,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,und]scores 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate italics 9 ! orig9al text4 ,small capitals h be5 conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d n break up p>agraphs4 ,old or antiquat$ spell+s h be5 pres]v$4 ,typographical & punctuation errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,,soils ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,mm ,co ,,_! ,,=mation1 ,,prop]ties1 ,,composition1 ,,& ,,relations ,,to ,,climate ,,& ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,9 ,,! ,,humid ,,& ,,arid ,,regions ,,by ,e4 ,w4 ,,hilg>d1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,agriculture ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cali=nia1 ,,& ,,director ,,( ,,! ,,cali=nia ,,agricultural ,,exp]im5t ,,/ation ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #aiba ,,copyright1 #aijf1 ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,july1 #aijf4 ,norwood ,press3 ,b]wick ,smi? ,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,*apt]s4 #a4 ,,orig9 ,,& ,,=mation ,,( ,,soils4 ,introduction4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,physical ,processes ( ,soil ,=mation4 8 ,,ii4 ,*emical ,processes ( ,soil ,=mation4 8 ,,iii4 ,*ief ,soil-=m+ ,m9]als4 8 ,,iv4 ,! ,v>i\s ,rocks z ,soil-,=m]s4 8 ,v4 ,m9or ,m9]al ,+r$i5ts ( ,soils4 ,m9]al ,f]tiliz]s4 ,m9]als ,injuri\s to ,agriculture4 #b4 ,,physics ,,( ,,soils4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,physical ,composition ( ,soils4 8 ,,vii4 ,d5sity1 ,pore ,space1 & ,volume-,weight ( ,soils4 8 ,,viii4 ,soil & ,subsoil2 ,causes & ,processes ( ,diff]5tiation2 ,humus4 8 ,,ix4 ,soil & ,subsoil2 ,organisms ,influ5c+ ,soil-,conditions4 ,bact]ia4 8 ,x4 ,soil & ,subsoil 9 _! ,relations to ,vegetation4 8 ,,xi4 ,wat] ( ,soils2 ,hygroscopic & ,capill>y ,moi/ure4 8 ,,xii4 ,wat] ( ,soils2 ,surface1 ,hydro/atic1 & ,gr\nd wat]2 ,p]colation4 8 ,,xiii4 ,wat] ( ,soils2 ,cons]vation & ,regulation ( ,soil ,moi/ure4 ,irrigation4 8 ,,xiv4 ,absorption by ,soils ( ,solids f ,solutions4 ,absorption ( ,gases4 ,! ,air ( ,soils4 8 ,,xv4 ,colors ( ,soils4 8 ,,xvi4 ,climate4 8 ,,xvii4 ,relations ( ,soils & ,plant-,gr[? to ,heat4 #c4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,soils4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,physico-,*emical ,inve/igation ( ,soils 9 ,relation to ,crop ,production4 8 ,,xix4 ,analysis ( ,virg9 ,soils by ,extraction ) ,/rong ,acids1 & its ,int]pretation4 8 ,,xx4 ,soils ( ,arid & ,humid ,regions4 8 ,,xxi4 ,soils ( ,arid & ,humid ,regions cont9u$4 8 ,,xxii4 ,alkali ,soils1 _! ,nature & ,composition4 8 ,,xxiii4 ,utilization & ,reclamation ( ,alkali ,l&s4 #d4 ,,soils ,,& ,,native ,,vegetation4 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,recognition ( ! ,"* ( ,soils f _! ,native ,vegetation4 ,mississippi4 8 ,,xxv4 ,recognition ( ! ,"* ( ,soils f _! ,native ,vegetation4 ,unit$ ,/ates at l>ge1 ,europe4 8 ,,xxvi4 ,vegetation ( ,sal9e & ,alkali ,l&s4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,preface xiii ,,introduction1 xxiii4--,def9ition ( ,soils1 xxiii4--,elem5ts ,con/itut+ ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 xxiii4--,av]age ,quantitative ,composition ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 xxiii4--,cl>ke's ,table1 xxiv4--,oxids ,con/itute ,e>?'s ,cru/1 xxiv4--,elem5ts ,important to ,agriculture2 ,table1 xxv4--,! ,volatile ,"p ( ,plants1 xxvi4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,ag5cies ,,( ,,soil ,,=mation1 #a4--a4 ,physical ,ag5cies1 #a4--;,effects ( ,heat & ,cold on ,rocks1 #a4--,unequal ,expansion ( ,cry/als1 #b4--;,cleavage ( ,rocks1 #c4--;,effects ( ,freez+ ,wat]1 #c4--;,glaci]s2 ,figure1 #c4--;,glaci] ,fl\r & ,mud1 #d4--8;,gre50 & 8,:ite0 ,riv]s1 #d4--,mora9es1 #e4--;,action ( ,fl[+ ,wat]1 #e4--;,enorm\s ,result ( ,corrasion & ,d5udation1 #f4--;,effects ( ,w9ds1 #h4--;,dunes1 #h4--,s& & ,du/ ,/orms 9 ,des]ts1 ,cont95tal ,plateaus & ,pla9s1 #h4--,loess ( ,*9a1 #i4--,migration ( ,gobi ,lakes1 #i4--;,classification ( ,soils1 #aj4--,_! ,physical ,con/itu5ts1 #aj4--,s$5t>y or ,residual ,soils1 #aa4--;,colluvial ,soils1 #ab4--;,alluvial ,soils4 ,diagram1 #ab4--;,"* ( ^! ,soil ,classes1 #ac4--,ri*ness ( ,flood-pla9 & ,delta ,l&s1 #ad4--,l[]+ ( ! ,l& ,surface by ,soil ,=mation1 #ae4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,*emical ,,processes ,,( ,,soil ,,=mation1 #af4--b4 ,*emical ,dis9tegrations or ,decomposition1 #af4--;,+r$i5ts ( ! ,atmosph]e1 #af4--;,effects ( ,wat]2 ( ,c>bonic ,acid1 #ag4--;,c>bonat$ wat] a univ]sal solv5t1 #ag4--;,ammonic c>bonate1 effect on silicates1 #ah4--;,action ( oxyg52 on f]r\s comp\nds1 #ah4--;,action ( ,plants & _! ,remnants1 #ai4--;,a4 ,me*anical2 ,=ce ( ,root ,p5etration1 #ai4--;,b4 ,*emical2 ,action ( ,root ,secretions1 #ai4--;,bact]ial ,action1 #bj4--;,humification1 #bj4--;,causes ,influ5c+ ,*emical ,action & ,decomposition1 #ba4--;,heat & ,moi/ure1 #ba4--;,influ5ce ( ,ra9fall on ,soil-,=mation1 #bb4--,lea*+ ( ! ,l&1 #bb4--,residual ,soils1 #bb4--;,dra9 ,wat]s2 ,riv] ,wat]s4 ,tables ( ,solid ,cont5ts1 #bb4--;,am\nt ( ,dissolv$ ,matt]s ,c>ri$ into ! ,sea2 ,am\nt ( ,s$im5t1 #bd4--,sea ,wat]1 ,composition (2 ,wat]s ( ,l&lock$ ,lakes1 #be4--,results ( ,insuffici5t ,ra9fall2 ,alkali ,l&s1 #bh4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,rock-,,& ,,soil-,,=m+ ,,m9]als1 #bi4--,qu>tz1 qu>tzite1 jasp]1 horn/one1 fl9t1 #bi4--,solubility ( silica 9 wat]2 absorption by plants1 #cj4--,silicate ,m9]als1 #ca4--;,feldsp>s1 _! ,kaol9ization1 #ca4--;,=mation ( ,clays1 #cc4--;,hornbl5de or ,amphibole1 ,pyrox5e or ,augite1 #cc4--,_! ,wea!r+ & its ,products1 #cc4--,mica1 ,muscovite & ,biotite1 #ce4--;,hydromica1 ,*lorite1 #ce4--,talc & ,s]p5t9e2 8,soap/one01 #cf4 ,! ,zeolites2 ,ex*ange ( ,bases 9 ,solutions1 #cf4--;,importance 9 ,soils1 9 ,rocks1 #ch4--;,calcite1 ,m>ble1 ,lime/ones2 _! ,orig91 #ci4--;,impure ,lime/ones z ,soil-,=m]s1 #dj4--;,caves1 ,s9kholes1 ,/alactites1 ,tufa1 #da4--;,dolomite2 ,magnesian ,lime/ones z ,soil-,=m]s1 #db4--,sel5ite1 ,gypsum1 ,l& ,pla/]2 ,agricultural ,uses1 #db4--;,iron ,sp>1 ,limonite1 ,hematite1 ,magnetite1 #dd4--,r$uction ( ,f]ric ,hydrate 9 ,ill-dra9$ ,soils1 #de4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,rocks ,,z ,,soil-,,=m]s1 #dg4--;,g5]al ,classification1 #dg4--,s$im5t>y1 ,metamorphic1 ,eruptive1 #dg4--,s$im5t>y ,rocks2 ,lime/ones1 ,s&/ones1 ,clays1 ,clay/ones1 ,%ales1 #dg4--,metamorphic ,rocks3 ,=m$ f ,s$im5t>y1 #dh4--;,igne\s or ,eruptive ,rocks1 ,basic & ,acidic1 #di4--;,g5]alities ,reg>d+ ,soils ,d]iv$ f ,v>i\s ,rocks1 #di4--,v>iations 9 ,rocks !mselves4 ,accessory ,m9]als1 #ej4--;,granites2 n always ,true to ,"n2 ,si]ra ,granites1 #ea4--;,gneiss4 ,mica-s*i/1 #ea4--;,diorites1 #ea4--;,diabases1 #ea4--;,eruptive ,rocks2 ,glassy ones ,wea!r ,sl[ly2 ,basaltic ,oxidize ,rapidly1 #eb4--,r$ ,soils ( ,hawaii1 ,pacific ,nor?we/1 #eb4--,tra*yte ,soils2 ,light-color$1 ri* 9 ,pota%4 ,rhyolites g5]ally make ,poor ,soils1 #ec4--,s$im5t>y ,rocks1 #ec4--,lime/ones1 #ec4--8;,a ,lime/one ,c\ntry is a ,ri* ,c\ntry10 #ec4--,residual ,lime/one ,soils2 f 8,rott5 ,lime/one0 ( ,mississippi2 ,table1 #ed4--,%r9kage ( ,surface1 #ee4--,s&/one ,soils1 #ee4--,v>y ,accord+ to ,cem5t1 & ,nature ( ,s&1 #ee4--;,calc>e\s1 ,dolomitic1 ,f]rug9\s1 ,zeolitic1 #ef4--;,clay-s&/ones1 ,clay/ones1 #eg4--,natural ,clays1 #eg4--;,great ,v>iety1 ,enum]ation & ,def9ition1 #eh4--;,colors ( ,clays1 #eh4--;,colloidal ,clay1 ,nature & ,prop]ties1 #ei4--,pla/icity2 ,kaol9ite ,non-pla/ic1 #ei4--;,causes ( ,pla/icity1 #fj4--,sep>ation ( ,colloidal ,clay1 its ,prop]ties1 #fa4--;,effects ( ,alkali ,c>bonates on ,clay1 #fb4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,m9or ,,m9]al ,,+r$i5ts ,,( ,,soils2 ,,m9]al ,,f]tiliz]s1 #fc4--,m9]als ,injuri\s to ,agriculture1 #fc4--,m9]als us$ z ,f]tiliz]s1 #fc4--;,apatite2 ,phosphorites ( ! ,u4 ,s41 ,antilles1 ,africa1 ,europe1 #fc4--,phosphatic ,iron ,ores1 8,?omas ,slag10 #fd4--;,animal ,bones2 ,composition & ,agricultural ,use1 #fd4--,vivianite1 ,dufr5ite1 #fe4--;,*ile ,saltpet]1 #ff4 ,occurr5ce 9 ,nevada1 ,cali=nia1 #ff4--,orig9 ( ,nitrate ,deposits1 #fg4--;,int5sity ( ,nitrification 9 ,arid ,climates1 #fh4--,pota% ,m9]als1 #fh4--;,feldsp>s n ,available1 #fh4--;,depletion ( ,l&s by ,manufacture ( ,pota%es1 #fi4--;,discov]y ( ,/assfurt ,salts1 #fi4--,orig9 ( ^! ,deposits1 #gj4--,nature ( ! ,salts1 #ga4--,ka9it1 #ga4--,pota% ,salts 9 ,alkali ,soils1 #gb4--;,f>my>d or ,/able ,manure2 ,*emical ,composition1 ,table1 #gb4--;,efficacy l>gely due to ,physical ,effects 9 ,soils1 #gc4--;,gre5-manur+ a ,sub/itute = ,/able ,manure1 #gd4--;,application ( ,/able ,manure 9 ,humid & ,arid ,climates1 #gd4--,m9]als ,uness5tial or ,injuri\s to ,soils1 #ge4--;,iron ,pyrite1 ,sulphur ,balls1 #ge4--,occurr5ce & ,recognition4 ,rem$ies #ge4--;,halite or ,common ,salt1 #gf4--,recognition ( ,common ,salt1 #gf4--,mirabilite or ,glaub]'s ,salt2 9 ,alkali ,l&s2 n v ,injuri\s1 #gg4--,trona or ,urao2 ,c>bonate ( ,soda1 8,black ,alkali10 #gg4--;,injury ,caus$ 9 ,soils1 #gh4--;,epsomite or ,epsom ,salt1 #gh4--;,borax1 #gi4--,soluble ,salts 9 ,irrigation ,wat]s1 #gi4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,physical ,,composition ,,( ,,soils1 #hc4--;,clay z a ,soil ,+r$i5t1 #hc4--;,am\nts ( ,colloidal ,clay 9 ,soils1 #hd4--;,influ5ce ( ,f9e ,p[d]s on ,pla/icity1 #he4--,rock ,p[d]2 ,s&1 ,silt & ,du/1 #hf4--,wea!r+ 9 ,humid & ,arid ,regions1 #hf4--,s&s ( ! ,humid ,regions1 #hf4--,s&s ( ,arid ,regions n ,/]ile1 #hf4--,physical ,analysis ( ,soils1 #hh4--,use ( ,sieves4 ,limits1 #hh4--,use ( ,wat] = ,sep>at+ ,f9e/ ,gra9-,sizes1 #hi4--;,elim9ation ( ,clay by ,subsid5ce & ,c5trifugal ,me?od1 ,hydraulic ,elutriation1 #ij4--,s*ne's ,in/rum5t1 #ij4--;,*urn ,elutriator ) ,cyl9drical ,tube1 #ia4--;,figures ( ,same1 #ia4--,yod]'s ,c5trifugal ,elutriator1 #ib4--,numb] ( ,gra9-sizes ,desirable1 #ic4--,results ( su* ,analyses1 #ic4--,physical ,composition ,correspond+ to ,popul> ,designations ( ,soil-,quality4 ,table1 #if4--,numb] ( soil-gra9s p] ,gram1 #ii4--,surface ,(f]$ by v>i\s ,gra9-sizes1 #ii4--;,influ5ce ( ! sev]al ,gra9-sizes on ,soil ,texture1 #ajj4--;,f]ric ,hydrate1 its ,effects on ,clay1 #ajj4--,o!r ,sub/ances1 #aja4--;,alum9ic ,hydrate1 #aja4--;,influ5ce ( ,granul> ,s$im5ts ^u ! ,till+ ,qualities ( ,soils1 #ajb4--8,physical0 ,h>dpan1 #ajc4--,putty ,soils1 #ajc4--;,du/ ,soils ( ,wa%+ton2 ,table1 ,physical ,analyses ( ,f9e ,e>?1 #ajd4--,sl[ ,p5etration ( ,wat]1 #aje4--;,effects ( ,co>se ,s&1 #aje4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,d5sity1 ,,pore-,,space ,,& ,,volume-,,weight ,,( ,,soils1 #ajg4--;,d5sity ( ,soil ,m9]als1 #ajg4--,no ,great ,v>iation1 #ajg4--,volume-weight mo/ ,important1 #ajg4--,weight p] ,acre-foot1 #ajg4--;,air-space 9 ,dry ,natural ,soils4 ,figure1 #ajh4--,may be ,fill$ ) ,wat]1 #ajh4--;,effects ( ,tillage4 ,figures1 #aji4--;,crumb or ,flocculat$ ,/ructure2 ,cem5ts1 #aji4--;,h[ ,nature ,tills1 #aaa4--,soils ( ! ,arid ,regions2 d n ,cru/1 #aab4--;,*anges ( ,soil-,volume 9 ,wett+ & ,dry+1 #aab4--;,ext5t ( ,%r9kage1 #aac4--;,expansion & ,contraction ( ,heavy ,clay ,soils4 ,figure1 #aac4--;,contraction ( ,alkali ,soils on ,wett+1 #aad4--8;,hog ,wall[s10 #aad4--,physical ,analyses ( su* ,soils4 ,table1 #aae4--;,crumbl+ ( ,calc>e\s ,clay ,soils on ,dry+1 #aaf4--,yazoo ,bottom1 ,port ,hudson ,bluff1 #aaf4--,loamy & ,s&y ,soils1 #aag4--;,=mation ( ,surface ,cru/s1 ,physical ,analyses1 #aag4--;,effects ( ,fro/ on ! ,soil2 ,heav+2 ,ice-fl[]s1 #aah4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil2 ,,causes ,,& ,,processes ,,( ,,diff]5tiation ,,humus1 #abj4--,soil & ,subsoil ill-def9$1 #abj4--,! ,organic & ,organiz$ ,con/itu5ts ( ,soils1 #abj4--;,humus 9 ! ,surface ,soil1 #abj4--,soil & ,subsoil2 ,causes ( _! ,diff]5tiation1 #aba4--,ulm9 ,sub/ances or ,s\r ,humus1 #abb4--,s\r ,soils1 #abb4--;,cultivation ,induces ,acidity1 #abc4--;,hum9 ,sub/ances1 #abc4--,porosity ( ,humus1 #abd4--,physical & ,*emical ,nature ( ! ,humus ,sub/ances4 ,table1 #abd4--;,*emical ,nature1 #abe4--,progressive ,*anges & ,effect on ,soils1 #abf4--,! ,phases ( ,humification1 ,wood to ,an?racite2 ,table1 #abg4--;,am\nts ( ,humus & ,coal =m$ f ,vegetable ,matt]1 #abh4--;,figure1 ,f ,port ,hudson ,bluff1 #abh4--;,conditions ( ,normal ,humification1 #abi4--;,eremacausis 9 ! ,arid ,regions1 #abi4--;,black ,e>? ( ,russia2 ,ko/i*eff's ,table1 #acj4--,losses ( ,humus f ,cultivation & ,fall[+1 #aca4--;,e/imation ( ,humus 9 ,soils2 ,unreliability ( ,combu/ion ,me?ods1 #acb4--;,gr&eau ,me?od1 8,matire ,noire10 #acb4--;,am\nts ( ,humus 9 ,soils1 #acc4--;,humates & ,ulmates1 #acd4--,m9]al ,+r$i5ts 9 ! ,humus1 #acd4--;,functions ( ! ,unhumifi$ ,organic ,matt]1 #ace4--,! ,nitrog5 ,cont5t ( ,humus1 #ace4--,table = ,arid & ,humid ,soils1 #acf4--;,decrease ( ,nitrog5 ,cont5t 9 ,humus ) ,dep?1 #ach4--,table1 ,russian ,riv] ,soils1 #aci4--;,influ5ce ( ! ,orig9al ,mat]ial ^u ! ,composition ( ,humus1 #aci4--,table ( ,snyd]1 #aci4--;,effect ( ,humus 9 r5d]+ ,m9]al ,plant ,food ,available1 #adj4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil 7cont9u$71 #adb4--,,organisms ,,influ5c+ ,,soil-,,conditions4 ,,bact]ia1 #adb4--,micro-organisms ( ! ,soil4 ,bact]ia1 ,m\lds1 ,f]m5ts1 #adb4--,numb]s at ,v>i\s ,dep?s1 giv5 by ,e>ly ,obs]v]s1 #adb4--;,inve/igations ( ,hohl2 ,mayo & ,k9sley4 ,tables1 #adc4--,multiplication ( ! ,bact]ia1 #add4--;,a]obic & ,ana]obic ,bact]ia1 #add4--;,food ,mat]ials requir$1 #ade4--;,functions ( ! ,bact]ia1 #ade4--,nitrify+ ,bact]ia4 ,figures1 #adf4--;,conditions ( _! ,activity4 ,table1 #adf4--;,effects ( ,a]ation & ,r$uction1 #adg4--,unhumifi$ ,organic ,matt] does n ,nitrify1 #adh4--,unhumifi$ ,vegetable ,matt]1 ,functions 9 ,soils1 #adh4--;,d5itrify+ ,bact]ia4 ,figures1 #adh4--;,ammonia-=m+ ,bact]ia4 ,figures1 #adi4--;,al9it1 #adi4--;,effects ( ,bact]ial ,life on ,physical ,soil ,conditions1 #adi4--,root-bact]ia1 or ,rhizobia ( ,legumes1 #aej4--;,figures ( ,root ,excresc5ces & ,correspond+ ,bact]oids1 #aeb4--,v>ieties ( ,=ms1 #aed4--,mode ( ,infection1 #aed4--;,cultural ,results1 #aee4--,table ,%[+ ,increas$ ,production by ,soil ,inoculation1 #aee4--,o!r ,nitrog5-absorb+ ,bact]ia1 #aef4--;,di/ribution ( ,humus 9 ! ,surface ,soil1 #aeg4--;,fungi1 ,m\lds & ,algae1 #aeg4--;,animal ,ag5cies--,e>?worms1 ,insects1 ,burr[+ ,quadrup$s1 #aeh4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil ,,9 ,,_! ,,relations ,,to ,,vegetation1 #afa4--,physical ,effects ( ! ,p]colation ( ,surface ,wat]s1 #afa4--;,*emical ,effects2 ,calc>e\s ,subsoils & ,h>dpans1 #afa4--8,rawness0 ( ,subsoils 9 ,humid ,climates1 #afb4--,subsoils 9 ! ,arid ,region1 #afc4--;,deep ,pl[+ & ,subsoil+ 9 ! ,arid ,region2 examples ( ,plant gr[? on ,subsoils1 #afd4--,resi/ance to ,dr\ght1 #afg4--,root ,sy/em 9 ! ,humid ,region1 #afh4--;,figures ( ! ,root ,sy/em ( an ,ea/]n 7,wiscons97 ,fruit ,tree1 #afh4--;,comp>ison ( ,root ,developm5t 9 ! ,arid & ,humid ,regions1 #afi4--,prune on ,pea* ,root1 #afi4--;,adaptation ( ,humid ,species to ,arid ,conditions1 #afi4--;,grapes1 #agj4--,k5tucky & ,cali=nia ,maize1 #age1 #agf4--;,hops1 #agb4--;,deep-,root+ 9 ! ,arid ,region1 #agd4--;,goose ,foot & ,figwort1 #agd4--;,importance ( ,prop] ,sub/rata 9 ! ,arid ,region1 #agc4--;,injury f ,imp]vi\s ,sub/rata4 ,figure1 #agg4--;,faulty ,l&s ( ,cali=nia4 ,figure1 #agh4--,%att]+ ( ,d5se ,sub/rata by ,dynamite1 #aha4--,lea*y ,sub/rata1 #ahb4--8;,go+-back0 ( ,or*>ds1 #ahb4--;,h>dpan1 ,=mation & ,v>ieties1 #ahc4--,nature ( ! ,h>dpan ,cem5ts1 #ahd4--;,bog ,ore1 ,moorb$pan & ,ort/e92 ,calc>e\s & ,alkali ,h>dpan1 #ahd4--,! ,causes ( ,h>dpan1 #ahe4--8,pl[sole10 #ahf4--,m>ly ,sub/rata1 #ahf4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,soils4 ,,hygroscopic ,,& ,,capill>y ,,moi/ure1 #ahh4--;,g5]al ,prop]ties1 #ahh4--,physical ,factors ( ,wat] comp>$ ) o!r ,sub/ances4 ,table1 #ahh4--;,capill>ity or ,surface ,t5sion1 #ahi4--;,heat ,relations1 #aij4--;,d5sity1 #aij4--,specific ,heat & its ,effects1 #aij4 ,ice1 #aia4--,vaporization1 #aia4--,solv5t ,p[]1 #aia4--,wat]-requirem5ts ( ,gr[+ ,plants1 #aib4--;,evaporation f ,plants 9 ,diff]5t ,climates1 #aib4--,relations betwe5 ,evaporation & ,plant ,gr[?4 ,table1 #aic4--;,=ti]'s ,exp]im5ts4 ,figure1 #aid4--;,diff]5t ,conditions ( ,soil ,wat]1 #aif4--;,hygroscopic ,wat] 9 ,soils2 ,table1 #aif4--;,influ5ce ( ,temp]ature & ,air-,saturation1 #aig4--,utility ( ,hygroscopic ,wat] to ,plant ,gr[?1 #aii4--,may]'s ,exp]im5ts1 #bjj4--,summ>y1 #bjj4--;,capill>y ,wat]1 #bja4--;,asc5t ( ,wat] 9 ,soil-,columns4 ,table1 #bjb4--;,asc5t 9 ,uni=m ,s$im5ts4 ,figure1 #bjd4--,maximum & ,m9imum ,wat]-hold+ ,p[]1 #bjg4--;,capill>y ,wat] held at diff]5t ,heights 9 a ,soil ,column4 ,table1 #bjh4--;,capill>y ,action 9 ,moi/ ,soils1 #baj4--,proportion ( ,soil ,moi/ure ,available to ,plants1 #baa4--,moi/ure ,requirem5ts ( ,crops 9 ! ,arid ,region1 #baa4--,tables ( ,obs]vations 9 ,cali=nia1 #bad4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,surface1 ,,hydro/atic ,,& ,,gr\nd ,,wat]4 ,,p]colation1 #bae4--;,am\nt ( ,ra9fall1 #bae4--,natural ,disposition ( ,ra9 ,wat]1 #baf4--,! ,surface ,run(f1 #baf4--,wa%+-away & ,gully+ 9 ! ,cotton ,/ates1 #bag4--;,injury 9 ! ,arid ,regions1 #bai4--;,de=e/ation1 #bai4--,prev5tion ( ,injury to ,cultivat$ ,l&s f ,excessive ,run(f1 #bbj4-- ,absorption & ,movem5ts ( ,wat] 9 ,soils1 #bba4--;,det]m9ation ( ,rate ( ,p]colation4 ,diagram1 #bba4--,summ>y1 #bbd4--;,influ5ce ( ,v>iety ( ,gra9-sizes1 #bbd4--,table ( ,k+'s ,exp]im5ts1 #bbd4--,p]colation 9 ,natural ,soils4 ,figure1 #bbe4--;,gr\nd or ,bottom ,wat]1 #bbg4--,lysimet]s1 ,surface ( ,gr\nd ,wat]2 ,v>iations1 #bbg4--;,dep? ( ,gr\nd ,wat] mo/ ,favorable to ,crops1 #bbh4--,moi/ure ,suppli$ by ,tap ,roots1 #bbi4--,res]ve ( ,capill>y ,wat]1 #bbi4--;,injuri\s ,rise ( ,bottom ,wat] f ,irrigation1 #bcj4--;,consequ5ces ( ! ,swamp+ ( ,irrigat$ ,l&s2 ,prev5tion1 #bca4--,p]man5t ,injury to c]ta9 ,l&s1 #bca4--,r$uction ( ,sulfates1 #bcb4--;,f]rug9\s or ,r$ ,l&s1 #bcc4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,wat] ,,( ,,soils2 ,,! ,,regulation ,,& ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,soil1 ,,moi/ure2 ,,irrigation1 #bcd4--,loos5+ ( ! ,surface1 #bcd4--;,effects ( ,und]dra9s2 ,ra9 on ,clay ,soils1 #bce4--,w9t] ,irrigation1 #bcf4--,me?ods ( ,irrigation1 #bcf4--,surface ,spr9kl+1 #bcg4--;,flood+1 #bcg4--;,*eck ,flood+4 ,furr[ ,irrigation1 #bcg1 #bch4--;,figure ,%[+ ,p5etration1 #bci4--;,figure ,%[+ ,faulty ,irrigation 9 ,s&y ,l&s1 #bci4--;,di/ance betwe5 ,furr[s & ,dit*es1 #bda4--;,irrigation by ,lat]al ,seepage1 #bdb4--;,bas9 ,irrigation ( ,trees & ,v9es2 ,advantages & ,objections1 #bdc4--;,irrigation f ,und]gr\nd ,pipes1 #bde4--,quality ( ,irrigation ,wat]s1 #bdf4--,sal9e ,wat]s2 ,figures ( ,effects on ,orange ,trees1 #bdf4--,limits ( ,sal9ity1 #bdf4--,mode ( ,us+ ,sal9e ,irrigation ,wat]s2 ,app>5t ,p>adox1 #bdi4--,use ( ,dra9age ,wat]s = ,irrigation1 #bej4--8;,black ,alkali0 ,wat]s1 #bej4--,v>iations 9 ! ,sal9ity ( ,deep & ,%all[ ,wells1 #bej4--,muddy ,wat]s1 #bea4--,! ,duty ( ,irrigation ,wat]s1 #bea4--;,causes ( ,losses1 #beb4--,loss by ,p]colation4 ,figure1 #beb4--;,evaporation1 #bec4--,tables ,%[+ same at ,cali=nia ,/ations1 #bee4--;,evaporation 9 ,diff]5t ,climates2 ,table1 #bee4--;,evaporation f ,res]voirs & ,dit*es1 #beg4--,prev5tion ( ,evaporation2 ,protective ,surface ,lay]1 #beg4--;,illu/rations ( ,effects ( ,tillage2 ,table1 #beh4--;,evaporation ?r\gh ,roots & ,leaves1 #bfb4--,we$s wa/e ,moi/ure1 #bfd4--;,di/ribution ( ,moi/ure 9 ,soils z ,affect$ by ,vegetation1 #bfd4--;,=e/s & ,/eppes1 #bfe4--;,eucalyptus = ,dry+ ,wet ,l&s1 #bfe4--,mul*+2 ,effects on ,temp]ature & ,moi/ure1 #bff4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,absorption ,,by ,,soils ,,( ,,solids ,,f ,,solutions4 ,,absorption ,,( ,,gases1 ,,air ,,( ,,soils1 #bfg4--;,absorption ( ,solids1 #bfg4--;,desal9ation1 #bfg4--;,decolorization1 #bfg4--;,complexity ( ,soil-,action1 ,physical & ,*emical1 #bfh4--8,purify+0 ,action ( ,soils on ,gases & ,liquids1 #bfi4--,wa/e ( ,f]tiliz]s1 #bfi4--,v>iation ( ,absorptive ,p[]1 #bgj4--;,g5]alities ,reg>d+ ,*emical ,action & ,ex*ange1 #bgj4--;,dra9 ,wat]s1 #bga4--;,di/9ctions n ,absolute1 #bgb4--;,absorption or ,cond5sation ( ,gases by ! ,soil1 #bgb4--,pro( ( ,pres5ce ( ,c>bonic & ,ammonia ,gases 9 ,soils1 #bgc4--;,absorption ( ,gases by ,dry ,soils4 ,figure1 #bgd4--;,composition ( ,gases ,absorb$ by ,v>i\s ,bodies f ! ,air4 ,table1 #bge4--;,discussion ( ,table1 #bgg4--,! ,air ( ,soils1 #bgi4--;,empty ,space 9 ,dry ,soils1 #bgi4--;,functions ( ,air 9 ,soils1 #bgi4--;,insuffici5t & ,excessive ,a]ation1 #bhj4--;,composition ( ! ,free ,air ( ,soils1 #bhj4--;,c>bonic ,dioxid vs4 ,oxyg51 #bha4--,relation to ,bact]ial & ,fung\s ,activity1 #bha4--,putrefactive ,processes1 #bhb4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,colors ,,( ,,soils1 #bhc4--;,black ,soils1 #bhc4--8,r$0 ,soils1 #bhd4--,orig9 ( ,r$ ,t9ts1 #bhe4--,:ite ,soils1 #bhe4--;,diff]5ces 9 ,arid & ,humid ,regions1 #bhf4--,:ite ,alkali ,spots1 #bhf4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,climate1 #bhg4--;,heat & ,moi/ure ,control ,climates1 #bhg4--;,climatic ,conditions1 #bhg4--;,asc]ta9m5t & ,pres5tation ( ,temp]ature ,conditions1 #bhh4--;,annual ,mean n a ,good ,crit]ion1 #bhi4--;,extremes ( ,temp]ature are mo/ ,important1 #bhi4--,seasonal & ,mon?ly ,means1 #bhi4--;,daily ,v>iations1 #bij4--,! ,ra9fall1 #bij4--;,annual ,ra9fall n a ,good ,crit]ion1 #bij4--;,di/ribution mo/ ,important1 #bij4--,w9ds1 #bia4--;,heat ! ,cause ( ,w9ds1 #bia4--,trade ,w9ds1 #bia4--;,cyclones1 #bib4-- ,influ5ce ( ! ,topography on ,w9ds2 ,ra9s to ,w9dw>d ( ,m\nta9s1 ,arid ,climates to ,leew>d1 #bic4--;,g5]al ,di/ribution ( ,ra9fall on ! ,globe4 ,figure1 #bid4--,ocean ,curr5ts1 #bie4--,! ,gulf ,/ream1 #bie4--,! ,japan ,/ream1 #bif4--;,contra/ ( ,climates ( ,n4 ,w4 ,am]ica1 #big4--;,cont95tal1 ,coa/ & ,insul> ,climates1 #big4--,subtropic4 ,arid ,belts1 #bih4--,utilization ( ! ,arid ,belts1 #bii4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,relations ,,( ,,soils ,,& ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,to ,,heat1 #cja4--,temp]ature ( ,soils1 #cja4--,wat] ,ex]ts ,controll+ ,influ5ce1 #cja4--;,cold & ,w>m ,ra9s1 #cjb4--,sol> ,radiation1 #cjb4--,p5etration ( ! ,sun's ,heat into ! ,soil1 #cjb4--;,*ange ( ,temp]ature ) ,dep?1 #cjc4--,surface ,conditions t ,influ5ce ,soil ,temp]ature1 #cjc4--;,heat ( ,high & ,l[ ,int5sity1 #cjd4--,reflection vs4 ,disp]sion ( ,heat1 #cjd4--;,influ5ce ( ,vegetation1 & ( ,mul*es1 #cje4--;,influ5ce ( ! ,nature ( ! ,soil-,mat]ial1 #cjf4--;,influ5ce ( ,evaporation1 #cjg4--;,=mation ( ,dew1 #cjg4--;,dew r>ely adds ,moi/ure1 #cjh4--;,dew )9 ! ,soil1 #cjh4--,plant ,developm5t "u ,diff]5t ,temp]ature-,conditions1 #cji4--;,g]m9ation ( ,se$s2 ,optimum ,temp]ature = ea* ,k9d1 #cji4--;,artificial ,heat+ ( ,soils2 by ,/eam ,pipes or ,wat]1 #caj4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,physico-,,*emical ,,inve/igation ,,( ,,soils ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,crop ,,production1 #cac4--;,hi/orical ,review ( ,soil ,inve/igation1 #cac4--,popul> ,=eca/s ( ,soil ,values1 #cac4--;,cog5cy ( ,conclusions ,bas$ ^u ,native ,gr[?1 #cad4--;,ecological ,/udies1 #cae4--;,e>ly ,soil ,surveys ( ,k5tucky1 ,arkansas & ,mississippi1 #caf4--;,inve/igation ( ,cultivat$ ,soils1 #caf4--;,*ange ( ,views1 #cag4--;,advantages = ,soil ,/udy (f]$ by ,virg9 ,l&s1 #cah4--,practical ,utility ( ,soil ,analysis2 ,p]man5t ,value vs4 ,imm$iate ,productiv5ess1 #cai4--,physical & ,*emical ,conditions ( ,plant ,gr[?1 #cai4--;,condition ( ,plant-food ,+r$i5ts1 9 ! ,soil1 #cai4--,wat]-soluble1 ,res]ve1 & ,insoluble ,"p1 #cbj4--;,hydr\s or 8,zeolitic0 ,silicates1 #cba4--,recognition ( ! ,prom95t ,*emical ,"* ( ,soils1 #cbb4--;,acidity1 ,neutrality & ,alkal9ity1 #cbb4--;,*emical ,analysis1 #cbc4--,wat]-,soluble & ,acid-,soluble ,portions mo/ ,important1 #cbd4--,we _c ,imitate ,plant-root ,action1 #cbd ,cultural ,exp]i5ce ! ,f9al ,te/1 #cbd4--;,analysis ( ,cultivat$ ,soils1 #cbe4--,me?ods ( ,analysis1 #cbe4--,! ,solv5t ,action ( ,wat] ^u ,soils1 #cbg4--;,extraction ( ,soils ) ,pure ,wat]1 #cbg4--;,cont9u\s ,solubility ( ,soil ,+r$i5ts4 ,tables1 #cbh4--,k+'s ,results4 ,table1 #cbi4--;,composition & ,analysis ( ,janesville ,loam1 #cca4--,solubility ( ,soil ,phosphates 9 ,wat]1 #ccb4--,practical ,conclusions f ,wat] ,extraction1 #ccb4--;,asc]ta9m5t ( ! ,imm$iate ,plant-food ,requirem5ts ( ,cultivat$ ,soils by ,physiological ,te/s1 #ccc4--,plot ,te/s2 _! unc]ta9ties4 ,diagram1 #ccd4--;,crop ,analysis z a ,te/ ( ,soil ,"*1 #ccg4--;,*emical ,te/s ( imm$iately ,available ,plant ,food2 ,dy]'s ,me?od1 #cch4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,virg9 ,,soils ,,by ,,extraction ,,) ,,/rong ,,acids ,,& ,,its ,,int]pretation1 #cdj4--,l\ghridge's ,inve/igation on ,/r5g? ( ,acid & ,"t ( ,dige/ion1 #cdj4--,writ]'s ,me?od1 #cdb4--,virg9 ,soils ) ,high ,plant-food ,p]c5tages are always ,productive4 ,table1 #cdc4--;,discussion ( ,table1 #cdc4--,l[ ,plant-food ,p]c5tages n always ,indication ( ,/]ility1 #cdf4--,:at are 8,adequate0 ,p]c5tages ( ,pota%1 ,lime1 ,phosphoric ,acid & ,nitrog51 #cdg4--,soil-,dilution ,exp]im5ts1 #cdg4--,table ( ,compositions1 #cej4--;,figures ( ,plants & _! ,root-,developm5t1 #cea4--,limitation ( ,root ,action1 #cea4--,l[e/ ,limits ( ,plant-food ,p]c5tages & ,productiv5ess ,f\nd 9 ,virg9 ,soils1 #cec4-- ,limits ( ,adequacy ( ! ,sev]al ,plant-food ,p]c5tages 9 ,virg9 ,soils1 #cec4--,lime a ,dom9ant ,factor 9 ,int]pretation1 #cec4--,pota%1 #ced4--,phosphoric ,acid1 #cee4--;,action ( ,lime & ,f]ric ,oxid1 #cee4--,table ( ,hawaiian ,f]rug9\s ,soils1 #cef4--,unavailability ( ,f]ric ,phosphate1 #cef4--,nitrog51 #ceg4--,nitrification ( ! ,organic ,matt] ( ! ,soil1 #ceh4--;,analysis ( ,soil f ! ,t5-,acre ,tract at ,*9o1 ,cal41 #ceh4--;,exp]im5ts & ,results2 ,matire ,noire ! ,only ,guide1 #cfj4--,:at are ,adequate ,nitrog5 ,p]c5tages 9 ! ,humus8 #cfj4--,table ( ,humus & ,nitrog5-,cont5t ( ,cali=nian & ,hawaiian ,soils1 #cfa4--;,confirmatory ,exp]im5t4 ,figure1 #cfb4--;,data = ,nitrog5-,adequacy4 ,table1 #cfc4--;,influ5ce ( ,lime ^u ,soil ,f]tility1 #cfe4--8;,a ,lime ,c\ntry is a ,ri* ,c\ntry10 #cfe4--;,effects ( ,high ,lime-,cont5t 9 ,soils1 #cfe4--,table ( ,soils %[+ ,l[ ,phosphoric ,acid ) ,high & ,l[ ,lime-,cont5t1 #cff4--,:at are ,adequate ,lime-p]c5tages8 ,diff] = ,light & ,heavy ,soils1 #cfg4--,table ,%[+ ,ne$ ( ,high ,lime ,p]c5tages 9 ,heavy ,clay ,soils1 #cfh4--;,european ,/&>ds = ,l& ,e/imates1 #cfi4--,ma]ck]'s ,table1 #cfi4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,soils ,,( ,,! ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions1 #cga4--;,composition ( ,good ,m$ium ,soils2 ,table1 #cga4--;,crit]ia ( ,l&s ( ! ,two ,regions1 #cga4--,tables ( ,soil-,composition 9 ,bo? ,regions1 #cgb4--,soils ( ! ,humid ,region gov]n$ by ,"t1 #cgd4--,soils ( ! ,arid ,region ,gov]n$ by ,moi/ure1 #cgd4--,lime & ,magnesia ,uni=mly ,high 9 ,arid ,soils1 ,despite ,sc>city ( ,lime/one ,=mations2 ,pota% also ,high1 #cgd4--;,g5]al ,comp>ison ( ! ,soils ( ! ,arid & ,temp]ate ,humid ,regions1 #cge4--;,basis ( ,same1 #cgf4--,new ,mexico & ,analysis ( ,soil1 #cgf4--;,g5]al ,table1 #cgg4--;,discussion ( ! ,table1 #cgh4--,lime2 ,summ>y ( ,physical & ,*emical ,effects ( ,lime ,c>bonate 9 ,soils1 #cgh4-- ,discussion ( ,summ>y1 #cgi4--,magnesia3 ,its role 9 ,plant ,nutrition1 #cha4--,manganese3 ,its ,/imulant ,action1 #chc4--,! 8,insoluble ,residue0 or ,silicates1 #chd4--,soluble ,silica & ,alum9a1 #chd4--;,analysis ( ,clay f ,soil1 #che4--;,diff]5ce 9 ,s& ( ,arid & ,humid ,regions4 ,table1 #chf4--,soluble ,silica or ,hydr\s ,silicates m ,abundant 9 ,arid ?an 9 ,humid ,soils1 #chh4--;,alum9ic ,hydrate4 ,table1 #chi4--,ret5tion ( ,soluble ,silica 9 ,alkali ,soils1 #cia4--;,f]ric ,hydrate1 #cib4--,phosphoric ,acid1 #cib4--,sulfuric ,acid1 #cid4--,pota% & ,soda1 ,reta9$ m 9 ,arid ,soils1 #cid4--;,arid ,soils ,ri* 9 ,pota%1 #cie4--;,humus1 ,l[ 9 ,arid ,soils1 b ,ri* 9 ,nitrog51 #cif4--,! ,transition ,region1 #cig4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,soils ,,( ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions ,,cont9u$1 #cih4--,soils ( ! ,tropics1 #cih4--;,humus 9 ,tropical ,soils1 #cii4--;,inve/igations ( ,tropical ,soils1 #dja4--,soils ( ,samoa & ,kam]un1 #djb4--,soils ( ! ,samoan ,isl&s1 #djc4--,soils ( ,kam]un1 #djd4--,soils ( ,madagasc>1 #dje4--,soils ( ,india1 #daj4--,! ,indo-,gangetic ,pla91 #daa4--,! ,brahmaputra ,alluvium 9 ,assam1 #dac4--;,black ,soils ( ,deccan1 #dad4--,r$ ,soils ( ! ,madras ,region1 #dae4--,lat]ite ,soils1 #daf4--;,influ5ce ( ,aridity ^u ,civilization1 #dag4--,pref]5ce ( ,anci5t ,civilizations = ,arid ,c\ntries1 #dag4--;,irrigation ,necessitates ,co-op]ation1 #dai4--;,high & ,p]man5t ,productiv5ess ( ,arid ,soils ,induces ,p]man5ce ( ,civil ,organization1 #dai4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,alkali ,,soils1 ,,_! ,,nature ,,& ,,composition1 #dbb4--;,alkali ,l&s vs4 ,sea%ore ,l&s1 #dbb4--,orig91 #dbb4--;,defici5t ,ra9fall1 #dbc4--,pr$om9ant ,salts1 #dbc4--;,geographical ,di/ribution1 #dbd4--,_! ,utilization ( ,_w-wide ,importance1 #dbd4--,repell5t ,aspect1 ,plate1 #dbd4--;,effects ( ,alkali ^u ,culture ,plants4 ,figures ( ,apricot ,trees1 #dbf4--,nature ( ! ,injury1 ,ext]nal & ,int]nal1 #dbf4--;,effects ( ,irrigation1 #dbh4--,leaky ,irrigation ,dit*es1 #dbi4--,surface & ,sub/rata ( ,alkali ,l&s1 #dbi4--,v]tical ,di/ribution ( ! ,salts 9 ,alkali ,soils1 #dbi4--;,h[ ,native ,plants ,live1 #dcj4--;,figures ( v>i\s ,phases ( ,reclamation1 #dca4--,upw>d ,translocation f ,irrigation1 #dcc4--;,di/ribution ( ,alkali 9 ,s&y ,l&s1 #dcc4--;,9 ,heavi] ,l&s1 #dcf4--,salton ,bas9 or ,colorado ,delta1 #dcf4--;,diagram ( ,alkali ,di/ribution 9 ,same1 #dch4--;,horizontal ,di/ribution ( ,alkali ,salts 9 ,arid ,l&s1 #dci4--;,alkali 9 ,hill ,l&s1 #dci4--,us> ,l&s ( ,india1 #ddj4--8,szek0 ,l&s ( ,hung>y1 #ddj4--;,alkali ,l&s ( ,turke/an1 #dda4--;,composition & ,quantity ( ,salts ,pres5t1 #dda4--,nutritive ,salts1 #dda4--;,black & ,:ite ,alkali4 ,tables1 #ddb4--;,e/imation ( ,total ,alkali 9 ,l&1 #ddd4--;,composition ( ,alkali ,soils z a :ole4 ,tables1 #dde4--,pres5ce ( mu* ,c>bonate ( ,soda1 #ddh4--;,cross ,section ( an ,alkali ,spot4 ,table1 #ddh4--,reactions betwe5 ! ,c>bonates & ,sulfates ( ,e>?s & ,alkalies4 ,figure ( ,curve1 #ddi4--;,inv]se ,ratios ( ,alkali ,sulfates & ,c>bonates4 ,diagrams1 #dea4--;,exceptional ,conditions1 #dec4--,summ>y ( ,conclusions1 #dec4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,utilization ,,& ,,reclamation ,,( ,,alkali ,,l&1 #dee4--;,alkali-resi/ant ,crops1 #dee4--;,c\nt]act+ ,evaporation1 #dee4--,turn+-"u ( ,surface ,alkali1 #def4--,%ad+1 #deg4--,neutraliz+ ,black ,alkali1 #deg4--,remov+ ! ,salts f ! ,soils1 #deh4--,scrap+ (f1 #deh4--,lea*+-,d[n4 ,figure1 #dei4--,und]dra9age1 ! ,f9al & ,univ]sal ,rem$y = ,alkali1 #dfj4--,possible ,injury to ,l& by ,excessive ,lea*+1 #dfb4--;,difficulty 9 ,dra9+ 8,black0 ,alkali ,l&1 #dfb4--,swamp+ ( ,alkali ,l&1 #dfc4--,removal ( ,alkali ,salts by ,c]ta9 ,crops1 #dfc4--,tol]ance ( ,alkali by ,culture ,plants1 #dfc4--,relative ,injuri\sness ( ! sev]al ,salts4 ,effects on ,sug> ,beets1 #dfd4--,table ( ,tol]ances2 ,comm5ts on same1 #dfg4--,saltbu%es & ,native ,grasses4 ,au/ralian ,saltbu%es1 #dfi4--,modiola2 ,native & ,cultivat$ ,grasses1 #dfi4--,o!r ,h]bace\s ,crops1 #dgb4--,legumes1 #dgb4--,mu/>d ,family1 #dgc4--,sunfl[] ,family1 #dgc4--,root ,crops1 #dgd4--,/em ,crops1 #dge4--,textile ,plants1 #dge4--,%rubs & ,trees1 #dge4--,v9e1 ,olive1 ,date1 ,citrus ,trees4 ,decidu\s ,or*>d ,trees4 ,timb] & ,%ade ,trees1 #dge4--;,inducem5ts t[>d ! ,reclamation ( ,alkali ,l&s1 #dha4--,:eat on ,reclaim$ ,l& at ,tul>e2 ,figure1 #dhb4--,ne$ ( ,con/ant ,vigilance1 #dhd4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,recognition ,,( ,,soil ,,"* ,,f ,,! ,,native ,,vegetation2 ,,mississippi1 #dhg4--;,climatic & ,soil ,conditions1 #dhg4--,natural ,vegetation ! ,basis ( ,l& ,values 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dhh4--;,inve/igation ( ,causes ,gov]n+ ,di/ribution ( ,native ,vegetation1 #dhh4--;,inve/igations 9 ,mississippi1 #dhi4--,vegetative ,belts 9 ,nor!rn ,mississippi1 #dij4--,sket* ,map ( ,same1 ) ,tabulation ( ,lime ,cont5t & ,native ,vegetation1 #dij4--,lime ,app>5tly a ,gov]n+ ,factor1 #dib4--,soil ,belts 9 ,s\!rn ,mississippi1 #dic4--,vegetative & ,soil ,features ( ,coa/ ,belts4 ,diagram1 #die4--,table ( ,plant-,food p]c5tages & ,native ,gr[?1 #dif4--;,def9ition ( ,calc>e\s ,soils1 #dif4--;,diff]5ces 9 ! ,=m & ,developm5t ( ,trees1 #dih4--;,=ms ( ! ,po/ ,oak4 ,figures1 #dih4--;,=ms ( ! ,black ,jack ,oak4 ,figures1 #ejj4--;,*>act]i/ic ,=ms ( o!r ,oaks1 #ejb4--,/urdy ,gr[? on ,calc>e\s ,l&s1 #ejb4--;,gr[? ( ,cotton1 #ejc4--,lime ,favors ,fruit+1 & compact ,gr[?1 #ejd4--,physical vs4 ,*emical ,causes ( ,vegetative ,features1 #eje4--,l[l& ,tree ,gr[?1 #ejf4--;,contra/ betwe5 8,fir/0 & 8,second0 ,bottoms1 #ejf4--,tree ,gr[? ( ! ,fir/ ,bottoms4 ,! ,cypress1 #ejg4--;,figures ( ,swamp & ,upl& ,cypress1 #ejh4--,o!r ,l[l& ,trees1 #eji4--;,g5]al ,=eca/s ( ,soil ,quality 9 ,=e/ ,l&s1 #eji4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,recognition ,,( ,,! ,,"* ,,( ,,soils ,,f ,,_! ,,native ,,vegetation4 ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,at ,,l>ge1 ,,europe1 #eaa4--;,=e/ ,gr[?s outside ( ,mississippi2 ,alabama1 ,l\isiana1 ,we/]n ,t5nessee1 & ,we/]n ,k5tucky1 #eaa4--,nor? ,c5tral ,/ates ,ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 #eac4--,upl& & ,l[l& ,vegetation 9 ! ,arid & ,humid ,region1 #eae4--;,=ms ( ,decidu\s ,trees 9 ! ,arid ,region1 #eaf4--,tall ,gr[? ( ,conif]s1 #eag4--;,h]bace\s ,plants z ,soil ,indicators1 #eag4--,legum9\s ,plants ,usually ,indicate ,ri* or ,calc>e\s ,l&s1 #eah4--;,european ,obs]vations & ,views on ,plant ,di/ribution & its ,controll+ ,causes1 #eai4--;,composition ( ,p9e ,a%es on ,calc>e\s & ,non-calc>e\s ,l&s4 ,table1 #ebj4--;,calciphile1 ,calcifuge1 & ,indiff]5t ,plants1 #eba4--,silicophile vs4 ,calciphile ,flora1 #ebc4--,:at is a ,calc>e\s ,soil8 #ebd4--,pr$om9ance ( ,calc>e\s ,=mations 9 ,europe1 #ebe4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,! ,,vegetation ,,( ,,sal9e ,,& ,,alkali ,,l&s1 #ebg4--,m>9e ,sal9e ,l&s1 #ebg4--;,g5]al ,"* ( ,sal9e ,vegetation1 #ebg4--,/ructural & ,functional ,diff]5ces ,caus$ by ,sal9e ,solutions1 #ebh4--;,absorption ( ! ,salts4 ,table1 #ebi4--;,injury f ! ,v>i\s ,salts1 #eca4--,reclamation ( ,m>9e ,sal9e ,l&s = ,culture1 #ecc4--,! ,vegetation ( ,alkali ,l&s1 #ecd4--,reclaimable & ,irreclaimable ,alkali ,l&s z ,di/+ui%$ by _! ,natural ,vegetation1 #ecd4--,plants ,indicat+ ,irreclaimable ,l&s1 #ece4--,tussock ,grass2 ,bu%y ,samphire2 ,dw>f ,samphire2 ,saltwort2 ,greasewood2 ,alkali ,hea?2 ,cressa2 ,salt ,grass1 #ecf4--,relative ,tol]ances ( ! diff]5t ,species2 ,table1 #edi4 ,,app5dices4 ,a4--,directions = tak+ ,soil ,samples1 issu$ by ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 #eec4 ,b4--,summ>y ,directions = ,soil-,exam9ation 9 ! ,field or ,f>m1 #eef4 ,c4--,%ort ,approximate ,me?ods ( ,*emical ,soil-,exam9ation ,us$ at ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 #efj4 ,g5]al ,index1 #efe4 ,index ( ,au?ors ref]r$ to1 #eia4 ,,preface4 ,?is volume 0 orig9ally design$ to s]ve z a text & ref]5ce book = ! /ud5ts att5d+ ! writ]'s c\rse on soils1 giv5 annually at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 :o compla9$ ( _! inability to f9d 9 any connect$ treatise a l>ge portion ( ! subject matt] br\ght be=e !m4 ,z all ^! /ud5ts _h prelim9>y tra9+ 9 physics1 *emi/ry & botany1 no introductory *apt]s on ^! g5]al subjects 7 necess>y or contemplat$2 ! m s z good elem5t>y treatises embrac+ ! ne$ful prep>ation are n[ num]\s4 ,z "t progress$1 h[ev]1 outside dem&s = a book embody+ ! writ]'s soil /udies 9 ! humid & arid regions1 especially ! latt]1 became s num]\s & press+ t ! scope ( ! "w has gradually be5 mu* enl>g$ to con=m to ^! dem&s2 & ?is1 r ?an complet5ess ( detail1 :5 su* detail c be f\nd well giv5 else:]e1 has be5 ! guide 9 ! necess>y cond5sation ( ! :ole4 ,to give ! entire subject matt] full elucidation1 w\ld require sev]al m volumes4 ,x may n be unnecess>y to expla9 at ! outset :y & h[ ?is treatise deviates 9 _m respects f previ\s publications on ! same g5]al topic4 ,f boyhood up x has fall5 to ! writ]'s lot to be almo/ cont9u\sly 9 m or less direct contact ) ! conditions & requirem5ts ( newly settl$ regions1 z well z ) ^? h>dly yet invad$ ev5 by ! pione] f>m]2 :]e ! "q ( cultural adaptation 0 yet undet]m9$ or :olly 9 ! d>k4 ,be+ dur+ 8 active life con/antly call$ ^u 9 8 (ficial capacity to give in=mation & advice to pione] f>m]s or int5d+ settl]s 9 reg>d to ! m]its & adaptations ( virg9 soils1 ! writ]'s att5tion 0 naturally & =cibly direct$ t[>d soil inve/igation z a possible means ( det]m9+1 be=eh&1 ! g5]al prospects & special features ( agriculture 9 regions :]e actual exp]i5ce 0 ei!r non-exi/5t or v brief & p>tial4 ,9 ! pursuit ( ^! /udies he has be5 favor$ by exceptional opportunities1 ext5d+ ov] a v>i$ climatic area rea*+ on ! s\? f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico to ! ,ohio1 across to ! ,pacific coa/1 & to ,briti% ,columbia on ! nor?4 ,t a sy/ematic inve/igation ( soils ov] s l>ge an area1 cov]+ bo? humid & arid regions1 %\ld lead to "s unexpect$ & novel results1 is b natural2 & x is ! discussion ( ^! results 9 connection ) ^? obta9$ else:]e1 & ) "s ( ! prevail+ views bas$ !reon1 t mu/ s]ve z ! ju/ification = ! pres5t addition to an already well-/ock$ bran* ( lit]ature4 ,f ! v beg9n+ ( ! sci5tific /udy ( agriculture1 ! inve/igation ( soils ) a view to ! priori det]m9ation ( _! adaptation1 p]man5t value1 & be/ means ( cultural improvem5t1 has =m$ ! subject ( cont9u\s ef=t4 ,x is n easy to imag9e a subject ( high] direct importance to ! physical welf>e ( mank9d1 ^: v exi/5ce dep5ds on ! ye>ly returns drawn by cultural labor f ! soil4 ,x is c]ta9ly rem>kable t aft] all ?is long-cont9u$ ef=t1 ev5 ! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 & /ill m ! me?ods by :i* ! object 9 view is to be atta9$1 are /ill s f> 9 dispute t a unification ( op9ion 9 ?is respect is n yet 9 view2 & a return to pure empiricism is f "t to "t br\ght =w>d to cut ! ,gordian knot4 ,:ile ?is /ate ( ?+s is prim>ily due to ! intr9sic complexity & difficulty ( ! subject itself1 x has unque/ionably be5 mat]ially aggravat$ by accid5tal1 p>tly hi/oric conditions4 ,=emo/ among ^! is ! fact t until )9 rec5t times1 soil /udies h borne almo/ entirely on l&s long cultivat$ & 9 mo/ cases f]tiliz$3 ?us *ang+ !m f _! natural condition to a m or less artificial "o1 :i* obscures ! natural relations ( ea* soil to vegetation4 ,! importance ( ^! relations is obvi\s1 bo? f ! !oretical & f ! practical /&po9t4 ,f ! =m]1 x is cle> t ! native vegetation repres5ts1 )9 ! climatic limits ( ! regional flora1 ! result ( a secul> process ( adaptation ( plants to climates & soils1 by natural selection & ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,! natural floras & sylvas are ?us ! expression ( secul>1 or r1 mill5nial exp]i5ce1 :i* if rightly int]pret$ mu/ convey to ! cultivator ( ! soil ! same in=mation t o!rwise he mu/ acquire by long & co/ly p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,! g5]al correctness ( ?is axiom is almo/ self-evid5t2 x is explicitly recogniz$ 9 ! univ]sal practice ( settl]s 9 new regions1 ( select+ l&s 9 accordance ) ! "* ( ! =e/ gr[? !reon2 x is ev5 legally recogniz$ by ! valuation ( l&s ^u ! same basis1 = purposes ( assessm5t1 z is practic$ 9 a numb] ( ,/ates4 ,! accuracy ) :i* exp]i5c$ f>m]s judge ( ! quality ( timb]$ l&s by _! =e/ gr[?1 has ju/ly excit$ ! wond] & envy ( agricultural inve/igators1 ^: rese>*es1 bas$ ^u incomplete !oretical assumptions1 fail$ to convey to !m any su* practical insight4 ,x 0 d\btless ?is /ate ( ! case t l$ a di/+ui%$ writ] on agriculture to rem>k1 ne>ly half a c5tury ago1 t he 8w\ld r tru/ an old f>m] = 8 judgm5t ( l& ?an ! be/ *emi/ alive40#a #a 8,! ,soil ,analyses ( ! ,geological ,surveys ( ,k5tucky & ,arkansas40 ,s4 ,w4 ,johnson 9 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 ,sept4 #ahfa4 ,x is c]ta9ly true t m]e physico-*emical analyses1 unassi/$ by o!r data1 w frequ5tly lead to a :olly errone\s e/imate ( a soil's agricultural value1 :5 appli$ to cultivat$ l&s4 ,b ! matt] assumes a v diff]5t aspect :51 ) ! natural vegetation & ! correspond+ cultural exp]i5ce z guides1 we seek = ! factors ^u :i* ! obs]v$ natural selection ( plants dep5ds1 by ! physical & *emical exam9ation ( ! respective soils4 ,x is fur!r obvi\s t1 ^! factors be+ once kn[n1 we %all be ju/ifi$ 9 apply+ !m to ^? cases 9 :i* ! guid+ m>k ( native vegetation is abs5t1 z ! result ( causes t h n mat]ially alt]$ ! natural condition ( ! soil4 ,x is probable t1 _h agricultural sci5ce be5 fir/ develop$ 9 regions :]e ! ext]nal conditions p]mitt$ ! c>ry+-out ( su* a c\rse ( inve/igation1 in/ead ( 9 ! abnormally temp]ate1 ev5 & humid climate ( middle ,europe1 ) its long-cropp$1 worn fields1 & v pr$om9antly calc>e\s soils1 ! pres5t condition ( ?is sci5ce might diff] n immat]ially f t actually exi/+4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x has atta9$ its pres5t /ate "u v disadvantage\s ext]nal conditions1 :i* frequ5tly necessitat$ a rec\rse to highly complex & labori\s me?ods & artificial appliances1 = ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( ! conditions :i* else:]e might h be5 f\nd abundantly realiz$ 9 nature2 ?us p]mitt+1 by ! multiplication ( obs]vations ov] ext5d$ & widely v>i$ areas1 ! elim9ation & control ( accid5tal errors ( exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,j z 9 hi/orical geology ! subdivisions ( =mations obs]v$ & accept$ 9 ,europe =m$ = _m ye>s a procru/ean b$ ^u :i* ! facts obs]v$ else:]e _h to be /ret*$1 s 9 ! doma9 ( soil physics & *emi/ry1 & ev5 9 vegetable physiology1 ! obs]vations made 9 ! really exceptional climates & soils ( middle ,we/]n ,europe1 h (t5 errone\sly be5 con/ru$ z con/itut+ a g5]al basis = unalt]able d$uctions4 ,! rapid ext5sion ( civilization & ! c>ry+ ( m9ute sci5tific rese>* into o!r regions1 n[ r5d]$ possible by ! improv$ means ( communication1 has %[n ! "o-sid$ness ( "s ( ! views prevail+ h]et(ore1 inasmu* z !y are really applicable only to accid5tal & r exceptional conditions4 ,x is !re=e "o object ( ?is volume to pres5t & discuss summ>ily ! facts ( physical & *emical soil con/itution & functions ) ref]5ce to ! additional light af=d$ on ! wid] basis1 embrac+ bo? ! humid & ! arid regions2 ( :i* ! latt] has1 z su*1 receiv$ b scant & desultory att5tion ?us f>1 to ! detrim5t ( bo? ! "w ( ! agricultural exp]im5t /ations & ( agricultural practice4 ,! book !re=e includes ! discussion bo? ( ! me?ods & results ( direct physical1 *emical & botanical soil inve/igation1 z well z ! subject matt] relat+ to ! orig91 =mation1 classification & physical z well z *emical nature ( soil1 usually includ$ 9 works on sci5tific agriculture4 ,9 ! pres5tation ( ^! subjects1 x has be5 ! writ]'s aim to rea* bo? ! /ud5ts 9 8 own classes & 9 ! agricultural colleges g5]ally1 z well z ! fa/ increas+ class ( f>m]s ( bo? regions :o are will+ & ev5 anxi\s to avail !mselves ( ! results & pr9ciples ( sci5tific inve/igation1 )\t 8%y+ (f0 f ! new or unfamili> words necess>y to embody new ideas4 ,x w\ld seem to be "t t ! latt] class1 & m especially ^? con/itut+ f>m]s' clubs1 %\ld le>n to und]/& & appreciate bo? ! t]ms & me?ods ( sci5tific reason+1 :i* are likely to =m1 increas+ly1 ! subjects ( in/ruction 9 ! public s*ools4 ,b 9 ord] to segregate to "s ext5t ! g5]ally intelligible matt] f t :i* requires m sci5tific prep>ation ?an c n[ be g5]ally expect$1 x has be5 ?\ght be/ to use 9 ! text two k9ds ( type2 ! l>g] "o embody+ ! matt] presum$ to be int]e/+ & intelligible to ! g5]al read]1 :ile ! small] type c>ries ! illu/rative detail & discussion :i* w be s\ght *iefly by ! /ud5t4 ,z reg>ds ! *emical nom5clature us$ 9 ?is volume1 ! writ] has n ?\ght x advisable to foll[ ! example set by "s late au?ors 9 sub/itut+ = ! well-kn[n names ( ! bases & acids1 ^? ( ! elem5ts1 & /ill less1 ^? ( ! intangible ions4 ,any "o :o has taught classes 9 agricultural *emi/ry w h exp]i5c$ ! difficulty & loss ( "t unnecess>ily incurr$ 9 ! incessantly recurr+ transposition ( t]ms1 & complication ( =mul1 s]v+ no useful purpose save t ( academic consi/5cy4 ,x is ( at lea/ d\btful utility to pres5t to ! f>m]1 e4 g41 ! inflammable & dang]\s elem5ts phosphorus & potassium z prime factors 9 ! success ( 8 crops1 & ( heal?y nutrition4 ,inasmu* z all ! elem5ts are pres5t$ to & conta9$ 9 ! plant 9 comp\nds only1 & ^! comp\nds are !mselves1 9 ! dilute solutions us$ by plants1 kn[n to be l>gely dissociat$ into _! basic & acid gr\ps1 x seems to be mo/ natural to pres5t !m "u ! correspond+1 ev5 if n absolutely !oretically correct names ( acids & bases1 to :i* ! f>m] & ! trade h be5 accu/om$ = half a c5tury4 ,^u ^! consid]ations ! long-us$ designations ( pota%1 soda1 lime1 phosphoric1 sulfuric1 nitric & o!r acids & bases h be5 reta9$ 9 ?is volume1 add+ ! *emical =mula :]e1 z 9 analytical /atem5ts1 a d\bt z to _! mean+ might arise4 ,assur$ly1 ! diffusion ( sci5tific k %\ld n be ne$lessly h9d]$ by ! adoption ( a p$antic mode ( pres5tation4 ,! great bread? ( ! subject ( ?is volume has r5d]$ inadvisable any ext5d$ bibliography1 su* z x has ( late become cu/om>y to add to works ( ?is k9d4 ,ref]5ces h !re=e be5 re/rict$ to publications specially discuss$1 & to su* z are n widely kn[n on acc\nt ( limit$ circulation4 ,! au?or's w>me/ ackn[l$gm5ts are due to ,pr(essor ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 = effici5t & sympa!tic assi/ance1 bo? 9 ! revision ( ! manuscript1 & active p]sonal help 9 ! prep>ation ( ! illu/rations4 ,)\t 8 cop]ation ! prep>ation & publication ( ! volume w\ld h be5 mu* long] delay$4 ,ackn[l$gm5ts are also due = helpful sugge/ions & criticism to ,pr(essors ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 ( ,cornell ,univ]sity1 ,f4 ,h4 ,k+1 ( ,wiscons91 & ,jacques ,loeb ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,e4 ,w4 ,,hilg>d4 ,,b]keley1 ,,cali=nia1 ,novemb] #ae1 #aije4 ,,introduction4 ,def9ition ( ,soils4--,9 ! mo/ g5]al mean+ ( ! t]m1 a soil is ! m or less loose & friable mat]ial 9 :i*1 by means ( _! roots1 plants may or d f9d a foo?old & n\ri%m5t1 z well z o!r conditions ( gr[?4 ,soils =m ! upp]mo/ lay] ( ! e>?'s cru/2 b ! t]m does n indicate any su* def9ite av]age texture z is sometimes impli$ by its popul> use to designate c]ta9 loose1 loamy mat]ials f\nd 9 old] geological =mations4 ,we d f9d 9 ^!1 n unfrequ5tly1 lay]s t 9 ! pa/ h s]v$ to support vegetation1 z evid5c$ by rema9s ( plants f\nd !re94 ,b z a rule1 su* anci5t soils are mu* compact$ & o!rwise *ang$1 & w\ld n n[ be capable ( p]=m+ ! (fice ( plant nutrition )\t previ\s1 long-cont9u$ exposure to ! same ag5cies by :i* all soils 7 orig9ally =m$ f pre-exi/+ rocks4 ,)9 ! latt] category mu/ be includ$1 9 sci5tific p>lance1 n only ! h>d rocks kn[n z su* 9 daily life1 b also su* s(t mat]ials z clay1 s&1 m>ls1 etc41 :i* (t5 compose1 p>tially or :olly1 ! bodies ( wide-spread geological =mations4 ,elem5ts ,con/itut+ ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,m ?an sev5ty elem5t>y sub/ances h be5 f\nd )9 ! portion ( ! e>? accessible to man2 mo/ ( ^! are pres5t only 9 v m9ute proportions2 ( ^? occurr+ 9 relatively consid]able quantities1 a li/ %[+ _! approximate proportions is giv5 bel[4 ,av]age quantitative composition ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,! total ?ickness ( ! out] %ell ( ! e>?1 ?us f> kn[n to u1 does n exce$ ab\t #ie1jjj feet1 z obs]v$ 9 ! accessible rock deposits4 ,e/imates ( ! proportions 9 :i* ! m abundant elem5ts contribute to ! composition ( ^! con/itu5t rocks1 h repeat$ly be5 made4 ,! late/ & mo/ widely accept$ ( ^!1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke1 ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 is giv5 h]e)4 ,x includes ! con/itu5ts ( ! sea & atmosph]e z well2 ^! two con/itute ab\t #g p] c5t ( ! :ole1 #ic p] c5t be+ solid rocks4 ,,relative ,,abundance ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,to ,a ,,dep? ,,( ,,t5 ,,kilomet]s4 ,,solid ,,cru/ ,,ocean ,,mean1 7#ic ,,p] ,,c5t74 7#g ,,p] ,,c5t74 ,,includ+ ,,air4 ,oxyg5 #dg4bi #he4gi #di4ih ,silicon #bg4ba #be4cj ,alum9um #g4ha #g4bf ,iron #e4df #e4jh ,calcium #c4gg #j4je #c4ea ,magnesium #b4fh #j4ad #b4ej ,sodium #b4cf #a4ad #b4bh ,potassium #b4dj #j4jd #b4bc ,hydrog5 #j4ba #aj4fg #j4id ,titanium #j4cc #j4cj ,c>bon #j4bb #j4jjb #j4ba ,*lor9 #j4ja #b4jg #j4ae ,phosphorus #j4aj #j4ji ,manganese #j4jh #j4jg ,sulphur #j4jc #j4ji #j4jd ,b>ium #j4jc #j4jc ,nitrog5 #j4jb ,fluor9 #j4jb #j4jb ,*romium #j4ja #j4ja ,x w be not$ t "o-half ( ! total consi/s ( oxyg51 & t ne>ly #hf 7or #dg4bi ( ! #di4ih7 ( ?is am\nt is conta9$ 9 ! solid rocks2 ne>ly #b4ej ( ! rema9d] 9 sea & o!r wat]2 & 4#da 9 ! atmosph]e1 9 ! free condition1 9 :i* x s]ves = ! respiration ( animals & plants1 & = ! v>i\s processes ( sl[ & rapid combu/ion1 or 8oxidation40 ,?is relatively small proportion ( ! :ole1 is1 nev]!less1 ! mo/ directly important = ! ma9t5ance ( organic life4 ,oxids ,con/itute ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,! va/ pr$om9ance ( oxyg5 9 ! above li/ sugge/s at once t mo/ ( ! o!r elem5ts mu/ exi/ 9 comb9ation ) x1 i4 e41 z 8oxids40 ,h4 ,s4 ,wa%+ton#b has lately revis$ ! e/imates h]et(ore made1 on ! basis ( a v l>ge numb] ( analyses made by him & o!rs1 ( rocks )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & gives ! foll[+ table2 alongside ( :i* is plac$ a revis$ e/imate by ,cl>ke1 :i* also includes rocks f abroad2 bo? be+ giv5 9 t]ms ( oxids ( ! sev]al elem5ts4 #b ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,pr(essional ,pap] ,no4 #ad1 p4 #ajh4 ,,wa%+ton4 ,,cl>ke4 ,silica ,si,o #eg4gh #ei4hi ,alum9a ,al,o #ae4fg #ae4de ,p]oxid ( ,iron ,fe,o #c4ca #b4fd ,protoxid ( ,iron ,fe,o #c4hd #c4ec ,magnesia ,mg,o #c4ha #d4cg ,lime ,ca,o #e4ah #d4ia ,soda ,na,o #c4hh #c4ef ,pota% ,k,o #c4ac #b4ha ,wat]1 basic ,h,o #a4db #a4eb ,wat]1 acid ,h,o 4#cf 4#dj ,f]ric ,sulphid ,fe,s #a4jc 4#fj ,phosphoric acid ,p,o 4#cg 4#bb ,manganese ,protoxid ,mn,o 4#bb 4#aj ,! sali5t po9t :i* at once attracts att5tion 9 ^! tables is ! great pr$om9ance ( ! oxid ( silicon--silica1 silicic acid1 qu>tz1 etc41--ov] all o!r sub/ances4 ,:ile qu>tz occurs alone 9 enorm\s masses1 z w be %[n lat]1 probably ! great] proportion is f\nd 9 comb9ation ) o!r oxids1 notably ^? ( alum9um1 calcium1 iron1 magnesium1 & ! alkali metals potassium & sodium4 ,*lor9 & fluor91 h[ev]1 d n occur z oxids4#c #c ,a trifl+ am\nt ( *lor9 is f\nd oxidiz$ 9 ! =m ( sodium p]*lorate1 9 ! nitre deposits ( ,*ile4 ,! ,*emical ,elem5ts ,important to ,agriculture4--,( ! num]\s elem5ts kn[n to *emi/s1 only eighte5 require m5tion 9 connection ) ei!r soil =mation or plant gr[?2 & ( ^! only ?irte5 or f\rte5 p>ticipate 9 normal plant gr[?4 ,!y are ! foll[+3 ,,metallic ,,elem5ts4 ,,non-,,metallic ,,elem5ts4 ,potassium ,c>bon ,sodium ,hydrog5 ,calcium ,oxyg5 ,magnesium ,nitrog5 ,iron ,phosphorus ,manganese ,sulphur ,alum9um ,*lor9 ,titanium ,fluor9 ,iod9 ,silicon4 ,( ?is li/1 titanium1 ?\gh a v con/ant +r$i5t ( soils 9 ! =m ( titanic dioxid1 is n kn[n z p]=m+ any important function 9 soils1 & is n1 s f> z kn[n at pres5t1 ev] tak5 up by plants4 ,alum9um1 9 ! =m ( its comp\nds ) oxyg5 & silicon1 is a v prom95t & physically v important soil +r$i5t1 b does n1 app>5tly1 p]=m any direct function 9 plant nutrition1 & is abs5t f _! a%1 except 9 ! case ( "s ( ! l[] plants 7horsetails & f]ns74 ,iod9 appe>s to be normally pres5t 9 all seawe$s1 & occurs 9 traces 9 "s l& plants4 ,fluor9 is a normal +r$i5t ( animal bones1 & its pres5ce 9 plant a%es is (t5 easily %[n4 ,! rema9+ f\rte51 h[ev]1 are always pres5t 9 plants2 c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & nitrog5 =m+ ! volatile or combu/ible "p1 :ile ! re/ occur 9 ! a%es4 ,x is true t o!r elem5ts1 or r _! comp\nds1 are sometimes f\nd 9 plants1 be+ tak5 up by !m f solutions exi/+ 9 ! soil4 ,?us ! alkalies caesium & rubidium1 also b>ium1 /rontium1 z9c1 copp]1 boron & "s o!rs1 may be absorb$ :5 pres5t 9 soluble =m4 ,b !y are nei!r necess>y nor b5eficial to plant economy1 & :5 9 consid]able am\nts are h>mful4 ,?us fifte5 elem5ts1 ommit+ iod9 & titanium1 alone require discussion4 ,! ,volatile ,"p ( ,plants1 z already /at$1 consi/s ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,( ^!1 c>bon is obta9$ by ! plant exclusively f ! c>bonic 7dioxid7 gas ( ! air2 hydrog5 & oxyg51 f ! soil 9 ! =m ( wat]2 nitrog51 directly f ! soil b indirectly also f ! air1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( c]ta9 bact]ia4 ,! a% +r$i5ts ( c\rse are all d]iv$ f ! soil ?r\gh ! roots1 & mu/ all be pres5t 9 ! latt] 9 an available =m1 to a suffici5t ext5t to supply ! dem&s ( vegetation4 ,! ,ag5cies ( ,soil ,=mation4--,) respect to _! mode ( =mation1 soils may be def9$ z ! residual product ( ! physical dis9tegration & *emical decomposition ( rocks2 )1 ord9>ily1 a small proportion ( ! remnants ( organic life4 ,! ag5cies produc+ ^! *anges are ^? class$ "u ! g5]al t]m 8atmosph]ic0 or 8meteorological20 !y include !re=e ! action ( temp]ature--heat & cold--t ( wat]1 & t ( air & its +r$i5ts4 ,9 popul> p>lance1 x includes ! processes ( wea!r+2 ne>ly ! same processes are involv$ 9 ! 8fall[+0 ( soils4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,=mation ,,( ,,soils4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,physical ,,processes ,,( ,,soil ,,=mation4 ,s9ce ! physical & me*anical effects ( ! ag5cies m5tion$ above usually prec$e1 9 "t1 ! *emical *anges1 :i* are mat]ially facilitat$ by ! previ\s pulv]ization ( ! rocks1 ! =m] %\ld be fir/ consid]$4 ,effects ( heat & cold on rocks4--,mo/ rocks are aggregates ( sev]al simple m9]als2 a few only 7lime/one1 qu>tzite & a few o!rs7 exp& or contract alike 9 all _! p>ts4 ,( ! m9]als compos+ ! comp\nd rocks1 sc>cely any exp& to exactly ! same ext5t "u ! influ5ce ( ! sun's heat1 especially :5 _! colors diff]2 nor1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 does "o & ! same m9]al exp& alike 9 all ?ree directions4 ,x foll[s t at ea* *ange ( temp]ature !re is a t5d5cy to ! =mation ( m9ute fissures betwe5 adjac5t cry/als or masses ( diff]5t simple m9]als2 & especially 9 ! case ( l>ge cry/als ( c]ta9 k9ds1 ?is action alone w gradually result 9 ! disruption ( ! rock surface1 s t individual cry/als may be deta*$ ) little difficulty4 ,9 any case1 ! cracks s =m$ are gradually wid5$ by a frequ5t repetition ( ! *anges ( temp]ature1 c\pl$ ) access ( air1 wat]1 du/1 & ! rootlets ( plants2 all ( :i* br+s ab\t a gradually increas+ rate ( surface crumbl+4 ,?is is especially conspicu\s at ! high] elevations ( m\nta9s1 :]e ! temp]ature *anges are v great & abrupt2 & also 9 ! cle> atmosph]e ( des]ts1 :]e ow+ to ! ext5t & sudd5ness ( temp]ature-*anges betwe5 day & night1 caus$ by ! free radiation ( heat into ! cle> sky1 ev5 homog5e\s pebbles are kn[n to be almo/ explosively disrupt$ 9 ! morn+s & ev5+s ( cle> days4 ,su* effects may (t5 be /rik+ly obs]v$ on small surfaces ( comp\nd cry/all9e rocks1 su* z granite1 expos$ on glaci]s1 :]e ! daily *anges ( temp]ature are (t5 extreme1 viz41 f bel[ ! freez+ po9t to z mu* z #acj degrees ,fahr4 7#ed4d degrees ,c74 ,9 su* cases "o may sometimes scoop (f ! dis9tegrat$ rock by ! h&ful1 :ile yet ! m9]al surfaces are almo/ p]fectly fre%4 ,on a l>g] scale1 ! disruption & scal+ (f ( huge slabs ( granite1 & rocks ( simil> /ructure1 may be obs]v$ 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia on ! s\?we/]n side ( rock exposures1 :]e slabs f a few in*es to t5 & m feet 9 l5g? & eight or t5 in*es ?ick1 h slid (f1 p]haps /ill lean+ aga9/ ! p>5t rock1 :i* has be5 r\nd$ (f by a succession ( su* ev5ts into ! domelike =m s *>act]i/ic ( granite m\nta9s4 ,m]rill#d reports simil> exfoliations to occur especially on ! p59sula ( ,cali=nia1 on ,/one ,m\nta9 9 ,georgia1 & else:]e4 #d ,see ,rocks1 ,rock-wea!r+1 & ,soils1 page #bdf2 also pap] on ,domes & ,dome ,/ructure1 by ,g4 ,k4 ,gilb]t1 9 ,bullet9s ( ! ,geol4 ,society ,am41 ,vol4 #ae1 pp4 #bi-cf4 ,a /rik+ exemplification ( ! effects ( frequ5t & rapid *anges ( temp]ature on rocks1 & ( humid & dry climates z well1 is se5 9 ! case ( ! great monoli?s ( ,egypt1 "o ( :i* n[ /&s 9 ! ,c5tral ,p>k1 ,new ,york4 ,9 ! qu>ries ( ,sy5e 9 ,upp] ,egypt1 :]e mo/ ( ^! monoli?s 7 obta9$1 ! r\gh blocks t 7 9 progress ( qu>ry+ :5 ! "w 0 ab&on$1 q two ?\s& ye>s ago1 /ill %[ an almo/ p]fectly fre% surface2 & ! same is true ( ! f9i%$ obelisks 9 ,l[] ,egypt1 :]e bo? ! *anges ( temp]ature & ! ra9fall are some:at great]4 ,x is a matt] ( public note t "o ( 8,cleopatra's ,ne$les0 :i* 0 set up 9 ,c5tral ,p>k ne>ly ?irty ye>s ago1 b orig9ally erect$ at ,heliopolis on ! ,nile1 is 9 great dang] ( de/ruction f ! influ5ce ( a totally diff]5t climate1 9 :i* bo? ! temp]ature *anges & ! ra9fall are mu* m frequ5t & sev]e ?an 9 ,egypt4 ,! l>ge cry/als ( feldsp> & qu>tz :i* compose ! 7sy5ite7 rock mat]ial h _h f9e fissures =m$ betwe5 !m by (t5-repeat$ expansion & contraction2 :i* :5 fill$ ) wat] & subsequ5tly *ang$ to ice1 ! latt]'s expansion 9 freez+ 7see bel[7 has /ill f>!r enl>g$ !m & caus$ a scal+-(f1 :i* ?reat5s to oblit]ate ! hi]oglyphic inscriptions4 ,?us temp]ature-*anges & a ra9 foll[$ by freez+ may 9 a few days produce a great] effect ?an a ?\s& ye>s ( ,egyptian climate4 ,cleavage ( rocks4--,_m k9ds ( rocks h def9ite directions ( ready cleavage4 ,! mo/ common & obvi\s cases ( ?is k9d are s*i/s1 slates & %ales1 cleav+ readily into plates or irregul> flat or l5s-%ap$ fragm5ts4 ,su* /ructure greatly favors dis9tegration1 especially :5 ! lay]s are on edge at /eep angles4 ,b !re are o!r app>5tly /ructureless1 massive rocks1 p>ticul>ly basalts & o!r eruptive rocks relat$ to !m1 z well z _m s&/ones & clay/ones1 t h a /rong t5d5cy to cleave into m or less def9ite =ms :5 /ruck2 su* z columns or prisms1 squ>e1 six-sid$ or diamond-%ap$ blocks1 etc4 ,simil> =ms are naturally produc$ 9 !m "u ! influ5ce ( *anges ( temp]ature2 by ! =mation ( m9ute cracks at fir/1 !n enl>gem5t ( ^! by ! sev]al ag5cies already m5tion$4 ,effects ( freez+ wat]4--,! irresi/ible =ce ex]t$ by ! expansion ( wat] 9 freez+1 am\nt+ to ab\t #i p] c5t ( its bulk1 is a p[]ful factor 9 wid5+ & deep5+ fissures & cracks ( rocks2 n uncommonly1 :ole masses ( rock are r5t into fragm5ts by ?is ag5cy1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ common causes ( 8rock falls0 on ! br9k ( precipices4 ,by ! freez+ process cracks & crevices are enl>g$1 & ! surfaces expos$ to wea!r+ are /ill f>!r increas$2 & ! rock fragm5ts or soil p>ticles are loos5$ & r5d]$ m liable to be remov$ f ! orig9al site1 :e!r by gravity1 w9d or wat]4 ,glaci]s4--,ice 9 ! =m ( ! glaci]s t desc5d f m\nta9 *a9s 7see figure #a71 & ( ! mov+ ice %eets t h cov]$ l>ge portions ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe 9 pa/ ages & n[ cov] ,gre5l& & ! ,s\? ,pol> cont95t1 ex]ts a mo/ pot5t action 9 abrad+ & gr9d+ ev5 ! h>de/ rocks2 n s mu* by ! direct friction ( ! mov+ ice itself1 z by ! cutt+1 scor+1 gr9d+ & cru%+ action :i* ! /ones imb$d$ 9 ! ice1 or c>ri$ & %ov$ by x1 ex]t ^u ! rocky *annels 9 :i* ! ice /ream moves1 z well z ^u ea* o!r4 ,! product ( ?is gr9d+ process is l>gely v f9e 7h5ce 8glaci] fl\r071 s t x rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! wat] ( ! glaci]-/reams until _! velocity is p]man5tly *eck$ :5 rea*+ a pla9 or lake4 ,?is susp5d$ /one-fl\r imp>ts to ! glaci] /reams _! di/9ctive "* ( 8:ite riv]s10 z contradi/+ui%$ f ! cle>1 d>k 8gre5 riv]s0 t h _! orig9 outside ( glaciat$ areas4 ,?is diff]5ce c be readily obs]v$ 9 travel+ along any ( ! glaci]-be>+ m\nta9 *a9s ( ! _w1 & is frequ5tly express$ 9 ! names ( ! /reams4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,z]matt ,glaci] 7,agassiz74 ,! physical analysis ( mud f ! foot ( ,muir glaci]1#e ,alaska1 at its sea front1 made by ,pr(essor ,l\ghridge1 %[s ! preval5t f95ess ( ! mat]ials br\ght d[n by ! glaci] wat]s4 #e ,collect$ by ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,ritt] ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,,physical ,,composition ,,( ,,glaci] ,,mud4 ,,mat]ial4 ,,diamet]4 ,,p] ,,c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,clay 8 #af4eg #gj4ca ,f9e silt 4#jjbc -- 4#jaf mm4 #ec4gd ,f9e silt 4#jaf to 4#jbe mm4 #d4ch ,m$ium silt 4#jbe to 4#jcf mm4 #g4jf ,co>se silt 4#jcf to 4#jdg mm4 #e4ia ,co>se silt 4#jdg to 4#jgb mm4 #c4gf ,f9e s& 4#jgb to 4#ab mm4 #a4ad ,m$ium s& 4#ab to 4#af mm4 #a4ef ----- ,total #id4ab ---------------------------------------- ------- ,x w be not$ t ov] #gj p] c5t ( ?is mud consi/s ( extremely f9e1 :olly impalpable mat]ials2 b little ( :i* is true clay4 ,! f95ess ( ! glaci] fl\r r5d]s x peculi>ly suitable = ! rapid conv]sion into soil1 & su* soils are usually excell5t & rem>kably durable4 ,! great & la/+ f]tility ( ! soils ( s\!rn ,sw$5 is trac$ directly to ?is mode ( orig91 & d\btless ! great ,am]ican ice %eet ( glaci] times is simil>ly conc]n$ 9 ! high quality ( ! soil ( our 8nor? c5tral0 /ates1 f ! ,ohio to ! ,great ,lakes & ! ,miss\ri4 ,! accumulations ( rocks & debris ( all sizes 9 ! 8mora9es0 or detrital deposits ( glaci]s & ice-%eets =m ano!r class ( glaci]-made l&s :i* cov] ext5sive & important agricultural areas 7drift areas71 bo? 9 ! old & new worlds4 ,su* l&s are undulat+ or slightly hilly1 & ! soil usually conta9s imb$d$ 9 x /ones ( a great v>iety ( k9ds & sizes1 p>tly angul>1 p>tly r\nd$ & poli%$ by friction4 ,( c\rse ! frequ5t & viol5t *anges ( temp]ature occurr+ on ! surface ( a glaci]1 aid mat]ially 9 r$uc+ ! rocks c>ri$ by x to ! condition 9 :i* we f9d ! mat]ial ( ! mora9es2 :i* commonly =m lat]al or cross ridges 9 valleys =m]ly occupi$ by glaci]s4 ,action ( fl[+ wat]4--,! action ( fl[+ wat] is d\btless at ?is "t ! mo/ pot5t me*anical ag5cy ( soil =mation4 ,f ! sculptur+ ( ! orig9al simple =ms 9 :i* geological ag5cies left ! e>?'s surface into ! complex ones ( mod]n m\nta9 *a9s1 to ! =mation ( valleys1 pla9s1 & bas9s out ( ! mat]ials s c>ri$ away1 its effects are prodigi\s4 ,! torr5ts & /reams 9 c>ry+ silt1 s&1 gravel & b[ld]s1 accord+ to velocity & volume1 d n m]ely displace ^! mat]ials2 ! rock fragm5ts ( all sizes n only score & abrade ! b$ ( ! rill or /ream1 b by _! mutual attrition produce m or less ( f9e p[d] simil> to t =m$ by glaci] action2 usually m mix$ 9 its +r$i5ts ?an ! =m]1 because d]iv$ f a wid] range ( dra9age surface4 ,9 ! glaci] /ream itself1 x is easy to trace ! gradual transition f ! %>p /one fragm5ts ly+ 9 ! wat] z x issues f ! t]m9al ice cave at ! l[] end ( ! glaci]1 to ! r\nd$ %+le f\nd a few miles bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,erosion ( ,hawaiian ,hills1 ne> ,honolulu4 7,phot4 by ,h4 ,c4 ,my]s47 ,on slopes :]e wat] fl[s only dur+ ra9 or ! melt+ ( sn[1 ! same erosive effects may be se5 z betwe5 ! heads ( rav9es & _! outlets4 7,see figure #b17 ,x is !re too t ! surpris+ly rapid cutt+-out ( *annels by ! aid ( wat] *>g$ ) rock fragm5ts or gravel1 c readily be obs]v$1 & ! enorm\s p[] ( wat] erosion conv9c+ly %[n4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! /up5d\s gorges ( ! ,columbia & ,colorado riv]s1 ! =m] cut to a dep? ( ov] #bjjj feet into h>d basalt rock1 ! latt] to ov] #e1jjj feet1 p>tly into s(t] mat]ials1 p>tly into granite1 are p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ?is p[]2 ! manife/ations ( :i* c1 h[ev]1 be z conv9c+ly se5 9 ?\s&s ( m9or riv]s & /reams4 ,all ! mat]ials s c>ri$ (f f ! high] slopes are f9ally deposit$ on a l[] level2 :e!r only a %ort di/ance away on a l[] slope 7colluvial soils71 or f>!r away 9 ! flood pla9 ( /reams1 riv]s1 or lakes 7alluvial soils74 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! f9e/ mat]ials are ( c\rse1 c>ri$ f>!/1 & (t5 into ! sea2 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 !y _c long rema9 susp5d$1 b are quickly ?r[n d[n1 =m+ riv] b>s1 flood pla9s1 & deltas4 ,! f95ess ( ! mat]ial ( delta soils1 l t ( ^? made f glaci] fl\r1 insures !m ! same advantage1 viz4 great f]tility & durability4 ,x is calculat$ t ! ,mississippi ,riv] c>ries into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico annually "s #gdfi millions ( cubic feet ( e>?y deposits1 :i* w\ld fill "o squ>e mile ( surface to ! height ( #bfh feet1 or w\ld cov] t numb] ( squ>e miles to ! dep? ( "o foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,cliffs & caves on sea-bea* at ,la ,jolla1 ,calif4 %[+ effects ( ,wave action4 ,wave-,action4--,! p[]ful effects ( ! beat+ ( waves ^u abrupt %ores ( seas or lakes are 9 evid5ce all ov] ! _w1 & ^! effects are s *>act]i/ic t !y c be recogniz$ ev5 :]e no sea or lake exi/s at pres5t4 ,gravel & s& are c>ri$ 9 ! surf & s]ve z gr9d+ mat]ials1 we>+ ev5 ! h>de/ rocks into grooves1 rills1 *annels & caves1 def9+ %>ply ! v>y+ degrees ( h>dness or t\gh resi/ance 9 diff]5t p>ts ( rocky cliffs2 frequ5tly und]m9+ !m & caus+ ext5sive rock falls4 ,! latt] !n s]ve = a "t to break ! viol5ce ( ! waves' onset1 & may ev5 cause p]man5t %ore deposits to be =m$ "u _! lee4 ,su* deposits are v g5]ally =m$ on g5tly slop+ bea*es1 & z ! wat] gradually rec$es1 sometimes by elevation ( ! gr\nd1 bea* l9es or bea*-t]races are left1 :i* indicate ! successive levels ( ! lake or sea4 ,su* old bea* l9es or t]races & level-surfac$ 8buttes0 9 ! ,great ,bas9 c\ntry1 & 8b5* l&s0 else:]e1 %[ 9 _! /ructure ! *>act]i/ic l9es ( wave-deposition4 ,effects ( ,w9ds4--,! action ( w9ds 9 transport+ soil p>ticles 7du/ & s&7 is famili>2 & ! accumulations t may be =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( regul>1 cont9u\s w9ds are suffici5tly obvi\s on lee %ores hav+ s&y bea*es1 inl& ( :i* ! =mation ( s& dunes at times assumes a ?reat5+ magnitude4 ,:]e w9ds are irregul>1 frequ5tly rev]s+ _! direction1 ( c\rse ! local effects w be less obvi\s1 & ! transportation ( mat]ial actually occurr+ w (t5 n be notic$4 ,yet !re c be no d\bt ( ! importance ( w9d action 9 soil =mation1 & !re are cases 9 :i* no o!r ag5cy c expla9 ! facts obs]v$ ov] widely ext5d$ areas4 ,?is is especially true ) reg>d to ! soil masses ( ! high pla9s or plateaus ( ! dry cont95tal int]iors1 :]e n only ! regul>ity ( ! prevail+ w9ds1 b also ! /ructure 7or abs5ce ( /ructure7 & pulv]ul5t "* ( ! soil itself1 r5d]s ?is ! only rational mode ( acc\nt+ = its pres5ce :]e we f9d x4 ,! effects t may be ex]t$ by regul> w9ds are well illu/rat$ 9 ! pla9s & des]ts ( ,africa z well z ^? ( c5tral ,asia4 ,"h we f9d a di/9ct subdivision ( ! des]t 7ra9less7 areas into ! /ony1 f :i* ! w9d has swept all b ! b$rock & gravel & :]e sc>cely any natural gr[?1 & c]ta9ly no cultivation is possible 9 ! almo/ total abs5ce ( soil4 ,! next subdivision is ! s&y des]t1 to leew>d ( ! /ony area1 :]e ! w9ds are less viol5t & regul>1 & :]e1 !re=e1 ! s& has be5 dropp$ & is wait$ back & =? by 8s& /orms10 ! surface be+ cov]$ ) mov+ s& dunes4 ,/ill f>!r to leew>d we f9d ! region 9 :i* ! f9] portions ( ! des]t surface has be5 deposit$2 "h we h 8du/ /orms0 s long z ! l& is n irrigat$3 b ! application ( wat] r5d]s ! soil abundantly fruitful4 ,su* is ! case ( ! ,oases & f]tile bord]-l&s ( ! ,sah>a & ,libyan des]ts4 ,9 ! cultivat$ portions ( ! ,mojave & ,colorado des]ts 9 ,cali=nia1 pl[+ ( ! l& dur+ a dry "t is n uncommonly foll[$ by a bodily removal ( ! loos5$ soil to neighbor+ fields1 sometimes leav+ a gravel surface beh9d4 ,su* 8bl[n-out l&s0 exi/ naturally at num]\s po9ts 9 ! ,colorado des]t4 ,sv5 ,h$9 7,c5tral ,asia & ,tibet1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 %[s t f ! effects ( ! viol5t /orms t prevail 9 ! ,gobi or ,takla ,makan des]t1 ,lop-nor lake1 ! s9k ( ! ,t>im riv]1 has 9 ! c\rse ( "t %ift$ its b$ z mu* z fifty miles 9 consequ5ce ( ! excavation ( ! s\!rn "p ( ! des]t by ! w9d2 :ile ! s& s bl[n out1 toge!r ) ! deposits f ! riv]s1 n[ t5ds to fill up ! pres5t 7s\!rn7 lake1 :i* is gradually return+ nor?w>d t[>d its orig9al site1 n[ a des]t1 b ar\nd :i* =m]ly a d5se population exi/$4 ,! great pla9s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! plateaus ( ,mongolia & especially ! f]tile loess region ( nor?we/]n ,*9a1 are also cases 9 po9t4 ,! d5se du/ /orms ( ^! regions are famili> & unpleasant ph5om5a1 :i* are (t5 obs]v$ ev5 by vessels at sea (f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e ! du/-lad5 8pamp]os0 at times compel !m to proce$ ) ! same precautions z 9 a fog2 & ! same is true ( ! nor!a/ w9ds bl[+ (f ! ,sah>a des]t on ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa4 ,! effects ( w9d/orms c>ry+ s& 9 ! erosion ( rocks are v obvi\s & /rik+ 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w2 n[h]e probably z mu* s z on ! great pla9s ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e ! geological composition ( ! 8bad l&s0 is frequ5tly impress$ ^u ! rock surfaces v prom95tly4 ,! /rik+ly grotesque =ms are frequ5tly br\ght out 9 ?is way1 especially 9 ! case ( 8mu%room0 rocks1 :]e a h>d /ratum has rema9$ z a cov]+ :ile s(t] lay]s und]nea? h be5 worn away4 ,! illu/ration annex$ %[s su* a case on ! pla9s ( ,wyom+ z figur$ 9 ! ,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 on ! ,c5tral ,great ,pla9s1 by ,n4 ,h4 ,d>ton4 ,/rik+ examples ( ! same effects are se5 on ! %ores ( ,lake ,mi*igan 9 ! ,gr& ,trav]se region1 :]e ! rocky cliffs are visibly worn away & c>v$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! regul> 8s&-bla/s0 ( nor?we/ w9ds4 ,on a small] scale ! effects ( ^! s&-bla/s may be not$ 9 ! cobble-des]ts1 :]e we frequ5tly f9d ! cobbles worn away on ! w9dw>d side 9 a v *>act]i/ic mann]2 ! lee side rema9+ r\nd$ & smoo?1 :ile ! /ructure ( ! rock is /rongly outl9$ on ! w9dw>d side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--8,mu%room rocks10 produc$ by ,w9d action1 ,wyom+4 7,d>ton47 ,,classification ,,( ,,soils4 ,! physical ,con/itu5ts ( soils are ?us1 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms1 fir/1 rock p[d] 78s&07 m or less *ang$ by wea!r+2 second1 clay1 z "o ( ! *ief results ( ! wea!r+ process ( silicate m9]als2 & ?irdly1 humus1 ! d>k-color$ remnant ( vegetable decay4 ,accord+ to ! obvi\s pr$om9ance ( "o or ! o!r ( ^! prim>y +r$i5ts1 soils are popul>ly1 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 class$ z 8heavy0 & 8light02 ! =m] t]m correspond+ z a rule to ^? 9 :i* clay =ms a prom95t +r$i5t1 :ile s&y & hum\s or 8mold0 soils usually fall "u ! latt] designation1 because ( _! easy tillage4 ,= practical purposes ^! subdivisions are bo? conv5i5t & important1 & !y =m ! ord9>y basis ( l& classification4 ,beyond ^!1 ! degree ( f95ess ( ! rock debris1 & _! physical & *emical con/itution1 det]m9e di/9ctions su* z gravelly1 s&y1 silty1 loamy1 calc>e\s1 silice\s1 magnesian1 f]rug9\s1 & o!rs ( less g5]al application1 ?\gh locally (t5 ( consid]able importance4 ,= ! purposes ( discussion & def9ition1 h[ev]1 ano!r basis ( classification is ne$$1 :i* ess5tially conc]ns bo? ! orig9 & ! adaptations ( l&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,diagram illu/rat+ ! g5etic relation ( diff]5t soil classes to ea* o!r4 #a4 ,s$5t>y ,soils4--,:5 soils h be5 =m$ )\t removal f ! site ( ! orig9al rock1 by simple wea!r+1 !y are designat$ z s$5t>y1 or residual soils1 or 8soils 9 place40 ,9 ! case ( ^!1 ! orig9al rock und]lies ! soil or subsoil at a great] or less dep?1 accord+ to ! int5sity & duration ( ! wea!r+ process1 & is usually m or less s(t5$ & decompos$ at ! surface :]e x meets ! soil lay]4 ,! latt] ( c\rse be>s "s ( ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ! p>5t rock1 & its composition & adaptations may1 9 a measure1 be directly inf]r$ f t orig94 ,su* soils usually conta91 especially 9 _! l[] portions1 "s angul> fragm5ts ( ! p>5t rock4 ,9 "s cases s$5t>y soils may h be5 p>tially d]iv$ f rocks t h be5 remov$ f above ! pres5t c\ntry rock by erosion1 & 9 t case fragm5ts ( su* vani%$ rock may also be pres5t4 ,s$5t>y soils are mo/ commonly f\nd on rock plateaus & on slopes or pla9s und]laid by rock /rata ( b slight incl9ation1 :]e ! velocity ( ! 8run(f0 ra9fall is n suffici5t to dislodge ! rock debris4 ,ext5d$ areas ( su* soils exi/ 9 ! granitic areas ( ! s\!rn ,allegh5ies1 9 ! 8black prairies0 ( ! ,cotton ,/ates1 & on ! 8basaltic0 plateaus ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/4 #b4 ,colluvial ,soils4--,:5 ! soil mass =m$ by wea!r+ has be5 remov$ f ! orig9al site to su* a degree z to cause x to int]m+le ) ! mat]ials ( o!r rocks or lay]s1 z is usually ! case on hillsides1 & 9 undulat+ upl&s g5]ally1 z ! result ( roll+ or slid+ d[n1 wa%+ ( ra9s1 sweep+ ( w9d1 etc41 ! mix$ soil1 :i* w usually be f\nd to conta9 angul> fragm5ts ( v>i\s rocks1 & is de/itute ( any def9ite /ructure1 is designat$ z a colluvial#f "o4 ,colluvial soil masses are frequ5tly subject to di/urbance f l&slides1 :i* are usually ! result ( wat] p5etrat+ und]nea?1 betwe5 ! soil mass & ! und]ly+ rock1 or sometimes simply ( complete saturation ( ! =m] ) wat]4 ,aside f su* cata/rophic action1 !y commonly h a sl[ d[nw>d movem5t 9 mass 7creep71 :i* ord9>ily becomes p]ceptible only 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s2 mo/ quickly :]e !re are heavy fro/s 9 w9t]1 :i* act bo? by direct expansion1 & by ! /ate ( extreme loos5ess 9 :i* ! soil mass is left on ?aw+4 ,colluvial soils =m a l>ge portion ( roll+ & hilly upl&s1 & are ( v v>y+ degrees ( productiv5ess4 #f ,! t]m 8ov]plac$10 us$ = su* soils 9 late memoirs ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 is at lea/ sup]flu\s1 9 view ( ! p]fectly und]/ood t]m already 9 g5]al use1 & does n seem to comm5d itself = adoption by any special or sup]ior fitness2 nor does ! sugge/ion ( ,%al] 7,! ,orig9 & ,nature ( ,soils1 #ab? ,rep4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey7 to include ! colluvial soils )9 ! alluvial class1 comm5d itself ei!r f a !oretical or practical po9t ( view1 s9ce b few useful g5]alizations c apply to bo? classes4 #c4 ,alluvial ,soils4--,:5 soils are ! result ( deposition by /reams1 ! mat]ial hav+ be5 ga!r$ along ! c\rse ( ! /ream f v>i\s s\rces & c>ri$ to a di/ance be=e be+ deposit$1 ! soil is designat$ z alluvial4 ,^! are ! soils ( ! valleys1 flood-pla9s1 & sea- & lake-bord]s1 pa/ & pres5t4 ,be+ ( mix$ orig91 _! g5]al "* may v>y f "o extreme to ! o!r1 bo? z reg>ds physical & *emical composition4 ,s9ce1 moreov]1 !y repres5t ! f9] portions ( ! soils ( ! regions dra9$ by ! wat]-c\rses1 alluvial soils are z a rule ( a f9e texture2 & z repres5t+ ! mo/ advanc$ decomposition products ( ! p>5t rocks1 !y are usually prem95tly f]tile4 ,?is is prov]bially true ( ! flood-pla9s ( riv]s1 & /ill m ( _! deltas--! bodies ( l&s =m$ ne> _! outlets into seas or lakes4 ,"* ( ^! soil-classes4--,s$5t>y soils are z a matt] ( c\rse1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 dep5d5t entirely on ! p>5t rock = _! specific "*2 & tak+ into consid]ation ! v>i\s rocks 7usually "o or few7 f :i* !y may h be5 d]iv$1 ne>ly ! same is true ( colluvial soils1 except t a portion ( ! clay & f9e/ pulv]ul5t matt]s may 9 _! case be c>ri$ d[n on ! l[] slopes & into ! valleys & /reams1 by ! hillside rills4 ,accord+ to ! calculation ( ,m]rill 7,rocks1 ,rock-wea!r+1 & ,soils1 p4 #ahh7 granite :5 trans=m$ into soil )\t loss w\ld increase 9 weight by #hh2 m ?an d\bl+ its bulk4 ,m usually1 ! lea*+ process dim9i%es _! volume z comp>$ ) ! p>5t rock4 ,alluvial soils are also ( c\rse to a c]ta9 ext5t dep5d5t ^u ! "* ( ! rocks & surface deposits occurr+ )9 ! dra9age area ( ! deposit+ /ream4 ,z a rule _! composition is mu* m g5]aliz$2 b _! "* z to ! relative proportions ( s& & clay is ess5tially dep5d5t ^u ! velocity ( ! wat] curr5t4 ,?us 9 ! upp] portions ( valleys1 :]e ! slope is relatively /eep & ! velocity !re=e high1 a l>ge proportion ( cobbles & gravel is (t5 pres5t 9 ! deposits1 sometimes to ! ext5t ( r5d]+ cultivation impracticable1 or at lea/ unpr(itable4 ,z ! slope & velocity decrease1 fir/ co>se & !n f9e s& w be ! prom95t compon5t ( ! deposit$ soil2 :ile /ill l[] d[n1 9 ! region ( slack wat]1 ! f9e/ s& or silt1 toge!r ) clay1 w pr$om9ate4 ,accord+ to ,hopk9s1#g fl[+ wat] w1 at a velocity ( ?ree in*es p] second1 c>ry 9 susp5sion only f9e clay 7& silt72 at eight in*es x w c>ry s& z l>ge z l9se$4 ,at "o & "o-?ird in*es1 x w move pebbles "o in* 9 diamet]2 & at a velocity ( two in*es p] second1 pebbles ( egg size are mov$ along ! /ream b$4 ,s9ce ! velocity ( /reams subject to fre%ets w v>y greatly f "t to "t1 deposits ( v diff]5t gra9 w 9 su* cases be f\nd alt]nat+ ) "o ano!r 9 ! soil /ratum ( ! flood pla94 ,9 fact1 ?is alt]nation & ! m or less /ratifi$ /ructure result+ !refrom1 is ! di/+ui%+ m>k ( alluvial soils z su*4 ,x is true t ?is peculi>ity is also sometimes f\nd 9 ! case ( l&s n[ ly+ f> above ! flood-pla9s ( pres5t riv]s2 b ?is is due to ! elevation ( ! l& or ! depression ( ! riv] *annels at a =m] p]iod1 prior to :i* su* l&s 7commonly kn[n z riv] t]races1 b5*es or second bottoms7 7 =m$4 ,! same is true ( lake t]races 78mesas071 :i* cov] enorm\s areas 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w1 m p>ticul>ly 9 we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x mu/ nev]!less be rememb]$ t su* alluvial t]race or b5* soils diff] 9 "s respects f ! mod]n alluvials1 on acc\nt ( _! long exposure to atmosph]ic action alone2 "o result ( :i* is t !y are usually mu* poor] 9 humus1 & !re=e ( light] t9ts1 ?an ! m mod]n soils ( alluvial orig94 ,o!r diff]5ces w be adv]t$ to h]eaft]4 #g ,geikie1 8,text-book ( ,geology10 #c;d ed4 ,z a matt] ( c\rse ! above di/9ctions1 especially betwe5 colluvial & alluvial soils1 _c be rigor\sly ma9ta9$ 9 all cases4 ,!re are transitions f "o class to ! o!r1 s t x is sometimes optional ) ! obs]v] to :i* ( ! two classes a p>ticul> soil may be consid]$ z belong+4 ,on ! l[] slopes ( ! hills bord]+ alluvial valleys ! colluvial slope-soil may (t5 be f\nd alt]nat+ ) ! alluvial deposits1 or bodily wa%$ away to be r$eposit$ z alluvium at a great] or less di/ance4 ,"o *>act]i/ic ( ! flood-pla9 l&s ( all ! l>g] riv]s1 & m or less ( all /reams subject to p]iodic ov]fl[s1 is t ! l& imm$iately adjo9+ ! banks is bo? high] & m s&y ?an are ! l&s f>!r back f ! /ream4 ,! cause ( ?is ph5om5on is t z lat]al ov]fl[ dim9i%es ! velocity ( t fl[1 its co>s] portions are deposit$ ne> ! riv] banks1 :ile ! f9] p>ticles are c>ri$ f>!r away1 until f9ally only ! f9e/--clay-sub/ance--rea* ! lagoons or lakes fill$ ) ! ov]fl[ or backwat]1 & are !re 9 ! c\rse ( "t deposit$ z heavy clay 8swamp0 soils4 ,! same occurs :]e riv]s empty into lakes or ! sea2 & ^! slack-wat] or delta l&s are1 z a rule1 ! mo/ productive on ! riv]'s c\rse4 ,! cont9u$ productiv5ess ( alluvial soils is moreov] 9 _m cases assur$ by ! deposition1 dur+ ov]fl[s1 ( fre% soil-mat]ial br\ght d[n f ! head wat]s ( ! /reams4 ,! ,nile1 & ! ,colorado riv] ( ! ,we/1 illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,l[]+ ( ! l&-surface by soil =mation4--,x is evid5t t ! soil-=m+ ag5cies mu/ 9 ! c\rse ( "t mat]ially affect bo? ! surface con=mation & ! absolute level ( ! l&4 ,! %>p p9nacles & cre/s ( rock are abrad$ into ! r\nd$ =ms n[ *>act]iz+ our upl&s & l[] ranges ( hills & m\nta9s2 & x is e/imat$ t1 e4 g41 ! g5]al level ( ! dra9age bas9 ( ! ,mississippi riv] is l[]$ ab\t "o foot 9 #g1jjj ye>s1 ! mat]ial be+ c>ri$ into ! l[l&s & ! sea4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,processes ,,( ,,soil ,,=mation4 ,*emical ,dis9tegration1 or ,decomposition4 ,x may be said t 9 g5]al1 ! physical ag5cies ( dis9tegration are mo/ int5sely active 9 ! dry or arid regions ( ! globe1 :ile *emical processes ( decomposition are mo/ active 9 humid climates4 ,! *emical decomposition ( rocks is prim>ily due to ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 ! av]age composition ( :i* may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,,volume ,,p] ,,c5t4 ,,weight ,,p] ,,c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,nitrog5 #gh4jj #ge4ee ,oxyg5 #ba4jj #bc4bb ,c>bonic dioxid 4#jc-4jd 4#jde-4jfj ,ammonia #a to #d million?s ,wat] vapor ,v>iable2 #dh to #hc grams p] cubic met]1 :5 saturat$ betwe5 ,o & #ej;,c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,9 addition to ! above1 air conta9s m9ute am\nts ( ! v indiff]5t & !re=e practically negligible elem5ts1 argon1 krypton1 neon1 x5on & helium1 ! aggregate am\nt ( :i* 9 air is some:at less ?an "o p] c5t1 ( :i* ! great] "p is argon4 ,s f> z kn[n ^! elem5ts take no "p :atev] 9 vegetable or animal life1 & possess no kn[n *emical action or aff9ity4 ,! prim>y active ag5ts 9 effect+ *emical *anges 9 rocks by :i* soils are =m$1 are wat]1 c>bonic acid1#h & oxyg52 all !re=e +r$i5ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,h5ce ! *emical *anges s br\ght ab\t are 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se compreh5d$ )9 ! t]m wea!r+1 z appli$ to rocks2 :ile ! correspond+ b m complex action )9 ! soil itself is usually t]m$ fall[+4 #h ,ow+ to ! univ]sal pres5ce ( wat] 7,h,o7 9 air z well z 9 soils1 x is usual & conv5i5t to speak ( c>bonic dioxid 7,,co7 gas :5 s occurr+ z c>bonic acid 7,h,,co71 ( :i* x produces ! effects 7,,co ,h,o ,h,,co74 ,effects ( ,wat]4--,s9ce b few sub/ances1 p>ticul>ly among ^? =m+ rocks1 are totally insoluble ev5 9 pure wat]1#i & "s 7su* z gypsum7 may be consid]$ easily soluble 9 ! same1 ! ra9 wat] mu/ ex]t solv5t action :]ev] x p5etrates4 ,9 nature1 h[ev]1 /rictly pure wat] does n occur1 x be+ difficult to obta9 x ev5 artificially4 ,among ! 8impurities0 almo/ always conta9$ 9 natural wat]1 !re are sev]al t mat]ially increase its solv5t p[]4 ,=emo/ among ^!1 bo? because almo/ univ]sally pres5t & on acc\nt ( its great ultimate efficacy1 is ,c>bonic dioxid1 9 contact ) wat] =m+ c>bonic acid1 ! acidul\s +r$i5t ( all eff]vesc5t wat]s1 ! gas :i* is produc$ 9 nature by innum]able processes1 su* z decay1 putrefaction1 f]m5tation1 ! sl[ or rapid combu/ion ( vegetable & animal sub/ances1 su* z wood1 *>coal & all o!r fuels2 by ! respiration ( animals2 9 ! burn+ ( lime/one1 etc4 ,x is !re=e ( necessity conta9$ 9 air1 on an av]age to ! ext5t ( ab\t #a-cjjj ( its bulk 9 ! g5]al atmosph]e1 b locally 9 consid]ably high] proportions because ( proximity to s\rces ( =mation1 & ( its great] d5sity z comp>$ ) air 7#a z aga9/ #a74 ,x may ?us accumulate 9 inhabit$ build+s1 9 cell>s1 wells1 m9es1 caves2 & x is conta9$ 9 consid]able proportion 9 ! air ( ! soil4 ,moreov]1 be+ easily soluble 9 wat] 7to ! ext5t ( an equal volume at ! ord9>y temp]ature & b>ometric pressure7 x is conta9$ 9 all natural wat]1 :e!r ( ra9s1 riv]s1 spr+s or wells1 & l>gely ( c\rse 9 t p]colat+ ! soil4 ,su* wat]s may !re=e be consid]$ z be+ acid solv5ts2 & z su*1 !y ex]cise a f> m en]getic & f>-rea*+ effect ?an w\ld pure wat]4 #i ,see ,*apt] #ah4 ,c>bonat$ wat] a univ]sal solv5t4--,:ile lime/ones are ! rocks mo/ obvi\sly act$ ^u by c>bonat$ wat]1 few if any resi/ x altoge!r4 ,ev5 qu>tz rocks ( ! ord9>y k9ds are attack$ by x2 only ! pure/ :ite cry/all9e qu>tzite may be consid]$ z s5sibly pro( aga9/ x4 ,granite & ! rocks relat$ to x are r quickly act$ ^u1 because ( ! pres5ce ( ! feldsp> m9]als conta9+ pota%1 soda & lime z bases#aj toge!r ) alum9a4 #aj ,! increase ( solv5t p[] on feldsp> :5 c>bonat$ in/ead ( di/ill$ wat] is us$1 0 well exemplifi$ 9 an exp]im5t made by ,headd5 7,bull4 #fe1 ,color4 ,exp't ,/a41 p4 #bi71 :o all[$ pure di/ill$ & c>bonat$ wat] respectively to act on fre% b f9ely pulv]iz$ feldsp>1 ) frequ5t %ak+1 = five days4 ,! di/ill$ wat] dissolv$ 4#jjha gram1 ! c>bonat$ wat]1 4#jgbc gram ( solids1 or ne>ly n9e times z mu* z ! di/ill$ wat]4 ,bo? residues gave /rong reactions = pota% ) plat9ic *lorid4 ,! results ( ?is action are highly important2 "o be+ ! =mation ( clay1 s ess5tial z a physical +r$i5t ( soils2 ! o!r ! sett+-free ( pota%1 "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial nutri5ts ( plants4 ,hornbl5de & ! relat$ m9]als are simil>ly act$ ^u s f> z !y conta9 ! same sub/ances4 ,9 all cases1 ( c\rse1 ! silica 7silicic acid7 set free by ! c>bonic acid rema9s p>tially or :olly 9 ! result+ soils1 z su*4 ,lime also at fir/ mo/ly rema9s beh9d 9 ! =m ( ! c>bonate2 b pota% & especially soda comp\nds1 be+ mo/ly readily soluble 9 wat]1 are l>gely c>ri$ away by ! latt]4 ,! effect ( c>bonat$ wat] ^u silicate m9]als is greatly increas$ by ! pres5ce ( ammonia 7ammonic c>bonate71 :i* always exi/s 9 atmosph]ic wat] to a great] or less ext5t4 ,?is effect may readily be not$ on ! w9d[s ( /ables1 or o!r places :]e animal (fal decays1 by ! dimm+ ( ! glass surfaces2 also 9 glass bottles conta9+ solution ( ammonic c>bonate4 ,action ( ,oxyg54--,! effects ( atmosph]ic oxyg5 on rocks are ( c\rse conf9$ to ^? conta9+ sub/ances capable ( f>!r oxidation4 ,*ief among ^! are f]r\s 7iron monoxid7 & f]roso-f]ric oxid ! latt] imp>t+ bottle-gre51 blui% & black t9ts to s _m m9]als & rocks t ^! colors may usually be tak5 z indicat+ its pres5ce4 ,by tak+ up m oxyg5 ! f]r\s & f]roso-f]ric oxids are conv]t$ into f]ric oxid or its hydrate 7ru/71 ! t9ts m5tion$ pass+ !reby into brick-r$ or ru/ color1 accord+ z ! =m] or ! latt] 7or sometimes _! int]mixtures7 is =m$4 ,9 ei!r case !re is an increase 9 bulk2 & ?is :5 tak+ place 9 ! cracks or crevices ( m9]als or rocks1 t5ds1 l ! freez+ ( wat]1 to wid5 ! cracks & ?us to increase ! surface expos$ to attack4 ,s9ce f]r\s comp\nds1 :5 soluble 9 wat]1 are injuri\s to plant gr[?1 ?is oxidation is ( no little importance1 & 9 soils mu/ be c>efully ma9ta9$ aga9/ a possible rev]sal4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to insi/ t ! action ( all ^! *emical ag5ts cont9ues 9 ! soils !mselves1 & t ow+ to ! f95ess ( ! mat]ial1 result+ 9 an enorm\sly increas$ surface expos$ to attack1 su* action acquires increas$ int5sity4 ,?is is ! m true z 9 soils be>+ vegetation !re are always sup]add$ ! effects ( ! humus-acids result+ f ! decay ( vegetable matt]1 z well z ( ! acid secretions ( ! liv+ plants4 ,action ( ,plants & _! ,remnants 9 ,soil ,=mation4 7a7 ,me*anical action4--,! direct action ( plants 9 =c+ _! roots into ! crevices ( rocks & m9]als & ?us bo? wid5+ !m by w$g+1 & by expos+ new surfaces to wea!r+1 has already be5 allud$ to4 ,t ! me*anical =ce ex]t$ by root gr[? is v great1 may readily be judg$ f _! effects 9 =c+ ap>t1 ev5 to rupture1 ! walls ( rock crevices2 b actual measurem5t has %[n ! =ce ) :i* ! root1 e4 g41 ( ! g>d5 pea p5etrates1 to be equal to f sev5 to t5 atmosph]es1 say f #bjj to ov] #cjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,su* a =ce1 ex]t$ "u ! protection ( ! corky lay] protect+ ! root tips1 (t5 produces surpris+ effects4 7b7 ,*emical action4--,vegetation takes a mo/ important "p1 f a *emical po9t ( view1 bo? 9 ! fir/ =mation ( soils & 9 _! subsequ5t relations to vegetable life4 ,! l[] =ms ( vegetation are usually ! fir/ to take possession ( rock surfaces2 =emo/ among ^! are ! li*5s4 ,9 humid climates we f9d ^! cru/-l plants incru/+ m or less all expos$ rock surfaces1 sometimes ) a solid mantle t c be peel$ (f 9 wet wea!r1 %[+ ! corrod$ rock-surface1 & ! beg9n+s ( soil clu/]+ amid ! root-fibrils b5ea?4 ,a microscopic exam9ation ( ! sub/ance ( ^! li*5s (t5 %[s z a prom95t +r$i5t1 cry/als ( oxalate ( lime1 ! lime hav+ ( c\rse be5 d]iv$ f ! rock1 :ile ! oxalic acid has be5 =m$ by ! plant & us$ 9 ! corrosion ( ! rock m9]als4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ?is acid is comp>able 9 /r5g? to hydro*loric & nitric acids1 ! en]gy ( ! attack ( ! li*5s is expla9$4 ,its progress c (t5 be trac$1 ev5 beyond ! visible root fib]s1 by a *ange 9 ! color ( ! rock2 e4 g41 f ru/-color to brick r$4 ,:5 by ! action ( ! li*5s a c]ta9 dep? ( loos5$ rock or half-=m$ soil has be5 produc$1 ! next /ep is usually ! adv5t ( v>i\s mosses1 :i* gradually %ade out ! cru/-l li*5s1 :ile ! erect k9ds p]si/ = "s "t4 ,ev5tually ! mosses1 aft] hav+ increas$ /ill f>!r ! soil lay] on ! rock surface1 are !mselves p>tially or :olly displac$ by ! h>di] species ( f]ns2 & ) ^! ! high] fl[]+ plants1 su* z ! /onecrops & saxifrages 7! latt] d]iv+ _! "n f _! 8rock-break+0 effect71 ! hea!r1 & _m o!r or %all[-root$ plants1 gradually take possession4 ,! roots ( all plants secrete c>bonic acid2 & _m ( !m1 mu* /rong] vegetable acids1 su* z oxalic & citric4 ,9 ! crevices ( rocks we commonly f9d ! roots =m+ a d5se network ov] ! surfaces1 ! m>ks ( :i* %[ pla9ly ! solv5t effect produc$ on ! rock by ! root secretions4 ,?is is mo/ readily obs]vable on a poli%$ m>ble surface1 or on feldspa?ic rocks4 ,( c\rse ! progress ( soil-=mation is v mu* m rapid :51 z 9 ! case ( p[d]$ lava 7volcanic a%7 & rock debris result+ f ! effects ( fro/ etc41 ! surface is v mu* increas$4 ,9 tropical climates1 :]e bo? vegetative & *emical action is mo/ int5se1 x takes "s ( ! high] plants only a few ye>s aft] a volcanic eruption to take possession ( portions ( ! 8a%0 surfaces2 ?us help+ to =m a soil on :i* aft] a few m ye>s agricultural plants su* z ! v9e & olive yield pay+ returns4 ,to ?is direct action ( ! high] plants is always add$1 to a great] or less ext5t1 t ( innum]able bact]ia1 z well z molds2 ^: vegetative & secretory action mat]ially assi/s t ( ! roots1 & ! wea!r+ process 9 g5]al4 ,humification4--,:ile ! me*anical action ( ! roots & ! *emical effect ( ! acids ( _! root secretions are v effici5t 9 promot+ ! trans=mation ( m]e rock p[d] into soil mat]ial prop]1 ! efficacy does n end ) ! life ( ! plant4 ,9 ! natural process ( decay to :i* ! roots are subject aft] dea?1 & :i* also affects ! leaves1 twigs & trunks fall+ on ! surface1 ! vegetable matt] suff]s a trans=mation :i* mu/ be consid]$ m 9 detail h]eaft]1 & results 9 ! =mation ( ! complex mixture ( d>k-t9t$ sub/ances kn[n z vegetable mold or humus2 ! remnant ( vegetation t imp>ts to surface soils _! di/9ctive d>k t9t4 ,its functions 9 soils are bo? num]\s1 & important to vegetable gr[?2 z reg>ds soil =mation1 x assi/s dis9tegration ( ! rock m9]als bo? by ! =mation ( c]ta9 fix$1 soluble acids capable ( act+ on !m ) consid]able en]gy1 & by ! sl[ b cont9u\s evolution ( c>bonic acid "u ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic oxyg51 :i* has be5 allud$ to above4 ,causes influ5c+ *emical action & decomposition4--,! *emical processes caus+ rock decomposition are ( c\rse cont9u$ 9 ! soil1 & !re also are mat]ially influ5c$ by climatic & seasonal conditions1 :i* br+ ab\t great diff]5ces 9 ! k9d & int5sity ( *emical action4 ,)9 ! ord9>y limits ( sol> temp]atures x may be said t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! high] ! temp]ature ! m int5se w be *emical action 9 soil =mation4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 wat] is a pot5t factor 9 ! majority ( ^! processes1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( moi/ure at ! same "t ) heat w cause mat]ial diff]5ces 9 ! k9d & int5sity ( *emical action4 ,9 view ( ! importance ( c>bonic acid z a *emical ag5t1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( vegetable matt] or humus1 f :i* by oxidation or decay c>bonic & humus-acids are =m$1 w likewise be ( mat]ial influ5ce4 ,! presumption t climatic & seasonal conditions mu/ greatly influ5ce bo? ! k9d & rapidity ( ! soil-=m+ processes1 is fully borne out by obs]vation & practice4 ,especially is ! am\nt & di/ribution ( ra9fall ( great importance 9 ?is respect1 & %\ld !re=e be fir/ consid]$4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,ra9fall ,,on ,,soil ,,=mation2 ,,lea*+ ,,( ,,! ,,l&4 ,9 ! g5]al consid]ation ( ! soil-=m+ processes1 x has be5 /at$ t soils =m$ by ! dis9tegration ( rocks 89 place10 i4 e41 )\t removal f ! orig9al locality1 are also designat$ z 8residual02 mean+ !reby t only a portion ( ! orig9al rock rema9s to =m ! soil mass1 :ile ano!r portion has be5 remov$4 ,to a slight ext5t ?is removal occurs by ! p>tial wa%+-away ( ! f9e/ clay & silt p>ticles2 b ! mo/ important action f ! agricultural po9t ( view is ! removal by lea*+ ) ! c>bonat$ wat] ( ! atmosph]e & soil1 ( c]ta9 easily-soluble comp\nds =m$ 9 ! process ( *emical decomposition ( rocks & resultant soils4 ,! nature ( ^! comp\nds is exemplifi$ 9 ! subjo9$ table giv+ ! composition ( "s wat]s fl[+ f dra9s 9 unmanur$ fields1 laid at dep?s ( f two to ?ree feet2 & = comp>ison ) ^!1 ! composition ( ! wat] ( "s ( ! _w's l>ge riv]s1 %[+ :at ^! l>ge/ dra9s c>ry into ! ocean4 ,! analyses h 9 all cases1 :]e necess>y1 be5 recalculat$ to p>ts p] million1 & to oxids1 f ! publi%$ data4 ,! lett] 8c0 indicates t ! prec$+ figure has 9 ! abs5ce ( a direct det]m9ation be5 /oi*iometrically calculat$ f ! data giv51 9 ord] to complete ! comp>ison4 ,,composition ,,( ,,dra9age ,,wat]s ,,f ,,unmanur$ ,,gr\nd4 7,,p>ts ,,p] ,,million47 ,,ro?am/$4 ,,proskau4 ,,mock]n4 7,,voelk]47 7,,krock]47 74 ,,wolff47 --------------------------------------- ,rye ,mead[4 ,field4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,pota%1 ,k,o #a4g #e4d #b4j #b4j #h4e #c4d ,soda1 ,na,o #f4j #aa4g #ae4a #ac4g #bc4c #h4b ,lime1 ,ca,o #ih4a #abd4c #acc4j #aah4a #abb4f #bb4e ,magnesia1 ,mg,o #e4a #f4d #cc4c #bb4d #ad4i #f4g ,iron ,oxid1 ,fe,o #e4g #d4d #f4f #f4f ,alum9a1 ,al,o #h4j #f4j ,silica1 ,si,o #aj4i #ae4d #g4j #f4j #g4j #d4j ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,,co #dh4a #dd4d #ge4h #hb4f #aba4c ,phos' ,acid1 ,p,o 4#fc #i4a ,trace4,trace4,trace4 #ai4j ,sulfuric ,acid1 ,,s #bd4g #ff4c #abb4g #fg4c ,*lor91 ,cl #aj4g #aa4a #d4h #d4b #ad4j ,trace4 ,nitrog5as1 ,n,o #c4ij #e4aj ,nitrog5as1 ,,nh 4#ab 4#ac ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total ,m9]al ,matt] #bae4i #bie4e #djj4c #cbb4i #aih4c #aia4a ,less ,o3 ,cl #b4ce #b4d #a4a 4#i #c4a ,correct$ ,total #bac4c #bic4a #cii4b #cbb4j #aie4b #aia4a ,organic ,matt] #bb4i #ai4c #be4j #af4j #bf4j #bf4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total ,solids #bce4b #cab4d #dbd4b #cch4j #bba4b #bag4a ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,f>nham4 ,muni*4 7,way47 7,zll]47 ---------------------------------- ,:eat ,hop ,lysemet] ,av]age4 ,field4,field4 ,dra9age4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,pota%1 ,k,o ,trace4,trace4 #f4e #b4d #c4b ,soda1 ,na,o #ad4c #de4g #g4a #e4f #ae4a ,lime1 ,ca,o #fi4c #ahe4j #ade4h #eg4f #ajg4f ,magnesia1 ,mg,o #i4g #ce4a #bj4e #h4i #af4c ,iron ,oxid1 ,fe,o 4#a #f4c ,alum9a1 ,al,o #e4i #g4a ,silica1 ,si,o #a4ce #ab4a #aj4d #aa4c ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,,co ,phos' ,acid1 ,p,o ,trace4 #a4g #b4b,trace4 #j4e ,sulfuric ,acid1 ,,s #bc4e #ace4h #ag4e #bg4a #fj4h ,*lor91 ,cl #aj4j #cg4d #eg4e #i4e #ag4g ,nitrog5as1 ,n,o #ajb4d #afc4e ,nitrog5as1 ,,nh 4#be 4#jc ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,total ,m9]al ,matt] #bdh4h #fbc4e #bfg4fabh4g ,less ,o3 ,cl #b4b #h4b #ab4g #b4ad ,correct$ ,total #bdf4f #fae4c #bed4iabf4f #bhe4g ,organic ,matt] #ajj4j #aje4g #bj4e #ab4f ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,total ,solids #cdf4f #gba4j #bge4daci4b #ceb4f ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,composition ,,( ,,riv] ,,wat]s4 ,,p>ts ,,p] ,,million4 ,yukon1 ,dw9a1 ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ,miss\ri1 ,alaska4 above ,po9te des ,montana4 ,ar*angel4 ,cascades4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota%1 ,k,o ,trace #ab4eh #a4dj #a4ij ,soda1 ,na,o #h4aj #bc4ch #f4ij #cj4aj ,li?ia1 ,li,o ,lime1 ,ca,o #cj4dj #cg4cj #de4cj #eh4jj ,magnesia1 ,mg,o #g4cj #cf4be #i4gj #ah4aj ,manganese1 ,mn,o ,f]ric ,oxid1 ,fe,o #a4fc #c4aj ,alum9a1 ,al,o #a4hj ,silica1 ,si,o #g4fj #c4je #cb4fj #ah4ij ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,,co #cc4jj #ed4ja #fh4dj #fe4bj;c ,phosphoric ,acid1 ,p,o 4#dj ,trace 4#bb ,nitric ,acid1 ,n,o ,sulfuric ,acid1 ,,s #h4ej #bi4fb #dg4gj #ba4ij ,*lor91 ,cl 4#dj #cc4ji #b4dj #ah4jj;c ,ammonia1 ,,nh ----- ------ ------ ------ ,total ,m9]al ,matt] #ig4aj #bca4ca #bad4dj #bbe4db ,less ,o 3 ,cl 4#aj #g4cc 4#ee #d4aj ----- ------ ------ ------ ,correct$ ,totals #ig4jj #bbc4ih #bac4he #bba4cb ,organic ,matt] ----- ------ ------ ------ ,total ,solids #ig4jj #bac4he #bba4bb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,f4 ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,s4 ,cl>ke1 ,s*midt1 ,hunt1 ,traphag51 ,j\r4 ,am4 ,jahresb4 ,geol4 ( ,bull4 ,mont4 ,*em4 ,soc4d4 ,*emie1 ,canada1 ,expt4 ,/a4 ,feb4 #aije1 #ahgc4 #ahfc4 ,no4 #aij4 p4 #aab4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mississippi ne> ,c>rollton1 ,la4 ,av]age ( "o ye>4 ---------------------------------------- - ,m94 ,max4 ,may #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,pota%1 ,k,o #b4hj ,soda1 ,na,o #ai4hj;c #ac4ej ,li?ia1 ,li,o ,lime1 ,ca,o #di4ge ,dec4 #cc4ha ,feb4 #da4bj ,magnesia1 ,mg,o #dj4hjaf4ci ,m>* #aj4cb ,feb4 #aa4cj ,manganese1 ,mn,o #ab4dj 4#af ,f]ric ,oxid1 ,fe,o #b4aj 4#aa ,alum9a1 ,al,o 4#ag ,silica1 ,si,o #h4gjaa4de ,m>* #e4id ,april #g4dj ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,,co #de4aj #cc4af;c ,phosphoric ,acid1 ,p,o 4#cc ,nitric ,acid1 ,n,o 4#ac 4#bc ,sulfuric ,acid1 ,,s #af4aj #bd4gb ,july #h4ah ,jan4 #bc4ij ,*lor91 ,cl #i4fja #d4ej ,june #f4ij ,dec4 #af4aj ,ammonia1 ,,nh 4#af ---------------- ---------- ------ ,total ,m9]al ,matt] #aed4gc #aej4eb ,less ,o 3 ,cl #b4aj #c4fc ---------------- ---------- ------ ,correct$ ,totals #aeb4fc #ahj4j ,july #aaj4j ,dec4 #adf4hi ,organic ,matt] ---------------- ---------- ------ ,total ,solids #aeb4fc #adf4hi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,port]1 ,/one1 ,rep4 ,new ,orleans ,u4 ,s4 ,sew]age & ,wat] ,reclamation ,bo>d4 ,s]vice4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,rio ,gr&e1 ,av]age ,av]age ,ft4 ,craig1 ,nile ne> ,cairo4( ! #gai ,great ,n4 ,m4 riv]s4,riv]s ( ! ,_w4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,high4 ,l[4 ,aug4 ,may #ac1 #ahgd4 #ahge4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota%1 ,k,o 4#hj #ae4ja #d4jd #d4hj #b4dj ,soda1 ,na,o #dc4dj #e4hg #ac4ja #ah4bj #g4aj ,li?ia1 ,li,o 4#bj ,lime1 ,ca,o #bb4hj #dd4bb #ea4gh #dc4ej #dc4bj ,magnesia1 ,mg,o #b4aj #aj4cc #aj4bi #ac4aj #ad4gj ,manganese1 ,mn,o #a4bj ,f]ric ,oxid1 ,fe,o #a4hj #b4hj ,alum9a1 ,al,o #a4hj #c4aj ,silica1 ,si,o #aa4bi #f4ga #aj4hj #af4dj ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,,co #aj4be #db4ha #dj4ia #ch4aj #df4jj ,phosphoric ,acid1 ,p,o 4#bd 4#cj ,nitric ,acid1 ,n,o 4#ah #c4hj ,sulfuric ,acid1 ,,s #dg4jj #ah4cg #bi4ca #bf4ij #h4jj ,*lor91 ,cl #cf4jj #f4bh #ag4cg #ae4ej #c4gj ,ammonia1 ,,nh 4#jdc 4#jad 4#jg ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ,total ,m9]al ,matt] #afb4ce #aed4bbc #agc4dcd #agc4ab #aeb4ig ,less ,o 3 ,cl #h4je #a4dj #d4ac #c4ej 4#gb ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ,correct$ ,totals #aed4cj #aeb4hbc #afi4cjd #afi4fb #aeb4be ,organic ,matt] #af4d ------ ------- ------- ------ ------ ,total ,solids #aed4cj #afd4fhc #bjj4eid #afi4fb #afh4fe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,o4 ,loew1 ,john ,u4 ,s4 ,le!by1 ,j\r4 ,murray1 ,geogr4 ( ! ,kh$iv4 ,scotti% ,survey ,agr4 ,society4 ,geogr4 ,w4 ( ,mag41 #ajj? ,vol4 #c1 ,m]id4 #ahhg4 ,vol4 #c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,x w be not$ t 9 all ! dra9 wat]s1 lime is ! +r$i5t mo/ abundantly lea*$ out1 & z ref]5ce to ! acids %[s1 ma9ly 9 ! =m ( c>bonate1 also 9 t ( sulfate4 ,magnesia is next 9 am\nt among ! bases2 next 9 am\nt is soda1 l>gely 9 ! =m ( sodium *lorid or common salt4 ,pota% is pres5t only 9 small b r uni=m am\nts4 ,( ! acids ! c>bonic is ! mo/ abundant1 sulfuric next2 *lor9 & silicic acid come next1 9 ab\t equal am\nts4 ,nitric acid passes (f 9 small1 b /ill relatively consid]able am\nts4 ,comp>ison ( ! dra9 wat]s ) ! riv] wat]s1 :ile %[+ a g5]al qualitative agreem5t1 also %[s a m>k$ dim9ution ( total solids 7f #bhe4g to #ahh4g2 h5ce 8s(t riv] wat]071 & especially ( lime 7f #ajg4f to #dc4b71 toge!r ) ! c>bonic acid ) :i* x is mo/ly comb9$2 indicat+ a deposition ( lime c>bonate 9 ! riv] deposits or alluvial l&s4 ,!re is1 on ! o!r h&1 little if any g5]al diff]5ce 9 ! magnesia cont5t ( ! two classes ( wat]s2 ne>ly ! same is true ( soda1 s t ^! two bases really %[ a consid]able relative increase :5 ! dim9i%$ total is consid]$4 ,pota% rema9s ab\t ! same all ?r\gh1 viz4 two p>ts or a little m2 phosphoric acid %[s a fraction ( "o million?2 nitric acid v>ies greatly b is usually high] 9 ! dra9 wat]s1 sometimes %[+ a heavy depletion ( ! l& by ! lea*+-out ( ?is important plant food4 ,x has be5 comput$ by ,john ,murray1 z quot$ by ,russell1#aa t ! volume ( wat] fl[+ into ! sea 9 "o ye>1 includ+ all ! l& areas ( ! e>?1 is ab\t #febd cubic miles4 ,f ! av]age composition ( riv] wat]s z giv5 above1 x w\ld foll[ t ne>ly five billions 7#d1ige1aag1ehh7 ( tons ( m9]al matt] are annually c>ri$ away 9 solution f ! l& into ! sea4 ,! am\nt ( s$im5t c>ri$ at ! same "t is _m times great]2 9 ! case ( ! ,mississippi riv]1 x is m ?an five times ! am\nt ( ! matt] c>ri$ 9 solution4 #aa ,riv]s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 p4 #hj4 ,comp>ison ( ! riv] wat]s among !mselves %[s less ( any consi/5t relation to climatic conditions ?an might h be5 anticipat$4 ,! wat]s ( ! arctic /reams ,yukon & ,dw9a %[ wid] diff]5ces ?an any two o!r wat]s 9 ! li/1 unless x be ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ano!r nor!rn /ream4 ,! ,miss\ri & ,rio ,gr&e %[ by _! high cont5t ( soda1 *lor9 & sulfuric acid _! orig9 9 arid climates1 :]e alkali l&s prevail4 ,! wat] ( ! ,nile is "h repres5t$ by two analyses1#ab "o %[+ ! season :5 ! wat] is 8r$0 & ( high f]tiliz+ quality because ( ! s$im5t x br+s d[n f ! m\nta9s ( ,abyss9ia2 ! o!r ! 8gre50 & relatively cle> wat] :i* comes f ! great lakes & ?r\gh ! 8sudd 0 or grassy swamp region ne> ! junction ( ! ,gazelle riv] ) ! ,nile4 ,( ! analyses giv5 ( ! ,mississippi riv] wat]1 ! fir/ repres5ts ! av]age ( a full ye>'s obs]vations made weekly "u ! auspices ( ! ,new ,orleans ,commission on ,sew]age & ,dra9age1 by ,j4 ,l4 ,port]4 ,! f\r? is an analysis made ( wat] tak5 at ! same po9t 9 ,may1 #aije2 ! analysis hav+ be5 made 9 full by ,mr4 ,/one1 ( ! ,reclamation ,s]vice ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ! direct det]m9ation ( pota% & soda be+ 9 ?is case includ$4 ,z w be se51 & might be expect$1 ! av]age ( ! ,mississippi wat] corresponds q ne>ly to t ( n9ete5 ( ! _w's great riv]s z giv5 by ,murray4 ,! v great v>iation 9 ! cont5t ( sulfates is evid5tly due to ! occasional heavy influx ( ! gypse\s wat]s ( ! ,wa%ita & ,r$ riv]s :5 9 flood2 :ile ! m9imum cont5t 79 ,janu>y7 agrees almo/ precisely ) ! g5]al av]age4 ,murray's table w\ld h>dly be *ang$ if ^! analyses ( ,mississippi wat] 7 incorporat$ !re91 ow+ d\btless to ! l>ge & v>i$ dra9age area ( ! great riv]4 #ab ,! correctness ( ,le!by's analyses has be5 disput$1 p>tly because ( _! disagreem5t ) =m] analyses 9 ! v high am\nt ( lime1 p>tly because ( ! high pota%-cont5t 9 ! ,l[-,nile wat]4 ,! lime cont5t is1 h[ev]1 confirm$ by ! p>tial analyses made by ,ma!y 9 #ahhg1 :i* gives an av]age ( #dd4a = ! ye>1 :ile ! old] analyses1 made 9 ,europe1 ( transport$ wat] gave only half z mu*4 ,le!by work+ on ! spot 0 d\btless m ne>ly "r 9 ?is respect4 ,8 figure = pota% 9 ! 8,l[-,nile0 wat] agrees ) =m] det]m9ations1 b t 9 ! 8,high-,nile0 is approa*$ only by t 9 ! ,dw9a wat]4 ,x may be suspect$ t ! soda is too l[ & pota% too high 9 ?is analysis4 ,sea ,wat]4--,! nature ( ! sub/ances p]man5tly lea*$ out is also se5 by consid]+ ! composition ( sea wat]1 s9ce ! ocean is ! f9al res]voir = all ! lea*+s ( ! l&4 ,x might be object$ t ! ocean may h receiv$ its salts f o!r s\rces2 b ?is objection is ov]borne by ! fact t sub/antially ! same salts are f\nd 9 l&lock$ lakes1 9 :i*1 z !y h no outfl[1 ! lea*+s ( ! adjac5t regions are p]=ce1 z a rule1 ! only possible s\rce ( ! salts4 ,x is true t ! nature ( ! salts diff]s some:at 9 diff]5t lakes1 z might be expect$2 b a g5]al /atem5t ( t nature w1 aft] all1 be ! same z t made 9 reg>d to sea-wat]4 ,! foll[+ table ( ! av]age composition ( sea-wat]1 accord+ to ,regnault1 illu/rates ^! facts4 ,,mean ,,composition ,,( ,,sea-,,wat]4 ,sodium ,*lorid 7common salt7 #b4gjj ,potassium *lorid 4#jgj ,calcium sulfate 7gypsum7 4#adj ,magnesium sulfate 7,epsom salt7 4#bcj ,magnesium *lorid 7bitt]n7 4#cfj ,magnesium bromid 4#jjb ,calcium c>bonate 7lime/one7 4#jjc ,wat] 7& loss 9 analysis7 #if4die ------- #ajj4jjj ,! av]age sal9e cont5ts ( sea-wat] w\ld ?us be #c4eje p] c5t ,9 tw5ty-"o det]m9ations ( ! sal9e cont5ts ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 ! p]c5tage rang$ f #c4ejf to #c4gaj p] c5t ,( ?is m9]al residue1 common salt con/itutes f ab\t #ge to ov] #hj p] c5t4 ,we see t mo/ prom95t among ! +r$i5ts m5tion$ "h is common salt 7sodium *lorid71 :i* =ms ne>ly f\r-fif?s ( ! total solid cont5ts4 ,next 9 quantity are ! comp\nds ( magnesium1 viz4 ,epsom salt & bitt]n1 ) a v small am\nt ( ! brom9 comp\nd4 ,next come ! comp\nds ( calcium 7lime71 ( :i* gypsum is ! m abundant1 :ile ! c>bonate1 s abundant on ! l& surface 9 ! v>i\s =ms ( lime/one1 is pres5t 9 m9ute am\nts only1 yet en\gh to supply ! sub/ance ne$$ = ! %ells ( %ellfi%1 corals1 etc4 ,lea/ 9 am\nt ( ! metallic elem5ts m5tion$ is potassium4 ,calculat+ ! total am\nts ( *lor91 we f9d t x exce$s 9 weight any "o o!r elem5t pres5t 9 ! salts ( sea-wat]1 be+ two-sev5?s ( ! :ole solids4 ,sub/antially ! same result1 ) v>iations due to local causes1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! v>y+ composition ( riv] & dra9 wat]s1 is obta9$ :5 we consid] ! sal9e +r$i5ts ( lakes hav+ no outlet1 & 9 :i* !re=e1 ! lea*+s ( ! tribut>y l& area h accumulat$ = ages4 ,! ,great ,salt ,lake ( ,utah1 ! l&lock$ lakes ( ! ,nevada bas91 ( ,cali=nia1 ,oregon1 & ( ! des]ts ( ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,au/ralia1 all tell ! same tale1 :i* may be summ>iz$ 9 ! /atem5t t ! *lorids ( sodium & magnesium1 & ! sulfates ( sodium1 magnesium & calcium con/itute ! bulk ( ! lea*+s ( ! l&2 :ile ( o!r sub/ances potassium alone is pres5t 9 relatively consid]able am\nt4 ,:ile ! above analysis %[s ! +r$i5ts ( sea-wat] s f> z !y c at pres5t be directly det]m9$ by *emical analysis1 yet ! pres5ce ( _m o!rs is demon/rable1 directly or indirectly1 f v>i\s s\rces4 ,"o is1 ! "m-wat]s f ! mak+ ( sea-salt1 9 :i* su* sub/ances accumulate s z to become asc]ta9able by *emical means1 & ev5 become indu/rially available 9 ! cases ( pota% & brom94 ,ano!r is ! a% ( seawe$s1 :i* is indisputably d]iv$ f ! sea-wat]1 & conta9s1 among o!r sub/ances n directly demon/rable 9 ! orig9al wat]1 notable quantities ( iod9 7( :i* ?is a% is a comm]cial s\rce71 iron1 manganese1 & phosphoric acid4 ,aga91 ! copp] %ea?+ ( vessels1 z x is gradually corrod$1 becomes m or less ri* 9 silv]1 manife/ly ?r[n d[n f ! sea-wat]1 & ! silv] s obta9$ is associat$ ) m9ute am\nts ( gold4 ,copp]1 li?ium1 & fluor9 likewise h be5 f\nd 9 sea wat]2 & x is probable t close se>* w\ld detect v _m ( ! o!r *emical elem5ts z ord9>y +r$i5ts 9 m9ute am\nts4 ,?is is :at mu/ be expect$ f ! fact t few m9]al sub/ances kn[n to u are entirely insoluble 9 pure wat]1 & /ill few] 9 wat] *>g$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,! latt] is always pres5t 9 sea-wat] & holds ! lime c>bonate 9 solution2 on evaporation or boil+1 ?is sub/ance is ! fir/ to be precipitat$2 & ?9 %eets ( lime/one f ?is s\rce are commonly f\nd at ! base ( rock-salt b$s1 :i*1 !mselves1 are evid5tly ! result ( ! evaporation ( segregat$ bodies ( sea-wat] 9 pa/ geological ages4 ,summ+ up ! facts conc]n+ ! wat] ( ! sea & ( l&lock$ lakes1 ) ref]5ce to ! +r$i5ts ( soils ne$ful = ! nutrition ( plants1 x appe>s t ! rock +r$i5ts lea*$ out 9 ! l>ge/ am\nts 7lime alone except$7 are ^? ( :i* ! smalle/ quantities only are requir$ by mo/ plants2 :ile ( ^? specially ne$ful = plant nutrition1 only pota% is remov$ 9 practically appreciable am\nts by ! /ream dra9age4 ,result ( insuffici5t ,ra9fall2 ,alkali ,soils4--,:5 ! ra9fall is ei!r 9 total quantity1 or 9 consequ5ce ( its di/ribution 9 "t1 insuffici5t to effect ?is lea*+1 ! sub/ances t o!rwise w\ld h pass$ into ! dra9age & ! sea are :olly or p>tially reta9$ 9 ! soil2 & :5 ! ra9fall defici5cy exce$s a c]ta9 po9t1 ! salts ?us reta9$ may become app>5t on ! surface 9 ! =m ( sal9e effloresc5ces1 or z x is usually t]m$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 8alkali40#ac ,_! cont9u$ pres5ce modifies 9 v>i\s ways ! process ( soil =mation & ! nature ( ! soils z comp>$ ) ^? ( regions ( abundant ra9fall 78humid climates072 "o ( ! mo/ prom95t & important results be+ t1 besides ! easily soluble salts m5tion$ above1 ! c>bonate ( lime =m$ 9 ! process ( decomposition is also reta9$1 & imp>ts to ! soils ( regions ( defici5t ra9fall 78arid climates07 ! almo/ inv>iable "* ( calc>e\s l&s4 ,!re is ?us 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a m>k$ & practically v important contra/ betwe5 ! soils ( ! arid region we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ^? ( ! 8humid0 region betwe5 ! imm$iate valley ( ! ,mississippi & ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,^! diff]5ces & _! practical be>+s c be be/ discuss$ aft] fir/ consid]+ m 9 detail ! *emical decomposition ( ! sev]al soil-=m+ m9]als4 #ac ,9 "s cases ! soluble salts orig9ate 9 rocks impregnat$ ) salts f m>9e lagoons or l&lock$ lakes1 or directly f _! evaporation residues4 ,b ?is is ! exception r ?an ! rule4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,major ,,soil-,,=m+ ,,m9]als4 ,s9ce ! sev]al /ratifi$ rocks1 su* z s&/ones1 %ales1 clay/ones1 clays1 lime/ones1 etc41 are !mselves b ! outcome ( ! same dis9tegrat+ & decompos+ influ5ces ^u ! cry/all9e rocks by :i* soils are n[ =m$1 we mu/ /udy ! action ( ^! influ5ces ^u ! m9]als compos+ ! latt] rocks 9 ord] to ga9 a compreh5sive und]/&+ ( ! subject4 ,:ile ! numb] ( diff]5t m9]als kn[n to sci5ce is v l>ge1 su* /udy ne$ n g beyond a small numb] ( ! *iefly important1 rock-=m+ species :i* are s g5]ally di/ribut$ z to require consid]ation 9 ?is connection4 ,^! m9]als are ! foll[+3 ,qu>tz & its v>ieties2 ! sev]al feldsp>s2 hornbl5de & augite2 ! micas2 talc & s]p5t9e4 ,calcite1 gypsum & dolomite1 ?\gh n conta9$ 9 ! old] rocks1 mu/ be consid]$ because ( _! =m+ l>ge rock deposits by !mselves2 & zeolites require m5tion because1 ?\gh r>ely =m+ a l>ge proportion ( rocks1 !y are ( special importance z soil +r$i5ts4 ,qu>tz & ! m9]als alli$ to x consi/ ess5tially ( dioxid ( silicon1 usually )\t 7qu>tz prop]7 b p>tly also ) wat] 9 comb9ation 7opal & its v>ieties74 ,silicon is next to oxyg5 ! mo/ abundant elem5t f\nd on ! e>?'s surface4 ,x occurs l>gely 9 ! v>i\s =ms ( qu>tz1 alone1 or z "o +r$i5t ( comp\nd rock-masses2 ! re/1 9 comb9ation 7z silica7 ) v>i\s metallic oxids1 =ms ! important gr\p ( silicate m9]als1 con/itut+ ! bulk ( mo/ rocks4 ,qu>tz occurs frequ5tly 9 cry/als 7rock cry/al2 six-sid$ prisms t]m9at$ by six-sid$ pyramids71 cle> or v>i\sly color$2 b m abundantly z qu>tz rock or qu>tzite1 readily kn[n by its h>dness1 s z to /rike fire ) /eel1 & by its glass-l1 irregul> fracture4 ,besides ! cry/all9e qu>tz rock we f9d close-gra9$ & at lea/ p>tly non-cry/all9e v>ieties1 su* z horn/one & fl9t4 ,s&/ones mo/ commonly consi/ ( gra9s ( qu>tz cem5t$ by "s o!r m9]al1 or by silica itself2 9 ! latt] case ! silice\s s&/one frequ5tly passes ins5sibly into true qu>tzite4 ,! loose s& s well kn[n to common life is preval5tly compos$ ( qu>tz gra9s1 ^: h>dness & resi/ance to wea!r+ enables !m to survive longe/ ! soil-=m+ ag5cies4 ,qu>tz & its alli$ rocks--jasp]1 horn/one1 silice\s s*i/1 etc41 are all1 z already /at$1 act$ on ) difficulty by ! 8wea!r+0 ag5cies4 ,cry/all9e qu>tz rock may be consid]$ z practically refractory aga9/ all b ! me*anical ag5cies1 & h5ce rema9s 9 ! =m ( s& & gravel1 m or less r\nd$ by attrition1 z a prom95t compon5t ( mo/ soils2 sometimes to ! ext5t ( ov] #ib p] c5t1 ev5 9 soils highly e/eem$ 9 cultivation1 especially 9 ! arid region4 ,su* soils are mo/ly ! result ( ! dis9tegration ( s&/ones1 ! cem5t ( :i* has be5 dissolv$ out 9 ! c\rse ( wea!r+2 or !y may be d]iv$ directly f geological deposits ( m or less loose & unconsolidat$ s&4 ,among cry/all9e rocks1 granites1 gneiss & mica-s*i/s are ^? mo/ usually conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( s&y soils2 s9ce 9 common p>lance1 qu>tz is und]/ood to be ! sub/ance ( ! s& unless o!rwise /at$4 ,! exceptions are especially important 9 ! regions ( defici5t ra9fall4 ,b :ile cry/all9e qu>tz is practically insoluble 9 all natural solv5ts1 ! same is n true ( ! jasp]s & horn/ones4 ,^! consi/ ( a mixture ( cry/all9e & amorph\s 7non-cry/all9e7 silica1 :i* is m readily soluble ?an ! cry/all9e1 & is attack$ by _m natural wat]s1 especially by ^? conta9+ ev5 v small am\nts ( ! c>bonates ( pota% or soda4 ,we ?us (t5 f9d t horn/one & jasp] pebbles buri$ 9 ! soil1 :ile /ill h>d int]nally1 h ext]nally be5 conv]t$ into a friable1 almo/ *alky sub/ance1 consi/+ ( cry/all9e qu>tz f :i* ! cem5t+ amorph\s silex has be5 remov$ by ! soil wat]4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t su* pebbles may be completely de/roy$ by ?is process1 s z to be light & *alky ?r\gh\t1 & readily cru%$ 9 tillage4 ,! *ange is ! m /rik+ :51 z frequ5tly happ5s1 ! horn/one pebble is trav]s$ by small ve9s ( cry/all9e qu>tz1 :i* rema9 z a skeleton4 ,solubility ( ,silica 9 ,wat]4--,x is easily %[n exp]im5tally t ! comp\nd ( silica ) wat] 7hydrate7 is "u c]ta9 conditions readily soluble n only 9 pure wat]1 b also 9 su* z conta9s c>bonic acid4 ,x ?us occurs 9 ne>ly all spr+ & well wat]s2 "s hot spr+s deposit l>ge masses ( x 7s9t]72 & geological evid5ce cle>ly demon/rates t qu>tz ve9s h z rule be5 =m$ f wat]-solutions ( silica4 ,t silica 9 its soluble =m circulates freely 9 ! soil wat]1 is abundantly evid5t f ! l>ge am\nts ( x :i* are secret$ on ! outside ( ! /ems ( grasses1 horsetail ru%es & o!r plants1 imp>t+ a gritty r\ghness to _! out] surface4 ,9 ! case ( ! giant bamboo grass ( ,asia1 ! silica accumulat$ on ! outside ( ! jo9ts =ms a h>d %ea? ( consid]able ?ickness1 kn[n to comm]ce z taba%ir4 ,t among ! fir/ products ( rock decomposition we (t5 f9d small am\nts ( ! silicates ( ! alkalies 7pota% & soda7 has already be5 m5tion$4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t ! same cont9ues to be =m$ 9 soil conta9+ ! prop] m9]als2 & !re !y also take "p 9 ! =mation ( ! easily decomposable hydr\s silicates designat$ z zeolites1 :i* are l>gely in/rum5tal 9 reta9+ ! 8res]ve0 ( m9]al plant-food 9 soils4 ,,silicate ,,m9]als4 ,silica occurs 9 nature comb9$ ) ! oxids ( mo/ metals1 =m+ silicates2 b mo/ abundantly ) ! e>?s 7lime1 magnesia1 alum9a7 & alkalies 7pota% & soda74 ,^! comp\nds are ! mo/ important 9 soil =mation2 & among !m ! foll[+ are ! *ief3 ,! ,feldsp>s1 :i* may be def9$ z comp\nds ( silicates ( pota%1 soda or lime 7ei!r or all7 ) silicate ( alum9a4 ,!y are prom95t +r$i5ts ( mo/ cry/all9e rocks2 pota% feldsp> 7or?oclase7 ) qu>tz & mica =ms granite & gneiss2 feldsp>s conta9+ soda & lime 7ei!r or bo?7 =m "p ( _m o!r cry/all9e rocks1 su* z basalt1 diabase1 diorite1 gabbro & mo/ lavas4 ,! feldsp>s are decompos$ by wea!r+ r readily1 & are important 9 be+ ! *ief s\rce ( clays z well z ( pota% 9 soils4 ,:5 act$ ^u by c>bonat$ wat]1 ! bases pota%1 soda1 & lime or c>bonates1 ! silica be+ mo/ly displac$2 :ile ! silicate ( alum9a takes up wat] & =ms kaol9ite1 ! ess5tial basis ( clays1 & "o ( ! mo/ important con/itu5ts ( soils2 imp>t+ to !m ! necess>y firmness & cohesion1 toge!r ) o!r important physical prop]ties1 discuss$ m 9 detail h]eaft]4 ,:ile ?us on ! "o h& feldsp>s are ! s\rce ( clay1 on ! o!r !y supply "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial +r$i5ts ( plant food1 viz4 pota%2 :i* is fir/ dissolv$ by ! wat] 9 ! =ms ( c>bonate & silicate1 b 9 mo/ cases soon becomes fix$ 9 ! soil by =m+ m complex 7zeolitic7 comb9ations4 ,! soda n be+ reta9$ by ! soil z /rongly z is pota% is wa%$ ?r\gh into ! c\ntry dra9age2 :ile if lime is pres5t1 x mo/ly rema9s 9 ! =m ( ! c>bonate4 ,or?oclase feldsp> conta9s ne>ly #ag ( pota%2 ,leucite1 a relat$ m9]al occurr+ 9 "s lavas1 conta9s #ba4e4 ,! o!r feldsp>s conta9 only a few p] c5t1 sometimes none4 ,o!r silicate m9]als1 s f> z !y conta9 ! same bases1 are act$ ^u simil>ly to ! feldsp>s4 ,9 ! decomposition ( ! feldsp>s by c>bonat$ wat]1 ! comp\nds ( pota% & soda s =m$ are soluble 9 wat]1 ^? ( lime & magnesia are insoluble or ne>ly s4 ,h5ce pure clays c be =m$ only 9 ! decomposition ( ! pota%-& soda-feldsp>s 7or?oclase1 albite7 :ile 9 ! case ( lime feldsp> 7labradorite7 & ! mix$ feldsp>s 7plagioclase1 anor?ite7 calc>e\s clays 7m>ls7 are ! result4 ,lime feldsp> resi/s decomposition m t5aci\sly ?an d ^? conta9+ l>ge proportions ( ! /rong bases pota% & soda2 pota% feldsp> especially is attack$ mo/ readily1 & is ! ma9 s\rce ( ! =mation ( ! valuable deposits ( porcela9 e>? or kaol91 :i* is ess5tially a mixture ( kaol9ite ) f9e silex & m or less ( undecompos$ feldsp>1 & is ( a *alky texture4 ,=mation ( ,clays4--,:5 in/ead ( rema9+ 9 place1 ?is kaol9 is wa%$ away & triturat$ 9 ! transportation by wat]1 x is p>tially *ang$ f its orig9al *alky condition to t pla/ic & adhesive =m :i* is ! *>act]i/ic +r$i5t ( all clays4 ,! rem>kable prop]ties ( ?is sub/ance & ! "p x plays 9 ! physical con/itution ( soils1 w be discuss$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,its lightness & extreme f95ess ( gra9 7if gra9 x c be call$7 cause x to be c>ri$ f>!r on by ! /reams ?an any o!r portion ( ! products ( rock decomposition save ^? actually 9 solution2 x c !re=e be deposit$ only 9 wat] t is almo/ or q /ill 7z 9 swamps7 s long z ! latt] is fre%4 ,s soon h[ev] z bracki% or salt wat] is enc\nt]$1 clay promptly ga!rs into floccules 78flocculates071 & ?us envelop+ ! f9e/-gra9$ silts t may h be5 c>ri$ along ) x1 x quickly settles d[n1 =m+ ! 8mud banks0 & heavy clay soils t are s *>act]i/ic ( ! l[] deltas ( riv]s1 z well z ( swamps =m$ by ! backwat] or ov]fl[ ( ! same4 ,:5 in/ead ( pota% feldsp> alone1 ! lime- or soda-lime feldsp>s are also conc]n$ 9 ! decomposition process1 ! result+ clay soils w be m or less calc>e\s1 :ile ! soda1 z /at$ above1 is = ! great] "p lea*$ out p]man5tly4 ,hornbl5de 7,amphibole7 & ,pyrox5e 7,augite74 ,^! are two v widely diffus$ m9]als1 diff]+ b little 9 composition ?\gh some:at diff]5tly cry/alliz$1 mo/ly 9 %ort column> =ms4 ,! typical & mo/ abundant v>ieties ( ^! m9]als appe> black to ! eye1 ?\gh 9 ?9 sections !y are bottle-gre52 !y =m ! black +r$i5t ( mo/ rocks4 ,! color is due to f]roso-f]ric 7magnetic7 oxid ( iron2 ! m9]al z a :ole may be consid]$ z a silicate ( lime1 magnesia1 alum9a & iron1 v>y+ greatly 9 _! absolute proportions2 alum9a & iron be+ sometimes almo/ abs5t4 ,:5 iron is lack+ ! m9]al may be almo/ :ite 7tremolite1 asbe/os71 & its wea!r+ is !n mu* ret>d$1 s9ce ! oxyg5 ( ! air _c take "p 9 ! process ( dis9tegration4 ,! black v>iety ( hornbl5de is n only ! mo/ abundant z a rock-+r$i5t1 b x also ! "o mo/ easily decompos$ & !re=e mo/ commonly conc]n$ 9 soil =mation4 ,! black hornbl5de owes its easy decomposition "u ! atmosph]ic influ5ces to two prop]ties2 "o1 its easy cleavage1 :]eby cracks are readily =m$ & ext5d$ by ! ag5cies already m5tion$ 7pp4 #a-c74 ,! o!r is its l>ge cont5t ( f]r\s silicate 7silicate ( iron protoxide71 :]eby x is liable to attack f atmosph]ic oxyg52 ! latt] =ms f]ric hydrate 7iron ru/7 out ( ! protoxide1 ?us caus+ an increase ( bulk :i* t5ds to split ! masses ( ! m9]al 9 sev]al directions1 :ile ! silex is set free4 ,at ! same "t ! c>bonic acid ( ! air conv]ts ! silicate ( lime & magnesia1 :i* =ms ! re/ ( ! m9]al1 into c>bonates2 & ! alum9a pres5t =ms kaol9ite1 z 9 ! case ( ! feldsp>s4 ,!re is ?us =m$ f ?is m9]al1 :5 alone1 a /rongly ru/-color$1 m or less calc>e\s & magnesian clay1 con/itut+ ! mat]ial = r light-textur$ 8r$0 soils4 ,9 mo/ cases h[ev] ! hornbl5de is associat$ 9 ! rock itself ) ! sev]al feldsp>s1 7mo/ly lime- & soda-lime feldsp>s7 z well z ) m or less qu>tz4 ,! ru/-color$ soils are !re=e mo/ commonly ! jo9t result ( ! wea!r+ ( ^! sev]al m9]als4 ,?is is well exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( ! 8r$0 soils =m$ f ! s-call$ granites & slates ( ! we/]n slope ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia4 ,pyrox5e or ,augite s ne>ly resembles hornbl5de 9 its *emical composition & cry/all9e =m1 t :at is said ( ! latt] may be consid]$ z apply+ to augite also4 ,ow+ h[ev] to ! abs5ce ( any prom95t t5d5cy to cleavage1 ! smoo? cry/als ( ?is m9]al are attack$ mu* less readily ?an is hornbl5de1 s t we (t5 f9d !m z 8black gravel0 9 ! soils =m$ f rocks conta9+ x4 ,su* soils are p>ticul>ly abundant & important 9 ! region cov]$ by ! great %eet ( eruptive rocks 7basalts1 s-call$7 9 ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 & on ! plateau ( ,s\? ,c5tral ,india 7! ,deccan71 & result likewise f ! decomposition ( ! black lavas ( volcanoes2 ?us 9 ! ,hawaiian isl&s1 & 9 ! ,&es ( ,p]u & ,*ile4 ,bo? hornbl5de & augite be+ ei!r free f1 or defici5t 9 pota%1 ( co>se ! soils =m$ f !m are apt to lack an adequate supply ( ?is sub/ance = plant use4 ,?is is m>k$ly true ( hornbl5de s*i/ or amphibolite rocks4 ,mica1 commonly kn[n z is+lass1 is s conspicu\s :]ev] x occurs t x is m readily recogniz$ ?an any o!r m9]al4 ,x occurs 9 glitt]+ scales 9 soils & s&s1 & 9 rocks x sometimes =ms %eets ( suffici5t size to supply ! small panes = ! doors ( /oves1 lamp *imneys1 etc41 :i* be+ flexible are n liable to break1 b only gradually scale into v ?9 films1 into :i* x c also be split by h&4 ,:5 :ite1 7muscovite1 phlogopite7 its scales are sometimes mi/ak5 = silv] by m9e prospectors2 :5 yell[1 = gold2 b _! extreme lightness %\ld soon remove ^! delusions4 ,! composition ( mica is n widely diff]5t f t ( ! two prec$+ m9]als2 l ^! x sometimes conta9s mu* iron1 & is !n d>k bottle-gre5 7biotite72 ?is v>iety 9 wea!r+ becomes bright yell[1 & soon dis9tegrates4 ,?is m9]al is s abundant an +r$i5t ( _m rocks & soils1 t "o naturally looks = x to play "s def9ite or important "p 9 soil =mation4 ,by its ready cleavage x favors ! dis9tegration ( rocks2 b x seems t ow+ to ! extremely sl[ wea!r+ ( its smoo?1 %9+ cleavage surfaces1 x ex]ts no notable effect ^u ! *emical composition ( ! soil1 al?\gh1 ow+ to its peculi> "* ( f9e scales1 x sometimes adds n immat]ially to ! facility ( tillage 9 o!rwise some:at intractable soils4 ,s f> z is kn[n at pres5t1 its pres5ce or abs5ce does n con/itute1 9 itself1 any def9ite cause or indication ( ! quality ( any soil4 ,x may nev]!less be said t ! rock 9 :i* x usually occurs mo/ abundantly--mica-s*i/1 a mixture ( mica & qu>tz--is kn[n to =m1 z a rule1 l&s ( poor quality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! soils d]iv$ f granites & gneisses1 ev5 :5 ri* 9 mica1 are usually excell5t1 on acc\nt ( _! cont5t ( feldsp>s1 & frequ5tly ( o!r associat$ m9]als4 ,hydromica diff]s f ! prec$+ ma9ly 9 conta9+ a l>g] proportion ( comb9$ wat]2 b x h>dly decomposes m readily1 & ! rocks 9 :i* x ma9ly occurs 7hydromica s*i/s7 are refractory to wea!r+1 & 9 any case d n yield soils ( any f]tility1 ! m9]al be+ associat$ simply ) qu>tz4 ,*lorite1 ess5tially a silicate ( alum9a & iron1 some:at resembles mica b is deep gre5 or black1 9 small scales4 ,x =ms "p ( c]ta9 rocks 7*lorite s*i/s71 :i* greatly resemble ! hornbl5de s*i/s1 b are usually inf]ior to ! latt] z soil-=m]s1 conta9+ b little ( any direct value to plant life4 ,talc & ,s]p5t9e1 ,hydr\s silicates ( magnesia1 are ext5sive rock-mat]ials 9 "s regions1 & z su* require m5tion z soil-=m]s also4 ,s]p5t9e usually =ms blacki%-gre5 rock-masses1 t al?\gh s(t dis9tegrate v sl[ly 9 ! abs5ce ( def9ite /ructure1 & are attack$ ) "s en]gy only :5 *>g$--z is frequ5tly ! case--) f]r\s oxide4 ,! conv]sion ( ?is into f]ric hydrate1 s common 9 nature1 "h also s]ves z ! po9t ( attack on a rock o!rwise v /able2 caus+ x to crumble1 ev5 ?\gh sl[ly4 ,talc 7! true 8soap/one07 be+ usually free f iron1 w\ld be ev5 m sl[ ?an s]p5t9e to yield to wea!r+1 b t its extreme s(tness & ready cleavage greatly facilitate its abrasion4 ,?us talc s*i/1 :i* is usually a mixture ( talc ) m or less qu>tz1 und]goes me*anical dis9tegration q readily4 ,b ! soils =m$ f ei!r s]p5t9e or talcose rocks are almo/ always v poor 9 plant food1 & sometimes totally /]ile4 ,magnesia1 ?\gh an indisp5sable +r$i5t ( plant food1 is r>ely defici5t 9 soils & unlike lime does n influ5ce 9 any s5sible degree ! process ( soil =mation4 ,magnesian rocks z a :ole are practically f\nd to be n specially desirable soil-=m]s1 ev5 9 ! =m ( magnesian lime/ones4 ,!y d n ev51 z a rule1 conta9 z _m useful accessory m9]als z are commonly f\nd 9 lime/ones4 ,moreov]1 an excess ( magnesia ov] lime is injuri\s to mo/ crops1 z is %[n lat] 7*apt4 #ah74 ,! ,zeolites4--,zeolites may be def9$ z hydro-silicates conta9+ z bases *iefly lime & alum9a1 commonly toge!r ) m or less ( pota% & soda1 m r>ely magnesia & b>yta4 ,! wat] is easily expell$ by heat+1 b is pres5t 9 ! basic =m1 n m]ely z wat] ( cry/allization4 ,all zeolites are readily decompos$ by *lorhydric & o!r /rong] acids4 ,! zeolites prop] are n orig9al rock +r$i5ts1 b are =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( rock decomposition by atmosph]ic ag5cies1 heat$ wat]1 & o!r processes n fully und]/ood4 ,!y are !re=e usually f\nd 9 ! cavities & crevices ( rocks t h be5 subject to ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic or !rmal wat]s1 mo/ frequ5tly 9 eruptive rocks1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! vesicul> cavities *>act]iz+ :at is kn[n z amygdaloids4 ,!y are also f\nd 9 ! crevices ( s&/ones & %ales p]colat$ by wat]1 z well z 9 nodules ( infiltration 7geodes71 9 :i* !y are frequ5tly associat$ ) qu>tz4 ,^? f\nd 9 ! cavities ( rocks are usually well cry/alliz$ :]ev] room is af=d$1 & are readily recogniz$ by _! cry/all9e =m2 !y are mo/ly colorless1 sometimes yell[ or r$di%4 ,ex*ange ( bases 9 ,zeolites4--,al?\gh zeolites r>ely =m a l>ge proportion ( rock-masses & !re=e d n ent] directly into ! soil m9]als to any great ext5t1 _! int]e/ 9 connection ) soil-=mation is v great1 because ( ! cont9uation1 )9 ! soil1 ( ! same processes t br+ ab\t _! =mation 9 rocks4 ,"u ! conditions exi/+ 9 soils !y w naturally r>ely =m cry/als1 b w appe> 9 ! pulv]ul5t or gelat9\s =m1 leav+ ! zeolitic nature ( ! mat]ial to be inf]r$ f its *emical behavior4 ,among ^! *>act]s ! ready decomposability by acids has already be5 m5tion$2 ano!r ( special importance 9 ! economy ( soils is ! fact t :5 a pulv]iz$ zeolite is subject$ to ! action ( a solution conta9+ ei!r ( ! /rong] bases usually pres5t 7pota%1 soda or lime71 su* base or bases w be p>tially or :olly tak5 up by ! zeolitic p[d]1 :ile correspond+ am\nts ( ! bases orig9ally pres5t w pass into solution4 ,?us :5 a hydrosilicate ( soda & alum9a is dige/$ ) a solution ( potassic *lorid or sulphate1 ! soda may be p>tially or :olly replac$ by pota%1 :ile ! correspond+ sodium salt passes into solution4 ,9 ! case ( zeolites conta9+ lime or magnesia or bo?1 ! action ( potassic or sodic *lorid w be to p>tially replace ! lime1 :ile calcic & magnesic *lorids pass into solution1 result+ 9 ! p>tial or complete replacem5t ( ! lime by "o or ! o!r1 or by bo? bases4 ,x is important to note t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 pota% is usually absorb$ 9 great] am\nts & is held m t5aci\sly ?an soda4 ,! process may frequ5tly be p>tially or :olly rev]s$ aga91 by subsequ5t treatm5t ) l>ge am\nts ( solutions ( ! displac$ base or bases4 ,?us :ile a solution ( potassic *lorid may be made to expel almo/ completely ! sodium pres5t 9 analcite1 subsequ5t treatm5t ) sodic *lorid solution w aga9 almo/ completely displace ! pota% be=e tak5 up4 ,! same happ5s :5 ! natural m9]al pota% leucite1 7see p4 #cb7 ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 c]ta9 lavas1 is pulv]iz$ & treat$ ) a sodic solution2 result+ f9ally 9 ! production ( a mass correspond+ to natural analcite1 ! sodium m9]al correspond+ to leucite4 ,9 o!r words1 9 any zeolitic p[d] ! alkal9e or alkal9e e>? bases pres5t may be p>tially or :olly displac$ by dige/ion ) an excess ( solution ( any ( ^!1 v>y+ accord+ to ! am\nt ( solution employ$1 & ! l5g? ( "t & temp]ature ( action4 ,?is *>act]i/ic behavior ( zeolites is exactly reproduc$ 9 soils4 ,few soils p]mit any sal9e solution to pass ?r\gh !m un*ang$2 solutions ( alkal9e *lorids filt]$ ?r\gh soils almo/ inv>iably cause ! pass+ ?r\gh ( calcium & magnesium *lorids1 :ile a "p ( ! alkal9e base is reta9$2 & z a matt] ( fact1 we f9d t ?is absorb+ p[] ( soils = alkal9e bases is m or less directly proportional to ! am\nt ( matt] :i* may be dissolv$ or decompos$ ) elim9ation ( silica1 by means ( acids4 ,?is absorption ( bases f solutions by *emical fixation w be f>!r discuss$ lat] on2 b x %\ld be m5tion$ "h t bo? naturally & artificially1 rock-masses are v commonly cem5t$1 :olly or 9 "p1 by zeolitic mat]ial4 ,hydraulic concretes may be consid]$ z s&/ones or conglom]ates ^: gra9s are cem5t$ by a zeolitic cem5t consi/+ ( silica1 lime & alum9a1 ) usually "s pota% or soda1 & ( c\rse conta9+ ! basic wat]2 h5ce unaffect$ by ! f>!r action ( ! latt] sub/ance aft] ! "t ( sett+ has expir$1 :i* v>ies some:at accord+ to ! nature ( ! mat]ial us$4 ,t simil> cem5ts %\ld occur 9 natural s&/ones is to be expect$2 ?us we f9d n unfrequ5tly t c]ta9 s&/ones are mat]ially s(t5$1 & _! resi/ance de/roy$1 by treatm5t ) ev5 mod]ately dilute acid1 :ile silica & ! usual zeolite bases pass into solution4 ,x is n (t51 h[ev]1 t zeolitic mat]ial alone cem5ts ! s&/one2 x is mo/ frequ5tly associat$ ) silice\s1 calc>e\s & sometimes ev5 ) f]rug9\s cem5t+ mat]ial4#ad #ad ,a zeolitic mass1 at fir/ gelat9\s & !n becom+ granul>-cry/all9e is frequ5tly obs]v$ ooz+ f ! l[] surface ( newly made concrete res]voir dams3 j z we f9d simil> oozes consolidat$ into natrolite cru/s 9 ! crevices ( natural s&/ones4 ,,calcite ,,& ,,lime/ones4 ,calcite or calc>e\s sp> is "o ( ! m9]als mo/ commonly kn[n 9 ! cry/alliz$ =m1 & is readily recogniz$ by its p]fect cleavage 9 ?ree directions1 produc+ cleavage =ms ) smoo?1 rhomb-%ap$ faces 7rhomboh$rons72 ^! are sometimes colorless & p]fectly transp>5t1 & laid on pr9t$ pap] %[ ! lett]s d\ble4 ,b x may be :iti%-opaque1 & ( v>i\s colors1 :i* may also be imp>t$ to ! lime/ones =m$ f x4 ,x is readily di/+ui%$ f qu>tz1 :i* x sometimes resembles1 by its cleavage1 its inf]ior h>dness1 be+ easily scrat*$ ) a knife2 & by its eff]vesc5ce ) acids1 ! latt] be+ ! crucial te/ :5 o!r m>ks are unavailable1 z :5 x =ms s(t granul> masses or 8m>ls40 ,9 all cases x c be recogniz$ by its cry/all9e =m "u ! microscope1 ev5 :5 ! sub/ance conta9+ x has be5 pulv]iz$ 9 a mort>4 ,! great importance ( ?is comp\nd--calcic c>bonate--f ! agricultural po9t ( view r5d]s x desirable t x1 z well z lime/ones z su*1 %\ld be recogniz$1 :5 se51 by e f>m]4 ,9 mass ! pure m9]al con/itutes :ite m>ble2 color$ or v>iegat$ m>bles are m or less impure f ! pres5ce ( o!r m9]als4 ,"s compact lime/ones also are ne>ly pure2 & z supply+ only a s+le +r$i5t ( plant food ^! w\ld n be mu* bett] soil-=m]s ?an qu>tz or s]p5t9e4 ,b x is q o!rwise ) common lime/ones2 ! mass ( :i*1 x is true1 is =m$ ( calc-sp>1 b ow+ to its orig91 is 9 ! great majority ( cases s f> comm+l$ ) o!r matt]s ( v>i\s "*1 t lime/ones are popul>ly reput$ to =m ! v be/ soils4 8,a lime/one c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry0 is a popul> axiom to :i* !re are1 on ! :ole1 b few exceptions4 ,orig94--,actual obs]vation ( :at is happ5+ at ! pres5t "t1 z well z ! exam9ation ( ! rock z anci5tly =m$1 prove conclusively t ) insignificant exceptions1 all lime/ones h be5 =m$ f ! framework & %ells1 & to "s ext5t f ! bones1 ( m>9e & fre%-wat] organisms1 rang+ 9 size f ! ext9ct giants ( ! liz>d relation%ip to ^? recognizable only by ! microscope4 ,ow+ to ! solubility ( lime c>bonate 9 c>bonat$ wat]1 ! organic =ms h (t5 79 cry/all9e lime/ones7 be5 almo/ completely oblit]at$ 9 "s portions1 b 9 o!rs are s pres]v$ z to prove und5iably ! simil>ity ( orig9 ( ! :ole1 & t !y h be5 =m$ 9 relatively %all[ wat]1 z !y are to-day4 ,impure ,lime/ones z ,soil-=m]s4--,f :at has be5 said reg>d+ ! composition ( sea-wat]1 x w readily be inf]r$ t a pure deposit ( any "o k9d _c easily be =m$ 9 x2 moreov]1 ! matt] held 9 me*anical susp5sion ev]y:]e ne> ! coa/s mu/ v commonly be includ$ )9 ! calc>e\s deposits =m$ (f-%ore4 ,h5ce few lime/ones dissolve 9 acids )\t leav+ a residue ( s&1 clay & v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 usually ev5 "s organic matt] n fully decompos$2 sometimes less ?an half ( ! mass is really lime c>bonate4 ,x is obvi\s t :5 ! solv5t action ( c>bonat$ wat] is ex]t$ ^u su* impure lime/ones1 a loose residue ( e>?y matt]s w rema9 beh9d4 ,x is by ?is process t a consid]able proportion ( ! ri*e/ soils 9 ! _w h be5 =m$1 :i* h giv5 rise to ! popul> maxim above quot$4 ,!y are emphatically 8residual0 soils2 sometimes1 x is true1 some:at remov$1 by wa%+-away1 f _! po9t ( orig91 b 9 _m cases =m+ a compact soil-lay] on top ( ! un*ang$ rock1 into :i* !re exi/s e %ade ( transition4 ,/rik+ examples ( su* residual soils 9 place are se5 9 ! black prairies ( ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates2 !y are mo/ly r 8/iff0 7clayey71 & h5ce has aris5 a local popul> error1 to ! effect t clay or 8heavy0 soils are always calc>e\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! blue-grass region ( ,k5tucky1 & mo/ ( ! l&s ( ! arid regions are prom95t examples ( 8light0 calc>e\s soils4 ,caves1 ,s9kholes1 ,/alactites4--,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ exemplification ( ! solv5t p[] ( c>bonat$ wat] is se5 9 ! =mation ( lime/one caves4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! va/ majority ( all exi/+ caves is f\nd 9 lime/one =mations2 & su* =mations1 z w be m fully discuss$ h]eaft]1 ne>ly always be> a luxuriant vegetation4 ,! wat] filt]+ ?r\gh ! vegetable mold1 9 :i* c>bonic acid is con/antly be+ =m$1 becomes *>g$ ) x1 & on rea*+ ! und]ly+ rock1 dissolves to a correspond+ ext5t ! lime c>bonate ( :i* ?is rock :olly or *iefly consi/s4 ,:5 p5etrat+ crevices x soon enl>ges ^!1 to an ext5t proportion$ to ! l5g? ( "t & ! /r5g? ( ! solv5t2 & ?us gradually subt]ranean passages or caves are =m$1 :i* at fir/ are almo/ always ! b$ ( a /ream1 ! me*anical action ( :i* accel]ates ! process ( enl>gem5t1 until aft] "s "t ! wat] is p]haps dra9$ (f ?r\gh "s crevice to a l[] level1 :]e ! same process is repeat$4 ,sometimes ! ceil+ gives way1 =m+ ! funnel-%ap$ 8s9kholes0 or 8lime-s9ks0 s famili> 9 "s ( ! ,mississippi ,valley ,/ates4 ,sometimes ! lime solution on rea*+ ! ceil+ ( ! cave1 in/ead ( dropp+ d[n1 evaporates !re & ev5tually =ms icicle-l 8/alactites0 out ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance2 :ile :5 dropp+ on ! floor & ?us gr[+ upw>ds1 ! correspond+ =mation is call$ 8/alagmite40 ,^! caves1 subt]ranean riv]s1 s9kholes1 natural bridges & tunnels1 etc41 mo/ly owe _! orig9 to ?is solv5t action ( c>bonat$ wat] on lime/one =mations4#ae #ae ,t4 ,m4 ,reade 79 8 treatise on ,*emical ,d5udation 9 ,relation to ,geological ,"t7 calculates t #adc4e tons ( lime c>bonate are annually remov$ by solution f ea* squ>e mile ( l& 9 ,engl& & ,wales1 & t ! av]age am\nt ?us remov$ annually f ea* squ>e mile ( ! e>?'s surface is ab\t fifty tons4 ,! same occurs on a small scale1 :5 calc>e\s l& is und]dra9$2 ! lime c>bonate dissolv$ f ! soil is p>tially deposit$ 9 ! dra9 pipes1 :i* x frequ5tly ob/ructs4 ,simil>ly1 an impure1 por\s deposit ( calc>e\s tufa is frequ5tly =m$ on ! surface1 at ! foot or 9 rills ( calc>e\s hills4 ,:5 8h>d0 wat]1 be+ usually su* z conta9s lime c>bonate dissolv$ 9 c>bonic acid1 is boil$1 or long expos$ to ! air1 c>bonic gas escapes & ! lime salt is deposit$ p>tly on ! walls ( ! kettle1 p>tly =m+ a pellicle on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,dolomite1 or bitt] sp>1 greatly resembles calcite 9 its aspect & prop]ties1 al?\gh conta9+ ne>ly half its weight 7#dg4f7 ( magnesic1 toge!r ) calcic c>bonate4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ne>ly always :iti%-opaque2 its cry/all9e & cleavage surfaces are usually some:at curv$2 & its eff]vesc5ce ) acids is mu* less lively ?an 9 ! case ( calcite4 ,l ! latt] x (t5 =ms pure granul> rock deposits1 frequ5tly us$ in/ead ( m>ble & lime/one1 & "u t designation4 ,! dolomite rocks1 h[ev]1 are mu* m subject to wea!r+ ?an ! non-magnesian lime/ones1 & x is a curi\s fact t 9 contradi/9ction to ! lime/one regions prop]1 ^? hav+ /rongly magnesian lime/ones or dolomites z _! c\ntry rock are frequ5tly rem>kably /]ile4 ,9 "s portions ( ,europe dolomite areas are s&y des]ts1 ^: s& consi/s ( wea!r$ dolomite1 s pure z to (f] no adequate supply ( m9]al food to plants4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 magnesian lime/ones und]lie ! 8b>r5s0 ( sev]al ,/ates & ?us seem to ju/ify _! ,european reputation ( be+ poor soil-=m]s4 ,! exact cause ( ?is diff]5ce is n fully und]/ood1 = at fir/ sight x is n cle> :y ! pres5ce ( ! magnesian c>bonate %\ld int]f]e ) ! well-kn[n b5eficial effects ( ! lime comp\nd4 ,o4 ,loew & ,may#af & o!rs h1 h[ev]1 %[n t a c]ta9 excess ( lime ov] magnesia 9 ! soil is necess>y to prev5t ! injuri\s effects ex]t$ by magnesic comp\nds on plant nutrition1 9 ! abs5ce ( an adequate supply ( lime4 ,?is po9t w be discuss$ m 9 detail f>!r on4 #af ,bull4 ,no4 #a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,veg4 ,pa?4 & ,physiol4 ,inve/ig4 ,sel5ite or ,gypsum1 sulfate ( lime ) ab\t #ad p] c5t ( wat]1 ?\gh n z abundant 9 nature z ! c>bonate or lime/one1 is a v widely dissem9at$ m9]al & (t5 occurs 9 l>ge masses ov] consid]able areas4 ,^! are und\bt$ly 9 mo/ cases ! result ( evaporation ( sea wat] 7see p4 #bf71 m r>ely ( ! trans=mation ( lime/one4 ,9 mass x frequ5tly resembles ! latt]1 b is readily di/+ui%$ by its s(tness2 x does n grit betwe5 ! tee?1 is readily cut ) a knife & does n eff]vesce ) acids4 ,v commonly x occurs 9 cry/als1 :i* are easily split into ?9 plates4 ,! cry/als are v frequ5tly f\nd imb$d$ 9 gray or blui%1 t\gh clays1 9 rosettes1 or flat %eets :i* mo/ly %[ *>act]i/ic incurr5t angles 7caus$ by tw9n+71 & are h5ce kn[n z 8swall[tail0 cry/als4 ,su* %eets ( sel5ite are popul>ly call$ 8is+lass10 :i* "n h[ev] is equally appli$ to ! m9]al mica 7see p4 #ce74 ,gypsum is only exceptionally an abundant +r$i5t ( soils2 yet su* soils prevail q ext5sively on ! upp] ,rio ,gr&e1 9 ,new ,mexico & adjac5t portions ( ,*ihuahua1 ,coahuila1 & on ! ,/ak$ ,pla9s ( ,texas4 ,"h :ole ranges ( hills are sometimes compos$ ( gypse\s s&1 be> a scanty1 peculi> vegetation1 & are ill adapt$ to agricultural use4 ,x may be said 9 g5]al t few naturally gypse\s soils are v productive4 ,?is is l>gely because ( ! v heavy clays :i* commonly accompany x1 z ! comp\nd itself is n only n ho/ile to plant life b is 9 ext5d$ use z a valuable f]tiliz] 78l& pla/]07 = special purposes4 ,f causes n fully und]/ood z yet1 x p>ticul>ly promotes ! gr[? ( legum9\s plants1 notably ! clov]s2 & z /at$ 9 *apt] #i1 x also specially favors nitrification 9 soils4 ,9 ! arid region x r5d]s important s]vice 9 ! neutralization ( 8black alkali0 or c>bonate ( soda 9 alkali soils4 ,be+ soluble 9 #djj p>ts ( wat]1 x easily p5etrates d[nw>d 9 mo/ soils1 & 9 do+ s effects *anges 9 ! zeolitic portions1 sett+ free pota% f silicates & ?us indirectly supply+ plants ) ?is ess5tial +r$i5t 9 a soluble =m4 ,ab\t #bjj p\nds p] acre is an ord9>y dose4 ,= agricultural use ! rock gypsum is gr\nd 9 mills s z to be easily di/ribut$1 & dissolv$ by ! soil wat]4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 x occurs 9 ! s(t granul> =m 7gypse\s m>l7 requir+ only light cru%+2 ?us 9 ! hills bord]+ ! ,great ,valley ( ,cali=nia1 & 9 p>ts ( ,new ,mexico & ,texas4 ,iron ,m9]als4--,9 connection ) calcite & dolomite1 ! sev]al m9]als con/itut+ ! common iron ores require m5tion4 ,"o ( ^! is3 ,iron ,sp> or sid]ite2 c>bonate ( iron1 corresponds 9 composition to calcite & dolomite & cry/allizes 9 ! same =m4 ,x sometimes occurs 9 l>ge masses & is an important iron ore1 br[ni%-:ite 9 color1 & :5 compact resi/s ! attack ( atmosph]ic oxyg5 rem>kably well4 ,l ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia1 x is soluble 9 c>bonat$ wat]1 & its deposits are und\bt$ly =m$ f su* solutions4 ,! latt] are copi\sly =m$ :]ev] f]m5t+ or decay+ organic matt] is 9 contact ) iron-be>+ mat]ials1 su* z ru/-color$ s&s or clays2 & if ! solution s =m$ c p]colate )\t com+ 9 contact ) air1 iron sp> is =m$4 ,b :5ev] ! solution comes 9 contact ) air1 x absorbs oxyg5 & ! f]r\s c>bonate is conv]t$ into f]ric hydrate or ru/1 m9]alogically kn[n z3 ,limonite or br[n iron ore4 ,?is ore is frequ5tly f\nd deposit$ on ! upp] surface ( clay lay]s trav]s+ s&y /rata1 ! clay hav+ arre/$ ! c>bonate solution & ?us giv5 "t to ! air to effect ! *ange4 ,sometimes su* deposits =m great masses 9 rock-caves1 fissure-ve9s1 or crevices2 & l sid]ite1 x is an important iron ore1 ?\gh frequ5tly q impure1 z 9 ! case ( bog ore1 :i* is =m$ 9 ill-dra9$ subsoils4 ,x is also sometimes f\nd z ! residue f ! wea!r+ ( rocks ri* 9 hornbl5de or pyrox5e1 & 9 ?is1 z well z 9 o!r cases1 is pulv]ul5t1 con/itut+ yell[ o*re4 ,x makes a ru/-color$ /reak on biscuit porcela9 or unglaz$ que5sw>e4 ,x is ! color+ mat]ial ( all yell[ or 8r$0 soils & clays1 z well z ( br[n s&/ones1 :i* are cem5t$ by x4 ,z is well kn[n1 su* clays & s&/ones become d>k r$ by heat+ or 8burn+10 z 9 ! case ( common brick clays2 ! br[n or yell[ f]ric hydrate los+ its wat] & becom+ r$ f]ric oxid4 ,! latt] sometimes occurs 9 nature 9 ! impure1 pulv]ul5t condition1 con/itut+ 8r$ o*re02 b m commonly & abundantly x is f\nd 9 ! =m ( ,hematite or r$ iron ore1 :i* is sometimes =m$ 9 nature by limonite los+ its wat]1 b m commonly 9 diff]5t ways4 ,x is b r>ely f\nd 9 soils & is ( no special int]e/ 9 t connection4 ,a f\r? =m ( iron ore1 q common 9 ! soils ( "s regions1 is ,magnetite or magnetic iron ore1 also kn[n z lode/one4 ,?is m9]al1 ! oxyg5-comp\nd ( iron correspond+ to 8blacksmi?'s scale10 also occurs 9 l>ge masses & is an important & usually a v pure iron ore4 ,x occurs v commonly dissem9at$ ?r\gh c]ta9 rocks1 & 9 _! wea!r+ x rema9s unattack$ & ?us passes un*ang$ into ! soils & s&s1 con/itut+ ! 