ,england--girls1 not widows1 of course40 ,courage was not his forte--except in one pugnacious habit which he shared with most antiquaries3 not only did he love facts with a zeal that was always ready to defend them1 but he regarded every fact as a big truth4 ,the old man would say to me1 for instance1 8,hunt in the ,middle ,ages for common but shining truths about roads and bridges4 ,ah yes6 ,there's the fact that many bridges were property owners2 their landed estates were sometimes inconsiderable1 to be sure1 like the noble parks of ,lilliput2 but each estate1 whether large or small1 was a great truth in the history of bridges4 ,and ,i like to remember the good folk who in their wills bequeathed money to their favourite bridges1 like ,count ,neville1 who in #addj left twenty pounds to #8,ulshawe ,bridge1' near ,middleham4 ,now and then the testator was a skinflint1 like ,john ,danby1 who in #addd left in his will a beggarly six and eightpence to #8,warleby ,bridge4' ,yes1 and he was rash enough to die unrepentant4 ,another man1 a notable merchant in his day1 ,roger ,thornton1 of ,newcastle1 was clever enough to save himself from oblivion1 a merchant's destiny1 by leaving a hundred marks to the ,tyne ,bridge in his native town--a bridge1 by the way1 that needed much renovation4 ,but ,thornton in his charity struck a hard bargain3 the hundred marks would not be paid unless the #8mair and ye comyns' released the testator from certain actions at law6 ,thornton died in #adbi2 and to show you that the beautiful truth which ,i am illustrating was not then historically juvenile1 ,i will mention an earlier fact from the life of a ,newcastle citizen1 ,john ,cooke by name1 who in #acgi bequeathed twenty marks to the fortified bridge at ,warkworth40 ,the old man gossiped quaintly about his 8truths10 but when he wrote about them he was legal in profuse entanglements4 ,then it seemed to him that truth could not be protected by too many fortifications4 ,had he looked upon facts as facts1 mere things which had happened and which had no future1 his antiquarian knowledge would have been less arid4 ,but he belonged to a school of pedants--the same school which either kills antiquarian magazines or enables them to live obscurely on unpaid contributions4 ,that a man's lifework should be futile to the public1 a mere cemetery where facts lie buried like fossils in a rock1 is pitiful2 yet antiquaries are very proud of their barren labour4 ,scarcely one of them understands that a fact1 however entertaining1 has no value to thought unless it is a useful item in a mass of corroborative evidence2 and even then it can be nothing more than a fact1 a thing to illustrate the perpetual action of an absolute truth1 or the increasing worth of a given hypothesis1 or the general belief in a given theory4 ,two or three facts that confirm each other justify a guess1 a random 8shot10 or a vague suspicion2 an important collection of such facts1 if it continues to grow1 gives validity to a hypothesis2 and when from many sources as various as they are many new facts are added year after year to the collection1 until at last the cumulative evidence holds the field with the best judges1 then we know that the hypothesis has been developed into a theory1 the highest form of mobile knowledge in the realms of ,thought4 ,but a theory is not absolute truth1 of course2 it is a harbour where ,knowledge rests while ,thought is on the high seas1 a ,columbus1 searching for new worlds4 ,from a guess to a theory2 this1 then1 is the architecture of constructive growth that research and revision build with facts2 and if we as pontists wish to think clearly and humanely1 we must use facts as a means to a worthy end1 as architects employ their materials4 ,one by one facts are to us what a few slates and tiles are to a builder1 but ,thought collects them1 and then with care and inspiration she builds with them as she builds with stones and bricks and timber4 ,in her work1 moreover1 there is nothing little when she does little things admirably2 but when her devotees go away from her and parade guesswork as theory and fact as truth1 we should ask them whether brick-kilns are houses and stone quarries cathedrals4 ,to-day1 unhappily1 most people exalt facts into truths1 and very often the great word 8theory0 is a journalistic term for any supposition that is loose or wayward or foolish4 ,thus1 8,mrs4 ,jones has a mere theory that her husband is hard at work when he remains in town after office hours40 ,from the life of bridges we may draw a great many conjectures1 suppositions1 speculations1 suggestions1 fancies1 ideas2 and here and there we find some attractive hypotheses1 notably those that concern the introduction of pointed arches into ,french bridges1 and of ribbed arches into ,english bridges4 ,are there any truths1 any useful and necessary things that repeat and confirm themselves age after age8 ,yes4 ,there are some technical truths that belong for all time to the mechanics of bridge building2 the world can employ them for ever1 and always with the same good results1 if engineers and architects work competently4 ,there is also a great social truth in the life of bridges and roads2 namely1 that types of society are as old as their systems of circulation1 just as women and men are as old as their arteries4 ,so the condition of a body social can be judged accurately if we examine with care its landways and waterways4 ,in ,spain1 for example1 where the genius of modernity is inactive1 and where fine bridges represent many dead social states1 ,roman1 ,moorish1 ,medival1 and ,renaissance1 the past reigns over the highways1 sometimes as an inspiration1 as in the great and vast bridge at ,ronda1 but usually as a mournful historian4 ,even in those parts of ,spain where trade endeavours to be modern1 workmen have time enough to be honest craftsmen2 their metal bridges are not uncouth1 and their stone bridges are charmed with hints taken from classic models4 ,they do not 8progress10 for they keep far off from that spirit of trade which regards the lies of advertising as proofs of a pushful honour4 ,from a modern standpoint1 then1 ,spain does not live except as a dim reflexion of her long ago4 ,a pontist has few theories to consider1 only two1 indeed1 and these are sisters4 ,let me introduce you to them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,broken ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,xiii ,,century1 ,,at ,,narni ,,in ,,italy2 ,,repaired ,,with ,,wood ,,ii ,,strife ,,and ,,historic ,,bridges ,the first theory sets thought astir on the necessity of having landways and waterways which in all respects are fitted to distribute the many functional activities of military and civil life4 ,it is not enough that a complex type of society should have many intricate systems of circulation for its multiform traffic4 ,the weakest points in each system ought to be regarded as danger zones in the strategy of national defence1 so it is a duty to protect them from attack1 and the protection should be as complete as the military arts can make it1 age after age4 ,now the most vulnerable points in a system of landways are the long bridges by which roads and railways are conducted across wide chasms1 and deep valleys1 and perilous waterways4 ,yet in ,england1 and in other countries also1 neither roads nor railways are defended2 indeed1 modern bridges are not only unfortified1 but as sensitive to bombs as elephants are to large bullets4 ,why has the world forgotten that a powerful nation whose bridges were cut would be like a giant whose arteries were severed8 ,as the suffragettes burnt down ,yarmouth pier1 so a conspiracy of civil disorder1 acting in accordance with a well-formed plan1 could in a night1 with a few sappers1 cripple a vast railway1 by blowing up the main strategic bridges4 ,i am giving a chapter to this urgent subject1 most engineers having evaded with equal zest the charm of beauty and the security of our food supplies4 ,at a time when the nations overarm themselves for war1 tradesmen and engineers have erected ugly bridges for an imagined peace2 but now that the art of flying threatens civilization from overhead and from all around1 like a new ,satan1 the public attitude to highways cannot remain lethargic4 ,willingly or unwillingly1 we must recall and renew those principles of defensive war with the help of which bridges were safeguarded by the ,romans and also in the ,middle ,ages4 ,frank ,brangwyn has painted many aged fortified bridges1 making a most varied selection2 and in each of these historic pictures he illustrates the attitude of old times to the theory of pontine defence4 ,the apathy of the public has been unintelligent1 but not unintelligible1 because bridges and roads are so ordinary1 so very trite1 that we who use them every day do not think of their supreme influence on the nation's health and safety4 ,they belong to that realm of custom where truths fall asleep in truisms and facts in platitudes4 ,to understand a thing that seems obvious1 or 8inevitable10 is among the problems that genius alone can solve in a complete way4 ,dr4 ,johnson believed that men and women could marry ugliness without being in the least intrepid1 because custom would soon teach them not to know the difference between good looks and bad4 ,as custom dulls our minds even in family life1 where affection is most watchful1 we cannot be surprised that common roads and bridges are too evident to be seen intelligently4 ,very few persons love a bridge until it is gone1 or until it has been put out of action by ,napoleon's 8whiff of gunpowder40 ,then a victorious army may be brought to a standstill1 like ,wellington's1 in ,spain1 when the retreating ,french blew up an arch of the colossal ,roman bridge at ,alcntara1 so that for some long days the unfordable ,tagus might protect their rearguard4 ,it was no easy task to repair the bridge with a netting of ropes that carried planks2 and when the ,british army crossed the gap on this makeshift footway1 ,wellington knew that the ,devil was not the only archfiend in human affairs4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,valentr ,,at ,,cahors ,,in ,,france3 ,,the ,,fortified ,,gates ,,and ,,towers4 ,,see ,,also ,,the ,,second ,,picture ,yes1 believe me1 it is worth while to think of the highways and byways4 ,try to imagine1 for instance1 what it has cost in suffering and in death to make fit for use all the traffic arteries and veins that nourish and sustain life in the bodies civil of the world4 ,how long would it take to explore the myriads of rambling footpaths8 ,could this work be done in two hundred years by a thousand ,stanleys8 ,how many lives have been lost in making roads through forests and fens and over mountains8 in the construction of railways8 in the building of bridges8 in the slow cutting of canals8 ,the ,suez ,canal was a long campaign of stricken fields in the war of trade enterprise2#c and the ,panama ,canal has reaped lives as quickly as minor battles reap them4 ,if we could see in a form of visual conception all the sacrifice of life that civilizations have offered to progress on the historic landways and waterways1 how terrified we should be6 ,even the hospitals and sick-beds of humanity have not had a more scaring pathos than that which has accompanied the more peaceable enterprises of mankind4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,xiv ,,century ,,at ,,orthez ,,in ,,france ,this reflexion brings us to the second theory that has a home in the life of bridges and roads4 ,other homes it has also1 a vast number of them1 for this theory belongs to the law of battle1 the universal law of strife4 ,in so far as the lower organisms are concerned1 this law seems to be as permanent as the sun2 we have no reason to suppose that its rule will ever be relaxed among birds1 beasts1 fishes1 insects1 or among other forms of life1 such as competitive trees in a wood2 but mankind is an eternal mystery1 and none can say into what civilization of symphonic harmony the human race may be evolved by gradual improvements in the crowded struggle for existence4 ,a hundred thousand years hence the competitions of human life may be like harmonious rivalries between notes in music1 or like the wondrous orchestration that unites into a symphony of benign health all the communities of cells in a sound body4 8,all for ,each1 ,each for ,all0 is the social rule that ,nature administers in her cellular civilizations2 and she punishes with disease and death the bodies that rebel against her rule by developing harmful egotisms4 ,yet mankind has stereotyped a very different social rule1 8,each for ,all1 yet ,each for ,himself02 and what right have we to believe that this egotism1 so long inherited1 and continuously active1 can change its nature gradually1 till at last it will be as philharmonic as the cellular commonwealths forming a strong human body8 ,at present this appears to be very improbable1 but impossible we dare not call it1 since every type of society is free to improve its own lot4 ,so the law of strife in human affairs appeals to us not as a truth destined to last till doomsday1 like the strife of carnivorous hunger1 but as a theory which human life has not yet contradicted1 but which in course of time may be tempered into a social art--a competitive harmony favourable to everybody4 ,yet even then1 no doubt1 inequalities of mind will be active in accordance with ,nature's law of infinite variation4 ,meanwhile1 however1 we have to accept history as mankind has made it4 ,strife has reigned everywhere2 even the test of efficiency has been--not the survival of the finest natures1 but--the survival of the least unfitted for a long battle against bad environments4 ,very often the delicate have the best characters and the most alert brains2 and in times past the delicate died from hardships by myriads4 ,consider also the innumerable wars2 slaughter and success have tried to go hand-in-hand together as boon companions4 ,every road through history is a changing procession of armies2 every ancient bridge has a long story of battles4 ,indeed1 bridges and roads have circulated all the many phases of strife that men have employed in civil rivalries1 in mercantile competitions1 in generative migrations1 in roadside adventures with footpads and cut-throats1 in fateful invasions1 and in those missionary conquests which have given to religions their rival empires4 ,no one knows how many invasions were broken up by the forests and fens of ,england before the ,romans came with their colonising methods1 and linked their scattered camps together by means of paved highways1 great roads destined to be used for many centuries1 and by many raids and armies4 ,the earliest prehistoric tribes came along a bridge of land by which ,england was united to ,france2 they found in their course some of the nature-made bridges 7p4 #aad71 and the spoor and tracks of formidable animals1 such as the mastodon and the mammoth4 ,much later invasions1 also prehistoric1 must have come over the sea in boats1 for the bridge of land had the history of most bridges1 the water swallowed it up2 but every boat may be regarded as a floating bridge which is moved from place to place1 so that a pontist when he studies the sea-borne invasions keeps in touch with his favourite subject4 ,on their arrival in ,england the later prehistoric colonists found that most of the nature-made bridges had been copied1 and that a great many footpaths and tracks rambled from settlements to watering-places and through the forests where huntsmen risked their lives in a sport of habit4 ,the men of the ,bronze ,period were supplanted in ,europe by a race more powerful1 whose clenched fists needed larger sword-handles2 it was a race of manly and swaggering nomads1 strong and fierce2 and yet1 as ,darwin believed1 their success in the war of life may have been aided still more by their superiority in the arts4 ,can we fix a date for the introduction of bronze into the ,british ,isles8 ,here is a matter of opinion2 but1 according to ,sir ,john ,evans1 the most likely date is separated from the ,christian era by about #adjj years1 perhaps #bjj years less4 ,iron belongs to a much later time4 ,probably1 in the fourth century ,b4,c41 it was known as a metal in ,south ,britain2 and about a century later it began to supersede bronze in the manufacture of cutting implements4#d ,then1 as now1 ,england waited for great discoveries to be imported4 ,many ,british tribes were hermits of convention1 willing drudges to a routine of fixed habits and customs4 ,for example1 the highest form of prehistoric bridge-building1 the lake-village1 came to ,england not earlier than the ,bronze ,age1 and we shall see 7p4 #acg7 that a lake-village1 with its late ,celtic handicrafts1 existed at ,glastonbury when in its neighbourhood the ,romans were at work4 ,but ,i do not wish to imply that no ,british tribe had any alertness4 ,as ,csar found out to his cost1 there were ,britons with an enterprising conservatism1 whose war-chariots were managed with a skilful bravery4 ,this wheeled traffic postulates a good road here and there1 with bridges over some deep rivers2 and to this supposition two facts must be added3 the war-chariots were small1 and their wheels were primitive1 so in a wet climate they would have been useless on unmended tracks4 ,let us infer1 then1 that the ,roman conquest of ,england was aided by some ,british landways which were genuine roads1 valued for their service and kept in repair4 ,is not this implied also by the circulation of ,druidism from its venerated heart in ,anglesey8 ,there is no evidence better than that of a just inference from known events1 for events cannot lie1 whereas the eye-witness can1 and very often he does4 ,again1 to think of the aggression which has travelled along roads and over bridges1 is to think also of the five phases through which civilization has evolved many times4 ,during the first phase a new home is won by invasion2 and during the second phase the new home is extended by invasions1 and efforts are made to co-ordinate the separated parts by improving their intercommunications4 ,then civil and economic competitions not only multiply1 but become too active in the body social2 wealth breeds wealth1 and poverty1 poverty4 ,so the classes grow discordant1 and put too much strain on each other1 just as diseased lungs poison the strongest heart1 or as virile hearts rupture weak arteries4 ,here is the fourth phase2 it means a gradual disintegration brought about partly by the economic war1 partly by a relaxing faith in stern duties and in patriotism4 ,amusement becomes a passion1 even a mania1 and discontent seethes under the fool-fury of the merry-making4 ,then comes the gradual break-up or downfall1 which may be hastened by invasions from a younger and more militant country4 ,each phase may be a long development1 sometimes delayed by events1 and sometimes hurried2 and the final phase may be postponed for a long time when the strife of poverty is relieved by constant emigration4 ,human gunpowder does not explode if it is shipped to a happier country where a day's work brings comfort enough for three days4 ,but the main point is this3 that civilizations have travelled always in the same direction and ended always in a break-up1 just as great rivers have flowed always toward their destiny in the sea1 though all have changed their beds many times and widened their valleys4 ,when we meditate on the part played by bridges and roads in the rise and fall of ambitious nations1 we should choose a fit environment1 such as a ,roman bridge crippled by three forms of war3 floods1 winds1 and human strife4 ,france has three or four ,roman bridges of this kind1 but let us take an ,italian example4 ,brangwyn has chosen the ,ponte ,rotto1 at ,rome1 and the great ruins of the bridge at ,narni4 ,it was ,augustus ,csar who erected ,narni ,bridge1 in order to join two hills together across the valley of the ,nera1 on the ,flaminian ,way1 in the ,sabine country4 ,there were four arches of white marble1 and the finest one had a span of #adb feet4 ,the others varied much in breadth4#e ,the ,romans plumbed the river and chose the best natural foundations for their piers2 stability was more to them than a sequence of uniform arches4 ,at the present time only one arch remains2 but under its great vault1 as you stand on the left bank1 you will feel alone with the pity and terror that history brings to those who see past events as clearly as painters behold their concepts4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,roman ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,nera ,,at ,,narni1 ,,italy ,under this arch at ,narni many types of society have passed1 with their customs1 religions1 fears1 hopes1 ambitions1 predatory trades and pillaging armies2 have passed one after the other1 and vanished4 ,tempus edax devoured them2 and now they are studied in relics of their arts and crafts1 their mute historians4 ,what permanent social good did they do8 ,ought we to be as forgetful of them as they were of their buried generations8 ,do they merit any praise at all8 ,they were proud1 of course1 and looked upon change as abiding progress1 yet the more they altered the more their egotism was the same thing1 either intensified and developed1 or slackened and degraded2 for the ruling motive powers of their life were but variations of the aboriginal war between the enfeebled and the strengthened4 ,the social rule tried to prove that 8,each for ,all1 yet ,each for ,himself10 was the only sane doctrine for men to be guided by in their civil competitions4 ,everybody had to do much for the commonweal1 but yet he was taught to believe that astuteness1 even more than upright ability1 would enable him to gain control over a number of slaves1 or serfs1 or servants1 whose lot would be what he thought fit to make it4 ,this habitual struggle for ,dominion over others was a friend to the fortunate classes only3 it bred microbes in the body social and produced fever and disruption4 ,is it surprising that civilizations withered away8 ,their autopsies have a horrible sameness2 but from their mute historians--their books1 pictures1 sculpture1 potteries1 bridges1 roads1 and other relics of a lasting communism--we learn to have faith in useful work done thoroughly4 ,in all that endures there is some altruism4 ,who would care a fig for ancient ,greece if all her mute historians had perished with her incompetent social order8 ,the ,middle ,ages exist for us1 not in records of their freebooting social aims1 but in the work done by a few men of genius and their pupils and assistants4 ,more than one medival century is represented by a few churches1 a few castles1 a few bridges1 a few books1 a damaged house here and there1 and some weapons1 tools1 and furniture4 ,all else in the story of its life is tragic and sinister1 a wild pilgrimage whose shrines are battlefields and whose ranks are visited periodically by the plague4 ,again1 what are we as pontists to say about the fallen master of many ,christian periods1 the ,roman genius1 whose architecture and road-making were copied8 ,the ,roman baths were not copied1 of course1 for a clean body was not regarded as sacred in a ,christian way2 but the ,roman bridges1 roads1 aqueducts1 were favourite models for imitation4 ,many a ruler1 from ,charlemagne to the ,moorish zealots in ,spain1 not only valued their service1 but restored them carefully4 ,medival architects invented very little in bridge-building2 their first work tried to recover the lost ,roman art2 and then1 little by little1 they added some ideas to their acquired knowledge4 ,here and there they equalled the ,romans1 as in the great bridges at ,montauban and ,cahors1 which ,brangwyn has painted with a vigorous enjoyment2 but in most of their efforts the design was either too rustic or too lubberly1 so ponderous was the technical inspiration4 ,far too often their ideal of strength was a mere man-at-arms1 brave but underbred4 ,rivers were obstructed by immense piers1 for instance1 by which spates were turned into dangerous inundations2 and footways along bridges were so narrow that safety recesses for pedestrians had to be built out from the parapets into the piers4 ,even in exceptions to this rule of ungainliness1 as in much ,spanish workmanship1 architects were overapt to make the use of bridges a tiring penance that wayfarers could not avoid4 ,thus the bridge over the ,sella at ,cngas de ,onis has a lofty footway shaped like a gable2 to-day it is little used1 for the climbing exercise that it offers to everybody is put out of vogue by a modern bridge1 its neighbour and rival4 ,in brief1 many gabled bridges in ,spain#f were made narrow enough to be useless to wheeled traffic and friendly to pack mules2 friendly in a medival manner1 for a seasoning of peril was added to their inconvenience4 ,most of them are without parapets2 and when their rivers flood into roaring spates1 and across their giddy pathways a gale sweeps eagerly1 an ,alpinist can enjoy a mad crossing1 after dark1 between dinner and bedtime4 ,frank ,brangwyn has drawn for us1 with as much fidelity as vigour1 one of the finest gable bridges1 the ,puente de ,san ,juan de las ,abadesas at ,gerona4 ,this bridge has a great historic interest4 ,the ,moors left in ,spain a peculiar grace of style which native architects often united to their own qualities--a haughty distinction and a lofty ambition4 ,consider the immense nave in ,gerona ,cathedral1 a glorious pointed arch not less than seventy-three feet from side to side1 almost double the width of ,westminster nave4 ,it belongs to the fifteenth century1 yet in the magic of its youthful hope it proves that its architect1 ,guillermo ,boffiy1 was a child of the thirteenth4 ,and the great central arch of the ,gerona bridge has in it some of the soaring courage that transcends all expectation in the cathedral nave#g4 ,yet this gabled bridge1 though very spacious and attractive1 has less charm than its rival at ,orense1 in ,gallicia1 a noble monument #acai feet long1 built in #abcj by ,bishop ,lorenzo1 and repaired in #addi by ,bishop ,pedro de ,silva4 ,the six arches differ in size1 yet their combination is symmetrical2 four are gracefully pointed1 and the finest one rises above the ,mio to a height of a hundred and thirty-five feet1 and its brave span1 a hundred and fifty-six feet from pier to pier1 is the widest of any in ,spain4#h ,illustration3 ,,puente ,,de ,,san ,,juan ,,de ,,las ,,abadesas ,,at ,,gerona1 ,,spain ,it is commonly supposed that gable bridges were invented by the genius of ,gothic architecture4 ,yet ,marco ,polo found them in ,china1#i and the ,roman bridge of two arches at ,alcantarilla is hog-backed4 ,usually the ,romans liked a flat road over a river1 though it was easier and less expensive to build a steep bridge from low embankments4 ,but the bridge at ,alcantarilla1 about twenty miles below ,seville1 is quite steep enough to be the forerunner of all the gable bridges erected in ,spain4#aj ,there is little in stone bridge building that the ,romans did not discover4 ,to this day their aqueducts and bridges are models of thoroughness1 and apologise nobly for a civilization that rambled through wonderful achievements into a gradual suicide4 ,while arenas for barbaric sports were being built at a great expense1 and while most of the ,roman roads circulated war1 did many persons guess that their imperial genius in handicraft would outlive their statesmanship by hundreds of years8 ,who knows why ,rome very often squandered her energy on the least fruitful phases of strife1 neglecting those benign phases out of which intellectual vigour ought to have come1 age after age1 in a continuous zeal for research1 and revision1 and improvement8 ,she neglected science1 for instance1 and her bad example was followed by the medival ,church4 ,not a mind had any inkling of the fact that the brightest hopes for mankind would emerge from science1 like medicinal plants from dry seeds4 ,innumerable millions died from ignorance because ,pasteur and ,lister were not evolved until the races of man were perhaps a million years old4 ,in the creeping progress of humanity the dead have been mocked by every good discovery2 there has been nothing so cruel as a healing success1 for it has ever been too late by thousands of years4 ,to visualise this truth in the strife of man is a great trial to any mind2 but yet it is the one thing that a pontist cannot evade without being disloyal to his honour as a student1 since he knows that strife has ruled over the tremendous drama which has had for its theatres the highways and byways1 and for its actors the races of man1 continuously at odds with one another4 ,if this truth had to be deleted from the drama1 then ,i1 for one1 would not be a student of roads and bridges4 ,as well read the ,greek tragedians after deleting all the passions that make for contests and crises4 ,so let us try to get nearer and nearer to strife1 the most active genius in the life of our subject4 ,why has it set tribe against tribe1 nation against nation1 class against class1 tradesman against tradesman1 intellect against intellect8 ,must we clear from our minds all the shibboleths of modern idealism8 and feel pity for the supergood when they chatter to us about their isles of dreams1 their unsubstantial fairy places1 where 8cosmic conscience0 reigns with 8the universal brotherhood of man10 and where 8everlasting peace0 promises never to be effete and sterile8 ,when a ,wellington of ,finance erects a ,peace ,palace1 at ,the ,hague or elsewhere1 are we to be glad that the pomp of irony did not leave the world when ,gibbon died8 ,should we gain anything at all if we were bold enough to condemn the whole past life of the human race8 ,ought we to pass with ,carlyle from democratic hopes into hero worship1 and thence into a hot-brained conviction that faith in mankind is impossible8 ,are we to suppose that man has transformed into instincts the worst habits he has acquired1 so that his ultimate destiny upon earth will be determined by his attitude to these instincts8 ,will he obey them or will he try to conquer them8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,great ,,spanish ,,bridge1 ,,the ,,alc,,ntara ,,at ,,toledo4 ,,mainly ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,archbishop ,,tenorio1 ,a4,d4 #achj2 ,,fortified ,,by ,,andres ,,manrique1 ,a4,d4 #adhd4 ,,on ,,this ,,site ,a ,,roman ,,bridge ,,was ,,destroyed ,,in ,a4,d4 #hga ,again1 is there a glint of hope in the hysterical words that came to ,charles ,dickens when he wrote as follows1 after a visit to ,chillon8--8,good ,god1 the greatest mystery in all the earth1 to me1 is how or why the world was tolerated by its ,creator through the good old times1 and wasn't dashed to fragments40 ,you see1 ,dickens understood the terror of strife1 but he made no effort to be calm with ,darwin1 who knew that the evolution of man could not have happened if nascent humanity had been unfit to endure the sufferings of its daily contests both against ,nature's violence and against a terrible fauna4 ,thus a pitiless character was thrust upon primitive man by the environment in which unlimited strife worked his development2 and what the ages have evolved only a long future can amend in another evolution4 ,what ,dickens called unpardonable cruelty was to the distant past what strikes are to our own time1 a weapon1 a phase of war1 approved by public opinion2 and let us remember also that the cruelties which a hard life has bred1 and turned into customs1 have not shown an egotism fiercer than that primal necessity which has compelled life among the species to feed on lives4 ,dickens himself1 while writing his condemnation of the past1 was nourished by the death of many living things2 was in himself a mysterious alembic that transmuted food1 slain life1 into benign health and action4 ,had he been logical in his feelings toward strife he would have had mercy on those forms of life that feed mankind2 in other words1 he would have died of hunger rather than be cruel2 but1 naturally1 the manifestations of strife hateful to him were those that happened to be far off from his needs and sympathies4 ,yet he ought to have seen in the national efforts of his time that strife1 though easy to rebel against1 is woefully difficult to improve1 since even kindness of heart when shown in promiscuous charities may unseat from their thrones in the public mind many good racial qualities1 doing as much harm as ever was done by medival brutality4 8,let me think0 should be everybody's motto2 nothing less than arduous thinking can save us from the cant and the sentimentalism which at the present time enfeebles ,england4#aa ,let me give you an example4 ,yesterday ,i was talking to a friend about the medival battle-bridge4 ,putting before him ,frank ,brangwyn's excellent sketch in water-colour of ,parthenay ,bridge1 ,i said3 8,this fortified gateway belongs to the thirteenth century1 and through its machicolations red-hot stones and boiling oil were poured down many times upon the head and shoulders of an attack4 ,the gateway was built between #abjb and #abbf1 not without help from ,english money1 for the ,josselin-,larchveques of ,parthenay were allies of the ,anjou ,plantagenets1 who gave us ,english kings2 but a few years later our ,english troops were driven from ,parthenay by ,louis ,,ix1 called ,st4 ,louis4 ,can't you imagine the assault8 ,would you care to rush that gateway in a thirteenth-century manner80 ,my friend1 a ,quaker1 was scandalised4 8,rush the gateway80 he cried4 8,red-hot stones and boiling oil6 ,what imbecile savagery6 ,thank goodness1 we are not savages now2 life has improved wonderfully4 ,to-day most men of sense fear war1 and those who don't fear it scorn it for moral reasons40 8,are you sure80 ,i asked4 8,do you really believe that the history of this old war-bridge is more strifeful than the industrialism of to-day8 ,is it an act of peace when a trust #8corners' some article of food1 or when a limited liability concern kills all competition from little neighbours1 whose wives and families can't get rid of hunger because business has failed8 ,those who attacked the bridge at ,parthenay were armour-clad1 while those who suffer in trade wars from the greed of co-operative egotisms have usually no self-defence1 as their capital is small4 ,don't you see1 then1 that from machicolated towers to millionaire tradesmen is but an evolution in social strife8 ,chivalry did try to put some generous feeling into medival warfare2 and how much feeling of chivalry do you expect to find in the battles of industry8 ,are the strategic victories of finance more humane than were the politics of the ,black ,prince8 ,do they harm the defeated less1 or more8 ,and can you explain1 old chap1 why it is that ,quakers1 ,jews1 ,hindus1 though they fight for money with an astuteness that never flinches1 prattle about peace after office hours8 ,their ideal of peace includes all warfare except that which employs battleships and big battalions4 ,myself1 ,i would sooner lead an attack against the ,porte ,st4 ,jacques on ,parthenay ,bridge than be opposed in trade by a wealthy firm of shrewd ,quakers1 whose great skill in the combats of trade would soon ruin me4 ,i shouldn't have a chance of doing credit to myself in a dangerous adventure40 ,illustration3 ,a ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,at ,,parthenay ,,in ,,france ,there is nothing more odious than the modern cant about peace4 ,but a pontist soon learns that strife of every sort is a phase of war4 ,indeed1 whether roads and bridges aid a pilgrimage of the sick1 or an army of ,crusaders1 or a primitive migration1 or the ramblings of charity1 or the enterprise of monasteries2 whether they help a medival pope at ,avignon to thwart the land-hunger of a ,french king1 or enable modern life to turn industrialism into a world-wide ,armageddon whose scouts are lying advertisements2 whatever they do or have done their history brings us in touch with the same human motive1 a desire to win victories4 ,james ,martineau went so far as to picture the strife as absolutely barbaric4 ,he said3 8,the battle for existence rages through all time and in every field2 and its rule is to give no quarter--to despatch the maimed1 to overtake the halt1 to trip up the blind1 and drive the fugitive host over the precipice into the sea40 ,tennyson also went too far when he wrote about strife2 too far1 because he did no more than skim along the surface of a primordial truth1 by which man's history has been made a part of ,nature's4 ,from ,tennyson we gain no help at all2 he tells us merely 8that hope of answer or redress0 must come from 8behind the veil40 ,in his opinion ,nature cares for nothing1 so careless is she of the single life1 and so ready to let a thousand types go4 ,yet her realms teem with miracles of contentious life1 and ,i cannot think of any great extinct species that ,i should care very much to meet in a country walk4 ,i do not wish to hob-nob with the ,iguanodon1 for instance4 ,when ,john ,stuart ,mill complains that 8nearly all the things which men are hanged or imprisoned for doing to one another are ,nature's everyday performances10 he forgets the far-reaching harm that men can do within the tolerance of 8,old ,father ,antic1 the ,law02 and1 besides this1 he forgets to explain how a world of organisms ruled by hunger and thirst and passion1 and dependent on innumerably various climates1 could be other than ,providence has decreed4 ,to talk as ,mill did is to imply that ,nature sins against us1 and against herself1 when she allows any species to grow completely unfit for the gift of life4 ,yet her aim is to protect life from the suicidal fertility of lives1 so that the whole economy of ,nature demands death in the highest interests of the future4 ,when we die we do an act of charity to our children and grandchildren2 for if each of us lived to be active at ninety1 the world would need a much smaller population of young people4 ,it is our frail tenure of life that renders a high birthrate necessary2 and progress gains more from the enterprise of vigorous youth than from the too cautious knowledge of old age4 ,so ,i do not understand the pother raised by ,mill and others over the benign discipline of death that ,nature wields as a servant of the ,eternal4 ,believe me1 a pontist can never solve even one problem in the law of battle if he lets himself be scared into a revolt against natural forces2 scared by the incessant tragedy that each day's little trip along the highways of history brings in a challenging manner before his mind's eye4 ,he must try to protect himself with humour and irony and scorn1 as ,thackeray tried to save himself from a feminine heart4 ,the main point is that he should learn to live outside himself2 then self-pity will not be his troublesome guide through the labyrinths of strife4 ,cardinal ,newman asks us to believe that human life has been terrible--8a vision to dizzy and appal0--because mankind has been punished by ,god for some aboriginal sin too abominable for mercy and forgiveness4 ,this doctrine is completely dark and horrible4 ,if it were illumined on one side only1 like the moon1 it would invite the companionship of thought1 but it gives no light whatever4 ,indeed1 it implies that no civilization has been free to improve its own lot and to get progressive reason from the large brain of man4 ,to blame ,god for our own follies--to say that our social acts are wild and foolish because we are being punished by ,heaven for a sin of ignorance committed by man in the babyhood of the human race--what is this but a charge of illimitable cruelty against the ,creator8 ,besides1 we learn from the much nobler doctrine of evolution that human nature1 despite all her wilful fondness for wrong actions1 has crept up and up from a very low beginning1 in an ascent continually wonderful1 though infinitely slow and tragical4 ,the accumulated progress excites in me as much awe as ,i should feel in the presence of a resurrection from the dead4 ,indeed1 what is evolution but a vast drama of resurrections1 by means of which base forms of life have become gradually better8 ,can anyone suppose that ,milton1 had he been a contemporary of ,darwin1 would have turned from the endless hopes that evolution ought to inspire1 just to dally with fallen angels and with an errant couple in the ,garden of ,disobedience8 ,and can we suppose that ,newman would have written his famous page on the doctrine of original sin1 had he not turned his back on modern thought and knowledge8 ,amid the doubts and difficulties that trouble this meditation on strife1 just a few things are bright and clear-eyed1 like illumined windows which on dark nights cause jaded tramps to feel less their lone wayfaring2 and these things ,i have watched for years in the life of bridges1 where their activity never ceases4 ,it is clear enough1 for instance1 that custom and convention have acted as narcotics on the mind1 sending reason to sleep4 ,this explains why human strife has never turned to the best use the great opportunities that each generation has inherited4 ,to custom and convention1 mankind has owed the social rule which has sown the seed of death in every civilization2 the rule of illogic and discord1 8,each for ,all1 yet ,each for ,himself40 ,let us see this rule in operation on the highways1 taking care to note how it has inflamed egotism and deadened both the sense of honour and the spirit of citizenship4 ,the just and beautiful principle that every man lives by his mother the ,state1 and that he must do good for the benefit of the commonweal1 was enforced upon medival landowners by the trinoda necessitas1 or triple obligation1 which among other duties made the upkeep of roads and bridges a general charge on all owners of the ,english soil4 ,not even the religious houses were exempted1 though the ,state favoured them in other ways4 ,but the second principle of the social rule--8,each for ,himself0--interfered constantly with the first principle1 bringing trouble after trouble into the administration of the highways1 as into all other useful and necessary things4 ,landowners transferred their duties to their tenants1 and very often the tenants made negligence a habit1 until at last the ,law and the ,church became equally active for the people's benefit4 ,again and again bishops offered 8forty days' indulgence to all who would draw from the treasure that ,god had given them valuable and charitable aid towards the building and repair0 of a poor bridge ruined by neglect1 or of some quagmire which had been a decent road4#ab ,it happened in the year #acah that the ,law pottered into action because a timber bridge at ,old ,shoreham1 in ,sussex1 had been scandalously ill-used by those who were responsible for its upkeep4 ,half of it had fallen into the river4 ,year after year an evident crime against the ,state had gone on publicly1 yet no one had taken steps to make the dangerous condition of the bridge a subject for legal enquiry and punishment4 ,the village grumbled1 of course1 but grumblers have never had any initiative of their own2 unless a man of action has come to be their conscience and their leader1 they have done nothing4 ,their energy has evaporated in talk1 like steam from a boiling pan4 ,it was not until the bridge had fallen that the village hummed intelligently like a hive of bees1 and set itself to work4 ,what could be done then8 ,who was the landowner8 ,no less a person than the ,archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,are we then to believe that in #acah a ,primate of ,england scamped his public duty8 ,was his attitude to a timber bridge inferior to that of the high priests of ancient ,rome1 who called themselves pontifices because they built and repaired the ,pons ,sublicius1 a bridge of stakes at the foot of ,mount ,aventine8#ac ,the sheriff and his officers had a different question to consider2 they would wish to know whether the ,archbishop had been an astute man of the world1 whether he had made his tenants responsible to the trinoda necessitas4 ,if not1 then he and the ,law were in a fix1 and peasants over their ale would guffaw with malice4 ,but enquiries proved that his ,grace was a canny landlord2 the tenants alone ought to have mended the bridge2 and so the ,law was free to act with a vigour that common folk knew too well4 ,its agent was the bailiff1 good ,simon ,porter1 and ,porter set out at once to collect money from the tenants4 ,if any tenant either declined to pay his share or was unable to pay it1 then the bailiff put his hand on some marketable property1 perhaps a few sheep1 or a cow1 or 8a gaggle of geese40 ,the necessary thing was to take enough2 never an easy thing to do in the country1 as no one cared to pay a fair price for escheated live stock4 ,the peasant has ever been at heart a pawnbroker4 ,but ,simon ,porter had no reason to look upon his troublesome work as a high office of trust important enough to keep his name alive for six hundred years4 ,it was when he met ,hamo de ,morston1 a truculent fellow1 that ,simon entered into history4 ,hamo de ,morston was a logical egoist1 he fought for his own hand only1 trying to use the ,state at a trivial cost to himself2 but now this amusement1 after prospering for years1 brought him suddenly face to face with legal pains and penalties--a thing most irritating to a bad temper4 ,so ,hamo refused to pay2 and his fury was terrific when ,porter confiscated a horse4 ,even then he was not defeated1 for he set lawyer against lawyer1 and one day a petition was sent by him to ,king ,edward ,,ii4 ,the rascal was a good fighter1 but his appeal to the supreme authority failed2 the bailiff's action was approved1 and ,hamo had costs to pay4 ,as for the bridge1 it was repaired1 and repaired very well4 ,twenty years ago it was in use1 a shaggy and venerable structure1 not yet crippled by old age4 ,then certain highwaymen1 popularly known as road officials1 visited ,old ,shoreham1 and there they tried to prove that a bridge admired by landscape painters was unfit for a commercial time4 ,the poor bridge6 ,at this moment it has no charm at all2 not only is it dull1 it is neat in a shabby way--a discord in good surroundings1 like bankruptcy at a wedding breakfast4 ,so we pass from ,hamo de ,morston to our own roadway officials1 and find ourselves in the presence of a public bridge injured by public servants4 ,to ,hamo we can give a little sympathy1 he fought for his creed of self and paid costs1 whereas highway boards have never been fined for spoiling old bridges4 ,perhaps they do not hate venerable architecture1 but they belong to a system of public service that is ill-equipped for its work1 receiving neither criticism from the newspaper press nor supervision from county committees of independent architects4 ,that the ,state has been wronged by these public servants is known to all artists and antiquarians2 also the fact is advertised by the great many hideous railway bridges that demean towns and blemish the country4 ,in this matter1 as in others1 the ,state must defend her own just rights1 so as to get by compulsion what a free egotism has declined to give--efficiency and good taste4 ,it is possible that ,england has not suffered a great deal more than the ,continent2 for even in ,france1 despite the excellent administration of the ,ponts et ,chausses1 crimes against noble bridges have been committed1 as when the second ancient bridge at ,cahors was lost in a storm of local party politics4 ,but ,england happens to be poor in great old bridges1 whereas the ,continent is rich2 we cannot afford to lose even the modest little ballads of arched stone which have resisted floods for many generations1 while working as necessary drudges in the making of ,england4 ,trivial they are when compared with the bridges of ,isfahan or with many of those in ,france and ,spain1 but yet they are hallowed by time1 and they mimic the gentle rusticity of ,english landscapes4 ,it is a crime to spoil them1 because modern bridges for heavy traffic can be built at a lesser cost near by the little mute historians4 ,to the ,scotch1 on the other hand1 many a fine old brig is a ,burns of the highways2 and this sentiment for history and for sylvan poetry has kept from the cruel hands of industrialism some very attractive single-arched bridges1 and some long bridges also1 notably the rhythmical ,brig of ,stirling1 which ,brangwyn has chosen as an example of quiet good taste in medival civic architecture4 ,the ,brig of ,stirling is a ,scotch citizen of the dour old school1 but warmed with an undercurrent of that kindly emotion which even the canniest ,scot is glad to show off when he is away from business4 ,i am inclined to think that not even a militant suffragette would have folly enough to attack the ,scotch brigs2 she would be fascinated by their names1 and this would keep her out of mischief4 ,such a name as the ,brig o' ,doon is music combined with a racial vigour4 ,no weak people would have invented it1 and no dull people could have retained such a poetic name4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,war-,,bridge ,,of ,,stirling ,the ,irish also are fond of bridges1 like the true unspoiled ,welsh4 ,as late as a century ago ,irish peasants were pious in their attitude to any bridge that crossed a dangerous river2 they saluted it reverently because of its friendliness to poor wayfarers1 and because good thoughts come from simple hearts4 ,as for the ,welsh1 thanks partly to their ,celtic blood and partly to the waywardness of their rivers1 they have been known as pontists for a very long time4 ,in the romantic hills their bridges seem to belong to ,nature herself1 so lovingly have they been united to the spirit of ancestral landscapes2 whereas the industrial parts of ,wales make the bridges of trade into vile objects1 as if beauty has no right to a home where money is earned out of coal mines1 and ironworks1 and the debilitating factory system4 ,far too often the industrial bridge everywhere is like an ill-used highway uniting the purgatory of a seared district to some hell or other invented by poets or by priests4 ,there are many such bridges in the ,staffordshire ,black ,country1 and in the scarred ,potteries1 where an ebon meanness lives with jerry-builders1 and where puny drab children take from the present generation the youth that endures4 ,what would a ,dante think in the stricken fields of industrialism8 ,and why is it that only a person here and there1 after compelling himself to leave the atmosphere of custom1 sees our industrial war clearly1 and views it in its relation to the body social8 ,the truth is that our creed of self has become instinctive2 we cannot without an effort live for an hour outside our personal interests2 and thus the beautiful principle 8,each for ,all0 has to be kept alive by a host of active laws that encircle us with compulsion4 ,where there is no compulsion we are governed by our preferences4 ,if we like bridges1 for instance1 we try to protect them from ill-usage2 but if they are indifferent to us we care not a straw when engineers add half a dozen uncouth viaducts to the many other misdeeds which they have thrust upon the ,state4 ,instead of regarding all bad public work as a sin against the commonweal1 we let ourselves be ruled by the creed of self even in our best efforts to serve the ,state properly4 ,is our egotism better or worse than that of the ,middle ,ages8 ,this seems to be a matter of opinion4 ,thorold ,rogers believed that medivalism in a good many respects was kinder than our industrialism2 and the late ,russel ,wallace regarded 8our social environment as a whole1 in relation to our possibilities and our claims10 as 8the worst that the world has ever seen40 ,on the other hand1 a great scientist from his laboratory has told us that 8the sun rises on a better world every morning40 ,gracious6 ,if the sun could speak to us about his complete knowledge of mankind1 if he did not obey the law of silence that rules over the greatest motive-powers and creative agents1 our conjectures would be less wayward1 for sunrays would whisper into our ears the story of the most evil civilization in the whole strife of mankind4 ,in this matter the sun would be authoritative2 but how can we poor mortals expect to see the whole past truly when we are half blind to the significance of our own social life8 ,besides1 it is enough for us to see how one civilization has differed from another1 and how in many respects all human life has been like the sky1 always the same elementally1 but never quite the same in colour and form1 and in the effects of strife4 ,a pontist1 as he journeys through present-day ,england1 sees very clearly the difference between our commercial time and the past2 for industrialism is plainly out of joint with that which is normal in organic growth1 and its workmen are conscious of the unstable energy bred and frittered away by hurry and speed-worship4 ,consider those dread 8hives of industry0 where trade bridges are makeshifts1 and where the jerry-built villa or cottage is repeated thousands of times1 and always in mean streets4 ,do they not bear witness to the feeling of insecurity from which our age suffers8 ,i shall be told that many things are very well made1 as in the case of battleships1 motor-cars1 engines1 steamships1 guns1 rifles1 artillery1 surgical instruments1 expensive clothes1 implements for games1 and gigantic metal bridges2 but in this good craftsmanship1 tradesmen are thorough because they dare not be slipshod2 they fear to turn out work that would endanger human life1 and business would fail if they angered the specialists of luxury and of sport4 ,where they are free from restraint1 as in work for ordinary households1 tradesmen manufacture trash and prosper4 ,in fact1 the quicksands of cheapness are to most people in ,england what cheese in a trap is to mice1 or what seasonable bait is to fish4 ,so widespread is the feeling of insecurity that the poorer classes do not think it worth while to buy enduring goods and chattels4 ,instead of practising a thrift that would hand on furniture to their grandchildren1 they say1 8,never mind2 perhaps these things may last our time40 ,and this dull pessimism in the creed of self is the most wretched phase of strife that a pontist has to connect with the circulation of trade enterprise4 ,illustration3 ,,cannon ,,street ,,railway ,,bridge1 ,,london ,even the prehistoric tribes wanted to be remembered by their posterity1 so they built enduring barrows or set up cromlechs to their ancestor-worship1 this being their spiritual bond between past and present and future4 ,in the ,middle ,ages also1 though disease and filth and bloodshed made life as uncertain as a game of chance1 the social egotism that built and purchased for itself had faith in the future1 and claimed and got full value for its money4 ,in fact1 from nearly all specimens of medival handicraft we may learn why the peoples of ,europe survived terrible crises and bred men of genius to represent them for ever4 ,in each race1 and particularly in ours1 there was a wonderful endurance1 certainly based on the creed of self1 but admirable all the same1 like the tough elasticity of yew timber4 ,the ruling egotism was honest in nearly all its private work1 but when it was expected to be equally thorough as a public servant1 then a habit of dishonesty appeared in handicrafts1 sometimes to be followed by new laws or by threatening proclamations4 ,again and again the conscription of the archery laws was imperilled by bowyers and fletchers and merchants1 who formed 8rings0 and flooded the markets with nefarious work to be sold at high prices4 ,certain bridges1 also1 and notably the one at ,berwick-on-,tweed1 fell so often that the supervision of town authorities must have been exceedingly lax4 ,on this point1 ,m4 ,jusserand says3--8,london ,bridge itself1 so rich1 so useful1 so admired1 had frequent need of reparation1 and this was never done until danger was imminent1 or even till catastrophe had happened4 ,henry ,,iii granted the farm of the bridge revenues to his #8beloved wife1' who neglected to maintain the bridge1 appropriating to herself without scruple the rents of the building2 none the less did the king renew his patent at the expiration of the term1 that the queen might benefit #8from a richer favour4' ,the outcome of these favours was not long to wait2 soon it was found that the bridge was in ruins1 and to restore it the ordinary resources were not enough2 it was necessary to send collectors throughout the country to gather offerings from those willing to give4 ,edward ,i begged his people to hasten 7,january1 #abha71 the bridge would give way if they did not send prompt assistance2 and he ordered the archbishops1 bishops1 all the clergy1 to let his collectors address the people with #8pious exhortations' that the subsidies should be given without delay4 ,but the money thus urgently needed arrived too late2 the catastrophe had already happened1 a #8sudden ruin' befell the bridge1 and to repair this misfortune the king established a special tax upon the passengers1 merchandise and boats 7,february #d1 #abhb71 which tax was enacted again and a new tariff put into force on ,may #g1 #acjf44440 ,what were the citizens doing while ,henry ,,iii and his dear wife ruined the bridge by confiscating her revenues8 ,did they believe that everybody's affair was nobody's business1 and that they would be asked to mend the bridge if they drew attention to her condition8 ,as to ,edward ,i1 he kept his hand away from his own pocket1 and personated charity that for ever begs4 8,each for ,himself0 was a policy that suited ,edward2 and his orders to the clergy proved that he knew it to be a policy which his loyal subjects followed as a habit4 ,hence the 8pious exhortations10 with indulgences also1 we may rest assured4 ,the whole story is pitifully ironic4 ,london had no other bridge over the ,thames1 yet the people looked on while a king and his wife played the part of bridge wreckers4 ,some protest there must have been1 for ,london ,bridge--a great street of timber houses--was more populous than many a village2 and the tenants1 like other ,englishmen of those days1 had no wish to be plunged into cold water4 ,according to ,stow's 8,annals10 five arches fell1 so many houses also were lost1 perhaps with their inmates4 ,m4 ,jusserand believes that during the ,middle ,ages our ,english highways fared no better than ,london ,bridge4 ,his verdict runs thus3 8,though there were roads1 though property was burdened with obligatory services for their upkeep1 though laws every now and again recalled their obligations to the possessors of the soil1 though from time to time the private interest of lords and of monks1 in addition to the public interest1 suggested and directed repairs1 yet the fate of a traveller in a fall of snow or in a thaw was very precarious4 ,the ,church might well have pity on the wayfarer2 and him she specified1 together with the sick and the captive1 among those unfortunates whom she recommended to the daily prayers of pious souls40 ,there is a great deal of evidence to justify this verdict1 but evidence in history depends on its choice2 and in ,thorold ,rogers there are other facts that leave ,england with some efficient medival roads1 along which horsemen could travel rapidly4 ,perhaps ,rogers may have set too much store by his data2 but when we study all the evidence1 when we balance it carefully1 and visualise all its pictures of well-tested negligence and crime1 one thing is beyond all doubt3 that the social rule1 8,each for ,all1 yet ,each for ,himself10 was a national catastrophe4 ,its first principle had a very precarious life1 though incessant compulsion tried to drive it home to the people's fear of revengeful laws2 whereas the second principle--8,each for ,himself0--was so popular as a creed that even the divine mysteries beyond death were assailed by egoists1 who thought they could buy a place in heaven by giving lands and goods to the ,church1 no matter what harm they had done in a brief life upon earth4 ,study ,erasmus in his wayfaring letters1 and you will breathe the atmosphere of the ,middle ,ages4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,london ,,bridge1 ,,begun ,,by ,,peter ,,colechurch ,,in #aagf1 ,,and ,,finished ,,by ,a ,,frenchman1 ,,called ,,isembert1 ,,in ,,the ,,year #abji ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,sidi ,,rached ,,at ,,constantine1 ,,algeria4 ,,built ,,in #aijh-aiab ,the span of the great arch is #gj metres4 ,the work illustrates the longevity of custom and convention1 being inspired partly by ,roman aqueducts and partly by the two famous bridges over the ,tech at ,cret1 in ,france1 one of which dates from the year #acba4 ,the span of its great arch is #dem4 #de;cm4 ,,iii ,,custom ,,and ,,convention ,yet a pontist must be exceedingly careful when his tramps through any period bring him in touch with ethical problems4 ,he should try to live on the highways of history1 not in order to pass judgments on vice and on crime1 but because he wants to see clearly1 under the form of visual conception1 why social concord and equity have never fared well1 even the best forms of civilization being only half-educated barbarisms that allow their strife to be drilled by a vast number of active laws4 ,these phases of compulsion go on increasing1 yet they fail to resolve into harmony those rapacious egotisms that compete against each other in the body social like microbes in living tissues4 ,as soon as a pontist understands his wayfaring through history1 as soon as he feels at home in the general atmosphere of the human drama1 he is glad to be a realist2 then nothing that societies do or have done seems unexampled and inexplicable4 ,to him1 for example1 the infanticide practised age after age by savage tribesmen is not more terrible than the death of babies in the slums of civilized towns1 or than the degradation brought before his mind by the alert philanthropy that saves little ,english children from cruelties4 ,to him1 again1 the slaughter on a great battlefield is not more woeful than the annual sacrifice of lives in street accidents1 and railway smashes1 and mine disasters1 and sea tragedies2 as well as in games and sports1 in nursing the sick1 and in all trades and professions4 ,he is not scared by the fact that the sum of human life is war1 but he is scared by the primordial customs and conventions that make the incessant war infinitely less humane than it could be and ought to be4 ,so a pontist in his attitude to history is a sociologist1 and not an abstract moralist4 ,each body social and its systems of circulation are to him what patients are to medical students in a hospital2 he has to learn to be attentive to all disease and to make his diagnoses thoughtfully4 ,even then frequent mistakes will occur4 ,one thing he must regard as his clinical thermometer3 it is the truth that civilizations in their intercourse with right and wrong have been governed by habits and customs and conventions1 which have caused most men to be other men2 so that most human actions1 whether studied in old history or in the current routine of living1 are mere quotations from other human actions1 instead of being like original ideas in a well-ordered composition4 ,in other words1 the ordinary human brain has tried to be automatic1 as if to be in harmony with the rest of the vital organs4 ,now the architecture of bridges1 like that of huts and houses and cottages1 never fails to keep before our minds the awful slowness of each reluctant advance from custom to custom1 and from convention to convention4 ,i have no words to describe the terror that comes to me when ,i find in daily use a type or species of bridge so aboriginal in its poor workmanship that a forerunner not only similar to it1 but as rudely effective1 may well have been employed by the earliest ,flint ,men1 whose delight in imitation was stimulated by all the bridges which ,nature had created4 ,even more1 at this moment in ,england1 and even in busy ,lancashire1 where to-day's machinery abounds1 there are primitive bridges which are not even primitively structural2 bridges which need in their making not more thought than is given to a difficult sneeze when we are troubled by a cold 7p4 #fj74 ,when ,i look at them and think of the myriads of generations which in different parts of the world have used bridges akin to these1 ,i am so awed with fear that ,i feel like a baby ,gulliver in a new ,brobdingnag where everlasting conventions are impersonated by brainless giants whose bodies are too vast for my eyes to focus4 ,often1 too1 ,i say to myself3 8,in the presence of this dreadful conservatism1 this inept mimicry that endures unruffled by a thought for many thousands of years1 you are as futile as a single microbe would be on a field of battle4 ,or imagine that the microbe is in ,westminster ,abbey1 and that it has a blurred sense that makes it dimly conscious of all the many historic things there gathered together2 then you have a figure of yourself in your relation to the mingled good and bad in history4 ,for the ,abbey shows in its architecture that convention1 though a bane to ordinary minds1 is the grammar of progress to the rare men of genius who from time to time shake the world free from its bondage to fixed customs and routines1 and compel it to move on to other routines and customs1 where it will dawdle until other geniuses come out of the dark and find in new mother-ideas a compulsive force that works a new liberation40 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,clain1 ,,near ,,poitiers ,this1 indeed1 is the only encouragement that ,i am able to perceive when ,i watch in history the periodical strife between inveterate conventions and the mother-ideas of genius4 ,in the case of bridges1 for example1 the first mother-ideas were those that enabled a primitive craftsman here and there to copy with success the least difficult of ,nature's models4 ,what this man achieved was repeated by his tools1 the ordinary men of his tribe2 then other tribes got wind of the discovery and began to make similar bridges1 until at last several conventions were formed1 and they became widespread and stereotyped4 ,when a convention was very simple and also effective for a given purpose1 no one wished to see it developed1 so it entered that domain of infertile mimicry where stone tools and weapons remained unpolished for years to be reckoned by scores of thousands4 ,if experience had shown that chipped flint in a rough state would neither cut wood nor break human skulls1 then at an early date polishing would have been found out by a savage of genius who yearned to prove that his invention could be made useful2 but rough-hewn stones were rudely efficient1 so mankind settled itself in a routine and plodded on and on automatically4 ,and thus it was also in the case of many primitive bridges which became so firmly fixed in conventions that now they seem to be contemporary with nearly all the ages of human strife4 ,not in any other way can we explain their present use by many ,europeans1 as well as by the natives of ,asia1 and ,africa1 and ,america 7p4 #ade74 ,on the other hand1 when a primeval bridge did not serve its purpose efficiently1 when it was useless in tribal wars and dangerous in rainy seasons1 then a mother-idea paid it a visit from time to time1 as we shall see in the next chapter4 ,whence the idea came we do not know4 ,it entered a mind that was ready to receive it1 coming unbidden from a place unknown like an abiding quest from a spirit world4 ,the mind that welcomed the idea was neither masculine nor feminine1 it was both1 a thing androgynous1 for genius has ever been a single creative agent with a double sex4 ,the tools with which genius has worked--the selected traditions and conventions1 the acquired knowledge1 the original observation1 and the handicrafts of social life--have ever been plain enough1 of course2 but to see and admire tools is not to understand the advent of those imperishable ideas which not only transform history1 but turn all ordinary men into their mimics and mechanics4 ,for instance1 whenever we light a candle or a fire we obey the genius of a ,palolithic savage1 who1 with sparks beaten from flint into some inflammable grass or moss or fluff from cocoons1 brought into the world the earliest missionaries1 artificial light and heat4 ,similarly1 whenever we walk across a timber bridge1 whether old or new1 we are servants to the earliest savage who with a stone axe cut down a tree1 causing it to fall from bank to bank of a river or chasm4 ,delete from history even two mother-ideas--the invention of wheels1 for example1 and the evolution of arched bridges from ,nature's models--and how many civilizations would you cancel8 ,omit from the annals of our 8modern democracy0 not more than three mother-ideas3 the discovery of steam as a motive-power1 the discovery of microbes1 and the use of metal in bridge building4 ,in a twinkling we go back to the middle of the eighteenth century1 when hospitals were cesspools1#ad when surgery and medicine were wild empirics1 when travellers in stage-coaches longed for the general ,turnpike ,act 7a boon delayed till #aggc71 and when ,england was unspoiled by jerry-builders and a factory system4 ,a pontist1 then1 if he understands his subject1 looks upon genius as the solar system of human societies1 hence he cannot be a willing servant to any mob-rule or mob-worship4 ,on the contrary1 he would gladly see in every town a fine church dedicated to the men and women of genius who with great mother-ideas have tried to better the strife of human adventure4 ,for two reasons ,i used the phrase 8have tried to better40 ,in the first place1 the constituents of new knowledge1 when mingled with the old customs and conventions1 lose much of their good invariably2 and1 next1 the amalgam thus formed may become explosive4 ,at this moment we see in our new art1 the art of flying1 how precarious is the charity that mother-ideas bring into the battlefields of competition4 ,what aeroplanes can do in war is already the only consideration that the mother-idea of mechanical flight receives from the most alert minds2 and very soon military engineers will be called upon to invent bomb-proof covers for every strategic bridge which cannot be displaced by a tunnel4 ,so we compel airmanship to torment us with visions of wrecked cities1 when she ought to delight us with bird's-eye views of happier countries4 ,in brief1 the more we study mother-ideas the more clearly we perceive that they in themselves are phases of strife1 for they have power to do harm as well as good4 ,providence for ever tries to quicken the inept human mind1 since no blessing is granted to us without its attendant bane4 ,electricity has dangers of its own1 so has fire2 ,pasteurism has dangers of its own1 so has food2 radium is curative and very perilous1 like the sea or the sun2 and all other good things ask us to pick our way with care between danger and utility4 ,the most tragic element of all in human indiscretion is the mindless routine which has deadened the brain of ordinary men4 ,there is in ,lancashire1 for example1 a charming valley where six or seven old bridges make a few minutes' walk a very long pilgrimage through the history of primitive conventions4 ,wycollar the valley is called1 and antiquaries and pontists ought to go there at once1 but not in motor-cars that devour topography as well as miles4 ,one bridge is exceedingly low in the scale of thought and skill2 indeed1 no prehistoric tool or weapon stands below it4 ,even the ,adam of ,evolution1 if he ever lived in rock-strewn places1 had common sense enough probably to choose a flat stone and to lay it across a deep rivulet1 so as to save his children from danger4 ,such is the most primeval of the ,wycollar bridges3 three schoolboys could make a smaller one between two ,april showers4 ,for the stone is not a huge slab ten feet long by four wide1 such as we find not far from ,fernworthy ,bridge1 ,dartmoor2 nor is it like the single slab over the ,walla ,brook on ,dartmoor4 ,it is a long lintel-stone1 and in eight or nine strides a little girl would cross it easily4#ae ,if the stone were new1 and also alone in the valley1 no one would think more of it than of a plank used as a temporary bridge2 but the stone is very old1 and lintel-bridges are ancient customs in the valley of ,wycollar4 ,if ,nature once in a century allowed bridges to tell their tales1 ,i should expect two of the ,wycollar historians to trace their lineage through a great many ancestors until at last they came to a time when the first nomads hacked their way with flint axes through the undergrowth of ,lancashire forests1 and cursed in primitive words or sounds at the virile brambles whose thorns were sharper than pointed flints4 ,the second bridge of lintel-stones at ,wycollar is a simple adaptation from one of ,nature's bridges1 the bridge of stepping-stones littered over the beds of rivers by earthquakes and floods4 ,when the stepping-stones are long you turn them on end and use them as piers2 when they are short and squat you pile them up into piers2 then lintel-stones are put from pier to pier1 and from pier to each bankside4 ,here is the ,a ,b ,c of primitive bridge-making with slabs1 boulders1 and fragments of rock4 ,it needs very much less mother-wit than that which enabled primitive men to survive innumerable hardships1 and to breed and rear those true artists who in ,palolithic times1 about #ej1jjj years ago1#af turned a good many ,european caves into the first public art galleries1 famous for their rock-paintings and for their sculpture and engravings4 ,thus the ,altamira ,cavern1 near ,santander1 in ,northern ,spain1 and the ,la ,madeleine cave in the ,dordogne 7about eighty miles east of ,bordeaux71 are among the prehistoric museums1 or art galleries1 which have given us work very far in advance of the ,wycollar lintel-bridges2 so far1 indeed1 that trees and shrubs in the valley ought to blush with shame by keeping autumn tints in their leaves all the year round4 ,this hint from ,dame ,nature might awaken some little self-reproach in the ,lancashire weavers and peasants whose heavy clogs clatter day after day over the lintel-stones1 wearing them into troughs where rainwater collects pretty pictures from the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,wycollar1 ,,lancashire3 ,,the ,,weavers' ,,bridge ,not long ago a busy official mind in the neighbourhood was troubled by one of the bridges at ,wycollar1 named the ,weavers' ,bridge1 a dull-witted primitivity made with three lintel-stones and two rough piers in the water4 ,though the busy official mind was troubled it did not suggest that the bridge should be put under glass and kept with as much care as the perfect skeleton of a mastodon would receive2 nor did it wish to build a successor in the cheapest style of industrial metal-work4 ,no2 what the official mind advertised as a fortunate inspiration was a foolish little act of commonplace vandalism4 ,it set a mason to chisel out of existence the trough worn in the lintel-stones by generations of clog-wearers6 ,i have two photographs1 now historic1 in which the trough can be seen distinctly2 but the poor weavers have no such consolation4 ,their ancestors' work has to be done all over again1 and they know that their great-grandchildren will find in the lintel-stones not a trough but a vague hollow scarcely deep enough to hold a few raindrops4 ,mr4 ,sargisson wrote to tell me this pathetic story of a crisis in antiquarianism4 ,but it is fair to add that the busy official mind was content with one foolish act2 it spared the rude pillar on the left bank1 though this rough stone looks like a small menhir and completes the primeval bridge4 ,and now let us look at the survival of convention under a form that is even more distressing4 ,is it true that in many times and lands human beings have been sacrificed not to bridges1 but to the spirits of floods and storms which have been feared as destroyers of bridges8 ,one good reference to this question will be found in ,francis ,m4 ,crawford's 8,ave ,roma ,immortalis40 ,the most venerated bridge in ancient ,rome was the ,pons ,sublicius1 whose history dated from the time of ,ancus ,marcius1 who reigned twenty-four years--,b4,c4 #fdj-faf4 ,in much later times1 long after the good fight that made ,horatius ,cocles famous for ever1 strange ceremonies and superstitions lingered around the ,pons ,sublicius4 ,on the ,ides of ,may1 which were celebrated on the fifteenth of the month1 ,pontiffs and ,vestals came in solemn state to the bridge1 accompanied by men who carried thirty effigies representing human bodies4 ,the effigies were made of bulrushes1 and one by one they were thrown into the ,tiber1 while the ,vestals sang hymns or the priests chanted prayers4 ,what did this rite signify8 ,a tradition popular in ,rome taught children to believe that the effigies took the place of human beings1 once sacrificed to the river in ,may4 ,this tradition is attacked by ,ovid1 8but the industrious ,baracconi quotes ,sextus ,pompeius ,festus to prove that in very early times human victims were thrown into the ,tiber for one reason or another1 and that human beings were otherwise sacrificed until the year of the ,city #feg1 when1 ,cnus ,cornelius ,lentulus and ,publius ,licinius ,crassus being consuls1 the ,senate made a law that no man should be sacrificed thereafter40 ,it is possible1 if not1 indeed1 probable1 that the effigies were made at first in order to placate the common people who were indignant over the loss of a festival4 ,we can imagine what would be said to-day if ,cup-finals were stopped by ,act of ,parliament2 and the ,romans1 in their fool-fury over 8sport0 at second-hand1 were always glad to appease their curiosity with shows of bloodshed4 ,further1 in the folk-lore of later times bridges and rivers are connected with the primitive rite of killing women and men as a sacrifice to evil spirits4 ,this dread tradition is related now in the ,asiatic provinces of ,turkey1 as ,i learn from ,sir ,mark ,sykes1 whose 8,dar-,ul-,islam0 is a book for pontists to read4 ,it was at ,zakho that ,sir ,mark heard the following legend3-- 8,many years ago workmen under their master were set to build the bridge2 three times the bridge fell1 and the workmen said1 #8,the bridge needs a life4' ,and the master saw a beautiful girl1 accompanied by a bitch and her puppies1 and he said1 #8,we will give the first life that comes by4' ,but the dog and her little ones hung back1 so the girl was built alive into the bridge1 and only her hand with a gold bracelet upon it was left outside4 8,at the foot of this bridge ,i found the local ,agha1 ,yussuf ,pasha1 superintending the collection of the sheep-tax1 in which as a large landowner he has an interest40 ,try to visualise in all their details these pictures1 passing from to-day's tax-gatherer1 a ,pasha ,lloyd ,george1 into the drama of a very terrible superstition4 ,the workmen can be fitted with fairly good primitive characters1 for they do not suggest the sacrifice of a life until the bridge has fallen thrice4 ,as to their master1 he is a fiend1 since he acts upon their suggestion at once1 unmoved by the girl's beauty and the frisking springtime that accompanies her4 ,a little dead hand--and a gleaming bracelet--and the masons chanting at their work1 as bridge-builders chant now in ,persia3 so the drama ends1 or so it would end if we could not unite it with a similar legend known almost everywhere in ,europe4 ,why in the ,turkish story the workmen say1 8,the bridge needs a life10 ,i do not know4 ,their superstition goes away from the river and its evil spirits1 and from those other demons1 which in olden times made winds so variable4 ,are we then to suppose that men have defiled the charity of bridges with bad spirits other than those that live in wilted conventions and in modern engineers8 ,i prefer to believe that a bridge that fell three times would muddle the superstition of any workman4 ,in fact1 there are many bridges which superstition--not modesty in men--has given to the ,devil1 and as a rule they have been connected with the same legend1 or bogie tale4 ,mr4 ,baring-,gould takes a great interest in the bridges ascribed to the ,devil1 and writes about them as follows in his 8,book of ,south ,wales03-- ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,du ,,diable1 ,,st4 ,,gotthard ,,pass 8,the ,devil's ,bridge is twelve miles from ,aberystwyth2 it is over the ,afon ,mynach just before its junction with the ,rheidol#ag4444 ,the original bridge was constructed by the monks of ,strata ,florida1 at what time is unknown1 but legend says it was built by the ,devil4 ,old ,megan ,llandunach1 of ,pont-y-,mynach1 ,had lost her only cow2 ,across the ravine the cow was seen1 ,but to get it she could not tell how4 8,in this dilemma the ,evil ,one appeared to her cowled as a monk1 and with a rosary at his belt1 and offered to cast a bridge across the chasm if she would promise him the first living being that should pass over it when complete4 ,to this she gladly consented4 ,the bridge was thrown across the ravine1 and the ,evil ,one stood bowing and beckoning to the old woman to come over and try it4 ,but she was too clever to do that4 ,she had noticed his left leg as he was engaged on the construction1 and saw that the knee was behind in place of in front1 and for a foot he had a hoof4 ,in her pocket she fumbled1 a crust out tumbled1 ,she called her little black cur2 ,the crust over she threw1 the dog after it flew1 ,says she1 #8,the dog's yours1 crafty sir6' 8,precisely the same story is told of ,s4 ,cadoc's ,causeway in ,brittany2 of the bridge over the ,maine at ,frankfort1 and of many and many another4 8,how comes it that we have an almost identical tale in so many parts of ,europe8 ,the reason is that in all such structures a sacrifice was offered to the ,spirits of ,evil who haunted the place4 ,when a storm came down on the sea1 ,jonah had to be flung overboard to allay it4 ,when1 in the old ,english ballad1 a ship remained stationary1 though all sails were spread1 and she could make no headway1 the crew #8cast the black bullets1' and the lot falls to the captain's wife1 and she is thereupon thrown overboard4 ,vortigern sought to lay the foundations of his castle in the blood of an orphan boy4 ,a dam broke in ,holland in the seventeenth century2 the peasants could hardly be restrained from burying a living child under it1 when reconstructed1 to ensure its stability4#ah 8,when the ,cistercian monks of ,strata ,florida threw the daring arch over the chasm1 they so far yielded to the popular superstition as to bury a dog beneath the base of the arch1 or to fling one over the parapet40 ,there6 ,we have followed a superstition--a vile convention in ignorance and cowardice--from the ,pons ,sublicius in ,ancient ,rome to the ,pont-y-,mynach in ,south ,wales2 and the best we can say of it is that in ,pagan ,rome it went from human victims to effigies of men and women1 while in ,christian times it passed from human victims to dogs4#ai ,mr4 ,baring-,gould has told us that in bridges1 and 8in all such structures1 a sacrifice was offered to the ,spirits of ,evil who haunted the place40 ,yet it was not in a structure--a finished building--that ,vortigern wished to offer his sacrifice2 he 8sought to lay the foundations of his castle in the blood of an orphan boy10 so his aim was to placate the ,spirits of ,evil before his castle was built4 ,as to his conception of the spiritual agencies to be appeased1 it would mingle his own passions with the fears bred by his primitive fanaticism4 ,for1 as ,darwin says1 8savages would naturally attribute to spirits the same passions1 the same love of vengeance or simplest form of justice1 and the same affections which they themselves felt40 ,now in the case of bridges we have to identify primitive men with the terror inspired by storms and floods2 a terror difficult for us to understand in our sheltered lives4 ,have you read ,matthew ,paris1 who lived in the reign of ,henry ,,iii8 ,if not1 go to him and study the tempests that he described1 and see how villages were desolated by winds and inundations4 ,amid these disasters the ignorant would cling to ancient superstitions2 fear would be pagan out of doors whatever faith might say in church2 and ,i have no doubt at all that the many so-called ,devil's ,bridges were as supernatural to the medival peasant as were witches4 ,the ,dutch of the ,middle ,ages were more advanced in domestic civilization than our own ancestors2 and yet at heart they were cruel pagans1 even as late as the seventeenth century1 as ,mr4 ,baring-,gould has shown4 ,how very humble human nature ought to be6 ,let us pass on1 then1 to a convention that does not reek like a stricken field4 ,one of the best historians in architecture1 ,viollet-le-,duc1 found in the hills of ,savoy a primeval bridge whose structure had been changed very little1 if at all1 since the days when its ancestors were described by ,csar and used by the ,gauls4 ,it is a timber bridge1 known in ,france as un empilage1 a thing piled together rudely1 and not constructed with art4 ,indeed1 it needs no carpentry1 so it is far behind the social genius of prehistoric lake-dwellers4 ,to make a simple ,gaulish bridge1 as to-day in ,savoy1 we must choose a deep-lying river with rugged banks2 then with water-worn boulders we make on each bank a rough foundation about fifteen feet square1 or more4 ,upon this we raise a criss-cross of tree trunks1 taking care that the horizontal trees jut out farther and farther across the water1 narrowing the gap to be bridged by four or five pines4 ,each criss-cross must be 8stiffened0 or filled in with pebbles and bits of rock2 and across the unfinished road of pines thick boards are nailed firmly4 ,viollet-le-,duc says3-- 8,cette construction primitive 444 rappelle singulirement ces ouvrages ,gaulois dont parle ,csar1 et qui se composaient de troncs d'arbres poss l'angle droit par ranges1 entre lesquelles on bloquait des quartiers de roches4 ,ce procd1 qui nest qu'un empilage1 doit remonter la plus haute antiquit2 nous le signalons ici pour faire connatre comment certaines traditions se perptuent travers les sicles1 malgr les perfectionnements apports par la civilisation1 et combien elles doivent toujours fixer l'attention de l'archologue40 ,does anyone suppose that ,savoy would have been loyal to a prehistoric bridge if all primitiveness had vanished from her social life8 ,not that ,savoy is the only place where criss-cross bridges are still in vogue4 ,much finer specimens are to be found in ,kashmr1 thrown across the river ,jhelum1 the ,hydaspes of ,greek historians4 ,at ,srnagar1 the capital city1 founded in the sixth century ,a4,d41 there is a quite wonderful example1 for it has many spans1 and corbelled out from the footway is a quaint little street of frail shops1 rickety cabins with gabled roofs1 and so unequal in size that they are charmed with an amusing inequality4 ,i have several photographs of this bridge1 and in them ,i see always with a renewed pleasure its ancestry1 its descent from the prehistoric lake-villages1 those heralds of ,venice and of ,old ,london ,bridge 7p4 #baf74 ,all the piers are made with deodar logs piled up in the criss-cross manner2 those that stretch across the river are cut in varying lengths1 and each succeeding row is longer than the one beneath it1 so the logs in a brace of piers project towards each other farther and farther over the water1 till at last they form an arched shape2 not an arch perfect in outline1 of course1 since the head of it is flattened by the long bearing beams of the roadway4 ,still1 the arched shape is very noticeable4 ,a pontist should study these rude arches with care1 and connect them with similar arches in the ,gaulish bridges of ,savoy1 and also with the historic fact that the first arches built with voussoirs 7i4e4 arch-stones7 were evolved from vaults roughly constructed with parallel courses of stone and layers of timber 7p4 #aee74 ,it is probable that the parallel layers of timber or rows of logs came before the parallel courses of stone1 as the evolution of architecture passed from wood to stone4 ,forests much more than rocks and quarries have been an inspiration to primitive builders1 as if the handling of wood has quickened in human nature an arboreal instinct dating from the family trees in the descent of man4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,albi ,,on ,,the ,,tarn1 ,,in ,,france1 ,,showing ,,on ,,our ,,right ,,the ,,old ,,houses1 ,,and ,,on ,,our ,,left1 ,,beyond ,,the ,,bridge1 ,,the ,,great ,,old ,,church1 ,,famous ,,for ,,its ,,fortifications ,however1 another criss-cross bridge in ,kashmr ought to be studied in photographs2 it is carried on six piers over the ,jhelum at ,baramula--quite close to the ,himalayas2 the piers rise from boat-shaped platforms that meet the oncoming water as boats do1 with their blunt stems looking brave as rearguards4 ,the parapet is a simple latticework1 and the abutments are masonry4 ,here we have a type of bridge perhaps quite similar to the one from which the ,gauls got their rude methods1 long after the craft of the lake-dwellers had left its sheltered moorings and adventured across wide rivers4 ,is there any concrete evidence to suggest that the bridge with criss-cross piers has gone through many phases of change1 of growth or of decadence8 ,yes4 ,at ,archangel1 in ,north ,russia1 the criss-cross piers are more primitive2 instead of being arched they are upright and stiff2 but as the bridge is nearly a quarter of a mile long1 and as it is taken down every spring 7before the ice breaks up noisily1 and the ,dwina thunders into a raging torrent71 crude workmanship in a hurried routine is excusable4 ,the main point is that a bridge akin to the ,gaulish type and to the variation in ,kashmir exists in ,north ,russia4 ,and another variation is met with at ,bhutan1 in ,india4 ,brangwyn has drawn it1 and we shall study it later in a page on gateway-towers 7p4 #bgb74 ,in the highlands of ,eastern ,kurdistan1 the borderland of ,asiatic ,turkey and ,persia1 travellers find a bridge akin to the ,bhutan variety4 ,an excellent book on these highlands has been published1#bj and its authors1 very generously1 have written for me some valuable notes on the bridges4 ,before ,i quote them in full1 let me ask you to remember that in ,eastern ,kurdistan timber is uncommon2 hence the criss-cross bridge has been evolved into another sort of primitive structure--a third cousin1 several times removed4 ,a ,kurdistan bridge is built as follows3 8,a site is selected1 if one can be found1 where two immovable and flat-topped masses of rock face one another across the stream to be bridged3 an abutment of unhewn stones is built on these1 solid1 until a height has been reached sufficient to be safe from any flood4 8,then a bracket of four or more rows of poplar trunks is constructed on each abutment2 short stout trunks form the bottom row1 and those of each succeeding one are naturally longer than the preceding4 ,unless the bridge is unusually wide in the footway four poplars are enough to form a row1 and the butts of the trees1 which are kept shore-wards1 are weighted down with big stones as counter-weights to hold them in place4 8,the top of each row of trunks projects perhaps five feet beyond the preceding one1 so that when a bracket of four rows is completed1 it may project perhaps twenty feet over the stream4 8,when the corresponding bracket has been completed1 two long poplar trunks are slung by withies from bracket end to bracket end1 a footway of withy hurdles1 resting on faggots1 is laid down over all1 and the bridge is complete4 ,the length of this centre span is of course limited by the height of the poplars available4 ,i should think fifty feet the extreme possible4 8,if the width of the river makes it necessary1 one or more piers of stone1--,i have seen as many as three1--are erected in midstream1 preferably on rock foundations4 ,each of these carries a bracket on each side1 but this double bracket is usually made of #8whole trunks' and these naturally need no counter-weighting4 8,as a rule the footway is about four feet wide1 and the whole structure is very elastic1 so that1 as it is guiltless of handrails1 it requires a steady head in the passenger4 ,further1 the central span often acquires a pronounced #8sag1' and not seldom an equally pronounced tilt to one side or other4 ,ancient rule says that the passenger ought not to look down in crossing such a place1 lest the sight of water whirling below should unnerve him4 ,in ,kurdistan1 however1 look down he must1 and make the best of the hurdles that form the footway2 they abound in holes and other traps for the unwary1 and a stumble may mean disaster4 ,these bridges1 then1 though admirably planned 7for they are true cantilevers71 are not built in the most convenient manner4 ,it is characteristically ,oriental1 this union of real fineness of design with great casualness in construction and in upkeep4 ,the piers are invariably of stone1 never of wood4 ,good timber is almost unknown in ,kurdistan4 ,the poplar grows well1 but it is at best only a good pole4 ,stone1 on the other hand1 is embarrassingly abundant4 8,dry-stone arches are thrown over smaller streams1 but their builders1 though acquainted with the principle of the vault1 do not venture on a span of more than thirty feet60#ba ,how do you like the antiquity of conventions8 ,does it not make you feel that the greatest part of mankind has never shown a particle of desire that its civil institutions should be improved8 ,note1 too1 that convention among men is inferior to the instinct of animals1 for animals invariably repeat themselves with a passionate interest1 whereas we in our formulas grow more and more unfeeling and automatic4 ,even rabbits when they dig their burrows seem to be guided by inspiration1 as if routine work with them is an appetite1 like love and hunger2 so very different are they from the conservative peasants of ,savoy1 whose dull routine has delivered down through the centuries a primeval bridge which an hour's thought could have improved4 ,one day1 let us hope1 most men will realise that it is woefully commonplace to be as other men2 then conventions will go out of vogue4 ,courts and clubs will invent new and good etiquettes every year2 no game will be stereotyped2 and laws will command that such and such things be altered and improved by given dates4 ,for example1 if an ,act of ,parliament decreed that during the next ten years all the railway bridges in ,england must be made less uncomely and less at odds with the needs of military defence1 ,i have no doubt that compulsion1 the scout of civil progress1 would discover among engineers more than enough invention4 ,railway bridges have been built in obedience to a brace of conventional arguments4 ,it has been argued1 first1 that because traffic and trade are the main considerations1 therefore art is not a matter to be considered2 next1 that because boards of directors have to please their shareholders1 therefore a most strenuous economy must be advertised in a very evident manner1 even although its results blot fine landscapes with the shame of uninspired craftsmanship4 ,thirty-four years have passed since the late ,e4 ,m4 ,barry1 ,r4,a41 in a thoughtful book1 asked the public to understand that modern engineering was not architecture at all1 but mere building2 and he chose as an example of horrible work the ,britannia ,bridge over the ,menai ,straits4 8,here we have the adoption of the trabeated principle of large iron beams laid upon supports of masonry1 which rise from the valley beneath1 and tower up above the beams to a height far exceeding that which is necessary for their support4 ,i well remember the animated discussions in scientific circles as to the form and design of these beams1 which were ultimately decided upon as rectangular tubes4 ,in the many discussions of the merits and defects of circular1 elliptical and square sections1 ,i do not recollect that a word was said about architectural effect or about military convenience and strategy4 ,had anyone ventured to suggest that this1 too1 was an important matter1 and that an unsightly structure would be an eyesore for all time1 he would have been promptly told that the forms to be employed were an affair of science alone1 and that utility pure and simple would dictate their arrangement4 ,in the result a lovely valley was defaced44440 ,the same convention in mean tradecraft is shown in the tale about ,tennyson and the jerry-builder4 8,why do you cut down these trees80 the poet asked reprovingly4 8,trees are beautiful things40 8,ah60 answered the jerry-builder1 8trees are luxuries2 what we need is utility40 ,and what this utility has done for us may be seen in a thousand railway bridges as bad as those that disgrace even the ,harrow ,road1 near by ,paddington ,station4 ,it is not my argument that every railway bridge in ,england is underbred and crapulous2 here and there an engineer has made an effort to be architectural1 but the usual level of taste is exceedingly vulgar1 and not in railway bridges only4 ,even the ,tower ,bridge1 ,london1 a vast feat in engineering1 is so conventional with a meretricious medivalism that it needs the screening dust and mist that veil the ,thames4 ,this is among the modern bridges that ,brangwyn has drawn and painted1 raising them into art as a record of current history4 ,nothing moves him more than the huge mechanisms that seize upon to-day's life and turn it into their obedient slave4 ,men dwindle ever more and more in scale as machines become fatal in their enormous bulk1 like ,super-,dreadnoughts and the 8,titanic02 not to forget such vulnerable monsters as the bridges of ,new ,york1 which airships sent forth by ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells have already attacked with prophetic success4 ,is man really doomed to be the tool of machines8 ,is this to be his final convention8 ,in one great picture by ,brangwyn the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle represents our time4 ,historically the ,high ,level ,bridge has much interest2 it displaced the ,britannia ,bridge as an object of scientific veneration1 and from the first it has ranked high in the conventional ugliness that the ,british public has accepted from engineers4 ,when the ,britannia ,bridge was proved to be a bad railway line 7trains were the decisive critics71 and when men of science after weighing their after-thoughts began to find fault with the distribution of metal in the section of its tubes1 then engineers said1 8,and now--now we must have a good railway bridge1 completely scientific in all respects40 ,it was to be built with two roadways1 the one for common traffic passing under a railway1 so that business folk might be comforted by the noise overhead1 which would be as music to any believer in a pushful industrialism4 ,six arches of metal would be united to five piers and the abutments2 their spans would have precisely the same width1 i4e4 #ach ft4 #aj in41 for minds long used to office hours and ledgers would enjoy a dead uniformity4 ,indeed1 everybody was pleased with these plans2 and in #ahdi1 when ,queen ,victoria opened the ,high ,level ,bridge1 artists alone were unexcited with joy4 ,all the rest of the ,english world imagined that science1 at the cost of only #bdc1jjj1 had achieved a metal masterpiece4 ,new ,london ,bridge had cost six times as much 7i4e4 #a1deh1caa71 and her materials were stones1 not metals1 so once more the north of ,england had scored heavily over the south4 8,besides10 remarked the engineers1 8we have put into the superstructure #cba tons of wrought-iron1 and into the arched ribs #d1gbh tons of cast-iron4 ,economy4444 ,scientific economy4444 ,and we have now in use a perfect example of the true bowstring arch in which no cross-bracing is needed40 ,all this1 when discussed at dinners1 enriched the flavour of champagne2 and opinion became so 8heady0 that even the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 in its eighth edition received the ,high ,level ,bridge as an inspired work1 and gave to its engineering as much space as the thrifty ,romans would have given to all their ,spanish bridges and aqueducts4 ,at last1 and all of a sudden1 a reaction came2 enthusiasm not only caught a chill1 it passed in a hurry from its tropical summer into a bad winter of discontent4 ,scientists went so far as to declare that the ,high ,level ,bridge was a youthful indiscretion1 advertised publicly in a material which might endure for centuries2 and this change of opinion had a great effect on the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 whose ninth edition gave only eighteen lines to its former favourite4 ,even the bowstring arch was praised no longer1 8being essentially more expensive and heavier than a true girder40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,,london ,such are the comedies invented by our new playwright1 the genius of civil engineers4 ,still1 the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle looks well on a misty day2 by moonlight it is more impressive than a ,whistler nocturne2 and in ,brangwyn's art it represents our industrial age with a vigour that is manly and impressive4 ,for the rest1 from the pictures in this book you will be able to choose for yourself many a convention in the craft of bridge-building4 ,study1 for example1 the arches and their shapes1 noting those which have a character of their own4 ,these mark a new departure1 and are famous4 ,thus the bridge at ,avignon is admired by technicians because its architect1 the great ,saint ,bnzet1 gave to the arches what ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin has described as 8an elliptical outline with the radius of curvature smaller at the crown than at the haunch1 a form which accords more truly with the linear equilibrated arch than the modern flat ellipse with the largest radius at the crown40 ,good ,bnzet6 ,seven hundred and thirty years have gone by since he turned from the ,roman tradition of semicircular arches1 and designed an excellent arch of his own1 a beautiful thing1 with a look of triumph in its quiet dignity4 ,many writers think that ,l'arc de ,saint ,bnzet is original also in construction1 its vault being composed of four separate bands put side by side in stones of about equal bulk4 ,sometimes this method of building is condemned as weak1 though four of ,bnzet's arches have outlived seven centuries of war2 and what engineer would feel disgraced if he were baffled by the terrific floods to which the ,rhne is subject8 ,moreover1 ,bnzet was not an originator in this matter2 he borrowed from the ,romans4 ,in his time there was a bridge that carried the ,via ,domitiana over the ,vidourle at ,pont ,ambroise2 the vaults of its five arches were built in precisely the same manner1 in four parallel arcs or bands that touched each other2 and the bridge was notable for other reasons1 and thus attractive to all bridge-builders4 ,in the first place1 a ,bull of ,pope ,adrian ,,iv1 dated #aaef1 now treasured at ,nmes in the ,church of ,ntre ,dame1 has proved that in the twelfth century a chapel was built either on or from the middle of the bridge2 it was dedicated to ,st4 ,mary1 and it belonged to the chapter of ,nmes ,cathedral4 ,a ,roman bridge sanctified by a ,christian chapel recalls to one's mind the devotion of the ,flavian family that placed the monogram of ,christ among the ensigns of ancient ,rome4 ,unless the chapel stood out on corbels from the side of the bridge1 it must have been a tiny place of prayer1 for the bridge was only three metres wide1 while the ,via ,domitiana had an average width of six metres4 ,further1 the roadway across the bridge was peculiar2 it followed in gentle curves the contour of the arches1 instead of being either flat 7as in most ,roman bridges7 or with a slight incline at the abutment ends 7as in the bridge of ,augustus at ,rimini74#bb ,we cannot suppose that this bridge1 so noteworthy in several ways1 was unknown to ,bnzet1 head of the ,pontist ,friars4 ,anyhow1 the immense ,pont du ,gard1 near ,nmes1 a ,roman masterpiece1 must have been known to him2 and the arches of its second tier have in the belly of each vault three parallel bands of equal-sized stones4 ,if this method of construction be unsound1 how are we to explain the heroic stability of the ,pont du ,gard1 the finest of all the ,roman aqueducts8 ,myself1 ,i do not believe that ,bnzet was inexpert as a borrower4 ,we shall meet him again 7p4 #bcf71 but let us note here that his work is rhythmical and charming2 so it does not belong to the underbred heaviness that bridge-builders often copied from the art of medival fortification4 ,this art was an unthrifty engineer2 it employed far and away too much blind masonry4 ,castle walls were ten feet thick1 and brave soldiers at home feared the light of day1 merely to show respect for arrows and machine-worked catapults4 ,they were not discreet2 they made caution too timid and too uncomfortable4 ,did gallant married knights forget to sleep in their suits of mail8 ,was a honeymoon in armour a trifle more tiresome than were twelfth-century castles with their arrow slits for windows8 ,for many a year home life was an ill-smelling twilight1 particularly to persons of rank2 and from this we may infer that the custom of war during the ,middle ,ages went hand-in-hand with a superstitious dread of death4 ,bnzet needed courage as well as genius when he slighted in a graceful manner the ponderous conventions of safety that ruled in his day over castles 7#aagg-aahe74 ,it was his arch that saved the vigour of his design from being dull and clumsy4 ,some other arches in ,french bridges have provoked paper wars4 ,this is true of those in the bridges at ,albi and ,espalion1 chosen by ,brangwyn partly because of their controversial interest1 and partly because they illustrate a mood of handicraft which may be called the uncouth picturesque4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,town ,,bridge ,,in ,,perugia1 ,,italy1 ,,to ,,illustrate ,a ,,pointed ,,arch ,,which ,,has ,,in ,,its ,,curve ,a ,,sort ,,of ,,lingering ,,sentiment ,,for ,,the ,,round ,,arch ,,of ,,the ,,romans ,,iv ,,controversies ,students are tested and judged by their attitude to controversies4 ,common sense should keep them from partisanship2 and when they feel tempted to look on as mere spectators1 they should remember that crowds at boxing matches are very apt to form wrong opinions4 ,it is better by far to laugh at both sides by caricaturing the weak points of a discussion4 ,in a few days a student will learn which side is the more difficult to caricature1 and this knowledge will help him to sift all rubbish from a controversy and to form a judgment of his own on facts and on inferences4 ,as ,sir ,thomas ,browne said1 a man should be something that all men are not1 and individual in somewhat beside his person and his name4 ,the bridges at ,albi and ,espalion have caused some men to break old friendships over a simple question1 namely3 8,when were pointed arches used for the first time in ,french bridges8 ,at what date were they brought from the ,east80 ,as the pointed arch was copied by ,europeans1 not invented by them1 the precise date of the mimicry ought not to excite a pontist2 it is a thing for antiquaries to be flurried about4 ,if the question ran in another form3 8,was the pointed arch in ,french bridges an independent discovery80 then a battle and some exploded reputations would be worth while4 ,but no such hypothesis has been put forward by either side in a warm dispute4 ,one party declares that as early as the time of ,charlemagne1 towards the end of the eighth century1 or the beginning of the ninth 7#gfh-had71 a ,french builder seems to have played the part of the sedulous ape to ,eastern architecture1 cribbing the pointed arch1 and using it without much skill in the bridge of ,espalion1 whose construction 7as documents prove incontestably7 was ordered by ,charlemagne himself4 ,in this bald statement there is no challenge1 no provocation2 it is nothing more than a conjecture supported by a documented fact4 ,if ,charlemagne had been a weak ruler1 like ,louis the ,indolent1 it would be fair to suppose that his commands were neglected more often than obeyed2 then we could not accept his character as a fact of greater value in a controversy than a command of his mentioned in authentic documents4 ,let us say that the ,black ,prince or his father ordered a bridge to be built at a given place2 we have documents to prove this1 and at the place named in the documents a very old bridge is extant4 ,should we not read these documents by the light of the reputation won by the ,black ,prince or by his father8 ,myself1 ,i should say at once1 8,his orders were obeyed40 ,and so1 too1 in the case of ,charlemagne4 ,i accept his character as a guarantee that he was obeyed at ,espalion2 and in this ,i am supported by ,charlemagne's general attitude to roads and bridges4 ,it was he who made many an effort to keep the highways in repair1 trying to rescue them from the great disorder into which their administration had been thrown by the decline and fall of the ,romans4 ,he created the right to exact tolls1 and sanctioned on the roads the use of statute labour and of fatigue duty done by soldiers4 ,during his reign of forty-six years he restored much ,roman work and set in movement a system that did not overtax the poor finances of his ,empire2 but after his death the ,empire was divided and continual wars put an end to civil advancement4 ,as ,charlemagne needed a bridge at ,espalion we may believe that a bridge was built there between the years #gfh and #had4 ,does the bridge still exist1 or was it rebuilt in the twelfth century1 or later8 ,there is no evidence on these points2 hence the controversy4 ,those who think it possible1 if not probable1 that the bridge as it is now1 apart from periodical repairs1 belongs to ,charlemagne's reign1 draw arguments from the uncouth workmanship2 and even their opponents admit that the bridge is 8une uvre barbare n'offrant absolument aucun intrt3 a barbaric work without any interest at all0#bc 7as architecture74 ,why1 then1 should any ,frenchman wish to assign this barbaric bridge to a much later century than the eighth8 ,ah6 ,here we touch once again the influence of conventions4 ,a belief current among antiquaries has connected the pointed arch with the first ,crusade1 and so with the last decade of the eleventh century 7#ajie7 and the first years of the twelfth4 ,godfrey of ,bouillon1 on ,july #ae1 #ajii1 was made ,king of ,jerusalem1 and before this date many ,crusaders had returned home4 ,m4 ,degrand says3 8,at this time1 about the year #aajj1 ,crusaders returned to ,france after their stay in the ,east1 notably at ,antioch1 where monuments of ,persian origin must have been numerous2 and without doubt they brought home with them sufficient knowledge to introduce the pointed vault into the national architecture4 ,thus it is easy to understand why the twelfth century has been chosen as the date for the earliest work done in ,france with the pointed style4 ,we conjecture1 then1 that the bridges at ,espalion and ,albi1 in their present state1 have not the antiquity which supposition has given to them2 and that they must have been rebuilt 7ils ont d tre reconstruits7 after the periods from which their first construction dates40 ,illustration3 ,,famous ,,bridge ,,at ,,espalion ,,in ,,france ,,said ,,to ,,date ,,from ,,the ,,eighth ,,century ,this argument has a tongue and no legs4 ,even ,nature in the ,pont d',arc at ,ardche had given a pointed arch to ,france2#bd and how can we dare to suppose that no traveller from the ,east in the time of ,charlemagne could have brought with him to ,espalion any knowledge of pointed arches8 ,was this knowledge guarded so carefully that nothing less than a ,crusade could bring it to ,france8 ,intelligent soldiers would certainly note the details of ,eastern architecture1 and when they returned home their talk and their tales would be listened to with eagerness by ,french craftsmen4 ,more than this we have no right to believe4 ,it is mere hollow claptrap to argue that no ,french architect or builder could have received earlier news of the pointed arches4 ,but claptrap--is it not the drum of controversy8 ,it makes a great noise1 and gives men heart to fight for poor beliefs4 ,so irrational has this controversy become that even ,m4 ,degrand1 a most thoughtful pontist as a rule1 includes the bridge at ,albi in his defective argument1 though it cannot be older than the year #ajce1 because at this date its construction was arranged at a great public meeting held by the ,seigneur of ,albi and the clergy4 ,not even then was it possible for a ,frenchman to know that pointed arches were common in the ,east6 ,m4 ,degrand accepts the date #ajce1 and thinks it probable that the building was 8begun0 then or a few years later2 8but10 he adds1 8we have no proof that the bridge existed before #aagh1 in which year1 according to a contemporary document1 a body of troops used it to cross the ,tarn40 ,if ,m4 ,degrand were able to prove that ,albi ,bridge was new in the year #aagh1 then we should forget his conventional belief in the first ,crusade2 a fact would be very welcome after his parade of idle suppositions4 ,further1 the meeting of #ajce must guide us until we know that its decision was not carried into action4 ,it is a policy of evasion to argue as follows3 8,in the ,middle ,ages building projects were often delayed1 as in the case of the noble brick bridge at ,montauban2#be so we cannot attach any importance to the meeting of #ajce at ,albi4 ,though the desire to have a bridge was approved then by the ,seigneur1 by the clergy and by the people1 yet a hundred and one things may have intervened between the project and its realisation4 ,in #aagh a bridge at ,albi was strong enough to be used without risk by troops1 but why connect it with the meeting of #ajce8 ,to do so would be rash indeed1 since our aim is to add a pointed arch to the cross worn by the ,crusaders40 ,so we turn to the evidence of workmanship2 and here again we can shoot at ,m4 ,degrand with his own bullets4 ,to show that ,albi ,bridge is a clumsy structure without art is to prove it unworthy of the year #aagh1 when the ,pontist ,friars were active in ,france1 and when at ,avignon the genius of ,saint ,bnzet was planning a wonderful achievement4 ,the more just fault we can find with ,albi ,bridge as a piece of building1 the more fit we make it for the year #ajce4 ,yet ,m4 ,degrand1 passing from wayward controversy into art-criticism1 gives himself away in an excess of fault-finding4 ,he forgets that the bridge1 a bad model as architecture1 is uncommonly picturesque1 and he writes as follows3 8,there are seven pointed arches1 and their spans vary--without order or regulation--from #i m4 #ge c4 to #af m42 the piers in bulk are variable also1 some of them being #f m4 #ej c4 thick1 that is to say1 two-thirds of the adjacent voids2 they are badly aligned and the spandrils belong almost all to different planes4 ,the breakwaters jut out too far1 and meet the current with angles of even less than forty-five degrees2 while the buttresses behind1 on the down-stream side1 are rectangular and almost without projection4 ,last of all1 there is no ornament to dress the nude spandrils and to set them apart from the parapets4 ,c'est l1 en fait1 une uvre barbare44440 ,let us conjecture1 then1 that this barbaric bridge at ,albi1 with its seven pointed arches1 may belong1 not to the time of ,saint ,bnzet1 but to the year #ajce1 or thereabouts4 ,nearly a century ago1 in #ahbb1 it was considerably enlarged1 but the arches were not rebuilt4 ,the bridge must have been restored many times1 but there is no proof that it was reconstructed in the thirteenth century or in the twelfth4 ,besides1 sportsmen in a controversy should be fair4 ,yet a good many books of reference say3 8,the ,pont du ,tarn at ,albi1 whose first construction goes back to the year #ajce or #ajdj1 is thirteenth-century work0--a calumny on a very beautiful period in the evolution of ,gothic architecture4 ,we should have far too much admiration for the ,valentr ,bridge at ,cahors to give the ,pont du ,tarn to the thirteenth century2 and several other bridges in ,france do ample justice to the successors of ,saint ,bnzet4 ,for example1 there is the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit1 a masterpiece of the ,pontist ,friars1 and a work so vast in length that ,brangwyn is never tired of recalling his first impressions of its magnitude4#bf ,if1 again1 we wish to study work that comes to us from the twelfth century1 then we turn to the famous bridges at ,bziers and ,carcassonne4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,du ,,tarn ,,at ,,albi ,,in ,,france4 ,,said ,,to ,,date ,,from ,,about ,,the ,,years #ajce-dj ,as to the bridge at ,espalion1 it has four unequal arches1 and three of them are pointed1 more or less4 ,their form is experimental1 and seems to mark a first experiment in pointed ,gothic4 ,one arch1 indeed1 when looked at from underneath1 might be an ill-planned ,roman arch1 so poor is its 8ogival0 or pointed shape2 but yet the bridge1 as the ,brangwyn sketch bears witness1 shows how an effort was made to free craftsmen from the convention of semicircular vaults4 ,if we connect it with the age of ,charlemagne we may argue thus3 8,perhaps the masons were among those who at times restored a neglected ,roman bridge2 and perhaps the bridgemaster had gained some knowledge of ,eastern arches1 either at first-hand or from travellers or from drawings4 ,east and ,west were united then as they were in much earlier times1 so that information from each must have been conveyed to the other40 ,on the other hand1 if we guess that the first bridge at ,espalion was rebuilt in the twelfth century or in the thirteenth1 then we must say also that the town of ,espalion was too lazy even to seek advice from the ,pontist ,friars4 ,larousse has set forth the position very well3 8,the most ancient of the extant bridges1 constructed in medival ,france1 appears to be the one at ,espalion 7,a4,d4 #ghj72 its date is contested because we find it associated with the pointed arch2 but this arch already had been used for two centuries in the ,east40#bg ,so we may conclude1 in a conjecture perhaps strong enough to be called a hypothesis1 that the pointed style in architecture may have been brought to ,france on three occasions3 in the reign of ,charlemagne1 then in the first half of the eleventh century1 and then after the first ,crusade4 ,there is no need to set much store by the second presumed inspiration1 since the idea for ,albi ,bridge may have been taken from the ,pont du ,tarn at ,espalion4 ,england as well as ,france has a controversy over arches2 and ,i mention the fact because of ,brangwyn's masterly pen-drawing of the ,monnow ,bridge at ,monmouth--a fortified work of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in this bridge the arches are ribbed1 like those in the bridges at ,kirkby ,lonsdale1 and ,warkworth1 and ,rotherham1 at ,baslow and ,bakewell1 in ,eamont ,bridge at ,penrith1 at ,ross in ,herefordshire 7,elizabethan71 and elsewhere4 ,when was the ribbed arch first used in bridges8 ,the use of ribbed vaulting in ,english churches dates from the twelfth century2 it came to ,england from ,france4 ,yet ,scotland1 the historic friend of ,france1 used it very rarely in bridges2 perhaps only once1 in the famous ,old ,bridge of ,dee near ,aberdeen1 which dates from the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,fraser1 a ,scotch pontist1 tells me that he has looked in vain throughout ,scotland for another example4 ,old ,stirling ,bridge1 and the ,brig o' ,doon1 and the ,auld ,brig o' ,ayr1 and ,devorgilla's ,bridge at ,dumfries1 all finely historic and various1 have plain arches4 ,on the other hand1 ribbed arches are fairly common in ,north ,english bridges4 ,one of the best examples architecturally is the graceful single arch that ,sir ,walter ,scott loved in ,twizel ,bridge1 that enabled ,lord ,surrey to outflank the ,scotch before the battle of ,flodden ,field4#bh ,why the frugal ,scotch were unattracted by a new and thrifty way of building ,i cannot explain1 unless by supposing that they loved convention even more than a hard economy4 ,viollet-le-,duc estimates that in arcs-doubleaux1 or ribbed arches1 builders use a third less of tooled and clavated masonry2 hence a great saving not of cost only1 but of dead weight also4 ,and there were other economies4 ,an arc-doubleau is the simplest form of ribbed vaulting3 at given intervals in the building of a vault a concentric arch is supposited1 or the vault itself at intervals is made much thicker than at others4 ,in ,poitou1 where ribbed bridges were studied by ,viollet-le-,duc1 the intervals between the ribs are filled in with flagging under the roadway2 and with this material--or with ashlar--the spandrils above the ribs are packed4 ,when flagstones are used1 and rain-water filters down from the roadway1 no harm is done2 the wet trickles away through the joints of the flagstones1 without causing the haunches of an arch to throw out saltpetre3 a mishap that occurs often when arches are unribbed4 ,i am writing here with the mind of ,viollet-le-,duc1 who makes two other valuable statements3 first1 that ribbed bridges are notable in ,poitou2 next1 that they seem to belong to the beginning of the thirteenth century1 or perhaps even to the end of the twelfth4 ,now it was in #abad that ,king ,john invaded ,poitou without success2 fifteen years later ,henry ,,iii misconducted an expedition to the same province2 and again in #abdb he landed in ,poitou to be thrashed at ,taillebourg4 ,his aim1 like that of ,john1 was to win back the ,empire of ,henry ,,ii4 ,may we then suppose that ribbed bridges came to us from ,poitou8 ,certainly the mind of ,england during the first half of the thirteenth century was drawn towards the seaward provinces of ,france4 ,still1 it was the ,cistercians of the twelfth century who introduced ribbed vaulting into ,english churches1#bi and why not into bridges as a development therefrom8 ,at a time when bridges were united to the ,church in many ways1 new methods in sacred architecture would be passed on to bridge-building4 ,not only were bridges protected by the ,church 7p4 #dj71 many were built by the lay clergy and by the monastic orders2 and when a bridge had neither a chapel nor a little place for prayer1 it was sanctified by a shrine1 or--and this was usual--by a cross or crucifix raised up from the parapet above the middle arch4 ,it marked the centre of the bridge1 and ,i dare say peasants believed that it prevented evil spirits from passing above running water4 ,altogether1 it is very probable that the first ribbed bridges were built in the twelfth century1 though ,i have no quite conclusive evidence to offer from extant examples4 ,illustration3 ,,le ,,pont ,,de ,,vernay1 ,,airvault1 ,,deux-,s,,vres4 ,a ,,famous ,,bridge ,,with ,,ribbed ,,arches1 ,,french ,,romanesque ,,period1 ,,xii ,,century ,the six pointed arches in ,new ,bridge on ,thames1 near ,kingston1 are very well ribbed1 but they are ,early ,english1 not ,norman2 they belong to the early part of the thirteenth century4 ,at ,fountains ,abbey1 ,yorkshire1 are two small bridges1 one ,norman1 the other ,early ,english2 both were built by ,cistercian monks1 yet neither has ribbed arches1 so that ,i supply you with a fact that runs counter to my hypothesis4 ,at ,durham there are two bridges reputed to be of ,norman origin1 and one of them has two ribbed arches with a span of ninety feet4 ,it is the ,framwellgate ,bridge at the north end of the city4 ,according to the eleventh edition of the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 ,framwellgate ,bridge was 8built in the thirteenth century and rebuilt in the fifteenth10 but no authorities are given1 and counter evidence may be accepted as more probable4 ,for example1 ,william ,hutchinson#cj says without hesitation1 giving references1 that ,framwellgate ,bridge was built by ,bishop ,flambard who died in #aabh1 after holding the ,see of ,durham for #bi years #c months and #g days4 ,flambard 8fortified the castle with a moat1 and strengthened the banks of the river1 over which he built an arched bridge of stone1 at the foot of the castle1 now called ,framwellgate ,bridge40 ,in the fifteenth century the bridge was restored by the famous ,bishop ,fox1 who began his reign at ,durham in #adid1 and died in #aejb4 ,there is no evidence to show that the restoration was a rebuilding1 and the character of the arches does not belong to the time of ,bishop ,fox4 ,even ,parker1 in his 8,glossary of ,architecture10 #ahej1 is not surprised that the ,framwellgate ,bridge should be given to the ,norman period1 for he mentions this attribution and describes the ribbed arches as perfect4 ,the parapet is scorned as 8modern40 ,for many years--,i know not how long--a large gateway-tower stood at one end of this bridge1 but in #agfj it was taken down4 ,one of the most famous ,norman bridges in ,old ,england was the one that crossed the ,lea at ,stratford-at-,bow4 ,it was founded and endowed by ,queen ,mathilda1 wife of ,henry ,i4 ,in #ahca1 eight years before its demolition1 a print was issued of ,bow ,bridge1 and ribs can be seen under two of the three arches4 ,the central arch is represented in a direct front view1 so the vaulting cannot be studied2 but ,lewis1 who in #ahca published his 8,topographical ,dictionary of ,england10 found ribs in the three arches4 ,so a very important question arises here3 ,was ,bow ,bridge ever rebuilt8 ,m4 ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand shall answer this question2 he has read all the evidence1 he makes no reference to ribbed arches1 he is unbiassed1 and his pictures are lively3-- 8,whether ,queen ,mathilda 7twelfth century7 got wetted or not1 as is supposed1 on passing the ford of the river at ,stratford-atte-,bow--that same village where afterwards the ,french was spoken which amused ,chaucer--it is certain that she thought she did a meritorious work in constructing two bridges there4 ,several times repaired1 ,bow ,bridge was still standing in #ahci4 ,the ,queen endowed her foundation1 granting land and a water-mill to the ,abbess of ,barking with a perpetual charge thereon for the maintenance of the bridge and the neighbouring roadway4 ,when the ,queen died1 an abbey for men was founded at the same ,stratford close to the bridges1 and the ,abbess hastened to transfer to the new monastery the property in the mill and the charge of the reparations4 ,the ,abbot did them at first1 then he wearied of it1 and ended by delegating the looking after them to one ,godfrey ,pratt4 ,he had built this man a house on the causeway beside the bridge1 and made him a yearly grant4 ,for a long time ,pratt carried out the contract1 #8getting assistance1' says an inquiry of ,edward ,i 7#abgb-acjg71 #8from some passers-by1 but without often having recourse to their aid4' ,also he received the charity of travellers1 and his affairs prospered4 ,they prospered so well that the ,abbot thought he might withdraw the pension2 ,pratt indemnified himself in the best way he could4 ,he set up iron bars across the bridge and made all pay who passed over1#ca except the rich1 for he made prudent exception #8for the nobility2 he feared them and let them pass without molesting them4' ,the dispute terminated only in the time of ,edward ,,ii1 when the ,abbot recognised his fault1 took back the charge of the bridge1 and put down the iron bars1 the toll1 and ,godfrey ,pratt himself4 8,this bridge1 over which no doubt ,chaucer himself passed1 was of stone1 the arches were narrow and the piers thick2 strong angular buttresses supported them and broke the force of the current2 these formed at the upper part a triangle or siding which served as a refuge for foot-passengers1 for the roadway was so narrow that a carriage sufficed to fill the way4 ,when it was pulled down in #ahci1 it was found that the method of construction had been very simple4 ,to ground the piers in the bed of the river the masons had simply thrown down stones and mortar till the level of the water had been reached4 ,it was remarked also that the ill-will of ,pratt or the ,abbot or of their successors must have rendered the bridge almost as dangerous at certain moments as the primitive ford had been4 ,the wheels of vehicles had hollowed such deep ruts in the stone and the horses' shoes had so worn the pavement that an arch had been at one time pierced through40#cb ,this perforated arch proves pretty conclusively that ,bow ,bridge was never rebuilt2 but ,i look upon doubt as an excellent thing in one's attitude to matters of this kind1 partly because fresh evidence may be discovered1 and partly because facts are woefully elusive even when they are tackled by judges1 and barristers1 and juries4 ,there is one more controversy to be considered3 it centres around the famous bridges on ,dartmoor1 and ,i will try to put all the main points both clearly and fairly4 ,in this dispute architects contend against antiquaries1 and their arguments hold the field4 ,let me sum them up3-- ,the 8clapper0 bridges over ,dartmoor rivers are not difficult to study2 their construction resembles that of cromlechs and ,stonehenges4 ,their piers were evolved from menhirs1 and their table slabs from the mass of rock forming the horizontal member of a cromlech4 ,nor is it difficult to suggest the evolution through which the clapper bridges have passed1 for on ,dartmoor itself the evolution is plainly suggested by the rude bridge at ,okery and by the single slab at ,walla ,brook4 ,any primitive farmer of the ,bronze ,age had sense enough not merely to put a ledge of granite across the ,walla ,brook1 but to span wider rivers by using menhirs to support large blocks of granite4 ,timber would not be used1 since trees were very scarce on ,dartmoor1 while granite was so abundant that it must have been very troublesome to farmers4 ,now the pastoral life of the ,bronze ,age was very active in the ,dartmoor settlements2 all antiquaries make much ado over this fact1 yet they fail to see that the circulation of this farm life1 the movement here and there of flocks and herds1 required bridges1 for the rivers then were not less wayward than they are now4 ,without bridges the farms would have stagnated4 ,and another thing also needed the help of bridges3 many domestic fires burnt a great deal of peat and wood1 and wood had to be imported from neighbouring districts1 probably in exchange for live stock4 ,so1 to visualise the farm life is to make it dependent on a ceaseless movement to and fro over very freakish rivers1 which after rains and thaws were exceedingly turbulent and perilous4 ,deep gorges have been worn in the rocks through which the rivers flow2 this alone is enough to prove that such wild rivers could not be forded by the tiny sheep and the small cattle of the ,bronze ,age4 ,even in medival times1 as ,thorold ,rogers has proved1 sheep were about as big as ,mary's little lamb2 they were bred because their wool was the wealth--the ,golden ,fleece--that made ,england prosperous2 and yet their cultivation failed to add to their national value by increasing their size4 ,sheep of the ,bronze ,age were probably smaller still2 and how were they to cross the ,dartmoor rivers unless bridges were built8 ,could sheep in those days swim like ducks1 or did they float as naturally as logs8 ,and since bridges must have been made here and there in order to keep the farming life from ruin1 are we to suppose that the abundant granite blocks would not be used for piers and table stones8 ,are we to forget the instinctive delight in rude stonework shown everywhere by the dusky1 short-statured race which for convenience we call ,iberian8 ,the research of antiquaries may be good or bad4 ,what has it done for the life of these clapper bridges8 ,has it proved that the present ones are probably younger than the ,middle ,ages1 but that they had many predecessors going back to pre-,roman times8 ,on the other hand1 have antiquaries proved that in the ,middle ,ages a primitive phase of building was revived in ,dartmoor1 partly because it was good enough for the traffic1 partly because it was inexpensive8 ,the absence of lime on ,dartmoor would influence the medival settlers and govern their building work4 ,but in this discussion it matters not whether the present bridges be old or young2 in either case they represent primeval methods4 ,between the ,bronze ,period and the ,middle ,ages all the earliest slab bridges may have disappeared2 if so1 then settlers on ,dartmoor brought with them knowledge enough of cromlechs to recall the ,iberian stonecraft1 just as in modern times architects have revived phases of ,gothic and phases of ,classic4 ,every possibility is entertaining1 but why is it that antiquaries in their remarks on the clapper bridges try to be elusive as well as dogmatic8 ,for example1 ,mr4 ,william ,crossing is of opinion that the larger clapper bridges have had their age overestimated probably because their rough and massive appearance makes them very striking4 ,why 8probably08 ,he adds that they are mostly in the line of pack-horse tracks1 and were probably built by farm settlers4 8,probably0 again6 ,yet he gives no evidence4 ,even ,mr4 ,baring-,gould is equally dogmatic in devious assertions that have no value to any architect4 ,like ,mr4 ,crossing1 he attributes the 8clappers0 to the period of pack-horses1 and sees nothing in them to indicate a great antiquity4 ,what next8 ,is primitive stonework insufficiently antique whatever its age may be8 ,and who is to estimate the age of rude granite blocks8 ,i have summed up with fairness the views of architects1 and they ought to hold the field in the judgment of all pontists4 ,the antiquarian talk about pack-horse tracks has no cogency1 for the prehistoric tracks over ,dartmoor are the first pathways along which the controversy must ramble4 ,a pontist1 then1 when visiting ,dartmoor1 has to do four things4 #a4 ,to visualise the farm life of the ,bronze ,age2 #b4 ,to reconnect it with the rivers and with the necessary trade in wood for household fires and for tool handles2 #c4 ,then he will realise that bridges were essential1 and that they would be made with the granite blocks which ,nature had provided4 #d4 ,then1 too1 he will see that the larger clapper bridges are merely flat cromlechs built over water1 and that it matters not when the present ones were put up1 since their main interest is their descent from those rude monuments of stone in which the ,iberian people commemorated their cult of ancestors1 their reverence for the sacred dead4 ,near ,postbridge1 over the ,east ,dart1 there is a very bold clapper with three heavy table slabs1 each of which is about #ae ft4 long and #f ft4 wide4 ,two piers rise out of the water2 each is a pile of granite menhirs that lie flat in the river with their ends looking up-stream and downstream4 ,the abutments also are layers of granite1 and in one abutment the stones are long enough to support on land a very large cromlech4 ,samuel ,smiles believed that this bridge had 8withstood the fury of the ,dart for full twenty centuries10 but there was no need to challenge antiquaries by making a rash statement4 ,for the rest1 we must bracket these ,dartmoor structures with two other kinds of slab-bridges--those in the valley of ,wycollar 7p4 #fj71 and those in ,spain1 at ,fuentes de ,ooro4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,edgar ,wigram writes to me as follows about the ,spanish variety3-- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,aude ,,at ,,carcassonne ,,in ,,france 8,i include this very rough sketch because it does give some idea of one of the #8,clapper' slab-bridges at ,fuentes de ,ooro4 ,the bigger stone would be about #h ft4 long4 ,as to the more important slab-bridge over the ,dos ,casas rivulet1 it stands in a glen where large slabs lie handy4 ,i can speak of it from recollection only1 but think it has four spans1 about #c ft4 #f ins4 high1 or perhaps #d ft42 the lintel-stones perhaps #g ft4 or #h ft4 long1 centre to centre of piers1 and the piers of single stones planted in the river bed1 with the longer axes up- and down-stream4 ,a causeway led up to the bridge at each end4 ,even at the time the solidity of the structure aroused in me a suspicion that it might be very old4 ,on the other hand1 it may be a recent work of convenience1 not of necessity1 for the stream in summer is often dry1 and in winter it would not be unfordable 7except for children7 till it had submerged the bridge40 ,still1 a primitive piece of work1 whether done yesterday or #ejj1jjj years ago1 comes from a dark mind and a hand without skill2 and the younger it is the more tragic is the meaning of it in sociology4 ,europeans of the twentieth century ,a4,d4 ought to be as far removed from rough slab-bridges as they are from ancestor-worship4 ,education and personal pride should make them ashamed to use anything that does not represent in its own way the very best that to-day's genius can achieve4 ,for a survival of primitive conventions in a civilized country is a proof that in certain districts the people have feeble minds incapable of prolonged attention1 and therefore glad to find in mimicry a refuge from the pain of thinking4 ,to me1 then1 primitive bridges are always sinister things2 even when they belong to savages they degrade mankind by showing how mother-wit in men often ceases to be fertile4 ,between a low degree of intelligence and a fondness for unchanging custom there is at least some relation1 for 8persons who are slightly imbecile tend to act in everything by routine or habit2 and they are rendered much happier if this is encouraged40#cc ,in the next chapter we shall try to follow from the earliest times the slow history of those gifts of the spirit whose growth very often has been arrested2 and we shall see once more that weak minds have employed imitation as their scout and custom and convention as their fortified places4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,pont d',arc at ,ardche1 over the river ,ardche1 has a total height of sixty-six metres4 ,from water-level to the crown of the arch is a flight of thirty-four metres2 and in a span of fifty-nine metres this great natural bridge puts a huge vault over the river4 ,as to the shape of the arch1 it is pointed in a rather waved outline1 and quite possibly it suggested the pointed arch to ,french bridge-builders long before the introduction of 8ogivale0 arches from the ,east 7p4 #hh74 #b 8,notes on the ,composition of ,scientific ,papers10 ,t4 ,clifford ,allbutt1 ,london1 #aijd1 p4 #c4 #c ,the earliest canal in history is the one that ,necho ,,ii began in #faj ,b4,c41 to connect the ,arabian ,gulf with the ,mediterranean ,sea2 and ,herodotus relates that the work went on for a year and was then abandoned1 after costing the lives of #abj1jjj men4 ,necho was uninspired by the spirit of industrialism which would have finished the work1 while praising the beauty of peace4 #d 8,archaeology and ,false ,antiquities10 by ,robert ,munro1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,s4,a4,,scot41 page #ab4 #e ,some authors give various measurements4 ,legrand says that the biggest arch had a span of thirty-four metres1 and that its greatest height1 when intact1 was thirty-two metres4 ,i cannot do better than refer you to ,choisy's 8,art de btir chez les ,romains10 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,several ancient writers--,claudian1 ,procopius1 and ,martial--guide ,sir ,william ,smith in his remarks on ,narni ,bridge1 but he makes a mistake when he speaks of 8three0 arches4 #f ,see 8,northern ,spain10 by ,edgar ,wigram1 an excellent book4 ,the gable-shaped bridges are mostly of medival date4 ,some fine examples3 at ,martorell 7partly ,roman71 at ,puente la ,reina1 and across the ,gallego river between ,jaca and ,huesca4 ,to-day these are seldom used because of their steep pitch and of their narrowness4 ,the great one at ,orense1 over the ,mio1 is still in daily use4 #g ,gable bridges are uncommon in ,great ,britain1 but a fine example crosses the river ,taff not far from ,cardiff4 ,it is called the ,pont-y-,prydd4 ,between its abutments the great arch measures #adj feet1 and the footway is so very steep that laths of wood used to be fastened across it to keep horses from falling4 ,before industrialism murdered a beautiful countryside the ,pont-y-,prydd was a rainbow of stone that shone all the year round4 ,we owe this bridge to a self-educated country mason1 ,william ,edwards by name1 who in #agej brought his work to completion1 after suffering defeat in two previous efforts4 ,my photograph of the ,pont-y-,prydd is disgraced by a very hideous commercial bridge that progress has put quite close to the ,welsh masterpiece1 but1 happily1 there are many old engravings and pictures that do full justice to ,william ,edwards4 ,richard ,wilson painted the ,pont-y-,prydd--an excellent recommendation to a fine piece of handicraft4 #h ,mr4 ,wigram1 in his finely illustrated book on ,northern ,spain1 reminds us that the ,puente ,mayor at ,orense played a various part in the ,peninsula ,war4 ,it was the pivot of the ,french operations when ,soult led his troops from ,corua to renew the subjugation of ,portugal4 ,at first all went well1 but 8within two months his army was reeling back from ,oporto1 without hospital1 baggage1 or artillery1 in a worse plight even than ,moore's4 ,he had wrestled his first fall with the great antagonist who was destined to beat him from the ,douro to ,toulouse40 #i ,see ,appendix ,i4 #aj ,see ,appendix ,,ii for a description of this ,roman bridge4 #aa ,this was written several months before the outbreak of the ,great ,war1 which ,england had invited by allowing her peace-fanatics to bill and coo in her foreign politics4 ,instead of reading the arrogant books on blood-lust that nourished the well-advertised aims of ,germany1 ,england played the fool with epicene triflers of all sorts and conditions1 and turned her back on ,lord ,roberts1 her truthful statesman4 ,she babbled about peace until she received from the ,prussian junkerdom proposals so abominable that they brought her to the fighting point of honour2 and then she cried out for a million new soldiers4 ,yet ,british statesmen1 even then1 paid many compliments to their bad old habit of ingenuous pacifism4 ,no political dove wanted the world to believe that there had been anything of the eagle in his attitude to ,german war-culture4 ,as if this truism could be a consolation to heroic little ,belgium1 the ,jeanne d',arc of nations1 whose safety ,england had guaranteed1 and whose experiences in the hell of ,teutonic savagery had left her scorched1 mutilated1 yet unconquered4 ,can anyone explain why the word 8peace0 has been hypnotic to ,anglo-,celtic minds8 ,every phase of human enterprise must be a phase of war1 because it claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed4 ,poverty alone is such a terrible phase of permanent war that pacifists ought to devote all their energy to its gradual betterment4 ,even the accidents of civilization--street and railway accidents1 colliery explosions1 sea tragedies1 and so forth--equal in a century the casualties on stricken fields4 ,if only our sentimentalists would try to think6 ,then they would learn that the occasional strife between armies never destroys in a century as many lives as the multiform continuous strife called peace4 ,and we may be certain that all the human war of the future will not belong to 8peace0 alone4 ,the birth of many a new era will be aided by the fierce midwifery of military and naval warfare4 ,to-day is the #bfth of ,september1 #aiad1 and ,england in two months has nearly outgrown the routine claptrap of her effete idealism4 ,to-day she is eager to bear any amount of self-sacrifice2 two months ago her peace-mania was a crime against the ,empire and against her treaty obligations to ,belgium4 ,she had no faith in ,national ,service till ,germany had passed from arrogant warnings to barbaric aggressions4 ,agadir was not enough to put common sense into her dreamful solicitude about international 8peace40 8,peace0 in her home affairs she never tried to get2 she wanted peace to conquer the nations1 not to cure industrial conflicts and the ,irish ,question4 ,what a comic tragedy6 ,and let us remember that our peace-fanatics1 though silent to-day1 are not dead4 ,their influence will become active again after the overthrow of ,germany4 ,new mischief will flow from their sentimentalism4 ,to lose the flower of ,british youth1 while keeping our peace-fanatics3 here indeed is a sinister fact4 #ab ,see 8,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages40 ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand4 ,the chapter on roads and bridges4 #ac ,there has been much controversy over the position of the ,pons ,sublicius4 7,see p4 #adj47 #ad ,see the most valuable book on ,domestic ,medicine by ,lister's little-known forerunner1 ,dr4 ,william ,buchan1 of ,edinburgh4 ,the eighteenth edition was published in #ahjc1 and its pictures of social life are most helpful to a pontist4 #ae ,i have two photographs of it1 both taken by my friend ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,sargisson1 a ,lancashire pontist4 ,at one end the lintel rests on a rocky bank and is broken across by long use2 at the other end it rests on a slab projecting from the bank1 just below a stile of unmortared flags set in a picturesque wall of loose stones4 ,the footway is much worn2 and in frosty weather even a temperance reformer might slide from it with his reputation4 #af ,i am quoting this approximate date from ,sir ,ray ,lankester4 #ag 8,the ,mynach cataract consists of four leaps1 making a total descent of #baj feet4 ,the bridge has been thrown across a chasm #aad feet above the first fall and #cbd feet above the bottom of the cataract40 #ah ,what does this phrasing mean8 ,i wonder4 ,is the living child to be reconstructed8 in order that its body when buried under the new dam may be strong enough as a foundation8 #ai ,to-day1 in some parts of ,china1 a living pig is thrown into a river when a bridge is endangered by a flood4 7,see p4 #bdh47 #bj 8,the ,cradle of ,mankind40 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,wigram1 ,d4,d41 and ,edgar ,t4 ,a4 ,wigram4 ,london1 #aiad4 #ba ,notes by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,wigram1 ,d4,d4 #bb ,to-day only a ruin can be studied at ,pont ,ambroise3 two isolated arches and the lower part of an abutment2 but recent ,french writers draw attention to the technical structure of the arches4 ,in the under surface of each vault four arcs or bands are placed side by side4 ,see ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bid1 8,gographie gnrale du ,dpartement de l',hrault40 ,published by ,la ,socit ,languedocienne1 ,montpellier1 #aije4 #bc ,see a very helpful book1 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 by ,e4 ,degrand1 ,inspecteur ,gnral des ,ponts et ,chausses1 and ,jean ,rsal1 ,ingnieur des ,ponts et ,chausses--,two vols41 illustrated2 ,branger1 ,paris2 price #dj francs4 #bd ,see note on p4 #f4 #be ,see the brilliant sketch by ,frank ,brangwyn1 and the story of the bridge on p4 #bed4 #bf ,see the picture on p4 #bic4 #bg ,much more3 we shall see 7pp4 #aef1 #afj7 that a pointed vault was built in ancient ,egypt4 ,the ,babylonians also built pointed arches and vaults4 #bh ,twizel ,bridge1 over the ,till1 has a very beautiful arch which is slightly pointed2 it has a span of #ij ft4 #g ins41 and a distance of #df ft4 separates the parapet from water-level4 ,tradit ion says that a lady of the ,selby family built this bridge1 one of the most famous in ,england4 #bi ,read the delightful monograph on ,kirkstall ,abbey by ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope and ,mr4 ,bilson of ,hull4 #cj 8,the ,history and ,antiquities of ,durham40 ,newcastle1 ,,mdcclxxxv4 #ca ,it is said that he charged eightpence for the passage of a dead ,jew6 ,a large sum in those days4 ,a ,jewish cemetery was just beyond the bridge4--,w4,s4,s4 #cb 8,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages10 pp4 #de and #dg4 ,see also 8,archologia10 ,vols4 ,,xxvii1 p4 #gg2 ,,xxix1 p4 #chj4 ,also the histories of ,essex4 #cc ,see ,darwin's 8,descent of ,man10 ,part ,i1 chapter ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,zutphen ,,in ,,holland ,,chapter ,,the ,,second ,,man ,,as ,,the ,,mimic ,,of ,,nature ,i ,,preliminary ,,considerations ,we have taken a glance at the bridges made by ,nature 7pp4 #c-d71 and now we have to consider their influence on the genesis and development of handicraft4 ,this difficult study has been neglected by men of science2 not even ,darwin said a word about natural bridges1 though they were models to be copied by the sedulous ape in primitive men2 and so we must try to be as thorough as possible1 within the limits set by a brief chapter4 ,where and how is a beginning to be made8 ,the useful and necessary thing is to visualise the fact that varied hints on bridge-building accompanied the descent of man1 so the influence of their utility was active through all the linked growth in that organic chain by which the earliest men and their nearest allies were united4 ,sooner or later the mere use of natural bridges would generate in some minds a desire to copy them2 and although we are quite ignorant as to when this desire came for the first time out of the darkness1 yet we may suppose1 without any great extravagance1 that it belonged to the same period of handicraft as the earliest manufactured tools and weapons1 which were a development from stone clubs and spears fashioned into shape by earthquakes and volcanoes1 the first armourers of the ,stone ,age4 ,as soon as a tribe1 guided by a savage of genius1 began to copy three or four object-lessons in ,nature's perennial school for mimics1 the imitation of several others would be suggested by the same trend of thought1 sooner or later4 ,it is reasonable to believe that hand-made weapons preceded hand-made bridges1 as hunting and fighting were the strongest motive-powers behind human needs and actions4 ,to slay was the herald of to build1 so the first bridges of handicraft ought to be placed in a likely inference among the later doings of ,palolithic hunters and warriors4 ,a horrible slowness marked each advance from a bad copy of a natural bridge to a slightly better one4 ,in fact1 only a few brilliant creative minds--not more than two or three thousand--separate our own social order from the strife of ,palolithic savages4 ,into the coarse dough of humanity an infrequent genius has put some enchanted yeast4 ,and we must needs believe that the dead routine of imitation1 to which human nature has ever been enslaved1 held primeval man even more relentlessly than it holds ourselves4 ,one misfortune more than any other delayed a creeping progress3 it was the fact that mankind had no cause to fear the most intelligent creatures among the lesser organisms4 ,if snakes and beasts of prey had been as clever as were bees and ants and beavers1 men could have saved themselves from extermination by one means only--by a rapid advance from frequent good ideas into great achievements4 ,day after day the large human brain would have been called upon to produce large protective thoughts1 and1 had it failed to produce them day after day1 the human race would have been food for enterprising rivals4 ,we have no guess why ,providence withheld from mankind this high discipline1 this fateful choice between death and a swift intelligence2 but we do know that the most dangerous of the lesser organisms have been the least quick-witted1 and that men in their intercourse with natural things have shown a lethargic mimicry4 ,their cave-dwellings were stolen from cave-lions and cave-bears2 their pit-dwellings were copied from the holes and tunnels burrowed by many animals2 and in their lake-dwellings they collected hints from five sources3 natural bridges1 the platforms built by anthropomorphous apes1#cd the habits of waterfowl1 the beavers dam and 8lodge10 and the nests of birds4 ,in the round hut1 which was made with branches and wattle-and-daub1 stick nests were united to the plasterwork of rock-martins4 ,yes1 a good workman in the construction of mud walls does no more than rock-martins have done in all the ages of their nest-building4 ,when these birds make their nests they use wet loam stiffened with bits of straw1 and each layer is allowed to harden before another is put on in a thickness of about half an inch for a day's work4#ce ,even more remarkable is the fact that men may have borrowed from several birds the idea which enabled them to pass from round huts into oblong cabins4 ,in ,australia1 for instance1 there are three birds--genera of the same family--that build arched bowers with long sides2 and ,darwin tells us to regard them as 8co-descendants of some ancient species which first acquired the strange instinct of constructing bowers for performing their love-antics40 ,one species of ,australian bower-birds1 the fawn-breasted variety1 erects a platform of sticks as a foundation for its gabled hall of courtship1 that measures nearly four feet in length and eighteen inches in height4 ,this structure is charmingly decorated1 and if we could magnify it to the size of ,westminster ,hall we should be amazed by its beautiful architecture4 ,unmagnified1 it is a model to all primitive men1 for it shows far more invention than a wigwam or than a charcoal-burner's hut4 ,as soon as a student begins to understand what mankind has copied in ,nature's wonderful school for mimics1 he cannot fail to take delight in natural bridges and their influence on handicraft4 ,at first he is humbled painfully by the small amount of creative wit that a million years or so have gleaned from the big human brain2 but soon the novelty of feeling humble is more attractive to him than the vile habit of flattering human nature4#cf ,,ii ,,among ,,the ,,heralds ,,of ,,man ,it was during the ,upper ,miocene age that two or three big apes migrated into ,europe1 probably from ,africa1 and passed from explorers into colonists4 ,one of them was the ,dryopithecus1 a creature almost as tall as a man1 and closely allied to ,hylobates4 ,he illustrated that organic art of caricature in which young ,dame ,nature excelled1 many of her experimental efforts having ,gargantuan humour in their shapes and proportions4 ,when food was scarce the ,dryopithecus became a nomad1 a sort of four-handed ,odysseus who was very well able to fight his own battles1 whether he wielded a heavy stick1 or hugged his foe1 or from the shelter of a tree dropped missiles that cracked heads and made backbones exceedingly painful4 ,hugging seems to have been his forte1 after clawing and fierce blows had prepared the way for a close embrace2 and by his expert ferocity in defence and in attack he earned for himself the right to be a forerunner of several entertaining creatures1 notably the gorilla and the chimpanzee and primitive man4 ,he was inquisitive enough to use every natural bridge put in his path by good fortune4 ,at first ,i see him on four sorts of natural bridge1 and no fault can be found with his activity4 ,he crawls along fallen trees over some torrents and chasms2 across a flooded river here and there he leaps in a shambling1 lopsided fashion1 when stepping-stones and boulders rise above water-level2 he roams into hilly districts where many a ledge of rock spans a dangerous gap2 but he enjoys himself most of all when a suspension bridge of branches enables him to amble from tree to tree across a deep-lying river pent up between high cliffs4 ,in these four bridges1 each of them generic1 ,nature has arrived at utility in her usual manner1 by alternating growth and violence4 ,the fallen tree1 for instance1 from which all timber bridges have been evolved by handicraft in a sequence of gradual improvements1 belongs to the utility of ,nature's violent moods2 and this applies also to the bridge of stepping-stones4 ,earthquakes and floods distributed boulders over the beds of rivers1 and from these boulders handicraft has developed piers and abutments4 ,on the other hand1 a bridge of long boughs--and ,i have used many a one myself--is a symbol not merely of growth but of abundance1 and also of endurance4 ,but it is not to be looked upon as the only suspension bridge along which our arboreal ancestry capered1 and from which primitive mankind took1 and take1 hints in bridge-building4 ,let us remember also the pendent bridge of lianes1 and of other tough creeping plants1 which in many warm countries grew1 and grow1 from tree to tree1 forming strong cables4 ,on such a high-swung bridge ,i can see the ,dryopithecus1 suspended by his hands1 and learning tricks as a gymnast1 while his mate squats between the fork of a branch and collects fleas from her baby4 ,when photographs of natural bridges lie around me on a table1 there is another vision that comes before my mind in a succession of vivid pictures4 ,i behold a shaggy little animal1 partly an ape1 partly a man1 who stands upright on a fallen tree2 below his feet a river in flood foams among rocks2 and over there1 beyond the peaked hills1 a blood-red sunset makes a wondrous tragedy of colour4 ,somehow the little animal is awed by the flaming sky1 and stares at it fascinated1 his protruded mouth wide open1 and his teeth gleaming4 ,his arms are thin1 sinewy1 capable1 hairy1 and very long2 they hang at full length1 and their prehensile fingers grasp two sticks1 one long and pointed1 another short and knobbed4 ,his breastbone looks weak as his shoulders droop forward1 and horizontal lines of wrinkled skin run from each armpit across the narrow chest4 ,his legs are short and somewhat arched2 and their feet grip wood as a habit4 ,the eyes1 overhung by a ledge of bone1 shimmer with a peculiar suspicion1 an instinctive cunning1 very vigilant and fierce1 that protects even tired sleep with the alertness of a sentinel4 ,the body is daubed with yellow ochre and iron ore1 as if to rival the coloured life seen everywhere in ,nature2 but through this decoration much uneven hair is noticeable1 and a coarse beard surrounds the face with a ruff rather similar to that which now gives pride to the ,cebus capucinus4 ,the head is becoming human1 a real ,pandora box1 whence many banes and a few blessings will escape continually1 and spread far and wide over the earth4 ,at present this creature is a wild beast in the terrible nursery stage between apehood and savage manhood4 ,already he has lost the athletic ease and grace of his tree-top cousins4 ,not only is he out of joint with them1 but his own lot is very perilous1 a never-ending war against hardships and dangers4 ,beasts of prey know how weak he is2 most animals outrun him2 birds in their swift flight escape from his weapons1 and he feels rage and jealousy when monkeys at play leap long distances from bough to bough4 ,out of his nature comes a pitiless hatred for all living creatures4 ,do you not see this earthling1 this ,adam of ,evolution1 part ape and part man1 standing alone on a windfall bridge1 with a river in flood below his feet1 and the sun a radiant crescent1 blood-red1 dipping below that far horizon of peaked hills8 ,and yet this biped has been moved by the sunset1 and also by an idea of his own1 whose history can be read in deep lines of ploughed earth that run from the bridge to a wood over there1 a hundred yards away4 ,at this distance from the river a tall tree was blown down1 and a tribe of ape-like men1 guided by their leader1 dragged it to the bank-side and put it across the waterway1 taking long days over the wonderful task4 ,nature at last has discovered a mind that can think in imitation4 ,her tree-bridge has a rival4 ,at this moment the picture changes4 ,a female creature appears1 accompanied by several children4 ,she is uglier than the male1 because she suffers much more2 her family grows too fast1 and for a long time its members are unfit to defend themselves4 ,never for an hour can she put aside her motherhood4 ,other animals are occasional parents1 because their young are soon able to do their own business2 while she1 our ,eve of ,evolution1 for ever anxious about her helpless little ones1 is an incessant mother through the few brief years of her fertility4 ,perils encompass her and them1 and in a short time she is worn into old age4 ,but she loses her youth creatively2 there is not a privation nor a pain that her constant motherhood