8black s&0 s well kn[n to gold m9]s & almo/ univ]sally pres5t 9 ! alluvial soils ( ! ,pacific coa/4 ,^! black gra9s are ( c\rse attract$ by ! magnet & c ?us be easily recogniz$ & extract$4 ,9 soils !y are simply in]t1 l qu>tz s&4 ,b :ile ! ore is ( little int]e/ to ! f>m]1 x is q o!rwise ) ! comp\nd ( ?is oxid ) wat]1 ! f]roso-f]ric hydrate2 int]m$iate 9 composition betwe5 ! :ite f]r\s & ! br[n f]ric hydrates4 ,z m5tion$ above1 ! black silicate m9]als1 su* z hornbl5de & pyrox5e1 are bottle-gre5 :5 se5 9 ?9 sections4 ,ne>ly ! same color1 ) modifications runn+ t[>d blue & bright gre51 is (t5 se5 9 natural clays & rocks1 & is almo/ always caus$ by ! f]roso-f]ric hydrate4 ,su* mat]ials always become r$ or r$di% :5 heat$ by ! =mation ( r$ f]ric oxid2 :ile :5 expos$ to damp air1 !y assume ! ru/ color ( f]ric hydrate4 ,r$uction ( f]ric hydrate 9 ill-dra9$ soils4--,:5 su* oxidiz$1 ru/-color$ clays or soils are expos$ to ! action ( f]m5t+ organic matt]1 ! fir/ effect obs]v$ is ! *ange ( color f ru/y to blui% or gre5i%1 by ! r$uction ( ! f]ric to f]roso-f]ric hydrate4 ,aft]w>d1 if ! action is cont9u$1 ! solution ( f]r\s c>bonate 7see above7 may be =m$1 & ! gre5i% or blui% color may disappe>4 ,! importance ( ?is reaction to f>m+ practice lies 9 ! fact t ! blue or gre5 t9t1 :]ev] x occurs1 indicates a lack ( a]ation1 usually by ! /agnation ( wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( imp]fect dra9age4 ,su* a condition1 always injuri\s to plants1 becomes d\bly s :5 x is associat$ ) ! =mation ( a metallic solution1 su* z f]r\s c>bonate1 & promptly results 9 ! langui%+ or dea? ( plants 9 consequ5ce ( ! poison+ ( _! roots4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( sulfates su* z gypsum1 ! =mation ( iron pyrite 7f]ric bisulfid7 & sulfurett$ hydrog51 is likely to take place4 ,moreov]1 "u ! same conditions ! phosphoric acid ( ! soil may be conc5trat$ into f]r\s or f]ric phosphate1 :i* pass into deposits ( bog ore 9 ! subsoil4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,rocks ,,z ,,soil-,,=m]s4 ,rock-wea!r+ 9 arid & humid ,climates4--,f :at has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ! physical & *emical ag5cies conc]n$ 9 rock-wea!r+1 x is obvi\s t climatic diff]5ces may mat]ially influ5ce ! "* ( ! soils =m$ f "o & ! same k9d ( rock4 ,s9ce kaol9ization is also a process ( hydration1 ! pres5ce ( wat] mu/ greatly influ5ce its int5sity1 & especially ! subsequ5t =mation ( colloidal clay2 s t rocks =m+ clay soils 9 ! region ( summ] ra9s may 9 ! arid regions =m m]ely pulv]ul5t soil mat]ials4 ,_m /rik+ examples ( ^! diff]5ces may be obs]v$1 e4 g41 9 comp>+ ! outcome ( ! wea!r+ ( granitic rocks 9 ! s\!rn ,allegh5ies ) t ( ! same rocks 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & we/w>d1 especially 9 ,cali=nia & ,arizona4 ,! %>pness ( ! ridges ( ! ,si]ra ,madre1 & ! r\ghness ( ! h>d granitic surfaces1 contra/s %>ply ) ! r\nd$ ranges =m$ by ! 8rott50 granites ( ! ,atlantic slope1 :]e s\nd1 unalt]$ rock c sometimes n be f\nd at a less dep? ?an =ty feet2 :ile at ! foot ( ! ,si]ra ,madre ridges1 ?ick b$s ( %>p1 fre% granitic s&1 too op5 & p]vi\s to s]ve z soils1 cov] ! upp] slopes & ! 8wa%es0 ( ! /reams1 caus+ ! latt] to s9k out ( sight4 ,a g5]al discussion ( ! k9ds ( soils =m$ f ! v>i\s rocks mu/1 !re=e1 take ^! diff]5ces into due consid]ation4 ,,g5]al ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,rocks may be broadly classifi$ into ?ree categories1 viz3 #a4 ,s$im5t>y rocks1 =m$ by deposition 9 wat] & h5ce m or less di/9ctly /ratifi$4 #b4 ,metamorphic rocks1 =m$ f rocks orig9ally s$im5t>y1 by subt]ranean heat 9 pres5ce ( wat]4 ,usually cry/all9e1 t is1 compos$ ( m or less di/9ct 7l>ge or m9ute7 cry/als ( "o or sev]al ( ! m9]als m5tion$ above4 #c4 ,eruptive rocks1 eject$ 9 ! molt5 /ate f volcanoes or fissures2 cry/all9e or n1 accord+ to sl[ or rapid cool+4 ,s$im5t>y ,rocks4--,s$im5t>y rocks are =m+ to-day by deposition f ei!r sea or fre% wat]1 precisely z !y 7 9 ! mo/ remote geological times2 ! olde/ cle>ly s$im5t>y rocks be+ sometimes undi/+ui%able 9 _! nature & composition f ! v late/ imm$iately prec$+ our pres5t "t4 ,!y may = ! purposes ( ! pres5t "w be simply classifi$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,lime/ones1 =m$ 9 comp>atively %all[ seas1 or fre% wat] bas9s1 f ! calc>e\s %ells or skeletons ( v>i\s organisms4 #b4 ,s&/ones1 & conglom]ates 7sometimes call$ pudd+-/ones7 =m$ f ! debris ( pre-exi/+ rocks dis9tegrat$ by ! ag5cies describ$ above1 7*ap4 #a-b71 re-cem5t$ by means ( solutions ( "o or sev]al sub/ances1 su* z silex1 c>bonate ( lime1 f]ric hydrate & o!rs4 ,loose s&s & gravels are ! initial /ages ( su* rock =mation z well z ! results ( _! dis9tegration4 #c4 ,clays1 ,clay/ones & ,clay %ales1 consi/+ ( clay sub/ance ) m or less s&1 & s(t or h>d accord+ to ! nature ( ! wat]s or solutions t may h act$ ^u !m1 ) or )\t ! aid ( heat4 ,^! rocks c only be =m$ 9 comp>atively quiet or 8back0 wat]s1 s9ce clay w\ld n ord9>ily be deposit$ 9 mov+ wat]4 ,metamorphic ,rocks4--,! effects ( subt]ranean heat or metamorphism ^u ! s$im5t>y rocks may be r\ghly /at$ z foll[s3 ,lime/ones are trans=m$ into m>bles ( v>i\s degrees ( purity1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! orig9al rocks4 ,s&/ones :5 cem5t$ by silex are trans=m$ into qu>tzite1 ( great] or less purity accord+ to ! nature ( ! 8s&0 ent]+ into its composition4 ,:5 cem5t$ by mat]ials o!r ?an qu>tz1 ^! also w be segregat$ 9 ! =m ( v>i\s m9]als 9 ! body ( ! rock4 ,! clay rocks =m ! mo/ v>i$ products "u ! influ5ce ( 7aqueo-igne\s7 metamorphism2 granites1 gneiss1 sy5ite & hornbl5dic s*i/ are among ! mo/ common4 ,! great v>iations 9 ! composition ( clayey mat]ials acc\nt = ! correspond+ly great v>iations 9 ! nature ( ! resultant metamorphic rocks4 ,igne\s or ,eruptive ,rocks4--,^! are usually divid$ into two gr\ps2 ! "o *>act]iz$ by a l>ge proportion ( free qu>tz 7silicic acid71 & h5ce designat$ z acidic1 & usually ( a light t9t2 ! o!r ! basic1 conta9+ little or no free qu>tz1 & commonly ( a d>k t9t caus$ by ! pres5ce ( a l>ge am\nt ( iron 7conta9$ 9 pyrox5e1 m r>ely 9 hornbl5de74 ,( ! latt] class are ! d>k 8basaltic0 rocks con/itut+ ! mass ( ! enorm\s eruptive %eet ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 cov]+ ! great] "p ( ,wa%+ton1 ,oregon & nor!a/]n ,cali=nia4 ,! lavas ( ! ,hawaiian isl&s are ( ! same class & ev5 m basic2 :ile ! eruptives ( ,nevada1 middle & s\!rn ,cali=nia1 & ea/w>d to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 are mo/ly ( ! light-color$1 acidic type4 ,! same is l>gely true ( ! rocks ( ! ,&es ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! gray 8,&esites10 also repres5t$ 9 ! ,caucasus4 ,z "o & ! same eruptive mat]ial may1 accord+ to ! great] or less rapidity ( cool+1 appe> z a glassy mass 7obsidian1 pumice1 volcanic a%1 tuff1 etc417 or z a cry/all9e rock resembl+ co>se granite 9 /ructure1 x is n easy to id5tify !m 9 all _! v>i\s =ms4 ,?is c frequ5tly be done only by asc]ta9+ _! compon5t m9]als by ! microscope1 or by *emical analysis4 ,! same is sometimes true ( metamorphic rocks2 & z 9 ! latt]1 ! sev]al feldsp>s & qu>tz1 ) pyrox5e in/ead ( hornbl5de1 con/itute ! pr$om9ant soil-=m+ m9]als4 ,m r>ely1 g>net1 *rysolite1 leucite & o!r silicates require consid]ation4 ,g5]alities reg>d+ ! ,soils d]iv$ f v>i\s ,rocks4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to insi/ t z 9 ! case ( ! rocks compos$ ( s+le m9]als1 already ref]r$ to above1 ! pr$om9ant m9]al or m9]als ( comp\nd rocks det]m9e ! facility ( wea!r+1 z well z ! quality ( ! soil result+ !refrom4 ,s9ce rocks are nam$ ess5tially 9 accordance ) ! k9ds ( m9]als t con/itute _! regul> mass1 ! proportion 9 :i* ! sev]al con/itu5ts /& to ea* o!r may v>y greatly4 ,?us a granite may consi/1 ov] consid]able areas1 ma9ly ( a mixture ( pota% feldsp> & qu>tz2 9 o!rs1 ma9ly ( qu>tz & mica ) little feldsp>4 ,v frequ5tly1 hornbl5de replaces mica p>tially or :olly4 ,! latt] w wea!r mu* m sl[ly ?an feldsp> or hornbl5de1 & w produce an inf]ior soil :5 decompos$4 ,all[+ = su* v>iations1 a fairly approximate g5]al e/imate ( ! quality & peculi>ities ( soils f cry/all9e rocks may nev]!less be made4 ,to "s ext5t su* e/imates mu/ make all[ance n only = ! *ief +r$i5ts1 b also = ^? :i* are call$ 8accessory0 or *>act]i/ic1 & :i* :ile n pres5t 9 l>ge am\nt1 may nev]!less ex]t a consid]able influ5ce ^u ! quality ( ! soil4 ,soils f granitic & cry/all9e rocks4--,9 ! case ( ! 7pota%-feldsp>7 granite soils x is g5]ally admissible to expect t !y w be fairly suppli$ ) phosphoric acid1 because 9 ! great majority ( cases1 m9ute cry/als ( apatite 7phosphate ( lime7 are m or less abundantly scatt]$ ?r\gh x4 ,f ! pota% feldsp> pres5t1 granite soils may always be reli$ on = a good supply ( pota% = plant use2 on ! o!r h&1 unless hornbl5de be pres5t1 !y are pretty c]ta9 to be defici5t 9 lime1 s9ce nei!r lime1 feldsp> nor calcite are probable accessory +r$i5ts ( ?is rock4 ,granite is exce$+ly apt to wea!r by me*anical dis9tegration f> 9 advance ( its *emical decomposition4 ,x is !re=e common to f9d 9 s$5t>y soils ov]ly+ granite1 a gradual increase ( gra9s ( its compon5t cry/all9e m9]als z we desc5d 9 ! subsoil2 until f9ally ! latt] grades (f into rock almo/ un*ang$ save 9 lack+ coh]5ce4 ,?is is se5 /rik+ly 9 ! s\!rn ,appala*ians1 z well z 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ,si]ra ,madre ( ,cali=nia2 at ,c9tra 9 ,portugal1 at ,heidelb]g 9 ,g]many1 & else:]e4 ,b ( ! rocks t resemble granite & are popul>ly s call$1 a good _m are n 8true to "n0 & !re=e =m soils diff]+ mat]ially f ! type j m5tion$4 ,?us ! s-call$ granite areas ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia are l>gely occupi$ by a rock conta9+1 besides qu>tz1 *iefly soda-lime feldsp> & "s hornbl5de1 & sc>cely any mica4 ,x is m prop]ly a diorite 7grano-diorite72 ! soils =m$ f x are r poor 9 pota%1 n /rongly calc>e\s1 & q poor 9 phosphoric acid4 ,on acc\nt ( ! small proportion ( hornbl5de 7unusual 9 diorites71 ^! soils are light-color$ 7n 8r$071 & be> a gr[? ( small p9e in/ead ( ! usual oak gr[? ( ! l[] ,si]ra slopes4 ,:at is said ( granite soils is also g5]ally true ( ^? =m$ f ,gneiss1 :i* is compos$ ( ! same m9]als z granite1 b has a slaty cleavage & on t acc\nt :5 upturn$ on edge1 wea!rs r m rapidly ?an mo/ granites4 ,ow+ to ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( l5ticul> masses ( qu>tz 9 gneiss1 its soils are m commonly ( a silice\s nature ?an are ^? ( ! true granite regions1 & n z 8/rong0 z ! latt]4 ,?is is ! m true s9ce gneiss (t5 passes gradually into mica s*i/1 :i*1 be+ a mixture ( qu>tz & mica only1 n only wea!rs v sl[ly b also supplies b little ( any importance to plants1 to ! soils =m$ f x4 ,su* soils w\ld mo/ly be absolutely b>r5 b = ! frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! rock1 ( accessory m9]als t yield "s sub/ance to ! soil4 ,yet x rema9s true t inasmu* z gneiss & mica-s*i/s are among ! rocks 9 :i* m9]al ve9s mo/ commonly occur1 ! prov]bial b>r5ness ( m9+ di/ricts is v frequ5tly traceable to ^! rocks4 ,! same may be said ( "s ( ! relat$ rocks1 su* z gabbro1 m9ette & o!rs4 ,normal diorite consi/s ( hornbl5de & soda-feldsp>1 ) m or less qu>tz4 ,! soils d]iv$ f c]ta9 diorites ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia h j be5 ref]r$ to4 ,b ^! granite-l diorites are on ! :ole exceptional2 x %\ld be add$ t ! 7diabasic7 8gre5/ones0 ( ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! ,old ,_w1 :i* are usually mu* f9]-gra9$1 d n =m ! mass ( f9e1 angul> debris con/itut+ ! subsoil 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 b wea!r into r\nd$ masses & f9e-gra9$ soils possess+1 on ! :ole1 a fair f]tility1 ?\gh liable to conta9 an excessive proportion ( silex 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,( ! eruptive rocks z a class x is (t5 said t !y =m v productive soils2 yet1 z ^! rocks diff] widely f ea* o!r 9 composition1 ?is /atem5t mu/ be tak5 ) a great deal ( all[ance4 ,v _m ( !m decompose ) extreme sl[ness on acc\nt ( _! glassy nature2 ?is is p>ticul>ly true ( obsidian1 pumice /one1 & ! 8volcanic a%0 d]iv$ f its pulv]ization1 & :i* is f\nd un*ang$1 9 %>p scales1 among ! decay$ m9]als ( o!r rocks 9 complex soils4 ,o!r volcanic a%1 h[ev]1 be+ =m$ by ! pulv]ization ( cry/all9e or ( basic lavas1 wea!rs r readily1 z already /at$2 s t c]ta9 plants take possession 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s4 ,! g5]al classification into basic & acidic rocks1 giv5 above1 is ( importance 9 connection ) soil =mation f eruptive masses2 = ! basic rocks are mu* m easily attack$ by ! atmosph]ic ag5cies ?an ! acidic class4 ,a broad di/9ction mu/1 h[ev]1 be made betwe5 ! basic rocks ( ! basaltic class1 :i* conta9 black pyrox5e z a prom95t +r$i5t1 & ^? :i*1 l _m tra*ytes1 are ri* 9 feldspa?ic m9]als4 ,! latt] are naturally ri* 9 alkalies 7pota% & soda7 :i* !y imp>t to ! correspond+ light-color$ soils2 :ile ! black basaltic rocks & lavas wea!r into 8r$0 soils1 sometimes conta9+ extraord9>y am\nts ( iron 7f]ric hydrate7 & 7f ! lime-feldsp>s !y conta97 a fair supply ( lime1 b (t5times v little pota%4 ,exp]i5ce seems to prove t ! r$ basalt soils are mo/ly r ri* 9 phosphoric acid2 ?is is especially true ( ! c\ntry cov]$ by ! great eruptive %eet ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 9 ! rocks ( :i* ! microscope readily detects ! pres5ce ( num]\s ne$les ( apatite 7lime phosphate74 ,! same is true ( ! highly iron-be>+ soils f ! black basaltic lavas ( ! ,hawaiian isl&s1 ev5 ?\gh !y h be5 lea*$ ( all b traces ( lime & pota%4 ,all ^! soils are physically 8light0 & easily workable1 s9ce ! rocks 9 "q conta9 b little alum9a f :i* to =m clay2 !y are sometimes extremely ri* 9 iron1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( be+ capable ( s]v+ z iron ores4 ,! soils d]iv$ f tra*ytes & tra*ytic lavas are g5]ally light-color$ & light 9 texture2 ! latt] f ! pres5ce ( a l>ge proportion ( volcanic glass1 toge!r ) undecompos$ cry/all9e m9]als4 ,^! are usually ri* 9 pota%1 b poor 9 lime & phosphates4 ,! high quality ( ! w9es ( ! l[] ,rh9e has be5 ascrib$ to ^! soils1 :i* h[ev] v>y greatly )9 ! areal limits ( ! production ( ! high-grade w9es1 n only f gray tra*ytes to d>k color$1 highly augitic basalt1 b also to acidic qu>tz porphyries or rhyolites1 & clay-slates4 ,! rhyolites on ! :ole yield ! poore/ soils among ! eruptive rocks2 !y are sl[ to wea!r at be/1 & ! soils produc$ are poor & unsub/antial1 l>gely f ! pr$om9ance ( qu>tz & undecomposable1 glassy mat]ial2 ( :i* ! phonolites are ! extreme type1 resi/+ ! influ5ce ( ! atmosph]ic ag5cies j z w\ld s mu* artificial glass4 ,soils consi/+ l>gely ( volcanic glass may be f\nd cov]+ consid]able areas 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia4 ,su* 8volcanic a%0 soils are usually v un?rifty1 & be> a gr[? ( small p9es4 ,soils f s$im5t>y rocks4--,lime/ones1 :5 pure & h>d1 are v sl[ to dis9tegrate1 & are also v sl[ly attack$ by c>bonat$ wat] 7see *ap4 #c1 page #da74 ,s(t impure & vesicul> lime/ones are1 h[ev]1 v rapidly attack$1 especially :5 und]ly+ a surface clo!d ) ! luxuriant vegetation t usually fl\ri%es on soils ri* 9 lime4 ,! popul> adage t 8a lime/one c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry10 is ( almo/ univ]sal application & /amps lime1 f ! purely practical /&po9t1 z "o ( ! mo/ important soil +r$i5ts4 ,residual ,lime/one ,soils4--,/rik+ examples ( ! =mation ( l>ge1 f]tile soil areas by ! lea*+ out ( lime/ones are f\nd 9 ! ,/ates ( ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,l\isiana & ,texas1 :]e ! f]tile black prairies h be5 l>gely ?us =m$4 ,! 8blue-grass0 c\ntry ( ,c5tral ,k5tucky is ano!r case 9 po9t4 ,! foll[+ table %[s a repres5tative example ( ! relative composition ( ! 7cretace\s7 8,rott5 ,lime/one0 ( ,mississippi1 & ! 8residual0 soil-/ratum d]iv$ f x4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( ! lay] ( residual clay above ! lime/one is ab\t eight feet1 b ranges f sev5 to t52 ! upp] lay]s ( ! lime/one are some:at s(t5$1 b ! rock is always fre% at twelve feet1 f :i* dep? ! sample analyz$ 0 tak51 9 a ci/]n adjo9+ ! field f :i* ! soil & subsoil 7 procur$4 ,! black soil v>ies 9 dep? f #h to #ae in*es2 !n !re is a *ange to a br[ni% subsoil1 rea*+ d[n to ab\t two feet1 & 9 dry+ cleav+ into prismatic fragm5ts4 ,! black soil has "h 9 ! highe/ degree ! peculi>ity ( crumbl+ 9 dry+ f its wat]-soak$ condition1 s t x may be pl[$ :5 wet )\t injury1 al?\gh 9 ! roads x works up into ! t\ghe/ k9d ( mud4 ,! prairie is sp>sely timb]$ ) compact1 fair-siz$ black-jack oak1 accompani$ orig9ally by r$ c$>4 ,! lime/one d]ives its popul> "n ( 8rott50 f its be+ usually s(t en\gh to be cut ) a knife or hat*et1 & is !re=e some:at us$ = build+1 & = burn+ lime4 ,,composition ,,( ,,lime/one1 ,,& ,,residual ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil1 ,,f ,,black ,,prairie1 ,,monroe ,,co41 ,,mississippi4 8,,rott5 ,,subsoil ,,soil ,,lime/one40 7,,yell[747,,black74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,dep? #ab ft4 #b-c ft4 #ae ins4 ,*emical analysis ( f9e e>?4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,insoluble matt] #aj4ij #ga4ed #gh4bi ,soluble silica ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#be 4#ed 4#cc ,soda 7,na,o7 4#cb 4#bc 4#jh ,lime 7,ca,o7 #de4gi #a4jh #a4cg ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#hh 4#gg 4#cf ,br4 ,ox41 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#je 4#ad ,p]oxide ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #a4db #e4db ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #a4if #ac4ae #ad4bb ,phosphoric ,acid 7,p,o7 4#je 4#aj ,sulfuric ,acid 7,,s7 4#jd 4#jc ,c>bonic ,acid 7,,co7 #ce4gc ,wat] & ,organic matt] #b4hd #f4ii #e4ge ------ ----- ------ ,total #ajj4ji #ii4hf #ajj4fg ,humus #a4ic 8 ,a% #d4ch ,hygroscopic moi/ure #aj4ce #ab4hb absorb$ at ,c #ai #ai ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,x appe>s f ! above table t 9 ! *ange f ! orig9al lime/one to ! soil mass z f\nd at ?ree feet dep?1 #ha4e ( ! lime c>bonate has be5 elim9at$ by lea*+1 leav+ beh9d some:at less ?an "o fif? ( ! orig9al mass4 ,tak+ ! av]age dep? ( ! soil mass at #h feet1 ?is ?ickness ( mat]ial has requir$ ab\t #de feet ( ! rott5 lime/one4 ,consid]+ t not)/&+ ! t5acity ( ! clay soil1 "s ( x mu/ 9 ! c\rse ( "t h be5 wa%$ away1 we may safely assume t ! orig9al rock surface 0 f #ej to #fj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,s&/one ,soils4--,! indef9it5ess ( ! nature ( 8s&/ones0 z su* r5d]s g5]alizations 9 reg>d to ! soils =m$ f !m r difficult1 save z to _! physical qualities1 :i* 9 ! nature ( ! case are always 8light40 ,9 ! ,old ,_w & 9 ! humid region g5]ally1 s&/one & s&y soils are usually spok5 ( z be+ poor1 because !re ! s& almo/ always consi/s ( qu>tz gra9s only1 & h5ce ! f9e portions alone c be look$ to = plant nutrition4 ,consequ5tly1 ! m s& is se5 9 a soil1 ! poor] x is usually presum$ to be4 ,b ?is presumption w\ld be :olly errone\s 9 ! arid regions4 7,see *apt4 #f1 p4 #hf74 ,cle>ly1 ! nature ( ! soils produc$ by ! wea!r+ ( s&/ones dep5ds ^u two po9ts3 fir/1 ! nature ( ! cem5t b9d+ ! s& gra9s1 & second ! "* ( ! latt] !mselves4 ,v>ieties ( ,s&/ones4--,z has be5 /at$ above1 ! cem5ts may be r\ghly classifi$ into five k9ds1 & _! int]mixtures1 to wit3 qu>tzose or silice\s1 calc>e\s1 f]rug9\s1 alum9\s or clayey1 & zeolitic4 ,z reg>ds ! fir/1 x is obvi\s t silice\s s&/ones w dis9tegrate ) great difficulty1 s9ce nei!r ! cem5t nor ! gra9s are susceptible ( mat]ial *ange by wea!r+4 ,su* s&/ones frequ5tly pass ins5sibly into qu>tz rock1 & ! light1 unsub/antial soils !y produce are ( ! poore/1 conta9+ (t5 m]e traces ( ! plant-food +r$i5ts4 ,?is ( c\rse1 is true1 n only ( ! soils =m$ by ! actual wea!r+ ( s&/ones1 b equally ( ^? consi/+ ( qu>tz-s& deposit$ by wat] or drift$ by w9ds4 ,( ?is "* are ! p9e-=e/ soils ( ! coa/ region ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 p>ticul>ly ! 8,s& hammocks0 ( ! imm$iate ,gulf bord]1 f ,mississippi ,s\nd to ,*>lotte ,h>bor1 ,florida2 ! s&y l&s ( ! ,gr& ,trav]se region ( ,mi*igan1 & _m o!r m9or areas 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 usually *>act]iz$ by a p9e gr[?1 (t5 m or less /unt$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! s& gra9s4 ,calc>e\s s&/ones usually =m a v mu* bett] class ( soils1 p>tly = ! intr9sic reason giv5 above z reg>ds lime/ones z soil-=m]s4 ,! calc>e\s cem5t is v r>ely pure calcite2 9 mo/ cases x is v impure1 z1 mo/ commonly1 is also ! 8s&0 itself4 ,?is is expla9$ f ! fact t su* rocks 7mo/ly s(t & (t5 q unconsolidat$7 are1 l lime/ones !mselves1 ! result ( deposition 9 %all[ seas or lakes1 receiv+ deposits f ! l& dra9age1 & enri*$ by ! animal & vegetable life ( su* wat]s4 ,n uncommonly !y conta91 dissem9at$ ?r\gh !m1 gra9s ( ! m9]al glauconite 7a hydr\s silicate ( iron & pota%71 :i* readily supplies available pota%2 :ile ! remnants ( animals & plants furni% m or less ( available phosphates4 ,?us ! g5]al presumption reg>d+ calc>e\s s&/ones is t ! d]iv$ soils are ( good quality1 frequ5tly ( ! v be/4 ,! same1 h[ev]1 does n appe> to be true ( s&/ones cem5t$ by dolomite2 ! soils d]iv$ f magnesian s&/ones are 9 _m cases not$ = _! unproductiv5ess4 7,see *apt4 #c1 p4 #db74 ,f]rug9\s ,s&/ones manife/ly d]ive no important soil +r$i5ts f _! cem5t :5 ! latt] is measurably pure f]ric hydrate2 & :5 9 addition ! s& itself is purely silice\s1 ! soils result+ f ! dis9tegration ( ! rocks are v poor4 ,su* are1 e4g41 ! soils d]iv$ f ! f]rug9\s s&/ones ( ! ,lafayette =mation 9 a "p ( nor!rn ,mississippi & adjac5t portions ( ,t5nessee & ,alabama1 *>act]iz$ by small scrubby oak or dw>f$ p9e4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 su* purely f]rug9\s qu>tz s&/ones are exceptional1 & %\ld n detract f ! favorable inf]5ces usually to be drawn f ! iron-ru/ t9t ( soils 7see *apt] #ae74 ,s&/ones ) purely zeolitic cem5t are on ! :ole n ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 ! zeolites =m+1 m commonly1 ! h>d portion ( a clay-s&/one cem5t1 :i* dis9tegrates by _! wea!r+-out4 ,9 regions :]e ! tuface\s rocks ( eruptives prevail1 we n uncommonly f9d ! 8volcanic a%0 solidly cem5t$ by a zeolitic mass1 :i* is !n usually app>5t 9 cavities or crevices 9 ! =m ( cru/s or cry/als4 ,su* tuffs are commonly ri* 9 alkalies & lime1 b mo/ly poor 9 phosphates1 & 9 dis9tegration =m soils ( a correspond+ nature4 ,!y are l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! valleys (f ,puget ,s\nd1 z well z 9 portions ( c5tral ,montana1 & nor?w>d4 ,clay-,s&/ones 7argillace\s s&/ones7 :5 s(t1 z is mo/ly ! case1 =m z a rule desirable loam soils1 ( a g5]aliz$ composition1 difficult to pr$ict4 ,x is "h t ! composition ( ! s& gra9s !mselves mo/ frequ5tly comes into play 9 modify+ ! soil quality4 ,f clay-s&/ones to clay/ones ( v>i\s degrees ( s&9ess !re is1 ( c\rse1 e grade ( transition1 ! soils rang+ correspond+ly 9 ! scale ( lightness or clayeyness4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! pota% cont5ts ( su* soils are s5sibly proportion$ to ! clayey +r$i5t1 at lea/ 9 ! humid regions4 ,clay/ones 7i4 e41 clays h>d5$ by "s "o or m ( ! cem5ts m5tion$ 9 connection ) s&/ones71 w 9 ! nature ( ! case1 :5 dis9tegrat$ f ! condition 9 :i* !y lie 9 ! geological =mations1 make correspond+ly clayey1 heavy soils1 :i* z exp]i5ce %[s are usually ri* 9 ! +r$i5ts ( plant food1 b frequ5tly too heavy & intractable 9 tillage to be readily utiliz$4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 exceptions2 su* z soils =m$ f pipe-clays1 9 :i* little if any m9]al plant-food rema9s1 & :i* are be/ us$ = o!r purposes ?an agriculture1 unless "u special conditions x may be wor? :ile to reclaim !m by f]tilization4 ,natural ,clays4--,clays occur 9 nature 9 a great v>iety ( modifications t h receiv$ designations kn[n 9 common life4 ,su* are porcela9 clay1 pipe-clay1 fire-clay1 pott]s' clay1 brick-clay1 & _m o!rs ( m or less local use only4 ,z ^! mat]ials practically conc]n ! f>m] 9 v _m cases1 !y may prop]ly f9d a brief discussion "h4 ,! v>iety-names enum]at$ above 9 ! ord] ( ! actual cont5ts ( ! mat]ials 9 true clay sub/ance 78colloidal clay071 are p>tly bas$ ^u t fact1 p>tly ^u ! degree ( pla/icity atta9$ by t sub/ance1 & ess5tially ^u ! nature & am\nt ( =eign admixtures associat$ ) x4 ,?us1 porcela9 clay is *alky kaol9ite1 sometimes associat$ ) en\gh ( pure :ite pla/ic clay to r5d] x workable 9 ! pott]'s la!1 b m commonly requir+ to be mold$ 9 por\s molds2 x is v refractory to heat4 ,pipe-clay is also :ite1 b m pla/ic & usually less refactory4 ,fire-clay is a refractory pipe-clay comm+l$ ) "s co>se infusible mat]ial1 su* z qu>tz s& 7or ! same clay burnt & cru%$71 9 ord] to prev5t excessive contraction & *ange ( %ape 9 dry+ & burn+4 ,pott]s' clay is a mu* less pure1 & f t cause m fusible clay1 :i* :5 burnt =ms at a mod]ate heat a semi-fus$1 m or less h>d mass1 su* z crock]y & pott]y w>e4 ,brick-clay is a /ill m impure clay1 or loam1 conta9+ consid]able s& & usually iron oxid1 & l>gely falls already )9 ! limits ( tillable soils or subsoils1 r5d]$ fusible by ! pres5ce ( relatively consid]able am\nts ( iron1 magnesia & lime4 ,iron colors natural clays ei!r r$1 yell[1 gre5 or blue2 ! latt] two colors turn+ to yell[ or r$ on exposure to ! air1 & to r$ on burn+4 ,black color is usually due to c>bon1 su* clays (t5 turn+ :ite on heat+4 ,clays conta9+ mu* lime are usually ( a gray or :iti% t9t1 & l ! s(t crumbly lime/ones are (t5 call$ m>ls1 & are us$ z su* = l& improvem5t4 ,b x %\ld be und]/ood t ! colors ( clays1 mo/ly d]iv$ f "s iron comp\nd1 h little to d ) _! uses 9 ! arts1 except t no deeply color$ clay 7black except$7 is refractory 9 ! fire4 8,colloidal0 ,clay4#ag ,9 connection ) soils1 clay may be def9$1 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms1 z be+ ! sub/ance :i* imp>ts pla/icity & adhesiv5ess to soils :5 wett$ & knead$1 & :i*1 :5 heat$ to r$ness1 loses ?is prop]ty completely & p]man5tly1 becom+ h>d & coh]5t 9 proportion to ! degree ( heat to :i* x is expos$4 #ag ,?is t]m 0 fir/ employ$ by ,?4 ,s*loes+1 9 communications to ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 & report$ 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus ( t body2 fir/ 9 #ahgj4 ,unaw>e ( ,s*loes+'s "w1 ! writ] began a full inve/igation ( ! subject ( me*anical soil analysis 9 #ahga1 & publi%$ ! results 9 #ahgc 7,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 ,oct4 #ahgc74 ,up to t "t ! limit$ res\rces ( ! libr>y ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,mississippi _h n giv5 him an opportunity to see ,s*loes+'s publication4 ,! two indep5d5t inve/igations1 ?\gh conduct$ on some:at diff]5t l9es1 gave ( c\rse practically ! same results1 & complem5t ea* o!r4 ,9 common life1 h[ev]1 ! "n is appli$ to ! :ole ( any naturally occurr+ e>? :i* on wett+ & knead+ assumes a reasonable degree ( pla/icity & adhesiv5ess4 ,:5 ! latt] prop]ty becomes ne>ly or q ins5sible1 ! e>? is designat$ z a 8loam10 m or less 8clayey0 accord+ to ! am\nt ( ! pure1 pla/ic & adhesive mat]ial associat$ ) ! m9]al p[d]s & s& t =m ! bulk ( mo/ soils4 ,*emically1 ! pure clay sub/ance#ah probably consi/s 7z has be5 /at$ above7 ( silica & alum9a 9 ! proportion ( ne>ly #df to #dj1 ! re/ 7#ad7 be+ wat] ( hydration1 :i* is lo/ on burn+ ! clayey mat]ial4 ,b :ile x is true t su* is ! composition ( ! pla/ic sub/ance ( clays1 pla/icity & adhesiv5ess are by no means inv>iable prop]ties ( ?is comp\nd4 ,9 its pure/ /ate1 z kaol9ite1 x is readily mi/ak5 = *alk1 7& is sometimes us$ z su*71 be+ p[d]y to ! t\* & entirely devoid ( pla/icity#ai :5 wett$ & knead$4 ,! microscope %[s ?is *alky kaol9ite to consi/ ( m9ute1 mo/ly r\nd$1 orig9ally six-sid$1 ?9 plates1 :i* :5 pure resemble to ! t\* p[d]$ talc 7soap/one7 or ev5 black-lead1 r ?an any clay kn[n to common life4 ,b be+ exce$+ly s(t1 ! kaol9ite sub/ance is easily gr\nd or triturat$ into an extremely f9e p[d]2 & ,johnson & ,blake#bj succe$$ 9 produc+ s5sible pla/icity & adhesiv5ess by long-cont9u$ trituration ( kaol9ite ) wat] 9 a mort>4 ,a simil> process1 b cont9u$ mu* long] by ! me*anical ag5cies conc]n$ 9 soil-=mation 7see *apt4 ,i71 is unque/ionably ! *ief factor conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( natural pla/ic clays2 b :e!r ?is is ! only process by :i* ! p[d]y kaol9ite may be trans=m$ into pla/ic clay1 is a "q n def9itely settl$4 ,x is at lea/ possible t repeat$ freez+ & ?aw+1 z well z ! action ( hot wat]1 may take a "p 9 ! trans=mation1 beyond t by :i* !y de/roy ! crumbly 7flocculat$7 /ructure ( soils & clays1 & r5d] !m pla/ic2 z is done 9 ! matur+ ( clays by pott]s4 #ah ,!re is /ill "s discussion z to ! *emical id5tity ( colloidal clay ) ,kaol9ite2 b ! objections are n conv9c+4 #ai ,x has ( late be5 attempt$ to ext5d ! mean+ ( ?is ^w to ! behavior ( all p[d]s :5 wett$ ) wat]4 ,b ! adhesive pla/icity ( clay /&s almo/ alone1 9 t 7aside f contraction7 x pres]ves 9 dry+ ! =m into :i* x may h be5 mold$ :ile wet1 ev5 :5 /ruck1 :]eas o!r p[d]y sub/ances simil>ly treat$ at once collapse back into ! orig9al p[d]4 ,! exclusive use ( clay 9 model+ (f]s ! typical example ( pla/icity z g5]ally und]/ood4 ,! addition ( any p[d]y sub/ance1 h[ev] f9e1 dim9i%es ! pla/icity ( clay4 #bj ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 #b;d ,s]41 ,vol4 #dc1 p4 #ceg4 ,causes ( ,pla/icity4--,9 any case ! prop]ty ( pla/icity & adhesiv5ess is re/rict$ to ! p>ticles s f9e t !y fail to settle1 9 ! c\rse ( #bd h\rs1 ?r\gh a column ( pure wat] eight in*es 7#bjj m7 high1 :ile "s are s extremely m9ute t !y w n settle = _m mon?s1 & ev5 = sev]al ye>s4#ba ,su* turbid 8clay wat]0 may sometimes be f\nd exi/+ 9 nature1 9 moi/1 seclud$ places1 = weeks aft] ! subsid5ce ( ! ov]fl[s ( riv]s ^: wat] is exceptionally free f dissolv$ m9]al matt]4 #ba ,williams 7,=s*4 ,agr4 ,phys4 ,vol4 #ah1 p4 #bbe ff47 claims t ! diamet] ( ! m9ute/ clay p>ticles is "o-?\s&? ( a millimet]1 _! =m be+ t ( scales %[+ cont9ual 7,br[nian7 motion 9 wat]4 ,he ma9ta9s t ! pla/icity ( clay is due to ?is m9ute size1 & ?is view has ga9$ wide acceptance 9 late works on ! subject4 ,b ?is assumption _c be ma9ta9$ 9 ! face ( ! fact t no?+ l ! adhesive pla/icity ( clay c be atta9$ ev5 by ! f9e/ p[d]s ( o!r sub/ances1 lea/ ( all by ^? hav+ ! close/ m9]alogical resemblance to kaol9ite1 su* z graphite & talc4 ,above all1 ! mo/ p]si/5t trituration ) wat] utt]ly falls to re/ore pla/icity to clay once bak$ s z to expel its wat] ( hydration1 al?\gh ! f95ess ( ! p>ticles is !reby n only n dim9i%$1 b actually increas$1 by contraction 9 heat+4 ,no p[d]s h[ev] f9e c replace ! functions ( clay 9 soils1 viz4 ! ma9t5ance ( floccules1 & til? dep5d5t !reupon2 & !y di/9ctly impair ! pla/icity ( clay4 ,! f9e 8slick5s0 ( qu>tz mills m]ely r5d] soils conta9+ !m m close & imp]vi\s1 & m difficult to flocculate4 ,ev5 gelat9\s masses l hydrat$ f]ric & alum9ic oxids fail to replace clay 9 its adhesive functions4 ,sep>ation ( ,colloidal ,clay4--,?is prop]ty ( ! pla/ic clay sub/ance1 ( diffus+ 9 pure wat]1 furni%es ! means ( sep>at+ f x ! co>s]1 s&y & silty portions ( soils & natural clays1 & obs]v+ its *>act]i/ic prop]ties1 s f> z ! almo/ unavoidable admixture ( "s o!r sub/ances1 pres5tly to be consid]$1 p]mits4 ,9 natural soils ! clay p>ticles usually incru/ ! p[d]y +r$i5ts1 cem5t+ !m toge!r2 or !mselves =m complex aggregates 7floccules7 ( l>ge numb]s ( individual p>ticles4 ,^! may be loos5$ f _! adhesion or cohesion ei!r by prolong$1 g5tle knead+ ( ! wet clay1 or by m or less prolong$ dige/ion 7soak+7 9 hot wat]1 or m exp$iti\sly1 by lively boil+ ) wat]4 ,! boil+ %\ld n1 h[ev]1 be prolong$ beyond ! "t actually requir$ = dis9tegration1 s9ce 7z ,osborne#bb has %[n7 long-protract$ boil+ t5ds to r5d] ! clay p]man5tly less diffusible4 ,f ! turbid clay-wat] ! diffus$ clay may be obta9$ ei!r by evaporat+ ! wat] 7:i* z ! bulk is v l>ge1 is usually inconv5i5t71 or1 m conv5i5tly1 by ?r[+ x d[n f its susp5sion by ! action ( c]ta9 sub/ances :i* possess ! prop]ty ( curdl+ 7coagulat+7 ! clay sub/ance into floccul5t masses t settle quickly4 ,( all kn[n sub/ances1 lime1 9 ! =m ( lime-wat]1 acts mo/ en]getically 9 produc+ ?is *ange2 b o!r solutions ( lime1 z well z mo/ salts & m9]al acids1 produce ! same effects :5 us$ 9 suffici5t quantity4 ,common salt is among ! mo/ conv5i5t1 because x c mo/ readily be lea*$ out ( ! clay precipitate ?us ?r[n d[n4 ,?is :5 :ite1 resembles boil$ />*1 b be+ usually color$ by iron might be easily mi/ak5 = ! mix$ precipitate ( f]ric hydrate & alum9a s commonly obta9$ by *emi/s 9 soil analysis4 ,:5 sep>at$ f ! wat] & dri$1 ! jelly-l sub/ance 78colloidal clay07 %r9ks z extravagantly z w\ld s mu* boil$ />*1 into h>d1 %9y cru/s or flakes1 :i* :5 /ruck 9 mass are sometimes ev5 resonant1 & be> m resemblance to glue ?an to ! clay ( ev]yday life4 ,l glue1 too1 b mu* m quickly & t5aci\sly1 ! dri$ colloidal clay adh]es to ! tongue1 s z to r5d] ! sep>ation pa9ful2 :5 wett$ x quickly bulges ) great en]gy1 & 9 a %ort "t resumes its =m] jelly-l condition4 ,:5 moi/5$ ) less wat] x assumes a highly pla/ic & adhesive condition1 s t x is difficult to h&le & almo/ z sure to soil ! op]ator's h&s z s mu* pit*4 #bb ,rep4 ,conn4 ,agr4 ,expt4 ,/n41 #ahhf1 #ahhg4 ,effects ( ,alkali ,c>bonates ^u ,clay4--,! c>bonate ( pota% & soda1 :5 9 v dilute solution 74#ja to 4#je7 ex]t ^u diffus$ clay an effect ! rev]se ( ! acids & neutral salts4 ,!y de/roy ! floccul5t aggregates =m$ by precipitation ) ^!1 or naturally exi/+ 9 ! soil1 & t5d to puddle ! clay s z to r5d] x imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,x is ?us t 9 ! alkali l&s ( ! arid regions we (t5 f9d ! soil or subsoil consolidat$ into a v refractory 8h>dpan10 difficult to break ev5 ) a sl$ge hamm] & impossible to r$uce to til? until ! alkali c>bonate is de/roy$ by means ( a lime salt1 su* z gypsum4 7,see *apt4 #bc74 ,ammonia wat] also helps to cause ! diffusion ( clay 9 wat]1 b its effect ( c\rse disappe>s ^u dry+4 ,x is probable t ?is prop]ty ( sodic c>bonate c be utiliz$ 9 r5d]+ e>? dams firm] & m secure aga9/ ! p5etration ( wat]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,m9or ,,m9]al+r$i5ts ,,( ,,soils2 ,,m9]al ,,f]tiliz]s2 ,,m9]als ,,injuri\s ,,to ,,agriculture4 7,a47 ,,m9]als ,,us$ ,,z ,,f]tiliz]s4 ,( m9]als important 9 soil-=mation1 n usually pres5t 9 l>ge am\nts 9 rocks1 b ext5sively us$ 9 f]tilization1 ! foll[+ require m5tion3 ,apatite2 phosphate ( lime conta9+ m or less ( ! *lorids & fluorids ( ! same metal2 ! m9]al f :i* ! phosphoric acid ( ! soil is mo/ly d]iv$4 ,9 ! cry/alliz$ condition :5 p]fectly pure x is colorless2 b x is mo/ly ( a gre5i% t9t 7h5ce 8asp>agus /one074 ,! pure cry/all9e m9]al r>ely occurs 9 l>ge masses 7z 9 ,canada72 b small to m9ute cry/als are f\nd widely dissem9at$ 9 _m rocks 7granites1 8basalts0 ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/71 ?us pass+ into ! soils =m$ f ^! rocks4 ,^! cry/als are readily recogniz$1 be+ regul> six-sid$ prisms ) a flat or obtusely pyramidal t]m9ation 7di/9ction f qu>tz71 & d n eff]vesce ) acids 7di/9ction f calcite74 ,by f> ! l>ge/ deposits ( ?is m9]al occur 9 connection ) c>bonate ( lime1 9 ! rock mat]ials kn[n z phosphorites4 ,lime phosphate be+1 l ! c>bonate1 soluble 9 c>bonat$ wat]1 ! two naturally frequ5tly pass into solution1 & are subsequ5tly deposit$ toge!r4 ,mo/ lime/ones conta9 a small proportion ( lime phosphate1 be+1 z already /at$1 =m$ f ! %ells & ! framework ( animal organisms usually conta9+ also phosphates4 ,b ! cont5t ( phosphates 9 lime/ones is n readily app>5t to ! eye1 & ! ri*e/ deposits1 save su* z conta9 animal bones1 h long pass$ unsuspect$ z to _! be+ any?+ else b lime/one4 ,sy/ematic se>* has n[ reveal$ ! pres5ce ( phosphate rock 9 num]\s localities1 *iefly :]e lime/one =mations occur4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,t5nessee1 ,k5tucky1 ,nevada2 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 on ,curaoa isl&1 ,v5ezuela2 9 ! ,antilles on ,sombr]o1 ,/4 ,m>t9s & ,navassa isl&s4 ,9 ,africa1 9 ,algi]s & ,tunisia2 9 ,europe1 9 ,spa9 7,e/remadura1 "o ( ! fir/ deposits kn[n71 ,france1 ,belgium & ! adjac5t p>ts ( ,g]many2 9 ,bohemia & ,galicia 9 ,au/ria2 & v ext5d$ly 9 ,european ,russia4 ,_m isl&s ( ,oceanica supply phosphorites d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( bird guano by ! coral lime/one4 ,un=tunately ! p]c5tage ( phosphate 9 a l>ge proportion ( ^! mat]ials is n suffici5tly high to make _! conv]sion into wat]-soluble sup]phosphate economically possible at ! pres5t "t2 s9ce all ! calcic c>bonate pres5t mu/ also be conv]t$ into comp>atively wor?less sulphate 7gypsum7 by ! use ( sulfuric acid2 & z yet no practicable me?od = avoid+ ?is difficulty has be5 f\nd4 8,?omas ,slag40--,probably ! ne>e/ approa* to su* a me?od is indicat$ by ! fact t a comp\nd conta9+ f\r in/ead ( ?ree molecules ( lime to "o ( ,p,o1 su* z is conta9$ 9 ! 8,?omas slag0 ( ! basic process ( /eel manufacture1 is ne>ly or 9 "s cases 78s\r0 soils7 q z effective = ! nutrition ( plants z ! wat]-soluble sup]phosphate4 ,?is discov]y has r5d]$ available = agricultural use ! phosphoric acid conta9$ 9 ! enorm\s deposits ( limonite iron ore kn[n z bog ore1 :i* conta9s a l>ge proportion ( f]ric phosphate & f t cause has until lately be5 exclud$ f ! manufacture ( wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,x is reasonable to hope t by "s analog\s process ! l[-grade phosphorites1 su* z ^? ( ,nevada & ! pla9s ( ,russia1 w also 9 ! c\rse ( "t become available = agricultural use4 ,extremely f9e gr9d+ & wa%+ 7produc+ 8floats07 has be5 resort$ to = ! purpose ( r5d]+ ! raw phosphorites effective 9 f]tilization4 ,b :ile ?is is successful on "s soils1 on o!rs ! 8floats0 rema9 almo/ in]t2 s t ?is me?od has f\nd only limit$ acceptance4 ,animal bones1 :i* consi/ ( f #bd to #cj ( animal sub/ance & #gj to #gf ( 8bone e>?10 7or :5 fossil are free f ! =m]71 are l>gely us$ = ! manufacture ( sup]phosphate4 ,! bone-e>? consi/s 9 ! ma9 ( tri-calcic phosphate ) f "o to two p] c5t ( calcium fluorid 7mu* z 9 natural apatite71 a small am\nt ( magnesic phosphate1 & ab\t #d to #f ( calcic c>bonate4 ,bone meal c !re=e supply to plants bo? phosphoric acid & nitrog51 & ! pres5ce ( ! latt] has be5 l>gely ! cause ( a mat]ial ov]e/imate ( its efficacy z a f]tiliz] 9 ! pa/4 ,wagn]'s & ,ma]k]'s exp]im5ts h %[n t at lea/ 9 s&y soils poor 9 humus1 x _c be consid]$ an adequate s\rce ( phosphoric acid = annual crops1 & t 9 ^! soils its imm$iate effects are almo/ :olly due to its nitrog5-cont5t4 ,! sl[ availability ( ! phosphoric acid r5d]s x unpr(itable z a s\rce ( ! latt]1 outside ( ! heavi] l&s ) abundance ( humus2 9 8s\r0 l&s 7notably on mead[s7 bone meal produces its be/ results4 ,9 soils naturally calc>e\s1 or 9 su* z h receiv$ heavy dress+s ( lime ei!r z c>bonate or 9 ! cau/ic condition1 ! manurial effects ( bone meal are s]i\sly dim9i%$4 ,nagaoka 7,bull4 ,coll4 ,agr4 ,tokyo1 ,vol4 #f1 ,no4 #c7 %[s t ! crop ( rice f]tiliz$ ) bone meal 0 r$uc$ to less ?an half :5 lim$1 & t ! phosphoric acid tak5 up by ! crop 0 r$uc$ to "o-six?4 ,9 any case x is mo/ important t bone meal %\ld be z f9ely gr\nd z possible1 z 9 ! case ( ! phosphorites2 & ?is c be/ be done :5 x has fir/ be5 fre$ f fats by boil+ ) wat]1 & !n /eam$ "u pressure4 ,x c !n also be mo/ readily conv]t$ into sup]phosphate4 ,! phosphate m9]als & ! f]tiliz]s manufactur$ !refrom are ( prim>y importance to agriculture4 ,! phosphoric-acid cont5t ( soils is mo/ly v small1 & only a fraction ( x is usually 9 an imm$iately available =m4 ,h5ce = p]man5t productiv5ess1 & especially = int5sive f>m+ or g>d5+1 a *eap supply ( phosphate f]tiliz]s is ( fir/ importance 9 all soils & climates4 ,o!r phosphate m9]als occur frequ5tly1 b z a rule only 9 small am\nts1 9 connection ) ! ores ( mo/ metals4 ,! only ones ( ^! ( int]e/ to agriculture are ,vivianite & ,dufr5ite1 ! phosphates respectively ( ! protoxid & p]oxid ( iron4 ,! =m] occurs 9 m9]al deposits z small blue cry/als1 or m frequ5tly z blue e>?y masses or /reaks1 9 ! sub/rata ( ri* alluvial gr\nd 7,l\isiana1 ,cali=nia74 ,dufr5ite sometimes results directly f ! oxidation ( ! protoxid m9]al1 :i* !n turns gre5i% & f9ally br[n4 ,un=tunately ^! m9]als1 ri* z !y are 9 phosphoric acid1 _c readily be utiliz$ z s\rces ( phosphate f]tiliz]s1 because ( ! difficulty ( gett+ rid ( ! iron4 ,_! occurr5ce usually sugge/s ! pres5ce ( abundance ( phosphoric acid 9 ! soil4 ,b t :i* is actually comb9$ ) ! iron oxids is practically unavailable to plants2 especially s 9 ! case ( ! p]oxid comp\nd1 ! =mation ( :i* is a common s\rce ( loss ( phosphoric acid :5 soils ri* 9 iron are subm]g$ = any l5g? ( "t2 a po9t :i* is discuss$ bel[ 7*apt4 #ac74 ,among ! iron phosphate m9]als1 may also be m5tion$ 8bog ore10 :i* results f ! r$uctive mac]ation ( swamp$ f]rug9\s soils1 & accumulates 9 ! subsoils & 9 ! bottom ( swamps or moors1 =m+ 8moorb$pan02 a d>k br[n1 r s(t mass1 :i* is sometimes us$ z an iron ore1 especially s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! 8basic process0 ( iron smelt+1 "o ( ! products ( :i* is ! phosphate or ,?omas slag4 7,see above74 ,nitrate ( ,soda or ,*ile saltpet]4--,?is m9]al be+ 7l all nitrates7 easily soluble 9 wat]1 c only occur 9 regions ne>ly or q de/itute ( ra9fall4 ,su* is ! case 9 ! ,plateau ( ,t>apac 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile1 :]e x occurs 9 l>ge quantities2 x is likewise f\nd1 b to mu* small] ext5t1 9 ,nevada1 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 ,egypt & ,india4 ,by f> its mo/ ext5d$ occurr5ce is t 9 ,*ile1 :]e1 toge!r ) common salt1 x fills cavities & crevices 9 a gravelly clay t =ms ! surface ( a plateau f ?ree to six ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,x is nev] pure1 b always m+l$ ) a l>ge proportion 7up to #ej & ov]7 ( common salt2 also "s ,glaub]'s salt 7sulfate ( soda7 & "s sodic p]*lorate & iodid2 h5ce x =ms an important comm]cial s\rce ( iod9e4 ,! mix$ m9]al mass1 call$ 8,cali*e10 :5 tak5 out ( ! gr\nd is dissolv$ 9 wat]2 & ! solution boil$ d[n1 dur+ :i* process ! common salt is fir/ deposit$ & is rak$ out ( ! pans2 ! nitrate is aft]w>d f>!r purifi$ by cry/allization4 ,z br\ght into comm]ce = agricultural purposes x con/itutes a moi/ gray sal9e mass1 some:at resembl+ common salt1 ( :i* sub/ance x usually conta9s a few p] c5t2 occasionally also a small am\nt ( sodic p]*lorate 7:i* acts injuri\sly on vegetation74 ,aside f its use z a f]tiliz]1 ,*ile saltpet] s]ves = ! manufacture ( nitric acid2 & ei!r directly1 or aft] previ\s trans=mation into potassic nitrate1 = t ( gunp[d]4 ,! ,*ilean locality is ! only "o f :i* ! comm]cial article is d]iv$2 ! deposits else:]e are too limit$ 9 ext5t to compete comm]cially ) ! ,s\? ,am]ican product4 ,cali*e rang+ z high z #hj ( nitrate ( soda has be5 s5t to ! writ] f ! ,colorado ,des]t 9 ,s\!rn ,cali=nia1 b ! exact locality ( occurr5ce has n be5 divulg$4 ,ext5d$ areas ( clay hills impregnat$ ) nitrates exi/ 9 ! ,dea? ,valley region ( ,cali=nia1 b 9 ! abs5ce or extreme sc>city ( wat] 9 t region1 x is d\btful :e!r ^! impregnations c be made practically available4 ,ano!r locality is t ne> ,:ite ,pla9s1 ,nevada1 :]e ,cali*e av]ag+ ab\t #ej purity is f\nd 9 cavities & crevices ( a r$di% volcanic rock4 ,! ra9fall 9 ?is region is s slight t ! great] "p ( ! du/ or s& bl[n ab\t by ! w9d consi/s ( ,glaub]'s salt4 ,"h also1 z 9 ,*ile1 ! nit] deposits appe> to be re/rict$ to )9 a %ort di/ance f ! surface1 & ! total am\nt ?us f> obs]v$ appe>s to be insuffici5t to enc\rage l>ge-scale exploitation4 ,orig9 ( ,nitrate ,deposits4--,! probable orig9 ( ^! nit] deposits has giv5 rise to a great deal ( discussion1 & a wide diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s z to ! s\rce f :i* ! nitrog5 may reasonably be suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$4 ,accord+ to ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 x mu/ be presum$ t its s\rces h be5 organic1 & t ! nit] has be5 produc$ by ! activity ( ! same bact]ia :i* n[ produce nitrates 9 our soils1 r5d]+ ! nitrog5 ( humus available to plants4 ,b x is by no means cle> :at t organic mat]ial c\ld h be52 = at ! pres5t "t ! plateau ( ,t>apac is almo/ :olly de/itute ( vegetation1 if n ( animal life4 ,! late/ & app>5tly mo/ reasonable sugge/ion is t ( ,kuntze1 :o calls att5tion to ! fact t ! vicuz & llamas :i* are at home 9 ?is portion ( ! ,&es1 & are kn[n to h roam$ ov] t region 9 c\ntless h]ds1 h ! curi\s habit ( always deposit+ _! manure 9 "o & ! same place :5ev] at lib]ty4 ,ea* h]d ( ^! animals has its def9ite dung+ place at "s conv5i5t po9t4 ,t su* h]ds h exi/$ 9 ! region f "t immemorial is obvi\s f hi/orical z well z collat]al evid5ce2 & z _! manure accumulat$1 its nitrification w\ld progress rapidly "u ! prevail+ arid conditions4 ,! common salt w\ld naturally be d]iv$ f ! ur9e & excrem5ts1 & ! alkal9e salts :i* exi/ ?r\gh\t ?is region z ! products ( soil decomposition1 w\ld be q suffici5t to acc\nt = ! alkal9e bases 9 ! cali*e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pres5ce ( iod9e po9ts to seawe$s z ! organic s\rce4 ,int5sity ( ,nitrification 9 ,arid ,climates4--,( ! efficacy ( nitrification "u arid conditions abundant evid5ce may be f\nd )9 ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia4 ,9 ! alkali l&s ( s\!rn ,cali=nia ! nitrates ( soda1 lime & magnesia are almo/ univ]sally pres5t2 !y =m at times z mu* z "o-fif? & ev5 m ( ! entire mass ( alkali salts1 & 9 "o case ! total am\nt 9 ! soil has be5 f\nd to rea* two tons p] acre1 ) an av]age ( twelve hundr$ p\nds ov] t5 acres4 ,9 ! pla9s ( ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 spots /rongly impregnat$ ) nit] are f\nd1 especially "u ! %ad[s ( isolat$ oak trees1 :]e ! cattle h be5 9 ! habit ( congregat+ = a long "t2 a case q analog\s to t suppos$ by ,kuntze to exi/ 9 ! ,*ilean locality4 ,( c\rse x is only 9 arid climates t ! accumulation ( nitrates c usually occur2 = 9 ! region ( summ] ra9s ! nitrates =m$ dur+ ! w>m season w inevitably be wa%$ into ! subdra9age1 unless re/ra9$ by absorption by ! roots ( vegetation4 ,! heavy losses occasionally occurr+ f ?is cause 9 ! c\rse ( a ra9y w9t] on summ]-fall[$ l& h be5 amply demon/rat$ by _m inve/igations4 ,,pota% ,,m9]als4--,by f> ! mo/ abundant occurr5ce ( pota% 9 ! e>?'s cru/ is t 9 silicates & notably 9 or?oclase or pota% feldsp>1 :i* contributes s l>gely to soil-=mation4 ,b 9 ! abs5ce ( any economically successful artificial me?od = produc+ pota% comp\nds f feldsp>s on a comm]cial scale1 almo/ ! entire supply ( pota% salts 01 until a comp>atively late p]iod1 d]iv$ f plant a%es1 viz41 ! 8pota%es0 ( comm]ce4 ,at ! same "t1 almo/ ! entire dem& = alkalies = indu/rial uses bore ^u ! same product1 until ! inv5tion1 t[>d ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 ( ,le,blanc's process = ! manufacture ( soda f common salt2 = until t "t1 soda 9 ! v>i\s =ms 9 :i* x 0 import$ f ! ,ori5t or prep>$ f seawe$ a%es1 0 a comp>atively co/ly product4 ,le,blanc's inv5tion 0 mo/ timely 9 t x v quickly dim9i%$ mat]ially ! production ( pota%es :i*1 9 view ( ! increas$ dem& = alkalies = indu/rial uses1 s]i\sly ?reat5$ ! depletion ( agricultural l&s1 & ( woodl&s z well1 ( "o ( its mo/ ess5tial +r$i5ts4 ,yet z !re are _m indu/rial uses 9 :i* soda _c replace pota%1 ! manufacture ( pota%es cont9u$ to a great] or less ext5t1 z no o!r available s\rce except ! a%es ( l& plants1 0 !n kn[n4 ,! production ( potassic *lorid f ! "m-wat]s ( sea salt 9 ! spontane\s evaporation ( sea wat] = ! manufacture ( common salt1 0 on too small a scale to influ5ce mat]ially ! manufacture ( pota%es4 ,discov]y ( ,/assfurt ,salts4--,! depletion ( pota% _h become s s]i\s a matt] 9 ! agricultural l&s ( ,europe1 t = a "t mu* rese>* 0 be/[$1 & prizes (f]$ = an economical me?od ( produc+ pota% salts f feldsp>1 on a comm]cial scale4 ,b ! problem _h n be5 satisfactory solv$ :51 9 ! ye> #ahfj1 att5tion 0 call$ to ! fact t ! sal9e deposits ov]ly+ c]ta9 l>ge rock-salt b$s t _h be5 develop$ by bor+s ne> ,/assfurt 9 ,prussia1 conta9$ s l>ge a proportion ( pota% salts1 z to r5d] _! purification & conv]sion into fairly pure sulphate & *lorid te*nically feasible4 ,! impulse hav+ be5 giv51 ! pota% indu/ry develop$ rapidly 9 t region z well z 9 ! adjac5t portions ( ,saxony1 :]e ! same =mation und]lies2 ! production ( 8,/assfurt ,salts0 rapidly assum$ a great] developm5t ?an t ( ! rock-salt :i* _h orig9ally prompt$ ! ent]prise1 & num]\s additional boreholes demon/rat$ an unexpect$ly wide ext5sion ( ! same b$s4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 9 consequ5ce ( su* developm5t1 ! manufacture ( pota%es f plant a% has almo/ ceas$1 outside ( ,canada & ,hung>y2 & ! production ( pota% salts 9 ! ,/assfurt region n[ supplies ! dem& ( ! entire _w1 bo? = indu/rial & agricultural purposes4 ,! *eap5+ ( pota% z a f]tiliz] has r5d]$ possible ! pr(itable cultivation ( l>ge areas ( l& :i* 7 naturally too poor 9 t sub/ance = ord9>y cultures2 & has likewise r5d]$ possible ! re/oration to g5]al culture ( l&s t _h ceas$ to produce adequately1 on acc\nt ( ! depletion caus$ by long-cont9u$ cropp+4 ,x has likewise s]v$ to int5sify agricultural production :]ev] desir$2 & betwe5 ?is supply & t ( phosphoric acid f ! phosphorites 7see above71 & ! discov]y ( ! nitrog5-absorb+ p[] ( legum9\s plants1 :i* c be us$ = gre5-manur+1 f>m]s h be5 enabl$ to disp5se1 9 _m regions1 ) ! production & use ( /able-manure1 :i* until !n _h be5 consid]$ an indisp5sable adjunct to agriculture ev]y:]e4 ,ev5 )9 ! la/ fifty ye>s x 0 proclaim$ by high au?ority 9 ,g]many t /able-manure con/itut$1 z x 71 ! f>m]'s raw mat]ial1 f :i* he manufactur$ ! v>i\s products ( ! field ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( ! plant-produc+ p[] ( ! soil4 ,orig9 ( ! ,pota% ,deposits4--,! mann] 9 :i* ?is accumulation ( pota% salts has be5 =m$ des]ves explanation4 ,x is abundantly evid5t t ne>ly all deposits ( rock-salt ?us f> kn[n h be5 =m$ by ! evaporation ( sea-wat] at times :5 bays or arms ( ! sea 7 cut (f f op5 communication ) ! ocean4 ,! composition ( sea-wat] has already be5 giv5 & discuss$ 7*ap4 #b1 p4 #bf72 & by ! sl[ evaporation ( sea-wat] on a small scale we c q successfully imitate ! ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 natural rock-salt deposits4 ,:5 sea-wat] is heat$ a slight deposit ( lime c>bonate 7usually conta9+ a little f]ric oxid & silica7 is soon =m$2 & a correspond+ ?9 deposit ( f]rug9\s lime/one is commonly f\nd at ! base ( rock-salt-be>+ deposits4 ,next above ?is we almo/ inv>iably f9d a deposit ( gypsum1 sometimes ( great ?ickness2 9 ! artificial evaporation ( sea-wat] ! same ?+ occurs s soon z ! br9e has rea*$ a c]ta9 degree ( conc5tration4 ,x con/itutes ! major portion ( ! 8pan/one0 ( salt-boil]s4 ,next above foll[s a deposit ( rock-salt1 at base some:at mix$ ) gypsum2 its ?ickness v>ies greatly accord+ to circum/ances4 ,above x lie ! pota% salts4 ,9 ! manufacture ( sea-salt by evaporation 9 %ore lagoons or 8saltpans10 ! solution rema9+ aft] ! salt has be5 deposit$ 7kn[n z 8"m-wat]s10 or 8bitt]n071 ( c\rse rema9s on ! surface ( ! salt unless all[$ to dra9 (f1 z is done 9 ! process ( manufacture4 ,:5 n dra9$ (f1 ! wat] gradually evaporates1 & !re rema9s a sal9e cru/ ( a composition exactly resembl+ t ( ! upp] lay]s at ,/assfurt1 conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( pota% salts4 ,if x be ask$ :y ! ,/assfurt salts are n f\nd ov]ly+ e rock-salt deposit 9 ! _w1 ! answ] is t 9 a great _m cases ! conc5trat$ "m-wat]s h _h an opportunity to fl[ (f f ! surface ( ! rock-salt by ! action ( tides1 ! infl[ ( fre% wat] f ! l& or f o!r causes4 ,_! pres5ce !re=e dep5ds ^u ! fulfilm5t ( accid5tal conditions n ne>ly always realiz$ 9 ! natural evaporation ( sea-wat]1 b :i* happ5$ to occur on a v l>ge scale 9 t portion ( ! ,nor?-,european cont95t4 ,nature ( ! ,salts4--,! pota% is pres5t 9 ! ,/assfurt salts 9 ! =m ( complex sulfates & *lorids conta9+1 besides1 sodium1 calcium & magnesium 9 v>i\s proportions & modes ( comb9ation4 ,! mo/ abundant ( ! potassic *lorid m9]als is c>nallite1 a hydr\s *lorid ( potassium & magnesium4 ,! *lorids *>act]ize *iefly ! upp] portions ( ! deposit1 ! sulfates ! l[]4 ,ka9it4--,( ! products d]iv$ f ! ,/assfurt salt indu/ry = agricultural use1 ! two requir+ special consid]ation are 8ka9it10 a natural mixture ( ! sev]al *lorid m9]als 9 v>y+ proportions2 & 8high-grade sulfate40 ,be+ a natural product1 8ka9it0 is ! *eape/ s\rce ( pota% available to ! f>m]2 b on acc\nt ( its v>iability 9 composition x mu/ be sold & pur*as$ on gu>ante$ assay4 ,on acc\nt ( its l>ge cont5t ( *lor9 x is n desirable 9 ! production ( c]ta9 crops1 especially 9 ! arid region1 :]e alkali soils1 & ev5 ^? n visibly alkal9e1 (t5 conta9 already l>ge am\nts ( *lor94 ,moreov]1 ka9it usually conta9s a consid]able proportion ( common salt4 ,= ! arid region !re=e ! sulfate is g5]ally pref]able1 al?\gh x is some:at high] 9 price = ! same am\nt ( pota%4 ,! pota% cont5t ( comm]cial ka9it 7calculat$ z ,k,o7 ranges f #af to #ce1 :ile ! sulphate frequ5tly ranges f #hj up to #ie ( ! pure sulfate2 ?us co/+ mat]ially less 9 freight *>ges ?an ! l[]-grade ka9it4 ,its pota% cont5t ranges f #dc to ov] #ej ( ,k,o4 ,pota% ,salts 9 ,alkali ,soils4--,! sulfates & *lorids ( potassium1 h[ev]1 occur n only 9 connection ) rock-salt deposits1 b are also f\nd 9 ! alkali soils ( ! arid region4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 nev] abs5t :]e su* salts occur at all1 & _! p]c5tage 9 ! total ( salts ranges all ! way f ab\t #d to z mu* z #bj ( pota% sulphate4 ,9 num]\s cases x has be5 f\nd t ! cont5t ( ?is salt to ! dep? ( f\r feet am\nts to f #abjj to #aejj p\nds p] acre4 ,9 su* l&s1 ( c\rse1 additional f]tilization ) pota% salts is totally uncall$ =1 ! m z su* soils inv>iably conta91 besides ! wat]-soluble pota%1 an unusually l>ge p]c5tage ( ! same 9 ! =m ( easily decomposable silicates1 or zeolites4 ,f>my>d or ,/able ,manure4--,9 connection ) ! subject ( m9]al f]tiliz]s1 x w be prop] to discuss briefly ! uses & special m]its ( /able manure1 compo/s1 etc4 ,up to )9 ! la/ c5tury1 ^! 7 practically ! only f]tiliz]s kn[n & us$1 & ! exclusive use ( ?is manure might h cont9u$ indef9itely b = ! discov]y t z "t progress$1 /able manure & ) x gra9 crops1 = ! production ( :i* x 0 necess>y1 became less & less 9 am\nt1 s z to ?reat5 bread fam9es4 ,! cause ( ?is dim9ution 01 ( c\rse1 ! incomplet5ess ( ! return ( ! soil-+r$i5ts tak5 (f by ! crops1 :5 ^! 7 export$ to fe$ ! cities or =eign c\ntries4 ,?us ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 & notably t ( ,liebig1 0 attract$ to ! solution ( ! problem ( keep+ up production ev5 ) an insuffici5t supply ( /able manure2 & ! discov]y ( ! use ( m9]al f]tiliz]s 0 ! result ( _! activity4 ,! *emical composition ( /able manure does n1 alone1 suffice to expla9 its rem>kable efficacy & ! difficulty ( replac+ x by any o!r mat]ial4 ,! composition ( manure ( c\rse diff]s n only ) diff]5t animals b also ) ! diff]5t fe$s consum$ by !m2 b ! av]age composition ( f>my>d manure is approximately giv5 ?us by ,wolff & o!rs3 ,,analyses ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,f>my>d ,,manures4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #e4 ,wat] #ga4jj #ge4jj #gi4jj #gi4ie #gb4cc ,dry ,matt] #bi4jj #be4jj #ba4jj #bj4je #bg4fg ,a% +r$i5ts #d4dj #e4hj #f4ej #e4hg ,pota% #j4eb #j4fc #j4ej #j4hdbc #j4fi ,lime #j4eg #j4gj #j4hh #j4he ,magnesia #j4ad #j4ah #j4ah #j4ad ,phosphoric acid #j4ba #j4bf #j4cj #j4dj #j4cj ,ammonia #j4jb ,total ,nitrog5 #j4de #j4ej #j4eh #j4gh #j4df ---------------------------------------- -------------- #a4 ,av]age composition ( fre% f>m manure 7,wolff74 #b4 ,av]age composition ( mod]ately rott$ f>m manure 7,wolff74 #c4 ,av]age composition ( v ?or\ghly rott$ f>m manure 7,wolff74 #d4 ,mix$ c[ & horse manure f a b$ two feet ?ick1 accumulat$ dur+ ! w9t] 9 a l>ge cov]$ y>d1 & pack$ solid by ! tramp+ ( cattle 7,! analysis by ,f4 ,e4 ,furry74 #e4 8,box ,manure10 consi/+ ( mix$ manure ( bullocks1 horses1 & pigs 7,way1 ,royal ,agric4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 #ahej1 ,,ii41 #gfi74 #bc ,& soda4 ,x is ?us se5 t ! p]c5tage ( ! important plant-foods 9 /able manure are m9ute :5 comp>$ ) ^? commonly f\nd 9 8comm]cial0 f]tiliz]s4 ,nor are !y s mu* m available = plant absorption ?an ! latt]2 a v l>ge proportion is n utiliz$ at all ! fir/ ye>1 & unless ! am\nt appli$ is v l>ge x h>dly c>ries ! supply ne$$ = ! usual crops4 ,x is n[ well und]/ood t its efficacy is l>gely due to ! important physical effects x produces 9 ! soil4 ,x helps directly to r5d] heavy clay soils m loose & readily tillable4 ,if well 8rott$0 or cur$ x also s]ves to r5d] s&y1 lea*y soils m ret5tive ( moi/ure2 & ! humus =m$ 9 its progressive decay imp>ts to all soils ! highly important qualities discuss$ lat] on 7*apt4 #h74 ,m ?an ?is1 ! lat] rese>*es h %[n t /able manure acts p]haps mo/ imm$iately ^u ! bact]ial activity 9 ! soil1 greatly increas+ x n only directly by ! va/ numb]s ( ^! organisms x br+s ) x1 b also 9 supply+ appropriate food = ^? normally exi/+ 9 ! soil 7see *apt4 #i74 ,9 s do+ x s]ves indirectly to r5d] ! soil +r$i5ts m available1 & to imp>t to ! soil ! loose condition requir$ 9 a good se$-b$--a 8til?0 :i* _c be br\ght ab\t by ! op]ations ( tillage alone4 ,! only possible sub/itute = ! use ( /able manure is f\nd 9 gre5-manur+ ) legum9\s crops conjo9tly ) ! use ( comm]cial or m9]al f]tiliz]s4 ,unless ?is is done ! use ( ! latt]1 alone1 ultimately leads to a depletion ( humus sub/ances1 :i* r5d]s ! acquisition ( prop] til? by ! se$-b$ impossible1 & causes a compact+ ( ! surface soil :i* no tillage c rem$y4 ,prop] me?od ( us+ /able manure 9 humid & arid climates4--,9 ! humid region x is a common practice to spread ! /able manure on ! surface ( ! fields & leave x !re )\t any special op]ation to put x into ! soil2 tru/+ to ! ra9s1 e>?worms & subsequ5t tillage = its be+ br\ght into adequate contact ) ! roots2 x is r>ely pl[$ 94 ,9 ! arid region ?is mode ( us+ x is impracticable2 x w\ld rema9 on ! surface indef9itely )\t advanc+ 9 its decay because ( ! dryness1 & unless pl[$ 9 v deep ! ord9>y1 /rawy manure w\ld ru9 ! se$-b$ by r5d]+ x too p]vi\s to ! dry air1 ?us prev5t+ g]m9ation4 ,mu* ( ?is valuable mat]ial has !re=e be51 & to "s ext5t is /ill be+ burnt1 ?us caus+ a sev]e depletion ( ! l&1 bo? ( humus & ( m9]al plant-food4 ,! be/ way to deal ) /able manure 9 ! arid regions is to ?or\ghly rot or cure x be=e putt+ x on ! l&1 & !n pl[+ x 94 ,to d ?is ( c\rse x mu/ be put 9 piles & wett$ regul>ly2 a proc$ure :i* at ! high prices ( labor is ?\ght to be too exp5sive1 b :i* 9 ! end w\ld be f\nd em95tly pr(itable1 unless gre5-manur+ is regul>ly done4 ,! v small proportion ( humus g5]ally pres5t 9 arid soils r5d]s ?is precaution indisp5sable1 if production & prop] til? is to be ma9ta9$4 ,! sav+ ( /able manure & ( all compo/+ mat]ial1 ev5 if less ne$ful z a means ( supply+ plant-food 9 ! ri* soils ( ! arid regions1 is fully z ess5tial 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! humus supply4 7,b47 ,,m9]als ,,uness5tial ,,or ,,injuri\s ,,to ,,soils4 ,! m9]als h]et(ore m5tion$ contribute to soil =mation ei!r "o or sev]al +r$i5ts1 important to plant gr[? ei!r by _! me*anical or *emical action4 ,x rema9s to consid] "s n intr9sically desirable1 b frequ5tly pres5t 9 c]ta9 soils1 :i* %\ld be kn[n to ! f>m] 9 ord] t he may be enabl$ to c\nt]act or remove _! injuri\s effects4 ,leav+ aside su* z are ( only casual or r>e occurr5ce1 ! foll[+ may be m5tion$ z among ^? :i* n unfrequ5tly affect soils desirable = culture to su* ext5t z to make !m unavailable = g5]al f>m+ purposes3 ,iron ,pyrite2 sulphid ( iron conta9+ two molecules ( sulphur to "o ( iron2 a m9]al exce$+ly common 9 deposits ( metallic ores1 & ^: deceptive gold-l color has caus$ x to be mi/ak5 = gold s (t5 z to cause x to be designat$ z 8fool's gold0 among m9]s4 ,:ile x frequ5tly does conta9 "s gold & is (t5 associat$ ) valuable ores1 x is practically valueless :5 occurr+ outside ( m9]al ve9s1 9 rock-masses2 & m especially 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 su* z s&/ones1 lime/ones1 %ales & clays4 ,:5 pres5t 9 soils x sometimes becomes a s\rce ( tr\ble to ! f>m]1 because 9 contact ) air x is soon trans=m$ into f]r\s sulfate or copp]as1 :i*1 l ! c>bonate ref]r$ to above1 is injuri\s to plants4 ,sometimes inde$ iron pyrite is actually =m$ 9 badly-dra9$ soils alongside ( ! c>bonate ( iron1 :5 mu* sulfate 7su* z gypsum7 is pres5t2 & !n its injuri\s effects subside m sl[ly ?an d ^? ( ! c>bonate 7see above1 p4 #df74 ,recognition ( ,iron pyrite4--,! m9]al is easily recogniz$ by its gold5 or brass-yell[ t9t2 ! latt] color be+ ! "o mo/ commonly %[n 9 ! 8sulphur balls0 occurr+ 9 m>ls or s(t lime/ones4 ,a v easy te/ is to pulv]ize x & !n heat x on a %ovel ov] a fire1 :5 x w soon itself take fire1 burn+ ) a blue sulphur flame1 & ^u m complete roa/+1 leav+ beh9d a r$ p[d]1 viz41 8,v5etian r$0 or r$ o*re2 t is1 f]ric oxid4 ,9 clays x commonly occurs 9 l>ge1 well-def9$ cubes1 :i* d n readily =m copp]as b r become cov]$ ) a cru/ ( limonite or br[n iron ore4 ,:5 a subsoil is f\nd to conta9 pyrite1 or :5 8sulfur balls0 h be5 accid5tally introduc$ ) dress+s ( m>l1 ! rem$y is ?or\gh & p]si/5t a]ation ( ! mat]ial4 ,9 ! case ( m>ls no?+ m ne$ be done2 b 9 t ( ill-dra9$ subsoils x is be/ to add lime 9 mod]ate dress+s1 to accel]ate ! trans=mation into f]ric hydrate or iron ru/1 & gypsum2 :]eby ! copp]as becomes n only innocu\s b adds two b5eficial +r$i5ts to ! soil4 ,! same policy w r5d] available manure or o!r mat]ials :i* h be5 dis9fect$ by means ( solution ( copp]as4 ,halite 7rock-salt71 or common salt1 has already be5 m5tion$ z to its occurr5ce 9 connection ) ! ,/assfurt pota% salts 7see above1 page #ga72 b z rock-salt x r>ely ex]ts any injuri\s influ5ce ^u l&s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a common +r$i5t ( sea%ore l&s1 & is also pres5t to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ! alkali l&s ( ! arid c\ntries4 ,:ile x is true t occasionally small quantities ( common salt are us$ z an +r$i5t 9 f]tilization1 its usefulness 9 t direction is exce$+ly subord9ate2 & x is f> m g5]ally to be consid]$ z an injuri\s +r$i5t ( all cultivatable soils :5ev] pres5t to a l>g] ext5t ?an a few hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t ,x is usually consid]$ t "o-f\r? ( "o p] c5t ( common salt r5d]s l&s unfit = mo/ culture plants4 ,only a few1 su* z asp>agus1 ! beet1 ! saltbu%es & "s o!rs1 succe$ :5 x is pres5t 9 ?is or 9 l>g] am\nts4 ,9 ! case ( sea wat] x is usually accompani$ by a /ill m injuri\s +r$i5t1 magnesic *lorid or bitt]n2 :i* is detrim5tal to plant gr[? 9 mu* small] quantities ?an ! common salt itself4 ,recognition ( ,common ,salt4--,! pres5ce ( common salt may1 z a rule1 be detect$ by ! ta/e1 well-kn[n to e "o2 :5 ?is ta/e is v int5se or some:at bitt]i%1 x indicates ! pres5ce ( bitt]n4 ,! pres5ce ( salt1 h[ev]1 is easily v]ifi$ )\t ! use ( *emical reag5ts1 by sl[ly evaporat+ "s ( ! cle> wat] lea*$ f ! soil 9 a clean silv] spoon4 ,if ! la/ few drops are all[$ to evaporate spontane\sly1 x w be easy to di/+ui%1 ev5 ) ! unaid$ eye1 ! squ>e1 cubical cry/als1 sometimes comb9$ into cross-%ape1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( common salt4 ,x is always an unwelcome addition to ! l&1 & z its action _c be neutraliz$ 9 any way1 x c be gott5 rid ( only by lea*+-out4 ,?is process is usually accompli%$ 9 sea%ore l&s by ! action ( ra91 or by ! ov]fl[ ( fre%-wat] /reams1 aft] ! tide has be5 exclud$ by means ( dra9s provid$ ) *eck-valves to prev5t ! infl[ ( tidewat]2 or else by und]dra9age1 & flood+ :5 possible4 ,mirabilite1 7,glaub]'s salt7 or sulfate ( soda1 exi/s n unfrequ5tly 9 ! soils ( ! arid region & sometimes encru/s ext5d$ areas ( l[l&s dur+ ! dry season4 ,:5 pres5t 9 ! soil x w commonly be se5 bloom+ out on ! surface aft] a ra91 9 light1 fea!ry1 ne$le-%ap$ cry/als1 sometimes to su* an ext5t t x c be collect$ by ! h&ful4 ,subsequ5tly1 :5 waft$ by ! w9d1 x is r$uc$ to a f9e :ite du/1 :i* con/itutes a goodly proportion & sometimes ! entire mass ( ! 8alkali du/0 t is s annoy+ on ! pla9s ( ,nevada1 & 9 ! des]t regions g5]ally1 dur+ ! hot summ]4 ,ne> ,:ite ,pla9s1 ,nevada1 x =ms a ?ick lay] ( 8:ite s&10 9 :i* ! foot s9ks deeply1 & :i* is c>ri$ ab\t by ! w9d ) great ease4 ,glaub]'s salt is nev] a desirable soil-+r$i5t4 ,x is l>gely produc$ z a by-product 9 sev]al indu/ries1 b _c be utiliz$ = agricultural purposes to any ext5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* less injuri\s to plant gr[? ?an common salt2 accord+ to exp]i5ce 9 ,cali=nia x may be consid]$ ab\t ?ree times less s4 ,x con/itutes ! major portion ( :at is commonly kn[n z 8:ite alkali10 :i* is well kn[n to be mu* less injuri\s to crops ?an ! 8black0 k9d1 :i* conta9s c>bonate ( soda4 ,trona & ,urao are natural =ms ( c>bonate ( soda or salsoda4 ,l ,glaub]'s salt1 x commonly occurs z a surface effloresc5ce or cru/ 9 dry or des]t regions2 ei!r f ! evaporation ( /&+ wat]1 z 9 ! case ( ! soda lakes ( ,nevada1 ,hung>y & ,egypt1 or z an effloresc5ce on ! surface ( ! soil1 z 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,mexico 78urao071 ,nor? ,africa 78trona071 & at _m po9ts 9 ! ,old ,cont95t4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is commonly kn[n z 8black alkali10 because ( ! black spots =m$ on ! surface by evaporation2 practically ! same "n 78k>a07 is giv5 x 9 ,arabia & ,asia ,m9or1 :5ce impure soda has long be5 import$ into ,europe2 :ile 9 nor? ,india x =ms "p ( ! 8reh0 salts t incru/ l>ge areas 7us> l&s7 9 ! ,indo-,gangetic pla94 ,! natural m9]al always conta9s an excess ( c>bonic acid ov] ! 8normal0 salt1 ne>ly 9 ! proportion ( f\r p>ts ( c>bonic dioxid to ?ree ( soda2 x is sometimes designat$ z sesqui-c>bonate4 ,9 hot sun%9e x may lose mo/ ( ?is excess = a "t2 :ile )9 ! soil itself x may1 9 pres5ce ( abundant c>bonic acid1 become tempor>ily conv]t$ :olly into hydroc>bonate or 8bic>bonate10 :i* is less corrosive ?an ! monoc>bonate or common salsoda4 ,injury caus$ 9 soils4--,l common & ,glaub]'s salt1 c>bonate ( soda is always an unwelcome soil +r$i5t2 m s1 9 fact1 ?an ei!r ( ! o!r two1 s9ce less ?an a t5? ( "o p] c5t is suffici5t to r5d] c]ta9 soils :olly untillable1 by ! deflocculation or puddl+ ( ! clay2 at ! same "t r5d]+ x imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,x is by f> ! mo/ injuri\s +r$i5t t ord9>ily occurs 9 o!rwise good1 arable soils2 = 9 addition to ! physical effect j m5tion$1 x dissolves ! humus-sub/ance ( ! soil1 =m+ an inky-black solution :i*1 especially :5 evaporat+ on ! surface & =m+ black spots1 has giv5 rise to ! popul> "n ( 8black alkali40 ,z w be m fully expla9$ h]eaft]1 :]ev] su* is ! case1 ! fir/ /ep necess>y t[>d reclamation is ! trans=mation ( ! c>bonate ( soda1 at lea/ 9 "p1 into ! relatively innocu\s sulfate1 by means ( gypsum 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]2 :ile c>bonate ( lime rema9s 9 ! soil4 ,9 its direct action on ! plants !mselves1 soda is also mo/ injuri\s2 z :5 accumulat$ to any ext5t ne> ! surface by evaporation x w corrode ! root-cr[n or /em1 & sometimes completely girdle ! same1 de/roy+ ! b>k4 ,f>!r details on ?is subject are giv5 9 *apt] #bb4 ,epsomite1 or ,epsom salt1 or sulfate ( magnesia1 is ano!r "o ( ! wat]-soluble m9]als frequ5tly f\nd effloresc5t on ! surface ( ! gr\nd2 m commonly 9 sal9e sea%ore l&s ?an 9 ! alkali region prop]1 al?\gh x is r common 9 ! nor!a/]n portion ( ! arid region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:e!r on ! soil surface or 9 ! crevices ( rocks1 its ne$le-%ap$1 fea!ry cry/als greatly resemble ^? ( ,glaub]'s salt1 b are readily di/+ui%$ by ! m int5sely bitt] ta/e4 ,epsom salt is frequ5tly ! la/ remnant ( sea-salts left 9 ! soil aft] reclamation4 ,?\gh probably some:at m injuri\s to plant gr[? ?an ,glaub]'s salt1 ! m9]al ,kies]ite1 "o ( ! ,/assfurt salts & consi/+ ess5tially ( ,epsom salt1 is sometimes us$ z an application to calc>e\s l&s in/ead ( gypsum1 & ) good results4 ,yet gypsum is usually ! saf]1 & equally effective4 ,borax 7bi-borate ( soda7 occurs mu* m r>ely ?an ! salts j describ$2 mo/ frequ5tly 9 c]ta9 portions ( ,cali=nia1 =m+ "p ( ! 8alkali0 9 ! soil4 ,x is injuri\s to plant gr[?1 b is z readily dealt ) z is ! c>bonate ( soda1 by dress+s ( gypsum1 :]eby in]t borate ( lime is produc$4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t sal9e wat]s conta9+ any ( ! above salts 9 notable am\nts mu/ be us$ = irrigation v cauti\sly4 ,! measures to be obs]v$ 9 ?is respect w be discuss$ lat]4 ,,"p ,,second4 ,,physics ,,( ,,soils4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,physical ,,composition ,,( ,,! ,,soils4 ,z has already be5 /at$ 7*apt4 #a1 p4 #aj71 ! g5]al physical con/itu5ts ( soils are rock p[d] or s& & silt1 m or less decompos$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! orig9al rocks2 clay1 ! product ( ! decomposition ( feldsp>s & "s o!r silicates2 humus1 ! complex product ( ! decomposition ( vegetable & animal matt]s on & 9 ! soil mass2 z well z vegetable matt] n yet humifi$4 ,ea* ( ^! sev]al con/itu5ts mu/ n[ be consid]$ m 9 detail4 ,s9ce clay is ! sub/ance ^: functions & quantitative proportions influ5ce mo/ /rik+ly ! agricultural qualities ( l&1 x %\ld be fir/ discuss$4 ,clay z a ,soil ,+r$i5t4 ,! pla/icity & adhesiv5ess ( clay1 toge!r ) ! extreme f95ess ( its ultimate p>ticles 7said to rea* ! #a-bejjj ( an in*71 expla9s its great importance z a physical soil +r$i5t4 ,x s]ves to hold toge!r & imp>t /ability to ! floccul5t aggregates ( soil p>ticles t compose a well-till$ soil2 = )\t clay ! s& w\ld collapse into close-pack$ s+le gra9s s soon z dri$1 & loose til? w\ld be impossible4 ,s& drifts illu/rate ?is condition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! f95ess ( ! p>ticles s]ves to r5d] clay v ret5tive ( moi/ure z well z ( gases & ( solids dissolv$ 9 wat]1 imp>t+ ^! important prop]ties to soils conta9+ x2 :ile co>se s&y soils are (t5times s defici5t 9 !m z to r5d] !m unadapt$ to any useful culture1 despite ! pres5ce ( an adequate supply ( plant-food4 ,:5 to ^! ess5tial physical prop]ties ( clay1 !re is add$ ! fact t usually ! clay-sub/ance z x exi/s 9 soils conta9s ! mo/ f9ely pulv]iz$ & mo/ highly decompos$ portions ( ! o!r soil-m9]als1 & !re=e ! ma9 "p ( ! available m9]al plant-food1 x is easy to und]/& :y soils conta9+ a good supply ( clay %\ld be call$ & consid]$ 8/rong0 l& by ! f>m]s ( all c\ntries4 8,poor0 clay soils are exceptional2 b sometimes ! clay cont5t rea*es su* a figure t ! difficulties ( tillage r5d] !m too unc]ta9 ( production = pr(itable occupation4 ,am\nt ( ,colloidal ,clay 9 ,soils4--,any & all ( ! k9ds ( clay m5tion$ 7p4 #eg7 z occurr+ naturally may1 ( c\rse1 ent] into & =m "p ( soils4 ,b z ! am\nt ( true1 pla/ic clay sub/ance conta9$ 9 !m is v indef9ite1 x becomes necess>y1 9 ord] to classify soils 9 respect to _! tillabl5ess1 to asc]ta9 m def9itely ! am\nt ( pure1 or ne>ly pure1 colloidal clay sub/ance conta9$ 9 ! sev]al classes ( soils ord9>ily recogniz$ & m5tion$ 9 f>m+ practice4 ,t ?is det]m9ation c at be/ be only approximate1 is obvi\s f ! fact m5tion$ above 7*apt4 #d1 p4 #ei71 t pure kaol9ite itself is n pla/ic1 & only becomes s by ! indef9ite comm9ution & hydration x exp]i5ces 9 ! processes ( soil-=mation4 ,z ! progress ( ?is process is also indef9ite1 ! same soil conta9+ p>ticles rang+ f ! f9e/ to ! *alky scales ( pure kaol9ite1 ! draw+ ( a l9e mu/ be m or less arbitr>y & empirical4 ,f num]\s exp]im5ts & comp>isons made1 ! writ] has be5 l$ to place ! limits ( 8pla/ic clay0 at & bel[ su* gra9 sizes z w rema9 susp5d$ 7afloat7 9 a wat] column eight in*es high1 dur+ #bd h\rs4 ,to g beyond ?is po9t 9 ! exam9ation ( soils = practical purposes1 w\ld r5d] su* exam9ations s labori\s & h5ce s r>e1 t ?is k9d ( "w w\ld be practically exclud$ f ord9>y practice4 ,accord+ to ?is view ! foll[+ p]c5tages ( su* 8clay0 correspond approximately to ! designations plac$ opposite3 ,v s&y soils 4#e to #c clay ,ord9>y s&y l&s #c4j to #aj 8 ,s&y loams #aj4j to #ae 8 ,clay loams #ae4j to #be 8 ,clay soils #be4j to #ce 8 ,heavy clay soils #ce4j to #de & ov]4 ,x mu/ be di/9ctly und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ^! figures make no claim to accuracy or inv>iability4 ,=1 ! till+ qualities ( a soil conta9+ "o & ! same am\nt ( su* 8clay0 may be v mat]ially modifi$ accord+ to ! k9d & am\nt ( ea* ( ! sev]al gra9-sizes ( rock p[d] or s& !y conta94 ,influ5ce ( f9e p[d]s on pla/icity & adhesiv5ess4--,an admixture ( a l>ge am\nt ( f9e p[d]s dim9i%es mat]ially ! adhesiv5ess ( a clay soil1 ev5 ?\gh x may r5d] x ev5 m 8heavy0 9 tillage2 :ile ! admixture ( co>se s&1 ev5 9 v consid]able proportions1 does n greatly influ5ce ! adhesiv5ess ( ! clay4 ,! latt] alone _c !re=e s]ve z a prop] guide or basis = ! classification ( soils 9 respect to tillage2 we mu/ also take into consid]ation ! nature & am\nt ( ! sev]al granul> s$im5ts mix$ ) x4 ,moreov]1 ! nature & especially ! adhesiv5ess ( ! clay sub/ance z obta9$ by analysis may v>y consid]ably 9 ! pres5ce ( a v l>ge am\nt ( ! f9e/ gra9-sizes2 among :i* f]ric hydrate or iron ru/ is especially apt to accumulate pr$om9antly 9 ! clay1 consid]ably increas+ its app>5t weight & greatly dim9i%+ its adhesiv5ess4#bd ,9 /rongly f]rug9\s soils1 !re=e1 x becomes necess>y to take into special consid]ation ! am\nt ( ! f]ric hydrate or ru/ :i* accumulates 9 ! clay sub/ance4 ,! pres5ce ( l>ge am\nts ( humus or vegetable mold also influ5ces mat]ially ! adhesiv5ess & physical prop]ties ( ! clay obta9$ by ! me?od describ$1 al?\gh mo/ ( x rema9s ) ! f9] p[d]y s$im5ts or gra9-sizes4 ,!re are1 besides1 o!r colloidal or at lea/ amorph\s sub/ances pres5t 9 all soils1 su* z silicic1 alum9ic & zeolitic hydrates1 :i* are all non-pla/ic1 & yet suffici5tly f9e to =m "p ( ! 8clay0 obta9$ z above specifi$4 #bd ,?is fact emphasizes ! impossibility ( expla9+ ! pla/icity & adhesiv5ess ( clay simply z a function ( f95ess ( gra94 ,despite ^! imp]fections1 7:i* h[ev] c 9 a measure be tak5 into consid]ation 9 judg+ ( a soil's till+ qualities by its clay cont5t71 ! figures giv5 9 ! above table approximate mu* m ne>ly to a tangible basis = su* e/imate1 ?an ! utt]ly indef9ite mixtures :i* "u ! old] me?ods ( analysis h be51 & /ill are to "s ext5t1 us$ z a basis = soil classification by writ]s on agriculture4 ,rock ,p[d]2 ,s&1 ,silt & ,du/4 ,! p[d]y 7s&y & silty7 con/itu5ts ( soils usually con/itute ! great] "p ( _! mass2 & ! proportions pres5t ( ! sev]al grades ( f95ess ex]t a mo/ decisive influ5ce ^u _! cultural qualities1 & v commonly ^u _! agricultural value also4 ,x is ne$less to add t ! k9d ( m9]al ( :i* !y consi/ or f :i* !y 7 =m$1 is also ( great importance 9 det]m9+ ! quality ( soils f ! /&po9t ( ! *emi/1 ) respect to _! cont5t ( m9]al plant-food4 ,,wea!r+ ,,9 ,,humid ,,& ,,arid ,,regions4 ,s&s ( ! ,humid ,regions4--,z has already be5 /at$1 8s&0 is usually und]/ood to be1 9 ! ma91 qu>tz m or less f9ely pulv]iz$1 g5]ally int]m+l$ ) a few gra9s ( o!r m9]als4 ,) ?is und]/&+1 s9ce qu>tz is practically in]t ) respect to plant nutrition1 x foll[s t soils consi/+ ma9ly ( ?is sub/ance conta9 b little plant-food2 h5ce ! common expression 8poor1 s&y l&10 ! outcome ( ! exp]i5ce _h 9 ,europe & 9 ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :i* until rec5tly has be5 held to be ( g5]al application4 ,! 8s&s ( ! des]t0 h1 bo? 9 ord9>y life & 9 poetry1 always /ood z ! symbol ( /]ility4 ,?us ! s&y l&s 78s& hammocks07 ( ,florida1 ! 7long-leaf7 p9e l&s ( ! ,gulf ,/ates1 ! 8p9e b>r5s0 ( ,new ,j]sey & ( ,mi*igan1 are not$ bo? = _! s&y soils & _! /]ility aft] brief cultivation2 necessitat+ f]tilization )9 a few ye>s f ! "t ( occupation4 ,9 ,europe1 ! 8,heide0 7hea!r7 soils ( nor!a/]n ,g]many are ( ! same cultural "*4 ,s&s ( ! ,arid ,regions4--,! exp]i5ce ( arid c\ntries h[ev]1 has long ago %[n t "s v s&y l&s--e4 g41 su* z =m ! oases ( ! nor? ,african des]ts--may be extremely productive :5 irrigat$1 & also ( consid]able durability4 ,actual exp]i5ce & close inve/igation giv5 ?is subject 9 ! arid regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has fully demon/rat$ t l&s appe>+ to ! casual obs]v] to be hopelessly /]ile s&y des]ts1 v commonly prove to be ev5 m productive ?an ! m clayey l&s ( ! same regions4 ,exam9ation ( ! s& %[s1 9 ^! cases1 t in/ead ( m]e gra9s ( qu>tz1 ! m9]als ( ! p>5t rock1 p>tially decompos$1 !mselves con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! s&y mass4 ,b 9 ! regions ( defici5t ra9fall1 z has already be5 /at$1 7p4 #dg7 ! =mation ( clay 7kaol9ization7 is exce$+ly sl[2 h5ce ! decomposition ( ! rock p[d] results 9 ! production ( pr$om9antly pulv]ul5t in/ead ( clayey soils4 ,b ! m9]al plant-food is n on t acc\nt less available1 provid$ o!r physical conditions necess>y = ! success ( plant gr[? are fulfill$4 ,among ^! moi/ure /&s =emo/2 h5ce ! relative proportions ( ! sev]al gra9-sizes are ( vital importance1 s9ce ^u ?is dep5ds to a great ext5t ! prop] supply & di/ribution ( moi/ure1 )\t :i* no am\nt ( plant-food w avail4 ,moreov]1 ! f9e/ & mo/ highly decompos$ p[d] is ! portion f :i* ! roots draw _! *ief food-supplies4 ,! po9t la/ m5tion$ is well %[n 9 ! results obta9$ by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge1 f ! analysis ( ea* ( ! sev]al gra9-sizes into :i* he _h resolv$ a v g5]aliz$ soil ( ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi1 repres5t+ a v l>ge l& area 9 t ,/ate z well z 9 ,t5nessee & ,l\isiana4 ,! details ( ?is inve/igation are giv5 f>!r on2 b summ>ily x may be /at$ t he f\nd practically ! :ole ( ! acid-soluble m9]al plant-food accumulat$ )9 ! portion ( ! soil ! f95ess ( ^: gra9s 0 bel[ 4#jbe millimet]s 7"o-?\s&? ( an in*72 +r$i5ts s f9e z to be :olly impalpable betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,moreov]1 two-?irds ( ! total am\nt 0 f\nd 9 ! portion describ$ above z 8clay40 ,x is ?us readily und]/ood :y clay soils are 9 ! regions ( summ] ra9s commonly designat$ z 8/rong0 l&s4 ,! correspond+ lat] inve/igations ( ,rudz9ski 7,ann4 ,agr4 ,in/4 ,mosc[1 ,vol4 #i1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #agb-bcd2 ,exp4 ,/a4 ,record1 ,dec4 #aijd1 p4 #bde7 & ( ,mazur5ko 7,j\r4 ,exp4 ,l&w4 #aijd1 pp4 #gc-ge2 ,exp't ,/n4 ,record1 ,dec4 #aijd1 p4 #cdd7 fully corroborate ,l\ghridge's conclusions1 = typical soils ( ,european ,russia4 ,9 ! arid or irrigation regions1 h[ev]1 ! case is diff]5t1 = ! reason t mu* ( ! decompos$ rock-sub/ance rema9s adh]5t to ! surface ( ! l>g] gra9s1 & pla/ic clay is =m$ to a mu* less ext5t4 ,mu* available plant-food may !re=e1 9 arid l&s1 be pres5t ev5 9 r co>sely s&y soils almo/ devoid ( clay2 su* z 9 humid climates w\ld be likely to be f\nd :olly b>r54 7,see *apt4 #ai74 ,,physical ,,analysis ,,( ,,soils4 ,use ( ,sieves4--,d[n to a c]ta9 po9t ! sep>ation ( ! soil into its sev]al gra9-sizes may be accompli%$ by means ( sieves4 ,we may ?us sep>ate co>se gravel f f9e gravel & f s&2 & ! latt] may itself be sep>at$ into sev]al sizes by ! same means4 ,?is presupposes1 ( c\rse1 t ! soil has be5 previ\sly prep>$ = ! purpose by cru%+ ! lumps consi/+ ( aggregates ( f9] p>ticles1 t 9 ! op]ation ( tillage w\ld aga9 be resolv$ into _! f9e con/itu5ts1 or be p5etrat$ by roots4 ,b ?is prep>ation ( ! soil = sift+ mu/ n be c>ri$ beyond ! po9t m5tion$1 = a gra9 consi/+ ( p>ticles some:at firmly cem5t$ toge!r w "u ord9>y conditions play 9 ! soil precisely ! same "p z a solid s&-gra91 & mu/ n !re=e be brok5 up1 if ! soil is to be exam9$ 9 its natural condition4 ,! pressure ( ! f+]s or ( a rubb] pe/le is z f> z trituration %\ld g4 ,! dis9tegration ( ^! comp\nd p>ticles by means ( acids1 z prescrib$ & practic$ by ! ,fr5* soil *emi/s1 may :olly *ange ! physical nature ( ! soil by ! break+-up ( me*anical aggregations :i* 9 ! usual c\rse ( tillage w\ld rema9 intact4 ,?is is especially true ( /rongly calc>e\s soils1 & p>ticul>ly ^? conta9+ calc>e\s s&4 ,! sieves us$ = ?is purpose %\ld n be ord9>y wire sieves1 b %\ld h bottoms ( %eet brass p]=at$ by r\nd holes ( ! v>i\s diamet]s desir$1 ( fractions ( in*es1 or pref]ably ( millimet]s4 ,= ! f9] gra9 sizes1 silk bolt+ clo? is us$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils4 ,9 ! sift+ process x w be f\nd t s soon z ! f9] gra9-sizes ( ! s& are approa*$1 ! sieve fails to act satisfactorily2 ! m s1 ! m clay 0 orig9ally conta9$ 9 ! mat]ial4 ,! f9e p>ticles flock toge!r1 =m+ little pellets1 :i* refuse to be sep>at$ by ! sieve4 ,?is difficulty c1 ( c\rse1 be p>tly ov]come by previ\sly sep>at+ ! clay f ! s& by means ( wat]1 z detail$ above2 b ev5 !n x w be f\nd t s soon z ! gra9-sizes fall mu* bel[ _/ ( an in* 7 millimet]7 ! same difficulty is exp]i5c$1 s long z ! s& is dry4 ,by play+ a small /ream ( wat] ^u ! sieve1 h[ev]1 all ! p>ticles beyond ! _/ ( an in* may be successfully sep>at$ f ! co>s] portion2 & = _m practical purposes ! sep>ation ne$ be c>ri$ no f>!r4 ,use ( ,wat] = ,sep>at+ ,f9e/ ,gra9-,sizes4--,! sci5tific inve/igator1 h[ev]1 mu/ ( necessity proce$ to sep>ate ! f9] gra9-sizes f ea* o!r1 s9ce1 z w pres5tly be %[n1 !y influ5ce ! till+ qualities ( ! soil to a mu* great] degree ?an d ! co>s] p>ticles4 ,su* f>!r sep>ation c be accompli%$ only by ! aid ( wat]4 ,subsid5ce ,me?od4--,:5 a small am\nt ( soil is /irr$ up 9 wat]1 & is aft]w>d all[$ to /& = "s "t1 ! diff]5t gra9-sizes w settle consecutively 9 accordance ) _! sizes 7or weights72 ! smalle/ ones settl+ late/1 & ! clay only rema9+ susp5d$1 z /at$ above4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z any consid]able am\nt rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! wat]1 ! latt] is n only d5s] b especially m viscid ?an if ! clay 7 abs5t4 ,9 ord] !re=e to obta9 correct results by any me?od involv+ ! use ( wat]1 x is necess>y to remove ! clay be=e proce$+ to ! sep>ation ( ! granul> s$im5ts4 ,?is1 z has be5 already /at$1 is approximately accompli%$ by all[+ ! soil1 :5 diffus$ 9 wat] aft] prop] dis9tegration1 to settle = #bd h\rs f a column ( wat] #bjj mm4 high1 :]eby all gra9-sizes1 ( & above 4#ja mm4 diamet] are remov$ f ! turbid liquid4 ,?is s$im5tation is !n repeat$ until aft] #bd h\rs ! wat] becomes cle>4 ,! clay is !n det]m9$ 9 ! 8clay wat]0 by evaporation or precipitation2 ! granul> s$im5ts may !n be successfully sep>at$ by s$im5tation4 ,! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils uses = ! sep>ation ( clay1 in/ead ( subsid5ce = #bd h\rs1 ! m exp$iti\s process ( c5trifug+ ! turbid soil wat] 9 appropriate glass cyl9d]s1 by ! aid ( an electric motor2 & ?us 9 a relatively %ort "t obta9s 8clay0 9 :i* ! upp] limit ( size is "o-half ( t m5tion$ above1 viz41 4#jje mm4 ,b = ! co/l9ess ( ! appliances requir$1 includ+ ! entire "t ( an op]ator1 ?is me?od ( sep>at+ ! clay w\ld und\bt$ly be pref]able to ! elim9ation by subsid5ce2 ! m z a m m9ute gra9-size = ! clay gr\p is ?us secur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,s*ne's ,elutriator4 ,! sep>ation ( ! clay hav+ be5 accompli%$1 ! v>i\s sizes ( silt & s& may be sep>at$ by aga9 susp5d+ !m 9 wat]2 & int]rupt+ ! settl+ process at /at$ times1 ! gra9-sizes correspond+ to def9ite velocities 9 settl+ may be segregat$ & weigh$4 ,:5 ?is process ( settl+ & decant+ is c>efully & repeat$ly c>ri$ out1 v good results are obta9$4 ,hydraulic ,elutriation4--,! s$im5tation 7or 8beak]07 me?od1 long practic$ 9 ! arts is1 h[ev]1 q t$i\s1 requir+ ! con/ant close att5tion ( a skill$ obs]v]4 ,! desir$ results may1 9 ! writ]'s judgm5t1 be m conv5i5tly obta9$ by ! hydraulic me?od1 :5ev] no v l>ge volume ( "w ( ?is k9d is requir$ to be done at once4 ,:5 in/ead ( all[+ ! soil to settle 9 quiet wat]1 ! latt] is us$ z an asc5d+ curr5t ( regul>ly grad$ velocities1 x is cle> t ! soil p>ticles w be c>ri$ (f by ?is curr5t 9 exact con=mity ) _! sev]al sizes 7or /rictly speak+1 volume-weights72 & :5 ma9ta9$ 9 su* a curr5t = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 ! entire quantity ( ! s$im5t correspond+ to ! prevail+ velocity w be c>ri$ away4 ,x is ( c\rse easy to asc]ta9 to :at gra9-sizes c]ta9 velocities ( ! upw>d curr5t 7regulat$ by a /opcock ) arm mov+ on a graduat$ scale7 correspond1 & to regulate accord+ly ! int]vals betwe5 ! diff]5t velocities to great] or less detail1 z may be desir$4 ,a numb] ( in/rum5ts h be5 devis$ = ?is purpose4 ,s*ne's ,elutriator is ! "o commonly us$ 9 ,europe2 9 x ! upw>d curr5t asc5ds 9 a conical glass tube1 7see figure #f7 ent]+ ?r\gh a n>r[1 curv$ inlet tube1 9 :i* ! soil sample is kept agitat$ by ! curr5t itself4 ,! objection to ?is plan is tw(old3 fir/1 ! n>r[1 curv$ inlet-tube is readily clogg$ by ! soil mass at ! l[] velocities1 :i* are !reby *ang$1 s t1 unless a v small am\nt ( soil only is employ$1 ! :ole mass is n kept prop]ly /irr$2 second1 ! circulat+ curr5ts br\ght ab\t by ! conical %ape ( ! tube cause ! s$im5t-p>ticles to coalesce into complex1 l>g] ones 7floccules71 :i* w !n settle d[n & fail to pass ov] at ! curr5t-velocity correspond+ to _! individual compon5t p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,! ,*urn ,elutriator 7,hilg>d's7 = ! physical analysis ( soils4 ,*urn ,elutriator ) ,cyl9drical ,tube4--,! errors j allud$ to are obviat$ by an arrangem5t devis$ by ! writ]1 9 :i* a rapidly revolv+ /irr]1 plac$ at ! base ( a cyl9drical tube 9 :i* ! wa%+ process is conduct$ & :i* elim9ates c\nt]-curr5ts1 cont9ually dis9tegrates ^! comp\nd p>ticles1 & ?us enables ! entire quantity ( ! s$im5t correspond+ to ! prevail+ curr5t-velocity to pass (f ) a comp>atively slight exp5diture ( "t on ! "p ( ! op]ator 7see figure #g74 ,a wire scre5 int]pos$ betwe5 ! *urn & cyl9drical glass tube prev5ts communication ( ! :irl+ motion to ! column4 ,z ! app>atus works automatically1 ! analy/ has only to obs]ve f "t to "t :e!r or n ! turbidity ne> ! top ( ! tube has disappe>$2 & z ! s$im5t accumulates at ! bottom ( ! tall receiv] bottle1#be no h>m is done if ! att5dant %\ld neglect to *ange ! velocity 9 "t1 except t wat] w run to wa/e4 #be ,! figure giv5 ( ?is elutriator 9 ,bullet9 ,no4 #bd1 on physical soil analysis1 publi%$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils1 %[s z ! receiv] a bottle entirely too l[ to insure ! complete ret5tion ( ! s$im5ts by settl+4 ,! receiv+ bottle %\ld n be less ?an twelve in*es high & five in*es wide4 ,! conical relay glass bel[ ! *urn s]ves to reta9 ! co>s] grades ( s$im5ts :i* are n conc]n$ 9 ! velocities employ$ 9 ! elutriator tube1 & ?us prev5ts injuri\s attrition4 ,b ^! s$im5ts c at any "t be /irr$ up by ! incom+ curr5t & br\ght into ! wa%+ tube if desir$4 ,9 ! same mann] ! pass+-(f ( ! f9] s$im5ts c be mat]ially accel]at$ by runn+ (f rapidly ab\t two-?irds ( ! turbid column ( wat] e tw5ty m9utes4 ,x %\ld be fully und]/ood t prior to attempt+ su* sep>ation1 ! 8colloidal clay0 mu/ fir/ be remov$ by ! subsid5ce or c5trifugal me?od1 s9ce o!rwise mu* l>g] gra9-sizes may be c>ri$ (f at a giv5 velocity4 ,yod]'s ,c5trifugal ,elutriator4--,a v +5i\s in/rum5t :i* comb9es ! elutriation & s$im5tation processes into "o1 has be5 devis$ by ,p4 ,a4 ,yod]1 ( ! ,utah ,expt4 ,/ation4 ,! elutriator bottle is plac$ 9 a c5trifuge driv5 by an electric motor2 x is clos$ by a glass /opp] c>ry+ a deliv]y tube to a %ort di/ance above ! bottom ( ! elutriator bottle1 z well z an outfl[ tube end+ at ! base ( ! /opp]2 ! latt] also c>ries a funnel co9cid+ ) ! c5t] ( rotation4 ,into ?is funnel fl[s gradually ! muddy wat] conta9+ ! soil 9 susp5sion2 & ! rate ( its fl[1 toge!r ) ! velocity ( rotation1 det]m9es ! size ( ! s$im5t-granules t w be deposit$ 9 ! slack-wat] bel[ ! m\? ( ! deliv]y tube4 ,! muddy soil-wat] is kept agitat$ 9 a funnel-%ap$ res]voir by air-bubbles f a con/ant-pressure *amb]4 ,:ile ! pr9ciple ( ?is in/rum5t is good1 x is q complicat$ & ! results obta9able f x 9 practice h n z yet be5 made public4 ,! inv5tor claims t an analysis may by its means be complet$ 9 less ?an ?ree h\rs4 ,9 all hydraulic elutriators a provision = con/ant pressure 9 ! res]voir supply+ ! curr5t ( wat] is ne$$2 al?\gh 9 ,s*ne's & "s o!r in/rum5ts a gradually decreas+ pressure 9 a pla9 res]voir is employ$4 ,a l>ge glass bottle or c>boy fitt$ ) ! prop] tubes s z to con/itute a ,m>iotte's bottle 79 :i* ! air ent]s ne> ! bottom ( ! vessel71 is a v conv5i5t arrangem5t4 ,numb] ( ,s$im5ts4--,! numb] ( gra9-sizes or s$im5ts into :i* ! soil mass is to be segregat$ is ( c\rse entirely )9 ! option ( ! op]ator4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t x is unnecess>y to discrim9ate v closely betwe5 ! sev]al sizes ( ! co>s] portion ( ! s&1 su* z ^? ly+ betwe5 "o-f\r? & "o-half ( a millimet]4 ,b bel[ ?is po9t1 & especially betwe5 "o-t5? ( a millimet] & ! clay1 a prop] discrim9ation becomes v important4 ,! s]ies fir/ devis$ by ! writ] 9 #ahgb is bas$ ^u a consecutive d\bl+ ( ! velocities ( ! curr5t f a qu>t] ( a millimet] p] second to ?irty-two millimet]s p] second2 ! s$im5t ( sixty-f\r millimet]-velocity correspond+ to a diamet] ( "o-half ( a millimet]1 w rema9 9 ! elutriator4 ,above ?is1 z be=e rem>k$1 ! sieve 7especially :5 aid$ by a jet ( wat]7 effects a satisfactory segregation4 ,! table bel[ %[s ! elem5ts ( ^! s]ies bo? z reg>ds curr5t-velocities & maximum qu>tz-gra9 diamet]s c>ri$ (f by ea*4 ,9 a great _m cases1 h[ev]1 x is altoge!r unnecess>y to g into su* detail1 & a subdivision into six or sev5 divisions is q suffici5t4 ,su* a subdivision1 bas$ ^u ! d\bl+ ( gra9-sizes in/ead ( curr5t-velocities1 has be5 adopt$ by ,pr(4 ,milton ,:itney1 ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 & o!rs4 ,,table ,,( ,,diamet]s ,,& ,,hydraulic ,,values ,,( ,,s$im5ts4 ,velocity p] second1,maximum diamet] ,designation ( mat]ials4 or hydraulic ( qu>tz value4 gra9s4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mm4 ,mm4 ,grit 787 #a-c 787 4#e-a #cb-fd 4#ej ,s& #af-cb 4#cj #h-af 4#af #d- #h 4#ab #b- #d 4#jgb #a4j- #b 4#jdg ,silt 4#e- #a 4#jcf 4#be-j4e 4#jbe #j4be 4#jaf #j4be 4#jaj ,clay #j4jjbc ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,results ( su* analyses4--,a tabul> pres5tation ( ! results ( analyses made 9 accordance ) ! above plan w give a good idea ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! v>i\s grades ( soils recogniz$ 9 f>m practice1 to any "o accu/om$ to ! /udy ( figures4 ,b a mu* m satisfactory %[+ is made by plac+ ! sev]al gra9-sizes segregat$1 into small vials or tubes ( id5tical diamet] & plac+ !m 9 p>allel s]ies alongside ( ea* o!r4#bf ,! curves =m$ by ! surfaces ( ! sev]al s$im5t-columns 9 ea* s]ies %[ to ! eye v /rik+ly ! relations ( ! sev]al grades ( soils to ea* o!r1 & sugge/ at once t :ile g5tle slopes or g5tly undulat+ curves belong to soils ( int]m$iate1 loamy "*1 /eep grades & zigzags %[ soils ( extreme types4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 ! subjo9$ ,figures3 #bf ,conv5i5t /&s = ?is purpose1 us$ by ! writ] s9ce #ahgb1 may be cut f ,l-%ap$ mold+s ( wood1 su* z c be readily ord]$ f any plan+ mill4 ,! vials c be cem5t$1 wir$ or ti$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,illu/ration ( ,results ( ,hydraulic ,elutriation1 %[+ extremes ( soil texture1 & int]m$iate loam4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,illu/ration ( ,results ( ,hydraulic ,elutriation1 %[+ ,alluvial ,silts & ,p9e-,woods ,soil4 ,physical composition correspond+ to popul> designations ( ,soil quality4--,! subjo9$ table illu/rates ! physical composition ( a numb] ( soils f ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi1 select$ = _! repres5tative "*1 9 ord] to d$uce !refrom approximate def9itions ( physical "* correspond+ to popul> designations4 ,?is table1 publi%$ 9 #ahgc 9 accordance ) results obta9$ dur+ ! two prec$+ ye>s1 does n require any mat]ial modification on acc\nt ( subsequ5t inve/igations4 ,x lacks1 h[ev]1 a *>act]i/ic repres5tative ( ! pr$om9ant soils ( ! arid region1 viz41 ! silty soils s preval5t 9 dry climates1 only approximately repres5t$ by ,no4 #afe ( ! table2 h5ce two su*1 f ,cali=nia1 exemplify+ respectively ! valley deposits ( ! ,sacram5to & ,colorado riv]s1 h be5 add$ to ! li/4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be und]/ood t ^! typical soils necess>ily repres5t correctly ! physical con/itution ( all soils fall+ "u ! same popul> designation2 = we are f> f be+ able z yet to pr$ict accurately 9 e case ! till+ qualities ( a soil mat]ial f its physical composition4 ,to d ?is x w\ld be necess>y n only to "k ) "s degree ( precision ! sev]al physical coeffici5ts ( ea* ( ! sev]al gra9-sizes1 & p]haps ( _m m int]m$iate ones2 b we w\ld also h to con/ruct a =mula accord+ to :i* ea* c\ld be giv5 its prop] weight :5 pres5t 9 v>y+ proportions1 & ( v>y+ %apes1 surface condition1 & mat]ial4 ,= ?is our pres5t k is :olly inadequate1 if inde$ ! problem is n beyond ! limits ( ma!matical computation4 ,we mu/ = ! pres5t at lea/ be satisfi$ ) ! empirical approximations af=d$ u by ! con/antly increas+ numb] ( su* analyses1 correlat$ ) f>m+ exp]i5ce4 ,s9ce ! f9e/ gra9-sizes above ^? class$ z 8clay0 d n t5d to 8light50 soils1 b ev5 to r5d] !m m intractable 78putty soils071 :ile co>s] ones gradually *ange ! d5se clay-texture into ! 8loamy10 x is cle> t 9 betwe5 !re mu/ be a neutral po9t1 "s gra9 sizes :i* by !mselves d n influ5ce soil texture ei!r way4 ,discussion ( num]\s physical analyses1 & "s direct exp]im5ts1 h l$ ! writ] to conclude t ?is !oretically neutral gra9-size lies at or ne> ! diamet] ( 4#jbe mm41 or 4#e mm4 hydraulic value4 ,9 correlat+ ! results ( analysis ) ! till+ qualities ( ! soil z to 8heav9ess & lightness10 !re=e1 t gra9-size may usually be left out ( consid]ation4 ,,physical ,,analyses ,,( ,,soils ,,& ,,subsoils4 7,a7 #bch ,:ite ,pipe ,clay4 ,ti%om+o ,co4 7,z7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure 7#g to #ba;,c7 ,diamet] ,velocity 7,millimet]s7 7,hydr4 ,v47 ,designation ( ------------------------------------- ,mat]ials4 ,millimet]s 7,a7 p] sec4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,grit #a-c 4#e-a 4#ej #fd ,s& 4#cj #cb #j4jf 4#af #af 4#ab #h #j4jh 4#jgb #d #j4jb 4#jdg #b #j4jd ,silt 4#jcf #a #j4jh 4#jbe #j4e #j4jh 4#jaf #j4be #b4jj 4#jaj #j4be #ba4ae ,clay 8 #j4jjbc #gd4fe ------- #ih4af 7,z7 #i4ji ,f]ric ,oxid #j4ac ---------------------------------------- ---------- 7,b7 #bdh ,tallahoma ,subsoil4 ,jasp] ,co4 7,c7 #afe ,flatwoods ,soil4 ,*ickasaw ,co4 7,d7 #bjf ,p9e ,hill ,soil4 ,smi? ,co4 7,e7 #bji ,p9e ,hill ,subsoil4 ,smi? ,co4 7,f7 #cig ,ox=d ,subsoil4 ,lafayette ,co4 7,g7 #bai ,table ,l&s ,subsoil4 ,b5ton ,co4 7,h7 #agc ,prairie ,subsoil4 ,monroe ,co4 7,i7 #bcj ,h'y ,flatwoods ,soil4 ,pontotoc ,co4 7,j7 #bdf ,r$ ,hills ,subsoil4 ,attala ,co4 7,k7 #aif ,hog-wall[ ,subsoil4 ,jasp] ,co4 7,z7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure 7#g to #ba;,c7 ,,mississippi ,,upl&s4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,designation ,s&y4 ,loam4 ,clay4 ( ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,mat]ials4 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 7,f7 7,g7 7,h7 7,i7 7,j7 7,k7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,grit #f4id #b4ij #j4cf #j4cf #j4cc #j4hc #j4bcb4aj #a4ig #ag4fe #f4if #b4ih #j4hc #j4ce #a4ai #ah4ha #b4ha #f4fb #f4ba #a4dg #j4gb #a4if ,s& #aj4af #d4da #g4ge #c4chj4gi #b4ccj4fb #b4cb #a4fd #b4ff #c4ac #c4ja #c4he #a4ag #b4ji #j4hh #a4ff #b4jb #a4ei #a4di #j4ah #j4gh #j4bj #j4bc #j4gj #j4bf #a4jb #b4bc #a4ai #j4fd #j4gh #j4gf #a4bf #j4ah #a4bi #j4ai #j4hh #e4jf #c4ef #b4fc #c4ef #i4gi #b4ib #a4fa #a4hj #b4di ,silt #a4if #i4fg #f4ej #e4djac4ab #g4bf #g4cf #b4ff #c4fj #c4fg #g4hiad4ah #ac4ig #g4ggaf4fd #ac4ad #h4ha #i4ac #b4gc #e4ci #h4djbb4jc #ad4bjaf4febg4bh #ae4jg #g4hebf4fd #c4cj #aj4ca #ae4ecae4fb #bi4cfcg4geah4hg #bf4ejce4bbcb4ce #be4cc #bd4ah ,clay #h4fc #g4hf #d4ehaj4gjag4bc #ai4aicc4afbe4dh #dj4be #dg4jc ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ii4bhih4fh #ie4fgig4ggih4ce #ig4feii4ejig4hg #if4aaajj4jj 7,z7 #a4hj #c4cf #b4dh #g4fi #h4gi #g4bdaa4ce #i4cc #ah4fj #ad4dh ,f]ric ,oxid #a4aj7a4de7 #a4be #d4de #b4ec #e4aa #e4db7e4ij7aj4ej #d4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ 7,l7 #cij ,buck%ot ,soil4 ,issaqu5a ,co4 7,m7 #bcg ,loess4 ,claiborne ,co4 7,n7 #cfe ,tallahat*ie ,all4 ,soil4 ,panola ,co4 7,o7 #cgg ,frontl& ,subsoil4 ,sunfl[] ,co4 7,p7 #cie ,dogw4 ,ridge ,soil4 ,coahoma ,co 7,q7 ,s\?we/ ,pass4 ,plaquem9e ,p>4 7,r7 ,s\?we/ ,mud-lump4 ,plaquem9e ,p>4 ,la4 7,z7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure 7#g to #ba;,c7 ,,mississippi ,,riv] ,,bottom4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,designation ,swamp4 ,riv]4 ,riv] ,deposit4 ,delta ( ---------------------------------------- --------- ,mat]ials4 7,l7 7,m7 7,n7 7,o7 7,p7 7,q7 7,r7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,grit #j4ji #j4bd #j4ji #j4je #j4cg #j4jd #j4cb #j4ae #j4ah #j4aj ,s& #j4cf #j4fa #j4je #j4ic #j4ba #b4gi #j4dg #e4jb #j4ca #a4fe #a4cj #b4da #c4ge #g4jc #c4fh #j4bg #a4ie #b4fh #af4ij #ba4df #ab4ch #e4cd #a4ef #ad4be #i4ch #ai4ig #ba4hc #ac4bg #aj4ji ,silt #b4bc #af4bj #i4hh #ac4ij #ad4ja #ae4hg #e4eh #c4fh #bj4jh #bj4cg #d4bg #i4ic #h4be #i4ed #h4ig #e4ei #ai4gi #a4hi #i4eh #g4bf #h4ja #ch4ai #cc4ch #be4cj #cj4jh #h4fe #ai4fg #cd4df ,clay #dd4cj #b4ea #i4fd #e4ea #aj4ce #ab4bj #ah4ah ---------------------------------------- -------- #ajj4ja #ig4gd #ih4gc #ih4jd #ii4gb #if4eh #ajj4jj 7,z7 #ad4ca #d4ah #f4ab #e4fh #c4ie ,f]ric ,oxid7#e4hb7 #c4bg #b4eh #b4ca #b4fi ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 7,s7 #aj ,sacram5to4 ,sacram5to ,co4 7,t7 #ejf ,gila4 ,san ,diego ,co4 7,z7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure 7#g to #ba;,c7 ,,cali=nia4 ------------------ ,designation ,riv] ,deposit4 ( ----------------- ,mat]ials4 7,s7 7,t7 ---------------------------- ,grit 4#ac ,s& 4#ae 4#aa 4#cb 4#ge #c4af #b4ea #aj4bg #h4cb ,silt #ac4fg #ab4fd #ac4aa #aa4bh #dc4fa #ca4gi ,clay #ab4jf #bc4ig ----------------- #if4bj #ia4ga 7,z7 #i4ah #i4bf ,f]ric ,oxid ---------------------------- ,numb] ( soil gra9s p] gram4--,x is ( "s int]e/ to consid] ! numb] ( gra9s ( diff]5t sizes t may be conta9$ 91 e4 g41 a gram ( soil4 ,if = ?is purpose we assume all ! soil gra9s to be sph]ical1 we %all obta9 ! m9imum figures1 = mo/ o!r %apes w pack m closely4 ,k+ 7,physics ( ,agriculture1 p4 #aag7 calculates su* figures = diff]5t gra9-sizes1 assum+ ! d5sity to be t ( qu>tz 7#b4fe71 ) ! result t :ile ) a diamet] ( "o millimet] 7#a-be in*7 ! numb] ( gra9s w\ld be #gbj1 & ) "o-t5? ( a mm4 #gbj1jjj2 if made ( ! f9e/ p>ticles only1 viz41 "o ?\s&? ( a mm41 ! numb] w\ld be #gbj1jjj billions4 ,probably few ( ! clayey soils we ord9>ily deal ) are ( ?is ord]2 x is d\btless approa*$ 9 c]ta9 f9e pla/ic clays4 ,surface af=d$ by v>i\s gra9-sizes4--,! am\nt ( surface af=d$ by a simil> am\nt ( soil mu/ naturally be consid]$ 9 ?is connection1 s9ce ^u x dep5ds n only ! am\nt ( moi/ure :i* ! soil may hold 9 ! =m ( sup]ficial films1 b also ! ext5t ( surface ^u :i* ! wea!r+ ag5cies z well z ! root hairs ( plants may act4 ,quot+ aga9 f ,k+'s "w1 we f9d on ! same premises giv5 above = ! numb] ( gra9s1 t _! surface w\ld 9 ! case ( gra9s ( "o mm4 diamet] be elev5 squ>e feet p] p\nd 7ab\t half a p9t7 ( mat]ial2 :ile 9 ! case ( ! f9e/ grade we %\ld h #aaj1ech squ>e feet1 or m ?an two & a half acres4 ,f actual exp]im5ts made ) ! fl[ ( air ?r\gh v>i\s soils1 ,k+ calculates t :ile 9 ord9>y loam soils ! total surface is ab\t an acre p] cubic foot1 9 f9e clay soils x rises to z mu* z f\r acres4 ,if we imag9e ?is l>ge surface to be cov]$ ) ev5 a v ?9 film ( wat]1 x is readily se5 h[ l>ge an am\nt may be pres5t 9 a cubic foot ( moi/ soil4 ,e4 ,a4 ,mits*]li* 7,bod5kunds fr ,l&-und-,=/wir!2 ,b]l91 #aije7 attributes to ! surface (f]$ by ! soil p>ticles supreme importance 9 det]m9+ ! productiv5ess ( soils4 ,accord+ to him ! int]nal soil-surface det]m9es directly ! ease ) :i* roots c p5etrate ! soil2 & he proposes ! det]m9ation ( ?is factor by means ( ! heat produc$ 9 wett+ ! soil 78,b5etzungswrme071 measur$ 9 a calorimet]1 z a sub/itute = all me?ods ( physical soil analysis1 :i* are vitiat$ by ! v>y+ %apes & d5sities ( ! p>ticles2 :ile 8 me?od gives directly ! actual surface4 ,to ! consumption ( en]gy requir$ by difficult p5etration he attributes mo/ ( ! diff]5ces 9 production1 & h5ce ref]s to ! int]nal soil-surface z gov]n+ ne>ly all ! o!r physical factors4 ,! introduction ( _m arbitr>y assumptions1 & ! failure to %[ t ! admitt$ inaccuracy ( ! ord9>y me*anical soil analyses are ( any practical importance1 greatly detract f ! cog5cy ( ! rigor\s ma!matical discussion c>ri$ ?r\gh 8 "w by ,mits*]li*4 ,influ5ce ( ! sev]al gra9-sizes on soil texture4--,und\bt$ly ! mo/ pot5t ( all ! s$im5ts appe>+ 9 ! above table 9 influ5c+ soil texture1 is ! 8clay40 ,t ! mat]ials includ$ "u ?is empirical designation may v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t soils1 has already be5 suffici5tly insi/$ on2 & x is d\btful t 9 ! pres5t imp]fect /ate ( our k ( ! functions ( ! sev]al physical gra9-sizes1 we w\ld be mu* wis] 7 we to g to ! extreme advocat$ by ,williams 7,=s*4 ,agr4 ,phys41 vol4 #ah1 p4 #bbe1 ff471 ( det]m9+ ) precision ! actual am\nt ( su* extremely f9e clay p>ticles z cease altoge!r to obey ! law ( gravity :5 once susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,x is at lea/ d\btful t ! ess5tial prop]ty ( adhesive pla/icity belongs only to ^!1 = ?is prop]ty d\btless increases gradually z ! size dim9i%es1 al?\gh unque/ionably n a m]e function ( ! latt]1 s9ce x belongs only to ! hydrat$ silicate ( alum9a4 ,f]ric ,hydrate4--,probably ! body :i* mo/ commonly modifies mat]ially ! adhesive & contractile prop]ties ( ! clay sub/ance1 is f]ric hydrate2 ! m z on acc\nt ( its high d5sity x t5ds to exagg]ate mat]ially1 9 _m cases1 ! app>5t cont5t ( true clay1 & ! e/imate ( ! soil's pla/icity bas$ ^u x4 ,a good example 9 po9t is ! case ( soil ,no4 #bdf 7,miss47 ( ! above table4 ,?is is a heavy clay soil1 yet n excessively adhesive2 sc>cely z mu* s z ,no4 #bcj 7,miss471 ! heavy gray 8flatwoods0 soil1 & n ne>ly z 8/icky0 :5 wet z ,no4 #agc 7,miss471 ! prairie subsoil1 al?\gh conta9+ app>5tly #ae m clay ?an ! =m]1 & #g m ?an ! latt]4 ,b ,no4 #bdf is a highly f]rug9\s clay1 9 :i* ! f]ric hydrate is 9 a v f9ely divid$ condition1 & mat]ially influ5ces ! physical qualities ( ! clay sub/ance4 ,7 x all accumulat$ 9 ! 8clay10 x w\ld dim9i% ! p]c5tage ( true clay by #aa4ge1 r$uc+ ! clay-p]c5tage to #bh4e :i* accords m ne>ly ) ! soil's only mod]ate adhesiv5ess1 & n excessively heavy tillage4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! iron oxid %[n 9 ! analysis is n ne>ly always 9 ?is f9ely diffus$ condition4 ,frequ5tly x incru/s ! s& gra9s2 q commonly x =ms small concretions ( limonite1 :i* !mselves act z s& gra9s2 & aga91 x may be pres5t 9 ! =m ( 8black s&0 or magnetic oxid1 z is commonly ! case 9 ,cali=nia & on ! ,pacific slope g5]ally4 ,to take ?is po9t prop]ly into acc\nt1 !re=e1 x w\ld be necess>y to det]m9e ! am\nt ( f]ric hydrate actually pres5t 9 ! 8clay0 z sep>at$ by subsid5ce ( ! granul> con/itu5ts4 ,o!r sub/ances4--,?is circum/ance z well z ! inevitable pres5ce ( o!r modify+ sub/ances1 cle>ly %[s ! desirability ( be+ enabl$ to exam9e ! physical prop]ties ( ?is 8clay0 directly1 by collect+ its entire am\nt z obta9$ 9 analysis1 in/ead ( m]ely det]m9+ x by weigh+ fractional portions4 ,:5 ?is is done ! analysis is mu* m valuable z indicat+ ! true till+ qualities ( ! l&4 ,! increase ( bulk suff]$ by ?is sub/ance aft] wett+1 is a v fair index ( its cont5t ( true clay1 & is pref]able to ! *emical analysis propos$ by "s inve/igators4 ,= x is q impossible to di/+ui% ! silica & alum9a d]iv$ f ! kaol9itic sub/ance prop]1 f t :i* is due to ! decomposition ( zeolites4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 to det]m9e ! possible maximum ( ! kaol9ite +r$i5t by tak+ into consid]ation ! quantitative ratio accord+ to :i* silica & alum9a comb9e to =m x1 viz41 approximately #df ( ! =m] to #dj ( ! latt]1 ! re/ be+ wat]4 ,by us+ ?is calculation we c (t5 demon/rate cle>ly ! pres5ce 9 ! 8clay0 ( consid]able am\nts 7up to #cc7 ( alum9ic hydrate2 s9ce no zeolitic mass c conta9 z mu* alum9a z does kaol9ite4 ,:e!r ! alum9ic hydrate be 9 ! =m ( gibbsite1 bauxite1 diaspore1#bg or 9 ! gelat9\s /ate1 ! nature ( ! soils conta9+ x proves t x is totally de/itute ( pla/icity & adhesiv5ess2 & ?is consid]ation w (t5 s]ve to expla9 ! fact t soils %[+ 9 _! *emical analysis high p]c5tages ( alum9a1 nev]!less %[ q l[ degrees ( pla/icity1 adhesiv5ess & wat] absorption4 ,:at "p x may take 9 modify+ ! physical prop]ties ( ! soil we c ?us f> only conjecture4 #bg ,bauxite is n only ! mo/ abundant ( ! ?ree hydrates ( alum9a kn[n to occur naturally1 b also /&s ne>ly midway betwe5 ! two o!rs 9 its wat] cont5t1 viz41 a little ov] #be2 t ( diaspore be+ ne>ly #ae1 gibbsite ab\t #ce4 ,influ5ce ( ! granul> s$im5ts ^u ! till+ qualities ( ,soils4--,consid]+ ! granul> s$im5ts by !mselves1 9 ! abs5ce ( clay1 x may be /at$ 9 a g5]al way t :ile 9 a moi/ condition !y flocculate suffici5tly to produce a fair til?1 !y w nev]!less on dry+ collapse into a close arrangem5t result+ f ! s+le-gra9 /ructure4 ,! =m ( ! gra9s be+ angul> in/ead ( r\nd$1 !y are apt to =m a v closely pack$ mass f> f suitable to vegetable gr[?2 z w be se5 by an example tak5 f "o ( ! culture /ations ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 f a piece ( l& :i* on ! surface w\ld be call$ a v s&y loam1 b aft] we desc5d increases 9 its cont5t ( f9e gra9s until at a dep? v>y+ f eighte5 in*es to ?ree feet we f9d :at appe>s to be a h>dpan1 :i* is equally imp]vi\s to roots & wat] & causes ! wat] to /agnate to su* an ext5t t aft] heavy ra9s ! l& becomes s boggy z to r5d] pl[+ almo/ impossible )\t endang]+ ! team4 ,a close exam9ation ( ?is h>dpan %[s t1 unlike o!rs1 x is devoid ( any cem5t1 & :5 tak5 out c be readily cru%$ betwe5 ! f+]s1 & s(t5s 9 wat]1 b does n become pla/ic4 ,its imp]vi\sness is !re=e due solely to ! close pack+ ( ! s& gra9s1 = x conta9s practically no pla/ic clay1 & "u ! microscope ! gra9s are se5 to be angul>-w$ge-%ap$ & compos$ ( ! remnants ( granite4 ,! physical analysis %[s ! foll[+ result3 ,,me*anical ,,analysis ,,( ,,h>dpan4 ,designation4,diamet]4,p]c5tage4 -------------------------------- 4#ej mm4 #aj4ic ,s& 4#cj 8 #ba4bc 4#ab 8 #g4bg 4#jgb 8 #i4fc 4#jdg 8 #ab4jj ,silt 4#jcf 8 #g4ai 4#jbe 8 #a4be 4#jaf 8 #ad4bj 8,clay0 8 #h4fd -------------------------------- ,x is d\btful :e!r ?is condition ( ?+s c be rem$i$ by ! usual measure ( break+ up ! h>dpan ei!r by h& or by means ( giant-p[d] bla/+4 ,exp]i5ce seems to %[ t ! effect is only tempor>y1 & t 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 by ! action ( ! p]colat+ wat]s1 ! p>ticles settle back into _! orig9al imp]vi\s condition4 ,x is j possible1 h[ev]1 t if once p5etrat$ by roots1 ! int]v5tion ( ^! w\ld p]man5tly de/roy ! close /ructure1 s z to make ?is a fair subsoil = ! gr[? ( trees & o!r plants4 ,! writ] is n aw>e t ?is k9d ( purely physical h>dpan )\t cem5t has ev] be5 obs]v$ else:]e4 ,?is physical condition is d\btless responsible = two o!r ph5om5a1 viz41 ! 8putty soils10 & also c]ta9 difficulties exp]i5c$ 9 irrigation4 8,putty ,soils0 is ! "n popul>ly giv5 9 ! ,cotton ,/ates1 & probably else:]e1 to soils usually occurr+ 9 l[ gr\nd & also kn[n z 8cray-fi%y40 ,!y consi/ ( v uni=m1 p[d]y s$im5t1 ) little or no co>se s& & /ill less ( clay to r5d] !m coh]5t4 ,:5 wet ^! soils behave precisely z w\ld glazi]'s putty1 adh]+ to ! surface ( ev5 ! be/-poli%$ pl[%>e1 s t no furr[-slice c be turn$ & ! pl[ is soon dragg$ out ( ! gr\nd4 ,at a v closely limit$ condition ( moi/ure su* l&s may pl[ fairly well2 b :5 ?is limit is pass$ 9 ! lea/ 7z sometimes happ5s 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le day71 x turns up only h>d clods1 :i* 9 a few h\rs ( sun%9e become s h>d t no in/rum5t ( tillage %ort ( a sl$gehamm] w make any impression ^u !m4 ,! physical analysis ( ^! usually gray soils %[s t !y conta9 only a trifl+ am\nt ( clay2 p]haps #a or #b1 play+ ! "p ( l9se$ oil 9 mak+ putty out ( :it+4 ,ev5 ! addition ( lime does n help su* soils mu*1 because !re is little or no clay to flocculate4 ,!y are1 z a matt] ( fact1 among ! mo/ refractory l&s ! f>m] has to deal )4 ,a soil %[+ simil> behavior1 ?\gh n q z extreme z 9 ! case ( ! ,gulf or ,cotton ,/ates' soils 9 "q1 occurs at ! culture sub/ation at ,paso ,robles1 ,cali=nia1 & is probably closely correlat$ to ! physical h>dpan ref]r$ to above4 ,! physical analysis ( ?is soil yield$ ! foll[+ result3 ,,me*anical ,,analysis ,,( ,,soil4 ,designation4,diamet]4,p]c5tage4 -------------------------------- 4#ej mm4 #ad4bd 4#cj 8 #ae4ag ,s& 4#af 8 #h4hh 4#ab 8 #e4fj 4#jgb 8 #f4ge 4#jdg 8 #h4ce ,silt 4#jcf 8 #h4ee 4#jbe 8 #f4jc 4#jaf 8 #ag4gg 8,clay0 8 #g4ej -------------------------------- ,x w\ld seem ! be/ & almo/ only rem$y to be appli$ to su* soils z ^! is ! introduction ( vegetable matt] or gre5-manur+1 by :i* _! texture is loos5$3 = ! haul+ ( m]e clay ^u ! l& w\ld h>dly accompli% ! purpose int5d$1 )9 ! limits ( f>m economy4 ,du/ ,soils1 :i* dur+ ! dry season are ev5 9 _! natural condition s loose z to rise 9 cl\ds & r5d] travel v uncom=table1 are n uncommon 9 arid c\ntries1 e4 g41 9 ,wa%+ton & adjac5t p>ts ( ,oregon1 on ! upl&s bord]+ ! ,columbia1 ,yakima & ,snake riv]s4 ,! physical analyses ( ?ree ( su* soils1 giv5 9 ! table bel[1 w convey "s idea ( _! peculi>ities 9 ?is respect4 ,,physical ,,analysis ,,( ,,du/ ,,soils4 ,hydr4 ,value4,diamet]4 ,no #ag4,no4 #cg4,no4 #gi4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,clay 4#jjbc4 mm4 4#aj--8 4#ic #c4ei #a4bg 4#be mm4 4#jaj #cj4ic #ac4jf #cb4bi ,silt 4#be to 4#e 4#jaf #c4bj #e4hb #ab4ge 4#e to #b4j 4#jbe-4jdg #g4ah #bg4cg #cg4ea #b4j to #h4j 4#jdg-4abj #ba4hh #dc4gh #aj4ib ,s& #h4j to #fd4j 4#ab- 4#ej #cb4ci #di4eg #c4ig -------------------- ,total #if4eg #ih4ah #ih4gb ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,sl[ p5etration ( ,wat]4--,soils ( ?is class are wett$ ) extreme sl[ness by irrigation wat]2 s t :5 fir/ tak5 "u cultivation x sometimes takes tw5ty-f\r h\rs to soak ! l& = twelve in*es 9 ea* direction4 ,irrigation furr[s mu/ be plac$ v close toge!r & 9 l>ge numb]s1 9 ord] to ensure ! wett+ ( ! soil s t ! crop %all n suff] f lack ( moi/ure at a di/ance ( two or n m ?an ?ree feet4 ,:]e ! irrigation furr[s are drawn f>!r ap>t a f9e /& ( gra9 may be se5 )9 eighte5 in*es ( ! same1 :ile f>!r away ! crops may be dy+ f lack ( moi/ure4 ,?is difficulty is by no means infrequ5t 9 ! arid region1 & is difficult to ov]come except by frequ5t & ?or\gh tillage1 :i* gradually increases ! rapidity ( wat]-p5etration2 z has be5 %[n 9 ! soils ( ! alluvial prairies ( ! ,yakima c\ntry 9 ! ,/ate ( ,wa%+ton4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to take c>e t !y %all always conta9 an adequate am\nt ( humus or vegetable matt]1 9 ord] to prev5t re-consolidation by ! burn+-out ( ! humus dur+ ! w>m1 ra9less season4 ,!re is an unmi/akable resemblance betwe5 ^! du/ soils ( ! ,nor?we/ & ! 8putty0 soils m5tion$ above2 bo? %[+ a v l[ p]c5tage ( clay ) a relatively l>ge am\nt ( ! f9e/ s$im5ts1 ) a sudd5 d[nw>d break ( ! curve be=e ! co>s] gra9-sizes are rea*$4 ,x w\ld seem z ?\gh ! abs5ce ( ^! int]m$iate gra9s favors ! close pack+ ( ! f9e s$im5ts 9 ! int]/ices ( ! co>se ones1 ?us br++ ab\t ! imp]vi\sness1 :i* is ! *ief ob/acle to _! cultivation4 ,effects ( co>se ,s&4--,co>se s& int]m+l$ ) heavy clay soils has b little effect 9 improv+ ! till+ qualities1 unless c>ri$ to su* excess z r5d]s x f9anciallyimpracticable4 ,9 actual practice x is frequ5tly possible to improve su* soils by prop]ly di/ribut+ ^u !m ! wa%+s ( ! adjac5t hills1 :i* w always c>ry s&s ( _m grades2 & :5 x is int5d$ to improve g>d5 l& by haul+ s& x is important to *oose ! latt] s z to complem5t ! defici5t gra9-sizes ( ! soil4 ,! s& ( w9d drifts or dunes is g5]ally well adapt$ to su* improvem5t1 be+1 z ,udd5#bh has %[n1 ( a fairly def9ite composition ( suffici5tly wide range ( gra9-sizes = ! purpose4 ,! effects ( humus 9 modify+ soil texture are discuss$ f>!r on4 #bh ,! ,me*anical ,composition ( ,w9d ,deposits1 ,bull4 ,no4 #a1 ,augu/ana ,libr>y ,publications2 #ahih4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,d5sity ,,& ,,volume-,,weight ,,( ,,soils4 ,aside f ! humus-sub/ances ! specific gravity ( ! common soil con/itu5ts1 tak5 individually1 d n v>y widely2 kaol9ite be+ ! lighte/ 7#b4fj71 feldsp> next 7#b4fb72 !n qu>tz 7#b4fe71 calcite 7#b4gb74 ,mica & hornbl5de range 7accord+ to _! iron cont5ts7 f #b4gb to ov] #c4j4 ,! av]age specific gravity ( soils ( ord9>y humus cont5t only w ?us range betwe5 #b4ee & #b4ge2 s&y soils approa*+ v closely to t ( qu>tz alone4 ,volume-,weight4--,! specific gravity ( ! soil is1 h[ev]1 ( little practical consequ5ce comp>$ ) ! 8volume-weight10 i4 e41 ! weight ( ! natural soil z comp>$ ) an equal bulk ( wat]4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fb p\nds2 a simil> volume ( soil usually weighs m1 b 9 ! case ( peaty l&s may actually 7:5 dry7 weigh less4 ,! extreme range is f #aaj p\nds = calc>e\s1 & some:at less = silice\s s&1 to z little z #cj to #ej p\nds 9 ! case ( peaty & swamp soils4 ,x may be conv5i5tly rememb]$ t :ile av]age arable loams range f #hj to ab\t #ie p\nds p] cubic foot1 8heavy0 clay soils range f #ge p\nds d[n to #fi1 obs]v$ by ! writ] 9 ! case ( c]ta9 alluvial soils1 poor 9 humus1#bi ( ! ,sacram5to riv]1 ,cali=nia4 ,manur$ g>d5 soils1 & ! mold surface soil ( decidu\s =e/s1 g5]ally conta9 s mu* humus z to depress _! weight consid]ably1 v>y+ accord+ to _! /ate ( til? f #ff to #gj p\nds p] cubic foot4 #bi ,?is rem>kable soil seems to h be5 d]iv$ f ! f9e/ 8slick5s0 ( ! hydraulic gold m9es4 ,weight p] acre-foot4--,z = practical purposes & calculations x is (t5 desirable to "k approximately ! weight 9 p\nds ( an acre 7#dc1efj squ>e feet7 "o foot deep1 x is conv5i5t to rememb] t 9 ! case ( s&y l&1 ?is weight 7p] 8acre-foot07 may be assum$ at f\r millions ( p\nds2 = loams1 at #c millions2 = clay l&s1 #c millions2 = humus or g>d5 l& & woods e>?1 ab\t #c millions ( p\nds2 = re$y swamp & peaty l&s1 #b to #b millions4 ,! loose til? & humus-cont5t ( ! surface soil w 9 g5]al cause x to weigh less1 bulk = bulk1 ?an ! und]ly+ subsoil1 ev5 :5 ! latt] is m clayey2 moreov]1 ! cont9u\s pressure f above w t5d to consolidate ! subsoil & sub/rata4 ,w>+ton 7,phys4 ,prop]ties ( ,soils1 pp4 #df1 #dg7 gives int]e/+ data on ?is po9t f ! ,ro?am/ead fields1 z foll[s3 ,old pa/ure1 fir/ n9e in*es #ga4c p\nds p] cub4 ft4 ,same1 f\r? 8 8 #ajb4c 8 8 8 8 ,arable l&1 fir/ 8 8 #hi4d 8 8 8 8 ,same1 f\r? 8 8 #aja4d 8 8 8 8 ,! influ5ce ( humus & unhumifi$ organic matt]1 z well z ( tillage1 9 dim9i%+ ! volume-weight ( soils is "h /rik+ly %[n4 ,air-space 9 ,natural ,soils4--,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! specific gravity z usually det]m9$1 & ! volume-weight ( soils1 is ( c\rse caus$ by ! l>ge am\nt ( air conta9$ 9 !m :5 dry1 b :i* 9 wett+ !m is p>tially or :olly replac$ by wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,v>i\s possible arrangem5ts ( soil p>ticles4 ,!oretically1 assum+ all soil gra9s to be globul>1 & pack$ z closely z possible 79 oblique ord]71 ! space n fill$ by !m w\ld be ! same = all sizes1 :e!r t ( m>bles1 or s m9ute z to be h>dly felt betwe5 ! f+]s2 & w\ld be #be4ie p] c5t ( ! soil volume4#cj ,if ! same globul> p>ticles 7 pack$ z loosely z possible1 i4 e41 9 squ>e in/ead ( oblique ord] 7see figures #aj & #aa71 ! vacant space w\ld be #dg4fd p] c5t ,if h[ev] we imag9e ea* sph]e to be itself compos$ ( a numb] ( small] ones1 ! empty space w obvi\sly be greatly increas$1 to an ext5t proportionate to ! dim9ution ( solid mass ?us br\ght ab\t4 ,! pore-space might 9 t case1 ) ! oblique arrangem5t ( ! globules z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 be z high z #gd4je p] c5t ,b s9ce ! soil p>ticles may be ( all %apes & sizes )9 ! same soil1 & usually fit mu* m closely ?an w\ld globul> gra9s1 ! empty space r>ely approa*es 7only 9 c]ta9 alluvial soils & 9 loose mul*es7 to ! figure la/ nam$4 ,9 s&y soils x may fall z l[ z #bj1 & 9 co>se gravelly soils ev5 z l[ z #aj4 ,mo/ cultivat$ soils range betwe5 #ce & #ej ( empty space4 #cj ,k+1 ,physics ( ,agriculture1 p4 #aaf1 ff4 ,effects ( ,tillage4--,t ^! figures c be only approximations is obvi\s f ! consid]ation t "o & ! same soil w v>y mat]ially 9 its volume-weight accord+ to its tempor>y condition ( great] or less compactness4 ,aft] l& has be5 beat5 by w9t] ra9s1 its volume-weight w be f\nd to h mat]ially increas$ f ! well-till$ condition br\ght ab\t by ?or\gh cultivation4 ,?is diff]5ce is /rik+ly se5 :51 9 pl[+1 ! height ( ! gr\nd on ! l& side is comp>$ ) t ( ! turn$ furr[-slice 9 well condition$ loamy l&4 ,?is loose condition is call$ til?1 & x results f ! =mation ( relatively l>ge1 complex crumbs#ca or floccules1 betwe5 :i* !re are l>ge air spaces t 7 :olly abs5t 9 ! untill$ l&2 ! floccules !mselves be+ also m loosely aggregat$ ?an 0 ! case be=e tillage4 #ca ,! ^w crumbs1 :i* is g5]ally und]/ood z mean+ a relatively l>ge1 loose aggregate1 seems pref]able to ! ^w k]nels1 sugge/$ = ! same by ,k+ 7,physics ( ! ,soil1 p4 #aaj74 ,k]nels are und]/ood to be bodies r m solid ?an ! surr\nd+ mass1 & d n convey ! idea ( loose aggregates4 ,! ^w 8,krmel/ructur0 7crumb-/ructure71 adopt$ by ,wollny = ?is ph5om5on1 has bo? fitness & priority 9 its favor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,l& be=e & aft] pl[+4 ,! compactness ( ! soil is indicat$ by ! d5sity ( dott+4 ,be=e pl[+ !re is a compact surface cru/ 7s71 bel[ :i* ! soil becomes less & less compact z we g deep]4 ,aft] pl[+ we f9d ! soil 7fs1 furr[-slice7 conv]t$ into a loose mass ( crumbs 7floccules71 ) increase ( bulk4 ,compact$ pl[sole at pl4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,a soil-crumb1 magnifi$ to %[ ! p>ticles ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! p>ticles are held toge!r by ! wat]-m5isci1 j z are ! hairs ( a bru% :5 wett$4 ,! :ite spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles repres5t air4 ,crumb or ,flocculat$ /ructure4--,figure #aa illu/rates ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! unpl[$ l&1 consolidat$ especially on ! surface by w9t] ra9s1 & 9 its upp] portion consi/+ l>gely ( s+le gra9s2 :ile ! pl[$ l&1 t[>d :i* ! furr[-slices h be5 turn$1 is greatly increas$ 9 height & volume & consi/s almo/ :olly ( v>i\sly-%ap$ &-siz$ aggregates or floccules1 loosely pil$ ^u "o ano!r & sep>at$ by l>ge int]spaces4 ,! increase 9 volume f consolidat$ clay to crumb-/ructure is giv5 by ,wollny 7,=s*41 vol4 #bj1 p4 #ac1 #ahig7 at #da4i1 to p[d] z #cc4 ,on moi/5+ dry clay increas$ #cf4i1 qu>tz p[d] #h4ja4 ,:5 l& is pl[$ 9 ! prop] moi/ure-condition ! crumbs ( floccules are held toge!r by ! surface t5sion ( ! capill>y films 7m5isci7 ( wat] at ! po9ts ( contact4 ,9 ! case ( s&s1 ! crumbs w collapse into s+le gra9s :5ev] ! wat]-films evaporate1 unless "s cem5t+ sub/ance 0 dissolv$ or susp5d$ 9 ! wat]4 7,see figure #ab74 ,lime c>bonate is "o ( ! sub/ances mo/ commonly f\nd p]man5tly cem5t+ ! floccules2 h5ce ! ready tillage ( mo/ calc>e\s soils1 & especially ! loose texture ( ! 8loess0 ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,9 ^! deposits we f9d s&y & silt aggregates or concretions rang+ f t5 or m in*es 9 l5g? 7loess puppets7 to microscopic size1 held toge!r by lime c>bonate1 b collaps+ into silt & s& :5 ! mat]ial is treat$ ) acid s z to dissolve ! cem5t4 ,! r\gh surfaces ( ^! aggregates1 gripp+ into ea* o!r1 expla9 ! /ability ( ! /eep loess cliffs 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z well z 9 nor!a/]n ,*9a1 z obs]v$ by ,von ,ri*?(5 & ,pumpelly4 ,clay is mo/ frequ5tly ! sub/ance :i* imp>ts at lea/ tempor>y /ability to ! crumbs & crumb-/ructure2 ?is is "o ( its mo/ important functions 9 soils1 z x s]ves to ma9ta9 til? once imp>t$ by cultivation1 ev5 aft] ! l& dries out4 ,beat+ ra9s1 & cultivation :ile too wet1 w 9 ?is case ( c\rse de/roy ! crumbs & ! loose til?4 ,o!r sub/ances :i* greatly aid ! ma9t5ance ( til? are ! sev]al humates 7( lime1 magnesia1 iron71 :i* :5 fre% are colloidal 7jelly-l7 l clay itself1 b unlike ! latt]1 :5 once dri$ d n resume _! pla/ic =m by wett+ 7,s*loes+74 ,! crumbs ?us =m$ are !re=e q p]man5t & contribute to ! loos5ess ( soils ri* 9 humus4 ,"o "p ( lime humate is said by ,s*loes+ to be equal 9 cem5t+ p[] to elev5 p>ts ( clay4 ,silica1 silicates & f]ric hydrate are sometimes f\nd cem5t+ soil crumbs1 :olly or 9 "p4 ,! importance ( ! ready p5etration ( air1 wat] & roots ?us r5d]$ possible is obvi\s2 & ! "q arises h[ x happ5s t wild plants are able to d )\t tillage4 ,h[ ,nature ,tills4--,:5 we exam9e ! undi/urb$ soil ( woods or prairie 9 ! humid region1 we w z a rule f9d ! natural surface soil 9 a v good condition ( til?2 ! obvi\s cause be+ ! pres5ce 9 x ( an abundant network ( surface roots & rootlets ( grasses & h]bs1 :i* 9 connection ) ! fall5 foliage prev5t ! beat+ & compact+ ( ! soil surface2 :i* c be se5 to happ5 be=e ! obs]v]'s eyes :5ev] a heavy ra9 falls on a b>e l& surface1 h[ev] well till$4 ,cru/+ ( ,soils4--,9 "s soils1 especially ( ! ,gulf ,/ates1 ! beat+ ( ra9 foll[$ by w>m sun%9e s effectually compacts ! surface t 9 ! case ( taproot$ plants l cotton1 x becomes necess>y to cultivate aft] ea* ra91 s z to break ! cru/ t w\ld o!rwise n only prev5t ! prop] circulation ( air1 b w\ld also s]ve to wa/e ! moi/ure ( ! l&4 ,! same l& 9 ! wild condition suff]$ no su* *ange1 be+ protect$ by ! native vegetation1 & by fall5 leaves4 7,see *apt4 #h74 ,soils ( ! arid region4--,9 ! regions ( defici5t ra9fall ! conditions are modifi$ 9 sev]al respects4 ,grass sw>d r>ely exi/s1 ne>ly all grasses assum+ ! habit ( gr[+ 9 tufts or bun*es "s di/ance 7a foot or two7 ap>t2 h5ce ! "n ( 8bun* grass0 commonly us$1 :i* h[ev] means n any "o def9ite k9d ( grass1 b s]ves to di/+ui% ! grasses ( ! upl&s f ^? ( ! moi/ l[l&s1 :]e true sw>d may be f\nd4 ,betwe5 ^! bun*es ( grass ! soil is fully expos$1 & be+ free f roots & leaf-cov]+ is compact$1 unless its nature is su* t ! usually g5tle ra9s d n produce a s]i\s cru/+ ( ! surface4 ,t su* is actually ! pr$om9ant nature ( ! soils =m$ "u arid influ5ces has already be5 /at$2 & ?us ! h>d-bak$ soil-surface s (t5 se5 9 ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates 9 unpl[$ b>e l&1 or dur+ ! preval5ce ( a dr\ght1 is r>ely se5 9 ! arid region4 ,! clay l&s t d exi/ are usually suffici5tly calc>e\s to possess ! prop]ty ( 8slak+0 into crumbs :5ev] wett$ aft] dry+4 ,b :]e ?is is n ! case1 ! /ony h>dness br\ght ab\t by ! long dry & w>m season is long 9 be+ remov$ by ! w9t] ra9s4 ,*anges ( soil-volume on wett+ & dry+4--,! behavior ( colloidal clay 9 ! above respects has already be5 describ$ above 7see *apt4 #d1 page #ei74 ,x is obvi\s t :5ev] soils conta9 a l>ge proportion ( su* clay1 _! behavior on wett+ & dry+ w approximate to ^? ( ! pure clay4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 ! heavy clay1 or s-call$ 8prairie soils0 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* :5 ?or\ghly wett$ 9 spr+ w1 dur+ a dry summ]1 =m wide1 gap+ cracks4 ,^! 9 ! long summ]s ( ! arid region may ext5d to ! dep? ( sev]al feet1 ) a wid? ( z mu* z ?ree & m in*es at ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 contributes greatly to ! dry+-out ( ! soil to ! same dep?1 & results z well 9 ! me*anical te>+ ( ! root-sy/em ( gr[+ plants2 sometimes caus+ ! total de/ruction ( vegetation4 ,9 "s clay soils x happ5s t aft] a ra9 or irrigation1 ! %r9kage occurr+ ^u ! adv5t ( w>m sun%9e w cause ! surface cru/ to s contract ar\nd ! /em1 e4 g41 ( gra91 z to con/rict & injure ! b>k1 caus+ s]i\s injury to ! crop4 ,9 soils ( ?is "* v ?or\gh tillage 9 prep>+ = a crop1 & ! ma9t5ance ( a loose surface dur+ its gr[?1 are ( c\rse extremely ess5tial4 ,9 ! arid region x w frequ5tly happ5 t su* soils :5 n till$ to a suffici5t dep?1 w dur+ ! lat] "p ( ! summ] s %r9k & crack b5ea? ! %all[-till$ surface lay] t ! latt] w bodily fall into ! cracks1 expos+ ! roots to all ! delet]i\s influ5ces ( me*anical lesion & dry+-out4 ,x is ?us obvi\s t ! cultivation ( su* soils %\ld n be und]tak5 at all by ^? n naturally able & will+ to be/[ ^u !m1 to ! fulle/ ext5t1 ! deep & ?or\gh tillage :i* is absolutely ess5tial 9 ! utilization ( _! usually high productive p[]4 ,ext5t ( ,%r9kage4--,! ext5t ( ?is %r9kage 9 dry+1 & subsequ5t expansion 9 wett+1 h be5 measur$ by ! writ] by ! use ( ! sieve cyl9d] describ$ bel[ 7*apt4 #aa1 p4 #bji71 z s]v+ = ! det]m9ation ( ! wat] capacity ( soils4 ,:5 a soil ( ! k9d above ref]r$ to is plac$ 9 ! sieve cyl9d] 9 ! till$ 7flocculat$7 condition1 !n all[$ to absorb its maximum ( wat] & !n dri$ at #ajj degrees ,c41 ! contraction 9 dry+ c be v /rik+ly se51 & its am\nt measur$ by fill+ up ! empty space ) m]cury2 !n measur+ ! latt] aft] expell+ ! surplus by means ( a gr\nd glass plate laid on top4 ,! contraction ( sev]al heavy clay soils1 ?us measur$1 has be5 f\nd by ! writ] to range f #bh to z mu* z #dj p] c5t ( ! orig9al bulk4#cb ,! soil ?us contract$1 :5 aga9 wett$1 does n return altoge!r to its orig9al bulk1 b rema9s 9 a m or less compact$ condition1 l t ( a soil :i* has be5 ra9$ ^u4 #cb ,wollny 7,=s*4 ,vol4 #bj1 p4 #ac ff41 #ahig7 records simil>ly high %r9kages 9 8 exp]im5ts4 ,! expansion & contraction ( a heavy clay soil on wett+ & dry+ are well illu/rat$ 9 ! figure bel[1 9 :i* ! soils are %[n 9 ! %all[ cyl9d] :i* s]ves = ! det]m9ation ( wat]-hold+ p[] 7see *apt4 #aa1 p4 #bji74 ,! middle figure %[s 9 pr(ile ! expansion ( a dry1 pulv]iz$ 8black adobe10 /ruck level1 :5 all[$ to absorb its maximum ( wat]2 x rises above ! rim ( ! sieve-box to ne>ly ! half height ( ! latt]4 ,! outside figure to ! "r %[s ! same soil aft] dry+2 t to ! left1 a r$ clay soil simil>ly treat$4 ,x is easily se5 t ^! v>iations 9 volume may br+ ab\t v m>k$ results 9 ! fields2 ! surface ( :i*1 ap>t f ! cracks usually =m$1 may be sev]al in*es l[] 9 ! dry season ?an dur+ wet wea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,r$ ,,clay ,,soil4 ,,black 8,,adobe0 ,,clay ,,soil4 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,expansion on ,wett+ & ,contraction on ,dry+ ( heavy clay soils4 ,contraction on ,wett+4--,9 ! case ( alkali soils conta9+ mu* c>bonate ( soda1 a v notable contraction occurs 9 wett+ ! loose1 dry soil4 ,! cause is "h obvi\sly ! collapse ( ! crumbs1 =m$ 9 dry tillage or cru%+1 into s+le gra9s1 closely pack$4 ,! same result is obs]v$ 9 ! naturally depress$ 8alkali spots0 7see *apt4 #bb74 8,hog-wall[s40--,9 ! field ! wett+ ( crack$ clay soils produces "s v curi\s effects4 ,! effect ( ! fir/ light ra9s usually is to crumble (f ! edges or angles ne> ! surface1 ! mat]ials ?us loos5$ fall+ into ! l[] portion ( ! cracks4 ,?is is repeat$ at ea* successive %[] foll[$ by sun%9e1 ! crevices ?us becom+ p>tly fill$ ) surface soil4 ,:51 subsequ5tly1 ! heavi] & m cont9u\s ra9s wet ! l& fully1 also caus+ ! consolidat$ mass 9 ! crevices to exp&1 ! latt] _c close on acc\nt ( ! surplus mat]ial hav+ fall5 into !m2 ! result be+ t ! int]m$iate portions ( ! soil are compell$ to bulge upw>d1 sometimes = six or m in*es1 creat+ a v unev51 humpy surface1 well-kn[n 9 ! s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates z 8hog-wall[s40#cc #cc ,a totally diff]5t k9d ( 8hog-wall[s10 occurr+ 9 ,cali=nia & ! arid region g5]ally1 h be5 describ$ 9 a previ\s *apt] "u ! head ( ,aeolian soils 7,see *apt4 #a1 p4 #i74 ,su* a surface is always !re=e an indication ( an extremely heavy soil1 difficult to cultivate2 yet embrac+ "s ( ! mo/ highly & p]man5tly productive l&s kn[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 ,india1 :]e ! 8regur0 l&s ( ! ,deccan are ( ?is "*2 !y h be5 cultivat$ )\t f]tilization = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! subjo9$ physical analyses ( l&s ( su* extreme "* z to be almo/ uncultivatable w s]ve to exemplify _! physical composition4 ,,physical ,,analyses ,,( ,,heavie/ ,,clay ,,soils4 ,no #bdb ,miss4,no4 #fdc ,cal4 ------------------------ ,hog-wall[s ,black ,adobe4 soil4 ,contra ,co/a ,jasp] ,co4 ,co4 ,mississippi4,cali=nia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,weight ( gravel ov] #a4b mm4 diamet] 4#hc 8 8 betwe5 #a4b & #a mm 8 8 betwe5 #a & #j4f mm #a4ai ,f9e e>? #ig4ih #ajj4jj ------------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,hydr4 ,value4 ,diamet]4 ---------------------------------------- ,clay 4#jjbc mm 8 #dh4jj #de4if #j4be mm 4#jaj #ce4ah #cg4fd #j4be mm 4#jaf ,silt #j4e mm 4#jbe #e4ej #b4gd #a4j mm 4#jcf #c4gd #c4ca #b4j mm 4#jdg #b4ed #b4ie #d4j mm 4#jgb 4#bj #b4ci #h4j mm 4#abj 4#bg #a4fh #af4j mm 4#afj 4#ij 4#gi ,s& #cb4j mm 4#cj #a4fg #b4cf #fd4j mm 4#ej #b4jj ------------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,x w be not$ t 9 bo? ^! extremely heavy soils ! sum ( ! clay & f9e/ s$im5ts is a little ov] #hc4 ,x %\ld be /at$ t bo? ^! soils aft] be+ ?or\ghly wett$ become s adhesive t x is almo/ impossible to travel ov] ! tracts occupi$ by !m1 & t !y are practically almo/ untillable1 be+ too adhesive :5 wet2 yet if all[$ to dry to a c]ta9 ext5t 7v>y+ )9 v n>r[ limits7 !y turn up by ! pl[ 9 l>ge clods1 :i* aft] a few h\rs ( sun%9e become ( /ony h>dness & w resi/ all ef=ts at pulv]ization or ! production ( til?4#cd #cd ,9 driv+ a light c>riage ov] ! l& repres5t$ by ,no4 #fdc above1 aft] a light ra91 ! :eels ga!r$ up s mu* soil )9 a hundr$ y>ds z to r5d] x necess>y to /op & *op x (f ! tires by means ( a hat*et4 ,?is is a common exp]i5ce 9 ! black prairie l&s ( ,texas4 ,calc>e\s ,clay ,soils crumble on dry+4--,! heavy clay soils ( "s ( ! calc>e\s prairies ( ! ,s\?we/1 in/ead ( contract+ into a /ony mass on dry+1 on ! contr>y resolve into a mass ( crumbs1 ?us produc+ excell5t til?4 ,?is occurs ev5 ?\gh ! l& may h be5 pl[$ :5 wet1 & ( c\rse is a great advantage4 ,! mo/ /rik+ exemplification ( ?is peculi>ity occurs 9 ! heavy b pr(usely f]tile 8buck%ot0 clay l&s ( ! ,yazoo bottom1 9 ,mississippi1 :]e x is usual to plant corn & sweet potatoes 9 ! semi-fluid mud left aft] an ov]fl[1 aft] turn+ a %all[ furr[1 !n cov]+ by turn+ ano!r4 ,to ! onlook] x seems impossible t su* plant+s c\ld be successful2 b )9 a %ort "t ! muddy surface becomes a b$ ( crumbs 78buck%ot071 =m+ a se$-b$ n readily excell$ by any made by artificial means4 ,h5ce1 l>gely1 ! almo/ inv>iable success ( crops 9 ! ,yazoo region4 ,port ,hudson ,bluff4--,! same clay produces a mo/ unpleasant result at ! foot ( ! ,port ,hudson bluff1 :]e x crops out "s feet above l[ wat]4 ,:5 aft] a fre%et ! wat] level falls bel[ ?is /ratum1 on dry+ ! clay dis9tegrates into crumbs j z does ! ,yazoo buck%ot soil2 ) ! result t at ! next rise1 ! loose mass subsides into ! riv] z a flood ( mud4 ,?us ! foot ( ! bluff is be+ con/antly und]m9$1 & ! fall+ ( ! bluff sc>p has oblig$ ! t[n above to rec$e _m hundr$s ( feet f its orig9al hi/oric site4 ,! exact proportions ( lime c>bonate necess>y to produce ?is ph5om5on1 & its necess>y relations to clay sub/ance & o!r physical soil +r$i5ts1 yet rema9 to be inve/igat$4#ce #ce ,s*bl] 7,grundstz$4 ,agrikultur*emie1 #ahch7 ascribes ! crumbl+ ( calc>e\s clay soils to ! diff]5ce 9 ! contraction ( calc>e\s s& & ! clay sub/ance4 ,b x is d\btless m directly connect$ ) ! flocculation ( ! latt] by lime4 ,loamy & ,s&y ,soils4--,x is l>gely ! abs5ce ( ^! extreme *anges ( volume t r5d]s ! cultivation ( loamy or ev5 s&y l&s s mu* m easy1 & ! success ( crops s mu* m safe1 ?an is ! case 9 clay soils4 ,:5ev] ! cont5t ( colloidal clay dim9i%es bel[ #ae1 ! %r9kage 9 dry+ f ! wet condition becomes s slight z to cause no inconv5i5ce2 :ile 9 s&y soils prop]ly speak+1 no p]ceptible *ange 9 volume occurs4 ,peaty soils1 h[ev]1 & all ^? conta9+ a relatively l>ge am\nt ( humus1 are also liable to visible %r9kage :5 pass+ f ! wet to ! dry condition4 ,b on acc\nt ( _! loos5ess & porosity su* %r9kage does n usually result 9 ! =mation ( cracks or rupture ( ! roots1 z is ! case 9 heavy clay l&s4 ,! entire mass ( ! soil !n %r9ks d[nw>ds1 b r>ely =ms cracks on ! surface4 ,h5ce ! introduction ( humus into 8heavy0 soils is among ! be/ means ( improv+ _! till+ qualities4 ,=mation ( ,surface ,cru/s4--,"s soils1 especially ^? ( a clay-loam "*1 are v liable to ! =mation ( h>d surface cru/s f ! beat+ ( ra9s1 & f surface irrigation2 ow+1 d\btless1 to ! ready deflocculation ( _! clay sub/ance4 ,x is n easy to def9e ! precise physical composition conducive to ?is cru/ =mation2 b ! subjo9$ physical analyses %[ examples ( soils 9 :i* ?is t5d5cy is v prom95t & is frequ5tly annoy+1 9 t :5 !y occur 9 ! regions ( frequ5t summ] ra9s1 x becomes necess>y aft] ea* "o to till ! surface 9 ho$ crops 7e4 g41 9 cotton-fields7 9 ord] to prev5t ! injuri\s effects ( su* consolidation ( ! surface4 ,x may1 ( c\rse1 be prev5t$ by mul*+1 or on ! l>ge scale by gre5-manur+1 to su* ext5t z to prev5t contraction4 ,! subjo9$ physical analyses ( two soils f ! ,br[n-,loam region ( ,nor!rn ,mississippi 7see *ap4 #bd71 %[s ! composition ( l&s excell5t 9 e respect o!r ?an ! t5d5cy to cru/ aft] ea* ra93 ,,physical ,,analyses ,,( ,,cru/-,,=m+ ,,soils4 ,diamet]4,hydr4 ,value4,no4 #bai4,no4 #aig4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,co>se mat]ials #a-c mm4 4#bc 4#e-a 8 4#ej #fd mm4 #a4dg ,s& 4#cj #cb 8 #b4cc 4#gi 4#af #af 8 #a4ag 4#ab #h 8 4#gh 4#ah 4#jgb #d 8 4#gf 4#gh 4#jdg #b 8 #i4gi #c4ef ,silt 4#jcf #a 8 #g4bj #ac4ab 4#jbe 4#ej #ac4aa #af4fd 4#jaf 4#be #ae4jg #bg4bh 4#jaj 4#be #bf4cf #ah4hg ,clay 8 4#jjbc #ai4aj #ag4bc ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,^! soils agree 9 hav+ a suffici5t am\nt ( clay 7#ag to #ai7 to *>act]ize !m z clayey loams1 associat$ ) a v l>ge proportion ( ! gra9-sizes ( less ?an 4#jbe mm41 or 4#e mm4 hydraulic value4 ,a high] proportion ( clay1 ev5 ?\gh associat$ ) a simil>ly high or ev5 l>g] proportion ( ^! f9e s$im5ts1 seems to prev5t cru/+1 probably because ! swell+ ( ! clayey +r$i5t on wett+ & its extravagant contraction 9 dry+ breaks up ! cont9uity ( ! surface4 ,! heavie/ clay soils1 su* z ^? %[n on a prec$+ page1 nei!r cru/ nor crumble on dry+ aft] wett+1 b contract into lumps ( /ony h>dness1 z a :ole4 ,! burn+-out ( ! humus f well-till$ surface soils dur+ ! ext5d$ heat & dryness ( ra9less summ]s1 br+s ab\t su* a contraction or pack+ ( ! surface soil ( or*>ds 9 ,cali=nia z to greatly r$uce _! productiv5ess1 & to r5d] necess>y dilig5t gre5-manur+ z ! only practical rem$y4 ,9 _m cases1 lim+ ( ! surface also s]ves well to prev5t ?is injuri\s effect1 :i* to "s ext5t ( c\rse foll[s surface irrigation z well z ra9s4 ,9 mo/ soils1 repeat$ alt]nate wett+ & dry+ 9 place produces a loose1 flocculat$ texture1 s long z no deflocculation is br\ght ab\t by me*anical causes1 su* z beat+ ra9s or runn+ wat]4 ,effects ( ,fro/ on ! ,soil4--,! expansion suff]$ by wat] 9 freez+ necess>ily t5ds to sep>ate ! soil p>ticles previ\sly held toge!r by ! surface t5sion ( ! capill>y wat]1 or o!rwise flocculat$ or cem5t$4 ,freez+ ( ! soil is !re=e ( mat]ial assi/ance 9 dis9tegrat+ cloddy1 ill-condition$ soils1 leav+ !m 9 loose1 crumbly condition aft] ! ice has melt$ & ! surplus wat] dra9$ (f2 s z to mat]ially facilitate tillage & root p5etration4 ,:51 h[ev]1 soils ?us circum/anc$ are till$ or trodd5 :ile too wet1 !y quickly become puddl$1 be+ practically r$uc$ to s+le-gra9 /ructure4 7,see ?is *apt4 p4 #aaj74 ,h5ce ! injury caus$ by all[+ cattle to range 9 w9t] on cultivat$ l& subject to freez+ & ?aw+1 :i* x sometimes takes ye>s to correct4 ,a disagreeable effect (t5 produc$ by ! freez+ & ?aw+ ( wet l&s is ! 8heav+-cut0 ( gra91 result+ f ! upw>d expansion ( ! surface soil 9 freez+1 t may readily rupture ! roots2 :ile on ?aw+1 ! soil surr\nd+ ! upheav$ /ool is apt to settle d[n1 especially 9 case ( a ra91 leav+ ! /ool & roots expos$ ei!r to dry+ or freez+1 z ! case may be4 ,h5ce ! desire ( gra9 f>m]s 9 nor!rn climates1 = a suffici5t cov]+ ( sn[ to protect ! fall-s[n gra91 r ?an an 8op5 w9t]10 dur+ :i* ! gra9 is expos$ to alt]nate freezes & ?aws1 or extreme cold4 ,9 c]ta9 soils1 notably 9 ^? liable to cru/+ 7p4 #aag71 in/ead ( heav+ ! soil1 ! wat] 9 freez+ em]ges bodily f small cracks1 9 foliat$ or wire-l =ms 78ice-fl[]s07 resembl+ ^? ( native silv]1 & =m$ sub/antially 9 ! same way1 by a k9d ( 8wire-draw+0 process1 aid$ by cry/allization4 ,small ice-cry/als =m$ on ! surface ( small crevices fill$ ) wat] cause o!rs to be =m$ at _! l[] ends1 & ! expansion occurr+ 9 freez+1 =ces ! ice upw>d2 ! process repeat+ itself "u favorable conditions1 until ! /alks or %eets ( ribb$ ice gr[ to a height ( sev]al in*es4 ,?is ph5om5on is especially frequ5t 9 ! middle cotton ,/ates--,arkansas1 ,t5nessee1 nor!rn ,mississippi1 etc41 :]e frequ5t *anges f ra9/orms or ?aws to cold nor?we/ w9ds occur 9 w9t]4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil4 ,,causes ,,& ,,process ,,( ,,diff]5tiation4 ,,humus4 ,soil & ,subsoil ,ill-def9$4--,:ile ! g5]al mass ( rock debris =m$ by ! action ( ! ag5cies h]et(ore discuss$ z soil-mat]ial1 may "u prop] conditions become soil capable ( support+ useful plant gr[?1 univ]sal exp]i5ce has long ago recogniz$ & e/abli%$ ! di/9ction betwe5 soil & subsoil3 by :i* are ord9>ily meant1 respectively1 ! portion ( ! soil-mat]ial usually subject$ to tillage1 & :at lies b5ea?4 ,!re c be no "q ab\t ! practical importance ( ?is di/9ction2 b ! def9ition ( ! two t]ms1 z commonly giv5 9 "s works ( agriculture1 is bo? incomplete &1 9 its application to _m cases1 p>tly mislead+4 ,! diff]5tiation ( soil & subsoil is due p>tly to ! action ( organic matt] & micro-organisms1 p>tly to physico-*emical causes1 n[ to be discuss$ 9 detail4 ,,! ,,organic ,,& ,,organiz$ ,,con/itu5ts ,,( ,,soils4 ,humus 9 ! ,surface soil4--,! mo/ obvi\s m>k ( di/9ction betwe5 soil & subsoil is1 usually1 ! d>k] t9t ( ! =m]1 due to ! pres5ce ( humus or vegetable mold1 :i* becomes mo/ app>5t by d>k5+ ( ! t9t :5 ! soil is moi/5$4 ,?us soils hav+ a gray t9t :5 dry1 may become almo/ black :5 wett$4 ,:5 no su* deep5+ ( color occurs 9 wett+1 ! abs5ce or great defici5cy ( humus may safely be inf]r$4 ,! only o!r sub/ance ^: pres5ce may invalidate ! conclusions bas$ ^u ! d>k5+ ( ! soil t9t1 is f]ric hydrate 7iron ru/71 :i* itself possesses ! prop]ty ( d>k5+ on wett+1 & may effectually cov] ei!r ! pres5ce or ! abs5ce ( humus4 ,s9ce ! =mation ( ! humus dep5ds ^u ! decomposition ( organic matt] 7mo/ly ( ! cellulose gr\p7 d]iv$ p>tly f ! roots1 p>tly f ! leaves & /ems ( plants gr[+ & dy+ on ! soil1 its accumulation ne> ! surface is natural4 ,b s9ce ! dep? to :i* roots p5etrate v>ies greatly n only ) diff]5t plants1 b v ess5tially 9 con=mity ) ! great] or less p5etrability ( ! soil & subsoil1 ! dep? to :i* ! d>k humus t9t may rea* v]tically v>ies correspond+ly1 f two or ?ree in*es to sev]al feet4 ,9 ! case ( soils t h be5 =m$ by ! gradual fill+-up ( swamps or m>%es1 ! humus-t9t may rea* to sev]al y>ds dep?4 ,surface ,soil1 & ,subsoil4--,x is ?us app>5t t ! t]m 8surface soil10 :ile commonly conf9$ by ! f>m] to ! portion turn$ by ! pl[ or usually rea*$ 9 cultivation by any implem5ts1 may or may n belong1 functionally1 to lay]s ( greatly v>y+ ?ickness4 ,simil>ly ! t]m subsoil may or may n ref]1 9 individual cases1 to p>ts ( ! soil mass mat]ially diff]5t f ! surface soil4 ,yet ?is di/9ction is ( no mean practical importance1 because ! efficacy ( "o ( ! mo/ common measures ( soil improvem5t1 viz41 subsoil pl[+ or 8subsoil+10 dep5ds mat]ially ^u ! diff]5ces betwe5 soil & subsoil 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,mo/ ( ! div]sity ( op9ion reg>d+ ! m]its ( ?is op]ation is simply ! result ( a correspond+ div]sity 9 ! natural facts & cultural practice ( ea* case4 ,causes ( ! ,diff]5tiation ( ,soil & ,subsoil4--,"o ( ! prom95t po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 surface soils & subsoils has already be5 m5tion$ 9 ! usual pr$om9ance ( root-mass 9 ! upp] lay]s2 to :i* is add$ a "p at lea/ ( ! sub/ance ( fall5 leaves & /ems ( its vegetation4 ,h[ mu* ( ?is vegetable mass ultimately becomes conv]t$ into humus1 z well z ! nature ( ! product =m$1 dep5ds ^u a great v>iety ( circum/ances2 "s ( :i* h already be5 m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! g5]al discussion ( humification 7*apt4 #b1 p4 #bj74 ,briefly /at$1 ! ma9 controll+ conditions are3 ! am\nt ( wat] or moi/ure pres5t1 ! access ( air 7oxyg571 a prop] temp]ature1 & ! pres5ce ( ! sev]al organisms :i* 9 ! c\rse ( "t take "p 9 ! process ( soil-=mation4 ,ulm9 ,sub/ances2 ,s\r ,humus 7,g]m4 ,rohhumus74--,9 ! pres5ce ( s mu* moi/ure or liquid wat] z w mat]ially imp$e ! access ( air1 & ) ! concurr5ce ( reasonably l[ temp]atures1 ! organisms t at fir/ take ! *ief role 9 ! trans=mation ( ! vegetable tissues into humus-l sub/ances are bact]ia4 ,b ! antiseptic nature ( ! comp\nds ?us =m$#cf soon puts an end to _! activity1 & !reaft] ! process seems to be a purely *emical "o1 & v sl[4 ,9 peat bogs1 ! transition f ! fre%1 dead /ems & roots to br[n peat is easily foll[$ d[nw>d1 :ite cellulose fib]s rema9+ app>5tly un*ang$ to "s dep?2 s t su* fib] has be5 us$ = tissues & pap]4 ,! solid decomposition-products are br[n sub/ances1 p>tly soluble 9 wat] & imp>t+ to x a br[n or c(fee color 7frequ5tly se5 9 ! dra9s ( m>%es7 & an acid reaction2 ! latt] due to ulmic 7z well z apocr5ic7 acid1 readily soluble 9 cau/ic & c>bonat$ alkalies1 & =m+ insoluble salts ) ! e>?s & metals2 :ile ano!r portion1 ulm91 is insoluble 9 ! same1 b gradually becomes soluble by oxidation4 #cf ,! antiseptic prop]ties ( s\r humus are well exemplifi$ 9 ! p]fect /ate ( pres]vation 9 :i* ! rema9s ( animals1 wood implem5ts1 etc41 are f\nd 9 bogs into :i* !y h sunk 9 prehi/oric times4 ,! gase\s products =m$ "u ^! conditions are c>bonic dioxid & 8m>% gas0 7me?an1 ,,*71 ! =m] pr$om9at+ 9 ! e>ly /ages2 :ile lat]1 ! c>burett$ hydrog5 pr$om9ates1 r5d]+ ! gas readily inflammable4 ,s\r ,soils4--,! 8s\r0 soils ?us produc$ 9 nature 9 pres5ce ( excess ( wat] be> only 8s\r0 gr[?1 su* z s$ges & ru%es1 ( little agricultural value2 !y usually require reclamation processes be=e becom+ adapt$ to ord9>y crops4 ,9 old =e/s ( nor!rn climates a peaty & m or less acid lay] is sometimes =m$ on ! surface1 above ! black woods-e>?1 & ret>ds some:at ! full production ( su* l& :5 tak5 into cultivation4#cg #cg ,see ,mll]1 ,natrli*e ,humus=m54 ,m>%es & swamps1 bo? fre% & salt1 z above /at$ usually %[ c(fee-color$ wat]s1 :i* are also *>act]i/ic ( ! /reams t dra9 !m1 until by int]mixture ) wat]s conta9+ lime salts1 ! ulmic sub/ances are neutraliz$ & precipitat$4 ,su* neutralization1 pref]ably by means ( lime1 is ! fir/ /ep t[>ds ! reclamation ( l&s be>+ 8s\r0 vegetation4 ,! acid reaction *>act]iz+ ! ulmic sub/ances is also *>act]i/ic ( _m woodl&s1 notably 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ! soils ( ! 8,long-leaf-p9e0 region ( ! ,cotton ,/ates1 bo? upl& & l[l&1 z well z ( _m decidu\s =e/s 9 nor!rn climates4 ,h5ce lim+1 :e!r artificial or natural1 effects a mo/ notable improvem5t1 toge!r ) a m>k$ *ange ( vegetation1 9 ^! l&s4 ,x has be5 long kn[n t aft] long-cont9u$ cultivation1 soils orig9ally ( neutral or slightly basic reaction become acid3 & ! lim+ ( su* l&s is an anci5t practice 9 ,europe4 ,! matt]1 h[ev]1 receiv$ b scant att5tion until ,:eel] & ,h>twell1 ( ! ,rhode ,isl& ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 demon/rat$ ! almo/ univ]sal acid condition ( ! old] l&s ( t ,/ate1 & ! excell5t effects produc$ by neutralization ) lime1 or ev5 ) ! alkali c>bonates4#ch ,! curr5t neutralization ( ! humus-acids is unque/ionably "o ( ! c>d9al advantages ( calc>e\s l&s2 = su* z conta9 only small am\nts ( lime c>bonate w ( c\rse become acid m quickly "u cultivation4 #ch ,reports ( ! ,rhode ,isl& ,exp't ,/ation1 #ahie1 & ff4 ,hum9 ,sub/ances4--,9 ! pres5ce ( only a mod]ate am\nt ( moi/ure1 !re=e "u ! influ5ce ( a m or less rapid circulation ( air1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( e>?y c>bonates 7especially t ( lime7 to prev5t ! =mation ( acids1 or to neutralize !m z =m$1 ! normal process ( humification occurs2 ma9ly "u ! influ5ce ( fung\s in/ead ( bact]ial gr[?s4 ,! v>i\s molds take a prom95t "p 9 ! conv]sion ( ! vegetable sub/ance into black1 neutral1 insoluble humus comp\nds4 ,su* fung\s vegetation is always accompani$ by ! evolution ( c>bonic gas1 & ! result+ fung\s tissues are m>k$ly ri*] 9 nitrog5 & c>bon ?an ! sub/ance ( ! high] plants f :i* !y 7 d]iv$ 7see *apt4 #i74 ,comp>ative analyses %[ t 9 ! normal process ( humification ( vegetable sub/ances1 oxyg5 & hydrog5 are elim9at$ 9 ! =m ( wat] & c>bonic dioxid1 :ile at ! same "t !re is an increase 9 ! p]c5tage ( c>bon1 & g5]ally also ( nitrog52 ! latt] m p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( vegetable matt] n v ri* 9 t elem5t4 ,:5 once humification is complete1 oxidation1 especially "u arid conditions1 be>s ma9ly ^u ! c>bon & hydrog51 s t ! nitrog5 cont5t may rise to v high figures2 :ile ano!r portion is ultimately :olly oxidiz$1 ) ! =mation ( nitrates1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! nitrify+ bact]ia1 ?is be+ ! process *iefly effici5t 9 ! nutrition ( vegetation ) nitrog54 ,z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! sev]al organic comp\nds conta9$ 9 plants may cont9ue to exi/ 9 soils = "s "t1 v>y+ accord+ to conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure4 ,?us dextr91 glucose1 & ev5 leci?9 & nucle9 h be5 report$ to be f\nd4 ,! activity ( ! num]\s fung\s & bact]ial f]m5ts "u favor+ conditions w1 ( c\rse1 limit ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( su* comp\nds some:at n>r[ly1 s t !y c h>dly be consid]$ z active soil +r$i5ts save 9 s f> z !y favor ! developm5t ( ! bact]ial flora4 ,porosity ( ,humus4--,"o ( ! ess5tial features ( natural humus is its great porosity1 :]eby x n only becomes highly absorb5t ( wat] & gases1 b is also gradually oxidiz$1 probably "u ! influ5ce ( bact]ia4 ,= ?is oxidation1 z measur$ by ! evolution ( c>bonic gas1 progresses mo/ rapidly "u ! same conditions z to moi/ure1 temp]ature & access ( air1 t are kn[n to be mo/ favorable to fung\s & bact]ial gr[?4 ,h5ce ! =mation ( c>bonic dioxid 9 ! soil is assum$ to be ! measure ( ! int5sity ( su* activity4 ,physical & ,*emical ,nature ( ! ,humus ,sub/ances4--,! humus sub/ances are gelat9\s :5 moi/1 b are nei!r m>k$ly adhesive or pla/ic4 ,l ! o!r colloidal sub/ances ( ! soil1 !y s]ve to reta9 bo? gases & vapors1 includ+ moi/ure1 liquid wat]1 & its dissolv$ solids4 ,9 ! natural1 por\s condition !y are p[]fully absorb5t ( gases1 includ+ especially aque\s vapor4 ,dry humus swells up visibly :5 wett$1 ! volume-weight increas+ to ! ext5t ( two to eight times2 s t humus /&s =emo/ 9 ?is respect among ! soil con/itu5ts4 ,! d5sity ( natural humus is ab\t #a4d1 be+ ! lighte/ ( ! soil con/itu5ts4 ,h5ce soils ri* 9 humus are 8light0 n only 9 ! f>m]'s s5se ( be+ easily till$ :5 n too wet1 b also ( light weight = equal volumes :5 comp>$ ) clayey & s&y soils4 ,"s data be>+ ^u ^! po9ts are giv5 9 ! table#ci bel[1 = ! sub/ances mod]ately & uni=mly pack$3 ,,volume-,,weights ,,( ,humus4#dj ,clay4 ,qu>tz ,s&4 4#ccdi #a4jajh #a4ddhe ,:5 saturat$ ) wat]1 ! same sub/ances gave ! foll[+ figures3 ,air-dry4 ,saturat$ ,increase4 ) wat]4 ,humus#da 4#cefe #a4ajbd #bji4b ,clay #a4jcie #a4fbfh #ee4i ,qu>tz s& #a4dejh #a4hbgj #be4i #ci ,wollny1 ,z]setzung d] ,organis*5 ,/(fe1 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc4 #dj ,peat pulv]iz$ & extract$ ) alcohol & e!r to remove res9\s sub/ances4 #da ,peat pulv]iz$ & extract$ ) alcohol & e!r to remove res9\s sub/ances4 ,^! data %[ /rik+ly ! effects produc$ by ! sev]al physical soil con/itu5ts ^u "s ( its physical prop]ties4 ,*emical ,nature4--,:ile humus artificially produc$ by ! action ( cau/ic alkalies ^u sug> or cellulose is free f nitrog51 all naturally occurr+ humus conta9s ! latt]4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 pres5t 9 ! =m ( ammonia1 z x _c be set free by treatm5t 9 ! cold ) lime or alkalies4 ,:51 h[ev]1 natural humus is boil$ ) ^! sub/ances1 ammonia is sl[ly giv5 (f1 b ! process cont9ues indef9itely & x seems to be impossible to expel all ! nitrog5 9 ?is mann]4 ,?is behavior be+ *>act]i/ic ( amido-comp\nds1 x is presumable1 9 view ( ! slightly acid nature ( ! humus sub/ances1 t natural humus is l>gely ( an amidic con/itution4 ,artificial humic acid1 =m$ by ! action ( cau/ic alkalies ^u sug>1 gums or cellulose1 comb9es ) ammonia z ) o!r bases1 & at fir/ ! ammonia c be readily expell$ f ?is z f o!r ammonia salts4 ,b aft] ! lapse ( "s "t x seems t ! amidic condition is assum$1 s t cau/ic lye acts b v sl[ly & _c expel ! :ole ( ! nitrog5 pres5t4 ,?is is v important 9 connection ) ! practice ( f]tilization1 z any ammonia tak5 up by or g5]at$ 9 ! soil is ?us 9 ! c\rse ( "t r5d]$ comp>atively in]t1 & unavailable to vegetation until nitrifi$4 ,progressive ,*anges4--,! natural neutral hum9 & ulm91 z f\nd1 e4 g41 9 ! l[] portions ( peat b$s1 are 9 ! c\rse ( "t by oxidation conv]t$ into ulmic & humic acids1 capable ( comb9+ ) bases2 by /ill f>!r oxidation !y =m apocr5ic & cr5ic acids1 readily soluble 9 wat] & 9 "p =m+ soluble salts ) lime1 magnesia & o!r bases4 ,^! acids act /rongly ^u ! m readily decomposable silicates ( ! soil1 & 9 ! c\rse ( "t may dissolve out1 & aid 9 ! removal by lea*+1 ( mo/ ( ! plant-food +r$i5ts z well z ! f]ric hydrate ( a soil4 ,?us r$ or ru/-color$ soils may be r5d]$ almo/ :ite by cont9u$ 8swamp+0 ) /agnant wat]1 & be greatly impov]i%$2 & x is d\btless l>gely ?r\gh ?is ag5cy t ! und]clays ( coal b$s & ! l[] portions ( peat b$s1 z well z peat & coal a%es1 are almo/ :olly de/itute ( m9]al plant food4 ,! ,phases ( ,humification4--,! progressive *anges involv$ 9 ! process ( humification ( vegetable matt] are illu/rat$ 9 ! table bel[1#db toge!r ) ! f>!r *anges by :i* su* matt] may ultimately be trans=m$ into ! sev]al v>ieties ( coal1 & f9ally into an?racite1 :i* already repres5ts ne>ly pure c>bon1 b 9 nature has sometimes be5 /ill f>!r trans=m$ into graphite 7black-lead7 & diamond4 #db ,data recalculat$1 omitt+ a%4 ,,progress ,,( ,,humification1 ,,& ,,=mation ,,( ,,coal4 7,,moi/ure ,,& ,,a% ,,omitt$ ,,f ,,calculations47 ,oak ,wood4 -------------------- ,hum9 ,cellulose4,fre%4,decay$4 & -------------- ,humic ,light ,d>k ,acid4 ,br[n4 ,br[n4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,c>bon #dd4dd #ej4fj #ec4fj #ef4bjdi4d to #ei4g ,hydrog5 #f4ag #f4jj #e4bj #d4ij #b4e 8 #d4e ,oxyg5 #di4ch #ce4h 8 #dg4c #dc4dj #da4bj #ch4ij ,nitrog5 4#c 8 #ah4g ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,peat4#dc ,coals4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,br[n ,black4 ,lignite ,scot* ,p5n'a ,surface4------------ ,br[n ,spl9t ,an?racite4 7,ulm947#dj 94#hj 94 ,coal4 ,bitum9\s4 7,bovey74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,c>bon #eg4hj #fb4jj #fd4aj #fi4ej #hd4bj #id4hj ,hydrog5 #e4dj #e4bj #e4jj #e4ij #e4hj #b4fj ,oxyg5 #cf4jj #cj4gj #bf4hj #bd4jj #h4hj #b4fj ,nitrog5 4#hj #b4aj #d4aj 4#fj #a4bj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #dc ,detm]1 ,l&w4 ,v]su*/41 ,vol4 #ad1 #ahga4 ,! /eady increase ( c>bon & nitrog51 toge!r ) a correspond+ decrease ( oxyg51 are well illu/rat$ 9 ! analyses1 especially 9 ! /rictly comp>able s]ies ( peat samples f v>i\s dep?s4 ,9 ?is case !re is also a /eady decrease ( hydrog51 & an increase ( a% f #b4gb 9 ! surface lay]1 to #i4af at #hj in*es dep?4 ,?is increase is due 9 ! ma91 ( c\rse1 to ! progressive volatilization ( ! organic matt] 9 ! =ms ( c>bonic dioxid & m>% gas 7me?an1 ,,*74 ,9 consid]+ ?is table x %\ld n be =gott5 t :ile normal humus /&s v close to peat1 & ! latt] :5 compress$ 9 c]ta9 /ages w\ld be undi/+ui%able f lignite or br[n coal2 yet bo? peat & lignite are kn[n to be =m$ "u conditions p]mitt+ mu* less access ( air or oxyg5 ?an occurs 9 ! =mation ( normal black soil-humus4 ,h5ce ev5 black peat _c at once /& 9 place ( soil-humus :5 remov$ f its wat]y b$1 b requires consid]able "t & a]ation 7oxidation71 & 9 mo/ cases neutralization ) lime or m>l1 be=e x c s]ve ! purposes ( humus 9 ! soil4 ,lignite & ! progressively m c>bonace\s coals are & h be5 =m$ "u ! conjo9$ action ( subm]g5ce & pressure1 sometimes also aid$ by heat2 & ?us !y _c p]=m ! function ( soil-humus1 any m ?an ! fire-clays or %ales und]ly+ !m c resume _! orig9al soil-functions )\t prolong$ wea!r+4 ,am\nts ( ,humus & ,coal ,=m$ f ,vegetable ,matt]4--,only v g5]al & indef9ite e/imates c be giv5 ( ! am\nt ( humus or coal =m$ f a giv5 quantity ( vegetable matt]1 s9ce ^! mu/ v>y accord+ to ! conditions "u :i* ! trans=mation occurs4 ,! great] or less access ( air & ( moi/ure1 ! temp]ature & pressure "u :i* ! process occurs1 w modify v mat]ially ! quantitative z well z ! qualitative result4 ,9 ! hot arid regions ! fall5 leaves may :olly disappe> by oxidation on ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 :ile "u humid conditions !y are mo/ly incorporat$ ) ! surface soil4 ,if we assume t 9 ! humification ( plant debris 7e/imat+ _! av]age nitrog5 cont5t at #a71 no nitrog5 is lo/1 x w\ld seem t 9 ! humid region "o "p ( normal soil-humus might be =m$ f #e to #f p>ts ( 7dry7 plant debris2 :ile 9 ! extreme regime ( ! arid regions1 f #ah to #bj p>ts ( ! same w\ld be requir$4 ,b z mo/ probably "s nitrog5 also is lo/ 9 ! process ( humification1 a consid]ably l>g] proportion ( orig9al sub/ance may be actually requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,section ( lignitiz$ log %[+ contraction into solid lignite on dry+4 ,z to coal1 x is usually assum$ t x requires ab\t #h p>ts ( vegetable matt] = "o ( bitum9\s coal4 ,mu* high] e/imates are made by "s1 & an obs]vation made by ! writ] at ! ,port ,hudson bluff1 ,mississippi1 9 #ahfi1 w\ld seem to ju/ify su* e/imates4 ,! above figure1 f a sket* made at ! "t1 %[s ! proportions to :i* a p9e log ab\t eight in*es 9 diamet] _h %runk 9 dry+ into a small %eet ( lignitiz$ wood2 ! orig9al trunk1 project+ f a b$ ( s& "s =ty feet bel[ ! surface1 be+ s por\s & spongy t :5 wet x flatt5$ some:at by its own weight2 x 0 connect$ ) ! little %eet ( lignite by a spirally twi/$1 tap]+ /ipe4 ,"h evid5tly ! proportion ( lignite =m$ 0 a v m9ute "o1 d\btless because ( ! long lea*+ to :i* ! trunk _h be5 subject$4 ,x ?us seems impossible1 z 9 ! case ( humus1 to assign any def9ite proportion z betwe5 woody matt] & coal =m$ f x4 ,normal humification takes place only "u ! influ5ce ( mod]ate temp]ature4 ,:5 ! temp]ature is too l[1 bact]ial & fung\s gr[? are repress$ or arre/$2 :5 too high1 ! fung\s vegetation assumes a diff]5t phase1 ! result ( :i* is ! almo/ total oxidation ( ! organic matt]1 sometimes s accel]at$ z to initiate rapid combu/ion 8fire-fang+0 ( dung2 leav+ 9 any case b a trifl+ organic residue ( v high a% cont5ts4#dd #dd ,a /rik+ illu/ration ( ?is is af=d$ by ,naegeli's exp]im5t ( enclos+ sev]al loaves ( bread 9 a loosely clos$ t9-box4 ,aft] eighte5 mon?s !re rema9$ only sev5te5 p] c5t ( air-dry m\ldy matt]1 totally de/itute ( />*4 ,eremacausis4--,9 ! abs5ce ( a suffici5t degree ( moi/ure to co-op]ate ) ! o!r ag5cies ( humification1 ! f9al result 9 ! soil is practically ! same z 9 ! 8fire-fang+0 ( dung4 ,! organic matt] is almo/ :olly de/roy$ by direct oxidation 7eremacausis7 ) or )\t ! aid ( m9ute organisms2 leav+ ess5tially only ! a% beh9d to be re9corporat$ ) ! soil4 ,?is is to a v great ext5t ! pr$om9ant process 9 ! arid regions ( ! ,globe2 mo/ ( ! soils =m$ 9 ^! climates be+1 !re=e1 v poor 9 humus-sub/ances1 & d]iv+ x almo/ entirely f ! decay ( roots only4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! humus ( a soil may be d]iv$ f ! vegetable debris fall+ or gr[+ ^u ! surface1 v>ies greatly ) ! climatic conditions z well ) ! nature ( ! soil4 ,9 ! =e/s ( humid climates ) loamy soils1 n only does ! autumnal leaf-fall1 z well z decay+ twigs & trunks1 become obvi\sly incorporat$ ) ! surface soil z decay progresses on ! l[] surface1 b active animal ag5cies 7see bel[7 c>ry ! organic remnants bodily d[n4 ,b :]e heavy clay soils prevail1 ^! animal ag5cies are mu* re/rict$ by ! compactness ( ! mat]ial2 only a light surface-lay] ( mold w\ld be =m$1 & ! humus ( ! l[] soil lay]s mu/ ( necessity be d]iv$ f ! decay ( ! roots only4 ,?is orig9 is claim$ by ,ko/i*eff#de = ! high cont5t ( black humus 9 ! t*]nozem or black e>? ( ,russia4 ,foll[+ ,hellriegel 9 det]m9+ ! weight ( roots conta9$ 9 successive equal lay]s ( soil f ! surface d[nw>ds1 ,ko/i*eff gives = ea* six in*es ! foll[+ data z f\nd 9 ! t*]nozem1 tak+ z #ajj ! root-cont5t ( ! surface lay]3 ,numb]4 #a #a #b #b #c #c ,dep?4 ,roots4,humus4,roots4,humus4,roots4,humu s4 ---------------------------------------- ------- #f in*es4 #ajj4 #e4db #ajj4 #h4aa #ajj4 #i4fd #ab 8 #hi4a #d4hc #fc4i #e4ai #hj4c #g4gg #ah 8 #ff4i #c4fb #dh4c #c4ib #gj4j #f4ga #bd 8 #dg4c #b4ef #ce4j #b4hd #eh4d #e4fa #cj 8 #dg4c #b4ei #bf4j #b4aa #ch4b #c4eg #cf 8 #cd4f #a4hh #ah4a #a4dg #cc4j #c4ah #db 8 #bc4i #a4bi #f4c 4#ea #af4b #a4ef #dh 8 #ad4d 4#gh 4#gj #ed 8 #f4g 4#cf ---------------------------------------- ------- #de ,ab/ract 9 ,ann4 de la ,sci5ce ,agronomique1 ,tome #b1 #ahhg4 ,x w be se5 t !re is a v close correspond5ce ( ! humus cont5t ) ! root developm5t 9 ! sev]al lay]s1 & x seems z if ?\gh b little ( ! humus c\ld be d]iv$ f ! surface gr[?1 :i* is t ( ! grasses ( ! /eppe4 ,! climate ( ! black-e>? c\ntry ( ,russia is1 ?\gh n prop]ly arid1 yet "o ( r defici5t & unc]ta9 ra9fall4 ,b z a consequ5ce ( extremely arid conditions1 & 9 s&y l&s1 x may ev5 happ5 t ! imm$iate surface soil conta9s less humus ?an :at1 9 ! f>m]s' habitual p>lance1 w\ld be call$ ! subsoil2 because ( ! p5etration ( sl[ combu/ion = "s di/ance into ! por\s soils4 ,x w !n be l[] d[n t1 9 ! pres5ce ( a favorable degree ( moi/ure & l[] temp]ature1 ! conditions ( normal humification are fulfill$4 ,x is n always1 !n1 t ! commonly recogniz$ di/9ction betwe5 surface soil & subsoil bas$ ^u humus cont5t c be ma9ta9$4 ,b ! obs]vation ( ev]y?+ be>+ ^u ?is po9t is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 det]m9+ bo? ! agricultural value & ! mode ( treatm5t ( ! l&4 ,losses ( ,humus f ,cultivation & ,fall[+4--,! fact t humus accumulates 9 woodl&s & mead[s1 :]e no cultivation is giv51 w\ld naturally lead to ! conv]se conclusion1 viz41 t cultivation causes loss ( humus & ( its con/itu5ts4 ,t ?is is actually ! case is recogniz$ & widely act$ ^u 9 practice1 & !re is no "q t ! g5]al acceptance ( /able manure z ! mo/ widely useful f]tiliz]1 despite its usually l[ cont5t ( plant-food +r$i5ts1 is bas$ ^u ! fact t x supplies vegetable matt]1 9 a condition highly favorable to its conv]sion into humus4 ,! mo/ direct & cog5t pro( ( ! depletion ( ! soil ( bo? humus & nitrog5 by cont9u\s cultivation ( c]eal gra9s has be5 giv5 by ,snyd]1#df :o det]m9$ ! loss bo? ( humus & ( nitrog5 suff]$ by a ,m9nesota soil dur+ eight ye>s' cont9u\s cultivation ( :eat4 ,! total loss ( nitrog5 0 #agjj p\nds p] acre1 :ile only #cej p\nds 7 utiliz$ by ! crop2 ab\t #adjj p\nds be+ dissipat$ z gas or lea*$ out z nitrates4 ,a cons]vative e/imate ( ! loss ( humus suff]$ dur+ ! same p]iod 0 ab\t a ton p] acre annually1 & ?is loss s]i\sly decreas$ n only ! nitrog5-cont5t1 b r5d]$ ! soil m compact & less ret5tive ( moi/ure4 ,b by rotation ( ! :eat ) clov] 9 alt]nate ye>s1 v ne>ly an equilibrium ( bo? humus & nitrog5-cont5t 0 obta9$4 ,9 addition1 ! am\nt ( available m9]al plant-food 0 decreas$ by cont9u\s gra9 culture4 ,ladd has made simil> obs]vations 9 ,nor? ,dakota1 ) simil> results4 #df ,bull4 ,no4 #gj ,m9n4 ,exp't ,/ation1 #aije4 ,t excessive a]ation results 9 s]i\s losses ( humus z well z ( nitrog51 is v obvi\s 9 ! arid region1 :]e x is ! habit to ma9ta9 on ! surface ( or*>ds & v9ey>ds dur+ ! dry1 hot summ]s1 a ?ick mul* ( well-till$ soil1 ?us prev5t+ loss ( wat] by evaporation4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ye>s ?is surface soil becomes s badly deplet$ ( humus t good til? becomes impossible1 ! soil becom+ light-color$ & compact$2 :ile ! loss ( nitrog5 is indicat$ by ! small size ( ! or*>d fruits4 ,simil> losses are ( c\rse su/a9$ 9 ! practice ( b>e summ]-fall[1 :i* at "o "t 0 almo/ univ]sal 9 portions ( ! arid region4 ,! complete extirpation ( we$ gr[? ?us br\ght ab\t1 at fir/ consid]$ an unmix$ b5efit1 has ultimately _h to be made up = by ! practice ( gre5-manur+2 s9ce 9 ! arid region ! use ( /able manure enc\nt]s _m difficulties4 ,e/imation ( ,humus 9 ,soils4 ,x has be5 usual to det]m9e ! am\nt ( humus 9 soils by means ( 7dry or wet7 combu/ion1 calculat+ ! humus f ! c>bonic dioxid s =m$1 :ile measur+ ! nitrog5 gas directly4 ,b 9 ?is process ! entire organic matt] ( ! soil1 humifi$ & unhumifi$1 is indiscrim9ately includ$2 & x is :olly unc]ta9 to :at ext5t ! latt] w ultimately become humus1 f ! nitrification ( :i* plants are presum$ to *iefly d]ive _! nitrog54#dg ,9 ord] to obta9 def9ite results1 ! actual1 functional humus mu/ be extract$ f ! soil mass by "s solv5t :i* discrim9ates betwe5 ! humifi$ & unhumifi$ organic matt]4 ,?is _c be done by direct extraction ) cau/ic soda or pota%1 :i* inevitably dissolve unhumifi$ matt]s & t5d to expel ammonia f ! humus2 besides !mselves act+ z humifi]s 7see ?is *apt]1 p4 #abe47 ,gr&eau ,me?od3 ,matire ,noire4--,! only me?od n[ kn[n :i* accompli%es ?is sep>ation1 practically exclud+ ! unhumifi$ :ile fully dissolv+ ! humifi$ matt]--is t ( ,gr&eau3 ! extraction ( ! soil1 fir/ ) dilute acid1 9 ord] to set ! humic sub/ances free f _! comb9ations ) lime & magnesia2 & _! subsequ5t extraction ) mod]ately dilute solutions ( ammonia 7or o!r alkali hydrates74 ,^u ! evaporation ( ! ammonia solution ! humus is left beh9d 9 ! =m ( a black lu/r\s sub/ance 78matire noire0 ( ,gr&eau7 mu* resembl+ ! cru/ ( soot =m$ 9 flues f wood fires4 ,z x conta9s a v>iable am\nt ( a%1 x mu/ be burnt & ! a% subtract$ f ! fir/ weight4 #dg ,! humus det]m9ations ?us made1 :i* include ne>ly all ^? made by ,g]man *emi/s1 give ! humus-cont5t f #dj to #ej too high4 ,! ,fr5* det]m9ations are mo/ly made by ! me?od ( ,gr&eau4 ,am\nts ( ,humus 9 ,soils4--,:ile 9 peat1 m>% & muck l&s ! humus-cont5t may rise above tw5ty p] c5t1 9 ord9>y cultivat$ l&s x r>ely exce$s ab\t five p] c5t1 & v commonly falls bel[ ?ree p] c5t1 ev5 9 ! humid regions4 ,9 prop]ly arid soils we f9d a v mu* l[] av]age1 r>ely exce$+ "o p] c5t1 & frequ5tly fall+ to 4#cj & ev5 less4 ,?is sc>city ( humus manife/s itself pla9ly 9 ! preval5tly light gray t9t ( ! arid soils4 ,mead[s & woodl&s g5]ally %[ ! highe/ humus-cont5t 9 _! surface soils1 gradually increas+ :ile 9 t condition2 :ile :5 tak5 into cultivation ! humus-cont5t gradually decreases1 ow+ to ! free a]ation & consequ5t 8burn+-out0 caus$ by tillage4 ,h5ce ! humus mu/ be f "t to "t replac$ by ! use ( /able manure1 or gre5-manure crops1 to prev5t injuri\s *anges 9 ! till+ qualities ( ! l&4 ,n only humus z su*1 b accord+ to ,s*loes+ also ! insoluble colloid humates1 produce 9 ! soil a loos5+ effect or til? 7,g]m4 ,bod5g>e71 :i* app>5tly _c be br\ght ab\t by any o!r sub/ance4#dh #dh ,! decrease ( humus f :eat culture 9 ! soils ( ,m9nesota & ,nor? ,dakota has be5 /udi$ by ,h4 ,snyd] & ,e4 ,f4 ,ladd1 respectively4 ,9 ! prairie l&s ( ! latt] ,/ate ! total organic matt] 9 ! fir/ six in*es ( soil ranges f #ae to z mu* z #bf1 & ! humus alone f #d to #g4h4 ,humates & ,ulmates4--,t ! insoluble humates ( lime1 magnesia1 iron1 manganese & alum9a are pres5t 9 mo/ soils is conclusively %[n by ! composition ( ! solution obta9$ by ! extraction ( soils ) weak acid1 z above m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! quantitative det]m9ation ( humus accord+ to ,gr&eau2 s9ce ^! bases are almo/ always extract$ by ! weak acid4 ,:5 ! br[n solution ( alkali humate obta9$ 9 ?is process is c>efully neutraliz$ ) sulfuric or hydro*loric acid1 or is mix$ ) solutions ( ! above bases1 floccul5t1 insoluble precipitates are =m$1 :ile ! solution is discolor$4 ,simil> precipitates may be obta9$ ) o!r metallic solutions1 notably ) t ( copp]1 :i* precipitates ! humus-acids mo/ completely4 ,d\btless ^! comp\nds contribute greatly to ! cons]vation ( ! humus-cont5t ( soils1 protect+ x to a c]ta9 ext5t f oxidation1 & also prev5t+ excessive acidity4 ,! br[n t9t ( c]ta9 subsoils 9 ! nor!rn humid regions h be5 %[n by ,toll5s & o!rs to be due n to f]ric hydrate1 z _h be5 suppos$1 b to calcic1 magnesic & alum9ic humates4 ,none ( ! m9]al bases or acids pres5t c be detect$ 9 ! humic solution by ! usual reag5ts4 ,m9]al ,+r$i5ts 9 ,humus4--,t ! m9]al plant-food +r$i5ts pres5t 9 ! humus extract$ by ! ,gr&eau process1 & :i* rema9 z a% :5 ! matire noire is burn$1 are capable ( n\ri%+ plant gr[?1 0 directly %[n by ,gr&eau1 ,snyd] & o!rs4 ,! =m] 0 incl9$ to consid] t ^? sub/ances 7 ma9ly ?us tak5 up by plants1 "u natural conditions4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 has n be5 su/a9$ by subsequ5t inve/igations2 ! m9]al plant-food ?us extract$ is n a measure ( ! imm$iate productiv5ess ( ! soils1 z demon/rat$ by ,snyd]1 & ! residual soils are n /]ile4 ,x is also /ill d\btful to :at ext5t ! m9]al bases & acids are naturally comb9$ ) ! humus-sub/ances1 x be+ cont5d$ by "s t !y are br\ght into organic comb9ation by ! acid & ammonia extraction4 ,! inve/igations ( ,snyd] & ,ladd1 above ref]r$ to1 prove h[ev] to "s ext5t at lea/ t ! humus-sub/ances are naturally comb9$ ) !m1 & t probably !y are l>gely made available to plants ?r\gh ! direct & indirect action ( ! humus comp\nds4 ,?is subject is f>!r consid]$ 9 *apt] #ai4 ,! nature & am\nts ( ^! m9]al sub/ances are well exemplifi$ 9 ! subjo9$ full analysis by ,snyd]1 ( ! a% ( ! humus & humates extract$ f a comp\nd sample ( prairie soils ( ,m9nesota1 :i* _h be5 ?r[n d[n f ! ammonia solution by simply neutraliz+ ! liquid3#di ,,a% ,,( ,,humus ,,f ,,m9nesota ,,prairie ,,soils4 ,insoluble matt]#ej #fa4ig ,pota% 7,k,o7 #g4ej ,soda 7,na,o7 #h4ac ,lime 7,ca,o7 #j4ji ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #j4cf ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #c4ab ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #c4dh ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 #ab4cg ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ih ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #a4fd #di ,precipitation ) an excess ( acid does n greatly *ange ! results4 #ej ,9 ,cali=nia soils ?is is mo/ly silica soluble 9 c>bonate ( soda4 ,! l>ge am\nts ( ! soluble alkalies pota% & soda ?r[n d[n ) ! humic matt]s are v /rik+1 z is ! v l>ge proportion ( phosphoric acid4 ,lime & magnesia _h1 ( c\rse1 be5 ma9ly elim9at$ by ! prelim9>y acid treatm5t4 ,functions ( ! ,unhumifi$ ,organic ,matt]4--,! unhumifi$ plant debris 9 ! soil are n to be reg>d$ z useless1 ev5 aside f _! pot5tial conv]sion into active humus4 ,n only d ^! remnants ( vegetation light5 ! soil1 r5d]+ x m p]vi\s to air & wat]1 b 9 _! progressive decay !y give (f c>bonic gas1 :i* is active 9 soil-decomposition2 & !y s]ve z n\ri%m5t to ! soil bact]ia ^u :i* its ?rift9ess s greatly dep5ds4 ,see bel[1 *apt] #i4 ,! ,nitrog5-,cont5t ( ,humus4--,s9ce soil-humus is d\btless ! *ief depository ( soil-nitrog51 & ! ma9 s\rce f :i*1 ?r\gh ! process ( nitrification1 ! nitrog5-supply to plants is usually d]iv$1 its cont5t ( t elem5t is a matt] ( great int]e/4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y to e/imate approximately ! nitrog5-cont5t ( soils by ! proportion ( humus-sub/ance pres5t2 & z ! light t9ts ( ! soils ( ! arid region indicate a small humus-cont5t1 a sc>city ( nitrog5 seem$ to be also indicat$ = ^! l&s4 ,z ?is 9 a numb] ( cases did n seem to accord ) actual exp]i5ce1 an inve/igation ( ! subject 0 made at ! ,cali=nia exp]im5t /ation1#ea ) ! results %[n 9 ! subjo9$ table4 ,9 consid]+ ^! results x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t :ile arid conditions c r>ely be fulfill$ 9 ! humid region1 humid conditions are q frequ5tly locally repres5t$ 9 ! arid1 9 l[l&s & on high m\nta9s2 :ile mod]ately moi/ b5*l&s repres5t ! semi-arid regime4 #ea ,hilg>d & ,jaffa4 ,on ! ,nitrog5-cont5t ( ,soil-humus 9 ! ,humid & ,arid regions4 ,rep4 ,cal4 ,exp't ,/ation = #ahib-d2 ,agric4 ,sci5ce1 ,april1 #ahid2 ,wollny's ,=s*4 ,geb4 ,agr4 ,phys41 #ahid4 ,,humus ,,p]c5tage ,,& ,,nitrog5 ,,cont5t ,,9 ,,soils ,,( ,,! ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions4 ,humus,nitrog5,nitrog5 ,/ation ,soils arrang$ 9 ord] ( nitrog5 9 9 9 ,numb] p]c5tages 9 humus4 soil1 ,humus1 soil1 p] p] p] c5t4 c5t4 c5t4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,soils ,,( ,,! ,,arid ,,region 7,cali=nia74 #bjfa ,d>k clay loam1 ,arroyo ,gr&e ,valley1 #c4jf #bb4jj 4#fgj ,san ,luis ,c\nty #bbia ,r$ soil1 ,orl&1 ,gl5n ,co4 4#ga #ba4aj 4#aej #aijd ,s$im5t ,soil1 ,port]ville1 ,tul>e ,co4 4#ij #ai4ej 4#ahj #aija ,s&y soil ne> ,c]es1 ,/anislaus ,co4 4#fd #ah4ge 4#abj #gjd ,s&y soil ( pla9s1 ne> ,fresno1 ,fresno ,co4 4#fj #ah4ff 4#aab #f ,black adobe soil1 ,/ockton1 ,san ,joaqu9 ,co4 #a4je #ah4ff 4#aif #afgi ,black adobe soil1 ,b]keley1 ,alam$a ,co4 #a4bj #ah4eh 4#bjc #bcbd ,clay soil ( des]t1 ,imp]ial1 ,san ,diego ,co4 4#ch #ah4dj 4#jgj #aafg ,black clay loam soil1 ne> ,tul>e1 ,tul>e ,co4 #a4ff #ah4ai 4#cjb #aecf ,br[n loam soil1 ,w9dsor ,tract1 ,riv]side1 4#bj #ah4jj 4#jcf ,riv]side ,c\nty #aabf ,s&y loam soil1 ,paso ,robles1 4#ee #ag4bg 4#jie ,san ,luis ,obispo ,co4 #bcja ,r$ hill soil1 ,upp] ,lake1 ,lake ,co4 4#ha #af4ij 4#acg #afjg ,plateau soil ( des]t1 ,lanca/]1 4#be #af4hj 4#jdb ,los ,angeles ,co4 #aaei ,s&y pla9s soil1 ,tul>e1 ,tul>e ,co4 4#cg #af4ge 4#jfb #aijj ,s&y soil1 ne> ,mode/o1 ,/anislaus ,co4 4#hd #af4fe 4#adj #aaac ,clay loam soil 7slate71 ,jackson1 ,amador ,co4 4#ed #af4fj 4#jij #aadi ,adobe clay soil1 ne> ,paso ,robles1 4#dg #af4ah 4#jgd ,san ,luis ,obispo ,c\nty #aech ,mesa soil1 ,*9o1 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 4#fe #af4jh 4#aje #aadg ,s&y loam soil1 ,paso ,robles1 4#ff #af4jf 4#ajf ,san ,luis ,obispo ,co4 #bdjc ,valley ,soil1 ,:eatl&1 ,yuba ,co4 #a4ej #af4jj 4#bdj #abha ,r$ ,mesa soil1 ,pomona1 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 4#eh #ae4ej 4#jij #aaag ,s&y granitic soil1 ne> ,jackson1 ,amador ,co4 4#hj #ae4bg 4#abc #adjf ,r$ loam soil1 ,arl+ton ,heights1 ,riv]side1 4#cj #ae4jj 4#jde ,riv]side ,c\nty #aagb ,r$ clay loam soil1 ea/ ( ,tul>e1 ,tul>e ,co4 4#gb #ad4ge 4#ajf #aieh ,s&y ,mesa soil1 ,nipomo1 ,san ,luis ,obispo ,co4 4#he #ad4de 4#abb #adbc ,*ocolate-r$ soil1 ,c>isa pla91 4#ci #ad4cf 4#jef ,san ,luis ,obispo ,c\nty #abia ,s&y hill l&1 ne> ,jackson1 ,amador ,co4 4#gf #ad4cd 4#aji #ehe ,wire-grass loam soil1 ,visalia1 ,tul>e ,co4 #a4jj #ad4aj 4#adf #hfc ,r$ ridge loam soil1 ,grass ,valley1 ,nevada ,co4 #b4hi #ac4ia 4#djb #aijg ,d>k loam soil1 ne> ,*9o1 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 4#ib #ac4bf 4#aba #aaae ,s&y granitic soil1 ne> ,jackson1 ,amador ,co4 4#he #ac4bj 4#aab #ccb ,plateau des]t soil1 ,mojave1 ,los ,angeles ,co4 4#bh #ab4ej 4#jce #babf ,gravelly soil1 ,ea/ ,highl&s1 4#fb #aa4ge 4#jgj ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 #aiaj ,ojai ,valley soil1 ,nordh(f1 ,v5tura ,co4 #a4fd #aa4ba 4#ahc #bahg ,s&y loam soil1 ,sol$ad1 ,mont]ey ,co4 4#ig #aa4aj 4#aaj #agei ,s&y soil1 ,p]ris ,valley1 ,riv]side ,co4 4#ec #aa4jd 4#jei #ggd ,b5* slope soil1 ,ont>io1 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 #a4bi #aj4he 4#adj #aihd ,r$ soil1 ,ea/ ,highl&s 8 8 8 4#eh #aj4ej 4#jfj #bcbe ,silt soil ( des]t1 ,imp]ial1 ,san ,diego ,co4 4#fe #aj4gj 4#jgj #aijf ,light s&y soil1 ,pomona1 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 4#ie #i4hj 4#jic #bdcj ,hillside adobe1 ,b]keley1 ,alam$a ,co4 #a4he #h4gj 4#afj --------------------- ,av]age ( arid upl&s 4#ia #ae4bc 4#ace ,,sub-,,irrigat$ ,,arid ,,soils 7,cali=nia74 #ehf ,s&y pla9s soil1 ,tul>e1 ,tul>e ,co4 #a4ad #aj4gi 4#abc #adff ,loam soil1 ,miramonte1 ,k]n ,co4 4#fj #aj4ff 4#jfd #abhd ,moi/ l& loam soil1 ,*9o1 #a4ii #aj4bj 4#bjc ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co4 #aadh ,swale soil1 ne> ,paso ,robles1 #a4af #i4fe 4#aab ,san ,luis ,obispo ,co4 #agad ,b5* soil1 ,santa ,cl>a ,riv]1 ,piru1 4#gh #i4ef 4#jgd ,v5tura ,co4 #gg ,alluvial soil1 ,tul>e ,lake b$1 ,tul>e ,co4 4#dg #i4cg 4#jde #ahhj ,creek b5* soil1 ,niles1 ,alam$a ,co4 #a4ai #h4ij 4#aji #aijc ,s$im5t soil1 ,port]ville1 ,tul>e ,co4 #a4ab #h4ej 4#adj #afh ,alluvial soil1 ,santa ,cl>a riv]1 ,santa ,paula1 4#hd #g4ii 4#jfg ,v5tura ,co4 #agfj ,gre5-sage l&1 ,p]ris ,valley1 ,riv]side ,co4 4#ia #g4gj 4#jgj #ejf ,alluvial soil1 ,colorado ,riv]1 ,yuma1 4#ge #g4dg 4#jej ,san ,diego ,co4 #afcf ,r$ soil1 ,manton1 ,tehama ,co4 #b4jj #f4hf 4#acg #ageh ,alkali soil1 ,p]ris ,valley1 ,riv]side ,co4 4#fj #f4hc 4#jga #aifc ,s&y loam soil1 ,will[s1 ,gl5n ,co4 4#cf #f4je 4#jbb #bjhj ,s&y soil1 ,santa ,m>ia ,valley1 #a4fd #e4cf 4#jij ,santa ,b>b>a ,co4 ,av]age ( sub-irrigat$ arid soils #a4jf #h4ch 4#jii ,,humid ,,soils ,,f ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions 7,cali=nia74 #bjg ,eel ,riv] ,alluvial soil1 ,f]ndale1 #a4be #f4if 4#jhe ,humboldt ,co4 #bcai ,alluvial soil1 ,hupa ,valley1 ,humboldt ,co4 #g4hc #f4gj 4#ead #bac ,m>% soil1 ,novato1 ,mead[s1 ,m>9 ,co4 #a4ed #f4cf 4#jhi #agjd ,valley soil1 ,holli/]1 ,san ,b5ito ,co4 4#id #e4ba 4#jdi #bbie ,tule soil1 ,upp] ,lake1 ,lake ,co4 #a4gj #d4ej 4#jgg #aaj ,alluvial soil1 ,putah ,creek1 ,dixon1 ,solano ,co4 #a4ga #d4be 4#jgb #cg ,r$wood ,valley soil1 ,pescad]o1 ,san ,mateo ,co4 #b4bh #c4jg 4#jgj ,av]age = ,cali=nia #b4de #e4bi 4#ace ,,o!r ,,/ates4 #bf ,bog soil1 ,mi*igan#eb #cc4jb #f4jh #b4jab ,back-l& clay loam1 ,h\ma1 ,l\isiana #e4jg #d4bj 4#bah ,duff soil1 ,oregon #ac4hd #c4di 4#dhc ,s&y prairie soil1 ,h>ris ,co41 ,texas #b4ac #c4ff 4#ahd ,av]age = o!r ,/ates #g4ja #c4gh 4#bie #bc ,r$ soil1 ,oahu ,isl&1 ,hawaii 7maximum7 #a4eg #e4jg 4#jgh #bg ,guava soil1 ,hawaii ,isl& 7m9imum7 #i4ie #a4ga 4#agj ,av]age ( #e soils1 ,oahu ,isl& #c4ja #f4jg 4#bcg ,av]age ( #b soils1 ,maui ,isl& #i4jg #b4ac 4#bhf ,av]age ( #d soils1 ,hawaii ,isl& #f4ag #b4ed 4#adf ,av]age = ,hawaiian ,isl&s #e4bf #c4fi 4#afi ,total = ,humid soils1 av]age #d4eh #d4bc 4#aff ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #eb ,introduc$ only = comp>ison ( ! nitrog5 p]c5tage 9 ,humus & n includ$ 9 ! av]age4 ,x ?us appe>s t on ! av]age ! humus ( ! arid soils conta9s ab\t ?ree & a half times z mu* nitrog5 z t ( ! humid2 t 9 ! extreme cases1 ! diff]5ce goes z high z ov] six to "o 7see ,nos4 #cg & #gjd72 & t 9 ! latt] cases1 ! nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 ! arid humus consid]ably exce$s t ( ! album9oid gr\p1 ! fle%-=m+ sub/ances4 ,x ?us becomes intelligible t 9 ! arid region a humus-p]c5tage :i* "u humid conditions w\ld ju/ly be consid]$ entirely inadequate = ! success ( normal crops1 may nev]!less suffice ev5 = ! m exact+ ones4 ,?is is m cle>ly se5 on inspection ( ! figures 9 ! ?ird column1 :i* repres5t ! product result+ f ! multiplication ( ! humus-p]c5tage ( ! soil into ! nitrog5-p]c5tage ( its humus2 z appe>s 9 comp>+ ! respective av]ages1 or ,nos4 #aafg & #aaj & o!rs4 ,an additional consid]ation is ! probable great] ease ) :i* ! nitrify+ bact]ia c act ^u a mat]ial s ri* 9 nitrog54 ,we mu/ n1 !n1 be misl$ by ! smallness ( _m humus-p]c5tages 9 ! arid region1 into an assumption ( a defici5cy 9 ! supply ( soil-nitrog54 ,decrease ( ,nitrog5-,cont5t 9 ,humus ) ,dep?4--,s9ce ! oxidation ( ! c>bon & hydrog5 9 ! humus-sub/ance1 & ! consequ5t increase ( its relative nitrog5-cont5t1 are manife/ly dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( air & heat1 x is reasonably to be expect$ t ! nitrog5-p]c5tage ( ! humus %\ld decrease ) ! dep? ( ! soil4 ,t ?is is really ! case is pla9ly %[n 9 ! subjo9$ table1 :i* gives ! humus-p]c5tages & ! nitrog5-cont5t ( ! humus f ! surface foot d[n to twelve feet1 9 a soil on ! b5* ( ! ,russian ,riv]1 ,cal41 :i* is sub-irrigat$1 & liable to m or less ra9fall dur+ ! summ]4 ,x w be se5 t n only does ! absolute humus-p]c5tage decrease q regul>ly d[n to sev5 feet1 at :i* po9t !re evid5tly 0 at "o "t a /rong root developm5t1 caus+ a notable increase ( ! humus-cont5t2 f :i* aga9 !re is a regul> decrease d[n to ! twelf? foot4 ,x w be not$ t ! nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 ! humus1 :ile n decreas+ ) ! same regul>ity z ! humus-cont5t itself1 yet exhibits a g5]al recession f #e4cj to #a4ae 9 ! n9? foot1 to :i* direct oxidation d\btless nev] p5etrates4 ,,humus ,,& ,,nitrog5-,,cont5t ,,( ,,russian ,,riv] ,,soil4 ,dep? 9 feet4 ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,p] c5t ,humus ,nitrog5 ,humus-,nitrog54 9 soil4 9 ,humus4 9 soil4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a #a4ba #e4cj 4#jfd #b #a4af #d4cb 4#jed #c #a4ad #c4hg 4#jdd #d #a4ag #c4gf 4#jdd #e 4#gd #b4af 4#jaf #f 4#fj #b4ff 4#jaf #g 4#dg #b4ed 4#jab #h 4#gh #a4ed 4#jab #i 4#ed #b4bd 4#jab #aj 4#eb #a4ae 4#jjf #aa 4#ec #a4ea 4#jjh #ab 4#dd #a4ha 4#jjh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,influ5ce ( ! ,orig9al ,mat]ials on ! composition ( ,humus4--,! great v>iability ( ! composition ( humus =m$ f diff]5t sub/ances is well %[n 9 ! subjo9$ table1 repres5t+ ! results ( exp]im5ts made by ,snyd]1#ec :o caus$ v>i\s sub/ances to humify by mix+ ! pulv]iz$ mat]ial intimately ) a soil poor 9 humus1 & all[+ ! process to cont9ue = a ye>4 ,at ! end ( t "t ! humus =m$ 0 extract$ by ! me?od ( ,gr&eau1 outl9$ above1 & analyz$1 ) ! foll[+ results4 ,sug>4 ,oat ,gre5 ,:eat ,sawdu/4 ,meat ,c[ ,/raw4,clov]4,fl\r4 ,scraps4,manure4#ed ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,c>bon #eg4hd #ed4cj #ed4bb #ea4jb #di4bh #dh4gg #da4ic ,hydrog5 #c4jd #b4dh #c4dj #c4hb #c4cc #d4cj #f4bf ,nitrog5 #j4jh #b4ej #h4bd #e4jb #j4cb #aj4if #f4af ,oxyg5 #ci4jd #dj4gb #cd4ad #dj4ad #dg4jg #ce4ig #de4fc ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ajj4jjajj4jj #ajj4jjajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ec ,bull4 ,no4 #ec1 ,m9n4 ,exp't ,/ation1 p4 #ab1 ,*em4 ( ,soils & ,f]tiliz]s1 p4 #id4 #ed ,! figures = c[ manure are s f> out ( range ) any o!rs ?us f> obs]v$1 t x seems reasonable to suppose t !y are influ5c$ by un*ang$ sub/ances pres5t 9 ! excreta4 ,:ile x may be que/ion$ :e!r ! process ( humification _h 9 ^! mat]ials really rea*$ ! po9t ( s5sible completion 9 all cases 7notably 9 ^? ( sawdu/ & c[ manure71 ! great v>iability ( ! products f diff]5t mat]ials is v /rik+4 ,:5 ! nitrog5-cont5t is d$uct$ ! p]c5tage composition ( ! products agrees m ne>ly4 ,consid]+ t ! nitrog5 is probably pres5t 9 ! amid =m1 x is natural t hydrog5 %\ld 9 a measure v>y ) x1 z 9 ! case ( ! clov]1 fl\r & meat humus4 ,nitrog5 be+ ! mo/ v>iable +r$i5t ( humus1 x seems probable t ! v>iation ( ! proportion ( ! humus-amids pres5t is ! mo/ pot5t factor 9 ! v>iability ( ! composition ( natural soil-humus4 ,arrang+ ^! results 9 ! ord] ( _! nitrog5-cont5t z 9 ! table bel[1 we see t ! latt] approximately corresponds to ! orig9al prote9-cont5t ( ! humifi$ sub/ances4 ,humus f meat scraps #aj4if ,nitrog54 8 8 gre5 clov] #h4bd 8 8 c[ manure #f4af 8 8 :eat fl\r #e4je 8 8 oat /raw #b4ej 8 8 sawdu/ 4#cb ,:ile ! above data prove ! correlation betwe5 ! fir/ products ( humification & ! orig9al sub/ance1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t subsequ5tly1 "u prop] conditions1 ! nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 humus may1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 increase v greatly1 ev5 to a proportion consid]ably above t conta9$ 9 fle% itself4 ,:5 we consid] t ord9>ily1 ! latt]1 & ! album9oid sub/ances g5]ally1 decompose 9 contact ) air ) an abundant evolution ( ammonia comp\nds1 sometimes leav+ only a little fat 7adipoc]e7 beh9d1 x is surpris+ t ! decomposition )9 ! soil %\ld h exactly ! opposite result1 viz41 an accumulation ( ! nitrog54 ,! causes ( ?is m>k$ diff]5ce are n yet well und]/ood1 b x is probably due to ! diff]5ces 9 ! k9ds ( bact]ia t are active 9 ! two cases4 ,snyd] has also %[n t ! ri*] ! organic matt] humifi$ is 9 nitrog51 ! m en]getically x acts 9 r5d]+ available ! m9]al matt]s ( ! soil = plant nutrition4 ,correspond+ly1 ,ladd#ee has %[n t ) ! increase ( humus 9 ! soil1 !re is also a correspond+ increase 9 ! am\nts ( m9]al plant-food extract$ f ! soil by a f\r p] c5t solution ( ammonia1 su* z is employ$ 9 ! ,gr&eau me?od ( humus-det]m9ation4 #ee ,bull41 ,s4 ,dakota ,/ation1 ,nos4 #bd-cb1 #ce1 #dg4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil 7,cont9u$74 ,,organisms ,,influ5c+ ,,soil ,,conditions2 ,,bact]ia1 ,,etc4 ,,micro-,,organisms ,,( ,,! ,,soil4 ,intimately correlat$ ) ! humus-sub/ances ( ! soil1 z well z ) its tempor>y cont5ts ( ! c>bohydrates 7cellulose1 gums & sug>s7 f :i* humus is =m$1 is ! multitud9\s flora ( micro-organisms always pres5t & ex]cis+ important functions 9 connection ) ! gr[? ( ! high] plants4 ,ext5d$ rese>*es by ,adametz1 ,s*loes+ & ,mntz1 ,miquel1 ,ko*1 ,fra5kel1 ,w9ogradsky1 ,frank & _m o!rs1 h ?r[n light ^u ! imm5se numb]s & great v>iety ( m9ute organisms1 especially ( ! bact]ial gr\p1 pres5t 9 soils1 & ^u _! di/ribution & activities 9 ! same4 ,x has be5 %[n t _! numb]s are greate/ ne> 7al?\gh usually n at7 ! surface1 decreas+ rapidly d[nw>d & g5]ally disappe>+ :olly at dep?s betwe5 sev5 & eight feet2 ! latt] dep? v>y+ ( c\rse accord+ to ! nature & porosity ( ! soil1 & bo? dep? & numb]s be+ greate/ 9 summ]4 ,numb]s ( ,bact]ia 9 ,soils4--,adametz f\nd 9 "o gram ( soil1 #ch1jjj bact]ia at ! surface1 #dfj1jjj at t5 in*es dep?2 9 a loam soil at ! surface #ejj1jjj1 at t5 in*es #dfd1jjj 9 ea* gram ( e>?4 ,( m\ld & simil> fung\s g]ms !re 7 only #dj to #ej 9 ! same1 #f species be+ true molds1 :ile f\r 7 f]m5ts1 includ+ ! yea/s ( w9e & be]4 ,fra5kel f\nd 9 virg9 l& f ne> ,potsdam1 a sudd51 m>k$ decrease at dep?s ( f ?ree to five feet2 :ile 9 e>? f inhabit$ places )9 ! city ( ,b]l91 consid]able numb]s 7 /ill pres5t at eight & ev5 t5 feet1 9 "s cases4 ,9 ! rese>*es lately made by ,hohl at ! bact]iological /ation at ,liebefeld1 ne> ,b]n1 x 0 f\nd t 9 cultivat$ soils ! numb] ( bact]ia greatly exce$s ! figures giv5 by ,fra5kel4 ,he f\nd a gram ( moi/ soil to conta9 f ?ree to fifte5 millions ( bact]ia4 ,9 ! cultivat$ soil ( ,liebefeld he f\nd #e1gej1jjj1 9 mead[ l& #i1djj1jjj1 9 a manure pile #dd1ejj1jjj p] cubic c5timet]4 ,^! figures seem high = s small a quantity ( mat]ial1 b tak+ ! av]age size ( a bact]ium1 a cubic c5timet] might readily conta9 six hundr$ millions4 7,gr&eau1 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,agronomique1 vol4 #a1 p4 #dfa1 #aije74 ,mayo & ,k9sley 7,rep4 ,kansas ,exp't ,/ation = #aijb-c7 h made elaborate inve/igations ( ! numb]s & k9ds ( bact]ia f\nd 9 v>i\s soils 9 ,kansas1 9 connection ) diff]5t crops4 ,x is notewor?y t 9 mo/ cases _! figures exce$ consid]ably ^? giv5 by ,european obs]v]s1 z !y (t5 rea* high into ! millions1 9 "o case to ov] fifty millions1 p] cubic c5timet]4#ef #ef ,! mode ( /atem5t 9 ! pap] is n always q cle> z to ! mann] 9 :i* ! av]ages giv5 7 calculat$4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ^! data ref] to cubic c5timet]s ( soil1 or ab\t twice ! am\nt 7#a gram7 us$ by ,european obs]v]s4 ,five fields ) diff]5t soils 7 inve/igat$2 ! l& be+ describ$ z foll[s3 8,field ,no4 #a is a black loam conta9+ consid]able humus2 field ,no4 #b is simil> to field #a b conta9s m humus2 field ,no4 #c is a ?9 soil ) clay gumbo subsoil2 fields ,nos4 #d & #e are black loams1 b n z ri* 9 humus z ei!r ,no4 #a or ,no4 #b40 ,! av]age bact]ial cont5ts ( ! sev]al fields are giv5 z foll[s3 ,field ,no4 #a #cc1ica1gdg p] cubic c5timet]4 8 ,no4 #b #ec1eif1jfj 8 8 8 8 ,no4 #c #gh1ecd 8 8 8 8 ,no4 #d #h1fdc1jjf 8 8 8 8 ,no4 #e #c1aib1aca 8 8 8 8,! crop records ( ^! fields = ! pa/ t5 ye>s indicate t ! crop yield has be5 7m or less87 directly proportional to ! bact]ial cont5t ( ! soil ( ea* field2 field #b has produc$ ! l>ge/ yield1 field #c ! lea/40 ,un=tunately no *emical analyses ( any ( ^! soils are communicat$2 b at ! reque/ ( ! writ] samples ( ! soils ( ! fir/ ?ree fields 7 s5t f ! ,kansas /ation = humus det]m9ations 7c\rte\sly made by ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,my]s71 :i* gave ! foll[+ results3 ,field ,no4 #a #b4ai ( ,humus4 8 ,no4 #b #c4jg 8 8 8 ,no4 #c #a4he 8 8 ,:ile ^! humus-p]c5tages are n directly proportional to ! bact]ial cont5t1 a favor+ effect ( high humus-cont5t is cle>ly %[n4 ,! bact]ial & ! humus-cont5t ( ^! soils are s5sibly1 ev5 if n directly1 correlat$2 :i* might reasonably be expect$1 s9ce ! organic matt] & ! humus are ! bact]ial food4 ,! inve/igation also %[$ wide diff]5ces 9 ! bact]ial cont5t ( ! same soil :5 diff]5t crops 7 gr[+ on x4 ,?us 9 samples tak5 on ,aug4 #ae1 !re 7 f\nd 9 ! fir/ twelve in*es ( a black loam soil be>+ timo?y & clov]1 #a1chj1jjj1 9 ! same ) alfalfa & clov]1 #ba1jia1jjj1 ) maize f "o to ov] two millions4 ,9 soils f ! we/]n "p ( ,kansas1 ! bact]ial cont5t ( ! same crops 0 mu* less 7z d\btless is ! humus-cont5t71 & x is notewor?y t ! prairie buffalo grass %[s ?r\gh\t a relatively high bact]ial cont5t 9 ! fir/ foot ( ! soil1 rang+ next to alfalfa4 ,! root bact]ia liv+ on ! legumes w naturally increase ! bact]ial cont5t ( ! soils on :i* !y gr[1 m ?an plants :i*1 l maize1 d n directly utilize bact]ial action4 ,multiplication ( ! ,bact]ia4--,m>%all ,w>d & ,duclaux h made "s special obs]vations 9 reg>d to ! rapidity ) :i* c]ta9 bact]ia multiply4 ,duclaux summ>izes ! f9al conclusion ?us3 tak+ z a basis ! "t ( #ce m9utes = ! subdivision into two1 :i* has be5 frequ5tly obs]v$ by ,w>d1 !re w\ld be f\r millions ( bact]ia produc$ 9 twelve h\rs4 ,! fir/ filam5ts _h pl5ty ( room 9 a drop culture ( "o cubic millimet]2 b at ! end _! total volume am\nt$ to ! t5? "p ( ! total volume ( ! drop4 ,at ! above rate1 mak+ #dh g5]ations 9 #bd h\rs1 #bha1ejj billions ( organisms w\ld be produc$4 7,gr&eau1 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,agron4 ,vol4 #a1 #aije1 p4 #def74 ,a]obic & ,ana]obic ,bact]ia4--,z may readily be inf]r$1 ! cultural & o!r surface conditions ex]t a pot5t influ5ce bo? ^u ! k9ds & abundance ( ! bact]ia & molds2 s9ce ! life-functions ( "s are dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( free oxyg5 78a]obic071 :ile o!rs fl\ri% be/1 or only1 9 ! abs5ce ( air 78ana]obic071 or are able to avail !mselves ( ! pres5ce ( comb9$ oxyg51 by r$uction ( oxids pres5t4 ,_! numb] is f\nd1 9 g5]al1 to be greate/ 9 cultivat$ l&s1 & bact]ia are !re by f> pr$om9ant ov] ! m\lds4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! m\lds ga9 prec$5ce 9 woodl&s & mead[s1 at lea/ s f> z air c ga9 access2 :ile 9 ! deep] lay]s ( ! same1 z well z 9 peaty l&s1 bact]ial life is always scanty4 ,?is holds p>ticul>ly 9 respect to ! nitrify+ organisms1 & o!rs ^: life-functions are dep5d5t ^u abundant access ( oxyg5 7a]obic74 ,food ,mat]ial ,requir$4--,all bact]ia1 l ! fungi1 are dep5d5t = _! developm5t ^u ! pres5ce ( adequate am\nts ( "s organic food-mat]ial1 be/ app>5tly 9 wat]-soluble =m4 ,9 ! soil x seems to be *iefly comp\nds ( ! c>bohydrate gr\p1 especially v>i\s gums d]iv$ f ! decay+ plant sub/ance1 or f /able manure2 9 artificial cultures1 glucose is mo/ly f\nd to be a highly available food4 ,:5 ! decay+ sub/ance rea*es ! /ate ( humus1 ! latt] seems to be available z food only to comp>atively few bact]ia4 ,! v abundant developm5t ( bact]ial life seems to be among ! mo/ important effects produc$ by /able manure ^u ! surface soil1 9 e/abli%+ good til? 78,bod5g>e0 9 ,g]man74 ,functions ( ! ,bact]ia4--,:ile !re is /ill mu* unc]ta9ty z to ! exact functions p]=m$ by mo/ ( ^! bact]ia 9 respect to soil-=mation & plant gr[?1 !re are sev]al k9ds ^: activity has be5 prov$ to be ( ! utmo/ importance 9 "o or bo? directions2 x hav+ be5 %[n t :5 ! soil is /]iliz$ ei!r by heat or antiseptic ag5ts1 c]ta9 ess5tial processes are completely suppress$ until ! soil is re-infect$ & ! conditions ( bact]ial life re/or$4 ,probably ! *ief 9 importance are ^? connect$ ) ! processes ( nitrification & d5itrification1 be>+ z !y d ^u ! supply to plants ( ! mo/ co/ly ( ! ?ree sub/ances furni%$ by f]tiliz]s4 ,^! organisms h be5 fir/ ext5sively /udi$ by ,w9ogradsky1 :ile ! conditions ( _! activity h be5 l>gely develop$ by ,r4 ,w>+ton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,nitrosomonas4 7,w9ogradsky74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,nitrobact]ium4 7,w9ogradsky74 ,nitrify+ ,bact]ia4--,! conv]sion ( ammonia into nitrates is accompli%$ "u prop] conditions by two organisms1 or gr\ps ( organisms2 ! fir/ /age be+ ! =mation ( nitrites by ! r\nd1 (t5 flagellate cells ( nitrosomonas 7or nitrosococcus74 ,! second1 ! oxidation ( ! nitrites into nitrates by v m9ute rod-%ap$ bacilli1 nam$ nitrobact]ia4 ,! conditions "u :i* ^! bact]ia c act are q def9ite 9 t1 aside f a supply ( ! nitrifiable sub/ance1 a fairly high temp]ature 7#bd ,c4 or #ge ,f47 & a mod]ate degree ( moi/ure1 !re mu/ be a free access ( oxyg5 7air72 & !re mu/ be pres5t a base 7or its c>bonate7 ) :i* ! acids =m$ by oxidation c imm$iately unite4 ,9 an acid m$ium 78s\r0 soils7 nitrification promptly ceases2 z x also does :5ev] ! am\nt ( base pres5t has be5 fully neutraliz$4 ,! bases mo/ favorable to nitrification are lime & magnesia 9 ! =m ( c>bonates1 an excess ( :i* does no h>m2 :ile 9 ! case ( ! c>bonates ( pota% & soda1 ! am\nt mu/ be /rictly limit$4 ,conditions ( ,activity4--,dumont & ,cro*etelle f\nd t up to 4#be p] c5t1 potassic c>bonate act$ favorably on ! process2 :i* 01 h[ev]1 completely /opp$ by z mu* z 4#h p] ct4 ,w>+ton has %[n t ammonic c>bonate simil>ly prev5ts nitrification :5 exce$+ ab\t 4#cg p] ct4 ,ammonia salts 9 g5]al appe> to be antagoni/ic to ! trans=mation ( nitrites into nitrates4 ,aside f ! c>bonates1 "s neutral salts favor nitrification v m>k$ly2 :ile o!rs t5d to depress x4 ,deh]a9 f\nd t 4#e p] c5t ( common salt suffices to prev5t nitrification altoge!r1 :ile small] am\nts ret>d x proportionally4 ,accord+ to ,dumont & ,cro*etelle1 potassium *lorid acts favorably up to 4#c p] c5t1 b at 4#h p] c5t suppresses nitrification4 ,e>?y & alkal9e sulfates1 on ! contr>y1 seem to act favorably ?r\gh\t1 at lea/ up to 4#e p] c5t4 ,?is is especially true ( gypsum1 :i*1 accord+ to ,pi*>d1 accel]ates ! process m ?an any o!r sub/ance kn[n4 ,tak+ ! effect ( gypsum z ! maximum1 he f\nd t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! am\nts ( nitrates =m$ 7 z %[n 9 ! table bel[1 ! effect ( gypsum be+ tak5 z #ajj3 ,gypsum #ajj ,sodic ,sulfate #dg4i ,potassic ,sulfate #ce4h ,calcic ,c>bonate #ac4c ,magnesic ,c>bonate #ab4e ,! above e/imates are m>k$ly confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ! writ] 9 ! alkali soils ( ,cali=nia4 ,9 ^!1 nitrates exi/ mo/ abundantly :5 ! salts conta9$ 9 ! soil are ma9ly sulfates2 :ile :]ev] common salt or sodic c>bonate are pres5t 9 consid]able am\nts1 ! am\nts ( nitrate f\nd are notably less4 ,9 sal9e sea%ore l&s nitrates are usually pres5t 9 traces only4 ,wollny has moreov] %[n t ! nitrates !mselves ex]t a repressive influ5ce on nitrification4 ,effects ( ,a]ation & ,r$uction4--,:ile ! fo/]+ effect ( sulfates ^u nitrification is v en]getic 9 well a]at$ soils1 !y become injuri\s :5ev] by a r$uctive process 9 ill-dra9$ l&s1 ! sulfates are r$uc$ to sulfids4 ,"u su* conditions ! process w 9 any case be mu* impair$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! favor+ effect ( abundant a]ation 0 /rik+ly %[n 9 ! exp]im5t made by ,deh]a91 9 :i* a cubic met] ( soil 0 left unmov$ = sev]al mon?s1 :ile a simil> mass 0 ?or\ghly agitat$ once a week dur+ ! same "t4 ,! proportion ( nitrates =m$ 9 ! latt] case 0 z #gj to #a =m$ 9 ! quiesc5t soil mass4 ,x foll[s t ! int5sity ( nitrification is ess5tially dep5d5t ^u ! porosity ( ! soil2 & t x is ?us greatly favor$ 9 ! p]vi\s soil-/rata ( ! arid regions4 ,x also foll[s t ?or\gh & frequ5t tillage & fall[+ greatly favor nitrification2 ?us expla9+ "o ( ! b5eficial results ( ^! op]ations4 ,at ! same "t1 x is true t we may ?us 9 a %ort "t s]i\sly dim9i% ! res]ve /ock ( nitrog5 conta9$ 9 ! soil 9 ! =m ( humus-amids2 & s9ce nitrates are exce$+ly liable to be lo/ f ! soil 9 sev]al ways1 su* excessive nitrification is to be avoid$4 ,unhumifi$ ,organic ,matt] does n ,nitrify4--,!re c be little d\bt t ! =mation ( ammonia f ! amido-comp\nds 9 humus is also ! "w ( bact]ia2 b ?is1 really ! initial phase ( ! nitrog5-nutrition ( plants1 has n yet be5 fully elucidat$4 ,t1 h[ev]1 x is ess5tially only ! ready-=m$ humus & n ! unhumifi$ debris ( ! soil :i* p>ticipate 9 nitrification 0 %[n by ! exp]im5ts ( ! writ]1 see *apt] #ai4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,bacillus d5itrificans ,i4 7,burri47 ,d5itrify+ ,bact]ia4--,among ! s\rces ( loss ( nitrates 9 ! soil is ! action ( d5itrify+ bact]ia2 "s ( :i* cause m]ely ! r$uction ( nitrates to nitrites & progressively to ammonia1 :ile o!rs cause gase\s nitrog5 to be giv5 (f f nitrites & nitrates1 result+ 9 _! complete loss to ! soil4 ,:ile !re are probably sev]al k9ds ( ! latt] class1 ! mo/ rapidly effective is an organism conta9$ abundantly 9 fre% horse dung1 & also on ! surface ( old /raw4 ,?is c readily be %[n by subject+ a v dilute solution 7#a-c p] c5t47 ( ,*ile saltpet] to ! action ( fre% horse dung 9 a close flask1 :5 nitrog5 & c>bonic dioxid gases are evolv$1 & 9 a few days ! nitrate has totally disappe>$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t ?is p[] ( horse-manure disappe>s2 s t 8rott$ manure0 is practically free f x & "u prop] conditions s]ves nitrification s effectively1 t 9 ! pa/ x has s]v$ ext5sively = ! production ( saltpet] 9 ! 8nit]-plantations0 = ! indu/rial purposes2 ! mat]ial ( :i* 0 loose e>?1 m>l & manure1 kept moi/ & frequ5tly =k$ ov] = bett] a]ation4 ,saltpet] is simil>ly produc$ 9 /ables1 corrod+ ! mort> ( brick f\ndations4 ,nev]!less1 x is necess>y to avoid ! use1 ei!r toge!r or at %ort int]vals ap>t1 ( ,*ile saltpet] & fre% manure2 ! manure if us$ fir/ %\ld be all[$ to rema9 at lea/ two mon?s 9 ! soil be=e saltpet] is appli$4 ,! r$uction ( nitrates to nitrites & ammonia is br\ght ab\t by q a numb] ( bact]ia1 mo/ly ana]obic1 & su* z consume comb9$ oxyg5 9 _! developm5t4 ,?us ! butyric f]m5t1 :i* 9 ! abs5ce ( readily r$ucible comp\nds evolves free hydrog51 w 9 pres5ce ( nitrates r$uce ! latt] to nitrites1 or =m ammonia by addition ( hydrog5 to nitrog5 j set free by r$uction4 ,su* r$uctive processes ( c\rse occur *iefly 9 soils ri* 9 organic matt]1 or ill-a]at$4 ,! ammonia s =m$1 :ile at fir/ simply comb9+ ) any humus acids pres5t1 may 9 ! c\rse ( "t be itself r$uc$ to ! amidic condition1 be+ !reby r5d]$ relatively in]t1 until aga9 br\ght into action by ammonia-=m+ bact]ia4 ,ammonia-=m+ ,bact]ia4--,a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t bact]ia appe> to be conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( ammonia f comp\nds ( ! album9oid gr\p1 7& probably f humus74 ,among ^! is "o ( ! mo/ common 9 soils 7,bacillus mycoides1 root bacillus71 :i* :ile =m+ ammonia c>bonate 9 solutions ( album51 is also capable ( r$uc+ nitrates to nitrites & ammonia 9 pres5ce ( a nutritive solution ( sug>4 ,! 8hay bacillus0 7,b4 subtilis71 s abundantly develop$ 9 hay infusions1 & "o ( ! mo/ abundant 9 cultivat$ soils1 has toge!r ) ,b4 ell5ba*5sis1 ,b4 mega!rium1 ,b4 mycoides1 & o!rs1 by "s be5 cr$it$ ) important action 9 favor+ vegetation2 s t a fairly pure culture ( ,b4 ell5ba*5sis has be5 br\ght out comm]cially 9 ,g]many "u ! "n ( 8,al9it40 ,rigor\s culture exp]im5ts made by ,/utz] & o!rs h1 h[ev]1 fail$ to %[ any g5]al b5efit f ! use ( al9it 9 infect+ ei!r l& or se$s4 ,b !re is no d\bt ( ! ,effects ( ,bact]ial ,life on ,physical ,soil ,conditions4--,x is app>5t t all conditions favor+ ! life ( a]obic 7air-ne$+7 bact]ia t5d also to produce ! loose1 por\s /ate 7til?7 ( ! surface soil s conducive to ! welf>e ( culture plants1 designat$ by ,g]man agriculturi/s z 8,bod5g>e40 ,:e!r or n ?is condition is directly due to bact]ial processes1 z is ?\ght by ,/utz] 7,l&w4 ,presse1 #aijd1 ,no4 #aa7 x is assur$ly a highly important po9t to be ga9$1 & is ess5tially connect$ ) ! pres5ce ( humus 9 adequate am\nts1 :i* is also a favor+ condition ( abundant bact]ial life4 ,x seems t ! pref]5ce giv5 to ! %all[ putt+-91 or ev5 surface application ( /able manure1 exi/+ 9 ,europe1 is l>gely bas$ ^u ! m>k$ effect ^u ! loos5ess ( ! surface soil1 g5]ally cr$it$ to ! physical effect ( ! manure sub/ance itself1 b app>5tly l>gely due to ! int5sity ( bact]ial action ?us br\ght ab\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,bacillus subtilis4 7,wollny1 aft] ,brefeld47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,bact]ia produc+ ammoniacal f]m5tation3 ,a1 ,c4 mycoides3 ,b1 ,b4 /utz]i4 7,f ,conn1 ,agr4 ,bact]iology47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,bacillus megat]ium4 7,f ,migula47 ,,root-,,bact]ia ,,or ,,rhizobia ,,( ,,legumes4--,among ! mo/ important bact]ia1 agriculturally1 is t :i* enables plants ( ! legum9\s ord]--7peas1 beans1 vet*es1 clov]s1 lup9s1 etc471--to obta9 _! supply ( nitrog5 f ! air indep5d5tly ( ^? conta9$ 9 ! soil4 ,! s\rce ( nitrog5 to plants 0 long a disput$ "q2 x 0 at fir/ suppos$ 7by de ,saussure7 t x 0 obta9$ directly f ! soil by ! absorption ( humus2 b ?is 0 disprov$1 & ,liebig !n cont5d$ t x 0 d]iv$ directly f ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! ammonia 9 ra9 wat]4 ,?is 0 !n %[n to be :olly inadequate2 & ,b\ss+ault prov$ conclusively t plants d n take up nitrog5 gas f ! air4 ,?is 0 subsequ5tly d5i$ by ,ville2 b inve/igation at ! ,ro?am/ead agricultural /ation by ,lawes & ,gilb]t def9itely confirm$ ,b\ss+ault's results4 ,at ! same "t !y also prov$ v def9itely t :ile grass & root crops deplete ! soil ( nitrog51 clov] & o!r legum9\s crops leave 9 ! soil m nitrog5 ?an 0 previ\sly pres5t1 ev5 :5 ! entire1 itself highly nitrog5\s1 legum9\s crop is remov$ f ! l&4 ,! improvem5t ( l&s = :eat production by rotation ) clov] _h long ago become a practical maxim2 b ! cause 0 n und]/ood until1 9 #ahhh1 ,hellriegel & ,wilf>? ann\nc$ t ! v>i\sly-%ap$ excresc5ces or tub]cles :i* _h long be5 obs]v$ z frequ5tly de=m+ ! roots ( legumes1 are caus$ by ! attacks ( bacilli capable ( absorb+ ! free nitrog5 ( ! air & ?us enabl+ ! ho/-plant to acquire its ne$$ supply by absorb+ ! ri*ly nitrog5\s matt] ?us accumulat$ 9 ! excresc5ces4 ,! m9ute rod-%ap$ organism 0 nam$ ,bacillus radicicola by ,bey]9ck2 ,rhizobium legum9os>um1 by ,a4 ,frank1 :o has publi%$ an ext5sive treatise on ! subject4#eg ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,microscopic section ( cell tissue1 f a nodule ( ,squ>e-pod pea1 %[+ cells fill$ ) ,rhizobia4#eh #eg ,ub] die ,pilzsymbcose d] ,legum9os51 ,b]l91 #ahij4 #eh ,orig9al figure f draw+ by ,o4 ,butl]1 ,as/4 9 ,agr4 ,dep't ,univ4 ( ,cali=nia4 ,microscopic exam9ation ( ! nodules %[s _! tissues to conta9 p>tly motile1 free bact]ia1 p>tly o!rs 7bact]oids71 :i* h assum$ a quiesc5t condition1 & are ( mu* great] dim5sions ?an ^? ( ! motile =m4 ,^! relatively ?ick1 & sometimes =k$1 =ms1 diff]+ some:at 9 ea* ( ! gr\p adaptations m5tion$ bel[1 con/itute ! bulk ( ! cell-cont5ts ( ! nodules1 & ultimately s]ve = ! nutrition ( ! ho/-plant ) nitrog54 ,:5 ! gr[? ( ! excresc5ce is complet$1 ! swoll51 quiesc5t bact]oids gradually collapse & become deplet$ ( _! nitrog5\s sub/ance2 & f9ally ! app>5tly empty husk rema9s or drops (f1 c>ry+ ) x ! m9ute cocci :i* 9 ! soil become active bact]ia aga94 ,! nodules are ?us f\nd ma9ly on ! actively-gr[+ roots1 & at ! "t :5 vegetation & assimilation are mo/ active 9 ! plant4 ,9 autumn1 or :5 ! plants are 9 fruit1 ! roots may be :olly de/itute ( nodules4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,squ>e-pod pea4--,tetragonolobus purpureus4 ,,fig4 #bf4--,:ite ,lup94--,lup9us albus4 ,! adhesion ( ! nodules to ! roots is mo/ly v loose1 & _! fall+-(f :5 ! se$l+s are c>elessly transplant$1 d\btless acc\nts = mu* ( ! difficulty g5]ally f\nd 9 transplant+ legumes :5 once e/abli%$4 ,! figures annex$ %[ ! v>i\s =ms assum$ by ! nodules 9 diff]5t plants1 & ) !m also ! correspond+ =ms ( ! bact]oids ( ea*4 ,! latt]1 "h %[n magnifi$ ab\t #ajjj times1 are tak5 f ! inaugural diss]tation ( ,d4 ,brock on ?is subject1 publi%$ at ,leipzig 9 #ahia4 ,x appe>s t ! =ms ( ! bact]oids are q z mu* v>i$ z are ^? ( ! nodules !y =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,common ,vet*4--,vicia sativa4 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,bur clov]4--,m$icago d5ticulata4 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,g>d5 pea4--,pisum sativum4 ,v>ieties ( ,=ms4--,:ile ^! bacilli seem to be normally pres5t 9 mo/ soils1 x seems to be necess>y t !y %\ld adapt !mselves = ?is symbiosis#ei ) ea* ( sev]al gr\ps ( ! legumes 9 ord] to ex]t _! mo/ b5eficial effects4 ,9 _m soils !re appe>s to exi/ a 8neutral =m01 :i* requires ab\t a season's "t or m to adapt itself specially to ! sev]al legum9\s gr\ps s t a great advantage is ga9$ by infect+ ei!r ! se$s or ! soil ) ! =ms already adapt$1 :5 no simil> plant has lately occupi$ ! same gr\nd4 ,?us ! bacillus ( ! clov] root is ( little or no b5efit to beans1 peas or alfalfa1 & ! root-bacilli ( ea* ( ! latt] are relatively ineffectual :5 us$ to infect ei!r ( ! o!r gr\ps4 ,! same is true ( ! bacilli ( lup9s & ( acacias1 z appli$ to legum9\s plants ( any o!r gr\ps4#fj #ei 8,liv+ toge!r0 b5eficially2 9 contradi/9ction to p>asitism1 :i* is injuri\s to ! ho/ plant4 #fj ,x is ass]t$ by "s obs]v]s t ! root-bacilli produc+ diff]5tly-%ap$ excresc5ces ^u diff]5t legumes are di/9ct species2 b ?is view is n su/a9$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,nobbe & ,hiltn]1 & seems intr9sically improbable4 ,mode ( ,infection4--,! infection is especially effectual :5 appli$ to ! se$s be=e s[+2 & = t purpose !re may be us$ ei!r ! turbid wat] made by /irr+ up 9 x "s e>? ( a prop]ly infect$ field1 or else wat] *>g$ ) a pure culture ( ! appropriate k9d1 comm]cially kn[n "u ! "n ( nitrag91 n[ manufactur$ = ! purpose4 ,or else1 ! field to be s[n may be infect$ by spread+ on x broadca/1 & promptly h>r[+ 91 a wagon-load ( e>? p] acre f a prop]ly infect$ field4 ,su* e>? mu/ n be all[$ to dry1 or to be long expos$ to light4 ,specially effective 78virul5t07 & h>dy =ms ( su* bact]ia h be5 produc$ "u artificial culture by ,dr4 ,geo4 ,t4 ,moore ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,^! cultures c be s5t by mail on cotton imbu$ ) !m1 = ! infection ( se$s4 ,x is v important t ! bacillus %\ld be pres5t 9 ! e>lie/ /ages ( ! gr[? ( ! se$l+s2 o!rwise ! latt] w und]go a long] or %ort] p]iod ( />vation1 unless ! soil conta9s1 or is furni%$ )1 a suffici5cy ( available nitrog5 to supply _! imm$iate wants4 ,:5 su* a supply is v abundant1 ! legume crop w sometimes develop no nodules at all2 b ! be/ crops appe> to be ! result ( a ?or\gh infection1 & abundant =mation ( ! excresc5ces4 ,cultural ,results4--,! m>k$ results obta9$ 9 c]ta9 soils by inoculation ) ! legume-root bacillus are exemplifi$ 9 ! foll[+ table1 %[+ results ( exp]im5ts by ,j4 ,f4 ,dugg>1 at ! ,alabama ,exp]im5t /ation4#fa ,,table ,,%[+ ,,increase ,,( ,,production ,,by ,,soil ,,inoculation4 ,,p] ,,acre4 ,,tops4 ,,roots4 ,,nitrog54 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,value4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,hairy vet*1 n inoculat$ #aid #chg #g #a4je 8 8 inoculat$ #cjde #adeb #ajf #ae4ij ,crimson clov] n inoculat$ #ajf #bff #d4c 4#fe 8 8 inoculat$ #dhdj #adeb #adc4g #ba4be ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #fa ,bull4 ,ala4 ,exp't ,/ation1 ,no4 #if1 #ahih4 ,su* m>k$ increases f soil inoculation _c ( c\rse be expect$ 9 cases :]e ! soil has previ\sly borne legum9\s crops ( simil> nature & !re=e already conta9s ! root bact]ia4 ,h5ce ,dugg> f\nd no increase ( production :5 inoculat+ = c[pea1 l& t _h borne t crop two ye>s be=e & already conta9$ ! root bact]ia4 ,9 ! arid region1 :]e ! almo/ univ]sally calc>e\s soils usually be> a natural gr[? l>gely compos$ ( v>i\s legum9\s plants1 inoculation is likely to be less commonly effective ?an 9 ! humid region ea/ ( ! ,mississippi1 :]e legum9\s plants are mu* less g5]ally pres5t 9 ! native flora4 ,! di/9ctive agricultural function ( supply+ nitrog5 to ! soils on :i* !y gr[1 r5d]s inexcusable ! p]si/5ce ( "s writ]s & tea*]s 9 designat+ all =age plants z 8grasses40 ,:atev] excuse !re may h be5 = ?is practice s long z ! nitrog5-ga!r+ function ( ! legumes 0 unkn[n1 disappe>s ) ?is discov]y1 & ! mislead+ misnom] %\ld be bani%$ f agricultural publications & lectures1 at ! v lea/4 ,o!r ,nitrog5-,absorb+ ,bact]ia4--,an increase 9 ! nitrog5-cont5t ( "s soils1 aside f ! action ( legum9\s root-bact]ia1 has long be5 obs]v$4 ,z already /at$1 ?is increase 0 at fir/ ascrib$ to c]ta9 gre5 alg (t5 se5 to develop on ! soil surface2 b x has n[ be5 %[n t ! nitrog5-ga!r+ function belongs to at lea/ two bact]ia1 "o ( :i* 7,clo/ridium pa/orianum7 0 discov]$ by ,w9ogradski1 ! o!r 7,azotobact] *roococcum7 by ,bey]9ck1 & has s9ce be5 f>!r inve/igat$ by ,ko*1 ,krb]1 ,g]la* & ,vogel1 & la/ by ,lipman & ,hugo ,fis*]4 ,accord+ to ! latt] x seems likely t ,azotobact] *roococcum lives 9 symbiosis ) ! gre5 alg1 all ( :i*1 l ! ,azotobact] itself1 develop ) special luxuriance on calc>e\s soils4 ,lipman 7,rep4 ,agr4 ,exp't ,/ation1 ,new ,j]sey1 #aijc & #aijd7 describes z ,azotobact] v9el&ii a =m some:at diff]5t f ! ,a4 *roococcum1 ! nitrog5-assimilat+ p[] ( :i* he te/$ q elaborately4 ,he expos$ to air pure cultures ( ,a4 v9el&ii 9 nutritive solution conta9+ ! prop] m9]al +r$i5ts1 & glucose #bj grams p] lit]4 #ajj cub4 c5timet]s ( ?is solution 0 expos$ 9 flasks ( respectively #bej1 #ejj & #ajjj cc4 cont5t1 !re=e hav+ great] surface 9 ! l>g] flasks4 ,aft] t5 days1 ! am\nts ( nitrog5 fix$ 7 f\nd to be respectively #a4fg1 #c4ai & #g4ij milligrams4 ,:5 mannite solution 0 employ$ in/ead ( glucose1 a simil> fixation 0 obs]v$2 & x 0 also %[n t ! pres5ce ( comb9$ nitrog5 9 ! =ms ( nitrates or ammonium salts disc\rag$ ! fixation by ! bacillus4 ,x 0 ?us cle>ly prov$ t ,a4 v9el&ii at lea/ does n ne$ symbiosis ) alg to fix atmosph]ic nitrog52 b exp]im5ts ) mix$ cultures ( ! above bacillus & ano!r 7designat$ z ,no4 #cj by ,lipman7 prov$ t :5 ^! two co-op]ate ! absorption ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 is ne>ly d\bl$4 ,z x is probable t ?is is ! case also ) o!r soil bact]ia1 ! importance ( ?is s\rce ( nitrog5 to plants is obvi\s2 provid$ ( c\rse t ! prop] nutritive +r$i5ts are pres5t 9 available =m4 ,lipman %[s t among ! organic nutri5ts1 besides ! sug>s1 glyc]9e & ! salts ( propionic & lactic acids1 & probably also o!rs ( ! same gr\ps1 c s]ve z n\ri%m5t to ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,humus ,,)9 ,,! ,,surface ,,soil4 ,! uni=m di/ribution ( ! humus-cont5ts ( ! surface soil1 z %[n 9 sections ( ! same1 is by no means easily acc\nt$ =4 ,! roots f :i* its sub/ance is s l>gely d]iv$ are n s univ]sally di/ribut$ z to acc\nt = x2 b lea/ ( all c ! rapid disappe>ance ( ! leaf-fall & o!r vegetable (fal f ! surface be acc\nt$ = )\t "s outside ag5cies4 ,( ^!1 ! action ( fung\s vegetation1 & ( insects & e>?worms1 are d\btless ! *ief ones4 ,fungi4--,:5 we exam9e a decay+ root1 we f9d radiat+ f x a zone ( deep] t9t1 z ?\gh f a color$ solution p5etrat+ outw>d4 ,b s9ce "u normal conditions humus is insoluble1 ?is explanation _c /&4 ,microscopic exam9ation1 h[ev]1 reveals t ! outside limit ( ?is zone is also ! limit to :i* ! fung\s fibrils conc]n$ 9 ! process ext5d2 & z ^! fibrils are mu* m f9ely di/ribut$ & mu* m num]\s ?an ! roots ( any plant1 x is natural t ! humus result+ f _! decomposition %\ld be m ev5ly di/ribut$ ?an ! roots !mselves4#fb #fb ,ko/i*eff1 ,=mation & ,prop]ties ( ,humus2 9 ab/ract ,j\r4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahia1 p4 #faa4 ,su* fung\s gr[? is n1 h[ev]1 conf9$ to dead & decay+ roots only4 ,a l>ge numb] ( trees & %rubs1 among !m p9es & firs1 bee*es1 asp5 & _m o!rs1 also ! hea?s1 & woody plants associat$ ) !m1 appe> to dep5d l>gely = _! heal?y developm5t1 notably 9 nor!rn latitudes1 ^u ! co-op]ation 78symbiosis07 ( fung\s fibrils t 8infe/0 _! roots1 enabl+ !m to assimilate1 indirectly1 ! decay+ organic 7& inorganic7 matt] :i* w\ld o!rwise be unavailable1 & at ! same "t conv]t+ t matt] into _! own sub/ance4 ,fung\s gr[?s ?us m$iate bo? ! decomposition & rehabilitation ( ! vegetable debris4 ,! vegetative fibrils 7mycelia7 ( sev]al k9ds ( molds are con/antly pres5t 9 ! soil1 & :ile consum+ ! dead tissue ( ! high] plants1 spread _! own sub/ance ?r\gh\t ! soil mass4 ,! same is true ( ! subt]ranean or 8root0 mycelia ( ! l>g] fungi1 toad/ools1 mu%rooms1 :i* are commonly f\nd ab\t dead /umps & o!r deposits ( decay+ vegetable & animal (fal4 ,all ^! be+ dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( air = _! life functions1 rema9 )9 su* di/ance f ! surface z w af=d adequate a]ation2 ! dep? rea*$ dep5d+ ^u ! p]vi\sness ( ! soil & subsoil4 ,9 ! humid region ?is w usually be )9 a foot ( ! surface1 b 9 ! arid may rea* to sev]al feet4 ,ultimately ^! organisms contribute _! sub/ance to ! /ore ( humus 9 ! l&4 ,on ! surface ( moi/ soils we frequ5tly f9d a copi\s gr[? ( gre5 fibrils1 :i* may be ei!r ^? ( alg1 su* z ,oscill>ia1 or ! e>ly /ages 7pro?allia7 ( moss vegetation4 ,?is vegetation has be5 cr$it$ ) absorption ( nitrog5 f ! air1 ?us enri*+ ! soil2 b lat] rese>*es h %[n ?is effect to be due to symbiotic bact]ia 7see above p4 #aef74 ,animal ,ag5cies4--,d>w9 fir/ sugge/$ t :]ev] ! common e>?worm 7,lumbricus7 f9ds ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 x ex]ts a mo/ important influ5ce 9 ! =mation ( ! hum\s surface-soil lay]2 & ! limitation impos$ ^u ^! conditions by ! subsoil has d\btless a great deal to d ) ! %>p dem>cation we (t5 f9d betwe5 x & ! surface soil4 ,briefly /at$1 ! e>?worm n\ri%es itself by swall[+1 successively1 portions ( ! surr\nd+ e>?1 dige/+ a "p ( its organic matt] & !n eject+ ! undige/$ e>? 9 ! =m ( 8ca/s10 su* z may be se5 by ?\s&s on ! surface ( ! gr\nd dur+ or aft] a ra94 ,d>w9 7,! ,=mation ( ,vegetable ,mold1 #ahha71 has calculat$ f actual obs]vation t 9 humid climates & 9 a gr\nd fairly /ock$ ) ^! worms1 ! soil ?us br\ght up may am\nt to f "o-t5? to two-t5?s ( an in* annually ov] ! entire surface2 s t 9 half a c5tury ! entire surface foot might h be5 ?us work$ ov]4 ,aside f ! me*anical effect ?us a*iev$ 9 loos5+ ! soil1 & ! access ( air & wat] p]mitt$ by _! burr[s1 ! *emical effects result+ f _! dige/ive process1 & ! f9al return ( _! own sub/ance to ! soil mass2 also _! habit ( draw+ aft] !mselves into _! burr[s leaf/alks1 blades ( grass & o!r vegetable rema9s1 r5d]s _! "w ( no mean importance bo? f ! physical & *emical po9t ( view4 ,! uni=mity1 lack ( /ructure & loose texture ( ! surface soil1 especially ( =e/s1 z comp>$ ) subsoil lay]s ( correspond+ ?ickness1 is d\btless l>gely due to ! e>?worms' "w4 ,x has frequ5tly be5 obs]v$ t :5 an unusual ov]fl[ has dr[n$ out ! e>?worm population ( a consid]able area1 ! surface soil lay] rema9s compact$1 & vegetation langui%es1 until new immigration has re/ock$ ! soil ) !m4 ,aga91 ! humus =m$ "u _! influ5ce is always neutral1 nev] acid4 ,wollny 7,=s*1 ,agr41 #ahij1 p4 #chb71 has %[n by direct exp]im5tal cultures 9 boxes1 ) & )\t e>?worms1 surpris+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! cultural results obta9$1 & ?is has be5 fully confirm$ by ! subsequ5t rese>*es ( ,djemil 7,b]4 ,physiol4 ,lab4 ,v]s4 ,halle1 #ahih74 ,9 ,wollny's exp]im5ts1 ! ratio ( high] production 9 ! pres5ce ( ! worms1 v>i$ all ! way f #b4f p] c5t 9 ! case ( oats1 #ic4i 9 t ( rye1 #ace4i 9 t ( potatoes1 #cjj 9 t ( ! field pea1 & #adj 9 t ( ! vet*1 to #gcc p] c5t 9 ! case ( rape4 ,wollny attributes ^! favorable effects 9 ! ma9 to ! increas$ loos5ess1 & p]vi\sness ( ! soil to air1 & dim9i%$ wat]-hold+ p[]4 ,djemil's results all po9t 9 ! same direction2 & he %[s1 moreov]1 t ! allegation t ! roots p5etrate m deeply 9 ! pres5ce ( ! worms by foll[+ _! burr[s1 is unf\nd$1 ! desc5d+ roots (t5 pass+ close to & outside ( ^!4 ,! "w ( e>?worms is especially effective 9 loamy soils & 9 ! humid regions4 ,9 ! arid region1 & 9 s&y soils g5]ally1 ! life-conditions are unfavorable to ! worm1 & ! p]vi\sness else:]e br\ght ab\t by its labors already exi/s naturally 9 mo/ cases4 ,x is /at$ by ,e4 ,t4 ,seton 7,c5tury ,mag4 = ,june1 #aijd7 t ! e>?worm is practically non-exi/5t 9 ! arid region betwe5 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! imm$iate ,pacific coa/1 f ,manitoba to ,texas4 ,9 ! ,pacific coa/ region1 h[ev]1 !y are abundant1 & d _! "w effectually4 ,insects ( v>i\s k9ds are also in/rum5tal 9 produc+1 n only ! uni=m di/ribution ( humus 9 ! surface soil1 b also ! loos5ess ( texture :i* we see 9 =e/ soils especially4 ,ants1 wasps1 _m k9ds ( beetles1 crickets1 & p>ticul>ly ! l>v ( ^!1 & ( o!r burr[+ creatures1 (t5 =m consid]able accumulations1 due directly bo? to _! me*anical activity1 & to _! excrem5ts4 ,! "w ( ants is 9 "s regions on s l>ge a scale z to attract ! att5tion ( ! mo/ casual obs]v]4 ,especially is ?is ! case 9 portions ( ! arid region1 f ,texas to ,montana1 :]e at times l>ge areas are s ?ickly /udd$ ) hills f ?ree to twelve feet 9 diamet]1 & "o to two feet high1 t x is difficult to pass )\t be+ attack$ by ! insects4 ,! 8m\nds0 /udd+ a l>ge portion ( ! prairie c\ntry ( ,l\isiana seem also to be due to ! "w ( ants1 al?\gh n inhabit$ at pres5t4 ,l>g] burr[+ animals also assi/ 9 ! task ( mix+ uni=mly ! surface soils1 & aid+ root-p5etration1 z well z1 9 _m cases1 ! cons]vation ( moi/ure4 ,seton 7loc4 cit47 ev5 claims t ! pocket goph]s 7,?omomys7 9 a great degree replace ! activity ( ! e>?worms 9 ! arid region1 :]e !y1 toge!r ) ! voles 7commonly kn[n !re z field mice71 exi/ 9 great numb]s4 ,( c\rse ! "w ( ^! animals1 z well z t ( ! prairie dogs1 gr\nd squirrels1 badg]s1 etc41 is incompatible ) cultivation4 ,b ! effects ( _! burr[s on ! native vegetation1 & ! indications !y give ( ! nature ( ! subsoil1 are em95tly useful to ! l&-seek]4 ,?us 9 ! roll+ s$im5t-l&s ( ! ,great ,b5d ( ! ,columbia1 ! obs]v] is surpris$ to see ! 8giant rye grass10 usually at home 9 ! moi/ l[l&s1 gr[+ pref]ably on ! cre/s ( ! ridges bord]+ ! horizon4 ,exam9ation %[s t ?is is due to ! burr[+ ( badg]s1 :]eby ! roots ( ! grass are enabl$ to rea* moi/ure at all times1 ev5 9 t extremely arid region4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,soil ,,& ,,subsoil 7,cont9u$7 ,,_! ,,relations ,,to ,,vegetation4 ,physical ,effects ( ! ,p]colation ( ,surface ,wat]s4--,! muddy wat] =m$ by ! beat+ ( ra9s on ! soil surface w1 9 p5etrat+ ! soil1 c>ry ) x ! diffus$ colloidal clay to a c]ta9 dep? into ! subsoil4 ,we %\ld !re=e expect t z a rule e subsoil w be m clayey ?an its surface soil2 & ?is is f\nd to be almo/ univ]sally ! case 9 ! humid region4 ,subsoils are !re=e almo/ always less preci\s & m ret5tive ( moi/ure1 z well z ( plant-food sub/ances 9 solution1 ?an _! surface soils1 unless ^! are v ri* 9 humus2 & z ! f9e/ p>ticles are usually ^? ri*e/ 9 available plant-food1 x foll[s t subsoils w z a rule be f\nd to conta9 l>g] supplies ( ! latt] ?an ! surface soil4 ,common exp]i5ce z well z comp>ative analysis confirm bo? ( ^! inf]5ces s ?or\ghly1 t x becomes unnecess>y to adduce examples 9 ?is place4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rev]se1 upw>d movem5t ( moi/ure caus$ by surface evaporation t5ds con/antly to br+ any soluble salts conta9$ 9 ! soil mass ne>] to ! surface1 ?us increas+ ! /ock ( easily available plant-food 9 ! surface soil4 ,9 extreme cases1 especially 9 ! arid region1 ?is accumulation ( salts may become excessive1 & s]i\sly injuri\s to plant gr[?4 7,see 8,alkali ,soils01 *apt]s #ba1 #bb47 ,*emical effects ( ,wat]-,p]colation4--,! accumulation ( plant-food 9 ! subsoil is n1 h[ev]1 due only to ! me*anically-c>ri$ p>ticles1 b also to ! +r$i5ts c>ri$ 9 solution f ! surface soil & r$eposit$ 9 ! m ret5tive subsoils4 ,especially is ?is true ( lime c>bonate1 :i* is dissolv$ by ! c>bonic acid =m$ *iefly )9 ! humic surface soil1 & is (t5 c>ri$ (f 9 am\nts suffici5t to ob/ruct dra9 tiles by its deposition 9 contact ) air 7see *apt4 #c74 ,9 ! case ( mod]ate ra9s1 h[ev]1 x is c>ri$ no f>!r ?an ! subsoil1 & is !re r$eposit$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! p5etration ( air1 foll[+ ! wat]1 & caus+ ! c>bonic gas to diffuse upw>d2 ?us leav+ ! lime c>bonate beh9d4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ?is results simply 9 a gradual enri*+ ( ! subsoil 9 ?is sub/ance2 :ile ! surface soil may become s deplet$ z to require its artificial replacem5t by lim+ or m>l+4 ,! same g5]al process occurs to a less ext5t1 9 ! case ( magnesia4 ,calc>e\s ,subsoils4--,! fact t subsoils are m calc>e\s ?an ! correspond+ surface soils is (t5 ( great practical importance1 9 enabl+ ! f>m] to enri* 8 deplet$ surface soil 9 lime by subsoil pl[+4 ,! accumulation ( lime c>bonate 9 ! subsoil also t5ds 9 a measure to (fset ! extreme heav9ess sometimes result+ f ! accumulation ( clay4 ,calc>e\s ,subsoils & ,h>dpans4--,:5 soils are v ri* 9 lime1 & ra9s occur 9 limit$ %[]s r ?an cont9u\sly1 ! lime c>bonate dissolv$ f ! surface soil may accumulate 9 ! subsoil s z to ei!r =m calc>e\s 8h>dpan0 by ! cem5t+ ( ! subsoil mass2 or x may accumulate & p>tly cry/allize ar\nd c]ta9 c5t]s & ?us =m :ite concretions1 kn[n to f>m]s z 8:ite gravel40 ,! latt] is ! =m usually assum$ 9 ! regions ( summ] ra9s2 :ile 9 ! arid regions ! defici5t ra9fall causes ?is sub/ance to accumulate1 & calc>e\s h>dpan to =m1 at def9ite dep?s dep5d+ ^u ! maximum p5etration ( ! annual ra9fall2 sometimes 9 cry/all9e masses ( v]itable lime/one 78kank>0 ( ,india71 or sometimes m]ely z cry/all9e incru/ations loosely cem5t+ ! subsoil4 8,rawness0 ( ,subsoils 9 ,humid ,climates4--,f ! great] compactness ( ! subsoil :i* is almo/ univ]sal 9 ! humid regions1 ! abs5ce ( humus & ( ! result+ =mation ( c>bonic & humic acids1 x foll[s t its m9]als are less subject to ! wea!r+ process ?an are ^? ( ! surface soil4 ,9 ! f>m]'s p>lance1 ! subsoil is 8raw0 z comp>$ ) ! surface soil2 x is n s suitable = plant-nutrition1 & !re=e mu/ n be br\ght to ! surface to =m ! se$-b$1 or be incorporat$ ) ! surface soil to any consid]able ext5t at any "o "t1 if crop-nutrition is to be normal4 ,x is only 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 by exposure to atmosph]ic action z well z to t ( ! humus1 & ( plant roots1 t x becomes prop]ly adapt$ to p]=m ! functions ( ! surface soil4 ,soils & ,subsoils 9 ! ,arid ,region4--,b h[ev] pron\nc$ & important are ^! di/9ctions & diff]5ces 9 ! humid region1 !y are f\nd to be pr(\ndly modifi$ 9 ! arid2 :]e1 z be=e /at$1 ! =mation ( colloidal clay is v mu* dim9i%$1 s t mo/ soils =m$ "u arid conditions are ( a s&y or pulv]ul5t type4 ,!re is !n little or no clay to be wa%$ d[n into ! subsoil1 h5ce !re is no compact+ ( ! latt]2 ! air consequ5tly circulates freely d[n to ! dep? ( _m feet4 ,?us "o ( ! mo/ important di/9ctions betwe5 soil & subsoil is to a great ext5t practically non-exi/5t 9 ! arid region1 at lea/ )9 ! dep?s to :i* tillage c be made to rea*2 s t ! limitations atta*$ to subsoil-pl[+ 9 ! c\ntries ( summ] ra9s d n apply to ! *>act]i/ic soils ( ! arid regions4 ,ev5 ! di/9ction 9 reg>d to humus is "h l>gely oblit]at$ by ! circum/ance1 already allud$ to1 t mo/ ( t sub/ance mu/1 9 ! arid regions1 be d]iv$ f ! decay ( roots1 :i* moreov] rea* to mu* great] dep? 9 ^! soils4 ,h5ce ev5 9 ! upl&s ( ! arid region x is common to f9d no *ange ( t9t f ! surface d[n to ?ree feet1 & ev5 m4 ,?is1 l ! free circulation ( ! air 9 consequ5ce ( porosity1 t5ds to r5d] ! di/9ction ( soil & subsoil practically useless2 s9ce x disposes ( ! objection to 8subsoil+0 bas$ ^u ! in]t condition ( ! subsoil1 :i* 9 humid climates s effectually int]f]es ) ! welf>e ( crops unless subsoil+ is re/rict$ to a fraction ( an in* at a "t4 ,^! fundam5tal diff]5ces 9 ! soils ( ! two regions are illu/rat$ s*ematically 9 ! subjo9$ diagram1 :i* %[s on ! left ! contra/ betwe5 clay or clay loam soils1 9 :i* ! dep? ( ! surface soil-sample to be tak5 is prescrib$ z n9e in*es by ! rules ( ! ,association ( ,am4 ,(ficial ,*emi/s 79 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce x is m ne>ly six in*es z a rule74 ,alongside ( ! ,ea/]n soil ?us *>act]iz$ is plac$ a typical 8adobe0 soil f ! gr\nds ( ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t /ation1 ( :i* a sample %[+ uni=m blackness to ?ree feet dep? 0 exhibit$ at ! ,_w's ,fair at ,*icago 9 #ahic4 ,at ! "r is a pr(ile ( ! not$ hop soil on ! b5* l&s ( ! ,russian riv]1 ,cal41 9 :i* ! humus-cont5t 0 det]m9$ d[n to twelve feet1 ! humus-p]c5tage be+ 4#dd at t dep? aga9/ #a4ba 9 ! surface foot 7see *apt4 #h1 p4 #aci74 ,9 ?is & simil> soils ! roots ( hops rea* d[n to z mu* z f\rte5 feet )\t mu* lat]al expansion2 z %[n 9 plate ,no4 #ca ( ?is *apt]4 ,simil> conditions prevail 9 ! s&y upl&s1 z1 e4 g41 9 ! :eat l&s ( ,/anislaus c\nty1 ,cal41 m5tion$ above4 ,tak+ ! clay soils z a fair type = comp>ison1 x w\ld seem t ! f>m] 9 ! arid region owns f ?ree to f\r f>ms1 "o above ano!r1 z comp>$ ) ! same acreage 9 ! ,ea/]n /ates4 ,subsoils & ,deep-pl[+ 9 ! ,arid ,region4--,up to ! pres5t "t ?is advantage is b little appreciat$ & act$ ^u by ! f>m]s ( ! arid region4 ,!y /ill in/9ctively cl+ to ! practice taught !m by _! fa!rs1 & :i* is /ill promulgat$ z ! only correct practice1 9 mo/ books on agriculture4 ,!re are ( c\rse 9 ! arid z well z 9 ! humid region1 cases 9 :i* deep pl[+ is inadvisable2 viz1 t ( m>% or swamp l&s1 z well z sometimes 9 v s&y1 por\s soils1 ! cultural value ( :i* (t5 dep5ds ess5tially ^u ! pres5ce ( a some:at consolidat$1 & m ret5tive subsoil1 :i* %\ld n be brok5 up4 ,b 9 mo/ soils n ( extreme physical "*1 x is 9 ! arid region n only p]missible1 b em95tly advisable to pl[1 = prep>ation1 z deeply z circum/ances p]mit1 9 ord] to facilitate ! p5etration ( ! roots beyond ! rea* ( h>m f ! summ]'s dr\ght2 :ile = ! same reason1 subsequ5t cultivation %\ld be to a mod]ate dep? only1 = ! bett] cons]vation ( moi/ure1 & ! =mation ( a protective surface mul* 7see *apt] #ac74 ,illu/ration3 ,,type ,,( ,,ea/]n ,,soils ,,types ,,( ,,cali=nia ,,soils4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ft4 ,upl&4 ,up l& clay-loam4 ,bea* l&4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,fig4 #bg4--,soil ,pr(iles illu/rat+ diff]5ces 9 ,soils ( ,humid & ,arid ,region4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t !re are 9 ! l[l&s ( ! arid region 7riv] swamps or tules1 sea-coa/ m>%es1 etc417 soils 9 :i* surface soil & subsoil are diff]5tiat$ z fully z 9 ! humid c\ntries2 at lea/ s long z !y h n be5 fully dra9$ = a consid]able l5g? ( "t4 ,9 swamp areas t h be5 elevat$ above ! rea* ( ov]fl[ or %all[ bottom-wat] by geological ag5cies1 ev5 ! heavy swamp clays are fully a]at$ d[n to great dep?s1 & roots p5etrate accord+ly4 ,examples ( ,plant-gr[? on ,arid ,subsoils4--,! fact t 9 ! arid region ! surface-soil conditions rea* to s mu* great] dep?s ?an 9 ! ,ea/ & 9 ,europe1 is s important = f>m+ practice 9 t region t exp]im5tal evid5ce ( ! same %\ld n be )held4 ,( su*1 "s cases well e/abli%$ z typical ( ,cali=nia exp]i5ce are !re=e cit$4 ,x is well kn[n t 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia ! plac] m9es ( ! ,foo?ills1 work$ 9 ! e>ly times1 h long disappe>$ f sight1 hav+ be5 quickly cov]$ by a gr[? ( ! bull p9e 7,p4 pond]osa74 ,mu* ( ?is timb] gr[? has = a numb] ( ye>s pa/ be5 ( suffici5t size to be us$ = timb]+ 9 m9es1 & a second "y =e/ is spr++ up on :at 0 orig9ally ! r$ e>? ( ! plac] m9es1 :i* appe>s to ! eye z hopelessly b>r5 z ! s&s ( ! des]t4 ,9 ?is same r$ s&y e>? n unfrequ5tly cell>s & h\se f\ndations are dug1 & ! mat]ial remov$1 ev5 to ! dep? ( eight feet1 is fe>lessly put on ! g>d5 & !re s]ves z a new soil1 on :i* vegetables & small fruits gr[1 ! fir/ ye>1 z well z ev]4 ,9 prep>+ su* l& = irrigation by level+ or t]rac+ no he$ is tak5 ( ! surface soil z aga9/ ! subsoil1 ev5 :]e ! latt] mu/ be remov$ to ! dep? ( sev]al feet1 s long z a suffici5t dep? ( soil mat]ial rema9s above ! b$rock4 ,! same is g5]ally true ( ! b5*l&s2 ! irrigator levels1 slopes or t]races 8 l& = irrigation ) no ?\ght ( discrim9ation betwe5 soil & subsoil1 & ! cultural result z a rule ju/ifies 8 app>5t c>elessness4 ,x is only :]e f special causes a consolidat$ or h>dpan subsoil is br\ght to ! surface1 t ! l& :5 level$ %[s 8spott$0 crops4 ,su* is ! case 9 "s ( ! 8hog-wall[0 areas ( ! ,san ,joaqu9 valley ( ,cali=nia1 & 9 "s cases :]e by long cultivation & pl[+ to ! same dep?1 a compact soil-lay] or pl[sole has be5 =m$1 & ! l& is !n level$ = ! introduction ( irrigation4 ,9 ^! cases a section ( ! soil mass w usually %[ a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 color & texture4 ,b1 z a rule1 9 tak+ soil samples1 no noticeable diff]5ce c be p]ceiv$ betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second1 & (t5times z f> d[n z ! ?ird & f\r? foot4 ,! extraord9>y root-p5etration ( trees1 %rubs & taproot$ h]bs1 ^: fibr\s fe$+-roots are f\nd deep 9 ! subsoil & are sometimes :olly abs5t f ! surface soil1 fully corroborate ! conclusion rea*$ by ! eye4 ,! roots ( grape v9es h be5 f\nd by ! writ] at ! dep? ( tw5ty-two feet bel[ ! surface1 9 a gravelly clay loam v>y+ b little ! entire di/ance4 ,9 a simil>ly uni=m & p]vi\s mat]ial1 ! loess ( ,nebraska1 ,aughey#fc reports ! roots ( ! native ,%eph]dia to h be5 f\nd at ! dep? ( fifty feet4 #fc ,see ,m]rill1 ,rocks & ,rock wea!r+4 ,resi/ance to ,dr\ght4--,^! peculi>ities ( ! soils ( ! arid region expla9 )\t any resort to viol5t hypo!ses1 ! fact t _m culture plants :i* 9 ! regions ( summ] ra9s are f\nd to be dep5d5t ^u frequ5t & abundant ra9fall1 w 9 ,cali=nia1 & 9 ! c\ntry we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s g5]ally1 ?rive & complete _! gr[? & fruit+ dur+ p]iods ( f\r to six mon?s ( practically absolute cessation ( ra9fall2 :5 ea/ ( ! ,mississippi a simil> cessation = z _m weeks w ru9 ! crops1 if n kill ! plants4 ,9 cont95tal ,europe1 9 #ahib1 a six weeks' dr\ght caus$ almo/ all ! fruit crops to drop f ! trees1 & _m trees fail$ to revive ! next season2 :ile at ! v same "t1 ! same decidu\s fruits gave a b\ntiful crop 9 ,cali=nia1 dur+ ! preval5ce ( ! usual five or six mon?s' dr\ght4 ,?is 0 )\t irrigation1 or any aid beyond c>eful & ?or\gh surface tillage foll[+ ! cessation ( ra9s 9 ,april or ,may1 s z to leave ! soil to ! dep? ( five or six in*es 9 a condition ( loos5ess p]fectly adapt$ to ! prev5tion ( evaporation f ! moi/ subsoil1 & ( ! conduction ( ! excessive heat ( ! summ] sun4 ,?is surface mul* w conta9 practically no fe$+-roots1 ! p>alysis or dea? ( :i* by heat & dr\ght w\ld influ5ce s5sibly ! welf>e ( ! gr[+ plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,root ( an ,ea/]n 7,wiscons97 ,fruit ,tree4 7,photograph by ,pr( ,f4 ,h4 ,k+47 ,root-sy/em 9 ! ,humid ,region4--,x is q o!rwise :]e a d5se subsoil n only ob/ructs me*anically ! deep p5etration ( any b ! /ronge/ roots1 b at ! same "t is itself too in]t to provide suffici5tly abundant n\ri%m5t ap>t f ! surface soil1 :i* is !re ! portion conta9+1 alongside ( humus1 ! bulk ( ! available plant-food1 & 9 :i* alone ! processes ( absorption & nutrition f9d ! prop] conditions2 su* z access ( air & ! ready & m9ute p5etration ( ev5 ! mo/ delicate rootlets & root-hairs4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ active portion ( ! root-sy/em be+ ?us accumulat$ 9 ! surface soil1 x foll[s t unless ! latt] is con/antly kept 9 a fair condition ( moi/ness1 ! plant mu/ suff] mat]ial injury v quickly2 h5ce ! (t5 fatal effects ( ev5 a few weeks' dr\ght4 ,! same occurs 9 ! arid region :5 (t5-repeat$ %all[ pl[+ has result$ 9 ! =mation ( a 8pl[sole0 :i* prev5ts ! deep p5etration ( roots2 :5 a hot 8nor!r0 w (t5 9 a %ort "t n only dry ! pl[$ soil1 b w heat x to su* ext5t z to actually bake ! roots x h>bors4 ,"u ! same wea!r-conditions an adjo9+ field1 prop]ly pl[$1 may almo/ :olly escape injury4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,prune ,tree on ,pea* ,root1 at ,niles1 ,cal4 ,comp>ison ( root developm5t 9 ! arid & humid regions4--,figures #bh1 #bi giv5 "h %[ ! diff]5ces z actually se5 9 ! case ( fruit trees z gr[n 9 ,wiscons9 & ,cali=nia1 respectively1 bo? 9 ! abs5ce ( artificial wat]-supply4 ,adaptation ( humid species to arid conditions4--,figures1 9 ,no4 #cj1 %[ ! root sy/ems respectively ( ! riv]side grape 7,vitis rip>ia7 z gr[n 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley /ates1 & ! natural developm5t z f\nd 9 ! ,rock grape ( ,miss\ri & also 9 ! wild grape v9e ( ,cali=nia4 ,x w be not$ at once t ! latt] directs its cord-l roots almo/ v]tically f ! fir/1 until x rea*es a dep? v>y+ f #ab to #ah in*es1 :]e x beg9s to bran* m freely1 b /ill ) a /rong d[nw>d t5d5cy 9 all4 ,! roots ( ! riv]side grape1 on ! contr>y1 t5d to spread almo/ horizontally1 bran*+ freely at ! dep? ( a few in*es & manife/ly d]iv+ its supply bo? ( plant-food & moi/ure ma9ly f ! surface soil4 ,x is curi\s to obs]ve ! behavior ( ?is v9e :5 cutt+s are plant$ 9 ,cali=nia v9ey>ds z a resi/ant graft+-/ock4 ,its fir/ roots are s5t out horizontally1 v mu* z is its habit 9 ! ,ea/1 s long z ! soil moi/ure is ma9ta9$ ne> ! surface4 ,b z ! season advances1 ! m sup]ficial rootlets are fir/ ?r[n out ( action by ! advanc+ dryness & heat ( ! surface soil1 & _m f9ally die ! fir/ ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,root ,gr[? ( ,resi/ant ,grape ,v9es4 ,n unfrequ5tly ! entire root sy/em develop$ by ! upp]mo/ bud p]i%es2 b usually its ma9 roots soon beg9 to rec$e f ! ?reat5+ dr\ght & heat ( ! surface1 curv+1 or bran*+ d[nw>d 9 ! direction ( ! moi/ure supply1 & )\t detrim5t to _! nutrition because ( ! practical id5tity ( ! surface soil & subsoil4 ,z ! portions ( ! roots ne> ! surface ?ick5 & mature1 _! corky r9d soon prev5ts _! be+ injur$ by ! arid conditions to :i* !y are subject$2 :ile ! root-ends1 f9d+ cong5ial conditions ( nutrim5t & a]ation 9 ! moi/ dep?s1 develop )\t difficulty z !y w\ld 9 _! humid home4 ,practically ! same process ( adaptation takes place 9 e "o ( ! trees1 %rubs1 or p]5nials belong+ to ! humid climates1 until _! root sy/em has assum$ ne>ly ! habit ( ! correspond+ native vegetation4 ,! photograph ( ! roots ( a hop plant1 gr[n on b5* l&s ( ! ,sacram5to riv]1 %[s ! roots ext5d+ to #h feet dep?1 b :]e brok5 (f ! ma9 root is /ill ne>ly two millimet]s 9 ?ickness1 prov+ t x p5etrat$ at lea/ two feet beyond ! dep? %[n 9 figure #ca4 ,9 ! case ( native annuals1 ei!r ! duration ( _! vegetation is extremely %ort1 end+ ) or %ortly aft] ! cessation ( ra9s2 or else _! tap roots desc5d s l[1 & ! nutritive rootlets are develop$ at su* dep?1 z to be beyond rea* ( ! summ]'s heat & dr\ght4 ,= :ile x is true t rootlets imm]s$ 9 air-dry soil may absorb plant-food1 ?is absorption is v sl[ & c only be auxili>y to ! ma9 root sy/em :i*1 in/ead ( t]m9at+ 9 ! surface soil z 9 ! humid region1 w be f\nd to beg9 to bran* (f at dep?s ( #ae & #ah in*es1 & may !n 9 s&y l&s desc5d to f #d to #g feet ev5 9 ! case ( annual fibr\s-root$ plants l :eat & b>ley4#fd ,9 ! case ( maize ! roots ( a late-plant$ crop may sometimes be f\nd desc5d+ along ! walls ( ! sun-cracks 9 heavy clay l& poorly cultivat$2 & x frequ5tly matures a crop )\t ! aid ( a s+le %[] aft] plant+4 ,see figures #cc1 #cd4 #fd ,%al] 7,orig9 & ,nature ( ,soils2 #ab? ,rept4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 p4 #caa7 says3 8,annual plants _c 9 _! brief p]iod ( gr[? pu% _! roots m ?an six to twelve in*es bel[ _! root-cr[ns0--a g5]alization measurably true = ! humid region only4 ,accord+ to ,f4 ,j4 ,alway1 ! roots ( c]eals p5etrate to #e-g feet 9 ,saskat*ewan1 also4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,hop ,root f ,sacram5to ,b5*-l&4 ,! annex$ plate 7,no4 #cb7 %[s ! ma9 roots ( two native p]5nial we$s ( ,cali=nia1 ! goosefoot 7,*5opodium cali=nicum7 & ! figwort 7,scrophul>ia cali=nica71 common on ! l[] slopes ( ! coa/ ranges4 ,! soil 0 a heavy clay loam or 8black adobe0 result+ f ! wea!r+ ( ! clay %ale b$rock1 fragm5ts ( :i* are s abundantly int]mix$ ) ! sub/rata t excavation ( ! roots became v difficult4 ,yet ! ma9 root ( ! goosefoot w5t d[n bel[ ! dep? ( elev5 feet4 ,! ma9 root ( ! figwort1 also1 0 foll[$ bel[ ! dep? ( t5 feet )\t rea*+ ! extreme end4 ,?is proves cle>ly t ! great p5etration ( ! goosefoot 0 n1 z might be suppos$1 due to its bulb\s root4 ,yet su* ?ick5+ ( ! root j bel[ ! cr[n is a r common feature 9 arid-region plants1 & c "h be not$ ev5 9 ! figwort1 )9 ^: botanical relation%ip bulb\s roots are almo/ unkn[n4 ,any "o accu/om$ to ! cornfields ( ! ,middle ,we/1 :]e 9 ! aft]-cultivation ( maize x is necess>y to re/rict v c>efully ! dep? ( tillage to avoid br++ up a mat ( :ite1 fibr\s roots1 w be at once impress$ ) ! rem>kable adaptability ( maize to diff]5t climatic conditions1 z exhibit$ 9 su* cases & %[n 9 figures #cc1 #cd4 ,9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 9 ! deep mesa or b5* soils1 corn /alks s tall t a man /&+ on horseback c b>ely rea* ! tassel1 & ) two or ?ree l>ge e>s1 are q commonly gr[n "u simil> ra9fall-conditions4 ,importance ( prop] ,sub/rata 9 ! ,arid ,region4--,! p>am\nt ne$ ( deep p5etration ( roots 9 ! arid region r5d]s ! sub/rata bel[ ! range ( :at is usually und]/ood by subsoil 9 ! humid climates1 ( exceptional importance4 ,a good f>m] any:]e w exam9e ! subsoil to ! dep? ( two feet be=e inve/+ 9 l&2 b m ?an ?is is necess>y 9 ! arid region1 :]e ! surface soil is (t5 almo/ ?r[n out ( action dur+ ! great] "p ( ! gr[+ season1 :ile ! ne$ful moi/ure & n\ri%m5t mu/ be :olly drawn f ! subsoil & sub/rata2 an exam9ation ( :i* %\ld !re=e prec$e e pur*ase ( l&1 or plant+ ( crops4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,deep-,root+ ( ,native ,cali=nia ,goosefoot & ,figwort4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,k5tucky ,maize1 gr[n 9 region ( ,summ] ,ra9s4 7,photography by ,a4 ,m4 ,pet]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,cali=nia ,maize1 ,gr[n ,)\t ,ra9 or ,irrigation4 ,su* exam9ations are mo/ quickly made by means ( a probe consi/+ ( a po9t$1 squ>e /eel rod five or six feet long1 provid$ at "o end ) a loop = ! ins]tion ( a cross-h&le l t ( a c>p5t]'s aug]4 ,! h&le be+ grasp$ ) bo? h&s1 ! probe is =c$ into ! soil ) a slight reciprocat+ motion1 by ! weight ( ! op]ator2 :o soon le>ns h[ to int]pret ! v>y+ k9ds ( resi/ance1 & on )draw+ ! probe c>efully w g5]ally be able to det]m9e if bottom wat] has be5 rea*$4 ,%\ld ?is easy me?od ( exam9ation n convey all ! ne$ful in=mation1 ! po/-hole aug] may be resort$ to2 & x is desirable t extra 7?ree-foot7 rods or gaspipe jo9ts be provid$ = ! purpose ( l5g!n+ ! probe or aug]1 :5 necess>y1 to n9e or twelve feet4 ,x w r>ely be necess>y to g to ! tr\ble ( digg+ a pit = su* exam9ations2 b ev5 ?is is to be recomm5d$ r ?an 8buy+ a cat 9 a bag0 9 ! guise ( an unexplor$ subsoil4 ,faulty ,sub/rata4--,a numb] ( examples ( 8faulty l&s10 i4 e41 su* z are und]laid by faulty sub/rata1 are giv5 9 ! annex$ diagram ,fig4 #ce2 ! examples be+ tak5 f ,cali=nia localities because ( _! hav+ be5 mo/ ?or\ghly inve/igat$4 ,simil> cases1 z well z o!rs n "h illu/rat$1 ( c\rse occur m or less all ov] ! _w4 ,no4 #a %[s a case :i*1 ?\gh at fir/ sight an aggravat$ "o ( a rocky sub/ratum1 is 9 reality t ( "s ( ! be/ fruit l&s 9 ! ,/ate4 ,! limit$ surface-soil is v ri*1 & is directly d]iv$ 7z a 8s$5t>y0 soil7 f ! und]ly+ b$rock slate4 ,b ?is x w be not$ /&s on edge1 & ! roots ( trees & v9es w$ge _! way along ! cleavage planes ( ! slate to consid]able dep?1 d]iv+ f !m bo? n\ri%m5t & moi/ure4 ,"u simil> conditions ! ,cali=nia laurel1 usually f\nd on ! banks ( /reams1 gr[s on ! summits ( rocky ridges 9 ! ,coa/ ,ranges4 ,! case ( ,no4 #b is q o!rwise4 ,"h ! %ale lies horizontally1 & ?\gh mu* s(t] ?an ! slate ( ! fir/ column1 ob/9ately resi/s ! p5etration ( roots2 s t ! l&1 ?\gh fairly provid$ ) plant-food1 is almo/ :olly useless = cultivation4 ,x is naturally cov]$ ) l[1 /unt$ %rubs or *ap>ral2 only "h & !re1 :]e a cleft has be5 caus$ by e>?quakes or subsid5ce1 a l>ge p9e tree indicates t n\ri%m5t & moi/ure exi/s )9 ! refractory clay /ratum1 & sugge/s bla/+ z a means ( r5d]+ ! l& fit = trees at lea/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,faulty ,,l&s4 ,,cali=nia ,,fig4 #ce4--;,faulty ,l&s1 ,cali=nia4 ,no4 #c is a case simil> to t ( ,no4 #b1 only !re is "h a d5se un/ratifi$ mass ( r$ clay1 ( good native f]tility4 ,x is "h t ! exp$i5t ( bla/+ ! tree holes ) dynamite 0 fir/ successfully employ$1 9 c5tral ,cali=nia4 ,= lack ( ?is1 ext5sive tracts ( simil> l& 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 plant$ to or*>ds1 h completely fail$ ( useful results aft] ?ree ye>s ( culture4 ,no4 #d %[s a typical case ( calc>e\s h>dpan ob/ruct+ ! p5etration ( roots1 ev5 ?\gh usually int]rupt$ at int]vals1 because ( ! =mation occurr+ mo/ly 9 swales1 along :i* ! %eets lie m or less cont9u\sly4 ,"h also1 bla/+ w g5]ally p]mit ! successful gr[? ( trees & v9es1 ^: roots frequ5tly w1 9 "t1 :olly dis9tegrate ! h>dpan & ?us r5d] ! l& fit = field cultures4 ,! dep? at :i* su* h>dpan is =m$ usually dep5ds ^u ! dep? to :i* ! annual ra9fall p5etrates4 7,see bel[1 page #ahc74 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 & #f all illu/rate cases ( intr9sically f]tile1 v deep soils1 %all[$ by ob/ructions :i* 9 ! case ( ,no4 #d are h>dpan %eets1 :ile 9 ,no4 #e ! int]v5tion ( bottom wat] limits root p5etration1 h5ce re/ricts ! use ( ! l& to relatively %all[-root$ crops1 & ! use ( only a few feet ( ! pr(usely f]tile soil4 ,su* is ! case :]e bottom wat] has be5 all[$ to rise too high1 ?r\gh ! use ( leaky irrigation dit*es4 ,no4 #f illu/rates a case n uncommon 9 s$im5t>y l&s1 :]e bottom wat] is q )9 rea* ( mo/ plants1 b is prev5t$ f be+ utiliz$ by ! int]v5tion ( lay]s ( co>se s& or gravel1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] w n rise2 & ! roots1 :ile !y w\ld be able to p5etrate1 are n ne> en\gh to feel ! pres5ce ( wat] und]nea? & !re=e spread on ! surface ( ! gravel1 suff]+ f dr\ght )9 easy rea* ( abundance ( wat]4 ,! 8go+-back0 ( l>ge portions ( orange or*>ds 9 ! ,san ,b]n>d9o ,valley ( ,cali=nia has be5 ?us br\ght ab\t2 & un=tunately ?is /ate ( ?+s is almo/ beyond ! possibility ( rem$y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,almond ,tree on ,h>dpan4 ,paso ,robles ,sub/ation1 ,cal4 ,injury f ,imp]vi\s ,sub/rata4--,! injuri\s effects ( a difficultly p5etrable subsoil h already be5 discuss$ & are self-evid5t4 ,:5 ! sub/ratum is a d5se clay1 ! rise ( moi/ure f bel[ be+ v sl[1 x c easily happ5 t ! roots _c p5etrate deep en\gh 9 "t = ! com+ ( ! dry season1 & t ?us ! crop w suff]4 ,! case w be /ill worse :5 h>dpan cem5t$ by lime or silex limits root-p5etration1 z well z prop] dra9age4 ,9 su* cases ! culture ( field crops (t5 becomes impracticable1 ev5 ) irrigation1 z its frequ5t repetition1 besides be+ co/ly1 c r>ely be comm&$4 ,9 ! case ( trees1 ! limitation ( root-p5etration results 9 ! spread+-out ( ! roots on ! surface ( ! imp5etrable lay]2 z %[n 9 figure #cf1 :i* exhibits a root-developm5t t w\ld be q normal 9 ! regions ( summ] ra9s1 b is :olly abnormal 9 ! arid region1 & results 9 ! unpr(itabl5ess or dea? ( ! trees4 ,x has (t5 be5 attempt$ 9 su* cases to plant trees 9 l>ge holes dug deep into ! subsoil & refill$ ) surface e>? & manure4 ,all su* attempts result 9 failure1 if only because ! excavation inevitably fills ) wat]1 :i* w soak away b v sl[ly into ! d5se sub/rata1 & w ?us injure or dr[n out ! roots4 ,besides1 ! latt] w rema9 bun*$ 9 ! loose e>?1 & w ?us be unable to draw ei!r moi/ure or n\ri%m5t f ! surr\nd+ l&4 ,x is absolutely necess>y to rem$y ?is by loos5+ ! sub/rata1 if success is to be atta9$4 ,%att]+ ( ,d5se ,sub/rata by ,dynamite4--,! p]man5t loos5+ ( d5se sub/rata is be/ accompli%$ by mod]ate *>ges 7 to p\nds7 ( 8,no4 #b0 dynamite at a suffici5t dep? 7#c to #e feet74 ,! %att]+ effect ( ! explosive w be s5sible to ! dep? ( eight feet or m1 & w fissure ! clay or h>dpan to a correspond+ ext5t sidewise4 ,if prop]ly proportion$ ! *>ge w h>dly di/urb ! surface2 b if ?is be desir$1 f #a to #b p\nds ( black p[d] plac$ above ! dynamite w ?r[ out suffici5t e>? to plant ! tree )\t f>!r digg+4 ,:]e labor is high-pric$ ?is proves ! *eape/ z well z ! be/ way to prep>e su* gr\nd = tree plant+2 & x has (t5 be5 f\nd t 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 ! loos5+ begun by ! p[d] has ext5d$ ?r\gh ! mass ( ! l& s z to p]mit ! roots to utilize x fully1 & ev5 to p]mit1 9 aft] ye>s1 ( ! plant+ ( field crops :]e =m]ly !y w\ld n succe$4 ,lea*y ,sub/rata4--,:ile we may ?us ov]come ! disadvantages ( a d5se subsoil or h>dpan1 !re is ano!r difficulty n uncommonly met ) 9 alluvial l&s1 :i* _c be s readily rem$i$4 ,x is ! occurr5ce1 at f two to six feet dep?1 ( co>se s& or gravel1 ?r\gh :i* capill>y moi/ure w n asc5d1 b ?r\gh :i* irrigation wat] w wa/e rapidly1 leav+ ! ov]ly+ soil dry4 ,!n unless v frequ5t irrigation c be giv51 ! crop w suff] f dr\ght1 unless inde$ ! gravel itself is fill$ ) bottom wat] ^u :i* ! root-ends c draw4 ,?is case is a common "o 9 ! l>g] valleys ( ! arid region1 & 9 "t ( unusual dr\ght ! sl\ghs orig9ally exi/+1 b s9ce fill$ up1 w be cle>ly outl9$ by ! dy+ crops1 :ile outside ( ! old *annels !re may be no suff]+4 8,go+-back0 ( ,or*>ds4 ,on su* l& z ?is1 & on su* z has a %all[ soil und]laid by an imp]vi\s subsoil1 trees w (t5 gr[ f9ely = ?ree to five ye>s2 !n sudd5ly langui%1 or turn yell[ & die1 z ! dem& ( _! l>g] gr[? exce$s :at moi/ure or plant-food ! %all[ soil & subsoil c supply4 ,enorm\s losses h aris5 f ?is cause 9 _m portions ( ! arid region1 b m especially 9 ,cali=nia1 ow+ to ! implicit confid5ce repos$ ev5 by old settl]s1 & /ill m by newcom]s1 9 ! excell5ce ( ! l&s1 z illu/rat$ by f>ms p]haps a %ort di/ance away1 b diff]5tly situat$ ) respect to ! c\ntry dra9age & ! geological =mations4 ,all su* disappo9tm5ts c\ld h be5 avoid$ by an intellig5t obs]vation ( ! sub/rata1 ei!r by prob+ or digg+4 ,important z is su* prelim9>y exam9ation 9 ! region ( summ] ra9s1 x is a vitally ne$ful precaution 9 ! arid region1 :]e ! m>g9 betwe5 adequate & inadequate dep? ( soil & moi/ure-supply is mu* small]4 ,:5 f>m]s note su* di/ress 9 ! or*>d1 ! fir/ idea usually is t f]tilization is ne$$4 ,?is 9 ! almo/ univ]sally v ri* l&s ( ! arid region is r>ely ! case until aft] _m ye>s ( exhau/ive cultivation1 & is sc>cely ev] ( m ?an pass+ b5efit 9 su* cases4 ,! fir/ sugge/ion %\ld always be an exam9ation ( ! sub/rata1 & especially ( ! deep] roots2 9 ! diseas$ or ?ir/y condition ( :i* ! cause ( ! 8die-back0 or yell[+ w commonly be f\nd4 ,( c\rse no am\nt ( f]tilization c p]man5tly rem$y su* a /ate ( ?+s1 aris+ f imp]vi\s sub/rata1 co>se gravel1 or %all[ bottom wat]4 ,h>dpan4--,by 8h>dpan0 is und]/ood a d5se & m or less h>d5$ lay] 9 ! subsoil1 :i* ob/ructs ! p5etration ( bo? roots & wat]1 ?us mat]ially limit+ ! range ( ! =m] bo? = plant-food & moi/ure1 & giv+ rise to ! disadvantages foll[+ su* limitation1 z describ$ 9 ! case ( d5se subsoils4 ,! h>dpans prop] diff] f ! latt]1 h[ev]1 9 be+ usually ( limit$ ?ickness only2 ! direct consequ5ce ( _! mode ( =mation1 :i* is n direct deposition by wat] or o!r ag5cies1 b ! infiltration ( cem5t+ solutions into a pre-exi/+ mat]ial orig9ally q simil> to t ( ! surface soil4 ,su* solutions usually come f above1 m r>ely f bel[1 & are ( v v>i\s composition4 ,! solutions ( lime c>bonate 9 c>bonat$ wat] h already be5 ref]r$ to 9 ?is connection2 z has also ! fact t correspond+ solutions ( silica1 associat$ m or less ) o!r products ( rock decomposition 7see *apt]s #b & #d7 are con/antly circulat+ 9 soils4 ,! surface soil be+ ! portion :]e rock-wea!r+ & o!r soil-=m+ processes are mo/ active1 ^! solutions are *iefly =m$ !re2 & accord+ z _! desc5t into ! sub/rata is un*eck$1 or is liable to be arre/$ at "s p>ticul> level1 :e!r by pre-exi/+ close-gra9$ lay]s or by ! cessation ( ra9s1 ! subsequ5t p5etration ( air1 & evaporation ( ! wat] alone by %all[-root$ plants1 may cause ! accumulation ( ! dissolv$ matt] at a c]ta9 level1 ye> aft] ye>4 ,f9ally !re is =m$ a subsoil-mass m or less firmly cem5t$ by ! dissolv$ matt]s1 sometimes to ! ext5t ( /ony h>dness 7lime c>bonate 9 ! arid regions1 kank> ( ,india71 m usually s(t en\gh to be p5etrat$ by ! pick or grubb+ hoe1 & sometimes by ! /rong] roots ( c]ta9 plants2 b resi/+ bo? ! p5etration & ! assimilation ( plant food by ! m delicate fe$+ roots4 ,nature ( ! ,cem5ts4--,! nature ( ! cem5ts t s]ve to consolidate ! h>dpan mass is sub/antially ! same z ^? already m5tion$ 9 ! discussion ( s&/ones 7*apt4 #d1 p4 #ee72 ) ! addition ( ^? =m$1 usually 9 connection ) silice\s solutions1 by ! acids ( ! humus gr\p4 ,! latt] class ( h>dpans is especially conspicu\s 9 ! case ( swampy gr\nd & damp =e/s1 :]e 8moorb$pan0 & r$di% 8ort/e90 7! latt] p>ticul>ly develop$ 9 ! =e/s ( nor!rn ,europe1 :]e x has be5 /udi$ 9 detail by ,mll] & ,tux5#fe1 are *>act]i/ic47 ,! latt] gives = a *>act]i/ic sample ( ! r$di% h>dpan und]ly+ a bee* =e/ 9 ,d5m>k a cont5t ( f #b4bj to #d4dj ( ulmic comp\nds1 & %[s t ! color is due to ^! & n1 z _h be5 suppos$1 to f]ric oxid1 :i* is pres5t only 9 m9ute quantities4 #fe ,see 8,/udi5 b] die natrli*5 ,humus=m510 by ,dr4 ,p4 ,e4 ,mll]4 ,bog ore1 ,moorb$pan1 ,ort/e94--,x is o!rwise ) moorb$pan1 :i* (t5 consi/s ( a mass ( bog iron ore p]meat$ m or less ) hum\s sub/ances1 :i* imp>t to x ! d>k br[n t9t s (t5 se5 also 9 ! 8black gravel0 spots ( badly-dra9$ l&4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 f]ric cem5ts are mu* less frequ5tly f\nd 9 h>dpans ?an 9 s&/ones =m$ above gr\nd4 ,clay sub/ance wa%$ f ! surface into ! subsoil by ra9s 7*apt] #aj1 p4 #afa7 always helps mat]ially to r5d] ! h>dpan imp]vi\s :5 aft]w>ds cem5t$1 a mu* small] proportion ( ! cem5t+ mat]ial suffic+ 9 t case to =m a solid lay]4 ,9 su* cases h[ev] ! cem5t is r>ely ( a calc>e\s nature1 s9ce lime prev5ts ! diffusion & wa%+-d[n ( ! clay4 ,x is mo/ly silice\s or zeolitic2 if ! =m]1 acid w h little or no effect ^u ! solidity ( ! h>dpan2 :ile if zeolitic1 acid w pretty promptly dis9tegrate x4 ,! pres5ce ( humus acids 9 ! cem5ts1 if n app>5t to ! eye1 is readily demon/rat$ by imm]s+ ! h>dpan fragm5t 9 ammonia wat] or a weak solution ( cau/ic soda2 :5 if humus acids are ! ma9 cem5t+ sub/ance ! fragm5t w fall to crumbs1 or be s(t5$ to an ext5t correspond+ to ! am\nt ( ! humus pres5t4 ,calc>e\s h>dpan is1 ( c\rse1 readily recogniz$ by its quick dis9tegration by dilute acid1 ) evolution ( c>bonic gas4 ,9 8alkali0 soils conta9+ sodic c>bonate 78black alkali07 !re is commonly f\nd at ! dep? ( two or ?ree feet an exce$+ly refractory h>dpan result+ f ! accumulation ( puddl$ clay 7see above *apt4 #d1 p4 #fb7 9 ! subsoil1 or sometimes ev5 on ! surface ( depress$ spots4 ,?is h>dpan1 easily de/roy$ by ! use ( gypsum & wat]1 is describ$ m 9 detail 9 *apt] #bb1 on alkali soils2 x blues r$ litmus pap] in/antly4 ,! ,causes ( ,h>dpan4--,! recognition ( ! cause ( h>dpan is ( consid]able importance to ! f>m]1 because ( ! influ5ce ( ! nature ( ! cem5t & ! causes ( its =mation ^u ! possibility & me?ods ( its de/ruction1 = ! improvem5t ( ! l&4 ,x may be said 9 g5]al t inasmu* z ! cause ( ! =mation ( h>dpan is a /oppage ( ! wat] 9 its d[nw>d p5etration1 ! re-e/abli%m5t ( t p5etration w t5d to prev5t additional induration2 moreov]1 exp]i5ce proves t :5ev] ?is is accompli%$ ev5 locally1 z ar\nd a fruit tree 9 an or*>d1 ! h>dpan gradually s(t5s & disappe>s be=e ! frequ5t *anges 9 moi/ure-conditions & ! attack ( roots4 ,! use ( dynamite = ?is purpose 9 ,cali=nia has already be5 ref]r$ to2 x seems to be ! only resort :5 ! h>dpan lies at a consid]able dep?4 ,:5 x is )9 rea* ( ! pl[1 x may be turn$ up on ! surface by ! aid ( a subsoil] & w !n gradually dis9tegrate "u ! influ5ce ( air1 ra9 & sun4 ,b :5 ! h>dpan is ( ! nature ( moorb$pan1 conta9+ mu* humic acid & p]haps und]laid by bog iron ore1 ! use ( lime on ! l& is indicat$1 & w 9 ! c\rse ( "t de/roy ! h>dpan lay]4 ,?is is ! m desirable z 9 su* cases ! surface soil is usually completely lea*$ ( its lime cont5t1 & is consequ5tly extremely un?rifty4 ,woodl&s ( nor!rn c\ntries be>+ bee* & oak are especially apt to be b5efit$ by ! action ( lime on ! 8raw10 acid hum\s soil & und]ly+ h>dpan1 :i* is commonly und]laid by a lead5-blue s&y subsoil 78,bleis&0 ( ! ,g]mans1 8,podzol0 ( ! ,russians7 color$ br[n by e>? humates & mo/ly too moi/ 9 its natural condition to p]mit ( adequate a]ation4 ,^! soils are usually ( b mod]ate f]tility1 & are be/ suit$ to =e/ gr[? unless some:at exp5sive me?ods ( improvem5t c be put into practice4 8,pl[sole40--,an artificial h>dpan is v commonly =m$ "u ! practice ( pl[+ to ! same dep? = _m consecutive ye>s4 ,! consolidat$ lay] ?us creat$ by ! action ( ! pl[ 7h5ce kn[n z pl[sole7 acts precisely l a natural h>dpan1 & is sometimes ! cause ( ! =mation ( a cem5t$ subsoil cru/ simulat+ ! natural product4 ,?is is mo/ apt to occur 9 clayey l&s1 & greatly increases ! difficulty ( work+ !m1 :ile detract+ mat]ially f ! high] productiv5ess commonly attribut$ to !m z comp>$ ) s&y l&s4 ,( c\rse x is p]fectly easy to prev5t ?is tr\ble by pl[+ to diff]5t dep?s 9 consecutive ye>s1 & runn+ a subsoil pl[ f "t to "t4 ,9 ?is case1 also1 lime w g5]ally be v useful & be f\nd to aid mat]ially 9 ! dis9tegration ( ! 8pl[sole40 ,x is h>dly necess>y to insi/ f>!r ^u ! ne$ ( ! exam9ation ( l& to be occupi$1 = ! exi/5ce ( h>dpan or o!r faulty subsoil1 :i* may totally defeat = ! "t be+ ! f>m]'s ef=ts1 or make him lose 8 inve/m5t 9 plantations aft] a few ye>s4 ,prob+ by means ( ! /eel rod describ$ above 7p4 #agg7 or bor+ ) a po/-hole aug]2 or f9ally1 if necess>y1 digg+ a pit to ! prop] dep? 7f f\r to six feet 9 ! arid region71 %\ld prec$e e pur*ase ( new or unexplor$ agricultural l&4 ,m>ly ,sub/rata4--,among ! causes ( failure occasionally f\nd 9 ! case ( ! 8go+-back0 ( or*>ds1 is ! occurr5ce ( /rongly calc>e\s or m>ly sub/rata1 at dep?s :i* 9 ! humid region w\ld n be rea*$ by ! roots1 b 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s are inevitably p5etrat$ by ! roots ( trees 9 ! arid region4 ,!n !re appe>s a /unt+ ( ! gr[?1 & sometimes a yell[+ ( leaves1 or *lorosis1 due to ! influ5ce ( excessive calc>e\sness at ! dep? ( f\r or five feet4 ,= ?is ( c\rse !re is no rem$y except ! plant+ ( crops :i*1 l ! mulb]ry1 ,texas grapes1 ,*ickasaw plum & o!rs1 are at home on su* l&s2 :i* 9 ! ,ea/]n /ates are naturally occupi$ by ! crab apple1 honey locu/ & wild plums4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,soils4 ,,hygroscopic ,,& ,,capill>y ,,moi/ure4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t f #fe to ov] #ij ( ! fre% sub/ance ( plants consi/s ( wat]1 ! importance ( an adequate & regul> supply ( ! same to gr[+ plants is readily und]/ood4 ,b x seems desirable1 be=e discuss+ ! relations ( wat] to ! soil & to plant life1 to consid] fir/ ! physical peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% x f ne>ly all o!r sub/ances kn[n4 ,t x is colorless1 ta/eless1 inodor\s1 & also *emically neutral1 alone con/itutes a gr\p ( prop]ties sc>cely f\nd 9 any o!r fluid4 ,b its special adaptation to its functions 9 relation to vegetable & animal life are mu* m fundam5tal1 z is %[n 9 ! table ( its physical con/ants z comp>$ ) o!r well-kn[n sub/ances1 giv5 bel[4 ,,physical ,,factors ,,( ,,wat] ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,o!r ,,sub/ances 7,,p] ,,unit ,,weight74 ,capill>y asc5t 9 glass tubes ,specific ,heats4 ( "o mm4 diamet]4 ,wat] #ad mm4 ,wat] #a4jjj ,alcohol #f mm4 ,ice 4#ejb ,olive oil #a mm4 ,/eam 4#dge ,clay1 ,glass 4#ahj-4bjj ,*>coal 4#bda ,,heat ,,relations4 ,wood 4#jcb ,d5sity4 ,gold1 ,lead 4#jcb-4jca ,z9c 4#jif ,wat] at #j ,c4 7freez+ ,/eel 4#aai pt47 4#iiihh ,wat] at #d 7,maximum ,heat ( fusion4 d5sity7 #a4jjjjj ,wat] 7,ice7 #hj ,cal4 ,wat] at #ae ,c4 7ord9>y ,metals #e-bh 8 temp]ature7 4#iij ,salts1 7incl4 silicates7 #dj-fc 8 ,ice at #j 7freez+ pt47 4#ibhjj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,heat ( ,evaporation4 ,wat] at #bj;,c4 #fac ,cal4 8 8 #ajj;,c4 #fcg 8 ,alcohol #bji 8 ,spirits ( ,turp5t9e #fg 8 ----------------------------------- ,summ>iz+ ! mean+ ( ! data giv5 9 ! above table ) respect to organic life1 we see1 fir/1 t wat] rises high] bo? 9 ! soil & 9 ! tissues ( ! plant ?an any o!r liquid4 ,second1 t z its d5sity decreases 9 cool+ aft] a c]ta9 po9t is rea*$1 x freezes at ! surface in/ead ( at ! bottom1 z o!r liquids d2 & z solid wat] 7ice7 is light] ?an fluid wat]1 ice /ays at ! surface & is readily melt$ :5 spr+ comes4 ,?ird1 s9ce its temp]ature *anges m sl[ly ?an t ( any o!r liquid1 x s]ves to prev5t injuri\sly rapid *anges ( temp]ature 9 plants & animals z well z 9 soils4 ,its high 8heat ( fusion0 also s]ves to prev5t quick freez+ ( plant & animal tissues1 s t ! brief preval5ce ( a l[ temp]ature may be m readily borne4 ,f9ally1 ! l>ge am\nt ( heat absorb$ 9 evaporation ( wat] s]ves to keep bo? plants & animals cool "u excessive ext]nal temp]atures :i* w\ld o!rwise quickly de/roy life4 ,capill>ity or ,surface ,t5sion4--,9 ?is table x w be not$1 fir/1 t wat] rises high] 9 f9e 78capill>y07 or hair tubes ?an ! o!r fluids m5tion$1 :i* fairly repres5t all o!rs4 ,no o!r fluid approa*es wat] 9 ! height to :i* x w rise#ff 9 ei!r soils or plant tissues4 ,7 its capill>y factor no high] ?an1 e4 g41 t ( oil or alcohol1 trees c\ld n gr[ z tall z we f9d !m1 & ! wat] supply f ! sub/rata1 & all ! movem5ts ( wat] 9 ! soil1 & h5ce plant gr[?1 w\ld be simil>ly ret>d$4 ,x is easy to v]ify ^! diff]5ces by imm]s+ a cyl9d] ( clay soil 7or a cotton wick7 9 wat] on ! "o h&1 & 9 oil or alcohol on ! o!r4 ,not)/&+ ! great] fluidity ( alcohol z comp>$ ) wat]1 ! latt] w be f\nd to fill ! por\s mass mu* m quickly4 #ff ,except+ only ! wat]-solutions ( c]ta9 salts1 among :i* common salt1 ka9it & nitrate ( soda are ( agricultural int]e/4 ,common salt may increase ! capill>y rise to ! ext5t ( m ?an five p] c5t4 ,! small] ! diamet] ( ! tube1 ! high] w ! wat] rise 9 x1 & ! great] w be ! curvature ( its upp] surface1 to :i* ! rise is s5sibly proportional4 ,b 9 ! case ( liquids :i* d n 8wet0 ! walls ( ! tube 7z 9 t ( m]cury & glass71 ! curve 7m5iscus7 is convex1 in/ead ( concave1 & ! liquid is depress$ in/ead ( ris+4 ,x is 9 its relations to heat1 h[ev]1 t wat] is specially di/+ui%$ f o!r sub/ances2 & ^! diff]5ces are mo/ vital n only to liv+ organisms1 b to ! entire economy ( ,nature4 ,d5sity4--,z reg>ds ! d5sity or specific gravity ( wat] 7:i* is by common cons5t assum$ z ! unit ( comp>ison71 x w be se5 f ! 8,d5sity0 table t :]eas all o!r bodies contract & become m d5se z !y gr[ cold]1 wat] has its po9t ( 7fluid7 8maximum d5sity0 at #d;,c4 7#di4b ,fahr471 & exp&s z x gr[s cold]1 until at #j;,c4 7#cb ,fahr47 x solidifies into ice4 ,9 s do+ x dep>ts /ill f>!r f ! rule obta9+ ) all o!r bodies 7except+ c]ta9 mixtures1 su* z type metal7 & aga9 exp&s s z to decrease ! d5sity f 4#iiihh to 4#ibhjj2 ?us caus+ ice to float on wat] at ! freez+ po9t4 ,h5ce wat]1 unlike all o!r fluids1 solidifies fir/ on ! surface2 & b = ?is1 ! ?aw+ ( ! w9t]'s ice1 :i* w\ld be =m$ at ! bottom ( riv]s & lakes1 w\ld be def]r$ until late 9 summ]4 ,! expansion ( wat] 9 freez+ is =cibly illu/rat$ 9 ! bur/+ ( wat] pipes & pit*]s 9 w9t]2 9 ! soil1 ! ice =m+ 9 ! int]/ices s]ves to loos5 ! compact$ l& & give x bett] til? = ! ensu+ season4 ,specific ,heat4--,consid]+ next1 ! column %[+ ! 8specific heat0 ( wat] z comp>$ ) o!r sub/ances1 we see t x exce$s all o!r kn[n bodies 9 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to *ange its temp]ature2 h5ce aga91 its heat capacity is tak5 z ! unit to :i* all o!rs are comp>$4 ,! figures giv5 9 ! table %[ t ev5 ice & /eam require = equal weights only ab\t half z mu* heat 7or burn+ ( fuel7 to *ange _! temp]ature 7e4 g41 #a degree7 z w\ld liquid wat]4 ,b e>?y matt]s1 su* z clay or soil & glass1 require only "o-fif? z mu* heat = a simil> *ange2 *>coal only ab\t "o-f\r? z mu*4 ,b vegetable matt] z repres5t$ by wood on ! "o h&1 & gold & lead on ! o!r1 require only ab\t "o-?irtie? z mu* heat z an equal weight ( wat]2 z9c ab\t "o-t5? z mu*1 /eel some:at m4 ,x is ?us pla9 t masses ( wat] act p[]fully1 m ?an any o!r sub/ance1 z mod]ators ( *anges ( temp]ature by _! m]e pres5ce4 ,! body ( an animal or plant is protect$ aga9/ viol5t *anges by ! pres5ce ( f #fj to #ij ( liquid wat]1 ! temp]ature ( :i* c only be rais$ or l[]$ sl[ly2 & ! pres5ce ( ! sea temp]s ! climates ( coa/s & isl&s z comp>$ ) ! heat or cold occurr+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95ts4 ,ice4--,aga91 x is %[n 9 ! table t ! heat requir$ to melt ice is great] ?an 9 ! case ( any o!r sub/ance1 especially ! metals2 :i* :5 once heat$ to ! fus+ po9t1 require only a v little m heat to become liquid4 ,! fusion ( salts 7includ+ silicate rocks7 requires m heat ?an does t ( ! pure metals4 ,vaporization4--,9 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ = its vaporization wat] is also especially pre-em95t1 & pot5t 9 its influ5ce ^u organic life4 ,! table %[s t ! evaporation ( wat] requires six hundr$ heat units#fg z comp>$ ) alcohol1 requir+ only two hundr$2 :ile spirits ( turp5t9e1 ! repres5tative ( a l>ge proportion ( vegetable fluids1 ne$s b sixty-sev54 #fg ,a heat unit1 or 8calorie10 is ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a unit-weight 7p\nd1 kilogram1 or gram7 ( wat] "o !rmometric degree4 ,accord+ to ! unit-weight & !rmometric scale us$1 ! figures w v>y1 b 9 ?is text ! basis is und]/ood to be kilograms & ! c5tigrade scale4 ,! practical result is t evaporation ( wat] f ! surface ( animals & ! leaves ( plants1 is exce$+ly effective 9 prev5t+ excessive rise ( temp]ature1 ! heat ( ! sun & air be+ sp5t 9 evaporat+ ! p]spiration ( animals & plants be=e an injuri\s rise ( temp]ature1 su* z w\ld cause sun/roke 9 animals1 & wilt+ or )]+ 9 plants1 c occur4 ,b s9ce evaporation is mo/ rapid 9 dry air1 x foll[s t ! cool+ effect w be ! great] 9 ! arid regions ?an 9 ! humid4 ,9 ! latt]1 !re=e1 sun/roke is mu* m frequ5t ?an 9 ! f]vid regions ( ! arid we/1 ev5 ?\gh ! temp]ature 9 ! latt] may be high] by tw5ty or tw5ty-five degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,:ite m5 :o w\ld soon succumb if !y attempt$ to "w 9 ! sun 9 ,mississippi or ,l\isiana :5 ! !rmomet] /&s at #ie;,f4 w exp]i5ce no inconv5i5ce "u ! same conditions 9 ! dry atmosph]e ( ! ,great ,valley ( ,cali=nia4 ,solv5t ,p[]4--,to ! exceptional prop]ties ( wat] discuss$ above1 %\ld be add$ ano!r h>dly less important "o1 viz41 t ( be+ an almo/ univ]sal solv5t especially ( m9]al matt]s1 includ+ ev5 ^? :i*1 l qu>tz1 appe> to be mo/ insoluble & refractory 7see *apt4 #c74 ,! wat] ( ! soil is ?us enabl$ to convey to ! roots ( plants1 9 solution1 all k9ds ( plant food conta9$ 9 ! soil4 ,x %\ld be not$ t di/ill$ 7h5ce also ra9-7 wat] is a m p[]ful solv5t1 e4 g41 ( glass1 ?an ord9>y wat]s conta9+ m9]al matt]1 & ev5 free acids4 ,practically1 plants take up all _! wat] supply f ! soil 9 ! liquid =m2 & h5ce ! soil-conditions ) respect to ?is supply are ( ! mo/ vital importance to plant gr[?4 ,! mo/ abundant supply ( m9]al plant food may be :olly useless1 unless ! physical conditions ( adequate soil-moi/ure1 access ( air1 & w>m?1 are fulfill$ at ! same "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 comp>atively few plants are adapt$ to heal?y gr[? 9 soils saturat$ ) wat]1 or 9 wat] itself2 & b few among ^! are ( special int]e/ f ! agricultural /&po9t4 ,wat]-requirem5ts ( ,gr[+ ,plants4--,! am\nt ( wat] conta9$ 9 any plant at "o "t1 h[ev] l>ge1 is b a small proportion ( :at is necess>y to c>ry x ?r\gh its full developm5t4 ,:5 we measure ! am\nt ( wat] actually evaporat$ ?r\gh ! plant 9 ! c\rse ( its normal gr[?1 we f9d x to be sev]al hundr$ times ! quantity ( dry vegetable sub/ance produc$2 v>y+ accord+ to ! ext5t & /ructure ( ! leaf-surface1 ! numb] & size ( ! brea?+ pores 7/omata7 ( ! leaves1 & ! climatic conditions 7includ+ specially ! duration ( active vegetation1 & temp]ature dur+ ! same71 f #bbe to z mu* z #iab times ! weight ( ! mature1 dry plant4 ,! foll[+ are extreme figures = wat] consumption ( diff]5t plants z report$ by diff]5t obs]v]s1 viz41 ,lawes & ,gilb]t 9 ,engl&1 ,hellriegel 9 nor!rn ,g]many1 ,wollny 9 ,s\!rn ,g]many 7,muni*71 & ,k+ 9 ,wiscons93 ,:eat1 #bbe to #cei2 b>ley1 #bfb to #ggd2 oats1 #djb to #ffe2 r$ clov]1 #bdi to #dec2 peas1 #bce to #ddg2 mu/>d & rape1 #hde to #iab respectively2 ! latt] figure be+ ! maximum ?us f> report$4 ,! highe/ figures giv5 are ?r\gh\t v ne>ly ^? ( ,wollny1 work+ 9 ! v ra9y climate ( ,muni*4 ,evaporation f ,plants 9 ,diff]5t ,climates4--,x might be expect$ t 9 c\ntries :]e ! air is usually moi/1 ! evaporation w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be less ?an :]e x is commonly f> bel[ ! po9t ( saturation4 ,b ! 8gu>dian cells0 7/omata7 ( ! leaf pores possess ! p[] ( regulat+1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! evaporation f ! leaf-surface 9 accordance ) tempor>ily prevail+ conditions1 s z to all[ free evaporation 9 moi/ air1 b to prev5t ! wilt+ & dry+-up ( ! leaf 9 hot & dry air1 save 9 extreme cases4 ,moreov]1 plants adapt$ to arid conditions are usually provid$ ) additional safegu>ds 9 ! =m ( ?ick1 non-conduct+ lay]s ( surface cells1 or long *annels connect+ ! int]ior tissue ) ! brea?+-pores on ! surface4 ,(t5 hairy1 scaly or visc\s cov]+s s]ve ! same end4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! air is v moi/1 s z to *eck evaporation1 wat] is sometimes f\nd secret$ 9 m9ute droplets ar\nd ! brea?+-pores ( ! leaves1 s9ce its asc5t is a necess>y condition ( nutrition & developm5t4 ,relation betwe5 ,evaporation & ,plant-gr[?4--,!re is n 9 all cases any direct relation betwe5 ! am\nt ( evaporation & plant gr[?2 b exp]i5ce1 z well z num]\s rigor\s exp]im5ts h %[n t "u ord9>y conditions ( culture1 & )9 limits v>y+ = diff]5t soils & crops1 production is almo/ directly proportional to ! wat] supply dur+ ! p]iod ( active vegetation4 ,on ! basis ( ,hellriegel's results1 %[+ t :eat uses 79 ,g]many7 ab\t #dce tons1 or ne>ly f\r acre-in*es ( wat] 9 ! production ( "o ton ( dry matt]1 & assum+ ! ratio ( gra9 to /raw to be #a3a4e1 ,k+ calculates ! foll[+ table ( probable production "u diff]5t moi/ure conditions 7,physics ( ,agriculture1 page #adj73 ,,yield ,,p] ,,acre4 ,numb] ( ,weight ( ,weight ( ,total ,wat] us$4 ,bu%els4 ,gra94 ,/raw4 ,weight4 ,acre-in*es4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #ae 4#de 4#fge #a4abe #d4dih #bj 4#fj 4#ij #a4ejj #e4iih #be 4#ge #a4abe #a4hge #g4dig #cj 4#ij #a4cej #b4bej #h4iig #ce #a4je #a4ege #b4fbe #aj4die #dj #a4bj #a4hjj #c4jjj #ab4jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,s4 ,=ti] has made sev]al s]ies ( te/s to det]m9e ! actual yield ( gra9 crops "u field conditions :5 suppli$ ) diff]5t am\nts ( wat]4 ,two ( ^! 7 made at ! ,montana exp]im5t /ation 9 #aijb & #aijc1 7see reports ( ^! ye>s71 9 l>ge tanks plac$ 9 a field1 level ) ! gr\nd4 ,! results ( ! la/ ye>'s exp]im5ts are %[n graphically 9 ! figure bel[1 f :i* x w be se5 t ! yield increas$ q regul>ly ) ! am\nt ( wat] suppli$1 up to ! dep? ( #cf in*es ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,exp]im5ts on ,c]eal production ) v>i\s am\nts ( wat] 7,=ti]1 ,report ,mont4 ,expt4 ,/a41 #aijc74 ,x %\ld be not$ t 9 ?is case 7& z usual7 n only ! quantity b ! quality ( ! gra9 0 greatly improv$ z ! wat]-supply increas$1 x becom+ l>g] & m uni=m 9 size4 ,( simil> exp]im5ts made 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 ,cali=nia1 9 #aijd1 ,=ti] says3#fh 8,9 exp]im5t+ ) b>ley la/ w9t] ! natural ra9fall1 :i* am\nt$ to #d in*es dur+ ! p]iod ( gr[?1 produc$ at ! rate ( n9e bu%els p] acre1 :ile ! application ( sixte5 in*es ( wat] increas$ ! yield to tw5ty-two bu%els p] acre4 ,9 ! same case2 ( :eat1 ! ra9fall1 alone1 produc$ /raw1 b no gra92 f\r in*es ( additional irrigation wat] produc$ a yield at ! rate ( t5 bu%els1 & sixte5 in*es ( wat] increas$ ! yield to ?irty-eight bu%els p] acre40 #fh 8,wat] & ,=e/10 ,janu>y1 #aije4 8,! ,use ( ,wat]10 by ,s4 ,=ti]4 ,x is ?us obvi\s t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal & ) conditions suffici5tly favorable = ! gr[? ( crops1 ! rule z =mulat$ above is v]ifi$ 9 practice4 ,:itney 7,bullet9 #bb1 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ,agr471 has c>ri$ ?is rule s f> z to claim t 9 all soils1 ! moi/ure supply is ! only important factor1 & t s long z ?is is provid$ =1 soil f]tility cont9ues indef9itely )\t replacem5t ( +r$i5ts )drawn4 ,! latt] conclusion is s ?or\ghly disprov$ by exp]i5ce z well z exp]im5t t x h>dly requires discussion "h4 ,:e!r plants1 especially cultivat$ ones1 are capable ( adapt+ !mselves to arid conditions s z to be capable ( produc+ satisfactory crops ) less wat] ?an is actually consum$ 9 ! humid region1 has n be5 directly det]m9$4 ,su* is1 h[ev]1 ! impression produc$ by f>m+ exp]i5ce2 & ! fact t among ! common we$s ( arid ,cali=nia are mu/>d & rape1 cit$ by ,wollny#fi z requir+ ov] ?ree times z mu* wat] z does maize = ! production ( "o "p ( dry matt]1 l5ds color to ! supposition t 9 "s mann] ^!1 & probably o!r plants1 use m wat] 9 humid ?an 9 dry climates 7see ?is *apt4 p4 #bab74 #fi ,see ,wollny's exp]im5ts1 ,=s*4 ,agr4 ,phys4 ,vol4 #bj1 p4 #eh4 ,x is !re=e impossible to assign a def9ite figure = ! am\nt ( wat] requir$ by vegetation at l>ge2 & ev5 = "o & ! same plant1 only approximations condition$ ^u climatic factors c be giv54 ,we c 9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 assign = "o plant1 or = c]ta9 gr\ps ( plants1 ! am\nts ( wat] produc+ ! be/ results 78optimum07 & ! lea/ am\nt 78m9imum07 compatible ) a pay+ crop1 t mu/ be furni%$ dur+ ! gr[+ season1 to produce c]ta9 results4 ,= :5 in/ead ( fruit+1 x is desir$ t ! crop %\ld produce ! l>ge/ possible am\nt ( vegetable sub/ance1 z 9 ! case ( =age crops1 a l>g] am\nt ( wat] w usually be s]viceable4 ,diff]5t conditions ( ,soil-,wat]4--,wat] may be conta9$ 9 ! soil 9 ?ree diff]5t conditions1 viz43 #a4 ,f absorption ( wat] vapor2 ,hygroscopic wat]4 #b4 ,liquid wat] held susp5d$ betwe5 ! soil p>ticles s z to ex]t no hydro/atic pressure2 capill>y wat]1 or wat] ( imbibition4 #c4 ,liquid wat] seek+ its level2 bottom1 gr\nd or hydro/atic wat]4 ,,hygroscopic ,,wat]4 ,soils artificially dri$ s z to deprive !m ( all _! moi/ure1 :5 expos$ to moi/ air absorb wat] vapor ) great en]gy at fir/2 bo? ! rapidity ( absorption & ! am\nts absorb$1 :5 full "t is giv51 v>y+ greatly ) _! nature4 ,s&y soils1 broadly speak+1 absorb ! smalle/ am\nts2 :ile clayey soils1 & ^? conta9+ mu* humus1 or f9ely divid$ f]ric hydrate1 take up ! l>ge/ proportion4 ,! figure express+ ! am\nt ( aque\s vapor absorb$ at ! /&>d temp]ature ( #ae ,c5t41 is call$ ! coeffici5t ( moi/ure absorption4 ,= "o & ! same sub/ance1 ?is coeffici5t rises z ! gra9 becomes f9]1 ! surface be+ correspond+ly increas$ 7see *apt4 #f74 ,! table bel[ indicates ! effect ( ! ?ree sub/ances m5tion$ 9 increas+ moi/ure absorption z comp>$ ) a v s&y soil f ! p9e woods ( ,mississippi1 & a gray silt or 8du/0 soil f ,wa%+ton1 v f9e-gra9$ b poor bo? 9 humus & f]ric hydrate4 7,= details ( ! physical composition ( ! ,mississippi soils see table 9 *apt4 #f1 p4 #ic74 ,a highly f]rug9\s soil f ,oahu %[s pla9ly ! effect ( t sub/ance4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,silt1 ,,s&1 ,,clay1 ,,f]ric ,,hydrate1 ,,& ,,humus ,,on ,,moi/ure ,,absorption4 #bdh #gi #bch #bcj ,miss4 ,wa%'n,miss4 ,miss4 ,p9e ,du/ ,:ite,flatwoods ,hills ,soil4,pipe ,clay ,s&y ,clay4 ,soil4 ,loam4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,hygr4 ,moi/ure #b4dh #d4ib #i4ji #i4cc ,clay #b4id #a4bggd4fe #be4dh ,f]ric ,hydrate #a4fd 4#ae ,humus 4#ee 4#dd #j4jj 4#ej ,f9e/ ,silts 74#ja-4jbej mm47 #fj4aj #de4jdbc4ae #fh4fj ,s&s1 f4 & c4 74#jbej-4ej mm47 #ca4bj #db4dj 4#bj #d4gj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #bdf #bbj #bae ,misc4 ,oahu ,miss4,miss4 ,f]rug9\s,f]rug9\s,m>%,m>% ,clay ,lat]ite4 ,muck4,soil4 ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,hygr4 ,moi/ure #ah4fj #ai4ff #ba4jjae4dj ,clay #bh4ae 8 ,tr4 ,tr4 ,f]ric ,hydrate #ab4aj #da4jj ,humus little #c4cc #ff4ajai4hc ,f9e/ ,silts 74#ja-4jbej mm47 #dj4cc #de4ff #cc4id #h4gj ,s&s1 f4 & c4 74#jbej-4ej mm47 #ae4fa #gj4ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,x w be not$ t ! great] f95ess ( gra9 9 ! ,wa%+ton du/ soil induces a high] absorption ( moi/ure ?an occurs 9 ! s&y soil f ,mississippi1 al?\gh ! latt] conta9s m clay4 ,comp>ison ( ! figure = ! ,mississippi pipe-clay & clay soil ) ! f]rug9\s soils1 f ! same /ate & f ,oahu1 indicate pla9ly ! influ5ce ( ! f]ric hydrate 9 increas+ absorption2 al?\gh 9 ! latt] case ! clay det]m9ation 0 n made1 because ( ! excess ( f]ric hydrate4 ,! influ5ce ( humus is pla9ly %[n 9 ! case ( ! m>% muck & soil1 nei!r ( :i* conta9 any appreciable am\nt ( ei!r clay1 or f]ric hydrate 9 ! f9ely diffus$ condition4 ,! relatively slight diff]5ce 9 ! absorptions ( muck & soil is due to ! only p>tial humification ( ! organic matt] 9 ! =m]1 :ile 9 ! soil ! humification is s5sibly complete1 & ! s& =m+ ! body ( ! mat]ial s]ves to r5d] x m loose4 ,^! data1 ref]r+ to natural mat]ials1 :ile n z complete z c\ld be desir$1 are suffici5t to prove ! facts1 & seem pref]able to any artificially devis$ imitation ( _! k9d4 ,influ5ce ( ,temp]ature1 & ,degree ( ,air-,saturation4--,! am\nt ( moi/ure absorb$ v>ies mat]ially bo? ) ! temp]ature1 & ) ! degree ( saturation ( ! air to :i* ! soil is expos$4 ,s*bl]1 ,knop & o!r e>li] obs]v]s1 op]at+ ) e>? expos$ to air only p>tly saturat$1 & ) soil lay]s ( consid]able ?ickness 79 wat* glasses71 f\nd t ! absorption decreas$ z ! temp]ature increas$1 accord+ to a law =mulat$ by ,knop4 ,! writ] f\nd t "u ! conditions e/abli%$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,knop & o!rs1 ! air 0 n ne>ly saturat$1#gj s t ^! det]m9ations are m>r$ by inelim9able faults1 ! m z ! soils us$ are only designat$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 z 8g>d5 soil10 8loam10 8peaty l&10 etc41 )\t any def9ite indication ( _! actual physical or *emical con/itution4 ,! writ] !re=e und]took to correlate ^! coeffici5ts1 det]m9$ ) respect to completely saturat$ air1 ) ! physical composition ( c]ta9 soils1 z det]m9$ by means ( ! me?ods h]et(ore describ$4 #gj ,x %\ld be und]/ood t x is by no means easy to insure full saturation 9 any consid]able volume ( air4 ,x has g5]ally be5 consid]$ suffici5t to cov] ) wat] ! bottom ( ! space 9 :i* absorption 0 to occur4 ,! writ] f\nd t 9 ord] to insure uni=m results1 x 0 necess>y to cov] ! entire inn] surface ( ! vessel ) wet blott+ pap]1 & ev5 !n to exclude c>efully all circulation ( air by padd+ ! jo9ts ) su* pap]4 ,:5 only ! bottom ( ! box 0 cov]$1 samples plac$ at diff]5t levels above ! wat] surface gave discordant results4 ,x 0 also obs]v$ t :5ev] ! ?ickness ( ! soil lay] exce$$ ab\t "o millimet]1 a long "t 0 requir$ = full saturation2 dur+ :i* inevitable *anges ( temp]ature w\ld br+ ab\t a deposition ( dew on ! soil1 greatly exagg]at+ ! absorptive coeffici5t4 ,9 ! *amb] us$ at ! ,cali=nia /ation = soil saturation1 dim5sions #ab #ah #ai in*es high1 ! same soil 0 expos$ on a %elf close to ! surface ( ! wat]1 ano!r midway up1 a ?ird ne> ! l[] surface ( ! cov]2 liquid wat] be+ 9 ! bottom ( ! *amb]1 & ! re/ cov]$ ) wet blott]s4 ,x 0 f\nd t despite ^! precautions1 ! l[e/ soil lay] absorb$ 9 ! same "t z mu* z m ?an ! upp]mo/ "o4 ,"s ( ! data s obta9$ are giv5 9 ! table ( physical soil composition on page #ic1 *apt4 #f4 ,!y h s9ce be5 ext5sively supplem5t$ by additional det]m9ations1 b )\t mat]ially *ang+ ! coeffici5ts approximately correspond+ to ! sev]al designations accept$ 9 f>m practice4 ,exp]im5ts conduct$ by ! writ] h conclusively %[n t ,knop's law ( decrease ( absorption ) rise ( temp]ature n only is n true = fully saturat$ air1 b mu/ be rev]s$2 ! fact be+ t ! am\nt ( wat] absorb$ by ! soil increases 9 a fully saturat$ atmosph]e 7i4e41 9 pres5ce ( excess ( wat]7 z ! temp]ature rises1 at lea/ betwe5 #ae & #ce degrees ,c5t4 ,?us1 f9e s&y soil :i* at #ae absorb$ #b ( moi/ure1 took up #d at #cd2 :ile loam soil absorb+ #g at #ae1 %[$ ne>ly #i at #ce2 an increase ( #b 9 ea* case4 ,b 9 p>tially saturat$ air#ga x 0 f\nd t1 z /at$ by ,knop1 ! am\nts absorb$ /eadily decrease1 ?\gh n accord+ to ! law ann\nc$ by him4 ,tak+ z a unit ! moi/ure absorb$ at #ae1 x 0 f\nd t 9 air ?ree-f\r?s saturat$1 ( ! unit 0 tak5 up by ! soil2 at half saturation1 ne>ly ! proportional am\nt2 b at "o-f\r? saturation ! e>?s absorb mat]ially m ?an a simil> proportion1 be+ !n capable ( )draw+ moi/ure f greatly und]saturat$ air4 ,s9ce air ?us und]saturat$ occurs n uncommonly 9 ! arid regions ( ! _w1 ! fact t ! soil _c be f>!r dri$ by su* air ( ! same temp]ature1 is ( "s practical significance4 #ga ,! p>tial saturation to a def9ite ext5t 0 effect$ by means ( solutions ( calcium *lorid ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration1 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,wlln] 7,pogg4 ,ann474 ,^! solutions 7 plac$ 9 a wide1 flat di%1 ov] :i* a lay] ( soil #a mm4 9 ?ickness 0 expos$1 all be+ cov]$ ) a bell glass l9$ inside ) ! same solution1 s z to insure equal saturation4 ,9 view ( ! highly v>iable composition ( soils & ( ! d\btless v>y+ hygroscopic prop]ties ( _! sev]al physical con/itu5ts1 x is n to be expect$ t any "o num]ical law w hold good exactly = all k9ds ( l&s4 ,m9]al p[d]s1 colloidal clay1 f]ric hydrate1 alum9ic hydrate1 ! zeolites1 humus1 & o!r hydrates kn[n to occur1 d\btless ea* foll[ a diff]5t law 9 ! absorption ( moi/ure & gases2 s z to modify ! hygroscopic prop]ties#gb ( ! soil 9 accordance ) _! relative pr$om9ance 9 ea* case4 7,see table ( absorption ( gases1 *apt] #ad74 ,utility ( ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure to ,plant-gr[?4--,! e>ly exp]im5t]s consid]$ ! hygroscopic moi/ure ( ! soil to be ( v great importance to ! welf>e ( crops4 ,)9 ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s mu* d\bt has be5 ca/ ^u ?is claim1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( /at+ t 8! hygroscopic efficacy ( soils mu/ be def9itely elim9at$ f among ! useful prop]ties0 7,may]'s ,agricultur*emie1 vol4 #b1 p4 #aca74 ,yet ,may] himself conc$es ! cog5cy ( ! exp]im5ts made by ,sa*s1 :i* prov$ t dry soil imm]s$ 9 a 7probably n ev5 fully7 saturat$ atmosph]e is capable ( supply+ ! requirem5ts ( normal vegetation2 ?us expla9+ ! obvi\s b5eficial effects on vegetation ( ! summ] fogs prevail+ 9 portions ( ! arid region1 e4 g42 on ! coa/s ( ,cali=nia & ,*ile4 #gb ,e4 ,a4 ,mits*]li* 7,bod5kunde fr ,l&-und ,=/wir!1 p4 #aef et al47 claims t all det]m9ations ( soil hygroscopicity ?us f> made are grossly incorrect on acc\nt ( ! dew liable to be cond5s$ on ! soil lay] f fully saturat$ air1 z ! result ( slight *anges ( temp]ature4 ,he !re=e w\ld h all su* det]m9ation made ei!r 9 an air-vacuum1 or ov] a #aj solution ( sulfuric acid4 ,su* dew-=mation1 h[ev]1 _c happ5 to any appreciable ext5t "u ! conditions ma9ta9$ 9 ! writ]'s "w1 viz1 absorption )9 a ?ick-wall$ 7two-in*7 wood5 box ( ! dim5sions giv5 above1 & sunk 9 ! gr\nd 9 a cell> 9 :i* ! temp]ature v>ies only a few t5?s ( a degree dur+ #bd h\rs4 ,! soil lay] ( "o millimet] ?ickness be+ put d[n 9 ! morn+1 ! #g h\r absorption p]iod falls at ! "t ( slightly ris+ temp]ature1 z an additional precaution aga9/ dew-deposition4 ,mits*]li* fails1 moreov]1 to %[ t ?is s\rce ( error produces any wide or s]i\s discrepancies except "u su* long absorption p]iods z he f9ds x necess>y to use because ( ! great ?ickness ( 8 soil lay]s4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! limits ( errors 9 soil sampl+ d n greatly exce$ any ( ^? involv$ 9 ! writ]'s me?od1 & :e!r su* accuracy z is attempt$ by ,mits*]li* is ( any practical significance4 ,may]'s exp]im5ts reli$ ^u to prove ! uselessness ( hygroscopic moi/ure to plant gr[?1 7 c>ri$ out 9 fl[]-pots1 9 :i* x 0 pla9ly %[n t ! plants wilt$ be=e ev5 ! visible liquid 7capill>y7 moi/ure ( ! e>? 0 entirely exhau/$4 ,b ?is simply proves t "u su* artificial conditions1 plants _c )draw moi/ure f ! soil rapidly en\gh = _! ne$s4 ,9 nature1 & notably 9 ! arid regions1 ! *ief supply ( wat] is receiv$ ?r\gh ! deep-go+ ma9 roots1 :ile ! bulk ( ! active fe$+ roots ( ! plant may be surr\nd$ by almo/ air-dry soil2 "u :i* conditions1 z ,h5rici 7,h5neb]g's ,j\rn41 #ahfc1 p4 #bhj7 has %[n1 sl[ gr[? & nutrition occurs ev5 9 su* plants z ! raspb]ry1 a native ( humid climates4 ,b 9 ! arid region ?is is ! normal condition ( ! native vegetation ?r\gh mo/ ( ! ra9less summ]4 ,t a high] moi/ure-coeffici5t does n necess>ily imply t a l>g] am\nt ( moi/ure c be )drawn f ! soil by ! plants1 is und\bt$ly true 9 "s1 b n 9 all cases2 = 9 soils ri* 9 humus1 ! moi/ure is m freely %>$ ) ! roots ?an 9 non-hum\s1 clay l&s4 ,! high] moi/ure-absorption is h[ev] ( ! mo/ unque/ionable s]vice 9 ! case ( ! occurr5ce ( ! hot1 dry w9ds t s frequ5tly ?reat5 ! entire crops ( "s regions4 ,9 ?is case ! soil conta9+ ! great] am\nt ( moi/ure requires a mu* long] "t to be dri$1 & heat$ up to ! po9t ( injury to ! roots1 ?an 9 ! case ( s&y soils ( l[ absorptive p[]1 ^: /ore is exhau/$ 9 a few h\rs & !n p]mits ! surface to be heat$ up to ! scald+ po9t1 se>+ ! /ems & root cr[ns4 ,t su* injury occurs mu* soon] 9 s&y l&s ?an 9 well-cultivat$ clay soils1 is a matt] ( common note 9 ! arid region4 ,summ>y4--,! significance ( hygroscopic moi/ure 9 connection ) plant gr[? may !n be ?us summ>iz$3 #a4 ,soils ( high hygroscopic p[] c )draw f moi/ air en\gh moi/ure to be ( mat]ial help 9 su/a9+ ! life ( vegetation 9 ra9less summ]s1 or 9 "t ( dr\ght4 ,x _c1 h[ev]1 ma9ta9 normal gr[?1 save 9 ! case ( "s des]t plants4 #b4 ,high moi/ure-absorption prev5ts ! rapid & undue heat+ ( ! surface soil to ! dang] po9t1 & ?us (t5 saves crops t are lo/ 9 soils ( l[ hygroscopic p[]4 ,,capill>y ,,wat]4 ,! liquid wat] held 9 ! pores ( ! soil1 9 ! =m ( surface films repres5t+ ! curv$ surface se5 9 capill>y tubes1 & !re=e t5d+ to cause ! wat] to move upw>ds1 z well z 9 all o!r directions1 until uni=mity ( t5sion is e/abli%$1 is ( va/ly high] importance to plant gr[? ?an hygroscopic moi/ure4 ,x n only s]ves normally z ! vehicle ( all plant food absorb$ dur+ ! gr[? ( ! usual crops1 b also1 z a rule1 to su/a9 ! enorm\s evaporation by :i* ! plant ma9ta9s dur+ ! heat ( ! day1 a temp]ature suffici5tly l[ to p]mit ( ! prop] op]ation ( ! processes ( assimilation & build+ ( cell tissue4 ,comp>atively few plants h roots adapt$ to heal?y action :ile subm]g$ 9 wat]1 exclud+ !m f free access ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air2 & :5 su* roots are =m$ by plants n naturally gr[+ 9 wat] or swampy gr\nd1 !y diff] s f> f e>?-roots 9 _! /ructure t :5 transf]r$ to soil !y usually die1 normal e>?-roots be+ gradually =m$ in/ead4 ,conv]sely1 !re is = all l& plants a def9ite "t-limit beyond :i* _! roots _c live1 or at lea/ rema9 heal?y1 9 subm]sion4 ,?us gra9 fields w ) difficulty recov] f a week's total subm]sion2 :ile "y rice fields w resi/ consid]ably long]4 ,:5 9 ! re/+ 7w9t]7 condition v9ey>ds w be> subm]g5ce = ?irty-five & ev5 =ty days1 decidu\s or*>ds ab\t ?ree weeks2 b :5 9 ! gr[+ condition1 injury is suff]$ mu* m quickly4 ,x foll[s t :5ev] ! soil-pores rema9 completely fill$ ) wat] = a l5g? ( "t1 !re is dang] to ! welf>e ( ne>ly all plants commonly cultivat$ 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,x is !re=e important to "k h[ mu* wat] w br+ ab\t ?is undesirable condition 9 ! diff]5t k9ds ( soil4 ,to det]m9e ?is po9t we may ei!r employ ! det]m9ation ( pore space by a comp>ison ( ! d5sity ( ! soil con/itu5ts 7see *ap4 #g1 p4 #ajg7 ) ! volume weight ( ! soil2 or we may measure directly ! am\nt ( wat] requir$ to fill ! pore-space4 ,= ! latt] purpose x is only necess>y to measure ! am\nt ( wat] 7conv5i5tly fl[+ f a graduat$ pipette7 :i*1 ris+ sl[ly f bel[ 9 a ,u-%ap$ tube s z to expel all ! air be=e x1 is requir$ to fill a def9ite weight or volume ( ! soil entirely full1 s z to rise to its surface4 ,we ?us asc]ta9 ! am\nt ( empty space exi/+ )9 ! soil1#gc :i* 9 ! abs5ce ( wat] w ord9>ily be fill$ by air4 #gc ,simple z ?is op]ation appe>s to be1 x is f\nd to be by no means easy to expel ) c]ta9ty e small air bubble )\t resort+ to means :i* w\ld de/roy ! natural condition ( ! soil2 su* z boil+1 or ! use ( ! air-pump4 ,^! det]m9ations _c !re=e lay claim to great accuracy4 ,9 mo/ cultivat$ soils1 z already /at$1 ! air-space con/itutes ab\t #be to #ej ( _! volume2 & ?is space :5 fill$ ) wat] repres5ts :at is commonly t]m$ _! maximum wat] capacity or saturation po9t4 ,x is ( int]e/ to "k ?is1 because x has be5 asc]ta9$ f exp]i5ce t 9 ord] t plants may rea* _! be/ developm5t1 ! capill>y wat] pres5t %\ld n am\nt to m ?an #fj1 or less ?an #dj ( its maximum wat]-hold+ capacity2 ?us leav+ ab\t half ! pore-space fill$ ) air4 ,?is optimum1 h[ev]1 v>ies some:at = diff]5t plants1 "s1 l cel]y1 be+ m tol]ant ( excess1 & o!rs be+ m tol]ant ( a defici5cy ( moi/ure1 z is ! e4 g41 egg-plant1 orig9ally a des]t gr[?4 ,capill>y ,asc5t ( ,wat] 9 ,soil ,columns4--,:5 a column ( dry soil 7e4 g41 conta9$ 9 a glass tube clos$ ) musl9 at ! l[] end7 is br\ght 9 contact ) wat]1 ! latt] is soon se5 to asc5d 9 ! soil1 wett+ x & ?us *ang+ its color s z to p]mit ( ready obs]vation ( its progress4 ,at fir/ ! rise is comp>atively rapid1 9 "s cases z mu* z an in* 9 "o m9ute2 b x soon sl[s d[n & aft] a "t rang+ f a few days to _m mon?s1 rea*es a maximum height beyond :i* ! liquid wat] w n rise4 ,! asc5t is mo/ rapid1 & /ops soone/1 9 co>se s&y soils2 x rises mo/ sl[ly1 b 9 ! end consid]ably high]1 9 heavy clay soils4 ,! mo/ rapid cont9u\s rise1 & ultimately ! highe/1 occurs 9 salty soils conta9+ b a small proportion ( clay4 ,! maximum height ( capill>y rise ?us f> obs]v$1 viz4 #aj4ag feet1 0 not$ 9 ! case ( qu>tz tail+s f a /amp mill1 rang+ f 4#jje mm4 to 4#jaf mm4 9 diamet]2 b x took ab\t #ah mon?s' "t to rea* ?is maximum4 ,! excessively f9e texture ( clay opposes great frictional resi/ance to ! movem5t ( ! wat]1 & ! same is true ( ! f9e/ silts1 :i*1 l clay1 rema9 almo/ indef9itely susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t :ile pure gra9s ( silt w 9 wett+ rema9 un*ang$ 9 size1 clay p>ticles1 & ! clay incru/+ silt gra9s1 w on wett+ swell greatly1 & ?us fill up ! int]/ices1 l>gely clos+ !m up aga9/ ! passage ( wat]4 ,^! facts are exemplifi$ & graphically illu/rat$ bel[4 ,! soils select$ = ?is illu/ration1 f ,cali=nia localities1 are ! foll[+3 ,no4 #bcc4 ,v s&y soil f ne> ,morano1 ,/anislaus ,c\nty4 ,typical ( ! not$ :eat-gr[+ region ( ! l[] ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 f nor!rn ,m]c$ to ,s\!rn ,san ,joaqu9 ,c\nties2 b5* or pla9s l&s4 ,fir/ foot4 ,no4 #aaig4 ,s&y alluvial soil f ne> ! conflu5ce ( ! ,gila & ,colorado riv]s1 ne> ,yuma4 ,v deep1 light & easily cultivat$4 ,fir/ foot1 b almo/ id5tical to #ae feet4 ,no4 #afh4 ,silty alluvial soil f ! old alluvium ( ! ,santa ,cl>a ,riv]1 ne> ,santa ,paula1 ,v5tura ,c\nty4 ,v deep1 v easily till$2 a typical alluvial loam ( ! arid region4 ,no4 #afig4 ,black adobe or clay soil1 f ! exp]im5t /ation gr\nds1 ,b]keley4 ,a heavy clay soil1 orig9ally a swamp deposit1 becom+ v t5aci\s :5 wet4 ,an excell5t :eat soil4 ,! physical analyses ( ^! soils are giv5 bel[4 ,,physical ,,analyses ,,( ,,typical ,,soils4 ,silt4 ,s&1 ------------------------#b4j to ,clay4 ,f9e1 ,co>se1 #fd mm4 4#be to 4#e to #b4 mm4h4 v4 4#e mm4 h4 v4 h4 v4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,no4 #bcc4 ,morano s&y soil #b4hb #c4jc #c4di #hi4be ,no4 #aaig4 ,gila bottom soil #c4ba #e4ec #ae4db #gb4je ,no4 #aih4 ,v5tura silty soil #ae4jb #ae4bd #be4hd #de4da ,no4 #afig4 ,b]keley adobe soil #dd4bg #be4ce #ac4dg #ac4cg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ?is diagram is ! v rapid#gd & high asc5t 9 ! comb9ation ( s$im5ts repres5t$ by ! ,gila bottom soil4 ,x out/rips at once bo? ! s&y soil f ,/anislaus1 :i* conta9s a trifle less ( clay1 & ! silt soil f ,v5tura1 f :i* at fir/ sight x does n seem to diff] widely1 b :i* conta9s consid]ably m clay4 ,x is d\btless ! latt] :i* s greatly ret>ds ! motion ( ! wat]1 z is /ill f>!r se5 9 ! case ( ! clay or adobe soil4 ,x w be not$ t on ! second & ?ird days1 ! ,gila soil _h rais$ ! wat] ne>ly twice z high z ! adobe1 & t x took only #ah h\rs to raise x ne>ly ! same height z t atta9$ by ! ,v5tura silt 9 s _m days4 ,b x ceas$ to rise aft] ! #abe? day1 :ile ! ,v5tura soil1 cont9u+ = #aie days1 f9ally rose #c in*es high]4 ,! adobe also cont9u$ its rise1 b did n rea* ! same height z ! ,gila soil by ne>ly two in*es4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! en]getic & high rise ( ! latt] proves an important factor 9 ! culture ( ^! l&s4 #gd ,! asc5t is ( c\rse mo/ rapid1 9 ! l>ge tubes almo/ in/antane\s1 :5 ! capill>y space is entirely cle>2 b 9 ! complex sy/em ( connect$ air spaces 9 soils1 ! curv$ pa?s & ! friction ob/ruct ! movem5t4 ,! co>se s&y soil rea*$ its highe/ limit1 #af in*es1 )9 six days1 :5 ! silty ,gila soil /ood at ab\t d\ble t height4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,columns %[+ heights to :i* wat] w rise by capill>ity 9 soils ( diff]5t physical composition1 & rates ( asc5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,capill>y ,rise ( ,wat] 9 ,soil ,s$im5ts ( diff]5t ,diamet]s4 ,asc5t ( ,wat] 9 uni=m#ge ,s$im5ts4--,l\ghridge has asc]ta9$ ! rate ( asc5t ( uni=m s$im5ts ( diff]5t gra9-diamet]s1 ) ! results %[n 9 ! diagram subjo9$1 toge!r ) ! maximum height rea*$ by ea*4 ,! diagram is v eloqu5tly illu/rative ( ! great diff]5ces 9 ! capill>y prop]ties ( granul> s$im5ts ( ! v>i\s grades2 & x w\ld seem t x ought to be possible to d$uce f x by a some:at complex =mula ! rate & height ( asc5t ( wat] 9 any soil ( kn[n physical composition4 ,9 nature1 h[ev]1 ! pres5ce ( clay & ! great] or less degree ( flocculation ( mix$ s$im5ts w always vitiate to a v great ext5t ! results d$ucible f su* calculations2 h5ce ! data convey$ by ! obs]vations ( ,l\ghridge mu/ be consid]$ applicable only to granul> s$im5ts free f clay & entirely deflocculat$4 #ge ,i4 e41 uni=m betwe5 ! n>r[ limits giv54 ,x is curi\s t 9 ?is case ! 