fails to make into a spiritualising of the heart1 into a ,vita ,nuova1 into the starting-point for a fresh development4 ,so she is humanised by suffering and love-humanised in spirit1 that is to say--long ages before her body has matured into womanhood4 ,it is she who endows children with quickened minds and with social inclinations2 and it is she who encounters with a yielding but tenacious courage the wild beast that male passions breed and perpetuate4 ,also--and this is very important--she is by temperament a practical worker1 whereas the male is not2 he thinks all the time of adventure1 and his moods are incalculable4 ,even his paternity is coarse-handed1 and subject to furious greeds and lusts4 ,his brain is active enough to be awed by the strife of ,nature and weak enough to be crippled by a little reason4 ,his character threatens to check his evolution4 ,where the climate is hot1 and food grows abundantly1 he makes no progress2 bad times alone compel him to work1 and to pass very slowly1 with a dogged reluctance1 from handicraft to handicraft4 ,his higher education begins when he chips a stone into a pointed weapon and feels the rhythmical enjoyment that accompanies invention and manipulation4 ,in fact1 handicraft is the earliest public school1 the first university2 it helps motherhood to transform the brute male into a being somewhat better1#cg a primeval savage4 ,yet naturalists have confirmed themselves in three bad habits3 they say too little about handicraft1 they admire man far too much1 and they patronise woman4 ,when they do not bury ,woman in the term ,man1 they glance at her with a condescending half-pity1 as bibliophiles glance at second or third editions2 and so it is worth while to do some justice to our primitive foremother1 the ,eve of ,evolution4 ,with her incalculable partner1 the irrational male1 she and her family wander from district to district4 ,at times they settle under a rock-shelter or in a cave1 and make footpaths from it to watering-places and hunting-grounds4 ,here and there a river is crossed by stepping-stones1 and more than one ravine is spanned by branches and by a fallen tree4 ,what is their attitude to these things8 ,the windfall tree-bridge1 like every other gift from ,nature1 is a bane to them as well as a boon1 for it is a road open to dangerous animals2 as such it is a thing to be guarded1 and many a fight in its defence occurs1 creating traditions of bravery which are long remembered4 ,further1 as time goes on1 and the progenitors of man become more human1 the pressure of competitive life draws ever more and more attention to the incompleteness of natural bridges4 ,for example1 stepping-stones may be useless when they are needed most of all1 in wet seasons and after storms2 and the tree-bridge is so narrow that warriors cross it only one by one1 so their slow attack gives a terrible advantage to a brave defence4 ,these hindrances1 so obvious and so unpleasant1 make appeal to the inventive faculty that a few men possess4 ,not much is required4 ,from four or five seedling ideas a great many improvements will grow2 and now is the moment for us to choose a vague tentative date for the beginning of this gradual development4 ,most people are bored by prehistoric archology1 because its earlier periods are as undated as is the oblivion of coma4 ,so a date in obscure history1 however tentative it may be1 is very helpful2 the mind rests on it1 somehow1 anyhow1 and feels that the lost legions of the dead years left some oases in the ,saharas of ancient time4 ,and this point is not the only one that concerns the general reader who does generally read4 ,in recent years the antiquity of handicraft has been extended very much by a 8find0 of eagle-beaked flint implements1 with other tools1 below the ,pliocene deposits on the ,east ,anglian ,coast4 ,the eagle-beaked flints are undoubtedly of human manufacture1 and they carry back the ancient stone period of man to the ,tertiary times4 ,sir ,ray ,lankester writes on this important subject1 and his knowledge helps us a great deal1 though we have to recover it from entangled sentences4 ,for example#ch3-- 8,evidence has been for twenty years or more in our possession 7in the form of stone implements7 of the existence of man in ,europe in the warm period which preceded the ,pleistocene1 with its glacial clays and drifts and its gravels deposited on the sides of existing river valleys1 sometimes #hjj feet above the level of the bed to which the stream has now worn down its excavation1 many miles wide4 ,the discovery within the last four years of beautifully worked flint implements of the shape of an eagle's beak 7called #8rostro-carinate'7 and of other serviceable forms below the marine ,pliocene shelly sands--known as the #8,red ,crag' in ,suffolk--separates the migrations and mixtures of human tribes and groups1 of which we have any knowledge1 by a huge chasm of geologic time from the date of the earliest ,european population4 ,the best geologists have come to the conclusion that half a million years 7and it may well be twice as many7 separate us from the days before the ,crag ,sea laid down its shelly deposits on the ,east ,anglian ,coast4 ,yet there were skilful men--not mere ape-like creatures using sticks and roughly-broken stones1 but men capable of making and admiring symmetrical1 well-finished flint tools1 and of using them to clean skins and to plane wood--living a human1 creative1 dominating life here in ,western ,europe in those immensely remote days4 ,probably enough1 as great a period as separates those skilful men from us separated them from the earliest unskilful #8commencing' men of the tropical zone40 ,illustration3 ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,at ,,villeneuve-,,sur-,,lot1 ,,france ,yes1 probably enough1 but yet we must not suppose that handicraft in ,western ,europe has ever had a standard of uniform merit4 ,as our own work is very often inferior both to that of the ,romans and to that of the ,middle ,ages1 so the eagle-beaked tools may denote nothing more than a local industry which a man of genius had originated4 ,no other implements have been dug up from ,pliocene deposits in other ,european localities1 hence students of art and architecture cannot accept the generalisation advocated by ,sir ,ray ,lankester4 ,as well suppose that the whole of ,western ,europe produced in the same age many painters equal to the ,van ,eycks1 or many bridge-builders of a piece with ,caius ,julius ,lacer1 or the good ,saint ,bnzet4 ,it is enough to believe that at a date to be known vaguely as #ejj1jjj ,b4,c41 a craftsman of genius lived and laboured in a district of ,western ,europe1 now called the ,east ,anglian ,coast4 ,how far his influence extended1 or how long it lasted1 we have no inkling yet2 but it may have been the influence1 not of a rare genius1 but of a school tradition which migrating tribes had spread through many parts of ,europe4 ,anyhow1 the eagle-beaks are historic facts and their manipulative skill gives us the right to make reasonable inferences4 ,for example1 we may infer that if the craftsman who made an eagle-beaked tool showed intelligence in some other useful ways1 he did no more than common justice to his humanity4 ,suppose he cut down a tree with his flint axe1 choosing one that grew aslant over a chasm or across a river2 or suppose he piled stepping-stones together in the middle of a waterway1 and then used this pier as a support for two tree-trunks whose far ends rested on the banksides4 ,neither of these ideas has more mother-wit than that which has enabled ants to bore tunnels under running water1 and to make active bridges by clinging to each other in a suspension chain of their wee brave bodies4 ,not many human minds in any period of history have been as diligently rational as ants2 but let us risk the conjecture that the first advance in bridge-making began among the rostro-carinate workmen probably more than half a million years ago4 ,to cut down a tree1 in order to get a bridge at a chosen place1 was a good idea in primitive enterprise1 but it was not enough2 it gave but little additional help in tribal wars1 since it repeated the narrow footway1 the main drawback of windfall tree-bridges4 ,two or three trees laid side by side were necessary1 and at least two piles of stepping-stones to carry enough trees over a fairly wide river4 ,such were the first improvements that war and social life demanded from the wit of primitive mankind1 and often they were demanded in vain for many long ages4 ,even at the present time there are tribesmen who feel well pleased with themselves when they make single and double tree-bridges4 ,i am told1 for instance1 by ,mr4 ,t4 ,beddoes1 a traveller and trader in ,equatorial ,africa1 that often in his wanderings he has made and used a tree-bridge to cross a narrow creek1 following a native method for the sake of its ready convenience4 8,the natives10 he writes1 8cut down the tallest trees on a bank of the waterway that they intend to bridge1 then they make a handrail with bush-rope fastened to short upright sticks which are placed about three feet apart4 ,bush-rope is made from creepers or from long cane vines4 ,sometimes an attempt is made to flatten the upper surface of the tree2 but this work is uncommon1 as ,african natives are lazy2 they detest manual labour4 ,there are trees that grow to an enormous height2 one of them measured a hundred feet odd1 so fairly wide creeks and streams can be bridged4 ,but canoes are the favourite means of crossing rivers2 they carry light loads well enough1 and they need less labour than bridge-building40 ,this peep into the aboriginal mind reveals a dire stagnation4 ,but although no other thing in ,nature is less uncommon than human initiative1 yet the men of the eagle-beaked tools may have made tree-bridges1 and also such stone bridges as the lintel-slabs at ,wycollar 7p4 #fj74 ,for this work required nothing more than imitation1 while the eagle-beaks added some invention to a deft handicraft4 ,many an earthquake had made a slab-bridge1 and other models were formed by the lava from volcanoes which hardened into a thick crust over many gaps in the land4 ,from these bridges--a tree cut down with a flint axe1 and a single boulder or slab laid from bank to bank of a stream--came three lines of descent in very slow1 yet fertile handicraft2 and to the history of each a long book could be given4 ,let me name them one by one3-- #a4 ,the ,slab-bridge with stone piers4 #b4 ,the ,tree-bridge with stone piers4 #c4 ,the ,tree-bridge with timber piles4 ,,iii ,,the ,,slab-,,bridge ,,with ,,stone ,,piers ,in this we follow an evolution from unhewn fragments of rock upheld by stepping-stones to ,cyclopean slabs of hewn granite and marble supported by well-made stone piers4 ,the halting development of this bold stonecraft was loved and fostered by that original people which for convenience we call ,iberian1 and which at some unknown period migrated from ,asia1 8and swept round ,europe1 whilst a second branch colonised the ,nile basin and ,northern ,africa1 and a third streamed east and occupied ,china and ,japan4 ,the master idea in the religion of this people was the cult of ancestors1 and the rude stone monuments1 menhirs1 cromlechs1 and kistvaens they have left everywhere1 where they have been1 all refer to commemoration of the sacred dead4 ,the obelisk in ,egypt is the highly refined menhir1 and the elaborate1 ornamented tombs of the ,nile valley are an expression of the same veneration for the dead1 and belief in the after life connected with the tomb1 that are revealed in the construction of the dolmen and kistvaen40#ci ,what could have been simpler than the building methods of the ,iberians8 ,we see them at ,stonehenge1 which dates from about the year #afhj ,b4,c41 according to the astronomical calculations of ,sir ,norman ,lockyer and the late ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,penrose4#dj ,here we have the primitive circle of large stones1 and the rugged trilithon 7two rude uprights1 or menhirs1 connected by a long table slab or lintel74 ,there is a feeling for massive construction1 but it is barbaric4 ,the clapper bridges over ,dartmoor rivers belong to this elementary craftsmanship4 ,each is a cromlech repeated in several spans over water1 no matter when it was built 7p4 #ajj74 ,among the ancient ,egyptians there were kindred bridges2 and the ,chinese have managed to preserve in a formidable handicraft an ,iberian fondness for the trilithon4 ,mr4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson tells me that many slab-bridges in ,sichuan have lintels about twenty feet in length2 they are decorated by sculptors with a dragon's head and tail at the junction of two lintels and a stone pier4 ,every dragon's head looks upstream1 and the tail curls out on the downstream side2 so the slabs appear to rest for security on the back of a guardian dragon4 ,there is a ,chinese bridge of lintel-slabs1 concerning which very different descriptions have been written1 but even the most moderate account makes it more than four and a half times longer than the ,pont ,saint-,esprit 7p4 #bic74 ,gauthey writes about it as follows3-- 8,at ,loyang1 in the ,province of ,fo-,kien1 on an arm of the sea1 there is a bridge with three hundred spans2 its construction went on for eighteen years and employed twenty-five thousand workmen4 ,technically it belongs to the same class as the bridges of ancient ,babylon1 which are said to have been made with long and flat stones laid from pier to pier4 ,if ,loyang ,bridge be #hhjj metres in length1 as some writers affirm1 then its piers will be #d metres #hg in thickness1 and its spans in width will measure #bd4cf metres4 ,the footway is #bb4gd metres4 ,the long slabs are #e metres thick and #c metres wide4 ,as for the piers1 they are #bc metres in height1 and bear marble lions carved from blocks #g metres long40 ,gauthey gives a drawing of this bridge1 and his measurements are taken from the ,atlas of ,martimmart4 ,they have an air of great exaggeration4 ,as ,gauthey remarks1 8,it is difficult to believe that the tabular stones are as large as they are presumed to be3 their bulk is more than threefold greater than that of the obelisk at ,rome in the ,place de ,saint-,pierre4 ,besides1 ,m4 ,pingeron speaks of them as being fourteen metres long by a metre and a half in thickness and in width1 so he diminishes by a full half the length of ,loyang ,bridge4 ,even with this reduction it is a wonderful achievement1 more than four and a half times longer than the ,pont du ,saint-,esprit40#da ,the dimensions given by ,m4 ,pingeron may be accurate2 they represent a hugely magnified clapper bridge decorated with sculpture and carried on tall piers for a distance of #ddjj metres1 in a series of three hundred spans4 ,the marble lions1 ,i suppose1 ornament the parapets above the piers1 like those on the bridge of ,pulisangan 7p4 #caj74 ,marco ,polo visited the province of ,fo-,kien1 where ,loyang ,bridge is said to be1 and stayed at the city of ,kue-lin-fu1 known to-day as ,kien-ning-fu4 ,here he was greatly struck by 8three very handsome bridges1 upwards of a hundred paces in length1 and eight paces in width40#db ,not a vivid description1 yet enough to prove that notable bridges in ,fo-,kien have had a long history4 ,,iv ,,tree-,,bridges ,,with ,,stone ,,piers ,the most famous bridge in this kind is the one built by ,trajan over the ,danube1 just below the rapids of the ,iron ,gate4 ,trajan required it for his wars against ,dacia1 which in ,a4,d4 #ajf he brought to a successful end1 the ,dacian leader ,decebalus being slain and his people subdued4 ,the bridge had played its part1 yet ,hadrian1 the next ,emperor1 who began his reign ten years afterwards1 looked upon it as a dangerous highway1 open to incursions from ,dacian revolts1 and for this reason he destroyed some piers and the footway4 ,perhaps ,hadrian was jealous of ,trajan's work1 for two fortified gates and a handful of ,roman troops could have defended the bridge against barbarians4 ,there has been much controversy over this great structure4 ,its architect was ,apollodorus of ,damascus1 who designed also the ,trajan column placed in the centre of the ,forum ,trajanum4 ,a bas-relief on this column represents the bridge1 but in a manner at odds with the written description given by ,dion ,cassius1 who held important offices under ,commodus1 ,caracalla1 and ,alexander ,severus1 ,a4,d4 #ahj-bbi4 ,dion ,cassius wrote a history of ,rome1 in eighty books1 and a small portion of this work has come down to us entire4 ,his evidence then is worth having1 and it states that the bridge had twenty piers of hewn stone1 #aej feet high and #fj feet wide1 with openings between them of #agj feet1 spanned by arches4 ,doubt has been thrown on the accuracy of this description1 because the bridge on the ,trajan column is unsuited to a span of #agj feet2 8nevertheless thirteen piers are still visible out of the twenty1 according to ,murray's #8,handbook4' ,the writer has not been able to find any accurate measurement of the width between these piers1 but as the #8,handbook' speaks of the length of the bridge as perhaps #cijj feet1 and as the ,conte ,marsigli1 writing from personal observation1 in a letter to ,montfaucon1 gives the total length as probably #cjaj feet1 there can be no doubt that the spans were very considerable and that the representation of the design in the bas-belief is almost wholly conventional4 ,the one point as to which it gives clear information1 not supplied elsewhere1 is that the superstructure was of wood40#dc ,in other words1 this colossal work was a descendant of the earliest tree-bridges1 in so far as the footway was concerned4 ,whether arched timbering was carried from pier to pier to uphold the roadway1 as in the bas-relief1 is a question of no great moment2 the horizontal bearing beams would need support1 no doubt1 since they had to span openings far wider than the longest trees2 and it is useless for us to guess in what way this support was carried to them from the lofty piers1 which were built with enormous blocks of stone4 ,the main point is that one phase of bridge-building1 whose first models were fallen trees lying astride rivers and chasms1 seems to have culminated in the masterpiece of ,apollodorus of ,damascus4 ,much inferior work of the same kind1 very varied and entertaining1 has been common everywhere2 some of it belongs to ,kurdistan1 for example 7p4 #gc72 and in the ,lledr ,valley there is a good ,welsh specimen called the ,pont-y-,pant1 whose wooden footway is primitively rustic1 and whose piers are fragments of rock gathered from the river-bed and piled together4 ,i have found at ,thirlmere a quaint thing which is partly a dam and partly a bridge4 ,the dam1 an undulating wall of unmortared stones1 has at equal intervals a few angular openings over which wooden hand-bridges are thrown4 ,it would be easy in a shallow river to make a fish-pool by heaping boulders into a dam of this rude sort1 and the completed work would rank no higher than the beavers contests against running water4 ,so ,i tell myself that many a tribe in the great period of prehistoric art1 about #ej1jjj years ,b4,c41 ought to have built for itself a bridge as elementary as the ,pont-y-,pant and a perforated dam as uncouth as the one at ,thirlmere4 ,from this untutored handicraft we look back again at the great art of ,apollodorus1 whose vast bridge over the ,danube was near the ancient town of ,nicopolis4 ,what a long travail in the gestation and birth of infrequent ideas6 ,even half a million years ago a man of the eagle-beaked tools may have put a boulder under a tree-bridge because the tree was thin and swayed too much on a windy day2 half a million years ago1 and yet we do not feel ashamed of the ,pont-y-,pant6 ,v ,,tree-,,bridges ,,with ,,timber ,,piles ,let me restate the first periods in their history3-- #a4 ,a windfall tree lying astride a gap in the land4 #b4 ,a windfall tree dragged from a wood and put astride a gap in the land1 perhaps by a tribe of semi-human creatures directed by a superior mind4 #c4 ,a savage of genius1 perhaps as early as the ,tertiary period1 cut down a tree in order that it might span a dangerous creek or an abyss in the mountains4 ,intelligently1 with the aid of a flint axe1 he copied the work done by many a gale of wind2 and in this act of simple mimicry he discovered the first principles of secure bridge-making4 ,the footway was strong1 and branches from the tree-trunk gave support to clutching hands4 ,any bough that blocked up the footway was topped off4 ,even to-day we find in country woods a good many rustic bridges hewn from tree-trunks1 and guarded at the sides by hand rails of dressed branches4 ,their footways are no wider than the planed surface of a well-grown tree4 #d4 ,another savage of genius1 thousands of years later1 maybe1 took a hint from a troublesome inconvenience which from the first had been present in tree-bridges4 ,the footway being too narrow1 he put two or three trees side by side1 so that two or three warriors might cross it abreast1 instead of weakening their attack by an advance in single file4 ,but this improvement suggested other changes of much greater value both to war and to social life4 ,however carefully the trees were laid side by side1 their rounded surfaces left a valley between them2 and gaps were formed by curved trunks and by gnarled excrescences4 ,so the widened footway had drawbacks of its own4 ,often1 on a rainy day1 naked feet would slip1 for the trees were polished by long use2 and many a slip would either break or strain an ankle4 ,yet the wit of mankind would bear these troubles with a grumbling patience2 thousands of years may have passed by unprofitably2 but sooner or later a man of genius would perceive that every defect in a bridge suggested an improvement4 ,the valley between the tree-trunks could be filled in with soil and pebbles and turf2 a round foothold polished by long use and slippery after rain1 could be flattened and roughened2 and where the trees diverged from each other1 making traps for the unwary1 invention could be busy for a long time4 ,why put the trees close together8 ,if they were separated by half a stride1 then covered transversely with brushwood and turf1 a much better bridge would be made without much effort4 ,again1 suppose the long beams were thin saplings that shook too much underfoot1 particularly when a tribe of shouting warriors ran across them in a hot attack4 ,to steady such a bridge with props would be a great convenience1 and timber props would serve as conveniently as boulders and piled stones4 ,a criss-cross of logs made an excellent pier1#dd for example1 and forked boughs1 which entered into several phases of primitive handicraft1 made good piles4#de ,we know not when these quite simple improvements gave some dignity to manual work1 but their inception needed only a little mother-wit4 ,some ,quarternary men ripened a great deal more in their arts1 as painters and sculptors and engravers4 ,in this monograph several descendants from the aboriginal tree-bridge are studied briefly1 and ,i refer you to the ,index4 ,some varied ,english specimens are given in ,francis ,stone's 8,norfolk ,bridges02 and from ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa 7#agaf-agie7 we can learn how wooden bridges have long been made in the mountainous parts of ,south ,america4 ,they 8consist of only four long beams laid close together over a precipice10 and they 8form a path about a yard and a half in breadth1 being just wide enough for a man to pass over on horseback40 ,here the beams have a flat surface1 and lie together like boards on a floor4 ,it is primitive handicraft of a low sort1 for the beams would carry a much wider footway4 ,,vi ,,some ,,typical ,,timber ,,bridges ,as there is no room here for a pedigree of timber bridges1 let us choose a few examples which are particularly famous in history4 ,it will be enough if we take three3 7#a7 a prehistoric lake-village1 7#b7 the ,pons ,sublicius of the ,romans1 and 7#c7 the wonderful work done in the eighteenth century by two ,swiss carpenters1 the brothers ,grubenmann4 ,lake and marsh villages were the highest form of prehistoric bridge-building2 their thronged platforms1 dotted with round huts1 not only put a defence of water between home life and prowling foes1 but heralded all the housed bridges that the world has seen during its periods of written history4 ,whether we study ,old ,london ,bridge1 or the criss-cross bridges with frail shops in ,kashmr 7p4 #ga71 or the booth-bridges of ,china 7p4 #baj note71 or the roofed timber bridges of ,switzerland 7p4 #bia71 we are concerned with a pedigree that starts out from the first ,neolithic lake-dwellings4 ,but the later stone period1 known as ,neolithic1 is not very old4 ,between it and ourselves there is a span of about nine thousand years1 or a few thousand years more4#df ,but ,british lake-dwellings are attributed to a time still later1 the ,bronze ,age1 whose date in the ,british ,isles may be fixed tentatively at from #abjj to #adjj ,b4,c4#dg ,further1 as pit-dwellings lasted to the days of ,tacitus among some ,germanic tribes1#dh so a ,british lake-village here and there defied progress till the coming of the ,romans4 ,there was one at ,glastonbury1 and its 8,late ,celtic0 routine of life has been studied carefully from its remains4 ,standing on an artificial island formed by a series of timber bridges1 it occupied nearly three and a half acres1 and its round huts1 about sixty in number1 were intermingled with a few square cabins that marked the most recent enterprise4 ,low walls were erected with upright posts driven into the artificial island at a distance of about a foot from each other2 then this framework was wattled and plastered with clay4 ,a few rough slabs of lias stone made a doorstep1 a piece of timber lay across the threshold1 a wood fire crackled on a central hearth1 and every household wanted to feel entirely safe1 for a tall and tight palisade enclosed the little colony4 ,in this primitive defence a great many poles were set up side by side2 they ranged in height from five to ten feet4 ,wolves and war were feared very much1 evidently2 and yet the villagers were devoted to that self-decoration with which men and women for many a long period had tried to rival the patterned colours given by ,nature to birds1 and beasts1 and insects1 and fish1 and snakes1 and flowers1 and stones4 ,they loved rings1 cut from amber and jet and glass2 wore bracelets1 some of bronze1 others of ,kimmeridge shale2 glass beads had their vogue1 and clothes were fastened together with bronze safety-pins1 or with split-ring brooches of bronze4 ,perhaps the women were truly feminine1 and wore a monstrous headgear1 outraging their good looks in fashionable efforts to renew their beauty4 ,drawing closer to this village perched up on primitive bridges1 we find in it some weavers and spinners1 a few wood-carvers who were true artists1 some carpenters who had lathes1 and some clever smiths who made iron knives1 awls1 spades1 bill-hooks1 gouges2 and a few ambitious potters decorated their work and gave it a careful finish4 ,harvests were grown somewhere1 as women used querns to grind the corn4 ,good little people6 ,they wanted to be pacific and artistic2 fighting did not set their genius2 and so they vanished4 ,how could they hope to protect the gift of life when ,british war-chariots and ,roman soldiers began to fight in the neighbourhood1 obeying the dread mysterious law of fruitful carnage8 ,they slunk away from the fierce midwifery of war1 fearing the long self-sacrifices of a painful renaissance4 ,their gentle enterprise lasted from about the second or third century ,b4,c4 to the ,roman occupation4 ,among the remains of their village several skulls have been found1 mild-looking skulls of a long shape1 like those which have been taken from the long barrows4 ,it was an ,iberic tribe that trifled with peace and art1 showing an epicene fervour akin to that of our cooing sentimentalists4 ,perhaps the ,romans allowed the village to fade out of being1 or perhaps they cleared it away as a futility1 for neither ,roman coins nor ,roman wares have been found on the site1 though remnants of ,roman villas and potteries have been unburied in the vicinity4#di ,it is certain that most of the ,roman bridges were built with timber4 ,thousands of trees were cut down when a paved road was constructed1 so that cheap material for bridge-building was always at hand when the road was carried over ravines and rivers4#ej ,besides1 if a great many stone bridges had been built by the ,romans1 in ,britain and elsewhere1 many remains of the piers would have been found in all big rivers4 ,we know1 too1 that the ,romans were tolerant in their attitude to native bridgemen1 since the criss-cross piers of the ,gauls outlived the ,roman ,empire by many centuries4 ,we know not1 neither can we learn1 how the ,romans themselves made timber bridges4 ,even their ,pons ,sublicius1 a sacred monument1 hallowed by historical traditions and by its connection with religious ceremonies1 was described imperfectly4 ,to this day experts quarrel over its technique and over its position on the ,tiber4 ,colonel ,emy has tried to reconstruct it1 but his attempt differs from that of ,canina1 and we cannot choose between them4 ,the utmost we can say is this--that the ,pons ,sublicius was a tree-bridge resting on piles1 and dating from the times of ,ancus ,marcius1 who reigned from ,b4,c4 #fdj-faf4 ,if the chief priests did not build it1 they certainly kept it in repair1 always using wood with a pious regard for a venerated past2 and with their help it existed as late as the reign of ,constantine 7,a4,d4 #cjf-ccg71 when it was mentioned in the 8,notitia10 and when a bridge was named after it at ,constantinople4 ,but the ,pons ,sublicius became obsolete as a highway for traffic1 and then a good understudy bridge of stone--the ,pons ,lapideus--was built close at hand1 and was known sometimes as ,pons ,sublicius1 a title of honour4 ,sir ,william ,smith believed that these bridges were outside the city1 beyond the ,porta ,trigemina1 and that the wooden one was built by ,ancus ,marcius in order to connect the town side of the ,tiber with a new fortress erected on the ,janiculus4 ,we pass on now to the brothers ,grubenmann1 whose best work was destroyed during the war of #agii4 ,ulric and ,jean ,grubenmann were village carpenters1 born at ,teufen1 in the canton of ,appenzell4 ,ulric seems to have been the abler of the two2 certainly he was a man of true genius who spanned great distances by his unrivalled use of corbelled and trussed timber bearings4 ,it was in #agee that he began his suspension bridge at ,schaffhausen1 and in #ageh this work was complete4 ,there were two spans in a distance of #cfd feet1 and they formed an elbow that pointed upstream4 ,the abutment near ,schaffhausen was #aga feet from the angle1 and from the angle to the opposite shore was #aic feet4 ,ulric had decided that the bridge should cross the ,rhine in one magnificent flight from abutment to abutment1 but the town authorities interposed and told him to find use for a stone pier belonging to a bridge which a flood had ruined in #aged4 ,being a ,swiss by birth and by training1 ,ulric ,grubenmann followed an ancient tradition in ,swiss carpentry1 covering his bridge with a solid roof2 and so perfect was the bridge1 so admirably scarfed1 trussed1 strutted1 braced1 bolted up1 and suspended1 that only two faults could be found with it3 the roof was too heavy1 and the parts were too dependent on each other4 ,an injury to one portion of the structure might have been disastrous to the whole bridge--a vital consideration in a warfaring time4 ,grubenmann's methods were simple4 8,the braces proceeding from each abutment10 said ,telford1 8are continued to the beam which passes along the top of the uprights1 and the lowest of these general braces are actually united under that beam1 thereby forming a continued arch between the abutments1 the chord line of which is three hundred and sixty-four feet1 and the versed sine about thirty feet4 ,these braces are kept in a straight direction by the uprights1 which are placed seventeen feet and five inches apart4 ,if this bridge had been formed in a straight line between the abutments ,i can see no reason why this form of construction should not have supported a roadway of about eighteen feet in breadth1 as well as a slight roof2 because1 in that case1 all the weight arising from the braces which proceed from the middle pier would have been saved1 and the roof might have been made much simpler and lighter40 ,while ,ulric ,grubenmann was working at ,schaffhausen1 his brother ,jean built a similar bridge at ,reichenau1 two hundred and forty feet in a single span2 and some years later the two brothers constructed their ,wittingen ,bridge over the ,limmat1 near ,baden1 giving to it a span of three hundred and ninety feet4 ,they were famous now1 and their influence travelled from ,europe to ,america1 where it found in ,bludget an able interpreter1 ,bludget's bridge over the ,portsmouth ,river being similar in technique to the bridge at ,schaffhausen4 ,since that time the evolution of timber bridges has remained in the ,united ,states of ,america1 where it has ranged from the criss-cross of logs for bearing piles to the most intricate combinations of lattices and trusses4 ,very often there is far too much intricacy1 and no thought at all is given to military considerations 7p4 #ceb74 8,many wooden ,american bridges are trusses which almost defy analysis1 the designs being1 however1 obviously suggested by an attempt to combine at least two of the three main types of bridges4 ,no advantage whatever is gained by a combination of this kind2 on the contrary1 great disadvantage is almost sure to follow its adoption1 namely1 that it will be impossible that each part of the structure should1 under all circumstances1 carry that portion of the load which the designer entrusted to it4 ,for suppose a bridge constructed partly as a girder and partly as a suspension bridge1 the girder being very stiff and deep1 the chain perfectly flexible with considerable dip4 ,let the chain and girder be each fit to carry half the passing load4 ,it is perfectly conceivable that the deflections of the two should be so different that the girder would1 under the actual load1 break before the chain was sensibly strained1 or the difference in the relative dip of the chain and depth of the girder might be such as to cause the former to give way first40#ea ,,vii ,,primitive ,,suspension ,,bridges ,we have seen 7p4 #aad7 that the first suspension bridges were of two sorts3 7a7 long branches which had grown across rivulets and chasms2 7b7 thick and tough creeping plants by which many forest trees were festooned to one another4 ,it is a vast evolution from these natural things to the art of ,ulric ,grubenmann1 the forerunner of metal suspension bridges4#eb ,unfortunately it is also an evolution which we cannot follow through many consecutive phases1 artists and historians having failed to record its growth4 ,we cannot suppose that the ancients neglected suspension bridges2 from the spider alone they must have learnt that pendent ropes made a good bridge2 but we know not what they achieved in this airy handicraft4 ,many people of to-day show in primitive hammock-bridges that their ancestors were influenced by the work of spiders4 ,in countries so far apart as ,china and ,central ,africa and ,northern ,india1 for example1 there are hammock-bridges of cane and osier1 netted elaborately at the sides and swung by bamboo cables1 as in ,china1 or by ropes made from the silky fibres of the ,nilgiri nettle1 as in the ,bermulda ,hills4 ,whatever sort of primitive rope is employed1 its first model was the gnarled and twisted stem of a vine-like creeping plant4 ,perhaps the most ancient suspension bridge in ,china is the one known as ,liu ,soh or ,lew saw1 literally a slip rope4 ,a bamboo cable is fixed from side to side of a ravine1 not in a level line1 but a little aslant1 so as to form a mild sort of switchback4 ,a traveller carries a wooden saddle with a deep groove in it2 the groove fits the bamboo cable1 and straps fasten the saddle and give confidence to the jockey1 who travels at a rapid speed when he is fat4 ,on his return journey he is pulled up the bridge by ropes4 ,in the mountains of ,sichuan there are hundreds of these single cable-bridges4#ec ,what are they but lianes and vine stems plus a little human primitiveness8 ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa1 the ,spanish ,admiral1 describes a ,peruvian bridge closely allied to the ,chinese ,liu ,soh1 and called the tarabita4 ,ulloa noticed it on several rivers1 but particularly on the rapid ,alchipichi4 ,the tarabita is only a single rope made of bujuco1 or ox-hide thongs twisted into a cable from six to eight inches in thickness4 ,it is extended from one side of the river to the other1 and anchored firmly4 ,on one bankside it is controlled by a wheel1 or winch1 that makes it either taut or slack4 ,a leather cradle is hung from the tarabita by two clasps that have rounded heads2 two ropes are stretched across the river and bound to the travelling clasps2 a wayfarer sits in the cradle and is pulled across by the guide-ropes4 ,even mules are slung from two tarabitas1 according to ,antonio de ,ulloa1 whose book on ,south ,america was published in #agdh1 at ,madrid4 ,an ,english translation appeared in #ageh1 and ran into five editions4 ,let me give a quotation from the fourth1 issued in #ahjf4 ,it concerns a venerable suspension bridge akin to the bamboo variety made in the mountains of ,sichuan in ,china3-- 8,over the river ,desaguadero is still remaining the bridge of rushes invented by ,capac ,yupanqui1 the fifth ,ynca1 for transporting his army to the other side1 in order to conquer the provinces of ,collasuyo4 ,the ,desaguadero is here between eighty and a hundred yards in breadth1 flowing with a very impetuous current under a smooth1 and1 as it were1 a sleeping surface4 ,the ,ynca1 to overcome this difficulty1 ordered four very large cables to be made of a kind of grass which covers the lofty heaths and mountains of that country1 and called ,ichu by the ,indians2 and these cables were the foundation of the whole structure4 ,two of them being laid across the water1 fascines of dry juncia and totora1 species of rushes1 were fastened together1 and laid across them4 ,on these the two other cables were laid1 and covered with the other fascines securely fixed1 but smaller than the first1 and arranged in such a manner as to form a level surface2 and by this means he procured a safe passage for his army4 ,this bridge1 which is about five yards in breadth1 and one and a half above the surface of the water1 is carefully repaired or rebuilt every six months1 by the neighbouring provinces1 in pursuance of a law made by the ,ynca 7,capac ,yupanqui71 and often since confirmed by the kings of ,spain40#ed ,in the first volume of his book1 chap4 ,,vii41 ,antonio de ,ulloa visits the ,andes1 and finds there some tree-bridges1 some stone bridges1 and some complex bujuco bridges4 ,the stone variety he does not describe1 but he writes interestingly about the bujucos4 ,when six cables have been made by twisting together strips of ox-hide they are suspended across a river1 not in a single row1 but in two tiers1 the lower one with four cables1 the upper with two4 ,over the lower tier branches and canes are laid transversely2 and when this floor is braced to the upper cables1 there is a sort of cage within which travellers can walk in safety while the bridge swings4 8,on some rivers of ,peru10 says ,ulloa1 8there are bujuco bridges so large that droves of loaded mules pass over them2 particularly over the river ,apurimac1 which is the thoroughfare of all the commerce carried on between ,lima1 ,cusco1 ,la ,plata1 and other parts to the southward40 ,humboldt passed over one of these pendulous bridges1 and ,miers crossed another which was strong enough to bear the traffic of pack-mules1 though it was two hundred and twenty-five feet in span4 ,and now we must pass on to a half-suspension bridge which is very common among the ,n',komis1 a tribe that inhabits the ,fernan ,vaz district in ,equatorial ,central ,africa4 ,it is a bridge built with ,y-shaped sticks4 ,two parallel rows of these pronged branches are driven into the bed of a stream1 and into the banksides2 then long runners are put between the forks to bear a footway of sticks laid across them transversely4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,beddoes1 an ,african trader1 and traveller1 draws my attention to this bridge of forked branches2 and tells me also that in the ,agowe district1 but far inland from the banks of this river1 he came upon a primitive suspension bridge partly made with very thick vines--vines as thick as a man's leg--which were joined together into a couple of natural ropes long enough to be suspended from trees over a creek about two hundred feet wide4 ,perhaps a yard separated them1 and they were parallel to each other4 ,when anchored to the trees at a height of four or five feet above the bank1 they form the upper part or parapet of the bridge4 ,as for the footway1 its bearers were saplings--young trees from ten to twelve feet long and three or four inches in diameter2 they were lashed together into a continuous runner1 and two such runners were laid from the banksides over the creek1 to carry a hurdle pathway of canes or sticks4 ,then the upper part of the bridge was braced to the saplings with thin vines1 which were tied to their supports at intervals of about a foot1 and which served the purpose of suspension rods1 for they counteracted the strain on the saplings when a native crossed the narrow footway4 ,it would be easy to write much more about primitive swing bridges1 but enough has been said to stimulate thought and discussion4 ,not one of them has a brighter intelligence than that which we find in many prehistoric handicrafts4 ,,viii ,,natural ,,arches--,,their ,,significance ,,and ,,their ,,influence ,long before the germ of humanity in some anthropomorphous apes became slowly fertile in a mysterious gestation1 ,nature had weathered many rocks into hollowed and vaulted shapes4 ,some were yawning sea-caves1 whose arched mouths gulped in the tidal waves1 and whose caverned bodies gurgled or boomed with the noise of deepening water4#ee ,others were vaults gradually fretted into being by subterranean torrents1 such as we find to-day at ,saint-,pons1 in the ,cevennes1 where the river ,jaur is nourished by an abundant spring which in a second1 through the mouth of a low-arched cavern1 pours a thousand litres of fresh1 sweet water4 ,others1 again1 were genuine arched bridges1 such as we find to-day in the ,pont d',arc1 over the river ,ardche 7p4 #f74 ,in ,england we have several such bridges1 notably the ,durdle ,door on the coast at ,lulworth1 whose arched span must owe at least a part of its shape to the troubled action of sea-waves4 8,la ,roche ,perce0 at ,biarritz--a crinkled1 lava-like formation--is inferior to our ,durdle ,door2 and 8,la ,roche ,troue10 near ,saint-,gilles ,croix-de-,vie1 though remarkable as a square-headed aperture1 has a lower place still in the pontine work done by ,nature4#ef ,perhaps the most wonderful rock-bridges are those at ,icononzo1 in ,new ,grenada1 over the torrent of ,summa-,paz4 ,there are two1 and one of them soars up and up to a crown that spans the water at an altitude of ninety-seven metres4 ,how could men of genius fail to be architects when ,nature set before their eyes great vaults1 not only varied in shape1 but at times of a stupendous height8 ,in different ways she produced surbased arches1 pointed arches1 semicircular arches1 all more or less ragged in their outlines1 but each a model for progressive mimicry and adaptation4 ,here is not the place to dally with the causes of their formation1 such as uneven weathering and the scour of running water subject to high tides or to terrific floods4 ,as rivers in the course of many ages deepen and widen their channels1 they reach now and then a strata of fissured rock1 and their eating action is very rapid when they are able to undercut the softer rocks by fretting their way along apertures or crevices4 ,many an earthquake has made such inlets for river water1 and earthquakes may have shattered some rocks into vaulted shapes4 ,whether glaciers have played a part in the hollowing of rocks into arched caves and bridges ,i do not know2 but rock-basins are attributed to the erosive power of glaciers1 so why not some rock-bridges also8 ,it is a question over which geologists ought to quarrel as they did over rock-basins4#eg ,illustration3 ,,ponte ,,della ,,paglia ,,at ,,venice1 ,,renaissance ,but the main point is that the archways made by ,nature not only suggested the arched bridge of handicraft1 but heralded all the lovely styles of building which have used vaults1 domes1 turrets1 towers1 spires1 steeples1 and arched openings--gateways1 porches1 and windows4 ,there is a rival art1 as we know1 an art which has glorified the long lintel-stone carried by pillars2 but it has never won from the genius of great men the highest technical inspiration4 ,to it we owe much work of a noble dignity1 but in the powerful aspiration of this work there is but little upward flight2 it is not near at once to the point of heaven and the point of home4 ,in fact1 its masterpieces weigh down heavily on the earth instead of rising towards the light4 ,not till we come to genuine architecture--to the art that employs arches and vaults and domes--do we find united in the same edifice a majestic weight and a buoyant fervour4 ,this union of qualities may be found in a supreme ,roman bridge1 such as the ,puente ,trajan at ,alcntara1 but it reigns most beautifully in a ,gothic cathedral1 whose bulk1 earth-bound and vast1 has in it what ,goethe defined as a petrified music1 lofty and spiritual4 ,rome built for man and the ages1 while ,gothic art has a symphonic ardour expressed in a creed of hope that transcends all terrene things4 ,the work done by ,nature in various archways1 some pointed and many round-headed1 is a surprise to many persons4 ,yet ,nature's custom is to build in curves and circles1 as in the trunks of trees1 and the shapes of flowers1 and the forms of birds' nests4 ,she hates angles1 and particularly right angles2 these she makes in her moods of violence1 when she flashes into zigzag lightning1 or splinters trees and rocks with an earthquake4 ,we ourselves are accustomed from early youth to squared shapes in handicraft1 yet our actions often speak to us of mankind's primitive fondness for circular huts and round pit-dwellings4 ,we find it difficult to walk forward in a straight line1 the steps we take having a tendency to curve2 and untaught boxers never hit straight from the shoulder1 their arms swing in segments of a circle4 ,art students1 again1 begin by drawing 8too round10 so they have to be shown how 8to square their touch40 ,are you tempted to believe that the spinning of our globe has transmitted to all living things the routine of its movement8 ,in any case1 let us keep well in mind the different symbolism implied by curves1 angles1 straight lines1 and circles4 ,squares and oblongs denote repose and weight1 while circles and curved lines are identified with everything in the universe that denotes life1 mystery1 intelligence1 fertility1 light and heat1 movement and speed1 and space illimitable4 ,human progress itself is a circular ascent along the finest spiral lines1 for civilization as a whole never comes back to the same conditions1 but creeps above them to some trivial extent4 ,the greatest circular or rounded shapes are the sun1 the full moon1 our own little world1 the human skull1 and the human heart2 eggs1 flowers1 nests1 the shapes of bones1 and the wheel1 without which dilatory progress would have been far and away too pedestrian4 ,the first wheel was a rolling stone2 afterwards men noticed that a log touched by accident on a hill rolled down for some distance2 and at last a person of genius cut solid sections from a tree-trunk and made the earliest wheel of handicraft4 ,just one more point ought to be noticed with sympathetic care3 that arches in art are more suggestive than circles2 they have the mystery of a beautiful part taken from a whole--a whole that looks methodical4 ,we feel this mystery whenever we watch how the moon grows from a silver crescent into a radiant circle4 ,a thing complete dulls an attention that looks on1 whereas growth or the suggestion of growth has the stimulus of hope and faith4 ,to culminate is to begin a decline4 ,even the circle of the sun would be tiresome but for the grey days that renew a truism into a gracious truth4 ,this explains why arches in art make an appeal to the imagination that circles never equal4 ,for example1 wheel-windows in ,gothic architecture never have the magic of pointed windows4 ,our eyes travel around them and cannot escape in a flight upwards4 ,nature1 then1 when she produced arches1 brought into the world a very noble inspiration1 and therefore very remote from the dull and slow mimicry of mankind4 ,in fact1 the earliest known vaults of handicraft have but a trivial age in the vast antiquity of human life4 ,let us take a rapid glance at them1 so as to note their rudimentary construction4 ,they are built not with stones directed towards the intrados1 but with stones in horizontal courses that jut out one beyond another1 just as ,nature's archways in stratified rocks have a succession of layers4 ,at ,abydos1 one of the most ancient cities of ,upper ,egypt1 there is a vault of this primitive sort in the temple of ,rameses the ,second1 who reigned for sixty-seven years1 from about #abib to about #abbe ,b4,c4#eh ,another is found at ,thebes in the temple of ,ammon-,r1 but the most ancient specimen of all is at ,gizeh1 in the great pyramid of ,menkaura4 ,now ,menkaura belonged to the ,fourth ,dynasty1 so that his date is more than #cjjj years ,b4,c4 ,his sepulchral chamber is ceiled with a pointed arch--not a true arch1 of course1 the stones being merely cantilevers opposite to each other1 with their undersides cut to the pointed shape4 ,to understand the structural method1 close your hands together at their full length1 then open them gradually into the form of a pointed arch3 the united finger-tips represent the apex of the vault1 and the curving fingers represent the long archstones4 ,here is a departure from the horizontal layers of stone1 but with these also pointed arches have been built4 ,for instance1 ,italy has a very good example at ,arpino1 in ,campania4 8,arpino occupies the lower part of the site of the ancient ,volscian town of ,arpinum1 which was finally taken from the ,samnites by the ,romans in #cje ,b4,c44444 ,the ancient polygonal walls1 which are still finely preserved1 are among the best in ,italy4 ,they are built of blocks of pudding-stone1 originally well jointed1 but now much weathered4 ,they stand free in places to a height of eleven feet1 and are about seven feet wide at the top4 ,a single line of wall1 with medival round towers at intervals1 runs on the north side from the present town to ,civita ,vecchia1 on the site of the ancient citadel4 ,here is the ,porta dell' ,arco1 a gate of the old wall1 with an aperture fifteen feet high1 formed by the gradual inclination of the two sides towards each other40#ei ,this ancient gate has a pointed arch2 it belongs to the so-called 8,cyclopean style40 ,sir ,william ,smith gives an illustration of the ,porta dell' ,arco1 and refers to 8the very singular construction10 in which successive courses of stone 8project over each other till they meet1 so as to form a kind of pointed arch40 ,yet the construction is in no respect very singular1 being the simplest way in which rude arches can be copied from ,nature's models4 ,with toy bricks of wood a child can build a ,porta dell' ,arco4#fj ,on the other hand1 art and science go together in the building of an arch with voussoirs and keystones4 ,a long evolution separates this workmanship from the gateways at ,arpino and ,tiryns and ,mycenae1 though we cannot follow it through its gradual improvements4 ,it is an evolution with many breaks1 many related forms having perished2 but experts note a difference between the ,porta dell' ,arco at ,arpino and similar vaults both at ,mycenae and at ,tiryns1 where the craftsmanship dates from the ,heroic ,age in ,greece4 ,the main entrance at ,mycenae is called the ,lion ,gate1 from the famed triangular arch and relief above its huge lintel-stone4 ,the arch belongs to the method of laying stones in horizontal courses that jut out towards each other across an opening2 and the decorative sculpture represents two lions that stand face to face2 they are separated by a pillar and their front legs rest on a low altar-like structure that supports the pillar4 ,the same device occurs in cut gems and in goldsmith's work of the ,mycenaean age2 and the lions recall to memory those with which some ,chinese bridges have been ennobled 7pp4 #abg1 #caa74 ,even more remarkable are the beehive tombs at ,mycenae2 there are eight in all1 and some others are found in the neighbourhood4 ,pausanias regarded them as the places where ,atreus and his sons hid their treasures1 but now they are looked upon as the tombs of princely families4 ,the most important of them1 just outside the ,lion ,gate1 is called the ,treasury of ,atreus4 ,it has two rooms1 a square one cut in the rock1 and a round one with a pointed dome4 ,this chamber is fifty feet in height and in diameter2 we go to it along a horizontal passage twenty feet wide and a hundred and fifteen feet long1 with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a height of forty-five feet4 8,the doorway was flanked with columns of alabaster1 with rich spiral ornament1 now in the ,british ,museum2 and the rest of the faade was very richly decorated1 as may be seen from ,chipiez's fine restoration4 ,the inside of the vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments1 but not1 as is sometimes stated1 entirely lined with bronze4 ,it is generally supposed that these tombs1 as well as those excavated in the rock1 belong to a later date than the shaft tombs on the ,acropolis40#fa ,in the ,treasury of ,atreus there are two points that interest architects more than any others4 ,the first is the contrast between admirable decoration and hugely primitive stonework2 and the other is the fact that the annulary courses forming the domed and circular chamber have this particular character1 that the lateral joints of the stones hardly tend at all towards the centre4 ,moreover1 again and again the stones are separated by a space1 and this interval is filled up with small rubble which seems to have been pressed together with the greatest care4 ,these irregular courses1 whose inside diameter grows less and less as the circular wall grows higher and higher1 forms at last a sort of pointed dome over the great tomb4 ,m4 ,degrand says very well3 8,a vault of these proportions must count as a memorable work4 ,its construction here and there makes use of colossal stones1 and it subsists almost intact after more than thirty centuries of existence4 ,at a pinch its architect and workmen could have erected some masonry bridges in accord with the same technical method40 ,in wide arches of this sort the resistance of good mortars would have been called upon to play the leading part2 but in arches of narrow span the stones could have been used dry1 and such arches may well have displaced many a primitive footway of logs that rested on stone piers4 ,the ,egyptians built some real arches1 not with long stones carefully shaped into segments of a circle1 such as we find in some ,chinese bridges 7pp4 #cac-ad71 but with hewn blocks whose joints converged toward a common centre4 ,in ,ethiopia1 for example1 in one of the pyramids of ,meroe1 there is a semicircular arch composed of voussoirs2 and two pyramids at ,gebel ,barkel have arched porticoes with voussoirs that tend to one point4 ,their shapes differ1 one arch being pointed and the other round-headed4#fb ,the pyramids of ,gebel ,barkel are puny in style1 and belong to a very late date in old ,egyptian history4 ,as we have seen1 a triangular arch may be studied above the ,lion ,gate at ,mycenae4 ,triangular arches are uncommon1 but ,brangwyn has chosen a good example of a much later date from ,kashmr4 ,the builders found it easier to set up a triangular scaffold than a rounded one4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,kashm,r3 ,a ,,primitive ,,bridge ,,with ,,triangular ,,arches ,as for the semicircular arch1 early examples of it have been discovered in ,asia ,minor1 among the ruins of ,phrygian cities2 in ,acarnania1 the most westerly province of ancient ,greece2 and also in that part of ,central ,italy where the ,etruscans1 by their powerful civilization1 heralded ,rome4 ,it was in ,etruria that ,rome cradled her infancy1 for she borrowed from the ,etruscans many of her building methods and many of her civil institutions1 both religious and political4 ,among the gleanings that she harvested we find the round-headed arch1 which became a symbol of ,roman conquest and colonisation4 ,perhaps it was employed at ,rome for the first time in those great sewers1 extant still1 which were attributed to the statesmanship of ,lucumo ,tarquinius1 the legendary man of wealth who with his wife and retinue migrated in a splendid manner from ,etruria and became a ,roman citizen4 ,if the sewers were built about #fjj years ,b4,c41 then the history of round-headed vaults1 as ,rome collected from many nations the toll of enlightened obedience1 extended over more than a thousand years4 ,in the next chapter we shall try to understand the ,roman genius1 but here we must recall to mind two preliminary points3 one is the aboriginal arch of tree-trunks that ,csar found in ,gaulish bridges 7pp4 #gj1 #gb71 the other is the fact that the ,romans left in ,britain a version of their round-headed arch that is simpler and more rustic than any other4 ,it was copied frequently by medival bridge-builders1 and to-day many of the copies are known locally as ,roman4 ,brangwyn represents one of these imitations in ,harold's ,bridge at ,waltham ,abbey4 ,perhaps this bridge may date from ,harold's time1 but it is a feeble thing in comparison with the ,roman example near ,colne1 ,clitheroe1 whose simple and effective structure is bolder in aspect than the ,new ,port at ,lincoln1 a genuine ,roman gateway4 ,there is but one arch in the ,roman bridge near ,colne1 and its voussoirs have no masonry above them1 the footway being protected by large cobbles which are easy to displace when they become outworn4 ,perhaps the width of this bridge may have been great enough for ,roman wheels and ,british chariots1 but ,i doubt if a coster with his cart would make the crossing4 ,along the ancient tracks of ,lancashire there are many single-arch bridges with a ,roman aspect1 but without an authentic air of stalwart dignity4 ,the one near ,colne looks genuinely ,roman1 while the others speak to me of a ,roman tradition enfeebled in much later times by a rather timid craftsmanship4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,sargisson has examined these bridges carefully1 and from him ,i have received some excellent photographs4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,at ,,waltham ,,abbey ,,attributed ,,to ,,harold ,a bridge belonging to the same school is to be found at ,monzie1 near ,crieff1 in ,perthshire2 there are several in ,north ,wales1 the best example being ,pandy ,old ,bridge at ,bettws-y-,coed2 and a good ,english specimen1 quite as entertaining as ,harold's ,bridge at ,waltham1 should be noted at ,hayfield4 ,nothing can be simpler than this use of a single rough ring of voussoirs2 and it justifies the inference that ,roman pontists were niggardly in ,britain1 since they stereotyped a narrow bridge without parapets1 and erected no tremendous aqueduct and no bridge of enduring fame1 such as we find elsewhere in ,europe4 ,if ,rome had foreseen the future history of ,britain1 and had given way to jealousy1 she could not have been more parsimonious in her ,british bridge-building4 ,,footnotes3 #cd ,the orang in the ,eastern islands1 for example1 and the chimpanzee in ,africa1 build platforms on which they sleep4 #ce ,white of ,selborne notes this fact4 ,and ,darwin notes two others of equal interest4 ,he says3 8,the orang is known to cover itself at night with the leaves of the ,pandanus2 and ,brehm states that one of his baboons used to protect itself from the heat of the sun by throwing a straw mat over its head4 ,in these several habits we probably see the first steps towards some of the simpler arts1 such as rude architecture and dress1 as they arose among the early progenitors of man40 ,darwin refers to architecture as well as dress because of an earlier sentence on the platforms built by anthropomorphous apes4 #cf ,but for this habit we should be less horrified by the acts of ,german 8culture0 in a time of war4 ,i add this note to my proofs1 ,september #bf1 #aiad4 #cg ,better in many respects1 but not in all2 for as ,darwin points out1 it was the self-condoning mind of man1 not the instinct of any brute beast1 that came to use infanticide as a custom4 8,the instincts of the lower animals are never so perverted as to lead them regularly to destroy their own offspring40 ,only arguments can choose and approve unnatural habits4 #ch 8,daily ,telegraph10 ,september #h1 #aiac1 p4 #e4 #ci 8,a ,book of ,north ,wales10 by ,s4 ,baring-,gould1 pp4 #b-c4 #dj ,these calculations can be studied at the ,british ,museum side by side with an excellent model of ,stonehenge4 ,on the supposition that ,stonehenge was a sun-temple1 its date has been astronomically determined as about #afhj ,b4,c41 with a possible error of two centuries either way4 #da ,emiland ,gauthey1 8,trait de la ,construction des ,ponts10 ,a4,d4 #ahji-ahaf4 #db 8,the ,travels of ,marco ,polo40 ,everyman's ,library1 p4 #cae4 ,it is to be remembered that ,marco ,polo's 8paces0 are geometric4 #dc ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin's 8,essay on ,bridges40 #dd ,for criss-cross piers1 see ,index4 #de ,forked boughs were used in the building of roofed walls1 and bent trees in the building of gabled cabins4 #df ,sir ,ray ,lankester1 8,daily ,telegraph10 ,august #bg1 #aiac1 p4 #f4 #dg ,robert ,munro's 8,archology and ,false ,antiquities10 p4 #ab4 #dh ,tacitus remarks of these wild tribesmen3 8,they are accustomed to make artificial caves in the ground1 and they cover them with great heaps of dung1 so as to form a shelter during the winter1 and a storehouse for the produce of the fields4 ,for in such dwellings they moderate excessive cold1 and if at any time an enemy should come1 he ravages the parts that he can see1 but either discovers not such places as are invisible1 and subterraneous1 or else the delay which search would cause is a protection to the inmates40 #di ,boyd ,dawkins1 8,the ,british ,lake ,village10 #ahie2 ,sidney ,o4 ,addy1 8,the ,evolution of the ,english ,house02 8,the ,times10 ,september #ai1 #ahie2 8,manchester ,guardian10 ,september #bb1 #ahif2 and ,a4 ,bulleid1 8,somersetshire ,arch4 and ,nat4 ,hist4 ,society's ,proceedings10 #ahid1 reprinted in #ahie4 #ej ,the making of a ,roman road was a formidable enterprise4 ,h4 ,m4 ,scarth1 in his 8,roman ,britain10 relates how a portion of the ,fosse ,road at ,radstock1 about ten miles south-west of ,bath1 was opened in ,february1 #ahha1 and that its work showed the following details in constructive method4 #a4 ,pavimentum1 or foundation1 fine earth1 hard beaten in4 #b4 ,statumen1 or bed of the road1 composed of large stones1 sometimes mixed with mortar4 #c4 ,ruderatio1 or small stones well mixed with mortar4 #d4 ,nucleus1 formed by mixing lime1 chalk1 and pounded brick or tile2 or gravel1 sand1 and lime mixed with clay4 #e4 ,upon this completed foundation the summum dorsum1 or surface of the paved road1 was laid with infinite care4 ,so the men of a day built roads for the centuries1 and were proud to be servants to the unborn4 #ea ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin4 ,if any reader wants to continue the study of timber bridges1 let him turn to ,colonel ,emy and to the huge volumes compiled and edited by ,hosking4 ,but it is clear enough that timber bridges belong to the past2 in these days they are ludicrously out of joint with the needs of social life1 owing to the rapid advance which 8progress0 has made in artillery1 in high explosives1 in airships1 and in aeroplanes4 #eb ,these date from about the year #ahaf1 when ,galashiels ,bridge was constructed4 ,it was only #aab ft4 in length4 ,but in #ahai ,telford designed the ,menai ,bridge1 in which the span of the catenary is #egj ft4 and the dip #dc ft4 ,the success of this work gave rise to much imitation1 and in several places very great projects were carried through with success4 ,at ,pesth1 for instance1 the span was #fff ft41 and at ,fribourg #hgj ft4 ,but engineers1 having no imagination and but little prudence1 went too far1 so they had to retreat from their cocksureness4 ,soon it became evident that a long suspended bridge of metal suffered much from the lateral oscillation caused by wind1 and that its flexibility made it unfit for railway traffic4 8,the platform rose up as a wave in front of any rapidly advancing load1 and the masses in motion produced stresses much greater than those which could result from the same weights when at rest4 ,moreover1 the kinetic effect of the oscillations produced by bodies of men marching1 or even by impulses due to wind1 may give rise to strains which cannot be foreseen1 and which have actually caused the failure of some suspension bridges4 ,on the #afth of ,april1 #ahej1 a suspension bridge at ,angers gave way when #dhg soldiers were passing1 and of these #bbf were killed by the accident40--,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin4 #ec ,from information kindly supplied by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson4 #ed 8,a ,voyage to ,south ,america10 ,antonio de ,ulloa1 translated from the ,spanish by ,john ,adams1 ,fourth ,edition1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #afd4 #ee ,such caves are frequent on the coast of ,pembroke1 in the ,little ,england beyond ,wales4 ,lydstep ,arch is a far-famed example1 and the ,devil's ,punch ,bowl1 opened within the area of a prehistoric camp by the falling in of the roof1 has an archway to the sea4 8,bocherston ,mere is a very small aperture1 which1 like a widening funnel1 spreads out below into a large cavern4 ,during the prevalence of gales from the south-west1 the sea1 driven by wind and tide in at the arched entrance1 is ejected through the upper hole in jets of foam and spray some forty or fifty feet high1 like geyser spouts4 ,the limestone naturally pierced with caverns lends itself to be thus riddled and rent40--,s4 ,baring-,gould1 8,book of ,south ,wales10 p4 #aif4 #ef ,there is no need to multiply examples1 for every reader must have seen how rocks have been vaulted1 and lands tunnelled1 by underground rivers4 ,at one part of her course1 for example1 the ,guadiana flows underground for twenty miles1 forming a vast bridge above which #ajj1jjj sheep can pasture4 #eg ,when the glacial theory of their formation was young and argumentative it encountered at first a sneering opposition from ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 the famous geologist1 who in #ahfd wrote as follows to ,sir ,william ,denison3 8,in my anniversary address to the ,geological ,society you would see the pains ,i have taken to moderate the icemen1 who would excavate all the rock-basins by glaciers eating their way into solid rocks40 ,but he failed to 8moderate the icemen02 and ,sir ,roderick himself1 a few years before his death1 gave what is called 8a tardy acquiescence0 to their evidence4 ,he became a frigid iceman4 ,as ,dr4 ,robert ,munro has said1 evidence which may be clear and convincing to one trained mind may not have the same effect on another--a fact which should at least warn us to be tolerant in matters of opinion4 #eh ,dates in ,egyptian history are obscure1 but these give the period approximately4 #ei 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 #aath edition1 article 8,arpino40 #fj ,m4 ,degrand1 in his 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 draws attention to the fact that arches of this elementary sort have been discovered in ,mexico where they represent a dead civilization to which no date can be assigned4 ,degrand draws his information from two books2 8,histoire du ,royaume de ,quito10 par ,don ,juan de ,velasco1 ,paris1 #ahdj1 and 8,monuments anciens du ,mexique10 par de ,waldeck et ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,paris1 #ahff4 ,at ,palanqu1 in a building supposed to be a temple of the sun1 a large bay that opens into the sanctuary has an elliptic arch formed with courses of dressed stone that project one beyond the other3 8un arc surbaiss form d'assises de pierres de taille poses avec une forte saillie les unes par rapport aux autres40 #fa 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 article 8,mycenae02 see also ,sir ,william ,smith1 8,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography02 and note what ,m4 ,degrand says in his 8,ponts en ,maonnerie40 #fb ,see ,e4 ,degrand1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #abd2 and see also the 8,trait d',architecture10 by ,lonce ,reynaud4 ,illustration3 ,,smyrna3 ,,roman ,,bridge ,,and ,,aqueduct--,,the ,,pointed ,,arches ,,are ,,eastern ,,restorations ,,chapter ,,the ,,third ,a ,,few ,,words ,,on ,,the ,,roman ,,genius ,i ,what are we to think of the ,roman bridges and aqueducts8 ,are we to be men in our attitude toward them8 or shall we try to see them with the unfriendly eyes of ,grecian supermen8 ,it seems to me that many ,grecian supermen are terrible persons in their criticism of architecture4 ,often they are so cocksure in their contempt for ,roman art that they write down their verdicts without any thought1 and also in uncouth ,english1 as if a slatternly habit of mind were a fit companion for their proclaimed belief in the supremacy of ,greek masterpieces4 ,years ago1 in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 one of these superlative judges told the world that ,roman bridges and aqueducts 8were really of a more engineering than architectural character1 being in the main utilitarian40 ,what does this ungainly language mean8 ,was a ,roman temple less utilitarian than a ,roman aqueduct8 less needful as a part of the national life8 ,why should a lover of ,greek art write absurdly on the ,roman genius8 ,i am told1 for instance1 by another ,grecian1 that the ,pont du ,gard1 a ,roman masterpiece1 three or four leagues from ,nmes1 in ,france1 has 8rough masonry40 ,what next8 ,a very strong man1 a ,sandow1 in comparison with a ,tom ,thumb1 is a man of rough muscle and sinew1 and if ,tom ,thumb is to be our standard of symmetry and grace1 then ,sandow is a masterful error in proportion and vitality4 ,to describe the ,pont du ,gard as 8rough0 is to be a pigmy in a very foolish attitude to ,roman power2 and it proves also that the critic has a defective appreciation of his own vaunted hobby1 the might and magnificence of ,greek architecture4 ,does anyone know why ,british writers are reluctant to admire in art those virile gifts of the spirit that win victories and promise a great future8 ,why is it that our criticisms are honeyed with sweet phrases8 ,we prattle about 8tender sentiment10 and 8exquisite refinement10 and 8gracious and gentle tact10 as if these female qualities only and alone could make fame permanent in the arena of the centuries4 ,is a passion for 8refinement0 to turn us into valetudinarians8 ,surely the ,roman genius1 in a supreme monument such as the ,pont du ,gard1 is the very tonic for which we ought to have an inborn care and liking8 ,yet some professors of taste1 being devotees of the epicene1 condemn it as a 8rough0 genius1 just as bad climbers revile the ,alps4 ,when ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau visited the ,pont du ,gard he was awed into silence by the immensity of the three arcades4 ,for the first time in his life he understood the grandeur of the ,roman spirit in adventurous achievement4 8,le ,pont du ,gard10 he wrote in his 8,confessions10 8tait le premier ouvrage des ,romains que j'eusse vu4 ,je m'attendais un monument digne des mains qui l'avaient construit2 pour le coup1 l'objet passa mon attente1 et ce fut la seule fois en ma vie4 ,il n'appartenait qu'aux ,romains de produire cet effet4 ,l'aspect de ce simple et noble ouvrage me frappa d'autant plus1 qu'il est au milieu d'un dsert o le silence et la solitude rendent l'objet plus frappant et l'admiration plus vive2 car ce prtendu pont n'tait qu'un aqueduc4 ,on se demande quelle force a transport ces pierres normes si loin de toute carrire1 et a runi les bras de tant de milliers d'hommes dans un lieu o il n'en habite aucun8 ,je parcourus les trois tages de ce superbe difice1#fc que le respect m'empchait presque d'oser fouler sous mes pieds4 ,le retentissement de mes pas sous ces immenses votes me faisait croire entendre la forte voix de ceux qui les avaient bties4 ,je me perdais comme un insecte dans cette immensit3 je sentais1 tout en me faisant petit1 je ne sais quoi qui m'levait l'me1 et je me disais en soupirant3 #8,que ne suis-je n ,romain6' ,je restai l plusieurs heures dans une contemplation ravissante2 je m'en revins distrait et rveur1 et cette rverie ne fut pas favorable ,mme4 ,w---4444 ,elle avait bien song me prmunir contre les filles de ,montpellier1 mais non pas contre le ,pont du ,gard6 ,on ne s'avise jamais de tout40 ,i give this quotation in the original ,french because the flavour of ,rousseau cannot be translated4 ,as well try to keep the flavour of champagne by mixing this wine with water4 ,besides1 ,i wish to contrast the elusive vanity of ,rousseau with the alert and appealing manliness of ,charles ,kingsley1 another ardent devotee of the ,pont du ,gard4 ,in #ahfd he wrote as follows to his wife3--#fd 8,my first impression of the ,pont du ,gard was one of simple fear4 #8,it was so high that it was dreadful1' as ,ezekiel says4 ,then ,i said1 again and again1 #8,a great people and a strong4 ,there hath been none like before them1 nor shall be again for many generations4' ,as1 after fifteen miles of the sea of mulberry1 olive1 and vine1 dreary from its very artificial perfection1 we turned the corner of the limestone glen1 and over the deep blue rock-pool1 saw that thing hanging between earth and heaven1 the blue sky and green woods showing through its bright yellow arches1 and all to carry a cubic yard of water to ,nismes1 twenty miles off1 for public baths and sham sea-fights 7naumachi7 in the amphitheatre1 which even ,charlemagne1 when he burnt the ,moors out of it1 could not destroy6--,then ,i felt the brute greatness of that ,roman people2 and an awe fell upon me as it may have fallen on poor ,croc1 the ,rook1 king of the ,alemans--but that is a long story--when he came down and tried to destroy this city of the seven hills1 and ended in being shown about in an iron cage as ,the ,rook4 ,but ,i doubt not when he and his wild ,alemans came down to the ,pont du ,gard they said it was the work of dwarfs--of the devil8 ,we walked up to the top1 through groves of ,ilex1 ,smilax1 and ,coronella 7the first time ,i have seen it growing71 and then we walked across on the top4 ,the masonry is wonderful1 and instead of employing the mountain limestone of the hills1 they have brought the most splendid ,bath oolite#fe from the hills opposite4 ,there are the marks cut by the old fellows--horse-hoofs1 hatchets1 initials1 etc41 as fresh as paint4 ,the ,emperor 7#ahfd7 has had it all repaired from the same quarries1 stone for stone4 ,now1 after #afjj years1 they are going to bring the same water into ,nismes by it4 ,when we crossed1 ,i was in a new world4 ,genista anglica1 the prickly needle furze of our commons 7rare with us71 is in great golden bushes2 and box1 shrubby thyme1 a wonderful blue lily1 bee-orchis and asters1 white1 yellow1 purple 7which won't dry1 for the leaves fall off74 ,then wild rosemary1 and twenty more plants ,i never saw4 ,we went below into a natural park of ilex and poplar 7two or three sorts71 and watched such butterflies and the bridge1 till ,c---- said1 #8,this is too perfect to last1' which frightened me and made me pray4 ,and there was reason--for such a day ,i never had in my life of beauty and wonder 444 and yet there is one thing more glorious and precious than the whole material universe--and that is a woman's love44440 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pont ,,du ,,gard ,,from ,,above ,,the ,,first ,,tier2 ,,showing ,,below ,,the ,,modern ,,bridge ,,for ,,general ,,traffic ,,over ,,the ,,gardon ,a classic tradition says that the huge stones in the ,pont du ,gard were joined together by iron clamps4 ,is this true8 ,each iron clamp1 if any were used by the masons1 connected a voussoir to an interior archstone4#ff ,from time to time the ,romans employed iron rods bent at the ends and fastened into stones with molten lead2 such rods have been discovered among the ruins of a ,roman bridge over the ,north ,tyne1 at ,chollerford1 near ,hexham4 ,this was a bridge with a wooden superstructure1 probably1 as no voussoir has been found among the litter of pier-stones4 ,the ,pont du ,gard is very tall2 it soars1 and to a height that exceeds forty-seven metres4 ,the first tier has six arches1 the second has eleven1 the third has thirty-five4 ,in the middle tier the length is #beg m4 #ij cm4 ,note1 too1 that the architectural centre of the design is determined by the rocky channel of the ,gardon2 we find it not in the centre of the bridge but on the north in the arch under which the river flows4 ,it is the biggest arch of all1 with a span of #be m4 #cj cm41 while the neighbour on each side is narrower by nearly six metres4 ,the other bays of the first arcade dwindle in span to #ae m4 #ge cm4#fg ,as to the centre of the second tier1 it corresponds with that of the first1 for the largest vault is above the river2 it carries four little arches of the third arcade1 while its companions support only three4 ,some critics see nothing more than the unequal size of these arcades1 when the real point is to find the architectural centre1 whence the composition radiates1 majestic and imperious4 ,the topmost arches and their crowning dignify the whole structure with a completeness akin to that which is given to a long range of columns by a fine entablature and cornice4 ,and we must note the symbol of prosperity--a phallus--carved twice in low-relief on the ,pont du ,gard4 ,on the western side it graces a springing voussoir in the third arch of the second tier2 and there is another on the keystone of the greatest arch1 where the river passes4 ,here the emblem is a double phallus1 and when it is touched by sunlight it looks as young as hope1 not as uncertain as prosperity4 ,we cannot put a date on this ,roman masterpiece1 because in this matter there are differences of opinion4 ,m4 ,mnard1 historian of ,nmes1 attributes the work to ,agrippa1 son-in-law of ,augustus1 who is said to have ordered its construction about nineteen years before the ,birth of ,christ4 ,the architecture belongs to the ,tuscan order4 ,its vaults are semicircular1 and spring from ledges1 or imposts1 about #ej centimetres high1 and as much in projection4 ,there are four parallel rings of stone in the vaults of the first tier1 and three in the second1 while the third tier has either one or two4 ,this ,roman method of building the under surface of an arch1 by laying stones in parallel bands or rings1 side by side1 but not bonded together1 was copied in the ,middle ,ages 7p4 #hb74 ,one point more3 the water channel of the aqueduct1 placed on top of the third arcade1 is #a m4 #cj cm4 wide and #a m4 #fj cm4 high2 it is nearly blocked up with a thick deposit of lime1 but when this substance is detached we find on the side walls a deep layer of cement coloured red4 ,the bed of this channel is a solid floor1 #bb cm4 in thickness1 and its component parts are small pebbles