8clay0 %[$ a rise m>k$ly bel[ t ( ! f9e/ granul> s$im5t1 despite ! extreme f95ess ( its p>ticles4 ,?is proves pla9ly t ! physical nature ( colloid clay is unlike t ( ! granul> s$im5ts2 z has be5 repeat$ly m5tion$ above4 ,maximum & ,m9imum ( ,wat]-hold+ ,p[]4--,x is cle> t at ! base ( ! columns ( soils j consid]$1 ! maximum ( wat]-absorption ( :i* ! soil is capable w h be5 br\ght ab\t2 :ile at ! top ( ! same column1 ! m9imum ( possible liquid absorption 7cont9u\s films ( wat]7 w exi/4 ,! same m9imum moi/ure-condition w be produc$ :5 a limit$ quantity ( wat] is plac$ ) a l>ge mass ( soil2 ! moi/ure w spread to c]ta9 limits1 until ! surface films ( wat] h all acquir$ uni=m t5sion2 & w !n cease to ext5d1 except by evaporation & hygroscopic absorption4#gf ,x is cle> t ! same condition w be br\ght ab\t 9 ! c\rse ( "t at ! top ( a soil column 9 :i* wat] has p]colat$ f above2 & h5ce ! m9imum m5tion$1 aside f evaporation1 repres5ts approximately ! usual condition ( ! soil ne> ! surface )9 a v>iable "t aft] a ra91 or irrigation1 :5 ! desc5d+ wat] column has atta9$ a l5g? correspond+ to ! height to :i* ! wat] w\ld h ris5 f bel[ 9 a tube arrang$ z %[n on p4 #bje4 ,x is !re=e a condition ( v frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! arid region4 #gf ,ad4 ,may] 7,agricultur*emie #b1 p4 #ada7 designates ?is m9imum cont5t ( liquid wat] z ! 8absolute0 wat] capacity ( ! same2 b x is n obvi\s :]e9 ?is factor is bett] entitl$ to ?is "n ?an w\ld be ! maximum 7see ,wollny's ,=s*41 #ahib1 p4 #a474 ,m4 ,:itney 7,rep4 ,proce$+s ,ass'n ,agr4 ,coll4 ,exp't ,/'ns1 ,nov4 #aijd7 gives z a new obs]vation ! fact t 9 soils approa*+ ! dr\ght condition wat] 8does n obey ! ord9>y physical laws z we recognize !m 9 capill>ity40 ,?is evid5tly ref]s simply to ! well-kn[n ph5om5on m5tion$ above4 ,capill>y ,wat] held at ,diff]5t ,heights 9 a ,soil ,column4--,to det]m9e ! am\nts ( wat] held 9 ! diff]5t portions 9 columns ( soils 9 :i* wat] asc5ds by capill>y rise1 ! foll[+ plan 0 adopt$ by ! writ] 9 collaboration ) ,l\ghridge 7,rep4 ,calif4 ,/a4 #ahib-d1 p4 #ii74 ,in/ead ( glass tubes ! soils to be te/$ 7 plac$ 9 copp] tubes "o in* 9 diamet]1 divid$ into segm5ts six in*es long1 & flatt5$ on "o side4 ,9 ! flatt5$ side a slot half an in* wide 0 left1 & glass plates1 held 9 position by rubb] ela/ics1 7 cem5t$ on ! slott$ side by means ( p>aff91 to prev5t a sift+-out ( ! soil4 ,! %ort sections c be connect$ at ! ends l jo9ts ( /ove-pipe1 & ! e>?s c be easily introduc$ 9 prop]1 ev5 condition4 ,x 0 ?us possible to ga9 access to any portion ( ! column at any "t1 = ! tak+ ( samples4 ,,wat] ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,soil ,,columns ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,heights ,,above ,,wat] ,,level4 ,no4 #bcc #aaig #afgi ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,height above ,wat],s&y ,soil1,s&y ,alluvium1,adobe1 ,b]keley4 ,level4 ,morano4 ,gila4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #dg in*es #d4cc #db in*es #aj4bf #cf in*es #aa4ii #cj in*es #ae4bf #bd in*es #ba4ci #aj4bfgg #ah in*es #bg4fc #bi4dh #ab in*es #c4ic #cb4dh #cc4jd #f in*es #ad4ae #ce4jd #ch4dg #c in*es #ch4di #a in* #bd4cd #cf4fd #dd4da ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #gg ,?is figure repres5ts only a tempor>y condition2 ! full height ( #df in*es 0 n rea*$ until ! #aie? day4 ,s9ce gravity limits ! capill>y asc5t 9 a progressive ratio1 z %[n 9 diagram #ci1 x is obvi\s t ! true maximum saturation c exi/ only 9 a v %ort 7/rictly speak+1 an inf9itesimally %ort7 v]tical column4 ,! lea/ practicable height = exp]im5tal "w be+ ab\t #a cm4 7 9471 ! writ] has adopt$ = ! purpose ( rapid det]m9ation ( ?is factor1 ! use ( a brass cyl9d] #a cm4 high & ( su* wid? z to conta91 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 #be or #ej cm4 ( soil4 ,?is cyl9d] has a f9ely p]=at$ bottom1 :i* may be cov]$ ) filt] pap]2 aft] be+ fill$ ) soil :i* has be5 /ruck level1 & weigh+1 x is imm]s$ to #a mm4 dep? 9 di/ill$ wat] & all[$ to re/ = an h\r2 !n quickly dri$ outside & b5ea? ) filt] pap]1 & aga9 weigh$4 ,! am\nt ( wat] f\nd by diff]5ce %\ld = all practical purposes be ref]r$ to ! volume1 n to ! weight1 ( ! soil1 s z to elim9ate ! error aris+ f ! v>y+ specific gravity ( ! latt]4 ,9 mo/ cases ! surface ( ! soil 9 ! sieve cyl9d] rema9s level aft] wett+2 b sometimes x swells s z to rise above its dry level1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( ne>ly #cj 7see *apt] #g1 p4 #aad74 ,?is happ5s especially 9 /rongly f]rug9\s soils4 ,9 ! case ( 8black alkali0 soils1 9 wett+ an enorm\s collapse sometimes takes place 7see *apt] #bb74 ,if x be desir$ to det]m9e also ! m9imum liquid absorption 7see bel[71 ! surface ( ! wet soil is fir/ cov]$ ) air-dry soil1 to absorb ! surplus moi/ure1 & f9ally ) soil previ\sly saturat$ ) hygroscopic moi/ure2 ! add$ soil be+ ea* "t ?r[n (f & f9ally ! surface 8/ruck0 level ) a t5se silk ?read be=e weigh+4 ,corrections mu/ be appli$ = ! usual increase 9 weight1 f ! addition ( soil1 & = ! hygroscopic moi/ure4 ,:ile ! m9imum ( liquid absorption c ?us be det]m9$ quickly1 )\t await+ ! capill>y asc5t ( a wat] column1 & if suffici5t "t is giv5 c also be det]m9$ 9 high] columns1 z propos$ by ,may] 7,wollny's ,=s*4 ,vol4 #c71 ! maximum _c ?us be det]m9$ )\t gross inaccuracy4 ,9 det]m9ations made by ! writ] x 0 f\nd t ! figures = ! m9ima ( v diff]5t soils 7clayey & s&y7 ( ! arid region1 diff] proportionally mu* less ?an d ! respective maxima4 ,9 few ( ^! soils x 0 f\nd to exce$ ab\t #aj p] c5t1 & x sc>cely fell bel[ #d p] c5t ev5 9 v s&y soils4 ,a v deep1 s&y soil1 :i* _h be5 irrigat$ 9 ,may1 & ^u :i* no ra9 _h s9ce fall51 %[$ 9 ,july 9 ! second foot1 ^u :i* re/$ t5 in*es ( fully air-dri$ soil free f vegetation1 a wat]-p]c5tage ( eight p] c5t4#gh #gh ,hall 7,! ,soil1 p4 #ff7 gives = ! m9ima 9 ! case ( soils exam9$ by him ! foll[+ figures3 co>se s&y soil1 #bb4b1 light loam1 #ce4d1 /iff clay1 #de4f1 s&y peat1 #eb4h4 ,^! figures are v mu* high] ?an = app>5tly simil> mat]ials us$ by ! writ]1 & ! diff]5ces exce$ ^? betwe5 ! maxima giv5 = ! same4 ,?is discrepancy ,i am unable to acc\nt =4 ,capill>y ,action 9 ,moi/ ,soils4--,9 ! prec$+ discussion ! case ( columns ( air-dry soils1 s common 9 ! arid regions1 has be5 consid]$4 ,x is obvi\s t a soil column hold+ ! m9imum ( capill>y wat] may be ( any height2 s t :51 z happ5s 9 ! op5 field1 ! ra9 wat] soaks d[n beyond ! range ( capill>y rise 9 a giv5 soil1 ! upp] portions ( ! latt]1 above t range1 w rema9 at ! m9imum ( moi/ure-cont5t s long z x is n deplet$ by evaporation4 ,k+ has made ext5d$ obs]vations on soil columns t5 feet high & moi/5$ ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,capill>y movem5t takes place 9 moi/ soils mu* m rapidly ?an 9 dry ones1 al?\gh :5 suffici5t "t is giv5 ! f9al adju/m5t w ( c\rse be ! same4 ,k+'s exp]im5ts %[$ t evaporation at ! surface ( ! t5foot columns caus$ a s5sible depletion ( ! wat] cont5t orig9ally exi/+ at ! dep? ( t5 feet1 9 ! c\rse ( #cad days4 ,:ile s sl[ a movem5t might n be ( any b5efit dur+ ! gr[?-p]iod ( %all[-root$ annual crops1 ! fact %[n is ( importance to p]man5t plant+s1 z ( trees & v9es4 ,ano!r & n s readily intelligible effect obs]v$ by ,k+ is t :5 ! surface-soil is wett$1 moi/ure may be )drawn t[>d ! surface f ! l[] lay]s4 ,9 "o exp]im5t he f\nd t :5 wat] 0 appli$ on ! surface s z to add two p\nds ( wat] to ea* surface foot 9 sev]al soils1 at ! end ( #bf h\rs !re _h be5 an increase ( ?ree p\nds 9 ! same1 & a loss ( "o & ?ree qu>t] p\nds f ! second & ?ird feet4 ,! cause ( ?is translocation is probably a 8di/illation0 ( ! subsoil moi/ure t[>d ! cool$ soil2 ! fact t x occurs is ( practical int]e/1 s9ce x seems to %[ t wett+ ! upp] portion ( ! soil by cold ra9 or irrigation may t5d to raise additional supplies f bel[4 ,at ! *ange ( seasons we n uncommonly f9d1 9 digg+ tree holes or wells1 a wet /reak at f #i to #ah in*es bel[ ! surface1 caus$ evid5tly by ! cond5sation ( subsoil moi/ure1 at ! limit ( a cold zone result+ f ! p5etration ( unseasonable temp]ature 78cold snap07 f above4 ,su* movem5ts ( soil-moi/ure by means ( evaporation & recond5sation )9 ! soil c ( c\rse take place ev5 :5 ! m9imum ( liquid absorption has be5 rea*$ & direct capill>y movem5t has ceas$4 ,x is1 z x 71 dew )9 ! soil4 ,proportion ( ,moi/ure ,available to ,gr[+ ,plants4--,n all ! capill>y moi/ure conta9$ 9 soils is available to plants1 z c readily be se5 f ! fact t _m plants1 especially :5 gr[+ 9 pots1 beg9 to wilt :ile ! soil /ill appe>s visibly moi/4 ,! limit ( wilt+ diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t plants1 & 9 ! op5 gr\nd x is difficult to asc]ta9 t limit1 because ! deep] roots cont9ue to supply moi/ure f moi/] sub/rata4 ,h5ce pott$ plants wilt :ile ! soil appe>s mu* moi/] ?an :5 ! same gr[ 9 ! field4 ,k+#gi has det]m9$ ! am\nts ( moi/ure d[n to #dc in*es 9 a ,wiscons9 soil 9 :i* clov] & corn 7 at ! wilt+ po9t1 z 9 ! foll[+ cond5s$ table3 ,clov]4 ,maize4 ,fall[ gr\nd4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,fir/ #ab in*es1 clay loam #h4dd #g4jc #ag4ja ,second #ab in*es1 r$di% clay #ab4hd #aa4gi #ai4hf #bd to #cj in*es1 s&y clay #ac4eb #aj4hd #ah4ef #dj to #dc in*es1 s& #i4ec #d4ag #ae4ij ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #gi ,physics ( ,agriculture1 p4 #ace4 ,x is pla9ly %[n "h t ! roots ( clov] & corn 7 unable to utilize ! high] moi/ure-cont5t ( ! subsoil-clay to ! same ext5t z ! small] am\nts pres5t 9 ! surface foot1 & 9 ! s&y sub/rata4 ,evid5tly ! moi/ure 9 ! clay soil 0 m t5aci\sly reta9$4 ,?is is d\btless due1 z ,k+ %[s1 to ! equal ?9ness ( ! moi/ure film rema9+ on ! soil gra9s 9 ei!r case2 ! numb] ( gra9s1 & !re=e ! aggregate surface hold+ ^! films1 be+ mu* great] 9 ! clay ?an 9 s&s2 h5ce ! high] wat] cont5t4 ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ^! figures giv5 by ,k+ = clov] & maize at ! wilt+-po9t1 & fall[ gr\nd adjac5t1 ) ^? giv5 by ,eck>t 7,rep4 ,expt4 ,/a4 ,haw4 ,sug> ,plant]s' ,ass'n41 #aijc7 = ^? af=d+ good gr[+ conditions = sug>-cane on ! 7highly f]rug9\s7 soils ( t /ation4 ,! plots 7 irrigat$ at ! rate ( "o1 two & ?ree in*es ( wat] p] week1 all[ance be+ made = ! ra9fall4 ,two in*es prov$1 on ! :ole1 to give ! be/ av]age results = production4 ,! moi/ure det]m9ation ( ! soil "u ! two-in* regime gave an av]age moi/ure cont5t ( #bi4ac 9 ! fir/ foot ( soil4 ,x is n /at$ :at 0 ! hygroscopic coeffici5t ( t soil1 b x 0 probably v high2 9 ! neighborhood ( #ba4e1 judg+ by ! det]m9ations made ) six ,hawaiian soils at ! ,cali=nia ,/ation4 ,?is w\ld indicate ab\t #g4fc ( free moi/ure z ! optimum = sug>-cane4 ,moi/ure-requirem5ts ( ,crops 9 ! ,arid ,region4--,plants 7p>ticul>ly broad-leav$ ones7 :i* h made a bra% gr[? dur+ a p]iod ( abundant moi/ure1 w wilt quickly :5 sun%9e returns1 & take "s "t to adapt !mselves to ! dri] conditions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 plants accu/om$ to dry air & scanty soil-moi/ure1 w n wilt or suff] "u :at w\ld else:]e be consid]$ v rigor\s conditions4 ,l\ghridge#hj has made num]\s det]m9ations ( moi/ure 9 soils 9 :i* crops 7 beg9n+ to suff]1 & o!rs on simil> soils t 7 gr[+ normally1 & f\nd t 9 g5]al1 n only 7 ! diff]5ces 9 moi/ure cont5t consid]ably less ?an 9 ! case above quot$ f ,k+'s obs]vations1 b t ! am\nts ( free moi/ure requir$ by v>i\s crops 9 ! arid climate ( ,cali=nia 7 surpris+ly small4 #hj ,rept4 ,cal4 ,expt4 ,/a4 #ahig-jh1 pp4 #fe-if4 ,! tables bel[ %[ ! results ( obs]vations made by ,l\ghridge dur+ sev]al dr\ght ye>s 9 ,cali=nia2 s arrang$ z to %[ ! diff]5ces ( moi/ure cont5t = ! same crop 9 diff]5t soils4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 all cases :]e a crop gr[+ on a clay soil c\ld be comp>$ ) ! same on a light] soil1 ! moi/ure requir$ to keep ! crop 9 good condition 0 v mu* great] 9 ! clay ?an 9 ! loam or s&y soils4 ,9 ! case ( apples1 e4 g41 #h4c ( wat] 0 abundant to keep ! trees 9 excell5t condition on a loam soil1 :ile on a clay soil hold+ #ab4c ! condition 0 v poor4 ,t ?is diff]5ce is due 9 ! ma9 to ! diff]5ce 9 ! hygroscopic-moi/ure coeffici5t ( ! respective soils1 is pla9ly app>5t 9 sev]al cases4 ,x is !re=e n ! total moi/ure cont5t1 b ! free moi/ure pres5t 9 excess ( :at is held by hygroscopic absorption1 t det]m9es ! welf>e ( ! plant4 ,by det]m9+1 fir/1 ! total moi/ure 9 ! soils1 z tak5 9 ! field1 !n1 aft] all[+ !m to become air-dry1 det]m9+ ! maximum ( hygroscopic moi/ure !y w\ld absorb 7see p4 #aih71 ,l\ghridge f\nd by diff]5ce ! am\nt ( free moi/ure1 or liquid wat] :i* mu/ be pres5t 9 ! soil to prev5t ! crops f suff]+4 ,an exceptionally good opportunity = ^! obs]vations 0 (f]$ by ! dry season ( #ahih1 dur+ :i* crops suff]+ & n suff]+1 on id5tical l&s1 c\ld easily be f\nd4 ,! det]m9ations 7 always made = ea* foot ( ! upp] f\r feet ( ! l& 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! trees or among ! field crops4 ,! fir/ table exemplifies ! me?od ( proc$ure2 ! second gives ! summ>y ( results = ! sev]al crops & trees1 z calculat$ f obs]vations made dur+ ! season4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,condition ,,( ,,crops ,,on ,,v>i\s ,,soils ,,"u ,,diff]5t ,,moi/ure-,,conditions4 ,p] c5t ,moi/ure 9 f\r feet4 ,k9d ( ,k9d ( ,condition--------------------------- ,crop4 ,soil4 ( ,tons ,crop4 ,total4,hygroscopic4,free4 p] acre4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,:eat ,v s&y ,poor #b4f #a4i 4#g #ef 8 ,s&y loam ,good #ab4h #e4f #g4b #egf 8 ,clay ,dead #ad4a #aj4e #c4f #bhh ,maize ,clay adobe ,v good #ab4i #h4h #d4a #cbh 8 ,s&y loam ,fair #f4a #b4c #c4h #cjd ,b>ley ,black adobe ,wilt+ #aj4g #h4h #a4i #aeb ,sug> ,beets ,black loam ,good #ab4d #e4f #f4h #edd ,v9es ,loam ,good #h4e #e4j #c4e #bhj 8 ,s&y loam ,poor #a4i #a4e 4#d #cb ,almonds ,loam ,good #h4e #f4f #a4i #agh 8 ,same field ,suff]+ #g4i #f4i #a4j #hj ,apples ,loam ,excell5t #h4c #e4e #b4h #bbd 8 ,clay ,poor #ab4c #aj4h #a4e #abj ,apricots ,loam ,excell5t #f4c #c4c #c4j #bdj 8 ,gravelly loam,poor #f4i #e4j #a4i #aeb ,figs ,r$ loam ,good #e4b #c4h #a4d #aab 8 ,heavy loam ,wilt+ #h4f #h4f #j #j ,olives ,r$ loam ,good #e4b #c4h #a4d #aab 8 ,s&y loam ,suff]+ #a4i #a4i #j #j ,pea*es ,r$ loam ,good #h4b #e4j #c4b #bef 8 8 ,poor #f4h #e4j #a4h #add ,prunes ,gray loam ,excell5t #aa4b #i4j #b4b #agf 8 8 ,poor #f4d #e4d #a4j #hj ,citrus fruits,s&y loam ,good #f4c #c4a #c4b #bef 8 8 ,s&y soil ,leafless #c4a #b4d 4#g #ef ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,table ,,%[+ ,,dr\ght-,,endurance ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,crops ,,9 ,,arid ,,region4 ,free wat] 9 f\r feet ( soil4 ,crops t did well 9 ,crops t suff]$ ------------------ l[e/ am\nt ( 9 highe/ am\nt ( ,tons moi/ure m5tion$ moi/ure m5tion$ ,p] c5t4 p] 9 fir/ column4 9 fir/ column4 acre4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #j to #a4j #hj ,apricots1 ,olives1 ,grapes1,citrus1 ,pe>s1 ,pea*es1 ,soy-bean4 ,plums1 ,acacia4 #a4j to #a4e #abj ,citrus1 ,figs4 ,almonds1 ,apples4 #a4e to #b4 #afj ,almonds1 ,plums1 ,saltbu%4,b>ley4 #b to #b4e #agf ,prunes4 #bjj ,walnuts1 ,eucalyptus4 ,prunes4 #b4e to #c #bbd ,apples4 #c to #c4e #bhh ,pe>s4 #c to #d #cbb ,hairy ,vet*4 ,:eat4 #d to #e #djj ,:eat1 ,maize4 #e to #f #dhj ,sug> beets1 ,sorghum4 ,sug> beets4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,soils4--,cont9u$4 ,,surface1 ,,hydro/atic ,,& ,,gr\nd ,,wat]2 ,,p]colation4 ,s9ce all ! wat] ( soils & plants is directly or indirectly d]iv$ f ! ra9fall 7includ+ !re9 sn[ & hail71 "s g5]al po9ts reg>d+ ?is factor require fir/ consid]ation4 ,:ile x is n ! object ( ?is "w to discuss climatology 9 detail1 yet ! times ( ! ye> & ! mann] 9 :i* precipitation comes1 acts ^u & is dispos$ ( 9 ! soil "u diff]5t climatic conditions1 mu/ ( necessity =m an ess5tial "p ( its subject matt]4 ,am\nt ( ra9fall4--,! ra9 fall+ 9 ! c\rse ( a ye> is usually /at$ 9 ! =m ( 8in*es0 7or c5timet]s71 imply+ ! height ( ! wat] column t w\ld be %[n at ! end ( ! ye> _h x all be5 all[$ to accumulate2 or1 ! sum ( all ! successive ra9s 7includ+ sn[7 obs]v$ dur+ ! ye>4 ,s9ce ?is am\nt ranges all ! way f no?+1 or a m]e fraction ( an in* 7z 9 portions ( ! ,&es1 & ( ! great ,african & ,asian des]ts7 to z mu* z #fjj in*es or fifty feet 7,*]apundji 9 ea/]n ,india71 ! adaptation ( agricultural practice to ! ma9t5ance ( ! prop] moi/ure-supply to crops is l>gely a local "q1 (t5times ( n inconsid]able difficulty4 ,?is is especially ! case :]e torr5tial ra9s1 yield+ sev]al in*es ( ra9 9 a few h\rs1 alt]nate ) light1 soak+ ra9fall1 z is v commonly ! case 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 & m especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,we/w>d ( ! same ! ra9fall decreases s rapidly t at or ab\t ! "o-hundr$? m]idian 7! longitude ( ,bism>k & ,pi]re1 ,dakota1 & ,dodge ,city1 ,kansas7 we already rea* ! annual av]age ( #bj in*es1 :i* is commonly assum$ to be ! limit bel[ :i* crops _c safely be gr[n )\t irrigation4 ,! 8cl\dbur/s0 occasionally occurr+ )9 ^! limits are usually conf9$ to m\nta9\s regions1 & ! wat] !y p\r d[n on ! dry soil is r>ely ( any direct b5efit to agriculture2 h5ce !y _c be prop]ly c\nt$ 9 ! g5]al e/imate ( ! effective ra9fall4 ,a region ( high ra9fall 7up to #ajj in*es & ov]71 h[ev]1 ext5ds along ! ,pacific coa/ f nor!rn ,cali=nia ?r\gh we/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton across ,briti% ,columbia to ,alaska1 to seaw>d ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 ,cascade1 & ,alaskan coa/ ranges4 ,9 ! c\ntry ea/ ( ! ,mississippi riv]1 ! av]age annual ra9fall ranges f #cj in*es 9 ! region ( ! ,great ,lakes1 & #de to #ej in*es on ! nor? ,atlantic coa/1 to #fj in*es 9 ,l\isiana & up to eighty 9 s\!rn ,florida4 ,! av]age ( ! ,mississippi ,valley & ,atlantic coa/ ,/ates is usually /at$ at ab\t #de in*es1 :i* is di/ribut$ m or less ev5ly ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 except+ usually f six to eight weeks ( m scanty precipitation 9 ! latt] "p ( ,augu/ & 9 ,septemb]--! 8,indian summ]0 season2 s t ! w9t] is ! season ( greate/ total ra9fall4 ,natural disposition ( ! ,ra9 ,wat]4--,! ra9fall is naturally fir/ dispos$ ( 9 two ways1 viz41 a portion :i* is absorb$ by ! soil1 & ano!r :i* is at once %$ f ! surface & con/itutes ! 8surface run(f40 ,! portion absorb$ into ! soil is subsequ5tly dispos$ ( ei!r by soakage d[nw>d into ! subdra9age & ?r\gh spr+s & seepage#ha into ! /reams & riv]s2 or by evaporation4 ,! latt] aga9 occurs 9 two diff]5t ways1 viz41 f ! soil-surface itself1 or ?r\gh ! roots & leaves ( plants4 ,! importance ( ea* ( ^! modes is suffici5tly great to entitle ea* to detail$ consid]ation4 ,! ,surface ,run(f4--,?is portion ( ! disposal ( ra9 may range all ! way f no?+ to almo/ totality1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil & ! condition ( its surface4#hb ,s&y soils1 especially :5 co>se1 may absorb in/antly ev5 a v heavy ra9fall4 ,heavy clay soils :5 dry w at fir/ also absorb quickly q a heavy precipitation2 b z ! beat+ ( ! ra9drops compacts ! surface1 ! absorption quickly sl[s d[n1 s t heavy d[np\rs ( brief duration1 :ile wett+ ?or\ghly into a pla/ic mass ! fir/ two or ?ree in*es ( a clay soil1 may leave all b5ea? dry1 to be v gradually moi/5$ by ! sl[ d[nw>d p]colation aga9/ ! resi/ance ( ! air 9 ! soil2 :ile ! great] "p ( ! lat] portion ( ! %[] w dra9 (f ! surface 9 muddy runlets4 ,c]ta9 soils class$ z loams1 hav+ ! prop]ty ( cru/+ readily by ra9 foll[$ by sun%9e 7see *apt] #g1 p4 #aaa71 9 heavy %[]s behave h>dly bett] ?an /rong clay soils2 %$d+ ! wat] until ! soak$ cru/ gives way1 & is c>ri$ (f 9 muddy /reamlets4 ,!n beg9s ! cutt+-away ( ! soil t1 9 portions ( ! ,cotton ,/ates1 z well z nor? ( ! ,ohio riv]1 has be5 ! cause ( ext5sive deva/ation ( once fruitful culture l&s1 ! site ( :i* is n[ m>k$ by 8r$ wa%es0 & gullies b too famili> to ! eye 9 _m regions1 especially ( ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 #ha ,! quiet seepage f ! banks & b$s ( /reams plays a mu* m important "p 9 ! increase ( volume ( fl[ ?an is commonly suppos$1 because unp]ceiv$ save by measurem5t ( ! tribut>ies & comp>ison ) ! ma9 /reams4 ,?is is especially true ( ! dra9age 9 ! arid region1 :]e ! deep & p]vi\s soils favor diffuse seepage z aga9/ def9ite spr+ fl[4 #hb ,t\mey 7,ye>book ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ,agr4 #aijc7 /ates t 9 ! ,san ,b]n>d9o m\nta9s 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 ! fir/ ra9fall 79 ,decemb]7 0 absorb$ to ! ext5t ( #ie 9 =e/$ areas1 aga9/ only #fj 9 ! non-=e/$2 b t lat]1 aft] ! soil _h be5 p>tially saturat$1 #fj only 0 absorb$ 9 ! =e/$ l&1 aga9/ #e 9 ! non-=e/$4 ,:ile x is g5]ally admitt$ t =e/s dim9i% ! run(f1 ,raft] 7,relation ( ,ra9fall to ,run(f1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,pap]1 ,no4 #hj1 p4 #ec7 cont5ds t 9 ,new ,york ,/ate ! rev]se is true4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,erosion 9 ,mississippi ,table ,l&s1 caus+ de/ruction ( agricultural value bo? ( ,upl&s & ,valleys4 7,mc,gee1 #ab? ,ann4 ,rept4 ,u4 ,s41 #ahij-ia47 ,wa%+-away & ,gully+ 9 ! ,cotton ,/ates4--,n[h]e p]haps h ^! effects be5 s sev]ely felt z 9 portions ( nor?we/]n & c5tral ,mississippi1 & ?is case is s in/ructive z to des]ve a m detail$ description4 ,9 ! regions 9 "q ! soil /ratum consi/s ( a yell[ or br[ni% loam f ?ree to sev5 feet 9 orig9al ?ickness1 con/itut+ a v desirable class ( g5tly roll+ upl&s1 :i* at "o "t claim$ to be ! be/ cotton-gr[+ portion ( ! ,/ate4 ,x 0 orig9ally cov]$ ) an op5 =e/ ( oaks1 ) an abundant gr[? ( grasses t af=d$ excell5t pa/ure to de] & cattle2 a natural p>k gay ) fl[]s dur+ mo/ ( ! season4 ,:5 ^! l&s 7 tak5 into cultivation little or no att5tion 0 paid to ! direction ( ! furr[s & r[s ( corn & cotton2 mo/ commonly ! pl[+ 0 done 8up-hill & d[n10 s t ! 8dead-furr[0 af=d$ a ready opportunity = ! =mation ( wa%es cutt+ into ! subsoil1 dur+ ! torr5tial ra9s sometimes fall+ dur+ ! summ]s4 ,ev5 :5 fill$ ) soil by pl[+1 ^! wa%es w\ld frequ5tly re-op5 dur+ ra9s1 %$d+ ! soil 9 a muddy flood ^u ! l[] l&s4 ,! wa%+-away ( ! surface soil1 ?us br\ght ab\t1 ( c\rse dim9i%$ ! production ( ! high] l&s1 :i* 7 !n commonly 8turn$ out0 & left )\t cultivation or c>e ( any k9d4 ,! cru/$ surface %$ ! ra9 wat] into ! old furr[s1 & ! latt] 7 quickly deep5$ & wid5$ into gullies--8r$ wa%es0--^: pres5ce r5d]$ any resumption ( cultivation difficult4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s ! soil-/ratum ( br[n loam 0 p5etrat$ into ! loose or loosely cem5t$ s& :i* und]lies x almo/ ev]y:]e1 & is v readily wa%$ away4 ,soon ! wat]1 ga9+ ye>ly 9 volume1 und]cut ! loam /ratum s z to cause x to 8cave0 into gullies 9 huge masses1 :i* ) ! s& 7 c>ri$ into ! valleys adjac5t1 fill+ ! b$s ( ! /reams s z to cause _! fl[ to disappe> "u ! flood ( s&4 ,z ! evil progress$1 l>ge areas ( upl&s 7 d5ud$ completely ( _! loam or culture /ratum1 leav+ no?+ b b>e1 arid s&1 :olly useless = cultivation2 :ile ! valleys 7 little bett]1 ! native vegetation hav+ be5 de/roy$ & only h>dy we$s f9d+ n\ri%m5t on ! s&y surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj;a4--,erosion 9 ,mississippi ,table ,l&s1 caus+ de/ruction ( agricultural value bo? ( ,upl&s & ,valleys4 7,mc,gee1 #ab? ,ann4 ,rept4 ,u4 ,s4 ,g4 ,s41 #ahij-ia47 ,9 ?is mann] :ole sections1 & 9 "s portions ( ! ,/ate :ole t[n%ips ( ! be/ class ( upl&s h be5 trans=m$ into s&y wa/es1 h>dly reclaimable by any ord9>y means1 & :olly *ang+ ! indu/rial conditions ( entire c\nties2 ^: c\nty seats ev5 9 "s in/ances _h to be *ang$1 ! old t[n & site hav+1 by ! same de/ructive ag5cies1 lit]ally 8gone d[n hill40 ,?is de/ruction ( l&s 0 greatly aggravat$ by ! civil w>1 dur+ :i*1 & = "s "t aft]1 l>ge areas ( l&s once "u cultivation 7 left to ! m]cy ( ! elem5ts4 ,injury 9 ! arid regions4--,9 ! arid regions1 :]e ! ra9fall frequ5tly comes 9 heavy d[np\rs or 8cl\dbur/s10 imm5se damage to pa/ure l&s has be5 br\ght ab\t by ov]/ock+1 9 ,arizona & ,new ,mexico2 involv+ ! de/ruction ( ! natural cov] ( vegetation & ! loos5+ ( ! surface especially by %eep2 aft] :i* a heavy ra9fall w c>ry (f ! surface soil1 ! muddy wat] be+ ga!r$ l>gely 9 ! trails made by cattle go+ to wat]4 ,?us gradually gullies are =m$1 :i* enl>g+ m & m become rav9es & cut up ! pa/ure slopes into 8bad l&s10 useless equally = pa/ure & = agriculture4#hc ,cali=nia1 ea/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton1 & ,montana1 (f] /rik+ & lam5table examples ( ! same de/ructive ag5cies4 #hc ,op5 ,range & ,irrigation ,f>m+4 ,r4 ,h ,=bes1 9 ,=e/]1 ,nos4 #g1 #i1 #aijb4 ,de=e/ation4--,! de=e/ation ( hill & m\nta9 l&s has1 ! _w ov]1 l$ to simil> results2 caus+ n only ! de/ruction ( pa/ure & agricultural l&s1 b also ! conv]sion ( /reams1 fl[+ f spr+s & seepage all ! ye>1 into p]iodic torr5ts1 flood+ ! l[l&s dur+ ra9s by ! rapid runn+-(f ( ! wat] f ! b>e & h>d-bak$ m\nta9 slopes1 & !n runn+ dry )9 a %ort "t1 s z n ev5 to af=d dr9k+ wat] to pa/ur+ cattle 9 summ]4 ,?us = half a c5tury ! unsolv$ problem ( ! 8correction ( ! wat]s ( ! ,jura m\nta9s0 0 be=e ! ,swiss & ,fr5* gov]nm5ts2 & ! great & co/ly public "w involv+ re-=e/ation1 deflection ( torr5ts & fill+-9 ( deep rav9es & gullies1 is n ev5 yet ne>ly complet$4 ,9 ,spa91 :i* 9 ! "t ( ! ,roman occupation 0 l>gely a =e/ c\ntry ) abundant ra9fall1 ! same results are se51 notably 9 ! ,s\?1 9 ! wide1 & mo/ly dry1 s&y b$s ( /reams once runn+ deep & cle>2 & 9 ! sc>r$ hill-& m\nta9-sides1 & scant vegetation ( l[ %rubs 78*ap>ral07 t replace ! once abundant tree gr[?1 e4 g41 9 ,old & ,new ,ca/ile4 ,un=tunately ! lessons taught by ! bitt] exp]i5ce ( ! old _w seem to require actual repetition 9 ! new1 be=e means ( prev5tion are ev5 ?\ght (4 ,prev5tion ( ,injury to ,cultivat$ ,l&s f excessive ,run(f4--,! fundam5tal rem$y = ! injuri\s effects ( excessive run(f f ! l& surface is1 ( c\rse1 to facilitate its absorption into ! soil to ! utmo/ ext5t possible1 by deep tillage2 or 9 cases :]e ?is is undesirable 7z :5 9 ra9y climates excessive lea*+ ( ! l& is fe>$71 to s direct & control ! surface dra9age t its fl[ %all n[h]e be s rapid z to c>ry ) x any l>ge am\nts ( e>?1 or to wa% out ! furr[s4 ,to ?is end its fall mu/ be dim9i%$ by 8circl+10 i4 e41 pl[+ ne>ly at "r angles to ! slope in/ead ( up-&-d[n1 & on /eep slopes especially also by ma9ta9+ op5 furr[s or dit*es hav+ a g5tle fall only1 into :i* ! wat] c %$ & fl[ (f quietly 9 case ! furr[s1 left 9 pl[+1 prove insuffici5t to reta9 & %$ gradually ! wat] !y _c hold p]man5tly4 ,! e>ly adoption ( ?is simple exp$i5t w\ld h :olly prev5t$ ! enorm\s wa/e ( f9e agricultural l&s ref]r$ to above4 ,! und]dra9+ ( l&s liable to wa%+ is a co/ly b highly effective means ( prev5t+ d5udation2 & ! lay+ ( und]dra9s 9 gullies already =m$1 to prev5t f>!r deep5+1 is among ! mo/ obvi\s means ( arre/+ f>!r damage4 ,! b5eficial effects ( und]dra9age 9 cons]v+ moi/ure w be discuss$ f>!r on4 ,,absorption ,,& ,,movem5ts ,,( ,,wat] ,,9 ,,soils4 ,! ph5om5a & laws ( capill>y asc5t ( wat] 9 soils1 z discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 s]ve be/ to demon/rate ! g5]al behavior ( liquid wat] )9 diff]5t soils & _! sev]al gra9-sizes2 because measurably indep5d5t ( ! physical *anges t almo/ unavoidably accompany ! p]colation ( wat] f above d[nw>d2 :e!r su* wat] comes 9 ! =m ( ra91 or irrigation1 or ev5 :5 appli$ ) ! utmo/ precautions 9 ! laboratory4 ,! 8beat+0 ( ra9s quickly compacts ! surface to a c]ta9 ext5t1 v>y+ ) ! nature ( ! soil1 its condition ( m or less p]fect til?1 & ! degree ( viol5ce ) :i* ! ra9 /rikes ! surface4 ,:5 ! latt] has be5 compact$ by a previ\s ra9 & !n dri$1 8bak+0 or incru/+ ! surface1 ! latt] may almo/ :olly %$ a ra9 ( brief duration1 :i*1 _h ! surface be5 loose1 w\ld h be5 :olly absorb$1 mat]ially b5efit+ ! crop4 ,su* surface-cru/+ is1 !re=e1 injuri\s 9 prev5t+ ! absorption ( wat] f above2 & 9 addition1 x s]ves to wa/e1 by evaporation1 ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! und]ly+ soil & subsoil4 ,= ! cru/ be+ ( a f9] 7s+le-gra97 texture ?an ! till$ portion b5ea?1 x w =cibly ab/ract f ! latt]1 by absorption1 its capill>y moi/ure1 & evaporat+ x at ! upp] surface1 cont9ue to deplete ! l&1 to ! great injury ( crop gr[?1 until de/roy$ by cultivation4#hd #hd ,?is effect is well illu/rat$ by ! behavior ( a dry brick laid ^u a wet sponge4 ,x w quickly absorb all ! liquid moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! latt]1 :ile ! sponge w be :olly unable to take any moi/ure f a fully-soak$ brick4 ,! fl[ ( irrigation wat] produces ! same compact+ effect1 b to a less ext5t2 ! m z1 unlike ra9 wat]1 irrigation wat] usually conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( alkal9e & e>? salts1 :i* t5d to prev5t ! diffusion ( clay & ( f9e s$im5ts1 & !re=e ! dis9tegration ( ! soil-floccules into s+le gra9s4 ,nev]!less1 x is 9 "s soils z necess>y to cultivate aft] surface-irrigation z aft] ra9s1 9 ord] to prev5t great wa/e ( moi/ure by evaporation4 ,det]m9ation ( rate ( p]colation4--,:5 wat] is all[$ to soak into an air-dry soil column )\t s5sible %ock or motion1 f a con/ant level1 we obta9 ! ne>e/ approa* to a def9ite det]m9ation ( ! relative p]meability ( soils to wat] "u ! conditions usual 9 ! arid region4 ,a numb] ( det]m9ations ?us made is tabulat$ 9 ! diagram giv5 bel[1 :i* embodies ! obs]vations made by ,mr4 ,a4 ,v4 ,/ub5rau*#he 9 connection ) a m ext5d$ inve/igation4 #he ,rep't ,calif4 ,exp't ,/ation = #ahih to #aija1 p4 #afe4 ,z ^! exp]im5ts 7 made ) soils n 9 _! field condition1 b g5tly brok5 up ) a rubb] pe/le1 a /&>d ( compactness 0 e/abli%$ by weigh+ ! quantity :i* c\ld conv5i5tly be settl$ into a tube space ( #ajj c5timet]s capacity by tapp+ ! sides & bottom ( ! tube1 )\t t\*+ ! soil itself4 ,9 ?is way ! foll[+ /&>ds 7 e/abli%$3 ,= ! ,univ]sity ,adobe soil1 #adj grams2 = ! ,yuba loam soil1 #aaj grams2 = ! ,/anislaus s&y soil1 #agj grams4 ,tubes #a in*es wide 7 us$1 & ! soils 7 introduc$ 9 bulk1 inside ( a cyl9d] ( /iff pap] ^u :i* previ\sly to roll+ x up ! soils _h be5 ?or\ghly mix$4 ,aft] introduc+ ! soil-fill$ pap] roll x 0 g5tly )drawn1 leav+ ! soil column 9 ! tube z uni=m z be=e2 a condition almo/ impossible ( fulfilm5t :5 ! soil is introduc$ piece-meal4 ,! tubes 71 ( c\rse1 left op5 at ! l[] end1 us+ a wire nett+ to keep ! soil column 91 s t ! air c\ld escape freely be=e ! desc5d+ wat] column4 ,! results ?us obta9$ d n1 ( c\rse1 apply directly to ! same soils undi/urb$ 9 place 9 ! field2 :]e1 moreov]1 ! air is conf9$ by ! wett+ ( ! surface & ?us directly opposes p5etration ( ! wat]4 ,/ill1 !y d\btless give a correct idea ( _! relative p]meability = wat] :5 9 ! till$ condition4 ,! wat] level 0 automatically ma9ta9$ at ! dep? ( half an in* above ! surface ( ! soil columns4 ,pore-spaces giv5 are calculat$ f volume-weight & specific gravity4 ,?is diagram %[s pla9ly t !re is no direct relation betwe5 ! total pore-space 9 a soil & ! facility ( wat]-p5etration4 ,! highe/ pore-space1 9 ! f9e-gra9$ alluvial loam1 all[s m rapid p]colation ?an ! heavy clay or adobe soil1 b is greatly exce$$ by ! co>s] s&y soil4 ,9 all x is v app>5t t ! d[nw>d movem5t sl[s d[n z ! wat] desc5ds1 d\btless because ! great friction 9 a long] column gradually dim9i%es ! effect ( hydro/atic pressure4 ,x may be presum$ t at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! surface ! d[nw>d movem5t becomes practically uni=m1 & indep5d5t ( ! pressure f above4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,diagram %[+ diff]5ces 9 rates ( p]colation ?r\gh diff]5t soils4 ,summ>y4--,two sali5t po9ts are reveal$ by ev5 a cursory inspection ( ! prec$+ diagram1 viz43 #a4 ,! d[nw>d p]colation is mo/ rapid 9 ! same soils 9 :i* ! capill>y asc5t is quicke/1 t is1 9 ! co>se1 s&y soil4 #b4 ,! rapidity ( p]colation decreases mat]ially z ! wett$ soil column increases 9 l5g?4 ,! fir/ po9t is readily =ese5 & ne$s no comm5t4 ,z reg>ds ! second1 x results f ! fact t z ! wett$ column l5g!ns ! frictional resi/ance increas+ly c\nt]acts ! effects ( ! hydro/atic pressure f above1 until ! wat]'s desc5t becomes b little m rapid ?an w\ld be its lat]al diffusion1 or its asc5t at ! end ( a simil> column suppli$ by capill>y rise f bel[4 ,9 bo? cases ! frictional resi/ance has s f> c\nt]act$ ! effect ( gravity t ! capill>y coeffici5ts ( ! soil-mat]ial become ! controll+ factors ( ! wat] movem5t4 ,influ5ce ( ,v>iety ( ,gra9-sizes4--,k+ 7,physics ( ,agriculture1 pp4 #aei1 #afj71 comp>$ ! rapidity ( ! p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh def9itely grad$ pure s&s on ! "o h&1 & a s&y loam & a clay soil on ! o!r4 ,! mat]ials 7 arrang$ 9 #h-;foot columns fully saturat$ ) wat] at ! outset1 & !n all[$ to dra9 freely4 ,! foll[+ abridg$ table %[s ! t5or ( 8 results3 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,relative ,,rapidity ,,( ,,p]colation ,,9 ,,pure ,,s&s ,,& ,,soils1 ,,9 ,,in*es ,,( ,,wat] ,,dra9$ ,,(f4 ,diamet] ( ,uni=m ,fir/ ,second ,total ,s& ,gra9s4 #cj m9utes4 #cj m9utes4 9 "o h\r4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- 4#dge mm4 #aj4be #d4fh #ad4ic 4#aee 8 #e4fg #d4eb #aj4ai 4#jhc 8 #a4ba 4#he #b4jf ,fir/ #ba-bc ,fir/ #aj ,second #aj ,total 9 ,soils4 h\rs4 days days ab\t foll[+4foll[+4 #eje h\rs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,s&y loam #b4fd #e4jg 4#ia #h4fb ,clay loam #a4if #b4aa 4#di #d4ef ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,?is table is v in/ructive 9 %[+ ! great diff]5ce 9 ! rapidity ( p]colation 9 mat]ials ( uni=m1 ev5-siz$ gra9s1 z comp>$ ) su* z conta9 p>ticles ( _m diff]5t sizes1 9 :i* ! int]spaces ( ! l>g] ones are fill$ m or less closely by ! small] sizes ( p>ticles 7see *apt] #g1 p4 #aji74 ,:ile x is true t we h no def9ite physical analysis ( ! soils "h us$1 ! diff]5ces are s great z to be suffici5tly /rik+4 ,comp>e ! p]colation ?r\gh ! s& ( 4#aee mm4 uni=m gra9-size 7a f9e s&71 dur+ ! fir/ half h\r1 ) t ?r\gh ! s&y loam dur+ ! fir/ #ba h\rs4 ,twice z mu* wat] has pass$ f ! s& z f ! soil 9 "o =ty-second "p ( ! "t4 ,comp>+ simil>ly ! f9e/ s&1 4#jhc mm4 9 diamet]1 ) ! clay loam1 we f9d ! diff]5ce to be z "o to sev5ty-?ree4 ,x is ?us evid5t t b = ! v>i\sly assort$ sizes ( ! soil-p>ticles1 wat] w\ld n be held long en\gh to supply plant gr[?4 ,p]colation 9 ,natural ,soils4--,9 artificial p]colation exp]im5ts1 z well z dur+ a fall ( ra91 ! gradual settl+ ( ! fully wett$ soil-column produces a compact+ ( t portion ( ! mass1 t increas+ly imp$es ! d[nw>d p5etration4 ,! effect ( ?is "u natural conditions is readily se5 9 ! fact t aft] ! fir/1 rapid absorption ( fall+ ra9 by ! soil :5 9 good til?1 !re is a gradual slack5+ ( ! process ev5 :5 ! ra9 is f9e & sl[1 caus+ a p]ceptible increase ( ! run(f until1 %\ld ! ra9 cont9ue = "s "t1 ! absorption becomes s sl[ z to cause all1 or ne>ly all ! wat] to dra9 (f ! surface4 ,! soil is !n call$ 8saturat$10 hav+ really arriv$ at t po9t "r at ! surface1 & to a dep? v>y+ accord+ to ! duration & am\nt ( ra91 & ! natural p]vi\sness ( ! l&4 ,:5 ! ra9 ceases1 ! visible saturation ( ! surface usually soon disappe>s 9 cultivat$ soils1 & ! zone ( saturation beg9s to desc5d4 ,! progress ( ?is desc5t may be v /rik+ly obs]v$ 9 a s]ies ( holes 7po/-holes7 dug or bor$ across a ridge2 z indicat$ 9 ! subjo9$ s*ematic diagram1 9 :i* ! successive dott$ l9es repres5t ! levels ( ! desc5d+ 8bottom wat]0 at successive int]vals1 z d]iv$ f ! obs]vation ( ! wat] levels 9 ! sev]al holes4#hf #hf ,! exact record ( ^! obs]vations 0 un=tunately de/roy$ by fire2 ! soil 0 a heavy clay1 & x took t5 days be=e ! wat] disappe>$ f ! l[e/ hole4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,p]colation 9 clay l& aft] heavy ra94 ,x w be se5 t :ile at fir/ ! upp] surface ( ! zone ( saturation co9cides ) ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 9 fall+ x desc5ds mo/ rapidly on ! highe/ gr\nd1 :ile at ! l[] levels ! holes may rema9 full or ov]fl[+2 ! dra9age tak+ place sideways z well z v]tically4 ,! curv$ surface connect+ ! levels 9 ! sev]al holes gradually flatt5s1 rapidly at fir/1 !n progressively m sl[ly2 ! wat] disappe>+ entirely1 fir/ f ! holes ly+ highe/1 !n successively f ^? at l[] levels2 ^? locat$ 9 valleys or dra9age *annels rema9+ full until surface-wat] ceases to run 9 su* *annels4 ,b ev5 aft] liquid wat] has ceas$ to be visible 9 ! holes1 ! desc5t ( ! wat] cont9ues )9 t portion ( ! soil1 t5d+ 7unless m ra9 %\ld come be=e t "t71 to e/abli% ! condition ( equilibrium z exi/+ 9 ! soil columns %[n 9 ! diagram on p4 #bje1 *apt4 #aa2 su* z results f ! capill>y asc5t ( wat] f bel[1 b hav+ above x a column ( soil ( m9imum wat]-cont5t1 ( great] or less height accord+ to ! l5g? ( "t all[$ = ! wat] to desc5d4 ,?is is a v common /ate ( ?+s dur+ ! long summ] dr\ghts 9 ! arid region1 :5 nei!r ra9 nor irrigation has add$ to ! wat] supply 9 ! soil = _m mon?s1 & yet ord9>y decidu\s fruit trees mature _! normal crops4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 be=e ?is /ate ( equilibrium is rea*$1 evaporation f ! surface s draws ^u ! wat] supply )9 ! fir/ few feet1 z to r$uce ! soil to und]saturation at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! desc5d+ column1 s /opp+ f>!r desc5t & soon rev]s+ ! direction ( ! movem5t4 ,! latt] is ! usual condition ( scantily irrigat$ gr\nd4 ,gr\nd or ,bottom ,wat]1 ,wat] ,table4--,dur+ & aft] long-cont9u$ & abundant ra9s1 ! zone ( sup]saturation cont9ues to desc5d until x f9ally rea*es a m or less p]man5t level1 v>y+ some:at f season to season1 b on ! :ole usually def9able = ea* region & locality2 be+ ! dep? to :i* wells mu/ be sunk 9 ord] to secure a fairly p]man5t wat] supply4 ,?is is call$ ! wat] table1 gr\nd wat]1 bottom wat]1 or 8fir/ wat]40#hg ,! proportion ( ! ra9fall t rea*es ! p]man5t wat] level v>ies enorm\sly1 ( c\rse1 9 diff]5t soils & at diff]5t times4 ,) brief & mod]ate ra9s1 9 soils ( high wat]-hold+ p[] & sl[ p]colation1 x may nev] rea* ! bottom-wat] level2 ?is is v commonly ! case 9 ! arid regions4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! humid regions1 ra9s are frequ5t or mu* prolong$1 "o half & ev5 m may f9ally rea* ! p]man5t level2 run(f & evaporation dispos+ ( ! balance4 #hg ,9 contradi/9ction to o!r levels or 8/reams0 ( wat] :i* may usually be f\nd l[] d[n1 sep>at$ f ! fir/ wat] by "s imp]vi\s /ratum ( clay1 h>dpan or rock1 & v commonly "u suffici5t pressure to rise some:at high] ?an ! po9t at :i* x 0 /ruck1 ow+ to connection ) high]-ly+ s\rces ( supply4 ,:5 su* pressure is suffici5t to cause an ov]fl[ at ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 we h 8,artesian0 wat] z commonly und]/ood4 ,lysimet]s4--,= ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( wat] p]colat+ to giv5 dep?s1 wat]-tight receptacles call$ lysimet]s are usually employ$4 ,! be/ way to e/abli% su* receptacles is to isolate a unit-area 7usually a squ>e met]7 by digg+ all ar\nd x to ! dep? desir$1 !n surr\nd+ x ) a metal %eet sold]$ tightly at ! cut edges1 & f9ally driv+ 9 a %>p-edg$1 /iff metal %eet s z to =m ! bottom :5 sold]$ to ! upright walls2 leav+ on "o side an outlet = ! p]colat+ wat]1 :i* is !n receiv$ into a measur+ receptacle some:at l a ra9 gauge4 ,hall 7,! ,soil1 p4 #ge7 /ates t at ,ro?am/ead1 :]e an av]age ra9fall ( #ca4c in*es is di/ribut$ r uni=mly ?r\gh ! season1 & :]e ! soil is a mod]ately clayey loam1 a little less ?an half p]colates ?r\gh #bj in*es ( soil1 & ab\t #de ?r\gh #fj in*es4 ,surface ( ,gr\nd ,wat]2 ,v>iations4--,! surface ( ! wat] table1 h[ev]1 is r>ely level except 9 level & v uni=m gr\nd1 or aft] long p]iods ( dr\ght4 ,! undulations ( its surface con=m1 9 g5]al1 to t ( ! gr\nd surface1 b are less abrupt2 s t ! wat] lies ne>] to ! surface 9 l[ ?an 9 high gr\nd1 z is indicat$ 9 ! diagram above4 ,k+#hh has %[n1 moreov]1 t ! level ( ! gr\nd wat] %[s s5sible v>iations due to increas$ or dim9i%$ b>ometric pressure1 z well z to v>iations ( temp]ature 9 ! soil1 :i* cause ! air 9 ! pores to exp& or contract to a degree suffici5t to br+ ab\t v>iations 9 ! fl[ ( spr+s & und]dra9s to ! ext5t ( #h & #ae respectively1 9 con=mity ) ! daily *anges ( temp]ature & pressure4 #hh ,physics ( ,agriculture1 p4 #bgj4 ,! ,dep? ( ! ,gr\nd ,wat] mo/ ,favorable to ,crops _c be /at$ 9 a g5]al mann]1 z x dep5ds mat]ially ^u ! nature ( ! crop1 its root habit1 & ! nature ( ! soil4 ,z has already be5 said1 ! am\nt ( soil-moi/ure mo/ favorable to plant gr[? is ab\t half ( ! maximum x c hold2 & ?is condition1 z is %[n 9 ! table 9 *apt] #aa1 p4 #bjh1 is rea*$ ab\t ! middle ( ! maximum height to :i* ! wat] c rise by capill>ity f ! wat] level4 ,bel[ ?is po9t ! access ( air to ! roots becomes too limit$1 & 9 case ( cont9u\s ra9s ! root-ends w\ld soon beg9 to suff] f want ( a]ation4 ,on 8sub-irrigat$0 l&1 !re=e1 :i* is g5]ally consid]$ desirable1 crops mu/ be c>efully select$ ) respect to _! root habits4 ,?us :ile alfalfa ne$s consid]able moi/ure to d its be/1 its deep-root+ habit r5d]s x undesirable :5 ! gr\nd wat] is at less ?an five feet dep?2 b r$ clov] may be gr[n ev5 ) ! wat] level at ?ree feet4 ,9 clayey soils root-p5etration is always less ?an 9 s&y l&s2 & al?\gh 9 ! =m] ! capill>y asc5t ( wat] goes high] ?an 9 ! latt]1 yet its movem5t 9 clays is s mu* sl[] ?an 9 s&y mat]ials t unless wat] is )9 comp>atively easy rea*1 ! plants may suff] f dr\ght4 ,exp]i5ce has long ago fix$ ! prop] dep? at :i* to lay und]dra9s limit+ ! rise ( bottom wat]1 at f ?ree to f\r & a half or ev5 five feet 9 clay soils2 great] dep?s are only exceptionally us$1 p>tly because ! lay+ ( dra9s !n becomes too exp5sive4 ,a mass ( f\r feet ( clay-loam soil is commonly1 !n1 consid]$ z suffici5t to supply ! ne$s ( a crop2 x be+ und]/ood t 9 ! humid region at lea/1 su* soils are usually ! ri*e/ 9 plant food1 s t a deep] range ( ! root sy/em is n call$ =4 ,x is q o!rwise 9 ! s&y soils ( ! same region1 :i* be+ usually poor 9 plant food1 mu/ af=d a deep] p5etration 9 ord] t an adequate am\nt ( ! same %all be )9 rea* ( ! roots4 ,s&y l&s1 !n1 %\ld be deep 9 ord] to repay cultivation2 & =tunately ?is is usually ! case4 ,b :5 ?is is o!rwise2 :5 = in/ance a s&y soil f\r feet 9 dep? is und]laid by imp]vi\s clay1 und]dra9s may be q z necess>y z 9 ! clay l&s2 s9ce ! dep? ( actually available soil mass w\ld o!rwise be r$uc$ to two or two & a half feet only1 by ! wat] /agnat+ on ! clay surface & ris+ f #af to #bd in*es 9 ! s&4 ,soils ?us %all[$ c ) difficulty be ma9ta9$ 9 good productive condition ev5 by ! mo/ en]getic f]tilization4 ,moi/ure suppli$ by tap roots4--,9 mo/ cases1 s&y l&s d n require und]dra9+2 & 9 !m1 root-p5etration may rea* to extraord9>y dep?s 9 ! case ( c]ta9 plants1 especially :5 taproot$4 ,?us ! roots ( alfalfa 7luc]n7 are v commonly f\nd to rea* dep?s ( tw5ty to tw5ty-five feet1 & ev5 sixty feet has be5 cr$ibly report$ = ! same plant 9 ! arid region4 ,x is obvi\s t = su* plants1 a high level ( bottom wat] is :olly undesirable1 s9ce !y are enabl$ to obta9 _! moi/ure supply f great dep?s1 & c ?us utilize = _! nutrition mu* l>g] soil-masses ?an c %all[-root$ plants4 ,res]ve ( ,capill>y ,wat]4--,x mu/ be rememb]$ t x is n only1 nor usually1 ! bottom wat] t supplies moi/ure to plant gr[?2 = all soils ( prop] texture = cultivation reta9 )9 !m a c]ta9 am\nt ( capill>y moi/ure aft] ! gr\nd wat] has rea*$ its p]man5t level 7see ?is *ap4 p4 #bbf71 & :5 ! tap or ma9 roots are pl5tifully suppli$ ) wat]1 ! upp] & *ief fe$+ roots draw b lightly ^u ! moi/ure )9 _! imm$iate rea* = ! purpose ( leaf evaporation4 ,?is fact c be pla9ly obs]v$ 9 ! arid region1 :5 on ! adv5t ( ! summ] dr\ght1 "y plantlets ^: tap roots h rea*$ a c]ta9 dep? cont9ue to fl\ri% & develop1 :ile o!rs practically ( ! same age1 b slightly beh9d1 quickly succumb1 ?\gh ! fe$+ roots ( bo? may draw ^u ! same soil lay]4 ,x is especially 9 s&y soils t moi/ure is naturally ?us cons]v$ 9 ! upp] lay]s1 because ( ! failure ( ! wat] to rise by capill>y asc5t s z to evaporate f ! surface lay]4 ,x is (t5 surpris+ to f9d a good am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! s&y soils ( des]t regions at ! dep? ( eight or t5 in*es1 :5 ! surface is s hot z to scor* ! f+]s2 & ?is moi/ure cont9ues v uni=mly to great dep?s1 probably to bottom wat] ly+ tw5ty or m feet bel[ ! surface1 :i* 9 su* mat]ials may readily be rea*$ by taproot$ plants su* z ! 8sagebru%0 7,artemisia trid5tata71 ! saltbu%es 7,atriplex7 & o!rs4 ,injuri\s ,rise ( ,bottom ,wat] result+ f ,irrigation4--,9 ! deep1 p]vi\s s&y l&s ( ! arid region1 especially :]e ! ra9fall is v l[ & c wet ! soil annually only to two or ?ree feet dep?1 ! sub/rata are sometimes f\nd to be b>ely moi/ to dep?s ( ?irty & =ty feet1 & ! %ort-liv$ spr+ vegetation c>ries (f dur+ its gr[? all ! moi/ure suppli$ by ! w9t] ra9s4 ,:5 su* l&s are subject$ to irrigation & ! dit*es c>ry+ ! wat] are simply dug into ! natural s&y l&1 ! ?ir/y soil absorbs ! wat] gre$ily1 s t ev5 a consid]able volume ( wat] makes b sl[ progress t[>d ! f>!r end ( ! canals4 ,gradually1 z ! rapidity ( absorption decreases1 ! dim9ution ( fl[ becomes less s5sible1 b /ill ! loss ?us exp]i5c$ may be a v consid]able p]c5tage ( ! :ole supply4 ,?us 9 ! ,great ,valley ( ,cali=nia1 z well z 9 portions ( ,wyom+ 7,bull4 #fa1 p4 #cb71 ! p]man5t loss f seepage is 9 ! case ( "s ext5sive irrigation sy/ems e/imat$ at fully #ej p] c5t4 ,:5 su* l&s h a consid]able slope1 ! injury commonly ends ) ! loss ( ! wat]1 :i* 9 _m cases is aga9 ga!r$ & utiliz$ at a l[] level4 ,b :5 ! l&s h b a slight slope1 ! dra9age may become s sl[ z to p]mit ( ! gradual rise ( ! seepage wat] 9 ! sub/rata1 until f9ally x may come to )9 a few feet (1 or actually to ! surface4 ,consequ5ces ( ! ,swamp+ ( ,irrigat$ ,l&s4--,! injuri\s consequ5ces ( ?is swamp+ ( ! irrigat$ l&s may readily be imag9$4 ,! fir/ effect is usually not$ 9 ! sick5+ or dy+-out ( or*>ds & v9ey>ds1 consequ5t ^u ! subm]g5ce ( ! deep] roots1 :i* 9 su* l&s frequ5tly rea* to f fifte5 to tw5ty feet bel[ ! surface4 ,b ev5 :]e pre-exi/+ plantations are n 9 "q1 ! %all[+ ( ! soil- & subsoil-/rata f :i* ! plants may draw _! n\ri%m5t1 con/itutes a mo/ s]i\s injury to ! cultural value ( ! l&4 ,x has become unsuit$ to deep-root$ crops2 & :]e ! natural soil1 alone1 w\ld h p]petuat$ f]tility = _m ye>s1 f]tilization becomes necess>y )9 a %ort "t4 ,! injury becomes d\bly great :51 z is frequ5tly ! case1 ! ris+ bottom wat] br+s up ) x to ! surface soil ! alkali salts :i* previ\sly 7 di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t _m feet ( sub/rata1 frequ5tly r5d]+ pr(itable cultivation impossible :]e =m]ly ! mo/ luxuriant crops 7 gr[n4 ,!oretically ( c\rse x is p]fectly easy to avoid or rem$y ^! tr\bles4 ,x is only necess>y to r5d] ! dit*es wat]-tight by puddl+ ) clay1 cem5t1 or o!rwise4 ,b ! heavy co/ ( ?is improvem5t =ms a s]i\s ob/acle to its adoption by ! dit* companies :o are n !mselves own]s ( l&4 ,?us1 ext5sive areas ( l&s :i* :5 fir/ irrigat$ 7 among ! mo/ productive1 h 9 ! c\rse ( eight or t5 ye>s become almo/ valueless to _! own]s1 to :om legislation ?us f> af=ds b di/ant promise ( relief2 al?\gh ! case seems 9 equity to fall cle>ly )9 ! limits ( ! laws gov]n+ trespass4 ,p]man5t ,injury to ,c]ta9 ,l&s4--,9 cases l ^? allud$ to ! rem$y usually available = high] gr\nd-wat] does n always af=d relief1 ev5 :5 o!rwise available4 ,long-cont9u$ subm]g5ce produces 9 _m soils effects :i* _c easily1 if at all1 be ov]come by subsequ5t a]ation4 ,?is is mo/ emphatically true ( soils conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( f]ric hydrate 9 ! f9ely divid$ =m 9 :i* x is usually pres5t 9 8r$0 soils4 ,! fir/ effect ( ! /agnation ( wat] 9 su* l&s 7z already expla9$ 9 a =m] *apt] #c1 p4 #de7 is to set up a r$uctive 7bact]ial7 f]m5tation ( ! organic matt] ( ! soil1 trans=m+ ! f]ric into f]r\s hydrate1 :i* 9 ! pres5ce ( ! c>bonic acid simultane\sly =m$1 becomes f]r\s c>bonate1 readily soluble 9 c>bonat$ wat]4 ,t ?is comp\nd is poison\s to plant gr[?1 has be5 /at$ 7*ap4 #c1 p4 #df74 ,! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia are simultane\sly dissolv$ by ! same1 z is also calcic phosphate1 ! usual =m 9 :i* phosphoric acid is pres5t 9 ! soil4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( p>tial a]ation f ! surface1 ! f]r\s c>bonate is sl[ly re-trans=m$ into f]ric hydrate1 aggregat$ 9 ! =m ( spots or concretions ( 8bog ore0 7see *apt] #e1 p4 #ff74 ,9 ?is process ! great] "p ( ! phosphoric acid ( ! soil is also ab/ract$ f its g5]al mass & conc5trat$ 9 ! bog ore 7*ap4 #e1 p4 #fe71 9 :i* x is :olly unavailable to vegetation1 & _c be made available :ile 9 ! gr\nd1 by any kn[n process4 ,! soil is !re=e p]man5tly impov]i%$ 9 phosphoric acid2 x is also depriv$ ( its cont5t ( f]ric hydrate1 & is transf]r$ f ! class ( 8r$0 to t ( 8:ite0 soils1 well kn[n ev]y:]e to be un?rifty & to require e>ly f]tilization4 ,n only is ?is true1 because ( _! almo/ inv>iable pov]ty 9 phosphoric acid1 b also usually 9 lime1 :i* l ! iron1 if n lea*$ out1 is aggregat$ into concretions 9 ! subsoil1 leav+ ! surface soil deplet$ ( ?is important +r$i5t4 ,! humus1 also1 is ei!r de/roy$ or at lea/ 8s\r$0 at ! same "t4 ,r$uction ( ,sulfates4--,%\ld su* a soil conta9 any consid]able am\nt ( sulfates1 especially 9 ! =m ( gypsum or calcic 7or magnesic7 sulfate1 ! r$uctive process results 9 ! =mation ( iron pyrite 7f]ric sulfid1 *ap4 #e1 p4 #ge72 :ile at ! same "t ! soil is (t5 suffici5tly impregnat$ ) sulfurett$ hydrog5 z to be readily p]ceiv$ by ! odor1 or by ! black5+ ( a silv] co94 ,?is is v commonly ! case 9 sea-coa/ m>%es1 :]e a hole made ) a /ick ?ru/ into ! mud w be f\nd to give =? bo? c>burett$ & sulfurett$ hydrog51 :ile a c>eful wa%+ ( ! soil w reveal ! pres5ce ( m9ute cry/als ( iron pyrite4 ,h5ce ! ne$ ( prolong$ a]ation ( m>% soils1 effect+ ! p]oxidation ( ! f]r\s comp\nds1 & ! conv]sion ( ! pyrite fir/ into f]r\s sulfate1 & subsequ5tly into innocu\s1 yell[1 insoluble f]ric oxy-sulfate4 ,f]rug9\s ,l&s4--,! injuri\s effect ( ! swamp+ ( f]rug9\s l&s has be5 especially conspicu\s 9 "s ( ! irrigat$ roll+ l&s ( ! ,si]ra ,foo?ills ( ,cali=nia1 :]e or*>ds plant$ 9 relatively l[ gr\nd & 9 full be>+ h succumb$ to ! poison\s effects ( ! f]r\s c>bonate =m$ 9 ! subsoil1 long be=e ! wat] _h ris5 s high t1 _h ! trees be5 gr[n aft]w>ds1 !y w\ld h adapt$ _! root sy/em to ! exi/+ conditions & f>$ mod]ately well at lea/4 ,und]dra9age ( ! l[] l&s is1 ( c\rse1 ! only possible rem$y = ?is /ate ( ?+s1 al?\gh ev5 !n ! root-p5etration is mu* m re/rict$1 & !re=e natural f]tility ( mu* %ort] duration1 ?an w\ld h be5 ! case )\t ! rise ( ! irrigation wat]4 ,x is ?us cle> t 9 ! practice ( irrigation1 ! liability ( injury to ! l[] gr\nd by 8swamp+0 ?r\gh ! rise ( ! gr\nd wat] %\ld always be kept 9 view2 t1 9 fact1 irrigation & provision = dra9age %\ld always g h& 9 h&4 ,! legal provisions facilitat+ ! rights-(-way = irrigation dit*es %\ld be made equally cog5t ) respect to dra9age4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,wat] ,,( ,,soils 7,cont9u$74 ,,! ,,regulation ,,& ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,soil ,,moi/ure4 ,9 view ( ! comm&+ importance ( an adequate supply ( wat] to vegetation1 ! possible & available means ( assur+ su* supply by utiliz+ to ! be/ advantage bo? ra9fall & irrigation wat]1 require ! close/ consid]ation4 ,loos5+ ( ! ,surface4--,! fir/ ?+ ne$ful1 ( c\rse1 is to all[ ! wat] free opportunity to soak into ! soil1 s z to moi/5 ! l& z deeply z possible4 ,t to ?is end ! surface %\ld be kept loose & p]vi\s by tillage1 break+ up cru/s t may h be5 =m$ by ! beat+ ( ra9s1 has already be5 discuss$4 ,9 ! case ( heavy clay soils1 h[ev]1 ?is alone is n always suffici5t4 ,! mo/ effectual way to loos5 ! l& to great] dep?s ?an c be rea*$ by tillage1 is by means ( und]dra9s laid at ! greate/ dep? t is practically admissible4 ,effects ( ,und]dra9s4--,t dra9 tiles laid = ! express purpose ( c>ry+ (f surplus wat] %\ld help to cons]ve soil moi/ure1 seems at fir/ sight to be a p>adox4 ,yet ! explanation ( ! fact1 :i* has be5 demon/rat$ by long exp]i5ce1 is n difficult4 ,! effect is mo/ /rik+ 9 clay soils1 = s&y soils are commonly naturally und]dra9$ already4 ,9 discuss+ ! *anges ( volume :i* soils und]go 9 wett+ & dry+1 ! fundam5tal po9ts 9 ! premises h already be5 m5tion$ 7see *ap4 #g1 p4 #aab74 ,clay soils 9 dry+ %r9k consid]ably1 & re-exp& on wett+1 b r sl[ly2 moreov]1 "s clays crumble :5 wett$ aft] dry+1 :ile o!rs1 v pla/ic :5 wet1 crumble on dry+ 7see *ap4 #g1 p4 #aaf74 ,x foll[s t :ile a clay subsoil :5 kept p]man5tly wet1 w =m a uni=m1 pa/y1 difficultly p5etrable mass3 :5 subject$ to frequ5t alt]nate wett+ & dry+1 x becomes fissur$ & crumbly1 s z to resemble 9 its texture a till$ soil4 ,?is frequ5t alt]nation ( wett+ & dry+ is precisely :at1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 is br\ght ab\t by und]dra9s2 r5d]+ clay subsoils p]vi\s bo? to air & wat]4 ,! consequ5ce is t ev5 heavy ra9s c be fully absorb$ by ! soil mass ly+ above ! dra9s1 ! surplus dra9+ (f readily 9 a %ort "t4 ,roots !re=e c n only p5etrate1 b ex]cise _! vegetative functions p]fectly at ! full dep? ( ! dra9s4 ,!y are /ill at lib]ty to p5etrate z mu* deep] z _! dem&s = moi/ure may require2 b ! dep? ( f\r to f\r & a half feet is already s mu* great] ?an 9 ! humid region w\ld usually be rea*$ by !m 9 undra9$ clay soils1 t commonly ! moi/ure successively reta9$ )9 t mass is z mu* z is requir$ by !m dur+ ! gr[+ season4 ,at ! same "t1 _! fe$+ roots are s f> bel[ ! surface1 t ord9>y %ort dr\ghts d n rea* !m at all2 :ile ! und]dra9s prev5t any injuri\s /agnation ( wat] ar\nd !m4 ,x ne$ h>dly be add$ t ! entire task ( cultivation is also greatly facilitat$2 n only because dra9$ soils c be pl[$ )9 a few h\rs aft] ! cessation ( ra9s1 z aga9/ ! same numb] ( days t w\ld h to elapse 9 ! undra9$ areas2 b because tillage is easi]1 & less draft is requir$1 ev5 :5 x is c>ri$ to a mu* great] dep?4 ,und]dra9age1 !n1 mu/ be c\nt$ z be+ among ! mo/ effective means bo? ( utiliz+ ! ra9fall s z to prev5t loss f run(f & injury f wa%+1 & ( creat+ a deep1 loose1 p]vi\s soil mass1 well adapt$ to root p5etration z well z to ! cons]vation ( moi/ure2 r5d]+ possible timely tillage & cultivation1 & e>ly developm5t ( crops fully suppli$ ) moi/ure & !re=e secure aga9/ loss f dr\ght4 ,! safety & improvem5t ( crops ?us secur$ corresponds 9 ! humid region to t br\ght ab\t by ! comm& ( irrigation wat] 9 ! arid c\ntries4 ,b x by no means foll[s t und]dra9age c !re=e be disp5s$ ) 9 ! latt]1 or irrigation 9 ! =m]4 ,bo? h _! prop] place 9 bo? regions2 b f special causes und]dra9age1 z has already be5 /at$1 %\ld be widely us$ 9 irrigation c\ntries to prev5t ! injuries o!rwise b too likely to arise f ov]-irrigation 7see *ap4 #ab1 p4 #bca74 ,w9t] ,irrigation4--,9 _m regions :]e irrigation is desirable b n absolutely necess>y 9 ord9>y seasons1 or :]e irrigation wat] is sc>ce 9 summ]1 mu* advantage is ga9$ by insur+ ?or\gh saturation ( ! l& dur+ ! latt] "p ( w9t]1 especially :5 spr+ or summ] crops are to be s[n4 ,! n inconsid]able "t requir$ = wat] to rea* its p]man5t level or ! c\ntry dra9age 9 mo/ soils1 (t5 insures ! ret5tion ( a c]ta9 surplus ov] :at ! soil c p]man5tly hold1 )9 ! p]iod :5 x c be utiliz$ by gr[+ crops2 ^: roots moreov] are m likely to p5etrate deeply 9 l& :]e !re is a /eady increase ( moi/ure z !y desc5d1 ?an :5 ! contr>y condition is enc\nt]$4 ,! use ( w9t] flood-wat]s to saturate ! l& is !re=e 9 _m cases ! sav+ clause = a dry season4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,irrigation4#hi ,! mann] 9 :i* irrigation wat] is suppli$ to l& & especially to gr[+ crops ex]ts su* a pot5t influ5ce n only ^u ! welf>e ( ! plants b also ^u ! condition ( ! l&1 t a brief discussion ( ?is topic seems necess>y4 ,! foll[+ me?ods are 9 use to a great] or less ext5t3 #a4 ,surface spr9kl+4 #b4 ,flood+4 ,a4 ,by lat]al ov]fl[ f furr[s or dit*es4 ,b4 ,by ! 8*eck0 sy/em4 #c4 ,furr[ irrigation4 #d4 ,lat]al seepage f dit*es4 #e4 ,bas9 irrigation4 #f4 ,irrigation f und]gr\nd pipes4 #hi ,only a g5]al outl9e ( ! pr9ciples ( ?is subject is giv5 9 ?is volume2 special works mu/ be consult$ = work+ details4 ,among ^! ! volume by ,k+ on 8,irrigation & ,dra9age0 gives probably ! mo/ compreh5sive pres5tation ( ! subject = bo? humid & arid climates4 ,also bullet9s ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ( ,agriculture4 ,surface ,spr9kl+4--,?is me?od seems to be ! close/ imitation ( ! natural ra9fall2 & yet x is 9 practice ab\t ! mo/ wa/eful & lea/ satisfactory ( all4 ,x is difficult ( application on any l>ge scale1 f obvi\s causes2 on ! small scale1 9 g>d5s & on lawns1 its disadvantages become amply app>5t4 ,z usually practic$1 f a rose sp\t or spray nozzle1 ! wat] falls mu* m abundantly ?an 9 ! case ( any desirable ra91 )9 ! %ort "t all[$ by ! pati5ce ( ! op]ator4 ,if cont9u$ = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to soak ! soil to ! desirable dep?1 x compacts ! surface ( ! gr\nd s z to r5d] subsequ5t tillage indisp5sable4 ,to avoid ?is1 amateur g>d5]s usually re/rict ! "t ( application1 repeat+ ! same at frequ5t int]vals1 sometimes daily4 ,! result is t ! v slight p5etration ( ! wat] ei!r fails to rea* ! absorb5t roots1 s t x is ( little use to !m1 & is evaporat$ by ! next day's sun or w9d2 or else x t5ds to draw ! roots close to ! surface1 :]e1 unless ! application ( wat] is actually made daily1 !y are sure to suff] f ! fir/ int]mission ( ! daily dose4 ,9 actual practice ! spr9kl+ me?od is !re=e bo? ineffici5t & wa/eful ( wat]1 & exposes ! plants to grave injury f any cessation ( ! wat] supply4 ,flood+ presupposes l& ei!r level or only slightly slop+ naturally1 or r5d]$ s artificially2 usually by means ( ! pl[ & horse scrap]4 ,flood+ by lat]al ov]fl[ f l>ge furr[s1 or dit*es1 is v commonly practic$ :]e ! wat] supply is abundant & l>ge areas1 su* z alfalfa or gra9 fields1 are to be irrigat$4 ,! ov]fl[ is regulat$ by portable *eck-bo>ds1 proce$+ f ! highe/ po9ts to ! l[e/1 & leav+ ea* tempor>y dike 9 place until ! gr\nd is adequately soak$ or ! wat] rea*es ! next furr[ bel[4 ,9 heavy gr\nd ! op]ation may h to be repeat$ to insure prop] dep? ( p]colation4 ,*eck flood+ necessitates m c>eful level+1 & ! ?r[+ up ( small dikes1 ei!r tempor>y or p]man5t4 ,! co/l9ess ( ! e>?-"w re/ricts ! use ( ?is me?od mat]ially1 & ! inconv5i5ce caus$ 9 tillage by ! dikes is objectionable1 especially 9 l>ge-scale culture4 ,= ! case ( alfalfa fields1 :i* rema9 p]man5tly set = a numb] ( ye>s1 x is h[ev] ! l>gely pref]r$ me?od4 ,9 ! case ( field cultures1 ! consolidation ( ! surface t foll[s flood+ on ! heavi] soils r5d]s subsequ5t tillage necess>y 9 all b v s&y soils2 & h5ce x %\ld always prec$e broadca/ s[+4 ,"o disadvantage ( ! surface flood+ sy/em is ! sl[ p5etration ( ! wat] caus$ by ! resi/ance ( ! air 9 ! soil to d[nw>d displacem5t2 its buoyancy act+ directly contr>y to ! p]colation ( ! wat]4 ,9 close-gra9$1 heavy soils ?is objection is v s]i\s1 on acc\nt ( ! loss ( "t involv$ :5 ! irrigator's "t is limit$4 ,on s&y l&s ! air bubbles up q livelily at fir/1 b ?is soon ceases & ! air is compell$ to escape sideways z be/ x c4 ,furr[ ,irrigation4--,by ?is me?od x is int5d$ to soak ! l& uni=mly by all[+ ! wat] to fl[ ?r\gh furr[s drawn #c to #h feet ap>t1 ) a g5tle slope f ! supply or head dit*2 ! fl[ be+ cont9u$ until ! wat] has rea*$ ! f> end ( ! furr[s1 or long] accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil1 especially if ano!r dit* to receive ! surplus fl[ lies bel[4 ,! furr[s %\ld subsequ5tly be clos$ by means ( ! pl[ or cultivator2 b ev5 if left op5 !y are mu* less a s\rce ( wa/e by evaporation ?an w\ld be a flood$ surface4 ,! wat] ?us1 9 ! ma91 soaks d[nw>d & only rea*es ! surface by capill>y rise1 s t ! l& betwe5 ! furr[s is n s5sibly compact$ :5 ! furr[s h be5 made deep en\gh4 ,evid5tly ?is is a mu* m rational proc$ure ?an surface flood+1 z x t5ds to leave mo/ ( ! surface 9 loose til?1 :ile p5etrat+ to mu* great] advantage1 because ( ! ready escape ( ! air f ! soil4 ,x is ! sy/em naturally & almo/ exclusively us$ 9 truck g>d5s & or*>ds1 & g5]ally :]e crops are gr[n 9 drills or r[s suffici5tly f> ap>t to p]mit ( cultivation4 ,illu/ration3 ,furr[s #f in*es deep 9 ,heavy ,loam ,soil ,illu/ration3 ,n>r[ & ,wide ,furr[s 9 ,s&y ,loam ,soil ,illu/ration3 ,furr[s #e & #aj in*es deep 9 ,s&y ,loam ,soil ,wat] runn+1 9 ea*1 sev5 h\rs ,,fig4 #dc4--,pr(iles ( ,wat] p5etration 9 ,furr[ ,irrigation4 ,! figure annex$#ij %[s ! mann] 9 :i* wat] s9ks & spreads f furr[s ( v>i\s dep?s & wid?s1 z actually obs]v$ 9 ! "w ( ! ,irrigation ,division ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ( ,agriculture1 "u ! direct sup]vision ( ,pr(4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge ( ! ,cali=nia ,/ation4 ,! mode ( p]colation is %[n = two soils1 a heavy loam & a s&y "o1 bo? 9 ! vic9ity ( ,riv]side1 ,cal4 #ij ,publi%$ by p]mission ( ! ,dep>tm5t4 ,! upp] section %[s ! v>iation 9 p5etration 9 "o & ! same soil ) ! same k9d ( furr[1 ! brok5 l9e indicat+ ! cessation ( ! fl[ 9 ! furr[s2 aft] :i* !re 0 a /ill f>!r p5etration ( ! wat] to f #f to #i in*es deep]4 ,! second section f above %[s ! p]colation ( ! wat] respectively 9 wide & n>r[ furr[s ( ! same dep?4 ,x is evid5t at a glance h[ mu* m effective is ! wide furr[ 9 utiliz+ ! limit$ "t dur+ :i* ! irrigator usually has ! fl[ at 8 comm&4 ,! ?ird section %[s sev]al practically important po9ts 9 favor ( ! wide & deep in/ead ( n>r[ & %all[ furr[4 ,x is se5 t 9 d\bl+ ! wid? & dep?1 ! p5etration has also ne>ly d\bl$4 ,moreov]1 x is se5 t 9 ! deep furr[ ! wat] has n 9 ! c\rse ( sev5 h\rs rea*$ ! surface at all1 be+ /ill six in*es away2 s t 9 view ( ! dim9i%+ ratio ( capill>y asc5t1 x probably w\ld n h rea*$ ! edge ( ! furr[1 at ! surface1 9 less ?an ?irty h\rs4 ,?us all surface evaporation1 :i* (t5times causes ! loss ( #ej ( ! wat] ent]+ ! %all[ furr[s1 w\ld be prev5t$2 & a dry furr[-slice might be turn$ into ! furr[ imm$iately aft] ! cessation ( ! wat]-fl[1 effectually obviat+ ! ne$ ( subsequ5t tillage also4 ,! co/ ( ! latt]1 toge!r ) ! sav+ 9 wat]1 & increas$ effici5cy ( ! wat] by deep] p5etration1 w mu* m ?an (fset ! additional co/ & tr\ble ( pl[+ deep] furr[s4 ,!re is !re=e e reason = do+ away ) ! wa/eful1 easy-go+ practice ( irrigat+ 9 num]\s %all[ furr[s1 by :i* ! irrigator loses up to half ( ! wat] paid =1 by evaporation2 is compell$ to wait = ! soak$ surface to dry be=e be+ able to turn back a furr[-slice into ! furr[s to prev5t ! dry+-out ( _! moi/ure2 & by los+ p5etration ( ! wat]1 is oblig$ to irrigate aga9 )9 a mu* %ort] "t ?an w be necess>y if deep-furr[ irrigation be us$4 ,a simil> exp]im5t ) deep & %all[ furr[s 0 made at ! ,s\!rn ,cali=nia /ation ne> ,pomona 9 #aija1 z report$ 9 ,bullet9 #ach ( ! ,cali=nia ,/ation4 ,! results z f> z !y w5t 7 precisely simil>1 & ^u ! basis ( ^! ! writ] e>ne/ly advocat$ deep-furr[ irrigation1 & _h ! satisfaction ( see+ x /rongly approv$ by orange-gr[]s at ,riv]side & else:]e1 by putt+ x into practice4 ,9 addition to ! sav+ & bett] utilization ( ! wat] us$1 ?is mode ( application has ! advantage ( prev5t+ ! roots f com+ too ne> ! surface2 x w also l>gely elim9ate 8irrigation h>dpan0 or pl[sole4 ,! results produc$ by long-cont9u$ %all[ pl[+ & irrigation 9 %all[ furr[s is well illu/rat$ 9 ! la/ ( ! irrigation pr(iles1 :i* %[s ! obs]vations made on ! same l& z ! o!rs1 b :]e rational cultivation & deep-furr[ irrigation _h n yet be5 introduc$4 ,x w be se5 t aft] apply+1 & ( c\rse pay+ =1 ! wat] = ?ree days1 its av]age p5etration 0 only ab\t eighte5 in*es2 s t ! trees ( ! or*>d receiv$ v little b5efit1 & 7 suppos$ to be ne$+ f]tilization :5 9 fact !y 7 simply suff]+ f lack ( wat] at ! l[] roots4 ,"o some:at unexpect$ po9t is %[n by ^! diagrams1 viz41 ! slight sidewise p5etration ( ! wat]2 ! wett$ areas hav+ a ne>ly v]tical lat]al outl9e4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t unless ! furr[s run v ne> ! trees ( an or*>d1 ! soil imm$iately b5ea? ! trees w rema9 dry2 ?us induc+ ! roots to spread sideways & los+ dep? ( p5etration & soil4 ,x w be not$ especially 9 ! l[] figure t "h aga9 ! deep furr[ (f]s a mat]ial advantage ov] ! %all[1 ! sidewise spread be+ mu* m pron\nc$ ?an 9 ! %all[ furr[ alongside4 ,di/ance ,betwe5 ,furr[s & ,dit*es4--,! di/ance betwe5 ! furr[s mu/1 ( c\rse1 be proportion$ to ! read9ess ) :i* ! wat] p5etrates1 be+ less z ! l& is ( clos] texture4 ,! di/ance betwe5 head dit*es mu/1 on ! contr>y1 v>y 9 ! opposite s5se1 s9ce if ^! are too f> ap>t1 ! wat] ne> ! head dit* w 9 s&y l&s be wa/+ into ! subdra9age be=e ! end ( ! furr[s is rea*$2 s t ! di/ribution w be v unev54 ,! great diff]5ces obs]v$ betwe5 crops1 & especially trees1 bel[ & above ! head dit*es1 are ma9ly due to ?is unev5ness 9 wat] di/ribution1 caus$ by too great di/ance betwe5 successive head dit*es4 ,ea* f>m] mu/ himself1 h[ev]1 det]m9e by actual trial ! prop] di/ances betwe5 dit*es z well z furr[s1 = 8 p>ticul> case2 s9ce ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u ! rapidity ) :i* wat] w p5etrate ! soil & subsoil4 ,actual te/s to det]m9e ?is po9t#ia %\ld be ! fir/ /ep1 be=e lay+ (f ! sy/em ( dit*es z well z furr[s4 ,x n uncommonly happ5s t ! failure to d ?is at fir/1 compels a subsequ5t total *ange ( arrangem5ts 9 ?is respect4 7,see page #bec bel[74 #ia ,su* te/s c be readily made by any "o1 by digg+ a pit to f\r or five feet dep?1 & supply+ wat] to a %all[ bas9 dug into ! surface #h to #ab in*es di/ant f ! v]tical wall ( ! pit4 ,! desc5t ( ! wat] is !n readily obs]v$ on ! v]tical side ( ! pit ne>e/ to ! wat] bas94 ,prelim9>y te/s ) soil probe 7see *ap4 #aj1 p4 #agg74 ,?us :ile 9 "s v p]vi\s l& furr[s may be six or ev5 eight feet ap>t1 9 o!r cases1 9 c]ta9 f9ely pulv]ul5t or silty soils su* z ! 8du/ soils0 describ$ 9 a =m] *apt]2 7see *apt] #f1 p4 #ajd71 furr[s drawn ?ree feet ap>t may fail to all[ ! wat] to p5etrate s z to prev5t gra9 on ! middle foot f suff]+ f dr\ght aft] ! wat] has run = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,irrigation by lat]al ,seepage4--,is 9 reality a m]e modification ( furr[ irrigation1 practic$ 9 ! case ( l&s v readily p]meable1 & :]e wat] is abundant4 ,! fields are laid (f 9 8l&s0 twelve to tw5ty-five feet wide1 ) a deep furr[ or n>r[ dit* betwe51 f :i* wat] p]colates 9 a %ort "t s z to ov]lap f ! two sides4 ,9 ?is case sometimes ! wat] does n rea* ! surface visibly at all2 a v great advantage :]e alkali exi/s1 z surface evaporation1 & ! consequ5t accumulation ( alkali1 is ?us effectually prev5t$2 :ile deep-root+ is favor$ to ! utmo/4 ,bas9 ,irrigation4--,9 ?is me?od ( irrigation1 practic$ only 9 ! case ( trees & sometimes v9es1 & :5 wat] is sc>ce1 a wide circul> furr[ or bas9 is excavat$ ar\nd ea* trunk & wat] is run ei!r f "o to ! o!r1 or sideways f a furr[ laid along ! r[s4 ,! wat] ?us appli$ ( c\rse p]colates imm$iately ar\nd ! trunk fir/1 & 9 practice is f\nd to foll[ also ! l>ge roots2 s t x goes precisely :]e x is mo/ want$1 besides =m+ a v]tical body ( moi/ soil rea*+ to consid]able dep?1 :]e x is mo/ desirable t ! root sy/em %\ld foll[4 ,by ?is deep p5etration to natural moi/ure 9 ! dep?s ( ! soil1 comp>atively small quantities ( wat] produce v m>k$ effects4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 ! grape v9es :i* be> "s ( ! *oice/ rais9s ( ,malaga on ! arid coa/w>d slopes1 are made to supply !mselves ) moi/ure1 )\t irrigation1 by op5+ ar\nd !m l>ge1 funnel-%ap$ pits1 :i* rema9 op5 9 w9t] s z to cat* ! ra91 caus+ x to p5etrate d[nw>d along ! taproot ( ! v9e1 9 clay %ale q simil> to t ( ! ,cali=nia ,coa/ ,ranges1 & l ! latt] almo/ v]tically on edge4 ,yet on ^! same slopes sc>cely any natural vegetation n[ f9ds a foo?old4 ,simil>ly ! 8ryats0 ( p>ts ( ,india wat] _! crops by apply+ to ea* plant imm$iately ar\nd ! /em su* scanty measure ( ! preci\s fluid z !y h tak5 f wells1 (t5 ( consid]able dep?1 :i* =m _! only s\rce ( wat]-supply4 ,p]haps 9 imitation ( ^!1 an indu/ri\s f>m] has practic$ a simil> sy/em on ! high b5*es ( ,k]n ,riv]1 ,cali=nia1 & has successfully gr[n excell5t fruit = ye>s1 on l& t w\ld orig9ally gr[ no?+ b cactus4 ,sub-irrigation f pipes has be5 appli$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,a comb9ation ( ! furr[- & bas9-irrigation sy/em is sometimes practic$ 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia by draw+ ! furr[ s z to br+ ! tree )9 a squ>e1 "o side ( :i* is left clos$4 ,! same result may be accompli%$ by pl[+ cross furr[s at "r angles ne> ! tree & !n plac+ *eck-bo>ds s z to =ce ! wat] along ! r[s1 zigzagg+1 on ?ree sides4 ,! bas9 irrigation ( or*>ds 0 orig9ally l>gely practic$ 9 ,cali=nia1 b has n[ be5 mo/ly ab&on$ = furr[ irrigation4 ,! latt] has be5 adopt$ p>tly because x requires a great deal less h&-labor1 p>tly "u ! impression t ! :ole ( ! soil ( ! or*>d is ?us mo/ ?or\ghly utiliz$2 p>tly also because ( ! injuri\s effect ^u trees produc$ at times by bas9 irrigation4 ,! explanation ( su* injuri\s effects is1 ess5tially1 t cold irrigation wat] depresses too mu* ! temp]ature ( ! e>? imm$iately ar\nd ! roots1 & ?us h9d]s active vegetation to an injuri\s ext5t1 sometimes s z to br+ ab\t ! dropp+ ( ! fruit4 ,?is ( c\rse is a v s]i\s objection1 to obviate :i* x might be necess>y to res]voir ! wat] s z to all[ x to w>m be=e be+ appli$ to ! trees4#ib ,9 furr[-irrigation ! am\nt ( soil soak$ ) ! wat] is s great t ! latt] is soon effectually w>m$ up1 besides n com+ 9 contact too intimately ) ! ma9 roots ( ! tree2 along :i* ! wat] soaks v readily :5 appli$ to ! trunk1 ?us affect+ _! temp]ature mu* m directly4 ,x is = ! f>m] to det]m9e :i* consid]ation %\ld prevail 9 a giv5 case4 ,if ! wat]-supply be scant & w>m1 ! mo/ effectual use t c be made ( x is to apply x imm$iately ar\nd ! tree1 9 a circul> tr5* dug = ! purpose4 ,:5 on ! contr>y1 irrigation wat] is abundant & its temp]ature l[1 x may be pref]able to practice furr[ irrigation1 or possibly ev5 flood+4 #ib ,see bel[1 *ap4 #ag4 ,z to ! suppos$ m complete use ( ! soil "u ! latt] two me?ods1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t :ile ?is is ! case 9 a horizontal direction1 if irrigation is practic$ too copi\sly "u ! %all[-furr[ sy/em1 x may easily happ5 t ! ga9 made horizontally is m ?an (fset by a correspond+ loss 9 ! v]tical p5etration ( ! root-sy/em4 ,?is is amply app>5t 9 "s ( ! irrigat$ orange groves ( s\!rn ,cali=nia1 :]e ! f9e roots ( ! trees fill ! surface soil z d ! roots ( maize 9 a corn field ( ! ,mississippi ,/ates2 s t ! pl[ c h>dly be run )\t turn+ !m up & "u4 ,9 ^! same or*>ds x w (t5 be obs]v$1 9 digg+ d[n1 t at a dep? ( a few feet ! soil is too wat]-soak$ to p]mit ( ! prop] ex]cise ( ! root-functions1 & t ! roots exi/+ !re are ei!r inactive or diseas$4 ,t 9 su* cases frequ5t irrigation & abundant f]tilization alone c ma9ta9 an or*>d 9 be>+ condition1 is a matt] ( c\rse2 & !re c be no "q t a great deal ( ! con/ant cry = ! f]tilization ( or*>ds 9 ! irrigat$ sections is due q z mu* to ! %all[ness ( root+ induc$ by ov]-irrigation1 z to any really necess>y exhau/ion ( ! l&4 ,:5 ! roots are induc$ to come to & rema9 at ! surface1 )9 a surface lay] ( eighte5 to tw5ty in*es1 x naturally becomes necess>y to fe$ ^! roots abundantly1 bo? ) moi/ure & ) plant-food4 ,?is has1 z naturally1 l$ to an ov]e/imate ( ! requirem5ts ( ! trees 9 bo? respects4 ,_h deep-root+ be5 enc\rag$ at fir/ 9 ! deep soils ( ! s\!rn 8citrus belt10 in/ead ( ov]-/imulat+ ! gr[? by surface f]tilization & frequ5t irrigation1 "s delay 9 be>+ w\ld h be5 comp5sat$ = by less ( curr5t outlay = f]tiliz]s1 & less liability to injury f frequ5tly unavoidable delay1 or f inadequacy1 ( irrigation4 ,irrigation by ,und]gr\nd ,pipes4--,:]e economy 9 ! use ( irrigation wat] is a press+ requirem5t1 its di/ribution ?r\gh und]gr\nd pipes af=ds ! sure/ mode ( accompli%+ t end1 9 connection ) ! application ( ! wat] 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples j discuss$4 ,! enorm\s sav+ ( wat] effect$ by its conveyance 9 cem5t-l9$ dit*es or concrete pipes1 z comp>$ ) e>? dit*es1 if additionally comb9$ ) its application to individual trees or v9es1 pres5ts ! maximum ( economy t c be effect$4 ,! actual use ( ?is me?od is un=tunately limit$ 9 practice by ! high fir/ co/ ( pip+2 b z its use r5d]s unnecess>y ! digg+ ( bas9s & pl[+ ( furr[s & _! subsequ5t clos+-up1 x is :5 once e/abli%$ by f> ! *eape/ sy/em1 bo? z to ! use ( wat] & ( labor4 ,! be/ results ( ?is sy/em are und\bt$ly a*iev$ by ! use ( iron pipes = ! di/ribution 9 field & or*>d1 :atev] may be ! mat]ial us$ = ! ma9 conduits4 ,! use ( concrete & tile 9 small sizes proves 9 ! end v exp5sive1 because ( frequ5t breakage1 & leakage due to v>y+ pressure 9 ! supply pipes or res]voirs2 z well z f ev5 slight e>?quake tremors1 und]m9+ by wat] or by ! burr[+ ( animals1 & _m o!r accid5ts :i* d n affect an iron pipe sy/em4 ,! pipes mu/ 9 any case1 ( c\rse1 be laid deep en\gh to be out ( rea* ( ! deepe/ tillage2 !re=e n less ?an "o foot1 & pref]ably eighte5 in*es4 ,a prop] con/ruction ( ! outlets1 p]mitt+ ( exact regulation ( ! fl[ & ready op]ation f above gr\nd1 z well z prev5t+ _! be+ clogg$ by e>?1 ru/1 roots or burr[+ animals1 insects etc41 is ( c\rse ( ! greate/ importance4 ,a v>iety ( devices = ?is purpose is already on ! m>ket4 ,,quality ,,( ,,! ,,irrigation ,,wat]4 ,sal9e ,wat]s4--,consid]+ ! l>ge am\nt ( wat] annually us$ 9 irrigation1 among ! mo/ ne$ful precautions to be obs]v$ by ! irrigator is 9 ! te/+ ( ! quality ( 8 wat]-supply4 ,fir/ among ! po9ts to be not$ is ! possible cont5t ( soluble 8alkali0 salts4 ,:ile 9 mo/ cases :at is call$ ! 8rise ( ! alkali0 is due to ! salts already conta9$ 9 ! soil & subsoil1 9 b too _m ! evil is ei!r br\ght ab\t1 or greatly aggravat$1 by ! excessive sal9e cont5ts ( ! wat] us$ 9 irrigation4 ,! effects ( ! use ( sal9e irrigation wat] 7conta9+ 9 ?is case ab\t #ajj gra9s p] gallon1 or #agjj p>ts p] million7 are %[n 9 ! accompany+ plate4 ,! pr$om9ant +r$i5ts ( ^! alkali salts 7 common salt & c>bonate ( soda4 ,9 ! l&s ne> ,corona1 ,cal41 :]e ?is case 0 obs]v$1 ! orig9al alkali-cont5t ( ! soil 0 ab\t #bejj p\nds p] acre 9 f\r feet dep?1 & _h be5 j quadrupl$1 ) ! results %[n2 viz41 complete defoliation ( ! orange trees1 :ile on ! same l&1 :]e ! trees _h be5 irrigat$ ) good artesian wat]1 ! or*>d 0 9 f9e condition4 ,limits ( ,sal9ity4--,x is n easy to assign a def9ite limit ( m9]al cont5t beyond :i* wat] %\ld be consid]$ unfit = irrigation purposes2 p>tly because ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! k9d ( ! m9]al salts1 p>tly because ! nature ( ! soil & ! am\nt ( wat] at comm&1 mat]ially influ5ce its availability4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,orange ,trees ,irrigat$ ) ,artesian ,wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,lake ,els9ore ,wat]1 ,?ree ,ye>s4 ,=ty gra9s p] gallon is usually assign$ z ! limit = potable z well z irrigation wat]s4 ,b if mo/ or ! :ole ( su* m9]al cont5ts %\ld consi/ ( ! c>bonates & sulfates ( lime & magnesia1 ! wat] :ile unsuitable = dome/ic use may be p]fectly available = irrigation1 s9ce ^! salts are ei!r b5eficial or h>mless 9 ! am\nts likely to be introduc$ by ! wat]4 ,b if mo/ or ! :ole ( su* =ty gra9s %\ld consi/ ( 8alkali salts0 prop]1 viz41 ! sulfates1 *lorids & c>bonates ( pota% & soda1 or if !y %\ld conta9 ev5 small am\nts ( ! *lorid ( magnesium1 !y might r5d] ! wat] ei!r :olly unsuitable = irrigation1 or if us$ x w\ld be ne$ful to take ! m9]al cont5t into consid]ation1 by regulat+ its application accord+ly4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 ,cali=nia t practically ! upp] limit ( m9]al cont5t = irrigation wat] "u ! ord9>y practice lies bel[ sev5ty gra9s p] gallon 9 all cases2 = :5 ?is /r5g? is rea*$1 ev5 ?\gh su* wat] may ba! ! roots ( almo/ any plant ) impunity1 yet accid5tal conc5tration by evaporation is s c]ta9 to happ51 t injury to crops is practically almo/ unavoidable4 ,9 ,s\? ,dakota & o!r p>ts ( ! ,am]ican semi-arid region1 wat]s conta9+ sev5ty gra9s & ev5 m ( alkali salts p] gallon are annually us$ dur+ ! %ort irrigation season4 ,?is c be done h>mlessly because ! aggregate am\nt us$ is only small1 & ! m abundant ra9fall ( t region annually wa%es ! salts out ( ! soil4 ,b :]e almo/ ! full am\nt ( wat] requir$ by crops mu/ be suppli$ by irrigation1 ! total am\nt ( salts ?us introduc$ w\ld spe$ily r5d] ! l& uncultivable4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,means & o!r explor]s#ic ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ( ,agriculture1 wat]s ( mu* high] m9]al cont5t are us$ = irrigation bo? 9 ,egypt & 9 ! ,sah>an region1 "s go+ z high z #hjjj p>ts p] million1 or #bad gra9s p] gallon4 ,! cultivators are said to be v skilful 9 ! use ( ^! wat]s1 apply+ !m only to plants ( kn[n resi/ance1 & 9 c]ta9 ways4 ,^! ways include d\btless a good deal m "t & pati5ce ?an ,am]ican irrigators are ord9>ily will+ to be/[ ^u _! "w4 ,mu* dep5ds ( c\rse n only ^u ! "* ( ! salts 9 ! wat]1 b also ^u ! long exp]i5ce _h 9 ! old irrigation regions4 #ic ,bull4 ,no4 #ba1 ,bureau ( ,soils2 also circul> ,no4 #aj1 ibid4 ,mode ( us+ ,sal9e ,irrigation ,wat]s4--,! fact t abundant gr[?s ( native z well z cultivat$ plants may sometimes be se5 on ! m>g9s ( 8alkali lakes0 :]e wat] ( ov] a hundr$ gra9s ( m9]al salts p] gallon cont9u\sly ba!s ! roots1 :ile ! same plants p]i% at "s di/ance f ! wat]'s edge1 po9ts ! way to ! utilization1 9 em]g5cies1 ( fairly /rong sal9e wat]s2 viz41 by ! prev5tion ( _! conc5tration to ! po9t ( injury by evaporation4 ,x is cle> t :5 su* wat]s are us$ sp>+ly1 s z to p5etrate b a few feet und]gr\nd1 :5ce ! moi/ure re-asc5ds = evaporation at ! surface1 a few repetitions ( its use w accumulate s mu* alkali ne> ! surface z to br+ ab\t s]i\s injury4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! wat] is us$ s abundantly t ! roots may be consid]$ z be+1 l ! m>g9al vegetation ( alkali lakes1 ba!d only by wat] ( mod]ate /r5g?1 no su* injury ne$ occur2 & :at does accumulate 9 consequ5ce ( ! inevitable measure ( evaporation occurr+ 9 ! c\rse ( a season1 may be wa%$ out ( ! l& by copi\s w9t] irrigation4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 presupposes t ! l&1 z is mo/ly ! case 9 ! arid region1 is readily dra9$ d[nw>ds :5 a suffici5cy ( wat] is us$4 ,:5 ?is is n ! case1 e4 g41 9 clay or adobe soils1 or 9 ^? und]laid by h>dpan1 wat]s :i* 9 s&y l&s c\ld h be5 us$ ) impunity1 may become inapplicable to irrigation use4 ,app>5t ,p>adox4--,! prescription to use sal9e wat]s m abundantly ?an pur] ones1 9 ord] to avoid injury f alkali1 ?\gh p>adoxical at fir/ sight1 is !re=e pla9ly ju/ifi$ by common s5se z well z by exp]i5ce1 9 p]vi\s 7s&y7 soils2 :ile 9 difficultly p]meable ones1 _! use may be ei!r :olly impracticable1 or subject to v close limitation4 ,sometimes ! alt]nate use ( pure & salt-*>g$ wat] s]ves to eke out a too scant supply ( ! =m]4 ,b 9 all su* cases1 close att5tion to ! measure ( wat] t w wet ! soil to a c]ta9 dep?1 & 8et]nal vigilance0 ) respect to ! accumulation ( alkali ne> ! surface1 mu/ be ! price ( immunity f injury4 ,9 all cases ! f>m] %\ld "k h[ mu* ( alkali salts he introduces into 8 l& ) ! irrigation wat]1 & wat* t x does n approa* too closely1 or exce$1 ! tol]ance ( 8 crops = alkali salts1 z giv5 9 *apt] #bf4 ,use ( ,dra9age ,wat]s = ,irrigation4--,:5 l&s *>g$ ) alkali salts are be+ reclaim$ by dra9age1 ! "q sometimes arises :e!r ! dra9age-wat] may n be us$ = irrigation1 l[] d[n4 ,?is ( c\rse dep5ds entirely ^u ! am\nt ( alkali 9 ! wat]1 ! nature ( ! l&s to be irrigat$1 & ! mann] ( apply+ x4 ,9 ! ,fresno dra9age-di/rict ( ,cali=nia x has be5 %[n t "s ( ! dra9age-wat] conta9s n m ?an #be to #cj gra9s p] gallon ( objectionable salts1 & su* wat]s c\ld ( c\rse be us$ on p]vi\s l&s ) ! precautions above not$4 8,black ,alkali0 ,wat]s4--,z reg>ds1 h[ev]1 wat]s conta9+ any l>ge proportion ( c>bonate ( soda1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ev5 v dilute solutions ( salsoda s]ve to puddle ! soil & ?us r5d] x difficultly tillable4 ,:5 su* wat]s are us$ x is necess>y to =e/all injury ei!r by ! use ( gypsum 9 ! res]voir or dit*1 or by annually us+ on ! l& a suffici5t am\nt ( gypsum to trans=m ! c>bonate ( soda into ! relatively innocu\s sulfate4 ,v>iations 9 ! ,sal9e ,cont5ts ( ,irrigation ,wat]s4--,:5 irrigation wat]s are d]iv$ f deep wells1 !re is little if any v>iation ( _! sal9e cont5ts to be expect$1 & a s+le analysis w s]ve p]man5tly4 ,b 9 ! case ( relatively %all[ wells1 f :i* ! wat] mu/ be rais$ by pump+1 x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t aft] a s]ies ( seasons ( %ort ra9fall1 sal9e wat]s are br\ght up by ! pump & may s]i\sly injure crops & or*>ds4 ,aga91 9 ! case ( /reams & riv]s ^: fl[ becomes v small 9 summ]1 ! sal9e cont5t may increase to sev]al times ! am\nt c>ri$ at ! "t ( high wat]4 ,bo? k9ds ( cases occur 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 9 ,arizona1#id ,new ,mexico & o!r /ates ( ! arid region4 ,! ,gila1 ,pecos & upp] ,rio ,gr&e are cases 9 po9t1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t ! ,colorado ( ! ,we/4 #id ,bull4 ,ariz4 ,exp't ,/a4 ,no4 #dd4 ,muddy ,wat]s4--,9 ! latt] z well z o!r /reams ( ,arizona1 !re is ano!r po9t :i* sometimes creates difficulties to ! irrigator1 toge!r ) "s curr5t exp5se4 ,x is ! am\nt ( silt or mud c>ri$ by ! wat]1 :i* :ile x is a b5efit to ! l& ov] :i* x is spread1 78w>p+07 z 9 ! classic case ( ! ,nile1 (t5 clogs ! irrigation dit*es to su* an ext5t z to cause consid]able inconv5i5ce & exp5se 9 clean+ !m out4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! /reams dra9+ pa/ure l&s t h be5 ov]/ock$1 & :]e ! de/ruction ( ! natural h]bage all[s ! ra9 wat] to run (f rapidly1 at fir/ =m+ runlets & !n gullies & rav9es t orig9ally 7 simply c[-pa?s lead+ t[>d ! wat]+ places4#ie ,! deva/ation ( l&s ?us caus$ 9 ,arizona is almo/ z great z t :i* has occurr$ 9 ! ,cotton /ates1 z m5tion$ above *ap4 #ab4 p4 #bag4 #ie ,bull4 ,arizona ,exp't ,/ation ,nos4 #b1 #ch4 ,^! v>iations 9 ! "* ( ! irrigation wat] mu/ ( c\rse be wat*$ by ! f>m] :o does n receive directly f m\nta9 /reams1 or f deep artesian wells wat] kn[n to h a con/ant cont5t ( sal9e matt]4 ,,! ,,duty ,,( ,,irrigation ,,wat]4--,! am\nt ( wat] ?\ght to be ne$$ = ! production ( satisfactory crops v>ies widely 9 diff]5t regions1 rang+ all ! way f ab\t two feet to z mu* z eight annually1 )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 :ile 9 ! sug>-cane fields ( ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s z mu* z ?ree in*es p] week1 or ov] twelve acre-feet 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye>1 h be5 ?\ght to be b5eficial1 if n absolutely requir$ = ! be/ crop results4 ,z has be5 /at$ above 7*ap4 #ab1 p4 #bae71 ! ra9fall limit bel[ :i* irrigation becomes1 if n absolutely ess5tial1 at lea/ a highly desirable condition = ! safety ( crops1 is usually assum$ to lie at ab\t #bj in*es 7#ejj milimet]s74 ,?is g5]al /atem5t is1 h[ev]1 subject to mat]ial modification accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! ra9fall is di/ribut$4 ,?us 9 c5tral ,montana ) #bd in*es ( ra9fall di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 irrigation is indisp5sable2 :ile 9 ! ,santa ,cl>a valley ( c5tral ,cali=nia1 ) an av]age ra9fall ( #ae in*es fall+ ?r\gh ! w9t] & spr+1 ! gr[? ( all ord9>y field crops has = fifty ye>s n fail$ (t5] ?an is commonly ! case 9 ! humid region ( ! ,nor? ,c5tral /ates4 ,?is is because 9 ,cali=nia ! w9t] & spr+ are ! gr[+ seasons1 :ile ! ra9less summ]s d n /& 9 ! way1 = crops are already h>ve/$2 & ! deep root+ ( trees & v9es provides ^! ) ! ne$ful moi/ure f ! dep?s ( ! sub/rata 7see *ap4 #aj1 pp4 #afc to #agc74 ,x w\ld ?us seem t tw5ty in*es ( irrigation wat] prop]ly appli$ ought to be suffici5t = all purposes1 :5 add$ to ! natural ra9fall1 :i* is r>ely entirely abs5t4 ,yet 9 actual practice less ?an #bd acre-in*es is r>ely us$1 & mu* m is ! rule2 #gb to #if ins4 be+ sometimes us$ 9 ,arizona4 ,evid5tly enorm\s losses occur 9 practice1 & x is ( ! utmo/ importance to discov] ! causes ( ^!4 ,causes ( ,loss4--,s9ce irrigation wat] is commonly measur$ at ! di/ribut+ weirs1 loss f seepage & evaporation on ! way to ! fields is an obvi\s s\rce ( an ov]e/imate ( ! wat] actually suppli$ to ! f>m]4 ,9 s&y di/ricts ! loss ?us incurr$ is reliably e/imat$ at ne>ly #ej 9 _m cases4 ,! app>5t duty ( ! wat] is ?us at once r$uc$ to half its effect1 & f\r in/ead ( two feet ( wat] are suppos$ to h be5 us$1 & are *>g$ =4 ,evaporation result+ f surface flood+ or use 9 %all[ furr[s may1 aga91 cause ! loss ( f #cj to #ej ( ! wat] t actually rea*es ! l&2 s t 9 ! latt] case1 betwe5 seepage & evaporation ! irrigator may lose ! effect ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! wat] he pays =4 ,loss by ,p]colation4--,f9ally1 ! wat] may be wa/$ on ! l& itself 9 lea*y soils by ov]-use1 i4 e41 x may p]colate to a l>ge ext5t beyond ! rea* ( ! roots :5 ! fl[ is cont9u$ too long2 z w always be ! case :5 ! head 7supply7 dit*es are laid too f> ap>t1 s t ! wat] may be wa/+ into ! c\ntry dra9age j bel[ ! upp] dit* long be=e ! wat] 9 ! furr[ rea*es ! l[] "o2 z illu/rat$ 9 ! upp] "o ( ! subjo9$ diagrams4 ,t ?is w n happ5 :5 ! head dit*es are ne>] toge!r1 is %[n 9 ! l[] diagram4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #df1 #dg4--;,diagram %[+ loss by p]colation :5 head dit*es are too f> ap>t4 ,! means ( avoid+ ! me*anical losses h already be5 discuss$1 & may be summ>iz$ ?us3 tight5+ ( leaky dit*es2 use ( wat] 9 deep furr[s2 & asc]ta9+ ! rapidity ( p]colation 7see p4 #bdb7 s z to obta9 a prop] gauge = ! "t dur+ :i* wat] %\ld run1 & = ! di/ances at :i* head dit*es or furr[s %\ld be plac$4 ,! importance ( ?us dim9i%+ ! losses ( wat] is obvi\s :5 x is consid]$ t if ! duty ( wat] c be r$uc$ to tw5ty in/ead ( =ty or fifty acre-in*es1 twice ! area c be irrigat$ ) ! same am\nt ( wat]1 or ! co/ ( wat] correspond+ly r$uc$4 ,x %\ld be not$ t :5 ! l& is lea*y x may be pure wa/e to cont9ue ! fl[ beyond a few h\rs2 b ! irrigation mu/ !n be m frequ5tly repeat$4 ,,evaporation4 ,alongside ( & supplem5t>y to ! be/ possible utilization ( ! ra9fall & irrigation wat]1 ! prev5tion ( unnecess>y evaporation has to be consid]$4 ,evaporation f ! soil's surface implies n only unnecess>y loss ( wat] t %\ld h rema9$ = ! use ( ! crop1 b also ! depression ( temp]ature :i*1 z a rule1 is unfavorable to ! be/ developm5t ( vegetation4 ,x is only 9 case ( extreme /ress f hot1 dry+ w9d t su* evaporation & ! consequ5t depression ( ! temp]ature ( ! surface soil c be ( advantage to ! f>m]4 ,! am\nt ( wat] evaporat+ ei!r f a wat]-surface1 or f a wet or moi/ soil1 v>ies greatly accord+ to ! climatic conditions1 & ! /ate ( ! wea!r2 also accord+ to ! condition ( ! soil-surface4 ,!re are damp climates1 & days or p]iods :51 ! air be+ ne>ly saturat$ ) moi/ure1 evaporation ev5 f a wat]-surface w be almo/ ins5sible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) dry air & a high temp]ature1 enorm\s quantities ( wat] may be evaporat$ 9 ! c\rse ( a day4 ,! evaporation f wat]-surfaces int]e/s deeply ^? :o supply1 z well z ^? :o are suppli$ )1 wat] f /orage res]voirs2 evaporation f ! soil-surface int]e/s deeply all f>m]s1 & m especially irrigators ^: wat]-supply is scanty1 or is paid = by !m by measurem5t4 ,light ra9s1 z well z light surface irrigations1 may at times evaporate almo/ :olly )\t any effect save a l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( ! soil4 ,9 ! case ( sn[1 x is a well-kn[n fact 9 ! nor!rn arid regions t a light sn[fall may 9 w9t] evaporate entirely )\t imp>t+ any liquid moi/ure to ! soil4 ,a loss ( #ej ( ! wat] actually br\ght ^u l& by surface irrigation is ( common occurr5ce 9 "s portions ( ! irrigat$ region4 ,! dep5d5ce ( evaporation ^u air-temp]ature "u conditions o!rwise id5tical1 is well illu/rat$ by ! exp]im5ts made 9 #aijd by ,s4 ,=ti]#if on ! ,exp]im5t ,/ation gr\nds at ,b]keley1 ,cali=nia1 at a "t :5 "u ! influ5ce ( ! sea breeze ! av]age saturation ( ! air might be assum$ at ab\t #gj4 ,! te/s 7 conduct$ 9 six tanks sunk into ! gr\nd s z to place ! wat]-surfaces on a level ) x1 & ! wat]-temp]atures 7 ma9ta9$ 9 f\r ( ! tanks by means ( ice or heat+ lamps4 ,! results are %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,av]age ,,weekly ,,losses ,,by ,,evaporation1 ,,) ,,v>y+ ,,temp]atures ,,( ,,wat]1 ,,at ,,b]keley1 ,,cal41 ,,9 ,,july ,,& ,,augu/1 #aijd4 ,temp]ature ( wat]4 ,weekly evaporation4 ----------------------------------- ,degrees ,fahr5heit3 ,in*es4 #ee4e #j4db #fb4j #j4gg #fi4b #a4ed #hj4a #c4jh #hi4b #c4ib ----------------------------------- #if ,progress ,report on ,cop]ative ,irrigations 9 ,calif42 ,cir4 ,no4 #ef1 ,(fice ,exp't ,/ations4 ,a f>!r illu/ration is giv5 9 ! subjo9$ table1 %[+ maxima & m9ima ( mon?ly evaporation1 z well ! totals ( "o 7seasonal7 ye>1 9 ?ree ,cali=nia localities :]e ! air-saturation is consid]ably bel[ t at ,b]keley1 rang+ 9 summ] f #ej to #bj & ev5 less 7at ,calexico 9 ! ,colorado des]t73 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,evaporation-,,losses ,,f ,,wat]-,,surfaces1 ,,at ,,pomona1 ,,tul>e1 ,,& ,,calexico1 ,,cal41 ,,f ,,july #a1 #aijc1 ,,to ,,july #ca1 #aijd4 ,pomona4 ,tul>e4 ,calexico4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,mon?4 ,in*es4 ,mon?4 ,in*es4 ,mon?4 ,in*es4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,maximum ,aug4 #aijc #i4jg ,july #aijc #ab4cd ,july #aijc #ad4dh ,m9imum ,feb4 #aijd #b4eg ,jan4 #aijd #a4df ,jan4 #aijd #d4ci ----- ----- ------ ,totals = #ff4ib #gd4fh #ajh4bc ye> ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,( ^! ?ree /ations1 ,pomona is locat$ )9 rea* ( ! ocean w9ds1 b di/ant #be to #cj miles f ! %ore4 ,tul>e is situat$ 9 ! upp] ,san ,joaqu9 valley1 f> 9 ! int]ior2 ,calexico is 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,colorado des]t1 ) extremes ( temp]ature rang+ f #ac ,fahr4 9 w9t] to #abj 9 summ]4 ,evaporation 9 ,diff]5t ,climates4--,! foll[+ table conveys "s g5]al data reg>d+ av]age evaporation f wat]-surfaces 9 diff]5t climates4 ,evaporation f ! soil-surface dep5ds l>gely1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! me*anical condition ( ! surface1 ! ext5t to :i* x is wett$1 & ! rapidity ) :i* moi/ure w be suppli$ f ! subsoil z ! surface dries4 ,a field pl[$ into r\gh furr[s w evaporate m wat] ?an :5 h>r[$1 because ( ! l>g] surface expos$2 & a h>r[$ field mod]ately compact$ by roll+ w lose less wat] by evaporation ?an :5 unroll$1 o!r ?+s be+ equal4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ?or\ghly compact$ surface1 ev5 if suff]+ less loss at fir/ ?an a pl[$ or h>r[$ field1 w cont9ue to lose moi/ure long] by )draw+ x f ! sub/rata by its sup]ior capill>y suction2 :ile a loose surface1 once dri$ out1 w prev5t f>!r loss f ! subsoil v effectually1 z /at$ bel[4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,evaporation1 ,,f ,,wat]-,,surface ,,expos$ ,,9 ,,%all[ ,,tanks1 ,,ne> ,,wat] ,,or ,,gr\nd ,,surface4 ,ye>s4 ,in*es4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,ro?am/$1 ,engl& #i #ag4hj 7#af4f to #ah4d7 ,london1 8 #ad #bj4ff ,ox=d1 8 #e #ca4jd ,muni*1 ,g]many 8 #bd4jj ,emdrup1 ,d5m>k #aj #bg4ji ,cambridge1 ,massa*usetts #a #ef4jj ,syracuse1 ,new ,york #a #ej4bj ,logan1 ,utah #a #eb4ci ,tucson1 ,arizona #a #ge4hj ,=t ,coll9s1 ,colorado #aa #da4jj ,=t ,bliss1 ,texas #a #hb4gj ,san ,francisco1 ,cali=nia #de to #ej ,sweetwat] ,res]voir1 ,san ,diego1 ,cali=nia #a #eg4f ,pek+1 ,*9a 8 #ch4hj ,dem]>a1 ,s\? ,am]ica #c #ce4ab ,bombay1 ,ea/ ,india #e #hb4bh ,petro-,alex&r[sk1 ,we/ ,turke/an 8 #if4dj ,kimb]ley1 ,s\? ,africa 8 #ih4hj ,alice ,spr+s1 ,s\? ,au/ralia 8 #ajc4ej ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,?is table1 ! data = :i* are tak5 f v>i\s s\rces1 exhibits cle>ly ! enorm\s v>iations 9 evaporation 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & ev5 9 localities n v remote f ea* o!r4 ,! l[ evaporation ne> ,london is d\btless due to its foggy & hazy atmosph]e1 b x is n cle> :y ,ro?am/$ %\ld %[ s l[ an evaporation comp>$ ) ,ox=d4 ,tropical ,dem]>a /&s ne>e/ to ,ox=d 9 its evaporation2 ,bombay indicates its location on ! hot & arid we/ coa/ ( ,india1 despite its ne>ness to ! sea4 ,! inl& localities 9 ! des]t regions ( ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia & ,we/]n ,turke/an1 %[ h[ enorm\s may be ! losses f evaporation ( irrigation wat]1 unless ! latt] is appli$ ) special c>e = _! prev5tion4 ,?us1 ) ! wa/eful me?ods ( irrigation prevail+ 9 portions ( ! ,am]ican arid region1 x is c]ta9 t 9 _m cases #ej & m ( ! wat] evaporates be=e x rea*es ! crops4 ,evaporation f ,res]voirs & ,dit*es4--,! evaporation f wat]-surfaces especially may1 9 _m cases1 exce$ ! ra9fall ( ! ye>1 s z to mat]ially dim9i% ! available wat]-supply 9 res]voirs4 ,?us ! annual evaporation f ! res]voir-lakes =m+ "p ( ! wat]-supply ( ! city ( ,san ,francisco1 ranges f #dj to #ej in*es1 :ile ! ra9fall av]ages less ?an #bd in*es4 ,7 x n1 !n1 = ! prev5tion ( evaporation by a cov]+ ( dry e>? dur+ summ]1 no moi/ure w\ld rema9 9 ! gr\nd to su/a9 vegetation4 ,9 ! cool coa/ climate ( ,b]keley1 ,cal41 directly opposite ! ,gold5 ,gate & subject to its summ] fogs1 evaporation f a wat]-surface ma9ta9+ ! av]age climatic temp]ature ( #fj1 0 f\nd to be in* dur+ ! mon? f ! middle ( ,july to ! middle ( ,augu/1 #aijd4 ,b at ! high temp]atures & l[ degree ( air-saturation prevail+ 9 ! great int]ior valley1 or 9 ! ,colorado des]t1 ! evaporation f wat]-surfaces is enorm\sly increas$1 exce$+ ev5 ! figure giv5 9 ! table = ,bombay4 ,h5ce ! great importance ( prev5t+ all avoidable evaporation1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! use ( irrigation wat]4 ,prev5tion ( ,evaporation2 ,protective ,surface ,lay]4--,! loose til? ( ! surface :i* is s conducive to ! rapid absorption ( surface-wat]1 is also1 broadly speak+1 ! be/ means ( r$uc+ evaporation to ! l[e/ possible po9t4 ,= :ile x is true t ! floccules ( well-till$ soil p]mit ( ! ready access ( air1 & !re=e ( evaporation1 x is also true t ^! relatively co>se comp\nd p>ticles are incapable ( )draw+ capill>y moi/ure f ! d5s] soil or subsoil und]nea?2 j z a dry sponge is incapable ( absorb+ any moi/ure f a wet brick1 :ile a dry brick w readily )draw ne>ly all ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! relatively l>ge pores ( ! sponge 7see *ap4 #aa74 ,a lay] ( loose1 dry surface-soil is !re=e an excell5t prev5tive ( evaporation ( ! moi/ure f soils1 & may be reg>d$ z ! natural & mo/ available means to be us$ by ! f>m]1 bo? = ! prev5tion ( evaporation & to mod]ate ! access ( excessive heat & dryness to ! active roots4 ,z reg>ds ! desirable ?ickness ( ?is protective lay] ( till$ surface-soil1 x %\ld be kept 9 m9d t 9 ! humid region1 :]e ra9 c be expect$ at int]vals ( f "o to ?ree weeks1 ! fe$+ roots may usually be f\nd )9 a few in*es ( ! surface2 :ile 9 ! arid region1 :]e irrigation is practic$ at long int]vals or sometimes n at all1 s t no wat] ent]s ! soil (t5] ?an f two to six mon?s1 ! roots necess>ily vegetate at l[] dep?s1 & h5ce ! protective surface-lay] c1 & %\ld be1 ( great] ?ickness1 to prev5t ! p5etration ( excessive heat & dryness dur+ ! long int]val4 ,! failure to appreciate ?is necess>y diff]5ce (t5 leads to heavy losses on ! "p ( newcom]s to ! arid region1 :o 9 ?is z 9 o!r respects are apt to foll[ bl9dly ! precepts famili> to !m 9 ! ,ea/1 until taught bett] by sore exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! ,ea/ & ,middle ,we/ a dep? ( ?ree in*es is consid]$ ! prop] "o = ! protective surface-lay]2 & 9 ! case ( maize ev5 ?is is consid]$ excessive 9 _m cases4 ,9 ! arid region ?is dep? %\ld be at lea/ d\bl$ :]e irrigation is n practic$ at lea/ e f\r to six weeks2 & 9 "s s&y soils ev5 sev5 & eight in*es is n too mu* = effective protection4 ,illu/rations ( ,effects ( ,surface ,tillage4--,! efficacy ( loose surface til? 9 prev5t+ evaporation1 z comp>$ ) m]e sup]ficial scrat*+ or ) ! total omission ( cultivation1 is well exemplifi$ 9 a s]ies ( inve/igations conduct$ on ?is subject dur+ ! extremely dry season ( #ahih1 by ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation2 ! seasonal ra9fall hav+ dur+ t ye> be5 on an av]age f "o-?ird to "o-half only ( ! usual am\nt1 s z to te/ to ! utmo/ ! endurance ( all gr[+ plants4 ,"s ( ! details ( ?is inve/igation h be5 giv5 above 7p4 #bad7 9 connection ) ! "q ( moi/ure requirem5ts ( crops4 ,l\ghridge#ig also inve/igat$ ! moi/ure conditions 9 adjac5t or*>ds diff]5tly treat$ 9 cultivation4 ,9 "o ( ^! cases two or*>ds ( apricots 7 sep>at$ only by a lane1 & ! soil id5tical2 b "o own] _h omitt$ cultivation1 :ile ! o!r _h cultivat$ to an extra dep? 9 view ( ! dry season app>5tly imp5d+4 ,! results are be/ %[n by ! plates bel[1 %[+ repres5tative trees & ! annual gr[? made by ea*4 ,! table annex$ %[s ! diff]5ces 9 ! moi/ure-cont5t ( ! two fields to ! dep? ( six feet1 9 ,july3 ,,moi/ure ,,9 ,,cultivat$ ,,& ,,uncultivat$ ,,l&4 ,cultivat$4 ,uncultivat$4 ,dep? 9 soil4 ------------------------------------- ,p] c5t4 ,tons p],p] c5t4,tons p] acre4 acre4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,fir/ foot #f4d #abh #d4c #hf ,second foot #e4h #aaf #d4d #hh ,?ird foot #f4d #abh #c4i #gh ,f\r? foot #f4e #acj #e4a #ajj ,fif? foot #f4g #acd #c4d #fh ,six? foot #f4j #abj #d4e #ij --- --- --- --- ,total = six foot #f4c #gef #d4b #eab ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ig ,rep4 ,calif4 ,expt4 ,/a4 = #ahig-ih1 p4 #fe4 ,! diff]5ce ( #bdd tons p] acre ( gr\nd %[n by ! analyses is q suffici5t to acc\nt = ! obs]v$ diff]5ce 9 ! cultural result4 ,! cause ( ?is diff]5ce 0 t 9 ! uncultivat$ field !re 0 a compact$ surface-lay] ( sev]al in*es 9 ?ickness1 :i* =cibly ab/ract$ ! moi/ure f ! sub/rata & evaporat$ x f its surface2 :ile ! loose surface soil on ! cultivat$ gr\nd 0 unable to take any moi/ure f ! d5s] subsoil4 ,illu/ration3 ,cultivat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,uncultivat$4 ,,figs4 #dh1 #di4--;,apricot ,trees1 ,creek ,b5* ,l&1 at ,niles1 ,cal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,new ,gr[? & ,fruit on ,trees1 ,cultivat$ & ,uncultivat$4 ,creek ,b5* ,l& at ,niles1 ,cal4 ,! cultural results 7 t on ! cultivat$ gr\nd ! trees made ab\t ?ree feet ( annual gr[?1 & ! fruit 0 ( good1 normal size2 :ile ! trees 9 ! uncultivat$ gr\nd made b>ely ?ree in*es ( gr[?1 & ! fruit 0 /unt$ & :olly unsaleable4 ,x may be add$ t :51 in/ruct$ by ! season's exp]i5ce1 ! own] ( ! 8uncultivat$0 or*>d cultivat$ deeply ! foll[+ season1 8 trees %[$ z good gr[? & fruit z 8 neighbor's4 ,,evaporation ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,roots ,,& ,,leaves ,,( ,,plants4 ,undesirable z is ! evaporation f ! surface ( ! soil1 "u all b exceptional conditions ! evaporation f ! leaves ( plants is "o ( ! ess5tial functions ( vegetable developm5t4 ,n only because wat] s]ves z ! vehicle ( ! plant-food absorb$ by ! roots & to be organiz$ by & r$i/ribut$ f ! leaves1 & ! a]ation occurr+ 9 ! latt] mu/ ( necessity result 9 a c]ta9 degree ( evaporation2 b l>gely because ! conv]sion ( liquid wat] into vapor s]ves to prev5t an injuri\s rise ( temp]ature 9 ! leaves "u ! influ5ce ( hot sun%9e & dry air4 ,x is und\bt$ly = ! latt] purpose t ! great] "p ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( wat] requir$1 z above /at$ 7*ap4 #aa7 = ! production ( "o "p ( dry sub/ance1 is actually us$4 ,:5 suffici5t wat] to supply ! requir$ evaporation ?r\gh ! leaves _c be br\ght up f ! soil1 ! plant beg9s to wilt2 or 9 ! case ( "s plants ) v ?9 & s(t leaves ! blade normally beg9s to droop dur+ ! hotte/ h\rs ( ! day2 ?us escap+ excessive exposure to ! sun's rays1 & recov]+ _! turgor lat] 9 ! aft]noon4 ,! am\nt ( wat] actually evaporat$ f or*>d trees has un=tunately n be5 directly det]m9$1 ! inve/igations made 9 ?is respect hav+ borne ma9ly ^u =e/ trees4 ,! ,au/rian ,=e/ ,exp]im5t ,/ation made a s]ies ( elaborate inve/igations on ?is subject 9 #ahgh1 & ! foll[+ data 7quot$ f ! ,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ( ,agriculture = #ahhi7 convey "s idea ( ! results4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! surface-areas ( ! leaves d n give reliable results1 b t ^! dep5d v l>gely ^u ! ?ickness 7mass7 ( ! leaves4 ,! dry weight ( ! latt] 0 f\nd1 z 9 ! case ( field crops1 to correspond mo/ ne>ly to ! obs]vations made directly4 ,x 0 ?us f\nd t e4 g4 bir* & l9d5 transpir$ dur+ _! annual p]iod ( vegetation f #fjj to #gjj p\nds ( wat] p] p\nd ( dry leaves2 oaks #bjj to #cjj1 :ile ! figures = a%1 bee* & maple 7 9 betwe54 ,on ! o!r h& ! conif]s--spruce1 fir & p9e--rang$1 "u ! same conditions1 f #cj to #gj p\nds ( wat] only4 ,9 ano!r ye>1 ^! figures 7 increas$ = decidu\s trees to f #ejj to #ajjj1 ! conif]s1 #ge to #bjj p\nds4 ,?is great v>iability 9 diff]5t seasons1 toge!r ) o!r elem5ts ( unc]ta9ty1 r5d] ^! figures only r\ghly approximate2 b x w be not$ t ! figures = decidu\s trees are 9 g5]al ( ! same ord] z ^? giv5 above = field crops4 ,assum+ ! evaporation = citrus trees to be approximately ! same z = ! ,european ev]gre5 oak 7,q4 c]ris7 viz4 #ejj p\nds p] p\nd ( dry matt]1 & tak+ ! weigh+s made by ,l\ghridge ( ! leaves ( a #ae-ye>-old orange tree at ,riv]side z a basis 7#dj p\nds ( dry leaves71 ! wat] evaporat$ by ea* su* tree w\ld be ab\t #bj1jjj p\nds p] ye>1 or ab\t #ajjj tons p] acre ( #ajj trees4 ,?is is equival5t to ab\t #i acre-in*es ( ra9fall1 out ( ! #ce in*es commonly giv54 ,s9ce diff]5t plants evaporate v diff]5t am\nts ( wat] dur+ a giv5 "t1 accord+ to _! leaf-surface & ! numb] & size ( _! /omates1 ! ma9t5ance ( ! equilibrium betwe5 ! soil-supply & ! evaporation ( ! leaf-surface requires correspond+ly v>y+ moi/ure-conditions 9 ! soil4 ,!re=e des]t plants1 ) _! elaborate /ructural provisions aga9/ leaf-evaporation1 w develop normally1 & )\t wilt+1 "u conditions :i* 9 ! case ( mo/ culture plants w\ld result 9 sev]e injury or dea?4 ,s9ce dim9ution ( leaf-surface w 9 all cases dim9i% evaporation1 ! h]oic measure ( cutt+ back ! twigs & bran*es ( %rubs & trees 9 seasons ( sev]e dr\ght is sometimes resort$ to 9 ord] to save _! life4 ,9 ,nature ?is dim9ution ( leaf-surface may be obs]v$ 9 _m cases ( des]t plants1 ^: 8fugaci\s0 leaves are develop$ dur+ ! ra9y season1 9 w9t] & e>ly spr+2 dropp+ (f s soon z ! dry season beg9s1 & leav+ only ! gre5 surface ( twigs1 /ems or sp9es to p]=m ! functions ( ! leaves4 ,! %ad+ ( ! gr\nd by leafy vegetation w1 ( c\rse1 greatly dim9i% & sometimes suppress evaporation f ! soil-surface2 ?us v ne>ly fulfill+ ! same conditions ref]r$ to above 7*ap4 #g1 page #aaa7 9 discuss+ ! effect ( natural vegetation 9 r5d]+ tillage unnecess>y2 ! beat+ ( ra9s1 & ! =mation ( surface cru/s1 be+ alike prev5t$4 ,?is fact is ( ess5tial importance 9 contribut+ to ! welf>e ( crops s[n broadca/1 :]e subsequ5t cultivation is impracticable4 ,we$s ,wa/e ,moi/ure4--,! injuri\s effects ( we$y gr[? among culture plants are 9 mo/ cases due q z mu* to ! appropriation ( moi/ure t %\ld h gone to ! crop1 z to ! ab/raction ( plant-food1 to :i* ! injury is g5]ally attribut$4 ,?is is mu* m obvi\s 9 ! arid region1 :]e dur+ ! dry summ]s e p\nd ( moi/ure c\nts1 ?an :]e summ] ra9s obscure ?is influ5ce4 ,x has l$ or*>di/s 9 ,cali=nia almo/ to an excess ( clean culture1 result+ 9 ! burn+-out ( ! humus f ! b>e surface-soil dur+ ! long1 hot summ]s1 & an injuri\s compact+ impossible to rem$y by ! mo/ c>eful tillage4 ,x ?us happ5s t gre5-manur+1 ! natural rem$y = ?is evil1 _c safely be done !re ) summ] crops1 b mu/ be accompli%$ ) w9t] crops1 su* z c be turn$ "u be=e ! dry season beg9s4 ,! same objection holds aga9/ ! gr[+ ( summ] crops betwe5 ! or*>d-r[s4 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,moi/ure ,,9 ,,! ,,soil ,,z ,,affect$ ,,by ,,vegetation4 ,! inve/igations ( ,wollny & o!rs h long %[n quantitatively :at common exp]i5ce has taught ! f>m]1 viz41 t a field 9 crops or grass is always dri] )9 ! soil-mass p5etrat$ by ! roots ?an is a cultivat$ field b>e ( crops1 unless p]haps :5 heavily cru/$ on ! surface4 ,! depletion ( moi/ure caus$ by grass sw>d is ! mo/ easily obs]v$ because ( ! %all[ness ( ! root-sy/em2 & ?is is "o cause at lea/ :y grass sw>d does n occur naturally 9 ! arid region1 & :5 plant$ _c be ma9ta9$ )\t irrigation repeat$ at %ort int]vals4 ,deep]-root$ plants ( c\rse deplete ! soil at diff]5t & v>y+ levels2 & :]e surface roots are few or abs5t x may readily happ5 t ! surface soil is moi/] ?an ! subsoil4 ,?is 0 v /rik+ly %[n by ! inve/igations ( ,ototzky 9 ! ,s\?-,russian /eppes1 9 comp>+ bo? ! moi/ure cont5ts & ! dep? ( bottom wat] z betwe5 =e/ l& & ! op5 pla9s4 ,on ! /eppe ne> ,*ip(f1 ,gov]nm5t ( ,voronej1 he f\nd ! gr\nd wat] at f #c to #e met]s 7#aj-af feet7 dep?2 "u ! =e/ 9 ! same region & 9 id5tical und]gr\nd =mations1 ! wat] level /ood at #ae met]s4 ,9 ! ,black ,=e/ ne> ,*]son1 ! wat] is f\nd at ab\t #ae feet b5ea? ! surface2 "u ! /eppe & 9 cultivat$ gr\nd x /ood at #aj feet4 ,at ! same "t ! =e/ soil 0 moi/] 9 ! upp] two feet ?an ! soil ( ! /eppe1 :]e surface evaporation 7p>tly ?r\gh %all[ plant-roots1 p>tly direct7 0 great] ?an "u ! %ad[ ( ! =e/2 "u :i*1 moreov]1 !re 7 few %all[ root$ plants to draw ^u ! moi/ure ( ! surface soil4 ,! great evaporation f =e/s is a matt] demon/rat$ by actual measurem5t2 h5ce x is n surpris+ t c]ta9 %all[-root$ trees %\ld s]ve = ! reclamation ( wet gr\nd1 z has be5 demon/rat$ on ! l>ge scale1 e4 g41 9 ! use ( ! eucalyptus 9 ! ,pont9e ,m>%es ( ,italy1 & ( ! m>itime p9e 9 ! ,l&es ( we/]n ,france4 ,?us ! sanitation ( swampy di/ricts ?r\gh tree-plant+ has become "o ( ! e/abli%$ measures 9 _! settlem5t4 ,b ?is ref]s only to ! evaporation f ! trees !mselves2 = 9 ! %ade ( ! =e/1 a free wat]-surface is f\nd to evaporate on ! av]age only "o-?ird z mu* z 9 op5 gr\nd4 ,( c\rse !re mu/ be a correspond+ly great diff]5ce 9 ! am\nts ( evaporation f ! soil-surfaces 9 ! respective areas4 ,! great draft made by ! ,eucalyptus globulus ^u soil-moi/ure has be5 also abundantly %[n 9 ,cali=nia1 :]e on acc\nt ( its rapid gr[? ?is tree has be5 l>gely us$ = w9dbreaks4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! trees deplete ! fields ( moi/ure = f tw5ty to ?irty feet on ei!r side1 s z to mat]ially r$uce crops )9 t limit4 ,= ?is reason ! p9e & cypress has ( late f\nd great] acceptance = ?is purpose4 ,mul*+4--,cov]+ ! soil ) /raw or simil> loose mat]ials to prev5t wa/e ( moi/ure is a common g>d5 practice ev]y:]e1 al?\gh n usually applicable on ! l>ge scale4 ,x may readily h[ev]1 be c>ri$ to excess1 9 prev5t+ n only evaporation b also ! w>m+ ( ! soil :i* is s ne$ful to ! ?rifty gr[? ( plants4 ,x mu/ n !re=e be done too e>ly 9 ! season2 & aft] cold ra9s x sometimes becomes necess>y to remove ! mul* 9 ord] to all[ ! gr\nd to become prop]ly w>m$4 ,mul*+ 9 e>ly spr+ is (t5 us$ to ret>d bloom+ ( trees :]e spr+ fro/s are fe>$4 ,9 ! arid region1 s&+ ( ! surface is sometimes resort$ to = ! prev5tion ( ! evaporation :i* br+s alkali salts to ! surface4 ,b ! necessity ( repeat+ ?is dress+ annually unless cultivation c be omitt$1 re/ricts ! use ( ?is exp$i5t to n>r[ limits4 ,! s&+ ( ! surface ( cranb]ry plantations 9 swamps or bogs 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! humid region d\btless owes its efficacy l>gely1 if n *iefly1 to ! ret5tion ( moi/ure1 :ile at ! same "t x prev5ts ! consolidation ( ! surface1 s z to r5d] tillage unnecess>y4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,absorption ,,by ,,soils ,,( ,,solids ,,f ,,solutions4 ,,absorption ,,( ,,gases4 ,,air ,,( ,,! ,,soils4 ,,absorption ,,( ,,solids ,,f ,,_! ,,solutions4 ,j z solids h ! p[] ( cond5s+ gases ^u _! surfaces1 to an ext5t proportional to t surface1 & !re=e to ! /ate ( f9e division3 s f9e p[d]s h ! p[] ( )draw+ f solutions solids held 9 solution1 to an ext5t v>y+ ) ! nature ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 & ! absorb+ solid4 ,! mo/ commonly-kn[n manife/ation ( ?is pr9ciple is t sea-wat] filt]+ ?r\gh ! s&s ( ! %ore1 w at a c]ta9 di/ance become s5sibly less bracki%1 & f9ally s ne>ly fre% z to be capable ( dome/ic use4#ih ,! ext5t to :i* ?is occurs is 9 a measure proportional to ! f95ess ( ! s&1 & to ! am\nt ( clay pres5t 9 x4 ,?is is a cle>ly physical effect1 indep5d5t ( any *emical action :atev]2 = x occurs equally ) qu>tz s&1 *>coal1 glass1 lime/one1 or o!r rock p[d]s hav+ no *emical effect ^u ! sub/ance dissolv$ or ^u ! liquid dissolv+ x4 ,v l>ge am\nts ( wat] are (t5 requir$ to remove all ! soluble matt] ?us 8adsorb$40 #ih ,9 _m cases ?is decrease ( sal9ity is probably due to a sl[ influx ( fre% wat] f l&w>d2 b v (t5 x _c be ?us expla9$4 ,decoloriz+ ,action4--,"o ( ! commone/ applications ( ?is pr9ciple is ! decolorization ( color$ solutions by means ( f9ely pulv]iz$ *>coal4 ,?is prop]ty ( *>coal1 z is well kn[n1 is ext5sively utiliz$ 9 ! arts1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! ref9+ ( sug>2 ! *>coal us$ 9 ?is case be+ pref]ably bone *>coal 78bone black071 :i* on acc\nt ( its /ate ( extreme f95ess1 & sep>ation by ! e>?y p>ticles ) :i* x is associat$1 is m effective ?an any o!r =m4 ,x is r5d]$ /ill m effective1 h[ev]1 by ! extraction ( ^! e>?y p>ticles 7calcic c>bonate & phosphate7 by means ( acid2 = by removal ( ! e>?y p>ticles1 ! surface ( ! *>coal is greatly increas$1 & its decoloriz+ z well z its absorb+ p[] increases accord+ly4 ,:ile 9 "o & ! same sub/ance ! decoloriz+ effect is m or less directly proportional to ! f95ess ( ! p>ticles1 correspond+ to increas$ surface1 x is nev]!less true t 9 ?is case1 z 9 t ( ! absorption ( gases1 !re are specific diff]5ces betwe5 diff]5t p[d]s2 s t = example no o!r sub/ance c replace *>coal 9 ! decoloriz+ effect :i* x produces ^u color$ solutions4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be suppos$ t !re is any special reason :y color+ matt]s1 z su*1 %\ld be tak5 up by pref]5ce4 ,color+ matt]s are ( all k9ds ( *emical composition1 & h 9 common only ! fact t a relatively small am\nt produces a v /rong color+ effect2 h5ce _! "n1 & h5ce also ! app>5tly extraord9>ily /rong effect produc$ ^u !m by *>coal4 ,?is effect is n1 h[ev]1 by any means great] ?an x is 9 ! case ( _m o!r comp\nds :i* are colorless4 ,complex ,action ( ,soils4--,! p[d]y +r$i5ts ( soils1 ( c\rse1 %>e ?is p[] ) all o!r p[d]s4 ,9 ! case ( soils1 h[ev]1 ! action is almo/ always mu* m complex ?an 9 t ( *>coal1 because solutions t are pass$ ?r\gh ! soil are apt to act *emically ^u "o or ! o!r ( its +r$i5ts1 usually result+ 9 a p>tial ex*ange ( +r$i5ts betwe5 ! soil & ! solution2 "o or m ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! solution be+ reta9$ by ! soil1 :ile "o or m ( ! 7basic7 soil con/itu5ts pass into ! solution1 9 comb9ation ) its acidic +r$i5ts4 ,?us :5 a v dilute 7 or #a7 solution ( potassic *lorid is filt]$ ?r\gh almo/ any soil1 ! fir/ portions pass+ ?r\gh w be practically free f pota%1 b w conta9 ! *lorids ( calcium & magnesium4 ,b z m ( ! solution is pass$ ?r\gh1 pota% passes also ultimately )\t absorption4 ,9 addition to ! zeolitic & clay portions ( ! soil1 ! humus is v effective 9 absorb+ m9]al +r$i5ts f solution1 & reta9+ !m 9 su* mann] z to be readily available to plant gr[?4 7,see *ap4 #h1 p4 #abd47 ,9 view ( ! almo/ inv>iable conjunction ( physical & *emical effects1 x may be fairly said t no solution1 at lea/ ( m9]al salts1 c pass ?r\gh ! soil )\t be+ *ang$ 9 its conc5tration & *emical composition4 ,x is sometimes difficult to decide to :i* ( ! two classes ( effects ! sev]al *anges may be due4 ,purify+ ,action ( ,soils4--,! dis9fect+ action ( dry soil1 absorb+ (f5sive gases f manure piles & f e>? closets1 has already be5 allud$ to4 ,simil>ly x is a matt] ( common exp]i5ce t ! color$ & o!rwise (f5sive dra9age f manure piles1 tann]ies1 dyeworks1 etc41 is n only deodoriz$ b also decoloriz$ :5 pass$ ?r\gh a suffici5tly ?ick lay] ( clay soil4 ,! filtration ?r\gh f9e s& by :i* ! dr9k+ wat]s ( cities are s commonly purifi$ be=e deliv]y to ! consum] are famili> examples ( ! same effects4 ,equally famili>1 h[ev]1 is ! fact t ?is p[] ( decolorization & ret5tion ( (f5sive comp\nds is limit$2 t aft] a :ile ! filt]+ e>? or s& becomes saturat$1 & aft]w>ds ! wat] or dra9age w pass ?r\gh )\t any s5sible purification4 ,x is !re=e cle> t ?is purify+ effect ( e>? _c be reli$ ^u = ! p]man5t protection ( wells f ! surface-dra9age f b>ny>d or h\se refuse4 ,ev5 if fissures or lay]s ( s& or gravel %\ld n int]v5e s z to p]mit ( ! direct communication ( surface-dra9age ) wells1 x is c]ta9 t 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s at mo/1 ! int]v5+ e>? w become s f> saturat$ ) ! noxi\s +r$i5ts t ! latt] w pass ?r\gh unh9d]$1 & may contam9ate to a consid]able ext5t ! dome/ic supply ( dr9k+ wat]4 ,wa/e ( ,f]tiliz]s4--,! same1 ( c\rse1 holds true 9 reg>d to manure-wat]1 or soluble f]tiliz]s ( any k9d us$ on ! soil ( a field4 ,! soil w reta9 !m to a c]ta9 ext5t2 b beyond t limit any surplus add$ w be quickly wa%$ ?r\gh into ! c\ntry dra9age by ! ra9s4 ,moreov]1 a soil once s saturat$ w yield to ra9 wat] filt]+ ?r\gh x1 notable am\nts ( all ! +r$i5ts absorb$ 9 x2 &1 at lea/ s f> z ! physically cond5s$ soluble +r$i5ts are conc]n$1 long-cont9u$ lea*+ ) pure wat] w inevitably result 9 ! )drawal ( additional am\nts ( absorb$ +r$i5ts1 app>5tly divid+ !mselves up pro rata betwe5 ! wat] & ! soil4 ,x is obvi\sly ( ! utmo/ importance to ! f>m] to "k to :at ext5t ! soil w reta9 manurial +r$i5ts aga9/ ! influ5ce ( lea*+ ra9s2 = unless ?is is tak5 into consid]ation1 x may readily happ5 t ! f]tiliz] suppli$ be=e a ra9y season w be wa%$ ?r\gh beyond ! rea* ( plant-roots1 & s practically become a dead loss4 ,absorptive ,p[] ,v>ies4--,s f> z ! m]e physical absorption is conc]n$1 x w readily be und]/ood t a co>se s&y soil ex]cises less ret5tive influ5ce ^u dissolv$ sub/ances ?an clay or hum\s soils4 ,9 ! humid region1 :]e s& is sub/antially no?+ b granul> silica 7see above1 *ap4 #f1 page #hf71 ! same may be measurably true z reg>ds ! *emical absorption also4 ,9 ! arid region1 on ! contr>y1 a great _m s&y or silt soils1 v poor 9 clay1 ex]t fully z mu* *emical absorption z clay soils1 & are no m liable to ! wa%+-out ( soluble f]tiliz]s introduc$ ?an are ! latt]4 ,= ! *emical absorption lies *iefly 9 ! zeolitic portion ( ! soil 7see above *ap4 #c1 p4 #cg71 :i* 9 ! humid region accumulates 9 ! clay1 :ile 9 ! arid x rema9s encru/+ ! s& & silt gra9s4 ,g5]alities reg>d+ ,*emical ,absorption & ,ex*ange4--,9 reg>d to ! lea*+-out & absorption or ret5tion ( sub/ances important to agriculture1 ! foll[+ g5]al /atem5t may be made3 ,! sub/ances mo/ likely to be lea*$ out ( soils are1 ( bases3 soda1 magnesia & lime2 ( acidic con/itu5ts3 *lor9e1 sulfuric acid & nitric acid4 ,lime sometimes passes (f ) ei!r ( ! above acidic +r$i5ts1 & also 9 ! =m ( c>bonate4 ,sub/ances r t5aci\sly reta9$ 9 soils are3 pota% & ammonia among ! bases1 & phosphoric acid among ! acids4 ,?us 7z /at$ above7 :5 a weak 7"o or two p] c5t7 solution ( potassic *lorid or sulfate is p\r$ ^u a column ( good soil sev]al in*es ?ick1 x w be f\nd t ! fir/ portions pass+ ?r\gh are free f pota%1 b conta9 ! *lorids or sulfates ( magnesium & calcium4 ,if potassic nitrate be us$1 lime & magnesia w pass (f z nitrates2 :ile 9 ! case ( potassic phosphate1 bo? +r$i5ts w be reta9$4 ,a solution ( gypsum 7calcic sulfate7 w usually cause ! pass+-(f ( "s ( ! magnesia1 soda & pota% conta9$ 9 ! soil1 9 ! =m ( sulfates2 b ! am\nt ( pota% ?us dissolv$ soon dim9i%es to a m]e trace4 ,solutions ( potassic or amnionic phosphates w be absorb$ & reta9$ by ! soil to a v consid]able ext5t1 be=e ! soil becomes saturat$4 ,:ile x is true t ! degree to :i* ! soil reta9s ! sev]al +r$i5ts may s]ve 9 a v g5]al way to indicate _! ri*ness or pov]ty 9 ! same1 ! attempt to make su* exp]im5ts s]ve to det]m9e ! agricultural ne$s ( soils has met ) b little practical acceptance4 ,dra9 ,wat]s4--,! table on p4 #bb1 *apt] #b1 illu/rates =cibly ! work+ ( ! above pr9ciples1 :i* are v]ifi$ by ! composition ( dra9-wat]s4 ,9 all1 ! *ief nutritive +r$i5ts ( plants1 except nitrog51 are pres5t 9 traces only2 *lorids1 nitrates & sulfates ( sodium & magnesium =m ! bulk ( ! p]man5tly soluble matt]1 ) usually a consid]able proportion ( calcic 7& magnesic7 c>bonate1 dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( ! e>?-c>bonates pres5t 9 ! soil1 z well z ^u t ( oxidizable organic matt] f :i* c>bonic acid c be =m$4 ,t calcic c>bonate filt]s readily ?r\gh ! soil has already be5 some:at elaborately discuss$ 7see *ap4 #c1 p4 #da72 "o ( ! results be+ t ! surface soil is sometimes almo/ completely deplet$ ( ?is important sub/ance1 :ile x accumulates at a great] or less dep? 9 ! subsoil1 or 9 und]dra9s1 z ! case may be4 ,( ! +r$i5ts appe>+ 9 ! above li/1 ! "o ( greate/ agricultural importance is nitric acid1 s9ce *lor9e & sulfuric acid1 z well z soda1 are requir$ only 9 v small quantities by mo/ culture plants2 s t !y r>ely ne$ to be suppli$ 9 f]tiliz]s4 ,nitric acid1 h[ev]1 is n only "o ( ! mo/ important f]tiliz]s1 b also ! mo/ exp5sive2 h5ce ! pass+-(f ( nitrates 9 dra9age-wat] is ( su* s]i\s conc]n to ! f>m]1 t ! causes ( its occurr5ce1 & ! means ( prev5t+ su* loss1 %\ld be fully und]/ood4 ,?is subject w1 h[ev]1 be m fully consid]$ f>!r on4 ,! above ,di/9ctions n ,absolute4--,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be also und]/ood t :ile ! above /atem5ts hold good 9 a g5]al way1 yet ! l9e drawn is by no means an absolute "o4 ,= j z 9 ! case ( physical adsorption ! long pass+-?r\gh ( di/ill$ wat] w gradually ab/ract ! sub/ances cond5s$ on ! surface ( ! soil-gra9s1 s an ov]:elm+ am\nt ( a solution ( any "o k9d w h a t5d5cy to sub/itute its own +r$i5ts = ^? already pres5t 9 ! soil1 remov+ ! latt] to a great] or less ext5t1 ev5 9 ! case ( pota% & phosphoric acid4 ,z an example 9 po9t1 may be cit$ ! case ( ! natural m9]als ,analcite & ,leucite1 :i* ,lemb]g 0 able to reciprocally trans=m f _! natural condition ( soda- & pota%-alum9a silicates m]ely by alt]nate treatm5t ) solutions ( potassium & sodium *lorids respectively4 7,see *ap4 #c1 p4 #cg74 ,! same is true 9 ! case ( ! zeolitic matt] ( ! soil4 ,!re is nev]!less a di/9ct pref]5ce 9 ! direction ( ! ret5tion ( pota% z aga9/ soda2 s t 9 ! case ( alkali soils1 a l>ge excess ( pota% is f\nd to be pres5t 9 ! zeolitic =m1 not)/&+ ! pres5ce ( sometimes v l>ge am\nts ( ! *lorid1 sulfate & c>bonate ( soda4 ,?is pref]able ret5tion ( pota% is1 ( c\rse1 ( mat]ial advantage 9 ! case ( ! use ( soluble pota%-f]tiliz]s1 z well z 9 prev5t+ ! wa/e ( ! pota% ( ! soil itself4 ,,absorption1 ,,or ,,cond5sation1 ,,( ,,gases ,,by ,,soils4 ,l all bodies 9 a /ate ( f9e division1 soils are capable ( absorb+ a n inconsid]able am\nt ( v>i\s gases4 ,x may be said t 9 g5]al1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! am\nt ?us cond5s$ on ! surface ( ! soil-gra9s is m or less directly proportional to ! facility ) :i* ! gas is cond5s$ by ei!r pressure or cool+4 ,h5ce ! v l>ge am\nt ( wat]-gas or vapor :i* may be absorb$ by soils1 z %[n 9 a prec$+ *apt]4 ,b except+ p]haps ! case ( ammonia1 moi/ soils are less absorb5t ( gases ?an dry ones4 ,oxyg5 & nitrog51 ! ma9 con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 be+ difficultly cond5sable by ei!r pressure or cold1 are absorb$ by soils only to a relatively small1 yet by no means unimportant ext5t4 ,! cond5sation ( oxyg5 )9 ! soil-mass is d\btless ( consid]able importance 9 ! processes ( oxidation1 z is %[n by its p>tial replacem5t by c>bonic gas 9 ! free air ( ! soil 7see *ap4 #b1 p4 #ag74 ,! int5sify+ ( oxidiz+ action caus$ by surface cond5sation is well illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( f9ely divid$ plat9um1 9 :i* hydrog5 is br\ght to rapid combu/ion :5 mix$ ) oxyg52 z well z by ! effect ( b$d+ ta9t$ meat 9 *>coal p[d]1 :5 all odors ( decay disappe>1 bo? by absorption & oxidation1 ammonia & c>bonic gas alone ultimately escap+ ?r\gh ! p[d]4 ,c>bonic dioxid & ammonia gases1 bo? normal con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 & ( high importance to plant nutrition1 are m readily cond5sable ?an ei!r oxyg5 or nitrog51 & consequ5tly may be tak5 up by ! soil 9 l>g] relative proportions4 ,especially is ?is ! case ) ammonia gas1 :i* is n only readily cond5s$ by pressure1 b is also extremely soluble 9 wat]2 s mu* s t x ru%es into a tube fill$ ) ?is gas almo/ z quickly z ?\gh x 7 a vacuum4 ,wat] w absorb at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 "u normal pressure1 ab\t #gjj times its volume ( ammonia gas2 b inasmu* z ! proportion ( ! latt] 9 ! atmosph]e am\nts to only a few million?s1 ! actual am\nt tak5 up c only 7z 9 ! case ( all gases7 be proportional to its proportion 7or 8p>tial pressure07 multipli$ into its coeffici5t ( absorption4 ,consequ5tly1 wat] expos$ to ! ord9>y air c absorb at be/ only a small fraction ( a p] c5t ( ammonia4 ,its pres5ce 9 soils c be readily demon/rat$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! w>m$ soil a curr5t ( purifi$ air1 :i* is made to bubble ?r\gh ,nessl]'s reag5t 7potassio-m]curic iodid7 solution4 ,absorption ( gases by dry soils4--,p]fectly dry soils are p[]ful absorb]s ( ammonia1 & _! absorption ( ?is gas1 z well z ( c>bonic gas1 c readily be %[n by ! arrangem5t %[n on ! page opposite4 ,! two tubes %[n to ! left are fill$ ) c>bonic gas1 ^? to ! "r ) ammonia gas4 ,aft] be+ imm]s$ 9 a m]curial tr\gh1 !re are introduc$ into ea* tube ?r\gh ! m]cury small cyl9d]s 7conv5i5tly "o cubic c5timet] 9 volume7 consi/+ respectively ( a v s&y soil or loose h>dpan1 a gray pla/ic clay1 a gray clay soil or adobe1 a v black 8adobe0 clay1 & a highly f]rug9\s & hum\s soil 7f ,hawaii71 :i* gives ! highe/ absorption ( all2 next br[n peat1 & p9e *>coal4 ,! latt]1 & ! f]rug9\s soil1 7 also expos$ = ! absorption ( c>bonic gas4 ,all ! absorb+ cyl9d]s are fir/ heat$ = an h\r to #aaj;,c4 7#bah;,f7 = ! purpose ( expell+ f !m moi/ure1 air1 & o!r absorb$ gases4 ,!y are !n quickly introduc$ into ! tubes ?r\gh ! m]cury & all[$ to absorb ! gases enclos$ until ! m]cury columns cease to %[ any f>!r rise2 9 :i* condition !y are %[n 9 ! figure4 ,x w be se5 t ?is absorption is a diff]5t "o1 n only = ea* ( ! diff]5t sub/ances us$1 b is also diff]5tly proportion$ = ! two gases4 ,= x w be not$ t :ile ! clay soil has absorb$ a v mu* l>g] am\nt ( ammonia ?an ! *>coal1 & ! s&y soil has rema9$ f> beh9d bo?3 yet ! *>coal has absorb$ a consid]ably l>g] proportion ( c>bonic gas ?an ei!r ! clay or ! s&y soil1 prov+ t *>coal has a /rong specific absorptive p[] = c>bonic gas1 indep5d5tly ( ! relative size ( clay & *>coal p>ticles respectively4 ,! s&y soil %[s1 by its l[ absorption ev5 ( ammonia gas1 ! co>s5ess ( its p>ticles & ! sc>city ( clay 9 its composition4 ,! highe/ absorption ( all is %[n by ! f]rug9\s soil f ,hawaii1 conta9+ ne>ly #dj ( f]ric oxid toge!r ) #c ( humus4 ,! moi/ure-absorption ( ?is soil at ! ord9>y temp]ature is #ai4g p] c5t4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! absorb+ p[] ( ! 7non-hum\s7 gray clay & gray adobe soil indicates ! /rong influ5ce ( humus ^u ! absorption2 :i* is /ill f>!r emphasiz$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! gray & black adobe1 ! latt] conta9+ #a4b ( humus4 ,z to ! peat1 s9ce its weight 0 only 4#e grams aga9/ an av]age ( #b grams = ! soils employ$1 its absorptive p[] by weight d\btless exce$s all o!r sub/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,absorption ( ,c>bonic & ,ammonia ,gases by diff]5t ,soils4 ,:ile ! exp]im5t %[n 9 ! figure s]ves z a conv5i5t & /rik+ demon/ration = lecture purposes1 x is ( c\rse n adapt$ to a direct comp>ison ( ! absorb+ p[]s ( ! sev]al sub/ances1 because ( diff]5t heights ( ! m]curial columns c\nt]act+ ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,= direct comp>ative measurem5t ! tubes mu/ be sunk 9 m]cury s z to equalize ! levels inside & outside1 s9ce ! correct$ volumes obta9$ by calculation w\ld n s]ve ! purpose4 ,accord+ to special measurem5ts made "u normal atmosph]ic pressure1 ! writ] f\nd t a black clay soil 78adobe07 absorb$ 7at #fj;,f7 ov] two hundr$ times its bulk ( ammonia gas1 :ile "u ! pressure ( "o-fif? ( an atmosph]e 7z %[n 9 ! photograph7 ! absorption 0 "o hundr$ & tw5ty-?ree times its bulk4 ,?is en]getic absorption ( ammonia & relat$ gases expla9s ! m>k$ dis9fect+ effects :i* a cov]+ ( dry e>? ex]ts 9 ! case ( cemet]ies1 manure piles1 & e>? closets4 ,b ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! s&y soil & ! clay soil 9 ! am\nt ( absorption admoni%es u t 9 all ^! cases1 to secure dis9fection ! e>? to be us$ %\ld conta9 z mu* clay z possible1 & %\ld n be m]e s&1 z is sometimes ! case4 ,x also %[s t ! addition ( *>coal to su* mat]ials does n increase _! efficacy1 z has be5 suppos$1 b t an equal bulk ( clay w\ld be m effici5t4 ,( c\rse1 s soon z ! absorb+ cyl9d]s us$ = ?is exp]im5t are expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 ! pr9ciple above /at$ 9 reg>d to 8p>tial pressure0 ass]ts itself4 ,! absorb$ gases quickly beg9 to be giv5 (f1 & 9 "s h\rs ! equilibrium ) ! ord9>y conditions ( ! atmosph]e is re-e/abli%$4 ,t ! /rong absorptive p[] ( soils = ammonia is to "s ext5t effective 9 ma9ta9+ ! supply ( ?is sub/ance by absorption f ! atmosph]e1 _c be d\bt$4 ,b\ss+ault1 & lat] ,/5h\se1 det]m9$ ! absorptive p[] ( wood *>coal = ammonia to be #ij & #ih volumes respectively4 ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,gases ,,absorb$ ,,f ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,by ,,v>i\s ,,solids4 ,9 #ahfd & #ahfe ,rei*>dt & ,blumtritt#ii inve/igat$ elaborately ! composition ( gases driv5 (f by heat f v>i\s p[d]s1 includ+ soils1 expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,all ! sub/ances exam9$ 7 !re=e 8air-dry10 !re=e to a c]ta9 ext5t moi/2 & ! pres5ce ( ?is aque\s vapor ( c\rse modifies 9 a measure ! results t w\ld h be5 obta9$ _h ! mat]ials us$ be5 expos$ to dry air only4 ,!y f\nd t1 z _h already be5 /at$ by previ\s obs]v]s1 ! pres5ce ( capill>y wat] dim9i%es mat]ially ! absorption ( gases1 especially ( ^? n z easily absorb$ by wat] z are c>bonic gas & ammonia4 ,contr>y to :at might h be5 expect$ f ! m ready cond5sation ( oxyg5 by pressure or cold1 9 ne>ly all cases nitrog5 is absorb$ to a great] ext5t ?an oxyg51 & sometimes exclusively s2 s t 9 "s cases ! latt] 0 f\nd to be pres5t only 9 traces1 z w be p]ceiv$ f ! subjo9$ table3 ,,composition ,,( ,,gases ,,absorb$ ,,f ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,by ,,v>i\s ,,p[d]s #ajj #ajj ,grms ,vol's ,sub/ance4 gave cc4 gave ,gas4 ,vol's4 ,gas4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,*>coal1 conif]\s1 air dry #af4ba 8 moi/5$ & air-dri$ #adj4aa #ei4j 8 ,lomb>dy ,popl> #dff4ie #aie4d ,peat #afb4eh ,g>d5 ,e>?1 moi/ #ac4gj #ai4i 8 8 air-dri$ #cj4bh #ec4f ,riv] ,silt1 air-dri$ #dj4ec #dh4jg 8 8 slightly moi/5$ #bd4ab #bi4b 8 8 air-dri$ #bf4eb #cj4je ,clay1 long expos$ #be4eh #ci4je 8 slightly moi/5$ #bh4fb #ce4jh ---------------------------------------- ------- ,f]ric ,hydrate1 comm]cial #bea4ei #bge4j 8 8 fre%ly #cge4ed #cjh4f precipitat$1 air-dri$ ---------------------------------------- ------- ,f]ric ,oxid1 ignit$ #ci4d #eb4d ,alum9ic ,hydrate1 air-dri$ #fi4jb #hb4j 8 8 dri$ at #ajj;,c4 #aj4hc #ac4f ,prep>$ ,*alk1 #ahfd-fe #dc4dh #eb4d 8 8 #ahfe #ch4ih #dh4j ---------------------------------------- ------- ,calcic ,c>bonate1 precipitat$1 #fe4ji #ahfd-fe 8 8 precipitat$1 #ea4ec #eb4j #ahfe-ff ---------------------------------------- ------- ,magnesic ,c>bonate #gbi4ba #abd4i ,gypsum1 f9ely p[d]$ #ag4bf ---------------------------------------- ------- #ajj vol's gas conta9$ ------------------------------- ,sub/ance4 ,nitrog5,oxyg5,c>bonic ,c>bon ,dioxid ,monoxid ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,*>coal1 conif]\s1 air dry #ajj4jj #j4j #j4j #j4j 8 moi/5$ & air-dri$ #he4fj #b4ab #i4ae #c4ac 8 ,lomb>dy ,popl> #hc4fj #j4j #af4ej #j4j ,peat #dd4dd #d4fj #ej4if #j4j ,g>d5 ,e>?1 moi/ #fd4cd #b4he #bd4jf #h4ge 8 8 air-dri$ #fd4gj #b4jd #cc4bf #j4j ,riv] ,silt1 air-dri$ #fg4fi #j4j #ah4fa #ac4gj 8 8 slightly moi/5$ #fg4cd #j4j #cj4ef #b4aj 8 8 air-dri$ #fg4dj #i4ji #af4jg #g4dd ,clay1 long expos$ #gj4ag #d4ga #be4ab 8 slightly moi/5$ #ei4ei #f4ci #cd4jb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,f]ric ,hydrate1 comm]cial #cc4bf #a4dc #fe4ca #j4jj 8 8 fre%ly #bf4bi #c4he #fi4hf #j4jj precipitat$1 air-dri$ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,f]ric ,oxid1 ignit$ #hb4hg #ac4da #c4gb #j4jj ,alum9ic ,hydrate1 air-dri$ #dj4fj #j4jj #ei4dj 8 8 dri$ at #ajj;,c4 #hc4ji #af4ia #j4jj ,prep>$ ,*alk1 #ahfd-fe #ajj4jj #j4jj #j4jj 8 8 #ahfe #gd4di #ae4di #aj4jb ,calcic ,c>bonate1 precipitat$1 #hj4ha #ai4ai #j4jj #ahfd-fe ,calcic ,c>bonate1 precipitat$1 #gg4cg #ae4ji #g4ed #ahfe-ff ,magnesic ,c>bonate #fc4ib #f4gb #bi4cf ,gypsum1 f9ely p[d]$ #hj4ie #ai4je #j4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ii ,j\rnal fr praktis*e ,*emie1 ,vol4 #ih1 p4 #afg4 ,discussion ( ! ,table4--,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ?is table1 ! l>ge/ am\nt ( total gas giv5 (f by equal weights ( any "o sub/ance 0 9 ! case ( c>bonate ( magnesia2 b x is q probable t 9 "p1 at lea/1 ?is l>ge am\nt ( gas 0 due to ! evolution ( c>bonic gas f ! easily decomposable c>bonate2 ! m z ! analysis ( ! gases %[s ov] #bi ( c>bonic gas4 ,b ! highe/ absorption by equal volumes ( any sub/ance is %[n by ! f]ric hydrate2 next to ?is by ! light popl> *>coal1 & next by ! c>bonate ( magnesia4 ,! high absorptive p[] "h %[n by ! f]ric hydrate is ( great int]e/ 9 connection ) ! facts already /at$ reg>d+ ! absorption ( moi/ure & ammonia by f]rug9\s soils 7see page #bgd1 ?is *apt]72 & ! fact t ! l>g] proportion ( ! gas--z mu* z #gj 9 "o case--consi/$ ( c>bonic gas1 is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ 9 ! same connection4 ,bo? 9 ! am\nt ( gas conta9$1 & 9 ! proportion ( c>bonic gas !re91 ! f]ric hydrate exce$s ev5 peat1 ! repres5tative ( humus 9 soils4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be not$ t 9 ! g>d5 soil1 also1 ! proportion ( c>bonic gas is v l>ge1 :ile t ( oxyg5 is v l[4 ,x is curi\s to note t 9 v few cases ! proportion ( oxyg5 to nitrog5 is ! same z 9 ! atmosph]e2 9 mo/ cases ! nitrog5 pr$om9ates consid]ably beyond its normal proportion1 & 9 two cases1 t ( *>coal & ( calcic c>bonate 7:it+71 ! gas 0 f\nd to consi/ ( pure nitrog54 ,we are =c$ to conclude t ! sub/ances "h enum]at$1 z a rule1 cond5se oxyg5 9 small] proportions ?an !y d nitrog51 or c>bonic gas4 ,z reg>ds ! c>bon monoxid m5tion$ 9 ! table1 x is d\btful t x 0 conta9$ z su* 9 ! sub/ance orig9ally exam9$2 x may readily h be5 =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! heat requir$ 9 expell+ ! gases f ! sub/ances conta9+ organic matt]4 ,among ! important results %[n 9 ! table1 is ! comp>ative det]m9ation ( ! gases 9 moi/1 & 9 dry g>d5 e>?1 %[+ t 9 ! moi/ e>? ! am\nt ( gas absorb$ rang$ f less ?an "o-half d[n to almo/ "o-f\r? t absorb$ by ! dry4 ,! importance ( ^! diff]5ces 9 ! case ( ! fall[ c readily be appreciat$4 ,! *anges 9 ! absorptive p[] br\ght ab\t by wett+ & dry+1 z %[n 9 ! above table1 are v insignificant4 ,9 ! case ( ! *>coal1 soil & silt ! dim9ution may fairly be assum$ to be caus$ by ! deposition ( soluble salts on ! surface1 p>tly clogg+ ! pores4 ,9 ! case ( ! clay z well z 9 t ( ! riv] silt1 ! inevitable cont5t ( organic matt] 9 process ( decomposition has d\btless influ5c$ ! result1 z is sugge/$ by ! increase ( c>bonic gas4 ,t prep>$ *alk %\ld 9 "o case conta9 exclusively nitrog5 gas1 9 ! o!r case mix$ gases1 seems to indicate a diff]5ce 9 ! air to :i* x is expos$1 or 9 ! wat] employ$ 9 its prep>ation2 ! latt] case agree+ sub/antially ) ! results obta9$ f ! precipitat$ c>bonate4 ,9 bo? 7z well z 9 ! c>bonates ( b>ium & /rontium71 ! absorption ( c>bonic gas is v small1 or nil4 ,x ?us appe>s t = ! cond5sation ( c>bonic dioxid gas1 f]ric & alum9ic hydrates are prepot5t among m9]al sub/ances2 :ile clays1 riv] silts & soils may always be expect$ to conta9 relatively l>ge proportions ( ?is gas 9 absorption4 ,,! ,,air ,,( ,,soils4 ,! ,empty ,space 9 ,soils4--,9 dry soils ! empty space1 usually am\nt+ to f #ce to #ej p] c5t ( its volume1 is fill$ ) air2#ajj 9 moi/ or wet soils ! space unoccupi$ by wat] is simil>ly fill$4 ,h5ce :5 soils are 9 _! be/ condition = ! support ( vegetation 7*ap4 #aa1 p4 #bjb71 ab\t "o half ( _! int]/ices is fill$ ) wat]1 ! o!r half ) air4 ,actual measurem5ts ( ! am\nt ( air conta9$ 9 well-cultivat$ g>d5 soil h be5 %[n by ,b\ss+ault & ,levy to range betwe5 #aj1jjj & #ab1jjj cubic feet p] acre1 sub/antially agree+1 !re=e1 ) ! above /atem5t4 ,9 uncultivat$ =e/ soil1 on ! contr>y1 !y f\nd only f some:at less ?an #djjj to #fjjj cubic feet ( air p] acre4 ,ext5d$ obs]vations s9ce c>ri$ out by ,wollny1 ,eb]may]1 & o!rs h 9 g5]al confirm$ ! e>li] obs]vations1 :ile add+ greatly to _! significance 9 respect to _! relations to plant gr[?1 & to ! process ( humification & soil-=mation4 #ajj ,! normal composition ( atmosph]ic air is giv5 on p4 #af1 *ap4 #b4 ,z a matt] ( c\rse1 :5 wat] evaporates f ! soil 9 dry+1 its place is tak5 by air s f> z x is n fill$ by capill>y wat] drawn f bel[4 ,functions ( ,air 9 ,soils4--,t roots require = ! p]=mance ( _! vegetative functions ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 has already be5 discuss$2 b !re c be no "q t ! high] productiv5ess ( well-cultivat$ soils is l>gely due to ! great] & readi] access ( air to ! roots4 ,ap>t f ?is direct function1 h[ev]1 ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 ! soil s]ves o!r important purposes1 & among ^! d\btless ! mo/ dom9ant is ! promotion ( ! oxidation ( ! organic matt] ( ! soil ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( micro-organisms2 & m p>ticul>ly t ( nitrification1 :i* *iefly gov]ns ! supply ( nitrog5 to non-legum9\s plants4 ,9 ! case ( legum9\s plants1 ! pres5ce ( air z a furni%] ( nitrog5 z well z oxyg5 is absolutely ess5tial4 ,! injuri\s effects ( insuffici5t a]ation ( ! soil h be5 repeat$ly ref]r$ to already 7pp4 #de1 #gf74 ,9 wat]-logg$ soils r$uctive f]m5tations are soon set up1 & ! nitrates ( ! soils are r$uc$ p>tly ) ! evolution ( nitrog5 gas1 p>tly to ammonia2 :ile _! oxyg5 is consum$ to supply ! dem&s ( ! roots4 ,f]ric oxid is r$uc$ to f]r\s c>bonate1 sulfates to sulfids2 ?us d]ang+ ! :ole process ( plant-nutrition & absorption ( plant-food4 ,if cont9u$ = any l5g? ( "t ^! conditions end 9 ! dea? ( ! plant4 ,too mu* importance _c !re=e be atta*$ to ! prop] a]ation ( ! soil & subsoil4 ,excessive ,a]ation2 ,compact+ ! ,soil4--,on ! o!r h&1 excessive a]ation ( ! soil may be injuri\s 9 caus+ a s]i\s wa/e ( moi/ure2 especially 9 arid climates1 :]e ! hot1 dry w9ds may readily de/roy ! g]m9at+ p[] ( ! swoll5 se$ :5 ! se$-b$ is too loose & op51 & lat] may injure or de/roy ! fe$+ roots4 ,! abundant gr[? ( gra9 (t5 se5 9 ! tracks ( a wagon c>ry+ ! c5trifugal s[]1 :5 ! /& 9 ! g5]al surface is v scanty1 is usually due to ! consolidation ( ! se$-b$1 & sugge/s at once ! well-kn[n efficacy ( light roll+ to insure quick] g]m9ation & a bett] /&4 ,simil>ly1 ! roll+ ( gra9 fields 9 spr+ is (t5 ! sav+ clause = a crop 9 dry ye>s4 ,b su* ne$ful consolidation mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be c>ri$ to ! ext5t ( creat+ a surface cru/ :i* w\ld subsequ5tly s]ve to wa/e ! subsoil moi/ure4 ,h5ce1 ! soil-surface %\ld be r dry :5 roll+ is resort$ to4 ,! press+ ( ! e>? ar\nd transplant$ plants1 simil>ly1 is a ne$ful precaution1 n only ) respect to ! dry+-out ( ! soil1 b also to insure close contact betwe5 ! roots & ! soil4 ,! ,composition ( ! ,free ,air ( ! ,soil usually diff]s f ! air above1 9 t besides be+ saturat$ ) moi/ure1 its nitrog5-cont5t is slightly increas$ 7by "o-half to ov] "o p] c5t72 ! oxyg5-cont5t on ! o!r h&1 is dim9i%$1 be+ 9 "p 7sometimes ne>ly to ! ext5t ( "o-half ( its volume7 replac$ by c>bonic gas1 d]iv$ p>tly f its secretion by ! roots1 p>tly f ! oxidation ( organic sub/ances4 ,x naturally foll[s t ! ri*] ! soil 9 ! latt]1 ! m c>bonic gas w be =m$ "u favor+ conditions2 s t 9 fre%ly-manur$ l& ! am\nt ( oxyg5 trans=m$ into c>bonic gas w be greate/1 :ile 9 ! surface-soil ( ord9>y fields1 c>bonic gas r>ely rea*es to z mu* z "o p] c5t4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 ! cont5t ( c>bonic gas 9 ! air ( ! soil is mat]ially high] ?an t ( ! air above x1 & ?us s]ves to int5sify greatly ! solv5t & dis9tegrat+ effect ( ! soil wat] ^u ! soil mat]ials 7see *ap4 #b1 p4 #ag74 ,! soil-mass itself1 h[ev]1 reta9s c>bonic dioxid ) consid]able t5acity1 s t x is n possible to wa% x out completely by filt]+ wat] ?r\gh x4 ,:5 wat] conta9+ c>bonic gas 9 solution is filt]$ ?r\gh ! soil1 ! gas is sometimes completely absorb$1 ! wat] pass+ (f free f gas4 ,! pres5ce ( free c>bonic gas 9 soils is readily demon/rat$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! w>m$ soil a curr5t ( air1 :i* is !n made to bubble ?r\gh lime wat]2 a cl\d+ ( ! latt]1 & ! ultimate =mation ( a precipitate ( calcic c>bonate1 proves ! pres5ce ( ! gas1 & may also s]ve to measure its am\nt4 ,f ! fact t ! free air 9 normal soils may conta9 z mu* z "o-=tie? ( its bulk ( c>bonic gas1 besides :at may be conta9$ 9 ! cond5s$ =m1 we may conclude t ?is gas is =m$ )9 !m ) consid]able rapidity2 = o!rwise1 9 view ( ! free communication & diffusion ) ! out] air1 su* l>ge am\nts c\ld n be ma9ta9$ 9 ! surface-soil4 ,d\btless a consid]able proportion ( ! c>bonic gas normally conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e is ?us suppli$ f )9 ! soil itself4 ,relation ( ,c>bonic ,gas to ,bact]ial & ,fung\s ,activity4--,x has be5 fully demon/rat$ by ! rese>*es ( ,ko*1 ,miquel1 ,adametz1 ,fuelles1 ,wollny & o!rs1 t ! =mation ( c>bonic gas 9 ! soil is n a purely *emical oxidation process1 b is ess5tially dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce & life-activity ( num]\s k9ds ( organisms1 bact]ial z well z fung\s4 ,! crucial pro( ( ?is fact is t ! pres5ce ( any antiseptic dim9i%es1 & if exce$+ c]ta9 proportions completely suppresses1 ! =mation ( c>bonic gas2 :ile on ! o!r h& all conditions kn[n to be favorable to ! life ( su* organisms1 viz41 ! prop] conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure 7v>y+ ) diff]5t k9ds71 increase ! =mation ( ! gas4 ,su* =mation is ( c\rse1 h[ev]1 condition$ ^u ! pres5ce ( oxyg54 ,9 ! case ( mo/ bact]ia1 !re is a c]ta9 limit beyond :i* ! pres5ce ( _! own product ex]ts an injuri\s or repressive effect ^u _! activity2 s t if ! gas accumulates beyond t limit1 ! rate ( its =mation decreases despite ( o!rwise favorable conditions4 ,x foll[s t ! be/ life-conditions ( ^! organisms 7ev5 :5 an]obic7 _c be fulfill$ bel[ a c]ta9 limit$ dep? 9 ! soil2 & all obs]vations %[ t _! numb] decreases v rapidly ) increas+ dep? 7see *ap4 #i1 p4 #adb71 v>y+ ) ! p]vi\sness ( ! soil1 b r>ely exce$+ f\r or five feet 9 ! humid regions2 ?\gh d\btless f\nd at great] dep?s 9 ! arid climates4 ,x is also obvi\s t ! use ( any antiseptic or poison\s mat]ials on ! field or 9 ! manure pile w t5d to di/urb & re/ra9 ! useful activity ( ^! organisms4 ,putrefactive ,processes4--,c>bonic gas is =m$ also1 b to a mu* m limit$ ext5t1 9 putrefactive processes1 occurr+ 9 ! abs5ce1 or ) only limit$ access1 ( air or oxyg54 ,^! processes likewise are condition$ ^u ! pres5ce or activity ( 7l>gely an]obic7 bact]ia2 b !y %\ld n occur 9 normally con/itut$1 & especially 9 till$ soils1 be+ z a rule inimical to ! gr[? ( cultivat$ plants 7see *ap4 #i1 p4 #ade74 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,colors ,,( ,,soils4 ,! natural coloration ( soils =ms a prom95t "p ( ! *>act]s ^u :i* f>m]s are wont to base _! judgm5t ( l& quality2 h5ce ! orig9 & value ( soil-colors des]ve consid]ation4 ,black ,soils4--,f ! olde/ times d[n to ! pres5t a 8ri*1 black soil0 has comm&$ att5tion & approval4 ,! black & br[n-black colors be+ almo/ inv>iably due to ! pres5ce ( mu* humus 7v r>ely to an admixture ( c>bon graphite1 ( magnetic oxid ( iron1 or sesquioxid ( manganese71 x is obvi\s t ! f>m]s' judgm5t co9cides ) a high e/imate ( ! agricultural value ( humus4 ,a discussion ( ?is po9t w be f\nd 9 ano!r place2 b ! popul> judgm5t is bas$ q z mu* ^u ! exp]i5ce _h 9 ! advantages t usually accompany ! pres5ce ( humus4 ,x l>gely *>act]izes l[ gr\nds1 & !re=e alluvial l&s1 ^: ri*ness is due to f> m g5]al causes4 ,b ! %ade ( ! blackness se5 9 ! soil des]ves & usually receives close consid]ation4 ,if t5d+ t[>d br[n1 acid humus or 8s\r0 l& is indicat$2 unless inde$ ! surface soil %\ld be bodily d]iv$ f decay$ wood1 z 9 ! primeval =e/s4 ,=e/ soils 9 g5]al are usually d>k-t9t$ = "s in*es ne> ! surface1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( leaf mold1 & mo/ly h an acid reaction4 ,b ! black t9t is equally welcome to ! l&-seek] :5 se5 outside ( alluvial & =e/ areas4 ,belts ( 8black l&s0 appe> on hillsides & plateaus2 & ^! l&s1 ?\gh cle>ly n alluvial1 are also f\nd to be prem95tly productive2 witness ! upl& prairies ( ! we/]n & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! black soils are always *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( a full supply ( lime 9 ! =m ( c>bonate1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* ! mo/ deeply black humus is =m$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! jet black t9t is indicative ( calc>e\s l&s2 & ^!1 z w be m fully %[n bel[1 are almo/ always highly productive4 ,f bo? po9ts ( view1 !n1 ! favorable judgm5t pass$ ^u black soils by practical m5 is ju/ifi$4 ,b x is n necess>ily true t soils %[+ no obvi\s black t9t are poor 9 humus2 = 9 /rongly f]rug9\s or 8r$0 soils its t9t is frequ5tly :olly obscur$1 ?\gh :5 /ill visible x gives rise to ! laudatory "n ( 8mahogany l&10 :i* e f>m] consid]s a prize4 ,( c\rse !n x w\ld be :olly incorrect to judge ( ! agricultural value ( l& f its humus-cont5t alone2 = its color may be entirely imp]ceptible & yet its am\nt & nitrog5 cont5t be fully adequate to ! requirem5ts ( ?rifty vegetation4 ,gray & ev5 :iti% soils v frequ5tly fall )9 ?is category 9 ! arid region4 ,! black t9t is also favorable to ! absorption ( ! sun's heat1 & is !re=e conducive to e>li] maturity ?an is to be look$ = 9 light-t9t$ l&s simil>ly locat$4 ,wollny 7,=s*4 ,agr4 ,phys4 ,vol4 #ab1 #ahhi1 p4 #che71 discusses ! influ5ce ( color on soils 9 relation to moi/ure & cont5t ( c>bonic acid4 ,! results %[ 9 g5]al simply ! effects due to increase ( temp]ature :5 ! soils are ei!r d>k]-color$ ?r\gh\t1 or made s sup]ficially4 8,r$0 ,soils4--,next to a black soil1 a 8r$0 "o w usually comm& ! in/9ctive approval ( f>m]s4 ,! cause ( ?is pref]5ce is n z obvi\s z 9 ! case ( ! black t9ts2 b ! g5]al cons5sus ( op9ion requires an exam9ation ( its claims4 ,x is ( c\rse easy en\gh to adduce examples ( v poor 8r$0 soils1 d]iv$ f f]rug9\s s&/ones t supply little else ?an qu>tz & f]ric hydrate2 ! ,cotton ,/ates supply cog5t examples 9 po9t1 z d also ! l[] ,foo?ills ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 ! iron ru/ or f]ric hydrate t r5d]s ! l& productive2 b its pres5ce is a sign ( "s favorable conditions4 ,fir/ among ^! is1 t f]ric hydrate _c cont9ue to exi/ 9 badly dra9$ soils2 a 8r$0 soil is !re=e a well-dra9$ "o1 & ?is is probably "o ( ! *ief causes ( ! popul> pref]5ce4 ,! 8:ite l&0 sometimes seem 9 tracts o!rwise color$ ) iron1 is di/9ctly inf]ior 9 production to ! r$ l&s2 & exam9ation w g5]ally %[ t f "s cause1 su* :ite l&s h be5 subject$ to ! wat]y mac]ation :i* proves s injuri\s 7see *ap4 #c1 p4 #df1 *ap4 #ab1 p4 #bca74 ,t f9ely-diffus$ f]ric hydrate has a v high p[] ( absorb+ moi/ure z well z o!r gases ( ! atmosph]e1 has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]2 x /&s 9 ?is respect next to humus itself1 & h5ce highly f]rug9\s soils ne$ n conta9 z mu* humus z 8:ite0 soils f ?is po9t ( view4 ,l humus1 also1 x r5d]s heavy clay soils m easily tillable4 ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,t9ts4--,:]e cry/all9e rocks prevail1 ! r$ t9t usually indicates ! d]ivation f ! wea!r+ ( hornbl5de2 imply+ also1 outside ( ! tropics1 ! pres5ce ( suffici5t lime 9 ! l&4 ,su* l&s are naturally pref]r$ to ^? ( light] t9ts d]iv$ f purely feldspa?ic rocks 7see *ap4 #c1 p4 #cb71 al?\gh !y may be poor] 9 pota% ?an ! latt]4 ,b ! r$ t9t has also its intr9sic advantages 9 ! m ready absorption ( ! sun's heat by ! color$ ?an by a :ite surface4 ,?is is probably ! *ief cause ( ! high] quality ( w9es gr[n on r$ hillsides 9 ! middle & nor!rn v9e di/ricts ( ,europe1 :]e ev]y?+ t aids e>li] maturity is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,! function ( f]ric oxid z a c>ri] ( oxyg5 7*ap4 #d1 p4 #de7 probably also aids nitrification4 8,yell[0 l&s owe _! t9t1 ( c\rse1 to small] am\nts ( f]ric hydrate1 b %>e m or less 9 ! advantages ( ! 8r$40 ,:ite soils1 or m prop]ly ^? hav+ v light gray t9ts1 are n usually look$ ^u ) favor1 especially 9 ! humid region4 ,! causes ( ! unfavorable judgm5t curr5t among f>m]s 9 respect to :ite soils has already be5 p>tially expla9$ 9 ! discussion ( ! black & r$ t9ts4 ,! light color means ! sc>city or abs5ce ( bo? humus & f]ric hydrate1 & usually implies t ! soil has be5 subject to r$uctive mac]ation ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( /agnant wat]2 r$uc+ ! f]ric hydrate to f]r\s salts1 oxidiz+ away ! humus1 & accumulat+ 9 ! =m ( in]t concretions mo/ or all ( ! lime1 iron & phosphoric acid ( ! soil mass 7see *ap4 #c1 p4 #df1 *ap4 #aj1 p4 #ahd74 ,! t]m 8crawfi%y10 s commonly appli$ to :ite soils 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 expresses well ! usual condition ( ! :ite soils ( t region2 :i* are v commonly inhabit$ by crayfi%1 ^: holes rea* wat] a few feet bel[ gr\nd1 & are surr\nd$ on ! outside by piles ( :ite subsoil mix$ ) 8black gravel0 or concretions ( bog iron ore4 ,x is ne$less to say :y su* l&s _c comm& ! favorable consid]ation ( ! f>m]2 !y _c z a rule be cultivat$ )\t previ\s dra9age1 & ev5 aft] t w usually prove un?rifty1 8raw10 & 9 imm$iate ne$ ( f]tilization by gre5-manur+1 & ! use ( phosphates4 ,9 ! arid region1 l&s ( ?is "* are ( r>e occurr5ce1 :ile 7z has be5 expla9$ above1 *ap4 #h1 p4 #ace71 ! light gray or 8:ite0 t9ts are !re a v common *>act]i/ic ( ev5 ! v be/ soils4 ,x is true t !y are poor 9 humus & 9 f9ely diffus$ f]ric hydrate2 b _! 8light0 texture r5d]s ! pres5ce ( humus = ?is purpose less ne$ful1 & z /at$ else:]e 7see *ap4 #h1 p4 #ace71 ! high nitrog5-cont5t ( arid humus r5d]s a small] supply adequate = vegetative purposes4 ,z to iron1 its pres5ce be+ m important z a sign ( good dra9age & a]ation ?an directly1 its abs5ce f soils ( great dep? & loose texture is ( no consequ5ce2 especially :5 ! heat-absorption :i* x favors is n only n ne$$1 b is usually already 9 undesirable excess dur+ ! hot summ]s4 ,:ite ,alkali ,spots4--,9 ! valleys ( ! arid region1 h[ev]1 v :ite spots commonly indicate ! preval5ce ( alkali salts1 & to t ext5t are an unfavorable indication2 especially :5 c\pl$ ) ! occurr5ce ( black r+s or spots1 :i* indicate ! pres5ce ( black alkali or c>bonate ( soda 7see *ap4 #bb74 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,climate4 ,heat & ,moi/ure are ! ma9 gov]n+ conditions ( plant gr[?4 ,9 a prec$+ *apt] ! relations ( soils & plant gr[? to wat] h be5 consid]$2 9 ! pres5t "o ! relations ( bo? moi/ure & heat to soils & plants w be discuss$2 & to d ?is intelligibly to ^? n mak+ a specialty ( su* /udies1 x becomes necess>y to introduce1 fir/1 a summ>y consid]ation ( ! subject ( climate4 ,climatic conditions control1 & to a great ext5t det]m9e1 ! indu/rial pursuits ( e c\ntry2 all ! m s z ! rapid communication & transportation by means ( mod]n appliances n[ br+s e "p ( ! globe 9 competition ) e o!r4 ,! "q is n n[ :at x may be intr9sically possible to d "u c]ta9 climatic & geographical conditions1 b :e!r ^! ?+s c be done ) a reasonable prospect ( pr(it & comm]cial success1 9 competition ) o!r c\ntries (f]+ m or less ( simil> possibilities4 ,:ile x is true t ! co/ ( labor frequ5tly ent]s mo/ heavily into su* problems1 yet favorable or unfavorable climatic or soil-conditions may 9 _m cases turn ! scale4 ,?us ! high price ( labor & fuel on ! ,pacific coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates w\ld at fir/ blu% seem to r5d] competition ) ,europe & ! ,ea/ 9 ! production ( beet sug> comm]cially impossible2 yet exceptionally favorable climatic & soil-conditions concur to turn ! scale 9 favor ( ,cali=nia at lea/1 s z to h plac$ t /ate at ! head ( ! sug>-produc+ /ates ( ! ,union4 ,a g5]al und]/&+ ( ! climatic conditions :i* conc]n ! ,unit$ ,/ates m or less directly1 is !re=e ne$ful to an appreciation ( _! agricultural possibilities4 ,climatic ,conditions4--,! factors usually m5tion$ z con/itut+ climate are temp]ature1 ra9fall & w9ds4 ,s9ce ! latt] two factors1 h[ev]1 are !mselves m]ely ! result ( heat conditions1 x is prop] to discuss f ! outset ! orig9 & mode ( action ( heat4 ,,temp]ature4 ,! temp]ature ( /ell> space outside ( ! atmosph]e is kn[n to be v l[4 ,! increas+ cold z we asc5d to great] heights1 is a fact famili> to all4 ,langley has calculat$ ^u ! basis ( obs]vations made at ! summit & foot ( ,m\nt ,:itney 9 ,cali=nia1 t ! temp]ature ( space lies ne> #bjj ,c5t4 7#cfj ,f47 bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]2 & ?is w\ld be ! temp]ature ne> ! ,e>?'s surface1 7 x n = ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,! latt] absorbs b a small am\nt ( ! sun's direct heat rays 7:i* are ( high int5sity71 z !y p5etrate x to ! ,e>?'s surface4 ,b z ! e>?'s surface is w>m$1 ! heat rays ( l[ int5sity :i* x emits _c pass back ?r\gh ! atmosph]e to ! sun or to out] space2 !y are 8trapp$10 z x 71 by ! d5se air re/+ ne> ! e>?'s surface1 :i* is !n w>m$ p>tly by ! radiation f1 p>tly by direct contact )1 ! soil4 ,x is to ! exi/5ce ( our atmosph]e1 !n1 t ! possibility ( our animal & vegetable life 9 _! pres5t =m is due2 & a decrease ( ! trapp+ effect on ! sun's heat rays makes itself quickly felt :5 asc5d+1 ei!r 9 balloons or on high m\nta9s4 ,moreov]1 x is well kn[n to m\nta9 climb]s t at great elevations ! sun's heat is extremely int5se at noon2 ev5 ?\gh ! temp]ature may fall to ! freez+ po9t at night1 ow+ to ! failure ( ! ?9 air to prev5t ! radiation back into space ( ! heat absorb$ dur+ ! day4 ,on ! high plateaus ( ! ,&es & ( ,asia1 !re=e1 v extreme climates prevail1 on acc\nt ( ! great range ( temp]ature betwe5 day & night4 ,asc]ta9m5t & ,pres5tation ( ,temp]ature-,conditions4--,! prop] und]/&+ ( ! temp]ature conditions ( any locality or region is by no means a simple matt]4 ,%all we /udy ! daily1 mon?ly1 or annual *anges ( temp]ature1 or ! means d$uc$ f ei!r or all ( !m1 9 ord] to ga9 a cle> insight into ! climatic conditions t control crop production & heal? conditions8 ,! ,annual ,mean ,temp]ature n a ,good ,crit]ion4--,s9ce "o & ! same figure may result equally f ! av]ag+ ( two widely div]g5t data1 & f su* z are close toge!r1 x is cle> t ! mean annual temp]ature _c be a prop] crit]ion ( ! agricultural adaptations ( a c\ntry4 ,?us an av]age temp]ature ( #fj ,f4 might result1 equally1 f ! av]ag+ ( #fe & #ee degrees1 or f tak+ ! mean ( #ae & #aje degrees2 yet ! respective cultural adaptations w\ld be widely diff]5t4 ,extremes ( ,temp]ature are ,mo/ ,important4--,x is1 on ! contr>y1 r ! extremes ( temp]ature1 m p>ticul>ly ( cold1 b frequ5tly also ( heat1 toge!r ) ! total am\nt ( heat available dur+ ! gr[+ season1 t det]m9es su* adaptation s f> z temp]ature is conc]n$2 = no culture plant c be successfully gr[n :]e ! temp]ature dur+ w9t] ev5 occasionally falls = m ?an a few h\rs bel[ ! po9t :i* x c resi/2 & = ea* plant !re is a c]ta9 aggregate requirem5t ( heat to c>ry x f g]m9ation to fruit+4 ,ev5 diff]5t v>ieties ( "o & ! same plant diff] mat]ially 9 ! latt] respect1 s t x is v important t 9 ! selection ( v>ieties to be gr[n1 ?is factor %\ld be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,x _c be too /rongly urg$ t ! comp>ison ( annual means ( temp]ature1 s commonly made by promot]s ( colonization s*emes1 mu/ n be tak5 z a guide ei!r 9 ! e/imate ( cultures 9 :i* ! immigrant may desire to engage1 or by ^? 9 se>* ( a climate adapt$ to _! heal?-conditions4 ,seasonal & ,mon?ly ,means4--,! /atem5t ( ! mean temp]atures ( ! conv5tional f\r seasons--spr+1 summ]1 autumn & w9t]--af=d a mu* cle>] conception ( climatic adaptations2 provid$ always t ! extreme temp]atures be consid]$ at ! same "t4 ,) ! same und]/&+1 ! mon?ly means are /ill m in/ructive2 b "h aga91 x is mo/ ess5tial t ! di/ribution & am\nt ( ra9fall 9 ea* be reg>d$ at ! same "t1 s9ce ! mo/ desirable temp]ature is ( no avail )\t ! moi/ure requir$ = vegetation4 ,9 "s cases1 e4 g41 t ( ,cali=nia1 x becomes necess>y = practical purposes to reg>d ! 8season10 & n ! cal5d> ye>1 z ! unit or ref]5ce = crop production4 ,!re ! crops dep5d ^u :at ra9fall may occur f ,octob] to ,may1 !re be+ no summ] ra9s ( agricultural significance1 & outside ( irrigat$ l&s1 almo/ all vegetation save t ( trees be+ 9 abeyance4 ,9 ,india1 !re are two di/9ct gr[+ seasons 78kh>if0 & 8rabi071 correspond+ to ! two 8monsoon0 seasons2 & no matt] h[ mu* ra9 may fall dur+ "o1 almo/ total failure may occur 9 o!r tropical & arid sections ( t c\ntry4 ,! ,daily ,v>iations are ( int]e/ *iefly ) respect to heal? conditions1 s9ce mo/ plants are m adaptable 9 ?is respect ?an ! av]age man4 ,,ra9fall4 ,di/ribution ,mo/ ,important4--,! summ>y /atem5ts ( ! annual ra9fall are almo/ equally z deceptive z are ^? ( annual mean temp]ature1 s9ce q z mu* dep5ds on ! mann] 9 :i* x is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ye>1 z ^u its absolute am\nt2 & also ^u ! mann] ( its fall4 ,?us ,c5tral ,montana has ! same aggregate annual ra9fall z ! c\ntry surr\nd+ ! ,bay ( ,san ,francisco1 viz4 ab\t #bd in*es2 b :ile 9 ! ,franciscan climate ?is am\nt ( ra9 falls dur+ "o-half ( ! ye>1 & t ! gr[+ season1 enabl+ crops to be gr[n )\t irrigation1 9 ,montana ! ra9fall is di/ribut$ ov] ! entire season1 s t irrigation is absolutely ess5tial = ! successful production ( crops4 ,?is s mu* ! m z1 :ile ! w9t] sn[fall is v light1 ! ra9s ( summ] are l>gely torr5tial1 runn+ (f ! surface 9 muddy floods & giv+ little "t = absorption into ! soil4 ,f>!r we/1 9 ,wa%+ton1 :]e gra9 crops are l>gely gr[n )\t irrigation1 ! s[+ ( w9t] gra9 is impracticable because ! dry summ] is imm$iately foll[$ by ! v light sn[fall ( w9t]1 :i* falls on dry gr\nd4 ,fall-s[n gra9 w\ld ?us simply lie dormant 9 ! gr\nd ?r\gh ! w9t]1 ) great liability to injury f /ress ( wea!r 9 e>ly spr+1 ap>t f ! depr$ations ( birds & rod5ts4 ,h5ce gra9 is always s[n !re 9 spr+ only4 ,^! examples may suffice to %[ t summ>y /atem5ts ( ei!r temp]ature or ra9fall by ye>ly means are ( little practical int]e/ to ! f>m]4 ,:at he ne$s to "k is :e!r or n suffici5t ra9s to mature a full crop are likely to fall dur+ ! "t t ! gr[+ temp]ature prevails2 & :at are ! m9ima & maxima ( temp]ature--heat & cold--t 8 crops w be call$ ^u to endure4 ,,w9ds4 ,! ?ird climatic factor m5tion$1 ! w9ds1 ?\gh prov]bial = _! unreliability & incon/ancy1 are n only v incisive 9 _! action1 b also to a consid]able ext5t ( v def9ite local or regional occurr5ce & significance4 ,moreov]1 _! occurr5ce1 direction1 temp]ature & moi/ure-condition c1 9 regions ^: climatology has be5 reasonably well /udi$1 be =etold ) suffici5t accuracy to be ( great use to ! f>m]4 ,heat ! ,cause ( ,w9ds4--,z already /at$1 ! prim>y cause ( all w9ds is heat1 sub/antially on ! pr9ciple accord+ to :i* draught is creat$ 9 our dome/ic fires4 ,! hot air ris+ creates an indraught f all directions1 especially f t :i* x c mo/ readily come2 viz41 f ! ocean1#aja or f level l&s1 r ?an across m\nta9 *a9s4 ,h5ce ! sea-breeze 9 ! aft] "p ( ! day1 :5 ! l& has become heat$2 :ile ! sea1 requir+ a mu* l>g] am\nt ( heat to *ange its temp]ature to a simil> ext5t1 rema9s relatively cool4 ,b at night ! e>? cools m rapidly ?an ! sea1 by radiation2 h5ce t[>d ev5+ ! sea-breeze dies d[n1 & t[>d & aft] sunset ! l&-breeze takes its place4 #aja ,a /rik+ case 9 po9t is ! regul> w9d :i* 9 summ] bl[s ?r\gh ! 8,gold5 ,gate10 a gap 9 ! ,coa/ ,range connect+ ! ,pacific ,ocean directly ) ! great int]ior valley ( ,cali=nia1 along ! bays ( ,san ,francisco1 ,san ,pablo1 & ,suisun4 ,! great int]ior valley & adjac5t m\nta9 slopes becom+ int5sely heat$ dur+ ! ra9less summ]1 ! asc5d+ air is replac$ by a /eady indraught f ! sea1 :i* is bord]$ by a belt ( cold wat] caus+ fogs along ! coa/4 ,! fogs are quickly dispell$ on rea*+ ! edge ( ! valley ne> ! middle ( its l5g?2 :5ce /eady breezes bl[ nor?w>d & s\?w>d1 up ! valleys ( ! ,sacram5to & ,san ,joaqu9 respectively4 ,^! w9ds1 popul>ly (t51 b errone\sly1 call$ trade-w9ds1 are really 8monsoons0 simil> 9 _! orig9 to ^? ( ,india1 :i*1 :5 com+ f ! sea cause ra9s1 b :5 f ! heat$ l& itself are hot & dry2 z 9 ! case ( ! sirocco ( ,italy & ,nor? ,africa1 ! t]ral ( ,spa9 & ! nor!rs ( ,cali=nia4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is local *ange ( w9ds1 toge!r ) ! rotation ( ! e>?1 ! absorption ( moi/ure by air1 & ! fact t ! latt] becomes cool] :5 x exp&s on ris+ & w>m] :5 x is compress$ by desc5d+1 s]ves to expla9 all ! major ph5om5a usually obs]v$ 9 connection ) w9ds4 ,! air ( ! equatorial belt1 heat$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 necess>ily rises & creates an indraught f bo? nor? & s\?2 b s9ce ! air ?us fl[+ 9 has a l[] rot>y velocity ?an ! e>?'s surface at ! ,equator1 x lags beh9d & s gives rise to nor!a/ & s\!a/ w9ds1 respectively1 betwe5 ! two tropics & ! equatorial belt4 ,^! regul> w9ds1 f ! aid !y give to comm]ce 9 pass+ f cont95t to cont95t1 are kn[n z ! trade w9ds4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! air t has ris5 f ! hot equatorial belt1 cool+ by expansion z x rises & fl[+ nor?w>d & s\?w>d f ! ,equator1 on desc5d+ z x ma9ly does into ! temp]ate zones1 has a high] rot>y velocity ?an ! l&-surface & s t5ds to give rise to s\?we/ & nor?we/ w9ds 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es respectively4 ,at sea1 on coa/s & 9 level inl& regions to w9dw>d ( m\nta9 *a9s1 su* w9ds are (t5 q regul> dur+ a portion ( ! ye>4 ,cyclones4--,b local di/urbances aris+ f heat$ l& areas or m\nta9 slopes1 z well z wide atmosph]ic *anges ^: causes are n fully und]/ood1 give rise to waves ( alt]nat+ high & l[ b>ometric pressure1 l>gely conv]t+ rectil9e> or slightly curv$ w9d-motion into :irls or 8cyclones0#ajb rang+ f a ?\s& to ov] two ?\s& miles 9 diamet]4 ,^! 9 ! case ( l[-pressure waves or c5t]s1 t[>d :i* ! air fl[s f ! outside1 revolve 9 ! direction contr>y to ! movem5t ( ! h&s ( a clock1 & commonly produce ra9 9 _! ea/ portion4 ,a high-pressure wave or c5t]1 f :i* ! air naturally fl[s t[>d ! outside1 w usually br+ ab\t an 8anti-cyclone0 area ) fair1 & 9 w9t] cold 78blizz>d07 wea!r1 ! direction ( ! :irl be+1 9 ?is case1 ! rev]se1 or 9 ! same direction z ! h&s ( a clock4 ,bo? cyclones & anti-cyclones move 9 ,nor? ,am]ica f we/ to ea/1 mo/ly ent]+ f ! ,pacific ,ocean (f ! nor?we/ coa/ & trav]s+ ! cont95t ) a slight s\!a/ 7or 9 ! case ( cold wea!r almo/ s\?7 tr5d1 ) a velocity ( tw5ty to ?irty miles an h\r2 until ^u rea*+ ! region ( ! ,great ,lakes !y g5]ally turn nor!a/w>d & pass into ! ,atlantic ,ocean f ! ,new ,engl& & ,canada coa/s4--,x is ^u ^! g5]al facts1 r\ghly outl9$ "h1 t ! wea!r =eca/s are 9 ! ma9 bas$2 tak+ into consid]ation1 ( c\rse1 ! local or regional conditions1 topography1 etc41 :i* modify ! application ( ! g5]al rules4 #ajb ,?is designation is popul>ly & incorrectly appli$ to ! comp>atively limit$1 b v viol5t & de/ructive rot>y /orms or :irlw9ds :i* orig9ate locally on ! heat$ pla9s ( ! ,middle ,we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & are almo/ always accompani$ by viol5t electric ph5om5a4 ,^! %\ld prop]ly be call$ tornadoes4 ,at sea su* :irlw9ds give rise to wat]sp\ts1 9 des]ts to s& /orms4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! air-movem5ts sub/antially correspond to ^? obs]v$ 9 ! nor!rn1 s f> z n modifi$ by m\nta9 *a9s2 z is especially ! case 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,topography4 ,ra9s to ,w9dw>d ( ,m\nta9 ,*a9s4--,! surface features or topography ( ! regions trav]s$ by ! air curr5ts or w9ds may mat]ially modify bo? _! direction & _! physical condition1 especially z to moi/ure & temp]ature4 ,m\nta9 *a9s may deflect !m1 or1 caus+ ! air curr5ts to rise on _! slopes1 & ?us to cool by expansion1 ! moi/ure ^! br+ ) !m f ! sea may be p>tially1 or sometimes almo/ :olly1 deposit$ 9 ! =m ( ra9 or sn[2 *iefly on ! w9dw>d slopes4 ,!n1 cont9u+ across ! range1 ! air depriv$ ( mo/ ( its moi/ure _c readily yield up m2 h5ce ! sc>city ( ra9--8arid climate0--"u ! lee ( m\nta9 *a9s2 z 9 ! ,great ,bas9 betwe5 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ,cascade ranges on ! "o h& & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s on ! o!r1 & also on ! ,great ,pla9s "u ! lee ( ! latt]4 ,! abundant ra9fall betwe5 ! ,mississippi riv] & ! ,atlantic coa/ is due to ! moi/ w9ds com+ f ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ,c>ibbean sea1 ^: access is n int]f]$ ) by any cross-ranges ( m\nta9s4 ,b ! ,great ,pla9s ly+ betwe5 ! ,mississippi & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s are n )9 ! sweep ( ! ,gulf w9ds1 ^: tr5d is ,,sw to ,,ne2 :ile !y are equally out ( rea* ( moi/ure f ! ,pacific1 all t hav+ be5 successively deposit$ on ! int]v5+ m\nta9s2 h5ce _! defici5t ra9fall4 ,nor?w>d ( ! temp]ate zone ! ra9fall g5]ally decreases z we approa* ! arctic regions2 except :]e ! influ5ce ( w>m ocean curr5ts to w9dw>d creates comp>atively local exceptions1 z 9 ! case ( ,norway & ,alaska4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,composite ,curve %[+ di/ribution ( ,ra9fall 9 ,europe1 ,africa & ,am]ica project$ on #ajj ,m]idian ,w4 ,l4 ,! g5]al ,di/ribution ( ,ra9fall on ! globe is well %[n 9 ! annex$ diagram1 :i* is copi$ by p]mission ( ! au?or f 8 treatise on ! 8,evolution ( ,climates10#ajc & repres5ts ! mean d$uc$ f data giv5 9 ! ,atlas ( ,meteorology by ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew4 ,x is a composite curve d]iv$ f ! consolidation ( f\r curves %[+ ! di/ribution ( ra9fall1 viz41 on ! m]idians ( #bj;,e4,l42 ! we/ coa/s ( ,europe & ,africa2 ! #cj? m]idian ,w4,l41 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean2 & ! we/ coa/s ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 project$ on ! plane ( ! #ajj? m]idian ,w4,l4 ,! latt] curve corresponds ) rem>kable clos5ess to ! mean curve "h giv54 8,x is n int5d$ t ^! curves %\ld include ! ra9fall ^u m]idians on :i* ! di/ribution 9 belts is int]rupt$ by cont95tal influ5ces1 & by ! irregul> oblique belts ( ra9 on ! ea/ coa/s40 ,b x pres5ts an admirable g5]alization ^u :i*1 z a basis1 ! local di/urbances may be /udi$4 #ajc 8,! ,evolution ( ,climates02 by ,m>sd5 ,manson1 ,july1 #aijc2 also ,am]4 ,geologi/1 ,aug4-,oct4 #ahig4 ,x w be not$ t ! maximum ( ra9fall 9 ! tropical ra9-belt lies sev]al degrees to nor?w>d ( ! equator1 ow+ d\btless to ! great] l& area 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,!re is ?us1 on ! :ole1 a n>r[] belt ( defici5t ra9fall or aridity betwe5 ! tropical & nor!rn temp]ate ra9-belts1 ?an 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! s\!rn temp]ate ra9-belt t\*es only ! extreme ends ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa & ,new ,zeal&2 else:]e on ! ocean x has n be5 suffici5tly obs]v$ z yet4 ,! zones ( ra9fall & aridity are1 h[ev]1 kn[n to be subject to seasonal oscillations ( sev]al degrees 9 latitude1 ow+ to ! obliquity ( ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 :i* %ifts its position ^u t ( ! equator4 ,ocean ,curr5ts4--,s9ce wat] z a fluid is subject to ! same circulatory motions :i* cause w9ds1 x is to be expect$ t ocean curr5ts %\ld exi/ correspond+ to ^? ( ! air1 z *>act]iz$ 9 g5]al above4 ,b z wat] w>ms s mu* m sl[ly ?an air1 its circulation w\ld be comp>atively ins5sible 7 x n = ! effects produc$ by ! air curr5ts ^u ! surface ( ! sea1 comb9$1 z 9 ! case ( ! w9ds1 ) ! effects ( ! rotation ( ! e>?4 ,)\t go+ into ! details ( ! ocean curr5ts 9 ! tropics1 x may suffice to say t ow+ p>tly to ! mov+ & w>m+ effects ( w9ds1 p>tly to ! natural circulatory motion ( ! wat]1 two great w>m curr5ts fl[ f ! tropics nor?w>d1 mat]ially modify+ :at w\ld o!rwise be ! climates ( ! coa/s !y t\*4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream4--,! curr5t mo/ g5]ally kn[n is ! ,gulf ,/ream1 fl[+ p>tly f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 p>tly f outside ( ! same along ! *a9 ( ! ,less] ,antilles1 along ! s\!a/ coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,florida1 ,georgia & ,s\? ,c>ol9a72 b ow+ to its great] rotational velocity x is soon1 l ! w9ds ( ! same latitudes1 deflect$ f a nor?w>d to a ,,ne4 c\rse1 :i* c>ries x away f ! ,am]ican coa/1 to imp>t "s ( its w>m?1 7probably ma9ly ?r\gh ! w9ds t bl[ ov] x71 to ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 ,sc&9avia1 & ,we/]n ,europe g5]ally2 :ile ! nor!rn ,am]ican coa/ is left to be ba!d by ! icy pol> curr5t fl[+ f ! ,arctic ?r\gh ,baff9's ,bay1 :i* c>ries iceb]gs f> to ! s\? 9 ! way ( ! transatlantic traffic betwe5 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates & ,europe1 & causes a diff]5ce 9 climate t is well exemplifi$ 9 ! comp>ison ( ! climate ( ,new ,york ) t ( ,naples1 bo? ly+ 9 ! same latitude2 & simil>ly ( ! bleak coa/ ( ,labrador ) t ( ,great ,brita94 ,! ,japan ,/ream4--,on ! ea/]n ,asiatic ,coa/1 a w>m curr5t orig9at+ 9 ! ,sunda seas1 fl[s (f ! coa/s ( ! ,philipp9es & ( ,*9a & ba!s ! ,japanese isl&s2 h5ce x is kn[n z ! ,japanese ,curr5t1 or ,kuro-siro4 ,x is p>tly ?is curr5t :i*1 fail+ to pass into ! ,arctic ?r\gh ! %all[ wat]s ( ,behr+ /rait1 r5d]s ! coa/ climates ( ! nor?we/ coa/ ( ,am]ica s mu* mild] & moi/] ?an is t 9 correspond+ latitudes on ! ea/ coa/s ( bo? cont95ts4 ,alaska corresponds to ,norway 9 its moi/1 foggy & relatively mild coa/ climate2 ,briti% ,columbia1 ,wa%+ton & ,oregon p>ticipate 9 ! b5efits ( ! temp]+ influ5ce ( ! return curr5t ( ! ,kuro-siro4 ,b z ?is return 78,alaska07 curr5t passes s\?w>d into ! w>m] seas (f ! ,cali=nia coa/1 its influ5ce is rev]s$2 x becomes a cold curr5t 9 ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,pacific1 & ! w>m1 moi/ air ( ! ocean be+ c>ri$ by ! we/]ly w9ds across ?is cold /ream :i* fl[s along ! %ore ( ,cali=nia1 9 summ] d5se fogs are =m$1 :i* r5d] navigation difficult & produce a coa/ climate ^: av]age summ] & w9t] temp]atures 7e4 g4 at ,san ,francisco7 may diff] by only a few degrees1 viz41 #ae4e & #ac4j ,c4 7#fj & #ef ,f472 s t a *ange ( clo?+ f season to season is h>dly call$ =4 ,! ,alaska ,curr5t leaves ! imm$iate coa/ ( ,cali=nia (f ,pt4 ,conception ne> ,santa ,b>b>a1 gradually los+ itself s\?we/w>d1 b /ill temp]+ ! tropical heat 9 ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s4 ,h5ce ! coa/ climate is mu* w>m] & less foggy 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia2 b ?r\gh\t ! ,/ate 9 ! int]ior valleys1 scre5$ f ! coa/ w9ds by ! ,coa/ ranges1 ! temp]ature 9 summ] may rise sev]al degrees above #ajj ,f4 = days toge!r2 al?\gh1 ow+ to ! dryness ( ! air1 ! heat is n oppressive4 ,contra/+ ,climates 9 ,n4 ,w4 ,am]ica4--,an ev5 m /rik+ contra/1 %[+ ! effects ( ! w>m ocean & air curr5ts1 :5 int]cept$ by m\nta9 *a9s1 exi/s on ! ,pacific coa/ f>!r nor?w>d1 z already m5tion$4 ,9 ,oregon & ,wa%+ton fir/ ! l[ ,coa/ ranges1 & !n ! high] ,cascade m\nta9s1 ob/ruct ! ea/w>d progress ( ! we/]ly ocean w9ds4 ,! result is a v heavy ra9fall to coa/w>d ( & )9 ! ,coa/ ranges1 & an almo/ equally heavy precipitation on ! we/]n slope ( ! ,cascades4 ,/&+ on ! cre/ ( ! latt] 9 summ]1 "o may see to we/w>d a roll+ sea ( cl\ds1 caus+ almo/ daily ra9s2 :ile to ea/w>d ! eye ranges ov] br[n or :iti%1 du/y pla9s or roll+ l&s1 almo/ de/itute ( tree gr[? & quiv]+ ) heat1 "u a deep blue sky untr\bl$ by cl\ds = mon?s4 ,a some:at simil> contra/ is se5 9 ! ,hawaiian isl&s1 :i* are 9 ! sweep ( ! subtropical nor!a/ trade w9ds1 & on _! w9dw>d 7ea/]n7 slopes h abundant ra9s2 :ile on ! leew>d slopes an almo/ arid climate prevails1 call+ = ext5d$ irrigation4 ,cont95tal1 ,coa/ & ,insul> ,climates4--,f :at has be5 said above1 ! /rik+ diff]5ces ( climate caus$ by ! position ( any region ) ref]5ce to ! sea or o!r l>ge bodies ( wat] on ! "o h&1 & to m\nta9 *a9s on ! o!r1 c be readily und]/ood2 provid$ ( c\rse t ! direction ( ! w9ds & ! tr5d ( ! m\nta9 *a9s be prop]ly tak5 into consid]ation4 ,we/]n coa/s 9 ! temp]ate & subtropical regions w h a relatively ev51 temp]ate & moi/ climate z comp>$ ) ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 f :i* ! temp]+ influ5ce ( ! sea is cut (f by m\nta9 *a9s4 ,:]e no su* *a9s int]v5e ! coa/ climate may ext5d f> inl&4 ,! latt] case is t ( ,europe1 :]e ! prevail+ we/]ly w9ds1 w>m$ by ! ,gulf ,/ream1 temp] ! climate z f> ea/ z ! bord]s ( ,russia1 & nor?w>d to ,norway2 :ile to s\?w>d ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,black seas temp] bo? heat & cold 9 ,spa91 s\!rn ,france1 ,italy & ! ,m$it]ranean bord] g5]ally4 ,b to ea/w>d1 9 ,russia & ,sib]ia1 ! climate becomes 8cont95tal0 to an extreme degree1 ) v cold w9t]s & v hot summ]s4 ,! same is true ( int]ior ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]ev] ! cont95tal divide cuts (f ! temp]+ influ5ce ( ! we/]ly w9ds2 ,montana1 ! ,dakotas & ! ,great ,pla9s /ates g5]ally be+ examples4 ,! climate ( ! ,mississippi valley1 z /at$ be=e1 is temp]$ by ! w9ds bl[+ f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 b ) occasional irruptions ( ! cont95tal climate 7sometimes rea*+ z f> ea/ z ! ,s\? ,atlantic coa/7 9 ! =ms ( cold 8blizz>ds10 f :i* ! coa/ climates ( ! ,pacific & ( we/]n ,europe are practically free4 ,! ,atlantic coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7includ+ ! coa/ ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico71 moreov]1 n unfrequ5tly suff]s f ! viol5t cyclonic /orms t orig9ate 9 ! ,antilles & foll[ m or less ! direction ( ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,isl&s1 diff]+ f cont95ts ma9ly 9 _! ext5t1 & hav+ a relatively l>ge proportion ( coa/1 naturally h climates controll$ ess5tially by ! surr\nd+ ocean4 ,! insul> or oceanic climates are !re=e1 z a rule1 m temp]ate & ev5 ?an are ^? ( ! ne>e/ ma9l&4 ,x is (t5 said t ! climate ( we/]n ,europe is 8insul>02 & ow+ to its position "u ! lee ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 ?is is em95tly true ( ,great ,brita94 ,subtropic ,arid ,belts4--,:]e ! surface features ( ! l& 9 relation to ! ocean & prevail+ w9ds d n int]pose special ob/acles1 we f9d to polew>d ( bo? tropics a climatic belt ( great] or less wid?1 9 :i* ! annual1 or at lea/ ! summ] ra9fall is too small to ma9ta9 annual h]bace\s vegetation ?r\gh\t ! season1 ev5 :5 ! temp]ature is favorable4 ,^! two 8arid0 belts are be/ def9$ 9 ,africa1 :]e ! nor!rn "o is repres5t$ by ! ,sah>a des]t1 l[] ,egypt & ,arabia1 :ile ! s\!rn "o is exemplifi$ 9 ! ,kalah>i des]t1 to nor?w>d ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,! nor!rn belt is cont9u$ into ,asia ,m9or1 ,pale/9e1 ,syria & ,p]sia1 & is aga9 manife/ 9 nor?we/]n ,india2 b to ea/w>d is /opp$ by ! influ5ce ( ! great ,himalaya range4 ,! plateau c\ntries beyond1 9 ,c5tral ,asia1 are extremely arid1 l>gely by reason ( _! high elevation4 ,9 ,au/ralia ! s\!rn arid belt is v /rongly def9$4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! arid belt is *>act]i/ically def9$ on ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,x embraces all b ! s\!rnmo/ po9t ( ! p59sula ( ,l[] ,cali=nia1 ) ab\t two-?irds ( ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia2 !nce ea/w>d across ,sonora & ,arizona to ,new ,mexico & we/]n ,texas4 ,b "h ! influ5ce ( ! m\nta9 ranges & high plateaus obscures ! subtropical belt z su*1 ! arid climate cont9u+1 ea/ ( ! great ,pacific ranges1 ?r\gh ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,wyom+1 ,montana1 ,idaho1 & ea/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton ne>ly to ! l9e ( ,briti% ,columbia on ! nor?1 & ) gradually decreas+ aridity1 into ,colorado1 ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 & ! ,dakotas4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! ra9less seaw>d slopes ( s\!rn ,p]u & nor!rn ,*ile indicate ! s\!rn arid belt2 b "h1 ! great *a9 ( ! ,&es int]v5+1 ! dry pampas ( ,arg5t9a1 & ! ,gran ,*aco ( s\?we/]n ,brazil1 l ! ,nevada bas91 ?\gh arid w\ld naturally be ref]r$ to ! moi/ure-cond5s+ influ5ce ( ! ,&es *a91 "u ! lee ( :i* !y lie4 ,f ?is cause ! region ( defici5t ra9fall1 :i* on ! we/]n coa/ ends to nor?w>d ( ,santiago de ,*ile1 is ea/ ( ! ,&es cont9u$ mu* f>!r polew>d1 z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 rea*+ into ,patagonia4 ,utilization ( ! ,arid ,belts4--,:ile1 z already expla9$1 ! di/ribution ( ! ra9fall ?r\gh ! ye> is ne>ly z important z its total am\nt1 yet x is evid5t t ev5 ) ! m9imum ( tw5ty in*es ( total precipitation z ! measure = crop production1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! l& ( ! arid region _c1 ev5 ) ! mo/ elaborate sy/em ( wat] cons]vation1 be suppli$ ) suffici5t wat] = ord9>y crops1 & mu/ be o!rwise utiliz$1 ma9ly = pa/ure purposes4 ,?is is r5d]$ practicable to a mu* great] ext5t ?an might be expect$1 because ! rapid transition f ! ra9y to ! p]man5t dry season cures ! /&+ h]bage into hay1 :i* af=ds good graz+ dur+ ! ra9less season4 ,moreov]1 ! use ( dr\ght-resi/ant1 br[s+ =age plants1 bo? %rubs & trees1 s]ves to supplem5t mat]ially any defici5cy 9 ! supply ( 8/&+ hay10 especially 9 case ! ra9s %\ld t[>d ! end be unduly delay$4 ,! same is true ( ! dri$ pods & se$s ( native h]bage1 :i* 9 "s cases 7bur clov]1 lup9s1 etc417 af=d highly nutriti\s additions to ! leafy =age4#ajd #ajd ,see ,rept4 ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,agriculture = #ahgh1 pp4 #dhf-dhh2 ,bull4 ,nos4 #af & #db1 ,wyom+ ,expt4 ,/ation2 ,bull4 ,no4 #aej ,calif4 ,expt4 ,/ation2 ,bull4 ,no4 #ea1 ,nevada ,expt4 ,/ation2 ,s\? ,dakota ,/ation ,bullet9s ,nos4 #dj1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd2 ,kansas ,expt4 ,/ation1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #ajb2 ,new ,mexico ,expt4 ,/ation1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #ah2 ,montana ,expt4 ,/ation1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #cj2 & o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,relations ,,( ,,soils ,,& ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,to ,,heat4 ,! ,temp]ature ( ,soils4--,! rapid g]m9ation ( se$s1 z well z ! developm5t ( plants to maturity1 is ess5tially dep5d5t ^u ! ma9t5ance ( ! appropriate temp]ature4 ,! temp]ature mo/ favorable to g]m9ation or gr[?1 z well z ! degree ( tol]ance ( high & l[ temp]atures1 v>ies greatly ) diff]5t plants1 gov]n+ ma9ly :at is kn[n z _! climatic adaptation4 ,a k ( ^! po9ts ) ref]5ce to ! sev]al crops is !re=e ( no mean importance to ! f>m]2 =1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 he c control ! temp]ature 9 ! soil itself1 & he c mo/ly *oose = s[+ & plant+1 ! "t :5 ! soil %all h ! prop] temp]ature = rapid g]m9ation or maturity4 ,z a rule1 x is n desirable to h ei!r se$s or se$l+ plants 9 ! gr\nd = any l5g? ( "t :5 ! temp]ature is too l[ = active vegetation2 = :ile !y re/1 o!r1 l[] organisms 7fungi & bact]ia71 adapt$ to l[ temp]atures1 may cont9ue 9 full activity at ! exp5se ( ! vitality ( ! crop plant4 ,wat] ex]ts controll+ ,influ5ce4--,s9ce ! capacity ( wat] = heat is approximately five times great] ?an t ( ! av]age soil1 equal weights be+ consid]$1 x foll[s t ! temp]ature ( soil-wat] mu/ ex]t a controll+ influ5ce ov] t ( ! soil4 ,tak+ ! case ( a cubic foot ( loamy soil1 fully saturat$ ) wat]1 9 :i* "o-?ird ( ! volume may be assum$ to be wat]3 ! weight ( ! dry soil be+ ab\t eighty p\nds p] cubic foot1 calculation %[s t ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] conta9$1 "o degree1 w be fully twice z great z = t requir$ = ! soil itself4 ,x is ?us obvi\s t ! control ( soil-temp]ature is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! control ( ! wat]-cont5t ( ! same1 :i* has be5 discuss$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,ev5 9 ! condition ( moi/ure kn[n to be mo/ favorable to plants1 viz41 "o-half ( ! maximum wat] capacity1 ! influ5ce ( ! wat]-cont5t ^u ! temp]ature w /ill be z great z t ( ! entire soil mass4 ,?is consid]ation emphasizes ! importance ( su* control4 ,cold & ,w>m ,ra9s4--,x is n surpris+ !n t ! occurr5ce ( cold or w>m ra9s or ! use ( cold or w>m irrigation wat] at critical p]iods1 may l>gely det]m9e ! success or failure ( ! crop4 ,x is well kn[n t ! occurr5ce ( a cold ra9 aft] vegetation has />t$ actively 9 e>ly spr+1 may n only de/roy ! season's fruit crop by prev5t+ ! sett+1 or !reaft] caus+ ! dropp+1 ( ! fruit1 b may ev51 if ! suppression ( vegetative action be cont9u$ = "s l5g? ( "t1 result 9 s]i\s injury to1 or dea? ( trees4 ,widely ext5d$ disa/r\s exp]i5ce ( ! k9d 0 _h 9 ,cali=nia 9 ,febru>y & ,m>*1 #ahhg1 result+ 9 ! dea? ( t5s ( ?\s&s ( fruit trees & v9es dur+ t & ! foll[+ season4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 su* a case z ?is ! rapid dra9+-(f ( ! cold wat] ?r\gh und]dra9s w\ld h mat]ially mitigat$1 if n :olly prev5t$1 su* injury4 ,sol> ,radiation4--,aside1 h[ev]1 f su* ov]:elm+ influ5ces z ! above1 ! soil temp]atures are measurably controll$ by ! ext5t to :i* !y receive & absorb ! sun's heat rays1 :e!r directly or ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ! air4 ,! direct effect ( ! sun's rays ^u ! surface is1 ^u ! :ole1 ! mo/ g5]ally pot5t1 al?\gh w>m w9ds may occasionally ex]t a v /rong influ5ce4 ,! v>y+ influ5ce ( ! sun's rays dep5ds prim>ily ^u ! *ange ( seasons1 :i* !mselves result f ! v>y+ angles at :i* ! sun's rays /rike ! surface2 z well z ^u ! duration ( ! day4 ,! great] or less cl\d9ess or fogg9ess ( ! sky1 ( c\rse1 ex]ts a decid$ effect 9 ?is connection4 ,! ,p5etration ( ! ,sun's ,heat into ! ,soil4--,9 ! temp]ate regions ( ! e>? ! daily v>iations ( temp]ature cease to be felt at dep?s rang+ f two to ?ree feet1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil mat]ial & its m or less compact$ condition4 ,! mon?ly v>iations1 ( c\rse1 rea* to great] dep?s2 :ile ! annual v>iations d n disappe> 9 ! temp]ate zone1 e4 g41 at ,p>is1 ,zri* & ,brussels1 at a less dep? ?an sev5ty-five feet4 ,at ^! dep?s ( con/ant temp]ature we f9d approximately ! same temp]ature z t :i* we c d$uce f ! !rmometric obs]vations z ! annual mean4 ,f simil> causes ! mean annual temp]ature ( any place may be approximately d$uc$ f ! obs]vation ( ! wat] ( wells & spr+s d]iv$ f mod]ate dep?s4 ,= bel[ ! level ( con/ant annual temp]ature ! latt] beg9s to asc5d /eadily z we progress d[nw>d1 ow+ to ! int]ior heat ( ! e>?4 ,*ange ( ,temp]ature ) ,dep?4--,! foll[+ table ( obs]vations made at ,brussels illu/rates ! decrease ( annual range ( temp]ature ) dep?3 ,av]age ,annual ,at feet3 temp]ature4 range4 7,c47 7,c47 #c4be #g4b #aj4e #ae4f #ac4e #d4e #cj4h #af4d #a4c #ge4j #ag4j #j4j ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ) ?is record t ( a well sunk by ,ermann at ,yakutzk1 ,sib]ia1 :]e ! mean annual temp]ature is--#i4g ,c4 7#ad4f ,f474 ,?is temp]ature 0 f\nd a few feet bel[ ! surface4 ,at #ej feet ! temp]ature 0--#g4b ,c4 7#ai ,f472 at #ade feet--#e ,c5t4 7#bc ,f47 at #cej feet--4#i ,c4 7#cj4h ,f47 %[+ t ! gr\nd 0 bel[ ! temp]ature ( freez+ wat] = "s di/ance f>!r d[n2 s t ! se>* = liquid wat] 0 ab&on$4 ,we ?us see t 9 ! ,arctic regions1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( wat] 9 ! =m ( ice1 ! melt+ ( :i* imp$es ! access ( sol> heat1 ! level ( no v>iation is f\nd at ! di/ance ( a few feet bel[ ! surface1 despite ! great v>iations 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! %ort b hot summ] & ! extremely cold w9t]4 ,9 ! tropics1 also1 ! annual temp]ature-v>iation disappe>s at a less dep? ?an #b feet1 9 consequ5ce ( ! v slight diff]5ce betwe5 ! two seasonal extremes ( temp]ature4 ,surface--,conditions t influ5ce ,soil-,temp]ature4 ,among ^!1 color has already be5 m5tion$1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t discuss$4 ,:ile x is true t1 broadly speak+1 d>k-color$ soils absorb m ( ! sun's heat ?an light-color$ ones1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 x mu/ /ill be und]/ood1 t ! nature ( ! color-giv+ sub/ance ex]ts a v mat]ial influ5ce ^u ! am\nt ( heat absorb$4 ,?us *>coal is among all kn[n sub/ances ! "o absorb+ & radiat+ ! sun's heat rays mo/ p[]fully1 & all k9ds alike2 s mu* s1 t its absorb5t p[] is tak5 z #ajj4 ,b o!r sub/ances :i* to ! eye appe> equally black1 h by no means ! same absorb+ p[]4 ,! heat absorption by black humus is high1 ?\gh n q equal to t ( *>coal2 & _m gray soils1 ?\gh appe>+ to ! eye ( r light t9t1 really absorb m heat ?an o!rs :i*1 to our p]ception1 h ! d>k] t9t1 b are color$ by o!r sub/ances4 ,g>d5]s & especially v9e gr[]s 9 ! cold] portions ( ,europe (t5 take advantage ( ! p[]ful absorb+ p[] ( c>bon by spread+ *>coal or black slate p[d] ov] ! surface ( ! soil :]e e>ly maturity is specially desir$2 & slate p[d] is simil>ly us$ by ! peasants at ,*am\ni to ha/5 ! melt+ ( ! sn[4 ,heat ( ,high & ,l[ ,int5sity4--,x mu/ also be kept 9 view t ! surfaces1 & especially ! colors t favor absorption ( ! int5se rays ( ! sun1 may comport !mselves q diff]5tly t[>d heat rays ( l[ int5sity1 su* z ^? ?r[n back f ! soil at night :5 x cools4 ,7 ?is o!rwise1 a soil t absorbs mu* heat 9 ! daytime w\ld lose x ) correspond+ rapidity at night4 ,b ?is is true only ( *>coal2 9 ! case ( mo/ o!r sub/ances1 !re is a mat]ial diff]5ce 9 favor ( ! ret5tion ( ! heat1 ( l[ int5sity1 by sl[] radiation into a 8heat-trapp+0 atmosph]e4 ,reflection vs4 ,disp]sion ( ,heat4--,!oretically1 a smoo? surface reflects m heat ?an a r\gh "o1 & w>ms mu* m sl[ly by absorption2 z is /rik+ly %[n by ! use ( poli%$ metal scre5s plac$ on walls to prev5t _! be+ ov]heat$ by a flue ne> by4 ,9 ! case ( soils1 also1 ! condition ( ! surface affects mat]ially ! absorption ( heat1 b n 9 accordance ) ! above rule s f> z ! result is conc]n$4 ,= x is f\nd t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 a loose or cloddy surface disp]ses 9 _m directions ! heat x receives1 & does n p]mit x to p5etrate by conduction to s great ext5t z w\ld a m compact soil1 ^: smoo? surface w\ld wa/e less ( ! heat receiv$ by radiation4 ,k+ has call$ special att5tion to ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature exi/+ betwe5 soils smoo!d & compact$ by a roll]1 & ! unroll$ soil hav+ a loose surface4 ,he f\nd t ! =m] at a dep? ( "o & a half in*es 0 z mu* z #e4e;,c4 7#aj;,f47 w>m] ?an ! loose soil1 & t ev5 at a dep? ( ?ree in*es a diff]5ce z high z #c4e;,c4 7#f4e;,f47 exi/$ betwe5 ! two4 ,he obs]v$ at ! same "t t ! temp]ature ( ! air ov] ! unroll$ gr\nd 0 consid]ably w>m] ?an above ! roll$1 ?us corroborat+ ! diff]5ces obs]v$ 9 ! soil itself4 ,b at night ! heat is giv5 out m rapidly f ! roll$ ?an f ! unroll$ surface1 ! latt] act+ z a non-conductor & keep+ ! soil w>m] ?an t ( ! m compact roll$ l&4 ,k+ gives z ! av]age diff]5ce obs]v$ betwe5 roll$ & unroll$ l& on eight ,wiscons9 f>ms1 #a4f;,c4 7#c;,f47 9 favor ( ! roll$ l& betwe5 #a & #d p4m4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! loose till$ lay]1 :ile imp$+ ! p5etration ( ! sun's heat into ! deep] portions ( ! soil dur+ ! day1 on ! o!r h& s]ves to reta9 x at night bett] ?an a m compact soil4 ,?is obvi\sly places x )9 ! p[] ( ! f>m] to ex]t consid]able control ov] ! soil-temp]ature at critical times2 re/ra9+ or favor+ ! access ( ! sun's heat 9 accordance ) ! requirem5ts ( ! climate or season1 z ! case may be4 ,influ5ce ( a ,cov]+ ( ,vegetation1 & ( ,mul*es4--,a cov] ( ei!r liv+ or dead vegetation depresses ! temp]ature ( ! soil z comp>$ ) ! b>e l&1 z elaborately %[n by ,wollny & ,eb]mey]4 ,9 ! mon?ly av]ages ^! diff]5ces r>ely exce$ 4#h ,c4 7#a4e degrees ,f471 & are mo/ly bel[ 4#ej ,c4 7#a ,f471 b dur+ diff]5t p>ts ( ! day !y may rise to #b4b to #b4e ,c4 7#d to #d4e ,f471 at #d in*es dep?4 ,9 summ] !y are great] ?an at o!r seasons4 ,( c\rse ! d5sity ( ! vegetation or ! ?ickness ( ! mul* influ5ces !m mat]ially4 ,=e/s ex]t ! greate/ cool+ influ5ce ^u ! soil1 & next to ^! ! d5se h]bace\s crops1 su* z clov]1 & ! legumes g5]ally4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,nature ( ! ,soil-,mat]ial4--,aside f ! surface condition1 ! nature ( ! mat]ial itself ex]ts a c]ta9 influ5ce1 n only ^u ! rate ( introduction ( heat1 b also ^u ! am\nt tak5 up4 ,?us qu>tz s& hav+ ! highe/ d5sity 7greate/ weight p] cubic foot7 & also ! highe/ capacity = heat among ! usual m9]al soil-+r$i5ts1 w1 mass = mass1 exp]i5ce a small] rise ( temp]ature ?an w\ld clay or loam soil1 ( less d5sity or volume-weight1 & also ( l[] heat-capacity4 ,:ile ?is holds good !oretically1 diff]5ces correspond+ to ?is consid]ation r>ely occur 9 nature1 = ! reason t ! mu* great] influ5ce ( ! me*anical condition ( ! soil mo/ly ov]balances ^! effects4 ,?us ,wollny has %[n t :ile qu>tz is a bett] heat-conductor ?an clay1 qu>tz cobbles or gravel w mat]ially increase ! temp]ature ( ! soil 9 :i* !y are imb$d$4 ,yet compact clay is a bett] conductor ( heat ?an loose s&2 h5ce ! latt]1 :5 expos$ to ! int5se heat ( ! summ] sun 9 ! des]t1 becomes int5sely hot on ! surface1 yet all[s ( ! exi/5ce ( abundant moi/ure at a dep? ( t5 or twelve in*es2 :ile clay 9 ! same region1 be+ usually 9 a compact$ condition1 w %[ a l[] surface-temp]ature & w be w>m] & dri] at a dep? at :i* s& w /ill reta9 abundant moi/ure1 & be comp>atively cool 7,see *ap4 #ac1 p4 #beg47 ,s mu* inde$ dep5ds ^u ! /ate ( me*anical division & flocculation 9 :i* ! sev]al soils may happ5 to be1 t a h>d-&-fa/ /atem5t 9 reg>d to _! relations to heat _c & %\ld n be giv51 z x w\ld only lead to disappo9tm5ts & practical mi/akes2 ! m z 9 all cases ! moi/ure-condition ex]ts an influ5ce pr$om9at+ by f> ov] t ( ! dry mat]ial itself1 & ?is moi/ure-condition is subject to rapid *anges1 ow+ to intr9sic diff]5ces 9 ! sev]al classes ( soils4 ,wollny /ates z ! result ( 8 exp]im5ts1 t 9 summ] s&y soils are w>me/2 !n hum\s1 lime & loam soils2 :ile 9 w9t] hum\s soils are w>me/1 !n loams2 & s& colde/4 ,influ5ce ( ,evaporation4--,9 treat+ ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,soil ,moi/ure 7*apt] #ac71 ! effects1 conditions & control ( evaporation f ! soil h already be5 discuss$ f sev]al po9ts ( view2 s t a summ>y review ( ! subject mu/ suffice 9 ?is place4 ,x has be5 /at$ above t 9 ! case ( an av]age loam soil saturat$ ) wat]1 ! heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] "o degree w\ld be ab\t twice t ne$$ to s *ange ! dry soil mat]ial itself4 ,b if x is requir$ to evaporate ! same am\nt ( wat] f ! soil1 ne>ly t5 7#i4ffg7 times t am\nt ( heat w be requir$2 or 9 ! case assum$1 tw5ty times z mu* z w\ld suffice to raise ! temp]ature ( ! dry soil ?r\gh an equal int]val ( temp]ature4 ,:ile 9 a few cases ! cool+ ( ! soil by evaporation is desirable1 9 ! va/ majority ( cases x is injuri\s to ! progress ( vegetation1 & %\ld be re/rict$ z mu* z possible by ! means outl9$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,=mation ( ,dew4--,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r aspect ( evaporation f ! soil :i* has be5 long misund]/ood1 al?\gh ! true /ate ( ! case 0 p>tially recogniz$ long ago4 ,dew is 9 common p>lance said to 8fall10 x be+ suppos$ t1 l ra91 x is d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,:ile ?is is p>tially true1 inasmu* z f v moi/1 & notably f foggy air dew is frequ5tly deposit$ on grass & foliage g5]ally1 z well z on wood & o!r /rongly heat-radiat+ surfaces2 yet z a matt] ( fact1 9 by f> ! majority ( cases1 z %[n by ,h4 ,e4 ,/ockbridge#aje & confirm$ by ev]yday obs]vation1 dew is =m$ f ! vapor ris+ f ! w>m] soil into a cold] atmosph]e1 & cond5s$ on ! mo/ /rongly heat-radiat+ surfaces ne> ! gr\nd1 su* z grass1 leaves bo? gre5 & dry1 wood1 & o!r objects fir/ enc\nt]+ ! ris+ vapor4 ,9 manife/ pro( ( ?is x w be not$ t v heavy dews may be se5 on ! gr\nd1 :5 ! ro(s ( h\ses z well z ! high] %rubs & trees rema9 p]fectly dry4 ,9 w9t] ?is may be mo/ /rik+ly se5 9 ! deposition ( ho>-fro/ 9 & imm$iately ar\nd ! cracks ( plank sidewalks1 ^: surface rema9s dry4 #aje 8,rocks & ,soils10 pp4 #age-ahi4 ,dew r>ely adds ,moi/ure4--,c&id obs]vations w conv9ce any "o1 !re=e1 t 9 mo/ cases ! suppos$ addition to ! moi/ure ( ! soil f dews is an illusion4 ,:atev] dewdrops fall on ! gr\nd are 9 g5]al simply ! return to ! soil ( a "p ( :at came f x2 :ile ! dew t evaporates f ! b$ew$ leaves or o!r objects repres5ts simply a delay$ outgo ( moi/ure f ! soil1 :i* = a "t ret>ds evaporation direct f ! soil1 & ?us effects a slight sav+ ( moi/ure4 ,b :ile ?is is measurably true ( inl& & especially ( cont95tal areas l ! great pla9s ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 x is also true t 9 deep moi/ valleys1 & on ! ra9y & foggy coa/ regions ( cont95ts1 dews are f\nd to bo? fall & rise1 n uncommonly to su* an ext5t z to be equival5t to a n inconsid]able aggregate precipitation4 ,?us 9 ! moi/ coa/ belt ( ,oregon & ,wa%+ton ly+ we/ ( ! ,cascade range ( m\nta9s1 ! morn+ dews ( summ] are frequ5tly s copi\s t ! wat] falls 9 %[]s f ! l[] trees & %rubs1 s z to necessitate ! use ( wat]-pro( clo?+ :5 trav]s+ ! woods 9 ! morn+1 q z mu* z ?\gh ra9 0 actually fall+4 ,9 hilly & m especially 9 m\nta9\s regions ! cold air desc5d+ f above & fl[+ d[n 9 ! rav9es w (t5 cause a heavy cond5sation ( dew 9 ^!1 :ile ! bord]+ ridges1 :i* rise above ! cold curr5ts1 rema9 free f dew4 ,^! desc5d+ curr5ts z a rule n only br+ no surplus moi/ure ) !m1 b 9 _! d[nw>d c\rse become w>m] by contraction & !re=e relatively dri]4 ,9 ^! cases also1 !re=e1 ! dew is purely moi/ure d]iv$ f ! gr\nd1 :i* 9 ris+ enc\nt]s ! cold air & is ?us cond5s$4 ,! fact t dew is mo/ commonly d]iv$ f ! soil c\ld h be5 =ese5 f ! o!r fact1 long asc]ta9$ & kn[n1 t dur+ ! night ! soil is z a rule w>m] ?an ! air above x2 z has be5 %[n by ! e>li] obs]v]s1 z well z m specifically by ,/ockbridge4 ,dew )9 ! ,soil4--,x is obvi\s t :5ev] dew is =m$ above ! surface ( ! soil1 ! air )9 ! latt] mu/ be at or ne> its po9t ( saturation ) vapor1 z 9 fact is usually ! case a few in*es bel[ ! surface4 ,x foll[s t :5 a depression ( temp]ature occurs )9 ! soil1 e4 g41 at night1 dew mu/ be deposit$ )9 ! soil d[n to ! dep? to :i* ! nightly v>iation rea*es1 increas+ at t dep? z ! vapor f ! w>m] soil bel[ rises1 to be 9 its turn cond5s$4 ,!re is ?us =m$ at t level a zone ( great] moi/ure1 :i* may sometimes be not$ 9 digg+ pits1 by a deep] t9t1 )\t any correspond+ v>iation 9 ! nature ( ! soil4 ,! daily repetition ( ?is process1 at v>y+ dep?s1 & its great] or less recurr5ce at or ne> ! limit-levels ( mon?ly & ev5 annual v>iations1 mu/ ex]t a n inconsid]able influ5ce ^u ! v]tical di/ribution ( moi/ure 9 ! soil2 :i* in/ead ( be+ usually f\nd 9 horizontal b&s or zones ( v>y+ moi/ure-cont5ts1 is usually rem>kably uni=m = consid]able dep?s1 despite ! fitfully recurr5t additions f ra9s4 ,x is at lea/ probable t ?is process ( dew-=mation )9 ! soil mat]ially assi/s capill>ity 9 effect+ a measurably uni=m v]tical di/ribution ( moi/ure4 7,see also page #bjg1 *apt] #aa74 ,plant-developm5t "u diff]5t ,temp]ature ,conditions4--,9 ! arctic regions ! gr\nd1 froz5 9 w9t] to unkn[n dep?s1 may ?aw to only ?ree to five feet dur+ ! summ]1 not)/&+ ! great l5g? & cont9u\s sun%9e ( ! arctic day4 ,! %all[-root$ arctic flora develops v rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( ! cont9u\s daylight & heat1 9 ! c\rse ( f five to eight weeks4 ,! se$s ( ^! plants mu/1 ( c\rse1 be capable ( g]m9at+ at v l[ temp]atures2 & z a matt] ( fact1 we f9d t bo? 9 ! arctic regions & 9 ! high] m\nta9s1 c]ta9 plants are f\nd gr[+ & bloom+ on slopes fleck$ ) sn[2 ea* plant surr\nd$ by a small circle ( b>e gr\nd1 :]e ! sn[ has be5 melt$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! d>k-t9t$ e>? & leaves4 ,x is cle> t "h g]m9ation has occurr$1 ! foliage has be5 =m$1 & ! roots h be5 ex]cis+ _! vegetable functions1 9 gr\nd soak$ ) wat] practically ice-cold4 ,g]m9ation ( ,se$s4--,:ile wild plants ( special adaptation may ?rive 9 v l[ 7or high7 temp]atures1 x is also true t few ( our cultivat$ plants w g]m9ate1 & /ill less gr[ ?riftily1 at su* l[ temp]atures4 ,! limit bel[ :i* mo/ cultivat$ plants may be consid]$ z rema9+ practically inactive lies betwe5 #d4d & #g4b ,c4 7#dj & #de ,f474 ,few tropical plants w g]m9ate mu* bel[ #bc4h 7#ge ,f47 & 9 "s cases n bel[ #ce ,c5t4 7#ie ,f474 ,ev5 maize & pumpk9s1 accord+ to ,hab]l&t1 g]m9ate mo/ rapidly betwe5 #ce & #ch4c ,c4 7#ie & #aja ,f471 :ile = :eat1 rye1 oats & flax ! be/ temp]ature = g]m9ation lies betwe5 #ba4a to #bf4a 7#gj to #gi74 ,"u ! mo/ favorable conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure1 "s small se$s :i* readily absorb moi/ure w g]m9ate 9 f tw5ty-f\r to =ty-eight h\rs1 :ile at a l[] temp]ature !y may require f ?ree days to two weeks4 ,?us ,hab]l&t f\nd t :ile oats w\ld g]m9ate 9 two days at a temp]ature ( #ag4b to #ag4e ,c4 7#fc to #fc4e71 x took a full week = g]m9ation :5 ! temp]ature 0 only #e ,c4 7#da ,f474 ,x is obvi\s t se$s rema9+ in]t 9 ! soil = su* l5g?s ( "t w be subject to a v>iety ( vicissitudes t may injure or de/roy _! vitality4 ,!re are _m bact]ia & fung\s p>asites :i* at l[ temp]atures are p]fectly capable ( attack+ & de/roy+ ! wat]-soak$ se$4 ,!re is ?us = ea* plant1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/1 a c]ta9 temp]ature mo/ favorable to developm5t2 & bo? above & bel[ ?is1 ! vegetative activity is s]i\sly int]f]$ ) or :olly *eck$4 ,a k ( ^! limits is manife/ly ( ! utmo/ practical importance4 ,! influ5ce ( too high a temp]ature 9 prev5t+ ! g]m9ation ( c9*ona se$ f ,india1 0 curi\sly exemplifi$ :5 x 0 subject$ to a suppos$ly favorable /eady temp]ature ( #bc4h ,c4 7#ge ,f47 "u o!rwise mo/ favorable conditions4 ,n a s+le "o came up 9 ! c\rse ( six weeks1 & ! box 9 :i* x _h be5 s[n 0 put away outside ( ! ho?\se z a failure4 ,)9 two weeks a full /& ( se$l+s 0 obta9$1 at temp]atures rang+ betwe5 #ab4g & #ae4e ,c4 7#ee & #fj ,f474 ,! fact t ! c9*ona is a tree ( ! l[] slopes ( ! ,&es 7?ree to five ?\s& feet7 al?\gh at home /rictly )9 ! tropics1 expla9s ! app>5t anomaly4 ,,"p ,,?ird4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,soils4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,physico-,,*emical ,,inve/igation ,,( ,,soils ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,crop ,,production4 ,! *emical con/itu5ts ( soils h be5 incid5tally m5tion$ & discuss$ above1 bo? 9 connection ) ! processes ( soil-=mation1 & ) ! m9]als t ma9ly p>ticipate !re94 ,! mann] ( _! occurr5ce & _! relations to plant life1 s f> z kn[n1 mu/ n[ be consid]$ m 9 detail4 ,,hi/orical ,,review ,,( ,,soil ,,inve/igation4 ,:ile ! obvi\s importance ( ! physical soil-conditions has long ago r5d]$ !m subjects ( close /udy by ,s*bl]#ajf ,b\ss+ault & o!rs1 ! *emi/ry ( soils 0 v g5]ally neglect$ = a consid]able p]iod1 aft] ! hopes at fir/ ent]ta9$ by ,liebig t *emical analysis w\ld furni% a direct indication & measure ( soil f]tility1 _h be5 sorely disappo9t$ 9 respect to ! only soils !n inve/igat$1 viz41 ! long-cultivat$ ones ( ,europe4 ,! results ( *emical analysis sometimes agre$1 b z (t5 po9t$ly disagre$1 ) cultural exp]i5ces2 s t aft] ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b few ?\ght x wor? :ile to occupy _! "t 9 *emical soil analysis4 #ajf ,! e>ly "w ( ,s*bl] on soil physics1 publi%$ at ,leipzig 9 #ahch "u ! title ( 8,grundstze d] ,agrikultur*emie0 & n[ almo/ inaccessible outside ( old libr>ies1 is rem>kable z hav+ anticipat$ v def9itely mu* t has s9ce be5 br\ght =w>d & elaborat$ anew4 ,he is really ! fa!r ( agricultural physics4 ,popul> ,=eca/s ( ,soil ,values4--,9 newly-settl$ c\ntries1 & /ill m 9 ^? yet to be settl$1 ! que/ions ( ! imm$iate productive capacity1 & ! future durability ( ! virg9 l& are ! burn+ ones1 s9ce !y det]m9e ! future ( ?\s&s = weal or woe4 ,?is ne$ has long ago l$ to approximate e/imates made on ! "p ( ! settl]1 by ! obs]vation ( ! native gr[?1 especially ! tree gr[?2 & :]e ?is consi/s ( famili> species1 normally develop$1 su* e/imates on ! "p ( exp]i5c$ m51 bas$ on previ\s cultural exp]i5ce1 are g5]ally v accurate2 s mu* s t 9 _m ( ! new] /ates !y h be5 adopt$ 9 det]m9+ n only ! m>ket value1 b also ! tax rate ^u su* l&s1 _! productiv5ess1 & probable durability be+ a matt] ( common note4 ,?us 9 ! long-leaf p9e upl&s ( ! ,cotton ,/ates1 ! scatt]$ settlem5ts h fully demon/rat$ t aft] two or ?ree ye>s cropp+ ) corn1 rang+ f z mu* z #be bu%els p] acre ! fir/ ye> to t5 & less ! ?ird1 f]tilization is absolutely necess>y to f>!r pay+ cultivation4 ,%\ld ! %ort-leav$ p9e m+le ) ! long-leav$1 production may hold out = f five to sev5 ye>s4 ,if oaks & hickory are sup]add$1 z _m z twelve ye>s ( good production )\t f]tilization may be look$ = by ! f>m]2 & %\ld ! long-leav$ p9e disappe> altoge!r1 ! m+l$ gr[? ( oaks & %ort-leav$ p9e w enc\rage him to hope = f twelve to fifte5 ye>s ( fair production )\t f]tilization4 ,correspond+ e/imates bas$ ^u ! tree gr[? & 9 "p also ^u m9or vegetation1 are curr5t 9 ! ri*] l&s also4 ,! 8black-oak & hickory upl&s10 ! 8po/-oak flats10 8hickory bottoms10 8gum bottoms10 8hackb]ry hammocks10 8po/-oak prairie10 8r$-c$> prairie10 & scores ( o!r simil> designations1 possess a v def9ite mean+ 9 ! m9ds ( f>m]s & are con/antly us$ z a tru/wor?y basis = b>ga9 & sale1 & = crop e/imates4 ,moreov]1 exp]i5c$ m5 w ev5 aft] _m ye>s' cultivation be able to di/+ui% ^! v>i\s k9ds ( l&s f "o ano!r4 ,cog5cy ( ,conclusions bas$ ^u ,native ,gr[?4--,s9ce ! native vegetation normally repres5ts ! results ( secul> or ev5 mill5nial adaptation ( plants to climatic & soil-conditions1 ?is use ( ! native flora seems em95tly rational4 ,moreov]1 x is obvi\s t if we 7 able to int]pret correctly ! mean+ ( su* vegetation ) respect n only to cultural conditions & crops1 b also z reg>ds ! exact physical & *emical nature ( ! soil1 s z to recognize ! causes ( ! obs]v$ vegetative pref]5ces2 we %\ld be enabl$ to project t recognition into ^? cases :]e native vegetation is n pres5t to s]ve z a guide2 & we might ?us r5d] ! physical & *emical exam9ation ( soils z useful practically1 ev]y:]e1 z is1 locally1 ! obs]vation ( ! native gr[?s4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 su* k w\ld be useful 9 det]m9+ ! sali5t *>act]s ( cultivat$ soils1 also2 & w\ld be ! m useful & def9ite 9 its practical indications ! m ne>ly ! cultural hi/ory ( ! l& is kn[n1 & ! less ! latt] has be5 *ang$ by f]tilization4 ,=1 s soon z ! fir/ flu% ( production has pass$1 ! "q ( h[ to f]tilize mo/ effectually & *eaply dem&s solution4 ,x 0 f ?is /&po9t1 sugge/$ by 8 e>ly exp]i5ce 9 ! ,middle ,we/ & subsequ5tly mo/ impressively pres5t$ to him 9 ! prosecution ( ! geological & agricultural survey ( ,mississippi1 t ! writ] orig9ally und]took1 9 #aheg1 ! detail$ /udy ( ! physical *>act]s & *emical composition ( soils4 ,x seem$ to him incr$ible t ! well-def9$ & practically s important di/9ctions bas$ on natural vegetation1 ev]y:]e recogniz$ & cont9ually act$ ^u by f>m]s & settl]s1 %\ld n be traceable to def9ite physical & *emical diff]5ces 9 ! respective l&s1 by compet5t1 compreh5sively-tra9$ sci5tific obs]v]s1 ^: field ( vision %\ld be broad en\gh to embrace concurr5tly ! sev]al po9ts ( view--geological1 physical1 *emical & botanical--t mu/ be conjo9tly consid]$ 9 =m+ "o's judgm5t ( l&4 ,su* tra9$ obs]v]s %\ld n m]ely d z well z ! 8untutor$ f>m]10 b a great deal bett]4 8,ecological0 /udies4--,yet ?us f> we va9ly seek 9 g5]al agricultural lit]ature = any sy/ematic or consi/5t /udies ( ^! relations4 ,we d f9d 8ecological0 li/s ( trees & o!r plants1 or 8plant associations10 gr[+ 9 c]ta9 regions or l& areas1 describ$ 9 "s ( ! g5]al t]ms :i* may ref] equally well to l&s ( pr(use productiv5ess1 or to su* z w h>dly pay = taxes :5 cultivat$4 ,or :5 ! productive value is m5tion$1 ! probable cause ( su* value is b>ely allud$ to1 ev5 conjecturally1 unless x be 9 describ+ ! 8plant =mations0 z x]ophytic1 mesophytic or hydrophytic1 ^u ! arbitr>y assumption t moi/ure is ! only gov]n+ factor2 :olly ignor+ su* vitally important factors z ! physical texture ( ! soil1 its dep?1 ! nature ( ! sub/rata1 & ! 7(t5times abundantly obvi\s7 pr$om9ant *emical nature ( ! l&4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 we f9d ev5 public surveys proce$+ ^u ! basis ( physical data alone1 practically ignor+ ! botanical & *emical po9t ( view1 & inf]5tially d5y+1 or at lea/ ignor+1 _! relevancy to ! practical problems ( ! f>m4#ajg #ajg ,bull4 #bb1 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture4 ,e>ly ,soil ,surveys ( ,k5tucky1 ,arkansas & ,mississippi4--,among ! few :o dur+ ! middle ( ! pa/ c5tury ma9ta9$ _! belief 9 ! possibility ( practically useful results f direct soil inve/igation1 7 ,drs4 ,david ,dale ,ow5 & ,rob]t ,pet]1 :o prosecut$ su* "w ext5sively 9 connection ) ! geological & agricultural surveys ( ,k5tucky & ,arkansas2 & ! writ]1 :o c>ri$ out simil> "w 9 ! /ates ( ,mississippi & ,l\isiana1 ) results 9 _m respects s def9ite t he has ev] s9ce reg>d$ ?is z a mo/ fruitful /udy1 & has lat] cont9u$ x 9 ,cali=nia & ! ,pacific ,nor?we/4 ,?is 0 done 9 ! face ( almo/ uni=m disc\ragem5t f agricultural *emi/s until )9 ! la/ two decades2 ) occasional sev]e criticisms ( ?is "w z a wa/e ( labor & ( public funds4 ,inve/igation ( ,cultivat$ ,soils4--,all ?is opposition 0 l>gely due to ! prejudices eng5d]$ by ! futile attempts to d$uce practically useful results f ! *emical analysis ( soils long cultivat$1 )\t fir/ /udy+ ! less complex ph5om5a ( virg9 soils2 & ^! prejudices p]si/$ longe/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ev5 ?\gh 9 ,europe ! reaction aga9/ ! ha/y rejection ( *emical soil "w _h begun "s "t be=e2 z is evid5c$ by ! me?ods employ$ at ! ,ro?am/$ ,exp]im5tal ,f>m 9 ,engl&1 ! ,agricultural ,college ( ,france1 ! ,russian agronomic surveys1 & at sev]al po9ts 9 ,g]many4 ,9 none ( ^! cases1 h[ev]1 m ?an ! purely *emical or physico-*emical /&po9t 0 assum$2 al?\gh 9 ,russia at lea/1 virg9 soils 7 easily obta9able & _! native gr[? v]ifiable2 & 7 actually 9 "p made ! subject ( *emical inve/igation4 ,9 ! c\rse ( _! "w1 ,ow5 & ,pet] always c>efully record$ ! native vegetation ( ! soils collect$2 b nei!r seems to h =mulat$ def9itely ! idea t su* vegetation might be made ! basis ( direct correlation ( soil-composition ) cultural exp]i5ce4 ,ow5 repeat$ly express$ to ! writ] 8 conviction t su* a correlation c\ld be def9itely e/abli%$ by close /udy2 b e>ly dea? prev5t$ 8 p]sonal elaboration ( ! results ( 8 "w4 ,pet] likewise /\tly ma9ta9$ to ! la/ 8 conviction t soil analysis 0 ! key to ! =eca/+ ( cultural possibilities2 b n be+ a botani/ he did n see 8 way to put su* =eca/s into def9ite =m4 ,*ange ( ,views4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z well1 ! anci5t prejudices h n[ gradually giv5 way be=e ! urg5t call = m def9ite in=mation ?an c\ld o!rwise possibly be giv5 to f>m]s by ! exp]im5t /ations1 mo/ ( ^: cultural exp]im5ts1 made )\t any def9ite k ( ! nature ( ! soil "u trial1 7 f\nd to be ( little value outside ( _! own exp]im5tal fields4 ,ev5 ! multiplication ( culture /ations 9 sev]al /ates1 unaccompani$ by soil rese>*1 is f\nd to be a delusive repetition ( ! same inconclusive1 r&om exp]im5t+1 s9ce x takes into consid]ation only ! climatic diff]5ces1 b leaves out ( consid]ation ! pot5t factors ( soil quality & soil v>iations4 ,at mo/ ^! 7 usually m5tion$ by !m 9 su* indef9ite t]ms z 8a clay loam10 8a co>se s&y soil10 8gray s$im5t l&10 & ! l2 frequ5tly n ev5 ) a /atem5t ( ! dep? & "* ( ! subsoil & sub/rata1 mu* less ( _! geological d]ivation or correlations4 ,?us any "o n happ5+ to be p]sonally acqua9t$ ) ! l& 9 "q w\ld be :olly )\t def9ite data to correlate ! results ) 8 own case4 ,x is q obvi\s t ev5 if only to make possible ! id5tification ( new l&s ) o!rs t h already fall5 "u cultural exp]i5ce1 & c !re=e af=d useful indications to ! new settl]1 a close physical & *emical *>act]ization ( l&s %\ld be made ! special object ( /udy by ! exp]im5t /ations & public surveys1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! new] /ates4 ,advantages = ,soil ,/udy (f]$ by ,virg9 ,l&s4--,among ! special advantages1 !n1 (f]$ by virg9 soils = ! /udy ( ! correlations ( soils & crops1 ! usual exi/5ce ( a native flora1 repres5t+ ! results ( secul> adaptation1 is ( fundam5tal importance4 ,z x is at ?is "t /ill hi/orically kn[n ( mo/ l&s we/ ( ! ,allegh5ies :at 0 _! orig9al timb] gr[?1 x is cle> t _! orig9al condition c /ill be asc]ta9$ by comp>ison ) uncultivat$ l&s ( simil> gr[?1 usually n v f> away2 & z _! cultural hi/ory also is l>gely )9 ! memory ( ! liv+ g5]ation1 ! behavior ( su* l&s "u cultivation is kn[n or v]ifiable4 ,=emo/ among ! data ?us asc]ta9able is ! duration ( satisfactory crop production1 & its av]age am\nt4 ,to asc]ta9 ^! surviv+ data by inquiry among ! f>m+ population %\ld be among ! =emo/ duties ( ^? connect$ ) soil surveys2 & p]sons temp]am5tally unable to enli/ ! f>m]'s sympa?y & int]e/ 9 su* inquiries mu/ be consid]$ s]i\sly h&icapp$1 no matt] :at _! sci5tific qualifications may be4 ,9 no que/ is x m lit]ally true t !re is no "o f :om ! e>ne/ inquir] may n le>n some?+ wor? kn[+4 ,practical ,utility ( ,*emical ,soil-,analysis2 ,p]man5t ,value vs4 ,imm$iate ,productiv5ess4--,9 _m exi/+ treatises s mu* emphasis is giv5 to ! alleg$ pro(s ( ! inutility ( *emical soil exam9ation 9 p>ticul>1 t a special controv]sion ( ^! argum5ts seems necess>y1 9 connection ) a detail$ /atem5t ( :at c1 & 9 "p has be51 done 9 t direction4 ,h5ce ! (t5-repeat$ allusion1 9 ! sequel1 to po9ts be>+ on ?is "q4 ,h5ce1 also1 ! detail$ discussion ( _m po9ts :i* 9 mo/ agricultural publications are giv5 only pass+ notice4 ,9 all ^! discussions ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! p]man5t-productive value ( soils1 z aga9/ t ( _! imm$iate produc+ capacity1 mu/ be /rictly kept 9 view4 ,! =m] int]e/s vitally ! p]man5t settl] or f>m]2 ! latt] conc]ns ! imm$iate outlook = crop production1 ! 8,dng]zu/&0 ( ! ,g]mans4 ,! me?ods = ! asc]ta9m5t ( ^! two factors are :olly di/9ct1 ev5 ?\gh ! results & _! causes are 9 mo/ cases intimately correlat$4 ,! failure to obs]ve ?is di/9ction acc\nts = a great deal ( ! obloquy & reproa* t has 9 ! pa/ s (t5 be5 heap$ ^u *emical soil-analysis & its advocates4 ,,physical ,,& ,,*emical ,,conditions ,,( ,,plant ,,gr[?4 ,:ile x is true t plants _c =m _! sub/ance or develop heal?y gr[? 9 ! abs5ce or sc>city ( ! *emical +r$i5ts m5tion$ on page xxxi ( ?is volume1 x is also true t !y _c use ^! unless ! physical conditions ( normal vegetation are fir/ fulfill$4 ,bo? sets ( conditions are intr9sically equally important & exact+ z to _! fulfilm5t2 & ! f>m]s' task is to br+ ab\t ?is concurr5ce to ! utmo/ ext5t possible4 ,! *emical +r$i5ts ( plant-food c1 h[ev]1 be artificially suppli$ 9 ! =m ( f]tiliz]s1 %\ld !y be defici5t 9 ! soil2 b z has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ pages1 x is n always possible to correct1 )9 ! limits ( f>m economy1 physical defects exi/+ 9 ! l&4 ,h5ce1 h[ev] important is ! natural ri*ness ( ! soil 9 plant-food1 ! fir/ c>e %\ld always be giv5 to ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! prop] physical conditions 9 ! soil1 subsoil & sub/rata4 ,)\t ^!1 (t5times1 no am\nt ( cultivation1 f]tilization & irrigation is effective 9 assur+ pr(itable cultural results4 ,condition ( ! ,plant-food ,+r$i5ts 9 ! ,soil4--,b ev5 ! abundant pres5ce ( ! plant-food +r$i5ts1 z %[n by analysis1 w n avail1 unless at lea/ an adequate portion ( ! same exi/s 9 a =m or =ms accessible to plants4 ,( c\rse ?is condition w\ld seem to be be/ fulfill$ by ! +r$i5ts 9 "q be+ 9 ! wat]-soluble condition4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 plants are q s5sitive to an ov]-supply ( soluble m9]al salts1 z is evid5c$ by ! injuri\s effects produc$ by ! latt] 9 sal9e & alkali l&s4 ,fur!rmore1 sub/ances 9 t =m w\ld be v liable to be wa%$ or lea*$ out ( ! soil by heavy ra9s or irrigation1 & w\ld be lo/ 9 ! c\ntry dra9age4 ,x is !re=e cle>ly desirable t only a relatively small proportion ( ! useful soil-+r$i5ts %\ld be 9 ! wat]-soluble or physically absorb$ condition1 b t a l>g] supply %\ld be pres5t 9 =ms n s easily soluble1 yet accessible to ! solv5t action :i* ! acids ( ! soil & ( ! roots ( plants are capable ( ex]cis+4 ,?is virtually available supply we may designate z ! res]ve food-/ore4 ,f9ally1 !re is practically 9 all soils a c]ta9 proportion ( ! soil-m9]als 9 _! orig9al =m1 z !y exi/$ 9 ! rock-mat]ials f :i* ! soil 0 =m$4 ,^! m9]als be+ usually 9 a m or less f9ely divid$ or pulv]ul5t condition1 !y are attack$ mu* m rapidly by ! *emically-act+ 8wea!r+0 ag5cies1 viz41 wat]1 oxyg51 c>bonic & humus acids1 ?an :5 9 solid masses2 & ?us1 trans=mation ( ! in]t rock-p[d] into ! o!r two classes ( m9]al soil-+r$i5ts progresses 9 naturally f]tile soils ) suffici5t rapidity to produce1 9 a s+le season1 s5sible & practically important results1 kn[n z ! effects ( fall[+4 ,! ,res]ve4--,! nature ( ^! processes has be5 discuss$ 9 *apt]s #a to #d2 & x w be rememb]$ t two ( _! mo/ prom95t results are ! =mation ( clay1 & ( zeolitic-comp\nds1 ! latt] be+1 z h]et(ore /at$ 7pp4 #cf ff7 hydr\s silicates ( e>?s & alkalies1 easily decomposable by acids1 & also capable ( ex*ang+ "p or ! :ole ( su* basic +r$i5ts ) solutions ( o!rs t may ent] ! soil4 ,^! zeolitic comp\nds !re=e fulfil two important functions 9 ! premises1 viz43 a ready yield+-up ( "p ( _! +r$i5ts to acid solv5ts1 & a t5d5cy to fix1 by ex*ange1 a portion or ! :ole ( ! soluble comp\nds t may be set free 91 or br\ght ^u ! l&4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ prop]ty is ( direct avail 9 t ! soil-humus =ms1 & ! roots ( plants exude1 acid solv5ts on _! surface1 & c ?us draw ^u ! res]ve /ore ( food2 ! second tells 9 ! direction ( prev5t+ ! wa/e ( wat]-soluble manurial +r$i5ts suppli$ to1 or =m$ 9 ! soil4 7,see above1 *apt] #c1 page #ch74 ,! res]ve food-/ore may !n be plac$ "u ! foll[+ heads3 ,hydr\s or 8zeolitic0 silicates1 f :i* dilute acids c take up ! bases pota%1 soda1 lime & magnesia4 ,^! silicates may be 9 ei!r ! gelat9\s or p[d]y =m2 9 ! =m] case !y may also occlude wat]-soluble sub/ances4 ,c>bonates ( lime & magnesia1 :i* are readily dissolv$ by c>bonat$ wat] z well z by ! vegetable acids4 ,phosphates ( lime & magnesia1 n v readily soluble 9 c>bonat$ wat]1 b m readily attack$ by ! acids ( ! soil & ( plant roots2 ?us supply+ phosphoric acid to plants4 ,! m f9ely divid$ !y are ! m readily !y are dissolv$2 "s soils conta9+ only cry/all9e ne$les ( apatite 7see *ap4 #e1 p4 #fc7 only are nev]!less poor 9 available phosphoric acid4 ,! natural phosphates ( iron & alum9a are practically insoluble 9 all solv5ts at ! disposal ( vegetation & ?\gh pres5t 9 consid]able am\nts 9 "s soils1 7see *apt] #ai1 page #cee71 may be consid]$ z be+ p]man5tly in]t1 & !re=e n to be c\nt$ among ! soil res\rces = plant nutrition4 ,z yet no artificial process by :i* _! phosphoric acid c be made available )9 ! soil1 has be5 discov]$4 ,wat]-soluble ,+r$i5ts4--,z reg>ds ^! x has already be5 expla9$ t !y are l>gely reta9$ 9 ! condition ( purely physical adsorption1 z 9 ! case ( *>coal or qu>tz s&1 ?r\gh :i* sea wat] filt]s & is !reby p>tially depriv$ ( its salts4 ,b ^! c be gradually )drawn by wa%+ ) pure wat] alone1 & /ill m easily :5 /rong] solv5ts are us$4 ,s9ce ! soil-wat] is always m or less *>g$ ) c>bonic acid1 & ! roots !mselves secrete c>bonic z well z /rong] acids 9 _! absorption ( m9]al plant-food1 !re is no difficulty ab\t expla9+ ! mann] 9 :i* su* physically cond5s$ +r$i5ts are tak5 up4#ajh #ajh ,:itney 7,bull4 #bb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils7 claims on ! basis ( a l>ge numb] ( 7?ree-m9ute7 extractions ( soils made ) di/ill$ wat]1 t ^! solutions are ess5tially ( ! same composition 9 all soils2 t all soils conta9 en\gh plant-food to produce crops indef9itely2 & t ! diff]5ces 9 production are due :olly to diff]5ces 9 ! moi/ure supply1 :i* he claims is1 aside f climate1 ! only gov]n+ factor 9 plant gr[?4 ,! tables ( analytical results giv5 9 ,bull4 #bb fail to su/a9 ! fir/ cont5tion2 ! second is po9t$ly contradict$ bo? by practical exp]i5ce1 & by ?\s&s ( cumulative culture exp]im5ts made by sci5tific obs]v]s2 ! ?ird fails ) ! second1 except ( c\rse 9 s f> z an adequate supply ( moi/ure is kn[n to be an absolute condition bo? ( plant gr[?1 & ! utilization ( plant-food4 ,x is moreov] well kn[n t x is n wat] alone1 b wat] impregnat$ m or less ) humic & c>bonic acids1 t is ! active solv5t surr\nd+ ! plant root4 ,recognition ( ! ,prom95t ,*emical ,"* ( ,soils4 ,9 a =m] *apt] ! soils =m$ f ! sev]al m9]als & rocks h be5 discuss$ 9 a g5]al mann]4 ,we c z a rule obta9 "s insight into ! nature ( any soil :i* we c trace to its p>5t rock or rocks1 if we are acqua9t$ ) ! composition ( ! latt]4 ,simil>ly1 b 9 a mu* m direct mann]1 we c obta9 a /rong presumption z to ! nature ( any soil by det]m9+ ! undecompos$ m9]als pres5t 9 x4 ,9 all ord9>y cases ! presumption mu/ be t ! decompos$ portion ( ! soil has be5 d]iv$ f ! m9]als /ill f\nd 9 x4 ,( c\rse x may happ5 9 ! case ( l&s d]iv$ f widely di/9ct & di/ant regions t no su* *>act]i/ic m9]als c be f\nd2 ?is is v commonly true ( ! soils =m+ ! deltas ( l>ge riv]s1 9 :i* sometimes ! only rema9+ recognizable m9]al is qu>tz 9 its sev]al =ms1 ) occasional gra9s ( su* h>dy m9]als z t\rmal9e1 g>net1 etc4 ,ap>t f su* cases1 ! h& l5s or ! microscope p]mits u to recognize 9 mo/ soils ! m9]als t h ma9ly contribut$ to _! =mation1 ?us also ga9+ a clew to _! prom95t *emical nature4 ,su* recognition sometimes involves1 ( c\rse1 a some:at intimate k ( m9]alogy2 yet a little practice w enable almo/ any "o to id5tify ! m important soil-=m+ m9]als1 "u ! l5s or microscope1 accord+ to ! degree ( abrasion or decomposition !y may h und]gone4 ,! details ( su* rese>*es lie outside ( ! limits ( ?is treatise1 b "s g5]al directions on ! subject are giv5 f>!r on4#aji #aji ,see ,app5dix ,b4 ,acidity1 ,neutrality1 ,alkal9ity4--,a te/ nev] to be omitt$ is t ( ! reaction ( ! soil on litmus or o!r te/ pap]1 to asc]ta9 its acid1 neutral or alkal9e reaction4 ,%\ld ! latt] occur quickly 7by ! prompt blue+ ( r$ litmus pap]71 8black alkali0 w\ld be indicat$2 b a blue+ aft] #bj to #cj m9utes means m]ely t a suffici5cy ( lime c>bonate is pres5t4 ,an acid reaction 7! r$d5+ ( blue litmus pap]7 ( c\rse indicates a 8s\r0 soil 7see *ap4 #h1 page #abb74 ,*emical ,analysis ( ,soils4--,:5 ! obs]vations m5tion$ above give no v decisive results or inf]5ces z to ! soil's *emical "*1 ! m elaborate processes ( qualitative & quantitative *emical analysis may be call$ 94 ,x w\ld seem at fir/ sight t ^! ought to yield v def9ite results to guide ! cultivator2 yet su* is by no means always ! case4 ,bo? ! previ\s hi/ory ( ! l&1 & ! me?od ( analysis1 influ5ce mat]ially ! practical utility ( ! results ( *emical soil analysis4 ,! cause ( ?is unc]ta9ty becomes obvi\s :5 we consid] ! ?ree gr\ps ( +r$i5ts outl9$ above1 viz41 ! insoluble or unavailable1 :olly undecompos$ rock m9]als2 ! 8res]ve10 consi/+ ( comp\nds n soluble 9 wat] b soluble 9 or decomposable by weak acids2 & ! wat]-soluble portion1 ei!r actually dissolv$ 9 ! wat] held by ! soil1 or held by ! soil itself 9 7physical7 absorption4 ,:ile ! latt] portion is directly & imm$iately available to plants1 ! am\nts ?us held are usually q small1 & 7outside ( alkali l&s7 w\ld r>ely suffice = ! ne$s ( a crop dur+ a gr[+ season4#aaj ,?is dem& mu/ be mat]ially supplem5t$ by :at c be made available f ! soil m9]als & ! 8res]ve0 by wea!r+1 conjo9$ ) ! direct action ( ! acids secret$ f ! plant's root-hairs ^u ! soil p>ticles to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,x is obvi\s t ! great] or less abundance ( ! plant-food 9 ! soil-mat]ial ^u :i* ^! processes may be br\ght to be>1 mu/ ess5tially influ5ce ! adequacy ( ! plant-food ?us suppli$4 ,moreov]1 ! great] or less ext5t to :i* ^! s\rces may h be5 drawn ^u previ\sly 9 ! c\rse ( cultivation1 w simil>ly influ5ce t adequacy1 on acc\nt ( ! dim9ution ( ! readily available supply4 #aaj ,! inve/igations ( ,k+ 7,on ! ,influ5ce ( ,soil ,managem5t ^u ! ,wat] ,soluble ,salts 9 ,soils & ! ,yield ( ,crops1 ,madison1 #aijc7 %[ t f "s soils at lea/1 a suffici5cy ( plant-food +r$i5ts = a season's crop may be dissolv$ by di/ill$ wat] alone1 if ! soil be repeat$ly lea*$ & dri$ at #aaj4 ,:e!r su* a supply c be expect$ "u field conditions1 rema9s to be te/$4 ,wat]-soluble & ,acid-soluble ,portions mo/ ,important4--,x ?us seems t :ile ! undecompos$ rock m9]als are indicative ( ! nature ( ! soil1 b n directly conc]n$ 9 plant nutrition1 ! mo/ direct int]e/ atta*es to ! wat]-soluble portion1 & ! acid-soluble res]ve4 ,bo? ( ^! c1 ( c\rse1 be )drawn f ! soil by treatm5t ) acids ( great] or less /r5g?2 & x w\ld seem t if we knew j :at is ! k9d & /r5g? ( ! acid solv5t employ$ by ea* plant1 we c\ld s imitate _! action z to det]m9e def9itely :e!r or n ! soil conta9s an adequate or defici5t supply ( actually available food = ! com+ crop4 ,we ,_c ,imitate ,plant-root ,action4--,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 we enc\nt] s]i\s difficulties4 ,! acids secret$ by ! plant roots are n ! only solv5ts active 9 ! dissolution ( plant-food2 z yet we "k ! nature ( only a few2 & ev5 ^!1 in/ead ( act+ = a long "t 7season7 on a relatively small numb] ( soil p>ticles t\*$ by ! root-hairs1 c 9 our laboratories only be all[$ to act = a %ort "t on ! entire soil-mass4 ,cle>ly1 ! results ?us obta9$ _c be a direct measure ( ! am\nt ( plant-food :i* a plant may take up 9 a giv5 "t2 we c only ga9 comp>ative figures4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 c be utiliz$ by comp>ison ) actual cultural exp]i5ce obta9$ 9 simil> cases4 ,cultural exp]i5ce mu/1 ( c\rse1 be ! f9al te/ 9 all ^! que/ions2 & x is g5]ally m fruitful to inve/igate ! causes und]ly+ su* actual practical exp]i5ce1 ?an to attempt to supply1 artificially1 ! suppos$ conditions ( plant gr[?4 ,! latt] are s complex & s difficult ( control1 t ! results obta9$ by syn!tic1 small-scale exp]im5ts are con/antly liable to ! suspicion t !y are p>tly or :olly due to o!r causes ?an ^? purposely suppli$ by ! exp]im5t]4 ,analysis ( ,cultivat$ ,soils4--,x is also cle> t 9 view ( ! inevitable complexity ( ! conditions gov]n+ vegetable gr[?1 we %\ld :5ev] feasible proce$ f ! m simple to ! m complex4 ,! failure to con=m to ?is rule 9 soil inve/igation has be5 ! cause ( an enorm\s wa/e ( en]gy & "w be/[$1 at ! v outset1 ^u ! mo/ complex problem ( all1 viz41 ! inve/igation ( soils long cultivat$ & manur$2 l&s :i*1 hav+ be5 subject p]haps = c5turies to a great & :olly indef9ite v>iety ( crops & cultural practices1 _h !reby become s beset ) artificial conditions t )\t a previ\s k ( :at con/itutes ! normal regime 9 natural soils1 ! correlation ( _! *emical con/itution1 z asc]ta9able by our pres5t me?ods1 ) _! production "u culture1 became z complex a problem z t ( motions ( ?ree mutually gravitat+ po9ts 9 space4 ,nei!r c be solv$ by ! ord9>y processes ( analysis1 *emical or ma!matical4 ,nev]!less1 ?\gh x 0 at "o "t cont5d$ t ! m9ute proportion ( plant-food +r$i5ts )drawn f soils by cultivation c\ld n be detect$ by quantitative analysis1 num]\s examples h %[n t ) our pres5t m delicate me?ods ?is c 9 mo/ cases be done1 ?\gh n always aft] a s+le ye>'s crop4 ,me?ods ( ,soil ,analysis4--,! m or less incisive solv5t ag5ts us$ 9 extract+ a soil = analysis w ( c\rse produce results widely at v>iance ) ea* o!r4 ,:5 fusion ) c>bonate ( soda1 or treatm5t ) fluohydric acid is resort$ to1 we obta9 = ea* soil-+r$i5t ! sum ( all ! am\nts conta9$ 9 ea* ( ! ?ree categories--! un*ang$ m9]als1 ! zeolitic 8res]ve10 & ! wat]-soluble portion4 ,x 0 e>ly recogniz$ t ! results ( su* analyses be> no intelligible relation to ! productive capacity ( soils2 = pulv]iz$ rocks ( _m k9ds1 or volcanic a%es fre%ly eject$ & notori\sly incapable ( support+ plant gr[?1 might be made to give exactly ! same composition4 ,! am\nts ( plant-food +r$i5ts ?us %[n might be sev]al hundr$s or ?\s&s ( times great] ?an :at "o crop w\ld take f ! soil1 & yet n an e> ( gra9 c\ld be produc$ on ! mat]ial4 ,! only case 9 :i* any useful in=mation c\ld be ?us obta9$ w\ld be t ( ! abs5ce1 or great sc>city1 ( "o or m ( ! plant-food +r$i5ts4 ,! next /ep 0 to use 9 soil analysis acids ( su* /r5g? z to dissolve all ! zeolitic 7& wat]-soluble7 portion1 leav+ ! unwea!r$ soil m9]als beh9d2 x be+ assum$ t ! prolong$ action ( ! roots & soil-solv5ts w\ld 9 ! end act simil>ly to ! acids employ$1 su* z *lorhydric or nitric acids4 ,b "h also ! results ( analysis v commonly fail$ to correspond to cultural exp]i5ce 9 ! case ( cultivat$ soils2 :i* frequ5tly fail$ utt]ly to produce satisfactory crops ev5 :5 ! acid-analysis _h %[n an abundance ( plant-food +r$i5ts4 ,^u ?is evid5ce1 ?is me?od ( soil inve/igation 0 also condemn$ z be+ ( little or no practical utility2 & ?is has ev] s9ce be5 a widely preval5t view4 ,! pref]able inve/igation ( cultivat$ soils 0 due to ! fact t !y are practically ! only ones available 9 ! c\ntries :]e ! /udy ( agricultural sci5ce 0 !n be+ prosecut$2 & ! paucity ( useful results !re a*iev$ disc\rag$ ! und]tak+ ( simil> rese>*es :]e1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! mat]ials = ! inve/igation ( ! simpl] cases--^? ( un*ang$1 natural or virg9 soils--7 readily accessible4 ,x 0 n app>5t on ! surface t ! indef9itely v>i$ conditions introduc$ by long culture w\ld inevitably cause ?is lack ( def9ite correlation betwe5 ! imm$iate productive capacity ( a soil & ! composition ( its acid-soluble portion1 & t yet ! same might n be true ( natural1 uncultivat$ soils1 :i* h all be5 subject$1 alike1 only to ! natural processes ( wea!r+1 & to ! annual return ( ne>ly ! :ole ( ! +r$i5ts )drawn by plant gr[?4 ,foll[+ ! failure ( ! treatm5t ) /rong acids to yield ) cultivat$ soils results def9itely correlat$ ) cultural exp]i5ce1 num]\s attempts 7 made to ga9 bett] indications by ! employm5t ( weak] acid solv5ts4 ,! pure arbitr>9ess ( su* dilut$ solv5ts 0 equal$ by ! total indef9it5ess & irrelevance ( ! results ) diff]5t soils4 ,only two rational alt]natives seem to rema91 viz41 ei!r to pu% ! extraction to ! full ext5t beyond :i* action becomes s sl[ z to cle>ly exclude any f>!r effective action ( plant acids2 or else to use ! latt] !mselves at su* /r5g?s z by actual exp]im5t is f\nd to exi/ 9 _! root sap4 ,! fir/ alt]native aims to asc]ta9 ! p]man5t productive values ( soils2 ! latt] to te/ _! imm$iate productive capacity4 ,bo? alt]natives are purely empirical1 & d]ive _! only claim to practical value f _! accordance ) practical exp]i5ce 7see *apt] #ai74 ,,! ,,solv5t ,,action ,,( ,,wat] ,,^u ,,soils4 ,! almo/ univ]sal solv5t p[] ( pure wat] has already be5 allud$ to 9 *apt] #b 7see p4 #ah71 & illu/rat$ by ! analyses ( dra9 & riv] wat]s4 ,:ile ^! convey a g5]al idea ( ! *ief sub/ances dissolv$ & c>ri$ (f1 ! direct inve/igation ( ! solutions actually obta9able f ! soil by long] treatm5t & ) no m wat] ?an is compatible ) ! welf>e ( ord9>y crops1 necess>ily gives some:at diff]5t results4 ,= :5 dra9s fl[ dur+ or aft] heavy ra9s ! wat] has n "t to become saturat$4 ,! foll[+ data af=d a cle>] insight into ! actual & possible solv5t effects ( wat] 9 ! soil1 & its possible adequacy to plant nutrition unaid$ by acid solv5ts4 ,extraction ( ,soils ) ,pure ,wat]4--,ei*horn & ,wund] treat$ soils f ,bonn1 & f ,*emnitz 7,saxony7 respectively = t5 days & f\r weeks ) ab\t "o-?ird ( _! weight ( wat]2 ! solutions ?us obta9$ conta9 9 #a1jjj1jjj p>ts3 ,bonn4 ,*emnitz4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,silica #dh4j #be4g ,pota% 7,k,o7 #aae4d #g4e ,soda 7,na,o7 #aa4j #cj4d ,lime 7,ca,o7 #abh4j #hc4f ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #ch4d #cg4d ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 ,trace #aa4g ,alum9a 7,al,o7 8 8 ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 #ca4j ,trace ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 #ajj4b ,*lorid ( ,sodium 7,na,cl7 #eh4f #dg4f ---------------------------------------- ----- ,^! figures diff] widely 9 mo/ respects f ^? giv5 = dra9 & riv] wat]s4 ,pota% especially is f> m abundantly pres5t 9 ! ,bonn-soil solution ?an 9 ! dra9 wat]1 & s is phosphoric acid2 :ile lime is n widely diff]5t4 ,ei*horn !re=e calculates t ) a reasonably adequate supply ( wat]1 ^! +r$i5ts w\ld fully suffice = a full crop ( :eat4 ,! ,*emnitz soil1 on ! o!r h&1 does n yield en\gh plant-food = m ?an a v small crop ^u ! same assumptions4 ,cont9u\s ,solubility ( ,soil-+r$i5ts4--,x seems to be impossible to exhau/ a soil's solubility by repeat$ or cont9u\s lea*+ ) wat]4 ,?is 0 demon/rat$ 9 #ahfc & #ahfd by ,ulbri*t#aaa & by ,s*ultze2#aab _! g5]al conclusions h q lately be5 corroborat$ by ,k+1#aac z ! result ( ext5d$ & v c>eful inve/igations4 ,s*ultze exp]im5t$ on a ri* soil f ,meckl5burg1 by cont9u\s lea*+ ) di/ill$ wat] = six days1 "o lit] pass+ e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ) ! foll[+ results4 #aaa ,v]s4 ,/at4 ,v4 p4 #bjg4 #aab ,ibid4 ,,vi4 p4 #daa4 #aac ,proc4 ,ass'n ,prom4 ,agr4 ,sci4 #aijd4 ,,ri* ,,soil ,,f ,,meckl5burg 7,s*ultze47 #a1jjj1jjj ,,p>ts ,,( ,,extracts ,,conta9$3 ,total matt],organic &,inorganic4,phosphoric dissolv$4 volatile4 acid4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,fir/ extract #ece4j #cdj4j #aie #e4f ,second 8 #abj4j #eg4j #fc #h4b ,?ird 8 #bfa4j #aja4j #afj #h4h ,f\r? 8 #bjc4j #hc4j #abj #g4e ,fif? 8 #bfj4j #hb4j #agh #f4i ,six? 8 #bjj4j #gg4j #abc #d4d ------- ----- --- ---- ,total #a1egi4j #gdj4j #hci #da4d ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,x ?us appe>s t :ile ! fir/ extraction remov$ ! ma9 portion ( ! organic matt]1 ! inorganic matt]s dissolv$ 7 n greatly dim9i%$ 9 subsequ5t lea*+s2 & t phosphoric acid cont9u$ to come (f to ! la/4 ,! ri* soil us$ 9 ?is case gave results correspond+ 9 g5]al to ^! f ! ,bonn soil1 9 ! previ\s table4 ,f a poor] soil simil>ly treat$ by ,ulbri*t1 describ$ by him z a f]rug9\s s& f ,dahme1 ! lea*+ ( :i* 0 cont9u$ = ?irty days 9 p]iods ( ?ree days ea*1 ) a total ( =ty times its weight ( wat]1 ! results 7 z foll[s3 ,,soil ,,( ,,l[ ,,production ,,f ,,dahme 7,ulbri*t74 ,,! ,,sev]al ,,extracts ,,conta9$ ,,9 #a1jjj1jjj ,,p>ts3 ,fir/ ,second ,?ird ,f\r? ,fif? ,six? ,extract4,extract4,extract4,extract4,ext ract4,extract4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pota% #g #f #g #g #c ,soda #da #aa #bf #ag #h ,lime #if #gj #ee #dh #fb ,magnesia #ad #aj #i #g #h ,phosphoric acid trace #b trace #a ----- -- ----- -- -- -- ,totals #aeh #ii #ig #hj #gj #aa ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,x w be se5 t !re is a consid]able diff]5ce bo? 9 ! total am\nts ( matt]s dissolv$ & 9 ! phosphoric acid tak5 out by ! wat]1 z comp>$ ) ! ri* soil treat$ by ,s*ultze4 ,! uni=mity ( ! am\nts ( pota% remov$ at ! successive lea*+s is rem>kable4 ,k+'s ,results4--,! same g5]al features are aga9 /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ,k+'s results1 z giv5 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,k+'s fir/ lea*+s 7 always made by %ak+ up ! soil ) t5 times its dry weight ( wat] = ?ree m9utes1 !n aft] subsid5ce filt]+ ! solutions ?r\gh a ,*amb]l& 7porcela9 biscuit7 filt]1 & !n 7)\t evaporation7 det]m9+ ! +r$i5ts dissolv$1 by v delicate1 mo/ly colorimetric me?ods4 ,subsequ5t lea*+s 7 made by pack+ ! soil ar\nd ! filt]s & wa%+ ) five times ! weight ( wat]1 tak+ ab\t fifte5 m9utes ea* "t2 b dry+ ! soil at #abj degrees ,c4 betwe5 successive lea*+s4 ,,wat] ,,extraction ,,( ,,soils ,,( ,,l[ ,,& ,,high ,,production1 ,,by ,f4 ,h4 ,,k+4 ,,p>ts ,,p] ,,million4 ,pota%1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,nitric ,extractions ,k,o4 ,ca,o4 ,mg,o4 ,acid1 ,n,o4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,soils ,,( ,,l[ ,,production4 ,sassafras s&y #a #ab4fb #gd4ci #ag4hb #ah4jc soil4 #aa #bah4be #ace4ce #adg4de #ba4gf ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,norfolk1 ,nor? #a #ba4ag #eh4cj #bb4ia #cj4fd ,c>ol9a s&y soil #aa #aff4jh #afb4ih #abe4jj #bg4aa ,av]age4 #aib4fj #adi4bj #acf4bc #bd4dd ,,soils ,,( ,,high ,,production4 ,janesville1 ,wis4 #a #be4ce #ace4cj #ea4gb #ee4aj ,loam4 #aa #cac4gjaabj4cj #ejj4fj #ea4db ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,hag]/'wn1 ,pa4 #a #ba4gc #afe4be #gf4hh #be4gb ,clay loam4 #aa #cja4ee #ifg4hj #dfc4ae #if4jd ,av]age4 #cjg4fjajdd4je #dhg4hh #gc4gc ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,phosphoric,sulfuric,c>bonic,*lor91,sili ca ,extractions ,acid1 ,acid1 ,acid1 ,cl4 ,si,o4 ,p,o4 ,,s4 ,,co4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,soils ,,( ,,l[ ,,production4 ,sassafras s&y #a #g4da #ec4hd #ac4id #a #e4fj soil4 #aa #fd4af #bjc4if #bba4cc #b #gj4bj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,norfolk1 ,nor? #a #aj4ae #db4hb #bj4db #a #h4bd ,c>ol9a s&y soil #aa #hj4cd #agb4db #adh4eb #b #abb4bj ,av]age4 #gb4be #abf4ac #ahd4ic #b4- #adf4bj ,,soils ,,( ,,high ,,production4 ,janesville1 ,wis4 #a #af4if #abe4dc #bi4ca #b4fg #dj4bh ,loam4 #aa #dah4he #eib4ge #dgb4ie #j4jj #dad4ej ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,hag]/'wn1 ,pa4 #a #aa4ea #ahg4ei #ig4ji #a4fg #ba4ag ,clay loam4 #aa #acf4ba #ejb4hb #fbj4jj #j4jj #bhc4hj ,av]age4 #bgg4jc #edg4gi #edf4dh #j4jj #cdi4ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,k+'s obs]vations %[ /rik+ly bo? ! cont9u\s solubility ( ! soil1 & ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! solutions d]iv$ f soils ( l[ & high productiv5ess2 :olly negativ+ ! cont5tion ( ,:itney t ! solutions f diff]5t soils are ( practically ! same composition4#aad ,k+ also calls att5tion to ! fact1 %[n 9 o!r exp]im5ts made 9 ! extraction ( soils )\t int]m$iate dry+s1 t ! am\nts extract$ 7 v mu* less 9 subsequ5t ?an 9 ! fir/ extraction2 d\btless because ! evaporation f ! soil p>ticles _h c>ri$ a l>ge proportion ( soluble matt]s to ! surface1 :5ce x 0 readily ab/ract$ by ! fir/ t\* ( ! solv5t wat]4 ,at ea* dry+ n only are ! soluble matt]s aga9 drawn to ! surface1 b heat+ a soil ev5 to #ajj r5d]s additional am\nts ( soil +r$i5ts soluble bo? 9 wat] & 9 acids4 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ! int5se heat+ :i* des]t soils und]go dur+ ! w>m season is simil>ly effective2 & ?us ! great productiv5ess ( ^! soils "u irrigation1 & ! m>vel\sly rapid developm5t ( ! native vegetation :5 ra9s moi/5 ! p>*$ soil1 is 9 "p at lea/ acc\nt$ = by ?is imm$iate availability ( a l>ge supply ( plant-food4 #aad ,bullet9 ,no4 #bb1 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,u4 ,s4 ,d4 ,a4 ,composition ( ,janesville loam4--,9 connection ) ! above data giv5 by ,k+1 x is int]e/+ to note ! composition ( ! soil 9 ! above table yield+ ! highe/ proportions ( soluble matt]1 :5 analyz$ accord+ to ! me?od practic$ by ! writ] 7see *ap4 #ai1 p4 #cdc74 ,?is analysis 0 made "u ! sup]vision ( ,pr(essor ,jaffa 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation by ,assi/ant ,*>les ,a4 ,triebel4 ,loam ,soil f ,janesville1 ,wiscons92 sample s5t by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,h4 ,k+1 ,madison1 ,wis4 ,?is soil is a light friable loam1 resembl+ ! nor!rn ,loess 9 color & texture2 x is highly productive4 ,x is und]laid at #e feet by ! drift gravel ( t region1 enclos+ mu* calc>e\s mat]ial1 :i* evid5tly has _h a l>ge %>e 9 ! =mation ( ?is soil1 j z is ! case 9 s\!rn ,mi*igan4 ,! soil1 :5 dri$ at #aaj ,c1 consi/$ ( ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #fi4ce ,soluble silica #aj4hi ,pota% 7,,ko7 4#ei ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jd ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#hc ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ea ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jh ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #c4fj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4bf ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#jf ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#aj ,wat] & organic matt] #h4gb ------ ,total #ajj4jc ,x w be not$ t 9 accordance ) ! int]pretation ( analyses ( soils z giv5 9 ! next *apt]1 ?is is a high-class soil 9 e respect1 except t its cont5t ( phosphoric acid is only j above ! l[] limit ( suffici5cy4 ,b z is also %[n bel[1 9 pres5ce ( a l>ge supply ( lime ev5 l[] p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid are adequate = long-cont9u$ production 7see *ap4 #ai1 pp4 #ced1 #cfe7 by r5d]+ ! sub/ance m freely available2 & t ?is is true 9 ?is case is %[n by ! result ( ,k+'s lea*+s1 9 :i* ?is soil yields a maximum ( #dai p>ts p] million z aga9/ #hj & #fd p>ts 9 ! poor soils1 :i* at ! same "t yield only "o f\r? z mu* ( lime4 ,un=tunately we h no full analyses ( ^! o!r soils = comp>ison2 al?\gh !y h s]v$ z a basis ( comp>ison = ye>s 9 ! ,wa%+ton ,bureau ( ,soils4 ,solubility ( ,soil ,phosphates 9 ,wat]4--,! solubility ( ! phosphate cont5ts ( soils has be5 elaborately inve/igat$ by ,?4 ,s*loes+ fils4#aae ,he f\nd 9 ! case ( a numb] ( soils inve/igat$ by him t ! am\nt ( phosphoric acid ,p,o 9 ! soil-solution rang$ f less ?an "o million? 7or "o milligram p] lit] ( wat]7 9 a poor soil1 to ov] ?ree milligrams 9 a ri* "o4 ,he also f\nd t = "o & ! same soil ! am\nt s f\nd 0 con/ant1 if ab\t a week's "t 7 all[$ = saturation4 ,he calculates t :ile 9 g5]al ! am\nt ( phosphoric acid capable ( be+ suppli$ to ! crop dur+ a gr[+ season ( tw5ty-eight to ?irty weeks w\ld suffice = b few crops1 ! supply s af=d$ is 9 no case a negligible quantity1 frequ5tly am\nt+ to m ?an half ( ! crop-requirem5ts4 ,exp]im5ts ) v>i\s crops prove t ^! dilute solutions are utiliz$ by all ( !m1 sometimes to ! ext5t ( completely consum+ ! cont5t ( ! solution4 ,! mu* small] cont5t ( phosphoric acid 9 dra9 wat]s is acc\nt$ = by ! lack ( "t = full saturation dur+ ! "t t ! fl[ la/s4 ,:itney1 7,bureau ( ,soils1 ,bullet9 #bb7 has extract$ ! soil-solution by means ( ! c5trifuge f sev]al soils2 ! cont5ts ( phosphoric acid ?us f\nd are 9 g5]al ( ! same ord] z ^? %[n 9 ! prec$+ table by ,k+1 b mu* 9 excess ( ,s*loes+'s figures2 not)/&+ ! fact t ,:itney's soils _h be5 9 contact ) wat] = only tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! cause ( ?is wide discrepancy is n cle>4 #aae ,ann4 de la ,sci4 ,agron41 #b;de srie tome ,i1 pp4 #daf-cdi2 #ahii4 ,practical ,conclusions f ,wat] ,extraction4--,z reg>ds ! practically useful conclusions to be drawn f ! extraction ( soils ) pure wat]1 ! data giv5 above1 & especially ! results obta9$ by ,k+1 seem to prove t !re is a m or less def9ite correlation betwe5 ! imm$iate productiv5ess ( soils & ! am\nt & k9ds ( +r$i5ts dissolv$2 especially 9 ! case ( phosphoric acid1 ! adequacy ( ! supply ( :i* = imm$iate production is assum$ to be ?us demon/rable by _m ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,moreov]1 a numb] ( ,k+'s results1 tabulat$ 9 curves1 exhibit a rem>kable g5]al p>allelism ( ! curves %[+ totals ( plant-food extract$ by wat]1 & actual crop production4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable s9ce x is kn[n to be1 n pure wat]1 b su* z is m or less impregnat$ ) c>bonic acid at lea/1 t is actually active 9 soil-solution & plant-nutrition4 ,! f>!r developm5t ( ?is me?od may1 x w\ld seem1 lead to def9ite conclusions at lea/ 9 respect to ! imm$iate productive capacity ( cultivat$1 & p]haps also ( virg9 soils4 ,b x is n likely to give any def9ite clew z to ! durability ( su* l&s4 ,,asc]ta9m5t ,,( ,,! ,,imm$iate ,,plant-,,food ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,,cultivat$ ,,soils ,,by ,,physiological ,,te/s4 ,,physiological ,,soil-,,analysis4 ,z has already be5 /at$1 ! quantitative analysis ( cultivat$ soils by means ( /rong acids af=ds a presumptive insight into _! imm$iate productiv5ess1 & ! k9d ( f]tiliz] ne$$ to improve x1 only 9 case ( ! extreme defici5cy ( "o or sev]al ( ! *iefly important plant-foods4 ,! limits ( defici5cy ( ^! 9 virg9 soils h be5 discuss$ above2 b s9ce 9 cultivat$ soils am\nts ( soluble plant-food s small z to be beyond ! limits ( ord9>y analytical det]m9ations1 :5 di/ribut$ ?r\gh an acre-foot ( soil may1 :5 rightly appli$1 nev]!less produce v decid$ effects1 ! indications ?us obta9able are n absolute4 ,?us a dress+ ( #aej lbs4 ( ,*ile saltpet]1 conta9+ only ab\t #bd lbs4 ( nitrog51 is capable ( caus+ ! production ( a full crop ( :eat :]e o!rwise1 ev5 "u favorable physical conditions1 only a fraction ( a crop w\ld h be5 h>ve/$2 provid$1 t all ! o!r requisite +r$i5ts 7 pres5t to a suffici5t ext5t & 9 available =m4 ,yet ! am\nt ( nitrog5 ?us add$ w\ld am\nt1 9 "o acre-foot ( soil to only 4#jjjh1 say eight t5-?\s&?s ( "o p]c5t2 :i*1 ) ! am\nts ( sub/ance usually employ$ 9 soil analysis1 w\ld be an unweighable quantity1 & might easily be ov]look$4 ,s9ce ! am\nts ( pota% & phosphoric acid actually tak5 out ( ! soil by "o crop are 9 g5]al ( ! same ord] ( magnitude z ! above1 :at is tak5 out by "o or two crops w usually fall )9 ! limits ( analytical errors1 especially ( ^? incurr$ 9 sampl+ ! soil4 ,yet t ! *anges caus$ by a numb] ( successive crops c be prov$1 ev5 by ! ord9>y me?ods1 has be5 abundantly v]ifi$4 ,= x seems t ! losses ( soil +r$i5ts 9 cultivat$ l&s exce$ consid]ably ^? calculat$ f ! actual dra9 repres5t$ by ! crops4 ,plot ,te/s4--,!re is1 h[ev]1 an obvi\s & app>5tly simple me?od by :i* e f>m] might make 8 own f]tiliz] te/s1 on a small & inexp5sive scale1 ! results ( :i* may aft]w>ds be put 9 effect on 8 entire l&4 ,x is to apply 9 prop] proportions on plots 7( say f "o tw5tie? to "o =tie? ( an acre71 ! sev]al plant-food +r$i5ts usually suppli$ 9 f]tiliz]s1 s+ly z well z conjo9tly ) ea* o!r1 leav+ *eck unf]tiliz$ plots ar\nd z well z among !m4 ,by comp>ison ) ^!1 ! cultural results %\ld at once det]m9e :i* ( ! f]tiliz]s c mo/ advantage\sly be appli$ to ! l&4 ,su* te/s :5 c>ri$ out ) all ! prop] precautions are (t5 v decisive & practically successful4 ,b !y s frequ5tly suff] f seasonal influ5ces 7su* z scanty or excessive ra9fall1 cold or heat1 etc471 inequality ( soil conditions1 failure to apply ! f]tiliz]s at ! "r "t1 or 9 ! "r way1 ! depr$ations ( insects & birds1 & o!r causes1 t x g5]ally takes sev]al seasons' trial to obta9 any def9ite results4 ,on level l&s ( uni=m nature & dep?1 !y are mo/ likely to be successful2 :ile on undulat+ or hill l&s x is n only v difficult to secure uni=mity ( soil & subsoil on areas ( suffici5t size1 b also to prev5t ! wa%+ ( f]tiliz$ soil1 or f]tiliz] 9 solution1 f "o plot to ! o!r by ! influ5ce ( heavy ra9s or irrigation2 ?us :olly vitiat+ ! exp]im5ts4 ,9 v _m cases1 especially 9 ! arid region1 ! results ( su* trials h be5 practically nil1 = ! reason t physical defects ( ! soil1 & n lack ( plant-food1 7 ! cause ( unsatisfactory production4 ,illu/ration3 ,s*eme = ,plot-te/s ( ,f]tiliz]s4 ,a full exam9ation ( physical conditions1 z outl9$ 9 previ\s *apt]s1 %\ld 9 all cases prec$e ! application ( f]tiliz]s2 su* exam9ation w at ! same "t s]ve to det]m9e ! great] or less uni=mity ( soil-conditions1 :i* is ( fir/ importance to ! cog5cy ( f]tiliz] te/s4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 few f>m]s possess ! necess>y qualifications to c>ry out su* te/s successfully1 s9ce _! execution requires a c]ta9 famili>ity n only ) ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( exp]im5tation1 b also ! faculty & practice ( close & reason+ obs]vation2 :i*1 un=tunately1 is n z yet a "p ( in/ruction 9 our s*ools4 ,! exp]i5ce s (t5 _h 9 co-op]ative "w betwe5 exp]im5t /ations & f>m]s is cog5t on ?is po9t4 ,^? desir+ to d su* "w1 h[ev]1 c make use ( some?+ l ! plan giv5 above2 x be+ und]/ood t 9 ! case ( clay soils1 ! unplant$ pa?s left betwe5 ! plots %\ld be at lea/ two feet 9 wid?2 9 ! case ( s&y soils ! di/ance %\ld be n less ?an ?ree feet1 & m if ! plots are locat$ on a slope4 ,! crop f ea* plot %\ld if possible be weigh$ z a :ole2 b if ! plot be l>ge & ! crop measurably uni=m1 an aliquot "p1 su* z "o f\r?1 may be weigh$ in/ead4 ,9 regul> exp]im5tation ! crops are weigh$ bo? 9 ! gre5 7fre%ly cut7 condition1 & aft] dry+4 ,s9ce ! dry matt] is ! real basis ( value 9 ! case ( mo/ field crops1 its weight is ! mo/ important2 z ! wat]-cont5t ( gre5 crops may v>y consid]ably4 ,b 9 ! case ( vegetables z well z fruit crops1 n only mu/ ! weight ( ! fre% crop be det]m9$1 b x %\ld be sort$ into ! 8m>ketable0 & 8unm>ketable0 sizes & qualities4 ,failure to d ?is may vitiate ! entire exp]im5t = practical purposes4 ,pot ,culture ,te/s4--,! unc]ta9ty att5d+ plot culture te/s on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ( controll+ seasonal & o!r ext]nal conditions1 has result$ 9 ! ext5d$ adoption ( indoor culture te/s1 usually conduct$ 9 z9c or 8galvaniz$0 cyl9d]s ( a size suffici5t to conta9 f twelve to tw5ty or m p\nds ( soil4 ,^! are kept 9 a gre5-h\se ^: temp]ature & moi/ure-condition c be regulat$ at w1 & :]e ! soil-moi/ure is :olly "u control4 ,= inve/igations ( ! effects ( v>i\s k9ds ( plant-food ^u vegetable developm5t1 ?is me?od has s]v$ mo/ satisfactorily & effectually1 & /rik+ photographs ( results ?us obta9$ are se5 on all h&s3 = :i* reason1 to save space1 !y h n be5 introduc$ into ?is volume4 ,x seems at fir/ sight t ! same me?od %\ld s]ve admirably to det]m9e ! manure-requirem5ts ( soils "u controll$ conditions4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ! field conditions z reg>ds subsoil1 evaporation1 asc5t ( moi/ure f bel[1 p5etration & spread ( roots1 etc41 9 o!r words1 all ! physical conditions s vitally conc]n$ 9 crop production1 except ! temp]ature & moi/ure-condition ( ! soil1 are :olly left out ( consid]ation 9 ?is me?od4 ,h5ce ! application ( ! results s obta9$ to actual field conditions c only be made ) great caution1 & are (t5 widely discrepant ) actual exp]i5ce4 ,! me?od has ( late be5 c>ri$ to an extreme by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils 9 ! proposition to supplant ! l>ge soil-pots h]et(ore us$ by small p>aff9$ wire-clo? baskets1 #c #c in*es 9 size1 9 :i* ! soil to be te/$ is s[n ) se$s :i* are all[$ to develop only = ?ree to five weeks2 x be+ claim$ t ! developm5t occurr+ dur+ t "t is q suffici5t to indicate :at w be ! ultimate outcome 9 crop production4 ,b practical exp]i5ce has long ago demon/rat$ t ^! e>ly /ages ( gr[? _c be reli$ ^u to %[ ! crop results to be expect$4 ,yet if ?is m9ute scale ( pot-culture %\ld1 on fur!r te/1 prove to give tru?ful =eca/s ev5 9 a m]e majority ( cases1 ! facility ) :i* x may be c>ri$ out w entitle x to favorable consid]ation4 ,a great deal m pro( is ne$$ on ?is po9t ?an ! confid5t claims ( ! ,bureau indicate4 ,,*emical ,,te/s ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,productiv5ess4 ,te/+ *emical soil-"* by crop analysis4--,ano!r me?od = ! det]m9ation ( imm$iate soil requirem5ts has be5 elaborat$ by ,e4 ,godlewski4#aaf ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ?is me?od re/s is t plants gr[+ 9 a soil defici5t 9 available plant-food ( any "o k9d w 9 _! a% %[ a correspond+ defici5cy1 or at lea/ a m9imum proportion ( ! same2 & t 9 _m cases1 ! nature ( ! defici5cy manife/s itself 9 ! =m or developm5t ( ! plant1 s cle>ly z to r5d] *emical analysis unnecess>y 7see bel[1 *apt] #bb74 #aaf ,zeits*r4 ,l&w4 ,v]s4 ,oe/]r41 #aija4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t ! latt] idea has be5 & is con/antly be+ utiliz$ 9 practice4 ,x is ess5tially involv$ 9 ! habit ( judg+ ( l& by its natural vegetation2 & by agricultural *emi/s & intellig5t f>m]s1 :5 !y *eck excessive gr[? ( /ems & leaf 7indicat+ excess ( nitrog57 by ! use ( lime or phosphates2 or prescribe ! use ( nitrog5\s manures :5 a sup]abundance ( small1 unm>ketable fruit is produc$4 ,f ! co9cid5ce ( su* indications ) ! results ( ! analyses ( soils & a%es1 v def9ite & p]man5tly valuable indications z to ! prop] f]tilization & o!r treatm5t ( ! l& may be d$uc$4 ,godlewski insi/s /rongly1 & ) a good deal ( plausibility1 ^u ! importance ( mak+ su* trials 9 ! op5 field & n m]ely 9 pots4 ,:ile ?is is true1 x is also true t su* field exp]im5ts suff] f ! same liability to imp]fection z ! 8plot f]tiliz]-te/0 plan j describ$2 viz41 t ! season may ex]t a mu* m p[]ful influ5ce ?an ! f]tilization1 & ! te/s may lead to :olly errone\s conclusions unless ! exp]im5ts are cont9u$ = a numb] ( ye>s1 & "u skill$ sup]vision4 ,b :5 once ! normal ratio betwe5 ! a% +r$i5ts = a p>ticul> soil & climatic region h be5 asc]ta9$1 ! data w be ( la/+ b5efit to agriculture !re1 & p]haps1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 to ! _w at l>ge4 ,h4 ,v&]y/ has discuss$ ! entire subject ( physiological soil analysis elaborately 9 ! ,revue ,gn]ale ,agronomique ( ,l\va91 #aijb-c 7,exp't ,/4 ,record1 ,april #aijd1 ,vol4 #h1 page #geg7 & %[s 9 detail ! conditions "u :i* x may be successful4 ,among ^! he reckons z full a k ( ! *emical *>act]i/ics ( a soil z c be obta9$ by *emical analysis4 ,*emical ,te/s ( ,imm$iately ,available ,plant-food4--,x is sc>cely d\btful t plants diff] consid]ably 9 ! en]gy ( _! action ^u ! 8res]ve0 soil +r$i5ts2 h5ce no "o solv5t us$ by ! analy/ c\ld repres5t correctly ! action ( plant-roots 9 g5]al ^u ! soil1 ev5 if we c\ld give t action ! same "t 7a gr[+ season7 & opportunity af=d$ !m 9 nature by ! root-surface4 ,we are =c$ to proce$ empirically2 & among ! num]\s solv5ts sugge/$ = ! purpose ( soil extraction1 t ( ,dy]1 already m5tion$1 viz41 a "o p] c5t solution ( citric acid1 mak+ all[ance = su* neutralization z may occur 9 ! soil1 has seem$ to ! writ] to give results mo/ l>gely 9 agreem5t ) cultural exp]i5ce4 ,walt] ,maxwell has recomm5d$ asp>tic acid 9 lieu ( citric1 z approa*+ ne>] to practical results1 at lea/ ) sug>-cane4 ,accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,dy]1 on ,ro?am/ead soils ( kn[n productiv5ess or manurial condition1 x appe>s t :5 ! citric-acid extraction yields z mu* z 4#jje ( pota% & 4#jaj ( phosphoric acid1 ! supply is adequate = normal crop production1 s t ! use ( ! above sub/ances z f]tiliz]s w\ld be1 if n ineffective1 at lea/ n a pr(itable inve/m5t4 ,^! figures ref] to ! ord9>y field crops ( ,engl& & to soils orig9ally f]tile & well suppli$ ) lime4 ,x c readily be =ese5 t "u o!r climatic & soil conditions1 diff]5t figures may h to be e/abli%$4 ,s f> z ! writ]'s exp]i5ce goes1 h[ev]1 ! above figures are v ne>ly valid = ! arid climates z well2 only ! figures obta9$ = arid soils are usually f> 9 excess ( ! above m9imum po/ulates4 ,figures = lime & nitrog5 are giv5 9 *apt]s #h & #ai4 ,b ! results obta9$ ) ! highly f]rug9\s soils ( ,hawaii %[ t "u su* conditions1 figures f> exce$+ ! m9imum ones e/abli%$ by ,dy] nev]!less coexi/ ) ne$ ( phosphate f]tilization4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,virg9 ,,soils ,,by ,,extraction ,,) ,,/rong ,,acids4 ,z /at$ already1 ! analysis ( soils by extraction ) /rong acids is int5d$ to enlight5 u1 n 9 reg>d to _! imm$iate productiv5ess 7! 8,dng]zu/&0 ( ,g]man agricultural *emi/s71 b z to _! p]man5t value or productive capacity4 ,z has be5 se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! ef=ts to unite inve/igators ^u a g5]ally applicable & acceptable me?od = ! te/+ ( imm$iate productiv5ess h n be5 v successful1 & ! numb] ( me?ods employ$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries & by diff]5t *emi/s )9 ! same c\ntry are widely at v>iance1 ) no imm$iate prospect ( agreem5t4 ,moreov]1 9 mo/ cases ! ef=t is to comb9e bo? problems--tempor>y & p]man5t productive capacity--9 "o me?od or op]ation2 :i* /ill f>!r confuses ! issue4 ,conv9c$ t ! only way to unification lies 9 ! direction ( fall+ back ^u a me?od t is bas$ ^u a natural limitation ab\t :i* !re c be no diff]5ce ( op9ion1 ! writ] has1 9 foll[+ ! lead ( ,ow5 & ,rob]t ,pet]1 endeavor$ to settle def9itely ! natural limit ( ! action ( a suitable acid ^u soils1 & ! "t & /r5g? ( acid produc+ ! maximum effect4 ,l\ghridge's ,inve/igation4--,sy/ematic "w on ^! po9ts 0 und]tak51 at 8 sugge/ion1 by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge 9 #ahga & #ahgb4 ,! results ( ?is "w 7 publi%$ 9 ! succe$+ ye> 9 ! ,am]4 ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 & 9 ! proce$+s ( ! ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s4 = #ahgc4 ,!y seem to be ( suffici5t g5]al int]e/ to be reproduc$ "h4 ,! soil select$ = ?is purpose 0 a v g5]aliz$ "o1 repres5t+ l>ge areas 9 ! /ates ( ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,mississippi & ,l\isiana1 bord]+ on ! ea/ ! imm$iate valley ( ! ,mississippi riv]1 & kn[n locally z ! 8,table l&s20 a not$ cotton-produc+ upl& region4 ,! br[n or yell[1 mod]ately clayey loam is ( great uni=mity ?r\gh\t its region ( occurr5ce1 & is evid5tly d]iv$ f su* widely-spread s\rces t x repres5ts no special rock or complex ( rocks4 ,its natural gr[? is a mixture ( oaks & hickories1 /rong & well-develop$ trees1 su* z any l&-seek] w\ld at once approve = settlem5t4 ,its cotton product :5 fre% 0 a #djj-p\nd bale ( cotton l9t p] acre4 ,x may !re=e well be consid]$ a typical g5]aliz$ soil ( ! humid upl& ( ! ,mississippi valley4 ,its physical analysis is giv5 9 *apt] #f1 x be+ ,no4 #bai ( ! table on p4 #ih4 ,/r5g? ( ,acid us$4--,?ree diff]5t /r5g?s ( acid 7 simultane\sly employ$1 viz41 *lorhydric ( #a4aj1 #a4aae & #a4afj d5sity4 ,) ^! ! soil 0 dige/$ at /eam heat 9 porcela9 beak]s cov]$ ) wat* glasses = five days ea*1 !n evaporat$ & analyz$ z usual4 ,! results 7 z foll[s3 ,,analysis ,,) ,,acid ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,/r5g?s4 ,+r$i5ts4 ,sp4 ,g4 ( ,acid4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #a4aj #a4aae #a4afj ----------------------- ,insoluble residue #ga4hh #gj4ec #gd4ae ,soluble silica #aa4ch #ab4cj #i4db ,pota% 4#fj 4#fc 4#dh ,soda 4#ac 4#ji 4#ce ,lime 4#bg 4#bg 4#bc ,magnesia 4#de 4#de 4#de ,br4 ox4 ,manganese 4#jf 4#jf 4#jf ,f]ric ,oxid #e4ae #e4aa #e4jd ,alum9a #f4hd #h4ji #f4bb ,sulfuric acid 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb ,volatile matt] #c4ad #c4ad #c4ad ------ ------ ----- #ajj4jb #ajj4fi #ii4bi ,am\nt ( soluble matt] #bd4jj #bg4jb #bb4bg ,am\nt ( soluble bases #ac4ej #ad4gj #ab4hc ---------------------------------------- -------- ,x w be not$ t ! /ronge/ acid produc$ ! smalle/ am\nt ( decomposition ( ! soil silicates1 e4 g4 ! silica soluble 9 c>bonate ( soda solution be+ #c less ?an 9 ! case ( ! acid ( m$ium /r5g?2 a result possibly due to "s difficultly-soluble comp\nd =m$ on ! surface ( ! soil gra9s4 ,! weake/ acid _h a /rong] solv5t p[]2 b ! maximum effect 0 produc$ by ! acid ( #a4aae d5sity4 ,?is be+ also ! mo/ readily obta9able1 by simple /eam di/illation ( acid ( any o!r /r5g?1 ! writ] adopt$ x z be/ suit$ to ! purposes ( soil analysis4 ,to asc]ta9 ! "t requir$ = ! desir$ action1 viz41 ! solution ( ! plant-food +r$i5ts to ! ext5t likely to be ( any avail to gr[+ plants1 dige/ions ( ! same soil 7 made 9 ! same mann] = p]iods ( #a1 #c1 #d1 #e & #aj days1 ) ! acid ( #a4aae d5sity4 ,! results 7 z foll[s3 ,,analysis ,,aft] ,,diff]5t ,,times ,,( ,,dige/ion4 ,no4 ( ,days' ,dige/ion4 ,+r$i5ts4 ------------------------------ #a #c #d #e #aj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,insoluble ,residue #gf4ig #gb4ff #ga4hf #gj4ec #ga4gi ,soluble ,silica #h4fj #aa4ah #aa4fd #ab4cj #aj4if ,pota% 4#ce 4#dd 4#eg 4#fc 4#fb ,soda 4#jf 4#jf 4#jc 4#ji 4#bh ,lime 4#bf 4#bi 4#bh 4#bg 4#bg ,magnesia 4#db 4#dd 4#dg 4#de 4#dd ,br4 ,ox4 ,manganese 4#jd 4#jf 4#jf 4#jf 4#jf ,f]ric ,oxid #d4gg #e4ja #e4dc #e4aa #d4he ,alum9a #e4ae #g4ch #g4jg #g4hh #g4af ,phosphoric acid 4#ba 4#ba 4#ba 4#ba 4#ba ,sulfuric acid 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb ,volatile matt] #c4ad #c4ad #c4ad #c4ad #c4ad ------------------------------ ,total #ii4fcajj4fhajj4eeajj4fi #ii4hj ,am\nt ( soluble matt] #ai4fg #bd4hh #be4eg #bg4jb #bd4hg ,am\nt ( soluble bases #aa4je #ac4fh #ac4ia #ad4di #ac4fh ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,:ile ^! results po9t$ cle>ly to ! five-day p]iod z be+ suffici5tly effective s f> z ! plant-food +r$i5ts are conc]n$1 x 0 n easy to und]/& :y a t5-day dige/ion %\ld be less incisive ?an a five-day "o4 ,in/ead ( repeat+ ! t5-day exp]im5t1 x 0 ?\ght pref]able to re-treat ! residue f ! five-day dige/ion = five days m4 ,! result 0 t only m silica & alum9a w5t into solution--9 o!r words1 additional clay 0 alone be+ decompos$4 ,?is be+ ( no int]e/ 9 ! matt] ( plant nutrition1 ! five-day p]iod 0 def9itely adopt$ by ! writ] = 8 "w2 & x1 toge!r ) ! acid ( #a4aae d5sity1 is ! basis ( all ! results giv5 9 ?is volume1 except :]e o!rwise /at$4 ,!re appe>$ to him to be no good reason = ! acceptance ( ! arbitr>y me?od ( soil-extraction sugge/$ by ,k$zie & s9ce adopt$ by ! ,association ( ,(ficial ,agricultural ,*emi/s2 ! m z to d s w\ld ?r[ out ( comp>ison all ! previ\s "w done by ,ow51 ,pet]1 & himself & 8 pupils1 :i* _h already be5 def9itely correlat$ ) ! natural conditions & ) cultural exp]i5ce4#aag #aag ,:ile regrett+ to ?us 8sec$e0 f ! fell[%ip ( 8 colleagues1 ! writ] _c b regret equally _! volunt>y decision to d ov] aga91 or lightly reject1 all t _h be5 done be=e 9 correlat+ soil-composition & plant-gr[?4 ,he /ill ?9ks t x is idle to expect any unification1 national or int]national1 ( me?ods ( soil analysis bas$ ^u purely arbitr>y prescriptions1 unless previ\sly %[n to be def9itely correlat$ ) natural & cultural conditions2 z is measurably ! case ) ,dy]'s me?od4 ,virg9 ,soils ) ,high ,plant-food ,p]c5tages are ,always ,productive4--,9 /rong contra/ to ! contradictory evid5ce d$uc$ f ! analysis1 by any me?od1 ( cultivat$ soils :5 comp>$ ) cultural exp]i5ce1 x seems to be g5]ally true t virg9 soils %[+ high p]c5tages ( plant-food z asc]ta9$ by extraction ) /rong acids 7su* z hydro*loric1 nitric1 etc471 inv>iably prove highly productive3 provid$ only t extreme physical *>act]s d n int]f]e ) normal plant gr[?1 z is sometimes ! case ) heavy clays1 or v co>se s&y l&s4--,to ?is rule no exception has ?us f> be5 f\nd4 ,! composition ( "s repres5tative soils fall+ )9 ?is category is giv5 9 ! annex$ table1 :i* at ! same "t conveys "s idea ( ! proportion ( acid-soluble +r$i5ts usually f\nd 9 ! be/ class ( natural soils4 ,,table ,,exemplify+ ,,high ,,plant-,,food ,,p]c5tage ,,9 ,,soils4 7,a7 ,buck%ot soil4 ,yazoo ,bottom4 7,b7 ,black ,prairie4 ,rank9 ,c\nty4 7,c7 ,loamy ,s$im5t4 ,h\ma1 ,t]rebonne p>i%4 7,d7 ,rio ,gr&e ,bottom4 ,s&y ,s$im5t4 ,mississippi ,l\isiana4 ,texas4 ------------------------------------- 7,a7 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 7,heavy ,clay74 7,loam74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample #cij #ahh #bdj #cg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,*emical ,analysis ( ,f9e ,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #ea4jf #fi4ie #ce4dh #cf4jd #ga4gg #gd4dj #ef4bd #ec4cj ,soluble silica #bj4gj #d4df #bj4gf #ag4bf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4aj 4#ij #a4jc #a4ca ,soda 7,na,o7 4#cc 4#bd 4#ac 4#bb ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4ce #a4jd 4#gb #ad4dc ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4fg 4#ia 4#hh #a4ec ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ab 4#ab 4#jad 4#jg ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #e4hb #d4gg #g4aj #d4ji ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #aj4ed #g4be #ae4de #i4aa ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#cj 4#dg 4#ae 4#bj ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jb 4#af 4#be 4#jd ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #i4ia ,wat] & organic matt] #g4cg #aj4gd #ah4eb 8 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total #ajj4ch #aja4ja #ajj4dh #ajj4bb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 7,e7 ,san ,diego ,co4 ,colorado ,bottom4 ,silt ,s$im5t4#aah 7,f7 ,riv]side ,co4 ,palm ,valley4 ,micace\s ,s&y ,soil4 7,g7 ,tul>e ,co4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 ,pla9s ,loam4 7,h7 ,solano ,co4 ,putah ,valley4 ,d>k ,loam4 7,i7 ,san ,luis ,obispo ,co4 ,arroyo ,gr&e ,d>k ,loam4 ,cali=nia4 ------------------------------------- 7,e7 7,f7 7,g7 7,h7 7,i7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample #ejf #ajib #aaei #aaj #bjfa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,*emical ,analysis ( ,f9e ,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #eh4eg #ga4de #gb4ihfg4cc #ec4dc #fc4ij #ga4jj #gb4dc ,soluble silica #e4cc #e4ej #f4fj #c4fg #ai4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4ah #a4db #a4bj 4#ic 4#fg ,soda 7,na,o7 4#af 4#ah 4#eb 4#ab 4#ah ,lime 7,ca,o7 #h4fg #b4bj #a4hf 4#gg #b4aa ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #b4ig #b4ji #a4ha #b4bi #b4bf ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jc 4#je 4#jh 4#aa 4#jf ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #d4ad #f4fh #f4hf #h4ja #e4bc ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #h4dj #e4gh #e4ff #i4af #g4dj ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ac 4#ce 4#aj 4#aa 4#ga ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ae 4#ja 4#jc 4#ab 4#bb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #g4hb 4#ah #a4hb ,wat] & organic matt] #c4cd #d4bi #b4ed #g4ab #f4fc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total #ajj4hi #ajj4ahajj4bdii4gd #ii4gb ,humus #c4jf ,nitrog5 9 humus #bb4jj ,nitrog5 9 soil 4#fg ,hygroscopic moi/ure4 absorb$ at #ae;,c #aj4gj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,available phos4 acid 4#ad ,available pota% 4#ad #aah ,! ,rio ,gr&e & ,colorado bottom soils conta9 am\nts ( lime c>bonate l>gely 9 excess ( requirem5ts1 #b to #c ( t comp\nd be+ all t is ne$$ to insure all ! advantage\s effects ( lime 9 any soil 7see ?is *apt]1 page #cfg74 ,discussion ( ,table4--,x w be not$ 9 ?is table t :ile ! total ( ! matt]s soluble 9 acids 7inclusive ( silica7 ranges f a little bel[ #ej to ov] #gg p] c5t1 ! total ( directly important m9]al plant-food +r$i5ts 7pota%1 lime1 magnesia & phosphoric acid71 con/itute 9 mod]ately calc>e\s soils only f ab\t #b4e to some:at ov] f\r p] c5t ( ! :ole4 ,yet if all ^! 7 9 available =m1 ! supply w\ld be abundant = _m hundr$s & ev5 ?\s&s ( crop ye>s4 ,=1 "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t 9 ! case ( ! clayey soils ( ! prec$+ table w\ld am\nt to ab\t #cejj p\nds p] acre-foot1 & to #djjj 9 ! case ( ! s&y ones4 ,h5ce ! am\nt ( phosphoric acid 9 e4 g41 ! ,mississippi delta soil f ,h\ma w\ld suffice = ! production ( ab\t #ddj crops ( :eat gra9 7at #bj bu%els p] acre7 if only "o foot dep? 7 drawn ^u2 b z ! roots ( gra9 easily p5etrate to twice & half & ?ree times t dep? ev5 9 ! humid region1 ! numb] might be tripl$4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 t soil has produc$ full crops = f =ty to fifty ye>s only2 yet ?is is consid]$ an exceptionally long duration ( pr(itable production )\t f]tilization4 ,! fir/ & la/ soils 9 ! above li/ repres5t probably ! highe/ types ( productiv5ess kn[n4 ,! ,yazoo bottom soil has produc$ up to "o ?\s& p\nds ( cotton l9t p] acre :5 fre%1 & is /ill produc+ f f\r to five hundr$ p\nds aft] ?irty ye>s' culture4 ,! ,arroyo ,gr&e soil ( ,cali=nia ) its extraord9>y p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid & nitrog51 z well z exceptionally high proportion ( available phosphoric acid & pota%1 has made su* a record ( productiv5ess1 & high quality ( ! se$s produc$1 t x has = a numb] ( ye>s be5 exclud$ f competition = prizes (f]$ by se$-produc]s else:]e1 9 ord] to give o!r sections a *ance4 ,bo? ^! soils are r heavy clays1 b readily tillable 9 consequ5ce ( _! abundant lime-cont5t4 ,! rem>kably high cont5t ( acid-soluble silica1 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( mu* easily available zeolitic matt]1 is d\btless connect$ ) ! exceptional productiv5ess4 ,exp]i5ce1 !n1 proves t l&s %[+ su* high plant-food p]c5tages w yield pr(itable h>ve/s = a long "t )\t f]tilization1 or ) only su* p>tial returns z are af=d$ by ! (fal ( crops4 ,also t :5 f]tilization comes to be requir$1 in/ead ( supply+ all ! +r$i5ts usually con/itut+ f]tiliz]s1 only "o or two ( ^! w z a rule be actually ne$$1 & ev5 ^! 9 small] am\nts ?an 9 8poor0 l&s2 ?us mat]ially r$uc+ ! exp5se ( f]tilization4 ,! high production & durability ( su* l&s !re=e amply ju/ify _! high] pecuni>y valuation2 = :i* !re w\ld be no rational p]man5t gr\nd if !y requir$ f]tilization to ! same ext5t z poor l&s4 ,9 o!r words1 if ! entire am\nt ( soil-+r$i5ts remov$ by crops _h _h to be curr5tly replac$ equally 9 all cases 7z is impli$ 9 ! hypo!sis1 advanc$ by "s1 t ! *emical composition ( soils is ( no practical consequ5ce71 ! high prices :i* f "t immemorial h be5 paid = black prairie & ri* alluvial l&s z aga9/ meagre upl&s & b>r5s1 w\ld h be5 s mu* money wa/$4 ,! explanation ( ^! advantages evid5tly lies l>gely 9 ! l>g] am\nts ( soil +r$i5ts annually r5d]$ available 9 ri* soils by ! fall[+ effect ( ! atmosph]ic ag5cies1 because ( ! g5]\s totals pres5t4 ,! actual am\nts ( soil +r$i5ts ?us r5d]$ accessible to plants1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 are evid5tly m or less directly proportional to ! totals ( acid-soluble plant-food +r$i5ts pres5t4 ,& if ?is is true 9 cultivat$ l&s1 ! inevitable conclusion is t ! same mu/ be true ( virg9 l&s2 ^: productive capacity & duration c !re=e be =eca/ by su* analyses4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! above data1 :i* c\ld be indef9itely increas$ by corroborative analyses1 seem to e/abli% ! fact t ab\t "o p] c5t ( acid-soluble pota%1 "o ( lime1 ! same1 or less1 ( magnesia1 & 4#ae ( phosphoric acid1 are ?us %[n to be 8high0 p]c5tages ( ^! +r$i5ts 9 virg9 soils4 ,x is n easy to see h[ ! above conclusions c be successfully controv]t$2 !y are1 moreov]1 ?or\ghly 9 accordance ) cultural exp]i5ce4 ,difficulties ( int]pretation arise ma9ly 9 ! case ( m$ium soils1 :i* %[ nei!r v high nor v l[ p]c5tages ( plant-food2 & :i* raise ! "q ( :at am\nt or p]c5tage con/itutes 8adequacy0 ( ea* ( ! sev]al sub/ances4 ,l[ ,p]c5tages4--,on ! o!r h&1 :5ev] 9 virg9 soils acid-analysis %[s ! pres5ce ( b a v small proportion ( "o or sev]al ( ! ess5tial +r$i5ts1 we h a valuable indication z to ! "o ( ^! t w fir/ be requir$ to be add$ :5 production slack5s4 ,:at are 8,adequate0 ,p]c5tages ( ,pota%1 ,lime1 ,phosphoric ,acid & ,nitrog58--,x is evid5t t a v critical discussion ( cultural exp]i5ce c alone answ] ?is "q2 & at fir/ sight su* exp]i5ce (t5 appe>s v contradictory :5 comp>$ ) ! results ( analysis4 ,"o ( ! *ief causes ( su* app>5t discrepancies is readily intelligible :5 we consid] ! diff]5ces 9 root-developm5t ( ! same plant 9 diff]5t soils4 ,9 8light0 or s&y l&s ! roots may p5etrate to sev]al times ! dep? atta9$ by !m 9 heavy clay soils4 ,hav+ ?us )9 _! rea* a soil-mass sev]al times l>g]1 & a]at$ to a mu* great] dep?1 x is b reasonable to expect t 9 deep1 s&y l&s plants w\ld d equally well ) correspond+ly small] p]c5tages ( plant-food ?an w\ld suffice 9 clay soils1 9 :i* ! root-range is v mu* m re/rict$4 ,! well-kn[n fact t ! production ( heavy clay l&s may be increas$ by _! int]mixture ) m]e s&1 add+ no?+ to _! /ore ( plant-food1 emphasizes ?is expectation & elevates x into a maxim4 ,on ?is gr\nd alone1 !re=e1 x is evid5t t ! m]e consid]ation ( plant-food p]c5tages f\nd1 c be a true measure ( productiv5ess only 9 ! case ( virg9 soils ) high p]c5tages4 ,soil ,dilution ,exp]im5ts4--,! ext5t to :i* dilution ) m]e 8light5+0 mat]ials c be c>ri$ )\t impair+ production1 c ( c\rse be det]m9$ = concrete cases only2 b ! foll[+ exp]im5t made at ! ,cali=nia ,/ation is a case 9 po9t3 ,"o kilogram ( ! heavy b highly productive black clay soil ( ! exp]im5tal gr\nds ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia 0 us$ 9 ea* ( five exp]im5tal cultures1 ea* made 9 duplicate1 9 cyl9drical vessels ( z9c-cov]$ 78galvaniz$07 %eet iron1 all proportion$ alike 9 height & diamet]1 b conta9+ respectively "o1 two1 f\r1 five & six volumes ( total soil4 ,9 ! smalle/ 0 plac$ "o kilogram ( ! undilut$1 orig9al soil1 9 ! o!rs successively ! same am\nt ( ! soil ?or\ghly mix$ ) "o1 ?ree1 f\r1 & five volumes ( a dune s& fully extract$ ) *lorhydric acid1 & wa%$ ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,! wat] capacity ( ea* ( ! mixtures 0 det]m9$ & ! e>? 9 ! pots kept at ! po9t ( half-saturation g5]ally admitt$ to be ! optimum 7be/ condition7 = plant gr[?4 ,ea* pot 0 s[n ) t5 se$s ( :ite mu/>d1 subsequ5tly r$uc$ to five plants select$ = _! vigor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,natural ,adobe ,clay ,soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,adobe ,soil dilut$ ) s&1 #a to #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,same1 dilut$ #a to #c4 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,roots ,,( ,,:ite ,,mu/>d ,,9 ,,clay ,,soil1 ,,dilut$ ,,) ,,v>i\s ,,proportions ,,( ,,pure ,,s&4 ,! 78galvaniz$07 vegetation pots 7 made z ne>ly z possible ( simil> proportions 9 dep? & wid? = ea* dilution1 s z to give opportunity = ! proportional developm5t ( ! root sy/ems4 ,! photographs %[ ! latt] z ne>ly z practicable 9 _! natural =m1 re/or$ aft] wa%+ (f ! adh]5t soil4 ,x 0 ( c\rse extremely difficult to pres]ve intact ! extreme circumf]5tial rootlets & hairs2 yet ! g5]al developm5t is correctly %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,adobe ,soil dilut$ #a to #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,adobe ,soil dilut$ #a to #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,soil-dilution ,exp]im5t3 ,photograph %[+ ,mature ,plants4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! p]c5tage composition ( ! orig9al z well z ! dilut$ soils1 :ile ! photographs %[ ! developm5t ( ! plants 9 _! successive /ages1 s f> z ^! c\ld be obs]v$2 ! cont9u$ attacks ( mildew & plant lice prev5t+ full maturity be+ atta9$4 ,,composition ,,( ,,black ,,adobe ,,& ,,s& ,,dilutions4 ,orig9al ,dilutions4 ,*emical analysis ( soil4 f9e e>?4 #a3j #a3a #a3c #a3d #a3e ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,insoluble matt] #ed4ej #gg4be #hh4fb #ij4jj #ib4db ,soluble silica #ai4fj #i4ej #d4ge #c4hj #c4ag ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gc 4#cf 4#ah 4#ae 4#ab ,soda 7,na,o7 4#bj 4#aj 4#je 4#jd 4#jc ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4ae 4#eg 4#bi 4#bc 4#ai ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4jh 4#ed 4#bg 4#bb 4#ah ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jd 4#jb 4#ja 4#ja 4#ja ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #h4dc #d4bb #b4aa #a4fh #a4dj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #g4ib #c4if #a4ih #a4eh #a4cb ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ai 4#aj 4#je 4#jd 4#jc ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jd 4#jb 4#ja 4#ja 4#ja ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #f4ed #c4bg #a4fd #a4ca #a4ji ,loss 9 analysis #a4ah 4#ji 4#jd 4#jc 4#jc ----------------------------------- ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,humus #a4ba 4#fj 4#cj 4#bd 4#bj 8 ,a% 4#id 4#dg 4#bc 4#ai 4#af 8 ,nitrog51 p4 c5t 9 ,humus #ah4eh #ah4eh #ah4ej #ah4eh #ah4eh 8 8 p4 c5t4 9 soil 4#bjc 4#aj 4#je 4#jd 4#jcd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! re/rict$ volume ( soil occupi$ by ! roots 9 ! undilut$ adobe soil1 toge!r ) ! v abundant developm5t ( root-hairs1 is v /rik+4 ,a m>k$ *ange 9 ^! respects is manife/ 9 ! fir/ dilution1 & increas+ly s z dilution increases2 ! paucity ( root-hairs is v m>k$ 9 ! la/ 7greate/7 dilution1 9 :i*1 z ! photograph ( ! plants %[s1 ! developm5t 0 decid$ly beh9d t 9 ! pot conta9+ dilution #a3d4 ,! latt] 9 fact %[$ ! be/ developm5t n only 9 ?is case1 b 9 two o!r s]ies ( te/s conduct$ at ! same & subsequ5t times2 & /rangely en\gh1 also 9 ! pulv]ul5t1 8s&y loam0 soil ( ! s\!rn ,cali=nia sub/ation tract4 ,9 ! latt] s]ies1 :i* = lack ( space _c be figur$ "h1 ! ma9 diff]5ce 0 t 9 ! undilut$ soil ! roots fill$ ! entire soil mass1 in/ead ( rema9+ ne> ! surface1 z 9 ! pure adobe4 ,x is possible t ! latt] 0 too wet :5 giv5 ! full half ( its wat]-capacity1 al?\gh1 z ! figures %[1 ! wat] 0 sl[ly introduc$ f bel[ by means ( glass tubes1 end+ )9 a %ield to prev5t puddl+4 ,limitation ( ,root ,action4--,^! results1 repres5t+ five soils ( diff]5t p]c5tage-composition & physical "*1 b id5tical *emical composition & ratios betwe5 ! sev]al +r$i5ts1 & simil>ly act$ ^u by ! atmosph]ic ag5cies 9 ! pa/1 illu/rate /rik+ly ! impossibility ( judg+ correctly ( a soil's productiv5ess f p]c5tages ( *emical +r$i5ts alone4 ,x is cle> t ! physical *>act]s ( ! l& z well z its dep?1 mu/ be ess5tially tak5 into acc\nt4 ,b !re is obvi\sly a c]ta9 limit beyond :i* great] p]vi\sness & root-p5etration _c make up = defici5cy 9 ! absolute am\nts ( plant-food )9 possible rea* ( ! plant2 = 9 ! case ( excessive dilution ^! are r5d]$ p>tially inaccessible )9 ! "t-limits ( a season's gr[?4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t ^! exp]im5ts require repetition ) ! aid ( ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 ^! fir/ trials1 n only 9 ! laboratory b also 9 ! field4 ,x w be especially int]e/+ to comp>e ) ! results obta9$ 9 ^! /rongly calc>e\s soils1 ! effects ( dilution 9 su* soils z ^? ( ,florida1 m5tion$ bel[2 ! probability be+ t :]e lime is naturally defici5t1 ! effects ( dilution w be mu* m pron\nc$ 9 dim9i%+ production1 because ( ! abs5ce ( ! previ\s favorable action ( lime ^u ! availability ( ! soil-+r$i5ts4 ,l[e/ ,limit ( ,plant-food ,p]c5tages & ,productiv5ess f\nd 9 ,virg9 ,soils4--,! subjo9$ table %[s "s ( ! v l[ plant-food p]c5tages f\nd 9 natural soils1 all be+ ( a s&y "*3 ,,mississippi ,,soils4 --------------------------------- ,homo*itto ,%ell ,p9e ,p9e ,bottom4 ,hammock4 ,woods4 ,flats4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #fh #hc #bjf #bad ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,insoluble matt] #ib4af #if4jh #ic4bc #ie4ei ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ae 4#je 4#bf 4#jf ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jd 4#jf 4#jg 4#je ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#ab 4#aj 4#ab 4#jb ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ba 4#ab 4#ah 4#jg ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#bh 4#je 4#ae 4#je ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #a4ah 4#eb #a4be 4#df ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #c4bb 4#df #b4cf 4#he ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#jh 4#aj 4#jc 4#jb ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#je ,trace 4#jb ,trace ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #b4gj #c4jb #b4cc #b4bh ---------------------------------- ,total #ajj4ai #ajj4ef #ajj4jj #ii4de ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,florida ,,soils4 -------------------- ,p9e ,l&s4 ------------------- ,fir/ ,second ,class4 ,class4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #f #g ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,insoluble matt] #id4df #ie4fc #if4ea ,soluble silica #a4fg 4#hh ---------------------------------------- ------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ai 4#ab ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jd 4#jf ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#jg 4#jf ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#jd 4#jd ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jf 4#je ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 4#cb 4#bb ,alum9a 7,al,o7 4#ib 4#dg ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#aa 4#ji ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ji 4#jf ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #a4hh #a4ha ------------------- ,total #ii4he #ii4di ---------------------------------------- ------- ,! av]age ( plant-food p]c5tages 9 all ^! soils is q l[1 & at fir/ sight !re seems to be little *oice betwe5 !m4 ,yet two ( !m--,nos4 #fh & #hh1 f ,mississippi--are n only q productive at ! outset1 b also fairly durable4 ,?is becomes measurably intelligible :5 x is kn[n t bo? are ( great dep?1 & s well dra9$ t roots c desc5d = _m feet2 :ile ! composition ( ! soil-mat]ial is almo/ id5tical = ?ree or f\r feet4 ,on ! o!r h&1 bo? ,nos4 #bjf & #bad are q %all[1 be+ und]laid by s& almo/ devoid ( plant-food at ab\t two feet4 ,9 addition1 bo? h extremely l[ p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid2 :ile ! re/ %[ ne> 4#aj ( t +r$i5t1 an am\nt :i*1 z w be se5 h]eaft]1 is consid]ably above ! recogniz$ limit ( defici5cy4 ,! two ,florida soils h[ev] be> only p9e2 !y are und]laid by almo/ clean s& at two or ?ree feet1 & are !re=e quickly exhau/$4 ,x w also be not$ t _! lime-p]c5tage is only ab\t half ( t ( ! two fir/-nam$ ,mississippi soils1 bo? ( :i* be> a /rong gr[? ( decidu\s timb] trees1 grape v9es1 & o!r vegetation indicat+ ! pres5ce ( lime c>bonate4 ,x is notewor?y1 also1 t ! popul> classification ( ! two ,florida soils corresponds exactly ) ! diff]5ces 9 ! p]c5tages ( plant-food2 ^? 9 ! 8second-class0 soil be+ uni=mly l[] ?an ^? 9 ! "o designat$ z fir/-class4 ,?is indicates1 aga91 t z betwe5 soils ( simil> "* & orig91 ! production & durability are s5sibly proportional to ! plant-food p]c5tages :5 ! latt] fall bel[ a c]ta9 limit2 a po9t m fully illu/rat$ f>!r on4 ,9 ! light ( ! above exp]im5t & tables1 x becomes p]t95t to consid] :at are ! l[e/ p]c5tage limits ( ea* ( ! m important plant-food +r$i5ts compatible ) pr(itable production4 ,,limits ,,( ,,adequacy ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,plant-,,foods ,,9 ,,virg9 ,,soils4 ,x is obvi\s t ! l[] limits ( adequacy ( ! critical plant-food +r$i5ts are be/ asc]ta9$ 9 ! case ( virg9 soils conta9+ v small am\nts ( "s "o +r$i5t1 :ile fairly or fully suppli$ ) ! re/4 ,9 su* cases1 :i* are n at all infrequ5t1 ! use ( ! defici5t +r$i5t z a f]tiliz] %\ld produce a v m>k$ effect s soon z ! fir/ flu% ( production 7always not$ 9 fre% soil7 is ov]4 ,?is fir/ productiv5ess may1 ev5 9 poor l&s1 range f "o to ?ree ye>s1 :5 !re is a sudd5 decl9e4 ,lime a ,dom9ant ,factor4--,:5 we inve/igate ! cases ( su* l&s1 x soon becomes app>5t t besides ! l[ p]c5tage ( any "o +r$i5t1 ! proportions ( o!rs pres5t require consid]ation4 ,among ^!1 lime 9 ! =m ( c>bonate /&s =emo/4 ,its pres5ce ex]ts a dom9ant & b5eficial influ5ce 9 _m respects1 z is readily app>5t f ! prompt *ange 9 vegetation :5ev] x is introduc$ into soils defici5t 9 x4 ,9 discuss+ ! results ( soil analysis1 its consid]ation is ( fir/ importance 9 =eca/+ correctly ! adequacy or inadequacy ( o!r soil +r$i5ts 7see *apt] #bj1 page #cgi74 ,= 9 g5]al1 we f9d t l[] p]c5tages ( pota%1 phosphoric acid & nitrog5 are adequate1 :5 a l>ge proportion ( lime c>bonate is pres5t4--,?is has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 connection ) ! table ( soils ( l[ p]c5tages1 giv5 above4 ,9 ! int]pretation ( results obta9$ by analysis ?is po9t mu/ always be kept 9 view2 & 9 ! num]ical /atem5ts made bel[1 x mu/ be und]/ood t !y ref] to virg9 soils suffici5tly suppli$ ) lime to assure a con/ant excess ( lime c>bonate1 ma9ta9+ ! conditions ( nitrification & insur+ ! abs5ce ( acidity4 7,see *apt] #i1 page #adf74 ,pota%4--,9 respect to pota%1 ! writ] 0 l$ by 8 e>ly inve/igations 9 ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi to conclude t less ?an "o-f\r? ( "o p] c5t 74#be7 ( pota% con/itut$ a defici5cy likely to call = e>ly f]tilization ) pota% salts2 :ile z mu* z 4#de ( ! same seem$ to cause ! l& to respond b feebly to su* f]tilization4 ,he has n f\nd x necess>y to revise mat]ially t e>ly conclusion1 :e!r f 8 own "w or f t ( o!rs4 ,)9 ! la/ decade1 ,pr(4 ,liebs*] ( ,gtt+5#aai has arriv$ at ?is id5tical figure f analyses made ( soils ^u :i* he _h conduct$ a sev5-ye> s]ies ( f]tiliz] te/s2 he hav+ f\nd t pota% f]tilization produc$ no s5sible1 or at lea/ no pay+ results on l& giv+ t figure1 & o!rwise well provid$ ) plant-food4 ,! diff]5t 7l[]7 figures giv5 by ,s*loes+1 ,risl] & o!r ,fr5* *emi/s 9 discuss+ ! soils ( ,france are d\btless due to ! weak acid & %ort p]iod ( dige/ion employ$ 9 ! analysis2 an un=tunate discrepancy ( me?ods :i* precludes any direct comp>ison ( results4 #aai ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,be/immung des ,dng]b$rfnisses d] ,ack]bd5 und ,kulturpflanz51 von ,g4 ,liebs*]2 ,j\rnal fr ,l&wirts*aft #dc 7#ahie71 ,nos4 #a #b1 pp4 #dh-baf4 ,^! figures apply bo? to ! arid & ! humid regions 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,9 ! tropics we f9d v mu* l[] p]c5tages quot$ z adequate2 ?us 9 ! lat]ite soils ( ,india & ,samoa1 accord+ to ,wohltmann1 9 ! soils ( ,jamaica accord+ to ,fawcett1 & 9 ^? ( ,madagasc> accord+ to ,mntz & ,r\sseaux4#abj ,!re1 pota%-p]c5tages ov] 4#aj seem to be high1 & 9 ,madagasc> "s l&s 9 fair production range z l[ z 4#ja4 ,! soil-extractions h h[ev] 9 ^! cases be5 made ) a weak] acid ?an above specifi$1 s t "s increase ( ! figures 7p]haps #cc to #ej7 h to be all[$ =4 ,b ev5 !n !re c be no "q t a f> less am\nt ( pota%1 z det]m9$ by acid-extraction1 is f\nd suffici5t = crop production 9 ! tropics2 d\btless because ( ! v int5se decompos+ 78fall[+07 effect ( ! cont9u\s heat & moi/ure1 t5d+ also to a rapid decomposition ( organic matt] & a proportionally rapid =mation ( c>bonic & nitric acids4 ,su* soils are ( c\rse con/antly kept 9 a lea*$ condition1 z a result ( ! heavy & cont9u\s ra9fall4 #abj ,la ,valeur ,agricole des ,t]res de ,madagasc>4 ,ann4 de la ,sci5ce ,agronomique1 #b'me srie1 tome #a1 #aija4 ,phosphoric ,acid4--,z reg>ds ! l[] limit ( adequacy ( phosphoric acid1 !re is a rem>kable agreem5t 9 ! inve/igations made ev]y:]e4 ,x 0 plac$ at 4#je by ! writ] z long ago z #ahfj1 z ! result ( inve/igations made 9 ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi2 & ! same figure has s9ce be5 arriv$ at indep5d5tly by agricultural *emi/s 9 ,france1 ,russia1 ,g]many & ,engl&4 ,! cause ( ?is rem>kable agreem5t is und\bt$ly ! read9ess ) :i* ! phosphates t come "u consid]ation at all = ! nutrition ( plants1 are dissolv$ by almo/ any acid treatm5t likely to be us$ 9 soil analysis4 ,almo/ ! same agreem5t exi/s 9 reg>d to ! 8adequacy0 ( 4#a ( ,p,o2 :ile all soils %[+ p]c5tages betwe5 4#a & 4#je are consid]$ weak on ?is side1 & liable to ne$ phosphate f]tilization soon4 ,"o-f\r? ( "o p] c5t is an unusually high p]c5tage 9 mo/ c\ntries2 4#cj & ov] is exceptional 9 non-f]rug9\s soils4 ,b z /at$ on a previ\s page1 a high p]c5tage ( lime c>bonate may (fset a small] p]c5tage ( phosphoric acid1 app>5tly by br++ ab\t great] availability2 & a simil> effect seems to result f ! pres5ce ( a l>ge supply ( humus4 ,on ! o!r h&1 v l>ge p]c5tages ( f9ely divid$ f]ric hydrate may1 especially 9 ! abs5ce ( lime c>bonate1 r5d] ev5 l>ge supplies ( phosphoric acid in]t & useless1 by ! =mation ( ! totally insoluble f]ric phosphate4 ,alum9ic hydrate probably acts 9 a simil> mann]4 ,! foll[+ table gives examples 9 po9t1 z reg>ds f]ric hydrate4 ,,hawaiian ,,soils ,,%[+ ,,high ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,f]ric ,,oxid4 7,rept4 ,cal4 ,exp4 ,/a4 #ahid-e1 page #bg47 ,oahu4 ,hawaii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,numb] ,,( ,,sample4 ,no4 #ba4,no4 #bb4,no4 #bd4,no4 #bf4,no4 #bg4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,co>se ,mat]ials4 #j4ee #b4jj #b4ej #d4jj #c4jj #e4jj ,f9e ,e>? #ih4jj #ig4ej #if4jj #ig4jj #ie4jj ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #ae4hd #ad4di #bf4ii #bh4ff #ba4jg ,soluble ,silica #ad4jg #cj4cg #aj4bf #g4ce #b4fh ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#de 4#bf 4#dj 4#fa 4#dd ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ad 4#jh 4#bf 4#ag 4#be ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#bf #a4jd 4#eb 4#fh 4#bh ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#fe 4#hj 4#if #a4jd 4#fj ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#je 4#jc 4#ba 4#bj 4#jg ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #ci4je #ai4fh #ai4aj #ah4bc #cj4aj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #ad4fa #ah4bi #ba4da #bj4ah #ad4ch ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ai 4#cb 4#fd 4#gj 4#ig ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jc 4#ji 4#cb 4#ba 4#bi ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #ad4ah #ad4ei #ah4fj #ba4fe #bh4fj ----------------------------------- ,total #ii4eb #ajj4jd #ii4fg #ii4fa #ii4gc ,humus #c4ce #c4bd #d4hd #e4dc #i4ie 8 ,a% #c4ab #b4bb #b4gf #c4ef #f4gj 8 ,nitrog51 p4c4 9 ,humus #c4cj #i4hjj #b4hjj #c4ajj #a4ga 8 8 1 p4c4 9 soil 4#aab 4#cad 4#acd 4#afh 4#ag ,phosph4 acid 9 humus a% 4#aaj 4#aff 4#ehj 4#ejj ,soluble 9 #b ,citric acid 4#jjd 4#jbj 4#jce 4#jcg 4#jbe 9 ,nitric acid1 #a4bj sp4 g4 4#aij 4#cbj 4#fdj 4#gjj 4#igj 9 ,*lorhydric acid 7#a4aae sp4g47 4#dcj 4#cej #a4fjj #a4bhj ,hygroscopic moi/ure #ae;,c4 #ah4ej #ba4be #bc4jg #bc4ad #bc4ha ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,unavailability ( ,f]ric ,phosphate4--,x w be not$ t 9 ! soils f ,oahu ) an ov]:elm+ am\nt ( f]ric oxid 7mo/ly 9 ! =m ( hydrate or ru/7 ! citric acid has tak5 up only an insignificant am\nt ( phosphoric acid2 nitric acid took up #dj to #ej times z mu*1 & *lorhydric d\bl$ ev5 ?is4 ,9 ! mu* less f]rug9\s ,hawaiian soils1 ?