mixed with lime and gritty sand4 ,like other antique monuments1 the ,pont du ,gard has been ravaged by the brutality of mankind4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century1 for instance1 during years of religious warfare1 so called1 the ,pont du ,gard was often crowded with fugitives and with troops1 who made a footway for themselves along the upstream side above the first arcade by means of a strong platform corbelled out from new imposts4 ,over this road cavalry and artillery passed at full speed1 not only shaking the bridge1 but causing the topmost tier to develop a curve which is still noticeable4 ,at last the province of ,languedoc interfered1 and in #afgj careful restoration was begun4 ,years later1 in #agdc1 the tats gnraux decided that a good highway should be built up against the eastern side of the ,pont du ,gard2 and this new bridge1 finished in #agdg1 was perhaps justified by its utility1 though it harmed a classic monument4 ,there have been a good many modern restorations1 and one day the aqueduct itself may be brought into use again1 in accordance with the wishes expressed by a great many persons4#fh ,,ii ,france happens to be rich in fine relics of ,roman bridge-building4 ,among her antique monuments there are remains of three aqueducts1 at ,frjus and ,lyon and ,luynes2 and every pontist has seen photographs of the aqueduct at ,lambse1 in the department of ,constantine1 ,algeria4 ,at ,vaison1 in ,vaucluse1 over the river ,ouvze1 we find an important ,roman bridge1 built on two rocks1 with a single arch not less than thirty metres in span2 and along one embankment is a range of tall and narrow arches that start out from the abutment of the bridge4 ,the ,pont de ,vaison is not in all respects representative of the best ,roman work1 for its voussoirs1 instead of being rimmed and extra-dossed1 are fitted into the spandrils 7p4 #bhb74 ,i do not know the date of this bridge1 but ,vaison descends from a famous ,roman town1 ,vasio by name1 mentioned by ,mela 7ii4 #e7 as one of the richest towns of the ,narbonensis4 ,it is common knowledge--or it should be--that the ,romans adorned some of their bridges with a triumphal arch2 and it happens1 by rare good fortune1 that ,france owns a small example of this ,roman pride4 ,it is the ,pont ,flavien at ,saint-,chamas1 which in a single arch1 forty-two feet wide1 spans the rocky bed of the ,touloubre4 ,at each entrance there is a triumphal arch seven metres high1 flanked at each side by two ,corinthian pilasters1 upon the summit of which the entablature rests4 ,there is a stone lion at each extremity of the entablature2 it stands rampant and looks out into the open country1 as if to symbolise for ever the wakeful power of ,roman thoroughness4 ,only one of the four lions belongs to ,roman workmanship2 the others are much younger1 and their proportions are bigger4 ,this bridge1 again1 which ,i believe to be unique1 bears an inscription1 from which we learn that it was founded by a certain ,l4 ,donnius ,flavus1 a flamen of ,rome and of ,augustus4 ,but the name ,augustus was a title of veneration given by custom to all the ,csars1 so that ,donnius ,flavus and his bridge have uncertain dates4 ,and now we will take a devious walk along some ,roman roads through ,gard-,hrault1 to see what we shall find in the way of antique bridges4 ,from north-east to south-west the region is crossed by the ,via ,domitiana1 which runs from ,lyons to the ,pyrenees1 going over the ,rhne at ,arles1 and passing by ,nmes1 ,pont ,ambroise1 ,substantion1 ,saint-,thibry1 ,bziers1 and ,narbonne4 ,at ,pont ,ambroise the river ,vidourle is partly spanned by the ruins of a very picturesque ,roman bridge1 but its points of interest belong to an earlier chapter 7p4 #hb74 ,near ,castelnau1 or ,substantion1 the ,via ,domitiana crossed the river ,lez by a bridge now wholly destroyed2 its abutments can be seen when the water is low1 but they add nothing to our knowledge of ,roman masonry4 ,in medival times this bridge was called the ,pont ,lairou1 ,lero being the ,latin name of the river ,lez4 ,not far from ,saint-,thibry the ,via passed over the ,hrault at that point where1 in the seventeenth century 7about the year #afgh71 the river was split into halves by a great flood1 which formed the le des ,bndictins2 the ,roman bridge is on the western branch of this divided river4 ,four arches exist1 but originally there were nine1 with spans ranging from ten to twelve metres4 ,the piers have cutwaters both upstream and downstream1 with circular bays nearly two metres high for the relief of spate water4 ,the facing stones are long1 and the filling is local volcanic rubble4 ,this bridge was wrecked by a flood before the year #aecf4 ,the ,via ,domitiana was carried over the ,orb1 and then1 following the ancient road of ,colombiers1 it crossed the ,capestang by a ,roman viaduct called the ,pons ,selmis or ,pontserme1 which in #adcj was repaired with #ejj quarters of stone #b pans long by #a pans thick and wide4 ,it was a tremendous viaduct1 its length being #aejj metres2 the width did not exceed three metres4 ,in the sixteenth century it fell in for want of repair4 ,at the present time only an isolated arch remains1 with fragments of two others4 ,in a document of ,a4,d4 #ghb this bridge is called ,pons ,septimus4 ,another ,roman road left ,nmes in the direction of ,larzac1 and near ,lodve apparently it joined the ancient road from ,saint-,thibry to ,millau2 at ,sommires it crossed the ,vidourle by a magnificent ,roman bridge which had no fewer than seventeen arches4 ,to-day only eight arches are visible1 the others having been buried under a great accumulation of soil on both banks4#fi ,yet the ,pont de ,sommires1 though deprived of nine arches1 has a high place among the ,roman monuments4 ,i have now to mention a ,roman byway that branched out from the main road on the right bank of the ,vidourle1 at a little distance from ,sommires2 it ran toward ,substantion1 passing by ,castries and joining the ,via ,domitiana near ,vendargues4 ,at ,boisseron it crossed the river ,bnovie1 a small tributary of the ,vidourle1 by a bridge which to-day is extant1 though disfigured by modern work4 ,it has a shelving parapet and road1 but we cannot describe it as a gabled bridge 7p4 #bg74 ,there are five arches of unequal size1 the piers on the upstream side have cutwaters1 and rectangular bays above the cutwaters ease the pressure of floods4 ,frank ,brangwyn has drawn for us the wreck of a ,roman bridge over the ,loire1 at ,brives-,charensac1 in the neighbourhood of ,puy2 and the big arch1 which springs from water-level1 is particularly interesting because it has a double ring of voussoirs4 ,the smaller arch belongs to the ,middle ,ages1 for it has a pointed shape4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,loire ,,at ,,brives-,,charensac1 ,,france ,we pass on to ,spain1 which has been called the land of bridges and aqueducts4 ,a pontist may live there for many years and be happy all the time4 ,even a hurried author1 who visits the antiquity of ,spain as a mere journalist1 and who mimics vainly the travel books of ,alexandre ,dumas1 finds that the many bridges put some thoroughness into his own work1 acting as a drag on the far-sought and dear-bought liveliness with which the million may be charmed4 ,there is the case of ,s4 ,r4 ,crockett1 who was commissioned to be lively and daring among the ,spaniards1 so he published in #aijc 8,the ,adventurer in ,spain10 a poor copy both of ,borrow and of ,dumas4 8,i would like to write a book--copiously illustrated--upon ,spanish bridges alone10 he told his readers in a moment of zeal1 adding briskly1 8that is1 if ,i thought anybody could be found to buy it40 ,in one passage thought and enthusiasm very nearly broke loose from the discipline of 8a popular style03-- 8,many bridges1 too1 there were--wonderful in a country where1 as in ,spain1 there are neither roads to travel upon nor waters to cross--nor even1 it may be added1 travellers to cross them4 ,yet in our first hour we had passed1 we five apprentice ,carlists1 at least as many admirable bridges--clean-shaped1 practical1 suited to the place and to the landscape as a becoming dress fits a pretty woman4 ,this is a rare thing in bridges1 and one which is almost never to be found in new countries1 where a bridge is invariably an outrage upon the surrounding scenery4 ,queer bridges we found--triangular bridges1 unnecessary bridges1 of wood and stone and straw and stubble--but never ugly bridges40 ,mr4 ,crockett did not understand the rivers of ,spain1 many of which after a storm leap from their dry beds into raging torrents1 and give rough-and-tumble lessons to bridge-builders4 ,from ,roman times to our own1 these freakish waterways have inspired noble work1 that cannot well be rated at too high a level4 ,at ,mrida alone a pontist can dream over the past for several months1 not only studying the remains of three ,roman aqueducts1 upon which storks hold their parliaments1 but making friends with two ,roman bridges1 one of which puts the ,roman genius in scale with the ,guadiana4 ,it is a huge structure1 not less than #ghj metres in length1 with sixty-four arches of granite4 ,books of reference mention eighty-one arches1 but this number includes the relief bays for floods tunnelled through the piers above the cutwaters4 ,some writers believe that the greater bridge at ,mrida was built under ,trajan1 while others give it to ,augustus1 who founded ,mrida as a home of rest for the veteran soldiers of his last campaign4 ,in #fhf the ,visigoths restored this bridge2 in #afaj it was repaired by ,philip ,,iii2 in #ahab1 during the siege of ,badajoz1 seventeen of the arches were wrecked in order to close the river4 ,at the northern end we find a ,roman castle1 now in ruins1 so we are able to study a battle-bridge dating from those times when ,rome turned wars into colonies4 ,the ,roman bridges of ,spain may be divided into five classes3-- #a4 ,those which are low and many-arched1 as at ,mrida and ,salamanca4 #b4 ,those which have two or three arches with shelving parapets and roads1 as at ,alcantarilla#gj and also near ,villa del ,rio2#ga #c4 ,one or two with a single arch1 as at ,ronda2 #d4 ,several in which ,roman and ,moorish masonry are combined1 as at ,crdova2 and #e4 ,there is one ,roman bridge so lofty that its parapet is separated from the river-bed by a distance of more than fifty-nine metres4 ,i refer to the famous ,puente ,trajan over 8the melancholy ,tagus0 at ,alcntara4 ,this herculean masterpiece has six arches1 his length is a hundred and eighty-eight metres1 and the roadway is eight metres wide and quite level4 ,a triumphal archway thirteen metres high stands in the middle1 but ,i regard its ,roman origin as doubtful1 as the design is not quite in scale with the majesty of the bridge4 ,who can say how many writers have tried to describe the ,puente ,trajan8 ,no description can summon up before the mind an image of his marvellous power and nobility1 for these qualities produce a feeling of awe and take from us the wish to write4 ,that he came from an architect and was put together by common masons1 huge stone after huge stone1 is a fact very hard to believe1 as only two things in this bridge mark the littleness of man3 one is the archway1 that fails to triumph with a ,roman spirit1 and the other is an arch of modern workmanship4 ,everything else recalls to my mind a good saying that fell from ,marshal ,ney when he noticed in the aqueduct of ,segovia the startling difference between the craft of modern masons and the ancient ,roman art in thorough construction4 ,in the fifteenth century some vaults of the ,segovian aqueduct were destroyed by wars1 and ,isabella the ,catholic had them rebuilt in the most careful manner4 ,yet the work was not careful enough1 for in less than three hundred years the reconstruction had to be renewed1 while the ,roman art remained youthful and immovable4 ,in #ahjh ,marshal ,ney was greatly impressed by these facts1 and1 pointing to the first arch of the modern portion1 he said3 8,c'est ici que commence le travail des hommes40 ,even the people of ,segovia feel that their soaring aqueduct has in it something far beyond their reach1 something grand enough to be called superhuman4 ,custom has deadened their admiration1 of course1 has enabled them even to build silly little houses amid the shadows thrown by their antique monument2 but yet they doubt the human origin of such perfect masonry and give it to the ,evil ,one1 who comforts himself with a tremendous deed of architecture whenever he is greatly bored by the feeble gullibility of mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,segovia ,,in ,,spain1 ,,with ,,modern ,,houses ,,clustered ,,around ,,its ,,base ,nothing is more difficult than to express in words this unhuman character of the best ,roman bridges1 which reveal eternal manhood and courage in the work done by the men of a day4 ,for instance1 here is the ,alcntara over the rocky gorge of the ,tagus4 ,he was erected for ,trajan by ,caius ,julius ,lacer2 and we know that ,lacer was buried quite close to his bridge1 and that his tomb remains on the left bank4 ,these facts are trite and tame1 but when we turn from them to the supreme bridge we pass from bald history into a creation that seems miraculous4 8,it is long before the eye can learn to grasp his#gb full dimensions2 all around him is rock and mountain1 there is nothing to give scale4 ,we are warned of this 444 by the camera1 for the lens will not look at so wide an angle4444 ,presently1 as we peer over the parapet into the depths of the gulf below us1 we realise that there is a man down there walking by the waterside1 with a dog that seems to bark though we cannot hear the sound4 ,slowly our eyes measure the voussoir above which we are standing2 it is a twelve-ton block of granite2 and the huge vault with its eighty such voussoirs seems to widen and deepen beneath us as we gaze2 for the brook that it spans is the river ,tagus1 whose waters have their source three hundred miles away4 8,thus hint by hint we have pieced together the astonishing conclusion that the span of each of the two great central arches is rather wider 444 than the interior of the dome of ,st4 ,paul's2 and that the height of the railway lines above the ,firth of ,forth is twenty feet less than that of the road above the ,tagus6 ,what must the scene be like in winter1 when the waters are foaming against the springer stones one hundred and forty feet above their summer level6 ,how vast the strength of these massive piers which for eighteen hundred years have defied the fury of the floods6 8,where now is the great ,via ,lata that ran from ,gades to ,rome8 ,where are the famous cities which it threaded on the way8 ,the vine and olive grow in the forum of ,italica1 and the ,miracles of ,mrida are a dwelling for the stork4 ,but here at the wildest point of all its wild journey our eyes may still behold a memorial which nature has assailed in vain3 #8,pontem perpetui mansurum in scula mundi'2--the monument of ,caius ,julius ,lacer1 more enduring even than ,wren's40#gc ,many persons believe that ,wellington's troops1 in #ahji1 blew up one of the smaller arches1 but this is untrue4 ,the history of the ruined arch has been given by ,larousse4 ,it was cut on two occasions4 ,in #abac the ,saracens destroyed it1 and ,charles the ,fifth rebuilt it in #aedc4 ,two hundred and sixty-five years passed1 and then the ,french in #ahjh were compelled by the policy of war to wreck the same arch1 and ,i have already described how ,wellington bridged the gap with a netting of ropes--a suspension bridge of ships' cables--covered with planks 7p4 #af74 ,this temporary work was displaced by a wooden arch1 which in #ahah was burnt down2 and between this date and the ,carlist wars no restoration seems to have been attempted4 8,the ,spaniards were long content with a ferry10 says ,mr4 ,wigram4 ,but now they have renewed the arch 8in its native granite1 a feat of which they are justly proud4 ,only1 seeing that no cement at all was used in the original building1 it was really a little too bad of them to insist upon pointing all the joints60 ,true2 but the workmen were modern1 not ,roman1 and it was humility on their part to advertise their cement1 their most evident strength4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,at ,,zaragoza1 ,,partly ,,roman ,the ,moorish words ,al ,kntarah mean ,,the ,,bridge1 and we know that the ,titanic masterpiece of ,julius ,lacer has but few rivals4 ,let us put it side by side with the most stately bridges at ,isfahan in ,persia1 whose august charm is not so masculine 7p4 #bfh72 then we do honour to the finest pontine architecture in the world4 ,the ,alcntara is a ,king1 a ,csar1 while the two ,persian achievements are ,amazon ,queens4 ,several bridges in ,spain have the honorary title of being ,roman1 either because they exhibit a combination of ,roman and ,moorish masonry like the sixteen-arched example at ,crdova1 or because they may have in them some ,roman workmanship1 like the ,puente de ,piedra over the ,ebro at ,zaragoza1 which has seven arches and six very massive piers1 far too ungainly to be ,roman4 ,indeed this bridge dates from #adcg1 but it was built on a classical site1 and on ,roman foundations4 ,some houses give interest to the upstream side of the piers1 but their roofs do not rise above the level of the parapet4 ,as for the bridge over the ,guadalquivir at ,crdova1 it is more ,moorish than ,roman1 for most of the ,roman arches were destroyed by the eighth century1 and they were reconstructed by the ,arabs1 who established themselves at ,crdova in #gaa4 ,recently this bridge has been so much repaired that it looks almost new4 ,a big tower1 very ,moorish in style1 the ,calahorra1 keeps guard at the end remote from the town2 and the city entrance has a worn classic gateway and an elevated statue of ,saint ,raphael1 the patron saint of ,crdova4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,huge ,,defensive ,,bridge ,,at ,c,,rdova ,,in ,,spain4 ,,originally ,,roman1 ,,but ,,remodelled ,,by ,,the ,,moors ,,in ,,the ,,ninth ,,century1 ,,recently ,,so ,,much ,,repaired ,,that ,,looks ,,almost ,,new ,,iii ,a few remarks must be made on the technique of ,roman bridges and aqueducts4 ,vitruvius mentions a method known as opus quadratum in which stones were put in regular courses of headers#gd and stretchers#ge2 they were big stones1 about two feet by four feet and two feet high1 as in the ,marcian ,aqueduct dating from ,b4,c4 #ade4gf ,each stone was bordered with a draft cut one and a half inches wide1 and the middle surface was roughed with a pick4 ,this technique may be studied in the aqueducts at ,segovia and ,tarragona4 ,the arches were set back at their springing behind the imposts1 leaving ledges upon which the scaffolds rested4 ,not all the ,roman aqueducts were of stone4 ,the one named after ,nero was in brickwork of the finest kind2 and another1 the ,alexandrine1 that brought water to the ,therm of ,alexander ,severus1 was faced with bricks over concrete4 ,at ,minturn1 a town of the ,volci1 a decorative effect was given to the wall surfaces by means of coloured tufa arranged in geometrical patterns4 ,this is enough to show that the virile conservatism of ,rome did not stereotype building methods4 ,many persons believe that the ,romans built aqueducts because they were unacquainted with the hydraulic principle that water in a closed pipe finds its own level4 ,yet ,vitruvius gives an account of the leaden pipes that distributed water in ,roman towns2 and ,pliny says that this piping was used very often for rising mains to carry water to the upper floors of houses4 ,but lead pipes might burst1 and they were costly2 it was cheaper to build aqueducts1 for their materials belonged to the ,state and slave labour was in vogue4#gg ,finally1 we should pay attention to the ,roman aqueducts because they were an apprenticeship in the building of lofty and daring arches4 ,in the ,anio ,vetus1 for example1 which dates from about the year ,b4,c4 #bgb1 some of the arches rise to a height that exceeds ninety feet4 ,and any architect who conceived and brought to completion a fine aqueduct1 such as the ,pont du ,gard1 or the wonderful structure at ,segvia1 deserved to take rank with ,caius ,julius ,lacer4 ,no problem of bridge construction would have baffled his matured knowledge4 ,it is said that the earliest vaulted bridge of the ,romans was erected under the elder ,tarquin1 about six hundred years before the ,birth of ,christ4 ,emiland ,gauthey says1 for example1 8,pont ,salaro1 ,rome1 sur le ,teverone4 ,cet ouvrage1 compos de trois arches en plein cintre1 de #af1f #ba mtres1 et de deux arches plus petites1 de #f1h mtres1 fut lev sous ,tarquin l'ancien1 six cents ans avant ,j4 ,c40 ,yet there is no evidence to justify this dogmatism4 ,the bridge may have been a timber one1 like the ,pons ,sublicius4 ,it carried the ,via ,salaria over the ,anio 7,teverone7 about two and a half miles from ,rome1 and was called usually the ,pons ,salarus4 ,livy speaks of it under another name1 ,pons ,anienis1 and makes it the theatre of an immortal fight1 the one between ,manlius and a gigantic ,gaul1 ,b4,c4 #cfa4 ,in single combat ,manlius killed the barbarian1 and took a chain 7torques7 from the dead body1 and put it around his own neck1 as a proof of his victory1 winning by this act the surname of ,torquatus4 ,the ,pons ,salarus does not appear again in early history4 ,by the year ,b4,c4 #cfa it may have been made into an arched bridge of stone1 though it was not till ,b4,c4 #cac that the first aqueduct to ,rome was constructed4 ,in any case1 however1 we learn from an inscription1 which ,sir ,william ,smith accepted as authentic1 that the ,pons ,salarus was rebuilt in the sixth century ,a4,d41 by ,narses1 general and statesman1 in the reign of ,justinian4 ,if in this reconstruction any earlier work was preserved1 we must look for it in the smallest arches described by ,gauthey1 for we find narrow spans in the earliest ,roman aqueducts4 ,those of the ,marcian are only eight metres4 ,the ,ponte ,salaro existed till #ahfg1 when it was blown up during a panic caused by ,garibaldi's march to ,rome4 ,a fortified castle stood above one side of the central arch1 rising from the footway1 whose width was more than eight metres4 ,the bridge was about a hundred metres long1 and its vaults were built with exceedingly heavy stones remarkable for their bossage work4 ,a woodcut of this late ,roman bridge is given by ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin1 but it differs from the illustration in ,emiland ,gauthey's 8,trait de la ,construction des ,ponts10 ,paris1 #ahji-af1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,ponte ,,rotto ,,at ,,rome1 ,,anciently ,,the ,,pons ,,palatinus ,,or ,,senatorius ,there has been so much controversy over the antique bridges at ,rome that the steadiest head becomes giddy while reading ,palladio1 ,becker1 ,bunsen1 ,piranesi1 ,sir ,william ,smith1 and other experts4 ,perhaps we may be on safe ground when we step delicately on tiptoe into the historic environment of the ,pons ,palatinus1 a bridge which seems to have been erected in the year ,b4,c4 #agi4gh ,a good part of this bridge was rebuilt in the time of ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii 7#aegb-he71 but in #aeih it was wrecked by a terrible flood1 and people began to speak of it as the ,ponte ,rotto1 or broken bridge4 ,from ,palladio's book on architecture1 printed at ,venice in #aegj1 we learn that the ,pons ,palatinus1 or ,senatorius1 was known also as the ,ponte ,santa-,maria1 so ,rome must have been horrified when a classic bridge recently dedicated to the ,virgin was overthrown by a spate1 which spared the ,pons ,cestius and the ,pons ,fabricius4 ,the arches of this bridge were rather more than twenty-four metres in span1 and their large archivolts were boldly prominent4 ,the piers1 about eight metres thick1 were protected by angular cutwaters1 and above each cutwater was a tall niche flanked by pilasters whose capitals touched the broad cornice that framed the spandrils in a vigorous manner4 ,each spandril was ornamented with a sea-horse carved in relief2 and this decoration was foiled by the plain1 deep parapets whose horizontal lines were diversified here and there by a projection4 ,brangwyn's drawing of the ,ponte ,rotto gives all the architectural character1 and we see that this bridge was a great ,roman citizen1 manly and brave and noble4 ,further1 when we speak of any bridge as virile as this one arch1 we have a right to use masculine pronouns1 8he0 and 8his0 and 8him40 ,the trivial word 8it0 is a feeble neutrality that belongs to a great many bridges1 both ancient and modern2 but a ,csarian achievement like the ,pons ,palatinus1 or the ,pont du ,gard1 or the ,puente ,trajan at ,alcntara1 takes rank among the rare deeds that do honour to a splendid manhood2 and this we should recognise in our pronouns4 ,palladio says that in his time1 from #aeah to #aehj1 three other bridges over the ,tiber1 at ,rome1 were in good preservation4 ,let us take a glance at them3-- #a4 ,the ,pons lius1 called then1 as now1 the ,ponte ,sant' ,angelo1 built by lius ,hadrianus1 who reigned from ,a4,d4 #aag to #ach1 and who erected his bridge as a passage over the ,tiber to his own mausoleum1 which forms the groundwork of the present castle of ,st4 ,angelo4 ,an earlier bridge connected the ,vatican and its neighbourhood with that part of the city which ,caligula and ,nero had beautified with gardens2 and remains of it still exist near ,s4 ,spirito4 ,the date of its disappearance ,i do not know1 but in the days of ,procopius1 the sixth century of the ,christian era1 the ,pons lius was the only communication between the city and the ,vatican district4 ,either legend or truth says that the lius had a bronze cover upheld by forty-two pillars4 ,if this gleaming roof ever existed 7and writers should be afraid of pretty details in ancient history71 it must have been damaged very much when the parapets were broken down in the fifteenth century4 ,this accident was caused by a great crowd that lost control of itself on the bridge1 when thronging to ,st4 ,peter's to receive the ,pope's benediction4 ,at last the parapets gave way1 and ninety-two persons were either drowned or crushed to death4 ,long afterwards1 as we know1 ,giovanni ,l4 ,bernini 7#aeih-afhj7 designed balustrades of iron and stone1 but dwarfed them with ten huge statues commissioned by ,pope ,clement ,,ix 7p4 #cbd74 ,the figures of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul at the city entrance were put up by ,clement ,,vii4 ,the bridge itself--or himself1 shall we say8--has a technical inspiration akin to that of the ,pons ,palatinus2 but there is less ornament1 and above the cutwaters1 instead of tall niches1 we find rectangular pillars with plain capitals1 upon which ,bernini erected pedestals for his 8breezy angels40 #b4 ,the ,pons ,fabricius1 connecting ,rome on the city side with the ,insula ,tiberina4 ,in very early times this island in the ,tiber was united to each bankside by a bridge1 and hence it was called ,inter ,duos ,pontes4 ,the present ,pons ,fabricius was either founded or restored by ,l4 ,fabricius1 curator viarum in ,b4,c4 #fb1 as appears from the inscription on it1 and from ,dion ,cassius4 ,it is mentioned by ,horace as a bridge very attractive to suicides3-- 444 jussit sapientem pascere barbam ,atque a ,fabricio non tristem ponte reverti4 ,since ,palladio's time1 if not from a much earlier date1 the ,pons ,fabricius has been known as the ,ponte ,quattro ,capi1 because its entrance from the left bank has a protective emblem1 a quadrupled head of ,janus1 the guardian deity of gates1 and a divinity with many other occupations1 all very alert and troublesome4 ,so we must add this pagan emblem to the other symbols of religious faith with which bridges have been sanctified4 ,in #afhj the ,pons ,fabricius was repaired by ,pope ,innocent ,,xi4 ,there are two arches1 each with a span of #be1 #cd metres2 and there used to be two other arches1 only #c1 #ej metres wide1 pierced through the abutments1 but they have disappeared among the houses on each bankside4 ,the bridge in its greatest width measures a little more than #ae metres4 ,it has a bold cornice ornamented with mutules1 and its relief bay for spate water is flanked by pilasters4 ,m4 ,degrand says of the ,pons ,fabricius3 8,c'est le premier pont dans lequel les ttes des votes ne forment pas des demi-circonfrences3 l'intrados est un arc de cercle de #be m4 de rayon et de #bj m4 de flche40 ,here we find a starting-point for the lovely arch invented at ,avignon by ,saint ,bnzet 7p4 #ha74 #c4 ,the ,pons ,cestius1 on the other side of the island1 known to-day1 and in ,palladio's time1 as ,ponte ,s4 ,bartolommeo4 ,yet its inscription1 which is mentioned by ,canina and by ,sir ,william ,smith1 speaks of it as ,pons ,gratianus1 and commemorates its repair by ,valentinian1 ,valens1 and ,gratian4 ,it has but one arch1 nearly a metre less in span than those of the ,pons ,fabricius4 ,these two bridges1 according to ,piranesi1 were founded in a very remarkable manner1 on reversed arches built under water4 ,gauthey gives two drawings of this construction1 but he does not guarantee the truth of ,piranesi's details4 ,five other antique bridges crossed the ,tiber at or near ,rome1 but ,palladio found nothing more of them than a few remnants4 ,already ,i have spoken of two1 the ,pons ,sublicius and its understudy 7p4 #adj74 ,on the left bank1 facing the church of ,s4 ,spirito1 ,palladio saw remains of the ,pons ,triumphalis2 but ,piranesi and ,bunsen do not agree with ,palladio4 ,they place the ,pons ,triumphalis beyond the ,pons lius1 and ,sir ,william ,smith thinks it probable that the remains near ,s4 ,spirito belong to a bridge which the ,mirabilia names ,pons ,neronianus1 and which ancient topographers describe as ,pons ,vaticanus4 ,then there was the ,janiculine bridge upon the foundations of which1 between #adga and #adhd1 ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv had erected the ,ponte ,sisto4 ,as the ,janiculine bridge went from the ,janiculum to the ,porta ,aurelia1 it was known also as ,pons ,aurelius2 and in the ,middle ,ages it seems to have been called ,pons ,antoninus4 ,as for the ,ponte ,molle1 anciently the ,pons ,milvius1 it belonged to the ,flaminian ,way1 crossing the ,tiber beyond the walls of ,rome1 a mile and a half outside the city4 ,its founder was said to be the earlier milius ,scaurus1 who died about eighty-five years before the ,birth of ,christ4 ,yet it certainly existed in ,b4,c4 #bjg1 for ,livy relates how the people poured out of ,rome as far as the ,milvian bridge in order to meet the messengers who brought tidings of the defeat of ,hasdrubal4 ,this may have been a timber bridge1 and milius ,scaurus may have displaced it for a stone bridge during his consulship1 ,b4,c4 #aaj4 ,only a few fragments of the ,pons ,milvius existed in ,palladio's time2 and so the ,ponte ,molle now extant has a false reputation of being ,roman4 ,in fact1 it is a very poor structure1 badly designed and very uncouth4 ,,iv ,there was in ,italy a ,roman bridge built of white ,istrian stone that ,palladio admired much more than any other2 indeed1 he admired it too much1 for he copied it in most of his pontine architecture1 as if he had no right to make use of his own originality6 ,and since his time many architects have cribbed from the same shining model1 the ,ponte ,augustus over the ,ariminus1 at ,rimini4 ,two ,roman bridges are found in the neighbourhood of this town1 one with seven arches and one with five2 both date from the same great era1 and in both the roadway is not carried through on the same level1 but has an ascent at each end1 like the two bridges of ,roman origin at ,vicenza4 ,it was the bridge with five arches that ,palladio preferred at ,rimini1 and his fondness for it--or1 rather1 for her1 as this ,roman bridge has a charm somewhat feminine--is approved by recent experts1 and notably by ,r4 ,phen ,spiers and ,m4 ,degrand4 ,she is a bijou among bridges1 and not a male prodigy1 like the ,puente ,trajan4 ,her arches are small in span1 ranging from #hm4#gg to #gm4#ad1 according to ,gauthey1#gi the narrower ones being at the sides1 and the three larger bays in the middle4 ,their form is semicircular1 and their springing does not rise from low water-level1 like that of the arches in the ,roman bridge at ,mrida2 it is placed four or five metres#hj above low water1 and this planning adds lightness and grace to a fortunate design4 ,as usual1 the piers are too heavy1 their thickness being about equal to a half of the adjacent voids2 they are protected by very vigorous cutwaters that break the current with angular wedges of ninety degrees4 ,the spandrils are decorated with niches1 and every niche is flanked by pilasters carrying entablature and pediment4 ,a beautiful cornice supported by modillions crowns this bridge1 which was begun by ,augustus and finished by ,tiberius4 ,illustration3 ,,ponte ,,maggiore ,,over ,a ,,ravine ,,of ,,the ,,tronto ,,at ,,ascoli-,,piceno ,,in ,,italy2 ,,built ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,but ,,roman ,,in ,,style ,brangwyn is fascinated by the bridges at ,ascoli-,piceno1 the ,asculum ,picenum of the ,romans1 that gleams on a terrace dominating the ,tronto1 about twenty miles from ,porto ,ascoli on the ,adriatic4 ,the town is defended by ravines1 across which four great bridges are thrown4 ,the ,ponte di ,porta ,cappucina is a ,roman bridge1 a fine example with a single arch of #ga ft4 span2 and the ,ponte de ,cecco is ,roman4 ,it has two arches and belongs to the ,via ,salaria4 ,as for the ,ponte ,maggiore and the ,ponte ,cartaro1 they are medival1 but the former is an adaptation from ,roman aqueducts1 and in the latter there appear to be some traces of antique craftsmanship4 ,all these great viaducts are marvellously constructed1 for they resisted the earthquake that shook ,ascoli in #ahgh4 ,v ,very little is known about the ,eastern bridges constructed by the ,romans4 ,in ,jebb's 8,by ,desert ,ways to ,baghdad0 an illustration is given of a ,roman bridge over the ,tigris at ,diarbekr2 and on the same river1 at ,hassan1 between ,diarbekr and ,mosul1 there are ruined piers of another ,roman bridge4 ,again1 at ,shushter1 in ,persia1 we find a dike and a bridge ascribed to the ,roman ,emperor ,valerian1 whom ,shapur the ,first took prisoner at ,edessa1 ,a4,d4 #bfj4 ,the dike is called the ,band-i-,mizan1 the bridge the ,pul-i-,kaisar4 ,but if ,valerian helped to build these huge monuments1 very little ,roman work now remains2 seventy yards of dike and bridge were swept away in #ahhe2 and the ,pul-i-,kaisar has been rebuilt several times4 ,indeed1 as ,brangwyn's pen-drawing shows1 the arches 7there are forty in all7 differ in style as well as in size and material4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pul-,i-,,kaisar ,,at ,,shushter ,,in ,,persia4 ,,its ,,length ,,is #efj ,,yards1 ,,and ,,its ,,roadway ,,is #g ,,yards ,,wide 8,persian tradition has it that ,ardashir 7either ,artaxerxes of the old ,persian kings or ,ardashir of the ,sassanians7 built the first dike across the river ,karun in order to raise the water of the river to the level of the ,darian canal4 ,the dike became destroyed and was renewed under the ,sassanian ,shapur ,i1 by ,roman workmen sent for by ,valerian1 who had been captured by the ,persian king in #bfj4 ,that ,valerian had a part in constructing these remarkable works does not rest upon any historical basis2 we may1 however1 believe that the ,sassanian ,ardashir1 or his son ,shapur ,i1 finding that the river1 with its bed in friable soil1 was daily getting lower and finally threatened to leave the town and the ,mian-do-ab district dry by not filling the ,darian canal1 engaged ,roman workmen4 ,the ,gerger canal was cut and the river diverted from west to east of the town4 ,the old river then became emptied and its bed was raised and paved with huge flags1 to prevent further erosion and washing away of the soil and a consequent fall of the river4 ,then the ,band-i-,mizan and the great bridge were erected44440#ha ,in every chapter of this monograph other references to ,roman work will be found4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,if ,rousseau walked along the three tiers of this bridge-aqueduct1 then he had what climbers call 8a good head10 for there is but little space between the piers and a most unpleasant fall into the river ,gardon4 ,most of us have passed over the top1 leaving ,alpinists to explore the rest of this wonderful structure4 #fd 8,charles ,kingsley3 ,his ,letters and ,memories of his ,life40 ,edited by his ,wife4 #ahgi4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #agf-g4 #fe ,sir ,william ,smith1 in his great 8,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography10 gives a detailed account of the stonework4 8,the stone of this bridge is a yellowish colour4 ,seen under the sun from the west side1 the bridge has a brightish yellow tint1 with patches of dark colour1 owing to the weather4 ,the stone in the highest tier is a concretion of shells and sand1 and that in the lower tiers appears to be the same4 ,in the stones in the highest tier there are halves of a bivalve shell completely preserved4 ,the stone also contains bits of rough quartzose rock1 and many small rounded pebbles4 ,in floods the ,gardon rises #cj ft4 above its ordinary level1 and the water will then pass under all the arches of the lowest tier4 ,the piers of this tier show some marks of being worn by the water4 ,but the bridge is still solid and strong1 a magnificent monument of the grandeur of ,roman conceptions1 and of the boldness of their execution40 #ff ,later we shall see that ,perronet1 a famous bridge-builder of the eighteenth century1 used iron clamps for this purpose4 #fg ,i believe these measurements to be strictly accurate1 unlike those in many books of reference4 #fh ,let me add to this account a few details from ,sir ,william ,smith's 8,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography40 8,it is generally said that the bridge is entirely built of stones1 without mortar or cement4 ,the stones of the two lower tiers are without cement2 but the arches of the highest tier1 which are built of much smaller stones1 are cemented4 ,at the north end of the aqueduct the highest tier of arches and the water channel are higher than the ground on which the aqueduct abuts1 and there must have been a continuation of small arches along the top of this hill2 but there are no traces of them1 at least near the bridge4 ,on the opposite or south side the aqueduct abuts against the hill1 which is higher than the level of the channel4 ,there is no trace of the hill having been pierced2 and an intelligent man1 who lives near the bridge1 says that the aqueduct was carried round the hill1 and that it pierced another hill further on1 where the tunnel still exists44440 #fi ,see ,grangent1 ,durand et ,durant1 8,description des ,monumens ,antiques du ,midi de la ,france10 ,paris1 #ahai1 ,i1 p4 #aac1 and ,plate ,,xl2 see also 8,gographie ,gnrale du ,dpartement de l',hrault10 published by the ,socit ,languedocienne1 ,montpellier1 #aije4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 part ,,ii4 p4 #caj4 #gj ,two arches over the ,salado river1 some thirty miles below ,seville 7p4 #cfg74 #ga ,between ,crdova and ,andujar1 over a small tributary flowing into the ,guadalquivir from the south4 ,this bridge has three arches1 one a good deal larger than the others2 bays are driven through the spandrils for spate water to pass through4 ,the masonry consists of stone in big blocks1 and the craftsmanship has a very peculiar feature3 the voussoirs are notched or joggled one into the other1 like those in the ,elizabethan bridge at ,ross-on-,wye1 ,herefordshire4 ,this technique is a thing to be remembered3 it occurs in no other ,roman bridge that is known to me4 ,the notching adds much to the endurance of an arch ring1 yet it has never entered into the technical routine of bridge-builders4 ,perhaps the dovetailing of the stones has been looked upon as too costly1 for it needs much skill and care and time4 ,mr4 ,edgar ,wigram drew my attention to this little-known ,roman bridge1 and to the one at ,alcantarilla 7p4 #cfg74 #gb ,this bridge is a soldier1 and claims masculine pronouns4 #gc 8,northern ,spain10 by ,edgar ,t4 ,a4 ,wigram1 ,london1 #aijf1 pp4 #bca-b4 #gd ,the stones laid end-foremost4 #ge ,the stones laid at full length4 #gf ,there is conflicting evidence on the date of this monument4 ,pliny attributed the ,marcian ,aqueduct to ,ancus ,marcius1 whereas ,strabo and ,frontinus conjecture that the building got its name from ,marcius ,rex1 a pretor1 who in the year ,b4,c4 #ade1 or thereabouts1 restored some ancient aqueducts whose first construction did not go back beyond the year #bgb ,b4,c4 ,sextus ,julius ,frontinus1 governor of ,britain 7,a4,d4 #ge-gh71 was the author of two monographs that are still extant--one on the ,roman aqueducts1 and another on the art of war4 ,he was nominated ,curator ,aquarum1 or ,superintendent of the ,aqueducts1 in #ig1 nine years before his death4 ,sir ,william ,smith tells us that the earliest aqueduct was not older than the year ,b4,c4 #cac4 ,in earlier times the ,romans had recourse to the ,tiber and to wells sunk in the city4 ,during the sixth century of the ,christian era there were fourteen aqueducts at ,rome4 #gg ,mr4 ,r4 ,phen ,spiers has written admirably on these technical matters4 #gh ,i take it that the ,pons ,palatinus1 or ,senatorius1 mentioned by ,palladio1 was the bridge called by ancient writers the ,pons ,aemilius1 whose piers were founded in the censorship of ,m4 ,aemilius ,lepidus and ,m4 ,fulvius ,nobilior1 ,b4,c4 #agi2 the arches were finished some years later1 when ,p4 ,scipio ,africanus and ,l4 ,mummius were censors4 ,becker and ,canina assume that the ,pons ,aemilius became the ,ponte ,rotto1 and ,degrand and others identify the ,palatine bridge of ,palladio with the ,ponte ,rotto4 #gi ,degrand says #ajm4#ef and #hm4#a4 ,r4 ,phen ,spiers gives #bg ft4 for the spans of the three central arches1 and the side ones about #bj ft4 #hj ,gauthey says four1 ,degrand says five4 #ha ,sir ,a4 ,houtum-,schindler1 ,c4,i4,e41 8,encyclopdia ,brit410 #aiaa1 article 8,shushter40 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,chapter ,,the ,,fourth ,,old ,,bridges1 ,,european1 ,,persian ,,and ,,chinese ,i ,medival ,england was a forrestial country1 and many a roadside wood gave shelter to footpads and bandits1 who planned ambuscades1 and amused themselves with rape and rapine and murder4 ,if they were less ready to cut a throat than to broach a tun of wine#hb the terror inspired by their evil reputation told lies that duped everybody4 ,in fact1 travellers were pitied by ,acts of ,parliament1 but they had greater faith in the ,church1 which enabled them to renew their failing courage with frequent prayer at shrines by the wayside4 ,saint after saint was called to their aid2 and from the time of ,st4 ,dunstan the ,church reckoned the building of bridges among the most urgent duties of charity4 ,some good must have been done1 yet rivers and journeys were feared very much2 fords were common1 and an ambush near a ford was a peril difficult to encounter4 ,in the 8,ballad of ,abingdon ,bridge10 which dates from the time of ,henry ,v1 we see what fords were like and how their guardians behaved to travellers4 8,another blissed besines is brigges to make10 the rustic poet cries1 thinking of unfortunate wayfarers who were washed from their saddles into a flooded river3-- ,and som oute of their sadels flette fall to the grounde1 ,wente forthe in the water wist no man whare1 ,fyve wekys after or they were i founde1 ,their kyn and their knowlech acquaintance caught them up with care4 ,and this life-tax claimed by rivers was not the only trouble4 ,the keepers of a ford knew no pity1 but got their toll in relentless ways1 taking bread from the beggar's wallet and 8a hood or a girdel0 from 8the pore penyles40 ,very often1 too1 great woods encircled riverside towns and manors1 so that outlaws after dark could steal up close to the houses and the bridge2 it was then that pilgrims welcomed with the greatest relief the cresset-lights that glimmered from some friendly building on the bridge--from a chapel1 or a defensive gateway1 or a small bickering windmill1 or a good watermill buttressed against a pier and rising high above the parapet4 ,and now we must pass in review six old species of bridge3-- #a4 ,the ,housed ,bridge1 such as we find in ,brangwyn's beautiful monochrome of the quaint bridge at ,kreuznach1 in ,germany4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,bridge ,,with ,,houses ,,at ,,kreuznach1 ,,on ,,the ,,river ,,nahe1 ,,in ,,prussia4 ,,an ,,old ,,mill ,,bridge1 ,,seemingly #b4 ,the ,shrined ,bridge1 as in ,brangwyn's alert impression of the ,gothic bridge at ,elche1 in ,spain4 #c4 ,the ,bridge of ,mills1 as represented in the very romantic sketch of the old and broken bridge at ,millau1 in ,southern ,france1 at the confluence of the ,tarn with the ,dourbie4 ,another example1 much modernised1 exists in ,france1 at historic ,meaux1 about thirty-two miles from ,paris4 #d4 ,the ,chapelled ,bridge1 as at ,wakefield1 and ,rotherham1 and ,pisa1 and ,avignon 7see ,frontispiece71 and elsewhere4 #e4 ,the ,war-,bridge1 which in ,brangwyn's art receives the most varied and vigorous recognition4 ,never before have they been studied so completely by an artist4 #f4 ,the ,bridge of ,shops1 as at ,venice in the ,rialto4 ,,ii ,we ought not to be surprised that medival bridges were connected in a self-evident manner with all the principal motive-powers of social life4 ,they were excellent places where kings and nobles could show off their military ambition1 and where the ,church could be active in good work done for the safety of wayfaring4 ,shops on a bridge were valued because of the continuous traffic that brought trade to their doors2 and a few private houses on a market bridge gratified a middleclass vanity1 that took pride in paying the higher rents of a business thoroughfare4 ,to live on ,old ,london ,bridge was a distinction2 to be a tradesman on the ,ponte ,vecchio in ,florence1 or on a timber bridge in ,paris1 was to be prosperous1 for no bridge of shops was wide enough to be unpopular among those who had money to spend4 ,can anyone explain why the feminine joy of going to market has ever been most adventurous in narrow streets1 or in short streets of a medium width8#hc ,whatever the reasons may be1 here is a point to be remembered when we study such a bridge as the ,rialto1 at ,venice1 which carries three little streets on an arch twenty-four feet six inches high1 and ninety-one feet in span1 with a soffit about seventy-two feet wide4 ,to-day the ,rialto shops are trivial and mean1 but in the great time of the ,republic they displayed the most luxurious oddments of fashion1 and delighted the idle rich4 ,very often it is said that the ,rialto was built from a design by ,michelangelo1 as if this wonderful master of a tragic and supreme dignity could have amused his leisure with such a pretty whim in ornate building6 ,modern criticism shows a very poor taste when it repeats this old fallacy1 or when it describes the ,rialto as a masterpiece of architecture dating from the ,renaissance4 ,in comparison with the bridges of ,isfahan1 which belong to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 the ,rialto is a mere toy4 ,its origin is the subject of ,rondelet's 8,essai ,historique sur le ,pont de ,rialto10 where we watch a great competition between ,palladio and ,antonio da ,ponte4 ,palladio was the greater man1 but the ,senate rejected his designs1#hd and in #aehh ,antonio da ,ponte built his arched scaffold or centring and laid the first blocks of ,istrian marble4 ,in ,brangwyn's picture the ,rialto is gay enough to belong to the joyous times of the ,republic2 and by comparing this picture with the pen-drawings of the bridges at ,isfahan1 in ,persia1 it is easy to note the difference in spirit between two cities that attained in the same age their greatest prosperity4 ,in #aeij1 ,isfahan became the capital of ,persia2 and by this year ,venice had recovered from the destructive fire of #aegg1 and was beautifying herself in many ways1 as with the ,piazza di ,san ,marco4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rialto1 ,,venice ,,designed ,,in #aehh ,,by ,,antonio ,,da ,,ponte1 ,,architect ,at ,isfahan no fewer than five old bridges cross the ,zendeh ,rud1 the most ancient being the ,pul-i-,marnun1 which was built by ,shah ,tahmasp1 who reigned from #aebc to #aege4 ,it is not a great bridge1 so it stands apart from the ,pul-i-,khaju and the vast ,bridge of ,ali ,verdi ,khan1 which undoubtedly are among the finest bridges in the world4 ,their beauty has such a gracious power1 such brightness and grandeur1 that even the ,roman bridge at ,alcntara may seem to rival it unsuccessfully4 ,brangwyn has drawn these ,persian masterpieces1 but the ,pul-i-,khaju alone belongs to this section on housed bridges--except in some architectural points common to both4 ,their arches are ,moorish1 and their builders may have borrowed from the ,romans an idea which has come down to our time in at least one antique monument1 namely1 the ruined aqueduct at ,lyon1 not far from ,saint ,irne4 ,through the piers of this aqueduct arches are cut transversely1 so as to form a side arcade all along the length of the structure4 ,these lateral arches vary much in size1 and some of them have been built up4 ,i know not for what purpose they were used2 but they lighten the piers1 which are uncommonly massive4 ,it is this arrangement--a vaulted gallery cut through the sides of piers--that we find also at ,isfahan in the two historic bridges of the ,sefi kings4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pul-,i-,,khaju ,,over ,,the ,,zendeh ,,rud ,,at ,,isfahan1 ,,persia ,the ,pul-i-,khaju has been described many times1 but ,lord ,curzon's account of it is by far the most valuable3-- 8,the ,pul-i-,khaju is shorter than the bridge of ,ali ,verdi ,khan1 being only #aed yards in length1 owing to a contraction in the bed of the river1 which here flows over a ledge of rock4 ,the structure consists1 in fact1 of a bridge superimposed upon a dam4 ,the latter is built of solid blocks of stone and is pierced by narrow channels1 the flow in which can be regulated by sluices4 ,this great platform is broken on its outer edge1 the stones being arranged in the form of steps descending to the river-level4 ,upon the platform or dam repose the twenty-four main arches of the bridge1 which is of brick1 and the chief external features of which are four projecting two-storeyed hexagonal pavilions1 one at each corner1 and two larger pavilions of similar shape in the centre1 a third storey being erected upon the roof of the more westerly of the two4 ,as in the case of the ,julfa ,bridge1#he the basement is pierced by a vaulted passage1 running the entire length of the bridge through the piers on the top of the dam1 and crossing the successive channels by stepping-stones six feet deep4 ,the main roadway of the bridge1 twenty-four feet broad1 is also flanked by a covered gallery on each side1 leading to the hexagonal pavilions1 and opening by a succession of arches on to the outer air4 ,finally1 there is a terrace-walk at the top1 which was originally protected by a double parapet and screens4 ,the pavilions were once adorned with rich paintings and gilding1 and with panels containing inscriptions4 ,the decoration is now more jejune and vulgar1 and the spandrils of the arches are mostly filled in with modern tiles4 ,in olden days this bridge was a favourite resort in the evening1 where the young gallants of ,isfahan marched up and down1 or sat and smoked in the embayed archways overlooking the stream4 ,now it is well-nigh deserted save in the springtime1 when the snows melt in the mountains1 and in a few hours the ,zendeh ,rud is converted from a petty stream into a foaming torrent4 ,then the good folk of ,isfahan crowd the galleries and arcades of the bridge1 and shout with delight as the water first rushes through the narrow sluices1 then mounts to the level of the causeway and spills in a noisy cascade down each successive stairway or weir1 and finally pours through the main arches1 still splitting into a series of cataracts as it leaps the broken edges of the dam40#hf ,such is the ,pul-i-,khaju4 ,her architect's name is unknown1 but she dates from the time of ,shah ,abbas ,,ii1 who reigned between the years #afda and #afff4 ,even in photographs she is a bridge of enchantment where from time to time all the tired geniuses of the world should go for a romantic holiday2 the pavilions certainly await the coming of worthy guests1 who would save them from the vulgar decoration which has displaced the old paintings and enrichments4 ,that vaulted arcade in the basement1 running transversely through all the piers1 and crossing the channels by huge stepping-stones 7one of the earliest bridges copied by primitive man from ,nature's object-lessons71 has a great historic interest1 though in pictures and photographs it attracts very little attention4 ,was it suggested by a ,roman model1 or was it rediscovered by the originality of a great architect8 ,i have searched long for an answer to these questions1 but in vain4 ,perhaps ,old ,london ,bridge at her best1 after the building of ,none-such ,house1 in #aegf1 may have been as entertaining to the eye as is the magic of the ,pul-i-,khaju1 though inferior to this masterpiece as a work of art4 ,the earliest representation of ,old ,london ,bridge comes to us from the fifteenth century1 in a miniature that graces the poems of ,charles d',orlans4#hg ,it shows five piers much broader than the adjacent voids1 also a line of picturesque timber houses jutting out from the parapet1 and a great chapel of apsidal form1 with wrought pinnacles and two tiers of decorated windows4 ,this ,gothic church1 dedicated to ,st4 ,thomas ,becket1 rises from water-level to a height exceeding that of the tallest house on the bridge4 ,in ,howell's 8,londinopolis0 7edition of #afeg7 it is said that during ,king ,john's reign1 #aaii-abaf1 a mayor of ,london1 8being master workman of the bridge1 builded from the foundation the large chappel on the bridge upon his own charges1 which chappel was then endowed with two priests and four clerks1 beside chantries40 ,it was put on the east side2 there were two storeys1 one with an entrance from the river1 the other with a porch on the roadway4 ,so boat-farers had their own place of worship on ,london ,bridge1 and they walked to their praying-stools over a pavement of black and white marble4 ,both storeys were brilliantly lighted2 in the upper one there were eight windows4 ,the first architect of ,old ,london ,bridge1 ,peter ,colechurch1 8priest and chaplain10 died in #abje1 and was buried in the ,chapel of ,st4 ,thomas1 just twenty-two years after ,saint ,bnzet was laid to rest in his bridge chapel at ,avignon4 ,between #aagf and #aahc ,colechurch may have had some correspondence with ,bnzet1 for both were heads of religious bodies engaged at the same time on similar work4 8,their letters to one another would interest engineers10 remarks ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin1 as if engineers alone were attracted by ,old ,london ,bridge4 ,in #aagf1 when ,colechurch prepared his designs1 everybody was excited about a great and very useful enterprise4 ,the ,king1 the clergy1 the citizens of ,london1 even country-folk1 endowed the bridge with lands or sent money to hasten its completion4 ,the ,archbishop of ,canterbury subscribed a thousand marks4 ,during the sixteenth century the list of donors was still to be seen 8in a table fair written for posterity10 treasured in the chapel on the bridge4#hh ,stow makes no reference to the mayor who at his own expense built the chapel2 he says only that ,colechurch was buried 8in the chapel builded on the same bridge in the year #abje40 ,four years later the bridge was finished by three 8worthy merchants of ,london--,serle ,mercer1 ,william ,almaine1 and ,benedick ,botewrite1 principal masters of work40 ,their director-in-chief was a ,frenchman1 brother ,isembert by name1 whose magnificent bridge at ,saintes had delighted ,king ,john1 and who was chosen to superintend the finishing of ,old ,london ,bridge a little while before the death of ,colechurch4 ,in ,july1 #abab1 a terrific fire occurred on the bridge1 beginning at the ,southwark end1 but spreading to the houses at the north end also2 no fewer than #cjjj persons lost their lives4 ,citizens gathered at the north end to watch the spectacle1 and were overtaken by the swift-travelling flames and by panic also4 ,many jumped into the river and were drowned2 others were killed by falling timbers1 and many were scorched to death4 ,again and again1 in after years1 ,london ,bridge and her chapel were ravaged by fire2 as in #acjj1 in #adga1 in #afcb1 in #afff1 and in ,september1 #agbe4 ,here is ,stow's picture of the houses3-- 8,the building was of timber1 very substantial and beautiful1 for the houses were three stories high1 besides the cellars1 which were within and between the piers1 and over the houses were stately platforms1 leaded1 with rails and ballasters about them1 very commodious and pleasant for walking and enjoying so fine a prospect up and down the river1 and some had pretty little gardens with arbours40 ,all this fine architecture was destroyed in the ,great ,fire of #afff1 but a still better pile of buildings was put up1 and now the houses were separated by a roadway twenty feet wide4 ,in earlier times the passage between the houses ranged in width from twelve feet to fourteen4 ,at last1 in #agef1 every house on the bridge was pulled down1 but the chapel was granted a few years more of life4 ,guess why8 ,because some vandal or other was willing to use the chapel as a warehouse4 ,at about the same time the chapel on ,rotherham ,bridge1 ,yorkshire1 was a tobacco shop4 ,as for the merchant who leased the ,chapel of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket1 he built a new ceiling with heavy beams that crossed each other2 soon he tired of his warehouse1 and then--then the historic old fane was destroyed4 ,a city is like a board meeting--from time to time it has a conscience4 ,two other historic facts find a place here4 ,in ,march1 #aghb1 the right of toll was discontinued1 so that ,londoners were separated from a direct personal interest in the welfare of their bridge1 just as free education separates parents from their most sacred duties4 ,eight years earlier1 in #aggd1 the waterworks of little windmills were destroyed by fire1 after bickering for #aib years under the shadow of ,old ,london ,bridge4 ,the end was drawing near4 ,new ,london ,bridge was begun on ,march #aeth1 #ahbd4 ,george ,rennie made the designs after studying the ,bridge of ,augustus at ,rimini1 and his brother1 ,sir ,john ,rennie1 directed the workmen on a site #bjj feet west of the ,old ,bridge2 just as ,peter ,colechurch crossed the ,thames a little west of the earliest known timber bridge built by ,londoners4#hi ,it took only seven years to carry out the designs of ,rennie1 whereas ,colechurch and his successor1 the ,frenchman ,isembert1 were busy for thirty-three years4 ,on ,august #ast1 #ahca1 ,new ,london ,bridge was opened by ,william ,,iv1 and by the second year of ,victoria's reign the old bridge was dead and gone4 ,it had taken a long time to murder her1 fragment by fragment1 but yet she lived almost as long as the first ,westminster ,bridge1 designed by ,m4 ,labelye1 which lasted from #agej to #ahec4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,london ,,bridge1 ,,designed ,,by ,,george ,,rennie1 ,,and ,,carried ,,out ,,by ,,his ,,brother1 ,,sir ,,john ,,rennie4 ,,opened ,,to ,,the ,,public ,,in #ahca ,one purpose of ,old ,london ,bridge has been forgotten3 she was an arcaded dam1 and she deepened the water for shipping on the eastern side4 ,according to ,arber's reprint of 8,euphues and his ,england10 there were twenty arches in all1 8whereof each one is made of excellent freestone squared1 every one of them being three-score foote in height1 and full twenty in distance one from an other40 ,this latter statement is incorrect4 ,the arches ranged in width from #ah feet to #cb feet #f inches1 and the piers varied in breadth from #be to #cd feet2 they were raised on strong elm piles1 covered with thick planks bolted together1 and they occupied not less than two-thirds of the waterway4 ,yet modern engineers played the fool with this ancient breakwater4 ,several arches were thrown into one large span1 so the ,thames poured through the bridge with an increased and uneven force2 the ground current developed a scour that dug deep holes under the piers1 and into these holes tons of stuff were poured ineffectually1 for the scour continued to undercut the foundations4 ,even ,labelye's bridge at ,westminster was affected very much by this new devilry in the ground current of the ,thames4 ,it was ,euphues who described the old bridge as 8a continuall streete1 well replenyshed with large and stately houses on both sides40 ,to-day we have one bridge well replenished with houses 7unless the vandalism of trade has made a recent feast of it71 but its architecture is not large and stately4 ,i refer to ,william ,pulteney's ,bridge at ,bath1 an experiment of the eighteenth century1 when amateurs trifled with architecture1 and architects trifled with amateurs4 ,the structure is sedately prim and dull1 but yet it is admirable1 for it has tried to renew in ,england a generative tradition that links every housed bridge to the earliest lake-villages4 ,so ,i am glad to say that the crippled old buildings on the ,high ,bridge at ,lincoln--a favourite subject of ,peter de ,wint--have been restored4 ,this work was done1 and done very well1 thirteen years ago1 under the direction of two architects1 and a long account of the repairs1 with a full-page illustration1 was published in 8,the ,builder10 ,march #ba1 #aijc4 ,the illustration shows the back view of the houses with the bridge beneath and beyond4 ,the restoration is conservative and excellent1 but time alone can mellow it from a thorough newness into a ripe completeness4 ,even then it will be a poor little monument when compared with its ,florentine superior the ,ponte ,vecchio1 which history gives to ,taddeo ,gaddi and the fourteenth century4 ,the ,ponte ,vecchio has but one fault--the long and level roof1 which has two parallel lines of a most unpliant straightness4 ,why should an architect put himself at odds with the curved witchery that ,nature gives to her sky-lines and horizons8 ,in other respects the ,ponte ,vecchio has a charming citizenship haunted by romance4 ,even the beaked piers are not too large1 though they are said to date from the year #acee4 ,perhaps they were remodelled by ,renaissance art2 certainly they have a style not unlike that of the great ,ammanati4 ,as for the three arches1 they are well balanced1 their roadway has a gentle slope1 and their shape goes about half-way between a cycloid and a surbased round arch4 ,the cycloid form appears in the arches of another ,florentine bridge1 ,ammanati's masterpiece1 the incomparable ,ponte della ,trinit4 ,some of the many-windowed tiny cots that project from the parapet of the ,ponte ,vecchio seem to be stuffy compromises between tombs and homes2 they would be fit resting-places for the occasional ghosts that men of science welcome1 after infinite hesitation unrelieved by humour4 ,but ,i regret always that from the ,ponte ,vecchio ,i can get no idea of the effect made in nature by ,old ,london ,bridge4 ,is there extant any bridge that helps us to realise the work of ,colechurch and ,isembert8 ,the once famous watermills at ,meaux1 in ,brie1 and the ,pont du ,march there1 are somewhat of an aid in this matter4 ,brangwyn visited them in #aiac1 and was fascinated4 ,some writers say that the first watermills at ,meaux were built in the twelfth century2 and on a recent photograph taken from a picture ,i read3 ,meaux1 ,les ,moulins sur ,pilotis1 xii4 sicle4 ,but these mills disappeared before the year #ahce1 and they belonged to the end of the fifteenth century1 not to the twelfth4 ,viollet-le-,duc put this date on record1 together with the fact that the bridge and its mills were entirely of wood4#ij ,in #adbj the ,english captured ,meaux1 and they held it till #adch1 when they were defeated by the ,constable de ,richmont4 ,had they retained the little town till the end of the century1 we might venture to suppose that the timber bridge and its wooden mills were built by our ancestors1 in order to keep themselves in mind of ,old ,london ,bridge4 ,the modern mills are many-storeyed places of business1 and they stand very erect on stone piers4 ,to-day the ,pont du ,march has eight stone arches1 and a single row of early timbered houses4 ,i have four photographs of it1 and in each it is charming4 ,next summer ,i may see it in nature1 but if a pontist travelled to see all the bridges that attract him1 he would need a life of several hundred years and a river ,pactolus to finance his research4#ia ,is there any reason why ,england should not have a great bridge of shops1 or of watermills1 or of houses8 ,let ,brangwyn and ,mr4 ,lutyens collaborate1 and then we shall have a masterpiece indeed6 ,here and there we have a small bridge with a watermill close at hand2 there is one in ,sussex between ,midhurst and ,easebourne1 for example1 but ,i know not one that warms my patriotism with a glow of pride4 ,viollet-le-,duc draws three charming pictures of ,french mill bridges which have disappeared4 ,there was the ,pont aux ,meuniers at ,paris1 that crossed the great arm of the ,seine below the ,pont au ,change1 facing the ,palais2 it resembled the ,millers' ,bridge at ,meaux4 ,a great stone bridge at ,chlon-sur-,sane was decorated with round towers above the piers1 and between these towers1 on the right of every arch1 a little mill was busy4 ,this medival arrangement1 so rich with a quaint citizenship1 lasted till the seventeenth century4 ,over the ,loire at ,nantes was another picturesque bridge that united in itself the merits of many good burgesses4 ,impudent houses with peaked roofs were balanced on the piers and throve well as shops2 a footway of wood was corbelled out from the parapet2 and between some of the piers windmills behaved like human creatures1 for the harder they toiled over the business of daily bread1 the more loudly they complained4 ,their noise implied that corn was very hard to crush2 and the reluctant movement of their revolving wind-sails was an image of self-pity4 ,illustration3 ,,three-,,arched ,,bridge ,,at ,,venice1 ,,over ,,the ,,canal ,,of ,,st4 ,,giobbe4 ,,brick ,,and ,,stone4 ,,renaissance ,as medival towns of importance were encompassed by walls and defended by castles1 there was little free space2 hence the building of a new bridge was always a great event2 it enlarged the civic life and prepared a foundation for a new street or for a fresh line of defensive works4 ,thus the ,bridge of ,saintes was a long line of fortifications 7p4 #cjj71 while the bridges of ,paris were housed and populous1 unlike many a village where poor ,jacques1 in the midst of unceasing war1 lived the life of a hunted wolf4 ,unfortunately1 the tenants of ,paris bridges wanted to thrive at their landlords' expense1 and at last they ruined the landlords1 who were bridges1 not men1 ,i am sorry to say4 ,the great corbels that supported the houses pressed too heavily on the spandrils2 caves and hiding-places were dug into the piers2 and when the houses were removed from the ,pont ,notre-,dame and the ,pont ,saint-,michel1 it was found that every tenant had misused his home1 even to the extent of excavating secret chambers behind the haunches of an arch4 ,for human nature has ever claimed the privilege of doing justice to itself in actions of foolish violence4 ,for instance1 it is disgusting to read about the desecration thrust upon ,english bridge chapels after the reign of ,henry the ,eighth4 ,as an example we can take the ,chapel of ,st4 ,mary on ,wakefield ,bridge1 ,yorkshire1 a beautiful piece of ,decorated ,gothic dating from the fourteenth century4 ,after the ,reformation it became many profane things1 including an old clothes shop1 a warehouse1 a den of flax-dressers1 a newsroom1 a cheesecake house1 a tailor's shop1 and ,i know not what else2 so 8we think upon her stones1 and it pitieth us to see her in the dust40 ,at last--it was in #ahdg--;an effort was made to rescue her from further degradation3 quite a big effort1 for it cost #cjjj1 yet the cause had nothing to do with sport or with self-advertisement4 ,to raise so much money in the service of history was a great achievement4 ,but the chosen architect was less fortunate than he might have been2 he was one of those ,victorian 8restorers0 whose zeal at times was excessive4 ,in a few months the ,chapel of ,st4 ,mary was rebuilt1 almost1 so thorough was the renovation4 ,even the original front was torn off and carted to the grounds of ,kettlethorpe ,park1 where it still remains1 ,i believe2 and not enough care was shown in the choice of building materials1 for the new work was carried out in ,bath stone and ,caen stone1 which were much too soft for the ,wakefield atmosphere4 ,indeed1 the new front perished so quickly that in less than forty-five years a part of its detail looked more friable than the ancient work at ,kettlethorpe2 and a second renovation became necessary4 ,the subscriptions raised for these remodellings and repairs call to mind the fact that in much earlier times ,wakefield ,bridge and its chapel were objects of charity4 ,for example1 in #acia1 the fourteenth year of ,richard ,,ii1 ,william de ,bayley1 of ,mitton in ,craven1 left ,c sol ad confirmacionem cantarie in ,capella ,sce ,mari sup ,pont de ,wakefield2 and a deed dated the #bgth of ,september1 #aded1 the thirty-second year of ,henry ,,vi1 mentions a yearly dole of three shillings to be paid to the bridge chapel at ,wakefield4 ,at an earlier date1 in #acih1 two chantries were ordained in ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel1 thanks to the generosity of ,william ,terry and ,robert ,heth1 who obtained licences from ,richard ,,ii 8to give and assign to two chaplains celebrating divine service in the chapel of ,st4 ,mary1 on ,wakefield ,bridge1 lately built1 ten pounds rent in ,wakefield1 ,stanley1 ,ossett1 ,pontefract1 ,horbury1 ,heckmondwike1 ,shafton1 ,darfield1 ,preston1 ,jackling1 and ,frystone by the water40 ,norrison ,scatcherd gives this quotation from a document in the archives of the ,hatfield family1 but ,i know not what to say of it2 for a charter of an earlier date mentions a sum of #aj and two chaplains 7p4 #bcj74 ,however1 the chapel is built on a little island in the river ,calder1 and the plan is arranged below so as to offer the least resistance to the river4 8,the extra width required for the chapel above is obtained by corbelling out on each side1 which gives a total external width of about twenty feet4 ,the total length is about forty-five feet4 ,the front towards the bridge is very elaborate1 and is divided into five ogee-headed compartments1 with buttresses between4 ,three of these1 the centre and two ends1 are doorways1 the other two being panelled4 ,over this is a series of five panels filled with sculpture representing the ,annunciation1 the ,birth of ,jesus1 the ,resurrection1 the ,ascension1 and the ,descent of the ,holy ,ghost on the ,disciples4 ,surmounting the whole are battlements2 and a bold group of pinnacles at each end of the front over the buttresses4 ,each side has three three-light windows1 and the east end has a large window of five lights2 all have rich ,decorated tracery4 ,a well-designed turret stands at the north-east angle1 and contains the staircase which communicates with the roof and crypt4 ,on the north1 south1 and east fronts is a panelled parapet1 and there is a canopied niche over the east windows4 ,there was formerly a priest's house adjoining1 but the last vestiges of it were removed in #ahff4444 ,the windows on the south and east are filled with stained glass4 ,the interior is in good repair1 and is fitted up for service40#ib ,and service also is held there4#ic ,leland1 who returned from his antiquarian tour in #aedb1 collected in ,wakefield a good many suppositions about the origin of ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel4 ,he was happy there1 because a right honest man fared well for 8#b pens a meale40 ,on the east side of a fair bridge of stone1 under whose nine arches the ,calder flowed1 ,leland was charmed to see a right goodly chapel of ,our ,lady1 with two cantuary priests founded in it1 by the townsmen1 as some say2 but1 on the other hand1 the ,dukes of ,york were taken as founders because they had obtained the mortmain4 ,he heard someone say that ,edward ,,iv's father1 or else the ,earl of ,rutland1 brother to ,edward ,,iv1 8was a great doer of it10 for 8a sore batell was fought in the south feeldes of this bridge10 and in the flight of the ,duke of ,york's party1 either the duke himself1 or his son the ,earl of ,rutland1 was slain a little above the bars1 beyond the bridge1 going up into the town of ,wakefield4 8,at this place is set up a cross in rei memoriam40 ,very often to-day1 as in ,leland's time1 the ,chapel of ,st4 ,mary is supposed to have been founded later than #adfj1 partly to commemorate the battle of ,sandal ,castle ,field1 now called the battle of ,wakefield1 and partly as a monument to a boy of eighteen1 poor ,edmund ,earl of ,rutland1 second son of the ,duke of ,york1 who was murdered by the 8black ,lord ,clifford10 called the ,butcher4 ,then a royal chantry seems to have been founded in ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel1 and endowed2 but chantries were founded often in bridge chapels1 as we have seen in the case of ,london ,bridge 7p4 #bag72 and so we must not suppose that 8chantry0 and 8chapel0 mean always the same thing4 ,moreover1 in architectural character the chapel belongs to about the time of ,edward ,,ii1 who died in #acbg4 ,this was proved by ,buckler1 and in a charter of about #aceh1 dated at ,wakefield1 ,edward ,,iii settled 8#aj per annum on ,william ,kaye and ,william ,bull and their successors for ever to perform ,divine ,service in a chapel of ,st4 ,mary newly built on the bridge at ,wakefield40#id ,still1 the precise date of the foundation is unimportant4 ,scatcherd ascribes it to a time earlier than #aceg1 and dwells upon a resemblance between ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel at ,wakefield and ,prior ,crawden's ,chapel at ,ely1 #acba-dj2 he is 8almost persuaded0 that they were built by the same great architect1 ,alan de ,walsingham4#ie ,i chose the story of this bridge chapel as an instance of the desecration thrust upon old ,english shrines after the ,reformation had let loose the creed of self into sect-making zealotry4 ,in the presence of fine art ,puritans were often like starving dogs in the presence of raw meat4 ,though every medival bridge without exception was united to the ,church by a ,christian symbol1 a cross or a crucifix1 yet the ,puritans were so thorough in their fanaticism that only a bridge here and there was allowed to keep even the stump of a smashed cross4 ,some broken crosses were handed on to ,victoria's time1 but highway boards and their parapet repairs destroyed the stumps one by one1 as in the case of ,ashford ,bridge1 ,derbyshire4 ,a few years ago the stump of a cross had not yet been stripped from one ,derbyshire bridge1 the ,derwent packhorse bridge1 but ,i dare not say that it still remains4 ,at any moment the vandalism of a 8restoration0 may remind us that our highway boards ought to be guided and disciplined by independent committees of architects and artists4 ,their work is far less intelligent than that of the ,ponts et ,chausses in ,france4 ,and so1 what with the ravaging hands of our roadway officials1 and what with the destructive sanctity of ,puritans1 our old bridges and their religious adjuncts have suffered long and much and continually4 ,many bridge chapels have been destroyed1 as at ,cromford1 ,doncaster1 ,ludlow1 ,bideford1 ,richmond 7,yorks71 ,leeds1 ,newcastle1 ,barnard ,castle1 ,durham 7on the ,elvet ,bridge71 ,catterick1 ,bridgenorth1 ,bristol1 ,wallingford1 ,bedford 7,st4 ,thomas's ,chapel1 ,bunyan's gaol71 and ,droitwich1 where the high road passed through the chapel1 and separated the congregation from the reading-desk and from the pulpit6 ,what a relic of old wayfaring life6 ,yet it was cleared away as hateful to progress4 ,a small oratory remains on the bridge at ,bradford-on-,avon1 ,wiltshire4 ,it is not quite on the same lines as the original structure1 for in the seventeenth century its roofing was altered into a sort of dome built with stone4 ,it is a 8housing10 a tiny place for a passing prayer1 not a chapel2 and this class of bridge oratory has become so uncommon that ,i doubt whether another exists4 ,as ,mr4 ,emanuel ,green has said1 it 8is now perhaps unique10 and 8should be carefully preserved40#if ,in recent times neither reverence nor care has been bestowed on this oratory4 ,after the ,reformation it was profaned1 as a matter of course4 ,for a long time it was used as a 8lock-up10 and in #ahhg it was a powder magazine6 ,its pyramidal roof is crowned with a tall finial1 which in its turn carries a pretty wind vane2 and in the wind vane we find the emblem of ,st4 ,nicholas--a gudgeon4 ,the townsfolk used to be known as ,bradford gudgeon1 and those of them who had been shut up in the little prison on the bridge were said to have been 8under the fish and over the water40#ig ,at ,st4 ,ives1 ,huntingdonshire1 called ,slepe in 8,domesday ,book10 and ,asleep to-day1 there is another degraded oratory1 a bigger one1 with an apsidal termination eastward4 ,its original parapet has been torn down1 and a brick house of two storeys adds greatly to its height4 ,derby also has a bridge chapel1 whose history may be studied in the works of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,cox2 but ,i am more interested in the oratory on ,rotherham ,bridge1 ,yorkshire4 ,here1 as at ,wakefield1 the chapel stands on a small island1 the upper part is corbelled out on each side1 and the end against the bridge is carried by a half-arch4 ,the plan is a rectangle about #cj ft4 by #ad ft41 while at ,wakefield the external width is #bj ft4 and the total length about #de ft4 ,during many years ,rotherham ,chapel was almost as beautiful as the masterpiece at ,wakefield2 and even now1 after infinite ill-usage1 there is charm in the embattled parapet graced with pinnacles4 ,illustration3 ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,at ,,barnard ,,castle1 ,,yorkshire ,we hear of this chapel for the first time in the will of one ,john ,bokyns1 who in #adhc left three and fourpence 8to the fabric of the chapel to be built on ,rotherham ,bridge40 ,there seems to have been no endowment1 as this chapel was unnamed by the ,commissioners of ,henry ,,viii4 ,in #afha she was turned into an almshouse1 she was a prison in #aggh1 and also in #ahca2 but at last she became more reputable as a warehouse4 ,may we hope that her lost window tracery will be renewed1 and will she ever be restored to the service of the ,church8 ,her degradation has lasted far too long1 certainly1 but it is not easy to collect money for church restoration4 ,if our golf fanatics took the matter in hand and made an appeal to the public1 their popularity would bring in subscriptions4 ,from a standpoint of historic social life this irreverence to ancient bridge chapels cannot be anything less than horrible1 because the earlier ,england owed all her best qualities to that faith which preceded ,protestantism1 and which passed without much injury through the terrible alembics of medival war and of social egotism4 ,in ,shakespeare himself we find a product of the spectacular display which the old ,church had encouraged by her festivals2 and it is certain also that ,shakespeare could not have been a dramatic poet if the ,puritanism of his time had been a leading motive-power of public life1 and not merely a writer of unpopular books4 ,no pontist should fail to read the early ,puritan scribblers1 who give in a frenzy of caricature much valuable social history1 without a knowledge of which the sixteenth century cannot be understood4 ,their language is graphic1 and so violent that it takes one's breath away2 but in all reprints1 as in those of the ,new ,shakespeare ,society1 it is kept away from the general reader by the dismal pedantry which copies the freakish spelling of sixteenth-century books4 ,let me give1 with modernised spelling1 an abridged extract from an ,elizabethan ,puritan1 ,phillip ,stubbes1 whose 8,anatomy of ,abuses0 has come at last into the history of historians4 ,my aim is to show three things3 a spirit of fierce intolerance not yet popular enough to close the theatres of ,london1 but foolish enough to wreck shrines and to take pride in a very bad system of supposed moral teaching4 ,it was the earlier ,cromwell who appointed ,sir ,william ,bassett1 ,knight1 to the holy office of shrine destroyer and image breaker2 and ,bassett1 whose humour was killed by zealotry1 regarded as sinful things even the baths at ,buxton1 for he locked them up and sealed them1 8that none shall enter to wash 444 until your lordship's pleasure be further known40 ,into this novel sanctity ,phillip ,stubbes poured his abundant venom4 ,being at heart a thorough ,puritan1 it never occurred to him that it would be better to educate human nature than to take away from it the discipline of temptation4 ,as in earlier times the better minds and characters had sneaked away from life into nunneries and monasteries1 so ,phillip ,stubbes wished mankind to be a recluse1 a hermit1 separated by stern laws from everything that folly could abuse4 ,because minstrels and mimics sang many a lewd song1 as do fools to-day1 ,stubbes raged against all itinerant clowns1 buffoons1 and singers1 and demanded that they should be put down2 by no other means could men be taught to value a little decency and self-respect4 ,his language runs thus3-- 8,such drunken sockets and bawdy parasites range the country1 rhyming and singing unclean1 corrupt and filthy songs1 in taverns1 ale-houses1 inns1 and other public assemblies4444 ,every town1 city1 and country is full of these minstrels to pipe up a dance to the devil4444 ,but some of them will reply1 and say1 #8,what1 sir6 we have licences from justices of the peace to pipe and use our minstrelsy to our best commodity4' ,cursed be those licences which license any man to get his living with the destruction of many thousands6 ,but have you a licence from the archjustice of peace1 ,christ ,jesus8 ,if you have not 444 then may you1 as rogues1 extravagants1 and stragglers from the heavenly country1 be arrested of the high justice of peace1 ,christ ,jesus1 and be punished with eternal death1 notwithstanding your pretended licences from earthly men44440 ,briefly1 the people had degraded their singers1 just as to-day they degrade those ,sunday newspapers which have the widest circulation2 yet ,stubbes believed that the people could be saved from themselves if their victims were condemned to everlasting punishment by 8the high justice of peace1 ,christ ,jesus40 ,in like manner the people were to be improved somehow by the destruction of old votive shrines1 or by the desecration of the bridge chapels in which for ages the pilgrims of ,england had solaced their long journeys4 ,henry ,,viii himself1 in #aeaj1 is said to have made a pilgrimage to ,our ,lady of ,walsingham1 barefooted1 and carrying a rich necklace--a light but expensive gift that did not add to his fatigue4 ,erasmus visited the same great shrine and kissed the relics1 and all at once the ,virgin nodded at him1 owing to the indiscretion of a priest who pulled some strings4 ,in the fourteenth century thirty-eight shrines drew pilgrims to ,norfolk2 for illness rambled from place to place1 feeding a superstitious piety1 and praying for that relief which doctors in their wild ignorance could not give4 ,the shrines of ,europe were the only physicians that the sick dared to trust4 ,illustration3 ,,gothic ,,bridge ,,with ,,shrines ,,at ,,elche ,,in ,,spain ,many a pilgrim visited the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet at ,avignon1 and legend speaks also of miracles2 the good friar was buried in his bridge chapel1 and during his life he healed the sick and the maimed4 ,i know not why legend should say these things1 since ,bnzet did quite enough good work by building his noble structure over the ,rhne1 a terrible river4 ,a ,roman bridge had occupied the same spot1 so that ,bnzet may have used some of the ,roman foundations4 ,his work1 in any case1 was done with unusual rapidity1 being finished in eight years 7#aagg-aahe74ih ,in ,brangwyn's glorious picture of the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet one romantic feature is the friar-architect's tomb1 the venerable ,chapel of ,st4 ,nicholas2 and historians dwell upon the fact that never once has the chapel been injured by floods or by wars4 ,all has been wrecked except the four arches dominated by the shrine of ,st4 ,bnzet4 ,pope ,clement ,,vi 7#acdb-aceb7 had to rebuild four arches2 in #acie1 during a fierce attack on the palace of the ,popes1 the bridge was cut by the ,catalans and ,aragonese1 who destroyed an arch2 and this breach was not repaired with stone till the year #adah4 ,the masonry was not good1 for in #afjb the arch gave way and caused the loss of three others4 ,disaster followed disaster1 two arches falling in #afcc and two in the winter of #afgj4 ,turn to the ,sieur ,tassin's 8,plans et ,profils des principales ,villes et ,lieux considrables de ,france10 issued in #afeb1 and you will find a view of ,saint ,bnzet's ,bridge1 with two arches missing on ,barthelasse ,island1 and three on the great arm of the ,rhne4 ,as a rule such gaps were bridged with timber1 because a ,french bridge cut in war could not be repaired until permission had been gained from the foe who had done the damage4 ,this curious fact in medival history ,i take from ,viollet-le-,duc2 and it may help to explain why the masterpiece of ,st4 ,bnzet was allowed to perish4 ,bnzet constructed twenty-one#ii arches1 and the line of his bridge made an elbow pointing upstream1 beyond ,barthelasse ,island1 on the ,villeneuve branch of the ,rhne4 ,two ideas governed this angular disposition3 first1 to thrust into the river a tremendous wedge of arcaded stonework to resist floods2 next to thwart an attack by cavalry and infantry2 since a bridge with a bend in it would be more difficult to storm than a level and straight footway4 ,in ,spain there are several bridges of this angular sort1 notably a very long one over the ,pisuerga at ,torquemada2 and in ,corsica also there is a fine example1 but in caricature1 the bridge over the ,tavignano being shaped like a ,z4 ,bnzet made another concession to tactical defence3 his bridge was only #d metres #ij wide1 including the thickness of the parapets1 so it was very narrow in proportion to the nine hundred metres of its length4 ,just a few soldiers in a line could have walked along it from end to end2 and wheeled traffic must have been hindered1 for at one point--face to face with the chapel--the roadway dwindled to half its breadth4 ,even in times when carts and chariots were long and narrow1 a journey across this bridge on a market day must have been an adventure4 ,this cramped road over the ,rhne was the only permanent way connecting the ,papal territory of ,avignon and the ,french territory of ,languedoc4 ,many troubles arose on this account1 and ,france never rested till she had gained control over the ,pont ,saint-,bnzet and ,avignon4 ,a century after ,bnzet's death the ,king of ,france put up a bullying fortress on the right bank1 and closed the ,villeneuve entrance whenever he liked4 ,for about fifty years ,avignon took no steps to counterbalance this attack on her liberties2 then a ,bastille was built on her side of the river1 and now the ,pont ,saint-,bnzet was nearly as martial as the ,bridge of ,saintes 7p4 #cjj7 or as the ,pont d',orlans1 which from ,october #ab1 #adbh1 to the arrival of ,jeanne d',arc on ,april #bi1 #adbi1 aided ,gaucour to baffle the earls of ,salisbury and ,suffolk4 ,in the eighth year of the fifteenth century the contention between ,france and ,avignon reached a crisis1 not at all an infrequent thing in their history2 but this crisis of #adjh unseated the ,papacy at ,avignon1 and expelled ,benedict ,,xiii1 bringing to an end a religious domination which had lasted in the city for ninety-nine years4 ,it is clear from this brief record of events that the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet1 like many another great bridge of the ,middle ,ages1 had but a poor chance of becoming social and useful4 ,instead of being an open road to the democratic spirit and the growth of trade1 she kept watch and ward incessantly1 and aided the misruling class to nourish their egotisms without any care at all for the common weal4 ,it said very little for the half-sense of ordinary men that they in their millions were unable to defend themselves against a tiny class of despots4 ,the people were like leaves on forest trees1 that fluttered ineffectually as soon as a gale began to blow4 ,for the ounces of brain in each human skull have never been of any real worth until genius has taken control of them1 for good or for ill4 ,more than one insect has had a brain more fertile than that of the average man4 ,thus the cerebral ganglia of the ant1 though not so large as a quarter of a small pin's head1 have evolved a marvellous routine of life1 which includes the making of bridges and the boring of tunnels under running water4 ,ants were civil engineers long before men had constructed their first tunnels and drains4 ,have you ever tried to imagine what would have happened in the world of primitive men if every atom in every ounce of human brain had been as fertile as the cerebral ganglia of the ant8 ,a civilization no worse than our own might have been evolved by the year #ajj1jjj ,b4,c41 if not earlier4 ,from time to time1 however1 amid the congealed blood that lay so thick over the medival history of ,france1 some true social justice did shine out1 here and there4 ,a few ,french nobles built communal bridges1 and set the ,law to keep them for ever from the tyrannies of a superior class that found in ordinary men neither the intelligence of ants nor the discipline that united wolves into formidable packs4 ,the people being too silly to defend their own rights1 these few good nobles tried to foresee all dangers1 but their legal documents were rarely strong enough to resist their incessant foes1 the stupidity of the mob and the gradual encroachments of military leaders4 ,when ,eudes1 ,count of ,chartres1 built a bridge at ,tours1 as an act of piety that would benefit his soul1 he decreed that its public value for all time was to be as free from all restraints as a church4 ,at an earlier time1 in a deed of #iih1 ,william the ,great1 ,duke of ,aquitaine1 went so far as to forbid pour toujours a collection of tolls on the ,pont ,royal4 ,he did not realise that his populace would cease to value the bridge as soon as they got the freedom of it for nothing4 ,again1 in ,france during the ,middle ,ages no bridge could be fortified without permission from its founder or founders4 ,this was a rule or law1 and yet it must have been broken hundreds of times1 for what bridge of any importance did not become a fortified work1 a genuine stronghold8 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,borne ,,at ,,espaly1 ,,near ,,le ,,puy ,,in ,,france2 ,,behind ,,the ,,croix ,,de ,,la ,,paille1 ,a ,,rock ,,of ,,volcanic ,,breccia1 ,,with ,,houses1 ,,and ,,with ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,thirteenth-,,century ,,castle ,one form or custom of the ,middle ,ages tried to encompass bloodshed with the glamour of religious fervour4 ,after the battle of ,towton1 for example1 a chapel was built on the stricken field by the ,yorkists as a memorial to the souls of their dead4 ,and a famous chapel on the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york is said to have been erected after a stiff fight between the citizens and a ,scotchman named ,john ,comyn4 ,the fray happened on the bridge itself1 in #aafh1 or thereabouts1 and ,john ,comyn lost several of his followers4 ,then came some negotiations1 in the course of which it was agreed that the city should erect a chapel on the spot1 and find priests to celebrate mass for the souls of the dead4 ,another story relates that in #aaec1 when ,saint ,william was restored to the ,see of ,york1 a vast crowd assembled on a timber bridge that crossed the ,ouse1 so eager were the citizens to welcome their prelate1 who in #aadg had been deprived of office after a reign of three years4 ,in the hustle and excitement of the home-coming1 the bridge gave way1 and many persons fell into the river1 but no one perished because ,william prayed and his prayer was answered4 ,to commemorate this miracle a chapel was built on the new bridge4 ,this legend may have some truth in it1 for the chapel was dedicated to ,saint ,william2 and perhaps the other legend about ,john ,comyn is not entirely mythical4 ,one thing is certain3 that in ,norman times a stone bridge was built at ,york and graced with a fine chapel4 ,between #abae and #abef it was reconstructed by ,archbishop ,walter de ,gray1 who preserved some portions of the ,norman chapel4 ,more than three centuries later1 in #aefd1 two arches were destroyed by a flood1 with twelve houses that stood upon them2 and for nearly two years the bridge remained in a ruined state4 ,then the broken arches were rebuilt in the thirteenth-century style4 ,among the contributors to this work was ,lady ,jane ,hall1 whose donation was recorded on a brass plate on the north side of the bridge4 ,the inscription was quaint3-- ,william ,watson1 ,lord ,mayor1 ,an4 ,dom4 #aeff4 ,lady ,jane ,hall to3 here the works of faith doth shew2 ,by giving a hundred pounds this bridge to renew4 ,on the west side of ,ouse ,bridge there were several houses1 which flanked the ,chapel of ,saint ,william4 ,at the ,reformation the chapel contained several chantries1 the original grants of which are still among the records of the city4 ,after the ,reformation1 of course1 these pious endowments were confiscated1 and the beautiful little building was turned into an exchange where the ,york ,society of ,hamburg ,merchants assembled every morning to transact business4 ,at last1 in #ahaj1 the chapel was removed4 ,some parts of it were excellent work in the ,early ,english style1 while the porch and a stone screen were enriched with cable and chevron ornaments1 characteristic of ,norman work4 ,a few etchings of these charming details were published in ,cave's 8,antiquities of ,york0 7#ahac74 ,at the east side of ,ouse ,bridge stood the old gaol for debtors1 built in the sixteenth century4 ,it lasted till #agbd1 when it was purchased by the city and the ainstey1 and a better place was built1 by assessment1 as a free prison4 ,the old bridge was condemned as dangerous in #ahjh1 and on ,december #aj1 #ahaj1 the foundation-stone of a new bridge was laid4#ajj ,among my thousands of notes and papers ,i have a good article on ancient bridge chapels written in #ahhb by the late ,s4 ,wayland ,kershaw1 ,f4,s4,a41 of ,lambeth ,palace ,library4 ,mr4 ,kershaw made a study of old ,rochester ,bridge and its chapel1 which stood on the main road to the ,continent1 close to the great cathedral1 whose main architects were ,bishops ,ernulph and ,gundulph4 ,these bishops favoured the bridge1 partly because it brought pilgrims to the shrine at ,rochester1 and partly because it was a kindness to all wayfarers4 8,the ,crusader on his way to the ,east1 the stately cardinal and foreign prince1 the wayworn pilgrim1 and the merchant-voyager would form but a few of the passengers 444 who would say a passing prayer at the ,bridge ,chapel of ,all ,souls40#aja ,rochester ,bridge in medival times was closely linked to the history of the cathedral4 ,the first bridge was constructed of wood1 and1 according to ,prior ,ernulph's testimony1 it existed before #abae4 ,in ,vol4 ,,vii of 8,archologia10 the ,society of ,antiquaries published a plan of this ancient timber bridge1 with a most valuable description4 ,at the east end there was a tower of wood1 with strong defensive gates1 which may have resembled the timber fortifications with which the ,romans barred their wooden bridges4 ,in #abha1 according to ,kilburne's 8,survey of ,kent10 the earliest bridge at ,rochester was borne down by the ,medway after a severe winter2 and there is no mention of another bridge till the year #achg1 when ,sir ,john ,cobham and ,sir ,r4 ,knolles put up 8a fair bridge of stone40 ,such was the slack and lethargic citizenship of ,rochester4 ,about #ahjj years after the ,pons ,sublicius was thrown across the ,tiber1 a common timber bridge was carried over the ,medway in an effort of progress4 ,as for the belated stone bridge1 the charter of its foundation is preserved in the ,bishops' ,registers1 and a transcript of it is given in ,thorpe's 8,custumale ,roffense40 ,philipott1 in his 8,kent ,surveyed10 #afei1 says that the chapel on ,rochester ,bridge was founded in #acii by ,john de ,cobham1 and dedicated to the ,holy ,trinity1 but called at its first institution ,all ,souls' ,chapel1 because prayers and orisons were to be offered up there for the health of all ,christian souls4 ,two earlier writers--,fabyan in #adjf1 and ,grafton in #adji--;attribute the finishing of the chapel to ,sir ,r4 ,knolles1 ,knight4#ajb ,another chapel1 a small one1 was built on the stone quay at the ,strood end of the bridge1 its founder being ,gilbert de ,glanville1 ,bishop of ,rochester 7#aahe-abae74 8,we learn that ,queen ,isabella1 when she came to ,strood in #aceg1 entered the ,chapel of ,st4 ,mary1 and offered an oblation of six and eightpence in honour of the eleven thousand virgins40 ,gracious6 ,this army of fair saints inspired a very wee act of devotional charity4 ,there is reason to believe that the larger chapel was not closed by legal dissolution1 but passed out of use when pilgrims became afraid to anger their ,protestant neighbours2 for in the nineteenth year of ,elizabeth's reign ,thorpe wrote as follows in his 8,custumale ,roffense03-- 8,the ,queen's ,attorney-,general sued the wardens of the bridge for #eac1 being the amount of #ah per annum for twenty-eight years and a half1 the last past1 which sum was at that time presumed to be forfeited and due to the ,queen by virtue of the ,act #a1 ,ed4 ,,vi1 for dissolving charities4 ,it not appearing to the jury that any service had been performed here1 nor a stipend paid to any chaplain or chantry priest for officiating here1 for five years next before the passing that ,act1 a verdict was given for the ,wardens40 ,in #ahhb1 when ,mr4 ,kershaw wrote his paper1 the ,chapel of ,all ,souls was roofless1 and nearly hidden by new buildings4 ,its width was about fifteen feet1 and its length about forty feet4 ,windows were pierced in the north and south walls1 and two of them were filled with brickwork or with masonry4 ,in the south wall were traces of a piscina1 and some ornamental details had been saved from the general wreckage4 ,much more might be written on bridge chapels and crosses1 but this monograph is only a brief introduction to a vast subject1 and we must pass on to the other topics after noting two points more4 ,both concern the sanctification of bridges by means of religious emblems4 ,it seems quite certain that the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were most favourable to wayside crosses4 ,by then very popular saints had been added to the old shrines1 and the custom of making pilgrimages was tormented by fewer dangers1 as a rule4 ,many a cross was a simple thing of wood fixed in a stone base1 and sometimes it carried at top a small wind vane or weathercock4 ,many crosses were raised to commemorate historical events1 while others were put up by sinners who wished to announce their repentance4 ,here and there a beautiful cross became celebrated4 ,for example1 the ,belle ,croix on the old bridge at ,orlans was a nobly modelled crucifix of bronze that stood up high from the buttress of the middle pier2 its pedestal was ornamented with low-reliefs representing the ,holy ,virgin1 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,james1 ,st4 ,stephen1 and the bishops ,st4 ,aignan and ,st4 ,euverte4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #bcj71 the centre of a medival bridge was marked invariably by a cross4 ,to-day1 on the ,continent1 this old religious custom gives grace to a few bridges1 and ,i value a large photograph of ,trier ,bridge over the ,moselle1 where the ,virgin is enniched above the middle buttress1 and where a crucifix1 flanked by two columns1 rises above the parapet4 ,yet we must not rush to the conclusion that this old sacred custom had its original source in the ,christian religion4 ,at first it may have belonged to a faith in evil spirits1 whose power for mischief may have seemed to be increased by every roadway that enabled them to pass over running water4 ,i have by my side the photograph of a steep bridge in ,western ,china1 at ,shih-,chuan1 and here below the middle of the parapet is a small image of stone representing a tutelary god6 ,to me it is a curious little bit of rude sculpture1 all head and stomach and truncated thighs4 ,its position on the bridge corresponds with that of the cross on medival parapets--a fact of great interest4#ajc ,brangwyn depicts1 in a very brilliant pen-drawing1 a ,chinese bridge larger and finer than the one at ,shih-,chuan1 but there is no image1 so ,i set great store by the evidence of idolatry in the smaller bridge4 ,illustration3 ,,staircase ,,bridge ,,in ,,china ,again1 the province of ,sichuan 7pronounced ,sit-you-on71 in ,western ,china1 preserves another ancient custom4 ,when a flood threatens to overwhelm a bridge1 and particularly a bamboo suspension bridge1 which is a common thing in the mountains1 8the local official and the people throw a living pig into the river1 to stay the rising water3 the pig disappears1 and the flood goes on40#ajd ,this dire superstition is far more primitive than the idol fastened below the parapet of a ,chinese bridge2 and so1 perhaps1 we find in these things a parent emotion and its improved offspring4 ,perhaps3 for ,superstition rests on dark foundations2 we know not precisely where it fades into a belief that is genuinely kinder4 ,,iii ,we pass on to some important topics that worry a writer because they cannot be arranged in a neat scheme4 ,some of them are technical1 but everybody will be able to understand their bearing on the main subject4 ,we have seen that fords gave place to bridges very slowly1 even in some neighbourhoods where the ,church was exceedingly active1 as at ,rochester4#aje ,can you explain why8 ,there were a good many reasons1 and among them is the fact that it was a long time before bridges won a good reputation among the people4 ,wood being abundant everywhere1 they were timber bridges at first1 and rudely built2 many of them were carried away by storms1 as ,matthew ,paris related in the thirteenth century4 ,so people set their hearts on the greater safety of stone bridges2 but money was difficult to collect1 and stonework cost a great deal more than timber2 and no bridge could be built until permission had been gained from the ,king1 often after tedious negotiations4 ,further1 the lands through which rivers flowed were owned at times by rival noblemen1 who put a veto on the project1 either in a spirit of perverse antagonism or because a stone bridge might benefit one landlord more than another4 ,and it was easy for the stronger man to explain his antagonism in a reasonable manner1 for he could say that the cofferdams used in grounding piers diverted rivers from their channels1 causing inundations4 ,this objection seems to have been raised pretty often1 as many piers were grounded in a very primitive fashion1 just by throwing down stones and cement till a bed of masonry rose above water-level4 ,in the ,ballad of ,abingdon ,bridge1 written by ,richard ,fannande ,iremonger in the thirty-sixth year of ,henry ,,vi 7#adeh71 we find most of the difficulties that attended medival bridge-building4 ,till the fourth year of ,henry ,v 7#adag7 the townsfolk of ,abingdon and ,culham had nothing but a ford1 which could not be passed after a storm of rain or after a thaw4 ,yet ,abingdon lived under the shadow of a great monastery1 and roads were constructed from her streets to the ancient or ,roman highways4 ,not even a timber bridge preceded the charming stone one that charity built in #adag1 the very year in which ,henry ,v sailed from ,england with #af1jjj men and ravaged ,normandy4 ,but in the ,middle ,ages most people regarded bridges as we in our ignorance regard hospitals1 as useful and necessary things to be supported by charitable doles1 and not by district rates4 ,to beg is a degradation1 no matter what the cause may be1 and many a small town could have built for itself a bridge but for the ruling custom that taught it to be a mendicant4 ,culham and ,abingdon waited a very long time before almsgiving got rid of their dangerous ford4 ,the ,abbot gave his aid1 and ,geoffrey ,barber paid a thousand marks to the workmen1 and ,sir ,peris ,besillis1 ,knight1 provided the stone1 and 8the gode lorde of ,abendon left of his londe1 for the breed breadth of the bridge1 twenty-four fote large03-- ,it was a greet socour of erthe and of sonde1 ,and yet he abated the rent of the barge4 ,an ,c4 ,pownde1 and xv was truly payed ,by the hondes of ,john ,huchyns and ,banbery also1 ,for the waye and the barge1 thus it must be sayed4 ,but ,i am happy to add that 8the ,commons of ,abendon0 had to do something for themselves4 ,it was 8set all in one assent that all the brekynges of the brige the town bere schulde40 ,in other words1 charity had produced a free town bridge1 leaving the inhabitants to pay for its upkeep4 ,during the building of this pretty structure an unsuccessful attempt was made to ground the piers while eleven men baled water from the river4 ,then a dam was built1 and trenches were dug to prevent the water from overflowing the dam4 ,this ,i gather from the ballad1 but the wording is not at all graphic in any technical matter4#ajf ,we are not told why cofferdams#ajg were not tried4 ,in the ,middle ,ages cofferdams were known as brandryths or brandereths2 by this name they are mentioned in the ,contract ,deed for the building of ,catterick ,bridge over the ,swale1 ,a4,d4 #adba2 and they were large enough to obstruct most rivers1 for they had to surround enormous piers1 and the thickness of their sides was never less than from four to six feet4 ,it is interesting to note1 in this connection1 that during the construction of ,old ,london ,bridge1 between #aagf and #abji1 the ,thames 8was turned another way about by a trench10 which1 according to ,stow1 began east near 8,rotherhithe1 as is supposed1 and ended in the west about ,patricksey1 now termed ,battersea40 ,in those days no embankments controlled the ,thames at ,london2 wide shores1 littered with the odds and ends of a waterside life1 were playgrounds for the ebb and flow of the tidal waters2 and the main purpose of the 8trench0 or canal was to lessen the risk of floods while the huge piers were being founded4 ,stow's words give us to understand that all the water in the ,thames 8was turned another way about02 a very important feat of civil engineering4 ,perhaps the purpose of the canal was not so thorough2 perhaps it drew from the river sufficient water to lower its normal level by several feet and to diminish the force of the tidal current4 ,in any case1 however1 ,stow's evidence has great interest4 ,one of ,brangwyn's animated drawings1 the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 comes in here to illustrate the many troubles of medival bridge-building4 ,in #aadd1 when ,montauban passed from an unknown village into a known town1 its patron or founder1 ,alphonse ,jourdain1 ,count of ,toulouse1 commanded that a bridge should be made at once1 and that the little township should keep it in repair2 but1 somehow1 for many generations1 nothing was done4 ,sometimes poverty was pleaded as an excuse1 and sometimes the ,albigeois wars were blamed2 but at last1 in #abfd1 the good men of ,montauban ventured on a little action4 ,indeed1 they stretched themselves yawningly1 and said that a bridge over the ,tarn would be a boon indeed4 ,their ferry was a slow nuisance1 we may presume1 and their trade ought to be increased by better communications4 ,for twenty-seven years they repeated these truisms2 then1 in #abia1 they bought the island of ,castillons or of ,pissotte to serve as a foundation for several piers4 ,tired by this unwonted exertion1 ,montauban wished to take a long holiday1 but ,philip the ,fair came forward and asserted himself as a king4 ,a bridge over the ,tarn must be built6 ,it should have three fortified towers1 one at each end1 the other in the middle2 and these towers were to be garrisoned by royal troops1 so that no harm should happen to the king's authority4 ,in order to collect money for the bridge-building a tax was to be levied on all visitors to ,montauban1 and two consuls were to overseer the work4 ,his ,majesty chose ,mathieu de ,verdun1 a citizen1 and tienne de ,ferrires1 who was keeper of the town4 ,they seemed to be honest men1 but funds collected for the bridge were used for other purposes1 and ,i know not if this action was justified4 ,it was in #acjd that ,philip the ,fair gave his instructions1 and the bridge was not finished till #acce4 ,still1 the dilatory township had achieved a very fine work of art1 noble in design and very well constructed4 ,it is a brick bridge1 #bej m4#ajh #ej cm4 in length4 ,the bricks are excellent in quality1 and measure #ej centimetres in thickness1 #dj centimetres in length1 and #bh centimetres in width4 ,the roadway is nearly flat1 and its height above the level of the ,tarn is #ah metres4 ,there are seven pointed arches with an average span of #bb metres2 and the six piers armed with cutwaters at both sides are #h m4 #ee cm4 in thickness4 ,note how the spandrils are pierced with high arched bays to facilitate the passage of water during floods4 ,these relief arches were copied from ,roman models4 ,as for the defensive towers they exist no longer1 but the strongest one kept watch and ward over the entrance across the river2 it was square in shape1 and its summit was a crenellated platform fringed with machicolations4 ,the other end tower--the one on the town side--was also square in form1 while the central defence was triangular4 ,it stood on the middle buttress on the side looking downstream1 and the lower part of it was used as a chapel dedicated to ,st4 ,catherine4 ,a flight of winding steps went down to a postern1 cut through the buttress a little above water-level2 and at the other side of the pier1 just below the arched bay1 was an instrument of torture1 a see-saw that carried an iron cage in which blasphemers were ducked in the river4 ,the ,pont des ,consuls has one quality that ,englishmen ought to study with the greatest care2 it is in scale with a great river4 ,to build a vast bridge for a little township was in part a just tribute to the beauty of a noble site1 and in part a prophetic compliment paid to the future history of ,montauban4 ,how differently we have acted in our ,london bridges6 ,we have disgraced the ,thames with the ,railway ,viaduct from ,charing ,cross1 for instance1 and neither ,waterloo nor ,london ,bridge does justice to the size of our ,nation-,city4 ,there are three or four good bridges on the ,thames1 notably those at ,maidenhead and ,richmond1 but they are nothing more than delicate works of refined engineering4 ,not one is inspired by awe1 the only feeling that can bring home to our minds the wondrous grey antiquity of the ,thames and the immensity of ,london4 ,so we have feared to be great in the historic symbolism of bridge-building1 unlike the citizens of ,montauban1 who were lifted far above their indolence by a brave inspiration as ample as was the ,tarn after a flood4 ,illustration3 ,,le ,,pont ,,des ,,consuls ,,over ,,the ,,tarn ,,at ,,montauban ,,in ,,france1 ,,fourteenth ,,century ,in #ahbc-d1 when ,george ,rennie designed ,new ,london ,bridge1 ,london was probably two hundred times as big as was ,montauban in the fourteenth century2 and certainly the ,thames was not inferior to the ,tarn as a historic inspiration4 ,yet ,rennie failed to understand the importance of being large in scale4 ,in less than fifty years his work was 8insufficiently wide for the traffic02#aji and since then1 on a good many occasions1 we have been asked to disfigure ,london ,bridge with overhanging footpaths4 8,london can well afford to pay for new bridges1 but can by no means afford to part with a single object of real beauty40#aji ,for ,rennie's bridge1 despite all errors of scale1 has points of charming interest4 ,her roadway has a graceful curvature that delights the eye1 her arches have an excellent shape1 and the variation in their size could not well be bettered4#aaj ,later we shall see 7p4 #cbe7 that much money was ill-spent on hammer-dressing the whole external face of the masonry2 but an engineer with a very weak feeling for scale was afraid to use either scabbled stone or stone with a rough-axed facing4 ,rennie learnt all that he could learn by studying fine models of style1 such as the ,roman bridge at ,rimini1 but his own equipment as an artist was terrene4 ,would that we had in ,england an old bridge equal to the ,pont des ,consuls6 ,would that old ,london ,bridge had been delivered down to our sixpences and shillings6 ,yet ,i suppose we must consider ourselves lucky in the fact that historic bridges in ,great ,britain1 though much inferior to those on the ,continent1 are fairly numerous in districts where there has been but little increase of traffic4 ,we possess three bridges with defensive gateways 7,stirling1 ,warkworth1 and the ,monnow ,bridge at ,monmouth72 five with chapels1 or with relics of chapels 7,st4 ,ives in ,huntingdonshire1 ,derby1 ,bradford-on-,avon in ,wiltshire1 ,wakefield1 ,rotherham72 and many good specimens exist of bridges with angular recesses built out from parapets and forming part of the piers4#aaa ,these recesses were designed not only as shelter places for wayfarers1 but because they lessened the cost of production1 inasmuch as they gave width to narrow footways2 and so their value in an old bridge is very similar to that of bay-windows in cottage rooms4 ,very often the modern engineer has misunderstood their origin1 and1 regarding them as decorations1 he has used safety recesses to ornament his wide bridges1 just as he has put battlements on iron parapets and stuck machicolations on defenceless gateways4 ,brangwyn has drawn for us three or four big ,gothic bridges with safety recesses4 ,among them is a fine structure over the ,main at ,wrzburg1 in ,bavaria2 there are eight arches1 and the length is #fej ft4 ,this bridge dates from the year #adgd1 but his adornment with statues of saints belongs to later times4 ,indeed1 the architecture and decoration take us from the end of the ,middle ,ages to the year #afjg1 when the spirit of the ,renaissance was active and generative4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,main ,,at ,w,,rzburg ,,in ,,bavaria 7#adgd-afjg7 ,here is an old defensive bridge that does not resemble a common man-at-arms3 in him there is a fine courtesy1 as of a knight long used to the etiquette of tournaments2 but yet the technical inspiration is rather inferior to that in his great rival1 the ,moselle ,bridge at ,coblentz1 built in #acdd1 by the ,elector ,baudouin1 and charmed with a mellow grace that imparts a rare distinction to the vigour of fourteen bold arches4 ,the ,moselle ,bridge is #aajj ft4 long1 or ninety-five longer than ,london ,bridge4 ,there is but one fault1 and this one fault belongs to the ,middle ,ages3 the ten piers obstruct the river too much1 and two or three of them might have been omitted without harm to any strategic consideration4 ,in the ,middle ,ages almost everything was looked at from the standpoints of attack and defence4 ,bridges as well as soldiers needed armour1 so their gateways and towers were built in a military fashion1 and at times curious traps were devised along the footways4 ,for example1 consult the 8,pacata ,hibernia10 and you will find an engraving of ,askeaton ,bridge1#aab with a sort of hangman's trapdoor at each end of the footway4 ,in #aehf1 or thereabouts1 ,askeaton ,bridge had another peculiarity3 a castle stood close to it on an island in the river2 and between the castle and the bridge was a fortified platform with two gateways4 ,it happened often1 in medival times1 that one arch was a drawbridge4 ,take ,old ,london ,bridge as an example4 ,one of her twenty arches--the thirteenth from the ,city end--was a toll-gate for merchant shipping1 and a drawbridge to gap off enemies from the town4 ,it served this latter purpose in #aeec1 when ,sir ,thomas ,wyatt and his insurgents tried to enter ,london4 ,everybody knew which was the movable arch1 because it was connected in all popular talk with the tower that rose beside it1 a terrible and gruesome tower1 for on its summit executioners displayed the heads of decapitated persons1 who ranged from common bandits to the great ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,some defensive bridges in ,old ,england had an important look as late as the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,this applies to the ,welsh ,bridge at ,shrewsbury1 which had a noble tower at the entrance that looked towards ,wales4 ,perhaps it belonged to the reign of ,edward ,i1 as a statue of ,llewellyn was placed over one of the arches4 ,at the present time our fortified bridges are minor specimens4 ,the 8auld brig0 over the ,forth at ,stirling1 once 8the key of the ,highlands10 is the most interesting architecturally4 ,he still retains a defensive gateway at each end1 and his four arches1 now closed to traffic1 have a bold and pleasant rhythm4 ,they date from the last years of the fourteenth century4 ,from this century also ,warkworth ,bridge comes to us2 it is a smaller structure1 with a triangular recess at each side1 projecting from the parapet into the central pier4 ,the gate-tower is at some little distance from the abutment2 it has a low and narrow archway under which carters swear unhopefully1 believing that their wagons will stick fast4 ,a person who was present on the occasion told ,m4 ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand that a gipsy's caravan1 not long ago1 was stopped at the tower on ,warkworth ,bridge1 and waited there while the pavement was being hollowed out to make the passage deep enough for a safe journey4 ,the pier midstream is triangular1 and almost as sharp as an arrow-head4 ,this shape is very common in medival cutwaters1 but it belongs to a technical routine which cannot be regarded as practical4 ,floods cannot eddy around the flat surfaces of a triangle2 they are cut into waves that soon break with an increasing force against the piers and spandrils4 ,on the other hand1 when a cutwater is shaped like a ,gothic drop arch1 or like a tierce-point arch1 it meets the current with a much bolder wedge of stone1 whose curved sides are better playgrounds for water in spate4 ,cutwaters of this improved sort are uncommon in medival bridges1 but some are to be found in ,french work of the ,limousin4 ,viollet-le-,duc was the first critic who called attention to this technical matter1 and no pontist should fail to note how cutwaters are designed4 ,for example1 in a bird's-eye view of the bridge at ,avignon the buttressed piers jut out on each side beyond the narrow footway1 looking like boats that support a long line of planks2 and ,i have no doubt that ,saint ,bnzet had in mind this figure of boats when he planned his roadway over 8the arrowy ,rhne40 ,it is far from my wish to compare the little ,warkworth ,bridge with this ,french masterpiece1 but let us note in its cutwaters a similar character4 ,again1 when you remember that ,warkworth ,bridge belongs to the fourteenth century1 do you not expect to find in it the pointed vault1 whose lighter grace is among the most beautiful things both in ,eastern and in medival architecture8 ,yet the two ribbed arches are segments of circles4 ,for many a generation ,northern ,england has been famed for three things--a long-headed thrift1 a discontent that is said to be a ,radical in politics1 and a stubborn hatred for any new knowledge that attacks the dull mimicry of customs4 ,it is to ,lancashire1 for instance1 that you must go if you wish to study in old packhorse bridges the retention of ,romanesque forms4 ,a considerable number are described popularly as ,roman bridges1 probably because they are found on the old pilgrim ways1 which1 after the ,reformation1 were scorned as ,roman ,catholic4 ,for some reason or other ,northern ,england welcomed in bridges the bluff economy of ribbed arches1 while neglecting the more gracious thrift of ,early ,english or pointed vaults4 ,these are easier to build because they need lighter centres or arched scaffolds1 and their thrust being less powerful than that of round-headed arches1 they require less bulk in the piers4 ,some writers say that pointed arches interfere with sailing-boats1 but this depends on the size of their spans4 ,at ,montauban there is room enough for ordinary boat traffic under the ,pont des ,consuls4 ,the ,pont ,valentr at ,cahors has ogivale arches1 and in one fine drawing ,brangwyn studies the technique of their construction4 ,for instance1 the embattled piers are triangular1 and each of them is pierced transversely by a bay or passage1 which is put on a level with the springing of every arch4 ,below this bay are three holes2 and another line of holes runs across the under surface of the arch beneath the springing4#aac ,now1 these holes and the bays have a great technical interest1 they remind us how the ,pont ,valentr was built in the thirteenth century4 ,with their help simple scaffolds were erected4 ,the first step was to thrust fir saplings through the holes in a pier till they jutted out on each side2 then they were covered with planks and used as footbridges by the workmen1 and also as resting-places for barrow-loads of dressed stone1 which were lifted up by movable cranes4 ,the service of the masons was effected through the bay in a pier1 and the centring of every arch was fixed in those other holes which ,brangwyn has represented in his vivacious water-colour4 ,not more than two arches were built at the same time4 ,at any moment1 in those rude1 warfaring periods1 work might be interrupted by strife1 and its progress was so very slow that it took from ten to thirty years to bring a bridge to completion1 usually after a continuous fight against money troubles4 ,many a hint on economy was borrowed from the ,romans1 whose enterprise was far in advance of their current cash4 ,piers that look marvels of solid masonry may be nothing more than shells filled with beaten earth and gravel2 and those passages through the piers at ,cahors have one thing in common with the relief arches that pierce the spandrils of the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban3 they enabled the builders to be thrifty4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,valentr ,,at ,,cahors-,,sur-,,lot ,a ,,fortified ,,bridge1 ,,thirteenth ,,century ,in a ,persian bridge 7on the way between ,resht1 on the ,caspian ,sea1 and ,teheran1 the capital7 thrift hollowed the spandrils into chambers1 some of which were used by travellers4 ,this bridge carried a rough highway over the ,kredj ,river1 which runs down from the ,elburz ,mountains between ,kasvn and ,teheran1 and disappears in a gravelly plain4 ,in #ahgd the ,kredj ,bridge was studied in measured drawings by ,j4 ,romilly ,allen1 and eighteen years later 7,november #ai1 #ahib7 the drawings were published in 8,the ,builder10 with a most valuable description4 ,let us linger for a few minutes over ,romilly ,allen's research1 as the technique of old ,persian bridge-builders has points in common both with ,gothic methods and with modern practice also4 ,some medival spandrils are hollow1 for example2 and a very noted ,french architect of the eighteenth century1 ,perronet1 not only left empty spaces behind the haunches#aad of an arch1 but made tunnels in piers1 after the manner used by ,pope ,sextus ,,iv in the ,ponte ,sisto4 ,and the bridge of ,glasgow over the ,clyde has tunnelled piers1 so this technical detail has a long and entertaining history4 ,in the ,kredj ,bridge1 then1 the builders had to solve three or four difficulties that strained the usual penury of ,persian finance4 ,the river itself must have been a constant trouble while the bridge was being constructed4 ,a rapid mountain torrent with precipitous rocky banks1 it pours through a gorge of rock1 and at one spot only it forms a good foundation for a wide pier2 but this spot has a situation that divides the bridge into inharmonious parts1 making symmetry impossible4 ,allen's drawing shows both arches1 one with a span of #bc ft41 the other with a span of #gb ft4 #i in42 and between them is a vast pier not less than #ca ft4 #i in4 wide4 ,forty-six feet separate the highest point of the parapet from water-level2 and from water-level to the peak of the big pointed vault is thirty-seven feet4 ,in width the bridge measures thirty feet across the outside of its parapets1 and twenty-six feet across the roadway1 so there is room for a great deal more wheeled traffic than ,persia has yet developed along her dusty trade routes4 ,from this description it is evident that the builders had a stiff job4 ,timber for centring has ever been scarce in ,persia#aae2 so in ,persian bridge-building the usual plan is to set up a light scaffold just strong enough to bear its own weight and a few rings of brickwork4 ,after a single rib of bricks has been made1 other bricks are dabbed against the first set1 more being added at the abutment ends than in the centre of an arch2 and so1 as the work goes on1 the arch grows to be self-supporting1 like a cantilever bridge4 ,when the middle part of the span has been covered over1 the remaining courses at each side are completed with bricks set at right angles to the others4 ,in looking upward at the under surface of a ,persian vault a pontist sees that the courses of brick go in two directions1 one parallel to the central axis of the bridge and another at right angles4 ,such is the ,persian method of building a brick arch2 its main object is to evade1 without too much risk1 the cost of heavy centring1 timber being so difficult to get and so expensive to carry about4#aae ,in the four bridges that ,romilly ,allen studied1 between ,resht and ,teheran1 the building was brickwork1 and the bricks were rather like ,roman tiles2 they measured #aj in4 by #aj in4 by #b in4 ,at ,kredj the mortar joints were about in4 thick1 so that twenty-four courses of bricks with their mortar joints built a wall about #f ft4 #b in4 high4 ,at the thinnest part of the big arch there were only three bricks1 giving a thickness of #b ft4 #f in42 further on there were five bricks1 and two more were added at the abutments1 where the walls were #g ft4 #f in4 thick4 ,here is much economy1 for thick joints of mortar are not praiseworthy 7p4 #age72 and thrift is very noticeable in other details of the workmanship4 ,beneath the roadway were two chambers with pointed barrel vaults1 which were built partly to relieve the haunches of the big arch1 and partly to save materials4 ,on one side of the arch the chamber was about #ab ft4 high2 its length1 varying with the curve of the voussoirs1 and extending across the abutment1 ranged from #bg ft4 to #di ft4 ,on the pier side of the big arch the chamber was not so long1 but its height was #ab ft42 and the pier itself was chambered in its upper part and pierced below with a ,tudor-like arch about #ad ft4 wide and #aa ft4 #f in4 high4 ,the chamber above had a cone-shaped roof1 and at each side of it were three square-headed windows that measured #c ft4 #f in4 wide by #f ft4 high4 ,i am speaking in the past tense1 for ,i know not whether this bridge is still in use2 but now we will return to the present tense in a short quotation from ,romilly ,allen3-- 8,this chamber appears to be 444 a temporary living-room for travellers4 ,it 444 communicates with the cells above the haunches of the arch by an opening #d ft4 #f in4 high4 ,the inner room is probably intended to afford sleeping accommodation4 ,the living-room is approached by a staircase in the thickness of the wall leading up from the top of the pier4 ,the ,persian name for an upper chamber of this kind is #8bala-khana1' literally #8a house up above4'0#aaf ,perhaps the finest bridge in ,persia is the far-famed ,ali ,verdi ,khan at ,isfahan4 ,ali ,verdi ,khan was the general of ,shah ,abbas1 and his bridge1 if not the greatest in the world1 has no rival that excels it in stateliness4 ,as ,lord ,curzon has said1 it alone is worth a visit to ,isfahan to see4 ,i know it in photographs only1 and in written descriptions1 but ,i feel its beauty and magnificence4 ,in many respects it resembles the ,pul-i-,khaju 7p4 #bac71 but it is a great deal longer1 and no pavilions rise above its tiers of arches4 ,to my mind the pavilions of the ,pul-i-,khaju have an architectural value that cannot be rated at too high a level4 ,so ,i miss their grace in the ,ali ,verdi ,khan1 though this noble structure ought not to be criticised--except in an ashamed whisper4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,ali ,,verdi ,,khan ,,over ,,the ,,zendeh ,,rud ,,at ,,isfahan1 ,,persia ,there is a gateway at the north end1 so we must place the ,ali ,verdi ,khan among the minor defensive bridges4 ,a paved ramp or causeway leads from a great avenue to the gateway2 and then a visitor has #chh yards to walk before he reaches the far end4 ,the main road is paved1 and its width is thirty feet4 ,upon each side is a gallery1 or covered arcade1 two and a half feet wide1 which is pierced through the outer wall of the bridge from one end to the other2 it communicates with the main road by frequent arches1 it opens by similar arches--over ninety in number--on to the river view1 and here and there it expands into large chambers1 as we see in ,brangwyn's pen-drawing4 ,the chambers used to be decorated with 8not too proper paintings10 done in the time of ,abbas ,,ii4 ,at both entrances the ,ali ,verdi ,khan is flanked by round towers1 and staircases in the towers go up to a fine platform which in earlier times was a favourite promenade2 but now it is disfigured by telegraph poles1 the modern spirit everywhere having an unrivalled vulgarity4#aag 8,similar staircases1 cut in the basements of the towers1 and also at regular intervals in the main piers1 conduct from the road level to a lower storey1 where1 but little elevated above the bed of the river1 a vaulted passage runs along the entire length of the bridge1 through arches pierced in the central piers1 crossing the channel of the river by huge stepping-stones planted in its bed4 ,colonel ,johnson gives the dimensions of these transverse arches as ten feet span and nine feet high2 and of the main arches 7thirty-three in number7 which they bisect1 as twenty feet span and fifteen feet high1 separated by piers eleven feet thick4 ,there is thus a triple promenade on this remarkable bridge--the vaulted passage below1 the roadway and lateral galleries above1 and the open footpath at the top of all4 ,i should add that the upper part of the bridge is of brick1 the piers and towers are of stone40#aah ,there is no ,european structure akin to this1 but for a long time ,rothenburg on the ,tauber has been famous for a two-storeyed bridge2 also we know that some modern commercial bridges have an upper road and a lower one1 like the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle4 ,in every case the idea was suggested by the ,roman practice of building aqueducts in tiers4 ,,iv ,and now let us give all our attention to the more military bridges4 ,brangwyn has studied them with the utmost care and interest2 there are but few variations of the war-bridge that his art has not yet represented4 ,let us see1 then1 what his research has found4 #a4 ,this bridge from ,bhutan has the same technique as the cantilever bridges of ,kurdistan 7p4 #gd72 but the gateway towers mark an advance4 ,they are militant works1 partly because they control the traffic1 and partly because they are open below the eaves for archery and for other defensive warfare4 ,brangwyn suggests that gateway towers of this kind may have been brought to ,india by ,darius ,hystaspes 7#eab ,b4,c47 or by ,alexander the ,great 7#cbg ,b4,c474 ,on this point there is no evidence4 ,on the other hand1 there seems to be no doubt that the timber gateways on ,roman bridges in ,england1 as in ,gaul1 were prepared for defence1 though their main use was to limit the freedom of a public thoroughfare1 invariably after sunset1 and during the day in times of unrest4 ,this was the first aim of defensive bridges1 so the gateway towers in ,bhutan are suggestive things to study4 ,they are too light in structure to give us an idea of the bold and stern gateways built by the ,romans with newly-felled trees2 but yet they help us to realise vaguely what every young civilization must have done when it learnt from a free use of bridges that foes as well as friends were eager to pass without danger across rivers4 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,timber ,,bridge ,,in ,,bhutan1 ,,india ,again1 the earliest defensive bridges had another point in common with the primitive carpentry of ,bhutan3 they were made with tree-trunks resting on supports1 and1 when necessary1 a part of their footways could be removed4 ,diodorus ,siculus wrote a flaming account of a great bridge built by ,semiramis over the ,euphrates1 rather more than two thousand years before the birth of ,christ4 ,after making due allowance for the frolicsome legends with which ancient history is enlivened1 there are things worth noting in the enthusiasm of ,diodorus4 ,herodotus attributed the same bridge not to ,semiramis but to ,nitocris1 so evidence can be drawn from two authors4 ,pontists gather from the evidence that stone piers were connected by planks1 which were taken up at night1 just as the central part of a bridge in ,bhutan could be removed as a military precaution4 ,diodorus draws entertaining pictures1 and tries to prove that bridge-building was far advanced twenty centuries before our era began4 ,if ,semiramis collected architects and craftsmen from all the known civilizations1 until at last she had at her beck and call a great host of capable servants1 it is not surprising that she was able to build a fine bridge as well as to enlarge ,babylon4 ,the piers were grounded in deep water2 their ends were protected by triangular buttresses2 their stones were clamped together with thick bars of iron1 which were soldered into the stones with molten lead4 ,as for the superstructure1 it was thirty feet wide1 and all of wood--cedar1 and cypress1 and palm tree4 ,in all this1 probably1 there is some exaggeration1 but a famous bridge did exist at ,babylon1 and a combination of timber with stone piers was the most logical development from the simplest natural bridges--the fallen tree and the bridge of stepping-stones4 ,also it is likely enough that metal clamps were employed2 iron was in vogue1 and by using it in stonework under water an architect would feel less mistrustful of his cement and less anxious about the risks of floods4 ,further1 it is quite probable that the entrance at each side was protected by a sort of drawbridge1 because the times were lawless4 ,semiramis herself was put to death by her son ,ninyas1 and ,ninyas in his turn was murdered4#aai ,an important timber bridge with stone piers belongs to a handicraft more advanced than that in the bridges of ,bhutan2 it comes between the primitive inspiration of the ,bhutan carpenters and the simplest arched bridges with plain gateway towers4 ,it has not yet vanished from ,europe1 for a ,gothic example exists at ,thouars1 in ,deux-,svres1 ,france1 according to a photograph sold by ,neurdein1 of ,paris4 ,another example crosses the ,guadalaviar above ,albarracin1 in ,aragon2 and let us remember also that the tree bridge resting on stone piers has influenced some metal viaducts1 such as ,runcorn ,bridge1 near ,liverpool1 dating from #ahfh4 ,in principle the construction is the same1 timber being displaced by metal4 ,at the end of its approach arches1 where the metalwork begins1 ,runcorn ,bridge has two gateways1 each with twin turrets1 and a great display of battlements and of machicolations4 ,although this make-believe of war has a farcical bad taste1 like the assumed erudition that keeps dummy books in a library1 yet ,runcorn ,bridge has a well-defined interest3 it mimics a phase of military architecture which was evolved from such carpentry as to-day we find in ,bhutan4 ,illustration3 ,,defensive ,,bridge ,,at ,,sospel #b4 ,gateway ,bridge at ,sospel1 in the ,italy of ,france4 ,this drawing illustrates very well the transition from the primitive bridges of ,bhutan to a simple arched bridge guarded by a gatehouse of control4 ,it is a poor little house1 its architecture being less intelligent than that in the ,bhutan gateway towers4 ,in these there is cleverness enough to prove that the bridge represents a stale old custom which has lagged behind the advance of handicraft1 whereas the bridge at ,sospel is far in advance of the tawdry little gatehouse4 ,a span separates the gatehouse from the town1 and the roadway is not on the same level above both arches4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,narni ,,in ,,italy3 ,,thirteenth ,,century #c4 ,a ,broken ,war-,bridge of the ,thirteenth ,century1 ,repaired with ,timber4 ,a very valuable illustration1 and for several reasons4 ,the gatehouse with its pointed archway is unusually tall2 and the machicolated box below the slightly gabled roof is unique in my experience4 ,the holes above this defensive work are partly for ventilation and partly for crossbowmen1 whose fire would 8puncture0 an attack on the right entrance of the bridge4 ,there is but one arrow-hole on the first storey1 and ,i should not care to shoot through it while molten lead or boiling oil came sizzling down in two streams from that machicolated box4 ,i do not know why the gate-tower was made so very high1 but suppose that its engineer wished to build a place of vantage from which the movements of an attack could be seen afar off1 beyond the entrance gates4 ,in any case it failed to save four of the arches from gunpowder wars2 and note the restoration6 ,could anything speak to us more clearly of the primitive bridge with stone piers united by rough timbering8 ,illustration3 ,,war-,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,gav-,,de-,,pau ,,at ,,orthez ,,in ,,france #d4 ,the ,war-,bridge at ,orthez4 ,in the wizard country of the ,french ,pyrenees there are some very notable bridges1 such as the ,pont ,napolon1 near ,saint-,sauveur1 the ,pont d',espagne1 beyond ,cauterets1 and the ,vieux ,pont at ,orthez4 ,to study these three works1 side by side1 is to learn that modern bridge-building has achieved in stone a few great works as daring as any that the ,middle ,ages produced4 ,the ,pont d',orthez has a graceful distinction1 and for nearly six hundred years it has borne the formidable spates of the ,gav-de-,pau4 ,in the tierce-point arches1 and particularly in the largest one1 there is good drawing2 the spandrils are relieved from dullness in a simple and effective manner that gives support to the base of the parapet2 perhaps the roadway dips too much on the left-hand side1 and the fortified tower is too slim to be in scale with the broad pier from which it ascends4 ,add twelve inches of width to the side face1 and see how different the tower looks6 ,in fact1 ,brangwyn has done this instinctively1 as ,i find by comparing his vigorous pen-sketch from nature with my photographs4 ,the tower has but one machicolation1 it guards the base of the pier from boat attacks and scaling ladders2 but the spy-holes below the roof served many purposes1 including those for which machicolations were invented4 ,a vaulted passage conducts the road through the tower2 it is lighted on the far side by an opening called the ,priests' ,window1 because the priests and monks of ,orthez jumped through it into the river1 driven to this act by the orders of ,gabriel de ,montgomery4 ,such is the legend1 and there's not a word of history in its drama4 ,for the rest1 ,orthez has seen no war since the great combat of ,february #bg1 #ahad1 when ,wellington prepared the way for the battle of ,toulouse by defeating the ,french1 under ,soult4 ,but this old bridge1 with all its charm and interest1 is eclipsed as a work of art by the ,pont ,napolon1 whose gigantic arch1 in a very noble curve1 spans the rocky and precipitous gorge of the ,pas de l'chelle1 along which the furious ,gave de ,gavarnie pursues a foam-bubbled race against time1 sixty-seven metres below the bridge4 ,here is a masterpiece that rivals the ,puente ,nuevo at ,ronda1 thrown across the tremendous chasm of the ,guadalvia4#abj #e4 ,the ,monnow ,bridge at ,monmouth4 ,illustration3 ,,war-,,bridge ,,at ,,monmouth ,this bluff old gate-tower is a bolder specimen of medival work than the smaller one at ,warkworth4 ,we are lucky indeed to possess a war-bridge which has suffered so little from time and trade and highway officials4 ,if you compare it with the ,brangwyn water-colour of ,parthenay ,bridge1 over the ,thouet1 you will be better able to put the ,monnow ,bridge in its proper place as a work of defensive art4 ,the ,french tower is far and away superior3 it has scale and dignity3 it is a work of architecture as well as an instrument of war4 ,at ,monmouth1 how different is the technical inspiration6 ,not a trace of good design saves the gate-tower from being no more than a weapon for ruthless men4 ,a ,peace ,society could publish the ,monnow ,bridge as a fact to prove that slaughtering wars have been more vulgar even than the cruel battles of finance4 ,it is the undefensive parts of this bridge that ,i admire4 ,the ribbed arches are good 7p4 #ic71 and in them a slight tentative effort has been made to free the ring of voussoirs from the oscillation sent down through the spandrils when a great weight passes along the footway4 8,a slight tentative effort10 ,i repeat1 because the archstones have not been made independent from the spandrils4 #f4 ,to find arches of this kind we must return to the ,pont ,valentr at ,cahors1 which dates from the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,in this noble bridge the voussoirs of all the arches look isolated from the spandrils1 as they are rimmed and 8extra-dossed40 ,it was the ,romans who invented the 8extra-dossed0 arch1 and they proved that by separating archstones from the spandrils a bridge was relieved from much wear and tear4 ,on the other hand1 when archstones are unequal1 when they are thicker in their haunches than at the crown1 oscillation goes along the full length of a bridge1 fatiguing the piers1 and causing at times a noticeable shiver1 as in the ,llanrwst ,bridge1 designed by ,inigo ,jones4#aba ,even ,perronet forgot this effect of repercussion when he built his bridge in the ,place de la ,concorde at ,paris2 and ever afterwards he clamped the headers with iron to the interior archstones1 as if iron fastened into stone could never become a destructive agent4 ,the architect of ,valentr ,bridge was wiser than ,perronet1 every arch in his work being an elastic bow that moves between two piers without conveying its oscillation beyond these supports4 ,to our modern eyes1 no doubt1 there are too many arches across the ,river ,lot at ,cahors1 but this defect seemed necessary in the ,middle ,ages1 and for two reasons4 ,it was regarded as a defensive precaution1 because narrow arches were easier to protect from the roadway when an enemy tried to assemble boats under a bridge2 and since in the frequent wars of those days a bridge had often to be cut as a final resource against defeat1 it was essential that the destruction of one arch should not upset another by the withdrawal of a counterbalancing thrust from one side of a pier4 ,many piers of a large size were looked upon as particularly needful when the greater lateral thrust of round arches had to be considered in its relation to a bridge cut in a single place4 ,also1 as we have seen 7p4 #bfd71 bridges in the ,middle ,ages were built very slowly1 and as war at any moment might stop the masons1 piers were regarded as abutments and made very strong4 ,this much is known1 but none can say why piers were built unreasonably large4 ,frequent inundations from obstructed rivers were as evidently harmful as weak piers that floods overthrew2 and the genius that solved so many problems in church architecture ought to have shown in bridges a riper discretion4 ,often piers and arches were of the same width--a waste of labour and material1 as well as of space in the waterway4 ,even the ,romans1 though their piers were less bulky1 impeded the current of rivers with too much stone2 and to save their work from the floods which they provoked1 they built relief bays for spate water above that part of their piers where adequate resistance had been obtained against the lateral thrust of heavy arches4 ,in the ,valentr at ,cahors the architect scorned the aid of relief bays1 and grew five vast piers from the river-bed2 not a courteous thing to do1 seeing that the word river in ,french is a lady-word1 8,la rivire0--the very sound of it is a sweet compliment to the youthful waywardness of running water4 ,yet ,french bridge-masters have sinned against rivers as frequently as we ,english4 ,if the ,valentr had one pier less1 how ample and noble the design would be6 ,even now the design is so virile1 so masculine1 that we ought to speak of this bridge as we do of a great soldier4 ,the feeble word 8it0 does not belong to the ,pont ,valentr4 8,he0 and 8him0 and 8his0 are the right pronouns4 ,according to many writers he is the finest military bridge in the world1 but comparisons are difficult and risky3 they are affected too much by a writer's moods4 ,one thing is certain--that the ,valentr has no superior in his own line4 ,his most celebrated rivals1 two bridges at ,toledo1 in ,spain1 have a feminine grace2 they are too courtly to be typical soldiers4 ,there is another ,spanish bridge that ranks high as a fortified work3 it dates from the fourteenth century1 and1 in sixteen pointed arches1 crosses the ,duero at ,zamora4 ,brangwyn prefers the ,toledo bridges1 the ,alcntara and the ,puente de ,san ,martin1 because they are lofty as well as spacious1 while ,zamora ,bridge is long and low1 like a good many ,spanish bridges1 both ,roman and medival4#abb ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alc,,ntara ,,at ,,toledo1 ,,showing ,,the ,,moorish ,,gateway ,,tower ,,at ,,the ,,town ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,bridge #g4 ,the ,alcntara at ,toledo4 ,from every point of view this bridge makes a good picture1 but ,i like her best when she is seen from a level only a little below the footway4 ,then ,i look down at the upward flight of her architecture1 and watch how a luminous patterning of shadow enriches the suave yet austere masonry4 ,somehow ,i think of a courtly abbess whose half-smile is a discipline feared by everybody4 ,in no other way can ,i describe the technical inspiration that makes this bridge very uncommon4 ,looking down again1 ,i see that the ,spanish masons--or shall we call them ,hispano-,moresque8--were as thrifty as the ,frenchmen at ,cahors2 across the breadth of the bigger arch1 and below the springing1 there are seven holes1 from which the centring was scaffolded4 ,technically the arches are inferior to those of the ,pont ,valentr1 because their rings are not sufficiently rimmed and extra-dossed1 so they lie too close into the body of the spandrils4 ,the pier is designed very well1 it has a distinction of its own and forms on each side of the roadway a narrowing shelter-place with four angles4 ,lower down1 near the ,moorish adaptation from a ,roman triumphal arch1 a long recess carried by five brackets varies the line of each parapet1 in which there is no pretension1 no swagger1 no balustraded bombast4 ,on the town side the bridge is guarded by a ,moorish gate-tower1 while across the river is a gateway dating from the time of ,charles the ,fifth4 ,a ,roman bridge crossed the ,tagus at this great spot1 and was repaired in #fhg by the ,visigoths1 but in #hga it disappeared1 ,i know not how or why4 ,then a bridge was built by ,halaf1 son of ,mahomet ,alameri1 ,alcalde of ,toledo1 but ,halaf obeyed a command from ,almansor ,aboaarmir ,mahomet1 son of ,abihamir1 ,alquazil of ,amir ,almomenin ,hixem4 ,i hope you like these names and titles8 ,they are given by ,george ,edmund ,street1#abc who quotes from ,cean ,bermudez2 and so with confidence we may add ,halaf ,alameri to the few early bridge-masters who are known to us by name4 ,for #cdj years no accident seems to have happened to ,alameri's work4 ,then in #abaa a part of the bridge fell into the river2 and six years later1 during its restoration1 ,enrique ,i had a gate-tower set up by ,matheo ,paradiso1 a military architect with too angelic a name4 ,forty-one years passed1 and then the bridge was renewed once more1 this time by the ,king ,d4 ,alonso1 who put the following inscription on a piece of marble above the point of the arch3 8,in the year #abeh from the ,incarnation of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ was the great deluge of water1 that began before the month of ,august1 and lasted until ,thursday the #bfth of ,december2 and in most lands the fall of rain did much damage1 especially in ,spain1 where most of the bridges fell2 and among them was demolished a great part of that bridge of ,toledo which ,halaf1 son of ,mahomet ,alameri1 444 had made 444 in the time of the ,moors1 #chg years before this time2 and now the ,king ,d4 ,alonso1 son of the noble ,king ,d4 ,ferrando1 and of the ,queen ,doa ,beatriz1 who reigned in ,castile1 has had it repaired and renovated2 and it was finished in the eighth year of his reign1 in the year of the ,incarnation #abeh40 ,even then some of ,alameri's work remained1 but ,i fear that it all vanished in #achj1 when ,archbishop ,pedro ,tenorio1 a kinsman of ,don ,juan1 and a great pontist1 became patron of the ,toledo bridges and gave to the ,alcntara the appearance that we know1 apart from the fortified gateways1 which were either altered or built by ,andres ,manrique1 ,a4,d4 #adhd4 #h4 ,brangwyn has sketched the other great bridge at ,toledo1 the ,puente de ,san ,martin1 a better work of art than the ,alcntara4 ,here the style is far more masculine1 and there is no wide expanse of barren wall such as we find in the ,alcntara below the bracketed recesses4 ,the five arches vary much in size1 no doubt1 but yet they harmonise very well1 and the most important one is heroic in scale1 being not less than #adj ,spanish ft4 wide and #ie ft4 high4 ,as for the piers1 each has a character of its own3 they have but one thing in common--bulk enough not only to resist floods1 but to be in keeping with a defile of rocks4 ,there are two gateways1 and one of them has ,moorish ornament and a ,moorish battlement4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,spanish ,,war-,,bridge--,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,st4 ,,martin1 ,,toledo4 ,,its ,,history ,,seems ,,to ,,date ,,from #abab1 ,,but ,,in ,,the ,,xiv ,,century ,,it ,,was ,,rebuilt ,,by ,,archbishop ,,pedro ,,tenorio ,the ,puente de ,san ,martin seems to date from the year #abab4 ,in #acfh he met with an accident that destroyed the big arch4 ,shortly afterwards1 about #achj1 ,archbishop ,tenorio began the restoration1 aided by a careless architect4 ,one day1 in fact1 the architect perceived that his new arch would fall down as soon as the centring was removed4 ,panic-stricken1 he went home and consulted his wife1 who happened to be a forerunner of the ,suffragettes4 ,what could be done to save her husband's reputation8 ,she could set fire to the scaffolding2 and when the arch fell ,toledo was quite awed by the accident4 ,all the usual things were said about the terrible destruction that flames could do in a brilliant hour2 and then the architect was asked to renew what the fire had ruined4 ,this time he did his work admirably1 and his wife was too much elated by his complete success1 for she gave discretion to the winds and told the tale of her incendiarism4 ,if ,pedro ,tenorio had punished her by claiming payment for the new work from her husband1 ,toledo would have been amused1 perhaps2 but the good ,archbishop had learnt too much in confessionals to expect very much from human nature4 ,he seems to have done nothing more than congratulate his architect on the wife's devotion4#abd ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rabot ,,at ,,ghent3 ,a ,,fortified ,,lock #i4 ,defensive ,bridges in ,flemish ,towns4 ,they represent the manly1 swaggering burghers who were not clever enough to keep their liberties4 ,the ,pont des ,trous at ,tournai1 for instance1 guarded at each end by a huge round tower1 has more to say to us about the turbulent old ,flemish pride than have many chapters written by good historians4 ,it is a bridge enlivened by art1 yet blinded by an excess of warlike caution4 ,there are three good pointed vaults1 each with a double ring of moulded voussoirs2 and there are two piers equally well designed2 but the parapet rises into a high rampart pierced with nine arrow slits1 and the ungainly towers have such flat summits that they appear to be roofless4#abe ,at ,courtrai1 on the other hand1 we find the ,pont de ,broel1 whose tall round towers have conical roofs lighted in a playful way by dormer windows1 and graced with long weather-vanes4 ,the ,pont de ,broel is a small bridge with three round arches1 it looks very trivial between its formidable guardians4 ,both towers are encircled by machicolations1 whose snarling teeth make an unpleasant girdle almost a third way down the walls4 ,between them and the roof are many small openings1 defensive windows let us call them2 and beneath the machicolations some other windows keep watch1 with a proper respect of scaling ladders4 ,we pass on to ,ghent1 where fifty-eight bridges span the canals1 and connect the thirteen islands into which the brave old city is divided4 ,in #adhh1 after ,frederick ,,iii1 ,emperor of ,germany1 with his son ,maximilian1 had raised the siege of ,ghent1 the victorious burghers began at once to build the famous ,rabot ,forts1 which included a defended lock4 ,brangwyn represents the ,rabot lock and its bold defensive towers4 ,these have two points of interest4 ,they do justice to the character of medival ,ghent1 being bluff1 stern1 fanciful1 ambitious1 but short-sighted2 and they seem to be copied from the ,holsten ,gate at ,lbeck1 built by this ,hanseatic and republican city as a protection against frequent attacks from ,denmark4 #aj4 ,covered ,defensive ,bridges of ,timber4 ,in these the protection has been of three sorts3 against the weather1 against riots1 and against primitive weapons4 ,thus the covered bridges of ,sumatra1 made with bamboo and boards1 are sunshades in bridge-building2 and this applies to the roofed timber bridges in ,western ,china4 ,some of these are carried over important rivers on stone piers1 their roofing is decorative1 and even to-day they would be useful in a time of unrest1 especially to women and children4 ,as for the ,swiss variety of covered timber bridge1 it seems to date from the period of lake-dwellings4 ,but1 whatever its lineage may have been1 it is very ancient4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages it was valued in war as well as in winter1 when its footway was always free from snow4 ,often there was but a narrow space for light and air between the overhanging roof and the balustrade of heavy planks4 ,it is not surprising that ,swiss timber bridges were to medival archers and crossbowman what ,hougomont was to ,napoleon's troops4 ,on the other hand1 it is surprising that these primitive structures are still as popular among the ,swiss as they ever were4 ,the most remarkable specimens are at ,lucerne4 ,in ,brangwyn's vivid pen-drawing we see the ,todentanzbrcke1 which is decorated with thirty pictures of the ,dance of the ,dead1 by ,meglinger4 ,illustration3 ,,todentanzbr,,cke ,,at ,,lucerne ,,in ,,switzerland ,as for the ,kapellbrucke1 also at ,lucerne1 it dates from #acjc1 and its length is #cbd metres4 ,it crosses the mouth of the river ,reuss1 that flows impetuously under it in a limpid torrent4 ,the timbers that support the roof are ornamented with #bed scenes from the history of ,switzerland4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,saint-,,esprit #aa4 ,pont ,saint-,esprit1 over the ,rhne1 below the confluence of the ,ardche4 ,this bridge1 like the ,pont ,valentr1 is a masculine structure1 so we must speak not of 8it0 but of 8him40 ,always there is a point of sex to be considered in architectural inspiration4 ,some bridges are women1 either high-born or low-born2 others are common soldiers2 a few are great men of action1 like the ,roman ,alcntara in ,cceres2 while many have no distinctive sex1 and we need pronouns with which to describe their character4 ,if we speak of a neutral bridge as 8it0 we say nothing at all2 but if we could refer to it as 8itshe0 or 8ithe10 then we could show in one word which sexual qualities predominate4 ,in old ,english bridges it is the neutral type that holds the field1 very often in the 8itshe0 class4 ,we have nothing to place side by side with the ,pont ,valentr and the ,pont ,saint-,esprit4 ,even ,old ,london ,bridge was a heroine1 not a hero4 ,a certain weakness germinated in the past of ,england1 and influenced several phases of art and architecture4 ,it is from this weakness1 which seems to be racial1 that modern ,england has grown by the score feeble artists limp with sentiment1 and feebler faddists troubled with 8nerves40 ,whenever ,i see one of our little old ballad bridges--an 8itshe0 or an 8ithe0--,i say to myself1 8,here is modern ,england in embryo2 here is the beginning of a weak sentiment which in course of time will sap the vigour of our race40 ,so the ,pont ,saint-,esprit is to my mind something more than a noble achievement in manly bridge-building2 he marks for me also a startling difference between the undergrowth of the ,french character and the undergrowth of the ,english genius4 ,we are beginning to realise in our own sports and games1 as in boxing and in football1 a truth which has long been known to students of ,french art1 namely1 that although the surface of the ,french character has boiled swiftly1 like scum over jam1 yet no other people have had in equal measure the self-belief that triumphs over frequent disaster1 and the intrepid hope that gives ample pinions to the imagination4 ,study the churches of ,france in their historical sequence from their ,romanesque period to the last phases of ,gothic2 contrast their varied charm with the almost incessant wars that devastated the country2 and then lift your hat to the greatness attained by the ,french genius in times1 not of crisis only1 but often of catastrophe4 ,we have reason to be very proud of our own churches1 but they do not equal the ,french when they are studied side by side from large photographs4 ,the unhappier country was the more adventurous builder1 notwithstanding the virile influence brought to ,england by ,french ,cistercian monks and by such bridgemasters as ,isembert4 ,this fact is galling to our patriotism1 but yet it helps us to appreciate those ,englishmen of genius who have risen far above the many littlenesses which ,english public opinion has been overapt to approve both in art and in architecture4 ,again1 there are three geographical reasons why the ,pont ,saint-,esprit is very notable3 he crosses the ,rhne1 one of the most treacherous rivers in ,europe2 he belongs to the ,department of ,gard1 where historical bridges have been famed since the times of the ,romans2 and he is in the district of ,uzs1 where we find the ,pont ,saint-,nicolas1 on the road to ,nmes1 a lofty bridge of the thirteenth century1 with a beautiful distinction1 built by the ,priory of ,saint-,nicolas-,campagnac4 ,now these two bridges1 so different in technical inspiration1 yet so alike in thorough scholarship1 mark a very important time of transition in ,french architecture4 ,the ,pont ,saint-,esprit was designed and built by the ,frres pontifes1 or ,pontist ,brothers1 but already the good example set by these friars was followed with enthusiasm by a great many laymen1 whose guilds were competing against the religious corporations4 ,sooner or later1 inevitably1 civil work of every sort would have to pass under the sway of laic schools and masters2 but the people of ,france were superstitious in their fondness for the ,pontist ,brothers1 whose ferry-boats had saved a great many lives1 whose bridges were famous everywhere1 whose hospitals lodged and fed pilgrims1 and whose white dress was in harmony with their good work and their good conduct4 ,so the public was very far from pleased when a bridge of importance was built without help from the ,pontist ,brothers4 ,for this reason1 and no other1 the ,pont ,saint-,cloud was called un pont maudit1 and its construction was attributed to the ,devil4 ,still1 the ,pontist ,brothers had to go4 ,during the thirteenth century their public value as bridge-builders grew weaker and weaker1 until at last their competition against the trade guilds could be regarded no longer as a political offence4#abf ,it says much for them that their last undertaking1 the ,pont ,saint-,esprit1 was in most respects their best achievement3 a fact which time itself has recognised by keeping this bridge in use to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ponte ,,nomentano1 ,a ,,medi,,val ,,war-,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,campagna1 ,,three ,,miles ,,from ,,rome4 ,,it ,,spans ,,the ,,willow-,,fringed ,,anio1 ,a ,,sacred ,,river ,,in ,,italian ,,legend ,the ,pont ,saint-,esprit was commissioned by the ,abbey of ,cluny1 and in #abfe the ,pontist ,brothers began to found the piers1 after discussing their plans with ,jean de ,tessanges1 ,abbot of ,cluny4 ,now1 an earlier work of the ,pontist ,brothers1 the ,pont ,saint-,bnzet at ,avignon1 was eighty years old in #abfe1 and his behaviour in the ,rhne must have been a subject of interest to the successors of ,bnzet4 ,i conclude1 then1 that the ,pont ,saint-,esprit may be looked upon as a technical criticism of the earlier bridge1 and it approves in all respects the work of ,st4 ,bnzet4 ,both bridges have relief arches for spate water1 and when they are examined in bird's-eye views1 both have an elbow opposed to the current of the ,rhne1 and each suggests the image of a bridge of boats to which already ,i have drawn attention 7p4 #bfb74 ,this image is rather more pronounced in the case of the earlier bridge1 for the length of ,bnzet's piers1 in the direction of the current1 is enormous1 being not less than thirty metres4 ,for the rest1 the ,pont ,saint-,esprit seems to have an enchanted size1 his most confident historians giving neither the same dimensions nor the same number of arches4 ,men with tape measures have grown tired of their job1 seemingly2 and even in photographs some arches are omitted while others are blurred by distance4 ,on my table is an excellent photograph3 it takes in just a bit of the metal arch which1 about fifty years ago1 displaced two of the old arches and made a passage for boats4 ,from this point to the elbow upstream1 there are eleven arches2 beyond the elbow there are six more1 and the bridge is not complete4 ,this is all the camera can do4 ,according to ,viollet-le-,duc1 there are twenty-two arches in a length of about #ajjj metres2 the roadway is five metres wide4 ,larousse tells me1 on the other hand1 that the length is #gch metres1 the width #e metres #dj1 the number of arches twenty-six2 and another great work of reference1 published also by ,larousse1 gives #iai metres for the length1 and says that among the twenty-five arches there are nineteen ancient ones4 ,we ought to admire the variegated self-confidence of historians4 ,but the main point is evident enough3 the ,pont ,saint-,esprit is one of the longest stone bridges in the world4 ,and the construction is truly marvellous4 ,this was proved when a pier was pulled up to make room for the iron arch4 ,the labour required was astounding1 so excellent was the cemented masonry4 ,but1 of course1 the bridge has passed through a good many changes to keep him in touch with the increase of traffic4 ,in the seventeenth century he was still closed at both ends by strong gateways1 while on the town side was a quite important defence of the fourteenth century1 afterwards embodied in the citadel by which the river was guarded above-bridge4 ,these defensive works have all gone1 but their effect can be studied in 8,la ,topographie de la ,gaule10 where an engraving gives a good idea of their appearance4 #ab4 ,ponte ,nomentano in the ,campagna1 three miles from ,rome4 ,this1 no doubt1 is the most romantic of all the fortified bridges that ,brangwyn has painted4 ,both bridge and castle are medival1 but they rise over the willow-frilled ,anio1 a river haunted by myths which to the ancients were sacred truths4 ,it was in the ,anio that ,rhea ,silvia passed from the brief hours of her mortality into the life of a goddess2 and to this river ,silvia confided her two children1 ,romulus and ,remus1 the twin ,moses of ,roman story1 who were carried in their cradle to the ,tiber1 where other waters bore them on and on till at last they came to land under the fig tree at the foot of the ,palatine hill4 ,what a delightful legend to be whispered by the current of the prattling ,anio below the uncouth stones of the ,nomentano6 ,what other war-bridge has been united to such a gracious myth8 ,and history as well as legend has been busy on the banks of the ,anio4 ,into this river the ashes of ,marius were thrown by the adherents of ,sulla2 and beyond the bridge1 on the right bank1 west of the ,via ,nomentana1 is a very famous hillside1 the ,mons ,sacer1 to which the plebeians retreated1 as to a fortified place1 when they asserted their right to tame the patricians4 ,their first great strike1 or secession1 occupied four months in the year #edi ,b4,c41 when four thousand of them encamped on the friendly hill1 leaving the crops unharvested1 and the city without a garrison4 ,mount ,sacer became sacred to the ,people of ,rome1 and to the historic sense it is the ,hill of ,liberty1 sanctified by the first brave ideals of a democratic justice4 ,yet in recent times vulgarians have taken hold of ,mount ,sacer1 and have carted it away by the ton to be used as building material4 ,as for the ,ponte ,nomentano1 he is nothing more than a burly soldier1 a common man-at-arms4 ,the medival engineer was uninspired by an enchanted site1 and gave the whole of his attention to the pronged battlements4 ,he had no feeling for proportion1 and no liking for a stern eloquence of line such as we find in the noble castle of ,chenonceaux1 a masterpiece of the ,french ,renaissance1 whose long wing is carried by a bridge of five round arches1 and whose turreted portion is pierced by a single arcade4 #ac4 ,the bridges of ,laroque1 near ,cahors1 on the river ,lot4 ,in this rapid sketch ,brangwyn represents a riverside ,gibraltar upon which an ancient village stands1 partly on bridges4 ,its value in 8the good old times0 as a stronghold fortified by ,nature is patent1 and the watch-towers have an unsleeping alertness that looks out upon the world through one eye or window4 ,i should like to know who built the first bridge at ,laroque4 ,there is a ,romanesque form in the arch drawn by ,brangwyn1 and the ,romans were active in the neighbourhood4 ,over the ,lot at ,divona1 now called ,cahors1 they built a bridge1 which perished some years ago in a local storm of party feeling4 ,to imagine ,rome with a ,gibraltar on the ,lot is a great pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,,laroque ,,on ,,the ,,river ,,lot1 ,,near ,,cahors1 ,a ,,sort ,,of ,,inland ,,gibraltar2 ,a ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,village ,,is ,,built ,,on ,,bridges ,,thrown ,,across ,,chasms ,,in ,,the ,,rocks ,before we pass on from the defensive bridges1 ,i should like to give you a picture of the famous old bridge at ,saintes1 in ,france1 that lasted to the year #ahdc1 when it was destroyed4 ,i know not why ,i use the silly word 8it10 for the bridge of ,saintes was an exceedingly martial structure that united all the main phases of military art--the primitive1 the ,roman1 and the medival4 ,let me give an abridged description from ,viollet-le-,duc's 8,dictionnaire raisonne d',architecture03-- 8,the first gate appeared on the right shore of the ,charente1 on the side of the ,faubourg des ,dames2 next came the ,roman arch1#abg the upper part of which was crenellated during the ,middle ,ages2 next on the side of the town stood a tower of oval plan1 through which the road lay2 the town gates with flanking towers closed the end of the bridge4 ,from the first gate to the ,roman arch the bridge was of wood1 as was also the case between the great tower and the town gates1 so that by the removal of this part of the roadway all communication could be cut off between the town and the tower1 as well as between the bridge and the ,faubourg2 moreover1 the parapets were crenellated1 so that the garrison of the town at any moment could stop all navigation40 ,v ,a brief introduction to the history of bridges has so many difficulties that ,i creep through my work1 a few hundred words in a long day4 ,to try to plant an oak tree in a thimble would be more difficult1 ,i suppose1 but gleaning here and there over vast fields brings trouble enough to any writer4 ,i go through scores of photographs1 and turn over great piles of notes1 and seek for a topic that is not too technical for the general reader1 but that touches a really important phase in the evolution of bridge-building4 ,there is a species of bridge to which the arches at ,laroque belong2 it may be called either freakish or very exceptional4 ,let me give a few examples4 ,there is one at ,crowland1 a curious three-branched structure which for many a year stood at the confluence of the ,catwater drain and two streamlets1 the ,welland and the ,nyne4 ,to-day no water flows under this bridge1 and common little modern houses do not make pretty pictures when they are framed by the arches4 ,there are three pointed arches1 with their abutments at the angles of an equilateral triangle2 they meet in the middle1 and form three roadways and three watercourses4 ,they have three stone ribs apiece1 and the nine ribs meet in the centre ,i note1 too1 that these arches were built not by a bridgeman1 but by a mason skilled in church work1 for their rings are moulded elaborately as in ,gothic windows and doorways4 ,as for the style of architecture1 it is not older than the beginning of the fourteenth century2 but a much earlier bridge at ,crowland1 probably of wood1 was famed for its triangular shape1 and mentioned in a charter of the year #idc1 when ,edmund was ,king4 ,at the south-west entrance of ,crowland ,bridge1 beyond the five steps1 there is a rough-hewn statue that represents a crowned and bearded figure seated up high against the parapet walls1 in an attitude of sorrow1 with arms folded 7and perhaps they may be bound together7 over a long robe4 ,time has frayed and scarred this uncouth sculpture1 but not without leaving some mellow lines and planes4 ,the archology of guesswork has called this effigy by various names1 such as ,ethelbald1 and ,saint ,guthlac1 and ,henry ,,ii1 but ,i prefer to look upon it as a simple ,piet chiselled by a mason who had been trained to do enniched figures for church decoration--work without detail1 to make at a distance a broad effect4 ,this conjecture is in accord with the ecclesiastical moulding of the archstones1 and with the medival custom that united bridges to ,christianity by means of sacred emblems4 ,crowland ,abbey ruled over the district1 so one of the ,abbots may have built the bridge2 and perhaps the pointed arches1 three in number1 with their triple ribs1 and their three pathways1 and the three streams of water1 may have been intended as symbols of the ,trinity4 ,if so1--and there is nothing in this view to clash with the spirit of the ,medival ,church1--then a ,piet turned toward the west would be the most beautiful symbol of that ,light which went down with the sun1 and then rose again through the dark into the dusk1 and through the dusk into a dawn where faith for ever dwells4 ,on the other hand1 if the crowned figure represents a mere earthly king1 ,i know not why ,ethelbald should be chosen1 for his reign of two years was not a creative time and he died in #hfj1 just eighty-three years before ,crowland's triangular bridge was alluded to in the charter of the year #idc4 ,alfred1 ,edward the ,elder1 and ,athelstan--these kings in succession were nearer to the charter1 and their longer reigns were more notable than the short hours of ,ethelbald4 ,alfred we should prefer1 of course1 but he has been passed over by the busy minds that have weaved around ,crowland ,bridge so many cobwebs of the study and so much haze of idle conjecture4 ,my own views are conjectures also1 but they are taken partly from the bridge itself and partly from the care and affection that the ,church during the ,middle ,ages bestowed on bridge-building4 ,and now a technical matter ought to be considered in its bearing on the arches of ,crowland ,bridge4 ,at a time when bridges were protected by the ,church1 their arches were affected by changes of style in ecclesiastical windows and doorways2 but1 of course1 whatever shape was given to them1 they were treated differently from doorways and windows1 for these had to bear only a downward thrust1 while bridges had to withstand five trials3 their own 8spring10 the vibration caused by wheeled traffic1 the lateral pressure of flowing water1 the disturbance of gravity by immersion1 and blows from drifting ice and timber4 ,with these problems to be solved1 bridgemen set no store by moulded archstones1 a kickshaw of style4 ,sometimes they built the ring of an arch with two or three sets of voussoirs1#abh but their aim was practical1 not ornamental2 they wished to give greater resistance to their work1 and not merely to spend time and money on a decorative effect4 ,so when we find in the arches of ,crowland ,bridge such moulded handicraft as was used in church decoration1 we may surmise that the architect and his masons were not bridge-builders1 and that they worked only for the light foot-traffic of a village4 ,it is worth noting that in the year #ageb a ,french architect named ,beffara took a hint from ,crowland ,bridge1 and then achieved fame with a daring structure built near ,ardres1 in the ,pas-de-,calais4 ,there are four branches to this bridge1 and they carry roads over two canals that intersect at right angles4 ,one canal goes from ,saint-,ouen to ,calais and the other from ,ardres to ,gravelines4 ,beffara's work is placed by ,larousse among the fifty-four most notable bridges in the world1 and this honour it seems to merit2 but ,frenchmen in their vanity have tried to make it into a pretentious bridge by giving to it a braggart name--,le ,sans-,pareil4 ,gracious6 ,it is fit for a caf or for a battleship1 in whose nomenclature bravado and bombast rule as customs4 ,poor ,beffara6 8,le ,sans-,pareil10 like 8,titanic0 or like 8,dreadnought10 defies the powers of ,nature1 inviting them to do their worst2 and what good omen can there be in such bantam cockiness8 ,for a long time the old bridge at ,ble1 over the ,rhine1 remarkable for its length and for its beautiful site1 was not only freakish but exceedingly insolent4 ,at one end1 on the side of greater ,ble1 was a tower decorated with a grotesque head called ,laellenkoenig1 which1 in answer to the working of a clock1 put out its tongue and rolled insulting eyes at the opposite bank4 ,eight or ten times an hour this abusive pantomime was repeated1 and it never failed to anger little ,ble1 which had the pugnacious vanity of a small organism4 ,i do not know how many duels were fought1 but at last a touch of ,rabelaisian humour suggested a mechanical revenge1 far more regular in its action than were fights and punctured bodies4 ,a tall post was set up by the inhabitants of ,ble junior1 and on the top of it stood a hateful statue that affected to turn its back on the enemy with a shameless movement4 ,it is risky at the present time to say that a bridge has certain old characters3 change is so rapid that no pontist can keep in touch with its vagaries2 but ,i believe the old bridge at ,ble is alive1 and that it keeps in use the ,gothic tower1 a triangular defence of red sandstone erected on the middle pier1 and devoted now to a thermometer1 a barometer1 and a table of weights and measures4 ,laellenkoenig has gone1 of course1 and ,ble junior has grown much bigger and less techy4 ,the ,bridge of ,sighs1 at ,venice1 must be included among the exceptional bridges1 being equally celebrated in history and in art4 ,who can say how many times she has been etched and painted and engraved8 ,she is not very important as a work of architecture1 yet artists are drawn towards her invariably1 and seldom do they fail to make her impressive4 ,brangwyn loves the ,bridge of ,sighs1 and does her much more than justice in one of his finest etchings4 ,there is something trivial in her ,renaissance ornament1 and her proportions are not great1 being only two metres wide and six high2 on the other hand1 her abutments are famous buildings1 the ducal palace and the ,state prison4 ,it is from the second storey of the palace that we enter the gloom of her covered passage1 concerning which a ,frenchman writes as follows3 8,on pourrait presque le comparer1 en agrandissant les proportions1 nos fourgons d'arme40 ,it is said that only a prisoner here and there went over this bridge more than once--in his compulsory walk from a dungeon in the prison to the ,council of the ,ten4 ,those who awaited their trial in the dungeons were looked upon as already condemned2 their appearance before the ,ten was a formality1 at least in public opinion2 and for this reason the dark corridor across the canal was called the ,bridge of ,sighs4 ,among the bridges of the fourteenth century there are two that history has set down as very exceptional4 ,one of them is a covered bridge over the ,ticino at ,pavia1 erected under the care of ,gian ,galeazzo ,visconti4 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin says of it3 8,this bridge1 which still exists1 has seven pointed brick arches1 each #gj ft4 in span and #fd ft4 in height2 the depth of the arch ring at the crown is #e ft4 #f in4 ,the tympanum is pierced2 the bricks used in the arches are formed to suit their position1 and are hollow in the middle to diminish the weight4 ,the roof of the roadway is carried by a hundred rough granite columns40 ,this neat description is accurate1 but in it the bridge is not visualised4 ,would that we had a ,brangwyn sketch6 ,i have by my side an engraving of the bridge1 and the effect of the design is that of an open-work frieze4 ,each gracefully pointed arch is a repetition of the other six2 the piers also are uniform and graceful1 being all #af ft4 #c in4 wide2 and all the spandrils are pierced in the same triangular fashion4 ,the point of each triangle is turned downwards1 its sides are the inner surfaces of two arch rings1 and its base1 turned upwards1 and gracefully arched with seventeen long bricks1 helps to support the parapet4 ,on this parapet at equal intervals rise the hundred granite columns by which the covered roadway is carried4 ,so the design is a clever feat not merely of repetitive decoration1 but of repeating solids and voids that oppose each other in a harmony of contrasts2 for the empty spandrils in their form oppose the leaf-shaped openings made by the arches1 and all the curved solids of the bridge are foiled in a rugged manner by the upright columns1 as well as by the long horizontal lines of the covered roadway4 ,in the contrast between cold granite and warm brick there is colour also1 and it suits the pulsating light and heat of ,italy4 ,as for the second bridge of the fourteenth century1 which architects regard as very uncommon1 it exists in drawings only1 for it was destroyed by ,carmagnola4 ,its founder was a duke of ,milan1 ,bernab ,visconti1 and it crossed the ,adda at ,trezzo4 ,according to ,hann and ,hosking1 it had 8a single arch of granite1 very well constructed of stones in two courses1 the innermost #c ft4 thick in the direction of the radius1 the outermost #i in41 the span at low water #bea ft42 the river rises sometimes #ac ft40 ,the radius of the arch was #acc ft4 ,a span of #bea ft4 in a stone bridge was a noble achievement4 ,it is the largest that ,i remember4 ,the ,grosvenor ,bridge at ,chester has a span of #bjj ft41 just thirty yards wider than the central arch of ,trajan's ,bridge over the ,tagus4 ,new ,london ,bridge in her finest arch attains a span of #aeb ft41 beating ,waterloo ,bridge by nearly eleven yards4 ,two ,french bridges of the eighteenth century--the ,pont de ,lavaur and the ,pont de ,gignac--have spans of #afj ft42 and let me refer you also to the ,pont de ,neuilly-sur-,seine 7p4 #cch74 ,many uncommon bridges have been attributed to the ,chinese1 and ,i know not what to say about some of them4 ,let me quote from ,marco ,polo1 giving also the excellent notes written by his editor ,colonel ,yule4 ,in the twenty-seventh chapter of his travels ,marco ,polo speaks 8of the river named ,pulisangan1 and of the bridge over it40 ,this river1 whose name is written variously1 is believed to be the ,hoen-ho of the ,jesuits' map1 which1 uniting with another stream from the north-west1 forms the ,pe-ho or ,white ,river4 ,when ,marco ,polo comes to the ,pulisangan#abi he finds 8a very handsome bridge of stone1 perhaps unequalled by another in the world40 8,its length is three hundred paces1 and its width eight paces2 so that ten men can ride abreast without inconvenience4#acj ,it has twenty-four arches1 supported by twenty-five piers erected in the water1 all of serpentine stone1 and built with great skill4 ,on each side1 and from one extremity to the other1 there is a handsome parapet1 formed of marble slabs and pillars arranged in a masterly style4 ,at the commencement of the ascent the bridge is something wider than at the summit1 but from the part where the ascent terminates1 the sides run in straight lines and parallel to each other4#aca ,upon the upper level there is a massive and lofty column1 resting upon a tortoise of marble1 and having near its base a large figure of a lion1 with a lion also on the top4#acb ,towards the slope of the bridge there is another handsome column or pillar1 with its lion1 at the distance of a pace and a half from the former2 and all the spaces between one pillar and another1 throughout the whole length of the bridge1 are filled up with slabs of marble1 curiously sculptured1 and mortised into the next adjoining pillars1 which are1 in like manner1 a pace and a half asunder1 and equally surmounted with lions1#acc forming altogether a beautiful spectacle4 ,these parapets serve to prevent accidents1 that might otherwise happen to passengers4 ,what has been said applies to the descent as well as to the ascent of the bridge40#acd ,i do not understand why this description is considered very difficult to understand4 ,it depicts a gabled bridge with a flat top1 not an uncommon form of bridge in ,china1 ,i believe4 ,the footway ascends to the beginning of the middle arch1 where it becomes flat and level2 it continues so for the full width of the arch1 and then it descends toward the abutment across the river4 ,with this picture in mind it is easy to decorate the bridge over the ,pulisangan1 or ,hoen-ho1 with the accessories described by ,marco ,polo4 ,the parapets have coping stones of sculptured marble1 and pillars are carefully set along the parapets at an equal distance from each other4 ,these pillars are of two sorts4 ,those above the flat part of the roadway1 where the parapets also are horizontal1 are tall and massive4 ,on each side1 at the brow of the ascent1 there is a tall pillar upon the summit of which is a stone lion2 and in the middle of each parapet1 on this level part of the road1 there is a taller and heavier column1 whose pedestal is a marble tortoise1 and whose summit carries a symbolic lion4 ,another lion is placed near the tortoise1 perhaps on a ledge of stone corbelled out from the parapet4 ,as for the parapets that slope up from the abutments to the point where they become level1 or horizontal1 they1 too1 have their emblematic lions carried by pillars1 and these ornaments1 in accordance with the logic of design1 are much smaller than those on the summit of the steep bridge4 ,for the rest1 ,marco ,polo speaks of twenty-four arches and of twenty-five piers2 and if we give to the arches an average span of fifty-two feet1 and to the piers an average width of thirteen feet1 we get a bridge #aegc ft4 long1 or seventy-three feet longer than the five hundred yards suggested by ,colonel ,yule4 ,viewed in this way1 apart from the vague glamour of enthusiastic words1 there is nothing extravagant in ,marco ,polo's description4 ,many writers have been astonished by another ,chinese bridge1 called the ,bridge of ,cho-gan1 in the province of ,shen-si4 ,its great arch is said to have had an unrivalled span4 ,i am told that it was built with huge blocks of stone1 cut into voussoirs1 the joints of which converged towards a common centre1 as in our own bridges4 ,this may be true1 though in photographs of ,chinese bridges which ,i have seen the voussoirs do not resemble ours2 not only are they much longer1 they are much narrower also1 and recall to my memory a good description written by ,barrow1 whose impressions of ,china are invaluable to students4 ,barrow speaks of archstones from five to ten feet long1 and says that each stone 8is cut so as to form a segment of the arch40 8,there is no keystone0 when an arch is built in this manner4 ,again1 8ribs of wood fitted to the convexity of the arch are bolted through the stones by iron bars1 fixed in the solid part of the bridge02 sometimes no wood is employed1 and then 8the curved stones are mortised into long transverse blocks of stone40 ,it would be ridiculous to speak of this technical method as one that employs voussoirs1 since the arch ring is built with a few segmental stones and without a keystone2 and possibly the ,bridge of ,cho-gan was constructed in this fashion4 ,a drawing of it is given in ,kircher's 8,la ,chine ,illustre0--or1 rather1 in ,dalqui's translation of ,kircher's book1 published in #afgj at ,amsterdam4 ,it is not a geometrical drawing1 and the dimensions are given in ,chinese measures1 which do not help us to love ,kircher and ,dalqui4 ,m4 ,degrand is baffled by these measures2#ace but he admits that the ,bridge of ,cho-gan must have been a grandiose structure dating from a very remote time4 ,gauthey speaks with admiration of the 8,pont de ,fo-,cheu sur le ,min0--a bridge not less than #gice metres long by #ai metres #ej wide1 with a hundred arches1 all semicircular1 and thirty-nine metres in their average span4 ,the piers were nearly as broad1 and their height was thirty-nine metres4 ,here is a bridge that ,dean ,swift ought to have put into his pictures of ,brobdingnag4 ,gauthey seems to have faith in it1 while ,m4 ,degrand has doubts4 ,he says3 8,even if we admit that there is no flagrant exaggeration in the documents from which the account of this bridge is taken1 the workmanship in its general character1 as shown in the drawing given by ,gauthey1 has a near resemblance to that in ,roman bridges1 and ought not to be assigned to a period earlier than theirs40 ,gauthey describes the decorative treatment4 ,under the parapet of white marble ran a line of consoles2 the piers were surmounted by figures of lions in black marble1 cut from blocks seven metres long2 and above each twentieth arch the footway was guarded by a gateway1 un arc de triomphe4 ,for the rest1 as ,i wanted to learn something more about this bridge of a hundred vast arches over the ,min at ,fo-,cheu1 ,i wrote to the ,rev4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson1 whose kind help ,i have already acknowledged 7p4 #bdh74 ,there is a river ,min in ,sichuan1 but no news of such a bridge has reached ,mr4 ,jackson1 though he has worked in ,western ,china for more than twenty years1 and has travelled on foot over a very wide area in the province of ,sichuan4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,jackson does not recognise the spelling 8,fo-,cheu10 but refers me to the city of ,fu ,chow in the coast province of ,fukien4 ,one day1 perhaps1 research will bring me in touch with the colossal masterpiece described by ,gauthey1 though at present ,i am baffled by the variety of geographical names that travellers have given to the bridges of ,china4 ,still1 the ,chinese have been great bridge-builders1 and some of their stone arches have been very high and very wide4 ,perhaps the one described by ,kircher may have been as wide as ,trezzo ,bridge1 over the ,adda1 with its wonderful span of #bea feet4 ,my favourite bridge in the class of exceptional merit is the ,ponte della ,trinit over the ,arno at ,florence1 designed in #aeff by the architect of the ,pitti ,palace1 ,bartolomeo ,ammanati1 a devoted admirer of ,michelangelo4 ,both in science and in art the ,ponte della ,trinit is complete as an original success4 ,its vaulting--,i ought to say his vaulting1 for in this bridge the male qualities of genius are much stronger than the female--his vaulting1 then1 if not the most scientific in the world1 is not excelled by any other work either ancient or modern4 ,there are three arches1 and their curves are cycloids2 the rise from the springing level is only a trifle more than one-sixth of the span4 ,how ,ammanati managed to get his effect of perfect balance and symmetry is a question very hard to answer1 for there is a considerable difference between the width of his arches1 the central one being #if ft4 in span1 and the others #hf ft4 and #hh ft4 ,this fact has been established by measured drawings1 but do you notice it out of doors1 in the magic of this beautiful bridge8 ,the piers are simple and excellent4 ,their width1 twenty-six feet1 is not too much for the spates of a freakish river1 nor too heavy for the bridge as a linear composition2 on the upstream side they have stern cutwaters1 good foils in a piece of architecture that blends an alert grace with a supple vigour4 ,another point worth noting is the gradient of a roadway that starts out from low abutments4 ,ammanati was bent upon being a friend to the traffic of ,florence1 and with the help of his cycloid arches he kept the road on a mild curve4 ,to-day this good point attracts little attention1 as most of us forget that steep bridges were in vogue till late in the eighteenth century4 ,a ,victorian pontist1 ,william ,hosking1 endeavoured to prove that ,ammanati made one mistake in the ,ponte della ,trinit4 ,it seemed to ,hosking that the piers were too bulky1 so he cut them down in a sketch and spoilt the whole bridge by altering the proportions4 ,architects told him so1 but ,hosking crowed over his little sketch and published it with pride1 as you will find by turning to his 8,architectural ,treatise on ,bridge ,building0--a valuable work from other standpoints4 ,,vi ,the great work of ,ammanati sets thought in movement on bridge decoration1 and ,i wish to offer some hints on this subject1 not for the purpose of finding rules1 but in order that a public debate may be invited4 ,rules would be very useful if they could be formulated1 but in bridge decoration national sentiment and personal feeling have been exceedingly active2 no writer1 then1 can do more than offer suggestions from his own point of view4 ,less than twenty years ago a debate on this subject would not have been easy1 for good books on the technical history of bridges were uncommon1 and photographs of fine examples were far more difficult to get than they are now4 ,english books on bridges are still formidably dull2 to read them is perhaps as troublesome as hill climbing on a foggy day2 but the fear of being 8ploughed0 in a stiff examination helps young men to be intrepid4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 the public is served very well by literary pontists4 ,m4 ,charles ,branger1 for instance1 from his ,librairie ,polytechnique in ,paris1 is publishing a series of thorough books on bridges1 as useful to us as they are to ,french students4 ,already eight volumes have been issued4 ,they include3-- #a4 8,ponts en ,maonnerie40 ,par ,e4 ,degrand1 ,inspecteur-,gnral des ,ponts et ,chausses1 et ,jean ,rsal1 ,ingnieur des ,ponts et ,chausses4 ,two volumes1 illustrated2 #dj francs4 #b4 8,ponts ,mtalliques40 ,par ,m4 ,pascal1 ,ingnieur4 ,one volume2 #ae francs2 illustrated4 #c4 8,croquis de ,ponts ,mtalliques40 ,par ,jules ,gaudard1 ,ingnieur ,civil et ,professeur ,honoraire de l',universit de ,lausanne4 ,profusely illustrated2 #bj francs4 #d4 8,cours de ,ponts ,mtalliques40 ,par ,jean ,rsal4 ,vol4 ,i1 #cge illustrations2 #bj francs4 #e4 8,manuel ,thorique et ,pratique du ,constructeur en ,ciment ,arm40 ,par ,,mm4 ,n4 de ,tdesco et ,v4 ,forestier4 ,one volume1 #bdb illustrations2 #bj francs4 #f4 8tudes sur les ,ponts en ,pierre remarquables par leur ,dcoration40 ,par ,f4 ,de ,dartein1 ,inspecteur-,gnral des ,ponts et ,chausses en ,retraite1 etc4 ,vol4 ,i1 8,ponts ,franais antrieurs au ,dix-,huitime ,sicle02 not yet published4 8,vol4 ,,ii1 ,ponts ,franais du ,dix-,huitime ,sicle--,centre02 published4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 8,ponts ,franais du ,dix-,huitime ,sicle--,languedoc02 published4 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,bourgogne2 published4 ,vol4 ,v1 8,ponts trangers antrieurs au ,,xix sicle--,italiens1 ,espagnols et ,anglais02 not yet published4 ,price1 #be francs the volume4 ,for this work ,m4 ,de ,dartein has made exact measured drawings from sixty-eight bridges1 and each example has a great historic interest4 ,the author has taken a line of his own1 dwelling on the ornament of bridges1 their decoration2 several of his volumes are long overdue1 but in his earnest study of the eighteenth century we see what he admires in ,french design4 ,m4 ,de ,dartein is thoughtful and thorough1 but ,i wish some photographs had been added to the illustrations1 because measured drawings give only the dry bones of architecture4 ,how to decorate a bridge is a question beset with so many problems1 some practical1 and others sthetic1 that it ought to be debated at an international congress of engineers and architects and artists4 ,there are persons who think that ,m4 ,de ,dartein will say the last word on his important theme2 but it is enough for me to believe that his material and his personal taste will be invaluable1 presenting facts and provoking discussion4 ,he lingers too often over details of trivial ornament1 which increase the cost of production without doing any good at all to the architecture4 ,in other words1 ,m4 ,de ,dartein speaks too often as an engineer4 ,the qualities of a great bridge should make their appeal in stern lines1 in ample proportions1 in a scale that befits not the site alone but the site and its history2 for all fine architecture dwells with the fugitive generations as a lasting citizen2 it is an epitome of racial character alembicated by genius4 ,bridges cannot be fine when they are dwarfed by their environments1 or when they are too big to be in harmony with the externals of their setting4 ,this1 no doubt1 is a staring truism1 yet it is unseen by most modern engineers1 whose metal monsters are often as wrongly placed in a gentle landscape as a giant from ,brobdingnag would be at ,lilliput4 ,on the other hand1 can you explain why the ,roman bridge at ,alcntara is tremendous art8 ,is it not because he is in scale with the rocky gorge of the ,tagus8 ,this virile bridge completes a grand site1 and finds in the site his own completion4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pont ,,neuf ,,at ,,paris1 ,,built ,,in #afjd2 ,,it ,,has ,,been ,,much ,,altered ,,since ,,the ,,renaissance ,still1 it cannot be said that ,roman bridges were always free from redundant ornament4 ,there were times when pomp exerted a bad influence2 and later ages borrowed oddments of ,roman decoration that weakened in many countries the aspect of bridges4 ,it is from such ,roman work as the ,pont du ,gard1 where no detail was called for1 and where the architect's aim was to be unpretentious1 that we learn never to worry a bridge with embellishments4 ,to construct ornament is very often an easy accomplishment of bad taste1 while to ornament construction is a very difficult problem of self-restraint in art1 because judgment tells us that a great design carried out in simple and thorough masonry is in itself ornamental1 if not complete4 ,applied decoration is almost certain to harm it1 just as a human face is disfigured by sticking-plaster4 ,for example1 turn to ,frank ,brangwyn's drawing of the ,pont ,neuf at ,paris1 and note under the parapet the well-spaced brackets4 ,each bracket is decorated with a mask4 ,why8 ,simpler and shorter brackets would have been more in keeping with the architecture1 as these long ones overlap the keystones--a serious blunder4 ,partly to hide a ring of voussoirs is to blur the whole structural beauty of an arch4 ,it is like covering the eyes with blue spectacles4 ,and there are other mistakes of scale in the ,pont ,neuf4 ,no fewer than six piers are crowded into the ,seine1 as if inundations were amusements to be liked very much4 ,but the spirit of ,renaissance art was overapt to be finikin4 ,in a fine bridge at ,chatsworth1 for instance1 a charming effect is troubled by a too expensive parapet2 and statues are lodged on pedestals above the cutwaters4 ,why8 ,is the cutwater of a bridge a convenient spot for the display of sculpture8 ,as many persons fear in talk a sudden silence made by thought1 so many architects in their revisions fear the plain spaces left in their designs by a creative inspiration4 ,then in a hurry they add some 8ornament0 such as we find at ,chatsworth1 or in ,gauthey's ,pont de ,navilly on the ,doubs4 ,in this bridge narrow spandrils are choked with an overturned vase surrounded by an ornament of bulrushes1 and over each cutwater there is a huge stone shaped like an egg and garlanded4 ,i decline to speak in technical terms because the folly of using superfluous 8ornament0 is hidden by words that look erudite4 ,was it an admiration for ,moses that caused ,gauthey to put bulrushes on a bridge8 ,and did he suppose that they suggested water and adventure8 ,as for those huge eggs of stone1 if they came from some bird five or six times as big as an ostrich1 ,i should like to see them in a museum of natural history1 but without their ornamental wreaths4 ,in brief1 are you attracted by any phase of modern bridge-building that copies the decorations of civic architecture1 displaying columns1 pilasters1 niches1 balustrades1 battlements1 towers1 turrets1 pinnacles1 or any other finery that serves no organic purpose in the life of a contemporary bridge8 ,myself1 ,i hate such a strumpet of a bridge as the ,hoogesluis at ,amsterdam1 with her ornate spandrils1 and her embossed masonry1 and her balustraded parapet surmounted by a row of obelisks around which lamps are bracketed4 ,also ,i hate such a suspension bridge as the one at ,conway ,castle1 where the metal rods that support the roadway pass through a brace of turrets on each of the embattled gateways4 ,the effect is not only comic but ludicrous4 ,no engineer with any sense would have put a metal viaduct within a few yards of ,conway ,castle4 ,or1 if a metal suspension had been forced upon him by his employers1 he would have made in a modern style a very simple and stern design4 ,instead1 we have two vulgar gateways rudely copied from ,conway ,castle1 and then lacerated by five metal rods that cut through each of the four turrets4 ,i am reminded of an absurd railway bridge at ,cologne1 whose parapets are--or were--flanked by small turrets1 and whose gateway has--or had--two high towers formidably armed with make-believe battlements and machicolations4 ,such futile pretension is a public insult2 it implies that laymen have no common sense at all in their attitude to 8feats of engineering40 ,but it is not the modern bridge alone that provokes criticism in this matter of decorative art4 ,some ancient and famous bridges are hard nuts to crack as soon as we pass from their structural fitness to their ornamentation4 ,as an example ,i may choose the ,ponte ,sant' ,angelo at ,rome1 which has been copied feebly by the ,schloss ,brcke at ,berlin4 ,originally the ,sant' ,angelo was the ,pons lius1 built by ,hadrian 7,a4,d4 #ac7 face to face with his mausoleum1 to-day the castle of ,saint ,angelo4 ,in the seventeenth century new parapets were added to the bridge1 and ten colossal statues by ,bernini were put up on pedestals along the parapets4 ,around these statues many a controversy has raged1 and ,i am not surprised4 ,in my photographs there is a small lamp-standard between each pair of huge figures2 even the lights of ,rome have to twinkle below the decorations4 ,the bridge looks burdened rather than adorned2 it is neither wide enough nor high enough to be used as a gallery for sculpture modelled on a large scale4 ,that a great effort was made by an artist of power is evident1 but the artist worked for his own ambition1 and not for the ,ponte ,sant' ,angelo4 ,he had no conception of the fact that the bridge and its environment were so good that they could not be improved by huge 8embellishments40 ,yet there are writers who say1 8,yes1 no doubt1 ,bernini's bouncing figures are theatrical1 but1 after all1 their general effect is grandiose40 ,the truth is1 every great city needs a ,parliament of ,taste where questions of civic art could be debated publicly1 with help from lantern slides4 ,no writer can hope to do much in his defence of art4 ,indeed1 books are studied so infrequently that they cannot draw public attention to the larger problems of architecture and decoration2 whereas free debates in a ,parliament of ,taste1 centring always around object-lessons1 might restore to art the life of a great citizen4 ,in this matter we owe much to ,hosking1 the ,victorian pontist1 who cried out against the blunders made in the ornamentation of bridges4 ,as early as #ahdb he told the truth boldly1 declaring that the most eminent civil engineers1 in their efforts to take hints from street buildings1 had failed to produce anything but meanness or absurdity1 or a combination of both4 ,hosking had faith in three simple principles3-- #a4 ,that bridges1 in the combination of their leading lines1 should be bold and simple2 #b4 ,that their passage over dangerous places ought to be a secure highway2 and1 #c4 ,that in stone bridges far too much money had been wasted on the high finish of exterior surfaces4 ,in very ponderous language ,hosking said3-- 8,it may be fairly questioned whether ,waterloo and ,london bridges would not have been finer objects had the masonry of their external faces been merely rough-axed1 or even left scabbled1 instead of being fair hammer-dressed2 and certainly many thousands of pounds might have been saved in the execution of ,waterloo ,bridge1 and a much better result produced1 by the omission of the coupled columns and their immediate accessories1 and by the use of a plain parapet of a more reasonable height1 instead of the high1 the enormously expensive1 and absurdly ugly balustraded enclosures which now aid the columns and their projected entablatures to deform a splendid structure40 ,this ,puritan outlook appeals to me1 for ,i believe that good bridges should be as sternly efficient as were the ,ironsides of ,cromwell's army4 ,their beauty is a thing apart from any cavalier-like finery of dressing ornament4 ,it shows that all the parts of a bridge are co-ordinated with fine judgment1 and that each part is in nice accord with its own work and with the great office which the bridge as a whole has to fulfil daily4 ,when the railway viaduct at ,ludgate ,hill was finished1 there was a public outcry because of its gaunt and shabby ugliness2 but ,londoners were appeased as soon as some 8decorative0 metalwork was nailed upon the parapets4 ,this 8ornament10 a trumpery makeshift1 was supposed to have given merit to an imbecile design that disgraced the main road to ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,as things of this sort are allowed to happen in the heart of our great city1 who can have confidence in civic authorities8 ,what chance is there that new projects for bridges will be considered intelligently8 ,in #ahae1 when ,rennie began his bridge over the ,thames at ,southwark1 neither the ,government nor the ,city of ,london employed him2 it was a ,company that approved his designs1 and financed the undertaking4 ,at an expense of #hjj1jjj1 three bad arches of cast-iron were put up from 8elegant0 stone piers and abutments2 yet ,london was charmed by 8a great feat of engineering10 partly because #eghj tons of ironwork had been employed1 and partly because the central arch had a span of #bdj ft4 ,from #ahai to ,november #h1 #ahfd1 the ,company was a toll gatherer on their industrial bridge2 then the toll was done away with1 and the ,company received from the ,city an industrial compensation4 ,here is a financial adventure which might have been undertaken to benefit a small township which had in its neighbourhood some new ironworks and collieries4 ,still more farcical was the public lottery that helped to collect money for the building of the first ,westminster ,bridge1 between #agch and #agej4 ,even now1 after many lessons from past follies1 ,london has made more than one muddle over the project of ,st4 ,paul's ,bridge4 ,not even the ,tower ,bridge1 with all its blatant defects1 has enabled the ,city to be alert and clever as a pontist4 ,a more absurd structure than the ,tower ,bridge was never thrown across a strategic river4 ,what would be the use of those ornate towers if the suspended roadway connecting them to the banksides were cut by a shell or by a falling bomb8 ,and what anachronism could be sillier than that which has united the principle of metal suspension to an architecture cribbed partly from the ,middle ,ages1 and partly from the ,french ,renaissance8 ,the many small windows1 the peaked roofing1 the absurdly impudent little turrets1 the biscuit-like aspect of the meretricious masonry1 the desperate effort to be 8artistic0 at any cost3 all this1 you know1 is at standing odds with the contemporary parts of the unhistoric bridge1 parts huge in scale1 but so commercial that there is not a vestige of military forethought anywhere4 ,it is mere perishable bulk4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,,london ,,footnotes3 #hb ,see the ,statute of ,winchester1 ,a4,d4 #abhe1 and ,statute #b1 ,richard ,,ii1 ,a4,d4 #acgh2 see also the ,rolls of ,parliament4 ,among the most dangerous rogues were many lawless barons and their retinues1 against whom the ,law protested vainly4 ,in ,a4,d4 #aach we find them mentioned by the 8,gesta ,stephani10 and till late in the fifteenth century the partisans of nobles were feared on the roads4 ,but for them the ,wars of the ,roses would have been less horrible1 and wayfaring life would have been less barbarously at odds with those ,christian virtues which were proclaimed everywhere by great symbols of religion3 manor churches1 hopeful cathedrals1 vast monasteries1 wayside chapels and shrines1 and quiet homes whispering with the prayers of gentle nuns4 ,brutal strife among ,christians had made the world into a new ,garden of ,gethsemane over which the ,spirit of ,christ brooded and wept4 #hc ,there seems to be only one exception to this rule4 ,i refer to some ,chinese bridges of the thirteenth century1 mentioned by ,marco ,polo in his account of the city ,sin-din-fu1 now called ,ching-tu-fu1 situated on the western side of the province of ,se-chuen1 of which it is the capital4 ,marco ,polo says3 8,the city is watered by many considerable streams1 which1 descending from the distant mountains1 surround and pass through it in a variety of directions4 ,some of these rivers are half a mile in width1 others are two hundred paces1 and very deep1 over which are built several large and handsome stone bridges1 eight paces in breadth1 their length being greater or less according to the size of the stream4 ,from one extremity to the other there is a row of marble pillars on each side1 which support the roof2 for here the bridges have very handsome roofs1 constructed of wood1 ornamented with paintings of a red colour1 and covered with tiles4 ,throughout the whole length also there are neat apartments and shops1 where all sorts of trades are carried on4 ,one of the buildings1 larger than the rest1 is occupied by the officers who collect the duties upon provisions and merchandise1 and a toll from persons who pass the bridge4 ,in this way1 it is said1 his ,majesty receives daily the sum of a hundred besants of gold40 ,according to the ,latin editions of ,marco ,polo1 the booths or shops were set up in the morning and removed from the bridge at night4 ,if so1 then the width of these bridges1 described by ,marco as 8eight paces10 must have been more than twenty-four feet1 since booths would have obstructed such narrow footways4 ,marco ,polo's great editor1 ,colonel ,yule1 interpreting the description of another bridge1 proves that the 8paces0 must be geometric4 #hd ,degrand1 in his 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 gives a reproduction of ,palladio's drawing1 which represents an imperial scheme1 far and away better than ,antonio da ,ponte's4 #he ,the ,bridge of ,ali ,verdi ,khan4 #hf ,lord ,curzon's book on ,persia4 #hg ,british ,museum1 the ,,ms4 #af ,f4 ii1 ,fol4 #gc4 ,the little picture is drawn from nature2 a bad reproduction of it appears in ,m4 ,jusserand's good book on 8,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages40 #hh ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 p4 #di4 ,see also in ,stow4 #hi ,this was finished in #ajad2 in #aacf it was burnt down1 and in #aagf ,colechurch started upon his brave enterprise4 #ij ,viollet-le-,duc writes as follows 7vol4 #f1 p4 #daj73 8,dans les villes1 on profitait souvent des arches de pont pour tablir des moulins1 et mme alors les ponts et moulins1 btis en bois1 ne formaient qu'une seule et mme construction4 ,avant #ahce1 il existait encore ,meaux1 en ,brie1 un pont de ce genre entirement en bois ainsi que les moulins y attenant2 cet ensemble datait de la fin du xv sicle44440 #ia ,alas6 ,the ,great ,war has done much harm to the ,pont du ,march at ,meaux4 ,to-day 7,september #bf1 #aiad7 ,i saw a photograph of its crippled condition4 ,one arch at least is ruined1 and mended roughly with timbering4 #ib ,see 8,the ,builder10 ,november #bb1 #ahij4 #ic ,there has been much disputation over the origin of ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel1 and ,i refer you to the following books3 #a4 8,remarks on ,wayside ,chapels10 by two architects1 ,j4 ,c4 and ,c4 ,buckler1 #hvo1 ,oxford1 #ahdc4 ,this book was approved by ,parker1 an excellent recommendation4 #b4 8,a ,dissertation on ,ancient ,bridges and ,bridge ,chapels10 by ,norrison ,scatcherd1 #ahbh4 #c4 8,the ,chapel of ,king ,edward ,,iii on ,wakefield ,bridge10 by ,norrison ,scatcherd1 #ahdc4 ,in the earlier treatise the chapel is attributed to the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 ,scatcherd belongs to an old school of polemical swashbucklers1 but what he says is worth attention1 though difficult to follow4 #d4 8,the ,histories of ,york40 #id ,camden's 8,britannia10 ,ed4 ,gough1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,london1 #aghi1 pp4 #ch-i4 #ie ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel was illustrated by ,toms1 after ,george ,fleming1 #agdc2 by ,lodge1 in ,thoresby's 8,ducatus02 by ,cawthorne1 about #ahjj2 and by 8,the ,builder10 ,november #bb1 #ahij4 #if 8,bath ,old ,bridge and the ,chapel ,thereon10 by ,emanuel ,green1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4,l41 p4 #adc1 ,british ,archological ,association4 #ig 8,the ,builder10 ,august #bj1 #ahhg4 #ih ,these dates ,i take from the catalogue of historic monuments issued by the ,ministre de l',instruction ,publique et des ,beaux-,arts4 ,some writers give the dates as #aagh and #aahh4 #ii ,according to ,degrand2 some other writers say nineteen4 ,the largest spans were a little more than thirty-three metres2 but even in these the size varied somewhat4 #ajj ,see ,allen's 8,history of the ,county of ,york10 #ahcb4 ,p4 ,atkinson was the architect of the new bridge1 and his work went on till ,march1 #ahaj4 ,as for the old ,ouse ,bridge1 good views of it will be found in the 8,antiquarian ,itinerary10 ,vol4 ,i1 #ahae2 the 8,antiquarian ,cabinet10 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #ahag2 and the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 ninth edition4 ,let us take a glance at one of the pictures4 ,on the west end of the bridge is a tall building carried by two pointed arches and crowned with a small steeple4 ,it is the great ,council ,chamber1 with a prison for felons beneath it1 according to the 8,antiquarian ,cabinet40 ,we cross the river and find at the other side the gaol which was rebuilt in #agbd4 ,two small arches on this side of the bridge balance those that arcade the ,council ,chamber1 and in the middle is a graceful pointed arch with a span of #ha feet4 ,the spandrils are relieved by a well-marked string-course1 the parapets are fringed with railings and graced in the centre with two finials1 which displace the medival cross4 #aja ,see ,mr4 ,kershaw's article1 8,the ,builder10 ,april #bi1 #ahhb1 p4 #eca4 #ajb ,in ,vol4 ,x of the 8,archologia ,cantiana0 an inventory is given of the possessions of the chapel in the year #aedi4 #ajc ,the photograph belongs to the ,london ,missionary ,society4 ,the bridge itself has points of interest quite apart from the idol4 ,there is a single arch of a horseshoe form with long and narrow archstones4 ,the shelving parapets are decorated with small knobs of stone1 and they do not rise to a gable point1 like those in the ,spanish variety of gabled bridge2 there is a flat space at the summit1 and below the middle of it the small idol is placed4 #ajd ,from information sent to me by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson1 who for more than twenty years has worked as a missionary in ,western ,china4 #aje ,take the dates of a few important bridges in ,lancashire4 ,time of ,king ,john1 ,lancaster ,bridge2 #abbe1 ,preston2 #acje1 ,warrington2 #acfe1 ,salford2 #acgb1 ,stockport2 and #adij1 ,garstang ,bridge4 ,the first ,lancashire bridges were but narrow structures for foot and horse4 ,some had very high single arches1 and those with from four to six spans were steep and lofty2 they seemed to fly away from spates4 #ajf ,on the other hand1 there is a good social picture1 showing that workmen in those days fed very well1 though they could not afford to subscribe to the building of a bridge3-- ,wives went out to wite know how they wrought2 ,five score in a flock1 it was a fayre syght4 ,in broad clothes bright white bread they brought1 ,cheese and chickens clerelych a dyght prepared4 #ajg ,cofferdams are embankments which surround the site so as to exclude water from it4 8,they are formed in general by driving two rows of piles round the site so as to enclose between them a watertight wall of clay puddle2 in depths of less than three or four feet1 where there is little current1 a simple clay dam may be used4 ,in greater depths1 the timber walls consist of guide piles at intervals1 with some form of sheet piling between them2 in extreme depths the timber walls may be composed of stout piles driven in side by side all round4 ,the dam must be sufficiently strong to bear the pressure of the water against the outside when the space enclosed has been pumped dry4444 ,the #8,cours de ,ponts1' at the ,school of the ,ponts et ,chausses1 states that a cofferdam need never be made of greater thickness than from four to six feet1 as the interior can always be sufficiently stayed inside4 ,this method of founding is now seldom practised2 it is costly and causes great obstruction in the stream40--,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin4 #ajh ,a metre #ajicfcc yards1 or #cicgjgi inches2 a centimetre #jcicga inch4 #aji ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin1 ,ninth ,edition of the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica40 #aaj ,the centre arch has a span of #aeb ft41 and rises #bi ft4 #f in4 above ,trinity highwater mark2 the arches on each side of the centre have a span of #adj ft41 and the abutment arches #acj ft4 ,total length1 #ajje ft42 width from outside to outside1 #ef ft42 height above low water1 #fj ft4 ,centre piers1 #bd ft4 thick4 ,materials3 the exterior stones are granite1 the interior1 half ,bramley ,fall and half from ,painshaw1 ,derbyshire4 #aaa ,for example1 ,king ,john's ,bridge at ,tewkesbury2 ,barden ,bridge and ,burnsall ,bridge in ,wharfedale2 the ,old ,dee ,bridge at ,chester2 ,huntingdon1 ,bridgenorth1 ,baslow1 ,froggall1 ,brecon1 and ,llangollen4 ,there are many others4 #aab ,this valuable reference was brought to my notice by ,mr4 ,h4 ,t4 ,crofton1 an able pontist1 who sent me his notes on bridges1 asking me to cull from them whatever information my own research had missed4 ,a hobby is the only altruism4 #aac ,springing4 ,the plane of demarcation between the ring and the abutment is called the 8springing0 of an arch4 ,a 8ring0 is the compressed arc of materials known as archstones or voussoirs2 and the 8springing0 marks the place where a ring starts out on its upward curve from a pier or from an abutment4 #aad ,the haunches of an arch are those parts that lie midway between the springing and the crown3 the crown being the summit of a ring4 #aae 8,the ,builder10 ,november #ai1 #ahib1 p4 #cid4 #aaf 8,the ,builder10 ,november #ai1 #ahib1 p4 #cid4 #aag ,if ,csar's bones were found they would be sold at ,christie's to a tradesman millionaire4 #aah ,lord ,curzon's 8,persia and the ,persian ,question10 #ahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #de-f4 #aai ,according to some writers1 the earliest known arches of handicraft--pointed1 and round1 and even elliptical--are ,babylonian1 but ,i do not care to be so dogmatic4 ,dates very often are as elusive as dreams4 ,but the influence of ,babylon was1 doubtless1 very great on the traditions of the building arts2 perhaps we find it even in the elliptic vault of ,chosroes' great hall at ,selucia-,ctesiphon4 ,this vault1 dating from the sixth century ,a4,d41 was a forerunner of ,st4 ,bnzet's elliptic arch 7p4 #ha74 #abj ,brangwyn has drawn for the dition de luxe the bridge at ,ronda1 which dates from #agfa4 ,its architect1 ,jos ,martin ,aldeguela1 was even more unfortunate than were ,peter ,colechurch and the good ,saint ,bnzet2 these masters died before their work was complete1 while poor ,aldeguela fell from his bridge and was dashed to pieces4 ,two other bridges1 one ,moorish and one ,roman1 cross the chasm at ,ronda1 but at the upper end where the depth is less prodigious2 so their architects had easier problems to solve1 and yet they did not equal in any respect the heroic inspiration of ,aldeguela4 ,mr4 ,edgar ,wigram has said that although ,ronda ,bridge owes much of its effect to its extraordinary site1 yet an extraordinary piece of architecture is necessary to command the site2 it is the triumph of genius over nature that we feel both at ,ronda and in the ,pont ,napolon4 #aba ,the middle arch of #eh ft4 span1 #ag ft4 rise1 and #ad ft4 in width across the soffit1 has archstones which are only #ah ins4 deep1 and they vary in thickness from #e to #af ins43 many of them are #h and #i ins4 ,sometimes there are two headers to answer a course of common archstones2 and sometimes two courses of archstones answer one header4 ,the piers are #aj ft4 thick1 and the middle arch springs about #c ft4 above the river's bed4 ,a steep road over the bridge diminishes the weight upon the side arches2 but ,telford believed that if the spandrils had been hollowed the road could have been made with an easy gradient of #a in #bd4 ,the workmanship is very light1 and it appears to be stable1 though a shivering bridge inspires no more confidence than a stammering man4 ,in #ahjc1 owing to a defect in the foundation of the western abutment1 one of the side arches fell1 yet the others remained uninjured while the broken one was being rebuilt4 ,so the bridge in the proportion of all its parts must have been very well balanced1 despite its quivering alertness and lightness4 #abb ,roman examples3 the two bridges at ,mrida1 and the bridge of ,salamanca4 ,medival examples3 ,tudela1 ,tordesillas1 ,talavera1 ,zaragoza1 ,castro ,gonzalo1 and ,el ,burgo1 near ,corua1 the scene of a good fight in ,drake's expedition of #aehi4 #abc 8,gothic ,architecture in ,spain10 #ahfe1 p4 #baa4 #abd ,see ,george ,edmund ,street1 whose valuable book on ,spain ought to be studied side by side with those by ,ford and ,edgar ,wigram4 #abe ,i am reading my proof sheets on the #ajth ,september1 #aiad1 so it is necessary to add that the ,pont des ,trous at ,tournai has renewed its military value1 aiding the ,belgians in their heroic efforts against that avalanche of inhumanity1 the ,german ,army4 #abf ,the religious order of ,pontist ,brothers came to ,france from ,italy4 ,it was called the order of ,saint-,jacques-du-,haut-,pas1 and its chief resided at ,lucca4 ,from about the year #abhf the ,french brothers had a great hospice in ,paris1 built on the site now occupied by the church of ,saint-,jacques-du-,haut-,pas and the deaf and dumb asylum4 ,in the fourteenth century the order confined its attention to the care of pilgrims1 and at last--in #adei--;it was suppressed by ,pope ,pius ,,ii4 #abg ,the triumphal arch of ,germanicus1 dating from the time of ,tiberius4 ,it is extant at ,saintes2 but when it was reconstructed after its removal from the bridge it suffered much from a mixture of new stones with the old4 ,it is an arch with two passages #ch ft4 high4 #abh ,there are many old arches with two or three sets of voussoirs4 ,over the ,loire1 at ,brives-,charensac1 there is a ,roman specimen with two rings1 now a ruined bridge4 ,some ,english examples3 the ,jolly ,miller's ,bridge over the ,dee1 ,chester2 ,bradford-on-,avon1 ,wilts1 the round arches2 ,bideford1 ,devon1 twenty arches1 built in the fourteenth century with help from indulgences sanctioned by ,grandison1 ,bishop of ,exeter2 ,lostwithiel1 ,llangollen1 ,fountains ,abbey1 ,bishop's ,bridge at ,norwich1 ,west ,rasen1 ,lincolnshire2 ,eamont ,bridge1 ,penrith1 a triple ring of archstones2 ,higherford ,bridge1 near ,colne1 reputed to be ,roman1 a wrong attribution1 ,i believe2 ,st4 ,neots1 the most important arch is very interesting2 and the ,abbot's ,bridge at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds4 ,this one is ,early ,english1 and its three remarkable arches give us a parallel to the ecclesiastical workmanship in the arches at ,crowland4 ,the piers also and the buttresses are unsecular4 #abi ,it may be remarked that in the ,persian language the words pul-y-sangi signify the 8stone bridge10 and it is not improbable that the western people in the service of the ,emperor may have given this appellation to the place where a bridge of great celebrity was thrown over the river1 which is here applied to the river itself4 ,it will be found to occur in ,elphinstone's 8,account of ,caubul10 p4 #dbi1 and in ,ouseley's 8,ibn ,haukul10 p4 #bgg4--;,colonel ,yule4 #acj ,ten horsemen could not draw up abreast in a space less than thirty feet1 and might probably require forty when in motion4 ,the paces here spoken of must therefore be geometric2 and upon this calculation the bridge would be five hundred yards in length4--,colonel ,yule4 #aca ,by ,p4 ,magalhanes1 who particularly notices this description1 our author is understood to speak here of the perfect level of the surface1 and not of the straightness of the sides3 8,aux deux extremits10 he translates1 8il est plus large qu'au haut de la monte3 mais quand on a achev de monter1 on le trouve plat et de niveau comme s'il avoit est tir la linge0 78,nouv4 ,relat410 p4 #ad74 ,but the words1 8uguale per longo come se fosse tirato per linea10 seem rather to refer to the general parallelism of the sides1 although at the ends they diverged1 as is the case with almost all bridges4--,colonel ,yule4 #acb ,the ideas of the symbolic lion and of the tortoise are borrowed by the ,chinese from the singa and the ,krma of ,hindu mythology4 #acc ,it is difficult to understand from the words of the text 444 the position of these larger columns with regard to other parts of the bridge2 but it seems to be meant1 that in the line of the parapet or balustrade1 which was formed of alternate slabs of marble and pillars1 there was in the middle 7or over the centre arch or pier7 a column of a size much larger than the rest1 having a tortoise for its base or pedestal2 and it may be presumed1 although not so expressed1 that there was a similar column in the balustrade on the opposite side4444 ,one of the ,jesuit missionaries who mentions a bridge which he had crossed in this part of the province1 says1 8,les gardefous en sont de marbre2 on conte de chaque ct cent quarante-huit poteaux avec des lionceaux au-dessus 444 et aux deux bouts du pont quatre lphans accroupis40--,colonel ,yule4 #acd ,notwithstanding any partial difficulties in the description1 or seeming objections to the credibility of the account given of this magnificent bridge1 there is unquestionable authority for the existence of one similar to it in all the essential circumstances1 and as nearly about the situation mentioned as can be ascertained from the conciseness of the itinerary1 so lately as the seventeenth century4 ,it may well1 however1 be supposed that in the lapse of four hundred years material changes must have taken place1 in consequence of accidents1 repairs1 and perhaps removals4--,colonel ,yule4 #ace 8,ponts en ,maonnerie40 ,illustration3 ,,canal ,,bridge ,,in ,,venice ,,chapter ,,the ,,fifth ,,on ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,unfortified ,,bridges ,i ,brangwyn's water-colour of the ,pont ,henri ,,iv at ,chtellerault1 over the ,vienne1 represents a bridge built and fortified by an architect of the ,renaissance1 ,charles ,androuet du ,cerceau4 ,here is a fact to be remembered1 for ,androuet du ,cerceau was perhaps the latest ,european bridge-builder who tried to fit his work into a nation's policy of defence4 ,from his time onward to our own no high road conducted over a river has been made in any respect a military way1 safeguarded from the dangers of war1 at least as much as possible4 ,if ,androuet du ,cerceau had been asked to foretell the development of bridge-building1 his answer could not have been less militant than the ,pont ,henri ,,iv2 he would have said that bridges1 like battleships and fortified places1 would continue to oppose the science of military attack1 because their safety would be affected by all improvements in the methods and materials employed by armies4 ,his view of life and art1 as we see it in his work1 has been the view of all thoughtful craftsmen4 ,he believed that the genius of invention1 age after age1 set up her home in the ablest minds1 and passed through an ordered growth1 till at last she attained her culmination4 ,as long as improvements could be made in the action of aggressive war1 counter improvements could be made in the reaction of defence1 for the art of inventing each new weapon would suggest a means by which its utility in war might be thwarted1 and perhaps nullified4 ,but ,i do not think that ,androuet du ,cerceau realised to the full what competent bridges ought to have been to his generation4 ,he was too medival in his attitude to strife1 and this defect was perhaps inevitable4 ,you see1 the ,pont ,henri ,,iv was erected between the years #aefd and #afji2 and during these forty-five years the spirit of the times was dead against an efficient strategy both in defence and in attack4 ,soldiers of every rank were passing through a transition1 unaided by much enthusiasm4 ,indeed1 new methods were hated rather than liked1 because they seemed to be less chivalric1 or what the ,french called less 8heroic10 than were the ancient methods1 though many of these had grown obsolescent4 ,alexandre ,dumas wrote several delightful books on this period in the evolution of fighting1 when gunpowder was a war-god that no brave man was at all eager to worship before an altar of unwieldy firearms4 ,soldiers liked a battle to be a duel at very close quarters1 so they were not amused when they fired through a fog of suffocating smoke1 and coughed and sneezed in a chorus1 while tears dripped from their eyes4 ,here and there1 of course1 while ,androuet du ,cerceau was engaged upon his bastille bridge1 8villainous saltpetre0 had some ardent followers4 ,turn to the military writers of ,queen ,elizabeth's reign1 for instance1 and read the long dispute that went on between the old school and the new4 ,some experts had a firm belief in the old archery statutes1 while others put their trust in ponderous firearms that went off after much coaxing and never carried straight for a hundred yards4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,henri ,,iv ,,over ,,the ,,vienne ,,at ,,ch,,tellerault ,,in ,,france ,,built ,,by ,,charles ,,androuet ,,du ,,cerceau1 #aejd-afji4 ,,till #afbd ,,the ,,two ,,great ,,towers ,,were ,,united ,,by ,a ,,pavilion ,,forming ,a ,,gateway4 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,latest ,,of ,,the ,,bastille ,,bridges ,in those days there were two handguns1 both rather old1 and their improvement baffled the ingenuity of gunsmiths4 ,one was the petronel or arquebuse1 which had come into vogue in #adhj2 the other was the musket1 which in #aeba1 or thereabouts1 was brought into use by the ,emperor ,charles ,v1 who believed in it because he had never tried to hold the 8kicking demon0 through a battle4 ,for a long time petronels were discharged by a lighted match1 but at the beginning of the sixteenth century a wheel-lock was invented1 to be superseded at last--about the year #afib--;by the flint-lock4 ,progress was exceedingly halt-footed2 but one day a pious clergyman1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,forsythe1 happened to be startled by a very profane idea2 it seemed to him that gunpowder in a musket might be ignited by a percussion cap4 ,good ,forsythe6 ,being very practical as well as pious 7these two qualities go together like body and soul1 as a rule71 he patented his mother-idea1 ,a4,d4 #ahjg2 and in less than thirty years the principle of the percussion cap was accepted by the ,war ,office1 though public opinion in ,england cooed over ,peace1 believing that henceforth mankind would be satisfied with continual wars between ,capital and ,labour4 ,there is no need to sketch the equally slow improvements in the manufacture of cannon4 ,enough to say that among ,wellington's siege artillery in ,spain there were ,spanish guns dating from the ,armada period4 ,briefly1 then1 from ,androuet du ,cerceau's time onward to the year #aheg1 when the old musket ,brown ,bess was put aside for ever1 the dilatory progress of attack in war gave bridge-builders every opportunity of keeping pace with it and of making their defence as thorough as possible4 ,yet nothing was done4 ,not even a single effort was made to evolve the old war-bridge into a modernised protection2 and it is very far from easy to explain this quite sudden departure from a very old routine of defensive forethought4 ,several reasons have been given1 of course1 but they have no backbone and no brain4 ,it was argued1 for example1 that bridges were as advantageous to an attack as to a defence1 so the whole strategy of war would protect them quite enough4 ,even in our own time this very queer argument has been advocated1 as if to prove that minds as well as eyes often suffer from astigmatism4 ,what successful army is not hindered and harassed by guarding many hundreds of defenceless bridges8 ,and what modern army in retreat has ever failed to leave behind it an extra rearguard of broken bridges8 ,let me give but one example4 ,sir ,john ,moore could never have made his terrible march from ,sahagun to ,corua1 but for his good fortune in the matter of rivers and bridges4 ,when ,napoleon himself got within striking reach1 near ,benavente1 on the torrent ,esla1 ,moore's rearguard blew up three spans of the old bridge of ,castro ,gonzalo2 and when the cavalry of the ,imperial ,guard found a deep crossing and forded the river into a wide poplared plain1 ,paget and the #ajth ,hussars galloped through their broken ranks1 destroying half of them1 and capturing their general ,lefebvre ,desnouettes4 ,much later1 when the narrow and snowbound ,pass of ,piedrafita was littered with dead ,british troops1 all killed by hunger and cold and exhaustion1 ,moore was befriended by the great ,roman bridge of ,constantino1 and by the noble viaduct of ,corcul between ,nogales and ,becerrea4 ,paget was left behind with the rearguard1 and in brilliant actions at the bridges he checked the pursuit1 while ,moore marched on toward ,lugo4 ,if a ,french spy had blown up the bridge of ,constantino and the viaduct1 after hearing of ,moore's approach1 the ,british would have been brought to a standstill1 and from a desperate position there would have been little chance of escape4 ,so the viaduct and the ,roman bridge stood between victory and defeat2 they saved the ,british and baffled the ,french4 ,in fact1 ,moore reached ,lugo without much further harrying4 ,not only is there a bridge of ,constantino in all campaigns1 but we may be sure that as no country will ever wish to be invaded the airmen scouts of the future will try to destroy all bridges beyond their own frontiers1 so as to cripple the enemy's prearranged movements4 ,defeat in the near future may be nothing more than a paralysis of communications1 caused by bridge-wrecking airships and aeroplanes4 ,try to imagine what we should suffer1 if we lost in a single night eight or ten of the bridges that help to unite ,london to ,edinburgh and ,glasgow4 ,to lose the ,forth ,bridge alone would be a bad defeat2 and yet1 as ,i have said1 there are people still who argue that bridges need no protection because their utility in war is invaluable to both sides4#acf ,this hollow argument was very active during the ferment of the ,renaissance1 which became to architecture what a political party spirit is to an army4 ,in fact1 it was the ,renaissance that produced the disintegrating party strife of rival 8styles10 and soon the followers of classic forms and ceremonies were more powerful than their opponents1 who believed in the native genius of ,gothic art4 ,the aim of our classic men was to renew under our ,northern sky an alien inspiration born and bred in the ardent climates of ,greece and of ,rome4 ,in other words1 they wished to repeat1 by plodding and self-conscious effort1 what ,rome had done in architecture with the patient and slow methods of her colonisation4 ,in this way they appealed to everybody who tried to seem erudite1 and their endeavours entered that world of educated fashion where a false quantity was a greater sin than intemperance4 ,just as the chatty1 delightful ,montaigne wanted to hide his genius among profuse gleanings from ancient writers1 so most architects believed that they could do no good in life unless they tried to be ,greek or ,roman4 ,progress was no longer an organic growth1 it was a copied fashion1 an inconvenient mode4 ,not even a church could be built without help from pagan temples4 ,not an equestrian statue could be modelled unless a ,christian of sorts1 either king or warrior1 put on the costume of a ,csar1 and then straddled ill at ease across the back of a reasonable horse1 which alone merited the long life of bronze4 ,amid this ferment of comic priggishness and pedantry young men served their apprenticeship1 and became artists and craftsmen4 ,inevitably1 bridge-builders were affected1 and as prigs most of them did their work as public servants4 ,one remarkable thing was the fussy interest that their projects excited4 ,during the eighteenth century1 for instance1 a ridiculous ado was made about bridge-building4 ,voluntary guidance came from mathematicians1 and chatter and hesitation implied that at last1 for the first time in the history of the world1 a reputable bridge would be erected4 ,as for the results of all this flutter and fuss1 they were usually out of joint with the public interests that bridges ought to have served efficiently4 ,no attention was paid to military defence1 and some famous men blundered like amateurs4 ,perronet was regarded as the most expert bridge-builder of his time2 his knowledge was prodigious1 and yet he made astounding mistakes1 which would have shamed such medival masters as ,bnzet and ,isembert4 ,as an example ,i will mention his ,pont de ,neuilly-sur-,seine1 which was finished in #aggb4acg ,the delicate operation of striking the centres1 by freeing the arches from their supports1 was begun only eighteen days after the keystones were put in their places1 when the mortar was not yet hard enough to resist new pressure4 ,in one great arch the crown sank twenty-three inches--truly a historic mishap1 and for several reasons4 ,the upper part of this arch in ,perronet's plan was an arc of a circle #cbj ft4 in diameter2 after the mishap it became an arc of a circle whose diameter would be #eah ft41 hence a stone arch of this size--#eah ft4 on the chord line--might be constructed6 ,no wonder that writers have been astounded by the ,pont de ,neuilly-sur-,seine1 for it passed safely through a most dangerous experience4 ,perronet was saved1 not by his good design1 nor by his mathematical calculations1 but by a rare stroke of good luck4 ,indeed1 there are a good many technical faults in his work at ,neuilly4 ,the piers are only fourteen feet broad1 too small to be in scale with the wide arches1 and all lateral pressure travels along the bridge to the abutments4 ,if one arch were cut the others would be endangered4 ,in later years ,perronet became wise1 and told the ,french ,government that two or three arches in every long bridge should have abutment piers1 as a safeguard against mishaps in war4#ach ,several famous engineers had to learn by experience1 like ,perronet1 that a self-conscious desire to be 8scientific0 had dangers of its own in bridge-building4 ,smeaton's bridge over the ,tyne at ,hexham was a tragic failure2 ,labelye produced a very perishable bridge on the ,thames at ,westminster2 and learned engineering did not save the ,tay ,bridge from catastrophe1 though science welcomed it with a din of confident approval4 ,the ,tay ,bridge was a railway track to connect the town of ,dundee and the ,north ,british ,railway ,system in ,fife2 it crossed the ,firth of ,tay about a mile and a half to the ,west of ,dundee4 ,its length exceeded two miles1 and journalists with rapture bragged about it as the longest iron bridge in the world4 ,even the responsible engineers1 ,thomas ,bouch and ,a4 ,d4 ,stewart1 did not keep their heads while their work was being done1 for they published in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 a long article on their unfinished bridge--a fine example of modern vanity4 ,soon afterwards1 on ,february #dth1 #ahgg1 the building work was badly injured by a gale1 yet in a few months--on ,september #beth1 in fact--the over-confident engineers had the bridge tested from end to end1 and on the #cast of ,may1 #ahgh1 it was opened to train service4 ,thomas ,bouch became ,sir ,thomas4 ,no one suspected that a 8scientific bridge0 might be a trap for railway carriages4 ,the structure was superlatively modern3 huge1 ugly1 vulgar1 meretricious1 mechanical1 and charmed also with a small cost of production1 which included twenty human lives and #cej1jjj4 ,at this price1 you will understand1 the longest metal bridge in the world seemed very cheap and fascinating4 ,newspapers were overjoyed1 of course1 and declared that the ,tay ,bridge was admirably fitted for the rushing enterprise of a commercial time4 ,yet every part of it was ill with the cancer of cheapness1 and in #ahgi the disaster came1 on a ,sunday evening1 three days after ,christmas4 ,at about seven o'clock a terrific gale struck the eighty-four spans of the bridge1 making a gap of about three thousand feet3 and a few minutes later a ,north ,british mail-train drew near4 ,into the gap carriage after carriage dived3 about eighty passengers perished1 down below in the raging waters4 ,it was a lofty bridge1 in some places #ib ft4 above high tide1 so the falling carriages turned more than one somersault before they plunged into the ,firth of ,tay4 ,the ,board of ,trade held an enquiry and issued a report1 affirming 8that the bridge had been badly designed1 badly constructed1 and badly maintained40 ,true3 but the verdict was without pity4 ,some excuse should have been made for the engineers' modernity4 ,the ,tay ,bridge was no worse than the popular spirit that liked screaming newspapers1 and fevered excitements1 and wild adventures in the quicksands of jerried workmanship4 ,the ,board of ,trade published its report on the #crd of ,july1 #ahhj2 and a few months later1 on ,october #cjth1 ,sir ,thomas ,bouch died of a broken heart4 ,perhaps the most humbling trial in his adversity was the foolish article written by his second in command1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,stewart1 who wanted to be quite contemporary with the flying minutes4 ,the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 deleted the article from its next edition1 and printed 444 some tame remarks on the disaster4444 ,no public calamity has much effect on the modern mind4 ,tay ,bridges and ,titanics are like strong acts in a tragic play1 whose influence we forget very soon4 ,it is a thousand pities1 for the next war may teach us1 by frequent disasters1 that machine-worship has been a mad gambler everywhere4 ,bridges suffered much from the priggishness of the ,renaissance1 but they have suffered infinitely more from the obsessions that ruined ,sir ,thomas ,bouch4 ,poor ,bouch6 ,not only did he wish to astonish the world by constructing an unparalleled bridge1 wonderfully long1 curved at both ends1 and with a varying gradient4 ,he desired also to prove to his employers that he could be a pattern of unusual economy4 ,worse still1 he was so wrapped up in his calculations that he looked upon ,nature with little respect4 ,in other words1 he tried to achieve 8a great feat of engineering0--not often a fortunate enterprise4 ,from the founding of his piers he ought to have learnt that his work would be endangered partly by the repercussion of railway traffic1 and partly by the varied way in which the piers would feel the scour of tidal waters during bad weather4 ,fourteen piers on the southern side were built on rock1 then for six piers the bed was a layer of hard material resting on silt1 and from the twenty-second pier northward there was sand1 with occasional beds of gravel mixed with boulders4 ,here was a site to inspire as much awed patience and care as the ,bridge ,friars gave untiringly to the ,pont ,saint-,esprit over the ,rhne4 ,yet in ,mr4 ,stewart's description there is but one emotion--a quiet self-confidence1 as if the forces of ,nature were as easy to manage as well-trained poodle dogs4 ,,ii ,to be brief1 it is evident that the bridge-building of modern times--from the ,renaissance to our own day--has been nothing more than a long series of experiments from which a good many important matters have been excluded4 ,high artistic qualities were divorced from military forethought by the earlier pontists of the ,renaissance2#aci then came the delicate swagger of a fidgety dilettantism1 like that which built the ,palladian ,bridge in ,prior ,park1 about ,a4,d4 #agej2 afterwards1 by degrees1 the industrial spirit began to assert itself2 and in #aggi the first metal bridge was built in ,europe4 ,how different the history would have been1 how much saner and finer1 if bridge-builders had taken for their guide the all-sufficient principle that their work must be self-protective1 not vulnerable and defenceless4 ,from this principle the most wonderful varied work could have been evolved1 generation after generation4 ,by this time there would have been as much difference between an ,elizabethan bridge and a modern stone bridge1 as between ,drake's 8,golden ,hind0 and a super-,dreadnought4 ,but the sedulous ape has been active everywhere2 and ,europe to this day is proud when she builds in stone a few bridges that seem to be as good as their classic foreparents1 though they break away from the classic principle of self-defence4 ,it is in metal bridges alone that we find a virile growth1 a genuine evolution2 not often artistic1 and as sensitive to bombs as card castles are to a touch from your finger2 but yet a great evolution because it represents modern times4 ,if we could summon to earth the spirits of the greatest bridge-builders--,caius ,julius ,lacer1 ,apollodorus of ,damascus1 ,isembert1 ,bnzet1 ,ammanati1 and several others--they would learn nothing much from our stonework1 whereas a metal bridge here and there could not fail to strike awe into these spiritual beholders4 ,even ,lacer would be awed by the colossal newness of the ,forth ,bridge1 whose technical inspiration might have come from ,vulcan1 the god of furnaces1 after his annual festival on the #bcrd of ,august4 ,and cannot you imagine what ,bnzet and ,isembert would say to each other1 in swift1 excited ,french1 when they gazed up and up at the airy film of road suspended over the wide ,menai ,straits8 ,this would be enough to convince them that a few recent bridge-builders had forsaken ancient forms in order to give expression to generative ideas4 ,illustration3 ,,pont ,,de ,,tours--,a ,,famous ,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,xviii ,,century4 ,,it ,,is ,,in ,,keeping ,,with ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,watteau ,the concept of metal bridges may have come to ,europe from ,china4 ,in the seventeenth century ,kircher saw and described a ,chinese bridge which seems to have been a genuine suspension bridge of metal1 a true forerunner of the ,pont de la ,caille1 over the ,pass of ,usses1 and of the immense ,pont de ,beaucaire1 which in four spans unites ,beaucaire to ,tarascon1 covering a distance of more than #dch metres4#adj ,who can explain why backward ,china has hit upon many fertile ideas before the more enterprising nations8 ,why has she not learnt to rule the world8 ,perhaps her body has been too numerous for her brain4 ,on my table lies the photograph of a bridge which may be similar to the one admired by ,athanase ,kircher4 ,it is an iron swing bridge in ,western ,china1 near ,auhsien4 ,there are three piers1 two of stone1 and the other a makeshift of two timber piles joined together at top by a log upon which the footway rests4 ,the carpentry of the footway is primitive3 across the long bearing beams1 which are not at all thick or heavy1 a great many slim laths lie unevenly2 and up the middle of the bridge1 from end to end1 is a narrow path made with long and flat planks which rest upon the transverse timbering4 ,as for the iron suspension1 it is a chain of thick and short rods which are linked firmly together4 ,these rods1 thus looped at each end and interlocked1 run in two lines from abutment to abutment1 making a sort of parapet at each side of the bridge4 ,bamboo rods suspend the footway to the iron chains1 which pass over the abutments to be fastened securely on the ground4 ,there are four abutments1 but my photograph shows only one2 and it omits also the main thing of all--the means by which the metal chains are anchored4 ,still1 the abutment is entertaining4 ,it is a stone pillar about five feet high1 perhaps a little more or less2 it seems to be old1 and from two holes pierced through it we learn that several experiments were made before the right leverage was obtained4 ,the first hole was too low down1 so another was drilled about #ab inches above it1 and through this second hole the chain was passed1 then tugged down to its anchorage4 ,even then the suspension was not effective1 the hole or 8saddle0 being still not high enough above the footway1 and the builders knew not what to do4 ,not only was there insufficient space for a third hole1 but very few makers of suspension bridges have been reasonable enough to pass their metal chains over the summits of stone pillars and towers4 ,the ,chinese workmen at ,auhsien were not more foolish than many ,european engineers have been1 for their perforated pillars are not a bit worse than the perforated towers through which suspension chains pass at ,clifton and at ,budapest1 not to mention many other familiar examples4 ,so determined were the ,chinese to overcome their difficulties without using the summit of their pillar1 that they cut away the stone until they came to the second hole or saddle1 and then they thrust a lump of iron under the taut chain4 ,next1 to increase the tension still more1 they put up a smaller pillar perhaps a yard from the first one1 forcing it under the iron rods1 which at this point strain downward to their anchorage4 ,curiously enough1 the lesser pillar--a sort of understudy--is used as an architect would employ it3 along the top a groove is hollowed1 and the chain rests in the groove and then dips down at a sharp angle4 ,perhaps1 then1 the smaller pillar is fairly new1 while the larger one is old4 ,the ,rev4 ,o4 ,m4 ,jackson#ada knows this bridge very well2 he lived for five years at ,auhsien1 and on one occasion the whole bridge was washed away by a spate4 ,for months the iron chains lay here and there on the river-bed2 and as floods are frequent1 and the bridge is not a high one1 very little of the workmanship has had a chance of growing hoar4 ,the pillars have the best chance2 and ,i suppose the iron chains are worth saving from the river whenever the bridge is reconstructed4 ,i have lingered over ,auhsien ,suspension ,bridge not because of its craftsmanship1 but because it marks a primitive phase in the evolution of metal bridges4 ,perhaps the example seen by ,kircher was less rude2 and perhaps the principle of its construction may have been precisely like that in the bamboo swing bridges of ,western ,china4 ,in these there are four huge cables of twisted bamboo#adb3 two of them carry the footway1 while the upper ones serve a double purpose3 a strong netting on each side braces them to the lower cables1 giving another support to the footway1 and forming a sort of hammock a good deal taller than an average man4 ,it is within this deep hammock that everybody walks across a bamboo swing bridge1 which in a high wind is as enjoyable as a rowing-boat4 ,at each abutment there is a gabled entrance gate1 where the four cables are screwed up4#adc ,displace the bamboo cables for iron chains1 and we get at once1 perhaps1 an idea of the bridge that ,kircher regarded as 8merveilleux40 ,as ,kircher's book was published in #afgj1 an iron bridge ought to have been built in ,europe before the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,an attempt to build one was made in #agee at ,lyons1 but it failed4 ,an arch was put together in a builder's yard and then the project was abandoned as too costly6 ,but the idea was handed on somehow to an ,english ironmaster1 ,abraham ,darby1 of ,coalbrookdale1 who in #aggi won a great success by bridging the ,severn with a very useful arch of cast-iron1 having a rise of #ej feet1 and a span of #ajj ft4 #f ins4 ,the cost of it is not known1 but the weight of metal employed was #cgh tons4 ,the design is bold1 and the arch handsome4 ,every pontist should get a photograph of ,coalbrookdale ,bridge4 ,already it is out of date1 and its value as history will not save it from destruction4 ,a few years later1 in #agif1 ,rowland ,burdon followed the example set by ,abraham ,darby1 but not as a mere copyist1 his ,wearmouth ,bridge being an arch of open cast-iron panels1 which act as voussoirs4 ,the span is #bcf feet1 with a rise of #cd feet2 the springings are #ie feet above the river-bed2 at first the footway was rather narrow1 but in #aheh it was widened by ,robert ,stephenson4 ,rowland ,burdon used #bfj tons of iron1 and his work cost only #bg1jjj4 ,soon afterwards1 in a great cast-iron arch thrown over the ,spey1 ,telford made new experiments1 and1 as ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin has said1 his bridge at ,craigellachie marked 8a great advance in the conception of what was the safest form in which to apply cast-iron to an arch40 ,but more than this was expected from an engineer of ,telford's reputation1 and nothing more came from him1 unfortunately4 ,in fact1 ,telford divorced his work from the good sense of good design1 which ,darby and ,burdon had endeavoured to respect4 ,at each abutment he put up a silly tower pierced with arrow-slits and armed with battlements1 advertising a farce of warlike make-believe which scores of foolish engineers would copy and adapt1 while leaving their bridges entirely unfortified4 ,a bridge here and there is supposed to be all right4 ,take1 for instance1 the ,forth ,bridge1 with his #ea1jjj tons of steel1 and his amazing cost1 about #c1jjj1jjj2 he is looked upon as a 8safe0 bridge1 and safe he is if we forget what bombs and shells can do in a few seconds4 ,at each end of this bridge the railway is carried by trivial columns forming the approach viaducts1 and these a naval gun would blow to smithereens4 ,a bomb falling upon them from an airship might put the whole bridge out of action4 ,further1 the columns are comically out of scale with those gigantic pyramids of steel bars which counterbalance the centre girders1 and yet seem to play at leapfrog in two bounds of #agaj ft4 each1 and in two lesser jumps of #fhj ft4 each4 ,yes1 the ,forth ,bridge looks formidably alive and active2 he is to modern engineering what the ,ichthyosaurus became to our knowledge of prehistoric animals3 a semi-marine colossus1 fit to be kept for ever as a tremendous danger happily extinct4 ,several years ago1 in the 8,builder10 ,i drew attention to the defenceless character of this huge viaduct over a strategic waterway1 and now ,i return to this topic at the beginning of a war that may well be the most terrible in all history4 ,to-day is the #crd of ,august1 #aiad2 and the world knows that ,germany has occupied ,luxemburg1 a neutral ,state1 has poured her troops into ,belgium1 the naval key of ,great ,britain1 and has violated the ,french frontier without declaring war4 ,here is the swift 8morality0 of lightning4 ,in the strategy of war1 non-moral ,powers may gain over us a horrible advantage4 ,england talks so much about peace and honour that felon ,germany is able to plan at her ease great military movements of surprise as fateful as victories on stricken fields4 ,before this little book is published 8the black bullets of ,destiny0 will have been cast in several countries2 and not a battle will be won1 nor a skirmish fought1 without either help or hindrance from those soldiers unprepared that we call viaducts and bridges4 ,already many have been blown up in ,belgium and in ,servia2 and by night and day1 throughout ,europe1 men are trying to guard every bridge of vital importance to the concentration of troops4 ,here in ,england this protection is not always as alert and thorough as it ought to be4 ,i am writing in ,hampshire1 near by the main line from ,aldershot2 within a walk of three minutes there is a high railway bridge over a road1 and a few hours ago it was unguarded from the road4 ,yesterday evening1 after dark1 a ,german spy could have destroyed it1 for ,i passed under its vault and found no one keeping watch and ward4#add ,instead1 ,i encountered that supine national folly which has withheld our young men from national service1 because of the rich liberty which we are supposed to get somehow from cooing claptrap1 and ,norman ,angells1 and the future pacification of mankind4 ,whatever this fateful war may bring to us and to others1 the defenceless bridge will have to be reconsidered2 and for this reason its evolution attracts me even now1 despite the darkling uncertainty that encompasses every hour of the day4 ,the ,forth ,bridge1 all shatterable bulk and no beauty and grace1 does full justice to our industrialism1 but yet he belongs1 not to the public spirit of ,great ,britain1 but to the spirit of the age everywhere2 for in other lands he has a great many rivals not a whit less huge and vulnerable4 ,as an example1 we will take the ,illinois and ,st4 ,louis ,bridge1 really a fine work of his kind1 dating from #ahgc4 ,he crosses the ,mississippi1 which at ,st4 ,louis flows in a single channel #ecd yards wide and #h feet deep at extreme low water4 ,the greatest range between high and low water is #da feet4 ,there are three ribbed arches of cast steel1 the middle one with a span of #ebj feet1 while the others are #ah feet narrower4 ,if it was worth while for the sake of public convenience to erect this great highway above a wide and dangerous river1 it was also worth while for the sake of public convenience that the width of the arches should be determined by the probable dangers to which the bridge would be exposed in commercial strikes and in other wars4 ,human gunpowder is not a rare thing in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the black race there has a population that increases rapidly1 and some day it may breed a great soldier1 a dark ,napoleon1 who will find it no difficult task to organise a widespread society of bridge-wreckers4 ,no truisms are more common than unexpected events4 ,let us then ask whether it would be possible swiftly to repair a metal arch having a span of #ebj feet4 ,if not1 why build a huge and costly structure with steel-ribbed arches which are much too wide8 ,what if one of them was destroyed at a time when the double railway track over the river1 and the wide roadway above for other traffic1 were necessary to bring reinforcements to a stricken army8 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,tarn ,,at ,,millau ,,in ,,southern ,,france4 ,,this ,,drawing1 ,a ,,companion ,,picture ,,to ,,girtin',s 8,,bridgnorth10 ,,represents ,,the ,,broken ,,end ,,of ,,an ,,old ,,bridge ,,with ,a ,,mill ,,built ,,on ,,it2 ,,behind ,,is ,,an ,,arch ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,bridge ,these questions were too unmercantile to be considered by the chief engineer1 ,captain ,james ,b4 ,eads1 a very scientific person1 who was entirely of a piece with our ,european pontists4 ,not a scrap of attention did he pay to military matters4 ,every account of ,captain ,eads and his bridge bombards us with technical details4 ,we are expected to gape with admiration because #fj per ton of #bjjj lbs4 was the price paid for #bejj tons of cast-steel4 ,wrought-iron in a ton of #bjjj lbs4 cost #dj1 and #ejj tons at this price were used4 ,rolled-iron in a ton of #bjjj lbs4 cost #bh1 and #ajjj tons at this price were employed1 together with #bjj tons of cast-iron at #af per ton1 the ton in this case being #bbdj lbs4 ,here indeed is a golden target for bombs and for modern artillery6 ,every bridge in the ,united ,states of ,america is a target of this sort in one form or another4 ,there are bonfire timber bridges1 for example1 exceedingly deft and excessively high2 sometimes their piers are nothing more than large wooden frames piled one on top of another1 up and up and up1 till at last they are tall enough to be known as great sky-ticklers4 ,one example is #bcd feet high4 ,it is the great ,portage ,bridge spanning the ,genesee ,river1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 on a railroad between ,new ,york and ,buffalo4 ,it looks like a miracle of carpentry1 this wonderful bridge of frames2 its length is #bdj metres1 and the piers--sixteen romantic scaffoldings--form immense triangles with flattened summits upon which a double gallery rests as a firm support for the railway4 ,each scaffolding rises from a pile of masonry nine metres higher than water-level1 so that floods do not break their force against the timber frames4 ,good heavens above1 how this bridge would burn6 ,but it has a quite modern fascination3 its cost of production was cheap6--cheap in comparison with the estimated price of a stone bridge with the same length and aviated height4 ,this wooden structure cost about #cf1jjj1 for the pride of trade likes to pay as little as possible for the largest amount of very perishable insecurity4 ,then1 of course1 there are sky-tickling metal bridges1 and these spindle-shanked devotees of peace are popular also in ,canada4 ,all this work is nothing but industrial engineering1 like the mighty bridges at ,new ,york1 though these do try to look somewhat architectural4 ,one specimen1 indeed1 a vast structure called the ,new ,manhattan ,bridge1 has marvellously long suspension cables which do not go through a tower or gateway2 they actually pass over their supports in a logical manner4 ,what a blessing6 ,on the other hand1 ,brooklyn ,bridge at ,new ,york has the same mistake as our suspension bridge at ,clifton 7p4 #cdf72 and the pierced towers1 each with two lancet-shaped openings1 are affected and trivial4 ,brooklyn ,bridge has a total length of nearly #aada yards1 and between the two towers there is a span of #aeie feet4 ,the roadway is upheld by four galvanised steel cables not less than sixteen inches in diameter4 ,think of that6 ,try to imagine a span #aeie feet wide6 ,suppose an airship crippled it with some large bombs1 how in the world could repairs be made8 ,briefly1 then1 modern bridges everywhere are anti-social4 ,when war is afoot1 they imperil the best-made plans of strategists2 and even in strikes they have to be guarded by soldiers1 as if they were convents where dethroned queens lived unhappily with suffragette princesses4 ,though we have lived for many years on the brink of war1 every highway in ,europe as in ,america is at the mercy of bridge-wreckers4 ,is it not dumbfounding that no respect has been paid anywhere to the social guardianship that bridges and roads ought to perform8 ,why has this all-important matter been forgotten8 ,it has been made memorable a great many times in history1 ever since ,horatius ,cocles and his two companions held the ,pons ,sublicius against the whole ,etruscan ,army under ,porsena1--a lesson never forgotten by ,roman citizens4 ,when ,lord ,surrey1 before the battle of ,flodden ,field1 outwitted the ,scotch by throwing his army across the ,till by the beautiful old ,twizel ,bridge2 or when ,charles the ,second1 routed at ,worcester1 fled by ,old ,pershore ,bridge into the ,bredon ,hills1 ,england received one of many warnings that a secure passage over rivers might be to her at any moment as valuable as an army corps4 ,why has she failed to take this lesson to heart8 ,no railway is protected by two or three branch lines over an important river1 so that two or three bridges--not near together1 but separated by a mile or two--would have to be destroyed before the river would be closed to the passage of troops and of food supplies4 ,understudy lines and bridges would be invaluable to defensive strategy4 ,more than a century has gone over since ,perronet warned ,france that bridges across great rivers ought to be of a kind which would facilitate makeshift repairs after mishaps in war4 ,he spoke earnestly1 but in vain2 for the conception of trade as war had not yet been forced upon the world by modernised industrialism1 with its civil strikes and its international competitions4 ,if ,perronet had been able to add his foresight to the great traditions of the ,ponts et ,chausses1 his countrymen1 probably1 would have been loyal to his excellent advice1 because the ,french have a ,roman logic and they love their roads and bridges4 ,but in ,france1 as in other countries1 a craze for engineering feats took possession of the public mind1 excluding many other considerations4 ,i know not how many perishable bridges exist at this moment in ,france1 but ,i can give the figures for #ahgc4 ,in that year there were one thousand nine hundred and eighty-two4 ,their total length was #ajf kilometres1 and their total cost was #bhf1ejg1gfa francs4 ,here are some of the more expensive examples3-- 7#a7 ,pont de ,bordeaux1 #eja metres2 #f1hej1jjj francs4 7#b7 ,pont de ,roanne1 #bcb metres2 #f1dch1efa francs4 7#c7 ,paris1 ,pont d',jna1 #f1ace1aje francs4 7#d7 ,pont ,saint-,esprit1 on the ,rhne1 #d1ejj1jjj francs4 7#e7 ,pont de ,libourne1 on the ,dordogne1 #d1bcf1bdh francs4 7#f7 ,tours1 on the ,loire1 #dcd metres2 #d1bbd1fci francs4 7#g7 ,paris1 ,pont ,neuf1 #bca metres2 #d1jjj1jjj francs4 ,compare these figures with those of some ,british bridges3-- 7#a7 ,the hideous ,britannia ,bridge over the ,menai ,straits1 #aeaa feet long1 cost #fja1hfe4 7#b7 ,westminister ,bridge1 ,london1 #aafj feet2 #bce1jjj1 or #bjb per foot run4 7#c7 ,boyne1 #eej feet2 #adj1jjj1 about #bed per foot run4 7#d7 ,southwark ,bridge1 ,london1 built in #ahai1 #hjj1jjj2 it contains #eghj tons of iron4 7#e7 ,vauxhall ,bridge1 ,london1 built in #ahaf1 #cjj1jjj4 7#f7 ,new ,london ,bridge1 #ajje feet long1 #a1deh1caa4 7#g7 ,forth ,bridge1 about #c1jjj1jjj4 ,we see1 then1 that the bridges of civilization1 when viewed merely as financial investments1 are valuable enough to be made self-defensive4#ade ,yet it happens that ,i am the only writer who has tried to draw public attention to the ease with which any bridge in ,england could be crippled4 ,and the trouble is that engineers hold the field1 because the man of business finds in their work a hard routine that looks practical and mercantile4 ,what we need is the influence of architects4 ,for capable architects have the genius of artists1 and when artists give their minds to practical affairs they show a range of common sense that men of trade rarely equal4 ,it is in their nature to look at a question from all sides till they see it amply and as a whole1 while men of trade isolate two or three things from many1 and accept them tenaciously as the only things that merit attention4 ,but in our social life and strife there are certain newcomers that will compel the world to reconsider its wrong attitude to bridge-building4 ,i refer to airships and to aviation1 with their threatened wars from overhead4 ,a good many bridges over strategical waterways can be displaced by tunnels1 but many others must be armoured with cone-shaped roofs4 ,art and science have done wonderful things for the modern battleship1 and now--now they must invent and perfect a new battle-bridge1 fit to protect arterial highways from 8progress40 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is the morning of the #dth of ,august1 and ,i have just read the latest war news4 ,the whole life of ,europe is a note of interrogation1 infinitely sinister and tragic4 ,what is destined to happen8 ,which nations are doomed to perish8 ,what navy will go down into the deep8 ,which airmen will make the most successful attacks on those bridges that govern the distribution of food supplies8 ,will the equity of ,europe triumph1 or will ,german felony succeed8 99 99 99 99 99 ,three months have passed1 and ,i add a few lines to my page proofs4 ,many events have illustrated and confirmed the main arguments of this monograph4 ,everywhere defenceless bridges have been the cause of much anxiety1 and dozens have been destroyed because they could not be turned into rearguard defences4 ,wellington said that his sappers in five minutes could blow up a modern bridge4 ,in the present campaign sappers have done this work under fire1 mining strategic highways being a simple job4 ,how ludicrously tragic is the contrast between the building of a modern bridge and its easy demolition6 ,a little common sense would have flanked each entrance with a ,brialmont fort1 and would have given to the bridge itself an armoured efficiency4 ,every bridge between the ,french frontiers and ,paris ought to have been as effective as a super-,dreadnought4 ,so the use of battleship steel in bridge-building is one thing that engineers must consider with the utmost care after ,germany has been overthrown4 ,if they do no more than follow their foolish old routine1 then their work will be a crime against patriotism4 ,in other respects the ,great ,war has been a wondrous varied surprise1 bringing weakness to the strong and power to the weak4 ,germany has been humbled both by little ,belgium and by the little ,british army2 her prestige has dwindled so much that fighting mechanisms are regarded no longer as superior to fighting men4 ,in true discipline there is an art of humane pride1 and ,germany has crushed it out of her automatic battalions1 preferring an organised cruelty as insensitive as a railway accident1 and a system of lying that rivals ,munchausen's4 ,even her learned professors fill current history with explosive lies1 just as her seamen before the declaration of hostilities dropped mines in the ,north ,sea from trawlers that flew the ,british flag4 ,if victory could be won by vile misdeeds1 ,germany would be unconquerable4 ,never before has a powerful nation been so corrupted by forty years of unscrupulous vainglory4 ,her ambition is to ,europe what cancer is to a human body--a ravaging disease which may break out again after the best surgeons have finished their work4 ,already she has tried to postpone the operation by making overtures to stop the necessary bloodshed4 ,germany wants to give in before the ,british ,empire can put a million troops in the field1 because she knows not only that ,allies often quarrel during the negotiations that rearrange maps1 but that such quarrels occur most often when a great country has a little army in absolute antagonism with widespread interests of a vital sort4 ,and this1 moreover1 is not the only peril4 ,in the ,british ,isles many thousands of peace-fanatics bide their time2 some of them are active already as pro-,germans2 many others declare that they have no wish to humble the ,german people1 who now approve every act of a ,hunnish despotism elaborated by their ,government2 and when our ,british sentimentalists1 aided by several ,radical newspapers1 begin a campaign of shrieking claptrap1 a just resentment will be felt by ,france and ,russia4 ,so the warfare of diplomacy may be more dangerous to the ,allies than the warfare of stricken fields4 ,we must wait and see4 ,but the present position confirms another argument in this monograph3 namely1 that those who decline to see the perpetual strife that reigns in all human affairs1 and who babble in a routine of fixed ideas about the illusion called peace1 are quite as perilous to a country as were the creeds of bloodshed which many ,german writers advertised1 taking liberties with the ingenuous pacifism coddled by ,british ,governments4 ,let us delete from every dictionary the lying word peace2 and let us believe firmly in the simple truth that strife everywhere is the historian of life4 ,the strife in all its phases ought to be well trained and chivalric1 of course2 and it needs vast improvements in the campaigns of business warfare4 ,every slum1 for example1 is very much worse than the longest battle with firearms1 because it endures for ages2 and what chivalry in the wars of trade is as noble as that which grants to young men the privilege of defending the old age of their country from danger and dishonour8 ,,footnotes3 #acf ,it is worth noting1 as an example of ,british apathy in home defence1 that the railway from ,aldershot toward ,southampton is for many miles a single line only1 and that it passes over a good many gimcrack bridges and between some narrow and steep embankments1 as in the neighbourhood of ,medstead4 ,the line is an open trap2 it could be shut up in a dozen places by a few intelligent spies1 if spying did not generate an excessive caution as futile as cowardice4 #acg ,this bridge is #bej metres long1 and the five arches have equal spans of #dj metres4 ,perronet died in #agia1 at the age of eighty-three1 and we study his best work at ,mantes1 ,orlans1 ,nogent-sur-,seine1 ,pont-,saint-,maxence1 ,chteau-,thierry1 and ,neuilly-sur-,seine4 #ach ,his words run as follows3 8,i think that it may be prudent1 when designing bridges for rivers of great width1 to introduce some strong piers1 which in case of need may serve as abutments1 putting them at distances of three or four arches apart4 ,moreover1 this arrangement will enable us to construct long bridges in different parts successively1 and each part may be considered as a complete bridge1 having its own independent abutments2 but strict care should be taken not to contract the beds of rivers by using too many thick piers40 ,one of ,perronet's immediate predecessors1 the engineer ,gabriel1 built a bridge of this sort1 over the ,loire at ,blois4 ,he spaced his plan into eleven fine arches1 and erected two abutment piers1 placing them at four bays from each bankside1 and leaving three bays between them4 ,by this means his bridge was divided into three independent parts4 #aci ,examples3 ,see the index under the headings 8,trezzo10 8,ticino10 8,pavia10 and 8,ammanati's ,trinit at ,florence40 #adj ,see ,degrand's 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 ,tom4 #b1 p4 #bd1 note #c4 ,see also ,dalqui's translation of ,kircher's book1 published at ,amsterdam in #afgj4 ,there is a reference to iron in a bridge on p4 #bhh1 but ,degrand's information must be taken from the following passage3 8,l'on voit un pont dans la ,province de ,junnan1 qu'on a basti sur un torrent1 lequel roule ses flots impetueux dans le panchant d'une profonde valle4 ,c'est un commun sentiment qu'il ft basti en l'an #fe aprs la naissance de ,jesus ,christ par l'ordre de l',empereur ,mingus1 sorti de la famille ,hame2 il n'est pas fait de brique ny de pierre2 mais on a attach de grosses chaisnes chanes ces deux montagnes qui vont d'une extremit l'autre1 au-dessus desquelles on a mis des ais pour faciliter le passage des voyageurs4 ,ce pont1 qui a vingt chaisnes1 a #bj perches de long qui font #adj pieds3 l'on dit que quand beaucoup de personnes passent dessus1 ou qu'il y a quelque grand fardeau1 il branle si fort qu'il fait peur ceux qui y sont0 7p4 #bhi74 ,this description is vivid1 and ,m4 ,degrand regards the chains as chains of iron4 ,he says3 8,kircher mentionne l'existence 444 d'un pont compos de chanes de fer supportant1 en travers d'une valle profonde1 un tablier en charpente d'une grande longueur1 c'est--dire un vritable pont suspendu1 ayant prcd sans doute de plusieurs sicles les ponts du mme genre construits l'poque moderne en ,europe et aux tats-,unis40 #ada ,see ,index for other references to ,mr4 ,jackson4 #adb ,marco ,polo describes very well how the bamboo in ,china is twisted or plaited into cordage4 ,he says3 8,they have canes of the length of fifteen paces1 which they split1 in their whole length1 into very thin pieces1 and these1 by twisting them together1 they form into ropes three hundred paces long4 ,so skilfully are they manufactured1 that they are equal in strength to cordage made of hemp40 #adc ,i take this description from two photographs belonging to the ,church ,missionary ,society4 #add ,on the #dth of ,august this important bridge was guarded by ,territorials4 #ade ,not all bridges should be military1 of course1 since those near a frontier may have to be destroyed at a moment's notice in order to check the advance of a surprise attack4 ,illustration3 ,,rain ,,appendices ,,appendix ,i ,,chinese ,,gabled ,,bridges ,marco ,polo found them in several places1 particularly in ,hang-cheu1 the ancient capital of ,southern ,china4 ,this noble city has on one side the ,si-hu1 or western lake1 and on the other is the vast river ,tsien-tang-kiang1 which at high tide is nearly four miles in width4 ,its waters are distributed by canals through every quarter of ,hang-cheu1 so that many bridges are necessary4 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century1 when ,marco ,polo made visits to ,hang-cheu 7which he described as ,kin-sai1 or the 8celestial city071 bridges over the canals were so frequent that popular opinion1 glad to show off an ,oriental exaggeration1 declared their number to be twelve thousand1 though a census had not been taken4 8,those which are thrown over the principal canals10 says ,polo1 8and are connected with the main streets1 have arches so high1 and built with so much skill1 that vessels with their masts can pass under them1 whilst1 at the same time1 carts and horses are passing over their heads1--so well is the slope from the streets adapted to the height of the arch40 ,and another early traveller1 ,p4 ,le ,comte1 with graphic brevity1 writes as follows of the grand canal3 8,outre ces digues1 on a basti une infinit de ponts pour la communication des terres3 ils sont de trois1 de cinq1 et de sept arches2 celle du milieu est extraordinairement haute1 afin que les barques en passant ne soient pas obliges d'abaisser leurs masts0 78,nouv4 ,mm4 de la ,chine10 ,tom4 #a1 p4 #afa74 ,there is also a description written by ,barrow1 who visited ,hang-cheu before #ahcj1 and whose testimony confirms that of much earlier travellers4 ,barrow was impressed by 8a great variety of bridges0 that spanned most of the canals4 ,some had 8piers of such an extraordinary height1 that the largest vessels1 of two hundred tons1 sailed under them without striking their masts40 ,last of all1 in recent photographs the stone bridges of ,china are steep whenever they are built with arches1 so we can follow the ,chinese gabled bridge from our own time to the thirteenth century4 ,they came into use partly because they were convenient to shipping1 and partly because they could be erected from low embankments4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,steep ,,roman ,,bridges ,young pontists are always eager to know whether the ,romans built gabled bridges1 setting an example both to the ,east and to the ,west4 ,on this topic there is little evidence1 for most of the ,roman bridges were built of timber4 ,at ,rimini1 in the famous bridge of ,augustus1 there is an ascent at each end over the abutment1 and at ,alcantarilla1 near ,utrera1 in ,andalusia1 the ,roman bridge may be described as hog-backed4 ,it crosses the ,salado1 a tributary of the ,guadalquivir4 ,recently ,mr4 ,edgar ,wigram visited ,alcantarilla1 and he writes to me as follows3-- 8,the ,roman bridge there is most interesting1 almost untouched by restoration1 yet it remains serviceable4 ,it is a hog-backed structure of two arches1 each about thirty-five feet in span2 the width between the parapets may be fifteen feet1 but a swarm of bees happened to be merry on the bridge1 so ,i did not try to take accurate measurements4 ,the voussoirs and spandrils are of stone with hammer-dressed faces1 while the soffits are formed with wedge-shaped blocks of concrete1 and a certain amount of brick is found in the piers4 ,along the river on one side are remains of an embankment4 ,a tower stands at one end of the bridge1 placed centrally to it1 so the road has to make a double turn to pass4 ,one wall of the tower is destroyed1 but the other three are still about half their original height4 ,the lower courses are of big stone blocks1 while the upper part of the faces are filled in with #8tapia' concrete2 the angles 7or at least the two which still remain intact7 are grooved with a queer circular recess some twelve inches in diameter4 ,what purpose these grooves can have served ,i do not know4 ,they look as if they may have been intended to accommodate the hinge-posts of gates2 but a gate hung in them would hardly swing through ninety degrees4 ,if a second tower ever existed1 its foundations do not appear above ground-level4 ,at ,crdova there is only one tower1 and it stands in a very similar position4 ,by analogy1 then1 we may suppose that a second tower was not built at ,alcantarilla2 yet the grooved angles seem to require a corresponding tower with corresponding grooves1 if gates were ever swung from them4 ,perhaps the grooves formed pivots for some sort of defensive engine1 such as the #8iron hand' of ,archimedes1 which seems to have been some sort of great grappling crane4 ,the angles of a tower would be fit places to plant a weapon of this description2 but we need help from an expert in ancient military engineering40 ,,index ,,and ,,glossary ,,index ,,and ,,glossary ,,abbas ,,ii1 ,shah of ,persia1 #afda-ff2 the ,pul-i-,khaju at ,isfahan dates from his time1 #bae4 ,,abbot',s ,,bridge1 ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 its ecclesiastical workmanship and its double ring of voussoirs1 #cje footnote4 ,,aberystwyth1 ,south ,wales1 the ,devil's ,bridge at1 over the ,afon ,mynach1 its old legend1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh4 ,,abingdon ,,bridge1 ,ballad of1 by ,richard ,fannande ,iremonger1 dated #adeh1 its value to pontists1 #bjh1 #bea-b4 ,,abutment ,,piers1 these are so strong that they act as abutments1 and hence the loss of one arch does not overthrow another by withdrawing a counterbalancing thrust from one side of a pier4 ,perronet says3 8,the piers of bridges ought to be considered either as performing the duty of abutments1 or as relieved of this duty by the counteraction of the collateral arches1 through which the thrust is carried from abutment to abutment of the bridge4 ,in the first case1 piers should resist lateral pressure as capably as the abutments themselves1 that they may withstand the side thrust of the arch-stones which tends to overturn them1 and which increases by so much the more as the arches are flatter and the piers loftier4 ,in the second case1 the piers must have substance enough to carry the weight of the two half arches raised upon the two sides of each pier respectively10 together with those parts of the upper works that lie over each pier4 ,roman piers are abutments also1 as a rule1 their thickness ranging from a half to a third of the spaces between them2 the effect of this great bulk both on the current of rivers and on ,roman bridge-building is described on page #bhd4 ,a great many bridges of the ,middle ,ages had abutment piers1 but in many cases they were dams rather than bridges2 the piers occupied far too much space in the waterways and caused terrible floods like those that happened at ,lyons in the winter of #ahci-dj4 ,old ,london ,bridge was a perforated dam 7p4 #bbj72 and after her removal in #ahca-b1 an improvement was noted in the drainage1 and consequently in the healthiness1 of all the lower parts of ,london above bridge4 ,so abutment piers1 when they are either too thick or too numerous1 are social evils4 ,this fact was recognised by bridgemen at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 when some diminution took place in the relative proportion of the piers of bridges to the spans of arches2 and little by little a new routine came into vogue and displaced the abutment pier from all service4 ,here was another social evil1 for long arched bridges with no abutment piers were unmilitary1 and therefore at odds with the strategy of national defence4 ,not an arch could be cut without endangering its neighbouring arches4 ,gabriel and ,perronet1 after considering this fact1 wished abutment piers to be revived in a discreetly effective manner 7footnote p4 #cch71 but their excellent advice was not followed4 ,defenceless bridges became fashionable everywhere1 though they added innumerable anxieties to the perils of military war4 ,the ,valentr ,bridge at ,cahors should be studied as the best example of a medival battle-bridge1 but the abutment piers might have been improved1 #bhc-d4 ,to-day a new era in bridge-building is heralded by rapid improvements in airships and aeroplanes2 there should be a congress of architects and engineers to discuss the urgent questions of national defence that the piers and footways of bridges bring before our common sense1 #cce1 #ceh4 ,,abutments1 the end supports of a bridge4 ,,abydos1 one of the most ancient cities of ,upper ,egypt2 an early arch there in the temple of ,rameses ,,ii1 #aee4 ,,acarnania1 the most westerly province of ancient ,greece2 early examples of the semicircular arch1 #afj4 ,,accidents1 ,,the1 ,,of ,,civilization1 they claim as many lives in a century as do the casualties on stricken fields1 #cd footnote4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,old ,,london ,,bridge1 #bah4 ,,adam ,,of ,,evolution1 ,,the1 had sense enough probably to lay a flat stone from bank to bank of a deep rivulet1 #fj2 his personal appearance1 #aae-af2 his character1 #aaf1 #aag2 his attitude to tree-bridges1 #aaf2 and to several other bridges made by ,nature1 #aah-ai4 ,,addy1 ,,sidney ,o41 his book on 8,the ,evolution of the ,english ,house10 #aci footnote4 ,,adrian ,,iv1 ,pope1 sanctioned in #aaef the building of a chapel on the ,roman bridge over the ,vidourle at ,pont ,ambroise in ,france1 #hb4 ,,lius1 ,,pons1 built by ,hadrian in ,a4,d4 #ac1 #aid1 #cbd4 ,,aeroplanes1 in their relation to bridge-building and national defence1 vii1 viii1 #ei1 #cce1 #ceh4 ,,african ,,natives1 their tree-bridges and their want of initiative1 #abc1 #adh4 ,,afon ,,mynach1 the cataract in ,south ,wales1 #fg4 ,,agowe ,,district1 ,equatorial ,central ,africa1 a primitive suspension bridge partly made with very thick vines1 #adh4 ,,agrippa1 son-in-law of ,augustus ,csar1 the reputed founder of the ,pont du ,gard1 about #ai years ,b4,c41 #agd4 ,,airmen ,,scouts1 their relations to future wars1 #cce1 #ceh4 ,,airships1 their influence on bridge-building and on national defence1 vii1 viii1 #ei1 #cce1 #ceh4 ,,airvault1 ,,deux-,s,,vres1 ,le ,pont de ,vernay1 a famous bridge with ribbed arches1 ,french ,romanesque ,period1 ,twelfth ,century2 ,see the colour plate facing page #if2 and the remarks on ribbed arches1 #ic-ajj4 ,,alameri1 ,,halaf1 a famous bridge-builder in ,spain1 #bhf-g4 ,,albarracin1 in ,aragon1 its timber bridge with stone piers1 #bge4 ,,albi ,,bridge over the ,tarn1 famous in the history of pointed arches1 #hd1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib2 ,see also the illustrations facing pages #gb and #ib4 ,,albi1 ,railway ,bridge at1 see the colour plate facing page #h4 ,,alc,,ntara1 in ,spain1 and the ,puente ,trajan over the ,tagus2 a wonderful ,roman bridge1 #f1 #af1 #aec1 #ahc et seq41 #bab1 #cba4 ,,alc,,ntara at ,toledo1 a famous old war-bridge1 #bhe-g2 and see the two colour prints facing pages #cb and #bhd4 ,,alcantarilla1 in ,spain1 its most interesting ,roman war-bridge1 #cj1 #ahb1 and #cfg-h4 ,,aldeguela1 ,,jos ,,martin1 a great ,spanish bridge-builder of the #ahth century1 #bhj footnote4 ,,aldershot1 its vulnerable bridges on a single-line railway that runs toward ,southampton1 #ccf footnote4 ,,alexander ,,the ,,great1 his possible influence on bridge-building in ,india1 #bgb4 ,,alexandrine ,,aqueduct1 the decoration of its wall surfaces with coloured tufa arranged in geometrical patterns1 #aij4 ,,algeria1 ,pont ,sidi ,rached at ,constantine1 built between #aijh and #aiab1 #ec4 ,,ali ,,verdi ,,khan1 the ,bridge of1 at ,isfahan in ,persia1 over the ,zendeh ,rud1 #bab1 #bfh-gj4 ,,allbutt1 ,,sir ,,clifford1 on the immaturity of modern science1 #g4 ,,allen',s 8,history of the ,county of ,york10 #bdc footnote4 ,,alonso ,,of ,,spain1 in #abeh1 repaired the ,alcntara at ,toledo1 #bhg4 ,,altamira ,,cavern1 near ,santander1 its prehistoric art relics1 #fb4 ,,ambroise1 ,,pont1 over the ,vidourle1 a ,roman bridge1 now a ruin1 #hb1 #agg4 ,,america1 ,,south1 primitive bridges there1 as described by ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa1 #ace1 #adf-g4 ,,america1 ,,united ,,states ,,of1 their timber bridges1 #adb-c2 their defenceless modern bridges1 #ceb-d4 ,,ammanati1 ,,bartolomeo1 ,florentine architect of the #afth century1 his great bridge over the ,arno1 #bbb1 #caf-ag4 ,,amsterdam1 the ,hoogesluis at1 a strumpet of a bridge1 #cbc4 ,,angers1 a suspension bridge at1 how it gave way when soldiers were passing across it1 #add footnote4 ,,anchorage ,,of ,,chain ,,bridges1 at ,auhsien in ,china1 #cdf-g4 ,,ancus ,,marcius1 and the ,pons ,sublicius1 #fd1 #adj4 ,,angell1 ,,norman1 a firm believer in the illusion called peace1 #cea4 ,,angelo1 ,,ponte ,,sant'1 at ,rome1 anciently the ,pons lius1 #aid1 #cbd4 ,,anio ,,vetus1 ,roman ,aqueduct1 its great height1 #aij4 ,,antiquaries1 their aloofness from public interests1 #i1 #aa2 very often they mistake facts for truths1 #i-aa2 their pedantry and its results1 #aa2 their attitude to the ,clapper ,bridges over ,dartmoor rivers1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,,antiquary1 an old1 his bad advice to young pontists1 #h-aj4 ,,antonio ,,da ,,ponte1 in #aehh1 began to erect the ,rialto1 #bab4 ,,ants1 their intelligence1 #aaj2 they bore tunnels under water and make bridges over running streams1 #abb2 the fertility of their minute cerebral ganglia contrasted with the dullness of the average human brain1 #bci-dj4 ,,apathy1 ,,british1 in matters of national defence1 #ae1 #af1 #cc footnote1 #ccf footnote1 #cej1 #cea1 #cee1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,,apollodorus ,,of ,,damascus1 great ,roman bridge-builder1 #abi-cj1 #aca1 #cdd4 ,,appenzell1 ,canton of1 the birthplace of ,ulric and ,jean ,grubenmann1 #ada4 ,,aqueducts1 ,,roman1 the ,pont du ,gard1 #hc1 #afg-ge1 #cba2 at ,lyon1 #agf1 #bac2 at ,luynes and ,frjus1 #agf2 the ,marcian ,aqueduct1 #ahi footnote2 ,nero's ,aqueduct1 #ahi2 the ,alexandrine1 #aij2 ,anio ,vetus1 #aij2 at ,minturn1 #aij2 ,tarragona1 #ahi2 ,segvia1 #ahc-d1 #ahi1 #aij2 see also the illustration facing page #ahd2 ,smyrna1 #afe2 number of aqueducts at ,rome in the sixth century ,a4,d41 #ahi footnote2 ,sextus ,julius ,frontinus1 ,superintendent of the ,aqueducts at ,rome1 wrote1 in the first century of our ,era1 a treatise on ,roman aqueducts1 #ahi footnote4 ,,aquitaine1 ,,duke ,,of1 ,william the ,great1 his attitude to the collection of tolls on bridges1 #bdj4 ,,arabian ,,arches1 their shapes are of three sorts1 the horseshoe1 the semicircular1 and the pointed4 ,often they are enriched by a sort of feathering or foliation around the arch1 and this ornament is closely akin to ,gothic work1 which it preceded by a considerable time4 ,the ,arabian style1 known also as ,saracenic and ,moorish1 is a fanciful composition in which details from ,egypt and ,greece and ,rome are alembicated with 8the light fantastic lattice-work of the ,persians40 ,to-day we find its graceful influence in the greatest bridges at ,isfahan1 #bac1 and also in much ,spanish work1 #bh-i1 #bhe-f1 #bhh4 ,some writers believe that pointed arches were invented by the ,arabs1 yet they were built in ,egypt during the ,fourth ,dynasty1 #aee-f1 and also by the ,babylonians1 #bge footnote4 ,the ,saracenic pointed arch was a forerunner of the ,gothic pointed style1 and it became familiar to the ,crusaders1 #hf-ic2 but we must draw a wide distinction between the pointed arch and the pointed ,gothic style4 ,arabian architects did not achieve an upward flight and rhythm akin to the vertical principle of inspired ,gothic2 their buildings preserved the horizontal line which gave and gives character to classical traditions1 #aeb1 #aec1 #ccf4 ,if1 then1 the pointed arch in ,europe was borrowed from ,arabian architects1 as many antiquaries believe1 #hh1 it passed through a great transformation in technical sentiment1 and became an original inspiration4 ,,aragon1 #bge4 ,,arcades cut transversely through the piers of the ruined ,roman aqueduct at ,lyon1 #bac2 and also in the two greatest bridges at ,isfahan1 #bad1 #bae1 #bgj4 ,,arcades1 ,,covered1 in the best bridges at ,isfahan1 pierced through the outer walls from one end to the other1 #bad1 #bae1 #bfi4 ,,arc ,,de ,,st4 ,b,n,,zet1 in the ,bridge of ,avignon1 #ha2 its elliptical shape had a forerunner in the vault of ,chosroes' great hall at ,selucia-,ctesiphon1 which may have been derived from ,babylonian tradition1 #bge footnote2 there is even a ,roman starting-point for ,bnzet's arch1 #aif4 ,,arc ,,de ,,triomphe1 ,chinese1 #cae2 ,roman1 #agf-g1 #ahc4 ,,arch,,ology1 ,,prehistoric1 why it is tiresome to most people1 #aai-bj4 ,,archery1 ,,early ,,english1 the ,conscription of1 how its legal statutes were imperilled by trade 8rings10 #di2 some ,elizabethans wanted to see a revival of the archery statutes1 #ccc4 ,,arches made by ,nature1 the ,pont d',arc at ,ardche1 #f1 #hh1 #aej2 the ,rock ,bridge in ,virginia1 #f2 the ,durdle ,door at ,lulworth1 #aea2 ,la ,roche ,perce at ,biarritz1 #aea2 ,la ,roche ,troue1 near ,saint-,gilles ,croix-de-,vie1 #aea2 at ,icononzo1 in ,new ,grenada1 #aea2 ,lydstep ,arch on the coast of ,pembroke1 #aej footnote2 on the formation of natural arches1 #aea-b2 how these arches were copied by mankind1 #f1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg2 their significance1 #aeb-d4 ,,arches made by ,man1 those copied or adapted from ,nature's models1 #f1 #aec-g2 their significance1 #aeb-d2 the symbolism of arches1 #aed2 arches in art are more suggestive than circles1 #aed-e2 in some arches the vaults are built with parallel bands of stone1 ,roman examples1 #hb1 #hc1 #agd2 medival example1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc2 arches made with criss-cross piers of timber1 ,gaulish1 #gj1 #ga2 in ,kashmr1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc2 in ,north ,russia1 #gc2 cycloid arches1 in ,ammanati's bridge1 #bbb1 #caf-ag2 elliptical arches1 ,st4 ,bnzet's1 #ha2 in ,chosroes' great hall at ,selucia-,ctesiphon1 #bge footnote2 extra-dossed arches1 ,roman and medival1 #bhb-c2 pointed arches1 early ,egyptian1 #aee-f2 ,babylonian1 #bge footnote2 early ,european1 #hf-ic2 semicircular arches1 ,babylonian1 #bge footnote2 in ,asia ,minor1 #afj2 in ,acarnania1 #afj2 among the ,etruscans1 #afj2 in ,ancient ,rome1 #afa-d2 transverse arches cut through the piers of bridges1 #bac1 #bad1 #bgj4 ,,architects1 great need of their influence in to-day's bridge-building1 #ceg2 and also in the work of ,british highway boards1 #dc4 ,,architecture1 ,,arabian1 see 8,arabian ,arches40 ,,architecture ,,of ,,birds1 #aab2 the use of mud in the building of walls probably copied from birds1 #aaa4 ,,architecture1 ,,greek1 #aeb1 #aeg-i2 lovers of ,greek architecture are overapt to undervalue the ,roman genius1 #afg-h4 ,,architecture1 ,,roman1 see ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,archstones1 or voussoirs1 they form the compressed arc of materials called the ring2 in some bridges they are laid in two or three sets1 forming either a double or a triple ring1 #cje footnote4 ,the earliest archstones were arranged in horizontal courses1 #f2 as in the temple of ,rameses ,,ii at ,abydos1 #aee2 in the ,porta dell' ,arco at ,arpino1 #aef-g2 and the ,lion ,gate at ,mycenae2 but at ,gizeh1 in the great pyramid of ,menkaura1 there is a variation from this horizontal method1 #aef2 ,some ,chinese bridges have arches built without keystones1 #cac-ad2 the rings being constructed with a few segmental stones from five to ten feet long1 #cad2 ,the ,romans extradosed their archstones1 as in their bridge at ,narni1 #bd2 and this excellent practice was followed often in the ,middle ,ages1 #bhb-c2 ,the ,romans1 again1 more often than not1 bedded their archstones dry1 without mortar or cement1 as in most of the arches in the ,pont du ,gard1 #age footnote2 but feebler masons have failed to copy with success this ,roman method1 notably in the restoration of the vast ,roman aqueduct at ,segvia1 #ahd2 and recently ,spanish workmen1 after rebuilding an arch of the ,puente ,trajan at ,alcntara1 pointed the joints of the whole bridge in order to bring the masterpiece into keeping with their own weakness1 #ahf-g4 ,in a few ,english bridges the archstones are moulded like church windows and doorways2 examples1 ,crowland1 #cjd-e2 and the ,abbot's ,bridge at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 #cje footnote4 ,,ardashir1 of ,persian history1 #bjb4 ,,ard,,che1 in ,france1 the ,pont d',arc at1 a natural arched bridge1 #f1 #hi4 ,,arguments1 concerning the origin of ,dartmoor ,clapper ,bridges1 #ajj-e2 concerning the introduction of pointed arches into ,french bridges1 #hd-ic2 concerning the introduction of ribbed arches into ,english bridges1 #ic-ajj2 to excuse the evolution from military bridges into defenceless bridges1 #ccd2 to prove that every sort of strife is a phase of war1 vii1 and section ii1 ,chapter ,i1 pp4 #ad-eb4 ,,armada ,,period1 ,,the1 ,spanish cannon belonging to it used in the ,peninsular ,war1 #ccd4 ,,arpino1 in ,campania1 its ,porta dell' ,arco1 an ancient gate with a pointed arch belonging to the so-called ,cyclopean style1 #aef-g4 ,,arquebuse1 and the slow development of hand-guns1 #ccc4 ,,art ,,criticism1 ,,english1 its defects1 #afh4 ,,artificial ,,light ,,and ,,heat1 the first missionaries1 #eh4 ,,artists1 we need their help in bridge-building1 #ceg-h4 ,,ascoli-,,piceno1 and her bridges1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,,ashford ,,bridge1 ,derbyshire1 the stump of its medival cross destroyed by parapet repairs1 #bcj4 ,,asia ,,minor1 early semicircular arches have been discovered there1 #afj4 ,,askeaton ,,bridge1 its military character illustrated in the 8,pacata ,hibernia10 #bfj4 ,,atreus1 ,,the ,,treasury ,,of1 at ,mycenae1 its domed and circular chamber1 #aeh-i4 ,,augustus1 ,,bridge ,,of1 at ,rimini1 #hb1 #aii1 #bbj4 ,,augustus ,c,,sar1 the bridge at ,narni belongs to his time1 #bc4 ,,auhsien1 in ,western ,china1 an iron swing bridge is found there1 #cde-f4 ,,aurelius1 ,,pons1 another name for the ,janiculine bridge in ancient ,rome1 #aig4 ,,aviation1 see 8,airships0 and 8,aeroplanes40 ,,avignon1 her famous bridge built by ,st4 ,bnzet4 ,see 8,bnzet40 ,,babylon1 some of her ancient bridges1 #abg2 the great bridge built by ,semiramis1 #bgc-d2 ,babylonian arches1 semicircular1 pointed1 and even elliptical1 #bge footnote4 ,,babylonian ,,bridges ,,and ,,arches1 #abg1 #bgc-d1 #bge4 ,,bad ,,decoration ,,in ,,bridges1 #cbj-h2 ,m4 ,de ,dartein1 his books and views1 #cai-bj2 see also under 8,engineers1 ,modern40 ,,bakewell ,,bridge1 its ribbed arches1 #id4 ,b,,le1 the old bridge at1 over the ,rhine1 #cjf-g4 ,,ballad ,,of ,,abingdon ,,bridge1 its value to pontists1 #bjh1 #bea-b4 ,,banbery1 a superintendent of the workmen when ,abingdon ,bridge was built by charity1 #beb4 ,,bamboo ,,bridges in ,western ,china1 #cdh2 and in ,sumatra1 #bia4 ,,bamboo ,,rope1 how it has long been made in ,china1 #cdh footnote4 ,,band-,i-,,mizan1 ,,the1 a famous ,dike at ,shushter in ,persia1 #bjb1 #bjd4 ,,bandits1 in medival ,england1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,,baracconi1 quoting from ,sextus ,pompeius ,festus1 proves that in very early times human victims were thrown into the ,tiber1 #fd4 ,,baramula1 in ,kashmr1 its fine bridge with criss-cross piers1 #gc4 ,,barber1 ,,geoffrey1 contributed a thousand marks to the building of ,abingdon ,bridge1 #beb4 ,,barden ,,bridge1 in ,wharfedale1 its angular pier-shelters for foot-passengers1 #beh footnote4 ,,baring-,,gould1 ,s41 on the ,devil's ,bridge1 twelve miles from ,aberystwyth1 #ff-i2 on sacrifices anciently offered to the ,spirits of ,evil1 #fh2 on ,dartmoor bridges1 #ajc2 mentions some of the arched entrances to caves on the coast of ,pembroke1 #aej footnote4 ,,barking1 ,,abbess ,,of1 the trustee of ,queen ,mathilda's endowment of ,old ,bow ,bridge1 twelfth century1 #ih4 ,,barnard ,,castle ,,bridge1 a chapel used to grace it1 #bca2 see also the colour plate facing page #bcb4 ,,barons1 ,,lawless1 in ,medival ,england1 #bjg footnote4 ,,barrow1 ,english traveller in ,china1 his remarks on some ,chinese arches1 #cac-ad2 and on the bridges of ,hang-,cheu1 #cfe-f4 ,,barrows1 ,,long1 ,prehistoric1 #aci4 ,,barry1 ,e4 ,m41 ,r4,a41 protested energetically against the bad taste shown by modern engineers in bridge-building1 #gg-h4 ,,barthelasse ,,island1 and the ,bridge of ,avignon1 #bcg4 ,,bartolommeo1 ,,ponte ,s41 another name for the ,pons ,cestius1 according to ,palladio1 #aif4 ,,baslow ,,bridge1 its ribbed arches1 #ic2 and its shelter-places for passengers1 #beh footnote4 ,,bath1 ,william ,pulteney's ,bridge at1 #bba4 ,,battle ,,bridges1 see 8,war-,bridges40 ,,battle1 ,,law ,,of1 vii1 #d2 its relation to roads and bridges1 see sections i and ii of ,chapter ,i2 permanent among the lower animals1 #ag1 #ah2 perhaps it may become less troublesome among men1 #ah1 #ai2 its action in the rise and fall of civilizations1 #bb1 #bc2 its rule in civil life is inferior to ,nature's beautiful order in her cellular commonwealths1 #ai1 #be1 #dj-c2 yet sentimentalists believe in the illusion called peace and do infinite harm by their canting hostility to national defence1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cea1 #cfj-a2 see also the last chapter on the evolution of unfortified bridges4 ,,baudouin1 the ,elector1 in #acdd1 built the ,moselle ,bridge at ,coblentz1 #bfj4 ,,bavaria1 bridge over the ,main at ,wrzburg1 #bei-fj4 ,,beaucaire1 ,,pont ,,de1 a great suspension bridge1 #cdd-e4 ,,beavers1 their great intelligence1 #aaj2 much human work in bridge-building has shown less intelligence than that which we find in the beaver's contests against running water1 #aca4 ,,becker1 his views on the bridges in ancient ,rome1 #aic4 ,,becket1 ,,st4 ,,thomas 1 the ,gothic chapel on ,old ,london ,bridge was dedicated to him1 #baf4 ,,beddoes1 ,,mr4 ,,thomas1 traveller and trader in ,equatorial ,central ,africa1 his remarks on tree-bridges made by the natives1 #abc2 and on other primitive bridges1 #adh-i4 ,,bedford ,,bridge1 her old chapel1 now destroyed1 #bca4 ,,beehive ,,tombs at ,mycenae1 #aeh-i4 ,,bees1 their intelligence1 #aaj4 ,,beffara1 a ,french architect1 in #ageb builds a very remarkable bridge near ,ardres1 in the ,pas-de-,calais1 #cje-f4 ,,belgium1 the ,jeanne d',arc of nations1 #cd footnote2 her old bastille bridges1 #bhi-ia4 ,,belle ,,croix1 ,,the1 formerly on the old bridge at ,orlans1 #bdf-g4 ,,benedict ,,xiii1 expelled from ,avignon1 #bci4 ,b,n,,zet1 ,,saint1 his bridge at ,avignon4 ,frontispiece1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #bcf-i2 parallel bands of stone in the vaults of the arches1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc2 perhaps ,bnzet had some correspondence with ,peter ,colechurch1 who began ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bag2 the line of his bridge made an elbow pointing upstream1 #bcg1 #big2 in a bird's-eye view the design looks like a bridge of boats1 #bfb1 #big2 ,bnzet died before his work was finished1 and was buried in the chapel on his bridge1 #bcf2 see also the footnote on #bhj4 ,b,,ranger1 ,,charles1 ,french publisher1 his excellent books on bridges1 #cah-ai4 ,,bermudez1 ,,cean1 quoted by ,george ,edmund ,street1 #bhf4 ,,bernini1 ,,giovanni ,l4 7#aeih-afhj71 his sculpture for the ,ponte ,sant' ,angelo in ,rome1 #aie2 this sculpture is a burden to the bridge rather than a beauty to it1 #cbd4 ,,berwick-,,on-,,tweed1 its medival bridge fell many times1 #di4 ,,besillis1 ,,sir ,,peris1 helps to build the bridge at ,abingdon1 #beb4 ,b,,ziers1 its twelfth-century bridge1 #ib4 ,,bhutan1 ,india1 its primitive timber bridges with defensive gateways1 #gc1 #bgb-c4 ,,bideford ,,bridge1 formerly it was graced with a chapel1 #bca2 its twenty arches were built in the #adth century with help from indulgences sanctioned by ,grandison1 ,bishop of ,exeter1 #cje footnote4 ,,bishop',s ,,bridge1 ,norwich1 has a double arch ring1 #cje4 ,,blasphemers were ducked in the ,tarn from the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 #bef4 ,,bludget1 an ,american engineer1 takes hints from the brothers ,grubenmann1 #adb4 ,,board ,,of ,,trade1 ,london1 its report on the ,tay ,bridge ,disaster1 #cdj4 ,,boats ought to be added to the remarks on page #eh1 or to the first section of the second chapter 7pp4 #aji-ab71 for primitive man got his first boats from ,nature4 ,the earliest were floating branches and trees on which men sat astride1 drifting with the current of rivers2 the later were trees hollowed out by decay1 which became models for dug-outs4 8,between the primitive dug-out and a modern man-of-war there is1 apparently1 an impassable gulf2 but yet the two are connected by an unbroken chain of successive improvements all registering greater efficiency in mechanical skill4 ,each of those intermediate increments constitutes a numbered milestone in the history and development of navigation40--,dr4 ,robert ,munro4 ,,boats1 ,,bridge ,,of1 at ,cologne1 #a4 ,it will be remembered that ,julius ,csar frequently made use of boat-bridges1 and that ,xerxes1 four hundred and eighty years before the ,birth of ,christ1 made a bridge of boats across the narrowest part of the ,hellespont1 between the ancient cities of ,sestus and ,abydus4 ,so the boat-bridge at ,cologne1 like the wooden pontoon1 has an old and fascinating lineage1 yet a modern bridge was going to displace it when the present ,great ,war began4 8,kultur0 cancels history4 ,,boffiy1 ,,guillermo1 architect of the immense nave in ,gerona ,cathedral1 #bh4 ,,boisseron1 on the little river ,bnovie1 its disfigured ,roman bridge1 #agi4 ,,bokyns1 ,,john1 in #adhc1 bequeathed three and fourpence to a chapel to be built on ,rotherham ,bridge1 #bcc4 ,,books ,,on ,,bridges1 #cah1 #cai1 #cbj2 ,william ,hosking1 #cag2 ,emiland ,gauthey's 8,trait de la ,construction des ,ponts10 #abg2 ,colonel ,emy's 8,trait de l',art de la ,charpenterie10 #adc footnote2 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin's 8,bridges10 see 8,jenkin02 ,e4 ,degrand's 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 #hh4 ,,booths ,,or ,,shops on ,chinese bridges1 #baj footnote2 on ,european bridges1 #baj4 ,,bordeaux1 ,,pont ,,de1 its length and its cost1 #cef4 ,,boughs1 ,,forked1 in primitive bridge-building1 #ace1 #adh4 ,,bower ,,birds1 ,australian1 their architecture is a model to all primitive men1 #aab4 ,,brackets1 below the parapet of the ,pont ,neuf at ,paris1 #cba4 ,brackets are ornamental projections from the face of a wall1 to support statues and other objects4 ,some are adorned only with mouldings1 while many are carved into angels1 or foliage1 or heads1 or animals4 ,parker says3 8,it is not always easy to distinguish a bracket from a corbel2 in some cases1 indeed1 one name is as correct as the other40 ,see ,brangwyn's drawing of the ,pont ,neuf facing page #cbj4 ,,bradford-,,on-,,avon1 ,wiltshire1 the bridge there has a tiny oratory1 #bca-b1 which was profaned after the ,reformation1 becoming a 8lock-up10 and then a powder magazine1 #bcb4 ,the bridge has nine arches2 the two pointed ones uniting the oratory to the bankside have ribbed vaults1 and the others are round-headed arches with double rings of voussoirs1 #cje footnote4 ,originally the bridge was a narrow one for packhorses1 but it was widened in #afde1 or thereabouts4 ,a hospital used to stand at one end of the bridge1 and doles of charity for it may have been collected in the little place of prayer4 ,leland admired this bridge1 and noted its nine fair arches of stone1 and a fair large parish church standing beneath the bridge on ,avon ripe4 ,,brain1 ,,the ,,human1 its large size and its infrequent greatness1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #bci-dj2 see also the second chapter4 ,,branch ,,railway ,,lines over strategic rivers1 they are necessary in national defence now that bridges may be damaged seriously with bombs falling from airships and aeroplanes1 #cee-f4 ,,brandryth ,,or ,,brandereth1 a medival name for a cofferdam1 #bec1 and footnote4 ,,brangwyn1 ,,frank1 vi1 #f1 #ae1 #bc1 #bi1 #cd1 #gh1 #gi1 #ib1 #afj1 #afb1 #agi1 #aid1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bab1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bcf1 #bdg1 #bed1 #beh1 #bgb1 #bgi1 #bia1 #bii1 #cjg1 #cca2 see also the ,lists of ,illustrations4 ,,brecon1 its bridge has safety recesses built into the piers from the parapet1 #beh footnote4 ,,brick ,,aqueducts1 ,roman1 #ahi-ij4 ,,brick ,,bridges1 ,persian1 #bfe-f1 #bgj2 ,european1 the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 fourteenth century1 #bee2 and the covered bridge over the ,ticino at ,pavia1 #cjh4 ,,bridge-,,building1 ,roman1 #bf-cj2 see also ,chapter ,,iii2 medival1 #bf-cj1 #cc-f1 #he-ajf1 #bfd2 see also 8,ballad of ,abingdon ,bridge02 ,chinese1 see 8,marco ,polo02 ,persian1 see 8,kredj10 8,khaju10 and 8,ali ,verdi ,khan02 ,primitive1 see 8,america1 ,south10 8,beddoes10 8,bhutan10 8,criss-,cross ,piers10 8,kashmr10 8,kurdistan10 and ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,bridge ,,built ,,with ,,arches1 its anatomy4 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin says3 8,an arch may be of stone1 brick1 wood1 or metal4 ,the oldest arches are of stone or brick4 ,they differ from metal and from wooden arches1 inasmuch as the compressed arc of materials called the ring is built of a number of separate pieces having little or no cohesion4 ,each separate stone used in building the ring has received the name of voussoir1 or archstone4 ,the lower surface of the ring is called the soffit of the arch4 ,the joints1 or bed-joints1 are the surfaces separating the voussoirs1 and are normal to the soffit4 ,a brick arch is usually built in numerous rings1 so that it cannot be conceived as built of voussoirs with plane joints passing straight through the ring4 ,the bed-joints of a brick arch may be considered as stepped and interlocked4 ,this interlocking will affect the stability of the arch only in those cases where one voussoir tends to slip along its neighbour4 ,the ring springs from a course of stones in the abutments1 called quoins4 ,the plane of demarcation between the ring and the abutment is called the springing of the arch4 ,the crown of an arch is the summit of the ring4 ,the voussoirs at the crown are called keystones4 ,the haunches of an arch are the parts midway between the springing and the crown4 ,the upper surface of the ring is sometimes improperly called the extrados1 and the lower surface is more properly called the intrados4 ,these terms1 when properly employed1 have reference to a mathematical theory of the arch little used by engineers4 ,the walls which rest upon the ring along the arch1 and rise either to the parapet or to the roadway1 are called spandrils4 ,there are necessarily two outer spandrils forming the faces of a bridge2 there may be one or more inner spandrils4 ,the backing of an arch is the masonry above the haunches of the ring2 it is carried back between the spandrils to the pier or to the abutment4 ,if the backing is not carried up to the roadway1 as is seldom the case1 the rough material employed between the backing and the roadway is called the filling4 ,the parapet rests on the outer spandrils40 ,,bridge ,,chapels ,,and ,,oratories1 #hb1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baf-ag1 #bah-ai1 #bbe-ci1 #bda-f1 #bef4 ,,bridge ,,crosses ,,and ,,crucifixes1 #if1 #bcj1 #bdf-g4 ,,bridge ,,decoration1 #aic-d1 #aie-f1 #bja1 #bae1 #bbg1 #bhf1 #cjd1 #cje1 #caa1 #cab1 #caf1 #cah-bh4 ,,bridge ,,friars1 or ,pontist ,brothers1 the ,frres ,pontifes1 #ic1 #bcf1 #bif1 and footnote4 ,,bridgenorth1 formerly the bridge there had a chapel1 #bca2 it has shelter-places for foot-passengers1 #beh footnote4 ,,bridges ,,with ,,wide ,,arched ,,spans1 #cji-aj4 ,,bridge-,,wreckers1 #ceb1 #cee4 ,it is worth noting that the ,king of the ,belgians in the present ,great ,war has used a cyclist corps of bridge-wreckers1 whose work is described in the ,daily ,mail1 ,december #ad1 #aiad1 page #d4 8,the cyclists led the way4 ,the explosives followed in a car4 ,the charge was fixed to the girders under the bridges1 an electric wire affixed1 you touched a button and the near span of the bridge was in a moment no more than a gap4 ,their greatest achievement 444 was a railway bridge between ,courtrai and ,audenarde4 ,it needed two charges40 ,the cyclists regarded their work as 8fun10 because no bridge was at all difficult to destroy4 ,,brig ,,of ,,ayr1 #id4 ,,brig ,o' ,,doon1 #de1 #id4 ,,bristol ,,bridge1 ,,old1 a copy of ,old ,london ,bridge1 had a chapel1 #bca4 ,,britannia ,,bridge over the ,menai ,straits1 its great defects1 #gg-h2 its length and its cost1 #ceg4 ,,british ,,and ,,french ,,bridges contrasted1 #bef-h1 #bha1 #bid-e2 the ,french genius in architecture often superior to the ,british1 #bid-e4 ,,british ,,apathy1 see 8,apathy1 ,british40 ,,brives-,,charensac1 on the ,loire1 its ruined ,roman bridge1 #agi1 #ahj2 the arch has a double ring of voussoirs1 #cje footnote4 ,,bronze ,,period1 ,,men ,,of ,,the1 #ba2 approximate date of this period1 #ba2 pastoral life of the ,bronze ,age on ,dartmoor1 #ajj1 #aja2 this life rendered bridges necessary1 #aja1 #ajc4 ,,brooklyn ,,bridge1 at ,new ,york1 described and criticised1 #ced4 8,,brown ,,bess10 the ,old ,musket1 displaced for a better weapon in #aheg1 #ccd4 ,,buchan1 ,,dr4 ,,william1 one of ,lister's little-known forerunners1 #eh footnote4 ,,buckler1 ,j4 ,c4 ,,and ,c41 their 8,remarks on ,wayside ,chapels10 #bbh footnote4 ,,budapest1 the chains of its great suspension bridge pass through the towers instead of over the summits1 #cdf4 ,,bujuco ,,bridges in ,south ,america1 described by the ,spanish ,admiral ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa1 #adf1 #adg4 ,,bulleid1 ,a41 a writer on the ,glastonbury ,lake ,village1 #aci footnote4 ,,bunsen1 on the bridges of ancient ,rome1 #aic1 #aig4 ,,burdon1 ,,rowland1 in #agif1 designed ,wearmouth ,bridge1 #cdi4 ,,burnsall ,,bridge in ,wharfedale1 its shelter-places for foot-passengers1 #beh footnote4 ,,bush-,,rope1 in ,equatorial ,central ,africa1 its use in bridge-building1 #abc4 ,,cable ,,bridges ,,of ,,bamboo in ,china1 #ade2 of ox-hide thongs in ,peru1 #adf2 and also in the ,andes1 #adg4 ,c,,sar ,,and ,,the ,,british ,,tribes1 #bb2 he speaks of the ,gaulish bridges1 #gj1 #ga4 ,,cahors1 ,,the ,,pont ,,valentr ,,at1 a fortified bridge of the thirteenth century1 #bg1 #ib1 #bfc-d1 #bhb-e2 ,see also the illustrations facing pages #af and #bfd2 ,there was another great old bridge at ,cahors1 but it perished in a storm of local party politics1 #dd4 ,,caille1 ,,pont ,,de ,,la1 famous modern suspension bridge1 #cdd4 ,,calahorra1 the big tower guarding an entrance to the bridge at ,crdova1 #ahh4 ,,canada1 devoted to very vulnerable bridges1 #ced4 ,,canal ,,bridge in ,venice1 #cbi4 ,,canals1 their construction has been a phase of war claiming a great many lives1 #ag1 and footnote4 ,,cane ,,vines used in ,africa in the making of bush-rope1 #abc4 ,c,,ngas ,,de ,,onis1 the gabled bridge at1 #bg4 ,,canina1 his attempt to reconstruct the ,pons ,sublicius differs from ,colonel ,emy's1 #adj4 ,,cannon1 the slow improvement in their manufacture1 #ccc4 ,,cannon ,,street ,,railway ,,bridge1 the colour plate facing p4 #dh4 ,,canoes1 they often take the place of bridges in ,africa1 #abc4 ,,canterbury1 ,,the ,,archbishop ,,of1 in #acah1 owned the land adjoining ,old ,shoreham ,bridge1 #da2 ,his name was ,walter ,reynolds4 ,,capac ,,yupanqui1 the fifth ,ynca1 and his bridge of rushes1 #adf-g4 ,,cappucina1 ,,ponte ,,di ,,porta1 a ,roman bridge at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bja4 ,,caracalla1 #abi4 ,,carcassonne1 ,,old ,,bridge ,,at1 dating from the #abth century1 #ib2 see also the plate facing page #ajd4 ,,carmagnola destroyed the great old bridge spanning the ,adda at ,trezzo1 #cji4 ,,cartaro1 ,,ponte1 a medival bridge at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bja4 ,,castro ,,gonzalo1 ,,the ,,old ,,bridge ,,of1 blown up by ,moore's rearguard1 #ccd-e4 ,,catherine1 ,,st41 the chapel on the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban was dedicated to her1 #bef4 ,,catterick ,,bridge had a chapel1 #bca2 the ,contract ,deed for the building of this bridge1 #bec4 ,,cave-,,dwellings1 the earliest were stolen from cave-lions and cave-bears1 #aaa4 ,,caves1 with arched entrances1 #aej footnote4 ,,cells1 ,,communities ,,of1 in the human body2 the beautiful harmony of their competitive life1 how it differs from the social rule in the civilizations bungled by mankind1 #ah1 #ai1 #be4 ,,centres ,,or ,,centring1 the curved scaffolding upon which arches are built4 ,the voussoirs rest on the centres while the ring is in process of being constructed4 ,when the centres are not rigid enough1 arches sink a good deal while the masons are at work and after the scaffolding is carefully struck4 ,in ,perronet's bridge at ,neuilly-sur-,seine1 for example1 the sinking amounted to twenty-three inches1 #cch2 thirteen inches while the centre was in its place1 and ten inches after the centre was removed4 ,on the other hand1 when the centres of ,waterloo ,bridge were taken down1 no arch sank more than #a inches4 ,there is reason to believe that modern centres are more complicated than were the medival4 ,see page #bfd and page #bhf4 ,,cerceau1 ,,du1 ,,androuet1 ,french architect and builder of the fortified bridge at ,chtellerault1 #cca-d2 see also the colour plate facing page #ccb4 ,,cestius1 ,,pons1 at ,rome1 #aif-g4 ,,ch,,lon-,,sur-,,sa,,ne1 the quaint citizenship of its medival bridge1 #bbd4 ,,chamas1 ,,saint1 in ,france1 and its famous ,roman bridge1 #agf-g4 ,,chambers ,,or ,,rooms built in bridges1 ,paris examples1 #bbe2 a ,persian example1 #bfg-h4 ,,chapel ,,of ,,st4 ,,catherine on the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 #bef4 ,,chapel ,,of ,,st4 ,,nicholas on the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet at ,avignon1 #bcg4 ,,chapel ,,of ,,st4 ,,thomas ,,becket on ,old ,london ,bridge1 #baf-ag4 ,,chapels ,,on ,,bridges1 #hb1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baf-ag1 #bah-ai1 #bbe-ci1 #bda-f1 #bef4 ,,character1 ,,the ,,drama ,,of1 among the progenitors of ,man1 #aae-ai4 ,,character ,,of ,a ,,great ,,bridge1 its principal traits1 #ae-af1 #bef-g1 #cbj-h4 ,,charing ,,cross1 ,,the ,,railway ,,viaduct ,,from1 disgraces the ,thames1 #bef4 ,,charity1 a ,builder of ,bridges in the ,middle ,ages1 #bea-b4 ,,charlemagne1 his friendly attitude to roads and bridges1 #bf1 #hf-g4 ,,charles ,,the ,,fifth1 ,emperor1 in #aeba1 armed his troops with the musket1 #ccc4 ,,charles ,,the ,,second1 routed at ,worcester1 fled by ,old ,pershore ,bridge into the ,bredon ,hills1 #cee4 ,,ch,,teau-,,thierry1 ,,bridge ,,at1 built by ,perronet1 #cch footnote4 ,,ch,,tellerault1 ,,pont ,,henri ,,iv ,,at1 built by ,androuet du ,cerceau1 perhaps the latest fortified bridge in ,europe1 #cca-b2 see also the colour plate facing page #ccb4 ,,chatsworth1 ,a ,,fine ,,bridge ,,at1 is troubled by pretence in decoration1 #cbb4 ,,chaucer1 and ,old ,bow ,bridge1 #ih1 #ii4 ,,cheese ,,and ,,chickens1 eaten by medival workmen who allowed their bridge at ,abingdon to be built by charity1 #beb footnote4 ,,chenonceaux1 ,,the ,,noble ,,castle ,,of1 erected on bridges1 #cjj4 ,,chester1 the ,old ,dee ,bridge1 #beh footnote1 and #cje footnote4 ,,china1 ,,staircase ,,bridge ,,in1 #bdh4 ,,chinese ,,bridges1 #abf1 #ade1 #baj1 #baa1 #bdg-i1 #bia1 #caj-af1 #cdd-h4 ,,chipiez1 his fine restoration of the doorway into the ,treasury of ,atreus1 #aeh4 ,,cho-,,gan1 ,,the ,,bridge ,,of1 in ,china1 #cac4 ,,chollerford1 near ,hexham1 its ruins of a ,roman bridge1 #agc4 ,,church1 ,,medi,,val1 protected bridges1 #dj1 #ea1 #if1 #bjg2 see also 8,bridge ,chapels and ,oratories10 8,bridge ,crosses and ,crucifixes10 and 8,indulgences40 ,,church1 ,,medi,,val1 what ,england owed to her1 #bcc4 ,,circles ,,and ,,curves ,,and ,,angles1 their varied symbolism1 #aec-e4 ,,cistercians1 they introduced ribbed vaulting into the ,english churches1 #id-e2 so why not into bridges also as a development therefrom8 #if2 ,their bridges at ,fountains ,abbey1 #if4 ,,citizenship1 ,,english1 in the ,middle ,ages1 was often slack and dishonest1 #di-ea2 the citizenship of medival bridges1 which were connected in a self-evident manner with all the principal motive-powers of social life1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj et seq4 ,,civilizations1 their rival ideals tested and proved on stricken fields1 vii2 the five phases of their evolution1 #bb-c2 their social rule has differed deplorably from ,nature's social order in her communities of living competitive cells1 #ah1 #ai1 #be4 ,,clain1 ,,river1 ,,and ,,its ,,bridge1 see the illustration facing page #ef4 ,,clamps1 ,,iron1 said to have been used in the bridge at ,babylon1 #bgd2 in ,roman bridges1 #agb-c2 ,perronet used them sometimes1 #bhc4 ,,clapper ,,bridges1 ,,dartmoor1 #ajj-d2 rather similar bridges in ,lancashire1 #fj-d2 in ,spain at ,fuentes de ,ooro1 #ajd-e2 in ancient ,egypt1 #abf1 and ,babylon1 #abg2 and in ,china1 #abf-g4 ,,claptrap1 the drum of controversy1 #hi2 ,british claptrap and its dangers1 #cc et seq41 #cfj4 ,,classic ,,and ,,gothic1 their rivalry1 #ccf-g4 ,,clifton ,,suspension ,,bridge1 #cdf4 ,,cluny1 ,,abbey ,,of1 commissioned the ,pontist ,brothers to build the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit1 #big4 ,,coalbrookdale ,,bridge1 the earliest ,european bridge of cast iron1 #cdh-i4 ,,cobham1 ,,sir ,,john1 in #achg1 helped to build ,rochester ,bridge1 #bdd4 ,,coblentz1 the ,moselle ,bridge1 dating from #acdd1 #bfj4 ,,cocles1 ,,horatius1 and the ,pons ,sublicius1 #fd1 #cee4 ,,cofferdams1 #bea1 #bec2 their structure described1 #bec footnote4 ,,colechurch1 ,,peter1 priest and chaplain1 the first architect of ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bag1 #bhj footnote4 ,,colne1 near1 a ,roman bridge1 #afb4 ,,cologne1 ,,bridge ,,of ,,boats ,,at1 #a2 an absurd railway bridge there1 #cbc4 ,,comyn1 ,,john1 his fight on the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york1 #bda4 ,,conservatism1 when carried to excess1 turns most people into other people1 see section iii1 ,chapter ,i1 #ec-hd4 ,,constantine1 ,algeria1 ,pont ,sidi ,rached at1 #ec4 ,,constantine ,,the ,,great1 the ,pons ,sublicius was still extant in his time1 #adj4 ,,constantino1 ,,the ,,roman ,,bridge ,,of1 in ,spain1 #bhe footnote1 #cce4 ,,constantinople1 a bridge there in the fourth century ,a4,d4 was named after the ,pons ,sublicius1 #adj4 ,,consuls1 ,,pont ,,des1 ,,at ,,montauban1 #bed-g2 and the illustration facing page #bef4 ,,controversies1 section iv1 ,chapter ,i1 #he-ajf4 ,,conventions among men are often inferior to the instincts of animals1 #gf2 ,acts of ,parliament might force them to progress1 #gf-g2 see also section iii1 ,chapter ,i1 #ec-hd4 ,,conway ,,castle1 and its bad ,suspension ,bridge1 #cbc4 ,,cooke1 ,,john1 in #acgi1 bequeathed twenty marks to the fortified bridge at ,warkworth1 #aj4 ,c,,rdova1 its famous bridge1 #ahh1 and the illustration4 ,,corsica1 a very curious military bridge1 #bch4 ,,courtrai1 ,,the ,,pont ,,de ,,broel ,,at1 a fortified bridge1 #bij1 and footnote4 ,,covered ,,bridges1 #aie1 #baa1 #bia-b1 #cjh1 #ceh4 ,,cox1 ,,the ,,rev4 ,,dr41 #bcb4 ,,craigellachie1 ,,telford',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #cdi4 ,,crawford1 ,,francis ,m41 #fd4 ,,creeping ,,plants used in the ,making of ,primitive ,bridges1 #abc4 ,,creeping ,,progress ,,of ,,mankind1 #aaj2 see also section iii1 ,chapter ,i1 #ec-hd4 ,,criss-,,cross ,,piers1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ace4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,art1 ,,english1 its pretty defects1 #afg-h4 ,,croc1 ,,the ,,rook1 ,king of the ,alemans1 may have regarded the ,pont du ,gard as a work of the devil1 #agj4 ,,crockett1 ,s4 ,r41 his book on ,spain and his remarks on bridges1 #ahj-a4 ,,crofton1 ,h4 ,t41 a student of bridges1 vi1 also footnote4 ,,cromford ,,bridge had a chapel1 #bca4 ,,cromlechs1 #ajj2 the clapper bridges over ,dartmoor rivers are flat cromlechs built over water1 #ajd2 see also 8,iberians40 ,,crosses ,,and ,,crucifixes ,,on ,,bridges1 #if1 #bcj1 #bdf-g4 ,,crossing1 ,,william1 his remarks on ,dartmoor bridges1 #ajb-c4 ,,crowland ,,bridge1 #cjb-e4 ,,crusades1 their presumed effect on bridge-building1 #hh et seq4 ,,curzon1 ,,lord1 his excellent remarks on ,persian bridges1 #bad1 #bfh-gj4 ,,custom sends reason to sleep1 #af1 #ci1 #dj2 see also section iii1 ,chapter ,i1 #ec-hd4 ,,cutwaters1 #bfb1 #caf4 ,the ,french words for cutwaters1 avant-bec and arrire-bec1 would be very useful to us if we translated them as 8forebeak0 and 8aftbeak40 ,british pontists need a good many technical terms4 ,,cycloid ,,arches1 in ,ammanati's great bridge over the ,arno1 #caf4 ,,cyclopean ,,style1 so called1 in the ,porta dell' ,arco at ,arpino1 #aeg4 ,,dalqui1 his translation of ,kircher's book on ,china1 #cad1 #cde footnote4 ,,dam1 ,,arcaded1 ,old ,london ,bridge was an1 #bbj4 ,,danby1 ,,john1 in #addd1 left six and eightpence to ,warleby ,bridge1 #aj4 ,,darby1 ,,abraham1 in #aggi1 bridged the ,severn with an arch of cast-iron1 the earliest in ,europe1 #cdh-i4 ,,dartein1 ,f4 ,,de1 ,french architect and engineer1 his books on bridges1 #cai1 #cbj4 ,,dartmoor1 and its ,clapper ,bridges1 #fj1 #ajj-d4 ,,darwin1 references to his teaching1 #cb1 #fi1 #gj1 #ajf1 #aji1 #aaa-ab1 #aah4 ,,dates ,,in ,,history1 the ,bronze ,age1 #ba2 ,iron ,age1 #ba2 ,palolithic ,art1 #fb2 the inestimable value of dates to students1 #aai2 approximate date of the ,pliocene tools unearthed on the ,east ,anglian coast1 #abj2 approximate date for the ,neolithic ,period1 #acf2 age of the ,pont du ,gard1 #agd2 of the bridge at ,saint-,chamas1 #agg2 dates of some ,lancashire bridges1 #bej footnote4 ,,death1 ,,nature',s ,,attitude ,,to1 #c1 #d1 #cf1 #cg4 ,,decoration ,,of ,,bridges1 #aic-d1 #aie-f1 #bja1 #bae1 #bbg1 #bhf1 #cjd1 #cje1 #caa1 #cab1 #caf1 #cah-bh4 ,,dee ,,bridge1 ,chester1 the ,jolly ,miller's ,bridge1 #beh footnote1 #cje footnote4 ,,defence1 ,,national1 in its relation to ,bridges1 vii1 #ad-af1 #cca-fa2 see also 8,war-,bridges40 ,,defenceless ,,bridges1 their ,evolution1 #cca-fa2 their frequent make-believe of defence shown in trumpery imitations of medival towers and machicolations1 #bge1 #cbc1 #cdi4 ,,degrand1 ,e41 his book 8,ponts en ,maonnerie10 #hh2 on the bridge at ,espalion1 #hh-i2 on ,albi ,bridge1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia2 refers to primitive arches in ,mexico1 #aeg footnote2 on the ,treasury of ,atreus at ,mycenae1 #aei footnote2 other references to his views1 #aii footnote1 #bab footnote2 and on ,chinese bridges1 #cad-ae4 ,,derby1 a chapelled bridge is extant there1 #beh4 ,,derwent ,,packhorse ,,bridge1 ,derbyshire1 on its parapet1 a few years ago1 the stump of a medival cross remained1 #bcj-a4 ,,descent ,,of ,,man1 in its relation to nature-made bridges1 #c1 #d1 and ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,desecration ,,of ,,old ,,bridges1 #bbe et seq41 #bcj-f2 see also 8,highway ,boards40 ,,devil',s ,,bridges1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #agj1 #ahd1 #bif4 ,many other bridges have been attributed to the devil4 ,in plate #eh of the treatise by ,hann and ,hosking1 you will find the ,devil's ,bridge over the ,serchio near ,lucca2 there is also a very interesting account of it1 p4 cxxxv4 ,it is a gabled bridge with one big arch and four smaller ones4 ,the span of the big arch is #abj feet1 and its height above low-water level is more than #fj feet4 ,the roadway is very narrow1 being only #i feet wide1 and it turns abruptly at the wings1 as if to close the entrances against wheeled traffic4 ,the quoins of the smaller arches and all the voussoirs of the wide arch are of dressed stone4 ,every other part of the bridge is rubble masonry bound together with most excellent mortar4 ,the courses of stone in the wide arch vary from #h inches to #ba inches deep1 but only a few have the latter depth4 ,yet this slight bridge1 which is nothing more than a broad arcaded wall1 has withstood many centuries of floods4 ,on ,october #bnd1 #ahcf1 for example1 a head of water more than #cj feet deep swept roaring through the five round arches and against the four piers at the rate of #h miles an hour2 yet no harm was done4 ,if this bridge was built about the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 as ,hann and ,hosking say1 it is somewhat older than the controversial date of ,albi ,bridge4 ,,devorgilla',s ,,bridge at ,dumfries1 #id4 ,,diable1 ,,pont ,,du1 ,st4 ,gotthard ,pass1 #fg4 ,,diarbekr1 on the ,tigris1 a ,roman bridge at1 #bjb4 ,,dion ,,cassius1 on ,trajan's bridge over the ,danube1 built before ,a4,d4 #ajf by ,apollodorus of ,damascus1 #abi1 #acj4 ,,dismantling ,,old ,,london ,,bridge1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,,diverting ,,the ,,thames from his bed when the old bridge was built1 #bec1 #bed4 ,,dogs1 offered as sacrifices to the evil spirits of rivers1 #fi4 ,,don ,,antonio ,,de ,,ulloa 7#agaf-ie71 on the tree-bridges of ,south ,america1 #ace2 on a ,peruvian suspension bridge called the ,tarabita1 #adf2 on ,capac ,yupanqui's bridge of rushes1 #adf-g2 on large bujuco bridges1 #adg4 ,,doncaster ,,bridge had a chapel on it1 #bca4 ,,double ,,and ,,triple ,,rings ,,of ,,voussoirs1 #cje footnote4 ,,dragon1 its use in the decorative art of ,chinese bridges1 #abf4 ,,drawbridge1 one arch of medival bridges was often a drawbridge1 #bfj4 ,,droitwich1 and its very curious chapelled bridge1 now destroyed1 #bca4 ,,dryopithecus1 #aac-ad4 ,,dunstan1 ,,saint1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 b4 #ibd--;d4 #ihh1 from his time the ,medival ,church regarded the building and upkeep of bridges as a work of pious charity1 #bjg4 ,,durdle ,,door1 on the coast at ,lulworth1 a natural archway1 #aea4 ,,durham ,,bridges1 #if1 #ig1 #bje1 #bca4 ,,dutch1 ,,the1 of the seventeenth century wished to bury a living child under the foundations of a dam1 #fi4 ,,eads1 ,,captain ,,james ,b41 engineer of the ,illinois and ,st4 ,louis ,bridge1 #ceb-c4 ,,eagle-,,beaked ,,tools of the ,pliocene ,period1 #aai-bb4 ,,eamont ,,bridge1 #id1 #cje footnote4 ,,earliest ,,london ,,bridge1 a timber structure destroyed by fire in #aacf1 #bbj1 and footnote4 ,,earthquake ,,at ,,ascoli in #ahgh1 #bja4 ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,volcanoes1 the first armourers of the ,stone ,age1 #aaj2 they made some slab-bridges1 #abc-d2 earthquakes in their relation to natural arches1 #aeb1 and to bridges of stepping-stones1 #aad4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,workmanship in a few ,english bridges1 #cjc1 #cje2 see also 8,abbot's ,bridge1 ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds40 ,,edward ,i came to the relief of ,old ,london ,bridge1 #ej4 ,,egotism1 or the ,creed of ,self1 a motive-power behind the strife that bridges and roads circulate1 #ai et seq41 #bb-f1 #ci-eb4 ,,egyptian ,,bridges1 #abf1 #aee1 #aff4 ,,elephants1 in ,decorative ,sculpture1 on ,chinese bridges1 #cab footnote4 ,,elizabeth1 ,,queen1 #ccb4 ,,elliptical ,,arches1 in ,babylonian work1 #bge footnote2 in ancient ,mexico1 #aeg footnote2 in ,st4 ,bnzet's great bridge1 #ha2 in the vault of ,chosroes' great hall at ,selucia-,ctesiphon1 #bge1 and to some extent in the ,pons ,fabricius at ,rome1 #aif4 ,we know not whether ,bnzet was acquainted with the ,pons ,fabricius1 or with the great hall at ,selucia-,ctesiphon1 two forerunners of his elliptical arch4 ,at ,florence1 in every arch of the ,trinit1 ,ammanati achieved a cycloid rather than an ellipse1 #caf4 ,,emigration1 its influence on old types of society1 #bge4 ,,emy1 ,,colonel1 a writer on timber bridges1 #adj1 #adc footnote4 ,,encyclop,,dia ,,britannica1 on the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle1 #hj2 on ,framwellgate ,bridge at ,durham1 #if-g2 on the ,porta dell' ,arco at ,arpino1 #aef2 on the ,treasury of ,atreus at ,mycenae1 #aeh2 on ,roman aqueducts and bridges1 #afg2 on the ,pul-i-,kaisar at ,shushter1 #bjb-d2 on the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york1 #bdc footnote2 on ,new ,london ,bridge1 #beg2 on the ,tay ,bridge ,disaster1 #cci1 #cda4 ,,engineers1 ,,modern1 their scorn for national defence1 #ae1 #gg-h1 #gi et seq41 #add footnote1 #bba1 #beh1 #bie1 #cbj1 #cbc1 #cbe1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cdf1 #cdi4 ,,english ,,bridges1 their inferiority1 #i1 #dd2 contrasted with ,french bridges1 #bha-b1 #bid-e2 desecration of old ,english bridges1 #bbe et seq41 #bcj-f4 ,,erasmus1 #eb1 #bcf4 ,,ernulph1 ,,bishop1 and ,rochester ,bridge1 #bdc4 ,,espagne1 ,,pont ,d'1 famous modern bridge1 beyond ,cauterets1 #bgh4 ,,espalion1 ,,the ,,bridge ,,at1 the controversy concerning it1 #hd1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ib1 #ic2 see also the colour plate facing page #hh4 ,,etruscan ,,round ,,arches1 #afj-a4 ,,eudes1 ,,count ,,of ,,chartres1 built an early communal bridge1 #bdj4 8,,euphues ,,and ,,his ,,england10 #bbj1 #bba4 ,,evans1 ,,sir ,,john1 on the date of the ,bronze ,period1 #ba4 ,,eve ,,of ,,evolution1 #aag et seq4 ,,evolution1 in its relation to the strife that bridges and roads circulate1 #a1 #cb1 #ci2 see also ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,defenceless ,,bridges1 see ,chapter ,v4 ,,exceptional ,,bridges1 #cjb1 #cje-f1 #cjg1 #cjh-aj1 #caf4 ,,extra-,,dossed ,,arches1 ,roman and ,medival1 #bhb-c4 ,,fabricius1 ,,pons1 at ,rome1 #aie1 #aif4 ,,fact ,,differs ,,from ,,truth1 #aj1 #aa4 ,,feats ,,of ,,engineering1 #cbc1 #cbg1 #cda1 #cef4 ,,fernworthy ,,bridge1 ,dartmoor1 #fj4 ,,finance1 as a phase of permanent war1 #ce1 #cf1 #cfa4 8,,finds0 ,,in ,,research1 #f4 ,,fire1 its discovery1 #eh4 ,,firearms1 #ccb-c4 ,,fires ,,on ,,old ,,london ,,bridge1 #bah-ai4 ,,flambard1 ,,bishop1 before the year #aabh1 is said to have built ,framwellgate ,bridge at ,durham1 using ribbed arches4 ,if so1 then the ribbed arches in this bridge are about as old as those of the ,pont de ,vernay at ,airvault3 see the illustration facing page #if4 ,,flaminian ,,way and the ,pons ,milvius1 #aig1 and the bridge at ,narni1 #bc4 ,,flavien1 ,,pont1 a ,roman bridge with two triumphal arches at ,saint-,chamas1 #agf-g4 ,,flemish ,,towns and their defensive bridges1 #bhi-ia4 ,,flint ,,tools ,,and ,,weapons prove the terrible slowness of human progress1 #eg2 the earliest bridges of handicraft considered in their relation to the earliest hand-made tools and weapons1 #ef-g1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb4 ,,flodden ,,field and ,twizel ,bridge1 #id1 #cee4 ,,flood-,,water ,,bays cut through the piers of bridges1 #bhd1 as in the great military ,roman bridge at ,mrida1 #aha-b2 the ,pons ,fabricius another ,roman example1 #aif2 later specimens1 the ,three-arched ,bridge at ,venice1 colour plate facing page #bbd1 the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 colour plate facing page #bef1 and the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit over the ,rhne1 #bic4 ,,florence1 the ,ponte ,vecchio1 #baa1 #bbb2 the ,ponte della ,trinit1 ,ammanati's masterpiece1 #caf4 ,,fo-,,cheu1 ,,pont ,,de1 a ,chinese bridge described by ,gauthey1 #cad-ae4 ,,footpaths1 the earliest were made by quadrupeds1 #c2 human footpaths1 their number1 and what it has cost to make them1 #ag2 they belong not to the illusion called peace but to the reality named strife1 #ag4 ,,footways ,,over ,,medi,,val ,,bridges1 usually they were narrow1 very often they were steep1 and sometimes1 as in the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit and the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet1 they formed an elbow with the angle pointing up-stream4 ,the ,coa ,bridge in ,portugal1 near ,almeida1 the scene of ,crawfurd's action in the ,peninsular ,war1 is also angular on plan2 but its elbow points down-stream1 and its line seems to have been dictated by the position of the rocks on which the piers are built4 ,for other bridges of this angular sort see page #bch4 ,narrow footways over bridges suggested the safety recesses for foot-passengers1 which modern engineers have copied in many of their wide bridges1 #beh4 ,steep footways are dealt with under 8,gabled ,bridges10 and in ,appendices ,i and ,,ii4 ,,footways ,,over ,,roman ,,bridges1 #hb1 #ahc1 #aii1 #cfg-h4 ,,fords1 #bjg-h1 #bej-a4 ,,forests1 in their relation to ,roman bridges1 #aci1 to ,english bridges1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,,forth ,,bridge1 #ccf1 #cdd1 #cej-a4 ,add to the text the fact that in one of our naval manuvres the ,forth ,bridge was 8destroyed0 by the small attacking fleet4 ,,fortified ,,towers ,,and ,,gateways ,,on ,,bridges1 ,roman1 at ,mrida1 #ahb2 at ,alcantarilla1 #cfg2 at ,saint-,chamas1 #agf-g2 medival1 #bed-e1 #bfa1 #bgf-cja2 ,see also the ,lists of ,illustrations2 ,nearly all the old attributes of defensive bridge-building have been copied by modern engineers in their defenceless bridges--an absurd affectation of learned research introduced by ,telford in his cast-iron bridge at ,craigellachie1 #cdi2 ,even dummy machicolations have been used on make-believe towers guarding industrial bridges from the fresh air1 #bge2 ,every civilized country has bridges of this foolish sort4 ,surely medals ought to be granted to fools1 and their public display ought to be enforced by law2 then engineers and others would become ashamed of their bad public work4 ,,founding ,,piers1 #ii1 #aig1 #bea-b1 #cda-b2 ,see also 8,cofferdams10 #bec footnote4 ,,fountains ,,abbey1 ,,yorkshire1 ,,bridges ,,at1 #if1 #cje4 ,,framwellgate ,,bridge1 ,durham1 #if-g4 ,,france1 her administration of roads and bridges1 #dc1 #dd1 #cef2 rich in remains of ,roman bridges and aqueducts1 #afh-ge1 #agf-ha2 her bridges are superior to the ,british examples1 #i1 #bef-h1 #bid-e4 ,,francis ,,stone1 his book of 8,norfolk ,bridges10 #ace4 ,,fraser1 ,g4 ,m41 on ,scotch bridges1 #id4 ,,freakish ,,bridges1 over the ,tavignano in ,corsica1 #bch2 at ,laroque1 #cjj2 at ,ble1 #cjf4 ,,fr,,jus1 ,,remains ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at1 #agf4 ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,bridges contrasted1 #bef1 #bha1 #bid-e4 ,,french ,,angular ,,bridges1 #bcg-h1 #big4 ,,french ,,genius1 often more masculine than the ,english genius1 #bid-e4 ,,french ,,mill ,,bridges1 #bbc-d2 see also the colour plate facing page #ceb4 ,,fr,,res ,,pontifes1 or ,pontist ,brothers1 #bif1 and footnote4 ,st4 ,bnzet was one of the leaders of this order4 ,it is worth noting that some lay brotherhoods in ,england1 animated by the religious spirit1 repaired roads and bridges1 like the ,gild of the ,holy ,cross in ,birmingham1 which was founded under ,richard the ,second4 ,there were similar gilds at ,rochester and ,bristol and ,ludlow1 etc4 ,for information on 8,english ,gilds10 see ,toulmin ,smith4 ,,froggall ,,bridge1 its angular recesses for the safety of foot-passengers1 #beh footnote4 ,,fuentes ,,de ,o,,oro1 its slab-bridges akin to our ,dartmoor 8,clappers10 #ajd-e4 ,,gabled ,,bridges1 #bg1 #bh1 and footnote2 ,chinese1 #bdh1 #cab1 #cfe-f4 ,,gabriel1 a ,french engineer1 tried to revive the ,roman and medival use of abutment piers1 #cci footnote4 ,,gaddi1 ,,taddeo1 the reputed designer of the ,ponte ,vecchio at ,florence1 #bbb4 ,,galleries1 ,,covered1 in ,persian ,bridges1 #bad1 #bae1 #bgj4 ,,gaol1 the chapel on the bridge at ,bradford-on-,avon became a gaol1 #bcb2 also the one on ,bedford ,bridge1 #bca2 a gaol stood at the east side of the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york1 #bdc1 and footnote4 ,,gard1 ,,pont ,,du1 the famous ,roman aqueduct1 #hc1 #afg-ge1 #cba4 ,,gardens1 ,,some1 on ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bai4 ,,garibaldi1 when he marched to ,rome the ,ponte ,salaro was blown up1 #aib4 ,,garstang ,,bridge1 a steep ,lancashire bridge built in #adij1 #bej footnote4 ,,gatehouse1 on the defensive bridge at ,sospel1 #bgf2 on the thirteenth-century bridge at ,narni1 #bgg4 ,,gateways1 ,,defensive1 #bjh1 #cae4 ,,gateway ,,towers1 #ig1 #bgb1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #bhf1 #bhi1 #cbc2 see also the ,lists of ,illustrations4 ,,gaulish ,,bridges1 #gj1 #ga4 ,,gauthey1 ,,emiland1 historian of bridges1 #abf-g1 #aia1 #aig1 #aii1 #cad1 #cbb4 ,,gebel ,,barkel1 ,,two ,,pyramids ,,at1 have arched porticoes built with voussoirs1 #afj4 ,,genius1 the motive-power of progress1 #ef1 #ei2 her work usually weakened by the opposition of custom and convention1 #ei2 she is a single creative agent with a double sex1 #eh2 ordinary men have been of but little worth until genius has taken control of them1 #bci2 her warfare against the stupidity of mankind1 #aaj et seq42 see also 8,mother-,ideas40 ,,genius1 ,,the ,,english1 is often inferior to the ,french genius in architecture1 #bid-e4 ,,genius1 ,,the ,,roman1 #afg-bjd4 ,,germany1 some of her old bridges1 #bei1 #bfj2 her creed of aggressive war1 #cc footnote1 #cej1 #cei1 #cfj1 #cfa4 ,,gerona1 ,,famous ,,gabled ,,bridge ,,at1 #bh1 #bi4 ,,ghent1 ,,the ,,rabot ,,at1 a fortified bridge and lock1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bia4 ,,gignac1 ,,pont ,,de1 famous bridge of the #ahth century1 #caj4 ,,gipsy',s ,,caravan1 how it stuck fast under the low tower at the entrance of ,warkworth ,bridge1 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,,girders1 there are three types or classes of bridge3 the girder1 the arched1 and the suspended4 ,girders may be of various materials2 wrought iron1 cast iron1 and wood are chiefly used4 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin describes with apt brevity the essential difference between the three classes of bridge4 8,in all forms of the suspension bridge the supporting structure is extended by the stress due to the load2 in all forms of the arch the supporting structure 7i4e4 the ring of voussoirs7 is compressed by the stress due to the load2 and in all forms of the beam or girder the material is partly extended and partly compressed by the flexure which it undergoes as it bends under the load4 ,thus when a beam of wood carrying a load bends1 the upper side of the beam is thereby shortened and the fibres compressed1 while the lower side of the beam is lengthened and the fibres extended40 ,so1 too1 in a girder of metal4 ,in some bridges1 as in the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle1 the girder principle is united to bowstring arches of metal1 but a true girder is less expensive and lighter1 #hj4 ,,gizeh1 ,,at1 in the ,great ,pyramid of ,menkaura1 there is a very early pointed arch1 #aee-f4 ,,glaciers1 in their relation to rock-basins and rock-bridges1 #aeb4 ,,glanville1 ,,gilbert ,,de1 ,bishop of ,rochester1 #aahe-abae1 built a small chapel at the ,strood end of ,rochester ,bridge1 #bde4 ,,glastonbury1 its lake-village a good example of prehistoric bridge-building1 #ba1 #acg et seq4 ,,gothic ,,architecture1 her genius described1 #aeb-c4 ,,grandison1 ,bishop of ,exeter1 granted indulgences to those who helped in the building of ,bideford ,bridge1 ,devon1 #cje footnote2 ,see also 8,indulgences40 ,,gratianus1 ,,pons1 another name for the ,pons ,cestius1 #aif4 ,,gray1 ,,walter ,,de1 ,archbishop of ,york1 between #abae and #abef1 rebuilt the ,ouse ,bridge1 preserving some portions of the ,norman ,chapel1 #bdb4 ,,hadrian1 destroyed ,trajan's ,bridge over the ,danube1 #abi2 and built the ,pons lius at ,rome1 #aid4 ,,hall1 ,,lady ,,jane1 in #aeff1 contributed a hundred pounds to repair the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york1 #bdb4 ,,hamburg ,,merchants1 ,,the ,,york ,,society ,,of1 after the ,reformation1 used the chapel on the ,ouse ,bridge as an exchange1 #bdb4 ,,hand-,,guns1 #ccc4 ,,handicraft1 the first public school1 #aah2 has never had a standard of uniform merit1 #aba2 its indebtedness to ,nature's models1 #c1 #d1 #f1 and ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,hand-,,made ,,weapons preceded hand-made bridges1 probably1 #aaj4 ,,harold',s ,,bridge at ,waltham ,abbey1 #afb4 ,,haunches ,,of ,a ,,bridge1 #bfe footnote4 ,,henri ,,iv1 ,,pont1 at ,chtellerault1 #cca-b2 see also the illustration facing page #ccb4 ,,henry ,,iii1 of ,england1 and his wife1 rob ,old ,london ,bridge of her revenues1 #di-ea4 ,,henry ,v1 of ,england1 in the fourth year of his reign ,abingdon ,bridge was built1 #bea4 ,,henry ,,viii1 during and after his reign bridge chapels were desecrated1 #bbe-f1 #bcj-c4 ,,heralds ,,of ,,man1 #aac et seq4 ,,herodotus1 on the canal begun by ,necho ,,ii1 #ag footnote2 mentions the bridge at ,babylon over the ,euphrates1 #bgd4 ,,hexham1 ,,smeaton',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #cci4 ,,high ,,bridge1 ,lincoln1 #bba-b4 ,,higherford ,,bridge1 near ,colne1 attributed to the ,romans1 #cje footnote4 ,,high ,,level ,,bridge at ,newcastle1 a 8scientific0 adventure with an amusing history1 #gi-hj4 ,,highway ,,boards1 their inefficiency in ,england1 #dc1 #bcj4 ,,hindrances ,,to ,,bridge-,,building1 #bej-a1 #bed-e1 #bfd4 ,,hoen-,,ho1 ,,the ,,river1 and the bridge at ,pulisangan1 #caj-ac4 ,,hoogesluis1 ,,the1 at ,amsterdam1 a strumpet of a bridge1 #cbc4 ,,horace mentions the ,pons ,fabricius as attractive to suicides1 #aie-f4 ,,hosking1 writer on bridges1 #adc footnote1 #cji1 #cag1 #cbe-f4 ,,housed ,,bridges1 #bjh1 #bac-ae1 #baf-bd1 #bbe4 ,,houtum-,,schindler1 ,,sir ,a41 on the ,pul-i-,kaisar at ,shushter in ,persia1 #bjb-d4 ,,howell',s 8,,londinopolis10 #baf-ag4 ,,human ,,beings offered as sacrifices to rivers1 #fd1 #fe et seq4 ,,human ,,gunpowder1 #bc1 #ceb4 ,,human ,,initiative1 nothing else in ,nature is less uncommon1 #abc4 ,,humboldt used the pendulous bridges in ,peru1 #adh4 ,,iberians1 their stonecraft1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajd2 their cult of ancestors1 #ajd2 the world-wide influence of their genius1 #abe et seq4 ,,icononzo1 ,,rock-,,bridges ,,of1 #aea4 ,,iguanodon1 asleep on a ,nature-made bridge1 #c4 ,,illinois ,,and ,,st4 ,,louis ,,bridge1 #ceb-c4 ,,imitation among men in societies1 #ee2 stimulated by ,nature-made bridges1 #ee2 its dead routine1 #aaj2 see ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,indulgences granted by the medival ,church to aid the upkeep of roads and bridges1 #dj1 #cje footnote4 ,,industrial ,,bridges1 #df4 ,,industrialism1 ,,to-,,day',s1 is a very complex phase of war1 #ce1 #cf1 #df1 #dh1 #ccc1 #ceb4 ,,industrial ,,warfare1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #df1 #dh1 #ccc1 #ceb4 ,,inferiority ,,of ,,old ,,english ,,bridges1 #i1 #dd1 #bef-h1 #bha1 #bid-e4 ,,inigo ,,jones1 his bridge at ,llanrwst1 #bhb1 and footnote4 ,,invasions ,,of ,,england1 #bj2 the influence of invasions in the rise and fall of nations1 #bb4 ,,iremonger1 ,,richard ,,fannande1 writer of the ,ballad of ,abingdon ,bridge1 #bea4 ,,irish ,,bridges1 #de4 ,,iron ,,age1 its approximate date in ,england1 #ba4 ,,iron ,,bars in ,chinese bridges1 #cad4 ,,iron ,,bridges1 ,chinese1 #cdd-e2 ,european1 #add footnote1 #cdh et seq42 ,american1 #ceb et seq4 ,iron ,cramps used in bridges1 ,roman1 #agb-c2 ,babylonian1 #bgd-e2 modern1 #bhc4 ,hosking has many good remarks on the subject of cramps and joggles4 ,he says 7p4 #bjh73 8,it is very desirable that all the archstones of a large and flat arch should be dowel-joggled in the beds2 but as the usual dowel-joggle cannot be introduced with the key-course1 plugs of proportionate size must be used instead1 and the stones may1 besides1 be cramped together4 ,in arches of small size1 or in large ones of quick sweep1 joggling may not be so desirable as in those of large size and flat sweep2 though it is to be understood that in any case both joggles and cramps should be considered as surplusage1 and as precautions merely1 to counteract the effect of any imperfections in the work from want of fulness in any of the stones in an arch1 or otherwise4 ,in building ,london ,bridge iron bars were let into the back ends or tails of the archstones1 and run with lead as cramps or transverse ties in several courses1 and they do not appear to have produced any injurious effect1 though it may be questioned how far they are of any use4 ,they ought not to be of any use40 ,viollet-le-,duc went further than this2 he regarded iron cramps in a stone bridge as likely to be injurious4 ,,isembert1 the ,french bridge-builder who undertook the finishing of ,london ,bridge after the death of ,peter ,colechurch1 #bah4 ,,isfahan1 ,,persia1 ,,the ,,bridges ,,of1 #dd1 #ahg1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae1 #bfh-gj4 8,,ithe10 suggested pronoun for any bridge which is not masculine enough to be called 8he10 nor neutral enough to be described as 8it10 #bid4 8,,itshe10 suggested pronoun for any bridge which is not feminine enough to be called 8she10 nor neutral enough to be described as 8it40 ,criticism of art would be aided greatly by these pronouns4 ,for instance1 our poets of to-day give us a great deal of inspiration that belongs to the 8itshe0 class1 #bid4 ,,jackson1 ,o4 ,m41 ,,the ,,rev41 on ,chinese bridges1 #abf-g1 #ade1 #bdh1 #cae1 #cdg4 ,,janiculine ,,bridge1 ,rome1 #aig4 ,,jebb',s 8,by ,desert ,ways to ,baghdad10 #bjb4 ,,jenkin1 ,,professor ,,fleeming1 on the elliptical arches in the ,bridge of ,avignon1 #ha2 on ,trajan's bridge over the ,danube1 #acj2 on ,american timber bridges1 #adc2 on the defects of metal suspension bridges1 #add footnote2 on ,colechurch and ,bnzet1 #bag2 on cofferdams1 #bec footnote2 on the insufficient width of ,new ,london ,bridge1 #beg2 on the covered bridge at ,pavia1 #cjh2 on ,telford's bridge at ,craigellachie1 #cdi4 ,,jhelum1 ,,river1 in ,kashmr1 and its primitive bridges1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc4 ,,jolly ,,miller',s ,,bridge over the ,dee1 #cje footnote4 ,,jones1 ,,inigo1 his bridge at ,llanrwst1 #bhb1 and footnote4 ,,jusserand1 ,j4 ,j41 his book on 8,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages10 #dj1 #di1 #ej1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,,kapellbrucke1 ,lucerne1 #bib4 ,k,,redj ,,bridge1 ,persia1 #bfe-f4 ,,kashm,r ,,bridges1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #afj1 #afa4 ,,kershaw1 ,s4 ,,wayland1 the late1 on bridge chapels1 #bdc et seq4 ,,kettlethorpe ,,park1 #bbf4 ,,khaju1 ,,the ,,pul-,i-1 at ,isfahan1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf4 ,,kien-,,ning-,,fu1 in the province of ,fo-,kien1 ,china1 its three handsome bridges mentioned by ,marco ,polo1 #abh4 ,,kilburne1 ,,richard1 and his 8,survey of ,kent10 #bdd4 ,,kingsley1 ,,charles1 his visit to the ,pont du ,gard1 #agj-b4 ,,kircher1 ,,athanasius1 ,german traveller and philosopher1 b4 #afjb--;d4 #afhj1 his book on ,china1 translated into ,french by ,dalqui1 #cad1 #cde1 and footnote4 ,,kirkby ,,lonsdale ,,bridge1 attributed to the ,devil1 #ic4 ,,knolles1 ,,sir ,r41 in #achg1 helped to build ,rochester ,bridge1 #bdd4 ,,kreuznach1 on the ,nahe1 ,prussia1 its old bridge with quaint houses1 #bjh1 and the illustration facing p4 #bjh4 ,,kurdistan1 primitive bridges1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #bgb4 ,,labelye',s ,,westminster ,,bridge1 see 8,westminster ,bridge40 ,,lacer1 ,,caius ,,julius1 ,roman architect1 and builder of ,trajan's ,bridge over the ,tagus at ,alcntara1 #aba1 #ahd1 #aij1 #cdd4 ,he was buried on the left bank quite close to his bridge1 #ahd1 a romantic circumstance1 like the burial of ,bnzet and ,colechurch in their bridge chapels4 ,,laellenkoenig1 a grotesque head that used to decorate the tower on ,ble ,bridge1 #cjf1 #cjg4 ,,lake ,,dwellings ,,and ,,villages1 the highest form of prehistoric bridge-building1 #ba2 how evolved from ,nature's object-lessons1 #aaa2 primitive shop-bridges probably descended from them1 as in ,kashmr1 #gb1 #gc2 the ,glastonbury ,lake ,village1 #acf et seq4 ,,lamb,,se1 in ,algeria1 famous aqueduct1 #agf4 ,,lancashire ,,bridges1 primitive1 #ee1 #fj1 #fa2 ,roman or of ,roman origin1 #afb-c1 #bfc2 medival1 #bej footnote4 ,,lancaster ,,bridge1 built in the reign of ,king ,john1 #bej footnote4 ,,landlords1 ,,medi,,val1 in their relation to the trinoda necessitas1 #dj et seq4 ,,lankester1 ,,sir ,,ray1 on the approximate date of ,palolithic art1 #fb2 on the eagle-beaked flint tools unearthed from ,pliocene deposits on the ,east ,anglian ,coast1 #abj et seq42 on the approximate date of the ,neolithic ,period1 #acf4 ,,laroque1 ,,the ,,bridges ,,of1 near ,cahors1 #cjj2 see also the colour plate facing page #cjj4 8,,late ,,celti0 ,,art was practised in the ,glastonbury ,lake ,village as in the ,hunsbury ,camp1 near ,northampton1 #acg4 ,,lava1 from volcanoes1 has made slab-bridges1 #abd4 ,,lavaur1 ,,pont ,,de1 famous ,french bridge of the eighteenth century1 #caj4 ,,law1 ,,medi,,val1 and its attitude to roads and bridges1 #dj et seq4 ,,law1 ,,modern1 in ,great ,britain law prescribes minimum dimensions for the over and under bridges of railways2 but it takes no notice at all of the military considerations which can never be wisely disconnected from the circulation of traffic along roads and over bridges4 ,an over bridge is one in which a road goes over a railway2 an under bridge is one in which a road goes under a railway4 ,both are exceedingly vulnerable1 yet the law centres all its attention on details that concern their size1 not on details that concern their protection from violence4 ,over ,bridges4--,width3 turnpike road1 #ce feet2 other public carriage road1 #be feet2 private road1 #ab feet4 ,span over two lines 7narrow gauge71 generally about #bf feet2 head room1 #ad feet #f inches above outer rail4 ,under ,bridges4--,spans3 turnpike road1 #ce feet2 other public road1 #be feet2 private road1 #ab feet4 ,head room3 turnpike road1 #ab feet at springing of arch1 and #af feet throughout a breadth of #ab feet in the middle2 for public road1 #ab feet1 #ae feet1 and #aj feet in the same places2 private road1 #ad feet for #i feet in the middle2 for exceptions the ,acts must be studied4 ,,law ,,of ,,battle1 ,,the ,,universal1 vii1 #c1 #d1 #ad-eb4 ,see 8,battle1 ,law of40 ,,laws should get rid of stereotyped customs and conventions in order to enforce progress on dilatory mankind1 #gf1 #gg4 ,,leeds ,,bridge had a chapel1 #bca4 ,,legends ,,on ,,devil',s ,,bridges1 #fe-gj4 ,,libourne1 ,,pont ,,de1 on the ,dordogne1 its cost1 #cef4 ,,life everywhere has fed on lives1 #c1 #d1 #cg1 #ch2 how lives are sacrificed in the enterprises of 8peace10 so-called1 vii1 #ag1 #cd footnote4 ,,limousin1 ,,french ,,bridges ,,of ,,the1 their cutwaters1 #bfb4 ,,lincoln1 ,,high ,,bridge ,,at1 an old housed bridge restored thirteen years ago1 #bba-b4 ,,lincoln1 ,,new ,,port ,,at1 a ,roman arch1 #afb4 ,,lintel-,,stone ,,bridges ,,of ,,lancashire1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd4 ,,lion ,,gate ,,at ,,mycenae1 belonging to the ,heroic ,age1 #aeg1 #aeh4 ,,lions1 ,,decorative1 at ,mycenae1 #aeh2 on a ,roman bridge1 #agg2 on ,chinese bridges1 #abg1 #caa1 #cac1 #cae4 ,,lister1 ,,lord1 his genius came so very late in the history of man that it mocked all the dead generations of perhaps a million years1 #ca4 ,,literary ,,projects1 their division into two classes1 v4 8,,liu ,,soh10 a ,chinese suspension bridge1 #ade4 ,,llangollen ,,bridge1 #beh footnote1 and #cje footnote4 ,,llanrwst1 ,,inigo ,,jones',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #bhb1 and footnote4 ,,lockyer1 ,,sir ,,norman1 on the date of ,stonehenge1 #abf4 ,,london ,,bridge1 ,,old1 robbed of her revenues by ,henry ,,iii and his 8dear wife10 #di-ea2 her history1 #baf-ba2 often ravaged by fire1 #bah-ai2 size of the arches and piers1 #bbj-a2 she was an arcaded dam to deepen the water for shipping on the eastern side1 #bbj2 her chapel1 #baf-ag2 diverting the course of the ,thames while she was being built1 #bec-d2 her drawbridge1 #bfj-a2 her gradual destruction1 #bai-bj4 ,,london ,,bridge1 ,,new1 begun on ,march #aeth1 #ahbd1 #bai-bj2 her scale is too small to be in accord with a tremendous city and a vast old river1 #bef-g2 the span of her finest arch1 #cji2 much money wasted in hammer-dressing the masonry1 #cbe-f2 her length and her total cost1 #ceg4 8,,londinopolis10 ,,howell',s1 #baf4 ,,london',s ,,attitude ,,to ,,bridges1 past and present1 #di-ea1 #bef1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbg4 ,,lostwithiel ,,bridge1 #cje footnote4 ,,loyang ,,bridge1 ,china1 #abf-g4 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,london1 its detestable railway bridge1 #cbf4 ,,ludlow ,,bridge had a chapel1 #bca4 ,,luynes1 ,,remains ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at1 #agf4 ,,lydstep ,,arch on the coast of ,pembroke1 a ,nature-made archway that resembles a bridge1 #aej footnote4 ,,lyon1 ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at1 #agf1 #bac2 at ,lyon1 in #agee1 an attempt was made to build an iron bridge1 but it failed1 #cdh4 ,,machicolations1 openings between the corbels that support a projecting parapet1 or in the floor of a gallery or the roof of a portal1 for shooting or dropping missiles and boiling liquids upon assailants attacking the base of the walls4 ,they were used in the defence of old bastille bridges1 and silly modern engineers have copied them as dummy ornaments with which to decorate trumpery defenceless gateways and towers1 #bge1 #cbc4 ,,machine-,,worship1 or the worship of machines1 #gh1 #gi1 #cda4 ,,magalhanes1 ,p41 on the ,chinese bridge of ,pulisangan1 #caa footnote4 ,,marcian ,,aqueduct1 #ahi1 and footnote4 ,,marco ,,polo1 on ,chinese bridges in the thirteenth century1 #abh1 #baj1 #caj1 #cac4 ,,marnun1 ,,pul-,i1 at ,isfahan1 #bab4 ,,martineau1 ,,james1 on the law of battle1 #cf4 ,,martorell ,,bridge in ,spain1 #bg footnote4 ,,masons' ,,marks1 ,roman1 #aga4 ,,mathematicians1 how they interfered in bridge-building of the #ahth century1 #ccg4 ,,mathilda1 ,,queen1 twelfth century1 builds and endows ,bow ,bridge1 #ih4 ,,meaux1 ,,the ,,miller',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #bji1 #bbc4 ,,medi,,val ,,church1 she protected bridges1 #dj1 #ea1 #if1 #bjg2 see also 8,bridge ,chapels40 ,,men ,,of ,,trade in their relation to bridges1 #gg1 #gh et seq41 #cbf et seq41 #cdi et seq41 #ceg-h4 ,,men1 ,,ordinary1 are the mimics and mechanics of genius1 #eh4 ,,menai ,,bridge1 #cdd4 ,m,,nard1 ,m41 historian of ,nmes1 #agd4 ,,menkaura1 ,,pyramid ,,of1 at ,gizeh1 has a pointed arch1 #aef4 ,m,,rida1 in ,spain1 her ,roman aqueducts and bridges1 #aha1 #ahb1 #bjj1 #bhe footnote4 ,,meroe1 ,,in ,a ,,pyramid ,,at1 there is a semicircular arch composed of voussoirs1 #afj4 ,,metal ,,bridges1 ,chinese1 #cdd-e2 ,european1 #add footnote1 #cdh et seq42 ,american1 #ceb et seq4 ,,methods1 ,,new1 ,,in ,,military ,,war1 their effects on bridge-building1 vii1 viii1 #ae1 #ceh1 #cei4 ,,michelangelo1 wrongly reputed to be the author of the ,rialto1 #baa4 ,,middle ,,ages1 #bf1 #di1 #ej1 #hc2 see also 8,bridge ,chapels10 8,war-,bridges10 8,medival ,church10 and the ,gothic bridges drawn by ,frank ,brangwyn4 ,,military ,,bridges1 see 8,war-,bridges40 ,,military ,,forethought1 the need of it in bridges1 vii1 viii1 #ae1 #bch-i1 #bdd1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bgb1 #cbh1 #cca1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cee-i4 ,,mill1 ,,john ,,stuart1 on the law of battle in ,nature1 #cg4 ,,millau1 #bji1 and illustration facing page #ceb4 ,,mill ,,bridges1 #bji1 #bbc1 #bbd2 see also the picture of ,millau ,bridge facing page #ceb4 ,,milvius1 ,,pons1 ancient name of the ,ponte ,molle1 #aig4 ,,mimicry1 or imitation1 frees the large human mind from the labour pains of thinking1 #aje4 ,,mimics1 ,,nature',s ,,school ,,for1 see ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,miocene ,,age and ,nature-made bridges1 #aac-ad4 ,,modern ,,bridges1 see the last chapter2 also 8,metal ,bridges10 8,london ,bridge1 ,new10 8,railway ,bridges10 etc4 ,,modern ,,spirit1 its intemperate vulgarity1 #ac1 #dh1 #bgj4 ,,molle1 ,,ponte1 modern name for the ,pons ,milvius1 #aig4 ,,money bequeathed to bridges1 #bbg1 #bcc4 ,,monks ,,of ,,strata ,,florida built the ,devil's ,bridge at ,aberystwyth1 #fg4 ,,monmouth1 ,,monnow ,,bridge ,,at1 a fortified work1 #ic1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,,monnow ,,bridge at ,monmouth1 #ic1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,,montauban1 ,,the ,,pont ,,des ,,consuls ,,at1 #bg1 #bed-g4 ,,monzie1 near ,crieff1 in ,perthshire1 a bridge there similar to ,harold's ,bridge at ,waltham ,abbey1 #afc4 ,,moore1 ,,sir ,,john1 his relation to ,spanish bridges1 #bi footnote1 #ccd-e4 ,,moors in ,spain1 their influence on architecture1 #bh1 #bi4 ,,more1 ,,sir ,,thomas1 his decapitated head was displayed on ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bfa4 ,,morston1 ,,hamo ,,de1 in the story of ,old ,shoreham ,bridge1 #dc et seq4 ,,moselle ,,bridge at ,coblentz1 #bfj4 ,,mother-,,ideas in human history1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh2 the earliest in the evolution of bridges1 #ef1 #eg2 they are phases of strife1 #ei1 #fj2 see also 8,genius40 ,,mud1 its use in humble architecture probably borrowed from birds1 #aaa1 and footnote4 ,,munro1 ,,robert1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 etc41 his valuable book on 8,archaeology and ,false ,antiquities10 #ba4 ,,murchison1 ,,sir ,,roderick1 famous geologist1 his remarks on rock-basins1 #aeb footnote4 ,,mute ,,historians1 silent works of art1 such as great bridges and churches1 #be4 ,,mycenae1 some of her ancient relics considered in their relation to the history of vaults and arches1 #aeg et seq4 ,,nantes1 her medival bridge1 now gone1 #bbd-e4 ,,napol,,on1 ,,pont1 near ,saint-,sauveur1 #bgh1 #bhj4 ,,narni1 a broken war-bridge of the thirteenth century1 #bgg-h4 ,,narni ,,bridge1 remains of a ,roman masterpiece1 #bc1 #bd1 #be4 ,,narrow ,,arches in the first ,roman aqueducts and bridges1 #aia-b4 ,,narses1 general and statesman1 in the reign of ,justinian1 rebuilt the ,pons ,salarus1 #aia4 ,,national ,,defence1 in its relation to bridges1 vii1 viii1 #ae1 #bch-i1 #bdd1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bgb1 #cbh1 #cca1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cee-i4 ,,natural ,,arches1 #f1 and footnote1 #aej-f4 ,,natural ,,bridges1 #c1 #d1 #f1 and footnote2 see also ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,nature1 her social rule in her cellular commonwealths is far superior to the social rule in human societies1 #ai4 ,,nature1 her ,school for ,mimics1 see ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,nature-,,made ,,bridges1 #c1 #d1 #f1 and footnote2 see also ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,nature',s ,,strife1 #c1 #d1 #cg2 see also 8,strife and ,historic ,bridges10 #ad-eb4 ,,navilly1 ,,pont ,,de1 by ,gauthey1 its imperfect decoration1 #cbb4 ,,neronianus1 ,,pons1 #aig4 ,,nero',s ,,aqueduct1 #ahi4 ,,nests1 ,,birds'1 their influence on handicraft1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,,neuilly-,,sur-,,seine1 ,,pont ,,de1 by ,perronet1 #cch4 ,,neville1 ,,count1 in #addj1 bequeathed twenty pounds to 8,ulshawe ,bridge10 #aj4 ,,new ,,bridge on ,thames1 near ,kingston1 its ,early ,english arches1 #if4 ,,newcastle ,,bridge possessed a chapel1 #bca4 ,,newcastle ,,high ,,level ,,bridge1 #gi-hj4 ,,newman1 ,,cardinal1 on the terrible strife in human history1 #ch1 #ci4 ,,new ,,manhattan ,,bridge at ,new ,york1 #ced4 ,,new ,,port at ,lincoln1 a ,roman arch1 #afb4 ,,ney1 ,,marshal1 his celebrated criticism of the aqueduct of ,segovia1 #ahd4 ,,noblemen1 ,,rival1 in the ,middle ,ages1 often opposed the building of bridges1 #bej-a4 ,,nomentano1 ,,ponte1 #bih-i2 also the picture facing page #bif4 ,,none-,,such ,,house on ,old ,london ,bridge1 #baf4 ,,norfolk ,,bridges1 #ace4 ,,norfolk ,,shrines in the ,middle ,ages1 #bcf4 ,,norman ,,bridges1 #if1 #ig1 #ih4 ,,notre-,,dame1 ,,pont1 ,paris1 #bbe4 ,,obelisks on the ,hoogesluis at ,amsterdam1 #cbc4 ,,ogivale ,,arches1 see 8,pointed ,arches40 ,,old ,,london ,,bridge1 see 8,london ,bridge1 ,old40 ,,orense1 in ,gallicia1 her famous gabled bridge1 #bh1 #bi1 and footnote4 ,,orl,,ans1 ,,pont ,d'1 in the fifteenth century1 #bci2 her ,belle ,croix1 #bdf-g4 ,,ornament ,,on ,,bridges1 see 8,bridge ,decoration0 or 8,decoration of ,bridges40 ,,orthez1 ,,vieux ,,pont1 medival war-bridge1 #bgh-i4 ,there are two conflicting accounts of the part played by this bridge in the battle of ,orthez1 ,february #bgth1 #ahad4 ,one of them says that the bridge was neutralised by agreement in order to spare it from destruction2 the other account declares that the solidity of the stonework baffled the ,french attempts to break it down4 ,anyhow1 the bridge was not used in the action4 ,hill crossed well above it1 and ,picton and ,beresford below4 ,napier says3 8,hill1 who had remained with #ab1jjj combatants1 cavalry and infantry1 before the bridge of ,orthez1 received orders1 when ,wellington changed his plan of attack1 to force the passage of the ,gave1 partly in the view of preventing ,harispe from falling upon the flank of the sixth division1 partly in the hope of a successful issue to the attempt3 and so it happened4 ,hill1 though unable to force the bridge1 forded the river above at ,souars1 and driving back the troops posted there1 seized the heights above1 cut off the ,french from the road to ,pau1 and turned the town of ,orthez40 ,,ouse ,,bridge at ,york1 #bda-c1 and footnote4 ,,outlaws1 ,,medi,,val1 in their relation to fords and bridges1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,,pacifists1 their false and weakening ideas considered in relation to the varied strife circulated by roads and bridges1 vii1 #c1 #d1 #ad-eb1 #cfj-a4 ,,paget ,,and ,,the #aj,,th ,,hussars1 how they protected ,moore's retreat at the bridges of ,castro ,gonzalo and ,constantino1 #cce4 ,,pal,,olithic ,,age1 #fb1 #aaj1 #aca4 ,,pal,,olithic ,,art1 and its approximate date1 #aca4 ,,palladian ,,bridge in ,prior ,park1 #cdc4 ,,palladio1 ,,andrea1 ,italian architect1 b4 #aeah--;d4 #aehj1 his evidence on the ,roman bridges in ,italy1 #aic-d1 #aie-g1 #aih-i2 his design for the ,rialto rejected1 though it was better than ,antonio da ,ponte's1 #bab1 and footnote4 ,,pandy ,,old ,,bridge at ,bettws-y-,coed1 #afc4 ,,paradiso1 ,,matheo1 a military architect1 in #abag1 built a gate-tower to defend the ,alcntara at ,toledo1 #bhg4 ,,parapets1 low walls or railings serving to protect the edge of a bridge2 they rest on the outer spandrils2 sometimes they project beyond and need brackets or corbels1 like the ,pont ,neuf at ,paris1 #cba-b1 and plate facing page #cbj4 ,often in the ,middle ,ages some parts of the parapets were crenellated1 as they are above the angular piers of the ,valentr at ,cahors1 see the colour plate facing page #bfd2 even some modern defenceless bridges have battlemented parapets1 for the imitative silliness of industrial engineers delights in foolish make-believe4 ,parapets cannot be studied with too much care1 so there are frequent references to them throughout this monograph4 ,some ,roman bridges were built without parapets2 there is an example near ,colne1 #afb1 #afd2 and many of the gabled bridges in ,spain repeat in a giddy manner this dangerous defect1 #bg4 ,,paris ,,and ,,her ,,bridges1 #bbe1 #cba-b4 ,here is a fine subject for a book4 ,there is a good reference to the ,paris bridges of the year #aeag-ah in the 8,revue des ,deux ,mondes10 xlvii41 ,sep41 #aijh1 p4 #dfg4 ,five bridges existed then1 three stone structures1 and two of wood2 and all of them had houses from one end to the other4 ,tolls were charged and they belonged to the ,king4 ,several illustrations of ,paris bridges will be found in ,lacroix1 8,manners1 ,customs and ,dress during the ,middle ,ages40 ,on page #cba there is one of the year #aejj2 see also in the same book pp4 #cjb1 #caf1 and #dga4 ,,parliament ,,of ,,taste1 ,a1 necessary in all large towns for the discussion of art in all matters that concern the public intimately1 #cbd-e4 ,,parthenay ,,bridge1 a ,bastille bridge of the ,middle ,ages1 #cd1 #ce1 #bha1 and the plate facing page #cf4 ,,paul',s ,,bridge1 ,,st41 #cbg4 ,,pavia1 her famous covered bridge of the #adth century1 #cjh-i4 ,,pavilions in the ,pul-i-,khaju at ,isfahan1 #bad1 #bae1 and the line block on page #bac4 ,,peace1 considered in her relation to the varied strife circulated by roads and bridges4 ,she is an illusion of the mind and belongs to a routine of idle sentiment1 vii1 because every phase of human enterprise claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed1 vii1 #c1 #d1 #cc-f2 see also section ii1 ,chapter ,i1 #ad-eb1 and #ccc1 #cea1 #cfj-a4 ,,peace ,,fanatics1 their dangerous influence on foreign politics1 #cc footnote1 #cea1 #cfj-a4 ,,peninsular ,,war1 the ,roman bridge at ,alcntara1 #af1 #ahf2 the ,roman bridge at ,constantino1 #cce2 ,orense ,bridge1 #bi footnote4 ,,perforated ,,towers on bridges2 modern engineers have passed suspension cables through towers instead of passing them over the summits1 #cdf1 #ced4 ,,perronet1 ,,jean ,,rodolphe1 #agjh-id1 ,french engineer-architect1 #bhb-c1 #ccg-h1 also footnote #cch4 ,,pershore ,,bridge1 #cee4 ,,persian ,,bridges1 #bjb-d1 #baa1 #bab-af1 #bfe-gj4 ,,peruvian ,,bridges1 #adf et seq4 ,,phallus1 a symbol of prosperity1 carved twice in low-relief on the ,pont du ,gard1 #agd4 ,,piers ,,of ,,bridges1 #aad1 #bjj1 #bfd1 #caf1 #cch1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cec1 #ced4 ,there are other references also1 but the reader will be able to follow the history of piers from the natural bridge of stepping-stones through the many changes and defects mentioned in the text4 ,to-day1 with the rapid improvements in airships and aeroplanes1 new armoured piers will have to be designed1 strong enough to bear the great weight of a roofed superstructure of armour-plate steel1 yet not thick enough to obstruct rivers4 ,now that bridges are as vulnerable as ,zeppelin sheds1 engineers have an excellent chance to serve their countries well by inventing new and powerful bridges4 ,how to protect piers--at least as much as possible--from direct artillery fire is one very difficult problem2 how to protect them from falling shells and bombs is another4 ,when ,london is fitted adequately with new defensive bridges her river will be as impressive as a fleet of super-,dreadnoughts4 ,see also 8,abutment ,piers40 ,,piers1 ,,criss-,,cross1 ,gaulish1 #gj2 in ,kashmr1 #ga-c2 in ,north ,russia1 #gc4 ,,piers1 ,,founding1 #ii1 #aig1 #bea-b1 #cda-b4 ,,pigs1 in ,china1 sacrificed to rivers when bridges are in danger from floods1 #fi footnote1 #bdh4 ,,pingeron1 ,m41 his remarks on ,loyang ,bridge1 #abg4 ,,piranesi1 ,,giambattista1 #agbj-gh1 #aic1 #aig4 ,,pisa1 her chapelled bridge1 #bji4 ,the late ,mr4 ,s4 ,wayland ,kershaw wrote as follows in #ahhb3 8,the most remarkable bridge chapel abroad is the one dedicated to ,santa ,maria del' ,epina on the side of the bridge over the ,arno at ,pisa1 erected about #abcj4 ,built of the rich stone and marble of the district1 it is ornamented with niches and figures1 and1 though renovated and repaired1 still presents a graceful appearance40 ,,pointed ,,arches ,,and ,,vaults1 in ,nature1 #f footnote2 in ,egypt of the ,fourth ,dynasty1 #aee-f2 in ,babylonian work1 #bge footnote2 at ,arpino1 #aef2 in early ,french bridges1 #f footnote1 #hf-ic4 ,,poitou1 in its relation to ribbed arches in bridges1 #ie4 ,,polo1 ,,marco1 #abh1 #baj1 #caj1 #cac4 ,,pons ,,lius1 #aid-e4 ,,pons ,,milius1 #aic footnote4 ,,pons ,,aurelius1 #aig4 ,,pons ,,cestius1 #aif-g4 ,,pons ,,fabricius1 #aie-f4 ,,pons ,,gratianus1 #aif4 ,,pons ,,lapideus1 #adj4 ,,pons ,,milvius1 #aig4 ,,pons ,,neronianus1 #aig4 ,,pons ,,palatinus or ,senatorius1 #aib-c4 ,,pons ,,salarus1 #aia4 ,,pons ,,selmis1 #agh4 ,,pons ,,sublicius1 #da1 #fd1 #acf1 #adj4 ,,pons ,,triumphalis1 #aig4 ,,pons ,,vaticanus1 #aig4 ,,pont ,,au ,,change1 a ,paris bridge1 #bbd4 ,,pont ,,aux ,,meuniers1 a ,paris bridge1 #bbd4 ,,pont ,d',,arc1 a ,nature-made bridge1 #f4 ,,pont ,d',,ambroise1 a ,roman bridge1 #hb4 ,,pont ,,de ,,broel1 a ,flemish war-bridge1 #bij4 ,,pont ,d',,espagne1 a modern ,french bridge1 #bgh4 ,,pont ,,des ,,consuls1 a medival bridge at ,montauban1 #bg1 #bed-f4 ,,pont ,,de ,,vernay at ,airvault1 see the plate facing page #if4 ,,pont ,,du ,,gard1 ,roman bridge-aqueduct1 #hc1 #afg-ge4 ,,pont ,,flavien at ,saint-,chamas1 ,roman bridge1 #agf-g4 ,,pont ,,napol,,on1 a great modern bridge1 #bgh4 ,,pont ,,neuf1 ,paris1 #cba-b1 and the illustration4 ,,pont ,,notre ,,dame1 ,paris1 #bbe4 ,,pont ,,st4 ,b,n,,zet at ,avignon1 frontispiece1 #ha-d1 #bag1 #bcf-i1 #bfb1 #big4 ,,pont ,,st4 ,,cloud1 #bif4 ,,pont ,,st4 ,,esprit1 #ib1 #abf1 #bif et seq4 ,,pont ,,st4 ,,michel at ,paris1 #bbe4 ,,pont ,,valentr at ,cahors1 #bfc-d1 #bhb-e4 ,,pont-,y-,,mynach1 the ,devil's ,bridge near ,aberystwyth1 #fg et seq4 ,,pont-,y-,,pant1 #aca4 ,,pont-,y-,,prydd1 #bh footnote4 ,,ponte ,,augustus at ,rimini1 #aii4 ,,ponte ,,cartaro at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bja4 ,,ponte ,,cecco at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bja4 ,,ponte ,,della ,,trinit at ,florence1 #bbb1 #caf4 ,,ponte ,,di ,,porta ,,cappucina at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bja4 ,,ponte ,,maggiore at ,ascoli-,piceno1 #bjj4 ,,ponte ,,molle1 #aig4 ,,ponte ,,nomentano1 #bih-i2 also the picture facing page #bif4 ,,ponte ,,quattro ,,capi1 #aif4 ,,ponte ,,rotto1 #bc1 #aib4 ,,ponte ,s4 ,,bartolommeo1 #aif4 ,,ponte ,,salaro1 #aia4 ,,ponte ,,sant' ,,angelo1 #aid-e1 #cbd4 ,,ponte ,,sisto1 #aig1 #bfe4 ,,ponte ,,vecchio1 #baj1 #bbb4 ,,pontism1 the historical study of bridges4 ,,pontist1 a devotee of bridges and their history4 ,,pontist ,brothers or ,friars1 or ,frres ,pontifes1 #hc1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #bif1 #big1 #cdb4 ,st4 ,bnzet was one of the leaders in this religious brotherhood of good craftsmen4 ,,porta ,,dell' ,,arco at ,arpino1 celebrated in the history of pointed arches1 #aef-g4 ,,portage ,,bridge1 ,,great1 on the ,genesee ,river1 #cec-d4 ,,porter1 ,,simon1 bailiff at ,old ,shoreham in the year #acah2 his official defence of the neglected timber bridge1 #da-b4 ,,postbridge1 ,dartmoor1 its famous clapper bridge1 #ajd4 ,,pratt1 ,,godfrey1 nefarious guardian of ,old ,bow ,bridge1 #ih-i4 ,,prehistoric ,,bridges1 and their descent from ,nature's models1 see ,chapters ,i and ,,ii4 ,,preston ,,bridge1 #bej footnote4 ,,prior ,,park1 ,palladian ,bridge1 #cdc4 ,,progress ,,in ,,human ,,societies1 its terrible slowness1 #ci1 and section iii1 ,chapter ,i1 8,custom and ,convention10 #ec-hd2 see also #aaj1 #ccc4 ,,puente ,,de ,,san ,,martin at ,toledo1 #bhg-h4 ,,puente ,,la ,,reina1 #bg footnote4 ,,puente ,,nuevo at ,ronda1 #bhj1 and footnote4 ,,puente ,,trajan over the ,tagus at ,alcntara1 #f1 #aec1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #bab1 #cba4 ,,pul-,i-,,kaisar at ,shushter in ,persia1 #bjb-d4 ,,pul-,i-,k,,redj in ,persia1 #bfe-f4 ,,pul-,i-,,khaju at ,isfahan1 #bab-af4 ,,pul-,i-,,marnun at ,isfahan1 #bab2 see also 8,persian ,bridges0 and 8,ali ,verdi ,khan40 ,,pulisangan1 ,china1 #caj-ab4 ,,pulteney1 ,,william1 his bridge at ,bath1 #bba4 ,,puritans1 their enmity to chapelled bridges and to wayside shrines1 #bcj1 #bcc et seq4 ,,pyrenees1 ,,french1 great bridges there1 #bgh-hj4 ,,quakers1 their attitude to the strife that bridges and roads circulate1 #ce-f4 ,,qualities ,,of ,a ,,great ,,bridge1 #cbj4 ,,quicksands ,,of ,,cheapness1 #dh4 ,,rabot1 ,,the1 at ,ghent1 a fortified bridge and lock1 #bhi1 #bia4 ,,railway ,,bridges1 often detestable1 #e1 #gg1 #gh2 conventional arguments which have governed their structure1 #gg2 the ,high ,level ,bridge at ,newcastle1 #gi-ha2 the ,tay ,bridge and its disaster1 #cci-db2 the ,forth ,bridge1 #cej2 the ,illinois and ,st4 ,louis ,bridge over the ,mississippi1 #ceb-c2 the ,great ,portage ,bridge over the ,genesee ,river1 #cec-d4 ,many railway bridges over strategical rivers can be displaced by tunnels1 but many others must be armoured with cone-shaped roofs as a protection against overhead wars from airships and aeroplanes1 #ceh4 ,see ,albi ,railway ,bridge1 the plate facing page #h1 and ,cannon ,street ,railway ,bridge1 the plate facing page #dh4 ,,rameses ,,ii1 ,,temple ,,of1 at ,abydos1 has a primitive vault built with horizontal courses of stone1 showing its descent from the rock archways made by ,nature1 #aee4 ,,refinement1 a quality often overdone in ,british art1 #afh4 ,,reichenau1 ,,john ,,grubenmann',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #adb4 ,,relief ,,bays ,,for ,,flood ,,water1 they were introduced by the ,romans1 #bhd1 and were copied by medival bridgemen2 witness the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 #bee1 #bef1 and the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit1 #bic1 #big4 ,pontists should note both the difference of shape in flood-water bays and the variation of their position in the architecture4 ,at ,mrida1 for example1 in the great squat ,roman bridge1 they are long and round-headed1 and rise from the low and bold cutwaters1 which are overgrown with grey-green mosses and grass4 ,on the other hand1 a ,moorish bridge of four arches near ,tangier has much smaller relief bays with round heads1 and they are pierced high up through the spandrils4 ,they look like three little windows that give light and air to a work of sun-bleached antiquity4 ,moreover1 their shape is repeated in about a dozen little holes cut through the base of the parapet1 perhaps to help in the drainage of the roadway1 perhaps to be useful in military defence4 ,this ,moorish bridge has semicircular arches1 and the road is inclined over each abutment1 just like the ,roman bridge at ,rimini4 ,but the technical sentiment is less virile than the ,roman4 ,,religious ,,emblems ,,or ,,symbols on ,historic ,bridges1 such as the ,phallus on the ,pont du ,gard1 #agd2 the ,janus heads on the ,pons ,fabricius1 #aif2 the idol or image on the ,chinese bridge at ,shih-,chuan1 #bdg2 and the cross and crucifix on ,gothic bridges of the ,middle ,ages1 #if1 #bcj1 #bdf4 ,the symbolic lion and tortoise on the ,chinese bridge of ,pulisangan were borrowed from the singa and ,krma of ,hindu mythology1 #caa footnote4 ,i should like the cross to be raised again on all bridges in unfortified towns1 as a protest against a ,teutonic misuse of flying warfare4 ,,renaissance1 ,,the1 and its ,genius1 in the war-bridge at ,wrzburg1 ,bavaria1 #bei2 in ,venetian bridges1 #baa-ab1 #cjg1 #cae-af2 in the bastille bridge at ,chtellerault1 #cca-d2 in the gradual decline of bridges from military forethought into a complete disregard for national defence1 #ccf-dd2 in wasteful artistry such as redundant ornament and too elaborate parapets1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,,rennie1 ,,george1 his design for ,london ,new ,bridge has defects of scale1 #bef1 #beg4 ,,rennie1 ,,john1 b4 #agfa--;d4 #ahba1 his poor bridge over the ,thames at ,southwark was financed by a ,company1 not by the ,city1 as if ,london were a trivial village with some new industries that needed encouragement1 #cbf-g4 ,,rennie1 ,,sir ,,john1 son of ,john ,rennie and brother of ,george ,rennie1 was the acting engineer during the building of ,new ,london ,bridge1 according to ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin4 ,,research1 its illimitable scope in the study of bridges1 #c-ac4 ,,rh,,ne1 ,,the ,,river1 his two famous old bridges1 the ,pont ,st4 ,bnzet and the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit1 both constructed by the ,frres ,pontifes1 or ,pontist ,brothers4 ,see ,brangwyn's pictures and the text4 ,,rialto1 ,venice1 #bji1 #baa-ab4 ,,ribbed ,,arches1 like those in the ,monnow ,bridge at ,monmouth1 #bha1 and the ,pont de ,vernay at ,airvault1 ,deux-,svres1 plate facing page #if4 ,the introduction of ribbed vaulting into ,english churches and bridges1 #ic-ajj4 ,professor ,moseley's remarks on groined or ribbed arches may be quoted here from ,hann and ,hosking's profuse volumes4 8,the groin 444 is nothing more than an arch whose voussoirs vary as well in breadth as in depth4 ,the centres of gravity of the different elementary voussoirs of this mass lie all in its plane of symmetry4 ,its line of resistance is therefore in that plane4444 ,four groins commonly spring from one abutment2 each opposite pair being addossed1 and each adjacent pair uniting their margins4 ,thus they lend one another mutual support1 partake in the properties of a dome1 and form a continued covering4 ,the groined arch is of all arches the most stable2 and could materials be found of sufficient strength to form its abutments and the parts about its springing1 ,i am inclined to think that it might be built safely of any required degree of flatness1 and that spaces of enormous dimensions might readily be covered by it40 ,yet 8modern builders1 whilst they have erected the common arch on a scale of magnitude nearly approaching perhaps the limits to which it can be safely carried1 have been remarkably timid in the use of the groin40 ,progress may be compared to a dilatory army that ever fails to march forward with all its needed units4 ,,richmond ,,bridge1 ,yorkshire1 had a chapel1 #bca4 ,,rimini1 her ,roman bridges1 #hb1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bbj4 ,,ring ,,of ,,an ,,arch1 the compressed arc of voussoirs1 #bfd2 the lower surface of a ring is called the soffit of an arch4 ,in some bridges the voussoirs form a double or a triple ring1 #cje1 and footnote4 ,two very fine bridges of this sort1 in my collection of photographs1 are the ,pont de ,vernay at ,airvault1 #abth century1 and the ,pont ,saint-,gnroux over the ,thout1 also in ,deux-,svres1 #acth and #adth centuries4 ,another monument to be studied is the reputed ,roman bridge at ,viviers over the ,rhne1 built mainly with small materials4 ,whether ,roman or ,romanesque1 the structure of the arches has great interest1 and a large photograph is sold by ,neurdein1 #eb ,avenue de ,breteuil1 ,paris4 ,,rivers1 how their violence has given lessons to bridge-builders1 #aha4 ,,roads1 ,,ancient ,,british1 #bb2 ,roman1 #aci1 and footnote2 they and bridges circulate all the strife in the overland enterprise of mankind1 #d1 #ad-eb2 types of society are as old as their systems of circulation1 just as women and men are as old as their arteries1 #ac2 medival roads in ,england1 #ea1 #eb4 ,many of them were a survival of the ,roman empire1 in which the construction of highways was a military and political necessity4 ,the genuinely medival roads connected new towns with the main or ancient thoroughfares1 which had traversed ,roman ,britain from her principal colonies1 ,london and ,york1 to the other settlements4 8,the roads of ,england10 says ,thorold ,rogers1 8are roughly exhibited in a fourteenth century map still preserved in the ,bodleian ,library1 and are identical with many of the highways which we know familiarly4 ,in time these highways fell out of repair1 and were put in the eighteenth century under the ,turnpike ,acts1 when they were repaired4 ,but comparatively little of the mileage of ,english roads is modern4 ,what has been constructed has generally been some shorter and easier routes1 for in the days of the stage-coaches it was highly expedient to equalize the stages40 ,,roanne1 ,,pont ,,de1 its length and its cost1 #cef4 ,,robin ,,hood ,,ballads1 their rustic charm is repeated in some old ,english bridges1 #i1 #dd4 ,,roche ,,perc,e1 ,,la1 at ,biarritz1 natural arched opening1 #aea4 ,,roche ,,trou,e1 ,,la1 near ,saint-,gilles ,croix-de-,vie1 #aea4 ,,rochester ,,bridge and her ,chapel1 #bdc-f4 ,,rock-,,basins1 their formation by the erosive power of glaciers1 #aeb1 and footnote4 ,,rock-,,bridges1 or bridges made by ,nature1 #f1 and footnote1 #aej-c4 ,,rogers1 ,,thorold1 ,,professor1 on medivalism and industrialism1 #dg2 on medival roads1 #eb2 see also 8,roads40 ,,roman ,,gateways to defend bridges1 #agf-g1 #bgb4 ,,roman ,,genius1 #bc-e1 #bf-g1 #cj1 and ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,roman ,,castles ,,or ,,towers to defend bridges1 at ,mrida1 #ahb1 at ,alcantarilla1 #cfg-h4 ,,rome1 ,,ancient1 her bridges1 #aic et seq4 ,,ronda ,,and ,,her ,,bridges1 #ahc1 #bhj1 and footnote4 ,,rondelet',s 8,essai ,historique sur le ,pont de ,rialto10 #bab4 ,,roofed ,,bridges1 the ,pons lius is said to have had a bronze cover upheld by forty-two pillars1 #aie2 ,chinese examples1 at ,ching-tu-fu1 #baa footnote1 in ,western ,china1 #bia2 ,grubenmann's timber bridge at ,schaffhausen1 #ada2 ,italian1 at ,pavia1 #cjh1 at ,venice1 #baa2 ,sumatra1 #bia2 ,swiss1 #bia-b2 steel-clad roofs to protect bridges from airships and aeroplanes1 #ceh1 #cei4 ,,rope1 its first model was the twisted stem of a vine-like creeping plant1 #ade2 bamboo ropes1 #ade1 #cdh1 and footnote2 ropes of ,peruvian grass1 #adf-g4 ,,ross-,,on-,,wye1 ,wilton ,bridge1 an ,elizabethan structure with ribbed arches and angular recesses for pedestrians1 #id1 #ahb1 and footnote4 ,recently1 ,i regret to say1 this beautiful old bridge has been attacked by the highwaymen called road officials2 and now she is horribly scarred all over with 8pointing10 just like the mishandled ,roman bridge at ,alcntara4 ,a new bridge of ferro-concrete1 suitable for motor lorries and the like1 would have cost the county less than this uneducated trifling with a genuine masterpiece4 ,,rostro-,,carinate1 flint tools shaped like an eagle's beak1 #abj4 ,,rotherham ,,bridge ,,and ,,her ,,chapel1 #ic1 #bji1 #bai1 #bcb-c4 ,,rothenburg on the ,tauber1 her two-storeyed bridge1 #bga4 ,,rotto1 ,,ponte1 at ,rome1 #bc1 #aib1 #aic4 ,,rousseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques1 ,french philosopher and writer1 born in ,geneva1 #agab1 d4 #aggh2 his visit to the ,pont du ,gard1 #afh4 ,,rules ,,of ,,war in the ,middle ,ages1 curious ,french examples1 #bcg1 #bda-b4 ,,runcorn ,,bridge1 dating from #ahfh1 #bge4 ,,saint ,,angelo',s ,,bridge at ,rome1 #aid-e1 #cbd4 ,,saint ,b,n,,zet',s ,,bridge at ,avignon1 frontispiece1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #bag1 #bcf-h1 #bfb1 #bhj footnote4 ,,saint-,,chamas and the ,pont ,flavien1 #agf-g4 ,,saint-,,cloud1 ,,pont1 #bif4 ,,saint-,,esprit1 ,,pont1 #ib1 #bic-h4 ,,st4 ,,ives in ,huntingdonshire1 her chapelled bridge1 #bcb4 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,bridge at ,toledo1 #bhe1 #bhg-h4 ,,st4 ,,michel1 ,,pont1 ,paris1 #bbe4 ,,st4 ,,neot',s ,,bridge1 #cje footnote4 ,,saint-,,nicolas1 ,,pont1 on the road to ,nmes1 #bie4 ,,saint-,,thib,,ry1 a ,roman bridge near1 #agh4 ,,saintes1 ,,bridge ,,at1 in ,france1 and its tremendous fortifications1 #cjj-a4 ,,salamanca1 ,roman bridge at1 #ahb1 #bhe footnote4 ,,salaro1 ,,ponte1 #aia4 ,,salford ,,bridge1 its date1 #bej footnote4 8,,sans-,,pareil1 ,,le10 ,beffara's bridge near ,ardres1 #cje-f4 ,,sargisson1 ,c4 ,s41 pontist1 vi1 #fa footnote1 #afc4 ,,savoy1 hills of1 survival there of ,gaulish timber bridges1 #gj-a4 ,,scale in the ,proportion of ,bridges1 #bef2 defective in many ,english bridges1 #bef-g4 ,,scatcherd1 ,n41 his writing on ,wakefield ,bridge ,chapel1 #bbh footnote1 #bcj4 ,,schaffhausen1 ,ulric ,grubenmann's bridge at1 #ada-b4 ,,schloss ,,br,,cke at ,berlin1 a feeble copy of the ,ponte ,sant' ,angelo in ,rome1 #cbd4 ,,scientific ,,bridges1 ,modern1 #ccg-db1 #cdi-ec4 ,,scotch ,,bridges1 #dd4 ,,scotch1 their neglect of ribbed arches1 #id4 ,,seg,,via1 the ,roman ,aqueduct1 visited by ,marshal ,ney1 #ahc-d2 its technique1 #ahi4 ,,semiramis1 her reputed bridge over the ,euphrates at ,babylon1 #bgc-d4 ,,sentimentalists1 ,,british1 #cc et seq41 #bid1 #cfj-a4 ,,sewers1 ,roman1 #afa4 ,,sex ,,in ,,bridges1 #aid1 #bhd-e1 #bic-d4 ,,sextus ,,iv and the ,ponte ,sisto1 #aig1 #bfe4 ,,shakespeare1 his debt to the ,medival ,church1 #bcc4 ,,shapur ,i of ,persia1 #bjb4 ,,shih-,,chuan1 in ,western ,china1 its important bridge1 #bdg4 ,,shoreham ,,bridge1 ,,old1 in ,sussex1 #da-c4 ,,shrewsbury1 ,,welsh ,,bridge ,,at1 used to be a fortified work1 #bfa4 ,,shrines1 ,,wayside1 #bjg1 #bcj1 #bcf1 #bdf-g4 ,,shrined ,,bridge at ,elche in ,spain1 picture facing page #bcf2 at ,trier over the ,moselle1 #bdg4 ,,shushter1 in ,persia1 the ,pul-i-,kaisar1 #bjb-d4 ,,sichuan1 ,china1 bridges in this province1 #abf1 #ade1 #baj footnote1 #bdh1 #cae1 #cdg4 ,,sighs1 ,,bridge ,,of1 #cjg4 ,,sin-,,din-,,fu1 now called ,ching-tu-fu1 this city's bridges as seen by ,marco ,polo1 #baj footnote4 ,,sisto1 ,,ponte1 #aig1 #bfe4 ,,slab-,,bridges with ,stone ,piers1 #abe-h2 see also #fa-c1 #ajj-e4 ,,sleep is united by bad dreams to the law of battle1 vii4 ,,smeaton1 ,,john1 ,english civil engineer1 b4 #agbd--;d4 #agib1 his big 8scientific0 bridge over the ,tyne at ,hexham was a tragic failure1 #cci4 ,,smiles1 ,,samuel1 ,scottish author and pontist1 #ajd4 ,,smith1 ,,sir ,,william1 ,english classical scholar1 the ,pons ,sublicius1 #adj2 the ,porta dell' ,arco at ,arpino1 #aeg2 the stones employed in the ,pont du ,gard1 #aga footnote2 the masonry of the ,pont du ,gard1 #age footnote2 ,roman aqueducts1 #ahi footnote2 the ,pons ,salarus1 #aia2 ,pons ,cestius1 #aif2 ,pons ,neronianus1 #aig4 ,,smyrna1 ,roman ,bridge and ,aqueduct1 #afd4 ,,sommi,,res1 on the ,vidourle1 ,roman bridge at1 #agi4 ,,sospel1 ,,gateway ,,bridge ,,at1 #bgf4 ,,southwark ,,bridge1 ,london1 its queer history1 #cbf-g1 #ceg4 ,,spain ,,and ,,her ,,bridges1 #ac1 #bg-i1 #ajd-e1 #agi-hh1 #bch1 #bhe-i4 ,,spans1 ,,wide1 ,,in ,,stone ,,bridges1 the ,puente de ,san ,martin1 ,toledo1 #adj feet1 #bhh2 at ,trezzo1 #bea feet1 #cji2 ,grosvenor ,bridge1 ,chester1 #bjj feet1 #cji2 ,trajan's ,bridge over the ,tagus1 #cji ,new ,london ,bridge1 and ,waterloo ,bridge1 #cji-aj2 ,pont de ,gignac and ,pont de ,lavaur1 #afj feet each1 #caj2 ,bridge of ,cho-,gan1 ,china1 #cac-ad4 ,,speed-,,worship1 and its effects on the strife that bridges and roads circulate1 #dh4 ,,spiders gave lessons to primitive men in the building of suspension bridges1 #ade4 ,,spiers1 ,r4 ,,phen1 architect and writer on architecture1 #aij1 #aii4 ,,springers1 the voussoirs at the springing of an arch4 ,,springing ,,of ,,an ,,arch1 the plane of demarcation between the ring and the abutment is called the springing4 ,in other words1 the springing marks the place where a ring of voussoirs starts out on its upward curve from a pier or from an abutment4 ,,sr,,nagar1 capital of ,kashmr1 her bridges with criss-cross piers of deodar logs or trunks1 #ga-b4 ,,staircase ,,bridge in ,china1 #bdh4 ,,tahmasp1 ,,shah1 of ,persia1 who reigned from #aebc to #aege1 built the ,pul-i-,marnun at ,isfahan1 #bab4 ,,talavera ,,bridge1 ,spain1 #bhe footnote4 ,,tarabita1 a ,peruvian suspension bridge1 #adf4 ,,tarragona1 ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,at1 #ahi4 ,,tavignano1 ,,river1 in ,corsica1 and its old military bridge shaped like a ,z1 #bch4 ,,taxes to help the building and repair of bridges1 in ,london1 #ej2 at ,montauban1 #bee4 ,,telford1 ,,thomas1 ,scottish engineer1 b4 #ageg--;d4 #ahcd2 his views on ,grubenmann's bridge at ,schaffhausen1 #ada-b2 on ,inigo ,jones's bridge at ,llanrwst1 #bhb footnote2 his foolish bridge at ,craigellachie1 #cdi4 ,,tennyson1 on ,nature's strife1 #cg2 his talk with a jerry-builder1 #gh4 ,,tenorio1 ,,pedro1 ,,archbishop1 renewed the bridges of ,toledo1 fourteenth century1 #bhg1 #bhh-i4 ,,terrace-,,walk on the ,pul-i-,khaju at ,isfahan1 #bae1 and on the ,ali ,verdi ,khan1 #bgj4 ,,terror inspired by the slowness of human progress1 #ee-f4 ,,tertiary ,,times1 their handicraft1 #abj-a4 ,,tessanges1 ,,jean ,,de1 ,abbot of ,cluny1 who commissioned the building of the ,pont ,st4 ,esprit1 #big4 ,,tewkesbury1 ,,king ,,john',s ,,bridge ,,at1 #beh footnote4 ,,thames ,,bridges1 #if1 #bef2 see also 8,london ,bridge0 and 8,westminster ,bridge40 ,,thebes1 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,ammon-,r1 an early arch1 #aee4 ,,theory1 defined1 #aa2 misuse of this great word1 #ab4 ,,theory1 ,,the1 ,,of ,,pontine ,,defence1 #ad-ag1 and of the universality of strife1 #ag-eb4 ,,thirlmere1 a primitive structure at1 which is partly a dam1 partly a bridge1 #aca4 ,,thornton1 ,,roger1 of ,newcastle1 in #adbi1 bequeathed a hundred marks to the ,tyne ,bridge1 #aj4 ,,thouars1 in ,deux-,svres1 ,gothic bridge at1 #bge4 ,,thrift ,,in ,,bridge-,,building1 #bfd-e1 #cbe-f4 ,,tiber1 ,,the1 and the sacrifice of human beings1 #fd4 ,,tiberius1 he finished the beautiful ,roman bridge at ,rimini1 which ,augustus had begun1 #bja4 ,,ticino1 ,,the ,,river1 and the covered bridge at ,pavia1 #cjh4 ,,tiles1 they have been used in some ,chinese bridges1 #baa footnote2 ,persian bricks resemble ,roman tiles1 #bfg2 the spandrils of the ,pul-i-,khaju at ,isfahan are mostly filled in with modern tiles1 #bae4 ,,timber ,,bridges1 the earliest1 #c1 #eh1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #abc2 tree-bridges with stone piers1 #abi-cb2 tree-bridges with timber piles1 #acc-e2 some typical timber bridges1 #acf-dc2 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 #adb-c1 #cec2 see also 8,criss-cross ,piers40 ,,tiryns1 early vaults at1 #aeg4 ,,todentanzbrucke ,,at ,,lucerne1 #bib4 ,,toledo ,,and ,,her ,,bridges1 #bhe-i4 ,,tordesillas ,,bridge1 ,spain1 #bhe footnote4 ,,tortoise1 ,,symbolic1 used in the decoration of some ,chinese bridges1 #caa4 ,,tournai1 ,,pont ,,des ,,trous ,,at1 #bij4 ,,tours1 ,,pont ,,de1 on the ,loire1 her cost and her length1 #ceg2 see the picture facing p4 #cdd4 ,,tower ,,bridge1 ,london1 #gh1 #cbg2 see the two illustrations facing pages #hj and #cbh4 ,,trajan',s ,,bridge over the ,danube1 #abi-cj4 ,,trajan',s ,,bridge over the ,tagus1 #ahc-g1 #cji4 ,,treasury ,,of ,,atreus at ,mycenae1 #aeh-i4 ,,tree-,,bridges1 #c1 #d1 #eh1 #aad1 #aae-ai1 #abb1 #abc2 tree-bridges with stone piers1 #abi-cb2 tree-bridges with timber piles1 #acc-e4 ,,trezzo ,,bridge1 destroyed by ,carmagnola1 #cji-aj4 ,,triangular ,,arches1 #aeg1 #afj-a4 ,,triangular ,,bridge at ,crowland1 see 8,crowland02 in ,spain1 #aha4 ,,trier ,,bridge over the ,moselle1 with her shrines1 #bdg4 ,,trinit at ,florence1 #caf-ag4 ,,trinoda ,,necessitas1 and its relation to bridges and roads1 #dj et seq4 ,,triumphal ,,arches1 ,roman1 on the ,pont ,flavien at ,saint-,chamas1 #agf2 on the bridge at ,saintes1 #cja1 and footnote2 on a ,chinese bridge described by ,gauthey1 #cae4 ,,triumphalis1 ,,pons1 #aig4 ,,truth differs from fact1 #aa4 ,,truths1 ,,technical1 in ,bridge-building1 #ac4 ,,tudela ,,bridge1 ,spain1 #bhe footnote4 ,,tunnels bored under water by ants1 #abb2 tunnels to displace many of those strategical bridges which airships and aeroplanes could wreck with bombs1 #ei1 #ceh4 ,,turner1 ,j4 ,m4 ,w41 his 8,walton ,bridges10 #f4 ,,turnpike ,,act ,,of #aggc1 #ei4 ,,turkish ,,bridge at ,zakho1 #fe-f4 ,,twizel ,,bridge and ,flodden ,field1 #id4 ,,ulloa1 ,,antonio ,,de1 ,spanish ,admiral and traveller1 b4 #agaf--;d4 #agie1 his book on ,south ,america2 primitive timber bridges1 #ace2 the tarabita1 a ,peruvian suspension bridge1 #adf2 the fifth ,ynca's bridge of rushes1 #adf-g2 bujuco bridges1 #adg-h4 ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america1 #adb-c1 #ceb-d4 ,,uz,s1 on the road to ,nmes1 the ,pont ,saint-,nicolas1 ,,xiii century1 #bie-f4 ,,vaison1 in ,vaucluse1 an important ,roman bridge at1 #agf4 ,,valentr1 ,,pont1 at ,cahors1 famous war-bridge1 #bg1 #bfc-d1 #bhb-e1 and two illustrations4 ,,vaticanus1 ,,pons1 #aig4 ,,vauxhall ,,bridge1 ,london1 date and cost1 #ceg4 ,,vecchio1 ,,ponte1 ,florence1 #baj1 #bbb4 ,,venice1 the ,rialto1 #bji1 #baa-ab1 and the picture facing page #bab2 ,ponte della ,paglia1 the picture facing page #aeb2 a canal bridge1 #cbi4 ,,verona4 ,the fine ,veronese bridges are not mentioned in this monograph2 they passed from the text in a revision2 but pontists know them well1 and set great store by the charming ,ponte di ,pietra1 and by the old sloping bridge with forked battlements that swaggers picturesquely across the ,adige from the ,castel ,vecchio4 ,the ,ponte di ,pietra rises from ancient foundations and she still retains two ,roman arches1 certainly often restored2 the other spans are gracefully architectural4 ,a circular bay for the relief of floods tunnels the spandrils above the cutwater of the middle pier4 ,,vicenza1 two bridges of ,roman origin1 #aii4 ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc1 ,,eug,,ne ,,emmanuel1 ,french architect and historian of architecture1 b4 #ahad--;d4 #ahgi4 ,gaulish bridges1 #gj1 #ga2 arcs doubleaux1 or ribbed arches1 #id1 #ie2 the millers' bridge at ,meaux1 #bbc2 some other mill bridges1 #bbd2 on the shape of cutwaters1 #bfb2 on the martial bridge at ,saintes1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,,visconti1 ,,bernab1 founder of the bridge at ,trezzo1 #cji4 ,,visconti1 ,,gian ,,galeazzo1 founder of the covered bridge at ,pavia1 #cjh4 ,,vitruvius1 #aij4 ,,volcanoes1 their lava hardened into a thick crust over many gaps in the land forming slab-bridges1 #abd4 ,,voussoirs1 or archstones2 they form the compressed arc called the ring4 ,,wakefield ,,bridge and her ,chapel1 #bji1 #bbf-cj4 ,,wales1 her bridges1 #de1 #df2 see also 8,brecon10 8,llangollen10 8,pont-y-,pant10 and 8,pont-y-,prydd40 ,,walla ,,brook1 ,dartmoor1 #fj1 #ajj4 ,,wallingford ,,bridge had a ,chapel1 #bca4 ,,waltham ,,abbey ,,and ,,harold',s ,,bridge1 #afc4 ,,war1 every sort of human enterprise must be a phase of war1 for it claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed2 strife everywhere is the historian of life1 vii2 examples of this truth chosen from the illusion named ,peace1 #ag1 #cc-f2 see also 8,strife and ,historic ,bridges10 #ad-eb4 ,,war1 ,,the ,,present ,,great1 against ,germany and ,austria1 vii1 #cc footnote1 #cej1 #ceh-fa4 ,,war-,,bridges1 vii2 a broken one of the ,,xiii century at ,narni in ,italy1 #ad1 #bgg-h2 a fine one of the ,,xiv century at ,orthez in ,france1 #ah1 #bgh-i2 how war-bridges originated1 #aah-ai2 ,roman examples at ,mrida1 #ahb1 and ,alcantarilla1 #cfg2 the ,pont des ,consuls at ,montauban1 #bed-f2 ,wrzburg ,bridge in ,bavaria1 #bei2 the drawbridge of ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bfj-a2 ,warkworth ,bridge1 #bfa-b2 ,pont ,valentr at ,cahors1 #bfc-d1 #bhb-e2 in ,bhutan1 ,india1 #bgb et seq42 at ,sospel1 #bgf2 ,monnow ,bridge at ,monmouth1 #bha-b2 the ,alcntara at ,toledo1 #bhe et seq42 ,puente de ,san ,martin at ,toledo1 #bhg-i2 defensive bridges in ,flemish towns1 #bhi-ia2 covered defensive bridges of timber1 #bia-c2 ,pont ,st4 ,esprit over the ,rhne1 #bic-h2 ,ponte ,nomentano in the ,campagna1 #bih-cjj2 at ,laroque1 near ,cahors1 #cjj2 the bridge at ,saintes in ,france1 destroyed in #ahdc1 #cjj-a2 the evolution from fortified bridges into defenceless viaducts1 ,chapter ,v2 new battle-bridges essential1 #cee-fa4 ,,warkworth ,,bridge1 #ic1 #beh1 #bfa-b4 ,,warrington ,,bridge1 its date1 #bej footnote4 ,,waterloo ,,bridge1 ,london1 #cbe-f4 ,,watermills ,,on ,,bridges1 #bji1 #bbc-d2 see also the picture of ,millau ,bridge facing page #ceb4 ,,wayside ,,shrines1 #bjg1 #bcj1 #bcf1 #bdf-g4 ,,weavers' ,,bridge1 ,wycollar1 ,lancashire1 #fj-c4 ,,wellington1 ,,duke ,,of1 how he repaired the broken arch of the ,puente ,trajan over the ,tagus1 #af1 #ahf2 at ,toulouse1 #bhj2 on blowing up modern bridges1 #cei4 ,,welsh ,,bridges1 #de1 #df2 see also 8,brecon10 8,llangollen10 8,pont-y-,pant10 and 8,pont-y-,prydd40 ,,west ,,rasen1 ,lincolnshire1 a bridge with a double ring of voussoirs1 #cje4 ,,westminster ,,bridge1 ,london1 #cbg1 #ceg4 ,,wheeled ,,traffic always postulates some good roads and bridges1 #bb4 ,,wheels1 their wonderful importance in mankind's history1 #eh1 #aed4 ,,wigram1 ,,edgar1 artist and writer on ,spain1 vi1 #bg1 #gc et seq41 #ajd1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #bhj1 #bhe1 #cfg4 ,,wigram1 ,,the ,,rev4 ,w4 ,a41 ,d4,d41 his notes on ,kurdistan bridges1 #gd-f4 ,,wilton ,,bridge1 ,ross-on-,wye1 ,elizabethan2 see 8,ross-on-,wye40 ,,william1 ,,saint1 and the ,ouse ,bridge at ,york1 #bda4 ,,winchester1 ,,the ,,statute ,,of1 #bjg4 ,,windmills ,,and ,,bridges1 #bjh1 #bai1 #bbd-e4 ,,wittengen ,,bridge1 #adb4 ,,worcester1 ,,battle ,,of1 and ,old ,pershore ,bridge1 #cee4 ,w,,rzburg ,,bridge1 #bei4 ,,wyatt1 ,,sir ,,thomas1 in the revolt of #aeec1 tried to cross the ,thames1 but was thwarted by the drawbridge on ,old ,london ,bridge1 #bfa4 ,,wycollar ,,valley1 ,lancashire1 its primitive bridges1 #fj et seq4 ,,xerxes1 his bridge over the ,hellespont1 see 8,bridge of ,boats40 ,,york1 ,ouse ,bridge at1 #bda et seq4 ,y-,,shaped ,,branches ,,in ,,primitive ,,bridges1 #adh4 ,,zakho1 in ,asiatic ,turkey1 the legend of its bridge1 #fe-f4 ,,zamora1 ,spain1 her fortified old bridge1 #bhe4 ,,zaragoza1 her famous bridge1 partly ,roman1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,,zendeh ,,rud1 ,isfahan1 #bab-ae1 #bfh-gj4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these were left unchanged1 as were obsolete and alternative spellings4 ,misspelled words were corrected4 ,the captions to several images are not identical to the descriptions of them in the ,list of ,colour ,plates4 ,words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores1 like this4 ,those in bold are surrounded by equal signs1 like this4 ,footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the end of the chapter4 ,footnotes #aji and #aae have two anchors4 ,obvious printing errors1 such as partially printed letters and punctuation1 were corrected4 ,final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were added4 ,mid-paragraph illustrations were moved to the nearest paragraph break4 8,lllenknig0 was replaced with 8,laellenkoenig0 for consistency with other entries4