\gh conta9+ m alum9a1 ! citric acid extract$ ne>ly t5 times z mu*2 prov+ t x is *iefly f]ric oxid1 & n ! alum9a z has be5 suppos$1 t causes ! insolubility ( phosphoric acid 9 soils & d\btless also 9 f]tiliz]s4 ,! v unusually high cont5t ( phosphoric acid 9 ! ,hawaiian soils1 exce$+ all o!rs on record1 s f> z kn[n to ! writ]1 emphasize ! effects ( f]ric hydrate ^u soluble phosphates2 :ile ! fact t ^! v soils are greatly b5efit$ by ! use ( phosphate f]tiliz]s1 proves t ! ,dy] 7citric acid7 me?od = ! det]m9ation ( available phosphoric acid :i* 9 soils ,nos4 #ba to #bf yield$ results l>gely 9 excess ( ! e/abli%$ limit 9 ,european soils1 _c be successfully appli$ to ^! highly f]rug9\s soils4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t ! am\nts ( phosphoric acid f\nd 9 ! humus extract$ by ! ,gr&eau me?od is 9 ! fir/ two ,hawaiian soils ov] t5 times ! am\nt extract$ by citric acid1 b t :ile !y rise & fall toge!r1 no def9ite quantitative ratio exi/s betwe5 ! two4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 su* soils1 f]tilization ) wat]-soluble phosphates w\ld be likely to result 9 ! quick p>tial )drawal ( ! same f useful action1 & t any excess n promptly tak5 up by ! crop1 is likely to become in]t & useless4 ,x w evid5tly be desirable to use ! phosphates 9 ! =m ( bone meal or basic slag 7,?omas ,phosphate71 :i* because ( _! difficult solubility w be act$ ^u b v sl[ly1 if at all1 by ! f]ric & alum9ic hydrates4 ,nitrog54--,9 det]m9+ ! nitrog5-cont5t ( ! soil1 a great v>iety ( me?ods has be5 foll[$4 ,"s include all t c be obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( ! organic matt]s ( soil & f ! nitrates pres5t 9 ! same2 :ile o!rs1 ! writ] among ! numb]1 believe t ! ma9ly important s\rce ( nitrog5 to ! plant be+ ! nitrification ( ! humus-nitrog51 ! det]m9ation ( ! humus by ! me?od ( ,gr&eau1 & ( ! nitrog5 conta9$ 9 x1 %\ld be ! /&>d2 ! unhumifi$ vegetable matt] be+ ( no def9itely asc]ta9able value1 & ! nitrates v>y+ f day to day & be+ liable to be lo/ by lea*+ at any "t2 !re=e =m+ no p]man5t feature ( ! soil4 ,consid]+ ! v>iety ( me?ods1 ! unanimity ) :i* ab\t "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t 74#aj7 has be5 assum$ z ! ord9>ily adequate p]c5tage is rem>kable4 ,9 view ( ! extremely v>iable am\nt ( nitrog5 9 ! humus 7rang+ f #a4g to ne>ly #bb71 ! am\nt ( ! latt] _c1 ( c\rse1 af=d ev5 an approximation to ! nitrog5-cont5t2 except t z 9 ! humid region1 ! nitrog5-p]c5tage is n kn[n to exce$ ab\t #e or #e4e1 an approximate e/imate c be made on t basis4 ,9 ! arid region1 accord+ to location1 ! nitrog5-p]c5tage may be f ?ree to six times great] = a simil> am\nt ( humus4 7,see *ap4 #h4 p4 #ace74 ,9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 a nitrog5-p]c5tage ( 4#a 9 ! arid region is a v satisfactory figure1 indicat+ t ! ne$ ( nitrog5-f]tilization is n likely to arise = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,nitrification ( ! ,organic ,matt] ( ! ,soil4--,9 ord] to te/ ! "q :e!r or n ! nitrog5 ( ! unhumifi$ debris exi/+ 9 surface soils is directly nitrifiable1 ! writ] select$ a soil :i* 9 its natural condition su/a9s int5se nitrification1 s t at "s po9ts x conta9s z mu* z #abjj p\nds ( sodic nitrate p] acre4 ,! composition ( ?is soil1 repres5t+ ! l& ( ! 8t5-acre tract0 ( ! s\!rn ,cali=nia sub/ation1 is z foll[s3 ,,soil ,,f 8,,t5-,,acre ,,tract10 ,,s\!rn ,,cali=nia ,,sub-,,/ation1 ,,no4 #abhd4 ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4ee #a4jj ,f9e ,e>? #ii4jj ------ #ajj4jj ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #fb4fb #gj4ib ,soluble silica #h4cj ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ie ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ej ,lime 7,ca,o7 #e4jg ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#hd ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jf ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #f4dc ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #c4hh ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ba ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jf ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #c4ff ,wat] & organic matt] #f4jb ----- ,total #ii4gj ,wat]-soluble matt]1 p] c5t4 4#acg ,sodic nitrate1 p] c5t4 4#jbj ,humus #a4ii 8 ,a% #a4ac 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #aj4cj 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#bjc ,total ,nitrog5 9 soil 4#ccj 8 8 9 unhumifi$ matt] 4#abg ,available ,pota% citric 4#jc ,available ,phosphoric acid me?od ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure absorb$ at #ae ,c4 #e4ha ,x w be notic$ t ?is is a r /rongly calc>e\s soil1 7ne>ly #i ( calcic c>bonate71 slightly impregnat$ ) alkali1 ( :i* ab\t "o-n9? is saltpet]4 ,"o portion ( ?is soil 0 ?or\ghly lea*$ ) di/ill$ wat] until n a trace ( nitrates c\ld be detect$ 9 ! lea*+s4 ,ano!r portion 0 treat$ = ! removal ( humus accord+ to ! ,gr&eau me?od 7see *apt] #h1 page #acb72 ! extract$ soil %[$ "u ! microscope an abundance ( vegetable debris1 "s slightly br[n$ z f incipi5t humification4 ,! calcic & magnesic c>bonates )drawn 9 ! humus-extraction 7 !n re/or$ to ! soil 9 ! =m ( f9ely divid$ precipitates & ?or\ghly mix$ 91 fir/ 9 ! dry & !n 9 ! wet condition2 ! extract$ soil be+ repeat$ly wett$ ) turbid wat] f ! lea*$ soil1 9 ord] to replace & re9fect x ) ! nitrify+ bact]ia4 ,bo? soils 7 !n spread out 9 flat glass di%es & plac$ 9 a wood5 box conta9+ also a simil> flat di% ) di/ill$ wat]1 ^u :i* play$ ! draught f ! inlet pipe op5+ into ! out] air1 ) outlet-holes 9 ! cov] at ! opposite end2 ?us keep+ ! air )9 fairly moi/4 ,9 addition1 ! soils !mselves 7 moi/5$ ) di/ill$ wat] e ?ree days & re/or$ to a loose condition by /irr+4 ,! :ole 0 plac$ s z to ma9ta91 dur+ ! great] "p ( ! #bd h\rs1 a temp]ature ( f #cj to #ce degrees ,c4 ,at int]vals ! samples ( bo? soils 7 lea*$ & color-titrat$ = _! nitrate cont5t by ! picric-acid te/4 ,! results1 calculat$ z sodic nitrate1 dur+ two ye>s 7 z foll[s3 ,nitrate =m$ dur+,f\r mon?s4,twelve mon?s4,two ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,lea*$ natural soil 4#jab 4#jdbj 4#jfa ,extract$ soil ,none4 4#jjcj 4#jjdb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,x w be not$ t 9 ! c\rse ( f\r mon?s1 nitrification _h n s5sibly set 9 ! extract$ soil2 :ile 9 ! lea*$ natural soil ! nitrate-cont5t _h rea*$ to ?ree-fif?s ! am\nt orig9ally pres5t1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a ye> ! nitrate-cont5t ( ! latt] 0 m ?an d\ble t ( ! orig9al 7unlea*$7 soil2 :ile t 9 ! extract$ soil _h only rea*$ "o-sev5? ( ! same4 ,at ! end ( two ye>s we f9d a /ill f>!r increase ( nitric nitrog5 9 bo?1 ! ratio betwe5 ! two rema9+ ab\t ! same 7#a3ad74 ,at ! same "t ! ratio ( increase atta9$ at fir/ _h mat]ially dim9i%$ 9 ! wat]-lea*$ soil1 probably on acc\nt ( ! accumulation ( ! nit] itself4 ,x ?us appe>s t al?\gh ! nitrog5 ( ! unhumifi$ organic matt] con/itut$ ab\t #dj ( ! total 9 ! orig9al soil1 x w\ld dur+ ! entire ye> h contribut$ only to an insignificant ext5t to ! available nitrate-supply2 :ile ! fully humifi$ 8matire noire0 contribut$ f\rte5 times z mu*4 ,dur+ ! ord9>y gr[+-season ( f\r or five mon?s ! unhumifi$ organic matt] w\ld h yield$ practically no?+ to ! crop4 ,functions ( ! unhumifi$ ,vegetable ,matt]4--,! *ief utility ( ! unhumifi$ matt] 9 ! soil consi/s ( c\rse 9 its gradual conv]sion into true humus1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* x evolves c>bonic gas to act on ! soil m9]als2 :ile at ! same "t x helps to r5d] ! soil m por\s & ?us facilitates ! action ( ! a]obic bact]ia1 = :i* x s]ves z food4 ,h5ce ! addition ( vegetable matt] to soils n already too 8light0 is always advantage\s1 s long z x does n introduce injuri\s1 non-humifiable +r$i5ts1 l turp5t9e 9 ! sawdu/ ( res9\s p9es4 ,b x is always advisable to fir/ use su* matt] z litt] = /ock1 9 ord] to bett] prep>e x = ! processes ( humification1 "u ! influ5ce ( ammoniacal f]m5tation1 su* z occurs 9 ! decay ( gre5 plants or animal matt]4 ,a portion ( ! a% +r$i5ts also is quickly utiliz$ by solution 9 ! soil-wat]4 ,matire ,noire ! ,only ,guide4--,accord+ to ^! results x is cle> t 9 ord] to ga9 any tangible indications ) respect to crop-be>+1 x is ! nitrog5 9 ! humus prop]1 ! matire noire only1 t %\ld s]ve z ! basis2 & t z a curr5t s\rce ( nitrog5 to ! plant1 ! unhumifi$ matt] is h>dly entitl$ to m consid]ation ?an ! 8insoluble silicates40 ,=1 ! favorable conditions = nitrification "u :i* ! above exp]im5t 0 conduct$1 w v r>ely be ev5 approa*$ "u field conditions4 ,:at are ! ,adequate ,nitrog5 ,p]c5tages 9 ! ,humus8--,! nitrification ( ! matire noire be+1 app>5tly1 ! ma9 s\rce ( plant-nutrition ) t elem5t "u ord9>y conditions1 ! "q naturally arises z to :at may be consid]$ an adequate nitrog5-cont5t ( t sub/ance1 s z to p]mit a full supply ( nitrates to ! crop4 ,! data extant on ?is subject are r scanty1 & ?us f> h all be5 obta9$ at ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation4#aba ,b !y seem to be v cog5t 9 prov+ t ! gr[? ( crops remov$ f ! soil causes a rapid depletion ( ! nitrog5 9 ! humus-sub/ance1 & t s soon z ! nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 ! same falls bel[ a c]ta9 po9t1 ! soil becomes 8nitrog5-hungry20 s t ! application ( nitrog5\s f]tiliz]s is ne$$ & is v effective4 ,! data 9 ! table bel[1 z well z ! figure ( a culture exp]im5t 7,no4 #eb bel[71 illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,,adequacy ,,& ,,inadequacy ,,( ,,nitrog5 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,humus4 ,collection,k9d ( ,locality4 ,p] c5t4,p] c5t4 ,p] c5t4 ,numb]4 ,soil4 ,humus 9 ,nitrog5 ,nitrog5 ,soil4 9 ,humus49 ,soil4 #abb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #f ,black ,ne> ,/ockton1 ,san ,adobe4 ,joaqu9 ,co41 ,cal4 #a4je #ah4ff 4#aif ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #afgi 8 ,virg9 ,soil1 ,univ]sity ,gr\nds1 ,b]keley #a4bj #ah4eh 4#bjc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ahdb 8 ,ramie plot1 ,univ4 ,gr\nds1 #aj ye>s cultivat$ #a4hj #d4ag 4#jge ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ahda 8 ,grass plot1 ,univ4 ,gr\nds1 #aj ye>s cultivat$ #a4fe #c4dj 4#jef ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bi ,d>k ,sug>-cane l&1 loam4 ,maui1 ,h4 ,t4 #aj4ij #c4ae 4#cdg ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bg ,d>k ,guava-l& hills1 loam4 ne> ,hilo1 ,hawaii #i4ie #a4ga 4#agj ,isl& ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #aba ,! ,supply ( ,soil ,nitrog51 ,rep4 ,cal4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 #ahib-ic1 page #fh2 ibid41 #ahid-ie1 page #bh2 ,! ,recognition ( ,nitrog5 ,hungr9ess 9 ,soils1 9 ,bull4 #dg1 ,div4 ( ,*emi/ry1 ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahie2 ,l&w4 ,presse1 ,no4 #ec1 ,july #ahhe4 ,see also = detail$ data *apt] #h1 page #ace4 #abb ,calculat$ ^u ! true humus sub/ance 7matire noire71 n by det]m9+ total 7incl4 unhumifi$7 nitrog5 9 ! soil4 ,nos4 #f & #afgi %[ ! usual humus-& nitrog5-p]c5tages 9 ! 8black adobe0 or 8prairie0 soils ( ,cali=nia4 ,nos4 #ahdb & #ahda repres5t ! same soil z #afgi1 ^u :i*1 h[ev]1 ramie & ray grass _h respectively be5 gr[+1 )\t f]tilization1 = ab\t t5 ye>s2 %[+ t :ile ! humus-cont5t ( ! soil has increas$1 ! nitrog5-cont5t ( ! humus has decreas$ 9 ! case ( ramie by #gb4gh1 9 t ( ! grass by #gf4gh2 r$uc+ ! l& to figures commonly f\nd 9 ! humid region4 ,9 ! case ( ! ramie1 ! p>tial return ?r\gh ! leaves has result$ 9 a high] humus-cont5t1 toge!r ) high] nitrog5-p]c5tage1 ?an 9 ! case ( ! grass1 :i* 9 ! sev]al cutt+s annually made1 caus$ a great] depletion 9 nitrog5 & a small] accession ( humus4 ,! grass 0 v weak 9 its gr[? & p>tially dy+ out4 ,no4 #bi1 ! sug>-cane l& f ,maui1 0 /ill 9 fair production1 b beg9n+ to weak5 z aga9/ its fir/ production4 ,no4 #bg1 ! guava l& f ,hawaii1 orig9ally bore a luxuriant cov] ( wild guava1 b aft] be>+ "o fair crop ( se$-cane & "o ( ratoons1 ! cane plant$ on x 8sp9dl$ up0 & di$ s soon z ! se$-cane plant$ 0 exhau/$4 ,bo? ! isl& soils1 orig9ally d]iv$ f ! wea!r+ ( ! black basaltic lavas ( ! region1 7 well suppli$ ) m9]al plant-food 7see above1 page #cef71 & ! humus-cont5t 9 bo? 0 exceptionally high2 & nei!r 0 9 an acid condition4 ,! diff]5ce 9 _! nitrog5-cont5t1 bo? 9 ! totals & 9 ! humus itself1 sugge/$ t not)/&+ ! relatively high total ( nitrog5 9 ,no4 #bg1 x might be nitrog5-hungry1 9 view ( ! l[ p]c5tage ( ! nitrog5 9 ! humus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,gr[? ( ,:eat on ,guava ,soil f ,hawaii ,isl&4 ,confirmatory ,exp]im5t4--,a pot-culture ) :eat1 ! results ( :i* are %[n 9 ! figure bel[1 fully confirm ?is suspicion4 ,"o kilogram ( soil 0 us$ 9 ea* ( two pots1 "o be+ f]tiliz$ ) half a gram ( ,*ile saltpet]4 ,! exp]im5t c\ld n be c>ri$ to full completion on acc\nt ( ! ov]:elm+ invasion ( mildew2 b ! figures speak = !mselves4 ,moreov]1 a field trial made on ! isl& ) saltpet]1 9 pursuance ( ! writ]'s recomm5dation1 result$ 9 a luxuriant gr[? ( ! cane4 ,data = ,nitrog5-adequacy4--,x appe>s f ! facts %[n above1 t = ! gr[? ( grasses a nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 ! humus ( #a4g is :olly inadequate1 no matt] h[ mu* humus may be pres5t4 ,a p]c5tage ( #c4ae 9 ! ,maui soil1 ,no4 #bi1 conta9+ ne>ly #aa ( humus1 gave only a fair crop ( sug>-cane2 on ! ,b]keley grass plot1 ) #c4dj & only #a4fe ( total humus1 ! ray grass 0 b>ely ma9ta9+ life4 ,! ramie1 ) #d4ag ( nitrog5 9 ! soil-humus1 0 /ill do+ fairly well4 ,x is d\btless impossible to give "o & ! same absolute figure = nitrog5-defici5cy = all plants & soils4 ,:]e ! conditions ( nitrification are favorable1 z 9 ! pres5ce ( mu* ( ! e>? c>bonates1 a small] p]c5tage may suffice = ! same plants t else:]e suff]2 & x is highly probable t diff]5t m9ima w be f\nd = plants ( diff]5t relation%ip & root-habits4 ,b !re is e reason to believe t 9 ! nitrog5-p]c5tage ( soil-humus1 consid]$ 9 connection ) o!r *emical & physical conditions & soil d]ivations1 we h a means ( asc]ta9+ ! ne$s ( plants ) respect to nitrog5-f]tilization1 if prop] /udy be giv5 to ! subject4 ,broadly speak+1 x appe>s to be necess>y to keep ! nitrog5-p]c5tage ( soil-humus ne> #d to insure satisfactory production4 ,x hav+ be5 sugge/$ t ! frequ5t & disa/r\s crop failures on ! not$ t*]nozem or black-e>? soils ( ,russia might be due 9 "p at lea/ to nitrog5-depletion ( ! humus1 ! writ] obta9$ ?r\gh ! c\rtesy ( ,pr(4 ,p4 ,kossovit* ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg soil samples f ! c5t] ( ! ,black-e>? region1 bo? cultivat$ & uncultivat$4 ,^! samples are 9 appe>ance exactly l "s ( ! d>k alluvial soils ( ,l\isiana & ,cali=nia1 & approa* !m v ne>ly 9 ! ess5tials ( composition1 z w be se5 f ! table bel[3 ,,analyses ,,( ,,black ,,soils1 ,t*]nozem ,alluvial 7,russia47 ,black clay l&s4 ----------------------------------- ,l\isiana,cali=nia ,no4 #bdj4 ,no4 #aafg4 ,virg9,cultivat$------------------- ,back-l&,black-l& ,h\ma4 ,tul>e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 7,no co>se mat]ial 9 soils47 ,insoluble matt] #dh4ch #ee4ji #ce4dh #fb4dc ,soluble silica #ac4ba #ab4bh #bj4gf #af4ii ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gb 4#eb #a4jc #a4ji ,soda 7,na,o7 4#bj 4#ac 4#ac 4#gg ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4ea #a4ca 4#gb #a4df ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#gc 4#ge 4#hh #a4dd ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#je 4#jc 4#ja 4#jf ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #g4ab #d4hj #g4aj #d4ih ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4bb #d4gc #ae4de #f4hg ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ad 4#ac 4#ae 4#ab ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jg 4#jh 4#be 4#jb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #bb4gh #ai4id #ah4eb ,total #ajj4ac #ii4gi #ajj4dh #ajj4ei ,humus #e4aa #e4ed #e4jg #a4cc 8 ,a% #a4hj #a4dj 4#ia 4#cf 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #d4fc #d4bb 8 8 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#bg 4#bd ,available ,pota% 7citric acid me?od7 4#jad 4#jaj ,available ,phosph4 acid 4#jaa 4#jjh 4#jh 4#ja 7citric acid me?od7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #ab4jg #ah4hb #e4ch absorb$ at #ag;,c #ac;,c #ae;,c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,x w be se5 t ! ,russian soil is ( high f]tility accord+ to ! /&>ds giv5 above1 & t ! nitrog5-cont5t ( ! abundant humus is amply )9 ! limits ( adequacy sugge/$ by ! exp]i5ce 9 ,cali=nia & ,hawaii4 ,! humus-cont5t ( ! arid ,cali=nia soils is *>act]i/ically l[ z comp>$ ) ! ,russian t*]nozem z well z ) ! ,h\ma backl& ( humid ,l\isiana2 b its nitrog5-cont5t is d\btless at lea/ ?ree times t ( ! latt]1 z is t ( ! humus ( simil> l&s 9 :i* x has be5 det]m9$4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,lime ,,^u ,,soil ,,f]tility4 ,assum+ z sub/antially correct ! num]ical data giv5 above 9 respect to ! ?ree lead+ +r$i5ts ( plant-food--phosphoric acid1 pota% & nitrog51--! dom9ant role ( lime 9 soil f]tility1 already m5tion$1 requires "s f>!r illu/ration & discussion4 8,a ,lime ,c\ntry is a ,ri* ,c\ntry40--,! in/ant *ange ( vegetation :5 we pass f a non-calc>e\s region to "o hav+ calc>e\s soils1 has already be5 allud$ to4 7,see ?is *apt]1 p4 #ced74 ,b x is n necess>y to be a botani/ to see ! *ange 9 ! prosp]ity ( ! f>m+ population z "o ent]s a lime di/rict4 ,! s+le log-cab9 )1 probably1 a wood5 b>rel t]m9at+ ! mud-pla/]$ *imney1 is replac$1 fir/ by d\ble log-h\ses1 !n by frame1 & f>!r on by brick build+s1 ) ! o!r unmi/akable evid5ces ( prosp]ity4 ,?us ?is is se5 9 pass+ f ! m\nta9 region ( ,k5tucky into ! 8blue-grass0 c\ntry1 :i* is ?r\gh\t und]laid by calc>e\s =mations2 & ?us1 likewise1 9 cross+ ! /rike ( ! =mations ( ,alabama1 ,mississippi & ,l\isiana1 or any o!r region :]e und]ly+ calc>e\s =mations h contribut$ to ! =mation ( ! soils1 z comp>$ ) "s adjac5t di/rict :]e ?is is n ! case4 ,! calc>e\s loess areas bord]+ on ! ,mississippi riv] & "s ( its *ief tribut>ies1 are conspicu\s cases 9 po9t1 z are also ! prairies ( ,ill9ois & ,indiana4 ,effects ( ,high ,lime-cont5t 9 ,soils4--,! table bel[ illu/rates ! fact t 9 ! pres5ce ( high lime-p]c5tages1 relatively l[ p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid & pota% may nev]!less prove adequate2 :ile ! same1 or ev5 high] am\nts1 9 ! abs5ce ( satisfactory lime-p]c5tages prove insuffici5t = good production4#abc #abc ,?is /atem5t appe>s contradictory ( ! obs]vations ( ,s*loes+ ^u ! solubility ( phosphoric acid 9 pres5ce ( lime c>bonate 7,am4 ,sci4 ,agron41 tome #a1 #ahii71 b ! natural conditions seem to ju/ify fully ! above conclusion4 ,,soils ,,%[+ ,,l[ ,,phosphoric ,,acid ,,p]c5tage4 ,,high ,,lime4 ------------------------------------ ,mississippi,l\isiana ,cali=nia ----------------------------------- ,kemp] ,v]non ,yuba ,amador ,c\nty ,c\nty ,c\nty ,c\nty ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #aci #aga #dii #aaac ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,*emical ,analysis ( ,slate ,f9e ,e>?4 ,soil ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,insoluble matt] #ec4ai #gh4gi #di4if #fg4jh #gd4bi #fd4ib ,soluble silica #ba4aj #c4hj #ad4if ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gj 4#cc 4#be #a4dh ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ad 4#jf 4#jd 4#dc ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4cg #a4dj #a4jb 4#fj ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4jj 4#gd 4#dj #b4ba ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#be 4#ae 4#jb 4#je ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #f4ge #d4eb #e4ha #aa4eb ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #ac4jg #aa4cf #f4bh #ab4ca ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#jc 4#je 4#jd 4#je ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jh 4#ab 4#jb 4#jb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #i4de #g4bg #c4fd #f4fc ----------------------------------- ,total #ii4ia #ajj4bi #ajj4aiajj4bb ----------------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #aa4de #ah4aa #d4hj #e4gd absorb$ at ,c #h4j #be4e #ae4j #ae4j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,l[ ,,lime4 -------------------------------------- ,mississippi ,cali=nia ------------------------------------ ,*ickasaw,c>roll ,%a/a ,humboldt ,c\nty ,c\nty ,c\nty ,c\nty ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,numb] ( ,sample4 #afd #dh #eei #bjg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,*emical ,analysis ( ,f9e ,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,insoluble matt] #ic4fb #gf4bg #fe4ce #id4ih #hi4ci #hj4ch #gb4bd ,soluble silica #a4cf #d4aj #f4ij ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ji 4#ai 4#ej #a4ac ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jg 4#jh 4#jd 4#bh ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#jg 4#jh 4#aj 4#aa ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ac 4#jg 4#dj #c4cc ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jb 4#ab 4#ja 4#ab ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #a4ji #a4ba #f4fg #f4ii ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #a4dg #d4cg #h4dh #aj4bd ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#jc 4#je 4#jd 4#ag ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ja 4#je 4#ja 4#jb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #b4jj #d4ji #c4ig #e4fc ------------------------------------ ,total #ii4id #ii4gj #ajj4fb #ajj4bd ------------------------------------ ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #a4hj #d4ff #e4je #g4hg absorb$ at ,c #aa4j #aa4j #ag4j #ac4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,nos4 #aci & #aga are heavy black prairie soils ( high productive capacity1 ^: production _h1 at ! "t ( sampl+1 la/$ almo/ undim9i%$ = ov] tw5ty ye>s4 ,ne>ly ! same is true ( ! two ,cali=nia soils1 ,nos4 #dii & #aaac2 :i*1 h[ev]1 are f]rug9\s loams ( only mod]ate clay-cont5t4 ,9 all1 ! p]c5tage ( phosphoric acid %[n by ! analysis is at or bel[ ! recogniz$ limit ( defici5cy1 :ile ! lime-cont5t ( all is z high z is requir$ = ! welf>e ( any soil1 h[ev] con/itut$4 ,! pota%-p]c5tage also is l[ 9 all except ! 8r$ foo?ill soil10 ,no4 #aaac4 ,pass+ to ! soils ( l[ lime-cont5t1 we f9d ! two ,mississippi soils1 poor 9 bo? pota%1 lime & phosphoric acid1 s l[ 9 production z to be :olly unpr(itable 9 cultivation )\t previ\s f]tilization2 ,no4 #eei1 f ,cali=nia1 produc$ two fair crops ( b>ley & !n no m4 ,no4 #bjg1 is ! soil ( ,eel riv] bottom1 ,cali=nia2 pr(usely productive at fir/1 by virtue ( its high cont5t ( bo? pota% & phosphoric acid2 b 8giv+ out0 "u a few ye>s' culture ( clov] or alfalfa 7:i* draw heavily ^u lime71 & quickly re/or$ to productiv5ess "u ! influ5ce ( dress+s ( quicklime4 ,9 ?is case ! soil _h become acid1 a condition :i* always militates aga9/ ! success ( culture plants1 & m especially aga9/ ^? ( ! legum9\s relation%ip4 ,:at are ,adequate ,lime ,p]c5tages8--,we h 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! natural vegetation peculi> to calc>e\s soils 78calciphile07 an excell5t index ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( su* am\nts ( lime c>bonate z fulfil ! conditions ( its b5eficial effects4 ,li/s ( su* plants = ! ,unit$ ,/ates are giv5 f>!r on2 !y agree almo/ ?r\gh\t ) su* plants z are ev]y:]e recogniz$ by ,am]ican f>m]s z indicat+ productive soils4 ,all soils be>+ su* vegetation %[ ) r$ litmus pap]1 :5 wett$1 a neutral reaction at fir/1 :i* aft] ! lapse ( tw5ty or ?irty m9utes turns to a blue alkal9e "o2 su* z is giv5 "u ! same conditions by ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia4 ,b ! rev]se is n necess>ily true2 = we occasionally f9d soils conta9+ consid]able am\nts ( lime c>bonate t yet fail to be> lime vegetation4 ,?is is ! case ( extremely heavy clay soils1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! table bel[ 9 ! case ( ! la/ ?ree soils2 :ile ! fir/1 ,no4 #bbj1 exemplifies a case :]e al?\gh pota% is exceptionally high1 only scrubby oak gr[? is produc$ 9 pres5ce ( an am\nt ( lime t 9 s&y l&s w\ld %[ pr(use lime gr[?4 ,,table ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,ne$ ,,( ,,high ,,lime-,,p]c5tages ,,9 ,,heavy ,,clay ,,soils4 ,mississippi4 ,cali=nia4 ------------------------------------ ,flatwoods ,hog- ,ridge ,yell[ ,pontotoc wall[ ,prairie1 ridge1 ,co4 ,jasp],smi? ,co4,alam$a ,co4 ,co4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,no4 ,sample4 #bcj #bdb #bjc #d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,insoluble matt] #gg4he #gf4gf #ea4ge #hf4jj ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ge 4#ec 4#ec 4#ai ,soda 7,na,o7 4#aa 4#ai 4#bb 4#ae ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#ah 4#db 4#dh 4#dh ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#hc 4#fg #a4ja 4#de ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ag 4#ef 4#aj 4#jd ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #e4ij #d4ab #bc4gi #d4ja ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #aj4cj #aj4jf #aj4he #e4ec ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#je 4#jf 4#ae 4#jf ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jc 4#jf 4#jb 4#jb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & organic matt] #c4fi #e4gc #aa4ci #d4je ------------------------------------ ,total #ii4hf #ii4ag #ajj4bi #ajj4ii ------------------------------------ ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #i4c #f4h #ai4g absorb$ at ,c #bb4j air-dry #ag4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,all ( ! soils 9 ?is table are heavy clays1 v difficult to till2 9 all1 ! lime-p]c5tage falls bel[ 4#e2 & none be> any lime vegetation1 ! ,mississippi soils hav+ a /unt$ gr[? ( black jack & po/ oaks1 su* z is univ]sally kn[n to indicate soils too poor = pr(itable cultivation4 ,! ,cali=nia soil be>s /unt$ live-oak 7,q4 agrifolia72 b n be+ z heavy z its bre?r5 f ,mississippi1 ?\gh un?rifty1 is m readily improv$4 ,comp>ison ) ! two fir/ s&y soils 9 ! table on p4 #ceb %[s1 t ) plant-food p]c5tages equal to1 or ev5 mu* bel[ ^? "h %[n1 n only 0 vigor\s lime gr[? pres5t1 b crop-production 0 good & ev5 high4 ,we are ?us l$ to ! conclusion t ! great] ! clay p]c5tage 9 a soil1 ! m lime c>bonate x mu/ conta9 9 ord] to possess ! advantages ( a calc>e\s soil2 & t :ile 9 s&y l&s lime gr[? may foll[ ! pres5ce ( only 4#aj ( lime1 9 heavy clay soils n less ?an ab\t 4#f %\ld be pres5t to br+ ab\t ! same result4 ,?is is app>5t to ! eye 9 t ! d>k-t9t$ humus *>act]i/ic ( truly calc>e\s l&s1 does n appe> 9 clay soils until ! lime-p]c5tages rise to ne>ly #a2 :ile 9 s&y l&s a mu* small] am\nt 7say 4#b7 w produce ?is effect4 ,european ,/&>ds4--,x is ( int]e/ to consid]1 9 connection ) prec$+ discussions1 ! e/imates giv5 by ,ma]ck] ( ,halle1 ( ! practical value ( soils correspond+ to *emical composition z asc]ta9$ by analysis ) /rong acids1 sub/antially 9 accordance ) ! me?ods adopt$ by ! writ]4 ,,practical ,,rat+ ,,( ,,soils ,,by ,,plant-,,food ,,p]c5tages ,,accord+ ,,to ,,pr(4 ,,ma]ck]1 ,,halle ,,/ation1 ,,g]many4 ,lime4 ,grade ( ,soil4 ,pota%4 ,phosphoric------------------- ,acid4 ,clay ,s&y ,soil4 ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,poor ,bel[ #j4je;,bel[ #j4je;,bel[ 4#aj;,bel[ 4#je ,m$ium #j4je-j4ae 4#je - 4#aj 4#aj- 4#be 4#aj-4ae ,normal #j4ae-j4be 4#aj - 4#ae 4#be- 4#ej 4#ae-4bj ,good #j4be-j4dj 4#ae - 4#be 4#ej-a4jj 4#bj-4cj ,ri* ,above #j4dj ,above 4#be;,above #a4jj;,above 4#cj ,av'age = ,cali=nia #j4gj #j4jh #a4jh 8 8 ,arid ,reg4 4#gc 4#ab #a4cf 8 8 ,humid ,reg4 4#bb 4#aa 4#aa ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,grade ( ,soil4 ,total ,humus ,nitrog54 ,nitrog54 ---------------------------------------- - ,poor ,bel[ 4#je ,m$ium 4#je-4aj ,normal 4#aj-4ae ,good 4#ae-4be ,ri* ,above 4#be ,av'age = ,cali=nia 4#ajb 8 8 ,arid ,reg4 4#aa 787 8 8 ,humid ,reg4 4#ab 4#aff ---------------------------------------- - ,x w be obs]v$ t accord+ to ,ma]ck]'s valuation1 ! av]age ,cali=nia soil is 8ri*0 9 pota% & lime1 b only 8m$ium0 z reg>ds its cont5ts ( phosphoric acid & nitrog54 ,9 ?is respect1 & almo/ ?r\gh\t1 ,ma]ck]'s rat+s are 9 rem>kable agreem5t ) ^? made by ! writ] z f> back z #ahfj4abd ,x also appe>s t ,ma]ck]'s figures = 8normal0 soils correspond to ^? ( ! ,am]ican humid regions2 ! 8arid0 figures = pota% & lime be+ 8abnormally0 high4 #abd ,see discussions ( analyses ( ,mississippi soils 9 ! ,report on ! ,agriculture & ,geology ( ,mississippi1 #ahfj2 same 9 ,rep4 ,on ,cotton ,production1 ,t5? ,c5sus1 #ahhj1 ,vol4 #e2 also ,app5dix to ! ,report on ! ,exp]im5t ,/ations ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 #ahij1 p4 #afc4 ,un=tunately nei!r ,ma]ck]'s me?od ( prep>+ ! soil extract1 nor 8 rat+s z giv5 9 ! table1 are accept$ by all soil *emi/s ev5 9 ,g]many4 ,z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ,wohltmann's "w on ! soils ( ,samoa & ,kam]un 7*ap4 #ba1 p4 #djd71 8 me?ods & num]ical e/imates diff] widely f ^? giv5 by ,ma]ck]1 & also f ^? adopt$ by ! ,prussian soil surveys4 ,ref]5ce to ! analyses ( ! soils ( ,madagasc> by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 giv5 9 ! same *apt]1 page #djf1 %[s /ill ano!r diff]5t me?od1 al?\gh z x happ5s _! num]ical e/imates d n diff] v widely f ^? ( ,wohltmann4 ,9 bo? cases1 a special1 m incisive extraction is made = ! det]m9ation ( pota%4 ,:y ! same m en]getic action is n us$ = ! o!r +r$i5ts also1 is n /at$1 & is obscure4 ,=tunately1 9 all cases ! action is at lea/ suffici5tly /rong to secure ! dissolution ( all ! lime exi/+ 9 ! =m ( c>bonate1 & ( all1 or ne>ly all1 ! phosphoric acid n securely lock$ up z f]ric phosphate2 ! latt] be+ in]t1 is ( no special int]e/ 7see ,analyses ( ,hawaiian ,soils1 ?is *apt]1 page #bef74 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,soils ,,( ,,! ,,arid ,,& ,,humid#abe ,,regions4 ,composition ( ,good ,m$ium ,soils4--,9 ! prec$+ tables examples h be5 giv5 ( r extreme types ( soils1 bo? ri* & poor ?r\gh\t1 & also ( su* z are defici5t 9 "o or sev]al ( ! important +r$i5ts4 ,9 ! table bel[ are giv5 ! analyses ( "s ( ! good av]age f>m+ l&s2 upl&s ( sev]al /ates1 bo? ( ! humid & arid regions4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! repres5tative timb] trees ( su* l&s are ! black1 r$1 :ite & 7less *>act]i/ically7 ! po/1 black-jack1 ,spani%1 ov]cup & locally "s o!r oaks2 grad+ high] 9 proportion to ! pres5ce ( m or less hickory1 & l[] z ! latt] is replac$ by p9e4 ,9 ! /ates s\? ( ,ohio1 ! 8oak & hickory upl&s0 are :at ! f>m] usually looks =1 outside ( ! valleys or bottoms4 #abe ,9 ! discussion 9 ?is *apt] ! 8humid region0 ref]r$ to is always t ( ! temp]ate zones1 unless expressly o!rwise /at$4 ,! mo/ humid region ( all--! tropics--is treat$ "u a special head4 ,crit]ia ( ,l&s ( ! ,two ,regions4--,9 ! c\ntry we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! timb]1 :ile locally v *>act]i/ic1 _c be z broadly us$ z a crit]ion1 p>tly on acc\nt ( its sc>city1 p>tly because ! dom9ant factor 9 ! gr[? ( trees is moi/ure1 :i* is measurably indep5d5t ( *emical soil-composition4 ,! latt]1 moreov]1 on acc\nt ( climatic conditions1 already allud$ to 7*apt] #af71 does n v>y z mat]ially 9 ! arid z ! humid region1 on acc\nt ( ! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce ( l>g] proportions ( lime c>bonate2 ! v>iations ( :i* 9 ! humid region gov]n l>gely ! vegetative *anges4 ,= we !re f9d ! timb] gr[? ( ! l[l&s asc5d+ into ! upl&s s soon z ! latt] becomes decid$ly calc>e\s2 z is abundantly exemplifi$ 9 ! loess or 8bluff0 =mations bord]+ ! ,mississippi1 ,ohio1 & ,miss\ri riv]s1 :]e ! black walnut1 tulip tree1 a%1 honey-locu/1 toge!r ) ! l[l& oaks1 hickories & cane usually *>act]iz+ ! /ream bottoms1 gr[ abundantly & ) luxuriant developm5t on ! adjo9+ /eep hill c\ntry z well 7see bel[1 *apt]s #bd1 #be74 ,,upl& ,,soils ,,( ,,humid ,,region4 ,,oak ,,upl&s ,,) ,,hickory ,,& ,,walnut4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,/ate4 ,t5nessee4 ,mississippi4 ,alabama4,georgia4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c\nty4 ,ru!r=d,pontotoc,b5ton,*]okee ,polk ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #g #bbf #baf #aaj #ejb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #ge4ce #hc4bg #gh4gc #gb4cb #hb4ff #hh4hchc4ce #hd4gg #gf4ee ,soluble silica #g4ca #e4ef #f4jd #d4bc ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#bf 4#cg 4#ee 4#bf 4#gc ,soda 7,na,o7 4#bf 4#bb 4#jh 4#ab 4#ag ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#cd 4#bh 4#be 4#cc 4#bi ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#cj 4#bc 4#dh 4#dj 4#bf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,bro4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jd 4#bh 4#gf 4#bb 4#ah ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #e4ah #b4ci #d4hj #c4ga #f4bi ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4eg #d4ea #f4bh #e4jh #g4aj ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#jh 4#jh 4#jg 4#ji 4#bf ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jh 4#jb 4#jf 4#aj 4#aa ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,wat] & organic matt] #e4ej #c4aa #d4bj #e4ae #f4fj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #ii4gg #ajj4cb #ajj4hhajj4bc #ii4ed ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,humus 8 ,a% ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #g4bi #d4jh #f4hd #d4ej #h4ga absorb$ at ,c #bb;,c #ah;,c ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,%ort-,,leav$ ,,p9e4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,/ate4 ,nor? ,s\? ,mississippi ,l\isiana ,c>ol9a,c>ol9a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c\nty4 ,cab>rus,sp>tan- ,sumn] ,frankl9,moreh\se burgh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #i #e #adb #ga #bcb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ,insoluble matt] #gh4gi #dc4gd #ij4bc #hh4ge #ha4gj #hf4ai #di4fa #ib4ee #ij4ef #hg4de ,soluble silica #g4dj #e4hg #b4cb #a4ha #e4ge ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ac 4#ba 4#bd 4#ad 4#dd ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ja 4#ji 4#ji 4#ji 4#bg ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#cd 4#jc 4#ji 4#jg 4#aj ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ca 4#ba 4#bj 4#ai 4#bd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bro4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#je 4#ja 4#jg 4#jh 4#ci ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #d4ii #aa4gj #a4hd #b4da #c4ee ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #d4jb #bf4ed #a4hf #b4bj #d4hg ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ad 4#ac 4#ji 4#jh 4#aj ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jh 4#ja 4#ja 4#ja 4#jh ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,wat] & organic matt] #c4hh #aa4fj #b4hc #d4ca #b4ed ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,total #ajj4ad #ajj4bb #ii4hg #ajj4ad #ajj4jc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,humus 8 ,a% ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #c4fe #aa4ba #c4eg #d4d #e4dg absorb$ at ,c #ba4h;,c #ba4h;,c #ba4h;,c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,upl& ,,soils ,,( ,,arid ,,region4 ,,cali=nia4 ---------------------------------------- - ,plac] ,co4,san ,diego ,v5tura ,co4,riv]side ,auburn4 ,co4 ,co4 ,national ,arl+ton4 ,city4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #ea #dg #ahb #adjf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,insoluble matt] #gd4ia #gf4da #fi4eb #hf4ba #hb4hd #hd4fa ,soluble silica #g4ic #h4bj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ch 4#dh 4#fb 4#hg ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jg 4#ad 4#af 4#bi ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#if 4#cf 4#ie #a4eg ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4ji 4#ed 4#if #a4cc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ci 4#aj 4#jd 4#jd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,p]oxid ( ,iron7,fe,o7 #ab4db #c4fi #e4jg #d4bj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #aj4ig #e4ab #e4id #e4cj ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#af 4#bc 4#ac 4#ad ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ja 4#jc 4#jd 4#ja ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,wat] & organic #e4ad #b4fj #b4fg #a4fj matt] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #aja4aj #ii4ej #ii4da #ajj4je ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,humus #a4ad 4#ef #a4jf 4#bj 8 ,a% #a4ab #a4jd #a4jj 4#fd ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #b4cj #f4ei #a4gg absorb$ at ,c #ae #ae #ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,wa%+ton4 ,,montana4 --------------------------------------- ,bun* ,bun* grass ,judi? ,ne> grass ,selah ,valley1 ,gap4 ,bozeman ,ritzville ,roll+ ,all5's ,ridge4 ,upl&4 ,ran*4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,numb] ( ,sample4 #df #cg #cga #chg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,insoluble matt] #gf4ga #gg4ah #gd4ag #fg4bh #hb4jj #ha4fi #gh4hj #gc4hc ,soluble silica #e4bh #d4ei #d4fa #f4ed ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gb 4#fb #a4jg #a4bj ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ji 4#bd 4#af 4#ba ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4jd #a4cb 4#ga #b4ib ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#id 4#ib #a4af #a4dd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#je 4#je 4#ig 4#fb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,p]oxid ( ,iron7,fe,o7 #e4ad #e4fb #d4bj #d4fc ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4gd #e4bd #g4jh #h4ji ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#af 4#ac 4#ab 4#ah ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ja 4#je 4#jb 4#ja ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #a4gf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wat] & organic matt] #d4eh #c4eb #f4ed #e4cg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,total #ajj4dh #ii4cg #ii4id #ii4fi ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,humus 4#ij 4#dh 8 ,a% 4#db 4#cb ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #e4fj #d4hd #i4gg #aj4cg absorb$ at ,c #ae #ae #ae #ae ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,soils ( ! ,humid ,region4--,tak+ a view1 fir/1 ( ! table %[+ ! soils ( ! humid region1 x appe>s t ! *ange ( vegetation f walnut & hickory to ! %ort-leav$ p9e be>s no visible relation to ! increase or decrease ( pota% or phosphoric acid1 b is pla9ly gov]n$ ma9ly by ! am\nt ( lime pres5t4 ,:]e ! %ort-leav$ p9e prevails ! soil is almo/ always ei!r neutral or %[s ! alkal9e reaction 9 ! c\rse ( half an h\r2 b :]e ! long-leav$ p9e pr$om9ates ! soil has almo/ always an acid reaction4 ,! latt] is also usually f\nd 9 bottoms 9 :i* ! loblolly p9e 7,p4 ta$a7 prevails1 & :]e1 al?\gh ! soil may %[ a fair proportion ( lime 9 ! analysis1 x does n exi/ 9 ! =m ( c>bonate4 ,! examples "h giv5 are f l&s n d]iv$ f1 or und]laid by1 lime/one =mations4 ,:]e ! latt] exi/ ! p]c5tage ( lime is usually mat]ially increas$2 z x is also 9 ! l[l&s or bottoms :5 comp>$ ) adjac5t upl&s 7see above1 *apt] #aj1 p4 #afb2 *apt] #ah1 p4 #cca72 z well z 9 ! delta l&s ( riv]s4 ,soils ( ! ,arid ,region4--,ev5 a cursory comp>ison ( ! soils ( ! arid regions ( ! ,pacific slope ) ^? ( ! humid1 z giv5 9 ! above tables1 %[s "s /rik+ po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! mo/ obvi\s is ! uni=mly high p]c5tage ( lime1 & usually also ( magnesia1 9 ! arid soils1 & t q indep5d5tly ( und]ly+ =mations1 calc>e\s or o!rwise4 ,?is occurs despite ! fact t :ile lime/one =mations are v preval5t ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 !y are q sc>ce we/ ( ! same4 ,! r$ 7,l>amie7 s&/ones ( ,wyom+1 ! slates ( ! foo?ills ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 ! clay %ales1 granites & eruptives ( ! ,coa/ ,ranges ( ,cali=nia1 ,oregon & ,wa%+ton1 & ! v>i$ black rocks ( ! great lava %eet ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 all alike produce soils ( high lime cont5t z comp>$ ) ,ea/]n soils n d]iv$ f calc>e\s =mations4 ,?is fact has already be5 ref]r$ to1 b is m fully illu/rat$ 9 ! table bel[4 ,aside f ! lime-cont5t1 h[ev]1 x w be not$ 9 ! prec$+ table t ! pota%-cont5t ( ! arid soils is on ! av]age consid]ably high] ?an 9 ^? ( ! humid region4 ,9 fact x is h>d to f9d we/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 7except :]e high elevation causes a humid climate7 any soils z poor 9 pota% z are _m ( ! commonly cultivat$ l&s ( ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,o!r +r$i5ts d n %[ su* m>k$ diff]5ces f ! purely *emical /&po9t3 yet1 z w be %[n bel[1 ! =ms 9 :i* silica & alum9a occur are also n inconsid]ably modifi$4 ,,g5]al ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,soils ,,f ,,! ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4#abf--;,9 ord] to v]ify ! conclusions j m5tion$ ^u ! broade/ basis possible1 ! foll[+ table has be5 compil$ f all available s\rces2 p>tly publi%$1 p>tly 9 manuscript only1 hav+ rema9$ 9 ! writ]'s h&s s9ce ! cessation ( ! ,nor!rn ,transcont95tal ,survey1 prosecut$ f #ahhj to #ahhc1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,nor!rn ,pacific ,railroad1 9 ,wa%+ton & ,montana4 ,! publi%$ data are d]iv$ p>tly f ! records ( ,/ate surveys1 p>tly f ! soil "w connect$ ) ! ,t5? ,c5sus2 p>tly also f ^? ( ,exp]im5t ,/ations4 ,9 mo/ cases x has ( c\rse be5 necess>y to re/rict ! comp>ison to su* analyses z h be5 made by sub/antially id5tical me?ods1 = reasons already giv52 b 9 ! cases ( "s /ates f :i* num]\s analyses made by ! ,k$zie me?od1 adopt$ by ! ,association ( ,(ficial ,*emi/s1 7 available1 ! av]age has be5 giv5 b ! "n ( ! /ate />r$1 to indicate t ! p]c5tages1 except+ phosphoric acid1 are l[] ?an !y w\ld be if made by ! me?od adopt$ by ! writ]1 p>ticul>ly z reg>ds pota%4 ,! adoption ( ! "o-millimet] me% = ! f9e-e>? sieve in/ead ( ! half-millimet] size also creates an un=tunate & inelim9able discrepancy4 #abf ,ab/ract$ & revis$ f ,bullet9 ,no4 #c1 ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau1 #ahic4 ,9 ord] to exhibit cle>ly ! influ5ce ( climate z di/9ct f o!r local conditions1 x 0 also necess>y to elim9ate1 9 bo? ! arid & humid regions1 ! soils directly d]iv$ f1 or connect$ ) calc>e\s =mations2 su* z ! prairies ( ! ,s\?we/]n ,/ates1 ! ,bluegrass region ( ,k5tucky1 etc4 ,?is rule hav+ be5 appli$ imp>tially to ! soils ( bo? climatic regions1 x c h>dly be que/ion$ t ! conclusions fl[+ f a discussion ( ! results ( ! comp>ison are entitl$ to z mu* weight z are ^? ( any comp>ison bas$ on l>ge numb]s ( obs]vations made1 n ) ref]5ce to ! special po9t "u consid]ation1 b ) a practical object ( :i* ! gov]n+ conditions 7 m or less unc]ta91 & requir$ to be asc]ta9$ by a process ( elim9ation4 ,! table gives1 fir/1 ! av]ages = ea* +r$i5t = ea* ( ! /ates repres5t$1 ! numb] ( analyses f :i* ! av]ages are d]iv$ be+ giv5 9 ea* case4 ,^! av]ages are giv5 sep>ately = ! /ates ( ! humid & ! arid regions respectively2 & at ! base ( ea* gr\p ! gr& av]age is %[n 9 two =ms4 ,! fir/ gives ! figures z d]iv$ f ! aggregate numb] ( soil analyses 9 ea* great gr\p1 be+ #fif = ! humid1 #agh = ! transition region & #egc = ! arid1 divid$ into ! totals result+ f ! summation ( ea* +r$i5t = ! :ole #fif1 #agh & #egc1 respectively4 ,! second =m is t 9 :i* ! soils ( ea* /ate are consid]$ z repres5tative ( ! g5]al "* ( su* /ate1 z ! result ( int5tional selection2 su* z actually occurr$ 9 ! cases ( ^? includ$ 9 ! c5sus "w ( #ahhj4 ,! figures giv5 "h are !re=e ! result ( a summation ( ! /ate av]ages z su*1 & ( _! division by ! numb] ( /ates repres5t$4 ,x w be not$ t :ile ^! two modes ( pres5tation d *ange ! figures a little1 yet 9 ei!r =m ! same g5]al result is outl9$ ) /rik+ accuracy4 ,x is also notable t not)/&+ ! less complete extraction ( soil-+r$i5ts 9 ! />r$ 77/ates1 ! g5]al ratios betwe5 arid & humid soils rema9 sub/antially ! same4 ,= ,we/]n ,oregon1 local calc>e\s =mations compel omission ( ?ree lime figures f ! av]ages4 ,,av]age ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,soils ,,9 ,,! ,,humid ,,& ,,arid ,,regions ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 7,a7 ,numb] analyz$4 7,b7 ,insoluble ,residue4 7,c7 ,soluble ,silica4 7,d7 ,sum ( ,insoluble ,residue & ,soluble ,silica4 7,e7 ,pota% 7,f7 ,soda4 7,g7 ,lime4 7,h7 ,magnesia4 7,a7 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 7,f7 7,g7 7,h7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,humid ,,region4 ,rhode ,isl& #ghb4da #a4fihd4aj4ae 4#ji 4#dc 4#bg ,nor? ,c>ol9a #bjha4fc #c4ejhe4ac4ae 4#jf 4#ji 4#jh ,s\? ,c>ol9a #cjhe4ed #c4cihh4ic4ab 4#jg 4#jg 4#ab ,georgia #djhf4jg #b4hihh4if4ae 4#jg 4#jh 4#aj ,florida #ajhe4cc #a4cchf4ff4jg 4#jc 4#ji 4#jc ,alabama #ejha4eh #d4hihf4dg4bc 4#jg 4#ag 4#ba ,mississippi #ighe4hg #d4ciij4bf4bh 4#aa 4#ae 4#ca ,l\isiana #ceha4ab #c4edhd4ff4ai 4#ji 4#af 4#bc ,arkansas #ch #hh4ed4ag 4#jf 4#jh 4#dc ,k5tucky #ahe #hf4gb4bj 4#aj 4#jh 4#ai ,ohio #adj #hg4jj4bf 4#ce 4#bh 4#dd ,oregon 7,w4 ( ,cascades7 #ddfd4hb #e4chgj4bj4bc 4#ai 4#hc 4#gc ,av]age = ,humid ,region #fifhd4ag #d4jdhh4ba4ba 4#ad 4#ac 4#bi 8 by ,/ates #ha4ei #c4dehe4jd4ah 4#aa 4#aa 4#bf ,,transition ,,region4 ,m9nesota4 --,semi-humid #addgf4fj #h4gdhe4cd4cj 4#bc 4#fe 4#dc ,nor? ,dakota4 --,semi-arid #cdfh4dd #g4bhge4gb4db 4#gc 4#ia 4#fd ,av]age = region #aghge4jd #h4dfhc4ej4cc 4#cb 4#gj 4#dg ,,arid ,,region4 ,montana #eigj4ih #d4agge4ae4hg 4#bga4jca4cf ,idaho #agge4cd #e4bbhj4ef4ef 4#bf 4#hea4aa ,wyom+ #bcgf4hf #b4begi4aa4fd 4#daa4iaa4ca ,colorado #afgg4gj #g4ajhd4hj4dd 4#dda4dc 4#ha ,utah #ch #ha4jd4ih 4#eca4gg 4#gc ,arizona #bjfd4ehac4ghgh4cf4hb 4#dcb4cga4hi ,nevada #bbga4gg #e4iegg4gb4ed 4#icb4jd 4#if ,cali=nia #bfbff4bh #i4gigf4jg4fa 4#bia4bea4ej ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,oregon ,ea/ ( #ggb4aj #i4fhha4gh4ed 4#bfa4bc 4#gc ,wa%+ton ,cascades #ajiga4fj #f4jigg4fi4fe 4#cfa4be 4#if ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,av]ages = ,arid ,region #egcfi4af #f4gage4hg4fg 4#cea4dca4bg 8 by ,/ates #ga4ia #g4aagi4jb4fg 4#dba4faa4ad ---------------------------------------- -------------------- 7,i7 ,br4 oxide ,manganese4 7,j7 ,p]oxid ( ,iron4 7,k7 ,alum9a4 7,l7 ,phosphoric ,acid4 7,m7 ,sulfuric ,acid4 7,n7 ,wat] & ,organic ,matt]4 7,o7 ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure4 7,p7 ,humus4 7,q7 ,nitrog5 9 ,humus4 7,r7 ,nitrog5 9 ,soil4 7,i7 7,j7 7,k77,l77,m7 7,n7 7,o77,p 7 7,q7 7,r7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,humid ,,region4 ,rhode ,isl& 4#jdc4eic4ff4ji4aj #g4dce4bcb4ei ,nor? ,c>ol9a 4#jgd4gbe4ga4ab4jf #c4ihd4ah ,s\? ,c>ol9a 4#jeb4dgd4ei4aa4jf #c4cid4bb 4#db ,georgia 4#jib4ged4jb4aa4aj #c4fbc4ed ,florida 4#jh 4#fja4ag4jh4je #a4hia4gb ,alabama 4#abc4hab4gj4ac4je #d4jdg4jg ,mississippi 4#adb4fdd4jg4ji4jc #c4cce4da ,l\isiana 4#jbc4abd4bd4aj4je #d4bff4ff ,arkansas 4#bac4ajc4ea4ae4je #c4gjb4dg ,k5tucky 4#bjf4jac4eb4aa4jd #c4fia4he ,ohio #c4aac4cf4aa4jd #e4jd ,oregon 7,w4 ( ,cascades7 4#ji #aa4fd 4#bc4af #c4bj #a4ee ,av]age = ,humid ,region 4#acc4hhc4ff4ab4je #d4dj #a4bb 8 by ,/ates 4#ajc4bfc4fh4ab4jf #c4if #a4eb ,,transition ,,region4 ,m9nesota4 --,semi-humid #b4hcd4dc4bb4ja #g4cj #b4ia #f4ec4ai ,nor? ,dakota4 --,semi-arid #c4fbe4ag4ai4jeac4he #d4fg #g4bh4cd ,av]age = region #b4jhd4eg4ba4jb #h4ee #c4bd #f4fg4bb ,,arid ,,region4 ,montana 4#cgd4bhf4ha4bb4jf #g4ad ,idaho 4#jbc4hef4ch4af #e4jab4jja4fh #e4ie4aj ,wyom+ #c4jef4fa4ah4aa #e4dh ,colorado #c4hbd4ih4bc4jc #c4egb4ca 4#jc ,utah 4#jcc4jhe4ej4bb #f4bgb4cg ,arizona 4#jfd4ibf4dc4ac4jf #c4eg #a4fe ,nevada 4#cbe4fge4jj4cb4ad #e4ic 4#ab ,cali=nia 4#jff4fah4dd4aj4jf #d4gdf4jij4iaae4bc4ad ,oregon ,ea/ ( 4#jh #aj4ge 4#aatr4 #d4dj 4#fg ,wa%+ton ,cascades #e4cgf4ca4ba4jc #e4gge4ad ,av]ages = ,arid ,region 4#aae4dhg4ba4af4jf #e4aee4dfa4acab4ej4ac 8 by ,/ates 4#acd4gdf4bg4ai4jg #d4gae4cda4jcaj4ei4aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,new ,mexico4--,few analyses ( ,new ,mexico soils h be5 made1 b ! av]age results ( six p>tial det]m9ations made by ,goss1 & "o full analysis made by ,h>e accord+ to ! me?od ( ! writ]1 & giv5 bel[1 %[ sub/antial accord ) ! av]ages ( ! above table4 ,! av]ages ( ,goss' det]m9ations are3 ,pota% 4#ghj1 ,phosphoric acid 4#bba1 ,nitrog5 4#ajh p] c5t4 ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,rio ,,gr&e ,,silt 7by ,pr(4 ,r4 ,f4 ,h>e47 ,deposit$ on l& by irrigation4 ,insoluble matt] #fc4gj ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4jf ,soda 7,na,o7 4#bb ,lime 7,ca,o7 #d4ig ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #b4dc ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ad ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #e4hj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #f4hf ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#af ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ac ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #g4de ,wat] & organic matt] #i4ih ,humus #a4ag 8 ,nitrog5 #aa4aa 8 8 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#ac ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure absorb$ at ,c #b4fc ,,discussion ,,( ,,! ,,table4 ,lime4--,consid]+ 9 ?is table1 fir/1 lime1 a glance at ! columns = ! two regions %[s a surpris+ & evid5tly intr9sic & mat]ial diff]5ce1 approximat+ 9 ! av]age by totals to ! proportion ( #a to #aa2 9 ! av]age by /ates1 #a to #ad4 ,?is diff]5ce is s great t no accid5tal errors 9 ! selection or analysis ( ! soils c to any mat]ial degree weak5 ! ov]:elm+ pro( ( ! correctness ( ! inf]5ce drawn ^u !oretical gr\nds1 viz41 t ! soils ( ! arid regions mu/ be ri*] 9 lime ?an ^? ( ! humid c\ntries4 ,= ! diff]5ces 9 d]ivation w\ld1 9 view ( ! wide preval5ce ( lime/one =mations 9 ! humid regions conc]n$1 produce exactly ! rev]se condition ( ?+s f t :i* is actually f\nd to exi/2 & if fur!r pro( 7 ne$$ x c readily be f\nd 9 ! detail$ discussion ( ! analyses ( ! soils ( ! arid areas =m+ ! contra/4 ,?is %[s t = in/ance1 9 ,wa%+ton highly calc>e\s soils are directly d]iv$ f ! black basaltic rocks2 :ile simil>ly1 calc>e\s l&s are f\nd 9 ,cali=nia to be ! outcome ( ! decomposition ( granites1 diorites1 lavas1 clay-%ales & s&/ones4 ,x is n easy to ov]rate ! importance ( ?is feature ( ! soils ( ! arid region1 z x is intimately connect$ ) o!r !oretically & practically important facts1 9 "p already m5tion$4 ,summ>y ( ,effects ( ,lime ,c>bonate 9 ,soils4--,x is be/ to summ>ize1 briefly1 at ?is po9t1 ! advantages 7& possible disadvantages71 result+ f ! pres5ce ( a prop] am\nt ( lime c>bonate 9 soils1 s f> z ^! are at pres5t und]/ood4 ,physically1 ev5 a small am\nt ( lime c>bonate1 by its solubility 9 ! c>bonat$ soil-wat]1 w act mo/ b5eficially 9 caus+ ! flocculation ( clay & 9 ! subsequ5t cons]vation ( ! floccul5t or til? condition1 by act+ z a light cem5t hold+ ! soil-crumbs toge!r :5 ! capill>y wat] has evaporat$2 ?us favor+ ! p5etration ( bo? wat] & air1 & ( ! roots !mselves4 ,x %\ld be add$ t accord+ to ! exp]i5ce ( ! writ]1 am\nts ( lime c>bonate 9 excess ( #b d n add to ! favorable effects1 except z w\ld s mu* s&4 ,z to *emical effects1 among ! mo/ important are3-- #a4 ,! ma9t5ance ( ! neutrality ( ! soil1 by ! neutralization ( acids =m$ by ! decay ( organic matt]1 or o!rwise4 #b4 ,! ma9t5ance1 9 connection ) ! prop] degrees ( moi/ure & w>m?1 ( ! conditions ( abundant bact]ial life 7see above1 *apt] #i1 p4 #adf72 m especially ^? ( nitrification1 ?us supply+ ! readily assimilable =m ( nitrog54 ,also 9 favor+ ! developm5t & activity ( ! root bact]ia ( legumes1 & ( ! o!r nitrog5-ga!r+ bact]ia1 su* z ,azotobact] 7ibid4 p4 #aef74 #c4 ,! r5d]+ available1 directly or indirectly1 ( relatively small p]c5tages ( plant-food1 notably phosphoric acid & pota%2 z %[n 9 ! prec$+ pages4 #d4 ,! prompt conv]sion ( vegetable matt] into black1 neutral humus1 & 7z %[n 9 ! case ( ! soils ( ! arid region7 ! conc5tration ( ! nitrog5 9 ! same2 :ile accel]at+ ! oxidation ( ! c>bon & hydrog51 z %[n by ,s4 ,w4 ,johnson & o!rs4 #f4 ,x c\nt]acts ! delet]i\s influ5ce ( an excess ( magnesia 9 ! soil1 z fir/ %[n by ,loew1#abg & v]ifi$ by 8 pupils 9 ,japan4 #g4 ,9 alkali soils1 accord+ to ,cam]on & ,may1 x c\nt]acts ! injuri\s action ( ! soluble salts ^u ! gr[? ( plants1 n only 9 ! =m ( c>bonate1 b also 9 ^? ( sulfate & *lorid4#abh #abg ,bull4 ,no4 #a1 ,div4 ,veget4 ,physiol1 & ,plant ,pa?ol4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr42 et al4 #abh ,loeb1 ,publications ( ! ,spreckel's ,physiological ,laboratory ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 has %[n a simil> protective influ5ce ( ! lime salts 9 sea-wat]1 aga9/ ! o!r salts1 9 ! case ( ! l[] m>9e organisms4 #h4 ,z a matt] ( exp]i5ce1 bo? 9 ! case ( grapes & or*>d z well z wild fruits1 an adequate b n excessive supply ( lime 9 ! soil w produce sweet] fruit ?an :5 lime is 9 small supply4 #i4 ,an excess ( c>bonate ( lime 9 soils 7f eight to tw5ty p] c5t & m71 con/itut+ 8m>l9ess10 t5ds to s]i\sly di/urb ! nutrition & g5]al functions ( _m plants 7calcifuge71 & to produce a suppression or dim9ution ( ! =mation ( *lorophyll & />*2 z 9 ! case ( grape v9es1 citrus fruits & o!rs1 :i* nev]!less fl\ri% be/ 9 l&s mod]ately calc>e\s4 ,among ! po9ts ?us enum]at$ ! ?ird & f\r? require "s comm5t4 ,)\t pret5d+ to def9e exactly h[ lime acts 9 r5d]+ o!r +r$i5ts m available to plant assimilation1 att5tion may be call$ to ! fact t lime c>bonate may be consid]$ z act+ simil>ly to1 albeit m mildly ?an1 cau/ic lime1 9 ! displacem5t ( o!r bases f _! comp\nds4 ,x d\btless acts ?us 9 lib]at+ pota% f its zeolitic comp\nds4 ,z to phosphoric acid1 ! connection ( ! effect ( lime c>bonate ) ! rem>kable availability ( t sub/ance :5 pres5t 9 ! =m ( tetra-basic salt1 9 ! case ( phosphate slag1 is at lea/ possible4 ,z to ! action ( lime c>bonate 9 =m+ humus1#abi no "o :o has obs]v$ ! *>act]i/ic d>k black t9t ( our calc>e\s 8prairie soils0 c "q ! fact2 :i* moreov] is p]fectly explicable ^u ! analogy already allud$ to1 ) cau/ic lime1 :i*1 toge!r ) cau/ic alkalies 7pota% & soda71 is kn[n to act p[]fully 9 ! conv]sion ( vegetable matt] into humus4 ,t in/ead ( lib]at+ ! nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ammonia1 z d ! cau/ic hydrates1 ! mild] c>bonate %\ld only cause ! =mation ( humic amides1 is q intelligible4 ,t su* is really ! case1 has be5 conclusively prov$ by ! inve/igations ( ! writ] made conjo9tly ) ,m4 ,e4 ,jaffa 7,rep4 ,/a4 ,cal4 ,agr4 ,expt4 #ahib-d72 ! g5]al result be+ t :ile 9 ! humid region ! av]age nitrog5-cont5t ( soil-humus is less ?an #e1 9 ! upl& soils ( ! arid region 7:]e all soils are calc>e\s7 t p]c5tage rises z high z #bb4j1 ) a g5]al av]age ( betwe5 #ae & #af4 ,t su* highly nitrog5\s mat]ial c be m readily attack$ by ! nitrify+ bact]ia ?an :5 a l>ge excess ( o!r oxidable matt] is pres5t1 is at lea/ a legitimate presumption1 especially 9 view ( ! v active nitrification kn[n to take place 9 ! arid regions ev]y:]e4 ,s long z a l>ge excess ( c>bohydrates is pres5t1 ! oxidation ( ^! w naturally take prec$5ce ov] t ( ! relatively in]t nitrog54 ,! accumulation ( ! latt] 9 ! humus-sub/ance ( ! arid region1 :]e oxidation ( ! organic matt] ( ! soil is v active1 po9ts /rongly to ?is view ( ! case4 #abi 8,black ,soils20 ,agric4 ,sci5ce1 ,janu>y1 #ahib4 ,magnesia4--,:ile ! diff]5ces 9 respect to ! proportions ( lime are ! mo/ prom95t & decid$1 yet ! relat$ sub/ance1 magnesia1 %[s also a v m>k$ & con/ant diff]5ce z betwe5 ! soils ( ! humid & arid regions4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! g5]al av]age = magnesia 9 ! soils ( ! ,atlantic ,slope is ab\t d\ble t ( lime2 ,florida & ,rhode ,isl& be+ ! only /ates 9 :i* ! av]age is l[] = magnesia ?an = lime4 ,9 ! arid region1 on ! contr>y1 magnesia on ! g5]al av]age is ne>ly ! same z lime2 9 ! av]age by /ates1 some:at less2 ?us br++ ! ratio = ! two regions = magnesia up to "o to six or sev54 ,?is also is s decisive a %[+ t no accid5t c\ld br+ x ab\t4 ,we mu/ conclude t climatic influ5ces h dealt ) magnesia simil>ly z ) lime2 :i* f ! /&po9t ( ! *emi/ is j :at might be expect$1 s9ce magnesia c>bonate behaves v mu* l t ( lime t[>d c>bonat$ wat]s4 ,t magnesia is a v important plant-food +r$i5t is app>5t f its inv>iable & r abundant pres5ce 9 ! se$s ( plants1 :]e x takes prec$5ce ( lime4 ,its functions 9 plant nutrition h be5 specially inve/igat$ by ,o4 ,loew1#acj p>ticul>ly ) respect to its relations to lime4 ,z already /at$ 9 connection ) ! soil-=m+ prop]ties ( magnesian m9]als 7see *apt] #b71 soils conta9+ l>ge proportions ( magnesia g5]ally are f\nd to be un?rifty1 ! l&s s con/itut$ be+ frequ5tly designat$ z 8b>r5s40 ,loew f9ds t c]ta9 proportions ( lime to magnesia mu/ be pres]v$ if production is to be satisfactory1 ! proportion v>y+ ) diff]5t plants1 "s ( :i* 7e4 g4 oats7 w d well :5 ! proportion ( lime to magnesia is z #a3a1 :ile o!rs require1 t t ratio %\ld be z #b or #c is to #a1 to secure ! be/ results4 ,9 g5]al x is be/ t lime %\ld exce$ magnesia 9 am\nt4 #acj ,bull4 ,no4 #ah1 ,div4 ,vegetable ,physiology & ,plant ,pa?ology2 ,bull4 ,no4 #a1 ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agr42 ,bull4 ,college ( ,agriculture1 ,tokyo1 ,vol4 #d1 ,no4 #e4 ,loew expla9s ! injuri\s action ( magnesium salts ?us3 ,! calcium nucleo-proteids ( ! organic /ructures are trans=m$ 9 pres5ce ( soluble salts ( magnesium into magnesium comp\nds1 :ile ! calcium ( ! =m] ent]s into comb9ation ) ! acid ( ! magnesium salt4 ,by ?is trans=mation ! capacity = imbibition w *ange1 :i* mu/ result 9 a fatal di/urbance ( functions4 ,! pres5ce ( soluble lime salts w prev5t t int]*ange4 ,?us c]ta9 alg p]i%$ 9 a solution conta9+ #a p] #ajjj ( magnesium nitrate1 b rema9$ alive :5 4#c p] #ajjj ( calcium nitrate 0 add$4 ,magnesia seems to be specially conc]n$ 9 ! transf] ( phosphoric acid ?r\gh ! plant tissues1 9 ! =m ( dimagnesic-hydric phosphate1 :i* is r soluble 9 ! acid juices ( plants4 ,x is probable t1 ap>t f ! relations j ref]r$ to1 su* excess ( lime z is kn[n to produce *lorosis 9 plants int]f]es ) ! transf] ( ! magnesic phosphate4 ,"s plants1 z already /at$1 dispose ( an excess ( lime by deposit+ x 9 ! =m ( oxalate1 :ile o!rs 7su* z ! /one crops7 excrete x on ! surface ( leaves & /ems 9 ! =m ( c>bonate4 ,b o!rs seem to possess ?is p[] to a limit$ ext5t only4 ,9 ! case ( soils conta9+ mu* magnesia ! prop] proportion betwe5 x & lime may easily be di/urb$ by ! great] ease ) :i* lime c>bonate is c>ri$ away by c>bonat$ wat] into ! subsoil1 ?us leav+ ! magnesia 9 undesirable excess 9 ! surface soil4 ,h5ce ! great advantage ( hav+ 9 a soil1 f ! outset1 an ample proportion ( lime4 ,f ?is po9t ( view alone1 !n1 ! analytical det]m9ation ( lime & magnesia 9 soils is ( high practical value4 ,aso1 ,furuta & ,katayama 7,bull4 ,coll4 ,agr4 ,tokyo1 ,vol4 #d ,no4 #e2 ,ibid4 ,vol4 #f71 h by direct exp]im5t det]m9$ ! mo/ advantage\s ratio ( lime to magnesia 9 sev]al crop plants4 ,!y f9d = rice & oats #a3a1 = cabbage #b3a1 = buck:eat #c3a2 !re be+ app>5tly a connection betwe5 ! ext5t ( leaf-surface & lime requirem5t1 s9ce leaves conta9 pr$om9antly lime1 :ile 9 ! fruit1 magnesia pr$om9ates4 ,manganese4--,a decid$ diff]5ce 9 ! manganese cont5t ( ! arid z aga9/ ! humid soils appe>s 9 ! table1 ! ratio be+ ab\t #aa3ac 9 favor ( ! humid soils4 ,manganese has n be5 reg>d$ z be+ ( special importance to plant gr[? 9 g5]al1 al?\gh1 z already /at$1 "s plants conta9 a relatively l>ge proportion ( manganese 9 _! a%es2 ?us1 e4 g41 ! leaves ( ! long-leav$ p9e ( ! cotton /ates4#aca ,b no def9ite data %[+ ! importance ( ?is elem5t to crops 7 available until ,loew & 8 co-work]s at ,tokyo#acb e/abli%$ its /imulat+ action 9 a numb] ( cases1 9 :i* crop production 0 mat]ially increas$ by ! use ( protoxid salts ( manganese4 ,aso#acc appli$ mangan\s *lorid to an exp]im5tal plot ( ?irty squ>e met]s1 at ! rate ( tw5ty-five kilos ( ,mn,o p] acre1 & ?us obta9$ a yield ( rice "o-?ird great] ?an on ! control plot1 at a co/ ( ab\t #b4jj1 :ile ! value ( ! increase ( ! product 0 ne>ly #fh4jj4 ,m exp]im5tal evid5ce on ?is subject is requir$ to e/abli% ! g5]al value ( ! l>ge-scale use ( ! salts ( manganese2 :i* are obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities z a comp>atively valueless by-product ( ! blea*+ indu/ries4 #aca ,rep4 ,agr4 & ,geology ( ,mississippi1 #ahfj1 p4 #cfj4 #acb ,bull4 ,agr4 ,coll4 ,tokyo1 ,vol4 ,v41 ,nos4 #b & #d4 #acc ,ibid4 ,vol4 #f4 ,! 8,insoluble ,residue40 ,rememb]+1 9 discuss+ ! facts %[n by ! table1 t ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ! regime ( ! humid & arid regions is ! pres5ce 9 ! latt] ( an almo/ cont9u\s lea*+ process1 9 :i* ! c>bonat$ wat] ( ! soil is ! solv5t2 rememb]+1 also1 t ! lea/ soluble portion ( rocks & soils is qu>tz or silica 7s&1 z usually und]/ood71 x w\ld be pr$icable t ?is +r$i5t %\ld 9 ! humid region be f\nd to be m abundant 9 soils ?an 9 ! arid4 ,?is portion is repres5t$ by ! 8insoluble residue0 ( ! table4 ,inspection %[s t bo? 9 ! av]ages ( ! s+le /ates1 & 9 bo? ( ! g5]al av]ages1 ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! soils ( ! humid & ! arid regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is /rongly pron\nc$2 ! ratio be+ sub/antially z #fi 9 ! arid region to #hd 9 ! humid4 ,we mu/ !n conclude t ! lea*+ process mu/ h influ5c$ mat]ially o!r soil +r$i5ts ?an lime1 :i* h rema9$ beh9d 9 su* am\nts z to depress ! p]c5tage ( insoluble residue 9 ! soils4 ,x rema9s to be %[n :at are ! sub/ances s reta9$4 ,insoluble & ,soluble ,silica & ,alum9a4 ,! +r$i5t mo/ ne>ly correlat$ ) ! insoluble residue is ! free silica :i* rema9s beh9d ) x :5 ! acid ) :i* ! soil has be5 treat$ is evaporat$ to dryness4 ,! silica is sep>at$ f ! practically insoluble1 undecompos$ m9]als by boil+ ) a /rong solution ( sodic c>bonate4 ,! am\nt ( ?is 8soluble silica0 is obvi\sly ! measure ( ! ext5t to :i* ! soil-silicates h be5 decompos$ 9 ! treatm5t ) acid4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ^! is usually suppos$ to be clay--! hydr\s silicate ( alum9a t 9 its pure/ condition =ms kaol9ite or porcela9 e>?4 ,any alum9a f\nd 9 ! usual c\rse ( soil analysis is g5]ally ref]r$ to ?is m9]al1 :i* conta9s silica & alum9a ne>ly 9 ! proportion ( #df to #dj4 ,9 v _m cases1 h[ev]1 ! ref]5ce ( ^! two +r$i5ts to clay is manife/ly unju/ifi$4 ,?is is cle>ly s :5 7z n unfrequ5tly happ5s7 ! am\nt ( alum9a f\nd exce$s t :i* w\ld =m clay ) ! asc]ta9$ p]c5tage ( soluble silica2 x is almo/ z c]ta9ly s :51 9 addition to ! alum9a1 o!r bases 7notably pota%1 lime & magnesia71 are f\nd 9 proportions :i* preclude _! be+ 9 comb9ation ) any o!r acidic comp\nds pres5t4 ,! only possible inf]5ce 9 su* cases is t ^! bases1 toge!r ) at lea/ a portion ( ! alum9a1 are pres5t 9 ! =m ( hydrat$1 & !re=e easily decomposable silicates or zeolites4 ,! subjo9$ analysis by ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge1 ( a clay obta9$ 9 ! usual process ( me*anical soil analysis 7by precipitat+ ) common salt ! turbid wat] rema9+ aft] #bd h\rs subsid5ce 9 a column ( #bjj millimet]s7 f a v g5]aliz$ soil ( nor!rn ,mississippi1 %[s "o ( ! _m cases 9 :i* ! num]ical ratios ( ! sev]al +r$i5ts are incompatible ) ! assumption t silica & alum9a are pres5t 9 comb9ation z clay 7kaol9ite7 only3 ,,analysis ,,( ,,colloidal ,,clay4 ,insoluble matt] #ae4if ,soluble silica #cc4aj ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4dg ,soda 7,na,o7 #a4gj ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#ji ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4cc ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#cj ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #ah4gf ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #ah4ai ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#ah ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jf ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 4#jj ,wat] & organic matt] #i4jj ------ ,total #ajj4ad ,if 9 ?is case we assign all alum9a to silica1 z requir$ = ! composition ( kaol9ite or pure clay1 !re yet rema9s a trifle ov] twelve 7#ab4ag7 p] c5t ( silica to be allott$ to ! o!r bases pres5t4 ,d$uct+ f ?is ! asc]ta9$ am\nt ( silica soluble 9 sodic c>bonate1 pre-exi/+ 9 ! raw mat]ial 74#ch p] c5t71 we come to #aa4gi p] c5t z ! am\nt ( silica :i* mu/ h be5 9 comb9ations o!r ?an kaol9ite1 viz41 hydr\s silicates1 or soil zeolites1 =m$ ei!r ) ! bases o!r ?an alum9a %[n 9 ! analysis or1 m probably1 conta9+ "s ( ! alum9a itself 9 ess5tial comb9ation4 ,we are ?us enabl$ to obta9 f ! det]m9ation ( ! soluble silica an e/imate ( ! ext5t to :i* ^! soil zeolites1 t =m s important a portion ( ! soil 9 be+ ! repositories ( ! res]ve ( m or less available m9]al plant-food1 are pres5t 9 ! soils ( ! sev]al regions4 ,a glance at ! table %[s t ! g5]al av]age ( soluble silica is v mu* great] 9 ! soils ( ! arid regions ?an 9 ^? ( ! humid1 approximat+ "o to two 9 favor ( ! arid division4#acd #acd ,look+ at ! details ( ! sev]al /ates1 we f9d t on ! arid side ,wa%+ton has a relatively l[ figure = soluble silica1 :i* 9 ! av]age1 h[ev]1 is ov]borne by ! high figures = ,cali=nia & ,montana4 ,! explanation ( ?is fact probably lies 9 ! d]ivation ( ! majority ( ! ,wa%+ton soils exam9$1 f lake deposits br\ght d[n gradually f ! humid region at ! heads ( ! ,columbia dra9age1 :]e s&y b$s are v preval5t2 :ile ! c\ntry rock--! basaltic eruptives--are v basic1 & moreov] sl[ to dis9tegrate4 ,9 ,cali=nia & ,montana ! rocks are inf9itely v>i$1 & ! g5]al outcome ( _! wea!r+ is pla9ly a pr$om9ance ( complex hydr\s silicates 9 ! soils1 z comp>$ ) humid regions4 ,diff]5ces 9 ! ,s&s ( ! ,arid & ,humid ,regions4--,9 *apt] #e m5tion has be5 made ( ! fact t :ile 9 ! humid regions1 8s&0 z a rule means qu>tz gra9s1 mo/ly ) a clean surface & v frequ5tly r\nd$ & poli%$1 9 ! arid regions ev5 ! co>se s& gra9s consi/ (1 or are cov]$ )1 a great v>iety ( m9]als 9 a p>tially decompos$ condition4 ,?is is ow+ to ! abs5ce ( ! abundant ra9fall :i* 9 humid climates cont9ually wa%es d[n ! f9ely divid$1 half-decompos$ m9]al matt] into ! subsoil2 :ile 9 arid climates ! light ra9s _c produce any su* wa%+ effect & h5ce ! s& gra9s rema9 incru/$ ) ! products ( ei!r _! own decomposition1 or ( t ( neighbor+ p>ticles2 x be+ !re=e n conc5trat$ 9 ! f9] portion only1 viz41 ! clay & f9e/ silts4 ,?is fundam5tal diff]5ce1 :i* is illu/rat$ 9 ! analytical table bel[1 at once expla9s :y 9 ! arid regions g5]ally1 s&y soils are f\nd s highly productive t1 ow+ to _! easy cultivation !y are pref]r$ to ! clayey l&s1 9 :i* tillage & irrigation are m difficult4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t on ! 8s&s ( ! des]t0 :5 ei!r irrigat$1 or wett$ by ra91 vegetation at once spr+s up ) rem>kable luxuriance1 ev5 on s& drifts2 & ?is productiv5ess appe>s to be q z la/+ z t ( 8/rong0 clay soils ( ! humid regions4 ,?is diff]5ce is curi\sly illu/rat$ on ! s\!rn edge ( ! 8black adobe0 or prairie soil area :i* surr\nds ,/ockton1 ,cal4 ,"h we f9d on ! opposite sides ( a small /ream 7,fr5* ,camp sl\gh7 ! two extremes1 ( heavy clay & ! s&y soils :i* = _m ye>s made ,/anislaus c\nty ! 8bann]0 c\nty = :eat4 ,! gra9 product ( bo? banks rank$ alike 9 quantity & quality 9 av]age ye>s2 b 9 extreme seasons sometimes "o1 sometimes ! o!r fail$1 accord+ to ! wea!r conditions :i* favor$ "o or ! o!r soil4 ,no "o w\ld ?9k ( s[+ :eat on s s&y a soil 9 ! humid ,/ates4 ,table ,illu/rat+ ,diff]5ce 9 ,s&s ( ! ,humid & ,arid ,regions4 ,p] c5t,pota%4,lime4,magnesia4 ,clay4 9 ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mississippi#ace #ba4fd 4#cb 4#jc 4#bi ,cali=nia #abha ,*9o#acf #g4fj 4#af 4#ad 4#ag 8 ,jackson#acg #af4dc 4#ac 4#ab 4#jh ,silt 4#jf-4jaf mm4 diam4 ,mississippi #ce4aj 4#da 4#ae 4#cf ,cali=nia 7,*9o7 #ah4ec 4#bd 4#ec 4#bi 8 ,jackson #cd4ij 4#aj 4#jd 4#jh ,silt 4#jaf-4jbe mm4 diam4 ,mississippi #ac4fg 4#ab 4#ji 4#aj ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #e4di 4#je 4#aa 4#jb 8 ,jackson #i4if 4#jh 4#jd 4#aj ,silt 4#jbe-4jcf mm4 diam4 ,mississippi ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #c4ib 8 ,jackson #g4fh 4#jf 4#jb ,silt 4#jcf-4jdg mm4 diam4 ,mississippi ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #f4dj 4#je 4#ah 8 ,jackson #h4ba 4#jd 4#ja ,co>se ,silt 4#jdg-4jgb mm4 diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #g4ib 4#jf 4#bc 8 ,jackson #e4ia 4#ja 4#ja ,f9e s& 4#jgb-4ab mm4 diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #aa4hg 4#jf 4#bf 8 ,jackson #d4jc 4#ja 4#ja ,s& 4#ab-4ej mm diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o #cf4aa 4#aa 4#fi 8 ,jackson #aj4aj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,phosphoric,soluble,alum9a4 ,summ- ,clay4 ,acid4 ,silica4 ation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mississippi#ach 4#jd #g4ag #c4ig #aa4hb ,cali=nia #abha ,*9o#aci 4#jd #a4gj #a4ce #c4ef 8 ,jackson#adj 4#je #b4hc #b4ac #e4cd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,silt 4#jf-4jaf mm4 diam4 ,mississippi 4#jg #b4hg #a4cf #e4bb ,cali=nia 7,*9o7 4#jf #d4if #a4gf #g4hd 8 ,jackson 4#jb #b4ej #b4dd #e4ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,silt 4#jaf-4jbe mm4 diam4 ,mississippi 4#jb 4#cb 4#ag 4#hb ,cali=nia1 ,*9o 4#ja 4#hj 4#ea #a4ej 8 ,jackson 4#jjg #a4ja #a4ja #b4be ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,silt 4#jbe-4jcf mm4 diam4 ,mississippi 4#cf ,cali=nia1 ,*9o lo/ 8 ,jackson 4#jjf #j4hb 4#gd #a4gj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,silt 4#jcf-4jdg mm4 diam4 ,mississippi 4#ee trace ,cali=nia1 ,*9o 4#ja 4#hj 4#fd #a4ff 8 ,jackson 4#jja 4#dc #a4ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,co>se ,silt 4#jdg-4jgb mm4 diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o 4#jb 4#hi 4#ei #a4gi 8 ,jackson 4#jjc 4#db 4#cj 4#gg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,f9e s& 4#jgb-4ab mm4 diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o 4#jc 4#ih #a4dc 8 ,jackson 4#jjc 4#bh 4#ji 4#dj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,s& 4#ab-4ej mm diam4 ,cali=nia1 ,*9o 4#jd #b4dc #a4ei #d4ih 8 ,jackson ,n detd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ace ,analyses by ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge4 #acf ,analyses by ,l4 ,m4 ,tolman4 #acg ,analyses by ,e4 ,h4 ,lea4 #ach ,analyses by ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge4 #aci ,analyses by ,l4 ,m4 ,tolman4 #adj ,analyses by ,e4 ,h4 ,lea4 ,x ?us appe>s t :ile 9 ! ,mississippi soil1 solubility ( plant-food practically ceas$ at gra9-diamet] ( 4#jcf mm1 9 ! arid ,cali=nia soils1 z l>ge an am\nt 0 f\nd 9 ! s&-gra9 sizes betwe5 4#ab & 4#ej millimet]s z 9 ! f9e silt 4#jaf to 4#jbe mm4 9 ,mississippi4 ,hydr\s ,silicates are ,m ,abundant 9 ,arid ?an ,humid ,soils4--,?is pr$om9ance ( hydr\s silicates 9 ! soils ( ! arid regions %\ld n be a matt] ( surprise :5 we consid] ! ag5cies :i* are br\ght to be> ^u ^! soils ) s mu* great] int5sity ?an c be ! case :]e ! solutions result+ f ! wea!r+ process are cont9ually remov$ z fa/ z =m$1 by ! cont9u\s lea*+ effect ( atmosph]ic wat]s4 ,9 ! soils ( regions :]e summ] ra9s are insignificant or want+1 ^! solutions n only rema91 b are conc5trat$ by evaporation to a po9t t1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 c nev] be rea*$ 9 humid climates4 ,prom95t among ^! soluble +r$i5ts are ! silicates & c>bonates ( ! two alkalies1 pota% & soda4 ,! =m]1 :5 filt]$ ?r\gh a soil conta9+ ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia1 w soon be trans=m$ into complex silicates1 9 :i* pota% takes prec$5ce ( soda1 & :i*1 exi/+ 9 a v f9ely divid$ 7at ! outset 9 a gelat9\s7 condition1 s]ve z an ev]-ready res]voir to cat* & /ore ! l+]+ alkalies z !y are set free f ! rocks1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( soluble silicates or c>bonates4 ,! latt] h ano!r important effect3 9 ! conc5trat$ =m at lea/1 !y1 !mselves1 are effective 9 decompos+ silicate m9]als refractory to mild] ag5cies1 su* z calcic c>bonate solution2 & ?us ! m decompos$ /ate 9 :i* we f9d ! soil m9]als ( ! arid regions is intelligible on t gr\nd alone4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t lime c>bonate1 ?\gh less effective ?an ! correspond+ alkali solutions1 nev]!less is also kn[n to produce1 by long-cont9u$ action1 *emical effects simil> to ^? t are m quickly & en]getically br\ght ab\t by ! action ( cau/ic lime4 ,9 fact1 ! agricultural effects ( 8lim+0 are only 9 degree diff]5t f ^? produc$ by m>l+ ) f9ely pulv]iz$ c>bonate2 & 9 nature ! same relation is /rik+ly exemplifi$ 9 ! peculi>ly black humus t is *>act]i/ic ( calc>e\s l&s1 b :i* c be mu* m quickly =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( cau/ic lime on peaty soils4 ,9 ! analysis ( silicates we employ cau/ic lime = ! sett+-free ( ! alkalies & ! =mation ( easily decomposable silicates1 by ignit+ ! mixture2 b ! c>bonate w sl[ly produce a simil> *ange1 bo? 9 ! laboratory & 9 ! soils 9 :i* x is con/antly pres5t4 ,?is is /rik+ly se5 :5 we contra/ ! analyses ( calc>e\s clay soils ( ! humid region ) ! correspond+ non-calc>e\s ones ( ! same4 ,9 ! =m] ! proportions ( dissolv$ silica & alum9a are almo/ inv>iably mu* great] ?an 9 ! latt]1 s f> z su* comp>isons are practicable )\t assur$ absolute id5tity ( mat]ials4 ,t is1 calc>e\s clays or clay soils are s sure to yield to ! analy/ l>ge precipitates ( alum9a1 t exp]i5ce tea*es him to employ small] am\nts = analysis ?an he w\ld ( non-calc>e\s mat]ials1 9 ord] to avoid unmanageably l>ge bulks ( alum9ic hydrate4 ,x is b r>ely t ev5 ! heavie/ non-calc>e\s soils yield to ! acid usually us$ 9 soil analysis m ?an #aj p] c5t ( alum9a2 :ile heavy calc>e\s clay 7prairie7 soils commonly yield betwe5 #ac & #bj p] c5t4#ada ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to v]ify ?is relation by artificial dige/ions ( "o & ! same clays ) calcic c>bonate at high temp]atures1 z x mu/ always be extremely difficult to insure absolute id5tity ( all o!r conditions 9 natural mat]ials4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! cases1 :at is true ( alum9a is also true ( ! soluble silica4 ,b s9ce ! latt] is con/antly liable to be dissolv$ out by solutions ( c>bonat$ alkalies1 x is n surpris+ t ?is relation is n always %[n4 #ada ,report ( ! ,t5? ,c5sus1 ,vols4 #e #f2 see especially ! analyses ( soils f ,mississippi & ,alabama4 ,also ! ,reports ( ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 ,alum9ic ,hydrate4--,9 num]\s cases1 ! am\nt ( alum9a dissolv$ 9 analysis is greatly 9 excess ( ! soluble silica1 s z to =ce ! conclusion t a portion ( ! latt] mu/ be pres5t 9 a diff]5t =m f t ( clay 7kaol9ite72 ! only *oice be+ betwe5 t ( complex hydr\s silicates 7none ( :i*1 h[ev]1 c\ld conta9 z l>ge a p]c5tage ( alum9a z clay itself7 & alum9ic hydrate4 ,! latt] is alone capable ( expla9+ ! pres5ce ( m alum9a ?an silica 9 easily soluble =m2#adb & ! visible occurr5ce ( 8gibbsite0 & 8bauxite0 9 mod]n =maations r5d]s ?is a p]fectly simple & acceptable explanation4 ,s9ce ^! m9]als are kn[n to be incapable ( cry/allization1 we are moreov] l$ to ! presumption t x w z a rule be f\nd 9 ! f9e/ portions ( ! soil1 viz41 9 ! 8clay0 ( me*anical analysis4 #adb ,except+ ! relatively r>e m9]als ( ! ,allophane1 ,kollyrite1 & ,milo%ite gr\p4 ,"s illu/rations ( ^! conditions are giv5 bel[1 = soils f ,mississippi & ,cali=nia4 ,! soluble silica be+ all assign$ to kaol9ite1 ! re/ ( ! alum9a mu/ be assum$ to be pres5t z hydrate1 s9ce no o!r comp\nd c\ld fulfil ! /oi*iometrical requirem5ts4#adc ,! table !re=e %[s ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! am\nts ( alum9a f\nd by analysis1 & ^? assignable to kaol9ite1 calculat$ to ! m9]al bauxite--! mo/ abundant1 z well z ! "o conta9+ ! m$ium proportion ( wat]1 among ! ?ree naturally occurr+ alum9ic hydrates4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,excess ,,( ,,alum9a ,,ov] ,,silica ,,9 ,,soils2 ,,calculat$ ,,z ,,bauxite4 7,a7 ,total soluble 9 ,h,cl4 7,b7 ,correspond+ to ,bauxite4 7,c7 ,o!r ,soluble ,matt]s4 ,miss4 ,mississippi4 ,cal4 ,cali=nia4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,numb]4 ,"n ( ,soil4 ,c\nty4 ,/ate4 7,a7 ,si,o,al,o 7,b7 7,c7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aie ,prairie ,alcorn ,miss4#bh4eg #c4f #ad4dad4ab #b4ib #cdf ,d>k ,loam ,*icasaw 8 #aj4cb #f4f #aa4b #f4ia 4#hf #bhh ,flatwoods ,clay ,pontotoc 8 #bf4id #e4j #aa4c #h4ge #c4dh #fgf ,r$ ,volcanic ,lake ,cal4#da4jj #e4i #bb4fba4ij #b4jj #ccb ,mojave ,des]t ,k]n 8 #bd4hb #e4j #i4b #f4aj #e4ac #aia ,r$ ,foo?ill ,m]c$ 8 #bc4cb #d4e #h4h #f4bj #c4je ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #gje ,r$ ,*ap>ral ,%a/a 8 #bh4ge #e4e #ad4dab4aj #a4ab #gjf 8 8 ,subsoil 8 8 #bh4dj #d4g #ag4daf4gj #a4cb ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #egc ,tul>e ,pla9s ,tul>e 8 #bi4bg #c4d #h4g #g4bjaa4af #gja ,dry ,bog 8 8 #bg4bi #d4c #ab4daj4ij #e4jd #ajjd 8,slick5s8 ,s$4,butte 8 #cj4hj #h4j #ad4b #i4bj #a4ie #fef 8 8 ,yuba 8 #bb4bc #c4j #aj4d #i4hj #b4ai #eag ,br[ni% ,loam ,butte 8 #bi4hj #d4h #ab4j #i4hj #d4db #efa ,black ,loam 8 8 #cj4ba #c4b #ac4jab4hj #d4fg ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #efc ,sacram5to ,alluvium 8 8 #bc4df #b4g #aj4daj4ij #d4eh ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #hfc ,r$ ,foo?ill ,nevada 8 #ef4hjaa4j #cf4dcc4fj #a4bb #hfa 8 8 8 8 #de4dfaa4e #bb4jad4aj #c4ig ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,x is app>5t f ?is table t if1 z is probable1 ! alum9ic hydrate accumulates 9 ! 8clay0 ( ! analysis1 x w 9 "s cases =m a v consid]able p]c5tage ( ! same1 & detract to t ext5t f its pla/ic1 adhesive & o!r prop]ties4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! assumption ^u :i* ?is table is calculat$1 leaves out ( consid]ation ! zeolitic portion1 :i* z ! #f? column %[s1 is frequ5tly q l>ge z measur$ by ! bases f\nd1 to :i* no o!r =m ( comb9ation c be assign$4 ,s9ce "s ( ! alum9a und\bt$ly takes "p 9 ! =mation ( su* zeolites1 ! silica mu/ to t ext5t be )drawn f ! e/imate made = kaol9ite4 ,:ile x is impossible to make any def9ite num]ical all[ance = ?is fact1 x cle>ly w t5d 9 _m cases to increase mat]ially ! am\nt ( alum9a t mu/ be assign$ to ! hydrate condition4 ,x w be not$ t 9 mo/ cases giv51 ! alum9a p] c5t is r l>ge4 #adc ,s9ce any complex zeolite w\ld conta9 less alum9a ?an kaol9ite1 ?is assumption m ?an cov]s ! possible zeolitic alum9a4 ,! relatively l>ge numb] ( su* cases %[n 9 ! table = ,cali=nia soils is n a matt] ( accid5t2 = ev5 a cursory glance at ! columns ( analyses ( ,cali=nia 7& ,wa%+ton & ,montana7 soils1 %[s t ! cases 9 :i* ! alum9a exce$s ! silica 9 am\nt are r pr$om9ant1 :ile ! rev]se is ! case 9 ! humid region4#add ,b x mu/ n be inf]r$ t ! rev]se relation is n also frequ5tly obs]v$ ev5 9 ! arid region2 x occurs 9 fact 9 close proximity to ! localities :]e "s ( ! mo/ /rik+ in/ances ( excess ( alum9a ov] soluble silica h be5 f\nd4 #add ,see = comp>ison ! data giv5 9 vols4 #e & #f ( ! report ( ! ,t5? ,c5sus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?us ,nos4 #hfa & #hfc f ! neighborhood ( ,grass ,valley1 :i* %[ ?is excess mo/ /rik+ly1 occur )9 #ae miles ( localities :i* %[ almo/ ! rev]sal ( ! numb]s giv5 = ! two =m]1 & at a level ( ab\t a ?\s& feet l[]4 ,x w\ld seem1 on ! :ole1 t ! excess ( alum9a occurs mo/ frequ5tly 9 connection ) soils =m$ f eruptive rocks2 9 ! case ref]r$ to1 f volcanic a%4 ,x w require m detail$ /udy to detect ! causes ( ^! m>k$ diff]5ces4 ,ret5tion ( ,soluble ,silica 9 ,alkali ,soils4--,x is some:at surpris+ t1 contr>y to ! expectation "o w\ld naturally ent]ta91 ! alkali l&s1 s frequ5tly ri* 9 ! c>bonates ( ! alkalies t w\ld dissolve free silica1 on ! contr>y1 %[ mo/ frequ5tly an excess ( soluble silica ov] alum9a4 ,?is is probably to be expla9$ f ! v lib]al opportunities af=d$ 9 ! alkali soils = ! =mation ( complex zeolitic masses by ! ret5tion 9 soil ( ! soluble alkali salts1 & ! abundance ( lime always pres5t 9 !m4 ,z already /at$1 we usually f9d 9 alkali soils a v l>ge proportion ( bo? alkal9e & e>?y bases 9 acid-soluble silicate comb9ations4 ,b mu* f>!r rese>* is ne$$ to expla9 fully ! m>k$ discrepancies obs]v$ 9 ?is respect betwe5 soils n only occurr+ 9 closely contigu\s localities1 b also %[+ m>k$ simil>ities 9 _! g5]al composition4 ,f]ric ,hydrate4--,!re is no obvi\s reason1 f ! *emical /&po9t1 :y iron1 t is1 f]ric hydrate or iron ru/1 %\ld be m abundant 9 ! soils ( ! arid regions1 z ! av]ages giv5 9 ! table sugge/2 moreov]1 ! fact does n impress itself ^u ! eye1 s9ce ! orange or r$di% t9ts are by f> m common 9 ! humid ?an 9 ! arid regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates at lea/4 ,! ,cali=nia av]age is consid]ably influ5c$ by ! v highly f]rug9\s soils f ! foo?ills ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 & by ! black 7magnetite7 s& s commonly pres5t2 t ( ,oregon by ! black1 highly f]rug9\s c\ntry rock 7basalts71 f :i* !y are p>tly d]iv$4 ,! av]age = ,montana is n high] ?an t ( ?ree /ates ( ! humid region1 & less ?an t ( ,k5tucky4 ,we might imag9e a cause = depletion ( iron 9 ! soils ( ! humid areas 9 ! frequ5cy ) :i* humid moi/ure & high temp]ature w dur+ ! summ]s concur t[>d ! br++ ab\t ( a r$uc+ process 9 ! soil1 :i* by gett+ ! iron into proto-c>bonate solution w\ld make x liable to be lea*$ into ! subsoil1 z is frequ5tly ! case2 yet ! result+ 8black gravel0 or bog ore1 9 its v>i\s =ms1 is ( n infrequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! arid regions also4 ,a con/ant quantitative diff]5ce due to climatic conditions does n appe> to be %[n by ! data ?us f> at comm&1 b ! f9] di/ribution ( ! f]ric hydrate 9 ! humid temp]ate z well tropical regions is obvi\s to ! obs]v]1 f ! frequ5t r$ness ( humid & tropical soils4 ,manganese4--,an unexpect$ & app>5tly well-def9$ contr>y relation appe>s to be %[n z reg>ds ! relat$ metal manganese2 ! av]age p]c5tage ( :i* is 9 all cases less 9 ! arid ?an 9 ! humid region4 ,! cause ( ?is relation is altoge!r obscure2 x is too frequ5t to be accid5tal4 ,phosphoric ,acid4--,z reg>ds t highly important soil +r$i5t1 phosphoric acid1 ! indication 9 ! table t !re is no *>act]i/ic diff]5ce 9 ! av]age cont5ts 9 soils ( ! arid & humid regions1 respectively1 is d\btless correct4 ,?is sub/ance is s t5aci\sly reta9$ by all soils t !re is no obvi\s reason :y !re %\ld be any mat]ial influ5ce ex]t$ ^u its quantity by lea*+1 or by any ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! process ( wea!r+ t are kn[n to exi/ betwe5 ! two climatic regions4 ,moreov]1 x is app>5t t ! av]age = ! arid region is made up out ( v widely div]g5t figures2 t ( ,cali=nia exceptionally l[ 7l[] ?an any ( ^? = ! /ates ( ! humid regions71 :ile ^? = ,wa%+ton & ,montana are exceptionally high4 ,! latt] is due to c\ntry rocks 78basalts07 %[+ abundance ( microscopic cry/als ( apatite1 :i* 9 "s cases raise ! cont5ts ( ! soils 9 phosphoric acid to ne>ly twice ! av]age giv5 = ! /ates4 ,! =eca/ t = mo/ ,cali=nia soils1 f]tilization ) phosphates is ( exceptional importance1 has already be5 abundantly confirm$ by cultural exp]i5ce4 ,few def9ite data are z yet available f o!r arid /ates1 :]e f]tilization is ?us f> sporadic & unsy/ematic4 ,b x is pr$ictable t 9 view ( ! pres5ce ( an excess ( lime c>bonate 9 ! arid soils1 & ! unfavorable effect ( ?is comp\nd on ! rapid solubility ( tri-calcic phosphate demon/rat$ by ,s*loes+1 ,jr41#ade by ,btt*] & ,kelln]#adf & ,nagaoka1#adg f]tilization ) readily available phosphate f]tiliz]s w be f\nd necess>y among ! fir/1 all ov] ! arid region1 especially 9 view ( ! sc>city ( humus 9 arid soils4 #ade ,ann4 ,sci4 ,agronomique1 tome #a1 #ahii4 #adf ,l&w4 ,presse1 #aijj1 ,no4 #eb2 ibid4 #aija1 ,nos4 #bc & #bd4 #adg ,bull4 ,univ4 ,tokyo1 ,vol4 #f1 ,no4 #c4 ,production 0 dim9i%$ to less ?an "o half :5 lime 0 us$ ) bone meal1 & actual assimilation ( phosphoric acid to "o fif?4 ,a curi\s in/ance ( ! effects ( cont9u$ w>m mac]ation 9 rock decomposition is af=d$ by ! highly f]rug9\s soils d]iv$ f ! black basaltic lavas ( ! ,hawaii ,isl&s4 ,^! lavas1 l ! basalt %eet ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 conta9 a l>ge am\nt ( cry/alliz$ phosphate m9]als1 notably apatite & vivianite4 ,a correspond+ly l>ge proportion ( phosphoric acid is f\nd 9 ! soils d]iv$ f ^! rocks1 up to ne>ly two p] c5t4#adh ,b almo/ ! entirety ( ?is sub/ance is pres5t 9 ! =m ( an insoluble1 basic iron comp\nd1 difficultly soluble ev5 9 acids1 & r5d]+ x :olly unavailable to vegetation4 ,s t actually ! mo/ press+ ne$ ( mo/ ( ^! soils is phosphate f]tilization4 ,! same is probably true ( "s ( ! highly f]rug9\s soils ( ,cali=nia & ( ! ,cotton ,/ates4 #adh ,see table1 *apt] #ai1 p4 #bef4 ,sulfuric ,acid4--,f ! abs5ce ( ! lea*+ process 9 ! soils ( ! arid region1 we %\ld expect t sulfates w\ld be m abundant 9 !m ?an 9 ! soils ( ! humid4 ,?is is c]ta9ly true 9 ! case ( ! alkali soils1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! regions ( defici5t ra9fall4 ,see bel[1 *apt] #bb4 ,h5ce ! %[+ made 9 ! g5]al table1 indicat+ t sulfates are equally abundant 9 ! soils ( ! humid ?an 9 ^? ( ! arid regions1 is surpris+ 9 view ( ! effloresc5ces ( alkali sulfates s frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 ! latt]4 ,?is is obvi\sly due to ! fact t ! majority ( su* alkali soils has1 on acc\nt ( _! local nature & usually heavy lime cont5t1 be5 exclud$ f ! comp>ison2 :i* o!rwise w\ld h made a v diff]5t %[+4 ,pota% & ,soda4--,! comp\nds ( ! alkali metals potassium & sodium1 be+ on ! :ole mu* m soluble 9 wat]1 ev5 )\t ! concurr5ce ( c>bonic acid1 ?an ^? ( calcium & magnesium1 ! lea*+ process t creates su* pron\nc$ diff]5ces 9 ! case ( ! two e>?s mu/ affect ! alkali comp\nds v mat]ially4 ,comp>ison ( ! soils ( ! two regions 9 ?is respect %[s1 inde$1 v great diff]5ces 9 ! av]age cont5ts ( pota% & soda4 ,= pota% ! ratio is 4#baf to 4#fgj p] c5t on ! g5]al av]age1 & 4#ahg to 4#fgj p] c5t1 9 ! av]age by /ates2 = soda1 4#adj p] c5t to 4#cej p] c5t on ! g5]al av]age1 & 4#aaj p] c5t to 4#dbj p] c5t 9 ! av]age by /ates4 ,= bo?1 !re=e1 ! g5]al av]age ratio is z "o to betwe5 ?ree & f\r = ! humid z aga9/ ! arid region4 ,x is curi\s t an approximation to ! ratio ( "o to two1 or some:at less1 is ma9ta9$ 9 ! av]age proportion ( soda to pota% 9 bo? regions2 b ?is does n by any means hold good 9 detail1 v high pota%-p]c5tages be+ (t5 accompani$ by figures = soda v mu* bel[ ! above ratio4 ,?is is ! result ( an important diff]5ce 9 ! *emical behavior ( ! two alkalies1 :i* has already be5 allud$ to 9 connection ) ! discussion ( ! zeolites4 7,see *apt] #c1 p4 #ch74 ,! process ( 8kaol9ization10 be+ t by :i* clays are =m$ out ( feldspa?ic m9]als & rocks su* z granite1 sy5ite1 tra*yte1 etc41 results 9 ! simultane\s =mation ( solutions ( c>bonates & silicates ( pota% & soda4 ,^! com+ 9 contact ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( lime & magnesia1 also common products ( rock decomposition1 are p>tly tak5 up by ! latt]1 =m+ complex1 insoluble1 hydr\s silicates 7zeolites74 ,9 ^!1 h[ev]1 pota% :5ev] pres5t takes prec$5ce ( soda2 s t :5 a solution ( a pota% comp\nd is br\ght 9 contact ) a zeolite conta9+ mu* soda1 ! latt] is p>tially or :olly displac$ &1 be+ soluble1 t5ds to be wa%$ away by ! ra9fall into ! c\ntry dra9age4 ,h5ce pota%1 =tunately = agriculture1 is t5aci\sly held by soils1 :ile soda accumulates only :]e ! ra9fall or dra9age is insuffici5t to effect prop] lea*+1 & 9 t case manife/s itself 9 ! =mation ( :at is popul>ly kn[n z 8alkali soils20 namely ^? 9 :i* a notable am\nt ( soluble salts exi/s1 & is kept 9 circulation by ! alt]nation ( ra9fall & evaporation1 ! latt] caus+ ! salts to accumulate at ! surface & to manife/ !mselves 9 ! =m ( sal9e cru/s or effloresc5ses4 ,alkali l&s are a *>act]i/ic feature ( all regions ( scanty ra9fall1 & are f\nd m or less on all ! cont95ts4 ,! sub/ances compos+ ! alkali salts are reta9$ n only 9 _! soluble =m1 b by _! cont9u$ pres5ce influ5ce pr(\ndly1 9 sev]al ways1 ! processes ( soil =mation4 ,a m detail$ discussion ( ?is important subject is giv5 9 *apt]s #bb & #bc4 ,arid ,soils are ,ri* 9 ,pota%4--,"o ( ! mo/ important practical conclusions fl[+ f ! comp>ison ( ! pota% cont5ts ( ! humid & arid soils respectively is t :ile 9 ! =m]1 pota% is usually among ! fir/ sub/ances to be suppli$ by f]tilization :5 production langui%es1 9 ! arid regions x w z rule come la/ 9 ord] among ! ?ree +r$i5ts commonly s furni%$4 ,aside f ! wat]-soluble pota% salts always =m+ "p ( ! salts ( ! alkali l&s prop]1 :i* 9 _m cases w alone hold out = _m ye>s "u ! dem&s ( cultivation1#adi !y r>ely conta9 mu* less ?an "o p] c5t ( acid-soluble pota%2 occasionally ris+ z high z #a4h p] c5t4 ,t 9 su* l&s pota%-f]tilization is uncall$-= & ineffective1 h>dly requires discussion2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 phosphates are commonly requir$ = full production aft] t5 or fifte5 ye>s ( cultivation )\t returns4 ,nitrog5 usually comes next 9 ord]1 b sometimes is ! fir/ ne$4 #adi ,9 ! light alkali l&s ( ! s\!rn ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,sub/ation at ,*9o1 ! av]age cont5t ( wat]-soluble pota% 9 t5 acres am\nts to ! equival5t ( #a1bjj p\nds ( pota% sulphate p] acre4 ,outside ( ?is ! acid-soluble pota% ( ! soil is 4#ie41 equal to #ch1jjj p\nds p] acre-foot4 ,! con/ant indiscrim9ate pur*ase & use ( all ?ree +r$i5ts1 s urg5tly recomm5d$ by f]tiliz] manufactur]s because ( _! success 9 ! humid ,ea/]n ,/ates1 is !re=e v poor economy = ! f>m]s ( ! arid region4 ,except+ cases ( v int5se culture1 e4g4 ( vegetables or b]ries1 ! use ( pota% salts is b r>ely remun]ative1 & !re=e uncall$-=1 9 arid soils = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,humus4--,! figures %[n 9 ! table = ! av]age humus-p]c5tages 9 ! soils ( ! two regions d n adequately repres5t ! v important diff]5ces actually exi/+2 p>tly because ( ! inadequate numb] ( det]m9ations made by ! same me?od 7,gr&eau's71 p>tly because ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! composition1 & especially 9 ! nitrog5-cont5t ( ?is sub/ance1 :i* r5d] direct comp>ison delusive4 ,a detail$ discussion ( ! m>k$ diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 ! humus ( arid & humid soils 9 ?is respect has already be5 giv5 7*apt] #h1 p4 #ace72 %[+ t ! high nitrog5-p]c5tage 9 ! arid humus probably comp5sates l>gely ! l[] humus-p]c5tage1 :ile r5d]+ nitrification m rapid1 because ! oxyg5 is n consum$ by ov]:elm+ am\nts ( c>bon & hydrog52 :i*1 z is already kn[n1 take prec$5ce ( nitrog5 9 ! oxidation ( humus sub/ances4 ,nitrates are almo/ always m abundant 9 ! soils ( ! arid region ?an 9 ^? ( ! humid1 sometimes to ! ext5t ( influ5c+ injuri\sly ! quality ( c]ta9 crops1 su* z tobacco & sug> beets4 ,nev]!less1 nitrog5 is ord9>ily1 9 ! arid region1 ! sub/ance requir+ replacem5t next to phosphoric acid4 ,& :5 consid]$ 9 connection ) ! small humus-cont5t1 s liable to burn+-out1 ?is places gre5-manur+ ) legum9\s plants among ! fir/ & mo/ vital improvem5ts to be employ$ !re4 ,! ,transition 7semi-humid or semi-arid7 ,region4--,! slop+ pla9s c\ntry ly+ betwe5 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! ,mississippi1 q arid at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 b ) ra9fall increas+ m or less regul>ly to ea/w>d1 =m a transition-belt betwe5 ! arid & humid region ( :i* b a small portion has be5 sy/ematically /udi$ 9 respect to its soil =mations4 ,! analyses made ( soils ( ! two adjac5t /ates ( ,m9nesota & ,nor? ,dakota1 h be5 plac$ 9 ! g5]al table 7p4 #cgg7 to %[ h[ f> 9 _! g5]al relations _! soils correspond to ! g5]alizations d$uc$ f ! comp>ison ( ! decid$ly arid & humid soil areas *iefly repres5t$ 9 ! table4 ,al?\gh x has n be5 possible1 = lack ( detail$ data1 to elim9ate ! soils orig9at+ f calc>e\s =mations1 x w be se5 t ^? ( semi-arid ,dakota diff] f ^? ( m humid ,m9nesota1 almo/ ?r\gh\t1 z w\ld be anticipat$ f ! /udies ( ! extremes1 giv5 9 ?is *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,soils ,,( ,,arid ,,& ,,humid ,,regions 7,cont9u$74 ,,soils ,,( ,,! ,,tropics4 ,)9 ! ord9>y limits ( atmosph]ic temp]atures1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( adequate moi/ure1 *emical processes active 9 soil-=mation are int5sifi$ by high & ret>d$ by l[ temp]atures1 all o!r conditions be+ equal4 ,we c usually artificially imitate1 & produce 9 a %ort "t by ! application ( relatively high temp]atures1 mo/ ( ! *emical *anges t naturally occur 9 soil-=mation4 ,:ile x is true t ! *anges ( temp]ature are ne>ly z great 9 ! tropical z 9 ! temp]ate climates1 ^! *anges all occur at a high] level & )9 ! limits favor+ bact]ial & fung\s action4 ,?is be+ true we %\ld expect t ! soils ( tropical regions %\ld1 broadly speak+1 be m highly decompos$ ?an ^? ( ! temp]ate & frigid zones1 & t ! int5sifi$ processes cont9ue curr5tly4 ,?is fact has n be5 z fully v]ifi$ z might be desirable1 by ! direct comp>ative *emical exam9ation ( correspond+ soils f ! sev]al regions1 ow+ to ! want ( uni=mity 9 me?ods & ! fewness ( su* inve/igations 9 tropical c\ntries4 ,yet ! incomp>able luxuriance ( ! natural z well z artificial vegetation 9 ! tropics1 & ! long duration ( productiv5ess t favors s greatly ! prov]bial easy-go+ ways & slo?fulness ( ! population ( tropical c\ntries1 (f]s at lea/ presumptive evid5ce ( ! practical correctness ( ?is induction4 ,9 o!r words1 ! fall[+ action1 :i* 9 temp]ate regions takes place ) comp>ative sl[ness1 necessitat+ ! e>ly use ( f]tiliz]s on an ext5sive scale1 is mu* m rapid & effective 9 ! hot climates ( ! equatorial ra9y belt2 ?us r5d]+ curr5tly available s l>ge a proportion ( ! soil's intr9sic /ores ( plant-food1 t ! ne$ ( artificial f]tilization is !re l>gely re/rict$ to ^? soils ( :i* ! p>5t rocks 7 exceptionally defici5t 9 ! m9]al +r$i5ts ( special importance to plants1 t ord9>ily =m ! ess5tial mat]ial ( f]tiliz]s4 ,qu>tzose1 magnesian1 & o!r soils result+ f ! decomposition ( 8simple0 rocks w1 ( necessity1 be poor 9 plant-food ev]y:]e4 ,humus 9 ,tropical soils4--,ano!r inf]5ce f ! climatic conditions ( ! tropics is t ! prop]ly tropical soils are likely to be ri* 9 humus1 z a result ( ! luxuriant vegetation :i* 9 ! decay ( its remnants mu/ leave abundant humic residues4 ,?is seems to be g5]ally v]ifi$ :]ev] ! int]val betwe5 ra9y seasons is n too long2 = o!rwise1 "u ! great & con/ant heat ( ! tropics a rapid burn+-out ( ! humus1 su* z is kn[n to occur 9 ! arid regions1 mu/ also take place4 ,a good example illu/rat+ ! int]-tropical regime z reg>ds humus is giv5 9 ! table 9 *ap4 #h1 p4 #acg1 %[+ ! humus-cont5t ( "s ,hawaiian soils4 ,bo? are ( ! same ord] z 9 ! soils ( ! temp]ate humid region1 ?\gh ! nitrog5-cont5t evid5tly c1 consi/5tly ) productiv5ess1 range l[] ?an has ?us f> be5 obs]v$ 9 temp]ate climates4 ,?is aga9 =ms a /rik+ contra/ ) ! soils ( ! arid regions4 ,x is greatly to be regrett$ t n ev5 approximate det]m9ations ( ! organic matt]1 mu* less ( ! humus-sub/ance prop]1 h be5 made by any ( ^? :o h analyz$ tropical soils2 except+ ^? made ( ,hawaiian soils at ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 ,! 8loss by ignition0 is ( c\rse always v l>gely wat]1 mo/ly ref]able to f]ric hydrate & clay sub/ance1 ! latt] presumably ess5tially 9 ! =m ( kaol9ite4 ,:51 !re=e1 f]ric oxid & alum9a h be5 det]m9$1 we may approximate to ! am\nt ( total organic matt] by mak+ all[ance = f]ric hydrate at ! rate ( ab\t #ad ( ! f]ric oxid1 = kaol9ite at t ( #cd4ib ( ! alum9a f\nd4 ,d$uct+ ^! am\nts ( wat] f ! total 8loss by ignition10 we may obta9 at lea/ an approximate idea ( ! organic matt]1 & ! probable availability ( ! nitrog5 det]m9$ by ! analysis4 ,see *apt] #ai1 p4 #ceg4 ,:ile ! cont9u\s heat & moi/ure ( ! tropics concur t[>d rapid rock decomposition1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! copi\s ra9fall is equally conducive to an int5se lea*+ effect4 ,/rik+ examples ( ?is action occur 9 ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 9 ! highly f]rug9\s soils result+ f ! decomposition ( ! black 7pyrox5ic & hornbl5dic7 lavas t are s *>act]i/ic ( ! volcanic effusions ( t region4 ,! soils =m$ f ^! rocks are sometimes s ri* 9 f]ric hydrate 7iron ru/7 t !y might well s]ve z iron ores else:]e4 ,b ^! soils are v unret5tive1 & ?\gh v productive at fir/ !y are soon exhau/$1 ! abundant ra9s hav+ sometimes depriv$ !m ( almo/ e ve/ige ( lime1 & ( mo/ ( ! pota% conta9$ 9 ! orig9al rock4 ,at ! same "t ! abundant phosphoric acid ( ! orig9al rock has be5 r$uc$ to almo/ total unavailability by comb9ation ) f]ric oxid1 j z 9 ! case ( ! bog ore ( ! temp]ate climates2 s t phosphate f]tilization is urg5tly ne$$ 9 ^! l&s1 ?\gh %[+ high p]c5tage ( phosphoric acid4 7,*ap4 #ai1 p4 #cef47 ,soils highly color$ by f]ric hydrate occur r frequ5tly 9 ! tropics1 & h receiv$ ! g5]al "n ( 8lat]ite0 soils4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! int5se r$di% t9t mo/ly %[n 9 ^! soils1 & :i* is emphasiz$ 9 ! 8t]ra roxa0 ( ! ,brazilians1 & ! g5]al 8r$0 aspect ( ,madagasc>1 & ( ! ,malab> & ,b5gal coa/s1 is by no means always accompani$ by m>k$ly high p]c5tages ( iron oxid2 b ! latt] is v f9ely diffus$1 s z to be v effective 9 coloration4 ,! plant-food p]c5tages ( tropical soils are g5]ally q l[1 s t 9 ! temp]ate humid regions su* l&s w\ld be adjudg$ to be r poor4 ,yet !y mo/ly prove q productive & la/+1 ev5 )\t f]tilization4 ,?is is d\btless to be expla9$ by ! cont9u\s & rapid rock & soil-decomposition :i* goes on "u tropical climatic conditions1 already allud$ to2 s z to supply en\gh available plant-food = ! dem&s ( ea* season's vegetation1 analog\sly to ! prov]bial 8nimble p5ny40 ,?is is supplem5t$ also by ! rapid decay & lea*+-out ( ! a% +r$i5ts ( ! rapidly decay+ & dy+ vegetation4 ,nitrification mu/ likewise1 ( c\rse1 be v active "u ! cont9ual heat & moi/ure1 & ! humus =m$ "u ^! circum/ances is likely to be q poor 9 nitrog54 ,on ?is latt] po9t1 h[ev]1 def9ite data are almo/ :olly want+4 ,inve/igations ( ,tropical ,soils4--,! mo/ ext5d$ *emical inve/igations ( prop]ly tropical soils h be5 made by ,wohltmann 9 8 inve/igations ( ! soils ( ,india1 ,g]man ,s\?we/ & ,s\!a/ ,africa1 & ,samoa2#aej & by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux ( soils collect$ "u ,gov]nm5t auspices 9 ,madagasc>4 ,lea!r1 ,bamb] & ,mann h also analyz$ a l>ge numb] ( soils ( ,india4 ,b we f9d 9 _m ( ^! cases a failure to specify di/9ctly ! local climatic conditions1 & ev5 ! dep? to :i* ! samples h be5 tak52 s t ! inve/igator is oblig$ to exam9e labori\sly ! local climates1 & especially ! am\nt & di/ribution ( ra9fall1 be=e be+ enabl$ to discuss intellig5tly ! data giv54 ,ev5 ,wohltmann1 9 8 discussion ( ,nor? ,african & ,sah>an soils1 classes ^! di/9ctly arid types among ! tropical ones4 #aej ,samoa ,erkundung1 by ,f4 ,wohltmann1 ,kolonial-,wir?s*4 ,komitee1 ,b]l91 #aijd4 ,aga91 ! dry seasons int]v5+ betwe5 ! tropical ra9s1 v>y+ 9 l5g? & f locality to locality1 obscure some:at ! relations ( ! soils to ! climatic conditions4 ,"u ! lee ( m\nta9s1 ev5 ( slight altitude1 we f9d x]ophytic 7arid-l&7 vegetation1 z has be5 not$ by _m obs]v]s 9 ,brazil1 ev5 ne> ! ,amazon2 9 ,hawaii1 9 ,jamaica1 & 9 ,madagasc>4 ,unless1 !re=e1 a close discrim9ation is ex]cis$ by field obs]v]s1 _m contradictory results w appe> 9 analyses ( soils ( int]-tropical c\ntries4 ,?is is naturally ! case 9 ,india1 :]e ! topographic surface con=mation & seasonal climatic conditions are s complicat$ & contra/$4 ,on ! :ole1 ! results obta9$ 9 ,samoa1 ,kam]un & ,madagasc> seem1 ( ^? available1 to be ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( true tropical conditions4 ,9 comp>+ ^! ) ! soils ( l[ plant-food p]c5tages 9 ! temp]ate humid region 7see *apt] #ai1 p4 #ceb71 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ^? m5tion$ z be+ productive are s by virtue ( great dep? & relatively high proportions ( lime2 :ile 9 ! tropics1 ! int5se lea*+ process prev5ts lime f rea*+ any high absolute or relative p]c5tages1 save :]e lime/one =mations prevail4 ,moreov]1 ! mode ( prep>ation ( ! soil extracts = analysis by ,wohltmann1 & by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 diff] s widely f t =m+ ! basis ( discussion ( soil-composition 9 ?is volume1 t x becomes necess>y to make sep>ate all[ances 9 ea* case2 s9ce "s ( ! +r$i5ts1 phosphoric acid1 lime & magnesia1 are fully dissolv$ by ! weak] treatm5ts1 :ile o!rs1--e4 g41 pota%--are n1 & are !re=e n directly comp>able ) ! data obta9$ 9 ! writ]'s "w4 ,! analyses made 9 ,india by ,lea!r & o!rs h app>5tly be5 made sub/antially 9 accordance ) ! au?or's me?ods & may be consid]$ directly comp>able4 ,,soils ,,( ,,samoa ,,& ,,kam]un4 ,wohltmann has inve/igat$ ! soils ( ,samoa1 notably ^? ( ! ma9 isl& ( ,upolu1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,g]man 8,kolonial-,wir?s*aftli*e ,komitee0 9 #aijc1 & gives ! results ( 8 obs]vations & analyses 9 a report publi%$ at ,b]l9 9 #aijd4 ,! analyses are q num]\s1 b un=tunately are made by a special me?od :i* r5d]s !m only p>tly comp>able ) ^? ( any o!r analy/4 ,wohltmann's me?od is ?is3 8#dej grams ( f9e e>? 7bel[ #b millimet]s diamet]7 is treat$ = #dh h\rs ) #a lit]s ( cold *lorhydric acid ( #a4ae d5sity4 ,ano!r portion1 design$ = a full] det]m9ation ( pota%1 is treat$ = "o h\r ) ! same acid1 boil+ hot4 ,pota% 0 det]m9$ 9 bo? soil extracts2 ! hot extract gave f "o-?ird to twice ! am\nt obta9$ 9 ! cold extraction40#aea ,wohltmann ju/ifies ?is me?od by ! /atem5t t x has yield$ him results m ne>ly 9 accord ) exp]i5ce ?an any o!r tri$1 bo? ) tropical & ,european soils4 ,"u ^! conditions only a few ( ! det]m9ations 9 ,wohltmann's analyses are directly comp>able ) ^? ^u :i* ! discussions 9 ?is volume h be5 bas$4 ,! figures = nitrog5 & phosphoric acid may be assum$ to be fully comp>able2 t ( lime w 9 g5]al repres5t fully only t :i* is pres5t 9 ! =ms ( c>bonate1 sulfate & humate1 & a "p ( t exi/+ 9 zeolitic or hydr\s silicate =m4 ,( ! two pota% det]m9ations only ! "o made 9 hot extraction w be ev5 remotely comp>able1 be+ probably at lea/ #cj l[] ?an w\ld h be5 obta9$ by ! writ]'s me?od4 #aea ,wohltmann /ates t ! hot extraction sometimes yield$ z mu* z five times m ?an ! cold2 b no su* case appe>s 9 8 reports on ,samoa & ,kam]un4 ,ev5 ?us1 h[ev]1 ,wohltmann's results are highly in/ructive4 ,he gives ! foll[+ summ>y ( 8 mode ( int]pret+ su* analyses3 ,v ri*4 ,good4 ,inadequate4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,pota% 4#b 4#a 4#je ,lime & ,magnesia #a4j 4#d 4#jg ,phosphoric acid 4#b 4#a 4#jf ,nitrog5 4#b 4#a 4#je ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,x w be obs]v$ t ! figures ( ?is table diff] mat]ially only 9 ! matt] ( pota% f ^? giv5 9 *apt] #ai1 p4 #ced2 = ! latt] sub/ance !y w\ld h to be multipli$ by f #b to #d1 accord+ to ! lime-cont5t & o!r conditions4 ,) ?is und]/&+ a numb] ( ,wohltmann's analyses ( soils f ,samoa & ,kam]un are giv5 bel[1 ! pota% det]m9ations made ) hot acid be+ plac$ 9 p>5!ses aft] ! o!r4 ,soils ( ,samoan ,isl&s4--,a discussion ( ^! analyses %[s1 f ! writ]'s po9t ( view1 a v l[ cont5t ( pota% & lime1 ) ! peculi>ity t bo? are some:at high] at ! dep? ( a met] ?an 9 ! surface t5-in*es4 ,?is is probably to be acc\nt$ = f ! v high cont5t ( organic matt] 7humus71 :i* is app>5t f ! high 8loss by ignition10 a v l>ge proportion ( :i* mu/ be cr$it$ to ! burn+ ( ! organic matt]4 ,t ?is humus rea*es to ! l[e/ dep?s exam9$1 is cle> f ! nitrog5-cont5t giv5 = ^! samples4 ,wohltmann1 ^: e/imate ( ^! soils agrees 9 mo/ respects ) ! writ]'s1 attribut$ to !m a v satisfactory nitrog5-cont5t4 ,?is w\ld be true ( ! total2 b z he has n det]m9$ ei!r ! true humus or its nitrog5-cont5t1 x rema9s unc]ta9 :e!r or n a suffici5cy is 9 an available =m1 & :e!r _! case may n be l t ( ! ,hawaiian soil m5tion$ above 7*apt] #ai1 p4 #cfb71 9 :i* despite #aj ( humus & 4#ag ( nitrog51 ! l& 0 f\nd to be nitrog5-hungry4 ,aga91 z reg>ds ! phosphoric acid1 :i* ,wohltmann consid]s satisfactory to high1 x is que/ionable to :at ext5t x is r5d]$ unavailable by ! v high cont5t ( f]ric hydrate4 ,we are ?us left 9 "s unc]ta9ty z to ! real manurial requirem5ts ( ! ,samoan soils1 :i* d\btless repres5t v closely also ^? ( ,tutuila1 ! *ief ,am]ican isl& ( ! gr\p4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,tropical ,,soils ,,by ,f4 ,,wohltmann4 ,extraction ) cold *lorhydric acid1 sp4 g4 #a4ae1 = #dh h\rs4 7,a7 ,tuanaimato4 ,virg9 ,=e/ ,soil1 n giv54 7,b7 ,le ,utu ,sao ,vaa ,cultivat$ ,soil4 7,c7 #j--be cm4 7#aj ins47 7,d7 #ge--ajj cm4 7#cj--dj ins47 ,,samoan ,,isl&s4 ,,upolu4 ,,savaii4 7,a7 7,b7 ,cle>$ ,l&4 ,dep?4 7,c7 7,d7 7,c7 7,d7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pota%#aeb 4#je 4#jdh 4#jbb 4#jfc 4#jcf 74#jg7 74#jgg7 74#jdc7 74#ajb7 74#jdc7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,lime 4#jg 4#aac 4#jcc 4#jdb 4#jbc ,magnesia 4#cg 4#bhe 4#add 4#jfg 4#jgd ,f]ric ,oxid #ba4ec #ag4fjj #ai4fec #ae4ccc #ah4gcc ,alum9a #ab4dj #i4fba #aa4bag #ah4ida #af4dac ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,silica 4#ii #b4jdc #b4hec 4#cff #a4bej ,titanic ,acid ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,phosphoric ,acid 4#cj 4#agi 4#bac #bi4jif 4#ahg ,org4 ,matt] & ,wat] #ah4diaecag4bhh #ab4ggj #bi4adf #af4ccb ,nitrog5 9 ,soil 4#cj 4#ddg 4#ahf 4#fig 4#abh ,hygr4 ,moi/ure #f4hj #ae4jfb #ac4bdb #ae4bhh #ab4hfb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,kam]un4 ,,isongo4 ,,mundame ,,ii4 ,dep?4 7,c7 7,d7 7,c7 7,d7 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,pota%#aed 4#jig 4#ajd 4#jgf 4#aaj 74#aja7 74#afc7 74#abc7 74#afh7 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,lime 4#aic 4#aed 4#aej 4#abe ,magnesia 4#bhc #a4dae 4#aih 4#jii ,f]ric ,oxid #g4cje #g4dig #ac4ibj #aa4gjg ,alum9a #ad4bih #ad4ejd #e4bbc #e4eca ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,silica 4#jdg 4#ajh 4#bbg 4#abj ,titanic ,acid ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,phosphoric ,acid 4#jfd 4#bbd 4#aca 4#bje ,org4 ,matt] & ,wat] #bc4cce #ab4bii #aj4aed #i4edi ,nitrog5 9 ,soil 4#ahg 4#jgi 4#afd 4#ajc ,hygr4 ,moi/ure #bj4jfe #ae4cbi #ad4haa #af4dih ---------------------------------------- ------------- #aeb ,! numb]s 9 brackets are det]m9ations made aft] boil+ ) acid = "o h\r4 #aec ,soil air-dry4 #aed ,! numb]s 9 brackets are det]m9ations made aft] boil+ ) acid = "o h\r4 ,x is probable t = crops requir+ s mu* pota% z d ! banana & cacao trees1 pota% is ! fir/ ne$ :5 !y cease to produce well on ^! soils4 ,soils ( ,kam]un4--,9 ! soils ( ,kam]un1 also analyz$ by ,wohltmann1 & ( :i* two are plac$ alongside ( ^? ( ,samoa1 x is at once se5 t ! mat]ials f :i* !y h be5 =m$ are ri*] 9 bo? pota% & lime ?an ! p>5t rocks ( ! ,samoan1 & n q s ri* 9 iron4 ,!y are also v ri* 9 organic matt]1 evid5tly d[n to ! dep? ( a met]1 z are ^? ( ,samoa4 ,x is probably due to ! high humus-cont5t t ^! soils1 wa%$ z !y h be5 by ! second-highe/ ra9fall 9 ! _w 7ab\t #ce feet annually7 h n be5 z ?or\ghly lea*$ z h be5 ^? ( ! ,brahmaputra valley4 ,! annual ra9fall ( ,samoa is only f n9e to elev5 feet on ! l[] levels1 b ranges z high z #ah feet at high] elevations4 ,x is noticeable t 9 mo/ ( ^! true tropical soils ! cont5t ( magnesia is consid]ably above t ( lime2 a fact readily intelligible f ! m ready solubility ( lime 9 c>bonat$ wat]4 ,x is h>dly d\btful t ?is disproportion w 9 _m cases expla9 a lack ( ?rift9ess1 :i* c\ld be effectually rem$i$ by a simple application ( lime or m>l1 )\t resort+ to ! m co/ly f]tiliz]s4 ,,! ,,soils ,,( ,,madagasc>4 ,! soils ( ! isl& ( ,madagasc> h be5 analyz$ to ! numb] ( ab\t #ejj by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t4#aee ,s l>ge a numb] ( analyses %\ld give a v full und]/&+ ( ! agricultural capacity & adaptation ( s comp>atively limit$ an area2 un=tunately1 we are "h aga9 confront$ by m or less imp]fect data accompany+ ! samples collect$ by gov]nm5t ag5ts1 & by ! use ( an analytical me?od diff]5t f ^? ( all o!r nations1 & h5ce incomm5surable except1 z 9 ! case ( ,wohltmann's me?od1 9 reg>d to c]ta9 +r$i5ts4 #aee ,annales de la ,sci5ce ,agronomique1 tome #a;er1 #aija1 fasicules #a1 #b1 #c4 ,! ,fr5* *emi/s use nitric in/ead ( *lorhydric acid2 cold = phosphoric acid & lime1 boil+-hot = five h\rs = pota%2 consid]+ ! rema9d] z ( no practical importance4 ,s9ce nitric acid is 9 g5]al mu* less incisive ?an *lorhydric 9 its solv5t p[]1 comp>ison ) ! analyses made by o!r nations becomes difficult4 ,z 9 ! case ( ,wohltmann1 magnesia1 lime1 & phosphoric acid may be consid]$ to be q ?or\ghly extract$ by ! treatm5t2 :ile extraction ( possibly available pota% is d\btless v incomplete4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 ! e/imates ( soil-f]tility bas$ on p]c5tages is v ne>ly ! same z ^? assign$ by ,wohltmann 9 ! table giv5 above4 ,l ,wohltmann1 !y emphasize ! axiom t ! same p]c5tage-gauge ( f]tility _c be appli$ 9 ! tropics z 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,g5]al ,"* ( ! ,isl&4--,! isl& ( ,madagasc>1 ly+ betwe5 ! #aa? & #be? degrees ( s\? latitude1 is q m\nta9\s 9 its c5tral & ea/]n portion1 :]e ! coa/ falls (f pretty /eeply into ! sea1 leav+ only a n>r[ coa/ belt ( prop]ly agricultural l& 9 ! l[] valleys & at ! m\? ( ! torr5tial /reams4 ,! m\nta9s rise at "o po9t to ! height ( ne>ly #aj1jjj feet4 ,! we/]n portion ( ! ,isl& is mu* less brok51 has mu* plateau l& ) l[ int]sect+ ranges & /reams ( mod]ate fall1 ) consid]able alluvial l&s ne> ! coa/4 ,! rocks are almo/ ?r\gh\t gneisses & mica-s*i/s1 :i*1 z h]et(ore /at$ 7*apt] #d1 p4 #ea71 =m mo/ly poor soils4 ,!re are a few areas ( eruptive rocks & t]ti>y calc>e\s deposits1 & on ^! ! l&s are mu* m ?rifty4 ,! rocks & r$ soils ( ! c5tral mass1 h[ev]1 ext5d seaw>d almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,! ra9fall is high on ! ea/ side1 :]e ! moi/ure ( ! s\!a/ trade w9ds is fir/ cond5s$1 ! precipitation rea*+ t5 to twelve feet 7#abj to #add in*es7 annually4 ,! we/]n portion is relatively dry1 b ra9s fall m or less ?r\gh\t ! ye>2 :ile 9 ! ea/]n & c5tral m\nta9\s "p !re is a di/9ct subdivision into a wet & a dry season4 ,"h1 :ile ! riv]s are l>gely torr5tial1 _m l>ge f]tile valleys h be5 creat$ by ! heavy d5udation ( ! m\nta9 slopes4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! ,im]9a prov9ce 79 :i* ! capital1 ,tanan>ivo1 is situat$71 & "h ! valley soils are deep1 & ri* 9 humus4 ,! we/]n portion is b ?9ly =e/$4 ,! soils ( mo/ ( ! isl& are 8r$0 ) f]ric hydrate1 resembl+ ! lat]ite soils else:]e2 yet ! iron p]c5tages are n usually v heavy1 rang+ mo/ly f #d to #f1 m r>ely to #aj & m1 ( f]ric oxid4 ,mo/ ( ! r$ soils are clayey1 crack op5 9 summ] & become v h>d 9 dry+4 ,( ! #dgf soils analyz$ by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 #aef are f ! prov9ce ( ,im]9a1 #ef f ! adjac5t prov9ce ( ,betsileo1 !re=e #bab f ! c5tral1 m\nta9\s "p ( ! isl&4 ,! rema9d] are scatt]$ ar\nd ! coa/s2 ! mo/ productive be+ app>5tly ^? ( ! nor!rn end1 ,diego ,su>ez1 :i* is mo/ly und]laid by ! eruptive rocks =m+ ! m\nta9 mass ( ,m\nt ,amb]1 f :i* num]\s f]tile valleys radiate4 ,! valleys ( ! we/ coa/ also1 9 ! prov9ces ( ,b>a1 ,tule> & ,betsiriry1 h "s v productive soils4 ,! subjo9$ table1 giv+ f\rte5 analyses select$ z repres5tative f ! mass ( mat]ial pres5t$ by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 gives a fair g5]al idea ( ! "* ( ! soils ( ! great isl&4 ,x is at once app>5t t lime & pota% are extremely defici5t 9 ! soils ( ! m\nta9 slopes ( c5tral & s\!rn ,madagasc>1 ^! sub/ances hav+1 z else:]e 9 ! humid region1 be5 lea*$ d[n into ! valleys2 & ! mat]ials be+ mo/ly q clayey1 ^! valley soils h n1 z 9 ! case ( ! s&y alluvium ( ! ,brahmaputra1 !mselves be5 aga9 lea*$ ( _! m9]al +r$i5ts4 ,practically ^! valleys seem to =m ! only pr(itably cultivable area ( ! c5tral portion2 :ile along ! l>g] riv] c\rses1 su* z ! ,mangoky1 ,ikopa1 ,mahajamba & o!rs1 good alluvial 8bottoms0 & deltas =m available l&s4 ,x seems to ! writ] t1 9 view ( _! own express$ op9ion t tropical soils are n to be gaug$ on ! same p]c5tage-basis ( soil-+r$i5ts z ^? ( temp]ate regions1 ,mntz & ,r\sseaux r und]e/imate ! productive value ( _m ( ^! l&s2 reg>d+ :i* ! field notes report good production1 & ! crops ( :i* are c]ta9ly n ! fir/ t !y h borne 9 ! c\rse ( ,malagassy hi/ory4 ,x is z ?\gh _! anxiety to =e/all ov]e/imates ( agricultural prospects by int5d+ settl]s1 _h l$ !m to some:at ov]%oot ! m>k4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,madagasc> ,,soils ,,by ,,muntz ,,& ,,r\sseaux4 ,,im]9a4 ,,betsileo ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,c5tral ,,m\nta9 ,,region4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,numb] ( ,soil4 #d--d #aae #ga--d #bgb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,locality ,ambohitr- ,ankazobe ,ambohib-,f&r&ava omby4 ,nor?4 zaka4 ,valley4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,r$ ,soil4 ,o*re\s ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#jbj 4#jjf 4#jga 4#jag ,lime 7,ca,o47 4#cej 4#jfj traces trace ,magnesia 7,mg,o47 4#jbb ,f]ric ,oxid 7,fe,o7 #i4ccc ,phosphoric ,acid 7,p,o7 4#jej 4#jcb 4#jfa 4#bfg ,nitrog5 7,n7 4#jif 4#jbg 4#jcj 4#jbj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,rem>ks ,small ,defici5t 9,no great ,only cultural plant-food cultural mod]ately res\rce4 +r$i5ts4res\rce4 f]tile4 ,may ma9ta9 vegetation on acc\nt ( humidity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,tule>4 ,,ma9tirano4 ,,majunga4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,we/ ,coa/4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,numb] ( ,soil4 #bec #bfa ,no4 #bfg #cdc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,locality ,r4 bank ( ,plateau ( ,village ( ,sakondry ,antsoam5a4 ,anhozorabe nor? ( ,s\? ( ,tongobory ,m&roso4 ,valley4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,s&y ,hill soil4 summit4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#jhf 4#jae 4#jad 4#jab ,lime 7,ca,o47 #d4ahj trace trace trace ,magnesia 7,mg,o47 ,f]ric ,oxid 7,fe,o7 ,phosphoric ,acid 7,p,o7 4#jhc 4#jdc 4#jaa 4#jag ,nitrog5 7,n7 4#jge 4#jea 4#jci 4#jdc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,rem>ks ,potatoes1 ,manioc1 ,rem>kable,grasses1 manioc1 maize1 crops1 tall repres5ts beans1 manioc1 h]bs4 soil ( peanuts1 rice4 :ole coco-trees1 region4 mangoes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,diego ,,su>ez4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,n4 ,,coa/4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,numb] ( ,soil4 #c #cca ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,locality ,anamakia4 ,montagne d',ambre4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,o*r'u ,o*r'u e>?4 e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#afa 4#jca ,lime 7,ca,o47 4#fbj trace ,magnesia 7,mg,o47 ,f]ric ,oxid 7,fe,o7 ,phosphoric ,acid 7,p,o7 4#chj 4#abd ,nitrog5 7,n7 4#abd 4#agg ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,rem>ks ,promises ,crops1 c(fee4 consid]able ,good cultural f]tility4 res\rces4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,&evorante4 ,,ambatondrazaka4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,ea/ ,,coa/4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,numb] ( ,soil4 #ajg #cgj #ha #aje ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,locality ,di/4 ( ,ambaniman- ,im]iman-,sabotsy4 ,vatom&ry4 hov9ana4 droso4 ,ampitamafana ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pla9 valley1 ,valley4 ,alt #ajjj s&y ,m4 soil4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#jfi 4#jab 4#dij 4#jje ,lime 7,ca,o47 4#jgj trace #a4bjj 4#jgj ,magnesia 7,mg,o47 ,f]ric ,oxid 7,fe,o7 ,phosphoric ,acid 7,p,o7 4#jdg 4#afa #a4eff 4#cfi ,nitrog5 7,n7 4#jaf 4#bed 4#bdi 4#afd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,rem>ks ,c(fee1 ,v ,amply ,f]tile vanilla1 f]tile ri* 9 soil fit rice1 c41 soil4 plant food= all ri* r$ suit$ =cultures4 soil4 ,rep4 int5sive :ole cultures4 valley4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,be t z x may1 ! influ5ce ( ! tropical climate & ra9fall ^u ! composition ( ^! soils is c]ta9ly v m>k$4 ,:ile gneiss is n cr$it$ ) produc+ fir/-class soils1 its usual cont5t ( or?oclase feldsp> %\ld at lea/ insure a respectable av]age cont5t ( pota%2 b ?is1 x w be se51 is mo/ly n ! case2 & t ( lime seems ev5 worse1 aside f ! case :]e1 z 9 "s regions ne> ! coa/ 7especially 9 ! we/ & s\?71 calc>e\s =mations1 probably ( t]ti>y age1 h contribut$ to soil-=mation4 ,at "s po9ts !re seem to exi/ phosphate deposits1 well kn[n else:]e to occur 9 su* rocks1 :i* imp>t to ! soils exceptionally high p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid1 ev5 exce$+ "o p] c5t4 ,! phosphates ( c\rse rema9 practically unt\*$ by ! lea*+ processes1 & appe> to be some:at widely diffus$2 s t ! soils ( ,madagasc> may be said to be1 on ! :ole1 well suppli$ ) ?is important plant-food4 ,9 ! c5tral prov9ce ( ,im]9a ! valleys & l[] slopes %[ a fair cont5t ( bo? lime & pota%2 b 9 ! prov9ce ( ,betsileo1 adjo9+ x on ! s\?1 ne>ly e "o ( ! soils analyz$ is report$ z conta9+ only 8traces0 ( lime1 toge!r ) v small am\nts ( pota% 9 mo/ cases4 ,! ultimate analyses ( ignit$ r$ e>?s1 ( :i* an av]age is "h giv51 are ( int]e/ 9 ?is connection4 ,,ultimate ,,analysis ,,( ,,im]9a ,,r$ ,,soils1 ,,ignit$2 ,,av]age ,,( ,,?ree4 ,silica #ee4b ,pota% 4#c ,lime trace ,magnesia #a4a ,f]ric oxid #aj4f ,x is q obvi\s t only lea*+-d[n & conc5tration ( ! feeble res\rces ( su* mat]ial 9 ! valleys c produce soils wor?y ( p]man5t cultivation4 ,"o po9t1 h[ev]1 is /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9 sev]al ( ! analyses giv5 9 ! subjo9$ table4 ,we f9d 9 ! orig9al q a numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! field notes report consid]able f]tility1 :ile ! *emi/s' judgm5t is v unfavorable4 ,?us we f9d record$ = ! soil ,no4 #bfg1 tak5 ne> ! village ( ,anjozorabe1 9 ! ,ma9tirano region1 8luxuriant vegetation & rem>kable crops10 ) su* m9ute proportions ( pota%1 lime & phosphoric acid t ! au?ors are compell$ to say t ! l& (f]s 8no cultural res\rces40 ,! same occurs 9 ! cases ( soils ,nos4 #cgj1 #bfa1 & sev]al o!rs hav+ ei!r 8good crops0 or 8abundant natural vegetation40 ,unless we assume t 9 ^! cases ! samples 7 n prop]ly tak51 we are oblig$ to conclude t "u ! local climatic conditions1 su* m9ute am\nts ( plant-food are develop$ ) suffici5t rapidity to supply good gr[?4 ,?is w\ld be q p>allel to ! case ( ! tea soils ( ,assam1 ^: production la/$ #cj ye>s be=e %[+ exhau/ion1 on plant-food p]c5tages only slightly great] ?an ^? "h not$1 & det]m9$ by a mu* m incisive me?od4 ,x is ?us q obvi\s t a diff]5t /&>d ( int]pretation mu/ be appli$ to tropical soils z comp>$ ) ei!r ! temp]ate humid1 or ! arid regions2 & t uni=m me?ods ( analysis are ne$$ to evolve a def9ite rule f ! pres5t unc]ta9ties4 ,,! ,,soils ,,( ,,india4 ,! soils ( ,india h be5 inve/igat$ to "s ext5t by ! geological survey ( ,india2 by ,voelck]1 :o w5t !re on a special mission to inve/igate agricultural conditions2 & s9ce1 m especially by ,lea!r1 ,bamb] & ,mann2 & by ,morel&4 ,lea!r's acc\nt is ! mo/ complete on ! g5]al subject & c be/ s]ve z ! basis = a review ( ! entire p59sula4#aef #aef ,on ! ,composition ( ,indian ,soils4 ,agr4 ,l$g]1 #ahih1 ,no4 #b4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,lea!r1 8! f\r ma9 types ( soils to be dealt )1 & :i* c]ta9ly occupy by f> ! l>g] ( ! ,indian cultivat$ area10 are3 ,! ,indo-,gangetic alluvium1 cov]+ ! *ief cultivable areas ( ! ,indo-,gangetic pla92 ! black cotton soils or regur1 occupy+ ! ma9 body ( ! plateau ( ! ,c5tral prov9ces 7! ,deccan7 f ! ,v9dhya range s\?2 ! r$ soils ly+ on ! metamorphic rocks ( ,madras2 & ! 8lat]ite0 soils :i* are met ) 9 _m p>ts ( ,india4 ,to ^! %\ld be add$ ! alluvial soils ( ! ,brahmaputra valley1 9 ,assam4 ,x is h>dly to be expect$ t s l>ge an area z t ( ,india1 ) its div]sifi$ topography1 & a climate rang+ f ab\t f\r in*es ( ra9fall 9 ! nor!rn ,panjab to ! _w's maximum 9 ,assam1 & s\?w>d to typical tropical conditions1 c\ld be ev5 ?us briefly *>act]iz$4 ,! obs]v]s h r>ely giv5 = ! sev]al soils analyz$1 special local & climatic data1 :i* _c always be obta9$ f ! (ficial publications2 s t x is n easy to discuss !m f ! po9ts ( view ( aridity & humidity4 ,! ,indo-,gangetic ,pla94--,! g5]al ra9-map ( ,india %[s ! ,panjab & ,rajputana to be arid ?r\gh\t2 !nce ea/w>d ! ra9fall increases to #be & #cj in*es on ! ,ganges2 not)/&+ :i*1 alkali 7reh7 is abundant ab\t ,alig>h1 ,me]ut & ,agra4 ,!nce t[>d ,calcutta !re is a /eady increase ( ra9fall until1 at ! head ( ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 #gj in*es is rea*$4 ,if "u ^! conditions ! ,indo-,gangetic pla9 admits ( any g5]alizations z reg>ds soil composition1 x mu/ be attribut$ 9 ! ma9 to its pr$om9antly alluvial "*4 ,x %\ld !re=e be relatively ri* 9 lime1 magnesia & pota%4 ,s f> z ! fir/ is conc]n$1 ,lea!r rem>ks t ! only rocky p>ticles l>g] ?an s& to be f\nd 9 all ?is l>ge belt ( l& is ! nodul> lime/one call$ kank>1 =m$ by ! deposition ( calcium c>bonate )9 ! soil1 at ! dep? ( a few feet4 ,x occurs v g5]ally 9 ,india1 & z /at$ above 7*apt]s #i & #ai71 ?is occurr5ce ( calc>e\s h>dpan1 ( v>y+ h>dness1 is almo/ univ]sal 9 ! arid regions4 ,! analysis giv5 9 ! table1 select$ z repres5tative f ^? giv5 by ,lea!r1 %[ t ! g5]al =eca/ is realiz$ 9 !m1 z soils ( an arid region4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,soils ,,( ,,india4 ,,nor!rn ,,india4 ,indo-,gangetic ,alluvium4 -------------------------------- ,panjab4 ,l[] ,ganges4 ------------------------------ ,sot> ,*anga ,ison1 ,sibpur1 ,valley4,manga4 ,ganges1,calcutta ,clay ,loamy ,doab4 ,clay ,loam4 soils4 ,s&y soils4 #aeg ,loams4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,insoluble matt] #ha4eg #ha4ed #hh4jh #gc4eh ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gd 4#ed 4#fd ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jh 4#be 4#ji #a4hb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4dd 4#ih 4#dg #a4ja ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4ig #a4gb 4#cb #a4fd ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#aa #g4ai ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #d4cb #e4aa #c4aj #g4eh ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4he #d4cf #d4ch #i4hi ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#bc 4#ad 4#jh 4#jg ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 8 4#jb 4#je 4#jj ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #a4ac 4#de 4#cg 4#bh ,wat] & org4 matt] #b4fg #d4gh #b4db #e4ic ------------------------------ ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,nitrog5 4#jb 4#jhb 4#jbg 4#jea ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,brahmaputra ,alluvium4 --------------------------------------- ,assam4#aeh ------------------------------------ ,fezpur ,lakhimpur,golaghat4 ,sipsag> bank4 ,new ,nigril+4 ,teela ,old ,alluvium4 ,new l&4 ,alluvium4 ,alluvium4 ,new ,alluvium ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,insoluble matt] #he4ah #hd4fj #he4hh #ia4eb ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ce 4#bd 4#bf 4#ad ,soda 7,na,o7 4#cj 4#ab 4#bc 4#af ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#jd 4#aa 4#jc 4#jf ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#df 4#cc 4#cf 4#bj ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #b4jh #b4gh #b4gd #a4eb ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4jc #e4fc #e4aj #c4cj ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#je 4#jf 4#jf 4#jf ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 ,wat] & org4 matt] #e4ei #f4aa #e4cb 4#ah ------------------------------------ ,total ,nitrog5 4#ad 4#bj 4#ah 4#jh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,lat]ite ,soils4 ------------------------------- ,b5gal4 ----------------------------- ,loh>daga4 ,*ota ,haz>ibagh ,nagpur4 ,di/rict4 ,s+hbhum ,di/rict4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,insoluble matt] #bi4fg #ei4jf #hj4df ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#aj 4#bg 4#ch ,soda 7,na,o7 4#jd 4#cb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#ch 4#bh #a4gb ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ba 4#cc 4#ch ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jg 4#dh 4#ej ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #dh4ga #bf4fd #f4ab ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #h4ha #g4bg #g4ai ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#fd 4#jh ,trace4 ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 ,trace4 ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 4#jf 4#af 4#ab ,wat] & org4 matt] #aa4ca #e4dc #b4ha ----------------------------- ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,nitrog5 4#jaj 4#jbd 4#jc ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #aeg ,analysis by ,voelck]4 #aeh ,analyses by ,mann4 ,,s\!rn ,,india4 ,madras ,presid5cy4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,lat]ite ,upl&4 ,soil4 ,r$ ,soils4 ------------------------------ ,sidapet4 ,madura4 ,tri*9opoli4 ,d9digal4 ,p>ambalur4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,insoluble matt] #gf4hf #ij4dg #hf4gd ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#ji 4#bd 4#je ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ag 4#ab 4#ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,lime 7,ca,o7 ,trace4 4#ef 4#dh ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#gg 4#gj 4#gj ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ai 4#jh 4#aj ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #aj4ji #c4ea #e4gj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #h4hd #b4ib #e4fh ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 ,trace4 4#ji 4#je ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 4#ab 4#cj 4#aa ,wat] & org4 matt] #b4hg #a4ja 4#bd ------------------------------ ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,nitrog5 4#jae 4#jjf 4#jba ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,madras ,presid5cy4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,alluvium4 ,regur4 ,av]ages4 ----------------------------------- ,loamy ,s&y ,regur4 ,tri*9- ,ki/9a ,soils4,soils4 ,avg4 opoli4 #ah ,p>ambalur,n>sa- ,soils4 ,taluk4 opet4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,insoluble matt] #ga4gi #ic4ji #fh4da #fe4af #fh4bi ,soluble silica ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#bb 4#jd 4#da 4#ad #a4ad ,soda 7,na,o7 4#ag 4#jg 4#ca 4#ja #a4cj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,lime 7,ca,o7 4#ed 4#ac #b4ij #b4ah #c4dc ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4bi 4#cc #b4bg #b4dg #a4id ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ac 4#jd 4#ag 4#be 4#ji ,p]oxid ( iron 7,fe,o7 #i4ei #b4df #g4ac #i4bg #f4if ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #i4ih #a4gd #aj4ad #ac4gf #aj4bh ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#aa 4#je 4#jf ,trace4 4#jj ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 ,trace4 ,trace4 ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 4#ji 4#aa #a4fb 4#ia #a4hh ,wat] & org4 matt] #f4ji #a4id #f4eh #e4he #c4if ----------------------------------- ,total #ajj4jjajj4jjajj4jj #ajj4jj #ii4bg ,nitrog5 4#jcg 4#jae 4#jc 4#jbd 4#jab ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! ,brahmaputra ,alluvium 9 ,assam4--,aside f ! imm$iate alluvium ( ! ,indus1 ( :i* no def9ite data are available1 ! ,indo-,gangetic pla9 repres5ts ! dra9age ( ! s\!rn slope ( ! ,himalaya *a94 ,t ( mo/ ( ! nor!rn slope is repres5t$ by ! ,brahmaputra1 :i* n only orig9ates 9 a region ( heavy precipitation--,?ibet--b cont9ues 9 ! same ?r\gh\t its c\rse1 & r\nd+ ! ea/]nmo/ spur ( ! ,himalaya range ent]s1 9 s\!rn ,assam1 ^u ! region ( ! maximum ra9fall kn[n4 ,its alluvial deposits %\ld !re=e %[ ! rev]se *>act]i/ics ( ^? ( ! ,ganges2 !y %\ld1 z ?or\ghly lea*$ soils1 be poor 9 lime1 magnesia & pota%4 ,we h =tunately on ?is subject ! excell5t "w done by ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,mann = ! ,indian ,tea ,association1 ! report ( :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #aija1 & conta9s1 besides a l>ge numb] ( analyses1 good descriptions ( ! g5]al soil & cultural conditions ( ! ,assam tea di/ricts1 ) sugge/ions = _! improvem5t4 ,! tea plantations ( ,assam are locat$ almo/ :olly on ! new & old alluvium ( ! ,brahmaputra riv]1 bord]$ on ! nor? by ! ea/]n spur ( ! ,himalayas1 on ! s\? by ! l[ ranges ( ! ,khasia hills4 ,! soil is mo/ly q s&y1 ! late alluvium gray 9 color1 ! old] r$di% & m loamy4 ,( ! f\r analyses giv5 9 ! table & fairly repres5t+ ! av]age "* ( ^! soils1 ! two fir/ are f ! nor? side1 ! latt] two f ! s\? side ( ! riv]4 ,x w be not$ t ! prom95t feature ( all ^! soils is an extremely l[ p]c5tage ( lime1 ! g5]al av]age be+ ab\t 4#jh z aga9/ ne>ly #a4j 9 ! av]age ,indo-,gangetic soils4 ,9 ! latt]1 pota% ranges betwe5 4#fe & 4#gj2 9 ! ,assam soils betwe5 4#be & 4#ce4 ,magnesia av]ages ne>ly #a4c 9 ! ,indo-,gangetic1 aga9/ ab\t 4#ej 9 ! ,assam tea soils4 ,x is ?us app>5t t ! same g5]al facts z reg>ds ! lea*+-out ( soil +r$i5ts already %[n = ea/]n & we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica are /rik+ly v]ifi$ 9 nor!rn ,india2 b rev]s$ z reg>ds ! po9ts ( ! compass4 ,! pref]5tial lea*+-out ( lime z comp>$ ) magnesia & pota%1 is "h aga9 well exemplifi$4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to h an analysis ( ! ,brahmaputra wat] to comp>e ) t ( ! ,ganges4 ,t tea %\ld fl\ri% = tw5ty to ?irty ye>s 9 su* soils1 is a good indication ( "o cause at lea/ ( ! total failure ( tea culture 9 ,cali=nia1 :]e tea plants are difficult to ma9ta9 alive1 & aft] #be ye>s =m r\nd$1 scrubby bu%es n ov] f\r feet high4 ,simil> failures ( tea on calc>e\s soils are on record f ,india4 ,! l[ lime-cont5t ( ! ,assam soils1 !n1 does n necess>ily imply t ^! soils %\ld be lim$ to ma9ta9 tea production4 ,accord+ to ,mann1 ! ma9 defici5cy is 9 nitrog51 z ! figures imply2 b :e!r 8 recomm5dation ( gre5-manur+ ) legum9\s crops to increase ! nitrog5-supply is practicable )\t fir/ supply+ m lime to ! ,assam soils1 is que/ionable4 ,s9ce phosphoric acid is also l[1 8 recomm5dation to use freely ! basic or ,?omas slag is d\btless a good "o1 s9ce lime w\ld ?us also be mod]ately increas$4 ,bamb] gives a numb] ( analyses ( tea soils f l[ gr\nd 9 ,assam1 :i* are v ri* 9 vegetable matt] & q acid4 ,l ^? report$ by ,lea!r1 ^! 8bhil0 soils are v poor 9 lime & nitrog51 b fairly suppli$ ) pota% & phosphoric acid4 ,! ,regur or ,black ,cotton ,soils ( ,s\!rn ,india4--,! second-greate/ reasonably uni=m soil-area ( ,india is t cov]$ by ! regur1 or black cotton soils1 9 s\? c5tral ,india1 notably ! ,deccan1 :]e ^! soils are said to h be5 cultivat$ )\t f]tilization = #bjjj ye>s & are /ill fairly productive4#aei ,bo? 9 _! physical "*1 *emical composition1 & cultural *>act]i/ics1 ^! regur soils are v simil> to ! 8prairie soils0 ( ! ,cotton /ates & especially to ! 8black adobe0 ( ,cali=nia4 ,l ! latt] !y are ( unusual dep? )\t *ange ( t9t2 !y crack wide op5 dur+ ! dry season on acc\nt ( _! high clay cont5t2 & ! soil is ?us p>tly inv]t$ by ! surface soil fall+ into ! cracks4 ,to ! latt] fact ,lea!r ascribes1 9 "p1 ! long duration ( f]tility 9 ! regur l&s4 ,! regur also conta9s fragm5ts ( calc>e\s h>dpan 7"h call$ guv>ayi71 j z 9 ! ,great ,valley ( ,cali=nia4 ,! eighte5 analyses ( regur giv5 by ,lea!r agree s ne>ly 9 _! ess5tial po9ts t x is admissible to av]age !m2 two o!r examples are h[ev] also giv5 9 ! table4 #aei ,t is to say1 !y n[ produce ab\t #fjj p\nds1 or #aj bu%els ( :eat p] acre1 z d ! ,ro?am/ead soils aft] fifty ye>s' exhau/ive cultivation4 ,probably bo? h come d[n to ! p]man5t level ( production correspond+ to ! am\nt ( plant-food made curr5tly available ea* ye> by ! fall[+ process 9 orig9ally v ri* soils4 ,! pres5t product ( cotton on ! regur l&s does n seem to be on record2 judg+ by ! :eat product x %\ld n be ov] "o hundr$ p\nds ( l9t p] acre4 ,x w be not$ t :ile ! cont5ts ( lime1 magnesia & alum9a are uni=mly high1 ! cont5t ( pota% has a wide range2 x rises v high 7#a4ad7 9 ! maximum1 :ile ! av]age is fair4 ,"o conspicu\s defect ( ^! soils is _! extremely l[ cont5t ( nitrog51 9 view ( :i* _! la/+ productiv5ess is difficult to und]/&2 unless x be t1 z 9 ,cali=nia1 _! high lime-cont5t causes a copi\s crop ( legum9\s we$s1 con/antly replac+ ! nitrog5 supply4#afj ,un=tunately we h no det]m9ations ( humus or ( its nitrog5-cont5t4 ,lea!r attributes ! black color ( ! regur to "s m9]al sub/ance r ?an to humus2 b 8 argum5ts are n q conv9c+1 s long z ! ,gr&eau te/ has n be5 made4 ,9 view ( ! l[ ra9fall & ! clos5ess ( ! texture ( regur1 x is probable t little if any nitrates are curr5tly wa%$ out ( ! black cotton l&s4 #afj ,see ,voelck]1 ,report on ! ,improvem5t ( ,indian ,agriculture1 #ahib1 p4 #df1 p>4 #fj4 ,! regur soil-%eet seems to be und]laid ov] ! great] "p ( its area by a basaltic eruptive %eet 7n by metamorphic rocks1 z /at$ by ,lea!r71 & x is n easy to conceive h[ su* a soil /ratum c h be5 =m$ f su* rocks z a s$5t>y =mation4 ,else:]e su* soils are usually r light & por\s1 z is ! case 9 ! ,hawaiian & ,samoan isl&s2 & v high 9 iron-cont5t4 ,! regur has ! "* ( an alluvial backwat] or lake deposit2 b h[ su* a =mation c h occurr$ on ! ,deccan plateau1 is a "q n easily answ]$4 ,r$ ,soils ( ! ,madras ,region4--,int]sp]s$ ) & to seaw>d ( ! regur l&s !re are 9 ! ,madras presid5cy consid]able bodies ( 8r$0 l&s1 :i* appe> to be s$5t>y soils =m$ f und]ly+ d>k-color$1 mo/ly eruptive rocks4 ,"s ( ^! are v ri* 9 lime & pota%1 o!rs v poor1 & x seems impossible to classify !m "u any def9ite category ei!r f ! *emical or physical po9t ( view1 except z to _! r$ t9t4 ,ev5 ?is t9t1 h[ev]1 is n always f\nd associat$ ) exceptionally high cont5ts ( iron oxid1 b due r to its f9e diffusion 9 ! soil mass4 ,z comp>$ ) ! regur1 ) :i* ! 8r$ 0 areas are int]sp]s$1 ^! soils conta91 on ! av]age1 less lime1 pota% & f]ric oxid2 & phosphoric acid is uni=mly l[4 ,! alluvial 7br[n & black7 soils f ! same region1 exemplifi$ 9 ! table1 are d\btless d]iv$ p>tly f ! regur1 & _! color & composition v>ies accord+ly4 8,lat]ite ,soils40--,^! are def9$ by ,wohltmann 7,tropis*e ,agricultur1 #ahib7 z be+ 8! *>act]i/ic s$5t>y soils 7,v]witt]ungsbd57 ( ! tropics1 =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( heavy precipitation1 high temp]atures & dr\ght40 ,?is def9ition does n indicate _! d]ivation f any p>ticul> rock1 su* z lat]ite is suppos$ to be2 b its def9ition puzzles ev5 geologi/s1 & s1 z ,lea!r obs]ves1 ! def9ition ( lat]ite soils w naturally puzzle agricultural *emi/s4 ,accord+ly x is difficult to d$uce f ! analyses giv5 any def9ite common *>act]s4 ,lea!r describes ^? analyz$ by him z r$ or r$di%1 s&y & gravelly1 ! gravel or cobbles (t5 incru/$ ) a d>k-smoo? cru/ ( limonite1 :i* to ! un9itiat$ looks z ?\gh ! rock itself _h be5 fus$ & vitrifi$4 ,! samples f ,loh>daga & ,s+hbhum %[ ! effects ( ^! limonite cru/s ^u ! composition ( ! soils1 :i* resembles t ( ! ,hawaiian soils m5tion$ above2 b 9 ! latt] ! iron oxid is :olly pulv]ul5t4 ,b x is probable t1 z 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 ! high cont5t ( phosphoric acid %[n 9 ! /atem5t 74#fd = ! ,loh>daga soil7 is tightly lock$ up 9 ! insoluble =m ( f]ric phosphate4 ,wohltmann's def9ition ( lat]ite soils seems be/ repres5t$ by ! 8t]ra roxa0 ( ,brazil1 :i* z he /ates has 4#jb to4#jh ( pota%1 4#jb to4#aj ( lime1 & 4#jde to 4#aj ( phosphoric acid4 ,humus & nitrog5 are v defici5t 9 all ^! soils4 ,:ile mo/ prom95t 9 ! coa/ region ( ,b5gal1 !y also occur n only ne> ,madras 7,saidapet7 b also 9 ! belt ( high ra9fall on ! ,malab> 7we/]n7 coa/ ( ! ,indian p59sula4 ,! productiv5ess ( ! lat]ite soils seems ?r\gh\t to be only mod]ate1 yet mu* high] ?an w\ld be expect$ ( soils ( simil> composition 9 ! temp]ate zones1 :]e ! rate ( soil-=mation is s mu* sl[] ?an 9 ! tropics4 ,f ! analyses ( 8c(fee soils0 f ,y>c& 9 ! ,%ev]oy hills1 nor? ( ,madras1 we le>n t c(fee does well ) a fairly lib]al supply ( lime 74#cj to4#dd7 & phosphoric acid1 b is satisfi$ ) a mu* small] am\nt ( pota% ?an is f\nd 9 ! tea soils ( ,assam4 ,a f>!r sy/ematic inve/igation ( ! soils ( ,india1 ) simultane\s accurate obs]vations on _! dep?1 subsoil1 geological d]ivation1 topographical location & relations to ra9fall1 c\ld n fail to yield v important practical results4 ,! exam9ation ( samples collect$ & s5t 9 by p]sons unfamili> ) ! prop] mode ( tak+ soil specim5s1 & ! in=mation :i* %\ld accompany !m1 always involves a great deal ( unc]ta9ty & wa/e ( labor1 & indef9it5ess ( results4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,aridity ,,^u ,,civilization4 ,9 connection ) ! facts giv5 & discuss$ above1 z to ! relative productive capacity ( l&s ( ! humid & arid regions1 x becomes ( int]e/ to consid] :at influ5ce1 if any1 ^! diff]5ces may h _h 9 det]m9+ ! *oice ( ! majority ( ! anci5t civilizations 9 favor ( c\ntries :]e nature imposes ^u ! husb&man1 :o supplies ! prime necess>ies ( life1 ! on]\s condition ( artificial irrigation4#afa #afa ,v]h&lung5 d] ,deuts*5 ,physiologis*5 ,gesells*aft 9 ,b]l91 ,decemb]1 #ahib2 ,nor? ,am]ican ,review1 ,septemb]1 #aijb4 ,pref]5ce ( ,anci5t ,civilizations = ,arid ,c\ntries4--,a brief review suffices to e/abli% ! fact ( su* *oice4 ,aside f ,egypt1 ! p]man5t f]tility ( :i* is ascrib$ to ! inundations ( ! ,nile1 we f9d to we/w>d ! oases ( ! ,libyan & ,sah>a des]ts1 ! high f]tility ( :i* has become prov]bial & has caus$ !m to be cultivat$ f anci5t times to ! pres5t4 ,simil>ly1 on bo? sides ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 we f9d t1 in/ead ( ! humid =e/ c\ntry1 x 0 9 ! arid b irrigable coa/ c\ntries1 su* z ! vegas ( ,val5cia1 ,alicante1 ,granada1 ,malaga1 & ! ev5 m arid doma9 ( :i* ,c>?age 0 ! metropolis2 & f>!r ea/1 9 ! ,graeco-,syrian ar*ipelago & ! adjac5t coa/s1 t not$ c5t]s ( civilization 7 develop$ & ma9ta9$4 ,!nce ! arid belt requir+ irrigation ext5ds f ,egypt & ,arabia to ,pale/9e1 ,syria1 ,assyria1 ,mesopotamia & ,p]sia1 & across ! ,indus ?r\gh ! anci5tly recogniz$ regions ( ,indian civilization--,s9dh1 ! ,panjab1 ,rajputana & ! ,nor?we/]n prov9ces--to ! ,ganges1 embrac+ su* well-kn[n c5t]s z ,lahore1 ,delhi1 ,me]ut1 ,agra1 etc41 inhabit$ by mu* m h>dy & progressive races ?an ! humid & highly productive tropical portions ( ! ,indian p59sula4 ,?r\gh\t ! ext5sive & important portion ( nor!rn ,india1 irrigation is necess>y to ma9ta9 regul> production2 & 9 default ( x1 p]iodic fam9es ravage ! c\ntry4 ,?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 millions ^u millions ( treasure 7 exp5d$ !re ^u irrigation works1 z has aga9 be5 done 9 mod]n times2 yet 9 ! ra9y1 =e/$ di/ricts we /ill f9d l>ge areas practically t5ant$ by wild bea/s4 ,9 ,asia ,m9or1 z well z 9 ,c5tral ,asia1 ! rema9s ( anci5t cities once surr\nd$ by ri*ly productive irrigat$ fields1 are f\nd :]e at pres5t only ! h]ds ( nomads pa/ure4 ,! ,khanates ( s\!rn ,turke/an ) _! hi/oric cities1 illu/rate ! same ob/9ate bias 9 favor ( arid climates4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! ,new ,_w1 x 0 n 9 ! moi/ & exub]antly f]tile =e/ l&s ( ! ,or9oco & ,amazon1 b on ! arid we/]n slopes ( ! ,&es1 t ! civilization ( ! ,incas 0 develop$4 ,9 ,mexico1 also1 x 0 ! high c5tral1 arid plateau1 n ! b\ntifully productive ti]ra cali5te1 ov] :i* ! ,aztecs *ose to e/abli% ! ma9 c5t]s ( _! empire4 ,ev5 to nor?w>d1 ! inhabitants ( ! high1 dry pla9s ( ,arizona & ,new ,mexico 71 z _! desc5dants ( ! ,pueblos are to-day1 sup]ior 9 social developm5t to _! =e/-dwell+ neighbors ( ! ,algonqu9 race4 ,f "t immemorial !y h practic$ irrigation 9 connection ) cultivation1 ma9ta9+ a comp>atively d5se population on v limit$ areas4 ,x might be ?\ght t ! desire to avoid ! labor ( cle>+ ! =e/ gr\nd 0 ! motive :i* guid$ ! *oice ( ! anci5t nations t[>d ! *e]less-look+1 treeless regions4 ,b if we consid] ! co/ & labor ( e/abli%+ & ma9ta9+ irrigation dit*es1 x c]ta9ly seems t a /rong] motive1 bas$ on ! intr9sic nature ( ! case1 mu/ h influ5c$ _! selection4 ,nei!r c we ) any degree ( plausibility ascribe ! pref]5ce = ! arid op5 c\ntry to ! fe> ( enemies lurk+ 9 ! =e/1 s9ce w> 0 9 e>ly times practically ! normal condition ( mank9d1 & 0 wag$ ) little hesitation :]ev] booty 0 9 sight4 ,x has also be5 ask$ h[ ! anci5ts c\ld h kn[n ( ! high productive capacity ( arid l&s2 b no "o :o has ev] se5 ! spr++-up ( luxuriant vegetation aft] ! p]iodic ov]fl[s ( ! arid-region /reams1 or ! same surr\nd+ ! spr+s 9 ! des]ts1 w\ld ask t "q4 ,irrigation necessitates ,co-op]ation4--,irrigation ent]prises c be accompli%$ 9 a v limit$ degree only by individuals or ev5 families4 ,its p]man5tly successful execution requires ! co-op]ation ( at lea/ sev]al social gr\ps1 ultimately ( communities & /ates1 if x is n to give rise to acrimoni\s cont5tions or actual w>f>e2 witness ! 8%otgun policy0 resort$ to 9 ! arid ,we/ 9 times n v remote4 ,irrigation1 9 o!r words1 compels co-op]ative social organization q diff]5t f & f> 9 advance ( t necess>y 9 humid c\ntries4 ,& su* organization is manife/ly conducive to ! pres]vation & developm5t ( ! arts ( peace1 :i* means civilization4 ,! mo/ anci5t sy/ematic code ( laws kn[n to u is t ( ,hammurabi1 ! k+ ( arid ,assyria4 ,! high & p]man5t productiv5ess ( arid soils induces p]man5ce ( civil organization4--,9 humid c\ntries1 z is well kn[n1 cultivation c only 9 exceptional cases be cont9u$ pr(itably = _m ye>s )\t f]tilization4 ,b f]tilization requires a some:at protract$ developm5t ( agriculture to be rationally & successfully appli$ 9 ! humid regions1 & ! ,g]manic tribes1 l ! ,nor?-,am]ican ,indians1 seem to h %ift$ _! culture gr\nds frequ5tly 9 _! migrations4 ,no su* ne$ 0 felt by ! inhabitants ( ! arid regions = c5turies1 = ! native f]tility ( _! soils1 c\pl$ ) ! f]tiliz+ effects ( irrigation wat] br++ plant-food f af>1 reliev$ !m ( ! ne$ ( cont9u\s f]tilization2 :ile 9 ! humid regions1 ! f]tility ( ! l& is curr5tly c>ri$ into ! sea by ! dra9age wat]s1 ?r\gh ! /reams & riv]s1 caus+ a *ronic depletion :i* has to be made up = by artificial & co/ly means4 ,:at ) ! great] intr9sic f]tility & ! great dep? ( soil available = plant gr[?1 mu* small] units ( l& w suffice = ! ma9t5ance ( a family 9 arid c\ntries2 a fact :i* is ev5 n[ be+ illu/rat$ 9 ! irrigat$ region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e t5 acres ( irrigat$ l& in/ead ( #dj or #afj1 z 9 ! ,ea/1 =m ! unit4 ,! arid regions 71 !re=e1 specially conducive to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! highly complex polities & high culture1 ( :i* ! ve/iges are n[ be+ une>!d 9 :at we are 9 ! habit ( call+ 8des]ts20 ! v s&s ( :i* usually ne$ only ! life-giv+ effects ( wat] to trans=m !m into fruitful fields & g>d5s4 ,x is also q natural t ! weal?y & prosp]\s communities s =m$ %\ld 9 ! c\rse ( "t h excit$ ! cupidity ( ! 8b>b>\s0 =e/-inhabit+ races1 & z hi/ory records1 h be5 ov] & aga9 ov]:elm$ by !m--a simil> fate (t5 aft]w>ds ov]tak+ ! conqu]ors 9 _! turn1 aft] ! ,capuan ease ( _! exi/5ce _h weak5$ _! w>like pr[ess4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 ! arid regions ( ! old _w are /ill l>gely suff]+ f hav+ be5 ov]run by ! nomadic ,turanians1 ^: orig9al habitat--,mongolia & ,turke/an--:ile also arid1 does n p]mit ( ! ready realization ( ! advantages above outl9$1 on acc\nt ( ! rigor\s climate br\ght ab\t by altitude4 ,mahometanism fir/ expell$1 & has s9ce repell$1 occid5tal civilization f ! arid regions ( ! ,old ,_w1 rema9+ to-day z an ob/acle to its progress4 ,! peaceful aggression ( railroads & telegraphs n[ seems likely to gradually ov]come ?is repulsion2 & :5 ,con/ant9ople & ,bagdad %all be l9k$ toge!r by ! /eel b&s1 ! des]t w lose its t]rors1 & ,mesopotamia & ,babylonia w aga9 become g>d5 l&s1 z ( old1 "u ! abundant wat]s ( ! ,euphrates & ,tigris4 ,until ! wat]-supplies ( ! arid c\ntries %all h be5 m def9itely gaug$1 x is impossible to =etell to :at ext5t food-production may be increas$ by _! cultivation "u irrigation1 aft] ! relief f political misrule %all h r5d]$ su* und]tak+s safe4 ,b x c ev5 n[ be =ese5 t ) improv$ mod]n me?ods ( cultivation1 ! productive area ( ! _w c be va/ly increas$ by ! utilization ( ! c\ntries :]e1 z ! ,turcomans say1 8! salt is ! life ( ! l&40 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,alkali ,,soils4 ,alkali ,l&s & ,sea%ore ,l&s4--,alkali l&s prop]1 z already /at$1 are :olly di/9ct 9 _! nature & orig9 f ! salty l&s ( sea-coa/ m>%es1 pa/ or pres5t4 ,! latt] d]ive _! salts f sea-wat] t occasionally ov]fl[s !m1 or f t :i* has evaporat$ 9 segregat$ bas9s or e/u>ies2 & ! salts impregnat+ !m are ess5tially 8sea salts10 t is1 common salt1 toge!r ) bitt]n 7magnesium *lorid71 ,epsom salt 7magnesium sulfate7 gypsum1 etc4 7see *apt] #b1 p4 #bf74 ,v little ( :at w\ld be useful to vegetation or desirable z a f]tiliz] is conta9$ 9 ! salts impregnat+ su* soils2 & !y are by no means always intr9sically ri* 9 plant-food1 b v>y greatly 9 ?is respect4 ,:ile sea%ore l&s are by no means always ( high f]tility ev5 :5 fre$ f _! salts1 especially :5 v s&y1 x is o!rwise :5 !y occur ne> ! m\?s ( /reams or riv]s1 ^: f9e/ s$im5ts !y !n receive4 ,f su* l&s are =m$ ! pr(usely productive ,pold]s ( ,holl& & nor!rn ,g]many1 & ! equally not$ 8colmates0 ( ,france & ,italy4 ,^!1 s soon z fre$ f salt1 may be consid]$ z possess+ ! same advantages z 8delta0 alluvial l&s1 & f ! same causes2 notably ! accumulation ( ! f9e/ s$im5ts d]iv$ f ! riv]s' dra9age bas9s4 ,orig94--,alkali l&s prop] be> no def9ite relation to ! pres5t sea2 !y are mo/ly remote f x or f any o!r sea b$1 s t !y h sometimes be5 designat$ z 8t]re/rial salt l&s40 ,_! exi/5ce is 9 ! majority ( cases def9itely traceable to climatic conditions alone4 ,!y are ! natural result ( a light ra9fall1 insuffici5t to lea* out ( ! l& ! salts t always =m 9 x by progressive wea!r+ ( ! rock p[d] ( :i* all soils l>gely consi/4 ,:]e ! ra9fall is abundant1 t portion ( ! salts correspond+ to 8sea salts0 is lea*$ out into ! bottom wat]1 & ) ?is passes ?r\gh spr+s & rivulets into ! c\ntry dra9age1 to be f9ally c>ri$ to ! ocean4#afb ,ano!r portion ( ! salts =m$ by wea!r+1 h[ev]1 is p>tially or :olly reta9$ by ! soil2 x is t portion *iefly useful z plant food4 #afb ,see ,*apt] #b1 p4 #bf4 ,x foll[s t :51 9 consequ5ce ( insuffici5t ra9fall1 all or mo/ ( ! salts are reta9$ 9 ! soil1 !y w conta9 n only ! +r$i5ts ( sea-wat]1 b also ^? useful to plants4 ,9 ra9y climates a l>ge portion ev5 ( ! latt] is lea*$ out & c>ri$ away4 ,9 extremely arid climates1 on ! contr>y1 ! entire mass ( ! salts rema9s 9 ! soils2 &1 be+ l>gely soluble 9 wat]1 evaporation dur+ ! dry season br+s !m to ! surface1 :]e !y may accumulate to su* an ext5t z to r5d] ord9>y useful vegetation impossible2 z is se5 9 8alkali spots10 & sometimes 9 ext5sive tracts ( 8alkali des]t40 ,?ree comp\nds1 viz4 ! sulfate1 *lorid & c>bonate ( sodium1 usually =m ! ma9 mass ( ^! sal9e effloresc5ces4 ,magnesium sulfate 7,epsom salt7 is 9 _m cases a v abundant +r$i5t2 "s calcium sulfate is ne>ly always pres5t1 & calcium *lorid is n infrequ5tly f\nd4 ,9 "s cases ! above salts are 9 "p at lea/ d]iv$ f ! lea*+ ( adjac5t or subjac5t geological deposits impregnat$ ) !m at ! "t ( _! =mation4 ,su* is ! case 9 portions ( ,wyom+1 ,colorado & ,new ,mexico1 9 ! ,colorado riv] delta1 & 9 ! ,hung>ian ,pla92 & x is 9 ^! cases especially t ! *lorids ( calcium & magnesium also =m "p ( ! sal9e mixture4 ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,alkali ,l&s4--,9 look+ ov] a ra9fall map ( ! globe#afc we see t a v consid]able portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 =m+ two belts to polew>d ( ! two tropics1 has defici5t ra9fall2 ! latt] t]m be+ commonly meant to imply any annual av]age less ?an #bj in*es 7#ejj millimet]s74 ,! arid region ?us def9$ includes1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 mo/ ( ! c\ntry ly+ we/ ( ! "o hundr$? m]idian up to ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s1 & nor?w>d beyond ! l9e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 s\?w>d1 x rea*es f> into ,mexico1 includ+ especially ! ,mexican plateau4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica x includes mo/ ( ! ,pacific ,slope 7,p]u & ,*ile7 s\? to ,araucania2 & ea/w>d ( ! ,&es1 ! great] portion ( ! pla9s ( we/]n ,brazil & ,arg5t9a4 ,9 ,europe only a small portion ( ! ,m$it]ranean bord] is includ$2 b ! entire ,african coa/-belt opposite1 ) ! ,sah>an & ,libyan des]ts1 ,egypt & ,arabia1 are includ$ !re91 z well z1 s\? ( ! ,equator1 a consid]able portion ( ,s\? ,africa 7,kalah>i des]t74 ,9 ,asia1 ,asia ,m9or1 ,syria 7) ,pale/9e71 ,mesopotamia1 ,p]sia1 & nor?we/]n ,india up to ! ,ganges1 & nor?w>d1 ! great pla9s or /eppes ( c5tral ,asia ea/w>d to ,mongolia & we/]n ,*9a1 fall into ! same category2 z does also a l>ge portion ( ! ,au/ralian cont95t4 #afc ,see above1 *apt] #af1 p4 #bid4 ,utilization ( ,_w-wide ,importance4--,ov] ^! va/ areas alkali l&s occur to a great] or less ext5t1 ! exceptions be+ ! m\nta9 regions & adjac5t l&s on ! side expos$ to ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,x w !re=e be se5 t ! problem ( ! utilization ( alkali l&s = agriculture is n ( local int]e/ only1 b is ( _w-wide importance4 ,x w also be not$ t _m ( ! c\ntries ref]r$ to are ^? 9 :i* ! mo/ anci5t civilizations h exi/$ 9 ! pa/1 b :i* at pres5t1 ) few exceptions1 are occupi$ by semi-civiliz$ p only4 ,x is d\btless f ?is cause t ! nature ( alkali l&s has until lately be5 s little und]/ood1 t ev5 _! ess5tial di/9ctness f ! sea-bord] l&s has be5 b rec5tly recogniz$ 9 full4 ,moreov]1 ! great intr9sic f]tility ( ^! l&s :5 fre$ f ! noxi\s salts1 has be5 v little appreciat$2 _! repell5t aspect caus+ !m to be g5]ally consid]$ z p]man5tly wa/e l&s4 ,repell5t aspect4--,?is aspect is ess5tially due to _! natural vegetation be+ 9 mo/ cases conf9$ to plants useless to man1 commonly designat$ z 8sal9e vegetation10#afd ( :i* b little is usually reli%$ by cattle4 ,notable exceptions to ?is rule occur 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,africa1 :]e ! 8saltbu%es0 ( ! =m] & ! 8k>roo0 vegetation ( ! latt] =m valuable pa/ure & br[s+ gr\nds4 ,ap>t f ^!1 h[ev]1 all ef=ts to f9d culture plants = ^! l&s g5]ally acceptable1 or at lea/ pr(itable1 9 _! natural condition1 h n be5 v successful4 #afd ,see ,*apt] #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,alkali ,l&s 9 ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 ,cali=nia4 ,figure #fj illu/rates ! usual aspect ( alkali l&s 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 valley ( ,cali=nia4 ,x w be not$ t ! alkali-cov]$ surface is only 9 spots1 ) clumps ( vegetation betwe51 s t cattle c f9d bo? pa/ure & br[s+ on a portion ( su* l&s1 ev5 ?\gh ! plants s gr[+ are n usually ( ! mo/ desirable k9d4 ,we f9d 9 all arid regions1 h[ev]1 consid]able areas ei!r :olly de/itute ( vegetation1 or be>+ only su* sal9e gr[? z is reject$ by all k9ds ( dome/ic animals4 ,effects ( ,alkali ^u culture plants4--,9 l& v /rongly impregnat$ ) alkali salts1 mo/ culture plants1 if _! se$ g]m9ates at all1 w %[ a sickly gr[? = a %ort "t1 8sp9dle up0 & !n die )\t fruit+4 ,9 soils less heavily *>g$ ! plants may simply become dw>f$1 & fruit scantily4 ,! effect on gr[n trees ar\nd :i* alkali has come up1 is fir/1 scanty leafage & %ort gr[? ( %oots1 !mselves b sp>sely clo!d ) leaves4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s is well %[n 9 figures #fa & #fb1 :i* repres5t apricot trees gr[+ b a %ort di/ance ap>t1 b "o com+ )9 range ( an exp&+ alkali spot4 ,! *>act]i/ic sp>s5ess ( ! foliage ( ! 8alkali$0 tree z comp>$ ) ! adjac5t "o is well %[n4 ,nature ( ! injury to plants f ,alkali4--,:5 we exam9e plants t h be5 injur$ by alkali1 we w mo/ly f9d t ! visible damage has be5 done ne> ! base ( ! trunk1 or root cr[n2 r>ely at any consid]able dep? 9 ! soil itself4 ,9 ! case ( gre5 h]bace\s /ems1 ! b>k is f\nd to h be5 turn$ to a br[ni% t+e = half an in* or m1 s z to be s(t & easily peel$ (f4 ,9 ! case ( trees1 ! r\gh b>k is f\nd to be ( a d>k1 almo/ black1 t9t1 & ! gre5 lay] und]nea? has1 z 9 ! case ( h]bace\s /ems1 be5 turn$ br[n to a great] or less ext5t4 ,9 ei!r case ! plant has be5 practically 8girdl$10 ! effect be+ aggravat$ by ! diseas$ sap poison+ m or less ! :ole /em & roots4 ,! plant may n die1 b x w be q c]ta9 to become unpr(itable to ! gr[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,unaffect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,yield+ to ,alkali4 ,,apricot ,,trees ,,on ,,alkali ,,gr\nd4 ,x is ma9ly 9 ! case ( l& v heavily *>g$ ) common salt1 z 9 ! m>%es bord]+ ! sea1 or salt lakes1 t injury arises f ! direct effects ( ! salty soil-wat] ^u ! fe$+ roots !mselves4 ,9 a few cases ! gradual rise ( salt wat] f bel[ 9 consequ5ce ( defective dra9age1 has s]i\sly injur$1 & ev5 de/roy$1 old orange or*>ds4 ,! natural occupancy ( ! gr\nd by c]ta9 native plants may be held to indicate t ! soil is too heavily *>g$ ) sal9e +r$i5ts to p]mit heal?y root gr[? or nutrition until ! excess ( salts is remov$4 7,see bel[1 *apt]s #bc & #bf74 ,! fact t 9 cultivat$ l& ! injury is usually f\nd to occur ne> ! surface ( ! soil1 concurr5tly ) ! well-kn[n fact t ! maximum accumulation ( salts at ! surface is always f\nd ne> ! end ( ! dry season1 indicates cle>ly t ?is accumulation is due to evaporation at ! surface4 ,! latt] is (t5 f\nd cov]$ ) a cru/ consi/+ ( e>? cem5t$ by ! cry/alliz$ salts1 & lat] 9 ! season ) a lay] ( :iti% du/ result+ f ! dry+-out ( ! cru/ fir/ =m$4 ,x is ?is du/ :i* becomes s annoy+ to ! inhabitants & travel]s 9 alkali regions1 :5 high w9ds prevail1 irritat+ ! eyes & no/rils & p>*+ ! lips4 ,effects ( ,irrigation4--,"o ( ! mo/ annoy+ & disc\rag+ features ( ! cultivation ( l&s 9 alkali regions is t1 al?\gh 9 _! natural condition !y may %[ b little alkali on _! surface1 & t mo/ly 9 limit$ spots1 ^! spots are f\nd to enl>ge rapidly z irrigation is practic$4 ,yet s9ce alkali salts are ! symptoms & result ( insuffici5t ra9fall1 irrigation is a necess>y condition ( agriculture :]ev] !y prevail4 ,"u irrigation1 neighbor+ spots w (t5times m]ge toge!r into "o l>ge "o1 & at times ! entire area1 once highly productive & p]haps cov]$ ) valuable plantations ( trees or v9es1 w become incapable ( support+ useful gr[?4 ,?is annoy+ ph5om5on is popul>ly kn[n z 8! rise ( ! alkali0 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 b is equally well kn[n 9 ,india & o!r irrigation regions4 ,! soil be+ impregnat$ ) a solution ( ! alkali salts1 & act+ l a wick1 ! salts naturally rema9 beh9d on ! surface z ! wat] evaporates1 ! process only /opp+ :5 ! moi/ure 9 ! soil is exhau/$4 ,we ?us n infrequ5tly f9d t aft] an unusually heavy ra9fall !re foll[s a heavi] accumulation ( alkali salts at ! surface1 :ile a light %[] produces no p]ceptible p]man5t effect4 ,we are ?us taught t1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 ! m wat] evaporates dur+ ! season ! heavi] w be ! rise ( ! alkali2 provid$ t ! wat] is n s abundant z to lea* ! salts ?r\gh ! soil & subsoil into ! subdra9age4 ,leaky ,irrigation dit*es4--,wor/ ( all1 h[ev]1 is ! effect ( irrigation dit*es laid 9 s&y l&s 7su* z are naturally pr$om9ant 9 arid regions71 )\t prop] provision aga9/ seepage4 ,! dit* wat] !n gradually fills up ! entire sub/rata s f> z !y are p]meable1 & ! wat]-table rises f bel[ until x rea*es ne>ly to ! dit* level2 %all[+ ! subsoil1 dr[n+ out ! deep roots ( all vegetation1 & br++ close to ! surface ! entire mass ( alkali salts previ\sly diffus$ ?r\gh _m feet ( sub/rata4 ,surface & ,sub/rata ( ,alkali ,l&s4--,aside f ! des]t prop]1 9 ! great] portion ( ! alkali c\ntry 8alkali spots40 i4 e4 gr\nd cov]$ ) sal9e effloresc5ces & %[+ little or no vegetation1 are int]sp]s$ ) l>g] areas app>5tly free f salts & cov]$ ) ! ord9>y vegetation ( ! region4 ,a view ( su* c\ntry is giv5 9 a plate on a previ\s page4 ,! alkali spots are usually some:at depress$ bel[ ! surr\nd+ l&s1 & aft] ra9s rema9 cov]$ ) wat] = "s "t2 ! wat] frequ5tly assum+ a br[n or blacki% t9t aft] /&+4 ,:5 a po9t$ /eel probe is pu%$ d[n )9 su* an alkali spot1 x w usually be f\nd t1 al?\gh ! soil may appe> q s&y1 x is p5etrat$ ) "s difficulty2 :ile outside ( ! spots1 ! probe does n enc\nt] s]i\s resi/ance until x rea*es ! dep? ( two or ?ree feet1 :5 x frequ5tly becomes impossible to p5etrate f>!r )\t ! aid ( a hamm]4 ,on ! m>g9 ( ! spots1 ! transition f utt] b>r5ness to a luxuriant vegetation ( native we$s is mo/ly q sudd52 z is %[n 9 ! figure1 p4 #dbe4 ,v]tical ,di/ribution ( ! ,salts 9 ,alkali ,l&4--,! results ( a comp>ative exam9ation ( su* l& be=e & aft] irrigation1#afe are %[n 9 ! annex$ diagrams2 9 :i* ! k9d & am\nt ( salts is %[n = e ?ree in*es ( v]tical dep?1 d[n to f\r feet1 by curves ^: ext5sion f left to "r indicate ! sev]al p]c5tages1 :ile ! out] curv$ l9e gives ! total ( salts = ea* ( ! sev]al dep?s4 ,fig4 #fc repres5ts ! condition ( ! salts 9 an 8alkali spot0 z f\nd at ! end ( ! dry season at ! ,tul>e sub/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,! soil 0 sampl$ to ! dep? ( two feet at int]vals ( ?ree in*es ea*4 ,x is easy to see t at ?is "t ! bulk ( ! salts 0 accumulat$ )9 ! fir/ six in*es f ! surface1 :ile l[] d[n ! soil conta9$ s little t few culture plants w\ld be hurt by !m4 ,h[ ,native ,plants ,live4--,fig4 #fd repres5ts simil>ly ! /ate ( ?+s 9 a natural soil alongside ( ! alkali spot1 b 9 :i* ! native vegetation ( brilliant fl[]s develops annually )\t any h9drance f alkali4 ,samples 7 tak5 f ?is spot 9 ,m>*1 ne> ! end ( ! wet1 & 9 ,septemb]1 ne> ! end ( ! dry season1 & ea* s]ies fully analyz$4 ,!re 0 sc>cely a noticeable diff]5ce 9 ! results obta9$4 ,x is se5 9 ! figure t d[n to ! dep? ( #ae in*es !re 0 practically no alkali f\nd 7#j4jce71 & x 0 )9 ^! #ae in*es ( soil t ! native plants mo/ly _h _! roots & develop$ _! annual gr[?4 ,b f t level d[nw>d ! alkali rapidly increas$1 & rea*$ a maximum 7#j4ebi71 at ab\t #cc in*es2 decreas+ rapidly !nce until1 at ! end ( ! f\r? foot 9 dep?1 !re 0 n m alkali ?an )9 ! fir/ foot f ! surface4 ,9 o!r words1 ! bulk ( ! salts _h accumulat$ at ! greate/ dep? to :i* ! annual ra9fall 7#g in*es7 ev] rea*es1 =m+ !re a %eet ( t\gh1 intractable clay-h>dpan4 ,! %all[-root$ native plants g]m9at$ _! se$s freely on ! alkali-free surface2 _! roots kept above ! /rongly-*>g$ subsoil1 & ?r\gh !m & ! /ems & foliage all ! soil moi/ure 0 evaporat$ by ! "t ! plants di$4 ,?us no alkali 0 br\ght up f bel[ by evaporation4 ,! se$s %$ w\ld rema9 un9jur$1 & w\ld aga9 g]m9ate ! com+ season4 #afe ,hilg>d & ,l\ghridge1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #abh1 ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation2 ,report ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 #ahid-ie1 p4 #cg2 ,bullet9 ,no4 #cj1 ,(fice ( ,exp]im5t ,/ations2 ,wollny's ,=s*4 ,geb4 ,agr4 ,phys41 #ahif4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #fc4--;,diagram %[+ am\nts & composition ( alkali salts at v>i\s dep?s 9 alkali soil1 on :i* b>ley w\ld n gr[4 ,tak5 ,septemb]1 #ahid4 ,tul>e ,exp]im5t ,sub/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,diagram %[+ am\nts & composition ( alkali salts at v>i\s dep?s 9 black alkali l&1 cov]$ ) native vegetation4 ,tak5 ,m>*1 #ahie4 ,tul>e ,exp]im5t ,sub/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,x is ?us t ! luxuriant vegetation ( ! ,san ,joaqu9 pla9s1 dott$ ) occasional alkali spots1 is ma9ta9$2 ! spots !mselves be+ almo/ always depressions 9 :i* ! ra9 wat] may ga!r1 & :]e1 9 consequ5ce ( ! increas$ evaporation1 ! noxi\s salts h ris5 to ! surface & r5d] impossible all b ! mo/ resi/ant sal9e gr[?2 p>ticul>ly :51 9 consequ5ce ( mac]ation & f]m5tation 9 ! soil1 ! =mation ( c>bonate ( soda has caus$ ! surface to s9k & become almo/ wat]-tight4 ,upw>d ,translocation f ,irrigation4--,fig4 #fe %[s ! correspond+ pr(ile ( ! same soil aft] sev]al ye>s' irrigation4 ,! upw>d movem5t ( ! salts is cle>ly se5 by comp>ison ) ! previ\s figure2 & ! surface soil has become s *>g$ ) salts t ! se$s ( culture plants refuse to g]m9ate4 ,t5 feet f ?is b>e alkali gr\nd1 on :i* b>ley _h refus$ to gr[1 a crop ( b>ley f\r feet high 0 h>ve/$ ! same ye>1 )\t irrigation4 ,inve/igation prov$ t "h ! condition ( ! soil 0 int]m$iate betwe5 ! two prec$+ diagrams4 ,! irrigation wat] _h dissolv$ ! alkali ( ! subsoil1 & ! m abundant evaporation _h br\ght x ne>] ! surface2 b ! %ad+ by ! b>ley crop & ! evaporation ( ! moi/ure ?r\gh its roots & leaves _h prev5t$ ! salts f rea*+ ! surface 9 su* am\nts z to injure ! crop1 al?\gh ! t5d5cy to rise 0 cle>ly %[n4 ,by ! use ( gypsum1 moreov]1 ! injuri\sness ( ! alkali _h be5 some:at dim9i%$4 ,! same season1 gra9 crops 7 almo/ a failure on alkali-free l& 9 ! same region2 & 9 connection ) ?is result x %\ld be not$ z a g5]al fact t alkali l&s always reta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure p]ceptible to ! h& dur+ ! dry season1 & t ?is moi/ure c be utiliz$ by crops2 s t at times :5 crops fail on non-alkal9e l&1 good ones are obta9$ :]e a slight ta9t ( alkali exi/s 9 ! soil4 ,actual det]m9ations %[$ t :ile a sample ( alkali soil conta9+ 4#ed ( salts absorb$ #ab4c ( moi/ure f moi/ air1 ! same soil :5 lea*$ absorb$ only #b4e--;a figure correspond+ to t ( s&y upl& loams4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,diagram %[+ am\nts & composition ( alkali salts at v>i\s dep?s 9 b>e alkali l&1 :]e b>ley w\ld n gr[2 irrigat$4 ,tak5 ,septemb]1 #ahid4 ,tul>e ,exp]im5t ,sub/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,di/ribution ( ,alkali ,salts 9 ,s&y ,l&s4 ,alkali 9 ,s&y ,l&s4--,9 v s&y l&s1 & p>ticul>ly :5 ! alkali is 8:ite0 only1 ! t5d5cy to accumulation ne> ! surface is mu* less1 ev5 "u irrigation4 ,9 ! natural condition ! salts are 9 su* cases (t5 f\nd q ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh soil columns ( f\r feet1 & ev5 m4 ,?is is an additional cause ( ! less] injuri\sness ( 8:ite alkali40 ,an illu/ration ( ! di/ribution ( ! salts 9 v s&y l&s1 f ! ,tul>e sub/ation1 is giv5 9 ,fig4 #ff4 ,"h we see t ! maximum is n at1 b "s di/ance bel[ ! surface1 ! entire sal9e mass is l[] d[n ?an 9 ! m clayey loam ( ! same locality1 & is m widely di/ribut$ 9 dep?4 ,di/ribution ( ,alkali ,salts 9 ,heavy ,l&s4--,! mode ( di/ribution ( alkali salts 9 ! heavi]1 close-gra9$ soil ( ! ,*9o exp]im5tal tract 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #fg4 ,?is l& is p]man5tly moi/1 f a wat]-table rang+ f five to sev5 feet bel[ ! surface 9 ord9>y ye>s4 ,!re is !re=e no opportunity = ! =mation ( 8alkali h>dpan0 z 9 ! case ( ! ,tul>e soil2 ! salts always rema9 r ne> ! surface1 viz4 )9 twelve to fifte5 in*es4 ,b be+ 9 mu* small] av]age am\nts ?an at ,tul>e 7an av]age ( ab\t #ecjj lbs4 p] acre71 q a copi\s natural vegetation ( grasses1 sunfl[]s1 & 8y]ba mansa0 cov]$ ! :ole surface1 save 9 a few l[ spots4 ,a simil> mode ( di/ribution ( ! salts is f\nd 9 ! /ill m clayey 8black adobe0 l&s ( ! ,great ,valley ( ,cali=nia4 ,! scanty ra9s _c p5etrate ^! soils to any great dep?1 s t evaporation w soon br+ ! salts c>ri$ by !m back to )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! surface4 ,_! accumulation !re is frequ5tly indicat$ by ! entire abs5ce ( any b ! mo/ resi/ant alkali we$s1 ev5 ?\gh ! total ( salts 9 ! l& may n be v great4 ,salton ,bas94--,a peculi> /ate ( ?+s is illu/rat$ 9 ! ,salton ,bas91 :i* repres5ts :at 0 at "o "t ! head ( ! ,gulf ( ,cali=nia1 & at ! l[e/ po9t ( :i*1 #bfh feet bel[ sea level1 !re n[ lies a l>ge deposit ( rock salt4 ,x has be5 cut (f f ! pres5t ,gulf by ! delta deposits ( ! ,colorado riv]1 :i* n[1 h[ev]1 ov]fl[s into ! ,bas9 at times ( extreme high wat]4 ,al?\gh appe>+ level to ! eye1 ! g5]al slope ( ! c\ntry is to ! l[e/ po9t ( ! =m] sea-bottom4 ,! region1 n[ 9 progress ( settlem5t by means ( irrigation wat] br\ght f ! riv] ne> ,yuma1 0 inve/igat$ ) respect to its alkali conditions 9 #aijj 7,bullet9 ,no4 #adj1 ,calif4 ,agric4 ,expt4 ,/a474 ,! annex$ diagram #fh %[s ! di/ribution ( ! salts to a dep? ( #ba feet4 ,x w be not$ t "h also ! alkali cont5t becomes insignificant at #d feet dep?1 b increases aga9 to a second maximum at ab\t #ae feet1 bel[ :i* !re is a second decrease2 bel[ ?is1 at #bj feet1 !re is a f9al v heavy increase1 n only ( ! total salts b especially ( common salt1 :i* evid5tly repres5ts ! dra9age t[>d ! salt deposit4 ,above ?is level !re is a v rem>kable pr$om9ance ( ,glaub]'s salt 7sodium sulfate71 also obs]vable else:]e1 e4 g4 ne> ,:ite ,pla9s1 ,nev41 ^: "n is d]iv$ f ! copi\s surface accumulation ( ! sulfate4 ,x seems z ?\gh ?is mu/ h be5 =m$ 9 "s way f ! common salt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,am\nts & composition ( alkali salts at v>i\s dep?s & po9ts 9 ! t5-acre tract at ! s\!rn ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation2 tak5 la/ week 9 ,april1 #ahie4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,graphic illu/ration ( di/ribution ( salts 9 ,salton ,riv] section1 ,cali=nia4 ,horizontal ,di/ribution ( ,alkali ,salts 9 ,arid ,l&s4--,! con/ant occurr5ce ( 8alkali spots0 9 arid l&s %[s at once ! great inequality ( horizontal di/ribution ( alkali impregnation4 ,?is is z prom95t 9 level l&s z on slopes1 & 9 extremely arid regions x is mo/ly n possible to recognize ev5 v consid]able diff]5ces )\t close exam9ation4 ,?us 9 l&s appe>+ exactly alike on ! surface1 on ! edge ( ! ,salton bas9 9 ,cali=nia1 on ! same =ty acre #a4d 7#ef1jjj p\nds p] acre7 0 f\nd 9 ! surface f\r feet at "o po9t1 & a hundr$ y>ds away1 #ab4e 7#ejj1jjj p\nds74 ,! mapp+ ( alkali l&s is !re=e some:at prec>i\s unless c>ri$ into great detail4 ,moreov]1 x has be5 f\nd t ! location ( ! salts *anges f ye> to ye>1 especially 9 irrigat$ l&1 z might be expect$4 ,^? cultivat+ alkali l&s h !re=e to ex]cise con/ant wat*fulness1 unless ! salts h be5 def9itively elim9at$ by und]dra9age ov] a consid]able area2 z m]ely local op]ations may be r5d]$ ineffectual by ! migration ( ! salts f neighbor+ tracts n reclaim$4 ,alkali 9 ,hill ,l&s4--,z a rule1 hill l&s !mselves are rem>kably free f alkali1 ev5 9 ! arid regions2 except :5 wat] is ga!r$ 9 depressions1 :]e /rongly sal9e wat]s may be f\nd 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,montana & else:]e4 ,b on level plateau l&s1 :]e dra9age is sl[ or imp]fect1 alkali appe>s z freely z x does 9 ! same regions 9 ! /ream bottoms4 ,9 ! latt] ! lea*+s & seepage ( ! upl&s naturally causes a conc5tration ( ! salts1 & ?us we f9d alkali salts incru/+ ! surface 9 ! valleys ( ! /reams1 z e4 g41 t ( ! ,yell[/one1 ,mussel%ell1 ,judi?1 ,yakima & o!rs 9 ! nor?1 & ( ,gre5 riv]1 ,platte1 ,pecos1 & ,rio ,gr&e f>!r s\?2 z well z 9 num]\s valleys ( c5tral & s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,us> ,l&s ( ,india4--,^! l&s h be5 inve/igat$ fir/ by ! 8,reh ,commission0 appo9t$ to inve/igate ! causes ( ! det]ioration ( l&s 9 ! ,alig>h di/rict 7s\? ( ,delhi1 betwe5 ! ,ganges & ,jumna riv]s71 9 #ahgf4 ,! occasion ( ?is appo9tm5t 0 ! appe>ance ( 8reh0 7alkali salts7 9 a region :i* _h previ\sly be5 free f !m4#aff ,subsequ5tly1 a m elaborate inve/igation ( ! subject 0 made by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,lea!r1 ,agricultural ,*emi/ to ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,india4#afg ,f ^! docum5ts x appe>s t 8us> l&s0 exi/ l>gely n only 9 ! ,nor?we/]n ,prov9ces & ,oudh1 b also 9 ! ,panjab1 especially on ! l&s bord]+ ! ,*5ab riv]2 likewise to a slight ext5t 9 ! ,bombay presid5cy4 ,lea!r's inve/igation %[s t n all ! l&s designat$ by ! natives z us> conta9 soluble salts 9 injuri\s am\nts1 "s be+ simply l&s hav+ v h>d1 clayey soils difficult to till ) ! imp]fect me?ods employ$4 ,yet ! g5]al ph5om5a ( ! true 8reh0 l&s are practically id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,am]ican alkali l&s1 includ+ also ! calc>e\s h>dpan1 !re call$ kank>4 ,ow+ probably to ! long cultivation ( ! ,indian l&s 7mo/ly "u irrigation71 ! salts are !re at _! maximum 9 ! fir/ foot1 decreas+ z dep? increases4 ,x is notewor?y also t 9 ! majority ( cases ! pr$om9ant salt is c>bonate ( soda or black alkali1 :i* !re z 9 ,cali=nia r5d]s ! l&s imp]vi\s to wat] until treat$ ) gypsum4 ,?is fact acc\nts = ! popul> use ( ! same "n = non-sal9e imp]vi\s clay soils1 & ! alkali or reh l&s prop]4 ,we h an entirely analog\s case 9 ! 8,szek0 l&s ( ! ,hung>ian pla91 "s ( :i* are simply poor refractory soils conta9+ a trace ( soluble salts2 :ile l[] d[n 9 ! valley ( ! ,!iss we f9d g5u9e alkali l&s1 bo? black & :ite1 :i* h long furni%$ c>bonate ( soda = local use & comm]ce4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! alkali salts se5 to come l>gely1 9 "s cases :olly1 f und]ly+ sal9e clays ^: salts 9 com+ to ! surface suff] precisely ! same trans=mations exp]i5c$ 9 ,cali=nia & ,india1 9 pres5ce ( calcic c>bonate 7see bel[1 p4 #dej ff74 #aff ,an ab/ract ( ! report ( ?is commission is giv5 9 ! ,report ( ! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation = #ahij4 #afg ,see ,agricultural ,l$g]1 #ahig1 ,no4 #ac2 ibid4 #aija1 ,no4 #ac4 ,! acc\nts giv5 by v4 ,midd5dorff ( ! nature & occurr5ce ( alkali l&s 9 ,turke/an 7,f]ghana7 agree entirely ) ^? giv5 above = ,cali=nia & ,india2 z d also ! inve/igations made by o!r ,russian obs]v]s on ! sal9e l&s ( ! /eppes ( ,european ,russia4 ,,composition ,,& ,,quantity ,,( ,,alkali ,,salts4 ,black & ,:ite ,alkali4--,broadly speak+1 ! _w ov] alkali salts consi/ ma9ly ( ?ree *ief +r$i5ts1 already m5tion$1 namely1 common salt1 ,glaub]'s salt 7sulfate ( soda71 & salsoda or c>bonate#afh ( soda4 ,! latt] causes :at is popul>ly kn[n z 8black alkali10 f ! black spots ( puddles se5 on ! surface ( l&s ta9t$ ) x1 ow+ to ! dissolution ( ! soil humus2#afi :ile ! o!r salts1 (t5 toge!r ) ,epsom salt & bitt]n 7,magnesium *lorid71 con/itute 8:ite alkali10 :i* is kn[n to be v mu* mild] 9 its effect on plants ?an ! black4 ,9 mo/ cases all ?ree are pres5t1 & all may be consid]$ z practically valueless1 or noxi\s1 to plant gr[?4 #afh ,9 ?is designation are includ$1 9 ?is volume1 bo? ! normal 7mono-7 c>bonate & ! two o!r comp\nds1 ! bi- or hydroc>bonate & ! int]m$iate 7s-call$ sesqui-7 comp\nd or trona2 all ( :i* are commonly pres5t simultane\sly1 b 9 utt]ly indef9ite relative proportions1 v>y+ f day to day & f in* to in* ( dep?1 inasmu* z _! cont9u$ exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ! great] or less =mation ( c>bonic acid 9 ! soil1 & ! access ( air4 ,h5ce _! sep>ate quantitative det]m9ation at any "o "t is ( little practical int]e/4 ,all naturally occurr+ c>bonate ( soda conta9s1 & sometimes consi/s (1 ^! 8sup]-c>bonates10 accord+ to ! great] or less exposure to air & sol> heat4 ,!y are mu* mild] 9 _! action on plants ?an ! monoc>bonate1 :i* un=tunately1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 always pr$om9ates ne> ! surface1 & ?us injures ! root-cr[n4 #afi ,a :olly diff]5t k9d ( 8black alkali0 exi/s 9 "s regions1 especially 9 ! delta l&s ( ! ,colorado ( ! ,we/ & 9 ! ,pecos & ,rio ,gr&e c\ntry 9 ,new ,mexico4 ,9 ^! cases ! d>k t9t is due1 n to a humic solution1 b simply to moi/ure1 :i* is t5aci\sly reta9$ by ! *lorids ( calcium & magnesium impregnat+ ! l&1 ?us contra/+ /rongly ) ! gray t9t ( ! g5]al dry soil4 ,,europe4 ,,asia4 ---------------------------------------- - ,,hung>ian ,,aralo-,,caspian ,,ad54 ,,pla94 ,,pla94 8,,hurka0 8,,szekso40 ,,sal9e ,,cru/s48,,k>a40 ---------------- ,debrecz9,kalocsa ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate 7,k,,s7 ,sodium ,sulfate 7,na,,s7 4#b #a4f #aj4d #ah4b #ae4e ,sodium ,c>bonate 7,na,,co7 #dh4a #ib4e #ad4g #ab4a #fi4j #fg4b ,sodium ,*lorid 7,na,cl7 #ea4g #d4d #gd4f #fi4g #ae4e #cb4h ,sodium ,phosphate 7,na,,po7 #a4e ,calcium ,*lorid ,magnesium ,*lorid 7,mg,cl7 -------------------------------------- #ajj4j #ajj4jajj4jajj4jajj4j #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,asia4 -------------------------------------- ,,india 8,,reh40 -------------------------------------- ,gursik>1,jellalabad1,bayamati ,alig>h1 ,panjab1 7,regur71 #f feet4 #a4e feet4 ,deccan1 #b feet4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate 7,k,,s7 #aa4a ,sodium ,sulfate 7,na,,s7 #g4j #ae4e #eh4e #b4c ,sodium ,c>bonate 7,na,,co7 #gi4j #ef4i #bb4i ,sodium ,*lorid 7,na,cl7 #b4i #bg4f #ah4f #ig4g ,sodium ,phosphate 7,na,,po7 ,calcium ,*lorid ,magnesium ,*lorid 7,mg,cl7 ----------------------------------- #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,africa4 --------------------------------------- ,,egypt4 ------------------------- ,trona1 ,alkali ,fezzan 7,comm]cial47 ,l4 ,abukir4 ,trona1 7,comm]cial47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate 7,k,,s7 #f4di ,sodium ,sulfate 7,na,,s7 #bc4f #ch4c 4#hb #j4f ,sodium ,c>bonate 7,na,,co7 #bh4b #dg4g #a4ac #ih4g ,sodium ,*lorid 7,na,cl7 #dh4b #ad4j #hi4gd 4#g ,sodium ,phosphate 7,na,,po7 ,calcium ,*lorid #a4hb ,magnesium ,*lorid 7,mg,cl7 ------------------------------------- #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4jj #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,cali=nia4 ------------------------------------- ,tul>e ,c\nty4 ,m]c$,ov]his]--------------- ,k]n ,falls4 ,san ,visalia ,expt4 ,isl& ,joaqu9 ,/ation4 ,co4 ,tul>e4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s #bj4bc #c4ie #aj4ac ,potassium ,c>bonate4 ,k,,co ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #d4fg #ac4jj #be4bh #hh4db ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o #ab4ih #ai4gh ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #ge4ie #eb4bb #fe4gb #cb4eh #j4db ,sodium ,*lorid1 7,na,cl7 #a4df #cc4jj #c4ih #ad4ge #j4ea ,sodium ,phosphate1 ,h,na,,po #d4id #a4gh #h4db #b4be ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #a4fe #j4eb ,calcium ,*lorid ,magnesium ,*lorid ,ammonium ,c>bonate1 ,,nh,,co #a4da ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jjajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,cali=nia4 ------------------------------------- ,mojave ,hunts1 ,we/m9/] ,imp]ial ,plateau ne> ne> ,san ,santa ,ana4 ,b]n>d9o ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl #a4ae ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s #j4ib #e4ca #bj4fb ,potassium ,c>bonate4 ,k,,co #f4ei ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #dc4cd #ff4jh ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o #h4ba ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #ae4ch #ae4he #fb4bb 4#eh ,sodium ,*lorid1 7,na,cl7 #ci4cd #aa4dg #aj4eg #ca4hb ,sodium ,phosphate1 ,h,na,,po #a4jb ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #j4ei ,calcium ,*lorid #eh4db ,magnesium ,*lorid #b4ha ,ammonium ,c>bonate1 ,,nh,,co ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,wa%+ton4 ---------------------------------- ,yakima ,spokane ,co4 ,kittitas ,:itman ,co41 on ,valley4 ,co41 ,cottonwood ,atahnam ,lake ,spr+s4 ,creek4 ,creek4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl #c4ij #j4af #d4ec #f4bg ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s #ah4dd #ae4ag #ae4ij ,potassium ,c>bonate4 ,k,,co ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o #ge4fa #hj4cf #gg4aj #hg4ad ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #j4eb #a4gf #a4cd #d4jc ,sodium ,*lorid1 7,na,cl7 #a4ec #b4ee #a4ac #b4ef ,sodium ,phosphate1 ,h,na,,po ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o ,calcium ,*lorid ,magnesium ,*lorid ,ammonium ,c>bonate1 ,,nh,,co ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,montana4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,upp] ,,miss\ri ,,valley4 --------------------------------------- ,upp] ,prickly ,=d ,=t ,rob]t's ,miss\ri ,pe> on ,b5ton4 ,creek1 ,valley ,pla94 ,sun ,mussel- ne> ,hel5a4,riv]4 %ell ,c5t]ville ,valley4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s #b4cg #c4jg #a4gg #h4ei #c4jg ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #ef4ed #dc4ch #hc4ce #dg4aj #gf4gi ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o #i4ci ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co 4#ga #ac4ii ,sodium ,*lorid1 ,na,cl #bg4dg #ad4fj #j4ia 4#ah #f4ae ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #d4bc #ch4id #ac4ig #dc4db ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl --------------------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jjajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,nevada4 ----------------------------- ,,ne> ,,r5o4 ,*ur*ill ,c\nty4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #eb4ae #hj4cj #j4ee ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #de4cg #ae4bd #if4gh ,sodium ,*lorid1 ,na,cl #b4dh #d4df #b4fg ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl ---------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,wyom+4 ---------------------------------------- ,,sweet ,,wat] ,,l>amie ,,f>m4 ,,valley4 -------------------------------------- ,indep5d5ce1 ,sa9t ,alkali4 ,wa/e ,rock ,m>y's ,irrigation ,lake4 ,/ation4 ,wat]4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #gc4ag #hh4ic #ei4bi #da4ai ,sodium ,nitrate1 ,na,n,o ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #bb4ih ,sodium ,*lorid1 ,na,cl #c4he #aa4fc #ag4ja #b4ah ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #bc4gj #dc4hb ,potassium ,*lorid1 ,k,cl #ab4ha -------------------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,colorado4 ------------------------------------ ,ne> ,gr& ,rocky ,rocky ,d5v]4 ,junction4 ,=d4 ,=d4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s #j4aj #ac4gd ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #ic4dj #ef4je #fb4ed #ag4cf ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co #ah4ig #b4jh #e4ec ,sodium ,*lorid1 ,na,cl #f4fj #bd4ih #c4hf #aa4ec ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #ca4db #dd4dc ,magnesium ,*lorid1 ,mg,cl #e4gf ,magnesium ,phosphate #a4fe ------------------------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,new ,,mexico4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,pecos ,,valley4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,,roswell ,,region4 ,,c>lsbad ,,region4 --------------------------------------- ,bremond,mi*elet,roswell,c>lsbad,delaw>e ,riv] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,potassium ,sulfate1 ,k,,s ,sodium ,sulfate1 ,na,,s #ed4fa #b4fb #fg4df #ce4af #cg4aa ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na,,co ,sodium ,*lorid1 ,na,cl #ea4fj #fe4af #aj4jj #bf4hh #cd4ca ,magnesium ,sulfate1 ,mg,s,o #ac4gi #cb4bb #bb4ed #ch4jf #bh4eh ,magnesium ,*lorid1 ,mg,cl ,magnesium ,phosphate --------------------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,nutritive ,salts 9 ,alkali4--,) !m1 h[ev]1 !re are almo/ always associat$1 9 v>y+ am\nts1 sulfate ( pota%1 phosphate ( soda1 & nitrate ( soda1 repres5t+ ! ?ree elem5ts--potassium1 phosphorus1 & nitrog5--^u ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 ! soil 9 available =m1 ! welf>e ( our crops s ess5tially dep5ds1 & :i* we aim to supply 9 f]tiliz]s4 ,! pota% salt is usually pres5t to ! ext5t ( f #e to #bj p] c5t ( ! total salts2 phosphate1 f a fraction ( "o to z mu* z #d p]c5t2 ! nitrate f a fraction ( "o to z mu* z #bj p]c5t4 ,9 black alkali ! nitrate is usually l[1 ! phosphate high2 9 ! :ite1 ! rev]se is true4 ,bo? relations are readily intelligible f a *emical & bact]iological po9t ( view4 ,e/imation ( ,total ,alkali 9 ,l&4--,! inve/igations detail$ above hav+ %[n t 9 ,cali=nia at lea/1 outside ( ! axes ( valleys no practically important am\nt ( alkali salts is usually f\nd at a dep? exce$+ f\r feet1 x became possible to det]m9e approximately ! am\nts ( salts t w\ld h to be dealt ) :5 irrigation & evaporation %\ld br+ ! entire am\nt to or ne> ! surface2 a necess>y pr]equisite to ! det]m9ation ( possible cultures4 ,:ile1 z already %[n1 ! salts occur l[] d[n 9 v s&y l&s1 yet ! diagram on p4 #dce %[s t ev5 !n1 an e/imate on ?is basis w\ld n be v wide ( ! tru?4 ,x is at lea/ probable t ! same is measurably true ( level alkali l&s else:]e1 :5 n und]laid by geological deposits impregnat$ ) salts4 ,! total am\nt ( ^! salts ord9>ily f\nd 9 alkali l&s 7i4 e4 9 su* z 9 ! dry season %[ sal9e effloresc5ces on ! surface7 is f ab\t "o t5? ( "o p] c5t to z mu* z ?ree p] c5t ( ! weight ( ! soil1 tak5 to ! dep? ( f\r feet4 ,! p]c5tage ( salts hav+ be5 det]m9$ 9 samples repres5t+ a tract1 x becomes easy to calculate1 approximately1 ! total am\nts ( ea* salt pres5t p] acre1 on ! basis ( ! weight ( ! soil p] acre foot4 ,= ! soils ( ! arid region1 su* weight w usually range f ?ree million five hundr$ ?\s& to f\r million p\nds p] acre-foot2 ! latt] be+ ! mo/ usual figure1 ( :i* x may be conv5i5tly rememb]$1 t =ty ?\s& p\nds repres5t #a p] c5t4 ,we are ?us enabl$ to e/imate e4 g4 ! am\nt ( gypsum requir$ to neutralize ! c>bonate ( soda 9 ! salts1 or ! am\nts ( valuable nutritive +r$i5ts--pota%1 phosphoric acid & nitrates--pres5t 9 ! l& 9 ! wat]-soluble =m4 ,z has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ discussion1 ! analysis at ! surface foot alone1 :i* has frequ5tly be5 alone made1 gives no def9ite clew :atev] to ! total am\nts ( salts to be controll$4 ,a full e/imate is ( special importance 9 enabl+ u to =eca/ :at culture plants are likely to succe$ on a giv5 tract1 by ref]5ce to ! table ( 8tol]ances0 giv5 bel[ 7*apt] #bc1 page #dfg74 ,composition ( ,alkali ,soils z a ,:ole4--,z may be imag9$1 ! pres5ce ( ! alkali salts f9ds expression 9 ! analytical /atem5t ( _! composition1 al?\gh n to ! ext5t usually anticipat$ f _! sup]ficial aspect4 ,! table annex$ gives ! composition ( f\rte5 alkali soils1 tak5 to ! dep? ( "o foot1 at times :5 !re 0 no visible accumulation ( salts on ! surface4 ,! av]ages ( ! sev]al +r$i5ts det]m9$ are giv5 9 ! fifte5? column1 & a comp>ison ( its figures ) ^? ( ! g5]al table on page #cgg ( *apt] #bj w %[ "s m>k$ *>act]i/ics4 ,we f9d ! av]age pota%-cont5t to be b little less ?an twice z great z 9 ! g5]al av]age = ! /ate ( ,cali=nia2 9 ! case ( lime ! ratio is ne>ly z "o to ?ree1 9 ! case ( magnesia ne>ly "o to two2 9 t ( phosphoric acid1 "o to two & a half1 ( :i* 9 ! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( soda an unusually l>ge proportion is 9 a readily soluble1 (t5 9 ! wat]-soluble1 condition 7see prec$+ table74 ,! usual proportion ( soda1 ( "o-f\r? to "o-half ( ! am\nt ( pota%1 is *ang$ to "o-half or ?ree-f\r?s2 9 ! case ( ! /ronge/ alkali l&s soda may equal or ev5 exce$ ! pota% cont5t4 ,z ! latt]1 h[ev]1 is inv>iably high to v high1 x does n happ5 z frequ5tly z might be suppos$ t ! soda cont5t exce$s t ( pota% z %[n by ! usual me?od ( soil-extraction ) wat]4 ,t ! pota% p]c5tage %\ld always be high 9 alkali l&s1 is h>dly surpris+ :5 x is consid]$ t ! cont9u$ pres5ce ( ! salts result+ f rock decomposition af=ds opportunity = ! full ex]cise ( ! pref]5ce ) :i* pota% is kn[n to be reta9$ 9 soils by ! =mation ( complex zeolitic silicates4 ,9 mo/ cases ! pota%-p]c5tage exce$s 4#ge1 & rises z high z #b4j2 z is %[n 9 ! table4 ,,composition ,,( ,,alkali ,,soils ,,z ,a ,,:ole4 7,a7 ,:ite ,a%1 ,fresno4 7,b7 ,wire ,grass1 ,visalia4 7,c7 ,pla9s1 ,cross ,creek1 ,tul>e 7,d7 ,salt ,grass1 ,b4 ,v4 ,sl\gh4 ,,collection ,,numb]4 7,a7 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 --#gjd-- --#ehe-- --#egc-- --#gjj-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4ee mm #ad4bi #a4ej ,f9e ,e>? #he4ga #ih4ej ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,insoluble matt] #he4hg #ff4dg #ff4jh #hg4jf #hh4eh #ga4db #fi4df #hi4jd ,soluble silica #b4ga #d4ie #c4ch #a4ih ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#cd #a4bb #a4hb 4#di ,soda 7,na,o7 4#be 4#fh 4#dd 4#ce ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4af #c4jd #d4ca #a4bj ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 4#ej 4#ji #a4ei #a4jg ,bro4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jc 4#jc 4#jh 4#jc ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #c4bh #e4hb #f4jd #e4hb ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #c4bb #g4ad #h4fi 4#ag ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#aj 4#bd 4#gd 4#jh ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ab 4#ff 4#bf 4#ac ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #b4ee #b4ec ,wat] & organic matt] #a4gi #g4ji #d4ae #a4ac -------------------------------- ,total #ii4cg #ii4ig #ii4ea #ii4ea -------------------------------- ,*lor91 p] c5t4 ,humus 4#fj #a4jj #a4jj 4#ag 8 ,a% 4#ce 4#hd 4#gd 4#bj -------------------------------- 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #ah4ff #ad4aj -------------------------------- 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#aa 4#ae -------------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #b4bb #h4ec #h4gd #b4af absorb$ at ,c #ad #ae ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,tul>e ,lake ,alluvium1 ,tul>e ,c\nty4 ,,collection ,,numb]4 --#hia-- --#hic-- --#gg-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4ee mm #d4aj ,f9e ,e>? all all #ie4ij ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,insoluble matt] #ed4ga #ef4ib #fg4cd #fd4ee #fg4ae ,soluble silica #i4hd #aj4ac ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #b4jb #a4fe #a4je ,soda 7,na,o7 #b4gc 4#ed 4#hd ,lime 7,ca,o7 #b4df #b4if #f4ea ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #b4ic #c4ab #c4fi ,bro4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jc 4#jd 4#jd ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #g4df #f4gc #e4je ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #aa4ej #aj4ce #g4ig ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#aa 4#af 4#cb ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#ja 4#ja 4#jh ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #a4ha 4#ic #d4db ,wat] & organic matt] #d4cd #e4gg #c4ga ---------------------------- ,total #ii4ie #ii4ib #aja4bi ---------------------------- ,*lor91 p] c5t4 ,humus 4#hh 4#dg 8 ,a% #a4jc #b4ah ---------------------------- 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #i4cg ---------------------------- 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#je ---------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #aj4ej #h4f absorb$ at ,c #aj #aj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,composition ,,( ,,alkali ,,soils ,,z ,a ,,:ole4 ,tul>e ,t5-acre tract4,c>isa ,pla9 ,,collection ,,numb] ,sub/ation,*9o1 ,s4,b4 ,co4 ,s4,l4 ,obispo --#aaei-- --#abhd-- --#adbc-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4eemm4 #a4if #a4jj #i4jj ,f9e ,e>?4 #ih4jd #ii4jj #ia4jj ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,insoluble matt] #gb4ih #fb4fb #eg4cc #gc4eh #gj4ib #fi4dh ,soluble silica #f4fj #ah4cj #ab4ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4bj 4#ie #a4bc ,soda 7,na,o7 4#eb 4#ej 4#gg ,lime 7,ca,o7 #a4hf #e4jg #d4df ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4ha 4#hd #c4ab ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jh 4#jf 4#ja ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #f4hf #f4dc #g4fe ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #e4ff #d4hh #f4af ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#aj 4#ba 4#dc ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#jc 4#jf 4#jf ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #c4gf ,wat] & organic matt] #b4ed #a4jb #b4fc ,total #ajj4bd #ii4gj #ii4ii ------------------------------------- ,*lor91 p] c5t 4#ab ,humus1 p] c5t 4#cg #a4ii #a4ci 8 ,a%1 p] c5t 4#cb #a4ac 4#ie ------------------------------------- 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #af4ge #aj4bj #ad4cf 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#jf 4#bj 4#jf ------------------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #e4ha #h4df absorb$ at ,c #ae #ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,p]ris ,valley1 ,s&1 ,coa*ella1 ,,collection ,,numb] ,jac9to riv]1 ,jac9to ,riv]side ,pla91 ,riv]side ,co4 ,co4 --#ageh-- --#agfj-- --#bdga-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4eemm4 #g4ej #c4ej ,f9e ,e>?4 #ib4ej #if4ej all ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,insoluble matt] #da4ei #ce4bj #eh4ie #fc4ac #eh4ie #gg4ed ,soluble silica #ba4ed #bc4ge #aa4cg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #a4cg #a4af #a4bf ,soda 7,na,o7 #a4ig 4#if 4#cg ,lime 7,ca,o7 #d4bc #h4jj #b4ga ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #c4hj #e4fi #b4bj ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#jc 4#jd 4#je ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #i4fe #g4cc #f4dc ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #g4bf #f4bi #e4ec ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#bc 4#bh 4#ba ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#cd 4#ba 4#jh ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #d4ai #f4di #a4je ,wat] & organic matt] #b4hi #d4ga #b4ee ,total #ii4ha #ii4hd #ii4ih ------------------------------------- ,*lor91 p] c5t ,trace4 ,humus1 p] c5t 4#fj 4#ia 4#df 8 ,a%1 p] c5t 4#ib #a4ge 4#db ------------------------------------- 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #f4ff #g4gj 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#jd 4#jg ------------------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #i4dc #h4he #b4fd absorb$ at ,c #ae #ae #ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,silt1 ,imp]ial1,av]age ( ,,collection ,,numb] ,s4 ,diego ,co4 soils4 --#bcbe-- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,co>se ,mat]ials #j4eemm4 ,f9e ,e>?4 all ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,f9e ,,e>?4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,insoluble matt] #fb4fg #fc4jh #gc4fj #gb4ai ,soluble silica #aj4ic #i4aa ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 4#gd #a4ag ,soda 7,na,o7 4#bi 4#gh ,lime 7,ca,o7 #c4ge #c4ga ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #a4fh #b4bi ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ja 4#jd ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #c4ga #f4cj ,alum9a 7,al,o7 #d4bf #f4fe ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 4#bb 4#bj ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 4#cf 4#ag ,c>bonic acid 7,,co7 #b4cb #b4ad ,wat] & organic matt] #h4ic #d4ai ,total #ii4hg -------------------------- ,*lor91 p] c5t ,humus1 p] c5t 4#fe 4#ge 8 ,a%1 p] c5t 4#fi 4#hb -------------------------- 8 ,nitrog51 p] c5t4 9 ,humus #aj4ij 8 8 1 p] c5t4 9 soil 4#jg -------------------------- ,hygroscopic ,moi/ure #b4ih #e4fc absorb$ at ,c #ae #ae ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,?is table exhibits also ano!r /&+ *>act]i/ic ( alkali soils1 :i* is to be anticipat$ f ! conditions ( _! =mation2 viz1 high lime-cont5t1 :i* sometimes rises to ! ext5t ( m>l9ess4 ,9 phosphates1 also1 alkali soils are almo/ always high2 & an unusually l>ge proportion is f\nd to be readily soluble4 ,9 pres5ce ( mu* c>bonate ( soda1 nitrates are usually sc>ce or altoge!r abs5t2 :ile ow+ to ! action ( ! alkal9e solution ^u ! humus1 ammonia salts1 or ev5 free 7or c>bonat$ & !re=e readily dissociat$ & assimilat$7 ammonia may be pres5t1 s z to be p]ceptible to ! s5ses by its odor 9 hot sun%9e4 ,b 9 ! case ( 8:ite alkali10 m especially ( ! sulphate 9 mod]ate am\nts1 nitrification is exce$+ly active & nitrates may sometimes rise to z mu* z #bj ( ! soluble salts4 ,z alkali spots are usually l[ 9 ! c5tral portion & !re=e m moi/ ?an ar\nd ! edges1 we sometimes f9d ammonia salts 9 ! middle ( a spot1 :ile nitrates are abundant along ! m>g9 ( ! same4 ,^! diff]5ces1 fir/ demon/rat$ by an inve/igation made by ,colmore1#agj illu/rate "s ( ! reactions t are ess5tially conc]n$ 9 ! agricultural availability ( alkali l&s4 ,a summ>y ( ,colmore's results is giv5 9 ! table bel[4 #agj ,report ( ! ,cali=nia ,exp't4 ,/'n4 = #ahib-id1 p4 #ada4 ,cross ,section ( an ,alkali ,spot4--,! spot exam9$ lies outside ( ,tul>e1 ,cali=nia1 sub/ation2 x be+ late 9 ! season1 :5 ! bulk ( ! salts is f\nd ne> ! surface1 ! samples 7 tak5 to ! dep? ( "o foot only1 at po9ts f\r feet ap>t1 f ! c5t] out4 ,,am\nt ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,salts ,,9 ,,alkali ,,spot ,,f ,,c5t] ,,to ,,circumf]5ce4 #d ,,feet ,,ap>t1 #a ,,ft4 ,,dep?4 #a #b #c #d #e ,m9]al ,salts4 ,c5t] ,f\r ,eight ,twelve ,out] ( spot4 feet4 feet4 feet4 m>g94 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,potassium sulfate #f4gj #i4ee #aa4ib #ai4bf #ac4ie ,sodium sulfate #ai4hd #ab4he #bc4gb #bc4ig #af4if ,magnesium sulfate #c4jg 4#jg 4#ie #b4je #h4bi ,sodium *lorid #ac4hj #bc4gc #bd4ab #bd4bc #bi4fi ,sodium c>bonate #ej4gb #ej4if #cg4ee #ce4di #bi4id ,sodium phosphate #e4eg #b4hh 4#hg 8 #a4jd ,sodium nitrate 4#cj 8 4#hg 8 4#ac ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ,totals #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,organic matt] #cj4jj #bd4hj #ai4dh #bc4cf #bj4ca ,total soluble 9 soil 4#gh 4#ed 4#gj 4#cg 4#cd ,m9]al salts 4#ch 4#dj 4#ed 4#be 4#bc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,:ile ! table %[s an obvi\s irregul>ity 9 "s ( ! data at ! eight-foot po9t1 aris+ d\btless f an irregul>ity ( surface or ( texture ov]look$ 9 tak+ ! samples1 we f9d a v rem>kable regul>ity ( progression 9 ! cases ( potassium sulfate1 sodium *lorid1 sodium c>bonate & sodium phosphate 9 ! o!r f\r samples4 ,! maxima ( ! 8black alkali0 & ! soluble organic matt] 7humus7 co9cide1 z does t ( ! phosphate2 ! total m9]al salts at ! out] m>g9 are only a little ov] half ( :at is f\nd at ! c5t]4 ,?is is natural1 z ow+ to ! deflocculat+ effect ( ! black alkali1 ! c5t] is ne>ly a foot l[] ?an ! m>g94 ,! l[]+ ( ! nitrate-cont5t at ! out] m>g9 is obvi\sly due to ! luxuriant vegetation gr[+ adjac5t4 ,reactions betwe5 ! ,c>bonates1 ,*lorids & ,sulfates ( ,alkalies & ,e>?s4 ,t a soluble e>?-salt1 su* z ! sulfate or *lorid ( calcium1 w react ^u an alkal9e c>bonate solution s z to =m an alkali sulfate1 & e4g4 lime c>bonate1 is well kn[n2 ! neutralization ( ! sodic c>bonate 9 ! soil by means ( gypsum1 above ref]r$ to1 is bas$ ^u ?is reaction4 ,x is n s well kn[n t ! latt] may be rev]s$1 p>tly or :olly1 by ! pres5ce ( c>bonic acid 9 ! solution ( ! soil4 ,al?\gh obs]v$ z e>ly z #ahbd by ,br&es1 & aga9 9 #ahei by ,a4 ,mll]1 ?is reaction is n m5tion$ 9 text-books & attract$ no att5tion z a s\rce ( naturally occurr+ alkali c>bonates :i* 9 ! pa/ h =m$ ! basis ( ext5sive comm]ce f ! ,ori5t1 until 9 #ahhh1 ! writ] toge!r ) ,web] & lat] ) ,jaffa1 inve/igat$ x quantitatively4#aga ,x 0 f\nd t up to 4#ge grms4 p] lit]1 ! entire am\nt ( sodic sulfate pres5t 9 solution is trans=m$ into c>bonate 9 pres5ce ( calcic c>bonate1 by a curr5t ( c>bonic dioxid2 b ! am\nt s trans=m$ does n cont9ue to increase beyond ab\t #d grams p] lit]4 ,a correspond+ am\nt ( calcic sulfate is =m$4 ,9 ! case ( potassic sulfate1 ! trans=mation also occurs1 proportionally to ! molecul> weight4 ,?is relation is %[n 9 ! subjo9$ diagram1 :i* also %[s 9 ! curves on ! left1 ! residual alkal9ity left aft] evaporation & dry+ ! residue at #ajj ,c4 #aga ,proc4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,agr4 ,sci41 #ahhh2 ibid41 #ahij2 ,rep4 ,cal4 ,expt4 ,/a41 #ahij1 p4 #ajj2 ,b]4 ,b]l91 ,*em4 ,ges41 #ahic2 ,am4 ,j\r4 ,sci41 ,augu/ #ahif4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,progressive ,trans=mation ( ,alkali ,sulfates into ,c>bonates4 7,! figures along upp] l9e repres5t t5?s ( "o p] c5t47 ,! correspond+ reaction occurs also1 ( c\rse1 betwe5 sodium *lorid & calcium c>bonate1 b n to ! same ext5t1 because unlike ! difficultly soluble gypsum1 ! reaction product is ! v soluble calcium *lorid1 ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 ! solution limits ! reaction mu* soon] ?an :5 mo/ ( ! decomposition product is ?r[n d[n 9 ! solid /ate4 ,! calcium *lorid n uncommonly f\nd 9 "s alkali regions is und\bt$ly ! product ( ! above reaction4 ,z ! sal9e solutions 9 ! soil are mo/ly q dilute1 & calcic c>bonate is always pres5t1 x foll[s t :5ev] "u ! influ5ces :i* favor ! oxidation ( organic matt] 9 ! soil1 & ! activity ( ! plant roots1 c>bonic gas is =m$ some:at copi\sly1 alkali sulfates & *lorids pres5t may be p>tially or :olly trans=m$ into c>bonates )9 ! soil4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x is f\nd t ?is trans=mation occurs mo/ readily 9 ! moi/] portions ( ! soil & subsoil1 & inv>iably s :5 an alkali soil is 8swamp$0 by excessive irrigation or rise ( bottom wat]2 :ile ! reaction is aga9 rev]s$ :5ev] free access ( air r$uces ! c>bonic dioxid bel[ a c]ta9 po9t4 ,x ?us becomes intelligible :y 9 ! diagrams %[+ ! di/ribution ( ! salts 7?is *apt] pp4 #dca & #dcb71 we always f9d ! sodic c>bonate relatively decreas+ z ! surface is approa*$4 ,?us1 also1 is expla9$ ! fact t sodium c>bonate is =m$ m abundantly t[>d ! c5t] ( ! root sy/em ( alkali plants1 su* z ! greasewood1 b5ea? :i* ! soil is always m abundantly *>g$ ) 8black alkali0 ?an is ! surr\nd+ e>?4 ,good a]ation ( ! soil mass1 !n1 is ess5tial 9 ma9ta9+ ! neutralization ( ! 8black alkali0 soils br\ght ab\t by ! use ( gypsum 7l& pla/]74 ,inv]se ,ratios ( ,alkali ,c>bonates & ,sulfates4--,accord+ to ! above consid]ations1 x is n surpris+ t we %\ld (t5 f9d an app>5t inv]se ratio betwe5 ! alkali sulfates & c>bonates 9 soils s closely adjac5t t _! salts mu/ be presum$ to be simil> 9 composition4 ,a /rik+ example is %[n 9 fig4 #gj1 9 :i* ?is inv]se ratio becomes app>5t f\r times 9 succession 9 "o & ! same soil pr(ile4 ,:ile ?is inf]5ce is pla9 on ! face ( ! diagram1 x is n q easy to expla9 9 detail h[ ?is alt]nation came ab\t f ! condition obs]v$ two mon?s previ\sly4 ,mo/ probably x 0 caus$ by correspond+ alt]nations ( wea!r1 9 :i* %ort1 w>m spr+ %[]s alt]nat$ ) simil>ly brief p]iods ( dry+ nor? w9ds2 ! latt] caus+ a rev]sal ( ! =mation ( sodic c>bonate t _h be5 induc$ by ! =m]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,am\nts & ,composition ( ,alkali ,salts at v>i\s dep?s 9 p>tly reclaim$ ,alkali ,l&4 ,tul>e ,exp]im5t ,sub/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,exceptional ,conditions4--,:ile ! ph5om5a ( alkali l&s z outl9$ above probably repres5t ! va/ly pr$om9ant conditions on level l&s1 yet !re are exceptions due to surface con=mation1 & ! local exi/5ce ( s\rces ( alkali salts outside ( ! soil itself4 ,su* is ! case :]e salts ooze out ( /rata cropp+ out on hillsides1 z at "s po9ts 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley 9 ,cali=nia1 & 9 p>ts ( ,new ,mexico1 ,colorado & ,wyom+2 also :]e1 z 9 ! ,hung>ian pla91 sal9e clays und]lie )9 rea* ( surface evaporation4 ,aga91 x n infrequ5tly happ5s t 9 slop+ valleys or bas9s1 :]e ! c5tral 7l[e/7 portion receives ! salts lea*$ out ( ! soils ( ! adjac5t slopes1 we f9d belts ( great] or less wid? 9 :i* ! alkali impregnation may rea* to ! dep? ( t5 or twelve feet1 usually )9 m or less def9ite lay]s ( calc>e\s h>dpan1 likewise ! outcome ( ! lea*+ ( ! valley slopes4 ,su* areas1 h[ev]1 are usually q limit$1 & are at pres5t sc>cely reclaimable )\t excessive exp5diture2 ! m z !y are (t5 und]laid by sal9e bottom wat]4 ,9 ^! cases ! pr$om9ant sal9e +r$i5t is usually common salt1 z might be expect$ & z is exemplifi$ 9 ! ,great ,salt ,lake ( ,utah1 9 ! ,antelope & ,p]ris ,valleys1 & 9 ,salton bas9 9 ,cali=nia2 9 ! ,yell[/one valley ne> ,bill+s1 ,mont4#agb 9 ! ,aralo-,caspian des]t1 & at _m o!r po9ts4 #agb ,f>m]'s ,bull4 ,no4 #hh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr41 #ahii4 ,conclusions4--,summ+ up ! conclusions f ! =ego+ facts & consid]ations1 we f9d t-- 7#a7 ,! am\nt ( soluble salts 9 alkali l&s is usually limit$2 !y are n ord9>ily suppli$ 9 indef9ite quantities f ! bottom-wat] bel[4 ,^! salts h mo/ly be5 =m$ by wea!r+ 9 ! soil-lay] itself4 7#b7 ,! salts move up & d[n )9 ! upp] f\r or five feet ( ! soil & subsoil1 foll[+ ! movem5t ( ! moi/ure2 desc5d+ 9 ! ra9y season to ! limit ( ! annual moi/5+ z a maximum1 & !n reasc5d+ or n1 accord+ z surface evaporation may dem&4 ,at ! end ( ! dry season1 9 untill$ irrigat$ l&1 practically ! entire mass ( salts may be )9 six or eight in*es ( ! surface4 7#c7 ,! direct injury to vegetation#agc is caus$ l>gely )9 a few in*es ( ! surface1 by ! corrosion ( ! b>k1 usually ne> ! root cr[n4 ,?is corrosion is /ronge/ :5 c>bonate ( soda 7salsoda7 =ms a l>ge proportion ( ! salts2 ! soda !n also dissolves ! vegetable mold & causes blacki% spots 9 ! soil1 popul>ly kn[n z black alkali4 #agc ,= a g5]al /atem5t & discussion ( ! physiological effects ( sal9e solutions on plants1 see *apt] #bf4 7#d7 ,! injury caus$ by c>bonate ( soda is aggravat$ by its action 9 puddl+ ! soil s z to cause x to lose its crumbly or flaky condition1 r5d]+ x almo/ or q untillable & imp]vi\s4 ,x also t5ds to =m 9 ! dep?s ( ! soil-lay] a t\gh1 imp]vi\s h>dpan1 :i* yields nei!r to pl[1 pick1 nor cr[b>4 ,its pres5ce is easily asc]ta9$ by means ( a po9t$ /eel s\nd+-rod4 7#e7 ,:ile alkali l&s %>e ) o!r soils ( ! arid region ! advantage ( unusually high p]c5tages ( plant-food 9 ! insoluble =m1 !y also conta91 alongside ( ! noxi\s salts1 consid]able am\nts ( wat]-soluble plant-food4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! action ( ! noxi\s salts is done away )1 !y %\ld be pr(usely & la/+ly productive2 p>ticul>ly z !y are always naturally some:at moi/ 9 consequ5ce ( ! attraction ( moi/ure by ! salts1 & are !re=e less liable to injury f dr\ght ?an ! same soils :5 free f alkali4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,utilization ,,& ,,reclamation ,,( ,,alkali ,,l&s4 ,alkali-,resi/ant ,crops4--,! mo/ obvi\s mode ( utiliz+ alkali l&s is to occupy !m ) crops n affect$ by ! noxi\s salts4 ,un=tunately b few su* crops ( g5]al utility h z yet be5 f\nd = ! /rong] class ( alkali l&s4 ,! "q is always "o ( degree1 :i* frequ5tly _c be decid$ )\t an actual det]m9ation ( ! am\nt & k9d ( salts to be dealt )1 to :i* ! crops c !n be adapt$ 9 accordance ) ! great] or less s5sitiv5ess ( ! sev]al plants1 z indicat$ 9 ! table ( tol]ances giv5 f>!r on4 ,b aside f ?is1 !re are c]ta9 g5]al measures & precautions :i* 9 any case w s]ve to mitigate ! effect ( ! alkali salts4 ,=emo/ among ^!1 & applicable ev]y:]e1 is ! prev5tion ( evaporation to ! utmo/ ext5t possible4 ,c\nt]act+ ,evaporation4--,s9ce evaporation ( ! soil-moi/ure at ! surface is :at br+s ! alkali to ! level :]e ! ma9 injury to plants occurs1 x is obvi\s t evaporation %\ld be prev5t$ z mu* z possible4 ,?is is ! m important1 z ! sav+ ( soil-moi/ure1 & !re=e ( irrigation wat]1 is atta9able by ! same means4 ,?ree me?ods = ?is purpose are usually practic$1 viz41 %ad+1 mul*+1 & ! ma9t5ance ( loose til? 9 ! surface soil to su* dep? z may be requir$ by ! climatic conditions4 ,z to mul*+1 x is already well recogniz$ 9 ! alkali regions ( ,cali=nia z an effective rem$y 9 light cases4 ,fruit trees are frequ5tly ?us protect$1 p>ticul>ly :ile "y1 aft] :i* _! %ade alone may 7z 9 ! case ( l[-tra9$ orange trees7 suffice to prev5t injury4 ,! same (t5 happ5s 9 ! case ( l[-tra9$ v9es1 small-fruit1 & vegetables4 ,s&+ ( ! surface to ! dep? ( sev]al in*es 0 among ! fir/ attempts 9 ?is direction2 b ! necessity ( cultivation1 involv+ ! r5ewal ( ! s& ea* season1 r5d]s ?is a co/ly me?od4 ,/raw1 leaves1 & manure h be5 m successfully us$2 b ev5 ^!1 unless employ$ = ! purpose ( f]tilization1 involve m exp5se & tr\ble ?an ! simple ma9t5ance ( v loose til? ( ! surface soil ?r\gh\t ! dry season2 a rem$y :i*1 ( c\rse1 is equally applicable to ho$ field crops1 & is 9 ! case ( "s ( ^!--e4 g41 cotton--a necess>y condition ( cultural success ev]y:]e4 ,! wide preval5ce ( 8light0 soils 9 ! arid regions1 f causes inh]5t 9 ! climate itself1 r5d]s ?is condition relatively easy ( fulfilm5t4 ,turn+-"u ( ,surface ,alkali4--,aside1 h[ev]1 f ! m]e prev5tion ( surface evaporation1 ano!r favorable condition is realiz$ by ?is proc$ure1 namely ! comm+l+ ( ! heavily salt-*>g$ surface-lay]s ) ! relatively non-alkal9e subsoil4 ,s9ce 9 ! arid regions ! roots ( all plants retire f>!r f ! surface because ( ! deadly dr\ght & heat ( summ]1 x is usually possible to cultivate deep] ?an c\ld safely be done ) gr[+ crops 9 humid climates4 ,yet ev5 !re1 ! maxim ( 8deep prep>ation & %all[ cultivation0 is put into practice ) advantage1 only *ang+ ! measurem5ts ( dep? to correspond ) ! alt]$ climatic conditions4 ,?us :ile 9 ! humid ,/ates1 ?ree to f\r in*es is ! accept$ /&>d ( dep? = summ] cultivation to pres]ve moi/ure )\t injury to ! roots1 t dep? mu/ 9 ! arid region frequ5tly be d\bl$ 9 ord] to be effective2 & w ev5 !n sc>cely t\* a liv+ root 9 or*>ds & v9ey>ds1 p>ticul>ly 9 unmanur$ & unirrigat$ l&4 ,a glance at fig4 #fc1 7*ap4 #bb1 p4 #dca71 w %[ ! great advantage ( extra-deep prep>ation 9 comm+l+ ! alkali salts accumulat$ ne> ! surface ) ! l[] soil-lay]s1 diffus+ ! salts1 say ?r\gh twelve in/ead ( six in*es ( soil mass4 ,?is w 9 v _m cases suffice to r5d] ! gr[? ( ord9>y crops possible if1 by subsequ5t frequ5t & ?or\gh cultivation1 surface evaporation1 & ) x ! re-asc5t ( ! salts to ! surface1 is prev5t$4 ,a /rik+ example ( ! effici5cy ( ?is mode ( proc$ure 0 obs]v$ at ! ,tul>e sub/ation1 ,cali=nia1 :]e a portion ( a v bad alkali spot 0 tr5*$ to ! dep? ( two feet1 ?r[+ ! surface soil to ! bottom4 ,! spot ?us treat$ produc$ excell5t :eat crops = two ye>s--! "t x took ! alkali salts to reasc5d to ! surface4 ,x %\ld !re=e be kept 9 m9d t :atev] else is done t[>d reclamation1 deep prep>ation & ?or\gh cultivation mu/ be reg>d$ z prime factors = ! ma9t5ance ( production on alkali l&s4 ,! ,efficacy ( ,%ad+1 already ref]r$ to1 is /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( "s field crops :i*1 :5 once e/abli%$1 w ?rive on fairly /rong alkali soil1 provid$ t a good ?ick 8/&0 has once be5 obta9$4 ,?is is notably true ( ! great =age crop ( ! arid region1 alfalfa or luc]n4 ,its se$ is extremely s5sitive to 8black0 alkali1 & w decay 9 ! gr\nd unless protect$ aga9/ x by ! use ( gypsum 9 s[+4 ,b :5 once a full /& has be5 obta9$1 ! field may endure = _m ye>s )\t a sign ( injury4 ,"h two effects comb9e1 viz41 ! %ad+1 & ! evaporation ?r\gh ! deep roots & abundant foliage1 :i* alone prev5ts1 9 a l>ge measure1 ! asc5t ( ! moi/ure & salts to ! surface4 ,! case is !n precisely p>allel to t ( ! natural soil 7see p4 #dcb1 *apt] #bb71 except t1 z irrigation is practic$ 9 ord] to /imulate production1 ! %eet ( alkali h>dpan w be dissolv$ & its salts spread ?r\gh ! soil m ev5ly4 ,! result is t s soon z ! alfalfa is tak5 (f ! gr\nd & ! cultivation ( o!r crops is attempt$1 an altoge!r unexpect$ly l>ge am\nt ( alkali comes to ! surface & greatly imp$es1 if x does n altoge!r prev5t1 ! imm$iate plant+ ( o!r crops4 ,%all[-root$ annual crops t give b little %ade1 l ! c]eals1 :ile measurably imp$+ ! rise ( ! salts dur+ _! gr[? 7see fig4 #gj1 page #deb7 frequ5tly all[ ( en\gh rise aft] h>ve/ to prev5t rese$+ ! foll[+ season4 8,neutralis+0 ,black ,alkali4--,s9ce s little c>bonate ( soda z "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t may suffice to r5d] "s soils uncultivable1 x frequ5tly happ5s t its m]e trans=mation into ! sulfate is suffici5t to remove all /ress f alkali4 ,gypsum 7l& pla/]7 is ! *eap & effective ag5t to br+ ab\t ?is trans=mation1 provid$ wat] be also pres5t4 ,! am\nt requir$ p] acre w1 ( c\rse1 v>y ) ! am\nt ( salts 9 ! soil1 all ! way f a few hundr$ p\nds to sev]al tons 9 ! case ( /rong alkali spots2 b x is n usually necess>y to add ! entire quantity at once1 provid$ t suffici5t be us$ to neutralize ! sodic c>bonate ne> ! surface1 & en\gh "t be all[$ = ! action to take place4 ,9 v wet soil1 & :5 mu* gypsum is us$1 ?is may occur )9 a few days2 9 m]ely damp soils 9 ! c\rse ( mon?s2 b usually ! effect increases = ye>s1 z ! salts rise f bel[4 ,! effect ( gypsum on black-alkali l& is (t5 v /rik+1 ev5 to ! eye4 ,! blacki% puddles & spots disappe>1 because ! gypsum r5d]s ! dissolv$ humus insoluble & ?us re/ores x to ! soil4 ,! latt] soon loses its h>d1 puddl$ condition & crumbles & bulges into a loose mass1 into :i* wat] n[ soaks freely1 br++ up ! previ\sly depress$ spots to ! g5]al level ( ! l&4 ,on ! surface ?us *ang$1 se$s n[ g]m9ate & gr[ )\t h9drance2 & z ! injury f alkali occurs at or ne> ! surface1 x is usually be/ to simply h>r[ 9 ! pla/]1 leav+ ! wat] to c>ry x d[n 9 solution4 ,soluble phosphates pres5t are decompos$ s z to reta9 f9ely divid$1 b less soluble e>? phosphates 9 ! soil4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ?is b5eficial *ange may g backw>d if ! l& ?us treat$ is p]mitt$ to be swamp$ by irrigation wat] or o!rwise4 ,"u ! same conditions naturally :ite alkali may turn black 7see above1 *apt] #bb1 p4 #dea74 ,( c\rse1 gypsum is ( no b5efit :atev] on soils conta9+ no 8black0 alkali1 b only 78:ite07 ,glaub]'s & common salt4 ,remov+ ! ,salts f ! ,soil4--,9 case ! am\nt ( salts 9 ! soil %\ld be s great t ev5 ! *ange work$ by gypsum is insuffici5t to r5d] x available = useful crops1 ! only rem$y left is to remove ! salts1 p>tially or :olly1 at lea/ f ! surface ( ! l&4 ,?ree *ief me?ods are available = ?is purpose4 ,"o is to remove ! salts1 ) m or less e>?1 f ! surface at ! end ( ! dry season1 ei!r by sweep+ or by means ( a horse scrap] set s z to c>ry (f a c]ta9 dep? ( soil4 ,?us sometimes 9 a s+le season "o-?ird or "o-half ( ! total salts may be got rid (1 ! loss ( a few in*es ( surface soil be+ ( little mom5t 9 ! deep soils ( ! arid region4 ,ano!r me?od af=d+ p>tial relief is to flood ! l& = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to c>ry ! alkali ?ree or m feet bel[ ! surface1 !n c>efully prev5t+ its re-asc5t by suppress+ evaporation 7see ?is *apt]1 p4 #dee7 z mu* z possible4 ,! be/ ( all1 ! f9al & univ]sally effici5t rem$y1 is to lea* ! alkali salt out ( ! soil into ! c\ntry dra9age2 supplem5t+ by irrigation wat] :at is left undone by ! defici5t ra9fall4 ,x is n practicable1 z _m suppose1 to wa% ! salts (f ! surface by a ru% ( wat]1 z !y in/antly soak into ! gr\nd at ! fir/ t\*4 ,nor is !re any c]ta9 relief f all[+ ! wat] to /& on ! l& & !n draw+ x (f2 9 ?is case also ! salts soak d[n ahead ( ! wat]1 & ! wat] /&+ on ! surface rema9s almo/ un*ang$4 ,9 v p]vi\s soils & 9 ! case ( :ite alkali1 ! wa%+-out c (t5 be accompli%$ )\t special provision = und]dra9age1 by leav+ ! wat] on ! l& suffici5tly long4 ,b ! lay+ ( regul> und]dra9s greatly accel]ates ! "w1 & r5d]s success c]ta94 ,lea*+-,d[n4--,9 advance ( und]dra9age1 x is q g5]ally feasible1 :]e ! l& has be5 level$ & dik$ = irrigation by surface flood+1 to lea* ! salts out ( ! fir/ ?ree or f\r feet by cont9u$ flood+1 ?us tak+ !m out ( rea* ( ! crop roots1 or at all ev5ts giv+ ! se$ an opportunity to escape injury f alkali4 ,?is plan is especially effective 9 ! case ( alfalfa1 ! "y se$l+s ( :i* are v s5sitive1 :ile ! gr[n plant is r resi/ant4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ?is relief s z to "k :at is be+ accompli%$1 ! f>m] %\ld asc]ta9 be=eh& h[ fa/ wat] w soak d[n 9 8 gr\nd2#agd = 9 heavy clay soils1 & especially 9 ^? conta9+ black alkali1 ! soakage is sometimes s sl[ t ! upw>d diffusion ( ! salts keeps pace ) ! d[nw>d soakage2 9 :i* case no?+ is accompli%$ by flood+1 & und]dra9age is ! only rem$y4 ,b 9 mo/ soils ( ! arid region flood+ f ?ree days to a week w remove ! alkali beyond rea* ( ! roots ( ord9>y crops4 ,if subsequ5tly irrigation is done by means ( deep furr[s1 ! alkali salts may be ei!r kept at a l[ level cont9u\sly1 or if ! l& be at all p]vi\s1 ! alkali may ultimately be p]man5tly lea*$ out into ! subdra9age by f>!r flood+4 ,:5 ! alkali has n accumulat$ ne> ! surface to any great ext5t1 irrigation by deep furr[s may1 alone1 af=d all ! relief ne$$4 #agd ,see p4 #bdb1 ,*ap4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,lemon ,or*>d ,affect$ by ,alkali2 ,be=e ,deep ,irrigation4 ,9 ! case illu/rat$ by figures #ga & #gb1 irrigation by %all[ furr[s ) wat] too /rongly *>g$ ) salts _h s f> add$ to ! natural alkali-cont5t ( ! l& t ! lemon trees 7 be+ defoliat$4 ,^u ! advice ( ! ,cali=nia ,/ation ! deep-furr[ sy/em 0 adopt$1 & )9 two ye>s ! results 7 z %[n 9 figure #gb1 ! salts hav+ be5 c>ri$ d[n & dilut$ s z to become h>mless4 ,und]dra9age ! ,f9al & ,univ]sal ,rem$y = ,alkali4--,:5 we und]dra9 an alkali soil1 we adopt ! v means by :i* ! exi/5ce ( alkali l&s 9 ! humid regions is :olly prev5t$2 ! lea*+-out ( ! soluble salts =m$ 9 soil-wea!r+ z fa/ z !y are =m$4 ,! long & abundant exp]i5ce _h ) und]dra9age 9 reclaim+ sal9e sea-coa/ l&s1 applies directly & cog5tly to alkali l&s4 ,x is ! univ]sal rem$y = all ! evils ( alkali1 & its only drawback is ! fir/ exp5se1 & ! necessity = obta9+ an outlet = ! dra9 wat]s1 :i* _c always be _h on ! own]'s l&4 ,h5ce x requires co-op]ation or legislation to r5d] ! great improvem5t ( und]dra9age feasible4 ,su* legislation is well e/abli%$ 9 ! old _w1 & has be5 enact$ 9 sev]al /ates ev5 ( ! humid region4 ,:]e irrigation is practic$ z a matt] ( necessity1 und]dra9age is a correlative necessity1 bo? to avoid ! evils ( ov]-irrigation & to relieve ! l& ( noxi\s alkali salts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,! ,above ,or*>d aft] ,alkali 0 ,driv5 ,d[n by ,deep ,irrigation1 foll[$ by ,cultivation4 ,! dra9age law n[ exi/+ 9 ,cali=nia does n g f>!r ?an to au?orize ! =mation ( dra9age di/ricts1 )9 :i* ! necess>y taxes may be levi$2 & !re is "s difficulty 9 secur+ popul> action4 ,b bitt] exp]i5ce w d\btless 9 "t compel unanimity1 su* z n[ exi/s1 e4 g41 9 ,ill9ois1 :]e dra9age is n ne>ly s urg5tly ne$$ z x is 9 ! irrigation /ates4 ,possible ,injury to ,l& by ,excessive ,lea*+4--,x %\ld n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t excessive lea*+ ( und]dra9$ l& by flood+ is liable to injure ! soil 9 two ways3 fir/1 by ! removal ( valuable soluble plant-food2 & fur!r1 by r5d]+ ! l& less ret5tive ( moi/ure1 su* ret5tion be+ favor$ by ! pres5ce ( small am\nts ( alkali salts1 n suffici5t to injure crops4 ,aft] ! salts h be5 c>ri$ d[n to a suffici5t dep? to prev5t injury to annual crops1 & ) prop] subsequ5t att5tion to ! prev5tion ( surface evaporation1 ! flood+ w n ne$ to be repeat$ = sev]al ye>s4 ,?us 9 _m soils excell5t crops may be gr[n ev5 9 /rong alkali l&1 p5d+ ! e/abli%m5t ( p]man5t dra9age sy/ems4 ,! importance ( ?or\ghly wa%+ ! alkali deeply into ! soil be=e ! se$ is plant$1 & keep+ x !re by prop] means until ! foliage ( ! plant %ades ! soil suffici5tly to prev5t ! rise ( moi/ure & alkali1 is well illu/rat$ 9 fields 9 ! region ( ,bak]sfield1 ,cal41 :]e alfalfa is n[ gr[+ 9 soils once heavily *>g$ ) alkali4#age ,f "o ( ^! fields samples ( soil 7 tak5 :]e ! alkali 0 suppos$ to be /ronge/ b5ea? ! alfalfa1 & also f an adjo9+ untreat$ alkali spot1 :i* 0 said to repres5t conditions be=e alfalfa 0 plant$4 ,! results are giv5 9 p\nds p] acre 9 f\r feet dep?4 ,sulfate4,c>bonate4 ,common ,total ,salt4 ,alkali4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,alkali spot be=e alfalfa 0 plant$ #fj1abj #gbj #age1hdj #bcf1fhj ,alfalfa field2 alkali wa%$ d[n #ad1djj #a1jdj #ah1fdj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,"h ! surface foot ( ! natural soil conta9$ ne>ly #adj1jjj p\nds ( common salt1 a prohibitory am\nt4 ,simil> exp]i5ce has be5 _h ne> ,yuma1 ,arizona4 #age ,bull4 #acc1 ,cal4 ,expt4 ,/a41 by ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge4 ,difficulty 9 ,dra9+ 8,black0 ,alkali ,l&s4--,an important exception to ! efficacy ( dra9+1 h[ev]1 occurs 9 ! case ( black alkali 9 mo/ l&s4 ,9 ?is case ei!r ! imp]vi\s h>dpan or 79 ! case ( actual alkali spots7 ! imp5etrability ( ! surface soil itself w r5d] ev5 und]dra9s ineffective unless ! salsoda & its effects on ! soil are fir/ de/roy$ by ! use ( gypsum1 z above detail$4 ,?is is n only necess>y 9 ord] to r5d] dra9age & lea*+ possible1 b is also advisable 9 ord] to prev5t ! lea*+-out ( ! valuable humus & soluble phosphates1 :i* are r5d]$ insoluble 7b n unavailable to plants7 by ! action ( ! gypsum4 ,:]ev] black alkali is f\nd 9 l&s n v s&y1 ! application ( gypsum %\ld prec$e any o!r ef=ts t[>d reclamation4 ,trees & v9es already plant$ may be tempor>ily protect$ f ! wor/ effects ( ! black alkali by surr\nd+ ! trunks ) gypsum or ) e>? abundantly mix$ ) x4 ,se$s may be simil>ly protect$ 9 s[+1 & "y plants 9 plant+4 ,swamp+ ( ,alkali ,l&s4--,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ! swamp+ ( alkali l&s1 :e!r ( ! :ite or black k9d1 is fatal n only to _! pres5t productiv5ess1 b also1 on acc\nt ( ! /rong *emical action ?us induc$1 greatly jeop>dizes _! future usefulness4 ,_m co/ly inve/m5ts 9 or*>ds & v9ey>ds h ?us be5 r5d]$ unproductive1 or h ev5 become a total loss4 ,r$uction ( ,alkali by ,cropp+4--,ano!r me?od = dim9i%+ ! am\nt ( alkali 9 ! soil is ! cropp+ ) plants t take up consid]able am\nts ( salts4 ,9 tak+ !m into cultivation1 x is advisable to remove entirely f ! l& ! salt gr[? t may naturally cov] x1 notably ! greasewoods 7,s>cobatus1 ,all5rolfea71 ) _! heavy p]c5tage ( alkal9e a% 7#ab to #bj p] c5t74 ,crop plants adapt$ to ! same object are m5tion$ f>!r on4 ,su* crops %\ld also1 ( c\rse1 be :olly remov$ f ! l&4 ,total ,am\nts ( ,salts ,compatible ) ,ord9>y ,crops2 ,tol]ance ( ,culture ,plants4--,s9ce ! am\nt ( alkali t rea*es ! surface lay] is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! v>y+ conditions ( ra9fall or irrigation1 & surface evaporation1 x is difficult to =esee to :at ext5t t accumulation may g1 unless we "k ! total am\nt ( salts pres5t t may be call$ into action4 ,?is1 z already expla9$1 c ord9>ily be asc]ta9$ by ! exam9ation ( "o sample repres5t+ ! av]age ( a soil column ( f\r feet4 ,by calculat+ ! figures s obta9$ to an acre ( gr\nd1 we c at lea/ approximate ! limits )9 or beyond :i* crops w succe$ or p]i%4 ,apply+ ?is proc$ure to ! cases repres5t$ 9 ! diagrams 7pp4 #dcd1 #deb1 *apt] #bb7 & e/imat+ ! weight ( ! soil p] acre-foot at #d1jjj1jjj p\nds1 we f9d 9 ! l& on :i* b>ley refus$ to gr[ ! figures #cb1dgj & #dc1ffj p\nds ( total salts p] acre1 respectively correspond+ to #j4bjc p] c5t = ! fir/ figure 7! second1 repres5t+ only ! two surface feet1 is n /rictly comp>able74 ,= ! l& on :i* b>ley gave a full crop1 we f9d = ! ,may sample #be1eej p\nds1 equival5t to #j4aei p] c5t = ! :ole soil column ( f\r feet4 ,x ?us appe>s t = b>ley ! limits ( tol]ance lie betwe5 ! above two figures4 ,x %\ld be not$ t 9 ?is case a full crop ( b>ley 0 gr[n ev5 :5 ! alkali consi/$ ( fully "o-half ( ! noxi\s c>bonate ( soda2 prov+ t x is n necess>y 9 e case to neutralize ! entire am\nt ( t salt by means ( gypsum1 :i* 9 ! pres5t case w\ld h requir$ ab\t #i tons ( gypsum p] acre--a prohibitory exp5diture4 ,relative ,injuri\sness ( ! ,sev]al ,salts4--,( ! ?ree sodium salts t usually con/itute ! bulk ( 8alkali10 only ! c>bonate ( soda is susceptible ( be+ mat]ially *ang$ by any ag5t t c practically be appli$ to l&4 ,s f> z we "k1 ! salt ( sodium lea/ injuri\s to ord9>y vegetation is ! sulfate1 commonly call$ ,glaub]'s salt1 :i* ord9>ily =ms ! *ief +r$i5t ( 8:ite0 alkali4 ,?us b>ley is capable ( resi/+ ab\t five times m ( ! sulfate ?an ( ! c>bonate1 & q twice z mu* z ( common salt4 ,s9ce ! maximum p]c5tage t c be resi/$ by plants v>ies mat]ially ) ! k9d ( soil1 x is difficult to give exact figures save ) respect to p>ticul> cases4 ,= ! s&y loam ( ! ,tul>e sub/ation1 ,cali=nia1 = in/ance1 ! maximum = c]eals may be approximately /at$ to be "o-t5? ( #a p] c5t = salsoda2 a f\r? ( #a p] c5t = common salt2 & f =ty-five to fifty "o-hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t ( ,glaub]'s salt4 ,= clay soils ! tol]ance is 9 g5]al m>k$ly less1 especially z reg>ds ! salsoda2 s9ce 9 _! case ! injuri\s effect on ! till+ qualities ( ! soil1 already ref]r$ to1 is sup]add$ to ! corrosive action ( t salt ^u ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,alkali curve %[+ p]c5tage ( ,alkali ,salts 9 field ( ,sug> ,beets1 ,oxn>d1 ,calif4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,beets f correspond+ positions 9 ! above field4 ,effect ( ,diff]5ces 9 ,composition ( ,alkali ,salts on ,beets4--,! m>k$ diff]5ces :i* may occur z ! result ( ev5 slight v>iations 9 ! proportions ( ! sev]al salts is well illu/rat$ 9 ! subjo9$ diagram ( obs]vations made by ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,%aw1 ( ! ,cal4 ,expt4 /ation1 ^u beet fields 9 ! neighborhood ( ,oxn>d1 ,cal4 ,! l&s lie n f> f ! sea%ore1 & sal9e wat] und]runs !m = consid]able di/ance inl&4 ,! soil & subsoil are q s&y1 s t x takes irrigation wat] only ab\t sev5 h\rs to p5etrate f ! surface to bottom wat] at sev5 feet dep?4 ,! l& on :i* ^! obs]vations 7 made are app>5tly level to ! eye1 ?\gh probably ! alkali belts on :i* ! sug> beets 7 8poor0 are slightly depress$ swales4 ,x w be not$ t "h ! beets 7 8good0 :]e ! sulfate 7,glaub]'s salt7 rang$ up to 4#h1 ) 4#aj to 4#bj ( common salt2 b t s soon z ! latt] rose above 4#bj1 ! beets 7 poor despite ! l[ p]c5tage ( ,glaub]'s salt2 !n became 8good0 aga9 s soon z ! common salt fell bel[ 4#bj1 al?\gh ! ,glaub]'s salt increas$4 ,,tol]ance ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,crop ,,plants4 ,! foll[+ table1 compil$ by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge ma9ly f 8 own obs]vations1#agf gives ! details ( ! tol]ance = v>i\s culture plants z asc]ta9$ at ! sev]al exp]im5t sub/ations 9 ,cali=nia1 z well z at o!r po9ts 9 t ,/ate & 9 ,arizona :]e critical cases c\ld be f\nd4 ,x is ?\ght pref]able to inve/igate analytically su* cases 9 ! field1 r ?an to attempt to obta9 results f small-scale exp]im5ts artificially arrang$1 9 :i* s\rces ( error aris+ f evaporation & o!r causes are mo/ difficult to avoid4 #agf ,bullet9s ,nos4 #abh1 #acc & #adj1 ,calif4 ,expt4 ,/ation4 ,! table is s arrang$ z to %[ ! maximum tol]ance ?us f> obs]v$ = ea* ( ! ?ree s+le +r$i5ts1 z well z ! maximum ( total salts f\nd compatible ) good gr[?4 ,9 view ( ! extremely v>iable proportions betwe5 ! ?ree *ief +r$i5ts f\nd 9 nature1 ?is seems to be ! only mann] 9 :i* ! obs]vations made c be intelligibly pres5t$1 until p]haps a great numb] ( su* data %all enable u to evolve ma!matical =mul express+ ! tol]ance = ! possible mixtures = ea* plant4 ,= x is c]ta9 t ! tol]ance-figures w be q diff]5t 9 pres5ce ( o!r salts1 f ^? t w\ld be obta9$ = ea* salt sep>ately2 or = ! calculat$ mean ( su* sep>ate det]m9ations1 proportionally pro-rat$4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ t 9 all alkali soils1 lime c>bonate is abundantly pres5t1 z is1 ne>ly always1 a great] or less am\nt ( ! sulfate 7gypsum74 ,z already /at$1 accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,cam]on n only ^! comp\nds1 b also calcium *lorid1 ex]t a protective influ5ce aga9/ ! injury to plant gr[? f comp\nds ( sodium & potassium4 ,! figures "h giv5 c !re=e be reg>d$ only z approximations1 subject to correction by f>!r obs]vation4 ,!y are arrang$ f ! highe/ tol]ances d[nw>d1 = ea* ( ! ?ree +r$i5ts1 z well z = ! totals4 ,! latt] are n1 ( c\rse1 ! sums ( ! figures giv5 9 ! prec$+ columns1 b indep5d5t data4 ,,highe/ ,,am\nt ,,( ,,alkali ,,9 ,,:i* ,,fruit ,,trees ,,7 ,,f\nd ,,unaffect$4#agg ,arrang$ f highe/ to l[e/4 ,p\nds p] acre 9 f\r feet dep?4 ,sulfates ,c>bonate ,*lorid ,total ,alkali4 7,glaub]'s ,salt74 7,salsoda74 7,common ,salt74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,grapes #dj1hjj ,grapes #g1eej ,grapes #i1fdj ,grapes #de1gjj ,olives #cj1fdj ,oranges #c1hdj ,olives #f1fdj ,olives #dj1afj ,figs #bd1dhj ,olives #b1hhj ,oranges #c1cfj ,almonds #be1efj ,almonds #bb1gbj ,pe>s #a1gfj ,almonds #b1djj ,figs #bf1djj ,oranges #ah1fjj ,almonds #a1ddj ,mulb]ry #b1bdj ,oranges #ba1hdj ,pe>s #ag1hjj ,prunes #a1cfj ,pe>s #a1cfj ,pe>s #bj1ibj ,apples #ad1bdj ,figs #a1abj ,apples #a1bdj ,apples #af1abj ,pea*es #i1fjj ,pea*es #fhj ,prunes #a1bjj ,prunes #aa1hjj ,prunes #i1bdj ,apples #fdj ,pea*es #a1jjj ,pea*es #aa1bhj ,apricots #h1fdj ,apricots #dhj ,apricots #ifj ,apricots #aj1jhj ,lemons #d1dhj ,lemons #dhj ,lemons #hjj ,lemons #e1gfj ,mulb]ry #c1cfj ,mulb]ry #afj ,figs #hjj ,mulb]ry #e1gfj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #agg ,! sev]al columns ( figures are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 ! 8total0 alkali is n ! summation = ! ?ree salts 9 ! same l9e4 ,,o!r ,,trees4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,klreut]ia #ea1jdj ,klreut]ia #i1ibj ,or4 ,sycamore #bj1cbj ,eucal4 am4 #cd1gbj ,or4 ,sycamore #c1bjj ,klreut]ia #ab1fdj ,or4 ,sycamore #ai1bdj ,date ,palm4 #b1hjj ,eucal4 am4 #b1ifj ,wa%4 ,palm #ac1jdj ,eucal4 am4 #b1gbj ,camph4 ,tree #a1dbj ,date ,palm #e1ejj ,wa%4 ,palm #a1bjj ,wa%4 ,palm #a1jdj ,camph4 ,tree #e1bhj ,camph4 ,tree #cbj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,klreut]ia #gc1fjj ,or4 ,sycamore4 #db1gfj ,eucal4 am4 #dj1djj ,wa%4 ,palm #ae1bjj ,date ,palm #h1cbh ,camph4 ,tree #g1jbj --------------------- ,,small ,,cultures4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,saltbu% #abe1fdj ,saltbu% #ah1efj ,modiola #dj1hfj ,alfalfa1 old #ajb1dhj ,b>ley #ab1agj ,saltbu% #ab1ebj ,alfalfa1 "y #aa1abj ,bur ,clov] #aa1cjj ,sorghum #i1fhj ,hairy ,vet* #fc1gbj ,sorghum #i1hdj ,cel]y #i1fjj ,sorghum #fa1hdj ,radi% #h1gbj ,onions #e1haj ,sug> ,beet #eb1fdj ,modiola #d1gfj ,potatoes #e1haj ,sunfl[] #eb1fdj ,sug> ,beet #d1jjj ,sunfl[] #e1ddj ,radi% #ea1hhj ,glut5 ,:eat #c1jjj ,sug> ,beet#agh #aj1bdj ,arti*oke #ch1gbj ,arti*oke #b1gfj ,b>ley #e1ajj ,c>rot #bd1hhj ,lup9 #b1gbj ,hairy ,vet* #c1afj ,glut5 ,:eat #bj1ifj ,hairy ,vet* #b1dhj ,lup9 #c1jdj ,:eat #ae1abj ,alfalfa #b1cfj ,c>rot #b1cfj ,b>ley #ab1jbj ,grasses #b1cjj ,radi% #b1bdj ,goat's ,rue #aj1hhj ,kaffir ,corn #a1hjj ,rye #a1gbj ,rye #i1hjj ,sweet ,corn #a1hjj ,arti*oke #a1dhj ,caaigre #i1afj ,sunfl[] #a1gfj ,glut5 ,:eat #a1dhj ,ray ,grass #f1ibj ,:eat #a1dhj ,:eat #a1afj ,modiola #f1hjj ,c>rot #a1bdj ,grasses #a1jjj ,bur ,clov] #e1gjj ,rye #ifj ,:ite ,melilot #ddj ,lup9 #e1ddj ,goat's ,rue #gfj ,goat's ,rue #afj ,:ite ,melilot #d1ibj ,:ite ,melilot #dhj ,caaigre #hj ,cel]y #d1jhj ,caaigre #abj ,saltgrass #dd1jjj ,saltgrass #acf1bgj ,saltgrass #gj1cfj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,saltbu% #aef1gbj ,alfalfa1 old #aaj1cbj ,alfalfa1 "y #ac1abj ,sorghum #ha1cfj ,hairy ,vet* #fi1cfj ,radi% #fb1hdj ,sunfl[] #ei1hdj ,sug> ,beet #ei1hdj ,modiola #eb1dbj ,arti*oke #db1ifj ,c>rot #bh1dhj ,b>ley #be1ebj ,glut5 ,:eat #bd1cbj ,:eat #ag1bhj ,bur ,clov] #ag1jjj ,cel]y #ac1fhj ,rye #ab1dhj ,goat's ,rue #aa1hjj ,lup9 #aa1bjj ,caaigre #i1cfj ,onions #ch1dhj ,potatoes #ch1dhj ,saltgrass #cha1aaj ---------------------- #agh ,figures tak5 f ,bullet9 #afi1 ,calif4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 ,june1 #aije4 ,comm5ts on ! ,above ,table4--,consid]+ 9 ?is table1 fir/1 ! plants suitable = ! /rong] class ( alkali l&s1 x may be said g5]ally t ! se>* = widely acceptable k9ds has n be5 v successful4 ,x is true t cattle w nibble gre5 salt grass 7,di/i*lis spicata71 b w soon leave x = any dry fe$ t may be )9 rea*4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( salts :i* x w tol]ate 9 ! soil on :i* x gr[s1 & ! d\btless correspond+ly l>ge am\nt ( ^? salts :i* x w absorb1 judg+ f its ta/e1 suffici5tly expla9 ! reluctance ( cattle to fe$ on x to any consid]able ext5t4 ,! same is true ( all ! fle%y plants t gr[ on ! /rong] alkali l&s1 & are kn[n "u ! g5]al designation ( 8alkali we$s40 ,:5 /ock unaccu/om$ to x are =c$ by hung] to fe$ on su* vegetation to any consid]able ext5t1 disord]$ dige/ion is apt to result2 :i* 9 su* ranges1 h[ev]1 is (t5 c\nt]act$ by fe$+ on aromatic or a/r+5t antidotes1 su* z ! gray sagebru% & ! m or less res9\s h]bage ( plants ( ! sunfl[] family4 ,9 ! ,great ,bas9 region1 ly+ betwe5 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ! front range ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 !re are1 aside f ! grasses1 num]\s h]bace\s & %rubby plants t af=d valuable pa/urage = /ock1#agi & "s ( ^! gr[ on mod]ately /rong alkali l&2 ! same is true 9 ,cali=nia4 ,x is q possible t "s ( ^! w be f\nd to l5d !mselves to ready propagation = culture purposes z well z !y d = re/ock+ ! ranges4 ,b ?us f> none h f\nd wid] acceptance1 probably because _! /iff bran*es & upright habit r5d] !m inconv5i5t to h&le4 ,x w require m ext5d$ exp]i5ce & exp]im5t be=e any ( ^! w be def9itely adopt$ = propagation by f>m]s & /ockm54 #agi ,see ,bullet9 ,no4 #af ( ! ,wyom+ ,exp]im5t ,/ation2 also ,bullet9 ,nos1 #b & #ab ( ! ,division ( ,agro/ology1 & ,f>m]s' ,bullet9 ,no4 #ajh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,saltbu%es1 & ,h]bace\s ,crops4 ,au/ralian ,saltbu%es4--,exp]i5ce 9 ,cali=nia indicates t 9 ! m s\!rly portion ( ! arid region1 unpalatable native plants may be l>gely replac$1 ev5 on ! ranges1 by "o or m species ( ! ,au/ralian saltbu%es 7,atriplex spp471 long ago recomm5d$ by ,b>on von ,muell] ( ,melb\rne2 ( :i* "o 7,a4 semibaccata7 has prov$ em95tly adapt$ to ! climate & soil ( ,cali=nia & is readily eat5 by all k9ds ( /ock4 ,! facility ) :i* x is propagat$1 its quick developm5t1 ! l>ge am\nt ( fe$ yield$ on a giv5 area1 ev5 on ! /ronge/ alkali l& ord9>ily f\nd1 & its ?91 flexible /ems1 p]mitt+ x to be h&l$ v mu* l alfalfa1 seem to comm5d x especially to ! f>m]s' consid]ation :]ev] bett] =age plants _c be gr[n & ! climate w p]mit ( its use4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 resi/ ! sev]e cold ( ! int]ior plateau c\ntry1 & is :olly out ( place 9 ! ,pacific ,coa/ region :]e summ] fogs prevail4 ,mo/ ( ! o!r ,au/ralian species h an upright1 %rubby habit1 :i* adapts !m bett] to br[s+ ?an to pa/ure prop]4 ,! same is true ( ! ,arg5t9e species 7,a4 ,ca*iyuyum71 :i* 9 its native pampas is highly e/eem$ = t purpose1 & succe$s well 9 ,cali=nia4 ,( o!r ,au/ralian saltbu%es1 ,a4 halimoides1 vesic>ia & leptoc>pa are ! mo/ promis+2 ! latt] is some:at simil> 9 habit to ! semibaccata1 b is n z vigor\s a gr[]4 ,s9ce "s ( ! saltbu%es take up ne>ly "o fif? ( _! dry weight ( a% +r$i5ts1#ahj l>gely common salt1 ! complete removal f ! l& ( a five-ton crop ( saltbu% hay w take away ne>ly a ton ( ! alkali salts p] acre4 ,?is w 9 ! c\rse ( "s ye>s be q suffici5t to r$uce mat]ially ! sal9e cont5ts ( ! l&1 & w frequ5tly r5d] possible ! culture ( ord9>y crops4 #ahj ,analyses made at ! ,cali=nia /ation %[ #ai4cg p]c5t ( a% 9 ! air-dry matt] ( ,au/ralian saltbu%4 7,see ,cali=nia ,/ation ,bullet9 ,no4 #aje2 ,e4 ,s4 ,r41 vol4 #f1 p4 #gah74 ,analyses ( ,russian ?i/le h be5 report$ %[+ ov] #bj p] c5t ( a% 9 dry matt]4 7,see ,m9nesota ,/a4 ,bullet9 ,no4 #cd2 ,i[a ,/a4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bf2 ,e4 ,s4 ,r41 vol4 #f1 pp4 #eeb-eec74 ,modiola4--,alongside ( ! saltbu%es1 ! ,*ilean plant ,modiola procumb5s1 n[ g5]ally kn[n z modiola simply1 des]ves att5tion1 z x makes acceptable pa/ure :]e alfalfa fails to make a /& on acc\nt ( alkali4 ,x is a trail+ plant ) m$ium-siz$1 r\ndi% foliage1 & roots freely at ! jo9ts :]e !y t\* ! gr\nd4 ,unlike ! saltbu%es x is !re=e a =midable we$ :]e x is n want$2 b z accord+ to ,cali=nia exp]i5ce x resi/s z mu* z #eb1jjj p\nds ( salts p] acre1 ev5 :5 #da1jjj ( ^! is common salt1 x is likely to be useful 9 _m cases1 p>ticul>ly z an admixture to a saltbu% diet = /ock1 z x does n absorb z mu* salt z ! latt]4 ,x seems be/ adapt$ to pa/urage4 ,z ! table %[s t1 once gr[n to ! age ( a few ye>s1 alfalfa w resi/ a p]c5tage ( alkali next to ! saltbu%1 x w g5]ally be wor? :ile1 9 l&s o!rwise adapt$ to alfalfa1 to prep>e ! l& by lea*+-d[n 7see above7 s z to secure a /& ( ! m valuable crop4 ,native ,grasses4#aha--,( all kn[n plants t /ock w eat some:at freely1 ! tussock grass 7,sporobolus airoides1 ( :i* a figure is giv5 f>!r on71 a native ( ! s\!rn arid region1 endures ! l>ge/ am\nts ( alkali2 hav+ be5 f\nd gr[+ well on l& conta9+ ! enorm\s am\nt ( ne>ly half a million p\nds ( salts p] acre1 al?\gh x w ?rive ) only #di1jjj p\nds 9 ! soil4 ,:at x w d "u cultivation has nev] be5 fairly te/$2 b its b>e tussocks1 kill$ by ! excessive br[s+ ( /ock1 te/ify to its acceptabl5ess z =age4 ,x does n seem to absorb excessive am\nts ( salts4 #aha ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ! plants s ref]r$ to are exclusively ! true grasses1 recogniz$ z su* by e *ild1 & n =age plants g5]ally2 :i* are sometimes s designat$2 n only by f>m]s1 b by "s au?ors :o fail to appreciate ! practical importance ( ! di/9ction1 :i* makes x necess>y t f>m]s %\ld be taught to und]/& x4 ,aside f ! alkali grass prop] 7,di/i*lis71 m5tion$ above1 ! s-call$ rye grass ( ! ,nor?we/ 7,elymus cond5satus7 is probably1 next to ! tussock grass1 ! mo/ resi/ant species among ! wild grasses4 ,its s\!rn =m1 ) sev]al o!rs n positively id5tifi$1 occupies l>gely ! mild] alkali l&s ( s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,?is grass1 ?\gh r co>se1 is regul>ly cut = hay 9 ! l[ gr\nds ( ,oregon & ,wa%+ton4 ,d\btless "s ( ! indig5\s grasses ( ! int]ior plateau region & ( ! great pla9s ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 su* z ! buffalo & grama grasses1 z well z sev]al ( ! :eat grasses 7,agropyron7 & bun* grasses 7,fe/uca1 ,poa1 ,/ipa1 etc47 w prove resi/ant to l>g] proportions ( alkali ?an ! mead[ & pa/ure grasses ( ! regions ( summ] ra9s4 ,cultivat$ ,grasses4--,! sup]ficial root+ & f9e fibr\s roots ( ! true annual grasses r5d] !m1 z a :ole1 r s5sitive to alkali2 yet ! c]eals--b>ley1 :eat1 rye & oats--resi/1 z ! table %[s1 ! av]age alkali salts to ! ext5t ( f #ag1jjj total salts1 ) n exce$+ #aejj p\nds ( c>bonate1 9 ! case ( ! m delicate v>ieties ( :eat1 to ov] #be1jjj p\nds p] acre 9 ! case ( b>ley1 :i* ) ! glut5 :eats & rye seems to h ! highe/ tol]ance-figure4 ,! special adaptation ( glut5 :eats to arid conditions is ?us emphasiz$4 ,! roots ( ^! c]eals are comp>atively /\t1 ) ?ick epid]mis4 ,among ! cultivat$ =age grasses prop]1 ! ,au/ralian v>iety ( ! ,engli% ray 7g5]ally miscall$ rye7 grass seems mo/ resi/ant4 ,! ea/]n fescues1 ,k5tucky blue grass1 & o!rs at home 9 ! humid region are easily injur$1 z ^? :o try to ma9ta9 lawns on alkali-ta9t$ l&s1 or by irrigation ) alkali wat]s1 "k to _! sorr[4 ,to ^! grasses common salt & bitt]n 7magnesium *lorid7 seem to be p>ticul>ly injuri\s1 & !y tol]ate b little 8black alkali40 ,on ! r close-textur$ soil at ,*9o1 ,cali=nia1 ! loliums1 includ+ ! d>nel 78,cali=nia *eat071 & ! ,au/ralian & ,italian ray 78rye07 grasses1 succe$ fairly on l& conta9+ z mu* z #f1jjj p\nds ( 7:ite7 salts4 ,mo/ o!r cultivat$ grasses fail$ conspicu\sly alongside ( ^!4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 m loose-textur$1 s&y l&s ?an ^? 9 :i* ^! te/s 7 made1 ! above figures = tol]ance w\ld probably be increas$ by #cj p]c5t or m4 ,maize is r s5sitive to alkali1 & suff]s ev5 on slightly alkal9e l&1 ow+ d\btless to ! l>ge developm5t ( f9e :ite rootlets ne> ! surface1 s famili> to corn-gr[]s4 ,! ,sorghums1 & especially ,egyptian corn 7durra7 are mu* less s5sitive1 z ! table %[s1 & are among ! fir/ crops to be tri$ on alkali l&s4 ,! relat$ millets %>e ?is resi/ance m or less1 & we (t5 see on cultivat$ l&s 9 ! alkali region f9e /&s ( b>ny>d grass 7,panicum crusgalli7 ( :i* ! v>iety 787 ,p4 muticum is said by obs]v]s ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture to be specially resi/ant1 & acceptable to /ock4 ,"o ( ! mo/ successful grasses on ! light alkali l&s ne> ,*9o1 :]e mo/ ( ! commonly cultivat$ grasses fail1 0 a ne> relative ( ! b>ny>d grass1 ! ,eleus9e coracana1 :i* produces heavy crops ( a millet-l gra9 mu* reli%$ by p\ltry1 & also by /ock4 ,?is grass1 l>gely gr[n 9 ,egypt1 has succe$$ well all ov] ! gr\nd ^: alkali cont5t ranges up to #ab1jjj p\nds p] acre1 b fail$ :]e ! salts rea*$ #ch1hdj p\nds 9 ! surface foot4 ,next to ?is1 9 po9t ( success1 7 ! pe>l millet 7,p5nisetum typhoideum7 & teos9te1 ,hung>ian brome grass1 & ,japanese millet1 on l& conta9+ ab\t #i1jjj p\nds ( 7*iefly 8:ite07 salts p] acre4 ,o!r ,h]bace\s ,crops4 ,legumes4--,bo? ! natural gr[? ( alkali l&s & exp]im5tal te/s seem to %[ t ?is entire family 7peas1 beans1 clov]s1 etc47 are among ! m s5sitive & lea/ available :]ev] black alkali exi/s2 :ile fairly tol]ant ( ! :ite 7neutral7 salts4 ,app>5tly a v little salsoda suffices to de/roy ! tub]cle-=m+ organisms t are s important a m$ium ( nitrog5-nutrition 9 ^! plants4 ,except+ ! melilots1 alfalfa ) its h>d1 /\t & long taproot1 seems to resi/ be/ ( all ^! plants4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 taproot$ plants1 :5 once e/abli%$1 resi/ be/1 = ! obvi\s reason t ! ma9 mass ( _! fe$+ roots rea*es bel[ ! dang] level4 ,ano!r favor+ condition1 already allud$ to1 is heavy foliage & consequ5t %ad+ ( ! gr\nd2 alfalfa happ5s to comb9e bo? ( ^! advantages4 ,!re has be5 "s difficulty 9 obta9+ a full /& ( alfalfa 9 ! portion ( ! ,*9o sub/ation tract conta9+ f #djjj to #fjjj p\nds ( 7l>gely black7 alkali salts p] acre2 b once obta9$1 x has done v well4 ,! only o!r plant ( ?is family t succe$s well on ?is l&1 & ev5 7at ,tul>e7 on soil consid]ably /rong] 7probably betwe5 #bj1jjj & #cj1jjj p\nds7 are ! two melilots1 ,m4 indica1 & alba2 ! latt] 7! ,bokh>a clov]7 is a =age plant ( no mean value 9 moi/ climates1 b some:at re/rict$ 9 its use 9 ! arid region because ( ! v high aroma x develops1 especially 9 alkali l&s2 s t /ock w eat only limit$ am\nts1 be/ :5 int]mix$ ) o!r =age1 su* z ! saltbu%es4 ,! yell[ melilot is highly recomm5d$ by ! ,arizona ,exp]im5t ,/ation z a gre5-manure plant = w9t] gr[?2 b f>!r nor? x is a summ]-gr[+ plant only1 & is refus$ by /ock4 ,z already /at$1 v few plants belong+ to ?is family are naturally f\nd on alkali l&s1 & attempts to gr[ !m1 ev5 :]e only ,glaub]'s salt is pres5t1 h be5 b v mod]ately successful4 ,= mo/ ( ! legumes ! limit ( full success seems to lie betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj p\nds to ! acre4 ,a m>k$ exception1 h[ev]1 occurs 9 ! case ( ! hairy vet*1 z %[n 9 ! table1 :]e x is cr$it$1 on ! basis ( repeat$ exp]im5ts1 ) a tol]ance ( ne>ly #gj1jjj p\nds4 ,?is am\nt 0 atta9$1 h[ev]1 9 r s&y soils4 ,probably "s ( ! ,alg]ian vet*es w likewise prove m resi/ant ?an ^? :i* are natives ( humid climates4 ,mu/>d ,family4--,z 9 ! case ( ! legumes1 wild plants ( ! mu/>d family are r>e on alkali l&s2 & correspond+ly1 ! cultivat$ mu/>d1 kale1 rape1 etc41 fail ev5 on l& q weak 9 alkali4 ,_! limit ( tol]ance seems to lie ne> #d1jjj to #e1jjj p\nds p] acre ev5 ( :ite salts4 ,h5ce turnips & radi%es d n fl\ri% on alkali l&s4 ,sunfl[] ,family4--,sev]al ( ! h>die/ ( ! native 8alkali we$s0 belong to ! sunfl[] family1 & ! common wild sunfl[]s 7,helian?us cali=nicus & ,h4 annuus7 are common on l&s pretty /rongly alkal9e4 ,! cultivat$ ,russian sunfl[]1 z ! table %[s1 resi/s ! effects ( ne>ly #fj1jjj p\nds ( total alkali1 ( :i* #eb1fdj p\nds 0 sulfate 7,glaub]'s salt71 & #eddj common salt4 ,?is1 x w be se51 is a v high tol]ance1 s t ?is sunfl[]1 yield+ su* excell5t p\ltry fe$1 is v widely available4 ,correspond+ly1 ! 8,j]usalem arti*oke10 itself a sunfl[]1 is among ! available crops on mod]ately /rong alkali soils2 & s1 d\btless1 are o!r memb]s ( ! same relation%ip n yet te/$1 su* z ! true arti*oke1 salsify1 etc4 ,*icory1 belong+ to ! same family1 yield$ roots at ! rate ( twelve tons p] acre1 on l& ( ! ,*9o tract conta9+ ab\t #h1jjj p\nds ( salts p] acre4 ,root ,crops4--,x seems to be g5]ally true t root crops suff] 9 quality1 h[ev] satisfactory may be ! quantity1 h>ve/$ on l&s ri* 9 salts1 & especially 9 *lorids 7common salt74 ,x 0 not$ at ! ,tul>e sub/ation 7,cali=nia7 t ! tub]s ( ! arti*oke 7 incl9$ to be 8squa%y0 9 ! /rong] alkali l&1 & fail$ to keep well2 ! same 0 true ( potatoes1 :i* 7 v wat]y2 & also ( turnips & c>rots4 ,x is a fact well kn[n 9 ,europe1 t potatoes manur$ ) ka9it 7*lorids ( potassium & sodium7 are unfit = ! manufacture ( />*1 & are g5]ally ( inf]ior quality4 ,b ?is is f\nd n to be ! case :51 in/ead ( ! *lorids1 ! sulfate is us$2 h5ce ! advice1 (t5 repeat$ by ! ,cali=nia /ation1 t f>m]s desir+ to use pota% f]tiliz]s %\ld call = ! 8high-grade sulfate0 in/ead ( ! *eap] ka9it1 :i* adds to ! injuri\s salts already s commonly pres5t 9 l[l& soils ( ! arid region4 ,su* root crops are1 h[ev]1 available = /ock fe$4 ,! common beet 7includ+ ! mangel-wurzel7 is kn[n to succe$ well on sal9e sea%ore l&s1 & x ma9ta9s its reputation on alkali l&s also4 ,be+ especially tol]ant ( common salt1 x may be gr[n :]e o!r crops fail on ?is acc\nt2 b ! roots s gr[n are /rongly *>g$ ) common salt1 & h1 z is well kn[n1 be5 us$ = ! purpose ( remov+ excess ( ! same f sea-coa/-m>% l&s4 ,su* roots are :olly unfit = sug>-mak+4 ,x is q o!rwise ) ,glaub]'s salt 7sodium sulfate72 & z ?is is v commonly pr$om9ant 9 alkali l&s1 ei!r be=e or aft] ! gypsum treatm5t1 ?is fact is ( great importance1 = x frequ5tly p]mits ( ! successful gr[+ ( ! sug> beet2 z has be5 abundantly prov$ at ! ,*9o ran*1 :]e l& conta9+ z mu* z #fj1jjj p\nds ( salts1 mo/ly ?is comp\nd1 has yield$ roots ( v high grade1 bo? z to sug> p]c5tage & purity4 ,b ! analyses ( ! ,oxn>d soil %[ t m ?an #aj1jjj p\nds ( common salt w be requir$ to r5d] sug> beets unsatisfactory = sug>-mak+4 ,pass+ to /em crops1 we f9d t asp>agus1 orig9ally itself a d5iz5 ( ! sea-bo>d1 resi/s consid]able am\nts 7n yet exactly det]m9$7 ( common salt z well z ( ,glaub]'s salt4 ,x is ev5 claim$ t :5 gr[n ) a dress+ ( common salt ! asp>agus is m t5d] & savory4 ,b x is q s5sitive to 8black alkali10 :i* mu/ be neutraliz$ ) gypsum to r5d] x h>mless4 ,cel]y did well ) #ac1fdj p\nds1 ( :i* ne>ly #aj1jjj 0 common salt4 ,b ) #cj1jjj p\nds ! plants 7 kill$4 ,rhub>b 0 a conspicu\s failure1 ev5 9 ! weak & mo/ly 8:ite0 alkali l&s ( ! ,*9o /ation tract4 ,textile ,plants4--,japanese hemp1 :ile "y1 seem$ to h a h>d /ruggle ) ! alkali1 b at ! end ( ! season /ood eight feet high4 ,! ramie plant1 also1 w be> mod]ately /rong alkali1 app>5tly some:at ov] #ab1jjj p\nds p] acre4 ,flax has n be5 te/$ 9 cultivation2 b ! wide di/ribution ( wild flax all ov] ! arid portions ( ! ,/ates ( ,oregon & ,wa%+ton1 w\ld seem to indicate t x is n v s5sitive4 ,ano!r textile plant1 ! ,indian mall[ 7,abutilon avic5nae71 0 f\nd to fail on ! ,*9o alkali soil4 ,b its close relative1 cotton1 does n seem to be specially s5sitive1 accord+ to ! exp]i5ce _h ) x 9 ! ,m]c$ riv] bottom 9 ,cali=nia2 & its culture is ext5sive 9 ,egypt1 :]e no p>ticul> c>e seems to be ex]cis$ 9 select+ ! l& = ! crop4 ,x is j possible t ! sal9e cont5t ( ! soil has 9 ,cali=nia1 z well z 9 ! ,atlantic sea-isl&s1 contribut$ to ! sup]ior l5g? ( ! fib] %[n 9 ! measurem5ts made dur+ ! ,c5sus "w ( #ahhj4ahb #ahb ,report on ,cotton ,culture2 #aj? ,c5sus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #bc to #cd4 ,tol]ance ( ,%rubs & ,trees4 ,grapev9es4--,! ,european grape1 ,vitis v9if]a1 is q tol]ant ( :ite or neutral alkali salts1 & w resi/ ev5 a mod]ate am\nt ( ! black s long z no h>dpan is all[$ to =m4 ,at ! ,tul>e sub/ation x 0 f\nd t grapev9es did well 9 s&y l& conta9+ #ce1bcj p\nds ( alkali salts1 ( :i* "o half 0 ,glaub]'s salt1 #i1fdj p\nds c>bonate ( soda1 #g1eej p\nds ( common salt1 & #gej p\nds nitrate ( soda4 ,!y 7 badly di/ress$ :]e1 ( a total ( #cg1jbj p\nds ( alkali salts1 #be1fbj p\nds 0 c>bonate ( soda2 :ile :]e ! v9es _h di$ out1 !re 0 f\nd a total ( #gc1icj p\nds1 ) #cg1bhj p\nds ( c>bonate4 ,! ,european v9e1 !n1 is consid]ably m resi/ant ( alkali ev5 9 its wor/ 7black7 =m1 ?an b>ley & rye1 at lea/ on s&y l&2 & x seems likely t ! native grapev9es ( ! ,pacific coa/1 cali=nica1 & arizonica1 w\ld resi/ ev5 bett]2 a po9t /ill "u exp]im5t4 ,exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 has %[n t v9es rapidly succumb :5 by excessive irrigation ! bottom wat] is all[$ to rise1 increas+ ! am\nt ( alkali salts ne> ! surface1 & %all[+ ! soil at _! disposal4 ,su* ov]-irrigation has be5 a fruitful cause ( injury to v9ey>ds 9 ! ,fresno region1 & w\ld d\btless if practic$ kill mo/ ( ! v9es at ! ,tul>e sub/ation1 :i* are n[ fl\ri%+4 ,9 su* cases1 sometimes ! =mation ( h>dpan is foll[$ by t ( a conc5trat$ alkal9e solution above x1 /rong en\gh to corrode ! roots !mselves1 & n only kill+ ! v9es1 b r5d]+ ! l& unfit = any agricultural use :atsoev]4 ,! swamp+ ( alkali l&s1 :e!r ( ! :ite or black k9d1 is n only fatal to _! pres5t productiv5ess1 b1 on acc\nt ( ! /rong *emical action ?us induc$1 greatly jeop>dizes _! future usefulness4 ,_m co/ly inve/m5ts 9 or*>ds & v9ey>ds h ?us be5 r5d]$ unproductive1 or h ev5 become a total loss4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ 9 ?is connection t z ! roots ( v9es w1 :5 unob/ruct$1 g to dep?s ( fifte5 & ev5 tw5ty feet1 a subsequ5t rise ( ! bottom wat] f leaky irrigation dit*es w dr[n out ! ends ( ! deep roots & ?us cause ! :ole root sy/em to become diseas$1 inevitably result+ 9 unproductiv5ess1 if n dea?1 ( ! v9e4 ,citrus ,trees4--,al?\gh ! high figure ( ne>ly #bg1jjj p\nds = ! tol]ance ( citrus trees1 z giv5 9 ! table1 seems to place !m r high on ! li/1 su* high tol]ance actually occurs only 9 v s&y soils1 & :5 common salt is 9 small proportion4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! citrus tribe are r s5sitive to alkali salts1 & m especially to common salt4 ,9 fact1 z to ! high tol]ance-figure giv5 9 ! table1 obs]v$ 9 s&y l&1 ! alkali !re conta9$ only a trace ( common salt4 ,"y se$l+ trees are p>ticul>ly s5sitive2 s t x is (t5 difficult to obta9 a /& ev5 :51 lat] on1 ! fe$+ roots desc5d beyond ! rea* ( injury4 ,9 ! close-textur$ l&s ( ,*9o1 "y trees h>dly ma9ta9$ life ) m ?an #e1jjj p\nds ( total salts4 ,ne> ,riv]side1 full-gr[n trees p]i%$ "u ! influ5ce ( bottom wat] conta9+ #j4be1 or #adf gra9s ( salt p] gallon1 :i* impregnat$ ! gr\nd2 correspond+ to ab\t #i1jjj p\nds p] acre 9 f\r feet4 ,9 ! s&y loam l&s ne> ,corona1 trees eight ye>s old suff]$ sev]ely :5 by irrigation ) alkali-wat] ! alkali-cont5t ( ! l& rea*$ #aa1jjj p\nds p] acre2 z illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 ,nos4 #dd1 & #de4 ,at ano!r po9t 9 ! same region1 two repres5tative trees 7 select$ = comp>ison1 five r[s ap>t on l& absolutely id5tical2 "o ( ^! reta9$ its leaves1 ?\gh suff]+1 ! o!r 0 completely leafless4 ,! lea*+ ( ! alkali to ! dep? ( f\r feet gave ! foll[+ results1 calculat$ to p\nds p] acre3 ,sulfates4 ,c>bonates4 ,*lorids4 ,total4 ,poor tree #d1gbj #a1fhj #b1ebj #h1ibj ,bett] tree #d1abj #b1cfj #gbj #g1bjj ,"h x is app>5tly ! excess ( common salt to :i* ! diff]5ce is due1 & ?is despite ! high] cont5t ( c>bonate ( soda 9 ! soil be>+ ! bett] tree4 ,on ! o!r h&1 at ! ,tul>e sub/ation orange trees 7s\r /ock7 ma9ta9 vigor\s gr[? & good be>+ 9 a v s&y tract :i* to ! dep? ( sev5 feet %[$ an aggregate cont5t ( #bf1hdj p\nds ( salts 7or #bb1ghj to f\r feet dep?72 b :i* is nev] irrigat$4 7,see diagram ,no4 #ff74 ,! salts 9 ?is case consi/s :olly ( sulfate & c>bonate ( soda 9 ! ratio ( fifty-f\r to =ty-two1 imply+ ! pres5ce ( ne>ly #ab1jjj p\nds ( salsoda )9 rea* ( ! tree roots2 yet 9 ! abs5ce ( common salt1 no p]ceptible injury or ev5 /ress ^u ! trees has be5 not$4 ,accord+ to obs]vations made 9 ,san ,diego c\nty1 ,calif41 lemon trees are ev5 m s5sitive to common salt ?an oranges1 s9ce a total cont5t ( #h1jjj p\nds p] acre1 ab\t "o-?ird ( :i* 0 common salt1 seem$ to r5d] ! trees :olly unpr(itable4 ,9 view ( ^! facts1 %[+ t common salt is ! portion ( alkali by f> mo/ injuri\s to citrus trees1 great c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! use ( irrigation wat]s to exclude ^? *>g$ ) t comp\nd2 & also to avoid locat+ citrus or*>ds on l& already impregnat$ ) common salt4 ,! olive tree1 z ! table %[s1 is among ! mo/ resi/ant to alkali salts1 approa*+ ! grape 9 ?is respect4 ,?is might h be5 anticipat$ f its ext5d$ culture 9 ! arid regions ( ! old _w1 includ+ ,pale/9e & nor!rn ,africa1 :]e alkali l&s ab\nd4 ,x is probable t ! figure giv5 9 ! table does n yet %[ ! extreme limit ( its endurance4 ,cali=nia exp]i5ce ) ! date palm1 z ! table %[s1 cr$its x ) an endurance n exce$+ #hcbj p\nds ( total salts4 ,?is is d\btless an und]e/imate1 = 9 ! ,sah>a des]t & ,egypt x is cr$it$ ) be+ ! culture :i* w succe$ 9 /rong] alkali ?an any o!r cultural plant2 &1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,means ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 x is sometimes irrigat$ ) wat] conta9+ z mu* z #bjj gra9s ( salts p] gallon4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ^! trees always gr[ 9 v s&y l&s2 & 9 ! des]t regions x is (t5 gr[n bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 s z to r5d] x :olly indep5d5t ( ! alkali accumulations on ! surface4 ,! extreme limit ( its endurance mu/ !re=e rema9 9 d\bt until m ext5d$ exp]im5ts h made m def9ite data available4 ,decidu\s ,or*>d ,trees4 ,among decidu\s or*>d trees1 /rangely en\gh1 ! almond /&s alongside ( ! fig 9 alkali-resi/ance1 z indicat$ 9 ! table4 ,! pea* seems to be mu* m s5sitive1 rank+ ne> ! apricot & prune1 ^: tol]ance is less ?an half z high4 ,t ! pe> & apple1 g5]ally c\nt$ among ! m nor!rn fruits 9 ! humid region1 %\ld excel ^! /one fruits 9 endurance ( alkali1 is r unexpect$2 & ! figures conc]n+ ! :ole gr\p ( ^! rosace\s fruits admoni% u t x is unsafe to pr$ict1 )\t trial1 :at may be ! outcome ( culture te/s4 ,?us plum trees1 app>5tly 9 good condition1 sometimes sudd5ly beg9 to fail :5 />t+ to be>2 ! fruit appe>s normal on ! outside = a "t1 b ! pit fails to =m1 be+ at times flatt5$ out l a piece ( pa/ebo>d2 & ! fruit does n mature4 ,yet !re is no obs]vable injury to ! base ( ! trunk1 or to ! roots4 ,on ! o!r h&1 pe>s d well ev5 :5 ! outside b>k ar\nd ! root-cr[n is black5$ by ! action ( ! alkali salts4 ,b #ch1jjj p\nds1 ev5 ( sulfate1 proves too mu* = ! pe>4 ,! qu9ce appe>s to be mat]ially m resi/ant ?an ! apple or pe>4 ,x probably ranges alongside ( ! fig1 ! soil-adaptations ( :i* x %>es 9 o!r respects also4 ,! ,engli% walnut res5ts ev5 a slight ta9t ( black alkali2 b is fairly tol]ant ( 8:ite0 salts1 z is %[n 9 ! peculi>ly suitable light loam soils on ! l[] ,santa ,cl>a riv]1 9 ,v5tura c\nty1 z well z 9 ,orange c\nty1 ,cali=nia4 ,close figures = ! limits ( alkali tol]ance 9 ! case ( decidu\s or*>d trees _c easily be giv5 or det]m9$1 ow+ to ! difficulties inh]5t 9 ! diff]5ces ( root p5etration 9 ! sev]al soils & localities2 z well z ! fact already allud$ to1 t 9 close-textur$ soils ! tol]ance is 9 g5]al decid$ly less ?an 9 s&y l&s4 ,h5ce ! figures 9 ! table mu/ be tak5 z m ne>ly repres5t+ relative tol]ances1 r ?an absolute data to be appli$ 9 e case4 ,z reg>ds ! /one fruits1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! ,myrobalan root1 be+ at home 9 ,asia ,m9or1 :]e alkali ab\nds1 %\ld :5 practicable be us$ :]ev] alkali conditions exi/1 9 pref]5ce to all b ! almond1 :i* seems to resi/ well1 ev5 on its own root1 b has n z wide a range ( adaptations z a graft+ /ock z ! myrobalan4 ,:ile mo/ ( ! o!r /one fruits at ! ,tul>e sub/ation 7 on myrabalan roots1 ! /ock ( ^? 9 outside or*>ds 0 mo/ly 9 d\bt4 ,x is also to be kept 9 m9d t diff]5t v>ieties ( ! same fruit--e4 g41 pe>s & apples--%[ a n inconsid]able v>iation 9 _! resi/ance4 ,timb] & ,%ade ,trees4 ,( trees1 =e/ & %ade1 suitable = alkali l&s1 "s native ones call = m5tion4 ,"o is ! ,cali=nia :ite or valley oak 7,qu]cus lobata71 :i* =ms a d5se =e/ ( l>ge trees on ! 7almo/ ?r\gh\t some:at alkal9e7 delta l&s ( ! ,kaweah ,riv] 9 ,cali=nia1 & is f\nd scatt]+ly all ov] ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley4 ,un=tunately ?is tree does n supply timb] valuable = aught b firewood or f5ce po/s1 be+ q brittle4 ,! native cottonwoods1 :ile some:at ret>d$ & dw>f$ 9 _! gr[? 9 /rong alkali1 are q tol]ant ( ! :ite salts1 especially ( ,glaub]'s salt4 ,z !y usually gr[ ne> to ! wat]1 _! tol]ance = alkali salts is difficult to asc]ta94 ,( o!r trees1 ! ori5tal plane1 or sycamore1 & ! black locu/ h prov$ ! mo/ resi/ant 9 ! alkali l&s ( ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley2 & ! =m] be+ a v desirable %ade tree1 x %\ld be widely us$ ?r\gh\t ! regions :]e alkali prevails m or less4 ,! ailantus is ab\t equally resi/ant1 & b = ! evil odor ( its fl[]s1 des]ves /rong comm5dation4 ,( ! eucalypts1 ! n>r[-leav$ ,eucalyptus amygdal9a 7"o ( ! 8r$ gums07 & ! closely relat$ vim9alis1 seem to be lea/ s5sitive1 & 9 "s cases h gr[n 9 alkali l&s z rapidly z any:]e4 ,! ro/rata1 z well z ! p9k fl[]$ v>iety ( sid]oxylon1 are n[ do+ ab\t z well z ! amygdal9a at ,tul>e1 :]e at fir/ !y seem$ to suff]4 ,! common blue gum1 globulus1 is mu* m s5sitive4 ,( ! ,acacias1 ! tall-gr[+ ,a4 melanoxylon 78black acacia07 resi/s pretty /rong alkali1 ev5 on /iff soil2 z c be se5 at ,tul>e & ,bak]sfield1 ,cali=nia1 :]e !re are trees ne>ly two feet 9 diamet]4 ,! beautiful ,a4 lophan?a 7,albizzia7 has 9 plant+s made along ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley railroad %[n consid]able resi/ance1 likewise2 b x is q s5sitive to fro/4 ,( o!r ,au/ralian trees1 "o ( ! ,au/ralian 8p9es10 7,casu>9a equisetifolia71 is do+ well on fairly /rong alkali l& 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley4 ,a rem>kably alkali-resi/ant %rub or small tree is ! pretty ,klreut]ia paniculata f ,*9a1 :i* at ,tul>e is gr[+ 9 "s ( ! /ronge/ alkali soil ( ! tract4 ,un=tunately x is available ma9ly = ornam5tal purposes2 its wood1 :ile small1 is v h>d & makes excell5t fuel4 ,( trees indig5\s to ! ,atlantic & ,ea/ ,c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,tulip tree1 ! ,l9d51 & mo/ o!r trees ( ! humid region1 includ+ ! ,engli% oak 7,qu]cus p$unculata7 become /unt$ 9 alkali soils4 ,! honey locu/1 be+ p>ticul>ly adapt$ to calc>e\s l&s1 does mod]ately well on alkali l&s1 b its ?orns & imp]fect %ade r5d] x n v desirable4 ,! black locu/ & ! elms h on ! :ole done be/4 ,! ea/]n maples are n successful2 b ! ,cali=nia maple 7,ac] macrophyllum7 & ! box eld] 7,negundo cali=nica7 h done fairly well 9 ! light] alkali l&s ( ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley4 ,! ,conif]s--,p9es1 firs1 c$>s1 cypress1 etc41 are v s5sitive to black alkali & w n endure mu* ev5 ( ! 8:ite0 salts4 ,ev5 ! native junip] ( ! mesas c>efully adh]es to ! portions--breaks & upp] slopes1 hilltops1 etc4--:i* are m or less lea*$ by ! scanty ra9s ( ^! regions4 ,,inducem5ts ,,t[>d ,,! ,,reclamation ,,( ,,alkali ,,l&s4 ,! exp5se involv$ 9 ! reclamation ( /rong alkali l&s naturally gives rise to ! "q :e!r adequate advantages are likely to be d]iv$ f su* exp5diture2 specially :5 ! la/ resort--und]dra9+ & lea*+--has to be adopt$4 ,^? famili> ) ! alkali regions are aw>e h[ (t5 ! occurr5ce ( alkali spots int]rupts ! cont9uity ( fields & or*>ds1 ( :i* !y =m only a small "p1 b en\gh to m> _! aspect & cultivation4 ,_! increase & expansion "u irrigation frequ5tly r5d]s _! reclamation ! only alt]native ( absolute ab&onm5t ( ! inve/m5ts & improvem5ts made1 & f t po9t ( view alone x is ( no slight practical importance4 ,moreov]1 ! occurr5ce ( va/ cont9u\s /ret*es ( alkali l&s )9 ! o!rwise mo/ eligibly situat$ valley l&s ( ! irrigation region =ms a /rong inc5tive t[>ds _! utilization4 ,illu/ration3 #a/ ye>1 #b;d ye>1 #c;d ye>1 ,f\r? ye>--#db bu%els4 ,,fig4 #ge4--,:eat gr[n on black alkali l& at ,tul>e ,sub/ation1 ,cali=nia1 %[+ improvem5t 9 successive ye>s ( reclamation treatm5t4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a /rong intr9sic reason po9t+ 9 ! same direction1 namely1 ! almo/ inv>iably high & la/+ productiv5ess ( ^! l&s :5 once r5d]$ available to agriculture4 ,?is is =e%ad[$ by ! usually heavy & luxuriant gr[? ( native plants ar\nd ! m>g9s & betwe5 alkali spots 7see fig4 #fj72 i4 e41 :]ev] ! am\nt ( injuri\s salts pres5t is s small z n to int]f]e ) ! utilization ( ! abundant /ore ( plant-food :i*1 "u ! peculi> conditions ( soil-=mation 9 arid climates1 rema9s 9 ! l& in/ead ( be+ wa%$ into ! ocean4 ,ext5d$ comp>ative inve/igations ( soil composition1 z well z ! exp]i5ce ( ?\s&s ( ye>s 9 ! olde/ settl$ c\ntries ( ! _w1 demon/rate ?is fact & %[ t s f> f be+ 9 ne$ ( f]tilization1 alkali l&s usually possess extraord9>y productive capacity :5ev] fre$ f ! injuri\s influ5ce ( ! excess ( useless salts left 9 ! soil 9 consequ5ce ( defici5t ra9fall4 7,see analyses1 *apt] #bb1 pp4 #dcf1 #dcg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,gra9s gr[n on alkali l& at ,tul>e ,/ation1 ,cali=nia4 ,among _m /rik+ examples ( ! results ( su* reclamation1 is t repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ figure 7#ge71 ( gra9 gr[n on /rong alkali l&1 be=e & aft] reclamation treatm5t4 ,on ! orig9al l& ev5 8alkali we$s0 w\ld h>dly gr[2 :ile aft]w>d a :eat crop repres5t+ =ty-two bu%els p] acre 0 gr[n4 ,additional illu/rations are %[n 9 ! second figure 7#gf71 %[+ crops ( :eat & b>ley z gr[n on p>tly reclaim$ l& at ! ,tul>e sub/ation4 ,:ile x is c]ta9ly true t :5 rightly treat$1 alkali l&s c be r5d]$ pr(usely & la/+ly productive1 yet close att5tion & con/ant vigilance are ne$$ s long z ! salts rema9 9 ! soil2 & no "o n det]m9$ to give su* l& su* full att5tion1 %\ld und]take to cultivate x4 ,,"p ,,f\r?4 ,,soils ,,& ,,native ,,vegetation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4#ahc ,,! ,,recognition ,,( ,,"* ,,( ,,soils ,,f ,,_! ,,native ,,vegetation2 ,,mississippi4 ,climatic & ,soil-,conditions4--,next to climatic conditions1 *ief among :i* are temp]ature & moi/ure1 ! physical & *emical nature ( ! soil & subsoil is ! mo/ pot5t factor 9 det]m9+ ! natural vegetation ( any region4 ,! limitations we obs]ve 9 ! adaptation ( cultivat$ l&s to c]ta9 crops1 ev5 ) artificial help1 mu/ be mu* m /rongly pron\nc$ :5 no su* aid is giv51 & ! /ruggle = ! survival ( ! fitte/ is cont9u$1 subject only to seasonal v>iations1 = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,x is obvi\s t )9 ! limits ( ! regional flora1 ! natural vegetation ( any tract repres5ts ! be/ adaptation ( plants to soils1 9 ! results ( long p]iods ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce betwe5 compet+ species2 ! survivors be+ ^? be/ adapt$ to ! entire environm5t4 #ahc ,! special object ( ?is *apt] z a :ole has seem$ to ! writ] to require a repetition ( mu* t is already said 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,9 c\ntries un9habit$ by man ! *ief conditions outside ( ! direct influ5ce ( climate & soil t may mat]ially affect ! results ( ! competition are connect$ ) ! animal creation2 & )9 ! latt]1 insects are probably ! mo/ influ5tial1 b5eficially 9 ! "p !y play 9 ! f]tilization ( fl[]s1 injuri\sly 9 _! role z p>asites4 ,s9ce 9 ! abs5ce ( man1 ! effects ( fire w\ld ord9>ily be condition$ ^u ! occurr5ce ( ?und]/orms1 its effects w\ld !n prop]ly come "u ! head ( climatic influ5ces4 ,b :ile ^! & "s o!r di/urb+ factors mu/ n be =gott5 9 consid]+ ! relations ( soils to ! natural vegetation borne by !m1 ! common cons5sus ( mank9d has long recogniz$ ! intimate connection exi/+ betwe5 ! two1 & has ev]y:]e made x ! basis ( at lea/ a g5]al e/imate ( ! agricultural value ( ! l& conc]n$4 ,,natural ,,vegetation ,,! ,,basis ,,( ,,agricultural ,,l& ,,values ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4#ahd ,9 c\ntries long settl$1 z 9 ,europe1 :]e ! nature ( ! orig9al =e/ is unkn[n or a matt] ( tradition only1 ! adaptations ( ! sev]al k9ds ( l& to culture plants & =e/ trees has be5 gradually asc]ta9$ by cultural exp]i5ce1 & _! designations1 values & uses det]m9$ accord+ly4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! "* ( ! orig9al =e/ gr[? is mo/ly 9 evid5ce1 or is def9itely kn[n by tradition1 ev5 9 ! old] /ates4 ,we/ ( ! ,allegh5ies1 !re is z yet little difficulty 9 ?is reg>d1 p>tly because ev5 :]e ! orig9al =e/ gr[? has disappe>$ its "* rema9s on record1 ! assess$ l& values be+ v commonly bas$ ^u ! tree gr[? ( ! wild l&4 ,9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates especially1 ! classification ( upl&s into 8p9e l&s0 & 8oak l&s0 is univ]sal1 & is associat$ ) c]ta9 limits ( valuation1 bo? by assessors & pur*as]s4 ,)9 ea* ( ^! two classes1 h[ev]1 !re are well-def9$ gradations ( cultural value accord+ to ! k9d 7species7 e4 g41 ( p9e or oak t occupies ! gr\nd1 ei!r alone1 or 9 int]mixture ) o!r trees ^: pres5ce or abs5ce is consid]$ significant4 ,9 ! case ( 8bottoms0 or alluvial l&s1 correspond+ di/9ctions & classifications obta92 we he> ( hickory1 bee*1 gum1 & *]ry bottoms1 hackb]ry hammocks1 etc4 ea* "n be+ associat$ ) c]ta9 cultural values or peculi>ities ( soil1 well und]/ood by ! f>m+ population4 #ahd ,see above1 pp4 #cac to #cae1 *apt] #ah4 ,,inve/igation ,,( ,,causes ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,native ,,vegetation4 ,x seems s+ul> t su* well & widely und]/ood designations & important di/9ctions %\ld n long ago h be5 made ! subject ( c>eful inve/igation & precise def9ition by agricultural inve/igators4 ,= ap>t f _! practical importance z guides to ! pur*as] ( l&1 or settl]1 ?is correlation ( l&-values & natural vegetation is ( ! utmo/ int]e/ 9 (f]+ an opportunity = rese>*es on ! factors :i* det]m9e ! *oice ( ^! sev]al trees & ! correspond+ %rubby & h]bace\s gr[?s4 ,moreov]1 ! cultural results & adaptations correspond+ to c]ta9 natural gr[?s be+ kn[n f exp]i5ce1 a ?or\gh k ( ! soils s *>act]iz$ %\ld enable u to project into new l&s1 :]e exp]i5ce is lack+1 ! b5efits ( exp]i5ce already _h2 ev5 9 cases :]e1 f "s cause1 ! natural vegetation is diff]5t1 or abs5t4 ,only v fragm5t>y & casual obs]vations 9 ?is l9e are on record ?us f>1 almo/ ! only g5]ally recogniz$ *emical *>act]ization ( plant habit be+ t ( calciphile 7lime-lov+71 & calcifuge 7lime-repell$7 ones1 b ) few attempts at m ?an local application4 ,yet1 to asc]ta9 by ! physical & *emical exam9ation ( soils :at are det]m9+ factors ( c]ta9 natural vegetative pref]5ces1 :i* are inv>iably foll[$ by c]ta9 agricultural results1 %\ld n be an unsolvable problem1 & its practical importance %\ld ju/ify its mo/ active inve/igation4 ,inve/igations 9 ,mississippi4--,9 8 explorations connect$ ) ! ,geological & ,agricultural ,survey ( ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi1 z well z1 lat] on1 9 simil> rese>*es c>ri$ on 9 o!r /ates1 ! writ] 0 =cibly /ruck ) ! close correspond5ce ( ! limits ( geological =mations ) ^? ( vegetative zones2 s mu* s t he 0 l$ to rely v l>gely on ! latt] z indicative ( ! probable occurr5ce ( outcrops t o!rwise1 9 a level c\ntry1 w\ld h pass$ unp]ceiv$4 ,^! obs]vations ^u ! correlations betwe5 virg9 soils & _! native vegetation hav+ orig9ally be5 made by ! writ]1 9 great detail1 9 ! /ate ( ,mississippi1 f #ahee to #ahgb1 & t /ate be+ f natural causes a peculi>ly cog5t illu/ration ( su* correlation3 x seems advisable to describe fir/1 some:at 9 detail1 ! facts obs]v$ !re1 & subsequ5tly to comp>e !m ) :at has be5 obs]v$ else:]e by him or o!rs4 ,no claim is made to an ev5 approximately exhau/ive pres5tation ( ! :ole subject1 ev5 )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 nor is x int5d$ to give complete li/s ( vegetation4#ahe ,! object is to give su* facts z h be5 fairly well e/abli%$ by obs]vation1 hop+ t m ?or\gh inve/igations 9 ! same l9e w !reby be /imulat$4 #ahe ,su* li/s1 s f> z ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi is conc]n$1 may be f\nd 9 ! writ]'s ,report on ! ,agriculture & ,geology ( ,mississippi1 #ahfj4 ,see also ,plant ,life ( ,alabama1 by ,*>les ,mohr4 ,,vegetative ,,belts ,,9 ,,nor!rn ,,mississippi4 ,! diagram bel[ is a sket*-map ( ! mo/ nor!rn "p ( ,mississippi1 %[+ ! n>r[ p>allel belts ( successive geological =mations or t]ranes runn+ nor? & s\?1 :i* be> ! v>y+ zones ( vegetation *>act]i/ic ( ea* "o1 z indicat$ 9 ! leg5d b5ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,sket* map ( ,soil ,belts 9 ,nor!rn ,mississippi1 ea/ & we/4 ,,soil ,,regions ,,( ,,nor!rn ,,mississippi1 ,,%[+ ,,*anges ,,f ,,ea/ ,,to ,,we/1 ,,& ,,lime ,,p]c5tages ,,9 ,,soils4 ,lime1 p4c4 ,soil ,"*4 ,vegetation4 #a4 4#dj-- 4#fj;,clay loams1 clay4 ,oaks1 sweet gum1 tulip tree1 walnut1 r$ c$>1 a%1 hickories4 #b4 4#je-- 4#ad,s&y loams1 s&s4,%ort-leaf p9e1 po/1 sc>let & black-jack oaks1 black gum1 *e/nut4 #c4 #a4jj--a4dj8,:ite lime0 ,r$ c$>1 crab-apple1 ,*ickasaw prairie2 clays & plum1 /urdy po/ & black-jack clay loams4 oaks1 honey locu/4 #d4 4#cj-- 4#ej ,mell[ r$ loams (,oaks1 hickories1 walnut1 tulip 8,pontotoc ridge40 tree1 a%1 *]ry1 umbrella tree4 #e4 4#jh-- 4#ah ,heavy gray clay ,scrubby po/ & black-jack oak1 soils1 "s gray %ort-leaf p9e4 s&s4 8,flatwoods40 #f4 4#ae-- 4#be,s&y ridges & ,po/1 black-jack1 sc>let & upl&s1 brok54 upl& will[ oaks1 small2 "s *e/nut4 #g4 4#be-- 4#ce ,mell[ clay loams ,f9e black1 r$1 po/1 ,spani% ( 8,table l&s40 & black-jack oaks1 hickories1 sweet gum4 #h4 #b4jj--e4jj;,calc>e\s s&y ,oaks z above1 tulip tree1 a%1 silt1 8,bluff loess0 honey locu/1 l9d51 sassafras1 8,cane ,hills40 umbrella tree1 cane4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #i4 4#dj--a4aj ,mississippi ,bottom4,basket1 :ite & black oaks1 a%1 tulip tree' #i;a4 #a4ab-- ,yazoo backl& honey locu/1 pecan1 %ell-b>k buck%ot clay4 hickory1 walnut1 hackb]ry1 cane4 #i;b4 4#dj ,s&y alluvium1 ,sweet gum1 maple1 will[ oak1 8,frontl&40 elm1 hackb]ry4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aj4 4#bf-- 4#dj ,light s&y loam (,dogwood1 sweet gum1 holly1 a%1 8,dogwood ridge40 sassafras1 prickly pe>4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,lime/one ,belt4--beg9n+ on ! ea/ we h1 fir/1 a n>r[ belt ( lime/ones ( ! c>bonif]\s =mation1 on :i* !re is a f9e gr[? ( v>i\s oaks1 ) walnut1 hickory1 sweet gum1 tulip tree & r$ c$>1 & a v productive soil4 8,p9e ,hills40--,next adjo9+ on ! we/ comes a belt ( s&y1 non-calc>e\s b$s ( ! l[] ,cretace\s =mation1 ab\t #ah miles wide4 ,x has a hilly surface1 & outside ( ! n>r[ valleys1 ! preval5t timb] is %ort-leav$ p9e & scrubby black-jack oak1 ) "s po/ oak & small black gum1 & a few l>ge *e/nut trees4 8,prairie0 ,belt4--,we/w>d ( ?is belt we desc5d into a level 8prairie0 region1 six to twelve miles wide2 ! 8:ite lime c\ntry10 hav+ heavy black clay soils1 und]laid by ! cretace\s 8rott5 lime/ones20 :i* are pr(usely productive4 ,! sp>se tree gr[? consi/s ( /\t1 vigor\s & d5se-topp$ po/ & black-jack oaks1 ) clumps ( crab-apple1 ,*ickasaw plum ?ickets1 & an occasional r$ c$>4 ,pontotoc ,ridge4--,we/ ( ! prairie belt we asc5d into a ridgy hill c\ntry1 twelve to f\rte5 miles wide2 ! 8,pontotoc ridge10 =m$ ( ! s(t lime/ones & m>ls ( ! upp] cretace\s =mation1 & cov]$ ) a deep r$ soil1 :i* be>s a ri* gr[? ( oaks1 ) hickory int]sp]s$1 & black walnut1 umbrella & tulip tree ev5 on ! ridges4 ,?is is "o ( ! f9e/ agricultural regions ( ! ,/ate4 ,flatwoods4--,f ! ,pontotoc ridge & its f9e l&s & timb] we desc5d to we/w>d into ! 8,flatwoods0 belt1 ?ree to eight miles wide2 a level c\ntry und]laid by heavy gray non-calc>e\s clays ( ! t]ti>y =mation1 f :i* mo/ ( its soil is directly =m$4 ,x be>s a pretty d5se gr[? ( ! same species ( oaks t *>act]ize ! prairies f>!r ea/1 b ! =m1 habit & size ( ! trees is s diff]5t t _m ( ! inhabitants believe !m to be diff]5t species4 ,! black-jack oak looks l small1 d5se-topp$ apple trees2 ! po/ oak1 on ! contr>y1 has an op5 top ( ! =m ( a %ort-h&l$1 spread+ broom4 ,! soil is poor & un?rifty1 z are ! few disappo9t$ settl]s1 :o b\ght ! l& on ! /r5g? ( its oak-tree gr[?4 7,see page #ejj74 ,br[n ,loam ,region4 ,table ,l&s4--,adjo9+ ! ,flatwoods on ! we/ is a broad upl& region1 ) a br[ni%-yell[ soil & subsoil1 ext5d+ ne>ly to ! edge ( ! ,mississippi bottom4 ,9 its ea/]n portion x is r brok5 & hilly1 ) s&y ridge soils1 a mix$ gr[? ( oaks & %ort-leav$ p9e1 & occasional *e/nuts2 a fair f>m+ c\ntry only4 ,to we/w>d ! ridges become l[] & broad]1 assum+ a plateau "*4 ,! p9e disappe>s1 & black1 ,spani%1 r$ & :ite oak1 ) mu* hickory1 l>gely replaces ! black jack & po/ oak2 ?us *>act]iz+ ! f]tile br[n-loam 8table-l&s0 t ext5d ?r\gh we/]n ,t5nessee & ,mississippi into ,l\isiana1 & h long be5 not$ = _! high production ( f9e upl& cotton4 ,cane ,hills4--,on ! we/]n bord] ( ! table-l& region1 & "h =m+ a /rip only a few miles wide along ! edge ( ! ,mississippi bottom1 b f #gj to #dej feet above x1 lies ! remnant ( :at f>!r s\? con/itutes a wide & important agricultural belt2 ! ,bluff or ,loess =mation1 locally kn[n z 8! ,cane ,hills40 ,! soil is l>gely compos$ ( gra9s ( s& & silt cem5t$ by lime c>bonate2 x is !re=e calc>e\s1 & z on ! ,pontotoc ridge1 describ$ above1 we f9d "h ! black walnut1 ! tulip tree1 a% & o!rs1 else:]e re/rict$ to ! alluvial 8bottoms10 on ! ridges !mselves1 f sixty to a hundr$ feet above ! /ream b$s4 ,mississippi ,bottom4--,at ! we/]n foot ( ?is bluff !re lies ! great ,mississippi ,bottom1 ) its ri* soils & v>i$ =e/ gr[?4 ,?is also1 h[ev]1 subdivides into at lea/ ?ree di/9ct soil & vegetative zones1 viz41 ! s&y 8,frontl&s10 :i* lie on ! imm$iate banks ( ! great riv] & its ma9 bran*es1 & ! heavy clayey 8,back-l&0 areas1 ^: soils are p>tly ! product ( mod]n swamp deposits f backwat]s1 p>tly result f ! dis9tegration ( /rongly calc>e\s clays con/itut+ ! l[] "p ( ! ,bluff or ,loess =mation4 ,a ?ird natural subdivision is ! 8,dogwood ridge10 a n>r[ belt ( slightly elevat$ l&1 mo/ly above ord9>y ov]fl[s1 :i* ext5ds diagonally f ! ,mississippi riv] to ! ,yazoo bottom1 & seems to be ! cont9uation ( 8,cr[leys ridge0 9 ,arkansas4 ,ea* ( ^! soil belts has its own *>act]i/ic =e/ gr[?1 z indicat$ 9 ! table bel[ ! map4 ,we h "h along an ea/-&-we/ l9e ( ab\t #bjj miles1 elev5 m>k$ly di/9ct zones ( vegetation1 readily recogniz$ z su* by e f>m]1 & ea* und]laid by a di/9ct geological t]rane4 ,x does seem z ?\gh a close /udy ( ^! & ( ! soils ov]ly+ !m %\ld lead to "s def9ite results %[+ ! physico-*emical causes ( ^! diff]5ces4 ,lime app>5tly a gov]n+ ,factor4--,! connection ( "s ( ^! *anges 9 vegetation ) ! calc>e\s nature ( ! correspond+ =mation has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,z reg>ds f\r ( ! elev5 divisions1 ?is is obvi\s ev5 to ! casual obs]v]1 & is well kn[n to ! population1 :o speak ( ! 8lime c\ntry0 or belts be+1 z a matt] ( common k1 ! be/ l&2 9 full accord ) :at1 9 ,k5tucky & else:]e1 has pass$ into a popul> maxim4#ahf #ahf 8,a lime c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry40 ,tak+ z a guide ! trees & plants :i* *>act]ize ! obvi\sly calc>e\s l&s1 our next /ep %\ld be to v]ify1 if possible1 ! fact t :]ev] ^! occur naturally1 lime is abundant 9 ! soil 9 comp>ison ) ^? l&s 9 :i* su* vegetation does n occur naturally1 or p]haps ev5 fails to fl\ri% :5 plant$ )\t special f]tilization4 ,?is ! writ] has s\ght to d1 fir/ 9 connection ) ! survey "w ( ! /ate ( ,mississippi1 & subsequ5tly 9 ! wid] field t has s9ce come "u 8 obs]vation4 ,,soil ,,belts ,,9 ,,s\!rn ,,mississippi4 ,9 ,mississippi1 ! g5]al conclusions d]iv$ f ! obs]vations made on ! nor!rn cross section1 are corroborat$ _m times ov] 9 o!r portions ( ! /ate4 ,aside f ! cretace\s prairie region1 !re runs across ! middle ( ! /ate a belt ( v>y+ wid?1 ( calc>e\s t]ti>y b$s1 :i* also give rise to m or less ext5sive tracts ( 8black prairie0 l&s1 int]sp]s$ ) non-calc>e\s1 mo/ly s&y ridges1 ! l[] slopes ( :i*1 influ5c$ by ! calc>e\s b$s1 be> an oak & hickory gr[?1 :ile ! high] portions h only p9e1 & usually rema9 uncultivat$4 ,s\?w>d ( ?is 8c5tral prairie0 belt lies ! long-leaf-p9e =e/ area ( ! /ate1 und]laid ?r\gh\t by s&y1 non-calc>e\s =mations1 ) poor s&y soils1 save "h & !re 9 pat*es1 :i* c be at once recogniz$ by ! replacem5t ( ! long-leav$ p9e by a vigor\s oak gr[?2 z is also ! case :]e ! p9e area abuts aga9/ ! calc>e\s 8,cane ,hills0 on ! we/4 ,! bottom soils ( ?is region are l>gely 8s\r10 & be> ! gallb]ry 7,pr9os glab]71 bay galls 7,p]sea ,c>ol9a71 ti-ti 7,cliftonia monophylla71 c&leb]ry 7,myrica c]if]a71 v>i\s :ortle-b]ries1 ! pit*] plants 7,s>rac5ia71 yell[ /> grass 7,aletris71 sundews1 ,xyris1 ,eriocaulon1 & o!r plants ( simil> habits4 ,vegetative & ,soil ,features ( ! ,mississippi ,coa/ ,belt4--,s\? ( ! long-leaf p9e area lie ! coa/ flats1 ) s\r1 s&y soils und]laid by /iff clays4 ,on ^! 8p9e mead[s0 ( ! ,mississippi coa/ occur "s ( ! mo/ /rik+ cases ( modifications ( vegetation due to physical & *emical causes4 ,z is well kn[n1 ! long-leav$ p9e habitually belongs to ! dry s&y upl&s ( ! ,gulf ,/ates2 ! decidu\s cypress1 on ! o!r h&1 is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! swamps1 :]e its roots are p]man5tly subm]g$ 9 wat]4 ,b on ! p9e mead[s ( ! ,mississippi coa/ we see ^! two incongru\s trees gr[+ side by side1 ?\gh sadly wor/$ by _! mutual concessions2 _! heights usually rang+ f #ab to #ae1 r>ely z mu* z #ah feet4#ahg ,yet bo? pres]ve _! *>act]i/ic =ms1 ! cypress be+ an exact m9iature reproduction ( ! usual level-topp$ swamp =m1 except z to ! 8knee0 feature2 :ile ! p9e diff]s only 9 /ature f its giant bre?r5 ( ! p9e hills1 f :i* x c be trac$ d[n ?r\gh all grades ( transition4 ,! soil on :i* ?is gr[? occurs is a s\r1 s&y "o1 "o & a half to ?ree feet 9 dep?1 und]laid by a solid1 imp]vi\s gray clay1 above :i* is usually f\nd sev]al in*es ( c(fee-color$ bottom wat]1 :i* dra9s sl[ly into ! sluggi% wat]-c\rses1 !mselves c>ry+ br[ni%1 s\r1 b v cle> wat]s4 ,analysis %[s ! soil to be s\r & extremely poor1 especially 9 its lime & phosphates 7see *apt] #ai1 p4 #ceb72 its h]bace\s vegetation consi/s exclusively ( v small-se$$1 8calcifuge0 plants 7s$ges1 or*ids1 ,juncus1 ,hmodorace1 ,xyris1 ,polygala1 etc474 ,?is l& is :olly unproductive & af=ds b indiff]5t pa/urage1 except ! fir/ season aft] burn+-ov]2 probably because ( ! effect ( ! m9ute am\nt ( a%es s add$4 ,z ! coa/ is approa*$1 ! clay subsoil has an increas+ dep? ( s&y soil-mass above x1 & on ^! 8s& hammocks0 ! long-leav$ p9e gradually assumes m & m ( its usual /ature2 ! cypress disappe>s1 & ! ,cuban p9e 7"h call$ pit* p9e7 gradually comes 92 :ile ! s$gy vegetation dim9i%es & f9ally disappe>s4 ,on ?is l& crops may be gr[n z 9 ! long-leaf-p9e upl&s4 #ahg ,r4 ,m4 ,h>p]1 :o has graphically describ$ ! vegetative features ( ! coa/al pla9 ( ,georgia 7,contr4 f ! ,dep4 ( ,bot4 ,colum4 ,univ4 ,nos4 #aib1 #bae1 #baf1 #aijb-je2 also ,bull4 ,torr4 ,bot4 ,club #bi-cb71 claims ! decidu\s cypress ( ! wet p9e-b>r5s & ponds !re91 ! vegetation ( :i* greatly resembles t ( ! p9e mead[s ( ! ,mississippi sea-coa/1 to be a di/9ct species1 ,taxodium imbric>ium1 ! leaves ( :i* are imbricat$1 in/ead ( two-rank$ & ) spread+ leaflets4 ,he supports ?is di/9ction ma9ly by ! diff]5ces 9 habit f ! ,l\isiana swamp cypress1 & ! fact t ! imbricat$ =m occurs :olly on non-calc>e\s l&1 :ile ! o!r is at home 9 ! calc>e\s alluvial areas4 ,! imbricat$ =m has be5 obs]v$ & comm5t$ on be=e1 z a m]e ecological v>iation1 & 9 ! writ]'s op9ion ?is is all t c be claim$1 9 view ( ! mu* great] diff]5ces 9 ! =m ( o!r trees1 notably oaks1 illu/rat$ bel[1 caus$ also by lime4 ,!re w\ld1 =tiori1 be reason = claim+ at lea/ ?ree diff]5t species ( po/ oak & black-jack 7& two ( will[ oak71 :i* diff] n only 9 tree =m b also 9 ! =m & numb] ( leaf lobes1 & yet c be trac$ into "o ano!r by innum]able transition =ms4 ,if new species are to be e/abli%$ on su* gr\nds1 x is h>d to see :]e ! v>iations manife/ly due to environm5t are to come 94 ,b on ! imm$iate coa/1 evid5tly "u ! influ5ce ( ! aborig9al 8%ell m\nds10 ! yell[ s&y soil becomes blacki% f ! 7humus-=m+7 effect ( ! lime ?us suppli$2 & concurr5tly ! coa/ live-oak 7,q4 vir5s71 grape v9es1 ! ,h]cules club 7,aralia sp9osa71 8l'h]be a trois qu>ts0 7,v]bes9a sp471 & num]\s legum9\s plants 7:i* are :olly abs5t f ! p9e mead[s7 take possession ( ! l&1 :i* is v productive & has be5 specially utiliz$ 9 ! gr[+ ( ,sea ,isl& cotton4 ,"h ! clay /ratum is #ae to #bj feet bel[ ! surface1 & roots p5etrate to great dep?s 9 ! p]vi\s soil1 ^: great ?ickness makes up = its l[ p]c5tage ( plant-food 7see table bel[74 ,?is l& is di/9ctly limit$ by ! ext5t ( ! %ell heaps1 pa/ or pres5t1 & %[s a respectable p]c5tage ( lime4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,s*ematic pr(ile ( ! ,mississippi ,coa/ ,belt1 ?r\gh ,jackson ,c\nty4 ,! annex$ s*ematic pr(ile 7fig4 #gh7 illu/rates ^! *anges ( soil & vegetation1 :i* furni% a /rik+ example ( ! effective modification ( vegetative features by physical & *emical soil-conditions4 ,x w\ld be difficult to f9d a m /rik+ exemplification ( ! effect ( lime c>bonate1 n only ^u ! vegetation b also ^u ! physical & *emical *>act]s ( ! hopelessly unproductive soil ( ! s& hammocks & p9e mead[s2 no long] br[n & s\r1 b jet black & neutral1 modify+ favorably e physical quality4 ,humus likewise n[h]e %[s its b5efits m /rik+ly4 ,table ( ,lime-,p]c5tages4--,! table bel[ %[s ! av]age lime p]c5tages obs]v$ 9 mo/ ( ! sev]al vegetative areas m5tion$ above4 ,to meet ! objection sometimes made t ! vegetative *anges not$ may be due to ! l>g] am\nts ( phosphoric acid & pota% frequ5tly f\nd 9 calc>e\s l&s1 ! p]c5tages ( ! latt] are also giv54 ,consid]+ ! orig9 ( lime/ones1 su* a connection is n unexpect$1 b x is f> f con/ant4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! frequ5t co-occurr5ce ( mu* lime & high production ) small p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid & pota% leads to ! conclusion1 already discuss$ 7see *apt] #ai1 p4 #cfe71 t 9 pres5ce ( abundance ( calcic c>bonate1 small] p]c5tages ( phosphoric acid may be consid]$ adequate ?an :5 lime is defici5t1 on acc\nt ( great] availability4 ,almo/ ! same may be said ( pota%2 & x is q possible t ! pres5ce ( l>ge am\nts ( lime t5ds to prev5t ! lea*+-out ( ?is base1 9 consequ5ce ( great] facility = ! =mation ( zeolites4 ,illu/rations ( ?is k9d h already be5 giv5 7*apt]s #c1 #bb74 ,def9ition ( 8,calc>e\s ,soils40--,x w be not$ t ! v obvi\s & important *anges ( vegetation are br\ght ab\t by comp>atively slight diff]5ces 9 lime-cont5t4 ,9 fact1 only two ( ! soils enum]at$ above w\ld1 accord+ to ! e/imates usually giv5 9 books on soil composition1 be consid]$ z prop]ly calc>e\s4 ,b ! decisive feature 9 ?is matt] mu/ evid5tly be ! native vegetation1 :i* expresses ! nature ( ! l& mu* m cle>ly & au?oritatively ?an any arbitr>y def9ition or nom5clature c possibly claim to d4 ,a soil mu/ be consid]$ z be+ calc>e\s :5ev] x naturally supports ! vegetation *>act]i/ic ( calc>e\s soils4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,native ,,=e/ ,,gr[?1 ,,popul> ,,e/imate ,,( ,,durability ,,& ,,initial ,,production1 ,,& ,,p]c5tages ,,( ,,lime1 ,,phosphoric ,,acid ,,& ,,pota%1 ,,9 ,,mississippi ,,l&s4 ,no4 ,"n4 ,natural ,vegetation4 ,production ,p] ,acre4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,black ,ma9ly /urdy black-jack &#djj lbs4 cotton l9t1 #agb ,prairie po/ oak1 r$ c$>1 crab decreas+ to #bjj lbs4 ,soil4 apple & honey locu/4 9 #cj ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pale ,sc>let1 po/ & ,spani% #bjj lbs4 cotton fir/ #afd ,yell[ oak1 small4 ye>1 tail+ (f ,ridge to #ge to #ajj lbs4 ,loam4 by #e? ye>4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pontotoc ,oak1 hickory1 walnut1 sweet #cej-djj lbs4 cotton #bbf ,ridge & black gum1 honey locu/4 l9t1 #cjj lbs4 aft] ,soil4 #bj ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,heavy ,po/ & black-jack oak1 #bj bu%els ( corn #bcj ,flatwood & "s %ort-leav$ p9e4 fir/ ye>--!n ,soil4 nubb9s only4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,black-,jack,black-jack oak1 p9e1 ,unproductive4 #cde ,ridge huckleb]ry4 ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,oak & ,r$ & po/ oak1 pig-nut #bjj lbs4 cotton l9t ,p9e hickory1 %ort-leav$ p9e4 at fir/2 #ajj lbs4 #adb ,upl& #f-h ye>s4 ,loam4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,br[n ,black1 po/1 ,spani% & #djj lbs4 cotton--#bej #bai,table-l& black-jack oak1 hickory1 lbs4 aft] #bj ye>s4 soil4 sweet & black gum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bluff or ,cane1 black & :ite oak1 #djj lbs4 cotton1 #bcg ,loess tulip tree1 l9d51 decreas+ to #bej lbs4 ,soil4 sassafras4 aft] #cj ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ 8,buck%ot0,hickory1 a%1 sweet gum1 #hjj lbs4 cotton l9t1 #cij ,soil4 pecan1 c[ oak1 honey r$uc$ to #ejj lbs4 locu/1 cane1 crab-apple1 9 #cj ye>s plum4 cultivation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,p9e ,long-leav$ p9e1 ) #bj-cj bu%els corn = #bjf ,hill sc>let & po/ oak1 "o ye>--!n ,soil4 scatt]$ small & nubb9s4 ,usually occasional pig-nut good sweet potatoes hickory4 = #b-c ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,p9e ,dw>f long-leav$ p9e1 ,unproductive4 ,be>s #bae ,mead[ cypress1 s$ges1 or*ids1 small-se$$ 8s\r0 ,soil4 ,hmodorac1 etc4 vegetation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,%ell ,live & wat] oak1 c$>1 #cjj lbs4 sea-isl& #hh ,hammock magnolia1 holly1 dogwood1 cotton = #ae ye>s4 ,soil4 sweet gum1 hickory1 sassafras1 grape1 ,h]cules club1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,no4 ,"n4 ,physical ,k,o4 ,ca,o4 ,mg,o4 ,p,o4 ,humus4 ,"*4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,black ,heavy adhesive #agb ,prairie d>k-color$ 4#ccc #a4cfg 4#cfc 4#ajd #a4be ,soil4 clay4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,pale ,pale yell[ #afd ,yell[ s&y loam4 4#jic 4#jfi 4#abf 4#jcc 4#ej ,ridge ,loam4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,pontotoc 8,mulatto0 #bbf ,ridge m$ium loam4 4#cgd 4#bha 4#bcd 4#jhb #a4jj ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,heavy ,heavy gray 4#gec 4#agh 4#hca 4#jeb 4#cje #bcj ,flatwood clay4 ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,black-,jack ,v s&y #cde ,ridge loam4 4#jgc 4#adb 4#ajj,trace4 4#bj ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,oak & ,m$ium ,p9e loam4 #adb ,upl& 4#bcf 4#jib 4#aif 4#jia 4#ej ,loam4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,br[n #bai,table-l& ,clay loam4 4#fcj 4#bgj 4#dej 4#baj 4#gi soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,bluff or ,s&y loam4 4#eaa #e4ibac4bgh 4#adc 4#gb #bcg ,loess ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 8,buck%ot0 ,heavy #cij ,soil4 calc>e\s #a4ajd #a4cdia4ffe 4#cjd #a4j clay soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,p9e ,light s&y #bjf ,hill loam2 m]e 4#bei 4#abi 4#ahj 4#jcj 4#ce ,soil4 s& at #c feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,p9e ,v s&y #bae ,mead[ loam1 gray 4#jfa 4#jbc 4#jfi 4#jba ,soil4 clay subsoil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,%ell ,v s&y #hh ,hammock loam1 deep4 4#jhj 4#aae 4#jfe 4#ajg 4#ge ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,/>r$ values 77 are approximate4 ,,diff]5ces ,,9 ,,! ,,=m ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,trees4#ahh ,x w be not$ t 9 ! above table1 z well z 9 ! discussion prec$+ x1 id5tical species ( trees are ascrib$ to vegetative areas ( widely diff]5t productive capacity4 ,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ example is t ! cretace\s prairies & ! adjo9+ flatwoods belt1 /&+ respectively highe/ & l[e/ 9 ! scale ( productiv5ess1 are yet be>+ specifically id5tical tree-gr[?1 to-wit1 ! po/ oak 7,qu]cus m9or7 & ! black-jack oak 7,q4 m>yl&ica74 ,:ile to ! field botani/#ahi !re c be no "q z to ! absolute specific id5tity ( ! two trees z gr[+ on ! respective areas1 yet ! mode ( developm5t ( bo? is s diff]5t 9 ! two cases1 t1 z be=e rem>k$ !y are popul>ly suppos$ to be diff]5t 8k9ds40 #ahh ,x is a matt] ( regret to ! writ] t ow+ to ! long di/ance int]v5+ & ! difficulty ( secur+ compet5t & sympa!tic obs]v]s = su* "w1 x has n be5 possible = him to secure photographs ( ! tree-=ms "h discuss$4 ,at ! "t 8 own obs]vations 7 made1 photography 0 practically unavailable z yet1 & ! figures giv5 are !re=e bas$ ^u sket*es made at ! "t1 & p>tly ^u recollection4 ,!y repres5t types r ?an def9ite individuals1 :i* 7 h[ev] describ$ :5 fre% 9 m9d1 9 ! ,report on ! ,agriculture & ,geology ( ,mississippi1 #ahfj1 pages #bed et seq4 #ahi ,x has be5 already1 & d\btless w be aga9 & increas+ly1 attempt$ to make di/9ct 8species0 ( ^! widely diff]5t =ms ( trees4 ,b ?is is simply begg+ ! "q4 ,m]e ext]nal diagno/ic m>ks w n avail "h2 x w\ld h to be %[n t ! se$ ( ^! diff]5t =ms d n produce ! o!r =ms "u *ang$ conditions4 ,until ?is has be5 done1 ! numb]-less transition =ms :i* he t runs may obs]ve 9 ! field1 ?r[ ^u ! species-mak]s ! onus ( pro( ( diff]5ces ( specific value--if x be possible to def9e su* value4 ,=ms ( ! ,po/ ,oak4--,! po/ oak ( ! prairie l&s is a tree #ej to #gj feet high1 ) a /\t1 excurr5t1 r conical trunk1 (t5 some:at curv$ to "o side above1 & d5sely clo!d f )9 #ab or #ae feet ( ! gr\nd ) comp>atively %ort1 /urdy bran*es set squ>ely to ! trunk1 mu* crook$ 7g5iculate71 (t5 reflex$ d[nw>d2 altoge!r =m+ a d5se head1 b5ea? ^: ?ick foliage1 a bird or squirrel is q secure f ! hunt]'s aim4--,9 ! flatwoods1 on ! contr>y1 ! po/ oak has a ?91 r %ort trunk1 divid$ up at #ae or #bj feet height into long1 rod-l bran*es1 spread+ broom-fa%ion1 & scantily clo!d ) %ort twigs be>+ tufts ( leaves2 ?us =m+ an op5 head1 9 :i* no creature c hide effectually4 ,on ! br[n-loam table-l&s1 aga91 ! po/ oak has a /raight1 r sl5d]1 excurr5t trunk ) long & m or less crook$ limbs project+ at a l>ge angle1 sometimes ev5 droop+1 & freely divid$ up into lat]al1 leafy bran*es2 ! trees atta9 f #dj to #ee feet 9 height4 ,aga91 on ! high s&y ridges :i* are int]sp]s$ 9 ! ea/]n portion ( ! br[n loam area1 we f9d1 g5]ally associat$ ) a simil>ly depaup]at$ =m ( ! black-jack oak1 & ) ! ,upl& ,will[ oak 7,q4 c9]ea71 a =m ( ! po/ oak int]m$iate betwe5 t ( ! ,flatwoods & ! ,table l&s2 twelve to fifte5 feet high1 ) ?9 trunk1 8sprangl+0 long1 crook$ bran*es1 clo!d ) sp>se tufts ( leaves4 ,^! f\r /rik+ly di/9ct types are %[n s*ematically1 9 _! extreme developm5t1 9 ! subjo9$ figures4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t betwe5 ^! extreme =ms !re are _m degrees ( transition1 correspond+ to ! transitions betwe5 ! sev]al soil-classes respectively repres5t$ by !m2 or !y may be develop$ into depaup]at$ types4 ,?us1 = example1 ! =ms ( ! po/ & black-jack oak f\nd on ! s&y ridges ( ! yell[ loam region1 h>dly ne$ exp]i5ce 9 ! obs]v] to int]pret !m z *>act]iz+ a wret*$ly poor soil4 ,=ms ( ! ,black-jack ,oak4--,n less /rik+ are ! *>act]i/ics ( ! =ms ( ! black-jack oak z develop$ ^u ^! sev]al k9ds ( l&4 ,! black-jack ( ! prairies is a l[ tree ) a d5se r\nd$ head1 (t5 some:at flatt5$ above1 & a l[1 ?ick-set trunk divid$ up into squ>e-set bran*es1 s d5sely clad ) foliage t no light p5etrates into ! int]ior1 & birds c safely hide & ne/ )9 x4 ,! height r>ely exce$s #ce feet1 ! head be+ #bj to #cj feet across4 ,! ,flatwoods =m1 on ! contr>y1 r>ely exce$s #ae feet 9 height1 ) a v r\gh b>k & a small1 r d5se1 r\nd$ top1 giv+ ! :ole ! appe>ance ( a small apple tree4 ,practically ! same =m is se5 on poor1 clay ridges ( 8hog-wall[0 l&4 ,illu/ration3 ,loam ,upl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,s&y ,ridges4 ,illu/ration3 ,flatwoods4 ,illu/ration3 ,black ,prairie4 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,extreme ,=ms ( ,po/ ,oak 7,qu]cus m9or ,m>%41 obtusiloba ,mi*474 ,on ! br[n-loam l&s ! black-jack1 l ! po/ oak1 has a r sl5d]1 (t5 some:at crook$1 b excurr5t trunk #ce to #ej feet high1 ) m or less crook$ limbs ( mod]ate l5g?1 well provid$ ) leafy bran*es1 b =m+ altoge!r a r op5 cr[n4 ,a depaup]at$ =m ( ?is type occurs on ! s&y ridges ( ! yell[-loam region & is #ab to #ae feet high1 ) sl5d]1 crook$ bran*es1 clo!d ) scanty foliage2 z %[n 9 ,figure ,no4 #hj1 alongside ( ! o!r typical =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,loam ,upl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,flatwoods4 ,illu/ration3 ,s&y ,ridges4 ,illu/ration3 ,black ,prairie4 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,extreme ,=ms ( ,black-,jack ,oak 7,q4 m>yl&ica ,mur%1 nigra ,wangh74 ,9 all ^! v>iations ( ! tree =ms1 !re is also a concomitant v>iation 9 ! =ms & o!r *>act]s ( ! leaves4 ,?us 9 ! compact =ms ( ! black-jack oak1 ! trilobate leaf is almo/ completely oblit]at$1 ! leaf be+ simply r\nd$-cuneate1 some:at auriculate at base4 ,9 ! sp>se-bran*$ upl& =ms ! leaves are deeply ?ree-lob$1 & ! f]rug9\s tom5tum ( ! l[] surface is mu* less pron\nc$4 ,! lobation ( ! po/ oak also v>ies consid]ably bo? 9 ! numb]s ( lobes & 9 _! obtus5ess4 ,simil> diff]5ces prevail 9 ! case ( ! black & ,spani% oaks2 ?us 9 ! latt]1 ! long t]m9al1 falcate lobe is always mo/ pron\nc$ on 8ri*0 soils1 :ile on poor ones ! trilobate leaf pr$om9ates4 ,( c\rse all ^! =ms may be f\nd be>+ acorns1 s t !y und\bt$ly repres5t adult trees4 ,*>act]i/ic ,=ms ( o!r ,oaks4--,simil> g5]al features are repeat$ 9 ! case ( ! o!r species ( oaks1 & also m or less 9 o!r k9ds ( trees2 ?\gh mo/ly less pron\nc$ly ?an ) ! two species above describ$4 ,among ! m /rik+ are ! two =ms ( ! will[ oak 7,q4 phellos71 :i* on l[1 undra9$ gr\nd assumes ! l[1 r\nd$1 8apple-tree0 =m1 :ile on well-dra9$ upl&s ( good f]tility x is a beautiful1 sl5d] tree produc+ almo/ ! effect ( ! acacia type2 x is !n a sign ( fir/-class l&4 ,! sc>let oak r rev]ses ^! types2 on good1 8br[n-loam0 upl& x is ( r\nd$ =m1 n v tall1 ) /urdy1 r\gh-b>k$ trunk2 :ile on poor hillside l&s its tall1 smoo?1 :ite trunk /&s out z a conspicu\s admonition to ! l&-seek] to bew>e ( a poor pur*ase4 ,! black & ,spani% oaks also indicate1 by tall ?9 trunks1 a det]ioration ( ! l& z comp>$ ) ! l[] & m /urdy gr[? on areas relatively ri*] 9 lime4 ,/urdy ,gr[? on ,calc>e\s ,l&s4--,"o feature inv>iably repeat$1 n only 9 ,mississippi b ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is t 9 _m /rongly calc>e\s soils ! gr[? ( all trees1 z well z ( %rubs & ( _m h]bace\s plants1 is ( a m /urdy & ?ick-set habit ?an t ( ! same species gr[n on ?91 s&y1 or g5]ally on non-calc>e\s l&4 ,?is effect is q z app>5t 9 ! arid region ( ! ,pacific ,coa/ z 9 ! ,atlantic ,/ates1 on ! prairies ( ! ,middle ,we/1 & ( ! ,gulf ,coa/4 ,! exp]i5c$ f>m] recognizes ?is habit ( ! tree-gr[? z a sign ( good l&1 & ! rev]se1 viz41 trees ( lank1 tall & ?9 gr[?1 z evid5ce to ! contr>y1 f ! ,atlantic to ! ,pacific4 ,cotton ,plant4--,! cotton plant af=ds v /rik+ evid5ces ( ?is influ5ce ( lime4 ,on ! bottom l&s ( a creek 9 ,rank9 c\nty1 ,mississippi1 ! writ] f\nd a 8pat*0 ( cotton ) luxuriant /alks rea*+ above ! head ( a man on horseback1 b almo/ devoid ( 8squ>es0 or blooms4 ,! soil 0 v d>k & ri*-look+1 b 0 d]iv$ f a non-calc>e\s t]ti>y t]rane surr\nd+ ! heads ( ! /ream4 ,a few rods bel[1 ! latt] crosses ! l9e ( a calc>e\s t]rane1 f :i* copi\s m>ly debris h be5 wa%$ d[n on ! bottom soil4 ,"h ! cotton 0 j half z high z above1 & ?ickly cov]$ ) squ>es1 blooms1 & bolls4 ,ano!r simil> example 0 not$ on ! ,*ickasa:ay riv]1 9 ,wayne c\nty1 ,miss4 ,:]e t /ream fl[s ?r\gh ! non-calc>e\s1 lignitif]\s area ( ! t]ti>y =mation1 its bottom l&s be> cotton crops ( m$ium productiv5ess only1 ! /alks be+ ( ! usual height ( ab\t ?ree feet1 & only fairly boll$4 ,b a %ort di/ance bel[ ! po9t :]e ! s(t m>ls ( ! m>9e t]ti>y are cut into by ! /ream1 ! cotton plants on ! bottom l&s are f #ah to #bj in*es high only1 closely bran*$1 & lit]ally ?rong$ ) cotton bolls1 s t ! fields appe> a solid mass ( :ite4 ,! only objection urg$ aga9/ ?is l& is t to pick su* cotton 8breaks ! backs0 ( ! pick]s4 ,! tree gr[? ( ! bottom1 ( c\rse %[s a correspond+ *ange4 ,lime ,favors ,fruit+4--,9 connection ) ! obvi\s *anges ( =m & /ature caus$ by ! pres5ce ( an abundant supply ( lime c>bonate 9 soils1 !re is ano!r t has be5 long not$ 9 cultivation1 b is no less /rik+ 9 ! native vegetation4 ,! abundant fruit+ ( oaks on su* l&s z comp>$ ) ! same species on non-calc>e\s soils is a matt] ( common note 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley /ates2 & ! same is true ( o!r trees1 & ( h]bace\s plants z well4 ,! fruit on ! lime soils is (t5 small]1 unless mu* humus is pres5t2 b ! /atem5t made 9 ,europe t cultivat$ fruits1 & especially grapes1 are sweet] on calc>e\s l&s1 is abundantly v]ifi$ 9 ! native fruits ( ! ,mississippi ,valley /ates z well2 :]e ! v>i\s wild b]ries1 haws1 plums1 etc41 are well kn[n to ! y\ng] "p ( ! population to be mu* sweet] & high]-flavor$ 9 c]ta9 7calc>e\s7 localities ?an 9 o!rs1 besides be+ usually m abundant4 ,?is is entirely 9 accord ) ! well-kn[n fact t ! application ( lime *ecks ! excessive wood & leaf gr[? result+ f excess ( nitrog5 z well z moi/ure2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 ! injuri\s effects ( ov]dress+ ) lime or m>l are kn[n to be repress$ by ! use ( /able manure1 or by gre5-manur+4 ,! repression ( excessive wood gr[? by lime w\ld seem to (f] a simple explanation ( ! compact habit ( gr[? on calc>e\s l&s2 & ! extraord9>y sweetness ( fruits gr[n 9 ! arid region z comp>$ ) ! same 9 ! humid1 is fully 9 accord ) ! high lime-cont5t ( ! arid l&s4 ,/unt$ ,gr[?4--,9 practice x w be f\nd 9 mo/ cases t a /unt$ native gr[? is due n s mu* to lack ( plant-food 9 ! soil1 z to unfavorable physical conditions4 ,among ^!1 %all[ness1 & extreme heav9ess ( ! soil are ! mo/ common causes4 ,! 8scab l&s10 und]laid by imp]vi\s rock at a dep? too slight = culture plants1 z 9 _m plateaus ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/1 & 9 rocky or m\nta9\s regions g5]ally1 are cases 9 po9t4 ,/rata ( imp]vi\s clay (t5 produce ! same result2 b 9 ?is case1 %\ld su* clay be intr9sically capable ( support+ plant gr[?1 ! l& c (t5 be made available = or*>d purposes by bla/+ ) dynamite 7see *apt] #aj1 p4 #aha74 ,! po/ oak 7& black-jack7 flats ( ! ,mississippi ,valley /ates are famili> examples ( l& ^: dw>f$ tree gr[? causes x to be avoid$ by settl]s2 simil>ly1 a dw>f$ gr[? ( r$ elm 7,ulmus rubra71 hackb]ry & a% indicates 9 ! flood pla9 ( ! ,r$ riv] ( ,l\isiana a heavy 8waxy0 r$ clay1 or 8gumbo0 l&1 sc>cely available = agricultural purposes4#aij ,! gray or :ite 8cray-fi%y0 bottom & b5* l&s ( ! ,s\?we/]n ,/ates1 s poor 9 lime1 phosphates & humus z to be wor?less "u exi/+ conditions1 are *>act]iz$ by an easily recogniz$ scrubby gr[? ( ,wat] & ,will[ ,oaks 7,q4 nigra1 or aquatica1 & phellos71 ) l[1 r\nd$ tops2 :ile ! same trees1 :5 well develop$1 indicate highly productive l&s4 #aij ,rep4 ( ,geological ,reconnaissance ( ,l\isiana2 ,new ,orleans1 #ahgc1 p4 #bg4 ,physical vs4 ,*emical ,causes ( ,vegetative ,features4--,! ext5t to :i* ! modifications ( =m allud$ to above are ref]able to *emical & physical causes respectively1 c be approa*$ by ! discussion ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( c]ta9 trees f soils ( extreme physical "*1 b o!rwise normally con/itut$4 ,z has be5 %[n above1 ! black-jack & po/ oaks belong1 z species1 equally to ! heavie/ & lighte/ soils )9 ! /ate ( ,mississippi2 to ! black & yell[ 8prairie0 soils1 z well z to ! s&y ridges ( ! yell[-loam region2 %[+ = ^! two species z su*1 an indep5d5ce ( physical conditions & an extraord9>y adaptability1 f\nd 9 few o!r trees4 ,!y are frequ5tly f\nd ei!r alone or associat$ ) only a few o!r species ( local adaptation1 su* z1 9 ! prairie l&s1 ! crab-apple1 wild plum1 & ! junip] or r$ c$>4 ,on ! soils ( int]m$iate or loam "*1 on ! contr>y1 !y are always associat$ ) o!r oaks z well z ) hickory1 & 9 t association atta9 :at may be consid]$ _! normal type or =m4 ,f ! fact t ! d5se1 r\nd$ top is =m$ by ! black-jack oak bo? on ! ri* prairie l&s & on ! poor soils ( ! ,flatwoods1 x w\ld seem t t =m is ! outcome ( a physical cause1 viz41 ! extreme 8heavy-clay0 "* ( bo? k9ds ( l&2 & we may note t exactly ! rev]se effect is obs]v$ 9 ! =m gr[+ on ! poor s&y ridges1 z %[n 9 fig's #gi & #hj4 ,yet x w also be not$ t 9 ! case ( ! po/ oak1 ! poor1 heavy-clay soil ( ! ,flatwoods produces an op51 broom-%ap$ top1 :ile ! =m assum$ on ! s&y ridges is sub/antially ! same = bo? species4 ,c>e mu/ !re=e be ex]cis$ 9 draw+ g5]al conclusions z to ! effects produc$ by ei!r physical or *emical causes1 alone1 ^u tree =ms4 ,l[l& ,tree ,gr[?4--,! v>iations occurr+ 9 ! valleys or alluvial bottoms are less obvi\s to sup]ficial obs]vation1 yet equally important & cog5t to ! close obs]v]4 ,9 ! prop]ly alluvial l&s1 "o dom9ant condition1 t ( adequate moi/ure supply1 is almo/ always fulfill$1 irrespective ( soil quality4 ,9 addition to ?is1 z /at$ 9 *apt] #b 7see page #bd71 practically all ! alluvial l&s ( ! humid region may be consid]$ z be+ ( a m or less calc>e\s "*1 z comp>$ ) ! adjac5t upl&s4 ,^! two important conditions dom9ate 9 a great measure ! m9or ones ( v>iation 9 soil-texture4 ,yet :]e1 z is l>gely ! case 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,/ate ( ,mississippi1 ! am\nt ( calcic c>bonate is insuffici5t to ov]come ! s\rness ( ! soil1 ! vegetative contra/s become extremely /rik+ & *>act]i/ic1 z expla9$ above4 ,contra/ ,betwe5 8,fir/0 & 8,second0 ,bottoms4--,a v /rik+ phase ( transition betwe5 ! alluvial bottoms & ! upl&s prop] 9 ! ,cotton ,/ates are ! second bottoms or hammocks ( ! /reams1 ^: soil & tree-gr[? 9 mo/ cases diff] m>k$ly f ^? ( ! fir/ bottom2 & ^! be+ usually closely adjac5t1 (t5 af=d a v /rik+ contra/ to ! latt]4 ,f "s antec$5t geological cause n fully und]/ood1 ^! hammocks1 usually elevat$ f #d to #aj feet above ! pres5t flood pla91 h almo/ ?r\gh\t soils ( a f9e s&y1 pulv]ul5t or silty nature1 frequ5tly 9 /rong contra/ to heavy clay soils 9 ! fir/ bottom4 ,!y seem1 moreov]1 to h be5 at "s "t subject to prolong$ mac]ation "u wat]1 result+ 9 ! r$uction ( ! f]ric oxid1 & its accumulation 9 ! l[] portion ( ! deposit 9 ! =m ( bog-ore spots or 8black gravel40 ,s9ce su* a process always results 9 ! ab/raction ( phosphoric acid f ! g5]al mass ( ! soil1 to be accumulat$ 9 ! bog ore 9 an in]t condition1#aia ^! hammock soils1 usually :iti% or gray 9 color1 are almo/ ?r\gh\t poor 9 phosphates z well z 9 lime2 ! latt] hav+ be5 def9itively lea*$ out4 ,! result+ vegetation1 z may be imag9$1 is widely diff]5t f t ( ! bottom prop]1 z well z1 frequ5tly1 f t ( ! adjac5t upl&s2 & ?\gh level & fair to see1 ^! hammocks are usually un?rifty & la/ b a %ort "t "u exhau/ive cultivation4 ,accord+ly1 _! =e/ gr[? is preval5tly t ( ! poor] class ( upl&s1 viz41 small-siz$ po/ & black-jack oaks1 & 9 ! l[ gr\nd depaup]at$ wat] oak1 or less commonly will[ oak1 ( ! l[1 /unt$ type indicative ( a soil ( inf]ior productiv5ess4 ,! luxuriant gr[? ( ! pres5t alluvial bottom is (t5 se5 )9 a few feet ( ! un?rifty vegetation ( ^! hammocks4 ,x is usually only 9 ! lime/one regions1 & 9 ! l[] c\rse ( ! l>g] /reams1 t ! hammocks or second bottoms are f\nd to be ( good f]tility4 #aia ,see ,*apt] #b1 p4 #bd4 ,! ,tree ,gr[? ( ! ,fir/ ,bottoms4 ,! ,cypress4--,among ! trees occupy+ ! l[ gr\nd ( ! fir/ bottom 9 ! s\!rn ,mississippi /ates1 ! decidu\s cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um7 des]ves special m5tion z an example ( extreme v>iation 9 =m4 ,9 sl\ghs & swampy tracts1 z is well kn[n1 ! cypress gr[s ) roots subm]g$ ?r\gh\t ! season1 except+ only ! excresc5ces kn[n z 8knees10 :i* project above ! wat]1 probably p]=m+ "s function 9 connection ) ! a]ation ( ! root1 :i* is ess5tial to ! root functions 9 all plants4 ,! trunk ris+ f ! wat] is support$ by num]\s project+ buttresses = f #h to #ae feet above ! wat]2 high] up x becomes cyl9drical = a height ( f #dj to #gj feet1 !n divides up into a few widely spread+1 ?ick1 almo/ conical bran*es1 ^: twigs & foliage =m an almo/ level surface to ! head4 ,?is level-topp$ =e/ gr[? *>act]izes at once ! subm]g$ areas ( ! riv] & coa/ swamps4 ,b ! cypress is by no means conf9$ to ! swamps & sl\ghs2 x is also f\nd occupy+ ! bett] class ( hammock l&s1 #ab or #ae feet above wat] level4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! tree assumes a %ape & gr[? s :olly diff]5t f t describ$ above z to lead to a popul> ass]tion ( a diff]5ce ( species4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! cones ( ^! upl& cypresses1 :5 dropp+ into ! wat] bel[ !m1 reproduce exactly ! common swamp =m4 ,! extraord9>y diff]5ce 9 ! aspect ( ! tree "u ^! diff]5t conditions is be/ se5 9 ! subjo9$ diagram1 %[+ ! upl& cypress to assume ! =m ( ! tall will[ oak1 ) :i* x is sometimes locally associat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,swamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,upl&4 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,=ms ( ,decidu\s ,cypress on ov]fl[$ & on b5*-l&4 ,! trees f :i* ! annex$ sket* is tak5 grew )9 ?irty feet ( ea* o!r1 on ,yell[ creek1 a small tribut>y ( ! ,t5nessee riv]1 9 ,ti%om+o c\nty1 ,miss4 ,! soil /ratum is und]laid by a %aly lime/one1 & be>s lime vegetation4 ,! fact t ! decidu\s cypress gr[s )\t difficulty on ! moi/] class ( l[l&s 9 ,cali=nia1 #ab or #ae feet above bottom wat]1 is ( int]e/ 9 ?is connection4 ,x !n assumes ! upl& =m %[n 9 ! figure above1 al?\gh n gr[+ q z tall4 ,! calc>e\s nature ( ^! soils is probably an important factor 9 ?is app>5tly incongru\s adaptation ( a subtropical swamp tree to arid conditions4 ,9 its swamp =m ! cypress usually gr[s 9 r %all[1 heavy clay soil1 into ! d5se subsoil ( :i* ! roots p5etrate b little4 ,o!r ,l[l& ,trees4--,! l[l& hickories1 l _! bre?r5 on ! highl&s1 seem on ! :ole to pref] ! light] or loamy bottom soils to ^? ( a heavi] "*4 ,?is is especially true ( ! ,pecan4 ,! latt]1 z well z ! %ell-b>k hickory1 is especially indicative ( ! highe/ class ( bottom soils4 ,! black walnut1 :ile app>5tly also be/ suit$ 9 loamy soils1 is also m or less f\nd on heavy bottom l&s1 provid$ !y are suffici5tly calc>e\s2 & ! same is measurably true ( ! tulip or :ite-wood tree4 ,! mo/ frequ5t occupants ( heavy bottom l&s1 h[ev]1 are ! black gum & sweet gum1 s t 8gum swamps0 are usually f\nd to be ( t "*4#aib ,b 9 ! prairie region1 :]e ! bottom soils are v calc>e\s & heavy1 z well z 9 correspond+ soils ( ! 8buck%ot0 l&s ( ! great ,mississippi ,bottom1 ! *e/nut-:ite 7c[- or basket-7 oak sometimes occupies su* gr\nd almo/ exclusively4 ,among ! accompany+ trees are especially ! honey locu/1 ! crab-apple1 mulb]ry & sweet gum1 z well z a%4 #aib ,h5ce p]haps ! v]nacul> "n 8gumbo0 = heavy1 adhesive clay soils 9 ! nor? c5tral /ates2 :i* may also1 h[ev]1 be d]iv$ f a comp>ison ) ! 8gummy0 pods ( ! cultivat$ okra or gumbo plant4 ,g5]al ,=eca/s ( ,soil ,quality 9 ,=e/ ,l&s4--,:ile ! oaks & p9es m5tion$ z =m+ ! bulk ( ! timb] con/itute 9 ! cotton /ates ! prim faci evid5ce1 z x 71 ( ! g5]al "* ( ! l&1 !re are num]\s o!r trees & plants :i* s]ve ! discrim9at+ l&-seek] z a guide = ! quality ( ! soils 9 diff]5t localities4 ,:ile ev]y:]e1 well-develop$ black1 r$1 ,spani% & :ite oaks are consid]$ z signs ( a high quality ( l&1 ! tall1 ?9 sc>let1 ! upl& will[1 & ! b>r5s scrub oak are consid]$ z indications detract+ mat]ially f ! produc+ value :]ev] !y prevail4 ,! v>i\s hickories are ?r\gh\t consid]$ z indicat+ good l& :5 mix$ ) ! oaks1 or by !mselves2 :ile ! pres5ce ( walnut1 l9d5 & tulip tree w usually raise ! e/imate ( upl&s to ! highe/ class4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! occurr5ce ( small black-gum trees & %ort-leav$ p9e1 ) l[ huckleb]ry1 among ! oaks ( :atev] k9d1 accompani$ z !y usually are by ! disappe>ance ( ! black1 :ite & ,spani% oaks1 w mat]ially depress ! l&-values4 ,! appe>ance ( well-=m$ oaks1 z well z ( hickory1 is !re=e at once welcom$ z an evid5ce ( soil improvem5t1 :ile t ( l[ huckleb]ry bu%es & small black gums indicates ! rev]se4 ,an increase 9 ! ?ickness & ret5tiv5ess ( ! soil /ratum is also usually indicat$ by ! occurr5ce ( %ort-leav$ p9e 9 ! long-leaf-p9e areas4 ,! black1 r$1 :ite1 & ,spani% oaks belong altoge!r to soils ( m$ium physical con/itution1 only _! size ^u su* l&s dep5d+ ^u ! relative ri*ness 9 plant-food2 b )\t su* *anges produc+ any notable v>iation 9 _! =m4 ,cle>ly !n1 ^! species are intol]ant ( extreme physical conditions1 & are practically re/rict$ to soils ( 8loamy0 "* & easy cultivation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,recognition ,,( ,,! ,,"* ,,( ,,soils ,,f ,,_! ,,native ,,vegetation4 ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,at ,,l>ge4 ,,europe4 ,! application ( ! above data outside ( ,mississippi c mo/ly be v]ifi$ only 9 a fragm5t>y way f su* data z are casually giv5 9 ! reports ( ,/ate ,surveys1 z well z f su* obs]vations z ! writ] has be5 able to make p]sonally else:]e4 ,9 ! latt] category ! mo/ copi\s ref] to ! /ates ( ,alabama1 ,l\isiana & ,ill9ois4 ,,alabama4--,! obs]vations ( ,pr(4 ,eug5e ,a4 ,smi?1 & ^? ( ,dr4 ,*as4 ,mohr1 are especially valuable & cog5t z to ! close correspond5ce ( ! soil & vegetative ph5om5a ) ^? obs]v$ 9 ,mississippi4#aic ,!y are fai?fully reproduc$ on ! correspond+ geological areas1 includ+ also ! ,flatwoods4 ,nor?we/ ( ,mobile1 on ! ,mississippi l9e1 ! long-leaf-p9e =e/ is int]sp]s$ ) m or less cont9u\s areas be>+ a f9e oak gr[?1 ) hickories & o!r trees indicat+ a calc>e\s soil4 ,?is feature is mo/ ext5sively develop$ 9 ,alabama 9 :at is kn[n z ! 8lime-s9k region10 on ! bord]s ( :i* ! vegetative transition 9 pass+ f ! non-calc>e\s s&y p9e l&1 c be obs]v$ 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann] & ) frequ5t alt]nations4 ,nor?w>d ( ! long-leaf-p9e belt1 ! t]ti>y & cretace\s areas %[ 9 ,alabama ! same features z 9 ,mississippi1 viz41 black calc>e\s prairies alt]nat+ ) ridge l&s1 among :i* 9 ! cretace\s area ! ,pontotoc ridge is repres5t$ by a s]ies ( isolat$ knobs1 popul>ly kn[n z ,*unn5ugga ridge1 closely resembl+ ! =m] 9 its soils & vegetative "*4 #aic ,see ,plant ,life ( ,alabama1 by ,*>les ,mohr1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 ,contr4 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,h]b41 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't ,agr42 ,alabama ,ed4 ( ,same1 ,ala4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aija4 ,9 nor!rn ,alabama1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,smi?1 on ! v>i\s /ages ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 rang+ f a s&y or conglom]ate "* to t ( lime/ones ( v>i\s degrees ( purity1 soils contra/ /rik+ly ) ea* o!r1 agree+ closely ) ^? se5 9 ! neighbor+ "p ( ,mississippi4 ,"h1 moreov]1 ! contra/ betwe5 ! natural vegetative "* z well z cultural value ( ! l&s d]iv$ f ! magnesian lime/ones 7! 8b>r5s07 contra/s /rik+ly ) ^? orig9at+ 9 ! pur] lime/ones1 on :i* ! blue grass is at home4 ,,l\isiana4--,z to ,l\isiana1 ^: geological =mations correspond closely to ^? ( ,mississippi1 x may be said 9 g5]al t ! vegetative ph5om5a co9cide completely ) ^? obs]v$ 9 ,mississippi4 ,! 8:ite-lime c\ntry0 ( nor!a/]n ,mississippi is repres5t$ 9 ,l\isiana only by pat*es occurr+ "h & !re on a l9e laid f ,lake ,bi/9eau to ! coa/ at ,petite ,anse ,isl&4 ,b ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! calc>e\s area1 among !m especially t ( ! occurr5ce ( r$ c$> & clumps ( crab-apple1 p]si/5tly reappe>4 ,! 8,c5tral ,prairie ,region0 ( ,l\isiana is q n>r[1 b on x !re reappe> precisely ! same *>act]i/ics describ$ 9 connection ) t area 9 ,mississippi4 ,9 ! long-leaf-p9e region ( ,l\isiana !re occur1 z 9 ,mississippi1 "s isolat$ pat*es ( a calc>e\s "*1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* is on ! ,bay\ ,anacoco 9 ,v]non ,p>i%1 ne> ! we/]n bord] ( ! ,/ate4 ,z we em]ge f ! s&y l&s ( ! long-leaf p9e area to t und]laid by ! calc>e\s =mation1 we f9d1 fir/1 a *ange to oak & %ort-leav$ p9e1 !n ! oak =e/ alone2 f9ally1 on a level black prairie ( consid]able ext5t1 ! po/ & black-jack oak 9 _! ?ick-set =m1 clumps ( crab-apple1 r$ haw & honey locu/1 "h & !re a r$ c$>2 exactly z has already be5 describ$ 9 connection ) ! prairie l&s ( ,mississippi4 ,to s\?w>d ( ! long-leaf-p9e area lies a broad belt ( level1 g5]ally treeless1 s&y prairie1 9 "p dott$ ) groves ( timb]1 b o!rwise ) ne>ly ! same peculi>1 small-se$$ h]bace\s vegetation obs]v$ 9 ! correspond+ portion ( ,mississippi4 ,b 9 ,l\isiana !re int]v5es betwe5 ^! gray s\r l&s & ! %ell hammocks ( ! imm$iate sea-coa/ ) _! groves ( live-oak1 a belt ( black calc>e\s prairie1 increas+ 9 wid? & clayeyness t[>ds ! ,we/1 & acquir+ consid]able ext5sion 9 ! correspond+ portion ( ,texas4 ,on ^! prairies we aga9 f9d ! calciphile vegetation1 includ+ ! honey locu/1 clumps ( crab-apple & r$ haw1 etc41 b n usually any oak gr[?1 except 7ne> ! sea-coa/7 ! live-oak4 ,9 ! hilly c\ntry ( nor!rn ,l\isiana !re is reproduc$ sub/antially ! vegetative "* ( ! 8%ort-leaf p9e & oak0 upl&s ( ,mississippi 7see map on p4 #dij1 *apt] #bd71 save 9 t1 ow+ to ! occasional outcropp+ ( ! calc>e\s mat]ials ( ! ,t]ti>y1 small prairies ) black soil are spott$ ab\t "h & !re4 ,bord]+ ! ,mississippi ,bottom !re are a s]ies ( oak-upl& ridges ) a br[n loam soil correspond+ to ! f]tile area 9 nor?we/]n ,mississippi1 ) small pat*es ( ! 8,cane hills0 loess soils1 be>+ a correspond+ tree gr[?4#aid #aid ,see 8,f9al ,report ( a ,geological ,reconnoisssance ( ,l\isiana10 publi%$ by ! ,new ,orleans ,academy ( ,sci5ce 9 #ahga4 ,9 ,we/]n ,t5nessee ! vegetative zones s di/9ctly %[n 9 ! adjac5t portion ( ,mississippi are n s /rik+ly outl9$1 b s f> z !y d exi/1 ! ph5om5a obs]v$ accord exactly ) ^? h]et(ore describ$4 ,! same holds true ( ,we/]n ,k5tucky1 z is well set =? & graphically describ$ 9 ! reports ( ! geological surveys ( t /ate by ,dr4 ,david ,dale ,ow51 & lat] by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge4 ,nor? ,c5tral ,/ates4--,nor? ( ! ,ohio ,riv] ! mat]ials ( ! geological =mations are n ne>ly z mu* v>i$ z !y are s\? ( ! same2 consequ5tly ! vegetative features are also mu* m uni=m4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t f ! ,allegh5ies ne>ly to ! ,mississippi1 ! /ates ( ,ohio1 ,s\!rn ,mi*igan1 ,indiana & ,ill9ois are l>gely cov]$ by drift deposits ov]ly+ ! old] =mations1 except t along ! ,ohio & ,mississippi riv]s lies ! calc>e\s loam ( ! ,loess or ,bluff =mation4 ,)9 ! /ates m5tion$1 h[ev]1 n only are ! old] und]ly+ =mations v g5]ally calc>e\s1 b calc>e\s s& & gravel =m a l>ge proportion ( ! drift deposits1 :i* 9 mo/ cases ov]lie ! rocks4 ,h5ce we f9d f ! ,allegh5ies to ! ,mississippi a pr$om9ance ( ! oak =e/s :i* *>act]izes calc>e\s soils1 z 9 ! bett] class ( upl&s 9 ,mississippi & ,t5nessee2 int]rupt$ only "h & !re by s&y belts or ridges be>+ inf]ior gr[?1 among :i*1 aga91 ! black-jack & po/ oaks1 ) %ort-leav$ p9e1 are conspicu\s4 ,b 9 a l>ge portion ( ,ill9ois1 z well z 9 ,we/]n ,indiana1 ! oak =e/ is int]rupt$ by m or less cont9u\s belts1 & sometimes by a wide expanse1 ( black prairie1 g5]ally treeless or be>+ only clumps ( crab-apple & haw1 & und]laid m or less directly by ! c>bonif]\s lime/ones1 ^: dis9tegration has mat]ially contribut$ to ! black prairie soils2 :i* are not$ = _! high & long-cont9u$ productiv5ess4 ,! l[] gr\nd is *>act]iz$1 besides clumps ( crab-apple & r$ haw1 by ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( ! honey locu/1 ! lead plant 7,amorpha fruticosa71 ! button-bu% 7,cephalan?us occid5talis71 & among h]bs by ! pol> plant 7,silphium lac9iatum71 ! prairie burdock 7,s4 t]eb9?9aceum71 ! swamp rose-mall[ 7,hibiscus mos*eutos71 ! sneezewort 7,hel5ium autumnale71 ! wild indigo 7,baptisia t9ctoria & leucophca74 ,! black-jack & po/ oak are n ne>ly z frequ5tly f\nd on ! prairies ( ,ill9ois z on ^? ( ,mississippi & ,alabama2 b :]e !y occur !y assume a simil> habit1 includ+ ! occurr5ce ( ! dw>f$1 apple-tree-%ap$ =m on ! l[ ridges ) heavy yell[ clay soil1 t sometimes int]sect ! prairies4 ,! po/ oak1 moreov]1 9 a =m q simil> to t describ$ z occurr+ on ! ,flatwoods ( ,mississippi1 =ms ! timb] ( ! 8po/ oak flats0 occasionally f\nd betwe5 ! l[ ridges bord]+ ! /reams1 or along ! edges ( ! prairies4 ,! h]bace\s vegetation ( ^! po/ oak flats di/9ctly *>act]izes !m z be+ poor 9 lime4 ,9 ! loamy upl&s1 :]e ! calc>e\s +r$i5t is m abundant1 ! op5-head$ =m ( ! black-jack & po/ oak are also f\nd1 int]sp]s$ ) a luxuriant gr[? ( black1 r$ & :ite oak1 ) m or less ( hickory1 :i* "h assume a magnific5t developm5t1 mu* sup]ior to t se5 s\? ( ! ,ohio4 ,^! yell[-loam upl&s correspond v closely 9 _! soil-composition & agricultural "* to ! br[n-loam area ( ,mississippi & ,t5nessee1 :i* lies inl& f ! ,loess belt4 ,:]e ^! upl&s approa* ! prairie or ! outcrops ( a lime/one =mation1 !re is usually add$ to ! oak gr[? ! l9d51 ! wild *]ry & ! a%2 ! latt] two also usually appe> 9 ! bottoms ( ! /reams & on ! slopes adjac5t1 toge!r ) ! walnut & butt]nut1 & 9 ! l[e/ gr\nd ! sycamore4 ,! tree gr[? ( ! ,loess belt bord]+ ! ,ohio & ,mississippi1 s f> z climatic diff]5ces p]mit1 agrees almo/ precisely ) t describ$ 9 ! correspond+ portions ( ,mississippi & ,t5nessee4 ,! *ange f ! oak & hickory gr[? cov]+ ! yell[-loam upl&s t[>d ! m calc>e\s area is evid5c$ by ! appe>ance ( l>ge /urdy trees ( sassafras1 toge!r ) ! l9d5 & sug> maple4 ,desc5d+ f ! 8bluff0 t[>d ! ri* bottom-prairie ) its black1 heavy soil1 we at once enc\nt] ! famili> indices ( ! m highly calc>e\s l&1 viz41 ! honey locu/1 clumps ( crab-apple & r$ haw1 ) hackb]ry1 ,k5tucky c(fee tree & mulb]ry on ! l[] gr\nd4 ,9 late summ] & dur+ autumn1 a tall gr[? ( ! iron we$ 7,v]nonia71 sev]al ,eupatoriums 7,e4 p]foliatum & purpureum1 ! :ite & ! purple boneset7 & ( ! blue-spik$ ,v]b5a are v *>act]i/ic1 z are also sev]al species ( ,cassia 7,c>ol9a c(fee1 etc417 & ! swamp rose-mall[4 ,upl& & ,l[l& ,vegetation 9 ! ,arid & ,humid ,regions4--,9 ! humid c\ntries !re is commonly a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! vegetation ( ! upl&s & l[l&s1 aris+ n m]ely f ! diff]5ce 9 ! moi/ure supply1 b evid5tly ( a specific nature4 ,:5 we discuss ! *>act]i/ic plants 9 detail1 x becomes obvi\s t x is lime vegetation t1 9 mo/ cases1 =ms ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ces betwe5 upl& & l[l& =e/ gr[?2 a natural consequ5ce ( ! lea*+-d[n ( ! lime f ! high] l& to ! l[] levels4 ,by way ( c\nt]-pro( we f9d t :5 ! upl&s !mselves are ( a calc>e\s nature1 a "p at lea/ ( ! l[l& flora asc5ds into !m4 ,z prom95t examples may be m5tion$ ! ,tulip tree 7,liriod5dron71 black walnut1 a%1 ,k5tucky c(fee tree1 ,h]cules' club1 etc41 :i* are l[l& trees ov] ! great] "p ( _! area ( occurr5ce2 b 9 ! loess or ,cane hills bord]+ ! ,mississippi & its l>g] tribut>ies1 z well z 9 ! lime/one regions ( ! s\?we/]n & we/]n /ates1 are conspicu\s 9 ! upl&s z well4 ,! tall s\!rn cane 7,arund9>ia macrosp]ma71 usually consid]$ a plant ( ! l[ riv] bottoms1 orig9ally cov]$ ! loess or 8,cane hills0 ( ! l[] ,mississippi1 ) _! highly calc>e\s soils4 ,! same is true ( _m o!r trees & %rubs *>act]iz+ limy l&s4 ,( c\rse !re are "s ^: habitat is dep5d5t ^u ! concurr5t pres5ce ( bo? lime & moi/ure1 su* z ! sycamore1 cottonwood1 hackb]ry1 pawpaw1 etc41 :i* are naturally f\nd only 9 /ream bottoms or on l[ hammocks4 ,9 ! arid region1 on ! contr>y1 ! ma9 diff]5ce 9 upl& & l[l& vegetation is 7outside ( m\nta9 influ5ces7 entirely ref]able to moi/ure-conditions2 ! pro( be+ t s soon z ! upl&s are irrigat$ ! l[l& flora takes possession4 ,bo? upl&s & l[l&s be+ abundantly calc>e\s1 !re !n is no cause = any mat]ial diff]5ces4 ,?is sub/antial uni=mity ( upl& & l[l& plant gr[? is p>ticul>ly /rik+ 9 ! comp>atively re/rict$ floras ( ,ea/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton1 & 9 ,montana1 :]e ! m luxuriant gr[? ( ! valleys is almo/ ! only contra/ se5 :5 _! vegetation is comp>$ ) t ( ! upl&s adjac5t4 ,=ms ( ,decidu\s ,trees 9 ! ,arid ,regions4--,s9ce1 z %[n above1 ! soils ( ! arid regions are almo/ ?r\gh\t calc>e\s1 we %\ld expect t ! =ms ( ! native trees w\ld 9 g5]al con=m to ! rule giv5 above4 ,z reg>ds ! decidu\s trees ?is is v g5]ally true3 ,we r>ely see on ! ,pacific slope1 s\? ( ,oregon1 any?+ to comp>e ) ! tall oaks ( ! ,atlantic =e/s4 ,! native oaks are z a rule ( l[1 spread+ gr[?1 ) /\t1 %ort trunks2 & z !y r>ely =m d5se =e/s1 ! timb]$ areas h an or*>d-l appe>ance1 *>act]i/ic ( ! l&scapes ( ! arid region1 f ! ,mezquit ,pla9s ( ,texas to ,ea/]n ,oregon & ,wa%+ton4 ,only :]e a v abundant supply ( moi/ure prevails d we f9d occasional exceptions4 ,! trees ( ! humid region :5 transplant$ to ,cali=nia h a p]v]se t5d5cy to bran* l[1 s t only ! mo/ p]si/5t trimm+-up w induce !m to =m trunks at all l ^? f\nd 9 _! native climes4 ,9 "s cases no am\nt ( trimm+ w result 9 ! =mation ( any?+ m ?an bu%es4 ,x may be object$ t ! arid climate z su*1 & n ! calc>e\s nature ( ! soil1 is ! cause ( ?is t5d5cy4 ,x is unque/ionable t ?is l[-bran*+ habit is a di/9ct advantage to ! plants1 ^: trunks w\ld o!rwise be frequ5tly scor*$ by ! hot summ] sun2 z happ5s :5 ,ea/]n settl]s try to gr[ 8/&>d0 fruit trees1 ) ! result t a 8sore10 or sunburnt /reak is =m$ on ! s\?we/ side ( ! expos$ trunk4 ,all or*>d trees %\ld !re=e be prun$ 8vase-%ape0 9 arid climates1 p>tly = ?is1 p>tly = o!r reasons4 ,b ?is _c expla9 ! fact t se$l+s f ea/]n acorns act precisely z d acclimat$ trees2 s t x is n a case ( ! survival ( ! fitte/ to endure arid conditions4 ,tall ,gr[?s ( ,conif]s4 ,moreov]1 :ile ! rule holds good ) almo/ all decidu\s trees1 x is n applicable to ! ,conif]s2 :i* 9 ! case ( ! ,sequoias 7r$woods & 8big-trees071 sug> p9e & o!rs1 exemplify "s ( ! talle/ gr[?s kn[n 9 ! _w4 ,! ,ea/]n ,c$> or ,junip] gr[s tall only on suffici5tly calc>e\s soils1 & 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley /ates at lea/1 :]ev] x occurs is an unfail+ indication ( calc>e\s l&s4 ,! ext5d$ occurr5ce ( ! spruce on ! ,allegh5y ,ranges1 :]e lime/one =mations prevail s l>gely1 seems to indicate a simil> pref]5ce = calc>e\s l&s4 ,& ?is is c]ta9ly true ( ! black locu/1 :i* rea*es its extreme s\!rn range 9 ! cretace\s hills ( ,nor!a/]n ,mississippi1 %[+ ! /\t1 /ocky =m x also assumes :5 plant$ 9 ! calc>e\s black-prairie l&s ( ,ill9ois4 ,h]bace\s ,plants z ,soil ,indicators4 ,:ile h]bace\s plants are n z g5]ally consid]$ by l&-seek]s 9 judg+ ( soil f]tility & "*1 x goes )\t say+ t v _m are q z *>act]i/ic z ! tree vegetation1 especially :5 deep-root+1 s z n to indicate m]ely ! "* ( a few in*es ( surface soil4 ,9 ! ,middle ,we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates especially1 a l>ge numb] ( ! ,composit s]ve z m>ks ( high productive capacity4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! l>g] species ( ! sunfl[] tribe1 among :i* ,helian?us grosse-s]ratus & doronicoides are p]haps ! mo/ g5]ally notable2 :ile f>!r we/1 beg9n+ ) ,kansas1 ! 8,sunfl[] ,/ate10 & its nor!rn neighbor1 ,h4 annuus1 :e!r native or introduc$1 becomes conspicu\s also4 ,! ,silphiums 7compass sunfl[]s7 h ne>ly ! same significance1 ,s4 lac9iatum & p]foliatum be+ prom95t on ! prairies ( ,ill9ois & ,indiana2 b 9 l& "u cultivation !y are mo/ly replac$ by a luxuriant gr[? ( ! ,ragwe$1 ,ambrosia trifida4 ,v>i\s species ( ,bid5s 7begg> ticks71 notably ! ,b4 ari/ata & c]nua1 accompany ! true sunfl[]s 9 ! l[] gr\nds ( ^! regions1 z d also ,heliopsis laevis1 ,coreopsis trip]is & ,rudbeckia 7,obelisc>ia7 p9nata4 ,rudbeckia hirta & purpurea1 ?\gh also occurr+ on ri* soils1 are n *>act]i/ic ( !m4 ,! l>g] species ( gold5 rods 7,solidago71 notably ,s4 canad5sis1 rigida & speciosa 7n ord9>ily di/+ui%$ by f>m]s7 %>e sub/antially ! di/ribution ( ! l>ge sunfl[]s m5tion$ above4 ,( ! ,a/]s1 only ,a4 nov-angli s]ves z a reliable guide to high-class l&s 9 ! ,middle ,we/1#aie b a v copi\s gr[? ( a/]s & solidago ( v>i\s species is always a welcome indication ( l& quality1 & indicates soils ( good lime cont5t1 if n absolutely calc>e\s4 #aie ,9 view ( its specific designation & ! reput$ pov]ty ( ,new ,engl& soils1 ?is is r unexpect$4 ,legum9\s ,plants4--,x is g5]ally und]/ood t mo/ legum9\s plants1 & among !m especially ! clov]s1 indicate ri*1 or r1 calc>e\s l&s4 ,! v l>ge proportion ( lime conta9$ 9 ! a% ( legumes at once creates ?is presumption1 :i* is fully confirm$ by exp]i5ce s f> z our ord9>y culture plants ( t relation%ip are conc]n$4 ,! favor+ effect ( lime on ! developm5t ( bact]ia1 s ess5tial to ! full developm5t ( cultivat$ legumes1 has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! favor+ effect ( gypsum s[n ev5 9 small am\nts ) clov] & o!r legumes1 may probably be ref]able to ! kn[n action ( t salt 9 promot+ nitrification1 :i* 9 ! fir/ /ages ( legum9\s gr[? is s highly favorable to a vigor\s & e>ly />t ( ! crop1 & to a m copi\s production ( ! nitrog5-assimilat+ nodules4 ,! quick *ange not$ 9 mead[s & pa/ures ( langui%+ production s soon z mod]ately lim$1 by ! appe>ance ( clov] among ! h]bage1 at once rem9ds u t ! ,rhizobia d n fl\ri% 9 acid l&s4 ,! great preval5ce ( legum9\s plants ( all k9ds 9 ! arid region--clov]s 7n few] ?an tw5ty-?ree species 9 ,cali=nia alone71 ,lup9s1 ,a/ragalus & relat$ g5]a1 at once rem9d u ( ! univ]sal preval5ce ( calc>e\s soils 9 ^! regions1 z %[n above4 ,mutatis mut&is1 we f9d precisely ! same g5]al facts 9 ! arid regions ( ! o!r cont95ts4 ,nev]!less1 x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t n all plants ( ! legum9\s ord] are positively 8calciphile40 ,)9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x is especially ! g5]a ,desmodium 7,meibomia7 & ,lesp$eza1 :i* are v num]\sly repres5t$ 9 ! long-leaf p9e region ( ,mississippi1 :]e ! soils are s poor 9 lime4 ,:e!r "u ^! conditions ^! plants develop ! rhizobian nodules1 has n1 s f> z ! writ] is aw>e1 be5 def9itely obs]v$4 ,c]ta9 x is t q a numb] ( ^! plants occur on bo? calc>e\s & non-calc>e\s soils1 & on ! latt] assume a mu* m vigor\s developm5t ?an 9 ! p9e woods4 ,b x is evid5t t !y1 ) a few o!rs 7e4 g4 ,galactia mollis1 ,cassia *amcri/a & nictitans7 are m or less indiff]5t to ! lime-cont5t ( soils1 & _c !re=e be reli$ ^u 9 judg+ ! quality ( l&s4 ,9 ,mississippi & nor!rn ,alabama1 ! ,tephrosia virg9ica 78devil's %oe/r+071 associat$ ) *e/nut & %ort-leav$ p9e1 is *>act]i/ic ( ! poore/ non-calc>e\s l&s1 & be>s se$s b v scantily4 ,x disappe>s s soon z calc>e\s l&s are approa*$1 toge!r ) ! *e/nut tree4 ,,european ,,obs]vations ,,& ,,views ,,on ,,plant ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,its ,,controll+ ,,causes4 ,! writ] has ?us f> pres5t$ & discuss$ ma9ly 8 own obs]vations made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 )\t ref]5ce to ! previ\s & contemporane\s "w on ! same subject 9 ,europe4 ,!re arose c]ta9 discrepancies :i* c\ld n well be expla9$ )\t a previ\s full consid]ation ( ,am]ican conditions4 ,z is well kn[n1 = ne>ly tw5ty ye>s ! accept$ !ory 9 ,europe 0 t ( ,?urman1#aif :i* attributes ! di/ribution ( ! native floras entirely to physical conditions2 ?us anticipat+ by m ?an half a c5tury ! correspond+ hypo!sis lately br\ght =w>d by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils4 ,?urmann classes plants simply z hydrophile & x]ophile1 ?us diff]+ f mo/ ( our mod]n ecologi/s m]ely 9 omitt+ ! transition phase ( 8mesophytes10 :i* n[ s]ves z a conv5i5t pigeon-hole = an indef9ite v>iety ( plants4 #aif ,essai de ,phyto/atique applique la *a9e du ,jura et aux contres vois9es4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,b]ne1 #ahdi4 ,:ile gradually _m 7 l$ by _! obs]vations to d\bt ! correctness ( ,?urmann's exclusive physical !ory1 ,fli*e & ,gr&eau#aig 7 app>5tly ! fir/ to impair by _! inve/igations ! confid5ce 9 ! accept$ view4 ,!y inve/igat$ exhau/ively ! conditions "u :i* ! m>itime p9e & ! *e/nut tree1 bo? antagoni/ic to lime1 w\ld fl\ri%1 & prov$ t ! pres5ce ( any consid]able am\nt ( lime 9 ! l& w\ld cause !m to langui% or die1 al?\gh ! physical conditions s f> z asc]ta9able 7 exactly alike4 ,x is int]e/+ to note :at 7 ! lime-p]c5tages :i* caus$ ^! diff]5ces2 viz41 = ! 8non-calc>e\s0 soil & subsoil1 respectively1 4#ce & 4#bj2 = ! calc>e\s l&1 #c4be & #bd4jd1 ! latt] evid5tly be+ decid$ly 8m>ly40 ,! composition ( ! a% ( ^! trees is v in/ructive1 & is !re=e giv5 9 full4 ,alongside ( ! a% ( ! m>itime p9e on ! two soils is giv5 t ( ! ,corsican p9e1 a lime-lov+ tree4 ,,composition ,,( ,,p9e ,,a%es ,,on ,,calc>e\s ,,& ,,non-,,calc>e\s ,,l&s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,m>itime ,,p9e1 ,,corsican ,,p9e1 ,,p9us ,,p9a/]4 ,,p9us ,,l>icio4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,on non-calc>e\s,on calc>e\s,on calc>e\s soil4 soil4 soil4 ,pota% #af4jd #d4ie #ac4ef ,soda #a4ia #b4eb #b4bd ,lime #dj4bj #ef4ae #di4ac ,magnesia #bj4ji #ah4hj #ac4di ,f]ric ,oxid #c4hc #b4jg #c4bi ,silica #i4ah #f4db #g4ad ,phosphoric acid #i4jj #i4ad #aa4cc ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,total #ajj4be #ajj4jd #ajj4ah ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,a% p] c5t4 #a4cb #a4ed #b4de ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aig ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique1 #dme srie1 tome #bi2 ibid4 #eme srie1 ,tome #b4 ,also1 ibid1 tome #ah1 #ahgi4 ,x is v int]e/+ to note 9 ^! analyses ! inv]se ratio 9 ! absorption ( pota% & lime by ! m>itime p9e1 :i* seems to be unable to def5d itself aga9/ excessive absorption ( lime & ?us exp]i5ces a de>? ( pota% :i* naturally int]f]es ) ! =mation ( />* & *lorophyl2 h5ce probably induces ! *lorosis s well kn[n to occur on excessively calc>e\s soils4 ,! lime-lov+ ,corsican p9e takes up a l>g] total am\nt ( a% & m phosphoric acid1 & ne>ly ?ree times z mu* pota%1 b consid]ably less lime ?an did ! m>itime p9e on ! same calc>e\s soil4 ,! correspond+ analyses made by ,fli*e & ,gr&eau1 ( ! leaves & wood ( *e/nut gr[n on ! same two k9ds ( soils1 gave 9 g5]al ! same results2 & !y add t ! small] cont5t ( iron absorb$ by ! calcifuge trees :5 gr[n on calc>e\s soil po9t also to a delet]i\s influ5ce ^u ! normal =mation ( *lorophyl4 ,foll[+ ,fli*e & ,gr&eau1 ,bonni]#aih made corroborative te/s by s[+ se$s ( ! same plants1 bo? calciphile & calcifuge1 ^u ! two k9ds ( soils1 & not+ ! diff]5ces 9 _! mode ( gr[? & int]nal /ructure4 #aih ,bull4 de la ,socit ,botanique de ,france1 tome #bf1 #ahgi4 ,calciphile1 ,calcifuge & ,silicophile plants4 ,! subject has be5 some:at exhau/ively discuss$ by ,contejean#aii :o enum]ates & has classifi$ "u ! ?ree g5]al heads ( calciphile1 calcifuge & indiff]5t1 ov] #agjj species ( ,european plants4 ,un=tunately he _h b few soil analyses at 8 disposal1 & 0 incl9$ to consid] z non-calc>e\s1 mo/ soils t gave no eff]vesc5ce ) acids4 ,b not)/&+ ?is disadvantage s f> z 8 cont5tion ( ! efficacy ( *emical soil-composition1 & especially ( lime is conc]n$1 he disproves v effectually ! physical !ory ( ,?urmann1 by num]\s examples f ,france & else:]e 9 ,europe2 & also disposes v def9itely ( ! claim t !re is a special class ( 8silicophile0 plants4 ,he concludes t silica 7& s&7 is m]ely a neutral & in]t m$ium :i* (f]s refuge to ! plants 8expell$0 by lime2 & t clay simil>ly ex]ts no *emical b only a purely physical action4 ,t pota%1 phosphoric acid & nitrog51 :ile mo/ ess5tial z plant-foods1 ex]t o!rwise little if any effect on g5]al plant di/ribution4 ,he alludes simil>ly to magnesia2 & 8 f9al conclusion is t 8*emical are 9 g5]al m pot5t ?an physical influ5ces10 & t ! mo/ widely active influ5ces are c>bonate ( lime & *lorid ( sodium4 ,he does n1 ( c\rse1 d5y ! pot5t influ5ce ( moi/ure ^u plant di/ribution4 #aii ,geographie botanique4 ,influ5ce du t]ra9 sur la vegetation4 ,baillre et ,fils1 ,p>is1 #ahha1 #adc pp4 ,s9ce ^! publications 7 made1 _m obs]v]s h inve/igat$ ! subject1 & ! broad di/9ction betwe5 lime-lov+ or calciphile & lime-repell$ or calcifuge plants has be5 v g5]ally recogniz$ & discuss$3 b ! cause ( ?is discrim9ation by plants is /ill m or less ! subject ( controv]sy4 ,"s /ill claim t ! calcifuge plants 7su* z ! *e/nut1 ! huckleb]ries & :ortle-b]ries1 ! hea!r & _m o!r ,ericace1 mo/ s$ges1 etc47 are repell$ by calc>e\s l&s because !y ne$ a l>ge supply ( silica1 :i* !y suppose _c well be assimilat$ 9 pres5ce ( mu* lime2 h5ce !y also designate ! calcifuge plants z 8silicophile02 :ile o!rs attribute ! pref]5ce ( calciphile plants to ! physical effects produc$ ^u ! soil by lime1 z outl9$ above 7*apt] #bj1 page #cgi74 ,! cont5tion t ! pres5ce ( mu* lime 9 soils r5d]s silica insoluble & h5ce unassimilable by plants1 is at once negativ$ by ! fact t wat]s exceptionally ri* 9 silica1 p>tly simply dissolv$ by c>bonic acid1 p>tly 9 ! =m ( wat]-soluble alkali-silicates1 are v abundantly f\nd 9 ! arid region4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ,cali=nia1 :]e moreov] a numb] ( species ( v r\gh-surfac$ horsetail ru%es & grasses prove ! ready absorption ( silica :5 want$1 ev5 9 /rongly calc>e\s soils4 ,b ! "q is :e!r ! suppos$ class ( silicophile plants is a reality or m]ely a !oretical fiction1 bas$ ^u ! habit ( speak+ ( 8silice\s0 soils z a class ap>t f o!r & especially heavi] or clay soils4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! silice\s soils usually s call$ are simply ^? poor 9 clay & lime--9 o!r words1 8light0 l&s1 ! outcome ( ! wea!r+ ( qu>tzose rocks into s&y soils1 :i* 9 ! humid region are always poor 9 lime because ?or\ghly lea*$4 ,9 ! arid region1 on ! contr>y1 s&y l&s are q commonly j z calc>e\s z ! heavi] soils1 & %[ no 8silicophile0 flora4 ,accord+ to ! writ]'s obs]vations & views1 x be+ obvi\s t "s plants are practically indiff]5t to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( lime 9 ! soil except 9 s f> z x influ5ces favorably ! physical conditions1 moi/ure mu/ always /& fir/ z ! condition ( maximum crop production1 & z a conditio s9e qua non ( ! be/ developm5t ( plants on all k9ds ( soils2 its be/ measure be+ a matt] ( special adaptation to ea* species4 ,b ?is be+ und]/ood1 he agrees ) ,contejean z to ! comm&+ influ5ce ( lime 9 det]m9+ ! adaptation ( soils to plants1 bo? cultivat$ & wild4 ,at ! same "t1 x is obvi\s t ! abs5ce ( ! opportunity to obs]ve really native vegetation1 adapt$ to ! soils ?r\gh ages1 has creat$ = ,european obs]v]s difficulties :i* are readily solv$ :]e orig9al native floras are available4 ,s*imp]#bjj says po9t$ly t obs]vations prove t ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! location ( plants on calc>e\s & silice\s soils are n con/ant1 b v>y f prov9ce to prov9ce2 t e4 g41 ! li/ ( indiff]5t 7bod5/et]7 plants = ! ,alps d n hold good 9 ! ,dauph91 /ill less betwe5 ! ,c>pa?ians & ,sk&9avia4 ,accord+ to ,wahl5b]g ! foll[+ species are calciphile 9 ! ,c>pa?ians1 & accord+ to ,*ri/ indiff]5t 9 ,switz]l&3 ,dryas octopetala1 ,saxifraga oppositifolia1 mo/ ( ! legum9\s species1 ,g5tiana nivalis1 ,g4 t5ella1 ,g4 v]na1 ,erica c>nea1 ,*amor*is alp9a1 ,c>ex capill>is4 ,geum reptans is report$ by ,bonni] to be exclusively calciphile on ,mont ,blanc1 exclusively silicophile 9 ! ,dauph92 indiff]5t 9 ,switz]l&4 ,a great numb] ( simil> contradictions are report$ by o!rs z well1 & ! entire subject ?us becomes r vague2 s t ,s*imp] & o!rs sugge/ t climatic conditions may 9 "p be responsible = ^! discrepancies4 #bjj ,pflanz5geographie1 p4 #aaa ff4 ,9 all1 or ne>ly all ^! cases1 x is tacitly assum$ t ! und]ly+ geological =mation has ess5tially be5 ! s\rce ( ! soil1 & t its "* is det]m9$ accord+ly4 ,b ?is assumption is :olly arbitr>y unless confirm$ by actual direct exam9ation4 ,a soil-=mation ov]ly+ lime/one on ! slopes ( a range may be :olly d]iv$ f non-calc>e\s =mations ly+ at a high] elevation1 or may h be5 lea*$ ( its orig9al lime-cont5t by abundant ra9s4 ,! feldsp>s con/itut+ rocks designat$ z granite1 may or may n be p>tially or :olly ( ! soda-lime in/ead ( ! pota% s]ies2 ! mica may or may n be p>tially replac$ by hornbl5de1 9 :i* cases ! soil w\ld be calc>e\s to ! ext5t ( det]m9+ ! "* ( ! flora z calcifuge or calciphile1 )\t its be+ at all evid5t 9 ! physical "* ( ! soil1 :i* w\ld /ill be 8granitic0 or 8silice\s40 ,su* obs]vations 9 ord] to be critically decisive1 cle>ly require t ! obs]v] %\ld be1 n m]ely a sy/ematic botani/1 nor a m]e geologi/ or *emi/1 b all ^! comb9$4 ,!re is good reason to believe t mo/ or all ( ^! suppos$ contradictions w\ld disappe> be=e a critical physical & *emical exam9ation ( bo? ! soils & ! rocks f :i* !y are suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$4 ,contejean himself1 9 plac+ s _m ( 8 long catalogue ( plants into ! d\btful gr\ps1 sugge/s _m cases 9 :i* ! above consid]ations may expla9 ! app>5t discrepancies4 ,:at is a calc>e\s soil8 ,! def9ition adopt$ = ?is volume has be5 giv5 9 a previ\s *apt] 7*apt] #ai1 page #cfg72 viz1 t a soil mu/ be consid]$ calc>e\s s soon z x naturally supports a calciphile flora--! 8lime vegetation0 s (t5 ref]r$ to above & nam$ 9 detail4 ,^u ?is basis x has be5 se5 t "s 7s&y7 soils conta9+ only a little ov] "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t ( lime %[ all ! *>act]s & advantages ( calc>e\s soils2 :ile 9 ! case ( heavy clay soils1 z has be5 %[n1 ! lime-p]c5tage mu/ rise to ov] "o-half p] c5t to produce native lime gr[?4 ,:ile 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates obs]vations ( ! contra/s betwe5 calciphile & calcifuge floras are easily made 9 ! field1 & ! facts mu/ attract ! att5tion ( any fairly qualifi$ obs]v]1 9 ,europe !y w\ld h to be made ! subject ( special cultural inve/igation bas$ ^u soil analysis2 a proc$ure n yet fully accr$it$ abroad1 any m ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 a g5]al way x has h[ev] be5 recogniz$ by ,ma]ck]1 z %[n at ! end ( ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,h[ f> ?is e/imate 0 bas$ ^u ,am]ican prec$5ts1 c n[ be only conjectur$4 ,c]ta9 x is t ! ,european def9ition ( calc>e\s soils rema9s to ! pres5t day a :olly diff]5t "o f t /at$ above2 & f ?is h aris5 ! great] "p ( ! d\bts & diff]5ces ( op9ions among ,european botani/s z to ! classification ( plants 9 relation to calc>e\s soils4 ,two p] c5t ( lime 7equival5t to ne>ly d\ble ! am\nt ( c>bonate7 is ! prevail+ ,european po/ulate = a calc>e\s soil4 ,"s g s f> z to po/ulate eff]vesc5ce ) acids1 requir+ ab\t #e ( ! c>bonate4 ,pr$om9ance ( ,calc>e\s ,=mations 9 ,europe4--,x is n g5]ally recogniz$ ev5 among geologi/s h[ abnormally pr$om9ant are lime/one =mations 9 ,europe4 ,9 all works on ,european agriculture we f9d ! 8lime s&0 m5tion$ z a normal +r$i5t ( soils1 specially provid$ = 7or aga9/7 9 ! op]ations ( soil exam9ation4 ,its pres5ce is ! rule1 its abs5ce ! exception4 ,soils z poor 9 lime z are ^? ( ! long-leaf & %ort-leaf p9e regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are !re v exceptional & 7l ! 8,haidebd50 ( nor!rn ,g]many7 h long rema9$ almo/ uncultivat$4 ,calc>e\s soils be+ ! rule 9 ! regions ( int5se culture1 ! ideas ( bo? agriculturi/s & agricultural *emi/s h 9 ,europe1 9 ! ma91 be5 bas$ ^u !m z normal soils2 s t in/ead ( comp>+ calc>e\s1 & non-calc>e\s soils prop]ly speak+--i4 e41 su* z w\ld n be> native lime-vegetation--! majority ( comp>isons has actually be5 made betwe5 soils :i*1 9 ! ,am]ican s5se1 7 all or *iefly )9 ! calc>e\s class4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ?is /ate ( ?+s t ! injuri\sness ( an excess ( lime is among ! =emo/ !mes ( ,european 7especially ,fr5* & ,engli%7 agricultural writ]s1 z aga9/ ! b5efic5t effects prom95tly assign$ to lime 9 ,am]ica4 ,no su* popul> say+ z t 8a lime c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry0 exi/s 9 ,europe2 on ! contr>y1 we con/antly he>1 & see 9 books1 ! m5tion ( 8poor *alk l&s10 & 9 ,france especially ! delet]i\s effects ( excess ( lime ^u crops is ! !me ( rem>k4 ,excess ( lime 9 _! m>ly l&s has be5 ! despair ( ,fr5* v9tn]s1 & ,viala 0 specially s5t to ,am]ica to f9d "s v9e to s]ve z a graft+ /ock :i* w\ld resi/ ! t5d5cy to *lorosis :i* r5d]s _m ( ! ,am]ican phyllox]a-resi/ant v9es useless to ! viticulturi/s ( ,france4 ,viala did n f9d su* grapev9es until he rea*$ ! cretace\s 7*alk7 area ( ,texas1 :]e ! native v9es _h long ago adapt$ !mselves to m>ly soils2 & ^! v9es h solv$ ! problem = ,fr5* viticulture4 ,& ,engl&1 ,france1 ,belgium & mo/ ( we/]n ,europe are ri* c\ntries1 l>gely ow+ to _! abundant lime/one =mations2 & x may be que/ion$ :e!r1 _h ?is be5 o!rwise1 ,europe w\ld s long h rema9$ ! c5t] ( civilization2 = />v+ populations are n a good sub/ratum = high m5tal culture & progress4 ,x may equally be ask$ :e!r ! inv>iably calc>e\s "* ( arid soils1 z h]et(ore %[n1 has n1 toge!r ) _! g5]al high quality1 be5 l>gely a det]m9+ factor 9 ! location & p]si/5ce ( s _m anci5t civilizations 9 arid l&s2 z outl9$ 9 *apt] #ba1 page #dag4 ,9 ?is connection1 ! prop] di/9ction betwe5 calc>e\s & non-calc>e\s soils passes f ! doma9 ( natural sci5ce to t ( ! hi/ory ( human civilization4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,! ,,vegetation ,,( ,,sal9e ,,& ,,alkali ,,l&s4 ,m>9e ,sal9e ,l&s4--,:ile ! sal9e alluvial l&s ( ! sea-coa/ diff] bo? 9 _! mode ( orig9 & 9 _! nature f ! alkali soils or 8t]re/rial sal9e l&s10 z !y h be5 call$ 9 ,europe1 _! vegetation has 9 _m respects a common "*4 ,n only is !re mu* simil>ity1 sometimes ev5 id5tity1 9 ! k9ds ( plants inhabit+ ^! l&s1 b _! sal9e +r$i5ts induce c]ta9 *anges ( =m & /ructure 9 plants n prop]ly 8sal9e0 b m or less tol]ant ( soluble salts1 by :i* ! sal9e or alkali "* ( ! l&s may be recogniz$4 ,j z 9 ! case ( lime we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! plants def9itely repell$ by a l>ge am\nt ( ?is sub/ance 9 ! soil 7calcifuge71 :ile o!rs pref] ! soils 9 :i* lime is abundant 7calciphile71 & /ill o!rs appe> to be indiff]5t to its pres5ce & are gov]n$ 9 _! habitat by ! physical conditions pres5t$3 s 9 ! case ( sal9e l&s ! salts may attract or repel c]ta9 plants4 ,! latt] class is mu* ! l>ge/2 :ile !re is also a numb] ( plants :i* are m or less indiff]5t to ! pres5ce ( salts1 provid$ ^! be n 9 v great excess4 ,su* plants con/itute ! next-l>ge/ class2 :ile ^? attract$ by salts1 & ^: welf>e is condition$ ^u _! pres5ce1 are comp>atively few 9 numb]1 & /ill few] among !m are ( economic importance4 ,h5ce ! soluble salts h l>gely a negative importance = agriculture2 ! "q usually be+ h[ to utilize ! l& until ! undesirable surplus ( salts c be got rid (1 p>tially or :olly1 z ! case may be2 ! =m] usually 9 sea%ore l&s1 ! latt] 9 ! alkali l&s prop]2 9 :i* a small remnant1 n suffici5t to injure crop plants1 is usually desirable 7see *ap4 #bc1 p4 #dfb74 ,g5]al ,"* ( ,sal9e ,vegetation4--,^? famili> ) sea%ore m>%es _c fail to note ! fle%9ess & succul5ce ( ! *>act]i/ic plants4 ,?is 8incrassation0 belongs n only to ! sal9e flora prop]1 b is acquir$ to a great] or less degree :5 plants n ord9>ily at home on sal9e gr\nd are transf]r$ to x artificially1 or by sal9e ov]fl[s2 :ile at ! same "t ! leaves usually become small]1 & ! gr[? m compact4 ,correspond+ly1 :5 sal9e plants are transf]r$ to non-sal9e gr\nd1 ! leaves g5]ally become ?9n] & l>g]1 & ! gr[? m sl5d]4 ,! well-kn[n 8,russian ?i/le0 is a case 9 po9t1 z is also its close relative1 ! soda saltwort 7,salsola soda72 al?\gh ! latt] does n (t5 v5ture z f> f ! sal9e l&s z does ! =m] 7,salsola kali tragus71 :i* n[ seems to h become a _w-wide we$1 ) only a %ade ( pref]5ce = alkali l&s4 ,/ructural & ,functional ,diff]5ces ,caus$ by ,sal9e ,solutions4--,x has be5 def9itely %[n by ! inve/igations ( ,s*imp]1 ,brick1 ,h(fmann1 ,lesage1 ,ros5b]g & o!rs1 t ! peculi>ities or *anges ( /ructure br\ght ab\t by sal9e solutions are ess5tially ^? p]ta9+ to x]ophile 7dr\ght-endur+7 vegetation2 :i* 9 g5]al t5d to ! dim9ution ( evaporation f ! plant surfaces4 ,x may be said1 r\ghly speak+1 t ! absorption ( wat] by ! roots beg9s to dim9i% s soon z ! conc5tration ( ! sal9e solution approa*es or exce$s "o-half ( "o p] c5t2 :ile :5 x rises z high z ?ree p] c5t1 wat]-absorption by ! roots ceases ev5 9 ! wette/ soils1 & ! plant suff]s f dr\ght q z mu* z f any directly injuri\s effects ( ! salts4 ,diff]5t plants ( c\rse diff] 9 ! measure ( conc5tration :i* br+s ab\t ^! ph5om5a1 :i* v>y also ) ! "* ( ! soluble salts4 ,x is /at$ t injuri\s or useless salts l common salt act at l[] conc5trations ?an e4 g41 saltpet]1 :i* is useful4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ext]nal /ructure are3 dim9ution ( ! size ( leaves1 assumption ( cyl9drical or sp9\s =ms1 s9k+-9 ( ! brea?+ pores bel[ ! out] surface1 d5se hairy cov]+1 res9\s exudations1 etc4 ,int]nally we f9d t x]ophile plants h develop$ on _! upp] or out] leaf-surfaces in/ead ( "o1 sev]al lay]s ( 8palisade0 7long & erect1 closely-pack$7 cells1 ?r\gh :i* transpiration is extremely sl[1 z is also ! transmission ( heat4 ,:5 salt-tol]ant plants are gr[n on sal9e soils1 _! palisade cells are relatively l5g!n$4 ,co9cid5t ) ^! ext]nal means = ! ret>dation ( evaporation1 ! leaves ( x]ophiles are frequ5tly suppli$ ) special wat]-/orage cells1 :i* supply moi/ure = ! physiological processes :5 ! root supply falls %ort4 ,! cactus tribe & simil>-look+ plants are examples ( ! latt] provision1 :i* causes ev5 animals suff]+ f ?ir/ to resort to !m1 al?\gh !y es*ew ! sal9e vegetation4 ,absorption ( ! ,salts4--,! true halophytes or exclusive salt plants1 :i* refuse to gr[ on l&s n conta9+ a l>ge proportions ( salt1 (t5 absorb s mu* salt t on dry+ x blooms out on _! surface2 !y usually h1 ev5 :5 gre51 a di/9ctly salty ta/e1 & _! a% is ri* 9 *lorids1 specially ( sodium4 ,su* is ! case ( ! samphire1 common 9 sal9e m>%es ev]y:]e4 ,! total a% is usually v high1 (t5 v>y+ ) ! sal9ity ( ! wat] or soil 9 :i* !y h gr[n4 ,?us ! salt-cont5t ( ! a% ( samphire may v>y by sev]al p] c5t4 ,9 o!r cases1 z 9 t ( "o ( ! ,au/ralian saltbu%es inve/igat$ at ! ,cali=nia /ation1 nei!r ! a% cont5t nor ! composition ( ! a% v>ies mat]ially :e!r ! plant be gr[n on /rong alkali l&1 or on upl&s ^: total sal9e cont5t does n exce$ 79 f\r feet dep?7 4#jae or #bejj p\nds p] acre4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! composition ( ! a% ( ?is saltbu% alongside ( t ( two o!r prom95t alkali-plants ( ! same relation%ip1 occurr+1 "o 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 valley ( ,cali=nia1 9 /rongly sal9e l&s1 ! o!r 9 ! ,great ,bas9 region ( ! int]ior1 on l&s /rongly impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( soda4 ,all ^!1 x w be se51 take up v l>ge am\nts ( sodium salts1 notably ! *lorid2 ! ,au/ralian plant mo/ s1 ! 8greasewood0 ( ! ,great ,bas9 lea/ s2 a l>ge proportion ( ! alkali salts be+ evid5tly1 9 ! latt] case1 conta9$ 9 ! =m ( organic salts1 :i* 9 ! a% become c>bonates4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,a%es ,,( ,,sal9e ,,& ,,alkali ,,plants4 7,a7 ,au/ralian ,saltbu%1 ,atriplex semibaccata4 7,b7 ,bu%y ,samphire1 ,all5rolfea occid5talis4 7,c7 ,greasewood1 ,s>cobatus v]miculatus4 7,d7 ,saltgrass1 ,di/i*lis spicata4 7,e7 ,tussock grass1 ,sporobolus airodies4 7,f7 ,prickly ,pe>1 ,opuntia macroc5tra4 7,a7 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 7,f7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,a%1 air-dri$ plant1 4 #ai4cg #ab4jc #ac4ha #aa4fa #g4ii #bd4ah ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #aa4db #ah4ec #cj4aa #c4cj #e4gh #a4fa ,soda 7,na,o7 #ce4ci #ci4de #cb4eh #b4ch #e4ae #b4gf ,lime 7,ca,o7 #e4ge #a4cf #h4gj #e4be #h4je #fe4ff ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #c4bc #a4ji #a4ji #b4ie #d4ae #bf4gj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#bb 4#af 4#be ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #c4cc #g4jf n #b4bb #b4ci #a4ai ,alum9a 7,al,o7 det'd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,silica #af4bd #aa4ha #d4jj #gh4gc #ff4gi 4#ha ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 #b4hj #c4ea #e4fj 4#hc #a4be 4#dg ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 #b4fd #d4ic #e4ij #c4bj #d4eb 4#fd ,*lor91 p]c5t #bd4cc #ae4cj #aa4jj #a4dj #b4ac 4#ba ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,totals #aje4ceajc4jd #ii4giajj4caajj4dfajj4je ,less excess1 ,o3 ,cl #e4ce #c4be #b4ej 4#ca 4#df 4#je ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,true totals #ajj4jj #ii4gi #ig4biajj4jjajj4jjajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- 7,g7 ,%ad scale1 ,atriplex canesc5s4 7,h7 ,alfalfa ,hay4 7,cal47 7,i7 ,timo?y ,hay4 ,,( ,,=age ,,crops4 7,g7 7,h7 7,i7 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,a%1 air-dri$ plant1 4 #d4bc #i4he #f4ae ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,pota% 7,k,o7 #be4ag #dc4gb #bh4hj ,soda 7,na,o7 #f4bc #d4dh #b4gj ,lime 7,ca,o7 #be4ig #bj4ea #i4hc ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 #af4fc #b4ef #c4fj ,br4 ox4 ( ,manganese 7,mn,o7 4#ea ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,p]oxid ( ,iron 7,fe,o7 #e4hi #b4ie ,alum9a 7,al,o7 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,silica #aa4id #e4hg #ce4jj ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o7 #c4aa #e4jj #aj4hj ,sulfuric acid 7,,s7 #d4ic #f4ib #c4ij ,*lor91 p]c5t #b4jg #aj4be #e4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,totals #ajj4de #ajb4bf #ii4gj ,less excess1 ,o3 ,cl 4#de #bb4f #a4ac ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,true totals #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ih4eg ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,jaffa1 ,cal4 ,/'n4 ,rept4 #ahid-ie1 p4 #afi4 ,goss1 ,new ,mex4 ,/'n4 ,bull4 ,no4 #dd2 recalculat$4 ,x w be not$ t ! saltbu% hay conta9s ne>ly "o-fif? ( its 7air-dry7 weight ( a%1 ( :i* ne>ly #dj is common salt4 ,x !re=e has a di/9ctly salty ta/e1 & is always moi/ to ! t\*1 conta9+-ord9>ily ov] #ae ( moi/ure4 ,x is !re=e mu* lik$ by /ock :5 f$ int]mix$ ) o!r hay1 & ?us supplies all ! salt ne$$ by cattle4 ,! greasewood is mu* less lik$ by /ock1 & bu%y samphire is :olly reject$ by !m4 ,comp>+ ) ^! fle%y plants ! a% ( ! two grasses1 ! fir/ a _w-wide 8salt grass10 ! o!r a common grass ( ! ,am]ican arid region1 we note t n only d !y conta9 mu* less soluble a% ?an ! saltbu%es1 b especially mu* small] am\nts ( sodium salts2 prov+ t ev5 :5 gr[+ 9 company ) ! saltbu%es on /rongly impregnat$ l&1 !y c repel f absorption ^! to !m useless or injuri\s salts4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! 8%ad scale10 also a 8saltbu%0 ( ! ,great ,bas91 ! a%-cont5t is rem>kably l[--only ab\t "o-fif? ( t ( its ,au/ralian relative--& x diff]s widely f ! latt] 9 hav+ b a v l[ proportion ( soda1 & a v high "o ( lime & pota%1 approa*+ 9 ^! respects to our usual =age crops2 & be+ also fairly ri* 9 nitrog51 x =ms acceptable br[s+ :5 o!r pa/ure plants are sc>ce4 ,x !re=e does n ex]t ! laxative action produc$ by ! exclusive fe$+ on ! m sal9e h]bages4 ,! exceptionally high a%-cont5t ( ! cactus or prickly pe>1 also giv5 9 ! table1 arises1 x w be not$1 n f ! soluble salts b f ! absorption ( extraord9>ily high proportions ( lime & magnesia4 ,ow+ probably to ! latt] sub/ance1 & also ! oxalate =m 9 :i* lime is usually f\nd 9 ! cactus tribe1 ?is plant :5 us$ z =age is also some:at laxative4 ,altoge!r1 ?is table (f]s rem>kable examples ( wide diff]5ces 9 ! k9d & am\nt ( a% +r$i5ts absorb$ by plants gr[+ ^u simil> soils & "u id5tical climatic conditions2 indicat+ a selective p[] :i* no m]ely physical !ory ( soil-action 9 plant gr[? c expla94 ,injury to ,plants f ! ,v>i\s ,salts4--,! e>ly obs]v]s1 especially ,contejean1 7 pr$ispos$ f _! obs]vations ( lime on vegetation to ascribe ! action ( salt ^u m>9e vegetation to ! sodium compon5t4 ,b ! wide diff]5ces 9 ! effects ( diff]5t sodium comp\nds1 notably ( common salt & ,glaub]s salt1 l$ "s to ! conclusion t ! acidic +r$i5ts are ! *ief det]m9+ factors4 ,moreov]1 x 0 soon f\nd t a s+le salt is m injuri\s ?an a mixture ( sev]al1 su* z sea wat]4 ,?is also l$ to ! inf]5ce t ! v>y+ degree ( dissociation ( ^! salts ess5tially influ5ces ! effects4 ,ke>ney & ,cam]on h inve/igat$ ^! relations1#bja & h by artificial cultures 9 solutions ( v>y+ conc5tration & composition /udi$ ! behavior ( plant roots & ! limits ( _! endurance4 ,!y f\nd = ! sev]al salts occurr+ 9 alkali soils1 tak5 sep>ately1 ! foll[+ figures1 9 #ajj1jjj p>ts ( wat]3 ,magnesium sulfate #g 8 *lorid #ab ,sodium c>bonate #bf 8 sulfate #ec 8 *lorid #aaf 8 bic>bonate #afg ,calcium *lorid #a1cgg #bja ,report ,no4 #ga1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't4 ( ,agriculture1 #aijb4 ,x w be not$ t 9 _m respects ! results giv5 9 ?is table /& 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! facts obs]v$ 9 alkali l&s ev]y:]e2 & !re=e :ile int]e/+ physiologically1 are n directly applicable to practice4 ,magnesium sulfate1 :i* accord+ to ?is table is ! mo/ injuri\s ( all1 is a common +r$i5t ( alkali l&s f ,wyom+ to ,new ,mexico1 z also is sodium sulfate2 yet !re1 z well z 9 ! ,mussel%ell valley 9 ,montana1 & at _m o!r po9ts1 x %[s no specially delet]i\s action ei!r ^u native or cultivat$ plants1 & 9 ,europe z well z 9 ,new ,engl& ! m9]al kies]ite is freely us$ z a f]tiliz] at _m po9ts4 ,t sodium sulfate %\ld be twice z h>mful z sodium *lorid or common salt1 & half z h>mful z ! c>bonate or black alkali1 is aga9 :olly contr>y to actual exp]i5ce1 :i* z %[n else:]e 9 ?is *apt]1 indicates t ! majority ( plants w tol]ate betwe5 ?ree & f\r times z mu* ( sodium sulfate z ( common salt2 :ile ! ratio ( tol]ance z aga9/ ! c>bonate seems sometimes to rise z high z t5 to "o4 ,x is cle>ly evid5t1 h[ev]1 t x is ! metallic or basic +r$i5t t 9 ! ma9 det]m9es ! toxicity ( ^! salts4 ,! univ]sal pres5ce ( lime 9 "s =m 9 all alkali l&s d\btless expla9s ! discrepancies m5tion$1 s9ce lime is especially pot5t 9 c\nt]act+ ! injuri\s effects2 ?us ?r[+ additional light ^u ! importance ( ! lime-cont5t ( alkali soils prop]1 & also ^u ! causes ( ! n>r[ limitations ( ! littoral 7m>9e sal9e7 flora2 inasmu* z1 unlike alkali soils1 m>9e alluvial l&s are by no means always calc>e\s4 ,cam]on goes s f> z to attribute ! favorable effects ( gypsum ^u black alkali n s mu* to ! conv]sion ( ! latt] into neutral sulfate1 z to ! effect ( gypsum solution 9 c\nt]act+ ! sal9e effects4 ,?is int]pretation1 h[ev]1 seems r f>-fet*$1 s9ce !re c be no "q ab\t ! d\ble decomposition ( gypsum ) c>bonate ( soda2 or ! int5se injuri\sness ( c>bonate ( soda 9 ! actual corrosion ( vegetable tissues4 ,! correspond+ protective influ5ce ( v>i\s salts1 m especially ( ^? ( lime1 aga9/ ! injuri\s effects ( pure common salt on m>9e animals1 has already be5 m5tion$ 7*apt] #bj1 page #chj71 & lat] inve/igations by ,o/]h\t on m>9e alg1 %[ ! same relation to hold true = !m also4 ,reclamation ( ,m>9e ,sal9e ,l&s = ,culture4--,! reclamation ( sea-coa/ l&s & m>%es = agricultural use is bas$ 9 g5]al ^u ! same me?ods z ^? already outl9$ = alkali l&s 9 *apt] #bj2 except t 9 ?is case no *emical neutralization is possible1 s9ce common salt _c be *ang$ by any practically feasible means4 ,x mu/ be remov$ by lea*+1 & ?is1 9 ! humid c\ntries 9 :i* su* reclamations h *iefly be5 made1 is usually done by ! ag5cy ( ra9s1 aid$ by dit*+4 ,! 8pold]0 l&s ?us reclaim$ along ! %ores ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 f ,belgium to ,prussia1 are especially e/eem$ = _! productiv5ess1 d\btless ow+ to ! alluvium ( ! num]\s riv]s tribut>y to t sea1 :i* is di/ribut$ along its %ores & 9 ! num]\s inlets & bays4 ,! tides are ( c\rse exclud$ by dikes provid$ ) gates op5+ outw>d1 s z to p]mit ( ! outfl[ ( ra9- or irrigation-wat] us$ = lea*+ purposes4 ,out ( rea* ( /ream alluvium no exceptional f]tility is to be expect$ ( sea%ore l&s1 :i* !n commonly assume ! =m ( s& dunes or b>s1 incapable ( n\ri%+ any cultural vegetation4 ,( ! latt]1 ! gr\ps li/$ bel[ z tol]ant ( alkali salts1 may also be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to reclaim$ sea%ore l&s2 ! fir/ c]eal to succe$ be+ usually b>ley1 ! fir/ root crop1 beets4 ,asp>agus is also available :ile salt is be+ lea*$ out4 ,,! ,,vegetation ,,( ,,alkali ,,l&s4 ,! g5]al "* ( alkali-l& vegetation is n unlike t ( sal9e sea%ore l&s2 "s species ( plants are common to bo?1 b ! alkali l&s h>bor a mu* great] v>iety ( plants1 ow+ to ! diff]5ces 9 climates & soils z well z to ! nature ( ! impregnat+ salts4 ,moreov]1 ow+ to ! v causes :i* und]lie ! pres5ce ( ^! salts1 viz1 aridity1 ! x]ophile or dry-l& "* ( ! alkali-l& flora is mu* m pron\nc$ ?an t ( ! sal9e sea%ore vegetation4 ,9 view ( ! v complex conditions1 ! discussion ( ! alkali-flora is ( necessity mu* m complex ?an t ( ! m>9e gr\p2 & ! data = its full elucidation ) respect to ! nature ( ! soils & salts are z yet v incomplete4 ,,reclaimable ,,& ,,irreclaimable ,,alkali ,,l&s ,,z ,,di/+ui%$ ,,by ,,_! ,,natural ,,vegetation4 ,:ile1 z %[n above 7*apt] #bj71 ! adaptation or non-adaptation ( p>ticul> alkali l&s to c]ta9 cultures may be det]m9$ by sampl+ ! soil & subject+ ! lea*+s to *emical analysis1 x is obvi\sly desirable t "s o!r means1 if possible available to ! f>m] himself1 %\ld be f\nd to det]m9e ! reclaimability & adaptation ( su* l&s = g5]al or special cultures4 ,9 alkali l&s1 z 9 o!rs1 ! natural plant-gr[? af=ds su* means1 bo? z reg>ds ! quality & quantity ( ! sal9e +r$i5ts4 ,! mo/ sup]ficial obs]vation %[s t c]ta9 plants indicate extremely /rong alkali l&s :]e !y occupy ! gr\nd alone2 o!rs indicate pre-em95tly ! pres5ce ( common salt2 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( /ill o!rs =m def9ite or probable indications ( reclaimability or non-reclaimability4 ,_m su* *>act]i/ic plants are well kn[n to & readily recogniz$ by ! f>m]s ( ! alkali di/ricts4 8,alkali we$s0 are commonly spok5 ( almo/ ev]y:]e2 b ! mean+ ( ?is t]m--i4 e41 ! k9d ( plant designat$ !reby--v>ies mat]ially f place to place1 accord+ to climate z well z ! quality ( ! soil4 ,x is obvi\s t if ^! *>act]i/ic plants 7 def9itely obs]v$1 describ$ & nam$1 :ile also asc]ta9+ ! am\nt & k9d ( alkali !y indicate z exi/+ 9 ! l&1 li/s c\ld be =m$ = ! sev]al regions1 :i* w\ld indicate1 9 a mann] intelligible to ! f>m] himself1 ! k9d & degree ( impregnation ) :i* he w\ld h to deal 9 ! reclamation "w2 ?us enabl+ him to g to "w on ! basis ( 8 own judgm5t1 )\t previ\s *emical exam9ation4 ,a /udy ( ! l&s ( ,cali=nia hav+ ?is purpose 9 view1 0 und]tak5 9 ! ye>s #ahih & #ahii by ! ,cali=nia ,/ation2 b lack ( funds prev5t$ its prosecution beyond ! asc]ta9m5t ( ^? plants ! abundant occurr5ce ( :i* prove ! l& to be irreclaimable )\t ! use ( ! univ]sal rem$y1 viz1 und]dra9age1 :i* on ! l>ge scale is usually beyond ! means ( ! l&-seek]4 ,! botanical field "w & collection ( soil samples 0 c>ri$ out by ,mr4 ,jos4 ,burtt ,davy2 ! *emical "w1 z h]et(ore1 be+ done by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,l\ghridge4 ,! results "h report$ are !re=e ess5tially _! jo9t "w4 ,x is hop$ t 9 ! future1 a m compreh5sive /udy & close comp>ison ( ! native vegetation ) ! *emical det]m9ation ( ! quality & k9d ( alkali correspond+ to c]ta9 plants1 or gr\ps ( plants1 naturally occurr+ on ! l&1 may enable u to come to a suffici5tly close e/imate ( ! nature & capabilities ( ! latt] f ! native vegetation alone1 or ) ! aid ( te/ plants purposely gr[n1 = ! f>m]s' purposes4 ,plants ,indicat+ ,irreclaimable ,l&s4--,! plants h]e9-aft] m5tion$ & figur$ are1 !n1 to be und]/ood z indicat+1 :5ev] !y occupy ! gr\nd z an abundant & luxuriant gr[?1 t su* l& is irreclaimable = ord9>y crops1 unless und]dra9$ = ! purpose ( wa%+ out surplus salts4 ,! occurr5ce m]ely ( scatt]$1 m or less /unt$ individuals ( ^! plants1 :ile a sure indication ( ! pres5ce ( alkali salts1 does n necess>ily %[ t ! l& is irreclaimable4 ,! plants :i* may be/ s]ve z su* indicators 9 ,cali=nia are ! foll[+3 ,tussock-grass 7,sporobolus airoides ,torr471 ,fig4 #hb4 ,bu%y ,samphire 7,all5rolfea occid5talis ,wats4 ,ktze471 ,fig4 #hc4 ,dw>f ,samphire 7,salicornia subt]m9alis ,p>i%1 & o!r species71 ,fig4 #hd4 ,saltwort 7,sua$a torreyana ,wats41 & ,s4 suffrutesc5s1 ,wats471 ,fig4 #he4 ,greasewood 7,s>cobatus v]miculatus ,hook4 ,torr471 ,fig4 #hf4 ,alkali-hea? 7,frank5ia gr&ifolia campe/ris ,gray71 ,fig4 #hg4 ,cressa 7,cressa truxill5sis ,*oisy71 ,fig4 #hh1 p]haps id5tical ) ,c4 cretica auct4 ,saltgrass 7,di/i*lis spicata71 ,fig4 #hi4 ,,tussock-,,grass 7,sporobolus airoides1 ,torr472 ,fig4 #hb4 78,bun* grass0 ( ,new ,mexico74 ,! ?ree sets ( ,tussock-grass soil :i* h be5 analyz$ %[ t ! total am\nt ( all salts pres5t is 9 no case less ?an #di1jjj p\nds p] acre1 to a dep? ( f\r feet2 & t x sometimes rea*es ! extraord9>ily high figure ( #dii1jjj p\nds4 ,( ^! am\nts ! neutral salts 7,glaub]'s salt & common salt7 are usually 9 ! heavie/ proportion 7,glaub]'s salt1 #ai1fjj to #cbc1jjj p\nds p] acre2 common salt1 #c1ejj to #agb1hjj72 ! corrosive salsoda v>y+ f #c1jjj to #dd1jjj p\nds4--,tussock-grass app>5tly _c p]si/ 9 gr\nd :i* is p]iodically flood$4 ,x is ( special importance because x is an acceptable =age = /ock4 ,tussock-grass is a preval5t alkali-indicator 9 ! hot1 arid portions ( ! int]ior1 f ! upp] ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 ! ,mojave des]t1 & s\?w>d2 also ?r\gh s\!rn ,nevada & ,utah z f> ea/ z ,kansas & ,nebraska4 ,9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley x has n be5 f\nd f>!r nor? ?an ! ,tul>e pla9s1 al?\gh ea/ ( ,r5o x occurs ne> ,r5o4 ,coville obs]ves t 9 ! ,dea? ,valley region 8x is conf9$ pr9cipally to altitudes bel[ #a1jjj met]s0 7#c1bhj feet74 ,hillman1 h[ev]1 reports x f ne> ,r5o1 ,nevada1 at an altitude :i* _c be mu* less ?an #d1ejj feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,tussock-,grass--,sporobolus airoides ,torr4 ,! tussocks =m$ by ?is grass1 :i* are un=tunately n %[n 9 ! figure1 sometimes appe> z v]itable little grass trees1 & :5 d5ud$ by ! br[s+ ( cattle seem l trunks #ah & #bj in*es high4 ,x is !re=e v easily recogniz$2 b x %\ld be not$ t 9 view ( ! extraord9>y range ( its tol]ance1 %[n above1 its scatt]$ occurr5ce does n necess>ily indicate irreclaimable l&4 ,,bu%y ,,samphire4 7,all5rolfea occid5talis ,wats4 ,g4 ,ktze47 ,,fig4 #hc44 ,?is plant is locally call$ greasewood1 b z ?is "n is mu* m commonly us$ = ,s>cobatus v]miculatus1 x seems be/ to call ,all5rolfea 8bu%y samphire10 z x closely resembles ! true samphire 7,salicornia74 ,bu%y ,samphire usually gr[s 9 l[ s9ks1 9 clay soil :i* 9 w9t] is excessively wet1 & 9 summ] becomes a 8dry bog40 ,:]ev] ! plant gr[s luxuriantly ! salt cont5t is inv>iably high1 ! total salts v>y+ f #cbg1jjj p\nds p] acre1 to a dep? ( ?ree feet1 to #did1ebj p\nds 9 f\r feet4 ,! salts consi/ ma9ly ( ,glaub]'s & common salts 7a maximum ( ab\t #bge1jjj p\nds ea*72 salsoda v>ies f #b1cfj to #d1hjj p\nds p] acre4 ,! p]c5tage ( common salt & total salts is high] ?an = any o!r plant inve/igat$1 & ! cont5t ( ,glaub]'s salt is also excessive4 ,! areas ov] :i* ?is plant gr[s mu/ !re=e be consid]$ among ! mo/ hopeless ( alkali l&s1 = al?\gh its salts are 8:ite10 subm]g5ce dur+ w9t] precludes ! gr[? ( ,au/ralian saltbu%es4 ,full und]dra9age alone c\ld reclaim ! soil-areas x occupies4 ,bu%y ,samphire is common on l[-ly+ alkali l&s 9 ! upp] ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley1 ,cali=nia1 & ext5ds nor?w>d along ! ea/]n slopes ( ! ,coa/ ,range to ,suisun ,bay4 ,x is also abundant 9 ! ,dea? ,valley region1 app>5tly ov]lapp+ ! s\?w>d range ( ! ,s>cobatus1 ! greasewood prop]ly s-call$4 ,,dw>f ,,samphire 7,salicornia subt]m9alis1 ,p>i%1 & o!r species ( ! int]ior72 ,fig4 #hd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,bu%y ,samphire--,all5rolfea occid5talis 7,s4 ,wats47 ,g4 ,ktze4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,salicornia subt]m9alis4 ,alkali samphire4 ,a4 ,mu*-bran*$ =m4 ,b4 ,sl5d] =m4 ,c4 ,fl[] ) ! p]ian? remov$ %[+ ! simple pi/il & ! two /am5s4 ,d4 ,portion ( fl[]+ spike1 %[+ two jo9ts4 ,! fl[]s are impress$ 9 ! jo9ts 9 opposite clu/]s ( ?ree4 ,9 ea* clu/] ! middle fl[] /&s slightly above ! two lat]als z %[n 9 ! l[] jo9t4 ,! ?ree or f\r species ( ,dw>f ,samphire :i* gr[ 9 ! int]ior valleys ( ! ,/ate are n usually v abundant1 save locally4 ,:]ev] ! species d occur1 h[ev]1 !y may be consid]$ z indicat+ excessively sal9e soils4 ,dw>f ,samphire soil has %[n a total salt cont5t ( #dda1hhj p\nds p] acre 9 a dep? ( f\r feet4 ,! neutral ,glaub]'s salt am\nts to #cad1jjj p\nds1 almo/ z mu* z 9 ,tussock-grass soil2 common salt up to #abe1fdj p\nds :ile ! salsoda v>ies f #b1bjj to #ab1jjj4 ,we may consid] ! plant z indicative ( almo/ ! highe/ p]c5tage ( common salt1 ,glaub]'s salt & total salts4 ,l ! prec$+ species x indicates l& /rongly *>g$ ) salts1 m especially common salt1 & susceptible to cultivation only aft] reclamation by und]dra9age4 ,salicornia subt]m9alis1 ,s4 h]bacea 7,l471 ,s4 mucronata1 & ano!r species1 all occurr+ inl&1 diff] mat]ially 9 habit & botanical *>act]s f ! "o s conspicu\s 9 subm]g$ salt m>%es along ! sea%ore2 b all alike indicate /rongly sal9e soils1 reclaimable only by ?or\gh dra9age4 ,,saltwort 7,sua$a torreyana1 ,wats41 ,s4 suffrutesc5s1 ,wats41 & p]haps "o o!r species72 ,fig4 #he4 ,samples ( saltwort soil f ,bak]sfield & ,byron ,spr+s1 ,cali=nia1 tak5 to a dep? ( "o foot & ?ree feet respectively1 %[ t ?is plant gr[s luxuriantly 9 a soil conta9+ #acj1jjj p\nds ( total salts p] acre 9 ! fir/ foot1 & ) #aj1dhj p\nds ( ! noxi\s salsoda1 & #ci1gfj p\nds ( common salt 9 ?ree feet2 :ile only a sp>se gr[? is f\nd on soils conta9+ only #c1gjj p\nds ( salts 9 ?ree feet4 ,x ?us appe>s to indicate a l[] p]c5tage ( salsoda ?an does ,greasewood1 b a high] p]c5tage ?an ,bu%y ,samphire4 ,fur!r inve/igation is necess>y to det]m9e ! exact relation ( ! diff]5t salts to ! gr[? ( ! plant1 & z to :e!r c>bonates occur 9 l>ge quantity2 b en\gh data h be5 ga!r$ to %[ t a luxuriant gr[? ( ,sua$a torreyana indicates a soil reclaimable only by ?or\gh-dra9age4 ,sua$a torreyana occurs on l[ alkali l&s ?r\gh\t ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia1 f ,san ,b]n>d9o to ,honey ,lake1 9 ! des]t s9ks1 & 9 ! ,great ,valley1 9 appropriate locations4 ,sometimes x is replac$ by ,s4 suffrutesc5s & p]haps o!r species1 b all ! saltworts appe> to gr[ 9 simil> habitats1 & x is probable t ! soil-conditions are practically ! same = all ^! species4 ,!y indicate l& too heavily impregnat$ = ! gr[? ( ord9>y crops1 b :i* w p]haps all[ ! ,au/ralian saltbu% to succe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,saltwort--,sua$a ,torreyana1 ,wats4 ,,greasewood 7,s>cobatus v]miculatus7 ,hook4 ,torr42 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,?is1 ! true ,greasewood ( ! des]t region ea/ ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 & n ei!r ( ! plants kn[n "u t "n 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 ,valley & 9 ,s\!rn ,cali=nia1 inv>iably indicates a heavy impregnation ( ! l& ) black alkali or c>bonate ( soda4 ,s9ce1 z be=e /at$1 black alkali is mo/ likely to occur 9 l[ gr\nd1 we frequ5tly f9d ! true greasewood =m+ bright gre5 pat*es 9 ! swales1 & on ! b5*es ( p]iodic /reams1 z well z on ! bord]s ( alkali ponds or lakes4 ,/ock unaccu/om$ to x w frequ5tly g to ^! pat*es on a run1 only to turn away badly disappo9t$ aft] tak+ a few bites1 ! plant be+ bo? bitt] & salty4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,greasewood 7prop]7--,s>cobatus v]miculatus 7,hook7 ,torr4 ,a4 ,appe>ance ( a bran* :5 n 9 blossom4 ,b4 ,sp9y-bran*let f ! same4 ,c4 ,bran*let be>+ cones ( male fl[]s4 ,d4 ,cone ( male fl[]s1 enl>g$4 ,e4 ,bran* be>+ fruits4 ,f4 ,clu/] ( fruits1 enl>g$4 ,g4 ,v]tical section ?r\gh a fruit1 %[+ ! se$ ) its curv$ embryo1 7enl>g$74 ,:]e a luxuriant gr[? ( ?is plant is f\nd1 ! soil may conta9 f #ch1jjj to #aag1jjj p\nds ( total salts p] acre1 ( :i* sometimes ne>ly half is c>bonate ( soda2 ! cont5t ( common salt is usually l[1 & ,glaub]'s salt or sulfate ( soda1 sometimes ) consid]able proportion ( epsom salt1 =ms a v>iable proportion ( ! total4 ,greasewood is di/9ctly a plant ( ! ,great ,bas91 only rea*+ ,cali=nia 9 ! adjac5t c\nties ( ,lass51 ,alp9e1 ,mono1 & nor!rn ,inyo4 ,x is v abundant on ! l[] levels ( ,honey ,lake valley1 ,cal4 ,! ,s>cobatus is *iefly f\nd on silty or s&y soils ( good native f]tility 7see page #dde1 *apt] #bb71 s t :5 its excess ( salsoda is neutraliz$ by means ( gypsum1 ! l& becomes v productive4 ,un=tunately ! co/ ( ! am\nt ( gypsum requir$ to r5d] su* soils adapt$ to ! tol]ance ( mo/ culture plants is (t5 prohibitive2 b :]e ! correction ( only small spots is call$ =1 ! 8:ite alkali0 result+ f ! gypsum treatm5t w\ld be tol]at$ by _m culture plants4 ,,alkali-,,hea? 7,frank5ia gr&ifolia campe/ris ,gray72 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,alkali-,hea?--,frank5ia gr&ifolia campe/ris ,a4 ,gray4 ,alkali-hea? is p]haps ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( any ( ! ,cali=nia alkali plants4 ,its p]5nial1 deep-root+ habit ( gr[?1 & flexible1 some:at wiry root/ock1 :i* enables x to p]si/ ev5 9 cultivat$ gr\nd1 r5d] x a valuable plant z an alkali indicator4 ,! salt-cont5t :]e ,alkali-hea? gr[s luxuriantly is inv>iably high1 rang+ f #fd1jjj to #bhb1jjj p\nds p] acre2 salsoda v>ies f #fhj to #ai1eij p\nds2 common salt ranges f #e1jjj to #aj1jjj p\nds4 ,su* soils w\ld n be b5efit$ by ! application ( gypsum1 z ! salts are already l>gely 9 ! neutral /ate4 ,( useful plants only ,saltbu%es & ,tussock-grass are likely to fl\ri% 9 su* l&s1 :5 n too wet4 ,:ile ,alkali-hea? is ?us "o ( ! mo/ alkali-tol]ant plants1 x is at ! same "t capable ( gr[? ) a m9imum ( salts 7total salts #c1gjj p\nds1 salsoda #fhj p\nds74 ,:]e only a sp>se gr[? ( ?is plant occurs1 !re=e1 ! l& %\ld n be condemn$ until a *emical exam9ation ( ! soil has be5 made4 ,alkali-hea? is f\nd on soils ( v v>y+ physical texture & degrees ( moi/ure2 :ile on soils ( uni=m texture & moi/ure-conditions1 b diff]+ 9 *emical composition1 x v>ies ) ! v>y+ salt-cont5t4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ,au/ralian saltbu% 7,atriplex semibaccata7 c be successfully gr[n on ! 8goose-l&s10 ( ! ,sacram5to ,valley1 on soil produc+ a m$ium crop ( ,alkali-hea?2 x rema9s to be %[n :e!r x w d equally well on soils produc+ a d5se & luxuriant gr[? ( ! same4 ,alkali-hea? is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! int]ior valleys ( ,cali=nia2 a closely relat$ =m gr[s 9 ! salt-m>%es ( ! sea-coa/4 ,,cressa 7,cressa cretica truxill5sis ,*oisy72 ,fig4 #hh4 ,cressa soils %[ a l[ p]c5tage ( ! noxi\s salsoda1 b comp>atively heavy total salts 7#afa1jjj to #bhb1jjj p\nds p] acre47 ,common salt v>ies f #e1gfj to #bj1hdj p\nds p] acre 9 f\r feet4 ,! maximum is l[] ?an 9 ! case ( ,alkali-hea?1 b ,cressa seems to be mu* m closely re/rict$ to /rong alkali ?an does ! =m] species4 ,cressa appe>s to be z widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! int]ior valleys ( ,cali=nia z ,alkali-hea?4 ,! ,cressa is a cosmopolitan plant1 occurr+1 z its "n indicates1 on ! ,ionian ,isl&s1 z well z 9 ,nor? ,africa1 ,syria1 & o!r arid c\ntries ( ! _w4 ,,saltgrass1 ,di/i*lis spicata4--,?is grass is ( _w-wide di/ribution1 & always indicates a s5sible cont5t ( soluble salts1 )\t app>5tly any special pref]5ce = ei!r ( ! ?ree mo/ commonly occurr+ ones4 ,its maximum tol]ance1 z w be se5 by ! prec$+ table1 is v high1 yet at ! same "t x w gr[ luxuriantly on l&s conta9+ s little t o!r sal9e plants l ! samphires1 saltwort or greasewood w refuse to gr[4 ,on ! %ores ( ,honey ,lake1 ,cali=nia1 x may (t5 be se5 incru/$ ) ! salts ( ! wat] conc5trat$ by a long season ( dr\ght1 yet ma9ta9+ life1 ?\gh some:at /unt$4 ,on l&s lightly impregnat$1 /ock w (t5 eat x q freely1 s t x has be5 mi/ak5 = ,b]muda grass1 to :i* its habit & foliage be>s "s resemblance4 ,b ,b]muda grass1 :ile n z s5sitive to alkali z mo/ =age grasses1 w probably n be> mu* ov] #ab1jjj p\nds p] acre4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,cressa--,cressa cretica truxill5sis1 ,*oisy4 ,! m]e pres5ce ( ! salt grass _c !re=e be tak5 z a def9ite indication ( any?+ m ?an t !re is an unusual am\nt ( salts 9 ! soil2 :e!r or n !re is m ?an w be tol]at$ by ! ord9>y culture-plants1 mu/ be judg$ ei!r f ! accompany+ plants1 or by exp]im5t or analysis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,salt-,grass--,di/i*lis spicata 7,l47 ,gre$e4 ,relative ,tol]ance ( ! ,diff]5t ,species4--,! foll[+ table %[s 9 sy/ematic ord] ! tol]ance ( ! sev]al plants discuss$ above1 = ! diff]5t salts1 s f> z ! data available p]mit4 ,! column m>k$ optimum %[s "u :at proportions ( salts ! plants grew 9 ab\t equal luxuriance1 !re=e "u1 app>5tly1 ! mo/ favorable conditions4 ,bo? above & bel[ ! proportions m5tion$ 9 t column1 ! luxuriance 7size7 & 7usually7 ! abundance ( ! plants 0 less2 %[+ t :ile excessive am\nts ( salts depress$ _! welf>e1 yet !y also suff]$ :5 ! proportions dropp$ bel[ a c]ta9 po9t4 ,:e!r ?is 0 p>tly or :olly ! result ( competition ) o!r plants1 is an unsettl$ "q4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,maximum1 ,,optimum1 ,,& ,,m9imum ,,( ,,salts ,,tol]at$ ,,by ,,ea* ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,alkali ,,plants4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,p\nds ,p] ,acre 9 feet4 --------------------------- ,optimum4 ,maximum4,m9imum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total ,salts4 ,bu%y ,samphire #did1cbj #did1ebj #ace1jfj ,dw>f ,samphires #dda1hhj #dda1hhj #dda1hhj ,alkali-hea? #bha1ifj #dii1jdj #c1gbj #fd1cjj ,cressa #bha1ifj #bha1ifj #afa1afj ,saltworts #acj1jjj #aec1jbj #c1gbj ,greasewood #eh1efj #eh1efj #b1djj ,tussock-grass #di1jjj #dii1jdj #di1jjj ,c>bonate 7,salsoda74 ,tussock-grass #bc1jjj #dd1dfj #c1jdj ,alkali-hea? #bjb #ai1eij #ai1eij #fhj #fhj ,greasewood #ah1gbj #ah1gbj #a1bhj ,dw>f ,samphires #ab1abj #ab1abj #b1bjj ,saltworts #aj1dhj #ab1abj #a1abj ,cressa #e1ddj #e1ddj #fhj ,bu%y ,samphire #d1hjj #d1hjj #a1ejj ,*loride 7,common ,salt74 ,bu%y ,samphire #bab1jhj #bge1afj #ef1hjj ,dw>f ,samphires #abe1fdj #abe1fdj #abe1fdj ,saltworts #ci1gfj #eb1ijj #a1jdj ,cressa #bj1hdj #bj1hdj #e1gfj ,alkali-hea? #aj1ahj #bab1jhj #a1jdj #e1gfj ,tussock-grass #f1bjj #agb1hjj #c1ecj ,greasewood #c1fhj #c1fhj #afj ,sulphates 7,glaub]'s salt74 ,dw>f ,samphires #cad1jdj #cad1jdj #cad1jdj ,bu%y ,samphire #bgg1fdj #bgg1fdj #ej1jhj ,cressa #bge1ebj #bge1ebj #acd1hhj ,alkali-hea? #bge1ebj #cbc1bjj #a1efj #cd1ecj ,saltworts #dd1afj #ajd1jdj #a1efj ,greasewood #cf1afj #cf1afj #ifj ,tussock ,grass #ai1fdj #cbc1bjj #ai1fdj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #bjb ,?is plant gr[s ) equal luxuriance 9 soils conta9+ only #fhj p\nds ( c>bonates4 ,,app5dices4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,directions ,,= ,,tak+ ,,soil ,,samples4 ,,issu$ ,,by ,,! ,,cali=nia ,,exp]im5t ,,/ation4 ,9 tak+ soil specim5s = exam9ation by ! ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ! foll[+ directions %\ld be c>efully obs]v$2 always be>+ 9 m9d t ! exam9ation1 & especially ! analysis1 ( a soil is a long & t$i\s op]ation1 :i* _c be indef9itely repeat$4 ,fir/4--,d n take samples at r&om f any po9ts on ! l&1 b consid] :at are ! two or ?ree *ief v>ieties ( soil :i*1 ) _! int]mixtures1 make up ! cultivable area1 & c>efully sample ^!1 ea* sep>ately2 !n1 if necess>y1 sample y\r p>ticul> soil1 not+ its relation to ^! typical ones4 ,second4--,z a rule1 & :5ev] possible1 take specim5s f spots t h n be5 cultivat$1 nor are o!rwise likely to h be5 *ang$ f _! orig9al condition ( 8virg9 soils0--e4g41 n f gr\nd frequ5tly trodd5 ov]1 su* z roadsides1 cattle-pa?s1 or small pa/ures1 squirrel holes1 /umps1 or ev5 ! foot ( trees1 or spots t h be5 wa%$ by ra9s or /reams1 s z to h exp]i5c$ a notable *ange1 & n be a fair repres5tative ( _! k9d4 ,?ird4--,obs]ve & record c>efully ! normal vegetation1 trees1 h]bs1 grass1 etc41 ( ! av]age virg9 l&2 avoid spots %[+ unusual gr[?1 :e!r 9 k9d or 9 quality1 z su* are likely to h receiv$ "s animal manure1 or o!r outside addition4 ,f\r?4--,always take specim5s f m ?an "o spot judg$ to be a fair repres5tative ( ! soil int5d$ to be exam9$1 z an additional gu>antee ( a fair av]age1 & mix ?or\ghly ! e>? tak5 f ! same dep?s4 ,fif?4--,aft] select+ a prop] spot1 pull up ! plants gr[+ on x1 & sweep (f ! surface ) a broom or bru% to remove half-decay$ vegetable matt] n =m+ "p ( ! soil z yet4 ,dig or bore a v]tical hole1 l a po/-hole1 & note at :at dep? a *ange ( t9t occurs4 ,9 ! humid region1 or 9 humid l[l&s ( ! arid1 ?is w usually happ5 at f six to n9e in*es f ! surface1 & a sample tak5 to t dep? w con/itute ! 8soil40 ,9 ,cali=nia & ! arid region g5]ally1 v commonly no *ange ( t9t occurs )9 ! fir/ foot1 sometimes n = sev]al feet2 h5ce1 especially 9 s&y l&s1 ! 8soil0 sample w usually be tak5 to t dep?1 s z to repres5t ! av]age ( ! fir/ foot f ! surface d[n4 ,samples tak5 m]ely f ! surface1 or f ! bottom ( a hole1 h no def9ite mean+1 & w n be exam9$ or report$ ^u4 ,place ! 8soil0 sample ^u a clo? 7jute bagg+ %\ld n be us$ = ! purpose1 z its fibres1 du/1 etc41 become int]mix$ ) ! soil7 or pap]1 break x up1 mix ?or\ghly1 & put at lea/ a qu>t ( x 9 a sack or package prop]ly label$1 = exam9ation4 ,?is specim5 w1 ord9>ily1 con/itute ! 8soil40 ,%\ld ! *ange ( color occur at a less dep? ?an six in*es1 ! fact %\ld be not$1 b ! specim5 tak5 to t dep? nev]!less1 s9ce x is ! lea/ to :i* rational culture c be suppos$ to rea*4 ,9 ! same way take a sample ( ea* foot sep>ately to a dep? ( at lea/ ?ree feet2 pref]ably f\r or five1 especially 9 ! case ( alkali soils1 or suspect$ h>dpan4 ,six?4--,:atev] lies b5ea? ! l9e ( *ange1 or bel[ ! m9imum dep? ( six in*es1 w con/itute ! 8subsoil40 ,b %\ld ! *ange ( color occur at a great] dep? ?an twelve in*es1 ! 8soil0 specim5 %\ld nev]!less be tak5 to ! dep? ( twelve in*es only1 :i* is ! limit ( ord9>y tillage2 !n ano!r specim5 f t dep? d[n to ! l9e ( *ange1 & !n ! 8subsoil0 specim5s b5ea? t l9e4 ,! dep? d[n to :i* ! la/ %\ld be tak5 w dep5d on circum/ances4 ,x is always necess>y to "k :at con/itutes ! f\ndation ( a soil1 d[n to ! dep? ( ?ree feet at lea/1 s9ce ! "q ( dra9age1 resi/ance to dr\ght1 root-p5etration1 etc41 w dep5d ess5tially ^u ! nature ( ! sub/ratum4 ,9 ! arid region1 :]e roots frequ5tly p5etrate to dep?s ( t5 or twelve feet or ev5 m1 x is frequ5tly necess>y to at lea/ probe ! l& to t dep? or deep]4 ,! specim5s %\ld be tak5 9 o!r respects precisely l t ( ! surface soil1 ea* to repres5t ! av]age ( n m ?an twelve in*es4 ,^? ( ! mat]ials ly+ bel[ ! ?ird foot f ! surface may sometimes be tak5 at "s dit* or o!r easily accessible po9t1 & if possible %\ld n be brok5 up l ! o!r specim5s4 ,if !re is h>dpan or heavy clay pres5t1 an unbrok5 lump ( x %\ld be s5t1 = mu* dep5ds on its "*4 ,sev5?4--,:5 9 ! case ( cultivat$ l&s1 x is desir$ to asc]ta9 ! cause ( diff]5ces 9 ! behavior or success ( a crop on diff]5t portions ( ! same field or soil area1 d n s5d only ! soil :i* be>s unsatisfactory gr[?1 b also ! "o be>+ normal1 good gr[?1 = comp>ison4 ,9 all su* cases1 try to asc]ta9 by y\r own obs]vations :e!r or n ! fault is simply 9 ! subsoil or sub/rata2 9 :i* case a sample ( surface soil s5t = exam9ation w\ld be ( little use4 ,9 su* exam9ations ! soil probe w be ( great s]vice1 & save mu* digg+ or bor+4 ,eigh?4--,specim5s ( alkali or salty soils %\ld pref]ably be tak5 t[>ds ! end ( ! dry season1 :5 ! surface lay]s w conta9 ! l>ge/ am\nt ( salts4 ,a special sample ( ! fir/ six in*es %\ld 9 t case be tak5 sep>ately by means ( a po/-hole aug]1 & !n1 9 a diff]5t spot close by1 a hole f\r feet deep %\ld be bor$1 & ! e>? f ! entire f\r-foot column intimately mix$ be=e ! usual qu>t sample is tak54 ,samples ( ! plants gr[+ on ! l& %\ld 9 all cases be includ$ 9 ! package1 z !y indicate v closely ! agricultural "* ( ! l&4 ,all samples tak5 :ile ! l& is wet %\ld be air-dri$ be=e s5d+2 9 ! case ( alkali soils ?is is absolutely ess5tial4 ,n9?4--,all peculi>ities ( ! soil & subsoil1 _! behavior "u tillage & cultivation 9 v>i\s crops1 9 wet & dry seasons1 _! location1 position1 8lay10 e circum/ance1 9 fact1 t c ?r[ any light on _! agricultural qualities or peculi>ities1 %\ld be c>efully not$1 & ! notes s5t by mail4 ,)\t su* notes1 specim5s _c ord9>ily be consid]$ z ju/ify+ ! am\nt ( labor involv$ 9 _! exam9ation4 ,any fault f\nd ) ! behavior ( ! l& 9 cultivation or crop-be>+ %\ld be specially m5tion$ & describ$4 ,! conditions gov]n+ crop-production are s complex t ev5 ) ! fulle/ in=mation & ! mo/ c>eful "w1 cases are f\nd 9 :i* z yet ! be/ exp]ts w be at fault4 ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,summ>y ,,directions ,,= ,,soil--,,exam9ation ,,9 ,,! ,,field ,,or ,,on ,,! ,,f>m4 ,:ile ! g5]al pr9ciples ^u :i* ! cultural value & adaptations ( l&s %\ld be judg$1 h be5 giv5 9 ! text ( ?is volume1 x seems advisable to summ>ize _! practical application to l& exam9ation "h1 = conv5i5t ref]5ce4 ,! directions giv5 9 ,app5dix ,a = ! sampl+ ( soils hav+ be5 c>ri$ out1 ! samples s tak5 may be subject$ to f>!r exam9ation by any intellig5t f>m] to good purpose1 & (t5 ) great sav+ ( "t & exp5se4 ,spread ! samples f ! sev]al dep?s 9 regul> ord] ^u a table or b5*1 & note ! diff]5ces 9 color & texture app>5t to ! eye or t\*1 & :e!r !y w or w n cru% readily betwe5 ! f+]s1 wet & dry4 ,:atev] ! f+]s c d1 c simil>ly be done by ! h>r[1 cultivator1 clod cru%] or roll]4 ,! till+ qualities ( ! surface soil & imm$iate subsoil are ! fir/ & mo/ important matt] to be asc]ta9$2 includ+ especially _! behavior to wat]4 ,place "s air-dri$ lumps 9 a %all[ di% ) a little wat]2 obs]ve :e!r !y take up ! wat] quickly or sl[ly1 & :e!r 9 s do+ ! lumps fall to pieces or reta9 _! =m4 ,sl[ p5etration1 & ma9t5ance ( =m1 w at once indicate a soil some:at refractory & difficult to till2 :ile if ! wat] is tak5 up easily & ! lump falls to pieces1 ! l& is easily cultivat$ & w absorb ! ra9fall & irrigation wat] readily4 ,! d>k5+ ( ! t9t on wett+ w also give an approximate idea ( its humus-cont5t4 ,!n take a wett$ lump & "w x betwe5 ! f+]s & on ! palm ( ! h&1 until its 8/ick9ess0 or adhesiv5ess ceases to increase4 ,?is 8h& te/0 is ( fir/ importance & 9 skillful h&s w l>gely sup]s$e ! ne$ ( elaborate me*anical analysis4 ,x w at once enable ! op]ator to classify ! soil z a light or heavy loam1 clay loam or clay soil2 x w %[ directly :at w be ! result ( pl[+ ! l& :5 wet1 ! liability to ! =mation ( a pl[sole1 & :e!r a s+le or a d\ble team w g5]ally be ne$$ to cultivate x prop]ly4 ,also :e!r /ock c be all[$ to pa/ure ! l& soon aft] ra94 ,comp>ison ) ! kn[n l& ( neighbors w also ?us become easy1 & 9 a measure ! crops be/ adapt$ to ! physical qualities ( ! soil1 subsoil & sub/rata1 tak+ into acc\nt _! respective dep?s1 w at once be at lea/ approximately det]m9$4 ,! pres5ce ( co>se & f9e s& 9 great] or less am\nts w also be ?us readily asc]ta9$1 all[+ e/imates ( ! p]colative prop]ties2 ! latt] c1 ( c\rse1 be m practically te/$ 9 ! field1 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 *apt] #ac1 page #bdb4 ,a m def9ite e/imate ( ! am\nt & k9d ( s& pres5t 9 ! soil mat]ials c be obta9$ by wa%+ ! knead$ sample into a tumbl]1 & all[+ a ?9 /ream ( wat] to fl[ into x f a faucet :ile g5tly /irr+ ! turbid wat]4 ,! clay1 toge!r ) ! f9e/ silts1 w ?us be c>ri$ (f ov] ! rim ( ! glass1 & s& ( any desir$ degree ( f95ess1 accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! /ream ( wat] us$1 w be left beh9d4 ,! k9d & am\nt ( ^! s&y mat]ials c !n be e/imat$1 or def9itely asc]ta9$ by weigh+ or measur+4 ,?is w1 g5]ally speak+1 be z f> z ! un9/ruct$ f>m] c readily g2 b ^! simple op]ations w give him an insight into ! nature ( 8 soil & subsoil t w enable him to avoid a great _m co/ly mi/akes4 ,,recognition ,,& ,,mean+ ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,soil ,,m9]als4#bjc ,^? some:at famili> ) sci5tific me?ods & op]ations1 & suppli$ ) pocket l5s or microscope1 c pr(itably g mu* f>!r t[>ds ! def9ite asc]ta9m5t ( ! p]man5t cultural value ( ! l&1 by ! /udy ( ! m9]als ( :i* ! s& is compos$1 & :i* z a rule repres5t ^? f :i* ! entire soil has be5 =m$2 !re=e indicate 9 a g5]al mann] its *emical composition4 ,su* exam9ations are specially feasible & important :5 soils are n f> remov$ f _! p>5t rocks1 z 9 mo/ ( ! arid region1 & 9 ! /ates nor? ( ! ,ohio4 ,9 ! ,s\?we/]n /ates1 9 ! coa/al pla9 ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ! orig9al soil m9]als h usually be5 too f> decompos$ to admit ( def9ite id5tification4 ,s& is !re z a rule made up ( qu>tz gra9s ( _m v>ieties1 ) only an occasional t\rmal9e & pyrox5e4 #bjc ,= m details see *apt]s #c & #d4 ,among ! prom95t soil m9]als1 qu>tz is almo/ always recognizable by its glassy lu/] & ! irregul> fracture--abs5ce ( def9ite planes or facets ( cleavage1 caus+ ! gra9s to be abrad$ or r\nd$ ne>ly alike 9 all directions4 ,! feldsp>s1 on ! contr>y1 always %[ a t5d5cy to cleave into fragm5ts hav+ def9ite1 obvi\sly oblique angles1 :i* are p]ceptible ev5 :5 ! gra9s are some:at worn2 because ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! ease ) :i* we> takes place 9 ! sev]al directions4 ,pota% feldsp>1 moreov]1 :i* is ! mo/ important to be recogniz$ because x indicates a relatively l>ge supply ( pota% 9 ! natural soil1 is b r>ely glassy 9 lu/]1 b mo/ly dull :ite1 or r$di%-:ite4--,! lime & lime-soda feldsp>s r>ely %[ z def9ite =ms1 because ( _! t5d5cy to =m complex cry/all9e aggregates 7tw9s73 & _! def9ite recognition requires some:at complex 7pol>iz+7 appliances 9 connection ) ! microscope4 ,9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 ! accompany+ m9]als 7hornbl5de1 pyrox5e1 mica & o!rs7 (t5 af=d valuable indications1 because ( _! kn[n association ) soda-lime feldsp>s 9 c]ta9 rocks4 ,an abundant occurr5ce ( hornbl5de fragm5ts1 *>act]iz$ by _! flat1 tabul> =m1 & bottle-gre5 or black t9t1 indicate1 almo/ always a fairly good supply ( lime 9 ! soil1 b leaves ! pota%-supply 9 d\bt4 ,pyrox5e 7di/+ui%$ by its smoo?1 poli%$ surface f ! angul>ly-wea!r+1 usually ru/y hornbl5de fragm5ts7 r>ely occurs ) pota% feldsp>2 & soils /rongly *>g$ ) x are mo/ly poor 9 pota%4 ,mica occurs 9 s _m rocks & is ( s little consequ5ce z a soil-+r$i5t f ! *emical po9t ( view1 because ( its difficult decomposition1 t its pres5ce c mo/ly only s]ve to corroborate or contradict conclusions z to ! d]ivation ( a soil f "s p>ticul> rock or region4 ,b mica s]ves a good purpose 9 improv+ ! till+ qualities ( soils4 ,its ?9 scales mu/ n be mi/ak5 = ! tabul> fragm5ts ( hornbl5de4 ,calcite 9 its sev]al =ms is mo/ly easily recogniz$ bo? by its =m "u ! microscope1 & by ! eff]vesc5ce its granules %[ :5 t\*$ ) an acid4 ,?is eff]vesc5ce c g5]ally be obs]v$ on t\*+ ! wett$ soil ) *lorhydric acid1 s soon z ! cont5t exce$s two p] c5t2 b some?+ dep5ds ^u ! size ( ! gra9s1 z :5 ^! are v small1 ! giv+-(f ( gas is less readily not$4 ,to facilitate x1 ! wett$ soil may be w>m$ be=e t\*+ x ) ! acid4 ,! recognition ( ! pres5ce ( lime c>bonate 9 soils is s important z to ju/ify consid]able tr\ble 9 r5d]+ x def9ite4 ,:5 ! aid ( a *emi/ _c be comm&$1 fairly def9ite conclusions may be drawn f ! "* ( ! native vegetation2 reg>d+ :i*1 detail$ in=mation may be f\nd 9 ,p>ts ,,iii & ,,iv ( ?is volume4 ,b :]e1 z 9 ! arid region1 ?is crit]ion is n available1 s9ce ! controll+ factor !re is ! moi/ure supply1 a presumption may be ga9$ by ! application ( a slip ( moi/5$ r$ litmus pap] to ! wett$ soil4 ,%\ld ! r$ pap] be turn$ blue )9 "o or two m9utes x w\ld indicate ! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( soda 78black alkali07 z well z ( lime c>bonates3 b if blu$ only aft] tw5ty m9utes or m1 x w\ld indicate ! pres5ce ( ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia4 ,if n *ang$ at all1 ! conclusion w\ld be t ei!r lime c>bonate is 9 v small supply1 or t ! soil is 9 an acid condition4 7,see *apt] #h1 p4 #abb74 ,sal9e & ,alkali ,soils4--,! pres5ce ( an unusual or injuri\s am\nt ( soluble salts1 z 9 ! case ( sea-coa/ & alkali soils1 is commonly easily asc]ta9$ 9 ! field2 :]e1 if ! surface soil is at all s]i\sly contam9at$ ) soluble salts ( any k9d1 ^! may be se5 on ! surface dur+ a dry season1 =m+ a :iti% effloresc5ce1 :i* 9 mo/ cases is def9itely cry/all9e4 ,9 d\btful cases a tablespoonful ( ! surface soil may be lea*$ ) wat]1 & ! fir/ t5 or fifte5 drops caught 9 a clean1 bright silv] spoon & evaporat$4 ,or ! soil may be /irr$ up ) ab\t twice its bulk ( wat] & ! mixture be all[$ to cle> by settl+1 !n evaporat+4 ,a slight :iti% film w almo/ always rema9 9 ! spoon2 b if ! am\nt be some:at consid]able1 ! pres5ce ( soluble salts is v readily recogniz$ by p\r+ a few drops ( cle> wat] on "o side ( ! spot1 & !n all[+ x to fl[ g5tly ov] ! spot to ano!r place1 :]e x is aga9 sl[ly evaporat$4 ,any consid]able am\nt ( salts pres5t w be %[n bo? 9 ! dim9ution ( ! orig9al spot1 & 9 ! soluble residue accumulat$ :]e ! wat] 0 la/ evaporat$4 ,%\ld common salt be pres5t to any consid]able ext5t1 ! residue 9 ! silv] spoon w1 if ! la/ drops be all[$ to evaporate sl[ly1 %[ squ>e or cubical cry/als to ! nak$ eye1 & c]ta9ly to a common pocket l5s4 ,! residue may also be te/$ ) r$ litmus pap] = c>bonate ( soda1 :i* w\ld quickly turn x blue4 ,m detail$ exam9ation requires *emical reag5ts & exp]i5ce1 b ! above te/s %\ld be suffici5t to prev5t ! mi/ak+ ( m]e :ite spots1 ^: humus has be5 de/roy$ by f]m5tation caus$ by bad dra9age1 ) true alkali caus$ by excess ( soluble salts2 a mi/ake n uncommon 9 bo? ! arid & humid regions4 ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,%ort ,,approximate ,,me?ods ,,( ,,soil ,,exam9ation ,,us$ ,,at ,,! ,,cali=nia ,,exp]im5t ,,/ation4 ,,by ,r4 ,h4 ,,l\ghridge4 ,! ,cali=nia ,exp]im5t ,/ation has = _m ye>s giv5 ! f>m]s ( ! ,/ate ! privilege ( hav+ _! soils exam9$ to asc]ta9 any physical defects1 defici5cy 9 plant-food1 or ! pres5ce ( alkali salts4 ,!y h q g5]ally tak5 advantage ( ?is1 & ! numb] ( samples ( soil s5t 9 ea* ye> has be5 v l>ge4 ,a complete analysis ( a soil-sample requires fully #ae days2 h5ce ! necessity ( adopt+ "s quick me?ods = ! det]m9ation ( ! ma9 elem5ts ( f]tility1 viz41 humus1 lime1 pota%1 & phosphoric acid1 t w\ld at ! same "t give results suffici5tly accurate = practical purposes4 ,simil>ly = alkali salts 9 ! soil2 ! lea*+-out & analysis ( :i* (t5 occupies m ?an a week4 ,! foll[+ me?ods h be5 adopt$1 :i* %ort5 ! "t ( exam9ation = ! plant-food ( a soil to ab\t "o h\r1 except = pota%1 :i* requires a mu* long] "t4 ,= alkali salts ! "t is r$uc$ to two days1 & less if a pressure filt] be us$4 ,humus4--,! ,gr&eau me?od ( ammonia extraction requires ! removal ( ! lime & magnesia ) weak hydro*loric acid1 wa%+ out ( ! acid & !n dige/ion ) weak ammonia2 all ( :i*1 ) a soil ri* 9 humus1 may require _m days1 ?\gh a numb] ( samples may be put ?r\gh at ! same "t4 ,! me?od adopt$ to det]m9e adequacy or inadequacy ( ! humus 7= ?is is all t is int5d$ 9 ?is exam9ation7 is complet$ 9 less ?an half an h\r4 ,x is bas$ on ! color ( ! humus-extract & avoids ! necessity ( removal ( ! lime f ! soil4 ,! soil is pulv]iz$ 9 a mort> ) a rubb] pe/le1 & pass$ ?r\gh a half-millimet] sieve4 ,sev5 grams ( ! f9e e>? is plac$ 9 a te/ tube ) #ae or #bj cc4 ( a t5 p] c5t solution ( cau/ic pota% & boil$ = t5 or fifte5 seconds1 !n all[$ to settle4 ,! humus is dissolv$ & ! d5sity ( ! color ( ! solution is an indication ( adequacy or inadequacy4 ,a d5se black1 non-transluc5t solution %[s ! pres5ce ( at lea/ "o p] c5t ( humus 9 ! soil2 a deep br[n transluc5t color indicates ab\t "o-half ( "o p] c5t2 :ile a light br[n color cle>ly %[s a defici5cy 9 ! soil1 & a ne$ ( a good gre5-manure crop4 ,lime4--,two grams ( f9e e>? is treat$ ) a little hydro*loric acid1 boil$ = a few seconds1 & ammonia is add$ to precipitate ! iron & alum9a2 ! :ole1 ) ! soil-residue1 is quickly ?r[n on a filt] to sep>ate ! mass f ! lime solution1 & wa%$4 ,aft] add+ ammonium *lorid ! lime is precipitat$ ) oxalate ( ammonia1 & its adequacy = soil-f]tility judg$ ( by ! turbidity ( ! solution1 or ! bulk ( ! precipitate4 ,or ! latt] may be filt]$ (f1 dri$ & weigh$4 ,we ?us obta9 a measure ( ! c>bonate & humate ( lime pres5t1 by comp>+ x ) ! precipitate obta9$ f a soil ^: p]c5tage ( lime has be5 correctly asc]ta9$4 ,pota%4--,! det]m9ation ( pota% 9 ! soils requires m "t ?an ei!r ( ! o!r +r$i5ts1 & is m r>ely made by u4 ,our k ( ! soils ( ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia obta9$ ?r\gh _m analyses1 gives u a clue to ^? localities :]e pota% w\ld probably be defici5t1 z well z to ^? ^: soils are g5]ally extremely ri* 9 pota%2 ! p]c5tages rea*+ usually f 4#e to z mu* z #a4e p] c5t & m4 ,= ! det]m9ation1 two grams ( ! f9e e>? is dige/$ 9 hydro*loric acid ov] a /eam ba? = two days1 ! insoluble residue filt]$ (f1 ! filtrate evaporat$ to dryness to r5d] ! silica insoluble1 aga9 filt]$ & ! iron2 alum9a & lime remov$ by precipitation ) ammonia & oxalate ( ammonia & filtration4 ,! filtrate is !n evaporat$ to dryness1 ! ammonia salts de/roy$ ) aqua regia or driv5 (f by heat1 & ! alkalies *ang$ to *lorids4 ,any residue is !n filt]$ (f & plat9-*lorid add$ to precipitate ! pota%1 :i* is sep>at$ & det]m9$ 9 ! usual way1 ei!r by r$uction ( ! plat9um by ignition1 or by measurem5t 9 a ,plattn]'s pota% tube4 ,phosphoric ,acid4--,! det]m9ation ( phosphoric acid is bas$ on ! volume ( ! phospho-molybdate precipitate 9 a tube made l a ,plattn]'s pota% tube1 b hav+ a wid] int]ior diamet] = ! small] portion 7n great] ?an #c millimet]s71 & a l5g? ( #ej mm4 ,) ?is diamet]1 "o mm4 9 height ( ! precipitate obta9$ by our %ort me?od indicates "o "o-hundr$? ( "o p] c5t ( phosphoric acid 9 ! soil4 ,! unit ( measure mu/ be obta9$ = ea* tube1 unless ( uni=m diamet]1 & is asc]ta9$ by tak+ a soil ^: phosphoric-acid p]c5tage has be5 det]m9$ gravimetrically & giv+ x ! foll[+ quick treatm5t2 :i* mu/1 ( c\rse1 be closely foll[$ 9 ea* soil to be exam9$4 ,two grams ( ! f9e e>? is ignit$ 9 a plat9um di% to de/roy ! organic matt]1 transf]r$ to a te/-tube conta9+ #e cc4 ( nitric acid & made to boil = only a c\ple ( seconds1 ?us prev5t+ ! solution ( silicates to any mat]ial ext5t4 ,x is n all[$ to /&1 b a little wat] is imm$iately add$ & x is quickly ?r[n on a small filt] & wa%$ ) a little wat]4 ,! phosphoric acid is !n precipitat$ ) molybdic acid at ! prop] temp]ature2 all[+ x to settle1 ! liquid is drawn (f & ! precipitate transf]r$ to ! measur+-tube4 ,x settles into ! small "p 9 a %ort "t if ! latt] is n too n>r[1 & is !n measur$ ) a millimet] scale4 ,?is repres5ts ! p]c5tage z f\nd 9 ! soil by ! gravimetric me?od1 & s]ves z a guide = o!r exam9ations1 ^: agreem5t ) gravimetric det]m9ations is g5]ally q close1 & q suffici5t = practical purposes4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! solution is made & sep>at$ f ! soil is a matt] ( special importance = comp>ative results1 or det]m9ation ( p]c5tages2 = if ! acid solution be all[$ to /& = "s "t be=e filtration f ! soil1 silica passes into solution also1 & ! volume ( ! molybdate precipitate is increas$ by x2 ?us vitiat+ ! results & add+ to ! "t requir$ = ! me?od4 ,by ?is %ort me?od ! practically important phosphoric acid 9 ! soil may be approximately det]m9$ )9 half an h\r4 ,,%ort ,,me?od ,,= ,,alkali ,,salts4 ,! old me?od ( obta9+ solutions ( ! salts by lea*+ ! soil on a filt] until all ( ! alkali _h be5 wa%$ out has be5 replac$ by ! foll[+ %ort "o4 #ej or #ajj grams ( ! well-mix$ soil is plac$ 9 a bottle conta9+ #bjj cc4 ( wat]1 %ak5 up occasionally dur+ #ab h\rs & all[$ to settle4 ,! solution may !n be pass$ ?r\gh a common filt] 7or pref]ably a pressure filt]7 & an aliquot "p 7usually #ej cc47 ( ! filtrate evaporat$ to dryness 9 a plat9um bas9 & ignit$ at a temp]ature j bel[ r$ness to de/roy any organic matt] t may be pres5t4 ,! bas9 & cont5ts are weigh$ & ! soluble salts are dissolv$ 9 a v little wat] & sep>at$ by filtration ?r\gh a small filt] into a #ej cc4 cyl9d] & ! alkali c>bonates & *lorids det]m9$ by titration1 be+ calculat$ z sodium comp\nds4 ,! mat]ial rema9+ on ! filt] & 9 ! bas91 consi/+ ( insoluble e>?1 c>bonates & calcium sulfate1 is g5tly ignit$ 9 ! bas9 & weigh$2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is & ! fir/ weight gives approximately ! total soluble salts1 :i* %\ld sub/antially correspond to ! titrations made4 ,! sulfates are det]m9$ by diff]5ces betwe5 ^! & ! total alkalies4 ,! solution may conta9 "s sulfate ( magnesia1 or calcium & magnesium *lorids1 & ^! are det]m9$ gravimetrically4 ,nitrates1 :i* may h be5 de/roy$ 9 ! fir/ ignition1 are det]m9$ 9 ! orig9al solution by ! picric me?od4 ,any magnesia r5d]$ insoluble by ! ignition may usually be acc\nt$ = z *lorid1 unless mu* nitrate is pres5t :i* is r>ely ! case 9 c>bonat$ alkali4 ,if mu* nitric acid 0 f\nd1 x %\ld be fir/ assign$ to magnesia4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,,page ,absorption & movem5ts ( wat] 9 soils1 #bba ( solids f solutions1 #bfg ( gases by soils1 #bgb1 #bge ,acacias1 tol]ance ( alkali1 #dhj ,accessory m9]als1 #ej ,acid1 /r5g? us$ 9 soil analysis1 #cda ,acidic & basic eruptive & metamorphic rocks1 #di ,acidity1 neutrality1 alkal9ity ( soils1 #cbb ,acids ( diff]5t /r5g?s1 analysis )2 table1 #cbf1 #cda ,action ( plants 9 soil =mation1 me*anical & *emical1 #ai ,a]ation & r$uction z influ5c+ nitrification1 #adg effects ( insuffici5t1 9 soils1 #bhj excessive1 injury 9 arid regions1 #bhj ,a]obic & an]obic bact]ia1 #add ,air1 functions 9 soils1 #bgi 8 ( soils1 composition (1 #bhj ,air-space 9 soils2 figure1 #ajh ,alabama1 vegetation & soil-*>act]s1 #eaa ,alaska curr5t1 effects on ,cali=nia climate1 #bif ,al9it1 #adi ,alkali c>bonates & sulfates1 inv]se ratio1 #dea1 #deb c>bonates1 effects on clay1 #fb effects on culture plants2 figure1 #dbf1 #dbg ,alkali-hea?1 range1 tol]ance ( alkali1 figure1 #edd1 #ede ,alkali l&s1 crops = /rong1 #dfh effects ( irrigation on1 #dbh efficacy ( %ad+1 #deg exceptionally productive :5 reclaim$1 #dhc f]tilization n ne$$ 91 #dhc =mation f lea*+s ( slopes1 #dec geographical di/ribution (1 #dbc high & la/+ production :5 reclaim$1 #dhb inducem5ts t[>d reclamation (1 #dha 9 ! ,san ,joaqu9 valley1 ,cal41 figure1 #dbe possible injury to1 f excessive lea*+1 #dfb ,alkali l&s1 summ>y ( conclusions1 #dec surface & sub/rata (1 #dbi utilization & reclamation (1 #dee ( _w-wide importance1 #dbd vegetation (1 #ecd ,alkali-resi/ant crops1 #dee ,alkali salts1 black & :ite1 #dda composition (1 #dci composition (2 g5]al table1 #ddb1 #ddc di/ribution 9 heavy l&s1 #dcf1 #dcg effects on beet crop1 #dfe horizontal di/ribution (1 #dci 9 hill l&s1 #dci 9 s&y l&s1 #dcc1 #dce 9 ,salton ,bas91 di/ribution (1 #d1 #cf1 #dch lea*+-d[n (1 #dei nature (1 #dbc plant food 91 #dda1 #ddd reactions betwe51 #ddi1 #dej r$uction by cropp+1 #dfc relative injuri\sness (1 #dfd removal f ! soil1 #deh removal by deep-furr[ irrigation2 figure1 #dfj1 #dfa tol]ance ( v>i\s crop plants2 table1 #dff1 #dfg total 9 l&s2 e/imation (1 #ddd und]dra9age ! univ]sal rem$y =1 #dfj upw>d translocation f irrigation1 #dcc v]tical di/ribution 9 soils1 #dbi1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dcd ,alkali soils & sea%ore l&s1 #dbb calc>e\s "* (1 #bh composition (1 z a :ole1 #dde1 #ddf1 #ddg h[ native plants live 91 #dcj orig9 (1 #dbb repell5t aspect1 cause (1 #dbd ret5tion ( silica 91 #cib ,alkali spots1 :ite1 #bhf ,alkali1 rise (1 #dbh turn+ "u ( surface1 #def we$s z cattle food1 #dfh /udy (1 by ,l\ghridge & ,davy1 #ece ,alum9ic hydrate1 9 soils ( ,cali=nia & ,mississippi2 table #aja1 #cij ,alluvial soils1 #ab ,ammonia-=m+ bact]ia1 #adi ,ammonia gas1 absorption (1 by soils2 figure1 #bgd1 #bge ,ammonic c>bonate1 effects on glass1 #ah ,anci5t civilizations1 pref]5ce = arid c\ntries1 #dag r>e 9 humid c\ntries1 #dah ,apatite1 #fc ,arid & humid climates1 rock-wea!r+ 91 #dg ,arid & humid regions1 crit]ia ( soils (1 #cga contra/ betwe5 soils (1 #bh soils (1 #aaa1 #cga ,arid & humid soils1 g5]al comp>ison2 table1 #cge1 #cgg ,arid belts1 subtropic1 #bih1 #bii utilization (1 #bii ,arid conditions1 local1 9 tropical c\ntries1 #dja ,aridity1 influ5ce ^u civilization1 #dag ,arid region1 bun* grasses on soils (1 #aaa /&+ hay 91 #cjj upl& soils (2 table1 #cgc1 #cgd ,arid soils1 productiv5ess induces p]man5t civil organization1 #dab ,arroyo ,gr&e & ,yazoo buck%ot soils1 #cde ,asp>agus1 resi/ant to salts1 #dge ,atmosph]e1 composition (2 table1 #af ,azotobact]1 #aef ,lipman on1 #aef ,b4 ,bact]ia1 active 9 soil-=mation1 #bj a]obic & ana]obic1 #add d5itrify+1 #adh food & functions (1 #ade 9 soils1 numb]s (1 #adb micro-organisms ( soils1 #adb multiplication (1 #add nitrify+1 #adf ,bact]ial life1 effect on soil1 condition1 #adi relation ( c>bonic dioxid to1 #bha ,bact]oids1 #aea ,mork figures1 #aeb1 #aec ,basaltic rocks1 #di ,basalts1 r$ soils f1 #eb ,basic slag1 #fd ,bas9 irrigation1 advantages (1 #bdc ,bauxite 9 soils1 #aja1 #cij ,beet1 sug>1 effects ( salts on1 #dgd tol]ant ( common salt1 #dgd ,bhil soils1 #dad ,bic>bonate ( soda1 #gh ,black-alkali l&s1 difficulty 9 dra9+1 #dfb neutraliz+ (1 #deg wat]s1 use (1 #bej :y s call$1 #gh ,black e>? ( ,russia1 humus 92 table1 #acj ,black s&1 #de ,black prairie soils1 #ec ,black soils & l&s1 #bhc ,blizz>ds 9 cont95tal ,am]ica1 #bih ,bl[n-out l&s1 #i ,blue t9t 9 clays & subsoils1 #de ,bod5g>e1 #adi1 #aej1 #bha ,bog ore1 =mation (1 9 subsoils1 #df1 #ff ,bones1 composition (1 #fd ,bone meal1 efficacy (1 #fe ,borax1 borate ( soda1 #gi ,bottom wat]1 #bbg rise (1 f irrigation1 #bbg1 #bcj ,bottoms1 fir/ & second1 contra/ betwe51 #ejf1 #ejg1 #eji ,bottoms1 fir/1 tree gr[? (1 #ejg1 #eji ,brahmaputra alluvium1 ,assam1 #dac ,br[n iron ore1 #dd 8,buck%ot0 soils ( ,yazoo bottom1 #aaf 8,bun* grasses0 z alkali-resi/ants1 #dga ,burn+-out ( humus1 effects (1 #aah ,burr[+ animals1 "w 9 soil-=mation1 #afj ,c4 ,calc>e\s clay1 crumbl+ on dry+1 #aaf =mations1 pr$om9ance 9 ,europe1 #ebe soils1 def9ition (1 #cfg1 #dif1 #ebd solubility ( alum9a & silica 91 #chi subsoils1 & h>dpans1 #afb ,calciphile1 calcifuge & silicophile plants1 #eba ,calcite1 calc>e\s sp>1 #ci recognition (1 #ci ,cali*e1 9 ,*ile1 ,nevada1 & ,cali=nia1 #ff1 #fg ,capill>ity1 #ahi ,capill>y wat]1 res]ve (1 #bbi rise (1 #bjb to #bjg ,c>bonat$ wat]1 action on feldsp>1 #cb action on silicates1 #ah univ]sal solv5t1 #ag ,c>bonate ( soda1 #gg injury to soils & plants1 #gh ,c>bonates1 *lorids & sulfates ( e>?s & alkalies1 reactions betwe51 #ddi1 #dej ,c>bonic acid1 #ag secret$ by roots1 #bj ,c>bonic dioxid1 absorption (1 by soils1 #bgd heavily absorb$ by f]ric & alum9ic hydrates1 #bgh occurr5ce1 =mation1 #ag relation to fung\s activity1 #bha ,cascade range1 climatic divide 9 ,n4 ,w4 ,am]ica1 #big ,caves 9 lime/one regions1 #da ,cel]y1 mod]ate tol]ance ( alkali1 #dge ,c5trifugal elutriator1 ,yod]'s1 #ib ,c]eals1 alkali-resi/ance1 b>ley1 glut5 :eats1 #dga ,*annels1 cutt+-out by gravel1 #f ,*>coal1 absorption ( gases by1 #bgf1 #bgg ,*emical absorption by soils1 #bgj action ( roots1 #bj analysis ( soils 79 g5]al71 #cbc "* ( soil1 recognition (1 #cbb decomposition1 causes int5sify+1 #ba processes ( soil =mation1 #af ,*ile saltpet]1 #ff ,*]nozem1 #acj analyses (1 table1 #cfd ,*e/nut1 ,am]ican1 a calcifuge tree1 #dia1 #eai ,*lor91 l>ge/ +r$i5t ( sea wat]1 #bg ,*lorite1 #cf ,*lorosis ( v9es 9 m>ly l&s1 #ebf ,*urn elutriator1 ,hilg>d's2 figure1 #ia ,circl+ ( hill l&s1 #bbj ,citrus fruits1 injury to1 f alkali1 #dgh lemons mo/ s5sitive1 #dgh s5sitiv5ess to common salt1 #dgg ,classification ( rocks1 #dg ( soils1 #aj ,clay z a soil +r$i5t1 #hc colloidal1 #ei functions (1 9 soils1 #ei ma9ta9s crumb /ructure1 #aaj ,clays1 clay/ones1 clay %ales1 #dh colors (1 #eh =mation1 flocculation & deposition (1 #cc matur+ (1 #fj pla/icity & adhesiv5ess1 influ5ce ( f9e p[d]s on1 #he influ5ce ( f]ric hydrate on1 #he ,clay-s&/ones1 soils f1 #eg ,clays1 sep>ation (1 by subsid5ce1 by c5trifuge1 #hi v>ieties1 enum]ation (1 & *>act]s1 #eg1 #eh fusibility (1 #eh ,clay/ones1 soils f1 #ei ,cleavage ( rocks1 #c ,cleopatra's ne$le1 #b ,climate1 #bhg ,climatic & seasonal conditions1 #ba ,climates1 cont95tal1 coa/ & insul>1 #big ,c(fee soils1 calc>e\s1 #dag ,colloidal clay1 am\nt 9 soils4 ,table1 #hd analysis (1 by ,l\ghridge1 #che effects ( alkali c>bonates ^u1 #fb inve/igation by ,s*loes+1 #ei prop]ties (1 #fa sep>ation (1 by boil+ & knead+1 #fa ,colloid humates1 #acc ,colluvial soils1 #ab ,colors ( soils1 advantages (1 #bhc ,common salt1 injuri\sness 9 soils1 #gf recognition (1 #gf removal f soils1 #gf ,conglom]ates1 #dh ,conif]s1 tall gr[? (1 9 arid regions1 #eag ,contraction ( soils 9 wett+ & dry+1 #aad ,co-op]ation1 favor$ by ne$ ( irrigation1 #dai ,corsican & m>itime p9e1 a% analyses1 #ebj ,cotton1 compact gr[? & heavy boil+ on calc>e\s soils1 #ejc ,crack+ ( clay soils 9 dry+1 #aac ,cressa2 range1 tol]ance ( alkali1 figure1 #ede1 #edf ,creep1 #ab ,crops1 alkali-resi/ant1 #dee ,crumbl+ ( calc>e\s clays on dry+1 #aaf ,crumb-/ructure ( soils2 figure1 #aaj ,cru/+ ( soils1 effects (1 #aaa1 #aag1 #bba ,cultivat$ soils1 analysis (1 #cbe inve/igation (1 #caf ,cultural exp]i5ce ! f9al te/1 #cbd ,cutt+-out ( *annels by wat]-borne gravel1 #f ,cypress1 diff]5t =ms (2 figures1 #ejg1 #ejh ,d4 ,date palm1 resi/ance to alkali1 #dgh ,decomposition1 *emical1 ( rocks1 #af ,decoloriz+ action1 ( soils1 *>coal1 #bfg ,deep-root+ ( native plants 9 arid region1 #agd ,de=e/ation1 effects (1 #bai ,deltas1 =mation (1 #g ,d5itrify+ bact]ia1 #adh ,des]ts1 effects ( w9ds 91 #h ,des]t s&s1 only lack wat] to become productive1 #dbj ,dew1 =mation (1 #cjg r>ely adds moi/ure to soils1 #cjh )9 ! soil1 #cjh ,diff]5tiation ( soil & subsoil1 causes (1 #aba ,di/ance betwe5 furr[s & dit*es1 #bda ,dolomite1 #db ,dra9age1 rights-(-way =1 #dfa ,dra9age wat]s1 use = irrigation1 #bej ,dra9 wat]s1 analyses (1 table1 #bb lea*+ effects (1 #bga ,dr\?1 resi/ance to1 9 arid soils1 #afg ,du/ soils1 nature (1 #ajd sl[ p5etration ( wat] 91 #aje ,du/ /orms1 #i ,dynamite1 us$ = %att]+ d5se sub/rata1 #aha ,e4 ,e>?'s cru/1 kn[n ?ickness1 xxiv ,e>?worms1 action ( 9 soil-=mation1 #aeh ,ecological /udies1 #cad ,egypt1 obelisks (1 #b ,elem5ts con/itut+ e>?'s cru/1 table (1 xxiv important to agriculture1 li/ (1 xxiv ,elutriator1 ,hilg>d's1 figure1 #ia ,epsomite1 epsom salt1 9 soil1 #gh ,eremacausis1 #abi ,erosion 9 arid regions1 #bai 9 ,mississippi table l&s2 figures1 #bah l[]+ ( l& by1 #ae ( rocks by s&2 figure1 #aj ,eruptive rocks1 basic & acidic1 #di rocks1 soils f1 #eb ,eucalyptus1 tol]ance ( alkali1 #dhj ,european obs]vations on plant di/ribution1 #eai /&>ds ( plant-food adequacy--,ma]ck]'s table1 #cfi ,europe1 pr$om9ance ( calc>e\s =mations 91 #ebe ,evaporation & crop yields1 calculat$1 #aic & crop yields1 obs]v$ 7,=ti]71 #aid & plant gr[?1 #aic c\nt]act+1 9 alkali l&s1 #dee dep5d5ce on air temp]ature2 ,=ti]'s exp]im5ts1 table1 #bee f res]voirs & dit*es1 #beg f wat] surfaces1 #bed wet & moi/ soils1 #bed 9 diff]5t climates1 #aib1 #bef 9 diff]5t localities1 ,cali=nia1 #bee re/ra9$ by loose surface lay]1 #bee ?r\gh roots & leaves1 am\nt (1 #bfb1 #bfc ,expansion by oxidation1 #ah ,f4 ,f>my>d or /able manure1 #gb ,feldsp>s1 wea!r+ (1 #ca products (1 #cb ,f]ghana1 alkali l&s 91 #dda ,f]ric hydrate1 effects (1 #ajj functions (1 9 soils1 #bhe high absorptive p[] (1 #bgg 9 ,hawaiian soils2 table1 #cef m diffus$ 9 humid ?an 9 arid soils1 #cib ,f]ric phosphate1 unavailability (1 #cef ,f]roso-f]ric hydrate & oxid1 #ah1 #de ,f]r\s oxid1 #ah ,f]rug9\s l&s1 injury f swamp+ (1 #bcc ,f]tiliz]s1 m9]al1 #fc wa/e (1 by lea*+1 #bfi ,flocculation & floccules1 #ia ,flocculat$ /ructure2 cem5ts ma9ta9+1 #aaj1 #aaa ,flood-pla9s ( riv]s1 #ad1 #ae ,fool's gold1 #ge ,=ce ex]t$ by roots1 #ai ,=eca/s1 g5]al1 ( soil quality 9 =e/ l&s1 #ejg ( soil values1 popul>1 #cac ,=e/ trees1 =ms (1 #dii to #ejb ( ,atlantic /ates on alkali l&s1 #dha ,=m & developm5t ( trees1 diff]5ces 91 #dih ,=ms ( leaves1 v>iation 91 #ejb black-jack oak1 #dii1 #eja po/ oak1 #dii1 #ejj trees1 decidu\s1 9 arid region1 #eaf will[1 sc>let1 black & ,spani% oaks1 #ejb ,freez+ wat]1 effects (1 #c ,fro/1 effect ( soils1 #aah ,fruit+1 favor$ by lime 9 soils1 #ejc ,fungi & molds1 action (1 #abc functions 9 humus-=mation1 #aeg ,g4 ,gases1 absorption (1 by soils1 #bgb1 #bge p>tial pressure (1 #bgf ,g]m9ation ( se$s1 #cji ,glaci] fl\r1 f95ess & f]tility (1 #e physical analysis (1 #e ,glaci]s1 gr9d+ & abrasion by2 figure1 #c ,glaub]'s salt1 #gg ,glauconite1 9 calc>e\s s&/ones1 #ef ,gneiss soils1 #ea ,gobi des]t1 migration ( lakes1 #i ,go+-back ( or*>ds1 #ahb ,gra9-sizes1 effect on p]colation2 table1 #bbd influ5ce on soil texture1 #ajj ,gr&eau me?od ( humus e/imation1 #acb ,granite soils1 pota% & phosphoric acid 91 #ej ,granitic rocks1 wea!r+ (1 #dg s&1 =mation 9 arid climates1 #b ,grano-diorite soils1 ( ,si]ra ,nevada1 #ea ,granul> s$im5ts1 influ5ce ^u till+ qualities1 #ajb ,grape-v9e1 alkali1 tol]ance (1 #dge ,grasses1 cultivat$1 s5sitive to alkali1 #dga ,greasewood1 range1 tol]ance ( alkali2 figure1 #edb1 #edc ,gre5/ones1 soils f1 #ea ,gr\nd wat]1 dep? mo/ favorable to crops1 #bbh v>iation ( surface (1 #bbh ,gulf-/ream1 #bie ,gypsum or sel5ite1 =mation f sea-wat] evaporation1 #db h[ recogniz$1 #db ,h4 ,halite1 #gf ,h>dpans1 causes1 =mation & cem5ts (1 #ahe ,h>dpan1 physical1 analysis (1 #ajc pl[sole1 #bda ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 humid & arid sides (1 #big soils1 analyses (1 #cef ,hay bacillus2 figure1 #adi1 #aej ,heat & cold1 effects on rocks1 #a ( high & l[ int5sity1 #cjd reflection & disp]sion f soil surface1 #cjd relations to soils & plant gr[?1 #cja trapp+ ( suns1 #bhh ,heavie/ clay soils1 physical analysis (1 #aae ,heav+-out ( gra91 #aai ,hematite1 #dd ,h]bace\s plants z soil indicators1 #eag ,hog-wall[s1 #aad ,hornbl5de & pyrox5e1 #cc wea!r+ (1 #cc ,horsetail ru%es1 secretion ( silica by1 #ca ,humates & ulmates1 #acc cem5t+ effects (1 #aaa ,humid & arid climates1 rock-wea!r+ 91 #dg ,humid region1 upl& soils (2 table1 #cgb1 #cgd ,humification 9 soils1 #bj normal conditions (1 #abi te/s2 ,snyd]1 tables1 #adj ,hum9 sub/ances1 =mation (1 #abc ,humus1 amidic con/itution (1 #abe & coal1 am\nts (1 f vegetable sub/ance1 #abh am\nt 9 soils1 #acc a% (1 f ,m9nesota soils1 analysis1 #acd decrease ( nitrog5-cont5t ) dep?1 #ace det]m9ation 9 soils1 #acb di/ribution 9 ! surface soil1 #aeg functions 9 soils1 #ba 9 arid & humid regions1 #ach 9 black e>? ( ,russia1 #acj 9 ,m9nesota soils1 #aca 9 ,nor? ,dakota soils1 #acc 9 ! surface soil1 #abj losses f cultivation & fall[1 #aca nitrog5 (1 #abd1 #ace p]c5tage 9 soils1 & nitrog5-cont5t (1 tables1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg porosity (1 #abd progressive *anges 9 soils1 #abf relation to bact]ial cont5t1 #add scanty 9 arid soils1 b ri* 9 nitrog51 #cig sub/ances1 physical & *emical nature (1 #abd v>iation (1 ) orig9al mat]ials1 #aci volume weight (1 table1 #abe v]sus adipoc]e1 #adj ,hydraulic elutriation1 #ij ,hydromica1 #ce ,hydr\s silicates 9 soils ( arid region1 #chh ,i4 ,ice-fl[]s on soils1 #aai ,imm$iate plant-food requirem5ts1 asc]ta9m5t (1 #ccc productiv5ess1 *emical te/s (1 #ccg productiv5ess vs4 p]man5t value ( soils1 #cah1 #cbg ,india1 climatic contra/s1 #dja ,indian soils1 table ( analyses1 #daj #dab types ( soils1 #daa ,indo-,gangetic pla92 calc>e\s h>dpan1 kank>1 #daa ,injury f excessive run(f1 prev5tion (1 #bbj to plants f ! v>i\s salts1 #eca to soils & plants f c>bonate ( soda1 #gh ,insects1 "w 9 soil-=mation1 #afj ,insoluble residue ( soils2 less 9 arid ?an humid1 #chd ,insuffici5t ra9fall1 leaves sea salts 9 soils1 #bh ,insul> climate1 ( ,brita91 we/]n ,europe1 #bih ,introduction1 xxiii ,injury f swamp+1 p]man5t1 #bcb ,iron c>bonate solution1 h[ =m$1 #dd color+ clays1 #eh m9]als1 #dd pyrite1 h[ recogniz$1 #ge ,irrigation1 bas91 advantages & disadvantages1 #bdd by *eck flood+1 #bcg flood+1 #bcg furr[s1 #bch lat]al seepage1 #bdb1 #bda %all[1 deep & wide furr[s2 diagram1 #bci surface spr9kl+1 #bcg und]gr\nd pipes1 #bde dit*es1 leaky1 effects on alkali l&s1 #dbi excessive surface root+ caus$ by1 #bde me?ods (1 #bcf necessitates co-op]ation1 #dai ,irrigation wat]1 abundant use ( sal9e1 #bdi duty (1 #bea economy 9 use (1 #bdc effects ( sal9e1 figures1 #bdg heavy losses 9 us+1 #beb limits ( sal9ity1 #bdf1 #bdh loss by evaporation1 #beb loss by p]colation2 diagram1 #bec quality (1 #bdf sal9e1 h[ to use1 #bdi te/+ p5etration (1 #bdb temp]ature (1 #bdd ,irrigation1 w9t]1 advantages (1 #bcf ,is+lass1 #dc ,j4 ,janesville loam1 *emical analysis (1 #cca ,japan curr5t1 #bif ,jasp] & horn/one pebbles1 wea!r+ (1 #cj ,k4 ,ka9it1 composition (1 #ga ,kaol9ite & clay2 kaol91 #cb assumes pla/icity on trituration ) wat]1 #fj cry/all9e =m (1 #bb1 #ei lacks pla/icity1 #fj ,kaol9ization1 results 9 zeolite-=mation1 #cie sl[ 9 arid regions1 #hg1 #chf ,l4 ,l&hold+1 units (1 small] 9 arid ?an 9 humid region1 #dbj ,l&lock$ lakes1 wat] (1 #bg ,l& pla/] z a f]tiliz]2 effects on soils1 #dc ,l&slides1 #ab ,lat]ite soils1 ,wohltmann's def9ition1 #daf ,t]ra roxa ( ,brazil1 #daf ,lea*+ ( ! l&1 #bb ,legumes1 bact]ia (1 #aej mo/ly s5sitive to alkali1 #dgb ,legum9\s plants1 mo/ly calciphile2 exceptions1 #eah ,leucite1 pota% cont5t1 #cb ,li*5s1 action on rock-surfaces1 #ai1 #bj ,lignites & coal1 h[ =m$1 #abg ,lime a dom9ant factor 9 productiv5ess1 #cec ,lime c>bonate 9 sea wat]1 #bf1 #bg remov$ f e>?'s surface1 #da summ>y ( effects 9 soils1 #cgi ,lime-cont5t1 effects ( high1 9 soils1 #cfe effects on availability ( phosophates1 table1 #cff 8,lime-c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry01 #cfe ,lime1 excess (1 9 arid soils1 #cgh ,lime feldsp>s1 leave lime c>bonate 9 soils1 #cb 9 alkali l&s protects plants f salts1 #ecb l&s1 failure ( tea on1 #dad ,lime-lov+ trees1 #dij to #dib1 #dig ,lime1 mo/ abundantly lea*$ out1 #bd p]c5tages1 :at are adequate1 #cfg 9 coa/-belt soils1 #dif1 #dig 9 heavy clay soils2 table1 #cfh ,lime r5d]s l[] am\nts ( plant-food adequate1 #ced ,lime/one c\ntries1 #ec ,rott51 #ed soils1 exclud$ f comp>ison ( arid & humid soils1 #cgf residual1 #ec ,lime/ones1 impure1 z soil-=m]s1 #dj1 #ec residual soils (1 h[ =m$1 #dj s(t1 or m>ls1 #dj sl[ dis9tegration ( pure1 #fc ,limit ( acid action on soils1 inve/igation (1 by ,l\ghridge1 #cdj ,limonite1 #dd ,loamy & s&y soils1 %[ little %r9kage1 #aag ,loose surface lay]1 illu/ration ( effect1 figure1 #beh1 #bfj prev5tion ( evaporation by1 #beg ,loss ( humus 9 summ] mul*1 #acb ,l\isiana1 vegetation & soil-*>act]s1 #eab ,l[l& tree-gr[?1 #ejf ,lysimet]1 #bbg ,m4 ,madagasc>1 "* & soils (1 #dje1 #djf climate & rocks (1 #djf me?ods us$ by ,mntz & ,r\sseaux1 #djf pota% & lime lea*$ into valleys1 #djg r$ soils1 #djg1 #dji table ( soil analyses1 #djh ,madras1 r$ soils (1 #dae ,magnesia1 effects ( excess ov] lime1 #chb exce$s lime 9 tropical soils1 #dje high 9 arid soils1 #cha lea*$ out next to lime1 #bd prop] proportions to lime1 #chc ,magnesian lime/ones z soil-=m]s1 #db ,magnesian soils l>gely poor1 #cf ,magnetite1 #de ,maize & sorghums1 alkali-resi/ance1 #dga ,maize roots 9 humid & arid region1 #age1 #agf ,manganese1 m 9 humid ?an arid soils1 #chc /imulant effects on crops1 #chc ,m>ble & lime/ones1 =mation (1 #ci ,m>ls1 gypse\s & calc>e\s1 #dc ,m>ly sub/rata1 #ahf ,m>9e sal9e l&s1 #ebg fir/ crops =1 #ecc reclamation = culture1 #ecd ,matire noire2 active nitrification (1 #acb1 #cfj ,me*anical analysis ( soils1 #hh ,melilots1 :ite & yell[1 alkali resi/ance1 #dgc ,mesas ( arid region1 #ad ,mesopotamia1 rehabilitation (1 #dba ,metamorphic rocks1 #df ,me?ods ( irrigation1 #bcf soil analysis1 #cbe ,mica z a soil +r$i5t1 #ce wea!rs sl[ly1 #ce mi/ak5 = gold & silv]1 #ce ,mica-s*i/ soils1 #ea ,micro-organisms ( soils1 #adb ,m9]al f]tiliz]s1 #fc +r$i5ts ( soils1 m9or1 #fc ,m9]als injuri\s to agriculture1 #gc major soil-=m+1 & rock-=m+1 li/ (1 #bi t9ts (1 #ah uness5tial or injuri\s to soils1 #ge ,mirabilite1 #gg ,mississippi1 *anges 9 vegetation f ea/ to we/ 9 nor!rn1 #dij inve/igations 91 by writ]1 #dhi nor!rn1 vegetative belts 92 map1 #dij vegetative belts1 descriptions (1 #dij1 #dia1 #dib ,mississippi riv]1 s$im5t c>ri$ by1 #g ,mississippi1 s\!rn1 c5tral prairie1 long-leaf-p9e belts1 #dic coa/-belt2 p9e mead[s2 pr(ile1 #die live-oak or %ell hammocks1 #die ,mississippi valley1 climate (1 #bih ,mississippi wat]1 annual v>iations 91 #be g5]aliz$ composition (1 #be ,modiola1 ( ,*ile1 #dfi ,moi/ure hygroscopic1 table1 #aif influ5ce ( temp]ature & air-saturation1 #aig me?od ( det]m9+1 #aig1 #aih ,mits*]li*'s objections1 #aii utility to plant gr[?1 #aii available to gr[+ plants1 #baa di/ribution 9 soil1 z affect$ by vegetation1 #bfd evaporat$ f =e/s1 #bfe ,eucalyptus1 #bfe 9 ,russian =e/s & /eppes1 #bfe requirem5ts ( crops 9 ! arid region1 #bab ,l\ghridge's tables ( same1 #bad suppli$ by tap roots1 #bbi useful to crops reta9$ by alkali l&s1 #dcc wa/$ by we$s1 #bfd ,mora9es1 9 ,nor? ,c5tral /ates1 #e ,mosses1 foll[ li*5s 9 rock decomposition1 #bj ,m\lds & fungi1 action (1 #abc ,m\nta9 *a9s1 arid climate "u lee (1 #bid effects (1 on ra9fall1 #bic ,muddy wat]s1 #bea ,muir glaci]1 analysis ( mud1 #e ,mul*es1 loss ( humus1 #acb ,mul*+ ) /raw1 s&1 #bff ,mu/>d family1 s5sitive to alkali1 #dgc ,myrobalan root1 use = graft+ 9 alkali l&s1 #dgi ,n4 ,native vegetation1 basis ( l& values = f>m]s1 #dhh causes gov]n+ its di/ribution n an unsolvable problem1 #dhi result ( /ruggle = exi/5ce1 #dhg ,native grasses = alkali l&s1 #dgj ,native gr[?1 cog5cy ( conclusions bas$ on1 #cad ,new ,mexico1 soils f2 analysis1 #cgh ,nile wat]1 ,le!by's analyses (1 #be ,nitrate deposits1 orig9 (1 #fg ( soda1 #ff ,nitrates1 wa/e (1 by lea*+1 #bd1 #fh ,nitrification1 active 9 matire noire1 #cfj ,nitrification & d5itrification1 #ade 9 alkali l&s1 #fh 9 soil ( 8t5-acre tract401 #cei int5sity 9 arid climates1 #fh li/ ( sub/ances favor+1 #adg ( organic matt] 9 soils1 exp]im5ts1 #ceh n active 9 unhumifi$ matt]1 #cei1 #cfj ,nitrify+ ,bact]ia1 #adf ,nitrobact]ium2 conditions ( activity1 #adf ,nitrog5-absorb+ bact]ia1 #aef ,nitrog51 absorb$ m abundantly ?an oxyg51 #bgh accumulation (1 9 humus1 #abd adequacy 9 humus1 l[e/ limit (1 #cfc 9 soils1 #ceg availability (1 9 soils2 asc]ta9able1 #cfc cont5t ( humus1 #ace defici5cy1 pot te/1 figure1 #cfb det]m9ation (1 9 soils1 #ceg hungry soils2 table1 #cfa p]c5tages 9 humus1 :at are adequate1 #cfj supply ( plants1 views on1 #aej ,nitrosomonas1 figure1 #bdf ,nodules ( legumes1 #aea ,nor? ,c5tral ,/ates1 h]bace\s vegetation on calc>e\s soils1 #ead1 #eae l[l& gr[? 9 upl&s1 :51 #eae vegetation & soil-"*1 #eac ,nutritive salts 9 alkali1 #dda ,o4 ,ocean curr5ts1 ,gulf /ream & ,japan /ream1 #bie1 #bif ,olive1 resi/ance to alkali1 #dgh ,organic & organiz$ con/itu5ts ( soils1 #abj ,organisms influ5c+ soil-conditions1 #adb ,oxalic acid1 secretion by li*5s1 #ai ,oxidation1 expansion by1 #ah ,oxids con/itut+ e>?'s cru/2 table1 #ca ,oxyg51 action 9 wea!r+ rocks1 #ah proportion (1 9 e>?'s cru/1 #cj ,p4 ,pamp]os1 #i ,peat bogs1 #abb ,peaty soil1 %r9kage1 #aag ,p]colation 9 natural soils3 diagram1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bbf rate (1 z influ5c$ by gra9-sizes1 #bbd ,p]man5t value ( l& vs4 ,imm$iate productiv5ess1 #cdj ,physical & *emical causes ( vegetative features1 #eje conditions ( plant gr[?1 #cai ,physical analyses1 correlation ) popul> names1 #if results (1 #id table4 ,mississippi & ,cali=nia soils1 #ih analysis ( soils1 #hh con/itu5ts ( soils1 #aj ,physico-*emical inve/igation ( soils1 #cac ,physiological soil analysis1 #ccc ,phosphate f]tiliz]s1 importance (1 #fe ,phosphate f]tilization1 9 arid region1 #cic 9 ,cali=nia1 #cic ,phosphoric acid1 limits ( adequacy 9 soils1 #cee m9ute am\nts lea*$ f soils1 #bd no con/ant diff]5ce betwe5 arid & humid soils1 #cic r5d]$ in]t by f]ric hydrate1 #cee ,phosphorites1 l[-grade1 ( ,nevada1 ,russia1 #fc1 #fd ,plane tree1 ori5tal1 resi/ant to alkali1 #dhj ,plant-adaptation 8v>y+ f prov9ce to prov9ce01 #ebc ,plant associations1 plant =mations1 #cae ,plant di/ribution1 ,?urman's physical !ory (1 #eai ,plant-developm5t "u diff]5t temp]atures1 #cji ,plant-food1 accumulation 9 f9e/ p>ts ( soils1 #hg high p]c5tages mean high l& value1 #cdf +r$i5ts1 condition (1 9 soils1 #cai 9 virg9 soils1 l[e/ limit (1 table1 #ceb limits ( adequacy1 #cec m9ute am\nts may produce l>ge crops1 #daj p]c5tages1 :at are high1 #cdf p]c5tages1 l[1 #cdf wat]-soluble1 res]ve1 unavailable1 #cbj ,plant-gr[? on arid subsoils1 #aff ,plants1 deep-root+ 9 arid region1 #agd indicat+ irreclaimable alkali l&s1 #ece1 #ecf ,plant root action1 _c be imitat$ 9 laboratory1 #cbd ,pla/icity1 abs5ce (1 9 f9e p[d]s1 #fj ( clay1 causes (1 #fj lo/ by burn+1 #fj ,plot te/s1 difficulties & unc]ta9ties (1 #ccd plan (1 figure1 #cce ,pl[sole1 h[ =m$1 by %all[ irrigation1 #ahf1 #bda ,poor *alk l&s1 #ebe ,pore-space1 #ajh ,porosity ( humus1 #abd ,port ,hudson bluff1 lignite 91 figure1 #abh recession (1 #aaf ,pota%1 abundant 9 arid soils1 #cie & soda 9 arid & humid region1 #cid ,pota%es1 production ( detrim5tal to agriculture1 #fi ,pota% feldsp>1 supplies pota% to soils1 #cb f]tilization fir/ 9 humid1 la/ 9 arid region1 #cif f sea wat]1 #fi limits ( adequacy 9 soils1 #ced m9]als1 or?oclase feldsp>1 #fh pref]5tial ret5tion (1 9 soils1 #bgb ,salts1 ,/assfurt1 #fi slightly lea*$ out1 #bd sulfate1 high-grade1 #ga ,pot-culture te/s1 #ccf ,p[d]s1 absorption ( v>i\s gases by1 table1 #bgg ,prairie soils1 black1 #ec ,prep>ation ( soils = physical analysis1 #hi ,productive capacity & duration1 =eca/ (1 #cdf ,progress ( humification & =mation ( coal1 table1 #abf1 #abg ,pulv]ul5t soils ( arid regions1 #hg ,purify+ action ( soils1 #bfi ,putrefactive processes1 relation to c>bonic gas & ana]obic bact]ia1 #bhb ,putty soils1 #ajc ,pyrox5e1 augite1 #cc1 #cd ,q4 ,qualifications requir$ = soil /udy1 #ebd ,quality ( irrigation wat]1 #bdf ,qu9ce1 resi/ance to alkali1 #dgi ,qu>tz & alli$ rocks1 #bi s& mo/ prom95t +r$i5t ( soils1 #cj ve9s1 =mation (1 #ca ,r4 ,ra9 belts1 temp]ate & tropical1 #bie ,ra9fall1 am\nt (1 #bae di/ribution 9 ,cali=nia & ,montana1 #bij 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bae mo/ important1 #bij on ! globe1 figure1 #bid influ5ce on soil =mation1 #bb insuffici5t1 =ms alkali soils1 #bh leaves lime beh9d1 #bh natural disposition (1 #baf ,ra9s1 beat+1 #bba cold & w>m1 #cjb ,reclaimable & irreclaimable alkali l&s1 #ecd ,r$ foo?ill soils ( ,cali=nia1 #cd ,r$ or ru/-color$ soils1 #cd advantages (1 #bhd ,regur soils1 ,deccan1 ,india1 #dad =mation (1 #dae 8guv>ayi0 h>dpan1 #dae pres5t production1 #dad ,reh ( ,india1 #ddj ,res]ve plant-food 9 soils1 #cbj ( zeolites1 c>bonates1 phosphates1 #cba ,residual soils1 #aa1 #ac1 #bb ,rhizobia1 adaptation to symbiosis1 #aed inoculation ( soils )1 #aed increase ( crops by inoculation )1 #aee ( legumes1 #aej mode ( infection1 #aed v>ieties ( =ms1 #aed ,rhub>b1 s5sitive to alkali1 #dge ,rhyolites1 soils f1 #ec ,riv] b>s1 =mation (1 #g ,riv]s1 am\nt ( dissolv$ matt]s c>ri$ by1 #bd flood-pla9s (1 #ac1 #ad s$im5t c>ri$ by1 #bd wat]s1 analyses (1 table1 discussion1 #bc1 #bd :ite & gre51 #d ,rock cry/al1 #bi ,rocks z soil-=m]s1 #dg *emical decomposition (1 #af cleavage (1 #c def9ition (1 xxiii dis9tegration (1 "u extremes ( temp]ature1 #b effects ( heat & cold on1 #a erosion ( by s&1 #aj =m+ m9]als1 #bi fragm5ts1 r\nd+ (1 by fl[+ wat]1 #f ,rock p[d]1 #he ,rock-wea!r+ 9 arid & humid climates1 #dg ,rohhumus1 #abb ,roll+ ( soils1 ( influ5ce (1 on heat1 #cje ,root action1 limitation (1 #cea ,root bacillus1 figure1 #adi1 #aej ,root crops1 effects ( alkali ^u1 #dgd ,root developm5t 9 ! arid & humid regions1 #afi to #agf ,root+1 deep1 f prop] irrigation1 #bdc1 #bde ,roots1 *emical action (1 #ba =ce ex]t$ by1 #ai secrete c>bonic acid1 #bj ,root sy/em 9 ! humid region2 figure1 #afh ,rott5 ,lime/one1 soils f1 analyses1 #ed ,run(f ( ra9 wat]1 #baf ,russia1 black e>? (2 roots & humus 91 #acj1 #cfc ,rye grass1 giant1 ( ,nor?we/2 uses1 #dgj ,s4 ,sal9e & alkali l&s1 vegetation (1 #ebg plants1 analyses ( a%es (1 #ecj selective p[] (1 #eca ,sal9e & x]ophile vegetation1 simil>ity (1 #ebh ,sal9e cont5ts ( wat]s1 v>iations (1 #bej solutions1 /ructural & functional diff]5ces caus$ by1 #ebh vegetation1 g5]al "* (1 #ebg ,saltbu%es1 ,au/ralian1 gr[? & use 9 ,cali=nia1 #dfi ( ,great ,bas91 probable usefulness1 #dfh ,saltgrass2 range1 tol]ance ( alkali1 figure1 #edf1 #edg ,salton ,bas91 pr(ile ( salts 91 #dch ,salts1 absorption (1 by sal9e plants1 #ebi ,saltwort3 range1 tol]ance ( alkali1 figure1 #edj1 #edb ,samoa & ,kam]un soils1 analyses by ,wohltmann2 me?od1 #djb table (1 #djd ,samphire1 ,bu%y & ,dw>f2 range1 alkali-tol]ance1 figure1 #ech1 #eci1 #edj ,s& bla/s1 effects on cobbles1 #aj co>se1 effect (1 on clays1 #aje erosion ( rocks by2 figure1 #aj hammocks1 ( ,gulf coa/1 #ef ,s&s ( arid & humid regions1 diff]5ces 91 #hf1 #chf table ( analyses1 #chg ,s&1 silt & du/1 #he ,s&/ones1 #dh argillace\s1 #eg calc>e\s1 =mation (1 #ef ri* soils f1 #ef dolomitic1 (t5 =m poor soils1 #ef f]rug9\s1 poor soils f1 #ef silice\s1 poor soils f1 #ee v>ieties (1 #ee zeolitic1 soils f1 #eg ,s&/one soils1 lightness (1 #ee soils1 poor1 ( humid region1 #ee ,s& /orms1 #i ,s&y l&s1 ( arid regions1 highly productive1 #chf ,s&y soils1 #cj ,s*ne's elutriator1 figure1 #ij ,%r9kage1 ext5t (1 9 dry+ soils2 figure1 #aac1 #aad ,s*bl] on calc>e\s soils1 #aae ,sea wat]1 av]age composition (1 table1 #bf *ief +r$i5ts useless to plants1 #bh m9or con/itu5ts (1 #bg s\rces ( salts 91 #bf ,s$5t>y soils1 #aa1 #ac1 #dj ,s$im5t>y rocks1 #dg1 #dh ,s$im5t deposit$ by ,mississippi 9 ,gulf1 #g ,s$im5ts1 exhibition (1 f physical analysis1 #ie1 #if numb] (1 9 physical analysis1 #ic table ( diamet]s & hydraulic values1 #id ,se$s1 g]m9ation (1 #cji ,semi-humid & semi-arid region1 #cgg1 #cig ,s]p5t9e1 #cf ,sieves1 use 9 physical analysis ( soils1 #hh ,silica1 absorption & secretion by plants1 #ca & alum9a1 soluble2 quantitative relations1 #che solubility 9 wat]1 #ca soluble1 reta9$ 9 alkali soils1 #cia ,silicate m9]als1 #ca ,silicates ( soda & pota%1 soluble1 #ca ,silicon1 abundance (1 9 rocks1 xxxi ,silicophile plants1 a fiction1 #ebb ,s9kholes1 #dc ,soap/one1 #cf ,soda 9 arid & humid regions1 #cid ,soda1 nitrate (1 #ff ,sodium salts1 lea*$ out by dra9s & riv]s1 #bd ,soil analysis1 *ange ( views reg>d+1 #cag discrepant me?ods us$ 91 #djb practical utility (1 #cah ,soil & subsoil1 causes & processes ( diff]5tiation1 #abj ill-def9$1 #abj ,soil bact]ia1 numb]s (1 #ada ,soil "*1 recognition f native vegetation1 #dhg1 #eaa ,soil-dilution exp]im5ts1 #cdg figures1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cej table (1 #cej ,soil-exam9ation1 %ort approximate me?ods =1 us$ at ,cali=nia /ation1 #efj summ>y directions =1 9 field or f>m1 #eef ,soil-=mation influ5c$ by ra9fall1 #bb physical processes (1 #a ,soil-=m+ processes accel]at$ by high temp]atures1 #cih ,soil-gra9s1 numb] (1 #ii surface (1 #ii det]m9ation by air-fl[1 #ii by 8,b5etzungswrme01 #ii inve/igation1 hi/orical review (1 #cac moi/ure1 regulation & cons]vation (1 #bcd phosphates1 solubility 9 wat]2 ,s*loes+ fils1 #ccb probe1 mode ( us+1 #agg pr(iles 9 arid & humid region1 #afe ,soil1 samples1 directions = tak+1 by ,calif4 ,/ation1 #eec s$5t>y or residual1 #aa1 #ac1 #dj /udy1 qualifications ne$$ =1 #ebd surveys1 e>ly1 ( ,k5tucky1 ,arkansas & ,mississippi1 #caf temp]ature1 annual range ne> surface 9 arctic & tropical regions1 #cjc *ange ) dep?2 table1 #cjc influ5ce ( evaporation on1 #cjg influ5ce ( soil mat]ial1 #cjf influ5ce ( surface conditions1 #cjc influ5ce ( vegetation & mul*1 #cje te/s by crop analysis1 ,godlewski1 ,v&]y/1 #ccg1 #cch by extraction ) organic acids2 ,dy]1 ,maxwell1 #cci wat]1 diff]5t conditions (1 #aie ,soils1 acid-soluble & wat]-soluble portions mo/ important1 #cbd alluvial1 #ab1 #ac anci5t1 9 geological =mations1 xxix calc>e\s1 def9ition (1 #cfg1 #dif1 #ebd classification (1 figure1 #aa colluvial1 #ab1 #bd def9ition (1 xxix d]iv$ f v>i\s rocks1 #di effects ( cru/+ on1 #bba indef9ite action ( dilute acids on1 #cbf int]pretation ( analyses2 ,wohltmann1 #djc physico-*emical inve/igation (1 #cac 7see ,table ( ,cont5ts7 ,sol> radiation1 influ5ce (1 #cjb ,solubility1 cont9u\s1 ( soils 9 wat]1 #cbh ,k+'s table1 ri* & poor soils1 #ccj ,s*ultze's table1 ri* soil1 #cbh ,ulbri*t's table1 poor soil1 #cbi ,solv5t action ( wat] ^u soils1 #cbg p[] ( wat]1 #ag ,solubility1 increas$ ) nitrog5-cont5t1 #ada ,s\r grasses1 #abc humus1 antiseptic prop]ties (1 #abb soils1 #abb ,s\r+ ( soils1 by cultivation1 #abc ,/able or f>my>d manure1 #gb composition (1 table1 #gc gre5-manur+ only sub/itute1 #gd me?od ( us+1 9 humid region1 #gd physical effects (1 #gc use (1 9 ! arid region1 #gd ,/alactites & /alagmites1 #da ,/assfurt ,salts1 discov]y (1 #fi importance to agriculture1 #gj orig9 (1 #gj ,/assfurt ,salts1 nature (1 #ga ,/onecrops1 succe$ mosses1 #bj ,/one fruits1 resi/ance to alkali1 #dgh ,/ratifi$ rocks1 d]iv$ f cry/all9e1 #bi ,/unt$ gr[?1 caus$ by %all[ or v heavy soils1 #ejd ,/urdy gr[? on calc>e\s l&s1 #ejb1 #ejc ,subsid5ce me?od1 #hi ,subsoils1 arid region1 #afc & deep pl[+1 #afd calc>e\s1 #afb rawness (1 9 humid climates1 #afc ,sub/rata 9 arid region1 importance (1 #agc faulty1 ) figures1 #agg to #ahj imp]vi\s1 injury f2 figure1 #aha lea*y1 #ahb m>ly1 #ahf ,subt]ranean riv]s1 #da ,sulfate ( pota%1 high-grade1 #ga ( soda1 du/ f1 #gg injuri\sness to plants1 #gg occurr5ce 9 arid regions1 #gg ,sulfates1 r$uction (1 #bcb ,sulfuric acid 9 arid & humid regions1 #cid ,summ] mul*1 loss ( humus 91 #acb ,sunfl[] family1 resi/ance to alkali1 #dgc ,sun's heat1 p5etration into ! soil1 #cjb ,surface cru/s1 =mation (1 #aaa1 #aag physical analyses (1 #aah ,surface1 hydro/atic & gr\nd wat]s1 #bae ,surface wat]s1 *emical effects ( p]colation1 #afa physical effects ( p]colation1 #afa ,swamp+ ( alkali l&s1 consequ5ces (1 #dea1 #dfc irrigat$ l&s1 results (1 #bca ,symbiosis1 adaptation to1 ( ,rhizobia1 #aed ,szek ( ,hung>ian pla91 #ddj ,t4 ,taba%ir1 #ca ,talc & s]p5t9e1 #cf ,tap-roots1 moi/ure suppli$ by1 #bbi ,tea1 failure on calc>e\s l&s1 #dad ,temp]ature1 annual mean (1 #bhi conditions1 asc]ta9m5t & pres5tation (1 #bhh extremes1 on high m\nta9s & plateaus1 #bhh ( /ell> space1 #bhh seasonal1 mon?ly & daily means1 #bhi1 #bia ,tempor>y vs4 p]man5t productive capacity ( soils1 #cdj ,t5nessee & ,k5tucky1 vegetation & soil-"*1 #eac ,t]races1 riv] & lake1 #ad ,te/+ p5etration ( irrigation wat]1 #bdb ,textile plants1 tol]ance ( alkali1 #dge ,?omas or basic slag1 #fd ,?urman's physical !ory ( plant di/ribution1 #eai ,tillage2 effects (2 figure1 #aji1 #aaj h[ ma9ta9$ 9 nature1 #aaa ,titanium 9 soils1 xxxi ,"t ( acid-dige/ion1 diff]5t2 table1 #cdb ,tol]ance ( alkali by culture plants1 #dfc alkali plants2 table1 #edh1 #edi ,topography1 influ5ce (1 on climate1 #bic ,tra*ytes1 #ec ,trona1 ,urao1 #gg ,tropical soils1 #cih are highly lea*$1 #djj (t5 highly color$ ) iron1 #djj d n ne$ e>ly f]tilization1 #cii humus 92 abundant1 b l[ 9 nitrog51 #cii few det]m9ations made1 #cii possible calculation (1 #cii inve/igations (1 #dja lat]ites1 n always ri* 9 iron1 #djj mo/ly h l[ plant-food p]c5tages1 #djj resemble ! 8nimble p5ny01 #djj ,tub]cles ( legumes1 figures1 #aea1 #aed ,tufa1 calc>e\s1 #da ,tussock grass1 food value (1 #dgj range1 alkali-tol]ance1 figure1 #ecf1 #ecg ,u4 ,ulm9 sub/ances1 #abb ,und]dra9age1 advantages (1 #bce ,und]dra9s1 effects (1 #bcd ,unhumifi$ organic matt] does n nitrify1 #adh ,unhumifi$ vegetable matt]1 utility (1 #ace1 #cfj ,unit$ ,/ates1 good field = comp>ative soil /udy1 #ebd ,upl& & l[l& gr[? 9 arid & humid regions1 #eae ,us> l&s ( ,india1 "* (1 #ddj n all alkali l&s1 #ddj ,v4 ,vegetative belts1 lime a gov]n+ factor (1 #dib ,virg9 l&s1 advantages ( soil /udy 91 #cah ,virg9 soils1 analysis by extraction ) /rong acids1 #cdj ,vivianite1 #fe ,volatile "p ( plants1 xxxii ,volcanic a%1 =m soils rapidly2 soils f1 #bj1 #eb ,volcanic glass1 #ec ,volume ( 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